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CHAMBERS'S 
 
 Concise Gazetteer 
 
 OF 
 
 The World 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL 
 STATISTICAL 
 HISTORICAL 
 PRONOUNCING 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 DAVID PATRICK, LLD. 
 
 I^EVISEr) EIDITIOISJ 
 
 LONDON AND EDINBURGH 
 
 W. & R. CHAMBERS. LIMITED 
 Philadelphia: J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
 
 1907 
 
G/OJ 
 /90J 
 
 Edinburgh ! 
 Printed by W. k R. Chambers, Limited. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The first question that naturally comes into one 's mind when a place is 
 mentioned is : ' Where is it ? ' * What is to be known about it ? ' is as 
 naturally the second. One cannot open a newspaper without lighting on some 
 reference to the railway bridge over the Zambesi, the battle of Tsushima, 
 difficulties at Koweit, the naval base at Rosyth, or, it may be, to Masampho, 
 Skagway, Tchernavoda, Tuskegee, Zeebrugge ; or there will be an allusion 
 to the 'prisoner of Chillon,' the 'rector of Lutterworth,' the 'martyr of Erro- 
 mango,' the 'sage of Chelsea,' the 'Mantuan,' the 'Corsican,' the *cur6 
 of Meudon,' the 'victor of Barossa,' the 'hero of Khartoum,' the 
 'Chiltern Hundreds,' the 'monks of Medmenham,' or the 'Little Gidding 
 community. ' 
 
 Not even Macaulay's schoolboy could carry the whereabouts of all these 
 places in his head, or could explain every one of the allusions. The present 
 work aims to supply the want indicated. It is largely based on the geo- 
 gi-aphical matter of Chambers's Encyclopcedia, but many of the articles are 
 new, and there are numerous additions to the list. It is a Gazetteer of the 
 World, comprehensive yet handy, containing the latest and most reliable 
 information about nameworthy places at home and abroad : the last census of 
 civilised countries, and the most authentic official figures, have, it need hardly 
 be said, been taken advantage of in every available case. The etymology of 
 the names, where it is significant and interesting, has not been neglected, and 
 an attempt has been made to do justice, however briefly, to history and literary 
 associations. This is probably the only Gazetteer of the World that explains 
 the interest of Craigenputtock and Somersby, Morwenstow and Chalfont St 
 Giles, Ramsbottom, Wem, and Tong. Yet, full though it is, it does not 
 profess to be exhaustive ; to give, for instance, every one of (at least) 275 cities, 
 counties, towns, townships, villages, hamlets, and post-offices of the name of 
 Washington in the United States, or every one of the 90 Newtons on both sides 
 of the Atlantic. To have attempted this would, by the curtailment of the 
 longer articles, have involved the sacrifice of much space now put to a better 
 use. Instead, the aim of the work has been to tell everything that may be 
 reasonably wanted about every place likely to be looked for, and to tell it with 
 the utmost conciseness consistent with clearness and readableness. References 
 to standard books have been added to the articles on the more important and 
 interesting countries, towns, and even villages. 
 
 M128380 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ' The pronunciation has been indicated in all cases where doubt could arise — 
 by accent when this suffices, or by re-spelling in full, in the way most likely 
 to be intelligible to the average reader ; although it must be remembered that 
 in many cases the pronunciation can only be approximately suggested in 
 English spelling. The g in the re-spellings is always hard, as in get; ay or a 
 is the English a in fate; i is the sound in mine; ow is always the sound in 
 how, now ; uh is the obscure sound between eh and ah ; hh here represents the 
 guttural ch of German and Scotch words ; and recourse had sometimes to be 
 had to to represent the German o and the French oeu, and to il to indicate 
 the German ii and the ordinary French u. Many readers will be glad to 
 know that the instinctive English way of accenting Altona, Potomac, Potosi, 
 and Cordilleras is not that customary in those parts ; that English people do 
 not pronounce Godmanchester, Belvoir, or Hughenden as the spelling sug- 
 gests ; that Scotsmen do not defer to Southron expectations in such names as 
 CuUoden and Oban, Kirkcudbright and Milngavie ; that the Welsh do not say 
 Mer'ioneth, and that Amlwch is easier to utter than it looks at first sight ; 
 that British sailors who have been on the spot are not safe guides for the true 
 pronunciation of names like Callao and Iquique, Monte Video and Buenos 
 Ayres, Setubal and Santander. 
 
 In this revised reissue facts, figures, and statistics have as far as possible been 
 brought down to the early years of the new century ; many articles have been 
 entirely rewritten, and hundreds have been inserted for the first time. Since 
 the first issue Rhodesia and Nigeria have changed beyond recognition ; the 
 Commonwealth of Australia has been constituted ; Canada has made un- 
 paralleled progress ; British South Africa has gone through more than one crisis ; 
 Indian provinces have been reconstituted, divided, renamed ; the republic of 
 the United States has increased vastly in population and wealth at home, and 
 entered on a significant policy of expansion abroad; the sister kingdoms of 
 Norway and Sweden no longer live under the same roof; Spain has lost its 
 colonies, and Panama become a nation ; Port Arthur and Dalny, Korea and 
 Manchuria, Russia and Japan, have 'made history;' Vesuvius has been in 
 disastrous eruption, and San Francisco been destroyed. These are but instances 
 of thousands of new landmarks of the world's progress and of the changes time 
 brings with it. In the revision of this work a strenuous effort has been made 
 to take account of all new developments and to make the Gazetteer a still 
 more valuable companion to tlie general reader. 
 
CIIA.]VCBERS'S 
 
 CONCISE 
 
 GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD 
 
 AA 
 
 A (pron. Ah), the name of several Euro- 
 pean rivers — in Westphalia, Switzer- 
 land, and North France— all small. 
 
 Aachen (Ah'hen), the German name 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 Aalborg (Awl-borg; 'Bel-town'), a 
 seaport of Jutland and seat of a bishopric, on the 
 Limfiord. Pop. (1890) 19,503 ; (1001) 31,462, 
 
 Aalen (Ah'Un), a town of Wiirtemberg, on the 
 Kocher, 46 miles E. of Stuttgart. Pop. 8805. 
 
 Aalesund (Aivl-e-soond), a Norwegian town, 
 with an excellent harbour, built on three small 
 islands of the province of Komsdal. Pop. 11,700. 
 
 Aalst. See Alost. 
 
 Aalten, a Netherlands town, on the Aa, 30 miles 
 E. of Arnhem. Pop. 7000. 
 
 A'an, or Avon, a small Banffshire lake, lying 
 2250 feet above sea-level among the Cairngorms, 
 which sends off the Avon, 29 miles, to the Spey. 
 
 Aar (Ahr), next to the Rhine and Rhone the 
 largest river in Switzerland, rises in the Bernese 
 Oberland, flows through Lakes Brienz and Thun, 
 and passing Interlaken, Thun, Berne, Soleure, 
 and Aarau, joins the Rhine above Waldshut after 
 a course of nearly 200 miles. 
 
 Aarau (Ahr'ow). See Aargau. 
 
 Aargau (Ahr'gow; Fr. Argovie), the least 
 mountainous canton of Switzerland, on the lower 
 course of the Aar, with the Rhine for its north 
 boundary. Area, 548 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 206,500, 
 mainly Protestant and German-speaking. The 
 chief town is Aarau, on the Aar. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Aarhuus (Aivr-Jioos), a seaport on the east 
 coast of Jutland, the second of Danish cities, 
 with a fine Gothic cathedral of the 13th century. 
 Pop. (1870) 15,025 ; (1890) 33,306 ; (1901) 51,850. 
 
 Ab'aco. See Bahamas. 
 
 Abakansk, a fortified Siberian town, near the 
 Abakan's junction with the Yenisei. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Ab'ana and Pharpar are identified generally, 
 the former with the Barada, flowing through 
 Damascus ; the latter with the Awaj, which rises 
 on the SE. slopes of Hermon, passes 8 miles from 
 Damascus, and falls into a lake to the south. 
 
 ABER 
 
 Abancay (Aban'kl), chief town of the Peruvian 
 province of Apurimac, 65 miles WSW. of Cuzco. 
 Pop. 5000. 
 
 Abbazia (A bbatzee'a), a health-resort on the bay 
 of Fiume, at the head of the Quarnero gulf of the 
 Adriatic, 5 miles NW. of Fiume by rail. The 
 'Nice of tlie Adriatic' has since about 1880 
 become famous for its fine climate, beautiful 
 situation, and luxuriant vegetation. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Abbeoku'ta, an African city, or rather collec- 
 tion of small towns or villages, capital of the 
 territory of Egba, in the Yoruba country, 80 
 miles N. of Lagos. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Abbeville (Ahb-veeV), a prosperous manufac- 
 turing town in the French dep. of Somme, on 
 the river Somme, 12 miles from its mouth, and 
 49 miles S. of Boulogne. The west front of the 
 church of St Wolfram, commenced in the reign 
 of Louis XII., is a splendid example of Flamboy- 
 ant, with noble portals and rich tracery. The 
 chief manufactures are woollen cloths, carpets, 
 linens, sacking, and sugar. Near Abbeville were 
 found, in 1841, many prehistoric flint imple- 
 ments. Pop. (1872) 18,108 ; (1901) 21,100, 
 
 Abbey Craig, an abrupt eminence (362 feet), 
 1| mile ENE. of Stirling. It is crowned by the 
 Wallace monument (1869), a baronial tower 220 
 feet high. 
 
 Abbeydomey, a Kerry village, 5J miles N. 
 of Tralee, with a ruined abbey (1154). 
 
 Abbeyfeale, a market-town, 37 miles SW. of 
 Limerick. Pop. 896. 
 
 Abbeyleix {Abbey-leece'), a town of Queen's 
 County, 61 miles SW. of Dublin. Pop. 987. 
 
 Abblate-Grasso (Abbiah'tay), a town of Italy, 
 14 miles WSW. of Milan. Pop. 7025. 
 
 Abbotabad, in the NW. Frontier Province of 
 India, 180 miles NNW. of Lahore. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Abbotsbury, a Dorset village, at the head of 
 the Fleet tidal inlet, 8 miles NW. of Weymouth. 
 
 Abbotsford, built in 1811-24 by Sir Walter 
 Scott, on tlie Tweed's south bank, 2 miles W. of 
 Melrose. 
 
 Aber, a Carnarvonshire coast-village, at the 
 
ABERAVON 
 
 mouth of a lovely little glen, 4| miles E. of 
 Bangor. 
 
 Aberavon, or Port Talbot, a seaport of Gla- 
 morganshire, on the Avon, near its mouth in 
 Swansea Bay, 82 miles W. of Cardiff. The valley 
 of the Avon is shut in by lofty hills, while every 
 available space is occupied by tinplate, copper, 
 and iron works. It is one of the 'Swansea 
 boroughs.' Pop. (1861) 2916 ; (1901) 7560. 
 
 Aberayron, a Cardiganshire watering-place, 14 
 miles SSW. of Aberystwitli. Pop. 1340. 
 
 Aberbrothock. See Arbroath. 
 
 Abercarn, a coal-mining municipality, pros- 
 perous and progressive, of Monmouthshire, 8 
 miles NW. of Newport. Pop. 12,600. 
 
 Abercom, a Linlithgowshire hamlet, near the 
 Firth of Forth, 3| miles W. of South Queensferry. 
 From 681 to 685 it was the seat of a bishopric. 
 
 Aberdare, a town of Glamorganshire, 4 miles 
 SW. of Merthyr-Tydvil, and within its parlia- 
 mentary boundary. Coal and iron are found in 
 abundance in the vicinity, and Aberdare is a 
 flourishing centre of iron and tin works. Pop. 
 (1841) 6471 ; (1861) 32,299 ; (1901) 43,400. 
 
 Aberdeen, the chief city and seaport in the 
 north of Scotland, lies in the SB. angle of Aber- 
 deenshire, at the mouth and on the north side 
 of the Dee, 111 miles N. of Edinburgh. William 
 the Lion confirmed its privileges in 1179; the 
 English burned it in 1336, but it was soon rebuilt, 
 and called New Aberdeen. Old Aberdeen, within 
 the same parliamentary boundary, is a small 
 town a mile to the N., near the mouth of the 
 Don, and is the seat of St Machar's Cathedral 
 (1357-1527), now represented by the granite nave. 
 King's College and University, founded by Bishop 
 Elphinstone in Old Aberdeen in 1494, and Maris- 
 chal College and University, founded by the Earl 
 Marischal in New Aberdeen in 1593, were in 1860 
 imited into one institution, the University of 
 Aberdeen. It lias 25 professors and from 800 to 
 900 students in its four faculties of arts, divinity, 
 law, and medicine ; with Glasgow University it 
 sends one member to parliament. Marischal 
 College was rebuilt in 1841, and greatly enlarged 
 in 1892-95; whilst King's College is a stately 
 fabric, dating from 1500, its chapel adorned 
 with exquisite wood carvings. Aberdeen has 
 a flourishing trade and thriving manufactures ; 
 and having been largely rebuilt and extended 
 since the formation of Union Street in 1800, 
 the 'Granite City' now offers a handsome 
 and regular aspect. Among the chief public 
 edifices are the County Buildings (1867-73), the 
 Post-office (1876), the Market-hall (1842 ; rebuilt 
 after the fire of 1882), the Trades-hall (1847), the 
 Royal Infirmary (1740 ; rebuilt 1840), the Lunatic 
 Asylum (1819), the Grammar-school (1863), the 
 Art Gallery and Art School (1882-83), and Gor- 
 don's College (1739-1834). The last has been 
 much extended as a technical school, the founda- 
 tioners being no longer resident; whilst the 
 Infinnary was reconstructed and modernised to 
 celebrate the Queen's Jubilee (1887). St Nicholas 
 now divided into the East and West churches' 
 has a fine new spire (1880), 190 feet high. A 
 carillon of 37 bells was placed here in 1887. One 
 may also notice the market-cross (1686); the 
 Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and three other statues • 
 and the Duthie Public Park of 47 acres (1883).' 
 Since 1810, when the debt upon the harbour was 
 £29,614, the expenditure on harbour improve- 
 ments has exceeded £1,000,000, the Avorks ha vino- 
 included the formation of the Victoria Dock 
 
 6 ABERDOUR 
 
 (1848), a breakwater, the southward diversion of 
 the Dee (1872), and a graving-dock (1886). The 
 trade of the port has largely increased since 
 1850 ; and the aggregate tonnage of vessels enter- 
 ing in good years exceeds 600,000 tons. Railway 
 communication has also been fully established 
 since 1848-54. The chief exports are woollens, 
 linens, cotton-yarns, paper, combs, granite (hewn 
 and polished), cattle, grain, preserved provisions, 
 and fish. Aberdeen has the largest comb and 
 granite-polishing works in the kingdom. There 
 are several large paper- works within a short dis- 
 tance of the town ; and soap, chemicals, whisky, 
 and agricultural implements are amongst the 
 manufactures. Wooden shipbuilding was for- 
 merly a prosperous industry, the Aberdeen clip- 
 pers being celebrated as fast sailers. Connected 
 with Aberdeen, which has always been a cele- 
 brated seat of learning, have been the names 
 of Barbour, Boece, Jameson, Gregory, Reid, 
 Beattie, Campbell, Byron, Skinner, Hill Burton, 
 W. Dyce, J. Phillip, and Sir A. Anderson, to 
 whose provostship (1859-66) belong the intro- 
 duction of a fine water-supply, and many other 
 improvements. Pop. of the parliamentary burgh, 
 which since 1885 has returned two members, 
 (1801)26,992; (1841)63,288; (1881)105,003; (1891) 
 121,623 ; (1901) 153,500. 
 
 Aberdeenshire, a large maritime county in 
 the extreme NE. of Scotland. The fifth in size of 
 the Scottish counties, it has a maximum length 
 of 85 and breadth of 47 miles, with 62 miles of 
 sea-coast, and an area of 1971 sq. m. It has 
 long been popularly divided into five districts 
 (proceeding from south-west to north-east)— Mar, 
 Strathbogie, Garioch, Formartine, and Buchan. 
 Aberdeenshire is generally hilly, and in the 
 south-west (Braeraar) entirely mountainous, the 
 loftiest summits here being Ben Muich-Dhui 
 (second only to Ben Nevis), 4296 feet ; Cairntoul, 
 4241 ; Cairngorm, 4084 ; Benabourd, 3924 ; Loch- 
 nagar, 3786: whilst northward rise Bennachie, 
 1698 ; the Buck of Cabrach, 2368 ; and Mormond 
 Hill, 769. The predominant rocks are granite 
 and gneiss. The granite is very durable, and is 
 much used for building and polishing. The chief 
 rivers are the Dee (87 miles long), Don (82), and 
 Ythan (35), which run eastward into the North 
 Sea; and the Deveron (61 miles), Avhich runs 
 north-east into the North Sea. The Ytlian yields 
 the pearl-mussel, but rarely pearls of any value. 
 The most fertile parts lie between the Don and 
 Ythan, and in the north-east angle of the county. 
 About 37 per cent, of the area of the county 
 is cultivated, the chief crops being oats, barley, 
 and turnips ; whilst nearly 8 per cent, is under 
 wood. Aberdeenshire is unsurpassed in breeding 
 and feeding stock. Its principal breed is the 
 Polled Angus. The fisheries on the coast are 
 very productive, and Peterhead is the East Coast 
 centre of this industry. Balmoral (q.v.) is the 
 principal mansion ; and amongst the antiquities 
 are the ruins of Kildrummie Castle and the 
 Abbey of Deer. The chief towns and villages 
 are Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Huntly, 
 Kintore, Inverurie, Turriff", Ballater, and Castle- 
 ton. The county returns two menibers to par- 
 liament; the city of Aberdeen, two; and the 
 burghs of Peterhead, Kintore, and Inverurie, 
 with Elgin, Cullen, and Banff", one. Pop. (1801) 
 121,065; (1841) 192,387; (1891) 284,036; (1901) 
 30,440. See tVie history by A. Smith (1875), the 
 Spalding Club publications, and Watt's Aberdeen 
 and Banff (1900). 
 
 Aberdour, (l) a Fife village, on the Firth of 
 
ABERDOVEY 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 Forth, 3 miles W. of Burntisland, with a ruined 
 castle of the Earls of Morton. Pop. 748. (2) An 
 Aberdeenshire village, 8 miles W. by S. of Fraser- 
 burgh. Richard Chancellor was lost in Aberdour 
 Bay (1556). 
 
 Aberdovey, a watering-place of Merioneth- 
 shire, on the Dovey estuary, 10 miles N of 
 Aberystwith. 
 
 Aberfeldy, a pleasant Perthshire village, near 
 the Tay's south bank, 32^ miles NW. of Perth by 
 rail. The neighbouring Falls of Moness are cele- 
 brated in Burns's Birks of Aberfeldy. A monu- 
 ment (1887) commemorates the embodiment of 
 the Black Watch here in 1740. Pop. 1569. 
 
 Aberffraw, a seaport of Anglesey, 12 miles SB. 
 of Holyhead. Pop. 959. 
 
 Aberfoyle, a Perthshire hamlet, immortalised 
 through Scott's Rob Roy, 23 miles W. of Stirling 
 by rail. 
 
 AbergSLveTinj (Abergen'ny ; Rom. Gobannium), 
 a market-town of Monmouthshire, at the Gav- 
 enny's influx to the Usk, 13 miles "W. of Mon- 
 mouth. It has remains of an old castle and of a 
 priory, with collieries and ironworks near. Pop. 
 of municipal borough (1901) 7800. 
 
 Abergeldie Castle, the Aberdeenshire seat of 
 the Prince of Wales, on the Dee's right bank, 6 
 miles W. of Ballater, and 2 ENE. of Balmoral. 
 
 Abergele, a Denbighshire market-town, 34 
 miles W. of Chester. The burning here in 1868 
 of the Irish limited mail cost 33 lives. Pop. 1981. 
 
 Aberlady, a Haddingtonshire coast village, 3 
 miles NE. of Longniddry. Pop. 505. 
 
 Abernethy, a small police-burgh of Perthshire, 
 near the Earn's influx to the Tay, 8^ miles SE. of 
 Perth. The ancient capital of the Picts, and 
 from 865 till 908 the seat of the sole Scottish 
 bishopric, it retains one of the two Round Towers 
 in Scotland, 73 feet high. Pop. 852. 
 
 Abersychan, an iron and coal mining town of 
 Monmouthshire, 11 miles N. of Newport. Pop. 
 (1901) 17,770. 
 
 Abertillery, a town of Monmouthshire, 16 
 miles NNW. of Newport. Pop. 21,945. 
 
 Aberystwith, a watering-place and municipal 
 borough of Cardigansliire, on the Ystwith, at its 
 mouth in Cardigan Bay, 242 miles NW. of London 
 by rail. It is the seat of the University College 
 of Wales (1872). There are remains of a castle 
 (1109). Till 1885 it was one of the Cardigan 
 parliamentary boroughs. Pop. (1851) 5231 ; (1891) 
 6725 ; (1901) 8015. 
 
 Abingdon, a municipal borough of Berkshire, 
 situated at the junction of the Ock and the 
 Thames, 6 miles S. of Oxford, and 60 WNW. of 
 London. 'Abbaddun' (Abbot's town) was an 
 important place in the 8th century, and its 
 Benedictine abbey, rebuilt in 955, was very rich. 
 Its school, founded in 1563, was rebuilt in 1870. 
 A large clothing manufactory employs many 
 hands. Till 1S85 Abingdon returned a member 
 to parliament. Pop. (1851) 5954 ; (1901) 6480. 
 
 Abington, a Lanarkshire village, on the Clyde, 
 14 miles SSE. of Lanark. 
 
 Abkhasia, or Abasia, a district of Asiatic 
 Russia, between the Caucasus and the Black Sea. 
 The inhabitants, who numbered at the outbreak 
 of the Turkish war of 1878 about 30,000, are 
 now, by emigration, less than half as numerous. 
 Russia gained possession of the fortresses of 
 Abkhasia in 1824, but finally subdued the people 
 only in 1864. See Caucasus. 
 
 Abo (pronounced Obo), the chief town of a 
 government in Finland, on the river Aurajoki, 
 near its embouchure in the Gulf of Bothnia, 170 
 miles WNW. of Helsingfors by rail. It has an 
 active trade, and exports timber, and bar and 
 cast iron. Its university was transferred to 
 Helsingfors after the great flre of 1827. A peace 
 between Sweden and Russia was signed here in 
 1743. Pop. (1890) 31,671; (1900) 37,700. 
 
 Abomey. See Dahomey. 
 
 Aboukir', a coast-village of Egypt, 13 miles 
 NE. of Alexandria. In Aboukir Bay Nelson won 
 the great ' Battle of the Nile ' over the French 
 fleet, August 1, 1798. Here Napoleon in 1799 
 defeated a Turkish army; and here Sir Ralph 
 Abercromby's expedition landed in 1801. 
 
 Abousambul. See Abu-Simbel. 
 
 Aboyne', a Deeside village, 32^ miles W. by 
 S. of Aberdeen. Aboyne Castle is the seat of 
 the Marquis of Huntly. See his Records of 
 Aboyne (1894). 
 
 Abraham, Plains or Heights of, close to the 
 city of Quebec, the scene of Wolfe's victory, 
 13th September 1759. They were so called from 
 a pilot, Abraham Martin. 
 
 Abrantes (A-bran'tes), a town of Portugal, on 
 the Tagus, 84 miles NE. of Lisbon. Pop. 6380. 
 
 Abruzzo (Abroofso), or Abruzzi, a district of 
 Central Italy, was formerly the north-east corner 
 of the Kingdom of Naples, in the loftiest portion 
 of the Apennines. The jagged mountain groups 
 reach in the Gran Sasso d'ltalia 9600 feet. 
 
 Abu, a mountain (5650 feet) of India, in the 
 territory of Serohee, Rajputana, a detached 
 granite mass rising like an island from the plain 
 of Marwar, near the Aravalli ridge. It is a cele- 
 brated place of pilgrimage, especially for the 
 Jains, who have live temples at Delwara, about 
 the middle of the mountain, two of which are 
 the most superb of all Jain temples. Both are 
 built of white marble, finely carved, and date 
 from 1031 and 1197 a.d. The mountain contains 
 a beautiful lake 4000 feet above the sea ; and the 
 region is a summer-resort for Europeans. 
 
 Abu Klea, on the route across country between 
 Korti and Metammeh, both on the great bend of 
 the Nile below Khartoum. Here, on 17th January 
 1885, Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the Mahdi. 
 
 Abushehr. See Bushire. 
 
 Abu-Simbel (also Abousambul or Ipsanibul), a 
 place on the left bank of the Nile, in Lower 
 Nubia, the site of two very remarkable rock-cut 
 temples, amongst the most perfect and noble 
 specimens of Egyptian architecture. 
 
 Aby'dos, (1) a town in Asia Minor, situated at 
 the narrowest part of the Hellespont, opposite 
 Sestos, was the place whence Xerxes and his 
 vast army passed into Europe in 480 b.c. ; and 
 in poetry is famous for the loves of Hero and 
 Leander.— (2) A city of Upper Egypt, on the left 
 bank of the Nile, once second only to Thebes, 
 but even in Strabo's time a mere ruin. Here the 
 remains of the Memnonium and of a temple of 
 Osiris are still remarkable. 
 
 Ab'yla. See Ceuta. 
 
 Abyssinia (from the Arabic name Habesh, 
 'mixture,' given on account of the mixed popu- 
 lation), is a highland state of Eastern Africa, 
 jealous in defence of its independence, and lies 
 between the flats at the south end of the Red 
 Sea and the Blue Nile on the west, and extends 
 from Nubia southward to the Galla country. 
 
AfiYSSINiA 
 
 8 
 
 ACONCAGirA 
 
 Divisions are Tigre in the north, Amhara in the 
 centre, and Shoa in the south, besides outlying 
 territories in the 8. and SB. (Harar, q.v.). 
 Abyssinia, with an area of 180,000 sq. m., mainly 
 consists of a huge tableland with a mean eleva- 
 tion of 7000 feet. The declivity to the bordering 
 tract on the Red Sea is abrupt ; towards the Nile 
 basin it is inore gradual. The main mass has 
 been cut into a number of island-like sections by 
 the streams, which have worn their channels into 
 ravines of vast depth— as much sometimes as 4000 
 feet. The principal are the head-streams of the 
 Blue Nile, issuing from the great Lake Tzana, 
 Tana, or Dembea, and the Atbara, also a tribu- 
 tary of the Nile ; less important are the Mareb 
 and the Hawasli. Isolated mountains, with 
 naked perpendicular sides, present the most 
 singular forms. The Samen Mountains have 
 summits rising to the height of 15,000 feet. 
 The climate, notwithstanding its tropical posi- 
 tion, is on the whole moderate and pleasant 
 owing to its elevation, though in the river 
 valleys and swamps the heat and moisture are 
 suflfocating and pestilential. As a whole, the 
 country is exceedingly fruitful ; and its produc- 
 tions are of the inost varied nature, from the 
 pines, heaths, and lichens of North Europe to 
 the choicest tropical plants. Two, and in some 
 places three, crops can be raised in one year. 
 
 The population numbers some four millions, 
 and consists of various elements, the chief being 
 the Abysslnians proper— a brown, well-formed 
 people, belonging to the Semitic stock. The 
 basis of the language is the ancient Ethiopic 
 (see Ethiopia) or Ge'ez, a Semitic tongue wlilch 
 is now the sacred language. The modern dialect 
 of Amhara is the prevalent language of the 
 country. There are Gallas and Somalls in the 
 south and south-east. Tlie Falaslias are of 
 Jewish origin, and still retain many of their 
 racial peculiarities. The towns are small— 
 Adis Ababa, capital of Shoa and of Abyssinia; 
 Gondar, in Amhara ; Adowa, or Adua, in Tigre ; 
 Axum (q.v.), the old capital— not to speak of 
 Harar (q.v.), lately annexed. Any foreign trade 
 comes mainly through Massowah. Tlie religion of 
 the Abysslnians proper is a debased Christianity ; 
 but the Gallas and other alien tribes are mostly 
 Mohammedan, and partly also pagan. Abyssinia 
 is a part of what was anciently called Ethiopia • 
 Ityopya is still the Abyssinian name of the 
 country. The first king, according to the native 
 tradition, was Menilehek or Menelek, the son of 
 Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Christianity 
 was introduced in the 4th century by Fru- 
 mentius; the kingdom of Axum, named from 
 the capital, was the nucleus of the state, and 
 attained its greatest extent In the 6th century 
 From the commencement the church of Abys- 
 Bmia has adhered to the mother-church of E^vpt 
 and with her adopted the Monophysite doctrine • 
 and the metropolitan bishop or abuna continues 
 to be nominated by the Coptic Patriarch. The 
 inodern history of Abyssinia has been mainly 
 struggles between the princes of various districts 
 for supreme power. About 1850 an Amharlc 
 adventurer obtained dominion over successive 
 provinces, and in 1855 had himself crowned, 
 under the name of Theodore, as Negus of Abys- 
 Binia. His maltreatment of European political 
 agents and missionaries led to the British expedi- 
 tion under Lord Napier, which stormed Magdala, 
 Theodore's royal fortress, whereupon Theodore 
 died by his own hand. Johannes, king of Tigr6, 
 was the next Negus, and on his death in 1889, 
 Menelek of Shoa succeeded to the 'empire,' 
 
 Meanwhile Italy had occupied the flats on the 
 coast, now the Italian dependency of Eritrea 
 (with Massowah as headquarters). By a con- 
 vention of 1889 Abyssinia became almost an 
 Italian protectorate ; but after the battle of 
 Adowa (1896), disastrous to the Italians, Italy 
 fully recognised Abyssinian Independence. 
 
 Acadia (Acadie) was the name given by the 
 French settlers to Nova Scotia (q.v.), on its first 
 settlement in 1604, 
 
 Aca.jvLtla. (Acahoot-la), a small seaport on the W. 
 coast of San Salvador, with considerable trade. 
 
 Acapulco (Acapool'co), the best Mexican harbour 
 on the Pacific, 180 m. SW. of capital. Pop, 5000. 
 Acarnania, with ^tolia, a north-western pro- 
 vince of Greece (q.v.). 
 
 Accra, since 1875 capital of the (British) Gold 
 Coast Colony, and after Cape Coast Castle, the 
 most important town on the coast, lies slightly 
 to the W. of the long, of Greenwich. It is 
 a healthy place, and has considerable export 
 trade In palm-oil, ivory, gold dust, india-rubber, 
 monkey skins, gum copal, and camwood. There 
 is telegraphic communication with England, the 
 Niger, and the French and Portuguese settle- 
 ments to the south. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Accrington, a manufacturing town of Lanca- 
 shire, incorporated as a municipal borough in 
 1878. It lies in a deep valley, surrounded by 
 hills, 22 miles N. of Manchester, and 5^ miles 
 E. of Blackburn. The town-hall (1857) is a 
 handsome building, and there is a neat market- 
 hall. The industries are mainly calico-printing, 
 Turkey-red dyeing, iron-founding, with coal- 
 mining in the neighbourhood, and chemical 
 works. Pop. (1841) 8719 ; (1901) 43,120. 
 
 Acerra (A-ser'ra), a city of southern Italy, 9 
 miles NE. of Naples by rail. Pop. 14,121. 
 
 Achaia, a small Greek district lying along the 
 north coast of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Achalganj, a town of India, in the south part 
 of Oude, near the Ganges. Pop. 5000. 
 Acheen. See Atcheen. 
 
 Achelo'us, now called Aspropot'amo, the largest 
 river in Northern Greece, rises in Mount Plndus, 
 flows south and south-west, and falls into the 
 Ionian Sea opposite Cephalonia. 
 
 Achill (Ahh'ill), 'Eagle' Isle, off the west coast 
 of Ireland, belonging to County Mayo, is 15 miles 
 long by 12 miles broad, and has a very irregular 
 coast-line. It is wild and boggy, not 500 of its 
 51,521 acres being cultivated. There are three 
 villages, and a number of hovels scattered over 
 its barren moors, sometimes in small clusters, 
 forming hamlets, but so wretched as hardly to 
 be fit for beasts. Achill rises towards the north 
 and west coast, where one of the mountains, 
 Achill Head, composed, like the rest of the 
 island, wholly of mica-slate, presents towards 
 the sea a sheer precipice, 2192 feet hlgli. Pop. 
 now below 4500. ' 
 
 Aci Reale (A-see Re-d'le), 'a town of Sicily, 50 
 miles SW. of Messina by rail. Lying at the 
 foot of Mount Etna, where the small river Aci 
 enters the sea, it is famed for its mineral waters, 
 and for the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto 
 of Galatea In Its vicinity. Pop. 26,431. 
 
 Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Andes 
 (q.v.), rising to a height of 22,867 feet, according 
 to Gussfeldt's measurements in 1883. The moun- 
 tain, which is an extinct volcano (though this 
 has been disputed), is 100 miles ENE. of Val- 
 
ACQUAVIVA 
 
 paraiso, on the frontier of Chili and the Argen- 
 tine Eepublic. 
 
 Acquaviva, a town of South Italy, at the foot 
 of the Apennines, 28 miles SSE. of Bari by rail. 
 Pop. 9986. 
 
 Acqui (Lat. Aquce Statielloe), a town of North- 
 em Italy, 21 miles SSW. of Alessandria by rail. 
 It derives its name from its hot sulphur springs, 
 and contains an old castle, a Gothic cathedral (12th 
 century), and remains of a Ronian aqueduct. 
 Pop, 9411. 
 
 Acre, St Jean d'Acre, or Acca, the Biblical 
 Acclio, is a seaport on the coast of Syria, not far 
 from the base of Mount Carmel, and contains 
 about 10,000 inhabitants. It is 80 miles NNW. 
 of Jerusalem, and 27 S. of Tyre. The harbour is 
 partly choked with sand, yet is one of the best 
 on this coast. In 1892 a railway was commenced 
 from Acre to Damascus ; and omnibuses run 
 regularly from Haifa to Acre. Taken by the 
 Crusaders in 1110, Acre was recovered in 1187 
 by the Sultan Saladin ; but retaken in 1191 by 
 Richard I. of England and Philip at a cost of 
 100,000 men. The town was now given to the 
 Knights of the Order of St John, who kept it by 
 constant fighting for a hundred years. In 1517 
 it was captured by the Turks ; in 1799 besieged 
 by the French for sixty-one days, but success- 
 fully defended by the garrison, aided by English 
 sailors and marines under Sir Sidney Smith. 
 In 1832 it was stormed by Ibrahim Pasha, son of 
 the viceroy of Egypt, and held by him till in 
 1840 it was bombarded and taken by a combined 
 English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet. 
 
 Acrl, a town of South Italy, 13 miles NE. of 
 Cosenza. Pop. 3944. 
 
 Acroceraunla. See Albania. 
 
 Acton, a town of Middlesex, 4 miles W. of 
 Hyde Park. Pop. (1901) 37,744. 
 
 Acton Burnell, a Shropshire parish, 8 miles 
 SSE. of Shrewsbury, at whose ruined castle was 
 passed in 1283 the 'Statute of Merchants.' 
 
 Ada, a town of Northern Hungary, on the 
 river Theiss, an important station for steamers. 
 Pop. 9993, 
 
 Adal is the name of the flat and barren coun- 
 try lying between the Abyssinian plateaux and 
 the Red Sea, from Massowa to the Bay of 
 Tajurra, its greatest width being 300 miles. 
 
 Adalia (anc. Attalia), a seaport on the S. coast 
 of Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adalia. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Adamawa, an African state or territory be- 
 tween the Cameroons and Lake Chad, most of 
 which (excluding Tola) by Anglo-German agree- 
 ment lies within the German sphere — Yola being 
 in Nigeria. In the S. are mountains, amid which 
 rise numerous streams, the most important 
 being the Benue (q.v.), which waters the entire 
 province. The people, who profess Mohammed- 
 anism, are active, industrious, and intelligent. 
 The chief town is Yola (15,000 inhabitants). 
 
 Adams, a township of Massachusetts, adjoining 
 North Adams, with busy manufactories, and em- 
 bracing Mount Greylock (3505 feet), the highest 
 point in the state. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Adam's Bridge, a chain of sand shoals 30 
 miles long, extending from a small island off' the 
 Indian coast to one just off" Ceylon. It greatly 
 obstructs the navigation of the channel. 
 
 Adam's Peak, the name given by Moham- 
 Tnedans, and after them by Europeans, to a 
 mountain summit in the south of Ceylon, 7420 
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 feet high (not, however, the highest of the 
 group). The native name is Samanella. The 
 cone forming the summit is a naked mass of 
 granite, terminating in a narrow platform, in 
 the middle of which is a hollow, five feet long, 
 having a resemblance (increased by human 
 agency) to a human footstep. Mohammedan 
 tradition makes this the scene of Adam's peni- 
 tence, after his expulsion from Paradise ; he 
 stood 1000 years on one foot, and hence the 
 mark. To the Buddhists, the impression is the 
 Sri-pada, or sacred footmark, left by Buddha on 
 his departure from Ceylon ; and the Hindus 
 recognise Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu. Multi- 
 tudes of devotees visit the mountain. 
 
 Adana {A'dana), a province in the SE. of Asia 
 Minor, is named from its chief city Adana, con- 
 taining 50,000 inhabitants. Tlie city, on the 
 Sihun, 30 miles from the sea, commands the pass 
 of the Taurus Mountains. 
 
 Adare, a market-town on the Maig, in the 
 county, and 11 miles SW. of the town, of 
 Limerick. Pop. 516. 
 
 Adda, a river of Lombardy, rising in the Alps, 
 flowing through Lake Conio, and falling into the 
 Po after a course of 180 miles. 
 
 Addiewell, a mineral village of Midlothian, 
 IJ mile WSW. of West Calder. Pop. 2000, 
 
 Addis Abeba (^Adis Ababa), capital of Abys- 
 sinia, lies in the south of the province of Shoa, 
 8000 feet above the sea. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Addlscombe, a place in Surrey, near Croydon. 
 A mansion here was, in 1812, converted by the 
 East India Company into a college for their 
 cadets, but sold in 1861. 
 
 Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, on the 
 Torrens, 7 miles by rail SE. of Port Adelaide, on 
 St Vincent Gulf. It stands on a large plain, and 
 is walled in on the eastern and southern sides by 
 the Mount Lofty range ; the town proper is en- 
 closed by a wide belt of garden and shrubbery. 
 The first settlement was made in 1836, and named 
 after the queen of William IV. The Torrens 
 divides the town into North and South Adelaide, 
 the former being occupied chiefly with residences, 
 and the latter forming the business portion of 
 the town. Four substantial iron bridges span 
 the Torrens, which has been formed by a dam 
 into a lake 1^ mile long. The streets are broad 
 and regularly laid out, especially in Adelaide 
 proper, to the south of the river, where they 
 cross each other at right angles, and are planted 
 with trees. Among the public buildings are the 
 new parliament houses, erected at a cost of about 
 £100,000 ; government offices, post-ofl[ice, and 
 town-hall ; South Australian Institute, with 
 museum, library, and art-galleries ; and hospital. 
 The botanical garden, with the botanical garden 
 park, covers more than 120 acres of ground. The 
 chief manufactures are woollen, leather, iron, and 
 earthenware goods ; but the chief importance of 
 Adelaide depends on its being the great emporium 
 for South Australia. Wool, wine, wheat, flour, 
 and copper ore are the staple articles of export. 
 Among educational institutions the most im- 
 portant are the Adelaide University ; St Peter's 
 (Episcopal) College; St Barnabas Theological 
 College, opened in 1881 ; and Prince Alfred 
 (Wesleyan) College. It is the seat of an Anglican 
 and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Glenelg on the 
 sea, 5 jniles away, is a favourite watering-place. 
 Pop. (1871) 27,208; (1881) 38,479; (1901) 39,250, 
 or, with suburbs, 163,450. — Port Adelaide, its 
 haven, dates from 1840, is situated on an estuary 
 
ADELSBERO 10 
 
 of the Gulf of St Vincent, has a safe and com- 
 modious harbour, and an ocean dock capable of 
 admitting ships of the largest size. It is a prin- 
 cipal port of call for vessels arriving from Europe 
 either round the Cape or by the Suez Canal 5 and 
 since 1887 railway communication has been estab- 
 lished between Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and 
 Brisbane. Two forts have been erected for the 
 defence of the port. Tramways were introduced 
 in 1878. Municipal pop, COOO. 
 
 Adelsberg, a market-town in Carniola, 22 miles 
 NE. of Trieste, with a pop. of 1800. Near it are 
 numerous caves, the most famous being a large 
 stalactite cavern, the Adelsberg Grotto. This 
 cavern, the largest in Europe, between 2 and 3 
 miles long, is divided into the old and the new 
 grotto, the latter discovered in 1816 ; a third 
 very fine one came to light in 1889. The various 
 chambers, called by names such as the Dome, 
 the Dancing-hall, the Belvedere, contain stalac- 
 tites and stalagmites of great size and grotesque 
 forms. The river Poik runs through a part of 
 the grotto, and then disappears below the ground. 
 Aden, a peninsula and town belonging to 
 Britain, on the SW. coast of Arabia, 105 miles E. 
 of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance to 
 the Red Sea. Tlie peninsula is a mass of volcanic 
 rocks, 5 miles long from E. to W., and rising to 
 1776 feet. It is joined to tlie mainland by a 
 narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. The town is 
 on the eastern shore of the peninsula, stands in 
 the crater of an extinct volcano, and is sur- 
 rounded by indescribably barren, cinder-like 
 rocks. The main crater is known as the Devil's 
 Punch-bowl. Frequently the heat is intense; 
 but the very dry hot climate, though depressing, 
 is unusually healthy for the tropics. The Romans 
 occupied it in the 1st century a.d. Till the dis- 
 covery of the Cape route to India (1498), it was 
 the chief mart of Asiatic produce for the Western 
 nations ; but in 1838 it had sunk to be a village 
 of 600 inhabitants. The increasing importance 
 of the Red Sea route gave Aden great value as a 
 station for England to hold ; and in 1839, after a 
 few hours' contest, Aden fell into the hands of 
 the British. It is of high importance both in a 
 mercantile and naval point of view, especially as 
 a great coaling station ; it has a garrison and 
 strong fortifications. The population and re- 
 sources of the place have rapidly increased since 
 1838, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 
 gave it a great impetus. The annual value of its 
 imports sometimes exceeds two millions, while 
 that of its exports (coffee, gums, spices) amounts 
 to a million and a half. It is a telegraphic sta- 
 tion on the cable between Suez and Bombay, and 
 on the line to Zanzibar and the Cape. To provide 
 for its growing population, a considerable terri- 
 tory on the mainland has been acquired and 
 added to the peninsula, the total area (including 
 the island of Perim, q.v.) being 75 sq, m. ; and 
 the settlement, which is politically connected 
 with Bombay (seven days' sailing distant), had in 
 1901 a population of 41,250. The bulk of the 
 natives are Arabs and Somalis from Africa, all 
 speaking Arabic. In the settlement there are, 
 besides Aden proper, called the Camp, or the 
 Crater, two other centres of population— Steamer 
 Point, which is cooler than the Crater ; and the 
 outlying town of Shaikh Othman, with a Presby- 
 terian mission, 10 miles towards the interior. 
 
 Aderhijan. See Azerbijan. 
 
 Ademo (anc. Adramim), a town of Sicily, at 
 the base of Mount Etna, 17 miles NW. of Catania. 
 Pop. 19,180. 
 
 ADRAR 
 
 Adiabe'ne, a district of Assyria, E. of the 
 Upper Tigris, between the greater and the lesser 
 Zab rivers. 
 
 Aiige ( Ad' ijay; Ger. Etsch; anc. Athesis), a river 
 of Italy, rising in the Rhsetian Alps, and formed 
 by various streamlets which descend from theso 
 mountains and unite at Glarus. Thence it flows 
 east into Tyrol, then, after a slight south-east- 
 ward detour, due south past Trent and Rove- 
 redo into Lombardy, and, passing Verona, takes 
 a south-eastern sweep, and enters the Adriatic 
 not far north of the Po, It is 250 miles long, 
 650 feet broad in the plain of Lombardy, and 
 10 to 16 feet deep. 
 
 Adirondack Mountains, the chief range in 
 New York State, lie between Lakes Champlain 
 and Ontario. Rising from an elevated plateau 
 about 2000 feet above sea-level, they are remark- 
 able for grand and picturesque scenery; the 
 highest summit. Mount Marcy, is 5402 feet high. 
 Small lakes are numerous ; the head-streams of 
 the Hudson are here ; and there is much fine 
 timber in the region. The whole northern wilder- 
 ness of New York State is popularly known as 
 the Adirondacks, and is a very favourite resort 
 of sportsmen and pleasure-seekers. 
 
 Adjygnrh. See Ajaigabh. 
 
 Adlington, a Lancashire township, 3J miles 
 SE. of Chorley. Pop. 4590. 
 
 Admiralty Island lies off the coast of Southern 
 Alaska, in 57° 30' N. lat., and 134° 15' W. long. 
 It is about 90 miles long, well wooded and 
 watered ; and contains coal and copper. It is 
 inhabited, and belongs to the United States. 
 
 Admiralty Islands, a group of 40 islands, to 
 the NE. of New Guinea, about 2° S. lat., and 
 147° E. long. They were discovered by the Dutch 
 in 1616. "The largest is above 50 miles long, and 
 is mountainous but fruitful ; their total area is 
 878 sq. m. Some are volcanic, others are coral 
 islands. They abound in cocoa-nut trees, and are 
 inhabited by a race of tawny frizzle-headed 
 savages, of the Papuan stock, about 800 in 
 number. Together with New Britain and some 
 adjoining groups, they were annexed by Germany 
 in 1885, and now form part of the Bismarck 
 Archil 
 
 Adonl, a town of Madras, 64 miles NE. of 
 Bellary. Pop. 32,441. 
 
 Adour, a French river, rising in the dep. of 
 Hautes Pyrenees, and flowing 180 miles through 
 Gers and Landes, till it enters the Atlantic below 
 Bayonne. It is navigable for 80 miles. 
 
 Adowa, a town of Abyssinia, the capital of 
 Tigre, stands 6270 feet above sea-level, and 145 
 miles NE. of Gondar. Adowa is the chief entre- 
 pot of trade between the interior of Tigre and 
 the coast. Here on 1st March 1896 an Italian 
 army was routed by the Abyssinians. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Adpar, a town of Cardigan and Carmarthen 
 shires, on the Teifi, opposite Newcastle-Emlyn. 
 Till 1885 it was one of the Cardigan boroughs. 
 
 Adra (anc. Abdera), a Mediterranean seaport 
 of Spain, 49 miles SE. of Granada, near great 
 lead-mines. Pop. 9039. 
 
 Adramyti (anc. Adramytthim ; Turkish Edre- 
 viid), a town on the west coast of Asia Minor, 
 opposite Mitylene. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Adrar, a region of 30,000 sq. m. in the west of 
 the Saliara, bonleriiig on tlie Spanish territory of 
 Rio de Oro, but now recognised as— wholly or 
 mostly— French. 
 
At)RtA 
 
 u 
 
 APGHANISTAIT 
 
 Adria, a town of Northern Italy, between the 
 Po and Adige, is one of the oldest cities in 
 Europe, having been founded by the Etruscans. 
 So late as the 12th century a.d., it was a flourish- 
 ing harbour on the Adriatic Sea, to which it gave 
 name ; but it has been gradually separated from 
 the sea, from which it is now 14 miles distant. 
 It still retains several interesting remains of 
 Etruscan and Roman antiquity, with a fine 
 cathedral. Pop. 11,320. 
 
 Adrian, a city of Michigan, U.S., situated on 
 the Raisin River. It is well furnished with 
 water-power, commaiids the trade of a large 
 grain-growing region, has several factories, and 
 a Methodist college founded in 1859. Pop. (1870) 
 8438 ; (1890) 8756 ; (1900) 9654. 
 
 Adrlanople (Turkish EdimA; Bulgarian Odrin), 
 the third city of European Turkey, stands on the 
 navigable Maritza (the ancient Hebrus), 198 miles 
 WNW. of Constantinople by rail. The splendid 
 mosque of Selim II., the palace, and the immense 
 bazaar of Ali Pasha, may be named as its prin- 
 cipal features. Founded or greatly improved by 
 the Emperor Hadrian, Adrianople was the seat 
 of the Ottoman sultanate from 1366 to 1453. 
 The Russo-Turkish war was here concluded, 
 September 14, 1829, by the Peace of Adrianople. 
 After the capture of the Turkish army defending 
 the Shipka Pass in January 1878, the Russians 
 entered Adrianople unopposed ; and an armistice 
 was concluded here on the 31st. Pop. 80,886. 
 
 Adrian's Wall. See Hadrian's Wall. 
 
 Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, extending 450 miles north-westward between 
 Italy and the Balkan Peninsula, and terminated to 
 the south by the strait of Otranto, 45 miles wide. 
 The west coast is comparatively low and has few 
 inlets, and the north is marshy and edged with 
 lagoons. On the other side, the coasts of lUyria, 
 Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania are steep, rocky, 
 and barren, with many inlets, and begirt with a 
 chain of almost innumerable small rocky islands. 
 The total area of the sea, including islands, is 
 calculated at 52,220 sq. m.— the area of the 
 islands being 1290 ; the mean depth is 110 fathoms, 
 the greatest depth 565 fathoms. The chief rivers 
 flowing into it are the Adige and the Po, which 
 are continually depositing soil on the coast, so 
 that places once on the shore are now inland. 
 The extreme saltness of the Adriatic is probably 
 owing to the comparatively small quantity of 
 fresh water poured into it by rivers. Venice, 
 Trieste, Fiume, Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi are 
 the chief ports. The fisheries are rich, and in- 
 dustriously worked. 
 
 Adur, a Sussex river, flowing 20 miles south- 
 ward to the English Channel at Shoreham. 
 
 ^gean Sea, the old name of the gulf between 
 Asia Minor and Greece, now usually called Archi- 
 pelago (q.v.). 
 
 iEgi'na, a mountainous Greek island, 33 sq. m. 
 in area, in the Gulf of ^gina (the ancient Saro- 
 nicus Sinus). The town of ^gina stands at the 
 NW. end of the island. There are considerable 
 remains still left of the ancient city, and the 
 ruins of solidly built walls and harbour moles 
 still attest its size and importance. The island 
 contains about 9000 inhabitants. 
 
 JEolian Islands. See Lipari. 
 
 .ffitna. See Etna. 
 
 Afghanistan' is the country lying to the north- 
 west of India. Its boundaries are, on the nortli, 
 the Oxus or Amu Daria, from its source to Khoja 
 
 Saleh, and thence (since 1885-87) a line drawn 
 across the Turkoman desert (Russian territory) 
 south-westward to the Murghab, passing south 
 of Penjdeh, and touching the Hari-Rud at Zul- 
 likar. On the east, the frontier runs along the 
 eastern foot of the Suliman Mountains ; but here 
 agahi some of the tribes are almost independent, 
 and the Indian government controls the more 
 important passes. On the south, a line passing 
 north of Quetta in about the 30th parallel of N. 
 lat., divides Afghanistan from the territory of 
 the khan of Kelat and Beluchistan ; while on 
 the west, the meridian of 61° E. long, approxi- 
 mately defines the boundary with Persia. Within 
 these limits, Afghanistan extends 400 miles from 
 north to south, and 600 miles from east to west, 
 and contains an area which may be roughly 
 estimated at 240,000 sq. m., or about twice the 
 size of Great Britain and Ireland. This includes 
 Badakhshan and Wakhaji in the north-east, and 
 Afghan Turkestan in the north, comprising the 
 Uzbeg States of Balkh, Kunduz, Maimana, Shi- 
 barghan, Khulm, Akcha, and Andkhoi, owning 
 allegiance and paying tribute to the Ameer. 
 Afghanistan may be divided into the three great 
 river-basins of the Oxus, the Indus, and the Hel- 
 mand. Afghanistan is for the most part an arid, 
 mountainous country, and cultivation is only 
 met with in some of its valleys. The principal 
 mountain systems are the Hindu Kush, with its 
 westerly continuations, the Koh-i-Baba, Pagh- 
 man, Safed-Koh, and Siah-Koh. The climate is 
 as diversified as the physical configuration. At 
 Ghazni (7279 feet) the winter is extremely 
 rigorous ; the climate of Seistan, in the south- 
 west, is hot and trying ; while other parts are 
 temperate. 
 
 The population of Afghanistan is composed of 
 a variety of nationalities, and is estimated at 
 about 4,900,000. The Afghans proper, or Pathans, 
 number about 3,000,000, and are divided into 
 tribes or clans— Duranis, Ghilzais, Yflsufzais, and 
 others. The Duranis are the dominant tribe ; 
 the Ghilzdis, the strongest and most warlike; 
 the Yusufzftis, the most turbulent. Of the non- 
 Afghans, the Tajiks are the agricultural and 
 industrious portion of the population ; the Hind- 
 kis and Jats chiefly live in the towns, and are 
 traders ; the Kizilbashes are Turko-Persians, and 
 form the more educated and superior class ; 
 while the Hazaras, a race of Mongol origin, are 
 nomads. The language of the Afghans — the 
 Pakhtu or Pushtu — belongs to the Aryan family. 
 In religion they are Sunni-Mohammedans. In 
 character they are proud, vain, cruel, perfidious, 
 extremely avaricious, revengeful, selfish, merci- 
 less, and idle. 'Nothing is finer than their 
 physique, or worse than their morale.' The 
 Afghans do not as a rule inhabit towns, except 
 in the case of those attached to the court and 
 heads of tribes. The townsmen are mostly 
 Hindkis and other non-Afghan races, who prac- 
 tise various trades and handicrafts considered 
 derogatory by men of rank. The principal towns 
 are Kabul (population 140,000), the seat of govern- 
 ment and centre of a fertile district ; Ghazni, a 
 strong fortress; Kandahar, the chief city of 
 Southern Afghanistan, witli 50,000 inliabitants ; 
 and Herat, formerly considered the key of India. 
 
 Among the natural productioTis of Afghanistan 
 is the plant yielding the asafoetida. The castor- 
 oil plant is everywhere common, and good tobacco 
 is grown in the district of Kandahar, The culti- 
 vated area round Herat produces magnificent 
 crops of wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, melons, 
 and the mulberry-tree. In special localities are 
 
AFItJM-KARA-fllSSAR 
 
 forests of pistachio. The general appearance of 
 the country during winter is barren and arid in 
 the extreme, owing to the absence of trees and 
 woody shrubs ; but in spring a mass of vegeta- 
 tion springs up, giving a grand colouring to the 
 landscape. The industrial products are silk, 
 chiefly for domestic use, and carpets, those of 
 Herat being of admirable quality. The manu- 
 facture of postins, or sheepskins, is one of the 
 most important occupations. Merchandise is all 
 transported on camel or pony back. Commerce 
 suffers much from frequent wars and bad govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The history of Afghanistan as an independent 
 state only dates from the middle of the 18th 
 century. For two centuries before, Herat and 
 Kandahar had been in the possession of Persia ; 
 Avhile Kabul was included in the Mogul empire 
 of Delhi. Upon the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, 
 Ahmed Shah Durani subjugated the different 
 provinces, and when he died in 1773, left an 
 empire to his son, Tlmur Shah. P'or English- 
 men, the chief events in the history of Afghan- 
 istan are the expedition in 1839 which estab- 
 lished Shah Soojah on the throne ; the rebellion 
 of 1841, in which the residents Burnes and Mac- 
 naghten were killed, and the Anglo-Indian troops 
 perished in the retreat ; the punitive expedition 
 in 1842 ; the defeat of Dost Mohammed in 1849 ; 
 the war with Shere All in 1878-79, and Instal- 
 ment of Yakub Khan ; the rising at Kabul and 
 murder of Cavagnari the English resident ; the 
 punitive expedition under Roberts ; the establish- 
 ment in 1881 by British assistance of Abdur- 
 rahman, succeeded in 1901 by his son Hablb- 
 ullah ; and alarms as to Russian encroachments. 
 
 See Elphlnstone's Cabnl (1815) ; Kaye's History 
 of the War in Afghanistan (1851, 4th ed. 1878) ; 
 Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879) ; 
 Reports by Lumsden and Macgregor. 
 
 Afium-Kara-Hlssar ('Opium Black Castle'), 
 a city of Asia Minor, 170 miles ENE. of Smyrna. 
 The chief trade is in opium, and there are manu- 
 factures of felts, carpets, arms, and saddlery. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Africa, a continent of the eastern hemisphere, 
 fonning a south-western extension of Asia, to 
 which it is attached by the narrow isthmus of 
 Suez, now pierced by a canal 90 miles long. 
 Africa is thus constituted an insular mass of 
 irregular triangular shape, with base on the 
 Mediterranean, and apex at the junction of the 
 Indian and Atlantic Oceans, which bathe its 
 eastern and western shores respectively. From 
 Cape Blanco in Tunis, to Cape Agulhas in Cape 
 Colony, it stretches southward across about 5000 
 miles, disposed almost equally on both sides of the 
 equator. The extreme eastern and western points 
 are Capes Guardafui on the Indian Ocean, and 
 Verd on the Atlantic, a distance of about 4500 
 miles. But owing to the sudden contraction of 
 the land at the Gulf of Guinea, whence, like both 
 Americas, India, and other peninsular masses, 
 St tapers continuously southwards, the total 
 area is considerably less than would seem to bo 
 indicated by these extreme distances. Including 
 Madagascar and all adjacent insular groups, it 
 cannot be estimated at much more than 11,500,000 
 sq. m., or some 5,000,000 less than either Asia or 
 America. Of all the continents except Australia, 
 Africa is the most uniform and monotonous in 
 its general outlines, unrelieved by broad estu- 
 aries, bights, or Inlets of any kind penetrating 
 far inland. Hence, although about three times 
 larger than Europe, its coast-line scarcely exceeds 
 
 1^ AFRICA 
 
 15,000 miles, as compared with the 19,000 of that 
 more highly favoured continent. 
 
 Geologically, Africa is nearly destitute of in- 
 sular groups, almost the only islands that belong 
 physically to the mainland being lerba and one 
 or two islets in the Mediterranean, and a few on 
 the east side, such as Socotra, and farther south, 
 Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia, almost forming 
 parts of the adjacent coast. Perlm, Dahlak. and 
 a few others in the Red Sea, are mere coral reefs, 
 dominated here and there by volcanic crests. 
 The Comoro group between Madagascar and 
 Mozambique is also volcanic ; while Madagascar 
 itself and the outlying Mascarenhas (Mauritius, 
 Reunion, and Rodriguez) appear to be surviving 
 fragments of a Miocene continent, now flooded 
 by the waters of the Indian Ocean. On the west 
 side, the little Blssagos group alone forms a geo- 
 logical dependency of the mainland. Annabon, 
 St Thomas, Prince, and Fernando Po, in the Gulf 
 of Guinea, as well as Madeira, the Canary, and 
 Cape Verd archipelagoes, are all of volcanic 
 origin, the latter being separated by profound 
 abysses of over 3000 feet from the continent. 
 Lastly, St Helena and Ascension are mere rocks 
 lost amid the Atlantic waters. 
 
 Corresponding with the uniform continental 
 contour, is the generally monotonous character 
 of the interior, which is relieved by no great 
 central highlands or conspicuous water-partings 
 at all comparable to those of the other great 
 continental regions. The somewhat premature 
 generalisation, which compared it to ' an inverted 
 basin,' gives a misleading idea of its true con- 
 formation. The outer rim of mountain-ranges is 
 not nearly so continuous and uniform as this 
 comparison would imply ; while the interior is 
 disposed, not in one vast elevated plain, but 
 in two well-marked physical regions — a great 
 southern tableland with a mean altitude of over 
 3500 feet, falling northwards to a much lower 
 but still elevated plain with a mean altitude of 
 about 1300 feet. Owing to this generally high 
 altitude, and to the almost total absence of 
 extensive low-lying plains, Africa, notwithstand- 
 ing the lack of vast alpine regions like the Euro- 
 pean Alps and Pyrenees, has nevertheless a 
 greater mean elevation (1900 to 2000 feet) than 
 Europe (1000). 
 
 The southern plateau is intersected by several 
 mountain-ranges, very little or not at all ex- 
 plored. The chief mountain systems of the 
 north are the Atlas and the Abyssinian high- 
 lands. The culminating points of the continent 
 are near the equator : Ruwenzorl (19,000), Kenia 
 (19,000), and Kilima-njaro (19,680 feet). 
 
 Hydrographlcally, the two great southern 
 basins of the Congo and Zambesi balance those 
 of the Nile and Niger of the northern plain, 
 while the secondary Orange and Limpopo in 
 the extreme south find their counterparts in the 
 Senegal and Draa of the NW. The Zambesi 
 and Limpopo, together with the Rovuma, Juba, 
 and a few other coast streams, flow to the Indian 
 Ocean ; all the others, together with the Cunene, 
 Koanza, Ogoway, Volta, Gambia, Tensift, Muluya, 
 and Mejerdah, to the Atlantic, either directly or 
 through the Mediterranean. The Makua-Welle 
 is a tributary of the Congo ; the Shari flows into 
 Lake Tsad or Chad. 
 
 Africa possesses a magnificent equatorial lake 
 system, elsewhere unrivalled except by the great 
 North American lacustrine basins. They are 
 grouped towards the east side of the continent 
 between 15° S. and 4° N. lat., and all stand on 
 the southern tableland, draining seaward through 
 
AFRICA 
 
 13 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 the Zambesi (Nyassa, with outflow Shire), the 
 Congo (Tanganyika, with intermittent outflow 
 Lukuga), and the Nile (Alexandra Nyanza, Vic- 
 toria Nyanza, Albert-Edward Nyanza, and Albert 
 Nyanza, with outflow Somerset Nile). The 
 Alexandra (Akanyaru) drains north-eastwards 
 through the Alexandra Nile (Kagera) to the 
 Victoria, queen of African lakes, and, next to 
 Superior (31,200 sq. m.), the largest fresh-water 
 basin (over 30,000 sq. m.) on the globe. Lakes 
 Tsad (Chad) and Ngami have no seaward out- 
 flow ; the Abyssinian Lake Tana, Tzana, or Dem- 
 bea, 6100 feet, is a true alpine lake. 
 
 Above all the great divisions of the globe, 
 Africa is distinguished by the general uniformity 
 of its climatic phenomena, a circumstance due 
 to its massive form and intertropical position. 
 In the region approaching nearest to the northern 
 or southern equinoctial lines, rain falls through- 
 out the year, thanks to the opposing trade-winds. 
 In the northern hemisphere a zone of two wet 
 seasons stretches from the equator to the 15° lat. 
 In summer, copious showers are caused by tlie 
 moisture-bearing SW. winds ; in winter, the NW. 
 currents become in their turn the bearers of 
 heavy rain-charged clouds to the southern 
 plateau. But on both sides of the torrid zone, 
 comprising about seven-tenths of the whole con- 
 tinent, the difi"erence in the disposition of the 
 winds causes a corresponding contrast in the 
 rainfall. Here the trade-winds maintain their 
 normal direction constantly, or with but slight 
 temporary deviations. Blowing from the NE. in 
 the northern, from the SE. in the southern hemi- 
 sphere, they divert to the equator most of the 
 vapours crossing their path, leaving elsewhere 
 clear skies and arid lands. Thus it happens that 
 Africa has two almost completely barren zones 
 of rocks, gravels, marls, clay, and sand — the 
 Sahara and Libyan desert in the north, Kalahari 
 and other wastes in the south. This regular 
 disposition of the climates is completed by the 
 regular alternation of winds and rains in the 
 zones of Mauritania and the Cape, both belong- 
 ing to the region of subtropical rains, which 
 fall in the respective winters of each hemisphere. 
 Africa is thus disposed from north to south in 
 successive gray and more or less intensely green 
 belts, whose limits coincide in several places 
 with the isothermals, or lines of equal tempera- 
 ture. The lines indicating mean annual tempera- 
 tures of 68° and 75° F., traverse, in the north, 
 the Mediterranean seaboard and the Sahara 
 respectively ; in the south, the Orange basin 
 and a zone stretching obliquely from Mozam- 
 bique to the Cameroons ; while the area of 
 greatest mean heat (82° F.) is comprised within 
 an irregular curve enclosing the Upper Nile 
 basin between Khartoum and the Albert Nyanza 
 north and south, Lake Tsad and Massowah 
 (Massawah) west and east. The climate, except 
 on the Mediterranean, Saharan, Red Sea, and 
 extreme south coasts, is nearly everywhere mal- 
 arious on the low-lying and generally marshy 
 coast-lands between the outer rim and the sea. 
 It is the same in the Chambeze, Malagarazi 
 (Unyamwesi), Shari, and other inland districts, 
 which are either constantly or periodically under 
 water. But elsewhere, with due precautions, the 
 continent cannot be regarded as insalubrious ; 
 and the Sahara, for instance, is distinctly a 
 healthy region, although, owing to rapid radia- 
 tion, the hot days are here succeeded by cool 
 and occasionally even frosty nights. 
 
 About 41 per cent, of the surface is said to be 
 either desert, or under scrub, or otherwise 
 
 absolutely waste, and 35 per cent, steppe, or 
 nearly treeless grass-grown savannah, leaving 
 only 24 per cent, for forest and arable lands. 
 The continuous forest growths are confined 
 mainly to the vast equatorial region between 
 the Upper Zambesi and Soudan, and to some 
 isolated tracts about the Abyssinian plateau, in 
 the Moroccan Atlas, all along the Guinea coast, 
 about the Middle Limpopo and Zambesi, and in 
 parts of Masai Land and the Upper Nile basin. 
 
 Fauna. — Africa is the peculiar home of the 
 large fauna — such as the lion, the panther and 
 leopard, the hyena, fox, and jackal. The great 
 herbivora are represented by the elepliant, the 
 rhinoceros, the buflalo, the giraff'e, the hippo- 
 potamus, and the crocodile. Africa is also tha 
 special home of the gnu, and several other species 
 of antelopes. The monkey family is also spread 
 over the whole continent. Peculiar also are such 
 equidse as the zebra and quagga. Of land mam- 
 mals there are altogether enumerated about 480 
 species peculiar to this continent, amongst which 
 are 95 of the simian and 50 of the antelope family. 
 The avi-fauna includes the ostrich, the secretary, 
 ibis, guinea-fowl, weaver-bird, roller-bird, love- 
 bird, waxbill, whydah, sun-bird, parrots, quail, 
 and several other indigenous species. Reptiles 
 and insects also abound — the tsetse fly being one 
 of the great impediments to the progress of 
 culture. 
 
 Recent authorities roughly estimate the popu- 
 lation of Africa at about 210,000,000, or 18 to 
 the square mile, a density five times less than 
 that of Europe. According to the nature of soil 
 and climate, the population is distributed very 
 unevenly over the surface, being massed some- 
 what densely in the Nile delta, in the Upper 
 Nile Valley, and generally throughout Soudan, 
 less thickly over the southern plateau, and very 
 thinly in Mauritania and Tripolitana ; while large 
 tracts, especially in the Western Sahara, the 
 Libyan and Kalahari wastes, are absolutely un- 
 inhabited. Of the whole number, probably less 
 than 1,000,000 are recent immigrants from Europe, 
 settled chiefly in the extreme north (Egypt 
 and Algeria) and in the extreme south (Cape 
 Colony, Natal, and the former Boer States). 
 About 34,000,000, all of Semitic stock, are in- 
 truders from Asia, some in remote or prehistoric 
 times (3,000,000 Himyarites in Abyssinia and 
 Harar from South Arabia), some since the spread 
 of Islam (over 30,000,000 nomad and other Arabs, 
 chiefly along the Mediterranean seaboard, in West 
 Sahara, and Central and East Soudan). All tha 
 rest, numbering about 175,000,000 altogether, 
 may be regarded as the true aboriginal element, 
 and may be regarded as falling into two main 
 groups — the Negro and Negroid peoples, and the 
 Hamitic. The Negroes proper, including the 
 Fanti, Ashanti, Mandingo, Haussa, Bari, and 
 Monbuttu stocks, are mainly in Upper Guinea, 
 Senegambia, and the Soudan. The Bantus to 
 the south of them include Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechu- 
 anas, Matabele, Wagandas ; and the other Negroids 
 are the Hottentots and the Bushmen, Batwas, 
 and Akkas. To the Hamitic stock are referred 
 the Berbers, Gallas, and Somalis, as also the 
 Fans, Fulahs, and the Egyptian Fellahs. Speak- 
 ing generally, the northern Hamites and Semites 
 are Mohammedans and stock-breeders, the 
 southern Bantus nature-worshippers and agri- 
 culturists ; all these factors intermingling in the 
 intervening zone of Soudan. The chief exceptions 
 to this broad statement are the Christian Abys- 
 sinians (Monophysite sect) ; the Hottentots, who 
 are mainly cattle-breeders; and the Algerian 
 
AFTON 14 
 
 Berbers, who prefer tillage to pasturage. Nearly 
 the whole of Africa is under the direct or indirect 
 control of seven European states— Great Britain, 
 France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and 
 Turkey— or witliin their recognised spheres of 
 influence. The only independent states re- 
 maining are Morocco, Abyssinia, and Liberia. 
 
 Of African soil. Great Britain holds (1) in 
 South Africa, the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, 
 Orange River Colony, Basutoland, Bechnana- 
 land (as a protectorate), Rhodesia, British Cen- 
 tral Africa Protectorate; (2) in East Africa, 
 Zanzibar (as a protectorate) and dependencies, 
 British East Africa Protectorate, Uganda, British 
 Somaliland ; (3) in West Africa, Gambia, Sierra 
 Leone, Gold Coast, Lagos, and Northern and 
 Southern Nigeria : (4) Mauritius, Ascension, St 
 Helena, &c. ; (5) Egypt (temporarily occupied) ; 
 (6) Anglo-Egyptian Soudan, held by Britain and 
 Egypt jointly. France holds Algeria, Tunis, 
 Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, 
 Dahomey, the Western Soudan, the Sahara, 
 French Congo, Obok or French Somaliland, 
 Madagascar, Reunion, and the Mayottes and 
 the Comoros. 
 
 German Africa includes Togoland, the Camer- 
 oons, German South-west Africa (Damaraland, 
 Namaqualand), and German East Africa. Portu- 
 guese Africa : Angola, Portuguese East Africa, 
 Madeira, Cape Verde Islands. Spanish Africa : 
 Ceuta, Spanish Sahara (Rio de Oro and Adran) ; 
 the Canaries, Fernando Po, and other Islands. 
 Italian Africa : Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, 
 Belgian Africa is the Congo Free State. 
 
 According to estimates based on the latest 
 available data, British Africa in all (without 
 Egypt, but including the Egyptian Soudan) in- 
 cludes about 3,510,000 sq. m., with about 
 84,000,000 inhabitants ; French Africa, 2,970,000 
 sq. m., 27,500,000 inhabitants ; German Africa, 
 742,000 sq. m., 6,750,000 inhabitants ; Portuguese 
 Africa, 804,000 sq. m., 7,750,000 inhabitants; 
 Spanish Africa, 250,000 sq. ni., population not 
 known ; Italian Africa, 136,000 sq. m., 1,000,000 
 inhabitants ; Belgian Africa (Congo Free State), 
 900,000 sq. m., pop. 30,000,000 ; Turkish Africa 
 (Egypt and Tripoli), 8,000,000 sq. m., pop. 
 11,300,000; Abyssinia, 150,000 sq. ni„ pop. 
 3,500,000 ; Morocco, 219,000 sq. m., pop. 5,000,000 ; 
 Liberia, 14,000 sq. m., pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 See works on Africa by Keith Johnston, R6clus, 
 Hartmann, and others ; the works and the lives 
 of Bruce, Mungo Park, Livingstone, Baker, 
 Burton, Speke and Grant, Barth, Schweinfurth, 
 Cameron, Stanley, Johnston, Thomson, and other 
 travellers ; Jones's History of African Exploration 
 (New York, 1875) ; books on the partition of Africa 
 by Silva White (1892) and Scott Keltie (1893) ; and 
 Sir H. H. Johnston's Colonization of Africa (1899). 
 
 Afton, an Ayrshire stream, joining the Nith at 
 New Cumnock. 
 
 I {A-gd-des), once a very important city of 
 Africa, and still a great meeting-place of trading 
 caravans, is the capital of the state Air or Asben 
 south of the Sahara, and is built upon the eastern 
 edge of a great tableland, at an elevation of not 
 less than 2500 feet. In the 16th century it prob- 
 ably contained 60,000 inhabitants ; now it has 
 some 7000. 
 
 Agadir, the southernmost seaport town in 
 Morocco, at the mouth of the SCis, 23 miles SE. 
 of Cape Ghir. It was once a place of importance '• 
 but a revolt in 1773, and the consequent rise of 
 Mogador, have lessened its value, and its pop. 
 now does not exceed 1500. 
 
 AGRA 
 
 Agar, a town of India, in the state of Gwalior, 
 41 miles NE. of Ujain. It stands in an open plain, 
 1598 feet above the sea. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Agde (anc. Agatha Narbonensis), a town in the 
 French dep. of Herault, 3 miles from the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, on the left bank of a navigable 
 stream, the mouth of which fonns a harbour. 
 Pop. 7705. 
 
 Agen (J-zhonO), chief town of the French dep. 
 of Lot-et-Garonne, on the right bank of the 
 Garonne, 84 miles SB. of Bordeaux. It carries 
 on an active trade in woollen and linen fabrics, 
 leather, coloured paper, colours, cordage, and 
 sailcloth; and is an important railway centre. 
 Joseph Scaliger and the barber-poet Jasmin were 
 natives. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Aghrlm, or Aughrim (Auhh'rim), a hill in 
 Gal way, Ireland, 30 miles SW. of Athlone. Here, 
 on 12th July 1691, Ginckell defeated the French 
 and Irish adherents of James II. under St Ruth. 
 
 Agincourt (A'zhan^koor), now Azincourt, a 
 small village in the centre of the French dep. 
 of Pas-de-Calais, celebrated for Henry V.'s great 
 victory over the French, October 25, 1415. 
 
 Agnano, till 1870 a small lake 3 miles west of 
 Naples, about 60 feet in depth, and without visible 
 outlet. As it caused malaria, it has been drained. 
 On the right lies the Grotta del Cane (q.v.), and 
 on the left are the sulphurous vapour-baths of 
 San Germane. 
 
 Agno'ne, a town of South Italy, 22 miles NW. 
 of Campobasso, noted for its copper and steel 
 manufactures. Pop. 6179. 
 
 Agra, a city in the United Provinces of 
 Agra and Oudh, on the Jumna, 139 miles 
 SE. of Delhi by rail, and 841 NW. of Calcutta. 
 The ancient walls embraced an area of 11 sq. 
 m., of which about one-half is now occupied. 
 The houses are mostly built of red sandstone, 
 and, on the whole, Agra is the handsomest city 
 in Upper India. Some of the public buildings, 
 monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale 
 of striking magnificence. Among these are the 
 fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which 
 are the palace and audience-hall of Shah Jehan, 
 the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama 
 Masjid or Great Mosque. Still more celebrated 
 is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without 
 the city, about a mile to the east of the fort. 
 This extraordinary and beautiful mausoleum was 
 built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and 
 his favourite wife, who died in 1629 ; and is 
 remarkable alike for the complexity and grace of 
 the general design, and the elaborate perfection 
 of the workmanship. In the centre, on a raised 
 platform, is the mausoleum, surmounted by a 
 beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each 
 corner, and four graceful minarets (133 feet high). 
 Of British edifices the principal are the Govern- 
 ment House, the Government College, three 
 missionary colleges, the English church, and the 
 barracks. The climate, during the hot and rainy 
 seasons (April to September), is very injurious 
 to Europeans ; but the average health of the city 
 is equal to that of any other station in the 
 North-western Provinces. The principal articles 
 of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and 
 sugar. There are manufactures of shoes, pipe 
 stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mosaic work, 
 for which Agra is famous. It is a very important 
 railway centre, and has many claims to be re- 
 garded as the commercial capital of the North- 
 west. Pop. (1901) 188,022. Agra first rose to 
 importance in the beginning of the 16th century, 
 
AQRAM 
 
 15 
 
 AIBDB MOSS 
 
 and was the capital of the Mogul sovereigns till 
 1658, when Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. It 
 was taken in 1784 by Sindhia, and surrendered in 
 1803 to Lord Lake. From 1836 till 1862, it was 
 the seat of government for the North-west Pro- 
 vinces. During the mutiny the Europeans had, 
 in June 1857, to retire to the Fort or Residency. 
 Heroic sallies were occasionally made ; and Agra 
 was relieved early in October by the rapid and 
 brilliant march of Colonel Greathed. 
 
 Agram (Croatian Zagreb), capital of the Aus- 
 trian province of Croatia and Slavonia, lies at 
 the foot of a richly wooded range of mountains, 
 2 miles from the Save, and 142 NB. of Piume by 
 rail. The cathedral, dating partly from the 11th 
 century, with new towers and an ornate western 
 facade added in 1890-93, is one of the finest 
 Gothic buildings in Austria. The manufactures 
 include tobacco, leather, and linen. An earth- 
 quake in November 1880 destroyed most of the 
 public buildings, and overthrew 200 houses. 
 Agram possesses a university founded in 1874, 
 with 40 lecturers and 400 students. Pop. (1890) 
 37,529 ; (1900) 57,800. 
 
 Agrlgenttun. See Girgenti. 
 
 Agtelek, a Hungarian village to the NE. of 
 Pesth, near one of the largest and most remark- 
 able series of stalactitic caverns in Europe, some 
 of them nearly 100 feet high. 
 . Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, capital of 
 a central state, with an area of 2900 sq. m., stands 
 on a plain 6000 feet above sea-level, 270 miles N W. 
 of the city of Mexico by rail. The environs 
 abound in hot springs, hence the name. Pop. 
 32,500. 
 
 Aguilar de la Fronte'ra, a Spanish town of 
 Andalusia, 26 miles SSE. of Cordova. Pop. 12,398. 
 
 Aguilas, a fortified port in the Spanish province 
 of Murcia, with large smelting-houses, and an 
 export trade in lead, iron ore, sulphur, esparto, 
 and figs. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Agul'has, Cape, the most southern point of 
 Africa, lies about 100 miles ESE. of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, in lat. 34° 49' S., long. 20° 0' 40" E. 
 In 1849, a lighthouse was erected on the point, 
 which is very dangerous for ships. The Agulhas 
 Bank, about 40 miles broad, extends along the 
 whole southern coast of Africa, from near Natal 
 to Saldanha Bay. 
 
 Ahmedahad', chief town of a district in Guzerat, 
 second amongst the cities of the province of 
 Bombay, is 50 miles NE. of the head of the Gulf 
 of Cambay. It was built in 1412 by Ahmed 
 Shah, and finally came to the British in 1818. 
 In the 18th century it was one of the largest and 
 most magnificent cities in the Bast, with a 
 population of 900,000. Its architectural relics 
 are gorgeous, even in the midst of decay, and 
 illustrate the combination of Saracenic with 
 Hindu forms mainly of the Jain type. The Jama 
 Masjid, or Great Mosque, rises from the centre 
 of the city, and is adorned by two superb 
 minarets. There are some twelve other mosques 
 (one lined with ivory) and six famous tombs. 
 The modern Jain temple is of singular beauty. 
 The prosperity of the place was almost wholly 
 destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, but 
 it has largely recovered, and is still famous for 
 its rich fabrics of silk and cotton, brocades, 
 pottery, paper made of jute, and articles of gold, 
 silver, steel, and enamel. Pop. 185,900. 
 
 Ahmednagar (Ahmadnagar), a town of the 
 province of Bombay, 122 miles E. of Bombay, is 
 the third city of the Deccan. It was founded in 
 
 1494 by Ahmed Nizam Shah. In 1797 It fell into 
 the hands of the Mahrattas, and in 1817 became 
 British. It became a municipality in 1855 ; and 
 possesses a good supply of water by means of 
 aqueducts. Strong carpets, cotton and silk 
 cloths, and copper and brass pots, are manufac- 
 tured here. Pop. 42,492. 
 
 Ahmedpur', a town of India, 25 miles SW. of 
 Bahawalpur ; pop. 30,000. 
 
 Ahwas, a small village of Persia, in the pro- 
 vince of Khuzistan, 70 miles NE. of Bassora. 
 The neighboirrhood is covered with the ruins of 
 the capital of Artabanus, the last of the Parthian 
 kings. 
 
 Aidin (^Guzel-Hissar), a town of western Asia 
 Minor, on the Meander, 60 miles SB. of Smyrna 
 by rail, is the capital of a province, and was 
 built out of the ruins of the ancient Tralles. 
 The trade is important in morocco leather, 
 cotton, and fruit. Pop. 37,000. 
 
 Aigues-Mortes (Aig MoH), a town (pop. 4787) 
 in the French dep. of Gard, in an extensive salt- 
 marsh, 3 miles from the Mediterranean by a 
 canal. In the middle ages, when the sea came 
 much nearer the town, it was a very important 
 Mediterranean harbour. 
 
 Ailsa Craig, a rocky islet of Ayrshire, 10 miles 
 W. by N. of Girvan. Rising abruptly out of the 
 sea to a height of 1114 feet, it is about 2 miles 
 in circumference, and is accessible only at one 
 point. The rock is a mass of trap, assuming in 
 some places a distinctly columnar form. On the 
 N W. , perpendicular cliffs rise to a height of from 
 200 to 300 feet ; on the other sides, the Craig 
 descends to the sea with a steep slope. Till the 
 erection of a lighthouse (1883-86), the only in- 
 habitants were goats, rabbits, and wild-fowl ; 
 solan geese, in particular, breeding in the cliffs 
 in countless numbers. About 200 feet from the 
 summit are some springs, and on the ledge of 
 a crag on the eastern front, are the remains of 
 an ancient stronghold. In 1831, the Earl of 
 Cassillis, the proprietor of Ailsa Craig, was raised 
 to tlie dignity of Marquis of Ailsa, Pop. about 
 30 in all. 
 
 Aln, a French river flowing 118 miles south- 
 westward, through the deps. of Jura and Ain, to 
 the Rhone, 18 miles above Lyons. 
 
 Aln, an eastern dep. of France, separated from 
 Savoy by the Rhone. The eastern part is moun- 
 tainous, with summits 5000 to 6500 feet high. 
 Bourg is the capital. Area, 2239 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1891) 356,907 ; (1901) 350,416. 
 
 Aln-Tai), a town of Syria, on an affluent of 
 the Euphrates, 64 miles NNE. of Aleppo ; pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 Air, or AsBEN, an oasis-kingdom in the north 
 of the Soudan. Agades (q.v.) is the capital. 
 
 AIra Force, a waterfall, 80 feet high, near the 
 west shore of Ullswater. 
 
 Alrdrie, a flourishing municipal burgh in NE. 
 Lanarkshire, 2 miles B. by N. of Coatbridge, and 
 11 B. of Glasgow. Standing on the high-road 
 between Edinburgh and Glasgow, near the Monk- 
 land Canal and the North British Railway, it 
 owes its prosperity to the abundance of coal and 
 ironstone in the vicinity. The weaving of cotton 
 goods is carried on, as are also iron-founding, 
 silk-weaving, and paper-making. Since 1832 it 
 has united with Falkirk, &c. to send a member 
 to parliament. Pop. (1831) 6594 ; (ISCl) 12,918 ; 
 (1891) 15,133, or, with suburbs, 19,135. 
 
 Airds Mobs, a moorish tract in Ayrsliire to 
 
AIRE 
 
 16 
 
 AJBIERE 
 
 the NE. of Auchinleck, the scene of a Covenant* 
 ing skirmish (1680). 
 
 Aire, a river in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 flowing 70 miles to the Ouse. 
 
 Aire (anc. Vicus JuUi), a French town in the 
 dep. of Landes, on the Adour, 112 miles S. of 
 Bordeaux, with an ancient cathedral ; jMjp. 8892. 
 
 Aire-sur-Lys, a fortified town in the French 
 dep. of Paa-de-Calais, on the Lys, 37 miles W. of 
 Lille by rail ; pop. 8165. 
 
 Alrlle, in Forfarshire, 8 miles WSW. of Forfar, 
 the seat of the Earl of Airlie, famous in song. 
 
 Alrolo, an Italian-Swiss village, in the upper 
 valley of the Ticino, and 150 yards from the 
 southern mouth of the great St Gothard Tunnel ; 
 pop. 2000. 
 
 Alrthrey, a place with mineral springs near 
 Bridge of Allan. 
 
 Alsne {Ain), a French river, flowing 150 miles 
 north-westward and westward through the deps. 
 of Marne, Ardennes, Aisne, and Oise, till it falls 
 into the river Oise, above Compi6gne. 
 
 Aisne, a dep. in the north of France, com- 
 prising parts of Picardy, Brie, and the Isle of 
 France. Hilly in the south, level in the north, 
 it belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is 
 watered by the rivers Aisne, Marne, and Oise. 
 Laon is the capital. Area, 2839 sq. m. ; t)op. 
 (1891) 545,493; (1901) 535,583. 
 
 Aiwalyk, a seaport in the north-west of Asia 
 Minor, on the Gulf of Edremid (Adramyti). Pop. 
 35,000. 
 
 Aix {Aiks), a French town, formerly capital 
 of Provence, in the dep. of Bouches-du-Rhone, 
 20 miles N. of Marseilles. It is believed to 
 have been founded by the Roman consul, C. 
 Sextius (120 B.C.), on account of the mineral 
 springs in the neighbourhood, and thence to have 
 got the name Aiiim Sextice. Aix is the seat of 
 an archbishop ; and possesses a college with a 
 public library of 150,000 volumes and 1100 MSS. 
 The baptistery of the cathedral is believed to 
 have been originally a temple of Apollo. There 
 is also an old clock-tower with a quaint mechan- 
 ical clock. The industry consists chiefly in 
 cotton-spinning, leather-dressing, and trade in 
 olive-oil, wine, almonds, &c. The warm springs 
 are slightly sulphurous, with a temperature from 
 90° to 100° F. The field on which Marius defeated 
 the Teutones lies in the plain between Aix and 
 Aries. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Alx-la-CJhapelle(^ife-Za-s7iapeZ'; Ger. Aachen), 
 a town of Rhenish Prussia, is situated in a 
 fertile hollow, surrounded by heights, and 
 watered by the Wurm, 39 miles W. by S. of 
 Cologne. Pop. (1867) 67,»23 ; (1900) 135,245, of 
 whom not 7 per cent, are Protestants. Aix is 
 the centre of a valuable coal district, and of 
 numerous thriving maimfactories, especially for 
 spinning and weaving woollen fabrics, for needle 
 and pm making, and for machinery, bells, glass 
 buttons, chemicals, and cigars. Charlemagne 
 founded its world-wide celebrity; in 814 it 
 became his grave, the spot being marked with 
 a stone. In 796 he had rebuilt the imperial 
 palace, on whose site the present town-house was 
 built in 1353, as well as the chapel which forms 
 the nucleus of the cathedral. This ancient 
 cathedral is in the form of an octagon, which 
 with various additions round it, forms on the 
 outside a sixteen-sided figure. The so-called 
 'great relics,' shown once in seven years, attract 
 thousands of strangers. Much has of late years 
 
 been done to restore this venerable pile. The 
 columns brought by Charlemagne from the palace 
 of the Exarch at Ravenna, had been carried off 
 by the French ; but most of them were restored 
 at the Peace of Paris. The town-house, on the 
 market-place, is flanked by two towers older than 
 itself. In its coronation-hall, thirty-five German 
 emperors and eleven empresses have celebrated 
 their coronation banquet, and the walls have 
 been decorated with frescoes of scenes from the 
 life of Charlemagne. Before the town-house 
 stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue 
 of Charlemagne. Aix-la-Chapelle now possesses 
 broad streets, many fine public buildings, taste- 
 ful churches, and luxurious hotels ; and from 
 being a quiet old city of historical interest, has 
 become a busy centre of manufacturing industry. 
 
 The mineral springs, of which six are hot and 
 two cold, were known in the time of Charle- 
 magne. The temperature of the hot springs 
 varies from 111° to 136° F. ; they are efficacious 
 in cases of gout, rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, 
 &c. The cold springs are chalybeate. 
 
 The name of the place is derived from the 
 springs, for which it has been always famous. 
 Charlemagne granted extraordinary privileges to 
 this city, which in the middle ages contained 
 more than 100,000 inhabitants. Seventeen im- 
 perial diets and eleven provincial councils were 
 held within its walls. The removal of the corona- 
 tions to Frankfort (1531), the religious contests 
 of the 16th and 17th centuries, a great fire which 
 in 1656 consumed 4000 houses, combined with 
 other causes to bring into decay this once flomr- 
 ishing community. In 1793 and 1794, Aix-la- 
 Chapelle was occupied by the French ; and by 
 the treaties concluded at Campo Formio and 
 Lundville it was formally ceded to France, until 
 in 1815 it fell to Prussia. 
 
 AIx-les-Bains (Aiks-le-BanB), a small town in 
 the French dep. of Savoy, in a delightful valley 
 near Lake Bourget, 8 miles N. of Chaiiibery. It 
 was a much-frequented bathing-place in the time 
 of the Roman empire (AqucB Gratiance), and 
 among its many ancient remains are the arch 
 of Campanus, the ruins of a temple, and of a 
 vapour-bath. The two sulphurous hot springs 
 are used both for drinking and as baths, and 
 attract annually 5000 visitors. Pop. 4799. 
 
 Ajacclo (Ayat'cho), capital of Corsica, on the 
 west side of the island, at the head of the 
 Gulf of Ajaccio. It has a fine cathedral, com- 
 pleted in 1585, and a spacious harbour, protected 
 by a citadel ; and was the birthplace of Napoleon. 
 There is a statue of him as First Consul (1850), 
 and an equestrian monument of him as emperor 
 surrounded by his four brothers (1865). The 
 house of the Bonapartes, the *Casa Bonaparte,' 
 is now national property. The chief employ- 
 ments are the anchovy and pearl fisheries, and 
 the trade in wine and olive-oil. Ajaccio has 
 become a winter-resort for consumptive patients. 
 Pop. 21,200. *^ 
 
 Ajaigarh, a hill-fort of India, in the United 
 Provinces, about 130 miles WSW. of Allahabad. 
 Within its walls are two great masses of ruined 
 Jain temples. 
 
 AJalon, the modem Ydlo, a town of the Levitea 
 belonging to the tribe of Dan in ancient Pales- 
 tine. In a valley near it Joshua defeated five 
 Canaanitish kings, the sun and moon standing 
 still in order to make his victory more complete. 
 
 Ajmere (Ajmir), an ancient city of Rajputana, 
 the capital of a district, 228 miles W. by S. of 
 Agra by rail. It is situated in a picturesque and 
 
AJODHYA 
 
 17 
 
 ALASKA 
 
 rocky valley, and is surrounded by a stone wall 
 with five gateways. The Dargah or tomb of the 
 Mussulman saint, Kwaja, within the town, is 
 held in great veneration. Trade has revived 
 since the opening of the railway (1875), the prin- 
 cipal export being cotton. Pop. 75,500. 
 
 Ajodhya, an ancient city of Oudh, on the right 
 bank of the Gogra, adjacent to Fyzabad (q.v.). 
 Its site is marked by heaps of ruins, overgrown 
 with jungle; there is also a modern town of the 
 same name with 7500 inhabitants, nearly 100 
 temples, 36 mosques, and a fair which yearly 
 attracts half a million of pilgrims. 
 
 Ak'abah (the Biblical Elath), a haven at the 
 head of the Gulf of Akabah, the north-eastern 
 horn of the Red Sea. 
 
 Akerman. See Akjerman. 
 
 Akhalzikh, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, 
 110 miles W. of Tiflis, on an affluent of the Kur ; 
 pop. 13,757. 
 
 Ak-Hissar (anc. Thyatira), a town of Asia 
 Minor, 52 miles NE. of Smyrna ; pop. 12,000. 
 
 AkMat, or Ardish, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the NW. shore of Lake Van ; pop. 4000. 
 
 Akhtyrka, a town of Russia, 58 miles NW. of 
 Kharkotf, on a small affluent of the Dnieper; 
 pop. 23,400. 
 
 Aklta, a town in Hondo Island, Japan ; pop. 
 29,500. 
 
 Akjerman {Ak-yer-vmn), or Akerman, a town 
 of Russia, in Bessarabia, on the Black Sea, at 
 the mouth of the Dniester ; pop. 28,300. 
 
 AkmoUinsk, capital of a province of Western 
 Siberia, 300 miles SW. of Omsk ; pop. 5700. 
 
 Akola, a town of Berar, India, 60 miles SW. 
 of Elliclipur; pop. 29,800. 
 
 Akot, a town of Berar, 35 miles SW. of 
 Elliclipur ; pop. 16,000. 
 
 Akron, in Summit county, Ohio, U.S., is 36 
 miles south of Cleveland. It has woollen fac- 
 tories, flour-mills, a steam-engine factory, a stove 
 factory, a mineral-paint mill, &c. Pop. (1870) 
 10.006; (1890) 21,001 ; (1900) 42,730. 
 
 Ak-shehr (' White City '), a city of Asia Minor, 
 near the salt lake of Ak-shehr, and 60 miles SE. 
 of Konieh ; pop. 6000. 
 
 Ak-su, a town of Chinese Turkestan, 260 miles 
 NE. from Yarkand, on an affluent of the Tarim, 
 and at the southern base of the Thian-shan 
 Mountains. It was formerly the capital of a 
 separate khanate ; in 1867 it became a part of 
 the state of Eastern Turkestan, under Yakoob 
 Beg, but was reconquered by China in 1877. It 
 is celebrated for its manufactures of cotton cloth 
 and saddlery, and is an entrepot of connnerce 
 between Russia, Tartary, and China. Pop. 20,000, 
 besides a large Chinese garrison. 
 
 Akyab, a town of Burma, the chief seaport of 
 Arakan, is situated on the eastern side of the 
 island of Akyab, at the mouth of the Kuladan 
 River, 190 miles SE. of Calcutta. In 1826, bemg 
 then a mere flshing-village, it was chosen for the 
 chief station of the province, and now is a great 
 rice port ; pop. 43,989. 
 
 Alabama, one of the United States, touching 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and lying between Georgia 
 and Mississippi. In the south are the Piny 
 Woods ; next the fertile Cane-brake or Black 
 Belt ; next the mineral region ; to the north, 
 part of the fertile valley of the Tennessee. The 
 Alabama and Tombigbee are navigable rivers. 
 B 
 
 Cotton, maize, oats, wheat, and sweet potatoes 
 are produced ; the minerals, including coal and 
 iron, are hnportant; and manufactures are de- 
 veloping. The climate is warm but equable, and 
 save in the Black Belt and near the swamps, 
 healthful. Montgomery is the capital. Mobile 
 the chief port of the state. Area, 51,540 sq. m. 
 —more than England without Wales ; pop. (1840) 
 590,756; (1890) 1,513,017; (1900) 1,828,697, of 
 whom 827,000 were coloured. 
 
 Ala Dagh, a range (11,000 feet) in the great 
 tableland of Erzerum, in Turkish Armenia, to 
 the north of Lake Van. 
 
 Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil, 
 bounded on the N. and W. by Pernambuco. Pop. 
 about 520,000. The town of Alagoas, once the 
 capital, hasSOOO ialiabilants. The present capital 
 is the port of Maceio. 
 
 Alais, a town of the French dep. of Gard, on 
 a plain at the base of the Cevennes Mountains, 
 31 miles NW. of Nimes by rail. It embraced the 
 Protestant cause in the religious wars of France, 
 and was besieged and taken in 1029. Alais owes 
 its prosperity chiefly to the mineral wealth of the 
 surrounding district, which ijroduces coal, iron, 
 lead, zinc, and asphalt ; tliere are large iron- 
 foundries here, and manufactures of silk and 
 ribbons. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Alajuela {A-la-Tioo-ay'la), a city of Costa Rica, 
 Central America, 23 miles WNVV. of Cartago, 
 with which it is connected by rail ; pop. 10,000. 
 
 Alameda {A-la-mal'da), a watering-place of Cali- 
 fornia, on the Bay, 3 miles by steajn-l'erry E. of 
 San Francisco. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Al'amos, Lo3 ('the poplars'), a town of 
 Mexico, in the state of Sonora, 45 miles E. of 
 the Gulf of California, is famous for its copper 
 and silver mines ; pop. 10,000. 
 
 Aland Islands (6'land), a group of 300 small 
 islands and rocks at the entrance of the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, opposite Abo, the largest being 
 situated about 25 miles from the Swedi.sh coast. 
 Only 80 of them are inhabited. The inhabitants 
 are of Swedish origin, skilful sailors and fisher- 
 men. Pop. 24,000, of whom two-thirds inhabit 
 the largest island, called Aland, which is 18 miles 
 in length, and contains Bomarsund. These 
 islands, formerly Swedish, were taken possession 
 of by Russia in 1809. 
 
 Ala-shehr ('the exalted city,' anc. Philadel- 
 phia), a city of Asia Minor, 75 miles E. of 
 Smyrna. It was founded about 200 b.c, and is 
 famous as the seat of one of the Seven Churches 
 of Asia. It is still a place of considerable im- 
 portance, and carries on a tliriving trade with 
 Smyrna, to which it is now joined by a railway. 
 There are many interesting remains of antiquity. 
 Pop. 15,000, including 3000 Greeks. 
 
 Alaska, a territory of the United States, occu- 
 pying the NW. portion of the North American 
 continent, together with a great number of 
 islands, mostly in the Pacific Ocean. It is 
 bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, E. by the 
 North-west Territories of Canada and by Britislv 
 Columbia ; SW. by the Pacific Ocean, and W. by 
 Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Its land area 
 is estimated at 581,400 sq. m., or about as large 
 as Great Britain, Ireland, France, and Spain 
 combined. The northern portion of Alaska, 
 containing five-sixths of its area, consists essen- 
 tially of a vast expanse of moor or tundra, broken 
 here and there by mountain-spurs (an especially 
 marked feature in the south), and varied by count- 
 less lakes, water-courses, and swamps. About 
 
ALA-TAU 
 
 18 
 
 ALBANIA 
 
 one-third of this region lies within the Arctic 
 Circle. The winter climate is here terribly severe, 
 and the short summers are rendered almost un- 
 endurable by clouds of mosquitoes or gnats. 
 This region is traversed by the great river Yukon, 
 about 2000 miles long, the Kuskoquim, and otlxer 
 large streams. Its population is Innuit or 
 Eskimo, in the north and on the coast, but 
 Athabascan or Tinneh (Red Indian) elsewhere. 
 The fisheries and the fur-trade afford subsistence 
 to the scanty population. A second section com- 
 prises the Aleutian Islands (q.v.), and a great 
 part of the peninsula of Aliaska. This division 
 is mountainous, and actively volcanic. It is 
 very thinly peopled by the Aleuts. The Pribylof 
 Islands, in Behring Sea, are the main seat of the 
 capture of the fur-seal. South-eastern Alaska 
 consists of a narrow strip of continental land, 
 together with the Alexander Archipelago, lying 
 near the mainland. This region is extremely 
 mountainous, and has many great glaciers nearly 
 reaching the sea. The climate on the tide-level 
 is singularly mild for the latitude, but almost 
 incessant rains prevail. The country is well 
 timbered, and the waters abound in valuable 
 fish. The natives are Indians of the Haida and 
 Thlinket races. Alaska has a very small English- 
 speaking white population, and a few semi- 
 Russian natives. Gold is mined in the Yukon 
 valley, at Cape Nome, and elsewhere. Coal, 
 mostly of poor quality, is common. 
 
 A few cattle are kept near the settlements, but 
 the climate is so wet that sheep cannot do well. 
 Some potatoes and a few garden vegetables are 
 grown. The native animals include the reindeer, 
 the moose, the Rocky Mountain sheep, bears, 
 wolves, and foxes ; the muskrat, ermine, mink, 
 sable, lynx, beaver, wolverene, squirrel, hare, 
 porcupine, and marmot ; the sea and river otter ; 
 fur, hair, and other seals, and the walrus. The 
 fisheries are very important. Among the valu- 
 able food fishes are the cod, herring, halibut, and 
 salmon of several species. The principal towns 
 of the territory are all small, and most of them 
 are on the coast. Among them are Sitka, the 
 capital ; Fort Wrangel ; and Belkofsky, tlie chief 
 depot of the trade in seal-otter furs ; Juneau is a 
 gold-mining town ; and Skagway is the port for 
 the access to Klondike by the White Pass. 
 lUoolook is on Oonalashka Island. Alaska, for- 
 merly called Russian America, was first visited 
 by the Russians under Vitus Beliring in 1741. 
 In 1799 the whole country passed under control 
 of the Russian American Company. In 1867 the 
 United States purchased the entire territory 
 from Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. Pop. (1900) 
 80,600 whites, and 30,000 Eskimos and Indians. 
 
 See Wardman, A Trip to Alaska (1885); Elliott, 
 Our Arctic Province (1886) ; H. W. Seton Karr, 
 The Shores and Alps of Alaska (1887) ; Halleck, 
 Our New Alaska (1886); The Alaska Coast Pilot; 
 Woolman, Picturesque Alaska (1890); Emmons, 
 Alaska and its Mineral Resources (1898) ; reports 
 of the geological survey (1900, &c.) and of the 
 Harriman Expedition (1901-4). 
 
 Ala-tau ('mottled'), a range of lofty moun- 
 tams formmg the boundary between Turkestan 
 and Mongolia, and the northern limit of the great 
 tableland of Central Asia. It is made up of five 
 sierra-like sub-ranges, all grouped round Lake 
 Issik-Kul, which range in elevation from 10,000 
 to 15,000 feet. The loftiest peak, Khan Tengri, 
 IS 24,000 feet above the sea. 
 
 Alatyr, a Russian town, on the Sura, 103 miles 
 NW. of Simbirsk ; pop. 15,000, 
 
 Alausl, a town of Ecuador, 70 miles E. of 
 Guayaquil, 7980 feet above the sea ; pop. 6000. 
 
 Al'ava, the southern and largest, but most 
 sparsely populated, of the three Basque provinces 
 of Spain. Mountains are scattered through the 
 whole province, and yield various minerals, stone, 
 and timber in abundance. Area, 1205 sq. m. The 
 inhabitants, who are chiefly Basques, number a 
 little over 96,000. The soil is generally fertile, 
 and along the Ebro fruits and wine are produced. 
 The capital is Vittoria. 
 
 Alba (anc. Alba Pompeia), a very ancient city 
 of North Italy, on the Tanaro, 41 miles SW. of 
 Alessandria by rail. Its cathedral was founded 
 in 1486. Pop. 6961. 
 
 Albacete (Al-ba-thai/teh), capital of a Spanish 
 province, 140 miles SE. of Madrid by rail, in a fer- 
 tile but treeless plain. It has great cattle-fairs. 
 Pop. 20,671.— The province is partly formed from 
 the former kingdom of Murcia, and partly from 
 New Castile. It is generally hilly, in some parts 
 attaining 5000 feet. Tlie mineral wealth is con- 
 siderable. Area, 5972 sq. m. ; pop. 233,000. 
 
 Albania forms the south-western portion of 
 the remaining immediate possessions of European 
 Turkey, and extends along the western shore of 
 the Balkan Peninsula, from the river Bojana to 
 the Gulf of Arta. To the north it is bounded, 
 since 1878-80, by the newly-won Montenegrin 
 territory, and by Bosnia ; on the south it is 
 separated, since 1881, from Greece by the river 
 Arta. The eastern boundary is a mountain-range, 
 which to the north attains an altitude of 7990 
 feet'. Westward of this range lie parallel chains, 
 enclosing long elevated valleys, sinking to level 
 strips along the coast, which mostly consist of 
 unhealthy swamps and lagoons. The highlands 
 advance to the sea, forming steep rocky coasts. 
 One promontory, the Acroceraunian, projecting 
 in Cape Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a 
 height of 0642 feet. 
 
 A fine climate and a favourable soil would seem 
 to invite the inhabitants to agriculture, but for 
 the most part in vain. In the north, little is 
 cultivated but maize, with some rice and barley, 
 in the valleys ; whilst the mountain terraces are 
 used as pastures for numerous herds of cattle and 
 sheep. In the south the slopes of the lower 
 valleys are covered with olives, fruit, and mul- 
 berry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and 
 maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges 
 furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau 
 of Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the 
 valleys opening to the south, the finer fruits are 
 produced, along with maize, rice, and wheat. 
 
 Upper or Northern Albania formed part of the 
 lUyria of the Romans ; Lower or Southern Al- 
 bania corresponds to ancient Epirus. The in- 
 habitants form a peculiar people, the Albanians, 
 called by the Turks Arnauts, and by themselves 
 Skipetars. According to Lord Strangford, 'the 
 true Albanian part of their language, after pre- 
 cipitation of the foreign elements, is distinctly 
 Indo-European, and is more closely connected 
 wiih Greek than with any other Indo-European 
 language existing or recorded (Letters on Philo- 
 logical Subjects, 1878). The Albanians are half- 
 civilised mountaineers, frank to a friend, vin- 
 dictive to an enemy. They are constantly under 
 arms, and are more devoted to robbery than to 
 cattle-rearing and agriculture. They live in per- 
 petual anarchy, every village being at war with 
 its neighbour. Many of them serve as mercen- 
 aries in other countries, and they form the best 
 soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time the 
 
ALBANO 
 
 19 
 
 ALBERT NYANZA 
 
 Albanians were all Christians ; but after the 
 death of their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, 
 in 1467, and their subjugation by the Turks, a 
 large part became Mohammedans. The Al- 
 banians are by most writers divided tribally 
 into Gheghs, Tosks, Ljaps, &c. ; but again, to 
 quote Lord Strangford, ' the true and intelligible 
 division is that of religious denomination. The 
 typical region of the Mussulmans is in the 
 centre ; that of the Latins is in the northern 
 district ; and that of the Albanians in com- 
 munion with the Greek Church, corresponding 
 fairly to Epirus, is in the south, with Janina 
 for its capital.' Of the 1,400,000 Albanians of 
 the Ottoman empire, it is estimated that 
 1,000,000 are Mohammedans, 280,000 members 
 of the Greek Church, and 120,000 Roman Cath- 
 olics. There are, besides, some 250,000 Albanians 
 in Greece ; and 100,000 in Italy (Sicily mostly), 
 whither they emigrated towards the close of the 
 15th century. By the treaty concluded then, in 
 1478, between the Turks and the Venetians, 
 Albania became a Turkish province, which al- 
 most gained independence under All Pasha, but 
 which, during the insurrection of Greece (1821-8), 
 returned to at least nominal allegiance to the 
 Porte. Ten rebellions have since broken out — 
 one in 1883. 
 
 See Von Hahn's Albanesische Studien (1854), 
 and his Reise im Jahr 1863 (1870); Herguard's 
 Haute Albanie (1858) ; Knight's Travel in Albania 
 (1880) ; and other works cited in the full biblio- 
 graphy of Meyer's Albanische Studien (1883). 
 
 Alba'no, a town of Italy, 13 miles SSE. of 
 Rome, on the declivity of the lava-walls which 
 encompass Lake Albano, and opposite the site 
 of Alba Longa. It is the seat of a bishop, and is 
 surrounded by the mansions of wealthy Romans. 
 There are numerous remains of ancient buildings. 
 Good wine is made here. Pop. 8500. 
 
 The Alban Lake, or Lago di Castello, is formed 
 in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a cir- 
 cumference of 6 miles, with a depth of 530 feet. 
 Its surface is 961 feet above the sea-level. While 
 the Romans were at war with Veil (390 B.C.), they 
 opened a tunnel through the lava-wall which 
 bounds it. The tunnel, which still fulfils its 
 ancient office, is a mile in length, with a height 
 of 7 feet, and a width of 4 feet. 
 
 Albany is a division of the eastern province of 
 Cape Colony, in which Grahamstown (q.v.) stands. 
 
 Albany, capital of the state of New York, and 
 seat of justice of Albany county, stands on the 
 west bank of Hudson River, 142 miles N. of the 
 city of New York. The river is an important 
 channel of commerce, which is further facilitated 
 by the Erie and Champlain canals ; and six im- 
 portant railway lines centre here. The city has 
 a copious water-supply, and excellent drainage 
 and sewerage systems, and is lighted by elec- 
 tricity and gas. Albany has a fine city hall, a 
 high school, one large and several small public 
 parks, a theatre, an opera-house and a music-hall, 
 a celebrated county prison ; Roman Catholic and 
 Episcopalian cathedrals ; a noted state normal 
 school, a law school, a medical college ; an 
 observatory, a large United States government 
 building, and a very costly and splendid state 
 capitol, considered the finest building of its class 
 in the whole republic. Three bridges and several 
 ferries cross the river to the suburban towns of 
 East Albany, Greenbush, and Bath. Albany has 
 a large trade in timber, grain (especially barley), 
 and cattle. Leading articles of manufacture are 
 cast-iron stoves and heating apparatus, farming 
 
 implements, boots and shoes, bricks, wagons, 
 clothing, flour, stoves, castings and hollow-ware, 
 furniture, ales and beer, malt, tobacco, cigars, 
 musical instruments, and stationers' goods. The 
 winter climate of Albany is severe for its latitude. 
 The extensive cattle-markets are situated at West 
 Albany. Near the site of Albany the Dutch 
 founded a fur-trading station in 1614. The Dutch 
 colony was ceded to Great Britain in 1604, and 
 the town took its present name in honour of the 
 Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II. 
 of England, who received a grant of the colony. 
 In 1686 a city charter was granted to Albany, 
 which is thus the oldest chartered city in the 
 United States. In 1807 Albany became the 
 capital of the state. Till the 19th-century period 
 the city had many of the quaint characteristics 
 of a Dutch town. Pop. (1800) 5349 ; (1830) 24,209 ; 
 (1860) 62,367 ; (1890) 94,923; (1900) 94,151. 
 
 Albany, in Western Australia, is on King 
 George's Sound, 256 miles SSE. of Perth, by a 
 line of railway projected in 1885. It is a place 
 of call for P. & O. steamers. Pop. 3605. 
 
 Albay, a town in the south end of the Philip- 
 pine island of Luzon, 2 miles from the Bay of 
 Albay ; pop. 13,000. 
 
 Albemarle Sound, a shallowish inlet in the 
 north coast of North Carolina, U.S., running 60 
 miles inland, with a breadth of 4 to 15 miles. 
 
 Alberta, from 1882 one of the four provisional 
 districts of the North-west Territory of Canada, 
 made a province of the Dominion in February 
 1905. It includes, besides the former district, 
 about one-half of the former district of Atha- 
 basca and small i)arts of Saskatchewan and 
 Assiniboia. The area is 275,000 sq. m. The SW. 
 portion of the province contains the great cattle- 
 ranches of Canada, and has good grass and water. 
 Fort MacLeod and Calgary, both thriving towns, 
 are the two great centres for the ranchmen. 
 The latter stands in a valley between the Bow 
 and Elbow rivers, and is the trading centre for a 
 large district. Coal is abundant on the Bow and 
 Belly rivers ; timber is plentiful ; there are also 
 petroleum deposits, and tlie Rocky Mountains 
 and their foot-hills are rich in minerals. The 
 capital is Edmonton. . Pop. estimated at 250,000. 
 
 Albert Lea, a post-village in Freeborn county, 
 Minnesota, on a lake of the same name, 100 miles 
 S. of St Paul. It contains flour-mills, grain ele- 
 vators, and machine-shops. Three railways centre 
 here. Pop. 1966. 
 
 Albert-Edward Nyanza (Muta Nzige, South- 
 ern Luta Nzige), a lake of Equatorial Africa, dis- 
 covered by Stanley in 1876, and again visited by 
 him in 1889. It occupies the southern end of a 
 vast natural depression, of which the Albert 
 Nyanza fills the northern extremity; is due 
 south of the mountain mass of Ruwenzori ; and is 
 surrounded by wide grassy plains, over which it 
 once seems to have extended. It is 3307 feet 
 above sea-level ; and beyond the depression in 
 which it lies is a tableland from 5500 to 6500 feet 
 high. The water of the lake flows into the Albert 
 Nyanza by the Semliki River. 
 
 Albert Nyanza (Mwutan Nzige, Luta Nzige), 
 a large lake of East Central Africa, is situated 
 in a deep rock-basin, 80 miles NW. of the 
 Victoria Nyanza. It is of an qblong shape, 100 
 miles long from N. to S., and 25 broad. On 
 the E. it is fringed by precipitous cliff's, with 
 isolated peaks rising 5000 feet above it. The 
 lake itself lies 2720 feet above the sea, and 1470 
 feet below the general level of the country ; its 
 
ALBERT RIVER 
 
 20 
 
 ALDERNEY 
 
 water is fresh and sweet, and it is of great depth 
 towards the centre. The N. and W. shores of 
 the lake are bordered by the Blue Mountains, 
 nearly 10,000 feet in height. The existence of 
 this vast lake first became known to Europeans 
 through Speke and Grant in 1862 ; in 1864 Sir 
 Samuel Baker was the first European to visit 
 it, and named it after the Prince Consort. In 
 1887 Emin Pasha recorded his conviction that the 
 western part of the lake was filling up. It is a 
 great reservoir or backwater of the Nile. The 
 Somerset-Nile runs into its north-east corner, and 
 the Nile issues out of its north-west corner. 
 
 Albert River, North Queensland, traverses 
 a grassy plain, and flows 200 miles to the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, below Burketown. It is connected 
 by a cross branch with another nearly parallel 
 stream, the Gregory. 
 
 Albi, capital of the French dep. of Tarn, is 
 built on a height near the Tarn, a tributary of 
 the Garonne, 42 miles by rail NE. of Toulouse. 
 It is very old, and suffered greatly during the 
 persecutions of the Albigenses, who took their 
 name from it. The chief buildings are the cathe- 
 dral (1282-1512), the old fortress, and the arch- 
 bishop's palace. Pop. 1 5 , 800. 
 
 Albion, a town of Michigan, U.S., on the Kala- 
 mazoo River, 96 miles W. of Detroit. It is the 
 seat of a Methodist college, with over 300 
 students. Pop. 471(5. 
 
 Albuera (Albooai'ra), in the Spanish province 
 of Estremadura, a hamlet, famous for Beresford's 
 defeat of the French, May 16, 1811. 
 
 Albufera (Alboofai'ra), a Spanish lake 10 miles 
 long, close to the sea and connected by canal 
 (7 miles) with Valencia. 
 
 Al'bula, a pass (7595 feet ; f mile long) and a 
 mountain-stream in the Swiss canton of Grisons. 
 
 Albuiiol, a small town of Spain, 40 miles SE. 
 of Granada. Pop. 8945. 
 
 Albuquerque (Albookerkay), a town of Spain, 
 24 miles N. of Badajoz, near the Portuguese 
 frontier. Pop. 7400. 
 
 Al'bury (or ' Federal City '), on the New South 
 Wales bank of the Murray River, at the head of 
 its navigation, and 190 miles NE, of Melbourne 
 by rail. Pop. 5850. 
 
 Alcala' de Guadalra, a town of Spain, 9 miles 
 E. by S. from Seville by rail, celebrated for pro- 
 ducing the finest bread in Spain. Pop. 8991. 
 
 Alcala' de Henares, a town in Spain, Cer- 
 rantes's birthplace, on the Henares, 21 miles E. 
 of Madrid by rail. Its university, founded by 
 Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, enjoyed a European 
 fame, but was removed to Madrid in 1836, and 
 the town is now not a shadow of its former self. 
 Here was printed in 1517 the great Complutenslan 
 Bible, a monument of the piety and learning of 
 the great cardinal. The chief buildings are the 
 Colegio de San Ildefonso, the seat of the ancient 
 university ; its chapel containing the founder's 
 tomb ; the archbishop's palace ; the cathedral ; 
 and the church of Santa Maria, in which, in 1547, 
 Cervantes was baptised. Pop. 14,974. The Com- 
 plutum of the Romans, the town owes its modern 
 name to the Moors, under whom it was Al-Kalat, 
 'the castle.' 
 
 .^cala' la Re'al (' the royal castle '), a city of 
 Aiidal«sia, Spain, in the province of Jaen, 26 
 miles NW. of Granada. Its strong fortress was 
 taken in 1340 from the Moors by Alfonso XI. in 
 person, whence the name Heal. Pop. 15,977. 
 
 Arcamo, a quaint old town of Sicily, 52 miles 
 SW. of Palermo by rail. Originally founded by 
 
 the Saracens on Monte Bonifato (2713 feet), it 
 long retained a Moslem population, who were 
 driven out by the Emperor Frederick II. in 1233, 
 when the new town was built at the foot of the 
 hill. Pop. 51,697. 
 
 Alcauiz', a town of Aragon, Spain, in the pro- 
 vince of Teruel, 63 miles SE. of Saragossa, on 
 the Giuadalope, with a magnificent collegiate 
 church ; pop. 7673. 
 
 Alcan'tara (Arabic, ' the bridge '), an old Span- 
 ish town in Estremadura, on a rocky height above 
 the Tagus, near the Portuguese frontier. The 
 six-arched bridge, 670 feet long and 210 high, 
 from which it takes its name, was built under 
 Trajan, 105 a.d. It has twice been partially 
 blown up, but the larger part is still intact. 
 Pop. 3414. 
 
 Alcan'tara, a seaport of Brazil, in the province 
 of Maranhao, on the Bay of St Marcos ; pop. 10,000. 
 
 Alcaraz, a town of La Mancha, Spain, 36 miles 
 WSW. of Albacete ; pop. 4672. 
 
 Alcaude'te, a town of Spain, 22 miles SW. of 
 Jaen. Pop. 9191. 
 
 Alcazar al-kebir, a city of Morocco, SO miles 
 NW, of Fez. Here, in 1578, Sebastian, king of 
 Portugal, was defeated and slain by the Moors. 
 Pop. 9000. 
 
 Alcazar de San Juan, a town of Spain, in the 
 province of Ciudad Real, 92 miles SSE. of Madrid 
 by rail. Pop. 9512. 
 
 Alcester, a Warwickshire market-town, at the 
 confluence of the Alne and Arrow, 15 miles WSW. 
 of Warwick. Pop. 2406. 
 
 Alci'ra, a town of Spain, 22 miles SSW. of 
 Valencia by rail, on an island in the river Xucar ; 
 pop. 18,469. 
 
 Alcoy, a town of Spain, on the river Alcoy, 15 
 miles N. of Alicante, manufacturing paper, especi- 
 ally cigarette-paper, sugar-plums, and coarse 
 woollen cloths ; pop. 32,520, 
 
 Aldborough, a decayed town, now a mere 
 village, of the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the 
 river Ure and on Watling Street, 73 miles SE. of 
 Ripon. Till 1832 it sent two members to parlia- 
 ment. Extensive remains of the Roman town of 
 Isurium have been found here. Pop, of town- 
 ship, 507, 
 
 Aldebiirgh, a small seaport and watering-place 
 of Suff"olk, 29 miles NE. of Ipswich by rail. It 
 was disfranchised in 1832 ; but in 1885 it received 
 a new municipal charter. It has a quaint, half- 
 timbered Moot Hall ; and in the church is a bust 
 of the poet Crabbe, who was a native. Pop. 2159. 
 
 Alderney (Fr. Aurigny), a British island in the 
 English Channel, 55 miles S. by E. of Portland 
 Bill, 15 NE. of Guernsey, 31 N. of Jersey, and 
 10 W. of Cape la Hogue. The Race of Alderney, 
 or strait that separates it from the coast of Nor- 
 mandy, is very dangerous in stormy weather. 
 The island is 4J miles by 1^ mile ; area, 3 sq. m. 
 The highest point is 281 feet above sea-level. To 
 the S. the coast is bold and lofty ; to the N. it 
 descends, forming numerous small bays, one of 
 which has been formed into a fine, though un- 
 completed, harbour, with a granite breakwater, 
 at a cost, including strong fortifications, of more 
 than £1,250,000. The Caskets are a small cluster 
 of dangerous rocks, 6 J miles to the W., on which 
 are three lighthouses. The soil in the centre of 
 the island is highly productive ; the Alderney 
 cattle are a small but handsome breed. Half 
 the inhabitants, originally French, now speak 
 English, and all understand it. Protestantism 
 
ALDERSHOT CAMP 
 
 has prevailed here since the Reformation. Alder- 
 ney is a dependency of Guernsey, and subject to 
 the British crown. The 'town' of St Anne is 
 situated in a picturesque valley near the centre 
 of the island. It has an Albert memorial in the 
 shape of a Gothic arch, and a cruciform church 
 (1850) in the Early English style, with a tower 
 104 feet high. Pop. of island (1841) 1038 ; (1861) 
 4932 ; (1881) 2048 ; (1891) 1857 ; (1901) 2062. See 
 Channel Islands. 
 
 Aldershot Camp, a permanent camp of exer- 
 cise on the confines of Hampshire, Surrey, and 
 Berkshire, 35 miles SW. of London, and 18J S. of 
 Windsor. It was established in 1854-55 during the 
 Crimean war, to provide for practical instruction 
 in tactics, outpost duties, and other exercises 
 requiring a wide tract of country and large bodies 
 of troops, &c. From its situation on the Bagshot 
 Sands it is extremely healthy ; the old wooden huts 
 have been superseded by brick huts and barracks. 
 The Basingstoke Canal, running directly across 
 the Heath, has occasioned a division into North 
 Camp and South Camp. There are usually from 
 10,000 to 15,000 troops of all anns at the camp ; 
 and a considerable town has sprung up near it, 
 with a population of over 31,000, as against 875 
 in Aldershot parisli in 1851. 
 
 Aldwinkle All Saints, a Northamptonshire 
 parish, on the Nen, 3 miles NNE. of Thrapston. 
 Dryden was a native, as was Fuller of the adjoin- 
 ing parish of Aldwinkle St Peter. 
 
 Aldworth. See Haslemere. 
 
 Ale, a Roxburghshire stream, flowing 24 miles 
 to the Teviot. 
 
 Alemtejo (AlenHai'zJw), the largest (9381 sq. 
 m.) but most sparsely peopled of the provinces 
 of Portugal. The chief towns are Evora (the 
 capital), Elvas, and Portalegre. Pop. 416,150. 
 
 Alengon (Alon^son^), chief town of the dep. of 
 Orne, on the Sarthe, 68 miles SSE. of Caen. 
 The cathedral of Notre Dame (1553-1617) is a 
 Gothic edifice, with good stained glass. Woollens 
 and linens, embroidered fabrics, straw-hats, lace- 
 work, artificial flowers, hosiery, &c. are made ; 
 the manufacture of the famous Alen^on point- 
 lace (point d'Alengon) employs barely a tenth 
 part of the 20,000 hands that once engaged in it. 
 The cutting of the so-called AleuQon diamonds 
 (quartz-crystals) is an industry which has also 
 greatly declined. Pop. (1872) 15,080; (1891) 
 17,141; (1901)14,500. 
 
 Aleppo (Italianised form of Haleb), a town in 
 the north of Syria, capital of a Turkish i)rovince 
 between the Orontes and the Euphrates, in a 
 fruitful valley watered by the Kuweik. It stands 
 in a large hollow, surrounded by rocky hills of 
 limestone, and beyond is mere desert. The fruit- 
 ful gardens, celebrated for their excellent plan- 
 tations of pistachios, are the sole contrast to 
 the desolation which environs the city, whose 
 numberless cupolas and minarets, clean, well- 
 paved streets, and stately houses, make it even 
 yet one of the most beautiful in the East. Till 
 the discovery of the sea-route to India, it was a 
 principal emporium of trade between Europe and 
 Asia. It supplied a great part of the East with 
 fabrics of silk, cotton, and wool, and gold and 
 silver stuff's ; but in 1822 an earthquake swallowed 
 up two-thirds of the houses. The plague of 1827, 
 the cholera of 1832, and the oppression of the 
 Egyptian government, all but completed its de- 
 struction. It has only partially recovered from 
 its misfortunes, but is still the principal em- 
 porium of the inland commerce of Northern Syria. 
 
 SI ALEXANDRIA 
 
 Its port is Scanderoon. Aleppo has a large trade 
 in cotton and silk goods, skins, tobacco, wine, 
 and oil ; and manufactures much-admired cloth 
 (of silk, cotton, and wool), carpets, cloaks, and 
 soap. English goods are largely imported. The 
 trade is mainly in the hands of the native Chris- 
 tians (Greeks and Armenians), who may number 
 20,000, and have superseded the European houses 
 formerly here. The Jews, 5000 in number, are a 
 very wealthy community. Aleppo is a telegraph 
 station on the Indo-European line. Pop. 120,000. 
 
 Aleshki, a Russian town in the government of 
 Taurida, on the Dnieper ; pop. 8915. 
 
 Alessandria, the capital of a province of North- 
 ern Italy, in a marshy country near the con- 
 fluence of the Bormida and Tanaro, 58 miles ESE. 
 of Turin, It was built in 1168 by the inhabitants 
 of Cremona, Milan, and Placentia, as a bulwark 
 against the Emperor Frederick I., and was after- 
 wards called Alessandria in honour of Pope Alex- 
 ander III. In 1800, Bonaparte here concluded 
 an armistice. It was the principal stronghold of 
 the Piedmontese during the insurrection of 1848- 
 49. The citadel is still one of the strongest 
 fortresses in Italy, and in war the whole sur- 
 rounding country can be inundated. The richly 
 decorated cathedral was rebuilt in 1823. Pop. 
 70,761, who carry on a trade in linens, woollens, 
 silk fabrics, stockings, and wax-candles. Two 
 great fairs are held here annually. 
 
 AletSCh, the largest glacier (12^ miles long) in 
 Europe, sweeps round the southern side of the 
 Jungfran. To the NW. lies the Aletschhorn 
 (13,773 feet). 
 
 Aleutian Islands, a chain of about 150 islands, 
 in several groups, extending westward from the 
 American peninsula of Aliaska, and forming an 
 insular continuation of that peninsula towards 
 the Asiatic peninsula of Kamchatka. These 
 islands are chiefly included in the United States 
 terri,tory of Alaska, and fall into five groups — 
 the Fox, Andreanov, Rat (Kreesi), Blizhni, and 
 Komandorski Islands. The chain is apparently a 
 continuation of the main Alaskan range of moun- 
 tains, and contains volcanic peaks from 4000 to 
 8000 feet high. Tlie islands abound in springs, 
 and are overrun with foxes, dogs, and reindeer, 
 while the coasts swarm with fish, seals, and 
 otters. The 2000 inhabitants, of mixed descent, 
 from the aboriginal Eskimos and Russian settlers, 
 are hunters and fishers, and trade in furs and fish. 
 See works cited at Alaska. 
 
 Alexandra Park, a place of public recreation 
 for northern London, 6 miles N. of Charing Cross. 
 It was opened in 1863, and its present ' palace ' 
 dates froni 1873, its predecessor having been 
 burnt two years before. 
 
 Alexandretta. See Scanderoon. 
 
 Alexandria was founded by Alexander the 
 Great in 332 B.C. It was situated originally on 
 the low tract of land which separates the lake 
 Mareotis from the Mediterranean, 14 miles west 
 of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, In the Medi- 
 terranean, off the city, lay an island, on whose 
 NB. point stood the famous lighthouse, the 
 Pharos, built in the 3d century B.C., and said 
 to have been 400 feet high. The island was con- 
 nected with the mainland by a mole, thus form- 
 ing the two harbours. Alexandria had reached 
 its greatest splendour when, on the death of 
 Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, in 30 b.c. 
 it came into the possession of the Romans. Its 
 population may have numbered 300,000 free 
 citizens, and a larger number of slaves. Ita 
 
ALEXANDRIA 
 
 22 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 glory was long unaffected, and it was the em- 
 porium of the world's conmierce, especially for 
 corn. In the reign of Caracalla, however, it 
 suffered severely ; and the rise of Constantinople 
 promoted the decay of Alexandria. Christianity 
 was introduced, according to tradition, by St 
 Mark. The strife between Christianity and 
 heathenism— powerfully described in Kingsley's 
 Hypatia—gavo rise to bloody contests in Alex- 
 andria. The Serapeum, the last seat of heathen 
 theology and learning, was stormed by the 
 Christians in 389 a.d., and converted into a 
 Christian church. Alexandria was a chief seat 
 of Christian theology till it was taken by the 
 Arabs iji 641. The choice of Cairo as capital of 
 the Egyptian califs hastened the now rapid decay 
 of the city ; the discovery of America, and of the 
 passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, very 
 much diminished its trade ; and when, in 1517, 
 the Turks took the place, the remains of its 
 former splendour wholly vanished. In 1778 
 Alexandria contained no more than 6000 inhab- 
 itants. Under Mehemet Ali, however, the tide 
 turned, and the city recovered rapidly. It is 
 now again one of the most important commercial 
 places on the Mediterranean. The Suez Canal 
 diverted part of its trade; but this was more 
 than compensated by the general impetus given 
 to Egyptian prosperity. In 1882, during the 
 rising of Arabi Pasha, an English fleet, in the 
 interests of the khedive, bombarded the forts of 
 Alexandria for over ten hours, July 11. On the 
 two following days the town was sacked and 
 plundered by the soldiery and populace, and 
 great part of it destroyed by fire. 
 
 The present city (called Skanderi'eh by the 
 Arabs) is chiefly built on the jnole, which has 
 been increased by alluvial deposits till it has 
 become a broad neck of land between the two 
 harbours. The city is a strange mixture of East 
 and West, old and new. The unpaved native 
 town contains poor houses and wretched huts. 
 The ever-increasing Frankish quarters have quite 
 a well-lit European appearance, and swarm with 
 caf6s, shops, theatres, and the like. The castle 
 stands near the old Pharos, and the handsome 
 new lighthouse lias a revolving light, visible at 
 a distance of 20 miles. Recent improvements, 
 undertaken at a cost of £2,000,000, were to con- 
 vert the old harbour— the western one— into one 
 of the best and most spacious on the Mediter- 
 ranean. There is railway communication with 
 Cairo and Suez ; the Mahmoudieh Canal connects 
 Alexandria with the Nile. The recent growth 
 of the city has been extraordinary. Pop. (1825) 
 16,000; (1840) 60,000; (1882) 227,064; (1900) 
 320,000, of whom 50,000 were foreigners, many 
 Greeks, Italians, and French. The value of ex- 
 ports (cotton, cotton seed, lentils, wheat, oil seed, 
 hemp, drugs) varied in 1891-1901 from £10,000,000 
 to £15,000,000 (two-thirds going to Britain) ; of 
 imports, from £5,000,000 to £13,000,000 (half from 
 Britain). Of the few remaining objects of an- 
 tiquity the most prominent is Pompey's Pillar, as 
 it is erroneously called. Of the so-called Cleo- 
 patra's Needles — two obelisks of the 16th century 
 B.C. which long stood here— one was brought to 
 England and erected on the Thames Embank- 
 ment, 1878; and the other, presented by the 
 khedive to the United States, was set up at New 
 York in 1881. 
 
 Alexandria, a town of Dumbartonshire, on 
 the west bank of the Leven, opposite Bonhill, 
 8 miles N. of Dumbarton. It has grown from a 
 mere ' clachan ' to a thriving town, such growth 
 being due to the neighbouring cotton-printing, 
 
 bleaching, and Turkey-red dye-works, established 
 since 1768. Pop. (1841) 3039 ; (1891) 7796. 
 
 Alexandria, a port of entry on the right or 
 Virginian bank of the Potomac, U.S., 7 miles 
 below Washington (on the opposite side of the 
 river), and 100 from the entrance of the Poto- 
 mac into Chesapeake Bay, whence the largest 
 vessels may reach the port. There are cotton 
 manufactures here. Pop. (1870) 13,570; (1890) 
 14,339; (1900)14,528. 
 
 Alexandropol (formerly Gumri), the largest 
 town in the Erivan district of Russian Armenia, 
 with a stronghold commanding the head-waters 
 of the Euphrates. The silk trade is actively 
 carried on. Pop. 30,477. 
 
 Alexandrov, a town in the Russian govern- 
 ment of Vladimir, 58 miles NB. of Moscow. 
 Pop. 7200. 
 
 Alexandrovsk, a Russian town in the govern- 
 ment of Ekateriiioslav, on the Dnieper. Pop. 
 16,500.— (2) A port in East Siberia, opposite 
 Saghalien.— (3) A town iii the province of Uie Don, 
 15 miles NNE. of Novo-Tcherkask. Pop. 10,250. 
 Alexinatz, a town of Servia, on the Moravitza, 
 134 miles SSB. of Belgrade by rail. Pop. 5108. 
 
 Alford, (1) a market-town of Lincolnshire, 23 
 miles NNE. of Boston ; pop. of parish, 2843.— 
 (2) A village of Aberdeenshire, 30 miles NW. of 
 Aberdeen. Here Montrose defeated the Cove- 
 nanters under Baillie, 2d July 1645. Pop. 635. 
 
 Alfoxton Park, in Somerset, 12 miles WNW. 
 of Bridgwater, was Wordsworth's home in 1797-98. 
 Alfreton, a market-town of Derbyshire, 14 
 miles NNE. of Derby by rail. It has manufac- 
 tures of hats, stockings, and brown earthenware, 
 with neighbouring collieries and ironworks. 
 Pop. of parish, 17,355. 
 
 Algarve, the smallest and most southerly of 
 the provinces of Portugal. The name is Arabic, 
 and means 'a land lying to the west.' It was a 
 Moorish province till 1253. Area, 1873 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 254,037. The northern part of the province 
 is occupied by a range of barren mountains of 
 4000 feet high, terminating in Cape St Vincent. 
 The chief town is Faro. 
 
 Algeci'ras, or Aloeziras, a town of Spain, on 
 the Bay of Gibraltar, 5 miles by water (9 by road) 
 W. of Gibraltar. Its harbour is bad, but it 
 possesses a good dock; and its oranges are 
 famous, as well as its bull-fights. It was the 
 first town in Spain taken by the Moors (711); 
 in 1344 it was retaken by Alfonso XI. of Castile, 
 after a twenty months' siege. He destroyed the 
 old Moorish town ; the modern one was built by 
 Charles III. in 1760. Pop. 12,924. 
 
 Algeria (Fr. Algerie], a country on the north 
 coast of Africa, which has since 1830 been a 
 French possession, and is now regarded as an 
 outlying part of France rather than as a colony. 
 It lies between Morocco and Tunis, and is usually 
 defined as extending from the IMediterranean to 
 about the 30th parallel of N. lat. on the south. But 
 the southern boundary, separating the Algerian 
 Sahara from the rest of French Sahara (which 
 now extends southwards to a line drawn west 
 from Lake Chad to the Niger), is very arbitrary. 
 The total area, with the northern or Algerian 
 Sahara, is about 255,000 sq. m., or more than 
 twice the size of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 From the coast inwards Algeria is marked off 
 into three distinct regions: in the north, the 
 TeZi- mountainous, cultivated land, with fruit- 
 ful valleys ; in the middle, the region of Steppea 
 
ALGERIA 
 
 ALHAMA 
 
 — mouTitainous tableland, producing much grass 
 and other fodder for cattle after the rains, and 
 traversed from west to east by a string of brack- 
 ish lakes or marshes, called Shotts; while farther 
 south is the Algerian Sahara, with oases. In the 
 northern part of the Tell is a series of mountain- 
 chains, called by the French the Lesser Atlas or 
 Coast Mountains ; while the south limit is a 
 parallel chain, the Middle Atlas. The Tell, the 
 most fertile and much the most populous section 
 of Algeria, occupies an area altogether of about 
 54,000 sq. m. The Algerian Sahara consists partly 
 of sandy dunes, partly of country covered after 
 rain with herbage ; and there are oases round 
 the wells. 
 
 The more considerable streams of Algeria rise 
 in the middle region, and have therefore to seek 
 their outlet in the Mediterranean, through passes 
 in the middle and coast ranges. Though swollen 
 in the winter, they shrink in the summer to a 
 thread, or even quite out of sight. Not one of 
 them is navigable, but they are used for purposes 
 of irrigation. The Shel'if is the longest and 
 largest. 
 
 The climate of Algeria is distinguished into 
 only three seasons : M'inter, from November to 
 February; spring, from March to June ; summer, 
 from July to October. The planting of forests, 
 drainage, and irrigation, by the French, have 
 ettected great improvements. In the Sahara, by 
 the sinking of artesian wells, desert tracts have 
 been converted into cultivated land, and in ten 
 years the inhabitants of the oases of the northern 
 Sahara increased from 6600 to 13,000, Avhile about 
 517,000 palms and 90,000 fruit-trees are now 
 counted. Algeria is coming to the front as a 
 wheat-growing country. Fruits and vegetables 
 are grown for the markets in France, England, 
 and Germany. The cultivation of the grape, silk, 
 and tobacco is rapidly extending. Immense tracts 
 of land, suitable for no other cultivation, have 
 been successfully planted with vines. The forest 
 vegetation of Algeria is extremely rich by nature, 
 comprising pine, oak, cedar, pistachio, mastic, 
 carob, olive, myrtle. Special exports are cork 
 and halfa or esparto grass. Algeria has a very 
 considerable wealth of metals, iron and copper 
 being abundant, though little worked. Over 100 
 mineral springs are counted in Algeria. 
 
 Algeria is divided into three departments, each 
 subdivided into a civil and a military territory : 
 
 Area iu sq. lu. Pop. 1901. 
 
 Algiers department 6-5,930 1,641,2] 
 
 Gran 44,620 1, 107,-354 
 
 Constantine 73,930 1 ,990,992 
 
 184,480 4,?39,556 
 
 Algerian Sahara 193,000 62,000 
 
 ToUl 377,480 4,801,556 
 
 The number of Europeans, in 1830 only 600, in 
 1840, 27,000, in 1881, 400,000, was in 1901 about 
 500,000, of whom 293,000 were French by origin 
 or naturalisation, and 150,000 Spanish, and 57,667 
 naturalised Jews, besides Italians, Germans, &c. 
 The native population, partly Arabs (including 
 Bedouins), partly Berbers or Kabyles ; the Moors 
 of the towns being of mixed descent from these 
 two stocks. In 1904 about 1900 English miles of 
 railway were open for traffic, and the telegraph 
 had over 6300 miles of line. 
 
 The trade of Algeria shows a constant increase. 
 Since the French occupation, the imports have 
 increased fifty, and the exports one hundred- 
 fold. The imports, three-fourths of which come 
 from France, have varied of late years from 
 £8,800,000 to £13,000,000. The exports, two- 
 
 thirds of which go to France, varied from 
 £6,000,000 to over £12,000,000. The imports are 
 chiefly manufactured cotton, hemp, linen, silk, 
 and woollen stuffs ; cloths, sugar, hides, paper, 
 liquors, metals, building materials, &c. The 
 exports are cereals, wool, raw hides, living 
 animals, minerals, early fruit, halfa and other 
 vegetable fibres, cork, iron, copper, and lead 
 ores. 
 
 Part of the present Algeria was anciently 
 included in Numidia and part in Mauritania. 
 Occupied and partially Romanised by the Romans, 
 it was overrun by the Vandals in the 5th cen- 
 tury. Later came the Arabs, who began about the 
 9th century to establish Mohammedan dynasties 
 and states. Hither emigrated many of the Moors 
 expelled from Spain. From the middle ages 
 downward, the Algerian coast towns were known 
 to Europe mainly as nests of pirates. The French 
 conquered the country, not without much fight- 
 ing, in 1830. From 1834 down to 1870 Algeria 
 was entirely under military rule. At that date 
 a civil governor-general, with residence at Algiers, 
 was substituted ; the Sahara is still under mili- 
 tary rule. The governor-general is assisted by a 
 council whose function is purely consultative. 
 The colonists send two deputies and one senator 
 for each department to the French Chambers. 
 
 Alghero {Algai'ro), a seaport on the west coast 
 of the island of Sardinia, 15 miles S\V. of Sassari. 
 It has a cathedral. Pop. 8995. 
 
 Algiers (Aljeers'; Fr. Alger; At. Al-jezair, 'the 
 islands '), the capital of Algeria, was built about 
 935 A.D. by an Arab chief. It rises from the 
 sea-shore up the sides of a precipitous hill in 
 the form of an equilateral triangle. The apex 
 is formed by the Kasbah, the ancient fortress of 
 the deys, which is 500 feet above sea-level. With 
 the exception of some mosques, the new or low 
 town consists of wharfs, warehouses, govern- 
 ment houses, squares, and streets, principally 
 built and inhabited by the French ; while the 
 old or high town is almost wholly Moorish. 
 The great glory of the city is the Boulevard de 
 la Republique, with its magnificent terrace, built 
 in 1860-66 by Sir Morton Peto, at a cost of eight 
 million francs. Here may be found as motley a 
 crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of all 
 nations — Arabs, Moors, and Jews; French, 
 Spaniards, Maltese, English, Germans, and 
 Italians. The shops, too, are occasionally very 
 good. The French have at great expense im- 
 proved the port, which is safe and spacious and 
 has a lighthouse. It is strongly fortified, and 
 can contain 40 warships and 300 trading vessels. 
 The original harbour was made in 1526 by con- 
 necting with the shore four little islands (hence 
 the name of the city). Near the great quays is 
 the railway station, connecting Algiers with 
 Constantine and Oran. The town has a Catholic 
 cathedral, a French Protestant church, an Eng- 
 lish church, a synagogue, a library, museum, 
 hospitals, theatres, and banks. There is a great 
 trade, Algiers being the chief commercial place 
 in Algeria. Algiers has become famous as a 
 winter residence for Europeans suffering from 
 chest diseases. It fell into the hands of the 
 French in 1830. Pop. (1901) 96,550 ; with suburbs, 
 140,000— not quite half French. 
 
 Algoa Bay, a broad inlet at the eastern 
 extremity of the south coast of Africa, with a 
 sheltered anchorage except towards the south- 
 east. On it stands Port Elizabeth. 
 
 Alham'a (Arabic Al Hammdm, 'the bath'), a 
 decayed town of Andalusia, Spain, 24 miles 8W, 
 
AIHAMBRA 
 
 ot Granada. Its warm sulphur baths are still 
 frequented by visitors. It was a famous fortress 
 of the Moors ; and there are still remains of 
 Roman and Moorish buildings. The town was 
 much injured by a severe earthquake in the end 
 of 1885. Pop. 7867.— Alhama de Aragon, 8 
 miles SW. of Calatayud, has famous mineral 
 springs. Pop. 1500.— Alhama, 13 miles SW. of 
 Murcia, is also celebrated for its warm mineral 
 ■waters. Pop. 8356. 
 
 Alhambra, a fortified suburb of Granada, 
 ■which forms a sort of acropolis to the city, and 
 in which stand the exquisite remains of the 
 palace of the ancient Moorish kings of Granada. 
 The name is a corruption of the Arabic Kal 'at al 
 hamra, 'the red castle.' It is surrounded by a 
 strong wall, more than a mile in circuit, and 
 studded with towers. One of them contains the 
 famous Hall of the Ambassadors. The remains of 
 the Moorish palace are called by the Spaniards 
 the Casa Real. It was begun by Ibn-1-ahmar 
 (1248), and completed by his grandson, Moham- 
 med III., about 1314. The portions still stand- 
 ing are ranged round two oblong courts, one 
 called the Court of the Fishpond, the other the 
 Co^irt of the Lions. They consist of porticos, 
 pillared halls, cool chambers, small gardens, 
 fountains, mosaic pavements, &c. In the most 
 beautiful room in the palace, the Hall of the 
 Abencerrages, to the beauty of colour and of 
 ornamentation is added an arcade resting on 
 light and graceful marble arches that run round 
 the place. A great part of the ancient palace 
 was removed to make Avay for the palace begun 
 by Charles V., but never finished. Since then 
 it has suffered from the neglect and greed of 
 successive governors ; from the French, who 
 blew up eight of its towers and tried to destroy 
 the whole ; and from earthquake. A partial 
 restoration was made at the expense of Queen 
 Isabella (1862) ; but much damage was done by 
 fire in September 1890. See the works by 
 Washington Irving (1832), Owen Jones (1848), 
 and Murphy (new ed. 1856). 
 
 Alican'te, chief town of a Spanish province, 
 on a bay of the Mediterranean, 282 miles SB. of 
 Madrid by rail. It is the third seaport in the 
 kingdom. The chief exports are esparto grass, 
 lead, wine, almonds, and liquorice root. Its 
 climate is well suited for invalids. Population, 
 50,250.— The province, formed in 1834 of i)arts of 
 the old kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, has an 
 area of 2098 sq. m. The wine of Alicante has a 
 high reputation, and there are about twenty lead 
 and copper mines. Pop. (1900) 470,150. 
 
 Aligarh (or Alljigurh), a fort in tlie United Pro- 
 vinces of India, 55 miles N. of Agra. It was 
 stormed by the British in 1803; aiid here early 
 in the inutiny of 1857— ten days after the out- 
 break at Meerut— the native troops rose. There 
 is here a Mohammedan Anglo-Indian college. 
 Fort, station, and the native city of Koil form 
 the municipality of Aligarh ; pop. 70,000. 
 
 Alima, a right-hand tributary of the Congo, 
 flowing mainly westward. 
 
 Aline, a sea-loch of Argyllshire. 
 
 Ali'wal, a Punjab village on the Sntlej, 9 miles 
 W. of Ludhiana ; scene of a British victory over 
 the Sikhs on 28th June 1846.— Amwal Noiith, a 
 town of Cape Colony, just across the Orange 
 from the Orange Colony, with a brisk trade ; pop. 
 3500.— AiJWAL South, a port of Cape Colony, 200 
 miles E. of Capetown ; pop. 3000. 
 
 Alkmaar, an old town of the Netherlands, on 
 
 u 
 
 Allegheny 
 
 the North Holland Canal, 19 miles N. by "W. of 
 Amsterdam by rail. It has a Gothic town-house, 
 the 15th-century church of St Lawrence, manu- 
 factures of sailcloth, sea-salt, &c., and trade in 
 cattle, grain, butter, and excellent cheese— of 
 which it exports enormous quantities. Alkmaar 
 held out against Alba in 1573, and here, in 1799, 
 the Duke of York signed a not very lionourable 
 capitulation. Pop. 19,048. 
 
 Allahabad ('city of God'), the seat of the 
 government of the United Provinces of British 
 India, occupies the fork of the Ganges and 
 Jumna, 390 miles SE. of Delhi, and 564 WNW. 
 of Calcutta. The situation of Allahabad, at the 
 confluence of the holy streams of India, has ren- 
 dered it a much-frequented place of pilgrimage. 
 A stronghold existed here from the earliest 
 times, but the present fort and city were founded 
 by Akbar in 1575. From 1736 till 1750 the 
 Mahrattas held Allahabad, which was ceded to 
 the British in 1801. On 6th June 1857, the 
 mutiny extended to Allahabad ; and, the Euro- 
 peans continuing to hold the fort, the city soon 
 became little better than a heap of ruins. The 
 position of Allahabad, with its ready communi- 
 cation by river and rail, renders it naturally a 
 centre of commerce and civilisation. The most 
 noteworthy buildings are the great mosque and 
 the Sultan Khossor's caravanserai— a fine clois- 
 tered quadrangle. The fort contains the famous 
 pillar of Asoka (240 e.g.). Near by is the temple 
 covering the undying banian tree ; it is said to 
 communicate with Benares by a subterranean 
 passage, through which flows a third holy river, 
 the Saraswati, visible only to the eye of faith. 
 Allahabad possesses the government offices and 
 courts, Roman Catholic cathedral, Mayo Memo- 
 rial and town hall, a free public library, <fec. The 
 Muir Central College, instituted by Sir W. Muir, 
 was opened in 1886 ; and a university was opened 
 in 1889. A great fair is held annually, which is 
 visited by about 250,000 persons. The cotton, 
 sugar, and indigo produce of the fertile district 
 of Allahabad is brought in large quantities into 
 the city. Pop. (1872) 143,603 ; (1901) 172,032.— 
 Ali-ahabad district is 85 miles in length by 50 in 
 breadth. Area, 2850 sq. ni. ; pop. 1,500,000. 
 
 Allan, (1) a tributary of the Forth, near Stir- 
 ling.— (2) A tributary of the Teviot, near Hawick. 
 
 Alleghanies (Allegai'nies), a term sometimes 
 used as synonymous with the Appalachians (q. v.), 
 sometimes applied only to that jjortion of the 
 system which extends from Pennsylvania to 
 North Carolina, and which forms the watershed 
 between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. It is 
 sometimes used in a still more restricted sense. 
 The ridges, 2000 to 2400 feet high, are remarkable 
 for their parallelism and regularity, all the main 
 valleys being longitudinal. Composed of strati- 
 fled rocks of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carbon- 
 iferous ages, they are rich in coal, iron, and 
 limestone, and their forests supply much valu- 
 able timber. 
 
 Alleghany, a river, which, rising in the north 
 part of Pennsylvania, unites with the Mononga- 
 hela at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio. It is navi- 
 gable for nearly 200 miles above Pittsburgh. 
 
 Allegheny, or Alleghany, one of the chief 
 manufacturing cities of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Alleghany River, opposite Pittsburgh. It is the 
 terminus'of important railway lines, and the site 
 of the Western Penitentiary, a Presbyterian theo- 
 logical seminary, an observatory, the Carnegie 
 Public Library, a park of 100 acres, a Catholic or- 
 phanage, and a college for coloured persons. The 
 
AlL£ir 
 
 S6 
 
 ALNWICK 
 
 chief industries include rolling-mills for iron, 
 cotton and woollen mills, breweries, foundries, 
 a steel factory, blast-furnace, and locomotive 
 works. It is a favourite place of residence for 
 Pittsburgh business men. Pop. (1870) 53,180; 
 (1880) 78,681 ; (1890) 105,287 ; (1900) 129,896. 
 
 Allen, Bog of, a series of morasses east of the 
 Shannon, in King's County and Kildare, Ireland, 
 coTnprising about 150,000 acres. Their average 
 elevation is 250 feet above sea-level. Lough 
 Allen, in Leitrim, is a lake on the upper course 
 of the Shannon (q.v.), 8900 acres in area. 
 
 Allendale, a town of Northumberland, on the 
 Allen rivulet, 9 miles SW. of Hexham. Pop. 
 of parish, 3009. 
 
 Allentown, a manufacturing toAvn of Penn- 
 sylvania, U.S., on the Lehigh River, 60 miles 
 NW. of Philadelphia by rail. The Lehigh Valley 
 is rich in iron ore and anthracite coal, and has 
 large blast-furnaces, ironworks, and rolling- 
 mills ; and there are manufactures of furniture 
 and linen thread. Pop. (1860) 8025 ; (1880) 18,063 ; 
 (1890) 25,228; (1900) 35,416. 
 
 Alleppi. See Aulapolai. 
 
 Alller, a river of Central France, rising in the 
 east of the dep. of Lozere, and flowing 233 miles 
 northward through Haute-Loire, Puy-de-D6me, 
 and Allier, to the Loire below Nevers. 
 
 Allier, a dep. in the centre of France, has an 
 area of 2822 sq. m,, and a population of 422,000. 
 Mineral springs are found at Vichy and else- 
 where. The chief town is Moulins. 
 
 AlUngton, a Kentish parish, IJ mile NN"W. 
 of Maidstone. It was the birthplace of Sir 
 Thomas Wyatt the poet. 
 
 Alloa, a seaport town in Clackmannanshire, 
 on the left bank of the tidal Forth, 6J miles E. 
 of Stirling, and 35 WNW. of Edinburgh. Among 
 its buildings are the county court-liouse (1865), 
 the handsome new town-hall (1888), the corn 
 exchange (1862), and the parish church (1819); 
 and its special feature is the Lime-tree Walk 
 (1714), leading up from the harbour. It manu- 
 factures whisky, ale, woollen yarn, pottery, glass, 
 iron, &c. There is some shipbuilding ; and coals 
 are exported from neighbouring pits. The harbour 
 was improved in 1863. The Forth is here crossed 
 by a railway viaduct (1885). Close by is Alloa 
 House (1838), the seat of the Earl of Mar and 
 Kellie, with Alloa Tower, 89 feet high, and built 
 about 1223. Here Queen Mary spent part of her 
 childhood, as also did James VI. and Prince 
 Henry. Pop. (1841) 5443 ; (1 901) 1 1 , 41 7. 
 
 Alloway, Burns's birthplace, and the scene of 
 his Tarn o' Shanter, lies on the right bank of the 
 'bonny Doon,'.2 miles S. of the town of Ayr. 
 The 'auld clay biggin,' in which the poet was 
 born on 25th January 1759, was in 1880 converted 
 into a Burns Museum. The ' haunted kirk ' still 
 stands, a roofless ruin, near the 'Auld Brig;' 
 and hard by is the Burns Monument (1820). 
 
 All-Saints' Bay, in the province of Bahia, 
 Brazil, forms a superb natural harbour, measur- 
 ing 37 by 25 miles. 
 
 Allygurh. See Aligarh. 
 
 Alma, a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot 
 of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing westward into 
 the Bay of Kalamita, half-way between Eupat- 
 oria and Sebastopol. On its steep banks a bril- 
 liant victory was won on 20th of September 1854, 
 by the allied armies of Britain and France, under 
 Lord Raglan and Marshal St Arnaud, over the 
 Russian army commanded by Prince Menschikoff. 
 
 Alma'da, a town of Portugal, in the provincd 
 of Estremadura, built upon a height over the 
 Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Pop. 8091. 
 
 Almaden', a town of Spain, in the chain of the 
 Sierra Morena, 50 miles SW. of Ciudad Real. It 
 is famous for its twelve rich quicksilver mines, 
 employing 4000 miners, with an annual output 
 of 2,500,000 lb. The present mines, 1200 feet 
 deep, date from the 17th century ; but the quick- 
 silver was worked here by the Romans. Crown 
 property, they were rented by the Fuggers of 
 Augsburg (1525-1645), and by the Rothschilds 
 (1836-63), but are now again carried on by gov- 
 ernment. Pop. 8126.— New Almaden, in the 
 Coast Range, California, 12 miles from San Jose, 
 was first worked regularly for mercury in 1845, 
 and now yields upwards of 2,000,000 lb. a year. 
 
 Almagro, a town of Spain, 13 miles ESE. of 
 Ciudad Real. It has a great manufacture of 
 lace. Pop. 8289. 
 
 Almali. See Elmalu. 
 
 Almansa, a town of Spain in the province of 
 Albacete, 60 miles NW. of Alicante by rail. 
 There is a ruined Moorish castle. An obelisk, 
 about a mile distant, marks the spot where the 
 French, under the Duke of Berwick, on 25th 
 April 1707, defeated an army of Spanish and 
 English troops. Pop. 9480. 
 
 Almeida, one of the strongest fortified places 
 in Portugal, on tlie Spanish frontier, and in the 
 province of Beira. In 1762 it was captured by 
 the Spaniards, and in 1810 it was defended against 
 Massena by an English officer, until the explosion 
 of a powder-magazine compelled him to capitu- 
 late. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Almeri'a (Arabic Al-Mariyat, ' the conspicu- 
 ous '), the chief town of a Spanish province, on 
 a gulf or bay of the Mediterranean, 120 miles B. 
 of Malaga. It has a well-defended liarbour, a 
 cathedral, and a grammar-school. In the time 
 of the Moors, it was, next to Granada, the richest 
 town in the kingdom, with 150,000 inhabitants. 
 Now, it has only a few trifling manufactures, 
 although it still keeps up considerable trade. 
 Tlie much-needed railway from Linares to this 
 isolated port was being made in 1893-94. Popu- 
 lation, about 50,000.— The province consists of 
 tlie eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of 
 Granada, and has an area of 3302 sq. m. There 
 are rich mines in the sierras, yielding copper, 
 iron, mercury, silver, and lead. Population, 
 360,000. 
 
 Almodo'var del Campo, a town of New Castile, 
 Spain, 22 miles SW. of Ciudad Real ; pop. 12,279, 
 chiefly employed in agriculture and silver-mining. 
 
 Almond, in Scotland, tributaries (1) of the 
 Firth of Forth at Cramond ; and (2) of the Tay 
 above Perth. 
 
 Almondbury, to the SE. of Huddersfield, is 
 practically a part of Huddersfield (q.v.). 
 
 Almo'ra, a town in the United Provinces of 
 India, 87 miles N. of Bareilly, on the crest of a 
 ridge of tlie Himalayas, 5337 feet above tlie sea. 
 Pop. 8000. 
 
 Almunecar, a seaport of Andalusia, Spain, 33 
 miles S. of Granada ; pop. 8878. 
 
 Alnmouth, a little watering-place of Northum- 
 berland, at the mouth of the Alne, 5 miles ESE. 
 of Alnwick. Pop. 593. 
 
 Alnwick (An' nick), the county town of North- 
 umberland, on the Alne, 38^ miles N. by W. of 
 Newcastle by rail. It has a large central market- 
 place, a spacious town-hall, and a corn exchange 
 
Aloba 
 
 ALPS 
 
 of 1862. Alnwick was at an early period a 
 fortified town, and one of its four gates remains, 
 with fragments of .the walls. At the north 
 entrance of the town stands Alnwick Castle, the 
 seat originally of the De Vescis, and since 1310 
 of the Percies of Northumberland. It has been 
 sumptuously restored since 1854 in the Italian 
 Palazzo style, and is one of the most magnificent 
 baronial structures in England. During the 
 middle ages, it was a bulwark against the inva- 
 sions of the Scots, and it was thrice besieged— 
 by Malcolm Canmore, who here met his death ; 
 by David I., who captured it; and by William 
 the Lion, who here was taken prisoner. Alnwick 
 ceased in 1886 to enjoy certain prescriptive 
 municipal usages it fonnerly possessed. Pop. 
 V500. 
 
 Alo'ra, a town of Spain, 23 miles NW. of 
 Malaga by rail. Pop. 10,668. 
 
 Alost, or Aalst, a town in the Belgium pro- 
 vince of Bast Flanders, on a navigable tributary 
 of the Scheldt, 19 miles NW. of Brussels by rail. 
 The church of St Martin, though unfinished, is 
 one of the grandest in Belgium, with a famous 
 painting by Rubens— 'St Roche beseeching our 
 Saviour to stay the Plague of Alost,' and also the 
 mausoleum of Marten, a native of Alost and 
 Belgium's first printer (1473). Alost has also a 
 13th-century town-hall with a beautiful belfry, 
 and a Jesuit college. Pop. 30,200. 
 
 Alpe'na, an American post-town, at the mouth 
 of Thunder Bay River, in Michigan, Avith foun- 
 dries and numerous sawmills. Pop. (1880) 6153 ; 
 (1890) 11,283 ; (1900) 11,802. 
 
 Alpes, name of three deps. in France. That of 
 Basses-Alpes occupies the NE. part of Provence, 
 and is, for the most part, mountainous. The 
 wines are excellent; the mines produce lead, 
 green marble, &c. The dep. is watered by the 
 Durance ; its chief town is Digne. Area, 2685 
 sq. m. ; population, 115,000. 
 
 The Hautes-Alpes, lying north of the Basses- 
 Alpes, and fonning a part of the old province of 
 Dauphine, is traversed by the chief range of the 
 Cottian Alps, which here rise to 14,000 feet. Tlie 
 scenery, especially along the impetuous Durance, 
 is singularly picturesque. Area, 2158 sq. m. ; 
 population, 109,000. The mines produce lead, 
 copper, iron, and anthracite. Chief town. Gap. 
 
 Alpes Maritimes, a dep. in the extreme SE. 
 of France, on the shores of the Mediterranean 
 and confines of Italy, was formed in 1860. It 
 is made up of the ancient county of Nice, then 
 ceded to France, and of the arrondisseraent of 
 Grasse. The chain of the Alpes Maritimes forms 
 the northern boundary of the dep., and from it 
 numerous spurs run seaward, among which are 
 lovely and fertile valleys. The silkworm is 
 reared, and honey exported. There are some 
 mineral springs. The tunny, anchovy, and sar- 
 dine fisheries are important. The capital is Nice, 
 and the other principal towns are Antibes, Ville- 
 franche, Cannes, Grasse, and Menton or Mentone. 
 Area, 1482 sq. m. ; pop. 293,500. 
 
 Alpnach, or Alpnacht, a Swiss village, in the 
 canton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount 
 Pilatus, IJ mile from that part of Lake Lucerne 
 called Lake Alpnach. Its celebrated '.slide,' 8 
 miles long, for the timber of Mount Pilatus, is 
 now disused. Pop. 1679. 
 
 Alps (possibly a Celtic word meaning 'high;' 
 cf. Gaelic alp, ' a high mountain ; ' or connected 
 with Lat. albus, 'white'), the most extensive 
 system of lofty mountains in Europe, raising 
 their giant masses on a basis of 90,000 sq. m., 
 
 between 6° 40' and 18° E. long., and extending 
 in some places from the 44th to the 48th parallel 
 of latitude. The Alpine system is bounded on 
 the N. by the hilly ground of Switzerland and 
 the upper plain of the Danube; on the E., by 
 the low plains of Austria ; on the S., by the 
 Adriatic Sea, the plains of Lombardy, and the 
 Gulf of Genoa; and on the W., by the plains of 
 Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A string 
 of lakes encircles both the northern and southern 
 bases of these mountains, the former at an eleva- 
 tion of 1200 to 2000 feet ; the latter, 600 to 700 
 feet. The varied natural scenery of France, 
 Italy, Germany, and Austria has a common 
 centre of union in this lofty region. Valleys 
 open out in all directions, sending their melted 
 snows on one side into the North Sea, on another 
 into the Black Sea, and on another into the 
 Mediterranean. The principal basins are those 
 of the Rhine, the Danube, the Po, the Rhone, 
 and the Var. 
 
 I. Of the Western Alps the principal ranges 
 are : (1) The Maritime Alps, extending from the 
 middle Durance southwards to the Mediter- 
 ranean, and rising in the Aiguille de Chambeyron 
 to a height of 11,155 feet. (2) The Cottian Alps, 
 north of these, whose highest summit, Monte 
 Viso, is 12,605 feet. (3) The Dauphin^ Alps, 
 separated by the valley of the Durance from the 
 Cottian ; their highest summit is the Pic des 
 Ecrins, 13,462 feet. (4) The Graian Alps, forming 
 the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, and 
 attaining in the Grand Paradis, an elevation of 
 13,300 feet. II. Middle Alps. Central Chain.-^ 
 (1) The Pennine Alps, between the plains of 
 Lombardy and the valley of the Rhone. Highest 
 summits : Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet ; Monte Rosa, 
 15,151 feet. (2) The Lepontian or Helvetian 
 Alps, from the depression of the Simplon, along 
 the plateau and masses of St Gothard, to the 
 pass of the Spliigen. (3) The Rhsetian Alps, 
 between the Inn, the Adda, and the Upper Adige. 
 Northern Chain. — (1) The Bernese Alps, between 
 the Rhone and the Aar. Highest summits : 
 Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 feet ; Aletschhorn, 13,803 ; 
 Jungfrau, 13,671 feet. (2) The Alps of the Four 
 'Forest Cantons,' the Schwyz Alps, &c. The 
 Soiithern Chain.— (l) The Ortler Alps, between 
 the Adda and the Adige. (2) The Trientine Alps, 
 between the Adige and the Piave. III. Of the 
 Eastern Alps the principal chains are : (1) The 
 Noric Alps, between the plains of the Drave and 
 the Danube. (2) The Carnian Alps, between the 
 Drave and the Save. (3) Tlie Julian Alps, be- 
 tween the Save and the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 No lofty mountains in the world are more 
 easily crossed than the Alps ; the Mont Cenis, 
 the Brenner, the St Gothard, and the Simplon 
 (with still longer tunnel bored 1896-1904) rail- 
 ways into Italy from the north now afford special 
 facilities. Other notable passes are the Little St 
 Bernard (7190 feet at the highest point), the 
 Great St Bernard (8120 feet), and the Spliigen 
 (q.v.). 
 
 The rocks which enter into the composition 
 of the Alps belong to many different geological 
 systems, and occur for the most part as more or 
 less interrupted belts or zones, which extend 
 in the same general direction as the great chain 
 itself— viz, from SW. to NE. The higher and 
 central ranges consist principally of crystalline 
 schists, such as gneiss and mica-schist, with 
 which granite is occasionally associated. These 
 crystalline Archaean rocks are flanked on either 
 side by an irregular zone of various sedimentary 
 strata, along with beds of limestone, dolomite, 
 
ALPtrjARRAS 
 
 27 
 
 &c. The geological structure of the Alps clearly 
 shows that these mountains are ' mountains of 
 upheaval.' The strata of which they are com- 
 posed must originally have been spread out in 
 approximately horizontal positions, and they 
 have since been folded, flexed, puckered, and 
 fractured. Since their upheaval, the Alps have 
 suffered excessive denudation. Enormous moun- 
 tain-masses have been gradually removed by the 
 action of ice, running water, &c. 
 
 The population of the Alpine regions is esti- 
 mated at 6,000,000 to 7,000,000, of whom perhaps 
 one half are Teutonic, and the other half of 
 French, Italian (and Romanic), or Slavonic origin, 
 in pretty equal proportions. Six states share the 
 Alps. The western portion is shared by France 
 and Italy. Switzerland claims the Middle Alps 
 almost exclusively for her own. Bavaria has 
 only a small share. Austria has the largest 
 share of the Alps— in the provinces of Tyrol, 
 Illyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The Alpine 
 mountains are rich in singularly beautiful natural 
 scenery, and attract such crowds of visitors that 
 they have been called ' the playground of Europe.' 
 See works by Agassiz, the brothers Schlagint- 
 weit, Murchison, Tyndall (1860-73), Bonney 
 (1868), Ball's Guides (3 vols. 1868-70), Umlauft 
 (Eng. trans. 1888), and see also Switzerland. 
 
 Alpuj arras (Al-poo-har'ras ; Arabic Al-Bush- 
 erat), a name applied to all the valleys lying 
 south of the chief chain of the Sierra Nevada, in 
 the south of Spain. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine (Ger. Elsass-TMhringen), since 
 1871 a state or 'imperial territory' (Reichsland) 
 of the German empire, bounded west by France, 
 east by Baden, and south by Switzerland. Its 
 utmost length, from north to south, is 123 
 miles ; its breadth varies between 22 and 105 
 miles ; and its area is 5580 sq. m., of which 1353 
 belong to Upper Alsace (in the south), 1844 to 
 Lower Alsace (NE.), and 2383 to Lorraine (NW.). 
 Pop. (1871) 1,549,738; (1900) 1,719,470, of wliom 
 over 1,300,000 were Catholics, and 80 per cent. 
 German-speaking,theFrench-speakingpopulation 
 being mainly in the larger towns and in Lorraine. 
 The Rhine flows 115 miles north-by-eastward 
 along all the eastern boundary, and receives, 
 below Strasburg, the 111 from Alsace, 127 miles 
 long. Other rivers are the Moselle, flowing 
 through Lorraine past Metz, and its affluent the 
 Saar. Along the Rhine is a strip of level country, 
 9 to 17 miles broad, and declining from 800 to 
 450 feet above sea-level. Westward of this rise 
 the Vosges Mountains, culminating at a height 
 of 4677 feet ; whilst Lorraine, rather hilly than 
 mountainous, rarely attains 1300 feet. About 
 48"5 per cent, of the entire area is arable, 11 '6 
 meadow and pasture, and 30-8 under wood. 
 Alsace-Lorraine produces much wine, grain, and 
 tobacco ; it is rich in mines, iron and coal ; and 
 manufactures iron, cotton, wool, silks, chemicals, 
 glass, and paper. It contains the important 
 cities of Strasburg, Mlihlhausen, Metz, and Col- 
 mar. 
 
 In Cfesar's time Alsace-Lorraine was occupied 
 by Celtic tribes, and formed part of ancient 
 Gaul ; thereafter largely Germanised, from the 
 10th century it formed part of the German 
 empire, till a part of it was ceded to France at 
 the Peace of Westphalia (1648), and the rest fell 
 a prey to the aggressions of Louis XIV., Avho 
 seized Strasburg (1081) by surprise in time of 
 peace. By the Peace of Ryswick (1697), the 
 cession of the whole was ratified. In 1814-15 
 Russia would not hear of the restitution of 
 
 ALTENGAARS 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine to Germany ; and it was not till 
 1871, after the Franco-German war, that Alsace 
 and German Lorraine were, by the treaty of 
 Frankfort, incorporated in the new German 
 empire. The great mass of the population were 
 strongly against the change, and 160,000 elected 
 to be French, though only 50,000 went into 
 actual exile, refusing to become German subjects. 
 For, at least since the era of the Revolution, 
 Alsace in sentiment was wholly French, To 
 France she gave the bravest of her sons— Keller- 
 mann, Kleber, and many another hero ; Strasburg 
 first heard the Marseillaise; and MM. Erckmann- 
 Chatrian, Lorrainers both, faithfully represented 
 their countrymen's love of La Patrie in the days 
 of the second as of the first Napoleon. See 
 French works by Grad (1889) and Matthis (1890). 
 Alsen, a Baltic island off" the coast of Sles- 
 wick. Formerly Danish, it became Prussian in 
 1864. It is 19 miles long, and 12 broad ; its area 
 is 121 sq. m. Pop. 25,000, almost all Danish- 
 speaking. The chief town is the port of Sonder- 
 borg ; pop. 6000. 
 
 Alster, a river in Holstein, formed by the 
 confluence of three streams, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Hamburg spreads itself out, and forms a 
 lake, called the Great or Outer Alster, and within 
 the town, the Iinier Alster. It flows by several 
 channels into the Elbe. 
 
 Alston, a market-town of Cumberland, 26 
 miles ESE. of Carlisle. Pop. of parish, 3184. 
 
 Altai, the Ghin-shan or Golden Mountains of 
 the Chinese, is the name given to a wild moun- 
 tainous region which covers the southern parts 
 of Tomsk, in Siberia, and partly extends into 
 Mongolia. It comprises the mountainous border- 
 region of the great plateau of Central Asia, be- 
 tween the Tian-shan and the Sajan Mountains, 
 and consists of two separate parts — the Altai 
 ])roper, belonging to the Russian empire ; and the 
 Great Altai, in Mongolia. The highest summit, 
 Byelukla, reaches the height of 11,000 feet. The 
 valleys on its outskirts are being rapidly colon- 
 ised by Russian agriculturists (over 600,000), who 
 find an easy living in the fertile soil and the rich 
 sub-alpine meadows. The gold-washings of the 
 Altai, and its silver, lead, copper, iron, and coal 
 mines, are another source of wealth. Nearly 
 45,000 Kalmucks, Teleutes, and Kumandintses 
 represent the small remainder of the formerly 
 much denser and more highly civilised popula- 
 tion, all of the Ural-Altaic stock. The town of 
 Barnaul (17,180 inhabitants) is the chief centre of 
 administration. 
 
 Altamu'ra, a town of South Italy, 28 miles 
 SW. of Bari, with a fine cathedral, founded in 
 1220 ; pop. 19,817. 
 
 Alte'a, a Spanish seaport, 25 miles NE. of 
 Alicante ; pop. 5865. 
 
 Al'tena, a town of Prussia, 47 miles NW. of 
 Siegen by rail, with manufactures of needles, 
 pins, and hardware ; pop. 12,900. 
 
 Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe- 
 Altenburg, on the Pleisse, 30 miles S. of Leipzig 
 by rail. On an almost perpendicular rock of 
 porphyry stands the old castle of Altenburg, the 
 scene in 1455 of the 'Prinzenraub.' Its founda- 
 tions are probably as old as the 11th century ; 
 and, since the two fires of 1865 and 1868, it has 
 been finely restored. Brushes, woollen goods, 
 gloves, and cigars are manufactured. Pop. (1890) 
 31,439 ; (1900) 37,150. 
 
 Altengaard, a hamlet in Finmarken, the 
 northernmost province of Norway, on the south 
 
ALTSOItP PARK 
 
 28 
 
 AMAZOKT 
 
 fiide of the Alten Fiord, in 69° 55' N. lat., with a 
 meteorological station. 
 
 Althorp Park, the seat of Earl Spencer, 6 
 miles NW. of Northampton. 
 
 Alton, a town of Hampshire, 8| miles SW. of 
 Farnham. Its Perpendicular parish church was 
 thoroughly restored in 1867. Hops are grown in 
 the neighbourhood, and there are large breweries 
 in the town. Pop. 5600. 
 
 Alton, a city and port of Illinois, U.S., on the 
 left bank of the Mississippi, 24 miles N. of St 
 Louis. Laid out in 1817, and since 1868 the seat 
 of a Catholic bishopric, it is a centre of com- 
 merce, and has a Baptist college (1836). Pop. 
 (1860) 6332 ; (1900) 14,210. 
 
 Al'tona, the largest and richest city in the 
 Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, is situ- 
 ated on the steep right bank of the Elbe, just 
 below Hamburg, so that the two cities are 
 divided only by the state-boundaries. Altona 
 lies higher than Hamburg, and is much healthier. 
 Of public buildings, the most notable are the 
 churches of the Trinity (1743) and St John (1873) ; 
 and of four monuments, there is one to Bliicher 
 (1832). Invested with special privileges in 1664, 
 and burnt by the Swedes in 1713, Altona was 
 annexed to Prussia in 1866. Pop. (1840) 28,095 ; 
 (1860)45,524; (1890)143,249; (1900)161,501. 
 
 Altoo'na, a city of Pennsylvania, U.S., at the 
 eastern base of the Alleghanies, 117 miles E. of 
 Pittsburgh. It contains large locomotive works 
 and machine-shops in connection with the Penn- 
 sylvania Central Railroad, employing 5000 hands. 
 Pop. (1870) 10,610 ; (1900) 38,973. 
 
 Altorf, or Altdorf, the chief town in the 
 Swiss canton Uri, at the head of the Lake of 
 Lucerne, and on the St Gothard road anil rail- 
 way. There is a colossal statue of William Tell 
 in this the scene of his chief exploits. Pop. 3000. 
 —Altorf, or Altdorf, in Middle Franconia 
 (pop. 4000), was the seat of a university from 
 1623 to 1809. 
 
 Altottlng, a very ancient place of pilgrimage 
 in Upper Bavaria, not far from the river Inn, 31 
 miles N. of Traunstein. A chapel contains the 
 wonder-working black image of the Virgin, dat- 
 ing from the 8th century, and a rich treasure 
 of gold, silver, and precious stones. Another 
 chapel contains the tomb of Tilly. Pop. 4232. 
 
 Altrincham {Al'trhig-am), a town of Cheshire, 
 on Bowdon Downs, 8 miles SW. of Manchester by 
 rail, is situated on the Bridgewater Canal. It 
 has manufactures of artificial manures, and an 
 iron-foundry ; but the chief employment is raising 
 fruits and vegetables for the Manchester market. 
 Pop. 17,100. 
 
 Altrlve, the home and death-place of Hogg, the 
 Ettrick Shepherd, in Yarrow parish, Selkirkshire. 
 Alum-Bagh (AlamMgh), a domain 4 miles from 
 Lucknow, comprised a palace, mosque, and park ■ 
 and in 1857 was converted by the rebels into a 
 fort. It was taken by the British in September ; 
 and on evacuating Lucknow, Sir James Outram 
 with 3500 men held it against 30,000 sepoys and 
 50,000 volunteers, until in March, Sir Colin 
 Campbell reconquered Lucknow, and relieved the 
 Alum-Bagh. Havelock had been buried within 
 the walls in November 1857. 
 
 Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, near the Needles, a 
 bay with fantastically variegated cliffs. 
 
 Alva, a town in what since 1891 is Clack- 
 mannanshire, at the base of the Ochils, 7| miles 
 ENE. of Stirling by rail (1863). It has extensive 
 manufactures of shawls and tweeds. Immedi- 
 
 ately behind the village is Alva Glen, noted fof 
 its picturesque beauty and magnificent water- 
 fall. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Alvara'do, a town of Mexico, on the Gulf of 
 Mexico, at the mouth of the river Alvarado 
 40 miles SE. of Vera Cruz ; pop. 6000. ' 
 
 Alwar, or Ulwar, a Rajput state of India, in 
 Rajputana, with an area of 3024 sq. m. and a pop. 
 of 750,000. The capital, Alwar, is a town of 
 66,750 inhabitants, 94 miles WNW. of Agra. 
 
 Alyth (Ai'lith), a Perthshire town, 26 miles 
 NE. of Perth, with woollen, linen, and iute 
 manufactures. Pop. 1965. 
 
 Alzey (AUzei), a town of Rhenish Hesse, on 
 the Selz, 18 miles SW. of Mainz. Pop. 6932. 
 
 Amalfi (Amdl'fee), a seaport on the Gulf of 
 Salerno, 24 miles SE. of Naples. It has a Roman- 
 esque cathedral. Founded under Constantine 
 the Great, and long a powerful republic, with 
 50,000 inhabitants, and ' doges ' of its own, it fell 
 about the close of the 11th century under the 
 power of the Normans, was plundered by the 
 Pisans in 1135, and saw its commercial decay 
 completed by a terrible storm in 1343. Masanl- 
 ello was a native. Pop. 7792. 
 
 Amarapu'ra (' city of the gods '), till 1800 the 
 capital of Burma, was situated on the left bank 
 of the Irawadi, 6 miles NE. of Ava. Founded in 
 1783, it was totally destroyed by fire in 1810, and 
 almost totally by earthquake in 1839 ; so that the 
 population dwindled from 175,000 in 1800, to 
 almost nil after Mandalay became the seat of 
 government. Little remains but some beautiful 
 trees, and a few ruined pagodas. 
 
 Amasla, a town in the province of Sivas, in 
 Asia Minor, in the deep valley of the Yeshil- 
 Irmak. The ancient town, long capital of the 
 kings of Pontus, was the birthplace of Strabo. 
 There are numerous interesting remains of 
 antiquity, particularly the tombs of the kings of 
 Pontus. Silk and salt are the chief articles of 
 export. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Amatitlan, a deep lake in the Central Ameri- 
 can state of Guatemala, surrounded with pre- 
 cipitous volcanic rocks. It empties into the 
 Pacific Ocean through the river Michatoyat. Near 
 the lake are many hot springs, and on the river 
 is the town of Amatitlan, as late as 1840 a miser- 
 able Indian village, but now, through the intro- 
 duction of the cochineal culture, an active town 
 of 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Amazon, or Amazons (Portuguese AmazUnas, 
 from an Indian word Amassona, 'boat-destroyer'), 
 a river of South America, and the largest stream 
 on the face of the globe. It is known locally as 
 Maranon, Orellana, Solimoens, Parana-tinga, and 
 Parana-uassu. The name Maranon (or Tungur- 
 agua) belongs properly to the more northern of 
 its two main head-streams, rising in Lake Lauri- 
 cocha (Peru) about 10° 30' S. lat., 76° 10' W. long. 
 Some writers insist that the river Apurimac, or 
 Ucayali (the more southern of the two great head- 
 streams), is the true Amazon. It is commonly 
 said that the Amazon, to its remotest source, is 
 nearly 4000 miles long ; but 3000 miles is a more 
 probable estimate. Most of the upper branches 
 flow in deep mountain gorges of the Cordillera ; 
 east of the Cordillera the vast forest-plain is 
 entered, which stretches from the sub-Andean 
 foot-hills to the sea. It is a region rich in 
 botanical treasures, having a fertile soil and a 
 prodigiously large rainfall. Owing to this rain- 
 fall, the country is traversed by a very great 
 number of large navigable rivers, either direct or 
 
AMAZONAS 
 
 29 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Indirect aflauents of the Amazon. Steam naviga- 
 tion has been introduced on many of the larger 
 branches ; but the natural resources of the 
 country are very little developed. 
 
 The principal tributaries from the north are 
 the Napo, the Putumayo, the Japura, and the 
 Rio Negro (which connects, through the Cassi- 
 quiare, with the Orinoco); from the south the 
 Javary, the Jutahy, the Juruii, the Purus, the 
 Madeira, the Tapajos, the Xingu, and the Toc- 
 antins. For a considerable distance the main 
 river forms the boundary between Peru and 
 Ecuador ; but its course lies chiefly through the 
 northern half of Brazil, its general direction 
 being to the NNE. Its mouth is crossed by the 
 equator. The drainage area of the river is placed 
 at 2,500,000 sq. m., or two-thirds the area of 
 Europe ; and the main stream and its tributaries 
 are said to afford over 25,000 miles of water- 
 way suitable for steam navigation. The main 
 channel, at the mouth, is 50 miles wide. The 
 average flow of the river is placed at 2J miles per 
 hour. The tides are noticed for about 400 miles 
 up the river. The tidal phenomenon called the 
 bore (here known as Pororoca) is very destructive 
 in the main channel of the lower river, near its 
 mouth. The name Amazon is probably derived 
 from the female warriors (Amazons) seen by early 
 explorers in the valley of this river ; the name 
 Maraiion is derived from a voyager who visited 
 the river in 1503 ; Orellana was the name of one 
 who sailed on it in 1540. 
 
 The climate of the river- valley, though hot and 
 very damp, is greatly mitigated by its trade- 
 winds, which blow from the east with little 
 interruption throughout the dry season. The 
 river abounds in fish in very great variety of 
 species, and turtles and alligators are plentiful, 
 as well as porpoises and manatees. The main 
 river is fullest from March to June inclusive, and 
 lowest in August and September. The river is 
 open to the commerce of all nations, but trade 
 has been impeded by import and export duties. 
 Para is the principal outlet by sea of the com- 
 merce of the Amazon Valley. Many useful and 
 some highly valuable timber-trees grow on the 
 river. One of the leading pursuits of the lower 
 valley is the shipment to Para of india-rubber 
 and Brazil-nuts. The western part of the basin 
 affords quinine-yielding barks, coca, cacao, sugar, 
 coffee, palm-wax, ipecacuanha, copaiba, sarsa- 
 parilla, vanilla, and other valuable vegetable 
 products, and a considerable amount of gold is 
 procured in it. 
 
 See works by A. R. Wallace (1853 ; new ed. 
 1889), H. W. Bates (1864 ; new ed. 1892), Agassiz 
 (1868), Brown and Lidstone (1878), and H. H. 
 Smith (New York, 1879). 
 
 Amazo'nas, (1) the northernmost province of 
 Brazil, has an area of 750,000 sq. m., and a pop. 
 of 148,000.— (2) A fertile department of Peru, 
 bounded on the N. by Ecuador. Area, 14,150 
 sq. m. ; pop. 70,800. 
 
 Ambala. See Umballa. 
 
 Amher, a decayed city in the Rajput state of 
 Jaipur, India, formerly its capital, about 4 miles 
 NE. of Jaipur, with a vast but deserted palace. 
 It is situated on the margin of a small lake, in a 
 deep hollow among hills. 
 
 Amberg, a town of Bavaria, 35 miles E. of 
 Nuremberg. Chief buildings are the town-hall 
 (1490) and St Martin's (1421), with a steeple 321 
 feet high. There is a large arsenal, some manu- 
 factures, and mining. Near is the Maria-Hilfs- 
 berg, a place of pilgrimage. Pop. 22,500. 
 
 Ambleside, a market-town of Westmorland, 
 situated in the heart of the Lake District, about 
 a mile from the head of Lake Windermere. 
 Rydal Mount, for many years the residence of 
 Wordsworth ; Fox How, a sunnner retreat of Dr 
 Arnold ; and the Knoll, where Miss Martineau 
 lived and died, are all in the neighbourhood. 
 Coarse woollen cloths are made here. Pop. 2360. 
 
 Amboise, a French town in the dep. of Indre- 
 et-Loire, on the Loire, 15 miles by rail E. of 
 Tours. The town is memorable for the Huguenot 
 conspiracy (1560), which cost the lives of 1200 
 Protestants. The castle of Amboise from 1431 
 was a frequent residence of the Valois kings; 
 and since the days of Louis XL, 15,000 prisoners 
 are said to have been confined in its subterranean 
 'oubliettes.' Pop. 4580. 
 
 Amboyna, the most prominent of the Moluc- 
 cas or Spice Islands belonging to the Dutch, 
 lies SW. of Ceram, and NW. of Banda. Area, 
 365 sq. m. Pop. about 38,000, nearly a third 
 Mohannnedans. Amboyna is mountainous, well 
 watered, fertile, and healthy. Clove, sago, 
 mango, and cocoa-nut trees are abundant, also 
 fine timber for cabinet-work. The Dutch took 
 Amboyna from the Portuguese in 1605. The 
 British settlement was destroyed by the Dutch 
 in the infamous Amboyna massacre of 1623, for 
 which, in 1654, Cromwell exacted compensation. 
 The British held the island in 1796-1802. It 
 became finally Dutch in 1814. — Amboyna, capital 
 of the Dutch Moluccas, on the bay of Amboyna, 
 has a good roadstead ; pop. about 9000. 
 
 Ambriz, the northernmost division of the 
 Portuguese territory of Angola, West Africa, 
 extending from the Congo to the river Ambriz. 
 The town of Ambriz has a pop. of 5000. See 
 Angola. 
 
 America, the western continent and its adja- 
 cent islands, forming the main body of land found 
 in the western hemisphere. America has an area 
 of about 16,500,000 sq. m., and is larger than 
 Europe and Africa together. It is more than four 
 times as large as Europe, five times as large as 
 Australia, and half as large again as Africa ; but 
 is considerably smaller in area than Asia. It is 
 customary to regard Greenland as a part of Amer- 
 ica ; while the adjacent island of Iceland, though 
 partially in the western hemisphere, is usually 
 associated with Europe. The other principal 
 American islands in the Atlantic are Newfound- 
 land, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward 
 Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles 
 or West Indies, Joannes, the Falkland Islands, 
 Staten Land, and South Georgia. At the south- 
 ern extremity of America lies the archipelago of 
 Fuegia (Tierra del Fuego). In the Pacific are the 
 Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and 
 Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other 
 British-Columbian Islands ; the Santa Barbara 
 group, Revilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and 
 others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galapagos, 
 Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe 
 and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic 
 Ocean there are many large but unimportant 
 islands. 
 
 The American continent consists of two prin- 
 cipal parts. North America and South America, 
 which are connected by the narrow Isthmus of 
 Panama, These two bodies of land, thougli 
 differing very much in climate and productions, 
 are much alike in several respects. Each is of 
 triangular outline, with the shortest side to the 
 north, and with a narrow southern prolongation. 
 In outline. North and South America have each 
 
AMERICA 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 a certain resemblance to Africa. The two Amer- 
 icas have each a high range of volcanic moun- 
 tains, extending from north to south along the 
 west coast, a broad central plain, and a relatively 
 low eastern mountain-range. Their great rivers 
 have also some features in common, especially in 
 regard to their direction. America is called the 
 New World ; and from the historical point of 
 view, this name is obviously appropriate; but 
 geologically it may be called the Old World, 
 since the oldest known strata have their widest 
 development on its surface ; and there have been 
 here found relics of prehistoric man, which must 
 be regarded as among the oldest yet discovered. 
 
 North America has an area of more than 
 9,000,000 sq. m. It is considerably larger than 
 South America, which is in turn larger than 
 Europe and Australia combined. The western 
 mountain-system of North America comprises 
 a very great number of minor ranges, mostly 
 having a north and south direction. The main 
 chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve 
 an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast 
 Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Moun- 
 tains are the most noted of the western parallel 
 ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and 
 they contain some of the highest of North 
 American peaks. The elevated plateau called 
 the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada, 
 U.S.), contains the Great Salt Lake and several 
 smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently 
 the remains of a much larger lake which once 
 sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great 
 Appalachian mountain-system has a general NNE. 
 direction, nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast- 
 line. 
 
 North of the St Lawrence River is seen the 
 vast and complicated mountain-system of the 
 Laurentides, which extend from the Atlantic 
 westward to near Lake Superior. The highest 
 mountain in North America is Mount McKinley, 
 in Alaska (20,464 feet). Orizaba, in Mexico, is 
 18,250 feet; Mount Logan, in Yukon, 19,539; 
 Mount St Elias, long believed to be the highest 
 summit, 18,024. Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, 
 in Mexico, are 17,520 feet and 16,960 feet respec- 
 tively. Many other peaks are over 14,000 feet. 
 
 A very remarkable feature of North America 
 is the great central plain which reaches from the 
 Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. A promi- 
 nent feature of the central plain is the Hauteur 
 des Terres, a high ridge, whence flow the Missis- 
 sippi, the Red River, the St Lawrence, and the 
 Winnipeg. This ridge is nowhere over 2000 feet 
 high, and its ascent is extremely gradual. The 
 most general name for the great plains of North 
 America is prairie; there are local distinctions 
 between timbered and bald or treeless prairies ; 
 and few prairies are of a dead-level surface, and 
 many are ' rolling '—that is, their surface is a 
 succession of low wave-like swells and depres- 
 sions. 
 
 The coast-line of North America on the west 
 is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the 
 south of Puget Sound, good harbours are rare ; 
 but British Columbia and Alaska have great 
 numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being, 
 in many places, deeply cut with high-walled 
 Qords, or 'canals,' and elsewhere sheltered by 
 ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The 
 Atlantic coast, to the north of New York Bay, is 
 generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, 
 and has abundance of good natural harbours ; 
 but south of the parallel of New York, the coast 
 of the mainland is almost everywhere low and 
 sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by 
 
 river-mouths, and have sand-bars across their 
 entrances. Nowliere else in the woi'ld is there 
 any such extent of low and sandy coast as on 
 the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United 
 States. 
 
 In general, Canada and the Atlantic slope are 
 well watered and have abundant rains. Along a 
 narrow strip on the Pacific slope, from San Fran- 
 cisco southward to Acapulco, the water-supply 
 is deficient, and the interior regions near the 
 coast have locally a desert character ; while from 
 Acapulco southward the rainfall is ample for all 
 needs. The central valley is generally well sup- 
 plied with water ; but to the west of the Missis- 
 sippi there are but scanty sununer rains. As the 
 Rocky Mountains are approached, the water- 
 supply becomes more deficient ; and, except 
 where irrigation is practicable, agriculture proper 
 generally gives place to the grazing of cattle. 
 But in the Canadian part of the central valley 
 there is ordinarily no deficiency of rainfall. In 
 the Rocky Mountain region, the summers are 
 generally very dry ; and in some sections, irriga- 
 tion is required in order to produce crops. Still 
 the great volume and length of the North 
 American rivers, and the immense number of 
 lakes, are sufficient proof of the amplitude of 
 the general rainfall. In the Rocky Mountain 
 region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Eraser, 
 Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take 
 their rise. Between these mountains and Hud- 
 son Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas 
 (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, 
 Winnipeg, and others), are seen to form a regu- 
 lar succession running from the Arctic Circle in 
 a SSE. course to Lake Superior (412 by 167 
 miles), which is itself the largest fresh-water 
 lake in the world, and the first of a wonderful 
 chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper 
 St Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron, 
 Erie, and Ontario). The line of these great lakes 
 (from Great Bear Lake to tlie Lake of the Woods 
 inclusive) marks the eastern limit of a fertile 
 prairie region resting on fossiliferous rocks. East 
 of this line we find a vast wilderness of ' Barren 
 Grounds.' North of the St Lawrence system, 
 almost the whole country is thickly studded 
 with lakes, which, with their connecting streams, 
 form a network of important waterways travers- 
 able by canoes and boats. 
 
 The Atlantic slope of the United States is well 
 supplied with water, and many of its streams 
 afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is 
 noted for its fine scenery ; the Potomac is one 
 of the noblest of American rivers ; and important 
 streams flowing to tlie Atlantic are the St John, 
 the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimao 
 (noted as affording more utilised water-power 
 than any other river in the world), the Connecti- 
 cut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James, 
 and the St John's, nearly all navigable in their 
 lower courses. The chief rivers flowing to the 
 Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile, 
 the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the 
 Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas, and 
 the Rio Grande. 
 
 Of the many large Alaskan rivers, the principal 
 are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser 
 is a swift and strong river ; the great river Col- 
 umbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon- 
 fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio 
 Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of Cali- 
 fornia, traverses a desert plateau. Here, nearly 
 every watercourse runs in a deep-walled canon, 
 a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of 
 prodigious height. 
 
AMERICA 
 
 The winter cold and the summer heat of North 
 America are extreme, when we consider the 
 latitudes. Variations of temperature are more 
 sudden and more extreme than in South America 
 or Western Europe. The arctic portion of North 
 America has a climate of extreme severity ; and 
 much of the northern sub-arctic region has a 
 decidedly arctic climate. South of tlie Canadian 
 line, we are still in the spring- wheat belt ; and 
 not till we go south 4 or 5 degrees of latitude do 
 we enter the winter-wheat belt. Maize is planted 
 in the warmer parts of Canada, and in nearly all 
 the more southern parts of North America. The 
 other cereals grown in the United States are 
 much the same as those ordinarily produced in 
 Europe. Sugar-cane is raised only in the most 
 southern parts of the United States, and in lati- 
 tudes still farther south. Tobacco is an im- 
 portant crop not only in tropical America, but 
 nearly as far north as Canada. Cotton reaches 
 its northern limit in California, Missouri, and 
 Virginia. True rice is grown in the more southern 
 United States. Throughout the Atlantic and 
 Gulf slopes of North America, the winter climate 
 is much more severe than in corresponding Euro- 
 pean latitudes. It will be observed that nearly 
 all the cultivated crop-products of North America 
 (except maize, potatoes, and tobacco) are of Old- 
 World origin. The same thing is true in a less 
 degree of the cultivated fruits. The European 
 apple thrives even better in North America than 
 in Europe ; so lilcewise do the peach, the pear, 
 and other fruits. But the grapes generally cul- 
 tivated in America are of native or hybrid origin ; 
 although the European grape does well in Cali- 
 fornia and Mexico. The cranberries, straw- 
 berries, and some of the other cultivated small 
 fruits of North America, are of native origin, as 
 are some of the more hardy varieties of the plum. 
 Subtropical fruits, such as the orange, fig, and 
 lemon, do well in that limited part of non-tropi- 
 cal North America which lies south of the frost- 
 line. The mineral treasures of North America 
 are vast ; coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, 
 and petroleum being abundant, besides salt and 
 other valuable products. 
 
 The native peoples of North and South America 
 alike would appear to have been all of one race, 
 although the Eskimo of the far North resemble 
 the 'Indian,' or copper-coloured native races, 
 not so much in appearance and in physical 
 features, as in the polysynthetic or incorporative 
 character of their system of word-building. The 
 present population of North America contains 
 a copious element of the Indian stock, chiefly 
 found in the remoter parts of Canada and in 
 Mexico and Central America. In Spanish Amer- 
 ica and in Manitoba (Canada), there are many 
 persons of mixed white and Indian origin. The 
 Spanish language is spoken in Central America, 
 Mexico, Cuba, and Puerto Rico ; French prevails 
 in parts of Canada and Louisiana, and in some 
 of the West Indies ; and a German dialect pre- 
 vails locally in Pennsylvania. But by far the 
 largest share of the North American people are 
 English in language, if not in descent. 
 
 The political divisions of North America are 
 (1) Danish America, which includes Greenland, 
 and three small islands of the Virgin group in 
 the West Indies. (2) British North America, in 
 which division we may place the Dominion of 
 Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, 
 the numerous British West Indian islands, and 
 British Honduras. (3) Tlie United States, includ- 
 ing the detached territory of Alaska. (4) Mexico. 
 (5) The Central American republics of Honduras, 
 
 31 AMERICA 
 
 Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, 
 together with Panama — unless its southern part 
 be regarded as belonging to the South American 
 continent. (6) Tlie West Indian republics of 
 Hayti and Sau Domingo. (7) The Dutch West 
 Indies. See the articles on the separate states 
 and colonies. 
 
 The population of North America, with the 
 West Indies, is not less than 105,000,000 souls, of 
 whom 7,000,000 may be of Indian descent. The 
 very great majority of North American Indians, 
 who fall into about a dozen stocks or groups of 
 tribes, are found in Mexico and Central America. 
 The people of African stock number at least 
 11,000,000, most of whom are natives of the 
 United States, The original slave element was 
 derived from almost every coast-region of the 
 African continent. 
 
 South America has somewhat the same general 
 shape on the map as North America, and the 
 semi-continents have many features in common, 
 as well as certain marked contrasts. The broad- 
 est part of each is towards the north ; but the 
 )iorthern portion of North America is a frozen 
 and most repelling region, having its coasts 
 washed by a trackless frozen ocean, filled with 
 barren and ice-crowned islands ; while the Carib- 
 bean Sea, which lies north of the southern half 
 of the continent, is entirely tropical, and is 
 encircled by a chain of rich and beautiful islands, 
 where frosts are never seen. The climates are 
 therefore reversed. The greater portion of North 
 America has either a cold or a temperate cliuiate ; 
 while that part of South America which is of 
 corresponding position and importance has a hot 
 climate. The tropical region of North America 
 is relatively small in area ; while in South Amer- 
 ica it is much the smaller part which has a cold 
 climate. Moreover, the winter cold of Patagonia, 
 Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands is 
 never extreme, like that of so great a part of 
 North America. Even Tierra del Fuego, which 
 has a terribly bleak and blustering wet and 
 windy climate, is never very cold. The summers 
 of the extreme south of America are indeed 
 relatively cold, but the winters are correspond- 
 ingly mild ; that is to say, the climate is more 
 steady and less changeable than that of North 
 America. 
 
 The Andes, or South American Cordilleras, 
 have some features in common with the great 
 North American Cordilleras, the Rocky Moun- 
 tain system. They both extend north and south ; 
 both are near the west coast ; both are volcanic ; 
 and both cut off the rains from a considerable 
 region, rendering the climate locally very dry. 
 But the Andes are much more nearly continu- 
 ous ; they are a much more complete barrier to 
 the traveller and merchant, as well as to the 
 rain-bearing winds of the Atlantic ; they have 
 a much greater absolute height, and contain a 
 far greater number of very lofty peaks. Their 
 volcanic activity is also at present much more 
 intense than is seen at any point in North 
 America north of the Tehuantepec Isthmus. The 
 dry or desert region west of the Andes is far 
 more extensive and far more completely arid 
 than the corresponding section of North America. 
 To the east of the Andes, and as it were reclining 
 against them, there is an enormous and lofty 
 plateau on which are scattered various extinct 
 or dormant volcanic peaks ; but the western 
 slope of the Andes is usually very steep. In 
 some parts of the eastern sub- Andean plain there 
 appear complicated (but generally north and 
 south) ranges of lower mountains, occasionally 
 
AMERICA 
 
 AMERSHAM 
 
 Bending out an arm of hills into the plains of 
 the interior. The really temperate part of South 
 America, including most of Chili, Uruguay, and 
 the Argentine Republic, has a mild, and for the 
 most part singularly equable and agreeable clim- 
 ate ; although Northern Chili is a hot and arid 
 desert, and the southern third of that country, 
 including the Chonos Archipelago, is drenched 
 with continual rains. The greater and most 
 characteristic region of South America is the 
 tropical portion. For a tropical country the 
 climate is in general remarkably fine, regular, 
 and healthful. A marked feature is the large 
 and regular rainfall, caused by the Andes, which 
 here stand exactly across the course of the trade- 
 winds. These winds, carried gradually upwards 
 by the shelving plateaus, till they reach the cold 
 Andean summit-region, precipitate nearly all 
 their moisture, and leave the narrow strip of 
 land west of the Andes a desert. Towards the 
 north and south, the Pacific slope, being out of 
 the highway of the trade-winds, receives abun- 
 dant moisture from the Pacific. Owing to the 
 enormous rainfall of tropical South America, it 
 is above all others the land of great rivers. The 
 three great river-systems of the Orinoco, the 
 Amazon, and the Plata are all primarily devel- 
 oped upon the eastern terraces of the Andes ; 
 but the Plata derives its main water-supply from 
 the Brazilian mountains. Other large rivers are 
 the Magdaleiia in Colombia, the Sao Francisco 
 in Brazil, and the Rio Negro in the Argentine 
 Republic. South America has few large lakes. 
 Lake Titicaca being one of the most remarkable ; 
 but the slopes of the Southern Andes abound in 
 smaller lakes, doubtless of glacial origin. 
 
 The interior of South America presents con- 
 siderable variety. In the central and southern 
 portion of Venezuela we iind extensive steppes 
 or prairies, here called llanos ; an open region, 
 in part treeless, but in general grassy and devoted 
 to pasturage. To the east and west of these the 
 country is for the most part densely wooded. 
 The vast forest-clad plain of the Amazon is of 
 fluviatile origin. Towards the southern tropic 
 we encounter a region which, though little de- 
 veloped, appears to be one of the finest and most 
 fertile on the globe. Farther south the forests 
 begin to disappear, and finally end in the great 
 treeless pampas of the Argentine Republic. The 
 Patagonian region south of the pampas consists 
 largely of a succession of terraces rising west- 
 ward to the Andes, and crossed by many swift 
 and copious rivers. Here are seen vast fields 
 covered with loose stones and shingle, recalling 
 the enormous boulder-covered waste of Labrador. 
 Farther south lies the Fuegian Archipelago, a 
 gloomy and unpleasant region with a bleak 
 climate. 
 
 The mineral wealth of South America is very 
 great, including gold, silver, mercury, copper, 
 diamonds, and coal. 
 
 The agricultural capabilities of a large part of 
 South America are unquestionably very great. 
 Stock-breeding is the leading industry on the 
 pampas of the south, and on the llanos and 
 campos of the north. Coffee-growing is a pro- 
 minent pursuit in Brazil. The cereal grains 
 thrive remarkably in the temperate regions. 
 Sugar, tobacco, and cotton are produced in 
 the warmer latitudes. Silver, copper, iodine, 
 nitrates, guano, hay, and provisions are shipped 
 from the west coast. From the La Plata coun- 
 tries wool and various cattle products still take 
 the lead, although flour and grain are becoming 
 important staples of export. Peruvian bark and 
 
 other medicines, india-rubber, cabinet-woods, 
 chocolate, tobacco, and fruits are shipped from 
 the tropical and forest-regions of the north. 
 
 The aboriginal population of South America is 
 divided into a large number of tribes, which have 
 been grouped under some eight difterent stocks. 
 The white population is largely Spanish in lan- 
 guage and descent, excejit in Brazil, where Por- 
 tuguese is spoken. The common people of Chili 
 are largely of Gallician (Spanish) descent ; while 
 Basque blood is said to prevail in Peru. The 
 Brazilian whites are to a considerable extent of 
 Azorean and Madeira stock. There are numbers 
 of German colonists in Brazil, the La Plata 
 countries, and Chili ; and also many Italians, 
 Basques, and other Europeans in the Argentine 
 Republic and Uruguay. The English language 
 is spoken in the Falklands and in Guiana ; French 
 and Dutch prevail in parts of Guiana. The negro 
 element is strong in Brazil, in parts of Peru, and 
 in Guiana ; and there are many persons of mixed 
 descent. It is believed that the total population 
 of South America is about 38,000,000. 
 
 A considerable number of the islands iisually 
 reckoned as West Indian, and assigned by most 
 geographers to North America, are really conti- 
 nental and South American. Such are the large 
 British colony of Trinidad ; the Venezuelan island 
 of Marguerita ; and the Dutch island of Curagoa. 
 
 All the states of America, each with a separate 
 article, are either republics or colonies. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 Area in 
 8(1- m. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 United States 
 
 3,025,600 
 
 3,556,350 
 
 766,000 
 
 172,700 
 
 320,000 
 
 1.062.800 
 
 96,550 
 
 76,085,794 
 
 British America, including ) 
 Canada, Newfoundlan.l, Ber- V 
 muda, British Honduras » 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America, including San ) 
 Salvador, Nicaragua, Hon- \ 
 duras, Guatemala, Costa Rica ) 
 
 Greenland (Danish) 
 
 5,639,201 
 
 13,545,462 
 
 3,984,721 
 
 10 516 
 
 
 
 
 6,340,267 
 
 
 
 ToUl 
 
 9.000,000 
 
 105,605.961 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. m. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 
 417.000 
 
 332,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 528,000 
 
 536,000 
 
 1,970,000 
 
 72,700 
 
 57.300 
 
 218,900 
 
 170..'>00 
 
 3,288,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 2,444.816 
 3,878,600 
 1.20.5,600 
 4,609,999 
 
 Colombia and Panama 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 930.680 
 
 6:i6,.571 
 
 3.128.09,^ 
 
 407.553 
 
 14,339,915 
 
 2,043 
 
 Guiana (Brit..Freiich.Dutch) 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Falkland Islands (British).. . 
 
 
 7.756.900 
 
 
 
 
 Grand Total of America 
 
 16,756,900 
 
 143.771.656 
 
 Amersfoort, an ancient town of the Nether- 
 lands, 14 miles NE. of Utrecht by rail. It has a 
 large trade in grain ; and manufactures of brandy, 
 cotton, and woollen goods, leather, soap, and 
 beer. Here was born the statesman Olden- 
 barneveld. Pop. 18,182. 
 
 Amersham, a town of Bucks, 7J miles ENB. 
 of Wycombe. Pop. 3210. 
 
AMESBURY 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 Amesbury, a coursing ground in Wiltshire, 
 near Stonehenge, and 7i miles N. of Salisbury. 
 
 Amesbury, a township of Massachusetts, 38 
 miles by rail N. of Boston, with woollen and 
 carriage factories. Pop. 9473. 
 
 Amha'ra ('the high lands'), the middle and 
 largest of the three divisions of Abyssinia, 
 extending from the Tacazze to the Blue Nile, and 
 embracing the beautiful Lake Tzana. Capital, 
 Gondar (q.v.). 
 
 Amherst, a seaport of Tenasserim, Burma, on 
 the Bay of Bengal, at the mouth of the Sal win,, 
 80 miles S. of Maulmain. Founded in 1826 as 
 capital of the newly-ceded province, it was next 
 year superseded by Maulmain. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Amherst, a seaport of Nova Scotia, at the head 
 of Cumberland Basin, an inlet of the Bay of 
 Fundy ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Amherst, in Massachusetts, 20 miles N. of 
 Springfield, is seat of Amherst College (Congrega- 
 tional) and of an agricultural college ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Amherstburg, a town of Ontario, Canada, at 
 the head of Lake Erie, 4 miles S. of Detroit ; 
 pop. 2272. 
 
 Amiens (Fr. pron. Am-i-ovP ; anc. Samarobriva), 
 a French city, capital once of Picardy, and now of 
 the dep. of Somme, on the many-channelled, 
 navigable Somme, 81 miles N. of Paris by rail. 
 Its fortifications have been turned into charming 
 boulevards, but it still retains its old citadel. 
 The cathedral of Notre Dame is a masterpiece of 
 Gothic architecture. Begun in 1220, it is 452 
 feet long, and has a spire (1529) 426 feet high ; 
 but its special feature is the loftiness of the nave, 
 141 feet. In his little work called The Bihle of 
 Amiens, Ruskin says this church well deserves the 
 name given it by VioUet-le-Duc, ' the Parthenon 
 of Gothic architecture,' and affirms that its style 
 is ' Gothic pure, authoritative, and unaccusable.' 
 Other noteworthy buildings are the H6tel-de- 
 Ville (1600-1760), in which the Peace of Amiens 
 was signed in 1802 ; the large museum (1864), in 
 Renaissance style ; and the public library (1791), 
 with 70,000 volumes. Amiens has considerable 
 manufactures of velvet, silk, woollen, and cotton 
 goods, ribbons, and carpets. Peter the Hermit 
 and Ducange were natives, and there are statues 
 to both of them. In the Franco-German war, on 
 27th November 1870, General Manteuffel inflicted, 
 near Amiens, a signal defeat on a French army 
 30,000 strong, r.nd three days later the citadel 
 surrendered. Pop. (1872) 61,063 ; (1901) 90,758. 
 
 Amirante Islands, a group of eleven low, 
 wooded islands lying SW. of the Seychelles, 
 opposite the "east coast of Africa. Area, 32 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 100 French-speaking half-breds. They 
 fell to Great Britain in 1814, and form a depend- 
 ency of Mauritius. 
 
 Am'lwch (pron. w as oo), a small seaport of 
 Anglesey, North "Wales, on the north coast of the 
 island, 21^ miles NNW. of the Menai Bridge by 
 rail (1867). It is a busy but rather dirty town, 
 with the neighbouring rich copper-mines of the 
 Parys Mountain. Till 1885 Amlwch united with 
 Beaumaris, &c. in returning one member. Pop. 
 of parish, 4443. 
 
 Ammergau. See Ober-Ammeroau. 
 
 Amol, a town of Persia, 76 miles NE. of 
 Teheran, on the Heraz, a river which flows into 
 the Caspian ; pop. 10,000. 
 
 Amoor. See Amur. 
 
 Amoy*, a seaport of China, on a small island of 
 the same name, in the province of Fukien, 325 
 C 
 
 miles ENE. of Canton direct. The third in im- 
 portance of the treaty ports, it was one of the 
 earliest seats of European commerce in China, 
 the Portuguese having had establishments here 
 in the 16th, and the Dutch in the 17th century. 
 In 1841 it was taken by the British, and by the 
 treaty of Nankin, a British consul and British 
 subjects were permitted to reside there. The 
 trade is now open to all nations. The imports 
 are opium, rice, cotton-twist, British long-cloths, 
 beans, peas, umbrellas, clocks, &c. ; the exports 
 are tea, sugar, paper, opium, grass-cloths, gold- 
 leaf, &c. Pop. 95,600. The island of Amoy, 
 measuring 9 by 7 miles, has 400,000 inhabitants, 
 
 Ampthill, a town of Bedfordshire, 7 miles S. 
 by W. of Bedford. Pop. of parish, 2194. 
 
 Amraoti (sometimes Oomrawuttee), a district in 
 Berar, British India, with an area of 2759 sq. m., 
 and a pop. of 675,328. Its capital, Amraoti, is 
 an important cotton-mart, the terminus of a 
 state branch railway ; i)op. 28,550. 
 
 Amritsar (often Umritsir), a well-built city of 
 the Punjab, 32 miles E. of Lahore by rail. It is 
 the religious metropolis of the Sikhs, a distinction 
 which, along with its name (literally, 'pool of 
 immortality '), it owes to its sacred tank, in the 
 midst of which stands the marble temple of the 
 Sikh faith. Founded in 1574, but all of it more 
 recent than 1762, it possesses considerable manu- 
 factures of cashmere shawls, cotton, silks, &c., 
 and carries on trade to the annual value of 
 £3,500,000. Pop. (1901) 162,500. 
 
 Amroha, a town in the United Provinces of 
 India, 20 miles NW. of Moradabad ; pop. 37,000. 
 
 Amrum, a north Frisian island off the coast 
 of Sleswick, SW. of Fbhr, is a low-lying half- 
 moon of grassy downs, 8 miles long, of late visited 
 as a health-resort. Oysters are taken and wild 
 ducks decoyed. Pop. 1000. 
 
 Amsterdam (' dam ' or ' dike of the Amstel '), 
 the capital of the Netherlands, is situated at the 
 influx of the Amstel to the Ij or Y (pron. eye), 
 an arm (now mostly drained) of the Zuider-Zee, 
 44.1 miles NNE. of Rotterdam by rail. It is 
 divided by the Amstel and numerous canals into 
 a hundred small islands, connected by more than 
 300 bridges. Almost the whole city, which 
 extends in the shape of a crescent, is founded on 
 piles driven 40 or 50 feet through soft peat and 
 sand to a firm substratum of clay. Merely a 
 fishing-village at the beginning of the 13th cen- 
 tury, with a small castle, in 1482 it was walled 
 and fortified. After the revolt of the seven pro- 
 vinces (1566), it speedily rose to be their first 
 commercial city ; and in 1585 it was enlarged by 
 the building of the New Town on the west. The 
 establishment of the Dutch East India Company 
 (1602) did nuich to forward the well-being of 
 Amsterdam, which, twenty years later, had 100,000 
 inhabitants. It had to surrender to the Prussians 
 in 1787, to the French in 1795 ; and the union of 
 Holland with France in 1810 entirely destroyed 
 its foreign trade. The old firms, however, lived 
 through the time of difficulty, and in 1815 com- 
 merce again began to expand — an expansion 
 greatly promoted by the opening of the North 
 Holland Canal (1825), and the North Sea Canal 
 (1876). 
 
 The city has a fine appearance when seen from 
 the harbour, or from the high bridge over the 
 Amstel. Church towers and spires, and a perfect 
 forest of masts, relieve the flatness of the pros- 
 pect. The old ramparts have been levelled, 
 planted with trees, and formed into promenades. 
 Thethreecbief canals— the Heerengracht, Keizers- 
 
AMSTERDAM 
 
 34 
 
 ANCONA 
 
 gracht, and Prinsengracht — run in semicircles 
 within each other, and are from 2 to 3 miles long. 
 On each side of them, with a row of trees and a 
 carriage-way intervening, are handsome resi- 
 dences. The building-material is brick ; and the 
 houses have their gables towards the streets, 
 which gives them a picturesque appearance. 
 The defences of Amsterdam now consist in a row 
 of detached forts, and in the sluices, several 
 miles distant from the city, which can flood 
 (save in time of frost) the surrounding land. 
 
 The population, which from 217,024 in 1794, 
 sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose to upwards of 638,000 
 in 1902, of wliom the majority belong to the Dutch 
 Reformed Church. The chief industrial establish- 
 ments are sugar refineries, engineering works, 
 mills for polishing diamonds and other precious 
 stones, dockyards, manufactories of sails, ropes, 
 tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate and jewelry, 
 colours and chemicals, breweries, distilleries, 
 with export houses for corn and colonial pro- 
 duce ; cotton-spinning, book-printing, and type- 
 founding are also carried on. The present Bank 
 of the Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam's 
 famous bank of 1609 having been dissolved in 
 1796. 
 
 The former Stadhuis (' Townhouse '), converted 
 in 1808 into a palace for King Louis Bonaparte, 
 and still retained by the reigning family, is a 
 noble structure of 1648-55, 282 feet long, and 235 
 broad, with a round tower rising 182 feet. It has 
 a hall, 120 feet long, 57 wide, and 90 high, lined 
 with white Italian marble. The cruciform Nieuwe 
 Kerk (New Church), a Gothic edifice of 1408-14, 
 lias a splendidly carved pulpit, and the tombs of 
 Admiral de Ruyter and Vondel. The 14th-cen- 
 tury Old Church (Oude Kerk) is rich in painted 
 glass, has a grand organ, and contains several 
 monuments of naval heroes. Literature and 
 science are represented by a university supported 
 by the municipal principality, museums and 
 picture-galleries, a botanical garden, several 
 theatres, &c. The new Ryksmuseum contains a 
 truly national collection of paintings, its choicest 
 treasure Rembrandt's ' Night-guard. ' Rembrandt 
 made Amsterdam his home ; and his statue (1852) 
 now fronts the house he occupied. Spinoza was 
 a native. A water-supply was introduced in 1853. 
 
 Amsterdam, a manufacturing town of New 
 York, on the Mohawk River, 33 miles NW. of 
 Albany. Pop. 22,000. 
 
 Amsterdam, a barren volcanic islet annexed 
 by France, with the islet of St Paul, in 1893, is 
 in 37° 50' S. lat. and 77° 30' E. long., about 
 midway between the Cape of Good Hope and 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Amu-Daria. See Oxus. 
 
 Amur (Amoor), or Sakhalin, a river formed by 
 the junction of the Shilka and the Argun, which 
 both come ft-om the south-west— the former 
 rising in the foothills of the Yablonoi Mountains. 
 From the junction, the river flows 3000 miles 
 south-eastward and north-eastward to tlie Sea 
 of Okhotsk, opposite the island of Saghalien. 
 Its main tributaries are the Sungari and the 
 Usurl, both from the south. Above the Usuri, 
 the Amur is the boundary between Siberia and 
 Manchuria; below it, the river runs through 
 Russian territory. It is very valuable for 
 navigation, and carries a considerable fleet of 
 steamers, but on account of the bar at its 
 mouth, goods are generally disembarked, and 
 carried overland to Alexandrovsk. The river 
 is frozen for six months of the year ; in sunimer 
 tJiere are extensive inundations. 
 
 From 1636, Russian adventurers made excur- 
 sions into the Chinese territories of the Lower 
 Amur ; but it was not until 1854-56 that two 
 military expeditions established the stations of 
 Alexandrovsk and Nikolaevsk. In 1858 China 
 agreed to the treaty of Tientsin, by which the 
 left bank of the Amur, and all the territory 
 north of it, became Russian ; and below the 
 confluence of the Usuri, both banks. In 1860 
 Russia acquired the wide territory extending 
 from the Amur and the Usuri to the Pacific 
 coast, with harbours on the Pacific in a com- 
 paratively temperate latitude, where navigation 
 is impeded by ice for not more than three or 
 four months a year. 
 
 This vast territory falls into two Russian 
 provinces — the Maritime Province between the 
 Usuri and the sea, and the government of 
 Amur, north of the river. The latter has an 
 area of 172,850 sq. m., and a pop. of 122,640, 
 mostly belonging to the Tungusic stock. The 
 capital is, since 1882, Khabarovka, and not, as 
 formerly, Blagovestschensk. Nikolaevsk, once 
 the only important place in these regions, is on 
 the Amur, 26 miles from its mouth, where the 
 river is IJ mile wide, and in places 15 feet deep. 
 Near the southern end of the Maritime Province 
 (area, 715,980 sq. m. ; pop. 221,750) is situated 
 the important harbour of Vladivostok (' Rule of 
 the East'), or Port May, which, in 1872, was 
 placed in telegraphic communication with Europe 
 by the China submarine cable. Vladivostok la 
 one terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway com- 
 menced in 1891. The island of Saghalien (q.v.) is 
 also a part of the Amur region in the wider sense. 
 
 Amurnath, a cave in Cashmere, amidst the 
 mountains on the north-east boundary. It is an 
 opening in a gypsum rock, 30 yards high, and 20 
 in depth. Believed to be the residence of the 
 god Siva, it is visited by multitudes of pilgrims. 
 
 Anadyr, a gulf of North-east Siberia, into 
 which flows the Anadyr River after a course of 
 500 miles from the Stanovoi Mountains. 
 
 Anagni, a town of Italy, on a hill, 40 miles 
 ESE. of Rome. The seat of a bishop since 487, 
 it was the birthplace of popes Innocent III., 
 Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and Boniface VIII. 
 Pop. 6347. 
 
 Anahuac ('near the water'), the original name 
 of the ancient kingdom of Mexico. 
 
 Anam. See Annam. 
 
 Ananiev, a town of Southern Russia, 100 miles 
 N. of Odessa ; pop. 16,449. 
 
 Anapa, a Russian seaport on the east shore of 
 the Black Sea, 50 miles SE. of Yenikale; pop. 7037. 
 
 Anatolia. See Asia Minor. 
 
 Anco'na, the capital of a province in Italy, on 
 a promontory of the Adriatic, 127 miles SE. of 
 Ravenna by rail. Its harbour had become much 
 silted up, but in 1887 was improved and deepened ; 
 and it is still the most important seaport be- 
 tween Venice and Brindisi. The manufactures 
 are silk, ships' rigging, leather, tobacco, and soft 
 soap ; the exports (declining) are cream-of- tartar, 
 lamb and goat skins, asphalt, bitumen, corn, 
 hemp, coral, and silk. Since 1815, the old citadel 
 was the only fortification until, recently, strong 
 forts were erected on the neighbouring heights. 
 A mole 2000 feet long, built by Trajan, and a 
 triumphal arch of the same emperor, are the 
 most notable antiquities ; the cathedral was built 
 in the 11th c. Pop. (1901) 57,000. Founded 
 about 380 B.C. by Syracusans, Ancona was de- 
 stroyed by the Goths, rebuilt by Narses, and 
 
ANCRUM MOOR 35 
 
 again destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th 
 century. It afterwards became a republic, but 
 in 1532 was annexed to the States of the Church. 
 In 1797 it was taken by the French, but sur- 
 rendered to the Russians and Austrians. During 
 1832-38 a French force held it ; in 1849 a revolu- 
 tionary garrison capitulated to the Austrians ; 
 and in 1861 it was incorporated in the kingdom 
 of Italy.— The March of Ancona Avas the name 
 applied to the territory lying between the Adriatic 
 and the Apennines, from Tronto NW. to San 
 Marino. 
 
 Ancnim Moor, Roxburghshire, 5\ miles NW. 
 of Jedburgh, was in 1544 the scene of the defeat 
 of 5000 English. 
 
 Andalu'sia (Span. Andahici'a), a large and 
 fertile region occupying the south of Spain, and 
 washed both by the Mediterranean and the 
 Atlantic. The name is a form of Vandalitia or 
 Vandalusia, from the Vandals, who overran it 
 in the 5th century. The biblical Tarshish prob- 
 ably, it was the seat of a splendid Moorish 
 monarchy from the 8th century a.d. to 1235-48. 
 Andalusia mainly consists of the great basin 
 of the Guadalquivir; in the south, the Sierra 
 Nevada attains a height of 11,657 feet. It is 
 still one of the most fertile districts of Spain, 
 with celebrated breeds of horses and mules, it 
 is divided into the provinces of Almeria, Jaen, 
 Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordova, and 
 Granada. The chief towns are Seville, Cordova, 
 Jaen, and Cadiz. Area, 33,340 sq. m. Pop. 
 8,470,089. 
 
 An'damans, a group of thickly wooded islands 
 towards the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 680 
 miles S. of the Hooghly mouth of the Ganges. 
 They consist of the Great and Little Andaman 
 groups. The former group, more than 150 miles 
 long and 20 miles broad, comprises four islands, 
 the North, Middle, and South Andaman, and 
 Rutland Island. The Little Andaman, 30 miles 
 S. of the larger group, is 28 miles long by 17 
 miles broad. The total area is 2508 sq. m. The 
 dark, dwarfish natives, seldom five feet high, 
 stand also in the lowest stage of civilisation. 
 Their number in Great Andaman is about 2000 ; 
 in Little Andaman, from 1000 to 1500. A British 
 settlement was made on North Andaman in 1789, 
 but abandoned in 1796 for Penang. The present 
 capital is Port Blair, on South Andaman, the 
 largest island of the group. The harbour here is 
 one of the finest in the world. Since 1858, the 
 Andamans have been used by the Indian govern- 
 ment as a penal settlement for sepoy mutineers 
 and other life-convicts. In 1901 the population 
 of the convict colony was 18,670, of whom 2240 
 were women. In 1872 Lord Mayo, viceroy of 
 India, was' assassinated at Hopetown on Viper 
 Island by a Mussulman convict. 
 
 Andelys, Les, a town in the Norman dep. 
 of Eure, 20 miles NE. of Evreux. Chateau 
 Gaillard was built here by Richard CcBur de Lion 
 to command the Seine. Pop. 5509. 
 
 Andenne, a town of Belgium, 12 miles E. of 
 Naraur by rail ; pop. 7903. 
 
 Anderab, a town in Afghan Turkestan, on the 
 northern slope of the Hindu Kush Mountains, 80 
 miles SSE. of Kunduz ; pop. 6500. 
 
 Andermatt, or Urserk, a Swiss village in the 
 canton of Uri, 18 miles S. of the Lake of Lucerne. 
 Pop. 750. 
 
 Andernach (Roman Autunnacvm), a town of 
 Rhenisli Prussia, on the Rhine, 11 nnles NW. of 
 <;;oblenz by rail. It was a residence of the Mero- 
 
 ANDES 
 
 vingian kings, and afterwards one of the most 
 flourishing places on the Rhine. A great tower, 
 a fine church, and the ruined castle of the arch- 
 bishops of Cologne, give it quite a mediaeval 
 aspect. Pop. 7781. 
 
 Anderson, capital of Madison county, Indiana, 
 on the west fork of White River, 30 miles by rail 
 NE. of Indianopolis. It manufactures engines, 
 carriages, furnitui-e, &c. Pop. (1880) 4126 ; (1890) 
 10,741. ; (1900) 20,178. 
 
 Andersonvllle, a village in Georgia, U.S., 60 
 miles SW. of Macon by rail, noted as having been 
 the seat of a Confederate States military prison. 
 
 Andes (said to be derived from the Peruvian 
 anti, copper, metal), a lofty mountain-system of 
 South America, extending north and south along 
 the whole Pacific coast, and really a continuation 
 of the vast and complicated mountain-system of 
 Western North America, though on the Isthmus 
 of Darien the height of the connecting ridges is 
 less than 130 feet. The mountains of the Fuegian 
 Archipelago, south of the mainland of South 
 America, including Cape Horn and Diego 
 Ramirez, must be held to belong to this system. 
 Without allowing for curves, the Andes extend 
 some 4500 miles. The Patagonian portion of the 
 system is much cut by steep ravines, some- 
 times partly filled with glaciers, and not seldom 
 occupied by deep arms of the sea. On both 
 east and west sides of the ranges vegetation is 
 luxuriant, due to the excessive abundance of the 
 rainfall. Between lat. 42° and 24° S. the main 
 chain of the Andes recedes from the sea-coast, 
 leaving in Chili a tract of country nowhere 
 exceeding 120 geographical miles in breadth. 
 The mountains here reach a mean elevation of 
 11,830 feet ; one of the peaks, Aconcagua^ is the 
 loftiest on the American continent, 22,867 feet. 
 Another, Cima del Mercedario, is 22,312 feet. In 
 tliis region, both to the north and to the south, 
 there is but one main line of peaks ; but between 
 these two parts two high parallel ranges occur, 
 having between them a relatively low plateau. 
 The Bolivian Andes occupy perhaps one-third of 
 the area of the republic, and form a vast arid 
 region of great elevation. Amongst them are 
 Gualtieri, 22,000 feet high, and Sorata and lUi- 
 mani, both above 21,000. The east and west 
 Cordilleras of Bolivia enclose the land-locked 
 plateau of the Desaguadero, 13,000 feet in height, 
 and having an area of 30,000 sq. m. 
 
 In Peru the maritime Cordillera overlooks the 
 sea in a close succession of volcanic cones. Near 
 lat. 10° S. the chain divides into the seaward 
 Cordillera Negra, and the more eastward Cordil- 
 lera Nevada, with a deep trough or ravine inter- 
 vening. The central Cordillera of Peru is the 
 chain which bounds the Titicaca basin on the 
 west. The eastern Andes of Peru form a magnifi- 
 cent succession of grand peaks, with only very 
 local evidences of recent volcanic action. Of the 
 Peruvian peaks the highest are Huascan (22,000 
 feet) and Huandoy (21,088 feet). The lofty wilder- 
 nesses of the high Peruvian Andes form a cold 
 and wind-swept region known as the Puna. In 
 the SW. of Ecuador the various ridges of the 
 Andes coalesce, immediately to divide again into 
 two main chains, both characterised by intense 
 volcanic activity. According to Whymper Chim- 
 borazo is 20,498 feet, Cotopaxi 19,613, and Anti- 
 sana 19,335. The Colombian Andes are disposed 
 in three main lines. Only a few of the peaks of 
 the Venezuelan Andes rise above the snow-line. 
 One of the plateaus, Assuay, is 14,500 feet high ; the 
 lowest notable pass, Planchon, is 11,455 feet high. 
 
ANDIJAN 
 
 86 
 
 ANGOLA 
 
 The great bulk of the Andean masses is com- 
 posed of stratified rocks ; upheaval, denudation, 
 and direct volcanic action have been leading fac- 
 tors in building the mountains. Volcanic action 
 is still very great in Ecuador, but less so in the 
 other parts of the chain. Gold, silver, copper, 
 mercury, and other metals abound in nearly 
 every part of the Andes. There are three trans- 
 Andean railways— two in Peru, and a more im- 
 portant one, unfinished in 1P04, which connects 
 the Chilian and Argentine railways by a rack- 
 rail line with five tunnels, nearly continuous, 
 about 8 miles long and at a height of between 
 9000 and 10,000 feet. See Conway, The Bolivian 
 ^7ides(1901); Fitzgerald, The Higliest Andes (1S99); 
 Whymper, Travels amongst the Great Andes of the 
 Equator (1892). 
 
 Andljan, capital of a district in Ferghana, 
 connected by rail witli Bokhara ; it was destroyed 
 by earthquake in 1902. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 Andkhul, capital of a khanate in Afghan 
 Turkestan, between the northern spurs of the 
 Paropamisus and tlie Amu-Daria (Oxus). 
 
 Andorra, a valley republic of the Eastern 
 Pyrenees, between the French dep. of Ariege 
 and the Spanish province of Lerida, part of 
 Catalonia. It is enclosed by mountains, through 
 which its river, the Balira, breaks to join tlie 
 Segre at Urgel. Area, 171 sq. m. ; pop. 5831. 
 Said to have been declared a free state by Charle- 
 magne, Andorra now stands under the common 
 protectorate of France and the Catalonian Bishop 
 of Urgel. The republic is governed by a sovereign 
 council of twenty-four members, chosen by cer- 
 tain heads of houses, and the council elects a 
 president for four years. The Andorrans are 
 good-natured, hard-working mountaineers, hos- 
 pitable, moral, and devoted to liberty. They 
 speak a dialect of Catalonian. The capital is 
 Andorra la Vieja (pop. 600) ; San Julian (500) and 
 Canillo (500) are the other towns. See works by 
 Berthet (Paris, 1879) and Deverell (Loud. 1884). 
 
 An'dover (Andeafaran, 'passage of the river 
 Ande '), a municipal borough and market-town of 
 Hampshire, 66 miles SW. of London. Chartered 
 by Henry I., Richard I., and John, Andover till 
 1867 returned two members, till 1885, one. The 
 chief trade consists in corn and malt ; at Wey- 
 hill, 3 niiles west, an October fair is held, 
 formerly very important. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Andover, a village of Essex county, Massa- 
 chusetts, 23 miles N. of Boston, with about 7000 
 inhabitants. Settled in 1643 from its English 
 namesake, it is famous, even in Massachusetts, 
 for its educational institutions, especially the 
 Phillips Academy and the Congregational Theo- 
 logical Seminary. 
 
 Andrla, a city of South Italy, 30 miles W. of 
 Bari, with a fine cathedral (1046) ; pop. 46,795. 
 
 Andros, (1) an island of the Greek Archipelago, 
 the most northern of the Cyclades, separated 
 from Euboea by a channel 6 miles broad. It is 
 25 miles long, 10 miles broad, and 156 sq. m. in 
 area. Pop. 20,562, of whom 1800 are in the chief 
 town, Andros, on a bay of the east coast.— 
 (2) One of the Bahamas (q.v.). 
 
 Andujar, a town of Spain, on the Guadal- 
 quivir, at the base of the Sierra Morena, 48 miles 
 ENE. of Cordova by rail ; pop. 15,116. 
 
 Anega'da, a British coral island, the most 
 northerly of the Virgin Islands, lying east of 
 Porto Rico, in the West Indies. Area, 13 sq. m • 
 pop. 200. ' 
 
 Angara, a tributary of the Yenisei (q.v.). 
 
 Angeln, a district of Sleswick, between the 
 Bay of Flensburg and the Schlei, supposed to be 
 the home from which came the Angles who 
 invaded England in the 5th century. 
 
 Angermanland, a former division of Sweden, 
 now chiefly comprised in the government of 
 Westernorrland, extends along the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, and is watered by the river Angerman, 
 200 miles long. The chief town is Heruiisand, 
 with a pop. of 6000. 
 
 Angermlinde, a town of Prussia, on Lake 
 Miinde, 43 miles NE. of Berlin by rail; pop. 
 7833. 
 
 Angers (On'zhayr; anc. Andegamim), fonnerly 
 the capital of the duchy of Anjou, and now 
 of the French dep. of Malne-et-Loire, on the 
 navigable Maine, not far from its junction with 
 the Loire, 214 miles SW. of Paris by rail. Angers 
 was the seat of a university (1246-1(585), and of a 
 military college, at which the Earl of Chatham 
 and the Duke of Wellington received part of their 
 education. David, the great sculptor, was a 
 native. The castle was built by St Louis about 
 1250 on a projecting rock above the river. The 
 fine cathedral is also a 13th-century building. 
 Sail-making, wool and cotton spinning, and weav- 
 ing are carried on. The neighbouring slate- 
 quarries employ 3000 men. Pop. (1872) 54,454: 
 (1891) 70,508 ; aOOl) 82,400. 
 
 Anglesey, or Anglesea (A.S. Angles Ey—i.e. 
 ' the Englishmen's island '), an island and county 
 of Wales, separated from the north-west main- 
 land by the Menaj Strait (q.v.), which is spanned 
 by the suspension bridge (1826) and by the 
 tubular bridge (1850). The extreme length is 21 
 miles ; the extreme breadth, 19 ; the coast-line 
 measures about 80 ; and its area is 302 sq. m., or 
 193,453 acres. The climate is mild but foggy, 
 especially in autumn ; the general aspect of the 
 island, flat and uninteresting, there being very 
 little wood. The island is rich in minerals ; the 
 Parys and Mona copper-mines, near Amlwch, 
 were opened in 1768. Lead ore, containing much 
 silver, has also been found. Anglesey, known to 
 the Romans as Mona, was one of the chief seats 
 of the Druidical power, which in 61 a.d. was all 
 but destroyed by the Roman general, Suetonius 
 Paulinus. The island was again subdued by 
 Agricola, 76 a.b. Egbert conquered it in the 
 9th century, and it was finally subdued by 
 Edward I. The market-towns are Amlwch, 
 Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Llanerch- 
 y-medd. The first four united in sending one 
 member till 1885, when they were merged ih 
 the county, which returns one member. Pop. 
 (1841) 38,106 ; (1901) 50,606. 
 
 Anglia, East, a kingdom founded by the 
 Angles about the middle of the 6th century, in 
 the eastern part of central England, in what 
 forms the present counties of Norfolk and Suflblk. 
 
 Angola, a name formerly used loosely of the 
 whole West African coast from Cape Lopez to 
 Benguela, but restricted, since the establishment 
 of the Congo Free State in 1885, to the Portuguese 
 West African possessions, extending from the 
 Congo southward to Cape Frio; or even more 
 narrowly, to the northern section between the 
 Congo and the Coanza. Area, 312,000 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 2,000,000. The coast strip is level, ban-en, 
 extremely hot, and very unhealthy. Beyond 
 is hill-country, reaching a height of 3000 feet. 
 The main rivers are the Kwango, running north 
 to the Congo, and the Coanza and Cunene, 
 running west to the Atlantic. Yams, tobjwop, 
 
AKGOtlA 
 
 37 
 
 ANNAM 
 
 Indigo, rice, cotton, and sugar are freely pro- 
 duced ; but under Portuguese mismanagement 
 the wealth of the country is undeveloped or 
 decaying. Tliere is abundance of iron in the moun- 
 tains ; also copper, lead, sulphur, and petroleum 
 are obtained. Angola was long notorious for its 
 great slave-trade. The natives are Congo negroes, 
 and belong to the great Bantu stock. In the 
 16th century they were mostly converted by the 
 Jesuits to a kind of Christianity, but soon fell 
 back into fetichism. Many of the 3000 wliite 
 men, mostly Portuguese, are transported con- 
 victs, and there are some 30,000 mulattos. The 
 Portuguese under Diego Cam discovered this 
 coast in 1486, but St Paul de Loanda was not 
 built till 1578. 
 
 Ango'ra, or Angwireh (anc. Ancyra), capital 
 of a Turkish province in the mountainous interior 
 of Asia Minor, 220 miles ESE. of Constantinople. 
 It was a flourishing city under the Persians, and 
 was made the capital of the Roman province of 
 Galatia Prima. The present city has 32,000 in- 
 habitants ; its trade is mainly in the hands of 
 the Annenians, who number 9000. It is famous 
 for its breed of goats, with beautiful silky hair, 
 eight inches long. 
 
 Angostura, capital of the province of Guayana, 
 in Venezuela, on the right bank of the navigable 
 Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouth. It is 
 built at a pass (angostura)^ where the river is 
 narrowed by rocks. The town is now more 
 usually called Ciudad Bolivar, Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Angouleme, the capital of the French dep. of 
 Charente, and formerly of the province of 
 Angoumois, stands 220 feet above the winding 
 Charente, 83 miles NE. of Bordeaux by rail. It 
 has a fine Romanesque cathedral (1136), and a 
 striking hotel-de-ville, with which is incorporated 
 the remnant of the ancient castle of Angouleme, 
 where was bom the celebrated Marguerite of 
 Navarre, author of the Heptameron. Ravaillac 
 was also a natiye. The old bastions have been 
 converted into fine terrace- walks. There are 
 manufactures of machinery, paper, and wire, and 
 a brisk trade in brandy. Pop. (1866) 24,961 ; 
 (1891) 34,188 ; (1901) 37,650. 
 
 Angra, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at 
 the head of a deep bay on the south coast of the 
 island of Terceira. Pop. 11,070. 
 
 Angra-Pequena, a bay on the south-west 
 coast of Africa, 150 miles N. of the Orange River 
 mouth, on the coast of Great Nainaqualand (q.v.). 
 It is the only port of the German South-west 
 African territory ; the neighbourhood is a sandy, 
 waterless region, enjoying a healtliy climate. In 
 1883 Angra-Pequena was ceded by a Namaqua 
 chieftain to Llideritz, a Bremen merchant ; and 
 next year it was taken under German protection. 
 AngrI, a town of South Italy, 17 miles NW. of 
 Salerno. Pop. 9110. 
 
 AngulUa, or Little Snake, an English West 
 India Island, one of the Lesser Antilles, 160 miles 
 E. of the eastern extremity of Porto Rico. Area, 
 35 sq. m. ; pop. 4500. 
 Angus. See Forfarshire. 
 Anhalt, a duchy of the German empire, almost 
 surrounded by the Prussian province of Saxony, 
 which breaks it up into two principal and five 
 smaller portions. Area, 869 sq. m. ; pop. (1875) 
 213,689 ; (1900) 816,085, nearly all Protestants. 
 Dessau, Zerbst, Bemburg, Kothen, and Ballen- 
 stedt are the principal towns. The eastern part 
 Is level and fertile ; the western part, approaching 
 the Harz Mountains, is hilly and largely covered 
 
 with wood, and possesses mineral wealth, especi- 
 ally in lead and silver. Anhalt began to be an 
 independent principality in the first half of the 
 13th century. It was divided into three duchies 
 in the beginning of the 17th century, but in 1863 
 the whole territory was reunited into one duchy. 
 
 Anl, a ruined city of Turkish Armenia, 25 
 miles SE. of Kars. 
 
 Anio, the ancient name of the Teverone, a 
 tributary of the Tiber, which rises in Monte 
 Cantaro, and joins the larger river 3 miles above 
 Rome. Its beautiful cascade at Tivoli (the 
 ancient Tibur) is celebrated by the classical 
 poets. 
 
 Anjou (OnflzJioo), a former province in the NW. 
 of France, of about 3500 sq. m. in extent, now 
 forming the dep. of Maine-et-Loire, and small 
 parts of the deps. of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, 
 and Sarthe. It lies on both sides of the lower 
 course of the Loire, where it receives the Maine. 
 Its capital was Angers. 
 
 Anklam, a town in the Prussian province of 
 Pomerania, on the navigable Peene, 4 miles from 
 its mouth in the Kleines Haff, and 41 SE. of 
 Stralsund by rail. Long a place of commercial 
 importance, a member of the Hanseatic League 
 from the 14th to the 16th century, it manufac- 
 tures iron, sugar, and soap. Pop. 14,784. 
 
 Anko'bar, the capital of the kingdom of 
 Shoa, in Abyssinia, is built 8200 feet above sea- 
 level. Pop. 6000—15,000. 
 
 Annaberg, a mining town of Saxony, on the 
 Erzgebirge range, 34 miles S. of Chenmitz by 
 rail. Pop. 16,822. 
 
 Ajonabon. See Annobon. 
 
 Annagh, an island of County Mayo, in Achill 
 Sound. 
 
 Annam, an ' empire ' on the east coast of the 
 Indo-Chinese peninsula, has since 1885 been a 
 French protectorate and part of French Indo- 
 China, which comprises, besides Annam, Tong- 
 king or Tonquin in the north (once a province of 
 Annam), French Cochin-China in the south, and 
 Cambodia on both sides of the lower Mekong. 
 Before the French controversy with Siam in 
 1893, the western boundary of Annam was gener- 
 ally understood to be the main mountain ranges 
 between the Mekong and the sea. But in 1893 
 France insisted that the Mekong should be 
 regarded as the frontier ; and this demand was, 
 under protest, conceded from Cambodia north 
 to the Laos country, or about 18° N. lat. The 
 area of Annam, as now extended (but without 
 Tonquin or other divisions of Indo-China), is some 
 50,000 sq. m. ; the population, Annamites on the 
 coast, and Mois and Laos in the hills and west of 
 them, is variously stated at from 5,000,000 to 
 10,000,000. 
 
 Annam lies wholly in the torrid zone, yet even 
 during the hot and rainy season, extending over 
 the six months from April to September, the 
 thermometer seldom mounts from a minimum 
 of 70° to beyond 100° F. On account of the 
 moisture, however, the heats in June and July 
 are sometimes almost intolerable. The country, 
 save on the coast and along the Mekong, is 
 mountainous ; minerals are believed to abound ; 
 coal is worked near Turane. The mountains are 
 covered with valuable timber, and the lower 
 lands are extremely fertile. The chief produc- 
 tions are, besides rice and other cereals, cotton, 
 cinnamon, sugar, tea, coffee, and tobacco. The 
 chief ports are Turane (wholly under French 
 control), Qui-Nhon, and Xuan-Day : Hu6 is tho 
 
AKNAMABOE 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCEAN 
 
 capital. The principal imports are rice, cotton 
 cloths and yarns, opium, and paper, for the most 
 part from China and Japan. 
 
 The Annamese are mainly of Mongoloid stock. 
 The inhabitants of the mountains are taller, 
 fairer, and stronger than the inhabitants of the 
 plain. The latter are small of stature but well 
 proportioned, indolent but expert. The speech 
 of the Annamese is monosyllabic, like Chinese, 
 from which they have borrowed many words. 
 The mass of the people worship tutelary spirits ; 
 Confucianism is in vogue with the more culti- 
 vated ; the remainder adhere to Buddhism. There 
 are besides about 420,000 Roman Catholics, de- 
 scendants of immigrants from Macao and Japan 
 (1624), and of Portuguese fugitives from Malacca. 
 The native prince is retained on the throne, 
 and the interior administration— on the Chinese 
 pattern— is in the hands of Annamite officials, 
 though the French, through the superior council 
 of ludo-China, have supreme authority, and 
 French troops occupy part of the citadel of Hue. 
 Annamaboe, a seaport on the Gold Coast of 
 Africa, 10 railea B. of Cape Coast Castle. Pop. 
 5000. 
 
 Annan, a seaport of Dumfriesshire, on the 
 river Annan, near its entrance into the Solway 
 Firth, 18 miles ESE. of Dumfries by rail. Edward 
 Irving was a native (marble statue, 1892) ; and 
 Carlyle, as a schoolboy, led ' a doleful and hate- 
 ful life ' at the academy. A royal burgh, Annan 
 unites with Dumfries, &c. to return one member. 
 Pop. 5805. 
 
 Annandale, a district of Dumfriesshire, tra- 
 versed by the river Annan, which, rising near 
 headstreams of the Tweed and Clyde, flows 49 
 miles southward to the Solway Firth, at a point 
 If mile below Annan town. Near its source is 
 a singular hollow called the Marquis of Annan- 
 dale's (or Devil's) Beef-tub. 
 
 Annap'olis, a seaport of Nova Scotia, on an 
 arm of the Bay of Fundy, 95 miles W. of Halifax 
 by rail. Established in 1604 by the French as 
 the capital of their province of Acadia, under 
 the name of Port Royal, it was ceded to Britain 
 in*1713, and changed its name in honour of Queen 
 Anne ; not till 1750 was it superseded by Halifax. 
 Pop. 1200. 
 
 Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, U.S., on 
 the south bank of the Severn, 2 miles from its 
 entrance into Chesapeake Bay, and 40 miles E. 
 by N. of Washington by rail. Among its edifices 
 are an imposing state-house, St John's College 
 (1784). a Roman Catholic seminary, a naval hos- 
 pital (1871), and a naval academy (1845). Founded 
 as Providence in 1649, Annapolis was renamed 
 after Queen Anne in 1708. Pop. (1870) 5744; 
 (1890) 7604 ; (1900) 8525. 
 
 Ann Arbor, a flourishing city of Michigan, on 
 the Huron River, 38 miles W. of Detroit by rail. 
 Settled in 1824, and incorporated as a city in 
 1851, it is the seat of the state university (1837), 
 and has manufactories of carriages, furniture, 
 paper, woollen goods, blinds, and ploughs, with 
 mineral springs and a hydropathic establishment. 
 Pop. (1870) 7363 ; (1890) 9431 ; (1900) 14,509. 
 
 An'necy, chief town of the French dep. of 
 Haute-Savoie, 22 miles S. of Geneva, and 25 
 miles NW. of Aix-les-Bains by rail. It stands 
 at the NW. extremity of the Lake of Annecy, 
 which, lying 1426 feet above the sea, is 9 miles 
 long, and flows by the Fier to the Rhone. It has 
 manufactures of linens, cotton-yarn, silks, straw 
 goods, and steel wares. The castle of the Counts 
 
 of Geneva is now a barrack; and there are a 
 cathedral (1523) and hotel-de-ville, with a statue 
 near it of the chemist Berthollet. Here Eugene 
 Sue died in exile. Pop. 11,331. 
 
 Anniston, a town of Alabama, 63 miles by rail 
 E. of Birmingham, with flourishing iron mines 
 and works. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Annobon, or Annobom, the smallest of the 
 four islands in the Bay of Biafra, the eastern 
 part of the Gulf of Guinea, now belonging to 
 Spain. Area, 6 sq. m. ; pop. 1600 negroes, who 
 profess to be Catholics. The island was dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese on New- Year's Day 
 (Anno Bom), 1471. 
 
 Annonay (anc. Annoniacum), a toAvn in the 
 French dep. of Arddche, 37 miles S. of Lyons. 
 The chief manufacture is paper, the first estab- 
 lished by the father of the aeronauts Montgolfler, 
 who were born here. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Annsborough, a village of County Down, 3 
 miles W. of Duudrum. Pop. 430. 
 
 Ansbach (in England often Anspach), a town 
 of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 25 miles SW. of Nurem- 
 berg. It manufactures furniture, buttons, bricks, 
 &c. The last margrave of Ansbach, of the 
 Hohenzollern line, gave up his possessions in 
 1791 to Prussia ; and in 1807 Napoleon transferred 
 Ansbach to Bavaria. Pop. 18,057. 
 
 Ansonia, a borough within the town of Derby, 
 New Haven county, Connecticut, on the Nauga- 
 tuck River, 2 miles above its confluence with 
 the Housatonic, and 12 W. of New Haven by 
 rail. It has manufactures of iron, brass, and 
 copper goods, clocks, electrical goods, webbing 
 and knit goods, carriages, and hardware. Pop. 
 13,000. 
 
 Anspacli. See Ansbach. 
 
 Anstruther, Easter and Wester, two con- 
 tiguous royal burghs on the coast of Fife, 9 railea 
 S. of St Andrews. Fishing and fish-curing are 
 the staple industries, the harbour (186G-77) being 
 at Cellardyke. East Anstruther was the birth- 
 place of Dr Chalmers, Tennant the poet, and 
 Goodsir the anatomist. With the other St 
 Andrews burghs, they return one member to the 
 House of Commons. Joint pop. 1700 ; or, with 
 Kilrenny, 4600. 
 
 Antananarivo, or TanXnar\vo, the capital of 
 Madagascar, has a population estimated at 100.000. 
 It is situated on a hul, in an undulating district, 
 at an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of 
 the sea, from which it is distant 110 miles. 
 
 Antarctic Ocean, the ocean situated about, or 
 within, the Antarctic Circle. The Great Southern 
 Ocean is that part of the ocean which surrounds 
 the world between the latitude of 40° S. and the 
 Antarctic Circle. The northern portions of tliis 
 band are often called the South Atlantic, South 
 Indian, and South Pacific, while the southern 
 portions are usually called the Antarctic Ocean. 
 The average depth of the continuous ocean which 
 surrounds south polar land is about two miles ; 
 it gradually shoals towards Antarctic land, which 
 in some places is met with a short distance 
 within the Antarctic Circle. Only three navi- 
 gators, Cook, Weddell, and Ross, have crossed 
 the 70th parallel soutli. The last in 1841 sailed 
 along the coast as far as 70° S., within sight of 
 high mountain ranges, which here terminated in 
 an active volcano. Mount Erebus, 12,000 feet 
 high. His farther progress was stopped by an 
 icy barrier 150 to 200 feet in height, along which 
 he sailed to the east for 300 miles. Tlie depth 
 off tliia ice-t>arrier waa 260 fathoms, so that it 
 
AlJTEQtJERA S 
 
 Vras just in the condition to generate those 
 large, flat-topped, tabular icebergs which are the 
 characteristic feature of the Antarctic regions. 
 Where the coast is steep and high, there is no 
 true 'ice-barrier,' the ice being only 6 or 10 feet 
 above the sea, extending many miles from the 
 shore. Ross and D'Urville alone have succeeded 
 in setting foot on land within the Antarctic 
 Circle. This land was of volcanic origin ; but 
 there is no doubt a large extent of continental 
 land around the South Pole, for the Challenger 
 in .1874 dredged up granitites, mica-schists, sand- 
 stones, and other continental rocks close to the 
 ice-barrier. Dr Murray estimates the extent of 
 the Antarctic continent at 3,000,000 sq. m. Vege- 
 tation and land animals have not been observed 
 on this land. Whales, grampuses, seals, pen- 
 guins, petrels, albatrosses, and other oceanic 
 birds abound. Diatoms are very abundant in 
 the surface-waters, and their dead frustules form 
 a pure white deposit called diatom ooze, about 
 the latitude of 60°, outside the blue muds which 
 surround the continent. Life is abundant in the 
 surface-waters, and at the bottom of the ocean. 
 The mean temperature both of the air and sea, 
 south of 63° S., is even in summer below the 
 freezing-point of sea-water. The fall of rain and 
 snow is estimated as about equal to a rainfall of 
 30 inches annually. The ice on the Antarctic 
 continent is stated by some writers to have a 
 thickness of several miles, but there is no reliable 
 information on this point. In 1901-4 a series of 
 expeditions added much to our knowledge of 
 Antarctica. See works by Mackinder (1892), 
 Bum-Murdoch (1894), Cook (New York, 1900), 
 Bernacchi (1901), Borchgrevink (1901), Neumayer 
 (Berlin, 1901), Gerlache (Paris, 1902), and Balch 
 (Philadelphia, 1902). 
 
 Anteque'ra (the Antiqiiaria of the Romans), 
 a town in the Spanish province of Malaga, on 
 the Guadalhorce, 65 miles W. of Granada by rail. 
 Held by the Moors from 712 to 1410, it retains 
 some portions of a Moorish castle and of the 
 ancient walls. Pop. 31,600. 
 
 Antlbes (OnHeeV; anc. Antipolis), a seaport in 
 the French dep. of Alpes Maritimes, TJ miles S. 
 of Cannes. Founded by a colony of Greeks from 
 Massilia (Marseilles), Antibes in the Austrian 
 War of Succession was severely bombarded by 
 Browne during a three months' siege (1746). 
 Pop. 8950. 
 
 Anticosti, a Canadian island in the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, which it divides into two channels, 
 is 140 miles long, and 30 broad in the centre. 
 The hills in the interior rise to about 600 feet. 
 Anticosti has two good havens, one at EUice 
 Bay, near the western end, and the other at Fox 
 Bay, in the NW. Tlie climate is severe ; the 
 surface an alternation of rocks and swamps. It 
 is visited by fishermen in the summer, but there 
 are hardly any inhabitants save lighthouse- 
 keepers and a few officials. 
 
 Antietam (pron. Antee-tam), a narrow but deep 
 river in Maryland, U.S., falling into the Potomac 
 7 miles above Harper's Ferry. On its banks, 
 near Sharpsburg, on 17th Septembfr 1862, the 
 Union troops under McClellan defeated the Con- 
 federates under Lee, though at a loss of nearly 
 13,000 men. 
 
 Antlg'ua, a West India island, the most im- 
 portant of the Leeward Islands, is 28 miles long 
 and 14 wide ; in Boggles Hill attains a maximum 
 altitude of 1328 feet ; and has an area of 97 sq. 
 m. Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Colum- 
 bus, who named it after the church of Santa 
 
 ANTRIM 
 
 Maria La Antigua in Seville. It was first settled 
 by a few English in 1632, and was declared a 
 British possession by the Treaty of Breda (1667). 
 Antigua is the seat of an Anglican bishop. It 
 has suffered severely from earthquakes— as in 
 1689, 1843, and 1874— and from hurricanes. 
 Numerous islets, rocks, and shoals border the 
 shore, so that, generally speaking, access is diffi- 
 cult and dangerous. Antigua produces large 
 quantities of sugar, molasses, rum, tamarinds, 
 arrowroot, and cotton. Pop., including Bar- 
 buda, a little over 35,000 ; of St John, the capital, 
 10,000. 
 Anti-Lebanon. See Lebanon. 
 Antilles, a term applied to the whole of the 
 West India Islands (q.v.) except the Bahamas. 
 The Greater Antilles are Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, 
 and Porto Rico; the others are known as the 
 Lesser Antilles. 
 
 An'tioch, the ancient capital of the Greek 
 kings of Syria, and long the chief city in Asia, 
 lies in a fertile and beautiful plain, on the left 
 bank of the river Orontes, 14 miles from the sea. 
 In the time of Antiochus the Great, and under 
 the Roman emperors of the first three centuries, 
 it contained 500,000 inhabitants, and vied in 
 splendour with Rome itself. It was one of the 
 earliest strongholds of Christianity — indeed, it 
 was here that the name Christians was first used. 
 Its downfall dates from tlie 5th century ; and 
 the modern Antakieh, which forms a portion of 
 Syria, in the province of Aleppo, has a popula- 
 tion of only 17,500, mostly Turks employed in 
 silk-culture, eel-fishing, and in the production of 
 corn and oil. It exhibits almost no traces of its 
 former grandeur, except the ruins of the walls 
 built by Justinian, and of a fortress erected by 
 the Crusaders.— Antioch, in Pisidia, founded 
 also by Nicator, was declared a free city by the 
 Romans in the 2d century b.c. It was often 
 visited by St Paul. 
 
 Antlp'aros (anc. Oliaros), one of the middle 
 Cyclades, in the ^Egean Sea, close to Paros. It 
 is 133 sq. m. in area, and has about 700 inhabit- 
 ants. Rich lead mines were discovered in 1872. 
 Its wonderful stalactite grotto is not alluded to 
 by any classical writer, but has been well known 
 since 1673. At a depth of 918 feet under the 
 entrance, the chief chamber is reached — 312 feet 
 long, 98 wide, and 82 high. 
 
 Antisana, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador, 
 35 miles SE. of Quito, 19,335 feet high. 
 
 Antiva'rl, a seai)ort on the coast-district 
 assigned to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin 
 in 1878. It was formerly Albanian, and is 18 
 miles NW. of Scutari. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Antofagasta, a port in the Chilian province of 
 the same name. Founded in 1870, it owes its 
 rapid rise to the neighbouring saltpetre deposits, 
 and to the rich mines of Caracoles, with which it 
 is connected by railway. It was taken from 
 Bolivia by Chili in the war of 1879. Pop. 20,100. 
 Antoninus, Wall of, or Graham's Dyke, a 
 Roman rampart erected in 140 a.d., during the 
 reign of Antoninus Pius, from Carriden on the 
 Firth of Forth to near Old Kilpatrick on the 
 Firth of Clyde. It was 36 miles long, and 
 followed the earlier line of Agricola's forts (81 
 A.D.). See Waldie's Northern Roman Wall (1883). 
 Antrim, a maritime county of Ulster, stands 
 second among the Irish counties in population, 
 but in size only ninth. Its greatest length is 57 
 miles; its greatest breadth, 28; its extent of 
 sea-coast, 90 ; and its area, 1192 sq. m. Of this, 
 
ANTWERP 
 
 40 
 
 APENKlNEg 
 
 rather more than three-fourths is in tillage and 
 pasture ; and one per cent, under wood. Off the 
 north coast lie Rathliu Isle and the Skerries ; 
 and off the east coast, the Maiden Rocks. The 
 east coast is hilly ; and from Larne to Fair Head, 
 parallel ranges stretch SW. into the interior, 
 forming valleys opening seaward, called the 
 Glens of Antrim. The interior slopes towards 
 Lough Neagh. The highest eminences are— 
 Trostan, 1810 feet ; and Slievemish, or Sleniish, 
 1782. The principal streams are the Baun, from 
 Lough Neagh to the Atlantic ; the Main, running 
 parallel to the Bann, but in the reverse direc- 
 tion, into Lough Neagh ; and the Bush, flowing 
 north into the Atlantic. Many peat-bogs occur. 
 Between Ballycastle and the mouth of tlie Bann, 
 the basalt assumes very picturesque forms ; and 
 the Giants" Causeway (q.v.) is one of the most 
 perfect examples of columnar basalt in the world. 
 Fine salt-mines occur at Duncrue and Carrick- 
 fergus ; small coal-fields near Ballycastle and in 
 the interior ; and rich beds of iron ore in Glen- 
 ravel. The soil is mostly light, and the chief 
 crop is oats. There are some linen, cotton, and 
 coarse woollen manufactures. The towns are 
 Lisburn, Ballymena, Ballynioney, Carrickfergus, 
 Larne, and Antrim (pop. 1820). I3elfast, most of 
 which was formerly reckoned as in Antrim, is 
 now wholly without the administrative county. 
 County Antrim returns four members to parlia- 
 ment : Belfast borough, four. Pop. (1841) 351,496 ; 
 (1891) 427,968 ; (1901, excluding Belfast) 196,090 
 —over 99,000 Presbyterians, 41,000 Protestant 
 Episcopalians, 40,400 Roman Catholics. 
 
 Antwerp (Fr. Anvers; Flem. Antwerpen, 'on 
 the wharf), the chief commercial city of Bel- 
 gium, on the river Scheldt, 52 miles from the 
 sea, and 27 N. of Brussels. It is the Liverpool 
 of the Continent, and the tonnage of vessels 
 entering its port has increased tenfold within 
 thirty years, until it stands at over 6,000,000 
 tons annually. The trade and manufactures of 
 Antwerp have so extended, that the large dock 
 and quay accommodation having been found too 
 limited, a new quay, 2 miles in length, and 
 docks, constructed at a cost of nearly £4,000,000, 
 were opened in 1885. The chief exports are flax, 
 sugar, iron, woollen goods, metals, glass, and 
 tallow ; the chief imports are wheat, petroleum, 
 wool, cotton, coffee, tobacco. The manufactures 
 consist chiefly of sugar, white-lead, cotton goods, 
 lace, linen-thread, sewing-silk, black silk stuffs, 
 starch, and printers' ink. There are also to be 
 mentioned oil-refining, tobacco-manufacture, the 
 cutting of diamonds and other precious stones, 
 and shipbuilding. The chief public institutions 
 are— the Academy of Sciences, Academy of Paint- 
 ing and Sculpture, a Medical and Surgical School, 
 Naval Arsenal, Museum (with specimens of the 
 pictures of Rubens, Vandyck, Titian, and Matsys), 
 Zoological Gardens, the Flemish Theatre, and the 
 Plantin Museum (1876). The six-aisled cathedral 
 (1352-1518), the noblest Gothic structure in Bel- 
 gium, is 500 feet in length by 250 in breadth, 
 with a roof supported by 125 pillars, and an 
 exquisite spire, 403 feet high, in which hangs a 
 splendid carillon of 99 bells. The interior is 
 enriched by the two greatest of all the pictures 
 of Rubens, the Elevation of, and the Descent 
 from, the Cross. The Church of St James con- 
 tains the monument of the Rubens family. The 
 Exchange (1531), a fine building, is said to have 
 been Gresham's model of the old London Ex- 
 change. It was burnt in 1858, but rebuilt in the 
 same style, and reopened in 1872. The hotel-de- 
 ville (1565) is a fine building in the Renaissance 
 
 style. The old fortifications were demolished ift 
 1860, though Alva's famous citadel (1567) stood 
 till 1874 ; and since 1851 new fortifications have 
 been erected outside the city, with detached 
 forts to the south-east, rendering Antwerp one 
 of the most strongly fortified places in Europe. 
 Pop. (1846) 88,487 ; (1891) 232,723 ; (1904) 291,950. 
 
 Antwerp in the beginning of the 16tli century 
 was the commercial capital of the world. When 
 in 1576 it was seized by the Spanish soldiery, 
 8000 persons were murdered, and the city-hall 
 and nearly a thousand buildings burnt. This 
 and the assault of the Duke of Parma in 1585, 
 caused Antwerp to sink into decay. From 1794 
 till 1814, while it was held by the French, 
 Napoleon attempted to make it a great military 
 and commercial centre. The union of Belgium 
 with Holland in 1815 was very favourable to 
 Antwerp. When the revolutionary party gained 
 possession in 1830, the Dutch commandant, 
 General Chass6, retreated to the citadel, and 
 commenced a bombardment, which destroyed 
 the arsenal. In 1832, 50,000 French under Mar- 
 shal Gerard appeared before Antwerp, to demand 
 the surrender of the citadel ; and after its interior 
 had been reduced to ruins by the French artillery, 
 Chasse capitulated. The city was handed over 
 to the Belgians, and since the treaty of 1839, 
 Antwerp has had a singularly prosperous career. 
 French is the business language, but the majority 
 of the inhabitants speak Flemish. 
 
 Anupshahr, a town of India, in the United 
 Provinces of Agra and Oudh, on the Ganges, 73 
 miles SE. of Delhi ; pop. 15,000. 
 
 Aonlaganj', or Aounlah, a town of India, 21 
 miles SW. of Bareilly ; pop. 14,000. 
 
 Aosta (anc. Augusta PrcBtoria), a cathedral 
 city of Italy, on the Dora Baltea, 19 miles from 
 the opening of the great St Bernard Pass, and 80 
 miles NNW. of Turin by rail. St Bernard was 
 archdeacon of Aosta; and here Anselm, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, was born. Near by are 
 the celebrated baths and mines of St Didier. 
 Pop. 7672. 
 
 Apatin', a town of Hungary, on the left bank 
 of the Danube, 49 miles SW. of Theresiopol ; pop. 
 13,973. 
 
 Ap'eldorn, a town of Holland, 17 miles N. of 
 Arnheim. The Loo, a royal hunting-lodge, 
 beloved of William of Orange, is near. Paper- 
 making is the staple industry. Pop. 26,283. . 
 
 Ap'ennlnes (Ital. Appennini, Lat. Mom Apen- 
 niniis), a mountain-chain extending 740 miles 
 uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of 
 the Italian peninsula. It belongs to the system 
 of the Alps. The average height of the entire 
 chain is about 4000 feet, which in the north sinks 
 to 3500 feet, and in the Abruzzi rises to 7000 feet. 
 Here, in Monte Corno, the highest peak of the 
 range known as Gran Sasso d'ltalia, they reach 
 an elevation of 9574 feet, and in Monte Velino, of 
 7916 feet. The Apennines are crossed by thirteen 
 principal passes ; and seven of these are traversed 
 by railways. The principal chain exhibits, 
 for the most part, a dreary and barren appear- 
 ance. It looks like a vast wall, with very few 
 projecting peaks to break its dull monotony. 
 Only in the Abruzzi, and above all, in the marble 
 mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold 
 and magnificent forms of the Alps appear. Where 
 water is plentiful there is no lack of rich pastures 
 and dense forests ; but usually only thin grass 
 and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony slopes. 
 The greater number of the forest brooks, with 
 deep rocky ravines, during summer are dry. 
 
r 
 
 apenrade 
 
 41 
 
 Where the mountains dip down to the sea, as at 
 the Riviera of Genoa and the Gulf of Naples, a 
 rich, peculiarly southern vegetation clothes the 
 declivities. There is no region of perpetual 
 snow ; but the summits of the Abruzzi and the 
 lofty peaks of Lunigiana are often covered with 
 snow from October far into May. 
 
 Apenrade {Ah-pen-rah'da), a Sleswick-Holstein 
 seaport, 06 miles NNW. of Kiel. Pop. 7361. 
 Apia (Ah-pee'a). See Samoa. 
 Apol'da, a town of Saxe- Weimar, 9j miles NE. 
 of Weimar by rail. It has manufactures of 
 hosiery, amongst the most important in Ger- 
 many, besides dye-works, machine-works, and 
 bell-foundries. Pop. 20,850. 
 
 Appalachians, a great mountain-system of 
 North America, nearly parallel with the Atlantic 
 coast, and extending from the Gulf of St Law- 
 rence SSW. to the west central portion of 
 Alabama. Geologically, it is much older than 
 the Western Cordillera, known as the Rocky 
 Mountain system, but it is in the main much 
 later in geologic date than the Laurentian 
 system, which represents it on the north of the 
 St Lawrence. It is the parent of many of the 
 rivers of the Atlantic States ; but several large 
 streams break its continuity ; and one, the river 
 Hudson, is a tidal channel which carries even 
 sea-going vessels through the range. The 
 Appalachians consist, in the main, of various 
 parallel ranges, separated by wide valleys. Even 
 the low hill-ranges between the mountains and 
 the sea have much of the same parallelism, and 
 the sea-coast has in a marked degree the same 
 general direction and curvature as the mountains 
 themselves ; while, far to the NE., the nearly 
 detached peninsula of Nova Scotia and the island 
 of Newfoundland are traversed by ranges exhibit- 
 ing the same parallelism and the same general 
 direction as are seen in the Appalachian ranges. 
 
 Locally, the Appalachians have various names 
 — e.g. in the Gaspe Peninsula, the Shickshock 
 Mountains, the Franconia Mountains of New 
 Hampshire (where Mount Washington attains 
 6293 feet) ; the Green Mountains of Vermont are 
 the Hoosic Range in Massachusetts ; the Cat- 
 skills and Shawangunk Mountains ; in Penn- 
 sylvania and Maryland, the South Mountain or 
 Blue Ridgo, which is regarded as identical with 
 the Unaka or Smoky Mountain Ridge of North 
 Carolina and Tennessee ; and west of the South 
 Mountain of Pennsylvania the great Alleghany 
 Ridge (q.v.), which often gives name to the whole 
 system. 
 
 Nowhere do the Appalachians reach the snow- 
 line. Their highest points occur in North Caro- 
 lina, where Mitchell's Peak reaches the height of 
 6688 feet. The principal coal-beds of this chain 
 occur in Pennsylvania to the NNE., and in the 
 other states southward along the mountains to 
 their termination in Alabama, the chief coal- 
 basins being either among the mountains, or to 
 the westward of them. There are beds of anthra- 
 cite coal on the eastern slopes of the Appa- 
 lachians, chiefly in Pennsylvania, west of which 
 the coal becomes bituminous, after we have 
 crossed basins of semi-anthracitic and moderately 
 bituminous coal. This coal region is one of the 
 most productive, extensive, and important any- 
 where known. Of the metals, by far the most 
 important is iron, of which various ores are 
 largely wrought. Gold occurs chiefly to the 
 eastward of the mountains, and is wrought at 
 various points from Virginia to Alabama. Zinc, 
 lead, and other metals are found iu this range, 
 
 APURIMAC 
 
 which also affords marbles, slates, and a great 
 variety of building-stones. 
 
 Appalachlco'la, a river of the United States, 
 rising in Georgia, and flowing through Florida 
 into Appalachicola Bay in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Reckoning from its remotest sources, it is about 
 400 miles long, being navigable by steamboats 
 for 70 miles up to the junction of the Chatta- 
 hoochee with the Flint, where the name ot 
 Appalachicola is first given.— Appalachicola is 
 also a cotton-shipping seaport at the mouth of 
 this stream ; pop. 3500. 
 
 Appenzeir (from Abbatis Cello), a double 
 canton in the NE. of Switzerland. It is divided 
 into two divisions — Innerroden and Ausserroden ; 
 the former of which is peopled by Roman 
 Catholics ; the latter by Protestants, and noted 
 for its dense population. The surface is moun- 
 tainous, especially in the south, where Mount 
 Sentis attains 8220 feet. The chief river is the 
 Sittern. The canton, once dependent on the 
 Abbey of St Gall, won its independence after 
 a struggle, and joined the seven old cantons in 
 1452. Area, 162 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 68,780, of 
 whom over 55,000 were in Ausserroden. Appenzell, 
 the capital, is situated on the Sittern ; pop. 450a 
 The largest town is Herisau (pop. 14,100). 
 
 Appin (Apthane, 'abbey lands'), a beautiful 
 coast district of Argyllshire, extending along the 
 east shore of Loch Linnhe, 15 miles NNE. of 
 Oban. It is the country of a branch of the 
 Stewarts. 
 
 Appleby, the county town of Westmorland, 
 on the Eden, 13 miles SE. of Penrith. There is 
 a castle, first mentioned in 1088, the keep of 
 which, called Ca:'sar's Tower, is still in tolerable 
 condition. Appleby was disfranchised in 1832, 
 but received a new municipal charter in 1885. 
 Pop. 1776. 
 
 Appleton, a city of Wisconsin, U.S., 185 miles 
 N. of Chicago, and 120 iniles from Milwaukee by 
 rail. It stands on the Grand Chute Rapids of 
 the Fox River, which, with a descent of 30 feet 
 in 1^ mile, aff"ords immense water-power for 
 flour, paper, and woollen mills. There are also 
 manufactures of machinery. Lawrence Univer- 
 sity (1847) is a Methodist institution. Pop. 
 (1880) 8005 ; (1890) 11,869 ; (1900) 15,085. 
 
 Appomattox Courthouse, a village of Vir- 
 ginia, 20 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here Lee, on 
 April 9, 1865, surrendered the army of Northern 
 Virginia, 27,805 men strong, to Grant. 
 
 Apsheron, a peninsula on the west coast of 
 the Caspian Sea, belonging to the Russian govern- 
 ment of Baku. Its enormous petroleum industry 
 is noticed at Baku (q.v.). 
 
 Apt (Apta Julia), a cathedral town In the 
 French dep. of Vaucluse, 30 miles E. of Avig- 
 non ; pop. 4378. 
 
 Apu'lia (modem Fuglia), the south-eastern 
 part of Italy as far as the promontory of Leuca, 
 comprising the three provinces of Bari, Foggia, 
 and Lecce, with an area of 8540 sq. m., and a 
 pop. of 2,054,000. 
 
 Apu're, a navigable river of Venezuela, which 
 rises near the western boundary among the 
 Eastern Cordillera, and flows nearly 1000 miles 
 eastward to the Orinoco. 
 
 Apu'rimac, a river of Peru, also called Tambo, 
 which, after a northward course of 500 miles, 
 helps to form the Ucayali, and finally joins the 
 Amazon. It gives name to a province with an 
 area of 8200 sq. m., and a pop. of 180,000, 
 
AQUILA 
 
 42 
 
 Aq'uila, the capital of an Italian province, on 
 the Alterno, near the loftiest of the Apennines, 
 64 miles SE. of Terni by rail. It was built by 
 the Emperor Frederick II. from the ruins of the 
 ancient Amiternum, a town of the Sabines, and 
 birthplace of Sallust the historian. In 1703 it 
 was almost destroyed by an earthquake, in which 
 2000 persons perished. It is a bishop's see, 
 and a busy place, with a large trade in saffron. 
 Top. 24,720. 
 
 Aquilei'a (also Aglar), a decayed town of 
 Austria, at the head of the Adriatic, 22 miles 
 NW. of Trieste ; pop. 1000. 
 
 Aquita'nia, the Latin name of a part of Gaul, 
 originally including the country between the 
 Pyrenees and the Garonne, peopled by Iberian 
 tribes and by Celtic settlers. 
 
 Arabglr' (anc. Anabrace), a town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, in the province of Sivas, not far from 
 the Euphrates, and on the caravan road from 
 Aleppo to Trebizond. Pop. 30,000, oue-foiu-th 
 Armenians, the rest Turks. 
 
 Arabia, the great south-western peninsula of 
 Asia. Its greatest length from NW. to SB. is 
 about 1800 miles ; its mean breadth, about 600 ; 
 its area, 1,230,000 sq. m. ; and its population 
 conjectured to be 5,000,000. It is bounded on 
 the N. by the highlands of Syria and the plains 
 of Mesopotamia ; on the E., by the Persian Gulf 
 and the Gulf of Oman ; on the S., by the Arabian 
 Sea; and on the W., by the Red Sea and the 
 Suez Canal. Midway between Mecca and Medina 
 runs the tropic of Cancer. Ptolemy is supposed 
 to be the author of the famous threefold division 
 into Arabia Fetrcsa, in the NW. ; Arabia Felix, 
 to the south of Mecca ; and Arabia Deserta, in 
 the interior. Modern divisions are : the Sinaitic 
 Peninsula (see Sinai), between the Gulfs of Suez 
 and Akaba ; the Hedjdz (' the Barrier '), the larger 
 and nortliern strip to the east of the Red Sea ; 
 Yemen, the southern and smaller strip to the east 
 of the Red Sea ; Hadramaut, the region along the 
 southern coast ; Oman, the extreme south-eastern 
 end of the peninsula ; El-Hasa, along the Persian 
 Gulf ; Nejd, the central highlands of Arabia. 
 
 In shape, Arabia is an irregular parallelogram, 
 broadest at the southern end ; in character, it is 
 mainly African. The vast central plateau rises 
 from a height of 2500 feet in the N. to 7000 feet 
 in the SW., and is bounded by western and 
 southern mountain chains, the former attaining, 
 to the south of Mecca, a height of 8500 feet. 
 Between the mountains and the sea is a low hot 
 strip of land, partially fertile, of varying width. 
 There is a desert in the north of the interior, 
 the mountainous country of Nejd near the very 
 centre, and to the south of Nejd another very 
 sterile sandy desert (Dahna). Hedjaz and Yemen 
 extend from the Red Sea indefinite-ly towards the 
 interior, and consist partly of the Tehama, or low 
 country, along the sea, and partly of the moun- 
 tain district beyond. Mecca and Medina, Avith 
 their seaports Jiddah and Yembo, are in Hed,jaz. 
 Yemen is on the whole well watered, has rich 
 and fertile valleys, and contains one-fifth of the 
 whole population of Arabia. Yemen possesses 
 two very importa,nt commercial towns. Mocha 
 and Loheia, situated on the coast of the Red Sea. 
 Hadramaut resembles the Hedjaz in character. 
 Oman is mainly mountainous, is partly very 
 fertile, and possesses the good harbour of Mus- 
 cat. It has considerable trade, and some manu- 
 factures of cotton, silk, and arms. Hasa is com- 
 paratively level and fertile. Large portions of 
 Arabia are perfectly arid ; nowhere doea a river 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 reach the sea all the year round ; but the mord 
 fertile portions are so extensive as to constitute 
 two-thirds of the total area : one-third of the 
 whole may be accounted desert and uninhabit- 
 able. 
 
 Politically, Hedjaz, Yemen, and El-Hasa are 
 really three Turkish provinces ; the Sinaitic 
 Peninsula is in Egyptian hands ; England exer- 
 cises much influence in Hadramaut through her 
 possession of Aden ; the Sultan of Oman is inde- 
 pendent, and in alliance with England; Nejd, 
 the seat of the once powerful Wahabi State, is 
 independent. The Emir of Shomer or Shammar 
 pays a small annual tribute to the Sherif of 
 Mecca, in recognition of Turkish supremacy. 
 
 The Arab is of medium stature, muscular make, 
 and brown complexion. Independence looks out 
 of his glowing eyes ; by nature he is quick, sharp- 
 witted, imaginative, and passionately fond of 
 poetry. Courage, temperance, hospitality, and 
 good faith are his leading virtues ; but these are 
 often marred by a spirit of rapacity and sanguin- 
 ary revenge. His wife or wives do the work, 
 keep the house, and educate the children. 
 Arabian life is either nomadic or settled. The 
 wandering tribes, or Bedouin, who have, how- 
 ever, their allotted winter and summer camping- 
 grounds, and a strong attachment to tlieir own 
 mode of life, entertain notions of tlie rights of 
 property differing seriously from those regulat- 
 ing the West ; yet even their most marauding 
 tribes are not without a traditional code of law 
 and honour, the only law recognised among them ; 
 the enforcing of it is left to every tribesman. 
 The settled tribes, styled Hadesi and Fellahs, 
 are despised by the Bedouin, who scorn to inter- 
 marry even with the few artisans that accompany 
 every tribe. The Bedoiiin are several times out- 
 numbered by the settled population, and there- 
 fore nwst not be regarded as normal Arabs, 
 who are adventurous, commercial, and willing 
 to become sailors. Yet mountain and desert 
 barriers and patriarchal anarchy make Arabia 
 the 'anti-industrial centre of the world.' The 
 export of coffee, dates, figs, spices, and drugs, 
 though still considerable, is said to be only a 
 shadow of the old commerce which existed 
 before the circumnavigation of Africa. The 
 government is patriarchal, and the chief men 
 of the various tribes have the title of Emir, 
 Sheikh, or, in a religious sense. Imam. 
 
 Before the rise of Mohammed the history of 
 the peninsula is obscure and confused ; one 
 bond of union amongst the tribes, constantly at 
 war with each other, was the Kaaba, a small rude 
 temple of unknown antiquity, where the idols of 
 the tribes, over 350 in number, were kept. The 
 grand epoch in Arabian history, the Hegira 
 (Hedjra), is Mohammed's fliglit in 622 a.d. from 
 Mecca to Medina, where he gathered his first 
 body of adherents, and commenced actively the 
 establishment of his doctrines by the sword and 
 otherwise. Now for the first time the Arabian 
 tribes became united under one sceptre, and were 
 powerful enough to erect new empires in three 
 quarters of the world— in Palestine, Mesopotamia, 
 and Persia ; in Egypt and the north of Africa ; 
 and in Spain. The dominion of the Arabs, from 
 the time of Mohammed till the fall of the califate 
 of Bagdad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of 
 the Moors from Spain, is an important period in 
 the history of civilisation. The Arabian literature 
 became the vehicle of a characteristic culture, 
 and Arabic scholars were the main cultivators of 
 philosophy and science — including mathematics, 
 astronomy, medicine, &c.— in the middle ages. 
 
ARABIAN GULf 
 
 43 
 
 ARAVALLt 
 
 But the movements that had so muoh effect on the 
 destinies of other nations left Arabia itself in a 
 neglected and exhausted condition, and the pen- 
 insula was broken up into several distinct and 
 unimportant principalities. In the 16th and 17th 
 centuries the Turks, Persians, Dutch, and Portu- 
 guese took possession of parts of the country. 
 The native orthodox Moslem Wahabi empire was 
 founded in Central Arabia about 1760, shattered 
 in 1812 by Mehemet All of Egypt, and again 
 restored. And now the country is politically 
 distributed as above described. 
 
 See works by Pococke, Niebuhr, Burckhardt, 
 Burton, Palgrave, Welsted, and Doughty and 
 Lady Anne Blunt. 
 
 Arabian Gulf. See Red Sea. 
 
 Arabian Sea, that part of the Indian Ocean 
 which lies between India on the east and Arabia 
 on the west. Its two great arms are the Red 
 Sea proper and the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Aracan. See Arakan. 
 
 Arad, a town of Hungary, on the Maros, an 
 affluent of the Theiss, 95 miles SE. of Buda- 
 Pesth, and 74 E. of Szegedin by rail. It carries 
 on a large trade in corn, spirits, wine, and 
 tobacco, and is one of the greatest cattle-markets 
 in Hungary. Pop. 56,260.— New Arad, across 
 the river, has 5000 inhabitants. 
 
 Ar'afat, Mount, a granite hill (260 feet), 15 
 miles SE. of Mecca, visited by the faithful, and 
 believed to be the spot where Adam again met 
 Eve, after a punitive separation of 200 years. 
 
 Ar'agon, once a kingdom, now divided into 
 the three provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, and 
 Teruel, in the NE. of Spain. Area, 17,980 sa- m. ; 
 population, 913,000. It is bounded on the north 
 by the Pyrenees, and watered by the Ebro. 
 Aragon was conquered by the Moors in the 
 beginning of the 8th century, recovered from 
 them and united with Catalonia (1137), and was 
 united with Castile through the marriage of 
 Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella, heiress of 
 Castile (1469). The chief towns are Saragossa, 
 Calatayud, Huesca, and Teruel. 
 
 Arago'na, a town of Sicily, 6 miles NNE. of 
 Girgenti by rail. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Araguay', a large river of Brazil, flowing 1000 
 miles northward, till, at San Joao, it joins the 
 Tocantins, which again, after a northerly course 
 of 300 miles more, mingles its estuary with that 
 of the Amazon. 
 
 Ar'akan, long the most northerly division of 
 British Burma, is a narrow strip of territory on 
 the Bay of Bengal. Its length is 400 miles, its 
 breadth varies from 90 miles in the north to 
 about 15 ; and the area is 14,526 sq. m. A range 
 of mountains, nearly parallel with the line of 
 coast, the highest point 7000 feet above sea- 
 level, separates Arakan from Pegu and Upper 
 Burma. Rice is the chief article of exportation ; 
 the others are cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp, 
 indigo, betel-nuts, and timber, especially teak. 
 The imports consist mainly of British manu- 
 factures. Pop. 787,518. 
 
 Aral, Lake, separated by the plateau of Ust- 
 Urt from the Caspian Sea, is the largest lake in 
 the steppes of Asia. It has an area of about 
 24,000 sq. m. ; is fed by the Jaxartes and Oxus 
 (the present Sir-Daria and Amu-Daria) ; has no 
 outlet ; and is generally shallow, its only deep 
 water (225 feet) being on the west coast. Its 
 level is 117 feet above that of the Caspian, which 
 is 84 feet below the surface of the Black Sea. 
 Like other lakes which are drained only by 
 
 evaporation, it is brackish. Fish, including 
 sturgeon, carp, and herring, are abundant. The 
 lake is dotted with multitudes of islands and 
 islets ; and navigation is difficult. The area now 
 occupied by the Sea of Aral has been dry land 
 twice within historical times — the Jaxartes and 
 the Oxus then running south of the Sea of Aral 
 to the Caspian. This was the case during the 
 Greco-Roman period, and again during the 13th 
 and 14th centuries a.d. 
 
 Aran, South Isles of, Ireland, are three small 
 islands lying NB. and SW. across the entrance to 
 Galway Bay. Total area, 11,287 acres. They 
 rise to a height of from 200 to 354 feet on the 
 west side, ending in cliffs facing the Atlantic. 
 Most of the land is rudely cultivated. Inish- 
 niore, the chief island, is still known as Aran-na- 
 naomh, or 'Aran of the Saints.' Pop. 3100. See 
 Burke's South Isles of Aran (1887). 
 
 Aranjuez (A-rdn-hoo-ayth' ; Lat. Ara Jovis), a 
 town of Spain, on the tagus, 30 miles SSE. of 
 Madrid by rail. Its palace was long a favourite 
 spring-resort of the royal family, from Charles V. 
 downwards. Pop. 12,700. 
 
 Ar'arat, a general old name for the district 
 through which the Aras flows, and never the 
 name by which the Mount of Ararat has been 
 known to the people around it. Associated, 
 however, as the mountains of this district are in 
 Genesis, viii. 4, with the landing-place of the 
 ark after the flood, the name has been, naturally 
 enough, appropriated to the highest peak, which 
 in Armenian is called Massis or Massis Ljarn ; 
 in Tartar and Turkish, Aghri-Dagh, or curved 
 mountain ; and in Persian, Koh-i-Nuh, or Noah's 
 mountain. The twin mountains of Ararat form 
 an elliptical mass, 25 miles long, by 13 broad, 
 and rising. Great Ararat to 16,969 feet. Little 
 Ararat to 12,840 feet above the sea-level ; the 
 two summits 7 miles apart. In 1828 the Czar 
 Nicholas annexed the territory around Erivan ; 
 and Little Ararat is now the meeting points of 
 the Russian, Turkish, and Persian empires. On 
 the 20th of June 1840, dreadful shocks of earth- 
 quake were felt, and great masses of the moun- 
 tain were thrown into the plain. Tournefort 
 made a partial ascent of the mountain in 1700 ; 
 and several ascents have been Tnade since 1829. 
 See Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat (2d ed. 
 1878). 
 
 Aras (anc. Araxes), the chief river of Armenia, 
 formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the 
 Kaleh-Su, and itself, after a course of 500 miles, 
 joining the Kur (anc. Cyrus), which descends 
 from the Caucasus through Georgia, about 75 
 miles from its mouth. Their united waters turn 
 suddenly to the south, and fall by three mouths 
 into the Caspian. 
 
 Araucania, the country of the Araucos or 
 Araucanian Indians, in the south of Chili. The 
 Chilian province of Arauco, lying between the 
 Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the 
 north by Concepcion, on the south by Valdivia, 
 was formed in 1875, with an area of 8100 sq. m., 
 and a pop. (1903) of 71,500. A large part of Arauco 
 and the more southerly province of Valdivia is 
 occupied by Indians, Avho have mostly submitted 
 to Chilian authority. The Araucanians are a 
 fierce and warlike people, now numbering more 
 than 50,000. 
 
 Arau're, a town of Venezuela, 60 miles ENE. 
 ofTruxillo. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Aravalli, a range of mountains in Western 
 India, extendingSOO miles north-eastward through 
 
AfiBELA 
 
 44 
 
 AftCfiC OCEAN 
 
 Rajputana. The highest summit is Abu (q.v.), 
 5650 feet, 
 
 Arbela, now Erbil or Arbil, a small town of 
 Assyria, east from Mosul, gave name to Alex- 
 ander's final defeat of Darius, 331 b.c. 
 
 ArWgland, an estate, the birthplace of Paul 
 Jones, on the coast of Kirkcudbrightshire, 13 
 miles 8. of Dumfries. 
 
 Arblrlot, a Forfarshire parish, 3 miles \V. by 
 S. of Arbroath. Archbishop Gladstanes and Dr 
 Guthrie were ministers. 
 
 Arbo'ga, a town in Sweden, on the small river 
 Arboga, by which, with the aid of a canal, the 
 lakes Hielmar and Malar are united, 101 miles 
 WNW. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. 5823. 
 
 Arbois, a town in the French dep. of Jura, 7 
 miles NE. of Poligny by rail. Pop. 4040. 
 
 Arbroath', or Aberbroth'ock, a seaport of 
 Forfarshire, at the mouth of the Brothock Burn, 
 17 miles ENE. of Dundee. Here in 1178 William 
 the Lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in which 
 he was buried (1214), and which was destroyed 
 by the Reformers in 1560. The picturesque ruins 
 of its crucifomi church, which measured 276 by 
 160 feet, present a noble west doorway and a 
 rose- window, 'the round O of Arbroath.' The 
 chief industries are flax-spinning, engineering, 
 and the manufacture of boots, sail-cloth, and 
 linen fabrics. The new harbour, begun in 1841, 
 admits vessels of 400 tons ; the old harbour was 
 converted into a wet-dock (1871-77). The chief 
 exports are grain, potatoes, fish, and paving- 
 flags; the chief imports are coal, flax, hemp, 
 jute, and hides. Arbroath is a royal burgh, 
 and with Montrose, &c., returns one member. 
 Arbroath is the ' Fairport ' of Scott's Antiquary. 
 Pop. (1831) 13,795 ; (1901) 22,546. See works by 
 Miller (1860), Hay (1876), and J. Adam (1886). 
 
 Arbuthnott, a Kincardineshire parish, 2J miles 
 WNW. of Bervie. Dr Arbuthnott was a native. 
 
 Arcachon {Ar'ca- shorts), a bathing-place dating 
 from 1854, in the French dep. of Gironde, 34 
 miles SW. of Bordeaux by rail. The fine broad 
 sands are admirably adapted for bathing ; and 
 the place is sheltered by sand-hills, covered with 
 extensive pine-woods. The climate is always 
 temperate, and the rainfall is but 32 inches. 
 Scientific oyster-culture is practised here on a 
 large scale. Pop. 10,300. 
 
 Arcadia, the central, mountainous part of the 
 Peloponnesus (or Morea) in Greece, treated in 
 poetry as the home of primitive simplicity, peace, 
 and innocence. 
 
 Archalg, a loch of Lochaber, Inverness-shire, 10 
 miles N. of Fort William. It is 12 miles long, 
 and sends off the Archaig River 1^ mile to Loch 
 Lochy. 
 
 Archangel, the chief city of a Russian govern- 
 ment, 40 miles above the junction of the Dwina 
 with the White Sea. It is the seat of an arch- 
 bishop, and the chief commercial city for the 
 north of Russia and Siberia, and is frequented 
 by much shipping— especially British— from June 
 to October, the port being clear of ice only during 
 that period. The harbour is a mile below the 
 town, at the island of Solombaly ; and 12 miles 
 below are a goveniment dockyard and mer- 
 chants' warehouses. The chief articles of traffic 
 are fish, flax, oats, linseed, tar, pitch, rosin, 
 train-oil, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow, 
 bristles, caviare. The manufactures include 
 cordage, canvas, linen, leather, beer, and sugar. 
 The town, which owes its name to a monastery 
 of St Michael, and which is connected by river 
 
 and canal with a great part of European Russia, 
 is the oldest seaport in the empire, dating its 
 rise from a visit paid by the English seaman, 
 Chancellor, in 1553. Pop. 19,540.— Tlie govern- 
 ment has an area of 331,505 sq. m., and a pop. of 
 350,000. 
 
 Archlperago, an Italian coinage, first met 
 with in 1268, and signifying 'the chief sea,' was 
 applied originally to that part of the Mediter- 
 ranean which separates Greece from Asia (the 
 iEgean Sea of the ancients) ; but is now extended 
 to any sea, like it, thickly interspersed with 
 islands, or rather to the group of islands them- 
 selves. All archipelagoes fall naturally into 
 two groups, the oceanic and the continental. 
 The islands in the Greek Archipelago consist 
 principally of two groups, called Cyclades and 
 Sporades; the first from their encircling the 
 sacred island of Delos, the second from their 
 being scattered in a wavy line. The former lie to 
 the east of Southern Greece, while the latter skirt 
 the west of Asia Minor. The numerous islands 
 which stud this sea range in size from the merest 
 barren rocks to Crete, with an area of 3326 sq. m. 
 Most are of volcanic origin, with high bluffs 
 rising abruptly from the sea. Of the Cyclades, 
 all belonging to Greece, the principal are : Syra, 
 Delos, Tenos, Andros, Cythnos, Thera, Naxos, 
 Melos, and Paros. The chief islands of the 
 Sporades are : Carpathos, Rhodes, Cos, Patmos, 
 Icaria, Samos, Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, Imbros, 
 Samothrace, and Psyra. These all belong to 
 Turkey, and constitute a separate vilayet of the 
 empire, except Samos, which is autonomous, and 
 tributary only; but the following, off Euboea 
 (Negropont), and many smaller islands, belong to 
 Greece : Scyros, Icos, Scopelos, and Sciathos. 
 
 Arcis-Sur-Aube {Ar' see-silr-Oab), a town of 2841 
 inhabitants, in the French dep. of Aube, on the 
 navigable Aube, 22 miles N. of Troyes by rail. It 
 was the birthplace of Danton, and near it the 
 allies defeated Napoleon, March 20-21, 1814. 
 
 Ar'cole, a village on the left bank of the Adige, 
 in Northern Italy, 15 miles ESE. of Verona. 
 Here Napoleon defeated the Austrians, 15-17th 
 November 1796. 
 
 Arcos de la Fronte'ra, a town on the Guada- 
 lete, in the Spanish province of Cadiz, 20 miles 
 ENE. of Xeres. It was so called from its stand- 
 ing on the frontiers of the old Moorish kingdom 
 of Granada. Pop. 16,910. 
 
 Arcot {Aru-Kad\i, ' six deserts '), a city of 
 British India, in the presidency of Madras, on 
 the Palar, 5 miles from Arcot railway station, 
 and 65 WSW. of Madras. In 1751 Clive captured 
 Arcot ; and having taken it, was in turn besieged 
 for seven weeks. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean lies to the 
 north of Europe, Asia, and North America, and 
 surrounds the North Pole ; it is usually defined 
 as the water area within the Arctic Circle. 
 Physiographically, the Norwegian Sea and Green- 
 land Sea, situated between Norway and Green- 
 land, belong to the same basin as the Arctic 
 Ocean. If the Arctic Ocean be regarded as lying 
 wholly within the Arctic Circle, then it is almost 
 land-locked between that circle and the parallel 
 of 70° N. It communicates with the Pacific by 
 Behring Strait, and with the Atlantic through 
 Davis Strait and the wide sea between Norway 
 and Greenland. The area of the ocean is about 
 5,500,000 sq. m., and into it there drain about 
 8,600,000 sq. m. of land. The coasts of Europe 
 and Asia are low, and have several deep indento* 
 
ARDAHAN 
 
 45 
 
 tions, the principal being the White Sea and Gulf 
 of Obi. The shores of North America are skirted 
 by a most irregular assemblage of islands, forming 
 numerous gulfs, bays, and channels. The prin- 
 cipal rivers from Asia are the Lena, Yenesei, and 
 Obi ; from Europe, the Onega, Dwina, and 
 Petchora; from America, the Mackenzie. The 
 Arctic highlands are covered with an enormous 
 depth of snow and ice. In some places this 
 results in the formation of great glaciers, one of 
 the most remarkable of which is the Humboldt 
 Glacier, in 79° N. lat., on the west coast of Green- 
 land. There are, however, no large, flat-topped 
 tabular icebergs, like those of the southern hemi- 
 sphere, within the Arctic Ocean ; and this of 
 itself is good evidence that there is no expanse of 
 land towards tlie North Pole. The whole ocean 
 is covered by immense ice-fields from 5 to 50 feet 
 in thickness. During winter these are bound 
 together by the severe frost, but these continuous 
 masses break up during the summer months into 
 floes and floe-bergs. Sometimes vast spaces of 
 water and long lanes are formed between the floes 
 and ice-flelds, and these have, doubtless, given 
 rise to the notions regarding an open Polar Sea 
 which at one time prevailed. When these great 
 floating ice-fields conje together, the margins 
 where they collide are piled up on each other, and 
 thus is produced the well-known hunimocky ice- 
 floes. When this hunimocky ice is jammed against 
 a shallow shore, and becomes fixed for long periods 
 of time, the appearances are produced to which 
 Nares gave the name of ' Palaeocrystic Sea.' In 
 the more open parts of the ocean the ice is, how- 
 ever, always in motion. Immense quantities of 
 field and hunimocky ice pass down each year 
 between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and Green- 
 land and Iceland. Parry reached a latitude of 82° 
 45', Markhani reached 83° 20', and Lockwood (of 
 Greely's expedition, 1882) 83° 24', the most 
 northerly point yet attained. In 1850 M'Clure 
 entered Behring Strait, and brought his crew home 
 by Davis Strait, thus discovering the North-west 
 Passage. In 1878 and 1879 Nordenskiold sailed 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific along the northern 
 shores of Europe and Asia, thus discovering the 
 North-east Passage. In 1893 Nansen set forth on 
 his novel and adventurous expedition ; hoping 
 that his ship would be carried by the current, 
 after being frozen in the ice, from the shores of 
 Asia across or near the North Pole, and ultimately 
 out into the open sea again oft' the coasts of 
 Greenland. The ocean appears to be shallow 
 to the north of Europe and Asia, the depth 
 500 miles to the north of the Lena being only 38 
 fathoms ; but between Spitzbergen and the north 
 of Greenland there is a deep opening into the frozen 
 sea, where the depth is 2500 fathoms. Whales, 
 seals, and walruses are now a much less plentiful 
 source of wealth than they used to be. In winter 
 the temperature of the air is sometimes as low as 
 — 47° F., and in summer is usually a little above 
 the freezing-point. 
 
 See books on Arctic exploration or special 
 expeditions by Kane (1853), M'Clintock (1859), 
 Blake (1874), Markham (1874, 1878, and 1881), 
 Payer (1876), Nares (1878), Nordenskiold (1881), 
 De Long (1882), Gilder (1883), Greely (1386), 
 Nansen (1897), Peary (1898), and Dittmar (1901). 
 
 Ardahan, a village of about 300 houses in the 
 portion of Turkish Armenia ceded in 1878 to 
 Russia, 35 miles NW. of Kars. 
 
 Ardalan, a province in the west of Persia, em- 
 bracing the basin of the Shirwan Rfld. Area, 6000 
 sq. m. ; pop. 150,000. Capital, Kerinansbah(q. v.). 
 
 AREQUIPA 
 
 Ardchattan, an Argyllshire parish on Loch 
 
 Etive, with a ruined priory (1231). 
 
 Ardebil, a town of Persia, 110 miles B. of 
 Tabriz ; pop. 16,000. 
 
 Ardeche, a mountainous dep. in the south of 
 France, takes its name from a tributary of the 
 Rhone, and includes part of ancient Languedoc. 
 In the NW. of the dep., the Cevennes culminate 
 in the volcanic Mont-Mezene (5752 feet). Iron, 
 coal, antimony, lead, marble, and gypsum are 
 wrought. Area, 2136 sq. ni. ; pop. 350,000. The 
 capital is Privas. 
 
 Ardee', a town in the west of County Louth, 
 Ireland, on the river Dee, 12 miles inland. The 
 ancient castle, built about the year 1200, is used 
 as the town-house ; and there is a handsome 
 convent. Pop. 1880. 
 
 Ardennes, an extensive hill-country and forest, 
 occupying the SE. corner of Belgium, between the 
 Moselle and the Meuse, but extending also into 
 France and Rhenish Prussia. The average height 
 of the hills is less than 1600 feet ; but in the east 
 they attain 2100. The Arduenna Silva of the 
 Romans extended over a still wider area. See a 
 work by Lindley (1SS7).— Shakespeare's Forest of 
 Arden is a district in Warwickshire, extending 
 from the Avon to near Birmingham. 
 
 Ardennes, a French dep. bordering on Belgium. 
 Mezi^res is the capital, but Sedan is the chief 
 town. Area, 2020 sq. m. ; pop. 314,923. 
 
 Ardglass, a coast-town of County Down, 6 
 miles SSE. of Downpatrick. Pop. 504. 
 
 Ardlam'ont Point, Argyllshire, at the W. en- 
 trance to the Kyles of Bute. Ardlaniont House, 
 the old seat of the Lamonts, became famous 
 through a ' not proven ' murder trial (1893). 
 
 Ardmore', a watering-place in County Water- 
 ford, 7 miles ENB. of Youghal. 
 
 Ardnamurchan Point, a rugged headland of 
 Argyllshire, the most westerly point of the main- 
 land, with a castle-like lighthouse (1849). 
 
 Ardoch, Perthshire, 12 miles NNE. of Stirling, 
 has a Roman camp, the most entire in Britain. 
 
 Ardoye, a town of Belgium, 17 miles S. of 
 Bruges ; pop. 6082. 
 
 Ardrish'aig, a seaport of Argyllshire, at the 
 entrance of the Crinan Canal, 2 miles SSW. of 
 Lochgilphead. Pop. 1258. 
 
 Ardross'an, a seaport and watering-place in 
 Ayrshire, 1 mile WNW. of Saltcoats, and 32 miles 
 SW. of Glasgow by rail. It dates from 1806, and 
 the harbour is one of the safest and most acces- 
 sible on the west coast of Scotland. A new dock 
 was formed in 1887-92. The chief exports are 
 coal and pig-iron. On a hill above the town 
 stands a fragment of Ardrossan Castle, said to 
 have been surprised by Wallace. Pop. (1851) 
 2071 ; (1891) 5294 ; (1901) 5950. 
 
 Ardvreck Castle. See Assynt. 
 
 Areci'bo, a town on the north coast of the 
 Spanish West Indian island of Porto Rico, 45 
 miles W. of San Juan. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Arenherg (Aremherg), from 1644 till 1820 a 
 small sovereign duchy of Germany, lying between 
 JUlich and Cologne ; now part of the district of 
 Coblenz, Rhenish Prussia. 
 
 Ar'endal, a town of Norway, near the mouth of 
 the Nidelf in the bay of Christiania. It is built 
 partly on piles, partly on rock, and has been 
 called ' Little Venice.' Its bay forms an excellent 
 harbour. Pop. 11,15a 
 
 Arequipa (Ar-e-kee'pd), a name givep to a hjouD' 
 
ABEZZO 
 
 46 
 
 ARGYLLSHIRE 
 
 tain In the west Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes, 
 and then to a city at its foot, and to the southern 
 dep. of Peru. The mountain, also called Mitsi, is 
 volcanic, and has a height of 18,500 feet. Its neigh- 
 bourhood is subject to earthquakes. The city, 
 in a rich valley, 7700 feet above the sea, is the 
 third largest in Peru, with 35,000 inhabitants. 
 The dep. has an area of 27,744 sq. m., and a pop. 
 of 260,282. 
 
 Arezzo (anc. Arretium), the chief city of an 
 Italian province, near the confluence of the Chiana 
 with the Arno, 38 miles BSE. of Florence. The 
 Piazza Grande, built by Vasari, is remarkable ; 
 and the Gothic cathedral (begun 1277) has a 
 splendid marble altar by Pisano. The city pro- 
 duces silk, and manufactures cloth, combs, and 
 pottery. Natives were Petrarch, the poet Aretino, 
 the painter Spinello Aretino ; Guido of Arezzo, 
 inventor of the musical scale ; the botanist 
 Cesalpino ; Pope Julius III. ; and Vasari. Pop. 
 15,816. 
 
 Argaum', a village in Berar, India, between 
 EUichpur and Aurungabad. Near it, on 28th 
 November 1803, two months after Assaye, Wel- 
 lesley again defeated the Mahrattas. 
 
 Argenta (Ar-jen'ta), a town of Central Italy, 
 21 miles SE. of Ferrara by rail ; pop. 3000. 
 
 Argentan (Ar-zlion^tan% a Norman town in the 
 French dep. of Orne, on the river Orne, 42 miles 
 SSE. of Caen by rail ; pop. 5728. 
 
 Argenteuil (Ar-zhon^-tuli'yee^), a town in the 
 French dep. of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 6 m. 
 NW. of Paris. Its ruined priory was founded in 
 656, and was by Charlemagne turned into a nun- 
 nery, of which Heloise became abbess. Pop. 15,799. 
 
 Argentine Republic, or Argentina, a federal 
 republic of South America, taking its name from 
 the river La Plata (' River of Silver '). It has an 
 area of 1,125,086 sq. m., including the unsettled 
 territories on the north and the south, but the 
 organised and settled provinces occupy less than 
 one-half this area. Tlie whole country is more than 
 ten times larger than Great Britain and Ireland 
 taken together. The republic is made up of four- 
 teen provinces and a nuinber of territories. On the 
 west, the Andes divide this republic from Chili ; 
 Bolivia bounds the country on the north, while 
 Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic 
 Ocean form the eastern limit. The great island- 
 group of Fuegia, on the south, belongs partly to 
 this republic and partly to Chili. 
 
 Except for the sub-Andean foot-hills, and a 
 few other local and unimportant hilly or moun- 
 tainous tracts, nearly all the country consists 
 of vast plains or pampas. The northern plain 
 region (the Chaco) is in part densely wooded ; but 
 most of the Pampas country is open, presenting 
 wide ranges of treeless pasture, varied by patches 
 of huge thistles and other coarse plants. In the 
 Patagonian region there are extensive districts 
 completely covered with stones and shingle, 
 interspersed with clumps of thorny brushwood, 
 and having in the hollows many strongly saline 
 ponds or lakes. 
 
 The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for 
 it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more 
 remote southern territories have an extremely 
 bleak, windy, and disagreeable climate, but are 
 not really so cold as might be expected from their 
 relatively high latitude. But the country in 
 general enjoys an equable, temperate, and health- 
 ful climate. The people of the country are mostly 
 Spanish in their language and descent, although 
 there are many Italians, French, and other Euro- 
 pean immigrants. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of 
 
 the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant 
 race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of 
 the Indians of the remote districts have become 
 skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds. Agri- 
 culture has of late been rapidly extended. Wheat, 
 maize, flax, and linseed are exported ; but the 
 chief staples of export are skins, hides, hair, 
 bones, bone-ashes, horns, phospliorus, ostrich- 
 feathers, wool, tallow, dried and salt beef, beef- 
 extract, fresh meat (frozen), and live animals. 
 The greater part of the republic is well watered 
 and highly fertile, but there are extensive regions 
 of waste land. Sugar-culture thrives in the NW. 
 and north. Wines, spirits, and dried fruits are 
 extensively produced ; a valuable product of the 
 north is Tnate, or Paraguay tea. The rivers Parana 
 and Uruguay, with their large tributaries, are 
 important channels of trade. The mineral re- 
 sources of the country are comparatively unde- 
 veloped. The principal seaport is Buenos Ayres, 
 the capital and largest city. Among the other 
 large towns are Cordoba, Rosario, La Plata, Men- 
 doza, Tucuman, Corrientes, Salta, and Santa Fe. 
 Tlie commerce of the country(imports£25,000,000; 
 exports £36,000,000) is mainly with Great Britain, 
 Germany, the United States, and France. 
 
 Tlie population of the country in 1869 was 
 1,736,922 ; in 1902 it was oflicially estimated at 
 5,025,000 (4-5 to the sq. m.), of whom 500,000 
 were of Italian birth, 200,000 Spanish (very many 
 of them Basques), 95,000 French, 22,000 English, 
 18,000 German, and 15,000 Swiss. Much of the in- 
 crease is due to innnigration (from 60,000 to 90,000 
 annually). The religion is Roman Catholic. 
 The government is closely modelled upon that 
 of the United States. In 1892 the length of 
 railway lines open for trafl[ic was 7140 miles, with 
 a projected extension across the Andes to meet 
 the Chilian railways. The river La Plata was 
 visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country 
 was colonised in 1535. In 1810 the colonists 
 founded a local provisional government. A san- 
 guinary war for independence followed, which 
 did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the 
 independence of the country in 1842. Since 
 1890 financial troubles and political turmoil have 
 seriously injured the well-being of what was 
 long the best governed and most prosperous of 
 South American states. 
 
 See Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate (1884) ; 
 M. F. Paz Soldan, Geografia Argentina (1886); 
 Lady F. Dixie, Across Patagonia (1880); Rum- 
 bold, Tlie Great Silver Elver (2d ed. 1890) ; Turner, 
 Argentina and the Argentines (1892); Hudson, 
 The Naturalist in La Plata; and the recent 
 British and American Consular Reports. 
 
 Ar'gblis, the north-eastern peninsula of the 
 Morea of Greece, lying between the Bays of 
 Nauplia and ^gina. Together with Corinth, it 
 forms one of the thirteen provinces of the king- 
 dom of Greece, with an area of 1442 sq. in., and 
 a pop. of 160,000. Its capital is Nauplia. 
 
 Argos'toli, a seaport of the Ionian Islands, the 
 capital of Cephalonia, is the seat of a Greek 
 bishop, and has a good harbour. It was almost 
 destroyed by earthquake in 1867. Near it are 
 the 'sea-mills of Argostoli,' two holes in the 
 rocky coast, into which the sea pours with a 
 force sufficient to drive two mills. Pop. 9871. 
 
 Argyll' shire, a county in the west of Scotland. 
 Its greatest length is 115 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth, 55 ; and its extent of coast-line as much 
 as 2289 miles, owing to the numerous sea-lochs. 
 Next to Inverness, it is the largest county in 
 Scotland, its area being 3213 scj. ra., of which 
 
ARGYROKASTRON 
 
 47 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 623 belong to the islands. The chief islands are 
 Mull, Islay, Jura, Tyree, Coll, Lismore, and 
 Colonsay, with lona and Staffa. The chief peaks 
 are Bidean nam Bian (3766 feet) and Ben Cruachan 
 (3689); the sea-lochs, Lochs Moidart, Sunart, 
 Liunhe (branching otf into Lochs Leven and 
 Eil), Fyne, and Long ; the streams are the Orchy 
 and Awe ; the fresh-water lakes are Lochs Awe 
 and Lydoch. Lead occurs at Strontian (where 
 the mineral Strontianite was discovered), at Tyn- 
 drum, and in Islay and Coll ; roofing-slates in 
 Easdale and Ballachulish ; coal near Campbel- 
 town ; fine marble in Tyree, &c. ; and excellent 
 granite near Inveraray. The total percentage of 
 cultivated area is only 5-7. Sheep and cattle 
 rearing is the chief occupation. Whisky is manu- 
 factured in Campbeltown and Islay. Towns 
 and villages are Inverapay, Campbeltown, Oban, 
 Dunoon, Lochgilphead, Tarbert, and Tobermory. 
 The county returns one member, to parliament. 
 Pop. (1831) 100,973 ; (1901) 05,849—34,428 Gaelic- 
 speaking. 
 
 Argyrokastron (the Turkish Ergeri), a town 
 of Albania, iu tlie province of Janiua, near the 
 Dryno, an affluent of the Viosa. Top. 9000. 
 
 Aria'no (Arianiim), a cathedral city of Italy, 
 2800 feet above the sea, and 84 miles NE. of 
 Naples by rail. Pop. 17,522. 
 
 Ari'ca, a seaport of Tacna, the most southerly 
 department of Peru. It was stormed and taken 
 by the Chilians in 1880, was retained (with Tacna) 
 by treaty for ten years, and was still in Chilian 
 hands in 1905. Pop. (once 30,000) 4000. 
 
 Arichat (A-ree-sMf), a seaport on the south 
 Bide of Isle Madame, Nova Scotia, with a harbour 
 for the largest vessels. It is the see of a Roman 
 Catholic bishop. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Arlege, a dep. in the south of Prance, lying 
 along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. Area, 
 1890 sq. ni. ; pop. (decreasing) 200,000.— The river 
 Ariege rises in the Pyrenees, and flows 93 miles 
 to the Garonne near Toulouse. 
 
 Arin'os, a river in the south-west of Brazil, 
 which, after a north-west course of 700 miles, 
 joins the Tapajos, itself an aflluent of the Amazon. 
 Arizona, till 1906 a territory of the United 
 States, bounded N. by Utah, E. by New 
 Mexico, S. by the republic of JNIexico (Sonora), 
 and W. by California and Nevada. Its western 
 boundary is mostly formed by the Colorado of 
 the West. This river traverses the NW. part 
 of Arizona in a deep and narrow water- worn 
 channel (the Grand Canon), more than 300 miles 
 long, and nowhere less than a mile below the 
 surface of the surrounding country. Arizona had 
 an area of 112,920 sq. m. ; it was thus nearly as 
 large as Italy. It is in general a region of High 
 plateaus, traversed by various mountain-ranges, 
 presenting abundant evidence of not remote vol- 
 canic action. In the SW. the country has a 
 desert character, and in all parts the rainfall is 
 decidedly limited— 14-21 inches annually at Fort 
 Defiance. In various parts there are extensive 
 lava-beds. The whole region lies in the drainage 
 basin of the Colorado, the chief affluents being 
 the Gila, the Bill Williams, and the Colorado 
 Chiquito. The water-supply over large areas of 
 Arizona is mainly derived from deep natural 
 wells and ' water-holes.' It is believed that fully 
 10,000,000 acres of ground might be profitably 
 irrigated. The country is in general extremely 
 healthful ; but in the SW. the summer heat is 
 excessive, and malarial fevers are not unknown 
 upon the bottom-lands of the Lower Colorado. 
 
 Maize, barley, and wheat are the leading pro- 
 ducts. Arizona is an important seat of gold and 
 silver mining. Copper is also mined and smelted 
 very largely. Coal has been obtained. Rock- 
 salt, lead, and other valuable mineral deposits 
 are found in abnost every part of the country. 
 The principal towns are Phoenix, the capital, and 
 Tucson. Some interesting old Indian town.s, or 
 pueblos (Moquis), still remain, with their remark- 
 able native semi-civilisation. This region was 
 first visited by Spaniards in 1570. After 1821 the 
 country was a i)art of Mexico until 1848, when 
 most of it passed to the United States, the trans- 
 ference being completed in 1953 by the ' Gadsden 
 Purchase.' Tiie territory was organised in 1863. 
 In 1870 the population was 9658 ; in 1900, 122,900. 
 In 1906, including the adjoining territory of New 
 Mexico, it was made a state of the Union. Total 
 area, 235,380 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 318,210. See 
 New Mexico. 
 Arkalg. See Archaig. 
 
 Arkan'sas (formerly pron. Ar'kansaw), a state 
 of the American Union, is bounded on the N. by 
 Missouri, on the E. by Missouri, Tennessee, and 
 Mississippi, on the S. by Louisiana, and on the 
 W. by Texas and the Indian Territory. Area, 
 53,850 sq. m.— about that of England without 
 AVales, of which some SCO sq. m. is water-surface. 
 The southern limit is the parallel of 30° N. lat., 
 and the northern boundary for the most part is 
 on the parallel of 36° 30'. The Mississippi River 
 washes nearly all the eastern border of the state. 
 Tlie extreme east and west limits are respectively 
 89° 40' and 94° 42' W. long. Nearly all the 
 country is well timbered. Along the eastern 
 border of the state lies a strip of rich alluvial 
 and swampy land, limited westward by Crowley's 
 Ridge. A similar low and wet tract is traversed 
 by the lower Arkansas River. The southern half 
 of the state contains great areas of yellow and 
 loamy land of Tertiary age, interspersed thinly 
 with tracts of red clays and hills of iron-ore. 
 West of the Crowley's Ridge region is a con- 
 siderable breadth of gray silty prairies. In the 
 west of the yellow Tertiary loams are large 
 I)atches of 'black prairie' of Cretaceous age. 
 The Avest and central portions of the state form 
 a broken hill-region of Tertiary origin. Great 
 prairies of red loam and clay soil prevail in the 
 W. and NW. Towards the north is the Ozark 
 mountain-region, a broken country of high hills 
 and ridges. The soils, though of extremely vari- 
 ous character, are mostly good throughout the 
 state. The coal-measures very extensively under- 
 lie the surface, and coal crops out at many 
 points ; but thus far it has not been nmch 
 wrought. Silver-bearing galena and zinc appear 
 to be abundant, and iron-ores exist in vast 
 amounts. The villages of Hot Springs in Gar- 
 land county, and Eureka Springs in the NW., are 
 celebrated health-resorts. The novaculite, or 
 hone-stone, of this state is extensively wrought 
 and exported. The Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, 
 White, St Francis, Ouachita, and other navigable 
 rivers afford cheap transport. Agriculture is the 
 leading pursuit in Arkansas, and cotton is the 
 great staple of production. Maize is also very 
 largely produced, and considerable quantities of 
 oats and wheat are harvested. Live-stock, wool, 
 tobacco, pork, fruit, and dairy products are 
 marketed. Although malarial fevers and severe 
 heat are to be encountered in the marshy and 
 flat alluvial districts, the larger portion of the 
 country has an agreeable and healthful climate. 
 In quality, variety, and accessibility, the timber 
 
ARKANSAS CITY 
 
 48 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 of this state is hardly surpassed. The mineral 
 resources of the state have been but little util- 
 ised. Lying outside the great currents of immi- 
 gration, Arkansas has, until very recent years, 
 preserved to a remarkable degree the character 
 of a frontier country. Even the large extent of 
 river navigation for a long time served to hinder 
 the development of the country, since it dis- 
 couraged the construction of railways ; and the 
 old system of slave labour and of large holdings 
 of land was not favourable to rapid material 
 development. This region formed a part of the 
 French colony of Louisiana, and was purchased, 
 together with the rest of that colony, by the 
 United States in 1803. The earliest French settle- 
 ment was made at Arkansas Post in 1685. Ar- 
 kansas was organised as a territory in 1819, and 
 became a state in 1836, and seceded in 1861. 
 
 The principal towns are Little Rock, the state 
 capital (pop. 40,000), Pine Bluff (12,000), and 
 Fort Smith (11,000); Hot Springs (9500) is a 
 health-resort. Pop. of Arkansas (1820) 14,255 ; 
 (I860) 435,450; (1880) 802,525; (1890) 1,128,179; 
 (1900) 1,311,564, of whom upwards of 366,000 were 
 of African or mixed descent. 
 
 Arkansas City, a manufacturing town in the 
 state of Kansas, on the Arkansas River, 51 miles 
 by rail S. by E. of Wichita. Pop. (1880) 1012 ; 
 (1890) 8547 ; (1900) 6140. 
 
 Arkansas River, next to the Missouri the 
 Mississippi's chief affluent, is 1514 miles long 
 (800 navigable for steamers) ; rises in the Rocky 
 Mountains, at an altitude of 10,000 feet, on the 
 borders of Utah, and joins the ' Father of Waters ' 
 at Napoleon, 275 miles above New Orleans. Its 
 chief tributary is the Canadian River. 
 
 Arklnholm. See Langholm. 
 
 Arklow, a seaport of Wicklow, 49 miles S. of 
 Dublin, at the mouth of the lovely Avoca. There 
 are ruins of the castle of the Ormonds, destroyed 
 by Cromwell in 1649, and traces of an ancient 
 monastery. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Arko'na, the NB. promontory of the island of 
 Riigen, in the Baltic. Its chalk cliffs, rising 177 
 feet, are topped with a lighthouse (1827), itself 
 78 feet high. Here stood a famous fortification 
 long impregnable, and the temple of the Wend 
 deity Swantewit, destroyed by Waldemar I. of 
 Denmark in 1168. 
 
 Arlberg, a crystalline mountain mass of Aus- 
 tria amongst the Alps, which forms the boundary 
 between the Tyrol and Vorarlberg ('the land 
 before or beyond the Arlberg'). The difficult 
 pass over this ridge, from Bludenz to Landeck 
 and Innsbruck, is 5300 feet high ; but a railway, 
 with a main tunnel 6720 yards long, through the 
 Arlberg Alp was opened in 1884. 
 
 Aries (Roman Arelate), a town in the French 
 dep. of Bouches du Rhone, on the principal 
 branch of the Rhone, 15 miles from the sea, and 
 63 miles NW. of Marseilles. Its Roman remains 
 include baths, a palace of Constantine, an aque- 
 duct, and an amphitheatre for 25,000 spectators. 
 The cathedral (7th century) has a splendid door- 
 way. Aries manufactures silk, hats, tobacco, 
 brandy, soap, glass bottles, and railway wagons. 
 Pop. 13,876. 
 
 Arlon {ArlonP'), a town of Belgium, 27 miles 
 WNW. of Luxemburg by rail. Pop. 7684. 
 
 Armadale, a police-burgh of Linlithgowshire, 
 with chemical works, 2J miles W. by S. of Bath- 
 gate. Pop. 3990. 
 
 Armagh', the capital of County Armagh, 33 
 miles SW. of Belfast, is situated on a gentle 
 
 eminence, whence its Ard-Magha, 'high field.* 
 The cruciform 12th-century cathedral occupies 
 the site of one founded by St Patrick in the 5th 
 century. A new Roman Catholic cathedral (1904) 
 occupies the principal height to the north, and 
 tlie primate's palace that to the south. There 
 are a college, a celebrated observatory, public 
 library (1771), and barracks for 200 men. Tlie 
 chief manufacture is linen-weaving. Armagh, 
 from 495 to the 9th century, was the metropolis 
 of Ireland, renowned as a school of theology and 
 literature. Till 1885 it returned one member. 
 Pop. 7500. 
 
 Armagh, a small inland county in Ulster, 
 Ireland. Its greatest length is 32 miles, and 
 breadth 20. Area, 512^ sq. m., about one-half 
 under tillage. Slieve Gullion, in the SW., attains 
 1893 feet. The country bordering upon Lough 
 Neagh is low and boggy, and the Louth plain 
 extends into the south end of Armagh. The 
 principal rivers are the Callan, Tynan, Upper 
 Bann, and Blackwater. The soil is fertile, with 
 a good deal of bog. Besides agriculture, linen 
 and cotton weaving are the chief industries. The 
 county returns three members of parliament. 
 The chief towns are Armagh, Lurgan, Porta- 
 down, and part of Newry. Pop. (1841) 233,024 ; 
 (1891) 143,056 ; (1901) 125,392, of whom 45 per 
 cent, were Catholics, and 32 Episcopalians. 
 
 Armagnac {Ar-7ndn-yac), a district in the 
 south of France, a part of Gascony now mostly 
 included in the dep. of Gers. The soil is fer- 
 tile, and its wine and brandy (Eau d'ArmagiMc) 
 are well known. 
 
 Armenia, a high tableland in the upper valleys 
 of the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, and Kur, some 
 500 miles long, by nearly the same breadth. In 
 ancient times an independent country, it re- 
 peatedly recovered its independence down to the 
 middle ages, although with varying boundary. 
 It is now, however, distributed between Russia, 
 Turkey, and Persia, and stretches, in its utmost 
 extent, from Asia Minor on the W. to the Caspian 
 Sea on the E., and from the Caucasus on the N. 
 to the Murad Su on the S. The interior consists 
 mostly of pastoral plateaus, 2700 to 7000 feet 
 above sea-level, crowned by conical heights or 
 traversed by mountain-chains, and culminating 
 in Mount Ararat, 16,969 feet high. A chain of 
 mountains, stretching from Ararat to the con- 
 fluence of the two head-waters of the Euphrates, 
 divides Armenia into a northern half and a 
 southern half. The mountain-system of Armenia 
 is mostly volcanic, a fact still evidenced by the 
 hot mineral springs, such as the sulphur springs 
 of Tiflis, and by earthquakes. The Murad Su 
 and the Kara Su form the head-waters of the 
 Euphrates ; whilst the Shett, rising to the south 
 of Lake Van, and an arm of the Diarbekr, 
 rising in the Alinjik Dagh, constitute the head- 
 waters of the Tigris. Other rivers are the Aras, 
 the Kur, and the Tchorak. Of lakes, there is 
 Van in Turkish, Goktcha or Sevan in Russian, 
 and Urmia in Persian Armenia. Armenia is rich 
 in metals, possessing mines of silver, lead, iron, 
 arsenic, alum, rock-salt, and especially copper. 
 The climate is distinguished into a region of rains, 
 with subtropical climate, embracing parts of the 
 valley of the Kur and the Upper Tigris ; a region 
 of perpetual snow, and an intermediate region 
 of very various grades. The plateaus— volcanic, 
 dry, and singularly bare of wood— have a very 
 severe climate ; the winters long and inclement, 
 and the summers short. 
 
 The ancients distinguished Armenia Major, the 
 
ARMENTliRES 
 
 49 
 
 ARRAN 
 
 larger and eastern half, bordering on Media and 
 the Caspian Sea, on Mesopotamia and Assyria, 
 from Armenia Minor to the west of the Euphrates. 
 Turkish Armenia comprises, besides the old Ar- 
 menia Minor, the vilayets of Van, Bitlis, Darsim, 
 Erzerum, with parts of Diarbekr and Charput. 
 The Sasun (q.v.) district was the scene of 
 great atrocities by Kurds and Turks in 1893-94. 
 Russian Armenia, formerly Persian, forms the 
 NB. part of old Armenia Major, and includes 
 the governments of Erivan, Elizabetpol, and 
 Kars, with parts of Tiflis. In this Russian 
 division of Armenia are situated the three old 
 monasteries— Etchmiadzin (q.v.), Haghpad, and 
 Sanahine. Persia holds the SB. corner of Ar- 
 menia Major in the province of Azerbijan. 
 
 The Armenians, whose national character is 
 almost as strong aij is that of the Jews, belong 
 to the Iranian group of the Indo-Germanic family. 
 The Armenians, at the present day, are to be 
 found in almost all Turkish provinces ; in Russia, 
 Persia, and India ; in the great commercial cities 
 of the Mediterranean ; in the Austrian empire ; 
 at London, Manchester, and other capitals of 
 Western Europe, occupying posts as money- 
 changers, bankers, and merchants, though also 
 as artisans and porters. Their number in Armenia 
 itself is estimated at 1,000,000 at the most ; in 
 Persia and adjacent territories, 100,000 ; in Euro- 
 pean Turkey, 400,000; in Russia, 500,000; in 
 India, 5000; in Africa, 5000; in Transylvania, 
 Hungary, and Galicia, 16,000. Their total number 
 is calculated at not more than 2,500,000. Among 
 the foreign invaders domesticated in Armenia are 
 the Turks, mostly engaged in agriculture ; the 
 nomadic Kurds; in the SB., the Tai'tars ; Nes- 
 torians occupying the mountains of the Persian 
 frontier, and speaking a Syriac dialect ; Georgians, 
 in the north. Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies are also 
 scattered throughout Armenia. The Armenians 
 themselves are at home mostly shepherds and 
 tillers of the soil. The Armenian church differs 
 from tlie Greek church in being inonophysite 
 (attributing one nature only to Christ). Some 
 Armenians are 'united' (i.e. to the Roman 
 Catholic Ci lurch). 
 
 See Curzon, ^r7)ie)iia(1854) ; Norman, Armenia 
 (1878) ; Tozer, Turkish Armenia (1881) ; Creagh, 
 Armenians, Koords, and Turks (1880) ; Hepworth, 
 Through Armenia on Horseback (1898) ; H. F. B. 
 Lynch, Armenia (2 vols. 1901) ; and works named 
 at Ararat. 
 
 Armenti^res, a manufacturing town in the 
 French dep. of Nord, on the Lys, 12 miles WN W. 
 of Lille by rail. Pop. 26,500, 
 
 Armlsticio, a territory of Venezuela, with an 
 area of 7040 sq. m., bounded on the S. and W. by 
 the United States of Colombia, 
 Armor'ica, an old name of Brittany (q.v.). 
 Amhem, the capital of the Dutch province of 
 Guelderland, on the Rhine, 38 miles BSE. of 
 Utrecht, The manufactures include tobacco, 
 Avoollen and cotton goods, soap, and paper. Sir 
 Philip Sidney died here in 1586 ; in 1813 the 
 town was taken by the Prussians. Pop, (1891) 
 51,105 ; (1903) 60,150. 
 
 Amhem Land, a name formerly applied to a 
 region in northern Australia (belonging to the 
 colony of South Australia), so called from tlie 
 ship of the Dutch navigators who discovered it 
 in 1618, 
 
 Arno, next to the Tiber the most considerable 
 
 river of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, 
 
 an offset of the Apennines, at 4444 feet above 
 
 sea-level, and 25 miles N, of Arezzo, It flows 
 
 D 
 
 140 miles westward to the sea, 11 miles below 
 Pisa, where it once had its embouchure. At 
 Florence it is 400 feet wide, but is fordable in 
 summer. Of its rapid and destructive inunda- 
 tions the most memorable were those of 1537 and 
 1740, 
 
 Arnold, a town of Notts, 5^ miles N. by E, 
 of Nottingham, with lace and stocking manu- 
 factures, Bonington was a native. Pop. 8769. 
 
 Arnsberg, a town of Westphalia, on the Ruhr, 
 36 miles E. of Hagen by rail. Here were held 
 the famous Vehmgerichte. Pop. 9131. 
 
 Amstadt, the chief town in the principality 
 of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on the Gera, 10 
 miles S, of Erfurt, Dating back to 704 a,d., it 
 is now a manufacturing town, with weaving, 
 glove-making, brewing, &c. Pop. 14,818. 
 
 Amswalde, a Prussian town, 41 miles SE. of 
 Stettin, between three lakes. Pop. 8378. 
 
 Arokszallas, a town of Hungary, 44 miles NB. 
 of Pesth. Pop. 12,794. 
 
 Arolsen, the cai)ital of the principality of 
 Waldeck, on the Aar, 14 miles SSW. of Warburg. 
 Its castle (1720) contains West's ' Death of Wolfe.' 
 The sculptor Rauch and the painter Kaulbach 
 were natives. Pop. 2620, 
 
 Aroo'stook, a river which, rising in the north 
 of Maine, falls into the St John in New Bruns- 
 wick, after a course of about 120 miles, 
 
 Arpi'no (anc, Arpinum), the birthplace of 
 Cicero and Marius, on an eminence midway 
 between Rome and Naples, Pop. 5145. 
 
 Ar'quJl, an Italian village with 1000 inhabitants, 
 12 miles SW. of Padua, in the Euganean Hills. 
 Here Petrarch died (1374). 
 
 Arrabida, a monastery, cave, and place of 
 pilgrimage, W. of Setubal (q.v.) in Portugal. 
 
 Arracan. See Arakan. 
 
 Arragon. See Aragon. 
 
 Arrah, a town of Bengal, 320 miles NW. of 
 Calcutta by rail. Here in 1857 a dozen English- 
 men, with 50 Sikhs, held out for eight days 
 against 3000 sepoys. Pop. 46,998. 
 
 Arran, an island of Buteshire, in the mouth of 
 the Firth of Clyde, 5| miles SW. of Bute, 10 W. 
 of Ayrshire, and 3 E. of Kintyre, from which it is 
 separated by Kilbrannan Sound. It is 19 miles 
 long and 10 J broad, with an area of 168 sq. m., 
 about a seventh part being cidtivated. Pop. 
 (1821) 6541 ; (1901) 4819. The general aspect of 
 Arran is mountainous and heathy, and in the 
 north the jagged peaks are singularly grand. 
 All around the coast is the low platform of an 
 ancient sea-margin, with lofty cliffs on the S. and 
 SW., from which the country rises abruptly. 
 The highest point is Goatfell (Gaelic Gaoth 
 Bheinn, ' wind mountain '), which rises 2866 feet. 
 From its sides slope the romantic glens of Rosa 
 and Sannox, and at its base to the SE. opens 
 Brodick Bay. South of this, round a bluff head- 
 land, is Lamlash Bay, the chief harbour of Arran, 
 and the best on the Firth of Clyde, sheltered by 
 Holy Island, ©nee the seat of a monastery. A 
 picturesque mass of columnar basalt, 1030 feet 
 high, succeeds. Farther south lies Whiting Bay, 
 near which are two cascades 100 and 50 feet high. 
 At the SE. point of Arran is Kildonan Castle, 
 opposite which is the small isle of Pladda, 
 crowned by a lighthouse. Large caverns occur 
 in the cliffs of the S. and SW. coast. In one of 
 these, the ' King's Cave,' in the basaltic promou' 
 tory of Drumadoon, Robert the Bruce hid him- 
 self. Shiskine Vale, opening into Drumadoon 
 
ARRANMORE 
 
 60 
 
 ASHANTI 
 
 Bay, Is the most fertile part of Arran. Loch 
 Banza, a bay in the north end of Arran, runs a 
 mile inland, and is a herring-fishing rendezvous. 
 There are only rivulets in Arran ; one of them 
 tumbles over a precipice 300 feet high. Almost 
 the whole island belongs to the Duke of Hamil- 
 ton, whose seat is Brodick Castle. Many anti- 
 quities occur, such as cairns, standing stones, 
 and stone circles. Lochranza Castle, now in 
 ruins, was once a residence of the Scots kings. 
 See D. Landsborough's Arran (2d ed. 1875), and 
 J. Bryce's Geology ^ Arran (4th ed. 1875). 
 
 Arranmore, or North Arran, a Donegal island, 
 4 miles long by 3 wide, and 745 feet high. 
 
 Arras, the capital of the French dep. of Pas- 
 de-Calais, on the navigable Scarpe, 120 miles 
 N. of Paris. A fortress of the first rank, it has 
 a cathedral (1755-1833) and a beautiful Gothic 
 hotel-de-ville (1510), whose belfry, 246 feet high, 
 was rebuilt in 1835. There are manufactures of 
 lace, hosiery, beet-sugar, &c. ; and its tapestry 
 was formerly so famous that in England the 
 name arras was given to all such hangings. 
 Arras was the capital of the Celtic Atrebates 
 (whence the name), and subsequently of Artois. 
 It did not finally become French till 1640. 
 Robespierre was a native. Pop. (1872) 21,447 ; 
 (1891) 25,701 ; (1901) 25,850. 
 
 Arrochar, a village at the head of Loch Long, 
 17 miles N. of Helensburgh by rail. 
 
 Arroyo Molinos, a village in Estremadura, 
 Spain, where Lord Hill routed the French, 28th 
 October 1811, 
 
 Arm Islands, a group of over eighty islands 
 in the Dutch Bast Indies, lying west of New 
 Guinea, with a united area of 2650 sq. m., and a 
 population of 15,000. The largest island is 
 Tanna-Besar (77 miles long by 50 broad). The 
 surface is low, the coasts are steep and inacces- 
 sible, on the east side fringed with coral reefs. 
 The soil is covered with the most luxuriant vege- 
 tation. 
 
 Arsamas, a Russian town, 60 miles S. of 
 Nijni-Novgorod ; pop. 11,497. 
 
 Ars-sur-Moselle, a town of Alsace-Lorraine, 
 on tiie Moselle, 6 miles SW. of Metz by rail ; 
 pop. 4620. 
 
 Arta (Turkish Narda, the ancient Amhracia), 
 capital of a division of Thessaly, ceded to Greece 
 by Turkey in 1881 (area, 395 sq. m. ; pop. 31,178). 
 The town stands on the Aita (tiie ancient Arac- 
 thus), 8 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Arta 
 (the ancient Ambraeian Gulf), an arm of the 
 Ionian Sea between Greece and Albania. It is 
 the see of a Greek archbishop. Pop. 7328. 
 
 Arthur's Seat, a lion-shaped hill, immediately 
 east of Edinburgh, rising 822 feet. The ascent is 
 easy, and the prospect from the top unrivalled. 
 Arthur's Seat is supposed to derive its name 
 from the British king. 
 
 Artois {Ar-twah'), an old province in the north 
 ■^f France, bounded by Flanders and Picardy, and 
 almost corresponding with the modern dep. of 
 Pas-de-Calais. Its capital was Arras. 
 
 Artvln, a town of Russian Armenia, on the 
 Charuch, 34 miles S. of Batum ; pop. 8000. 
 
 Aru. See Arru. 
 
 Arun, a Sussex river, flowing 37 miles to the 
 English Channel at Littlehampton, 
 
 Ar'undel, an ancient municipal borough (till 
 1867 also parliamentary) of Sussex, on the navi- 
 gable Arun, 5 miles from its mouth, and 10 miles 
 B. of Chichester. Arundel Castle, the seat of 
 
 the Fitzalans, Earls of Arundel, from 1243 to 
 1580, and since then of the Howards, comprises 
 a circular Norman keep, 100 feet high, and a 
 modern Gothic edifice dating from 1791, It has 
 stood three great sieges, in 1102, in 1139, and in 
 1644. There are a cruciform parish church (1387) 
 and a splendid R, C. church (1873). Pop. 8644. 
 
 Aruwimi, an important tributary of the Congo, 
 entering the latter from the north in 1° 10' N. 
 lat., 23'' 30' E. long. It was explored for 100 
 miles by Stanley in 1883, and by it Stanley 
 advanced to the relief of Emin Pasha in 1887. 
 
 Arve {Arv), a Swiss stream rising in the Col de 
 Balme, one of the Savoy Alps, and flowing 62 
 miles through the Vale of Charaouni and the 
 canton of Geneva to the Rhone. 
 
 Arveyron, a small tributary of the Arve, in 
 Savoy, is the outlet of the famous Mer de, Glace, 
 in the Vale of Chamouni, from which it issues in 
 a torrent through a beautiful grotto of ice, 40 to 
 150 feet high. 
 
 Asben. See Air. 
 
 Ascension, a solitary island nearly in the 
 middle of the South Atlantic, 685 miles NW. of 
 St Helena, in 7° 57' S, lat., and 14° 21' W, long. 
 It is said to have received its name from having 
 been discovered by a Portuguese navigator on 
 Ascension-day, 1501. It is 73 miles long, 6 broad, 
 and 35 sq, m. in area. First occupied by the 
 English in 1815, in connection with Napoleon's 
 detention on St Helena, it is now used only as a 
 sanatorium, having ceased since 1887 to be a 
 coaling depot. Like St Helena, it is of volcanic 
 origin, one of the peaks of a submarine ridge 
 which separates the north and south basins of 
 the Atlantic. It rises in the Green Mountain to 
 a height of 2870 feet. Several astronomers and 
 savants have visited Ascension, from Halley in 
 1677, to Darwin, Sir Wyville Thomson, and Mr 
 Gill. Pop., with KrooMien, about 450, See Mrs 
 Gill's Six Months in Ascension (1879). 
 
 Asch, a town of Bohemia, 14 miles NW, of 
 Eger, with thriving silk, cotton, and woollen 
 manufactures ; pop. 19,209. 
 
 AschaflTenhurg (Ashaffenhoorg'), a Bavarian 
 town of Lower Franconia, on the Main, at the 
 Aschaff"s influx, 25 miles SE. of Frankfort. The 
 castle of Johannisburg, a Renaissance pile of 1605- 
 14, overlooks the whole town. Paper is the staple 
 manufacture. Pop. 18,630, The Romans built a 
 fortress at Aschaffenburg, which in 1814 was 
 ceded to Bavaria by Austria, Near it the Prus- 
 sians defeated the Austrians, July 14, 1866, 
 
 Aschersleben (Asherslay'ben), a town of Prus- 
 sian Saxony, on the Eine, 32 ni. SW. of Magdeburg. 
 Population, 28,500, largely occupied in manufac- 
 tures of woollens, linens, sugar, &c. 
 
 As'coli (anc. Asculum Picenum), a city of Italy, 
 on the Tronto, 83 miles S. of Ancona by rail. It 
 has a fine cathedral, and it suffered nuich from 
 an earthquake in 1878. Pop. 15,199,— Ascoli 
 (anc. Asculum Apulum) is another episcopal city, 
 19 miles S. of Foggia. Pop. 6478. Pyrrhus here 
 defeated the Romans, 279 B.C. 
 
 Ascot Heath, a circular race-course in Berk- 
 shire, nearly 2 miles long, 29 miles WSW. of 
 London, and 6 SW. of Windsor. The races, which 
 take place early in June, were instituted in 1711. 
 
 Ashantl, or Ashantee, a negro kingdom of 
 Western Africa, included since 1896 in the 
 British protectorate, and attaclied to tlie Gold 
 Coast colony, behind which it lies. It is a 
 hilly country ; its rivers are the Volta, Prah, 
 
ASHBOURNE 
 
 61 
 
 ASIA 
 
 and Assinee. Population estimated at from 
 1,000,000 to 3,000,000, of whom a fifth are war- 
 riors. The country proper is one continuous 
 forest; the land in the neighbourhood of the 
 towns is carefully cultivfted, and extremely fer- 
 tile, producing maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco, 
 sugar, cocoa, the pine-apple, gums, dye-woods, 
 and timber. Tlie principal exports are gold-dust 
 and palm-oil. The capital is Coomassie (q.v.); 
 Kpando, near the Volta, is an important centre 
 of trade, and so is Salaga or Paraha. In 1700 
 Coomassie was made the capital by Osai Tutu, 
 who conquered various neighbouring states, and 
 became a sort of feudal sovereign over a large 
 district. In their course of conquest over the 
 Fantees, the Ashantis became Involved in war 
 with the British (1807-26), and were finally 
 driven Irom the sea-coast ; and in 1873-74 an 
 army under Wolseley took Coomassie. King 
 Prempeh, after a spell of raiding, was forced in 
 1896 to accept the British protectorate ; and a 
 rebellion was suppressed after a third expedition 
 to Coomassie, which is now connected by rail 
 with the Gold Coast ports. See works by 
 Bowdich (1819; new ed. 1873), Brackenbury 
 (1874), Reade (1874), Stanley (1874), Weitbrecht 
 (1875), Reindorf (1895), and Freeman (1898). 
 
 Ashbourne, a market-town of Derbyshire, 13 
 miles NW. of Derby. Its church (1241) has a 
 spire 212 feet high ('the Pride of the Peak ') ; the 
 grammar-school dates from 1585. Priiice Charles 
 Edward was here in 1745, and here Moore wrote 
 great part of Lalla Rookh. Pop. 4040. 
 
 Ashburnbam, a Sussex parish, 5 miles W. of 
 Battle, with the seat of the Earl of Ashburnham. 
 
 Ashburton, a small town in the south of 
 Devonshire, on the borders of Dartmoor, 9^ miles 
 NNW. of Totnes by rail. Till 1868 it returned a 
 member to parliament. Pop. of parish, 2662. 
 
 Ashburton River, an unnavigable stream of 
 Western Australia, rising in the mountains west 
 of the Great Desert, and flowing 400 miles north- 
 westward into Exmouth Gulf. Its lower course 
 was explored by Sholl in 1866, its upper by Giles 
 iu 1876. 
 
 Ashby-de-la-Zoucli, a town of Leicestershire, 
 18 miles NW. of Leicester. It owes its suffix to 
 the Norman family of La Zouch. Their ruined 
 castle, celebrated in Scott's Ivanhoe, and rebuilt 
 in 1480 by Sir William Hastings, crowns a height 
 to the south of the town. Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, was imprisoned here. Leather is the 
 staple industry. Pop. 4750. 
 
 Ashdod (New Test. Azotus, now Esdud), a 
 village on the Mediterranean, 21 miles S. of Jaffa. 
 Once a chief city of the Philistines, it is now a 
 miserable place with a pop. of 300. 
 
 Ashdown, the seat of Lord Craven, in West 
 Berkshire, 3J miles NW. of Lambourn. Here, in 
 871, Ethelred and Alfred gained the great victory 
 of iEscdun over the Danes. 
 
 Ashe, the Duke of Marlborough's birthplace, 
 3 miles SW. of Axniinster, Devon. 
 
 Asheville, capital of Buncombe county, North 
 Carolina, 70 miles by rail NW. of Spartanburg, 
 with a number of tobacco factories. Pop. (1880) 
 2616 ; (1890) 10,235 ; (1900) 14,694. 
 
 Ashford, a market-town of Kent, 14 miles SW. 
 of Canterbury, and 56 SE. of London. It is a 
 railway junction, and the seat of the South- 
 eastern Railway workshops. Eastwell Park lies 
 3 miles N. Pop. 13,.50O. 
 
 Ashiestiel, a Selkirkshire mansion, on the 
 
 Tweed, 5 J miles WSW. of Galashiels. Scott 
 lived here 1804-12. 
 
 Ashingdon, a parish of South Essex, 2^ miles 
 N. of Rochford. Here, in the battle of Assan- 
 dun (1016), the sixth fought in the year, Canute 
 defeated Edmund Ironside. 
 
 Ashland (1), a post-borough of Schuylkill 
 county, Pennsylvania, 119 miles NW. of Phila- 
 delphia by rail. It depends principally upon its 
 rich mines of anthracite coal ; but it has also 
 foundries, machine-shops, and several mills. Pop. 
 (1890) 7346 ; (1900) 6438. (2) Capital of Ashland 
 county, Wisconsin, on Lake Superior, 391 miles 
 by rail NW. of Milwaukee. It has a busy trade in 
 lumber, is a terminus of five railways, and has 
 grown up since 1880. Pop, 13,500." 
 
 Ashraf, a town in the Persian province of 
 Mazanderan, near the south coast of the Caspian 
 Sea, 56 miles W. of Astrabad. A favourite resi- 
 dence of Shah Abbas the Great, it still contains 
 over 800 houses. 
 
 Ashridge Park, Earl Brownlow's seat, on the 
 Bucks and Herts border, 3^ miles N. of Berk- 
 hampstead. 
 
 Ashtabula, a rapidly increasing to^vn of the 
 state of Ohio, U.S., on the Cleveland and Erie 
 Railwav, 3 miles from Lake Erie, and 49 miles 
 NE. of Cleveland. Pop. (1880)4445 ; (1900) 12,950. 
 
 Ashton-in-Makerfield, a township in South 
 Lancashire, 4 miles S. of Wigan. Pop. (1881) 
 9824 ; (1891) 13,379 ; (1901) 18,687. 
 
 Ashton-under-Lyne, a town of Lancashire, 6i 
 miles E. of Manchester. It was enfranchised in 
 1832, and returns one member. A great seat of 
 the cotton manufacture, it suffered severely 
 during the cotton famine (1861-65). The popula- 
 tion is also employed in bleaching, dyeing, and 
 calico-printing, in collieries, and in the manu- 
 facture of machines, bricks, &c. Among the 
 buildings are the town-hall (1841), the infirmary 
 (1860), and the old parish church, with tombs of 
 the Assheton family, from whonx.the town got 
 its name. Pop. (1851) 29,791 ; (1901) 51,080, of 
 whom 43,890 were within the municipal borough. 
 
 Asia, the largest of the divisions of the world, 
 occupies the northern portion of the eastern 
 hemisphere in the form of a massive continent 
 which extends beyond the Arctic Circle, and by its 
 southern peninsulas nearly reaches the equator. 
 Apparently Asia was a local name given to the 
 plains of Ephesus, gradually extended to the 
 Anatolian peninsula, and later on to the whole 
 of the continent. 
 
 Viewed in their broad features, Europe and 
 Asia constitute but one continent, extending from 
 west to east, and having the shape of an immense 
 triangle, the angles of which are Spain in the 
 west, the peninsula of the Tchuktchis in the 
 north-east, and that of Malacca in the south- 
 east. The Arctic Ocean in the north, the Pacific 
 in the east, and the Indian Ocean, continued by 
 its narrow gulf, the Red Sea, which nearly 
 reaches the Mediterranean, enclose the continent 
 of Asia. This immense mass of land touches the 
 latitude of 77° 34' N. in Cape Tchelyuskin, while 
 Cape Burros, at the extremity of the peninsula 
 of Malacca, and 5350 miles distant from the 
 former, falls short by 1° 15' of reaching the 
 equator. Cape Baba, in Asia Minor, advances as 
 far west as the 26th degree of longitude, and the 
 utmost NE. extremity of Asia — East Cape, 5990 
 miles distant from Cape Baba — protrudes to the 
 190th degree (12 hours 40 minutes) to the east of 
 Greenwich. The area covered by Asia and its 
 
ASIA 
 
 52 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Islands is 17,255,890 sq. m.— that is, almost 
 exactly one-third of the land-surface of the globe 
 (32 per cent.). It is one-half larger than Africa, and 
 more than four times larger than Europe. Geo- 
 graphically, Europe is a mere appendix to Asia, 
 and no exact geographical delimitation of the 
 two continents is possible. The low Urals are 
 not even an administrative frontier : European 
 Russia extends over their eastern slope. Caucasus 
 is Asiatic in character ; but, to separate it from 
 Europe, one must resort to the old dried-up 
 channel of the two Manytch rivers, which, at a 
 geologically recent epoch connected the Black 
 Sea with the Caspian. Asia Minor— also Asiatic 
 in character — so closely approaches Europe that 
 the Sea of Marmora and its narrow river-like 
 straits seem almost an artificial boundary. The 
 line of separation from Africa is better defined 
 by the narrow Red Sea ; but Arabia participates 
 so largely in the physical features of Africa that 
 it is in a sense intermediate between the two 
 continents. In the south-east, the numberless 
 islands of the Dutch Indies— relics of a sunken 
 continent— appear as a bridge towards Australia. 
 And in the extreme north-east, Asia sends out a 
 peninsula to meet one of the Alaskan peninsulas 
 in America, from which it is separated only by 
 a shallow and narrow channel, Behring Strait. 
 Although the coasts of Asia are much more 
 indented by gulfs and peninsulas than those of 
 Africa or America, still it stands in this respect 
 mucli behind Europe, and the length of its coast- 
 line is reckoned at 33,000 miles in all (Europe hav- 
 ing one of 60,000 miles) ; besides, about oue-fifth 
 of its shores is washed by the ice-bound Arctic 
 Ocean, or by the foggy and icy Sea of Okhotsk. 
 Its peninsulas are massive too, and, as a rule, 
 little indented. Three immense offsets continue 
 the continent of Asia into more tropical latitudes 
 — Arabia, India, and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. 
 Asia Minor protrudes between the Black Sea and 
 the Mediterranean. In the Pacific there are only 
 three large peninsulas — Corea, Kamchatka, and 
 that of the Tchuktchis. 
 
 The islands of Asia are very numerous, and 
 cover an aggregate of no less than 1,023,000 sq. 
 m. (nearly 6 per cent, of Asia's surface). The 
 coasts of Asia Minor are dotted with islands. 
 Cyprus and Ceylon are important. In Eastern 
 Asia, a narrow strip of islands, some large like 
 Sumatra (177,000 sq. m.) and Java, others mere 
 reefs, extend in a wide semicircle, under the 
 name of Andaman and Sunda Islands, from 
 Burma to Australia, separating the Indian Ocean 
 from the shallow Java Sea and the Malay Archi- 
 pelago. This last — an immense volcanic region 
 inhabited by the Malay race — comprises the huge 
 Borneo, the ramified Celebes, and the numberless 
 small islands of the Moluccas, the Philippines, 
 &c. ; connected northward with the Chinese 
 coast by the island of Formosa, which, like 
 Hainan, may almost be considered part of the 
 Chinese mainland. The Loo-choo (Liu-kiu) Islands 
 and the Japanese Archipelago, the latter joining 
 Kamchatka by the Kuriles, continue farther NE. 
 the chain of islands. Saghalien is close to the 
 continent. In the Arctic Ocean also are some 
 unimportant islands. 
 
 Asia is at once the largest and the highest of 
 all continents. Not only has it a number of 
 mountains which exceed by five and six thousand 
 feet the loftiest summits of the Andes ; it has 
 also the highest and the most extensive plateaus. 
 If the whole mass of its mountains and plateaus 
 were uniformly spread over its surface, the con- 
 tinent would rise no less than 2800 to 3000 feet 
 
 above the sea. High plateaus are the predomi- 
 nant feature of Asia's orographical structure : 
 they occupy nearly two-fifths of its area. One 
 of them — that of Western Asia, including Ana- 
 tolia, Armenia, and Iran- extends in a south- 
 easterly direction from the Black Sea to the 
 valley of the Indus ; while the other— the high 
 plateau of Eastern Asia, still loftier and much 
 more extensive— stretches NE. from the Hima- 
 layas to the north-eastern extremity of Asia. 
 These vast regions, mostly unfit for human 
 settlement, and over wide areas mere dry deserts, 
 divide Asia into two parts — the lowlands of 
 Siberia and the Aral-Caspian depression to the 
 north, and the lowlands of Mesopotamia, India, 
 and China to the south. The highest parts of 
 the East Asian plateau are in Tibet, varying from 
 18,000 feet to 10,000 feet in height. This highest 
 plateau of the earth is girdled by the highest chain 
 of mountains, the Himalayas — a typical ' border- 
 ridge' which has one foot on the high plateau, 
 and the other in valleys ten to fifteen thousand 
 feet deeper, where the palm and vine grow freely. 
 This immense chain of snow-clad peaks, which 
 in Europe would reach from Gibraltar to Greece, 
 raises its lofty summits above 20,000 feet ; its 
 lowest passes are 15,000 feet high, and Gauri- 
 sankar or Mount Everest — the highest mountain 
 of the globe — has its snow-cap at a height of 
 29,000 feet, that is, 5J miles above the sea. 
 
 In the north-west, the Tibet plateau joins 
 another much smaller, but very high plateau — 
 that of Pamir (' the roof of the world '), of which 
 tlie Tagarma peak reaches a height of 25,800 feet. 
 Farther north and north-east of the Pamir is a 
 wide, intricate complex of several high chains, 
 known under the general name of Tian-shan 
 (q.v.). The great Khan-tengri rises there to 
 24,000 feet. 
 
 On the north, the plateau of Tibet is bordered 
 by a succession of lofty chains (Kuen-lun, Altyn- 
 tagh, Naii-shan), reaching more than 20,000 feet 
 in their highest parts. These chains separate it 
 from the great central depression which is occu- 
 pied by Eastern Turkestan in the west, and by 
 the Desert of Gobi in the east. This great 
 depression — including the Han-hai, or ' dried-up 
 sea,' of the basin of the Tarim— has an altitude 
 of from 3000 to 4000 feet in the west, and 2200 
 feet in its lowest part— the depression of Lake 
 Lob-nor. It has no outlet. The dry and barren 
 ridge called Eastern Tian-shan, and two other 
 ridges running NW., separate the Han-hai depres- 
 sion of Central Asia from the trenches of Urumtsi 
 and Urungu, which descend west to the lowlands 
 of Siberia. Beyond the great depression the 
 plateau rises again, and reaches an average 
 height of from 4000 to more than 5000 feet in the 
 upper basin of the Yenisei and Selenga. To 
 the north-west, the plateau is bordered by the 
 snow-clad Sailughem ridge of the Altai (8000 to 
 9000 feet), which is broken by the depression in 
 which Lake Baikal lies. A broad zone of alpine 
 tracts more than 150 miles wide and 2000 miles 
 long — the Altai, the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau, the 
 Baikal, Lena, Olekma, and Vitim mountains — 
 fringes this plateau in the west. 
 
 The hilly tracts of Asia are not confined to the 
 plateaus and their border-ridges. The Caucasus, 
 an immense wall of snow-clad mountains, 
 stretches NW. to SE. for nearly 800 miles along 
 the border of the Armenian plateau, from which 
 it is separated by the broad valley of the Kura. 
 It reaches 18,560 feet in the Elborous (Elburz) 
 peak. The Urals, from 2000 to 4000 feet high, 
 which separate Europe from Asia, are a broad 
 
ASIA 
 
 AfilA 
 
 belt of hilly tracts, stretching as a whole from 
 north to south. 
 
 The interior of the Indian peninsula is again 
 occupied by tlie wide plateau of the Deccan, 
 having an average height of from 1500 to 3000 
 feet, bordered in the west by the Western Ghats 
 (7870 feet high) and the Cardaman Mountains, 
 and in the east by the much lower and broader 
 Eastern Ghats. The Pedrotallagalla peak in 
 Ceylon rises 8330 feet. 
 
 The whole of North-western Asia is occupied 
 by an immense lowland — Siberia — which joins 
 in the south the wide Aral-Caspian depression. 
 This lowland, whose level is less than five or 
 six hundred feet high, does not touch the alpine 
 regions which fringe the great plateau of East 
 Asia. It is separated from them by a belt of 
 elevated, undulating plains. On the northern 
 coast of the Caspian, the Aral-Caspian depression 
 descends even below the level of the sea. The 
 wide space between the great plateaus of Western 
 and Eastern Asia and that of the Deccan, watered 
 by the Indus and the Ganges, is again an 
 immense lowland, covering no less than 400,000 
 sq. m., and supplying the means of existence to 
 125 millions of inhabitants. Another wide low- 
 land, Mesopotamia, or the broad valley of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates, was a cradle of civilisation 
 from the remotest antiquity. The predominant 
 feature of Asia's hydrography is the existence of 
 very wide areas having no outlet to the sea. On 
 the great plateau of Eastern Asia the region of the 
 Haii-hai and Gobi is watered only by the Tarim, 
 which falls into the rapidly drying marshes of 
 Lob-nor. If we add to this wide area the drain- 
 age basins of Lake Balkhash with its tributaries, 
 the Hi and other smaller rivers ; the great Lake 
 Aral, with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes) and Amu- 
 daria (Oxus), as also the numerous rivers which 
 flow towards it or its tributaries, but are desic- 
 cated by evaporation before reaching them ; and 
 finally the Caspian with its tributaries, we find 
 an immense surface of more than 4,000,000 sq. m. 
 —that is, much larger than Europe— which has 
 no outlet to the ocean. Four inland drainage 
 areas more nuist be added to the above — the 
 plateaus of Iran and Armenia, two separate areas 
 in Arabia, and one in Asia Minor. 
 
 The drainage area of the Arctic Ocean includes 
 all the lowlands of Siberia, its plains, and large 
 portions of the great plateau. The chief rivers 
 flowing north to the Arctic Ocean are the Obi, 
 with the Irtish; the Yenisei, with its great 
 tributary the Angara, which brings to it the 
 waters of Lake Baikal ; and finally the Lena, 
 with its great tributaries, the Vitim, Olekma, 
 Vilui, and Aldan. 
 
 Three great rivers enter the Pacific, and all 
 three are navigable for thousands of miles : the 
 Amur, composed of the Argun and Shilka, and 
 receiving the Sungari (a great artery of naviga- 
 tion in Manchuria), the Usuri, and the Zeya ; the 
 Hoang-ho ; and the Yang-tse-kiang, the last two 
 taking their rise on the plateau of Tibet. The 
 Cambodia or Mekong, the Salwen, and the 
 Irawadi, rising in the eastern parts of the high 
 plateau, water the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. 
 Rising on the same height, the Indus and the 
 Brahmaputra flow through a high valley in 
 opposite directions along the northern base of 
 the Himalayas, until both pierce the gigantic 
 ridge at its opposite ends, and find their way in 
 opposite directions to the sea. The Tigris and 
 Euphrates, both rising in the high plateau of 
 Armenia, flow parallel to each other. 
 
 A succession of great lakes, or rather inland 
 
 seas, are situated all along the northern slope of 
 the high plateaus of Western and Eastern Asia. 
 The Caspian, 800 miles long and 270 wide, is an 
 immense sea, its level now 85 feet beloiu the level 
 of the ocean ; Lake Aral has its level 157 feet 
 above the ocean ; farther east we have Lake 
 Balkhash (780 feet), Zaisan (1200 feet), and Lake 
 Baikal (1550 feet). Three large lakes, Urmia, Van, 
 and Goktcha, and many smaller ones, lie on the 
 highest part of the Armenian plateau. 
 
 Volcanoes play an important part in Asia's 
 geology; more than 120 active volcanoes are 
 known in Asia, chiefly in the islands of the 
 south-east, the Philippines, Japan, the Kuriles, 
 and Kamchatka, and also in a few islands of the 
 Sea of Bengal and Arabia, and of Western Asia. 
 Numerous traces of volcanic eruptions are found, 
 not only in these same regions, but also in Eastern 
 Tian-shan, in the north-western border-ridges of 
 the high Siberian plateau, and in the south-west 
 of Aigun in Manchuria. Earthquakes are fre- 
 quent, especially in Armenia, Turkestan, and 
 around Lake Baikal. 
 
 Asia is exceedingly rich in a great variety of 
 mineral products. There are gold-mines of great 
 wealth in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern 
 Siberia ; and auriferous sands are found in Corea, 
 Sumatra, Japan, and the Caucasus Mountains. 
 Silver is extracted in Siberia ; platinum in the 
 Urals; copper in Japan, India, and Siberia; tin 
 in Banca ; mercury in Japan. Iron ore is found 
 in nearly all the mountainous regions, especially 
 of Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, India, China, 
 Japan, and Siberia ; but iron mining is still at a 
 rudimentary stage. Immense coal-beds are spread 
 over China and the islands of the Pacific (Hai- 
 nan, Japanese Archipelago, Saghalien), Eastern 
 Siberia, Turkestan, India, Persia, and Asia Minor. 
 They cover no less than half a Tnillion square 
 miles in China alone ; but the extraction of coal 
 is as yet very limited. Graphite is found in 
 Siberia. The diamonds of India, the sapphires 
 of Ceylon, the rubies of Burma and Turkestan, 
 the topazes, beryls, &c. of the Urals and Ner- 
 tchinsk, have a wide repute. Layers of rock-salt 
 are widely spread, and still more so the salt 
 lakes and springs. The petroleum wells of the 
 Caspian shores rival those of the' United States. 
 Mineral springs are widely spread over Asia; 
 those of Caucasus and Transbaikalia already 
 attract a number of patients. 
 
 Even Eastern Europe has quite a continental 
 climate. Still more continental is the climate 
 throughout Asia, with the exception of a part of 
 its coast regions. On account of the immense 
 area of Asia, great difi'erences of climate are met 
 with, and therefore the meteorologists subdivide 
 the continent into several very diff"erent climatic 
 regions, of which Eastern Siberia, dry, and in 
 winter very cold, includes Verkhoyansk, the 
 coldest spot of the Eastern Hemisphere ; while 
 India, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and adjoining 
 islands have a tropical climate, with abundant 
 periodical rains. Asia Minor has of all Asiatic 
 regions the most moderate and agreeable climate. 
 During the winter, Asia, as a whole, with the 
 exception of India, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 
 and South-western Arabia, enjoys a temperature 
 much lower than that of corresponding latitudes 
 elsewhere ; while in July, throughout all Asia, 
 except on the coasts of the Kara Sea, Kamchatka, 
 and the Manchurian littoral, the temperature is 
 higher than under the same latitudes elsewhere. 
 
 The aggregate population of Asia is estimated 
 at 891 millions, being thus more than one-half of 
 the entire population of the globe. This popula- 
 
ASIA 
 
 54 
 
 A0U 
 
 tion gives, however, only an average of 49 inhabit- 
 ants per sq. m. It is very unequally distributed, 
 and reaches 557 per sq. m. in some provinces of 
 China— denser than in England (540 per sq. ni.)— 
 and 470 in some parts of North-western India. 
 Nearly one-tenth is almost quite uninhabited. 
 
 The inhabitants of Asia belong to Ave different 
 groups : the so-called Caucasian (Fair type) in 
 Western Asia and India ; the Mongolian in Cen- 
 tral and Eastern Asia, as also in the Indo-Chinese 
 Peninsula ; the Malay in Malacca and the Indian 
 Archipelago ; the Dravidas in South-eastern India 
 and Ceylon ; and the Negritos and Papuas in the 
 virgin forests of the Philippine Islands and 
 Celebes. A sixth great division comprises the 
 stems which inhabit North-eastern Asia— the 
 Hyperboreans. The Europeans reckon about six 
 millions (Russians) in Caucasus, Turkestan, and 
 Siberia; some 100,000 (British) in India; and 
 75,000 in the Dutch Indies. 
 
 The four great religions which are professed by 
 the great majority of mankind — the Jewish, 
 Buddhist, Christian, and Mohammedan — had their 
 origin in Asia. At present the inhabitants of 
 Asia belong chiefly to the Buddhist religion, 
 which — inclusive of the followers of Lamaisra, 
 the moral philosophy of Confucius, and the 
 teachings of Lao-tse, who all accept more or less 
 the Buddhist ritual — has no less than 530 to 560 
 millions of followers — i.e. nearly one-third of 
 mankind. The old faith of Hinduism has no less 
 than 207 millions of followers in India. Most of 
 the inhabitants of Western Asia, as also of part 
 of Central Asia, follow the religion of Islam ; 
 they may number about 90 millions. The 
 Christians number about 20 millions in Armenia, 
 Caucasus, Siberia, and Turkestan. Many of the 
 Ural-Altaians continue to maintain their ancient 
 faith. Shamanism. Jews are scattered mostly in 
 Western and Central Asia. A few fire-worshippers 
 — Guebres or Parsees — who are found in the west 
 of India and Persia are the sole renmant of the 
 once wide-spread religion of Zoroaster. 
 
 The chief political divisions of Asia, with their 
 approximate areas and population (mostly esti- 
 mated), are as follows : 
 
 states and Territories. in'tq^^m Population. 
 
 Siberia 4,824,570 6,731,562 
 
 Caucasus 182,500 9,251,945 
 
 Traiiscaspia (with Caspian) 400,070 372,193 
 
 Eussian Turkestan 1,541,500 7,349,401 
 
 Khiva anl Bokhara 114,600 2,930,000 
 
 Asiatic Turkey. 729,410 16,953,530 
 
 Arabia 968,200 3,741,222 
 
 Persia 636,400 9,000,000 
 
 Afghanistan 240,000 4,000,000 
 
 Kaftristan and Hindu Kush 20,000 1,000,000 
 
 Beluchistan 106,800 840,000 
 
 India (with Burma) 1,560,160 295,038,950 
 
 Nepal, Bhutan, &c 89,600 3,300,000 
 
 Ceylon 25,360 3,576,9!»0 
 
 French and Portuguese India 1,800 847,484 
 
 Siaro 280,650 6,000,0(X) 
 
 Malacca States 31,500 676,138 
 
 French Indo-China 225,620 20,000,000 
 
 Chinese Empire 4,218,400 399,700,000 
 
 Corea 84,250 10,000,000 
 
 Macao 10 75,000 
 
 Hong-kong 30 297,200 
 
 Japan.. 148,500 46,450,000 
 
 Dutch East Indies 568,900 35,200,000 
 
 Philippines, &c. (U.S. and Ger.) . . 116,260 8,342,000 
 
 British Borneo and Labuan 30,150 175 000 
 
 Native Borneo 62,940 645' 000 
 
 Cyprus 3,580 237^022 
 
 17,211,760 891,730,717 
 
 The amount of cereals— rice, millet, wheat, 
 barley, oats, &c.— supplied by the rich corn- 
 fields of China, Indo-China, Japan, and even 
 
 Turkestan— may be best judged by the density 
 of population in the better-watered parts of these 
 countries, and by the rapidly increasing amounts 
 of corn exported, especially from India ; while in 
 Southern Siberia, the Altai, and the Middle Amur, 
 Russian settlers raising wheat, rye, oats, barley, 
 melons, &c. on the virgin soil of the prairies enjoy 
 a welfare hardly known in Russia. The crops 
 of cotton in India and Asia Minor helped Europe 
 to meet the cotton crisis of 1863 ; and those of 
 Bokhara and Transcaucasia gave an impulse to 
 the growing cotton industry of Russia. Tea is the 
 chief crop of Southern China, Assam, India, and 
 Ceylon ; and coffee is largely grown in Arabia, 
 India, Ceylon, and the Dutch colonies. Tlie silk- 
 worm culture is widely spread in Asia Minor, 
 Persia, Turkestan, India, Cliiua, and Japan. 
 Tlie sugar-cane is largely raised in Southern and 
 South-eastern Asia. Oleaginous plants, indigo 
 and other dye plants, jute, spices, the cinchona- 
 tree, and opium-producing plants are extensively 
 cultivated ; as also fruit-trees in Western Asia 
 and 'J'urkestan. The cocoa-palm, the bread-tree, 
 and the gutta-percha tree are also grown in 
 tropical Asia. 
 
 On the inland steppes and plateaus of Asia, 
 numberless herds of horses, horned cattle, and 
 sheep furnish all the necessaries of life to the 
 nomad or half-nomad Mongolian inhabitants of 
 these regions, and supply the European trade with 
 a yearly increasing amount of hides, wool, and 
 tallow. The forests of the far north and north-east 
 afford the means of existence to nomad and 
 Russian hunters. Both supply the trade with 
 rich furs ; while the rivers of Siberia and Man- 
 churia provide food for the nomad Ostiaks, Gols, 
 and Ghilyaks. And the Behring and Okhotsk 
 Seas of the Northern Pacific, and their islands, 
 supply the civilised world with some of the 
 finest furs. 
 
 The plateaus, the deserts, and the mountainous 
 regions of Asia, thickly clothed with impene- 
 trable forests and intersected by deep gorges and 
 valleys, are so many obstacles to the communica- 
 tion between different parts of the continent. 
 The roads of Asia, except those of China and 
 India, and a few main lines elsewhere, are mostly 
 mere footpaths or tracks marked in the deserts, 
 Avith wells far apart, and bleached with the bones 
 of camels. Caravans of camels are therefoi'e the 
 chief means of transport for goods and travellers 
 in the interior ; donkeys, yaks, and even goats 
 and sheep are employed in crossing the high 
 passages of the Himalayas ; horses are the usual 
 means of transport in most parts of China and 
 Siberia, and in the barren tracts of the north the 
 reindeer, and still farther north the dog, are 
 made use of. Fortunately, the great rivers of 
 Asia (especially China and Siberia) provide water 
 communication over immense distances. 
 
 Railways are only beginning to make their 
 appearance in Asia. In India they already 
 represent a total length of 26,000 miles. Russia, 
 too, has spread her railways riglit across Asia to 
 the shores of the Pacific. China decided in 1886 
 to open its territory to railway-construction, and 
 in 1905 had nearly 3000 miles open, and con- 
 cessions given for about 2500 more. Japan has 
 over 4000 miles open. There are also railways in 
 Burma, Siam, and Turkey in Asia. All the chief 
 ports in the south and south-east of Asia are 
 already in regular steam communication with 
 Europe and the United States. 
 
 Telegraph communications are in a much nioi'e 
 advanced state tlian the roads. St Petei'sburg 
 is connected by telegraph with the mouth of 
 
ASIAGO 
 
 55 
 
 ASPINWALt 
 
 the Amnr, Vlcadivostok, and Port Arthur; while 
 another branch, crossing Turkestan and Mongolia, 
 runs on to Taslikend, Peking, and Shanghai. Con- 
 stantinople is connected with Bombay, Madras, 
 Singapore, Saigon, Hong-kong, and Nagasaki iu 
 Japan ; and Singapore with Java, Australia, and 
 so with New Zealand. India has nearly G0,000 
 miles of telegraphs; China, 14,000 miles; and 
 Japan, 17,000 miles, with 2200 miles of sub- 
 marine cables. 
 
 Hitherto Asia has supplied Europe chiefly with 
 raw materials— gold, silver, petroleum, teak and 
 a variety of timber-wood, furs, raw cotton, silk, 
 wool, tallow, and so on ; with the products 
 of her tea, coffee, and spice plantations ; and 
 with a yearly increasing amount of wheat and 
 other grain. Steam-industry, although but a 
 very few years old, threatens to become a rival 
 to European manufacture. Indian cottons of 
 European patterns and jute-stuffs already com- 
 pete with those of Lancashire and Dundee. The 
 silks, printed cottons, carpets, jewellery, and cut- 
 lery of particular districts in India, China, Japan, 
 Asia Minor, and Persia, far surpass in their 
 artistic taste many like productions of Europe ; 
 and the export of these articles is increasing. 
 
 Central Asia is a tenn, in its geographical 
 sense, used of the region lying between the 
 Altai Mountains and the Persian Gulf, and in- 
 cludes part of Siberia, all Turkestan, Afghanistan, 
 Beluchistan, and part of Persia. An earlier usage 
 —that of Humboldt— gave this name to the khan- 
 ates of Bokhara and Tartary. In Russian official 
 language. Central Asia is an administrative divi- 
 sion of the empire lying to the SW. of Siberia, and 
 comprising, with part of what used to be called 
 Siberia, the recent Russian annexations in Turkes- 
 tan. Russian Central Asia is divided into the 
 governments of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tur- 
 gai, Uralsk, Semirechinsk, Sir-daria, Zarafshan, 
 Amu-daria, the Trans-Caspian territory, and Fer- 
 ghana. The total area is given at 1,201,000 sq. 
 m., and the pop. at 4,390,000. For the physical 
 geography of the region, see Asia ; see also 
 Turkestan, Siberia, Khokand, &c. 
 
 Asiago, a town of North Italy, 22 miles N. of 
 Vicenza, on a ridge. Pop. 2016. 
 
 Asia Minor (Asia the Less) is the name usually 
 given to the western peninsular projection of 
 Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. The late 
 Greek name for Asia Minor is Anatolia — 
 AnatoU, ' the East,' whence is formed the Turkish 
 A^iadoli. Asia Minor includes the whole penin- 
 sula, with an area of 220,000 sq. m. It consti- 
 tutes the western prolongation of the high table- 
 land of Armenia, with its border mountain-ranges. 
 The interior consists of a great plateau, or rather 
 series of plateaus, rising in gradation from 3500 
 to 4000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains, 
 marshes and lakes ; the structure is volcanic, 
 and there are several conical mountains, one of 
 which, the Ergish-dagh (Argfeus), with two 
 craters, attains a height of 11,830 feet. The 
 plateau is bordered on the north by a long train 
 of parallel mountains, 4000 to 6000 feet high. 
 These mountains sink abruptly down on the 
 north side to a narrow strip of coast. Similar 
 is the character of the border ranges on the 
 south, the ancient Taurus, only that they are 
 more continuous and higher, being, to the north 
 of the Bay of Skanderoon, 10,000 to 12,000 feet. 
 Between the highlands and the sea lie the fertile 
 coast-lands. Of the rivers the largest is the 
 Kizil Irmak (Halys), which, like the Yeshil 
 Irmak (Iris), and the Sakaria (Sangarius), flows 
 
 into the Black Sea ; the Sarabat (Hermus) and 
 Meinder (Mseander) flow into the .3igean. Here 
 the forest-trees and cultivated plants of Europe 
 are seen mingled with the forms characteristic of 
 Persia and Syria. The central plateau, which is 
 barren, has the character of an Asiatic steppe, 
 more adapted for the flocks and herds of nomadic 
 tribes than for agriculture ; while the coasts, 
 rich in all European products, fine fruits, olives, 
 wine, and silk, have quite the character of the 
 south of Europe, which on the warmer and drier 
 south coast shades into that of Africa. 
 
 The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in number, 
 comprise the dominant race, the Osmanli Turks, 
 who number about 1,200,000 ; allied to these are 
 the Turkomans and Yuruks. There are also 
 hordes of nomadic Kurds, with the robber tribes 
 of the Lazes in the north-east. The Greeks and 
 Armenians are the most progressive elements in 
 the population, and have most of the trade ; 
 while the Greeks monopolise the professions, the 
 ownership of the land is largely passing into the 
 hands of Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. 
 
 Here, especially in Ionia, was the early seat of 
 Greek civilisation, and here Alexander the Great 
 and the Romans successively contended for the 
 mastery of the civilised world. Since the con- 
 quest by the Turks (about 1300 a.d.), the ancient 
 civilisation of the country and its prosperity 
 have been sadly brought to ruin. After the 
 Russo-Turkish war of 1877 Great Britain made 
 a secret engagement to guarantee the Asiatic 
 dominions of the Porte, and to assume an in- 
 definite protectorate over Asia Minor. 
 
 Asirgarh, a strong fortress in the Central 
 Provinces, 300 miles NE. of Bombay, stands on 
 an isolated mountain, 850 feet above the base. 
 
 Askahad, a town of Russian Turkestan, the 
 political centre of Transcaspia, situated on the 
 Transcaspian Railway, 290 miles SE. of Mikhail. 
 ovsk, the seaward terminus, and 232 WNW. ot 
 Merv. It was occupied by the Russians in 1S81. 
 
 Askeaton, a town in the county, and 15 miles 
 WSW. of the town, of Limerick. Pop. 679. 
 
 Askja (Askfya; 'basket'), the largest volcano 
 in Iceland, rises near the centre of the island. 
 Its vast circular crater, over 23 sq. m. in area, and 
 about 17 miles in circumference, lies at a depth 
 of over 700 feet within a mountain built up to 
 a height of 4633 feet above the sea. A great 
 eruption in 1875 first called attention to Askja. 
 
 As'olo, a walled town 35 miles NW. of Venice, 
 with memories of Caterina Cornaro, queen of 
 Cyprus, and Robert Browning. Pop. 955. 
 
 Aspatria, a Cumberland village, with an agri- 
 cultural college, 7| miles NE. of Maryport. 
 
 Aspe (Asp), a romantic valley (pop. 12,000) in 
 the Western Pyrenees, close to the Spanish fron- 
 tier. It was formerly a republic under the pro- 
 tection of the princes of Beam.— (2) A town of 
 Spain, 25 miles W. of Alicante. Pop. 7910. 
 
 Aspern, a small village of Austria, on the 
 Danube's left bank, nearly opposite Vienna. 
 Here on May 21-22, 1809, Napoleon was defeated 
 by the Austrians under Archduke Charles. 
 
 Asplnwall, or Colon, a seaport of the republic 
 of Panama, but practically a United States colony, 
 is situated at the Atlantic extremity of the 
 Panama Railway (1849-55), and of the unfinished 
 inter-oceanic Panama Canal, on the island of 
 Manzanilla in Limon Bay, 8 miles NE. of the old 
 Spanish port of Chagres, and 47 NW. of Panama 
 by rail. In 1870 the Empress Eugenie presented 
 the town with a statue of Columbus, after whom 
 
ASPkOMONTE 
 
 66 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 it is named officially Colon. The name Aspin- 
 wall it derives from a New York merchant, the 
 originator of the Panama Railway ; the company 
 having founded the town in 1850. Pop. 4500. 
 
 Aspromonte (As-pro-mon'tay), a rugged moun- 
 tain ((5907 feet) of Italy, near Reggio, overlooking 
 the Strait of Messina. Here Garibaldi was de- 
 feated and captured, 28th August 1862. 
 
 Assal) Bay, an Italian trading station on the 
 west coast of the Red Sea, 40 miles NW. of the 
 Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The district around it 
 (area, 243 sq. m. ; pop. 1300) was sold in 1870 by 
 some Danakil chieftains to an Italian steamship 
 company for a coaling station, and in 1880 was 
 taken over by the Italian government. 
 
 Assal', a large salt-lake, nearly 600 feet below 
 sea-level, in Adal, East Africa, 9 miles from the 
 coast of the Bay of Tajurrah. 
 
 Assam', from 1874 to 1905 a separate province 
 at the NE. extremity of Britisli India, with an 
 area of 46,341 sq. m. ; but in 1905 made part of 
 the new joint i)rovince of Eastern Bengal and 
 Assam (see Bengal). A series of valleys, watered 
 by the Brahmajjutra and some sixty lesser rivers, 
 it is very fertile, and abounds in wood ; the 
 tea-plant is indigenous. Since 1840, when its 
 commercial cultivation was begun, 600,000 acres 
 have been taken up for tea ; some three-fourths 
 of the tea grown in India is the produce of 
 Assam. The other products are rice, mustard, 
 gold, ivory, amber, musk, iron, lead, petroleum, 
 and coal. Scarcely a fourth of the fertile area is 
 cultivated. There is steamboat and railway com- 
 munication with Calcutta. In 1826, at the close 
 of the first Bunnese war, Assam was ceded to 
 the British, but it was only in 1838 that, in con- 
 sequence of the inisgovernment of the native 
 rajah, the entire country was placed under British 
 administration. The towns of any size are Gau- 
 hati (12,000) and Sebsagar (6000). A majority of 
 the people are Hindus. A striking feature of 
 Assam is the abundance of tigers, rhinoceroses, 
 leopards, bears, butt'aloes, and elephants ; the 
 snakes are most destructive to human life. Pop. 
 (1872)4,124,972; (1881)4,881,426; (1891)5,476,833; 
 (1901) 6,126,343. 
 
 Assa'ye, an Indian village in the extreme 
 north-east of the Nizam's dominions, 43 miles 
 NB. of Aurungabad. Here, on 23d September 
 1803, Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, 
 with 4500 men, defeated 50,000 Mahrattas. 
 
 Assen, a town of NE. Holland, 17 miles S. of 
 Groningeu by rail. Pop. 11,200. 
 
 Asslnibola, till 1905 a Canadian district within 
 the limits of the North-west Territories, formed 
 by an order in Council in 1882. It was bounded 
 on the south by the United States frontier, on 
 the east by Manitoba, and on the north by the 
 former district of Saskatchewan, and liad an area 
 of 89,535 sq. m. It contained the towns of Regina 
 (now the capital of the new province of Alberta) 
 and Fort Pelly. Tlie climate is subject to ex- 
 tremes, ranging from 58" F. below zero in winter 
 to 106° above it in sunnner. In 1905 the new 
 provinces of Saskatchewaii and Alberta were 
 formed, and Assiniboia was divided between them, 
 Saskatchewan getting the greater portion. 
 
 Assin'iboine, a river of British North America, 
 rising in 51° 40' N. lat. and 105° E. long., and, 
 after a course of 400 miles, at Winnipeg joining 
 the Red River (q.v.), which discharges its waters 
 into Lake Winnipeg. Its tributaries are the Little 
 Souris, Qu'appelle, Rapid River or Little Saskat- 
 chewan, White Sand River, and Beaver Creek. 
 
 Assi'si, a town of Central Italy, on a steep 
 hill, 14 miles SE. of Perugia by rail. It is the 
 birthplace of St Francis, who founded here in 
 1209 the mendicant order that bears his name. 
 The monastery (1229) has two Gothic churches, 
 one surmounting the other, with frescoes and 
 paintings by Cimabue, Giotto, &c. ; beneath, in 
 a Doric crypt (1818), are the relics of St Francis. 
 Assisi also possesses a cathedral. Pop. 6705. 
 
 Assiut. See SiotJT. 
 
 Assmannshau'sen, a village on the Rhine, 3 
 miles below Riidesheim, famous for its red and 
 white wine. 
 
 Assos, a ruined town on the Gulf of Edremid, 
 whose still imposing remains were successfully 
 excavated, in 1881-83, by the American Institute 
 of Archaeology. 
 
 Assouan' (also Eswan; the ancient Syene) is 
 the southernmost city of Egypt proper, on the 
 right bank of the Nile, and beside the first or 
 lowest cataract. Near are the islands of Philae 
 and Elephantine. On the left bank are cata- 
 combs. There are some remains of the ancient 
 city. In the neighbourhood are the famous 
 syenite quarries from which so many of the huge 
 obelisks and colossal statues were cut to adorn 
 the temples and palaces of ancient Egypt. Here 
 is the great dam erected (1899-1902) in connection 
 with Egyptian irrigation. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Assumption. See Asuncion. 
 
 As'synt, Loch, a beautiful fresh-water lake of 
 Sutherland, 6^ miles E. of Lochinver. Lying 
 215 feet above sea-level, it measures 6| miles by 
 J mile. To Ardvreck Castle, on a north-eastern 
 promontory, the Marquis of Montrose was 
 brought a prisoner in 1650. 
 
 Assyria, the northernmost of the three great 
 countries that occupied the Mesopotamian plain. 
 It was bounded on the N. by the Niphatea 
 Mountains of Armenia ; on the S. by Susiana 
 and Babylonia ; on the E. by Media ; and on the 
 W., according to some, by the Tigris, but more 
 correctly by the watershed of the Euphrates, for 
 many Assyrian ruins are found to the west of the 
 Tigris. It was thus about 280 miles long from N. 
 to S., and rather more than 150 broad from B. to 
 W. This plain is diversified by mountain-chains 
 on the north and east, and watered by the Tigris 
 and its affluents, between two of which — the Zab 
 rivers— lay the finest part of the country, called 
 Adiabene. As it was the boundary-land between 
 the Semitic people and Iran, it became the scene 
 of important political events. Its extraordinary 
 fertility enabled it to support a large population. 
 Tlie high degree of prosperity and civilisation 
 reached by its inhabitants in very early times is 
 attested not only by ancient writers, but by the 
 extensive ruins of mighty cities, by the canals 
 and contrivances for irrigation, and by the numer- 
 ous proofs— furnished by recent excavations — of 
 an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. The 
 ruins of many cities are grouped around Nineveh ; 
 while lower down, the 'Tigris exhibits an almost 
 unbroken line of ruins from Tekrit to Bagdad. 
 Under the MohaniTnedans this fine country is 
 now almost a desert. Nineveh (q.v.) was the 
 capital. There are indications that this Semitic 
 state was founded as far back as 2330 b.c. ; its 
 king was certainly powerful about 1320 B.C. ; 
 Tiglath-pileser (1140) was its first great prince ; 
 after some centuries of decay the empire was 
 again a great power under Shalmaneser II. (858). 
 In the 7th century b.c. the empire was greatly 
 decayed, and Babylon independent : finally 
 
ASTERABAD 
 
 67 
 
 Nineveh was taken in 605, and Assyria became a 
 province of Media. The Assyrian language was 
 akin to Hebrew and Phoenician. On the topo- 
 graphy and archaeology, see books by Botta, 
 Oppert, Layard, George Smith, Perrot and 
 Chipiez, Sayce, Maspero, Rogers (1901). 
 Asterabad'. See Astrabad. 
 Astl (Asta Pompeia), a city of Piedmont, lies 
 on the Tanaro, 35 miles ESE. of Turin, The vino 
 d'Asti is a kind of sweet muscatel, effervescing 
 like cliampagne. Pop. 17,340. 
 
 Aston, tlie name of upwards of 60 English 
 towns, villages, townships, or parishes, the best 
 known being beside Birmingham (q.v.), 
 
 Astoria, originally a fur-trading station in 
 Oregon, U.S., on the left bank of the Col- 
 umbia, founded by the Pacific Fur Company 
 in 1811, and named from its chief proprietor, 
 John Jacob Astor. It was a main point in the 
 American claim to the territory of Oregon (q.v.). 
 There are upwards of 50 large salmon-tinning 
 establishments in the neiglibourhood. The 
 lumbering industry is also important. Pop. 
 (1881) 2803 ; (1891) 6184 ; (1900) 8381. 
 
 Astrabad', a decayed town in the north of 
 Persia, at the foot of the Blburz Mountains, 30 
 miles SE. of the Caspian. Pop. (1808) 75,000 ; 
 (1904) 18,000. 
 
 Astrakhan', a barren government in the SE. 
 of European Russia, watered by the Volga, and 
 washed on the SE. bv the Caspian Sea. Area, 
 91,327 sq. m. ; pop. 1,003,500.— Astrakhan, tlie 
 capital, is situated on a liigh island in the Volga, 
 41 miles from its mouth in the Caspian Sea. The 
 Kreml, or fortress, and the White Town alone 
 have houses of stone ; the suburbs contain wooden 
 buildings only. Lengthwise through the middle 
 of the city runs a canal which connects the 
 Kutum arm of the Volga with the main stream. 
 Of nearly 40 Greek churches, the finest is the 
 cathedral (1696), on the highest point in the 
 Kreml. Pop. 113,710, consisting of Russians, 
 Armenians, Tartars, and Persians. Almost the 
 entire commerce with Persia and Transcaucasia 
 passes through the city. Its great markets 
 attract every year many thousands of merchants, 
 and its three bazaars are among the busiest marts 
 in Europe or Asia. The city is connected by 
 steamers with all parts of the Caspian, and is 
 the principal harbour of that sea. The industries 
 are shipbuilding, dyeing, silk manufacture, &c. ; 
 the sturgeon and other fisheries are amongst the 
 greatest in the world. 
 
 Astrolabe Bay, a large inlet of the sea on the 
 northern coast of the eastern portion of New 
 Guinea, opposite the end of New Britain. 
 
 Astu'rlas, or Oviedo, a northern province of 
 Spain, washed on the north by the Bay of Biscay. 
 Area, 4091 sq. m. ; population, 628,000. The 
 chief towns are Oviedo (q.v.), the capital, Gijon, 
 Aviles, Llanes, and Luarca. 
 
 Asuncion (Span. As-soon-thee-oan'), capital of 
 the republic of Paraguay, on Paraguay River, has 
 connection by steamers with Buenos Ayres, and 
 by a railway of 45 miles with Paraguari. Founded 
 in 1537 on the Feast of the Assumption, it has a 
 cathedral (1845) and a trade in leather, tobacco, 
 sugar, manioc, and mate or Paraguay tea. Pop. 
 (1857) 40,000; (1886) 24,838 ; (1901) 51,700. 
 
 Atacama', a northern province of Chili, with 
 an area of 30,400 sq. m., and a population of 
 70,000. Silver and copper are largely mined, and 
 gold is also found in considerable quantities. 
 Capital, Copiapo; pop. 9916.— The Desert of 
 
 AfHBOY 
 
 Atacama till the war of 1879 belonged also 
 partly to Bolivia. Its silver and saltpetre works 
 have to some extent peopled its solitudes. 
 
 At'bara, a tributary of the Nile, rises in 
 Abyssinia near Lake Tzana, flows mainly north- 
 west, and after receiving the larger Takazze, 
 joins the Nile below Berber— being its only 
 tributary below the junction of the White with 
 the Blue Nile. For some months its course is 
 almost dry. 
 
 Atchafalay'a, an outlet of the Red River or 
 of the Mississippi, but receiving very little of 
 the waters of the latter except in time of flood. 
 It runs nearly southward to Chetimaches Lake, 
 and after passing through it, reaches the Gulf of 
 Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay after a course of 
 about 220 miles. 
 
 Atcheen (also Acheen or Atchin; called by 
 the Dutch Atjeh), until 1873 an independent 
 state in the north-west part of Sumatra, now a 
 province of the Dutch Indies, with an area of 
 20,501 sq. m., and a pop. of 290,700. The natives 
 in appearance, dress, character, and manners, are 
 distinct from the rest of the inhabitants of 
 Sumatra, being of darker colour and lower 
 stature, and more active and industrious. The 
 capital is Kota Radja or Atcheen, in the north- 
 western extremity, on a stream navigable by 
 boats, 4J miles from its port Oleh-leh, with 
 which, since 1876, it has been connected by a 
 railway. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Atchison, a city of Kansas, U.S., on the Mis- 
 souri's left bank, 333 miles above St Louis. Nine 
 railway lines converge here ; and the city has 
 flour-mills, an iron-foundry, machine-shops, manu- 
 factures of furniture, carriages, and wagons. Pop. 
 (1870) 7054 ; (1880) 15,106 ; (1900) 15,722. 
 
 Ateshga ('place of fire'), a spot on the penin- 
 sula of Apsheron, on the Avest coast of the Caspian 
 Sea. Many Guebres or Persian Fire-worshippera 
 still visit it, and bow before the holy flames which 
 issue from the bituminous soil. 
 
 Ates'sa, a town of South Italy, 23 miles SSB. 
 of Chieti. Pop. 5086. 
 
 Ath, or Aath, a fortified town in the province 
 of Hainault, Belgium, on the navigable Dender, 
 32 miles SW. of Brussels. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Athabas'ca (locally La Biche, 'red deer or elk 
 river '), a river and lake in the North-west Terri- 
 tory of the Canadian Dominion, forming part of 
 the great basin of the Mackenzie. The river rises 
 in the Rocky Mountains, in a little lake at the 
 foot of Mount Brown, one of the highest points 
 in the range, and flows over 600 miles NB. and 
 NW., until it unites with the Peace River, from 
 beyond the Rocky Mountains, to form the Slave 
 River, which, again, after i)assing through Great 
 Slave Lake, takes the name of the Mackenzie 
 (q.v.). Lake Athabasca receives nearly all its 
 waters from, and has its sole outlet in, the Atha- 
 basca River, which traverses not its length but 
 its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at its 
 extremity. It is 230 miles long, and from 14 to 
 30 broad. It was discovered in 1771 by Samuel 
 Hearne, and named by him Lake of the Hills. — 
 Athabasca, formerly one of the four divisions of 
 the Canadian North-west, defined in 1882, be- 
 tween Briti-sh Columbia and a line to the east of 
 the Athabasca River, and between the parallels 
 55° and 60° N. lat. In 1905 it was about equally 
 divided between the newly formed provinces of 
 Alberta and Saskatchewan. 
 Athboy, a market-town of County Meath, on 
 
AtHELNEY 
 
 68 
 
 ATLANTA 
 
 the river Athboy, 7 miles NW. of Trim. Pop. 
 613. 
 
 Ath'elney, Islk of (' island of nobles '), a 
 marsh at the junction of the rivers Tone and 
 Parret, in the middle of Somersetshire, 7 miles 
 ENE. of Taunton. Here Alfred hid himself from 
 the Danes in 878. 
 
 Athenry, in County Galway, 10 miles NW. of 
 Loughrea. Pop. 850. 
 
 Athens, anciently capital of the Greek state of 
 Attica and centre of Greek culture, now capital 
 of the modern kingdom of Greece, 4^ miles from 
 its harbour of Pirjeus, on the Gulf of iEgina. The 
 city, which takes its name from Athena, ' goddess 
 of science, arts, and arms,' and its own patron 
 divinity, was originally built on the Acropolis, 
 a conspicuous limestone rock rising 500 feet above 
 the Attic plain, and afterwards spread out on 
 the plain below ; while the Acropolis became the 
 citadel and subsequently the site of a group of 
 beautiful temples of the time of Pericles (5th 
 century, B.C.). The ruins of the Parthenon, the 
 Erechtheum, the temple of Nike Apteros (' Wing- 
 less Victory '), and the Propylsea, still remain to 
 testify to the former glory of the Acropolis. Of 
 the other ancient buildings the most notable are 
 the Theseum (also of the Periclean period, and 
 still almost perfect), and the fragments of the 
 vast temple of Zeus (begun in 530 b.c. and finished 
 by the Roman Emperor Hadrian), with the theatre 
 of Dionysus, &c. Not far from the Acropolis 
 rose the hill Lycabettus (911 feet), and the hillocks 
 or ridges of the Pnyx and the Areopagus or Mars 
 Hill. At a greater distance the plain is bounded 
 by Hymettus (3368 feet), Pentelicus (3641), and 
 other ranges. Athens was fabled to have been 
 founded by the hero Cecrops. The most brilliant 
 period of its history was when, after the Persian 
 wars (5th century, b.c), Athens took the lead 
 amongst the Greek states, became powerful by 
 land and sea, was adorned by Pericles with her 
 most glorious buildings, and brought Greek litera- 
 ture and Greek philosophy to their highest de- 
 velopment. Its decline dates from the disastrous 
 conclusion of the Peloponnesian war (403 b.c). 
 It was plundered and ruined by Sulla in 87 b.c ; 
 and neither under Byzantine nor Turkish rule 
 ever attained any prosperity. In the days of her 
 glory Athens had some 100,000 free inhabitants 
 and twice as many slaves ; when after the libera- 
 tion of Greece Athens was made the capital of 
 the new kingdom (1834), it was a wretched village 
 of a few hundred houses. Since then it has had 
 a prosperous growth, looks like a well-built 
 German town, and had in 1904 a pop. of 115,000, 
 with a fine royal palace, many handsome private 
 residences, a university with 50 professors and 
 more than 1000 students, and a good deal of mis- 
 cellaneous trade by way of the Piraeus. It is 
 connected by rail also with Corinth, and the 
 Athens- Larissa line is to bring Greece into rail- 
 way communication with the rest of Europe. 
 See, besides works on Greece, ancient and modern, 
 Dyer's Ancient Athens (1873). 
 
 Athens, a name applied to more than twenty 
 places in the United States. (1) In Georgia, 92 
 miles WNW. of Augusta. It contains several 
 cotton factories, and is the seat of the university 
 of Georgia (1801). Population, above 11,000.— 
 (2) In the south of Ohio, on the Hocking River, 
 is the seat of the Ohio University (1804). Pop. 
 
 Atherstone, a market-town of Warwickshire, 
 14 miles N. of Coventry by rail. Drayton was 
 bom close by. Pop. 5300. 
 
 Atherton, a township of Lancashire, 13 miles 
 WNW. of Manchester. Pop. (1871) 7581 ; (1891) 
 15,833 ; (1901) 16,211. 
 
 Athlone, a town of Ireland, on the Shannon, 
 chiefly in Westmeath, but partly in Roscommon, 
 80 miles W. of Dublin by rail. The chief manu- 
 factures are felt-hats, friezes, linens, and stays. 
 The Shannon is crossed by a fine bowstring and 
 lattice iron bridge of two arches, 175 and 40 feet 
 span. Till 1885 Athlone returned one member. 
 Its castle, founded in King John's reign, in the 
 war of 1688 was unsuccessfully besieged by Wil- 
 liam III., but was afterwards taken by General 
 Ginckell. The fortifications cover 15 acres, and 
 contain barracks for 1500 men. Pop. 6617. 
 
 Ath'ole, a district in the north of Perthshire, 
 occupying a great part of the southern slopes of 
 the Grampians. 
 
 A'thos (Gr. Hagion Oros, 'Holy Hill'), the 
 most eastern of the three tongues of the Chalci- 
 dice Peninsula on the ^Egean Sea, connected 
 with the mainland by a low and narrow isthmus, 
 about a mile across. The length of the peninsula 
 is about 31 miles ; its breadth varies from 3 to 6 
 miles. At the southern extremity, a solitary 
 peak rises abruptly to a height of 6346 feet above 
 the sea. Xerxes cut a canal through the isth- 
 mus, traces of which still exist. This peninsula 
 is the seat of twenty large monasteries, besides 
 numerous hermitages and chapels. The entire 
 number of monks is about 6000. They enjoy 
 complete autonomy, subject to paying the Turk- 
 ish government an annual tribute of about £8500. 
 Caryes, the principal place in the peninsula, is 
 picturesquely situated in the midst of vineyards 
 and gardens, and has 1000 inhabitants. Here 
 the market is held ; but no female, even of the 
 lower animals, is permitted on Athos. In the 
 middle ages, Athos was the centre of Greek learn- 
 ing and Christian-Byzantine art. Now learning 
 is at a very low ebb ; scarcely more than two or 
 three monks of tolerable education can be found 
 in a monastery. The libraries are neglected, 
 though containing several beautiful (but not 
 important) manuscripts. See works by Curzon 
 (1849 ; 6th ed. 1881), Athelstan Riley (1887), and 
 Brockhaus (Leip. 1891). 
 
 Athy', the chief town of County Kildare, on 
 the Barrow, here joined by the Grand Canal, 45 
 miles SW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 3600. 
 
 Atitlan, a Central American lake, in Guate- 
 mala, 24 miles long, and 8 to 10 miles broad. It 
 seems to occupy the crater of an extinct volcano, 
 and is of great depth. It has no visible outlet. 
 High cliffs surround it, and on its southern bank 
 rises the volcano of Atitlan (12,538 feet), at whose 
 foot lies the little Indian town of Santiago de 
 Atitlan, with a pop. of 9000. 
 
 Atlanta, a flourishing city of the United 
 States, capital of Georgia, is situated 1100 feet 
 above sea-level, 294 miles NW. of Savannah, and 
 7 miles SB. of the Chattahoochee River. Seven 
 railroads centre at it. Atlanta has an extensive 
 and rapidly increasing trade in cotton, dry goods, 
 horses and mules, and especially tobacco. Public 
 buildings are the custom-house, state-house, 
 opera-house, the Atlanta University for the edu- 
 cation of coloured young men and women, Clark 
 Theological School (coloured Methodist), and two 
 medical colleges. In September 2, 1864, the city 
 was captured by the Union troops under General 
 Sherman, and the entire business portion de- 
 stroyed by them on leaving it a month later. 
 Since the restoration of peace, however, its pros- 
 perity has been uninterrupted and its growth 
 
ATLANTIC ClfV 
 
 5d 
 
 rapid. Atlanta was settled in 1840; was incor- 
 porated as the village of Marthasville in 18-12 ; as 
 Atlanta, in 1847. Pop. (1850) 2572 ; (1870) 21,879 ; 
 (1890) 65,533'; (1900) 89,872. 
 
 Atlantic City, a fashionable American health- 
 resort, on a narrow, sandy island oft' the coast of 
 New Jersey, 60 miles SE. of Philadelphia by rail. 
 Pop. (1870) 1043 ; (1890) 13,055 ; (1900) 27,838. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean (so called either from Mount 
 Atlas or from the fabulous island of Atlantis), 
 separating the Old from the New World, Europe 
 and Africa being on the B., and North and South 
 America on the W. Its greatest width is about 
 5000 miles, but between Brazil and the African 
 coast the distance is only about 1600 miles. It is 
 in open communication with both the Arctic 
 Ocean and Antarctic or Southern Ocean. The 
 North Atlantic, stretching froin 70° N. to the 
 equator, has an area of 14,000,000 sq. m. It com- 
 municates with many inclosed or partially in- 
 closed seas, such as the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of 
 Mexico, and Hudson Bay on the west, the Baltic, 
 North Sea, Mediterranean, and Black Sea on the 
 east. The South Atlantic from the equator to 
 40" S. has an area of 10,100,000 sq. m. ; if it be 
 supposed to extend through the great Southern 
 Ocean as far as the Antarctic circle, its area is 
 16,700,000 sq. m. 
 
 Towards the centre of the North Atlantic, be- 
 tween Africa and North America, and in the 
 centre of the South Atlantic, between Africa and 
 South America, there are anticyclonic areas of 
 high atmospheric pressure (over 30 inches), out 
 of which winds blow in all directions to surround- 
 ing regions where the pressure is less. The 
 positions of these high-pressure areas and the 
 winds that blow out from them, determine the 
 great oceanic currents and the positions of the 
 Sargasso seas, for the winds everywhere deter- 
 mine and control the movements of the surface 
 waters. The SB. and NB. trades drive the 
 heated surface waters of the tropics before them, 
 and eventually produce the Equatorial current, 
 which on reaching Cape St Roque bifurcates, 
 one branch becoming the Brazil current of the 
 South Atlantic, the other and larger branch 
 passing on to the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of 
 Mexico, finally issuing from the latter by the 
 Strait of Florida, forming the Gulf Stream (q.v.), 
 the greatest and most important of all oceanic 
 currents. A cold Arctic current passes south- 
 ward along the shores of Greenland, and vinites 
 off Cape Farewell with the Davis Strait current, 
 forming the Labrador current, which passes along 
 the west coast of America, and passes beneath 
 the Gulf Stream to the south of the banks of 
 Newfoundland. Icebergs are carried as far south 
 as 40° N. in the northern and as far north as 38° 
 S. in the southern hemisphere. In the equatorial 
 regions, the surface water has generally a tem- 
 perature ranging from 70° to 84° F. ; the tempera- 
 ture decreases as the depth increases. The warm 
 water is a relatively thin stratum, the greater 
 part of ocean water having a temperature below 
 40° F. It is ice-cold in the Atlantic at the 
 bottom even beneath the equator. The water of 
 the Atlantic contains the least salt towards the 
 poles and in the equatorial belt of calms. The 
 saltest water (density over 1*0275) is found in the 
 centre of the trade-wind regions. The salinity of 
 the deeper waters is considerably beloAv the 
 average of the surface. The average depth of 
 the Atlantic is between 2 and 3 miles (2200 
 fathoms). A low submarine ridge runs down the 
 centre, from north to south, with an average 
 
 AWltiA 
 
 depth of about 1700 fathoms over it. On either 
 side of this ridge there are, both in the North 
 and South Atlantic, depths of between 3000 and 
 4000 fathoms. The greatest depth yet met with 
 is just north of the Virgin Islands (4561 fathoms). 
 The surface waters from equator to poles swarm 
 with all kinds of pelagic plants and animals, 
 many of which emit phosphorescent light, pro- 
 ducing what is known as luminosity of the sea. 
 In the centre of the North Atlantic, in the so- 
 called Sargasso Sea, there are enormous floating 
 banks of gulf weed (Sargassum buccifenim), on 
 whicli a large number of peculiar animals live. 
 Life has been found to exist at all deptlis in the 
 Atlantic, but it becomes less abundant as greater 
 depths and a greater distance from continental 
 shores are reached. There are relatively few 
 oceanic islands. Iceland, the Azores, St Paul's 
 Rocks, Ascension, and the Tristan da Cunha 
 group all rise from the central elevation, and are 
 all of volcanic origin. Jan Mayen rises from the 
 deep water of the Norwegian Sea. The coral 
 group of Bermudas rises from the deep water of 
 the Western North Atlantic. Off the west coast 
 of Africa are the Canaries, Cape Verds, and 
 Madeira. In the South Atlantic, to the west of 
 the central ridge, are Fernando Noronha and 
 Trinidad, and to the east of the central ridge, St 
 Helena. There are numerous continental islands, 
 such as the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West 
 Indies, the Falklands, and others. The most 
 civilised nations of the world inhabit the shores 
 of the Atlantic, and it is the great commercial 
 highway of the world. It has been sounded in 
 all directions, and the nature of its bed is so well 
 known that telegraph cables can be laid across 
 it with great certainty of success. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of some continental shores, and around 
 some of the volcanic cones which rise from the 
 floor of the ocean, there are occasionally very 
 steep slopes ; but as a rule, the bed of the ocean 
 is a widespread, gently undulating plain. 
 
 Atlas, the great mountain-system of North- 
 western Africa, stretching north-eastward from 
 Cape Nun in Morocco to Cape Bon in Tunis, a 
 distance of 1400 miles. It is not properly a 
 mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular moun- 
 tainous mass of land, that attains its greatest 
 height (13,000 feet) in Miltsin— 27 miles SB. of 
 the city of Morocco, whilst in Algeria the eleva- 
 tion is only 7673 feet, in Tunis 4476, and in 
 Tripoli 3200. The slopes on the north, west, 
 and south are covered with vast forests of pine, 
 oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, &c. The 
 valleys are well Avatered and capable of cultiva- 
 tion with great profit. 
 
 Atra'to, a river of Colombia, rising on the 
 Western Cordillera at an altitude of 10,560 feet, 
 and running 305 miles northward through low 
 swampy country, till it falls by several mouths, 
 interrupted by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It 
 is navigable by steamers for fully 250 miles, 
 being 750 to 1000 feet wide, and 8 to 70 feet 
 deep. A route, surveyed by the United States 
 government in 1871, proposed to connect the 
 Atrato and the Jurador, flowing into the Pacific, 
 by a canal 48 miles long. 
 
 Atrauli (Atrowli), a tovm of British India, in 
 the United Provinces, 16 miles NE. of Aligarh. 
 Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Atrek, a river of Persia, rising in Khorasan, 
 and flowing nearly 350 miles westward to the 
 Caspian Sea, from Shatt downwards along the 
 boundary with the Russian empire. 
 
 At'tica, one of the political divisions or states 
 
ATTLEBOROUGH 
 
 60 
 
 AtfDfi 
 
 of Hellas or ancient Greece, of which Athens was 
 the capital. Its area was about 640 sq. m. ; 
 rather smaller than that of Lanarkshire. To- 
 day Attica and Boeotia together form a nomarchy 
 or government of Greece, with an area of 2472 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 315,000. 
 
 Attleborough, a market-town of Norfolk, 16 
 miles SW. of Norwich. It had a college of the 
 Holy Cross (1387). Pop. of parish, 2302. 
 
 Attlehorough, a post-village in Massachnsetts, 
 U.S., 31 miles SW. of Boston by rail. Pop. 11,350. 
 
 Attock, a town of the Punjab, on the left 
 bank of the Indus, here spanned by a great rail- 
 way bridge (1883). A fort was established here 
 by the Emperor Akbar in 1581, to defend the 
 passage of the river, but it is no longer a position 
 of strength. The situation, however, of Attock 
 is iTnportant, whether in a commercial or in a 
 military view, it being at the head of the steam- 
 boat navigation of the Indus, 940 miles from its 
 mouth. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Attrek. See Atrek. 
 
 Autoagne {O-bdv/), a town in the French dep. of 
 Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Huveaune, lOj miles 
 E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. 5498. 
 
 Aube (Oah), a dep. in the north-east of France, 
 occupying the southern part of the old province 
 of Champagne and a small portion of Burgundy. 
 The western part belongs to the basin of the 
 Seine ; the eastern to that of the Aube, which 
 rises near Mount Saule, on the plateau of Lan- 
 gres, and flows 140 miles north-westward by La 
 Fert6, Bar, and Acris, to the Seine. Area, 2310 
 sq. m. Pop. 246,000. 
 
 Aubenas (Oab-na), a town of SE. France, dep. 
 Ardeche, 50 miles NNE. of Alais by rail. It is 
 built on a height rising 688 feet above the river 
 Ardeche, and has a fine old castle. Pop. 5671. 
 
 AubervilUers (0-her-veel-yay'), in the Seine 
 dep., 5 miles N. of Paris. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Auburn, or Lissoy, a Westmeath village, 7 
 miles NE. of Athlone. Goldsmith's father was 
 rector here, and it is his ' deserted village ; ' the 
 name ' Auburn ' was taken from his poem. 
 
 Auburn, several places in the United States. 
 (1) In the state of New York, 173 miles W. by 
 N. of Albany. The outlet of Owasco Lake flows 
 through the town, furnishing a water-power 
 which is employed in manufactures of agricultural 
 machinery, wool, cotton, silk, carpets, iron, &c. 
 The state prison, founded here in 1816, with over 
 1000 inmates, has since 1823 been conducted on 
 the ' silent ' or ' Auburn ' system. There are also 
 a state asylum and a state armoury. Pop. (1870) 
 17,225 ; (1880) 21,924 ; (1900) 30,345.— <2) A town 
 of Maine, on the west bank of the Androscoggin 
 River, opposite Lewiston, and 35 miles N. of 
 Portland by rail. It has manufactures of cotton, 
 furniture, and boots and shoes. Population, 
 above 13,000. 
 
 Aubusson (P-bus-son<'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Creuse, in the rocky gorge of the river 
 Creuse, 47 miles BNB. of Limoges. Pop. 6248. 
 
 Auch (Oash), capital of the French dep. of Gers, 
 on the river Gers, 44 miles S. of Agen by rail. 
 The Augusta Auscorum of the Romans, it is built 
 on a hill, whose summit is crowned by the 
 cathedral (1489-1662), rich in stained glass and 
 carved woodwork. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Auchendrane, a seat 4 miles S. of Ayr, the 
 scene of Scott's Ayrshire Tragedy. 
 
 Auchenbeath, a Lanarkshire collier village, 
 2J miles N. of Lesmahagow. Pop. 640. 
 
 Aucbensaugh, a Lanarkshire hill, 2J miles 
 SSE. of Douglas, where in 1712 the Cameronians 
 founded the Reformed Presbyterian Church. 
 •• ■ Aucbinblae, a Kincardineshire village, 5^ miles 
 NNE. of Lawrencekirk. Pop. 450. 
 
 Auchinleck, an Ayrshire village, 15 miles E. 
 of Ayr by rail. Pop. 2168. The parish con- 
 tains Auchinleck House (locally called 'Place 
 Affleck '), the seat of the Boswells. 
 
 Aucbmltbie, a Forfarshire fishing-village, 3^ 
 miles NNE. of Arbroath. It is the ' Mussel- 
 crag ' of Scott's Antiquary. Pop. 353. 
 
 Auchmuty, a Fife village, on the Leven, IJ 
 mile W. of Markinch. Pop., with Balbirnie 
 Mills, 419. 
 
 Aucbterarder, a Perthshire village, 14^ miles 
 SW. of Perth by rail. Pop. 2276, largely em- 
 ployed in the woollen manufacture. The oppo- 
 sition to the presentee to Aucbterarder parish 
 originated (1834) the struggle which ended in the 
 formation of the Free Church in 1843. 
 
 Aucbtergaven, a Perthshire parish, 7J miles 
 N. by W. of Perth. The poet Robert Nicoll was 
 a native. 
 
 Aucbtermucbty, a Fife royal burgh, lOJ miles 
 WSW. of Cupar. Pop. 1387. 
 
 Auckland, the northern provincial district of 
 New Zealand, includes fully half of North Island, 
 and is about 400 miles long by 200 wide at its 
 widest. The coast-line of nearly 1200 miles is 
 very long in proportion to the area. Volcanic 
 action has deeply left its mark on the surface of 
 Auckland ; and the warm lake and geyser scenery 
 of the region about 90 miles SE. below the Bay 
 of Plenty is amongst the most remarkable in 
 the world. The ' Hot Lake ' district covers an 
 area 120 miles long by 10 to 15 wide, and includes 
 hot springs, cisterns of liot water, and mud vol- 
 canoes; at Rotorua is an admirably equipped 
 bathing-house and sanatorium. The otlier lakes 
 are Tarawera, Rotoiti, and Rotoinahana. The 
 wonderful pink and white terraces near Tarawera 
 Lake were destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 
 1886. Pop. (1875) 79,104 ; (1881) 99,451 ; (1891) 
 133,267 ; (1901) 175,870. 
 
 Auckland, the largest city in the North Island 
 of New Zealand, on a peninsula 7 miles wide on 
 the Hauraki Gulf. It stands on the south side 
 of Waitemata Harbour, one of tlie finest harbours 
 in New Zealand ; and its splendid wharves and 
 graving-docks ofl'er the most complete facilities 
 for shipping. Auckland is distant from Sydney 
 1315 miles ; from Melbourne, 1650. It possesses 
 also a harbour on the western side of the island 
 in Manukau, only 6 miles across. It has a uni- 
 versity college and cathedral, and the foundation 
 stone of a Free Library and Art Gallery was laid 
 in 1885. Shipbuilding, sugar- refining, rope- 
 spinning, and brick-making are among the 
 industries. Pop. (1881) 16,675; (1901) 34,220. 
 Founded in 1840, and named after Lord Auck- 
 land, governor-general of India, the town was 
 capital of New Zealand till 1865. 
 
 Auckland Islands, a group of islands about 
 180 miles to the south of New Zealand. The 
 largest of them measures 30 miles by 15. It has 
 two good harbours, and is covered with the richest 
 vegetation. The Auckland Islands are valuable 
 chiefly as a whaling station, but are not peopled. 
 They were annexed by Great Britain in May 1886. 
 
 Aude (Oad), a maritime dep. in S. France, 
 part formerly of Ijanguedoc. Area, 2438 sq. ra. ; 
 population, 313,500. The southern part is occu- 
 pied by spurs of the Pyrenees, attaining 4037 feet 
 
AUDENSHAW 
 
 61 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 in the Pay de Bugarach ; but tlie greater portion 
 belongs to the valley of the lower Aucle (130 
 miles), falling into the Mediterranean. The chief 
 town is Carcassonne (q.v.)- 
 
 Audenshaw, a town of Lancashire, 5 miles E. 
 from Manchester. Pop. 7220. 
 Audh. See Oudh. 
 
 Audley, a town of Staffordshire, 5 miles NW. 
 of Hanley, with coal and iron works. Pop. 13,700. 
 Audley End, Essex, IJ mile SW. of Saffron 
 Walden, the seat of Lord Braybrooke. 
 
 Auerstadt (Oiu'er-stet), a village of Prussian 
 Saxony, 10 miles W. of Naumburg. Here, in Octo- 
 ber 1806, the French defeated the Prussians. 
 
 Aughnacloy, a Tyrone town, on the Black- 
 water, 10 miles SW. of Dungannon. Pop. 974. 
 Aughrim. See Aghrim. 
 Augsburg, a city of Bavaria, capital of the 
 province of Swabia, is situated in the angle 
 between the rivers Wertach and Lech, 37 miles 
 WNW. of Munich. It has a noble street, the 
 Maximilian Strasse, adorned with three bronze 
 fountains (1593-1602) ; and the principal edifices 
 are the Renaissance town-house (1620), with its 
 splendid 'Golden Hall;' the Perlach Tower, 
 dating from the 11th century ; the former epis- 
 copal palace, where, on 25th June 1530, the 
 Protestant princes presented the Augsburg Con- 
 fession to Charles V. ; the grand old mansion of 
 the merchant-princes, the Fuggers ; the ' Three 
 Moors,* one of the most interesting hostelries 
 in Germany; and the Gothicised Romanesque 
 cathedral (994-1421), with its bronze doors and 
 early glass-paintings. The industry of Augsburg 
 is once more vigorous. Cotton is now the staple 
 manufacture, besides woollens, paper, tobacco, 
 machinery, gold and silver wares, brewing, print- 
 ing, lithography^ and bookselling. Pop. (1871) 
 51,270 ; (1900) 89,500 ; of whom 66 per cent. Avere 
 Catholics. Tlie Emperor Augustus in 12 b.c. 
 here founded the 'colony' of Augusta Vindeli- 
 corum, which in 1276 became a free city of the 
 empire, and which was the centre of German art 
 as represented by the Holbeins, Burgkmair, 
 Altdorfer, &c. The discovery of the Cape route 
 to India, and of America, dried up the sources of 
 Augsburg's prosperity. It ceased to be a free 
 city on the abolition of the German empire in 
 1806, and was taken possession of by Bavaria. 
 
 Augusta, or Agosta, a fortified seaport of 
 Sicily, 11 miles N. of Syracuse by rail. Pop. 
 12,210. Near it, in 1676, the French under 
 Duquesne gained a great naval victory over a 
 Spanish and Dutch fleet under De Ruyter. 
 
 Augusta (1), the capital of Maine, U.S., on the 
 Kennebec, 63 miles NNE. of Portland by rail. A 
 dam, 17 feet high, affords considerable water- 
 power ; there are several cotton and other mills ; 
 and in 1886 a new system of waterworks was 
 introduced. Augusta contains a U.S. arsenal ; 
 and at Togus, 4 miles distant, is one of the 
 national institutions for disabled soldiers. Pop. 
 (1880) 8665 ; (1900) 11,683. (2) The third city of 
 Georgia, U.S., on the Savannah River, 231 miles 
 from its mouth, but only 132 from Savannah by 
 rail. It is the head of steamboat navigation on 
 the river, which is here spanned by three bridges, 
 connecting the town with Hamburg, S.C, and 
 which is crossed by a stone dam, 1720 feet in 
 length, from which a canal, 8 miles long and 150 
 feet wide, supplies water both for domestic use 
 and for the cotton and other mills. Augusta is 
 the seat of the Medical College of Georgia (1832). 
 Pop. C1860) 12,493 ; (1880) 21,891 ; (1900) 39,540. 
 
 Augustenburg, a village of 600 inhabitant)! 
 on a bay of the island of Alsen (q.v.). Its castle 
 (1776) was formerly the residence of the Dukes of 
 Holstein-Sonderburg- Augustenburg. 
 
 Augusto'vo, a town of Russian Poland, on the 
 Netta, a feeder of the Bug, 138 miles NB. of 
 Warsaw. Pop. 13,094. 
 
 Augustus, Fort. See Fort Augustus. 
 
 Aulapolai', or Alleppi, a seaport, with a 
 lighthouse, in Travancore state, Madras, 33 miles 
 S. of Cochin. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Auldearn, a Nairnshire village, 2j miles ESE. 
 of Nairn. Near it Montrose won his fourth 
 victory, 9th May 1645. Pop. 313. 
 
 Aumale (0-mdl'), an unimportant town of 1966 
 inhabitants, in the French dep. of Seine- 
 Inferieure, on the Breste. Since 1547 it has 
 given the title of duke to various fiamilies. — 
 Aumale, a town of Algeria, 57 miles SB. of 
 Algiers, is a strong military post. Pop. 3706. 
 
 Auray iP'ray), a port in the French dep. of 
 Morbihan, 20 miles E. of Lorient by rail. Here 
 is a large deaf and dumb institute ; and 2 miles 
 north is the famous place of pilgrimage of St 
 Anne of Auray. Pop. 5517. 
 
 Aurlch (Ov/rihh), in the Prussian province of 
 Hanover, almost in the centre of East Friesland, 
 16 miles NE. of Emden by rail. Pop. 6399. 
 
 Aurillac (O-reel-yac), capital of the French dep. 
 of Cantal, on the Jourdanne, 116 miles SW. of 
 Clermont. Pop. 14,756. 
 
 Aurora (1), a city of Illinois, U.S., on Fox River, 
 at the junction of several railroads, 39 miles 
 WSW. of Chicago. It has machine-shops, flour- 
 mills, manufactories of woollens, cottons, watches, 
 corsets, silver ware, carriages, and extensive rail- 
 road workshops. Pop. (1860)6011 ; (1880) 11,873 ; 
 (1900) 24,147.— (2) A city of Missouri, 270 miles 
 SW. of St Louis, in a mining region. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Aurungabad, the name of at least four places 
 in India, the most important being in the state 
 of Hyderabad, on the Doodna, a tributary of the 
 Godavery. It has a ruined palace of Aurungzebe, 
 and the mausoleum of his daughter. Pop. 36,850. 
 
 Auskerry, an Orkney island, 2J miles S. of 
 Stronsay. Pop. 7. 
 
 Aussee, a town in the Salzkammergut of Styria, 
 at the confluence of three mountain-streams, 
 which form the Traun, 23 miles SE. of Ischl by 
 rail. Situated 2171 feet above the level of the 
 sea, it has mineral springs and baths and pretty 
 villas, and is visited by some 6000 strangers 
 annually. Pop. 1569. 
 
 Ausslg, a town of Bohemia, on the Elbe, here 
 joined by the Biela, 66 miles NNW. of Prague. 
 It has large chemical works. Pop. 37,270. 
 
 Austerlitz (Czech Slavkov), a town of Moravia, 
 on the Littawa, 12 miles ESE. of Brlinn. Pop. 
 3500. Here, on 2d December 1805, Napoleon 
 defeated the Russians and Austrians. 
 
 Austin, the capital of Texas, U.S., on the 
 Colorado River, 166 miles W. by N. of Houston. 
 It has a State Capitol (1887) and a State Uni- 
 versity, Austin was named after the founder of 
 the state of Texas. Pop. 22,500. 
 
 Australa'sla is a term etymologically equal 
 to Southern Asia, but used to indicate Australia 
 and the adjoining islands— Tasmania, New Zea- 
 land, Papua or New Guinea, New Caledonia, the 
 New Hebrides, New Ireland, and New Britain. 
 The term would thus exclude the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, Micronesia, and Polynesia proper; but 
 some authors include these great groups of 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 Islands also, making the name therefore equi- 
 valent to Oceania. Popularly, on the other hand, 
 it means the 'Australian Colonies' of Great 
 Britain, including Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji, 
 &,c. 
 
 Australia, by far the largest island on the 
 earth's surface, and with or without adjoining 
 islands, reclconed one of the continents, lies 
 between 10° 39' and 39° 11^' S. lat., and between 
 113° 5' and 153° 16' E. long. It has a length from 
 west to east of about 2400 miles ; and a breadth 
 from north to south of 1971 miles ; with a total 
 area of 2,944,628 sq. m., about one-fourth less 
 than that of Europe, or more tlian twenty-five 
 times that of Great Britain and Ireland. By the 
 shortest route, its nearest point is 11,000 miles 
 distant from England. It is separated from New 
 Guinea by Torres Strait, 90 miles broad, and 
 from Tasmania by Bass Strait, 140 miles wide ; 
 on the NW., W., and S., it is washed by the 
 Indian Ocean ; and on the E., by the South 
 Pacific. This island-continent is, above all other 
 continents, exceedingly compact, with an almost 
 unbroken outline on the east and west. Parallel 
 with the east coast, at a distance of about 60 
 miles, stretches for 1200 miles the Great Barrier 
 Reef. The name Australia in its present signifi- 
 cation was suggested by Captain Flinders, and 
 came into use about 1817. 
 
 The island is mainly a plateau with a pre- 
 cipitous face outwards, and at most places 
 bounded by a strip of lower-lying land between 
 that face and the sea-coast. The eastern edge 
 of the plateau averages 2000 feet in height, the 
 western but 1000 feet ; while there is in all 
 directions an inclination towards a central de- 
 pression somewhat south and east of the actual 
 centre of the continent. One great river, the 
 Murray, Australia's only great river, drains by 
 means of its many large tributaries— Darling, 
 Murrumbidgee, &c.— the whole of the south 
 portion of the eastern half of the plateau, most 
 of Victoria, New South Wales, the south of 
 Queensland, and the east of South Australia ; and 
 in the SE. corner is the principal mountain range, 
 the Australian Alps (highest points Mount Town- 
 send, 7350 feet, and Mount Kosciusko, 7308) 
 continued northwards into New South Wales by 
 the Blue Mountains, the Liverpool Range, &c. 
 There is no drainage into the interior in the 
 western part of the plateau, which is but slightly 
 inclined : and here the slight and irregular rain- 
 fall collects in salt marshes, which sometimes in 
 flood greatly extend their area. Next to the 
 Murray, the most important rivers are the Fitz- 
 roy and the Burdekin in Queensland. By far the 
 best part of the continent for European settle- 
 ment and European agriculture is the south- 
 east—Victoria, New South Wales, and part of 
 South Australia— both on and outside of the 
 plateau. Queensland is rich and fertile, but 
 tropical and sub-tropical. The northern coast 
 strip is largely covered with tropical forests. A 
 portion only of Western Australia is available 
 for agriculture or pastoral occupation. Consid- 
 erable areas of the interior are hopeless, irre- 
 claimable, almost impassable sandy desert ; but 
 much of the interior area, covered with scrub and 
 prickly plants, might under irrigation become 
 available for human occupation. 
 
 The foundation of the plateau is granite, some- 
 times replaced by palaeozoic slates and schists 
 inclined so as to stand almost on edge. Above 
 both are in east and south-east coal-bearing areas, 
 of both mesozoic and palaeozoic age. The central 
 depression is of cretaceous age. The higher 
 
 edges of the plateau are all volcanic, craters, 
 ash cones, and ash beds being still very con- 
 spicuous in many places. Gold, discovered in 
 New South Wales in 1851, has since been found 
 in all the Australian colonies, especially Vic- 
 toria, Queensland, and New South Wales. In 
 1851-91, Australia produced about 100,000,000 oz. 
 valued at over £350,000,000. Of late years the 
 gold produce has nuich fallen off. There are 
 rich silver-mines in New South Wales, copper- 
 mines in South Australia, and tin-mines in 
 Queensland. There are great coal-fields in New 
 South Wales and Queensland ; and iron has been 
 found in several colonies. Lead, bismuth, anti- 
 mony, diamonds, and various kinds of precious 
 stones form part of Australia's mineral wealth. 
 
 In proportion to its size, Australia, lying 
 mostly within the temperate zone, enjoys on the 
 whole an equable climate, although subject to 
 great occasional irregularities ; in general, hot 
 and dry, and remarkably salubrious. Within 
 the tropics, it has its rainy season in summer 
 (November to April) ; south of the tropics, almost 
 exclusively in winter. The principal mountains, 
 both for extent and height, lying to the east 
 or windward side, receive by far the heaviest 
 tribute of moisture brought by the winds from 
 the Pacific ; and, as a rule, the amount of rainfall 
 on the east side is in inverse proportion to the 
 distance from the east coast. The west side has 
 far less rain than the east, and there the rainfall 
 is proportionate to the proximity to the west 
 coast. What moisture is left in the winds after 
 their passage across the highlands, the intense 
 heat rising from the central plains tends to dis- 
 sipate, instead of allowing it to condense into 
 rain. South Australia, Victoria, and in a less 
 degree, New South Wales, are exposed to hot 
 winds from the interior which rapidly raise the 
 temperature of the lands they visit to 115° or 
 higher, and are followed by an equally sudden 
 fall. Melbourne has a mean temperature of 58° ; 
 Sydney, 63°; Adelaide, a little higher; Perth, 
 about the same as at Sydney. Captain Sturt 
 found the mean temperature of the interior for 
 three months over 101° F. in the shade, and the 
 drought such as to unloosen the screws of his 
 boxes, split his combs into thin laminaj, make 
 the leads drop out of his pencils, and his finger- 
 nails become brittle as glass ; the season was, 
 however, an exceptional one, and good pastoral 
 country exists within a sliort distance of what 
 he described as the 'Stony Desert.' The east 
 highlands have a greater proportion of snow than 
 their latitude and height would argue. At 5000 
 feet of altitude, in certain situations, snow lies 
 all the year round, and many of the higher 
 mountains are covered with snow all the winter. 
 
 The worst feature in the climate of Australia 
 is the total uncertainty and inequality of the 
 rainfall in all parts of the continent, menacing 
 the whole country with almost equally distress- 
 ing alternations of drought and flood. " Droughts 
 sometimes completely wither up vegetation over 
 large tracts of land, to the destruction of many 
 thousands of cattle. The ordinary drought itself 
 renders almost all the rivers of Australia, with the 
 exception of the Murray proper, merely intermit- 
 tent ; shrunk for months together into straggling 
 water-holes, with or without some connecting 
 thread of stream. As rivers, they really cease 
 to exist for a longer or shorter period every year. 
 Even the Murray is only navigable at certain 
 seasons of the year. The rainy season, on the 
 other hand, swells these pools into terrific floods, 
 inundating the country, and often most seriously 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 63 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 destroying property. Most successful irrigation 
 colonies have been established at Mildura in 
 Victoria, and Reninark in South Australia, both 
 utilising the waste waters of tlie River Murray. 
 Water for the use of stock in summer is exten- 
 sively stored in dams, and large tracts of country 
 with no surface-water have been made available 
 for settlement by sinking wells. In some dis- 
 tricts where the conformation is favourable, 
 artesian wells have proved a success. 
 
 The vegetation of Australia is altogether 
 unique, standing at a long interval from that 
 of all other quarters of the globe ; but it is 
 exceedingly abundant in species. These, it is 
 calculated, number about 10,000— considerably 
 more than are to be found in all Europe. A 
 peculiarity of Australian vegetation is the abund- 
 ance of 'scrub' — the 'mallee,' 'mulga,' &c. 
 The highlands are rich in wood, such as that of 
 the gum-trees of the genus Eucalyptus, growing 
 to a height of 250 feet, with a girth of 12 to 20 
 feet ; one felled giant measuring as much as 480 
 feet. Then in the south and west, and even a 
 little into the interior, though less abundantly 
 there, are the valuable shea-oaks, beef-woods, or 
 Casuarinas. The ' wattles ' or acacias, abounding 
 everywhere in the country, and comprising over 
 300 species, are also a most characteristic feature 
 of Australia, with lovely yellow blossoms, and 
 generally fragrant. The Australian bush is 
 fragrant all the year. Australia affords so wide 
 a variety of climate and soil that most European 
 trees and plants have been successfully intro- 
 duced. The Scotch thistle has become a serious 
 nuisance. 
 
 The zoology of Australia is even more peculiar 
 than its botany. The mammalia of other lands 
 are totally wanting here, except some rats and 
 mice, and the dingo or wild dog, while the mar- 
 supials or pouch-bearing mammalia of Australia 
 have but the opossums of America to represent 
 them in any other part of the world. The largest 
 of the marsupials are the kangaroo, hare kangaroo, 
 and rat kangaroo. The fruit-eating bat, or flying- 
 fox, is found. Then there are opossums and 
 phalangers. The wombat is the largest of the 
 marsupials, next to the kangaroo. The ant-eater 
 of Western Australia is of the size of a squirrel. 
 The ornithorhynchus, platypus, duck-mole, or 
 water-mole, having no teeth or marsupial pouch, 
 has broad webbed feet, a horny mandible like 
 a duck-bill, and is oviparous. Australia favours 
 the acclimatisation of animal as well as plant 
 life, and the rabbit has proved so prolific as to 
 require special public efforts for its suppression. 
 The camel has done excellent service in the work 
 of exploration. 
 
 The birds, if not quite so unique and strange a 
 feature of Australia as are its mammalia, excel 
 those of all other temperate lands for beauty of 
 plumage and fineness of form. Passing over the 
 splendid parrots and cockatoos, we note for their 
 singularity of figure or brilliancy of feather, the 
 regent-bird, rifle-bird, fly-catcher, and lyre-bird. 
 Notable are also honey-suckers, brush-turkeys, 
 the bower-birds, the emu and cassowary, and the 
 Podargi, of enormous mouth — 'more-porks,' as 
 they are called, from their singular cry. Alto- 
 gether, Australia has 650 distinct species of birds 
 to muster against Europe's 500. Of reptiles, 
 Australia has no less than 140 different kinds, 
 its largest lizard measuring from 4 to 6 feet. 
 Nor does Australia want for snakes. Though 
 destitute of both the vipers and pit-vipers, it 
 makes up for this by the Elapidse (a family 
 including the Indian cobras), constituting two- 
 
 thirds of the snakes of Australia, all poisonous, 
 though only five kinds are fatally so. The black 
 snake of Australia measures from 5 to 8 feet long. 
 Australia abounds, moreover, in insects, beauti- 
 ful and peculiar. English singing and game 
 birds have been largely introduced. The com- 
 mon sparrow has multiplied to such an extent 
 that it has become a pest. Axis deer and Angora 
 goats have been acclimatised. 
 
 Almost as much as its botany and zoology, 
 the human natives of Australia are isolated and 
 peculiar, separated by a wide remove from the 
 Papuans, the Malays, and the Negroes. Of a 
 dark coffee-brown complexion, rather than 
 actually black, the Australian stands not much 
 short of the average European in height, but is 
 altogether of much slimmer and feebler build ; 
 his legs, in particular, are very lean and destitute 
 of calves (a defect common to dark races). His 
 head is long and narrow, with a low brow promi- 
 nent just above the eyes, but receding thence in 
 a very marked degree. The nose, proceeding 
 from a narrow base, broadens outwardly to a 
 somewhat squat end. The face bulges into high 
 cheek-bones. The mouth is big and uncouth, 
 the upper jaw projecting over the lower, but 
 with tine white teeth. The whole headend face, 
 and indeed the whole person, is covered with a 
 profusion of hair, which, when freed of its 
 usually enclogging oil and dirt, is soft and 
 glossy. The intellect of the Australian, directed 
 almost exclusively to the means of procuring 
 food, operates wholly within the range of the 
 rudest bodily senses ; but inside that elementary 
 sphere, displays no little nimbleness and skill. 
 He is unsurpassed in tracking and running down 
 his prey ; and his weapons, though of the most 
 I)rimitive kind, are well adapted to assist him 
 in that purpose, whilst his rude culinary and 
 domestic apparatus manifests equal skill. His 
 language, within its very circumscribed sensuous 
 sphere, is fairly expressive and complete ; and 
 in the facility with which he learns to chatter 
 foreign languages is noteworthy. Outside this 
 circle, however, all is blank to the Australian. 
 In summer the natives roam aJaout naked, and 
 sense of shame seems almost wholly undeveloped 
 in them. Morality is entirely reduced to the 
 notion of i^roperty, wives being one item in a 
 man's chattels the stealing of which has a definite 
 punishment attached to it. Yet the ' black 
 fellows ' are capable of loyal aflection and grati- 
 tude. Without doubt they have often nuirdered 
 Europeans, but in many cases this was but more 
 or less legitimate reprisal for prior atrocities 
 committed by the convicts or other leckless 
 Europeans. None of them have fixed habita- 
 tions ; caves may be taken advantage of, but 
 usually the best habitation they have is a screen 
 of twigs and bushes, covered with foliage or turf; 
 sometimes, however, logs of wood and turf serve 
 for a few days' or weeks' shelter. By way of 
 food the Australian devours the kangaroo, emu, 
 opossum, wombat, lizards, snakes (of which the 
 head is rejected), frogs, larvse, white ants, moths, 
 which are usually roasted, fire being produced 
 by rubbing together two pieces of stick. His 
 boomerang is an ingenious throw-stick, and is 
 skilfully used even for knocking down birds on 
 the wing. There is no government among this 
 people outside that of the family, and no laws 
 except traditionary I'ules about property. In the 
 way of religion they have little save their terror 
 of ghosts and demons, and some superstitious 
 traditional rites applicable to certain epochs in a 
 man's life, more particularly at his burial. Their 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 64 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 marriage customs are curious, the fundamental 
 principle being exogamy, the custom which pro- 
 hibits a man from marrying a woman of his own 
 tribe. They cannot usually count beyond five. 
 Like almost all other savages, the native Aus- 
 tralians are rapidly vanishing before the advance 
 of civilisation. In the settled districts some of 
 them are usefully employed as shepherds and 
 stockmen, but the majority prefer nomadic habits. 
 The intermittent use of European clothing induces 
 consumption, while the diseases and vices they 
 acquire from Europeans are another potent 
 factor of their destruction. The lowest estimate 
 of their number, prior to European settlement 
 among them, gives over 150,000 ; they are now 
 calculated at less than half that figure. 
 
 Some old 15th and 16th century maps show, 
 where the north of Australia is, a territory 
 of various outline named Java Major, or Java 
 the Greater; and it seems probable that after 
 Magellan's death his followers sighted Western 
 Australia in 1522. The present Torres Strait 
 refers to the presence of Torres there in 160G. 
 Dirk Hartog Island in the west carries us back 
 to Dirk Hartog and the year 1616. Arnhem 
 Peninsula is a reminiscence of the Dutch vessel 
 Arnhem, which in 1618 explored the coast of 
 that land. The Dutch ship, Guldene Zeepaard, 
 in 1627 sighted a large part of the south coast 
 from Cape Leeuwin eastwards. The Gulf of 
 Carpentaria was named, probably by Tasman, 
 after Carpentier, governor of the Dutch Indies, 
 1623-27. All the early explorers brought back a 
 forbidding report of desolate shores thinly occu- 
 pied by. brutal savages. In 1688 Australia was 
 first seen by British eyes in the person of 
 Dampier, who gives name to an archipelago in 
 the NW. Near a century later (1770) we find 
 Captain Cook at this island-continent, on his 
 course of circumnavigation of the globe, explor- 
 ing the whole eastern coast from Gipps Land on 
 the SE. (in Victoria) to Cape York; and the 
 exploration of the whole coast of Australia was 
 completed by the Beagle (in which Charles 
 Darwin sailed), 1837-43. 
 
 Inland exploration began with the first British 
 occupation of New South Wales in 1788, but for 
 the first twenty-five years was confined inside 
 the Blue Mountains, to a district of some 50 
 miles inland. In 1813, however, that barrier 
 was passed, and the valley of the Fish River and 
 Bathurst Plains were brought within the limits 
 of civilisation. Two years later (1815) the Lach- 
 lan River (tributary of the Murrumbidgee) was 
 lighted on. Important later explorations were 
 those of Hume and Sturt (1819-28), Mitchell 
 (1835), Eyre (1839-40), Sturt (1844-45), Leichardt 
 (1843-46), M'Donall Stuart (1862, across the con- 
 tinent from south to north), Burke and Wills 
 (disastrous, same date), Gregory (1861), Jardine 
 (1864). Later still, using the trans-continental 
 telegraph of 1872 as a basis, were the expeditions 
 of Giles, Warburton, and Forrest ; and those of 
 Hodgkinson, Giles, Favenc, Hann, Crawford, 
 Stockdale, Carrington, Lindsay, Tenison- Woods, 
 Milman, and Tietkins. These expeditions seem 
 to demonstrate that much of the interior of 
 Australia, between the west of the overland 
 telegraph line and the east of the narrow hilly 
 border of Western Australia, is little better than 
 desert — unmitigated sand, dense scrub, or porcu- 
 pine grass. A considerable area in the east of 
 Western Australia is yet unexplored ; as also are 
 the adjoining parts of the Northern Territory of 
 South Australia, and the interior of Cape York 
 Peninsula. 
 
 The first European settlement in Australia wag 
 made in 1788 at Botany Bay under Captain 
 Phillip, but was almost immediately transferred 
 to the adjoining Port Jackson, close to where 
 Sydney now is ; it comprised in all 1030 persons, 
 of whom 757 were convicts. In 1825 Moreton 
 Bay (now Queensland) was settled as a part of 
 New South Wales, attaining in December 1859 
 the position of a separate colony. The settle- 
 ment of Western Australia (the Swan River Set- 
 tlement, as it was then called) dates from 1829. 
 It continued to be a penal settlement froni 1851 
 to 1868. Port Phillip (now Victoria), then a part 
 of New South Wales, was first colonised in 1835, 
 and on 1st July 1851 was constituted an inde- 
 pendent colony. The colonisation of South Aus- 
 tralia by British emigrants dates from 1836. 
 
 Especially after the discovery of gold in 1851, 
 Australia advanced in all departments of material 
 well-being at a rate surpassing that of any other 
 country on the globe. In 1801 the settlement 
 at and about Sydney had increased to 5547 
 persons ; in 1835 the European settlers of Aus- 
 tralia (including Tasmania) amounted to 80,000. 
 By 1851 the population had risen to 350,000. 
 The discovery in that year of the gold-fields 
 caused a sudden and enormous inrush of immi- 
 grants from all parts of the world ; now Aus- 
 tralia alone has over 3,800,000, and Australasia 
 4,600,000. The population is, of course, almost 
 all of European origin, the predominating ele- 
 ment being British. The British-born are no 
 longer the most numerous element in the colonial 
 populations, tlie native-born being now over tliree- 
 fourths. Chinese and Germans number about 
 30,000 and 38,500 respectively ; there are many 
 Polynesians (' Kanakas ') in Queensland ; not to 
 speak of Scandinavians, Americans, and French. 
 The largest cities are Melbourne, capital of Vic- 
 toria ; Sydney, of New South Wales ; Adelaide, of 
 South Australia ; Brisbane, of Queensland ; Ball- 
 arat, in Victoria, and Sandhurst, also in Victoria. 
 
 The Commonwealth of Australia, comprisingthe 
 five Australian ' states ' (heretofore colonies) and 
 Tasmania, was sanctioned by the British Parlia- 
 ment on July 9, 1900, and proclaimed in Sydney 
 on January 1, 1901. The Executive is vested in the 
 Governor -general (representing the sovereign), 
 assisted by an Executive Council of seven minis- 
 ters of state, who must be members of the 
 Federal Parliament. The Legislature consists of 
 the Governor-general, a Senate, and a House of 
 Representatives. The Senate, corresponding to 
 the House of Lords in Britain, has 36 members 
 (6 from each state) elected for six years, half of 
 them being renewed every three years ; in cer- 
 tain circumstances it may be dissolved by the 
 Governor-general and entirely re-elected. The 
 House of Representatives, corresponding to the 
 British House of Commons, has 75 members 
 elected for three years, and apportioned among 
 the separate states according to population— New 
 South Wales sending 26 ; Victoria, 23 ; Queens- 
 land, 9 ; South Australia, 7 ; Western Australia, 
 5 ; and Tasmania, 5. Members of both Houses 
 receive £400 per annum. 
 
 Tlie Federal Parliament legislates on all matters 
 aff'ecting the Commonwealth as a whole, such as 
 commerce, railways, shipping, finance, defence, 
 postal and telegraph services, emigration, &c., 
 leaving more local matters to be dealt with by 
 the state parliaments. Each state has a gover- 
 nor, a Legislative Council, and Legislative 
 Assembly. See the separate articles. 
 
 There is no state church in Australia. In 
 respect of numbers, Episcopacy is the dominant 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 form of religion, Roman Catholics come second, 
 Presbyterians third, and Methodists fourth. Edu- 
 cation has of late been rapidly diffusing itself. 
 In all the colonies education is either free and 
 compulsory, or the primary schools are all so 
 liberally endowed by the government as to place 
 elementary instruction within the reach of all 
 classes ; while libraries, museums, botanical 
 gardens, schools of art, mechanics' institutes, 
 &c., are multiplying in all the colonies under 
 the liberal patronage of the several governments. 
 There are universities in Melbourne, Sydney, 
 and Adelaide, and also well-equipped astron- 
 omical observatories. 
 
 Literary enterprise in Australia is mainly ab- 
 sorbed in journalism, as may well be believed 
 when it is mentioned that in the Australasian 
 colonies, including Tasmania and New Zealand, 
 some 800 newspapers, magazines, and periodicals 
 are published, many of them dailies. The current 
 book literature is of course mainly that of the 
 old country ; and of the literature produced in 
 the colonies, by far the greater part is still the 
 work of men born and bred in Britain. In 
 literature proper, there are but few outstanding 
 names— those of Lindsay Gordon, Marcus Clarke, 
 Henry Kendall, F. W. Hume, Mrs Campbell 
 Praed, and ' Rolfe Boldrewood,' being perhaps 
 the best known. 
 
 The chief and most general staple produce of 
 Australia, for which the country is peculiarly 
 adapted, and which constitutes its largest export, 
 is wool. Over all the highlands and the river- 
 lands of the sea-border — wherever, in fact, there is 
 water — sheep thrive remarkably, except perhaps 
 within the tropics, and the wool is of the finest 
 quality, realising the highest prices in the English 
 market. The exports of wool from Australia 
 have an annual value of from £16,000,000 to 
 £20,000,000 (New South Wales alone sending to 
 the amount of from £7,300,000 to £11,300,000 a 
 year in 1882-91). The cereals of Europe and maize 
 have been introduced into the island-continent 
 with the happiest success. Potatoes everywhere 
 yield abundantly. The vine is extensively culti- 
 vated. Sugar is a very important product of 
 Queensland ; tobacco, cotton, arrowroot, and 
 bananas are also largely grown. 
 
 The trade of Australia exhibits a remarkable 
 development, the average of trade per inhabitant 
 
 being about five times that of Europe, and nearly 
 five times that of Canada. The imports of Aus- 
 tralia have risen from £35,557,716 in 1874, to 
 £68,129,455 in 1901 ; the exports in the same 
 period from £36,724,866 to £75,026,787. It has 
 not escaped the influence of the wave of depres- 
 sion which has affected the whole of the civilised 
 world during recent years, followed by many 
 financial disasters, including the stoppage of 
 many of the banks. The borrowing powers of 
 the various governments have been much too 
 freely used, and many of the public works are 
 unproductive, and the public debt has become 
 burdensome. The exports consist principally of 
 wool, frozen meat, preserved meat, tallow, skins 
 of all kinds, hides, wheat, cotton, sugar, and 
 wine. New South Wales, alone of all the divi- 
 sions of Australia, has (since the governorship 
 of Sir Hercules Robinson, 1872-79) adopted the 
 principle of free-trade. A heavy protective tariff 
 prevails in Victoria, and the example of this 
 colony has been followed by South Australia. 
 
 Since 1870, railways and telegraphs have been 
 increasing rapidly ; there is railway connection 
 from Adelaide, via Melbourne and Sydney, to 
 Brisbane, communication having been completed 
 in 1888 ; and there are shorter lines in the several 
 colon ies. At the end of 1902 the railway lines of the 
 Commonwealth alieady working measured 13,821 
 miles,aud 1065 miles were in courseofconstruction. 
 Telegraphically, the colonies are now all linked 
 together with Tasmania and New Zealand, and 
 with the mother-country via Java and India. 
 
 Manufactures suitable to the country are rap- 
 idly developing. Magnificent lines of steamers 
 maintain frequent communication with Europe 
 and America, between the various colonies, and 
 with the Fiji Islands and New Caledonia. Mails 
 have been delivered in Adelaide in twenty-nine 
 days from London vid Brindisi, and the sea- 
 passage between Adelaide aiid Plymouth may be 
 covered in about thirty-five days. Mails have 
 been delivered at King George's Sound in less 
 than twenty-four days from London. The length 
 of the voyage in sailing-ships ranges generally 
 from seventy to one hundred days. 
 
 The following are some of the statistics of the 
 Australian colonies, as shown in the official tables 
 for tlie census year 1901. For comparison those 
 of New Zealand are added. 
 
 Statistics— 1901. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Queensland 
 
 South Australia.. 
 West Australia.. 
 Tasmania 
 
 Total 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Geand Total.. 
 
 Area in 
 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 87,884 
 310,367 
 668,497 
 903.690 
 975,920 
 
 28,215 
 
 2,972,573 
 104,471 
 
 3,077,044 
 
 Pop. in 
 
 1891. 
 
 1,140,405 
 
 1,132,234 
 
 393,718' 
 
 320, 431* 
 
 1,201,341 
 1,359,1.3;} 
 
 184,124* 
 172,475 
 
 J,776,273 
 772,719f 
 
 395 4,548,9 
 
 Revenue 
 in 1901. 
 
 £ 
 7,702,818 
 10,805,543 
 4,096,290 
 2,661,549 
 3,142,912 
 826,163 
 
 Public Debt 
 in 1301. 
 
 £ 
 50,013,552 
 61,479,662 
 38,534,614 
 26,448,805 
 11,709,430 
 9,095.735 
 
 197,281,798 
 52,966,447 
 
 ),248,245 
 
 Imports in 
 1901. 
 
 £ 
 18,927,340 
 26,928,218 
 6,376,2:?9 
 7,478,288 
 6,454,171 
 1,965,199 
 
 68,129,455 
 11,817,915 
 
 79,947,370 
 
 Exports in 
 1901. 
 
 £ 
 18,646,097 
 27,351,124 
 9,249,366 
 8,318,820 
 8,515,62:3 
 2,945,757 
 
 75.026,787 
 12,881,424 
 
 87,908,211 
 
 Acres under 
 crop in 1901.t 
 
 2,913.296 
 
 2,567,215 
 
 307,344 
 
 2,188,707 
 
 217,124 
 
 513,719 
 
 8,707,405 
 12,195,542 
 
 20,902,947 
 
 • Exclusive of aborigines. f Exclusive of Maoris 
 
 See also the articles Victoria, New South 
 W^ALES, Queensland, South Australia, West- 
 ern Australia, and those on the great cities, 
 &c., of Australia ; the Australian Handbook and 
 other annuals ; The Avstralian Encydopcedia, 
 edited by G. C. Levey, C.M.G. (1892) ; A. TroUope, 
 Australia and New Zealand (1873) ; A. R. Wallace, 
 4V'Strala$ia (1893) ; historical works by Bonwick 
 
 (43,143 in 1901). J Including sown gi-asses and hay. 
 
 (1882), Rusden (1883), Allen (1882), Sir Henry 
 Parkes (1892), and Greville Tregarthen ('Nations' 
 series, 1893) ; a history of exploration by Favenc 
 (1888); R. Wallace, Rural Economy and Agri- 
 cvlture of Australia and New Zealand (1891) ; 
 works on the aborigines by Dawson (1881) and 
 Curr (1888) ; and D. B. W. Sladen's Australian 
 Poets and A Century of Axistralian Song (1888). 
 
AUSTRIA 6 
 
 ' Austria, the usual name of the great empire 
 now officially called the Austro-Hunoarian 
 Monarchy, is a Latinised form of the German 
 Oesterrcich (Fr. Autriche), meaning ' Eastern King- 
 dom.' Since 1867, the empire is composed of a 
 union of two states under one emperor, but ad- 
 ministratively distinct. The one is Austria, or 
 Cisleithania (' on this side the Leitha," a tributary 
 of the Danube on the frontiers of the archduchy 
 of Austria and Hungary) ; the other, Hungary 
 and the lands of the Hungarian crown, or Trans- 
 leithania. The Austrian dominions form geo- 
 graphically a compact territory, with a circum- 
 ference of about 5350 miles. The total area, 
 240,456 sq. m., is greater than that of any other 
 European state save Russia, and is nearly twice 
 the area of the United Kingdom. The body of 
 the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though 
 it has about 500 miles of sea-coast on the Adri- 
 atic. Austria borders on Italy, Switzerland, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Roumania, 
 Servia, and Montenegro. The nominally Turkish 
 provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied 
 and administered by Austria, are for all practical 
 purposes part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 
 though not included as such in official statistics. 
 The following table shows the area and popula- 
 tion of the empire at the censuses of 1880 and 
 1900: 
 
 Area in Population Population 
 
 I. Austrian Lands— sq. miles, in 1880. i" 1900. 
 
 Lower Austria 7,654 2,329,021 3.086,382 
 
 Upiwr Austria 4,631 760,879 809,918 
 
 Salzburg 2,767 16:3,.566 193,247 
 
 Styria 8,670 1,2]2,.367 1.356,058 
 
 Carinthia 4,005 348,670 367.344 
 
 Camiola 3,aT6 481,176 508,348 
 
 Istria, Trieste, *c 3.084 650,897 755,183 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg. . . . 11,324 911,887 979,878 
 
 Bohemia 19.980 5,557,134 6,318,280 
 
 Moravia 8,583 2.151,619 2,435,081 
 
 Silesia 1,987 565,772 680.529 
 
 Galicia 30,307 5.951.954 7,295,.538 
 
 Bukowina 4,036 569,599 729,921 
 
 Dalmatia 4,940 476.164 691,597 
 
 Total for Austria.. 115,823 22,130,705 26.107,304 
 
 II. Lands of the Hpnoarian Crown — 
 Hungai-y& Transylvania 107,858 13.700,005 16,653,3.32 
 
 Fiume 8 21.363 38,139 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia. ... 16,767 1,889,351 2.512,060 
 
 Total for Hungary 124.633 15,610,719 19.203.531 
 
 Total for the Monarchy .240.456 37,741,424 45,310,835 
 
 The area of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 23,179 
 sq. m., and the pop. in 1895 was estimated at 
 1,738,092. In 1900 the capital, Vienna, had a 
 pop. of 1,622,269; and there weie in the empire 
 seven other towns above 100,000 (Budapest, 
 Pragne, Trieste, Lemberg, Gratz, Briin, Szegedin), 
 and thirteen others above 50,000. 
 
 Three-fourths of Austria is mountainous or 
 hilly, being traversed by three great mountain- 
 chains— the Alps, Carpathians, and Sudetes, 
 whose chief ridges are of primitive rock. The 
 Rhaetian and Noric Alps stretch from Switzerland 
 to the Danube, and contain the highest points of 
 the Austrian territories, the Ortler Spitze rising 
 to 12,814 feet. The Carpathian Chain, extending 
 for 880 miles, rises on the left bank of the 
 Danube, near Presburg, and sweeping in a curve, 
 first east, and then southward through Transyl- 
 vania, again meets the Danube ; it culminates at 
 8517 feet. The Sudetes run through the north- 
 east of Moravia and Bohemia, in which last the 
 range is known as the Riesengebirge, or Giant 
 Mountains. Continuous with this range, but 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 beginning on the left bank of the Elbe, are the 
 Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, on the confines 
 of Saxony. The chief plains of the Austrian 
 empire are the vast lowlands of Hungary and 
 the plain of Galicia. The chief lakes are Lake 
 Balaton (382 .sq. m.) and the Neusiedler See (117), 
 both in Hungary ; and remarkable is also the 
 Zirknitz Lake (q.v.) in Illyria. 
 
 The leading rivers are : the Danube, which has 
 a course of 850 miles within the Austrian 
 dominions, its navigable affluents being the Inn, 
 Save, Drave, March, Waag, and the Theiss, which 
 drains nearly half of Hungary ; the Vistula, with 
 its tributary the Bug ; the Elbe, with the Moldau 
 and Eger ; the Dniester and Adige. 
 
 The climate of Austria varies much on account 
 of the extent and diversity of the surface. In 
 the warmest southern region between 42°-46°lat., 
 rice, olives, oranges, and lemons ripen in the 
 better localities ; and wine and maize are pro- 
 duced everywhere. In the middle temperate 
 region from 46°-49°, which has the greatest extent 
 and diversity of surface, wine and maize still 
 thrive to perfection. In the northern region, 
 laeyond 49°, except in favoured spots, neither 
 wine nor maize succeeds ; but grain, fruit, flax, 
 and hemp thrive excellently. 
 
 The mineral Avealth of Austria is not surpassed 
 in any European country. Bohemia, Hungary, 
 Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, and Tyrol take the 
 first place in respect of mineral produce. Ex- 
 cept platinum, none of the useful metals is want- 
 ing. The value of their yearly produce is estim- 
 ated at about £12,000,000. Of this siun coal yields 
 about a half, iron a fifth, salt a tenth, and gold 
 and silver together one-fourteenth ; whilst copper, 
 zinc, quicksilver, lead, iron, coal, and many other 
 minerals, together with precious stones, marble, 
 gypsum, &c., are plentiful. Austria is peculiarly 
 rich in salt. Rock-salt exists in immense beds 
 on both sides of the Carpathians, chiefly at 
 Wieliczka (q.v.). There are inexhaustible de- 
 posits of coal in the monarchy, the richest in 
 Moravia and Bohemia. Austria has some 1600 
 mineral springs, some of them of European 
 reputation, as the sulphur baths of Baden in 
 Lower Austria, the saline waters of Karlsbad, 
 Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz, &c., all in 
 Bohemia. 
 
 Although three-fourths of the surface is moun- 
 tainous, more than five-sixths is productive, being 
 used either for tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest. 
 Grain of all kinds is cultivated ; rice grows 
 in the Banat ; potatoes are raised everywliere ; 
 fruit grows in profusion ; for wine, Austria is 
 second only to France ; and other vegetable pro- 
 ducts are flax and hemp, tobacco, rape-seed. 
 Nearly a third of the productive surface is covered 
 with wood. 
 
 Bohemia takes the lead in manufacturing in- 
 dustry, then follow Austria Proper, Moravia and 
 Silesia, and Hungary. Vienna is the chief seat 
 of manufacture for articles of luxury ; Moravia, 
 Silesia, and Bohemia for linen, woollen, and glass 
 wares ; Styria and Carinthia, for iron and steel 
 wares. The chief manufactured articles of export 
 are those of silk and wool ; the only others of 
 consequence are linen twist, glass wares, and 
 cotton goods. The yearly value of manufactured 
 iron is considerable. The glass wares of Bohemia 
 are of special excellence. The manufactures of 
 cotton, of silk, of hemp and flax, are very exten- 
 sive. The manufacture of tobacco is a state 
 monopoly. Austria is not favourably situated 
 for foreign commerce. High mountains oppose 
 great obstacles on all hands to QoramunicatiQit, 
 
 I 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 67 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 and separate the producing districts from the 
 only sea that touches the empire ; while the 
 chief navigable rivers have their mouths in other 
 countries. The total imports vary in value from 
 £42,000,000 to £70,000,000 a year, some of the 
 principal items being cotton, wool, woollen yam, 
 cotton yarn, coffee, silk, coal and coke, machin- 
 ery, furs and hides, tobacco. Tlie exports have an 
 annual value of from £60,000,000 to £80,000,000, 
 half being for agricultural products — grain, sugar, 
 cattle, flour, eggs, feathers, &c. ; also timber, 
 minerals, wood-wares. 
 
 Nearly two-thirds of the whole commerce of 
 the empire is carried on with Germany. Its 
 next best markets are Roumania, Russia, Italy, 
 and Servia. The direct trade with Great Britain 
 is comparatively small ; the Board of Trade 
 returns recognising only the trade by way of 
 the Austrian seaboard. Between 1891 and 1902 
 the exports from Austria to Great Britain varied 
 from £1,100,000 to £1,375,245 ; and the goods im- 
 ported direct from Great Britain, from £1,600,000 
 to £2,516,899. The lengtli of railways in 1902 
 was 12,750 miles— more than half belonging to 
 state lines. 
 
 There are three distinct budgets, one for tlie 
 whole empire, another for Austria Proper, and 
 a third for the kingdom of Hungary. Besides 
 their share of the interest on the national debt, 
 Austria pays a larger and Hungary a smaller 
 sum towards the 'common expenditure of the ^ 
 empire;' the precise proportions — to be settled 
 every ten years— have of late been fiercely 
 disputed by the Hungarians, and, with Hun- 
 garian liome-rule demands, caused very strained 
 relations between Austria and Hungary in 
 1904-5. The budget estimates for the imperial 
 expenses for the year 1904 showed a total of 
 £16,270,500.— Tlie accounts of Atistria Proper 
 generally show large deficits. In 1904 the revenue 
 was, however, stated at £72,396,250, and the 
 expenditure at £72,282,150. In 1904 the general 
 debt of the empire was £222,212,084, and the 
 special debt of Austria £156,904,946. For mm- 
 gary in 1903 the revenue and expenditure nearly 
 balanced at £45,435,946 ; tlie debt (largely for 
 railways) amounted to £214,366,540. Hungary 
 also pays £2,541,606 annually to the connnon 
 debt of the empire. 
 
 The population is very unequally distributed. 
 The most populous districts are those of the 
 south-west and of the north-west. The Al- 
 pine regions and those of the Carpathians are 
 sparsest ; and generally the density diminishes 
 towards the east. The population of Austria 
 embraces a greater number of races, distinct 
 in origin and language, than that of any other 
 European country except Russia. The Slavs 
 are the most numerous race, amounting to 
 nearly 42 per cent, of the whole population. 
 They form the bulk of the population of Bo- 
 hemia, Moravia, Carniola, Dalmatia, Croatia, 
 Slavonia, the Woiwodina, the north of Hungary, 
 and Galicia. They are, however, split up into 
 a number of peoples or tribes, differing greatly 
 in language, religion, culture, and manners ; so 
 that their seeming preponderance in the empire 
 is thus lost. The chief branches of the Slavic 
 stem are, in the north, the Czechs or Bohemians 
 (the most numerous of all), Ruthenians, and 
 Poles; and in the south, the Slovenians, Croats, 
 Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans number 
 above 25 per cent., dispersed everywhere, but 
 mainly in the western parts of the empire. The 
 Romance peoples (speaking languages derived 
 ffom that of ancient Rome) anjount to fully 9J 
 
 per cent. , and are divided into western and east- 
 ern. The western consist of Italians, inhabiting 
 the south of Tyrol, Istria, and Dalmatia ; the 
 Ladins (Latins), in some valleys of Tyrol ; and 
 the Friulians about Giirz, north of Trieste. The 
 eastern Romance people are the Roumanians, 
 who are foimd in Transylvania, Hungary, the 
 Woiwodina, and the Bukowina. The Magyars, or 
 Hungarians proper, number over 16 per cent. : 
 they are located chiefly in Hungary and Tran- 
 sylvania. The small remaining portion is com- 
 posed chiefly of Jews, Armenians, and Gypsies. 
 The principal languages are German, Hungarian, 
 and Bohemian ; but Polish, Ruthenian, and Croat 
 languages are also spoken. 
 
 In 1900 there were 80,580,192 Roman Catholics ; 
 4,990,678 Greeks and Armenians united with the 
 Roman Church ; 3,423,175 Orthodox Greeks ; 
 1,654,396 Lutlierans ; 2,569,699 Calvinists ; 68,872 
 Unitarians; 2,076,277 Jews. There are nearly 300 
 abbeys and above 500 convents in the empire. 
 
 Education, whether high or low, is mostly 
 gratuitous. The primary schools in Austria are 
 to a very large extent in the hands of the clergy. 
 The law enforces compulsory attendance at the 
 ' Volks-schulen,' or national schools, of all chil- 
 dren between the ages of six and twelve. There 
 is a very great difference between the Gennan 
 provinces and the Slavonic ones in respect of 
 education. In Vorarlberg 82 per cent, of the in- 
 habitants read and write ; in Bukowina not quite 
 10 per cent. There are eleven universities in the 
 empire, at Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Briinn, Inns- 
 bruck, Pesth (Budapest), Cracow, Klausenburg, 
 Lemberg, and Czernowitz. Vienna, Gratz, and 
 Innsbruck rank as German universities ; Prague 
 has since 1880 a Bohemian and a German uni- 
 versity. There are in the whole monarchy over 
 4000 news^mpers and other periodicals (about 380 
 newspapers), of which nearly half are in German. 
 
 Military service is compulsory on all citizens 
 capable of bearing anns. The term of service 
 is twelve years — three in the standing army, 
 seven in the reserve, and two in the landwehr. 
 The army has on a peace footing 396,000 men, 
 and on a war footing 2,580,000. The navy com- 
 prised 11 ironclads, 15 cruisers, 62 torpedo boats, 
 and 20 vessels for coast defence. These are 
 manned by about 9000 men, raised to 14,000 in 
 time of war. 
 
 Austria is a monarchy hereditary in the House 
 of Hapsburg- Lorraine. In the case of the reign- 
 ing family dying out, the states of Bohemia 
 and of Hungary have the right of choosing a 
 new king. Since the year 1867 Austria has 
 been reconstructed as a dual empire, consisting 
 of a German or 'Cisleithan' monarchy, and a 
 Magyar or ' Transleithan ' kingdom. Each of the 
 two countries has its own laws, parliament, 
 ministers, and government, and deals with the 
 affairs exclusively relating to itself. The ministers 
 for affairs common to the whole empire (foreign 
 affairs, finance, army) are not responsible to either 
 parliament, but to the Delegations — a body form- 
 ing a connecting link between the two portions 
 of the empire. These constitute" a parliament of 
 120 members : the one-half is chosen by the legis- 
 lature of Germanic Austria, and the other half 
 represents Hungary. The person of the sovereign 
 is another link between the two members of the 
 empire. 
 
 The Austrian Reichsrath consists of an upper 
 and a lower house. The upper house is com- 
 posed of the princes of the imperial family who 
 are of age, of upwards of 50 nobles, 10 arch- 
 bishops, 7 bishops, and 105 life-members nomi- 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 „ _ by the emperor. Tlie lower house num- 
 ben 363 elected members. The executive of 
 Hungary i.s carried on in the name of ' the king ' 
 by a responsible ministry. 
 
 The empire of Austria arose from the smallest 
 beginnings at the end of the 8th century. In 
 796 a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark (i.e. 
 'March' or frontier-land), was founded as an 
 outpost of the empire of Charlemagne, in the 
 country between the Enns and the llaab. The 
 name Uesterreich appears first in 996. In 1156 the 
 nuu-k was raised to a ducliy ; and after coming 
 into the possession of the House of Hapsburg in 
 1282, it rapidly rose to be a powerful state. The 
 
 grinces of that House extended their dominion 
 y marriage, by purchase, and otherwise, over a 
 number of other states, including the crowns of 
 Bohemia and Hungary ; and from 1438 down to 
 the 19th century, they held almost without in- 
 terruption the throne of the Gennan empire 
 (nominally 'the Holy Roman Empire ')—</ie 
 emperor being the most conspicuous, if not 
 always the most powerful personage amongst the 
 crowned heads of Europe. In 1804 P'rancis 
 declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria, 
 and two years afterwards resigned the dignities 
 of German Emperor and King of the Romans. 
 Thenceforward, especially during the troublous 
 times of 1848-50, Austria held the pre-eminence 
 amongst German states ; but after the victory of 
 Prussia at Koniggriitz (Sadowa), in the short but 
 decisive Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Austria was 
 excluded from Germany— an exclusion made final 
 by the reconstruction of the German empire with 
 the kings of Prussia as hereditary German em- 
 perors. In 1867 Austria was itself reconstituted 
 on its present footing as the Austro-Hungarian 
 monarchy. 
 
 See Coxe, History of the House of Austria (3 vols. 
 1847-53 ; continued by Kelley, 1853) ; Leger, 
 Histoirede VAutriche-Hongrie (1879) ; Sidney Whit- 
 man, The Realm of the Habsburgs (1893). 
 
 Aiistria, Archduchy of, the cradle and nucleus 
 of the Austrian empire, lies on both sides of the 
 Danube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg, 
 on the borders of Hungary, and embraces an area 
 of 18,052 sq. m., with a pop. (1900) of 4,089,547. 
 It now forms three of the crown-lands, or adminis- 
 trative provinces of the empire— viz. Lower and 
 Upper Austria (i.e. Austria below, and Austria 
 above, the Enns), and the duchy of Salzburg. 
 
 Auteull ip-tuh'yee^), formerly a country village 
 at the entrance of the Bois de Boulogiie, now en- 
 closed within the fortifications of Paris. It was 
 the residence of Boileau and Moliere. 
 
 Autun {O-tun' ; anc. Avgustodunum), in the 
 French dep. of Saone-et-Loire, in the Burgundian 
 district of Autunois, on the river Arroux, 31 miles 
 NW. of Chalon by rail. It has a fine cathedral 
 (12th century), and many ruins of Roman temples, 
 
 gites, triumphal arches, and other antiquities. 
 loth, carpets, and velvet are manufactured. 
 Talleyrand was bishop of the diocese, and here 
 Macmahon was born. Pop. 13,593, 
 
 Auvergne, a southern central district of 
 France, was before the Revolution a separate 
 province, and coincided nearly with the modern 
 departments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6me. Of 
 several summits that have apparently been at 
 one tune volcanoes, the highest is Mont-Dore 
 (6188 feet). Auvergne produces iron, lead, copper, 
 and coal, and is rich in valuable mineral springs, 
 both cold and hot. Many Auvergnats, speaking 
 their own patois, seek employment in Paris and 
 ^Igium. 
 
 8 AVEYRON 
 
 Auxerre (0-zerr' ; anc. Autissiodonim), chief 
 town of the French dep. of Yonne, on the Yonne, 
 109 miles SE. of Paris. Its noble Gothic cathedral 
 dates from 1215, but was not completed till the 
 16th century. The principal manufactures are 
 wine (a light Burgundy), candles, chemicals, and 
 hosiery. Pop. 15,300. 
 
 Auxonne (0-zonn'), a fortified town in the 
 French dep. of Cote d'Or, on the Saone, 20 miles 
 SE. of Dijon. Pop. 5118. 
 
 Ava, a ruined city of Burma, of which it was 
 the capital 1364-1740, and again 1822-38. It 
 stands on the Irawadi, 6 miles SW. of Araara- 
 pura. On the opposite bank stands Sagaing (q.v). 
 
 Avallon (anc. Aballo), a town in the French 
 dep. of Yonne, 26 miles SE. of Auxerre, on a 
 steep hill of red granite, nearly surrounded by 
 the river Cousin. Pop. 5571. 
 
 Avalon, a peninsula forming the eastern part 
 of Newfoundland (q.v.), in which St John's, the 
 capital, is situated. 
 
 Avatcha, a bay on the east coast of Kam- 
 chatka, by far the best harbour of the peninsula, 
 and containing the smaller bay on which stands 
 the capital, Petropaulovsk (q.v.). 
 
 Avebury, or Abury, a village of Wiltshire, 6J 
 miles W. of Marlborough. It is the site of the 
 largest megalithic structure in Britain, including 
 a large outer circle, 330 yards in diameter, and 
 two smaller stone circles. The stones that remain 
 are 5 to 20 feet in height above the ground, and 
 3 to 12 in breadth and thickness. From an en- 
 trance to the circle issued the 'Kennet Avenue,' 
 running 1430 yards south-eastward in a perfectly 
 straight line, and 17 yards broad, with a range of 
 blocks on either side similar to those of the circle 
 itself. Of surrounding antiquities may be men- 
 tioned a double circle on Hakpen Hill, and a 
 large barrow, or lofty conical mound called Sil- 
 bury Hill, | mile to the S. It measures 676 
 yards in circumference, and is 130 feet high. 
 
 Aveiro, a town of Portugal, a bishop's see, 40 
 miles S. of Oporto by rail, on a salt lake or 
 lagoon joined to the sea by a canal. Pop. 9167. 
 
 Avelli'no (anc. Abellinum), chief town of an 
 Italian province at the foot of Monte Vergine, 
 59 )niles E. of Naples by rail. It has a cathedral. 
 Pop. 23,790. 
 
 Aventine Hill. See Rome. 
 
 Aver'nus (Gr. Aomos, 'birdless;' now Lago 
 d'Averno), a small, nearly circular lake in Cam- 
 pania, Italy, situated between Cumae, Puteoli, 
 and Baise. It is 1^ mile in circumference, and 
 occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. The 
 mephitic vapours arising from it were believed in 
 ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it ; 
 hence, according to some, its Greek appellation. 
 Owing to its gloomy and awful aspect, it became 
 the centre of almost all the fables of the ancients 
 respecting the world of shades. Here were 
 located Homer's entrance to the under world, 
 the Elysian fields, the grove of Hecate, and the 
 grotto of the Cumean Sibyl. 
 
 Aversa, a town of Italy, 12J miles by rail N. 
 of Naples. Pop. 23,183. 
 
 Avesnes (A-vehn'), a town in the French dep. of 
 Nord, 13 miles E. by rail of Cambrai. Pop. 5446. 
 
 Aveyron, a mountainous dep. in the south of 
 France, named from the river which runs 90 
 miles westward through it to the Tarn, a feeder 
 of tlie Garonne. Area, 3376 sq. m. : population, 
 382,000. The capital is Rodez, ' 
 
AVEZZAN6 
 
 69 
 
 AXIS0LM£ 
 
 Avezza'no, a town of South Italy, 22 miles S. 
 of Aquila. Pop. 6166. 
 
 Aviglia'no, a town of South Italy, 10 miles 
 NW. of Potenza. Pop. 12,949. 
 
 Avignon (Avenio), a city of Provence, capital 
 of the French dep. of Vaucluse, on the left bank 
 of the Rhone, 75 miles NW. of Marseilles. With 
 narrow, crooked streets, 'windy Avignon' still 
 is encircled by lofty crenellated walls (1349-68), 
 except on the north side, where the Rocher des 
 Donis rises steeply from the Rhone to a height 
 of 200 feet. Here is the cathedral, dating from 
 the 11th century, with its papal throne ; whilst 
 hard by towers the vast palace of the popes 
 (1339-64). The multitude of churches and con- 
 vents made Rabelais call Avignon la ville son- 
 nante, ' the city of bells ; ' and churches there 
 still are in plenty, though that of the Cordeliers, 
 with the tomb of Petrarch's Laura, was demolished 
 in 1791. Near the hotel-de-ville (1862) are the 
 quaint old Jacquemart belfry and a statue of 
 Crillon, Henry IV.'s brave captain ; Petrarch's 
 statue (1874) may also be noticed. The univer- 
 sity (1303) was abolished in 1794. Avignon has 
 manufactures of paper, leather, silk, iron, &c. 
 Pop. (declining) now about 34,000. Avignon was 
 the capital of the ancient Cuvares, and presents 
 many remains of the times of the Romans. In 
 the middle ages it formed, with the surrounding 
 district, a county, which the popes bought in 
 1348. They held it till 1790, when the city with 
 its district was united with France. Pope 
 Clement V. and six of his successors from 1309 
 to 1378 resided here, as also did the French anti- 
 popes (1378-1418). A little cottage was long the 
 loved retreat of John Stuart Mill, the place 
 where he died in 1873. 
 
 Av'ila, capital of a Spanish province of Avila, 
 in Old Castile, stands 3000 feet above the sea, at 
 the base of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 71 miles 
 NW. of Madrid by rail. It has a fine Gothic 
 cathedral, a Moorish castle, and massive granite 
 walls 42 feet high and 14 broad, with 86 towers 
 and 10 gateways. Its university (1482) was 
 reduced to a college in 1807. Pop. 11,809. Here 
 St Teresa was born. The province is mountain- 
 ous. Area, 2981 sq. m. ; pop. 200,500. 
 
 Aviles (anc. Flavigjiavia), a seaport of Spain, 
 close to the Bay of Biscay, 19 miles N. of Oviedo. 
 Pop. 12,145. 
 
 Aviona (Ital. Valona, anc. Aiilon), the best 
 seaport in Albania, stands on an eminence near 
 an inlet of the Adriatic, protected by the island 
 of Sasseno (anc. Saso). It carries on considerable 
 trade with Brindisi, «&c. Pop. 5000. Valonia, 
 imported hence to England for tanning, is the 
 acorn-cup of a kind of oak. Up to 1691 the town 
 belonged to the Venetians. 
 
 Avo'ca, or OvocA (Celt. ' meeting of the 
 waters '), a small river of County Wicklow, 
 formed by the union of the Avonmore and Avon- 
 beg. It runs through a very picturesque vale 
 only J mile broad, with wooded banks 300 to 
 500 feet high, and after a course of 9 miles 
 reaches the sea at Arklow. See Avondale. 
 
 Av'ola (Abolla), a seaport of Sicily, 13 miles 
 SW. of Syracuse. The famous honey of Hybla 
 comes from this neighbourhood. Pop. 12,286. 
 
 Avon (Celt, 'river' or 'stream'), the name 
 of several of the smaller British rivers. (1) The 
 Upper or Warwickshire Avon rises at Naseby 
 in Northamptonshire, runs 96 miles south-west 
 through Warwickshire and Worcestershire, pass- 
 ing Rugby, Warwick, Stratford, and Evesham, 
 
 and joins the Severn at Tewkesbury. It receives 
 several tributaries, including the Swift from 
 Lutterworth.— (2) The Lower or Bristol Avon 
 rises in north-west Wiltshire, and runs 70 miles, 
 first south in Wiltshire, and then west and north- 
 west between Gloucestershire and Somerset, 
 passing Bradford, Bath, and Bristol, to the 
 Bristol Channel. It is navigable for large vessels 
 up to Bristol. — (3) The Wiltshire and Hampshire 
 or East Avon rises in the middle of Wiltshire, 
 and runs south 70 miles through Wiltshire and 
 Hampshire, passing Amesbury, Salisbury, and 
 Ringwood, and entering the English Channel 
 at Christchurch. It is navigable up to Salisbury. 
 In Wales, two rivers named Avon — one rising 
 in Monmouthshire, the other in Glamorganshire 
 — fall into Swansea Bay. In Scotland there are 
 several of the same name, affluents of the Spey, 
 Clyde, and Forth. See also A'an. 
 
 Avondale, the Wicklow seat of the late Mr 
 C. S. Parnell, on the Avonmore, 1 mile S. of 
 Rathdrum. 
 
 Avonmouth, in Gloucestershire, at the mouth 
 of the Avon, 6 miles NW. of Bristol, has a pier 
 and extensive docks (1879), constructed at a cost 
 of £600,000. 
 
 Avranches {Av-ron^sh'), a French town in 
 the dep. of Manche, on the left bank of the 
 See, near its mouth in St Michel's Bay, 37 miles 
 E. of St Malo by rail. Till 1801 a bishop's seat, 
 its former cathedral was built in the 18th 
 century on the site of a cathedral consecrated 
 in 1121, in which Henry II. received absolution 
 for Becket's murder. Pop. 7764. 
 
 Awbeg, a river of Cork, flowing 30 miles to 
 the Blackwater. 
 
 Awe, Loch, an Argyllshire lake, with Loch 
 Awe station and hotel near its foot, 22 miles E. 
 of Oban. Lying 118 feet above sea-level, it 
 extends 22J miles north-eastward, is from 3 fur- 
 longs to 3^ miles broad, covers 15^ sq. m., and 
 has a maximum depth of 102 feet. The scenery 
 is most striking at the north-east end— originally 
 the head — of the lake, where the water is studded 
 with numerous wooded islets, overshadowed by 
 towering and rugged mountains, the chief Ben 
 Cruachan (3689 feet). On a rocky peninsula, 
 in the north end of the lake, stands Kilchurn 
 Castle, once a fortress of great strength, built 
 about 1440 by Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy. 
 The waters of the lake are carried off at its 
 north-west end by the brawling river Awe, which, 
 after a course of 5 miles, enters Loch Etive at 
 Bunawe. The magnificent 'Pass of Brander,' 
 through which the road and railway run beneath 
 the shoulder of Ben Cruachan, was the scene of 
 a conflict in 1308 between Robert the Bruce and 
 the Macdougals of Lorn, in which that clan was 
 all but exterminated. At the north-east end of 
 the loch it receives the waters of the Orchy and 
 Strae. 
 
 Ax, a town in the French dep. of Ari^ge, at 
 the foot of the Pyrenees, 74 miles SSE. of 
 Toulouse. Pop. 1233. Its 80 hot sulphur-springs 
 range in temperature from 77° to 172" F. 
 
 Axbridge, a Somerset village, 10 miles NW. of 
 Wells. Pop. of parish, 732. 
 
 Axe, two rivers of Somerset and of Dorset and 
 Devon, flowing the one 25 miles to the Bristol 
 Channel, the other 21 to the English Channel. 
 
 Axholme, Isle of, a low level tract of North- 
 west Lincolnshire, cut off by the Trent from the 
 rest of the county. Measuring 18 by 5 miles, it 
 was anciently a forest, and then a marsh, which 
 
AXnt 70 
 
 WM draineti into the Trent in 1625 and succeed- 
 ing years by Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman, 
 at a cost of £66,000. Epworth here was the 
 home of the Wesleys. 
 
 Azlm, an important station and port on the 
 Gold Coast, a little B. of the mouth of the 
 Ancobrah lliver. 
 
 Ax'minster, a town of Devonshire, on the 
 Axe, 27 miles B. of Bxet«r by rail. From 1755 
 till 1836 Axminster was famous for the manu- 
 facture of Turkey and Persian carpets. Dr 
 Buckland was a native. Pop. of parish, 2909. 
 See Pulman's Book of the Axe (1875). 
 
 Azmouth, a Devon Ashing village, 6 miles 
 SSW. of Axminster. Pop. 615. 
 
 Axum, once capital of an Ethiopian kingdom, 
 is now in the modern Abyssinian province of 
 Tigre, and lies mainly in ruins. Pop. 5000. See 
 a monograph on it by J. T. Bent (1893). 
 
 Ayaou'oho (formerly Huamanga or Guamanga), 
 a town of Peru, 220 miles ESB. of Lima. Founded 
 by Pizarro in 1539, it is now a handsome and 
 thriving town. Here, on 9th December 1824, 
 the combined forces of Peru and Colombia totally 
 defeated the last Spanish army that ever set 
 foot on the continent. Pop. 20,000.— The dep. of 
 Ayacucho has an area of about 20,000 sq. m., and 
 a pop. of upwards of 300,000. 
 
 Ayamon'te, a fortified town in the Spanish 
 province of Huelva, Andalusia, on the Guadiana, 
 near its mouth. Pop. 6511. 
 
 Ayasaluk, a village on the site of the ancient 
 Ephesus (q.v.), 
 
 Aylesbury, the chief town of Buckingham- 
 shire, in a fertile vale, on a rivulet flowing to the 
 Tame, 43^ miles NW. of London. Among its 
 buildings are the cruciform parish church, finely 
 restored by Sir G. G. Scott (1849-67), the corn 
 exchange and markets (1865), and the county 
 infirmary (1862). The inhabitants are engaged 
 in making bone-lace and straw-plait, in brewing, 
 dairying, and rearing fat ducks for the London 
 markets. Aylesbury was taken from the Britons 
 by the Saxons in 571. Till 1885 it formed with 
 its hundred a parliamentary borough, returning 
 two members. Pop. (1841) 5429 ; (1901) 9244. 
 
 Aylesford, a village near the centre of Kent, 
 on the right bank of the Medway, 3J miles NW. 
 of Maidstone. Remarkable ancient remains are 
 found here, including the cromlech called Kits 
 Coity House (q.v.). Pop. of parish, 2647. 
 
 Ayr, the county town of Ayrshire, at the 
 mouth of the river Ayr, 40^ miles SSW. of 
 Glasgow by rail. The Town's Buildings, with 
 a spire 226 feet high, were erected in 1828, and 
 greatly enlarged in 1881. The so-called ' Wallace 
 Tower* is a Gothic edifice of 1834, 113 feet high. 
 There are also the County Buildings, modelled 
 after the temple of Isis in Rome, the Academy 
 (founded 1764; new building, 1880), and the 
 Carnegie library (1893). Three bridges span the 
 nver, and connect Ayr proper with Newtou- 
 upon-Ayr and Wallacetown— a railway viaduct 
 and the 'Twa Brigs' of Burns. Of these the 
 narrow four-arched 'Auld Brig' dates probably 
 from the end of the 15th century, and the ' New 
 Brig (1788) was rebuilt in 1879. There are 
 statues of General Smith Neill, the thirteenth 
 Earl of Eglmton, and Burns. Part of the tower 
 of the old church of St John, built in the 12th 
 century, and turned into a fort by Cromwell, is 
 still standing, and now forms, with additions, a 
 dwelling-house. Harbour improvements, includ- 
 ing a wet dock and slip dock, have been carried 
 
 AZERfilJAN 
 
 out since 1874 at a cost of over £150,000. The 
 tonnage of vessels entering the port has in- 
 creased in seventeen years from 140,000 to 
 345,000. The chief export is coal ; grain and 
 timber are imported ; and there are manufactures 
 of lace and woollen fabrics, carpets, large saw- 
 mills, &c. A splendid new water-supply, drawn 
 from Loch Finlas, 20 miles distant, was intro- 
 duced in 1887. William the Lion made Ayr a 
 royal burgh about 1200 ; and it unites with 
 Campbeltown, Irvine, Inveraray, and Oban in 
 sending a member to parliament. Pop. (1841) 
 15,749 ; (1861) 18,573 ; (1901) 28,697. 
 
 Ayrshire, a large maritime county in the SW. 
 of Scotland, washed on the W. by the Firth of 
 Clyde and the North Channel. Its greatest 
 length is 78 miles ; its greatest breadth, 28 ; and 
 its area is 1149 sq. m., it being seventh in size of 
 the Scottish counties. The general aspect of 
 the county is undulating ; Shalloch on Minnoch 
 (2520 feet) in the S. is the highest summit ; Loch 
 Doon (5| X I mile) is much the largest of several 
 fresh-water lakes ; and the chief rivers— only 20 
 to 38 miles long— are the Ayr, the ' bonny ' Doon, 
 the Garnock, the Irvine, the Girvan, and the 
 Stinohar in the south, with the first 16 miles of 
 the Nith. Ayrshire is rich in valuable minerals, 
 especially coal, ironstone, limestone, and free- 
 stone. The three ancient divisions of the county 
 are— Carrick, south of the Doon, mostly wild and 
 hilly; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, 
 containing much rich level land ; and Cunning- 
 hame, comprising all the country north of the 
 Irvine, mostly fertile. The percentage of culti- 
 vated area is 43-2. Dairy-husbandry is carried 
 to high perfection. The Dunlop cheese, almost 
 as celebrated as Stilton, since 1855 has been 
 almost superseded by Cheddar. Manufactures, 
 especially woollen and cotton, are largely carried 
 on to an important extent. Pop. (1801) 84 207 • 
 (1881) 217,504 ; (1901) 254,468. Ayrshire returns 
 two jueinbers to parliament. The chief towns 
 are Ayr, Kilmarnock, Girvan, Maybole, Dairy, 
 Kilwinning, Beith, Irvine, Stewarton, Old Cum- 
 nock, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Troon, Mauchline, 
 Galston, Newmilns, Kilbirnie, and Largs. Of 
 antiquities, the most interesting are the ruins 
 of Crossraguel and Kilwinning Abbeys ; of ' Allo- 
 way's haunted kirk," with the ' auld clay biggin ' 
 Burns's birthplace, hard by ; and of the castles 
 of Turnberry (the family seat of Bruce), Dunure, 
 Loch Doon, Dean, Dundonald, &c. It contains 
 the battlefields of Largs and Loudon Hill ; and 
 during the religious persecutions of the Stuarts, 
 It was a stronghold of the Covenanters. See 
 works by J. Paterson (2 vols. 1847-52), and A- 
 Millar (1885). 
 
 Ayton, a Berwickshire village, 7i miles NW. 
 of Berwick-upon-Tweed. Pop. 603. 
 
 Ayuthia, the former capital of Siam, on the 
 Menani 50 miles N. of Bangkok. Founded in 
 1357, It was sacked and half destroyed by the 
 Burmese in 1767. Among its magnificent but 
 ruinous buildings are Buddhist temples, especi- 
 ally the Golden Mount,' 400 feet high. 
 
 n^f^^%^^^- C^zam's Fort'), a town in the 
 United Provinces of India, on the river Tons. 
 81 niiles N of Benares. It was founded in 1665 
 by Azain Khan. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Azerbijan' or Aderbauan, the ancient Media 
 Atropatene, the north-western province of Persia. 
 
 5ow 0^ Thf ^^^S^^'^^ '^- '"•' ^""'^ '"^ P°P- °' 
 Auwooo. Ihe surface is very mountainous, 
 
 Savalan (an extinct volcano), near Ardebil. 
 
 reaching over 13,000 feet; whilst Mount Ararai 
 
AZmCOURf 
 
 71 
 
 BABYLONIA 
 
 rises on the north-west border. The cliief rivers 
 are the Aras or Araxes, the Kara Su, and the 
 Kizil-Uzen. The salt lake Urmia (q.v.), the 
 largest in Persia, is near the western border. 
 Towns are Tabriz (the capital) and Urmia. 
 
 Azincourt. See Agincourt. 
 
 Azo'res, or Western Islands, a Portuguese 
 archipelago in the mid-Atlantic, in 36° 55' — 
 39° 55' N. lat. and 25° 10'— 31° 16' W. long. 
 Stretching over a distance of 400 miles, their 
 nine islands are divided into three distinct 
 groups— Sta Maria and Sao Miguel in the SE. ; 
 Terceira, Sao Jorge, Pico, Graciosa, and Fayal in 
 the middle ; and Flores and Corvo in the NW. 
 Of these, Flores lies 1176 miles W. of Cape Rocca 
 in Portugal, 1484 SW. of Falmouth, and 1708 
 ESB. of Halifax. In 1431-53 the Azores were 
 taken possession of by the Portuguese. They 
 were then uninhabited ; but Punic coins have 
 been found on Corvo. The Portuguese called 
 them Azores, from agor or azor, a hawk or kite, 
 found in numbers on the islands. Their total 
 area is 919 sq. m., and the pop. 257,000. The 
 area, population, and the maximum altitude 
 of the different islands are as follows : Sta Maria 
 (38 sq. m. ; 5880 ; 1889 feet) ; Sao Miguel (299 sq. 
 m. ; 107,000 ; 3854 feet) ; Terceira (164 sq. m. ; 
 45,391 ; 3435 feet) ; Graciosa (24 sq. m. ; 8718) ; 
 Sao Jorge (91 sq. m. ; 18,000) ; Pico (173 sq. m. ; 
 27,904 ; 7613 feet) ; Fayal (69 sq. m. ; 26,264) ; 
 Flores (54 sq. m. ; 10,700 ; 3087 feet) ; Corvo (7 
 sq. m.; 1000). The capital is Angra, in Terceira ; 
 but Ponta Delgada, in Sao Miguel, is a larger 
 town, being counted ' the third city of Portugal ' 
 (pop. 18,000). The Azores are of volcanic origin, 
 and with the exception of Corvo, Flores, and 
 Graciosa, are still liable to eruptions and violent 
 earthquakes, the worst of twenty-one shocks 
 since 1444 having been those of 1591, 1638, 1719, 
 and 1841. Hot mineral springs are numerous. 
 The coast is generally steep and rugged; the 
 
 interior abounds in ravines and mountains. 
 Oranges are the chief article of export. The 
 climate is extremely moist, but equable ; and 
 though the islands are exposed to severe storms 
 of wind and rain, some of them are visited as 
 winter health-resorts, especially by Americans. 
 The Azores are regarded as a province, not a 
 colony, of Portugal, and as belonging to Europe. 
 See works by Godman (1870), W. F. Walker (1886), 
 and Roundell (1889). 
 
 Azo'tus. See Ashdod. 
 
 Azov, a town in the south of Russia, on the 
 left bank of the Don, 7 miles from its mouth. Spite 
 of the silting of the harbour, tliere is a large export 
 of grain, with fishing and fish-curing. Pop. 27,500. 
 
 Azov, Sea of, named after the town, is a large 
 gulf of the Black Sea, formed by the Crimean 
 peninsula, or rather an inland lake connected 
 with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale or 
 Kertch (anc. Bosporus Cimmerius), 28 miles long, 
 and barely 4 wide at the narroAvest. The intri- 
 cate Si wash or Putrid Sea, which is just a succes- 
 sion of swamps, is cut off from the western 
 portion of the Sea of Azov by the long narrow 
 slip of low sandy land called the Peninsula of 
 Arabat. The ancient name of the Sea of Azov 
 was Pubis Mceotis or 'Mseotic Marsh;' by the 
 Turks it is called Balik-Denghis, or 'Fish Sea,' 
 from its abundance of fish. The water is almost 
 fresh. The whole sea is shallow, from 3 to 52 
 feet deep ; and measuring 235 by 110 miles, it 
 occupies an area of 14,500 sq. m. The largest 
 river emptying into it is the Don. 
 
 Azi>eiUa,(Ath-pay'e-te-a), a town in the Spanish 
 prov. Guipuzcoa, on the Urola, 18 miles SW. of 
 San Sebastian. A mile from it is the famous con- 
 vent of Loyola (1683), now converted into a mus- 
 eum. It comprises a tower of the Santa Casa, in 
 which St Ignatius of Loyola, the great founder 
 of the Jesuits, was born in 1491. Pop. 6548. 
 
 AALBEK, a ruined city of Syria, 35 
 miles NNW. of Damascus, and 38 SSE. 
 of Tripoli. The name signifies ' City 
 of Baal,' the Sun-god, and was by the 
 Greeks, during the Seleucide dynasty, 
 converted into Heliopolis. Baalbek lies 4500 
 feet above sea-level, at the opening of a small 
 valley into the plain of El-Buka'a (Coele-Syria), 
 on the lowest slope of Anti-Lebanon. It was 
 once the naost magnificent of Syrian cities, full 
 of palaces, fountains, and beautiful monuments ; 
 now it is famous only for the splendour of its 
 ruins— the Great Temple, a Corinthian edifice, 
 surmounting a Cyclopean substruction or plat- 
 form ; the Temple of Jupiter, larger than the 
 Parthenon at Athens ; and a circular building, 
 supported on six granite columns. From the 
 earliest times a chief seat of sun-worship, Baal- 
 bek was completely pillaged by Timur Beg in 
 1400 ; and its destruction Avas completed by a 
 terrible earthquake in 1759. It is now a wretched 
 village, with some few hundred inhabitants. See 
 ■works by Wood and Dawkins (1757), Renan (1864), 
 and Frauberger (1891). 
 
 Baba, Cape (Gr. Ledum), a bold rocky head- 
 land near the western point of Anatolia, 12 miles 
 from the northern extremity of Mitylene. The 
 town of Baba here has a pop. of 4000. 
 
 Babatag, or Babadagh, a town of 7000 inhab- 
 itants, in the Roumanian Dobrudja, 2i miles W. 
 Of Lake Razim. 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb (i.e. 'the gate of tears'), the 
 strait between Arabia and the continent of Africa, 
 by which the Red Sea is connected with the GiJf 
 of Aden and the Indian Ocean. The Arabian 
 peninsula here throws out a cape, bearing the 
 same name as the strait, and 865 feet high, 20 
 miles distant from which the wall-like coast of 
 Africa rises in Ras es Sean to over 400 feet. 
 AVithin the straits, but nearer to Arabia, lies the 
 bare rocky island of Perim (q.v.), since 1857 
 occupied by the British as a fort. 
 
 Bablock Hythe, a ferry over the Isis or 
 Thames, 4 miles WSW. of Oxford. 
 
 Babylonia {Babilu in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions, Babirush in the Persian) was the name 
 given by the Greeks, and after them the Romans, 
 to the low alluvial plain watered by the lower 
 streams of the Tigris and Euphrates, now form- 
 ing the modern Arab province of Irak-Arabi. In 
 the Old Testament it bears the various names of 
 Shinar, Babel, and 'the land of the Chaldees.* 
 For thousands of years before the Christian era 
 it was the seat of a special type of civilisation ; 
 the earliest inhabitants we know of were Sumeri- 
 ans and Akkadians, both probably belonging to 
 the Ugro-Finnic branch of the Turanian races. 
 Subsequently, Semitic tribes settled in the 
 country. After long Avars Avith the neighbouring 
 power, Assyria, Babylonia was conquered in 729 
 B.C. by the Assyrians, and in 712-705 Babylonia 
 became an Assyrian province. In 625 Nabo- 
 
kACCHIOLIONE V2 
 
 iMlassar rebelle<l and became an independent 
 king, and was succeeded by his son Nebuchad- 
 neuar. And henceforwarti Babylonia was a 
 ■epante state till 638, when it was conquered 
 by Cvrus and boc«nio a Torsian province. For 
 the site of the city of Babylon, see Hillah. 
 
 Bacchlgllone ( link -ked-yo' nay), a river of N. 
 Italy, rising in the Alps, and flowing 90 miles 
 south-eastward, to the Adriatic near Chioggia. 
 
 Baoharach (Bahh'a-rahh), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, qn the Rhine, 30 miles SE. of Coblenz. 
 Pop. 1840. Its name is said to be a corruption of 
 Baochi am ('Bacchus' altar'), and the vine is 
 still largely cultivated. Here Bliicher crossed 
 the Rliine, January 1, 1814. 
 Backergunge. See Bakerganj. 
 Bacolor, a town of the island of Luzon, Philip- 
 pines, 10 miles NW. from Manila. Pop. 9737. 
 
 Baotrla, a province of the ancient Persian 
 empire, lying north of the Paropamisus (Hindu 
 Kush) Mountains, on the Upper Oxus. 
 
 Ba'cup, a town of I>ancashire, on the Spodden 
 rivulet, 19J miles N. by E. of Manchester by rail. 
 Constituted a municipal borough in 1882, it has 
 8 mechanics' institute (1846, enlarged 1870), a 
 market-hall (1867), a very large co-operative store 
 that cost £22,000, &c. Cotton-spinning and 
 powerloom-weaving are the staple industries ; 
 and there are also dye-works, brass and iron 
 foundries, and neighbouring coal-pits and vast 
 stone quarries. Pop. (1798) 1426; (1871) 17,199; 
 (1881) 25,033 ; (1891) 23,498 ; (1901) 22,505. 
 
 Badagry, a small British port on the Slave 
 Coast, Upper Guinea, long a great slaving port, 
 with 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Badajoz (Bad-a-joz/ ; Spanish pron. Badh-a- 
 Tihoath'), capital of a Spanish province, is built 
 on a slight hill crowned by a Moorish castle, 
 on the Guadiana, crossed here by a stone bridge 
 of 28 arches. It is 5 miles from the Port- 
 uguese frontier, 174 miles from Lisbon, and 315 
 from Madrid by rail. Badajoz is a fortress of 
 the lirst rank, and has an old cathedral built 
 like a fortress, with a splendid organ. Its chief 
 articles of manufacture are hats, soap, coarse 
 woollens, leather, and pottery. Pop. (1900) 
 80,900. Bada,joz was the Pax Augusta of the 
 Romans, the Bax Angos, Bathaljus of the Moors. 
 As one of the keys of Portugal, it has often been 
 besieged— twice in vain by the British in 1811, 
 but was stonned by Wellington in 1812, after a 
 most murderous resistance by the French, and 
 delivered up to pillage for two days. The pro- 
 vince has an area of 8C87 sq. m., and a pop. of 
 (1900) 520,246. 
 
 Badakhshan', a territory of Central Asia, 
 lymg m 36°— 38° N. lat, and 69°— 72° E. lon<^ 
 with the chain of the Hindu Kush on the S., and 
 the Oxus, or Amu Darya, on the N. It is drained 
 by the Kokcha, a head-stream of that river, and 
 18 famous throughout the East as a picturesque 
 hill-country diversified with woods, rich pasture, 
 and fertile, well-cultivated valleys, its surface 
 varying from 500 to 15,600 feet above sea-level. 
 
 «H^^f ^/V-;L'H^® ^'''P^^^l- The inhabitants, 
 estimated at 100,000, are largely Tajiks, an Aryan 
 race speaking Persian, and Mohammedans. 
 f.,r J"^^^ '^T'^" ^"^"^ (1871); Wood's Journey 
 lotM Source of the 0ms (new ed. 1872) ; and Vam- 
 b^ry s Central Asia (1874). 
 
 Badalona, a Spanish seaport, 5 miles NE. of 
 Barcelona. Pop. 19,885. 
 
 Baden (M^-dea), a grand-duchy in the SW. 
 corner of the German empire between Alsace- 
 
 BADEN BEI WIEJ^f 
 
 Lorraine and Wiirtemberg, separated from Swit' 
 zerland by the Rhine. Area, 5824 sq. m., less 
 than Yorkshire ; pop. (1900) 1,867,944, mainly 
 Catholics. The Schwarzwald, or Black Forest 
 (q.v.), attains a maximum altitude of 4903 feet. 
 Being drained by the Rhine and the Danube, 
 Baden belongs to the basins of two opposite 
 seas ; the sources of the Danube, however, drain 
 only some 350 sq. ra. The Rhine's chief tribu- 
 taries are the Neckar, Murg, and Elz. On the 
 north-east the Baden territories are bounded by 
 the Maine. Except a part of the Lake of Con- 
 stance, Baden has no lake of importance. The 
 Rhine Valley of Baden is one of the warmest and 
 most fruitful districts, not only of Germany, but 
 of Europe. Grain, vegetables of all sorts, tobacco, 
 hemp, rape, opium, &c. are grown, and a large 
 quantity of Avine is produced. The principal 
 minerals are the products of the limestone 
 quarries and of the clay and gravel pits, and 
 gypsum, largely used for pavements. Coal, zinc, 
 and manganese are found, and the production of 
 salt and soda is important. Baden is rich in 
 mineral springs ; and there are a great number 
 of much-frequented watering-places, as Baden- 
 Baden, Badenweiler, &c. 
 
 The manufactures of Baden include ribbons 
 and cotton fabrics, paper, leather, rubber goods, 
 chemicals, machinery, tobacco, chicory, sugar, 
 beer, trinkets, mirrors, Avooden clocks, and straw- 
 plaiting. Karlsruhe is the residence of the 
 sovereign ; the capitals of the four ' circles ' are 
 Constance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and Mannheim ; 
 and besides, there are two towns each with a 
 population above 20,000. 
 
 Baden, a town and fashionable watering-place 
 in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on the Linimat, 
 14 miles NW. of ZUrich by rail. Its sulphur- 
 baths, the Thermce Helvetica of the Romans, 
 yearly attract some 20,000 visitors. Their tem- 
 perature is as high as 117" F. Pop. 6692. 
 
 Baden-Baden, a town in the grand-duchy of 
 Baden, situated in the pleasant valley of the Oos, 
 at the edge of the Black Forest, 8 miles from the 
 Rhine, and 23 SSW. of KarLsruhe by rail. Pop. 
 above 16,000 ; but its visitors during the season 
 (May— September) are often four times the num- 
 ber of the settled population. Its thirteen 
 medicinal springs were known to 'the Romans. 
 They have a temperature of 115° to 150° F., are 
 impregnated with iron, magnesia, lime, and sul- 
 phuric and carbonic acids, and are especially 
 recommended in chronic cutaneous diseases, gout, 
 rheumatism, and stomach complaints. The beauty 
 of Baden-Baden has been largely due to its gam- 
 ing-tables, once the most renowned in Europe, 
 but closed in 1872 ; besides paying a rent of over 
 £14,000, they devoted a like sum yearly to the 
 beautifying of the promenades and public gardens. 
 The buildings include the Conversationshaus 
 (1824) ; the new Trinkhalle, or pump-room (1842) ; 
 the theatre (1862) ; the Friedrichsbad (1877) ; the 
 villa occupied by Queen Victoria in 1872 and 
 1876 ; the ruined ' old castle ' crowning the Schloss- 
 berg ; and the ' new castle ' (1479), destroyed, like 
 the old, by the French in 1689, but restored, and 
 now the summer residence of the grand-duke. 
 
 Baden bei Wien (i.e. 'Baden near Vienna;' 
 Bah-dea bl Veane), a watering-place of Austria, on 
 the Schwechat, 17 miles S. by W. of Vienna by 
 rail _ It was the Aquce Pannonicce of the Romans, 
 and IS still famous for its warm mineral springs, 
 V^^,^-?^^^® visited during the season by upwards 
 ot 10,000 persons. They are sulphurous, with 
 much carbonic acid gas, have a temperature of 
 
feADENOCH 
 
 ^3 
 
 BAGSHOT HEATtf 
 
 79° to 104° F., and are good for skin diseases, 
 gout, and rheumatism. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Ba'denoch, a Highland district in the south- 
 east part of Inverness-shire, 45 miles long by 19 
 broad, bounded by Lochaber, Athole, Braemar, 
 and Moray, and traversed by the Spey. 
 
 Badenweiler, a Black Forest watering-place in 
 the SW. corner of Baden, 20 miles NNE. ofBasel ; 
 frequented yearly by some 5000 visitors. 
 
 Badghis, a region north of Herat, comprising 
 the country between the Murghab and the Hari- 
 rud rivers, as far northward as the edge of the 
 desert. It lies just to the south of the boundary 
 line between Afghanistan and the Russian terri- 
 tories, as defined in 1887. 
 
 Badminton, the seat of the Duke of Beaufort, 
 in the south of Gloucestershire, 7 miles E. of 
 Yate Junction. It is a stately Palladian edifice 
 of 1682, with a fine park. 
 
 Badrlnath, a peak of the main Himalayan 
 range, Garhwal district, North-western Pro- 
 vinces, India, 22,901 feet above the sea. A shrine 
 of Vishnu stands on one of its shoulders at a 
 height of 10,400 feet, 56 miles NE. of Srinagar. 
 
 Baena, a Spanish town 25 miles SSE. of Cor- 
 dova. Pop. 14,801. 
 
 Baeza, a town of Spain, in the province of 
 Jaen, 9 miles froni Baeza station, this being 160 
 S. of Madrid. The Roman Beatia, and the seat 
 of Moorish califs, with 150,000 inhabitants, it 
 never fairly recovered from its sack by the 
 Castilians in 1228. Here are a quondam uni- 
 versity (1533) and the oratory of St Philip de 
 Neri. Pop. 15,430. 
 
 Baffin Bay, a gulf, or rather sea, on the NE. 
 coast of North America, extending betAveen 
 Greenland and the great islands NE. of Hudson 
 Bay (one of which is called Baffin Island), in 69° 
 to 78° N. hit. It is about 800 miles long, with an 
 average breadth of 280. The shores are lofty and 
 precipitous, backed by snow-clad mountains. 
 Baffin Bay communicates with the Atlantic by 
 Davis Strait ; and with the Arctic Ocean by 
 Smith and Lancaster Sounds. Discovered in 
 1562, it was first explored in 1615 by William 
 Baffin, pilot of Bylot's expedition. 
 
 Bagamoyo, a village on the coast of German 
 East Africa, opposite the island of Zanzibar, a 
 frequent starting point of expeditions to the 
 interior. 
 
 Bagdad, or Baghdad, the capital of a pro- 
 vince of Asiatic Turkey, on the Tigris, 500 
 miles from its mouth. It is surrounded by a 
 brick wall, 5 miles in circumference, and 40 feet 
 high, but in some places broken down, and by a 
 deep dry ditch ; the river is spanned by a bridge 
 of boats, 220 yards long, and the communication 
 is guarded by a citadel. There are four gates, 
 the finest of which, bearing date 1220, has re- 
 mained closed since 1638. Bagdad has an ex- 
 tremely picturesque appearance from the outside, 
 being encircled and interspersed with groves of 
 date-trees, through which one may catch the 
 gleam of domes and minarets ; but it does not 
 improve on closer inspection. The bazaars 
 exhibit the produce of both TurP.ish and Euro- 
 pean markets ; but commerce has greatly de- 
 creased since Persia began to trade with Europe 
 by way of Trebizond, or of the Persian Gulf on 
 the south. Nevertheless Bagdad still carries on 
 a considerable traffic with Aleppo and Damascus, 
 and has manufactures of red and yellow leather, 
 silks, and cotton stuffs. Dates, wool, grain, and 
 timbac (a substitute for tobacco) are exported, 
 
 and a number of horses are sent into India. Ot 
 the population, estimated at 180,000, the greatest 
 part are Turks and Arabs. In 1831 an inundation 
 destroyed one-half of the town and several 
 thousand lives. Cholera visits it periodically; 
 in 1831, 4000 people perished daily for several 
 days from its ravages. In 1870-71 Bagdad also 
 suffered severely from famine. Since 1836, British 
 steamers have plied on the Tigris between Bagdad 
 and Basra ; and here is one of the chief stations 
 of the Anglo-Indian telegraph. 
 
 Bagdad in the 9th century was greatly enlarged 
 by Haroun Al-Raschid, and under his son, Al- 
 Mamun, it became the great seat of Arabic learn- 
 ing and literature. It was conquered by the 
 sultan, Murad IV., in 1638, and ever since has 
 been under the sway of the Porte. The province 
 of Bagdad, comprising great part of the lower 
 basins of the Euphrates and Tigris, falls into the 
 vilayets of Bagdad (pop. 850,000), Mosul (350,000), 
 and Basra (200,000). 
 
 Bagenalstown, a market-town on the Barrow, 
 in the county, and 10 miles S. of the town of 
 Car low. Pop. 1900. 
 
 Baghal, or Bhagul, a Puryab hill-state in 
 North-west India, on the south bank of the 
 Sutlej. Area, 124 sq. m. ; pop. 24,633. 
 
 Baghelkhand, the name of five native states, 
 under the i^olitical superintendence of the 
 governor-general's agent for Central India, lying 
 to the south of the districts of Mirzapur and 
 Allahabad. The total area is 11,324 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 1,562,595. 
 
 Bagheria, or Bagaria, a town of Sicily, 8 
 miles E. by S. of Palermo by rail. Pop. 12,650. 
 
 Baghlstan. See Behistun. 
 
 Baglrmi, or Baohermi, a country in Central 
 Africa, bounded on the W. by Bornu and a por- 
 tion of Lake Tsad. Its area is estimated at 
 nearly 71,000 sq. m. ; its pop. at 1,500,000. The 
 capital is Masena. 
 
 Bagnacavallo (Ban-ya-ca-val'lo), a cathedral 
 city of Italy, 11 miles W. of Ravenna. Pop. 3843. 
 
 Bagnara {Ban-yah'ra), an Italian coast-town, 
 16 miles NE. of Reggio. Pop. 9749. 
 
 Bagneres (Ban-yehr'), two watering-places both 
 in the Pyrenees, France.— (1) Bagneres de 
 BiGORRE, on the Adour, in the dep. of Hautes 
 Pyrenees, 1820 feet above sea-level, 13 miles SE. 
 of Tarbes by rail. Known to the Romans aa 
 Vicus Aquensis Balnearies or Aquce Bigerrorum, 
 it now is visited by 20,000 strangers yearly, and 
 has fourteen baths and over fifty springs (90° to 
 135° F.), recommended for catarrhal and nervous 
 diseases. Pop. 6986.— (2) BAGNfeRES de Luchon, 
 in the dep. of Haute Garonne, 43 miles by road 
 SB. of Bagneres de Bigorre, and 22 by rail S. 
 of Montrejeau Junction. Its cold, tepid, and 
 hot sulphurous waters (up to 130° F.) are recom- 
 mended in rheumatism, gout, cutaneous dis- 
 eases, and paralysis, and attract 10,000 visitors 
 annually. Pop. 3585. 
 
 Bagni di Lucca (Ban'yee dee Look'ka), a bath- 
 ing-place of Italy, 17 miles N. of Lucca, and has 
 hot springs of from 96' to 136° F. Pop. 900. 
 
 Bagno a Ripoli (Ban'yo ah Rip'olee), an Italian 
 village, 5 miles from Florence, containing baths. 
 
 Bagno in Romagna (Ban'yo in Romdn'ya), an 
 Italian bathing-place, on the Savio, 35 miles E. 
 by N. of Florence. It has hot springs of tem- 
 perature 108°-110° F. Pop. 1875. 
 
 Bagshot Heath, near Windlesham in Berk- 
 
fiAHAMAd 
 
 U 
 
 Bhire and Surrey, is a tract of nearly 50 sq. m., 
 463 feet above sea-level. 
 
 Baha'mas, or Lucayo3 (Span. Los Cayos), a 
 chain of British West Indian islands, stretching 
 nearly 600 miles north-westward from near the 
 north coast of Hayti to the east coast of Florida. 
 The chain extends in N. lat. from 21* 42' to 27 
 S4', and in W. long, from 72° 40' to 79° 5'. There 
 are 20 larger islands, G53 islets or cays, and 2387 
 reefs. The chief members of the group, if 
 reckoned from the NW., are: Great Bahama, 
 Abaco, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Cat 
 Island, San Salvador or Watling's Island, Exuma, 
 Ix)ng Island, Crooked Island, Acklin, Manguana, 
 Inagua, Little Inagua. The Caicos (q.v.) and 
 Turk's Island, which geographically belong to 
 the Bahamas, have since 1848 been politically 
 annexed to Jamaica. 
 
 The area is 5390 sq. m. ; and in 1900 the popula- 
 tion was 53,565, of whom about 6500 are Euro- 
 peans. Of coralline formation, the islands gener- 
 ally are of reef-like shape, long, narrow, and 
 low, the highest hill not exceeding 230 feet. 
 With very little appearance of soil, they derive 
 considerable fertility from the tendency of the 
 porous rock to retain moisture. Sponges are 
 tergely found round the shores. Cotton cultiva- 
 tion received a great impulse during the American 
 civil war. The sugar-cane, too, is grown more 
 largely than formerly ; but the salt manufacture 
 has ceased to be remunerative. The tempera- 
 ture ranges from 57° to 113° F. ; but in the winter 
 the climate is so delightfully temperate as to be 
 often recommended in the United States to 
 sufferers from pulmonary complaints. The 
 annual rainfall is from 43 to 45 inches. In 1866 
 and 1883 the Bahamas were visited by furious 
 and destructive cyclones. 
 
 The Bahamas, Columbus's earliest discovery 
 (1492), were occupied in 1629 by the English, 
 to whom, after various vicissitudes of fortune 
 in the wars with Spain and France, they were 
 ultimately secured by the peace of Versailles 
 (1783). Nassau, in New Providence, is the seat 
 of government. During the American civil war, 
 Nassau became the station for blockade-runners, 
 and thence derived unexampled prosperity ; the 
 value of imports and exports rising from £234,029 
 and £157,350 in 1860, to £5,346,112 and £4,672,398 
 in 1864. They have greatly declined since ; their 
 present annual value, on a four years' average, 
 being £325,000 and £200,000. So far, however, 
 as agriculture is concerned, the impulse then 
 received has been maintained by the Bahamas. 
 Both Baptists and Wesleyans are nearly twice 
 as numerous as members of the Church of Eng- 
 land, which was disestablished in 1869. See 
 works by Bacot (2d ed. 1871) and Powles (1888). 
 Bahar. See Behar. 
 
 Bahawalpur, capital of an Indian native state 
 in political connection with the Punjab, lies 
 near the left bank of the Sutlej, which here is 
 crossed by the fine ' Empress ' railway bridge. It 
 has manufactures of scarfs, turbans, silks, and 
 chintzes. Pop. 13,635. Area of the state, 17,285 
 sq. in. ; pop. 750,042. 
 
 Bahia {M-ee'a), capital of a Brazilian province, 
 next to Rio de Janeiro the largest city of the 
 republic, on a range of hills along the sea-shore. 
 The bay, which is one of the finest in America, is 
 defended by forts, with the island of Itaparica 
 sheltering the entrance. Bahia has a university, 
 and is the seat of an archbishop, who is primate 
 of Brazil. The chief exports are sugar, cotton, 
 coffee, tobacco, rice, &c. Bahia is the oldest 
 
 Baikal 
 
 city in Brazil, and till 1763 was the capital. 
 The bay was discovered by Ameiigo Vespucci 
 ill 1503, and the city was founded by a Portu- 
 guese navigator named Correa in 1510. Pop. 
 180,000. —The province has an area of 164,502 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,950,000. 
 
 Bahia Blanca, a growing port of the Argentine 
 Republic, in the province of Buenos Ayres. It is 
 situated on the Naposta River, three miles from 
 its entrance into the bay of Bahia Blanca, and 
 has a good harbour. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 Bahia Honda, a harbour on the north coast 
 of Cuba, 60 miles WSW. of Havana, protected by 
 a fort. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Bahr, an Arabic word signifying a large body 
 of water, is applied both to lakes and rivers. — 
 Bahr-el-Abiad (the White River), and Bahr-el- 
 Azrak (the Blue River), are the chief branches 
 of the Nile (q.v.). — Bahr-el-Ghazal is the name 
 of the upper branch of the Nile, constituted by 
 the Bahr-el-Arab and many other tributaries, 
 which flows sluggishly eastward to join the 
 Bahr-el-Jebel and so form the Bahr-el-Abiad. 
 The Bahr-el-Ghazal gives name to a province in 
 the SW. of the Egyptian Soudan, bravely held for 
 years by the governor, Frank Lupton. — Bahr-el- 
 Yeraen is the Red Sea (q.v.), and Bahr-Liit (Sea 
 of Lot) the Dead Sea (q.v.). 
 
 Bahraioh, a town of Oudh, India, 70 miles 
 NE. of Lucknow. To the shrine of Masatid, a 
 warrior and Mussulman saint, there is a great 
 concourse of pilgrims every May. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Bahrein Islands, or Aval Islands, a group 
 of islands in the Persian Gulf. The most import- 
 ant of these is Bahrein (pop. 40,000), 33 miles 
 long and 10 broad. Manama,' the capital, has a 
 good harbour. The Bahrein Islands are chiefly 
 remarkable for their pearl-lisheries, which em- 
 ploy, during the season, from 1000 to 2000 boats, 
 each manned with from 8 to 20 men. The 
 annual value of the pearls is estimated at up- 
 wards of £300,000. The islands are inhabited by 
 Arabs, and since 1861 have been under English 
 protection. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Baiae, a small town of antiquity, on the coast 
 of Campania, 10 miles W. of Naples and opposite 
 Puteoli. The ruins still standing on the desolate 
 coast, or visible beneath the clear waters of the 
 sea, are now the only evidence of its former 
 magnificence. 
 
 Baikal (Turkish, Bei-kul, ' rich lake ') is, after 
 the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, the largest 
 lake of Asia, with an area of 13,500 sq. m. It 
 is a fresh- water lake, and is situated in the south 
 of Siberia, in the government of Irkutsk, in 51° 
 20'— 55° 30' N. lat., and 103°— 110° E. long., and 
 somewhat resembles a sickle in shape. Its 
 length is 330 miles, and its breadth 9\ to 40 
 miles ; height above the sea, 1360 feet ; mean 
 depth 850 feet, but in some places as much as 
 4500 feet, more than 3000 feet below sea-level. 
 Its waters are a deep blue, and remarkably clear. 
 Its outlet is by the Lower Angara, a chief tribu- 
 tary of the Yenisei ; but the river is inconsider- 
 able in size compared with those which flow into 
 the lake. It has several islands — the largest, 
 Olkhon, 32 miles long. There are numerous hot 
 springs on its shores, and earthquakes are fre- 
 quent. Formerly the lake— or ratner sea— seems 
 to have been much more extensive. The diffi- 
 cult section of the great Siberian railway passing 
 round the south end of the sea was not completed 
 till 1904 ; the connection being till then carried on 
 by steamers (or across the Baikal ice iu winter). 
 
BAILEI? 
 
 75 
 
 fiALAKLAVA 
 
 The annual value of its salmon, sturgeon, and 
 other fisheries is estimated at 200,000 roubles. 
 The capture of fresh-water seals is a source of 
 income to the Russian settlers. The surface of 
 the lake is frozen from November to May, but 
 the traffic is carried on over the ice. 
 
 Ballen', or Baylen, a town of Andalusia, 
 Spain, 22 miles N. of Jaen. Pop. 7988. Here, 
 on July 19, 1808, the Spaniards won their first 
 and only victory over the French, 18,000 of whom 
 laid down their arms. 
 
 Ballieljorougli, a market-town of Cavan 
 county, 58 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1154. 
 
 Bailleul (Da-yul'), a town in the French dep. of 
 Nord, 19 miles NW. of Lille. The Baliol family 
 hence derived its name. Pop. 11,900. 
 
 Baireuth, or Bayrkuth (Bye'roit), capital of 
 the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, on 
 the Red Maine, 43 miles NNE. of Nuremberg by 
 rail. Its principal buildings are the old palace, 
 dating from 1454 ; the new palace (1753) ; the old 
 opera-house (1748); and a magnificent 'national 
 theatre ' (1875) for the performance of the operas 
 of Wagner, who, dying at Venice, was in 1883 
 buried in the garden of his villa here. Jean 
 Paul Richter died here in 1825, and a moniunent 
 has been erected to his memory. Baireuth's 
 chief articles of industry are cottons, woollens, 
 linen, leather, tobacco, parchment, and porce- 
 lain. Population, 30,000, of whom only about 
 15 per cent, are Catholics. See Milner-Barry's 
 Baireuth and the Franconian Switzerland (1887). 
 
 Baitul, or Betul (Bay-tool'), a town of British 
 India, in the hill-country of the Central Province, 
 50 miles NE. of Ellichpur. Pop. 5700. 
 
 Baja (Bdh'ya), a market-town of Hungary, on 
 the Danube, 90 m. S. of Pesth, with a fine castle, 
 several convents, and brisk trade. Pop. 19,941. 
 
 Bajmok (Bye-viok), a village of Hungary, 16 
 miles SW. of Theresienstadt. Pop. 6661. 
 
 Bakarganj, a British district in the Dacca 
 division of India, under the lieutenant-governor 
 of Bengal, contains 3649 sq. m. Barisal, the 
 headquarters, on the Barisal River, is the only 
 town with over 5000 inhabitants. Bakarganj, 
 the former capital, near the junction of tlie 
 Krishnakati and Khairabad rivers, is now in 
 ruins. Pop. 2,353,965. 
 
 Bakau (Ba-kow'), a Roumanian town on the 
 river Bistrisza, 187 miles N. of Bucharest by 
 rail. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 BakcMserai (Turkish, "Garden Palace'), a 
 town in the Russian government of Taurida, the 
 residence of the ancient princes or khans of the 
 Crimea, 15 miles by rail SW. of the present 
 capital, Simferopol. The palace (1519) of the 
 khans has been restored by the Russian govern- 
 ment in the oriental style. Pop. 15,377. 
 
 Bakel, a town with a strong fort, in the E. of 
 the French colony of Senegal, on the Senegal 
 River. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Baker, Mount, a volcano (14,100 feet) of 
 Washington State, U.S., in the Cascade Range, 
 a continuation of the Rocky Mountains, 20 miles 
 from the Canadian frontier. It was very active 
 in 1880. 
 
 Bakewell, an ancient market-town in Derby- 
 shire, on the Wye, 25 miles NNW. of Derby. It 
 has warm baths and a mineral spring. Pop. 2848. 
 
 Bakhmut, a town of Southern Russia, in the 
 government of Ekaterinoslav, on a tributary of 
 the Donetz. Pop. 19,674. 
 
 Bakhtegan, or Niris, a shallow salt-lakd 
 (74 X 13^ miles) in the Persian province of Far- 
 sistan, 47 miles E. of Shiraz. 
 
 Bakony Forest, a densely wooded hill-country 
 of Hungary, extending from Lake Balaton north- 
 ward to the Danube. Immense herds of swine 
 are annually driven hither to feed upon the 
 mast. 
 
 Baku, an important seaport of Russian Trans- 
 caucasia, on the Apsheron peninsula, on a 
 crescent-shaped bay in the Caspian Sea. Since 
 1883 it has been connected by rail with Tiflis, 
 and so with Poti and Batoum on the Black Sea, 
 561 miles distant ; and since 1887, by the North 
 Caucasus Railway, with Novorossiak on the 
 Black Sea. The whole soil around Baku is 
 impregnated with petroleum, which, mono- 
 polised till 1872, now forms the staple branch 
 of its industry. Some of the fountains ignite 
 spontaneously, a fact which caused Baku to be 
 esteemed as a holy city by the Parsees (see 
 Ateshga). Most of the petroleum wells are 
 situated on the Balakhani peninsula, 8 or 9 
 miles to the north. Lines of pipe carry the 
 oil into the 'black town 'of Baku, which is full 
 of oil refineries emitting vast volumes of smoke. 
 One well, tapped in 1886, began to spout oil with 
 extraordinary force, deluging the whole district, 
 till the outflow, on the eighth day, had reached 
 a daily rate of 11,000 tuns, or more than the 
 entire produce of the world at the time. Another 
 gigantic naphtha fountain burst out in 1887, 
 rising to a height of 350 feet, and after forming 
 an extensive petroleum lake, forced its way into 
 the sea. How rapidly the industry grew may be 
 judged from the fact tliat the number of drilled 
 wells increased from 1 in 1871 to 400 in 1883. 
 Cotton, silk, opium, saffron, and salt are also 
 exported. The Arabian Masudi is the first who 
 mentions Baku, about 943, and he gives an 
 account of a great volcanic mountain in its 
 vicinity, now extinct. Baku was taken by 
 Russia from the Persians in 1806. The harbour, 
 which is strongly fortified, is one of the chief 
 stations of the Russian navy in the Caspian. 
 The population— some 16,000 in 1880— was in 1900 
 about 115,000. Baku is capital of a government 
 of Russian Transcaucasia, with an area of 15,516 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 810,000. See works by 
 Marvin (1884-86). 
 
 Bala, a town of Merionethshire, North Wales, 
 near the foot of Bala Lake, 12 miles SW. of 
 Corwen by rail. Pop. 1622. Bala Lake measures 
 4 miles by 1 mile, and sends off the Dee from its 
 foot. Froni Lake Vyrnwy (q.v.), 10 miles south, 
 Liverpool draAvs its water-supply. 
 
 Balaghat' (' above the Ghats '), a large tract of 
 elevated country in the south of India, extend- 
 ing from the rivers Toombudra and Krishna in 
 the north to the farthest extremity of Mysore in 
 tlie south. Also a British district in the Central 
 Provinces. Pop. 330,554. 
 
 Balahissar, a village in the south-western 
 part of the province of Angora, in Asia Minor, 
 on the site of the ancient Pessinus, which was 
 famous for its worship of Cybele. 
 
 Balakla'va, a small Greek fishing-village with 
 700 inhabitants, in the Crimea, 8 miles SE. of 
 Sebastopol. The landlocked harbour, which 
 affords secure anchorage for the largest ships, 
 till 1860 was a naval station. Balaklava is the 
 Symbolon Limen of Strabo, and the Cembalo of the 
 Genoese (1365-1475), who were expelled by the 
 Turks, as these were in turn by the Russians. 
 During 1854-56 it was the British headquartera, 
 
BALASINOR 76 
 
 And the famous charge of the Six Hundred (25th 
 October 1854} has made the name glorious as 
 Thermopyhe. 
 
 Balasinor, a tributary state of India, in the 
 province of Quzerat, Bombay. Area about 150 
 sq. ni. ; pop. 42,000.— The chief town, Balasinor, 
 is 61 miles N. of Baroda. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Balasor', a seaport of Bengal, on the right 
 bank of the Burabalang River, 16 miles from its 
 mouth. Pop. 20,865. 
 
 Ba'laton, Lake (Ger. Platten-See), a lake, the 
 largest in Hungary, 55 miles SW. of Pesth. 
 Lying 426 feet above sea-level, it has a length of 
 48 miles, a breadth of 10, and an area of 245 
 Bq. m. Its mean depth is 20 feet, but in one 
 part it sinks to 150. It is fed by over thirty 
 streams— the chief the Szala— as well as by 
 numerous springs. Its outlet is by the Sio, 
 which flows to the Sarvitz, a feeder of the 
 Danube. The waters have a slightly brackish 
 taste. Fish of various kinds abound, including 
 a kind of perch, weighing from 10 to 20 pounds, 
 and found nowhere else. 
 
 Balbliggan, a Avatering-place in Dublin 
 county, 21 miles N. by E. of Dublin. It manu- 
 factures linen, cotton (especially cotton stock- 
 ings), and calico. Pop. 2233. 
 
 Balcarres, a Fife mansion near Colinsburgh, 
 where Lady Ann Barnard wrote 'Auld Robin 
 Gray.' It is a seat now of the Earl of Crawford. 
 
 Baldock, a town of Hertfordshire, 37 miles N. 
 of London. Pop. 2057. 
 
 Baldoon', a ruin If mile SSW. of Wigtown, the 
 true scene of Scott's Bride of Lammermoor. 
 
 Bale. See Basel. 
 
 Balearic Isles, a group of islands— Mallorca 
 (Majorca), Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, Cabrera, 
 and several smaller islets— lying off the coast of 
 Valencia. They formed from 1220 to 1344 the 
 kingdom of Mallorca, which was united in 1349 
 with the crown of Aragon ; and they now form a 
 Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. m., 
 and a population of 312,000. The Phoenicians 
 visited the Balearic Isles at a very early date, 
 and they were followed by the Greeks, the 
 Carthaginians, and (123 b.c.) the Romans. The 
 Baleares were fainous slingers. See Bidwell's 
 Balearic Isles (1876). 
 
 Balemo, a Midlothian village, with paper- 
 works, on the Water of Leith, 7 miles SW. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. 699. 
 
 Balfron', a Stirlingshire village, 19 miles NNW. 
 of Glasgow. Pop. 737. 
 
 Balfrush' (more correctly Bar/wTOs/i, 'mart of 
 burdens ), a town in the Persian province of 
 Mazanderan, on the Bhawal, 12 miles from its 
 mouth in the Caspian Sea. It is a centre of 
 trade between Russia and Persia. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Balgownle. See Don (Aberdeenshire). 
 
 Balham, part of Streatham (q.v.). 
 
 Ball {Bdh'ke), or Little Java, one of the Sunda 
 Islands, lying east of Java. It is 75 miles long, 
 60 broad, and 2300 sq. m. in area; pop. 760,000. 
 A Cham of mountains crosses the island from 
 east to west, rising in the volcanic peak of 
 Gunungagung to 12,379 feet. The Balinese are 
 a superior race, and speak a language related to 
 Javanese. Their religion is Brahmanism of an 
 ancient type. Under the Dutch, the nine little 
 principalities of the island are governed by native 
 rulers. Chinese and a few Europeans are the 
 chief traders. 
 
 Balize. See Belize, Honduras. 
 
 BALLAARAT 
 
 Balkans, a ridge or series of ridges of mouil* 
 tains in south-eastern Europe (anc. Hcemus ; 
 Balkan is Turkish for 'mountain'). They form 
 the boundary between Bulgaria and Eastern 
 Roumelia, extending from Timok, SE. of Sophia, 
 eastward to the Black Sea, and accordingly are 
 the backbone of the joint principality of Bulgaria 
 and Eastern Roumelia. The watershed between 
 the Danube and the ^gean, they have a steep 
 slope southwards, but northwards incline gradu- 
 ally towards the Danube. They are highest in 
 the west, where the mean height is 6500 feet. 
 The ridge is crossed by some 30 passes, of which 
 the Shipka, between Kezanlik and Tiriiova, and 
 4290 feet high, is the most noted in history— 
 especially as the scene of severe lighting in the 
 Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78.— The term Balkan 
 Peninsula, frequently occurring in connection 
 with the evergreen 'Eastern Question,' is a usual 
 name for the peninsula in South-eastern Europe 
 running southwards between the Adriatic and 
 the Mgean. The most convenient northern boun- 
 dary is the Save and the Lower Danube ; though 
 historically and politically Rouinania and some 
 parts of the Austrian dominions are closely 
 associated with the regions south of the Danube. 
 Greece is a peninsula upon a peninsula, but is 
 not usually accounted one of the Balkan States. 
 In a general way the Balkan Peninsula and 
 Balkan States cover the area of Turkey in Europe 
 and the non-Turkish States either now or lately 
 under Turkish suzerainty, with the exception 
 of Roumania and Greece. See the articles 
 Turkey, Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, 
 Albania, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 
 Balkh (anc. Bactria), a district of Afghan 
 Turkestan, the most northerly province of 
 Afghanistan. Offsets of the Hindu-Kush traverse 
 it in a NW. direction, and slope down to the low 
 steppes of Bokhara. Its length is 250 miles ; its 
 breadth, 120. The natives are Uzbegs.— Balkh, 
 long the chief town, is surrounded Ijy a mud 
 wall ; but though bearing the imposing title of 
 'mother of cities,' it has not in recent times had 
 any of the grandeur of ancient Bactra, on the site 
 of which it is built. It was twice destroyed by 
 Genghis Khan and Timur. A terrible outbreak 
 of cholera in 1877 caused the capital of Afghan 
 Turkestan to be transferred to Mazar, west of 
 Balkh ; since which Balkh has been an insignifi- 
 cant village. 
 
 Balkhash' (Kirghiz Tengis; Chinese Sihai), a 
 great Inland lake near the eastern borders of 
 Russian Central Asia, between 44° and 47° N. lat., 
 and 73° and 79° E. long. Lying 780 feet above 
 sea-level, it extends 323 miles WSW. ; its breadth 
 at the west end is 50 miles, at the east from 9 to 
 4 miles ; the area is 8400 sq. m. The water is 
 clear, but intensely salt. Its principal feeder is 
 the river Hi. It has no outlet. 
 
 Ballaarat, or Ballarat, a thriving town of 
 Victoria, 100 miles WNW. of Melbourne, and 58 
 NW. of Geelong by rail. It is next in import- 
 ance to Melbourne, and owes its rise to the dis- 
 covery of the gold-fields there in June 1851, 
 being the oldest of the considerable gold-fields of 
 Victoria and in fact the oldest but one of all 
 the gold-fields of the colony. Ballaarat is the 
 see of Protestant and Roman Catholic bishops. 
 Amongst the industries are iron-founding, brew- 
 A?7§' "Iftilling, with flour and woollen mills. 
 When the surface diggings became exhausted 
 after the first rush in 1851, deposits of gold 
 were found at greater depths, and now there are 
 mines as deep as some English coal-pits, with 
 
6ALLABGARH 
 
 77 
 
 BALTIC PROVINCES 
 
 steam pumping and all the requisite machinery. 
 The 'Welcome Nugget,' the largest ever found, 
 was discovered in 1858 at Bakery Hill. It 
 weighed 2217 oz. 16 dwt., and was sold for 
 £10,500. Pop. (1891) 40,849 ; (1901) 49,414. 
 
 Ballabgarli, a town of India, in the Punjab, 
 21^ miles S. of Delhi, Pop. 7000. 
 
 Ballachu'lish, a village of Argyllshire, on 
 the south shore of salt-water Loch Leven, 16^ 
 miles S. of Fort- William. Its quarries of blue 
 rooting clay-slate, commenced about 1760, pro- 
 duce in a busy year 17,000,000 roofing-slates, 
 weighing 30,000 tons. Pop. 1045. 
 
 Ballaghaderreen, a town of County Mayo, 12 
 miles NW. of Castlereagh. Pop. 1266. 
 
 Ballantrae (Ballantray'), a fishing-village at 
 the mouth of the Stinchar, in the S. of Ayrshire, 
 10 miles WSW. of Pinwherry station. Pop. 514. 
 
 Bal'later, a village of Aberdeenshire, on the 
 Dee, 44 miles WSW. of Aberdeen by rail. Near 
 it are the medicinal springs of Pannanich, Bal- 
 moral Castle (q.v.), and Ballatrich Farm, con- 
 nected with Byron's boyhood. Pop. 1250. 
 
 Ballenstedt, a town of Anhalt, in the Harz 
 Mountains, 7 miles SB. of Quedlinburg by rail. 
 Its castle was a monastery 940-1525, and from 
 1765 till 1863 the residence of the dukes of 
 Anhalt-Bernburg. Pop. 5852. 
 
 Bal'leny Islands, five small volcanic islands 
 discovered in the Antarctic Ocean, 1839, nearly 
 on the Antarctic circle, and in long. 164° E. 
 
 Ballina', a seaport on the confines of counties 
 Mayo and Sligo, on the tidal Moy, 7 miles S. of 
 its entrance into Killala Bay, and 168 miles NW. 
 of Dublin by rail. It has a R. C. cathedral (that 
 of the Bishop of Killala). In 1798 the French 
 landed and took Ballina, but were three weeks 
 afterwards defeated at Killala. Pop. 4505. 
 
 Ballinakill, a town of Queen's county, 63 miles 
 SW. of Dublin. Pop. 464. 
 
 Ballinamore, a town of County Leitrim, 15 
 miles NE. of Carrick-on-Shannon. Pop. 654. 
 
 Ballinasloe', a town in Connaught on the 
 borders of counties Galway and Roscommon, 
 on the river Suck, 94 miles W. of Dublin. At 
 the great annual fair for five days in October, as 
 many as 60,000 sheep and 6000 horned cattle, 
 besides horses, have been sold. Pop. 4904. 
 
 BallincolUg, a town of County Cork, on the 
 Bride, 7 miles W. of Cork. Pop. 740. 
 
 BalUngarry, a town in the county, and 16 
 miles SW. of the town of Limerick. Pop. 540. 
 
 Balllnrobe', a town of County Mayo, on the 
 Robe, 17 miles SSE. of Castlebar. Pop. 1552. 
 
 Balloch, a village at the foot of Loch Lomond, 
 20J miles NW. of Glasgow. 
 
 Ballochmyle, an Ayrshire estate, near Mauch- 
 line, rendered famous by Burns. 
 
 Ballybay, a town of Monaghan, 79 miles NNW. 
 of Dublin. Pop. 1208. 
 
 Ballybunnion, a watering-place of Kerry, 9 
 miles NW. of Listowel. 
 
 Ballycas'tle, a seaport of County Antrim, on 
 an open bay opposite Rathlin Isle, 68 miles N. 
 of Belfast by rail. Its harbour and pier cost 
 £150,000, but the former is silted up, and the 
 sea has destroyed the latter. Pop. 1471. 
 
 Ballyclare, a town of Antrim, 10^ miles SW, 
 of Lame. Pop. 2066, 
 
 Ballyconnell, a village in the county, and 14 
 ^]iles NNW. of the town of Cftvan. 
 
 Ballygawley, a Tyrone village, 11 niilea WSW. 
 of Dungannon. 
 
 Ballyhalbert, a fishing-village of County 
 Down, 13 miles SE. of Newtonards. 
 
 Ballyhooly, a village in the county, and 18 
 miles N. by E. of the city of Cork. 
 
 Ballyjamesduflf, a market-town in the county, 
 and 11 miles SE. of the town of Cavan. Pop. 
 652. 
 
 Ballylongford, a Kerry village, 8 miles N. of 
 Listowel. Pop. 545. 
 
 Ballymahon, a market-town in the county, 
 and 12 miles S. of the town of Longford. Pop. 
 713.' 
 
 Ballyme'na, a town of County Antrim, on the 
 Braid, 33 miles NNW. of Belfast by rail. It is 
 one of the greatest linen and flax markets in 
 Ireland, and its vicinity is covered with extensive 
 bleach-fields. Pop. (1901) 10,886. 
 
 Ballymoney, a market-town of County Antrim, 
 53 miles NNW. of Belfast by rail. Pop. 2955. 
 
 Ballymote, a town in the county, and 14 miles 
 S. of the town of Sligo. Pop. 997. 
 
 Ballynahinch, a market-town of County Down, 
 12^ miles S. of Antrim, Pop. 1542. 
 
 Ballyragget, a town in the county, and 10 
 miles NW. of tlie town of Kilkenny. Pop. 518, 
 
 Ballyshannon, a seaport of County Donegal, 
 at the mouth of the river Erne, on a small inlet 
 running off from Donegal Bay, 157 miles NW. of 
 Dublin by rail. It is celebrated for its salmon- 
 fishing. Pop. 2359. 
 
 Ballywalter, a fishing-village of County Down, 
 10 miles SE. of Newtonards. 
 
 Balme, Col de, a mountain pass (7200 feet) 
 between Mont Blanc and the Dent du Midi, 
 taking over the route from Martigny to Chamonix. 
 
 Balmer'lno, a small village of Fife, on the 
 Firth of Tay, 3^ miles SW. of Dundee by water. 
 Near it are scanty remains of a Cistercian abbey 
 (1227). See a work by J. Campbell (1867). 
 
 Balmo'ral, a royal residence in Braemar, 
 Aberdeenshire, 9 miles W. of Ballater, and 52 J of 
 Aberdeen. Standing 926 feet above sea-level on 
 a natural platform that slopes gently down from 
 the base of Craig-gowan (1437 feet) to the Dee, it 
 commands a magnificent prospect on every side. 
 The estate was acquired by Prince Albert in 
 1848-52; and the castle rebuilt (1853-55) at a 
 cost of £100,000 in the Scottish Baronial style of 
 architecture. 
 
 Balqvihi6.6.ev(Bal-whidd'er), a Perthshire parish, 
 28 miles NW. of Stirling, with Rob Roy's grave. 
 
 Balrampur, a town of Oudh, India, near the 
 frontier of Nepaul. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Balta, a town on the Kodema, an affluent of 
 the Bug, in the government of Podolia, Russian 
 Poland. Pop. 24,440. 
 
 Baltic Provinces, the five Russian govern- 
 ments bordering on the Baltic — viz. Courland, 
 Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and Finland ; or 
 in a restricted sense often the first three. The 
 Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden, 
 except Courland, which was a dependency of 
 Poland. They came into the possession of Russia 
 partly in the beginning of the 18th century, 
 through the conquests of Peter the Great, partly 
 under Alexander in 1809. No pains have been 
 spared to Russianise them, and since 1876-77 
 they have lost their remaining privileges, and 
 been thoroughly incorporated in the Russian 
 
BALTIC SEA 
 
 78 
 
 BAMBERG 
 
 •mplre. The inhabitants are mainly Esths and 
 Letts, with many Germans. 
 
 Baltic Sea, the great gulf or inland sea bor- 
 dered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden, 
 and communicating with the Kattegat and North 
 8t'a by the Sound and the Gr«it and Little Belts. 
 Its length is from 850 to 900 miles ; breadtli, 
 fhmi 100 to 200 ; and area, including the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Finland, 184,496 sq. m., of which 
 12,753 are occui)iod by islands. Its mean deptli 
 Is 44 fathoms, and the greatest ascertained depth, 
 between Gottliiud and Courland, 140. The group 
 of tlie Aland Islands diviiles the south part of 
 the sea from the north part or Gulf of Bothnia 
 (q.v.X The Gulf of Finland (q.v.), branching off 
 eastwards into Ilussia, separates Finland from 
 Ksthonia. A third gulf is that of Riga or Livonia. 
 The Kurisch and other Haffs are not gulfs, but 
 ft^sh-water lakes at the mouths of rivers. The 
 water of the Baltic is colder and clearer than 
 that of the ocean, and contains in most places 
 only a fourth of the proportion of salt found in 
 the Atlantic; though the salinity varies in 
 different parts and at different seasons. Ice 
 hinders the navigation from three to five months 
 yearly. Rarely, as in 1G58 and 1809, the wliole 
 surface is frozen over. Tides, as in all inland 
 seas, are little perceptible— at Copenhagen, about 
 a foot. Upwards of 250 rivers flow into tliis 
 sea, which, through them and its lakes, drains 
 not much less than om-fifth of all Europe, 
 its drainage area being estimated as 717,000 sq. 
 m. Tiie chief of these rivers are the Oder, 
 Vistula, Niemen, Dwina, Narva, Neva, and 
 Motala. The principal islands are Zealand, FUnen, 
 Bornholm, Samsoe, and Laaland (Danish) ; Gott- 
 Jand, Oland, and, Hveen (Swedish) ; the Aland 
 Islands (Russian)-; and Rugen (Prussian). The 
 Elder Canal, connecting the Baltic near Kiel 
 with the North Sea at Tonningen, facilitates 
 the gram trade ; and the two seas are also con- 
 nected by the Gotha Canal, which joins the lakes 
 of South Sweden. These are navigable for boats 
 of light draught only ; but in 1887-95 a great 
 canal was constructed from Brunsblittel, at tlie 
 mouth of the Elbe, to Holtenau and Kiel, to 
 allow the passage of the largest vessels, bein<^ 61 
 miles long 28 feet deep, 200 wide at the surfece, 
 and 85 at the bottom ; and as the voyage round 
 from the Elbe to Kiel represents nearly 600 miles 
 ^L,,t"°f ''"^ f "'"^^ ^^ steaming, tha canal must 
 prove of great value to commerce and to the 
 
 S'fU{^"nnr!'''''y- , TI?^ ^°'* ^^« estimated at 
 SfiA r'nu'*"'^ ^i"^ y^^^^y maintenance at 
 £60 000. The most important harbours in the 
 Baltic are : in Denmark, Copenhagen ; in Ger- 
 K^Z',?"'' ^"?t"^' Stralsund, Stettin Danzg, 
 Konigsberg, and Memel; in Russia, Riga, Narva 
 
 hrntn^'Ctk'rZa'r^^" '' '^' '' «^^^^"' «*-^- 
 r.«®nV.^°"' a flshing-village in County Cork. 
 HeiJtn T^T^th^^^ ^ miles^SW. of Skibbereen 
 lil^H o }^l the Baroness Burdett-Coutts estab- 
 lished a technical fishery school. Pop. 597. 
 
 nf ^! r^o""*?' ^ ^l\ "^^ ^"^""y a'^d the largest city 
 of Maryland, and the seventh city of thi United 
 
 bSk'ofV^^Pwi"''^^'/*^"^^ ^'^ the northern 
 Dank of the river Patapsco, an arm of Chp^a 
 peake Bay, 250 miles by ship-channel from the 
 ^ w"' f- "f "' ^^^- «f Philadelphia, 2 k TnE 
 of Washington, p.C., in 39° 17' N.' lat., 76° 37' 
 W, «^- -^l^ ^'^ •' ""^^'^"' and its surround- 
 ings are picturesque and pleasant. The plan of 
 the streets is not so strictly uniform as in^many 
 American cities. The harbour is spacious aSd 
 
 perfectly secure, having a minimum depth of 24 
 feet, and access ft-om the sea is safe and easy. 
 Baltimore is an important centre of the traffic 
 in bread-stuffs, and is also the seat of extensive 
 and varied industries— cotton and woollen goods 
 flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots 
 and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery 
 car- wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, &c )' 
 clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of 
 oysters, employing over 2000 hands. 
 
 Baltimore is noted for the fine architecture of 
 its public and other buildings, among the finest 
 being the chamber of commerce, the Roman 
 Catholic archiepiscopal cathedral, the custom- 
 house, the Maryland Institute, the academy of 
 music, the city-hall, the Johns Hopkins Hos- 
 pital, the post-office, and the Peabody Insti- 
 tute. The public monuments (the Washin<Tton 
 column is 210 feet high) have given it the n°ame 
 of the 'monumental city.' There are several 
 public squares and parks, the beautiful Druid 
 Hill Park of nearly 700 acres, being the most 
 celebrated. The Johns Hopkins University 
 endowed with over $3,500,000 by a Quaker phil- 
 anthropist of that name (1795-1873), was opened 
 in 1876, and ranks as one of the first seats of 
 learning in the country. Founded in 1729, the 
 city was named in honour of Lord Baltimore 
 the founder of the Maryland colony, and in 1796 
 was incorporated as a city. Pop. (1790) 13 503 • 
 (1830) 80,625; (1860) 212,218; (1880) 332 313:' 
 (1890)434.439; (1900)508,957. ' 
 
 Baltinglass, a Wicklow market-town, on the 
 Slaney, 10 miles E. of Mageney. Pop. 1007. 
 
 Baltistan, or Little Tibet, an alpine region 
 of Kashmir, through which the Upper Indus 
 flows. It contains Mount Godwin-Austen, 28 250 
 feet high, next to Everest the highest on 'the 
 globe. 
 
 Baltjlk', a Bulgarian seaport, on the Black 
 Sea, 20 miles NE. of Varna. Near it is ruined 
 Tomi, whither Ovid was exiled. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Baluchistan. See Beluchistan. 
 
 Balwearie, 2 miles W. by S. of Kirkcaldy, 
 the ruined tower of the 'wizard' Sir Michael 
 Scott. 
 
 Bambarra, one of the Soudan states of Western 
 Africa, lying (where 5° W. long, and 12° N. lat 
 cross one another) on both sides of the Upper 
 Niger. The inhabitants, a branch of the Man- 
 dingoes, number about 2,000,000, and are superior 
 to their neighbours in intelligence. The upper 
 classes profess Mohammedanism, but the lower 
 are pagans The principal towns are Sego, San- 
 sanding, lamina, and Bammako. In 1881 a 
 French treaty with the sultan of Sego opened 
 the country, which is now in the P^rench sphere, 
 
 Bamberg, a Bavarian city, in Upper Fran- 
 coma, on the Regnitz, 3 miles above its conflu- 
 ence with the Main, and 33 N. of Nuremberg by 
 ran Set in the midst of vineyards, orchards, 
 ?"i hop-gardens, and founded about 769, froin 
 1007 to 1802 it was the seat of independent 
 prince-bishops The magnificent Romanesque 
 ?An. i^''^^' Io""<ied by the Emperor Henry II. in 
 1004, has five towers, and contains the elabor- 
 ately carved tomb of the founder and his em- 
 PS C»mgunda. Opposite it is the palace 
 U702) of the former prince-bishops, from one 
 ^LfK L'^'?.'^?"^^ Marshal Berthier met his 
 if.u. Jno "^^^^^'^ Benedictine abbey (1009) 
 ^,1L }^?^ converted into an almshouse. The 
 Z?t°^ if "^^f^^l «f Altenburg stand on an 
 eminence li mile from the town. Pop. (1871) 
 
BAMBOROUGH CASTLE 
 
 25,738 ; (1900) 41,850, who manufacture beer, 
 cotton, cloth, gloves, tobacco, &c. 
 
 Bamborough Castle, an ancient fortress on 
 the Northumbrian coast, 5 niiles E. of Belford, 
 and 10^ SE. of Berwick. Crowning a basaltic 
 rock, 150 feet higli, it was founded about 547 
 by Ida the 'Flanie-beai-er,' first king of North- 
 umbria, and named Bebhanbarh, after Bebbe, his 
 queen. Forfeited by Tom Forster for his share 
 in the '15, it was purchased by Bishop Crewe, 
 and bequeathed by him in 1721 to trustees for 
 benevolent purposes. In 1894 it was purchased 
 from the trustees by Lord Armstrong, and en- 
 dowed as an almshouse of cultured poverty. 
 Bamborough village was a royal borough before 
 the Conquest, and in Edward I.'s time returned 
 two members. Grace Darling is buried in the 
 churchyard. See vol. i. of Bateson's History of 
 Northumberland (1893). 
 
 Bambouk, a country of Senegambia, Western 
 Africa, lying in the angle formed by the Senegal 
 and Faleme rivers. It has rich iron ore and 
 deposits of gold in its rivers, especially the 
 Faleme. Faranaba and Mandinka are the chief 
 towns. The inhabitants, Mandingoes, are pro- 
 fessedly Mohannnedans. 
 
 Bamian, a mountain-valley in Afghanistan, 
 on the road between Kabul and Turkestan, and 
 near the northern base of the Koh-i-baba range. 
 It lies 8500 feet above sea-level, is drained by 
 a feeder of the Oxus. The inhabitants are 
 Hazaras. The most notable feature of the dis- 
 trict is a number of Buddhist figures of enor- 
 mous size carved in the conglomerate cave- 
 pierced rocks, 200 to 300 feet high, which form 
 the northern side of the valley. Of these there 
 are five ; and the two principal were described 
 by a Chinese Buddhist monk about 630 a.d. 
 The largest is 173 feet high, or 3 feet higher than 
 the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar Square. 
 
 Bam'mako, a trading town of Bambarra, on 
 the Upper Niger, fortified by the French in 1883. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Banagher, a town of King's county, on the 
 Shannon, 18 miles SE. of Ballinasloe. Pop. 1114. 
 
 Banas, or Bunas, three rivers of India. — (1) 
 In Rajputana, rising in the Aravalli Mountains, 
 and flowing 300 miles NE. and SE. to the Cham- 
 bal. — (2) A river also rising in the Aravalli 
 Mountains, and flowing 180 miles SW. to the 
 Runn of Cutch. — (3) In Chutia Nagpur, Bengal, 
 flowing 70 miles NW. to the Son, near Rampur. 
 
 Banat, any district or territory under a Ban 
 or military frontier chief, but specially applied 
 since 1718 to a part of Hungary which had no 
 separate ban or governor, and was bounded by 
 the Theiss, Danube, and Maros. It was formed 
 into an Austrian crown-land in 1849, but was 
 incorporated with Hungary in 1860. 
 
 Banbrldge, a town in County Down, on the 
 Bann, 76 miles N. of Dublin. It is a seat of the 
 linen manufacture in all its stages. Pop. (1881) 
 5609 ; (1891) 4901 ; (1901) 5006. 
 
 Banbury, a town of Oxfordshire, on the Oxford 
 Canal and the Cherwell, 23 miles N. of Oxford, 
 and 78 NW. of London by rail. Its strong castle 
 (c. 1125) was demolished during the Great Re- 
 bellion ; and in 1469 the Yorkists were defeated 
 in the vicinity. The town is still famous for its 
 cakes and ale ; and it jnaimfactures webbing and 
 agricultural implements. Till 1885 Banbury re- 
 turned a member to parliament ; and it is a 
 municipal borough, whose boujidaries were greatly 
 
 79 BANFFSHIRE 
 
 extended in 1889. Pop. (1901) 12,967, barely one- 
 third being in the town proper. 
 
 Banca, an island from 8 to 20 miles broad 
 lying SE. of Sumatra, from which it is separated 
 by the Strait of Banca. It forms a Dutch Resi- 
 dency, with an area of 4977 sq. m., and a pop. 
 of about 95,000, one-fourth Chinese. Gold, iron 
 ore, silver, lead, and amber are found, but tin is 
 the chief mineral. The once dense forests have 
 been terribly thinned for smelting purposes. 
 The capital, Muntok, in the north-west part of 
 the island, has a fort and 3000 inhabitants. 
 
 Banchory, a Kincardineshire village, on the 
 Dee, 17 miles WSW. of Aberdeen. Pop. 1470. 
 
 Banda, chief town of a district in the United 
 Provinces, India, on the Ken River, 95 milea 
 SW. of Allahabad. It is a great mart for cotton. 
 Pop. 22,974. 
 
 Banda Isles, 12 Dutch islands of the Moluccas, 
 50 miles to the south of Ceram. Area, 17 sq. jn. ; 
 pop. 8000 (500 Europeans and half-castes). The 
 chief production is the nutmeg. An active 
 volcano, Gunong-Api (1744 feet), rises near the 
 centre of the group, which the Dutch acquired 
 in 1801-14. 
 
 Bandajan', a pass (14,854 feet) over the Hima- 
 layas, in Kasluuir. 
 
 Banda Oriental. See Uruguay. 
 
 Ban-de-la-Roche, or Steinthal, a valley of 
 Lower Alsace, in the Vosges Mountains, the scene 
 of the labours of Oberlin. 
 
 Bandelkhand. See Bundelkhand. 
 
 Bandon, or Bandonbridge, a town of County 
 Cork, on the Bandon, 20 miles SW. of Cork by 
 rail. Founded in 1608 as a Protestant colony, it 
 was incorporated by James I., and now belongs 
 chiefly to the Duke of Devonshire. Till 1885 
 Bandon returned one member to the House of 
 Commons. Pop. (1871) 6131 ; (1901) 2830.— The 
 river Bandon rises in the Carberry Mountains, 
 and after a course of 40 miles (15 navigable) forma 
 at its mouth the harbour of Kinsale. 
 
 Bandong, a flourishing connnercial town in the 
 western end of Java, near the volcano Gunong 
 Guntour. Since 1864 it has been the capital of a 
 province, the Preanger Regencies. 
 
 Banff (pron. Bamf), the capital of Banffshire, 
 on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Deveron, 
 50 miles NNW. of Aberdeen by rail. On the 
 right bank of the Deveron, li mile ENE., is the 
 fishing-town of Macduff, included since 1832 in 
 the parliamentary burgh. Scarce a fragment 
 remains of the old castle, in which Archbishop 
 Sharp was born ; the present castle is a plain 
 18th-century edifice. Duff House, the seat of 
 the Duke of Fife, was built in 1745 by the elder 
 Adam. The public buildings include a town- 
 house (1796), the county buildings (1871), a 
 lunatic asylum (1865), Chalmers's hospital (1862), 
 and a museum, of which Thomas Edward (1814- 
 86), the 'Scotch naturalist,' was long curator. 
 The harbour of Bans' is inferior to that of Mac- 
 duff". With Elgin, Cullen, Inverury, Kintore, and 
 Peterhead, Bans' sends one member to parliament. 
 Pop. (1901) 7148 (nearly half in Macduff). 
 
 Banff, a health-resort among the grand scenery 
 of the Canadian Rocky Mountain National Park, 
 in the south-west of Alberta and on the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway, with a hot sulphur spring. Pop. 
 350. 
 
 Banffshire, a county in the NE. of Scotland, 
 bounded N. by the Moray Firth. Its greatest 
 length is 59 miles, its greatest breadth 31, and 
 
BANGALORE 80 
 
 Its area 646 sq. m. The coast is rocky, but not 
 high, except to the east of Banff. Chief siunniits 
 are the Bin of CuUeii (1050 feet), Ben Rinnes 
 
 £755), and, on the Aberdeenshire border, Ben 
 acdhui (4296). The rivers are the Spey, which 
 bounds a thirtl of the county on the west ; and 
 the Deveron, 61 miles long, and mostly included 
 within the county. The former ranks after the 
 Tw'eed and Tay as a salmon-river. The southern 
 part of Banffshire is in the Highlands, the north 
 being purely Lowland. Banffshire is divided 
 into the districts of Enzio, Boyne, Strathisla, 
 Strathdeveron, Balveny, Glenlivet, and Strath- 
 avon. The chief towns and villages are Banff, 
 Macduff, Portsoy, Keith, Cullen, Buckie, Duff- 
 town, and Tomintoul. Much whisky is pro- 
 duced. The county returns one member. The 
 battle of Glenlivet (q.v.) was fought in 1594. 
 Pop. (1801) 37,216 ; (1841) 49,070 ; (1901) 61,488. 
 
 Bangalore, a fortified town of Mysore, in a 
 district of the same name, lies 3000 feet above 
 sea-level, 216 miles W. of Madras by rail. When 
 Mysore was occupied by Britain in 1831, Banga- 
 lore was made the administrative capital of the 
 state ; and when in 1881 Mysore was restored to 
 its maliarajah, the British cantonnient of Banga- 
 lore was specially exempted. In 1791 it was 
 stormed by Lord Cornwallis. Pop. (1871) 142,513 ; 
 (1891) 180,366 ; (1901) 159,046. 
 
 Bangkok, the capital of Siam, stands on the 
 Menam, 20 miles from its mouth, in 13° 38' N. 
 lat. and 100° 34' E. long., and stretches for some 
 6 or 7 miles along both sides of the river, here a 
 wide and noble stream. The pop. is about 
 600,000, half of whom are Chinese, in whose 
 hands is centred nearly all the trade, which is 
 large, the exports exceeding £2,000,000, and the 
 imports £3,800,000. The approach to Bangkok 
 by the Menam is exceedingly beautiful, with its 
 temples, gardens, noble trees, and palaces. A 
 large number of the houses float on rafts moored 
 to the banks of the river and its many canals ; and 
 the ordinary houses of the city, which are almost 
 wholly of bamboo or other woo(.l, are raised upon 
 piles. The internal traffic is chiefly carried on 
 by means of canals, there being only a few 
 passable streets in the whole city. Bangkok is 
 the constant residence of the king. The palace 
 is surrounded by high walls, and is nearly a mile 
 in circumferenca It includes temples, public 
 offices, huge barracks, and a theatre ; the famous 
 white elephants have also a place within the 
 I)alace. The temples are innumerable, and 
 decorated in the most gorgeous style. In the 
 neighbourhood of Bangkok are iron-mines and 
 forests of teak-wood. Among evidences of pro- 
 gress, specially rapid after 1895, may be men- 
 tioned the promotion of educational institutions, 
 the erection of steam-mills, the introduction of 
 gas and electricity, regular mails (since 1884), 
 telegraph connection with Burma and Cambodia, 
 railways to Korat and Paknam (1900). In 1893 
 French war-ships forced their way, in spite of an 
 ineffective defence, to Bangkok, and secured here 
 a treaty making important concessions to France. 
 Bee Siam. 
 
 Bangor, a city and seaport of Carnarvonshire, 
 on the Menai Strait, 60 miles W. of Chester by 
 the main railway route from London to Dublin 
 (1850). Its chief trade is derived from the great 
 Penrhyn slate-quarries, 5 miles distant, which 
 employ 2000 men. Bangor unites with Car- 
 narvon, &c. in sending one member. In 525 St 
 Deiniol founded a college here; and in 550 he 
 bgc^rne X\\Q flrst bishop ; his cathedral was thrice 
 
 BANNOCKBURN 
 
 destroyed, in 1071, 1282, and 1402. The present 
 cruciform edifice (1496-1532) was ' unequalled in 
 meanness,' until in 1869-80 it was restored by Sir 
 Gilbert Scott. In 1883 Bangor received a muni- 
 cipal charter, and the University College of North 
 Wales was opened here in 1884. Pop. (1851) 
 6338 ; (1891) 9892 ; (1901) 11,269. 
 
 Bangor, a small seaport and watering-place in 
 County Down, on the south side of the entrance 
 to Belfast Lough, 12 miles ENE. of Belfast. Pop. 
 5903. St Cungall in 555 founded Bangor Abbey, 
 which in the 9th century had 3000 inmates. See 
 a monograph by the Rev. C. Scott (2d ed. Bel- 
 fast, 1887). 
 
 Bangor, a city and port in the state of Maine, 
 246 miles NE. of Boston by rail, on the Penob- 
 scot, 60 miles from its mouth, and at its con- 
 fluence with the Kenduskeag, which affords ex- 
 tensive water-power. At spring-tides, here rising 
 17 feet, the harbour is accessible for the largest 
 vessels, and as the navigation cannot go higher, 
 Bangor is one of the largest lumber depots in the 
 world. Under English rule the place was known 
 as Kenduskeag ; its present name was taken from 
 the well-known psalm-tune, a favourite of one of 
 its ministers, Seth Noble. It was incorporated 
 as a city in 1834. Pop. (1870) 18,289; (1880) 
 16,856 ; (1890) 19,103 ; (1900) 21,850. 
 
 Bangor-isco'ed ('Bangor below the Wood'), 
 a Welsh village on the Dee, in a detached por- 
 tion of Flintshire, 5 miles SE. of Wrexham. It 
 was once the seat of one of the largest monas- 
 teries in Britain, founded before 180 a.d., and 
 containing 2400 monks in the time of St Augus- 
 tine. Pop. 554. 
 
 Bangweo'lO, or Bemba, a great Central African 
 lake, discovered by Livingstone in 1868, which 
 is 150 miles long by 75 in width, and 3700 feet 
 above the sea. The Chambese, flowing into it, 
 and the Luapula issuing from it, constitute the 
 head-stream of the Congo. The shores are flat, 
 and parts of the lake are mere marsh. On its 
 south shore Livingstone died. 
 
 Banlalulca, a fortified town of Bosnia, on the 
 Verbas, 54 miles SE. of Novi by rail. Pop. 15,357. 
 
 Banjermassln', a former sultanate on the 
 SE. of Borneo, with an area of 5928 sq. m., and 
 a pop. of about 300,000, chiefly Mohammedans. 
 Tributary to Holland since 1787, it was annexed 
 in 1857. — Banjermassin, the capital, is on the 
 island of Tatas ; pop. 30,000. 
 
 Bankipur, an Indian civil station close to Patna 
 (q.v.), since 1905 sub-capital of Western BengaL 
 
 Banks Land, an island in the west of Arctic 
 America, discovered by Parry in 1819, and ex- 
 plored by Maclure in 1850. There is also a 
 Banks Island off the coast of British Columbia. 
 
 Bank'ura, a town, capital of a district in 
 Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Bann, two rivers in the north-east of Ireland— 
 the Upper Bann, flowing into, and the Lower 
 Bann, out of Lough Neagh. The Upper Bann, 
 rising in the Mourne Mountains, runs 25 miles 
 NNW. through Down and Armagh. The Lower 
 Bann flows 40 miles NNW., through Lough Beg, 
 dividing the counties of Antrim and London- 
 derry. It runs past Coleraine, into the Atlantic 
 Ocean, 4 miles SW. of Portrush. It has import- 
 ant salmon and eel fisheries. 
 
 Bannatyne, a Forfarshire seat, 7i miles NW. 
 of Dundee. 
 
 Bannookbum, a Stirlingshire village of 2444 
 iohabitants, 3 miles SSE. of Stirling, ou tU9 
 
BANSWARA 
 
 81 
 
 BARCELONA 
 
 Bannock Burn, a little affluent of the Forth. It 
 is a seat of the woollen manufactures, especially 
 of carpets and tartans. Here, on 24th June 
 1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000 Scotch, gained 
 a signal victory over Edward II., with 100,000 
 English. Not far off was fought the battle of 
 Sauchieburn (q.v.). See R. White's Battle of 
 Bannockburn (1871). 
 
 Banswara, a hilly, well-wooded state in the 
 south-west of Rajputana. It has an area of 1500 
 sq. m., and is peopled by wild and turbulent 
 Bheels. In 1818 it passed voluntarily under 
 British protection. Pop. 164,000.— The capital, 
 Banswara, lies 8 miles W. of the Mahi River. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 Bantam', a decayed seaport, 61 miles W. of 
 Batavia, in a residency of the same name, which 
 forms the west end of Java. It was the iirst 
 Dutch establishment in Java (1595), and the seat 
 of government of the residency, until trans- 
 ferred to the more salubrious Serang, 6 miles 
 distant, in 1816. 
 
 Bantry, a seaport in the south-west of County 
 Cork, at the head of Bantry Bay, and 44 miles 
 WSW. of Cork. Pop. 3100.— Bantry Bay runs 
 25 miles ENE., with a breadth of 4 to 6 miles. 
 It is one of the finest harbours in Europe. Here 
 a French force attempted to land in 1796. 
 
 Banyuls-Sur-Mer, a watering-place of France 
 in the Pyrenees Orientales, 21 miles SE. of Per- 
 pignan by rail. Pop. 2342. 
 
 Ban3ru'mas (Dutch spelling, Banjoemas), a town 
 of Java, on the Serajo, 22 miles from the south 
 coast. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Banyuwangl, a seaport on the east coast of 
 Java. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Banz, a former great Benedictine monastery 
 (1071-1803) in Bavaria, on the Maine, 3 miles 
 below Licijtenfels. 
 
 Bapaume (Ba-pomef), a town in the French dep. 
 of Pas-de-Calais, 12 miles S. of Arras, scene of a 
 German victory on 2-3d January 1871. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Baraba', a steppe of Siberia, between Obi and 
 Irtish. 
 
 Baracoa, a decayed seaport near the east end 
 of Cuba. Pop. 4900. 
 
 Baratarla, a bay of Louisiana, AV. of the Jlissis- 
 sippi delta, haunted iu lS00-14by a band of pirates. 
 
 Barbacena {Bar-ha-say' no), a town of Brazil, 
 125 miles NW. of Rio de Janeiro. It lies 3500 
 feet above the sea. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Barba'does; one of the Windward Islands, the 
 most easterly of all the West Indies, lies 78 miles 
 E. of St Vincent, in 13° 4' N. lat., and 59° 37' 
 W. long. Its length is 21 miles; its greatest 
 breadth, 14^ miles ; and its area, 166 sq. m., 
 almost all under cultivation. At Bridgetown, 
 the capital, is the open roadstead of Carlisle 
 Bay, the only harbour, the island being almost 
 encircled by coral-reefs. The interior is generally 
 hilly, Mount Hillaby, the loftiest summit, rising 
 1104 feet above sea-level. The climate is fairly 
 healthy ; the temperature equable ; and the 
 average rainfall 57 inches. Shocks of earth- 
 quake are sometimes felt, and thunderstorms 
 are frequent and severe. But hurricanes are 
 the grand scourge of Barbadoes, two in 1780 
 and 1831 having destroyed 4326 and 1591 per- 
 sons, and property to the value of £1,320,564 
 and £1,602,800. Barbados is the official spelling. 
 The area of tlie island is 166 square miles. In 
 1834 the population was 102,231 ; by 1901 it 
 had increased to 195,588— nearly 1200 inhabit- 
 F 
 
 ants to every square mile. About 20,000 are 
 white, and the rest coloured. The trade and 
 the revenue bear a similar testimony to the 
 benefits of emancipation. Barbadoes was made 
 tlie see of a bishop in 1824 ; and the bulk of the 
 population belong to the Anglican communion. 
 It was first colonised by the English in 1625, 
 having previously been depopulated by the 
 Spaniards. See Schomburgk's History of Bat' 
 badoes (1848), 
 
 Bar'bary, in Northern Africa, comprises tlw 
 countries known in modern times as Barca, Tri- 
 poli Proper, Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria, and Mor- 
 occo ; and in ancient times as Mauritania, 
 Numidia, Africa Propria, and Cyrenaica. It 
 stretches from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 from the Mediterranean to the Desert of Sahara, 
 or between 10' W. and 25° E. long., and 25° to 37' 
 N. lat. The north-west of this region is divided 
 by the Atlas Mountains into two parts. The 
 history of Barbary is a record of successive 
 conquests by Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Turks, 
 and the French (1830). To Europe it was chiefly 
 known as the home of the dreaded Barbary 
 corsairs. See the articles on the several coun- 
 tries of Barbary. 
 
 Barbastro, a cathedral city of Spain, on the 
 Vero, 44 miles NW. of Lerida by rail. Pop. 7155. 
 
 Barberton, a gold-mining town of the Trans- 
 vaal, 292 miles N. of Durban. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Barbizon (Bar-bee-zon^'), a village close to the 
 Forest of Fontainebleau. It is a great artists' re- 
 sort, and was tlie home and deatli-place of Millet. 
 Corot, Diaz, Daubigny, and Rousseau were other 
 members of the ' Barbizon School ' of painters. 
 
 Barbu'da, a fertile, densely wooded coral 
 island, one of the Lesser Antilles, 30 miles N. 
 of Antigua, of which it is a dependency. It is 
 10 miles long, 8 broad, and 75 sq. m. in area. 
 Pop. 650. 
 
 Barby, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the 
 Elbe, 15 miles SE. of Magdeburg. Pop. 5222. 
 
 Barca, a country extending along the northern 
 coast of Africa, between the Great Syrtis (now 
 Gulf of Sidra) and Egypt. The climate is healthy 
 and agreeable in the more elevated parts, which 
 reach a height of almost 2000 feet, and in those 
 exposed to the sea-breeze. There are none but 
 small streams, but the narrow terrace-lilvc tracts 
 of country are extremely fertile, realising all 
 that is said of the ancient Cyrenaica. But the 
 good soil extends over only about a fourth of 
 Barca : the east exhibits only naked rocks and 
 loose sand. Many ruins in the north-west attest 
 its high state of cultivation in ancient times, 
 when its five prosperous cities bore the title of 
 the Libyan Pentapolis. Subject successively to 
 Egypt, Rome, and the Byzantine empire, it was 
 conquered by the Arabs in 641, and now forms 
 a dep. of Tripoli. Area, 60,700 sq, m. ; pop. 
 500,000. The capital is Benghazi (q.v.). 
 
 Barcellona and Pozzo dl Gotto, two towns of 
 Sicily, 22 miles WSW. of Messina, standing close 
 together, so as really to form one town. Bar- 
 cellona has sulphur-baths. Pop. 13,948. 
 
 Barcelona, the second largest and the most 
 important manufacturing city in Spain, is beauti- 
 fully situated on the Mediterranean between the 
 mouths of the Llobregat and the Besos, 228 miles 
 E. of Saragossa and 439 ENE. of Madrid. The 
 castle of Montjuich commands tlie town from the 
 south, and the arsenals near by comprise infantry 
 and cavalry barracks for 7000 men, Barcelona is 
 divided into two parts—the old town and the 
 
BARCELONA 82 
 
 new-bv the Ramhla (river-bed), which has been 
 fonned^into a beautiful proinenade There is 
 inother fine promenade the MuraUa del Mar^ or 
 Hfla-wall Barcelona has a cathedral {UdH), a, 
 Sv^Js ty (1430 ; rebuilt 1873) with 2500 students 
 TthSfie scene in 1893 of an Anarclustfo^^^^^ 
 outrage), and manufactures of silk, woollens 
 cottons lace hats, firearms, hardware, &c. The 
 fm^rts arl raw cotto coffee, sugar, wheat 
 spidts, timber, salt-fish, hides wax, iron, aiKi 
 c^l ; the exports fruits, vegetables, wines silk 
 oil and salt. Next to Cadiz, it is the chief port 
 
 BARNSTAPLE 
 
 Pop. (1878) 249;i06; (1900, after annexation of 
 
 rrr'siiaiirrin population it is next to Madrid. 
 
 Pop. (1878) 249,^"- ''""" "'' 
 
 suburbs) 533,000. . . , t, i 
 
 Barcelona, capital of the state of Bermudez 
 Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, 160 
 miles E, of Caracas. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 Bard a village in the Italian province of Turin, 
 23 miles SE. of Aosta. When the French crossed 
 the St Bernard in 1800, Bard fortress, manned by 
 400 Austrians, maintained an eight days resist- 
 ance to their further advance. Pop. 450. 
 
 Bardsey, 9 miles NNE. of Leeds, was the 
 birthplace of the dramatist Congreve. 
 
 Bardsey Isle, an island, 2 miles long, in Car- 
 digan Bay, with a ruined monastery. 
 
 Bardwan', or Burdwan (correctly Vardhani- 
 dna), a city of Bengal, 67 miles NNW. of Calcutta 
 by rail. In point of architecture, it is a miser- 
 able place— an aggregate, as it were, of 73 villages. 
 It contains a palace of the Maharajahs, and a 
 large collection of temples. Pop. 35,080. 
 
 Bareges {Ba-rezh'), a small watering-place, with 
 mineral baths, in the French dep. of Hautes- 
 Pyr6n6es, 4040 feet above sea-level, and 12 miles 
 SE. of Pierrefitte railway station. 
 
 BareiUy, or Bareli, the chief city of a district 
 in Rohilkhand, North-west Provinces of India, 
 on the Ramganga, 152 miles E. of Delhi. Cotton, 
 grain, and sugar are the staples of commerce; 
 furniture and upholstery the manufactures. 
 BareiUy is the seat of a college attended by over 
 800 students. Population, 132,000.— iJai BareiUy 
 is a town in Oudh, near Lucknow. 
 
 Barfleur (Bar-fldr'), a seaport in the French 
 dep. of La Manche, 15 miles E. of Cherbourg. 
 Hence, in 1066, William the Conqueror set out 
 on his invasion of England. On the ill-famed 
 Pointe de Barfleur stands the highest lighthouse 
 in France, 271 feet above the sea. Pop. 1185. 
 
 Barfrush. See Balfrush. 
 
 Barga Pass, a Himalaya hill-pass (15,000 feet) 
 in the north of Bashahr State, Punjab. 
 
 Barge, a town of Piedmont, 30 miles SW. of 
 Turin. Pop. 2074. 
 
 Barholm, a ruined tower (Scott's ' EUangowan ') 
 on the coast of Kirkcudbrightshire, 5| miles SE. 
 of Creetown. 
 
 Bart {Bdh'ree), capital of an Italian province, on 
 a peninsula in the Adriatic, 277 miles SE. of 
 Ancona, with a brisk export trade, an old Nor- 
 man castle, the church of San Nicola (1087), and 
 the older archiepiscopal cathedral. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 Barlngo, an African lake lying NE. of the 
 Victoria Nyanza, and i degree N. of the equator. 
 It IS 20 miles long, lies 3000 feet above the sea, 
 and has no outlet, though its water is fresh. 
 
 Bartsal, headquarters of Bakarganj (q.v.), in 
 a region of the Brahmaputra delta, disturbed by 
 mysterious noises of disputed origin known as 
 ' Barisal guns.' Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Barking, a market-town of Essex, on the 
 
 Rodine 7 miles NE. of London, with market- 
 farSand jute-factories. Its Benedictine abbey 
 ffSinded 6?0), one of the richest convents m the 
 kiTdom has left hardly a trace. Near Barking 
 Creek is one of the great outfalls into the Thames 
 of the (partially purified) London sevyage. Pop. 
 (1851) 5076 ; (1891) 14,301 ; (1901) 21,547. 
 
 BarklV two towns in Cape Colony: Barkly 
 East in the NE., 35 miles E. of Aliwal North, 
 T)Oi) '2500 : Barkly West, a diamond-digging centre 
 in 1870-90, on the Yaal, 40 miles NE. of Kimberley, 
 pop. 2000, 
 
 Bar-le-Duc, capital of the French dep. of Meuse, 
 158 miles E. of Paris. It manufactures cottons, 
 and has the ruined castle of the Dukes of Bar. 
 Pop. 15,634. 
 
 Barletta, a seaport of Italy, on the Adriatic, 
 34 miles NW. of Bari by rail. Pop. 41,994, 
 
 Barmen, a busy town in the district of Dlissel- 
 dorf, Rhenish Prussia, extending in the beautiful 
 valley of the Wupper for about 4 miles from close 
 to Elberfeld almost to Langenfeld. It is the 
 principal seat of the ribbon-manufacture on the 
 Continent, and produces also cloth, stay-laces, 
 thread, soap, candles, metal wares, buttons, 
 machinery, and pianofortes. There are, besides, 
 in the valley, numerous bleach-fields and Turkey- 
 red dye-works. Barmen is a great missionary 
 centre, and possesses the mission-house and 
 seminary of foreign missions belonging to the 
 Rhenish Missionary Society. Pop. (1871) 74,947 ; 
 
 (1890) 116,144 ; (1900) 141,950. 
 
 Barmouth, a watering-place of Merioneth- 
 shire, Wales, at the mouth of the Maw, 10 miles 
 W. of Dolgelly. Opposite, across the river, is 
 Cader Idris, 2914 feet high. Pop. 2219. 
 
 Barnard Castle, a market-town in the county 
 of Durham, on the Tees, 15 miles W, of Dar- 
 lington, On a rocky height are the ruins of a 
 castle built in 1112-32 by Barnard Baliol. Near 
 it is an art museum (1874). Pop. (1851) 4357; 
 
 (1891) 4341 ; (1901) 4421. 
 
 Barnaul, a town of Western Siberia, on the 
 Obi, 290 miles SSW, of Tomsk, It is a great 
 mining and smelting centre. Pop. 83,529. 
 
 Barnes, a Surrey parish, on the Thames, 7 
 miles WSW. of Waterloo station. It has mem- 
 ories of Cowley, Fielding, Handel, Hoare, and 
 the ' Kitcat Club.' 
 
 Barnet, a town of Hertfordshire, 11 miles NNW. 
 of LcHidon. It has still large fairs. Here, on 
 14th April 1471, the Yorkists defeated the Lan- 
 castrians, killing their leader, Warwick, 'the 
 king-maker.' An obelisk (1740) marks the spot. 
 Pop. 7876. 
 
 Bamsley, a manufacturing town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, on the river Dearne, 10 
 miles S. of Wakefield, and 15 N. of Sheffield by 
 rail. Standing high, in the midst of a rich 
 mineral district, it has manufactures of linen, 
 iron, steel, and glass, bleaching and dye works, 
 &c. It was made a municipal borough in 186a. 
 Pop. (1851) 13,437 ; (1891) 35,427 ; (1901) 41,083. 
 - Barnstable, a port of entry, with coasting 
 and fishing trade, in Massachusetts, U.S., situ- 
 ated on the south side of Barnstable Bay, 65 
 miles SE. of Boston. Pop. 4342. 
 
 Barn'staple, a town of Devonshire, on the 
 right bank of the tidal Taw, 6 miles from its 
 mouth, and 40 NW. of Exeter by rail. Owing 
 to the silting up of the river, much of the trade 
 of Barnstaple has been transferred to Bideford. 
 It has manufactures of lace and pottery. Athel- 
 
BARODA 8 
 
 stan built a castle here ; and there are a 14th- 
 century parish church, a town-hall (1855), an 
 Albert memorial tower (1863), &c. Till 1885 
 Barnstaple returned two members. Pop. (1861) 
 10,743 ; (1891) 13,058 ; (1901) 14,137. 
 
 Baro'da, the second city of Guzerat, and third 
 in the Presidency of Bombay, capital of the 
 territory of the Guicowar (Gaekwdr) of Baroda, 
 is 248 miles N. of Bombay by rail. It stands 
 to the east of the Viswamitri, and has several 
 palaces and a considerable trade, occupying an 
 important position between the coast and the 
 interior. Population, 105,000. — The Mahratta 
 state of Baroda, the political control of which 
 in 1875 was transferred from Bombay to the 
 government of India, includes the territories of 
 the Guicowar in various parts of the province 
 of Guzerat. Area of these territories, 8570 sq. m, 
 Oarger than Wales). Pop. 2,185,005. 
 
 Barossa. See Barrosa. 
 
 Barquisimeto (Bar-kee-see-may'io), a town of 
 Venezuela, on an affluent of the Tocuyo, in a 
 fertile and healthy plain, 1700 feet above sea- 
 level. Founded in 1522, it was destroyed in 1812 
 by a dreadful eartliquake. Pop. 38,476. 
 
 Barra, an island of Inverness-shire, near the 
 southern extremity of the outer Hebrides, 42 
 miles W. of Ardnamurchan Point. It is 8 miles 
 long, 2 to 5 broad, and 25 sq. m. in area. A low 
 sandy isthmus, over which the sea nearly breaks 
 at high water, connects the two parts into which 
 Barra is divided. The south or larger part rises 
 to 2000 feet. Pop. (1841) 1977 ; (1891) 2131 ; (1901) 
 2362, Gaelic-speaking, and largely Catholic, and 
 among the most industrious of Scottish fisher- 
 men. A lighthouse (1833) on Barra Head is 680 
 feet above the sea. Kismull Castle was the 
 ancient seat of the M'Neills, who in 1840 sold 
 the island to Colonel Gordon of Cluny. 
 
 Barra, a pleasant suburban town, 3 miles E. of 
 Naples ; pop. 8464. 
 
 Barra, a petty Mandingo kingdom of Western 
 Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia, with an 
 estimated pop. of 200,000. It borders on British 
 Gambia (q.v.). 
 
 Barrackpur, a town of Bengal, on the E. bank 
 of the Hooghly, 15 miles up the stream from 
 Calcutta. It is a favourite retreat for Europeans 
 from Calcutta ; and to the south is the suburban 
 residence of the Viceroy. Pop., with Nawab- 
 ganj, about 20,000. 
 
 Barrafranca, a town of Sicily, near Caltani- 
 setta ; pop. 9052. 
 
 Barra Head. See Bernera. 
 
 Barra Mansa, a town of Brazil, on the Para- 
 hiba, 70 miles NW. of Rio de Janeiro ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Ba.rr3inqmlla. (Bar -ran-ked'ya), the chief port of 
 Colombia, in Bolivar state, near the Magdalena's 
 left bank, 15 miles from the sea. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 Barren Island, a small active volcano in the 
 Bay of Bengal, lying east of the Andamans, 
 about 94° E. long. 
 
 Barrhead', a town of Renfrewshire, 8| miles 
 SW. of Glasgow by rail. Founded about 1773, it 
 has cotton-mills, and bleaching, dyeing, and print 
 works. The poet John Davidson was born here. 
 Pop. (1841) 3492 ; (1S91) 8215 ; (1901) 9855. 
 
 Barrier Reef, an immense coral-reef extend- 
 ing along the NE. coast of Australia for over 1000 
 miles, at a distance from the shore of from 10 
 to upwards of 100 miles. In many places it rises 
 out of great depths. There are several breaks or 
 passages in it, only one, Raines Inlet, being safe 
 
 BARROW-IN-FURNESS 
 
 for ships, with a lighthouse. See Saville-Kent, 
 The Great Barrier Reef (1892). 
 
 Barro'sa, a Spanish village 16 miles SSE. of 
 Cadiz. Here, on March 5, 1811, General Graham 
 (Lord Lynedoch), with a handful of British, 
 gained a glorious victory over the French. 
 
 Barrow, a term applied in honour of Sir John 
 Barrow, to (1) Point Barrow, on the northern 
 coast of Alaska, in 71° 23' N. lat. and 156° 31' W. 
 long., long received as the most northerly spot 
 on the American mainland (but see Bellot 
 Strait, Boothia). — (2) Cape Barrow, on the 
 northern coast of Canada, or Coronation Gulf, 
 68° N, lat., 111° W. long.— (3) Barrow Strait, the 
 earliest of Parry's discoveries, leading to the 
 west out of Lancaster Sound. Besides its main 
 course to Melville Sound, Barrow Strait throws 
 off Prince Regent's Inlet to the south, and 
 Wellington Channel to the north. It averages 
 50 miles in breadth, extending pretty nearly 
 along the parallel of 74° N., from 85° to 100° W. 
 
 Barrow, a river in the south-east of Ireland, 
 rising in the north of Queen's County, on the 
 north-east slope of the Slieve Bloom Mountains, 
 and flowing 100 miles E. and S. past Portarling- 
 ton, Athy, Carlow, and New Ross, until, having 
 received the Nore and the Suir, it forms the 
 large and secure estuary of Waterford harbour, 
 9 miles long. It is navigable for ships of 300 
 tons to New Ross, 25 miles up, and for barges 
 to Athy, 65 miles up, whence the Grand Canal 
 comnmnicates with Dublin. 
 
 Barrow Falls, 2 miles S. of Keswick, a double 
 cascade, 122 feet high. 
 
 Barrow-in-Furness, a seaport and manufac- 
 turing town of North Lancashire, situated on the 
 south-western coast of the peninsula of Furness. 
 By rail it is 36 miles WNW. of Lancaster, and 268 
 NNW. of London. In 1847 it was a fishing- 
 village of 325 inhabitants ; in 1864 the population 
 had risen to 10,608, in 1871 to 18,245, in 1891 to 
 51,712, and in 1901 to 57,584. This rapid ilicrease, 
 matched in Great Britain by only Birkenhead 
 and Middlesbrough, is owing to the di.scovery 
 in 1840 of extensive deposits of rich haematite 
 ore at Park, near Barrow ; to the establishment 
 both of mines and smelting-works ; and to the 
 opening of railway communication throughout 
 the district. Smelting-works established in 1859 
 were in 1866 amalgamated with the Bessemer 
 Steel Company, founded three years before. 
 Copper also is obtained in considerable quantity 
 in the neighbourhood ; whilst some 20,000 tons 
 of slate are annually quarried. The Dukes of 
 Devonshire and Buccleuch are the principal 
 landowners, and gave name to the first two 
 docks, which, together covering 66 acres, were 
 opened by Mr Gladstone in 1867. The Ramsden 
 and the Cavendish Dock (1877) cover a respec- 
 tive area of 78 and 200 acres, and, like their 
 predecessors, are 24 feet deep. Barrow Island 
 has since 1871 become the seat of great iron 
 shipbuilding yards ; and huge flax and jute- 
 works were erected in 1872 to provide employ- 
 ment for women and girls. There are besides 
 engineering works, a great steam-mill, furnace- 
 building works, and iron-founding, brewing, 
 boiler-making, &c. There are statues of the 
 first mayor. Sir James Ramsden (1872), and Lord 
 Frederick Cavendish (1885); but the great orna- 
 ment of the place is the town-hall, built in 1887 
 at a cost of £80,000. The interesting ruins of 
 Furness Abbey lie within 2 miles of the town; 
 while on Piel Island there are the ruins of a 
 castle built by the Abbot of Furness. Made a 
 
BARROW-ON-SOAR 
 
 municipal borough i\1867, Barrow since 1^^^^ 
 has returned one member See J- R}^^*'^'^^^" ^ 
 Furtuss Past and Present (Barrow, 1880). 
 
 Barrow-on-Soar, a village of Leicestershire, 
 3 miles SE. of Loughborough. 
 
 Barrv. a seaport, with docks and a tidal basin, 
 in Glamorgao, 7 miles SW. of Cardiff; it exports 
 coal, iron, and iron manufactures. Pop. 27,0Ua 
 
 Barry Links, in Forfarshire, 9 miles ENE. of 
 Dundee, a government camp of instruction. 
 
 Bar-8ur-Aube (Bar-sur-Oab), a town in the 
 French dep. of Aube, 137 miles ESE. of Pans. 
 Pop. 4306. . ^, 
 
 Bar-STir-Seine (Bar-sur-Sayn), a town in the 
 French dep. Aube, 21 in. SE. of Troyes. Pop. 2773. 
 
 Bartfa, or Bartfeld, a town of Hungary, on 
 the river Topla, near the borders of Galicia, 
 with hot baths. Pop. 5884. 
 
 Bartli(BaW), a seaport of Prussia, at the mouth 
 of the 13arth, 21 miles W. of Stralsund. Pop. 7714. 
 
 Barton-upon-Hiunber, an ancient town of 
 Lincolnsliire, 8 miles SW. of Hull. Pop. 5671. 
 
 Barton-upon-Irwell, a village and township of 
 Lancashire, 5^ miles W. of Manchester. Here 
 was built in 1770 Brindley's famous aqueduct, 
 carrying the Bridgewater Canal across the Irwell, 
 superseded in 1890-93 by a swing bridge of novel 
 and ingenious construction, crossing the Manches- 
 ter Ship Canal. Pop. of rural district (1901) 8065. 
 
 Bas. See Batz. 
 
 Basel (Bdh'zel; Ft. Belle; old Fr. Basle), a 
 Swiss city and canton. The canton was divided 
 in 1833 into two independent half-cantons, called 
 Basel-town and Basel-country. The urban half- 
 canton consists only of the city, with its pre- 
 cincts, and three villages on the right bank of 
 the Rhine ; the remainder forms the half-canton 
 of Basel-country, which borders on Alsace- 
 Lorraine and Baden, and has an area of 178 sq. 
 m. — but little larger than Rutlandshire. The 
 Roman Basilia, after 1032 it formed part of the 
 German empire, but joined the Swiss Confederacy 
 in 1501, having in 1431-43 been the scene of a 
 famous church council. The Rhine, here spanned 
 by three bridges, 200 yards long, divides the city 
 into two parts— Great Basel on the south side, 
 and Little Basel on the north. The minster, a 
 cathedral till 1528, was built between 1010 and 
 1500. It has two conspicuous towers, 218 feet 
 high. Other buildings are the town-hall (1508) ; 
 the university (1460); a museum, with thirty-two 
 pictures by the younger Holbein, who lived thir- 
 teen years in Basel; and a public university 
 library of 160,000 volumes and 4000 manuscripts. 
 During the Reformation, the university was a cen- 
 tral point of spiritual life, and it has numbered 
 among its professors Erasmus and Oicolampadius, 
 both of whom died here, and the mathematicians 
 Euler and Bernouilli, who were natives. It has 
 now some 70 professors and lecturers, and about 
 300 students. Pop., mainly Protestant and Ger- 
 man-speaking, of Basel-country, 70,000 ; of Basel- 
 town (1850) 29,555 ; (1900) 112,250. 
 
 Bashahr, one of the Punjab Hill-states, on the 
 lower slopes of the Himalayas, traversed by the 
 Sutlej. Area, 3320 sq. m. ; pop. 74,345. 
 
 Bashan, a country of North-eastern Palestine, 
 situated to the east of the Jordan. A volcanic 
 plateau rising in the Jebel-ed-Druz to 6000 feet, 
 it extends 60 miles north and south, and about 
 40 miles east and west. It is covered with the 
 ruins of the so-called 'giant cities,' which, how- 
 eyer, according to Major Conder, date only from 
 
 84 
 
 BASS ROCK 
 
 the early Christian centuries ; their roofs, doors, 
 stairs, and windows are of stone, some of them 
 as perfect as when first built. See Dr Porter's 
 Giant Cities of Bashan (1865). 
 
 Bashi, or Batanes Islands, the most north- 
 erly small cluster of islets in the Philippine 
 chain of islands, lying between Luzon and For- 
 mosa. They consist of three larger (Bayal, 
 Batan, and Saptang) and many smaller islets. 
 Area, 127 sq. m. ; pop. 8250. 
 
 Basim, or Bassim, a town of India, in the 
 province of Berar, 413 miles E. by N. of Bombay. 
 Pop. 12,576. 
 
 Basingstoke, a town in the north of Hamp- 
 shire, 48 miles WSW. of London. It is a busy 
 road and railway centre, and has a trade in corn, 
 malt, coal, and timber. Basing House (Marquis 
 of Winchester), 1^ mile E., for two years with- 
 stood the Roundheads ; but Cromwell at last took 
 it by storm, and burned it to the ground, in 1645. 
 Pop. (1871) 5574 ; (1901, mun. borough) 9793. 
 
 Basle. See Basel. 
 
 Basra (also Bassora or Biissora), a town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, on the west bank of the Euph- 
 rates, 56 miles from its mouth in the Persian 
 Gulf. The river, navigable up to Basra for ships 
 of 500 tons, is there divided into a number of 
 channels, and by evaporation and frequent over- 
 flowing makes the climate very unhealthy. The 
 population, once 150,000, had sunk in 1854 to 
 5000, but the establishment of the English Tigris 
 and Euphrates Steamship Company altogether 
 changed the prospects of Basra, and now it prob- 
 ably contains at least 40,000 inhabitants. Basra 
 was founded in 636 by the Calif Omar, and soon 
 became one of the most famous cities of the East. 
 
 Bass. See Bass Rock. 
 
 Bassadore, the principal station for British 
 ships in the Persian Gulf, situated at the west 
 end of the island of Kishm. 
 
 Bassa'no, a cathedral city of Italy, on the 
 Brenta, 30 miles N. by W. of Padua. Near it 
 Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1796, Pop. 
 8086. 
 
 Bassas, dangerous ledges of rocks to the SE. 
 of Ceylon, in 6° 11'— 6° 22' N. lat., and in 81° 28' 
 —81" 43' E. long. On both are lighthouses. 
 
 Basseln', (1) a town in Burma, on the Bassein 
 River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, 75 miles 
 from the sea, but accessible to the largest ships. 
 It is an important centre of the rice trade. It 
 was captured by the British in 1852. Pop. 
 30,147.— (2) A decayed town, 28 miles N. of 
 Bombay. Ceded to the Portuguese in 1534, it 
 was taken by the Mahrattas in 1765, and in 1780 
 surrendered to the British. Pop. (1720) 60,499 ; 
 (1901) 11,000. 
 
 Bassenthwalte, a Cumberland lake, 3 miles 
 NNW. of Keswick. It is 4 miles long, | mile 
 wide, 78 feet deep, and 226 feet above sea-level. 
 Skiddaw towers above it. 
 
 Basse-terre (Fr., 'lowland'), three places in 
 the West Indies.--<1) The capital of St Chris- 
 topher's or St Kitt's, on the west coast; pop. 
 9000. —(2) Capital of the French island of Guade- 
 loupe ; pop. 9500.— (3) The chief town of Marie 
 Galante, a dependency of Guadeloupe, which is 
 about 12 miles to the NW. 
 
 Bassora. See Basra. 
 
 Bass Rock, an island-rock of Haddingtonshire, 
 near the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 2 miles 
 from Canty Bay, and 3i miles ENE. of North 
 Berwick. Confronted by the ruins of Tantallon 
 
BASS STRAIf 
 
 85 
 
 BATHGATE 
 
 Castle, and composed of volcanic greenstone and 
 trap tuff, it is 1 mile in circumference, and 313 
 feet high, is inaccessible on all sides but the 
 south, and is denizened by myriads of solan 
 geese and other birds, which give it a snowy 
 appearance in the distance. In 756 St Baldred 
 died in a hermitage on the Bass Rock ; in 1671 
 Charles II. purchased it for £4000, and within its 
 dreary dungeons many Covenanters were con- 
 fined. Four young Jacobite prisoners captured, 
 and, with twelve more who joined them, held it 
 for King James, from June 1691 till April 1694. 
 In 1701 the fortifications were demolished, and 
 five years afterwards the Bass passed into the 
 possession of the Dahymples. See an interesting 
 volume by Hugh Miller and four others (1848). 
 
 Bass Strait, the isleted channel separating 
 Tasmania from Australia. It runs ISO miles 
 almost due east and west, and has an average 
 breadth of 140 miles. It was named after George 
 Bass, surgeon of H.M.S. Reliance, who in 1798 
 proved the existence of the channel. 
 
 Bastla (Dasiee'a), a seaport of Corsica, 95 miles 
 NNB. of Ajaccio by rail. It was founded in 1383 
 by the Genoese, and till 1811 Avas the capital of 
 Corsica. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Basutoland, a British possession in Soutli 
 Africa, lying between Cai)e Colony, Natal, and 
 the Orange River Colony, witli an area of 10,300 
 sq. m.— nearly as large as Belgium — with a popu- 
 latioTi of 650 Europeans and 265,000 Basutos, a 
 people either belonging to the Bechuana stock 
 or closely allied thereto. The country is one 
 continuous rugged plateau, has the best grain 
 land in South Africa, and admirable pasture ; 
 the climate is perfect, and the scenery beautiful. 
 Basutoland was annexed to the Cape Colony in 
 1868, but separated from it in 1884 ; it is governed 
 by a resident commissioner under the High Com- 
 missioner for South Africa. 
 
 Batangas, a seaport of the Philippine island 
 of Luzon, 50 miles S. of Manilla, on an extensive 
 bay opening into the Strait of Mindoro. It was 
 founded in 1581. Pop. of town and district, 
 40,000. 
 
 Bata'via, properly the name of the island 
 occupied by the ancient Batavi, becaine at a 
 later date the Latin name for Holland and the 
 whole kingdom of the Netherlands. The name 
 Batavian Republic was borne by the Netherlands 
 from 1795 till 1806. 
 
 Batavia, the capital of the Dutch East Indian 
 possessions, stands on the NW. coast of Java, 
 near the mouth of the Tjiliwong. That small 
 and shallow river is connected with a network of 
 canals which intersect the town ; and the influ- 
 ence of a vertical sun on the canals made Batavia 
 proverbial as the grave of Europeans. The 
 temperature, though not extreme, is oppressive 
 from its uniformity, the mean of winter being 
 78 -1° F., and that of summer only 78-6°. 
 Latterly, the climate has been improved by 
 draining, and niost of the merchants live in the 
 healthier suburbs, farther inland. The old town 
 now contains mainly shops, stores, offices, and 
 the houses of natives and Chinese. During the 
 day, however, it is a busy place ; and in it are 
 still the town-house, the exchange, the great 
 poorhouse, a hospital, &c. The bay is spacious, 
 but very sliallow towards the shore. Batavia is 
 accessible only to boats ; and since 1880 the 
 government has constructed a great harbour 
 some distance to the eastward at Tanjong Priong, 
 connected with the capital by road, rail, and 
 canal. To seaward the bay is protected by a 
 
 range of islands and sandbanks. Its markets 
 present at once all the productions of Asia and 
 all the manufactures of Europe. The exports 
 include coffee, rice, indigo, hides, arrack, sugar, 
 tin, pepper, teak, tea, and tanmrinds ; the im- 
 ports, cottons, woollens, silks, machinery, iron 
 goods, and wine. In 1811, while Holland was 
 under France, Batavia was taken by the English, 
 but was restored to its former owners in 1816. 
 The Dutch government has laid a telegraphic 
 cable of 600 miles from Batavia to Singapore. 
 Population, 120,000. 
 
 Batavia, a post-village of Western New York, 
 on Tonawanda Creek, 36 miles NE. of Buffalo by 
 rail. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Batchian. See Moluccas. 
 
 Bath, the chief city of Somerset, is beautifully 
 situated in the wooded valley of the sinuous 
 Avon, 12 miles ESE. of Bristol, and 107 W. of 
 London. Its houses are built wholly of white 
 freestone — ' Bath oolite,' worked in the neigh- 
 bouring quarries. Set in a natural amphitheatre, 
 with Lansdown Hill (813 feet) to the north, the 
 city has a finer appearance than any other in 
 England. The beauty and sheltered character of 
 its situation, the mildness of its climate, and 
 especially the curative efficacy of its hot chaly- 
 beate springs, have long rendered it a favourite 
 fashionable resort. The springs were known to 
 the Romans, who here in the 1st century a.d. 
 built baths, of whicli extensive remains have 
 been discovered. Tlie temperature of the springs 
 varies froin 97° to 120° F, The water is most 
 useful in bilious, nervous, and scrofulous com- 
 plaints, palsy, rheun)atism, gout, and cutaneous 
 diseases. Besides a beautiful park (1830), Bath 
 has the Assembly Rooms (1771), the Guild-hall 
 (1766), the Pump-room (1797), the Mineral Water 
 Hospital (1737-1861), and the new baths (1887). 
 The Abbey Church (1499-1616) is a cruciform 
 Late Perpendicular structure, with a fine fan- 
 tracery ceiling in the style of Henry VII. 's 
 chapel, and a central tower 162 feet high. On 
 Lansdown Hill is Beckford's Tower, 130 feet 
 high, built by the eccentric author of Vathek. 
 South of the city is Prior Park, built in 1743 by 
 Ralph Allen, Fielding's friend, and now a 
 Catholic college. There are several other edu- 
 cational establishments. Bath returns two mem- 
 bers to parliament, and conjointly with Wells is 
 the seat of a diocese. It has no manufactures of 
 importance ; but it has given name to a kind of 
 bun, to wheeled invalid chairs, and to 'bricks' 
 (made of very fine sand from the Parrel River) 
 used for cleaning metal. Coal is found in the 
 neighbourhood. Pop. (1881) 51,814 ; (1901) 
 49,817. Traditionally founded by a British 
 prince, Bladud (863 B.C.), Bath is really of great 
 antiquity. It was a Roman station called Aquce 
 Solis, at the intersection of the great Roman 
 ways from London to Wales, and from Lincoln 
 to the south coast of England. Richard I. 
 granted Bath its earliest extant charter. It 
 figures frequently in literature, in the works of 
 Smollett, Fielding, Anstey, Madame D'Arblay, 
 Miss Austen, Dickens, &c. See works by Warner 
 (1800), Scartli (1864), Sir G. Jackson (1873), Peach 
 (1873-86), King and Watts (1885), Meehan (1897). 
 
 Bath, a city and port of entry, Maine, U.S., 
 on the Kennebec River, 35 miles S. of Augusta. 
 Shipbuilding is the chief industry. Bath was 
 incorporated as a town in 1780, and as a city in 
 1850. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Bathgate, a town of Linlithgowshire, 20 miles 
 W. by S. of Edinburgh. Freestone, coal, carbon- 
 
BATHtTRST i 
 
 Iferous limestone, ami bituminous shale have 
 been extensively wrouglit in the vicinity— the 
 last since 1862. There are also large paraffin and 
 paper works, a distillery, &c. In 1824 the town 
 was constituted a free burgh of barony, in 1865 a 
 
 galice-burgh. Sir James Simpson was a native. 
 op. 5331. 
 
 Bath'xirst, a name applied to various localities 
 in honour of Earl Bathurst, Colonial Secretary 
 (1812-28).— (1) Bathurst in New South Wales, 
 the first county settled beyond the Blue Moun- 
 tains, is bounded NE. by the Macquarie, and 
 SW. by the Lachlan. Besides its gold-fields 
 (discovered in 1851), it has also slate-quarnes, 
 copper-mines, and silver-mines. The chief town, 
 Bathurst, on the Macquarie River, 144 miles W. 
 of Sydney by rail, is now the third in New South 
 Wales. Erected into a municipality in 1862, it 
 contains a government railway workshop, and 
 has manufactures of soap, candles, glue, boots, 
 leather, beer, &c. It is the seat of an Anglican 
 and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Pop. 9870.— (2) 
 Bathurst Island, off North Australia, close to 
 the much larger Melville Island.— (3) Bathurst, 
 the principal settlement of the British colony on 
 the Gambia (q.v.). It is situated on St Mary's 
 Isle, a sandbank at the mouth of the river. Pop. 
 8000.— (4) An island in the Arctic Ocean, inter- 
 sected by the 100th meridian, and situated im- 
 mediately beyond the 75th parallel.— (5) Bath- 
 urst Inlet, an arm of the Arctic Ocean, pro- 
 jecting due south for 75 miles into the North 
 American continent, just touching the Arctic 
 circle and 110° west longitude.— (6) A division 
 in the east of Cape Colony. 
 
 BatignoUes, a northern suburb of Paris. 
 
 Bat Jan. See Moluccas. 
 
 Batley, a manufacturing town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 8 miles SW. of Leeds ; since 
 1868 a municipal borough, associated for parlia- 
 mentary purposes with Dewsbury, 1 mile distant. 
 Batley is a chief seat of the shoddy and heavy 
 woollen manufactures — array cloths, flushings, 
 pilots, druggets, &c. It has a town-hall (1864- 
 74), a free grammar-school (1612 ; reconstituted 
 1874), waterworks (1871-78), &c. Pop. (1851) 
 9308 ; (1871) 20,871 ; (1901, mun. borough) 30,321. 
 
 Batn-el-Hajar (' Womb of Rocks '), a stony 
 district of Nubia, stretching along the Nile in 
 the neighbourhood of the third cataract. 
 
 Baton Rouge, a city on the east bank of the 
 Mississippi, 129 miles above New Orleans, from 
 1847 to 1862, and again since 1880, the capital of 
 the state of Louisiana. It has a national arsenal 
 and barracks, a military hospital, a deaf and 
 dumb asylum, an elegant state-house, &c. Pop. 
 12,000. •' ^ > i- 
 
 Batoum', a town of Russian Transcaucasia, on 
 the Black Sea, 201 miles W. of Tiflis, and 575 of 
 Baku, by a railway (1883). The Berlin Congress 
 of 1878, in sanctioning the cession of Batoum by 
 Turkey to Russia, stipulated that it should not 
 be made into a naval station ; but the Russians 
 have rendered it a second Sebastopol, and in 1S86 
 withdrew its privileges as a free port. The 
 harbour is one of the best on the east coast of 
 the Black Sea. Pop. 30,000, mostly Russians. 
 Batoum was founded as Petra by one of Jus- 
 tinian's generals early in the 6th century a.d., 
 and figures as Vati in the middle ages. 
 
 Batshlan. See Moluccas. 
 
 Battersea, a SW. suburb of London, on the 
 Surrey side of the Thames, here crossed by the 
 Chelsea, Albert, and Battersea bridges. In the 
 
 5 BAVARIA 
 
 parish church (1777) is a inonument to Lord 
 Bolingbroke, who was born and died in a house 
 close by. Battersea Park, 185 acres in area, was 
 laid out in 1852-58 at a cost of £318,000. It is 
 now one of the London metropolitan boroughs. 
 Pop. (1901) 168,896. The parliamentary division 
 returns one member. 
 
 Battle, a town in Sussex, 6 miles NW. of 
 Hastings. An uninhabited heathland then, 
 Senlac by name, it received its present name 
 from the battle of Hastings, fought here on 
 14th October 1066, when William the Conqueror 
 overthrew King Harold. To commemorate his 
 victory, he founded in 1067, on the spot where 
 Harold fell, a splendid Benedictine abbey. The 
 so-called Battle Abbey Roll, generally assumed 
 to have been a list of William's followers, but 
 probably of Edward I.'s time or later, is sup- 
 posed to have perished in the burning of Cow- 
 dray House, near Midhurst, in 1793 ; and the 
 ten copies of it extant have all been grossly 
 tampered with. The abbey, two-thirds a ruin, 
 was bought in 1857 by Lord Harry Vane, after- 
 ward Duke of Cleveland. Pop. 2996. See works 
 by J. B. Burke (1848), Mackenzie Walcott (2d ed. 
 1867), and the Duchess of Cleveland (1889). 
 
 Battle Creek, a thriving town of Michigan, 
 on the Kalamazoo River, 45 miles SW. of Lan- 
 sing. It has flour-mills, iron-foundries, machine- 
 shops, &c. Pop. (1880) 7063 ; (1900) 18,563. 
 
 Battlefield, 3 miles NE. of Shrewsbury, the 
 scene of the battle of Shrewsbury (1403), in which 
 Hotspur was defeated and slain. 
 
 Battleford, in Saskatchewan, Canada, at the 
 junction of the Battle River with the Saskat- 
 chewan, 175 miles to the north of the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway. It was capital of the North- 
 west in 1876-83. 
 
 Batum. See Batoum. 
 
 Baturin', a town of South-west Russia, on the 
 Seim, 50 miles SSW. of Novgorod. Pop. 6850. 
 
 Batz, or Bas, a small island in the English 
 Channel, belonging to France, and situated off 
 the north coast of the dep. of Finistdre. Its 
 length is about 2J miles, and its breadth about 
 1} mile. It has three villages ; a fine haven, 
 that of Kernoc, and a lighthouse. Pop, 1184. 
 
 Bautzen {Bowt'zen; Wendish Budissin), a 
 town in Saxony, on the Spree, 35 miles W. of 
 Gorlitz. The chief buildings are a former cath- 
 edral (1497), and the castle of Ortenburg, dating 
 from 958, a frequent residence of the kings of 
 Bohemia. The manufactures include woollens, 
 fustian, linen, hosiery, leather, and gunpowder. 
 Pop. (1871) 13,165 ; (1900) 26,025. Here Napoleon 
 won a barren victory over the Russians and 
 Prussians, May 20-21, 1813. 
 
 Bavaria (Ger. Bayern), the second state of the 
 Gennan empire. It is divided into two unequal 
 parts, separated by Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 of which the eastern comprises eleven-twelfths 
 of the whole. Its frontiers touch also on Alsace- 
 Lorraine, Prussia, Bohemia, Austria, and the 
 Tyrol — the divisions are Bavaria upper and 
 lower, the Palatinate upper and lower, the three 
 divisions of Franconia, and Swabia. The area, 
 29,375 sq. m., is a little less than that of Scot- 
 land. In 1900 the pop. was 6,176,057; Munich, the 
 capital, had all but 500,000 inhabitants, and Nurem- 
 berg over 261,000. There are close on 4,500,000 
 Catholics to 1,750,000 Protestants and 55,000 Jews. 
 Bavaria is walled in on the SE., NE., and NW. 
 by mountains ranging from 3000 feet to close on 
 ,10,000 feet in height- highest elevation the Zug- 
 
BAWTRY 
 
 87 
 
 B£ACH¥ HEAD 
 
 spitz in the Noric Alps, 9665 feet high. The 
 interior is intersected in several directions by 
 various less elevated ranges, alternating with 
 extensive plains and fertile valleys. The country 
 is rich in wood, nearly one-third of its surface 
 being covered with forests, mostly of pine and 
 fir. The Rhine flows along the eastern boundary 
 of the Palatinate ; the Danube has a navigable 
 course of 270 miles in Bavaria ; the north part of 
 the state is in the basin of the Main. The soil is 
 very fertile, and the wealth of the country con- 
 sists almost wholly of its agricultural produce, 
 including wine and cattle. The chief minerals 
 are salt — a government monopoly — coal, and 
 iron, which is worked almost everywhere. Beer, 
 coarse linens, and woollens are the most im- 
 portant manufactures. The growth of the 
 population of Bavaria has been much checked 
 by the law that no marriage can take place 
 until the guardians of the poor are satisfied 
 that the persons wishing to marry have adequate 
 means to support a wife and family — a law 
 which has tended to increase inordinately the 
 number of illegitimate children. The three 
 Bavarian universities are at Munich, Wlirzburg, 
 and Erlangen, the last being Protestant. Bavaria 
 is a constitutional monarchy, the throne heredi- 
 tary in the male line. When Bavaria in 1870 
 became one of the states of the German empire, 
 she still retained certain privileges, including 
 the control of her home affairs, of her postal 
 system, and of her army in time of peace. The 
 anny forms two corps of the imperial army, 
 under the command of the king of Bavaria in 
 time of peace, but controlled by the emperor 
 of Germany in war. The legislature consists of 
 a chamber of senators and one of deputies. 
 The revenue of Bavaria is about £24,000,000, 
 which is more than enough to cover the total 
 expenditure. The public debt in 1892 was 
 £87,000,000, about two-thirds of it having been 
 contracted for railwaj^s. 
 
 Held successively ' by the Celtic Boii, the 
 Ostrogoths, and the Franks, Bavaria was con- 
 stituted first a margraviate, then a dukedom by 
 Charlemagne and his successors ; and in 1180 
 the crown was bestowed on a duke of the House 
 of Wittelsbach, ancestor of the still reigning 
 dynasty. The Rhenish Palatinate was added to 
 the ducal dominions in 1216 : in 1805 the duke 
 was, for services rendered, made a king by 
 Napoleon I. The Bavarians sided with Austria 
 in 1866, and took an active share in the Franco- 
 German war of 1870-71. 
 
 Bawtry, a village in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 8 miles SE. of Doncaster. Pop. of parish, 
 947. 
 
 Baya'mo, or San Salvador, a town in the 
 east of Cuba, on the northern slope of the Sierra 
 Maestra. It is connected by railway with Man- 
 zanilla. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Bayana, or Biana, a town of India, in the 
 Rajput state of Bhurtpur, 50 miles SW. of Agra. 
 Pop. 8758. 
 
 Bayazld', a town of Turkish Armenia, in the 
 province of Erzerum, on a spur of Ala Dagh, 
 15 miles SW. of the foot of Mount Ararat. From 
 15,000 prior to 1829 its pop. has dwindled to 5000. 
 In 1877 it was seized by the Russians, but was 
 restored by the Berlin Congress of 1878. 
 
 Bay City, the fourth town of Michigan, U.S., 
 on the Saginaw River, 4 miles from Saginaw 
 Bay, and 108 miles NNW. of Detroit. It is an 
 important railway centre, Avith a large trade in 
 timber and salt, and some shipbuilding. Pop. 
 
 (1860) 1583 ; (1890) 27,839 ; (1900) 27,628. On the 
 opposite bank of the river are the consolidated 
 villages of Salzburg, Wenona, and Banks, known 
 as West Bay City, with a pop. of 12,981 ; and 
 the village of Essex (2000) adjoins the north end 
 of the city. An act of the state legislature of 
 1887 provided for the consolidation of these with 
 Bay City in 1891. 
 Bayem. See Bavaria. 
 
 Bayeux (Bah-yuh'), a city of Normandy, in the 
 French dep. Calvados, on the Aure, 15 miles 
 NW. of Caen. In its public library is the famous 
 'Bayeux Tapestry;' and its cathedral was rebuilt 
 after a fire by William the Conqueror in 1077, 
 tliough the present edifice dates mainly from 
 1106 to the 13th century. Pop. 7583. 
 
 Bay Islands, a small group in the Bay of 
 Honduras, 150 miles SE. of Balize. The cluster 
 was proclaimed a British colony in 1852, but in 
 1859 was ceded to Honduras. The chief of the 
 six islands is Roatan (30 by 9 miles; 900 feet 
 high). Pop. 5000. 
 
 Bay of Islands, a safe and extensive harbour 
 on the east coast of the northei-nmost portion of 
 the North Island of New Zealand. It is 11 miles 
 across, and nearly a hundred islands stud its 
 surface. Russell, a considerable port, is on the 
 south side of the bay. 
 
 Bayonne, a strongly fortified town in the 
 French dep. of Basses-Pyrenees, at the conflu- 
 ence of the Adour and Nive, 4 miles from the 
 Bay of Biscay, and 63 miles WNW. of Pan by 
 rail. Population (declining), 23,000. Spanish 
 in aspect, yet with a strong Basque admixture, 
 it has a 13th-century cathedral, an inviolate 
 citadel, one of Vauban's masterpieces ; and manu- 
 factures of brandy, liquorice, chocolate, bottles, 
 &c. Bayonne belonged to the duchy of Aqui- 
 taine, then to Gascony, and to the English from 
 1152 to 1451. In 1814 it was besieged in vain by 
 the British and Spanish allies. 
 
 Bayonne, a city of New Jersey, U.S., 6 miles 
 SW. of New York by rail, on the narrow pen- 
 insula to the south of Jersey City, between 
 New York and Newark Bays. It has a large 
 coal-dock, and chemical and other works. Pop. 
 (1880) 9372 ; (1890) 19,033 ; (1900) 32,722. 
 Bayreuth. See Baireuth. 
 Bayswater, a NW. suburb of London. 
 Baza (Roman Bastia), a town of Spain, 50 
 miles ENB. of Granada. Pop. 11,828. 
 
 Bazardjik, a town of Bulgaria, 26 miles N. of 
 Varna. Pop. 9545. — Tatar-Bazardjik, a town 
 of Eastern Roumelia, on the Upper Maritza, 23 
 miles W. of Philippopolis by rail, with warm 
 baths, and 15,659 inhabitants, having greatly in- 
 creased since the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78. 
 
 Bazeilles (Ba-zd'ye), a village in the French dep. 
 of Ardennes, near the Meuse, 4 miles SSE. of 
 Sedan. A pretty, well-to-do place, it was burnt 
 to the ground by the Bavarians on the day of 
 Sedan (1st Sept. 1870), but was rebuilt, in great 
 measure with British contributions. Pop. 1391. 
 
 Beachy Head, the loftiest headland on the 
 south coast of England, projecting into the 
 English Channel, 3^ miles SSW. of Eastbourne, 
 Sussex. It consists of perpendicular chalk-cliffs, 
 575 feet high, forming the east end of the South 
 Downs. The Belle Toute Lighthouse (1831), 2i 
 miles to the west, is 285 feet above the sea, and 
 is seen above 20 miles off. Off Beachy Head, a 
 French fleet beat the combined English and 
 Dutch fleets, 30th June 1690. 
 
BEACONSFIELD ! 
 
 Beaoonsfield, a quiet little market-town of 
 Buckiiighamsliire, 10 inileH N. of Windsor. It 
 is noteworthy as the lionie and the burial-place 
 of tlie \K>ei Waller and of Edmund Durko, and 
 as liaving given his earl's title to Benjamin Dis- 
 raeli. Pop. 1750. 
 
 Beaminster, a Dorset market-town, on the 
 Birt, 6 miles NNE. of Bridport. Pop. 2000. 
 Bearhaven. (See CASTr.inowN Beauhaven. 
 Bear Island, County Cork, in Bantry Bay, 
 measures 6^ by 1^ miles. 
 
 Bear Lake, Great, in the north-west of 
 Canada, in (JS^-CT" N. lat., and 117-123° W. long. 
 Lying 246 feet above sea-level, Great Bear Lake 
 is irregular in shape, with an area of 7012 sq. m., 
 or not nmch smaller than Wales. It sends forth 
 a river of its own name to the Mackenzie. 
 
 Beam, one of the thirty-two old French pro- 
 vinces now forming the greatest portion of the 
 dep. of Basses-Pyrenees. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly Gascons with a strong Basque infusion, 
 and they speak the purest Gascon dialect. Beam 
 virtually became a part of France on Henry IV. 's 
 accession (1593), but was only formally incorpor- 
 ated with it in 1620. 
 
 Bear River, a stream of Utah, U.S., which 
 rises in the Rocky Mountains, flows NW. into 
 Idaho, then bends round and again returns into 
 Utah, falling into Great Salt Lake. 
 
 BeJis, one of the ' Five Rivers ' of the Punjab, 
 rises in the Snowy Mountains of Kfllu, at 13,320 
 feet above sea-level, and flows 290 miles SW. to 
 the Sutlej, 30 miles above Ferozpur. 
 
 Beatrice, capital of Gage county, Nebraska, 
 on the Big Blue River, 40 miles by rail S. of 
 Lincoln, with limestone quarries, cement works, 
 flour and lumber jnills, &c. Pop. (1880) 2447 : 
 (1900)7875. 
 Beattock, the junction for Moffat (q.v.). 
 Beaucaire (Bo-kayr'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Gard, on the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, 14 m. 
 SSW. of Avignon. Vessels enter its harbour by 
 a canal from the Mediterranean. A July fair 
 once attended by 300,000 strangers, still does a 
 brisk trade in silks, wines, oil, &c. Pop. 8906. 
 
 Beauce (Boass), a fertile district of France, 
 partly in the deps. of Loir-et-Cher and Eure-et- 
 Loire, of which the capital is Chartres.— Also a 
 SE. county of Quebec province, Canada. 
 _ Beaufort (Bo-forr'), an Angevin town of 4317 
 inhabitants, in the French dep. of Maine-et- 
 Loire, 19 miles E. of Angers. Its ancient castle 
 came mto the hands of the Lancaster family at 
 the end of the 14th century, and gave name to 
 the natural sons of John of Gaunt. 
 
 Beaufort (Bo'forf), a port, N. Carolina, U.S., 
 at the mouth of Newport River. Pop. 2500 — 
 Also a port and watering-place of S. Carolina, on 
 Port Royal Island, and terminus of Port Royal 
 Railroad, 14 miles from the ocean. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Beaufort, West, a town of Cape Colony, near 
 the foot of the Nieuwveld Mountains, 338 miles 
 NW. of Capetown by rail. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Beaugency (Bo-zhon<'-see'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Loiret, on the Loire, 16 miles SW. of 
 Orleans by rail. Here the Germans defeated the 
 French, December 7-10, 1870. Pop. 3775. 
 
 Beaujolais {Bo-zho-lay'), a subdivision of the 
 old French province of Lyonnais, now forming 
 the northern part of the dep. of Rhone, and a 
 small part of Loire. 
 
 Beaulieu (Bew%), a village of Hampshire, 
 at the head of a creek, on the verge of the 
 
 3 BECHUANALANI) 
 
 New Forest, 6 miles NE. of Lymington. King 
 John here founded a Cistercian abbey in 1204. 
 
 Beauly (pron. Bewley), a village, 10 miles W. 
 of Inverness, with remains of a priory founded 
 in 1232. Beauly Firth (7 by 2 miles) is the upper 
 basin of the Moray Firth, and receives the river 
 Beauly, winding 10 miles NE. Pop. 859. 
 
 Beauma'ris, a seaport, watering-place, and 
 chief town of Anglesey, North Wales, on the 
 west side of the picturesque bay of Beaumaris, 
 near the north entrance to the Menai Strait, 
 3 miles N. of Bangor, and 239 miles NW. of 
 London. It has the ivy-covered remains of a 
 castle erected by Edward I., and a free grammar- 
 school. Till 1885 it united with Amlwch, Holy- 
 head, and Llangefni in returning one member. 
 Pop. (1871) 2291 ; (1901) 2310. 
 
 Beaune (Boane), a town in the French dep. 
 Cote d'Or, 23 miles SSW. of Dijon by rail, with a 
 fine 13th-century church, a splendid hospital, 
 founded in 1443 by Nicholas Rollin ; and a bronze 
 statue (1849) of Monge the mathematician. It 
 manufactures serges, woollen cloth, and cutlery, 
 and gives name to one of the best Burgundy 
 wines. Pop. 12,755. 
 
 Beauvais, the capital of the French dep. Oise, 
 situated in the valley of the Therain, 55 miles 
 NNW. of Paris. Of its unfinished cathedral, 
 begun in 1225, the choir, 153 feet high, is the 
 loftiest as well as one of the finest specimens 
 of Gothic in France. The industries include the 
 weaving of Gobelins tapestries (since 1664), and 
 the manufacture of cotton, woollen cloths, shawls, 
 and carpets. Population, 17,500. Beauvais was 
 known by the Romans as Ccesaroniagus, after- 
 wards as Bellovacum. In 1472 it was besieged 
 by Charles the Bold of Burgundy, with 80,000 
 men, when the women of Beauvais, under Jeanne 
 Hachette, displayed remarkable valour. 
 
 Beaver Dam, a city at the outlet of Beaver 
 Lake, Wisconsin, U.S., 61 miles NW. of Mil- 
 waukee, on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St Paul 
 Railway. It is the centre of a fertile district, 
 and has a university, various factories, and flour- 
 mills. Pop. 5222. 
 
 Beaver Falls, a village of Pennsylvania, U.S., 
 near the Beaver River's junction Avith the Ohio, 
 34 miles NW. of Pittsburgh. The 'Harmony' 
 society of economy controls most of the factories 
 here. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Bebek, a lovely bay on the European side of 
 the Bosphorus, with a palace (built 1725). 
 
 Beccles, a Suff'olk market-town and municipal 
 borough, on the Waveney, 8 miles W. of Lowes- 
 toft. It has a fine church with a detached 
 belfry, a good grammar-school, and large print- 
 ing-works. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Beohuanaland {Betcliooah'naland), a tract of 
 South Africa, inhabited by the Bechuanas, extend- 
 ing from the Zambesi to the Transvaal border. 
 The Bechuanas, who speak a Bantu language, also 
 occupy a considerable portion of the Transvaal. 
 British protection extends over Bechuanaland as 
 far north as 22' S. lat. since 1884. South of the 
 river Molopo a territory was proclaimed a crown 
 colony in 1885; its area is 51,000 sq. m., and its 
 population is about 70,000, of whom some 10,000 
 only are whites. The protectorate of Bechuana- 
 qTa n^"*'^'^'® ^^'® crown colony is in extent about 
 rfbO.OOO sq. in.— more than thrice as large as the 
 Iraiisvaal or the United Kingdom— with a popu- 
 lation of some 130,000. (For Rliodesia and the 
 lintish area farther north, see Rhodesia, Zam- 
 BEsiA, Matabeleland, Mashonaland.) Bechu- 
 
BECKENHAM 
 
 B£DLINGTON 
 
 analand is a portion of an elevated plateau 4000 
 to 5000 feet above sea-level, and though so near 
 the tropics, is suitable for the British race. 
 In winter there are sharp frosts, and snow falls 
 in some years. The rains fall in summer, and 
 then only the rivers are full. It is an excellent 
 country for cattle ; sheep thrive in some parts, 
 and there are extensive tracts available for corn- 
 lands. There are extensive forests to the north- 
 east, and to the west the Kalahari Desert, which 
 only requires wells dug to make it habitable. 
 The enormous quantities of buck which roam 
 over the land attest the productiveness of the 
 soil. Gold has been found near Sitlagoli, and 
 diamonds were discovered at Vryburg in 1887. 
 The province of Stellaland is principally inhab- 
 ited by Boers, and the rest of the country by 
 Bechuanas, speaking a Bantu language. Their 
 ancestors are said to have come from the north. 
 They have since 1832 been at enmity with the 
 Matabele, and in later years the Transvaal 
 Boers endeavoured to occupy their country. 
 During the native risings in 1878, the Bechuanas 
 invaded Griqualand West, and were in turn sub- 
 dued by British volunteers as far as the Molopo. 
 When the British government withdrew from 
 Bechuanaland in 1880, the natives, being help- 
 less, were left to the mercy of the Boers of the 
 Transvaal, whose harsh treatment in 1882 and 
 1883 led to the Bechuanaland expedition in 1884. 
 The administration of the protectorate was left 
 to three chiefs (Ivhama, Sebele, Bathoen) under 
 British protection, represented by a resident 
 commissioner under the High Commissioner for 
 South Africa. The colony of Bechnanaland was 
 incorporated with Cape Colony in 1895. 
 
 Beckenham, a town of Kent, 7 miles S. by E. 
 of London. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Becse, Old, a Hungarian town, on the Theiss. 
 Pop. 19,000.— New Becse, on the E. bank, 348 
 miles S3B. of Pesth, has a pop. of 7000. 
 
 Becskerek, a town of Hmigary, on the Bega 
 canal, 368 miles SSE. of Pesth by rail. Pop. 
 22J00. 
 
 Bedarleux (Bay-dar-yuli'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Herault, on the Orb, 27 miles NNW. of 
 Beziers by rail. Pop. 6046. 
 
 Beddgelert, a Carnarvonshire village, a great 
 tourist centre, near Aberglaslyn Pass, 12 miles 
 SE. of Carnarvon. ' Gelert's Grave ' is marked 
 by a few stones. 
 
 Bedford, the county town of Bedfordshire, on 
 the navigable Ouse, 49 miles NNW. of London 
 by rail. The Ouse is spanned here by two 
 bridges — a stone one of five arches, 306 feet 
 long, built in 1811 at a cost of £15,000, and an 
 iron one, built in 1888 at a cost of £6000. The 
 charitable and educational institutions are mostly 
 due to Sir W. Harper, Lord Mayor of London 
 (c. 1496-1573). He in 1566 founded a free school, 
 and endowed it with 13 acres of land in Holborn. 
 The enormously increased value of the property 
 (from £150 to £15,000 a year) enables the trustees 
 to maintain grammar, modern, and preparatory 
 schools for boys, the same class of schools for 
 girls, and almshouses. The chief manufacture 
 is that of agricultural implements. Lace-making 
 is also carried on ; straw-plaiting has declined. 
 An embankment beside the Ouse forms a pretty 
 promenade ; and a people's park of 00 acres was 
 opened in 1888. Bedford returns one member 
 (till 1885 two) to parliament. Pop. (1851) 12,093 ; 
 (1901) 35,144. Bedford (Ikdican-fortha) Avas the 
 scene of a battle between the Britons and Saxons 
 in 571. The Danes burned it in 1010. Bunyan, 
 
 who was born at Elstow, near Bedford, was for 
 twelve years a prisoner in Bedford jail, and 
 ministered to the Nonconformist congregation 
 in Mill Lane from 1672 to his death in 1688. 
 His chapel has been twice rebuilt, in 1707 and 
 1849 ; but his chair and otlier relics of him are 
 preserved ; whilst a colossal bronze statue of him 
 by Boehin was erected at the cost of the Duke of 
 Bedford in 1874. 
 
 Bedford Level, an extensive tract of flat land 
 in the east of England, embracing nearly all 
 the marshy district called the Fens. It extends 
 inland around the Wash into the six counties 
 of Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Lin- 
 coln, Norfolk, and Suffolk, and has an area of 
 about 750,000 acres. Its inland boundary forms 
 a horseshoe of high lands, and reaches the towns 
 or villages of Brandon, Milton (near Cambridge), 
 Earith, Peterborough, and Bolingbroke. Of the 
 three divisions, the north level lies between 
 the rivers Welland and Nene ; the middle, between 
 the Nene and the Old Bedford River ; and the 
 south extends to Stoke, Feltwell, and Milden- 
 hall. Intersected by many artificial channels, 
 as well as by the lower parts of the rivers Nene, 
 Cam, Ouse (Great and Little), Welland, Glen, 
 Lark, and Stoke, it receives the waters of the 
 whole or parts of nine counties. A great forest 
 at the coming of the Romans, and by them 
 rendered a fertile inhabited region, this district, 
 owing to incursions of the sea, became a morass 
 in the 13th century, but has been drained since 
 1634, mainly by the enterprise of Francis, Earl of 
 Bedford, the principal landholder — whence the 
 name. See Heathcote's Eeminiscences of Fen and 
 Mere (1876). 
 
 Bedfordshire, a midland county, the 37th of 
 the 40 English counties in size, and 36th in 
 population. Extreme length, 31 miles ; breadth, 
 25 ; area, 461 sq. m. The general surface is 
 level, with gentle undulations. In the south, 
 a range of chalk-hills, branching from the 
 Chilterns, crosses Bedfordshire in a north-east 
 direction from Dunstable, and another parallel 
 range runs from Ampthill to near the junction 
 of the Ivel with the Ouse. Between the latter 
 ridge and the north-west part of the county, 
 where the land is also somewhat hilly, lies the 
 corn vale of Bedford. No hill much exceeds 
 500 feet in height. The chief rivers are the 
 Ouse (running through the centre of the county, 
 17 miles in a direct line, but 45 by its windings), 
 navigable to Bedford ; and its tributary, the 
 Ivel, navigable to Shefford. There are extensive 
 market-gardens, especially on the rich deep 
 loams. Bedfordshire is the most exclusively 
 agricultural county in England, its cultivated 
 area being 88-1 per cent., against 79*3 for the 
 whole kingdom. Pop. (1801) 63,393; (1841) 
 107,936 ; (1901) 171,249. The principal proprietor 
 is the Duke of Bedford ; and his seat, Woburn 
 Abbey, is the chief mansion. Lace-making and 
 straw-plaiting are leading industries, carried on 
 almost entirely by women. Bedfordshire is 
 divided into nine hundreds and 122 parishes. 
 Two members of parliament are returned for 
 the county, one for the Biggleswade, and one 
 for the Luton division. Many British and 
 Roman antiquities exist, as well as the ruins 
 of several monasteries. Three Roman roads 
 crossed the county, and several earthwork camps 
 remain. 
 
 Bedlington, a Northumberland township, 5 
 miles SE. of Morpeth. Here about 1800 Mr 
 Aynsley bred the famous Bedlington terriers. 
 
fiEDNOR 90 
 
 Bednor', Bednur, or Naoar, a decayed city, 
 now a village, of Mysore, India, 150 miles NW. 
 of Seringapatain. It was at one time the seat 
 of government of a rajah, and its pop. exceeded 
 100,000. In 1763 it was taken by Hyder Ah, 
 who pillaged it of property to the estimated 
 value of £12,000,000. 
 
 Bedwellty, a mining urban district of Mon- 
 mouthshire, with ironworks, 7 miles from Ponty- 
 pool. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Bedwln, a Wiltshire town, 5 miles SW. of 
 Huiigerford. Pop. of parish, 1627. 
 
 Bedworth, a market-town of Warwickshire, 3 
 miles S. of Nuneaton. Pop. of parish, 7485. 
 
 Beer, a Devon fishing-village, IJ mile SW. of 
 Axniouth. 
 
 Beeston, an urban district of Notts, 3 miles 
 from Nottingham. Pop. 8960. 
 
 Beeston Bock, a steep eminence (366 feet) in 
 Cheshire, 2 miles S. of Tarporley, with a ruined 
 castle (1220). 
 
 BegharmL See Bagirmi. 
 
 Bugles, a town of France, in the department 
 Giroiide, 2 miles S. from Bordeaux. Pop. (1901) 
 12,061. 
 
 Beg-Sh^hr, or Kereli Gol, a mountain lake 
 in Asia Minor, 44 miles SW. of Konia. Lying 
 almost 3700 feet above the sea, it is over 30 
 miles long, from 5 to 10 miles broad, and contains 
 several isLands. On its east and north shores 
 are the towns of Begshehr and Kereli. 
 
 Behar, or Bahar (also Bihar), once one of 
 the three provinces under the Nawab of Bengal, 
 now one of the four great provinces of Bengal, 
 occupying part of the valley of the Ganges, com- 
 prising the two divisions of Patna and Bhagal- 
 pur, and subdivided into 12 administrative dis- 
 tricts. Area, 44,200 sq.m. ; pop. (1901) 24,241,395. 
 The Ganges divides the province almost into 
 two equal parts ; it is watered besides by several 
 of its important tributaries. — Kooch Behar is a 
 native state near Bhotan, under the lieutenant- 
 governor of Bengal ; area, 1307 sq. ra. ; pop. 
 578,863. Its capital is also Kooch Behar, or 
 Euch Behar. 
 
 Behar, or Bahar, a town of Bengal, 54 miles 
 SE. by S. of Patna. The original city is nearly 
 deserted, and the present town consists of houses 
 scattered about its remains, and interspersed 
 with fields, gardens, and groves. Silk, cotton 
 cloths, and muslin are manufactured here. Pop. 
 45,000. 
 
 Behiatim, or Bisutun (anc Baghistan), the 
 site of an ancient Persian city, 22 miles E. of the 
 city of Kirraanshahan. It is noted for its famous 
 precipitous rock, which on one side rises per- 
 pendicularly to the height of 1700 feet, and 
 which bears cuneiform inscriptions of Darius 
 Hystaspes about 515 b.c. 
 
 Behring Strait separates Asia from America, 
 and connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean. 
 The proof that the two continents were not con- 
 nected was given by a Cossack named Deschnev, 
 who in 1648 sailed from a harbour in Siberia, in 
 the Polar Ocean, into the Sea of Kamchatka. 
 But his voyage was regarded by Europeans 
 as a fable, until Behring's expedition in 1728. 
 The strait was explored and accurately described 
 by Cook in 1778. The narrowest part is near 66° 
 lat., between East Cape in Asia, and Cape Prince 
 of Wales in America, where the capes approach 
 within 36 miles ; about midway are three unin- 
 habited islands. The greatest depth is some 30 
 
 BELFAST 
 
 fathoms.— Behrino Sea, called also the Sea of 
 Kamchatka, is that part of the North Pacific 
 Ocean to the S. of Behring Strait. The right 
 of sealing in Behring Sea, long a source of diffi- 
 culty between Britain and the United States, 
 was settled by arbitration in 1893.— Behring 
 Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian 
 Islands, has an area of 30 sq. m., and was the 
 place where Vitus Behring, or Bering, the dis- 
 coverer, was wrecked and died in 1741. 
 
 Beilan', a pass in the northern extremity of 
 Syria, on the east shore of the Gulf of Scanderoon, 
 runs across the mountain-range of Amanus. It 
 is the common route from Cilicia into Syria. 
 The town of Beilan (pop. 5000) is situated near 
 the summit-level of the pass, 1584 feet above the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Beira (Bay'ee-ra), a Portuguese province ; area 
 about 9222 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,517,432. The 
 surface is mountainous ; the rivers are the Douro 
 and Tagus. It is divided into the districts of 
 Aveiro, Castello Branco, Coirabra, Guarda, and 
 Vizeu. The capital is Coimbra. 
 
 Belra, a small town (pop. 5000) in Portuguese 
 East Africa, near the mouth of the Pungwe 
 River, 12 miles from the point whence the rail- 
 way towards Mashonaland starts. 
 
 Beiram. See Bairam. 
 
 Beit-el-Fakih, a town of Yemen, Arabia, near 
 the Red Sea, 87 miles N. of Mocha. Hodeida, on 
 the Red Sea, is the port. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Beith, a small town of North Ayrshire, on the 
 borders of Renfrewshire, 18 miles SW. of Glasgow 
 by rail. It has large cabinet-works and the 
 Speir School (1887), resembling the old college 
 at Glasgow. Pop. 4963. 
 
 Beja (Bay'zha; Roman Pax Julia), a town in 
 the province of Alemtejo, Portugal, 101 milea 
 SE. of Lisbon by rail. It has a castle and a 
 cathedral. Pop. 8887. 
 
 Bejapur. See Bijapur. 
 
 Be jar, a to\vn of Spain, 45 miles S. of Sala- 
 manca. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Bekaa. See C(ele-Syria. 
 
 Bekes, or Bekesvar, a town of Hungary, at 
 the confluence of the Black and White KOros, 
 113 miles SE. of Pesth. Pop. 25,700. 
 
 Bekes Csaha, a town of Hungary, 7 miles S. of 
 Bekes by rail. Pop. 37,243. 
 
 Belbeis (anc. B^ibastis Agria), a town on the 
 east ann of the Nile, Lower Egypt, 28 miles 
 NNE. of Cairo. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Belchl'te, a town of Spain, on the Aguas, 22 
 miles SSE. of Saragossa. Here, on June 18, 
 1809, the French completely routed the Spanish- 
 Pop. 3279. 
 
 Belem'. See Lisbon. 
 
 Belem', or Para', capital of the Brazilian 
 province of Para (q.v.). 
 
 Belfast', the largest and most prosperous city 
 in Ireland, since 1898 a county apart from Antrim, 
 is situated mainly on the left bank of the Lagan, 
 at its entrance to Belfast Lough (12 x 3 miles). 
 It is 12 miles from the Irish Sea, 101 N. of 
 Dublin, 130 SW. of Glasgow, and 156 NW. of 
 Liverpool. On the Antrim side the picturesque 
 hills, rising almost to the dignity of mountains, 
 have an impressive eff"ect, and the general aspect 
 of the to^vn is bright and animated. Though the 
 seat of the linen industry, with a number of 
 mills and manufactures of several kinds, Belfast 
 has a much more pleasant appearance than most 
 
BELFAST 
 
 dl 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 British manufactm-ing towns. On each side of 
 the spacious loughj which resembles in some 
 respects the Lake of Geneva, are a number of 
 pleasant villas, whilst in the higher suburb of 
 Malone, and along the Lisburn Road, handsome 
 edifices of a similar character have sprung up. 
 A fine large new street called Royal Avenue was 
 in 1884 driven through the centre of the town 
 from York Street to Donegal Place. It contains 
 the new post-office, the Ulster Reform Club, the 
 offices of the Water Commissioners, and the free 
 library, which, with many fine shops, form a 
 very imposing thoroughfare. The Queen's College, 
 a handsome brick building, was opened in 1849. 
 The Presbyterian College in 1881 had, in con- 
 junction with the Magee College of Londonderry, 
 the power conferred on it of granting theological 
 degrees. The Catholics and Methodists have 
 colleges of their own, while a Royal Academical 
 Institution and the Belfast Academy, with other 
 institutions of a similar character, supply great 
 educational facilities. Simultaneously with drain- 
 age and other improvements in the town, the 
 Harbour Commissioners have been engaged in 
 greatly improving the quays and the harbour. 
 With this object they had already expended 
 £500,000 when, under an Act of 1883, they 
 obtained power authorising an additional ex- 
 penditure of about a million of money more. 
 Recent improvements are a through channel and 
 a deep-water quay, new parks, new hospitals, 
 and a Protestant cathedral (1899-1904). Tlie 
 linen trade is by no means the sole staple, 
 several industries having since 1S55 greatly de- 
 veloped, notably shipbuilding ; others are rope- 
 making, the manufacture of aerated waters, 
 and the whisky trade. At intervals there liave 
 been serious riots between the lowest classes of 
 Protestants and Catholics. Belfast is a town of 
 great energy, steadily growing, and handsome 
 beyond most large commercial and manufactur- 
 ing towns. Amongst famous natives are the 
 physicists Thomas Andrews, Lord Kelvin, and 
 his brother. Professor James Thomson ; Sir J. 
 Emerson Tennant; Sir Samuel Ferguson; and 
 the painter Lavery. In 1888 it became a city, in 
 1892 its mayor became Lord Mayor, and in 1898, 
 much extended in area, it was made ' the county 
 of the city of Belfast.' Pop. (1821) 37,117 ; (1851) 
 102,103; (1881) 208,122; (1891) 255,950; (1901) 
 349,180, See George Benn's History of Belfast 
 (1877). 
 
 Bel'fast, a port of entry in Maine, U.S., on 
 the west side of Penobscot Bay. Pop. 4294. 
 
 Belford, a town of Northumberland, 15 miles 
 SSE. of Berwick-on-Tweed. Pop. of parish, 
 854. 
 
 Belfort (BeZ-/orr'), capital of the French remnant 
 ot the dep. of Haut-Rhin, 117 m. ENE. of Dijon 
 by rail. From 1870 this remnant (235 sq. m.), 
 taking its name from the town, has been called 
 the Territoire de Belfort (or, alternatively, Haut- 
 Rhin), and consists of those portions of Haut- 
 Rhin which, seized by the Germans during the 
 Franco-German war, were restored to France in 
 1871. The strategical importance of Belfort was 
 recognised by France on its cession by Austria 
 in 1648, and it was fortified by Vauban. A 
 fortress of the first rank, it maintained, from 3d 
 December 1870 till 16th February 1871, a gallant 
 defence against the Germans. It then capitu- 
 lated, the defenders marching out with all the 
 honours of war. The fortifications have been 
 enormously strengthened since 1874. Pop. (1872) 
 8014 ; (1901) 32,570 ; of territory (1901) 92,304. 
 
 Belgard, a Prussian town of Pomerania, on the 
 Persante, 16 miles SSW. of Koslin. Pop. 7617. 
 
 Belgaum', or Belgam, the chief city of a dis- 
 trict in the presidency of Bombay, situated to the 
 E. of the dividing ridge of the West Ghats, at a 
 height of 2500 feet above the sea, 55 miles NE. of 
 Goa. Its fort in 1818 was taken from the Peishwa 
 by the British. The chief articles of commerce 
 are dry fish, salt, dates, cocoa-nuts, coir. Cotton 
 cloth is manufactured here. Pop. 36,800. 
 
 Belglojoso (Bel-ji-o-yo'zo), a town of Lombard y, 
 North Italy, 9 miles E. of Pa via. Pop. 3168. 
 
 Belgium (Fr. Belgiqite), one of the smaller 
 European states, consists of the southern portion 
 of the former kingdom of the Netherlands (as 
 created by the Congress of Vienna), lying be- 
 tween France and Holland, the North Sea and 
 Rhenish Prussia. Its greatest length from north- 
 west to south-east is 173 miles ; and its greatest 
 breadth from north to south, 105 miles. The 
 area is 11,373 sq. m., not a third of that of 
 Ireland. Pop. (1880) 5,520,009; (1901) 6,693,548. 
 There are nine provinces— Antwerp, West Flan- 
 ders, East Flanders, Hainault, Li6ge, Brabant, 
 Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur, of which 
 Luxemburg is the largest and Limburg the 
 smallest. Brussels, the capital, is, with its 
 suburbs, the largest town (pop. 565,000) ; Antwerp 
 is half its size ; Liege and Ghent have more than 
 150,000 inhabitants ; and there are twenty other 
 towns with over 20,000. The population of 
 Belgium is of partly Gennanic, partly Celtic 
 origin. The Flemings (of Teutonic stock) and 
 Walloons (Celtic in origin) speak each their own 
 dialects of Dutch and French ; there are also num- 
 bers of Gennans, Dutch, and French, East and 
 West Flanders, Antwerp, and Limburg are almost 
 wholly Flemish; and Brabant mainly so. The 
 line between the Flemish and Walloon districts 
 is sharply defined, the Flemish part being the 
 richest and most cultivated. The French lan- 
 guage has gained the ascendency in educated 
 society and in the offices of government ; but 
 the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the 
 proportion of nine to eight. Belgium is next to 
 England the most densely peopled country in 
 Europe, the population being 589 to the sq, m., 
 as compared with 558 in England, witliout Wales 
 (150 in Scotland, 136 in Ireland). In Brabant 
 the density is close on 1000 per sq. ra. 
 
 Belgium is, on the whole, a level, and even low- 
 lying country ; diversified, however, by hilly dis- 
 tricts. In the south-east, a western branch of 
 the Ardennes highlands (2000 feet) separates the 
 basin of the Maas from that of the Moselle. The 
 unfertile Campine, composed of marshes and 
 barren heaths, extends along the Dutch frontier. 
 In Flanders dykes have been raised to check the 
 encroachments of the sea. The abundant water- 
 system of Belgium is chiefly supplied by the 
 great navigable rivers Scheldt and Maas, both of 
 which rise in France, and have their embouchures 
 in Holland. These rivers have numerous and 
 important tributaries, and there are some 40 
 canals (563 miles). Of the total area, almost 
 two-thirds are in ordinary cultivation, more 
 than one-eighth is meadow and pasture, one- 
 sixth is under Avood, and less than 600,000 
 acres are waste or water. Good pasturage is 
 found on the slopes and in the valleys of the 
 hilly districts, and in the rich meadows of the 
 low provinces. Beet is largely grown ; and the 
 level provinces raise wheat, rye, oats, and barley, 
 leguminous plants, hemp, flax, colza, tobacco, 
 hops, dye-plants, chicory, and a little wine. It 
 
BSLOItrM 92 
 
 has been said that the agriculture of Belgium 
 ia gardening on a large scale, so carefully and 
 laboriously is every inch of soil cultivated by 
 the fanners, the vast majority of whom are small 
 holders owning less than one hectare (about 2^ 
 acres) of land. The spade is still the principal 
 implement used. Belgium is famous for its 
 horses. In the Campine, honey, silk, and fine 
 butter are produced. There are valuable fisheries 
 on the coast. Belgium is rich in minerals, which 
 yield great quantities of coal and iron, with 
 lead, copper, zinc, calamine, manganese, aluin, 
 peat, marble, limestone, granite, and slate. 
 The chief manufactures are linen, woollens 
 ^with carpets), cotton, silk, lace, leather, metals 
 (especially iron and iron goods), paper, glass, 
 porcelain, and beet-sugar. Among the principal 
 articles of export are coal, flax, linen, woollen 
 and cotton goods, glass, firearms, and nails. 
 More than a third of the whole is consigned to 
 France, and most of the remainder to Germany, 
 England, and Holland. The chief imports are 
 cereals and flour, raw textiles, vegetable sub- 
 stances, chemicals, minerals, timber, resin and 
 bitumen, hides, tissues, coffee, animals, meat, 
 yarns, wines. The sea-borne trade is almost 
 entirely in British hands. In 1902 the imports 
 were valued at over £94,227,000, and the exports 
 at over £77,000,000. Tliese sums exclude the 
 value of 'goods in transit,' which may amount 
 to some £70,000,000 more. The commercial in- 
 tercourse of Belgium witli Great Britain in 1902 
 amounted to £26,550,000 for exports from Bel- 
 gium, and £12,620,000 for imports into it. In the 
 middle of the 13th century, Flanders, with Bruges 
 as its chief seat of manufactures, had surpassed 
 all its neighbours in industry. After the dis- 
 covery of America, Antwerp took the place of 
 Bruges. The unhappy period of Spanish oppres- 
 sion and the war in the Netherlands deeply 
 depressed Flemish commerce. But Belgium has 
 long been again a busy and prosperous com- 
 mercial country, the separation from Holland 
 having been indirectly favourable to the develop- 
 ment of Belgian resources. Belgium employs the 
 French decimal system of weights, measures, and 
 moneys. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the dominant religion. 
 Although full liberty of worship is guaranteed to 
 all, and the ministers of each denomination are 
 paid by the state, almost the entire population 
 are Roman Catholics, the number of Protestants 
 being set down at 10,000, of Jews at 4000. There 
 are over 1200 conventual houses, inhabited by 
 4000 monks and 21,000 nuns. Diversity of dia- 
 lects has retarded the formation of an independ- 
 ent national literature to act as the bond of 
 national unity. The Flemish element— the most 
 important— has done much of late to foster the 
 Flemish tongue, and if possible secure its pre- 
 dominance. Painting and architecture formerly 
 flourished in the wealthy old towns of Flanders ; 
 and m modern times a revival of art has taken 
 place. There are universities at Ghent, Li^ge, 
 Brussels, and Louvain, and an elaborate school 
 system, partly secular, partly Catholic. 
 Military service is by conscription, all males 
 ■J^A ^^^^ '^'^^^^ ' ^"^ substitution is per- 
 1^'of, m ® ^^""y- °" ^ P^^ce footing, numbers 
 48,8U officers and men; in war time, 154,780, 
 besides the garde civique, of 43,647 men. The 
 importance of Belgium in a military point of 
 yie\v affords a reason for the maintenance of 
 fortifications at Antwerp, Dendermonde, Namur, 
 Diest, Liege, and other places. The chief arsenal 
 18 at Antwerp. In 1902 the revenue of Bel- 
 
 gium was £20,031,000, leaving a margin over the 
 expenditure, £19,901,000 ; while the national debt 
 was under £112,000,000. The interest is more than 
 covered by the revenue from the railways, for 
 which the debt was almost entirely contracted. 
 
 The Gallia Belgica of the Romans passed under 
 the sway of the Franks, and fell later to the 
 Burgundian princes. On the death of Charles 
 the Bold in 1477 it passed by marriage to the 
 House of Hapsburg. The Spanish Netherlands 
 remained (unlike the northern provinces which 
 rebelled against Spain and became a Protestant 
 republic) under the Spanish branch of the Haps- 
 burgs, till in 1713 they were transferred to 
 Austria. From 1794 Belgium was under French 
 sway, but on the fall of Napoleon was united 
 with the kingdom of the Netherlands. It re- 
 belled in 1830, and since then has had a separate 
 career as a limited constitutional monarchy. 
 The legislative body consists of two chambers — 
 the Senate, and the Chamber of Representatives, 
 non-resident members of the latter body being 
 paid a small salary during the session. Both are 
 elective bodies. 
 
 See descriptive works on Belgium by Genon- 
 ceanx (1879), Hynians (1880), "Wauters (1882), and 
 Scudanioie (1901) ; and histories by Juste (1868), 
 Moke (1881), Hymans (1884), and Boulger (1902). 
 Belgorod' (Russian Bjelgorod, ' white town '), a 
 town in the Russian government of Kursk, on 
 the Donetz, 412 miles S. of Moscow by rail. It 
 is an archbishop's see, and has manufactures of 
 leather, soap, and woollens, and three important 
 fairs. Pop. 26,097. 
 
 Belgrade' (Serb. Bielgorod, ' white town '), the 
 capital of Servia, lies opposite Semlin, at the 
 confluence of the Save and Danube, 215 miles 
 SSE. of Pesth, and 234 miles NNW. of Vranja, by 
 rail. The walls have disappeared since 1862 ; the 
 last and finest of the five gates was demolished 
 in 1868 ; and the citadel is hardly up to the 
 requirements of modern warfare. Year by year 
 the town is losing its old Turkish aspect, becom- 
 ing more modern, more European. The royal 
 palace, the residence of the metropolitan, the 
 national theatre (1871), and the public offices are 
 the principal buildings. Opposite the theatre ia 
 a bronze monument (1882) to the murdered 
 Prince Michael III. Belgrade has but trifling 
 manufactures of arms, cutlery, saddlery, silk 
 goods, carpets, &c. It is, however, the entrepot 
 of the trade between Turkey and Austria. Pop. 
 (1872) 26,674; (1900) 69,100. Belgrade is the 
 Singidunum of Ptolemy. Its position has made 
 it the chief point of communication between 
 Constantinople and Vienna, and the key to 
 Hungary on the south-east. The Greeks held it 
 until 1073, after which it passed through the 
 hands of Hungarians, Greeks again, Bulgarians, 
 Bosnians, and Servians, who sold it in 1426 to 
 the Emperor Sigismund. In 1440 it was un- 
 successfully besieged by the Turks ; and when 
 stormed (1456), was retaken from the Turks by 
 the heroism of Hunyadi and Capistrano. Of 
 seven more sieges between 1522 and 1789 the 
 chief was in 1717, Avhen the citadel surrendered 
 to Prince Eugene, after he had defeated 200,000 
 Turks, with a loss to them of 20,000 men. In 
 1862, after a wanton bombardment from the 
 citadel, it was made the capital of Servia, 
 though the citadel remained with the Turks till 
 1867. 
 
 Belgravia, a district in the southern part of 
 the West End of London. 
 Belize (Be-leeze'), or British Honduras, a 
 
BELLA 
 
 93 
 
 BELUCHISTAN 
 
 British colony washed on the E. by the Bay of 
 Honduras, in the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere 
 surrounded by Guatemala and Mexico. It forms 
 the south-east part of Yucatan, and measuring 
 180 by 60 miles, has an area of 7560 sq. m., or a 
 little larger than Wales. In 1901 the population 
 was 37,480, of whom less than 2000 were whites. 
 The river Belize traverses the middle of the 
 country, and the llio Hondo and the Sarstoon 
 fonn respectively its north-western and its 
 southern boundary. The Cockscomb Mountains 
 (4000 feet) are the highest eminences, the land 
 all along the coast being low and swampy. The 
 country has a general tropical fertility ; its chief 
 exports are mahogany and logwood, besides 
 sugar, coffee, cotton, sarsaparilla, bananas, plan- 
 tains, and india-rubber. The name Belize is 
 probably a Spanish corruption of the name 
 Wall is, one of the early British settlers ; other- 
 wise it is usually referred to the Fr. balise, 'a 
 beacon.' Those early settlers, buccaneers at 
 starting, then logwood-cutters, were frequently 
 attacked by the Spaniards ; but after 1798, when 
 they repulsed a fleet and a land-force of 2000 
 men, their occupation was formally acquiesced 
 in. Since 1862 Belize has ranked as a British 
 colony, with a lieutenant-governor, whose rank 
 was raised in 1884 to that of governor. Belize, 
 the capital, is a depot for British goods for 
 Central America, and has a pop. of about 6600. 
 See A. R. Gibbs's British Honduras (1883). 
 
 Bella, a town of Italy, 17 miles S. of Melfl. 
 Pop. 5830. 
 
 Bellaggio (Bellad'jo), an Italian village on the 
 spit between the arms of Lake Como. Pop. 966. 
 
 Bellaire, a town of Ohio, U.S., on the Ohio 
 River, 5 miles below Wheeling, with manufac- 
 tures of glass, nails, pig-iron, &c. Pop. 9934. 
 
 Bella'ry, the chief town of a district, 305 miles 
 NW. of Madras by rail. One of the principal 
 military stations in the presidency of Madras, 
 its fort crowns a high rock. Pop. 58,250. 
 
 Belleek, on the Erne in Fermanagh, from its 
 own clay formerly manufactured flue porcelain 
 (Belleek ware) and pottery. 
 
 Bellegarde (Bel-gard'), a second-class fortress 
 of France, in the dep. of Pyrenees-Orientales, 
 built by Louis XIV. in 1679. It is situated on 
 the Spanish conlines on the road leading over 
 the Col de Pertuis from Perpignan to Figueras. 
 
 Belle Isle, a British island in the Atlantic, 
 21 miles in circumference, midway between New- 
 foundland and Labrador. It gives name to the 
 strait on the south-west, 70 miles long, and 11 
 miles wide at the widest. — There is another small 
 island of the same name in the Bay of Concep- 
 tion, Newfoundland. 
 
 Belleisle-en-Mer, an island of the French dep. 
 of Morbihan, 8 miles S. of Quiberon Point. It is 
 11 miles by 7, and has an area of 330 sq. m. Pop. 
 10,117, chiefly engaged in flshing, and 2967 in the 
 fortifled seaport of Le Palais. 
 
 Belleville, an eastern suburb of Paris, now 
 enclosed by the line of fortifications. 
 
 Belleville, a town in the province of Ontario, 
 Canada, on the Bay of Quinte, Lake Ontario, 48 
 miles W. of Kingston by rail. Here is Albert 
 University (1857). Pop. 9516. 
 
 Belleville, a city of Illinois, U.S., 16 miles 
 SE. of St Louis. It has manufactures of iron 
 goods, thrashing-machines, and flour. Pop. 
 (1871) 8146 ; (1901) 17,484. 
 
 Belley, a town in the French dep. of Ain, 40 
 miles E. of Lyons. It has a cathedral dating 
 
 from 889, and fine lithographic stones are pro- 
 cured in the neighbourhood. Pop. 6385. 
 
 Bellingham, a Northumberland village, on the 
 North Tyne, 16 miles NNW. of Hexham. Pop. 
 of parish, 1268. 
 
 Bellinzo'na, or Bellenz, the chief town of 
 the Swiss canton of Ticino, on the river Ticino, 
 109 miles SSE. of Lucerne by rail. It still has 
 its three old castles. Pop. 5436. 
 
 Bellot Strait, the passage on the north coast 
 of North America, which separates North Somer- 
 set from Boothia Felix, and connects Prince 
 Regent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its east 
 entrance was discovered in 1852 by Lieutenant 
 Bellot. It is 20 miles long, and, at its narrowest 
 part, about 1 mile wide, running pretty nearly 
 on the parallel of 72°, between granite shores 
 which rise here and there to 1500 feet. A point 
 on the south shore, 71° 55' N., 95" W., is the 
 most northerly point of the North American 
 continent. 
 
 Bell Rock, or Inchcape, a reef of old red 
 sandstone rocks in the German Ocean, 12 miles 
 SE. of Arbroath, and nearly opposite the mouth 
 of the Tay. It is 2000 feet long ; at high water 
 of spring-tides it is covered to a depth of 16 feet, 
 at low water is partly uncovered to a height of 4 
 feet ; and for 100 yards around, the sea is only 3 
 fathoms deep. A lighthouse, 120 feet high, de- 
 signed by Robert Stevenson and Rennie, was 
 erected in 1807-10, at a cost of £61,331. 
 
 Bellshill, a Lanarkshire mining town, 9 miles 
 ESE. of Glasgow. Pop. 8786. 
 
 Bellu'no, a cathedral city of Northern Italy, 
 on the Piave, 42 miles N. of Treviso. Pop. 18,650. 
 
 Belmullet, a Mayo fishing-village, 49 miles 
 NW. of Ballina. Pop. 652. 
 
 Beloit, a city of Wisconsin, U.S., on Rock 
 River, 75 miles SW. of Milwaukee. It has a col- 
 lege (1847), foundries, &c. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Belper, a market-town of Derbyshire, on the 
 Derwent, 7^ miles N. of Derby. It owes its 
 prosperity to the cotton-works of Messrs Strutt, 
 one of whom was in 1856 created Lord Belper, 
 The manufacture of silk and cotton hosiery is 
 also largely carried on ; but nail-making has 
 declined. Pop. (1851) 10,082 ; (1901) 10,934. 
 
 Belt, the name given to two straits, the Great 
 and the Little Belt, which, with the Sound, 
 connect the Baltic with the Cattegat. The 
 Great Belt, nearly 40 miles long, and 10 to 
 nearly 20 miles broad, divides the Danish islands, 
 Zealand and Laaland, from Fiinen and Lange- 
 land. The Little Belt divides FUnen from Jut- 
 land. It is as long as the Great Belt, but narrows 
 from 10 miles to less than a mile. Both the 
 Belts are dangerous to navigation. 
 
 Belturbet, an Irish town, on the Erne, 9 miles 
 NW. of Cavan. Pop. 1675. 
 
 Beluchistan, or Baluchistan (Belootch'istan), 
 a country of Asia, bounded on the N. by Afghan- 
 istan, on the E. by Sind, on the S. by the Arabian 
 Sea, and on the W. by the Persian province of 
 Kerman. The frontier towards Afghanistan is 
 seldom anywhere clearly defined. Beluchistan, 
 which has a coa.st-line of over 500 miles, corre- 
 sponds in general with the ancient Gedrosia, 
 The area is about 133,000 sq. m., and the pop. 
 is estimated at some 1,050,000. Until 1810 Belu- 
 chistan was almost entirely a terra incognita to 
 Europeans. Most of the country indeed is still 
 unknown, but it has been crossed by several trav- 
 ellers ; the laying of the ludo- Afghan Railway 
 
BELUCHISTAN 
 
 94 
 
 BENARES 
 
 /by Quetta to Kandahar, 1885-94) through the 
 desert in the north-east, and the surveys of the 
 Indo-European Telegraph Company in the south, 
 have established its general features. The surface 
 is generally mountainous, more especially towards 
 the north, where branches of the great Suliman 
 Range, running north and south, rise to a height 
 of 12,000 feet. The ranges in the south generally 
 run east and west, parallel with the coast, and 
 the longitudinal valleys between fonn the prm- 
 cipal thoroughfares, there being no regular routes 
 in the country except those through the Bolan 
 and Mula passes to Quetta and Keldt. Even the 
 bottoms of some of the valleys have an elevation 
 of 5700 feet ; and the capital, Kelat, situated on 
 the side of one of them, is 6783 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Large deserts, rendered im- 
 passable in summer by sand-storms, and swept 
 fn winter by benumbing, piercing winds, occupy 
 hundreds of square miles of the country ; and 
 the rivers— unless after heavy rains, when those 
 in the north-east frequently inundate great tracts 
 of country— are inconsiderable, few of the streams 
 in the south appearing to be perennial at all. 
 The west is largely a land of drought, with 
 stretches of sand varied by bare hills and treeless 
 valleys. The temperature is one of striking and 
 sudden extremes, 125° F. in the shade having 
 been registered on the coast even in March, 
 although at Kelat, in February, water has been 
 observed to freeze as it was poured on the ground. 
 There are few cattle ; sheep, mountain goats, and 
 antelopes are numerous. The camel is the 
 ordinary beast of burden ; but in the north-west 
 serviceable horses are bred. The wild animals 
 include the tiger, leopard, wolf, hyena, ape, wild 
 ass, &c., and fish in great quantities are caught 
 oflf the coast. Wherever there is a sufficiency of 
 water the soil is productive — the lowlands yield- 
 ing rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, and tobacco ; and 
 the higher grounds, wheat, barley, madder, 
 maize, and pulse. The minerals are gold, silver, 
 copper, lead, antimony, iron, tin, sulphur, alum, 
 and sal-ammoniac, and in 1887 valuable petroleum 
 wells were discovered in the north. The only 
 nameworthy towns are the capital, KeMt (q.v.), 
 and Quetta. Gwadar, on the coast, is a fort and 
 a telegraph station. 
 
 The inhabitants belong to the distinct races of 
 Brahui and Beluchis. The former are the domi- 
 nant as well as the aboriginal race, and ai'e 
 hospitable and generous ; the latter, a hungry, 
 needy, greedy people, are largely nomadic. The 
 Brahui are usually referred, though doubtfully, 
 to the Dravidian stock. In appearance they are 
 short, sturdy, and strongly built, with round, 
 flat faces, and brown hair. Their dress is a 
 coarse calico tunic, with trousers fastened at the 
 ankles, and a skull-cap with sash of the same 
 colour. The Beluchis are of Iranian descent, 
 with a mingling of Tartar blood, and their lan- 
 guage closely resembles the modern Persian; 
 they are both numerically smaller and a more 
 recent element than the Brahui. They are tall, 
 with longer and more prominent features, and 
 are brave, but restless and prone to predatory 
 warfare, in which they frequently show them- 
 selves senselessly cruel. Both races are Moham- 
 medans of the Sunni sect. Besides these two 
 races, there are colonies of Persian descent 
 called Dehwars (' villagers '), and scattered fami- 
 lies of Luri, a sort of Gypsies of possibly Indian 
 origin. Beluchistan is, in a somewhat indefinite 
 manner, under the authority of the khan of 
 Keldt, who, with a revenue of about £30,000, 
 maintaina an army of 3000 men. For his hos- 
 
 tility, his capital was held (1839-41) by a British 
 force. In 1877 England obtained by treaty with, 
 the khan the right of permanently occupying 
 Quetta (which was annexed, with his consent, in 
 1887), and of having a political agent at KeMt ; 
 and the khan practically became a feudatory of 
 the Indian empire, and placed his territory at 
 the disposal of the British government for all 
 military and strategical purposes. With KeUt 
 may be reckoned the Las Bela. The semi-inde- 
 pendent Marri and Bugti tribes are administered 
 from Sibi. — British Beluchistan is a chief-com- 
 niissionership of British India, so constituted in 
 1887, out of the districts of Pishin, Thai Chotiali, 
 and Sibi, in south-eastern Afghanistan ; with 
 Khetran, the Zhob Valley, and the Gumal Pass 
 added later. British Belucliistan, some 46,000 
 square miles in area, has 310,000 inhabitants. 
 
 See Bellew's From the Indus to the Tigris (1874), 
 works on Beluchistan by Hughes (1877), Mac- 
 gregor (1882), Floyer (1882), and Oliver (1891), 
 and Thornton's Life of Sir R. Sandemau (1895). 
 
 Belvoir Castle (pron. Beever), Leicestershire, 
 7 miles W. by S. of Grantham, the magnificent 
 seat of the Duke of Rutland. 
 
 Bembato'ka, a bay on the NW. coast of 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Bembridge, a village near the east corner of 
 the Isle of Wight, 5 miles SE. of Ryde, giving 
 name to a division of the Tertiary formation. 
 Pop. 1100. 
 
 Bemersyde, Berwickshire, on the Tweed, 2J 
 miles NE. of St Boswells, the seat of the Haigs. 
 
 Bemerton, a Wiltshire parish, 1^ mile W. by 
 N. of Salisbury, the scene of George Herbert's 
 ministry. 
 
 Benares (Be-ndh'rez), or Varanasi, the most 
 sacred city of the Hindus, and one of the chief 
 towns of North India, situated on the northern 
 bank of the Ganges, 420 miles from Cal- 
 cutta. In the United Provinces of Agra and 
 Oudh, it is seventh in size of Indian cities. It 
 skirts the crescent-like Ganges for 3 miles, and 
 the high bank is lined continuously with broad 
 flights of ghats or stairs, leading to the innumer- 
 able temples and large substantial houses, which 
 present towards the river an imposing array of 
 towers and pinnacles and richly carved fa9ades. 
 Benares, however, is disappointing internally, 
 the streets being mere narrow lanes between 
 lines of tall, dismal houses. Among the chief 
 buildings are the Nepal ese Temple ; Aurungzebe's 
 mosque, with its two minarets 147 feet high; 
 Raja Jai Singh's observatory ; the Gopal Mandir, 
 wealthiest of all the temples ; the Bisheswar or 
 Golden Temple of Siva, the holiest of all ; and 
 the famous Monkey Temple, in the suburbs. 
 Other points of special interest are the well of 
 Mani Karniki, formed of Vishnu's sweat; the 
 Juana-vapi, or ' pool of knowledge ; ' and the Lat 
 Bhairo, a portion, it is believed, of one of Asoka's 
 pillars. At the Burning Ghat the bodies of 
 Hindus are reduced to ashes. The city counts 
 1450 Hindu temples or shrines, most of them 
 small, and 272 Mohammedan mosques. In the 
 European quarter there is the Government College, 
 a large freestone structure, with 700 students; 
 the Prince of Wales's Hospital ; and a town-hall. 
 By far the most important European work is 
 the Dufferin railway bridge over the Ganges, 
 opened in 1887, and 3518 feet long. Benares 
 draws immense revenues from the thousands of 
 pilgrims who visit it from all parts of India. It 
 has a considerable trade, not only in country 
 produce, but in English goods, jeAvellery, and 
 
BENAVENTE 
 
 95 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 precious stones. Its brass-ware, gold-cloth, and 
 lacquered toys are famous. Pop. (1901) 209,350. 
 A city of great antiquity, Benares (Sansk. Vdrd- 
 imsi) was for 800 years the headquarters of Bud- 
 dhism, In the 4th century b.c. it reverted to 
 Brahminism, the ancient faith, of which it has 
 ever since been the metropolis. It has been in 
 the hands of many temporal rulers — the Rajput 
 princes, the Mogul emperors, the Oudh nawabs — 
 being ceded by the latter to the British in 1775. 
 
 Benaven'te, a town of Spain, on the Esla, 34 
 miles N. from Zamora. Here Moore's retreat com- 
 menced, 28th December 1808. Pop. 4518. 
 
 Benbec'ula, one of the Hebrides, between 
 North and South Uist, 20 miles W. of Skye, 
 belongs to Inverness-shire. Measuring 6 or 7 
 miles either way, it is nearly 36 sq. m. in area, 
 low and flat, and consists chiefly of bog, sand, 
 and lake, with a very broken coast-line. Nearly 
 three-fourths of the area are under crofts and 
 farms. Pop. 1434. 
 
 Bencoo'len, capital of a Dutch residency on 
 the SW. coast of Sumatra. Owing to the surf 
 and coral reefs, landing is difficult ; tlie site is 
 low and swampy, and tlie houses are mostly built 
 on bamboo piles. Pepper and camphor are the 
 chief exports, but trade has declined. Bencoolen 
 ■was founded by the English (1686), but was ceded 
 to the Dutch in 1825. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Bender, a strongly fortified town, in the 
 Russian province of Bessarabia, on the Dniester, 
 82 miles NW. of Odessa by rail. The principal 
 industries are the manufacture of bricks, stone- 
 ware, paper, and leather, with agriculture, fishing, 
 and mining. It was captured by the Russians 
 from tlie Turks in 1770, 1789, 1806, and 1811, 
 and ceded to Russia in 1812. Pop. 44,684.— 
 Bender- Abbas is also another name for the town 
 of Gombroon (q.v.). 
 
 Ben'digo (for some time renamed Sandhurst), 
 a town of Victoria, on Bendigo Creek, 101 miles 
 by rail NNW. of Melbourne, in the centre of a 
 rich auriferous country. It owes its rise to the 
 discovery of gold here in 1851. The mines employ 
 4500 miners, and yield about 150,000 oz. per 
 annum. Bendigo was proclaimed a municipality 
 in 1855, a borough in 1863, and a city in 1871. 
 Pop. (1881) 28,662; (1891) 26,774 ; (1901) 41,900. 
 
 Beneven'to (anc. Beneventum), a city of Italy, 
 on a hill near the confluence of the Galore and 
 Sabato, 61 miles NB. of Naples by rail. It has 
 a citadel, a fine old archiepiscopal cathedral, and 
 a magnificent arch, erected in 114 a.d. to the 
 honour of the Emperor Trajan. From 1053, when 
 it was given to the pope by the Emperor Henry 
 III., until 1860, when it was united with the 
 kingdom of Italy, Benevento was governed 
 through a resident cardinal with the title of 
 Legate. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Benfieldslde, a Durham township, 13 miles 
 SW. of Gateshead. Pop. 7259. 
 
 Bengal' (old Bangdld), a name given to part of 
 British India, but variously signifying— (1) the old 
 historical presidency which, in pre-mutiny times, 
 comprised the greater portion of Northern India ; 
 (2) the modern military division, corresponding 
 in extent to the old presidency ; (3) the province 
 as it was till 1905, also called Lower Bengal, 
 comprising Bengal Proper (the division of Cal- 
 cutta and four other districts), Behar, Orissa 
 and Chota Nagpore ; (4) Bengal as divided in 1905 
 from Eastern Bengal and Assam, with 141.580 
 square miles and fifty-four millions of inhabit- 
 ants ; while Eastern Bengal (Chittagong, Dacca, 
 
 and Rajshahi divisions) and Assam has 106,540 
 square miles and thirty-one millions. The 
 undivided province before 1905 had an area of 
 151,000 square miles and seventy-five millions — 
 witli the native states, eighty millions, or more 
 than the United States of America. Only some 
 11,000 were British-born. Bengal comprises the 
 low-lying deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 
 and the alluvial plains stretching along their 
 lower courses; hemmed in on the N. by the 
 Himalayan ramparts. The distinctive features 
 of Bengal are its immense network of rivers, the 
 magnificent range of the Himalayas, the luxuri- 
 ant but fever-haunted Terai at the base of the 
 great mountain-chain, and the trackless forests 
 and jungles of the Sundarbans (Sunderbunds), 
 on the sea-face of the delta— the almost undis- 
 puted home of the tiger and rhinoceros. As com- 
 pared with Northern India, Bengal lias few very 
 large cities. Calcutta, the capital, is one of the 
 largest cities in the world, having, with suburbs, 
 a pop. of a million and a quarter ; the next 
 largest in the province being Patna, with 150,000. 
 
 The climate of the plains is similar to that of 
 the Indian seaboard everywhere — hot and humid. 
 But inland in Behar it is much drier, with hot 
 winds in summer ; while in ascending the hills, 
 every variety of climate is met with, till the 
 perpetual snow-line is reached. The ordinary 
 range of temperature in the plains is from about 
 52° F. in the cold season, to 103" in the shade in 
 summer. The people are mostly employed in 
 agriculture, and among the chief products are 
 indigo, jute, the opium poppy, oil-seeds, many 
 varieties of rice, cinchona, tea, tunneric, pepper, 
 the silk mulberry, cotton, sugar, and innumer- 
 able grains, spices, and drugs. Opium is a 
 government monopoly ; and cinchona is chiefly 
 grown at the government plantation at Darjil- 
 ing. Bengal has considerable mineral wealth ; in 
 Burdwan, coal, iron, and copper are worked. 
 The jute and cotton mills round Calcutta employ 
 over 40,000 hands. Standing far in advance of 
 the rest of India in education, the enlightened 
 classes in Bengal are largely employed in govern- 
 ment service. The province has five colleges 
 aflfiliated to the university of Calcutta, besides 
 nearly 30 ' institutions ' catalogued as giving 
 university education, besides higher and lower 
 schools, engineering, nonnal, and industrial 
 schools. 
 
 Within the province there is a great variety of 
 race, language, religion, and degrees of civilisa- 
 tion. A large proportion of the people are 
 descended from the Aryan stock ; but no sharp 
 line can be drawn between those called Hindus 
 and those reckoned aborigines or non-Aryan, as 
 many low-caste Hindus are wholly aboriginal in 
 blood. Bengal in 1905 had 25^ million Moslem 
 inhabitants (mostly in the upper classes), while 
 about 3 millions are semi-savage tribesmen, and 
 280,000 are returned as Christian converts, 
 Bengalis speaking Bengali number 40 millions ; 
 Hindustani speakers, 26 millions. As divided in 
 1905, Bengal contains 42 millions of Hindus and 
 9 of Mohammedans ; while Eastern Bengal and 
 Assam has 18 millions of Mohammedans and 12 
 of Hindus. In Bengal Proper the Santals are the 
 most notable aboriginal stock ; in the feudatory 
 states are the Kolarian or Dravidian Gonds, Kols, 
 and Bhuiyas, with Indo-Chinese tribes. The Mo- 
 hammedan conquest dates from 1200. See India. 
 
 Bengal, Bay of, a triangular portion of the 
 Indian Ocean, between India and the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula. The bay receives many large 
 rivers— the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, Mah- 
 
BENaAZI 96 
 
 anadi, Qodavery, Krishna, and Cauvery. On 
 the west coast there is hardly anything worthy 
 of the name of harbour ; on the east there are 
 many good ports— Akyab, Gwa, Mauhnain, Tavoy 
 River. The numerous islands include the Anda- 
 man, Nicobar, and Mergui groups. 
 
 Benga'zi (anc. Uesperis), a North African sea- 
 port, capital of the Turkish vilayet of Barca, on 
 the coast of the Gulf of Sidra. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Benguela (Ben-gay'la), a country of W. Africa, 
 bordering on the Atlantic, between Angola on the 
 N. and Mossaniedes on the S., and lying roughly 
 between 10° and 15° S. lat. and 12° and 17° E. 
 long. Its surface is generally mountainous, rising 
 from the coast-line inland in a series of terraces. 
 Sulphur, copper, and petroleum are found in the 
 mountains, and also gold and silver in small quan- 
 tities.— Sao Felipe de Benguela, the Portuguese 
 capital of the above region, on a level plain near 
 the sea, in 12° 33' S. lat., was once a great slave- 
 station. Pop. 2000 natives and a garrison of 100 
 men. The harbour is good, though difficult of 
 entrance. See Frmn Benguella to Yacca, by 
 Capello and Ivens (1883). 
 
 Benhar, East, a Linlithgowshire mining vil- 
 lage, li mile NNW. of Fauldhouse. Pop. 57a 
 
 Beni', an impetuous river of South America, 
 in the state of Bolivia, rises in the La Paz 
 Cordillera of the Andes, at a height of almost 
 12,000 feet, and joins the Mamore, after a course 
 of over 1000 miles, to form the Madeira, one of 
 the largest affluents of the Amazon. 
 
 Benlcar'lo, a town of Spain, 84 miles SW, of 
 Tarragona. Pop. 7913. 
 
 Benicla, capital of Solano county, California, 
 and formerly capital of the state, on the Car- 
 quinez Strait, 30 miles NE. of San Francisco. 
 It has a commodious harbour, and is the seat of 
 the U.S. Pacific arsenal. Pop. 2794. 
 
 Beni-Hassan, a village of Upper Egypt, on 
 the east bank of the Nile, remarkable for its 
 catacombs. 
 
 Benin', a country of Western Africa, lying 
 between the lower Niger and Dahomey. Once a 
 powerful kingdom, it is now broken up into 
 several small states, whilst all the coast-line is 
 British, included either in Lagos, or in the Niger 
 protectorate, which are separated by the Benin 
 River. The pop. is dense. The capital, Benin, 
 73 miles inland from the mouth of the Benin 
 River, has a pop. of above 15,000. Gato is a 
 centre for the palm-oil trade. The river Benin is 
 2 miles wide at its mouth, but has a troublesome 
 bar of mud. Benin was discovered by the Portu- 
 guese Alfonso de Aveiro (1486). 
 
 Benin, Bight of, that portion of the Gulf of 
 Guinea (q.v.) extending from Cape Formosa to 
 Cape St Paul, with a coast-line of 460 miles. 
 
 Benl-Souef , a town of Central Egypt, on the 
 nght bank of the Nile, 70 miles SSW. of Cairo. 
 A branch line of railway has been constructed 
 westward to Medinet el Fayum, and the town 
 is the entrepot of the fertile Fayum, and has 
 cotton-mills and alabaster quarries. Pop. 
 11,085. ^ ^ 
 
 Ben Law'era, a Perthshire mountain, flanking 
 the NW. shore of Loch Tay, and attaining 8984 
 feet, or with the cairn at the top (rebuilt in 
 1878), 4004. ^ 
 
 Ben Ledi (Leddy), a mountain (2875 feet) of 
 Perthshire, 4^ miles W. by N. of CaUander. A 
 jubilee cairn was erected on it in 1887. 
 
 Ben Lomond, a Scottish mountain (3192 feet) 
 
 BERBERAH 
 
 in the NW. of Stirlingshire, on the east side of 
 Loch Lomond, 13^ miles N. of Dumbarton. 
 
 Ben Maodhu'i, a mountain (4296 feet) of 
 South-west Aberdeenshire, one of the Cairn- 
 gorms, 18 miles WNW. of Castletown-of-Braemar. 
 
 Benmore, the name of several Scottish moun- 
 tains.— (1) Perthshire, 10 miles SW. of Killin, 
 3843 feet ; (2) in Assynt parish, Sutherland, 3234 
 feet ; (3) in Mull island, 3185 feet, &c. 
 
 Ben Nevis, a mountain of Inverness-shire, 7 
 miles SB. of Fort William, by a carriage-road 
 opened in 1880. The loftiest summit in Great 
 Britain, it has a height of 4406 feet, with a tre- 
 mendous precipice of 1500 feet on the north-east 
 side. Till a road to the top was made in 1883, 
 the ascent was difficult. A meteorological obser- 
 vatory was erected on the summit in 1883, and 
 beside it is now a shelter for travellers. 
 
 Ben-Rhydding, a hydropathic establishment 
 (1846), in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the 
 Wliarfe, 12 miles NW. of Leeds. Tlie name is a 
 modern coinage. 
 
 Ben Rinnes, a Banffshire mountain (2755 feet). 
 
 Bentham, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, on the Wenning, 12 miles WNW. of Settle. 
 Pop. of parish, 2273. 
 
 Bentley Priory, a seat in Harrow parish, 3 
 miles WNW. of Edgware. Queen Adelaide died 
 here. 
 
 Be'nue (spelt also Binue and Benuwe), an im- 
 portant river of Central Africa, forming the great 
 eastern affluent of the Niger, which it joins 230 
 miles above its mouth in the Gulf of Guinea. 
 Flowing through wide tracts of fertile territory, 
 and navigable for 700 miles, it is a highway into 
 the heart of the Soudan. Dr Barth describes it 
 as 800 yards wide, with a general depth in its 
 channel of 11 feet, and,' a liability to rise under 
 ordinary circumstances at least 30, or even at 
 times 50, feet higlier.' The Benue was explored 
 by Dr Baikie (1854 and 1862), and by Mr Flegel 
 (1879-83), who reached its sources, in the Adam- 
 awa country, in 7° 30' N. lat. and 13° E. long. 
 
 Ben Venue (Venoo'), a Perthshire mountain 
 (2393 feet) flanking Loch Katrine. 
 
 Ben Wyvis {We^vis or Wl'vis), a lumpish moun- 
 tain (3429 feet) of Ross-shire, 8 m. NW. of Dingwall. 
 
 Benzerta. See Bizerta, 
 
 Berar', a coinmissionership of India till 1902 
 under the resident of Hyderabad, and called 
 ' Hyderabad Assigned Districts,' but now in the 
 Central Provinces. It is bounded by Bombay 
 and the Nizam's dominions. Its length from 
 east to west is about 150 miles ; area, 17,710 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 2,754,000. Berar consists of six districts, 
 assigned to Britain under the treaties of 1853 
 and 1861 with the bankrupt Nizam of Hyder- 
 abad, but leased in perpetuity in 1902. Mainly 
 a broad and fertile valley running east and west, 
 between the Satpura and Ajanta ranges, it is tra- 
 versed by the Purna, a tributary of the Tapti. 
 EUichpur was the capital of the old kingdom. 
 
 Berat', a tovra of Albania, Turkey, 30 miles 
 NE. of the seaport of Avlona. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Berber, a town on the right bank of the Nile, 
 below the confluence of the Atbara. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Ber'berah, a seaport of British Somaliland, 
 with a good harbour, on a bay of the Gulf of 
 Aden. It was conquered by Egypt in 1875, but 
 in .July 1884 the British government took posses- 
 sion of it. A fair here brings over 30,000 people 
 together. 
 
BERBICE 
 
 97 
 
 BERKSHIRE 
 
 Berblce (Ber-heess'), the E. division of British 
 Guiana (q.v.), bounded on the E. by the Corentyn 
 and Dutch Guiana. Area, 21,000 sq. ni. The 
 Berbice River is navigable for small vessels 175 
 miles from its mouth. An important affluent 
 is the Canje. New Amsterdam, on the fight 
 bank of the Berbice River (pop. 9000), is the 
 chief town and port. 
 
 Berchtesgaden (Berhh-tez-gdh'den), a village of 
 Bavaria, on a mountain-slope, 15 miles S. of Salz- 
 burg. It has a royal castle (once an abbey) and 
 huge government salt-mines. Pop. 1901. 
 
 Berck-sur-mer, a harbour and bathing resort 
 in the French dep. of Pas -de-Calais, 22 miles S. 
 of Boulogne. Pop. 5752. 
 
 Berdiansk', a seaport of southern Russia, in 
 the government of Taurida, on the NW. coast of 
 the Sea of Azov, Pop. 28,180. 
 
 Berditchef , a town of Russia, 108 miles WSW. 
 of Kiev, with five annual fairs. Pop. 55,000. 
 
 Berehaven. See Castleton Berehaven. 
 
 Bere Regis, a Dorset town, 8 miles SSW. of 
 Blandford. Pop. of parish, 1144. 
 
 Beresina (Ber-e-zee'na), a river of Russia, rising 
 in the N. of the Lithuanian government of Minsk, 
 and flowing 350 miles S. (over 200 navigable) 
 to the Dnieper. It is memorable on account of 
 the disastrous passage of the French army, 
 November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow. 
 
 Bereslav, a town in the Russian government 
 of Kherson, on the Dnieper. Pop. 11,093. 
 
 Berezna, a town of Russia, in Tchernigov, on 
 a tributary of the Desna. Pop. 10,827. 
 
 Berezov', a town of Siberia, in the government 
 of Tobolsk, on a branch of the Obi. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Berezovsk, a village in the Russian province 
 of Perm, near Ekaterinburg, gives name to a 
 famous gold-fleld, wrought since 1744. 
 
 Berg, a former German duchy on the Rhine's 
 right bank, now incorporated with the Prussian 
 dominions, between Dusseldorf and Cologne. 
 
 Berga, a town of Catalonia, Spain, 52 miles 
 NNW. of Barcelona. Pop. 4735. 
 
 Ber'gama (anc. Pergdmos), a city of Asia Minor, 
 40 miles N. of Smyrna. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Ber'gamo (anc. Bergormtvi), a fortified town of 
 Lombardy, 34 miles NE. of Milan by rail. It 
 has a castle, a cathedral, and manufactures of 
 silk, cotton, linen, woollens, and iron goods. 
 Tiraboschi and Donizetti were natives. Pop. 
 43,819. 
 
 Bergedorf {Ber' gay-dorf), a town of Germany, 
 10 miles SE. of Hamburg. Pop. 9200. 
 
 Bergen (Ber'gen ; g hard), a seaport in the west 
 of Norway, and the second city of the kingdom, 
 situated on a promontory at the head of a deep 
 bay. The harbour is safe and commodious, and 
 around it the town is built, presenting a pictur- 
 esque appearance from the sea, with its cathe- 
 dral and wooden houses of various colours. It 
 has manufactures of gloves, tobacco, porcelain, 
 leather, soap, and cordage, besides distilleries 
 and shipbuilding yards. Its principal trade, 
 however, is the export of stockfish, herrings, and 
 fish-oil and roe. Since 1883 Bergen has been 
 connected by railway with the north of the Har- 
 dangerfjord. The chief imports are brandy, wine, 
 corn, cotton, woollens, hemp, sugar, tobacco, 
 coffee, &c. Bergen, formerly called Bjijrgvin (' the 
 pasture betwixt the mountains'), was founded 
 about 1070 by Olaf Kyrre. Often devastated by 
 fire between 1189 and 1855, it was long the 
 O 
 
 most important trading town of Norway, but 
 has been recently surpassed by Christiania. The 
 castle of Bergenhus was till 1397 the residence 
 of the Norwegian kings. Bergen was the birth- 
 place of Holberg, Dahl, Welhaven, and Ole Bull. 
 Pop. (1872) 30,252 ; (1901) 72,251. 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom (Ber-gen-op-Zoam' ; g hard), a 
 town of Holland, 21 miles N. by W. of Antwerjj, 
 stands on the little river Zoom, at its entrance 
 into the east branch of the Scheldt. It has a 
 harbour, manufactures of brick and earthen- 
 wares, and a large trade in anchovies. Strongly 
 fortified until 1767, Bergen-op-Zoom was repeat- 
 edly besieged by the Spaniards, French, and 
 English between 1581 and 1814. Pop. 14,419. 
 
 Bergerac (Berzh'erak), a town in the French dep. 
 of Dordogne, on the Dordogne, 60 miles E, of 
 Bordeaux by rail. Most of its inhabitants are 
 employed in the surrounding ironworks and paper- 
 mills. Its wines are esteemed. Pop. 15,485. 
 
 Bergholt, East, a Suffolk parish. Constable's 
 birthplace, on the Stour, 9 miles SSW. of Ips- 
 wich. 
 
 Bergues (Berg), a town and fortress in the 
 French dep. of Nord, on the Colme, 5 miles SSB. 
 of Dunkirk. Pop. 5380. 
 
 Berhampur, two towns in British India.— (1) 
 in Madras, a military station, 18 miles SW. of 
 Ganjam, and but 9 from the coast. Pop. 25,653. 
 — (2) in Bengal, on the Bhagirathi, 5 miles below 
 Murshidabad. It was long one of the principal 
 military stations in British India, and in 1857 
 was the scene of the first open act of mutiny. 
 Pop. 24,515. 
 
 Berl, (1) a town of India, in the British district 
 of Rohtak, Punjab, 36 miles W. by N. from 
 Delhi. Pop. 9695.— (2) A state in Bulidelkhand. 
 Area, 30 sq. m. ; pop. 4985. 
 
 Berja, a town of Spain, 22 miles W. of Almeria, 
 with lead-mines. Pop. 13,493. 
 
 Berkeley, a town of Gloucestershire, on the 
 Avon, 17^^ miles SW, of Gloucester by rail. It 
 lies in the Vale of Berkeley, which consists of 
 rich meadow pasture-land, and is celebrated for 
 its ' Double Gloucester ' cheese. Berkeley Castle, 
 on an eminence to the south-east, about 1162 
 was granted by Henry II. to Robert Fitzhardinge, 
 with whose descendants it has since continued, 
 they having held the title of Baron Berkeley 
 from 1295, and of earl and viscount from 1679. 
 Here Edward II. was murdered in 1327. Dr 
 Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, was a 
 native, and is buried in the parish church. Pop. 
 of parish, 890. See Smyth's Lives of the Berkeleys 
 (1884). 
 
 Berkeley, a town of Almeda county, Cali- 
 fornia, overlooking the Bay of San Francisco, is 
 the seat of the state university. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Berkeley Sound, an inlet of the East Falk- 
 land Island, near its north-eastern extremity. 
 
 Berkhamstead, a market-town of Hertford- 
 shire, on the Bulburn, 28 miles NW. of London. 
 Straw-plaiting is carried on, and manufactures of 
 wooden articles and chenucals. Cowper was a 
 native. Pop. of parish, 6034. 
 
 Berkovitza, a town of Bulgaria, 40 miles NNW. 
 of Sofia, on a tributary of the Danube. Pop. 5445. 
 
 Berkshire (Bark'shir), a midland county, 
 bounded by Gloucester, Oxford, Bucks, Surrey, 
 Hampshire, and Wiltshire. Its greatest length 
 is 53 miles ; its greatest breadth, 30 ; and the 
 area, 705 sq. m., or 451,210 acres, nearly one- 
 half of which is under tillage, one-fourth in pas- 
 
underground. At the 
 
 centre of the city is the old 
 
 Toj&l palace, with nearly 700 apartments. Near 
 <i.^.f ^ .^^ emperor's palace, the imperial resi- 
 
 o 1,300,000 volumes and 30,000 manuscripts ; the 
 old and new museums, the national gallery the 
 arsenal the royal theatre, the opera-house the 
 guard-house and the university. These are all 
 situated between the Spree and the east end of 
 the street Unter den Linden ' (so called from its 
 
 BERLAD 98 
 
 ture, and one-sixteontli in wood. Berkshire, 
 which is one of the most beautiful of the English 
 counties, lies in the valley of the Thames, and 
 lias an undulating surface, rising in some parts 
 into liills, of which White Horse Hill attains 893 
 feet. Tlie Tliames winds 100 miles along tlio 
 northern border of the county, whose other 
 rivers are its tributaries— the Kennet, Loddon, 
 and Ock. The Kennet is navigable for 30 miles. 
 The country between the fertile vales of Kennet 
 and tlie White Horse consists chiefly of sheep- 
 walks ; and along the Thames, and to the west of 
 the Ridge Way, or Downs, it is principally dairy 
 and i>asture land. The chief crops are oats and 
 wheat. 'Double Gloucester* and 'pine-apple' 
 cheese are sent in large quantities to London. 
 Swine are extensively reared. Berkshire is 
 divided into 20 hundreds, 151 parishes, and 12 
 poor-law unions. It returns five members to 
 parliament, one for each of the three divisions 
 (Abingdon, Newbury, Wokingham), one for Read- 
 ing (the county town), and one for Windsor. The 
 county contains besides, the municipal boroughs 
 of Newbury and Maidenhead, and the market- 
 towns of Faringdon, Hungerford, Wantage, Wok- 
 ingham, East Ilsley, and Lambourn. British 
 and Roman remains are numerous ; of the old 
 castles, the principal is Windsor; of monastic 
 establishments, the abbeys of Abingdon and 
 Reading. There are many Norman churches, 
 erected in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1836 
 Berlishire was transferred from the diocese of 
 Salisbury to that of Oxford. Pop. (1801) 110,480 ; 
 (1841) 161,759; (1901) 25G.509. See Lieut. -Col. 
 Cooper-King's History of Berkshire (1887). 
 
 Berlad {Bdrladu), a town of Lower Moldavia, 
 84 miles by rail NNW. of Galatz. Pop. 24,008. 
 
 Berlen'gas, a group of rocky islands in the 
 Atlantic Ocean, off the west coast of the Portu- 
 guese province of Estremadura. 
 
 Berlin', the capital of Prussia, and since 1871, 
 of the German empire, and the third largest city 
 of Europe, is situated on a flat sandy plain, iii 
 52° 30' N. lat., 13° 24' E. long., and is divided 
 into two nearly equal parts by the sluggish 
 Spree. The inconvenience of its low-lying situa- 
 tion in the midst of the sandy flats of Branden- 
 burg is more than made up for by the great 
 geographical advantages of its position in the 
 heart of Northern Germany. By rail it is 177 
 miles SE. of Hamburg, 101 NNE. of Leipzig 
 and 362 ENE. of Cologne ; whilst from Londoli 
 it can be reached in 25 hours, Paris in 23J and 
 Vienna in 15. The advance of the city has been 
 extraordinary. In 1804 the pop. was 182,157 ; in 
 
 ]^ i^aaL^^xf = '"^ 1^^^' 1.122,330; and in 
 1^, 1,888,848. It was not till the time of the 
 Great Elector,' Frederick- William (1640-88), that 
 the town became of consequence. In the 17th 
 century it received many French and Bohemian 
 religious refugees. Under Frederick the Great 
 it continued to prosper. Since the peace of I8I5! 
 Berlin has increased with extraordinary rapiditv ' 
 by reason of the high rents, a tenth of the Kula: 
 "Ifil"^,^" .^?.^,^ke up their abode ii/ce'ilars 
 
 BERMUDAS 
 
 double avenue of limes). The city is adorned 
 throughout with numerous statues of national 
 heroes, the Great Elector, Frederick the Great, 
 and many others. There are more than 20 theatres 
 in Berlin. The university, established in 1809, 
 lias 400 professors and lecturers and 6000 students, 
 with mu.seums, iii.stitutes, and library. Famous 
 jirofessors have been Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, 
 Schleierinacher, Eichhoin, De Wette, Neander, 
 Wolff, Savigny, Niebuhr, the brothers Grimm, 
 Ranke, Mominsen, Curtius, Lepsius, Dorner, 
 Treitsclike, Sybel, Dove, Giieist, Virchow, Helm- 
 holtz.Vant'Hoff, aiidHarnack. Otlier institutions 
 are the Academy of Sciences ; the Military 
 Academy; the Academy of Architecture; the 
 Academic High School (of art) ; the School of 
 Mines ; the School of Agriculture ; the Artillery, 
 Technical, and Engineering Colleges ; the In- 
 dustrial (1881), Ethnological (1886), and other 
 museums; the Academy of Music; and the Obser- 
 vatory. About 88 per cent, of the pop. are 
 Protestants, 7 per cent. Roman Catholics, and 
 5 per cent. Jews. Berlin has a cathedral, 
 rebuilt in 1893-95, 100 Protestant and 15 
 Catholic churches. Of these, the Nicolaikirche 
 (restored in 1880), Marienkirche (with a spire 
 295 feet high), and Klosterkirche, all of the 13th 
 century, are the oldest ; the Petrikirche (with a 
 tower 315 feet high) is the loftiest; and the 
 Michaelskirche (Catholic), Thomaskirche, Zions- 
 kirche, Dankeskirche (1884), and Heiligekreuz- 
 kirche (1887), are more recent. Tlie New Syna- 
 gogue (1866) has seats for 3000 persons. 
 
 The Old Museum contains antiquarian speci- 
 mens, a collection of 90,000 coins, a gallery of 
 ancient sculpture, and a picture-gallery with 
 about 1300 paintings. The New Museum con- 
 tains six magnificent mural paintings by Kaul- 
 bach in the grand staircase, a very valuable 
 collection of casts, the Egyptian museum, and 
 500,000 engravings. The National Gallery in- 
 cludes about 700 works by modern artists. The 
 celebrated Brandenburg Gate leads to the Thier- 
 garten. To the south-west of this lies the 
 Zoological Garden. The Botanical Garden (at 
 Sclwneberg) contains 25,000 sjiecies. Noteworthy 
 also are the Rathhaus, the royal chateau of 
 Monbijou, the Ruhmeshalle in the arsenal, the 
 Gothic monument on the Kreuzberg, the Column 
 of Peace in the Belle-Alliance-Platz, the Warriors' 
 Monument, the Column of Victory, the War Office, 
 the new building for the Reichstag, the Ex- 
 change, and the Reichsbank. Berlin now ranks 
 among the most important mercantile places of 
 continental Europe, and has large manufacturing 
 industries. 
 
 See, besides the guidebooks, Vizetelly, Berlin 
 under the New Empire (1879), and histories (in 
 German) by Wilken (1826), Fidicin (1852), Schwe- 
 bel (1882), &c. 
 
 Berlin, a town of Ontario, Canada, 62 miles 
 SW. of Toronto by rail. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Berlin, the name of forty different towns, 
 villages, hamlets, and townships in the United 
 States. The largest is a city of Coos county, 
 New Hampshire, on the Androscoggin River, 15 
 miles from Mount Washington. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Ber'mondsey, a south-east suburb of London, 
 on the south bank of the Tliames, and (since 1899) 
 one of tlie metropolitan boroughs. Pop. 130,760. 
 Bermu'das, or Somers' Islands, British pos- 
 sessions in Mid- Atlantic, 2900 miles from Liver- 
 pool, and 677 from New York. They were so 
 named from Bermudas, a Spaniard, who first 
 sighted them in 1515, and from Sir George Somers, 
 
BERMUDEZ 
 
 99 
 
 BERWICK-ON-TWEED 
 
 an Englishman, whose shipwreck here in 1609 
 was the immediate occasion of their colonisation 
 from Virginia in 1611. This low and lonely- 
 archipelago is a mere group of specks ; for though 
 it numbers perhaps 100 islets and more than 
 twice tliat number of rocks, yet it measures 
 only 19 sq. m. in all, the whole occupying a 
 space of about 14 miles in length by little more 
 than 5 in breadth. Tlie islands are composed 
 of blown coral sand, and are surrounded by a 
 living, growing reef of coral— the most northerly 
 of atolls. The great value of this natural for- 
 tress as a British naval station, defended by its 
 extensive barrier of reefs and rocks, with only 
 one or two intricate channels, arises from its 
 situation. In 32° 15' N. lat., and 64° 51' W. long., 
 the Bermudas occupy, commercially and politi- 
 cally, a singularly commanding position. In the 
 principal or Main Island is the seat of govern- 
 ment, Hamilton, on a deep inlet running 2 or 3 
 miles into the land. St George's contains the 
 picturesque town of the same name, and a land- 
 locked and fortified harbour. Ireland Island is 
 occupied by a dockyard and other naval establish- 
 ments ; and Boaz and Watford Islands have the 
 military depots and garrisons. At Ireland Island 
 also is the celebrated Bermuda Floating Dock, 
 towed out from England in 1869. The minor 
 islands of St David, Cooper, Smith, Nonsuch, 
 Godet, and others, form numerous picturesque 
 and deep creeks and bays. The group forms an 
 almost continuous chain, and with one break 
 there is uninterrupted communication by roads, 
 causeways, and bridges for 22 miles ; but from 
 the shape of most of the islands, and the number 
 of lagoons, the communications are largely by 
 water. The climate is tempered by an almost 
 constant sea-breeze, and the air is moist at all 
 seasons. The thermometer never falls below 40° 
 F., and seldoni rises above 85°. The islands are 
 becoming a popular holiday and winter resort, 
 especially for Americans. The soil is poor in 
 quality, and not more than a fourth is cultiv- 
 able at all ; still the raising of early vegetables 
 for New York is a great industry. Besides being 
 useful as a naval station, Bermuda was formerly 
 an important convict depot, but since 1862 it has 
 ceased to be so. The colony has a very complete 
 telegraph system. Pop. (1871) 12,121; (1901) 
 17,585, almost two-thirds of them coloured, and 
 more than half are members of the Cliurch of 
 England. See works by Lefroy (1882), Ogilvy 
 (1883), Dorr (New York, 1884), and Heilprin 
 (Phil. 1890). 
 
 Bermudez, a state in the NE. of Venezuela, 
 between the Orinoco and the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 Bern, or Bebne, a Swiss canton, bounded on 
 the N. by France. It is the most populous, and 
 next to the Grisons the largest canton of Switzer- 
 land ; its area being 2650 sq. m., and its pop. 
 (1900) 589,433— more than one-sixth of the total 
 inhabitants of Switzerland. Most of these are 
 Protestant and German-speaking. — Bern, the 
 capital of the canton, and since 1849 of Switzer- 
 land, 68 miles by rail SSW. of Basel, is situated 
 on a lofty sandstone promontory fonned by the 
 winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides. 
 It is one of the best and most regularly built 
 towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzer- 
 land. The houses are massive structures of free- 
 stone, resting upon shop-lined arcades. Rills of 
 water flow through the streets. The view of the 
 Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent. The 
 principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral 
 (1421-1573); the magnificent Federal Council 
 
 Hall (1857), the mint, the hospital, and the 
 university. Bern has an interesting museum, 
 and a valuable public library of 50,000 volumes. 
 Population, 65,000. Bern was foutided in 1191, 
 was made a free imperial city in 1218, under 
 Frederick II.; and between 1288 and 1339 success- 
 fully resisted the attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, 
 Albert his son, and Louis of Bavaria. The 
 'Disputation of Bern' between Catholics and 
 Reformers in 1528 (January 6-27) prepared the 
 way for the acceptance of the reformed doctrine. 
 On account of the traditionary derivation of its 
 name (Swabian bern, 'a bear'), bears are main- 
 tained in a public bear-pit. 
 
 Bernalda, a town in South Italy, in the pro- 
 vince of Potenza. Pop. 6976. 
 
 Bernard, Great St. See St Bernard. 
 
 Bernay, a French town in the dep. of Eure, 
 25 miles WNW. of Evreux. Pop. 6964. 
 
 Bemburg, a town in the German duchy of 
 Aidialt, till 1863 capital of Anhalt-Bernburg, on 
 the Saale, 23 miles S. of Magdeburg. It manu- 
 factures machinery, sugar, spirits, porcelain, 
 &c. Pop. (1871) 15,709 ; (1900) 34,500. 
 
 Berne. See Bern. 
 
 Ber'nera, (1) a Ross-shire island, 23 miles W. of 
 Stornoway, on the coast of Lewis. It measures 
 52 by 3J miles, and attains 223 feet. Pop. 585.— 
 (2) An Inverness-shire island, 1 mile N. of North 
 Uist, measuring 5J by 2 miles. Pop. 521. 
 
 Ber'neray, an Inverness-shire island, 14 miles 
 SSW. of Barra. Pop. 17. 
 
 Berni'na, a mountain of the Rhaetian Alps, 
 13,290 feet high, in the Swiss canton of Grisons. 
 Its summit was first attained in 1850. The Ber- 
 nina Pass (7642 feet), with a carriage-road (1864), 
 leads from Pontresina to Poschiavo. 
 
 Berre, :Etang de, a lagoon of France, dep. 
 Bouches-du-Rhone, 45 miles in circumference, 
 with salt-works and eel-fisheries. 
 
 Berri, or Berry, a former province of Central 
 France, now forming Indre and Cher deps. 
 
 Bervle, a seaport and one of the Montrose 
 burghs in Kincardineshire, near the mouth of 
 Bervie Water, 13 miles NE. of Montrose by rail. 
 Pop. 1207. 
 
 Berwick, North. See North Berwick. 
 
 Berwlck-on-Tweed (Ber'rick), at the mouth of 
 the Tweed, 58 miles ESE. of Edinburgh, and 67 
 N. by W. of Newcastle. The liberties of the 
 borough, called ' Berwick Bounds,' have an area 
 of 8 sq. m., and with Spittal and Tweedmouth, 
 form the * county of the borough of Berwick-on- 
 Tweed.' Though long boasting to be neither 
 in England nor Scotland, and still possessing 
 separate quarter-sessions and commission of the 
 peace, it is to all intents and purposes part of 
 the county of Northumberland (the adjoining 
 parts of which formed till 1844 a detached 
 portion of Durham); especially since by the 
 Redistribution Act of 1885 Berwick ceased to 
 return two members, and was for election pur- 
 poses merged in Northumberland. The town is 
 engirt with ramparts of Elizabeth's time, and has 
 large barracks (1719). Tweedmouth and Spittal 
 (the latter a favourite watering-place), on the 
 south side of the Tweed, have since 1835 both 
 been included within the municipality. They 
 are reached by a narrow stone bridge (1609-34) of 
 fifteen arches ; and the river is also spanned by 
 Robert Stephenson's magnificent viaduct (1850) 
 of 28 arches, 136 feet high and 2160 long. The 
 public buildings include the town-hall (1760), 
 
BERWICKSHIRE 
 
 100 
 
 BETHLEHEM 
 
 with a belfty 150 feet high, the corn exchange 
 (1868), and several churches, Presbyterian out- 
 numbering the Anglican. The harbour has been 
 improved by the construction of a wet-dock 
 (1873-76), at a cost of £40,000 ; there is a con- 
 siderable coasting trade, but the salmon-fishing, 
 ]ias fallen oft'. For the manufacture of agri- 
 cultural implements Berwick stands high, and 
 in Spittal there are several large artifi- 
 cial-manure works. Pop. (1841) 12,689; (1901) 
 13,437. Berwick, in the 12th century, was 
 the chief seaport of Scotland ; was captured by 
 Edward I. in 1296, was annexed to England in 
 1333, after the battle of Halidon Hill, and was 
 finally ceded by Scotland in 1482. See J. Scott's 
 HisUyry of Berwick (1888). 
 
 Berwickshire (Berrickshir), a Border county 
 of south-east Scotland, bounded by Haddington- 
 shire, the German Ocean, Berwick -on-T weed, 
 Northumberland, Roxburghshire, and Mid- 
 lothian. It extends from east to west 29 miles, 
 from north to south 21 miles, and has an area 
 of 464 sq. m., or 297,161 acres. Berwickshire is 
 divided into three districts — the fertile Merse, 
 the Lainmermoors, and Lauderdale. The coast, 
 19 miles in length, is rocky and bold, rising at St 
 Abb's Head and other points to heights of from 
 177 to 528 feet above sea-level, and having only 
 two bays, at Eyemouth and Coldingham. The 
 Lainmermoors, whose highest point in Berwick- 
 shire is Seenes Law (1683 feet), besides seventeen 
 other summits exceeding 1240, consist of Silurian 
 strata, stretching to St Abb's Head. The streams 
 — Blackadder, Whitadder, and Leader Waters — 
 are all tributaries of the Tweed, the Eye alone 
 flowing direct to the sea. Pop. (1801) 30.206; 
 (1841) 34,438; (1861) 36,613; (1901) 30,816. 
 Berwickshire returns one member to parlia- 
 ment. Agriculturally, Berwickshire occupies a 
 prominent position, 65 "4 per cent, of the entire 
 area being in cultivation, it has suffered pro- 
 portionally from the recent agricultural depres- 
 sion. The Earlston ginghams excepted, there 
 are no manufactures worth naming. The prin- 
 cipal towns are Duns, Greenlaw, Lauder, Eye- 
 mouth, Coldstream, and Earlston. The county 
 contains some very interesting examples, though 
 on a comparatively small scale, of Norman or 
 Pointed architecture, at Coldingham, Dryburgh, 
 &c. There are also the remains or sites of Fast, 
 Hume, and Cranshaws castles, and of British and 
 Roman camps and barrows, besides remains of a 
 curious broch-like structure at Edinshall, near 
 Duns. 
 
 Berwyn Mountains, a range (2716 feet) on the 
 border of Merioneth and Montgomery shires. 
 
 BesanQon {Be-zon«son% a fortified French city, 
 the capital now of the dep. of Doubs, and formerly 
 of Franche-Comte, on the river Doubs, 57 miles 
 E. of Dijon. It was the ancient Vesontio or 
 Besontium; in 58 b.c. C£esar expelled the Sequani 
 hence, and in the neighbourhood gained a victory 
 over Ariovistus. It finally came into the posses- 
 sion of France in 1674. Several streets still bear 
 old Roman names; and in the neighbourhood 
 are ruins of a triumphal arch, an aqueduct, an 
 amphitlieatre, and a large theatre. Among later 
 structures are the 12th-century cathedral, the 
 Palais de Justice (1749), and the half-Gothic, 
 half-Renaissance palace (1534) of Cardinal Gran- 
 vella. Besan(jon makes a large percentage of the 
 watches made in France, and 15,000 of its inhab- 
 itants are engaged in this industry, introduced 
 from Switzerland about 1818. Other manufac- 
 tures are porcelain, carpets, iron-wire, Seltzer- 
 
 water, and beer. Abel Remusat and Victor Hugo 
 were natives. Pop. 51,000. 
 
 Besika Bay (Be-zee'ka), a bay on the north- 
 west coast of Asia Minor, to the south of the 
 entrance of the Dardanelles. The English fleet 
 was stationed here during crises in the Basteru 
 Question, in 1853-54 and 1877-78. 
 
 Bessarabia, a government in the south-west 
 of Russia, on the Roumanian frontier. Area, 
 17,627 sq. m. ; pop. 1,932,175. The Dniester 
 flows along the whole of its northern and eastern 
 boundaries ; the Pruth separates it from Mol- 
 davia on the west ; and it has the Danube on the 
 south. In the north-west the country is traversed 
 by well-wooded offshoots of the Carpathian Moun- 
 tains ; generally, however, Bessarabia is flat and 
 fertile. Bessarabia, which fell under the power 
 of the Turks in 1503, was ceded to Russia in 1812. 
 By the Treaty of Paris the portions lying along 
 the Pruth and Danube— 3578 sq. m., with some 
 200,000 inhabitants — were assigned to Moldavia, 
 but by the Berlin Congress of 1878 were again 
 transferred to Russia. 
 
 Bessbrook, an Armagh market-town, 2 miles 
 NW. of Newry. Pop. 2977. 
 
 Besseges {Bes-sezh'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Gard, 21 miles N. of Alais. Pop, 9068. 
 
 Betanzos (Betan'thoas), a Spanish town, 10 
 miles SE. of Corunna. Pop. 8101. 
 
 Beth'any (' house of dates '), by the natives of 
 Palestine called ' El' Azariyeh ' or ' Lazariyeh ' 
 ('town of Lazarus'), is situated on the southern 
 slope of the Mount of Olives, 2208 feet above the 
 sea, 2 miles ESE. of Jerusalem. It was the 
 home of Lazarus and his sisters, often visited by 
 the Saviour, and the scene of his ascension. It 
 is now a poor place of some 200 inhabitants, with 
 nothing remarkable except the reputed house of 
 Martha and Mary, and the cave or grave of 
 Lazarus shown by the monks. — Bethany is also 
 the name of three German mission stations in 
 South Africa ; one in Great Namaqualand, one in 
 the Orange Free State, and one in the Transvaal. 
 
 Bethel ('house of God'), now called Beitin, 
 11 miles N. of Jerusalem, mentioned in Scripture 
 as the scene of Jacob's dream. The old name of 
 the place was Luz. Here Abraham pitched his 
 tent ; at a later date it was a resting-place of the 
 ark, a royal residence, and a seat of idolatrous 
 worship. It is a heap of ruins. 
 
 Bethesda, a small town of Carnarvonshire (so 
 named from its Nonconformist chapel), 4h miles 
 SE. of Bangor. Its inhabitants are mostly em- 
 ployed in the neighbouring Penrhyn slate- 
 quarries. Pop. (1861) 7346 ; (1901) 5281. 
 
 Bethlehem ('house of bread'), the birthplace 
 of Jesus Christ and of King David, and the 
 Ephratah of the history of Jacob, is now a small 
 unwalled village of white stone houses, 6 miles 
 S. of Jerusalem. The population, about 3000 
 souls, is wholly Christian — Latin, Greek, and 
 Armenian. The Convent of the Nativity, a large 
 square building, resembling a fortress, was built 
 by the Empress Helena, 327 a.d., but destroyed 
 by the Moslems in 1236, and, it is supposed, 
 restored by the Crusaders. Within it is the 
 Church of the Nativity, with a crypt below, 
 where the blessed Virgin is said to have been 
 delivered. 
 
 Bethlehem, a post-borough of Northampton 
 county, Pennsylvania, on the Lehigh River, 55 
 miles N. of Philadelphia by rail, is the principal 
 settlement in America of the Moravians, by 
 whom it was founded in 1741. It has silk, paint, 
 
BBf HNAL GftEEN 
 
 101 
 
 fettAGlRATfll 
 
 and flour mills, and is noted for its excellent 
 schools. Two bridges connect it with South 
 Bethlehem, the seat of Lehigh University (1866) 
 and other Episcopal institutions, and possessing 
 iron and steel works. Another borough. West 
 Bethlehem, separated from Bethlehem by Mono- 
 cacy Creek, contains silk and planing mills, 
 machine-shops, and dye-works. Pop. 7762. 
 
 Bethnal Green, an eastern suburb of London, 
 since 18S5 a parliamentary borough with two 
 divisions, and since 1899 one of the metropolitan 
 boroughs. It is largely peopled by silk-weavers, 
 an offshoot of the Huguenot settlement in Spital- 
 fields. Its museum is a branch of the one at 
 South Kensington. Pop. (1901) 129,680. 
 
 Bethsaida, a village on the western shore of 
 the Lake of Galilee, the birthplace of Peter and 
 Andrew and Philip. Its site has been identified 
 with a heap of grass-grown ruins. — At the north- 
 eastern extremity of the lake was another Beth- 
 saida, a village, near which the five thousand 
 were fed. 
 
 Bethune (Bay-tibi'), a town in the dep. of Pas- 
 de-Calais, on a rock overlooking the river Brette, 
 16 miles NNW. of Arras, with old fortifications by 
 Vaubau. It has bleaching-works and manufac- 
 tures of soap. It belonged in the middle ages 
 to Flanders, but was ceded to France by the 
 Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Pop. 1L398. 
 
 Bettia, a municipal town in the north-west 
 corner of Behar, India, on the line of the Tirhut 
 state railway. Pop. 22,780. 
 
 Bettws-y-Coed (Bettus-ee-Ko'ed), a tourist centre 
 in Carnarvonshire, North Wales, at the Llugwy's 
 influx to the Conway, 15 miles S. of Llandudno 
 Junction by rail. Pop. of parish, 840. 
 
 Betwa, a river in Bundelkhand, North-west 
 Provinces, India, which flows 360 miles north- 
 east to the Jumna. 
 
 Beulah Spa, 1 mile S. of Upper Norwood, was 
 much resorted to once, but is now built over. 
 
 Beuthen {Boy'ten), a town of Prussian Silesia, 
 121 miles SE. of Breslau. It lies in a mining 
 district, and manufactures woollen cloths and 
 earthenware. Pop. 52,500. 
 
 Bev'eland, North and South, two Dutch 
 islands in the Scheldt's estuary. South Beveland 
 is the largest and most fertile of the Zeeland 
 islands, with a pop. of 23,000. North Beveland 
 is low and marshy. 
 
 Beveren, a town of Belgium, 5^ miles W. by 
 S. of Antwerp. Lace-making is the principal 
 industry. Pop. 8023. 
 
 Beverley, the chief town of the East Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 1 mile W. of the river Hull, with 
 which it communicates by canal, and 8 miles 
 NNW. of the city of Hull. Its trade consists 
 in corn and coal ; and tanning and the manufac- 
 ture of agricultural implements are the staple 
 industries. The superb Gothic minster is 334 
 feet long and 167 across the transept ; the western 
 towers are 200 feet high. The 14th-century North 
 Bar is the sole survivor of four old gates. Bever- 
 ley arose out of a priory founded by St John of 
 Beverley (d. 721). The name is a corruption of 
 Beverlac, ' lake of beavers.' Incorporated in 1573, 
 Beverley till 1870 returned two members. Pop. 
 (1851) 10,058 ; (1891) 12,539 ; (1901) 13,183. 
 
 Beverloo', a village of Belgium, 12 miles NW, 
 of Hasselt. Pop. 1097. 
 
 Beverly, a town of Massachusetts, on an arm 
 of the Atlantic, opposite Salem, and IS miles 
 
 NE. of Boston by rail. It has a good harbour. 
 Pop. 13,821. 
 
 Bewcastle, a village of East Cumberland, 10 
 miles NE. of Brampton. A headless stone cross 
 in the churchyard, 14^ feet high, bears an Anglo- 
 Saxon runic inscription of the year 670. Pop. 
 of parish, 800. 
 
 Bewdley (formerly Beaulieu, from its pleasant 
 situation), a town of Worcestershire, on the 
 Severn, 3 miles WSW. of Kidderminster. A 
 municipal borough since 1472, it returned one 
 member till 1885. Pop. 2866. See Burton's His- 
 tory of Bewdley (1883). 
 
 Bex, a village in the Swiss canton of Vaud, 
 26 miles SE. of Lausanne, with great salt-mines, 
 salt-works, and sulphur-baths. Pop. 3958. 
 
 Bexar. See San Antonio. 
 
 BexMU-on-Sea, a Sussex watering-place and 
 municipal borough (1902), 5 miles WSW. of 
 Hastings. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Bexley, a town of Kent, on the Cray, 3 miles 
 W. of Dartford. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Beyerland, an island-district, 15 miles long, 
 of South Holland, between the Maas and the 
 Hollandsche Diep. 
 
 Beypur'. a seaport of Western India, in Mala- 
 bar district, Madras, near the mouth of the 
 Beypur River, 6 miles S. of Calicut. Since 1858 
 it is the terminus of a railway across India from 
 Madras via Coimbatore. Pop. 6739. 
 
 Beyrout, or BeirCt (Bay-roof ; Old Test. Ber- 
 othai or Berothah ; anc. Berytus), a flourishing 
 town, on the coast of Syria, and at the foot of 
 Lebanon, 55 miles from Damascus, and 147 from 
 Jerusalejn. It is a great seaport and emporium 
 of most of the trade with the shores of Syria, 
 Palestine, and Cilicia, with a regular service of 
 Egyptian, French, British, and other steamers. 
 The roadstead is full of sand-banks, and large 
 ships cannot approach within half a mile of the 
 shore, but shelter is found during stormy weather 
 in the Beyrout River, about 3 miles from the 
 town. Commerce has trebled within the last 
 fifty years. About half the total imports are 
 from Great Britain. In 1859 a line of omnibuses 
 was established here, and a French company 
 completed in 1863 a good road to Damascus, and 
 in 1895 a railway (across Lebanon) to Damascus 
 was completed ; in 1886 gas was introduced. Bey- 
 rout is an episcopal see of Greeks and Maronites, 
 and has Catholic and Protestant missions, with 
 an American college. Of 120,000 inhabitants only 
 30 per cent, are Mohammedans, and some 5000 
 are Europeans. 
 
 Bezdan, a market-town of Hungary, on the 
 canal joining Theiss and Danube. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 B^ziers (Bayz-yay'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Herault, 49 miles SW. of Montpellier, with 
 pre-Ronian remains, a noble Gothic cathedral, a 
 bishop's palace, and manufactures of silks and 
 woollens. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Bezwada, a town in Madras, on the left bank 
 of the Kistna, of growing importance. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Bhagalpur', or Boglipoor, a town of Bengal, 
 on the right bank of the Ganges (7 miles wide), 
 265 miles NW. of Calcutta. Pop. 76,000. 
 
 Bhaglrathi (Bageerut'tee), a branching arm of 
 the lower Ganges, divides the Murshidabad dis- 
 trict into two portions, forms the boundary line 
 between Nadiya and Bardwan districts, and joins 
 the Jalangi at Nadiya town to form the Hooghly 
 (q.v.). — Also a head-stream of the Ganges, rising 
 
BHAMO 
 
 102 
 
 feiELEFELi) 
 
 In Qangotri Peak, Garhwal, North-west Provinces, 
 which joins the Alaknanda at Deoprayag. 
 
 Bhamo', a town of Burma, at the head of the 
 navigation of the Upper Irawadi, 40 miles W. 
 of the Chinese frontier, and 300 NNE. of Man- 
 dalay. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Bhandara, a town of India, in the Central 
 Provinces, 40 miles E. of Nagpur. Pop. 13,150. 
 
 Bhanpura, or Bhampura, a walled town of 
 Central India, in ludore state, on the Rewa, 60 
 miles S. of Kotah. Pop. 13,400. 
 
 Bhartpur', or Bhurtpore', the capital of a 
 protected state in India, 35 miles W. of Agra by 
 rail. Lord Combermere captured it in 1827. 
 Pop. about 50,000. Area of state, 1974 sq. iii. ; 
 pop. 645,540, mostly Jats. 
 
 Bhatgaon, a town of Nepaul, 8 miles SB. of 
 Khatmandu. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Bhaunagar, the capital of a Bombay native 
 state, on the Gulf of Cambay, 60 miles NW. of 
 Surat. Pop. 57,653. Area of state, 2860 sq. ra. ; 
 pop. 400,323. 
 
 Bhllsa, a town of India, in Gwalior state, on 
 the Betwa, 26 miles NE. of Bhopal. Pop. 7070. 
 
 Bhiwani (Bee-wah'nee), a town of the Punjab, 
 37 miles SE. of Hissar by rail. Pop. 35,487. 
 
 Bhopal, the capital of a native state in Central 
 India, 325 miles SW. of Allahabad. Population, 
 77,000.— The state was founded in 1723 by Dost 
 Mohammed Klian, and a treaty of dependence 
 was concluded with Britain in 1818. Area, 13,000 
 sq. m. ; pop. 1,500,000. 
 
 Bhuj (Boodj), the capital of Cutch (q.v.), 180 
 miles SE. of Hyderabad. Pop. 26,421. 
 
 Bhutan (Boo-tan'), a native state in the eastern 
 Himalayas, bounded by Tibet, Assam, and Sik- 
 kim. It is divided into East and West Bhutan ; 
 and before the British annexation in 1841 and 
 1865 of the eighteen Dwars or passes which lead 
 from the plains to the lofty terraces of Bhutan, 
 the area was estimated s^t 20,000 sq. m. ; since, 
 it has been estimated at 17,000 sq. m. The whole 
 surface is mountainous, with summits exceeding 
 24,000 feet. The central regions, at an elevation 
 of 8000 or 10,000 feet above the sea, are covered 
 with the finest forests of oak and pine, with 
 beech, ash, birch, and maple. The Manas, a 
 tributary of the Brahmaputra, is the chief river. 
 The nominal religion is Buddhism. The govern- 
 ment, almost purely ecclesiastical, is in the hands 
 of a rapacious oligarchy. The Dharm Rajah, 
 the nominal head, is treated rather as a god than 
 as a sovereign ; while the Deb Rajah, the actual 
 head, is elected every three years by the chiefs 
 from amongst themselves. Polygamy and poly- 
 andry are common. The Bhutias are neat joiners, 
 and their houses have the appearance of Swiss 
 chalets. The winter capital is Punakha, on the 
 Bugui River, 96 miles NE. of Darjeeling. The 
 summer capital is Tasichozong (Tassisudon), on the 
 Gudada River, a centre of Lamaism. The original 
 inhabitants, believed to be from Kuch Behar, 
 were called Tephu ; they were subdued by a band 
 of Tibetan soldiers 200 years ago, who settled in 
 Bhutan. The Bhutias speak a dialect of Tibetan. 
 In 1772 the rajah of Kuch Behar received assist- 
 ance from the British government against their 
 invasions. Later raids led to the treaty of 1865, 
 when the eighteen Dwars or passes of Bengal 
 and Assam were ceded to the British govern- 
 ment in return for a yearly subvention. Pop. 
 variously estimated at from 20,000 to 200,000. 
 
 Bla'fra, Bight of, a large bay on the west 
 
 coast of Africa, at the head of the Gulf of Guinea, 
 between Capes Formosa and Lopez. The prin- 
 cipal rivers flowing into it are the Niger (q.v.), 
 the New and Old Calabar rivers, the Rio del Rey, 
 the Cameroon, and the Gaboon; its islands are 
 Fernando Po (Spanish), and St Thomas' and 
 Prince's Islands (Portuguese). Opposite Fer- 
 nando Po are the Cameroons (q.v.). 
 
 Bial'ystok, a town of Russia, on the Biala, 55 
 miles W. by S. of Moscow by rail. Over thirty 
 factories produce woollen stuffs. Pop. 59,926. 
 
 Biaua. See Bayana. 
 
 Biancavilla, a town of Sicily, on the south- 
 west declivity of Mount Etna, 24 miles NW. of 
 Catania. Pop. 13,021. 
 
 Biarritz (Bee'ar-reets), a watering-place in the 
 French dep. of Basses-Pyrenees, on the Bay of 
 Biscay, 6 miles SW. of Bayonne. Here, in 1855, 
 Louis Napoleon built the Villa Eugenie for the 
 empress, who already, as Countess de Teba, had 
 been a frequent visitor. During the season (July- 
 September) the place is often visited by 6000 
 guests. There is a good golf course. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Biberach (Bee'ber-ahh), a town of Wiirtemberg, 
 on the Reiss, 23 miles SSW. of Ulm. There are 
 manufactures of machinery, artificial flowers, &c. 
 Here the Austrians were defeated by Moreau in 
 1796, and in 1800 by Saint Cyr. Pop. 8938. 
 
 Blberich. See Biebrich. 
 
 Bicester (Bis'ter), a market-town of Oxford- 
 shire, 12 miles NNE. of Oxford. There are manu- 
 factures of rope, clothing, sacking, and pale ale. 
 The ruins of Alia Castra, or Alcester, lie 1^ mile 
 to the south-west, on the ancient Roman Akeman 
 Street. Pop. 3043. 
 
 Bicton Park, a Devonshire seat, 4 miles WSW. 
 of Sidmouth, with splendid grounds. 
 
 Bidar (Bee'dar), a town in the Nizam's Domin- 
 ions, near the right bank of the Manjera, a tribu- 
 tary of the Godavery, 75 miles NW. of Hyderabad. 
 Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Bidasso'a, a river which, rising in Spain, 
 bounds that country and France, and, after a 
 course of 33 miles, falls into the Bay of Biscay 
 at Fuenterabia. 
 
 Biddeford, a town of Maine, U.S., on the right 
 bank of the Saco River, 6 miles from its mouth 
 in the Atlantic Ocean, and 93 miles NNE. of 
 Boston by rail. It has manufactures of cotton 
 and woollen goods and machinery, and there is a 
 large trade in timber. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Bid'eford, a 'little white seaport town' and 
 municipal borough of North Devon, on the Tor- 
 ridge, 3J miles above its confluence with the 
 Taw's estuary, and 9 miles SW. of Barnstaple. 
 The name signifies 'by-the-ford,' and is pro- 
 nounced Bid-de-ford, like that of its American 
 daughter. The old bridge of 24 arches and 226 
 yards long, which unites the two divisions of 
 Bideford, was widened in 1864. There are manu- 
 factures of ropes, sails, earthenware, and leather. 
 Vessels of 500 tons can get up to the quay. Sir 
 Richard Grenville was a native. Population, 
 8750. ' 
 
 Biebrich (Bee'briJih), a town on the right bank 
 of the Rhine, 2J miles S. of Wiesbaden. It ha.s 
 the castle of the dukes of Nassau. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Biel (Beal), a beautiful Haddingtonshire seat, 
 4 miles SW. of Dunbar. 
 
 BieL See Bienne. 
 
 Bielefeld (Be^leh-felt), a town in the Prussian 
 province of Westphalia, picturesquely situated on 
 
BlELEPf 
 
 103 
 
 BiLLlNGSGATfi 
 
 the little Lutter, at the foot of the Teutoburger- 
 Wald, 28 miles SW. of Minden, It is the centre 
 of the Westphalian linen-trade, and has exten- 
 sive bleaching-grounds, manufactures of woollen 
 thread, soap, leather, and its meerschaum pipes 
 are celebrated. Pop. 65,000. 
 
 BieleflF', an ancient town of Russia, on the Oka, 
 160 miles SSW. of Moscow, Pop. 9171. 
 
 Bielitz, a town of Austrian Silesia, on the 
 Biala, 60 miles SW. of Cracow. Pop. 17,060. 
 
 Biella, a town of North Italy, 56 miles NE. of 
 Turin by rail. Pop. 15,662. 
 
 Bielo-oz'ero ('White Lake'), a lake in the 
 government of Novgorod, Russia, 25 miles long, 
 20 broad, and 432 sq. m. in area. It discharges 
 into the Volga. — Bielozersk is an old wooden 
 town on the south shore. Pop. 4286. 
 
 Bielo'pol, a town of Russia, 106 miles NW. of 
 Kharkov, with brandy distilleries. Pop. 15,178. 
 
 Bielshohle, a stalactite cavern, 230 yards long, 
 in the Harz Mountains, was discovered in 1672. 
 
 Bielsk', a town of Russia, 112 miles NE. of 
 Warsaw. Pop. 9763. 
 
 Bienne (Bee-enn' ; Ger. Biel), a town in the can- 
 ton of Bern, 56 miles SW. of Basel by rail, beauti- 
 fully situated at the base of the vine-clad Jura, 
 and at the foot of the Lake of Bienne. Popu- 
 lation, 22,500, engaged in the manufacture of 
 watches, leather, cotton, &c.— The Lake ov 
 Bienne, lying 1424 feet above sea-level, and 252 
 feet deep, is 9 miles long by 8 broad. It receives 
 the surplus waters of Lake Neuchatel by the 
 Thiel, by which river it again discharges its 
 own. Towards its head is the lie St Pierre, to 
 which Rousseau retired for two months in 1765. 
 
 Bles-Bosch (Bees'-iosk'), a marshy sheet of water 
 of the Netherlands, 77 sq. m. in area, between 
 the provinces of N, Brabant and S. Holland. 
 
 Biggar, a town of Lanarkshire, 28 miles 
 SW. of Edinburgh. The collegiate church was 
 founded in 1545 ; of Boghall Castle, the seat of 
 the Flemings, hardly a vestige remains. Dr 
 John Brown, author of Eab and his Friends, was 
 born here ; and John Gladstones (1693-1756), 
 great-grand sire of W. E. Gladstone, is buried in 
 the churchyard. Pop. 1366. See Hunter's JJigr^ar 
 and the House of Fleming (2d ed. 1867). 
 
 Biggleswade, a market-town of Bedfordshire, 
 41 miles NW. of London by rail, with a great 
 corn-market. Pop. of urban district, 5120. 
 
 Big Horn, a navigable river of the United 
 States, and the largest affluent of the Yellow- 
 stone, rises near Fremont's Peak in the Rocky 
 Mountains, in the NW. of Wyoming territory, 
 and flows 350 miles north-eastward. 
 
 Bigorre, a mountainous district of south-west 
 France, mainly in the dep. of Hautes-Pyrenees. 
 Tarbes is the chief town. 
 
 Big Sandy River, also called Clmtterawah, a 
 navigable affluent of the Ohio, formed by the 
 junction of two branches which rise in Virginia. 
 
 Bihacz (Bihatch), a strong fortress-town of 
 North-west Bosnia, on the Una, near the Croatian 
 frontier. Pop. 4506. 
 
 Bihar. See Behar. 
 
 Bihe, a fruitful district of South Africa, E. of 
 Benguela, and under Portuguese influence. It 
 is an important caravan centre, being traversed 
 by the only trans-continental route south of the 
 Congo. Area, 2500 sq. m, ; pop. 95,000. Kag- 
 nomba, the king's capital, is over 3 miles in 
 
 circumference. See Major Pinto's How I Crossed 
 Africa (1881). 
 
 Bijanaghur. See Vijayanagab. 
 
 Bijapur (Beejapoor'), a decayed city in the 
 Bombay Presidency, 160 miles SE. of Poona. It 
 was for centuries the capital of a powerful king- 
 dom ; in 1686 was captured by Aurungzebe, in 
 the 18th century passed to the Mahrattas, and 
 became British in 1848. Now lofty walls of hewn 
 stone enclose the desolate fragments of a once 
 vast and populous city. The ruins are almost all 
 Mohammedan, and consist of beautiful mosques, 
 colossal tombs, a fort, &c. Pop. 23,800. 
 
 Bijawar, a petty native state in the Bundel- 
 khand Agency. Area, 974 sq. m. ; pop. 123,285. 
 
 Bijbharu', or Bubahar, a town of Kashmir, 
 India, on the Jhelum, 25 miles SE. of Srinagar. 
 
 Bijnaur', a town of the United Provinces, 
 3 miles E. of the Ganges. Sugar, Brahmanical 
 threads, and cotton cloth are manufactured. 
 Pop. 16,147.— The district of Bijnaur, in the N. 
 of the Rohilkhand division, contains more than 
 a dozen towns with a population of over 5000. 
 
 Bikaner', the capital of a Rajput state, lies 
 in a desolate tract, 250 miles WSW. of Delhi. 
 It is surrounded by a battlemented wall of SJ 
 miles in circuit, and from a distance presents a 
 magnificent appearance ; but many of its carved 
 buildings are in narrow and dirty lanes. Pottery, 
 stone-cutting and carving, the making of a white 
 candy and of blankets, are amongst the industries. 
 Pop. 54,000.— The state contains 23,340 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 585,000, mainly Jats. 
 
 Bilba'o (Span. Beel-Mh'o), a town of Spain, the 
 capital of the province of Vizcaya (Biscay), in a 
 mountain gorge on the Nervion, 8 miles SE. of 
 its mouth at Portugalete, and 63 miles N. by E. 
 of Miranda by rail. Four bridges span the river, 
 which divides the old town from the new. The 
 city is purely commercial. There are docks for 
 building merchant-vessels, and in the vicinity 
 are iron and copper mines. The canalisation of 
 the river in 1886 has since enabled steamers of 
 700 to 800 tons to come up to the town ; but the 
 narrow channel and the heavy sea on the bar 
 still render the port equally difficult to enter or 
 leave. Nevertheless, the annual amount of British 
 tonnage entering Bilbao largely exceeds that of 
 any other foreign port in Europe, except Ant- 
 werp. The chief imports are coal, coke, codfish, 
 timber, petroleum, tin, sugar, coftee, and colonial 
 goods. The exports, which include red wines 
 and wool, are numerous and unimportant, with 
 the exception of iron-ore, on which the pros- 
 perity of the port depends. Population, 75,000. 
 Bilbao was founded in 1300 under the name of 
 Belvao — i.e. 'the fine fort' — and soon attained 
 great prosperity. It suffered severely in the 
 wars with France, first in 1795, and again in 
 1808. During the Carlist struggles it stood two 
 great sieges, Zumalacarreguy here receiving his 
 death-wound in 1835, whilst in 1874 it was vainly 
 besieged and bombarded by Don Carlos for four 
 months. 
 
 Birbllls. See Calatayud. 
 
 Bilin', a town of Bohemia, on the Bila, 6 miles 
 SW. of Teplitz. Its mineral springs, rich in 
 native carbonate of soda, are largely sought by 
 sufferers from gastric, catarrhal, or scrofulous 
 complaints. Pop. 7604. 
 
 Billericay, an Essex market-town, 4 miles E. 
 of Brentwood. Pop. 1394. 
 
 Billingsgate, a fish-market a little below 
 
^tLLITOK 
 
 104 
 
 JBmMINGfiAM 
 
 London Bridge. It was opened in 1558 as a 
 landing-place for provisions; and in 1699 was 
 made 'a free and open market for all sorts of 
 fish.' The present hand.some stone building was 
 finished in 1874. 
 
 Billlton, or Blitono, an island in the Dutch 
 East Indies, between the SE. of Banca and tlie 
 8W. of Borneo. It is about 50 miles in length 
 by 45 broad, 1855 sq. m. in area, and in the north 
 8000 feet high. Tandjoiig is the harbour, Pan- 
 dang the chief town. Pop. 48,779. 
 
 Billom {Bee-yon"'), a decayed town of Auvergne, 
 In the French dep. of Puy-de-Dome, 14 miles 
 ESE. of Clermont. Pop. 3930. 
 
 Bill Quay, on the Tyne, in Durham, 3 miles E. 
 of Gateshead, the seat of shipbuilding yards, 
 bottle-works, &c. 
 
 Bilma, a town of the Sahara, Central Africa, 
 situated in 18" 40' N. lat., 14° E. long., on an 
 oasis called the Wady Kawar. 
 
 Bilston, a town in South Staffordshire, 2^ miles 
 SE. of Wolverhampton, and within its parlia- 
 mentary borough. Tlio centre of the hardware 
 trade, it has extensive iron and coal mines, 
 iron-smelting works, iron-foundries for making 
 machinery, besides Avorks for tin-plate goods, 
 japanned and enamelled wares, nails, wire, screws, 
 and coarse pottery. Pop. 25,000. 
 Biluchistan. See Beluchistan. 
 Blma, a seaport of Sumbawa, one of the Sunda 
 Isles, on the north coast, 100 miles E. of Sumbawa. 
 Bimbia, an African district on the south slope 
 of the Cameroon Mountains, and on the river 
 Bimbia, since 1884 part of the German protec- 
 torate. See Cameroons. 
 
 Binche (Danish), a town of Belgium, 10 miles 
 E. of Mons. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Bingen (Bing'en), a town of Hesse, on the 
 left bank of the Rhine, 39 miles SE. of Coblenz. 
 Below the town is the Bingerloch, formerly danger- 
 ous to navigation, but in 1834 the sunken rocks 
 were blown up. In mid-river stands the Mause- 
 turm of Bishop Hatto. Nearly opposite Bingen, 
 in the Niederwald, is the colossal statue Ger- 
 manui, erected 1877-83 to commemorate the war 
 of 1870-71. Pop. 9215. 
 
 Bingham, a town in the county, and 8i miles 
 E. of the town of Nottingham. Lord Sherbrooke 
 was a native. Pop. of parish, 1687. 
 
 Blnghamton, a flourishing city of New York 
 at the junction of the Chenango and Susquehanna 
 rivers, 215 miles NW. of New York City. It is an 
 important railway centre, and manufactures flour 
 engines, carriages, leather, and cigars Poo' 
 41,000. ' a i>. 
 
 Bingley, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire 5i miles NW. of Bradford. It has worsted, 
 18°^ "' ' ^"^ P^P^'" manufactures. Pop. 
 
 HP^^??I^^' * I^utch East Indian island, 40 miles 
 »E. of Singapore. Area, 454 sq. m. ; pop. 18,000. 
 Binue. See Benue. 
 
 .v,n ^°n^ ^^^- ^\^Sest river of Chili, flows 220 
 milesdOO navigable WNW. from near the volcano 
 pLifp o?..'" ^T? A»des to Concepcion on the 
 Pacihc Ocean. It is 2 miles wide at its mouth. 
 ^?*^'qa ^97" of Asiatic Turkey, on the Euph- 
 rates, 80 miles NE. of Aleppo. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Birbhum, a district in the Bardwan division 
 of Bengal, with an area of 1756 sq. m. It is one 
 of the greatest copper-flelds of the world, though 
 practically untapped as yet. 
 
 Blrchington, a Kentish coast village, 3J miles 
 W. by S. of Margate, Pop. of parish, 2122. 
 
 Blrkenfeld, a German principality belonging 
 to Oldenburg (q.v.), but surrounded by the 
 Prussian Rliiiie Province, Area, 194 sq. m. ; 
 population, 43,500. The capital, Birkenfeld, has 
 a pop. of 2500. 
 
 Birkenhead, a market- town, seaport, municipal, 
 parliamentary, and county borough of Cheshire, 
 lies opposite liiverpool, on the left bank of the 
 Mersey. Birkenhead owes its origin to the Bene- 
 dictine Priory of Byrkhed, founded in the 11th 
 century. The crypt and other portions of the 
 priory still remain. Birkenhead has only of late 
 risen from comparative obscurity to its present 
 important position. In 1836 it received the 
 grant of a market, in 1861 obtained the privi- 
 lege of returning a member to parliament, in 
 1877 was created a municipal borough, and in 
 1888 a county borough. The main streets are 
 laid out with great regularity, crossing each 
 other at right angles, and about 20 yards wide ; 
 but the back streets are narrow and the houses 
 mean. The park, 180 acres in extent, Avas laid 
 out at a cost of £140,000 ; and there is another 
 park in Tranmere, called Mersey Park, of 29 
 acres and £33,000 cost, opened in 1885. The 
 principal public buildings are the market-hall, 
 the new town-hall, the new sessions and police 
 courts, the borough hospital, the free library, 
 and the public baths. A railway bridge over the 
 Mersey at Runcorn, opened for traffic in 1869, 
 shortened by 10 miles the distance between the 
 Liverpool and Birkenhead docks ; and the Mersey 
 railway tunnel, 1230 yards long, was opened by 
 the Prince of Wales in 1886. There is also com- 
 munication with Liverpool by ferry-steamers. 
 The idea of constructing docks here was due to 
 the Messrs Laird, who in 1824 purchased from 
 the Liverpool corporation, at a very low price, 
 a large piece of ground on the borders of the 
 Wallasey Pool The first dock, however, was not 
 opened till 1847. In 1857 the Birkenhead docks 
 were amalgamated with those of Liverpool, and 
 vested in one public trust, called 'The Mersey 
 Docks and Harbour Board.' Including the Great 
 Float, an immense harbour, constructed on the 
 site of Wallasey Pool, with an area of over 140 
 acres, they extend from Woodside to Seacombe, 
 a distance of about a mile, the total area being 
 about 170 acres, with 9^ miles of quayage. The 
 corn-warehouses at Seacombe constitute a vast 
 pile of buildings, and a great deal of coal 
 is shipped from the port. Birkenhead is cele- 
 brated for its shipbuilding yards, some of the 
 largest iron ships afloat having been built here. 
 In the neighbourhood of the docks are the Canada 
 Works for the construction of gigantic bridges, 
 the Britannia Machinery Works, the Birkenhead 
 Forge, &c. There are also oil-cake mills, exten- 
 sive flour-mills, wagon-works, and several smaller 
 engineering works. St Aidan's College, an An- 
 glican theological college, is in the suburb of 
 Claughton. Pop. (1821) 236 ; (1861) 54,649 : (1891) 
 99,857 ; (1901) 110,915. 
 
 Birket-el-Hadji ('lake of the pilgrims'), a 
 small lake 10 miles NE. of Cairo, where the Mecca 
 pilgrims assemble and separate. 
 Birmah. See Burma. 
 
 Birmingham, a city and a municipal, parlia- 
 l^^'^^r-'X' ^"^ county borough, the chief town of 
 the Midlands, is celebrated for its metallic manu- 
 lactures throughout the world. It stands near 
 the centre of England, in the north-west of War- 
 wickshire, with suburbs extending into Stafford- 
 
blRMlNOfiAM 
 
 106 
 
 filSCfiOFf 
 
 Bhire and Worcestershire, 112^ miles NW. of 
 London. It is picturesquely situated on the east 
 slope of three undulating hills, on the Rea and 
 the Tame, and though rather irregularly built, 
 has been greatly improved in this respect within 
 recent years, while its water-supply and sanitary 
 arrangements are admirable. There are seven 
 public parks in the suburbs. The public build- 
 ings include the Corinthian town-hall (1832-52), 
 the scene of triennial musical festivals and great 
 political meetings ; the market-hall, dating from 
 1838 ; the Italian municipal buildings (1874-78), 
 at a cost of nearly £200,000 ; the corn exchange 
 (1847) ; the Gothic exchange buildings (1863-65) ; 
 and the post-office. Queen's College (18(37) and 
 the Mason Science College, founded in 1875 by 
 Sir Josiah Mason, were incorporated in Birming- 
 ham University in 1900. Other institutions are 
 the Birmingham and Midland Institute, the 
 museum and art gallery, the school of art, the 
 technical school, the libraries, King Edward VI.'s 
 grammar-schools, and the blue-coat school. Bir- 
 mingham became the see of a bishof) iu 1904. 
 Its mayor lias been a Lord Mayor since 1896. 
 There are more than a dozen statues or memorials of 
 Birmingham worthies (including Watt, Priestley, 
 Bright, Chamberlain, Mason, Dawson), and other 
 eminent men. The parish church of St Martins, 
 erected in 1873 at a cost of nearly £30,000, stands 
 on the site of the old building, dating from the 
 13th century ; and the Catholic cathedral of St 
 Chad (Birmingham being the seat of a Catholic 
 see) was erected from the designs of Pugin, at a 
 cost of over £30,000. 
 
 In Leland's Itinerary (1538) Birmingham is re- 
 ferred to as the abode of 'smiths and cutlers.' 
 In cutlery goods it has been completely super- 
 seded by Sheffield, but in all other kinds of the 
 finer metal manufactures it is unrivalled by any 
 other town in the world. Iron and brass found- 
 ing are carried on, and steam-engines and various 
 kinds of machinery are made ; but the principal 
 manufactures are the finer kinds of gold, silver, 
 copper, brass, steel, mixed metal, plated metal, 
 glass, papier-mache, japanned and electrotyped 
 articles, including firearms, ammunition, swords, 
 metal ornaments, toys, jewellery, coins, buttons, 
 buckles, lamps, pins, steel-pens, tools, arms, and 
 locks. Over 560,000 gun-barrels were manufac- 
 tured in 1891 ; and other specialties, of which an 
 enormous quantity are manufactured, are steel- 
 pens, buttons, nails, and screws. ' Brummagem ' 
 is colloquially used to denote anything sham or 
 fictitious, such as cheap jewellery, now no longer 
 made here so much as in London and in 
 Germany. Near Handsworth, a little to the 
 north of Birmingham, were the famous Soho 
 Works, founded by Watt and Boulton. The 
 Bermingeham of Domesday was later known as 
 Bromwychham (whence Brummagem). During 
 the Civil War the town supplied the Parliament- 
 arians with swords, but it was taken by Prince 
 Rupert in 1643. It suffered severely from the 
 plague in 1665-66. The celebration by a number 
 of Radicals, 14th July 1791, of the capture of 
 the Bastille, was the occasion of a serious riot by 
 the upholders of church and king, who attacked 
 Dr Priestley's house, and destroyed his library. 
 Subsequently Birmingham was prominently as- 
 sociated with the reformers of 1832 and the 
 Chartists, and it was the famous headquarters of 
 what was known as the Liberal 'caucus.' 
 
 Baskerville, the printer, carried on his business 
 in Birmingham. Wilmore and Pye, the engravers, 
 David Cox, and Burne-Jones were Birmingham 
 men. Dr Joseph Priestley was a Unitarian min- 
 
 ister in Birmingham ; here, too, was the chapel 
 of the brilliant lecturer George Dawson. Bir- 
 mingham, which, Mr Joseph Chamberlain claims, 
 is the best-governed city in the world, was incor- 
 porated in 1838, and became a county borough 
 and a city in 1888. In 1867 the number of par- 
 liamentary representatives was increased from 
 two to three, and in 1885 it was divided into 
 seven parliamentary districts, each returning one 
 member. Tlie population in 1770 was 30,806, 
 which by 1801 had increased to 60,822, by 1851 
 to 232,841, by 1871 to 343,787, by 1881 to 
 400,774, by 1891 to 478,113, by 1901 to 533,040. 
 
 See Mutton's History of Birmingham (1781), 
 and Bunce's History of the Corporation (1885); 
 Langford's Century of Birmingham Life (2 vols. 
 1868) ; and Dent's Old and Neiv Birmingham (2 
 vols. 1879-80), and The Making of Birmingham 
 (1894). 
 
 Birmingham, the capital of Jefferson county, 
 Alabama, and the most important seat of the 
 iron industry of the southern states, is situated 
 at the junction of several railways, 95 miles 
 NNW. of Montgomery. It has numerous found- 
 ries, mills, factories, and machine-shops ; and the 
 development of the iron interests of its imme- 
 diate vicinity has caused a marvellous growth 
 of the city. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Birnam, a Perthshire hill, 1324 feet high, near 
 Dunkeld. Birnam Wood, forming part of an 
 ancient royal forest, is immortalised by Shake- 
 speare in Macbeth. Opposite Dunkeld is the 
 pretty village of Birnam ; pop. 394. 
 
 Birni, a ruinous town, the former capital of 
 Bornu (q.v.), 100 miles W. of Lake Chad. 
 
 Birr. See Parsonstown. 
 
 Birrenswark. See Brunswakk. 
 
 Birstal, a woollen manufacturing town in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, 7 miles SSW. of Leeds. 
 Dr Priestley was born hard by. Pop. 6558. 
 
 Biru', a kingdom of Soudan, Western Africa, 
 bounded on the E. by the Niger. 
 
 Bisaccia (Bisat'cha), a town of Italy, 60 miles 
 E. of Naples. Pop. 6189. 
 
 Bisacquino (Bisaquee'no), a town of Sicily, 27 
 miles S. of Palermo. Pop. 9588. 
 
 Bisalnag'ar, a town of India, in Baroda, 220 
 miles NW. of Mhow, Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Bisalpur', a town of India, in the United 
 Provinces, 24 miles E. of Bareli. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Bis'cay, or Vizcaya, the most northerly of the 
 Basque Provinces of Spain, is bounded N. by the 
 Bay of Biscay. Area, 833 sq. m. ; population, 
 312,000. Chief town, Bilbao (q.v.). 
 
 Biscay, Bay of (Fr. Golfe de Gascogne), that 
 portion of the Atlantic Ocean which sweeps in 
 along the northern shores of the Spanish penin- 
 sula from Cape Ortegal to St Jean de Luz, at the 
 western foot of the Pyrenees, and thence curves 
 northward along the west shores of France to 
 the island of Ushant. The depth of water varies 
 from 20 to 200 fathoms. The whole of the south 
 coast is bold and rocky, but great parts of the 
 French shores are low and sandy. Navigation 
 of 'the bay' is frequently rendered dangerous 
 by the prevalence of strong winds, especially 
 westerly ones. Rennel's Current sweeps in from 
 the ocean round the north coast of Spain. 
 
 Bisceglia (Bishel'ya), an Italian seaport, on the 
 Adriatic, 21 miles NW. of Bari. Pop. 31,675. 
 
 BischoflF, Mount, a post-town of Tasmania, 60 
 miles W. of Lauuceoton. Here were discovered 
 
BISCHWEILER 
 
 106 
 
 SLAdK COUNTRY 
 
 In 1872 some of the richest tin-mines in the 
 world, the yield of pure tin from the ore being 
 trom 70 to 80 per cent. The mount takes its 
 name from the chairman of a land company 
 (1828). There is railway communication with 
 Emu Bay, 46 miles distant. Pop. 1420. 
 
 Bischweller (BishvVler), a town of Alsace, on 
 the Moder, 17 miles N. of Strasburg. Pop. 7810. 
 
 Blsham Abbey, a Tudor mansion, in Berk- 
 shire, on the Thames, opposite Great Marlow. 
 Blizabeth resided here in Mary's reign. 
 
 Bishop-Auckland, a town in the county, and 
 9i miles SW. of the city, of Durham '^^'T .ir ^^ 
 ail eminence 140 feet above the confluent Wear 
 and Gaunless. Its abbey-like palace of the 
 bishops of Durham was founded about 1300 by 
 Bishop Antony Bek, and rebuilt by Bishop Cosin 
 about 1665. There are a fine town-hall of 1863 
 with a spire 100 feet high, engineering-works, 
 and large neighbouring collieries. Pop. (1851) 
 4400; (1891)10,527 ; (1901)11,969. 
 
 Bishop's Castle, a municipal borough (incor- 
 porated 1885) of Shropshire, 9J miles WNW. of 
 Craven Arms junction by a branch line (1865). 
 Till 1832 it returned two members. The bishops 
 of Hereford had a castle here. Pop. 1386. 
 
 Bishop-Stortford, a town of Hertfordshire, on 
 the Stort, 12 miles BNE. of Hertford. In Saxon 
 times it was the property of the bishops of 
 London. Pop. 7150. 
 
 Bishop's Waltham, a town of Hampshire, 9^ 
 miles SE. of Winchester. It has been imme- 
 morially the property of the bishops of Win- 
 chester. There are remains of their castle (1135). 
 Pop. of parish, 2309. 
 
 Bishopwearmouth. See Sunderland. 
 
 Bisigna'no, a cathedral city of South Italy, 
 10 miles N. of Cosenza by rail. Pop. 4255. 
 
 Biskra, a town of Algeria, 150 miles S. of 
 Constautine by rail, in an oasis watered by the 
 Wady Biskra and by springs. The Roman Zaba, 
 under the Moors it became a large town — 71,000 
 people died of the plague in 1663. Pop. 8609. 
 
 Bisley, (1) a market-town of Gloucestershire, 
 3 miles E. of Stroud. Population, 2500.— (2) A 
 common in Surrey, 3h miles WNW. of Woking, the 
 successor in 1890 to Wimbledon as the meeting- 
 place of the National Rifle Association. 
 
 Bismarck, a thriving town, since 1889 capital 
 of North Dakota, U.S., stands in the centre of 
 the state on the east side of the Missouri, here 
 crossed by the Northern Pacific Railway on* an 
 iron bridge which cost $1,000,000. Pop. 3500.' 
 
 Bismarck Archipelago, the official name for 
 New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, and 
 several smaller adjoining islands in the South 
 Pacific, since in 1884 they became a German 
 dependency. See New Britain, &c. 
 
 Bismark, a Prussian town of 2599 inhabitants, 
 35 miles N. of Magdeburg. 
 
 Bissa'gos, or BiJUJA Islands, a group of thirty 
 small volcanic islands, off" the west coast of 
 Africa, opposite the mouth of the Rio Grande. 
 Thickly wooded, and many of them densely 
 peopled, they have several fine ports, but the 
 climate is excessively dangerous for Europeans. 
 The principal islands belong to the Portuguese. 
 
 Bissao, an island and Portuguese station closer 
 to the African coast than the Bissagos. 
 
 Bistritz, a Transylvanian town on the Blstritza 
 River, 50 miles NE. of Klausenburg. Pop. 9063. 
 
 Bisutun. See Behistun. 
 
 Bitche (Ger. Bitsch), a German town of Lo?. 
 raine in a wild and wooded pass of the Vosges, 
 49 mi'les NNW. of Strasburg. Its citadel crowns 
 a precipitous rock in the middle of the town. 
 The Prussians tried vainly to surprise it in 1793 ; 
 it resisted the Germans for seven weeks in 1815, 
 and only surrendered three weeks after the close 
 of the war of 1870-71. Pop. 3849. 
 
 Bithur', a town in India on the Ganges, 12 
 miles NW. of Cawnpore. Pop. 6685. 
 
 Bithynia, an ancient division of Asia Minor, 
 separated from Europe by the Propontis (Sea of 
 Marmora) and the Bosphorus. 
 
 Bitlis, a town of Turkish Armenia, 120 miles 
 SE. of Erzeruin. It lies 5470 feet above the sea, 
 in a deep ravine traversed by the river Bitlis, 
 a head-stream of the Tigris. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Bltonto, a cathedral city of Italy, 5 miles from 
 the sea, and 10 WSW. of Bari. Near it the 
 Spaniards defeated the Austrians, 25th May 1734. 
 Pop. 32,726. 
 
 Bitter Root Mountains, a range of the Rocky 
 Mountains between Idaho and Montana. 
 
 Bizerta, or Benzerta, a seaport of Tunis, at 
 the head of a bay of the Mediterranean, is the 
 most northerly town in Africa, being 38 miles 
 NW. of Tunis. Pop. 10,000. The ancient Hippo 
 Diarrhytus or Zaritus, Bizerta since 1881 has 
 been held by the French, who have strongly 
 fortified it, and made it a great naval station. 
 
 Bjela, a town in the Polish government of 
 Siedlce, on the Krzna River. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Blackadder, a Berwickshire stream, flowing 20 
 miles to the Whitadder. 
 
 Blackburn, a town of Lancashire, 21 miles 
 NNW. of Manchester, and 9 E. of Preston, stands 
 on a stream from which it appears to derive its 
 name, a branch of the Ribble. It had acquired 
 some importance as a market-town in the 16th 
 century, and in the middle of the 17th it was 
 noted for its Blackburn Checks, a kind of linsey- 
 woolsey, afterwards superseded by the Blackburn 
 Grays, so called from their being printed un- 
 bleached. During the 18th century the cotton 
 manufacture became the chief industry of the 
 place, which is now the largest and most import- 
 ant cotton manufacturing town in the world, 
 the number of cotton-factories being very great, 
 and many of them employing from 1000 to 2000 
 operatives. Great improvements in machinery 
 for the cotton manufacture have been made in 
 Blackburn — e.g. the invention of the spinning- 
 jenny by James Hargreaves, a native of the 
 town, in 1767. The chief public buildings are 
 the town-hall (1856), an Italian edifice built at 
 a cost of £30,000 ; the Gothic exchange (1865) ; 
 the infirmary (1862) ; and St Mary's Church, of 
 very ancient foundation, but almost entirely 
 rebuilt (1826-57). There is a corporation park 
 of 50 acres, part of which is 700 feet above sea- 
 level, and commands a wide view ; a new Queen's 
 Park of 35 acres was opened on Jubilee day, 
 1887. The grammar-school was established by 
 Queen Elizabeth in 1567 ; in 1888 the Prince of 
 Wales laid the foundation-stone of the technical 
 school. Mr John Morley was born here. Black- 
 burn has returned two members since 1832 ; it 
 received its municipal charter in 1851, and in 
 1888 became a county borough. Pop. (1831) 
 36,629; (1891) 120,064; (1901) 129,216. See 
 Abram's History of Blackburn (1878). 
 
 Black Country, a region of mines and works 
 on the border of Stafi"ord and Warwick shireSi 
 I between Wolverhampton and Birmingham. 
 
SUCK DOWlJ 
 
 107 
 
 filABENSBtrftCi 
 
 Black Down, (1) the highest part (1067 feet) of 
 the Mendip Hills, in Somerset ; (2) a hill-ridge 
 (900 feet) on the border of Somerset and Devon, 
 near Wellington, crowned by a Wellington 
 obelisk ; (3) a hill-ridge (817 feet) of NW. Dorset, 
 near Portishara, with a column to Nelson's 
 Hardy. 
 
 Black Forest (Ger. Schwarzuald), a wooded 
 mountain-chain in Baden and Wlirtemberg, run- 
 ning parallel with the course of the Rhine after 
 its great bend near Basel, often only a few miles 
 distant from it, and also bounded by the Rhine 
 upon the south. The chief rivers rising in the 
 Black Forest are the Danube, Neckar, Murg, 
 Kinzig, Biz, Enz, and Wiessen. The chain 
 attains its greatest elevation in the bare and 
 round-topped Feldberg (4903 feet). The great 
 mass called the Kaiserstuhl (Emperor's Chair), 
 situated near Breisach, is quite isolated. Silver, 
 copper, cobalt, lead, and iron are found in 
 greater or less quantity in the principal chain, 
 which is luxuriantly wooded, its name Schwarz- 
 wald being derived from the dark-tinted foliage 
 and immense number of its fir-trees. The district 
 is also rich in mineral waters — e.g. the baths of 
 Baden-Baden (q.v.) and Wildbad (q.v.). On the 
 Rhine side the descent is precipitous, but to- 
 wards the Danube and the Neckar it is gradual. 
 Among its numerous valleys, the Murgthal is 
 the most famous for its natural beauties ; but, 
 Indeed, the whole of the country is here rich in 
 picturesque scenery, gemmed with cascades and 
 deep mountain-lakes, around which cluster the 
 legends of many centuries. The rearing of cattle, 
 and the manufacture of wooden clocks and other 
 articles, form the chief industry of the inhabit- 
 ants. See Seguin's Black Forest (2d ed. 1886). 
 
 Blackheath, a high-lying open common of 70 
 acres, in the county of Kent, 7 miles SE. of 
 London, near Greenwich Park. It is a favourite 
 holiday resort for Londoners. Blackheath was 
 the first place in England where the ancient 
 Scottish game of golf was introduced, most likely 
 in 1608. On it stands Morden College, founded 
 in 1695 by Sir John Morden for decayed Turkey 
 merchants. Of schools innumerable, the chief is 
 the Proprietary (1830). Blackheath was formerly 
 the scene of several insurrections, including those 
 of Wat Tyler (1381), Jack Cade (1450), and the 
 Cornishmen under Lord Audley (1497). 
 
 Black Isle, the peninsula in Easter Ross lying 
 between the Beauly and Moray Firths and 
 Cromarty Firth. 
 
 Black Mountains, a range (2631 feet) in South 
 Wales, between Brecknock and Carmarthen 
 shires. 
 
 Blackness Castle, Linlithgowshire, on the 
 Firth of Forth, 3J miles ESE. of Bo'ness, was 
 once a state j^rison, and since 1874 has been the 
 central Scotch ammunition depot. 
 
 Blackpool, a flourishing watering-place of 
 Lancashire, on the Irish Sea, between More- 
 cambe Bay and the estuary of the Ribble, 18 
 miles WNW. of Preston. The population has 
 risen from 1664 in 1851 to 23,846 in 1891, and 
 47,348 in 1901 ; but the numbers who resort here 
 during the bathing-season far exceed the perma- 
 nent residents, for Blackpool is one of the most 
 frequented watering-places in the west of Eng- 
 land, the sands being excellent, the views delight- 
 ful, and the climate bracing. There are three 
 fine piers, one of them with a splendid pavilion ; 
 a promenade 3 miles long, with electric trams ; 
 an Eifi'el-like tower (1895), 500 feet high ; winter- 
 gardens, an aquarium, a free library, theatres. 
 
 and several large hotels. Blackpool was consti- 
 tuted a municipal borough in 1876. 
 
 Blackrod, a Lancashire town, with cotton- 
 mills and collieries, 5 miles SSE. of Chorley. 
 Pop. 3875. 
 
 Black Sea, or Euxine (anc. Pontus Euxinus), 
 is an inland sea lying between Europe and Asia, 
 extending from 41° to 46° 38' N. lat., and from 
 27° 30' to 41° 50' E. long. Its greatest length 
 from east to west is 720 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth, near the west end, 380 miles ; and its 
 area, exclusive of the Sea of Azov, is 163,711 
 sq. m. On the south-western extremity it com- 
 municates by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, 
 and the Dardanelles, with the Mediterranean, 
 and on the north-east by the Strait of Kertch, 
 or Yenikale, with the Sea of Azov. The Black 
 Sea drains nearly one-fourth of the surface of 
 Europe, and also about 114,000 sq. m. of Asia. 
 Throughout its whole extent it has but one 
 island, and that a small one, lying opposite the 
 mouths of the Danube, called Adassi, or Isle of 
 Serpents, on which is a lighthouse. In the centre 
 its depth ranges between 1000 and 1070 fathoms. 
 All the coasts are high, with good harbours, 
 except between the mouths of the Danube and 
 the Crimea ; there the land is low, and the danger 
 of navigation greatly increased in winter by the 
 presence of floating ice ; for, from the many 
 large rivers which flow into this sea and that of 
 Azov (Danube, Dniester, Bug, Dnieper, Don, 
 Kuban, and Rion, in Europe ; and the Kizil- 
 Irmak and Sakaria, in Asia), the waters are 
 fresher than those of the Mediterranean, and 
 consequently easily frozen. There is no tide in 
 this sea, but the large rivers flowing into it give 
 rise to currents, which are particularly strong in 
 spring when the snows melt. There is a strong 
 flow out through the Bosphorus. 
 
 From the fall of Constantinople (1453), all but 
 Turkish vessels were excluded from its waters, 
 until the treaty of Kainardji (1774), when the 
 Russians obtained the right to trade in it. Ten 
 years after, Austrian ships were privileged to 
 trade here ; and by the Peace of Amiens in 1802 
 British and French ships were admitted. By 
 the Treaty of Paris (1856) it was opened to the 
 commerce of all nations, and closed to ships of 
 war, while the erection of arsenals was forbidden ; 
 but this article was repudiated by Russia in 1870, 
 and in the following March, at a conference in 
 London, the neutralisation of the sea was abro- 
 gated. The Bosphorus and Dardanelles are still 
 closed to ships of war other than Turkish and 
 Russian, but the sultan can open them at need 
 to allies. 
 
 Blackstairs, a range (2610 feet) between Car- 
 low and Wexford counties. 
 
 Black wall, a suburb of London, in Middlesex, 
 at the i unction of the Lee with the Thames, 3^ 
 miles ESE. of St Paul's. 
 
 Blackwater, the name of numerous rivers and 
 rivulets in Great Britain and Ireland, of which 
 the longest are : (1) The Blackwater of Munster, 
 100 miles in length, which enters the sea at 
 Youghal harbour ; (2) the Blackwater of Ulster, 
 50 miles long, falling into the south-west corner 
 of Lough Neagh ; (3) the Blackwater of Essex, 
 40 miles long, falling into the North Sea. 
 
 Blackwood, Nithsdale, Dumfriesshire, 6 miles 
 SSE. of Thornhill, the birthplace of Allan 
 Cunningham. 
 
 Bladenoch, a large distillery near Wigtown. 
 
 Bladenstourg, a village of Maryland, on the 
 
BLAENAVOM 
 
 108 
 
 BtOOMlHGfON 
 
 east branch of the Potomac, 6 miles NE. of 
 Washington. Here the British won the battle 
 deciding the fate of the capital, August 24, 1814. 
 
 Blaenavon, a town of Monmouthshire, with 
 ironworks, 6 miles NNW. of Poutypool. Pop. 
 10,869. 
 
 Blagovestschensk, a town of the Amur province 
 of Russian Asia, at the confluence of the Amur and 
 Seja rivers. Pop. (1880) 8000 ; (1900) 33,000. 
 
 Blairadam, a seat in Kinross-shire, near Loch- 
 leven. 
 
 Blair-Athole, a Perthshire village, at the con- 
 fluence of the Garry and Tilt, 20 miles NNW. of 
 Dunkeld. Blair Castle (Duke of Athole) dates 
 from the 13th century, and as restored in 18<2 
 is a fine baronial structure. Claverhouse was 
 buried in the old church of Blair. Pop. 866. 
 
 BlairgO'WTie, a Perthshire town, on the Ericht's 
 right bank, 20 miles NNE. of Perth by a branch 
 line (1855). It has flax spinning and weaving 
 factories. Pop. 8378. 
 
 Blakesware, a vanished Hertfordshire mansion 
 (Lamb's ' Blakesmoor '), 4 miles E. of Ware. 
 
 Blanc, Le, a town in the French dep. Indre, 68 
 miles SSE. of Tours. Pop. 6065. 
 
 Blanc, Mont. See Mont Blanc. 
 
 Blanco, Cape, a remarkable headland on the 
 west coast of Africa, in 20' 47' N. lat., and 16° 
 58' W. long., theextremityof a rocky ridge which 
 projecting westward, and then bending south- 
 ward, forms a commodious harbour, the Great 
 Bay. It was first discovered by the Portuguese 
 in 1441.— Cape Blanco (i.e. 'white cape') is also 
 the name of headlands in Spain, Greece, America, 
 and the Philippines. 
 
 Blandford, a town in Dorsetshire, on the 
 Stour, 10 miles NW. of Wiraborne. It suffered 
 much in 1579, 1677, 1713, and 1731, from fire, only 
 twenty-six houses escaping on the last occasion. 
 It is built of brick, and is neat and regular ; its 
 chief charm is Bryanston Park, Lord Portman's 
 seat. It was formerly famed for its bandstriiigs 
 and lace; now shirt-buttons are made here. 
 Pop. of municipal borough, 3700. 
 
 Blankenberghe, a summer resort on the coast 
 of West Flanders, 9 miles N. of Bruges by rail. 
 Pop. 4328. 
 
 Blankenburg, (1) a town, 37 miles SSE. of 
 Brunswick, on the borders of the Harz Moun- 
 tains. Pop. 10,300.— (2) A watering-place in the 
 Rudolstadt division of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
 25 miles S. by W. of Weimar. Pop. 2120. 
 
 Blan'tyre, or High Blantyre, a village of 
 Lanarkshire, near the right bank of the Rotten 
 Calder, Si miles SE. of Glasgow by rail, in a 
 coal and iron mining district. Pop., with 
 Auchenwraith and Causewaystones, (1901) 2521. 
 Low Blantyre, or Blantyre Works, If mile NB., 
 has dyeworks, and a weaving factory where 
 young David Livingstone, a native of the place, 
 worked as a ' piecer ; ' here also are his memorial 
 church and statue. Pop. 1505.— Also the name 
 of a Scottish mission-station founded in 1876, to 
 the south of Lake Nyassa, Central Africa. It is 
 situated on the heights between the Upper Shire 
 and Lake Shirwa, in a well-wooded district. 
 
 Blarney Castle, a ruined tower, 4 miles NW. 
 of Cork, with a stone, difficult of access, to kiss 
 which endows one with eloquence. 
 
 Blaydon, a manufacturing town of Durham, 
 on the Tyne, 5 miles W. by S. of Newcastle. 
 Pop. 19,371. 
 
 Blaye (anc. Blavia), a river-port in the French 
 
 dep. of Gironde, 20 miles NNW. of Bordeaux. 
 It lies on the right bank of the Gironde, here 2^ 
 miles broad, at the base of a rocky eminence 
 crowned with Vauban's citadel (1652). Pop. 4157. 
 
 Bleiberg, an Austrian village in Carinthia, 8 
 miles W. of Villach, in the valley of the Drave, 
 near the Bleiberg (Lead Mountain). Pop. 3500. 
 
 Blekinge (Blay'king-eh) is a province in Sweden, 
 also called after Carlskrona (q.v.). 
 
 Bleneau (Blay-no'), a village in the French dep. 
 of Yonne, 29 miles WSW. of Auxerre. Here 
 Turenne defeated Conde in 1652. 
 
 Blenheim (Ger. BUndheim), a village of Bavaria, 
 23 miles NNW. of Augsburg. It gives name to 
 the great victory of Marlborough and Prince 
 Eugene over the French and Bavarians, August 
 13, 1704. The battle, however, really took place 
 at the neighbouring village of Hochsfadt, and to 
 the Germans is so known. 
 
 Blenheim, capital of Marlborough district, 
 New Zealand, on the Wairau River, near the 
 coast, 20 miles S. of Picton by rail. Population, 
 about 5000. 
 
 Blenheim Park, near Woodstock, Oxford- 
 shire, the seat of the Duke of Marlborough, was 
 designed by Vanbrugh, and gifted by the nation 
 to the victor of Blenheim. It stands in a park 
 12 miles round. 
 
 Blessington, a market-town of Wicklow, on 
 the Lififey, 18 miles SAV. of Dublin. Pop. 302. 
 
 Bletchlngley, an ancient toAvn of Surrey, 5 
 miles NE. of Reigate. Till 1832 it returned two 
 members. Pop. of parish^ 2128. 
 
 Bletchley, a railway junction in Buckingham- 
 shire, 47 miles NW. of London, 31 NE. of Oxford, 
 and 45 SW. of Cambridge. 
 
 Blewfields. See Bluefields. 
 
 Blida (Blee-da), a thriving town of Algeria, 32 
 miles SW. of Algiers by rail, with orange orchards. 
 Pop. 16,628. 
 
 Block Island, formerly called Manisees, is 
 situated in the Atlantic, 9 miles S. from Rhode 
 Island, United States, to which it belongs. It is 
 8 miles long, and contains the township of New 
 Shoreham, a summer resort. A breakwater on 
 the east side of the island forms a harbour of 
 refuge. Pop. 1447. 
 
 Bloemfontein (Bloomfon'tine), capital of the 
 Orange River Colony, on the Modder, 200 miles 
 W. by N. of Durban. It is the seat of an Anglican 
 bishopric and of a college. Pop. (1904) 33,890. 
 
 Blois (Blwah), capital of the French dep. Loir- 
 et-Cher, on the Loire, here spanned by a bridge 
 (1717) 1000 feet long, is 86 miles SW. of Orleans. 
 It has an archiepiscopal cathedral, and an old 
 castle, the scene of many historical events. 
 After 1814 it was used as a barrack; but since 
 1845, especially in 1880-87, a great part of it has 
 been restored at great cost. Natives have been 
 King Stephen of England, Louis XVI., and the 
 physicist Papin, of whom a statue has been 
 erected. Blois has manufactures of porcelain 
 and gloves, Avith a trade in brandy, wine, and 
 wood. Pop. 23,500. 
 
 Bloomington, (1) capital of M'Lean county, 
 Illinois, 126 miles SSW. of Chicago, is an im- 
 portant railway centre, and has a brisk trade and 
 large railway-works, with foundries, furnaces, 
 and coal-mines. There is a Wesleyan university 
 in the town ; and near it is the Illinois Normal 
 University. The population is over 25,000.— (2) 
 A town in Indiana, seat of the state university, 
 
BLUEnELDS 
 
 109 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 between the branches of the White River, 60 
 miles SSW. of Indianapolis. Pop. 7018. 
 
 Bluefields, Escondida, oi' Rio del Desastre, 
 a river of Nicaragua flowing eastward to the 
 Caribbean Sea. Here is a small town of the same 
 name. 
 
 Blue Mountains, (1) a branch of the Dividing 
 Range, New South Wales, running very nearly- 
 parallel with the coast, about 80 miles inland. 
 Their highest point, Mount Beemarang, is 4100 
 feet high. See Jenolan Caves.— (2) The Blue 
 Mountains, in the centre of Jamaica, attain in 
 the West Peak 7105 feet, 
 
 Blumenau, a German colony in the Brazilian 
 state of Santa Catliarina (q.v.), 50 miles inland 
 of the capital, Desterro. Tlie population in 1905 
 was 40,000, mainly German ; the township of 
 Blumenau lias 7000 inhabitants. 
 
 Blyth (Blith), a seaport of Northumberland, at 
 the mouth of the river Blyth, 9 miles SE. of 
 Morpeth. Pop. 5553. 
 
 Bobbie, a Lombard town, 3 miles SSE. of 
 Pavia, near the confluence of the Bobbio and the 
 Trebbia. Here Columbanus founded a monas- 
 tery in 612. Since 1014 it has been the seat 
 of a bishopric. Pop. 4635. 
 
 Bobruisk, a town of Russia, on the Beresina, 
 87 miles SE. of Minsk by rail. Pop. 30,079. 
 
 Boca Tigre, the Portuguese translation of the 
 Chinese name Hu-mun, 'tiger's mouth,' given to 
 the upper portion of the estuary of the Canton 
 River (q.v.), 
 
 Bochnia, a town of Austrian Galicia, 24 miles 
 ESE. of Cracow by rail, with rock-salt mines. 
 Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Bocholt (Boh'holt), a town of Prussia, on the 
 Aa, 13 miles N. of Wesel by rail, with nianu- 
 factures of cotton and machinery. Pop. 20,576. 
 
 Bochum (Boh'hoovi), a Prussian town, 35 m. NE. 
 of Diisseldorf by rail. Besides great steel and iron 
 works, it has manufactures of carpets, &c. , with 
 coal-mines near. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Boddam, a fishing- village of Aberdeenshire, 3^ 
 miles S. of Peterhead. Pop. SOO. 
 
 Boden-See. See Constance, Lake of. 
 
 Bodmin, the county town of Cornwall, in the 
 middle of the county, 30 miles NNW. of Plymouth. 
 It arose out of a priory, founded in 936 or 
 earlier ; and till 1868 returned two members, then 
 till 1885 one. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Bodyke, an estate in County Clare, 16 miles 
 N. of Limerick, well known through its evictions 
 (1887). 
 
 Body's Island, a long, narrow strip of sand, off" 
 North Carolina, with a lighthouse (150 feet), the 
 highest in the United States. 
 
 Bosotia, an ancient political division of Greece, 
 now forming with Attica a province of the 
 modern kingdom, with an area of 2472 sq. m., 
 and a joint pop. of 314,000. 
 
 Boghaz-Keui (anc. Pteria), a village of Asia 
 Minor, in Angora province, 150 miles S. of 
 Sinope. In its vicinity is a vast ruined temple. 
 
 Bognor, a Sussex watering-place, 9J miles SB. 
 of Chichester by rail. Founded in 1786 by a 
 London hatter. Sir R. Hotham, it has an iron 
 pier (1865) 1000 feet long, and a good esplanade. 
 Pop. 6200. ' 
 
 Bogodukhof, a cathedral town of Russia, 43 
 miles NW. of Kharkoff". Pop. 10,904. 
 
 Bogota, under Spanish rule Sant^ fe pe 
 
 Bogota, in South America, the federal capital 
 of the United States of Colombia. It is on a 
 tableland 400 sq. m. in area, and 8694 feet 
 above the sea, which separates the basin of the 
 Magdalena from that of the Orinoco, is bounded 
 on all sides by mountains, lofty enough to give 
 shelter, yet below the line of perpetual snow. 
 This extensive plain— a temperate zone on the 
 verge of the equator, with a salubrious climate 
 and a mean temperature of 60" F.— is exceedingly 
 fertile, being as rich in pasture as in grain. The 
 greater number of its people, however, are sunk 
 in poverty. This is largely due to the difficulty 
 of transport. Bogota is 65 miles from its port, 
 Honda, the head of navigation on the Magda- 
 lena ; and from this point goods must be con- 
 veyed over the mountains in packages of not 
 more than 125 lb. The few manufactures of the 
 place include soap, leather, cloth, and articles 
 made from the precious metals. Bogota was 
 founded in 1538, and in 1598 became the capital 
 of the Spanish vice-royalty of New Granada ; 
 since 1554 it has been the seat of an archbishop. 
 It is regularly and handsomely built, teems with 
 churches, and has likewise an unfinished capitol, 
 a mint, a university, &c. Pop. (1800) 21,464 ; 
 (1897) 100,000.— The river Bogota, otherwise 
 called the Funcha, is the single outlet of the 
 waters of the tableland, having found a passage 
 for itself towards the Magdalena. At the cataract 
 of Tequendama the waters plunge over a preci- 
 pice 625 feet high. 
 
 Boguslav, a town of Russia, 70 miles SSE. of 
 Kieff". Pop. 9030. 
 
 Bohemia (Ger. BoTimen), formerly one of the 
 kingdoms of Europe, now forms the most northern 
 province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. 
 It has an area of 19,980 sq. m., or about two- 
 thirds that of Scotland ; pop. (1880) 5,560,819 ; 
 (1900) 6,318,697. Prague, the capital of the king- 
 dom, and third city of the empire, has over 
 200,000 inhabitants ; Pilsen has about 70,000, 
 Budweis 40,000, and Reichenberg 35,000. Tlie 
 country is suiTOunded on all sides by lofty 
 mountain-ranges, the principal of which are 
 the Riesengebirge on the north-east, dividing 
 Bohemia from Silesia, highest peak the Schnee- 
 koppe (5330 feet) ; on the north-west, the Erzge- 
 birge (4182) ; on the south-west, the Bbhmerwald 
 (4783). The country belongs to the upper basin 
 of the Elbe, and is well watered by its many 
 afl[luents, the Moldau, Eger, Iser, &c. The climate 
 is mild and pleasant in the valleys, but raw and 
 cold in the mountainous regions. A remnant of 
 volcanic action still continues in the eruptions 
 of carbonic acid gas which have established so 
 many mineral springs of deserved repute, at 
 Carlsbad, Eger, Marienbad, Teplitz, and else- 
 where. The mineral wealth is varied and exten- 
 sive, consisting of silver, tin, copper, lead, 
 iron, cobalt, bismuth, antimony, alum, sulphur, 
 graphite, and porcelain clay, with some precious 
 and ornamental stones. More coal is produced 
 than in all the rest of the Austrian empire. 
 
 The soil is generally fertile ; more than one- 
 half of the area is arable land, and forests cover 
 nearly a third. Flax and hops are plentiful, and 
 much fruit is exported. Some wine is produced 
 near the Moldau and the Elbe. Bohemia is a 
 great centre of dyeing and calico-printing, of linen 
 and woollen manufactures. Other important 
 branches of industry are the manufacture of 
 paper, ribbons, lace, chemicals, porcelain-ware, 
 and the Turkish fez. The glass-works of Bohemia 
 are celebrated, and afford employment to some 
 
BOIS-DE-BOULOQNE 
 
 110 
 
 BOKHARA 
 
 27,000 persons, and there are many ironworks. 
 Beet-root sugar is manufactured extensively, and 
 80 are beer and brandy. Its position secures 
 Bohemia a large transit-trade. 
 
 The bulk of the people are Czechs, a Slavonic 
 race, speaking thoir own Czech tongue, which 
 lias an old and varied literature. Thoy dwell 
 chiefly in the centre and east of the country, and 
 number 4\ millions. The German population, 
 amounting to over 2 millions, reside mainly in 
 the north-east, and in the cities ; their influence 
 on industry, trade, and commerce is great in 
 
 groportion to their numbers. The distinction 
 etween Czech and German is very sharply drawn, 
 and the demand of the Czechs for fuller Home 
 Rule than the provincial diet and administration 
 afford, and for the restoration of the crown- 
 rights of the Bohemian kingdom, has maintained 
 a long standing political controversy with the 
 Austrian government. There are about 100,000 
 Jews. The vast majority of the population be- 
 long to the R. C. Church ; of the 120,000 Pro- 
 testants most are Calvinists. Education is much 
 more widely diffused than in any other Austrian 
 province. Since 1882 the university of Prague 
 is divided into a German and a Czech university. 
 The number of students is over 4000, of whom 
 1200 attend the German lectures. Bohemia 
 sends 110 members— more than a fourth of the 
 total— to the Lower House of the Austrian 
 Reichsrath. 
 
 The country derives its name from the Celtic 
 Boii, who were expelled about the Christian era 
 by the Germanic Marcomanni ; and by the 5th 
 century, we find the country peopled by the 
 Slavonic Czechs. In 1086 the dukes of Prague 
 were made kings by the emperor, and Bohemia 
 became a state of the German empire. In the 15th 
 century took place the religious movement of John 
 Huss and Jerome of Prague. In 1458, after a long 
 war, the kingdom became elective, and the Hussite 
 George of Podiebrad was chosen king. His suc- 
 cessor, the Polish Ladlslaus, became also king of 
 Hungary (1490); and on his son's death at the 
 battle of Mohacz (1526), the crowns of both 
 kingdoms passed to Ferdinand of Austria, and 
 the history of Bohemia merges in that of Austria. 
 The withdrawal of religious liberty in 1608 led 
 to the troubles which ended in the election of 
 the Protestant Frederick V. of the Palatinate to 
 be king of Bohemia, and the Thirty Years' War, 
 in which Bohemia suffered so severely, the Haps- 
 burgs being restored, and Protestantism stamped 
 out in blood. There are histories in German by 
 Pelzel (1817), Palacky (1836), Tomek (1882), and 
 others. 
 
 Bois-de-Boulogne. See Boulogne. 
 
 Boise (pron. Boiz; formerly called Bois6 City), 
 the capital of Idaho, U.S., and a centre of the 
 silver industry, near the Boise River, 520 miles 
 NE. of San Francisco. Pop. 7311. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc (Bwah-leh-DUk' ; Dutch 's Hertogen- 
 bosch, ' Duke's Forest '), a Dutch city, capital of N. 
 Brabant, at the junction of the Dommel and the 
 Aa, 28 miles SSE. of Utrecht by rail. Strongly 
 fortified till 1876, it is the seat of a Catholic 
 archbishop, and has a very fine cathedral (1312- 
 1498), arsenal, &c. Iron-founding, book-printing, 
 the making of beer, spirits, woollens, cigars 
 jewellery, linen-thread, ribbons, and cutlery are 
 industries. Bois-le-Duc was founded in 1184 by 
 Godfrey III., Duke of Brabant, in a wood, hence 
 its name. Surrendered to the Dutch in 1629, in 
 1794 it was taken by the French, in 1814 by the 
 Prussians. Pc^. 35,000. 
 
 Boiador (Bo-ya-dor'), Cape, a headland on the 
 west coast of Africa, in 26° 7' N. lat., 14° 29' W. 
 long. The Portuguese doubled this cape in 1432. 
 
 Bojano (Bo-yah'no), an Italian cathedral city, 
 13 miles SW. of Campobasso. Pop. 3506. 
 
 Bokhara (Bok-hah'ra or Bo-liah'ra), the portion 
 of Turkestan under the rule of the khan (or emir) 
 of Bokhara, nominally independent, but prac- 
 tically a vassal state of Russia. It lies between 
 Russian Turkestan on the N., the Pamir on the 
 E., Afghani-stan on the S., and the Kara-kum 
 desert on the W. Area, 90,000 sq. m. ; pop. 
 1,800,000. Only in the neighbourhood of the 
 rivers is cultivation possible. The rest of the 
 soil is composed of a stiff arid clay, interspersed 
 with low sand-hills. Bokhara has only three 
 rivers of any importance — the Amu-Daria or 
 Oxus, the Zarafshan, and the Karshi, of which 
 the first reaches the Sea of Aral, the other two 
 are absorbed in the desert sands. Outlying pro- 
 vinces of Bokhara, separated by mountains, are 
 Darwaz, Karategin, Hissar, and Kulab. The 
 climate is healthy, but subject to great extremes 
 of heat and cold. The sands of the Oxus yield 
 gold, and salt, alum, sulphur, and sal-ammoniac 
 are found. The other products include rice and 
 cotton, wheat, barley, beet-root, vegetables, 
 hemp for making hhang, silk, fruits in immense 
 abundance, tobacco, and the sweet gum or manna 
 of the camel's thorn. The industry includes the 
 manufacture of silk-stuffs, cotton-thread, sha- 
 green, jewellery, cutlery, and firearms. Its geo- 
 graphical position secures Bokhara the transit- 
 trade between Russia and the south of Asia ; and 
 the Transcaspian Railway has increased its pros- 
 perity. The population consists chiefly of the 
 aboriginal Tajiks of Persian, and of the dominant 
 Uzbegs and Turkomans of Turkish origin. Persian 
 slaves are numerous. The army numbers 30,000, 
 since 1885 drilled by Russian officers. 
 
 Bokhara, corresponding in the main to the 
 ancient Sogdiana, was conquered in the beginning 
 of the 8th century by the Arabs, who were dis- 
 possessed of it in 1232 by Genghis Khan. It fell 
 into the hands of Timur in 1403, and in 1505 was 
 taken by the Uzbegs, its present masters. With 
 the accession of the Khan Nasrullah (1826) the 
 country became an object of rivalry to Britain 
 and Russia, who in vain sent envoys to cultivate 
 his friendship. After the capture of Tashkend 
 by the Russians in 1865, the khan was compelled 
 to oppose them, but was utterly defeated at the 
 battle of Irdjar, May 20, 1866 ; and in July 1868 
 a peace was concluded by which Samarkand was 
 ceded to the czar. During the invasion of Khiva 
 in 1873 the khan assisted the Russians, and was 
 rewarded by a large addition to his territory 
 from the Khivan possessions. In 1882 a Russian 
 political agent was appointed. 
 
 Bokhara, the capital, is situated on a plain 
 a few miles from the Zarafshan, in the midst of 
 trees and gardens. It is between 8 and 9 miles 
 in circumference, and surrounded by embattled 
 mud walls about 24 feet high, and pierced by 
 eleven gates. The houses are built of sun- 
 burned bricks on a wooden framewoi-k. The 
 palace of the khan occupies an eminence over 
 200 feet in height in the centre of the city. 
 The mosques, which are said (fabulously) to be 
 365 in number, form one of the greatest features 
 of Bokhara, which is the centre of religious life 
 in Central Asia. The city has long been cele- 
 brated as a seat of learning, and contains about 
 80 colleges, said to be attended by some 5000 
 students. Bokhara i§ still the most important 
 
BOLAN PASS 
 
 111 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 commercial town in Central Asia, although the 
 gradual drying up of the Zarafshan, through the 
 Russian irrigation-works at Samarkand, has 
 lessened the population by about a half. Silks, 
 woollens, and swords are manufactured, and 
 large slave-markets are held ; but the most 
 striking feature of the town is its numerous 
 bazaars, filled with the richest wares of Europe 
 and of Asia. Bokhara was in 1888 connected by 
 the Transcaspian Railway with Merv, and so 
 with the Caspian ports. The pop. is estimated 
 at 70,000. See Turkestan ; the History of Bok- 
 hara, by Vambery ; Wolffs Narrative of a Mission 
 to Bokhara (1845) ; and works on Central Asia, by 
 Vambery (1874-85), Boulger (1879), Von Hellwald 
 (1874), Lansdell (1885), and Curzon (1888). 
 
 Bolan' Pass, a narrow, precipitous gorge, 
 ascending nearly 55 miles north-westward to the 
 broad plateau of Dasht-i-Bidaulat, in Beluchistan, 
 and lying pretty directly between Sind and Kan- 
 dahar. Its entrance and its outlet are respec- 
 tively 800 and 5800 feet above the sea, it tlius 
 having an average gradient of fully 90 feet to 
 the mile. Down the pass pours a torrent, now 
 at many points bridged by a good military road ; 
 and in 1885-86 a military railway was laid. In 
 parts of it there are three rails, the central one 
 being toothed to catch a cogwheel on the engine. 
 The route is highly defensible, and is commanded 
 by the fortress at Quetta (since 1877 British), 25 
 miles from the upper end. It is overhung by 
 eminences attaining a height of 800 feet. 
 
 Bolbec, a busy town in the French dep. of 
 Seine-Inferieure, 19 miles ENE. of Havre by rail. 
 It manufactures woollens, linen, cotton, and 
 chemicals. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Bolchov. See Bolkhov. ^ 
 
 Bolgary, a village of 150 houses in the Russian 
 government of Kazan, near the Volga. It occu- 
 pies the site of Bolgar, the old Bulgarian capital. 
 
 Bolgrad, a town in the Russian province of 
 Bessarabia, 28 miles NW. of Ismail, at the head 
 of Lake Yapuch. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Boll, an ancient town of Asia Minor, on the 
 left bank of the river Boli, 136 miles E. by S. of 
 Constantinople. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Bollngbroke, a ruined castle, Lincolnshire, 3J 
 miles W. by S. of Spilsby. Henry IV. was born 
 here. 
 
 Bolivar (Bolee'var), the name of several states 
 of South America.— (1) A state of Colombia, 
 W. of the Magdalena. Area, 21,345 sq. m. ; pop. 
 300,000. Capital, Cartagena ; chief port, Barran- 
 quilla.— (2) A state of Venezuela ; pop. 50,289. 
 
 Bolivia, a republic on the west side of South 
 America, deriving its name from the liberator 
 Bolivar, and formed in 1825, till which year, as 
 Upper Peru, it had formed part of the vice- 
 royalty of Buenos Ayres. It is enclosed by 
 Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, the Argentine Republic, 
 and Chili. Its coast provinces Bolivia lost to 
 Chili through the war carried on by Bolivia and 
 Peru against Chili in 1879-83. The area of the 
 republic is now 536,000 sg. m., and the popu- 
 lation is probably under 1,800,(KX), though some 
 estimates give 2,300,000. Bolivia contains the 
 greater part of the loftiest and most moun- 
 tainous district of America, as comprising a sec- 
 tion of tlie Andes system at its broadest exten- 
 sion. The lofty plateau of Oruro, with an aver- 
 age height of 13,000 feet, and about 150 miles 
 broad, is enclosed between the Andes proper 
 (now the western boundary of Bolivia), and the 
 Cordillera Real, to the east. There are also inter- I 
 
 mediate ranges and isolated groups ; of the vol« 
 canoes, all the western region, Sahama, Illampu, 
 and Illimani, are over 21,000 feet high. The 
 great plateau falls into two parts, of which the 
 northern is the more inhabited, as containing the 
 Lake of Titicaca and many well-watered valleys 
 round it. The southern and lower tableland is 
 chiefly a desert. The Cordillera Real system 
 descends abruptly, on the north, to the plain of 
 the Amazon : but its eastern edge is a series of 
 terraces, sinking gently to the plains of eastern 
 Bolivia, which in the north belong to the Amazon 
 basin, and in the south to the pampas of the 
 Plata. 
 
 Although situated entirely within the tropics, 
 Bolivia, from its varied elevation, possesses a 
 wide range of climate and productions. In the 
 punas (over 11,000 feet high) the climate is cold 
 and dry, and the vegetation scanty. The valleys 
 of the eastern terraces, between 9500 and 11,000 
 feet, have a teinperate climate, and wheat and 
 maize are produced ; in those between 5000 and 
 9500 feet, tropical fruits flourish. East of the 
 inner Cordillera lie the plains under the 5000 
 feet limit. This district, with its numerous 
 streams, its luxuriant tropical vegetation, its 
 rich forests of valuable trees in the north, and 
 its immense open savannahs in the south, sur- 
 passes most countries of South America in fertility 
 and resources. Coff"ee, rice, cacao, coca, pine- 
 apples, bananas, tobacco, cotton, and the valu- 
 able cinchona are cultivated ; and among other 
 important plants are the copal and caoutchouc 
 trees. In the punas are found the guanaco, 
 llama, alpaca, vicuna, and the chinchilla ; in the 
 east, jaguars and tapirs. Mining is the mo.st 
 important industry of the country ; for its gold, 
 silver, copper, and tin ores have long been famous, 
 in spite of the excessive cost of transport. The 
 mines of Potosi are estimated to have produced 
 since 1545 over £600,000,000 sterling of silver. 
 Potosi, Oruro, and the richest mine, Huanchaca, 
 still produce large quantities annually. From the 
 landlocked position of the republic, its foreign 
 trade labours under heavy disadvantages, for its 
 great rivers, flowing mainly by the Madeira to 
 the Amazon, and by the Pilcomayo to the Parana, 
 are rendered unnavigable by rapids. More is to 
 be hoped for from the railways, which have 
 reached Bolivia from Chili, Peru, and Argentina ; 
 telegraphs also connect Bolivia with the outer 
 world. The exports are stated to have an annual 
 value of £1,800,000— two-thirds silver, and the 
 imports £1,200,000. The exports to Great Britain 
 vary from £140,000 to £200,000; the imports 
 from thence from £45,000 to £100,000, being 
 chiefly iron, cotton, woollen, and manufactured 
 goods. 
 
 The population of Bolivia is a mixture of half- 
 caste Spaniards and Indians, and a few negroes. 
 The Indians are partly civilised (Quichuas and 
 Aymdras), partly semi-civilised (Chiquitos and 
 Moxos), and partly wild. The religion of the 
 country is Roman Catholic, but others are toler- 
 ated. There are five universities ; but only 5 per 
 cent, of the children of school age attend the 
 schools. 
 
 The executive is vested in a president, with 
 two vice-presidents, and a ministry divided into 
 five departments ; while the legislature consists 
 of a congress of two chambers, the Senate and 
 the House of Representatives, both elected by 
 universal suffrage. The public revenue, between 
 £700,000 and £800,000, is usually greatly exceeded 
 by the expenditure. The public debt is set 
 down at about £2,000,000. The seat of the execu- 
 
BOLKHOV 
 
 112 
 
 BOMBAY 
 
 tlve Kovernment, formerly La Paz, was trans- 
 ferred in 1869 to Oruro, and now changes between 
 Oruro and Sucre. The chief towns are La Paz 
 (45.000), Cochabamba (14,705), Chuquisaca or 
 Sucre (12,000), and Potosi (11,000). Bolivia de- 
 Glared its independence 6th August 1825. Its 
 history has been largely a series of restless and 
 purposeless revolutions. Slavery was abolished 
 in 1836. In 1879 a war broke out between CUili 
 and Bolivia allied with Peru, of which the issue 
 was disastrous to the allies. 
 
 See. besides books of travel in Geman or French 
 by Tschudi (1856), D'Ursel (1879), and Wiener 
 (1880), works on Bolivia by Clnirch (18<3), 
 Mathews (1879), and Child (New York, 1894). 
 
 Bolkhov, a cathedral city of Russia, on the 
 river Nugra, 37 miles N. of Orel. Pop. 26,395. 
 
 Bollington, a Cheshire town, 3 miles N. by 
 B. of Macclesfield, with cotton and silk factories. 
 Pop. 6913. 
 
 Bologna (Bolon'ya), one of the most ancient 
 cities of Italy, beautifully situated on a fertile 
 plain at the foot of the lower slopes of the Apen- 
 nines, 82 in. N. of Florence, and 135 SE. of Milan 
 by rail. An irregular hexagon, it is enclosed by a 
 high brick wall, 5 to 6 miles in extent, with 
 twelve gates, and is intersected by the canal of 
 Reno. It has many fine palaces of the nobility ; 
 over 70 churches, including the cathedral and 
 San Domenico, with the tomb of St Dominic, 
 richly ornamented by Michael Angelo ; and two 
 remarkable leaning towers (c. 1100)— the Asinella, 
 with a height of 274 feet, and a lean of 3i feet, 
 and the Garisenda, with a height of 137 feet, and 
 a lean of 8i feet. The university of Bologna, the 
 oldest in Europe, celebrated its eighth centenary 
 in 1888. Medicine has long superseded law as the 
 principal study, and the discovery of Galvanism 
 by one of its professors has shed a lustre on 
 the university, which was the earliest school for 
 the practice of dissection of the human body. 
 For centuries learned female professors have pre- 
 lected within its walls. The number of students, 
 stated at 10,000 in 1262, now is only about 1400. 
 Bologna also possesses an academy of music 
 (1805), at which Rossini studied. The university 
 library contains 160,000 vols, and 6000 MSS., and 
 there is besides a city library of 120,000 vols. 
 The Accademia delle Belle Arti is particularly 
 rich in the works of those native ai-tists who 
 founded the Bolognese school of painting. Bo- 
 logna has given eight popes and more than 200 
 cardinals to the Church. There are some manu- 
 factures, including silk goods, velvet, crape, wax 
 candles, musical instruments, chemical products, 
 paper, cards, and ' polony ' sausages. Pop. (1872) 
 115,957 ; (1901) 152,000. The Etruscan Felsina, 
 and afterwards as Bononia the chief town of 
 the Boii, Bologna in 180 b.c. was made a 
 Roman colony. After the fall of the Roman 
 empire, it passed into the hands of the Longo- 
 bards and Franks; by Charlemagne was made 
 a free city, but in 1506 came under the papal 
 supremacy. 
 
 Bolor-Tagli, a lofty border-ridge of the Pamir 
 plateau, ranging SW. toNE., which falls abruptly 
 to Kashgaria. 
 
 Bolsena {BolsayfrM ; anc. Volsinii), a town on 
 the north shore of the Lake of Bolsena {Lacus 
 Volsijiiensis), 20 miles NNW. of Viterbo. It now 
 has only 2214 inhabitants ; but prior to 280 B.C. 
 it was one of the twelve Etruscan cities.— The 
 lake, about 10 miles long and 8 broad, occupies 
 a volcanic hollow. 
 
 Bol'BOver, a viUage of Derbyshire, 6 miles E. of 
 
 Chesterfield. Bolsover Castle belongs to th« 
 Duke of Portland. Pop. of urban district, 6844. 
 
 Bolsward, an old town of Friesland, 15 miles 
 SW. of Leeuwarden. Pop. 6939. 
 
 Bolton, or Bolton-Le-Moors, an important 
 manufacturing town and parliamentary, muni- 
 cipal, and county borough in South Lancashire, 
 on the Croal, 11 miles NW. of Manchester. It 
 was celebrated as far back as the time of Henry 
 VIII. for its cotton and its woollen manufactures, 
 introduced by Flemish clothiers in the 14th cen- 
 tury. Emigrants from France and the Rhenish 
 Palatinate subsequently introduced new branches 
 of manufacture ; and the improvements in cotton- 
 spinning of the middle of the 18th century 
 rapidly increased the trade of the town. Though 
 Arkwright was at one time a resident, and 
 Crompton lived all his life in Bolton parish, the 
 opposition of the working-classes long retarded 
 the adoption, in the town, of their inventions— 
 the spinning-frame and the mule. Bolton, con- 
 taining more than 100 cotton-mills, with about 4 
 million of spindles, is now one of the principal 
 seats of the cotton manufacture in Lancashire. 
 Muslins, fine calicoes, quiltings, counterpanes, 
 dimities, &c., are manufactured. There are also 
 extensive foundries and ironworks, bleaching- 
 mills, chemical works, paper-mills, and dyeworks, 
 with many neighbouring coal-mines. Bolton has 
 public libraries and a museum, a public park 
 and recreation grounds, a town-hall (1873), which 
 cost £170,250, market-hall, fish-market, exchange, 
 mechanics' institute, &c., and a water-supply 
 from Entwisle Moor, 5 miles away. Bolton was 
 the birthplace of the daily evening press. During 
 the Civil War the Parliament garrisoned Bolton ; 
 in 1644 it was stormed by the Earl of Derby, who 
 was beheaded here in 1651 on a spot now marked 
 by his statue. Since 1832 it has returned two 
 members. Pop. (1871) 92,655; (1881) 105,973; 
 (1891) 115,002 ; (1901) 168,215. 
 
 Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire, on the river Wliarfe, 
 6 miles E. of Skipton, and 21 NW. of Leeds. 
 Founded for Augustinian canons about 1150, it 
 is celebrated in Wordsworth's White Doe of 
 Rylstone and The Force of Prayer. The remains 
 range from Early English to Perpendicular ; and 
 the nave of the church has been restored for 
 service. The gateway, familiar through Land- 
 seer's picture, has been incorporated in Bolton 
 Hall, a seat of the Duke of Devonshire. 
 
 Boma, the capital of the Congo State (q.\.). 
 
 Bo'marsund, a Russian fortress on Aland 
 Island, commanding the Gulf of Bothnia. In 
 1854 it was destroyed by an Anglo-French force, 
 after a six days' bombardment. The Treaty of 
 Paris bound Russia not to restore it. 
 
 Bombay, the western province of India. In- 
 cluding Sind and Aden (q.v.), it comprises 26 
 British districts and 19 native or feudatory 
 states, and contains 194,189 sq. m., of which 
 69,045 are in native states. The Nerbudda River 
 divides the 'presidency' into two portions: in 
 the north is Guzerat, chiefly consisting of alluvial 
 plains, with the Cutch and Kathiawar penin- 
 sulas ; to the south is the Mahratta country, 
 which includes parts of the Deccan, Carnatic, and 
 Konkan or coast-districts. The small territories 
 of the Portuguese— Goa, Daman, and Diu — have 
 an area of 1062 sq. m. The coast-line is irregular, 
 broken by the gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, with 
 several fine natural harbours, Bombay and Kar- 
 achi (Kurrachee) being the most important ; in 
 the north are the Khirtar, in the south-east are 
 
BOMBAY CITY 
 
 113 
 
 BO'NESS 
 
 the western Aravalli mountains ; the Sahyadris 
 or Western Ghats run ahnost parallel with the 
 coast ; the Satpura range runs east, and forms 
 the watershed between the Tapti and Nerbudda. 
 Sind is fertilised throughout by the Indus ; the 
 Subarmati and Mahi flow through North Guzerat ; 
 the Nerbudda pursues a western course into the 
 Gulf of Cambay. The Tapti flows tlirough Khan- 
 desh, entering the sea above Surat. The Runn 
 of Cutch (q.v.), in the west of Guzerat, covers 
 about 8000 sq. m., and is the great source of salt- 
 supply. There are few minerals, and no coal ; 
 iron is mined at Teagar in Dharvar, and there is 
 gold amongst the quartz. Good building-stone is 
 abundant, with limestone and slate. In the dry 
 sandy districts of Sind, the thermometer has 
 reached 130° in the shade ; the mean temperature 
 in Lower Sind, during the hottest months, is 
 98° in the shade. The coast-districts are hot and 
 moist, with a heavy rainfall during the monsoon. 
 The tableland of the Deccan has an agreeable 
 climate, except during the hot months. 
 
 Of late years, manufacturing industries have 
 been extremely active in Bombay, which com- 
 mands the richest cotton-fields in India. The 
 stoppage of the American cotton-supply dur- 
 ing the civil war gave a grand impulse to the 
 trade of Bombay, where the first mill had been 
 started in 1854, the exports of cotton during the 
 five years 1861-6G averaging in value £21,582,847 
 a year. The Avealth poured into Bombay at this 
 period led to a vast extension of the trade, which 
 partly continued after the period of inflation had 
 passed. Not only does Bombay now compete 
 with Manchester in the Indian market ; it exports 
 its own manufactures. After cotton, the other 
 great staples are opium, wheat, and seeds. The 
 trade in opium is worth nearly five millions 
 sterling annually, two millions being the clear 
 revenue derived by government from a pass duty 
 of 550 rupees a chest. Although of recent origin, 
 the wheat trade has assumed large proportions. 
 Other principal exports are sugar, tea, raw wool, 
 woollen shawls, fibres, and drugs ; while among 
 the imports are machinery, metals, oils, coal, and 
 liquors. There is a considerable trade in Arab 
 horses. Silk-weaving is carried on at Ahmedabad, 
 Surat, Nasik, Yeola, and Poona ; carpets are made 
 at Ahmeduagar ; cutlery, armour, and gold and 
 silver work iu Cutch. Pop. (1891) of native 
 states, 8,059,298; of British territory, 18,901,123 
 — reduced by 1901 by famine and plague to 
 6,908,648 and 18,559,561 respectively. 
 
 Bombay City occupies the entire breadth of 
 the SE. end of Bombay Island or Peninsula, 
 bordering at once on the harbour inside, and on 
 Back Bay outside. The island, now permanently 
 connected by causeways and breakwaters with 
 Salsette Island and the mainland, is over 11 miles 
 long by from 3 to 4 broad. The island-studded 
 harbour is one of the finest in the world ; the 
 space available for shipping being about 14 miles 
 in length by 5 broad. Bombay is the most Euro- 
 pean in appearance of all the cities in India. In 
 the business part there are several streets con- 
 tinuously lined with splendid buildings ; while 
 the bazaars, which extend from the fort towards 
 Mazagaon, are traversed by fairly wide streets, 
 extensive lines of tramways passing through even 
 the most crowded parts. Many of the private 
 houses of European residents are built on the 
 suburb of Malabar Hill, the ridge running into 
 the sea forming the west of Back Bay; and at 
 Breach Candy looking seaward. On the espla- 
 nade, facing Back Bay, are the secretariat, the 
 university, senate-hall, high court, offices of 
 
 public works, sailors' home, and statue of the 
 Queen. In the neighbourhood of the fort are 
 the town-hall, the mint, cathedral, and custom- 
 house. The terminus of the Great Indian Penin- 
 sular Railway, opened in 1870, cost upwards of 
 £300,000. The harbour is defended by batteries 
 and ironclads. It has an extensive system of 
 quays, wharves, and docks, extended in 1904-11 
 at a cost of 35,000,000 rupees. Mazagaon Bay, 
 the centre of shipping activity, is at the head of 
 the harbour. The city water-supply, equal to 
 100,000,000 gallons a day, has since 1892 been 
 drawn from the Tansa valley, 65 miles N. Always 
 favourably situated for foreign trade, Bombay 
 has profited largely by being the first important 
 port reached by vessels from Europe, and by 
 being tlie terminus of the mail line to India by 
 Suez and Aden, so that it stands next to Cal- 
 cutta in amount of trade. The chief articles of 
 export are cotton, wheat, shawls, opium, coff"ee, 
 pepper, ivory, and gums ; the chief imports, piece- 
 goods, thread, yarn, metals, wine, beer, tea, and 
 silk. The chief industries of the city are dye- 
 ing, tanning, and working in metal. The imports 
 of the province of Bombay in the period 1885- 
 1903 varied in annual value from £20,000,000 to 
 £30,000,000; the exports from £23,000,000 to 
 £31,000,000. Witli 60 large steam-mills, Bombay 
 in one aspect resembles a city in Lancashire. 
 Pop. (1881) 773,196; (1891) 821,764; (1901, after 
 famine and plague) 776,000. In 1509, about a 
 year befoi-e the capture of Goa, the Portuguese 
 visited the island ; and by 1532 they had made it 
 tlieir own. In 1661 they ceded it to Charles II. 
 of England, as part of Catharine of Braganza's 
 dowry, and in 1668 he granted it for an annual 
 payment of £10 to the East India Company, 
 wliich in 1685 transferred wliat was then its prin- 
 cipal presidency to Bombay from Surat. Bombay 
 was the birthplace of Dean Farrar, Sir Monier 
 Williams, and Rudyard Kipling. See Sir W. 
 Hunter's Bombay (1892> 
 
 Bommel, a town of Holland, on the Waal, 20 
 miles SSE. of Utrecht. Pop. 3835.— The Bom- 
 melerwaard is a fertile island-district (16 by 6 
 miles), formed by the Waal and Maas. 
 
 Bona (Fr. Bone), a seaport of Algeria, on a bay 
 of the Mediterranean, near the mouth of the 
 Sebus, 220 miles W. of Tunis by rail It has 
 good bazaars, manufactures of tapestry, saddlery, 
 and native clothing ; and a trade in wool, hides, 
 corn, &c. The exposed roadstead has been made 
 into a fair harbour. There are iron and copper 
 mines near Bona, and some scanty remains of 
 Hippo Regius, St Augustine's episcopal seat, 
 destroyed by Calif Osman in 646. Pop. 32,500. 
 
 Bonaire. See Buen-Ayre. 
 
 Bonar, a Sutherland village, at the head of 
 Dornoch Firtli, 14 miles WNW. of Tain. Pop. 
 366. Telford's bridge (1812) here was destroyed 
 in 1892, but has been rebuilt. 
 
 Bona Vista, a bay, cape, and seaport (pop. 
 2500) on the east coast of Newfoundland. 
 
 Bonchurch, a village. Isle of Wight, 1 mile E. 
 of Ventnor. 
 
 Bondu, a country of French Senegambia, 
 Africa, to the AV. of Bambouk, on the lower 
 Senegal and Faleme rivers, lying between 14°— 
 15° N. lat. and 12°— 13° W. long. The Fulah 
 inhabitants are Mohammedans. Pop. variously 
 estimated at from 30,000 to 100,000. 
 
 Bo'ness, or Borrowstounness, a seaport in 
 Linlithgowshire, on the Firth of Forth, 23 miles 
 WNW. of Edinburgh. It has a wet-dock of 7i 
 acres (1881), a, large shipping trade in coal, and 
 
BONHILL 
 
 114 
 
 BORDEAUX 
 
 numu&ctures of salt, soap, malt, vitriol, iron, 
 earthenware, &c. Graham's Dyke, otherwise 
 Antoninus' Wall, traverses the imrish. Dugaltl 
 Stewart spent his last twenty years at Kmneil 
 House (Dtike of Hamilton's) in the neighbour- 
 hood. Pop. (1851) 2645 ; (1901) 9306. 
 
 Bonhill, a Dumbartonshire town, with dye- 
 works, on the raven's left bank, opposite A ex 
 andria and 4 miles N. of Dumbarton. Bouhill 
 was the seat of the Smolletts. Pop. 3343. 
 
 Boni, a small state in the south-west penin- 
 sula of Celebes, now practically Dutch, with an 
 area of 935 sq. m. The inhabitants, called Bugis, 
 have an allied language to the Macassars, and as 
 enterprising merchants and sailors are found in 
 every port of the East Indian Archipelago. The 
 pop. by some estimates amounts to 200,000. Ihe 
 capital, Boni, stands on the east coast of the 
 peninsula. -Tlie Gulf of Boni, 200 miles long, 
 and 40-80 broad, separates the south-east and 
 south-west peninsulas of Celebes. 
 
 Bonifacio, Strait of (Boneefat'cJio), the strait 
 between Corsica and Sardinia, only 7 miles ^ylde 
 at the narrowest. It is named from the Corsican 
 seaport of Bonifacio ; pop. 3397. 
 
 Bonlllo (BoneeVyo), a town of Spain, 34 miles 
 WNW. of Albacete. Pop. 4996. 
 
 Bonin', or (Japanese) Ogasawara Islands, a 
 volcanic group in the Pacific Ocean, 700 miles 
 SSE. of Japan, where 27° N. lat. crosses 142° E. 
 long. Area, 30 sq. in. ; pop. 1500. Discovered by 
 Quast and Tasman in 1639, they were taken 
 possession of by Britain in 1827 ; but in 1878 
 the Japanese reasserted their sovereignty, with 
 the view of making them a penal settlement. 
 The harbour is Port Lloyd. 
 
 Bonn (anc. Bonna), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 beautifully situated on the left bank of the 
 Rhine (here 600 yards wide), 21 miles SSE. of 
 Cologne by rail. The Minster, said to have been 
 founded by the Empress Helena in 320, but 
 dating chiefly from the 11th and 13th centuries, 
 has five towers, the middle one 311 feet high. 
 Near it is a monument to Beethoven, who was 
 born in the Rheingasse ; and at Bonn are buried 
 Niebuhr, Bunsen, and Schumann. The uni- 
 versity, founded in 1777-86, in 1802 was trans- 
 formed into a lyceum, but was re-established in 
 1818, receiving from government the beautiful 
 electoral palace (1717-30) and other buildings, 
 with an annual revenue of nearly £15,000 sterling. 
 It has 126 professors and lecturers, and over 1200 
 students. Among its professors have been Nie- 
 buhr, A. W. Schlegel, Arndt, Welcker, Dahlmann, 
 Hermes, and Simrock; Prince Albert was a 
 student here. It has a library of above 250,000 
 volumes, a splendid laboratory (1868), an art 
 museum (1884), a botanic garden, &c. The 
 manufactures— jute, soap, chemicals, &c. — are 
 unimportant. Pop. (1871) 26,030 ; (1890) 38,805 : 
 (1900) 50,737, chiefly Catliolic. 
 
 Bonny, or Boni, a town and a river of Guinea, 
 now in the British Niger protectorate. The river 
 forms an eastern debouchure of the Niger, and 
 falls into the Bight of Biafra. On the east side, 
 near its mouth, is the town of Bonny, notorious 
 from the 16th to the 19th century as the rendez- 
 vous of slave-trading ships. 
 
 Bonnyrigg, a Midlothian town, 7 miles S. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. 2924. 
 
 Bonyhad, a market- town of Hungary, 150 miles 
 S. of Budapest. Pop. 5970, 
 
 Bonsall, a Derbyshire village, 2 miles SW. of 
 Matlock. Pop. of urban district, 1360, 
 
 Booby Island, a level rock in Torres Strait, in 
 10° 36' S. lat., and 141° 53' E. long., 3 feet above 
 high water, and J mile in diameter. 
 Boodroom. See Budrun. 
 Boom, a town of Belgium, 10 miles S. of Ant- 
 werp, with great brick and tile works, breweries, 
 tanneries, rope-walks, sailcloth manufactures, 
 salt-works, &c. Pop. 16,239. 
 Boondee. See Bundi. 
 
 Boone, a city of Iowa, 43 miles NW. of Des 
 Moines, in a coal-mining district, with flour- 
 mills, potteries, and tile-works. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BoonevlUe, a city of Missouri, on the Missouri 
 River, 40 miles NW. of Jefl"erson City. Pop. 5000. 
 Bootan. See Bhutan. 
 
 Boothia Felix, a peninsula on the ttorth coast 
 of North America, in which is the most northern 
 part of the continent, Murchison Point, 73° 54' 
 N. lat. It was discovered by Sir John Ross 
 (1829-33), and named, like the neighbouring 
 Boothia Isthmus and Boothia Gulf, after Sir 
 Felix Booth (1775-1850), a London distiller, who 
 had furnished £17,000 for the expedition. Here, 
 on the western coast, near Cape Adelaide, Ross 
 discovered the magnetic pole, 70° 5' 17" N. lat., 
 and 96° 46' 45" W. long. 
 
 Bootle, a municipal (1868) and county borough 
 of Lancashire, to the north of and adjoining 
 Liverpool, which includes a large portion of the 
 Mersey dock system. It has a municipal techni- 
 cal college (1900). Pop. (1861) 6500 ; (1881) 27,112 ; 
 (1891) 49,217 ; (1901) 58,556. 
 
 Booton, or Bouton, an island off" the coast of 
 the south-eastern ray of Celebes. The people are 
 Malays. The sultan, who resides at Bolio, is in 
 allegiance to the Dutch. Area, 1700 miles ; pop. 
 17,000. 
 
 Boppard (anc. Baudohriga), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles 
 S. of Coblenz. Pop. 5894. 
 
 Bordeaux (Bor-do'), the third seaport of France, 
 and chief town in the dep. of Gironde, is beauti- 
 fully situated in a plain on the left bank of the 
 Garonne, about 60 miles from its mouth in the 
 Atlantic, and 359 miles SSW. of Paris by rail. 
 Transatlantic steamers can easily ascend with the 
 flood to Bordeaux, which is accessible at all times 
 to vessels of 600 tons. The commerce both by 
 the Garonne and by railways is very extensive, 
 and the long and crescent-shaped harbour, pro- 
 viding anchorage for 1200 ships, has a singularly 
 noble appearance. The river is crossed by a 
 bridge 532 yards long, erected in 1811-21. The 
 archiepiscopal cathedral of St Andr6, consecrated 
 in 1096, is remarkable for its beautiful towers, 
 designed and built by English architects during 
 the English occupation. Bordeaux contains a 
 faculty of science and letters (rebuilt in 1885-87, 
 and constituting part of the university of France, 
 witli 1500 students), schools of theology, medi- 
 cine, art, and navigation, an academy of arts 
 and sciences, a valuable gallery of paintings, a 
 museum , and an observatory. The Grand ThMtre 
 is one of the largest and finest buildings of its 
 kind in France. The public library has upwards 
 of 160,000 volumes. Pop. (1872) 190,682 ; (1891) 
 247,890 ; (1901) 257,638. 
 
 The principal branches of industry are the pro- 
 duction or preparation of sugar, brandy, liqueurs, 
 vinegar, tobacco, printed calicoes, woollen goods, 
 casks, paper, earthenware, glass bottles, capsules, 
 labels, and chemical products. There are large 
 dockyards, but little shipbuilding. The old 
 Canal du Midi connects Bordeaux with the Medi- 
 
BORDELAIS 
 
 115 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 terranean. Except those of Champagne, no 
 French wines have been so much exported to 
 foreign countries as those grown in the dep. of 
 Gironde, especially the Medoc, and known as 
 Bordeaux wines. Some of them are red (known 
 in England as Claret), others white. Brandy, 
 vinegar, fruit, fish, lace, jewellery, ready-made 
 clothing, and skins are also among the principal 
 exports, the largest trade being with England 
 and South America. Bordeaux is an important 
 centre of the French cod-flshing ships for New- 
 foundland and elsewhere. 
 
 Remains of the Roman Burdigala, which was 
 made by Hadrian the capital of Aquitania Secunda, 
 are the so-called 'palace of Gallienus,' really the 
 ruins of a large amphitheatre. Having suffered 
 successively from Vandals, Goths, Franks, and 
 Moors, Bordeaux was taken by Charles Martel 
 in 735 ; as the capital of the duchy of Guienne, 
 in 1152 passed, by the marriage of Eleanor of 
 Guienne with the future Henry II. of England, 
 under English dominion ; and was finally restored 
 to France in 1451. It was the birthplace of the 
 poet Ausonius, Richard II. of England, and Rosa 
 Bonheur. 
 
 Bordelais (Bordelay'), the country round about 
 Bordeaux, was a recognised division of Guienne. 
 
 Bordontown, a town of New Jersey, on the 
 Delaware, 28 miles ENE. of Philadelphia. It 
 has iron-foundries, machine-shops, shirt-factories, 
 and shipyards. Pop. 4232. 
 
 Borders, the tract of country lying immediately 
 on both sides of the frontier line between Eng- 
 land and Scotland, which runs diagonally north- 
 east or south-west, between the head of the 
 Solway Firth at the latter extremity, and a point 
 a little north of the mouth of the Tweed at the 
 other extremity ; the counties touching upon this 
 line being Cumberland and Northumberland on 
 the English side, and Dumfries, Roxburgh, and 
 Berwick on the Scottish side. The distance 
 between the two extremities is nearly 70 miles 
 as the crow flies ; but, following the frontier line 
 in its irregularities, about 110 miles. The line of 
 division is for the most part a natural one. The 
 middle portion, extending 35 miles, is formed by 
 the high barrier of the Cheviot range. Leaving 
 the Cheviots in the south-west, the line descends 
 for nearly 22 miles by Kershope Burn, and the 
 waters of the Liddel, Esk, and Sark, to the Sol- 
 way Firth. Prom the north-east extremity of 
 the Cheviots, the windings of the Tweed, for 
 about 13 miles eastward, form the natural 
 boundary. But at a point about 5 miles from 
 the mouth of that river, the line strikes out 
 semicircularly in a north-easterly direction, till 
 it reaches the east coast a few miles north of the 
 town of Berwick-on-Tweed ; the space thus en- 
 closed, embracing within it what are known as 
 the ' Liberties ' of that town, having been at one 
 time regarded as neutral territory between the 
 two kingdoms. On the western Border, near 
 the Solway, was a corresponding tract of country 
 claimed by both kingdoms, and hence called the 
 'Debateable Land.' For the history, traditions, 
 minstrelsy, &c., of the Border country, see works 
 by Ridpath (1776), Scott (1803), Veitch (1878), and 
 Groome (1887), with others upon the counties. 
 
 Bordighera (Bordigay'ra), a winter-resort in the 
 Italian Riviera, on a hill overlooking the Mediter- 
 ranean, 7 miles WSW. of San Remo by rail. It 
 was founded in 1470, but its modern progress 
 dates from the opening of the Cornice road in 
 1823, and of railway communication. Pop. 4556. 
 
 Bor'eray, a Hebridean island, Inverness-shire, 
 
 1 sq. m. in area, 3 miles W. of North Uist 
 Pop. 112. 
 
 Borgerhout, an Antwerp suburb, on the Schyn, 
 has tapestry and tobacco factories, and dye and 
 bleaching works. Pop. 36,388. 
 
 Borgo, a name given to a number of towns 
 and villages in Italy and Southern Tyrol, and 
 indicating the growth of the town or village 
 around a castle or castellated rock, the original 
 Borgo. Thus there are the Borgo, the north part 
 of Rome, on the right bank of the Tiber ; Borgo- 
 Manero, an Italian town in the province of 
 Novara, with 4821 inhabitants ; Borgo San Don- 
 nino, in the province of Parma, with 4493, &c. 
 
 Borgu, or BussANGA, a country in the basin 
 of the middle Niger (right bank), of which the 
 western (and larger) part is now French and the 
 eastern is a province of (British) Northern Nigeria. 
 At Boussa or Bussang (now British) on the Niger 
 Mnngo Park lost his life in 1805. 
 
 Borlssov, a town in the Russian government 
 of Minsk, on the Beresina, 418 miles WSW. ol 
 Moscow by rail. Pop. 14,235. 
 
 Borkum, an East Frisian island, at the mouth 
 of the Ems, 25 miles NW. of Emden. Pop, 684, 
 increased in summer by over 2000 visitors. 
 
 Bonnio, an Italian village with eight hot sul- 
 phur-baths, on the borders of Tyrol, 27 miles 
 NNE. ofTirano. Pop. 1744. 
 
 Boma, a town of Saxony, on the Wyhra, 17 
 miles SSE. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. 8350. 
 
 Borneo, next to Australia and New Guinea the 
 largest island in the world, is situated in the 
 Indian Archipelago, in 7° 3' N.— 4° 10' S. lat., and 
 108° 53'— 119° 22' E. long. It is bounded on the 
 E. by the Sea of Celebes and the Macassar Strait, 
 S. by the Sea of Java, W. and N. by the Gulf of 
 Siam and the China Sea. Its length is about 
 800 miles, with a breadth of 700, and an area of 
 about 284,000 sq. m. The population is estimated 
 at 1,875,000. In the far north rises the magni- 
 ficent mass of Kinabalu (13,698 feet high), the 
 culminating peak of the Indian Archipelago. 
 Throughout the narrow northern portion of the 
 island there runs a kind of central ridge in a 
 general south-west direction, with highest points 
 ranging from 4000 to 8000 feet ; and this can be 
 traced far to the south-west. Of modern vol- 
 canic activity there is in Borneo no trace. Many 
 of the rivers are navigable far inland for boats 
 of considerable burden, but their value as water- 
 ways is lessened by the bars which usually pre- 
 vent the entrance of sea-going vessels, and in 
 their upper reaches by frequent rapids and occa- 
 sional waterfalls. There are many lakes. The 
 climate in the low grounds is humid, hot, and 
 unhealthy for Europeans ; but in the higher parts 
 towards the north the temi)erature is generally 
 moderate, the thermometer at noon varying 
 from 81° to 91° F. Vegetation is extremely luxu- 
 riant. The forests produce ironwood, bilian, 
 teak, ebony, sandalwood, gutta-percha, dye- 
 woods, benzoin, wax, dragon's blood, sago, cam- 
 phor, various resins, vegetable oils, and giuns. 
 Nutmegs, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, betel, gin- 
 ger, rice, millet, sweet potatoes, yams, cotton, 
 sugar, indigo, tobacco, coffee, pine-apples, coco- 
 nuts, &c., are cultivated. The mountains and 
 forests contain many monkeys, among them 
 the orang-outang. Tapirs, a small kind of tiger, 
 small Malay bears, swine, wild oxen or banteng, 
 and various kinds of deer abound. The elephant 
 is found in the north, and the rhinoceros in the 
 north-west. The few domesticated animals are 
 
BORNHOLM 
 
 116 
 
 BORROWSTOUNNESS 
 
 buffkloes, sheep, goats, dogs, and cats ; horses 
 are seen in Banjerinassin. Among the birds 
 are eagles, vultures, Argus-pheasants, peacocks, 
 flamingos, pigeons, parrots, and the swallows 
 which construct the edible nests prized by 
 the Chinese for making soup. The rivers, lakes, 
 and lagoons swarm with crocodiles, and many 
 kinds of snakes, frogs, lizards, and leeches. Fish 
 are plentiful, and the coasts are rich in tortoises, 
 pearl-mussels, oysters, and trepang. Brilliant 
 butterflies and moths are in great variety. Among 
 the mineral products are coal, gold, and copper ; 
 antimony, iron, tin, platina, nickel, diamonds 
 and other precious stones, rock-crystals, porce- 
 lain-clay, petroleum, and sulphur. 
 
 The population consists of the aboriginal 
 heathen Dayaks or Dyaks, who constitute the 
 great bulk of the population ; the Mohammedans 
 or 'Malays;' and the Chinese. The Dyaks live 
 chiefly in the interior. The Malays on the coasts 
 are traders and bold sailors. The Chinese engage 
 in trade and mining, and are unwearied in their 
 efforts to make money and then return to their 
 native country. They have always endeavoured 
 to live as independent republics under chiefs 
 chosen by themselves. The principal exports are 
 gold, gold-dust, diamonds, coal, ratans, gutta- 
 percha, edible nests, cotton, wax, timber, dye- 
 woods, mats, resins, sandalwood, camphor, &c. ; 
 the imports, earthenware, iron, steel, and copper 
 work, piece-goods, yarns, woollen and silk fabrics, 
 medicines, provisions, wines, spirits, rice, sugar, 
 tea, tobacco, opium, gambir, gunpowder, &c. 
 
 Borneo has never formed a political unity, and 
 there is no native designation for the island as 
 a whole. The name Borneo (Burnei or Brunei) 
 originally applied to nearly the whole of the 
 north-west of the island, under a sultan with 
 absolute authority. The capital, Brunei, 20 miles 
 from the coast, on the river of the same name, 
 has at most 20,000 inhabitants ; the total popula- 
 tion of Borneo proper or Brunei may now be 
 stated at 125,000. Its area was reduced by the 
 erection of Sarawak (q.v.) into a practically 
 independent principality by Sir James Brooke 
 (1841-68), and by the establishment of the British 
 North Borneo Company under the charter of 
 1881. The company has been successful in 
 appropriating and developing its territory, which, 
 with an area of 31,000 sq. m., and a coast-line of 
 900 miles, is divided into nine provinces, and has 
 its capital at Elopura or Sandakan (pop. 5000). 
 The population of the territory is estimated at 
 200,000. Since 1888 both Brunei and Sarawak 
 have been under British protection ; and since 
 1891 Labuan is administered by the company. 
 But by far the largest part of the island is ruled 
 directly or indirectly by the Dutch, who have 
 divided it into the Residency of the Western 
 Division of Borneo, and that of the Southern and 
 Eastern, the fonner having Pontianak (q.v.) as 
 the seat of government, the latter Banjermassin 
 (q.v.). The population of the Dutch portion of 
 the island is about 1,200,000, of whom 800 are 
 Europeans, and 32,000 Chinese. The chief towns 
 in Borneo are Sambas (10,000), Pontianak (9000), 
 Banjermassin (30,000), Brunei (20,000), and 
 Kuching (12,000). 
 
 See Wallace, Malay Archipelago (1869); Bur- 
 bidge. Garden of the Sun (1880) ; Bock, Head- 
 hunters of Borneo (1881) ; Frank Hatton, North 
 Borneo (1885); the Handbook of British North 
 Borneo (periodical) ; and Posewitz, Borneo (1889 ; 
 Eng. trans. 1892). ^ 
 
 ^ Bonxholm (I pronounced), a rock-boimd Danish 
 island in the Baltic, 90 miles E. of Zealand. Area 
 
 226 sq. m. It is traversed by a hill-ridge (511 
 feet). The capital is Ronne or Rottum, on the 
 west coast, with 7000 inhabitants. Pop. 45,364. 
 
 Bomu, or BoRNORO, a powerful but declining 
 state of Central Africa, somewhat larger in ex- 
 tent than England, bounded on the E. by Lake 
 Chad, and N. by the Sahara. By treaty with 
 France of 1890 it is within the British sphere of 
 influence. The greater part of the country ia 
 perfectly level, and much of it is liable to be 
 overflowed in the rainy season, which lasts from 
 October to April. The heat from March to June 
 is excessive, ranging from 104° to 107° P. The 
 two principal rivers are the Shari and the 
 Koinaduga Yaobe, both of which fall into Lake 
 Chad. The soil is fertile, yielding plentiful 
 crops of maize, millet, and other tropical pro- 
 duce. Wild beasts are very numerous. The 
 population, which is estimated at about five 
 millions, is mostly of negro race, and called 
 Bornuese or Kanuri. The ruling race, called 
 Shuwas, are of Arab descent and bigoted Moham- 
 medans ; but many traces of fetichism remain 
 among the masses. Whatever they have of civil- 
 isation is derived from the Arabs. The slave- 
 trade is eagerly prosecuted in Bomu. In the 
 beginning of the 19th century, Bornu was con- 
 quered by the Fellatahs, whose yoke, however, 
 was soon shaken off. Dr Nachtigal, who visited 
 Bornu in 1870, described it as rapidly decaying. 
 The ruins of Birni, the old capital, on the Yaobe, 
 may still be seen. Kuka or Kukawa, the present 
 capital, on the west shore of Lake Chad, has a 
 pop. of about 60,000. Gornu, to the south-east, 
 is still more populous, and has one of the most 
 important markets of Central Africa. 
 
 Boro Budor (' the great Buddha '), the ruin of 
 a splendid Buddhist temple in Java, near the 
 junction of the Ello and Progo. Built probably 
 between 600 and 1480 a.d., it is a pyramid 520 
 feet square, and 118 high. 
 
 Borodino (Borodee'no), a village of Russia, 70 
 miles W. of Moscow. It is on the Kaluga, an 
 afiluent of the Moskwa, and gave name to the 
 great but indecisive battle between Napoleon and 
 the Russians, 7th September 1812. The French 
 name the battle from the Moskwa. 
 
 Boroughbridge, a market-town of Yorkshire, 
 on the Ure, 22 miles NW. of York. Edward II., 
 in 1322, defeated the Earl of Lancaster here. 
 Hard by are three great monoliths, the ' Devil's 
 Arrows,' 16 to 22 feet high. Pop. 824. 
 
 Borovltchi, a town of Russia, on the river 
 Msta, 98 miles E. of Novgorod. Pop. 10,375. 
 
 Borovsk, a town of Russia, 49 miles NNE. of 
 Kaluga. Pop. 9505. 
 
 Borris, a village 17 miles S. of Carlow. Pop. 
 518. 
 
 Borrodale, an Inverness-shire estate, on Loch- 
 na-Nuagh, 35 miles W. by N. of Fort William. 
 Prince Charles Edward landed here (1745). 
 
 Borrome'an Islands, a group of four small 
 lovely islands in the western arm of Lago Mag- 
 giore. Northern Italy. They are named after the 
 ancient family of Borromeo. 
 
 Borrowdale, a beautiful valley of Cumberland, 
 5 miles S. of Keswick, ascending from the head 
 of Derwentwater towards the Honister Pass. 
 Here is the Bowder Stone, 89 feet in circumfer- 
 ence, and 1971 tons in weight. The famous 
 plumbago mine at Seathwaite in Borrowdale was 
 closed in 1850. 
 
 Borrowstounness. See Bo'ness. 
 
fiOBSAD 
 
 117 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 Borsad, a town of northern Bombay ; pop. 
 13,000. 
 
 Borstal, a suburb of Rochester, with a reform- 
 atory for 'juvenile-adult' criminals. 
 
 Berth, a Cardiganshire watering-place, 8 miles 
 N. of Aberystwith. 
 
 Borthwick, a peel-tower with memories of 
 Queen Mary, 13^ miles SSE. of Edinburgh. 
 
 Bosa, a cathedral city on the W. coast of 
 Sardinia, 85 miles NNW. of Cagliari. Pop. 6696. 
 
 Boscastle, a Cornish coast-village, 20 miles W. 
 of Launceston. 
 
 Bos'cobel, on the eastern verge of Shropshire, 
 37 miles N. of Worcester, Avas, after the defeat of 
 Worcester (3d September 1651), for two days 
 the hiding-place of Charles II. His 'Royal 
 Oak ' is represented by a tree grown from one of 
 its acorns ; but Boscobel House still stands. 
 
 Bosco Reale (Re-ah'leh), an Italian village, 10 
 miles ESE. of Naples. Pop. 8190. 
 
 Bosna-Serai. See Sarajevo. 
 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina, a province lying be- 
 tween Dalinatia and Slavonia, which has made 
 rapid progress in prosperity since the Berlin 
 Treaty of 1S78 transferred it from Turkey to 
 Austria. (Herzegovi'na, locally pron. Hertzegov'ina, 
 is a Slav word for ' duchy ' formed from the German 
 Herzog.) Although not formally incorporated by 
 treaty, these provinces form virtually a portion 
 of the empii-e-monarchy, and enjoy the advan- 
 tages of a settled government. Area, 19,725 
 sq. m., of wliicli 16,197 belong to Bosnia, and 
 3528 to Herzegovina ; population, 1,650,000. The 
 Dinaric Alps, here attaining a maximum altitude 
 of 7663 feet, form the water-parting between the 
 Adriatic and Danube basins ; and four rivers — 
 the Unna, the Vrbas, the Bosua (from which 
 Bosnia takes its name), and the Drina— flow 
 northwards to the Save. Flocks and herds are 
 largely reared. The commerce is largt^ly in the 
 hands of Jews, the majority of whom reside in 
 Sarajevo, the capital, which is now connected by 
 rail both with Budapest and the Adriatic. With 
 the exception of the Jews, Gypsies, and some 
 Osmanli who live in the larger towns of Bosnia, 
 all the inhabitants of the Illyrian Alps are Slavs, 
 and in Herzegovina their characteristics are most 
 strongly marked. The Bosnians themselves, 
 though united by race, are divided by religion, 
 Mussulman against Christian, Greek-Orthodox 
 against Roman Catholic. Hence, in spite of 
 every natural advantage, they were, unlike their 
 Servian brethren, unable to emancipate them- 
 selves from the Turkish yoke. Although they 
 form little over a third of the population, the 
 Mussuhnans possess more than their share of 
 landed property. The original population were 
 doubtless of Illyrian (Albanian) stock, but Avere 
 partly extruded, partly Slavonised, during the 
 great Slav migrations of the early Christian cen- 
 turies. The country was long dependent on 
 Hungary, but became a kingdom some thirty 
 years before the first Turkish invasion (1401). 
 Soon after 1463 Bosnia was permanently con- 
 quered by the Turks, and thousands of the 
 inhabitants were carried off as slaves, the boys 
 were trained to be janissaries; the most obsti- 
 nate Christians emigrated, and the bulk of the re- 
 mainder accepted Islam more or less completely. 
 Rebellions against the Osmanli power have been 
 frequent, the Christian element became more 
 powerful, and in 1878 the time for an Austrian 
 occupation (bitterly resisted by the Mohammedan 
 natives) seemed to have come. 
 
 See Evans, Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on 
 Foot (1876); Asboth's work (Eng. trans. 1889); 
 Laveleye's (trans. 1887) and Miller's (1896) on the 
 Balkans ; and Munro's Bosnia (2d ed. 1900). 
 
 Bos'phorus, or Bosporus (Latinised forms of 
 a Greek word meaning 'ox-ford'), the ancient 
 name of the channel which separates Europe 
 from Asia, and coimects the Black Sea (Eicxine) 
 with the Sea of Marmora {Propontis). It was 
 so called, according to the legend, from lo, who 
 swam across in the form of a cow. Afterwards, 
 as the same name was bestowed upon other straits, 
 this was designated the Thracian Bosporus. Its 
 shores are elevated, and throughout its length 
 the strait has on either side seven bays or gulfs, 
 with corresponding promontories on the opposite 
 side. One of these gulfs forms the harbour of 
 Constantinople, or, as it is often called, the 
 Golden Horn. Across the Golden Horn is Pera, 
 and opposite the imperial city, on the other side 
 of the Bosphorus, is Scutari. The length of the 
 Bosx)horus is about 17 miles, with a breadth of 
 from little more than J mile to 2 miles, and its 
 average depth is about 30 fathoms. None but 
 Turkish war-ships may navigate it without con- 
 sent of the Sublime Porte. See Black Sea and 
 Kertch. 
 
 Bostan' (El), ' the Garden,' a town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, on the Sihun, 40 miles NW. of Marash. 
 Pop. 8500. 
 
 Boston, a parliamentary and municipal borough 
 and seaport in Lincolnshire, on the Witham, 30 
 miles SE. of Lincoln and 107 miles NE. of London 
 by rail. Its name is a contraction of ' Botolph's 
 town,' and it is supposed to occupy the site of 
 the Benedictine abbey founded on the Witham 
 by St Botolph in 654, and destroyed in 870 by 
 the Danes. Under the Normans, Boston became 
 a place of importance, in 1204 paying the largest 
 dues (£780) of any English port but London 
 (£836). In Edward III.'s reign many foreign 
 traders settled, and the merchants of the Han- 
 seatic League established a guild in Boston. 
 After their departure, the town declined, and 
 the suppression of the monasteries by Henry 
 VIII. further injured it; but his grant of a 
 charter of incorporation, and Mary's subsequent 
 grant of extensive lands, partly compensated for 
 this. The parish church measures 283 by 99 feet, 
 and is one of the -largest without transepts in 
 England. The Perpendicular tower ('Boston 
 Stump') is 263 feet high, and terminates in an 
 octagonal lantern, doubtless intended for a light- 
 house by land and by sea. The clearing of the 
 river of silt, the formation of a new channel in 
 1881, and the opening of a new dock in 1884, 
 have greatly promoted the trade of Boston, for 
 ships of 2000 tons can now reach the heart of 
 the to-\\ai. The chief exports are coal, machinery, 
 corn, and wool ; and the imports consist of tim- 
 ber, maize, cotton-seed, and general merchandise. 
 Boston is a great market for cattle and sheep, 
 and has manufactures of canvas, sail-cloth, ropes, 
 sacking, beer, iron, brass, leather, bricks, whit- 
 ing, and hats, Avith some shipbuilding. Fox the 
 martyrologist, Conington, Jean Ingelow, J. 
 Westland Marston, and H. Ingram (founder 
 of the Illustrated London News) were natives. 
 Since 1885 Boston returns only one member to 
 parliament. Pop. (1851) 14,733; (1901) 15,667 
 (parliamentary borough, 20,456). 
 
 Boston, capital of Massachusetts, and fifth in 
 size of the cities of the United States, is situated 
 on an inlet of Massachusetts Bay, called Boston 
 Harbour, at the mouths of the Charles and 
 
BOSTON 
 
 118 
 
 fiOtfFARIK 
 
 Mystic rivers, 234 miles NE. of New York by 
 rail. It is connected with Cambridge, on the 
 other side of the Charles, by several bridges. 
 Boston possesses an excellent harbour, protected 
 by several forts, and covering 75 sq. in., with a 
 minimum depth of 23 feet at low tide ; it has 
 four fine lighthouses, and is dotted with more 
 than fifty islands. Eight lines of railway con- 
 verge here. Boston is reputed to be the wealth- 
 iest city of America in proportion to its popula- 
 tion. The chief imports are sugar, wool, hides 
 (for its large boot and shoe manufactories), 
 chemicals, flax, and cotton goods ; the principal 
 exports, meat and dairy products, cattle bread- 
 stuffs, cotton, and tobacco. Its manufactures 
 are very varied ; and its wool market comes next 
 after that of London in importance. The Charles- 
 town government navy yard is within the present 
 limits of Boston, and the city, besides being the 
 seat of many varied local manufactories, is the 
 headquarters of heavy railroad, mining, and 
 insurance interests. Boston is exposed to east 
 winds, and pulmonary complaints are very preva- 
 lent; but otherwise its climate is healthy. It 
 is one of the best built cities in the United States, 
 prominent among its specimens of elaborate 
 architecture being Trinity Church and the E. C. 
 cathedral, the former erected at a cost of $750,000. 
 The older buildings include the State-house (1795), 
 with a conspicuous gilded dome, the Old State- 
 house (1712), Christ Church (1723), Faneuil Hall 
 (1743), afterwards termed 'The Cradle of Liberty,' 
 and King's Chapel (1754). Among later public 
 buildings and institutions may be noted Tremont 
 Temple, the headquarters of New England Bap- 
 tists, containing an audience-hall ; the Free 
 Public Library ; the Post-offlce and Sub-treasury 
 building, of granite, erected at a cost of about 
 $6,000,000 ; the Lowell Institute, for the support 
 of free public lectures ; besides hospitals, homes, 
 asylums, orphanages, dispensaries, &c. Among 
 the higher institutions of learning are the Boston 
 College (Catholic) ; the Boston University (Metho- 
 dist) ; schools of technology and industrial sci- 
 ence ; two conservatories of music, schools of 
 law and divinity ; and the Massachusetts Medical 
 College, connected with Harvard University, 
 which, though located in Cambridge, is virtually 
 a Boston institution. The ' Hub of the Universe ' 
 has long been noted for the interest taken by its 
 citizens in literature, science, and art. It has 
 been the birthplace of many famous men, includ- 
 ing Franklin, J. S. Copley the painter, and his 
 son Lord Lyndhurst, Chancellor of England, 
 E. A. Poe, Emerson, Ticknor, Sumner and Park- 
 man, as Cambridge was of Holmes and Lowell ; 
 while associated with it and Cambridge have 
 been Hawthorne, Longfellow, Agassiz, Whittier, 
 Motley, Bancroft, Prescott, Channing, T. Parker, 
 Dana, Margaret Fuller, Thoreau, Aldrich, the 
 Alcotts, the Jameses, and Howells. The city 
 possesses some 250 literary, musical, and kin- 
 dred associations. The number of newspapers 
 and periodicals (including the Atlantic Monthly) 
 here published is about 250. Originally founded 
 in 1630 as Trimountain (from three hills on 
 which it was built), upon the Shawmut penin- 
 sula, it was afterwards named Boston, after 
 Boston in Lincolnshire, the native place of 
 some of its colonists. The city now comprises 
 What were formerly the separate towns of Rox- 
 bury (annexed in 1867), Dorchester (1869), and 
 Charlestown, West Roxbury, and Brighton (1873). 
 The conspicuous part bonie by the town in the 
 early troubles with England brought about the 
 'Boston Massacre' of 1770, in which several 
 
 people were killed by the fire of the soldiery; 
 and after the destruction of the British-taxed 
 tea in the harbour (1773), the port was practically 
 closed, and the town occupied by a British force, 
 which, in March 1776, was finally compelled to 
 evacuate the place (see Bunker Hill). From 
 1830 to 1860 Boston was the headquarters of the 
 movement for the suppression of slavery. The 
 city has suffered from several destructive confla- 
 grations, notably that of 1872. Pop. (1800) 24,937 ; 
 (1840)93,383; (1860)177,840; (1880)362,839; (1890) 
 448,447 ; (1900) 560,892. See Winsor's History of 
 Boston (4 vols. 1880-82). 
 
 Boston Spa, a pretty watering-place in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, on the Wharfe, 3^ miles 
 NW. of Tadcaster. 
 
 Bosworth, or Market Bosworth, a market- 
 town, Leicestershire, 12 miles W. by S. of 
 Leicester. On a moor 2 miles S. Richard III. 
 was defeated and slain (1485). Pop. of parish, 836. 
 
 Bbszor'meny, a town of Hungary, 10 miles 
 NNW. of Debreczin. Pop. 25,238. 
 
 Botany Bay, a shallow inlet of New South 
 Wales, 5 miles S. of Sydney, discovered by Cook 
 in 1770, and named by him from the number of 
 new plants in its vicinity. In 1787 Botany Bay 
 received England's first penal colony in the east ; 
 and though it was supplanted next year by Port 
 Jackson, a better harbour to the north, it long 
 continued to be the popular designation of the 
 Australian convict settlements generally. 
 
 Bothnia, Gulf of, that part of the Baltic 
 Sea (q.v.) which lies to the north of the Aland 
 Islands, having on its eastern shore Finland, on 
 the western and northern Sweden and Lapland. 
 It extends from 60° to 66° N. lat. and 17° to 25° 
 35' E. long., its greatest length being 415 miles, 
 and its average breadth 100 miles. Its depth 
 varies from 20 to 50 fathoms, but both along its 
 shores and in the middle are many islets, sand- 
 banks, &c., which render the navigation difficult. 
 In winter it is usually so hard frozen that it can 
 be crossed by sledges. 
 
 Bothwell, a Lanarkshire village, on the Clyde's 
 right bank, 8 miles SE. of Glasgow. BottiAvell 
 Brig here was the scene of Monmouth's bloody 
 defeat of the Covenanters in 1679 ; and a mile 
 from the village are the stately ruins of Both- 
 well Castle, at whose base the Clyde washes 
 the fair scenery of 'Bothwell Bank,' famous for 
 centuries in Scottish song. Held before that by 
 Olifards and Murrays, Bothwell Castle was pos- 
 sessed by the Douglases from 1365 till 1455 ; and 
 to them it reverted in 1492, being now owned by 
 their representative, the Earl of Home. Both- 
 wellhaugh, 2 miles ESB., gave designation to 
 James Hamilton, assassin of the Regent Moray. 
 Joanna Baillie was a native of Bothwell. Pop. 
 3015. 
 
 Botoshani, a town of Moldavia, on the Shiska, 
 62 miles NW. of Jassy. Pop. 31,024. 
 
 Botzen, or Bozen (Ital. Bolzano), an important 
 trading town of the Austrian Tyrol, on the Eisach, 
 35 miles NNE. of Trent by the Brenner Railway. 
 It manufactures silk, linen, hosiery, leather, &c. 
 Pop. 13,641. 
 
 Bouches-du-Rhone (Boosh-dii-Ron ; ' mouths of 
 the Rhone '), a dep. in the south-east of France, 
 formerly a part of Provence, with an area of 1971 
 sq. m. It is divided into the three arrondisse- 
 ments of Marseilles, Aix, and Aries. Pop. (1872) 
 554,911 ; (1891) 630,622 ; (1901) 734,347. 
 
 Boufarik, a town of Algeria, 23 miles S. of 
 Algiers by rail. Pop. 5275. 
 
feOtJdiE 
 
 li§ 
 
 BOtJUNEMOUTfl 
 
 Bougie, a port of Algeria, on the Bay of 
 Bougie, 120 miles B. of Algiers. The Saldce of 
 the Romans, and the ' Little Mecca ' of the 
 Arabs, it had sunk to a small village in 1833, 
 when the French captured the place. Their 
 extensive works have since rendered it a strong 
 fortress and a commercial centre. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Bouillon, a duchy, originally German, now 
 part of Belgian Luxemburg, consists of a woody 
 and hilly district in the Ardennes, about 145 sq. 
 m. in extent. It was the possession of the famous 
 crusader, Godfrey de Bouillon. The principal 
 town is Bouillon, betAveen steep hills on the 
 Semoy, 9 miles NNE. of Sedan, Pop. 2765. 
 
 Boulak, or Bulak, a town of Egypt, on the 
 Nile, opposite an island of the same name, 1 mile 
 NW. of Cairo, of which it forms a suburb and the 
 port. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Boulge, a Suffolk parish, 3 miles NNW. of 
 Woodbridge. Edward FitzGerald is buried here. 
 
 Boulogne (Boo-lon'), a SW. suburb of Paris, 
 on the Seine's right bank. It has numerous 
 villas, and over 400 wash-houses on the river, 
 which is here crossed by a fine stone bridge of 
 twelve arclies. Population, 37,500. The Bois de 
 Boulogne, the Parisian's favourite place of recrea- 
 tion, is traversed by many walks and drives (see 
 LoNGCHAMP). At the entrance of the wood lies 
 Auteuil(q.v.). During the Revolution the trees 
 of the older walks were mostly cut down ; but 
 when Napoleon chose St Cloud for his summer 
 residence, new walks were planted and laid off. 
 All traces of the injuries inflicted during the 
 siege of 1870-71 have now disappeared. 
 
 Boulogne-sur-Mer, a fortified seaport in the 
 French dep. of Pas-de-Calais, situated at the 
 mouth of the Liane in the English Channel, 27 
 miles SW. of Calais, and 158 N. by W. of Paris by 
 rail. The to^vn consists of two parts— Upper 
 and Lower Boulogne. The upper town, formerly 
 strongly fortified, contains the hotel-de-ville, on 
 the site of the castle where Godfrey de Bouillon 
 was born in lOGl, and the former cathedral, 
 rebuilt (1827-66) in the Italian style, with a dome 
 300 feet high, and Avith a miraculous image of 
 the Virgin. The lower town, the seaport proper, 
 is newer, more populous, and more lively, in- 
 habited chiefly by merchants, mariners, and fisher- 
 men. Boulogne has extensive and excellent salt- 
 water baths ; and, on account of its fine sands, it 
 is a favourite, though somewhat expensive resort 
 for sea-bathing. The English residents have 
 recently become much less numerous. Pop. 
 (1872) 39,700 ; (1901) 44,416, actively engaged in 
 the manufacture of linen, cordage, iron, steel 
 pens and buttons, oil, soap, and chemical pro- 
 ducts. Boulogne is the chief station in France 
 of the North Sea fisheries. It has an active 
 coasting trade, and ranks with Calais as one of 
 the nearest and most frequented places of passage 
 between France and England, steamers plying 
 daily to London, and twice a day to Folkestone. 
 Paris is reached by railway in 4| hours. About 
 5000 vessels, most of thein English, of over 
 1,000,000 tons burden, enter or clear the port 
 annually. The principal imports are woollen, 
 cotton, and silk material ; the exports' are manu- 
 factured fabrics, leather, and wine. A new and 
 vast deep-sea harbour was constructed in 
 1880-1904. The works include outer moles 
 or breakwaters with a length of over 4400 yards, 
 and an inner mole or traverse, 1200 yards long 
 and 200 wide, alongside which steamships may 
 lie at all states of the tide. The Partus Gesoriacus 
 of the Romans, and later Bononia or Bolonia, 
 
 Boulogne in 1435 came into the possession of thS 
 Duke of Burgundy, and was united with the 
 crown of France by Louis XI. in 1477. It was 
 taken by the English in 1544, and restored to 
 the French in 1550. Here, in 1804, Napoleon 
 encamped 180,000 men and collected 2400 trans- 
 ports, ready at any favourable moment to swoop 
 down on Britain. The poets Churchill and Camp- 
 bell, and Le Sage, the author of Gil Bias, died 
 here. 
 
 Bourbon, Isle de. See Reunion. 
 
 Bourbonnais (Boorbonnay'), in the centre of 
 France, from 1327 to 1523 formed the duchy of 
 Bourbon, and afterwards, as a crown domain, 
 formed a province. It now constitutes the dep. of 
 Allier and part of Cher. The capital was Moulins. 
 
 Bourbonne-les-Bains {Boorhonn' -leh-Ban"), a 
 town in the French dep. of Haute-Marne, 29 miles 
 BNE. of Langres. Its saline springs reach a 
 temperature of over 130° F. Pop. 4766. 
 
 Bourboule, a bathing-resort in the French dep. 
 of Puy-de-D6me, on the Dordogne, with hot 
 mineral springs of 88°-129'' F. Pop. 2161. 
 
 Bourgas. See Burgas. 
 
 Bourg-en-Bresse (Boorg-on''-Bress), the chief 
 town of the French dep. of Ain, on the Reyssouze, 
 37 miles NE. of Lyons. The church of Brou 
 here, built by Margaret of Austria in 1505-36, 
 contains a superb monument to Philibert of 
 Savoy. Bourg manufactures mineral waters and 
 pottery. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Bourges (Boorzh; anc. Avaricum), capital of 
 the French dep. of Cher, at the confluence of the 
 Auron and the Yevre, 144 miles S. of Paris, and 
 69 SSE. of Orleans. Its houses are antique, and 
 its streets crooked and dirty. The cathedral 
 (1220-1538) is a splendid Gothic edifice, the in- 
 terior one of the noblest in France, being 405 feet 
 long and 117 high. A university (1465) was sup- 
 pressed at the Revolution. The hotel-de-villo 
 dates from 1443. Brewing is carried on, and 
 there are nurseries. Chosen in 1861 to be an 
 arsenal, Bourges has a cannon foundry, and has 
 greatly increased in strategical importance since 
 the loss of Metz. Louis XL and Bourdaloue 
 were natives. Pop. 47,500. 
 
 Bourget, Le (Boorzliay'), a village G\ miles 
 NE. of Paris, during the siege in 1870 the scene 
 of a series of bloody struggles disastrous to the 
 French. — The Lac du Bourget, the largest 
 wholly French lake, in Savoie dep., lies 780 feet 
 above sea-level, and measures 7^ by 3 miles. 
 
 Bourne, a town of Lincolnshire, 9J miles W. of 
 Spalding. Lord Burghley, Dr Dodd, and Worth 
 ' of Paris ' were natives. Pop. 4500. 
 
 Bournemouth, a favourite Hampshire health 
 resort, on Poole Bay, 37 miles SW. of South- 
 ampton, and 116 of London. It is included 
 within the parliamentary borough of Christ- 
 church, froni which it is 4 miles distant, and in 
 1890 it was made a municipal borough. Its rise 
 has been" rapid ; until 1838 it consisted of but a 
 few fishermen's huts and a coastguard station. 
 It is situated for the most part in the pine-clad 
 valley of the Bourne Brook, the banks of which 
 are laid out as public gardens. The sands extend 
 for 3 miles. The climate is fine, the air soft 
 without being relaxing, and the country around 
 is beautiful. Two piers, one 800, the other 840 
 feet long, were erected in 1861 and 1879. Of 
 several churches the finest is St Peter's (1864), 
 Avith memorial Avindows to Keble, Avho died at 
 Bournemouth : in its churchyard are the graves 
 of Godwin, Mary WoUstouecraft, and Mary 
 
BOURNEVILLE 
 
 120 
 
 BRADFORD 
 
 Slielley. Pop. (1861) 1940; (ISTl) 5906; (1881) 
 18,607 ; (1901) 47,100. 
 
 Boumeville, a Worcestnrsliire suburb of Bir- 
 niiiiglinin, built since 1879 as a garden crty by 
 Mr George Cadbury for the employees in Ins 
 great cocoa-works, admirably equipped for family 
 and social life. Top. 4000. 
 
 Boussa, or BussANO, a walled town of (Britisli) 
 Northern Nigeria, oflf an island in the Niger, in 
 10' 20* N. lat. Mungo Park perished here in 1805. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Bouvlnes {Boo-vean'), a village in the French 
 dep. of Nord, 8 miles SE. of Lille, the scene of 
 Philip Augustus's victory over Otho IV. in 1214, 
 and of struggles in 1794 between the Austrians 
 and the victorious French army of the north. 
 
 Bovine (Bovee'no), a cathedral city of South 
 Italy, 20 m. SSW. of Foggia. Pop. 7388. The 
 imperialists defeated the Spaniards here in 1734. 
 
 Bowdon Downs. See Altrincham. 
 
 Bowling, a Dumbartonshire village, on the 
 Clyde, 3i miles ESE. of Dumbarton. Pop. 1018. 
 
 Bowling Green, a town of Kentucky, 114 miles 
 S. by W. of Louisville by rail. Pop. 8803. 
 
 Bowmore, a seaport of I slay island, Argyll- 
 shire. Pop. 748. 
 
 Bowness, (l) a town of Westmorland, on the 
 east side of Lake Windermere, 8 miles NW. of 
 Kendal. Pop. 2662.— <2) A seaport of Cumber- 
 land, on the Solway Firth, 12 miles WNW. of 
 Carlisle. Pop. of parish, 1322. 
 
 Box Hill. See Dorking. 
 
 Boxtel, a town of Holland, 38 miles S. by E. of 
 Utrecht. An Anglo-Dutch army was here de- 
 feated by the French in 1794. Pop. 6703. 
 
 Box Tunnel, 3195 yards long, on the Great 
 Western Railway, 5 miles NE. of Bath. 
 
 Boyacd, a dep. of Colombia, touching Vene- 
 zuela. Area, 33,351 sq. m. ; pop. 650,000. 
 Capital, Tunja, 6000 inhabitants. 
 
 Boyle, a town in County Roscommon, on the 
 river Boyle, above its expansion into Lough Key, 
 108 miles NW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 2474. 
 
 Boyne, a river of Ireland, rises in the Bog of 
 Allen, and flows 80 miles through Kildare, King's 
 County, Meath, and Louth, past Trim, Navan, 
 and Slane, and enters the Irish Sea 4 miles below 
 Drogheda. It receives the Mattock and Black- 
 water, and is navigable for vessels of 250 tons to 
 Drogheda, for barges of 70 tons to Navan. In the 
 battle of the Boyne, fought on its banks, 3 miles 
 W. of Drogheda, on 1st July 1690, William III. 
 defeated James II. 
 
 Bozen. See Botzen. 
 
 Bozrah (mod. el-Busaireh), a town of Edom, in 
 the mountain district to the south-east of the 
 Dead Sea, about 300 e.g. capital of the Naba- 
 tseans, but now an unimportant village. 
 
 Bozzolo {Bot'zolo), a town of North Italy, 14 
 miles WSW. of Mantua. Pop. 4154. 
 
 Bra, a town of North Italy, 31 miles SSE. of 
 Turin by rail. Pop. 9856. 
 
 Brabant' was the name formerly given to an 
 important province of the Low Countries, extend- 
 ing from the left bank of the Waal to the sources 
 of the Dyle, and from the Maas and the plain of 
 Limburg to the Lower Scheldt. After many 
 changes, Brabant was made a part of the kingdom 
 of Holland, at the Congress of Vienna; birt since 
 the revolution of 1830, the three provinces of 
 Brabant have been divided as follows : North or 
 
 Dutch Brabant, the Belgian province of Antwerp, 
 and South Brabant, also Belgian. 
 
 Brabourne, a parish of Kent, 6 miles E. of 
 Ashford. 
 
 Brackley, a market-town of Northamptonshire, 
 on the Ouse, 7 miles AVNW. of Buckingham. It 
 is a municipal borough, reincorporated in 1886, 
 and till 1832 returned two members. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Braddock, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Monongahela, 10 miles by rail SB. of Pittsburgh, 
 with steel and car works. Here General Brad- 
 dock fell in 1755. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Bradfield, in Berkshire, 7^ miles W. of Reading, 
 the seat of a public school, St Andrew's College 
 (1850). Pop. of parish, 1458. 
 
 Bradford, an important manufacturing town 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on a tributary 
 of the Aire, at the meeting of three vales, 9 miles 
 W. of Leeds, 34 SW. of York, and 191 NNW. of 
 London by rail. Bradford in 1832 was created 
 a parliamentary borough, in 1847 a municipality, 
 in 18S8 a county, and in 1897 a city. Municipal 
 and parliamentary boroughs were made conter- 
 minous in 1885 ; in 1899 the municipal (county and 
 city) was extended to include Idle. For parlia- 
 mentary purposes it falls into 3 districts, each 
 returning one member. Bradford is the chief 
 seat in England of the spinning and weaving of 
 worsted yarn, and the great mart for the long 
 wools used in worsted fabrics. It has developed 
 of late worsted coating, velvet, and plush in- 
 dustries. The first mill was built in 1798 ; there 
 are now more than 300. Coal and iron mines 
 occur near Bradford, and the ironworks at Bow- 
 ling and Lowmoor are very large and important ; 
 the making of machinery is a considerable indus- 
 try ; and there are neighbouring stone quarries. 
 The parish church of St Peter is a fine Perpen- 
 dicular building, with a tower of later date, and 
 a number of interesting monuments. Bradford 
 has also a town-hall (1873) of medieval design, 
 which cost over £100,000, with campanile and 
 carillon ; mechanics' institute (1870) ; St George's 
 Hall (1853) ; exchange (1867) ; extensive wholesale 
 and retail markets, which have cost £150,000 ; 
 grammar-school; technical college (1882); free 
 library (1872) ; post-office, a fine building in the 
 Italian style (1887); &c. Of its seven parks the 
 older are Peel Park (56 acres). Lister or Man- 
 ningham Park (56 acres), Horton Park (39 acres), 
 Bowling Park (53 acres), and Bradford Moor 
 Park (15 acres). In the civil wars, the people 
 of Bradford took the parliament side, and twice 
 defeated the royalists, but were afterwards them- 
 selves defeated by the Earl of Newcastle. The 
 worsted trade, introduced to Bradford at the end 
 of the 17th century, made rapid progress after the 
 invention of the steam-engine. In a riot at Brad- 
 ford against the introduction of worsted power- 
 looms in 1826, two of the rioters were shot dead 
 by the defenders of the mill which contained 
 the obnoxious machinery, and many more were 
 Avounded. In 1825 a strike for increased wages, 
 in which 20,000 persons were concerned, lasted 
 six months. Its trade suffered severely owing to 
 the McKinley tariff in the United States. This 
 town is the seat of the first English temperance 
 society (1830). There are statues of Sir Robert 
 Peel, Richard Oastler, Sir Titus Salt, S. C. Lister, 
 and W. E. Forster. Pop. (1851) 103,778; (1881) 
 194,495 ; (1891) 216,361 ; (1901) of pari, borough, 
 216,375, and ofmun. and county borough, 279,767. 
 See James's History of Bradford (2 vols. 1841-66). 
 
 Bradford, a Pennsylvanian town, 65 miles & 
 
6^DF0RD-0N-AV0K 
 
 121 
 
 BRAKDOH 
 
 of Buffalo, with oil-wells and sawmills. Pop. 
 15,514. 
 
 Bradford-on-Avon (Sax. Bradanford, 'broad 
 ford '), a town of Wiltshire, on the Avon, and on 
 the Kennet and Avon Canal, 9 miles SE. of Bath. 
 Formerly it was the seat of important woollen 
 manufactures, and kerseymeres were first jnade 
 here. The tiny church (38 feet long) of St 
 Lawrence, built by St Aldhelm between 675 and 
 709, is the only perfect building of pre-Norman 
 times now remaining in England. It had been 
 used for two centuries as a school and dwelling- 
 house, when in 1856 it was rescued from profana- 
 tion. On the summit of Torr Hill are the ruins 
 of a 14th-century chapel of the Virgin ; and the 
 town bridge retains its desecrated chapel. At 
 Bradford, Cenwalh, king of the West Saxons, 
 gained a great victory over the Welsh in 652. 
 Pop. 4557. 
 
 Brading, a small but ancient town, once a 
 parliamentary borough, in the Isle of Wight, 4 
 miles S. of Ryde by rail. In its churchyard is 
 buried the 'Dairyman's Daughter;' and in 1880 
 the remains of a Roman villa, with a tesselated 
 floor, were unearthed near the town. Pop. 1994. 
 
 Braemar', a Highland district occupying the 
 south-west corner of Aberdeenshire (q.v.), in the 
 heart of the Grampian Mountains, and traversed 
 by the upper waters of the Dee. In the east 
 part is Balmoral ; and near its centre, 61 miles 
 W. by S. from Aberdeen, is the small village of 
 Castleton of Braemar, Avhere in 1715 the Earl of 
 Mar raised the Pretender's standard. Pop. 516. 
 
 Braerlach (Bmy-ree'uhh), a sununit (4248 feet) 
 of the Cairngorms, on the border of Aberdeen 
 and Inverness shires. 
 
 Braga, the capital of the Portuguese province 
 of Minho, 34 miles NB. of Oporto by rail. It 
 has the palace of the primate of Portugal, a 
 fine Gothic cathedral (12th century), and manu- 
 factures of linen, hats, cutlery, firearms, jewel- 
 lery, &c. The Bracara Aug^osta of the Romans, it 
 retains ruins of a temple, an amphitheatre, and 
 an aqueduct. Near it is a celebrated place of pil- 
 grimage. Pop. 24,755. 
 
 Bragan^a, two considerable towns in Brazil. — 
 
 (1) A seaport, 100 miles NE. of Para, at the mouth 
 of the Caite. Pop. of town and district, 6000. — 
 
 (2) An inland city of 10,000 inhabitants, 50 miles 
 NE. of Sao Paulo. 
 
 Braganza, or Bragan(JA, capital of the Portu- 
 guese province Traz-os-Montes, on the Ferven^a, 
 26 miles NW. of Miranda. It is the see of a 
 bishop, and gives name to the ruling House of 
 Braganza. Pop. 5495. 
 
 Brahmanbarla, a town of India, Tipperah 
 district, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Titas 
 River. Pop. 17,438. 
 
 Brahmaputra ('son of Brahma'), one of the 
 largest rivers of India, rises in Tibet, and, after 
 partially mingling with the Ganges, flows into 
 the Bay of Bengal. From explorations (1878-82) 
 by one of the Asiatics attached to the Indian 
 Survey, it was rendered certain that the Sanpo 
 is the highest source of the Brahmaputra (and 
 not, as had been sometimes said, of the Irawadi). 
 The Sanpo has its rise in Lake Manasowar in 
 Western Tibet, in an elevated tableland, from 
 which also spring the Sutlej and the Indus ; flows 
 eastward for 1000 miles on the plateau of Tibet ; 
 then, turning SB., it pierces the Himalayas to 
 descend to the valleys of Assam. Here known 
 as Dihong, it unites with the Dibong and the 
 Brahmakunda, the three rivers forming the Brah- 
 
 maputra, which flows SW. and S. The entird 
 length from the latter source exceeds 900 iniles ; 
 from the former 1800 miles. The united stream 
 bears along a vast body of water, broken by 
 many islands, and throwing off branches ; it flows 
 from NE. to SSW. for about 450 miles, leaves 
 Assam near Dhoobri ; flows S. round the Garo 
 Hills ; for 180 miles its course is through the 
 plain of East Bengal, till it joins the Padma, or 
 main stream of the Ganges, at Goalanda. Here 
 the conjoint delta of these rivers begins ; the 
 great body of its waters flowing SB. reaches the 
 sea by the estuary known as the Meghna. During 
 the rains the Brahmaputra floods hundreds of 
 sq. m. of country, reaching a height of 30 to 40 
 feet above its usual level. This supersedes arti- 
 ficial irrigation, and the plains so watered yield 
 abundantly rice, jute, and mustard. The Brah- 
 maputra is navigable for steamers to Dibrugarh, 
 800 miles from the sea. 
 
 Brahui. See Beluchistan. 
 
 Braidwood, a Lanarkshire village, 7 miles 
 WNW. of Carstairs Junction. Pop. 587. 
 
 Braila, or Brahilov. a river-port of Roumania, 
 on the left bank of the Danube, 10 miles above 
 Galatz, and 142 NE. of Bucharest by rail. The 
 seat of a Greek cathedral, it was a free port till 
 1883, has new docks (1886-92), and exports large 
 quantities of corn and other products. Braila 
 was burned by the Russians in 1711, and Gort- 
 schakoff crossed here in 1854. Pop. 56,715. 
 
 Bra.tae-le-Com.te (Brain-le-ConH), a town of the 
 Belgian province of Hainaut, on the Senne, 19 
 miles SSW. of Brussels. Pop. 8176. 
 
 Bralntree, a market-town of Essex, 45 miles 
 NB. of London by rail. It has manufactures of 
 silk, crape, straw-plait, &c. Pop. 5333. 
 
 Brambanan, a district of the province of Sura- 
 karta, Java, rich in remains of Buddhist temples. 
 
 Bramber, a Sussex village, on the Adur, 4* 
 miles NNW. of New Shoreham. It has a ruined 
 castle, and till 1832 returned two members. 
 
 Brambletye House, a ruined Jacobean mansion, 
 in Sussex, near East Grimstead. 
 
 Brampton, a very ancient town of Cumber- 
 land, 9 miles ENB. of Carlisle by rail, once a great 
 centre of hand-loom weaving. The moot-hall is a 
 magistrate's office. Near it is Lanercost Abbey 
 (q.v.). Pop. of parish, 2790. 
 
 Bran, a feeder of the Tay, with fine falls, near 
 Dunkeld. 
 
 Branco, Rio, a river of Northern Brazil, rising 
 in the Parima Mountains, and flowing 400 miles 
 southward to the Rio Negro, of which it is the 
 principal tributary, on its way to the Amazon. 
 
 Brandenburg (u as oo), a central province of 
 Prussia, formed the nucleus of the present mon- 
 archy, and almost all a low plain. Area, 15,410 
 sq. m. ; population, 3,200,000.— The town of Bran- 
 denburg (anc. Brennibor of the Wends), on the 
 Havel, 38 miles WSW. of Berlin, has a castle and 
 a cathedral (14th century), with a fine crypt, on 
 an island in the river. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Brandenburg, Neu. See Neubrandenburo. 
 
 Brandeston, a Suffolk parish, on the Deben, 
 3J miles SW. of Framlingham. It was the resi- 
 dence of the great lawyer, Charles Austin. 
 
 Brandon, a quaint old market-town, mostly 
 on the Suffolk side of the Little Ouse, 7| miles 
 NW. of Thetford, and 86 NE. of London by rail. 
 In the neighbourhood are Neolithic flint-work- 
 ings known as the Grinies Graves. Gun flints are 
 
BRAltDOIl 
 
 122 
 
 SftA^IL 
 
 still made here, chiefly for tlie African market , 
 and the continuity of this industry can be traced 
 at Brandon in unbroken sequence to an early 
 prehistoric period. Pop. of parish, 2334. 
 
 Brandon, a town of Manitoba, Canada, on the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, below the junction of 
 the Assiniboine and Little Saskatchewan rivers, 
 in a prolific wheat-growing district. It was 
 founded in 1881, and in the following year had 
 over 1500 houses. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Brandywine Creek, a stream rising in Chester- 
 county, Pennsylvania, flowing south-eastward 
 Into Delaware, and emptying mto Christiana 
 Creek at Wilmington. Here, September 11, 
 1777 13,000 Americans, under Washuigton, were 
 defeated by 18,000 British, under Lord Howe. 
 
 Brantford, a town on the Grand River, Ontario, 
 24 miles SW. of Hamilton by rail. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Brantwood. See Coniston Lake. 
 
 Branxholm, a quondam Border castle, Rox- 
 burghshire, 3 miles SW. of Hawick. 
 
 Brass River, a deltaic arm of the Niger (q.v.). 
 
 Brattlehoro, in Windham county, Vermont, on 
 the Connecticut River, 110 miles S. of Mont- 
 pelier. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Braunsberg, a town of Bast Prussia, on the 
 navigable Passarge, 8 miles from its mouth, and 
 38 SW. of Kbnigsberg by rail. It manufactures 
 machinery, felt, and leather goods. Pop. 12,759. 
 
 Bray, (1) a Berkshire parish, on the Thames, 1^ 
 mile S. by E. of Maidenhead. The 'Vicar of 
 Bray ' was Simon Aleyn, from 1540 to 1588, during 
 the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth.— <2) A seaside town, partly in Dublin 
 county, but chiefly in Wicklow, 13 miles SB. 
 of Dublin by rail. The beauty of its situation 
 has raised it from a small flshing-village to a 
 watering-place, popularly known as the ' Irish 
 Brighton.' Pop. 7500— doubled in the season. 
 
 Bray is a district of Normandy, now the south- 
 eastern part of Seine-Inferieure, famous for its 
 cattle and dairy produce. 
 
 Brazil', the largest state of South America, 
 covering nearly half of the South American 
 continent, is little less in area than the whole 
 of Europe ; even if it be found that the esti- 
 mated area, 3,288,000 sq. m., should be reduced to 
 3,219,000. It has a length of 2660 miles, and a 
 breadth of 2705 miles between extreme points. 
 It borders on every state in South America except 
 Chili. The name was given by early explorers 
 from thinking that the red dyewood (Brazil-wood) 
 found here was identical witli the East Indian 
 dyewood known to them as Brasil. Brazil is a 
 triangular-shaped country, occupying the eastern 
 angle of the continent. It lies almost wholly 
 within the tropics, and is still in great part un- 
 explored and unsettled. On the north and west 
 are the great depressions of the Amazon and 
 Paraguay rivers, which comprise large areas of 
 flood-plains and swamps, heavily Avooded, and 
 almost uninhabitable. The northern coast is 
 bordered by low, alluvial bottom-lands and sandy 
 plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile ; 
 while the southern angle of the country is roll- 
 ing campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. 
 Above its eastern angle a large area of coast- 
 lands and neighbouring plateau is subject to 
 periodical devastating droughts. The interior of 
 the country, however, is a high plateau, with a 
 general elevation of 1000 to 3000 feet, irregularly 
 ridged by mountains and deeply cut by large 
 rivers, the mountainous ranges of the maritime 
 system form the eastern margin of this plateau, 
 
 the easternmost of which is known as the Serra 
 do Mar. This range plays an important part 
 in the development of Brazil, for it is a costly 
 barrier to communication with the interior, and 
 turns nearly all the great rivers inland to find out- 
 lets through the distant Amazon and La Plata, 
 The mountains are composed almost exclusively 
 of uplifted strata of great geological age, gneiss 
 and metamorphic schists, with granite and other 
 eruptive rocks. The great elevated plains are 
 composed of horizontal strata dating from the 
 Silurian age. Brazil possesses three great river- 
 systems— the Amazon, La Plata, and San Fran- 
 cisco. The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully 
 a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira 
 these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by 
 rapids and freely navigable for comparatively 
 short distances. West of the Madeira they are 
 lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive 
 flood-plains, and afford free navigation for long 
 distances. The La Plata system drains nearly 
 one-fifth of the country through its three branches 
 —the Paraguay, Parana, and Uruguay. The first 
 of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a 
 long distance, while the other two are tableland 
 rivers, full of obstructions, and without free out- 
 lets for their upper-level navigation. The San 
 Francisco is a tableland river, flowing north-east 
 between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and 
 then, breaking through the latter, south-east to 
 the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because 
 of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast- 
 rivers are generally short. The climate of Brazil 
 varies greatly— the lowlands of the Amazon and 
 a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and 
 unhealthy, while the tablelands and some dis- 
 tricts of the coast swept by the trade-winds are 
 temperate and healthy. The vegetation of Brazil 
 is luxuriant and varied. The vast forests of the 
 Amazon contain hundreds of species of trees, 
 draped and festooned by climbing plants, lianas, 
 orchids, &c. Rosewood, Brazil-wood, and others 
 supply valuable timber; whilst tropical fruits 
 are abundant. The number of species of animals 
 is also very large, but the individuals in each 
 are comparatively few. Beasts of prey are the 
 jaguar, puma, tiger-cat, and ocelot; the other 
 animals include the monkey, tapir, capybara, 
 peccary, ant-eater, sloth, and boa-constrictor. 
 Alligators, turtles, porpoises, and manatees swarm 
 in the Amazon ; and among birds the parrots and 
 humming-birds are especially numerous. The 
 population of Brazil, according to an official esti- 
 mate of 1900, was 14,500,000, of whom some 
 2,000,000 were negroes, 400,000 Indians, and the 
 remainder pretty equally divided between whites 
 and half-breeds. In the coast-towns the whites 
 predominate. The proportion of non-producers 
 is very large, the natural conditions of the 
 country rendering labour but slightly necessary 
 to meet the ordinary requirements of life. The 
 institution of slavery has had much to do with 
 this state of things. The African slave-trade 
 was prohibited in 1831, but did not actually 
 cease until 1854. In 1871 a gradual emancipa- 
 tion law was adopted, and in 1885 a more thorough 
 one ; and finally, by the law of 13th May 1888, 
 immediate and unconditional emancipation was 
 decreed. The Roman Catholic is the established 
 religion, and is supported by the state ; but all 
 other sects are tolerated. There are, however, 
 less than 30,000 non-Catholics in the country. 
 Education is still in a very backward condition. 
 The language is Portuguese, with dialectal varie- 
 ties. 
 Since the revolution of 1889, Brazil, as the 
 
SRA2IL 
 
 123 
 
 BRECKNOCKSHtltE 
 
 'United States of Brazil,' is a federative repub- 
 lic : each of the old provinces, also the federal 
 district around the capital, Rio Janeiro, is a 
 state, and is administered by its own authorities 
 at its own expense : while defence, customs, 
 postage, banking, &c., are the concern of the 
 union. The central executive authority consists 
 of the president, a vice-president, and a ministry. 
 The legislative authority resides in a national 
 congress of two chambers, the chamber of depu- 
 ties and the senate. Each state has its own 
 administrative, legislative, and judicial authori- 
 ties. The army is raised by obligatory military 
 service, and consists of about 30,000 men, besides 
 15,000 gendarmerie. The navy comprises 3 sea- 
 going and 6 coast defence armour-clads, 14 torpedo 
 boats, besides unarmoured cruisers, corvettes, 
 gunboats, and transports, manned in all by 7000 
 officers and men. Tlie revenue has since 1900 
 varied from £15,000,000 to £25,000,000 ; the ex- 
 penditure has of late years been— nominally at 
 least— covered by the revenue. The debt, exter- 
 nal, internal, and floating, is about £110,000,000. 
 
 The industries of Brazil are confined almost 
 exclusively to agriculture, mining, and forest 
 products. Stock-raising has totally failed to 
 keep pace with the domestic consumption of 
 jerked-beef, which is largely imported. The 
 coast fisheries have also been neglected, although 
 Brazil is a large consumer of codfish. The forest 
 products are rubber, mate, nuts, cocoa, medicinal 
 plants, cabinet and dye woods, &c. — the first 
 ranking third in importance as an article of ex- 
 port. Of agricultural products, coffee occupies 
 the first place, and furnishes about two-thirds 
 of the total exports of the whole empire. Sugar 
 ranks second. The production of cotton and 
 tobacco has considerably decreased, and that of 
 tapioca has nearly disappeared. Rice, maize, and 
 many other products are easily grown, but have 
 been overshadowed by coffee and sugar, and to 
 some extent discouraged by the high cost of 
 internal transportation. In colonial times the 
 mining industries yielded large results ; they are 
 now comparatively unimportant. Gold and dia- 
 monds are found in Minas Geraes, Parana, and 
 Bahia, but the annual production at present is 
 not large. Iron ores of superior quality exist in 
 several provinces, but the absence of coal is a 
 serious obstacle. The total exports varied in 
 1900-3 from £35,000,000 to £44,000,000 a year, the 
 imports from £22,000,000 to £24,000,000. Tlie 
 annual exports to Great Britain vary from 
 £4,000,000 to £5,000,000; the imports (which 
 have declined) have a like range. The in- 
 habitants of the southern provinces of the empire 
 are broadly distinguished by their energy from 
 the more indolent northerners. It is in the 
 southern provinces that the numerous German 
 colonies (comprising some 220,000 Germans) are 
 mostly established. Steam communication with 
 Europe was opened in 1850, and telegraphic com- 
 munication in 1874. The first railway was opened 
 in 1854 ; Brazil now possesses some 9800 miles of 
 railway and 17,400 miles of telegraph. The 
 milreis, the unit of the monetary system, fluctu- 
 ates very much in value— from 2s. 3d. (1890) to 
 llfd. (1902). 
 
 Brazil was discovered by Pinzon in 1500, and 
 taken possession of, for Portugal, by an ex- 
 pedition under Cabral in the same year. In 1808 
 the royal family of Portugal expelled by the 
 French took refuge in the colony, which became 
 a kingdom in 1815, an empire in 1822. The 
 emperor Dom Pedro II. was expelled in 1889, 
 and a republic established, which has been much 
 
 perturbed by rebellions. Since 1891 civil war 
 had been going on desultorily in some parts of 
 the republic, especially around Rio Janeiro, in 
 the province of Rio Grande, and in Minas Geraes, 
 which in 1892 declared itself a separate state. 
 In 1893 the capital was bombarded by tlie navy in 
 rebel hands, but in 1894 the rebellion collapsed. 
 There was a minor rising in 1897 under a religious 
 fanatic ; and a more important plot against the 
 government in the same year was frustrated. 
 
 See works on Brazil or the Amazon valley by 
 Southey (history, 1819), Agassiz (1870), Hartt 
 (1870), A. R. Wallace (1870), Bates (1873), Mulhall 
 (1877), Fletcher and Kidder (frequently reprinted, 
 Phila.), H. H. Smith (1880), and Wells (1886). 
 
 Brazos, a river of Texas, U.S., rising in a 
 tableland called the Staked Plain, in the NW. of 
 the state, and running 950 miles south-eastward 
 to the Gulf of Mexico, 40 miles SW. of Galveston. 
 
 Brazza, the largest and most populous of the 
 Dalmatian islands of the Adriatic, with an area 
 of 152 sq. m., and a pop. of 25,000. It rises to 
 2578 feet, and is richly wooded. San Pietro is 
 the chief town. 
 
 Breadalbane, a district of NW. Perthshire, 
 among the Grampians, giving the title of earl 
 to a branch of the Campbells. 
 
 Brechin (Bree'hhi)i), a town o.'' Forfarshire, on 
 the South Esk, 8^ miles W. of Montrose. With 
 Montrose, &c. it returns one member. Linen 
 and paper are manufactured, with bleaching, 
 distilling, and brewing. David I. founded a 
 bishopric here about 1150. Part of the cathedral 
 is now the parish church, at whose south-west 
 angle rises the Round Tower (c. 983, 87 feet high) 
 of a Culdce college, similar to the Irish ones, and 
 to the one at Abernethy, the only other example 
 in Scotland. Brechin Castle, the ancient seat of 
 the Maules, and now of the Earls of Dalhousie, 
 was taken by Edward I. in 1303 after a twenty 
 days' siege. The town itself was burned by 
 Montrose in 1645 ; and near it Huntly defeated 
 the rebellious Crawfords in 1452. Dr Guthrie 
 was a native. Pop. (1851) 6638 ; (1901) 8941. 
 
 Brecknock, or Brecon, the capital of Breck- 
 nockshire, at the confluence of the Usk and 
 Honddu, 183 miles W. by N. of London by rail, 
 and 40 NE. of Swansea. It lies in the midst of 
 fine mountain scenery, and has beautiful public 
 walks, the triple-peaked Brecon Beacons (2910 
 feet) rising to the south. From 1536 to 1885 
 Brecon returned one member to parliament. 
 FlauTiels, coarse Avoollens, and hats are manu- 
 factured. Bernard de Newmarch founded the 
 town, and built a castle here in 1094. Henry 
 VIII. in 1541 converted a Dominican friary into 
 a college, which was rebuilt in 1864 ; the priory, 
 now the parish church, Avas restored in 1862. 
 Mrs Siddons was a native. Pop. (1881) 6372 ; 
 (1901)5875. 
 
 Brecknockshire, or Brecon, an inland county 
 of South Wales. The maximum length is 39 
 miles ; its breadth ranges between 11^ and 30 
 miles ; and its area is 719 sq. m., of which only 
 43 per cent, is cultivated. Brecknockshire is 
 one of the most mountainous counties in South 
 Wales, and has deep, beautiful, and fertile valleys. 
 Two principal mountain-chains, the highest in 
 South Wales, culminating in the Brecon Beacons 
 at 2910 feet, intersect tlie county in the north 
 and south, and occupy, with their oflshoots, a 
 great part of the surface. The chief rivers are 
 the Wye and Usk ; and Llangorse Lake covers 
 nearly 1800 acres. The agriculture, though still 
 defective, especially in the higher districts, has 
 
fiRSDA 
 
 124 
 
 BRENTFORD 
 
 been greatly improved by the Brecknockshire 
 Agricultural Society, instituted in 1775. The 
 mineral produce is small, consisting of iron, 
 especially along the south border ; coal and lime- 
 stone are also found in the south and west. The 
 Brecon Canal connects the county with the 
 Bristol Channel. There are several small fac- 
 tories of woollens and worsted hosiery ; also 
 several important ironworks, but the ore is 
 chiefly obtained from ailjoining counties. Breck- 
 nockshire returns one member to parliament. 
 Pop. (1801) 32,325 ; (1871) 61,627 ; (1901) 54,213. 
 The chief towns are Brecon (the county town), 
 Bnilth, Crickhowell, Hay, and Llanelly. There 
 are many remains of British and Eoman camps, 
 Roman roads, cairns, cromlechs, mounds, and 
 castles, throughout the county. The Normans 
 wrested the county from the Welsh princes in 
 1092. Llewelyn, the last British prince of Wales, 
 was killed at Llanafanfechan, near Builth, in 
 1282. Welsh is still the language of the middle- 
 class and the peasantry. See Jones's History of 
 Brecknockshire (2 vols. 1805-9). 
 
 Breda, a town of Holland, at the confluence 
 of the navigable Mark and Aa, 60 miles ENE. 
 of Flushing by rail, and 30 NNE. of Antwerp. 
 Its Gothic cathedral (1510) has an octagonal 
 steeple 311 feet high; whilst the castle (1350) 
 received its present shape from William III. 
 (1696), and in 1823 was converted into a military 
 academy. There are manufactures of carpets, 
 linen, hats, soap, leather, &c., and dyeworks, 
 breweries, and rope-walks. The population is 
 about 30,000. Fortified until 1876, Breda was 
 captured by the Spaniards (15S1), by the Dutch 
 under Maurice of Orange (1590), by Spinola (1625), 
 again by the Dutch (1632), and twice by the 
 French (1793-95), who were finally driven out 
 in 1813. 
 
 Bredfield, a Sufiblk parish, Edward Fitz- 
 Gerald's birthplace, 3 miles N. of Woodbridge. 
 
 Breeds (Bray'deh), a river in Cape Colony, flow- 
 ing SE. to the Indian Ocean at St Sebastian's 
 Bay, 60 miles NE. of Cape Agulhas. It is navig- 
 able for vessels drawing not more than 10 feet 
 of water to a distance of 40 miles. 
 
 Bregenz (Bray-gentz' ; anc. Brigantium), a town 
 of Austria, capital of the Vorarlberg, on the east 
 shore of the Lake of Constance ; it is the ter- 
 minus of the Arlberg railway (from Innsbruck), 
 with a great tunnel, opened 1884. Pop. 7736. 
 
 Breisach, Alt (Brl-sahh; anc. Mons Brisiacus), 
 a town of Baden, situated on an isolated basalt 
 hill (804 feet) on the right side of the Rhine, 
 14 miles W. of Freiburg. The minster is a 13th- 
 century structure. Pop. 3506. 
 
 BreisgAVi (Brlse'gow), a German district extend- 
 ing along the right bank of the Rhine, from the 
 episcopal territory of Strasburg to Basel, em- 
 bracing Freiburg and the southern Black Forest. 
 Bince 1810 it has been part of Baden. 
 
 Breitenfeld (Brl'tenfelt), a Saxon village, 5 
 miles N. of Leipzig. In the first of three battles 
 here (17th September 1631), Gustavus Adolphus 
 defeated the imperialists under Tilly ; the second 
 (2d November 1642) was also a victory of the 
 Swedes over the imperial forces ; and the third 
 was one act of the great ' Battle of the Nations ' 
 at Leipzig, 16th October 1813. 
 xx.-^^r'"®^ (iJrai/men,), a free city of Germany, on 
 the Weser, 39 miles by rail SSE. of Bremerhaven, 
 
 *nqoo\^S V^T?^"°^''^- ,?°P- <1S^5^ 102,177; 
 (1900) 163,297. Bremen is divided into the Old 
 and the New Town-the former on the right, the 
 
 latter (dating from 1620) on the left bank of the 
 river, which is spanned by four bridges. The 
 ramparts and bastions round the old town have 
 been formed into public promenades. Among 
 the principal buildings are the cathedral (1043- 
 70 ; reconstructed 13th to 17th centuries), tho 
 Gothic town-hall (1409), with its famous wine- 
 cellar, the 'Schlitting' or guildhall (1537), the 
 exchange, the museum, the post-ofiice, and the 
 observatory of Dr Olbers, who here discovered 
 the planets Pallas and Vesta. Bremen is a 
 very thriving place, and now ranks as the second 
 commercial city in Germany. Large vessels stop 
 at Bremerhaven. Bremen carries on an exten- 
 sive commerce with Great Britain, North and 
 South America, the West Indies, Africa, the East 
 Indies, and China ; its great foreign trade, how- 
 ever, is with the United States. Bremen ships 
 about 50 per cent, of all emigrants sailing from 
 Germany, principally to the United States. The 
 chief imports are tobacco, coffee, sugar, cotton, 
 rice, skins, dyewoods, wines, petroleum, timber, 
 and hemp. The exports consist of woollen goods, 
 linens, glass, rags, wool, hemp, hides, oil-cake, 
 colours, and wooden toys. Large quantities of 
 tobacco are re-exported. There are manufactures 
 of woollens and cottons, cigars, paper, and starch, 
 and breweries, distilleries, rice-mills, and sugar- 
 refineries. Bremen is the headquarters of the 
 North German Lloyd Steamship Company (1857). 
 Bremen first became of historical note in the 
 8th century, when it was erected into a bishopric 
 by Charlemagne. It soon attained considerable 
 commercial importance, and became one of the 
 principal cities of the Hanseatic League. In 1810 
 it was incorporated with the French empire, but 
 recovered its independence in 1813, and by the 
 Congress of Vienna was admitted in 1815 as one 
 of the Hanse towns into the Germanic confedera- 
 tion. In 1867 it became a member of the North 
 German confederation, and now it forms part of 
 the German empire. The area of the territory is 
 99 sq. m. ; pop., including the town of Bremen 
 (1900) 224,882. 
 
 Bremerhaven (Braymerhdh'fen), the port of 
 Bremen, on the Weser estuary, nearly 10 miles 
 from the open sea, and 39 NNW. of Bremen. It 
 was founded by Bremen in 1827, and rapidly 
 became a thriving place. A second dock was 
 opened in 1866, a third in 1874 ; and in 1888 a 
 great port, with docks, was undertalcen at Norden- 
 liain, on the opposite bank. The Geeste sepa- 
 rates it from Geestemiinde (q.v.). The population 
 has risen from 3500 in 1850 to over 21,000. 
 
 Brenner Pass, a pass (4588 feet) in the Central 
 Tyrol Alps, on the road between Innsbruck and 
 Botzen, connecting Germany with north-east 
 Italy. Open at all seasons of the year, it is the 
 lowest pass over the main chain of the Alps. 
 In 1867 a railway through the pass was opened. 
 The distance from Innsbruck to Botzen in a 
 direct line is only 52 miles, but frequent wind- 
 ings extend the railway to 78 miles. It passes 
 over numerous viaducts and bridges, and through 
 twenty-seven tunnels, one of them 935 yards long. 
 Brenta (Medoac^is Major), a river of North 
 Italy, issuing from a small lake in the Tyrol, and 
 flowing 120 miles southward and eastward to the 
 Gulf of Venice at the haven of Brondolo. 
 
 Brentford, the county town of Middlesex, 10 
 miles W. of Paddington station, at the influx of 
 the Brent to the Thames, which is crossed here 
 by a bridge leading to Kew. Consisting chiefly 
 of one long irregular street, it has gin-distilleries, 
 a brewery, sawmills, a soap-work, the Grand 
 
BRENTWOOD 
 
 125 
 
 BRIDGE OF EARN 
 
 Junction Water-works, &c. There are many 
 market-gardens in the vicinity. Here Edmund 
 Ironside defeated the Danes in 1016 ; in 1558 six 
 martyrs were burned at the stake ; and in 1642 
 Prince Rupert defeated the Parliamentarians. 
 Pop. 15,500. 
 
 Brentwoodj a market-town in Essex, 10 miles 
 SW. of Chelmsford by rail. It has a richly 
 endowed grammar-school (1567). Population, 
 4932. 
 
 Brescia (Bresh'ya ; anc. Brixia), a city of Lom- 
 bardy, on the rivers Mella and Garza, 51 miles 
 E; of Milan by rail. It has two cathedrals— the 
 old (dating from the 7th century), and the new 
 (1604-1825) ; the Tosi Gallery or Town Museum, 
 adorned with frescoes ; the 12th-century Broletto 
 Palace ; the Biblioteca Quiriniana, with 40,000 
 volumes, founded in 1750 by Cardinal Quirini ; 
 and the Temple of Hercules, which, built by Ves- 
 pasian, and excavated in 1822, forms a repository 
 for classical antiquities. The cemetery (1810) is 
 regarded as the finest in Italy. A statue of 
 Arnold of Brescia was unveiled in 1882. Brescia 
 manufactures woollens, sillc, leather, paper, arms, 
 cutlery, &c., and its wine is of good quality. 
 Pop. 71,000. 
 
 Breslau (Brez'lotu), capital of Prussian Silesia, 
 150 ni. SE. of Frankfort-on-Oder by rail, is situated 
 at the confluence of the Ohlau and Oder. It has 
 a university founded by the Emperor Leopold I. 
 in 1702, with over 1200 students, and a library of 
 300,000 volumes; a cathedral (1148-1680); and 
 the Protestant church of St Elizabeth, with a 
 steeple 298 feet in height, and a splendid organ. 
 Linen fairs are held, and Breslau is a great 
 wool-mart. It has manufactures of linens, 
 woollens, cotton, silks, lace, jewellery, machines, 
 earthenware, soap, alum, starch, &c., with many 
 distilleries. Breslau is a city of Slavonic origin, 
 and was for many centuries occupied alternately 
 by the Poles and the Bohemians. It afterwards 
 passed to Austria, from which it was taken by 
 Frederick II. of Prussia in 1741. Six years after- 
 wards it was captured by the Austrians after a 
 bloody battle, but retaken by Frederick in about 
 a month. It was often besieged from that time 
 until 1814, when its fortifications were completely 
 demolished ; since 1890, however, it has again 
 been made a first-class fortress. Pop. (1870) 
 207,997 ; (1900) 422,800. 
 
 Bressay, one of the Shetland Isles, separated 
 from Lerwick by Bressay Sound. It is 6 miles 
 long, 1 to 3 broad, and 10| sq. m. in area. The 
 coast is rocky, there are several caverns, and the 
 highest point is 724 feet above sea-level. Pop. 
 699, chiefly fishermen. Bressay Sound is one of 
 the finest natural harbours in the world. In its 
 west centre is the harbour of Lerwick with light- 
 house. East of Bressay, with a narrow and 
 dangerous sound between, is a rocky isle, Noss, 
 6 miles in circuit, rising abruptly from the sea to 
 a height of nearly 600 feet, with a flattish top. 
 A detached rock or holm, on the south-east side, 
 in former years communicated with Noss by 
 means of a cradle or wooden chair run on strong 
 ropes stretched across a yawning gulf. 
 
 Brest, a strongly fortified city in the dep. of 
 PinistSre, one of the chief naval stations of 
 France, is situated 389 miles by rail W. of Paris, 
 on the north side of the Bay or Road of Brest, 
 One of the finest harbours in Europe, the road- 
 stead is formed by the promontory of Finist^re 
 on the north and Kelerun on the south, and is 
 broken up into various bays formed by the 
 mouths of streams as they enter the bay. The 
 
 only entrance to the bay is by a narrow channel 
 called Le Goulet, which is scarcely a mile wide, 
 and is strongly defended by batteries ; the difli. 
 culty and danger of access to liostile ships being 
 increased by rocks in the middle of the channel. 
 The roadstead from this entrance to the mouth 
 of the Elon is about 6 miles in length. Under 
 Napoleon III. £600,000 was expended on harbour 
 and fortification works, and a further sum of 
 £1,500,000 between 1883 and 1894. The small 
 river Penfeld flows through the town; on its 
 left bank is the town proper, on its right the 
 suburb of Recouvrance, connected by a splendid 
 iron swing-bridge (1861), 65 feet high, and 347 
 long. The manufactures include leather, wax- 
 cloth, paper, and rope; the exports are chiefly 
 beer, grain, brandy, and fish. Brest has exten- 
 sive shipbuilding yards, rope-walks, storehouses, 
 quays, arsenals, and dry-docks ; its industry ia 
 chiefly confined to the equipment of the navy in 
 its various branches. The splendid position of 
 Brest made it an object of contention to French, 
 English, and Spaniards. In 1631 Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu resolved to make it a naval station, and 
 commenced the fortifications, which were com- 
 pleted by Vauban, but have since been greatly 
 extended. In 1694 the English under Lord 
 Berkeley were repulsed here with great loss ; 
 in 1794 the French fleet was defeated oif Brest 
 by the English fleet under Howe. Pop. (1872) 
 66,272 ; (1891) 75,854; (1901) 84,285. 
 
 Brest Litovsk (Polish Brzesc), a strongly forti- 
 fied town of Russian Poland, on the Bug, 132 
 miles ESB. of Warsaw, and 682 WSW. of Moscow. 
 It has vast magazines and military stores, and 
 an extensive trade in its cloth manufactures, 
 Russian leather, soap, and wood. Pop. 47,981. 
 
 Bretagne. See Brittany. 
 
 Bretigny (Breteenyee'), a village in the French 
 dep. of Eure-et-Loir, 20 miles S. of Paris by rail 
 Here, in 1360, Edward III. concluded a peace 
 with France. 
 
 Bretten, a town of Baden, the birthplace of 
 Melanchthon, 16 miles ENE. of Karlsruhe bv 
 rail. Pop. 4932. ^ 
 
 Brezowa (Bresfova), a market-town of Hungary. 
 20 miles NW. of Leopoldstadt. Pop. 5549. 
 
 BrianQon (Breeon^son^' ; anc. Brigantium), a 
 town in the French dep. of Hautes-Alpes, 162 
 miles NNE. of Marseilles by rail, on the Durance. 
 It is the highest town in France— 4330 feet above 
 ^^^:!®^^^- -^^ *''® principal arsenal and depot 
 of the French Alps, it is so strongly fortified as 
 to be deemed impregnable. Pop. 5638. 
 
 Briansk (Bree-ansk), a town of Russia, on the 
 Desna, 77 miles W. of Orel by rail. Pop. 26,403. 
 
 Briare (Breedhr'), a town in the dep. of Loiret, 
 on the Loire, 102 miles SSE. of Paris by rail. 
 The Canal de Briare (35 miles long), uniting the 
 Loire and Seine, was the first constructed in 
 France (1642). Pop. 5651. 
 
 Bridgend, a market-town of Glamorganshire, 
 17 miles W. of Cardiff", with ironworks and 
 collieries. Pop. 6062. 
 
 Bridgenorth. See Bridgnorth. 
 
 Bridge of Allan, a beautiful village on Allan 
 Water, 3 miles N. of Stirling by tram. Sheltered 
 by the Ochils, it owes its prosperity partly to 
 the mineral saline wells of Airthrey, and partly 
 to its delightful situation and mild climate. Pop. 
 (1861) 1803 ; (1901) 3240. 
 
 Bridge of Earn, a village of Perthshire, on the 
 Earn, 4 miles SSE, of Perth. Pop. 365. 
 
BRIDGE OF WEIR 
 
 126 
 
 BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU 
 
 Bridge of Weir, a Renfrewsliire village, on the 
 Gryfe, 7 miles W. by N. of Paisley. Pop. 2242. 
 
 Bridgeport, a city and port of entry of Con- 
 necticut, U.S., at the entrance of the Pequan- 
 nock into an inlet of Long Island Sound. It is 
 53 miles SW. of Hartford, and 57 NB. of New 
 York. It has a safe harbour for small vessels, 
 a considerable coasting trade, several fine public 
 parks, and a system of street railways. Golden 
 Hill, coiinnanding fine views of the sound and 
 shore, is covered with good residences, many 
 of the inhabitants belonging to New York. 
 The manufactures are extensive, particularly of 
 carriages, harness, machinery, metallic cart- 
 ridges, and sewing-machines. Pop. (1870) 18,8C9 ; 
 (1880) 27,643 ; (1890) 48,866 ; (1900) 70,996. 
 
 Bridgeton, a city and port of entry in New 
 Jersey, U.S., on Cohansey Creek, 38 miles S. of 
 Philadelphia. It has the West Jersey Academy, 
 South Jersey Institute (1870), a public library, 
 and manufactures of woollen goods, iron, leather, 
 carriages, machinery, and canned fruits. Pop. 
 15,000. 
 
 Bridgetown, the capital of Barbadoes (q.v.), 
 is situated on the west coast of the island along 
 the north side of Carlisle Bay, which forms its 
 roadstead. The inner harbour is protected by a 
 breakwater known as the Mole Head. Founded 
 in 1628, the town took the na7ne Indian Bridge, 
 and later its present appellation, froni a rude 
 aboriginal structure which spanned a neighbour- 
 ing creek. It suffered much from fire in 1666, 
 1766, and 1845; in 1831 from a hurricane. A 
 railway of 23 miles in length to the parish of 
 St Andrew was completed in 1882. Population, 
 about 35,000. 
 
 Bridgewater Canal, a canal in Lancashire and 
 Cheshire, 42 miles long, uniting Worsley with 
 Runcorn and Manchester. It was fonned in 
 1762-72 by the Duke of Bridgewater and Brindley, 
 and bought (1888) by the Manchester Ship Canal 
 Company. It is carried over the Manchester 
 Ship Canal at Barton-upon-Irwell (q.v.) by a 
 great swing-bridge. 
 
 Bridgnorth, a municipal borough of Shrop- 
 shire, 19 miles SB. of Shrewsbury. The Severn 
 divides it into the upper or 'High Town,' and 
 lower or 'Low Town,' the two connected by an 
 inclined railway (1892) with a vertical rise of 
 111 feet. The High Town is built on a red sand- 
 stone rock rising 180 feet above the right bank 
 of the river. This rock was formerly crowned 
 by a royal fortress, a huge leaning fragment 
 being all now left of the keep. Bridgnorth has 
 a grammar-school existing in Henry VIIL's reign, 
 carpet, worsted, and tanning industries, and agri- 
 cultural trade. Until 1868 it returned two 
 members, and until 1885 one. The Danes 
 wintered here in 896, and the site of a Saxon 
 castle, built by the princess Ethelfleda, is still 
 distinctly marked. Robert de Belesme (a kins- 
 man of the Conqueror) built the Norman castle, 
 and unsuccessfully defended it against Henry I. 
 It was also besieged by Henry II. and Edward 
 II. Tlie castle was demolished by the Parlia- 
 mentarians after a three-weeks' siege, during 
 which the 'High Town" was destroyed by fire, 
 one of the few houses surviving being the fine 
 old Tudor mansion, still standing, in which, 
 Bishop Percy was afterwards born (1728). Baxter 
 began his ministry here. The population is over 
 
 Bridgwater, a municipal borough and river- 
 port of Somersetshire, on the Parret, 6 miles in 
 a direct line, and 12 by the river, from the 
 
 Bristol Channel, and 29 miles SW. of Bristol. 
 It stands on the border of a plain between the 
 Mendip and Quantock Hills, in a well-wooded 
 country. The Parret, which admits vessels of 
 700 tons up to the town, rises 36 feet at spring- 
 tides, and is subject to a bore, 6 or S feet high ; 
 a canal gives water communication with Taunton. 
 Bath or scouring bricks, of which Bridgwater 
 has a monopoly, are made here of a mixture of 
 sand and clay found in the river, and there are 
 carriage-works and potteries. The Conqueror 
 granted the manor to one Walter de Douay, and 
 its name thereupon became Burgh-Walter, of 
 which Bridgwater is a mere corruption. A castle 
 was built here in the reign of John, and an 
 Augustinian abbey about 1230. Admiral Blake 
 was a native of Bridgwater, which in the great 
 rebellion was forced by Fairfax to surrender, the 
 castle being dismantled. The battle of Sedgemoor 
 (q.v.) was fought in 1685 near Bridgwater, whose 
 corporation had proclaimed Monmouth as king. 
 Bridgwater formerly returned two members, but 
 was disfranchised in 1870. Pop. (1851) 10,317; 
 (1901) 15,209. See the history of the town by 
 S. J. Jarman (1889). 
 
 Bridlington, or Burlington, a town in the 
 East Riding of Yorkshire, 6 miles SW. of Flam- 
 borough Head, and 23 SSE. of Scarborough. An 
 old-fashioned place, with narrow irregular streets, 
 it is supposed to have been the site of a Roman 
 station. An Augustinian priory of immense 
 wealth, founded in Henry I.'s reign, is repre- 
 sented by the nave of its splendid church, mixed 
 Early English and Perpendicular in style. On 
 Bridlington Bay, 1 mile SB., is Bridlington Quay, 
 the port of the town, which has risen into repute 
 as a watering-place, with fine sands, a parade, 
 ornamental gardens, a chalybeate mineral spring, 
 and hot and cold baths. The bay has good 
 anchorage, and the harbour is enclosed by stone 
 piers. In 1643 Henrietta Maria landed here from 
 Holland with arms and ammunition bought with 
 the crown-jewels, when Bridlington was cannon- 
 aded for giving her refuge. In 1899 it became a 
 municipality. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Bridport, a municipal borough of Dorsetshire, 
 at the confluence of the Asker and the Brit, 2 
 miles from the English Channel, and 16^ W. of 
 Dorchester by rail. It stands on an eminence 
 surrounded by hills, and has a town-hall (1785), 
 and a good cruciform parish church. Till 1867 
 Bridport returned two members to parliament; 
 and till 1885, one. The chief manufactures are 
 ropes and cordage (a ' Bridport dagger ' was pro- 
 verbial for a halter in Leland's day), besides 
 twine, shoe-thread, fishing-nets, and sailcloth. 
 Vessels of 250 tons can enter the harbour, which 
 is IJ mile below the town. The population is 
 about 6000. 
 
 Brieg (Breeg), a town of Prussian Silesia, on 
 the Oder, 27 miles SB. of Breslau by rail. The 
 13th-century church of St Nicholas has a splendid 
 organ, and towers added in 1884r-85. Brieg manu- 
 factures machinery, ironwares, sugar, leather, 
 tobacco, &c. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Briel (Breal), or Brielle, sometimes The 
 Brill, a fortified seaport town of South Holland, 
 situated on the north side of the island of Voorne, 
 near the mouth of the Maas. Pop. 4562, chiefly 
 pilots and fishermen. Briel may be considered 
 as the nucleus of the Dutch republic, having 
 been taken from the Spaniards in 1572. De Witt 
 and Tromp were natives. 
 
 Brienne-le-ChS-teau (Bree-enn'-le-SMhto'), a 
 town (pop. 1680) in the dep. of Aube, on the 
 
BRIENZ 
 
 127 
 
 BRINDISI 
 
 Aube, 85 miles ENE. of Troyes. At the mili- 
 tary school here (suppressed in 1790) the great 
 Napoleon spent five years. Here, too, he was 
 defeated by the allies in January 1814. 
 
 Brienz (Bree-entz'), a Swiss town at the foot of 
 the Bernese Alps, on the NE. shore of the lake of 
 Brienz, 30 miles ESE. of Bern. Pop. 2758.— The 
 lake, 8J miles long and IJ broad, is an expansion 
 of the river Aar, and is believed to have been at 
 one time united with Lake Thun. It lies 1857 
 feet above the sea, is 859 feet deep at one point, 
 and is surrounded by lofty mountains. The 
 Giessbach Cascades, a series of tine falls, are 
 accessible by a cable tramway. 
 
 Brierfield, an urban district, Lancashire, 2 J 
 miles NE. of Burnley. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Brlerley Hill, a town of Staffordshire, 2J miles 
 NE. of Stourbridga It has numerous collieries, 
 large ironworks, glassworks, brickworks, and 
 potteries. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Brigg, a market-town of Lincolnshire, 24 miles 
 N. of Lincoln. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Brlghouse, a manufacturing town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 4 nnles ESE. of Halifax, 
 a municipal borough since 1893. Pop. 22,500. 
 
 Brlghtlingsea, an Essex seaport, on the Colne's 
 estuary, 8 miles SE. of Colchester. It has oyster 
 fisheries. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Brighton, a parliamentary, municipal, and 
 county borough and fashionable watering-place 
 in Sussex, 50j miles S. of London by rail (IJ 
 hour). Its former name, Brighthelmstone (1252- 
 1810), was superseded about 1800 by Brighton, 
 which occurs, however, as early as 1660. The 
 town is built on a slope ascending eastward to 
 a range of high chalk-cliffs ; to the west, these 
 hills recede from the coast ; and the nearest 
 point of the South Downs is the Devil's Dyke, 
 5 miles distant. Ancient Brighthelmstone was 
 a mere fishing-village on a level under the cliff. 
 It suffered much at the hands of French, Flem- 
 ings, and Spaniards, and still more from the sea, 
 whose inroads in 1699, 1703, and 1706 under- 
 mined the cliffs and destroyed many houses. 
 Further inroads are prevented by a sea-wall of 
 great strength (60 feet high and 23 feet thick at 
 the base), extending along the east cliffs, and 
 built between 1827 and 1838 at a cost of £100,000. 
 The writings of Dr Richard Russell, a celebrated 
 physician, first drew public attention about 1753 
 to Brighton as an eligible watering-place, and 
 the discovery of a chalybeate spring in the 
 vicinity increased its popularity. The visit of 
 the Prince of Wales in 1782, and his subsequent 
 yearly residence there, finally opened the eyes 
 of the fashionable world to Brighton's immense 
 attractions, and it thenceforth became the 
 crowded resort of a health-seeking population, 
 in which the opening of the Brighton Railway 
 in 1841 greatly assisted. It was made a parlia- 
 mentary borough (returning two members) in 
 1832, a municipal one in 1854 ; its progress has 
 been very rapid, and the town is still steadily 
 increasing. As becomes a favoured retreat of 
 wealth and aristocracy, Brighton is for the most 
 part extremely well built, consisting of new and 
 elegant streets, squares, and terraces. The pub- 
 lic hotels are magnificent ; besides these there 
 are the boarding-houses and nearly 1000 lodging, 
 house keepers. A range of splendid houses fronts 
 the sea for upwards of 3 niiles, the promenade — 
 asphalted from end to end, and exceptionally 
 well lighted — being almost on a dead level, within 
 a few feet of the sea, for the greater part of its 
 
 length, but rising at the east end of the town to 
 a height of 60 feet, on the top of the sea-wall 
 already referred to. Beneath this is the Madeira 
 Road, a fine drive and promenade a mile in 
 length, and sheltered effectually from the north 
 wind. The population is greatly increased during 
 the fashionable seasons (especially in late summer 
 and autumn) by the influx of visitors, the average 
 number being 50,000, chiefly from London, for 
 which reason it is sometimes called London-super- 
 Mare. Of over twenty churches, St Nicholas, 
 dating from the time of Henry VII., is the only 
 ancient one ; Holy Trinity Church has been 
 rendered famous from the ministry of F. W. 
 Robertson. The public buildings include the 
 town-hall, the town-hall in the adjoining town- 
 ship of Hove (part of the parliamentary borough, 
 but not included for municipal purposes), the 
 unrivalled aquarium (1872), museum of British 
 birds, school of science and art, Brighton college, 
 theatre, and the Sussex county hospital. At 
 Queen's Park, in the east of the town, is the 
 German Spa establishment, and at St Anne's 
 well and wild gardens in the west is a chaly- 
 beate spring. In the north of the town is the 
 Preston public park of 62 acres (1884), which cost 
 £50,000, the money being left to the town by the 
 'leviathan ' bookmaker, Mr W. E. Da vies (1819-79). 
 
 Near the centre of the town is the Royal 
 Pavilion or Marine Palace, a fantastic oriental 
 or Chinese structure, with domes, minarets, and 
 pinnacles, and Moorish stables, begun for the • 
 Prince of Wales in 1784, and finished in 1827. 
 It was purchased in 1850 for £53,000 by the 
 corporation, and with its fine pleasure-grounds 
 it is devoted to the recreation of the inhabitants. 
 The concert-hall known as the 'Dome,' formerly 
 the royal stables, can accommodate 3000 people. 
 Adjoining are the public library and museum 
 and picture-gallery. The famous chain pier 
 (1823), 1136 feet in length, was destroyed in a storm 
 in 1896; the much wider 'West Pier' (1866) is 
 1115 feet long ; and the New Pier and Marine 
 Palace (1900) is 1700 feet long. Pop. (1801) 7339 ; 
 (1821) 24,429 ; (1841) 46,661 ; (1861) 77,693 ; (1881) 
 107,546 ; (1891) 115,873 ; (1901) 123,478 ; of parlia- 
 mentary borough, two members (1901), 153,386. 
 See works by Erredge (1862), J. Bishop (1875-80), 
 Sawyer (1878), Sala (1895), and on the ' Brighton 
 Road ' by C. G. Harper (1892). 
 
 Brignoles {Brem-yolV), a town in the French 
 dep. of Var, 42 m. ESE. of Aix by rail. Pop. 4298. 
 
 Brihuega (Bree-way'ga), a town of New Castile, 
 Spain, on the Tajuiia, 20 miles ENE. of Guad- 
 alajara. Pop. 3700. Here, in 1710, the English 
 general Stanhope was defeated by the Due de 
 Vendome, and compelled to surrender. 
 
 Brindaban, or Bindraban, a town of the 
 North-west Provinces, on the Jumna, 6 miles N. 
 of Muttra. It is one of the holiest cities of the 
 Hindus ; and through the munificence of wealthy 
 devotees there are a large number of costly 
 temples and shrines. Here, as at Benares, the 
 immediate margin of the river is occupied by 
 flights of steps, or ghauts. Pop. 22,717. 
 
 Biin'disi (anc. Brundisium or Brundusium), a 
 seaport town of Southern Italy, on a small pro- 
 montory in a bay of the Adriatic, 346 miles SE. 
 of Ancona by rail. It was the principal naval 
 station of the Romans in the Adriatic, with a 
 pop. of 100,000. Horace has made a journey to 
 Brundisium the subject of one of his satires (Sat. 
 i. 5), and Virgil died here (19 b.c.) on his return 
 from Greece. With the decline of the crusades 
 it sank into insignificance, and subsequently it 
 
BRIOUDE 
 
 128 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
 suffered greatly from wars and earthquakes. 
 The principal buildings are the archiepiscopal 
 cathedral (lloO), now in a somewhat ruinous 
 state ; and the castle, commenced by the Emperor 
 Frederick II., and linished by Charles V. Since 
 the establishment of the Overland Route to 
 India, Brindisi has greatly increased, and as the 
 terminus of the Mont Cenis and other railway 
 routes, it has become a great point of departure 
 for passengers for the East. It is about 60 hours 
 from London by rail ; and the weekly steamers 
 to Alexandria make the passage in three days. 
 The extensive and well-sheltered harbour has 
 undergone great improvement ; and mail steamers 
 can now lie alongside the quays in 26 feet of 
 water. Pop. 24,508. 
 
 Brioude (Bree-ood'), a town in the dep. of Haute- 
 Loire, 44 miles SSB. of Clermont. Pop. 4832. 
 
 Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, a sea- 
 port and chief seat of trade in the colony, is 
 situated about 500 miles N. of Sydney, and 25 
 miles from the mouth of the Brisbane River, 
 which falls into Moreton Bay. Pop. (1876) 26,911 ; 
 (1881) 31,109 ; (1891) 48,738 ; (1901, within a five- 
 mile radius) 119,428. North and South Brisbane 
 are connected by an iron bridge, 1080 feet long, 
 destroyed in 1893 and rebuilt in 1897. Notable 
 buildings are the Parliament Houses, Government 
 House, museum, supreme court, post-office, 
 custom-house, Anglican and Catholic cathe- 
 drals, and some of the banks. There are several 
 parks and botanic gardens. The export trade, 
 which is large, includes gold, wool, cotton, sugar, 
 tallow, and hides ; and the imports, most of the 
 articles in use among a thriving community. 
 Regular steam communication is kept up with 
 the other Australian ports, as well as with 
 London (11,295 miles). The channel of the river 
 has been deepened, and admits of large vessels 
 coming up to Brisbane. Brisbane is the terminus 
 of several local railways, and since 1888 it has 
 had through railway connection with Sydney, 
 Melbourne, and Adelaide— the last link being the 
 bridge over the Hawkesbury River. Brisbane 
 was settled as a penal station in 1825 by Sir T. 
 Brisbane, governor of New South Wales. In 
 1839 the convict settlement was broken up. The 
 era of progress began in 1842, when the colony 
 was opened to free settlers. At first an appanage 
 of New South Wales, the Moreton Bay district 
 was erected into an independent colony in 1859, 
 when the city was incorporated.— The Brisbane 
 River rises in the Burnett Range, and receives 
 the Bremer and other rivers before its entrance 
 into Moreton Bay, below the town of Brisbane. 
 Its floods in February 1893 did tremendous 
 damage to the city. South Brisbane being prac- 
 tically laid in ruins. 
 
 Bristol, a mercantile city, 118 miles W. of 
 London, and 6 from the mouth of the Avon, at 
 Its junction with the Frome, is locally partly in 
 ri^o^^^^^f ^^'^^ ^"^ P^^^^^y in Somerset, but since 
 1373 has been itself a county. The castle, rebuilt 
 S ^i!^f /n^^P ^^ ^«^«rt' Earl of Gloucester 
 in lA^V^L^^^^ '?^^ '^^^^y- a"^^ was demolished 
 in 1654. The cathedral was formerly a church 
 of Augustinian canons (1148); the nave and 
 aisles, pulled down for rebuilding in 15th cen- 
 tury, were rebuilt in 1877; the choir is good 
 14th-century work; fine Norman chapter-house 
 and gateway remain. Bristol, originally in the 
 diocese of Worcester, was created a see and a 
 city m 1540, with the abbey-church of St Augus- 
 tine s as cathedral, and was united to the see of 
 Gloucester in 1836 ; its re-erection as a separate 
 
 see took place in 1897. Of its other churches the 
 most noteworthy is St Mary Redcliff, justly 
 declared by Queen Elizabeth to be the 'fairest 
 and most famous parish church in England.' 
 Mainly rebuilt by William Canynges, merchant 
 (c. 1470), it is vaulted throughout, and is a 
 magnificent specimen of Perpendicular. The 
 truncated spire was completed, 280 feet from 
 ground, and 170 feet from top of tower, in 1872. 
 In the muniment-room is the chest in which 
 Chatterton (1752-70) pretended to have found the 
 Rowley poems. Among the ancient houses of 
 the town are Canynges' house, Redcliff Street, 
 Spicer's (or Back) Hall, and St Peter's Hospital. 
 The principal educational institutions are Uni- 
 versity College (1876), Clifton College (1862), and 
 the grammar-school (1531); and the charitable 
 foundations. Queen Elizabeth's Hospital (1586), 
 the Red Maids' School (1621), and Colston's School 
 (1704), now removed to Stapleton, Gloucester- 
 shire. The City Library (free) dates from 1613. 
 Bristol, wliich derived its early wealth from ex- 
 porting slaves to Ireland, received its first charter 
 from Henry II., who also (1171) gave Dublin to 
 the men of Bristol. One of the ' staple ' towns 
 (1353), Bristol took a prominent part in discovery 
 and colonisation. In 1497 John Cabot sailed from 
 the port, and was the first to discover North 
 America ; his son Sebastian declared that he was 
 born in Bristol, and sailed thence on his voyage 
 of 1498. The city was taken by Prince Rupert 
 in 1643, and by Fairfax in 1645. Colston the 
 philanthropist (1636-1721) founded many chari- 
 ties, and his 'day' is annually kept in Bristol. 
 In the 18th century privateering was largely 
 carried on. Southey was a native of Bristol, 
 and he and Coleridge were much there in their 
 younger days. Burke sat for the city, one of 
 his chief supporters being Champion (1743-91), 
 maker of the famous Bristol china. The Reform 
 riots of 1831 occasioned great loss of life and 
 property. The first transatlantic steam-ship, the 
 Great Western, was built in the port in 1838. 
 Strenuous efforts have been made to improve 
 the dock accommodation ; in 1809 the Avon for 
 about 3 miles was turned into a floating harbour, 
 and in 1883 the corporation purchased large 
 docks at Avonmouth and Portishead. The prin- 
 cipal imports are grain, provisions, oils, hides, 
 tallow, sugar, and petroleum ; the exports coal, 
 salt, tin-plates, cotton piece-goods, chemical pro- 
 ducts, manufactured oils, and sundries. In 1885 
 the number of its members of parliament was 
 raised from two to four. Pop. within mun. 
 boundaries (1801) 61,153 ; (1841) 125,148 ; (1871) 
 182,552; (1881) 206,503; (1901) 328,842; of pari, 
 borough (1901) 321,908. The Hotwell, noticed by 
 the Bristol chronicler, William Worcester (died 
 c. 1491), enjoyed some reputation as a fashionable 
 resort during the later half of the 18th century ; 
 it is now deserted and decayed. Clifton, how- 
 ever, the parish to which it belongs, has thriven. 
 It is mentioned in Domesday, but has little history 
 till it appears as a ' beautiful village ' in 1760 ; it 
 is now a large and handsome suburb of Bristol, 
 of which it forms part for municipal and parlia- 
 mentary purposes. It stands above St Vincent's 
 Rocks, which rise majestically from the Avon. 
 The river is spanned 245 feet above high-water 
 by a suspension bridge (1864). Clifton has a 
 zoological garden (1836), fine arts academy (1858), 
 museum and library, and other public buildings. 
 In the neighbourhood are the remains of some 
 Roman camps. See works by Barrett (1789), 
 Seyer (1823), NichoU and Taylor (1881), Hunt 
 (1887), and Latimer (1887-93). 
 
BRISTOL 
 
 129 
 
 BROCKVILLE 
 
 Bristol, (1) a town of Backs county, Penn- 
 sylvania, on the Delaware River, 20 miles NNE. 
 of Philadelphia. It has manuftictures of iron, 
 machinery, flour, felt, worsted, and furniture. 
 Pop. 7553. — (2) A port of entry, and capital of 
 Bristol county, Rhode Island, on Narragansett 
 Bay, 15 miles SSE. of Providence by rail, with 
 shipbuilding and sugar-refining, and manufac- 
 tures of cotton and rubber goods. Pop. 6478. 
 
 Bristol Bay, an arm of Behring Sea, lying 
 immediately to the north of the peninsula of 
 Aliaska. 
 
 Bristol Channel, an inlet of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, between South Wales on tlie north, and 
 Devon and Somerset shires on the south ; or it 
 may be regarded as an extension of the estuary 
 of the river Severn. It is about 80 miles long, 
 and 5 to 43 miles broad ; the depth ranging from 
 5 to 40 fathoms. It is the largest inlet or estuary 
 in Britain, having a very irregular coast-line of 
 220 miles. The chief rivers which flow into it 
 are the Towy, Taff", Usk, Wye, Severn, Avon, 
 Axe, Parret, Taw, and Torridge. The tides in 
 it rise to an extraordinary height— 35 to 47 feet. 
 The chief bays and harbours are Caerinarthen 
 and Swansea Bays, Cardiff Roads, on the north, 
 and Bideford or Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Mine- 
 head, Porlock, and Bridgwater, on the south. 
 
 Britain. See Great Britain, New Britain. 
 
 Britannia Bridge. See Menai Strait. 
 
 British Columbia, Guiana, New Guinea, North 
 Borneo. See Columbia, Guiana, New Guinea, 
 Borneo.— For British East, Central, and South 
 Africa, see Ibea, Nyassa, Rhodesia, Zambesia. 
 
 Briton Ferry, the port of Neath in South 
 Wales. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Brittany (Fr, Bretagne; anc. Armorica), the 
 great north-western peninsula of France, extend- 
 ing in triangular form into the sea, its base rest- 
 ing on Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou, 
 its sides washed by the Channel and the Atlantic 
 Ocean. In earlier times it formed, with the 
 name of duchy, one of the provinces of France ; 
 now it forms the five deps. of Finistere, Cotes- 
 du-Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine, and Loire- 
 Inferieure, with a total area of 13,130 sq. m.. 
 and a population of 3,250,000, more than one- 
 third of whom speak Breton, belonging to the 
 Cymric or southern group of the Celtic languages. 
 
 Brive-la-Gaillarde (Breev'-la-Ga-yard'), a town 
 in the French dep. of Corr^ze, 55 miles SSE. of 
 Limoges by rail. Pop. 13,445. 
 
 Brixen, a town of Tyrol, on the Brenner 
 Railway, 57 miles SSE. of Munich. Pop. 5842. 
 
 Brixham, a seaport and watering-place of 
 Devonshire, on Tor Bay, 25 miles S. of Exeter 
 (32i^ by rail). It is an irregular place, sprinkled 
 over three valleys and four hillsides ; pictur- 
 esque, and fishy as even few fishing-towns. 
 There are iron-mines, limestone quarries, min- 
 eral-paint works, and a bone cave on Windmill 
 Hill, discovered in 1858. William of Orange 
 landed here, November 4, 1688. Population, 
 above 8000. 
 
 Brixton is a district of London (SW.), in 
 Lambeth parish. 
 
 Broach, Baroach, or Bharuch, a town of 
 Guzerat, Bombay Presidency, on the north bank 
 of the Nerbudda, 228 miles N. of Bombay by 
 rail. Anciently one of the chief ports of Western 
 India, and in the 16th century ' a town of weavers 
 making the finest cloth in the world,' Broach 
 was taken by the British in 1772, ceded to 
 I 
 
 Sindhia in 1783, and again retaken by the British 
 in 1803. It carries on a small coasting trade, 
 the principal exports being raw cotton, grain, 
 and seeds. Pop. 42,168, including many Parsees 
 and Jains. 
 
 Broadford, a coast-village of Skye, 8 miles 
 WSW. of Kyle Akin ferry. 
 
 Broadhaven, a watering-place of Pembroke- 
 shire, 6 miles WSW. of Haverfordwest. 
 
 Broadlands. See Romsey. 
 
 Broadmoor, in SE. Berkshire, 2 miles from 
 Wellington College Station, is the state asylum 
 for 500 criminal lunatics. It is a large brick 
 building, opened in 1863. 
 
 Broads, The Norfolk, a series of inland lakes 
 usually said to be formed by the widening or 
 ' broadening ' out of the rivers. More probably 
 their origin is due to a change in the general 
 level of the land surface of the county ; for 
 even within historic times the river Yare was 
 an estuary of the sea, in which herrings were 
 caught at the time of Domesday. The broads 
 par excellence are those up the Bure or North 
 River (which empties itself into the sea at Yar- 
 mouth), and its tributaries tlie Ant and the 
 Thurne, On the Bure are the well-known broads 
 of Wroxham, Salhouse, Hoveton, Horning, and 
 Ranworth ; on the Ant those of Barton and 
 Sutton ; on the Thurne those of Hickling, Mar- 
 tliam, and Horsey. The three fine broads of 
 Ormesby, Rollesby, and Filby, though connected 
 and fonning a chain, have no practicable outlet 
 to the river ; the Yare or Norwich River has no 
 broads on which sailing is possible, but those at 
 Surlingham, Strumpshaw, and Rockland are well 
 worthy a visit, and very accessible by rail ; near 
 Lowestoft, on the Waveney, is Oulton Broad. 
 The broads have grown greatly in favour with 
 holiday-makers, so that now on a Saturday, dur- 
 ing August and September, perhaps a hundred 
 yachts may be seen at once. See works by 
 Davies (1884), Rye (18S7), Suffling (1891), Emer- 
 son (1893), and Dutt (1903). 
 
 Broadstairs, a Kentish watering-place If mile 
 NE. of Ramsgate, so named from the breadth 
 of the sea-gate or stair, which was formerly 
 defended by a gate or archway. Near it is a 
 noble orphanage, founded by Mrs Tait. Dickens 
 was a frequent visitor. Pop. 6266. 
 
 Broadway, an old-fashioned Worcestershire 
 village, a great artists' haunt, 5J miles SE. of 
 Evesham. Pop. of parish, 1436. 
 
 Brocken (Mons Bructerus of the Romans ; pop- 
 ularly Blocksberg), the highest summit (3740 feet) 
 of the Harz Mountains, in Prussian Saxony, 20 
 miles WSW. of Halberstadt. It holds an im- 
 portant place in folklore as the witches' meeting- 
 place on Walpurgis night, and for the optical 
 illusion known as the ' Spectre of the Brocken.' 
 
 Brockenhurst, a New Forest village, Hamp- 
 shire, 4J miles N. by W. of Lyinington. 
 
 Brocket Hall, Herts, on the Lea, 2J miles N. 
 of Hatfield, has been the seat of Lord Melbourne, 
 Lord Palmerston, and Earl Cowper. 
 
 Brockton, formerly called North Bridgewater, 
 a town of Massachusetts, U.S., 20 miles S. of 
 Boston. It manufactures boots. Pop. (1880) 
 13,608 ; (1890) 27,294 ; (1900) 40,063. 
 
 BrockvlUe, a town of Ontario, on the left 
 bank of the St La^vrence, 125 miles SW. of 
 Montreal. It is on the Grand Trunk and the 
 Brockville and Ottawa railways, and a port of 
 call for steamers. It took its name from Sir 
 
BRODICK 
 
 130 
 
 BROUSSA 
 
 Isaac Brock (1769-1812), who fell in the battle of 
 Qiieenstown. Pop. 9609, 
 
 Brodick, a coast-village of Arran, 14 miles 
 WSW. of Ardrossan. 
 
 Brody, a town of Galicia, 89 miles ENE. of 
 Lemberg by rail. A free town from 1779 to 18/9, 
 it has leather and flax manufactures, breweries, 
 refineries, &c. The trade is in the hands of the 
 Jews, who form three-fourths of the inhabitants 
 of this ' German Jerusalem.' Pop. 17,534. 
 
 Broek (rhyming with Luke), 4i miles NE. 
 of Amsterdam, was formerly the show clean 
 village ' of Holland. Pop. 1553. 
 
 Bromberg, a town of Posen, 6 miles from the 
 Vistula, and 99 SSW. of Danzig. It has iron- 
 foundries, machine-shops, cloth and paper mills, 
 distilleries, breweries, and corn-mills. The Brom- 
 berg Canal, 17 miles long, by uniting the Netz 
 and Brahe, connects the Oder and Elbe with the 
 Vistula. Pop. (1843) 8878 ; (1900) 52,160. 
 
 Bromley, a market-town of Kent, on the 
 Ravensbourne, 10 miles SE. of London. Long 
 the residence of the bishops of Rochester it has 
 a church, with the grave of Dr Johnson s wife. 
 Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Brompton is a district of London in the parish 
 of Kensington, SW. Once specially a quarter for 
 artists, it contains a fine consumption hospital 
 and the Oratory. 
 
 Brom'sebro, a village and castle of Sweden, 
 27 miles S. of Kalinar. 
 
 Bromsgrove, a market-town of Worcestershire, 
 in a richly wooded valley, near the small river 
 Salwarp, 12 miles NNB. of Worcester. It has a 
 grammar-school (1553 ; refounded 16'J3), and a fine 
 old church with a spire 189 feet high. The linen 
 manufacture has been superseded by nail and 
 button making. Pop. 8500. 
 Bromwicli. See West Bromwich. 
 Bromyard, a market-town of Herefordshire, 
 on the Frome, 14 miles NE. of Hereford. Pop. 
 of parish, 1660. 
 
 Broni, a town of Northern Italy, with mineral 
 springs, 11 miles SB. of Pavia. Pop. 5147. 
 
 Bron'te, a town of Sicily, at the western base 
 of Mount Etna, 33 miles NW. of Catania. Nelson 
 was created Duke of Bronte by the Neapolitan 
 government in 1799. Pop. 19,427. 
 
 Brook Farm, an abortive community estab- 
 lished in 1840 on Fourier's principles, 8 miles 
 SW. of Boston, U.S. 
 
 Brookline, a suburban town 4 miles SW. of 
 Boston, U.S., with numerous handsome villas 
 and parks, and manufactories of philosophical 
 instruments, &c. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Brooklyn, since 1898 a borough in the enlarged 
 New York City, and capital of King's county, New 
 York, is on the west end of Long Island, opposite 
 (old) New York, from which it is separated by 
 a strait called East River, nearly a mile wide, 
 running from Long Island Sound to New York 
 Bay, and with which it is connected by steam- 
 ferries, and a magnificent suspension bridge (fin- 
 ished 1883), 5989 feet in length by 85 in breadth, 
 and with a river span of 1595^ feet, intended for 
 foot-passage, carriages, and railways. Two lines 
 of elevated railways and numerous lines of horse- 
 cars traverse the streets of Brooklyn, making 
 easy communication between the suburban sec- 
 tions and the ferries. Though it is not a port 
 of entry, the amount of foreign and domestic 
 freight that comes to its warehouses is enormous. 
 9ome of these docks are a~.nong the most exten- 
 
 sive in the United States, covering from 40 to 
 60 acres each, and are lined with immense store- 
 houses for grain and other freight. At the south- 
 east extremity of the city, upon a high ridge 
 overlooking New York Bay and its environs, is 
 the beautiful Greenwood Cemetery, covering 400 
 acres ; and near at hand are the Ridgewood 
 reservoir and Prospect Park, a public pleasure- 
 ground of 540 acres, which has cost, including 
 two noble boulevards connected with it, extend- 
 ing respectively 3 and 2| miles to Coney Island 
 and East New York, nearly $12,000,000. The 
 borough possesses a water front of 10 miles, and 
 witliin its area of 25 .sq. m. are carried on the 
 refining of sugar and petroleum, the manufacture 
 of glass, chandlery, clothing, carpets, chemicals, 
 paints, oilcloth, metallic wares, tobacco, steam- 
 boilers, lace, hats, buttons, paper, felt goods, 
 &c., and shipbuilding. The public buildings 
 include the court-house, erected at a cost of 
 $543,000 ; the hall of records, costing $328,000 ; 
 the municipal building, costing $200,000; an 
 academy of music, seated for 2400 persons, 
 &c. There is a fine government ijost-offlce, and 
 a U. S. navy yard, which occupies 40 acres, with 
 extensive ship-houses, workshops, and military 
 stores, and a dry-dock which cost about $1,000,000. 
 First settled in 1636, the town was organised by 
 the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam in 1646, 
 and named Breukelen from a place of the same 
 name in the Netherlands, 8 miles NW. of Utrecht. 
 It was incorporated as a city in 1834, to which 
 Williamsburg and Bushwick were added in 1855, 
 and in 1886 the town of New Lots (East New 
 York). In 1898 it became part of the larger New 
 York. Pop. (1810) 4402; (1850) 96,838; (1880) 
 566,603 ; (1890) 806,343 ; (1900) 1,166,582. 
 Broom, Loch. See Summer Isles. 
 Broomhall, the Earl of Elgin's seat, Fife, 2J 
 miles S. by W. of Dunfermline. 
 
 Brora, a coast-village of Sutherland, at the 
 mouth of the Brora River, 4i miles NE. of 
 Golspie. Pop. 540. 
 
 Broseley, a Shrop.shire town, on the Severn, 
 15 miles SE. of Shrewsbury, now a ward divi- 
 sion of the municipal borough of Wenlock. 
 Brou. See Bourq-en-Bresse. 
 Brough {Brujf), a Westmorland town, 5 miles 
 NNE, of Kirkby Stephen. Pop. 656. 
 
 Brougham {Broom), a Westmorland parish, 2 
 miles SE. of Penrith, with the fine ruin of 
 Brougham Castle, the seat of the Cliflbrds, and 
 with Brougham Hall, the seat of Lord Brougham 
 and Vaux. 
 
 Broughton-in-Fumess, a market-town of Lan- 
 cashire, at the head of the Duddon estuary, 9 
 miles NW. of Ulverston. Pop. 1159. 
 
 Broughty-Ferry, a town of Forfarshire, on the 
 Firth of Tay, 3|- miles E. of Dundee. Many 
 Dundee merchants occupy fine villas at Broughty- 
 Ferry, which has all the amenities of a favourite 
 watering-place. Its castle (1498) was held by the 
 English 1547-50, and in 1860-61 was repaired as 
 a Tay defence. Pop. (1861) 3513 ; (1901) 10,484. 
 
 Broussa, Brusa, or Boursa, the ancient Prusa, 
 where the kings of Bithynia usually resided, 
 situated in Asiatic Turkey, at the foot of Mount 
 Olympus, in Asia Minor, 13 miles S. of the Sea 
 of Marmora. The old citadel stands on a rock 
 in the centre of the town. Both Greeks and 
 Armenians have an archbishop here. The silks 
 of Broussa are much esteemed, but the produc- 
 tion of the silk-factories, many of which are in 
 the hands of Europeans, h^s fallen oflC Wine ia 
 
BROWN 
 
 131 
 
 BRUNSWICK 
 
 largely produced by the Greeks, and fruit is 
 exported ; carpets and tapestry are also made ; 
 and meerschaum clay is obtained from a hill in 
 the vicinity. In ancient times Broussa was 
 famous for its sulphurous thermal batlis, which 
 during the terrible earthquakes of 1855 ceased for 
 a time to flow, but soon returned with a fuller 
 current than before. The mosques (one of which, 
 •the Magnificent,' has a large dome adorned with 
 beautiful coloured tiles) suffered severely from 
 the same earthquakes. The sultan Othman be- 
 sieged Broussa in 1317 ; and in 1327 his son 
 Orkhan, the second emperor of Turkey, captured 
 it, and made it the capital of his empire, and it 
 continued so until the taking of Constantinople 
 by Mohammed II. in 1453. The first six Ottoman 
 sultans are buried here. Pop. 77,000. 
 
 Brown, Mount, in the Rocky Mountains, near 
 the source of the Columbia River, and on the 
 borders of British Columbia and Alberta, is not, 
 as was thought, 16,000, but 9000 feet high. 
 
 BrbwnhlUs, a town of Staffordshire, 5 miles 
 N, of Walsall. Pop. 15,703. 
 
 Brownsville, a port of entry, Texas, on the 
 north bank of the Rio Grande, opposite Mata- 
 moros, 35 miles from the river's nioutli in the 
 Gulf of Mexico. In May 1846 the town was 
 occupied by a few U. S. troops, who maintained 
 their position in the face of a bombardment that 
 lasted a week. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Broxburn, a mining and manufacturing town 
 of Linlithgowshire, on the Union Canal, 12 miles 
 "W. of Edinburgh. It is chiefly notable for its 
 shale-oil works. Pop. 6250. 
 
 Bruar, a Perthshire stream, with fine falls, 3 
 miles W. of Blair Athole. 
 
 Bruchsal (Brooldsal), a town of Baden, on the 
 Saalbach, 12 miles NE. of Karlsruhe. The prince- 
 bishops of Spires resided here from the 16th cen- 
 tury. Machinery, cigars, paper, and soap are 
 manufactured. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Bruck (Brook), (1) a walled town of Austria, 
 on the Leitha, 26 miles SE. of Vienna by rail. 
 Pop. 4836. —(2) A town of Upper Styria, on the 
 Mnr, 108 miles SW. of Vienna by rail. Pop. 
 7795.— (3) A market-town of Bavaria, 15 miles 
 W. of Munich by rail. Pop. 3418. 
 
 Brlickenau {Brilkfen-oiif), a town of Bavaria, 
 on the Sinn, 17 miles NW. of Kissingen. Near 
 it are warm springs. Pop. 1592. 
 
 Bruff, a Limerick village, 6 miles N. of Kil- 
 mallock. Pop. 798. 
 
 Bruges (Briizh; Flem. Brugge, 'the bridges'), 
 a city of Belgium, 8 miles from the sea, with 
 which it is connected by the tliree canals from 
 Ghent, Sluys, and Ostend, all much inferior to 
 the direct sliip-canal from Heyst (Zeebrugge), 26 
 feet wide (made 1 896-1 903). By rail it is 14 miles 
 B. of Ostend, and 62 WNW. of Brussels. Among 
 the most interesting buildings are Les Halles 
 (1364), a cloth and flesh market, witli the famous 
 belfry, 353 feet high ; the Gothic hotel-de-ville 
 (1377), with a library of 100,000 volumes; the 
 church of Notre Dame, with a spire 442 feet high, 
 a statue of the Virgin (said to be by Michael 
 Angelo), and monuments of Charles the Bold and 
 his daughter Mary, wife of the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian ; the cathedral of St Sauveur, with an 
 ugly brick exterior, but a fine interior, containing 
 the stalls of the knights of the Golden Fleece ; 
 and St John's Hospital, with Hans Memling's 
 masterpieces adorning the reliquary of St Ursula's 
 ann. Bruges has manufactures of lace, woollens, 
 linen, cotton, leather, soap, starch, and tobacco ; 
 
 and distilleries, sugar and salt refineries, and 
 shipbuilding yards. Pop. (1901) 53,100, of whom 
 very many are poverty-stricken. Dating from 
 the 3d century, Bruges by 1200 was the central 
 mart of the Hanseatic League, and by 1300 had 
 become the metropolis of the world's commerce, 
 its population then amounting to over 200,000. 
 In 1488 the citizens rose in insurrection, and im- 
 prisoned the Archduke Maximilian, and with the 
 harsh measures of repression wliich ensued com- 
 menced the commercial decline of Bruges. Many 
 of the traders and manufacturers, driven forth 
 from their own country by the religious persecu- 
 tions of tlie following century, settled in Eng- 
 land ; in the 16th century, however, the tapestry 
 of Bruges was still celebrated. Taken by the 
 French in 1794, in 1815 the city became a part of 
 the kingdom of the United Netherlands, and in 
 1830 of the Belgian monarchy. At Bruges lived 
 John van Eyck (1428-41), Caxton (1446-76), and 
 Memling (1477-94). See James Weale, Bruges et 
 ses Environs (4th ed, 1887). 
 
 Brugg (Broogg), a town in the Swiss canton of 
 Aargau, on the Aar, 36 miles ESE. of Basel by 
 rail. Near it is the site of Viiidonissa, the chief 
 Roman station in Helvetia ; and it was also the 
 cradle of the Hapsburgs, whose ruined castle 
 (1020) crowns a wooded height 2 miles distant. 
 Zimmermann was a native. Pop. 2435. 
 
 Briihl (nearly Breal), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 8 miles SSW. of Cologne by rail. It has a splen- 
 did 18th-century castle. Pop. 7030. 
 
 Brunei, a Mohamjnedan sultanate under British 
 protection (since 1888) in tlie NW. of Borneo, 
 whose sultan was formerly overlord of the whole 
 island. Area, 4000 sq. ni. ; pop. perhaps 25,000 
 or 30,000. The capital, Brunei, on a river of the 
 same name, is a miserable, dirty town, built on 
 piles, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Briinlg, a Swiss pass (3396 feet), forming the 
 shortest and easiest route between the 'Forest 
 Cantons ' and the Bernese Oberland. A road was 
 formed in 1857-62, and in 1888 a Briinig branch 
 of the Berne-Lucerne Railway was opened. 
 
 Brunl Island (North and South) lies off the 
 south part of the east coast of Tasmania, from 
 which it is separated by D'Entrecasteaux Channel. 
 It is 32 miles long, 1 to 11 miles wide, and 160 
 sq. m. in area. Coal is mined. 
 
 Briinn, a city of the Austrian empire, the 
 capital of Moravia, at the confluence of the 
 Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, 93 miles N. of 
 Vienna by rail. Behind the city, on an eminence 
 (984 feet), rises the castle of Spielberg, where 
 Silvio Pellico was confined 1822-30. Briinn has 
 a steam-tramway, a cathedral, St James's Church, 
 with a tower 305 feet high, and important manu- 
 factures of woollens, machinery, linen, leather, 
 cheujicals, «&c. Pop. (1881) 82,660 ; (1900) 110,000, 
 40 per cent, of whom were Czechs. 
 
 Brunnen (Broon'nen), the port of the Swiss 
 canton of Schwyz, on the Lake of Lucerne, 17 
 miles by water, but 28J by rail ESE. of Lucerne. 
 Here in 1315, after the battle of Morgarten, the 
 deputies of the Forest Cantons fonned a league. 
 
 Brunswark, a conspicuous hill (920 feet) of S. 
 Dumfriesshire, with Roman camps. 
 
 Brunswick, Duchy of (Ger. Braunschweig), a 
 state of Northern Gennany, consisting of three 
 larger and five smaller distinct parts, with a total 
 area of 1423 sq. m. Pop. (1875) 327,493 ; (1900) 
 464,333, mostly Lutherans, and (in the country) 
 speakers of Platt-Deutsch. Of the three larger 
 parts, the principal one, forming the circle of 
 
BRUNSWICK 
 
 132 
 
 BRZEZANY 
 
 WolfenbUttel, and including the capital, lies 
 between Prussia and Hanover ; the second, ex- 
 tending westward from Prussia to the Weser, 
 divides Hanover into two parts ; and the third, 
 forming the Blankenburg district, lies to the south- 
 east, ^tween Hanover, Anhalt, and Prussia. 
 Brunswick belongs mostly to the basm of the 
 Weser which serves as a boundary on the west. 
 Its surface is mostly mountainous, particularly 
 in the southern portions of the country, but it 
 has nevertheless level tracts of considerable 
 ejctent. The climate in the lowlands resembles 
 the general climate of Northern Germany ; but in 
 the Harz district it is so much colder that harvest 
 is generally a month later than in the plains. 
 Brunswick in 1235, with Luneburg, was made a 
 duchy. In 1884, at the death of the childless 
 Duke William, the succession passed to the 
 Duke of Cumberland, son of George V., the 
 dethroned king of Hanover. As he refused to 
 recognise the new constitution of the German 
 empire, the imperial government declined to 
 allow the succession to take place, and an in- 
 terregnum OCCUlTCd. 
 
 Brunswick, the capital, stands on the Oker, 
 143 miles WSW. of Berlin. In the 13th century 
 Brunswick became a member of the Hanseatic 
 League, and soon attained considerable com- 
 mercial prosperity, but its importance declined 
 with the decay of the League. Most irregularly 
 built, with narrow and crooked streets, it has a 
 cathedral (1173-1469), the church of St Andrew 
 with a steeple 341 feet high, and a fine Gothic 
 Rathhaus. The manufactures include jute, 
 woollen and linen, leather, sewing-machines, &c. 
 A fine avenue of linden-trees leads to the ducal 
 palace, which, destroyed by fire in 1830 and 1865, 
 is now an imposing edifice of 1869. Pop. (1871) 
 57,833 ; (1900) 128,226.* 
 
 Brunswick, (1) a port of entry, Georgia, on 
 St Simon Sound, an inlet of the Atlantic, 186 
 miles SE. of Macon by rail. Population, about 
 10,000.— (2) A town of Maine, 29 miles NE. 
 of Portland by rail, at the head of navigation 
 on the Androscoggin River, whose falls or rapids 
 supply water-power for cotton, paper, and other 
 mills. It is the seat of Bowdoin College (1794), 
 a Congregational institution of high standing, 
 at which Nathaniel Hawthorne and Longfellow 
 graduated. Pop. 7012. 
 
 Brunswick, New. See New Brunswick. 
 
 Brussels (Fr. Bnixelles), the capital of Belgium, 
 is situated in a fertile plain on the ditch-like 
 Senne, 27 miles S. of Antwerp, and 193 NE. of 
 Paris. It has a circumference of about 5 miles, 
 and is built partly on the side of a hill ; though 
 some of the streets are so steep that they can 
 be ascended only by means of stairs, Brussels 
 may on the whole be pronounced one of the 
 finest cities in Europe. The fashionable Upper 
 Town, in which are the royal palace, public 
 offices, chief hotels, &c., is much more healthy 
 than the older Lower Town, which is greatly 
 subject to fogs, owing to its intersection by 
 canals and the Senne, although the stream now 
 passes under an arched covering, which sup- 
 ports a new boulevard. But the closely built 
 old streets, with their numerous handsome build- 
 ings, fonnerly belonging to the Brabant nobility, 
 but now occupied by merchants and traders, 
 have a fine picturesque appearance, while some 
 of the public edifices are unrivalled as specimens 
 of Gothic architecture. French is spoken in the 
 upper division; but in the lower Flemish is 
 the current language prevalent, and by many the 
 
 Walloon dialect is spoken. The walls which 
 formerly surrounded Brussels have been removed, 
 and their place is now occupied by pleasant 
 boulevards extending all around the old town, 
 and shaded by alleys of limes. The AlUe Verte — 
 a double avenue along the Scheldt Canal— forms 
 a splendid promenade, and leads toward the 
 country palace of Laeken, 3 miles north of the 
 city. Besides the fine park of 32 acres, in the 
 Upper Town, ornamented with fountains and 
 statues, and surrounded by the palace and other 
 state buildings, Brussels has several other squares 
 or places, among which are: the Place Royale, 
 with its colossal monument of Godfrey of 
 Bouillon ; the Grand Place, in which is the 
 hotel-de-ville, a splendid Gothic structure of the 
 15th century, with a spire of open stonework 
 364 feet high ; and the Place des Martyrs, where 
 a memorial has been erected to those who fell 
 here in the revolution of 1830. The statue group 
 of the Counts Egmont and Horn is notable. 
 The cathedral of St Gudule, dating from the 13th 
 century, has many richly painted windows, and 
 a pulpit considered to be the masterpiece of 
 Verbruggen. In the Palais des Beaux Arts is the 
 picture-gallery, containing the finest specimens 
 of the Flemish school of painting; a valuable 
 museum ; and the public library, with 234,000 
 volumes and 22,000 MSS., many of the latter 
 being beautifully illuminated. The new Palais 
 de Justice, built in 1866-83 at a cost of more than 
 £2,000,000, is one of the most magnificent build- 
 ings in Europe. The royal palace and the 
 national palace (for the chambers) are important 
 buildings. The university (1834) has over 1300 
 students. There are schools of painting and 
 sculpture, and a conservatorium. There is a 
 museum of paintings by the artist Wiertz, many 
 of them on painful and repulsive subjects. 
 Brussels lace is particularly famous. Of the so- 
 called Brussels carpets only a few are manu- 
 factured here, most of those of Belgian make 
 being produced at Tournai. There are also manu- 
 factures of damask, linen, ribbons, embroidery, 
 paper, jewellery, hats, soap, porcelain, carriages, 
 &c. Pop. (1846) 123,874 ; (1866) 157,905 ; (1901) 
 212,500, or, with its eight suburbs, 565,000. 
 
 Dating from at least the 8th century, Brussels 
 under Charles V. was made the court-residence 
 in the Netherlands, and became afterwards, 
 under Philip II., the chief arena of the atrocities 
 committed by Alva and the Inquisition. It 
 suffered greatly in the war of Spain against 
 Louis XIV. — in whose reign it was bombarded 
 by Marshal Villeroi, and upwards of 4000 build- 
 ings destroyed — and in that of Austria against 
 Louis XV. ; but still more from the continual 
 prevalence of party animosities caused by the 
 policy of Austria. Under the mild rule of Maria 
 Theresa, it flourished greatly, and in this time 
 many of its best institutions r.nd public build- 
 ings were founded. In 1792 Brussels fell into 
 the hands of the French. It was incorporated 
 with the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 ; 
 in 1830 it became the capital of Belgium. 
 
 Briix, a town of Bohemia, on the Biela, 78 
 miles NW. of Prague by rail. In its vicinity are 
 coal-mines, and the famous mineral springs of 
 Piillna and Seidlitz. Pop. 20,136. 
 
 Brynmawr, an iron-working town of Breck- 
 nock, 8 miles WSW. of Abergavenny ; pop. 7000. 
 — The American Bryn Mawr, with its college for 
 women (1885), is 10 miles NW. of Philadelphia. 
 
 Brzezany, in Galicia, 52 miles SE. of Lemberg ; 
 pop. 11,500, 
 
JfttTACHAlLtE ETIVE 
 
 133 
 
 BUDLEIGH SALTERTON 
 
 Buachaille Etive, two mountains (3345 and 
 3129 feet) of Ardchattan parish, Argyllshire. 
 
 Buhastls (the Pi-beseth of Ezek. xxx. 17 ; now 
 Tel Bast), a ruined city of Lower Egypt, on the 
 eastern main-arm of the Nile, near Zagazig. 
 Under the 25th dynasty (725-686 b.c.) the city 
 was a royal residence, but after the Persian con- 
 quest it gradually lost its importance. The ruins 
 of its great temple were discovered by M. Naville 
 in 1887. 
 
 Bucaramanga, capital of the dep. of Santander 
 in the NE. of Colombia, on the Lebrija River, 
 3200 feet above sea-level. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Buc'carl, or Bakar, a free port of Croatia, on 
 an inlet of the Gulf of Quarnero, 5 miles by rail 
 ESE. of Fiume. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Buccleuch (Buk-cleiu'), a small Selkirkshire 
 glen, 18 miles SW. of Selkirk, with the site of 
 a stronghold of the Scotts, who hence took the 
 title of earl (1619) and duke (1663). 
 
 Buchan (Buhh'an), the NE. district of Aber- 
 deenshire, between the Ythan and the Deveron. 
 It rises in Mormond Hill to 769 feet ; portions 
 of the coast are bold and precipitous, and 6 
 miles south of Peterhead are tlie famous Bullers 
 of Buchan, a huge vertical well in the granite 
 margin of the sea, 50 feet in diameter and 100 
 feet deep, into whose bottom the sea rushes by 
 a natural archway. Buchan contains the towns 
 of Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Macduff, and Turriff. 
 Buchan Ness is the easternmost promontory of 
 Scotland, 3 miles S. of Peterhead. See Pratt's 
 History of Buchan (1859). 
 
 Bucharest (Buciiresci), the capital of the former 
 principality of Wallachia and of the present 
 kingdom of Roumania, stands 265 feet above sea- 
 level, in the fertile but treeless plain of the small 
 sluggish Dambovitza. By rail it is 716 miles SE. 
 of Vienna, 40 N. of Giurgevo on the Danube, and 
 179 NW. of Varna on the Black Sea. A strange 
 meeting-point of East and West, the town as a 
 whole is but meanly built, but the streets are now 
 mostly paved, and lighted with gas. An elaborate 
 systeiii of fortification was iindertaken in 1885. 
 The royal palace was rebuilt in 1885 ; and the 
 Catholic cathedral is a fine edifice of 1875-84. 
 The number of cafes and gambling-tables is 
 excessive ; and altogether Bucharest has the 
 unenviable reputation of being the most disso- 
 lute capital in Europe, with all the vices but 
 few of the refinements of Paris. There is, how- 
 ever, a university (1864). Tlie corso, or public 
 promenade, is a miniature Hyde Park. Bucha- 
 rest is the entrepot for the trade between Austria 
 and the Balkan Peninsula, the chief articles of 
 commerce being textile fabrics, grain, hides, 
 metal, coal, timber, and cattle. Bucharest has 
 been several times besieged ; and between 1793 
 and 1812 suffered twice from earthquakes, twice 
 from inundations, once from fire, and twice from 
 pestilence. Pop. (1866) 141,754 ; (1901) 282,100. 
 
 Buckau (Book'koiv), a manufacturing town of 
 Prussian Saxony, in 1887 incorporated with Mag- 
 deburg (q.v.). 
 
 Buckhaven, a fishing-village of Fife, on the 
 Firth of Forth, 5^ miles E. of Thornton Junction. 
 Pop. 5000. 
 
 Buckie, a fishing-town of Banffshire, 13 miles 
 ENE. of Elgin by rail. Its harbour (1874-80), 
 constructed of concrete at a cost of £60,000, 
 consists of an outer and inner basin, with an 
 area of 9 acres. Pop. 6600. 
 
 Buckingham, the county town of Bucking- 
 hamshire, stands, almost encircled by the Ouse, 
 
 61 miles NW. of London. An ancient place forti- 
 fied by Edward the Elder (918), it yet has no 
 antiquities, owing to a great fire in 1725. Since 
 1848 Aylesbury has superseded it as the assize 
 town, and it lost its last member in 1885. The 
 grammar-school was founded in 1548. The bob- 
 bin-lace manufacture has declined. Pop. (1851) 
 4020 ; (1891) 3364 ; (1901) 3150. 
 
 Buckinghamshire, or Bucks, a south-midland 
 county of England, surrounded by Bedfordshire, 
 Herts, Middlesex, Surrey, Berks, Oxfordshire, 
 and Northamptonshire. Thirty-third in size of 
 the English counties, it has a maximum length 
 of 57 miles, a varying breadth of 8^ and 27 miles, 
 and an area of 730 sq. m., or 466,932 acres. It 
 is finely diversified with hill and dale, wood and 
 water. To the south is the Chilteru range of 
 challc-hills, which, entering from Oxfordshire 
 and stretching across the county in a north- 
 easterly direction, are partly covered with heath 
 and wood, and rise near Wendover to a height of 
 905 feet above sea-level. The chief rivers are the 
 Thames, bordering the county on the south-west, 
 the Ouse, Ousel, Colne, and Thame, the last two 
 falling into the Thames. Buckinghamshire is 
 eminently an agricultural county, 87 per cent, 
 of the entire area being in cultivation. The 
 chief dairy product is butter for the London 
 market; in the fertile vale of Aylesbury, fatten- 
 ing of cattle is extensively carried on ; the sheep 
 are noted for their fine and heavy fleeces ; and 
 large numbers of ducks are reared. Nearly 40 
 sq. m. are under woods and plantations, beech 
 and oak being the chief timber-trees. The chief 
 manufactures are paper, straw-plait, and thread- 
 lace. The county returns three members to 
 parliament ; Aylesbury, Buckingham, Marlow, 
 and Wycombe having ceased in 1885 to be parlia- 
 mentary boroughs. It contains some Roman and 
 British remains, as traces of Watling, Icknield, 
 and Akeman Streets or Ways ; remains of the 
 religious houses of Missenden, Notley, Burnham, 
 Medmenham, and Ivinghoe; and vestiges of 
 Lavendon and Whitchurch Castles. Bucks is 
 rich too in scenes of historic or biographical 
 interest, as Chalfont St Giles, Horton, Hampden, 
 Milton, Stoke Poges, Olney, Slough, Stowe, 
 Aston Sandford, Beaconsfield, Gregories, Barden- 
 ham, and Hughenden. Pop. (1801) 108,132 ; (1841) 
 156,439 ; (1901) 197,064. See county histories by 
 Lipscomb (1847), Sheahan (1862), and Page(1905-6). 
 
 Bucklyvle, a Stirlingshire village, 15^ miles 
 W. of Stirling. Pop. 383. 
 
 Buck of Cahrach, an Aberdeenshire mountain 
 (2368 feet), 13 miles SW. of Huntly. 
 
 Buczacz, a town of Austria, in Galicia, on the 
 Stripa, an affluent of the Dniester, 47 miles ENE. 
 of Stanislau by rail. Pop. 9970. 
 
 Bu'dapest, the official designation of the 
 capital of Hungary, which consists of Buda (Ger. 
 Ofen) on the right and Pest or Pesth on the left 
 bank of the Danube, the two cities having formed 
 a single municipality since 1872. See Pesth. 
 
 Budaun, a town of India, 140 miles NW. of 
 Lucknow. Pop. 39,372. 
 
 Buddon Ness, the promontory, 95 feet high, 
 on the north or Forfarshire side of the entrance 
 to the Firth of Tay. 
 
 Bude, a watering-place on the north coast of 
 Cornwall, 17 miles NNW. of Launceston. Pop. 
 1057. 
 
 Budleigh Salterton, a sheltered Devon water- 
 ing-place, at the mouth of the Otter, 5 miles E. 
 ofExmouth. Pop. 1870. 
 
BUDRim 
 
 134 
 
 tm 
 
 Budrun (Boodroon), a seaport of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the north shore of the Gulf of Kos, 06 miles 
 8. of Smyrna. It is the site of the ancient 
 Halicarnassus. the birthplace of Herodotus and 
 Dionysius. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Budweis (Bood'vice; Czech Budejovice), a cathe- 
 dral city of Bohemia, on the navigable Moldau, 
 133 miles NW. of Vienna by rail. It manufactures 
 machines, stoneware, lead-poncils, saltpetre, &c. 
 Population, 40,000. NeJtr it is Schloss Frauen- 
 berg (1847), Prince Schwarzen berg's seat. 
 
 Buenaventura (Btvay'naventoo'ra), a town on 
 the Pacific coast of Colombia. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Buena Yista. (Biuay'na Veesta), a village of Mex- 
 ico, 7 miles S. of Saltillo, where in February 1847, 
 some 5000 U. S. troops defeated 20,000 Mexicans. 
 
 Buen-Ayre (Span. Bwayn-Ireh), Fr. Bonaire, a 
 West Indian Island, 60 miles from the coast of 
 Venezuela, and 30 E. of Curagao, like which it be- 
 longs to the Dutch. Area, 127 sq. m. ; pop. 4043. 
 
 Buenos Ayres (Bwaynos I'rez; Eng. pron. 
 usu. Boms Ai'rez), the largest province of the 
 Argentine Republic, extending along the Atlantic, 
 from the mouth of the Plata to that of the 
 Rio Negro ; on the NE. it is washed by the Plata 
 and the Parana. In .administration the province 
 is independent of the -central government. Its 
 area is about 118,000 sq. m. (close on that of 
 Great Britain and Ireland), with a pop. (excluding 
 the city, a province by ilself) of 1,210,^000.— The 
 city of Buenos Ayres, the federal capital of the 
 Argentine Republic, stands on the right bank of 
 the Plata, which here, at a distance of 150 miles 
 from the open sea, is 28 miles across, but so 
 shallow that ships drawing 15 feet of water are 
 obliged to anchor 7 or 8 miles from the shore. 
 Monte Video, on the opposite shore, possesses a 
 better harbour; but Buenos Ayres has greater 
 facilities in carrying on an inland trade, and 
 undertook, moreover, in 1887, a system of har- 
 bour works to connect two channels of the Plata, 
 and so bring the largest vessels up to the wharfs. 
 The city is partitioned into blocks of about 150 
 yards square, with muddy, uneven roads ; still, 
 new houses, generally of brick faced with marble 
 or stucco, are everywhere taking the place of the 
 old comfortless Spanish- American erections, and 
 the value of property has enormously increased. 
 The principal buildings are the cathedral, second 
 in South America to that of Lima alone, the 
 chapel of Santa Felicitas, with elaborate frescoes, 
 Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian 
 churches, the university, a military college, the 
 new post-office, the mint and government offices, 
 and some of the palatial railway depots. There 
 are also printing establishments ; manufactories 
 of cigars, carpets, cloth, furniture, and boots and 
 shoes ; some small dockyards ; and an Emigrants' 
 Home. The city is the seat of an archbishop- 
 ric, and possesses several public libraries and 
 museums, eleven hospitals, and numerous other 
 charitable institutions. The terminus of six 
 railways, it has some 150 miles of tramway lines ; 
 there is cable communication with Europe and 
 the United States, and a good telephone service. 
 The drainage is well planned, and the water and 
 gas supply excellent; the climate is not so 
 exceptionally fine as the name of the town (' good 
 airs or breezes ') would imply. The exports (one- 
 sixth to England) and imports (about one-half 
 British) are practically those of the Argentine 
 Republic ; but there is also a river-trade averaging 
 £3,500,000. Pop. (1902) 865,500. Buenos Ayres 
 was founded in 1535, but was subsequently twice 
 destroyed by the Indians. In 1806 a British force, 
 
 which had just captured the city, was obliged to 
 surrender ; and in 1807 another, which attemjited 
 to recover the place, was repulsed with heavy 
 loss ; and these successes over so formidable a foe 
 emboldened the colonists, three years afterwards, 
 to throw off the y;oke of Spain. In the insurrec- 
 tion of 1892 the city was bombarded. 
 
 Buffalo, a city of New York state, capital of 
 Erie county, is at the east end of Lake Erie, and 
 at the head of Niagara River. It is 295 miles 
 NW. of New York City in a direct line, but 423 
 by the Erie Railroad ; the distance from Chicago 
 is 539 miles. In population and wealth, Buffalo 
 ranks third among the cities of New York. It 
 has a capacious harbour, admitting vessels of 17 
 feet draught, and with an outer breakwater 4000 
 feet long, besides other breakwaters, piers, 
 basins, and canals. The harbour is guarded by 
 Fort Porter, which stands two miles out from 
 the heart of the city ; close by is the old fort, 
 built in 1812, but now in ruins. The water front 
 of the city extends 8 miles along the lake and 
 river, while Buffalo Creek has been rendered 
 navigable for over a mile. The commercial im- 
 portance of Buffalo dates from the completion of 
 the Erie Canal in 1825 ; but since 1862 the lake 
 commerce has yielded to the competition of the 
 railroads. The chief business is the receiving, 
 transferring, and storing of grain, the annual 
 amount of which (including flour) received by 
 lake and railroad is from 70,000,000 to 90,000,000 
 bushels. The live-stock trade is scarcely second 
 in importance ; the iron and steel works rank 
 next to those of Pittsburgh ; and the shipments 
 of Pennsylvania coal, which finds a depot here, 
 have greatly increased of late years. The lumber 
 trade is also large, but has been partly diverted 
 to Tonawanda, 10 miles below Buffalo, where 
 more room is afforded. The industrial works 
 comprise four blast-furnaces, large rolling-mills, 
 machine-shops, car-shops, iron shipyards, stove- 
 foundries, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills, and 
 manufactories of agricultural implements. Buffalo 
 is connected with the Niagara Utilisation Com- 
 pany's works for electric lighting and motor power. 
 The navigation of Lake Erie usually opens about 
 the middle of April, the extreme dates being a 
 month earlier and a month later. Buffalo has 
 wide streets, well paved and lighted, and gener- 
 ally lined with trees. It has excellent sewerage, 
 and extensive water-works supplied from Niagara 
 River; and its healthfulness is attested by the 
 low death-rate of 14 per 1000. There are five 
 public squares, and the magnificent park consists 
 of three sections, connected by boulevards, which 
 encircle the city. The city and county hall is an 
 imposing structure of Maine granite, in the fonn 
 of a double Roman cross, with a tower 245 feet 
 high, surmounted by four statues. The other 
 prominent buildings are the U. S. custom-house 
 and post-office, the public library, the state 
 arsenal, the county penitentiary, and a state 
 asylum for the insane (in North Buffalo). Of the 
 two finest of its 100 churches, St Joseph's Cathe- 
 dral (Roman Catholic) is a gray Gothic structure ; 
 and St Paul's (Episcopal) has been rebuilt since 
 its burning in 1888. Founded in 1801, Buffalo 
 was burned in 1813 by British and Indians. It 
 was incorporated as a city in 1832, and had then 
 a population of 15,000, which had increased iu 
 1860 to 81,130 ; in 1880 to 155,137 ; in 1890 to 
 255,664 ; in 1900 to 352,387. 
 
 Bug (Boogr), the name of two Russian rivers. 
 The Western Bug rises in Austrian Galicia, and 
 after a course of 470 m., mostly along the eastern 
 
BT7GIS 
 
 1^5 
 
 BUNZLAU 
 
 frontier of Poland, it joins the Vistula near War- 
 saw. The Eastern Bug (anc. Hypanis) rises in 
 Podolia, and flows 520 miles south-east into the 
 Dnieper's estuary. 
 
 Bugis. See Boni. 
 
 Bugulma (Boogoohna), a town in the Russian 
 government of Samara, on the Bugulminka, a 
 tributary of the Kama, Pop. 13,740. 
 
 Buguruslan (Boogoorooslan), a town in the 
 Russian government of Samara, on the Kinel, 
 in the Volga steppe. Pop. 19,390. 
 
 Bulldwas (Bildfwas), a Shropshire parish, on 
 the Severn, 4 miles N. of Much Wenlock, with 
 a ruined Cistercian abbey (1135). 
 
 Builth (Bilth), a town of Brecknockshire, on 
 the Wye, 14 m. N. of Brecon. Pop. 1805. Builth 
 Wells, 1 mile NW., have mineral properties. 
 
 Buitenzorg (BVtenzorg), a town in Java, 35 
 miles S. of Batavia by rail, stands in mountainous 
 country, and has so fine a climate that it is a 
 favourite summer-resort. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Bujalance (Boo-ha-lan'thay), a city of Andal- 
 usia, Spain, 25 miles E. of Cordova. Pop. 11,250. 
 
 Bukkur, a fortified island of the Indus, in 
 Sind, between the towns of Rohri and Sukkur. 
 
 Bukowina (Booko, ' beechland '), an eastern 
 province of the Austro-Hungarian empire, 
 surrounded by Galicia, Russia, Moldavia, and 
 Hungary. Area, 4035 sq. m. ; pop. (1869) 513,404 ; 
 (1900) 730,195, of whom 42 per cent, are Ruthen- 
 iians, 33 Moldavians, and 12 Jews, while 71 per 
 cent, belong to the Greek Church. It is tra- 
 versed by oflTsets of the Carpathians, culminating 
 at 6077 feet ; gives rise to many rivers flowing 
 towards the Black Sea ; and abounds in wood, 
 cattle, horses, and minerals. Capital, Czernowitz. 
 
 Bulacan, a port of Luzon, Philippines, 20 miles 
 NW. of Manila. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Bulak. See Boulak. 
 
 Bulandshahr, a town in the Meerut division of 
 the United Provinces of India. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Bulawayo, the old capital of Matabeleland, and 
 now chief connuercial place in Southern Rhodesia, 
 is 290 miles SW. of Salisbury, and is connected by 
 rail both with Beira (1900) and with Capetown 
 (1897). Pop. 7000 (4000 whites). 
 
 Bulgaria, a principality in the Balkan Penin- 
 sula, between the Danube and the Balkans. It 
 was created by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), and 
 since 1885 Eastern Roume'lia, lying to the S., has 
 been practically incorporated with it. Tlie area 
 of Bulgaria is 24,500 sq. m. ; that of Eastern 
 Rouinelia, 13,700; and their united population 
 in 1903 was 8,310,715-— over three-fourths Bul- 
 garians, 530,000 Turks, 90,000 Gypsies, 72,000 
 Roumanians. 70,000 Greeks, and 34,000 Jews. 
 The north or Bulgaria is fertile plain and hilly 
 country ; the south is wooded and mountainous. 
 A fine waterway as her northern boundary and 
 an outlet to the Black Sea, a seaboard, a mild 
 climate, a purely agricultural country capable of 
 great development, free institutions and about 
 the most liberal constitution in Europe, a peas- 
 antry possessing the solid qualities and persever- 
 ing industry of northern races— with these ele- 
 ments for her economic development, her right 
 to a national existence cannot be disputed. The 
 physical aspects of Eastern Roumelia are very 
 varied, the surface in the west being broken up 
 by the offshoots of the Albanian ranges, and in 
 the north and north-east by the Balkans and 
 their spurs. The principal exports are cereals, 
 »nd the imports live-stock ; but there are im- 
 
 portant manufactures of woollens and attar of 
 roses, and the production of wine and tobacco 
 receives considerable attention. Sofia is the 
 capital, the other principal towns being Varna, 
 Shumla, Rustchuk, Widin, Razgrad, Sistova, 
 Tirnova, and Plevna ; Philippopolis is the chief 
 town of Eastern Roumelia. The Bulgarians be- 
 longed originally to the Ural-Altaic stock, but 
 have adopted a Slavonic dialect. P^irst crossing 
 the Danube in the 6th century a.d., by 1186 they 
 had split up into three principalities, and from 
 1393 fell under the domination of the Turks. 
 The Bulgarians now extend far beyond the 
 boundaries of the two Bulgarian states, into 
 Macedonia, Bessarabia, &c., their total number 
 being estimated at seven millions. See Samuel- 
 son, Bulgaria (1888) ; Dicey, The. Peasant State 
 (1894) ; Miller, The Balkans (1896). 
 
 Bullers of Buclian. See Buchan. 
 
 Bull Run, a small stream separating Fairfax 
 and Prince William counties in Virginia, 25 miles 
 W. by S. of Washington. It gives name to a 
 battlefield, where on July 21, 1861, and August 
 29, 1862, the Confederates gained two victories. 
 
 Bulsar, a seaport of India, on the estuary of 
 the river Bulsar, 115 miles N. of Bombay by 
 rail. Pop. 14,229. 
 
 Bulstrode Park, Bucks, 2^ miles ESE. of 
 Beaconsfield, a seat of the Duke of Somerset. 
 
 Bultfontein (Booltfontayn), a place with dia- 
 mond mines in Griqualand West, E. of Kimberley. 
 
 Bulti (Booltee), part of Cashmere (q.v.). 
 
 Buncombe, the county of North Carolina whose 
 tedious representative in congress (1819-21) ex- 
 plained when interrupted that lie was 'speaking 
 for Buncombe'— hence 'bunkum.' 
 
 Buncrana {Bun-krah'na), a Donegal town, on 
 Lough Swilly, 12 m. from Londonderry. Pop. 1316. 
 
 Bundaberg, a sugar port of Queensland, 272 
 miles N. of Brisbane. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Bundelkhand(5oondeZfc7iM)irf), a region of Upper 
 India, between the Chambal and the Jumna. It 
 includes five districts of the British NW. Provinces 
 (Banda, Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur, and Hamirpur) ; 
 also the ' Bundelkhand Agency,' a subdivision of 
 the Central Indian Agency, which is a group of 
 30 native states. Principal towns— Kalpi, Jhansi, 
 Kalinjar, Banda, Jalaun, Chhatarpur, Datia. 
 
 Bundl, a native state of Rajputana ; area, 2225 
 sq. m. ; population, 180,000, nearly all Hindus. 
 Chief town, Bundi (pop. 20,000). 
 
 Bundo'ran, a watering-place on Donegal Bay, 
 4 miles SW. of Ballyshannon. Pop. 896., 
 
 Bungay, a market-town of Suff"olk, on the 
 Waveney, 6 miles W. of Beccles. It grew up 
 around the 12th-century castle of the Bigods, 
 Earls of Norfolk, some ruins of which still re- 
 main ; but mostly it is later than the great fire 
 of 1688. It has a large printing establishment. 
 Pop. 3560. 
 
 Bunker Hill, an elevation (112 feet) on the 
 peninsula of Charlestown, now part of Boston, 
 Massachusetts, connected by a ridge, 700 yards 
 long, with Breed's Hill (75 feet). The two heights 
 were the scene of the first hard-fought battle of 
 the American Revolution (June 17, 1775), in 
 which the Americans repulsed two attacks by 
 General Gage's forces, and were dislodged only 
 after reinforcements had been brought up, and 
 their ammunition was spent. A granite obelisk, 
 221 feet high, marks the site of the redoubt. 
 
 Bunzlau (Boontz'loiu), a town of Prussian 
 Silesia, 25 miles WNW. of Liegnitz by rail. It 
 
6UNZLAU 
 
 136 
 
 feURMA 
 
 fnanufactures earthenware, woollens, glass, &c. 
 Pop. 14,532. 
 
 Bunzlau, Jung (Czech Mladd Boleslav), a town 
 of Bohemia, ou the Iser, 32 miles NE. of Prague 
 by rail. Pop. 14,250. 
 
 Burano (Boo-rdh'm), an island and town, 5 m. 
 NE. of Venice. Its lace manufacture, once Jam- 
 ous, has been revived. Pop. 8300. 
 
 Burdekin, a river of Queensland, draining the 
 district of North Kennedy. It rises not far from 
 the coast, and after an irregular course fonns a 
 delta emptying into Bowling Green and Upstart 
 bays. It was discovered by Leichhardt in 1845, 
 and explored by Dalrymple and Smith in 1859-60. 
 
 Burford a town of Oxfordshire, on the Wind- 
 rush, 18 miles W. by N. of Oxford. Pop. of 
 parish, 134(5. 
 
 Burg (Boorg), a town of Prussian Saxony, 15 
 miles NE. of Magdeburg by rail. It manufactures 
 woollens, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 22,414. 
 
 Burgas (Boorgas), a port of Eastern Iloumelia, 
 on the Gulf of Burgas, in the Black Sea, 76 miles 
 NE. of Adrianople. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Burgdorf (Boorg-dorf; Fr. Berthoud), a Swiss 
 town, 14 miles NE. of Bern by rail. In the old 
 castle here Pestalozzi established his famous 
 school (1798-1804). Pop. 8581. 
 
 Burgess Hill, a town of Sussex, 8i miles N. of 
 Brighton. Pop. 4888. 
 
 Burgh-by-Sands, a Cumberland parish, 5 miles 
 NNW. of Carlisle. An obelisk marks the death- 
 place of Edward I. 
 
 Burgh Castle, a Suffolk pari.sh, 4 miles WSW. 
 of Yarmouth, Avith a most perfect Roman camp. 
 
 Burghead, a fishing-town of Elginshire, on the 
 Moray Firth, 11 miles NW. of Elgin. Pop. 1631. 
 
 Burghley House, 'by Stamford town,' in 
 Northamptonshire, on the Welland, the splendid 
 Renaissance mansion of the Marquis of Exeter, 
 was commenced in 1575 by Lord Burghley, and 
 has a noble park, carvings by Grinling Gibbons, 
 and a great collection of pictures. 
 
 BUrglen, a village in the Swiss canton of Uri, 
 about a mile from Altorf, is the traditional 
 birthplace of William Tell. The supposed site of 
 his house is now occupied by a chapel (1522), on 
 whose walls are represented scenes from his his- 
 tory. Pop. 1778. 
 
 Burgos (Boor'gos), a city of Spain, the ancient 
 capital of Old Castile, on the river Arlanzon, 
 225 miles N. of Madrid by rail. Founded in 
 884, it has a castle, In which our Edward I. was 
 wedded, and Pedro the Cruel born, and an archi- 
 episcopal cathedral (1221), which ranks with 
 those of Toledo and Leon as one of the three 
 great Spanish churches of the Early Pointed 
 period. It is a glorious building, with its twin- 
 spired western facade, its exquisite lantern, and 
 its fifteen chapels so rich in fine sculpture and 
 tombs. Burgos was the birthplace of the Cid, 
 whose bones are preserved at the town-hall. It 
 has manufactures of woollens and linens. The 
 university (1550) is now extinct, but there is a 
 college with twenty-one professors. The city 
 formerly had 50,000 inhabitants; but on the 
 removal of the court to Madrid in the 16th cen- 
 tury, it began to decline in importance. It was 
 further greatly injured in 1808 by the French. 
 In 1812 the castle was four times unsuccessfully 
 besieged by Wellington, who, however, took it in 
 the next year, when the French blew it up, and 
 the fortihcations. Pop. 30,250. 
 
 Burgundy, till 1477 an independent princi» 
 pality of widely varying area in the east and 
 south-east of what is now France, and later a 
 French province (Fr. Bourgogne), which comprised 
 the present departments of Ain, Cote-d'Or, Saone- 
 et-Loire, and Yonne, with parts of adjoining deps. 
 Among its towns were Dijon, Macon, Autun, 
 Clialon-sur-Saone, and Bourg. The white and 
 red wines of Burgundy have a great celebrity. 
 
 Burhanpur, a town of the Central Provinces, 
 India, on the Tapti, 280 miles NE. of Bom- 
 bay. The remains of buildings show that the 
 town extended over an area of 5 sq. m. when 
 under the Moguls. The city was taken by 
 General Wellesley in 1803, but it was only in 
 1860 that Burhanpur came completely under 
 control of the British government. The town 
 contains a palace built by Akbar, and a mosque 
 built by Aurungzebe. Pop. 33,017. 
 
 Burley-in-Wharfedale, a village and town- 
 ship in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the 
 Wharfe, 10 miles N. of Bradford. Pop. 3310. 
 
 Burlington, three cities in the United States : 
 (1) The capital of Des Moines county, Iowa, on 
 the right bank of the Mississippi (here crossed 
 by a railway bridge), 207 miles WSW. of Chicago. 
 Laid out in 1834, it is the seat of a Baptist 
 college, and has manufactures of machinery, 
 farming implements, flour, carriages, &c. Pop. 
 (1870) 14,930 ; (1900) 23,200.— (2) A port of entry 
 of Burlington county, New Jersey, on the Dela- 
 ware, 7 miles above Philadelphia. It possesses 
 an Episcopalian college (1846), and large manu- 
 factories of shoes, ironware, and thread. Pop. 
 7264.— <3) A port of entry and capital of Chitten- 
 den county, Vermont, and the most populous 
 city in the state, beautifully situated on the 
 eastern shore of Lake Champlain, 40 miles WN\V. 
 of Montpelier by rail. It has a good harbour, 
 with a breakwater and lighthouse, and has access 
 by canals and the Richelieu River to the Hudson 
 and St Lawrence. It is the seat of the State 
 Agricultural College (1865), and of Vermont Uni- 
 versity (1800) ; has cotton, flour, and planing 
 mills, machine-shops, and manufactures of furni- 
 ture, &c. ; and is one of the largest lumber 
 markets in the States. Pop. (1870) 14,387 ; (1880) 
 11,365 ; (1900) 18,640. 
 
 Burlington. See Bridlington. 
 
 Burma, once the chief state in the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula, is now the largest of all the 
 provinces of the Indian empire. It stretches 
 from 28° lat., on the confines of Tibet, southward 
 for 1100 miles, to 10° lat, far down the Malay 
 Peninsula, and from 103° long., on the Chinese 
 border, for 700 miles westward to the Bay of 
 Bengal. It is conterminous with China and 
 Siam on the east ; and for the rest it is bounded 
 by the Indian provinces of Bengal and Assam, 
 and by the ocean. Its total area is 236,738 
 square miles, of which 81,160 belong to the old 
 province of Lower Burma, 87,390 to Upper Burma, 
 and 68,188 to the Shan States. The country 
 consists of the great basin of the Irawadi and 
 its affluents ; the rugged country drained by the 
 Salween and Sittang rivers, on the upper waters 
 of which are situate the Shan States ; and the 
 narrow maritime provinces of Arakan and Tenas- 
 serim. The deltas of the Irawadi, Salween, 
 Sittang, and Koladan rivers are flat plains, and 
 there are smaller areas of level land at the 
 mouths and on the banks of some of the feeders 
 of the Irawadi. The level cultivable plains prob- 
 ably do not exceed 60,000 sq. m. in all. The rest 
 of Burma is hilly broken country, covered for the 
 
BUKMa 
 
 13? 
 
 BtJRNtlSLANfi 
 
 hiost part with forest. The China hills in the 
 north-east reach a height of 15,000 feet. The 
 Shan States occupy a vast upland, cleft by deep 
 chasms, in which flow the Salween and the Cam- 
 bodia rivers and their feeders. The chief river 
 of Burma is the Irawadi, 1100 miles in length, 
 which is navigable all the year round by river- 
 steamers to Bhamo, 700 miles from the sea, and 
 50 miles from the Chinese border. The rivers 
 are the chief highways of the country ; but dur- 
 ing the dry season all, except the very largest 
 and the tidal channels, are too low for naviga- 
 tion. Sometimes the flood- waters of the Irawadi 
 submerge the country for 10 or 15 miles on either 
 side to a depth of 4 to 14 feet. The inundated 
 villages, however, do not suff"er, as the houses 
 are all built on piles. The rainfall varies widely 
 in diff'erent parts of Burma, from 200 to 42 inches. 
 In the delta and along the coast the rainy season 
 lasts for five, six, or sometimes even seven months. 
 From February to the end of April the climate 
 of the delta is dry and hot (occasionally 100° in 
 the shade). Higher up the Irawadi valley the 
 climate is much hotter and dryer in the summer, 
 but cooler in the winter months. The climate 
 of Burma is more trying to Europeans than that 
 of the plains of India. The forests of Burma 
 contain an abundance of useful and beautiful 
 trees, including teak, bamboo, and trees produc- 
 ing valuable fibre, wood-oil, varnish, tannin, and 
 gums. Among the wild animals of Burma may 
 be mentioned the elephant, three species of rhin- 
 oceros, tapir, buff"alo, bison, many kinds of deer, 
 small wild cattle, hog, tiger, leopard, bear, and 
 wild dog. Among domestic animals, the buffalo, 
 oxen, elephants, and ponies are all good. No 
 horses are bred, and sheep and goats are rare. 
 Pythons and cobras abound. The variety of 
 birds and of fish is immense. Gold is found in 
 small quantities by washing river-sand ; silver 
 is extracted at lead-workings in the Shan States. 
 Iron, copper, lead, and tin exist in great quantity, 
 petroleum is found in several districts. Jade and 
 amber are worked. Coal exists at several places 
 in Upper Burma. The coal found as yet in Lower 
 Burma has proved of poor quality and scanty in 
 quantity. The ruby-mines north of Mandalay 
 yield the best rubies in the world. 
 
 At the census of 1901 the population of Lower 
 Burma was 5,389,897, and of Upper Burma 
 3.849,833, and 1,250,894 in the Shan depen- 
 dencies, showing a total population of 10,490,624. 
 Of these some 7,000,000 are Burmans, 800,000 
 Karens, the rest being maiidy other hill tribes 
 (Chins, Kachins, Singphos, Paloungs, &c.). The 
 Burmans are a short-statured, flat-featured, 
 thick-set people. They are excitable and fond 
 of fun and laughter; much given to dramas, 
 dances, and shows ; and callous to suffering in 
 others. Dacoity or robbery with violence by 
 gangs is common. Burmese women are well 
 treated. Burmans are Buddhists by religion ; 
 the most respected class are the Buddhist monks, 
 whose function is to set an example of a correct 
 life, and to instruct the young. They observe 
 the vows of celibacy and poverty, but can return 
 to the world when they please. They shave their 
 heads, wear yellow robes, and live in monasteries. 
 The Shans resemble the Burmans ; but being 
 highlanders, are poorer, hardier, and more cour- 
 ageous. The Karens are less clever, but more 
 persevering and methodical than Burmans. There 
 are over 500 parishes of Christian (American 
 Baptist) Karens, containing nearly 200,000 souls. 
 The Burmese language is monosyllabic ; it is 
 written from left to right, the shape of the letters 
 
 being circular. The classical language of Burma 
 is Pali. The name Bunna is, according to Yule 
 in Hobson-Johson, an Englished form of Mram-ma, 
 pronounced by the people Bani-md. The primary 
 schools of the country are the Buddhist monas- 
 teries, in which every Burman lad must be taught 
 to read and write. Over CO per cent, of the males 
 in Lower Burma above the age of twelve can read 
 and write. 
 
 The external sea-borne trade of Lower Burma 
 is valued at over twenty millions sterling. Most 
 of this trade centres in Rangoon. Tlie chief 
 export items are rice, teak timber, cutch, hides, 
 cotton ; while the chief import items are cotton 
 piece-goods and yarns, silk goods, coal, hardware, 
 salt, and metals. Several railways are in opera- 
 tion, including that from Rangoon to Mandalay. 
 Extensions are in i)rogress in several directions ; 
 and possible railway communication between 
 Burma and China has been much discussed. The 
 commercial and financial development of Lower 
 Burma imder British rule has been great and rapid. 
 The arts in which Burmese excel are wood-carving, 
 silver repousse work, woven silk fabrics of many 
 colours, and lacquer-ware. Burma is governed 
 under the Viceroy of India, by a chief-commis- 
 sionei'. A Buddhist Burman dynasty was estab- 
 lished on the Irawadi at least as early as the 
 11th century. It was not till 1820 that the 
 Burmese came directly into contact with the 
 British power in Assam, then Burmese. In con- 
 sequence of Burmese aggression followed by war, 
 Arakan and Tenasserim were ceded in 1826, Pegu 
 in 1854 ; and in 1886 Upper Burma was incorpor- 
 ated with British India. See works by Forbes 
 (1876), Fytche (1878), Scott ('Shway Yoe,' 1882 
 and 1886), Phayre (1883) ; and for the Burmese, 
 Siam, and China Railway, works by Colquhoun 
 and Holt Hallett. 
 
 Burnham, a Somerset watering-place, on 
 Bridgwater Bay, 7^ miles N. of Bridgwater, 
 Pop,, 2S97. 
 
 Burnham Beeches, in Bucks, near Maiden- 
 head, and 25 miles W. of London, the remains of 
 an ancient forest, purchased in 1879 by the 
 London Corporation. See a work by Heath (1880). 
 
 Burnham Thorpe, a Norfolk parish, 4i miles 
 W. by S. of Wells. Lord Nelson was born in the 
 former rectory. 
 
 Burnley, a thriving town of Lancashire, in a 
 narrow vale on the banks of the Brun, near its 
 influx to the Calder, 21 jniles E. of Preston, and 
 27 N. of Manchester. Roman remains have been 
 found, but it is a modern-looking place, a great 
 seat of the woollen and then of the cotton manu- 
 facture, with a literary institute and exchange 
 (1855), a market-hall (1868), the Victoria Hospital 
 (1886), a grammar-school (temp. Edward VI.), and 
 an ancient parish church, restored in 1856. 
 It manufactures looms and other machinery, 
 has cotton-mills, calico-printing works, iron and 
 brass foundries, breweries, tanneries, and rope- 
 works. There are collieries in the vicinity. Bum- 
 ley was created a municipal borough in 1861 (the 
 boundary being extended in 1889), a parliamen- 
 tary borough (returning one member) in 1867, 
 and a county borough in 1888, Pop. (1871) 
 44,320 ; (1891) 87,016 ; (1901) 97,050. 
 
 Bummouth, a Berwickshire fishing-village, 5^ 
 miles NNW. of Berwick-upon-Tweed. 
 
 Burntisland, a seaport and watering-place of 
 Fife, on the Firth of Forth, 5 miles N. of Granton 
 by steam-ferry (1848). Backed by the Bin, 632 
 feet high, it has a quaint parish church (1594), 
 
6URRA 
 
 138 
 
 BURY ST EDMUNDS 
 
 ftnd the old castle of Rossend, where Chastelard 
 incurred his doom. The harbour has been much 
 improved, and coal is shipped in large quantities. 
 Burntisland is one of the four Kirkcaldy burghs. 
 Pop. (1841) 1959 ; (1901) 4846. 
 
 Burra East and West, two Shetland Isles, 
 lOi miles SW. of Lerwick. Pop. 203 and 612. 
 
 Burra Burra, a famous copper-mine in South 
 Australia. 101 miles N. by B. of Adelaide. It 
 was discovered in 1844. 
 
 Burrard Inlet, a narrow inlet, 9 miles long, at 
 the SW. corner of British Columbia, a little north 
 of the mouth of the Fraser River. It forms one 
 of the finest harbours on the Pacific coast, and 
 has become of much importance by the opening 
 of the Canada Pacific Railway, whose terminus is 
 at Vancouver here. 
 
 Burray, an Orkney island, between Pomona 
 and South Ronaldshay. Area, 4 sq. m. ; pop, 671. 
 Burriana, a Spanish town, 34 miles N. of 
 Valencia. Pop. 10,179. 
 
 Burrow Head, a promontory, 150 feet high, 
 the SE. extremity of Wigtownshire. 
 - Burscheld, a town of Prussia, on the Wupper, 
 20 miles SE. of Dlisseldorf. Pop. 7828. 
 
 Burslem, a town of Staffordshire, within the 
 parliamentary borough of Hanley, 20 miles N. by 
 W. of Stafford. It is known as the ' mother of 
 the potteries,' the pottery manufacture having 
 been established here about 1644. Porcelain and 
 pottery of all kinds are produced on a large scale, 
 as well as encaustic tiles. There is also a glass 
 manufactory. A fine town-hall. Renaissance in 
 style, with a lofty clock-tower, was erected in 
 1865. Burslem was the birthplace of Josiah 
 Wedgwood (1730-95) ; and a Wedgwood Memorial 
 Institute was opened in 1870 to serve as a school 
 of art, free library, and museum. Burslem was 
 made a municipal borough in 1878, the boundary 
 being enlarged in 1891. Pop. (1851) 16,954 ; (1891) 
 32,000 ; (1901) 38,850. 
 
 Burton-on-Trent, a municipal borough (since 
 1878) of Bast Staffordshire and South Derbyshire, 
 25 miles E. of Stafford, on the river Trent, the 
 ancient bridge over which was superseded in 1864 
 by one 470 yards long. Burton-on-Trent owes its 
 rapid extension to the brewing of ale, the staple 
 of the place. The opening of the Midland Rail- 
 way in 1839 paved the way for future progress. 
 Cotton-spinning was at first the chief industry, 
 but this has been discontinued since 1849. Its 
 rise and progress as a brewing centre has been 
 largely due to the suitability of the water for this 
 purpose. There was some small local trade in 
 beer in the 16th century here ; Burton ale had a 
 repute in London in 1630 ; and a considerable 
 export trade had been established with the Baltic 
 ports by the middle of the 18th century. In 1791 
 there were nine breweries, in 1851 sixteen, and 
 now there are nearly twice that number, some of 
 them — e.g. those of Bass and Allsopp, being on a 
 scale of unparalleled magnitude. There are, of 
 course, extensive cooperages, and also iron- 
 foundries. A church or monastery was erected 
 by the Trent in the 9th century ; Burton Abbey 
 was founded and endowed by Wulfric, Earl of 
 Mercia, in 1002. The town suffered in the Great 
 Rebellion, and has suffered repeatedly by floods, 
 the water standing 4 or 5 feet deep on some 
 streets in 1875. Pop. (1851) 7944 ; (1901) 50,386. 
 
 Burtscheid, a town of Rhenish Prussia, J mile 
 from Aix-la-Chapelle, has manufactures of woollen 
 cloths and casaimeres, and celebrated sulphur 
 
 springs and baths, with a temperature of 106' td 
 155° F. Pop. 16,139. 
 
 Buru, or Boeroe, an island of the Malay 
 Archipelago, in the residency of Amboyna, from 
 which it lies 40 miles to the W. Marshy along 
 the coast, and most of it densely wooded, it 
 attains in one peak 10,320 feet. Area, 3360 sq. 
 Ill, ; pop. 40,000 to 50,000. 
 
 Bury, a flourishing manufacturing town of 
 South-east Lancashire, on a rising ground backed 
 by hills on the north and east, between the Irwell 
 and the Roche, 10 miles NNW. of Manchester. 
 The woollen manufacture introduced by Flemings 
 in the 14th century attained its zenith under 
 Elizabeth, but had greatly declined by 1738, 
 when Bury was merely 'a little market-town,' 
 and it has long been all but eclipsed by the 
 cotton industry. Besides spinning and weaving 
 factories, there are important paper, print, 
 bleach, and dye works, and some large foundries 
 and engine manufactories. In the vicinity are 
 excellent freestone quarries, and abundant coal- 
 mines. Some improvements in the cotton manu- 
 facture arose here— notably, the invention by 
 John Kay of the fly-shuttle. Sir Robert Peel 
 (1788-1850) was born at Bury in a cottage near 
 Chamber Hall, his father being a great calico 
 manufacturer. In 1852 a bronze statue of him 
 was erected in the market-square. Bury was 
 made a parliamentary borough (returning one 
 member) in 1832, a municipal borough in 1876 
 (the boundary was extended in 1885), and a 
 county borough in 1888. Pop. (1851) 31,262; 
 (1891) 57,212 ; (1901) 58,030. 
 
 Bury St Edmunds, or St Edmundsbury, a 
 clean, well-built town of West Suffolk, on the 
 little river Lark, 26 miles NAV. of Ipswich, and 76 
 NNE. of London. It was named after Edmund 
 the Martyr, who on Christmas-day 856 was 
 crowned here king of the East Angles, and who 
 in 870 was shot to death at Hoxne by the Danes. 
 His relics were translated hither in 903, and in 
 1020 Canute reared a Benedictine abbey in his 
 honour, which in time became the richest and 
 most important in England, Glastonbury only 
 excepted. Little now remains but the noble 
 Abbey Gate (1327-77), Decorated in style, and 62 
 feet high; and the Norman Tower or Church 
 Gate (c. 1090), a quadrangular tower of massive 
 simplicitv, 86 feet high. The cruciform church 
 itself, which measured 512 by 212 feet, is repre- 
 sented only by the west front and the piers of 
 the central tower, one of which bears the inscrip- 
 tion : ' Near this spot, on 20th November 1214, 
 Cardinal Langton and the Barons swore at St 
 Edmund's altar that they would obtain from 
 King John the ratification of Magna Charta.' 
 St Saviour's Hospital was founded by that notable 
 abbot, Samson, whose life and actions, as recorded 
 by Jocelin de Brakelonde, Carlyle has so vividly 
 recalled in his Past and Present. The poet Lyd- 
 gate was a monk of Bury St Edmunds ; and 
 Bishops Gardiner and Blomfield, Sir Nicholas 
 Bacon, and Crabb Robinson were natives. St 
 Mary's and St James's churches are both fine 
 Gothic edifices of the 15th century; in the 
 former is the tomb of Mary Tudor, the widow 
 of Louis XII. of France. The grammar-school 
 (1550) was rebuilt on a new site in 1883 in Queen 
 Anne style at a cost of £12,000. Donaldson was 
 one of its head-masters, and amongst its scholars 
 have been the Norths, Bancroft, Cumberland, 
 Blomfield, J. M. Keinble, FitzGerald, and Sped- 
 ding. Defoe, Wollaston, 'Mr Pickwick,' 'Ouida,* 
 and P. W. Robertson were residents. Since 1883 
 
BtJSACHIilO 
 
 139 
 
 eABotTda 
 
 Bury St Edmunds has returned only one member 
 to parliament. Pop. (1801) 7655; (1841) 12,538; 
 (1901) 16,250. See works by Gillingwater (1804) 
 and Thomas Arnold (1893). 
 
 Busachino. See Bisacquino. 
 
 Busaco (Boo-sah'ko), a Portuguese ridge north 
 of the river Mondego, 16 miles NNE. of Coimbra. 
 Here, in 1810, Wellington repulsed Massena. 
 
 Busby, a town with cotton-mills and print- 
 works, 7 miles S. of Glasgow. Pop. 1786. 
 
 Bushey, a small village in the south of Hert- 
 fordsliire, 1^ mile S. of Walford.— Bushey Park, 
 a royal park, close to Hampton Court, is in 
 Middlesex, 14 miles SW. of London. 
 
 Bushire(Boo-s/ieer'; properly Abushehh, 'father 
 of cities,' also written Bushahr), a principal 
 port of Persia, on a sandy peninsula on the east 
 shore of the Persian Gulf, in the province of Fars. 
 The district is liable to be devastated by earth- 
 quakes and the simoom, and is deficient in water ; 
 but the situation is highly favourable for com- 
 merce. It is the land terminus of the Indo- 
 European telegraph line, and a chief station of 
 the British Indian Steam-navigation Company ; 
 and has a large trade both in imports and exports. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Bushmills, an Antrim market-town, on the 
 river Bush, 8 miles NE. of Coleraine. Pop. 979. 
 
 Busiu, BusEO, BuzEO, or Buzau, a Roumanian 
 town, in Wallachia, 60 miles NE. of Bucharest, 
 with a cathedral and much trade. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Bussanga. See Borou. 
 
 Bussorah. See Basra. 
 
 Busto-Arsizio, a town of Italy, 20 miles NW. 
 of Milan. Pop. 9891, 
 
 Bute, an island in the Firth of Clyde, separated 
 from Argyllshire by the winding Kyles of Bute, 
 mostly under a mile wide, and about 6 miles 
 distant from Ayrshire, 8 NE. of Arran. It is 15^ 
 miles long, IJ to 6i broad, and 49 sq. m. in area. 
 The surface to the north is high, rugged, and 
 barren, attaining 875 feet in Kames Hill ; in the 
 centre and south it is low and undulating, and 
 comparatively fertile. Of six small lakes, the 
 largest is Loch Fad (2^^ by J mile), in a cottage 
 on whose west shore lived Kean and Sheridan 
 Knowles. The climate is milder than in any 
 other part of Scotland, and though moist, less so 
 than on the west coast generally ; hence, Bute is 
 much resorted to by invalids. The principal 
 town is Rothesay (q.v.). Most of the island 
 belongs to the Marquis of Bute, whose beautiful 
 seat, Mount-Stuart, 5 miles SSE. of Rothesay, 
 has been rebuilt since the tire of 1877 at a cost of 
 nearly £20,000. Among the antiquities of Bute 
 are Rothesay Castle, Kames Castle (John Ster- 
 ling's birthplace), Kilmorie Castle, St Blane's 
 Chapel, and Dungyle, a remarkable vitrified fort 
 on a high crag on the south-west coast. From 
 an early period till 1266 Bute was more or less 
 subject to the Norwegians. Pop. (1801) 6106 ; 
 (1841) 9499 ; (1891) 11,735 ; (1901) 12,180. 
 
 Buteshire, a county comprising the isles of 
 Bute, Arran, the Cumbraes, Holy Isle, Pladda, 
 
 Inchmarnock, and other smaller islands. Th6 
 area of the whole is 225 sq. m., or 143,977 statute 
 acres. Pop. (1871) 16,977 ; (1901) 18,787. Bute- 
 shire returns one member to parliament. The 
 county town is Rothesay, in Bute. 
 
 Butler, a town of Pennsylvania, on the Coneque- 
 nessing Creek, 30 miles N. of Pittsburgh (45 by 
 rail). It has woollen, flour, and planing mills, 
 and plate-glass and carriage factories. The neigh- 
 bourhood is rich in natural gas, petroleum, and 
 coal and iron fields. The population is now well 
 over 11,000. 
 
 Butte (Beiut), capital of Silver Bow county, 
 Montana, 72 miles by rail S. by W. of Helena, 
 with silver-mines, quartz-mills, smelters, &c. 
 Pop. (350 in 1870) now 31,000. 
 
 Butterley, a seat of ironworks and collieries, in 
 Derbyshire, 10 miles NNE. of Derby. Sir James 
 Outram was born at Butterley Hall. 
 
 Buttermere, a Cumberland lake, 9 miles SW. 
 of Keswick. Lying 247 feet above sea-level, it is 
 IJ ]nile long, J mile wide, and 90 feet deep, and 
 is united by a "short stream to Crummock Water 
 (240 ft., 2| m. by | m., 130 ft. deep), which dis- 
 charges to the Cocker. 
 
 But'tevant, a market-town on the Awbeg, 27 
 miles N. of Cork. Pop. 979. 
 
 Buxar, or Baxar, a town of Bengal, on the 
 south bank of the Ganges, 411 miles NW. of 
 Calcutta by rail. Here in 1764 Sir Hector Munro 
 defeated Mir Kasim. Pop. 18,498. 
 
 Buxton, a town in Derbyshire, 37 miles NW. 
 of Derby, and 25 SSE. of Manchester. It lies 
 1025 feet above sea-level, in a deep valley sur- 
 rounded by hills and moors, which have been 
 tastefully planted ; and the oidy approach is a 
 narrow ravine, by which the Wye flows into the 
 Derwent. Buxton has long been famous for its 
 calcareous springs, tepid (82° F.) and cold (dis- 
 charging 120 gallons of water per minute), and 
 its chalybeate springs. They were probably 
 known to the Romans, and in 1572 were cele- 
 brated by one Dr John Jones as 'the ancient 
 baths of Buckstones.' The town is visited 
 annually, from June to October, by 8000 to 12,000 
 persons, the waters being taken for indigestion, 
 gout, rheumatism, and nervous and cutaneous 
 diseases. Near Buxton is the Diamond Hill, 
 famous for its crystals ; and Poole's Hole, a gas- 
 lit stalactite cavern 770 yards long. Pop. (1871) 
 3717 ; (1891) 7424 ; (1901) 10,185. 
 
 Buyuk'dereh, a village on the Bosphorus, 10 
 miles NNE. of Constantinople, is the summer 
 residence of many of the ambassadors. 
 
 Byblos, an ancient city of Phoenicia, now a 
 village of 600 inhabitants, called Jubeil, on a 
 shallow bay at the base of the lower range of the 
 Libanus, midway between Tripoli and Beyrout. 
 
 Byland Abbey, a ruined Cistercian monastery 
 in the North Riding of Yorkshire, founded 1137, 
 and chiefly represented by its noble Norman and 
 Early English church, 328 feet long. 
 
 Bytown, till 1854 the name of Ottawa (q.v.). 
 
 Byzantium. See Constantinople. 
 
 ;-ABATUAN, a town in the island of 
 Paiiay in the Philippines, province 
 Iloilo. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Cabes, or Khabs, a port of Tunis, at 
 the head of its own gulf. Pop. 10,000. 
 Gabinda, a small Portuguese territory on the 
 west coast of Africa, north of the mouth of the 
 
 Congo, and bounded on the E. by the Congo State. 
 It was delimited in 1886. The capital, Cabinda, 
 was formerly a noted slave port ; pop. 8000. 
 
 Cabot Strait, the entrance to the Gulf of the 
 St Lawrence, between Newfoundland and Cape 
 Breton. 
 
 Cabourg, a village in the French dep. of Cal* 
 
CAB&A 
 
 140 
 
 dAGlLIAm 
 
 vftdos, on the Dives, 11 mUes SW. of Trouville by 
 rail. Pop. 1056. 
 
 Oabra, a town of Spain, 87 miles SE. of Cor- 
 dova. Pop. 13,160. 
 
 Cabrach. See Buck of Cabbach. 
 
 Cabrera, one of the Balearic Isles (q.v.). 
 
 Cabul. See Kabul. 
 
 Cac'camo, a town of Sicily, 5 miles SW. of 
 Termini. Pop. 7964. 
 
 Oaceres (Kah'the-rez), a province of Spain, in 
 the north of Estremadura. Area, 8014 sq. m. ; 
 population, 355,000.— Tlie capital. Caceres (anc. 
 C(^tra Ccedlia), 45 miles N. of Merida by rail is 
 famous for its bacon and sausages. Here the 
 allied forces defeated the Duke of Berwick s rear- 
 guard, 7th April 1706. Pop. 16,749. 
 
 Cachar Plains, a district of British India in 
 the chief-commissionership of Assam, bordering 
 on Manipur. Area, 2472 sq. m. ; pop. 367,542. 
 Silchar (pop. 6567) is the headquarters. 
 
 Cacongo, or Kakongo, a district of West 
 Africa, immediately N. of the mouth of the 
 Congo. Cabinda (q.v.) is part of it; the rest 
 has been absorbed in the Congo Free State. 
 
 Cadenabbia, a health-resort, beautifully situ- 
 ated among orange and citron groves, on the west 
 shore of Lake Como. Its famous Villa Carlotta 
 contains works by Canova and Thorwaldsen. 
 
 Cad'er Idris (' Chair of Tdris,* a reputed giant), 
 a picturesque mountain (2914 feet) in Merioneth- 
 sliire, Wales, 5 miles SW. of Dolgelly. It con- 
 sists of an immense ridge of broken precipices, 
 10 miles long, and 1 to 3 miles broad. 
 
 Cadiz {Kay'diz; Span. pron. Kdh'deeth), a great 
 Spanish port, capital of a province in Andalusia, 
 is situated on the Atlantic at the extremity of a 
 narrow tongue of land projecting 5 miles NW. 
 from the Isle of Leon, 95 miles SSW. of Seville 
 by rail. A small channel, with a drawbridge and 
 a railway bridge, separates the island from the 
 mainland ; at its northern outlet stands the 
 arsenal of La Carraca, with large docks, 4 miles 
 ESE. of the city. The town, which is walled 
 and defended from the sea both by a series of 
 forts and by low shelving rocks, is about 2 miles 
 in circuit, and presents a remarkably bright 
 appearance, with its shining granite ramparts, 
 and its Avhitewashed houses crowned with terraces 
 and overhanging turrets. It has few public build- 
 ings of note : its two cathedrals being indifferent 
 specimens of architecture, though possessing 
 some excellent Murillos. Cadiz reached its 
 highest prosperity after the discovery of America, 
 when it became the depot of all the commerce 
 with the New World, but declined greatly as a 
 commercial city after the emancipation of the 
 Spanish colonies in South America. The exports 
 consist of salt, cork, lead, wine, tunny-tish, olive- 
 oil, and fruits. The manufactures are glass, 
 woollen cloth, leather, soap, hats, gloves, fans, 
 &c. Pop. (1887) 63,277 ; (1897) 70,180. Built by 
 the Phoenicians, under the name of Gaddir 
 ('fortress'), about 1100 B.C., Cadiz afterwards 
 passed to the Carthaginians; was captured by 
 the Romans, who named it Gades, and under 
 them soon became a city of vast wealth and 
 importance. In 1587 Drake destroyed the Spanish 
 fleet in the bay; nine years later, Cadiz was 
 pillaged and burned by Essex. 
 
 Cadore {Kah-do'ray ; also Pieve di Cadore), the 
 birthplace of Titian, is a small village of Venetia, at 
 the foot of the Alps, and 22 miles NB. of Belluno. 
 
 Cadzow {Kad'yoo). See Hamilton. 
 
 Caen (Kono), chief town of the French dep. of 
 Calvados, and the former capital of Lower Nor- 
 mandy, is situated on the left bank of the navi- 
 gable Orne, here joined by the Odon, 9 miles 
 from its mouth, 149 W. by N. of Paris, and 83 
 ESE. of Cherbourg. Among its fifteen churches 
 are St Etienne and La Sainte Trinite, both 
 founded in 1066 by William the Conqueror and 
 his queen Matilda, and containing their graves, 
 which the Huguenots violated in 1562 ; and St 
 Pierre (1308-1521), with an exquisite spire 242 
 feet high. The Conqueror's castle, finished by 
 Henry I. of England, was dismantled in 1793, 
 and now serves as a barrack. The faculty or 
 university (1809) is successor to one founded by 
 our Henry VI. in 1436 ; and in the Hotel de Ville 
 is a library of 80,000 volumes and a fine collec- 
 tion of paintings. The chief manufacture is lace. 
 Trade is facilitated by a maritime canal connect- 
 ing the port with the sea. In 1346, and again 
 in 1417, Caen was taken by the English, who held 
 it till 1450. Malherbe, Marot, Huet, and Auber 
 were natives (a marble statue of the last was 
 unveiled in 1883) ; Charlotte Corday lived here ; 
 and Beau Brummell died in the lunatic asylum. 
 Pop. (1872) 39,415; (1901) 41,530. 
 
 Caergwrle (Ka-er-goor'leh), one of the Flint 
 boroughs, 5 miles NNW. of Wrexham. Pop. 1328. 
 
 Caerla'verock, a splendid mined castle near 
 the Nith's mouth, 7 miles SSB. of Dumfries. 
 For over four centuries the seat of the Max- 
 wells, earls of Nithsdale (1020-1716), and still 
 owned by their representative. Lord Herries, it was 
 captured by Edward I. in 1300. Robert Paterson, 
 Scott's ' Old Mortality,' is buried in the church- 
 yard. See Eraser's Book of Caerlaveroclc (1873). 
 
 Caer'leon ('castle of the legion;' Lat. Isca 
 Silurum), a town of Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 
 2^ miles NE. of Newport. It was very early the 
 seat of a see — the only one, it seems, in all Wales 
 — which was transferred to St David's in the 6th 
 century. A Cistercian abbey existed here before 
 the Reformation. Many Roman relics have been 
 found ; and there are also remains of an amphi- 
 theatre, measuring 222 by 192 feet, and known as 
 King Arthur's Round Table. Pop. 14i0. See 
 Lee's Isca Silurum (1845). 
 
 Caermartlien, Caernarvon. See Carmarthen, 
 Carnarvon. 
 
 Caerphilly, a town of Glamorganshire, 7i 
 miles N. by W. of Cardiff. It has a fine ruined 
 castle, ironworks, and collieries. Pop. 15,830. 
 
 Caerwys, one of the Flint boroughs, 7^ miles 
 E. of St Asaph. Pop. 550. 
 
 Caesare'a (now Kaisarieh), a once splendid sea- 
 port on the coast of Syria, 30 miles N. of Joppa, 
 built by Herod about 22 e.g., and named in honour 
 of Csesar Augustus. It is now a heap of half- 
 buried ruins, with a few fishermen's huts. — 
 C^sarea Philippi, 95 miles N. of Jerusalem, 
 near the source of the Jordan, received its suffix 
 in honour of Philip the Tetrarch. It is now a 
 heap of ruins, with the small village of Paneas, or 
 Banias, on its site. 
 
 Caffraria. See Kaffraria. 
 
 Cagliari(pron. Cal'yari), the capital of Sardinia, 
 at the head of a spacious bay, on the south coast 
 of the island. By steamboat it is 34 hours from 
 Leghorn and 27 from Naples, by rail 174 miles S. 
 of Porto Torres. With a lagoon on either hand, 
 it lies at the base and on the slopes of a steep 
 hill, 300 feet high. Its harbour, defended by 
 forts, has been enlarged since 1882 ; and Cagliari 
 has a university (1596; remodelled 1764), a caatle 
 
 1 
 
CAHERCONLISH 
 
 141 
 
 CAITHNESS 
 
 (c. 1217), and a cathedral (1312). Pop. 53,750. 
 Cagliari occupies the site of the Carthaginian 
 Carales, and has a Roman amphitheatre, measur- 
 ing 9&^ by 79 yards, 
 
 Caherconllsh, a village in the county and 8 
 miles SB. of the town of Limerick. 
 
 Ca'hir, a town in County Tipperary, on the 
 Suir, 11 miles NW. of Clonmcl. On a rock in the 
 river is a 12tli-century castle. Pop. 2056. 
 
 Cahlrciveen, or Cahersiveen, a Kerry village, 
 at the mouth of the Caher River, 39 miles WSW. 
 of Killarney. Near it is ruined Carhan House, 
 O'Connell's birthplace. Pop. 2013. 
 
 Cahors {Ka-or'; anc. Divona), the chief town in 
 the French dep. of Lot, on a small rocky peninsula, 
 formed by a bend of the river Lot, 71 miles north 
 of Toulouse by rail. It has a 12th-century 
 cathedral, a 14th-century bridge, and many Roman 
 remains, including those of a magnificent aque- 
 duct. Fenelon was a student at the university 
 here, which, founded by Pope John XXII. in 
 1321, was united with that of Toulouse in 
 1751 ; and here were born the poet Marot, and 
 Gambetta, to whom a monument was raised in 
 1884. Pop. 11,751. 
 
 Oalcos (Ki'koes), a group of islands belonging 
 geographically to the Bahamas, but annexed in 
 1874 to Jamaica. Area, with Turk's Islands, 223 
 sq. m. ; population, 4750. 
 
 Cairnbulg, an Aberdeenshire fishing-village, 
 2J miles ESE. of Fraserburgh. Pop. 561. • 
 
 Cairngorm, a mountain (4084 feet) of Banff and 
 Inverness-shire, 3 miles NE. of Ben Macdhui. 
 From it are named the yellow rock-crystals 
 found in the neighbourhood. Cairntoul (4241 
 feet) is another peak of the same group. 
 
 Cairo (Kl'ro), the capital of modern Egypt, is 
 in 30° 6' N. lat., and 31° 26' E. long., on the right 
 bank of the Nile, 131 miles by railway from Alex- 
 andria, and near the apex of the Delta. In the 
 present day it covers about 11 sq. ni. of the 
 sandy plain, and extends from Mount Mukattani 
 to the port of Boulak (Bulaq) ; but only a small 
 part of the modern city belongs to the Cairo of 
 history, which consisted originally of little more 
 than an immense palace with its attendant build- 
 ings. Modern Cairo is built upon the remains of 
 four distinct cities, founded between 641 and 
 969 A.D. ; but with the last hundred years it has 
 been greatly enlarged on the west side, the space 
 between the old city and the Nile having been 
 covered with villas and palaces of European con- 
 struction. The mediaeval city, however, may still 
 be seen in something of its former picturesque- 
 ness in the streets and bazaai-s, which occupy and 
 surround the site of the original palace-enclosure 
 of El-Kahira. The quarter bounded by the north 
 and east walls, between the Bab-en-Nasr ('gate 
 of victory') and the Citadel, is still purely 
 oriental ; and it is chiefly in this part that are 
 found the numerous mosques, schools, fountains, 
 and latticed houses which represent the art of 
 the Saracens in its most chaste and perfect form. 
 Here is situated the Azhar University (founded 
 971), to which 2000 students annually flock from 
 all parts of the Mohammedan world ; here is the 
 mosque of El-Hakim (990), the beautiful Maristan 
 and tomb of Kalaftn (1288), and the fine mosques 
 of En-NAsir(1298), Aksunkur (1347), Sultan Hasan 
 (1358), El-Muayyad (1420), and El-Ghori (1503), to 
 mention but a few of these exquisite monuments. 
 The medijeval city, however, is rapidly giving way 
 to the encroachments of western commerce and 
 ganitatioR. The separate closed quarters pf dis- 
 
 tinct trades are becoming rarer. Very few of the 
 old palaces of the Mamelukes are still standing ; 
 the most beautiful features of the decoration of 
 ancient houses and even mosques have been de- 
 spoiled by the travelling collector ; and natural 
 decay, aided by centuries of neglect and ignorant 
 injury, has reduced the remains of a perhaps un- 
 rivalled epoch of Saracenic art to those shattered 
 but exquisite ruins, which an oflicial 'Commis- 
 sion for the Preservation of the Monuments ' now 
 endeavours, not, indeed, to restore, but if possible 
 to rescue from further demolition and decay. 
 
 The modern portion of the city consists partly 
 in a few broad streets or 'boulevards,' which 
 pierce the mediseval quarters, and have destroyed 
 many priceless monuments of art, but chiefly in 
 the western suburb of Ismailia, formed by new 
 villas, built along broad avenues lined with trees, 
 and extending from the square called the Ezbe- 
 kiya, near or in which are the principal hotels, 
 the opera-house, theatre, and the European 
 shops, as far as Boulak (q.v.). In this suburb 
 are some of the numerous palaces of the Khedive, 
 notably Abdin, where all oflicial receptions take 
 place ; others are situated on the bank of the 
 Nile, where are also barracks and a hospital. 
 Modern Cairo, including the whole circuit, old 
 and new, is the largest city in Africa, and second 
 only to Constantinople in the Turkish empire. 
 Railways and telegraphs connect it with Alex- 
 andria, Ismailia, Suez, Port Said, and Upper 
 Egypt, its central station (1893) being a magnifi- 
 cent structure. Steamers ply on the Nile as far 
 as the Second Cataract. Gas, the telephone, and 
 other modern appliances are in universal use 
 among the European and official circles. There 
 is a busy trade, but chiefly of the transport 
 kind, consisting of the produce of the interior. 
 Manufactures, except rude pottery, turned wood- 
 work, and silver-smithery, are almost non-exist- 
 ent ; and the arts of ancient and mediaeval Egypt 
 appear to have been almost forgotten. After 
 1882 Cairo was the centre of English influence in 
 Egypt. Three new bridges across the Nile were 
 built in 1904-6 at a cost of £191,000. Pop. (1882) 
 874,838 ; (1898) 570,060. See works by Lane (1896), 
 Reynolds-Ball (1898), S. L. Poole (1892, 1902). 
 
 Cairo (Kd'ro), capital of Alexander county, Illi- 
 nois, at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi, 
 ISO miles below St Louis. A steel bridge (1888), 
 costing $5,000,000, connects the railways north 
 and south of the Ohio. The city, Martin Chuzzle- 
 wit's ' Eden,' formerly suffered much from inun- 
 dations, from which it is protected by levees, 
 now utilised for streets and railways. There are 
 numerous factories, and a U.S. marine hospital 
 and custom-house. Pop. (1860) 2188; (1890) 
 10,324 ; (1900) 12,566. 
 
 Calth'ness, a county in the extreme NE. of 
 the Scottish mainland, 43 miles long, 28 miles in 
 extreme width, and 701 sq. m. in area. Except 
 in the west and south, where the mountain-range 
 dividing Caithness from Sutherland attains in 
 Morven a height of 2313 feet, its general aspect 
 is level and bare, being in great part moorland 
 and treeless. The northern sea-coast is bold and 
 rocky, with Dunnet Head and Duncansby Head, 
 on the west side of which is John o' Groat's 
 House (q.v.). The climate is damp and chilly; 
 auroras are seen almost nightly in winter. Only 
 23 per cent, of the entire area is in cultivation ; 
 and the crops are 20 days later in ripening than 
 in the Lothians. There are herring, ling, cod, 
 salmon, and lobster fisheries ; Wick being a chief 
 seat of the herring-fishery. The other exports 
 
CAIVANO 
 
 142 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 are cattle, oats, wool, and flagstones, of which, 
 as well as of freestone and slate, Caithness con- 
 tains quarries, the chief that of Castlehills, 5 
 miles E. of Thurso. The county returns one 
 member; and Wick is its only parliamentary 
 burgh; another town Is Thurso. A railway 
 (1874) connects them with the south, i'op. 
 (1801 22,609; (18G1) 41,111; (1901) 33,8b0 See 
 works by Laing (1860) and Calder (new ed. 1887). 
 
 Oalvano (Kl-vah'no), a town of Italy, 4 miles 
 N. of Naples. Top. 10,832. 
 
 Cajabamba (Kahaham'ba), cap. of the prov. of 
 Chimborazo, in Ecuador, 102 miles S. of Quito, on 
 the arid plateau of Topi, at an elevation of 9480 
 feet. Pop. 18,000, The former town of iJio&amto, 
 founded here in 1533, was in 1797 overwhelmed 
 by an earthquake that cost 30,000 lives. 
 
 Cajamarca (Kahamar'kd), a NW. dep. of Peru, 
 between the western chain of the Andes and the 
 Amazon. A railway connects it with the Pacific. 
 Area, 14,000 sq. m. ; pop. 450,000. The capital is 
 Cajamarca ; pop. 12,000. 
 
 Cakemuir, a Midlothian tower, 2 miles E. of 
 Borthwick, wlience Queen Mary fled hither. 
 
 Calabar', a coast-district on the Gnl f of Guinea, 
 now embraced in the soiitliern division of the 
 British protectorate of Nigeria. Its limits are 
 not clearly defined ; but it is usually understood 
 to extend from the Nun mouth of the Niger to 
 the Cameroon colony. The surface is low and 
 flat, and the climate unhealthy. Palm-oil, ker- 
 nels, ebony, ivory, india-rubber, shea butter, and 
 beni-seed are the chief articles of comnnerce. 
 Tlie Scottish Presbyterians have had a mission 
 here since 1846, which has produced beneficial 
 changes. Of the different tribes, the Eflk, who 
 are a negro stock, is the most important. The 
 chief towns are Duke Town, Creek Town, and 
 Old Town.— The Old Calabar or Cross River, 
 believed to rise near Iko, beyond TJyanga, enters 
 the Bight of Biafra by an estuary 9 miles broad, 
 is mainly the estuary of the Cross River. It 
 is navigable by steamers for 200 miles above 
 its mouth. — The New Calabar River is a branch 
 or mouth of the Niger. See Goldie's Calabar and 
 its Mission (1890). 
 
 Calabria, the south-west peninsula of the 
 kingdom of Italy, bounded N. by the province 
 of Basilicata. Area, 6637 sq. m. ; pop. about 
 1,400,000. It is traversed throughout its entire 
 length of 160 miles by the forest-clad Apennines, 
 whose valleys afford rich pasture. There is no river 
 of any importance ; but the valleys and plains 
 are very fertile, yielding wheat, rice, cotton, 
 liquorice, saffron, the sugar-cane, &c., and also 
 the vine, orange, lemon, olive, fig, and mulberry, 
 in luxuriance. The coast fisheries, particularly 
 of the tunny and anchovy, are important. The 
 'compartimento,' which is very subject to earth- 
 quakes, is divided into the provinces of Cosenza, 
 Catanzaro, and Reggio. In ancient times the 
 name Calabria was given to the south-east penin- 
 sula, nearly corresponding to the modern pro- 
 vince of Lecce, no portion of which is included 
 in modern Calabria, which answers to the ancient 
 Bruttium. The people are a proud, fiery, and 
 revengeful race, long celebrated as among the 
 fiercest of banditti. See Ross and Cooper's Higli- 
 lands of Calabria (1888). 
 
 Calahorra, a cathedral city of Spain, 80 miles 
 SE. of Logroiio by rail. It is the ancient Cala- 
 gurris, Quintilian's birthplace, celebrated for its 
 pbstinate but unsuccessful resistance to Pom- 
 pey's legate (78 b.c.). Pop. 8830. 
 
 Calais (Fr. pron. Ka-la-jf), a port in the dep. of 
 Pas-de-Calais, on the Strait of Dover, here 21 m. 
 wide, by rail is 184 miles N. of Paris. It ranks 
 as a fortress of the first class, the old walls, 
 dividing it from its suburb, Saint Pierre, having 
 been demolished since 1883, and their place 
 supplied by a ring of exterior forts. The gate 
 built by Richelieu in 1635, and immortalised by 
 Hogarth, has disappeared ; but the cardinal's 
 citadel (1641) still stands on the west of the 
 town. On the south and east are low marshy 
 grounds, which could be submerged in the event 
 of an invasion. A new harbour, comprising a 
 tidal one of 15 acres and a wet-dock of 27, was 
 opened in 1889. Calais is one of the chief ports 
 of debarkation for travellers from England to 
 France, and has steam communication thrice a 
 day with Dover, with which since 1851 it has 
 also been connected by submarine telegraph. 
 With the air of a Flemish more than of a French 
 town, Calais has not much to boast of in the 
 way of objects of interest. The picturesque 
 hotel-de-ville was rebuilt in 1750, and restored 
 in 1867. The adjoining Tour de Guet (1214) 
 served as a lighthouse till 1848; the present 
 lighthouse is 190 feet high. A museum (1884) 
 occupies the site of the Hotel Dessin, where 
 Sterne lodged, and Scott, and Lady Hamilton. 
 A handsome English church was built in 1862. 
 The chief manufacture is tulle or bobbin-net, 
 introduced by English from Nottingham in 1818. 
 Pop. (1872) 39,700; (1901) 53,180. Till 997 a 
 small fishing-village, Calais in 1347, after a 
 twelvemonth's siege, was captured by Edward 
 III. of England, and the self-devotion then shown 
 by six of the citizens forms one of tlie noblest 
 passages of history. The English retained it 
 until 1558, when it was captured by the Duke 
 of Guise, its garrison of 800 men holding it for 
 a week against his 30,000. 
 
 Calais (Kal'lis), a town of Maine, 82 miles ENE. 
 of Bangor, at the head of navigation on the St 
 Croix River. There is some shipbuilding and a 
 large trade in lumber. Pop. 76.90. 
 
 Calanas (Kaldn'yas), a town of Andalusia, 
 Spain, 27 miles N. of Huelva and 13 NB. of 
 Tharsis, with which it was connected by rail in 
 1887. Here is a large copper-mine. Pop. 6721. 
 
 Calascibetta (Ka-ldh-shee-bet'td), or Calatasci- 
 BETTA, a town of Sicily, 64 miles SE. of Palermo. 
 Pop. 6615. 
 
 Calatafimi (Kalatafee'mee), a town of Sicily, 
 8 miles SW. of Alcamo ; named from a ruined 
 Saracenic castle, Kalat-al-Fimi. Here, in 1860, 
 Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitans. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Calatayud(/{'atotoi/ood'; Arab. ' Ayud's Castle '), 
 a city of Aragon, Spain, on the Jalon, 152 m. NE. 
 of Madrid by rail. It is built out of the ruins of 
 ancient Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, which 
 lay about 2 miles to the east. Pop. 10,057. 
 
 Calatrava la Vlega (Kalatrdh'va), a ruined city 
 of Spain, on the Guadiana, 12 miles NE. of Ciudad 
 Real. Its defence against the Moors, in 1158, after 
 being abandoned by the Templars, is famous as 
 originating the Order of the Knights of Calatrava. 
 
 Calave'ras, an inland county of California, E. 
 from San Francisco, with a picturesquely varied 
 surface, including hills, canons, prairies, and 
 forests. It is rich in granite, quartz, limestone, 
 and slate, and copper and gold are mined. 
 
 Calcutta, the capital of Bengal and of British 
 India, is situated on the left bank of the Htigli 
 (Hooghly), an arm of the Ganges, in 22° 34' N. 
 lat., and 88° 24' E. long., about 80 miles from tlw 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 143 
 
 CALICUT 
 
 sea by the river. It was founded in 1686, by 
 the removal hither from Hugll of the factories 
 of the East India Company. Calcutta is the 
 Anglicised form of Kalikata, as this again is the 
 Moslemised form (lo9G) of Kali-ghat, a famous 
 shrine of the goddess Kali, which still exists to 
 the south of the city. In 1707 Calcutta had 
 acquired some importance as a town, and was 
 made the seat of a presidency. In 1756, how- 
 ever, it was unexpectedly attacked by Surtlj-ud- 
 Daula (Surajah Uowlah), the Nawdb of Bengal, 
 and yielding after a two days' siege, was the 
 scene of the tragedy of the 'Black Hole.' The 
 city remained in the hands of the enemy until 
 seven months afterwards, when Clive recaptured 
 it. In 1772-90 Calcutta superseded Murshidabad 
 as seat of the central government in India ; in 
 1852 it was erected into a municipality. Pop. 
 (1837) 229,700 ; (1891) 741,144 ; (1901) 1,026,987, of 
 whom 62 per cent, are Hindus, 32*2 Moham- 
 medans, and 4*4 Christians. The appearance of 
 the city as it is approached by the river is very 
 striking. On the left are the Botanical Gardens, 
 destroyed by the cyclones of 1867 and 1870, but 
 since replanted ; and the Bishop's College, a 
 handsome Gothic edifice, now used as an engin- 
 eering college. On the right are the suburb of 
 Garden Reach, the government dockyards and 
 the arsenal, and the Maidan Esplanade, which 
 has been termed the Hyde Park of India. Here, 
 near the river, lies Fort William, the largest 
 fortress in India, constructed (1757-73) at a cost 
 of £2,000,000, and occupying, with the outworks, 
 an area of 2 sq. m. Facing the Esplanade, among 
 other fine buildings, is the Government House, 
 the official residence of the Viceroy of India, 
 a magnificent palace erected (1799-1804) by the 
 Marquis of Wellesley. Beyond this, extending 
 northwards along the river-bank, is the Strand, 
 two miles in length, and 40 feet above low- 
 water, with various ghats or landing-places. It 
 is adorned by many fine buildings, including 
 the custom-house, the new mint, and other 
 government offices, and is lined by a splendid 
 series of jetties for ocean steamers. Among 
 other places of interest are the High Court, 
 the Bengal Government Offices, St Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, the Scotch church (St Andrew's), the Imperial 
 Museum, the town-hall, Bank of Bengal, Jesuits' 
 College, Medical College, university (1857), the 
 domed post-office, and the Treasury. Calcutta 
 lias three theatres, several large European hotels, 
 two fine clubs — the Bengal and United Service, 
 four daily English newspapers, and a number 
 of monuments throughout the city, the most 
 noticeable being those to the Marquis of Wel- 
 lesley, Sir James Outram, and Sir David Ochter- 
 lony, the last a column 165 feet high. Of Cal- 
 cutta's own sons the greatest is W. M. Thackeray. 
 Although the European quarter of the town is 
 distinguished for its fine public buildings and 
 commodious dwelling-houses, the quarters occu- 
 pied by the natives present a very different 
 appearance, their houses being in most instances 
 built of mud or bamboo and mats, and the streets 
 narrow and unpaved. Calcutta has been said 
 to be a city of palaces in front and of pig-styes 
 behind. Great havoc was done in the native 
 qiiarter by the cyclone of 1864, which destroyed 
 40,700 native houses ; and those of 1867 and 1870 
 were likewise very destructive. Considerable 
 improvements have now been effected ; new and 
 wider streets have been opened through crowded 
 quarters; brick houses are fast replacing the 
 huts, and an extensive system of drainage has 
 been carried out to the no small advantage of 
 
 the inhabitants. The water-supply of Calcutta 
 has been very much improved (1865-88), the large 
 tanks interspersed throughout the city having 
 been superseded by an excellent supply drawn 
 from the Hflgli, 15 miles above Calcutta. The 
 result of this has been a marked improvement 
 in the health of the city. Electricity and gas liave 
 taken the place of the oil-lamps which till far on 
 in the 19th century lighted tlie streets at night. 
 Tramways have been extensively introduced, and 
 steam tramways run to some of the suburbs. 
 A canal girds a part of the city beyond the 
 Circular Road. In Howrah and other villages on 
 the right bank of the river are warehouses, iron- 
 works, timber-yards, large jute-mills, &c. Cal- 
 cutta may be regarded as the great commercial 
 capital of Asia ; and its communications by 
 rail and steamboat afford great facilities for its 
 extensive commerce. Navigation on the Hugli 
 has been greatly improved, and an extensive 
 scheme of docks constructed at Kidderpur, at 
 a cost of nearly 3 millions sterling. The river, 
 adjacent to the city, varies in breadth from a 
 quarter of a mile to nearly a mile. Ships of 
 5000 tons ascend to Calcutta in the usual course, 
 the main difficulty to shijjping being the James 
 and Mary shoal, half-way down the river. 
 
 Calder, Mid, a Midlothian village, 11^ miles 
 WSW. of Edinburgh. Near it is Calder House, 
 where Knox celebrated the Lord's Supper (1556). 
 Pop. 703. — West Calder, a mining town, 16 miles 
 WSW. of Edinburgh. Pop. 2652." 
 
 Caldron Linn, waterfalls on the Devon, 2| 
 miles ENE. of Dollar. 
 
 Caledonian Canal, a chain of natural lakes 
 united by artificial canals, running straight across 
 Scotland south-westerward from the North Sea 
 to the Atlantic, through Glenmore, or the Great 
 Glen of Albin, in Inverness-shire. The sea and 
 fresh-water lochs in this line are the Moray 
 Firtli and Lochs Dochfour, Ness, Oich, Lochy, 
 and Linnhe. Suggested by Watt in 1773, and 
 carried out from Telford's plans in 1803-23, at 
 a total cost up to 1849 of £1,311,270, the canal 
 was designed to avoid the dangerous and tedious 
 navigation of ships, especially coasting-vessels, 
 round by the Pentland Firth ; the distance 
 between Kinnaird's Head and the Sound of Mull 
 by this route being 500 iniles, but by the canal 
 only 250, with an average saving of 9J days for 
 sailing-vessels. From the head of the Moray 
 Firth to that of Loch Linnhe, its length is (50^ 
 miles, 37J miles being natural, and 23 miles 
 artificial. Each cut is 120 feet broad at surface, 
 50 at bottom, and 17 deep. The highest part is 
 Loch Oich (105 feet) ; and there are in all 28 
 locks. Ships of 500 to 600 tons can pass through. 
 The annual expenditure exceeds as a rule the 
 income, each ranging between £6000 and £11,000. 
 
 Calf of Man, an island, 1 sq. m. in area, and 
 360 feet high, at the southern extremity of the 
 Isle of Man. 
 
 Cal'gary, a town of the North-west Territory 
 of Canada, with station on the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway, 2262 miles W. of Montreal, stands 3380 
 feet above sea-level, between the Bow and Elbow 
 rivers. It dates from 1884. Pop. 7500.— There 
 is a bay of this name on the north-west coast 
 of the island of Mull in Scotland. 
 
 Call (Kalee' ; in full Santiago de Cali), a town 
 of Colombia, 3300 feet above the sea, 50 miles 
 SE. of Buenaventura by rail. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Cal'icut, a seaport of Malabar, Madras presi- 
 dency, 6 miles N. of Beypur terminus, and 566 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 144 
 
 CALLERNISH 
 
 SSB of Bombay. It was the first spot in India 
 visited overland by Covilham (1486) and round 
 Sie Cape by Vasco da Gama (U9S) being then 
 t e chiSf emporium on the coast. So populous 
 and powerful was it, that it twice repulsed the 
 Portuguese, slaying their commander in 1509 
 and expelling Albuquerque hiniself 1" l^W. In 
 1792. when it fell into the hands of the Engjfh, 
 it was little better than a rum; but since Jhen 
 it has made progress in trade and population 
 though the anchorage is an open roadstead, ine 
 cotto°n cloth at first exported hence was called 
 'calico.' Pop. (1881) 57,085 ; (1901) 75,510. See 
 Logan's Malabar (Madras, 1887). 
 
 California, a state of the American Union, 
 bounded by Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, the Mexican 
 territory of Lower or Old California, and the 
 Pac fie Ocean. The parallels of 32° 28^ and f 
 N. lat. respectively mark its S. and N. limits. 
 The state has an area of 155,980 sq. m. It is thus 
 larger than any other state or territory except 
 Texas and Alaska, larger than Italy, or Prussia, 
 or Hungary, and more than a fourth larger than 
 the whole of the United Kingdom. The aspect 
 of the country is extremely varied. Along the 
 eastern border of the state extend the ranges 
 of the Sierra Nevada, which connects with the 
 Cascade Range its northward extension. The 
 scenery in this part of the state is often (as m 
 the wonderful Yoseinite and Hetch-Hetchy val- 
 leys) very striking. There are twelve peaks which 
 exceed 10,000 feet in height ; Mount Whitney 
 (14,898 feet) being higher than any other in the 
 United States outside of Alaska. West of the 
 Sierra Nevada lies the central valley of Cali- 
 fornia, drained by the Sacramento River, and 
 tlie San Joaquin. The eastern slope of the 
 great valley is very gradual, while the opposite 
 side of the Sierras has a sharp and precipitous 
 descent towards the great basin of Nevada. The 
 Coast Mountains consist of a number of ill- 
 defined ridges. To the south of the San Joaquin 
 Valley a transverse ridge connects the coast- 
 ranges with the Sierra, separating to some extent 
 Southern California from the rest of the state. 
 The coast-line is mostly high and rocky, with 
 only a few bays and harbours. California pre- 
 sents a great variety of climatic conditions. In 
 the north-west the rainfall is excessive, and in 
 the north the winters are rather severe than 
 mild ; the coast region of the northern half of 
 the state is damp, with cool or cold nights, even 
 in summer. But Southern California, in tem- 
 perature and productions, has a semi-tropical 
 character ; and the serenity of its climate has 
 made it famous as a resort for invalids. In the 
 south the scanty rainfall and the extreme summer 
 heat detract from an otherwise perfect climate. 
 In general it may be said that the winters in 
 California are mild, and the summers dry, and 
 not intensely hot, though often very dusty. 
 There are practically but two seasons — a more or 
 less rainy winter, and a nearly rainless summer. 
 Extremes of temperature are much less marked 
 than in tlie states east of the Rocky Mountains. 
 In the interior the thermometer sometimes 
 reaches 120° in summer. 
 
 The gold production of the state, at one time 
 enormous, for many years declined, but has of 
 late again increased ; in the years 1848-64 the 
 annual product was $56,000,000 ; in 1900-4 it 
 averaged over $15,000,000. Among the valuable 
 minerals obtainable are quicksilver, lead, silver, 
 borax, rock-salt, marbles, asphalt, potash-salts, 
 native soda, sulphur, kaolin, and many otliers ; 
 petroleum is abundant j coal is not extensively 
 
 wrought. Copper, iron, 
 " ' lis £ ' 
 
 chromium, antimony, 
 and other metals abound. But the mineral wealth 
 of the state is not more remarkable than its agri- 
 cultural resources, wheat, alfalfa or lucerne, the 
 vine, and all manner of fruits growing luxuri- 
 antly. In many sections irrigation facilitates 
 af'riculture. The distillation of brandy, sugar- 
 refining, shipbuilding, the packing of meats, silk- 
 growing, and bee-keeping are profitable indus- 
 tries. The fisheries are of growing importance. 
 The principal exports are wheat, barley, wool, 
 wines, brandy, honey, hops, timber, provisions, 
 metals, ores, borax, and other minerals ; fish and 
 furs, largely from Alaska ; dried, preserved, and 
 green fruits, including oranges, prunes, raisins, 
 and ahnonds. The Lick observatory at Mount 
 Hamilton belongs to the state university at 
 Berkeley ; there is another university at Palo 
 Alto. Pop. (1850) 92,597 ; (I860) 379,994 ; (1870) 
 560,247 ; (1880) 864,694 ; (1890) 1,208,130 ; (1900) 
 1,485,000. Chinese immigration was stopped by 
 restrictive legislation in 1882-92. The principal 
 cities are San Francisco (q.v.), Los Angeles, Oak- 
 land, and Sacramento, capital of the state. The 
 prosperity of the state was greatly stimulated by 
 the opening of the Union Pacific Railway in 1869. 
 In April 1906 a disastrous earthquake and the 
 resultant fires destroyed a great part of San 
 Francisco and injured many other towns. 
 
 Lower or Old California is a peninsula and 
 a territory of Mexico, continuous southward 
 from the state of California, and is detached by 
 the Gulf of California and the lower reaches of 
 the Rio Colorado from the rest of Mexico. Its 
 area is 61,562 sq. in., or more than half the 
 extent of Great Britain and Ireland, The climate 
 is exceedingly dry, and the surface mountainous, 
 and excepting in some of the valleys, agriculture 
 is hardly practicable. The whale-fishery and 
 pearl-fishery are of some value. Some mining is 
 done, and salt, sugar, orchil, and a little wine 
 produced. Pop. 42,200. 
 
 The Gulf of California, an arm of the Pacific 
 Ocean, which divides the peninsula above de- 
 scribed from the rest of Mexico, is 700 miles in 
 length, and varies in width from 40 to 100 miles. 
 It receives the waters of the Colorado. 
 
 Callan, a market-town, on the Owenree, 13 
 miles SW. of Kilkenny. Pop. 1843. 
 
 Callander, a Perthshire village, a great tourist 
 centre, on the Teith, 16 miles NW. of Stirling by 
 rail. Pop. 1438. 
 
 Callao (Span. pron. Kal-ydh'o), the port of Lima, 
 Peru, 7 m. SW. of Lima, on a small bay, possesses 
 a floating-dock, while fine harbour-works, em- 
 bracing an area of 520 acres, with extensive pier 
 and dock accommodation, were completed in 
 1875 ; and the spacious roadstead, sheltered by 
 the island of San Lorenzo, is one of the safest in 
 the world. The huge old Spanish fortress is 
 used for custom-house offices. There are sugar- 
 refineries, ironworks, and sawmills ; and the ex- 
 ports are wool, sugar, specie, copper, cotton, 
 bark, hides, guano, and cubic nitre. Pop. 48,000. 
 The present Callao dates only from 1746, when 
 the original city, a little to the south, ^as 
 destroyed by an earthquake and an invasion of 
 the sea. It was bombarded in 1880 during the 
 war between Chili and Peru. 
 
 Callendar, a mansion | mile ESE. of Falkirk, 
 
 with memories of Queen Mary, Prince Charles 
 
 Edward, &c. In the grounds is a well-preserved 
 
 section of the northern Roman wall. 
 
 Callemlsli, a district on the west coast of the 
 
CALLINOTON 
 
 145 
 
 CAMBRAI 
 
 island of Lewis, 16 miles from Stornoway, remark- 
 able for its four stone circles. 
 
 Callington, a Cornish market-town, 11 miles 
 S. of Launceston. Pop. of urban district, 1714. 
 
 Galmar. See Kalmar. 
 
 Calne (Kaun), an old market-town of Wilt- 
 shire, 6 miles ESB. of Chippenham by a branch- 
 line (1863). It has a town-hall (1882), a free 
 grammar-school (1660), and a large bacon-curing 
 industry. A municipal borough, Calne returned 
 one member till 1885. Pop. 3455. 
 
 Caltabelotta (Arabic Kalaat-el-BalUd, ' castle 
 of the cork-trees '), a town of Sicily, 10 miles NE. 
 of Sciacca, with an ancient castle crowning a 
 steep rock above a stream. Pop. 6178. 
 
 Caltagirone (Kaltajeero'nay), a city of Sicily, 
 on two hills (2013 feet), 38 miles SW. of Catania. 
 Pop. 33,000. 
 
 Caltanisetta, a fortified town of Sicily, 83 
 miles SE. of Palermo by rail. It has a cathedral, 
 mineral springs, and sulphur- works. Pop. 44,500. 
 
 Calton Hill. See Edinburgh. 
 
 Calumet, a mining locality of Houghton county, 
 Michigan, on a peninsula of Lake Superior, 42 m. 
 N. of L'Aiise by rail. The Calumet and Hecla 
 copper-mine is one of the richest in the world. 
 
 Calvados (Kal-vad'os), a maritime dep. of Nor- 
 mandy. The principal rivers are the Touques, 
 Orne, Dives, Seniles, Aure, and Vire. The coast 
 is formed partly by bold ridges, partly by sand- 
 downs, cliffs, and reefs ; the dangerous reef ex- 
 tending for 16 miles between the mouths of the 
 Orne and the Vire was called Calvados, after the 
 Salvador, a vessel in the Spanish Armada ship- 
 wrecked here, and from it the dep. takes its 
 name. Towns are Caen (the capital), Bayeux, 
 Falaix, Honfleur, Lisieux, and Trouville. Area, 
 2130 sq. m. ; pop. (1861) 480,992 ; (1901) 410,178. 
 
 Calvi {Kal'vee), a seaport of Corsica, on a penin- 
 sula in the Gulf of Calvi, 38 miles WSW. of 
 Bastia. Captured by the English after a siege of 
 fifty-one days in 1794 (when Nelson lost an eye), it 
 was retaken by the Corsicans next year. Pop. 1987. 
 
 Calw, or Kalw (Kalv), a town of Wlirtemberg, 
 35 miles WSW. of Stuttgart. Pop. 5423. 
 
 Cam, or Granta, a sluggish narrow river, 
 which, rising in Essex, flows 40 miles NW. and 
 NE. through Cambridgeshire, and falls into the 
 Ouse 3f^ miles above Ely. 
 
 Oamargue. See Bouches du Rhone. 
 
 Cambaluc (Khan-Baligh, 'city of the em- 
 peror'), the name by which Marco made Pekin 
 (q.v.) known to Europe. 
 
 Camhay (Kliambhdt), the port and capital of 
 a small Indian feudatory state of Bombay presi- 
 dency, lies in the north-west portion of the 
 peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay, 
 52 miles S. of Ahmedabad. Many ruins still 
 attest its former magnificence, the main cause of 
 its decay having been the gradual obstruction 
 of its seaward navigation. It exports agate, 
 cornelian, and onyx ornaments. Pop. 31,390. 
 The area of Cambay state is 350 sq. m. ; pop. 
 79,722.— The Gulf of Cambay, 80 miles long and 
 25 broad, was formerly a great commercial resort. 
 
 Camberwell, a metropolitan and parliamentary 
 borough (three members) of London. Pop. of 
 met».bor. (1901) 259,339. 
 
 Cambodia, or Camboja (Fr. Cambodge), nomin- 
 ally a kingdom in Indo-China under a French 
 protectorate, but practically a French depend- 
 ency, on the lower course of the Mekong, between 
 Siam, Annam, and French Cochin-China, and 
 
 comprising an area of 38,000 sq. m. The coast, 
 156 miles long, offers but one port, Kampot. 
 The mountains of the north and west (some of 
 them over 3000 feet high) generally contain iron, 
 limestone, sandstone, and more sparingly, copper. 
 The greater part, however, of Cambodia consists 
 of alluvial plains, completely inundated during 
 the rainy season. In the north-east are forest- 
 clad tracts. The principal river is the Mekong, 
 Cambodia or Tonle-Tom, with its tributaries and 
 branching mouths ; a kind of backwater is the 
 Tonle-Sap, expanding into the Great Lake, 100 
 miles by 25 miles in area, with a depth of 65 feet 
 at its maximum. The climate is divided into the 
 rainy season from April to October, but inter- 
 rupted in August, and the dry from October to 
 April. The thermometer ranges from 70° to 104° 
 F. The natural products are rice, tobacco, salt 
 fish, betel, cotton, maize, pepper, cinnamon, 
 vanilla, cardamoms, sugar-cane, indigo, manioc, 
 ramee, sesame, gutta-percha, &c. The forests con- 
 tain excellent timber. Crocodiles are found in 
 the rivers. The population is about 1,500,000, 
 mainly of the Cambodian stock, with 100,000 
 Annamites, 150,000 Chinese, 40,000 Malays, and 
 a few hundreds of Frenchmen. Pnom-Penh, the 
 capital, at the junction of the 'Four Arms' of 
 the river, has a population of 35,000. The Cam- 
 bodians approach the Malay and Indian types, 
 are less Mongoloid and more nearly resemble the 
 Caucasian type than their neighbours ; they speak 
 a monosyllabic language. The principal industry 
 is the fishing of the Great Lake. In Kompong- 
 Soai are manufactures of iron. The total com- 
 merce of Cambodia is valued at from 10 to 12 
 million francs yearly. The religion of Cambodia 
 is a development of Buddhism, in which the wor- 
 ship of ancestors forms a large part. The most 
 remarkable feature of Cambodia is the splendid 
 ruins of Khmer architecture. The temples and 
 palaces of Angkor (the old capital, north of the 
 Great Lake, abandoned in the 14th century), 
 which were known to Portuguese missionaries in 
 the 16th century, have since 1858 been explored 
 by French and other travellers, and are even less 
 remarkable for their magnitude and number than 
 for their artistic value. They are believed to 
 range from the beginning of our era to the 15th 
 and 16th centuries, the finest dating from between 
 the 8th and 14th. 
 
 The ancient kingdom of Cambodia or Khmer 
 formerly extended over a large part of Indo- 
 China. Buddhism would appear to have been 
 introduced in the 4th century. In the 16th and 
 17th centuries Portuguese, Spaniards, and Dutch 
 successively set up their factories at the mouth 
 of the Mekong. In the I7th century the capital 
 was Cambodia or Pontaipret, a place now much 
 decayed, on the Mekong, opposite the mouth of 
 the Tonle-Sap. The Khmer kingdom has been 
 dismembered since the 17th century, by Annam 
 first, and then in 1812 by Siam. In 1863 France 
 concluded a treaty placing Cambodia under a 
 French protectorate, and since 1887 it is practi- 
 cally a province like Annam (q.v.) of French 
 Indo-China. See works by Mouhot (trans. 1864), 
 Vincent (1873), Thomson (1875), and others. 
 
 Camborne, a Cornish town, 12 miles WSW. of 
 Truro by rail. Round it are productive copper, 
 tin, and lead mines. Pop. of parish, 14,730. 
 
 Gambrai (anc. Caviaractim), a city and first- 
 class fortress of the French dep. of Nord, on 
 the Scheldt, 128 miles NNE. of Paris by rail. 
 Among the principal public buildings are the 
 town-house, archiepiscopal palace, and cathedral 
 
OAMBRIDQE 
 
 146 
 
 CAMBUSLANa 
 
 (rebuilt after the fire of 1859), with a monument 
 to F6n61on. The town also contains a colleg^ 
 theological seminary, and library, with 40,000 
 vols, and 1200 MSS. The manufactures are 
 cambric— so named from Cambrai— linen thread, 
 lace, sugar, soap, leather, &c. Pop. (1872)22,897 ; 
 (1901) 15,000. The League of Cambrai was formed 
 in 1508 by the pope, the emperor, and the kings 
 of France and Spain. 
 
 Cambridge (Kaim'bHj), county town of Cam- 
 bridceshire, lies on the Cam, 58 miles N. by B. 
 of I^ndon, and 76 NE. of Oxford. Two import- 
 ant Roman roads, Akeman Street and the Via 
 Devana, here cross the valley of the Cam, and 
 were guarded by the station Camboritum, the 
 outlines of which can still be clearly traced on 
 the north side of the river. In its centre is the 
 partly artificial mound, now known as Castle 
 Hill, which is probably a relic of a yet older 
 British city. The Saxon town of Grantabrygge 
 occupied the site of Camborititm, and it was here 
 that the Norman castle was built. The present 
 town, as distinguished from the university, has 
 not many features of interest. It possesses a 
 guildhall, corn exchange, free public library, and 
 jail. There is also a fine county hospital founded 
 under the will of Dr Addenbrooke in 1743, and 
 an extensive recreation ground named Parker's 
 Piece. Of the churches St Benedict's or Benets 
 has a tower which is a fine specimen of the so- 
 called Saxon architecture, and the church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre is the oldest of the four round 
 churches in England, having been built in 1101 
 in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre 
 at Jerusalem. It was restored by the Camden 
 Society in 1841. The parish church of Great St 
 Mary's is also the church of the university, at 
 which all academic services are held. In 1887-90 
 there was built a fine R. C. church, with a spire 
 215 feet high. The country round Cambridge is 
 somewhat flat and dull; but on the west side 
 the grounds known as ' the Backs ' of the col- 
 leges are very beautiful, consisting of gardens, 
 meadows, and avenues. The Cam flows tlirough 
 them, and is crossed by nine bridges. Above 
 Cambridge the Cam is a small but picturesque 
 stream. Below Cambridge it is dull and ugly, 
 but is used for boat-racing. Since 1885 the 
 borough of Cambridge has sent one member to 
 parliament, instead of two as formerly. Pop. 
 (1851) 27,815; (1871) 30,078; (1901) 47,737, of 
 whom 38,393 were within the municipal borough. 
 
 The university, dating from about the 12th 
 century, comprises the following colleges in the 
 order of their antiquity : St Peter's, Clare, Pem- 
 broke, Caius, Trinity Hall, Corpus Christi, King's, 
 Queens', St Catharine's, Jesus, Christ's, St John's, 
 Magdalene, Trinity, Emmanuel, Sidney Sussex, 
 Downing, Selwyn. Ridley Hall (a theological 
 training-college), Westminster (Presbyterian) Col- 
 lege, and Girton and Newuhain colleges for women 
 are no part of the university. Teacliers number 
 120, students 3000. Chief among college buildings 
 are King's (1441), with its noble Perpendicular 
 chapel ; Trinity, with its courts, its hall, and its 
 library by Wren ; and John's, with its splendid 
 new chapel (1869) by Scott. There are also the 
 library, Senate house, Pitzwilliam museum, 
 observatory, union, &c. See works by J. Bass 
 MuUinger (2 vols. 1873-84), and Willis and Clark 
 (4 vols. 1889), besides Humphry's short Guide 
 (5th ed. 1890). 
 
 Among its ' wranglers ' (those who constitute 
 the first-class after the public mathematical 
 honour examinations) have been the great 
 English mathematiciana for many generations. 
 
 But amongst the eminent men Cambridge has 
 sent forth have been men as various as Cranmer, 
 Ridley, Latimer, Parker, Tillotson, Tenison, 
 Jeremy Taylor, Isaac Barrow, Paley, Cudworth, 
 Wollaston, Bentley, Porson, Lord Bacon, Harvey, 
 Sir Isaac Newton, Lord Burghley, Falkland, 
 Straff'ord, Oliver Cromwell, Pitt, Palmerston, 
 Fuller, Pepys, H. Walpole, Wilberforce, Macaulay, 
 Thackeray, Lytton, Darwin, Marlowe, Fletcher, 
 Spenser, Milton, Ben Jonson, Waller, Herrick, 
 Dryden, Cowley, Gray, Byron, Coleridge, Words- 
 worth, Tennyson. 
 
 Cambridge, a city of Massachusetts, virtually 
 a suburb of Boston (q.v.), from which it is separ- 
 ated by the Charles River, is principally distin- 
 guished as the seat of Harvard University ; it was 
 the home from 1836 of Longfellow, who lived in a 
 house formerly occupied by Washington. Cam- 
 bridge was first settled in 1630, and is therefore 
 one of the oldest towns in New England. It 
 early became noted for its printing industry, 
 and the manufiicture of books is now one of its 
 leading industries ; besides which there are large 
 manufactories of furniture, glass, ironware, tin- 
 ware, bricks, chemicals, net and twine, sugar, 
 soap, and rubber. Within the limits of the city 
 are comprised the different localities of Old Cam- 
 bridge, or Cambridge proper, whicli is distinc- 
 tively the seat of the university ; East Cambridge 
 or Lechmere Point, a manufacturing district ; 
 Cambridgeport, where is located the city hall, 
 numerous churches, several banks, a convent, 
 and some manufactories ; and North Cambridge, 
 which is principally devoted to residences. Here 
 Washington assumed command in 1775. The 
 famous cemetery of Mount Auburn is partly in 
 Cambridge and partly in Watertown. Pop. of 
 Cambridge (1870) 39,364 ; (1900) 91,886. 
 
 Cambridgeshire, an inland eastern county of 
 England, 48 miles long, Hi to 33 miles broad, 
 and 821 sq. m. or 525,182 acres in area. As 
 much as 92 per cent, of that area consists of 
 arable land, meadow, and pasture, the rest being 
 fens. The surface, except in the south, which 
 is somewhat elevated and on the chalk forma- 
 tions, is flat and thinly wooded, with villages 
 and churches here and there on slight elevations 
 called ' eys ' or islands. In a country less level 
 the much-vaunted Gog-Magog Hills, 4 miles SE. 
 of Cambridge, would escape observation. The 
 northern portion of Cambridgeshire forms part 
 of the Bedford Level (q.v.). The chief of the 
 sluggish rivers are the Ouse, which crosses the 
 middle of the county from west to east, with 
 its tributary the Cam ; the Nene, whicli borders 
 the county on the north ; and the Lark. These 
 are all navigable to a certain extent. The chief 
 towns are Cambridge, Ely, Wisbeach, March, 
 Thorney, Linton, Soham, Newmarket, and Roy- 
 ston. Cambridgeshire returns three members to 
 parliament, one for each of the Chesterton, New- 
 market, and Wisbeach divisions. Pop. (1801) 
 89,346; (1841) 164,459; (1871) 186,906; (1901) 
 190,687. Of four great dykes or earthworks the 
 chief is the Devil's Ditch, extending 7 miles 
 south-eastward from Reach to Wood-Ditton. It 
 is 18 feet high on the east side, and was certainly 
 of pre-Roman workmanship, as it is cut through 
 by Roman roads. See works by Holl (1882) and 
 Babington (1883). 
 
 Cambuskenneth, a ruined abbey (1147), on 
 the Forth, near Stirling. James III. and his 
 queen are buried here. 
 
 Cambuslang, a mining town of Lanarkshire, 
 4 miles SB. of Glasgow. Here a revival, known 
 
CAMBUSNETHAN 
 
 147 
 
 CAMPSIE 
 
 as the ' Camb'slang Wark,' was lielcl, under Wliite- 
 field, in 1741. Pop. (1881) 5538 ; (1901) 12,252. 
 
 Cambusnetlian. See Wishaw. 
 
 Camden, a city and port of entry of New 
 Jersey, on the left bank of the Delaware River, 
 opposite Philadelphia, with which it is connected 
 by steam-ferries. It has shipyards and dry- 
 docks, foundries, cotton and woollen mills, and 
 manufactures of machinery, ironwares, paints 
 oilcloths, &c. Pop. (1880) 41,659 ; (1900) 75,935. 
 
 Camden Place, a Kentish seat, 2 miles ENE. 
 of Bromley. Here lived and died the antiquary 
 Camden. 
 
 Camden Town, a north suburb of London. 
 
 Camelford, a quaint little Cornish town, near 
 the source of the Camel ('crooked brook'), 15 
 miles W, of Launceston. Within 3 miles of it is 
 the traditionary scene of King Arthur's last 
 battle ; also near are the great slate-quarries of 
 Delabole. ' Ossian ' Macpherson was member for 
 Camelford, which was disfranchised in 1832. Pop. 
 of Lanteglos parish, 1370. 
 
 Cam'elon. See Falkirk. 
 
 Camerino (Kamayree'no ; anc, Camerinum), a 
 town of Central Italy, on a spur of the Apennines, 
 41 miles S\V. of Ancona. It has an archiepiscopal 
 cathedral occupying the site of a temple to 
 Jupiter, and a university (1727). Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Cameroon (often Cameroons ; in German spelt 
 Kamerun), a German colony on the west coast of 
 Africa, extending from the Rio del Rey, a little 
 east of the Old Calabar River, southwards to 
 a point slightly below 3° N. lat., where it is 
 bounded by French Congo. On the north-west, 
 the boundary is a line from the Rio del Rey to 
 near Yola on the Benue, and thence to Lake 
 Chad. The eastern boundary is understood to 
 be about the meridian 15° E. This would make 
 Adamawa and part of Bagirmi the ' Hinterland ' 
 of Cameroon. But the arrangements, on this 
 head and as to the boimdary towards the interior 
 agreed on by Germany and Britain in 1893, were 
 hotly contested by the French. The area has 
 been estimated at 190,000 sq. m., and the pop. at 
 3,500,000. The name is derived from the Came- 
 roon River (Port, camardo, 'a shrimp'), which 
 enters the Bight of Biafra opposite Fernando Po 
 by an estuary over 20 miles wide. The low 
 mangrove swamps that clothe its banks render 
 the climate very trying to Europeans ; but much 
 of the interior is high-lying and healthy. The 
 natives belong to the Bantu group, the Duallas 
 living nearest the coast. In 1884 the German 
 flag was hoisted at Cameroon, and by 1893 the 
 revenue decidedly exceeded the expenditure. 
 The country is very fertile ; ebony, red-wood, 
 and palm-trees clothing the Cameroon, which 
 also has long been noted as. an 'oil river,' and 
 for its cotton and ivory ; while many tropical 
 fruits grow wild. North-west of the estuary lie 
 the Cameroon Mountains, a volcanic group, which 
 attain a height of 13,746 feet in the peak Mongo 
 ma Lobah ('mount of the gods '), first scaled by 
 Burton and Mann in 1862. 
 
 Campagna, a cathedral city of Italy, 13 miles 
 E. of Salerno. Pop. 6896. 
 
 Campagna dl Roma (Kampan'ya dee Rom'a), an 
 undulating, mostly uncultivated plain of Italy, 
 nirrounding Rome, including the greatest part of 
 mcient Latium, with a length of about 90 miles, 
 md an extreme breadth inland, to the Alban 
 md Sabine hills, of 40 miles. A broad strip of 
 landy plain skirts the Mediterranean, with a 
 hick fringe of pines. The ground is almost 
 
 entirely volcanic, the lakes being formed by 
 craters of extinct volcanoes, and the broad Tiber 
 winds across the plain between banks of tufa, 
 of which tlie Seven Hills of Rome are composed. 
 Of late some drainage has been attempted, and 
 eucalyptus plantations have been made in the 
 hope of reducing the malarious conditions. 
 
 Campanha, a town of Brazil, 150 miles NW. 
 of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Campania, anciently a province on the west 
 coast of Italy, having Capua as its capital, and 
 now subdivided into the provinces of Benevento, 
 Naples, Salerno, Avellino, and Caserta. It was 
 one of the most productive plains in the world. 
 
 Campbell Island, a lonely island to the south 
 of New Zealand, in 52° 34' S. lat., and 169° 12' E. 
 long. Though 1498 feet high, and only 85 sq. m. 
 in area, it is yet valuable for its harbours. Dis- 
 covered in 1810, it served as an observatory dur- 
 ing the Transit of Venus in 1874. 
 
 Campbelltown, an Inverness-shire village, on 
 the Moray Firth, 12 miles NE. of Inverness. 
 Pop. 648. 
 
 Campbeltown, a royal burgh and seaport of 
 Argyllshire, on the E. coast of the Kintyre pen- 
 insula, 83 miles SW. of Glasgow by water. It 
 curves ro"und the head of a sea-loch (2| x | mile), 
 which is sheltered by Davarr Island (300 feet 
 high), and forms a magnificent harbour. The 
 place is an important fishing centre, and has 
 upwards of twenty whisky distilleries. With 
 the other Ayr burghs it returns one member to 
 parliament. Dr Norman Macleod was a native. 
 Pop. (1841) 6797 ; (1901) 8286. 
 
 Campden, a Gloucestershire market-town, 9J 
 miles ESE. of Evesham, Pop. of Chipping 
 Campden parish, 1536. 
 
 Oampeachy (San Francisco de Campeche), a 
 seaport on the west side of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan. It has a citadel, university, naval 
 academy, and shipbuilding docks. The haven 
 is safe, but very shallow, and the trade, prin- 
 cipally in logwood and wax, has greatly fallen 
 off' ; while cigars and palm-leaf hats are almost 
 the only manufactures. Founded in the middle 
 of the 16th century, it was taken, occupied, and 
 burned by buccaneers in 1685. Pop. 16,600. 
 
 Camperdown (Dutch Camperdicin), a broad 
 tract of low dunes in North Holland, 25 miles 
 N. of Haarlem. Off" here Admiral Duncan de- 
 feated the Dutch fleet under Admiral Winter, 
 October 11, 1797. 
 
 Campinas, SXo Carlos de (Kampee'nas), a town 
 of Brazil, 44 m. NW. of Sao Paulo. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Campine (Kam'peen), a barren district in the 
 provinces of Antwerp and Limburg in Belgium. 
 
 Campobasso, a town of South Italy, among 
 the Apennines, 52 miles N. of Benevento by rail. 
 Pop. 15,594. 
 
 Campobello, two towns of Sicily. (1) Campo- 
 BELLO Di LiCATA, 17 milcs N. of Licata by rail, 
 with sulphur-mines. Pop. 7481.— (2) Campobello 
 Di Mazzaro, 32 miles SSE. of Trapani by rail. 
 Pop. 6586. 
 
 Campo-Formio, a village of Northern Italy, 6 
 miles SW. of Udine. Here peace was concluded 
 on 17th October 1797 between Austria and the 
 French Republic. 
 
 Campos, Sao Salvador dos, a town in the 
 Brazilian province of Rio de Janeiro, on the 
 Parahyba, 30 miles from its mouth. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Campsie, a Stirlingshire parish, 12 miles N. by 
 E. of Glasgow. The Campsie Fells (1894 feet) 
 
CAMPVERE 
 
 148 
 
 CANADA 
 
 are part of the Lennox Hills. Norman Macleod 
 is buried in the graveyard. 
 
 Oampvere (now Vere, Veere, or Ter-Vere), a 
 small fortified Dutch town on the north-east of 
 the island of Walcheren, with a port on the 
 Veergat, which separates Walcheren from North 
 Beveland. The town has fallen into decay ; but 
 its former prosperity is indicated by such large 
 edifices as the town-house and cathedral church. 
 Pop. about 900. From 1444 till 1795 it was the 
 seat of a Scottish factory, the only staple port 
 between Scotland and the Netherlands. 
 
 Gana, of Galilee, the scene of our Lord's 
 first miracle, and the birthplace of Nathanael, 
 was situated in the neighbourhood of Capernaum, 
 to the W. of the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Canaan (' low-land '), the name originally ap- 
 plied to the low coast-land of Palestine on the 
 Mediterranean, inhabited by the Canaanites 
 (strictly so called), as opposed to the mountain- 
 land. Later it became extended to the whole 
 country, yet only to the part west of the Jordan, 
 the part east of Jordan being contrasted with it 
 as the ' Land of Gilead.' 
 
 Canada (probably derived from an Indian word 
 kannatha, meaning a village, but understood by 
 the first French discoverers to apply to the 
 country at large), a British dominion occupying 
 the northern part of North America. Canada 
 originally comprised the vast territory extending 
 as far west as the Mississippi, and including the 
 great lakes, which was ceded to Great Britain by 
 France in 1763. Subsequently, at the termina- 
 tion of the War of Independence, it was limited 
 to the region now occupied by the provinces of 
 Ontario and Quebec, described prior to 1867 as 
 Upper and Lower Canada respectively. The 
 Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the 
 colonies of British North America, constituted in 
 1867. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick were the first to unite. 
 The Hudson Bay Territory was acquired from 
 the company, a portion of it formed into the 
 province of Manitoba, the remainder designated 
 the North-west Territories, and both were ad- 
 mitted into the confederation in 1870. Part of 
 the North-west Territories was subsequently 
 divided into districts — Keewatin in 1876, and 
 Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Atha- 
 basca in 1882. In 1871 British Columbia, and 
 in 1873 Prince Edward Island, became parties to 
 the Union, which now includes the whole of 
 British North America, except Newfoundland. 
 
 Canada is bounded on the N. by the Arctic 
 Ocean, on the W. by the Pacific and Alaska, on 
 the E. by Newfoundland and the Atlantic, and 
 on the S. by the United States. Both the 
 Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep 
 indentations forming magnificent harbours and 
 sheltered bays. The most striking physical feat- 
 ures of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the 
 Laurentian Range (which forms the watershed 
 between Hudson Bay and the St Lawrence, and 
 varies in height from 1000 to 3000 feet), and the 
 chain of immense fresh- water lakes. The eastern 
 portions of Canada are generally well timbered, 
 as are also British Columbia and the North-west 
 Territories north of the Saskatchewan. West- 
 ward of the Red River, between the 49th and 
 55th parallels of latitude, there is an immense 
 fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and 
 grazing (the eastern end being about 800 feet, 
 and the western about 3000 feet, above the level 
 of the sea), extending nearly to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. This range consists of triple chains with 
 
 valleys between ; the most easterly has the gi-eat- 
 est elevation near the 52d parallel, the highest 
 peaks being Mount Brown (16,000), Mount Mur- 
 chison (15,789), and Mount Hooker (15,700). The 
 average height of the chain is from 7000 to 8000 
 feet. Canada is well watered, the map present- 
 ing a network of lakes and rivers. The system 
 of the St Lawrence alone, with the great lakes 
 Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario 
 (between the last are the celebrated falls of 
 Niagara), drains an area in Canada of 330,000 
 sq. m. With their outlet the lakes form the 
 greatest fresh-Avater way in the world. Other 
 important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, 
 Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great 
 Bear, and Athabasca. Other rivers are the Sas- 
 katchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into 
 Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it 
 into Hudson Bay ; the Assiniboine and the Red 
 River, which flow into Lake Winnipeg ; the 
 Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson 
 Bay ; the Athabasca and the Peace rivers, flow- 
 ing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, 
 from it into Great Slave Lake ; the Mackenzie, 
 fed from both the Great Slave and the Great 
 Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean ; 
 tlie Eraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, 
 emptying into the Pacific ; the Ottawa and the 
 Saguenay, emptying into the St Lawrence ; and 
 the St John, in New Brunswick, which it partly 
 separates from the State of Maine. The principal 
 islands of the Dominion are : on the east. Cape 
 Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen islands, 
 and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St Lawrence ; and 
 on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen 
 Charlotte Islands. All the great Arctic islands, 
 except Greenland, belong to Canada. 
 
 The cold in winter and the heat in summer are 
 greater than in Great Britain, but the climate is 
 a healthy one. Spring commences two or three 
 weeks later than in England, but the conditions 
 for the rapid growth of produce— warm sunshine 
 and a sufficiency of rain — are so favourable that 
 the crops of the two countries are about equally 
 advanced by the middle of July. The winter 
 may be said to continue from the middle of 
 November to the end of March, or about four 
 and a half months. British Columbia probably 
 possesses the finest climate in North America. 
 In some inland parts of Canada the maximum 
 temperature may be from 90° to 96°, and the 
 minimum from 20° to 26° below zero. But al- 
 though there are these extremes, the air is always 
 dry, bracing, and exhilarating. All the grain and 
 fruit crops grown in England flourish in Canada ; 
 and many species raised in England under glass, 
 such as grapes, peaches, melons, and tomatoes, 
 ripen in southern Canada in the open air. Canada 
 is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and 
 about 600,000 sq. m. larger than the United States 
 Without Alaska. At the census of 1901 the area 
 and population of provinces and districts were : 
 Area, sq. m. Pop. 
 
 Prince Edward Island 2,000 103,259 
 
 Nova Scotia 20,550 459,674 
 
 New Brunswick 28,100 331,120 
 
 Quebec 227,500 1,648,898 
 
 Ontario B19,650 2,181,947 
 
 Manitoba 64,066 2.55,211 
 
 British Columbia 382,300 178.667 
 
 Territories, Islands, &o 2,371.481 211,649 
 
 3,315,647 5.371,316 
 
 In all, 4,671,815 were natives of Canada, 386,545 
 of the United Kingdom, 19,338 of other parts of« 
 the British empire, 127,899 of the United States, ■ 
 
CANADA 
 
 149 
 
 CANADA 
 
 of China, Scandinavia, France, and Italy; 
 1,649,371 were French -spealting. There were 
 108,112 Indians. Alberta and Saskatchewan (ab- 
 sorbing Assiniboia and Athabasca) were consti- 
 tuted provinces in 1905. The chief towns are 
 Montreal (267,730), Toronto (208,040), Quebec 
 (08,840), Ottawa, capital of the Dominion (59,928), 
 Hamilton (52,634), Winnipeg (42,340), Halifax 
 (40,832), and St John (40,711). Catholics num- 
 ber 2,229,600, Presbyterians 842,442, Anglicans 
 680,620, Methodists 916,886, and Baptists 316,477. 
 English is generally spoken in the Dominion, but 
 in some parts of the province of Quebec, French 
 is the only language understood. In the Domin- 
 ion, Quebec, and Manitoba parliaments, members 
 may address the House in either language. The 
 French spoken by the liahitants, as the French- 
 Canadians are called, is a patois which in many 
 respects resembles the French of the I7th cen- 
 tury more closely than the French of modern 
 Paris. The principal universities are, in the 
 order in which they were founded, as follows : 
 Dalhousie(N.S.), 1820; M'Gill (Que.), 1821; New 
 Brunswick, 1828 ; Toronto (Ont.), 1828 ; Queen's, 
 Kingston (Ont.), 1841 ; Laval (Que.), 1852 ; Mani- 
 toba, 1877. The government also established 
 (1874) the Royal Military College at Kingston 
 (Ont.). Canada has passed beyond the mother- 
 country in many social questions. Thus, as 
 regards the liquor traffic, local option prevails ; 
 by an Act of the Dominion Parliament in 1882, 
 marriage with a deceased wife's sister was legal- 
 ised ; religious liberty prevails ; there is practi- 
 cally free and unsectarian education, and a free 
 and liberal franchise ; members of parliament are 
 paid for their services ; the parliaments are quin- 
 quennial; and there is no system for legalising 
 pauperism, although orphans and the helpless and 
 aged of both sexes are not neglected. 
 
 Between the years 1879 and 1903 the annual 
 value of Canadian imports varied from $81,965,000 
 (1879) and $241,214,961 (1903) ; while that of ex- 
 ports rose from $71,491,000 (1879) to $225,849,724 
 (1903). In 1903 the exports to Great Britain were 
 $131,202,000, and to the United States $71,784,000 ; 
 while the imports from Britain were $58,894,000, 
 and from the United States $137,605,000. Chief 
 imports are iron manufactures, wool manufac- 
 tures, coal and coke, sugar, cotton and cotton 
 manufactures, bread-stuffs, silks, chemicals ; 
 exports are lumber and other forest-products 
 ($39,536,958, including wood-pulp), cheese 
 ($24,712,943), cattle, wheat and wheat flour 
 ($29,265,840), barley, and other agricultural pro- 
 ducts, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals. 
 These figures do not give an accurate idea of the 
 total trade of Canada ; they only embrace the 
 outside trade, and do not include the large busi- 
 ness which takes place between the provinces. 
 Canadian fisheries are, as regards the area 
 available, the largest in the world, embracing 
 nearly 5600 miles of sea-coast, in addition to 
 inland seas, innumerable lakes, and a great 
 number of rivers teeming with fish ; and there are 
 twelve fish-breeding establishments in different 
 parts of the Dominion. Tlie total A^alue of the 
 produce of the fisheries varies from $21,000,000 to 
 over $25,000,000 annually. 
 
 The minerals are chiefly coal, gold, copper, 
 iron, phosphates, salt, antimony, mineral oils, 
 and gypsum. Gold-mines have been and are 
 being worked in Nova Scotia, in Quebec, and 
 Ontario, and largely in British Columbia, where 
 there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver- 
 mines are being worked in Ontario ; and that at 
 Silver Islet, Thunder Bay (on Lake Superior), has 
 
 been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron 
 ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has 
 been mined to a considerable extent both in 
 Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore 
 are of great extent. There are very large coal- 
 deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British 
 Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal 
 is known to exist over a vast region stretching 
 from 150 to 200 miles east of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and north from the frontier for about 1000 
 miles. The total value of the mining produce of 
 Caivada averages over $65,000,000 annually. 
 
 The forest-products of Canada constitute one 
 of her most important sources of wealth. They 
 find their way to all parts of the world— to the 
 United States, to the United Kingdom, and to 
 the Australian colonies. Canadian cattle are of 
 good quality, many pedigree and highly priced 
 cattle having been imported for the improvement 
 of the flocks and herds. Herds of Shorthorns, 
 Herefords, Galloways, Polled Angus, and Jerseys 
 are to be found in many parts of Canada. Great 
 progress has been made in dairy-farming, and the 
 factory system has been latterly introduced in 
 the older provinces. There are factories for mak- 
 ing cheese, and creameries for butter. Agricul- 
 ture is the leading interest of the country. 
 Mixed farming is generally carried on, the grow- 
 ing of grain and fruit, stock-raising, and dairy- 
 farming being more or less combined. Great 
 progress has recently been made in the develop- 
 ment of manufactures. The 'national policy' 
 comprises a high protective system, but siiice 
 1901 gives a preference to Britain. 
 
 There are nearly 19,000 miles of railway in 
 Canada. The Canadian Pacific Railway (4319 
 miles) was completed in 1885 ; by it the distance 
 from Liverpool to Japan and China is shorter by 
 1000 miles than vid New York and San Fran- 
 cisco. In 1905 the Grand Trunk system 
 was planning extension to the Pacific, and the 
 Dominion government proposed another line to 
 the north of the Canadian Pacific. The railway 
 is not only of importance locally to Canada, as 
 connecting the various provinces and opening up 
 the vast North-west Territories for settlement, 
 but it is of imperial importance as providing a 
 new route to Australasia and the East, available 
 for commerce, and for military and naval pur- 
 poses. The canals of Canada are woi-ks of great 
 utility and importance. The channel of the St 
 Lawrence has been deepened, and vessels of 5000 
 and 6000 tons now reach Montreal, 700 miles 
 from the Atlantic Ocean. There is a system of 
 canals to overcome the St Lawrence rapids, and 
 the difference in the levels of the great lakes 
 (600 feet) which affords uninterrupted navigation 
 from the Strait of Belleisle to the head of Lake 
 Superior, a distance of 2384 miles, of which 71J 
 miles are canals. A scheme has been proposed 
 for a new route between Britain and North-west 
 Canada through Hudson Bay, Avith a railway 
 from Port Nelson to Manitoba. There are regu- 
 lar lines of steamers between Canada and Britain, 
 and from Vancouver to Australia and China and 
 Japan. The postal and telegraph systems are 
 very complete, and the Pacific cable from Van- 
 couver to Australia was completed in 1902. 
 
 The revenue of the Dominion in the years 1887 
 to 1905 varied from $35,754,000 (1887) to over 
 $66,000,000 ; the expenditure from $35,658,000 to 
 $52,000,000. The constitution of Canada is con- 
 tained in the British North America Act of 1867. 
 The government of Canada is federal. The pro- 
 vinces have local legislatures, and they also elect 
 the Federal Parliament which sits at Ottawa. 
 
CANADA 
 
 150 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS 
 
 llie Executive Government and authority of and 
 over Canada is vested in the crown of Great 
 Britain. The governor-general for the time 
 being, whose emoluments are paid out of the 
 Canadian revenue, carries on the government in 
 the name of the sovereign, with the assistance 
 of a council, known as the cabinet, consisting of 
 the heads of the various departments, which 
 is responsible to the House of Commons. The 
 Dominion Parliameut consists of an upper house, 
 styled the Senate (81 members), and the House 
 of Commons (214 members). The senators are 
 nominated for life by the governor in coutficil. 
 The commons are elected every five years, unless 
 the House be dissolved before its course has 
 run; and there is a special franchise distinct 
 from that in force for the provincial assemblies. 
 At the head of each of the provinces is a 
 lieutenant-governor, appointed by the gover- 
 nor in council, and paid by the Dominion, who 
 is the link between tlie provinces and the Federal 
 Government. Quebec and Nova Scotia have each 
 a two-chamber legislature; New Brunswick, 
 Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince 
 Edward Island only single-chamber assemblies. 
 The executive in each province is responsible to the 
 local legislature. The North-west Territories are 
 administered by a lieutenant-governor and a 
 council, partly elected and partly nominated. 
 Legislation upon local matters is delegated, as a 
 general rule, to the provinces. There is also a 
 very perfect system of municipal government 
 throughout the Dominion. Both the counties 
 and townships have their local councils, which 
 regulate the taxation for roads, schools, and 
 other purposes, so that every man directly votes 
 for the taxes he is called upon to pay. Local 
 taxation is very light. 
 
 In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed near Gaspe and 
 took possession of Canada for the king of France ; 
 but little was done by way of settlement till 
 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From 
 this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova 
 Scotia) to Lake Superior and dowa the Missis- 
 sippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be 
 French territory. The struggle between Great 
 Britain and France for supremacy was long 
 and bitter, but ended in 17(33 with the Treaty 
 of Paris, by which all the French dominions 
 in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small 
 islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, retained as 
 fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory. Nova 
 Scotia, and Newfoundland, had passed to Eng- 
 land by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Through 
 the American War of Independence, what is now 
 Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, 
 and Illinois, was lost in 1783 to the United 
 States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was 
 in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. 
 A rebellion took place in 1837-38, and the pro- 
 vinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward 
 Island and New Brunswick were separated from 
 Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia 
 was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver 
 Island joined to it in 1S66. The confederation of 
 all the British North American provinces— ex- 
 cept Newfoundland— took i)lace in 1867-71, and 
 the prosperity of the Dominion was only tempo- 
 rarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 
 1869. The fishery rights have repeatedly been 
 a source of difficulty between Canada and the 
 mother-country on the one hand and the United 
 States on the other, and the dispute about seal- 
 ing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts 
 was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The 
 long-existing dispute as to the boundary between 
 
 Canada and the United States territory of Alaska 
 was finally settled by a joint commi.ssion in 1908. 
 
 There are French histories of Canada by 
 Faillon, Garneau, and Revilland ; in English by 
 Tuttle (1878), G. Bryce (1887), Kingsford (8 vols. 
 1888-98), and Roberts (1898). See also works 
 by Fream (18S9), Munro (1890), Goldwin Smith 
 (1891), Lucas (1901), Bradley (1904). 
 
 Canadian River, a shallow tributary of the 
 Arkansas, rising in the NE. part of New Mexico, 
 and running 900 miles generally eastward through 
 Texas and Indian Territory to the Arkansas. Its 
 largest tributary is the Rio Nutria, or North Fork 
 of the Canadian, which runs parallel to the main 
 stream for about 600 miles. 
 
 Canandaigua, the capital of Ontario county, 
 New York, at the north end of Lake Canandaigua, 
 28 miles SE. of Rochester by rail. Pop. 6168. 
 
 Canary Islands, a Spanish group in the 
 Atlantic Ocean, where 15° W. long, crosses 29° 
 N. lat. ; the nearest is only 62^ geographical 
 miles from the NW. coast of Africa. There are 
 seven large and several small islets, with a joint 
 area of 2808 .sq. m., and a population of 360,000. 
 The principal islands, proceeding from east to 
 west, are Lanzarote (323 sq. m.), Fuerteventura 
 (326), Gran Canaria (758), Tenerife (877), Gomera 
 (169), Palma (718), and Hierro or Ferro (82). The 
 coasts are steep and rocky, and the surface is 
 diversified with high mountains, narrow gorges, 
 and deep valleys, the loftiest summit being the 
 Peak of Tenerife (12,200 feet). All the islands 
 are volcanic, and everywhere show plain marks of 
 their origin, in the shape of cones, craters, beds of 
 tuff and pumice, and streams of lava ; but erup- 
 tions have taken place within the historical 
 period only in Tenerife, Palma, and Lanzarote. 
 There are no rivers, and on several of the islands 
 water is very scarce. Upwards of 900 species of 
 wild flowering plants have been found on these 
 islands — 420 of them peculiar to the group, and 
 48 others common to it and to the other North 
 Atlantic islands, but found nowliere else. The 
 flora as a whole is mainly of a South European 
 character, with a large infusion of African genera. 
 As to the cultivated plants, the warmth of the 
 lowest region allows of the growth of the sugar- 
 cane, sweet potato, bananas, date-palm, &c. ; 
 whilst above, to the height of 3000 feet, the 
 vine and various cereals are cultivated in a 
 climate resembling that of the south of Em-ope. 
 Minerals are few and of little importance. The 
 temperature near the sea is genial. The mean 
 annual rainfall amounts to 14 inches. In conse- 
 quence of the higher temperature, the less rain- 
 fall, and drier atmosphere compared with Madeira, 
 and of the much increased facilities for reaching 
 the islands, Orotava and Las Palmas are coming 
 into note as winter-resorts for invalids. A few 
 years ago cochineal was the staple production, 
 but the competition of aniline dyes has been 
 severely felt, and cocliineal, no longer bringing 
 in a good profit, has fallen into neglect. The 
 cultivation of the vine (almost ruined after 1853 
 by the grape disease) and sugar-cane is extend- 
 ing ; wine being exported to the European conti- 
 nent, and sugar to Spain. Tobacco is also grown. 
 Submarine cables connect the islands both with 
 the continent of Europe and the African coast. 
 
 The Canaries, the Fortunate I.slands of the, 
 ancients, were rediscovered in 1334, when a 
 French vessel was driven amongst them by a 
 storm. In 1404 the Norman Jean de Bethen-j 
 court, having obtained assistance from Spain, 
 mastered four of the islands. His successor! 
 
CANCALE 
 
 151 
 
 CAUTERBtJRir 
 
 having sold his rights in Spain, they were after- 
 wards acquired by the king, who sent a large 
 force in 1477 to conquer the Guanches, a brave 
 and intelligent race of large stature, and com- 
 paratively fair. Their origin is unknown, but 
 they are assumed by many to have been of 
 Berber or of Libyan stock. Their resistance was 
 so stubborn, that it was not until 1495 that the 
 last of the islands was finally annexed to Spain, 
 of which they now form a province. 
 
 See works by Pegot-Ogier (Eng. trans. 2 vols. 
 1882), Olivia Stone (1888), C. Edwardes (1889), 
 G. W. Strettell (1890), J. Whitford (1890), and 
 J. H. T. Ellerbroke (1892> 
 
 Cancale {Konokdhl'), a bathing-place in the 
 French dep. of Ille-et-Vilaine, 8 miles ENE. of St 
 Malo, on Cancale Bay, famous for its oysters. 
 Pop. 3723, or with the port. La Houle, 6578. 
 
 Candahar. See Kandahar. 
 
 Gaudeish. See Khandesh. 
 
 Candla is the name of a town of Crete (once 
 the capital), and was long the only name by 
 which the island was known in Western Etu'ope. 
 The city of Candla stands on the north coast of 
 the island, north of Mount Ida. Its harbour is 
 sanded up. Pop. 22,800. See Crkte. 
 
 Candy. See Kandy. 
 
 Canea (anc. Cydonia), present capital and chief 
 commercial town of Crete, on tlie north-west 
 coast, with a fine harbour. Pop. 24,500. 
 
 Canelones (Kan-ay-lo'nez), a dep. of Uruguay. 
 Area, 1827 sq. m. ; pop. 86,750. Capital, Guade- 
 lupe, 30 m. N. of Monte Video by rail ; pop, 3000. 
 
 Canicatti, a town of Sicily, on the Naro, 24 
 miles ENE. of Girgenti by rail. Pop. 19,599. 
 
 Ganna, one of the Inverness-shire Hebrides, 
 12 miles SW. of Skye, and 3 NW. of Rum. It 
 rises to 800 feet, and is 4^ miles long, 1 mile 
 broad, and 4^ sq. m. in area. With the adjoining 
 island of Sanday (1 sq. m.) its population in 1841 
 was 225 ; it is now under 100, mostly Catholic. 
 
 Gannaa, an ancient town of Apulia, Southern 
 Italy, near the mouth of the Aufidus (now 
 Ofanto), and 1^ mile N. of the modern Canosa. 
 Here, in 216 B.C., Hannibal defeated the Romans 
 with prodigious slaughter. 
 
 Cannanore, a seaport and cantonment of 
 Malabar, Madras, 50 miles N. of Calicut. Pop. 
 27,818. 
 
 Cannes (Kdnn), a watering-place in the dep. of 
 Alpes-Maritimes, charmingly situated on a bay 
 of the Mediterranean, 19 miles SW. of Nice by 
 rail. Though founded by the Romans, it was 
 but a place of 3000 inhabitants, when in 1815 
 Napoleon landed near it from Elba ; nor was it 
 till 1836 that Lord Brougham first selected it as 
 a health-resort. Alexis de Tocqueville, Prosper 
 Merimde, Louis Blanc, Victor Cousin, Auerbach, 
 J. B. Dumas, and the Duke of Albany have died 
 in Cannes ; and in 1887 Queen Victoria came to 
 Cannes to visit the place, and to see the beauti- 
 ful Albany Memorial Church of St George of 
 England, erected with funds raised by the Prince 
 of Wales. Cannes is celebrated for the salubrity 
 of its climate. Low wooded hills shelter it from 
 the north, and it occupies the centre of the great 
 curved bay, 14 miles across, of which Cap Roux 
 and Cap d'Antibes form the extrejnities. It has 
 a small port, and a trade in flowers, becoming 
 yearly of greater importance. There are farms 
 of violets, roses, oranges, tuberoses, jessamine, 
 and cassia. Pop. (1872) 8201 ; (1901) 25,350— 
 sometimes doubled by winter visitors. 
 
 Cannock, a town of Staffordshire, 8 miles 
 NNW. of Walsall. Cannock Chase abounds in 
 important iron industries. Pop. (1851) 2099 ; 
 (1871) 6650 ; (1901) 23,992. 
 
 Gannstatt, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the 
 Neckar, 3 miles NE. of Stuttgart. Of Roman 
 origin, it has much-frequented mineral springs, 
 and manufactures of iron, cottons, tobacco, &c. 
 Pop. (1875) 15,064 ; (1900) 26,500. 
 
 Canonbie, a Dumfriesshire Border parish on 
 the Esk, 16 miles N. by B. of Carlisle. Coal is 
 found. 
 
 Ganosa (anc. Camisium), a town of Southern 
 Italy, 13 miles SW. of Barletta. It has a castle- 
 crowned hill and a cathedral (1101-1825). Pop. 
 24,200, See Cann^. 
 
 Ganossa, a ruined castle of Italy, 12 miles SW. 
 of Reggio. Here the Emperor Henry IV. in 1077 
 made submission to Pope Gregory VII. 
 
 Ganso, Cape, the eastern extremity of Nova 
 Scotia, at the entrance of Chedabucto Bay. 
 Canso Strait, 17 miles long and 2J wide, separates 
 Nova Scotia from Cape Breton. 
 
 Gantal, an inland dep. of Southern France, 
 formed out of the south portion of the old 
 province of Auvergne. Area, 2090 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1901) 234,382. 
 
 Canterbury, a municipal, parliamentary, and 
 county borough, and the seat of the metropolitan 
 see of all England, in East Kent, 56 miles ESE. 
 of London by road (62 by rail), and 16 NW. of 
 Dover. Standing in a plain on the banks of the 
 Stour, amid gently swelling hills, it occupies the 
 site of the Roman Durovernwn and Saxon Cant- 
 ivarabyrig (' borough of the men of Kent '), and 
 from its position on the great London highroad 
 must always have been a i)lace of importance. 
 There are some remains of the ancient walls (If 
 mile in circuit and 20 feet high), and the West 
 Gate (c. 1380) is the survivor of six. Near the 
 city wall is a large artificial mound, the Dane 
 John (probably Donjon), and connected with this 
 mound is a public garden, laid out in 1790, from 
 the top of which is a fine view of the country 
 around. The nmch mutilated castle, whose 
 Norman keep resembled Rochester's, has been 
 degraded to a gas-work ; the guildhall (1439 ; 
 rebuilt 1697) has been refaced with modern 
 brick; and the Checquers Inn, where Chaucer's 
 pilgrims lodged, lost its 'dormitory of the 
 hundred beds' by fire in 1865. 
 
 But the great glory of Canterbury is its magni- 
 ficent cathedral, whose precincts are entered 
 through a splendid Perpendicular gateway (1517). 
 It was founded in 597 by St Augustine ; enlarged 
 by Archbishop Odo (942-959) ; totally destroyed 
 by fire (1067) ; rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc 
 and Priors Ernulf and Conrad (1070-1130) : this 
 building it was that witnessed the murder of 
 Becket (29th December 1170) ; bereft of its choir 
 by fire (1174) ; partly rebuilt by William of Sens, 
 and another William, an Englishman ; and trans- 
 formed as to the nave and nave-transepts by Prior 
 Chillenden into the Perpendicular style of that 
 period (1378-1411). The central or 'Bell Harry' 
 tower was carried up (1495) to about double its 
 original height ; also in the Perpendicular style, it 
 is 235 feet high. The north-west or Arundel steeple 
 was taken down and rebuilt in 1834-40 ; like the 
 south-west or Dunstan steeple (1413-44), it is 130 
 feet high. The north transept is called the 
 Martyrdom transept, for here took place the 
 murder of Becket. In 1220, fifty years later, 
 his remains were translated from the crypt to a 
 
CANTERBURY 
 
 16^ 
 
 CANTON 
 
 shrine in the newly erected Trinity Chapel, east- 
 ward of the choir. That shrine was demolished 
 in 1538 ; but in 1888 a stone coffin, with remains 
 of a skeleton, supposed to be Becket's, was dis- 
 covered in the crypt, and reinterred there after 
 careful examination. In 1643 the building was 
 •purined,' as it was called, by order of parlia- 
 ment ; still very many most interesting monu- 
 ments remain— such as the tombs of Stephen 
 Langton, the Black Prince, Henry IV., and 
 Archbishops Peckham, Meopham, Stratford, Sud- 
 bury, Courtenay, Chicheley, Stafford, Kemp, 
 Bourchier, Morton, Warham, and Cardinal Pole. 
 The fifty-one statues that since 1863 have adorned 
 the south porch and the western entrance include 
 19 of Canterbury's 94 archbishops, 21 English 
 sovereigns, 3 deans, Erasmus, &c. Of stained 
 glass there are some fine old specimens, and some 
 new ones of very varied merit. The total length 
 of the cathedral is 522 feet, by 154 in breadth at 
 the eastern transept. Its predominant styles 
 are Transition-Norman and Perpendicular. The 
 large and lofty crypt was in 1561 given up by 
 Elizabeth to a congregation of French and 
 Flemish Protestant refugees, and a French ser- 
 vice still is held here. On 3d September 1872 
 the church narrowly escaped destruction for the 
 fourth time by fire, the outer roof being burned, 
 over all the east portion of the choir. 
 
 To the north of the cathedral are the Cloisters, 
 144 feet square; the Chapter-house (1411); the 
 New Library and the Howley Library; the 
 beautiful Green Court ; the Deanery (1517) ; and 
 the King's School (1541). Marlowe, who was a 
 native, and a drinking fountain to whose memory 
 was erected in 1891, and Dr Harvey, went to 
 school here. These occupy the site, and in part 
 the buildings, of the Benedictine Priory of 
 Christ's Church. The remains of the Abbey of 
 St Augustine, to the east, were in 1844-48 trans- 
 fonned into an Anglican missionary college. Of 
 fourteen old churches, St Martin's has a font, 
 said to be the very one in which Ethelbert was 
 baptised by St Augustine, whilst St Dunstan's 
 contains the monuments of the Ropers, and, in a 
 vault, the head of Sir Thomas More. The Clergy 
 Orphan School occupies a conspicuous position 
 on St Thomas's Hill, a mile out of the city ; the 
 Simon Langton Schools were opened in 1882. 
 There are, besides, several hospitals, large 
 barracks, a corn exchange, and an art gallery 
 presented to the city in 1882 by one of her sons, 
 Sidney Cooper, R.A. There is also a free library 
 and museum. Canterbury has a large trade in 
 grain and liops. Races used to be run on Barham 
 Downs, but they were eclipsed in importance 
 by the Canterbury ' cricket week,' Since 1885 
 the city has returned only one member. Pop. 
 (1851) 18,388 ; (1901) 24,899. See Avorks by Willis 
 (2 vols. 1845-69), Dean Stanley (10th ed. 1883), 
 Dean Hook (12 vols. 1860-76), and R. Jenkins 
 (1880). 
 
 Canterbury, a provincial district of New 
 Zealand (q.v.), in the centre of the South Island, 
 with an area of 14,039 sq. m.; till 1876 it was a 
 province, with Christchurch as its capital, and 
 Lyttelton as its port. The district was settled 
 in 1850 by the Canterbury Association, a society 
 of peers, bishops, and commoners interested in 
 the colonisation of New Zealand. It has a coast- 
 line of 200 miles, a breadth of 150, and is well 
 watered by numerous rivers. Coal, iron ore, 
 fireclays, quartz, and gold exist, and coal-mines 
 are in operation. On the eastern side of the 
 great range of hills are the far-famed Canterbury 
 Plains, the great sheep district of the colony. 
 
 There is railway connection between Christ- 
 church and Dunedin, with various branch lines. 
 The staple trade is in wool and grain. The 
 Bishop of Canterbury is primate of New Zealand, 
 The medicinal hot springs at Hanmar Plain 
 in Amuri district have considerable celebrity. 
 Mount Cook (13,200 feet) is the highest mountain 
 in New Zealand. Pop. (1871) 46,801; (1891) 
 128,392 ; (1901) 143,041. 
 Cantlre. See Kintyre. 
 
 Canton, a large commercial city and port in 
 the south of China, and capital of the province of 
 Kwang-tung (of which the name Canton is merely 
 a corruption), is situated in 23' 7' 10" N. lat., and 
 113° 14' 30" E. long., on the north or left side of 
 the Shu-kiang, or Pearl River, in a rich alluvial 
 plain, 70 miles N. of Macao, at the mouth of the 
 estuary of the Canton River, and 90 NW. of 
 Hong-kong. The city is surrounded by walls 
 25 to 40 feet high and 20 thick, with an espla- 
 nade inside, six miles in circumference ; and it 
 is divided by a partition wall running east and 
 west into two unequal parts, the north or old 
 city, much the larger, and the south or new city. 
 There are twelve outer gates, four gates in 
 Ijartition wall, and two water gates ; shut and 
 guarded by night. The entire circuit, including 
 suburbs, is nearly 10 miles. At the south-west 
 corner of the suburbs, south of the river, are the 
 Hongs or European quarter, divided from the 
 river by a quay, 100 yards wide, called Respon- 
 dentia Walk. The streets, more than 600, are in 
 general less than 8 feet wide, and very crooked. 
 Tlie houses along the water-side are built on 
 piles, and subject to inundations. There are two 
 pagodas, the 'Plain Pagoda,' erected ten centuries 
 ago, 160 feet high, and an octagonal nine-storied 
 pagoda, 175 feet high, erected more than 1300 
 years ago ; and 124 temples or Joss-houses. The 
 Honam temple covers, with its grounds, 7 acres, 
 and has 175 priests attached. The 'Temple of 
 Filial Duty ' has 200 priests, supported by 3500 
 acres of glebe-lands. The priests and nuns in 
 Canton number more than 2000, nine-tenths of 
 them Buddhists. The ' Temple of Five Hundred 
 Genii ' has 500 statues of various sizes in honour 
 of Buddha and his disciples. Examination Hall, 
 in the old city, is 1330 feet by 583 feet, covers 16 
 acres, and has 8653 cells. Nearly half the craft 
 on the river are fixed residences, and the popu- 
 lation on land and water can hardly be less than 
 a million and a half. The climate of Canton may 
 be pronounced healthy. The average tempera- 
 ture ranges from 42° to 96° F. ; though falls of 
 snow occurred in 1835 and 1861. Tlie average 
 rainfall is 70 inches. Pop. 1,800,000. 
 
 The admirable situation of Canton, with a safe 
 and commodious anchorage for the largest vessels, 
 explains how, from an early period, it was a 
 favourite port with foreign merchants. The 
 earliest notices date back to two centuries B.C. ; 
 and the Arabs made regular voyages hither as 
 early as the 9th century a.d. The Portuguese 
 found their way to it in 1517, and were followed 
 by the Dutch a hundred years later. These in 
 turn were supplanted by the English before the 
 close of the 17th century, and an immense trade 
 was carried on by the agents of the East India 
 Company, whose monopoly ceased in April 1834. 
 In 1842 Canton became one of 'the five 'treaty 
 ports ' open to foreign commerce. The city was 
 captured by the allied French and English forces 
 in December 1857, and continued to be garrisoned 
 by them till October 1861. The chief exports from 
 Canton are tea, silk, sugar, and cassia ; the chief 
 
CANTON 
 
 153 
 
 CAPE COLONY 
 
 imports, cotton, woollen, and metal goods, food- 
 stuffs, opium, kerosene, &c. 
 
 Canton River is a name given to the chief 
 channel by which the united waters of the Si- 
 kiang and the Pe-kiang rivers reach the sea 
 through the delta. Shu-kiang or Pearl River is 
 another name for part of this waterway ; and 
 Boca Tigre (q.v.), Bocca Tigris, or Boque, a part 
 of it below Canton, where the estuary is com- 
 pressed between escarped hills. 
 
 Canton, capital of Stark county, Ohio, on 
 Nimishillen Creek, 56 miles SSE. of Cleveland, 
 with foundries, iron and steel works, i)aper and 
 wool mills. Pop. (18(30) 4041 ; (1900) 30,667. 
 
 Cape Breton (Brit'un), a rocky Canadian island 
 of irregular form, at the eastern extremity 
 of Nova Scotia, from which it is separated by 
 the Gut of Canso, one mile broad. Measuring 
 100 by 85 miles, it has an area of 3120 sq. m., 
 with a pop. of 97,000. The coast is greatly 
 indented, and an inlet, the Bras d'Or, entering 
 the island on the east, forms a lake (50 by 20 
 miles) which renders most of the interior access- 
 ible by water, and which, now continued by a 
 ship-canal (^ mile) to St Peter's Bay, on the south 
 coast, bisects the island. The climate is moist, 
 but milder than that of the adjoining continent ; 
 the principal exports are timber, fish, iron ore, 
 and coal. Originally French, it was taken and 
 retaken by the English in 1745-58 ; and in 1819 
 became part of the province of Nova Scotia. 
 The towns are Sydney, Arichat, and Port Hood, 
 the once strongly fortified Louisbourg having 
 sunk to a village. 
 
 Cape Coast Castle, a British settlement in the 
 Gold Coast Colony, Upper Guinea, 315 miles W. 
 of Lagos. It lies in a chasm, and is defended 
 by the great castle and by three small forts on 
 the hills behind. Ceded by the Dutch in 1665, 
 from 1672 it was possessed by several companies 
 till 1843, when it was taken over by government. 
 In 1875 it was superseded by Accra as capital of 
 the Gold Coast. L. E. Landon died here in 1838. 
 Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Cape Cod, a narrow peninsula of Massachusetts, 
 in form like the letter L, which, with a length 
 of 65 miles, forms the south-east boundary of the 
 great bay of that state. A canal across the neck 
 has been proposed. 
 
 Cape Colony, officially Colony of the Cape 
 OF Good Hope, is a British colony situated at 
 the southern extremity of the African continent. 
 It is bounded on tlie N. by German South-west 
 Africa, the Bechiianaland Protectorate, the 
 Orange River Colony, and British Basutoland ; 
 on tlie S. by the Southern Ocean ; on the E. by 
 Natal ; and on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 Neither Basutoland (q.v.), the Bechuana Pro- 
 tectorate, nor the territories of the South Africa 
 Company (see Matabeleland, Mashonaland, 
 Zambesia) are part of the colony. All sections 
 are under the authority of the High Commis- 
 sioner for British South Africa, who is distinct 
 from the governor of Cape Colony. Pondoland 
 was annexed to the Cape Colony in 1894, and in 
 1895 the crown colony of British Bechuanaland 
 was also incorporated. The total ai-ea of tlie 
 Cape Colony is now estimated at over 277,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The Cape Colony is deficient in navigable rivers, 
 and in gulfs or arms of the sea stretching inland. 
 The best natural harbour, Saldanha Bay, is un- 
 used, on account of the aridity of the land around 
 it. Table Bay, the principal harbour, is naturally 
 much exposed on the north-west ; but has been 
 
 protected by a breakwater (see Capetown). False 
 Bay, lying to the east of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 includes Simon's Bay, which is the imperial navai 
 station. Algoa Bay has Port Elizabeth on its 
 western shore. Running parallel to the coast-line 
 of the Cape Colony, and at an average distance 
 from it of about 150 miles, there is a range of 
 mountains which forms the watershed of the 
 country, and is known as the Stormberg, the 
 Sneeuberg, the Nieuwveld Mountains, the Rogge- 
 veld Mountains, and Kamiesberg. The Eastern 
 Province, along with the Cape peninsula, is on 
 the whole better watered than the interior 
 portion of the Western Province, which is 
 largely covered with the Karroo or steppe, 
 dreary-looking, but of great value to the sheep- 
 farmer. Beyond the belt of country skirting 
 the sea-coast agriculture can only be success- 
 ful where there is a suppy of water for irrigation. 
 The climate of the Cape Colony and of the 
 interior of Southern Africa generally is one of 
 the finest in the world, and eminently suited for 
 Europeans. As a health-resort the Cape has 
 long been favourably known. The climate on 
 the coast is superior to that of England. But 
 it is after the traveller leaves this well-watered 
 belt that he finds himself in a rare and yet 
 balmy atmosphere which is exhilarating to the 
 healthy, and most beneficial to those subject to 
 lung-complaints, especially if they have arrived 
 in the country at a sufficiently early stage. At 
 Wynberg, near Capetown, the mean temperature 
 in winter is 55°, in sumjner 63°, the summer 
 maximum being 96°. On the elevated plateau at 
 Aliwal North, the winter mean is 48-8°, summer 
 mean 67-4°, summer maximum 102°. In 1891 the 
 area and populatioTi were as follows : 
 
 Area, sq. m. Pop. 
 
 Colony proper 191 ,416 956,485 
 
 Griqualand West 15,197 83,375 
 
 East Griqualand 7,594 152,618 
 
 Tembuland 4,122 180,416 
 
 Transkei 2,552 153,.%3 
 
 WalflshBay 430 768 
 
 Total 221,311 1,527,224 
 
 In 1904 the census (delayed by the war) showed 
 579,741 whites and 1,830,074 coloured, a total 
 of 2,409,815. Griqualand West, Pondoland (an- 
 nexed in 1894), and British Bechuanaland (an- 
 nexed 1895) are now part of the Colony proper. 
 The natives of the Cape Colony are steadily in- 
 creasing. There are two main groups of natives 
 —the yellow-coloured and oblique-eyed Gariepine 
 people (named from the Gariep or Orange River) ; 
 and the darker, and far more numerous Bantu 
 family. The Gariepine family includes Hotten- 
 tots, Korannas, Namaquas, and Bushmen. The 
 Bantus are subdivided into numerous tribes, 
 Kaffirs, Zulus, Basuto, Bechuana, Matebele, 
 Mashona, &c. The earliest settlers were from 
 various countries in North Europe, being the 
 servants of the Dutch East India Company ; to 
 these were added 150 Huguenot refugees in 1688. 
 In 1820 English and Scotch settlers were placed 
 by government on land in the Eastern Province ; 
 and after the Crimean war the German Legion was 
 settled in King Williamstown district. The dis- 
 covery of diamonds caused a rush to Griqualand 
 West. The Eastern Province of the colony is, 
 roughly speaking, an -English country. The 
 western part is mainly occupied by Dutch- 
 speaking descendants of the early settlers. 
 There are 8000 miles of road in the Colony 
 proper. The railway system extended in 1893 
 to 2300 miles of government line (besides 
 
CAPE COLONY 
 
 IM 
 
 CAPE HAYTlfN 
 
 177 miles of private lines), belonging to three 
 main systems, Western, Midland, and Eastern. 
 Capetown is now connected with Mafeking and 
 Palapwe in British Bechuanaland, and, by the 
 line running through the Orange Free State, with 
 Johannesburg in the Transvaal, which again will 
 soon be connected with the east coast at Delagoa 
 Bay. There are over 5000 miles of telegraph line, 
 
 A few elephants and buffaloes are still 'pre- 
 served • in the Knysna and Zitzikama forests, but 
 the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, giraffe, eland, 
 quagga, gnu, and other large game, are, with the 
 lion, no longer to be seen within the Cape Colony. 
 Smaller antelopes are still found, with baboons, 
 monkeys, wild cats, porcupines, jerboas, comes, 
 ant-eaters ; as also tiger-cats, leopards, jackals, 
 and wild dogs. The variety of birds is also 
 great, and some are peculiar, such as the secre- 
 tary-bird, the honey-bird, the weaver-bird, and 
 the ostrich. Reptiles still abound ; the alligator 
 is chiefly found beyond the colony, but the 
 iguana, the cobra di capello, puff-adder, and 
 other snakes are found in the colony. Insect life 
 is also abundant. It is probable that no single 
 country in the world has contributed so largely 
 to European conservatories and gardens as the 
 Cape of Good Hope— sending such handsome 
 flowering shrubs as the pelargoniums, heaths, 
 proteas, and the lovely bulbous plants of iridese, 
 amaryllideae, and liliaceoe. 
 
 The chief exports from the colony are diamonds 
 and wool. Cattle are also extensively raised, 
 especially in the grassy districts of the Eastern 
 Province. Pneumoiiia, known as ' Inng-sickness,' 
 was introduced from Holland in 1857, and has 
 never since been eradicated. In the northern 
 parts of the colony, and more especially in the 
 countries beyond the colony, horses are subject 
 during the summer montlis to a climatic disease 
 known as 'the horse-sickness.' Ostrich-feathers 
 have long been an article of export from the Cape, 
 and in 1864 ostrich-farming was commenced at 
 the Cape, and is now one of the leading industries. 
 Viticulture was introduced by Dutch settlers in 
 1653, and developed by the iluguenot refugees. 
 In 1900 there were about 83,000,000 vines in tlie 
 Cape Colony, producing nearly 5,000,000 gallons 
 of wine and over 1,100,000 gallons of brandy. 
 The climate of the south-western part of the 
 colony is said to excel that of any otiier country 
 for viticulture. Tobacco is extensively grown 
 in certain districts. The climate of the colony 
 is favourable to the growth of fruit in great 
 variety. 
 
 Woollen fabrics, leather, furniture, and soap are 
 produced. Fishing is carried on in all the bays 
 which indent the coast. Guano deposits are 
 found on the small islands along the west coast. 
 The diamond-fields of Kimberley, and its huge 
 mines, have (since 1867) become the most im- 
 portant centre of the industry in the world. The 
 finest South African diamond is the 'Porter- 
 Rhodes diamond,' found in 1880, and valued at 
 £60,000. Diamonds are far the largest single 
 item of export from the colony, having nearly 
 three times the value of the wool exported. Gold 
 IS found in various districts. Copper is found 
 throughout the district of Namaqualand. Coal 
 IS at present worked only in two or three spots. 
 Iron ores are abundant in several places ; and 
 lead, zincblende, manganese, as well as valuable 
 stones, such as garnets, agates, crocidolites, 
 jaspers, chalcedonies, amethysts, &c., are found, 
 as well as fine marbles and granite. 
 
 From 1887 to 1902 the revenue of the colony 
 rose from £3,352,000 to £11,285,697 ; the expendi- 
 
 ture from £3,333,000 to £11,950,745. The public 
 debt in 1903 was over £36,970,000. In the same 
 years the imports varied in value from £5,771,000 
 to £34,220,500 ; the exports, of which the princi- 
 pal items were diamonds and wool, with hides, 
 ostrich-feathers, angora goats' hair, copper ore, 
 and wine, rose in value from £7,719,000 to 
 £17,456,151. The total value of diamonds ex- 
 ported from 18C7 to 1902 was £105,804,863. 
 
 The colonial government consists of a gover- 
 nor, nominated by the crown, whose term 
 of office usually extends to six years. He is 
 assisted by an executive council, practically 
 the ministry. There are five offices in the Cape 
 ministry — the colonial secretary, the treasurer 
 of the colony, the attorney-general, the com- 
 missioner of crown-lands and public works, and 
 the secretary for native affairs. The Lower 
 House, or House of Assembly, at the Cape, con- 
 sists of ninety-five members. The Upper House, 
 or Legislative Council, consists of twenty-three 
 members. The House of Assembly is purely 
 elective ; in the Upper House the single excep- 
 tion is the chairman or president of the council, 
 who is the chief-justice of the colony, ex officio. 
 Members of both Houses receive a guinea a day 
 while the House is sitting, and, if residing over 
 15 miles from Capetown, 15s. per day for not 
 more than 90 days. The Cape Colony is divided 
 into eighty-one divisions or counties, in each of 
 which there is a divisional council elected every 
 three years, which is empowered to levy rates 
 and manage the business of the division. The 
 chairman is the civil coinnnssioner of the divi- 
 sion, who is usually also the resident magistrate. 
 The large towns are under mayors and town coun- 
 cils ; smaller towns have municipal councils ; 
 and villages have management boards. There is 
 an appeal from the colonial courts of justice to 
 the House of Lords. Education is provided for 
 by 2438 state-aided schools, the enrolled pupils 
 numbering over 150,000, besides many private 
 and mission schools. The University of the Cape 
 of Good Hope was founded in 1873, and received 
 a royal charter in 1877. 
 
 The Cape of Good Hope was discovered by the 
 Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz in 1486. 
 It was not till 1652 that the Dutch East India 
 Company took possession of Table Bay and 
 fortified it, not at first with purposes of colonisa- 
 tion, but for the supply of the Company's vessels 
 on their way to and from the East Indies. 
 Colonisation soon began ; and when in the 18th- 
 century wars the French conquered Holland, an 
 English fleet was sent to hold the Cape for the 
 allies. It was restored to Holland at the peace 
 of Amiens in 1801, but was retaken by Britain in 
 1805, after some fighting. Since 1814 it has been 
 definitively British. In 1825 an executive 
 council, and in 1835 a legislative council, were 
 established ; in 1853 a regular colonial parlia- 
 ment came into being. Responsible government 
 was conceded in 1872 ; and the chief difliculties 
 of tlie Cape government have been, besides Kaffir 
 wars, the harmonising of the interests of Dutch 
 and British elements, especially before, during, 
 and after the Transvaal war of 1899-1902. 
 
 See Theal's History of So7ith Africa (5 vols. 4tli 
 ed. 1899); and books by Fronde (1880), Anthony 
 Trollope (1878), Mackenzie (1887), Keane (1895), 
 Moclder-Ferryman (1898), Worsfold (1898), Young- 
 husband (1898), Lucas (1899), Johnston (1899), and 
 Burton (1902). 
 
 Cape Haytien, or Le Cap, a seaport on the 
 north coast of Hayti, 90 miles N. of Port au 
 Prince. Pop. 30,000. 
 
CAPt HORN 
 
 155 
 
 CAP!tt 
 
 Cape Horn, &c. See Horn (Cape), &c. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, popularly regarded as 
 the most southerly promontory of Africa, though 
 it is half a degree N. of Cape Agulhas. This 
 celebrated promontory is in 34° 22' S. lat., and 
 18° 29' E. long., being the termination of Table 
 Mountain (3582 feet). On the north it forms 
 Table Bay ; on the west it shuts in False Bay 
 and Simon's Bay. 'The Cape' was actually 
 reached and doubled by the Portuguese Diaz, 
 driven out of his reckoning by tempests, in 1486 
 — six years before Columbus saw America. The 
 cape Diaz had from his experiences on the voyage 
 named 'Cape of all the Storms' John II. of 
 Portugal renamed Caho de Buena Esperama 
 (' Cape of Good Hope '). But it was only in 
 1497 that Vasco da Gama took advantage of the 
 discovery, rounding the Cape on his adventurous 
 voyage from Lisbon to Calicut. 
 
 Cape River, or Rio de Segovia, a river of 
 Nicaragua, flowing nearly 300 miles north-east- 
 ward to the Caribbean Sea, and forming part of 
 the boundary with Honduras. 
 
 Capernaum (' villj^e of Nahum '), a prosperous 
 place in the time of Christ, identified generally 
 with Tell Hum, on the NW. coast of the Sea of 
 Galilee, but by Conder with Khan Minieh, in the 
 NE. corner of the plain of Gennesaret. 
 
 Capetovm, the cai)ital of Cape Colony, is situ- 
 ated between the north base of Table Mountain 
 and Table Bay, in 33° 55' S. lat., 18° 28' E. long. 
 The view of the town, alike from the bay and 
 from the mountain, is most imposing. For years 
 the early history of Capetown and of the Cape 
 Colony were one and the same. The town was 
 laid out by its Dutch founders (1652) with mathe- 
 matical preciseness— the main thoroughfares 
 crossing one another at right angles. The houses 
 of old Capetown are mostly flat-roofed and 
 whitewashed. A few church towers rise here 
 and there, and break the monotony, with an 
 occasional mill chimney. The beautiful govern- 
 ment gardens in the heart of Capetown serve 
 the purposes of a public park. There is a fine 
 oak avenue, extending f mile through the gar- 
 dens. Government House, on the left side of 
 the gardens, is a heavy 17th-century building, 
 altered and added to from time to time. The 
 gardens are 14 acres in extent, and contain 
 upwards of 8000 varieties of trees and plants. 
 Other edifices are the handsome Houses of 
 Parliament (1885), the public library and museum, 
 the Fine Arts Gallery, the law courts, the govern- 
 ment offices, the old castle, the town-house, the 
 Standard Bank, the railway station, and the 
 Commercial Exchange. The old ' stoeps,' or railed- 
 ofT verandas, which blocked the side pavements, 
 disappeared with tlie 19th century. The town is 
 well drained and paved, has a good water-supply, 
 electric tramways, and a suburban railway. 
 The earliest conception of the Europeans in 
 settling at the Cape was to make it a place of 
 call for passing vessels belonging to their own 
 nation. In a higher sense, the Capetown Har- 
 bour Board, in erecting the breakwater and con- 
 structing the docks, have made Table Bay a 
 place of call for passing vessels of all nations. 
 The docks were opened in 1870— the graving- 
 dock in 1882 ; the total cost of the works ex- 
 ceeding £2,000,000. Pop. (1875) 33,239, or with 
 suburbs, 45,240 ; (1902) estimated at 167,000. 
 
 Cape Verd, the most westerly headland in 
 Africa, between the rivers Gambia and Senegal, 
 in 14° 53' N. lat., 17° 34' W. long. The Portuguese 
 discovered it in 1443. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands (lUias do Caho Verde), a 
 group of Portuguese islands, lying 350 miles W. 
 of Cape Verd. They comprise ten inhabited 
 islands, the chief being Santiago, Sao Antao, 
 Fogo, Brava, and Sao Nicolao. Tlieir total area 
 is about 1480 sq. m. ; and since 1820 the popula- 
 tion has increased from less than 50,000 to about 
 150,000. The islands are all very mountainous, 
 and owe their origin to the action of submarine 
 volcanoes. The highest peak (9157 feet) in Fogo 
 was active so recently as 1847. The climate is 
 unhealthy during the rainy season (August to 
 October), and long droughts have given rise to 
 great famines, as in 1730-33 and 1831-33, which 
 latter cost 30,500 lives. Though water is de- 
 ficient, vegetation is luxuriant, yielding African 
 and Southern European products. Sugar, manioc, 
 yams, maize, coffee, tobacco, and indigo are 
 grown ; the woods have of late years begun to 
 increase ; and cattle-breeding is an important 
 industry. Turtles are abundant in the surround- 
 ing seas ; amber and archil are found on the 
 coasts ; and much salt is still procured from the 
 lagoons. The inhabitants, who are mostly 
 negroes and mulattoes, indolent but harmless, 
 speak a bastard Portuguese. They are all Catho- 
 lics. Porto Grande, in Sao Vicente, is an im- 
 portant coaling station for British steamers. 
 The islands were discovered in 1441-56 by the 
 Portuguese. Slavery was abolished between 1854 
 and 1878. See Darwin's Volcanic Islands (1844), 
 and Ellis's West African Islands (1885). 
 
 Cape Wrath (said to be from Scand. Tivarf, 
 'turning'), a grand pyramidal promontory of 
 granite gneiss, forn)ing the north-west extremity 
 of Scotland and of Sutherland, 69 miles NW. of 
 Lairg. It is 523 feet high, and on it is a light- 
 house (1828), seen 27 miles off. 
 
 Capheaton, Northumberland, the seat of the 
 Swinburnes, 11 miles WSW. of Morpeth. 
 
 Capo d'Istria, a fortified seaport of Austria, 
 on a rocky island in the Gulf of Trieste, 9J miles 
 SSW. of Trieste. Connected with the mainland 
 by a stone causeway, nearly half a mile long, it 
 has a modern cathedral, and a Gothic townhall 
 on the site of a Roman temple. Pop. 8646. 
 
 Cappadocia, an ancient district, in its Avidest 
 sense including the whole north-eastern part of 
 Asia Minor from Mount Taurus to the Euxine. 
 
 Cappamore, a village in the county, and 12 
 miles SE. of the town, of Limerick. Pop. 766. 
 
 Cappel, a village in the Swiss canton of Zurich, 
 4J miles N. of Zug. Here Zwingli was killed in 
 conflict with the Catholics, 11th October 1531. 
 
 Cappoquin, a town of County Waterford, on 
 the Blackwater, 151 miles SSW. of Dublin. Pop. 
 1366. 
 
 Caprera (Ka-pray'ra), one of the small Buccinari 
 Islands, in the Strait of Bonifacio, oft' the north- 
 ern extremity of Sardinia. Measuring 6 by 2 
 miles, and lOj sq. m. in area, it is rocky and bare, 
 and was formerly the abode only of wild goats — 
 whence its name (Lat. and Ital. capra, ' a goat ') — 
 and rabbits. It was the much-loved home of 
 Garibaldi from 1854 till his death here in 1882. 
 He was buried behind his house. In 1885 the 
 island was purchased from his heirs by the Italian 
 government. 
 
 Capri (ifft/i'pr-ee ; anc. Capi-ece), a channing Medi- 
 terranean island, at the entrance of the Bay of 
 Naples, 3J miles from CapeCampanella, and 21 S. 
 of Naples. Only 3| sq. m. in area, it yet displays 
 a rich variety of beautiful scenery, and consists 
 of two mountain masses 1918 and 860 feet high. 
 
CAPUA 
 
 166 
 
 CARDIFF 
 
 On a shelving rock at the base of the eastern and 
 lower mountain stands the town of Capri, with 
 walls, gates, and drawbridges, and a pop. of 
 1627. Till 1876 it communicated with Anacapri, 
 on the western tableland, by a rock-hewn flight 
 of 536 steps ; now, however, there is a carnage- 
 road between the two places. The coast is pre- 
 cipitous, with only two safe landing-places, both 
 near Capri. The island was the scene of the last 
 infamous debaucheries of the Emperor Tiberius. 
 Ruins are still found of Roman baths, aqueducts, 
 and villas. The wine of Capri, both red and 
 white, is well known; and delicious quails, 
 alighting on the island during their migra- 
 tions to and from Africa, are taken m nets. 
 To the west of the town of Capri is the Grotta 
 Azzurra (Blue Grotto), a remarkable cavern, 118 
 feet long, 98 wide, and 40 high, but entered from 
 the sea by a narrow opening not more than 3 feet 
 high. See Gregorovius, Island of Capri (trans. 
 Boston 1879); Alan Walters, A Lotos-Eater in 
 Capri (1893). 
 
 Capua, a fortified city of Italy, on the Vol- 
 turno, 27 miles N. of Naples by rail. It has a 
 fine cathedral, an antiquarian museum (1874), 
 and a tower commemorating the sanguinary 
 storming of the city by Csesar Borgia in 1501. 
 Pop. 14,291.— The ancient Capua, which for 
 wealth and population ranked second only to 
 Rome and Carthage, and in which Hannibal's 
 men became enervated (216 B.C.), was situated 3^ 
 miles SE. of the present city, its site being 
 occupied by the modern town of Santa Maria di 
 Capua Vetere. It was finally destroyed by the 
 Saracens in 840. Among its Roman antiquities 
 is a well-preserved amphitheatre, capable of hold- 
 ing 60,000 spectators. 
 
 Carabo'bo, a state of Venezuela, between the 
 Caribbean Sea and the state of Zamora. Area, 
 3000 sq. m. ; pop. about 200,000. The capital is 
 Valencia ; and the chief port, Puerto Cabello. 
 
 Gardcas, the capital of the republic of Venez- 
 uela, is situated in 10° 31' N. lat., and 67° 5' W. 
 long., 6 miles (24 by rail) S. of La Guaira, its port. 
 Built on the southern slope of the Avila (8635 
 feet), it is 3025 feet above sea-level, is regularly 
 laid out, and well supplied with parks and gar- 
 dens, water and gas, telephones, newspapers, 
 tramways, and railways. The most notable 
 edifices are the Federal JPalaces and other official 
 buildings, including the president's 'Yellow 
 House ; ' the university ; the Exhibition Palace ; 
 the cathedral ; the magnificent basilica of St 
 Ann (£200,000) ; and over a score of hospitals and 
 charitable institutions. Population, 75,000. The 
 neighbourhood is subject to earthquakes ; in that 
 of 1812, 12,000 citizens perished. 
 
 Caramanla, a name sometimes given to part of 
 the central tableland of Asia Minor, from the 
 town of Karaman (pop. 7000), lying at the north- 
 em base of Mount Taurus. It is mostly in the 
 province of Konieh. 
 
 Caravaca, a town of Spain, 40 miles NNW. of 
 Murcia. Pop. 15,994. 
 
 Caravaggio (JKaravad'jo), a town of north Italy, 
 19 miles SSE. of Bergamo by rail. It has a 
 famous church, to which pilgrimages are made, 
 and was the birthplace of three painters, all 
 surnamed Caravaggio. Pop. 6089. i 
 
 Caravellas, a Brazilian port, 475 miles NE. of 
 Rio de Janeiro, on the Caravellas, 5 miles from 
 its mouth. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Carberry, a hill 3 miles SE. of Musselburgh, 
 Where Queen Mary surrendered (1567). 
 
 Cartoondale, a town of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Lackawanna River, 16 miles NNE. of Scranton 
 by rail, with foundries and plauing-mills, and 
 rich beds of anthracite coal. Pop. (1880) 7714 ; 
 (1900) 13,536. 
 
 Carcagen'te, a town of Spain, on the Jucar, 
 25 miles SSW. of Valencia by rail. Pop. 12,521. 
 
 Carcassonne (the Caraiso of Csesar), a town 
 in the French dep. of Aude, on the river 
 Aude, and the Canal du Midi, 56 miles SB. of 
 Toulouse by rail. The river, here spanned by 
 two bridges of 1184 and 1846 feet, divides it into 
 the old and the new town ; the former, built on a 
 height, is much more picturesque, its ramparts 
 and towers dating partly from the time of the 
 Visigoths, and partly, like the many-towered 
 castle, from the 11th or 13th century. In 1210 
 this old town suffered greatly at the hands of 
 Simon de Montfort, who here burned 400 Albi- 
 genses. In 1356 it effectually resisted the Black 
 Prince. Cloth-making is the staple industry; 
 there are also manufactures of paper, leather, and 
 soap. Pop. (1872) 20,808; (1901) 28,35L See 
 works by Viollet le Due (1858) and Boyer (1884). 
 
 Car'chemisli (mod. JeraUus), an ancient city on 
 the Upper Euphrates, NE. of the modern Aleppo, 
 was long the northern capital of the Hittites. 
 
 Gar'denas, a seaport of Cuba, on the north 
 coast, 75 miles E. of Havana, with which it is 
 connected by rail. Pop. 22,000. 
 
 Cardiff (Caer- To/, 'fort of the Taff"), a muni- 
 cipal, parliamentary, and county borough and 
 seaport, the county town of Glamorganshire, 
 South Wales, on the river Taff; a new bridge over 
 which was opened in 1890 by the Duke of 
 Clarence, 56 miles SW. of Gloucester, and 170 W. 
 of London. Its progress in recent years is the 
 most remarkable, the population rising from 
 2000 in 1801 to 10,077 in 1841, 82,761 in 1881, and 
 164,420 in 1901. Since 1905 the mayor is called 
 Lord Mayor. An ancient municipal borough, with 
 Cowbridge and Llantrissant, it returns one mem- 
 ber to parliament. Among the public buildings 
 are the infirmary, town-hall, free library and 
 museum, jail, law-courts, county buildings, the 
 university college for South Wales (1883), the 
 Roman Catholic pro-Cathedral, baths, a theatre, 
 and numerous halls. There is a public park. 
 
 The port of Cardiff' is the outlet for the large 
 mineral and manufactured produce of the central 
 portion of the South Wales mineral-field, in 
 which are the populous districts of Merthyr- 
 Tydvil, Rhymney, Aberdare, and the Rhondda 
 Valley. The town is also one of the chief stations 
 on the Great Western line from London to 
 Milford-Haven. The Bute Docks, with an area of 
 150 acres, constructed at the expense of the Bute 
 estate, have cost nearly four millions sterling, 
 and belong to the Marquis of Bute. There is 
 also a tidal harbour, with a low-water pier 1400 
 feet in length. The imports to Cardiff' include 
 copper ore, live cattle, salted provisions, foreign 
 fruit and vegetables, corn and flour, &c. The 
 Penarth Docks, about one mile to the westward, 
 form another outlet for the trade of the district. 
 The Barry Dock (1888), of nearly 80 acres, adds 
 enormously to the shipping facilities of Cardiff. 
 Steamers ply between the port of Cardiff" and 
 New York, London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Bristol, 
 Cork, Whitehaven, and Burnham. The growth 
 of Cardiff" began with the opening of the canal 
 from Merthyr-Tydvil to the sea (1794) ; the first 
 dock was opened only in 1839 ; the second or 
 East dock dates from 1854. The corporation, 
 which has spent £500,000 in improving the 
 
CARDIGAN 
 
 157 
 
 CARLISLE 
 
 streets, in 1879 acquired the water-works, and 
 in 1888 secured a new supply from the Breck- 
 nockshire Beacons, at a cost of nearly £600,000. 
 
 The ancient city of Llandaff (q.v.), now a mere 
 village, is almost connected with Cardift'. Cardiff 
 Castle (1110) is partly now in ruins, and partly 
 occupied by the Marquis of Bute, who has spent 
 large sums in rebuilding it, and to whom nearly 
 the whole of the modern town belongs. Robert, 
 Duke of Normandy, died in the castle, after 
 twenty-eight years' captivity ; and Cromwell 
 (1648) got possession of it through treachery. 
 
 Cardigan (anc. Aberteiji; then Ceredigion — 
 pron. Ker-e-dee'gi-on, g hard), a county town, 
 municipal borough, and seaport on the Teifi, 
 3 miles from its mouth, and 117 miles NW. of 
 Cardiff by rail. Pop. (1851) 3876 ; (1901) 3511. 
 With Aberystwith, &c., it till 1885 returned one 
 member to parliament. Remains of a castle 
 (1160) crown a low cliff on the Teifl. The town 
 suffered much in the struggles between the Welsh 
 and the Normans. The Teifi is said to have been 
 the last British resort of the beaver. 
 
 Cardigan Bay, a semicircular bend of St 
 George's Channel, on the west coast of Wales, 54 
 miles wide from north to south, and 35 miles 
 deep, with a sweep of coast of 130 miles. It has 
 3 to 30 fathoms water, with three reefs. 
 
 Cardiganshire, a maritime county in South 
 Wales, on Cardigan Bay, with a crescent-shaped 
 coast-line of 48 miles, a maximum width of 32 
 miles, and an area of 693 sq. m. On the Mont- 
 gomeryshire border is Plinlimmon (2469 feet) ; 
 and a rugged, bleak range of hills runs through 
 the middle of the county from the south-west to 
 the north-east, between the coast and the Teifl ; 
 but on other parts there are rich flat tracts. 
 The chief rivers are the Teifl, Aeron, Claerwen, 
 Ystwith, and Rheidol. The ' sweet shire of 
 Cardigan' contains some romantic waterfalls, 
 especially the Rheidol Falls and the Devil's 
 Bridge, and above twenty small lakes or llyns, 
 noted for their wild beauty. Rich veins of 
 copper, lead, zinc, and silver occur. Cardigan- 
 shire is an agricultural county, 62 per cent, of its 
 total area being cultivated ; and the rearing of 
 live-stock is a leading industry. There are some 
 manufactures of coarse woollens and gloves, 
 stockings and hats. Cardigan is the county town ; 
 other towns being Aberystwith, Lampeter, 
 Adpar, Aberayron, Tregaron. Cardiganshire 
 returns one member. Pop. (1801) 42,956 ; (1841) 
 68,766; (1861) 72,245; (1901) 60,237. The an- 
 tiquities include many prehistoric, British, and 
 Roman remains, and the ruined abbey of Strata 
 Florida (1164), 16 miles SB. of Aberystwith. 
 The women still Avear the Welsh costume. In 
 1843-44 Cardiganshire was disturbed by the 
 Rebecca riots. See Meyrick's History of Car- 
 diganshire (1810). 
 
 Cardona, a town of Spain, 44 miles NW. of 
 Barcelona, on the Cardoner, and close to a cele- 
 brated mountain of salt. Pop. 4691. 
 
 Cardross, a village of Dumbartonshire, on the 
 Firth of Clyde, 3^ miles WNW. of Dumbarton. 
 Bi-uce died at Cardross Castle (1329), which stood 
 between the village and Dumbarton. Pop. 651. 
 
 Carelia. See Karelia. 
 
 Carhan House. See Cahirsiveen. 
 
 Caribbean Sea, lying between the Antilles 
 and the South and Central American mainland, 
 and communicating with the Gulf of Mexico by 
 the Yucatan Channel, 120 miles wide. 
 
 Cariboo, a district and gold-field in British 
 
 Columbia, in the great bend of the Fraser 
 River. 
 
 Carignano (Karinyah'no), a town of Piedmont, 
 on the Po, 11 miles S. of Turin. Pop. 4270. 
 
 Carimat'a, a name applied to the strait between 
 Borneo and Billiton ; also to a cluster of a hun- 
 dred islets and reefs (area, 57 sq. m. ; pop. 500) in 
 that strait ; and lastly, to the principal member 
 of the group (highest point 2600 feet high). 
 
 Carini (Karee'nee), a town of Sicily, 12 miles 
 W. by N. of Palermo. Pop. 11,667. 
 
 Carinthia (Ger. Kdrnthen), a crown-land of the 
 Austrian empire, forming i)art of the old king- 
 dom of Illyria, with an area of 4005 sq. m., and a 
 pop. of (1869) 337,694 ; (1900) 367,344. The prin- 
 cipal river is the Drave ; and the loftiest point is 
 the Grossglockner (12,450 feet), the general aspect 
 of the country being mountainous. Only 15 per 
 cent, of the area is devoted to tillage. Horses 
 and cattle are reared and exported. The principal 
 products are mineral. Klagenfurt is the capital 
 of Carinthia, which came into the possession of 
 Austria in 1335. Only 30 per cent, of the popu- 
 lation are Slavs (Slovenians), the remainder being 
 Germans ; and but 5 per cent, are Protestants. 
 
 Carisbrooke, a village in the Isle of Wight, 
 1 mile SW. of Newport. In its ruined castle 
 Charles I. was imprisoned (1647-48), as were also 
 his children Prince Henry and the Princess Eliza- 
 beth, the latter of whom died here. From the 
 castle well, 200 feet deep, the water is drawn by 
 a donkey inside a wheel. 
 
 Carlaverock. See Caerlaverock. 
 
 Carlingford, a seaport of County Louth, 69 
 miles N. of Dublin. Close by rises Carlingford 
 Mountain (1935 feet). Carlingford Lough is 10 
 miles long, and 2 wide. Pop. 600. 
 
 Carlisle, the county town of Cumberland, 
 stands on a gentle eminence in a wide-spreading 
 plain, at the influx of the Caldew and Petteril to 
 the Eden — three streams that nearly encircle it. 
 It is 299 miles NNW. of London, 101 miles S. of 
 Edinburgh, 22^ E. by N. of its seaport, Silloth, 
 and 66 W. by S. of Newcastle. In spite of its 
 hoar antiquity, 'merry' Carlisle as a whole is 
 disappointingly modern, its gates having van- 
 ished, and almost the whole of the walls. The 
 castle was founded in 1092, and now serves as a 
 barrack. The remains of its Norman keep form 
 a massive tower ; but the part in which Mary, 
 Queen of Scots, was imprisoned (1568) was demol- 
 ished in 1835. The cathedral, ranging in date 
 between 1092 and 1419, comprises every variety 
 of style from Norman to Perpendicular. The 
 fragment of the Norman nave, long used as a 
 parish church, is cut off from the choir, which, 
 mainly Decorated in style, is one of the finest 
 choirs in England, the exquisite tracery of its 
 nine-light east window being of matchless beauty. 
 There are monuments and other memorials to 
 Paley, Dean Close, and Archbishop Tait's five 
 children ; and in Carlisle Cathedral Scott married 
 Miss Carpenter (1797). The Eden, which has 
 salmon fisheries, is crossed by a handsome five-arch 
 bridge (1851). The manufactures include cotton, 
 calico, hats, iron, and fancy biscuits; but the 
 prosperity of the place mainly depends on its 
 being a great railway centre. An ancient 
 municipal borough, Carlisle since 1885 has re- 
 turned only one member. Pop. (1801) 10,221 ; 
 (1851) 26,310 ; (1901) 45,478. The Uiguvallum of 
 the Romans, and Caer-Luel (hence Carlisle) of the 
 Britons, the town was destroyed by the Danes 
 in 875, and restored by William Rufus in 1092. 
 
CARLISLE 
 
 158 
 
 CARMARTHENSHIRE 
 
 Prom Its position as a Border fortress, it has a 
 wealth of martial memories — none more famous 
 than the rescue of ' Kimnont Willie ' by Buccleuch 
 from Carlisle Castle in 1596. During the Great 
 Rebellion it twice surrendered to the Parliamen- 
 tarians (1645-4S) ; and in the '45 it was held by 
 the Jacobites, tlxirty-one of whom were after- 
 wards executed on Harraby Hill. See works by 
 M. Creighton (1889) and R. S. Ferguson (1890). 
 
 Carlisle, capital of Cumberland county, Penn- 
 sylvania, 19 miles WSW. of Harrisburg by rail. 
 It is the seat of Dickinson College (Methodist), 
 and has United States barracks, machine-shops, 
 a foundry, and manufactures of railway cars, 
 carpets, window sashes, carriages, and shoes. It 
 was shelled by the Confederates, July 1, 1863. 
 Pop. 9620. 
 
 Carlo'vltz (in England, however, usually Car'- 
 lovitz), a town of the Austrian empire, in Sla- 
 vonia, on the right bank of the Danube, 30 miles 
 NW. of Belgrade. It has a Greek cathedral, and 
 is noted for its red wine. Pop. 4916. 
 
 Carlo w, a small inland county of Leinster, 
 Ireland, with an area of 346 sq. m. Except for 
 Mount Leinster (2610 feet), on the south-east 
 border, it is a triangular fertile level, or gently 
 undulating plain, between the Wicklow and 
 Wexford range of hills on the east, and the 
 highlands beyond the Barrow on the west. The 
 chief rivers are the Barrow and Slaney. On the 
 west side of the county begins the great coal 
 district of Leinster. Barely one-third of the 
 entire area is under oats, wheat, potatoes, and 
 other crops. There are many dairies on the 
 plains. Along the Barrow, which falls more 
 than a foot per mile, are many large corn-mills. 
 Pop. (1841) 86,228 ; (1871) 51,472 ; (1901) 37,748, 
 of whom 36,139 were Catholics. Since 1885 the 
 county has returned but one member to parlia- 
 ment. The chief towns are Carlow, Bagenals- 
 town, and Tullow. 
 
 Carlow, the county town, stands at the influx 
 of the Burren to the Barrow, 56 miles SW. of 
 Dublin by rail. It has a Catholic cathedral, 
 remains of De Lacy's castle (1180), the county 
 court-house, extensive flour-mills, and is the 
 emporium for the agricultural produce of the 
 district. Till 1885 it returned a member. Pop. 
 (1851) 9121 ; (1901) 6513. 
 
 Carlsbad, a town in Boheinia, on the Tepl, 
 near its influx to the Eger, 116 miles W. by N. of 
 Prague by rail. It is widely celebrated for its 
 hot mineral springs (117° to 167° F.), and is fre- 
 quented during the season (April to October) by 
 80,000 visitors from all parts of Europe, many 
 of high social standing. Set in most lovely 
 scenery, the town is well built, and appears to 
 stand on a vast caldron of boiling water, which 
 is kept from bursting only by the safety-valves 
 the springs provide. Joseph I. made Carlsbad 
 a free town. Pop. 14,579. See works by Kraus 
 (Lond. new ed. 1888) and Merrylees (1886). 
 
 Carlsburg. See Karlsburg. 
 
 Carlshamn, a fortified seaport on the south 
 coast of Sweden, 30 miles W. of Carlskrona. 
 Pop. 6529. 
 
 Carlskrona, the capital of a Swedish province, 
 is built on five rocky islets in the Baltic, 240 
 miles (by rail 350) SSW. of Stockholm. It was 
 founded in 1680 by Charles XL, who made it the 
 great naval station of Sweden, instead of Stock- 
 holm. It has a magnificent harbour. Pop. (1875) 
 16,877 ; (1900) 23,955. 
 
 Carlsnihe {Karls-roo'eh), cap. of Baden, is 5 m. 
 
 E. of the Rhine, and 39 WNW. of Stuttgart, 34 
 SSW. of Heidelberg. Founded in 1715, and built 
 in the form of a fan, with thirty-two streets 
 radiating from tlie palace, it has many fine build- 
 ings—the palace itself (1776), parliament-house 
 (1845), theatre (1853), town-hall (1821), and 
 museum (1852), with the ducal library of 150,000 
 vols. Before the palace stands a bronze statue 
 of the city's founder, the Margrave Charles 
 William; and in the market-place is a stone 
 pyramid enclosing his remains. The manu- 
 factures include engines, railway carriages, 
 jewellery, carpets, chemicals, and cloth. Pop. 
 (1875) 42,895 ; (1900) 97,164. 
 
 Carlstad, a Swedish town on the Tingvalla 
 island, near the east shore of Lake Wener, 205 
 miles WSW. of Stockholm by rail. Greatly im- ' 
 proved since the fire of 1865, it has a cathedral 
 and two bridges connecting it with the mainland. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Carlstadt, a fortified town of Croatia, Austro- 
 Hungary, 32 miles SW. of Agram by rail. Pop. 
 7824.— Carlstadt, in Bavaria, on the Maine, 15 
 miles NNW. of Wiirzburg. Pop. 3320. 
 
 Carlton, a town of Notts, 3^ miles ENE. of 
 Nottingham. Pop. (1861) 2559 ; (1901) 10,041. 
 
 Carluke, a mining town of Lanarkshire, 2J 
 miles E. of the Clyde, and 19i SE. of Glasgow by 
 rail. General Roy, the antiquary, was a native. 
 Pop. 4716. 
 
 Carmagnola, a town of North Italy, 18 miles 
 S. of Turin by rail. Pop. 3730. 
 
 Carmania, the old name of Kerman (q.v.). 
 
 Carmarthen (Welsh Caer Fyrddyn, the Mari- 
 dunum of Ptolemy), the capital of Carmarthen- 
 shire, on the navigable Towy, 9 miles from Car- 
 marthen Bay, and 39 NW. of Swansea. Steele is 
 buried in the old parish church ; a ruined castle 
 of the Welsh princes was in 1787 incorporated in 
 a new county jail ; and Generals Picton and 
 Nott, both natives, are commemorated by an 
 obelisk and a bronze statue. Near the town are 
 tin and iron works ; and Carmarthen exports tin- 
 plates, slates, domestic produce, &c. It unites 
 with Llanelly in returning one member. Pop. 
 (1851) 10,524 ; (1901) 10,025. 
 
 Carmarthenshire, a maritime county of South 
 Wales, washed on the south by Carmarthen Bay, 
 a semicircular inlet of the Bristol Channel, and 
 bounded on the other sides by Pembroke, Cardi- 
 gan, Brecknock, and Glamorgan shires. The 
 largest of all the Welsh counties, it has a maxi- 
 mum length and breadth of 45^ and 26 miles, and 
 an area of 947 sq. m., of which 70-8 per cent, is 
 under cultivation. The county is mountainous 
 in the north and east, Carmarthen Van or Beacon 
 (2596 feet) being the highest summit. The coast 
 is marshy ; the chief river is the Towy, which has 
 a course of 65 miles, five-sixths in Carmarthen- 
 shire, and yields plenty of salmon, trout, eels, 
 and lamprey. On this river is the celebrated 
 vale of the Towy, 30 miles long, with an average 
 breadth of 2 miles. The mineral productions of 
 the county are iron, coal, copper, lead, slates, 
 lime, dark-blue marble. These, with tinned iron, 
 grain, cattle, horses, sheep, and butter, are 
 exported. The principal towns are Carmarthen, 
 Llanelly, Llandilo-vawr, Llandovery, and New- 
 castle-Emlyn. The chief manufactures are 
 woollens and leather. Pop. (1801) 67,317 ; (1841) 
 106,326 ; (1901) 135,328, largely Welsh-speaking. 
 Carmarthenshire returns two members. It was 
 the birthplace of the ' Rebecca ' Riots (1843-44) 
 against turnpike-gates. 
 
CARMAUX 
 
 159 
 
 CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 Oarmaux, a French town and great coal-mining 
 centre in the department of Tarn, 10 miles N. of 
 Albi. Pop. (1901) 10,950. There have been great 
 strikes here. 
 
 Carmel (Mar Elyas, 'Saint Elijah'), a richly 
 wooded limestone-ridge (1887 feet) which runs 
 from SB. to NW. for 14 miles, forming the only 
 great promontory on the low coast of Palestine. 
 
 Carmo'na, an ancient town of Andalusia, Spain, 
 27 miles ENE, of Seville by rail. Pop. 18,8(31. 
 
 Carnac, a village in the French dep. of Mor- 
 bihan, 20 miles SE. of Lorient. It is remarkable 
 for the number and variety of the Celtic monu- 
 ments and Gallo-Roman ruins, consisting of 
 menhirs, dolmens, and tumuli, with which the 
 neighbourhood is studded. The principal group 
 of menhirs is situated on a sterile moor near the 
 seashore, and consists of 1000 or more rude 
 monoliths of granite, rising, many of them, to a 
 height of 18 feet, though a large proportion do 
 not exceed 3 feet. They are arranged in eleven 
 roughly parallel rows, with two slight breaks, 
 extend from east to west about IJ mile in length, 
 and have at one end a curved row of 18 stones, 
 the extremities of which touch the outer hori- 
 zontal rows. See Miln's Excavations at Carime 
 (2 vols. 1877-81). 
 
 Carnarvon (Caer-yn-ar-Fon, ' fort opposite Mon, 
 or Anglesey'), the capital of Carnarvonshire, 
 stands near the south end of the Menai Strait, 
 on the right bank of the Seiont, 69 miles W. of 
 Chester. Carnarvon Castle, the building of which 
 was commenced by Edward I. in 1283, is one of 
 the noblest ruins in the kingdom, the walls, 7 to 
 9 feet thick, being still entire, and enclosing an 
 oblong of three acres. The gateway under the 
 great square tower has four portcullises. The 
 city walls, with several of the gates, still exist, 
 but are now within the town. A inimicipal 
 borough, Carnarvon unites with Pwllheli, Nevin, 
 Criccieth, Conway, and Bangor to return one 
 member to parliament. The harbour adinits 
 ships of 400 tons. The chief exports are slates, 
 stones, and ores. There are also iron and brass 
 foundries. Carnarvon is a bathing-place, and is 
 much frequented by tourists. Pop. (1851) 8674 ; 
 (1901) 9760. Half a mile from Carnarvon are the 
 remains, covering seven acres, of Segontium, or 
 Caer Seiont, a Roman station or city. There is a 
 Roman fort on the left bank of the Seiont, still 
 almost complete, with walls 11 feet high and 6 
 feet thick. Carnarvon was the seat of the native 
 princes of North Wales down to 873. In 1284 
 was born here the first Anglo-Norman Prince of 
 Wales, afterwards the unhappy Edward II. 
 
 Carnarvonshire, a maritime county of North 
 Wales, bounded B. and SE. by Denbigh and 
 Merioneth shires, and on all other sides by the 
 Irish Sea and the Menai Strait. With a maximum 
 length and breadth of 34 and 23 miles, it has an 
 area of 379 sq. m., of which 50-7 per cent, is under 
 cultivation. The surface is grandly mountainous, 
 attaining a maximum altitude in Snowdon (3571 
 feet), in the centre of the county, the loftiest 
 summit south of the Scottish Border. Carnar- 
 von Bay is 34 miles across, and 16 deep ; it com- 
 municates with the Irish Sea through the Menai 
 Strait, which is 14 miles long, and 200 yards to 2 
 miles broad. The rivers of Carnarvon are numer- 
 ous, but small. The chief is the Conway, which 
 is navigable for 10 miles, and runs along the east 
 border. Almost all the streams flow through 
 small lakes or tarns — of which there are 50 or 60 
 in the county — around the central or Snowdon 
 group of mountains. There are many fine 
 
 cataracts on these streams. The mineral pro- 
 ducts include copper, lead, zinc, coal, roofing 
 and writing slates ; the Penrhyn slate-quarries 
 employing many thousands of workmen. The 
 chief towns are Carnarvon, Bangor, Pwllheli, 
 Conway, Nevin, and Criccieth ; besides which 
 boroughs, several flourishing towns and tourist 
 centres have come into prominence— Llandudno, 
 Tremadoc, Bethesda, Bettws-y-Coed, Llanberis, 
 and Beddgelert. The county returns two mem- 
 bers. Pop. (1801) 41,521 ; (1881) 119,349 ; (1891) 
 118,204 ; (1901) 126,883. 
 
 Camat'ic, a region extending 600 miles along 
 the east or Coromandel coast of India, now 
 included in the province of Madras. 
 
 Carndonagh (Kamdo'na), a town of Donegal, 
 20 miles N. of Londonderry. Pop. 765. 
 
 Camiola (Ger. Krain), a south-west crown- 
 land of the Austrian empire, imited thereto 
 since, has an area of 3856 sq. m., and a pop. of 
 510,000, of whom 35,000 are Germans and 18,000 
 Croats, the rest being Slavs of the Slovenian 
 branch. It is traversed in the north by a con- 
 tinuation of the Carinthian Alps, and in the 
 south by the Julian Alps, the loftiest summit 
 being the Terglou (9393 feet), between the two 
 sources of the Save, which is the principal river. 
 The chief minerals are iron, quicksilver, and 
 brown coal ; the quicksilver mines of Idria are, 
 next to Almaden, the most important in Europe. 
 Laibach is the capital. 
 
 Camlougll, an Antrim fishing-village, 6 miles 
 SE. of Cushendall Station. Pop. 592. 
 
 Carnoustie (Karnoos'tie), a coast-town of For- 
 farshire, 11 miles ENE. of Dundee. It has fine 
 golf-links. Pop. 5204. 
 
 Carolina. See North and South Carolina. 
 
 Caroline Islands, a group in the Western 
 Pacific, lying between the Marshall and Pelew 
 islands, with an area of about 270 sq. m,, and a 
 pop, of some 36,000 ; but the Pelew (q,v.) group 
 is generally included in the Caroline Archipelago 
 (area, 560 sq. m. ; pop. 36,000), which thus 
 stretches across 32 degrees of longitude and 9 of 
 latitude. There are some 500 small atolls in the 
 archipelago, but three-fourths of both area and 
 population are included in the five volcanic 
 islands of Babelthouap, Yap, Rouk, Ponap6 
 (Ascension), and Kusari (Strong Island). The 
 climate is moist, but not unhealthy, and is tem- 
 pered by cooling breezes. The people are strongly 
 built, gentle, amiable, and intelligent ; they are 
 bold sailors, and carry on a brisk trade with the 
 Ladrones to the north, where they have several 
 settlements. Copra is largely exported. The 
 islands were discovered in 1527 by the Portu- 
 guese, and called Sequeira; in 1686 they were 
 annexed and rechristened in honour of Charles 
 II. by the Spaniards, who, however, shortly 
 changed the name to New Philippines. In 1885 
 the hoisting of the German flag on Yap gave 
 rise to a sharp dispute with Spain, which was 
 submitted to the arbitration of the pope, who 
 decided in favour of Spain. But in 1899 the 
 islands were ceded to Germany, Spain retaining 
 a coaling-station. — A British Caroline island near 
 the Marquesas is only 2 sq. m. in area, 
 
 Carouge (Karoozh'), a Swiss town 1| mile S. 
 of the city of Geneva. Pop, 5889, 
 
 Carpathian Mountains, an Austro-Hungarian 
 range, the second great range of Central Europe, 
 extend 880 miles in a great semicircle from 
 Presburg on the Danube to Orsova on the same 
 river. Negoi, the culminating peak, has an eleva- 
 
CARPENTARIA 
 
 160 
 
 CARTHAGE 
 
 tlon of 8517 feet. The range is generally clothed 
 with wood to a height of more than 4000 feet, 
 and with steep precipices, narrow ravines, ex- 
 tinct craters, and cones of volcanic origin, 
 exhibits scenes of grandeur rarely exceeded. See 
 works by Crosse (1878) and Muriel Dowie (1891). 
 
 Carpentaria, Gulf of, a great indentation of 
 the north coast of Australia, said to derive its 
 name from the river Carpentier, so named by 
 Carstensz in 1623, in honour of Pieter Carpentier, 
 governor-general of the Dutch Indies. It con- 
 tains many islands. To the east (where it is 
 bounded by Cape York Peninsula), south, and 
 west are Queensland and the northern territory 
 of South Australia. On the east it receives 
 the Mitchell and Van Diemeu rivers ; at the 
 south the Flinders, Leichhardt, and Albert ; and 
 on the west the Roper. 
 
 Carpentras {Karpon^trass'), a town in the 
 French dep. of Vaucluse, on the Auzon, 17 miles 
 NE. of Avignon by rail. It has a Roman trium- 
 phal arch, a cathedral (1405), the stately Porte 
 d'Orange of the 14th century, a massive aqueduct 
 (1734), and manufactures of cottons, woollens, 
 &c. It was the ancient Carpentoracte. Pop. 7794. 
 Carpi (Kar'pee), (1) a cathedral city of north 
 Italy, 10 miles N. of Modena by rail. Pop. 5987. 
 — (2) A village 28 miles SE. of Verona, where 
 Prince Eugene defeated the French in 1701. 
 
 Carrara (Kar-rdh'ra), a town of north Italy, on 
 the Avenza, near its mouth in the Mediterranean, 
 30 miles NW. of Leghorn by rail. It is surrounded 
 by the marble hills (part of the Apennine system) 
 in which are some 400 marble-quarries, though 
 very few furnish the marble used for statuary. 
 Pop. 26,300. See the Century Magazine for 1882. 
 Garrick, the southern division of Ayrshire 
 (q.v.). The Prince of Wales is Earl of Carrick. 
 
 Oarrickfergus, a seaport on the north side of 
 Belfast Lough, and the south-east border of 
 County Antrim, 9^ miles N. of Belfast, and 12 
 miles S. of Lame by raiL Its picturesque castle- 
 keep (90 feet), supposed to have been erected by 
 De Courcy in the 12th century, stands on a 
 headland 30 feet high. But one gateway now 
 remains of the ancient city walls. Here William 
 III. landed before the battle of the Boyne, and 
 here Thurot made an abortive landing in 1760. 
 Flax-spinning is carried on, and there is an oyster- 
 fishery. Till 1885 Carrickfergus was a parlia- 
 mentary borough. Pop. (1851) 8488 ; (1901) 4208. 
 Carrickmacross, a Monaghan market-town, 61 
 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1879. 
 
 Carrick-on-Shannon, the capital of County 
 Leitrim, on the Shannon, 98 miles NW. of Dublin 
 by rail. Pop. 1177. 
 
 Carrick-on-Suir (Shure), a town of Tipperary 
 and Waterford counties, on the navigable Suir, 14 
 miles E. of Clonmel, and 149 SW. of Dublin by 
 rail. It has woollen, linen, and flax factories, 
 and neighbouring slate-quarries. There are re- 
 raams of a castle (1309) of the Butler family, a 
 branch of which took the titles of Viscount and 
 Earl of Carrick. A stone bridge connects it with 
 the suburb of Carrickbeg in County Waterford. 
 Pop. (1851) 7512 ; (1901) 5406. 
 
 Carriden, a coast parish of Linlithgowshire, on 
 the Firth of Forth, at the eastern termination 
 of the Roman wall of Antonine. 
 Carrollton, since 1873 part of New Orleans. 
 Carron, a Stirlingshire village, on the river 
 Carron, 2 miles NNW. of Falkirk. Its great 
 ironworks (1760) till 1852 produced 'carronades,' 
 
 &c., and now turn out stoves, grates, boilers, 
 pipes, &c. Pop. 1942. 
 
 Carse, a Scottisli term for low lands adjoining 
 rivers, as the Carse of Cowrie, between Perth and 
 Dundee, and the Carse of Forth, near Falkirk. 
 
 Carsebreok, the great curling centre of Scot- 
 land, 11 miles NNE. of Stirling. 
 
 Garshalton, a Surrey urban district, 3 miles 
 W. by S. of Croydon. Pop. 6740. 
 
 Carson City, capital of Nevada state, U.S., 
 near the foot of the Sierra Nevada, 178 miles 
 BNE. of San Francisco. It has gold and silver 
 mines, and a U.S. mint. Pop. 2100. 
 
 Carstairs', a village of Lanarkshire, 1 mile 
 NW. from which is Carstairs Junction on the 
 Caledonian Railway, 28^ miles SW. of Edinburgh, 
 and 31 ESE. of Glasgow. Pop. of village, 508 ; 
 of Junction, 905. 
 
 Cart, a Renfrewshire feeder of the Clyde, 
 formed by the confluence of the Black Cart (9 
 miles) and White Cart (18J), the latter of which 
 has been made navigable to Paisley (q.v.). 
 
 Cartagena (Kartahay'na), a fortified seaport of 
 Spain, on a bay of the Mediterranean, 326 miles SE. 
 of Madrid by rail. The hill-protected harbour is 
 one of the best in the Mediterranean, its entrance 
 narrow, and commanded by a fortified island on 
 the south. Cartagena was fornaerly the largest 
 naval arsenal not only in Spain but in Europe. 
 It presents a Moorish aspect in its streets, its 
 cathedral, and its ruined castle, and has manu- 
 factures of ropes, sailcloth, and glass, besides 
 extensive blast-furnaces and smelting -works. 
 Population, 86,500. Cartagena was built by 
 Hasdnibal 242 B.C., under the name of New 
 Cai-thage. It formed the headquarters of the 
 Carthaginians in Spain, but in 210 b.c. was cap- 
 tured by P. Scipio, and became of importance 
 under the Romans, who employed 40,000 men 
 daily in the neighbouring mines. It was sacked 
 by the Goths, and did not again attain any note 
 until Philip II. 's reign. From July 1873 to 
 January 1874 it was held by a communist junta. 
 
 Cartagena, capital of the Colombian state of 
 Bolivar, stands on a sandy island, to the SW. of 
 the mouth of the Magdalena, and communicates 
 by four bridges with its suburb, Jetsemani, on 
 the mainland. It has a fine cathedral, a uni- 
 versity, and the best harbour on the coast. Its 
 trade has greatly fallen off" since the rise of 
 Sabanilla; but much was expected from the 
 reopening of a canal connecting it with Calamar, 
 on the Magdalena. Founded in 1533, it was 
 burned by Drake in 1585, but in 1741 repulsed 
 an attack by Admiral Vernon. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Cartage {Kartah'go), (1) a river and landlocked 
 bay or lagoon, communicating with the Caribbean 
 Sea, near the northern extremity of the Mosquito 
 Coast.— (2) A town of Costa Rica, 12 miles E. of 
 the present capital, San Jose, on a plain to the 
 south of the constantly smoking volcano of 
 Iraza (11,500 feet). Pop. 8000. Founded in 1522, 
 the place had 23,000 inhabitants in 1823, and was 
 capital of the state till 1841, when it was all but 
 destroyed by an earthquake. — (3) A town of Cauca, 
 in Colombia, founded in 1540, on the Rio Viejo, 
 3 miles above its junction with the Cauca. Pop. 
 9000. 
 
 Carthage was a city on the north coast of Africa, 
 the capital of one of the great empires of the 
 ancient world. It was situated on a peninsula at 
 the north-east corner of the region now known 
 as Tunis, and was founded, most probably, about 
 the middle of the 9th century b.o., by Phoenicians. 
 
 
CARTHAGE 
 
 161 
 
 CASHMERE 
 
 The name Carthage is a corruption of Kirjath, 
 the Canaanite word for a town, Avhich occurs in 
 Scripture in such names as Kirjath-Baal and 
 Kirjath-Jearim. The city, called Carthago by 
 the Romans, and Karchedon by the Greeks, was 
 known to its own inhabitants as Kirjath-Hade- 
 shath, or the New Town, to distinguish it either 
 from Tyre or from the earlier Phoenician colony 
 of Utica. It was destroyed by the Romans in 
 146 B.C., its pop. numbering 700,000. See works 
 by Bosworth Smith (1879) and Church (1886). 
 
 Carthage, Cape, a headland of North Africa, 
 jutting out into the Mediterranean, in 36° 52' N. 
 lat., 10° 22' E. long., with traces of the ancient 
 city of Carthage to the north of the Tunis lagoon. 
 
 Carthagena. See Cartagena. 
 
 Cartmel, a Lancashire market-town, 6 miles 
 B. of Ulverston. It was the seat of an Augus- 
 tinian priory (1188). Pop. 1084. See The Rural 
 Deanery of Cartmel (1892). 
 
 Cartworth, a town in the "West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 6 miles S. of Huddersfield. Pop. 1838. 
 
 Canipano {Karoo' pano), a seaport of Venezuela, 
 on the north coast of the peninsula of Paria, with 
 a lighthouse and good roadstead. Pop. 12,389. 
 
 Carvln (Karvan^), or Carvin-Epinay, a town 
 in the French dep. of Pas-de-Calais, 11 miles SSW. 
 of Lille by rail. Pop. 6905. 
 
 Casablanca (Arab. Dar el Beida), a port of 
 Morocco on the Atlantic, 162 miles SW. of Fez. 
 Pop. 8500. 
 
 Casale (Kasdh'leh), a city of north Italy, on 
 the Po, 21 miles NNW. of Alessandria by rail. 
 It has a cathedral, the Torre del grand' Orologlo, 
 some fine palazzi, and manufactures of silk. In 
 1474 it became the capital of the marquisate of 
 Montferrat. Pop. of commune, 31,800. 
 
 Casalpusterlengo (w as oo), a town of Italy, 
 22 miles SB. of Milan by rail. Pop. 5513. 
 
 Casamicclola (Kasamitch'ola), a watering-place 
 on the island of Ischia, in a valley on the north 
 side of Monte Epomeo, with hot springs (158° F.), 
 baths, hotels, &c., the season extending from 
 June to September. It suffered terribly by the 
 earthquake of 28th July 1883. Pop- 3763. 
 
 Casa Santa. See Loretto. 
 
 Casas Grandes, an old Indian town of Mexico, 
 125 miles SW. of El Paso, surrounded Avith ruins 
 of Aztec buildings, Avhich seem to indicate a 
 former population of 20,000 to 30,000. 
 
 Casbin. See Kazvin. 
 
 Cascade Range, a chain of mountains in 
 Oregon and Washington, U.S., and in British 
 Columbia. It takes its name from the great 
 cascades of the river Columbia, which are situ- 
 ated at the point where that stream caiiOTis 
 through the range by a pass 4000 feet deep. 
 The course of the mountain-chain in the United 
 States is from north to south nearly parallel to 
 the Pacific, and about 110 to 160 miles distant 
 from it. Southward it is continuous with the 
 Sierra Nevada of California ; northward it con- 
 nects with the range which forms the boundary 
 between British Columbia and Alaska. The 
 chain throughout most of its course is heavily 
 wooded, chiefly with evergreen conifers. Mount 
 Jefferson is 10,200 feet high, and Mount Hood 
 11,225 feet. The principal peaks in Washington 
 state are Mounts Baker (10,700 feet), Mount 
 Rainier or Tacoma (14,444 feet), and St Helen's 
 (12,000 feet). In this region volcanic action is 
 aot quite extinct. In the British Columbian 
 portion the range comes nearer the coast. 
 K 
 
 Caserta, a town of Italy, 20J miles NNE. of 
 Naples by rail. Its magnificent palace, one of 
 the finest in Europe, was founded by Charles 
 III. in 1752. Pop. 32,730. 
 
 Cashel, a town in County Tipperary (till 1870 
 a parliamentary borough), 100 miles SW. of 
 Dublin and 5 miles SE. of its railway station. 
 It is the see of a Protestant bishop, and of a 
 Roman Catholic archbishop. It is irregularly 
 built on the south and east slopes of the isolated 
 Rock of Cashel (300 feet), rising abruptly from a 
 rich and extensive plain. The Rock is crowned 
 by the ruins of a cathedral (1169), a stone-roofed 
 chapel (1127), the palace of the Munster kings, 
 a round tower, 90 feet high and 56 in circum- 
 ference ; and an old cross. At Cashel in 1172 
 Henry II. received the homage of the king of 
 Limerick. Pop. (1851) 4798 ; (1901) 2938. 
 
 Cashgar. See Kashoar. 
 
 Cashmere, or Kashmir, a native state embrac- 
 ing an irregular-shaped mountainous region, part 
 of the Himalayan system, in the extreme north 
 of India. Much of it is mere desert, but within 
 its borders are included the valleys of many 
 snow-fed streams. Chief among these is the 
 beautiful valley of the Upper Jhelum at Srinagar 
 —'the Vale of Cashmere' of Moore's iMlla 
 Rookh. It extends for about 120 miles from 
 NW. to SB., with a mean breadth of 75 miles, 
 at a distance of 130 miles by road from Rawal 
 Pindi, in the Punjab. The flat part of the 
 valley is not more than 80 miles long by 20 
 wide, with a variable elevation above sea-level 
 of from 5000 to 7000 feet. In it are two lakes, 
 the Dul and the Wulur. Nothing can well 
 exceed the fertile beauty of this valley, almost 
 surrounded as it is by snow-capped mountains, 
 whose lower spurs descend gently in terraced 
 slopes. These terraces are abundantly irrigated 
 for the purpose of rice cultivation, rice being 
 the staple crop throughout Cashmere. On the 
 margins of the lakes, and scattered through the 
 whole extent of the valley, are magnificent groves 
 of chinar or plane-trees, here and there laid out 
 with great regularity and taste to form gardens 
 and country-seats which used to be the favourite 
 resorts of the Mogul emperors two centuries ago. 
 Other features of Cashmere are its avenues of 
 poplars, and the floating-gardens of the lakes. 
 Srinagar is a quaint and picturesque old town, 
 built almost entirely of wood, said to have been 
 founded at the beginning of the 6th century. 
 Its industries are chiefly shawl-weaving and 
 lacquer- work, with silver and copper work. The 
 restrictions formerly placed on the residence of 
 Europeans in Cashmere territory have been modi- 
 fied, and Cashmere is now visited by thousands 
 of Europeans during the hot months of the year, 
 a well-known summer station being Gulmerg, 
 which is higher and cooler than Srinagar. Good 
 roads have been made, and a railway is projected. 
 The natural productiveness of the valleys is re- 
 markable. Fruit of almost every description is 
 found nearly wild in the lower valleys, and 
 the vine is now largely cultivated for the manu- 
 facture of wine. Notwithstanding this fertility 
 and the general cheapness of food-supply, Cash- 
 mere is occasionally subject to the scourge of 
 famine. Much has been written about the fine 
 physique of the Cashmere men and the beauty 
 of Cashmere women, but they are really a 
 corrupt and degraded race. 
 
 Cashmere was conquered by Akbar in 1586, 
 and became part of the Mogul empire. It was 
 overrun by the Sikhs in 1819. Ghulab Singh, 
 
CASKETS 
 
 162 
 
 CASTELNAUDARY 
 
 the feadatory of the Sikhs, made a treaty with 
 Britain in 1846, by which he recognised British 
 supremacy. In 1887 a land settlement (under 
 pressure from the Indian government) abolished 
 serfdom ; trade greatly increased. The popula- 
 tion of Cashmere with its dependencies (Ladakh, 
 Jamu, Gilgit, Chitral, &c.) was in 1901 close on 
 8,000,000, Mohammedans, Buddhists, and Hindus, 
 of whom 1,158,000 were in Cashmere proper. 
 Thirteen dialects are spoken ; the Kashmiri is 
 very closely related to Sanskrit. 
 
 See works by Bellew (1875), Drew (1875), Wake- 
 field (1879), Ilinton Knowles (1885-88), E. F. 
 Knight (1893), and A. Durand (1899). 
 Caskets. See Alderney. 
 Casoria, a town of Italy, 6 miles N. of Naples 
 by rail. Pop. 7551. 
 
 Oas'pe, a town of Spain, 53 miles SE. of Sara- 
 gossa. Pop. 9377. 
 
 Caspian Sea, an inland sea or great salt lake, 
 the largest in the world, on the boundary be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, extending from 36° 40' 
 to 47° 20' N. lat., and 46° 50' to 55° 10' E. long. 
 Its length from north to south is 680 miles, and 
 its breadth varies between 130 and 270 miles. 
 Its total area is estimated at 170,000 sq. m. It 
 has no tides, but navigation is dangerous because 
 of violent storms. Its level differs much at 
 different seasons, owing to evaporation and the 
 variable amount of water brought by its tribu- 
 taries. It is very shallow in the north— only 
 14 feet at a distance of 10 miles, and 72 feet at 
 a distance of 130 miles from the mouth of the 
 Volga. In its middle it is intersected by a sub- 
 marine ridge. The greatest depth found in the 
 northern basin is 2526 feet, and in the southern 
 (close by the southern shore), 3006. The Caspian 
 receives the waters of the Volga, Ural, Emba, 
 Terek, Kura, and Atrek. The water is salt, but 
 much less so than that of the ocean. The 
 northern parts are covered with ice during winter. 
 Fish abounds, and very valuable sturgeon and 
 salmon fisheries are carried on. A canal uniting 
 the upper tributaries of the Volga with those of 
 Lake Ladoga and the DUna connects the Caspian 
 with the Baltic. The sea is now surrounded on 
 three sides by Russian territory, the southern 
 shore still remaining Persian. The Russians 
 have a fleet stationed upon it, and lines of 
 steamers, for which the petroleum of Baku 
 forms an economical fuel. The chief Russian 
 towns on its shores are Astrakhan, Derbend, 
 Baku, and Krasjiovodsk, from near which a rail- 
 way runs by Askabad towards Merv, and thence 
 by Bokhara to Samarkand, with an extension 
 to Tashkand in Turkestan. 
 
 Cassandra (anc. Pallene), the most western of 
 the three tongues of the Chalcidice peninsula, 
 between the gulfs of Salonica and Cassandra. 
 The latter (anc. Toronaicus Sinus) extends 35 
 miles north-westward, and is 8 to 16 miles broad. 
 Cassano (Kassdh-no), (1) a town of S. Italy, 34 
 miles N. of Cosenza. Pop. 7407.— <2) On the Adda, 
 16 miles ENE. of Milan by rail, the scene of 
 two sanguinary battles— a defeat in 1705 of the 
 Imperialists by the French ; and a defeat in 1799 
 of the French themselves by the Russians and 
 Austrians. Pop. 5554. 
 Cassay. See Manipur. 
 
 Cassel, or Kassel, chief town of the Prussian 
 province of Hesse-Nassau, and the old capital 
 of the former electorate of Hesse-Cassel, on the 
 navigable Fulda, 120 miles by rail NNE. of Frank- 
 fort-on-Main, and 233 WSW. of Berlin. Pop. 
 
 (1875) 53,043 ; (1900) 106,000. The oldest part 
 consists of a few very narrow, crooked streets, 
 close to the river; the more modern parts are 
 situated on gentle hills. The ' upper new town ' 
 was founded by French refugees in 1688. In the 
 Friedrichs-Platz, the largest square in any Ger- 
 man town, stand the Elector's palace, the mill- 
 tary school, and the Museum Fredericianum 
 (1769-79), with a library of 100,000 volumes. The 
 large new law-courts were erected in 1880 on the 
 site of the Kattenburg, a costly and ambitious 
 palace projected in 1820, which, however, re- 
 mained unfinished till 1869, when its materials 
 were used in the construction of the new picture- 
 gallery (1877), which contains 1400 paintings. 
 Cassel carries on manufactures of locomotives 
 and steam-engines, carriages, philosophical and 
 mathematical instruments, cotton and linen 
 fabrics, plate, and sugar. The gardens of Wil- 
 helmshohe (1787-96)— which was assigned to 
 Napoleon III. as a residence after his fall at 
 Sedan, in September 1870- with their splendid 
 fountains and cascades, and the colossal statue 
 of Hercules, within the hollow of whose club 
 eight persons can stand at one time, are 3 miles 
 from Cassel. 
 
 Cassillls (Kassils), Ayrshire, seat of the Marquis 
 of Ailsa, on the Doon, 4 miles NE. of Maybole. 
 
 Casslqulare (Kassikeedh'ray), a south bifurca- 
 tion of the river Orinoco (q.v.). It leaves it near 
 Esmeralda, 200 miles from its source, and after a 
 rapid south-west course of 130 miles, joins the 
 Rio Negro near San Carlos. 
 
 Castalia, a fountain on Mount Parnassus in 
 Greece, sacred to the Muses. 
 
 Castelbuono, a town of Sicily, 8 miles SE. of 
 CefalCi. Pop. 8439. 
 
 Castelfranco, (1) a town of Italy, 8 miles SE, 
 ofModena. Pop. 1900.— (2) A town 15 miles W. 
 of Treviso by rail, the scene of an Austrian defeat 
 by the French, 24th November 1805. Giorgione 
 was a native. Pop. 7758. 
 
 Castel Gandolfo, a village 12 miles SE. of 
 Rome, near the west shore of Lake Albano. 
 Here Urban VIII. built a summer residence for 
 the popes. Pop. 1684. 
 
 Castellamare {Kas-tel-la-mdh'reh), (1) a seaport 
 of Italy, 17^ miles SE. of Naples by rail ; near 
 ancient Stabice, where the elder Pliny lost his 
 life when the city was overwhelmed with lava 
 from Vesuvius (79 a.d.). The Castello that gave 
 it name was built by the Emperor Frederick II. 
 in the 13th century. Castellamare has a cathedral, 
 an arsenal, and manufactures of macaroni, cotton, 
 sailcloth, &c. Pop. 34,207. —(2) A town of Sicily, 
 at the head of a gulf of the same name, 41 miles 
 WSW. of Palermo. Pop. 15,303. 
 
 Castellana {KastellCih'na), a town of south 
 Italy, 26 miles SE. of Bari. Pop. 8092. 
 
 Castellane'ta (e as ay), a cathedral city of south 
 Italy, 24 m. NW. of Taranto by rail. Pop. 10,200. 
 
 Castello Branco, a town of Portugal, 115 miles 
 NE. of Lisbon. Pop. 9464. 
 
 Castello de Vide, a town of Portugal, 139 miles 
 ENE. of Lisbon by rail. Pop. 5263. 
 
 Castellon' de la Plana, a town of Spain, 5 
 miles from the Mediterranean, and 43 miles NNE. 
 of Valencia by rail, manufactures linen, woollen, 
 sailcloth, brandy, &c. Pop. 81,337. 
 
 Castelnau'dary {au as o), a town in the French 
 dep. of Aude, on the Canal du Midi, 34 m. SE. of 
 Toulouse by rail. The Sostomagus of the Romans, 
 and Castrum Novum Arianorum (lience the modern 
 
 I 
 
CASTEL SARRASIN 
 
 163 
 
 CASTROGIOVANNI 
 
 name) of the Visigoths, Castelnaudary suffered 
 dreadfully in the crusade against the Albigenses, 
 and in 1355 it was captured by the Black Prince. 
 It has silk and woollen manufactures. Pop. 8598. 
 
 Castel Sarrasln (Sarazan"'), a town in the 
 French dep. of Tarn-et-Garonne, 12 miles W. of 
 Montauban. Pop. 4155. 
 
 Casteltermini(i(:as<eiter'mi7iee), a town of Sicily, 
 20 miles N. of Girgenti by rail. Pop. 9209. 
 
 Castelvetrano (Kastelvetrdh-no), a town of 
 Sicily, 46 m. SE. of Trapani by rail. Pop. 24,500. 
 
 Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'nay), a town of Sicily, 
 on the north slope of Mount Etna, 35 miles SW. 
 of Messina. Pop. 8114.— Castiglione delle 
 Stiviere is 22 miles NW. of Mantua. Here the 
 French defeated the Austrians in 1796. Pop. 6123. 
 
 Castile (Kast-eeV; Span. Castilla), the central 
 district of Spain, divided by the Castilian 
 Sierras (8730 feet) into Old and New Castile. The 
 former district — so called because it was first 
 recovered from the Arabs— extends north to the 
 Bay of Biscay, is walled in on all other sides 
 by mountain-ranges, and rises to the height of 
 2500 to 3000 feet in the form of an elevated 
 plateau, mostly trackless, treeless, and dreary. 
 It is now divided into the eight provinces of 
 Palencia, Valladolid, Avila, Segovia, Soria, Burgos, 
 Logroiio, and Santander. The plateau of New 
 Castile, to the south, is also enclosed by moun- 
 tains, and though lying 1800 feet lower than Old 
 Castile, presents many similar characteristics of 
 soil and scenery. It embraces the provinces of 
 Madrid, Toledo, Guadalajara, Ciudad Real, and 
 Cuen^a. Castilian is the literary language of 
 Spain. Area of Old Castile, 25,280 sq. m. ; pop. 
 1,800,000; area of New Castile, 53,035 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 3,500,000 ; total, 78,315 sq. m., with 5,300,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Castillon (Kas-tee-yon^'), a town (pop. 3670) in 
 the French dep. of Gironde, on the right bank of 
 the Dordogiie, 33 miles E. of Bordeaux by rail. 
 Beneath its walls, on 17th July 1453, the English 
 were defeated, their leader, Jonn Talbot, Earl of 
 Shrewsbuiy, being slain. 
 
 Castle-Acre, a Norfolk parish, 4 miles N. of 
 Swaftham, with a ruined castle and priory founded 
 by the Earl of Warrenne (1085). 
 
 Castlebar', the capital of County Mayo, on 
 the Castlebar River, 152 miles NW. of Dublin 
 by rail. Pop. 3588, 
 
 Castleblajmey, a Monaghan market-town, 73 
 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1576. 
 
 Castle Campbell. See Dollar. 
 
 Castlecary, (l) a market-town of Somerset, 
 12^ miles NNE. of Yeovil. Pop. of parish, 2096. 
 — (2) A railway station, and old castle, 6J miles 
 SW. of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, near the site of one 
 of the principal stations of Antoninus' Wall. 
 
 Castlecomer, a Kilkenny market-town, 14J 
 miles SW. of Carlow. Pop. 958. 
 
 Castleconnell, a village on the Shannon, 8 
 miles NE. of Limerick. 
 
 Castlederg, a Tyrone village, on the Derg, 10 
 miles SW. of Strabane. Pop. 796. 
 
 Castledermot, a Kildare town, on the Lerr, 
 ) miles SE. of Athy. Pop. 450. 
 
 Castle Donnington, a Leicestershire market- 
 ;own, 7i miles NNW. of Loughborough. Pop. 
 )f parish, 2591. 
 
 Castle-Douglas, a Kirkcudbrightshire town, 
 
 t the north end of Carlinwark Loch, 19j miles 
 !W. of Dumfries. Pop. 3018. 
 
 Castleford, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the Aire, 10 miles SE. of Leeds. 
 It was a Roman station, and has now great glass- 
 works, manufacturing especially bottles. Pop. 
 (1851) 2150 ; (1891) 14,143; (1901) 17,386. 
 
 Castle Garden, originally Castle Clinton, a 
 round fort (1807) built 300 yards out from the 
 south end of Manhattan Island, was in 1824 con- 
 verted into a place of amusement, in 1839 planted 
 with trees, turf, and flowers, in 1847 again trans- 
 formed into an opera-house, in 1858-90 was the 
 New York depot for immigrants on arrival, was 
 subsequently a government annoury, and then 
 an aquarium, 
 
 Castlegregory, a Kerry village, on Tralee Bay, 
 15 miles W. of Tralee. Pop. 480, 
 
 Castlehills. See Caithness, 
 
 Castle-Island, a Kerry town, on the Maine, 
 11 miles ESE, of Tralee. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Castlemaine, a town of Victoria, 78 miles 
 NNW. of Melbourne by rail. The gold diggings 
 here were among the first discovered in Australia, 
 Pop. 5770, 
 
 CastlepoUard, a Westmeath village, 12 miles 
 N, of Mullingar. Pop. 700. 
 
 Castlereagh, a market-town on the Suck, 17 
 miles NW. of Roscommon. Pop, 1190, 
 
 Castle Rising, a Norfolk parish, 4 miles NB, 
 of Lynn. Its ruined castle was the abode ol 
 Edward II. 's queen, Isabella, 
 
 Castle-Semple. See Lochwinnoch, 
 
 Castleton, (1) the capital of the Peak district, 
 Derbyshire, 10 miles NE. of Buxton. It is cora- 
 maTided, to the south, by the ruined castle of 
 William Pereril, a natural son of the Conqueror, 
 Pop. 641.— (2) A Liddesdale parish, Roxburgh- 
 shire, 21 miles S. by W. of Hawick. For Castle- 
 ton of Braemar, see Braemar. 
 
 Castletown (Manx Bailey Cashtal), a seaport 
 of the Isle of Man, on Castletown Bay, 11 miles 
 SW. of Douglas by rail. The grounds of Rushen 
 Abbey (11th century), near the station, are now 
 market-gardens. Hard by is the small building 
 where the House of Keys assembled for about 
 170 years. Brewing, tanning, and lime-burning 
 are carried on. Near Castletown is King William's 
 College (1833), an Elizabethan pile, rebuilt after 
 the fire of 1844, and enlarged in 1862, Pop. 1963. 
 
 Castletown Bereliaven, a Cork seaport, 20 
 miles W. of Bantry. Pop. 1650. 
 
 Castletownsend, a Cork seaport, 6 miles SE. 
 of Skibbereen. Pop. 466. 
 
 Castlewellan, a Down market-town, 19 miles 
 NE. of Newry. Pop. 945, 
 
 Castres (Kdstr), a town in the French dep. of 
 Tarn, on the river Agout, 46 miles (72 by rail) 
 E. of Toulouse, It rose up around a Benedictine 
 abbey (647), and in the 16th century became a 
 Huguenot stronghold, but its fortifications were 
 demolished in 1629. It has beautiful promenades, 
 a quondam cathedral, and manufactures of fine 
 wool dyed goods, leather, paper, soap, &c. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Castri. See Delphi. 
 
 Castro, the modern name of the capital of 
 several islands of the Grecian Archipelago- 
 Lesbos, Samothrace, Melos, Lemnos, &c. 
 
 Castro del Rio, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 
 23 miles SE. of Cordova. Pop, 10,268. 
 
 Castrogiovanni {Kastrojovdn'nee ; anc. Enna), 
 a town of Sicily, 56 miles E. of Catania by rail, 
 
CASTRO URDIALES 
 
 164 
 
 CAUCASUS 
 
 on a fertile plateau, which rises precipitously to 
 a height of 3270 feet above sea-level. Fop. 22,500. 
 Castro Urdiales (Oordidh'les), on the N. coast 
 of Spain, 30 ni. ESB. of Santander. Pop. 12,250. 
 Castrovil'lari, a town of South Italy, 34 miles 
 N. of Coseiiza. Pop. 11,505. 
 
 Ca.stu.eTa. (Kastooay'ra), a town of Estremadura, 
 Spain, OS miles ESE. of Badajoz. Pop. 7002. 
 
 Catalonia (Span. Cataluna), an old princi- 
 pality of Spain, triangular in shape, occupying 
 the north-east portion of tlie peninsula, and 
 now divided into the provinces of Barcelona, 
 Tarragona, Lerida, and Gerona. Total area, 
 12,500 sq. m. ; pop. 2,000,000. Catalonia is the 
 principal manufacturing province of the kingdom 
 —is, in fact, 'the Lancashire of Spain.' The 
 language, costume, and habits of the inhabitants, 
 who regard with contempt and pity the Spaniards 
 of the surrounding provinces, are quite distinct 
 from those of the rest of Spain, whose people 
 they greatly surpass in energy, industry, and 
 intelligence. Even the educated classes speak 
 the rough Catalan dialect, more nearly akin to 
 Provencal than to Castilian. Catalonia became 
 an integral portion of the Spanish monarchy in 
 1479, though never a very peaceable one. 
 
 Catamaroa, a western province of the Argen- 
 tine Republic, sinking SE. from the Andes to 
 the Salt Marshes which separate it from Cordoba. 
 Its capital, Catamarca (pop. 8000), is 82 miles 
 NE. of Rioja. 
 
 Catania (Katdh'nia ; anc. Catdna), a seaport of 
 Sicily, near the foot of Etna, 59 miles by rail SS W. 
 of Messina, and 54 NNW. of Syracuse. By erup- 
 tions and earthquakes, it has been several times 
 almost entirely destroyed — especially in 1669 and 
 1693; but out of its ruins it has always risen 
 with increased beauty, and it is now the finest 
 city in Sicily. The harbour was choked by a 
 stream of lava in 1693, and is still unsafe, in spite 
 of a costly mole. Among the chief buildings are 
 the Benedictine convent of San Nicola, secular- 
 ised in 1866 ; the cathedral (1091) ; and the uni- 
 versity (1445). Catania has manufactures of silk 
 and linen goods, and of articles in amber, lava, 
 wood, &c. Among the remains of ancient times 
 are those of a theatre, a temple of Ceres, Roman 
 baths, and an aqueduct. Pop. (commune) 150,000. 
 Catanzaro (Katantzdh'ro), a city of S. Italy, on 
 a rocky hill 6 m. from the Gulf of Squillace, and 
 326 SE. of Naples by rail. It has a cathedral, a 
 ruined castle of Robert Guiscard, and manufac- 
 tures of silks, velvets, and woollens. Pop. 30,931. 
 
 CateaU, Le, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS(ii:(i?lto'-ir07l*- 
 
 irezee'), a town in the French dep. of Nord, 14 m. 
 ESE. of Cambrai. Here in 1559 a treaty Avas con- 
 cluded between France and Spain. Pop. 10,269. 
 
 Caterham, a village of Surrey, with barracks, 
 7 miles S. of Croydon. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Catharines. See Aleutian Islands. 
 
 Cathay, an old name for China (q.v.), current 
 in Europe in the middle ages. 
 
 Cathcart, Old, a Renfrewshire town, S miles 
 S. of Glasgow. Pop. 4800. 
 
 Cat Island. See Bahamas. 
 
 Catrail, or Picts' Work, an earthwork extend- 
 mg 50 miles from near Galashiels, through the 
 counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh, to Peel Fell 
 in the Cheviots. See Blackwood's Maga. (1888). 
 
 Cat'rine, an Ayrshire town, on the Ayr 2t 
 miles ESE. of Mauchline, with a cotton-mili; 
 Pop. 2.558. 
 
 CatsklU, a village of New York, U.S., on the 
 Hudson, 34 miles SSE. of Albany. Pop. 5920. 
 
 Catskill Mountains, a group of well-wooded 
 mountains in the state of New York, U.S., west 
 of the Hudson River, and south of the Mohawk. 
 Belonging to the Appalachian system, they cover 
 some 5000 sq. m., chiefly in Greene County, N.Y. 
 Some peaks reach nearly 4000 feet in height. 
 The niountains generally have steep and often 
 precipitous ascents, and their summits are broad 
 and rocky. The deep valleys or ' cloves ' of the 
 region are remarkable for their almost perpen- 
 dicular walls. See Searing's Land of Rip Van 
 Winkle (1885). 
 
 Catstane, a monolith, 3J miles WNW. of Cor- 
 storphine. 
 
 Cat'taro, a strongly fortified Austrian port in 
 Dalmatia, lies at the head of the Gulf of Cattaro, 
 40 miles SE. of Ragusa, under the steep Monte- 
 negrin hills. It has a cathedral, a naval school, 
 and a pop. of 5500. At one time the capital of 
 a small republic, the town in 1420 joined the 
 republic of Venice, and was handed over to 
 Austria in 1814. The Gulf of Cattaro, an inlet of 
 the Adriatic, 19 miles long, consists of three 
 basins or lakes, connected by straits J mile broad. 
 
 Cat'tegat, or Kattegat, the bay or arm of the 
 sea between the east coast of Jutland and the 
 west coast of Sweden, to the north of the Danish 
 islands. It is connected with the Baltic Sea by 
 the Great and Little Belt (q.v.), and by the 
 Sound ; and the Skager Rack connects it with 
 the North Sea. Its length is about 150 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth 85. 
 
 Catto'lica, a town of Sicily, 14 miles NW. of 
 Girgenti. Pop. 6591. 
 
 Caub (Kowb), a town in the Prussian province 
 of Hesse- Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 30 miles WNW. of Wiesbaden by rail. Pop. 2179. 
 
 Cauca (Kow'ka), a river of Colombia, flowing 
 600 miles N. to the Magdalena. It gives name to 
 the largest of the Colombian states, traversed by 
 the Andean coast-range, and extending along the 
 Pacific from Panama to Ecuador. Area, 260,000 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1887) 465,690. Capital, Popaydn. 
 
 Caucasus, a great mountain-range that forms 
 the backbone of a well-marked geographical 
 region, nearly corresponding with the Russian 
 governor-generalship or lieutenancy of Caucasia. 
 It occupies the isthmus between the Black Sea 
 and the Caspian, its general direction being from 
 west-north-west to east-south-east. From the 
 peninsula of Taman on the Black Sea, to the 
 peninsula of Apsheron on the Caspian, it has a 
 length of about 750 miles. The breadth, includ- 
 ing the secondary ranges and spurs, is about 150 
 miles, but that of the higher Caucasus does not 
 exceed 70 miles. This range is sometimes treated 
 as the boundary line between Europe and Asia, 
 but the region is really Asiatic in character (see 
 Asia, p. 52). The higher and central part of the 
 range is formed of parallel chains, not separated 
 by deep and wide valleys, but remarkably con- 
 nected by elevated plateaus, which are traversed 
 by narrow fissures of extreme depth. The highest 
 peaks are in the most central ridge or chain, at 
 least six of them well over 16,000 feet, much ex- 
 ceeding the highest Alps. Mount Elburz attains 
 an elevation of 18,538 feet above the sea, Dikh-tau 
 of 16,923, and Kazbek of 16,541. Here the line 
 of perpetual snow is between 10,000 and 11,000 
 feet high ; but the whole amount of perpetual 
 snow is not great, nor are the glaciers very large 
 or numerous. For more than 100 miles' length 
 
 I 
 
CAtrcAstis 
 
 166 
 
 CAWNPORE 
 
 of the main ridge there are no passes lower than 
 10,000 feet. The spurs and outlying mountains 
 or hills are of less extent and importance than 
 those of almost any other mountain-range of 
 similar magnitude, subsiding as they do until 
 they are only about 200 feet high along the 
 shores of the Black Sea. Some parts are entirely 
 destitute of wood, but other parts are very 
 densely wooded, and the secondary ranges near 
 the Black Sea exhibit most magnificent forests 
 of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut ; grain is 
 cultivated in some parts to a height of 8000 feet, 
 while in the lower valleys rice, tobacco, cotton, 
 indigo, &c. are produced. The climate, though 
 generally healthy, is very different on the northern 
 and southern sides of the range, the vine grow- 
 ing wild on the south. The south declivity of 
 the mountains towards Georgia presents much 
 exceedingly beautiful and romantic scenery. 
 
 There are no active volcanoes in Mount Cau- 
 casus, but every evidence of volcanic action. 
 Blburz and Kazbek are both of volcanic origin. 
 There are hot springs and mud volcanoes at each 
 end of the range, and there are also famous 
 petroleum wells in the peninsula of Apsheron 
 (see Baku). Mineral springs also occur in many 
 places, notably at Vladikavkaz. The bison, or 
 aurochs, bears, wolves, and jackals are among 
 the animals. Lead, iron, sulphur, coal, and copper 
 are found. 
 
 The waters of the Caucasus flow into four prin- 
 cipal rivers — the Kuban and the Rion or Faz 
 (the Phasis of the ancients), which flow into the 
 Black Sea; and the Terek and the Kur, which 
 flow into the Caspian. Kuban and Terek are 
 north, Rion and Kur or Kura south of the moun- 
 tains. The Russians have with great labour 
 carried a military road through the tremendous 
 fissure or ravine of the Dariel gorge, about half- 
 way from the Black Sea to the Caspian. The 
 road passes over a height of about 8000 feet, 
 and is protected by many forts. The only other 
 road is by the Pass of Derbend, near the Caspian 
 Sea. The term ' Caucasian ' was at one time used 
 for all the finer types of the fair-skinned division 
 of mankind, but the ' Caucasian race ' of Blumen- 
 bach has long been divided into the two groups, 
 Aryan or Indo-European and Semitic ; and it is 
 very doubtful if the most of the Caucasian 
 peoples belong to either of these stocks. The 
 Ossetes, numbering perhaps 120,000, are dis- 
 tinctly Aryan ; the southern or Kartveli group 
 of Caucasian tribes (including the Georgians), 
 the eastern group (including the Tchetchens and 
 Lesghians), and the western group (including 
 Circassians and Abkhasians), speak languages 
 mutually imintelligible and of doubtful affinities. 
 The resistance which the Caucasian peoples for 
 more than half a century off"ered to the arms of 
 Russia attracted to them the attention of the 
 world. But with the capture in 1859 of Shamyl, 
 the prophet chief of the Lesghians, the power of 
 the Caucasians was shattered ; by 1870 it was 
 completely broken. The bulk of the Circassians 
 and Abkhasians migrated to Turkish territories 
 in Asia or Europe. The ancient divisions of the 
 country, Georgia, Imeritia, Svanetia, Mingrelia, 
 &c., based on tribal distinctions, have disappeared 
 from the Russian administrative system, in which 
 the main range of Caucasus divides the province 
 into Ciscaucasia, north of the mountains, and 
 Transcaucasia to the south of them ; the fonner 
 comprising the governments of Stavropol, Kuban, 
 Terek; the latter, those of Daghestan (really 
 north of Caucasus), Tiflis, Kutais, Elisabetpol, 
 Baku, Kars, and Erivan. Total area, 308,000 sq. 
 
 m. ; pop. 6,290,000. The chief town in Ciscau- 
 casia is Vladikavkaz; in Transcaucasia, Tiflis. 
 The old capital of Georgia was Mtzkhet, a good 
 specimen of a Georgian word. See works by 
 Freshfield (1869), Cuninghame(1872), Bryce(1878), 
 Phillipps-Wolley (1883), 'Wanderer' (1883), and 
 Abercroraby (1890). 
 
 Caudebec (Koad-bek'), two places in Seine- 
 Inferieure. Caudebec les Elbeuf, 12 miles S. by 
 W. of Rouen, has a population of 9700, and 
 manufactures cloth. Caudcbec-en-Caux, a pretty 
 antique village of 2386 inhabitants, is on the 
 Seine, 31 miles WNW. of Rouen. 
 
 Gaura (Kov/ra), a river of Venezuela flowing 
 NNW. to the Orinoco. On both sides stretches 
 the territory of Caura (22,485 sq. m.). 
 
 Cauterets {Koa-te-ray), a French watering- 
 place in the dep. of Hautes-Pyrenees, lies 3250 
 feet above sea-level, in the valley of the Laver- 
 dan, 42 miles SSE. of Pan. The stationary popu- 
 lation was in 1901 only 1566, but it is annually 
 swelled in summer by 15,000 to 20,000 visitors, 
 for whose accommodation numerous sumptuous 
 hotels and bathing-establishments have been 
 built. Its twenty-five sulphurous springs (60" 
 to 131° F.) have been known from Roman times ; 
 though their modern reputation dates from the 
 16th century, when Margaret, sister of Francis I., 
 held her literary court and wrote much of her 
 Heptameron at Cauterets. 
 
 Cauvery. See Kaveri. 
 
 Cava del Tlrrenl, a cathedral city of Italy, in 
 a lovely valley, 5^ miles NW. of Salerno by rail. 
 Pop. 6339. About a mile distant is a Benedictine 
 monastery celebrated for its archives. 
 
 Cavaillon (Ka-va-yon"'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Vaucluse, 18 miles SE. of Avignon, with 
 a cathedral and Roman remains. Pop. 9757. 
 
 CaVan, an inland county in the south of Ulster. 
 It lies in the narrowest part of Ireland, 18 miles 
 from the Atlantic, and 20 from the Irish Sea. 
 Area, 746 sq. m., of which less than a third is 
 under crops. Bogs and hills, with many small 
 lakes, are found in the north-west, where Cuil- 
 cagh attains a maximum altitude of 2188 feet. 
 The chief rivers are the Erne, the Woodford, and 
 the Annalee. Of minerals, Cavan affords coal, 
 iron, lead, and copper, with many mineral springs. 
 The chief towns are Cavan, Cootehill, and Bel- 
 turbet. Cavan returns two members to parlia- 
 ment. Pop. (1851) 174,064; (1901) 97,541, of 
 whom 79,026 were Catliolics. — Cavan, the county 
 town, stands on a branch of the Annalee, 85 miles 
 NW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 2822. 
 
 Cavite (Ka-vee-tay'), a decayed seaport of Luzon, 
 one of the Philippines, 12 miles SW. of the 
 capital. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Cawdor, a Nairnshire village, 5^ miles SW. of 
 Nairn. Cawdor Castle, the seat of the Earl of 
 Cawdor, was founded in 1454, but is one of the 
 three traditional scenes of King Duncan's murder 
 by Macbeth in 1040. See Cosmo Innes's Book of 
 the Thanes of Cawdor (1859). 
 
 Cawnpore' (Kanhpur), a city of the North- 
 western Provinces, on the right bank of the 
 Ganges, 42 miles SW. of Lucknow, 266 SE. of 
 Delhi,. arid 628 NW. of Calcutta. The river here 
 varies according to the season, from 500 yards in 
 width to more than a mile. The principal land- 
 ing-place is the beautiful Sarsiya ghat. Cawn- 
 pore, at least as a place of note, is of recent 
 origin, being indebted for its growth, besides its 
 commercial facilities, partly to military and 
 political considerations. Population, 200,000. 
 
ca:^amarca 
 
 166 
 
 CENTAAl AMERICA 
 
 In 1777, being then an appendage of Oudh, it 
 was assigned by the nawab as the station of a 
 subsidiary force ; and in 1801 it became, in name 
 as well as in fact, British property. At the out- 
 break of the mutiny in May 1857, Cawnpore con- 
 tained 1000 Europeans (560 of them women and 
 children), who, after a three weeks' gallant 
 defence, surrendered to the infamous Nana 
 Sahib, on promise of a safe-conduct to Allaha- 
 bad, only to be pitilessly massacred. There 
 is a memorial church, a Romanesque red- 
 brick building, whilst the scene of the actual 
 massacre is occupied by the memorial gardens. 
 Over the fatal well a mound has been raised, its 
 summit crowned by an octagonal Gothic en- 
 closure, with Marochetti's white marble angel in 
 the centre. But Sir George Trevelyan's Cawn- 
 pore (1865) is the best memorial of the tragedy. 
 
 Caxamarca. See Cajamarca. 
 
 Caxlas, (1) a town of Brazil, in the province of 
 Maranhao, on the navigable Itapicuru, 190 miles 
 from its mouth. Pop. 10,000.— (2) An Italian 
 colony in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande 
 do Sul, founded in 1875. Pop. 13,680. 
 
 Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capital of French 
 Guiana, on an island at the mouth of a river of 
 the same name. The harbour is the best on 
 the coast, but insecure and shallow. Cayenne, 
 though the entrepot of all the trade of the colony, 
 is chiefly known as a great French penal settle- 
 ment (since 1852), its climate being extremely 
 unwholesome for Europeans. The French took 
 possession of the island in 1604, and again in 
 1677. The name of the capital is sometimes used 
 for the whole colony. Pop. 12,600. 
 
 Cayes, or Aux Cayes (0 Kaif), a seaport of 
 Hayti, on the south-west coast, 95 miles WSW. of 
 Port-au-Prince. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Caymans (Kl-inans^), three fertile coral islands, 
 165 miles NW. of Jamaica, of which they are a 
 dependency. Columbus discovered them, and 
 called them Tortugas, from the abundance of 
 turtle, still their staple production. Area, 225 
 sq. m. ; pop. 2322. 
 
 Cazalla de la Sierra, a Spanish town, 38 
 miles ENB. of Seville. Pop. 8310. 
 
 Cazem'be, an African territory extending 
 between the Moero and Bangweolo lakes, west 
 of 30° E. long. Here Livingstone died in 1873. 
 
 Cazorla, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 40 miles 
 ENE. of Jaen. Pop. 6692. 
 
 Ceara (Say-a-rdh'), a province of Brazil, on the 
 north coast, with an area of 40,253 sq. in., and 
 952,625 inhabitants. The capital, Ceara, has a 
 harbour, with breakwater, and is the terminus of 
 a railway to Baturite (90 miles). Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Cebu, or Zebu, is one of the Philippine Islands 
 (q.v.), the seventh in respect of area. 
 
 Cedar-bergen, a range in the west of Cape 
 Colony, stretches N. and S. on the east side of 
 Olifant River Valley, in Clanwilliam division. 
 Sneeuwkop (6335 feet) is the highest point. 
 
 Cedar Creek, a river of Virginia, U.S., giving 
 name to the defeat of the Confederates, 19th 
 October 1864. 
 
 Cedar Rapids, a town of Iowa, on the Red 
 Cedar River, 79 miles SW. of Dubuque. It is an 
 important railway centre, and has large fl^our- 
 mills, carriage and machine works, and breweries. 
 Pop. (1860) 1830 ; (1880) 10,104; (1900) 25,656. 
 
 Cefalii {cimy-fa-loof), a city of Sicily, on the 
 north coast, 40 miles ESE. of Palermo. It lies 
 
 beneath a cliff, with a Norman cathedral and 
 Greek ruins. Pop. 15,714. 
 
 Ceglie (Chayl'yay), a town in southern Italy, 
 21 miles NE. of Taraiito. Pop. 13,865. 
 
 Celano, Lake ob\ See Fucino, Lake of. 
 
 Celaya (Se-ldh'ya), a town in the Mexican state 
 of Guanajuato, on the Rio Laja, about 150 miles 
 by rail NW. of the city of Mexico. Pop. 28,336. 
 
 Celbridge, a town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, on 
 the LifTey, 12 miles W. of Dublin. Pop. 915. 
 
 Celebes (Span, pi-on. The-lay'hez; Eiig. usu. Sd'- 
 e-bez), practically a Dutch island, is separated 
 from Borneo by the Strait of Macassar, and 800 
 miles long by 200 broail. It consists of a central 
 nucleus whence radiate four long mountainous 
 limbs, respectively B., NE., SE., and S., enclosing 
 the three gulfs of Gorontalo, running in nearly 
 200 miles, Tolo 150 miles, and Boni about 200 
 miles. The gulfs, as also the north and west 
 coasts, are studded with islands, rocks and shoals, 
 and larger outlying islands. The east end of the 
 north-eastern peninsula is subject to earthquakes, 
 and contains 11 volcanoes, some of them active, 
 such as Mount Sapoetan (5938 feet), and, farther 
 east. Mount Klabat (6559 feet), which has now, 
 however, long been quiescent, besides numerous 
 hot springs and sulphur lakes. The mountains of 
 the south peninsula seldom rise above 2000 feet. 
 In the extreme south, however, are Maros (4225 
 feet) and Bonthain (9994 feet). Between the hills 
 and coast of the south peninsula are extensive 
 grassy plains, affording pasture for large herds of 
 cattle and horses. Celebes is rich in lakes, 
 among them, Passo, in the central nucleus, 35 by 
 25 miles, and Tondano, nearly 2000 feet above the 
 sea. Thanks to the elevation of the land and its 
 sea exposure, Celebes, no part of which is more 
 than 50 miles from the sea, enjoys a compara- 
 tively cool and healthy climate. The vegetation 
 includes rice, maize, coffee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, 
 areca, betel, pepper, clove and nutmeg growing 
 wild ; the tree yielding macassar oil, oak, teak, 
 cedar, ebony, sandalwood, bamboos ; also the 
 npas. Many animals, birds, and insects are 
 wholly peculiar to Celebes. Gold is obtained 
 from surface washings ; iron, salt, tin, and copper 
 are likewise worked. 
 
 In 1900 the pop. was calculated at 1,878,500. 
 The Bugis and Mangkassars of the south 
 peninsula, tall, shapely, and comparatively fair, 
 are the dominant native race, much disposed to 
 trading and seafaring. The ' Alfuros,' a collective 
 name for the other native tribes, are at a very 
 low grade of culture. Celebes was first visited 
 in 1525 by a Portuguese expedition from the 
 Moluccas. In 1607 the Dutch began to trade 
 with Celebes, and now claim the whole island, 
 which they have divided into the residences of 
 Macassar and Menado, a third division round the 
 north and west of the Gulf of Tolo being included 
 in the residence of the Ternate. The chief town 
 is Macassar (pop. 20,000), with a sea-frontage of 
 nearly 2^ miles. See Lahure, CMebes (Paris, 1879) ; 
 Hickson, The Naturalist in North Celebes (1889). 
 Cellardyke. See Anstruther. 
 Celle. See Zell. 
 Cenis. See Mont Cenis. 
 
 Cento {Chen'to), a town of central Italy, 16 
 miles N. by W. of Bologna. It is the birthplace 
 of the painter Guercino. Pop. 4975. 
 
 Central America, that part of the northern 
 half of the American continent which lies between 
 the isthmuses of Tehuantepec and Panama, some- 
 times extended so as to embrace Mexico. It 
 
CfiUTftAL ASIA 
 
 167 
 
 CEtllfA 
 
 includes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, 
 San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica ; Belize ; 
 and the Mexican state of Chiapa and peninsula of 
 Yucatan. The republic of Panama (once Colom- 
 bian) might now be added. 
 
 Central Asia. See Asia, p. 55. 
 
 Central City, the name of several villages and 
 handets in the United States, and of the capital 
 of Gilpin county, Colorado, 40 miles W. of 
 Denver by rail, with quartz-mills and rich gold- 
 mines, and 312(5 inliabitants. 
 
 Central Falls, a city of Providence county, 
 Rhode Island, 4^ miles N. of Providence, with 
 extensive manufactures. Pop. (1900) 18,167. 
 
 Central India, the official term for a group of 
 feudatory Indian states which fall into nine 
 political agencies, but are all under the super- 
 vision of the governor-general's agent. The 
 region in which these states lie is to the north of 
 the British ' Central Provinces ' of India, and 
 touches the North-west Provinces, Rajputana, 
 Khandesh in the Bombay Province, and" Chutia- 
 Nagpur in Bengal. The area is 78,800 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 8,650,000. The nine subordinate agencies 
 comprised in the Central India Agency are the 
 Indore, Bln'l or Bhopawar, Deputy Bliil, Western 
 Malwa, Bhopal, Gwalior, Guna, Bundelkhand, 
 and Baghelkhand agencies. 
 
 Central Provinces, a chief-commissionership of 
 India, near the centre of the peninsula, embracing 
 18 British districts and 15 native states. Area, 
 86,500 sq. m. British and 30,000 native; pop. 
 10,000,000 and 2,000,000 respectively. Tlie surface 
 is irregular, the plains being broken by ridges ; in 
 the north extend the Vindhyan and Satpura 
 (2000 feet) tablelands, with the Nerbudda be- 
 tween ; south of these stretches the great Nagpur 
 plain, with the Chatisgarh plain to the east, and 
 a wild forest-region beyond, reaching almost to 
 the Godavari. The climate is hot and dry, ex- 
 cept during the south-west monsoon (June— Sep- 
 tember), when 41 of the mean annual 45 inches 
 of rain fall. Wheat, rice, oil-seeds, cotton, and 
 tobacco are raised ; the only manufactures of 
 note are weaving and the smelting and working 
 of iron ores. Of the population three-fourths 
 are Hindus, and one-seventh aboriginal or non- 
 Aryan tribes who still adhere to their primitive 
 faiths. Only 6 per cent, reside in the 52 towns 
 of above 5000 inhabitants, of which three— Nag- 
 pur, Jubbulpore, and Kampti— have over 50,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Ceos (modern Kea, Italianised as Zea or Tzia), 
 one of the Cyclades, in the ^gean Sea, 14 miles 
 olf the Attic coast. It is 13 miles long, 8 broad, 
 and 39 sq. m. in area. The culnunating point is 
 Mount Elias, 1863 feet high. The population is 
 4311, of whom the great majority live in the 
 capital, Zea or Ceos. In ancient times Ceos was 
 noted as the birthplace of the poets Simonides 
 and Bacchylides, and the physician Erasistratus. 
 
 Cephalonia (Homeric Same or Samos), the 
 largest of the seven Ionian Islands (q.v.), lies 
 opposite the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto or 
 Corinth. It is irregular in shape, with a length 
 of 30 miles, and an area of 302 sq. m. Pop. 
 83,543. The surface is mountainous, attaining 
 5310 feet ; the soil for the most part thin, and 
 water scarce. The capital is Argostoli (q.v.). 
 
 Cephissus, one of the two rivers which water 
 the Athenian plain. 
 
 Ceram' (Serang), the largest of the south- 
 em Moluccas (q.v.), lies NB. of Amboyna, to 
 Which Dutch residency it belongs, and is divided 
 
 into Great and Little Ceram by the Isthmus of 
 Taruno. Area, 6605 sq. m. ; pop. 105,000. A 
 mountain-chain reaches in Nusa Keli 11,000 feet. 
 
 Cerignola (Chereen'yola), a town of Italy, 22 
 miles SE. of Foggia by rail. The Spanish victory 
 over the French here in 1503 established Spain's 
 supremacy in Naples. Pop. 34,200. 
 
 Cerigo (Cher'ee-go), the southernmost of the seven 
 Ionian Islands (q.v.), now officially known again 
 by its old Greek name ofCythera, is separated from 
 the Morea by a narrow strait. Area, 107 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 14,259. Capsali is the capital. In ancient 
 thnes the island was sacred to Venus. 
 
 Cerne Abbas, a market-town of Dorset, on the 
 Cerne, 7 miles N. of Dorchester. Pop. 834. 
 
 Cerreto (Cher-ray' to), a cathedral city of south 
 Italy, 14 miles NNW. of Benevento. Pop. 5129. 
 
 Cerro de Pasco (Serro), the capital of the Peru- 
 vian dep. of Junin, stands at an elevation of 
 14,276 feet, 138 miles NE. of Lima. Near it are 
 rich silver-mines. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Cerro Gordo, a plateau in Mexico, the most 
 easterly on the route from Vera Cruz to the capi- 
 tal. Here, on 18th April 1847, the Americans 
 totally defeated the Mexicans. 
 
 Cerro Largo, a dep. in the NE. of Uruguay. 
 Area, 5735 sq. m. ; pop. 38,000. Capital, Cerro 
 Largo or Melo ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Certaldo (Cher-tahl'do), a town of central Italy, 
 19 miles SW. of Florence (37 by rail). Boccaccio 
 was born and died here. His house still stands 
 much as in his time. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Cervet'ri (from Care Vetus), a village 19 miles 
 WNW. of Rome, on the site of the ancient Caire 
 or Agylla, formerly one of the most important 
 cities of Etruria. 
 
 Cervin, Mont. See Matterhorn. 
 
 Gesena (Chez-ay' rm), a cathedral city of central 
 Italy, 12 miles SE. of Forli by rail. It gave birth 
 to Popes Pius VI. and VII. Pop. 16,435. Here 
 Murat defeated the Austrians, 30tli March 1815. 
 
 Cetinje, or Cettign^ (Set-tin' y eh), capital of 
 Montenegro, lies in a rocky valley 2093 feet above 
 sea-level, and 17 miles E. of Cattaro. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Cette (Sett), a seaport in the French dep. of 
 Herault, on a neck of land between the lagoon of 
 Thau and the Mediterranean, 23 miles SW. of 
 Montpellier. The harbour enclosed by the piers 
 and breakwater can accommodate about 400 
 vessels, and is defended by forts. A broad deep 
 canal, lined with excellent quays, connects the 
 port with the Canal du Midi and the Rhone, 
 thus giving to Cette an extensive inland traffic ; 
 it has likewise an active foreign commerce. Cette 
 has shipbuilding yards, salt-works, glass-works, 
 factories for the manufacture of syrups and grape- 
 sugar, &c. It is a resort for sea-bathing, and has 
 extensive fisheries. Colbert founded it in 1666. 
 Pop. (1872) 25,181 ; (1901) 32,364. 
 
 Ce'uta (Span. pron. Thay'oo-ta), a fortified port 
 belonging to Spain, on the coast of Morocco, 
 opposite Gibraltar. It occupies the site of the 
 Roman colony of Ad SejHem Fratres, so called 
 from the seven hills, of which the most prominent 
 are Montes Almina and Hacho ; on the latter, the 
 ancient Abyla (one of the Pillars of Hercules), is 
 a strong fort, and on the former, among beautiful 
 gardens, lies the New Town. Ceuta has a 
 cathedral, but is chiefly important as a military 
 and convict station. 'The harbour is small, and 
 exposed to the north. In 1415 Ceuta, with its 
 territory, was captured by the Portuguese ; iu 
 1580 it fell to Spain. Pop. 13,339. 
 
CEVENNES 
 
 168 
 
 CEYLON 
 
 Oevennes (anc. Cebenna), the chief mountain- 
 range in the south of France. With its continua- 
 tions and offsets, it forms the watershed between 
 the Rhone and the Loire and Garonne. The 
 Cevenues extend for over 150 miles, through or 
 into nine deps., the central mass lying in Lozere 
 and Ardeche, where Mont Lozere attains 5584 
 feet, and Mont Mezenc (the culminating point of 
 the chain) 5754 feet. The average height is from 
 3000 to 4000 feet. See works by R. L. Steven- 
 son (1879) and E. A. Martel (Paris, 1890). 
 
 Ceylon (the Taprobane of the Greeks and 
 Romans, and the Serendib of the Arabian Nights), 
 a British crown colony in the Indian Ocean, is an 
 island to the south-east of India, from which it 
 is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk 
 Strait, 32 to 120 miles broad. Extreme length 
 from north to south, 266 miles ; greatest width, 
 140 miles. Area, 23,330 sq. m., of which about 
 one -sixth is under cultivation. In natural 
 scenery Ceylon can vie with any part of the world ; 
 and as its magnificent hills rise from the sapphire 
 ocean, clothed with the rich luxuriance of a tropi- 
 cal vegetation, it seems to the voyager like some 
 enchanted island of Eastern story. Undulating 
 plains cover about four parts of the island, and 
 the fifth is occupied by the mountain-zone of the 
 central south, which has an elevation of from 
 6000 to 8000 feet above the sea-level. Pedrotalla- 
 galla attains the height of 8260 feet ; Adam's Peak, 
 7420 feet ; and the tableland of Nuwara-Eliya, 
 6210 feet. The mountain-system is mainly com- 
 posed of metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss, fre- 
 quently broken up by intrusive granite. With 
 the exception of some local beds of dolomitic 
 limestone, the gneiss is everywhere the surface 
 rock, and the soil is composed of its disintegrated 
 materials. Iron can be obtained in great quan- 
 tities, and anthracite and rich veins of plumbago 
 exist on the southern range of hills. Gold has 
 recently been found. The gems of Ceylon have 
 been celebrated from time immemorial, and in- 
 clude sapphires, rubies, the oriental topaz, garnets, 
 amethysts, cinnamon stone, and cat's-eye. The 
 pearl-fisheries of Ceylon, known at a very remote 
 date, form a government monopoly, and are 
 under the inspection of an officer, who reports 
 when a sufficient nuinber of pearl-yielding oysters 
 have reached maturity. The fishings occur at 
 irregular dates. The value of pearls obtained 
 varies from £10,000 in some years to £60,000 in 
 others ; there was no fishing from 1892 till 1904. 
 
 The most important river in Ceylon is the 
 Mahavila-ganga, which drains more than 4000 sq. 
 m. Galle and Trincomalee are the only great 
 natural harbours ; but harbour improvements 
 have concentrated the conunerce of the island 
 at Colombo, the capital of the island. At Trin- 
 comalee are the naval stores and dockyard. In 
 climate, Ceylon has a great advantage over the 
 mainland of India, and as an island enjoys a 
 more equable temperature. The average for the 
 year in Colombo is 80° in ordinary seasons. The 
 beautiful tableland of Nuwara-Eliya is used 
 as a sanatorium. Here the thermometer in the 
 shade never rises above 70°, while the average is 
 62°; the nights are cool and refreshing. The 
 general botanical features of Ceylon are in many 
 respects similar to those of Southern India ; but 
 about 800 species of plants are peculiar to the 
 island. Of animals the quadrumana are repre- 
 sented by the Loris gracilis and five species of 
 monkeys. Sixteen species of bats exist in Ceylon, 
 including the flying-fox. Of the larger carnivora, 
 the bear and leopard ; and of the smaller, the palm- 
 cat and the glossy genette (the civet of Europeans) 
 
 may be mentioned. The tiger is not met with iii 
 Ceylon. Deer, buffialoes, and the humped ox of 
 India are plentiful, and the wild boar occurs. 
 The elephant, which is for the most part tusk- 
 less, is emphatically lord of the forests of Ceylon. 
 Whales are captured off" the coast. Three hun- 
 dred and twenty species of birds are found. The 
 crocodile is the largest reptile in the island ; tor- 
 toises and lizards are also found. There are a 
 few species of venomous snakes. 
 
 The Singhalese (Sinhalese, also spelt Cingalese), 
 the most numerous of the natives of Ceylon, are 
 supposed to be the descendants of those colonists 
 from the valley of the Ganges who first settled 
 in the island 543 b.c, and speak an Aryan lan- 
 guage closely allied to the Pali or modernised 
 Sanskrit. The Kandyans, or Highlanders, are 
 a more sturdy race. The Malabars, or Tamils, 
 have sprung from those early invaders of Ceylon 
 who from time to time swept across from Southern 
 Hindustan. The Moormen, of Arab descent, are 
 enterprising traders. The ' burghers ' of Ceylon 
 are people of Portuguese and Dutch descent, who 
 have become naturalised. There is besides a 
 remarkable tribe of outcasts— the Veddahs — 
 hardly removed from the Avild animals of the 
 forest. The Singhalese are devoted to Buddhism, 
 which has, however, been adulterated with Brah- 
 manism. The most celebrated Buddhistic relic 
 in Ceylon is the so-called sacred tooth of Gautama 
 or Buddha, really a piece of discoloured ivory, 
 which is guarded with jealous care at Kandy. 
 Another is the sacred Bo-tree of Anuradhapura. 
 Brahmanism or Hinduism is the faith of the 
 Tamils or Malabars, and the Moormen are Mo- 
 hammedans. After the expulsion of the Dutch 
 Christians, Protestant missions to the natives of 
 Ceylon were commenced by the Baptists in 1813. 
 The Wesleyan Methodists followed in 1814, the 
 Americans in 1816, the Church of England in 
 1818. Schools, collegiate institutions, and female 
 seminaries, under the direction of the mission- 
 aries, are in successful operation ; and there is 
 a government system of education. Amongst 
 the antiquities of Ceylon are dagobas or relic- 
 shrines, cave-temples and other temples, and 
 viharas or monasteries ; also the ruined tanks, 
 singular monuments of the former greatness of 
 the Singhalese. Thirty colossal reservoirs, and 
 about 700 smaller tanks, still exist, though for 
 the most part in ruins. The restoration of these 
 magnificent works of irrigation is being carried 
 on by the government. 
 
 Coff'ee was long the chief connnercial product 
 of the island ; but in 1869 a fungus (Hemileia 
 vastatrix) attacked the leaves of the coffee-trees, 
 and though everything was tried to mitigate or 
 overcome the pest, it steadily increased in viru- 
 lence, and the coff'ee-planters were obliged to turn 
 their attention to other products of the soil. Cin- 
 chona, cacao, cardamoms, and many other plants 
 were tried with varying success, but it soon became 
 plain that Ceylon was capable of becoming a great 
 tea-producing country, and tea has become the 
 chief factor in restoring the financial equilibrium. 
 Cinnamon and cocoa-nut cultivation are chiefly 
 in the hands of natives ; tea, cinchona, cacao, 
 and cardamom cultivation in the hands of Euro- 
 peans. The export of coff'ee fell from 995,493 
 cwt. in 1873 to 10,315 cwt. in 1902. In 1878 
 3515 lb. of tea were exported ; in 1900-4 over 
 150,000,000 lb. a year. The other exports are 
 cinchona, cocoa, coco-nut oil, cinnamon, carda- 
 moms, plumbago, tobacco, coir, copra, and cord- 
 age—mainly to India and Britain. The chief 
 imports from Britain are cotton goods, iron and 
 
CEZIMBM 
 
 169 
 
 chalon-sur-saoue 
 
 fron goods, coal, and machinery ; but the chief 
 import is rice from India. In the early years of 
 the 20th century the exports to Britain averaged 
 £3,500,000 a year, and the imports from Britain 
 £2,100,000. 
 
 Ceylon, the largest of the British crown 
 colonies, is administered by a governor aided by 
 executive and legislative councils (the former 
 consisting of five members, the latter of fifteen, 
 partially elective), and municipal councils. Local 
 boards and village tribunals give a measure of 
 self-government to the people. The population 
 of Ceylon, 2,7(33,984 at the census of 1881, rose by 
 
 1901 to 3,578,333, of whom 2,331,045 are Singhalese, 
 953,535 Tamil immigrants and settlers, 228,706 
 Moormen (Mohannnedans of Arab descent), 9509 
 Europeans, 23,539 Eurasian descendants of Portu- 
 guese and Dutch, 3971 Veddahs, and 11,963 Malays. 
 The revenue in 1882 was 12,161,570 rupees, and in 
 
 1902 was 27,198,056 rupees. The expenditure had 
 risen from 12,494,664 rupees in 1882 to 26,341,878 
 in 1902. In the latter year the rupee had de- 
 preciated to Is. 4d. Buddhism was introduced 
 into Ceylon in 307 B.C. In 237 b.c. the Malabar 
 mercenaries usurped supreme power, which they 
 retained till 1071 a.d., when for 100 years a native 
 dynasty ruled, the reign of Prakrama (from 1153 
 A.D. on) being the most glorious in the annals 
 of Ceylon. The Malabars struggled with the 
 native dynasties till 1517, when the Portuguese 
 established themselves in the island, to be ex- 
 pelled by the Dutch in 1658 ; and it was not 
 till the great French wars at the end of the 18th 
 century that tlie Dutcli ceded all their powers 
 and possessions here to Britain, the island being 
 formally annexed to the British crown in 1815. 
 
 See various works by John Ferguson (1898, &c.) ; 
 Two Happy Years in Ceylon, by Miss Gordon 
 Cumming (1891) ; and the Official Handbook (1900) 
 by Davidson. 
 
 Cezimbra, a coast town of Portugal, 18 miles 
 S. of Lisbon. Pop. 9815. 
 
 Chablis (Shab-lee'), a town in the dep. of 
 Yonue, 12 miles E. of Auxerre. It gives name to 
 an esteemed white Burgundy wine. Pop. 2300. 
 
 Chaco, El Gran. See Gran Chaco. 
 
 Chad, Tchad, or Tsad, Lake, a lake in the 
 Soudan, Northern Africa, with an estimated area 
 of 10,000 sq. m. in the dry season, and four or five 
 times that extent during the rainy months. The 
 western half contains the real lake ; the eastern 
 is generally a complex of low islands, separated 
 by shallow canals, and inhabited by a race of 
 semi-amphibious Negroes. The few streams that 
 reach the lake are all small, except the Shari, 
 which comes from the south-east. Lake Chad, 
 whose waters are perfectly fresh, has no regular 
 outlet. It sometimes overflows towards a great 
 depressed plain 300 miles to the north-east. The 
 first Europeans to see it were Denham, Clapper- 
 ton, and Oudney ; Nachtigal explored it in 1870. 
 The lake is surrounded by the states of Bornu, 
 Kanem, Wadai, and Bagirmi. Wadai is a strong, 
 independent state, with Kanem and Bagirmi as 
 its vassal states. The line that divides the sphere 
 of French influence from the British sphere runs 
 from Say on the Niger to Barrua on the west shore 
 of Chad, leaving Sokoto and Bornu in the English 
 sphere. The treaty agreed on by England and 
 Germany in 1893 made the line between the Eng- 
 lish sphere and the German run from the Bight 
 of Biafra to Yola on the Benue, and thence to the 
 SW. corner of Lake Chad, leaving the southern 
 shore of Chad, with most of Adamawa and part of 
 ^ Bagirmi and the mouth of the Shari, in the German 
 
 sphere as the ' Hinterland ' of Cameroon. This 
 the French hotly contested on the score of treaties 
 made with Adamawa by Mizon. The French have 
 of late done much exploration hereabouts, with a 
 view of extending their influence. See the work 
 on the travels of the unfortunate explorer 
 Crampel by Alis, A la Conquete du Tchad (1892) ; 
 and Dybowski, La Route du Tchad (1893). 
 
 Chadda, another name for the Benue (q.v.). 
 
 Chadderton, a suburb of Oldham (q.v.). 
 
 Chseronea, a town in ancient Boeotia, near the 
 river Cephissus, memorable for the disastrous 
 defeat of the Athenians by Philip of Macedon, 
 338 B.C. Plutarch was a native. 
 
 Chagny (Shan-yeef), a town in the French dep. 
 of Saone-et-Loire, 32 miles S. of Dijon. Pop. 4589. 
 
 Chagos. See Diego Garcia. 
 
 Chagres (TcMh-gres), a town of the republic 
 of Panama, on the N. coast of the Isthmus of 
 Panama, at the moutli of tlie Chagres River. The 
 river Chagres rises about 10 miles NE. of Panama, 
 makes an immense bend round to the NB., and 
 enters the Caribbean Sea. Though towards its 
 mouth it varies in depth from 16 to 30 feet, it is 
 yet but little available for navigation. Tlie pro- 
 posed route of the Panama Canal was by the 
 valley of the Chagres for part of its course. 
 
 Chalce'don, a city of ancient Bithynia, at the 
 entrance of the Euxine, opposite to Byzantium. 
 
 Chalcis, the capital of the Greek island of 
 Eubcea, on the Euripus, a strait here only 120 
 feet wide. It was successively Athenian, Mace- 
 donian, Roman, and Venetian, until its conquest 
 by the Turks in 1470. Pop. 9877. 
 
 CJhaleurs, Bay of, an inlet of the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, between Gaspe, a district of Quebec, 
 and New Brunswick, having a length of 90 miles 
 east and west, and a width of from 12 to 20. 
 
 Chalfont St Giles, a village of Buckingham- 
 shire, 16 miles SE. of Aylesbury. Milton's cot- 
 tage here (1665) was saved from demolition and 
 purchased by the nation in 1887. 
 
 Chalgrove, a village 13 miles SE. of Oxford, 
 the scene of a skirmish between Prince Rupert's 
 cavalry and a parliamentary force under Hamp- 
 den, who here received his death-wound, June 
 18, 1643. 
 
 Chalons-sur-Mame (Shdhlon'-siir-Mam), the 
 capital of the French dep. of Marne, on the right 
 bank of the river Marne, 107 miles E. of Paris by 
 rail. An old place, with timber houses and many 
 spired churches, it has a 13th-century cathedral, 
 a handsome h6tel-de-ville(1772), and a fine public 
 park, though the Germans in 1870 cut down its 
 immemorial elms for fuel. It still does a con- 
 siderable trade in champagne wine ; but its manu- 
 facture of the worsted cloth known as ' shalloon ' 
 (Chaucer's chalons) is a thing of the past, and the 
 population has dwindled from 60,000 in the 13th 
 century to 21,500 in the 20th, Near Chalons (anc. 
 Catalauni) the Romans and Goths in 451 a.d. 
 defeated Attila and his Huns. In 1856 Napoleon 
 III. formed the celebrated camp of Chalons, 16^ 
 miles NE. of the town. , 
 
 Chalon-sur-Saone (Shdhlon^-sur-Sone), a town 
 in the French dep. of Saone-et-Loire, 84^ miles by 
 rail N. of Lyons. Lying on the right bank of the 
 Saone, which here is joined by the Canal du Centre, 
 uniting it with the Loire, Chalon has an extensive 
 traffic with central France, as well as with the 
 Mediterranean and Atlantic. The industries are 
 copper and iron founding, machinery and ship- 
 building, and the manufacture of glass, paper, 
 and chemicals. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 L 
 
CHAMALAltt 
 
 170 
 
 dHAKi^t 
 
 Ohamalarl (Tcha-'ma-lah'ree), a peak (23,944 
 feet) of the Himalayas, between Tibet and Bhutan, 
 140 miles E. of Mount Everest. 
 
 Chamba, one of the Pui\jab Hill States, imme- 
 diately SE. of Cashmere, with an area of 3180 sq. 
 m. Pop. 128,000, nearly all Hindus. It is shut 
 in by lofty hills, and traversed by two ranges of 
 snowy peaks and glaciers, with fertile valleys 
 to the south and west. The banks of the Ravi 
 and Chenab, two of the five great Puiyab rivers, 
 are clothed with mighty forests, leased to the 
 British government. 
 
 Chambal, a river rising in the Vindhya Range, 
 2019 feet above sea-level, and flowing 650 miles 
 north-eastward to the Jumna 40 miles below 
 Etawah. 
 
 Cliambersburg, capital of Franklin county, 
 Pennsylvania, 52 miles WSW. of Harrisburg by 
 rail. A large part of it was burned by the Con- 
 federates in 1864. Pop. 8863. 
 
 Chambery (Shon^bay-ree'), capital of the old 
 duchy and present French dep. of Savoy, beauti- 
 fully situated between two ridges of hills, 370 miles 
 SE3. of Paris by rail. The town itself is uninterest- 
 ing ; but the scenery around, with the river Laisse 
 flowing through the valley, is exceedingly fine. 
 Chambery has a small cathedral, a palace of 
 justice, and the old castle of the Dukes of Savoy. 
 It manufactures clocks, silk-gauze, soap, hats, 
 paper, &c. Pop. 17,100. 
 
 Chambeze (Chavi-bee'zeh), the farthest head- 
 stream of the Congo, rises south of Tanganyika, 
 about 9° 40' S. lat., and 33° 15' E. long., and flows 
 south-west to Lake Bangweolo (q.v.). 
 
 Ghambord (Shon'^borr'), a celebrated chateau in 
 the French dep. of Loir-et-Cher, 12 miles E. of 
 Blois. Commenced in 1526, it is a huge Renais- 
 sance pile, and in 1821 was presented to the 
 Comte de Chambord (1820-83). 
 
 Chamouni, or CHAMONix(SAa/i-moo-'rtee'; Lat. 
 Campus vmnitus, as sheltered by the mountains), 
 a celebrated valley among the French Alps, in the 
 dep. of Upper Savoy, 53 miles ESE. of Geneva, 
 at an elevation of about 3400 feet above sea-level. 
 It is about 13 miles long and 2 broad, and is 
 traversed by the Arve. On the south side lies 
 the giant group of Mont Blanc, from which 
 enormous glaciers glide down, even in summer, 
 almost to the bottom of the valley : one of 
 them, the Glacier des Bois, expands in its upper 
 course into a great mountain-lake of ice, the Mer 
 de Glace. The village of Chamouni, which is 
 the usual starting-point for the ascent of Mont 
 Blanc, owes its origin and its alternative name, 
 Le Prieure, to the Benedictine convent founded 
 here before 1099. In 1741 Chamouni was visited 
 by two Englishmen, Pococke and Wyndham, but 
 it was only in 1787 that the attention of travellers 
 was efi'ectually called to it by the Genevese natu- 
 ralist, De Saussure, and others. Since then the 
 number of visitors has increased to over 15,000 
 tourists, and the railway was opened in 1901. 
 Pop. of village, 600; of commune, 2500. 
 
 Champagne, a district and ancient province 
 (180 by 150 miles) of France, now forming the deps. 
 of Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube, and Ardennes, 
 with parts of Yonne, Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, 
 and Meuse. It is famous for its white and red 
 wines, the former either sparkling or still ; the 
 best varieties are produced at Rheiras and 
 Epemay. The chief towns were Troyes, Bar-sur- 
 Aube, Leon, and Rheims. 
 
 Champaign, a city of Illinois, 128 miles SSW. 
 
 of Chicago. It has furniture and wagon factories, 
 and an Industrial University (1868). Pop. 9839. 
 
 Ghamparan, a Biitish Indian district in the 
 N W. corner of Behar, with an area of 3531 sq. m., 
 and a pop. of 1,859,465. 
 
 Cbamplain', a beautiful lake separating the 
 states of New York and Vermont, and penetrat- 
 ing, at its north end, about 6 miles into Canada. 
 Lying 91 feet above sea-level, it is 110 miles long, 
 by from 1 to 15 broad, empties itself into the St 
 Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has com- 
 munication by canal with the Hudson. The lake 
 was discovered byChamplain in 1609 ; and here a 
 British flotilla was defeatetl by the Americans, 
 11th September 1814. 
 
 Chancellorsville, a post-station of Virginia, 
 near the Rappahannock, 11 miles W. of Fredericks- 
 burg. Here, May 2 and 3, 1863, the Confederates 
 defeated the Federals, but suffered a severe loss 
 in Stonewall Jackson, who was accidentally shot 
 by his own men. 
 
 Chanda, chief town of a district of India, on 
 the south-west frontier of the Central Provinces, 
 90 miles S. of Nagpur. Pop. 16,137. 
 
 Chandausi, a town of the United Provinces, 27 
 miles S. of Moradabad. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Chanderi (Tchanday'ree), a town of Central 
 India, 105 miles S. of Gwalior. Now an insignifi- 
 cant place, it once contained 14,000 stone houses. 
 
 Chandernagore (properly Chandan-nagar, 'city 
 of sandalwood'), a French city, with a territory 
 of about 3^ sq. m., on the right bank of the 
 Hugli, 22 miles above Calcutta. Established in 
 1673, it for a while rivalled Calcutta; now, 
 through the gradual silting up of the river, it has 
 little external trade. Pop. 25,395. 
 
 Chandor, a town in the province of Bombay, 
 40 miles NE. of Nasik. Its fort, commanding an 
 important pass between Khandesh and Bombay, 
 crowns a hill 3994 feet high. Pop. 4892. 
 
 Chandpur, a town of the United Provinces, 19 
 miles S. of Bijnaur. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Chang-Chow, two cities of China, (1) a city 28 
 miles W. by S. of Amoy ; pop. 1,000,000.— (2) a 
 city 50 miles E. by S. of Nanking ; pop. 360,000. 
 
 Chang-Sha, a city of China, capital of the pro- 
 vince of Hu-nan, on the Heng-kiang, a tributary 
 of the Yang-tse. Pop. 300,000. 
 
 Channel, The English (Fr. La Manche, 
 ' Sleeve ; ' Roman Mare Britannicum), is the 
 narrow sea between England and France. On 
 the east, it joins the North Sea at the Strait of 
 Dover, 21 miles wide, from which it runs west- 
 south-west for 280 miles, and joins the Atlantic 
 Ocean at the Chops, with a breadth of 100 miles 
 between the Scilly Isles and Ushant Isle. With 
 an average breadth of 70 miles, it is 90 miles 
 wide from Brighton to Havre ; 60 miles from 
 Portland Bill to Cape La Hague ; 140 miles— its 
 greatest breadth — from Sidmouth to St Malo; 
 and 100 to 110 miles west of the latter line. It 
 occupies 23,900 square geographical miles, and 
 contains the Channel Isles, Ushant Isle, and Isle 
 of Wight. It is shallowest at the Strait of Dover, 
 where a chalk ridge at the depth of twelve to 
 thirty fathoms joins England and France. West 
 of this, the average depth of the central portion 
 is thirty fathoms, with hollows from forty to 
 sixty-two fathoms deep. The English coast-line 
 of the Channel is 390 miles long, and the French 
 coast-line is 570 miles long. The proposed Chan- 
 nel Tunnel, 23 miles long, from Dover to Calais, 
 was discussed first in 1867. 
 
CHANNEt ISLANDS 
 
 m 
 
 CHAlfeLESl?Oif 
 
 Channel Islands, a group of small islands off 
 the NW, coast of France, which from the 10th 
 century formed part of the old ducliy of Nor- 
 mandy, and since tlie Norman Conquest has 
 remained subject to the British crown. Tlie 
 nearest points are about 12 miles from the French 
 coast. The four principal islands are Jersey, 
 Alderney, Sark, and Guernsey ; others being the 
 Caskets (or Casquets), Burhou, Brecqhou, Jethou, 
 Herni, the Minquiers, and tlie Cliausseys. The 
 area is 75 sq. m., the population over 95,000. 
 The islands are administered according to their 
 own laws and customs, and are not bound by 
 British acts of parliament. Jersey has its own 
 lieutenant-governor, judges, and 'states' partly 
 elective ; Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark have a 
 governor in common, but separate administra- 
 tions. English predominates in the towns; else- 
 where the vernacular is a local modification of 
 old Norman-French. The scenery is beautiful, 
 the climate delightful to invalids. Frost and 
 snow are rare. Flowering plants and shrubs are 
 about a fortnight earlier in the spring than in 
 England. The produce of the islands is princi- 
 pally agricultural ; but horticulture and flori- 
 culture are successfully followed — the latter 
 especially in Guernsey. The system of cultiva- 
 tion is very primitive. The principal manure is 
 seaweed. A great quantity is burned for the 
 manufacture of kelp and iodine. The principal 
 crops are potatoes, hay, wheat, turnips, mangel- 
 wurzel, parsnips, and carrots. The Channel 
 Islands are famous for excellent breeds of horned 
 cattle, usually known as 'Alderneys,' though 
 each island has its own special type. The other 
 main articles of exportation are granite, fruit, 
 and early potatoes. See 'The Cliannel Islamls, by 
 Wimbush and Carey (1904). 
 
 Chanonry. See Fortrose. 
 
 Chantenay, a growing western suburb of 
 Nantes (q.v.). 
 
 Chantibun, or Chantabon, a town of Siam, a 
 considerable port near the mouth of the Chanta- 
 bun River, in the Gulf of Siam, occupied by the 
 French as security for the fultilinent of the treaty 
 of Bangkok in 1893. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Ghantilly (Sho)i^tee-yee'), a town in the dep. of 
 Oise, 26 m. NNE. of Paris. One of the most beauti- 
 ful places in the vicinity of the capital, and the 
 headquarters of French horse-racing, it attracts 
 immense numbers of visitors. The magnificent 
 chateau of the great Conde here was pulled down 
 at the Revolution of 1793, but was rebuilt by the 
 Due d'Aumale, who bought back the estate in 
 1872, and who in 1886 presented it to the French 
 Institute, with its priceless art collections, its 
 value nearly £2,000,000. The manufacture of 
 silk pillow-lace, or blonde, so famous in the 18th 
 century, is all but extinct. Pop. 4702. 
 
 Chapala, an isleted lake of Mexico, on the 
 high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by steep, 
 bare mountains. It has an area of 1300 sq. m., 
 and is traversed by the Rio Grande de Santiago. 
 
 Chapel-en-le-Frlth, a Derbyshire market-town, 
 6 miles N, of Buxton. Pop. of parish, 4627. 
 
 Chapellzod, a town on the Liffey, 3 miles W. 
 of Dublin. Pop. 1458. 
 
 Chapra, a town in Bengal, 1 mile above the 
 Gogra's confluence with the Ganges. Pop. 47,000. 
 
 Chapul'tepec, a rock, 150 feet high, 2 miles 
 BW. of the city of Mexico, A castle (1785) 
 crowns it, on the site of Montezuma's palace. 
 
 CJlxard, a municipal borough of Somerset, 15 
 
 rniles SSE. of Taunton. It has manufactures 
 of lace. Pop. 4575. 
 
 Charente (Sharon^t), a river, rises in the dep. 
 of Haute-Vienne, and winds 222 miles NW., S., 
 and WNW., mainly through the deps. of Char- 
 ente and Charente-lnferieure, to the Bay of 
 Biscay, opposite the island of Oleron. 
 
 Charente, a French dep. formed chiefly out of 
 the old province of Angouinois. Area, 2285 sq. 
 m. Pop. (1866) 378,218 ; (1901) 344,376. Gener- 
 ally level, with granite oftshoots of the Limousin 
 range in the north, and chalk-hills in the south, 
 it is divided into the five arrondissements of 
 Angouleine, Cognac, Ruffec, Barbezieux, and Con- 
 folens. Angouleme is the chief town. 
 
 Charente-lnferieure {SharonH-On''fayree-ehr^, 
 a dep. of France, formed principally from the 
 former provinces of Saintonge, Aunis, and a small 
 portion of Poitou. The Bay of Biscay washes its 
 western boundary. Area, 2625 sq. m. Pop. (1866) 
 479,529; (1901) 446,294. It is watered on its 
 boundaries by the S6 vre-Niortaise and the Gironde, 
 and in the centre by the navigable Charente. The 
 chief harbours are those of Rochefort and Tonnay- 
 Charente. La Rochelle is the chief town. 
 
 Charenton-le-Pont {Sharon'tonF'-U-Pov?), a 
 town on the Marne, 4 m. SE. of Paris. Pop. 17,550. 
 
 Charjui (Tchar-joo'ee), a Russian town of Cen- 
 tral Asia, on the Amu-Daria, where the Trans- 
 caspian railway from Merv to Bokhara crosses 
 the river by a great bridge opened in 1888. 
 
 Charkov'. See Kharkov. 
 
 Charlbury, an Oxfordshire market-town, 6 
 miles SE. of Chipping Norton. Pop. 1478. 
 
 Charlcote House, Warwickshire, 4^ miles ENE. 
 of Stratford-on-Avon, the seat (1558) of the Lucy 
 family. 
 
 ChaLTleroiiSkdhrl-rwah'), a Belgian town on the 
 Sambre, 35 miles S.- by B. of Brussels. It has 
 manufactures of hardware, glass, yarn, &c., the 
 huge ironworks of Couillet, and neighbouring 
 collieries, smelting-furnaces, and nail- factories. 
 Six times exchanged between France and Spain, 
 it was assigned to Austria by the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (1748). Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Charleston, a port of entry, capital of a county 
 of its own name, and the largest city of South 
 Carolina, is situated on a tongue of land between 
 the rivers Ashley and Cooper, which unite imme- 
 diately below the town and form a beautiful and 
 spacious harbour, communicating with the ocean 
 at Sullivan's Island, a popular sea-bathing resort, 
 7 miles below. It is 118 miles NE. of Savannah, 
 580 miles SW. of Baltimore, and 540 miles SSW. 
 of Washington. A shifting sandbar extends 
 across the mouth of the harbour, but the new 
 jetties (1878-88) secure a depth of 20 feet of 
 water. The harbour is defended by Castle 
 Pinckney and Fort Sumter, each on an island, 
 the former 2 and the latter 6 miles below the 
 city, and also by Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's 
 Island. At the entrance of the harbour is a 
 flashing light 125 feet high. Charleston is regu- 
 larly built, and extends about 3 miles in length 
 and nearly 1^ mile in breadth. It has a copious 
 water-supply from a large artesian well (1970 feet 
 deep). Among the public buildings are the 
 custom-house, city hall, court-house, citadel, 
 academy of music, theatre, orphan asylum, and 
 police barracks. The custom-house is a hand- 
 some edifice, built of granite and white marble. 
 At the southern extremity of the city is a small 
 park called the Battery or White Point Garden, 
 with a fine promenade on the sea-wall. The 
 
CHARLESTON 172 
 
 CHATEAUROtJX 
 
 Charleston College (1785 ; reorganised 1837) has 
 an excellent museum of natural history. Here 
 are also a medical college, the state military 
 academy, &c. Charleston is the seat of an 
 Episcopal and a Roman Catholic bishop. St 
 Michael's Church (Episcopal) is a brick structure, 
 with a steeple 180 feet high, and a chime of bells 
 imported from England in 1764. Charleston is a 
 commercial rather than a manufacturing city, 
 and was formerly the chief cotton port of the 
 United States ; but since the civil war it has not 
 developed so rapidly as other ports, and at the 
 close of the 19th century the exports had been 
 declining. They now average from $7,000,000 to 
 about $11,000,000 per annum, the principal items 
 being cotton and phosphates. The other exports 
 are rice, lumber, and naval stores. The imports 
 ($1,500,000 to $2,000,000 yearly) are chiefly salt, 
 iron, ale, brimstone, kainite, and fruits from the 
 West Indies. There is a large wholesale distrib- 
 uting trade in dry-goods, clothing, drugs, &c. ; 
 and the city has large machine-shops, cotton- 
 presses, grist-mills, cotton-mills, rice-mills, a 
 bagging-factory, shipyards, a good dry-dock 
 for large ships, and extensive manufactures of 
 phosphate of lime, which abounds in the 
 vicinity. The city was founded in 1680 ; a few 
 years later a company of French Huguenots 
 settled here. In 1776 Charleston repulsed a 
 British squadron; in 1780 it surrendered to 
 Sir Henry Clinton. On 12th April 1861, the 
 Confederates began the civil war by the bom- 
 bardment of Fort Sumter, which they took the 
 next day. In 1861 half the city was destroyed by 
 fire, and a considerable part was not rebuilt 
 until after 1865. After a long siege and bom- 
 bardment, begun in 1863, the place was evacuated 
 by the Confederates, February 17, 1865. On 31st 
 August 1886 a severe earthquake destroyed or 
 seriously injured nearly 7000 buildings. Pop. 
 (1800) 18,711 ; (1840) 29,261 ; (1880) 49,984 ; (1891) 
 64,955; (1901)55,807. 
 
 Charleston, or Kanawha, capital of "West 
 Virginia, on the Great Kanawha River, at the 
 mouth of the Elk, 369 miles WNW. of Richmond 
 by rail. Large quantities of bituminous coal 
 and salt are procured near by. Charleston was 
 made state-capital in 1885, as it had already been 
 in 1870-75. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Charlestown, a Fife seaport village, on the 
 Firth of Forth, 4 miles SSW. of Dunfermline. 
 Pop. 750. 
 
 Charlestown, a Mayo village, 10 miles NW. of 
 Ballaghaderreen. Pop. 640. 
 
 Charlestown (Massachusetts), See Boston 
 and Bunker Hill. 
 
 Charleville, a market-town, 34 miles N. of 
 Cork. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Charleville (SMhrl-veel'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Ardennes, on the Meuse, opposite Mezi^res. 
 It has manufactures of hardware, leather, and 
 beer. Pop. 17,900. 
 
 Charlotte, capital of Mecklenburg county. 
 North Carolina, 265 miles ENE. of Atlanta, has 
 manufactures of carriages, cotton goods, tobacco, 
 &c., and is the seat of a Presbyterian university 
 (1867). Pop. 18,200. 
 
 Charlotte Amalie (A7mh'lee-eh), the capital of 
 the West Indian island of St Thomas (q.v.). 
 
 Charlottenhurg (Sharlotftenhoorg'), a Prussian 
 town on the Spree, 3 miles W. of Berlin, with which 
 it is connected by a road leading through the 
 Thiergarten. It contains a royal palace, founded 
 in 1696 for Sophie Charlotte, the second wife of 
 
 Frederick I. ; in its mausoleum here are the 
 remains of Frederick William III. and the 
 Emperor William I. In the town aie a famous 
 technical high-school or university and military 
 school ; the manufactures include ironwares, 
 machinery, porcelain, glass, paper, leather, chemi- 
 cals, and beer. Pop. (1871) 19,518 ; (1880) 30,483 ; 
 (1890) 76,859 ; (1900) 189,290. 
 
 Charlottetown, the capital of Prince Edward 
 Island, on the south coast, stands on the Hills- 
 borough estuary, which forms a secure and com- 
 modious harbour for the largest vessels. It has 
 two colleges, an iron-foundry, a woollen-factory, 
 and shipbuilding yards. The population is aboiit 
 13,000. 
 
 Charnwood Forest, a bare Leicestershire hill- 
 tract (853 feet), 5 miles SW. of Loughborough. 
 
 Charolais (Sharolay'), a district in the French 
 dep. of Saone-et- Loire, noted for its fine cattle. 
 
 Charters Towers, a mining township of North- 
 east Queensland, situated on the northern spurs 
 of the Towers Mountain, 820 miles NW. of 
 Brisbane. It dates from the gold discovery here 
 in 1871. It has railway connection with Towns- 
 ville on the coast. Pop. 5597. 
 
 Chartres (SMhrtr), capital of the French dep. of 
 Eure-et-Loir, on the double-channelled Eure, 55 
 miles SW. of Paris. It consists of an upper and 
 lower town, connected by very steep streets; 
 and the highest point is crowned by the glorious 
 cathedral— in Street's opinion, the finest in 
 France. Built chiefly between 1194 and 1260, 
 it has two spires, of which the south-western 
 is 342^ feet high, and the north-western, 371 ; 
 the latter, built in 1507-14, being, 'on the 
 whole, the most beautiful spire on the Con- 
 tinent.' Other features are the three rose- 
 windows, the splendid portals, and the 13th- 
 century stained glass that fills no fewer than 
 130 windows. The weekly corn-market is one 
 of the largest in France, and is remarkable as 
 being under a corporation of women. Chartres 
 has manufactures of woollen, hosiery, and leather. 
 Population, about 20,000. The Aiitricum of the 
 Carnutes (hence the present name), Chartres 
 in 1594 was the scene of the coronation of 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Chartreuse, La Grande (SMhr-trehz'), the 
 original Carthusian monastery, founded by St 
 Bruno in 1084, in the dep. of Isere, 14 miles NNE. 
 of Grenoble, and 4268 feet above sea-level. A 
 huge 17th-century structure, it had become 
 practically a hotel when in 1904 the monks were 
 expelled by the French government. 
 
 Chateaubriant(S?id/i-«o-&ree-on*'). a town in the 
 French dep. of Loire-Inferieure, on the Ch6re, 40 
 miles NNE. of Nantes by rail. Pop. 6469. 
 
 Chateaudnn(SM?i-to-dM7i^')> a pretty town in the 
 French dep. of Eure-et-Loir, on the Loir, a tribu- 
 tary of the Loire, 83 miles SW. of Paris. It was 
 almost destroyed by fire in 1723. Dunois is buried 
 in the chapel of the stately castle. Pop. 5576. 
 
 Cha,teau Gaillard. See Andelys. 
 
 Chateau-CJontier (Shdh-to-Gon^t-yay'), a town 
 in the French dep. of Mayenne, on the Mayenne, 
 180 miles WSW. of Paris by rail. Pop. 6281, 
 
 Chateau Margaux. See Margaux. 
 
 Ohateauroux (Shdhtdroo'), the capital of the 
 French dep. of Indre, on the left bank of the river 
 Indre, 88 miles S. of Orleans by rail. It has 
 manufactures of woollens, iron, leather, and 
 tobacco. Pop. (1872) 16,858 ; (1901) 21,060. 
 
chAteau-thierry 
 
 173 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA 
 
 Chit6aM-Th.ierry(SMh-to-Tee-er-ree^), a town in 
 the French dep. of Aisne, 59 miles E. by N. of Paris 
 by rail, with manufactures of mathematical instru- 
 ments and woollen yarn. Here Napoleon defeated 
 Prussians and Russians in 1814. Pop. 6519. 
 
 Ohatelineau, a Belgian town in Hainault, on 
 the Sambre, 27 miles E. of Mons, with coal-mines 
 and ironworlvs. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Chatellerault iSMh-tel-ro'), a town and river- 
 port in the French dep. of Vienne, on the river 
 Vienne, 40 miles S. of Tours by rail. It is a smoky, 
 dingy place, one of the chief seats of the cutlery 
 manufacture in France, and since 1820 has had a 
 
 Government small-arms factory. The title of 
 )uke of Chdtellerault was conferred by Henri 
 II. in 1548 on James Hamilton, Earl of Arran 
 and Regent of Scotland. The population of the 
 town is 18,000, of the commune 20,000. 
 
 Chatham (Chat'tam ; Ceteham, ' village of cot- 
 tages '), a municipal and pari, borough, river- 
 port, and naval arsenal of Kent, on the right bank 
 of the Medway, at the upper part of its estuary, 
 30 miles ESE. of London. It forms almost one 
 continuous town with Rochester (q.v.) on the 
 west, but itself has few objects of interest. It 
 owes its importance to its naval and military 
 establishments situated at Brompton, a suburb 
 on high ground overlooking the Medway. There 
 is also a large convict establishment. The 
 Chatham fortilied lines are the frequent scenes 
 of field-operations, sham fights, and reviews. 
 The dockyard, founded by Elizabeth before the 
 threatened invasion of the Spanish Annada, was 
 in 1662 removed to its present site. In 1667 the 
 Dutch, under De Ruyter, sailed up the Medway, 
 and, in spite of the fire from the castle, destroyed 
 much shipping and stores. In a military point 
 of view, the lines of detached forts connected 
 with Chatham constitute a fortification of great 
 strength ; and the whole is regarded as a flank 
 defence for London. In or near Chatham are 
 Fort Pitt, a military hospital and strong fort ; 
 Melville Hospital, for marines and sailors ; bar- 
 racks for infantry, marines, artillery, and engin- 
 eers ; a park of artillery; &c. Chatham is one 
 of the principal royal shipbuilding establish- 
 ments in the kingdom. The dockyard is nearly 
 two miles in length ; and the whole is traversed 
 in every direction by tramways for locomotives. 
 Three great wet-docks, with a water area of 67 
 acres, on reclaimed marsh land were completed in 
 1883 after the labour of 17 years, and at a total 
 cost of about £3,000,000. In the navy estimates 
 
 E revision is made for about 5000 artisans and 
 ibourers. There are statues of Lieutenant 
 Waghorn, a native of Chatham, and the pioneer 
 of the ' overland route ' to India, and of General 
 Gordon (1890); but Chatham's most cherished 
 memories are of Charles Dickens. Pop. (1851) 
 28,424 ; (1871) 45,792 ; (1901) 78,755 ; of these 
 37,057 were in the municipal borough, which was 
 constituted in 1891. The parliamentary borough 
 returns one member. 
 
 Chatham, (1) a town of Ontario, on the Thames, 
 67 miles SW. of London by rail, with mills and 
 foundries, soap and candle works. Pop. 9000.— 
 (2) A port of entry in the north of New Bruns- 
 wick, on the Miramichi, 6 miles NE. of New- 
 castle, with a good harbour, shipyards, found- 
 ries, a Catholic cathedral, and a college. Pop. 
 6000. 
 
 Chatham Islands, a small group in the Pacific, 
 lying 360 miles E. of New Zealand, to which 
 they politically belong. There are three islands 
 —of which the largest, Chatham Island, is 38 
 
 miles long— and some rocky islets. Total area, 
 375 sq. m. ; pop. 420, of whom about half are 
 Maoris, with a few Morioris or aborigines. The 
 Chatham Islands were discovered in 1791 by 
 Lieutenant Broughton, of the brig Cliatham. A 
 large brackish lake occupies the interior of 
 Chatham Island, which is of volcanic origin and 
 hilly. Stock-rearing and seal-fishing are the 
 chief industries, the islanders having over 60,000 
 sheep and 400 to 700 cattle, with which they 
 supply passing vessels. The Morioris numbered 
 1200 in 1831, when 800 Maoris were landed from 
 New Zealand, by whom the former were reduced 
 to 90 in nine years' time. 
 
 Chatillon (SMh-tee-yon^'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Cote d'Or, on the Seine, 49 miles NNW. of 
 Dijon. A congress of allied sovereigns was held 
 here in 1814. Pop. 5120. 
 
 Chat Moss, a bog in Lancashire, the largest 
 in England, 7 miles W. of Manchester, and 10 
 sq. m. in extent. In 1793-1800 it was the scene 
 of the first great and successful efforts for the 
 reclaiming of bogs, and in 1829 George Stephenson 
 here achieved a great engineering triumph in the 
 construction of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway, constructing the portion of the line 
 tlirough Chat Moss at a smaller expense than 
 any other part of the railway. 
 
 Chatsworth, Derbyshire, 25 miles N. by W. 
 of Derby, is the magnificent seat of the Duke 
 of Devonshire, a Palladian pile (1687-1820), with 
 splendid art-collections and grounds. 
 
 Chattahoo'chee, a headstream of the Appa- 
 lachicola (q.v.). 
 
 Chattanooga, capital of Hamilton county, 
 Tennessee, a shipping centre on the Tennessee 
 River, 151 miles SE. of Nashville, with good 
 railway connections. It has cotton and other 
 factories, ironworks, tanneries, and sawmills. 
 Pop. (1870) 6093 ; (1880) 12,892 ; (1900) 30,150. 
 
 Chatteris, a Cambridgeshire market-town, 8 
 miles S. of March. Pop. of parish, 4787. 
 
 Chaudes-Algues (Shoad-zayg'), a town in the 
 dep. of Cantal, 90 miles S. of Clermont, with four 
 mineral springs (135° to 177° F.). They are good 
 for various diseases, rapidly discharge the grease 
 from sheep's wool, and in winter are impounded 
 for heating the houses of the town. Pop. 1046. 
 
 Chaudfontaine (Sttoad-fonF-tayn'), a Belgian vil- 
 lage in the valley of the Vesdre, 5 m. SSE. of Lifege 
 by rail, Avith mineral springs (92° F.). Pop. 1552, 
 
 Chaudl^re (Sho-dee-ehr'), a river and lake of 
 Canada. The river joins the St Lawrence from 
 the south 7 miles above Quebec, and 2^ miles from 
 its mouth, forms the celebrated falls of Chaudiere. 
 The lake— merely one of the many expansions of 
 the Ottawa — has on its right the city of that 
 name, the capital of the Dominion. 
 
 Chaumont (Sho-mon^), a town in the French 
 dep. of Haute-Marne, 1023 feet above sea-level 
 between the rivers Marne and Suize, 140 miles 
 SE. of Paris. There are manufactures of gloves, 
 cutlery, &c. Pop. 11,700, 
 
 Chauny (Sho-nee'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Aisne, 77 miles NNE. of Paris. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Chautauqua (ch as s7i), a celebrated summer- 
 resort on Chautauqua Lake, in a county of the 
 same name near the south-west extremity of the 
 state of New York, is famous as the seat of the 
 'Chautauqua Assembly,' founded in 1874 by 
 John H. Vincent, D.D., and Lewis Miller, to pro- 
 vide systematic instruction for Sunday-school 
 teachers, together with popular lecture courses 
 
OHAUX DE FONDS 
 
 174 
 
 CHELYUSKIN 
 
 In literature, science, and art. Lake Chautauqua 
 Is a beautiful sheet of water 20 miles long, with 
 an average breadth of 2 miles, lying 700 feet 
 above Lake Erie, from which it is distant 10 
 miles. The Assembly Grounds, on the northern 
 shore of the lake, comprise about 165 acres, 
 containing over 500 attractive summer cottages, 
 a museum of archaeology, an amphitheatre seat- 
 ing over 5000, &c. Large numbers of students 
 and visitors congregate here in the summer 
 season. 
 
 Chaux de Fonds (Sho-d'Fon'd'), a Swiss town, 
 18 miles by rail NW. of Neuchatel, in a bleak 
 valley 3254 feet above the sea. It has for two 
 centuries been a chief seat of the watch manu- 
 facture. Pop. (1834) 6500 ; (1901) 36,390. 
 
 Cheadle, (1) a market-town in the moorland 
 district of Staffordshire, 14 miles NNE. of Staf- 
 ford. Lying in a pleasant vale, engirt by wooded 
 hills, it has a Roman Catholic Church, erected 
 in 1846 from designs by Pngin, at a cost of 
 £60,000. Pop. of parish, 5190.— (2) Cheadle and 
 Gatley, a Cheshire urban district, near the Mersey, 
 2i miles WSW. of Stockport, and included partly 
 in that county borough. Pop. 7920. 
 
 Chedabucto Bay, an indentation into Nova 
 Scotia, at the entrance of the Gut of Canso, which 
 separates Cape Breton from Nova Scotia. 
 
 Cheddar, a Somerset village, on the south side 
 of the Mendip Hills, 21J miles SSW. of Bristol 
 by rail. It lies at the entrance of a deep rocky 
 gorge, nearly 1 *mile long, whose stupendous 
 limestone cliffs contain caverns— one 300 feet 
 long— filled with fantastic stalactites and stalag- 
 mites. The famous Cheddar cheese originated 
 here. Pop. of parish, 1901. 
 
 Ohedu'ba (or Man-aung), a wooded island of 
 Arakan, in the Bay of Bengal. Area, 240 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 25,867. 
 
 Cheesewring, a curious natural pillar, 32 feet 
 high, in Cornwall, 5 miles N. of Liskeard. 
 
 Che-fOO, a treaty port on the north side of the 
 peninsula of Slian-tung, at the entrance to the 
 Gulf of Pechili, in which it is the only port 
 that remains open throughout the winter. The 
 foreign quarter, with about 420 Europeans and 
 Americans, is in some sense a colony of Shanghai ; 
 the Cliinese town (spelt also Cheefoo, Chi-fa, and 
 Tschifu) lias about 33,000 inhabitants. There is 
 a large import and export trade. 
 
 Che-keang, an eastern and maritime province 
 of China. Capital, Hang-chow. 
 
 Cheliabinsk {Tchel-ya-binsk'), a town in the 
 Russian government of Orenburg, 365 miles NE. 
 of Orenburg, which has rapidly grown in import- 
 ance as the meeting-point of several great rail- 
 ways—one of tliem the Trans-Siberian railway. 
 Pop. 25,300. 
 
 Ohelmer, an Essex tributary of the Blackwater 
 at Maldon, 29 miles long. 
 
 Chelmsford, the county town of Essex, at the 
 confluence of the Chelmer and the Cann, 29 miles 
 NE. of London. It has a corn exchange (1857), 
 a shire hall (1792), a grammar-school (1551), and 
 a parish church, which, all but the tower and 
 spire, was rebuilt between 1803 and 1878. There 
 is a considerable trade in agricultural produce. 
 Chelmsford was incorporated in 1888. Pop. (1851) 
 6033 ; (1901) 12,580. 
 
 Chelsea, a suburb of London, on the north 
 bank of the Thames, here crossed by bridges to 
 Battersea (q.v.). In the sixteenth century the 
 village of Chelsea was the residence of Sir Tliomas 
 lifore, ^ueen Catharine Parr, the Princess Eliza- 
 
 beth, and Anne of Cleves. Afterwards Walpole, 
 Swift, Steele, and Sir Hans Sloane, and, in later 
 years, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle, Rossetti, and George 
 Eliot lived here. Ranelagh (1742-1803) here was 
 much resorted to, and afterwards Cremorne 
 (closed 1877). Besides Chelsea Hospital (1692) 
 for old and disabled soldiers, there are a Royal 
 Military Asylum for soldiers' children, large 
 barracks for the Foot Guards, a botanic garden, 
 water-works (1722) to supply London, a river- 
 pier, and an embankment (1873) extending to 
 Battersea Bridge on the west. The famous porce- 
 lain works were established about 1745. The 
 borougli lias returned a member to parliament 
 since 1885, and (since 1899) is one of the London 
 metropolitan borouglis. Pop. (1901) 73,842. See 
 the official History of Chelsea Hospital (1872), and 
 other works by Martin (1888) and Beaver (1893). 
 
 Chelsea, Massachusetts, a north-east suburb 
 of Boston, separated therefrom by the Mystic 
 River estuary. Pop. (1870) 18,547 ; (1900) 34,072. 
 
 Cheltenham, a fashionable watering-place of 
 Gloucestershire, on the Chelt, a little affluent of 
 the Severn, 44 miles NNE. of Bristol, 47 SSW. of 
 Birmingham, and 121 WNW. of London (by road 
 only 95). It lies in a picturesque and fertile 
 valley, on the east and south-east half encircled 
 by the Coteswolds. A saline spring was dis- 
 covered here in 1716, and from a mere village the 
 place gradually increased till 1788, when the 
 benefit derived by George III. from its waters 
 suddenly made it a resort of fashion. The four 
 spas— Royal Old Well, Montpellier, Pittville, 
 and Cambray — are all saline but the last, which 
 is chalybeate; they are deemed efficacious for 
 liver complaints and dyspepsia. With its squares, 
 crescents, and terraces, its gardens and promen- 
 ades, its clubs and pump-rooms, its August 
 'cricket week,' its healthy climate, the cheap- 
 ness of living, and the happy absence of manu- 
 factures, the town offers many attractions both 
 to visitors and residents, the former largely fox- 
 hunters in winter, the latter retired Anglo- 
 Indians. It is, besides, a great educational 
 centre, the seat of the Proprietary College, for 
 700 boys, founded in 1840, and occupying a 
 splendid Tudor pile of 1843 ; a grammar-school 
 (1586; reconstituted 1883); a large ladies' college 
 (1854) ; a Church of England training college for 
 schoolmasters (1847) ; and private schools beyond 
 number. Noticeable buildings are the 14th- 
 century parish church ; the Roman Catholic 
 Church (1857), with a spire 205 feet high ; the 
 Corn Exchange (1863) ; and the handsome Free 
 Library. Cheltenham has memories of Handel, 
 Lord Tennyson, Frederick Robertson, Sydney 
 Dobell, and Dean Close, under whom (1824-56) 
 it became a stronghold of Evangelicalism. It 
 was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1876, 
 and has returned one member to parliament since 
 1832, the parliamentary boundary having been 
 extended in 1885. Pop. (1804) 3076 ; (1841) 31,411 ; 
 (1901) 52,858, of whom 49,439 were within the 
 municipal boundary. 
 
 Chelyuskin, Cape (Tchel-yoosfkin ; also called 
 North-east Cape, and Cape Sever 6), the most 
 northerly point of Asia, on a peninsula of the 
 same name, which forms the western arm of the 
 eastern half of the Taimyr peninsula. It is 
 named after a Russian officer who here suc- 
 cumbed to the fatigues of the journey (1742) ; it 
 was first revisited by NordenskjiJld in 1878. He 
 found it a low promontory, divided into two 
 parts by a small bay ; the lat. of the western is 
 77° 36' 37" N, 
 
CHEMNITZ 
 
 175 
 
 CHESHIRE 
 
 Chemnitz (Kem'metz), a Saxon town at the base 
 of the Erzgebirge and the confluence of the Chem- 
 nitz with three other streams, 51 miles SSE. of 
 Leipzig by rail, and 43 WSW. of Dresden. It is 
 the 'Saxon Manchester,' its industry consisting 
 in the manufacture of cottons, woollens, silks, 
 calico, cheap hosiery, machinery, and mixed 
 fabrics of wool, cotton, and jute. Pop. (1801) 
 10,835; (1861) 45,532 ; (1900) 206,584. 
 
 Chemulpo, a town on the west coast of Corea, 
 25 miles by road WSW. of the capital, Seoul. It 
 is one of the three treaty ports opened in 1883 to 
 foreign commerce, the volume of which has since 
 steadily advanced. Pop. (1905) 20,000, of whom 
 6000 are foreigners, many Chinese and Japanese. 
 
 Chenab', one of the five rivers of the Punjab, 
 rises in the Kashmir range of the Himalayas and 
 enters British territory in Sialkot district. It 
 unites with the Jhelum at Timmu, afterwards 
 receives the Ravi, and, as the Trimab, joins the 
 Sutlej, 50 miles above Mithankot. Its length is 
 755 miles. 
 
 Cheneys, the former seat of the Russells, in 
 Bucks, 4 miles E. by N. of Amershara. The 
 church is their burial-place. 
 
 Chengalpat. See Chingalpat. 
 
 Chepping Wycombe. See Wycombe. 
 
 Chepstow, a river-port of Monmouthshire, on 
 the right bank of the Wye, 2J miles from its in- 
 flux to the Severn estuary, and 17 ENE. of New- 
 port. It lies between bold cliffs, on a slope 
 rising from the river, in the midst of exquisite 
 scenery. Its noble ruined castle stood two sieges 
 during the Great Rebellion, and has been held 
 successively by Fitz-Osbornes, Clares, Bigods, 
 Herberts, and Somersets. The railway crosses 
 the Wye by Brunei's tubular suspension bridge 
 (1852), 600 feet long, and 50 above high-water. 
 Here occurs the highest tide in the British 
 Islands — the greatest recorded difference between 
 low and high water being 53 feet. Pop. 3050. 
 See Marsli's Annals of Chepstow Castle (1883). 
 
 Cher {Sher), a river flowing 200 miles north- 
 ward and north-westward to the Loire below 
 Tours. It is navigable from Vierzon.— Cher, to 
 which the river gives its name, is the central dep. 
 of France. The surface consists of plain and 
 well-wooded hills (1600 feet). Area, 2770 sq. m. ; 
 pop. (1872) 335,392 ; (1901) 345,543. Bourges is 
 the chief town. 
 
 Cherasco (Kayras'ko), a town of north Italy, 
 37 miles SSE. of Turin by rail. Pop. 3341. 
 
 Cherbourg (Sher-boorcf), a French port and 
 arsenal in the dep. of Manche, at the head of a 
 deep bay on the N. extremity of the peninsula of 
 Cotentin, 70 miles S. of the Isle of Wight, and 
 230 WNW. of Paris. Begun by Vauban in 1687, 
 the harbour- works and fortifications were pushed 
 on by the great Napoleon, and were supposed to 
 have been completed in 1858 by Napoleon III. at 
 a total outlay of 200 million francs ; but less than 
 thirty years after, the French government resolved 
 to spend 49 millions more on the construction of 
 fresh works between 1883 and 1894. The stupen- 
 dous digue or breakwater (1853) is almost 2J miles 
 long, encloses a space of nearly 2000 acres, and is 
 connected with the strongest fortifications. The 
 commercial harbour of Cherbourg consists of an 
 outer harbour, 786 feet in length by 654 feet wide, 
 and of an inner basin, 1338 feet long by 416 feet 
 wide. The great inner naval floating-harbour was 
 inaugurated by the Emperor Napoleon in 1858, in 
 presence of Queen Victoria. Entirely cut out of 
 the solid rock, it is 20 acres in area, and is sur- 
 
 rounded by building-slips and capacious graving* 
 docks. The town itself is insignificant, the streets 
 being narrow and dirty. There are some manu- 
 factures of hosiery, chemicals, lace, and leather, 
 sugar and salt refineries, sawing and flour mills ; 
 but the industrial energies of the great bulk of 
 the population are absorbed in the arsenal and 
 dockyards. Cherbourg is a very ancient place ; 
 originally Ccesaris Burgum, in the 11th century it 
 was known under the name of Carusbur. In 1758 
 it was taken by the English, who destroyed the 
 naval and military works, and levied a contribu- 
 tion on the town. Pop. (1872) 34,785; (1901) 
 42,952 ; or, with the three suburbs of Tourlaville, 
 Octeville, and Equeurdreville, 60,000. 
 
 Cherhill, Wiltshire, 3 miles E. of Calne, with a 
 ' white horse ' (1780) in the turf, 129 feet long. 
 
 Cheribon, a seaport of Java, on the north 
 coast, 125 miles ESE. of Batavia. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Cherkaslc. See Tchebkask. 
 
 Chernigov. See Tchernigoff. 
 
 Cherso, an Austrian island of Illyria, in the 
 Gulf of Quarnero, 13 miles SSW. of Fiume. Area, 
 127 sq. m. ; pop. 9550. Cherso (pop. 4670), on 
 the Avest side, has a spacious liarbour. 
 
 Cherson. See Kherson. 
 
 Chertsey, a town in Surrey, near the right 
 bank of the Thames, here crossed by a seven- 
 arch bridge (1785), 21 miles WSW. of London. 
 It arose in a monastery founded in 666, and re- 
 founded in 964 by Edgar for Benedictine monks. 
 Charles James Fox lived on St Anne's Hill, an 
 abrupt elevation a mile distant ; and the poet 
 Cowley spent his last two years in a house that 
 is marked with an inscription. The population 
 is about 13,000. 
 
 Cherwell, a stream, 30 miles long, rising in 
 Northamptonshire, and falling into the Isis or 
 Thames near Oxford (q.v.). 
 
 Chesapealce Bay, in Maryland and Virginia, 
 and dividing the former state into two parts, is 
 the largest inlet on the Atlantic coast of the 
 United States, being 200 miles long, and from 4 
 to 40 broad. Its entrance, 12 miles wide, has on 
 the north Cape Chai'les, and on the south Cape 
 Henry, both promontories being in Virginia. The 
 bay receives the Susquehanna, Potomac, Rappa- 
 hannock, York, and James rivers. 
 
 Chesham, a market-town of Buckinghamshire, 
 18 miles NW. of London. It manufactures cricket 
 bats, racquets, wooden spades, hoops, &c. Pop. 
 7350. 
 
 Cheshire, a maritime county in the west of 
 England, on the Welsh border, bounded N. by 
 the river Mersey, separating it from Lancashire, 
 and partly also by the Irish Sea. Its greatest 
 length from north to south is 48 miles ; greatest 
 breadth, 32 ; and area, 1102 sq. m., of which 76 
 per cent, is under cultivation. The coast-line is 
 confined to the hammer-headed peninsula called 
 Win-al, about 8 miles broad, between the estuaries 
 of the Mersey and Dee. The surface forms an 
 extensive nearly level plain between the Derby- 
 shire and Welsh mountains, well wooded, and 
 studded with small lakes or meres. This plain, 
 comprising four-fifths of the surface, is crossed, 
 near the middle, by a tract of high ground run- 
 ning south-west from a promontory overlooking 
 the Mersey, near the mouth of the Weaver, to 
 Beeston Castle rock, 366 feet high. In the east 
 are large tracts of peat, and much of the county 
 is wet and rushy. Coal-measures appear on the 
 Flintshire border, and also on the borders of 
 I Staffordshire and Derbyshire. The Dee skir^g 
 
CHESHUNT 
 
 176 
 
 CHEVIOT HILLS 
 
 the county on the west for 55 miles, the Mersey 
 on the north for 40, and the Weaver, rising in the 
 east part, runs 40 miles west-north-west to the 
 Mersey. In addition to its river navigation, the 
 county has an almost unrivalled system of canals, 
 and contains the greater part of the Manchester 
 Ship Canal. The chief mineral products are rock- 
 salt and coal. The rock-salt, discovered in 1670, 
 and mined by gunpowder, is found near the 
 Weaver and its branches, especially near North- 
 wich (q.v.), and at Middlewich, Winsford, and 
 Sandbach. Much salt is also made from brine- 
 springs 20 to 40 yards deep. About 90,000 cows 
 are kept, capable of producing 15,000 tons of 
 cheese. In the cattle-plague of 1865-66 upwards 
 of 70,000 cattle perished, 36,000 of these being 
 slaughtered as a preventive measure. Pop. (1801) 
 194,305; (1841) 395,660; (1901) 815,099. There 
 are extensive manufactures in the principal 
 towns, especially Birkenhead, Congleton, Chester 
 (the county town), Crewe, Hyde, Macclesfield, 
 Stalybridge, and Stockport. The county is formed 
 into eight parliamentary divisions, each return- 
 ing one member, and includes the parliamentary 
 boroughs of Birkenhead and Chester, with por- 
 tions of the boroughs of Ashton-under-Lyne, 
 Stalybridge, Stockport, and Warrington. It 
 contains 503 civil parishes, and is mostly in the 
 diocese of Chester. Cheshire has some Roman 
 roads, tumuli, barrows, remains of religious 
 houses, and many old castles and halls. William 
 the Conqueror erected Cheshire into a county 
 palatine, with an independent council and eight 
 barons. Henry VIII. subordinated it to the 
 English crown ; but Cheshire did not send repre- 
 sentatives to the English parliament till 1549. 
 See Ormerod's History of Cheshire (3 vols. 1819 ; 
 new ed. 1875), and Earwaker's East Cheshire (1877). 
 
 Ches'hunt, a large village of Hertfordshire, 14 
 miles N. of London. It is famous for its rose- 
 gardens, and its college, founded in 1768 for ' the 
 Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion 'at Trevecca, 
 Wales, removed hither in 1792, and now a school 
 of London University. Pop. 13,100. 
 
 Chesil Bank or Beach, a bank of gravel and 
 shingle extending 16 miles from Bridport to Port- 
 land. It varies in height from 20 to 43 feet, and 
 in width from 170 to 200 yards. For some part 
 of its course it hugs the shore, but the Fleet 
 comes between it and the land for nearly 10 miles 
 from Abbotsbury (q.v.). Towards its west end 
 the bank is composed of sand, grit, and fine 
 gravel, but the materials get gradually larger 
 and larger as it is followed eastward. 
 
 Chester, an ancient episcopal city, municipal, 
 parliamentary, and county borough, and river- 
 port, the capital of Cheshire, on the right bank 
 of the Dee, 22 miles from the mouth of its 
 estuary, 16 miles SB. of Liverpool, and 179 miles 
 NNW. of London. One of the most picturesque 
 towns in England, it stands on a rocky sandstone 
 height, and is still surrounded by the entire circuit 
 of its ancient walls, nearly 2 miles round, 7 or 8 
 feet thick, and forming a promenade with para- 
 pets. The castle, with the exception of ' Ctesar's 
 Tower,' has been removed, its site being occupied 
 by barracks and county buildings. The Dee is 
 crossed by two bridges, the old picturesque bridge 
 of seven arches, and the new or Grosvenor Bridge 
 (1832), with a noble single arch of stone 200 feet 
 m length. The two main streets cross each other 
 at right angles, and were cut out of the rock by 
 the Romans 4 to 10 feet below the level of the 
 hou ses. These streets exhibit the curious arrange- 
 ment called the ' rows :' the front parts of their 
 
 second stories, as far back as 16 feet, form a con. 
 tinuous paved promenade or covered gallery, open 
 in front, where there are pillars and steps up 
 from the street below, with private houses above, 
 inferior shops and warehouses below, and the 
 chief shops of the town within. There are a con- 
 siderable number of the picturesque old timber 
 houses of the 16th century, and many of the more 
 modern buildings are in the same style. The 
 Cathedral is an irregular massive structure of 
 crumbling sandstone, 375 by 200 feet, with a 
 massive tower of 127 feet. Formerly the church 
 of the rich abbey of St Werburgh, it became in 
 1541; a cathedral church. It is of various dates 
 from Norman to Late Perpendicular, its most 
 striking feature being the fine Perpendicular 
 window of the west front. Chester has manu- 
 factures of lead, oil, and chemicals, iron-foundries, 
 and an iron-shipbuilding yard. The making of 
 boots and shoes is an important industry. Since 
 1885 Chester returns only one member. Pop. 
 (1851) 27,756 ; (1901) 38,309. 
 
 Chester Avas the Deva or Devana Castra of the 
 Romans, and the British Caerleon: Chester repre- 
 senting the Anglo-Saxon Ceaster, from the Roman 
 Castra. In 605 it was laid utterly waste by Ethel- 
 frith of Northumbria ; and rebuilt in 908, it was 
 the last place in England that held out against 
 William the Conqueror. Llewelyn ravaged it in 
 1255 ; and after a long and memorable siege 
 (1643-46), the royalist inhabitants were starved 
 into surrender. A projected Fenian attack on 
 the castle in 1867 proved abortive. 
 
 Chester, a city of Pennsylvania, on the Dela- 
 ware, 15 miles SW. of Philadelphia, with a 
 military academy, large shipbuilding yards, and 
 manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, 
 engines, &c. Swedes founded it as Upland in 
 1643— the oldest town in the state. Pop. (1860) 
 4631 ; (1900) 33,988. There is a Historical Sketch 
 of the city by Ashmead (1883). 
 
 Chesterfield, a municipal borough in Derby- 
 shire, on the Rother rivulet, 12J miles SSE. of 
 Sheffield by rail. All-Saints' Church (c. 1350) 
 has a curious crooked spire, 228 feet high, and 6 
 feet off the perpendicular; in Trinity Church 
 (1838) is buried George Stephenson. Other build- 
 ings are the townhall (1857), the Stephenson 
 memorial hall, and the grammar-school (1574; 
 rebuilt 1846). There are manufactures of silk, 
 lace, earthenware, and machinery; and the 
 neighbourhood is rich in coal, iron, and other 
 minerals. Brindley's Chesterfield Canal (1776) 
 extends 46 miles to the Trent. Pop. (1851) 7101 ; 
 (1901) 27,185, within the borough as extended in 
 1892. See Yeatman's Records of Chesterfield (1885). 
 
 Chesterfield Inlet, a narrow gulf penetrating 
 250 miles west from the NW. of Hudson Bay. 
 
 Chester-le-Street, a Durham market-town near 
 the left bank of the Wear, 6 miles N. of Durhani 
 city. The seat of the Bishop of Bernicia from 
 883 to 995, it has an old collegiate church ; whilst 
 in the neighbourhood are Lambton, Lumley, and 
 Ravensworth Castles, the seats of the Earls of 
 Durham, Scarborough, and Ravensworth. Coal- 
 mines and ironworks are numerous. Pop. of 
 parish, 12,000. 
 
 Chesterton, a KE. suburb of Cambridge. 
 
 Cheviot Hills, a mountain-range of North- 
 umberland and Roxburghshire, on the English 
 and Scotch border, running 35 miles south- 
 westward, from near the junction of the Till and 
 Tweed, to the sources of the Liddel. The princi- 
 pal points are Cheviot Hill (2676 feet) and Peel 
 Fell (1964). ' 
 
CHEYENNE 
 
 177 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 Cheyenne, the capital of Wyoming state, U.S., 
 situated on the eastern slope of the Laramie 
 Mountains, 6000 feet above sea-level, and 106 
 miles by rail N. of Denver. Coal and iron are 
 found in its neighbourhood. Pop. (1870) 1450 ; 
 (18S0) 3456 ; (1900) 14,087. 
 
 Chhatisgarh is the south-east division of the 
 Central Provinces of India. Area, 39,761 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 3,612,705. Dongargaon is the capital. 
 
 Chiana (Kee-dh'na; anc. Clanis), a river of 
 Italy, originally a tributary of the Tiber, watering 
 the perfectly level Val di Chiana, which its over- 
 flow rendered once the most pestilential district 
 of Italy. The bed was deepened in 1789-1816, 
 and in 1823 a northern branch was led through 
 canals to the Arno, a few miles below Arezzo. 
 
 Chlantl (Kee-dhn'tee), an Italian mountain- 
 range, in the province of Siena ; it gives name 
 to an excellent red wine. 
 
 Chiapas, Las (Tchee-dh'pas), a Pacific state of 
 Mexico, adjoining Guatemala. Area, 27,222 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 320,000. Capital, San Cristobal.' 
 
 Chiaramonte (Kee-dh-ra-mon'teh), a town of 
 Sicily, 30 miles W. of Syracuse. Pop. 9364. 
 
 Chia'rl (Kee-dh'ree), a town of Lombardy, 13 
 miles W. of Brescia by rail. Here the Austrians, 
 under Prince Eugene, defeated tlie French and 
 Spaniards, under Villeroi, 2d September 1701. 
 Pop. 5999. 
 
 Chiavari (Kee-ah'va-ree), a port of Italy, 24 miles 
 ESE. of Genoa by rail. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Chiavenna (-K'ee-a-WTi'?ia), a town of Lombardy, 
 to tlie nortli of Lake Como. Pop. 4848. 
 
 Chlcacole, a town on the Languliya River, 567 
 miles NE. of Madras. Pop. 18,355. 
 
 Chicago (pron. Shekahgo) is situated in the 
 
 north-east corner of the state of Illinois, about 
 
 the fork and mouth of tluj Chicago River, on the 
 
 west shore and near the head of Lake Michigan. 
 
 It is 850 miles from Baltimore, and 2415 from San 
 
 Francisco. The city is divided by the river and 
 
 its branches into north, south, and west 'sides,' 
 
 which are connected with each other by upwards 
 
 of thirty bridges and two tunnels. The river 
 
 frontage, counting both sides, extends 41 miles. 
 
 From a small trading village Chicago has expanded 
 
 into a great metropolis, ranking, in the United 
 
 States, second only to New York. The area, 
 
 in 1887 only 367 sq. m., had in 1904 increased 
 
 to 190 ; while tlie city extended lengthwise for 
 
 21J miles, and from east to west 10^ miles. It 
 
 is the largest grain market in the world ; and 
 
 more hogs are killed, and more pork, bacon, and 
 
 lard shipped, than in and from any other two 
 
 jities on the continent. The site was at first 
 
 rarely on a level with the lake ; but thorough- 
 
 'ares were gradually raised fi'om 8 to 12 feet, 
 
 .nd the surrounding lots progressively filled in. 
 
 I Tow Chicago has some of the finest streets (laid 
 
 t ut with mathematical regularity) in all America, 
 
 ; otably Michigan Avenue and Drexel Boulevard. 
 
 I .mong the public buildings of Chicago are the 
 
 , oard of Trade building, of granite ; the county 
 
 i )urt-house and city-hall, erected at a cost of 
 
 I Jarly §6,000,000 ; the criminal court and county 
 
 1 il; the United States custom-house and post- 
 
 1 Bee ; the Art Institute building ; the Dearborn 
 
 ! bservatory ; the Auditorium, with a seating 
 
 pacity of 7500 ; besides some 300 churches, 
 1 iblic schools, numerous hospitals, theatres, 
 isic-halls, and many palatial hotels. The 
 icago University, opened in 1892, has 2600 
 ideuts, and assets valued at $15,500,000, of 
 ich $9,000,000 were given by Mr Rockefeller. 
 L 
 
 There are also medical and commercial colleges, 
 a university at Evanston, 12 miles to the north, 
 and several theological seminaries in the city and 
 its suburbs. The public library, with 320,000 
 volumes, is one of the largest in the United 
 States ; and the Newberry Library, founded in 
 1888 as a reference library by a legacy of 
 $3,000,000, has over 250,000 volumes. Many of 
 the office buildings are enormously tall, accessible 
 in the upper stories by rapid elevators; these 
 ' sky-scrapers ' are built on the steel-frame system, 
 the brick walls not actually serving as a support. 
 
 The park system is without a parallel in 
 America ; it embraces Lincoln Park, on the lake 
 shore to the north, and five others, all connected 
 or nearly so by magnificent boulevards, the 
 system measuring some 35 miles. Among other 
 open spaces are 20 large cemeteries, besides 
 numerous smaller parks and squares, and several 
 driving parks. The water-supply system has 640 
 miles of pipe ; a new tunnel, capable of furnish- 
 ing 100,000,000 gallons a day, and running 4 miles 
 out into Lake Michigan, was constructed in 
 1888. The sewerage of the city is emptied, by a 
 canal connecting the Chicago and Illinois rivers, 
 into the Mississippi, and tlience to the Gulf of 
 Mexico; this scheme, adopted in 1892 (opened in 
 1900), included an open canal combining a sewage 
 system with a system of navigation between Lake 
 Michigan and the Mississippi, practically between 
 the North Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 city garbage is disposed of by fire in destructors. 
 The great secret of Chicago's phenomenal growth 
 is its transportation facilities by rail and water. 
 Fully one-third of the railroad system of the 
 United States centres there. But the great 
 waterway by Lake Michigan and its connections 
 is unquestionably of most importance for the 
 prosperity of the city. In 1888 for the first time 
 a steamer from London direct landed her cargo 
 at this city. The manufactures of the city 
 include nearly every variety of production, from 
 a child's toy to the largest steam-engine. 
 
 Joliet and Marquette visited the place in 1673, 
 and ere long the French built a fort here. ' Fort 
 Dearborn' was built in 1804. The history of 
 Chicago as a city dates from 1837, when its 
 population was 4170 ; in 1845 it was 12,088. 
 Since that time the city has made prodigious 
 strides in extent and in the acquisition of 
 wealth. Pop. (1860) 109,206 ; (1880) 503,185 ; 
 (1900)1,698,575. Inl900 the number of native-born 
 was 1,111,460 (59 per cent, of foreign parentage), 
 and 587,115 were foreign-born, largely Germans, 
 next Irish, Bohemians, Poles, Swedes,Norwegians, 
 English and Scotch, French, Canadians— besides 
 30,150 negroes. The manufactures of the city 
 are very various. Over 300,000,000 bushels of 
 grain are dealt with annually in the Chicago 
 elevators. Over 5,000,000 hogs, 2,000,000 cattle 
 and as many sheep are slaughtered annually. 
 The city income is about $35,000,000 yearly. 
 
 The great fire, which broke out on Sunday, 
 October 7, 1871, devastated a total area of nearly 
 3Jt sq. m. ; about 17,450 buildings were burned, 
 98,500 persons rendered homeless, and some 200 
 lives sacrificed, the total money loss being esti- 
 mated at $190,000,000. As a result of this 
 disaster, when this central portion was rebuilt, 
 brick, iron, and stone structures were erected, 
 and stone pavements also were substituted for 
 wood. Another conflagration, on July 14, 1874, 
 destroyed about $4,000,000 worth of property. In 
 1886 occurred the ' Haymarket Massacre,' in which 
 eight policemen were killed and sixty maimed by 
 a dynamite bomb thrown by an anarchist from 
 
CHICHEN 
 
 178 
 
 CHILI 
 
 among a crowd of labour agitators. Another 
 anarchist plot was detected in July 1888. In Jack- 
 son Park, to the south-east of the city, was the 
 site chosen for the great World's Columbian Exposi- 
 tion or World's Fair, held 1st May to 30th October 
 1893, in celebration of the fourth centenary of 
 the discovery of America by Columbus. The 
 buildings were dedicated with elaborate cere- 
 monies on 21st October 1892. The area occupied 
 for the purpose, 633 acres, had a frontage of a 
 mile and a half on Lake Michigan ; the enormous 
 building for manufactures itself covering 30^ 
 acres of ground, and having 13^ acres of gallery 
 space. The number of visitors was, from farst 
 to last, 23,529,400. See histories by Andreas 
 (1884) and Moses and Kirkland (1895). 
 
 Chichen', one of over fifty ruined Indian towns 
 in the Mexican province of Yucatan, a few miles 
 WSW. of Valladolid. 
 
 Chichester, a municipal borough and episcopal 
 city in Sussex, 17 miles ENB. of Portsmouth, 
 and 28 W. of Brighton. It stands on a plain 
 between an arm of the sea and the South Downs, 
 which rise gently on the north. The two main 
 streets cross at right angles, and meet in an 
 elaborate eight-sided market-cross (c. 1500). 
 Within the suburbs the city is surrounded by 
 an ancient wall, IJ mile in circuit, now a pro- 
 menade under the shade of elms. The cathedral, 
 erected in the 12th and 13th centuries, on the 
 site of a wooden one founded 1108, and burned 
 1114, measures 410 by 131 feet, with a spire 277 
 feet high (rebuilt 1865-66, after its fall in 1861), 
 and a detached bell- tower or campanile, 120 feet, 
 the only structure of the kind retained by an 
 English cathedral. The bishop's palace is sup- 
 posed to have been erected on the site of a 
 Roman villa. Chichester has a market-house, 
 guildhall (formed out of the chapel of the Fran- 
 ciscan monastery), a theological college (1872), 
 &c. The chief trade is in agricultural produce 
 and live-stock. Wool-stapling, malting, brewing, 
 and tanning are also carried on. From the 
 time of Edward I. till 1867 Chichester returned 
 two members, and till 1885 one, Tlie port of 
 Chichester, 2 miles to the south-west of the 
 city, is situated on a deep inlet of the English 
 Channel, of about 8 sq. m., and is connected 
 with Chichester by a canal. The Roman Reg- 
 num, Chichester was partly destroyed in 491 by 
 the South Saxons, but was soon after rebuilt 
 by Cissa, their king, and called Cissanceaster, 
 or Cissa's Camp. It suffered .much during the 
 Great Rebellion, when among royalist prisoners 
 of war was tlie famous Cliillingworth, who died 
 here, and lies buried in the catliedral. Pop. 
 12,244. See works by Willis (1861), Stephens 
 (1876), Swainson (1880), and Corlette (1902). 
 
 Chickahom'iny, a river of Virginia, flowing 
 90 miles south-eastward, within 5 miles of Rich- 
 mond, to the James. Four battles were fought 
 near it in June 18G2. 
 
 Ohickamauga, a tributary of the Tennessee 
 River, rising in Georgia, and flowing NW. into 
 Tennessee, where, on its banks, the Confederates 
 won a victory, September 19-20, 1863. 
 
 Chicken Rock, 2 miles S. of the Calf of Man, 
 with a lighthouse. 
 
 Chiclana {Chee-klah'na), a town of Spain, 12 m. 
 SE. of Cadiz, with mineral baths. Pop. 12,339. 
 
 Chiclayo {Chee-kll'o), a town of Peru, 12 miles 
 SE. of Lambayeque, Pop. 11,325. 
 
 Chic'opee, a town of Hami^den county, Massa- 
 chusetts, on the east bank of the Connecticut 
 
 River, 4 miles N. of Springfield, with mantifkc- 
 tures of cottons, firearms, swords, tools, bicycles, 
 and bronzes. Pop. (1885) 11,528 ; (1900) 19,170. 
 
 Chiem-See (Keem-Zay), a lake of Upper Bavaria, 
 40 miles SB. of Munich, and 1650 feet above sea- 
 level, is 12 miles long, 7 broad, and 512 feet deep. 
 It has three islands ; its surplus water is dis- 
 charged by the Alz into the Inn. 
 
 Chieri (Ke-eh'ree), a town of Italy, 12 miles 
 SE. of Turin by rail. Pop. 9494. 
 
 Ohieti (Ke-ay'tee ; anc. Teate), an archiepiscopal 
 city of Italy, on a hill near the Pescara, 69 miles 
 B. of Aquila by rail, and only 8 from the Adriatic. 
 It has a line Gothic cathedral. Pop. 12,273. 
 
 Chignecto Bay, an inlet at the head of the 
 Bay of Fundy, in British North America. It 
 separates Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, is 
 30 miles long and 8 broad, and has an isthmus of 
 only 14 miles wide, with an unfinished ship- 
 railway (undertaken in 1889) between it and the 
 Gulf of St Lawrence. 
 
 CMgwell, an Essex village on the border of 
 Hainault Forest, 13 miles NE. of London. Its 
 ' Maypole Inn ' figures in Barndby Rudge; and its 
 grammar-school, founded by Archbishop Harsnet 
 of York in 1629, has been enlarged since 1871 at 
 a cost of £10,000. Penn was a pupil. Pop. of 
 parish, 2500. 
 
 Chlhu&hua, the largest state of Mexico, 
 bounded N. and NE. by New Mexico and Texas, 
 has an area of 87,802 .sq. m., and a pop. of 
 298,100. — Cliihualiua, the decayed capital, is 
 225 miles S. of El Paso by rail. It has an 
 imposing cathedral (1717-89). Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Ohikislar, a small port in Russian Turkestan, 
 on the east shore of the Caspian, north of the 
 Atrek's mouth. 
 
 Cbili(TcJiee'lee ; Span. Chile, pron. Tehee' lay), one 
 of the republics of South America, on the west 
 coast and bordering on Peru, Bolivia, and Argen- 
 tina. It may be described as a long strip of 
 territory lying between the summit of the Andes 
 and the Pacific Ocean, extending from about the 
 18th parallel of south latitude to the southern 
 extremity of Tierra del F'uego. After the war 
 with Bolivia and Peru (1879-81), Chili acquired 
 the coast between 23° and 25° S. claimed by 
 Bolivia, and annexed the Peruvian province of 
 Tarapac.1. Chili occupies the Peruvian pro- 
 vince of Tacna (with Arica), subject to the pay- 
 ment of a war indemnity by Peru. In the south 
 the disputed claims of Chili and Argentina to 
 Patagonia have been settled by Chili taking all 
 territory and islands south of the 52d parallel 
 and west of 68° 30' W. This includes the larger 
 portion of Tierra del Fuego. The Strait of 
 Magellan is by treaty considered neutral. ITie 
 length of Chili is about 2500 English miles. Its 
 breadth varies from 40 to 200 miles. The Andes 1 
 extend in two parallel lines throughout nearly] 
 the entire length of the country ; between these j 
 two ranges of the 'Cordillera' there is a central f 
 valley or tableland. The streams in the north! 
 are mostly shallow brooks ; in the south they] 
 are larger and more numerous, although most! 
 are navigable for only a few miles. The Biobioj 
 (q.v.) is the largest ; the Callecalle, or Rio dej 
 Valdivia (100 miles), is the most important, because 
 of the sheltered harbour at its mouth. In the 1 
 south are also many deep lakes. Mineral waters, 
 chiefly saline and sulphureous, are abundant. 
 The most important islands are those constituting | 
 the southern province of Cliiloe ; Juan Fernan- 
 dez also belongs to Chili. Owing to its great' 
 
CHILI 
 
 179 
 
 CHILTERN HILLS 
 
 extension from north to south, Chili comprises 
 regions of very different nature and climate. 
 The north provinces, Tarapaca, Atacama, and 
 part of Coquimbo, are arid, rainless districts, 
 where the principal industry is mining and ex- 
 traction of saltpetre. The middle and southern 
 provinces — Aconcagua, Valparaiso, Santiago, 
 O'Higgins, Colchagiia, Curico, Talca, Linares, 
 Maule, Nuble, Concepcion, Arauco, Biobio, Mal- 
 leco, Cautin, Valdivia— are agricultural, with coal- 
 fields. The Patagonian provinces — Llanhique, 
 Chiloe, and Magellanes territory — are densely 
 wooded. The climate of Cliili is, on tlio whole, 
 temperate. In the north it is rather hot and 
 rainless ; in the south it is dry for about eight 
 months of the year, and rainy the other four. 
 In Southern Chili generally the land is poor and 
 of hardly any value for agriculture, which, indeed, 
 is carried on in a very primitive fashion ; but the 
 soil of the valleys, where large herds of cattle 
 graze, is very fertile. The Andes are almost 
 everywhere visible, covered with perpetual snow. 
 The highest pealc is Aconcagua, 22,867 feet ; the 
 average height of the great range is 8000 feet. 
 There are many volcanic peaks, mostly extinct. 
 Chili is subject to frequent shocks of earth- 
 quake, and occasionally to destructive terremotos; 
 the most notable of these recorded was in 1832, 
 when the coast near Valparaiso was thrown up 
 permanently between 3 and 4 feet. In 1835 Con- 
 cepcion and Talcahuano were destroyed by a 
 fearful earthquake ; in 1868 and again in 1875 
 Iquique and the northern districts suffered. 
 
 The population of Chili at the census of 1885 
 was 2,524,476 ; in 1901, 3,146,580. Santiago, the 
 capital, has 296,700 inhabitants ; Valparaiso, 
 132,950; Talca, Concepcion, Iquique, and Chilian, 
 from 50,000 to 30,000. The natives of Chili are 
 a mixture of Spanish with the Araucanian Indians. 
 In the upper classes the race has been kept more 
 purely Spanish than in any other South American 
 country. The working-classes are laborious and 
 docile, but it cannot be said that there is as yet 
 any effectual protection for property. The manu- 
 factures are confined to copper-smelting, sugar- 
 refining, tanning, brewing, manufactures of soap 
 and candles, biscuits, boots and shoes, woollens, 
 flax, and nitrates. 
 
 Chili is a Roman Catholic country, but other 
 religions are tolerated. Education receives much 
 attention. There is a first-class university at 
 Santiago, and a lyceum in every provincial 
 capital. The language spoken in Chili is Spanish, 
 but with many local words of Indian origin. 
 
 The value of imports in 1890-1902 varied from 
 JJ63,000,000 to $160,000,000; tlie exports varied 
 from $69,000,000 to $175,000,000. About a tliird 
 of the imports and two-thirds of the exports are 
 from and to Britain, the German and French 
 trade being next in importance. Mineral pro- 
 ducts represent five-sixths of the total exports. 
 The chief articles of export are nitrate and iodine, 
 copper, silver, gold, manganese, hides, wool, 
 wheat, and barley. The principal imports are 
 cotton, woollen, and jute goods, iron, hardware, 
 eoal, machinery, timber, rice, sugar, earthen- 
 ware, cement, paper, beer, glassware, kerosene, 
 .allow, matches, tea and coffee. 
 ^ A government broad-gauge railway line runs 
 'rem Valparaiso to Santiago, crossing the coast- 
 ange of the Andes, and thence southwards 
 hrough the central valley to Concepcion, and 
 hrough Araucania towards Valdivia, with a total 
 3ugth of about 1750 miles. A branch also runs 
 D Santa Rosa at the foot of the Andes, from 
 ■hich a line was in progress, under difficulties, 
 
 from 1890 to 1905, to unite with the Argentine 
 railway system, via the Uspallata Pass, which it 
 crosses at the elevation of 9843 feet above sea- 
 level by means of a tunnel 6^ miles in length. 
 The length from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres 
 (from Pacific to Atlantic) is 880 miles. 
 
 The credit of Chili stands higher than that of 
 any other South American state. At the begin- 
 ning of the century the foreign debt amounted 
 to about $85,000,000, and the internal debt, in- 
 cluding forced paper currency in circulation, to 
 $25,000,000. The revenue for 1901 was stated at 
 $41,000,000, and the expenditure $43,000,000. The 
 customs revenue, which in 1856 amounted to 
 $4,147,298, in 1901 reached $23,000,000. The gold 
 standard was adopted in 1895, and a loan of 
 $20,000,000 authorised for the conversion of the 
 paper currency. 
 
 The constitution of Chili is republican and 
 based upon that of the United States. The 
 cabinet consists of six ministers. The Council 
 of State consists of five members nominated by 
 the president, and six appointed by congress. 
 The legislature is composed of two chambers — 
 the Deputies, about 100 in number ; and the 
 Senate, numbering one to every five deputies. 
 From the war of 1879-81 with Peru, Chili enjoyed 
 peace and prosperity till 1891, when owing to 
 President Balmaceda's aiming at dictatorial 
 powers, a rebellion broke out which ended in 
 Balmaceda's defeat. Boundary disputes with 
 Argentina were referred to British arbitration 
 and arranged in 1898. 
 
 See works on Chili by Rnmbold (1877), Boyd 
 (1881), Markham (1883), Russell (1890), Hancock 
 (1893), and Perez Garcia (1900). 
 
 Chilkoot, a pass from Dyea, on the inlet from 
 the Pacific, over the mountains to the head-waters 
 of the Yukon ; on the main route to Klondike 
 till the railway by tlie White Horse Pass. 
 
 Chilian, capital of the Chilian province of 
 Nuble, with bathing establishments on the extinct 
 volcano of Chilian (9445 feet). Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Ghlllianwalla, a Punjab village, 5 miles from 
 the Jhelum's east bank, and 85 NW. of Lahore. 
 Here an indecisive but sanguinary battle was 
 fought in the second Sikh war, 13th January 1849. 
 
 Chillico'the, capital of Ross county, Ohio, on 
 the Scioto River and the Ohio Canal, 50 miles S. 
 of Columbus. It has manufactures of paper, 
 leather, &c., and was from 1800 to 1810 the 
 capital of the state. Pop. 12,282. 
 
 Chilllngham, a village in the north of North- 
 umberland, on the river Till, 8 miles SW. of Bel- 
 ford. To the south is Chillingham Castle, seat of 
 the Earl of Tankerville, built in the reign of 
 Edward III. In the park, as at Cadzow, are pre- 
 served a herd of wild white cattle. 
 
 Chillon (Fr. pron. Sliee-yon«'), a castle IJ mile 
 SSE. of Montreux, at the east end of the Lake of 
 Geneva. It was long a state-prison, and in it lan- 
 guished Byron's 'Prisoner of Chillon,' Bonivard. 
 
 Chlltern Hills, the southern part of the low 
 chalk range which runs north-east, about 70 
 miles, from the north bend of the Thames, in 
 Oxfordshire, through Bucks and the borders of 
 Herts and Beds. In Oxford, Herts, and Beds 
 the Chiltern Hills are 15 to 20 miles broad, and 
 the highest point is near Wendover (950 feet).— 
 The hundreds of Bodenham, Desborough, and 
 Stoke, in Buckinghamshire, are called the Chiltern 
 Hundreds. The Stewardship of them (the salary 
 being as fictitious as the duties) is still held to 
 be an office of profit under the crown, and its 
 acceptance by a member of the House of Commons 
 
CHIMBORAZO 
 
 180 
 
 CHINA 
 
 entails the vacation of his seat (simple resignation 
 without some disqualification not being provided 
 for in parliamentary usage). 
 
 Chlmbora'zo, a conical peak of the Andes, in 
 Ecuador, 20,498 feet above the sea, but only about 
 11,000 above the level of the valley of Quito, to 
 the north. From 1745, when La Condamine 
 ascended as high as 16,730 feet, numerous 
 attempts had been made to scale it before 
 Whymper in 1880 twice reached its summit.— 
 The province of Chimborazo, to the south, has 
 an area of 5523 sq. m., and a pop. of 120,300. 
 
 CJliimbote (TcMm-bo'tay), a seaport of Peru, 
 250 miles NW. of Lima ; pop. 2000. 
 
 China, Manchuria (q.v.), and its dependencies 
 of Mongolia, I-li, and Tibet (q.v.), constitute the 
 Chinese empire, embracing a vast territory in 
 Eastern Asia only inferior in extent to the total 
 dominions of Great Britain and Russia. The 
 dependencies are not colonies, but subject terri- 
 tories. China Proper is alone dealt with in this 
 article. By its natives the country is never so 
 called, but usually by the Chinese words for ' The 
 Middle State,' or 'The Kingdom of the Great 
 Pure (dynasty).' The name China (Chi-na, land 
 of Chin) comes to us from India through Buddh- 
 ism. Various old names are Serica and Cathay, 
 and in the Bible ' Land of Sinim ' (Isa. xlix. 12). 
 
 China Proper, washed on the east by the Pacific, 
 consistsofeigliteeii provinces— the three provinces 
 of Manchuria not being reclioned. On the north 
 are Chih-li, Shan-hsi (Shansi), Shen-hsi (Shensi), 
 and Kan-sil ; on the west Sze-chwan (Szechuen) 
 and Yun-nan ; on the south Kwang-hsi (Kwangsi) 
 and Kwang-tung ; on the east Fu-chien (Fukien), 
 Cheh-chiang (Chehkiang), Cheang-sft (Kiangsu), 
 and Shan-tung ; and in the centre are Ho-nan, 
 An-hui (Nganhwei), Hii-pei, Hil-nan, Chiang-hst 
 (Kiangsi), and Kwei-chau (Kweichow). Hainan 
 and Formosa are the chief islands. The total 
 area, often stated at 1,300,000 sq. m., is probably 
 not much short of 2,000,000. The Chinese empire 
 without Corea has an area of 4,218,400 sq. m. 
 The population of the empire is variously esti- 
 mated at from 300 to 400 millions. Tlie great 
 bulk of this falls to the provinces of China 
 Proper; the population of all the dependencies 
 (Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, Zungaria, East 
 Turkestan) making but some 16,000,000 or 
 17,000,000 of the total. The population of Peking, 
 the capital, is probably under a million. Of 
 (since 1902) nearly forty ports open to foreign 
 commerce, only five have a population under 
 50,000. That of Canton is estimated at 2,600,000 ; 
 of Tien-tsin at 950,000; of Han-kau at 750,000; 
 of Fft-chau at 650.000 ; of Shang-hai at 455,000 ; 
 of Ning-po at 250,000. 
 
 China Proper may be described as sloping 
 from the mountainous regions of Tibet towards 
 the shores of the Pacific on the east and 
 south. The most extensive mountain-range is 
 the Nan Ling or Southern Range, a far-extending 
 spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yun- 
 nan, it bounds with a continuous barrier (pene- 
 trated by only a few difficult passes) Kwang-hsi, 
 Kwang-tung, and Fft-chien on the north, and, 
 passing through Cheh-chiang, reaches the sea at 
 Ning-po. North of this long range, and west 
 of the 113th meridian, on to the borders of Tibet, 
 the country is mountainous, while to the east 
 and from the great wall on the north, to the 
 Po-yang lake in the south, there is the Great 
 Plain, comprising the greater part of the pro- 
 vinces of Chih-li and Shan-tung, Ho-nan, An-hui, 
 and Chiang-sii. 
 
 In the provinces west from Chih-li— Shan-hsl, 
 
 Shen-hsi, and Kan-sO— the soil is formed of what 
 are called the loess beds, wliich are extremely 
 fertile, the fields composed of it hardly requiring 
 any other manure than a sprinkling of its own 
 fresh loam. The husbandman in this way obtains 
 an assured harvest two and even three times a 
 year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient 
 rainfall, seems inexhaustible. The rivers of China 
 — called for the most part ho in the north, and 
 Chiang (kiang) in the south, are one of its most 
 distinguishing features. Two of them stand out 
 conspicuous among the great rivers of the world ; 
 the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the 
 Cliiang, or Yang-tsze-kiang. They rise not far 
 from each otlier among the mountains of Tibet. 
 The Ho pursues a tortuous course seaward 
 tlirough Nortli China; the Chiang or Yang-tsze 
 through Central Cliina. The terrible calamities 
 caused by the inundations of the Hoang-ho have 
 procured for it the name of ' China's Sorrow.' 
 So recently as 1887 it burst its southern bank 
 near Chang Chau, and poured its mighty flood, 
 with hideous devastation and the destruction of 
 millions of lives, into the populous province of 
 Ho-nan. The Ho is not much under the Chiang 
 in length— somewhat over 3000 miles. The Grand 
 Canal, when in good order, afforded water com- 
 munication from Peking to Hang-chau in Cheh- 
 chiang, a distance of more than 600 miles. Steam 
 communication all along the eastern seaboard 
 from Canton to Tien-tsin has very much super- 
 seded its use. The lakes are very many, but not 
 on so great a scale as the rivers. 
 
 It was in 214 e.g. that the emperor Shih Hwang 
 Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along 
 the north of his vast empire. The Great Wall is 
 one of the wonders of China, and extends from 
 the Shan-hai Pass east of Peking westward to 
 the Chia-yii barrier gate, the road through which 
 leads to the 'Western Regions.' Its length in a 
 straight line would be 1255 miles, but, if measured 
 along its sinuosities, this distance must be in- 
 creased to 1500. It is formed by two strong 
 retaining walls of brick, rising from granite 
 foundations, the space between being filled up 
 with stones and earth. The breadth of it at the 
 base is about 25 feet, at the top 15, and the height 
 varies from 15 to 30 feet. 
 
 The country is rich in the products necessary 
 for the support and comfort of the people. There 
 is in it every variety of climate ; but the average 
 temperature is lower than in any other country 
 in the same latitude. Wheat, barley, maize, 
 millet, and other cereals are chiefly cultivated 
 in the northern regions, and rice in the southern. 
 Culinary or kitchen herbs, mushrooms, and 
 aquatic vegetables, with ginger and a variety of 
 other condiments, are everywhere produced and 
 largely used. From Formosa there comes sugar, 
 and the cane thrives also in the southeruJ 
 provinces. Oranges, pummeloes, lichis, pome-j 
 granates, peaches, plantains, pine-apples, man-] 
 goes, grapes, and many other fruits and nuts,] 
 are supplied in most markets. Tea is noted J 
 below. Opium is increasingly grown. TheChinesM 
 are emphatically an agricultural people; irriga*! 
 tion is assiduously and skilfully employed, andj 
 no people are so careful to waste nothing that] 
 can be used as manure. Pork is the commonest i 
 flesh meat, and the number of pigs is enormous. 
 The seaboard, rivers, lakes, and ponds supply an '< 
 immense quantity of excellent fish taken by the1 
 net. Fowls and ducks are largely produced. 1 
 
 Tea does not grow in the north, but is culti- J 
 vated extensively in the western provinces and, ' 
 
 i 
 
CHINA 
 
 181 
 
 CHIKA 
 
 In those south of the Great Chiang, The infusion 
 of the leaves was little, if at all, drunk in ancient 
 times, but now its use is universal. Fu-chien, 
 Hu-pei, and Hu-nan produce most largely the 
 black teas ; the green comes chiefly from Cheh- 
 chiang and An-hui ; both kinds come from Kwan- 
 tung and Sze-chwan. Next to silk, tea is China's 
 most valuable export. As compared with the 
 populations of western nations, the Chinese are 
 sparing in the use of strong drink ; opium is, how- 
 ever, a common luxury. From the 23d century 
 B.C. and earlier, the care of the silkworm, and 
 the spinning and weaving of its produce, have 
 been the .special work of woman. Tlie mulberry- 
 tree grows everywhere, and in all the provinces 
 some silk is produced ; but Kwan-tung, Sze- 
 chwan, and Cheh-chiang furnish the best and 
 the most. Indigenous to the country also are 
 hemp and other fibrous plants, such as the 
 Bcehineria nivea. Cotton is cultivated most ex- 
 tensively in the great basin of the Chiang. There 
 are few cities which cannot boast of one or more 
 pagodas. The rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir 
 are said still to exist in the forests and swamps 
 of Yun-nan, and tigers occur in some districts. 
 Both the brown and black bear are met with, and 
 several varieties of deer, including the musk-deer. 
 The breed of horses and cattle is dwarfish ; asses 
 and mules are better of their sort. The camel is 
 seen in the north and west. 
 
 The coalfields of China are enormous — more 
 than twenty times the extent of those of Great 
 Britain ; but up to this time the majority of them 
 can hardly be said to have been more than 
 scratched. Immense quantities of iron ore, more- 
 over, must have been extracted from the earth 
 during the millenniums of its history, but a nmch 
 greater amount is still untouched. Copper, lead, 
 tin, silver, and gold are known to exist in many 
 places, but little has been done to make the 
 stores of them available. The monetary currency 
 is mainly the copper cash, cumbrous and often 
 debased. Even foreign silver coins are treated 
 as bullion, and taken by weight ; but since 1890 
 silver dollars are coined at Canton. Good roads 
 are few. Where communication by water is 
 abundant the want of roads is not so much felt. 
 It is owing doubtless to the want of roads that 
 the wheelbarrow is so much used from the 
 Chiang northwards. A smattering of education 
 is widely diffused ; but apart from the official 
 classes, who obtain promotion by competitive 
 examinations, those who can read freely or write 
 readily are few. The three religions of China are 
 Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. It is diffi- 
 cult to estimate the comparative number of their 
 i adherents. To claim a majority for those of any 
 ', one of them is very absurd. As a matter of 
 fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence 
 I and morality of China ; Taoism its superstitions ; 
 and Buddhism its ritualism and idolatry, while 
 yet it acknowledges no God. Of the outstanding 
 peculiarities of the Chinese may be reckoned the 
 pigtail of the men and the pinched feet of the 
 women. Infanticide is not so common as is 
 often said. 
 
 The government of the empire is conducted 
 from the capital, the central authorities directing 
 and controlling the different provincial adminis- 
 trations. There is the Grand Cabinet, the privy- 
 council of the emperor, whose members are few, 
 and hold other substantive offices. There is also 
 the Grand Secretariat, formerly the supreme 
 council. The business on which the cabinet 
 ieliberates conies before it from the Seven Boards 
 —of Civil Office, of Revenue, of Ceremonies (in- 
 
 cluding religion), of War, of Punishment, of 
 Works, and, since 1885, of Admiralty affairs. 
 Each Board has two presidents and four vice- 
 presidents, three of them Manchiis and three 
 Chinese. The Tsungli Yaman, or foreign office, 
 established in IStJl, was in 1902 superseded by a 
 new one called Wai-wu-pu; and the Censorate 
 exercises a supervision over the Boards. In the 
 provinces a governor-general and governor are 
 usually associated ; below these two functionaries 
 tliere are the lieutenant-governor (conunonly 
 called the treasurer), the provincial judge, the 
 salt comptroller, and the grain-intendant. Each 
 province is required to support itself and to 
 furnish a certain surplusage for the imperial 
 government. The revenue and expenditure are 
 estimated at from £12,000,000 to £15,000,000, 
 derived mainly from land-tax, customs, likiu or 
 transit duties, salt-tax, and licenses. China had 
 no foreign debt till 1874 ; in 1902 its liabilities 
 amounted to about £120,000,000, including the 
 war indenuiity to Japan and £64,000,000 indem- 
 nity due to the Powers for the ' Boxer' outrages. 
 
 The imports of China from abroad amounted in 
 1887 to 102,263,000 taels, in 1902 to 315,363,905 ; 
 the exports in 1887 to 85,860,000, and in 1902 to 
 215,181,584. Of the imports in 1902, a value of 
 nearly 60,000,000 taels was from Britain, nearly 
 134,000,000 from Hong-kong(Britain and the other 
 foreign countries indirectly), 33,000,000 from 
 India, and 30,140,000 from the United States; 
 while of the exports in 1902, a value of 10,350,000 
 taels went to Britain, 82,700,000 to Hong-kong, 
 and 28,900,000 to Japan. The chief imports are 
 cotton goods(127,550,000 taels), opium (35,460,000), 
 rice (23,600,000), sugar, metals, oil and kero- 
 sene, woollens, fishery products and 'seaweed,' 
 coal, and raw cotton ; the exports, silk (79,220,000 
 taels), tea (22,880,000), raw cotton (13,160,000), 
 sugar, straw-braid, paper, clothing, hide?, and 
 china-ware. These figures do not include the 
 very extensive coasting trade, but only goods 
 passed through the twenty-three treaty ports 
 open to foreign commerce (of which Shang- 
 hai is by far the most important. Canton being 
 the second), and the Russian overland trade. 
 Between 1887 and 1902 English imports from 
 China declined, according to English official 
 figures, from £6,667,000 to £2,407,289, while 
 English exports to China, which fell to £5,038,000 
 in 1889, rose again to £7,188,810 in 1902. Of the 
 total shipping entered and cleared in 1902 at 
 Chinese ports, 69,499 vessels of 53,990,000 tons 
 (many steamers), 24,758 of 26,950,200 were British. 
 
 The imperial army proper consists of Manchfts, 
 Mongols, and the descendants of Chinese who 
 revolted from the Ming dynasty and joined the 
 Manchiis on their invasion of the empire, the first 
 defection taking place in 1621. These are divided 
 each into eight corps with different coloured 
 banners, and as a whole are styled 'The Eight 
 Banners.' In addition to this there is the 
 national army, distributed in more than one 
 thousand camps throughout the provinces, nearly 
 twice as numerous as the imperial, and called 
 'The Army of the Green Standard,' being in fact 
 little more than a vast militia or gendarmerie. 
 The total force on a peace footing is about 
 300,000, and on a war footing about 1,000,000, 
 but with little cohesion or discipline. The navy 
 possessed by China was all but annihilated in 
 the war with Japan, Since then some swift 
 vessels have been acquired, including two cruisers 
 launched on the Tyne in 1897-98, three small 
 cruisers launched at Stettin in 1897, and a few 
 smaller vessels. 
 
CHINA 
 
 182 
 
 CfllNON 
 
 Chinese historical documents begin with the 
 reigns of Yao and Shun (235(5-220(3 B.C.). In 403 
 B.C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or 
 later claiming to be 'the kingdom,' and contend- 
 ing for the supremacy, till Ts'in (Ch'in) put down 
 all the others, and in 221 b.c. its king assumed 
 the title of Hwang Ti, or Emperor. From that 
 year dates the imperial form of the Chinese 
 government, which has thus existed for more 
 than 2100 years. The changes of dynasty have 
 been many, two or more sometimes ruling to- 
 gether, each having but a nominal supremacy 
 over the whole nation. The greater dynasties 
 have been those of Han (206 B.C. -220 a.d.), T'ang 
 (618-906), Sung (960-1279), Yiian (the Mongol, 
 1280-1367), the Ming (1368-1643), and the Ch'ing 
 (Mancha-Tartar, from the Manchil conquest of 
 China in 1643 to the present date). It was not 
 till after the Cape of Good Hope was doubled, 
 and the passage to India discovered by Vasco 
 da Gama in 1497, that intercourse between 
 any of the European nations and China was 
 possible by sea. It was in 1516 that the Portu- 
 guese first made their appearance at Canton ; and 
 they were followed at intervals of time by the 
 Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English in 1635. 
 The Chinese received none of them cordially ; 
 and Chinese dislike of them was increased by their 
 mutual jealousies and collisions with one another. 
 In the meantime trade gradually increased, and 
 there grew up the importation of opium from 
 India. Before 1767 the import rarely exceeded 
 200 chests, but in that year it amounted to 
 1000. In 1792 the British government wisely 
 sent an embassy under Lord Macartney to 
 Peking, A second embassy from Great Britain 
 in 1816 was dismissed from Peking suddenly 
 and contumeliously because the ambassador 
 would not perform the prostrations required. 
 From the measures of the Chinese to prevent 
 the import of opium came the first war with 
 China in 1840 ; the result of which was the 
 opening of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow, Ningpo, 
 and Shanghai to commerce, and the cession of 
 Hong-kong to Britain. A second war in 1857, 
 France being allied with Britain, ended in the 
 opening of five more treaty ports. A third war 
 (1860) and the march on Peking did even more to 
 open Cliina to tlie world. After a war in 1884-85 
 France secured permanent control of Tongking 
 and Annam. In 1894 Japan, reviving old claims 
 on Corea, drove the Chinese out of Corea, and 
 after victories on land and at sea, captured Port 
 Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. By the treaty of 1894 
 Japan secured as indemnity Formosa and the 
 Liao-tung peninsula ; but the protests of Russia, 
 Germany, and France made Japan resign Liao- 
 tung. Russia obtained a lease of Port Arthur 
 and Talienwan, with railway and other privileges 
 in Manchuria ; Germany obtained Kiao-chau and 
 concessions in Shan-tung ; and Britain, as an off- 
 set, obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei and sought 
 to secure trading freedom in the Yang-tsze-kiang 
 valley. Russia's refusal to evacuate Manchuria 
 and her movements in Corea led to war with 
 Japan in 1903, the defeat of the Russian armies 
 in Manchuria, the destruction of the Russian 
 fleet, and the fall of Port Arthur (1905), China 
 bemg nominally neutral. By the peace (1905) 
 Japan secured dominance in Corea, the Russian 
 leases in Liao-tung, and great influence in southern 
 Manchuria and on China generally, 
 
 A series of far-reaching reforms, promoted bv a 
 nationalist reform party in 1898, were summarily 
 cancelled by the dowager empress, who assumed 
 supreme authority ; and the reactionary and auti- 
 
 foreign 'Boxer' association (more accurately 
 'Tlie Fist of Righteous Harmony'), encouraged 
 by the court, made extermination of the foreigners 
 its war-cry and besieged the foreign legations in 
 Peking, relieved after a two niontlis' siege by an 
 international army of Japanese, Russians, British, 
 Americans, French, and Germans, 
 
 Many Chinese liave sought a livelihood abroad, 
 especially in California, British Columbia, the 
 Straits Settlements and Eastern Archipelago, and 
 Australia. More than half the population of 
 Singapore is Chinese; there are 200,000 Chinese 
 in Java, 90,000 in the United States, 36,000 in 
 Australia, and 17,000 in Canada. From 1855 on- 
 wards the immigration of Chinese into the United 
 States increased, in 1882 it was checked, and 
 in 1888 practically prohibited. Australia and 
 Canada also restrict Chinese immigration. The 
 admission of Chinese coolies to work in South 
 African mines was, spite of keen opposition, 
 sanctioned under special arrangements, and in 
 1904-5 some 47,000 establislied themselves. 
 
 The Chinese people are the result of a fusion 
 of various invaditig Mongolian tribes, from b.c, 
 3000 to 700 A.D., with the aborigines of various 
 stocks ; the Manchu dynasty has ruled since 
 1644. Three types may still be recognised in 
 China — a northern Manchft-Corean, a central and 
 nearly pure Chinese, and a southern with Malayan 
 and other admixtures. The Chinese language is 
 monosyllabic, the words being indeclinable and 
 wholly uninflected. It is written by means of 
 some 73,000 characters, each of which is the 
 symbol of an idea. The spoken language diff"ers 
 greatly in diff'erent parts of the country, though 
 the written language is everywhere the same. 
 
 See works on China by Davis (1857), Williamson 
 (1870), Gray (1877), Wells Williams (1883), Richt- 
 hofen (German, 1885), Boulger (1884 and 1893), 
 Douglas (1887-1900), Simon (1887), Gundry (1893), 
 Curzon (1894), Colquhonn (1898), Krausse (1898), 
 Scidmore(1900), Little (1899-1902), Parker(1901-3). 
 
 Ghlnampo, or CHiNNAMPHO,a free port on theN. 
 coast of Corea, 105 m. NW. of Seoul. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Ghinandega (Tcheenanday'ga), a Nicaraguan 
 town, 30 miles NW. of Leon. 'Pop. 11,000, 
 
 China Sea, the portion of the Pacific Ocean to 
 the east of China and Siam. 
 
 Chlncha Islands, three bare, rocky islets of 
 Peru, 6J miles in area and 200 feet high, whicli in 
 1841-74 yielded millions of tons of guano. 
 
 Chinchilla (Tchin-cheel'ya), a town of Spain, 
 12 miles SE. of Albacete by rail. Pop. 5972. 
 
 Chinchon', a town of Spain, 25 miles SE. of 
 Madrid. Pop. 4913. 
 
 Chindwa'ra, a town in the Central Provinces, 
 VO miles N. by W. of Nagpur. Pop. 10,000, 
 
 Chindwin, a tributary of the Irawadi (q.v.). 
 
 Chtngalpat (Chengalpat), a town of India, 36 
 miles S\V. of Madras by rail. Pop, 9617, 
 
 Chingford, an Essex village, OJ miles NE, of 
 London, in Epping Forest, with a golf course. 
 Pop, 4400. 
 
 Ching-tu, or Chentu, capital of Sze-chwan, in 
 a fertile plain and rich mining country. It has a 
 great arsenal and a population of a million. 
 
 Chin-Kiang, a Chinese port on the Y'ang-tsze- 
 klang, 40 miles ENE. of Nanking, opened to 
 foreign trade in 1861. Pop. 235,000. 
 
 Chtnon (Shee-non^'), an antique town in the dep. 
 of Indre-et-Loire, on the Vienne, 31 miles SW. of 
 Tours by rail. On a lofty rock are the ruins of 
 its vast old castle, the death-place of Henry II. ; 
 
 I 
 
CHlNSURA 
 
 183 
 
 CHOLULA 
 
 and the place where, in 1429, Joan of Arc revealed 
 her mission to the Dauphin. A farmhouse across 
 the Vienne is pointed out as Rabelais' birthplace. 
 Pop. 4365. 
 
 Chln'sura, a town on the right bank of the 
 Huglf, originally Dutch, but ceded to the British 
 in 1825, and now included in Hflgli (q.v.). 
 
 Chioggla, or Chiozza (Kee-od'ja, Kee-ot'za), a 
 seaport and cathedral city of Italy, 15 miles 
 SSW. of Venice, on an island at the southern 
 end of the Venetian Lagoon, connected with the 
 mainland by a stone bridge of 43 arches. Pop., 
 inclusive of Sottomarina, 30,084. 
 
 Chios (Keeos; now Chio, Italianised Scio), one 
 of the most beautiful and fertile islands in the 
 jEgean Sea, belonging to Turkey, 7 miles oflf the 
 coast of Asia Minor, at the entrance to the Gulf 
 of Smyrna. It is 30 miles long from north to 
 south, by 8 to 15 miles broad, with an area of 320 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 70,600, almost all Greeks. 
 The larger northern part is more mountainous 
 than the southern. The climate is delightful and 
 salubrious. Earthquakes are, however, not rare, 
 and one in 1881 caused the death of 3558 persons, 
 and the destruction of property to the value of 
 three to four millions sterling. The products are 
 wine and figs, both noted in classical days, with 
 mastic, silk, lemons, oranges, olives, antimony, 
 and goats' skins. The capital, Chios, about the 
 middle of the east coast, contains about 13,000 
 inhabitants. On the west coast is a rich monas- 
 tery, Nea-Moni, founded in the 11th century. 
 Chios, which is one of the seven birthi^laces of 
 Homer, was taken by the Genoese (1346), and by 
 the Turks (15G6). A number of the Chiotes hav- 
 ing in 1821 joined the revolted Samians, a Turkish 
 fleet and army in 1822 inflicted dreadful ven- 
 geance ; 25,000 Chiotes fell by the sword, 47,000 
 were sold into slavery, and only some 5000 
 escaped. A second rising in 1827 was likewise 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 Chippenham, a municipal borough in Wilt- 
 shire, on the Avon, here crossed by a bridge of 
 twenty-two arches, 13 miles NE. of Bath. An 
 ancient place, it was captured by the Danes from 
 Alfred the Great in 878, and now consists chiefly 
 of a long well-built street. It has a trade in 
 cheese and other agricultural produce, but its 
 cloth manufactures have declined. It lost its 
 last parliamentary member in 1885. Population, 
 5100. 
 
 Chippewa Falls, capital of Chippewa county, 
 Wisconsin, on the Chippewa River, 114 miles by 
 rail E. of St Paul, with saw and flour mills and a 
 large lumber-trade. Pop. 8004. 
 
 Chipping Campden. See Campden. 
 
 Chipping Norton (meaning ' northern market- 
 town'), a municipal borough in the north of 
 Oxfordshire, 85 miles NW. of London by rail, 
 with woollen, tweed, and glove manufactures. 
 Pop. 3780. 
 
 Chipping Ongar. See Ongar. 
 
 Chipping Sodbury ('southern market- 
 borough'), a Gloucestershire market-town, near 
 the Frome, 10^ miles NE, of Bristol. Pop. of 
 parish, 1128. 
 
 Chipping Wycombe, See Wycombe, 
 
 Chlqulmu la, a town (pop. 6000) in the east of 
 Guatemala, which gives name to the Isthmus of 
 Chiquimula, with a breadth from the Gulf of 
 Honduras to the Pacific of 150 miles. 
 
 Chiquinquira, the largest town in the dep. of 
 Boyacd, Colombia, near the Suarez, 30 miles W. 
 
 of Tunja, since Indian times a place of pilgrim- 
 age. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Chiriqui {Tchee-re-Tcee'), an administrative divi- 
 sion of the dep. of Panama, Colombia, adjoining 
 Costa Rica. Area, 6500 sq. m. ; pop. 43,000. 
 
 Chirk, a Denbighshire market-town, on the 
 Ellesmere Canal, 9\ miles S. by W. of Wrexham, 
 Pop. of parish, 2272. 
 
 Chislehurst, a village in Kent, 11 miles SE. of 
 London, Sir Nicholas Bacon was a native. 
 Camden Park estate (now built over) was the 
 residence of Camden the antiquary. Napoleon 
 III. died at Camden Place in 1873. There are an 
 Orphanage and a Governesses' Institution here. 
 Pop. of parish, 7500. 
 
 Chiswick, a suburban parish of Middlesex, on 
 the north bank of the Thames, 7^ miles W. by S. 
 of St Paul's. Here are some charming old river- 
 side houses (one of them William Morris's home) ; 
 here too are extensive market- gardens to supply 
 London, and the gardens of the Horticultural 
 Society. In the churchyard are Hogarth's grave 
 and Foscolo's cenotaph ; and at the Duke of 
 Devonshire's beautiful villa, Chiswick House, 
 died Fox and Canning. The population is over 
 30,000. 
 
 Chita, or Tchita, capital of Transbaikalia, on 
 the Chita River and the great Sitjerian railway, 
 545 miles E. of Irkutsk, Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Chitaldriig, a town of Mysore, India, 126 miles 
 NW. of Bangalore. Pop. 4571. 
 
 Chltrdl, a small state under the supremacy of 
 Cashmere, in the upper basin of the Kunar, or 
 Kashkar, a tributary of the Kabul River, and on 
 the borders of Kafiristan. 
 
 Chittagong, or Islamabad, a port of Bengal, 
 220 miles E. of Calcutta, on the eastern side of 
 the Bay of Bengal, and on the Karnai)huli River, 
 about 12 miles from its mouth. Formerly an 
 important centre of trade under the Portuguese, 
 with one of the best ports in India, it has 
 recently regained much of the commerce it lost 
 with the rise of Calcutta, Since 1905 it is a 
 sub-capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Pop. 
 23,200. 
 
 Chittor' (' little town '), a town of India, on the 
 Poini, 100 miles W. of Madras. Pop. 9809, 
 
 Chiusa (Kee-oo'za), the name of several Italian 
 towns, the largest being Chiusa Sclafani, in 
 Sicily, 31 miles SSW. of Palermo. Pop. 6874. 
 
 Chiusi (Kee-oo'zee), a town 102 miles NNW. of 
 Rome by rail, on an olive-clad eminence in the 
 Val di Chiana, not far from tlie small Lago di 
 Chiusi. The Cluslum of the Etruscans, it has 
 yielded many antiquities. Pop. 1824. 
 
 Chlvasso {Kee-vas' so), a town of Italy, on the 
 Po, 18 miles NE. of Turin by rail. Pop. 4375. 
 
 ChivllGOy, in the Argentine province of Buenos 
 Ayres, is 110 miles W, of the capital. Pop. 15,000, 
 
 Chobe, a tributary of the Zambesi. 
 
 Chobham, a Surrey parish, 4 miles NW. of 
 Woking. A camp was formed here in 1853. 
 
 Cholet (Sho-lay'), in the French dep. of Maine- 
 et-Loire, on tlie Maine, has manufactures of 
 linens and woollens. Pop, 17,150. 
 
 Cholu'la, a decayed town of the Mexican state 
 of Puebla, stands nearly 7000 feet above sea-level, 
 on the tableland of Anahuac, 55 miles ESE. of 
 the city of Mexico. The pop. has dwindled from 
 100,000 in Cortes' day to only 9000. The most 
 remarkable memorial of aboriginal times is the 
 huge Teocalli pyramid of earth, clay, brick, and 
 stone, dedicated to the god Quetzalcoatl. 
 
CHON 
 
 184 
 
 CHUDLEIGd 
 
 CJhon, a loch, IJ mile long and 3 furlongs wide, 
 7 miles WNW. of Aberfoyle. 
 
 Chonos Archipelago, a group of bare, thinly 
 peopled islands off the west coast of Patagonia, 
 44°-46° S. lat., belonging to Chili. 
 
 Chorley, a busy town in North Lancashire, 9 
 miles S. by E. of Preston by rail. It has manu- 
 factures of cotton-yarn, jaconets, muslins, fancy 
 goods, calicoes, ginghams, and railway wagons, 
 with neighbouring bleach-fields, print-works, 
 coal-mines, and stone quarries. It became a 
 municipal borough in 1881. Pop. (1851) 8907; 
 (1901) 26,852. 
 
 Choson. See Corea. 
 
 Cbota Nagpore (Chutid Ndgpur), a south-west 
 commissionership of Bengal, embracing four 
 British districts, seven petty tributary states, 
 and two semi-independent states. Area of the 
 British districts, 26,966 sq. m. ; pop. 4,900,000. 
 Area of the division, 43,020 sq. m. ; pop. 6,000,000. 
 
 Christchurcli, a parliamentary and municipal 
 borough of Hampshire, at the head of the estuary 
 formed by the Avon and Stour, 24 niiles SW. 
 of Southampton by road, but 33 i by rail. The 
 noble church of an Augustinian priory (1150) is 
 803 feet long by 101 across the transept, and 
 includes every style from Norman to Perpendicu- 
 lar. Special features of interest are the splendid 
 Early English porch, a monument to Shelley, a 
 beautiful rood-screen, and the chapel built by 
 Henry VIII.'s victim, Margaret, Countess of 
 Salisbury. Little remains of a Nonnan castle. 
 Christchurch possesses one notable specialty, the 
 making of watch and clock fusee-chains. The 
 harbour has high-water twice every tide. The 
 parliamentary borough, 22,350 acres in area, coin- 
 prises the favourite watering-place Bournemouth, 
 and returns one member ; but of the population 
 of 70,000 only 4500 are within the municii)al 
 borough of Christchurch, which was incorporated 
 in 1886. 
 
 Christcliurch, capital of the provincial district 
 of Canterbury, New Zealand, on the river Avon, 
 about 8 miles from Port Lyttelton by rail. It 
 has tramways, government offices, a museum 
 (with many specimens of the Moa), a cathedral 
 (1881 ; a reproduction of that of Caen in France), 
 and a hospital. The water-supply is derived from 
 artesian wells. Two parks and the Government 
 Domain afford ample pleasure-grounds. Boot 
 manufacturing is one of the chief industries. An 
 earthquake in 18S8 damaged the cathedral and 
 other buildings. Pop. 18,500, but with Syden- 
 ham and the suburbs, 52,000. 
 
 Christiania, the modern capital and chief com- 
 mercial town of Norway (the ancient capital 
 is Trondhjem, 'home of the throne,' where the 
 kings are still crowned), 59° 56' N. lat., 10° 
 50' E. long., is built on the northern end of 
 the Christiania Fiord. Pop. (1801) 8931 ; (1891) 
 151,239; (1900) 227,626. Christiania is named 
 after Christian IV,, who commenced building 
 it in 1624 after the destruction Of the ancient 
 city of Oslo by fire. It is the seat of the 
 national parliament, of the High Court of Judi- 
 cature, and of the National University, with 
 over 1500 students. Connected with this is 
 the students' garden, a library of 350,000 vol- 
 umes, a botanical garden, zoological and other 
 museums, laboratories, and observatory. The 
 Meteorological Institute was established in 1866. 
 There are two national and historical palaces here, 
 one in the city quite near the university, and 
 one, Oscarshall, beautifully situated two miles 
 
 from the city on an eminence overlooking thd 
 fiord. There is a national picture-gallery, and a 
 very interesting museum of northern antiquities. 
 The Dom or Cathedral and Trinity Church are 
 the principal ecclesiastical buildings. The old 
 fortress Akerslius Faestning still remains, and is 
 used as a promenade, but has little military 
 value. Among other public buildings are the 
 Houses of Parliament, two theatres, the Free- 
 masons' Hall, &c. The staple industry of Chris- 
 tiania is its shipping trade ; its chief export is 
 timber. A considerable industry is the brewing 
 of Christiania 61, a sort of lager beer, with 
 resinous flavour, largely consumed throughout 
 Norway, and exported. The minor manufac- 
 tures are cotton, canvas, engine-works, nail- 
 works, paper-mills, and cariole-making. The 
 harbour is closed by ice for three or four months 
 most winters. 
 
 Christiansand, a city of Norway, near its 
 southernmost extremity, on a sandy plain at the 
 mouth of the Otteraa. A garrisoned town, 
 built by Christian IV. in 1641, it has several 
 dockyards, and a good harbour nmch used for 
 refuge. At the mouth of the harbour is the 
 beautiful island of Odderb, laid out with public 
 gardens and promenades. Christiansand has 
 a considerable trade in timber, pitch, stock- 
 fish (salted cod), fish-oil for curriers, salmon, 
 mackerel, lobsters, and white ptarmigans, the 
 last two chiefly for the London market. Ship- 
 building is a considerable industry. Christian- 
 sand, which suffered much by fire in July 1892, 
 has a cathedral. Pop. 14,813. 
 
 Chrlstiansfeld, a settlement (1772) of Moravian 
 Brethren in Northern Sleswick. 
 
 Christianstad, a Swedish town, on the Helge, 
 14 miles from the Baltic, and 351 SSW. of Stock- 
 holm by rail. It possesses an arsenal, a magni- 
 ficent church, and a senate-house. Pop. 10,370. 
 
 Christianstadt, the chief town of the Danish 
 West Indian island of Santa Cruz, on the north 
 shore. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Chrlstiansund (63° 10' N. lat., 7° 50' E. long.), 
 sometimes confounded with Christiansand though 
 350 miles farther north, is a picturesque Nor- 
 wegian coast-town, built on three wooded islands. 
 It has a considerable trade with Spain and Italy 
 in salt-fish, and is a calling-place for passenger 
 steamers. Pop. 12,381. 
 
 Christmas Island, in the Pacific, is in 1° 57' 
 N. lat., and 157° 27' W. long., with some guano 
 deposits, and is a British possession. — Another 
 Christmas Island, annexed to Britain in 1888, 
 lies about 250 miles SW, of Java, is 6 miles 
 long by 4 broad, and consists of rich phosphate 
 deposits and coral on a volcanic substratum, 
 part of it covered with luxuriant vegetation. — 
 There is a third Christmas Island in the Bras 
 d'Or, Cape Breton. 
 
 Chrudim, a town of Bohemia, 74 miles ESB. 
 of Prague by rail. It manufactures sugar, beer, 
 alcohol, and artificial manure. Pop. 12,886. 
 
 Chuhut, or Chupat, a Welsh colony in Pata- 
 gonia, so named froni a river whose mouth is 
 600 miles S. of the river Plate. The first settlers, 
 151, arrived in July 1865 ; and the population, 
 after dwindling to 120, rose to 690 in 1876, and 
 3800 in 1900. The principal town, Trerawson, 
 or Rawsonville, about 5 miles from the sea, is 
 named after Dr Rawson, an Argentine statesman. 
 
 Chudleigh, a Devon market-town, on the Teign, 
 10 miles SSW. of Exeter. Pop, of parish, 2000. 
 
CHUDLEIGH 
 
 185 
 
 CIRCASSIA 
 
 Chudleigh, Cape, on the north coast of Labra- 
 dor, at the entrance of Hudson Strait, 
 
 Chumbi, the valley leading by the Chola Pass 
 from Sikkim into Tibet. 
 
 Chiunbul', an Indian river, rising in the Vin- 
 dhyan Mountains, and flowing 650 miles NE. to 
 the Jumna. 
 
 Chunar', a town of India, on the right bank of 
 the Ganges, 26 miles SW. of Benares. Pop. 9548. 
 
 Chungking, the commercial capital of Western 
 China, a treaty port in Sze-chwan (q.v.), on the 
 Yang-tsze-kiang, 1500 miles from its mouth. 
 Pop. 900,000. 
 
 Chupra, a town of Bengal, on the Gogra, near 
 its confluence with the Ganges. Pop. 46,500. 
 
 Chuquisaca('i'c/ioo-tee-2'd/t7ca),or Sucre, capital 
 of Bolivia, on a mountain-closed tableland, 8825 
 feet above the sea. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Chuquito (Tdwo-kee'to), a town of Peru, on the 
 ■west shore of Lake Tltlcaca. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Chur (Fr. Coire; Ronmansch Cuera), capital of 
 the Swiss canton of Grisons, 80 miles SE. of 
 Zurich by rail, stands 1940 feet above the sea, 
 on the road to the Spliigen pass. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Church, States of the, a territory or group of 
 'Papal States' in Central Italy, once under the 
 sovereignty of the pope, since 1870 incorporated 
 with the kingdom of Italy. Till 1859 they covered 
 15,000 sq. m., and had a population of 3,000,000— 
 including, besides Rome, tlie Romagna, Uiiibna, 
 the March of Ancona, and the towns of Bologna, 
 Perugia, and Viterbo. 
 
 Churchill River, Canada, rises under 55° N. 
 lat., and flows near 1000 miles generally NE. 
 through a series of lakes to Hudson Bay, near 
 Fort Churchill. 
 
 Churn, a headstream of the Tliames, 16 miles 
 long, rising 34 miles S. by E, of Cheltenham. 
 
 Chusan', the largest island of a small archi- 
 pelago, a mile ofi' the E. coast of China, opposite 
 Ningpo. Area, over 230 sq. m. ; pop. 200,000 to 
 250,000. Although mountainous in the centre, it 
 is generally fertile. Ting-hai, the capital (pop. 
 40,000), has a land-locked harbour. It was held 
 by the British in 1840-41, and again in 1860. 
 The sacred island of Pu-tu, a mile E. of Chusan, 
 is covered with Buddhist temples, pagodas, and 
 monasteries, with over a thousand monks. 
 
 Cicester. See Cirencester. 
 
 Cienfuegos (See-en-foo-ay'gos), a port of Cuba, 
 on the south coast, on the Bahia de Jagua, 140 
 miles ESE. of Havana by rail. Pop, 30,560. 
 
 Cieza (Thee-ay'tha), a town of Spain, 26 miles 
 NW. ofMurcia. Pop. 13,892. 
 
 Cillcia, an ancient division of Asia Minoi% now 
 included in the Turkish province of Adana, lay 
 between the Taurus range and the Cilician Sea. 
 
 Gimlez (anc. Civitas Cemenelieiisis), a place Avith 
 many fine villas, 2f miles N. of Nice. Queen 
 Victoria stayed here in 1895. 
 
 Cincinnati {Sin-sin-nah'tee), the second city of 
 Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, 270 
 miles SE. of Chicago by rail, opposite the cities 
 of Covington and Newport in Kentucky. Steam- 
 ferries and six lofty bridges connect the city 
 ■with the Kentucky shore ; the suspension bridge 
 by Roebling is 2250 feet long, and cost $1,800,000. 
 Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and 
 irregular site, the more densely built parts being 
 enclosed between the river and steep hills. The 
 lower business streets are liable to be flooded at 
 times. The river front is upwards of 14 miles 
 
 in length. A second terrace is 50 or 60 feet 
 higher, and a district between the hills and the 
 Miami Canal, kno^wn as 'over the Rhine,' is 
 appropriated to the large German colony. The 
 suburbs are built on a succession of irregular 
 hills, by whose steepness they are broken into 
 a series of some five and twenty villages, inter- 
 spersed with parks (including Eden Park, of 
 216 acres). Among the public buildings are the 
 post-ofiice ; the Chamber of Commerce ; a large art 
 museum ; an art school, and a college of music 
 (1878) ; a large music-hall, with a noted grand 
 organ ; a commodious city building ; and a court- 
 house. There are more than 250 churches, in- 
 cluding a Roman Catholic cathedral ; besides 
 many handsome theatres, hotels, and public 
 halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools of 
 every grade, including medical, law, and divinity 
 seminaries — the Presbyterian Lane Theological 
 Seminary is famous. 'To the Cincinnati Univer- 
 sity, the Cincinnati Observatory and Astrono- 
 mical School are attached ; there are large libra- 
 ries, a zoological garden, the Cuvier Club and 
 the Historical and Philosophical Society. The 
 city is a centre of musical and art culture, and 
 its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a 
 national reputation. It has a large river and 
 canal traffic, and many railways converge here. 
 Amongst the factories are clothes-factories, 
 foundries, machine shops, coach-works, works 
 for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes, 
 leather, &c. There is some boat-building and 
 printing ; and the slaughter-houses, stock- 
 yards, and grain-elevators are very extensive. 
 Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, 
 and was named in honour of the jnilitary Society 
 of the Cincinnati. It was incorporated as a city 
 in 1819, and early attained the name of 'the 
 queen city of the ■west ; ' as also that of ' Porko- 
 polis,' from its great trade in pork. Great riots 
 occurred in 1884, and -were ■w-ith difficulty sup- 
 pressed by the military. Pop. (1850) 115,436; 
 (1880) 255,139 ; (1890) 296,908 ; (1900) 325,902, 
 about a third being of German origin. 
 
 Cinque Ports. The five great ports on the 
 coast of Kent and Sussex lying opposite to France 
 — Sand^wich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Ha.st- 
 ings — were, subsequently to the battle of Hast- 
 ings, constituted by the Conqueror a jurisdiction 
 entirely separate from the counties of Kent and 
 Sussex, and erected into a sort of county pala- 
 tine, under a warden, the seat of whose adminis- 
 tration ■was Dover Castle (now Walmer Castle). 
 Privileges similar to theirs were afterwards ex- 
 tended to Winchelsea and Rye ; and all the seven 
 municipal towns except Winchelsea had sub- 
 ordinate ports and towns attached to them, which 
 were called limbs or members. See Montagu 
 Burrows, Cinque Ports (1888). 
 
 Clntra, a town of Portugal, 17 miles WNW. of 
 Lisbon. Pop. 5500. The convention of Cintra 
 (1808), between Britain and France, provided for 
 the evacuation of Portugal by the French. 
 
 Ciotat, La (She-o-ta'), a seaport in the French 
 dep. of Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Mediterranean, 
 23 miles SE. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. 11,474." 
 
 Circars, The Northern (Sarkdr, 'a govern- 
 ment '), the historical name for an Indian terri- 
 tory lying along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, 
 from 18 to 100 miles wide, with an area of 17,000 
 miles. It nearly corresponds with the present 
 Madras districts of Ganjam, Vizagapatam, Goda- 
 vari, Kistna, and parts of Nellore and Karntil. 
 
 Clrcassia, a territory on both sides of the 
 western Caucasus. See Caucasus. 
 
CIRENCESTER 
 
 186 
 
 CLARENCE 
 
 Cirencester, a town of Gloucestershire, amid 
 the Coteswold Hills, on the Churn, a headstream 
 of the Thames, and on the Thames and Severn 
 Canal, 14 miles SSE. of Cheltenham, and 18 NW. 
 of Swindon. It has a very fine Perpendicular 
 church (restored 1867), a public hall (1863), some 
 remains of an abbey (1117), and, 1 mile distant, 
 an agricultural college (1846), a Tudor edifice. 
 Near this is the handsome seat of Earl Bathurst. 
 There is a considerable trade in wool and agri- 
 cultural produce, and the town is a hunting 
 centre. Till 1867 it returned two members; till 
 1885 one. The population is over 7500. Ciren- 
 cester (pron. Cisseter) was the Roman Corinium, 
 and was stormed by Rupert in 1642 and 1643. 
 The chronicler Richard of Cirencester was a 
 native. 
 
 Ols-Sutlej States, a term including the British 
 districts of Umballa (Ambala), Ludhiana, Firoz- 
 pur, Hissar, and the native states of Patiala, 
 Jind, and Nabha. 
 
 Citeaux (See-to' ; anc. Cistercium), the mother 
 abbey of the great Cistercian monastic order 
 (founded here in 1098), stands 12 miles S. of Dijon, 
 in the French dep. of Cote d'Or. The abbey 
 buildings, nearly destroyed in 1798, have been 
 converted into an industrial and agricultural 
 reformatory for juvenile oft'enders. 
 
 Oitta di Castello, a cathedral city of Italy, on 
 the Tiber, 25 miles NNW. of Perugia. Pop. 5433. 
 
 Cittavec'chia. See Malta. 
 
 Ciudad Bolivar. See Angostura. 
 
 Ciudadela (The-oo-da-day'la), a seaport town 
 (formerly capital) of Minorca, on the west coast, 
 with a cathedral. Pop. 8431. 
 
 Ciudad Real (The-oo-dhadh Eay-al; 'royal 
 city '), a town of Spain, between the Guadiana 
 and Jabalon, 105 miles S. of Madrid by rail. Pop. 
 14,500. Area of province of Ciudad Real, 7840 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 305,000. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrlgo (The-oo-dhadh Rodh-ree'go; 
 'Roderic's Town'), a fortified cathedral city of 
 Spain, 17 m. from Portuguese frontier, 56 SW. 
 of Salamanca by rail, on a steep hill above the 
 Agueda ; taken by the English (1706) and French 
 (1707), by Wellington (Jan. 1812), Pop. 6984. 
 
 Civita Castellana (Chee'vi-ta Kas-tel-lah'na), a 
 town of Italy, 25 miles N. of Rome. It has a 
 cathedral (1210), and a citadel, now a state- 
 prison. Pop. 5251. In the neighbourhood are 
 remains of the Etruscan Falerii. 
 
 Civita Vecchia (Chee'vi-ta Vek'M-a; anc. 
 Portxts Trajani), an Italian fortified port, 50 miles 
 NW. of Rome by rail. Pop. 14,980. 
 
 Clackmannan, the county town of Clackman- 
 naiishire, on the Devon, 2 miles E. by S. of Alloa. 
 An eminence is crowned by the ruined tower of 
 the Bruces. Pop. 1505. 
 
 Clackmannanshire, the smallest county of 
 Scotland, lies between the counties of Perth, Fife, 
 and Stirling, and slopes from the green Ochil 
 Hills to the Forth. Its greatest length is 10 
 miles ; area, 38 sq. m. Pop. (1871) 23,747 ; (1901) 
 32,019. Clackmannan is the county town, but 
 Alloa and Alva are more important places. Clack- 
 mannanshire, with Kinross-shire, returns one 
 member to parliament. See Beveridge, Betxoeen 
 the. Forth and the Ochils (1888). 
 
 Clacton, an Essex watering-place, 15 miles SB. 
 of Colchester. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Clairac, a town in the French dep. of Lot-et- 
 Garonne, on the Lot, 18 miles NW. of Agen. 
 Pop. 1550. 
 
 Clairvaux (Clair-vo'), a village of France, 10 
 miles SE. of Bar-sur-Aube. Its once famous 
 Cistercian abbey, founded in 1115 by St Bernard, 
 was suppressed at the Revolution, and the exten- 
 sive buildings are now used as a prison. 
 
 Clanwilliam, a division of the Western Prov- 
 ince, N. of Capetown, South Africa, embracing 
 the rich valley of Olifant River West. Chief 
 village, Clanwilliam, on Jan Dissels River. 
 
 Clap'ham, a south-western suburb of London, 
 lying a mile S. of the Thames, and forms one of 
 the J^ondon parliamentary boroughs, returning 
 one member, but for municipal purposes it is 
 divided between the metropolitan boroughs of 
 Battersea and Wandsworth. Clapliam Common 
 is still an open common of 200 acres. — The 
 'Ciapham Sect' was a name given by Sydney 
 Smith to the Evangelical party, as represented 
 especially by Venn, llomaiiie, Zachary Macaulay, 
 and Willjerforce. 
 
 Clapton, a north-east district of London. 
 
 Clara, a market-town of King's county, 65 
 miles W. of Dublin. Pop. 1111. 
 
 Clare, a maritime county in the province of 
 Munster, Ireland, lying between Galway Bay and 
 the Shannon. It has a length of 67 miles, a great- 
 est breadth of 43, and an area of 1294 sq. m. In 
 the east the hills reach a height of 1758 feet. The 
 sea-line is high and rocky, in parts precipitous, 
 and occasionally from 400 to 680 feet high, with 
 many isles and fantastic detached rocks. The 
 chief rivers are the Shannon and the Fergus. The 
 county has about 100 small lakes. The south- 
 west third of the county forms part of the Munster 
 coalfield. There are lead-mines, slate and marble 
 quarries, and many chalybeate springs. The 
 chief towns are Ennis (the county town), Kilrush, 
 Kilkee, Ennistimon, and Killaloe. Pop. (1841) 
 286,394 ; (1901) 112,129, nearly all Catholics. The 
 county returns two members. There are many 
 cromlechs, raths, remains of abbeys, and old 
 castles, and several round towers, one at Kilrush 
 being 120 feet high. Till Elizabeth's time the 
 county was called Thomond ; its present name 
 comes from an English adventurer, Thomas de 
 Clare, who received from Henry III. a part of 
 all the land he might conquer from the Irish. 
 
 Clare, (1) one of the most interesting of the 
 smaller towns of Suffolk, 19 miles SSW. of Bury. 
 It has a fine old castle, and gives an earl's title 
 to the British sovereign. Pop. of parish, 1657. 
 —(2) A village of County Clare, on the Fergus, 
 23 miles NW. of Limerick. Pop. 590.— (3) Or 
 Claremorris, a town of County Mayo, 14 miles 
 SE. of Castlebar. Pop. 1119. 
 
 Clare Island, a Mayo island (5x3 miles), in 
 the Atlantic, at the entrance of Clew Bay. 
 
 Claremont, a mansion at Esher, Surrey, 14j 
 miles SW. of London. Built for himself by Sir 
 John Vanbrugh, and rebuilt by Clive in 1768, it 
 was the death-place of the Princess Charlotte and 
 of Louis Philippe, and in 1882 became the private 
 property of Queen Victoria. 
 
 Claremont, a village of New Hampshire, U.S., 
 on the Sugar River, 55 miles by rail WNW. of 
 Concord. Pop. 6565. 
 
 Claremorris. See Clare. 
 
 Clarence, an English ducal title, by some 
 derived from Clare in Suffolk, but usually under- 
 stood to be the French form of Glarentza (Ital. 
 Chiarenza), a small port on the west coast of the 
 Morea, in Greece, 50 miles SW. of Patras— the 
 title having come to Edward III. through his 
 wife, Philippa of Hainault. 
 
 J 
 
CLARENDON PARK 
 
 187 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 Clarendon Park, Wiltshire, 3 miles ESE. of 
 Salisbury, the seat of a former royal palace, where 
 a great council met in 1164. 
 
 Clarens, a beautiful Swiss village on the Lake 
 of Geneva, 3^ miles SE. of Vevey by rail. 
 
 Clase, a northern suburb of Swansea. 
 
 Clausthal. See Klausthal. 
 
 Clava, a plain 6 miles B. of Inverness, with 
 many stone-circles and standing-stones. 
 
 Claverdon, a Warwicltshire village, 8 miles N. 
 of Stratford-on-Avon. 
 
 Claverhouse, 3J miles N. by E. of Dundee, the 
 birthplace of Viscount Dundee. 
 
 Claycross, or Claylane, a town of Derby- 
 shire, on the Rother, in a coal and iron region, 4^ 
 miles S. of Chesterfield. Pop. 8358. 
 
 Clayton, a Yorkshire township, 3^ miles W. 
 by 8. of Bradford. Pop. 5119. 
 
 Clear, Cape, a headland of Clear Island, the 
 most southerly point of Ireland, witli a light- 
 house and telegraph station. Clear Island, 66 
 miles SW. of Cork, is 1504 acres in area. 
 
 Cleator Moor, a town of Cumberland, 4 miles 
 SE. of Whitehaven, with coal-mines and iron- 
 furnaces. Pop. 8120. 
 
 Cleaven Dyke, a rampart in Caputh parish, 
 Perthshire, at tine Isla's junction with the Tay, a 
 supposed site of the Battle of the Grampians 
 
 (86 A.D.). 
 
 Cleokheaton, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 5 miles SSE. of Bradford, with manu- 
 factures of textiles and machinery. Pop. 12,826. 
 
 Clee Hills, a Shropshire range (1805 feet) to the 
 N. of Ludlow. 
 
 Cleethorpe, a Lincolnshire watering-place, at 
 the mouth of the H umber, 2i miles ESE. of Great 
 Grimsby. Pop. (with Tlirunscoe) 13,000. 
 
 Cleeve Abbey, Somerset, 2^ miles SW. of 
 Watchett, a ruined Cistercian abbey (1188). 
 
 Cleish Hills, Kinross-shire, 1240 feet high. 
 
 Cleland, a Lanarkshire mining village, 3J miles 
 E. by N. of Motherwell. Pop., with Omoa, 3000. 
 
 Cleobury-Mortimer, a Shropshire market- 
 town, on the Rea, 12 miles E. of Ludlow. Pop. 
 of parish, 1463. 
 
 Olerkenwell, a London parish, lying within 
 the parliamentary borough of Finsbury, and due 
 north of St Paul's. It is largely inhabited by 
 watchmakers, goldsmiths, and opticians. The 
 Fenian attempt to blow up Clerkeuwell prison 
 took place 13th December 1867. 
 
 Clermont (mediasval Clalr-mon"' ; Clams Mons, 
 or Clarimontium), the name of several towns in 
 Prance. (!) In the dep. of Oise, 41 miles N. of 
 Paris by rail. Pop. 4617.— (2) Clermont-Ferrand 
 (Roman Augustonemetum), the capital of the dep. 
 of Puy-de-D6me, between the rivers Bedat and 
 AUier, 135 miles S. of Paris by rail. Amiflig its 
 buildings are the old Gothic cathedral, built of 
 dark lava from a neighbouring range of extinct 
 volcanoes ; the fine church of Notre Dame, where 
 Peter the Hermit preached the first Crusade ; the 
 handsome Palais des Facultes ; and the govern- 
 ment buildings, formerly a convent (1250). The 
 chief manufactures are candied fruits, wax 
 matches, chemicals, linen, rope, lace, and 
 machines. There are several mineral springs. 
 The bishopric of Clermont was founded in 253 ; 
 and seven ecclesiastical councils were held here 
 during the middle ages. A statue has been 
 erected to Pascal, who, as well as Gregory of 
 
 Tours, was a native of Clermont. Pop. (1872) 
 32,963 ; (1901) 45,367.— (3) Clermont l' Herault, 
 33 miles W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. 4803. 
 
 Clevedon, a pleasant Somersetshire watering- 
 place, on the Bristol Channel, 12 miles by road 
 but 16 by rail WSW. of Bristol. The historian 
 Hallain, and Arthur, his son, lie in the old parish 
 church ; Coleridge lived a while here at Myrtle 
 Cottage (1795) ; and Clevedon Court, a mediaeval 
 mansion of singular beauty, though much dam- 
 aged by fire in 1882, is the 'Castlewood' of 
 Thackeray's Esmond. The population is about 
 6000. 
 
 Cleveland, a wild mountainous district, with 
 some picturesque fertile valleys, forming the east 
 part of the North Riding of Yorkshire between 
 Whitby and the Tees. In the south the hills rise 
 1300 to 1850 feet. An extraordinary change has 
 been wrought in the aspect of the country by a 
 discovery of ironstone in the Cleveland hills ; 
 since 1851, lonely hamlets have become populous 
 towns. See works by J. C. Atkinson (1891) and 
 J. Leyland (1892). 
 
 Cleveland, the largest city of Ohio, is on tlie 
 south sliore of Lake Erie, 350 miles by rail E. of 
 Chicago. Tlie city is built mainly upon a plain 
 from 60 to 150 feet above the lake, and is divided 
 into the east and west sides by the tortuous 
 valley of the Cuyahoga Rivei-, which is crossed 
 by two high-level bridges— one mainly of stone 
 (1878), and one of iron (1888, 3931 feet long). 
 There are other bridges at the lower level in the 
 valley. The ' flats ' along the river are occupied 
 by vast lumber-yards, factories, mills, coal-yards, 
 ore docks, ship-yards, &c. The river is the har- 
 bour, and an outer harbour is protected by an 
 immense United States breakwater. The busi- 
 ness centre of Cleveland extends east from the 
 lower part of the river- valley for three-fourths of 
 a mile along Superior Street. On the Public 
 Square, 10 acres in area, are the custom-house and 
 post-offlce, a court-house, the fine old 'Stone' 
 (first Presbyterian) Church, a theatre, an hotel, 
 banks, and fountains. From the south-east corner 
 of the square Euclid Avenue, according to Bayard 
 Taylor the most beautiful street in the world, 
 runs eastward beyond Wade Park, a beautiful 
 tract of about 65 acres. Farther east is Lake 
 View Cemetery, with the monument of President 
 Garfield, 125 feet high. A great wealth of gardens 
 and shade-trees is noticeable throughout the 
 'Forest City,' except in the poorest quarters; 
 few houses are built in blocks, and tenements are 
 virtually unknown. The water is supplied from 
 Lake Erie. Cleveland has a large music-hall, 
 several theatres, over 250 churches, the Western 
 Reserve University, and colleges, medical schools, 
 hospitals, asylums, and two large libraries ; some 
 60 periodicals, daily, tri-weekly, weekly, and 
 monthly, are published in the city. Cleveland's 
 rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere 
 else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal 
 of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake 
 Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply ; its 
 position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal 
 being very advantageous, and seven railways ter- 
 minate here. The chief industries of the city are 
 the various manufactures of iron, including steel 
 rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, 
 engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing-machines, 
 agricultural implements and machinery of all 
 kinds, the refining of petroleum, wood-work, and 
 other manufactures of endless variety. Cleve- 
 land is the greatest iron ore receiving point in 
 America, one of the largest lumber markets in the 
 
CLEVES 
 
 188 
 
 CLUGNY 
 
 country, and the mercantile centre of an exten- 
 sive and productive region. The site was laid 
 out by General Moses Cleveland in 1796 ; in 1836 
 it was incorporated. Pop. (1850) 17,034 ; (1880) 
 160,146 ; (1890) 261,353 ; (1900) 381,768. 
 
 Cleves (Ger. Kleve, Dutch Kleef), a town of 
 Rhenish Prussia, 2^ miles from the Rhine, and 48 
 NW. of DUsseldorf. The fine old castle, the 
 Schwanenburg, partly built on a commanding 
 rock, is tlie reputed scene of the legend of the 
 Knight of the Swan, made familiar by Wagner's 
 opera of Lohengrin. Anne of Cleves, fourth wife 
 of Henry VIII., was born here. Cleves has manu- 
 factures of cotton and leather goods, tobacco, &c. 
 Pop. 14,170. 
 
 Clew Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the west 
 coast of County Mayo, about 15 miles long by 9 
 broad. At the entrance is Clare Island (3949 
 acres ; pop. 62), which, as well as Inishgort (27 
 acres ; pop. 23), has a lighthouse. 
 
 Clewer, a Berkshire parish, on the Tliames, 
 1 mile W. of Windsor. Here is a well-known 
 Anglican sisterhood. Pop. 5766. 
 
 Cllcliy (Clee-sheef), a town on the Seine, to the 
 north-west of Paris, of which it forms a suburb. 
 It has numerous manufactories, especially of 
 chemicals and catgut, and is much affected by 
 washerwomen. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Cliefden. See Cliveden. 
 
 Clifden, a Connemara seaport, 50 miles NW. 
 of Galway. Pop. 911. 
 
 CliflFord Castle, a ruin on the Wye, Hereford- 
 shire, 2 miles NNE. of Hay, the traditional birth- 
 place of Fair Rosamond. 
 
 Clifton. See Bristol. 
 
 Clifton, a town and port of entry of Ontario, 
 on the Niagara Rivor, 2 miles below the Falls. 
 Here is a noble railway suspension bridge, 800 
 feet long and 240 above the water. Pop. 1610. 
 
 Clifton Moor, Westmorland, 3 miles SSE. of 
 Penrith, the scene of a Jacobite skirmish (1745). 
 
 Clinton, (1) capital of Clinton county, Iowa, on 
 the Mississippi, here crossed by an iron railroad 
 bridge, 4000 feet long, 60 nnles SSE. of Dubuque 
 by rail. It has numerous mills, foundries, and 
 factories, and a trade in lumber and grain. Pop. 
 (1870) 6129 ; (1900) 22,698.— (2) A town of Massa- 
 chusetts, on the Nashua River, 45 miles W. of 
 Boston by rail. It has large manufactures of 
 ginghams and plaids, carpets, combs, and machin- 
 ery. Pop. 13,424.— (3) A post- village of New 
 York, 9 miles WSW. of Utica, is the seat of 
 Hamilton College (1812), a Presbyterian founda- 
 tion. Pop. 1336. 
 
 Clippens, a Renfrewshire village, 1 mile NNE. 
 of Johnstone. Pop. 428. 
 
 Clipstone, in Sherwood Forest, Notts, 5 miles 
 NB. of Mansfield, the seat of an ancient royal 
 palace. 
 
 Clitheroe, a municipal borough in Lancashire, 
 on the Ribble, 35 miles N. of Manchester. It lies 
 on a low eminence, at the base of Pendle Hill 
 (1831 feet). Clitheroe has cotton and paper mills, 
 and extensive lime-quarries are wrought in the 
 neighbourhood. Its 12th-century castle was dis- 
 mantled by the parliamentarians in 1649. The 
 free grammar-school dates from 1554. Stony- 
 hurst College (q.v.) lies 4 miles SW. A borough 
 since about 1280, Clitheroe till 1832 returned two 
 members to parliament, then till 1885 one. Pop. 
 (1851) 7300 ; now 11,500. See Whitaker's History 
 0/ WhaUey and Clitheroe (1801 ; 4th ed. 1876). 
 
 Cliveden, a seat with noble woods in Bucks, 
 on the Thames, 3J miles NNE. of Maidenhead. 
 Originally built by Charles II.'s Duke of Buck- 
 ingham, but burned iu 1795 and 1849, it was sold 
 in 1893 by the Duke of Westminster to the 
 American millionaire, W. W. Astor. 
 
 Cloch Point, on the Clyde, opposite Dunoon, 
 with a lighthouse. 
 
 Cloghan (Clo'an), a village of King's county, 5 
 miles NE. of Banagher. 
 
 Clogher (Clo'er), (1) a decayed episcopal city 
 and quondam parliamentary borough of Tyrone, 
 on the Blackwater, 15 miles SSE. of Omagh. 
 The Protestant see is now united to Armagh. 
 The cathedral and episcopal palace are handsome 
 edifices. Pop. 225.— <2) A fishing-village of County 
 Louth, 7 miles NE. of Drogheda. Pop. 653. 
 
 Clonakilty, a seaport of County Cork, at the 
 head of Clonakilty Bay, 33 miles SW. of Cork. 
 Pop. 3098. 
 
 Clones, a town of County Monaghan, 94 miles 
 NW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 2062. 
 
 Clonfert, an ancient episcopal city of Ireland, 
 is in the extreme east of County Galway. The 
 bishopric was founded in the 6th century, and 
 ceased to be a separate Anglican one in 1602, 
 being ultimately incorporated with Killaloe ; but 
 it is still the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. 
 
 Clonmacnoise, a holy place of Ireland, on the 
 Shannon, 10 miles by river S. of Athlone. An 
 abbey was founded here by St Kieran in 548 ; 
 and the spot is still marked by the ruins of the 
 'seven churches' (including the 'cathedral,' the 
 ruins of which belong to the church rebuilt in 
 14th century), two round towers, and a great 
 Celtic cross. This 'lona of Ireland' was the 
 burial-place of many princes. 
 
 Clonmel', a municipal borough in Tipperary 
 and Waterford counties, on the Suir, 135 miles 
 SW. of Dublin by rail. In 1650 Cromwell be- 
 sieged it, and demolished the castle. It gave 
 birth to Sterne and Lady Blessington, and was 
 the scene of Smith O'Brien's attempted rising iu 
 1848. Till 1885 it returned one member. Here 
 Bianconi first established his jaunting-cars; and 
 Clonmel is still a tourist centre. Pop. 10,167. 
 
 Clontarf, where in 1014 Brian Born defeated 
 the Danes, was long famous as a watering-place, 
 and in 1900 was incorporated with Dublin city. 
 
 Clough Jordan, a village of Tipperary, 87 miles 
 SW. of Dublin. Pop. 518. 
 
 Clovelly, a coast-village of North Devon, 11 
 miles WSW. of Bideford. From its rude little 
 pier it climbs 400 feet upwards iu a steep narrow 
 combe. Pop. of parish, 641. 
 
 Clovenfords, a famous vinery on the Tweed, 
 3i miles W. of Galashiels. 
 
 Cloyne, an ancient episcopal town of County 
 Cork, 15 miles ESE. of Cork. Tlie cathedral was 
 founded in the 6th century by St Colman; 
 opposite is a finely preserved round tower over 
 90 feet high. Tlie see, held once by Bishop 
 Berkeley, is united to that of Cork ; but there is 
 also a Catholic diocese. Pop. 820. 
 
 Clugny (Cliin-yee'), or Cluni, a town in the 
 dep. of Saone-et-Loire, on the Grosne, 15 m. NW. 
 of Macon by rail. Pop. 3618. Its famous Bene- 
 dictine abbey (910-1790) attained a degree of 
 splendour and influence unrivalled by any 
 similar institution of the middle ages. The 
 grand basilica or abbey church, commenced by 
 St Hugh, the eighth abbot, in 1089, and dedi- 
 cated by Pope Innocent II. in 1131, was, until 
 
CLUMBER PARK 
 
 189 
 
 COBLENZ 
 
 the construction of St Peter's at Rome, the 
 largest church in Christendom. Of this mag- 
 niftceut and imposing pile one tower and part of 
 the transept alone remain ; the site of the nave 
 is traversed by a road. See two works by Sir G. 
 F. Duclvett (1886-88), with others in Frencti by 
 Pignot, Lorain, Penjon, Cucherat, and Champly. 
 
 Clumber Park, a seat of the Duke of New- 
 castle, in Notts, 3 miles SB. of Worksop. 
 
 Clun, a Shropshire market-town, 6i miles N. 
 by E. of Knighton. Pop. of parish, 2115. 
 
 Clunes, a gold-mining township of Victoria, 97 
 miles NW. of Melbourne by rail. Pop. 4242. 
 
 Olunie, a Perthshire parish, 5^ miles W. by S. 
 of Blairgowrie, with an isleted loch, and a castle 
 associated with the * Admirable ' Crichton. 
 
 Clusium. See Chiusi. 
 
 Clwyd (Kloo'id), a river of north Wales, rises 
 on Craig Bronbanog, in Denbighshire, and runs 30 
 miles to the Irish Sea, below Ruthin flowing 
 through the fertile Vale of Clwyd, 24 miles long, 
 and 2 to 7 wide. 
 
 Clyde (Welsh Clwyd, ' strong '), a world-famous 
 river and firth of south-west Scotland. The river 
 rises as Daer Water at an altitude of 1600 feet, 
 and runs 106 miles northward and north-west- 
 ward, round Tinto Hill (2335 feet), and past 
 Lanark, Bothwell, Glasgow, and Renfrew, till at 
 Dumbarton it merges in the firth. Its drainage 
 area is 1481 sq. m., of which 111 belong to the 
 South, North, and Rotten Calders, 127 to the 
 Kelvin, 200 to the Black and White Carts, and 
 305 to the Leven and Loch Lomond. Tributaries 
 higher up are Powtrail Water, Little Clydes 
 Burn, Douglas Water, Medwyn Water, Mouse 
 Water with its deep gorge through the Cartland 
 Crags, and, near Hamilton, the Avon. In the 
 four miles of its course near Lanark the river 
 descends from 560 to 200 feet, and forms the four 
 celebrated Falls of Clyde— Bennington, Corra, 
 Dundaff, and Stonebyres Linns, of which the 
 finest, Corra, makes a triple leap of 84 feet. 
 Above the falls the Clyde is a beautiful pure 
 trout-stream, traversing pastoral uplands ; below, 
 it flows through a rich fertile valley, here broad- 
 ening out into plain, there pent between bold 
 wooded banks. But its waters become more and 
 more sluggish, begrimed, and polluted, the nearer 
 they get to Glasgow. Since 1765 upwards of ten 
 millions sterling has been expended on rectifying 
 and deepening the channel from Glasgow to 
 Dumbarton, no less than 40,000,000 cubic yards 
 of materials having been lifted by steam-dredgers 
 during 1844-1905. Tlie result has been tliat whereas 
 ' a hundred years ago there was a depth at low- 
 water of 15 inches, now they have at Glasgow 
 from 18 to 20 feet at low- water ; ' and that 
 whereas even lighters could once 'not pass to 
 and from Glasgow except it be in the time of 
 flood or high-water at spring-tides,' now a steamer 
 has been docked at Glasgow that is second in 
 size only to the Great Eastern. In 1812 Henry 
 Bell launched on the Clyde the first boat in 
 Europe successfully propelled by steam ; and 
 since then the river's shipping and shipbuilding 
 (the latter dating from about 1718) have both 
 grown enormously. — The Firth, which some 
 make begin at Glasgow (the highest point of the 
 tide), and some not until Gourock, extends 12 
 miles westward and 52 southward, and broadens 
 from 1 mile at Dumbarton to If at Dunoon, and 
 37 at Ailsa Craig. It sends off" the Gareloch, 
 Loch Long, Holy Loch, and the Kyles of Bute ; 
 contains the islands of Bute, Arran, and the 
 
 two Cumbraes; is bordered along its ancient 
 sea-margin with an almost continuous fringe 
 of seaports and watering-places (Greenock, 
 Rothesay, Ayr, &c.) ; and, like the last 14 miles 
 of the river, is one of the world's chief com- 
 mercial water-ways. See works by Deas (1881- 
 87), Millar (1888), and Pollock (new ed. 1893), 
 
 Clydebank, a town of Dumbartonshire, on the 
 right bank of the Clyde, Similes NW. of Glasgow. 
 It has great shipbuilding works. Pop. (1881) 
 1634 ; (1891) 10,589 ; (1901) 21,591. 
 
 Clydesdale. See Clyde and Lanarkshire. 
 
 Clynder, a Dumbartonshire Avatering-place on 
 the Gareloch. Pop. 331. 
 
 Cnossus, Gnossos, or Knossos, anciently the 
 chief town of Crete, said to have been built by 
 Minos, wliere since 1900 very important excava- 
 tions of the great palace have been made by Mr 
 A, J, Evans and others. It stood N. of the 
 centre, three miles from the sea. 
 
 Coahuila {Ko-a-wee'la), a state of Mexico, next 
 to Texas. Area, 64,000 sq. m. ; pop. 281,000. 
 
 Coalbrookdale, in Shropshire, extends 8 miles 
 along the Severn, rich in coal, iron, and lime. 
 
 Coalisland, a village of Tyrone, 5 miles NB. of 
 Dungannon. Pop. 785. 
 
 Coalville, an urban district of Leicestershire, 
 16 miles NW. of Leicester by rail. Pop. (1901) 
 15,280. 
 
 Coanza, Kwanza, or Quanza, a river of West 
 Africa, rising in the east of the Portuguese terri- 
 tory, and after a generally NW. course, entering 
 the Atlantic 30 miles S. of St Paul de Loando. 
 It is navigable for light vessels as far as the 
 Cambambe cataracts, over 120 miles. 
 
 Coast Range, a range of mountains nearly 
 parallel to the Pacific Coast in California (q.v.). 
 
 Coatbridge, a thriving manufacturing town 
 of Lanarkshire, since 1885 a municipal burgh, 
 9 miles E. of Glasgow by rail, and 32 W. by S. 
 of Edinburgh. The centre of a great mineral 
 district, it is surrounded by numerous blast- 
 furnaces, and produces malleable iron, boilers, 
 tubes, tin-plate, firebricks and tiles, and railway 
 waggons. Coatbridge has grown very rapidly in 
 size and prosperity— a growth largely due to the 
 development of the Gartsherrie Ironworks of 
 Messrs Baird, first put in blast, 4th May 1830. 
 Pop. (1831) 741 ; (1851) 8564 ; (1881) 18,425; (1901) 
 36,991. See A. Miller's Rise and Progress of Coat- 
 bridge (Glas. 1864). 
 
 Coatzacoalco (Co-afza-co-al'co), a river of the 
 isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, rises in the 
 Sierra Madre, and falls into the Gulf of Mexico, 
 130 miles SE. of Vera Cruz. 
 
 Coban (Ko-hdhn'), capital of the dep. of Vera 
 Paz, in Guatemala, on the fertile Tierra Tem- 
 plada plateau, 85 miles N. of the town of Guate- 
 mala. Pop. 24,700. 
 
 Cobbam, (1) a village of Kent, 4 miles SSE. 
 of Gravesend.— (2) A Surrey village, on the Mole, 
 6^ miles W. of Epsom. Pop. of parish, 3978. 
 
 Cobija (Ko-bee'ha), a seaport of the Chilian 
 province of Antofagasta, on a shallow, open bay. 
 
 Coblenz, or Koblenz (K6-blentz), capital of 
 Rhenish Prussia, 56 m. SSE. of Cologne by rail, at 
 the junction of the Rhine and Moselle. It is 
 very strongly fortified with a wall and a series of 
 detached forts, including the almost impregnable 
 castle of Ehrenbreitstein (q.v.), on the opposite 
 side of the Rhine. Among the principal build- 
 ings are the church of St Castor (836), the oldest 
 
OOBOURa 
 
 190 
 
 COGNAC 
 
 In the Rhine district ; the Kauf haus (1479) ; the 
 Protestant Florins Kirche (12th century); the 
 church of Our Lady (1250-1431); and the old 
 Jesuit College, now a gymnasium. The extensive 
 palace was built in 1778-86 by the last Elector 
 of Treves, and restored in 1845. The favourable 
 position of Coblenz secures it an active com- 
 merce in wine, corn, mineral waters, &c. It 
 manufactures champagne (about 1,000,000 bottles 
 annually, exported chiefly to England), cigars 
 iapanned goods, and furniture. Pop. (187o) 
 29,290 ; (1901) 45,146. Coblenz (Fr. Cohlence) was 
 known to the Romans as Confluentes. From 1018 
 till 1796 it belonged to Treves. In 1798 it was 
 made the capital of the new French dep. Rhine 
 and Moselle, and by the treaty of 1815 was given 
 to Prussia. 
 
 Cotoourg, a port of entry of Ontario, on Lake 
 Ontario, 69 miles NE. of Toronto. It contains 
 a Wesleyan university, and several woollen-mills, 
 foundries, and breweries. Pop. 4242. 
 
 Coburg (Ko'boorg), capital of the duchy of 
 Coburg, in the united duchy of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha, is picturesquely situated on the left bank 
 of the Itz, 81 m. SSE. of Eisenach by rail. The 
 ducal palace (1549) is one of the principal build- 
 ings, others being the government buildings, the 
 arsenal, containing a public library, the town- 
 house, and the palace of the Duke of Edinburgh. 
 The old castle of Coburg, mentioned in 1057, 
 beside Avhich Coburg originally grew up, is situ- 
 ated on an eminence 530 feet above the town. 
 It afforded Luther a shelter during the Diet 
 of Augsburg in 1530, and in 1632 successfully 
 resisted a siege by Wallenstein. In 1782 it was 
 converted into a prison, but in 1838 it was 
 thoroughly restored. Luther's apartments are 
 preserved as he used them. Coburg has manu- 
 factures of woollen, cotton, marquetry, baskets, 
 porcelain, furniture, and carriages, and exports 
 beer. Pop. (1875) 14,567 ; (1900) 20,460. Prince 
 Albert, to whom a statue was erected in the 
 market-place of Coburg by Queen Victoria in 
 1865, was born at Rosenau, a ducal seat 4 miles 
 to the north. 
 
 Coburg Peninsula, the most northerly part 
 of Australia to the west of the Gulf of Carpen- 
 taria, running out north-westward towards Mel- 
 ville Island. 
 
 Cocanada (Cocanah'da), a seaport and head- 
 quarters of Godavari district 315 miles N. of 
 Madras. Pop. (1881) 30,441 ; (1901) 48,096. 
 
 Cocliabamba, a central dep. of Bolivia, with 
 offshoots of the Eastern Cordilleras, and exten- 
 sive plateaus. Area, 26,685 sq. m. ; pop. 360,000. 
 The capital, Cochabamba (8396 feet above the 
 sea), on a tributary of the Guajiay, was founded 
 in 1565, as Ciudad de Oropesa. Pop. 34,705. 
 
 Cochin, a native state of India, politically 
 connected with Madras, between the British 
 district of Malabar and the state of Travancore, 
 with the Arabian Sea on the SW. Area, 1362 
 sq. m. ; pop. 822,906. Cochin formed a treaty 
 with the East India Company in 1798. 
 
 Cochin, once the capital of the above princi- 
 pality, but now a seaport of Malabar district, 
 in the Madras presidency. In spite of a bar, it 
 is next to Bombay on this coast for shipbuilding 
 and maritime commerce. Here the Portuguese 
 erected their first fort in India in 1503. They 
 were supplanted by the Dutch in 1663 ; and in 
 1796 Cochin was captured by the British. Pop. 
 17,698. Half a mile south is a town of the same 
 name, in the native state (pop. 15,775). 
 
 Cochin-China, a name for Annam (q.v.), is 
 used specially for French Cochin-China, a part 
 of French Indo-Chine, occupying the south 
 extremity of the Indo-China peninsula, and 
 bounded N. by Cambodia and Annam ; area, 
 23,000 sq. m. ; population, 3,000,000, chiefly 
 Annamites, but comprising also Cambodians, 
 Chinese, &c. Through nearly its whole extent 
 Cochin-China is low and almost flat, but to 
 the north and east rises into hills. It is watered 
 in the west by two branches of the Mekong, the 
 Han-giang and the Tien-giang. In the east the 
 Dong-nai River flows from north-east to south- 
 west, receiving the Saigon River from the north- 
 west. These and other rivers are all connected 
 with one another by the innumerable arroyos 
 and canals which intersect Cochin-China in all 
 directions. The temperature rises in the dry 
 season (October to April) to 95° P. by day and 62° 
 by night, and in tlie wet season varies between 
 68° and 86°. The soil, mostly alluvial, is exceed- 
 ingly fertile, producing the best rice in the world. 
 Sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, arachis, mulberry, 
 indigo, maize, tea, betel, hemp, are raised on a 
 small scale ; and coffee, cacao, and vanilla have 
 also been introduced. A railway of 44 miles and 
 a steam-tramway run from SaYgon, the capital ; 
 Cape St Jacques is joined by telegraph to Singa- 
 pore, Tonkin, and Hong-kong. 
 
 Cockburnspath, a Berwickshire village, 7 miles 
 SE. of Dunbar. 
 
 Cockenzie, a Haddingtonshire fishing-village, 
 1 mile NE. of Prestonpans. Pop. 1678. 
 
 Cockermouth, a town of Cumberland, on the 
 Derwent, 25 miles SW. of Carlisle, and 12 NW. of 
 Keswick. A ruined castle crowns a bold height 
 on the left bank of the Cocker, near its influx to 
 the Derwent. It became Mary Stuart's prison in 
 1568, and in 1648 was dismantled by the parlia- 
 mentarians. Wordsworth was born here in an 
 old-fashioned house still standing. Till 1867 
 Cockermouth returned two members to parlia- 
 ment ; till 1885 one. Pop. 5364. 
 
 Cockpen', a Midlothian parish, 7 J miles SE. of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Cookthorpe, a Norfolk parish, 5 miles NE. of 
 Walsingham. Sir Cloudesley Shovel was a native. 
 
 Cocos. See Keeling Islands. 
 
 Cod. See Cape Cod. 
 
 Codogno, a town of Northern Italy, 17 miles 
 SE. of Lodi by rail. Pop. 8935. 
 
 Coele-Syria (See-leh; 'Hollow Syria'), now 
 called El-BukA'a, 'the deep plain,' a valley 
 of Syria, extending between the ranges of the 
 Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It is 1706 feet above 
 the sea, and is watered by the Orontes (now El- 
 Asi). Above the valley stand the ruins of Baalbek. 
 
 Coggeshall, a town of Essex, on the Black- 
 water, 44 miles NE. of London. It has a school, 
 founded by Sir Robert Hitcham (1636), remains of 
 a Cistercian abbey (1142), a good Decorated 
 church, and some manufactures of silk, velvet, 
 and lace. It is supposed to have been the 
 Roman Canonium. John Owen was minister 
 here. Pop. of parish, 2730. See Beaumont's 
 History of Coggeshall (1890). 
 
 Cognac (Kon-ydk'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Charente, on an old castle-croAvned hill over 
 the Charente, 42 miles SE. of Rochefort by rail. 
 The cultivation of the vine and distillation of 
 brandy, hence called Cognac, form the chief 
 industry of the district. Francis I. was boru 
 here. Pop. (1872) 12,950 ; (1901) 18,454. 
 
C0H0E3 
 
 191 
 
 COLMAR 
 
 Cohoes, a manufacturing city of Albany county, 
 New York, on the Hudson, at the mouth of the 
 Mohawk, 3 miles above Troy, and on the Erie 
 Canal. It has cotton-mills, knitting-mills, and 
 manufactures of axes, gas-piping, machines, &c. 
 Pop. (1800) 8799 ; (1900) 23,910. 
 
 Coilsfield, or Montgomerie, an Ayrshire estate 
 near Tarbolton, with memories of Burns and 
 Highland Mary. 
 
 Colmbatore (Co-im'ba-tore), a town of Madras 
 Presidency, on the Noyil, 304 miles SW. of 
 Madras by rail, and 1437 feet above the sea. 
 Population, 55,000. 
 
 Coimbra (Co-im'bra), capital of the Portuguese 
 province of Beira, on a hill above the Mondego, 
 135 m. NNB. of Lisbon by rail. It was the capital 
 of Portugal for about two centuries and a half 
 from its erection into a kingdom in 1139, and 
 many of the early kings are buried in and around 
 the old town. It has two cathedrals, and a 
 university, the only one in Portugal, with over 
 700 students. It was originally established at 
 Lisbon in 1288, but was permanently transferred 
 here in 1537. Pop. i8,3()9.- 
 
 Coina, a town of Spain, 20 miles WSW. of 
 Malaga. Pop. 9972. 
 
 Coire. See Chur. 
 
 Cojutepeque (Ko-hoo-te-pay'kay), a town of San 
 Salvador, Central America, 15 miles E. of the 
 capital. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Colberg, or Kolberg, a seaport and watering- 
 place of Prussia, in Pomerania, on the Per.sante, 
 near its mouth in the Baltic, 170 miles NNE. of 
 Berlin by rail. It manufactures woollens, agri- 
 cultural machines, and spirits. Pop. 20,250. 
 
 Colchester, an ancient municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough in the NE. of Essex, on the 
 right bank of the Colne, 51 miles NE. of London, 
 and 12 miles from the sea. It is built on the 
 ridge and sides of a promontory, with a port on 
 the river at a suburb called the Hythe, which 
 has a quay for vessels of 150 tons. It is a town 
 of special historical and antiquarian interest. 
 Before the Roman conquest of the island it was 
 the British ' Royal Town ' of Cunobelin (the 
 Cymbeline of Shakespeare) ; and here the Em- 
 peror Claudius founded a coto?ua~tlie first 
 Roman town in Britain. There are still many 
 remains of that town. The walls are the most 
 perfect Roman walls in England. Immense 
 quantities of pavements, coins, pottery, and other 
 remains of domestic use and personal adornment 
 have been found here. The tower of Holy Trinity 
 Church has all the characteristics of Saxon archi- 
 tecture. The castle, homing a very interesting 
 museum, is the largest Norman keep in Eng- 
 land. In the Norman west front of St Botolph's 
 Priory the Roman bricks are a striking feature ; 
 and all the old churches have an intermixture 
 of Roman brick in their walls. The Protes- 
 tant refugees from the Low Countries at the 
 end of the 16th century introduced the baize 
 and serge trade, which became an important 
 manufacture, and spread into the neighbouring 
 towns and villages. Colchester was one of the 
 eight ' Dutch Congregations ' incorporated by 
 royal license. The wars with Spain in the reign of 
 Queen Anne closed the markets for these goods, 
 and the trade died out. A chief historical event 
 was the siege and capture of the town by the 
 parliamentarians (1648). Colchester now is a 
 large military depot ; and the fishery of the 
 Colne and its creeks has for centuries been 
 famous for the quality of its oysters. Colchester 
 
 returns one member. Pop. (1851) 19,443 ; (1901) 
 38,373. See the Rev. E. Cutts's Colchester (' His- 
 toric Towns ' series, 1888). 
 
 Collingham, a Berwickshire village, 46 miles 
 ESE. of Edinburgh, with remains of an Augus- 
 tinian priory (1098). Pop. 482. 
 
 Coldstream, a Berwickshire town, 15 miles 
 SW. of Berwick by rail, on the Tweed, with a 
 fine bridge by Sineaton (1706). Pop, 1482. 
 
 Coleford, in Gloucestershire, 4 miles ESE. of 
 Monmoutii, pop. 2540 ; also a town of Somerset, 
 6 miles NW. of Frome, pop. 1520. 
 
 Colenso, a small town of Natal, on the Tagela, 
 15 miles S. of Ladysmith, where on 15th Dec. 
 1899 BuUer was defeated by the Boers. 
 
 Coleorton, Leicestershire, 3 miles E. by N. of 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch, the seat of Sir George Beau- 
 mont, connoisseur and art-patron. See Knight's 
 Memorials of Coleorton (2 vols. 1887). 
 
 Coleralne, a river-port in County London- 
 derry, on the Bann, 4 Jiiiles from its mouth, 33 
 by rail NE. of Londonderry. It has manufac- 
 tures of fine linens, poric-curiiig, distilling, and 
 important river fisheries. Until 1885 Coleraine 
 returned a member to Parliament. Pop. (1861) 
 0230 ; (1901) 0929. 
 
 Coleroon, the largest and most northerly 
 branch from the Kaveri, flows 94 miles to the 
 Bay of Bengal. 
 
 Colesberg, a town of Cape Colony, 142 miles by 
 rail SW. of Bloenifonteiu. It was the scene of 
 active operations during the war, 1899-1902, 
 Pop. about 2000. 
 
 Coleshill, a Warwickshire market-town, 10 miles 
 ENE. of Birmingham. Pop. of parish, 2535, 
 
 Colima (Ko-lee'ma), a Pacific Mexican state, 
 with an area of 2694 sq. m., and a i>op. (1890) of 
 72,591. The capital is Colima, 1450 feet above 
 the sea, and 40 miles ENE. of the port of Man- 
 zanillo. Pop. 20,251. Beyond the state frontier, 
 about 35 miles NE. of the capital, rises the vol- 
 cano of Colima (12,750 feet), which burst out in 
 June 1869. 
 
 Colinsburgh, a Fife village. If mile N. by W, 
 of Kilconquhar station. It was founded about 
 1718 by Colin, Earl of Balcarres. Pop. 854. 
 
 Colinton, a Midlothian village, on the Water of 
 Leith, 4 miles SW. of Edinburgh. Pop, 776, 
 
 Coll, one of the Argyllshire Hebrides, 16 miles 
 W. of Tobermory in Mull. It is 13 miles long, 1 
 to 3^ broad, 326 feet higlij and 30 sq. m. in area. 
 Pop. (1801) 1162 ; (1901) 432. 
 
 Cori6, a cathedral city of Italy, on the Elsa, 24 
 miles SSW. of Florence. Pop. 5090. 
 
 Collingwood, a town of Ontario, on the south 
 shore of Georgian Bay. It has factories, ship- 
 yards, and grain-elevators, and a considerable 
 trade in lumber and grain. Pop. 5445. — Another 
 Collingwood is a suburb of Melbourne (q.v.). 
 
 CoUumpton. See Cullompton. 
 
 Colmar, the capital of the German district of 
 Upper Alsace, on a plain near the Vosges, 42 
 miles SSW. of Strasburg. It is one of the chief 
 seats of the cotton industry in Alsace, other 
 manufactures being paper, leather, ribbons, and 
 hosiery. Colmar is an old place, having been 
 raised to the rank of a free imperial city in 1226. 
 Fortified in 1552, its fortifications were razed in 
 1673 by Louis XIV, Pleasant boulevards now 
 occupy their place, Colmar was formally ceded 
 to France in 1697, but was recovered by Germany 
 in 1871. Pop, (1875) 23,778 ; (1900) 36,800. 
 
COLNE 
 
 192 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 Oolne, a town of East Lancashire, on a high 
 ridge near tlie source of the Calder, a western 
 branch of the Ribble, 26 miles N. of Manchester. 
 It manufactures cotton calicoes and monsselines- 
 de-laine. Pop. (1871) 7335 ; (1901) 23,000. 
 
 Colney Hatch, a village of Middlesex, 6J miles 
 N. of London, with a great lunatic asylum, opened 
 in 1851. 
 
 Cologne (Ger. Koln), a city and free port on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, 362 miles by rail 
 WSW. of Berlin, 175 SB. of Rotterdam, 149 E. 
 of Brussels, and 302 NE. of Paris. Formerly an 
 independent city of the German empire, it is 
 now the most important town of Rhenish 
 Prussia ; a fortress of the first rank, foniiiiig a 
 semicircle along the Rhine, and connected 
 with the town of Deutz on the opposite bank by 
 a bridge of boats, and an iron bridge, 1362 feet 
 long, for railway and carriage traffic. Pop. (1871) 
 129,233; (1900) 372,229. The old streets are 
 mostly narrow and crooked ; but the area freed 
 by the removal of the ancient fortifications was 
 purchased in 1882 by the corporation for about 
 £600,000; its most prominent feature is the 
 handsome ' Ringstrasse ' or boulevard, nowhere 
 less than 60 feet wide, which encircles the entire 
 old town. The new fortifications include a 
 number of detached forts, planted round Cologne 
 and Deutz, within a radius of about 4 miles from 
 the cathedral. The church of St Maria im Capitol 
 was consecrated in 1049 ; in St Ursula are pre- 
 served the bones of the 11,000 virgins. The 
 cathedral is one of the noblest specimens of 
 Gothic architecture in Europe. Traditionally 
 founded by Archbishop Hildebold, during Charle- 
 magne's reign in 814, and gifted by Frederic 
 Barbarossa in 1162 with the bones of the three 
 Magi, it was rebuilt after burning in 1248. The 
 choir was consecrated in 1322 ; and the work was 
 carried on till 1509, when it was suspended ; but 
 the work of renovation began in 1823, and in 1842 
 the foundation-stone of the new part was laid. 
 The naves, aisles, and transepts were opened in 
 1848 ; the magnificent south portal was completed 
 in 1859 ; in 1860 the iron central fleche was added ; 
 and the western spires, the crown of the edifice, 
 were finished in 1880. The church measures 440 
 feet in length, and 240 in breadth ; the spires 
 rise 515 feet. The great bell, the ' Kaiserglocke ' 
 (1887), made of French cannon, weighs over 26 
 tons. Among secular buildings are the 14th- 
 century town-house ; the noble Gothic Gurzenich 
 (1441-52), a banqueting-hall, now containing the 
 exchange ; the modern law-courts ; and the 
 Wallraf-Richartz Museum, with a good collection 
 of paintings. The situation of Cologne is ex- 
 tremely favourable for commerce ; and the manu- 
 factures include the making of eau-de-Cologne, 
 beet-sugar, tobacco, glue, carpets, soap, leather, 
 furniture, pianos, chemicals, and spirits of wine. 
 The city was founded by the Ubii, about 37 B.C., 
 and was at first called Uhiorum oppidum ; but a 
 colony being planted here in 50 a.d. by Agrippina, 
 the wife of the Emperor Claudius, it received the 
 name of Colonia Agrippina. It entered the league 
 of the Hanse towns in 1201, and contended with 
 Lubeck for the first rank. Cologne was at a 
 very early period the seat of a bishopric, elevated 
 at the end of the 8th century into an arch- 
 bishopric, whose holders took their place amongst 
 the princes and electors of the empire. The 
 archbishopric was secularised in 1801, when 
 the city also lost its independence, and the Con- 
 gress of Vienna assigned the whole territories to 
 Prussia. 
 
 Colombia, a republic occupying the north-west 
 corner of the South American continent, and 
 till 1903, when Panama (q.v.) became inde- 
 pendent, incUuling also the Isthmus of Panama. 
 Its area is estimated at about 510,000 sq. miles 
 (nearly as large as Great Britain, France, and 
 Spain together). The population amounts to 
 about 4,000,000, including some 200,000 uncivilised 
 Indians in the remote forests. The situation of 
 Colombia, washed by two oceans, with a coast- 
 line of nearly 3000 miles, and many good harbours, 
 is very favourable to commerce. The surface of 
 the country is extremely varied, with lofty moun- 
 tains in the west, and vast plains in the east 
 scarcely above the level of the sea. For the 
 mountain system, which spreads out in three 
 great ranges, like the rays of a fan, see Andes. 
 From the Central Cordillera descend the two 
 principal rivers of Colombia, the Magdalena and 
 its tributary the Cauca, which flow north into 
 the Caribbean Sea, besides several affluents of 
 the Amazon in the east, and the Patia, which 
 forces its way to the Pacific through a gorge 
 between clift"s 10,000 to 12,000 feet high. The 
 Eastern Cordillera, by far the largest chain, con- 
 sists of a series of extensive tablelands, cool and 
 healthy, and is the most thickly populated por- 
 tion of the republic ; on one of its plateaus, at 
 an elevation of 8694 feet, stands the capital, 
 Bogota (q.v.). Eastward from this Cordillera 
 stretch vast llanos or plains, through which flow 
 many tributaries of the Orinoco. Other rivers 
 are the San Juan (navigable 150 miles), on the 
 Pacific coast, and the Atrato and Zulia flowing 
 north. In the course of one day's journey, the 
 traveller 7nay experience in this country all the 
 climates of the world ; perpetual snows cover 
 the summits of the Cordilleras, while the valleys 
 are smothered in the rich vegetation of the 
 tropics. The climate of Panajna is notoriously 
 unwholesome, and in some parts of Bolivar and 
 MagT^lalena marsh fevers abound. The hot region, 
 extending to an elevation of about 3200 feet, pro- 
 duces in abundance rice, cacao, sugar-cane, ban- 
 anas, yams, tobacco, indigo, cotton, caoutchouc, 
 vegetable ivory, medicinal plants, resins, and 
 dyewoods. In the temperate zone, from 3200 to 
 8500 feet above the sea, the coff'ee plant, the fig, 
 and the cinchona-tree flourish. The wax-palm 
 extends beyond this region, and is found at a 
 height of nearly 11,000 feet, and large crops of 
 potatoes, grain, and leguminous plants are raised 
 in the cold region ; but from 10,000 feet rises the 
 bleak paramo, with its scanty vegetation, ending 
 in lichens at the snow-line. The fauna of Colom- 
 bia is very varied, including the condor, capy- 
 bara, tapir, armadillo, sloth, seventeen kinds of 
 monkeys, jaguar, puma, ocelot, margay, and bear. 
 The boa and numerous other snakes are common, ! 
 alligators swarm in the rivers. Enonnous herds 
 of cattle are foimd throughout the temperate 
 zone. In minerals the country is exceedingly 
 rich, although the mines have been little wrought, 
 owing to the lack of roads. Yet from the dep. 
 of Antioquia alone over £400,000 worth of gold is 
 annually exported. The dep. of Tolima is the 
 richest in silver. Iron, copper, lead, platinum, 
 coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, arsenic, cinnabar, 
 rock-salt, crystal, granite, marble, lime, gypsum, 
 jet, amethysts, rubies, emeralds, porphyry, and 
 jasper are also found. 
 
 The only industries common to all the deps. 
 of Colombia are agriculture and the rearing of 
 cattle. Coarse cloths, soap, and candles are 
 manufactured ; and the so-called Pajiama straw- 
 hats are exported. The transit trade across the 
 
 I 
 
COLOMBO 
 
 19a 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 Isthmus of Panama (q.v.), wliich was formerly 
 very important, was lost to the republic in 1903, 
 when Panama became a separate state. The 
 foreign trade proper is mainly with Great Britain 
 and the United States. The imports are mostly 
 food-stuffs, textiles, machinery, and ironwares ; 
 the exports, coffee, gold, silver, and other ores, 
 caoutchouc, ivory-nuts, divi-divi pods (for tan- 
 ning), tobacco, cacao, cotton, cinchona, cattle, 
 balsams, tiuiber and dyewoods, hides and 
 wool. At the beginning of the 20th century the 
 annual value of exports was $20,000,000, and of 
 imports $19,000,000. Of the export trade 27 per 
 cent, goes to the United States, and 25 per cent, 
 to Britain. The revenue for the usual biennial 
 periods averages about $29,000,000, and the ex- 
 penditure about $40,000,000, showing a serious 
 deficit. The internal debt amounts to about 
 $11,350,000. The foreign debt, n)ostly to Britain, 
 was cut down in 1S97, by arrangement, to 
 $13,122,000, but even so the interest fell steadily 
 into arrears. There are 400 miles of railway in 
 Colombia and over 9000 miles of telegraph. 
 
 The population is mainly descended from the 
 numerous Indian tribes, partly Hispanicised in 
 language and habits. The chief aborigines of 
 the country, the Chlhcluis or Muyscas, inhabiting 
 the plateau of Bogota, were a comparatively 
 civilised race at the discovery of the New World ; 
 the uncivilised Indians are now mostly confined 
 to the eastern plains, the northern portion of 
 Magdalena, and the district of Darieu and the 
 Atrato. The pure whites form about a fifth of 
 the entire population, and the Indian half-breeds 
 more than half ; mulattoes and zamhos, resulting 
 respectively from the union of negroes with 
 whites and Indians, exceed a sixth of the whole. 
 Slavery was finally abolished in 1852, and in 1870 
 a system of compulsory education was adopted. 
 The state church is Roman Catholic, but tolera- 
 tion in matters of religion is guaranteed. 
 
 Colombo (Kalan-totta, ' the Kalany ferry '), the 
 capital of Ceylon, is situated on the western side 
 ■of the island. Since the construction of the 
 great breakwater begun in 1875, the harbour has 
 been greatly improved, especially by works in 
 1894-190(5 ; trade has of late years vastly increased, 
 Colombo having superseded Galle. It is the 
 seat of an Anglican bishop, and is an important 
 missionary centre. Colpetty, a beautiful suburb, 
 shaded by groves of the cocoa-nut palm, is a 
 favourite retreat. Lord Napier of Magdala was , 
 born here. The Portuguese, who fortified the 
 
 Elace in 1517, altered its older name Kalambu, in 
 onour of Columbus. The Dutch succeeded to 
 the Portuguese, and to the Dutch the British 
 in 1796. Pop. (1871) 100,238 ; (1901) 158,093. 
 
 Colon'. See Aspinwall. 
 
 Colonla, a dep. of Uruguay, on the Plata, 
 below the Uruguay River, Area, 2200 sq. m. ; 
 population, 54,000, The capital, Colonia del 
 Sacramento, on the Plata, 100 "miles above Monte 
 Video, has a good harbour, a dock for vessels of 
 1000 tons, and 1500 inhabitants, 
 
 Colonna, Cape (anc. Stmmm Promontorium), 
 a Greek headland, the south most point of Attica, 
 crowned by a temple of Minerva, thirteen of 
 whose white marble columns (whence the mod- 
 ern name) are still standing. 
 
 Colonsay and Oronsay, two of the Argyllshire 
 Hebrides, 16 miles NNW. of Port Askaig in Islay, 
 separated from each other by a sound, 100 yards 
 wide, and dry at low-water. Colonsay, which 
 rises to a height of 493 feet, is 16 sq. m. in area ; 
 Oronsay, only 3. On the latter are a sculptured 
 M 
 
 cross and a 14th-century Austin priory ; whilst 
 in the fonner are standing-stones, a bone cave, 
 Colonsay House (1772), and an obelisk to the 
 lawyer, Duncan M'Neill, Lord Colonsay (1794- 
 1874). Pop. (1851) 933 ; (1901) 313, of whom 12 
 were in Oronsay. 
 
 Colorado (Co-lo-rah'do ; Span, 'reddish'), a 
 remarkable river of North America, formed in 39' 
 17' N. lat., 109^50' W. long., by the union of the 
 Grand and Green rivers, rising, one in Colorado 
 state, the other in Wyoming. Below the junc- 
 tion, the main affluent in Utah is the San 
 Juan, and in Arizona the Colorado Chiquito or 
 Flax River, the Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, 
 all from the left. The only important affluent 
 the Colorado receives from the right is the Ria 
 Virgen. From the junction of the Grand and 
 Green, the general course of the stream is to 
 the south-west, through the southern part o! 
 Utah and the north-west of Arizona ; and it 
 afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and 
 California. The lower part of its course is in 
 Mexican territory, where it flows into the north 
 extremity of the Gulf of California. The most 
 striking features of the Colorado basin are its 
 dryness, and the deeply channelled surface of 
 the greater part of the country. Almost every 
 stream and watercourse, and most of all the Col- 
 orado itself, has cut its way through stratum 
 after stratum of rock, until now it flows, in a 
 great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep 
 trench or caiion. For nearly 400 miles below the 
 mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, the main stream 
 thus makes its way through a great plateau, 
 fonning what is called the Grand Canon of the 
 Colorado, one of the most remarkable ravines in 
 the world. The cafion-walls throughout the uppei 
 part of the great caiion are from 4000 to 7000 feet 
 in height, and are often nearly perpendicular. 
 This over-drained river basin has an area of 
 240,000 sq. m. The whole course of the river 
 below the junction is about 900 miles ; to its 
 remotest sotirces it is 2000 miles. Navigation, 
 though much impeded by rocks and sand-bars, 
 is possible for light-draught steamers for over 
 600 miles. See Powell's Canyons of the Colorado 
 (1893), Dutton's book on the geology, and Delleu- 
 baugh's Romnnce of the Colorado (1903). 
 
 CoLORA-DO RivEB OF Texas rlscs by many head- 
 streams in north-west Texas, winds 900 miles 
 south-eastward, and discharges its waters by two 
 main outlets into Matagorda Bay. It is little 
 used for navigation. Its valley is fairly fertile 
 and supplied with timber. 
 
 Colorado, a state of the American Union, in 
 37°-41° N. lat., and 102°-109'' W. long., traversed 
 from north to south by ranges of the Rocky 
 Mountains. It takes its name from the river 
 Colorado, to the basin of which all the western 
 slope of the state belongs, as the eastern does to 
 the Mississippi valley ; while part of the south 
 is drained by the Rio Grande and its head- 
 streams. The area is 103,645 sq. m., or rather 
 more than half that of France, Colorado being 
 fifth of the states in size. The high plains and 
 over-drained mesas to the west are not clearly 
 marked off from the mountain-region ; and much 
 of the western slope is actually mountainous. 
 The eastern slope, which embraces about two- 
 fifths of the whole state, is, apart from the foot- 
 hills skirting the flank of the mountain-region, an 
 open and comparatively treeless plain, with a sur- 
 face singularly monotonous, and for the most part 
 devoted to the pasturage of cattle and sheep. 
 This level region averages 5000 feet in altitude, 
 
COLORADO SPRINGS 
 
 194 
 
 COLUMBIA 
 
 and its lowest point is 3000 feet above sea-level. 
 The mountain region contains more than a hundred 
 peaks exceeding 13,000 feet, the loftiest being 
 Blanca Peak (14,404 feet). Six passes cross 
 mountain-ranges at points over 12,000 feet high ; 
 the Argentine Pass is 13,000 feet in altitude. 
 Railways are led across many of these passes. A 
 marked feature of the mountain-region is pre- 
 sented in the parks, or rich mountain-valleys, 
 often very spacious, and generally bearing 
 evidence of being the dried basins of lakes. 
 The central mountain-region, with its parks, 
 cafions, and hot springs, and its rich mmeral 
 deposits, has attracted most attention ; the 
 western part of the state is far less accessible 
 and less developed. The rainfall is small ; but 
 a good many important streams take their rise in 
 the state, including several tributaries of the 
 Colorado ; the Arkansas and South-Platte, flow- 
 ing to the Mississippi; and the Rio Grande. 
 Extensive and important irrigation-works are 
 fed by some of these streams. From the dryness 
 of the air, Colorado has a great reputation as a 
 health-resort. The medicinal and thermal springs 
 are numerous. A disease called ' mountain fever ' 
 is endemic in some places. Agriculture is re- 
 munerative in all sections where irrigation can be 
 effected. Insect-plagues, including the Colorado 
 potato-beetle, have proved very destructive ; the 
 Rocky-mountain locust has of late been com- 
 paratively harmless. 
 
 The discovery of gold (1858) in the neighbour- 
 hood of Pike's Peak led to the first important 
 settlements in this region. Since 1873 the silver 
 production has far exceeded that of gold, and 
 the state took rank as the first in out-turn of 
 silver, second or third in its gold, and first or 
 second in the production of the precious metals 
 in general. The depreciation of silver and the 
 currency legislation of 1893 led to the closing of 
 some of the silver-mines, and on the other hand 
 a development of gold-mining took place, so that 
 from 1897 Colorado was tlie chief gold-producing 
 state of the Union, and from 1900 onwards pro- 
 duced annually twice as much as California. In 
 the working of the silver ores much lead is ob- 
 tained. Tliere are great beds of coal. Iron and 
 Bessemer steel rails are among the manufactures ; 
 copper, cement, fireclay, and manganese are 
 wrought ; and there are thirty petroleum wells 
 near Florence. Not quite one-half of this region 
 was acquired by the United States from France in 
 1804 ; the remainder was ceded by Mexico in 1848. 
 The southern part has a small Spanish-speaking 
 population, partially of Indian descent. Colorado 
 was organised as a territory in 1861, and was ad- 
 mitted as a state in 1876. The principal towns 
 are Denver, the capital (106,713), and Pueblo 
 (24,558). Pop. of Colorado (1860) 34,277 ; (1870) 
 89,864; (1880) 194,327; (1885) 243,910; (1890) 
 412,198 ; (1900) 539,700. 
 
 Colorado Springs, a popular summer-resort 
 of Colorado, situated on the Fontaine qui Bouille 
 Creek, 75 miles S. of Denver by rail. Pop. (1880) 
 4226 ; (1890) 11,140 ; (1900) 21,085. 
 
 Columbia, the name of nearly thirty places in 
 the United States, of which the most important 
 are : (1) The capital of South Carolina, at the 
 head of navigation on the Congaree River, 130 
 miles NNW. of Charleston by rail. It has a fine 
 granite state-house ($3,000,000), a Presbyterian 
 theological seminary, and the university of South 
 Carolina (1806). Pop. (1880) 10,036 ; (1900) 21,118. 
 —(2) A borough of Pennsylvania, on the Susque- 
 Jianna, 80 miles W. of Philadelphia, with iron- 
 
 furnaces and rolling-mills, and manufactures of 
 machinery, flour, &c. Pop. 12,599.— (3) The 
 capital of Maury county, Tennessee, on the Duck 
 River, 45 miles SSW. of Nashville by rail, with 
 manufactures of ploughs, furniture, and flour. 
 Pop. 6370.— (4) The capital of Boone county, 
 Missouri, 24 miles E. of Boonville, with manu- 
 factures of flour, tobacco, and woollens, and with 
 the state university (1840). Pop. 6000. 
 
 Columbia, or Oregon, after the Yukon the 
 largest river on the west side of America, rises in 
 British Columbia, on the west slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains, near Mounts Brown and Hooker, in 
 about 50° N, lat., has a very irregular course, 
 generally south-west, through Washington, forms 
 the northern boundary of Oregon for about 350 
 miles, and enters the Pacific by an estuary 35 
 miles long and from 3 to 7 wide. Its estimated 
 length is 1400 miles ; its drainage area 298,000 
 miles, its chief aflluents being Clarke's Fork and 
 the Snake River (with very remarkable caiions). 
 Navigation is rendered difficult by a surf-beaten 
 bar, and by falls and rapids ; still, goods are con- 
 veyed by steamboats and short intermediate rail- 
 ways for nearly 500 miles. The extraordinarily 
 abundant salmon-fisheries of the Columbia have 
 been largely developed ; and there are many 
 canneries, mostly near the mouth of the river. 
 
 Columbia, British, is a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, bounded on the N. by 
 the 60th parallel of latitude ; on the S. by the 
 United States ; on the W. by the Pacific Ocean 
 and part of Alaska ; and on the E. by the provi- 
 sional districts of Alberta and Athabasca (North- 
 west Territories). Its area is 390,344 sq. m., in- 
 cluding Vancouver Island (14,000 sq. m.) and 
 Queen Charlotte Islands (5100 sq. m.), 200 miles 
 NW. of Vancouver Island. British Columbia 
 was practically under the control of the Hudson 
 Bay Company until 1858, when, owing to the dis- 
 covery of gold, it was made a crown colony. Van- 
 couver Island was united with it in 1866, and tlie 
 province joined the Canadian Confederation in 
 1871. The scenery is rugged and picturesque. 
 Between the western slopes of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains (highest peaks. Mount Brown, 16,000 feet, 
 and Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet) and the sea the 
 area is largely occupied by spurs and outlying 
 groups of that chain. Near the coast these form _ 
 the Cascade Range. Of the rivers the most im- l 
 portant is the Fraser, 800 miles long, and 600 | 
 yards wide at its i)rincipal outlet in the Gulf of 
 Georgia. Of the Columbia only the upper por- 
 tion is within the province. Many varieties of 
 climate are found. That of Vancouver Island 
 and the coast of the mainland is very similar to 
 that of the south of England. The interior is 
 divided as to climate into three zones — the south, 
 the middle, and tlie north. In 1881 the popula- 
 tion was 40,459, and in 1901, 190,000, including 
 about 25,000 Indians and 10,000 Chinese. Tlie 
 principal towns on Vancouver Island are Victoria, 
 the capital (pop. 21,000), and Nanaimo ; on the 
 mainland there are New Westminster, formerly 
 tlie capital of British Columbia, and Vancouver 
 (27,000), the terminus of the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway. The provincial government is adminis- 
 tered by a lieutenant-governor, appointed and 
 paid by the Dominion, and a Legislative 
 Assembly, elected by the inhabitants. 
 
 The province is not likely to become an agri- 
 cultural country, but there is a considerable area 
 of land available for arable and pastoral farming 
 both on Vancouver Island and on the mainland 
 in the river- valleys. The ricU valley of the lower 
 
COLUMBIA 
 
 196 
 
 COMORO ISLES 
 
 Fraser, or New Westminster district, Is the 
 largest compact agricultural area on the main- 
 land. Of the total area (say 250,000,000 acres) 
 only about 900,000 acres are as yet occupied. 
 The fruit-growing industry is still in its infancy. 
 The principal industries of the province are con- 
 nected with the mines, the fisheries, and the 
 forests. The minerals form one of its chief 
 resources. Gold, coal, silver, iron, copper, galena, 
 mercury, platinum, antimony, bismuth, molyb- 
 denum, plumbago, mica, and other minerals have 
 been discovered in different parts, copper being 
 very widely distributed. The quartz-mines have 
 been little drawn on ; most of the metal secured 
 lias come from the alluvial deposits. Coal and 
 lignite exist in many parts of the mainland. At 
 Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, there is a large 
 coalfield, and an extensive export, largely to the 
 United States. Excepting the salmon-fishery, 
 the rich fisheries have not yet been developed. 
 The fur-sealing industry in the Pacific is also 
 valuable. But little timber has yet been cut, 
 notwithstanding the immense forests of mag- 
 nificent trees that abound. Until tlie completion 
 of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, Eritisli 
 Columbia was isolated from the rest of the 
 Dominion. Now, however, it occupies a favour- 
 able position in regard to the markets of the 
 west of South America and Australasia. Lines 
 of steamers connect Vancouver with Hong-kong 
 and Australian ports. The telegraph cable to 
 Australia Avas completed in 1902. The jdispute 
 as to the boundary between Alaska and British 
 Columbia was finally settled by a commission in 
 1903. See works by Peinberton, Rattray, Mac- 
 donald, Macfie, Leonard (published between 1860 
 and 1870), H. H. Bancroft (1887), Lees and 
 Clutterbiick (1888), Begg (1896), and Baillie- 
 Grohman (1900). 
 
 Columbia, District of. In the United States. 
 Bee District of Columbia. 
 
 Columbus, the capital of the state of Ohio, on 
 the Scioto River, 116 miles NE. of Cincinnati and 
 138 SSW. of Cleveland. In a central square of 10 
 acres stands the state capitol, a fine stone struc- 
 ture 304 feet long by 184 wide. Other edifices are 
 the city -hall, with a public library ; a court-house 
 erected at a cost of $400,000 ; U. S. government 
 and Board of Trade buildings ; a large state peni- 
 tentiary ; a hospital for the in.sane, erected at a 
 cost of $1,520,980; and institutions for the blind, 
 the deaf and dumb, &c. Here also are the Ohio 
 State University and the Capital University 
 (Lutheran). Fourteen lines of railway radiate 
 in all directions, which, added to the natural 
 advantage of proximity to the great coal and 
 iron fields of the state, tend to a rapid develop- 
 ment of the manufacturing industries. Columbus 
 ■was founded in 1812. Pop. (1870) 31,274 ; (1880) 
 61,647; (1890)88,150 ; (1900) 125,560. 
 
 Columbus is also the name of some twenty 
 other places in the United States, the most im- 
 portant being : (1) Capital of Muscogee county, 
 Georgia, on the Chattahoochee River, 100 miles 
 SSW. of Atlanta. It has a large trade in cotton, 
 and extensive manufactures of cotton, woollen, 
 and iron goods. Pop. (1880) 10,123 ; (1900) 17,614. 
 —(2) Capital of Bartholomew county, Indiana, 41 
 miles 8. by E. of Indianapolis. Pop. 8739. --(3) 
 Capital of Lowndes county, Mississippi, on the 
 Tombigbee River, 150 miles NE. of Jackson. 
 Pop. 6599.— (4) Capital of Colorado county, 
 Texas, on the Colorado River, 95 miles SSE. of 
 Austin by rail. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Colwyn Bay, a beautiful watering-place of 
 
 Denbighshire, 6 miles W. of Abergele. Pot), of 
 district, 9000. 
 
 Colyton, a Devon market-town, on the Coly (a 
 feeder of the Axe), 4^ miles SW. of Axminster. 
 Pop. of parish, 1950. 
 
 Comacchlo (Co-mak'ki-o), a walled cathedral 
 city of Italy, 30 miles ESE. of Ferrara, on an 
 island in a shallow lagoon. Pop. 7535. 
 
 Comaya'gua, a city of Honduras, Central 
 America, on the Rio Humuya, 190 miles E. of 
 Guatemala. Founded in 1540, it has a handsome 
 cathedral. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Combaconum (Kumbhakonam), one of the old- 
 est and most sacred cities of southern India, in 
 the centre of the richest part of the Kaveri delta, 
 193 miles SW. of Madras by rail, with Hindu 
 temples, a government college, &c. Population, 
 above 60,000. 
 
 Combe-Florey, a Somerset parish, 5 miles NE. 
 of Wiveliscombe. Sydney Smith was rector. 
 
 Combemartin, a Devon coast- village, 4 miles E. 
 of Ufracombe, Pop. of parisli, 1507. 
 
 Comber, a market-town of Down, on the river 
 Comber, 8 miles SE. of Belfast. Pop. 2051. 
 
 Comlnes (Comeen'), a town on the borders of 
 Belgium and France, 15 m. SW. of Courtrai by 
 rail, divided by the Lys into two parts, of which 
 that on the left (pop. 4381) belongs to Belgium ; 
 the other, on the right (pop. 6435), to France. 
 
 Comi'so, a town of Sicily, 37 miles WSW. of 
 Syracuse. Pop. 20,333. 
 
 Commentrey, a town in the French dep. of 
 AUier, 211 miles S. of Paris by rail, with collieries 
 and ironworks. Pop. 9316. 
 
 Commondyke, an Ayrshire collier village, S 
 miles NNE. of Cumnock. Pop. 412. 
 
 Como, a walled city of Lombardy, Northern 
 Italy, at the south-west extremity of the Lake of 
 Como, 30 miles N. of Milan by rail. It lies in a 
 valley, surrounded by hills, clad with luxuriant 
 gardens, olive plantations, and orange groves, 
 with here and there an old ruin cropping out. 
 Among the principal buildings of Como are the 
 cathedral (1396-1732), and the marble 13th- 
 century town-hall. The chief articles of manu- 
 facture are silk, satin, gloves, and soap. Pop. 
 38,560. Como, the ancient Comum, was tha 
 birthplace of Caecilius Statius, the two Plinys, 
 several popes, and the physicist Volta. 
 
 The Lake of Como (Ital. Logo di Como, or II 
 Lario, anc. Larius Lamis), a lake of Northern 
 Italy, lying at the foot of the Bernine Alps, and 
 formed by an expansion of the Adda, which 
 enters it at its north, and issues at its south- 
 eastern extremity. Its total length is 30 miles ; 
 but midway the promontory of Bellaggio divides 
 it into two branches, the shorter of which is 
 called the Lago di Lecco. The greatest breadth 
 is 2^ miles. It is 663 feet above sea-level, has a 
 mean depth of 870, and a maximum of 1352 feet. 
 The beauty of the surrounding scenery and the 
 salubrity of the climate have made the Lake of 
 Como the most resorted to in Italy, its shores 
 being everywhere studded with noble villas. See 
 Lund, CoTTio and the Italian Lakes (1887). 
 
 Comorln', Cape (Kumdri), the most southerly 
 extremity of the peninsula of India, in 8° 4' 20" 
 N., and 77° 35' 35" E. 
 
 Co'moro Isles, a group of four islands belong- 
 ing since 1886 to France, in the Mozambique 
 Channel, between Africa and Madagascar. Area, 
 761 sq. m. ; pop. 63,000. Of volcanic origin, and 
 mountainous, attaining 8400 feet, they are four 
 
COMPIEGNE 
 
 19^ 
 
 CONGO 
 
 In number— Great Comoro or Angaziya, Anjonan 
 or Johanna, Mohilla, and Mayotta ; the last has 
 been French since 1841, In all, the blood of the 
 natives is partly Arab, partly Malagasy. 
 
 Compiegne {Com-pee-en'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Oise, on the river Oise a litUe below its 
 junction with the Aisne, 52 miles NNB. of Pans 
 by raiL It has three interesting churches, a 
 Gbthic hotel-de-ville with a line belfry and a 
 palace, rebuilt by Louis XV. , and splendidly ft tted 
 up by Napoleon. The beautiful Forest of Com- 
 pifecriie, 30,000 acres in area, was a favourite hunt- 
 ing^round of the kings of France Tlie manu- 
 factures include canvas, cordage, and sugar. Pop. 
 (1872) 11,859 ; (1001) 14,000. It was at the siege 
 of Compiegne, in 1430, that the Maid of Orleans 
 was captured; and here, in 1810, Napoleon hrst 
 met Maria Louisa of Austria. 
 
 Compostella. See Santiago de Compostella. 
 
 Compstone, the ruined castle of the soldier- 
 poet, Alexander Montgomerie, on Tarf Water, 
 2i miles N. by W. of Kirkcudbright. 
 
 Compton Castle, Devon, 4 miles W. of Torquay, 
 a fine old fortified house. 
 
 Comrle, a pleasant, sheltered village of Perth- 
 shire, on the Earn, 7 miles W. of Crieff by rail 
 (1893), often disturbed by earthquakes, notably 
 in 1839 and 1876, Pop. 1200. 
 
 Oomstock. See Virginia City. 
 
 Cona, an Argyllshire stream, flowing 9J miles 
 eastward to Loch Linnhe. See also Glencoe. 
 
 Conacry, or Konakry, a town on the small 
 Tombo island (9° 50' N. lat.), capital of the French 
 territory called Rivieres du Sud on the west coast 
 of Africa ; pop. 2000. 
 
 Concarneau (Con^cdhr-no'), a fishing-village of 
 Brittany, on the east coast of Finistere, 15 miles 
 by rail SE. of Quimper. Pop. 5845. 
 
 Ooncepclon, (1) a province of Chili, stretching 
 from the Andes to the coast north of Arauco. 
 Area, 8535 sq. in. ; population, 215,000.— Concep- 
 cion, the capital, near the month of the Biobio, is 
 a regular and handsome town, with a fine cathe- 
 dral. Its port, Talcahuano, on Concepcion Bay, 
 is the safest and best harbour in all Chili. Pop. 
 64,180. — (2) Concepcion del Uruguay, the former 
 capital of the Argentine province of Entre Illos, 
 on the Uruguay, 180 miles SE. of Parana by the 
 Entre Rios Railway. Pop. 10,000.— (3) Concep- 
 cion, a town of Paraguay, on the Paraguay River, 
 2G0 miles above Asuncion. Pop. 2000 ; or 15,000 
 with the surrounding districts. — (4) The name of 
 several places in Bolivia, the largest being Con- 
 cepcion DE Apolobamba, capital of the province 
 of Caupolican, fonnerly a Franciscan mission. — 
 (5) Concepcion, a town of Mexico, 50 miles W. of 
 Chihuahua, in the upper Yaqui valley.— (6) Con- 
 cepcion DE LA Vega, a town of San Domingo, 5 
 miles SE. of Santiago. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Concord, (1) a town of Massachusetts, 23 miles 
 by rail NW. of Boston. As early as 1767 the 
 people of Concord opposed the British govern- 
 ment, and in the revolutionary skirmish here on 
 the 19th April 1775, ' the embattled farmers stood 
 and fired the shot heard round the world.' The 
 place was the home of Emerson, Hawthorne, and 
 Thoreau, and the Alcotts. In the Old Manse 
 Emerson was born, and in it Hawthorne wrote 
 his 'Mosses from an Old Manse.' Pop. 5727. 
 See Bartlett's Concord (1880).— (2) Capital of 
 New Hampshire, U.S., on the Merrimac River, 
 73 miles NNW. of Boston by rail. It has a 
 fine granite state-house, celebrated quarries of 
 white granite, and, with abundant water-power, 
 
 manufactures of cotton, woollens, leather, &c 
 
 Population, 25,000. 
 Concordia, a river-port of the Argentine state 
 
 of Entre Rios, on the Uruguay, 302 miles N. of 
 
 Buenos Ayres by river. Pop. 12,000. 
 Condamine, a headstream of the Darling (q.v.). 
 Conde-sur-1'Escaut (Con^day-siir-l'Esco'), a for- 
 
 tified town in the French dep. of Nord, at the 
 
 confluence of the Haine and Scheldt, 7 miles 
 
 NNE. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. 4586, 
 Conde-sur-Noireau (Con^day-siir-Nwahro'), a 
 
 French town in the dep, of Calvados, 23 miles 
 
 SSW. of Caen. Pop. 655L 
 Condom (Con^don^'), a town in the dep. of Gers, 
 
 on a height above the confluence of the Baise and 
 
 the Gele, 20 miles SAV. of Agen by rail. Pop. 6735. 
 Conegliano (Con-el-ydh'no), a picturesque oown 
 
 of Italy, 31 m. NB. of Venice by rail. Pop. 4682. 
 Coney Island, barely separated from the south- 
 west angle of Long Island, at the entrance to New 
 York harbour, is a narrow strip of sand, 5 miles 
 long, by I mile broad, with a tine beach. It is a 
 crowded place of summer resort, with huge bath- 
 ing pavilions, a tubular iron pier (1000 feet), a 
 look-out tower (300 feet), and the Brooklyn seaside 
 home for poor invalid children. 
 
 Congleton, a market-town and ancient muni- 
 cipal borough in the east of Cheshire, pictur- 
 esquely situated in a deep valley on the banks of 
 the Dane, an affluent of the Weaver, 26 miles S. 
 of Manchester. It has a handsome town-hall 
 (1866), a market-house (1882), manufactures of 
 
 silk, and neighbouring coal-inines. Pop. (1851) 
 
 11,505 ; (1901) 10,707. 
 
 Congo, the great equatorial river of Central 
 Africa, in respect of its basin the second largest 
 river of the world, has its reservoir in Lake 
 Bangweolo, of which the Chanibezi is the largest 
 feeder, and into which also flow numerous 
 streams from the Lokinga Mountains on the south. 
 From Bangweolo the great river issues under 
 the name of the Luapula; and flowing in a 
 northerly direction, it expands into Lake Moero, 
 on leaving which it is called, as far as Nyangwe, 
 the Lualaba, From Nyangwe to Stanley Falls, 
 Stanley christened it the Livingstone ; and from 
 Stanley Falls to the mouth it is known by the 
 name of the Congo. 
 
 Its length has been calculated variously at a 
 little under and a little over 3000 miles ; it drains 
 an area of more than 1,300,000 sq. m. ; and it dis- 
 charges a body of water into the ocean second 
 only to the Amazon. Such is the power and 
 force of this mighty stream that no delta exists 
 at its mouth. Vessels take in fresh water at its 
 entrance into the sea. The two largest tribu- 
 taries of the Congo are the Kassai from the 
 south, explored (1885) by Wissniann ; and the 
 Mobangi, from the north, explored (1884-85) by 
 Grenfell, and afterwards by Vangele. Other 
 tributaries are the Kwa or Kwango, the Juapa 
 and Bosira, the Ikelemba, the Lulongo, and the 
 Lumami rivers on the south or left bank; and 
 the Aruwimi, the Mbura, the Loika, the Ngala, the 
 Lokinga Nkundji, &c., on the north or right bank. 
 As regards commerce and navigation, the Congo 
 may be divided into three parts— Lower, Middle, 
 and Upper. The . lower region extends from 
 Banana at the mouth to the foot of the first 
 rapids, 110 miles, navigable by ocean steamers 
 drawing 18 feet. The middle or cataract region 
 extends from Vivi to Stanley Pool, 235 miles, 
 navigable for 70 miles by small steamers or iron 
 whaleboats ; and a railway, surveyed in 1888, 
 
 I 
 
CONGO FREE STATE 
 
 197 
 
 CONNAUGHT 
 
 from Vivi to Leopoldville (250 miles), was soon 
 thereafter begun, keeping mostly at a distance of 
 about 30 miles south of the river. The mortality 
 of the workers employed in the construction of 
 the railway was very high, and labourers had to 
 be imported from Dahomey and the Gold Coast 
 regions. Chinese coolies were also employed. 
 The first 25 miles were open for traffic in 1893, 
 and tlie railway from Matadi to Leopoldville was 
 completed by 1898. The upper region of the river 
 from Stanley Pool to Stanley Falls, 1008 miles, is 
 navigable for steamers with a draught of four feet, 
 besides over 3000 miles of navigable tributaries. 
 
 The river, whose mouth was discovered in 
 1484-85 by Diego Cam, was known to the Portu- 
 guese as the Zaire, a corruption of the native 
 words Nzari, Nyali, or Niadi, meaning 'river;' 
 while the country about it and south of it was 
 known as Congo. The centre of Portuguese 
 missions was San Salvador. In 1818 Captain 
 Tuckey was sent by the British government, and 
 explored 118 miles of the river. In 1867-71 
 Livingstone discovered the Luapula and Lualaba, 
 which he supposed to be the head-waters of the 
 Nile ; but which in 1876-77 Stanley proved, by 
 following it down, to be really the Congo. 
 
 Congo Free State, now called Independent 
 State of the Congo, developed out of the 
 Association Internationale formed by Leopold 1 1. , 
 king of the Belgians, was recognised as a state 
 by the European Powers in conference at Berlin 
 in 1885. At first under the sovereignty of 
 Leopold as an individual, it was by him made 
 over, with all his sovereign rights, to Belgium in 
 1890, and Belgium reserved the right of annexing 
 it at the end of ten years. The state comprises 
 a small strip of territory north of the Congo 
 River, from its mouth to Manyanga, thence it is 
 bounded N. by the Congo River (with French 
 Congo to the northwards) to the Mobangi, thence 
 to the NE. watershed of the Congo basin, east- 
 wards to 30° B. long., and southwards to near 
 Lake Bangweolo, westwards to the Kassai River 
 sources, and thence by a zigzag to the Kwango, 
 and then to the Congo at Nokki (the south bank 
 of the river from that point being Portuguese). 
 The state borders accordingly on French Congo, 
 several minor native states, the Equatorial pro- 
 vince, the British East Africa Company's sphere 
 and Uganda, German East Africa, the British 
 sphere on the S. (Zambesia), and Portuguese 
 territory on the W. and SW. The west shore of 
 Lake Tanganyika belongs to the Congo State. 
 
 The Congo Free State is governed by an admin- 
 istrative bureau at Brussels, consisting of three 
 Becretariats— Control, Finance, and Foreign 
 Affairs, under the direct supervision of His 
 Majesty the King of the Belgians ; also by an 
 administrator on the Congo who has his head- 
 quarters at Boma, 60 miles from the sea, on the 
 right bank of the river. Its present income is 
 derived from an endowment of £40,000 a year 
 bestowed upon it by the King of the Belgians, 
 a loan from Belgium, from taxes, dues, and the 
 sale and letting of public lands. The state, for- 
 merly allowing free imports, was allowed in 1890 
 to impose duties. The annual revenue is about 
 28,000,000 francs. The inhabitants of the Congo 
 basin belong to what has been termed the Bantu 
 race. They are a happy, inoffensive people, not 
 so dark as the Fan or Ethiopian. Split up into 
 numberless tribal communities, they can offer 
 but slight resistance to the advance of civilisa- 
 tion ; and as they are born traders, they take 
 very readily to commerce. The dialects through- 
 out the country are very numerous, but many of 
 
 them would appear to have a common origin. 
 Pop. from twenty to thirty millions. The 
 climate is purely tropical, the average tempera- 
 ture ranging between 78° and 82°. Malarial 
 fevers, especially on the coast, are not infrequent. 
 The interior is healthier than the coast. The 
 principal products are ivory, palm-oil, palm- 
 kernels, india-rubber, various gums, ground-nuts, 
 camwood, beeswax, orchilla, &c. Wild coffee, 
 tobacco, and hill rice are cultivated on the upper 
 river, also various kinds of maize and sorghum. 
 The annual value of the special exports (prin- 
 cipally ivory, palm-oil and kernels, coffee and 
 caoutchouc) from the Congo is about 50,000,000 
 francs (general exports, 57,000,000 francs), and of 
 the general imports 21,000,000 francs. As Bel- 
 gium had not exercised the right of annexing it, 
 the Free State was in 1905 still nominally an 
 independent state managed like a colony ; and 
 the administration was charged with allowing 
 systematic cruelty in enforcing labour and ex- 
 torting produce and taxes. 
 
 See works on the Congo State and River by 
 Stanley (1885), Bentley, Ward, and Jolinston 
 (1895), and, impeaching the administration for 
 cruelty, Fox Bourne (1903) and Guy Burrows 
 (1903); French books by Alexis, Coquilhat, 
 Dupont, Jeannent, Wauters, Allart, and Bour- 
 guignon (1898); the German work by Pechuel- 
 Loesche ; Silva White's Development of Africa 
 (1890), Scott Keltie's Partition of Africa (1895), 
 and Sir H. Johnston's Colonization of Africa 
 (1899). For French Congo, see Gaboon. 
 
 Conl (Ko'nee), or Cuneo, capital of an Italian 
 province, 48 miles SW. of Turin by rail. It has 
 a fine catliedral. Pop. 12,413. 
 
 Conlsborougli Castle, a Norman-Saxon round 
 tower in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 5 miles 
 WSW. of Doncaster. It is Athelstan's strong- 
 hold in Ivanhoe. 
 
 Conishead Priory, Lancashire, 2 miles SSE. 
 of Ulverstone, a hydropathic on the site of a 
 12th-century monastery. 
 
 Coniston Lake, in the English Lake District, 
 lies in North Lancashire, at the east foot of the 
 Coniston Fells, 9 miles W. of Bowness on Winder- 
 mere. It is 5 miles long, i mile broad, 147 feet 
 above the sea, and 260 feet deep. On the east 
 shore stand Ruskin's home, Brantwood, and Tent 
 House, once Tennyson's residence. The Old 
 Man of Coniston, to the NW., is 2033 feet high. 
 
 Conjeveram (Kdnchivaram), the Benares of 
 southern India, 45 miles SW. of Madras by rail, 
 with three large Hindu temples, seven old tanks, 
 and an annual fair. It was long a Buddhist 
 centre. The Free Church of Scotland has a 
 mission here. Pop. 48,000. "^ 
 
 Conn, Lough, a picturesque Irish lake of 
 County Mayo, together with Lough Cullin (from 
 which it is separated by a narrow neck of land), 
 13 miles long, and 1 to 3 broad. 
 
 Connah's Quay, a seaport on the Dee estuary, 
 4 miles SE. of Flint. 
 
 Connaught, the most westerly and the smallest 
 of the four provinces of Ireland. It contains the 
 counties of Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, 
 and Sligo. Greatest length from north to south, 
 105 miles; greatest breadth, not including Achil 
 Island, 92 miles. Area, 6863 sq. m. ; pop. (1841) 
 1,420,705 ; (1901) 646,932. The west coast has 
 many fine bays and harbours, and the surface, 
 especially in the western half, is mountainous 
 and rugged, forming grand and picturesque 
 scenery. The people are almost purely Celtic 
 
CONKECTlCtrr 
 
 198 CONSTANTINOPlJe 
 
 Oonnectlcut (kon-netf-e-cut), one of the six 
 New England states of the American Union, is 
 bounded by Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Long 
 Island Sound, and the state of New York. The 
 smallest in area of all the states except Rhode 
 Island and Delaware, with a surface of 4990 sq. m. 
 (two-thirds that of Wales), it is one of the most 
 densely peopled states of the Union. The surface 
 is rocky and uneven, and the low Green and 
 Taconic Mountains of the Appalachian system 
 occupy part of the west. Much of the soil is not 
 easily cultivated, and rather unfertile ; but part 
 of the valley of the Connecticut River is very 
 productive, and grows tobacco. The Connecti- 
 cut River, rising in New Hampshire, and forming 
 the boundary with Vermont, flows south through 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut to Long Island 
 Sound, after a course of 450 miles, navigable for 
 small vessels to Hartford. In the east of the 
 state is the Thames, and in the west the Housa- 
 tonic. The chief value of the very numerous 
 streams is as a source of water-power for manu- 
 factories. The brown hematites of the north- 
 west yield excellent iron ; there are quarries of 
 sandstone, granites, trap, limestone, and gneis- 
 soid building-stones, as well as of serpentine and 
 verde-antique ; and lead, copper, and cobalt have 
 been mined. Mineral-waters occur. The climate 
 is very changeable, and is rather severe in winter, 
 but generally healthful. Some good harbours 
 favour the coastwise trade, but the whale 
 and seal fisheries have declined. Oyster-fishing 
 and other fisheries are engaged in. The state 
 stands in the first rank as respects the amount 
 and aggregate value of manufactured goods ; 
 clocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, firearms, 
 silks and other textiles, small-wares in great 
 variety, and subscription books are produced on 
 a large scale. In very few parts of the world 
 has more been done for popular education than 
 in this state. Yale University at New Haven 
 comprises collegiate and post-graduate courses, 
 besides medical, theological, scientific, law, and 
 art schools. Trinity College is at Hartford, and 
 the Wesleyan University at Middletown, and 
 there are several divinity schools. Among the 
 principal cities and towns are Hartford, the 
 capital (pop. 80,000X New Haven (110.000"). Bridge- 
 port, Waterbury, Meriden, New Britain, Norwalk, 
 Danbury, Norwich, Stamford, and New London. 
 
 The old stock of inhabitants were of English 
 Puritan origin, but of later years there has been 
 a large immigration of Irish, Gennan, English, 
 and others. The originally Puritan colony of 
 Connecticut may be said to date from the seces- 
 sion in 1634 of the more democratic element from 
 Massachusetts. Its constitution of 1C39 was ' the 
 first written democratic constitution on record.' 
 The royal charter of 1662, essentially a confirma- 
 tion of the older one, was superseded by the 
 present state constitution only in 1818. Promi- 
 nent events in Connecticut history have been the 
 bloody war with the Pequot Indians, 1637 ; the 
 governorship of Sir Edmund Andros, during a 
 part of which (1687-88) the colonial charter was 
 in abeyance; and the abolition of slavery in 
 1818. Pop. (1870) 537,454 ; (1880) 622,700 ; (1900) 
 908,420. See Johnston's ConnecUa.it (1887). 
 
 Connel Ferry, Argyllshire, at the mouth of 
 Loch Etive, 6 miles NE. of Oban. 
 
 Connemara {Con-ne-mah'ra), a wild district 
 forming the westernmost division of Galway. 
 
 Connor, an Antrim village, 5 miles S. of Bally- 
 mena. Here Edward Bruce defeated the English 
 (1315). There is a diocese of Connor. 
 
 Consett, a Durham town, on the Derwent, 84 
 miles N. of Wolsingham, with ironworks and 
 coal-pits. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Constance, or Kostnitz, a city of Baden, once 
 a free imperial city, is situated on both sides of 
 the Rhine, at its exit from Lake Constance, 91 
 miles E. of Basel by rail. One of the most 
 ancient towns of Germany, Constance owed its 
 prosperity to its linen industry, already famous 
 in the 12th century. Its manufactures also in- 
 clude cotton, jute, and waterproof fabrics, canvas, 
 carpets, chemicals, bell-founding, &c. It has a 
 cathedral (dating partly from the 11th century), 
 an old Dominican convent (now an hotel), and 
 the present market-hall, in which three places 
 the sessions of the great Church Council of 
 Constance (1414-18) were held. Pop. 26,235. 
 
 Lake Constance (German Bodensee or Bod- 
 mansee; Roman Laats Brigantinus) lies between 
 Switzerland and Gennany, on the north side of 
 the Swiss Alps, and forms a meeting-point of the 
 five territories — Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, 
 Vorarlberg (Austria), and Switzerland. Lying 
 1306 feet above the sea, and traversed by the 
 Rhine from east to west, it has a length of 44 
 miles, an extreme breadth of 9 miles, an area of 
 208 sq. m., and a depth of 490 feet (maximum 
 906). Towns on its shores are Constance, Bregenz, 
 Lindau, and Friedrichshafen. 
 
 Constantia, a district of Cape Colony, in South 
 Africa, lying on the eastern and north-eastern 
 slopes of Table Mountain range, and distant from 
 Capetown 7 miles by rail. It produces red and 
 white wines of delicious aroma. 
 
 Constantina, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, 
 40 miles NNE. of Seville, with silver-mines. 
 Pop. 11,503. 
 
 Constantine, capital of the easternmost pro- 
 vince of Algeria, is very picturesquely situated 
 on a nearly isolated chalk rock, 830 feet high, 
 40 miles SW. of its port Philippeville by rail. 
 It is surrounded by walls, and consists of French 
 and Arab quarters. The ancient capital of 
 Numidia, called Carta by the Carthaginians, Cirta 
 by the Romans, it was destroyed about 311 a.d., 
 but was soon rebuilt by Constantine the Great, 
 from whom it derives its present name. Ic 
 manufactures woollen cloths, saddlery, leather 
 goods, and carpets, and is a great trade centre. 
 Pop. 53,000, of whom 20,000 are French and 3500. 
 Jews. 
 
 Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman 
 empire, in 49° N. lat., 28" 59' E. long., was 
 founded in 330 a.d. by Constantine the Great, 
 from whom it derives its name, on a site partly 
 occupied by the ancient Greek colony (058 b.c.) 
 of Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol or 
 Stambol, probably a mere corruption of Turkish 
 mispronunciation of Coiistantinopolis. The orig* 
 inal Byzantium was built on the apex of the 
 triangular peninsula which juts out towards Asia 
 on the southern side of the Golden Horn, where 
 the present Eski Serai or ' Old Seraglio ' stands, 
 and its commanding position made it an object 
 of strife among the nations — Persians, Gauls, and 
 Greeks. In the 4th century B.C., the Athenians 
 repelled the siege of Philip of Macedon, aided, 
 according to the legend, by the supernatural 
 appearance of a crescent in the sky, which re- 
 vealed the presence of the invaders, and was forth- 
 with adopted as the badge or crest of the city, 
 as it is to this day. 
 
 Constantinople consists of two distinct parts 
 — Stambol or Constantinople proper, and Chris- 
 tian Constantinople (Pera, Galata, Top-haua). 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE 
 
 1§9 
 
 COOCH BEHAR 
 
 (The two are separated by the Golden Horn, 
 a creek about five miles long and half a mile 
 wide at the entrance, a safe and spacious har- 
 bour, and so deep that the largest ironclads 
 of the Turkish navy can lie quite close to the 
 shore. Stambol or Turkish Constantinople lies 
 on the southern side of the Golden Horn, and 
 Christian Constantinople lies on the north side : 
 the two are connected by a couple of rude but 
 convenient bridges. The old walls, in courses 
 of stone and red brick, and 14 miles in circuit, 
 show that the modern Turkish city occupies 
 much the same area as the capital of the first 
 Christian emperor. Within these walls the city 
 rises, like Rome, upon seven low hills, crowned 
 by noble mosques, with a wilderness of pictur- 
 esque, tumble-down, filthy, wooden houses and 
 bazaars climbing up their sides. In Stambol are 
 nearly all the monuments and antiquities worth 
 seeing in Constantinople. First is Agia Sophia, 
 Saint Sophia, the church dedicated by Constan- 
 tine to 'Eternal Wisdom,' rebuilt with added 
 splendour by Theodosius (415) and by Justinian 
 (538-568), and now converted into a mosque. 
 Outside it is not worth a second glance; but 
 within, the airy grace of its stupendous dome, 
 and the beauty of its marbles and mosaics, de- 
 spite all the ravages of Moslem and tourists' 
 desecrations, fascinate and amaze the vision. 
 Next, but not less beautiful, is the Suleymaniya, 
 the mosque which the Great Suleyman erected 
 in 1550-5. Scarcely less stately is the mosque 
 of Sultan Ahmed I. in the Hippotlrome, distin- 
 guished without by its six minarets (instead of 
 the usual four). The mosque of the conqueror 
 Mohammed II. is also notable. There are over 
 two hundred other mosques in Constantinople, 
 and an even larger number of chapels, besides 
 hundreds of medreses or mosque colleges. The 
 Fanar, or Greek quarter of Stambol, recalls the 
 memory of famous Fanariote statesmen in the 
 Turkish service. The Hippodrome (now called 
 At-Meydan, or ' Horse Manege '), originally a 
 circus surrounded by marble seats, long since 
 removed, still shows remains of antiquity, such 
 as the famous column of the Three Serpents 
 which once stood at the Temple of Delphi, and 
 an obelisk brought from Heliopolis in Egypt in 
 the reign of Theodosius ; whilst hard by are the 
 Burnt Column, the column of Theodosius, and 
 the Seraskier's Tower. Among the remains of 
 Mohammedan splendour the Old Seraglio (Eski 
 Serai) is the most important, though it has not 
 been a royal residence since the days of Mahmud 
 II. Its first gate, Bab-i-HumayOn or 'Sublime 
 Porte,' has given its name to the Turkish govern- 
 ment in its foreign relations. 
 
 Christian Constantinople, on the north side of 
 the Golden Horn, comprises Galata, Pera, and 
 Top-hana. Galata is pre-eminently the merchant 
 quarter, founded by a colony of Genoese mer- 
 chants in 1216. The Tower of Galata, a Genoese 
 erection, serves the same purpose as the Seras- 
 kier's Tower on the opposite side in giving alarms 
 of fires. A tunnelled railway drags passengers 
 up the steep ascent to Pera. Pera is the aristo- 
 cratic quarter; here are all the embassies and 
 consulates. The steep and badly paved Grande 
 Rue is lined with fair if expensive shops, and 
 boasts a rude opera-house, many cafes and res- 
 taurants, besides most of the principal hotels, 
 and probably the worst morals in Europe. Turks 
 preponderate at Top-hana, which is so named 
 from its cannon-foundry ; the magnificent palace 
 of Dolmabagch6 is on the brink of the Bosphorus. 
 Other suburbs are K&sira Pasha, on the Golden 
 
 Horn, the seat of the admiralty ; Haskoi, and the 
 picturesque village of EyyAb. Along the Euro- 
 pean shore of the Bosphorus are the summer- 
 resorts of Therapia and Biyukdere. The Asiatic 
 shore is also lined with settlements from Scutari 
 (q.v.) to Candili. The new palace of Yildiz 
 Koshki stands at the top of the hill of Beshik- 
 tasli, beyond Peru. Tlie population of Con-stan- 
 tinople is estimated at about 1,250,000, of whom 
 half are Mohammedans. The trade, chiefly in 
 the hands of Europeans, is increasing, but much 
 below what it might be if properly developed. 
 The local manufactures are insignificant. The 
 burden of vessels entering and clearing the port 
 exceeds 15,000,000 tons. Tlie first through ex- 
 press train from Paris {vid Belgrade and Adrian- 
 ople) reached Stambol in 1888.— In 330 a.d., im- 
 pressed by its magnificent site, Constantine the 
 Great abandoned the old capital of the Roman 
 Empire on the Tiber, and founded in the jdace of 
 Byzantium a new metropolis on the Bosphorus, 
 which he called Constantinople. Its walls and 
 public buildings were enlarged and beautified by 
 Justinian in 527-565. Since then it has undergone 
 many sieges by Sassanians, Persians, Avars, Sara- 
 cens (six times), Russians (in 9th to 11th cen- 
 tury), Latins, and Turks ; and of its twenty-six 
 sieges and eight captures, that of the Latins 
 under Baldwin and Dandolo in 1204 was by far 
 the most disastrous, barbarous, and spoliating. 
 In comparison, the Turkish sieges were humane 
 and chivalrous : the first took place in 1356 ; 
 Murad II. made the attempt again in 1422 ; and 
 Mohammed II. carried the city in 1453. The 
 great church Councils of Constantinople were 
 held in 381 and 553 a.d. 
 
 See books by De Amicis (trans. 1878), Mordt- 
 mann, F. Marion Crawford (1895), Grosvenor 
 (1895), and W. H. Hutton (1900); and on its 
 past history by Brodribb and Besant (1878), Van 
 Millingen (1899), and Pears (1903). 
 
 Constanza. See Kustendji. 
 
 Contrexdville, a small place in the centre of 
 the Vosges department, with alkaline mineral 
 waters. Pop. 850. 
 
 Conversano (Kon-ver-sdh'no), a cathedral city 
 of South Italy, 18 miles SE. of Ban. Pop. 11,006. 
 
 Conway, a river of North Wales, rises in a 
 mountain-lake where Merioneth, Denbigh, and 
 Carnarvon meet, and runs 30 miles northward 
 past Conway to Beaumaris Bay. 
 
 Conway, or Aberconway, a picturesque little 
 seaport of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, on 
 the left bank of the river Conway at its estuary, 
 45 J miles WNW. of Chester by rail. The river is 
 crossed by a fine tubular bridge (412 feet long), 
 constructed by Stephenson in 1848, as well as by 
 Telford's suspension bridge (1826). The town is 
 triangular in form, and is surrounded by a high 
 wall 12 feet thick and 1 mile in circumference, 
 pierced by four Moorish-looking gates, and 
 crowned by twenty-one round towers. In its 
 south-eastern corner, rising proudly from a rock 
 above the river, is the ruined castle, built soon 
 after the Conquest by Hugh, Earl of Chester, 
 and rebuilt in 1284 by Edward I., to check the 
 Welsh. Its walls are 12 to 15 feet thick, with 
 eight vast towers, four of which are each sur- 
 mounted by a slender turret. The PMs Mawr 
 (' great mansion ') is a noble timber house (1585), 
 without and within profusely covered with orna- 
 ment. Conway (a chartered borough since 1876) 
 is one of the six Carnarvon boroughs. Pop. 4800. 
 Cooch Behar. See Behab. 
 
COOK 
 
 2do 
 
 COQUEll 
 
 Cook, Mount, or Aorangi, one of the Southern 
 Alps, OR the western side of the South Island of 
 New Zealand. It is 12,349 feet high, and is 
 covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 Cook Islands, or Hervey Archipelago, a 
 cluster lying midway between the Society and 
 Navigator groups, are near 20° S. lat., and 158 
 W. long., some being volcanic, some coralline. 
 The principal are Raratonga, Mangaia, Aitutaki, 
 and Atiou. The natives are about 6000 in all. 
 The islands were made a British protectorate in 
 1S8S, and annexed to New Zealand in 1901. 
 
 Cook's Garth, Captain Cook's birthplace, in 
 the North Riding of Yorkshire, 7 miles W. of 
 Guisborough. 
 
 Cookstown, a town of County Tyrone, 53 miles 
 W. of Belfast by rail, with manufactures of linen 
 and bleach- works. Pop. 3541. 
 
 Cook Strait, discovered by Captain Cook in 
 1769, separates the North and South Islands of 
 New Zealand, and is 20 to 80 miles wide. 
 
 Cooktown, a town in the north of Queensland, 
 1050 miles NNW. of Brisbane, already one of the 
 chief ports of the colony, though only founded 
 in 1873. It is built along 1| mile of the southern 
 bank of the Endeavour River, and is almost en- 
 vironed by hills. There are already handsome 
 public buildings, and a monument (1889) to 
 Captain Cook, who beached his ship here in 1770. 
 Near there are gold-diggings and tin-mines, with 
 pearl and trepang fisheries. Pop. 2480. 
 
 Coolgardie, since 1893 a great gold-mining 
 centre in Western Australia, 350 miles ENE. of 
 Perth by rail. Pop. in 1905, 5000. 
 Coolins. See Cuchullins. 
 Coomassie, the capital of Ashanti, Western 
 Africa, 120 miles NNW. of Cape Coast Castle. 
 It occupies tlie side of a rocky hill, and is about 
 four nules in circuit. The king's palace was 
 burned by Wolseley in 1874. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Goonoor (Kunur), a pass in tlie Neilgherry 
 Hills, half-way between Coimbatore and Ootaca- 
 mund, with a liill sanatorium. 
 
 Cooper's Hill, a ridge on the borders of Berks 
 and Surrey, commanding a beautiful view of the 
 Thames vallejf, and the scene of a famous poem 
 by Denhani. Cooper's Hill College (1870), train- 
 ing engineers for the Indian Works Department, 
 Avith its forestry school (1885), was closed in 1906. 
 Coorg (a corruption of Kodagu, 'steep moun- 
 tain '), a province under the government of India, 
 lying below the Western Ghats and Mysore. Area, 
 1583 sq. m. ; pop. (1871) 168,312 ; (1901) 180,600, 
 speaking a Dravidian language akin to Canarese. 
 Great part of its area is 3000 feet above the sea. 
 
 Cootehill, a town in County Cavan, Ireland, 88 
 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1503. 
 
 Copais, or Topolias, a marshy lake of Boeotia, 
 NW. of Thebes, was almost all successfully 
 drained in 1876-86. 
 
 Copan, an Indian village in the south-western 
 corner of the Central American state of Honduras, 
 in a mountainous region, the site of a ruined city 
 of great magnificence. 
 
 Copeland Forest, a Cumberland moorland, 2927 
 feet high, between Ennerdale and Wast Waters. 
 
 Copeland Islands, belonging to Bangor parish, 
 County Down. 
 
 Copenliagen (Dan. KjobenMvn, 'Merchants' 
 Haven '), the capital of Denmark, is situated on 
 .the low-lying eastern shore of the island of Zea- 
 land, in the Sound, which is here about 12 miles 
 
 broad. The channel forms a fine and capacious 
 harbour, which is bridged over so as to connect 
 the isolated suburb of Christianshavn and the 
 main part of the city at two points. Pop. (1835) 
 120,000 ; (1880) 235,254 ; now 390,000, or, with 
 suburbs, 500,000. Copenhagen is still defended 
 by the old citadel of Frederikshavn and by forts 
 on the seaward side ; the old fortifications, 
 removed since 1863, have been succeeded by 
 exterior works. Amongst its few buildings of 
 historical interest or intrinsic beauty, the cathe- 
 dral, rebuilt after the bombardment of 1807, 
 possesses statues of Christ and the Apostles, 
 and a baptismal font, designed and in part 
 executed by Thorwaldsen. Trinitatiskirke is 
 remarkable for its round tower, which is 
 ascended by a spiral incline instead of steps ; 
 and an English church, built at a cost of 
 £10,000, was consecrated in 1887. The royal 
 palace, called Christiansborg, was rebuilt be- 
 tween 1794 and 1828, but suftered greatly from 
 fire in 1884. In the castle of Rosenborg (1610-24) 
 are kept the regalia ; the palace of Charlotten- 
 borg (1624) is now used as an academy of arts. 
 The university was founded by Christian I. in 
 1479, has 1300 students, and a library of 350,000 
 volumes ; the royal library contains 600,000. 
 Copenhagen is the centre, not only of Danish, 
 but of northern literature and art, and is the seat 
 of the unrivalled Museum of Northern Antiquities, 
 and the Thorwaldsen Museum (1846). The ex- 
 ports include grain, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, 
 cattle, wool, &c. ; and porcelain, pianos, clocks, 
 watclies, mathematical instruments, chemicals, 
 sugar, beer, and tobacco are manufactured. To 
 counterbalance the prejudicial effect of the Baltic 
 Ship Canal (see Ba ltic Sea) on the commerce of 
 Copenhagen, the Danes established here in 1890- 
 94 a great free port, fenced off from Danish customs 
 territory, and designed to be an entrepot between 
 Baltic lands and the outer world. 
 
 In 1254 the village of Copenhagen obtained the 
 privileges of a town, and in 1443 King Christopher 
 made it the capital of the kingdom. It was 
 several times attacked by the Hanseatic League ; 
 was besieged by the Swedes in the I7th century ; 
 was bombarded by the English, Dutch, and 
 Swedes in 1700; suffered grievously by fires in 
 1728, 1794, and 1795 ; witnessed a great sea-fight 
 in its roads on 2d April 1801, when the English, 
 under Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson, destroyed 
 the Danish fleet ; and (to prevent the Danish 
 fleet from falling into the power of Napoleon) 
 was bombarded by the English from the 2d to 
 the 5th of September 1807, when hundreds of 
 persons lost their lives. 
 
 Copiapo (Co-pe-a-po'), capital of the Chilian dep. 
 of Atacama, on the Copiapo River, 30 miles from 
 its mouth ; pop. 10,374. 
 
 Copinshay, a small Orkney island, 2^ miles I 
 from the SE. point of Mainland. Pop. 9. i 
 
 Coppermine River, so named, like the Copper I 
 Mountains to the west of it, from the copper of J 
 the vicinity, runs 250 miles through the North- * 
 west Territory of Canada to the Arctic Ocean, 
 about 68° N. lat., and 116° W. long. Hearne dis« 
 " it in 1771. 
 
 Coppet {Coppa'^), a Swiss village, 8 m. N. by E. 
 of Geneva by rail, with a chateau, where Necker 
 and his daughter, Mnie. de Stael, are buried, 
 and where the latter spent much of her life. 
 
 Coquet, a beautiful stream of Northumberland, 
 flowing 40 miles to the sea below Warkworth. 
 Coquet Island is 1 mile E. by S. of its mouth. 
 
COQUiMBd 
 
 201 
 
 COREA 
 
 Coqtiimbo, or La Serena, capital of a province 
 of Chili, near the mouth of tlie river Coquinibo, 
 is a handsome town, with a cathedral. Pop. 
 16,000. Tlie port of Coquimbo is on a bay 6 
 miles SW., aiul has a pop. of 7000.— Area of 
 province, 12,855 sq. m. ; pop, 200,000. 
 
 Coral Sea is that section of the Pacific which 
 stretches between Australia on the west and the 
 New Hebrides on the east. 
 
 Corato (Co-rdh'to), a town of southern Italy, 25 
 miles W. of Bari. Pop. 40,428. 
 
 Corbeil (Cor-layV), a town in the French dep. 
 of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 21 miles S. of Paris 
 by rail. Pop. 9541, 
 
 Corby Castle, a Cumberland mansion, 4? miles 
 ESB. of Carlisle. 
 
 Corcyra, the ancient name for Corfu (q.v.). 
 
 Cordilleras (Cor-dil-yay'ras; lit. 'chains'), a 
 name of several American mountain-chains. The 
 Andes include the Cordilleras of South America, 
 those to which the name is most frequently given ; 
 and the Rocky Mountains those of North America. 
 Those of Central America extend from Darien to 
 the north of Mexico, and gradually increase in 
 elevation from the Isthmus of Panama, until they 
 form magnificent plateaus, and reach a height of 
 more than 17,000 feet in Mexico. 
 
 Cor'doba, a central province of the Argentine 
 Republic. Area, 55,350 sq. m. ; population, 
 430,000. The capital, Cordoba., lies iu the valley 
 of the Rio l»rimero, 246 miles WNW. of Rosario 
 by rail It has tramways, a cathedral, a hand- 
 some city-hall, a university (1613), &c. Founded 
 by Cabrera in 1573, the town was famous as a 
 centre of the Jesuit missions. It was afterwards 
 falling into decay, but the opening of the rail- 
 way in 1870 has greatly restored its prosperity. 
 Population, 50,000. 
 
 Cor'doba, a, town of Mexico, 66 miles WSW. of 
 Vera Cruz by rail. Pop. 12,302. 
 
 Cor'dova, or Cordoba, a city of Spain, 81 miles 
 ENE. of Seville by rail. It stands on the right 
 bank of the Guadalquivir, here crossed by the 
 Moorish ' Puente Viejo ' of sixteen arches. The 
 old turreted walls enclose gardens and vine- 
 yards ; but the interior shows narrow and dirty 
 streets. Founded in 152 B.C. by the Romans as 
 Corduba, and a great Moorish town fron^ 711 a.d. 
 until 1236, it has a cathedral, built as a mosque 
 in the 8th century, the most magnificent Moham- 
 medan temple in Europe. Cordova was formerly 
 celebrated for its manufacture of goat leather, 
 called cordovan, whence the term cordwain, but 
 that industry is now almost entirely extinct. It 
 manufactures silverware, silk fabrics, &c. Cor- 
 dova was the birthplace of Lucan, Seneca, and 
 Averroes. Pop. 58,466. — Area of Cordova pro- 
 vince, 5190 sq. m. ; pop. 456,000. 
 
 Corea (native name Choson, 'Morning Radi- 
 ance'), a kingdom on the east coast of Asia, 
 stretching as a peninsula from 34° 30' to 43° N, 
 lat., and froui 124° 30' to 130° 30' B. long., be- 
 tween the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea, and 
 separated by the Strait of Corea from the Japanese 
 islands. From about the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian era Corea has been alternately dependent on 
 Japan and China ; from the 16th c. it was formally 
 a vassal state of China, paying at least a cere- 
 monial tribute. But even before the war between 
 China and Japan in 1894-95, Japan had acquired 
 commercial and fiscal predominance. In conse- 
 quence of internal troubles in 1894 (fomented by 
 Japanese residents), Japan intervened and drove 
 the Chinese across the Yalu (see Chika), and 
 
 Corea was declared an independent state. The 
 growing power of Russia in Manchuria, and its 
 encroachments on Corea, created great anxiety in 
 Japan in 1900-4, led to the Japanese ultimatum, 
 and was the cause of the war of 1904-5, in which 
 the Japanese took Port Arthur, triumphed at 
 Mukden and elsewhere, and utterly destroyed the 
 Russian fleet. By the peace (1905) Japan's pre- 
 dominating interest in Corea was fully recognised. 
 
 Occupying about the same latitude as Italy, 
 Corea, with an area of 83,000 sq. m., is also 
 like Italy hemmed in on the north by alpine 
 ranges, and traversed from north to south by 
 a branch chain. Among the sunnnits are Hien- 
 fung (8114 feet). Mount Popoff, and Coxcomb 
 (4800), north-east of Seoul. The climate is 
 healthy, bracing in the north, but colder in 
 winter and hotter in summer than in correspond- 
 ing European latitudes. Some of the rivers are 
 frozen for from three to five months in the year. 
 Among the products are rice, wheat, beans, 
 cotton, hemp, maize, millet, sesame, and ginseng. 
 Iron ores of excellent quality are mined ; and there 
 are copper-mines in several places. The principal 
 industries are the manufacture of paper, mats 
 woven of grass, split bamboo blinds, oil-paper, 
 and silk. Three-fourths of the trade is with 
 Japan, and over a Htth with China. Several rail- 
 ways were in progress before the war of 1904-5. 
 
 The population is estimated at from 8,000,000 
 to 16,000,000. The language is intermediate 
 between Mongolo-Tartar and Japanese, polysylla- 
 bic and agglutinating. It has an alphabetic sys- 
 tem of its own ; but Chinese characters have takan 
 the place of Corean in official writing and corre- 
 spondence. The philosophy of Corea is Con- 
 fucian, but in spite of great restrictions on 
 Buddhism there are numerous Buddhist monas- 
 teries. The government is an hereditary and 
 absolute monarchy, and carried on through three 
 ministers, besides whom are ministers of six 
 departments. Seoul, the capital, has a pop. of 
 196,940. Phyong-yang, 36 miles from the sea, on 
 the Tai-dong, has a pop. of over 40,000. It is the 
 centre of a silk industry, and 20 miles off", at 
 Keum-san, are gold-washings. Kai-sbng is im- 
 portant as the capital of the old dynasty, and 
 for its cultivation of ginseng. 
 
 The earliest records of Corea carry us back to 
 1122 B.C., when Ki-tze with 5000 Chinese colonists 
 brought to Corea Chinese arts and politics. 
 Down to modem times Corea has remained per- 
 fectly secluded. Almost the first knowledge of 
 Corea obtained by Europe was through the ship- 
 wreck of some Dutchmen on the coast in 1653. 
 The missionary De Cespedes had, however, 
 entered Corea at the end of the 16th century, 
 and from 1777 other missionaries followed. In 
 1835 M. Maubant gained a footing in Corea, but 
 in 1866, after thousands of converts had been 
 put to death, the only three Catholic missionaries 
 left had to flee for their lives. To avenge the 
 death of the Catholics the French sent an 
 expedition, which was, however, repulsed, while 
 a stranded American schooner was burned with 
 her crew in sight of Phyong-yang. Japan was 
 the first to eff"ect a footing in Corea in 1876, 
 when a treaty was concluded between the two 
 countries. Corea followed this up by treaties 
 with China, the United States, and other coun- 
 tries (1882-86) ; and Chemulpo, Fusan, and Gensan 
 were opened to foreign trade. The war of 1904-5 
 opened the country much more fully. See works 
 by Oppert (1880), Ross, Griffis, Lowell, Carles 
 (1888), Cavendish, Landor, Bishop, Hamilton, 
 Laguerie, and Whigham (1904). 
 
CORENTYN 
 
 203 
 
 dORff 
 
 Oorentyn, a river of South America, rising in 
 r SC N. lat., and flowing northward to the 
 Atlantic between British and Dutch Guiana. It 
 forms an estuary 25 miles wide. 
 
 Oorfe Castle, a village-borough of Dorsetshire, 
 in the ' Isle ' of Purbeck, 4 miles SB. of Wareham. 
 Its famous castle, the traditional scene ot the 
 murder of King Edward the Martyr, by his step- 
 mother Elfrida (979), was gallantly defended in 
 1643 by Lady Bankes for six weeks against 600 
 Roundheads: Taken through treachery two years 
 later, it was dismantled ; and its beautiful ruins 
 cover nearly 3J acres. Pop, of parish, 1708. See 
 works by G. Bankes (1853) and T. Bond (1884). 
 
 Corfu, the most northerly and important of 
 the Ionian Islands (q.v.), at the entrance to the 
 Adriatic, separated from Albania by a channel 2 to 
 12 miles br(^d. It is 40 miles long 3i to 20 miles 
 broad, and culminates in Pantocrator (2997 feet). 
 Area, 270 sq. m. ; pop. 126,000. The surface is 
 largely covered with luxuriant groves of olive, 
 cypress, and ilex. The principal products are 
 olives and wine, oranges, citrons, figs, carob, silk, 
 and honey. The minerals are sulphur, salt, coal, 
 and marble. The principal town, Corfu (pop. 
 28 328), is finely situated on the east coast, and 
 has a good harbour. It is the seat of a Greek 
 archbishop and of a Catholic bishop, and has a 
 royal palace, an Ionian academy, founded by 
 Lord Guildford in 1823, Avith a library of 35,000 
 volumes, a gymnasium, theatre, &c. The ancient 
 name of the island is Corcyra, but from its shape 
 it was also called Drepane, or ' sickle.' 
 
 Corl (Coree; anc. Cora), a town of Italy, 30 
 miles SE. of Rome. Pop. 7450. 
 
 Corigliano (Cor-eel-ydh'nd), an Italian town, 4 
 miles from the Gulf of Taranto. Pop. 12,271. 
 
 Oorlnga, a decayed seaport of Madras, at the 
 northern mouth of the Godavari River, 8 miles S. 
 of Cocanada. Pop. 4397. 
 
 Corinth, a city of Greece, celebrated in anti- 
 quity for its vices, situated on the rocky isthmus 
 of Corinth (35 miles wide, and 262 feet high), 
 which connects the Peloponnesus with the main- 
 land. It lay under the northern declivity of the 
 mountain (1886 feet high), on which stood its 
 citadel (Acrocorinthus) ; and its position, midway 
 between the ^Egean and Adriatic, was excep- 
 tionally advantageous for trade. Founded, ac- 
 cording to tradition, about 1350 b.c.^ Corinth at 
 its zenith is said to have had 300,000 inhabitants, 
 but was utterly destroyed by the Romans in 146 
 B.C Exactly a century afterwards it was rebuilt 
 by Julius Caesar ; in 1459 it was captured by the 
 Turks. After being delivered from them in 1822, 
 it slowly increased till 1858, when it was utterly 
 destroyed by an earthquake. The town has 
 since been rebuilt in a more convenient posi- 
 tion, 3 miles to the north-east. Pop. 4000. A 
 mile and a half ENE. of New Corinth, on the 
 Gulf of Lepanto (anciently Gulf of Corinth), is 
 the western mouth of the Corinth Ship Canal 
 (1882-93) through the isthmus, 4 miles long. Two 
 new towns have been laid out at its east and 
 west mouths, the eastern named Isthmia, the 
 western Posidonia. 
 
 Corinth, a town of Mississippi, 93 miles B. by 
 S. of Memphis. Here the Confederates were 
 defeated, October 3-4, 1862. Pop. 3275. 
 
 Cork, a maritime county in Munster, the south- 
 most and largest of the Irish counties. Greatest 
 length from east to west, 110 miles ; greatest 
 breadth, 70; area, 2890 sq. m. Cork is hilly, 
 with great variety of surface. The west part 
 
 is rocky, mountainous, and boggy ; the east and 
 south, rich, fertile, and picturesque. The ranges 
 run east and west, except the Boghra Mountains, 
 between the Lee and Blackwater. The coast is 
 bold and rocky, and from its indentations, 250 
 miles long ; the bays run 3 to 25 miles inland, 
 the chief being Bantry, Dunmanus, Baltimore, 
 Glandore, Clonakilty, Kinsale, Cork Harbour, and 
 Youghal. There are many isles off" the coast, 
 including Cape Clear Island. In the west, Cork 
 is divided from Kerry by a range running north- 
 east and north, the chief points being 1200 to 
 2240 feet high. This range sends offshoots to 
 the east, which divide the county into the 
 parallel basins of the three chief rivers of Cork, 
 the Blackwat«r, Lee, and Bandon. Part of the 
 Munster coalfield occupies 400 sq. m. in the 
 north-west. Cork has many small lakes in the 
 west. The chief mineral products are coal, iron, 
 copper, barytes, limestone, marble, fullers' earth, 
 brick-clay, marl. There is a thermal magnesian 
 spring at Mallow. The climate is moist but 
 genial. The dairies are extensive, and Cork 
 butter stands in high estimation. Of the total 
 area, about 30 per cent, is under crops. The 
 chief manufactures are leather, tweeds, whisky, 
 porter ; and the chief exports provisions. Pop, 
 (1841) 854,118; (1851) 653,180; (1871) 517,076; 
 (1881) 495,607 ; (1901) 406,611, of whom 90 per 
 cent, are Catholics. Since 1885 the county 
 returns seven members, the city two ; Bandon, 
 Mallow, Kinsale, and Youghal having been 
 absorbed in the county. 
 
 Cork, a city and parliamentary borough of 
 Ireland, capital of County Cork, and a county in 
 itself, on the Lee, 11 miles above its mouth, and 
 166 SW. of Dublin by rail. Standing in the 
 centre of a picturesque valley, it is built in part 
 on an island, or group of islands, formerly a 
 swamp, which the word Cork, Corcoch, or Corcaig 
 implies ; in part, on the slopes of the river-banks. 
 Nine bridges cross the river to the islands. There 
 are a spacious public park or racecourse of 400 
 acres; an elm-tree walk, the Mardyke, above a 
 mile long, on the west of the city ; and a 
 beautiful public cemetery. The chief buildings 
 are St Anne Shandon's Church, with a towerJ 
 170 feet high ; the Protestant Cathedral, Earlyl 
 English in style, erected since 1865 at a cost Oil 
 £100,000 ; Queen's College (1849), a fine Tudor-j 
 Gothic quadrangular building ; and the School*! 
 of Science and Art. The Lee is navigable toj 
 about a mile above the city, and a large sum^ 
 has been expended on the improvement of th« j 
 navigation. The extent of the quays is novfj 
 above 4 miles, and ships of 2000 tons reach theiu<| 
 Cork Harbour, noted for its size and safety, is a| 
 basin of 10 sq. m., formed by the Lee's estuary^ 
 It could contain the whole British navy, and ha* 
 been the main source of the rise and progress c 
 the city. It is the port of call for the trans 
 atlantic steamers plying between Liverpool and 
 New York. The estuary contains several larg< 
 isles, rising abruptly and high above the waterj 
 with narrow channels between them. Thr 
 entrance is by a channel two miles by one 
 defended by batteries. Adjoining the island ol 
 Haulbowline, on which are extensive government 
 stores, is a large government dock, where vessels 
 of the British fleet may be repaired. On the 
 shores of the estuary are the towns of Passage 
 and Queenstown, fonnerly Cove of Cork. Tho 
 chief manufactures are leather, iron, gloves, 
 ginghams, friezes, flour, malt liquors, and whisky ; 
 the chief exports grain, provisions, butter, live- 
 stock, leather, and tweeds. Cork returns twO 
 
 d 
 
COflLEONS 
 
 203 
 
 CORRIS 
 
 members to parliament. Pop. (ISTl) 78,642; 
 (1881) 80,124; (1901) 76,122: of pari, borough 
 (1881) 104,496 ; (1901)99,603. Of these five-sixths 
 are Catholics. Cork grew up around an abbey 
 founded in 600 by St Fiubar. Dermod Maccarthy, 
 king of Cork or Desmond, surrendered it to Henry 
 II. in 1172. Cromwell took it in 1649, and Marl- 
 borough in 1690. There is a statue of Father 
 Mathew, who laboured here many years. See 
 Miss Cusack's History of the City arid County of 
 Cork (Dublin, 1875). 
 
 Corleone (Cor-le-o'neh), a town of Sicily, 21 
 miles S. of Palermo. Pop. 14,441. 
 
 Corneto (Cor-neh'to), a picturesque, mediaeval- 
 looking town of central Italy, 12 miles N. of 
 Civita Vecchia by rail, and 3 from the Mediter- 
 ranean. Pop. 7175. It rose out of the ruins of 
 the Etruscan city of Tarquinii. 
 
 CJornhill, a Northumberland village, IJ mile 
 ESE. of Coldstream. 
 
 Corniche. See Riviera. 
 
 Coming, capital of Steuben county, New York, 
 on the Chemung River, 15 miles by rail WNW. 
 of Elmira, with foundries, glass-works, &c. Pop. 
 (1880) 4802 ; (1900) 11,061. 
 
 Corno, Monte. See Gran Sasso d'Italia. 
 
 Cornwall, a maritime county, forming the 
 south-western extremity of England. Its ex- 
 treme length is 81 miles ; its extreme breadth 
 45 miles; and its area is 1365 sq. m., of which 
 63*4 per cent, is under cultivation. The surface 
 is very irregular, and a ridge of bleak hills, 
 interspersed with moors, stretclies from the 
 Tamar to the Land's End. Brown Billy (1368 
 feet) is the loftiest point. As this range is 
 nearer the north of Cornwall than the south, 
 the principal rivers are on the southern side, 
 and rim to the English Channel. With the 
 exception of a few unimportant creeks, there 
 are only two harbours on the north coast — the 
 estuary of the Camel, on which is Padstow, and 
 the bay of St Ives. Nearly all the north coast 
 is formed of bold and picturesque cliffs ; but at 
 Perranzabuloe and Gwithian there are hills of 
 blown sea-sand. The southern coast is also 
 mostly bold and rocky, but indented with many 
 headlands and bays. Between the Land's End 
 (5° 41' 31" W.) and the Lizard Point is the 
 deep indentation named Mount's Bay, from St 
 Michael's Mount, with the harbour-works of 
 Penzance. East of the Lizard is Falmouth Bay ; 
 and on the eastern boundary is another of the 
 great havens of the kingdom, Plymouth Sound. 
 The estuary of the Fowey also affords a small 
 but perfectly sheltered deep-water harbour. The 
 chief river is the Tamar, which practically divides 
 Cornwall from Devon, rising within 3 miles of 
 the north coast at Wooley Barrows. It is tidal, 
 and navigable for 19 miles (total length 59) from 
 its embouchure in Plymouth Sound. Its prin- 
 cipal Cornish tributary is the Notter. The lower 
 part of the estuary of the Tamar is called the 
 Hamoaze. The Fowey is 30 miles long, and 
 navigable for 6. The Fal is 20 miles long from 
 its source to Falmouth Harbour. The Camel 
 (also called the Alan) is 29 miles long, 10 being 
 tidal. There is a tradition that a large tract of 
 land between the Lands End and the Scilly 
 Isles (q.v.) was submerged by the sea. This is 
 ;he fabled Lyonesse. Mining has been carried 
 )n here from prehistoric times, and the county 
 las been regarded as the Cassiterides of the 
 ?h(»nicians and Greeks. It yields tin, copper, 
 ead, iion, zinc, silver, cobalt, antimony, man- 
 
 gane.se, bismuth, tungsten, arsenic, &&— agreatef 
 variety of minerals (some unique) than any other 
 part of the United Kingdom. Gold has been 
 found in alluvial tin works or 'streams,' the 
 largest nugget over two ounces. Of late years 
 mining has been very much reduced, and almost 
 all the mines now existing are tin, of which 
 Cornwall yields nearly all that is raised in the 
 kingdom. The pilchard, herring, and mackerel 
 fisheries are extensive and important. The 
 climate, mild though damp, has been turned to 
 good account in the Scilly Isles and the Penzance 
 district, by the development of market-gardening 
 for the supply of early vegetables and of fruit 
 to the leading markets. Pop. (1801) 192,281 ; 
 (1861) 369,390; (1901) 322,957. Cornwall con- 
 tains one parliamentary borough — Falmouth and 
 Penryn, and six county divisions. It returned 
 40 members prior to 1832., 14 till 1867. 12 till 
 1885, and now 7 in all. The bi.shopric of Corn- 
 wall, merged in that of Exeter since Saxon times, 
 was restored in 1876, and the see fixed at Truro. 
 
 Cornwall remained in the hands of its Celtic 
 inhabitants, and under the rule of the British 
 Church till 936. The ancient Cornish language, 
 belonging to the Cymric or Brythonic group of 
 the Celtic tongues, was generally spoken until 
 the reign of Elizabeth, and until 1678 was used 
 in public worship. It lingered in the extreme 
 west of the county till the early part of the 18th 
 century ; Dolly Pentreath (? 1676-1778) of Mouse- 
 hole is popularly regarded as the last who spoke 
 it. Cornwall, which abounds in prehistoric 
 remains, was created into a duchy in 1337 for the 
 Black Prince. The eldest son of the reigning 
 sovereign is Duke of Cornwall ; and the revenues 
 derived from the duchy by the Prince of Wales 
 average £61,000 a year. See Tregellas's Cornwall 
 (6th ed. 1891), and other works cited there. 
 
 Cornwall, a port of entry of Ontario, at the 
 mouth of the Cornwall Canal, and separated by 
 the St Lawrence from New York state, 67 miles 
 SW. of Montreal. It has one of the principal 
 woollen-mills in the Dominion. Pop. 7033. 
 
 Coro, a town of Venezuela, 210 miles WNW. of 
 Caracas, near the Golfete de Coro. Pop. 888L 
 Its port is La Vela, 7 miles NE. by rail. 
 
 Coromandel Coast, a name used vaguely for 
 the major part of the eastern coast of the pro- 
 vince of Madras, on the Bay of Bengal. The 
 name is probably a corruption of Cholamcmdalam, 
 ' country of the Cholas,' an old Dra vidian peojde. 
 
 Coronation Gulf, an inlet connected with the 
 Arctic Ocean, south of Victoria Land, in 68° Sif 
 N. lat., and 110° W. long. 
 
 Coronea, a town of Boeotia, where In 447 b.c. 
 the Boeotians defeated the Athenians, and in 394 
 Agesilaus the allied Greeks. 
 
 Corra Linn. See Clyde. 
 
 Corran Narrows, the strait between Loch 
 Linnhe and Lower Loch Eil. 
 
 Correze {Cor-rehz'), a French dep. formed out 
 of the old province of Limousin, and taking its 
 name from a river, the Correze, flowing 52 miles 
 SW. to the Vezere, a tributary of .the Dordogne. 
 Area, 2265 sq. m. ; population, 305,000. The sur- 
 face attains in Mont Odonze 3129 feet. The dep. 
 is divided into the three arrondissements of 
 Tulle (the capital), Brive, and Ussel. 
 
 Corrib, Louqh, an isleted lake of counties 
 Galway and Mayo, the second largest in Ireland. 
 Lying only 30 feet above sea-level, it is 25 miles 
 long from NW. to SE., and 1 to 6 broad, with an 
 area of 68 sq. m. From its south end, 4 niilea N, of 
 
CORRICHIE 
 
 204 
 
 COSELEV 
 
 Galway, it sends off the Galway River to Galway 
 Bay. It receives the waters of Lougli Mask, at 
 its north end, through the Pigeon Hole and other 
 caves, as well as those of the Clare, &c. 
 
 Corrichie, a moor on the borders of Kincardine 
 and Aberdeen shires, 15 miles W. of Aberdeen. 
 Here, on 2Sth October 1562, the Earl of Moray 
 defeated the Catholic Earl of Huntly. 
 
 CJorrie, an Arran coast- village, 5^ miles N. by 
 E. of Brodick. 
 
 Oorrientes, a province of the Argentine Re- 
 public, between the Parang and Uruguay rivers. 
 Area, 54,000 sq. m. ; pop. 310,000.— Tlie capital, 
 Oorrientes, 15 miles below the confluence of the 
 Parana and the Paraguay, takes its name from 
 seven currents formed by points of rock above the 
 city. Steamers from Buenos Ayres (832 miles) 
 touch here almost daily, Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Oorrievrekln (Gael., 'Brecan's cauldron'), a 
 •whirlpool or dangerous passage scarcely a mile 
 broad, off the west coast of Argyllshire, in the 
 strait between Scarba and Jura. 
 
 Corry, a town of Pennsylvania, 37 miles SB. 
 of Erie. It has machine-shops, saw-mills, and 
 oil-refineries. Pop. 5677. 
 
 Corryarrick, Inverness-shire, a mountain-pass 
 7 miles SSE. of Fort Augustus. 
 
 Corsham, a Wiltshire market-town, 4 miles 
 BW. of Chippenham. Pop. of parish, 3931. 
 
 Cor'sica, the fourth largest island of the Medi- 
 terranean, is 114 miles long by 52 miles broad, with 
 800 miles of coast-line. Area, 3378 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1872) 258,507 ; (1901) 295,589. Corsica is separ- 
 ated from the twin island of Sardinia, to the 
 south, by the Strait of Bonifacio. It is 64 miles 
 SW. of Leghorn and 98 S. of Genoa. Though 
 now a dep. of France, the island belongs geo- 
 
 fraphically, historically, and linguistically to 
 taly. The interior is a labyrinth of mountains, 
 the highest summits being about the middle : Cinto 
 (8878 feet); Rotondo (8607); Pagli-Orba (8283). 
 On the west side the mountains reach to the 
 coast, but on the east, between mountains and 
 sea, there extend alluvial plains, edged seawards 
 •with lagoons and swamps, highly fertile but 
 malarious, so that in summer the occupants have 
 to escape to the mountains. In the time of the 
 Romans these plains were densely peopled, and 
 recently eucalyptus plantations are beginning to 
 overcome the malaria. Corsica is watered by 
 numerous streams, none navigable, with cascades 
 glittering in all directions. The climate generally 
 is highly salubrious. The soil is very fertile, 
 and over 43 per cent, of the entire area is arable 
 land ; yet flour, wheat, and hay are imported. 
 Corsica presents a succession of climates and 
 vegetation zones. About one-sixth of the whole 
 is covered with forest, but this includes in many 
 places only confused thickets. The moufflon 
 or wild sheep is found ; also wild boars, large 
 foxes, and small deer, but no wolves or bears. 
 The venomous ant is peculiar to Corsica, where 
 are also the Malmignata spider and the taran- 
 tula. The minerals include copper, silver, lead, 
 sulphide of antimony, iron, and manganese. 
 Among the valuable stones are granite, porphyry, 
 jasper, alabaster, and marble; and the Orezza 
 mineral waters have a high medicinal value. The 
 chief industries are fishing and rearing of cattle. 
 Wines, timber, charcoal, olive-oil, and dried fruits 
 are the principal exports. In 1888 a railway was 
 opened from Bastia to Corte, and other lines 
 have since been constructed. Corsica is divided 
 into the five arrondissements of Ajaccio, Bastia, 
 
 Calvi, Corte, Sartene. The capital is Ajaccio, 
 but the most important town is Bastia. The 
 language is a corrupt Italian. In early times 
 known as Cyrnos, Corsica in the 8th century fell 
 to the Saracens, in the 11th to Pisa. Thence it 
 passed to the Genoese. The Genoese, unable 
 to subdue the Corsicans, who had risen under 
 General Paoli, surrendered Corsica to the French, 
 who conquered it in 1768, since which time it has 
 willingly united itself with France. Napoleon 
 was ' the Corsican.' See works by Boswell (1768), 
 Borde (1887), Barry (1893), and Caird (1899). 
 
 Corsicana, capital of Navarre county, Texas, 
 53 miles SSE. of Dallas. It is an important 
 cotton port. Pop. 9400. 
 
 Corstor'phine, a Midlothian village, 3 miles W. 
 by S. of Edinburgh. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Cortland, capital of Courtland county. New 
 York, 36 miles S. of Syracuse. It has impor- 
 tant manufactures. Pop. 9020. 
 
 Corulsk (Coroosk'), a fresli-water loch (IfxJ 
 m.) in Skye, among the Cuchullin Hills. 
 
 Corto'na (Lat. Crotona), in Tuscany, 69 miles 
 SE. of Florence, stands 2130 feet above sea-level, 
 looking down on the Trasimene Lake, and is one of 
 the oldest cities in Europe, witli mighty cyclopean 
 walls, Etruscan and Roman remains. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Coruna, La (in English, Corunna), a fortified 
 seaport of Spain, midway between Capes Ortegal 
 and Finisterre, on a peninsula in the Bay of 
 Coruna, 263 miles NW. of Leon by rail. The 
 harbour is commodious ; and in 1888 a quarantine 
 harbour was completed. One mile north-west 
 of the town stands the famous Torre de Hercules, 
 restored by Trajan, which serves as a lighthouse, 
 and is nearly 100 feet high. The chief imports 
 are sugar and American raw petroleum, dried 
 cod, hides, spirits, and English coal. The indus- 
 tries include the manufacture of cotton, cigars, 
 glass-wares, and canned provisions. Pop. 45,000. 
 Coruna, which was taken from the Phoenicians 
 by the Romans in the 1st century B.C., for English- 
 men has rare historic interest. Here in 1386 John 
 of Gaunt landed to claim the crown of Castile in 
 right of his wife ; in 1554 Philip 11. embarked 
 for England to marry Queen Mary ; and in 1588 
 the great Spanish Armada set sail for the con- 
 quest of England. Here also fell gloriously Sir 
 John Moore (January 16, 1809), after his memor- 
 able retreat and his defeat of Soult. He is buried 
 in the gardens of San Carlos. 
 
 Corvo, the most northerly of the Azores (q.v.X 
 
 Cor'vyen, a town of Merionethshire, North 
 Wales, on the Dee, 12 miles NE. of Bala by raiL 
 Pop. of parish, 2680. 
 
 Oorygaiim, a village in the presidency of 
 Bombay, 16 miles S. of Poona, the scene of the 
 last of the three defeats of the Peishwa of the 
 Mahrattas (January 1, 1818). 
 
 Cos (Italian, StanTco), a Turkish island of the 
 Archipelago, off the coast of Asia Minor. Measur- 
 ing 23 by 5 miles, it has an area of 110 sq. m., 
 and a pop. of 10,000, mostly Greeks. It consists 
 mostly of fertile and well-tilled plains, partially 
 of hilly country ; and exports lemons, grain, wine, 
 cotton, and silk. The chief town is Cos or Co, on 
 the north-east coast. Cos was famous of old 
 for its wine, its amphorae, and its fine 'Coan 
 garments.' It was the birthplace of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, the painter Apelles, and the phy- 
 sician Hippocrates. 
 
 Coseley, a south-eastern suburb of Wolvei> 
 hamptou. 
 
COSENZA 
 
 205 
 
 COURTRAI 
 
 Cosenza (Co-sentz'a; anc. Consentia), a cathedral 
 city of Italy, 12 miles E. of the Mediterranean, 
 and 262 SE. of Naples by rail, in a mountain- 
 closed valley at the confluence of the Crati and the 
 Busento. Pop. 20,686. Alaric died here 410 a.d. 
 
 Cosne (A'one), a town, with iron manufactures, 
 in the French dep. of Nievre, on the right bank 
 of the Loire, 122 miles SSE. of Paris. Pop. 8260. 
 
 Cossimbazar' (Kasimhazcir), near Murshidabad, 
 was in the 17th century the chief English agency 
 in Bengal. 
 
 Costanza. See Kustendji. 
 
 Costa Rica {Reeka), the most southerly of the 
 republics of Central America. It occupies the 
 entire breadth from sea to sea between Nicar- 
 agua on the one side and Colombia on the other. 
 Area, 21,495 miles, or about two-thirds that of 
 Ireland ; population, 321,000. The whites are 
 mostly of pure Spanish descent. Except on the 
 coast, the countiy is generally mountainous, with 
 many volcanoes, all under 11,500 feet; on the 
 Atlantic slope dense forests prevail, but wide 
 savannahs are more frequent on the Pacific side. 
 Prior to the discovery of gold in 1823, Costa Rica 
 was a land of poverty, owing its title of 'The 
 Rich Coast ' solely to the anticipations of its first 
 Spanish settlers ; since then, foreign capital has 
 opened up much of the country. Although rich 
 in gold, silver, copper, and other metals, its chief 
 industry is agriculture ; but the population is 
 very scanty, and only a twentieth part of the 
 land is under cultivation. Besides valuable 
 timber and dye-woods, it yields tobacco, sugar, 
 bananas, cacao, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, and 
 vanilla, which, with hides, tortoise-shell, and 
 mother-of-pearl, are largely exported. But the 
 staple of trade is coffee, to which is principally 
 due the reviving prosperity of 'the Coffee Re- 
 public' There are 160 miles of railway. The 
 chief ports are Pimta Arenas and Limon; the 
 other towns are San Jose, the capital, Cartago, 
 Alajuela, and Heredia. Discovered by Columbus 
 in 1493, and probably first settled on his fourth 
 voyage, in 1502, Costa Rica has had much the 
 same history, chequered by frequent revolutions, 
 as its neighbours : it declared its independence 
 in 1821. See works hv BioUey (1889), Barrantes 
 (Barcelona, 1892), and Villafranca (N.Y. 1895). 
 
 Cote-d'Or, a dep. in the east of France, 
 formed of part of the old province of Burgundy. 
 Area, 3383 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 361,626. It con- 
 tains four arrondissements : Beaime, Chatillon- 
 Bur-Seine, Dijon (the capital), and Semur. 
 " Cotentln, The {Co-tonHany'), the peninsula pro- 
 jecting into the English Channel between the 
 Bay of St Michel and the Gulf of Carentan, now 
 the northern part of the dep. of La Manche. It 
 is 55 miles long and 25 broad. The chief town 
 is Cherbourg ; the old capital is Coutances. 
 
 Cotes-du-Nord. ('northern coasts'), a French 
 Breton dep., washed by the English Channel. 
 Area, 2659 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 609,350. It is 
 divided into the five arrondissements of St 
 Brieuc, Dinan, Loudeac, Lannion, and Guin- 
 gamp. The chief town is St Brieuc. 
 
 Coteswold, or Cotswold, Hills, a range run- 
 ning over 50 miles through Gloucestershire, from 
 (^hipping Campden in the NB., by Cheltenham 
 and Stroud, to near Bath in the SW. It has an 
 average height of 500 or 600 feet, and separates 
 the Lower Severn from the Thames's sources. 
 The highest point is Cleeve Hill, 1134 feet. 
 
 Qothele, the ancient seat of the Earl pf Mount 
 
 Edgcumbe, in Cornwall, on the Tamar, 6| miles 
 N. of Saltash. 
 
 Cothen. See Kothen. 
 
 Cotonou, a small French settlement on the 
 Guinea coast, formerly in Dahomey. 
 
 Cotopaxi, the loftiest active volcano in the 
 world (19,550 feet), is in Ecuador, in the eastern 
 chain of the Andes, and 50 miles S. of the 
 equator. The vipper part of Cotopaxi, a perfect 
 cone of 4400 feet, is entirely covered with snow, 
 save that the verge of the crater is a bare parapet 
 of rock. The first eruption recorded was in 1533. 
 Others followed in 1698, 1743, 1744, and 1768, the 
 most terrible of all. Cotopaxi was quiet till 
 1851. In 1854-56, 1877, and 1880 there were again 
 eruptions. See Whymper's Travels among the 
 Andes (1892). 
 
 Cotron6, a fortified coast-town of Italy, 35 
 miles NE. of Catanzaro by rail. Pop. 9649. 
 
 Cotswolds. See Coteswolds. 
 
 Cottbus, or KoTTBus, a town in the Prussian 
 province of Brandenburg, on the Spree, 71 miles 
 SE. of Berlin by rail. It manufactures woollen 
 cloth, carpets, hats, linen, jute, leather, and 
 tobacco. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Cottingham, a town in the East Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 4 miles NW. of Hull. Pop. 3780. 
 
 Coulmiers (Koohn-yaif), a French village, 12 
 miles WNW. of Orleans, the scene of a Bavarian 
 defeat, 9th November 1870. 
 
 Coulport, Dumbartonshire, a pier on Loch 
 Long, 4 miles N. of Cove. 
 
 Council Bluffs, a city of Iowa, capital of 
 Pottawattamie county, 141 miles WSW. of Dea 
 Moines by rail, on a plain backed by the high 
 bluffs from which it takes its name. The Mis- 
 souri River, 3 miles to the west, is crossed by 
 a grand railway bridge to Omaha, and five rail- 
 ways meet at the town, which manufactures 
 paper, iron, carriages, and agricultural machines. 
 Pop. (1870) 10,020 ; (1900) 25,802. 
 
 Coupar- Angus (Coop'er-Ang-gus), a Perthshire 
 police-burgh, near the Isla's left bank, 13 miles 
 NNE. of Perth. Within a Roman camp here is 
 the fragment of a Cistercian abbey (1164). Linen 
 is manufactured. Pop. 2100. See also Cupar. 
 
 Courbevoie (Koorb-vwah'), a town on the left 
 bank of the Seine, opposite the north-western 
 suburbs of Paris. Pop. 27,597. 
 
 Courland, or Kurland (Koor'land), one of 
 the Baltic provinces of Russia. Mostly level, 
 with many lakes and forests, it was formerly an 
 independent duchy — properly, indeed, consisting 
 of two duchies, Courland and Semgallen — and 
 belonged, along with Livonia, to the Teutonic 
 Knights. The difficulty of resisting Russia led 
 to the acknowledgment in 1561 of Poland's 
 sovereignty; but in 1795 Courland was finally 
 united to Russia. Area, 10,535 sq. m. ; population, 
 680,000, mostly Protestants. :Mitan is the capital, 
 but Libau the most flourishing town. 
 
 Courtallum (Kuttdlam), an Indian town, 38 
 miles NW. of Tinnevelli, stands amongst the 
 Ghats near the south end of the peninsula ; and 
 though only 450 feet above sea-level, serves as 
 the sanatorium of the district. Pop. 1216. 
 
 Courtmacslierry, a fishing-village of County 
 Cork, 10 miles S. of Bandon. 
 
 Courtral (Flem. Kortrijk), a walled town of 
 Belgium, on the Lys, 54 miles SW. of Brussels 
 by rail, and 6 from the French frontier. It has a 
 fine eld bridge flanked with towers, a noble town- 
 
C0UTANCE3 
 
 206 
 
 CRACOW 
 
 hall (1526), belfry, and a beautiful Gothic church, 
 founded in 1238 by Baldwin, Count of Flanders. 
 Table damask, linen, and lace are the chief 
 manufactures. Population, about 35,000. Here, 
 in 1302, the citizens of Ghent and Bruges won 
 over the French the ' Battle of the Spurs,' so 
 named from the number of gilt spurs gathered 
 from the dead. 
 
 Coutances {Kooton'ss), a town in the French 
 dep. of La Manche, 5 miles from the English 
 Channel and 57 S. of Cherbourg by rail. It has 
 a fine cathedral. Pop. 6145. 
 
 Coutras (KootraJi'), a town in the dep. of 
 Gironde, 82 miles NE. of Bordeaux. Here, in 1587, 
 Henry of Navarre defeated the League. Pop. 4324. 
 
 Cove, a Kincardineshire fishing-village, 4| miles 
 S. by B. of Aberdeen. Pop. 462. 
 
 Cove and Kilcreggan, a Dumbartonshire 
 police burgh, at the end of the Rosneath 
 peninsula, 3^ miles by water NW. of Greenock. 
 Pop. 916. 
 
 Coventry, a city, parliamentary, municipal, 
 and county borough, and manufacturing town 
 in the north of Warwickshire, on the Sherbounie, 
 an affluent of the Avon, 18^ miles ESE. of Bir- 
 mingham, and 94 NW. of London. It stands on 
 a gentle eminence in a valley, with a ridge of 
 hill on the south, and still contains some houses 
 with timbered projecting fronts which belong to 
 the 15th and 16th centuries. The modern build- 
 ings include a corn exchange, market-hall, baths. 
 Free Public Library, School of Art, new grammar 
 and other schools, many tricycle and bicycle 
 works, the Coventry and Warwickshire Hospital, 
 and the Coventry Provident Dispensary. Coven- 
 try is rich in benevolent and charitable institu- 
 tions, which have been greatly augmented by the 
 benefactions of the late David Spencer. In 
 1887 he provided a building for a technical 
 school ; in 1883 he had given £4200 for a public 
 recreation ground ; and at his death (June 9, 
 1888) he bequeathed £100,000 for benevolent pur- 
 poses. A statue of Sir Thomas White has been 
 erected, and a memorial of James Starley, the 
 inventor of the modern tricycle. At a cost of 
 many thousands of pounds the principal streets 
 have been widened, and a steam-tramway now 
 runs through the city. During recent years up- 
 wards of £70,000 has been expended in church 
 restoration, and during 1887-89 all of Tennyson's 
 'three tall spires' were in the restorer's hands. 
 St Michael's (1230-1395) is said to be the largest 
 parish church in England, and is one of the 
 noblest of the lighter Gothic structures. St 
 Mary's Hall (14th c), for the Guild, is one of the 
 finest specimens of ornamental work in England, 
 with carved oak roof, ancient tapestry, and great 
 painted window. Coventry returns one member 
 to parliament. The chief manufactures are rib- 
 bons, watches, bicycles and tricycles, cotton, 
 worsted and woollen goods, and art metal works 
 (the Albert Memorial, Hyde Park, London, being 
 of Coventry manufacture). There are large silk- 
 dyeing works. Pop. (1841) 30,743 ; (1901) 69,978. 
 
 The name Coventry has been interpreted 'Con- 
 vent-town,' but as the form in Domesday is Cou- 
 entrev, it is more likely ' town on the Couen '— 
 Coiien being the ancient British name of the Sher- 
 bourne, and trev being 'town.' In 1043 Earl 
 Leofric and his wife. Lady Godiva, founded here 
 a magnificent Benedictine monastery. Henry 
 VIII. demolished the beautiful cathedral. Here 
 occurred the famous meeting for the intended 
 trial by battle between the Dukes of Norfolk and 
 Hereford, immortalised in Shakespeare's Hichard 
 
 II. Two memorable parliaments were also held 
 here in 1404 and 1459. In the 15th, 16th, and 
 17th centuries, Coventry was famous for woollens, 
 broadcloths, caps, and blue thread bonnets. 
 ' George Eliot' lived in Foleshill Road during 1841- 
 42. See T. Sharp's History of Coventry (Birm. 1871). 
 
 Covllhao, a Portuguese town, 103 miles by rail 
 NNB.of Abrantes. Pop. 15,986. 
 
 Covington, a city of Kentucky, on the Ohio, 
 opposite Cincinnati, with which it is connected 
 by a fine suspension bridge. It has distilleries, 
 and manufactures of glass-ware, nails, and to- 
 bacco. Pop. (1850) 9408 ; (1900) 42,938. 
 
 Cowbrldge, a mun. borough of Glamorganshire, 
 on the Ddaw, 12 miles W. of Cardifi" (17 by rail), 
 with which and Llantrissant it returns one mem- 
 ber. It has a grammar-school (1678). Pop. 1377. 
 
 Cowdenbeath, a coal-mining village of Fife, 2 
 miles WSW. of Lochgelly. Pop. 8249. 
 
 Cowdenknowes. See Earlston. 
 
 Cowdray House. See Midhurst. 
 
 Cowes, a Avatering-place in the north corner of 
 the Isle of Wight, 11^ miles SSB. of Southampton 
 by water, and 4 N. of Newport by rail. It 
 consists of West and East Cowes, lying on 
 opposite sides of the mouth of the Medina's 
 estuary, and connected by steam-ferry. Standing 
 on a hill-slope, West Cowes is the lieadquarters of 
 the Royal Yacht Club (1815). Tlieir club-house 
 was originally a fort (1540). Yacht- building is 
 the great speciality of Cowes, which has a fine 
 promenade (1864), excellent hotels, baths, villas, 
 &c. Slatwoods at East Cowes was Dr Arnold's 
 birthplace, and in the vicinity are East Cowes 
 Castle (1798), Norris Castle (1799), and Osborne 
 House (1845). The last, built as a marine resi- 
 dence for Queen Victoria, is an Italian edifice, 
 with a flag-tower 112 feet high, and beautiful 
 grounds. Pop. of West Cowes (1851) 4786, (1901) 
 8654 ; of East Cowes (1861) 1954, (1901) 3180. 
 
 Cowie, a fishing-village near Stonehaven. 
 
 Cowlairs', a N. suburb of Glasgow, with great 
 railway works. 
 
 Cowley, a S. suburb of Oxford, giving name 
 to the Anglican mission order of the ' Cowley 
 Fathers ' (1865). 
 
 Cowpen, a Northumberland township, with 
 coal-pits, at the mouth of the river Blyth, 1 mile 
 W. by N. of Blyth. Pop. 17,982. 
 
 Cowslip Green, Hannah More's home, Somer- 
 set, 10 miles SSW. of Bristol. 
 
 Coxhoe Hall, the birthplace of Mrs Browning, 
 5^ miles SSB. of Durham. 
 
 Coxwold, a Yorkshire parish, 7J miles SB. of 
 Thirsk. Sterne was its parson. 
 
 Coyle, an Ayrshire stream, flowing 14j miles 
 through Kyle to the Ayr. 
 
 Cracow (Pol. Krakov, Ger. Kralati), a city of 
 Austrian Galicia, 259 miles NE. of Vienna. It 
 stands 672 feet above sea-level, in a wide, hill- 
 girt plain on the left bank of the Vistula, which 
 here becomes navigable, and is spanned by a 
 bridge (1850) leading to Podgorze. The old walls, 
 converted into promenades, have been super- 
 seded by a line of detached forts. On the Wawel 
 rock rises the old castle of the Polish kings, 
 degraded now to a barrack. The neighbouring 
 cathedral (1320-59) is a splendid pile, containing 
 the graves of John Sobieski, Poniatowski, and 
 Kosciusko, with Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ. 
 The university (1364) was reorganised and re- 
 opened in 1817, and now is attended by more than 
 
 i 
 
CRADOCK 
 
 207 
 
 CRETE 
 
 1100 students. Cracow has important fairs, and 
 its trade and manufactures (chemicals, tobacco, 
 beer, agricultural implements, &c.) have greatly- 
 revived. Three miles west of the city is a grassy 
 mound, 150 feet high, reared in 1820-23 to the 
 memory of Kosciusko. Pop. (18(>9) 49,835 ; (1890) 
 74,593; (1905) about 95,000. Cracow was the 
 Polish capital from 1320 till 1609. On the tliird 
 partition of Poland (1795) it was assigned to 
 Austria. In 1809-15 it was part of the duchy of 
 Warsaw, and in 1815-45 a republic ; but in 1846 
 it was re-annexed to Austria. 
 
 Cradock, a town and liealth-resort of Cape 
 Colony, 2800 feet above tlie sea, in the upper 
 valley of the Great Fish River, and half-way 
 between Port Elizabeth and Colesberg. It is a 
 centre of the wool trade. Pop. 7800. 
 
 Cralgcrook, Lord Jeffrey's seat, 3J miles W. of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Craigeirachle, (l) a Speyside village of Banff- 
 shire, 13 miles SSE. of Elgin.— (2) A Speyside 
 height that ' stands fast ' near Aviemore. 
 
 Craigendor'an, a steamboat pier, Dumbarton- 
 shire, 1 mile SE. of Helensburgh. 
 
 Craigenputtock, Carlyle's moorland home 
 (1828-34), 15 miles WNW. of Dumfries. 
 
 Craig Go wan, a height (1437 feet) near Bal- 
 moral, with cairns to the royal family. 
 
 Cralghall, New, a collier village of Midlothian, 
 2 miles WSW. of Musselburgh. Pop. 1650. 
 
 Cralgieburn, 3 miles E. of Moffat, a wood 
 celebrated by Burns. 
 
 Craigleith, a huge quarry 2 miles W. by N. of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Craigmillar, a fine ruined castle (1427-1661), 
 8 miles SE. of Edinburgh. 
 
 Craignethan, a ruined castle (Scott's 'Tillie- 
 tudlem') in Lanarkshire, 5J miles WNW. of 
 Lanark. 
 
 Craigneuk, part of Wishaw (q.v.). 
 
 Craigphadrick. See Inverness. 
 
 Grail an antique little coast-town in the ' East 
 Neuk ' of Fife, 2^ miles WSW. of Fife Ness, and 
 10 SE. of St Andrews. There is a fragment 
 of a castle of David I. ; and an interesting church, 
 in which Knox preached, and of which Sharp was 
 minister. A royal burgli since 1306, Crail with 
 St Andrews, &c. returns an M.P. Pop. 1070. 
 
 Craiova. See Krajova. 
 
 Cramond, a village at the Almond's influx to 
 the Firth of Forth, 5 miles WNW. of Edinburgh. 
 
 Cranbome, a Dorset town, 9 miles NNE. of 
 Wimborue. Pop. of parish, 2824. 
 
 Cranbrook, a pleasant little market-town in 
 the Weald of Kent, 46 miles SE. of London. It 
 has a fine Perpendicular church, and a large trade 
 in hops. From the 14th to the 17th century it 
 was the centre of the broadcloth manufacture in- 
 troduced by the Flemings. Pop. of parish, 3950. 
 See Tarbutt's Annals of Cranbrook (1875). 
 
 Cranganore (Kodungalur), a town in Cochin 
 state, on the west coast of southern India. It 
 stands on an opening of the Cochin backwater, 
 18 miles N. of Cochin town. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Cranston, a town of Rhode Island, 4 miles by 
 rail SW. of Providence, with calico and woollen 
 works, &c. Pop. (1880) 5940 ; (1900) 13,343. 
 
 Crarae, a place with granite quarries on Loch 
 Fyne, 9| miles SSW. of Inveraray. 
 
 Crathie and Braemar, Aberdeenshire, the 
 Deeside parish in which is Balmoral (q.v.). 
 
 Craven Arms, Shropshire, a junction, 20 mileg 
 S. of Shrewsbury. 
 
 Orecy-en-Ponthieu, or Cressy, a village in the 
 French dep. of Somme, on the Maye, 12 miles N, 
 of Abbeville. Here, on 26th August 1346, Edward 
 III. won a great victory over the French. 
 
 Crediton, or Kirkton, a Devon town, on the 
 Greedy, a tributary of the Exe, 7 miles NW. of 
 Exeter. It suffered much by fire in 1743 and 
 1769, but its church is a fine old cruciform struc- 
 ture. The traditional birthplace of St Boniface, 
 the apostle of Germany, Crediton was the seat 
 from 910 to 1050 of a bishopric, transferred tlien 
 to Exeter. Its woollen manufactures are a thing 
 of the past. Pop. (1851) 3924 ; (1901) 3974. 
 
 Creedmoor, a village of Long Island. 
 
 Creetown, a Kirkcudbrightshire seaport, 4 miles 
 NE. of Wigtown. Pop. 991. 
 
 Creil, a French manufacturing town in Oise, and 
 22 miles SE. of Beauvais, where metal-work and 
 earthenware are largely produced. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Crema (Krai/ma), a cathedral city of Lombardy, 
 27 miles NW. of Cremona by rail. Pop. 8251. 
 
 Cremo'na, a decayed city of northern Italy, oa 
 the north bank of the Po, 60 miles SE. of Milan 
 by rail. Among its buildings are the cathedral 
 (1107-1606), with gorgeous interior; the neigh- 
 bouring octagonal Baptistery ; the Palazzo Pub- 
 lico (1245) ; the Canipo Santo ; and the famous 
 Torrazzo (1288) or belfry— the loftiest campanile 
 in Italy, 396 feet high. It has a river traffic, and 
 manufactures of silk, cotton, earthenware, and 
 cliemicals ; in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries 
 it was greatly celebrated for its violins, the most 
 famous makers being the Amati, Straduarius, and 
 the Guarnieri. Pop. 37,930. 
 
 Creran, an Ai-gyllshire sea-loch, curving 8 
 miles to Loch Linnhe. 
 
 Cressy. See CREgv. 
 
 Creston, a town of Iowa, 115 miles W. of 
 Ottumwa. It has machine-shops and railway- 
 carriage works. Pop. (1870) 411 ; (1900) 7750. 
 
 Crete (Ital. Candia, Gr. Krete), an autono- 
 mons Turkish island in the Mediterranean, still 
 under Turkish suzerainty. It is 60 miles S. of 
 Cape Mailea in Greece, 110 SW. of Cape Krio in 
 Asia Minor, 100 SSW. of Rhodes, and 300 W. of 
 Cyprus. Its length is 156 miles ; its breadth 
 varies from 30 to as little as 7 miles ; and its area 
 is 332G sq. m., or twice the size of Hampshire. 
 The climate is excellent ; the rainfall about 27 
 inches. Crete is for the most part mountainous, 
 especially in the west, where stand the White 
 Mountains. In the centre Mount Ida, now called 
 Upsiloriti, attains 8055 feet. Everywhere the 
 numerous small valleys are exceedingly fertile. 
 The rivers are dried up in summer ; but springs 
 abound all over the island. The coast-line, deeply 
 indented on the north, includes some good har- 
 bours, as Suda Bay on the north, and on the 
 south Kaloi Liraenes or the Fair Havens (Acts, 
 xxvii. 8). Three neighbouring islands are Clauda 
 or Gavdo, off the south-west coast, 15 sq. m. in 
 area, with a lighthouse ; Dia ; and Grabusa. 
 Wheat and fruit are the most important products. 
 Oranges and lemons particularly flourish. The 
 grapes are good, but the wine, though abundant, 
 is very inferior. The forests have almost entirely 
 disappeared ; but on the hills the cypress 
 flourishes, and in the plain country the olive is 
 the most important tree. The principal exports 
 are olive-oil, soap, carobs, wool, cheese, valonia, 
 acorns, and fruits. Sheep are largely bred, and 
 
CREUSE 
 
 20d 
 
 CRINAN CANAL 
 
 the wool is exported. Sponges are found upon 
 the coast. Pop. 320,000, mostly of Greek descent, 
 with 30,000 Moslems. The Cretans are a turbu- 
 lent race, of proverbial mendacity, bold and in- 
 dependent. Crete liad once, according to Homer, 
 'a hundred cities;' there are now but three 
 towns : Candia, pop. 21,500 ; Retinio, 9500 ; and 
 Canea or Kliania, 14,000. Crete was subdued by 
 the Romans (67 B.C.), by the Venetians (1205), 
 and by the Turks (1C69). A series of rebellions 
 ended in 1897 in the intervention of the powers, 
 the expulsion of tiie Turkish officials, and the 
 constitution of Crete an autonomous state under 
 Turkisli suzerainty and Prince George of Greece 
 as commissioner. In 1905 there was a rebellion 
 aimed at union with Greece. Since 1900 tliere 
 have been great excavations at Knossos, tlie 
 ancient capital. See works by Spratts (1865), 
 Edwardes (1887), A. J. Evans (1896), Bickford 
 Smith (1897), and Freese (1897). 
 
 Creuse (nearly Kreliz), a river and a dep. in 
 central France. The river flows 146 miles north- 
 westward to the Vienne, a tributary of the Loire. 
 — The dep., with an area of 2150 sq. m., liad a 
 pop. of (1872) 274,663 ; (1901) 277,831. 
 
 Creusot, Le {Kreh-zo'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Saone-et-Loire, 14 miles SSE. of Autun, 
 and 236 SSE. of Paris. It owes its importance to 
 the huge ironworks (1837) of Sclineider & Co., 
 at which cannon are largely made. Pop. (1846) 
 4012 ; (1901) 30,175. 
 
 CreveccBur (Krehv-kehr' ; Fr. ' heart-breaker '), 
 a once famous Dutch fort at the confluence of the 
 Meuse and Dieze, 4 miles NNW. of Bois-le-Duc. 
 It figures in history 1587-1794— The same name 
 is borne by French villages in Nord and in Oise. 
 
 Crevlllente {Kray-vil-yen'teh), a town of Spain, 
 20 miles WSW. of Alicante. Pop. 10,167. 
 
 Crewe, a town of Cheshire, with a great rail- 
 way junction and the huge works (1843) of the 
 London and North-Western Railway, to which 
 it owes its present importance. It is 158 miles 
 NW. of London, 43 SE. of Liverpool, 31 SSW. 
 of Manchester, and 53 NW. of Birmingham. 
 About 1840 there were only two or three houses 
 where Crewe now stands ; but since then its 
 pop. has grown to 4491 in 1851, 17,810 in 1871, 
 aul 42,074 in 1901. Naturally Crewe is not an 
 attractive place; still, the L. & N.W. Company 
 have erected many handsome buildings, done 
 much in the way of .sanitation, and in 1887-88 
 presented the town with a beautiful park of 40 
 acres. Crewe was incorporated in 1877, and the 
 borough boundary was extended in 1892. Lord 
 Crewe's seat, Crewe Hall, by Inigo Jones, was 
 burnt in 1866, but has been since rebuilt. 
 
 Crewkerne, a Somerset market-town, in the 
 fertile valley of the Parret, 15 miles SE. of 
 Taunton. It has a cruciform Perpendicular 
 church, with a splendid west front ; a grammar- 
 school (1499), occupying new buildings ; and 
 manufactures of sailcloth, girth-web, hair- 
 seating, &c. Pop. 4226. 
 
 Criccieth (Krik'ki-eth), a Carnarvonshire 
 watering-place, one of the five Carnarvon (q.v.) 
 boroughs, on Cardigan Bay, 4 miles W. by S. of 
 Tremadoc. Pop. 1410. 
 
 Crichton (now Krl-ton ; formerly Krihh'ton), a 
 fine ruined castle of Midlothian, on the Tyne, 5 
 miles ESE. of Dalkeith. It figures in Marmion. 
 
 Crickhowell, a market-town of Brecknock- 
 shire, on the Usk, 13 miles SB. of Brecknock. 
 Pop. of parish, 1246. 
 
 Cricklade, a town in Wiltshire, on the Isis or 
 
 Thames, 7 miles NNW. of Swindon. Enfran- 
 chised under Edward I., it returned two mem- 
 bers till 1885, the ' borough ' since 1782 having 
 included forty-four parishes and parts of six 
 others, with a pop. of 51,000, Pop. in 1901 of rural 
 district (Cricklade and Wootton Bassett) 11,357. 
 
 Crieff (/iTree/f), a Perthshire town, on the Earn's 
 left bank, 18 in. W. of Perth by two branch-lines 
 opened in 1856-66. It is situated in the midst 
 of exquisite scenery, enjoys a pure dry climate, 
 has a large hydropathic (1867), two old market- 
 crosses, and Morrison's Academy (1859). Of many 
 neighbouring seats, Drummond Castle (1491), 
 Lord Willoughby de Eresby's, is famous for its 
 gardens. Pop. (1851) 3824 ; (1901) 5208. 
 
 Criflfel, a Kirkcudbrightshire hill (1867 feet), 
 2^ miles S. by W. of Newabbey. 
 
 Crime'a (Tartar Krym, anciently the Taurio 
 Chersonese), a peninsula of South Russia, between 
 the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, joined to the 
 continent of Russia by the Isthmus of Perekop, 
 18^ miles long by 5^ miles broad at its narrowest 
 part, a canal through which was undertaken in 
 1888. The peninsula is 200 miles from east to 
 west, by 125 miles from north to south, with 
 625 miles of coast-line, and an area of about 
 10,000 sq. m. Along the Siwash or Putrid Sea 
 on the north, and the Sea of Azov, the coasts 
 are flat and open. To the west of the wide bay 
 of Kaffa or Theodosia the south coast becomes 
 rocky and elevated, and forms a succession of 
 capes and small gulfs. Balaklava, and more 
 especially Sebastopol, have fine harbours. Lime- 
 stone mountains from Cape Chersonese to Bafta 
 Bay show deep erosion, presenting the ruins of 
 a vast tableland, sloping gently northwards into 
 the steppe, but hanging in abrupt precipices 
 southwards, Chatir Dagh or Tent Mount (anc. 
 Mons Trapezus, ' table mount '), is the highest 
 summit, 5450 feet. In the hilly district about 
 Kertch are thermal and naphtha springs, and 
 mud volcanoes. There are some fifty small 
 rivers and rivulets, and four hundred salt 
 lakes. The climate is healthy, and generally 
 mild, but in winter the steppe is exposed to cold 
 winds, frost, and snowstorms, while the south 
 coast is sheltered and warm. The steppe, though 
 not fertile, yet grazes innumerable herds of cattle, 
 and yields porphyries and various coloured 
 marbles. The northern mountain-slopes are laid 
 out in pastures, thickets, orchards, and gardens 
 watered from the rivers. In the uplands are 
 still magnificent forests of oak, beech, elm, ash, 
 willow, &c. On the southern slopes are famous 
 health-resorts, with Livadia and other imperial 
 residences. Good wine is largely produced, and 
 some exported. Though the Crimea was once 
 famous for its corn, it has suffered greatly from 
 drought, and much good land is now unculti- 
 vated. Good coal is mined ; an extensive field 
 was opened in 1888. The population numbers 
 about 900,000, of whom most are Tartars, 250,000 
 Russians, and tlie rest Greeks, Jews, Bulgarians, 
 Germans, &c. The capital is Simferopol, the 
 old Tartar capital being Bakchiserai. For 
 Englishmen the peninsula's chief interest is in 
 the Crimean War (1854-55), when Britain, 
 France, and Sardinia defeated the Russians, at 
 a cost to the first of 20,656 lives. 
 
 See J. B. Telfer, The Crimea and Transcaucasia 
 (1876), and histories of the war by Kinglake (8 
 vols. 1863-87) and Hamley (1891). 
 
 Orinan Canal, 9 miles long, in Argyllshire, 
 between Loch Gilp, a branch of Locli Fyne, and 
 Loch Crinan, in the Sound of Jura, at the head 
 
 I 
 
CROAGHPATRICK 
 
 209 
 
 CROYDON 
 
 of the peninsula of Kintyre. Constructed in 
 1733-1801 at a cost of £183,000, it is 24 feet broad 
 and 10 deep, has 15 locks, and admits vessels 
 of 200 tons. 
 
 Oroaghpatrick (Kro-patrick), a mountain (2510 
 ft.) of County Mayo, 4 m. SW. of Westport. Here 
 St Patrick is said to have begun missionary work. 
 Croatia and Slavonia (Hung. Horvdt-Szlavon- 
 orszdg); form since 1881, together with their 
 former 'Military Frontier,' a crown-land belong- 
 ing to the Hungarian section of Austria, lying 
 between the Adriatic Sea on the SW., where 
 Croatia has a seaboard of about 84 miles, and 
 Hungary on the NB. Area, 16,352 sq. m. ; pop. 
 about 2,500,000. The surface of Croatia falls 
 mainly into a wooded mountain district, attain- 
 ing 5751 feet. The province belongs to the basin 
 of the Danube, its most important rivers being 
 the Drave and Save. In Slavonia extensive 
 marshes are found along the main rivers. Warm 
 mineral springs are numerous, and earthquakes, 
 especially about Agram, are frequent. The 
 Adriatic coast is poorly supplied with harbours. 
 The people are Slavs. Agram is the capital. 
 
 Croisic, Le (Krwah-seek'), a seaport in the 
 French dep. of Loire-Inferieure, 20 miles W. of 
 St Nazaire by rail. Pop. 2464. 
 
 Orom'arty, a town of Ross and Cromarty, on 
 the south shore of the Cromarty Firth, 2 miles 
 from its entrance, and 19 NNB. of Inverness. 
 Nothing remains of the old stronghold of the 
 Urquharts, the most famous of whom was 
 Rabelais' translator. Sir Thomas. Hugh Miller 
 was a native. With Wick, &c., Cromarty returns 
 a member to parliament. Pop. 1242. —Cromarty 
 Firth, a land-locked inlet, extends 19| miles 
 north-eastward and eastward to the Moray Firth. 
 It forms a noble harbour, 1 mile to 7| miles 
 broad, and 5 to 35 fathoms deep ; receives at its 
 head the Conon ; and narrows at its entrance to 
 7 furlongs, between the beetling North and South 
 Sutors, 400 and 463 feet high. On its shores 
 are the towns of Dingwall, Invergordon, and 
 Cromarty.— Crom'artyshire, a Scottish county, 
 369 sq. m. in area, but consisting of ten detached 
 portions, and scattered up and down Ross-shire, 
 with which, under the Local Government (Scot- 
 land) Act of 1889, it is finally incorporated. 
 It comprised the ancient sheriffdom of Cromarty, 
 and outlying bits annexed thereto towards the 
 close of the 17th century at the instigation of 
 Viscount Tarbat (created Earl of Cromarty, 1703), 
 who wished thus to hold jurisdiction over every 
 part of his estates. See Sir W. Eraser's Earls 
 qf Cromarty (2 vols. 1876). 
 
 Cromdale, in Elginshire, on the right bank of 
 the Spey, 5 miles NB. of Grantown. Here, on 
 1st May 1690, 800 Jacobite Highlanders were sur- 
 prised and routed by a body of dragoons. 
 
 Cromer, a pleasant watering-place of Norfolk, 
 23 miles N. of Norwich by rail (1877). The sea 
 has made great encroachments on the cliffs since 
 1350, though the town itself is now protected by 
 a sea-wall, formed in 1877, with an esplanade 
 and a jetty, at a cost of nearly £10,000. There 
 are capital sands and golf-links (1887), and the 
 church has a noble flint-work tower of 160 feet. 
 Pop. of urban district, 3781. Lord Cromer (Sir 
 Evelyn Baring) was born here. See W. Rye's 
 Cromer Past and Present (1889). 
 
 Cromford, a town of Derbyshire, on the Der- 
 went, 2 miles N. by B. of Wirksworth. Ark- 
 wright migrated hither in 1771. Pop. 1082. 
 Crompton, a northern suburb of Oldham. 
 N 
 
 Cronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seft' 
 port, 20 miles W. of St Petersburg, on a narrow 
 island 7 miles long, at the narrowest part of the 
 Gulf of Finland, and over against the mouth of 
 the Neva. Founded by Peter the Great in 1710, 
 it is at once the greatest naval station and the 
 most flourishing commercial port of Russia, It 
 is the seat of the Russian Admiralty ; has three 
 harbours ; and since 1884 has been connected 
 with St Petersburg by a ship-canal 207 feet wide 
 and 22 feet deep. Cronstadt contains a cathedral, 
 a statue of Peter the Great, and a British sea- 
 men's hospital (1867). Pop. 61,000. , 
 Cronstadt, in Hungary. See Kronstadt. 
 Crookhaven, a fishing- village of County Cork, 
 30 miles SW. of Skibbereen. 
 
 Crookston Castle, a ruined castle of Renfrew- 
 shire, 5i miles ESE. of Paisley. Darnley's 
 betrothal to Queen Mary is falsely placed here. 
 
 Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, gives name 
 to Charles I.'s defeat of Waller (29th June 1644). 
 Crosby, Great, a watering-place 6^ miles N. 
 by W. of Liverpool. Pop. 7800. 
 
 Crossmaglen', an Armagh market-town, 3 miles 
 NE. ofCulloville. Pop. 774. 
 
 Crossraguel (' Cross of St Regains '), a ruined 
 Cliigniac abbey (1244) in Ayrshire, 2 miles SW. of 
 Maybole. 
 Cross River. See Calabar. 
 Crosthwaite, the parish containing Keswick 
 (q.v.). In its churchyard is Southey's grave. 
 Crotona. See Cortona. 
 
 Crowtoorough, a village in East Sussex, 7 miles 
 S. of Tnnbridge Wells, 2 miles B. of Crowborough 
 Beacon (804 feet). Pop. 3000. 
 
 Crowland, or Croyland, a Lincolnshire market- 
 town, on the Welland, in the Fens, 10 miles 
 NNB. of Peterborough. Here in 716 King Ethel- 
 wald founded a monastery, which, restored in 
 1113, became a mitred Benedictine abbey of 
 singular magnificence. The north aisle of its 
 church now serves as the parish church; the 
 so-called ' triangular ' bridge, now waterless, was 
 built by an abbot about 1380. Pop. of parish, 
 2800. See Perry's Crowland Abbey (1867). 
 
 Crowle, a market-town of Lincolnshire. 7 miles 
 B. by S. of Thome. Pop. of parish, 2741. 
 
 Crown Point, a village of New York, on Lake 
 Champlain. A British fort here was captured by 
 Colonel Ethan Allen in 1775. 
 
 Croydon, a town in Surrey, 10| miles S. of 
 London Bridge, yet practically a suburb of 
 London. It lies on the edge of the chalk and 
 plastic clay, near the Banstead Downs, at the 
 source of the Wandle, hence its name Croindene 
 'chalkhill') in Domesday. The archbishops of 
 Canterbury had a palace here from the Con- 
 quest till i757. Its Perpendicular hall (1452) and 
 chapel (1633-63) were purchased by the Duke of 
 Newcastle in 1887 and presented to the Sisters of 
 the Church Extension Association. Addington 
 Park, 3^ miles ESE., has since 1807 been the 
 summer seat of the archbishops. Addiscombe 
 House, at one time the residence of the first 
 Earl of Liverpool, was converted in 1812 into the 
 Bast India Military College, but was pulled down 
 in 1863. The fine old Perpendicular parish church 
 was destroyed by fire in January 1867, with the 
 exception of the tower ; but was rebuilt by Sir 
 Gilbert Scott, and retains the monument of Arch- 
 bishop Sheldon, with fragments of that of Arch- 
 bishop Grindal. That of Archbishop Whitgifb 
 was restored in 1888 at a cost of £600. Whit- 
 
CROYLAND 
 
 210 
 
 CULLEN 
 
 gift's Hospital (1596) is a red brick quadrangular 
 
 Eile, whilst his grammar-school now occupies 
 uildings of 1871, besides a large Whitgift middle 
 school. Till the 18th century Croydon was 
 famous for its ' colliers ' or charcoal-burners ; 
 now its chief specialty is the manufacture of 
 church clocks and carillons. It was made a 
 municipal borough in 1883, a parliamentary one 
 in 1885, and a county borough in 1888. Pop. (1851) 
 10,260; (1861)20,325; (1871)55,652; (1881)78,953; 
 (1891) 102,695 ; (1901) 133,895. 
 
 Croyland. See Crow land. 
 
 Crystal Palace. See Sydenham. 
 
 Crozet Islands, a rocky, uninhabited group to 
 the south of the Indian Ocean, almost on a line 
 between the Cape of Good Hope and Kerguelen's 
 Land, in lat. 46° S., and long. 52° B. 
 
 Csaba, a town of Hungary, 7 miles S. of Bekes 
 by rail. Pop. 37,616. 
 
 Gsanad, a village in Hungary, on the Maros, 
 22 miles E. of Szegedin. Pop. 2977. 
 
 Csongrad, a town of Hungary, at the conflu- 
 ence of the Theiss and the Kbros, 75 miles SE. of 
 Pesth. Pop. 27,837. 
 
 Ouando, a name of the Chobe, a tributary of 
 the Zambesi (q.v.). 
 
 Cuango, or Kwango. See Congo. 
 
 Cuba, tiie most westerly and largest of the 
 West Indian islands, since 1902 an indepen- 
 dent republic, stretches in the form of a long 
 narrow crescent, convex on the north side, at the 
 entrance of the Gulf of Mexico, which it divides 
 into two channels — the north-west, 124 miles 
 wide, and the south-west, 98 miles at its narrowest 
 part. Cuba is 759 miles long from east to west, 
 with a breadth varying from 27 miles to 90 miles, 
 a coast-line of 1976 miles, and an area of 41,655 
 sq. m. The shores are low and in many parts 
 beset by reefs and banks, but there are numerous 
 excellent havens. A watershed running length- 
 wise through the island, rises into mountainous 
 heights only in the south-east, where the Sierra 
 de Maestra in the Pico de Tarquino attains 8400 
 feet. The mountains, containing minerals, espe- 
 cially copper and iron, are wooded to the sum- 
 mits. The limestone rocks abound in caverns, 
 with magnificent stalactites. Mineral waters are 
 plentiful. The rivers, running north and south, 
 are navigable for only a few miles by small boats, 
 but are very serviceable for irrigation. The 
 climate, more temperate than in the other "West 
 Indian Islands, is healthy in the elevated interior, 
 but the coasts are the haunt of fever and ague. 
 No month of the year is free from rain, the 
 greatest rainfall being in May, June, and July. 
 Earthquakes are frequent in the east ; and a 
 hurricane in 1846 demolished 1872 houses and 
 sank 216 vessels. The soil is eminently fertile, a 
 large part still covered with virgin forest con- 
 taining magnificent mahogany, cedar, &c. Among 
 the cultivated products are sugar, tobacco, 
 coffee, cacao, rice, maize, cotton, esculent roots, 
 and tropical fruits. The rivers and seas are well 
 stocked with fish, and turtles abound in the 
 shallows and sandy places of the beach. Sugar 
 has long been the chief product ; and there are 
 some 1600 sugar plantations, 8500 tobacco plan- 
 tations, and 700 coffee plantations. 
 
 Cuba, spoken of as the ' Queen of the Antilles,' 
 was discovered in 1492 by Columbus, and first 
 settled by Spaniards at Baracoa in 1511. Havana, 
 founded in 1519, was reduced to ashes by the 
 French in 1538, and again in 1554. In 1762 the 
 English took and held Havana for a year. 
 
 In 1818 the trade of Cuba was opened to the 
 world, and for some years the island enjoyed un- 
 exampled prosperity. During the American civil 
 war Cuba developed its sugar industry. An in. 
 surrection against the Spanish authorities went 
 on from 1868 to 1878, a new one broke out in 
 1895, and the Spanish severities in suppressing it 
 led to the intervention of the United States and 
 the war, disastrous to Spain, of 1898-99. After 
 tlie war Cuba was occupied by the Americans 
 till 1902, when a separate constitution was given 
 to it as an independent republic, closely con- 
 nected with the United States by a 'reciprocal 
 commercial convention.' Pop. (1900) 1,580,000. 
 Havana is the capital ; other towns are Puerto 
 Principe, Santiago, Nuevitas, and Cienfuegos, 
 united by railway. See works by Gallenga (1873), 
 Goodman, Ballou, Davis (1897), Porter (1899), and 
 Robinson (1905). 
 
 Cubango, a river of central Southern Africa, 
 the chief feeder of Lake Ngami. 
 
 Cucliulllns, or Coolin.",, a group of sublimely 
 picturesque mountains in the south of Skye, 
 attaining 3183 feet. 
 
 Cuckfield, a Sussex market-town, 12 miles 
 NNW. of Lewes. Pop. 1837. 
 
 Ciicuta, San Jose de, a town in the Colom- 
 bian dep. of Santander, on the Rio Zulia, 35 
 miles S. of Puerto Villamizar by rail. It was 
 rebuilt after the earthquake of 1875. Pop. 10,000. 
 — RosARio DE CucuTA, to the SE., has also large 
 plantations of coffee and cacao. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Cuddalore (KMalur or Gudulur), the chief 
 town in South Arcot, on the Coromandel or east 
 coast of India, 16 miles S. of Pondicherry. It 
 has a large trade by land with Madras in oils, 
 indigo, and sugar, and exports grain by sea. 
 Cuddalore, for 77 years British, was in 1758 
 taken by tlie French, but finally ceded to Britain 
 in 1785. Pop. 53,000. 
 
 Cuddapah, a town 161 miles NW. by rail of 
 Madras. Pop. 18,982. 
 
 Cuddesdon, a village of Oxfordshire, 6 miles 
 ESE. of Oxford. Here are the palace of the 
 bishops of Oxford, rebuilt by Bishop Fell in 
 1679, and a theological college (1854). 
 
 Cuenca (Kwen-kd), a decayed city of Spain, 85 
 miles ESE. of Madrid, stands 2960 feet above sea- 
 level, at the confluence of the Jucarand Huecar. 
 It has a very interesting cathedral (1177-1669). 
 Poj). 10,300.— Area of province of Oiienca, 6726 
 sq. m. ; pop. 251,000. 
 
 Cuenca, a cathedral city of Ecuador, on the 
 Rio Paute, 190 miles SSW. of Quito, on a fertile 
 tableland, 8469 feet above the sea. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Cuernavaca {Kwernavah'ka), capital of the 
 Mexican state Morelos, 40 miles S. of Mexico 
 City. Near it is the famed teocalli of Xochicalco. 
 Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Cuevas de Vera {Kway'vas day Vay'ra), a town 
 in the Spanish province of Almeria, on the Alman- 
 zora, 70 miles WSW. of Cartagena. Pop. 20,558. 
 
 Culbln, a sandy desert on the Moray Firth, 15 
 sq. m. in area, about the mouth of the Findhorn. 
 It was formed between 12th and 17th centuries, 
 and some of its drifted sand-hills are 100 ft. high. 
 
 Culebra (Coolay'bra), one of the Virgin Islands- 
 
 Culenborg, or Kuilenburg, a town of Holland, 
 on the Lek, 11 miles SSE. of Utrecht. Pop. 6798. 
 
 Culiacan', a city of Mexico, on the Rio de 
 Culiacan, 100 miles SE. of Sinaloa. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Cullen, a fishing-town of Banffshire, on the 
 
CULLERA 
 
 211 
 
 CUNENS 
 
 Moray Firth, 67 miles NW. of Aberdeen by rail- 
 way (1885). Backed by the conical Bin Hill (1050 
 feet), it has a harbour (1817-34), a cruciform 
 parish church, and CuUen House, a seat of the 
 Earl of Seafield. A royal burgh since about 1200, 
 Cullen unites with Elgin, &c., to return oiie 
 member. Pop. 4100. 
 
 CuUera (Kool-yay'ra), a Spanish port, near the 
 Jucar's mouth, 25 m. SSE. of Valencia. Pop. 11,950. 
 
 Gullod'en, or Drummossie Mum, a broad flat 
 sandstone ridge, 300 to 500 feet high, 6 miles 
 ENE. of Inverness. Planting and culture have 
 changed its aspect much since 16th April 1746, 
 when it was the scene of the defeat of Prince 
 Charles Edward by the Duke of Cumberland. 
 Since 1881 a cairn, 20 feet high, marks the battle- 
 field. Within 2 miles stands CuUoden House, the 
 seat of Duncan Forbes, 
 
 Cixllompton, a Devon town, on the Culme, 12 J 
 miles NE. of Exeter. Pop. of parish, 3979. 
 
 Culna. See Kalna. 
 
 Culross (Koo'ros), a pretty old-world village 
 of Fife (till 1889 Perthshire detached), on the 
 north shore of the Firth of Forth, 7 miles W. by 
 S. of Dunfermline. With memories of SS. Serf 
 and Kentigern, it has remains of a Cistercian 
 abbey (1217), but has lost its manufacture of 
 ' girdles,' its salt-works, shipping, and submarine 
 coal-mines. A royal burgh since 1588, it unites 
 with Stirling, &c. to return one member. Pop. 
 350. See Beveridge's Culross (1885). 
 
 Cults, a Fife parish, the birthplace of Wilkie, 
 4^ miles SW. of Cupar. 
 
 Culzean (Kul-leen'), the Ayrshire seat (1777) of 
 the Marquis of Ailsa, 4^ miles W. of Maybole. 
 
 Cumand, a town of Venezuela, on the Man- 
 zanares, a mile above its mouth, where the port 
 of Puerto Sucre lies on the Gulf of Cariaco. It 
 is the oldest European town in South America, 
 having been founded by Columbus's son Diego as 
 New Toledo in 1521. It was almost destroyed by 
 earthquake in 1853. Pop. 12,051. 
 
 Cumania, a region in central Hungary divided 
 into Great Cumania, east of the Theiss, and Little 
 Cumania, between the Danube and the Theiss. 
 
 Cumberland, a Border county of England, 
 washed on the W. by the Irish Sea and the Sol- 
 way Firth. Eleventh in size of the English 
 counties, it has a maximum length of 75 miles, a 
 maximum breadth of 45, and an area of 1564 sq. 
 m. The surface is mountainous in the south- 
 west and east; the middle consists of hills, 
 valleys, and elevated ridges, and the north and 
 north-west districts, Including the vale of Car- 
 lisle, are low, flat, or gently undulated. The 
 mountains in the south-west are high, rugged, and 
 sterile, with deep and narrow valleys, lakes, rivers, 
 waterfalls, and woodlands. The chief mountains 
 ire Scaw Fell Pike (3210 feet), Scaw Fell (3162), 
 Helvellyn (3118), Skiddaw (3058), Bow Fell (2960), 
 ind Cross Fell (2892). The largest lakes are 
 [Illswater, Derwentwater, Bassenthwaite, Thirl- 
 nere, Buttermere, Wastwater, and Ennerdale. 
 «x of the chief waterfalls are 60 to 156 feet high. 
 rhe chief rivers are the Eden, the Esk, and the 
 )erwent. Cumberland abounds in mineral 
 wealth — silver, copper, lead, iron, plumbago, 
 ypsum, limestone, coal, slates, marbles, marl, 
 5C. In the mountainous parts the climate is wet 
 nd variable, especially from July to October ; on 
 he coast it is mild. The annual rainfall ranges 
 X>m 50 inches to 244 at Styhead Pass (1077 feet). 
 
 here are many small dairies. The estates are 
 
 snerally small, and farmed by the owners, or 
 
 held under the lords of the manors by customary 
 tenure. Many of the small proprietors, or ' states- 
 men,' have had their lands in their families for 
 centuries. The chief towns are Carlisle, Cocker- 
 mouth, Whitehaven, Workington, Maryport, 
 Wigton, Penrith, Keswick, Egremont. Since 
 1885 Cumberland returns one member for each of 
 the four divisions. North or Eskdale, Mid or 
 Penrith, Cockennouth, and West or Egremont. 
 Pop. (1801) 117,230 ; (1841) 178,038 ; (1901) 266,921. 
 Near Keswick and Kirkoswald are two fine stone 
 circles ; and many Roman relics have been found. 
 For centuries part of Cumbria or Strathclyde, 
 the present county was finally annexed to Eng- 
 land in 1157. Prior to the imion of the crowns, 
 it was the constant scene of war and devastation ; 
 and it suffered again in both the '15 and the '45. 
 See ^Borders, Lake District ; and R. S. Fer- 
 guson's History of Cumberland (1890). 
 
 Cumberland, a river of Kentucky and Tennes- 
 see, flowing 650 miles to the Ohio at Smithland— 
 nearly 200 navigable for steamboats. For the 
 Cumberland Mountains, see Kentucky. 
 
 Cumberland, (1) capital of Alleghany county, 
 Maryland, on the Potomac, 178 miles W. by N. 
 of Baltimore by rail. It has manufactures of 
 brick, cement, flour, and leather. Pop. 17,729. — 
 (2) The north-easternmost town of Rhode Island, 
 with coal and other minerals. Pop. 8990. 
 
 Cumberland Island (so called) is a peninsula 
 of Baffin Land, extending into Davis Strait. 
 
 Cumbernauld, a Dumbartonshire village, 16 
 miles NE. of Glasgow. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Cumbrae, Bio or Great, an island of Buteshire, 
 in the Firth of Clyde, 2^ miles E. of Bute at the 
 narrowest, and IJ mile WSW. of Largs. With the 
 shape of a shark's tooth, it is 3| miles long, 2 
 broad, IO5 in circumference, and 5 sq. m. in area. 
 It rises 417 feet, and consists of Old Red sand- 
 stone, with wall-like trap-dykes intersecting it. 
 The Marquis of Bute is sole proprietor. Millport, 
 on the south shore, 19 miles SSW. of Greenock, 
 is a crowded resort in summer. Pop. (1801) 506 ; 
 (1901) 1754, of whom 1663 were in Millport.— 
 Little Cumbrae, IJ mile SSW. of Millport, is 
 barely 1 sq. m. in area. It rises 409 feet, and has 
 a lighthouse (1826). Pop. 17. 
 
 Cumbria. See Strathclyde. 
 
 Cuminestown, an Aberdeenshire village, 6 
 miles ESE. of Turriff. Pop. 438. 
 
 Cumnock, Old, a town of Ayrshire, on Lugar 
 Water, 18 miles by rail E. of Ayr. The manufac- 
 ture of wooden snuff"-boxes was many years since 
 transferred to Mauchline, and mining is now the 
 chief industry. The Covenanting ' prophet, ' Peden 
 (1626-86), lies in the churchyard. Dumfries 
 House (Marquis of Bute) is 2 miles to the west. 
 Pop. 3104. — New Cumnock, on the Nith, 5^ miles 
 SE. of Old Cumnock, has 1514 inhabitants. 
 
 Cunmor, a Berkshire village, 3f miles WSW. of 
 Oxford. The house in which Amy Robsart was 
 murdered is gone. 
 
 Cunaxa, east of the Euphrates, 60 miles N. of 
 Babylon, the battlefield (401 B.c.) where Cyrus 
 the younger, .supported by Xenophon and 13,000 
 Greeks, was defeated by his brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon, and slain. 
 
 Cundinamarca, a central dep. of Colombia. 
 Area, 79,810 sq. m. ; pop. 567,65a The capital is 
 Bogota, also capital of the republic. 
 
 Cunene (Koo-nay^nay), a river of Portuguese 
 South Africa, flowing 600 miles southward and 
 westward to the sea 60 miles north of Cape Frio. 
 
CUNEO 
 
 212 
 
 CYPRUS 
 
 Cuneo. See Coni. 
 
 Ounninghame, the northern of the three old 
 divisions of Ayrshire. 
 
 Cupar, or Cupar-Fife, the county town of 
 Fife, on tlie Eden, 10 miles W. by S. of St 
 Andrews, and 30 NNE. of Edinburgh. Brewing, 
 tanning, &c. are carried on ; and there is a large 
 corn-market. Lord Campbell was a native. The 
 place has been a royal burgh since at least 1363, 
 and it unites with St Andrews, &c. to return one 
 member. Pop. (1851) 6605 ; (1901) 4483. See also 
 Coupar-Angus. 
 
 Cura, CiuDAD DE, a town of Venezuela, CO miles 
 SW. of Caracas. Pop. 12,644. 
 
 Ouragao (Koo-ra-sdh'o ; also spelt Curaqoa), the 
 most important of the Dutch West India Islands. 
 It lies 40 miles from the coasrt; of Venezuela, is 36 
 miles long by 8 broad, and has a population of 
 30,000. The capital is Willeinstad, on the Bay of 
 8t Anna, with 10,000 inhabitants. The chief 
 produce is salt, but careful cultivation produces 
 sugar, tobacco, maize, figs, cocoa, cocoa-nuts, 
 lemons, and the oranges with which the Curagoa 
 liqueur is prepared in Holland. The colonial 
 government has authority not merely over the 
 neighbouring Windward Islands, Aruba and Bon- 
 aire, but also St Eustache, Saba, and the Dutch 
 part of St Martin. Altogether the Dutch West 
 Indies have a population of about 52,000. Curasao 
 was discovered by Spain in 1527, taken by the 
 Dutch in 1634, by the English in 1807, and re- 
 Btored to Holland in 1815. 
 
 Curia Muria. See Kuria Muria. 
 
 Curisches Haff. See Kurisches Haff. 
 
 Curico, a town of Chili, near the Rio Lontu6, 
 140 miles SSE. of Valparaiso. Pop. 15,110. 
 
 Curragh, a large undulating down in Ireland, 2 
 miles E. of Kildare town. It is crown property, 
 and in it is a large camp of exercise, established 
 in 1855. It is even better known as a racecourse. 
 
 Currie, a Midlothian village, 6 miles SW. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. 333. 
 
 Gurzola (Koortz'ola ; anc. Corcyra), a Dalmatian 
 island of the Adriatic, 30 miles long by 5 broad. 
 Pop. 18,934 (1938 in Curzola town in the NE.). 
 
 Cusset (Kiis-say'), a town 2 nules NE. of Vichy 
 (q.v.), with two mineral springs. Pop. 6125. 
 
 Custozza (Koostotz'a), a village 10 miles SW. ot 
 Verona, where the Italians have twice— in 1848 
 and 1866— been utterly defeated by the Austrians. 
 
 Ciistrln. See KiisxRiN. 
 
 Cutch (Kachchh), a protected principality under 
 the government of Bombay, stretches along the 
 Gulf of Cutch and the Indian Ocean between 
 Gujarat and Sind. Excluding the Rann of Cutch, 
 it is 160 miles long from E. to W., 30 to 70 broad, 
 and 6500 sq. m. in area. Earthquakes liave oc- 
 curred. Tlie population is about 500,000. The 
 capital is Bhuj. The Ilann or Runn of Cutch— 
 subdivided into two parts, the smaller, of nearly 
 2000 sq. m., on the east, and the larger, of 7000 
 sq. m., on the north— is a desert, being mainly 
 caked, hard ground during the dry season, and 
 in the rainy a sort of shallow lake. It is sup- 
 posed to have been originally a permanent inlet 
 of the ocean. The periodical disappearance of 
 the waters leaves behind it one continuous crust 
 of salt. 
 
 Cut Hill, a Dartmoor eminence (1971 feet). 
 
 Cuttack (Kataka, ' the fort'), a town of Orissa, 
 Bengal, immediately below the bifurcation of the 
 Mahanadi, 220 miles SW. of Calcutta. It is 
 
 chiefly notable for its filigree-work in gold and 
 silver. Pop. 53,500. 
 
 Cuxhaven (Koolcs-hdh'fen), a German town, on 
 the Elbe's south bank, at its mouth in the German 
 Ocean, 72 miles NW. of Hamburg. Pop. 6490. 
 
 Cuyaba (Koo-ya-ba'), the capital of the Brazilian 
 province of Matto Grosso, on the Cuyaba River, 
 980 miles NW. of Rio de Janeiro. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Cuzco (Kooz-ko), a city of Peru, 11,440 feet above 
 sea-level, in a valley of the Andes, 345 miles ESB. 
 of Lima. It was the ancient capital of the Incas, 
 and at the time of its conquest by Pizarro (1533) 
 had 200,000 inhabitants. Now it has only some 
 28,000, but it is a fine city, with a cathedral 
 (1572-1654) and a university (159S). 
 
 Cwmdu {Konm-dii'), a village of Glamorgan- 
 shire, 6 miles NNW. of Bridgend. Pop. 6769. 
 
 Cyc'lades. See Archipelago. 
 
 Cydnus, a river of Cilicia, rising on the south 
 side of the Taurus range, and flowing past Tarsus, 
 and a broad sand-choked lagoon, into the sea. 
 Alexander nearly lost his life through bathing 
 in it when overheated. 
 
 Cynon, a river of South Wales, flowing 18 miles 
 to the Taff. 
 
 Cyprus (Gr. Kwpros, Turk. G'Ws, Fr. Cliypre, 
 Ital. Cipro), a Mediterranean island, 60 miles W. 
 of Syria, and 40 S. of Asia Minor, nominally 
 belonging to Turkey, but actually occupied and 
 administered by Britain. Its extreme length is 
 140 miles, of which 40 consist of the Carpas pen- 
 insula ; the extreme breadth is 60 miles ; and the 
 area is 3707 sq. m. , or a little larger than Norfolk 
 and Suff'olk together. The northern of two prin- 
 cipal ranges of mountains extends from Cape St 
 Andreas, at the extreme east, almost as far as 
 Cape Kormakiti. Its highest mountains (includ- 
 ing St Hilarion, 3340 feet) are north of Nicosia. 
 South of this range is the great Messaorian plain, 
 once famous for its cereals. The western range 
 occupies great part of the western and south- 
 western districts ; its highest mountain is Mount 
 Troodos (6352 feet), one of whose peaks bears the 
 classic name of Olympus. Larnaca and Limassol, 
 the chief seaports, are open, shallow roadsteads. 
 The rivers only flow after heavy rain or the melt- 
 ing of the snow in the hills. The towns are Nicosia 
 (the capital), Larnaca, Limassol, Famagusta, 
 Papho, and Kyrenia. Pop. (1901) 237,022, of 
 whom 51,500 were Mohammedan and Turkish- 
 speaking, the rest mostly professing the Orthodox 
 or Greek religion, and speaking Greek. Cyprus 
 produces wheat, barley, carobs or locust beans, 
 cotton, silk, flax, tobacco, madder, wool, gypsum, 
 oranges, pomegranates, sponges, gum-mastic, and 
 immense quantities of wine. 
 
 Cyprus was once celebrated for its copper- 
 mines, which were worked by the Phoenicians 
 and Romans ; indeed the word ' copper ' is derived 
 from the name of the island. A little is still 
 mined. Gypsum or plaster of Paris is manufac- 
 tured and exported. Salt is produced by evapora- 
 tion. The climate of Cyprus has been unduly 
 vilified. Though some parts are malarious, for 
 people who live regular lives and take reason- 
 able precautions, the climate is not only healthy 
 but pleasant. The people are healthy and well 
 grown ; the men, as a rule, handsome, the women 
 rarely so. Among wild animals the moufflon or 
 Cyprus sheep is becoming very scarce. Mules of 
 peculiar excellence are bred. The forests (for 
 which Cyprus was once famous) have well-nigh 
 disappeared, and the climate and fertility of the 
 country have greatly suffered in consequence; 
 
 i 
 
CYRENE 
 
 213 
 
 DAKAR 
 
 flocks of goats prevent any natural growth of trees 
 on the mountains. Locusts, a greater scourge, 
 are now almost exterminated. — Successively held 
 by Phoenicians, Egyptians, Persians, and Egyp- 
 tians again, till in 58 B.C. it became a Roman 
 province, Cyprus at the division of the empire 
 naturally belonged to the eastern half. Richard 
 I. in 1195 gave it to Guy de Lusignan ; in 1487 
 it fell to Venice ; and in 1570 it was conquered 
 by the Turks. Since 1878 it has been occupied 
 by Britain, and in 1882 had a constitution granted 
 it. Britain agreed to pay the Sultan a sum 
 ultimately fixed at £87,800 (as excess of revenue), 
 and £5000 for state lands, besides a large quantity 
 of salt ; but these sums are not actually paid 
 over, but are retained as part payment for losses 
 in connection with the Turkish guaranteed loan. 
 See works by Cesnola (1877), A. H. Lang (1878), 
 Hepworth Dixon (1879), Sir S. Baker (1879), 
 Mallock (1889), Fyler (1899), and Hackett (1901). 
 
 Gyrene, a ruined city of North Africa, the 
 capital of Cyrenaica. See Barca. 
 
 Czaslau (Tchas'low; Czech CdslavX a town of 
 Bohemia, 40 miles ESE. of Prague by rail. In 
 its church the Hussite leader Ziska was buried ; 
 and here Frederick the Great defeated the Aus- 
 trians in 1742. Pop. 8878. 
 
 Czegled (Tseg'kd), a, market-town of Hungary, 
 47 miles SE. of Pesth by rail. Pop. 29,549. 
 
 CzenstochaMiTchen' sto-hoiu), or Czenstochowa, 
 a town of Poland, 148 miles SW. of Warsaw by 
 rail. A Catholic monastery (c. 1382) is visited 
 yearly by over 50,000 pilgrims, as possessing 
 the famous 'Black Virgin,' a murky Byzantine 
 painting ascribed to St Luke. Pop. 45,522. 
 
 CzemowitZ (Tcher-no'vitz), capital of the pro- 
 vince of Bukowina, near the right bank of the 
 Pruth, 165 miles SE. of Lemberg by rail. It has 
 the palace of a Greek archbishop (1875); his 
 cathedral (1864), on the model of St Isaac's at 
 St Petersburg ; an Armenian church (1875) ; a 
 synagogue (1877) ; the 'Austria Monument' (1875) ; 
 and a university (1875) with nearly 300 students. 
 Pop. (1869) 33,884 ; (1900) 69,620. 
 
 ACCA, a city of Bengal, 150 miles NE. 
 of Calcutta, on the north bank of the 
 Buriganga. From 1610 to 1704 capital 
 of Mohammedan Bengal, it was in 1905 
 made headquarters of the newly-con- 
 stituted joint province of Eastern Ben- 
 gal and Assam, The suburbs formerly extended 
 15 miles northward, where mosques and brick 
 buildings are still found buried in thick jungle. 
 In the 18th century it became widely celebrated 
 for its delicate muslins ; but after 1817 this trade 
 declined, under the competition of Manchester 
 piece-goods, and the aspect of the city changed 
 with the disastrous decay of its staple industry. 
 The general development, however, of trade 
 throughout the presidency, and the opening of 
 the State Railway in 1886, has brought back a 
 share of its former prosperity. A small colony 
 of muslin-weavers still survives, and other manu- 
 factures are coarse cotton cloth, embroidery, 
 silver-work, shell-carving, and pottery. Dacca 
 College (1835) has about 300 students. Pop. (1800) 
 200,000 ; (1872) 69,212 ; (1901) 90,542. 
 
 Dacia, the land of the ancient Daci or Getse, 
 including the country between the Danube, the 
 Theiss, the Carpathians, and the Pruth. 
 Daer Water. See Clyde. 
 Daghestan ('mountain-land'), a triangular 
 territory of Ciscaucasia, between the Caucasus 
 and the west coast of the Caspian Sea. Area, 
 11,425 sq. m. ; pop. 589,705. 
 
 Dago, an island near the entrance of the Gulf 
 of Finland, forming part of the Russian govern- 
 ment of Bsthonia. Area, 367 sq. m. ; pop. 15,000. 
 Dagupan, an important commercial town of 
 Luzon, Philippine Islands, in the Lingayen Gulf, 
 connected with Manila by rail. Pop. 20,500. 
 
 Dahlak, three islands, with many smaller rocks, 
 in the Red Sea, olT Massowah, 
 Dahna. See Arabia. 
 
 Dahomey, a French dependency in Africa, ex- 
 tending inland from the Slave Coast, bordering 
 on Yoruba. The seaboard is confined to a district 
 of 35 miles ; and the long lagoon which, shut in 
 from the ocean by a protecting bank of sand, 
 affords an easy route along nearly the whole of 
 this coast. About midway is the port of Whydah, 
 whence a road extends inland to Abomey, a dis- 
 
 tance of 70 miles. Dense forests and dismal 
 swanjps cover nearly two-thirds of this distance, 
 but from the Great Swamp of Agrime vast un- 
 dulating plains rise for many miles, in the direc- 
 tion of the Kong Mountains. The Avon and 
 Denham lagoons receive the rivers. The soil is 
 extremely fertile. Groves of oil-palms encircle 
 each town, and palm-oil is made in large quanti- 
 ties. Cotton cloth is made, and weapons and 
 tools are forged from native iron. The Dahoman 
 kingdom dates from the beginning of the 18th 
 century, and reached its zenith about 1850. 
 Fetich -worship prevailed, taking the form of 
 serpent-worship on the coast; and wholesale 
 nuirder was one of the chief features in religious 
 and state ceremonies, as many as 500 human 
 victims having been sacriiiced at one of the grand 
 'customs' which took place annually. The 
 revenue depended largely upon the sale of slaves. 
 The French established a footing on the coast in 
 1851, and gradually extended their influence till, 
 in 1894, the whole kingdom was taken in. The 
 colony comprises, besiiles the native kingdom of 
 Dahomey, all the French possessions bounded on 
 the north by the French Soudan, on the east by 
 British Nigeria and Lagos, on the south by the 
 Gulf of Guinea, and on the west by German Togo. 
 The total area is estimated at 60,000 sq. m. , and the 
 population at 1,000,000. There are about 70 miles 
 of coast. The capital is Porto Novo (pop. 50,000). 
 Other centres are Abomey (15,000), the former 
 capital of Dahomey; AUada (10,000); Agone 
 (20,000) ; Grand Popo ; Cotonu, a port ; Wliydah, 
 a port ; Nikki, and Say. In 1901 the imports 
 (liquors, cotton, and tobacco) were valued at 
 15,752,650 francs, the exports (chiefly palm kernels 
 and oil) at 10,478,900 francs. See works by Burton 
 (1864), Skertchly (1874), Bouche (Paris, 1885), 
 Aubley (Paris, 1894), and Lee (1900) ; and Ellis, 
 The Ewe-speaking Peoples (1890). 
 
 Dahra, a district of Algeria, to the east of 
 Mostaganem, and near the coast. 
 
 Dailly, an Ayrshire village, on Girvan Water, 
 2 miles SSW. of Maybole. Pop. 506. 
 
 Daimiel, a town of Spain, 28 miles ENE. of 
 Ciudad Real by rail. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Dakar, a seaport with a magnificent harbour 
 in French Senegal, opposite the island of Goree 
 (q.v.), capital of the settlement, and terminus of 
 the railway towards Timbuctoo. Pop. 2000. 
 
DAKOTA 
 
 S14 
 
 DAMASCtJS 
 
 Dako'ta. See North and South Dakota. 
 
 Dalbeattie, a Kirkcudbrightshire town, near 
 Urr Water, 15 miles SW. of Dumfries. Founded 
 in 1780, it owed its importance to the neighbour- 
 ing Craignair granite quarries (now largely ex- 
 hausted). Pop. (1841) 1430 ; (1901) 3469. 
 
 Dalecarlia, or Dalarne, an old province of 
 central Sweden, now the county of Kopparberg. 
 
 Dalgety, in 1904 chosen to be Federal Capital of 
 the Australian Commonwealth, is in the SE. corner 
 of New South Wales, 296 miles SW. of Sydney. 
 
 Dalhousie Castle, the seat of the Earl of Dal- 
 housie, in Midlothian, on the South Bsk, 2i 
 miles S. by W. of Dalkeith. 
 
 Dallas, a Spanish mining town, 18 miles WSW. 
 of Almeria. Pop. 6294. 
 
 Dalkeith, a town of Midlothian, 6 miles SE. 
 of Edinburgh, on a tongue of land between the 
 North and South Esks. There is a large corn 
 exchange (1855); of nearly a dozen places of 
 worship the only old one is the parish church, 
 collegiate once, of which Norman Macleod was 
 minister. Dalkeith Palace, a seat of the Duke 
 of Buccleuch, is a Grecian edifice, built in 1700 
 by Sir John Vanbrugh for Monmouth's widowed 
 duchess. Professor Tait was born here. Pop. 
 (1841) 4831 ; (1901) 0812. 
 
 Dalkey (Dal-kee'), a delightfully situated coast- 
 town, 8 miles SE. of Dublin. Pop. 3397. 
 
 Dallas, capital of Dallas county, Texas, on 
 Trinity River, 265 miles NNW. of Houston. A 
 flourishing place, it has flour-mills and grain-eleva- 
 tors, foundries, and manufactures of woollens, 
 soap, &c. Pop. (1880) 10,358 •, (1900) 42,640. 
 
 Dalles. See Columbia River. 
 
 Dalmahoy, the Earl of Morton's Midlothian 
 seat, 1^ mile S. by E. of Ratho. Near it are the 
 Dalmahoy Crags (680 feet). 
 
 Dalmally, an Argyllshire village, near the 
 NE. end of Loch Awe, 24^ miles E. of Oban. 
 
 Dalmatia, a narrow strip of Austrian territory 
 extending along the Adriatic. Area, 4940 sq. 
 m. ; pop. (1901)591,600. The coast is steep and 
 rocky, and the chief towns, all on the coast, 
 are Zara, Sebenico, Lissa, Spalato, Brazza, Ragusa, 
 and Cattaro. The country is mountainous, Orjen, 
 near Cattaro, attaining 6235 feet. Only one-ninth 
 of the land is arable, mainly the coast strip. 
 Nearly half is in pasture, and a third in wood. 
 The numerous islands are not very fertile. 
 
 Dalmellington, an Ayrshire village, near the 
 river Doon, 15| miles SE. of Ayr. Near it are 
 active collieries and ironworks. Pop. 1448. 
 
 Dalmeny, a Linlithgowshire village, near South 
 Queensferry, with an interesting Norman church. 
 Dalmeny Park is the seat of the Earl of Rosebery. 
 
 Dalny, the Russian name for Ta-lien-wan, a 
 port in the Manchurian Liao-tung peninsula, 20 
 miles NE. of Port Arthur. One terminus of the 
 Trans-Siberian railway, it was occupied by the 
 Japanese in 1904. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Dairy, (1) a town of Ayrshire, on the Garnock, 
 23 miles SW. of Glasgow, with neighbouring iron- 
 works (1845). Pop. 5316.— (2) A village in the 
 north of Kirkcudbright, 8 miles NW. of New 
 Galloway.— (3) A place in Perthshire, near Tyn- 
 drum, the scene of a skirmish between Bruce and 
 Macdougal of Lorn (1306). 
 
 Dalswinton, an estate on the Nith, 7 miles 
 NNW, of Dumfries. On its little loch a minia- 
 ture steamboat was launched in 1788. 
 
 Dalton-in-Furness, a town of Lancashire, 16 
 miles WNW. of Lancaster, communicating with 
 the sea by a canal (3^ miles). It has extensive 
 malting and ironworks ; and the ruins of Furness 
 Abbey (q.v.) are in the vicinity. Romuey was a 
 native. Pop. (1861) 2812 ; (1901) 13,020, 
 
 Daman', an outlying portion of the Punjab, 
 extending along the right bank of the Indus, and 
 as far back as the Suliman Mountains. 
 
 Daman', a Portuguese settlement and port in 
 the province of Gujarat, on the Gulf of Cambay, 
 100 miles N. of Bombay. The settlement con- 
 sists of Daman proper (22 sq. m.), and the par- 
 gand of Nagar Havili (60 sq. in.), with magnificent 
 teak forests to the east. Pop. of former, 56,300 ; 
 of latter, 12,650. The port stands at the mouth 
 of the Daman-Ganga, a deep, navigable stream, 
 with a bar at its mouth. The Portuguese have 
 held Nagar Havili since 1780 only, but Daman 
 has been occupied by them since 1558. 
 
 Damanhour, a town of Egypt, 38 miles BSE. of 
 Alexandria by rail ; pop. 20,353. 
 
 Daman-i-Koh ('skirts of the hills'), a hilly 
 tract of Bengal, reserved for the Santals, &c. 
 Area, 1366 sq. m. ; pop. 353,413. 
 
 Dam'araland, or Damaland, in the west of 
 South Africa, between Namaqualand and Ovampo- 
 land, extending from the Atlantic to about 19° 
 45' E. long. Behind the waterless coast region 
 (100 miles) rises a mountain district, with peaks 
 over 8500 feet above the sea ; and farther inland 
 stretch wide prairies. The mountains are rich 
 in minerals, especially copper. The produce of 
 the interior consists of ivory, feathers, skins, &c. 
 The Damaras, properly Herero, a Bantu stem, 
 number about 80,000 ; they are nomads, and own 
 large flocks and herds. The Hawkoin, or Hill 
 Damaras, in the north-east, however, who are a 
 much lower type, now speak Hottentot. Since 
 1886 Damaraland is part of German SW. Africa. 
 The only harbour in this part of the coast is 
 Walvisch Bay (q.v.), which is British ; it was an- 
 nexed to Cape Colony in 1884. 
 
 Damascus, the capital of Syria, and the largest 
 town in Western Asia. It is called by the 
 natives DimasJik es-Sham, or simply es-Sham, the 
 name which is generally applied to all Syria. The 
 city stands 1^ mile from the mouth of the gorge, 
 through which the Barada, the Chrysorrhoas of 
 the Greeks, forces its Avay into the plain ; and is 
 70 miles ESE. of Beyrout on the Mediterranean, 
 and 120 NE. of Acre, to both of which railways 
 were opened in 1895. It is situated on the 
 western side of a plain 500 sq. ni. in area, at 
 an elevation of 2260 feet above the sea, and im- 
 mediately to the north-west of the city the Anti- 
 Libanus rises to a height of 3840 feet. This 
 elevated part of the mountain, called Jebel 
 Kasyiin, is crowned by the Kubbet en-Nasr 
 (' Dome of Victory '), froin whose base the best 
 view of Damascus is obtained. The seven canals 
 by which water is drawn off from the central 
 Barada are called rivers, two of them the Abana 
 and Pharpar of Scripture. The appearance of - 
 Damascus as viewed from the mountain resembles a 
 a tennis-racquet. The handle, which lies in a | 
 south-westerly direction, is the Meidan, a suburb Ij 
 which extends along the Mecca pilgrim-route 
 for about a mile, and ends at the Bawabat Alia 
 (' Gate of God '). The other part is concentrated 
 on the rivers, and is enclosed within ancient walls 
 and encompassed by luxuriant gardens. At the 
 western side of the city Avithin the walls stands 
 the citadel. It is a large moated quadrangular 
 structure, 300 yards long and 250 wide, with pro- 
 
DAMBULA 
 
 215 
 
 DANUBB 
 
 jecting towers. It was erected in 1219, and has 
 a massive appearance, but it is a good deal dilapi- 
 dated. Tlie palace stands outside the walls west 
 of the citadel, and 400 yards east of the citadel 
 there towered above the city the Great Mosque, 
 destroyed by fire in October 1893. It was 
 erected at the beginning of the 8th century on 
 the site of the church of St John, just as that 
 church had been erected by Arcadius about the 
 beginning of the 5th century on the site of a 
 pagan temple, which probably occupied the site 
 of the ancient Beit Rimmon. Damascus contains 
 70 other mosques, and more than 150 chapels 
 for prayer and instruction. The tomb of Nur 
 ed-Din is one of the ornaments of the city ; 
 the best baths are decorated with beautiful 
 tiles and marble. The Jewish quarter lies to 
 the south of the 'street called Straight,' which 
 runs east and west for about a mile, with 
 Roman gateways at either end. The Christian 
 quarter lies north of the street called Straight in 
 the eastern part of the city. The difterent indus- 
 tries are also carried on in separate quarters, there 
 being bazaars for the silversmiths, the saddlers, 
 the shoemakers, &c. Damascus is a meeting- 
 place between the East and West ; and enormous 
 caravans of camels pass to and fro between it and 
 Bagdad, exchanging the dates and tobacco and 
 spices and carpets of the East for the produce of 
 the looms and workshops of Europe. The chief 
 exports are grain, flour, native cotton and silk 
 manufactures, wool, apricot paste, raisins, and 
 liquorice-root ; the imports include textiles, in- 
 digo, tobacco, coffee, sugar, and leather. In 1880 
 gas and tramways were introduced into tlie 
 city. Pop. 170,000, of whom 20,000 are Chris- 
 tians (32,000 before the great massacre of July 
 I860), 0000 Jews, and the rest Mohammedans. 
 
 Dambula, or Dambul, a vast Buddhist rock- 
 temple in Ceylon, 40 miles N. of Kandy, contain- 
 ing, among a profusion of carvings, colossal 
 figures of Buddha. 
 
 Damietta (Arab. Dimyat), a town of Lower 
 Egypt, on the right bank of the chief eastern 
 mouth of the Nile, 8 miles from its mouth in 
 the Mediterranean. Its commerce has been nuich 
 injured by the prosperity of Alexandria, but it 
 still carries on a considerable trade in exporting 
 rice, fish (from Lake Menzaleh), colTee, and dates ; 
 and imports charcoal, soap, and manufactured 
 goods. It is the terminus of a branch-railway 
 from Cairo. The cajnbric known as dimity 
 received its name from Damietta, where it was 
 once manufactured ; the famous leather- work has 
 also declined. A bar at the mouth of the river 
 impedes navigation. Pop. 43,750. The existing 
 town was erected after 1251, but, prior to that, 
 a city of the same name (anc. Tamiathis) stood 
 more to the south. 
 
 Damodar, a river of Bengal, rises in Chutia 
 Nagpur, and flows 350 miles SE. to the Hooghly. 
 
 Damoh, a town of the Central Provinces of 
 India, 50 miles E. of Sagar. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 Dampier, the name of several places in Aus- 
 tralasia: (1) Dampier Archipelago, a cluster of 
 about twenty small rocky islands off the NW. 
 coast of Australia. — (2) Dampier Island, off the 
 NE. coast of New Guinea, with a volcano 5250 
 feet high.— (3) Dampier's Land, a fertile penin- 
 sula of Western Australia, lying between King 
 Sound and the Indian Ocean.— (4) Dampier Strait, 
 between New Guinea and the archipelago of New 
 Britain, forming, with Goschen Strait to the SB., 
 the shortest route from Eastern Australia to 
 China by some 300 miles.— (5) Dampier Strait, 
 
 separating the island of Waygiou from the NW. 
 extremity of New Guinea. 
 
 Danakll, a vaguely defined region between the 
 southern end of the Red Sea and Abyssinia. 
 
 Danbury, a Connecticut town, 69 miles NNE. 
 of New York. It manufactures hats and sewing- 
 machines. Pop. (1880) 11,666 ; (1900) 16,540. 
 
 Danebury, Hants, a famous training-ground, 
 
 3 miles WNW. of Stockbridge. 
 
 Danes' Dyke. See Flamborough Head. 
 Dangan Castle, a mansion in County Meath, 
 
 4 miles S. of Trim, the seat of Wellington's father. 
 D4ngs, a hill country in Bombay Presidency, 
 
 about the N. end of the Western Ghats. 
 
 Dannemora, a Swedish town, 25 miles NE. of 
 Upsala, a great iron-mining centre. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Dantzic. See Danzig. 
 
 Danube (Lat. Danubius; Ger. Donau; Hung. 
 Duna ; Slav. Dunai), next to the Volga the chief 
 river of Europe, is formed by the Brege and the 
 Brigach, rising in the Black Forest, Baden, and 
 uniting at Donaueschingen, 2264 feet above sea- 
 level. It has a total length of 1740 miles, and 
 drains 315,000 sq. m. It flows first SE., and 
 then NE. to Ulm (1519 feet). From the junc- 
 tion Avith the Iller above Ulm it is navigable 
 for boats of 100 tons. At Ratisbon it reaches its 
 most northerly point, and from thence its course 
 is generally SE. Between Ulm and Passau, 
 where it leaves Germany .'i it receives the Lech, 
 Isar, and Inn, on the right, and the Altmiihl and 
 Regen on the left bank. At Passau its width is 
 231 yards, and its depth 16 feet. It flows E. to 
 Presburg, receiving the Ens from the S., and the 
 March or Morava from the N. ; and it j)asses from 
 Austria into Hungary through an opening called 
 the Carpathian Gate. Near Waitzen it turns 
 directly S., through the Hungarian plain, a vast 
 sandy alluvial flat, in which it is continually 
 forcing new channels and silting up old ones ; 
 receiving from the N. the Waag and the Gran, 
 and the Drave from the W. Next the Danube 
 turns again SE., and, increased by the waters of 
 the Theiss and Temes from the N., sweeps past 
 Belgrade, where it is joined by the Save, and 
 forms the boundary betAveen Hungary and Servia. 
 Before touching the Roumanian frontier its width 
 is greatly contracted and interrupted by eight 
 rapids with rocky shoals. The most diflicult 
 passage is the shortest (IJ mile) of the eight — 
 the * Iron Gate,' properly so called, below Orsova. 
 In 1890-95 the Hungarian government undertook, 
 at a cost of £800,000, to improve, by blasting 
 rocks and widening the course, the navigation 
 here. In Wallachia the Danube flows in a wide 
 stream, constantly broadening into a lake, or 
 overspreading its banks with swamps. It forms 
 the northern boundary of Bulgaria as far as 
 Silistria ; and from here it turns northward, skirt- 
 ing the Dobruja, and flows between marshy banks 
 to Galatz, receiving on the way the Jalomitza and 
 the Sereth. From Galatz it flows E., and, after 
 being joined by the Pruth from the N., SE. to the 
 Black Sea. The delta is a vast wilderness (1000 
 sq. m.) cut up by channels and lagoons ; the 
 farthest mouths are 60 miles apart. Two-thirds 
 of the Danube's volume passes through the Kilia, 
 which, like the southern or St George branch, 
 forms a double channel near the outlet; and so 
 ships enter by the middle or Sulina mouth, 
 deepened to 20 feet and straiglitened in 1858- 
 1903. The steel cantilever bridge across the 
 river (2878 metres) at Tchernavoda is one of the 
 great railway bridges of the world. To defend 
 
DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES 
 
 216 
 
 DARJEELING 
 
 Vienna against risk of inundation, the course of 
 the Danube skirting it was, in 1868-81, diverted 
 into an artificial channel. Similar works have 
 been undertaken near Pesth. The Danube has 
 about 400 tributaries, 100 of them navigable by 
 the fleet of the Danube Steam Navigation Com- 
 pany (1830). The Danube is connected with the 
 Rhine by means of the Ludwigs-Canal (1844), and 
 with the Elbe by means of the Moldau and Miihl, 
 and canals. See F. D. Millet, The Danube from 
 the Black Forest to the Black Sea (1892). 
 
 Danubian Principalities, a name applied to 
 Moldavia and Wallachia ; see Roumania. Servia 
 and Bulgaria are sometimes included under the 
 name. 
 
 Danvers, a post-village of Massachusetts, 4 
 miles NW. of Salem. It manufactures shoes, 
 carpets, bricks, &c. , and is the seat of the state 
 lunatic asylum. Peabody, 3 miles S., was for- 
 merly South Danvers. Pop. 8048. 
 
 Danville, (1) capital of Vermilion county, Illi- 
 nois, on the Vermilion River, 132 miles S. of 
 Chicago. It is an important railway junction, 
 and contains railway-shops, steam-mills, found- 
 ries, and organ and chair factories. Bituminous 
 coal is mined near by. Pop. 16,491. —(2) Capital 
 of Montour county, Pennsylvania, on the north 
 branch of the Susquehanna, 68 miles N. by E. 
 of Harrisburg. It was settled in 1768, and the 
 Pennsylvania Ironworks liere is the oldest estab- 
 lishment in the States for the manufacture of 
 railroad iron. There are also blast-furnaces, 
 foundries, and rolling-mills. Pop. 7998.— (3) A 
 town of Virginia, on the Dan River, 141 miles SW. 
 of Richmond, with large cotton and other mills, 
 and a great trade in tobacco. Pop. 16,305. 
 
 Danzig, or Dantzic (Polish Gdansk), a great sea- 
 port and fortress, capital of West Prussia, on the 
 left bank of the western branch of the Vistula, 
 284 miles NB. of Berlin, and 4 from the river's 
 mouth in the shallow Gulf of Danzig, an inlet of 
 the Baltic. In the 10th century its possession was 
 disputed by Danes, Pomeranians, Prussians, Bran- 
 denburgers, Poles, and the Teutonic Knights ; the 
 last held it 1308-1454, when it became a free city 
 under Poland. In 1793 it fell to Prussia. The 
 city is traversed by the Motlau and Radaune, 
 tributaries of the Vistula, the former of which 
 admits vessels drawing 15 feet up to the Speich- 
 erinsel. The principal port, however, is at 
 the mouth of the Vistula, below the sand-bars. 
 Among the most noteworthy buildings are the 
 large church of St Mary (1343-1502), with a noble 
 'Last Judgment,' probably by Memling, and 
 a flnely-carved altar of wood ; the church of 
 St Catharine (1326-30) ; the fine old Gothic town- 
 hall ; the old exchange ; and the Franciscan 
 monastery, now a museum and school. Once a 
 great Hanse town, Danzig is still one of the chief 
 commercial cities of northern Europe. The 
 manufactures include beer, spirits (Danzig Gold- 
 wasser), sugar, tobacco, flour, iron-wares, machin- 
 ery, amber, gold and silver ornaments ; and there 
 are also an imperial dockyard and an artillery 
 arsenal. Pop. (1880) 108,551 ; (1900) 140,540. 
 Daoudnagar. See Daudnagar. 
 Dapsang, a mountain in the part of the 
 Himalaya system called Karakorum, in Baltistan 
 or Little Tibet, 28,700 feet high. 
 
 Darabgherd, or Darab, a town of Persia, 115 
 miles SE. of Shiraz. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Daragan], a suburb of Allahabad, on the right 
 bank of the Ganges. Pop. 15,159. 
 Darbhangah, a town of Behar province, on the 
 
 Little Baghmati River, 78 miles NE. of Patna by 
 rail. It has large bazaars and a handsome 
 market-place, extensive tanks, a hospital, and 
 the maharajah's palace, with fine gardens, men- 
 agerie, and aviary. There is an active trade in 
 oil-seeds, food-grains, timber, salt, iron, lime, 
 &c. Pop. (1891) 73,561 ; (1901) 66,244. 
 
 Dardanelles (anc. Hellespont), a narrow channel 
 separating Europe from Asia, and uniting the 
 Sea of Marmora with the Archipelago. The 
 name is derived from the ancient city of Dardanus 
 in the Troad, on the southern shore. The strait 
 extends 40 miles south-westward, and has a vary- 
 ing breadth of 1 to 4 miles. From the Sea of 
 Marmora a strong current runs through it to the 
 Archipelago. Both sides are strongly fortified. 
 A treaty concluded between the five great poAvers 
 and Turkey in 1841 arranged that no non-Turkish 
 ship of war should pass the Dardanelles without 
 the express consent of Turkey. Xerxes and 
 Alexander crossed the Dardanelles in 480 and 
 334 B.C., the former to enter Europe, and the 
 latter to enter Asia. Leander, to visit Hero, 
 nightly swam across— a feat performed in 1810 
 by Lord Byron. 
 
 Dardistan, a region of Central Asia, bordering 
 on Baltistan, the north-western portion of Cash- 
 mere, consists of lofty mountains and high-lying 
 valleys. Its interest depends mainly on the fact 
 that its inhabitants, the Dards, are an Aryan 
 people, speaking a Sanskritic tongue mixed with 
 Persian words. They are Moslems. The chief 
 districts are Hasora, Gilghit, and Tassin ; some 
 include Chitral. 
 
 Dar-es-Salaam, a seaport of German East 
 Africa, 45 miles S. of Zanzibar, Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Dar-fertit, a thinly-peopled territory south of 
 Dar-Fftr, beyond the Bahr-el-Arab, and north of 
 the Niam-Niam country. Schweinfurth was the 
 first European to visit the region in 1870-71. 
 
 Dar-Fur, a country of Central Africa, one of 
 the divisions of the SMan or 'Land of the 
 Blacks,' situated approximately in 10° to 16" N. 
 lat., and in 22° to 28° E. long. It is hilly in 
 parts, and traversed by a mountainous ridge 
 called Marra. Towards" the north it is level, 
 sandy, and almost destitute of water. During 
 the rainy season (June— September) it exhibits a 
 rich vegetation. Tobacco, which is used by the 
 natives in every form, abounds. The chief 
 minerals are copper and iron. The wealth of the 
 inhabitants consists principally in cattle. Dar- 
 Fflr, long a notorious centre of the slave-trade, 
 was annexed to Egypt in 1875 ; but in 1884 fell 
 under the power of the Mahdi. Since 1900 
 trade with Egypt has been revived again, and 
 is iiow considerable. Pop. 4,000,000, mainly 
 zealous Moslems, 
 
 Dargai, in the Afridi hill country, near the 
 Kohat Pass, in the NW. Frontier Province of 
 India, was the scene of a brilliant feat of arms 
 during the Tirah campaign in 1897. 
 Dariel. See Caucasus. 
 
 Darien, a name formerly applied to the entire 
 isthmus of Panama (q.v.), but now confined to 
 the heavily-wooded hill-country lying between 
 the Gulfs of Uraba (often called the Gulf of Darien) 
 on the north and San Miguel on the south. 
 William Paterson's Darien Scheme (1695-1703), to 
 plant a Scottish colony on the Atlantic side of 
 the Isthmus of Panama, proved a total fiasco, 
 
 Darjeeling (Ddrjlling), a sanitary station in 
 the Lower Himalayas, is situated on a narrow 
 ridge, 7167 feet above the sea. It is a very popu- 
 
DARLASTON 
 
 217 
 
 DARWEN 
 
 lar sanatorium (1883), with a good water-supi)ly. 
 The fashionable month is October, after the rains, 
 when the clear atmosphere shows a view of un- 
 surpassed grandeur. Pop. 14,200. 
 
 Darlaston, a Staffordshii?e town, li^ mile NW. 
 of Wednesbury, with ironworks and neighbouring 
 coal and iron mines. Pop. 15,422. 
 
 Darling, a name applied to a river, a mountain- 
 range, and two districts in Australia, is derived 
 from Lieutenant-general Sir Ralph Darling (1775- 
 1859), governor of New South Wales in 1825-31. 
 (1) The river Darling, is formed by several head- 
 streams, all rising in the great Dividing Range, and 
 flows 1160 miles south-westward to the Murray 
 at Wentworth, on the border between New South 
 Wales and South Australia.— (2) The Darling 
 Range, in Western Australia, runs parallel to the 
 west coast, at a distance of 10 to 25 miles ; in 
 Mount William it attains 3000 feet.— (3) The Dar- 
 ling district at the SW. corner of New South 
 Wales, scantily watered, has an area of 50,000 
 sq. m.— (4) The Darling Downs (G080 sq. m.) form 
 the richest pastoral district of Queensland, in the 
 south of the colony. It was discovered by Allan 
 Cunningham, the botanist, iix 1827. 
 
 Darlington, a town in the south of the county 
 of Durham, on a slight elevation overlooking the 
 Skerne near its junction with the Tees, 23 miles S. 
 of Durham, and 45 NNW. of York. The chief 
 industry is connected with the extensive loco- 
 motive works ; there are also iron and steel 
 works, breweries, tanneries, and wool-mills. 
 Pop. (1821) 6551; (1851) 11,228; (1871) 27,730; 
 (1901) 44,500, many of them connected with the 
 Society of Friends. Darlington was incorporated 
 in 1867, since then also returning one member to 
 parliament. Its prosperity dates from the open- 
 ing, on 27th September 1825, of the Stockton and 
 Darlington Railway, the first passenger-line em- 
 ploying a locomotive-engine, which engine now 
 stands on a pedestal outside the station. From 
 the 11th century the town belonged to the bishops 
 of Durham, and till 1867 a borough bailiff, ap- 
 pointed by the bishop, managed its affairs. St 
 Cuthbert's collegiate church, a very fine speci- 
 men of Early English, was founded in 1160. It 
 has a tower 180 feet high. Among the chief 
 modern erections are the spacious new railway 
 station (1887), a grammar-school, and a free 
 library (1885). 
 
 Darmstadt, a town of Germany, capital of the 
 grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated on 
 the small river Darm, 15 miles S. of Frankfort- 
 on-Main. One of its two palaces, the old ducal 
 palace, contains museums of painting, natural 
 history, and archaeology, and a library of 500,000 
 volumes ; in the other, Prince Charles's palace, 
 is Holbein's famous 'Meyer Madonna.' The 
 handsome post-office dates from 1881, the theatre 
 from 1871. There are manufactures of chemicals, 
 hats, machinery, tobacco, playing-cards, carpets, 
 and beer. Pop. (1875) 44,088 ; (1900) 72,380. 
 
 Damaway, the Earl of Moray's seat, Elgin- 
 shire, 3^ miles SW. of Forres. 
 
 Darnetal, a town in the French dep. of Seine- 
 Inferieure, 2^ miles E. of Rouen. Pop. 6776. 
 
 Darnick, a Roxburghshire village, 1 mile W. 
 of Melrose. Pop. 307. 
 
 Damley, a Renfrewshire barony, IJ mile E. 
 of Barrhead. 
 
 Dartford, a thriving market-town of Kent, in 
 the narrow valley of the Darent, 2 miles above 
 its influx to the Thames, and 17 ESE. of London. 
 Edward III. here founded an Augustinian nun- 
 
 nery (1355); St Edmund's chantry was a great 
 place of pilgrimage ; and at Dartford Wat Tyler 
 commenced his rebellion (1381). The church, 
 with a Norman tower, has interesting monuinenta 
 — one to Sir John Spielman, Queen Elizabeth's 
 jeweller, who in 1588 established here the first 
 paper-mill in England. Paper is still nianufac- 
 tured, besides steam-engines, machinery, gun- 
 powder, &c. Pop. (1851) 6224; (1891) 11,962; 
 (1901) 18,644. See works by Dunkin (1844) and 
 Bayly (1876). 
 
 Dartmoor, a great granitic upland in Devon- 
 shire, the source of nearly all the principal rivers 
 of the county, remarkable alike for its wild and 
 rugged scenery, its antiquities, its wide, solitary, 
 trackless wastes, and its mineral products. It 
 is upwards of 130,000 acres in extent, the extreme 
 length from north to south being 25 miles, and the 
 extreme breadth 20. The central portion is the 
 ancient royal forest of Dartmoor, whose rights be- 
 long to the Duchy of Cornwall ; this is surrounded 
 by a belt of open country, once known as the 
 ' Commons of Devonshire,' but portions of which 
 have been enclosed. The attempts to cultivate 
 Dartmoor itself have been very few, and the north- 
 ern quarter for miles shows no trace of man. The 
 valleys through which the rivers descend to the 
 lowland country are singularly fertile, and at times 
 full of beauty. The moor itself affords valuable 
 mountain pasture to cattle, sheep, and large num- 
 bers of half-wild ponies. The average height of 
 Dartmoor above the sea is upwards of 1200 feet, but 
 its highest point. High Willhayes, is 2039 feet ; and 
 the next. Yes Tor, 2030. The hills are commonly 
 called tors, and for the most part have granite 
 crests, weathered into grotesque and picturesque 
 shapes. Dartmoor is rich in minerals— tin, cop- 
 per, iron, manganese, gold, and china-clay or 
 kaolin, this last much the most important now- 
 Jidays. Dartmoor is unrivalled in England in 
 the extent and character of its prehistoric and 
 rude stone antiquities. The chief centre of pop- 
 ulation is Prince Town, where is a prison, built 
 (1806) for prisoners of war, and adapted (1855) 
 to its present purpose of a convict prison. See 
 works by Rowe (1856), and Page (1889). 
 
 Dartmouth, a seaport and municipal borough 
 (till 1867 also parliamentary) of South Devon, 32 
 miles S. by W. of Exeter. It is built in pictur- 
 esque terraces on a steep slope 300 to 400 feet 
 high, on the right bank of the romantic estuary 
 of the river Dart, at a short distance from the 
 sea. The streets are narrow, and many of the 
 houses very old, with overhanging stories, pro- 
 jecting gables, and wood-carvings. St Saviour's 
 Church (c. 1372) has a richly sculptured pulpit, 
 and a beautifully carved rood-loft. A battery, 
 and the remains of a castle built during the 
 reign of Henry VII., stand at the entrance to 
 the harbour. In 1190 the Crusaders, under 
 Coeur-de-Lion, embarked for the Holy Land at 
 Dartmouth, which in 1643 Avas taken by Prince 
 Maurice, but in 1646 retaken by Fairfax. New- 
 comen, the inventor of the steam-engine, was 
 born here ; Sir Humphrey Gilbert at Greenway, 
 across the Dart ; and John Davis at Sandridge. 
 Here is a great Royal Naval School. Pop. (1861) 
 4444 ; (1901) 6580. 
 
 Darton, a township in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 3i miles NW. of Bariisley. Pop. 7613. 
 
 Darvel, an Ayrshire police-burgh, with muslin 
 manufacture, 9 miles E. of Kilmarnock. Pop. 
 3074. 
 
 Darwen, a municipal borough of Lancashire, 
 on the river Darwen, 3i miles S. of Blackburn, 
 
DARWIN SOUND 
 
 ^18 
 
 DEAD SEA 
 
 and 9 N. of Bolton. Cotton is the staple manu- 
 facture ; then come paper-inaking and paper- 
 staining ; and to these and other industries, with 
 its water facilities, and the neighbouring coal- 
 mines and stone quarries, Darwen owes its rapid 
 growth and its well-being. It was incorporated 
 in 1878. Among the chief binldings are the free 
 library, the market-hall, the co-operative hall, 
 and the public baths erected in memory of Sir 
 Robert Peel. Pop. (1851) 7020; (1901) 38,212. 
 See Shaw's History of Darwen (1891). 
 
 Darwin Sound and Mount Darwin are on the 
 SW. side of King Charles's South Land, Tierra 
 del Fuego. The mountain rises 6800 feet. 
 
 Datchet, a village of Bucks, on the Thames, 
 2 miles E. of Windsor. 
 
 Datia (Datee'a), a native state of Bundelkhand 
 (area, 837 sq. m. ; pop. 186,440). The chief town, 
 Datia, 125 miles SE. of Agra, has a pop. of 24,566. 
 
 Daudnagar (Ddh-ood-nug'ur), a wretched-look- 
 ing town in the Gaya district of Bengal, on the 
 Soane, 90 miles SW. of Patna. Pop. 9870. 
 
 DaiUatabad (Dowlatabad'), a decayed town 
 in the Deccan, 28 miles NW. of Hyderabad. Its 
 fortress, a walled and moated conical rock, 600 feet 
 high, surrendered to the Mohammedans in 1294, 
 and has long been ungarrisoned. Pop. 1243. 
 
 Dauphine, a former frontier province (capital, 
 Grenoble) of south-west France, now forming the 
 deps. Drome, Is^re, and Hautes Alpes. 
 
 Dauria, a mountainous reg^ion of south-eastern 
 Siberia, between Lake Baikal and the river 
 Argun, on the Chinese frontier. 
 
 Davarr Island. See Campbeltown. 
 
 Davenport, capital of Scott county, Iowa, on 
 the Mississippi, opposite Rock Island (q.v.), 183 
 miles W. by S. of Chicago. It is the seat of Gris- 
 wold College (1859), and manufactures flour, iron 
 wares, woollen goods, &c. Pop. 36,872. 
 
 Daventry (pron. Daintry), an ancient municipal 
 borough of Northamptonshire, at the sources of 
 the Avon and Nene, 12 miles W. of Northampton, 
 and 4 NW. of Weedon by a branch line opened 
 in 1888. Charles I. spent six days here in 1645 
 before the battle of Naseby. Pop. 3739. Danes 
 or Borough Hill, 1 mile E., is one of the largest 
 Roman camps in the kingdom. 
 
 Davidson's Mains, or Muttonhole, a Mid- 
 lothian village, 3^ miles WNW. of Edinburgh. 
 Pop. 919. 
 
 Davis Strait washes the western coast of 
 Greenland, and connects Baffin Bay with the 
 Atlantic Ocean. At its narrowest point, immedi- 
 ately north of the Arctic circle, it measures 
 about 200 miles across. The navigator John 
 Davys sailed through it in 1587. 
 
 Davos', a small valley lying amongst the Alps 
 of the Eastern Grisons, 16 miles SE. of Coire, and 
 31 SSE. of Landquart by rail. It has become fam- 
 ous as a health-resort in winter, especially for such 
 as suffer from chest disease, the air being still and 
 dry, with much bright, warm sunshine through- 
 out the winter. Till lately mere out-of-the-way 
 hamlets, the villages of Davos-Platz (5105 feet 
 above sea-level) and Davos-Dorfli have hotels, 
 villas and chalets, doctors, and daily posts. Skat- 
 ing and tobogganing are pastimes. See English 
 works on the place by Wise (1881), Muddock 
 (1884), and J, A. Symonds (1892). 
 
 Dawley, a Shropshire township, 4 miles SE. of 
 Wellington, with mineral industries. Pop. 7996. 
 
 DawliSh, a pleasant watering-place of SB. 
 
 Devon, 12 miles SE. of Exeter, and backed by the 
 Great Haldon (818 feet). Pup. 5000. 
 
 Dawson, at the confluence of the Klondike 
 with the Yukon, 1500 miles from its mouth, istlie 
 capital of the Yukon territory of Canada, since 
 1896 the centre of the Klondike gold-mining 
 industry. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Dax, a town in the French dep. of Landes, on 
 the Adour, 93 miles S. by W. of Bordeaux by rail, 
 with a 14th-century castle, now a barrack, remains 
 of Roman walls, a cathedral, &c. Its hot sulphur- 
 springs (77°-144° F.) were known to the Romans, 
 who called the place Aquce Tarhelloi ; in the 
 middle ages it was called Acqs. Pop. 9716. 
 
 Daylesford, a Worcestershire estate, 3^ miles 
 E. of Stow-on-the-Wold, repurchased in 1788 by 
 Warren Hastings, who died and was buried here. 
 
 Dayton, capital of Montgomery county, Ohio, 
 on the Great Miami, at the mouth of the Mad 
 River, 60 miles NNE. of Cincinnati by rail. The 
 public buildings include a court-house of white 
 marble and a large jail. Standing on the line of 
 the Miami Canal (opened 1829), the city is the 
 terminus of eight railroads, and the water of the 
 Mad River is brought through its streets by an 
 hydraulic canal, supplying abundant water-power. 
 It manufactures railroad-cars, cotton, woollen, 
 and iron goods, oil, flour, paper, and machinery. 
 Pop. (1870) 30,473 ; (1890) 61,220 ; (1900) 85,333.' 
 
 Dead Sea, the usual name, dating from the 
 time of Jerome, for a most remarkable lake in 
 the south-east of Palestine, called in the Old 
 Testament The Salt Sea, Sea of the Plain, or East 
 Sea ; by Josephus, Lacus Asplmltites ; and by the 
 Arabs now, Bahr-Lut, ' Sea of Lot.' It is 46 miles 
 long, 5 to 9 miles broad, and 1292 feet below the 
 level of the Mediterranean. The depth of the 
 greater part, the northern section, is about 1300 
 feet ; but at the southern end the water is only 
 from 3 to 12 feet deep. The Dead Sea is fed by 
 the Jordan from the north, and by many other 
 streams, but has no apparent outlet, its super- 
 fluous water being carried off by evaporation. 
 Along the eastern and western shores there are 
 lines of bold cliff's rising 1500 feet on the west, 
 and 2500 on the east. The north shore, a great 
 mud flat, is marked by the blackened trunks and 
 branches of trees ; the southern shore is low, 
 also marshy and dreary. Lava-beds, pumice- 
 stone, warm springs, sulphur, and volcanic slag 
 prove the presence here of volcanic agencies 
 at some period. The neighbourhood is fre- 
 quently visited by earthquakes, and the lake 
 still occasionally casts up to its surface large 
 masses of asphalt. The water is characterised by 
 the presence of a large quantity of magnesian and 
 soda salts. Its specific gravity ranges from 1172 
 to 1227 (pure water being 1000). The proportion 
 of saline matter is so great, that whilst sea-water 
 contains only 3-5 per cent, of salts, the water of 
 the Dead Sea contains upwards of 26 per cen'^ 
 Rain hardly ever falls ; the water is nearly i 
 blue and clear as that of the Mediterranean ; and 
 though its taste is horribly salt and fetid, a bath 
 in it is refre.shing. Owing to the great specific 
 gravity of the water, it is almost impossible for 
 the bather to sink in it. According to Ma;jor 
 Conder, 'it is now generally agreed that the Dead 
 Sea and Jordan were formed by a great fault or 
 crack in the earth's surface long before the 
 creation of man, and that the district presents 
 in our own days much the same aspect as in 
 the days of Abraham. It is vain, therefore, to 
 suppose that the "cities of the plain" were be- 
 neath the present sea, although this view was 
 
 ier 
 
 M 
 
 ?d^H 
 th^Tl 
 
 I 
 
DEAL 
 
 219 
 
 held as early as the time of Josephus ' (Bible 
 Geography, 1884). 
 
 Deal, a municipal borough and sea-bathing 
 place of Kent, on a bold open beach, near the 
 south extremity of the Downs, between North and 
 South Foreland, 89 miles by rail ESE. of London. 
 Till 1885 it was part of the parliamentary borough 
 of Sandwich. A fine anchorage extends 7 or 8 
 miles between Deal and the Goodwin Sands. 
 Deal has mainly arisen to supply the wants of 
 the numerous vessels in the Downs, its chief 
 industries being connected with boat-building, 
 sail-making, piloting, victualling, &c. The hand- 
 some iron promenade pier was erected in 1864. 
 Pop. (1851) 7067 ; (1 901) 10,580. Deal has been one 
 of the Cinque Ports since the 13th century. Of 
 the three castles built by Henry VIII. in 1539, 
 Deal Castle is the residence of its 'captain;' 
 Sandown Castle (where Colonel Hutchinson died), 
 to the north of Deal, was pulled down in 1864 on 
 account of the inroads of the sea ; and, to the 
 south, Walmer Castle is now the official residence 
 of the Warden of the Cinque Ports. See Chap- 
 man's Deal : Past and Present (1891). 
 
 Dean, Forest of, a picturesque hilly tract, 
 34 sq. m. in extent, in the west of Gloucester- 
 shire, between the Severn and the Wye. An 
 ancient royal forest, it was almost entirely dis- 
 afforested by Cliarles I., on a sale to Sir John 
 Wintour, but was re-afforested very shortly after 
 the Restoration. The greater part still remains 
 crown property ; and about one-half is appropri- 
 ated for the growth of timber for the navy. It 
 is divided into six 'walks,' which contain woods 
 of oak, beech, &c. There are coal and iron mines, 
 and quarries of stone suitable for building and 
 making grindstones, troughs, and rollers. The 
 deer were externunated in 1854. 
 
 Deanston. See Doune. 
 
 Death Valley, a peculiarly sterile depression 
 in the Mohave Desert (q.v.) in California. 
 
 Debateable Land, a Border tract between the 
 Esk and Sark, long a bone of contention between 
 England and Scotland. 
 
 Deben, a Suffolk river, rising near Debenham, 
 flows 30 miles SB. to the German Ocean. It is 
 tidal and navigable from Woodbridge (SJ miles). 
 
 Debenham, a small Suffolk town, 8 miles NNE. 
 of Needham Market. Pop. of parish, 1219. 
 
 De'breczen, a town of Hungary, in the midst 
 of a wide plain, 130 miles E. of Pesth by rail. It 
 is a large straggling place, indeed really a collec- 
 tion of villages. It has, however, a fine town- 
 hall, a large Protestant college, a theatre, &c. 
 The inhabitants are largely dependent on agri- 
 culture ; enonnous herds of cattle graze on the 
 fertile stretches of plain. There are also manu- 
 factures of soap, saltpetre, flour, sausages, hams, 
 and tobacco-pipes. Population, 73,500, nearly all 
 Protestants. The 'Rome of the Calvinists,' 
 Debreczen was long the headquarters of the Re- 
 formed faith, and suffered much therefor. It 
 took a prominent part in the revolution of 1849. 
 
 Deca'tur, capital of Macon county, Illinois, on 
 the Sangamon River, 39 miles E. of Springfield. 
 It has woollen, planing, and flour mills. Pop. 
 (1880) 9547 ; (1900) 20,760. 
 
 Decazeville (De-kdhz-veel'), a town in the dep. 
 of Aveyron, 110 miles NNE. of Toulouse by rail, 
 with iron and coal mines near by, and great 
 blast-furnaces and ironworks. Pop. 6684. 
 
 Deccan (from dakshin, ' the south '), a term 
 applied sometimes to the whole Indian peninsula 
 to the south of the Vindhya Mountains, which 
 
 separate it from the basin of the Ganges, and 
 sometimes restricted to that portion which is 
 rather vaguely bounded N. by the Nerbudda, and 
 S. by the Kistna or Krishna. 
 
 Deception Island, a volcanic island belonging 
 to the South Shetland group in the Antarctic 
 Ocean, directly south of Cajje Horn. 
 
 Deddington, an Oxfordshire market-town, 6 
 miles S. of Banbury, Piers Garveston was seized 
 in its ruined castle (1812). Pop. of parish, 1777. 
 
 Dedham, an Essex village, on the Stour, 3J 
 miles W. by N. of Manningtree, with a school 
 (1571). Pop. of parish, 1485. 
 
 Dee, a Welsh and English river, issuing from 
 Bala Lake, in Merionethshire, and flowing 90 miles 
 NE., N., and NW. to the Irish Sea. Near Trevor it 
 is crossed by the Ellesmere Canal, on an aqueduct 
 1007 feet long and 120 high ; and also by the 
 stone viaduct of the Chester and Shrewsbury 
 Railway, of 19 arches, each 90 feet span and 150 
 high. At Chester, which it nearly encircles,' it 
 is 100 yards broad ; thence it runs alongside 
 marshes in an artificial tidal canal 7 miles long, 
 which should admit ships of 600 tons, but Avhich is 
 rapidly silting up. Near Connah's Quay, between 
 Chester and Flint, where its width is 160 yards, it 
 is crossed by the great railway swing-bridge, 
 whose first cylinder was laid by Mr Gladstone on 
 16th August 1887. The Dee ends in a tidal estuary 
 13 miles long and 3 to 6 broad, and forming at 
 high-water a noble arm of the sea ; but at low- 
 water a dreary waste of sand and ooze (Kingsley's 
 ' sands of Dee '), Avith the river flowing through 
 it in a narrow stream. Its chief tributaries are 
 the Treveryn, Alwen, Ceirog, Clyweddog, and 
 Alyn. Canals connect the Dee with the rivers of 
 central England. 
 
 Dee, a beautiful river of Aberdeen and Kincar- 
 dine shires, rising at an altitude of 4060 feet 
 among the Cairngorm Mountains, and running 
 87 miles eastwai'd, till it enters tlie German 
 Ocean at Aberdeen, where in 1870-72 a mile of 
 its channel was diverted for harbour improve- 
 ments. It makes a descent of 2084 feet during 
 the first 2| miles of its course ; at the Linn of 
 Dee, 18 miles lower down, tumbles through a 
 chasm 300 yards long, and at one point scarcely 
 4 feet wide; thereafter flows by Castleton of 
 Braemar, Balmoral Castle, and Ballater ; since 
 1864 has supplied Aberdeen with water; and is 
 still a good salmon river, though not what it 
 once was. — The Kirkcudbrightshire Dee issues 
 from Loch Dee (750 feet above sea-level), and 
 flows 38 miles south-eastward and southward, 
 past Threave Castle and Kirkcudbright, to 
 Kirkcudbright Bay. Midway it is joined by the 
 Water of Ken, 28 miles long, a stream of greater 
 volume than its own. It, too, affords fine fishing. 
 
 Deal, a river of Cork and Limerick, flowing 
 28 miles to the Shannon. 
 
 Deepdene. See Dorking. 
 
 Deeping, Market, a market-town of Lincoln- 
 shire, on the Welland, 7^ miles SSE. of Bourn. 
 Pop. of parish, 979. 
 
 Deer, Old, a village of Buchan, Aberdeen- 
 shire, 36 miles N. of Aberdeen. Here, about 
 580 A.D., St Columba and Drostan, his nephew, 
 established a monastery, which William Comyn, 
 Earl of Buchan, refounded about 1219 for Cis- 
 tercian monks. The larger village of New Deer, 
 to the W. , has 736 inhabitants. 
 
 Dees, a town of Transylvania, on the Szamos, 
 37 miles NNE. of Klauseuburg by rail. Pop. 9191. 
 
DEGGENDORF 
 
 DELHI 
 
 Deggendorf, a town of Lower Bavaria, on the 
 Danube, 39 miles NW. of Passau, with a chnrcli 
 visited by tliousands of pilgrims. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Dehra, headquarters of the Delira Dun district 
 of the Meerut division of Agra province, in a 
 mountain valley 2300 feet above the sea, with a 
 great imperial school of forestrj\ Pop. 29,000. 
 See also Dkrajat. 
 
 Deil's Dyke, or Picts' Dyke, an ancient forti- 
 fication of Galloway, extending from Loch Ryan 
 to the upper part of the Solway P'irth. 
 
 Deir-el-kamar (' convent of the moon '), a town 
 of Syria, formerly the capital of the Druses, 13 
 miles SSE. of Beyrout. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Delagoa Bay, a Portuguese possession, is a 
 large inlet of the Indian Ocean on the south- 
 easb coast of Africa. Stretching for 70 miles 
 between 26° 20' and 25° 30' S. lat., it is 25 miles 
 wide, and for size and accommodation is the 
 finest natural harbour in South Africa, although 
 landing facilities are still very primitive. There 
 are several islands and shoals in the bay, but its 
 navigation is safe and easy, and the anchorage 
 commodious and well sheltered. The settlement 
 of LourenQO Marques and surrounding country 
 have been notoriously unhealthy ; but in 1887 the 
 swamps behind the town were filled in, and other 
 improvements have since been carried out. The 
 rivers Maputa, Tembe, and Umbelosi (joining to 
 form the English River), and the Komati, fall 
 into Delagoa Bay. The first two are navigable 
 for some distance for small craft. In 1887 a com- 
 pany was formed in London to work a concession 
 from the Portuguese government for ninety years, 
 for the construction of a railway (293 miles) from 
 Delagoa Bay to Pretoria in the Transvaal. The 
 line was partly opened in 1888. See Rose 
 Montiero, Delagoa Bay (1892). 
 
 Delaware, one of the Atlantic States of the 
 American Union, forms a part of a peninsula 
 lying between the lower reaches of the Susque- 
 hanna and Chesapeake Bay on the west, and the 
 Delaware River and Bay and Atlantic Ocean on 
 the east. With an area of 1960 sq. ni., or little 
 more than that of Northumberland, it is the 
 smallest of all the states, except Rhode Island. 
 Save in a small hilly section in the north, nearly 
 all the surface is low and level, and in the ex- 
 treme south there is much swampy land ; while 
 the most southern two-fifths of the area is in 
 great part a sandy region. The coast-region has 
 many salt-marshes ; farther inland is a consider- 
 able body of extremely rich alluvial soil. The 
 western border is generally well wooded, and in 
 some places flat and marshy. The rivers are 
 mostly small, but many are navigable. In the 
 north kaolin and iron ore are found, and bog ore 
 or limonite occurs in other parts. The state is 
 well provided with railroad facilities, and is 
 crossed by a canal connecting the Delaware and 
 Chesapeake bays. The northern section has large 
 and varied manufacturing interests. Peaches 
 and the various small fruits, as well as market- 
 garden products, are leading articles of export ; 
 the principal cereal crops are maize, wheat, and 
 oats. Pop. (1870) 125,015 ; (1900) 184,735. The 
 principal towns are Wilmington, New Castle, 
 Dover (the state capital), and Smyrna. Dela- 
 ware's first permanent white settlements were 
 made by Swedes and Finns in 1638 ; Dutch and 
 Swedes contended for this region, till in 1655 it 
 
 Sassed under Dutch sway. After the transfer of 
 [ew Amsterdam (now New York) to the English 
 in 1664, Delaware became English also. Dela- 
 
 ware, a slave-state until 1861-65, took no part in 
 the secession movement. 
 
 Delaware, the capital of Delaware county, 
 Ohio, on the Whetstone River, 24 miles by rail 
 N. of Columbus. It has foundries, flour and 
 woollen mills, &c., chalybeate and sulphur 
 springs, and a Wesleyan University (1842). Presi- 
 dent Hayes was a native. Pop. 7950. 
 
 Delfshaven (Delfshdh'ven), a Dutch town, in- 
 corporated with Rotterdam in 1886, .so as to 
 become a western section of the city. 
 
 Delft, an ancient town of South Holland, on the 
 Schie, 8 miles NW. of Rotterdam. Its town-hall 
 (1618) is a picturesque and richly adorned edi- 
 fice. The New Church (1476) contains a monu- 
 ment to William the Silent, who was assassinated 
 here, 10th July 1584, as also the tomb of Grotius, 
 and the burial-vaults of the present royal family. 
 The Old Church contains the tomb of the 
 naturalist Leeuwenhoek, and of the great 
 admiral Tromp. Delft has also a state arsenal, 
 an East Indian college, and a polytechnic. There 
 are some manufactures of fine carpets, casks, 
 baskets ; but Delft has quite lost its high reputa- 
 tion for delf-ware, so famous from the 16th to the 
 18th century. Pop. (1876) 23,804 ; (1901) 31,87a 
 
 Delhi {Del'lee), the chief commercial and indus- 
 trial centre of the Punjab, on the right bank of 
 the Jumna, 113 miles NNW. of Agra, and 954 
 NW. of Calcutta. It is the terminus of the East 
 Indian and Rajputana railways, the former cross- 
 ing the Jumna by a fine iron bridge. Delhi is 
 walled on three sides, has ten gates, and stands 
 on high ground, the famous palace of Shah Jehan, 
 noAv the Fort, looking out over the river and a 
 wide stretch of wooded and cultivated country. 
 To the north, about a mile distant, rises the 
 historic 'ridge,' crowned with memorials of the 
 Mutiny, and commanding a fine view of the city, 
 the domes and minarets of which overtop the 
 encircling groves. The palace buildings com- 
 prise the cathedral-like entrance hall, the audi- 
 ence hall, and several lesser pavilions, covering 
 in all an area of 1600 feet by 3200, exclusive of 
 gateways. The beautiful inlaid work and carving 
 of these buildings are the admiration of the 
 world, and the diwan-i-khas is worthy of its 
 famous inscription : ' If there is a lieaven on 
 earth, it is this — it is this ! ' In the heart of the 
 city stands the Jama Masjid ('great mosque'), 
 one of the largest and finest structures of the 
 kind in India, which also owes its origin to Shah 
 Jehan. Among the notable monuments in the 
 neighbourhood are the imperial tombs, including 
 that of Hamayun, second of the Mogul dynasty ; 
 the old Kala Masjid, or black mosque ; and the 
 13th century Kutab Minar, 10 miles to the south, 
 which is 238 feet high, and tapers gracefully 
 from a diameter of 47 feet at the base to 9 feet 
 at the summit. Modern Delhi is noted for its 
 broad main streets, the chief being the Chandni 
 Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock- 
 tower, and the institute and nuiseum. Delhi has 
 a large trade in wheat and other produce, and its 
 bazaars are noted for gold and silver work, pre- 
 cious stones, shawlsj and costly fabrics. Across 
 the river is the ruined fort of Salimgarh. Pop. 
 (1891) 192,570 ; (1901) 208,385. 
 
 Delhi was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan, 
 and afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It was 
 taken by Lord Lake in 1803, and has ever since 
 been under British rule, except when it was held 
 by the mutineers in 1857. The march of the 
 mutineers from Meerut; the terrible 11th of 
 May ; the explosion of the powder-magazine by 
 
 1 
 
DELITZSCH 
 
 221 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 tV^illoughby and his heroic band ; the assault, 
 when the city was won (September 20) gate by 
 gate and quarter by quarter — a success saddened 
 by the death of the gallant Nicholson ; the sub- 
 sequent daring capture of the king of Delhi by 
 Hodson ; and the capture and shooting of his 
 sons by the same officer, are memorable events. 
 A memorial to Willoughby was erected by gov- 
 ernment in 1888. In 1877 Delhi was the scene 
 of the famous Durbar at which the Queen was 
 proclaimed Empress of India. 
 
 Delitzscli (Day'leetch), a town of Prussian Sax- 
 ony, on the Lobber, 12 m. N. of Leipzig. Pop. 8342. 
 
 Dellys (Del-leess'), a port of Algeria, 50 miles 
 E. of Algiers. Pop. 3578. 
 
 Delos (also anciently Asteria, Ortygia), an island 
 in the Grecian Archipelago, the smallest (little 
 more than I'sq. m.) of the Cyclades, between the 
 islands Rhenea and Mykonus. The town of Delos, 
 which stood at the foot of Mount Cynthus, a 
 
 franite crag 347 feet high, is now a mass of ruins, 
 till, however, the remains of the great temple of 
 Apollo (whom Leto gave birth to here), and of 
 his colossal statue, may be distinctly traced. 
 Since 1877 extensive excavations have been pro- 
 secuted for the French Archaeological Ins4;itute. 
 
 Delphi, an ancient Greek town in Phocis, cele- 
 brated chiefly for its famous oracle of Apollo, 
 8 miles N. of the northern shore of the Gulf of 
 Lepanto, at the southern base of Parnassus. The 
 modern town of Kastri now occupies the site, in 
 the neighbourhood of the source of the still flow- 
 ing Castalian spring. 
 
 Delvlno, a town of Albania, 45 miles WNW. 
 of Janina, with a strong castle. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Demavend, Mount, an extinct volcano of 
 Persia, forming the loftiest peak (18,600 feet) of 
 the Elburz chain, which separates the low shores 
 of the Caspian from the high Persian tableland. 
 
 Dembea, Lake. See Tzana. 
 
 Demerara (Dem-y-rah'ra), a county of British 
 Guiana (q.v.), takes its name from the Demerara 
 River, which rises in the Maccari Mountains, in 
 about 4° 40' N, lat., and after a northerly course 
 of 200 miles, enters the Atlantic at Georgetown. 
 The mouth is IJ mile wide, but is obstructed by 
 a bar at low tides. 
 
 Demlr-Hlssar ('iron-castle'), a town of Euro- 
 pean Turkey, on a tributary of the Struma, 45 
 miles NE. of Saloniki. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Demmin, an ancient town of Prussia, on the 
 Peene, 29 miles S. of Stralsund. Pop. 12,546. 
 
 Demotlca, a town of European Turkey, on a 
 tributary of the Maritza, 31 miles S. of Adrian- 
 ople by rail. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Denain (Deh-nav/"), a town in the French dep. 
 of Nord, near the Scheldt and Selle rivers, 20 
 miles NNE. of Cambrai by rail. It lies in the 
 centre of an extensive coalfield, and has manu- 
 factures of iron, beet-root sugar, and brandy. 
 An obelisk marks the scene of Marshal Villars's 
 victory over the allies under Prince Eugene, 27th 
 July 1712. Pop. 23,500. 
 
 Denbigli (Den'by), a municipal borough, county 
 town of Denbighshire, near the middle of the 
 Vale of Clwyd, 30 miles W. of Chester by rail. 
 Its imposing ruined castle, which was rebuilt in 
 1284, and in which Charles I. took refuge (1645), 
 was dismantled by the parliamentarians. Den- 
 bigh manufactures shoes and leather, but is 
 residential more than commercial. With Ruthin, 
 Holt, and Wrexham, it returns one member. A 
 lunatic asylum for North Wales was erected in 
 1848, and in 1860 a noble institution for twenty- 
 
 five orphan girls, and as many day pupils, from 
 money left in 1540 by one Thomas Howell. Pop. 
 6500. 
 
 Denbighshire, a county of North Wales, on 
 the Irish Sea, and between the Dee and the 
 Conway. With 8 miles of coast, it is 41 miles 
 long, 17 broad on an average, and 603 sq. m. in 
 area. The surface is partly rugged and moun- 
 tainous, with some beautiful and fertile vales, 
 as that of Clwyd, 20 miles by 7. The highest 
 mountain is Cader Fronwen, 2563 feet ; and many 
 others exceed 1500 feet. There occur coal, iron, 
 slates, flags, millstones, limestone, lead, and 
 copper. The chief rivers are the Dee, Conway, 
 Elwy, and Clwyd. The Rhaiadr waterfall is 200 
 feet high in two parts. Llangollen vale is famed 
 for romantic beauty and verdure, amid hills of 
 savage grandeur. About two-thirds of Denbigh- 
 shire is under cultivation ; its corn, cheese, butter, 
 and live-stock are greatly esteemed. It is also 
 well timbered. Salmon are caught in the rivers. 
 The towns are Denbigh, Wrexham, Ruthin, Holt, 
 Llangollen, Llanrwst, Abergele, and Ruabon. 
 Pop. (1801) 60,299 ; (1841) 88,478 ; (1901) 129,935. 
 Denbighshire returns two members. 
 
 Denby, with Cumberworth, a township of York- 
 shire, 8 miles W. of Bariisley. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Den'derah (Gr. Tentyra; Coptic Ttntore, prob- 
 ably from Tei-n-Athor, * abode of Athor'), a 
 village of Upper Egypt, once a populous town, 
 near the Nile's left bank, in 26° 13' N. lat., 32° 
 40' E. long. Its temple, one of the finest and 
 best-preserved structures of the kind in Egypt, 
 dates from the period of Cleopatra and the earlier 
 Roman emperors. It measures 220 by 50 feet. 
 
 DenienaonAQ (Dendermon'deh ; Fr. Termonde), 
 a town of Belgium, at the confluence of the 
 Dender and the Scheldt, 18 miles E. of Ghent 
 by rail. The fortifications, destroyed in 1784, 
 were restored in 1822. Pop. 10,200. 
 
 Den Fenella, a romantic ravine in Kincardine- 
 shire, near Laurencekirk. 
 
 Denholm (Den'num), a Roxburghshire village, 
 on the Teviot, 5 miles NE. of Hawick, with the 
 birthplace of the poet Leyden. Pop. 875. 
 
 Denia, a port of the Spanish province of 
 Alicante, near Cape St Martin. Pop. 11,613. 
 
 Deniliquln, the principal place in the Riverine 
 district of New South Wales, 488 miles SW. of 
 Sydney. Pop. 4300. 
 
 Denison, a city of northern Texas, 3 miles S, 
 of the Red River, and 73 by rail N. of Dallas, 
 with manufactures of cotton, flour, ice, artificial 
 stone, &c. Pop. (1880) 3975 ; (1900) 11,807. 
 
 Denmark (Dan. Danmark), the smallest of the 
 three Scandinavian kingdoms, consists of the 
 peninsula of Jutland and a group of islands in 
 the Baltic, and is bounded by the Skager-Rak, the 
 Cattegat, the Sound, the Baltic, the Little Belt, 
 Sleswick, and the North Sea. The sale of the 
 West Indies to the United States in 1902 was 
 refused by the Landsthing. 
 
 Area Pop. in 
 
 ill sq. m. 1901. 
 
 Copenhagen 77 378,235 
 
 Islands in Baltic 5,024 1,007,513 
 
 Peninsula of Jutland 9,743 1,063,792 
 
 Faroe Islands 514 15,230 
 
 Total of Denmark Proper.. . . 15,289 2,464,770 
 
 Iceland 39,756 78,470 
 
 Greenland 46,740 11,895 
 
 W. Indies (SS. Croix, Thomas, John) 118 30,527 
 
 Total of Dependencies 86,614 120,892 
 
DENMARK 
 
 DENNY 
 
 The area of Denmark Proper — Jutland, and the 
 islands of Zealand, Fiinen, Laaland, Falster, &c. 
 —with that of the Faroe Islands added, and the 
 population are somewhat greater than half those 
 of Scotland. Tlie population, with the Faroe 
 Islands, was in 1870, 1,794,723; in 1880, 1,980,259; 
 in 1890, 2,185,235. Aarhuus, Odense, and Aalborg 
 are, besides the capital Copenhagen (Kjobenhavn), 
 towns with over 80,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Except in Bornholm (q.v.), the surface of Den- 
 mark is very similar in every part of the king- 
 dom, and is uniformly low, its highest point 
 (ui south-east Jutland) being only 564 feet above 
 sea-level. The coast is generally flat, skirted by 
 sand-dunes and shallow lagoons, especially along 
 the west side. Both the continental portion and 
 the islands are penetrated deeply by numerous 
 fjords, the largest being Limfjord, which inter- 
 sects Jutland, and has insulated the northern 
 extremity of the peninsula since 1825, when it 
 broke through the narrow isthmus which had 
 separated it from tlie North Sea. There are 
 several canals. The centre and west of Jutland 
 is nearly bare of wood, but in the other parts 
 of the peninsula the forests, especially of beech, 
 cover about 215,000 acres, and in the islands over 
 291,000 acres. Peat, which is got in abundance 
 from the bogs, brown coal or lignite, and sea- 
 weed are the chief fuel. The climate is milder, 
 and the air more humid, than in the more 
 southern but continental Germany ; it is not 
 unhealthy, except in the low-lying islands, such 
 as Laaland, where the short and sudden heat of 
 the summer occasions fevers. 
 
 The soils of Jutland are generally light, but 
 those in the south-east part and in the islands 
 are stronger ; about 80 per cent, of the area of 
 Denmark is productive, and of the remainder 
 about one-sixth is in peat-bogs. Nearly half the 
 population is engaged in agriculture ; the land 
 for the most part is parcelled out into small 
 holdings. A third of the whole kingdom is 
 arable, while over two-fifths is in meadow, pas- 
 ture, or fallow land. The raising of cattle is 
 taking more and more the place of arable farm- 
 ing in Denmark. Dairy produce has largely 
 developed, and the export of butter greatly in- 
 creased, owing to improved methods and the co- 
 operative dairy system. Machinery, porcelain 
 and delf wares, and bricks are leading manufac- 
 tures ; beet-root sugar refineries are increasing, 
 and the distilleries, though declining, are still 
 numerous ; there are ironworks, over eighty 
 tobacco-factories, and several paper-mills ; and 
 there are many large steam corn-mills. Though 
 the peasants still continue to manufacture much 
 of what they require within their own homes, 
 linens and woollens, as well as wooden shoes, 
 are now increasingly made in factories. The 
 principal articles of export are cattle, sheep, 
 swine, butter, hams, hides, wool, grain, fish, eggs, 
 meat, and wooden goods. Among the imports 
 are textile fabrics, cereals, and flour, manufactures 
 of metal and timber, coal, oil, salt, coffee, sugar, 
 and tobacco. About two-thirds of the export 
 trade is carried on in native vessels. The total 
 value of the imports in 1890-1902 ranged from 
 £17,057,000 in 1890 to £31,374,100 in 1902, and of 
 the exports in the same period from £12,990,000 
 in 1890 to £24,918,800 in 1902. The bulk of the 
 foreign trade is with Germany, Great Britain, and 
 Norway and Sweden ; the imports from Germany 
 exceed those from Britain by about a third, 
 whereas the exports to Britain are double of 
 those to Germany. In 1905 there were 1900 miles 
 of railway, and 3700 miles of telegraph. 
 
 Elementary education is compulsory for chil- 
 dren between the ages of seven and fourteen. 
 Copenhagen University has 1300 students. The 
 established religion is Lutheran, to which the 
 king must belong ; but complete toleration is 
 enjoyed in every part of the kingdom. Only 1 
 per cent, of the population (including about 
 4000 Jews) belong to other forms of faith. The 
 government of Denmark is a constitutional mon- 
 archy, the king being assisted by a cabinet of 
 seven ministers. The national assembly or Rigs- 
 dag consists of the Folkething and Landsthing 
 —the former partly nominated by the king, 
 partly elected by the large taxpayers, the latter 
 in the proportion of one to every 16,000 of the 
 population, elected for three years by prac- 
 tically universal suffrage. The total revenue 
 for the financial year 1904-5 was £4,248,112, 
 and the expenditure £4,321,600. In the same 
 year the net national debt was £13,596,900. 
 The decimal system was introduced in 1875, 
 the unit being the kroiie, or crown, of 100 ore; 
 the average rate of exchange is 18 kroner to 
 the pound sterling. The Danish army at peace 
 strength is 824 officers and about 9000 men ; the 
 war strength is 1448 officers aiid about 60,000 men. 
 All the able-bodied men who have reached the age 
 of twenty-two are liable to serve eight years in the 
 regular army and reserve. The navy comprises 
 9 armoured vessels, 6 cruisers and gun-vessels, 
 7 gunboats, and 34 first and second class tor- 
 pe<lo-boats, manned by 266 officers and 1137 men. 
 
 The early history of Denmark is lost in the 
 twilight of the saga-period, with its Vikings and 
 their valiant deeds. The Danes coming from the 
 islands occupied the lands deserted by the Jutes 
 and Angles who had in the 5th century migrated 
 to England. The Danish monarchy was founded 
 in 936 by Gorm the Old, whose son became a 
 Christian. Waldemar I. (1157-82) ruled Norway 
 also, and conquered Mecklenburg and Pomerania ; 
 under his son Waldemar II. further conquests were 
 made in German and Wendish lands, so that the 
 Baltic became a Danish sea. By the treaty of 
 Calmar in 1397, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, 
 already under one monarch, Margaret, were 
 formally united into one state. In 1448 the 
 Danes elected as king Christian of Oldenburg, a 
 descendant of their royal family, who was also 
 Duke of Sleswick and Holstein ; and his line con- 
 tinued on the throne till 1863. Sweden became 
 independent in 1523. Lutheranism was intro- 
 duced into Denmark in 1527. In 1815 Denmark 
 had to cede Norway to Sweden ; and in 1848 
 the Germanic peoples of 'the duchies,' Sleswick 
 and Holstein, rebelled against Denmark. For 
 the time the Danes succeeded in retaining the 
 duchies, but the controversy, renewed in 1863, ^ 
 led to the defeat of the Danes by Austria and J 
 Prussia (1864), followed by the incorporation of^ 
 the duchies in the Germanic Confederation, and, 
 after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, in Prussia. 
 
 See books about Denmark by Miss Otte (1882), 
 by various specialists (1891), and by Miss Thomas 
 (1902) ; Miss Brochner's Danish Life in Town and 
 Country (1903) ; and histories of Scandinavia by 
 Dunham (1835), Sinding (1858), Crichton and 
 Wlieaton (1872), Otte (1875), Nisbet Bain (1905). 
 
 Dennewltz (Den'neh-veetz), a village 42 miles 
 SSW. of Berlin. Here, on 6th September 1813, the 
 Prussians defeated the French, Saxons, and Poles. 
 
 Denny, a mining town of Stirlingshire, 5J^ miles 
 WNW. of Falkirk, on the Carron, opposite Duni- 
 pace, with which since 1876 it forms a poliw 
 burgh. Pop. 5161. 
 
DENNYSTOWN 
 
 223 
 
 DERBYSHIRE 
 
 Dennystown, a suburb of Dumbarton. 
 
 Dent du Midi (Don^ dii Mi-dee'), a conspicuous 
 Alpine peak of Valais which abuts on the valley 
 of the Rhone, 12 miles S. of tlie east end of the 
 Lake of Geneva ; height 10,450 feet. 
 
 Denton, a Lancashire town, 3i miles NNE. of 
 Stockport. Pop. (1901) 14,934. 
 
 D'Entrecasteaux Islamia (Don' tr-cas-to'), sinee 
 
 1884 part of British New Guinea, lie north 
 of the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea. 
 With an area of 1083 sq. rn., they comprise three 
 chief islands, and are named after the French 
 admiral and explorer, Bruni D'Entrecasteaux 
 (1739-93), who visited them in 1792. His name 
 is also preserved in D'Entrecasteaux Point on 
 the south-west coast of Western Australia ; and 
 in D'Entrecasteaux Channel, separating the 
 south of Tasmania from Brune Island. 
 
 Denver, the capital of Colorado, on the South 
 Platte Kiver, 922 miles W. of St Louis. It lies 
 on a level plain, 5196 feet above the sea, beyond 
 which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue 
 shoulders of the Rocky Mountains. Denver was 
 founded on a barren waste, dry and treeless, in 
 1858, and in 1870 the population was 4759 ; in 
 1880, 35,629 ; in 1900, 133,860. In thirty years 
 the mining-camp had been transformed into the 
 * Queen City of the Plains,' with stately buildings 
 of brick and yellow stone, and wide, shaded 
 streets, provided with the electric light, and with 
 horse, cable, and electric tram-cars ; and it has 
 become the meeting-point of a great network of 
 railways. It has an abundant water-supply, 
 many of the houses are heated by steam, supplied 
 by a company ; and through the resident portion 
 streams of water course past the unpaved foot- 
 ways. The clear invigorating air and dry climate 
 of Denver are famous ; the mean annual tempera- 
 ture is 48° F., and the rainfall 17 inches. Among 
 the chief buildings are the city-hall, a handsome 
 court-house and post-office, high school (1887), 
 Episcopal cathedral, the state capitol (com- 
 menced in 1886, and measuring 383 by 313 feet), 
 and the university. Denver is the centre of a 
 great agricultural and mining district, and has a 
 large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It 
 is chiefly, however, to its position as the centre 
 of a great mining region that Denver owes its 
 marvellous progress ; the discovery, in 1878, of 
 the fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills 
 attracted capital and emigration from all parts 
 of the continent. It has a United States assaying 
 mint, and is an important ore market. 
 
 Deoband', a town in the United Provinces, 
 15 miles N. of Muzaffarnagar. Pop. 20,500. 
 
 Deodar', a petty native state in the Palanpur 
 Superintendency, Bombay Presidency. Area, 
 440 sq. m. ; pop. 25,061. 
 
 Deori (De-o-ree'), a town in Nagpur district, 40 
 miles S. of Sagar. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Deptford, a town of Kent and Surrey, on the 
 south bank of the Thames, 4^ miles below London 
 Bridge, now one of the metropolitan boroughs. In 
 
 1885 it was constituted a parliamentary borough, 
 returning one member. In its royal dockyard, 
 dating from Heniy VIII.'s reign, Queen Elizabeth 
 knighted Drake when he returned from his voyage 
 round the world. It was closed in 1869, when 
 part of its site was fitted up by the London 
 corporation as a foreign cattle-market. The Royal 
 Victualling Yard is also here. Deptford was long 
 famous for horticulture, but the gardens have 
 mostly been built over or used for railway pur- 
 poses. There is little shipbuilding now, but the 
 
 General Steam Navigation Company employ a 
 great many men here, and there are large and 
 famous marine engineering establishments. In 
 1888-89 the Electric Lighting Company erected 
 buildings here for supplying London with light. 
 Peter the Great worked here as a shipwright. 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, John Evelyn, Admiral 
 Benbow, and Grinling Gibbons lived here ; and 
 Marlowe the dramatist was killed here, and is 
 buried in St Nicholas churchyard. Deptford is 
 divided from Greenwich by the Ravensbourne, 
 and over the creek there is a bridge wliere form- 
 erly the depe ford crossed the river. Pop. (1851) 
 27,896 ; (1881) 76,732 ; (1901) 110,398. 
 
 Derajat', the fluvial portion of Daman, a strip 
 of territoi-y between the Suliman Mountains and 
 the Indus, was mostly incorporated in 1901 with 
 the North-west Frontier Province. — Dera Ismail 
 Khan, capital of a transferred district, is 4^ miles 
 W. of the Indus, Pop. 35,000.— Dera Ghazi Khan 
 is, though 2 miles W. of the Indus, still attached 
 to the Punjab. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Derayeh, a town of Arabia, 450 miles NE. of 
 Mecca, was the capital of the Wahabis, and had a 
 pop. of 60,000 prior to 1819, when it was nearly 
 destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Derbend' (' gateway '), a port and capital of the 
 Russian district of Daghestan, on the west shore 
 of the Caspian, 140 miles NW. of Baku. The 
 upper city forms the citadel, and contains the 
 splendid palace of the ancient khans, now the 
 seat of the Russian governor. Pop. 14,750. 
 
 Derby (often Darby), a pari., munic, and county 
 borough, the capital of Derbyshire, on the Der- 
 went, 92 miles SE. of Liverpool and 129 NNW. of 
 London. The Roman station of Derventio was at 
 Little Chester, a northern suburb. Derby was a 
 royal borough in Edward the Confessor's time, 
 but was first placed under a mayor in 1638. It 
 has returned two members since 1295. The tower 
 of All Saints (1509-27) is a grand example of Per- 
 pendicular architecture, 175 feet high, exclusive 
 of the pinnacles ; the Roman Catholic church of 
 St Mary (1835) is a good specimen of Pugin's 
 work. Other buildings are the town-hall (1866) ; 
 the free library and museum and art gallery, all 
 gifted, like a recreation ground, by Mr M. T. 
 Bass, from 1848 to 1883 M.P. for Derby; the 
 grammar-school, a modern erection, but founded 
 in 1162 ; and the infirmary, whose foundation- 
 stone was laid by Queen Victoria in May 1891. The 
 choicely-planted arboretum (16 acres), near the 
 central railway station, was the gift (1840) of Mr 
 Joseph Strutt. Derby is the headquarters of the 
 Midland Railway Company ; their vast establish- 
 ments employ over 5000 men. Its manufactures 
 are silk, cotton, elastic web, lace, hosiery, iron, 
 lead, shot, spar, porcelain, marble, colours, and 
 chemicals. Silk, one of its staple manufactures, 
 was begun here first in England by John Lombe 
 in 1719. Porcelain Avas manufactured here from 
 1756 till 1814 ; and the Derby Crown Porcelain 
 Company has recently revived this beautiful 
 industry with much success. Richardson, the 
 novelist, ' Wright of Derby,' the painter, and 
 Herbert Spencer, were natives ; and Derby is 
 identified with the ' Stoniton ' of George Eliot's 
 Adam Bede. Pop. (1841) 32,741 ; (1901) 105,785, 
 
 Derbyshire, an inland county of England, 
 lying between Yorkshire and Leicestershire, 
 Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire. Its length 
 is 56 miles ; its greatest breadth, 34 miles ; and 
 its area, 1029 sq. m., or 658,624 acres. Pop. (1801) 
 161,567 ; (1841) 272,202 ; (1901) 620,196. The 
 surface is much diversified, the south being 
 
DEREHAM 
 
 224 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 mostly flat, the east of an undulating character, 
 but the north exceptionally hilly and rugged. 
 The high land here, called the Peak (which is 
 the name of a district and not of any particular 
 point or mountain), is the southern termination 
 of the Pennine chain, and forms the watershed 
 between the Trent and the Mersey. The chief 
 summits are Kinder Scout (2082 feet), Axe Edge 
 (1810), and Blakelow Stones, Mam Tor, and 
 Lord's Seat (all about 1700). North Derbyshire 
 is justly celebrated for its picturesque scenery, 
 which chiefly centres in the valleys of the 
 Derwent and Wye. Matlock and Buxton, with 
 warm mineral springs, are the two chief places 
 of resort. The other towns are the four munici- 
 pal boroughs of Derby, Chesterfield, Glossop, and 
 Ilkeston, and Ashbourne, Bakewell, Belper, and 
 Wirksworth. Since 1885 Derbyshire returns nine 
 members to parliament ; two for the borough 
 of Derby, and seven for the county, who sit 
 respectively for Chesterfield, High Peak, Mid 
 Derbyshire, Ilkeston, North-eastern Derbyshire, 
 Southern, and Western. Besides important coal- 
 mining, chiefly in the eastern division, Derby- 
 shire is singularly wealthy in a diversity of 
 minerals and metals— iron, lead, zinc, manga- 
 nese, copper, gypsum, pipeclay and chert for 
 potteries, marble, fluor-spar, and alabaster. The 
 chief manufactures are cotton, silk, elastic web, 
 worsted, metallic goods, porcelain and pottery, 
 and spar ornaments. Though more a manufac- 
 turing and mining than an agricultural county, 
 Derbyshire is not undistinguished for its pastoral 
 and corn-growing properties, and, in the south, 
 for its dairies. Of the total area, 78 per cent, is 
 under crops of all kinds, bare fallow, and grass. 
 There is much permanent pasture and large 
 sheep-walks in the Peak district. Ecclesiasti- 
 cally Derbyshire is, since 1884, an archdeaconry 
 of the diocese of Southwell, and is divided into 
 140 parishes. There are ruined abbeys at Dale 
 and Beauchief, and peculiarly fine churches at 
 Melbourne, Ashbourne, and Tideswell. The Saxon 
 crypt of Repton, and the churchyard crosses of 
 Eyam, Bakewell, Hope, &c., are the oldest 
 ecclesiastical remains. Of feudal and domestic 
 buildings may be named the castles of Castleton, 
 Bolsover, and Duffield, the manor-house of South 
 Wlnfleld (ruin), Haddon Hall, and Hardwick 
 Hall. Chatsworth(q.v.) is unrivalled. Arbelow, 
 near Youlgreave, is the most important 'stone 
 circle' in England next to Stonehenge. Derby- 
 shire's chief historic association is the retreat in 
 1745 of Prince Charles Edward, Derby being the 
 turning-point in his enterprise. Natives have 
 been Flamsteed, Chantrey, and Brindley. See 
 works by the Rev. J. C. Cox (5 vols. 1876-91), 
 Pendleton (1886), and J. T. (1892). 
 
 Dereham, East, a pleasant, thriving market- 
 town of Norfolk, 17 miles (by rail 22) WNW. of 
 Norwich. Here, in 050, St Withberga founded 
 a nunnery. It was burned by the Danes, but 
 refounded ; and its cruciform church remains, 
 with a detached belfry (the 'New Clocker'), St 
 Witliberga's well, and Cowper's grave. Bonner 
 was a vicar; Dr Wollaston and Borrow were 
 natives. Dereham manufactures agricultural im- 
 plements. Pop. (1851) 3372 ; (1901) 5545. 
 
 Derg, Lough, the largest lake expansion of 
 the river Shannon, between Tipperary and Gal- 
 way and Clare, is 24 miles long, 2 wide on an 
 average, and 80 feet deep.— Another Lough Derg, 
 in the south of Donegal county, measuring 3 
 miles by 2J, has m_any small isles, and wild 
 dreary shores. Saint's Isle contains the remains 
 
 of a priory ; Station Island, the reputed entrance 
 to St Patrick's Purgatory, was long the most 
 celebrated place of pilgrimage in Ireland. 
 
 Deny. See Londonderry. 
 
 Derwent, (1) a river of Derbyshire, flowing 60 
 miles, past Derby, to the Trent, near Sawley. — 
 (2) A river of Northumberland and Durham, flow- 
 ing 30 miles to the Tyne, near Gatesliead. — (3) A 
 river of Yorkshire, flowing 57 miles to the Ouse 
 at Barmby-on-the-Marsh. 
 
 Derwent, the principal river of Tasmania, 
 issues from Lake St Clair, in the centre of the 
 island ; and winds 130 miles SE. to Storm Bay 
 at Hobart, its estuary being 4 miles wide. 
 
 Derwentwater, a sheet of water, stretching 
 south froni Keswick, the most beautiful of the 
 Cumberland lakes. Lying 238 feet above sea- 
 level, and engirt by steep wooded crags and 
 hills, it is 3 miles long by 1 broad, and 72 feet 
 deep. Near its foot rise Castle Hill (529 feet) and 
 Friar's Crag, commanding exquisite views ; whilst 
 at its head are the Lodore Falls and Borrowdale. 
 This lake is an enlargement of the Derwent 
 River, which traverses it in its course towards 
 the Irish Sea at Workington. It has several 
 wooded isles, besides a remarkable floating isle. 
 
 Desertas, three rocky Atlantic islets, SE. of 
 Madeira, visited by fishermen and herdsmen. 
 
 Deseret. See Utah. 
 
 Desirade (Day-zee-rdhd'), a French West Indian 
 island , 4 miles E. of Guadeloupe. Area, 10 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 1598, who fish and cultivate cotton. 
 
 Des Moines (Deh-Moin'), capital of Iowa, on 
 Des Moines River, at the mouth of Raccoon River, 
 174 miles W. of Davenport by rail. The river, 
 rising in the SW. part of Minnesota, flows 550 
 miles generally SB. to the Mississippi. P'ounded 
 in 1846, the city has a fine state-house ($3,000,000), 
 a marble post-office and coui't-house, a Baptist 
 university, a state library of over 22,500 volumes, 
 and a public park, with fine groves of forest 
 trees. There are foundries and planing and flour- 
 ing mills, besides manufactories of machinery, 
 engines, boilers, railway cars, &c. Pop. (1870) 
 12,035 ; (1880) 22,408 ; (1900) 62,140. 
 
 Desmond, a former district of Munster, com- 
 prising the counties of Cork and Kerry. 
 
 Desna, a navigable river of Russia, rising in 
 Smolensk province, and flowing 550 miles SE. 
 and SW. to the Dnieper, almost opposite Kiev. 
 It receives the Seim and the Snov. 
 
 Despoblado (Span., 'desert'), a treeless, unin- 
 habited plateau, nearly 10,000 feet above the sea, 
 on the Bolivian and Argentine frontier, to the 
 north-east of Antofagasta. 
 
 Despoto Dagh. See Rhodope. 
 
 Dessau (Des'sow), a town of Germany, capital of 
 the duchy of Anhalt, on the Mulde's left bank, 
 near its junction with the Elbe, 70 miles SW. of 
 Berlin. Its principal building is the fine ducal 
 palace (1748). Pop. 52,000. 
 
 Desterro, an important port of Brazil, on the 
 N. coast of the island of Santa Catliarina, 240 
 miles NE. of Porto Alegre. Pop. 30,700. 
 
 Detmold, capital of the German principality 
 of Lippe, on the Werre, 47 miles SW. of Hanover 
 by rail. It has an old castle, a modern palace, 
 and manufactures of tobacco, cards, and carved 
 work. On a hill 2 miles off" is Bandel's colossal 
 statue of Arminius (1875). Pop. 12,250. 
 
 Detroit, the chief commercial city and port of 
 entry of Michigan, on the Detroit River, 125 
 miles by water, and 178 by land, NW. of Clev«- 
 
 1 
 
DETROIT RIVER 
 
 225 
 
 DEVONSHIRE 
 
 land, Oliio, and 284 ENE. of Cliicago. Detroit is 
 substantially built upon rising ground, its streets 
 are broad, well paved, and shaded with trees; 
 it is well supplied with the best of water ; and 
 its fire, police, and school departments are excel- 
 lent. The principal manufactures include iron 
 f)roducts, machinery, railroad cars, flour, malt 
 iquors, cigars, leather, boots and shoes, &c. 
 The public buildings embrace a Catholic cathedral, 
 a city-hall erected at a cost of $600,000, a Board 
 of Trade building, a United States marine hos- 
 pital, &c. Detroit is among the oldest places 
 in the United States. It came into possession 
 of the French in 1(310, was transferred to the 
 British in 1763, and in 1796 passed to the United 
 States. It was incorporated as a city in 1824. 
 Pop. (1870) 79,577 ; (1880) 116,340; (1900) 285,704. 
 
 Detroit River, so called, on whose north- 
 western bank stands Detroit City, is the strait 
 through which the waters of Lake St Clair and 
 of the great upper lakes of the St Lawrence 
 system flow into Lake Erie, and thence to the 
 Atlantic. It is 20 miles in length, and at Detroit 
 forms an excellent harbour. 
 
 Dettingen (Def ting-en), a village of Bavaria, 
 10 miles NW. of Aschaffenburg by rail. Here, 
 on 27th June 1743, George II. of England, com- 
 manding English, Hanoverians, and Austrians, 
 defeate(i the larger French army U7ider the Due 
 de Noailles.— There is another Dettingen (pop, 
 3519) in WUrtemberg, 10 miles E. of Reutlingen. 
 
 BeutSGh'bvod (Doitch-brod), a town in Bohemia, 
 15 miles from the Moravian frontier. Here in 
 1422 the Hussite general Ziska defeated the 
 Emperor Sigisinund. Pop. 6436. 
 
 Deutz (Doitz). See Cologne, 
 
 Deux-ponts (Duh-pon"'). See Zweibrucken. 
 
 Deux-Sevres (Duh-Sehvr'). See SfcvRES. 
 
 Dev'enter, an old Hanse town of Holland, on 
 the Yssel, 11 miles NNW. of Zutphen by rail. 
 It has a cathedral, a fine town-house, and 
 manufactures of iron, carpets, and gingerbread, 
 l^ere Thomas a Kempis and Erasmus were edu- 
 cated. Pop. 26,100. 
 
 Dev'eron, a beautiful salmon river, rising near 
 the Buck of Cabracli, at an altitude of 1847 feet, 
 and winding 62 miles north-eastward to the 
 Moray Firth at Banff". 
 
 Devil's Bridge, Cardiganshire, 12 miles E. by 
 S. of Aberystwith, a double bridge over a ravine, 
 the lower one built in the 11th or 12th c, the 
 upper (30 feet in span, and 114 high) in 1753, 
 
 Devil's Ditch, a great earthwork of Cambridge- 
 shire, running 7 miles south-eastward from Reach 
 to Wood-Ditton, 
 
 Devil's Dyke, a kind of natural amphitheatre 
 in the Downs, 5^ miles NW, of Brighton. 
 
 Devizes, a municipal borough of Wiltshire, 
 near the Kennet and Avon Canal, 50 miles WSW. 
 of Reading, and 20 ESE, of Bath, The old name 
 Divisce or Ad Divisas marked the ancient bound- 
 ary between the English and Celts ; but as a 
 town, Devizes owes its origin to a splendid castle 
 built here by Bishop Roger of Salisbury about 
 1132, It was stormed by Cromwell in 1645, and 
 now is represented by mere fragments. There 
 are two churches with much interesting Norman 
 work ; a market-cross (1814), commemorating 
 God's judgment on a perjuress in 1753 ; a foun- 
 tain with a statue of Sothern Estcourt (1879) ; a 
 good museum ; and a large corn exchange (1857). 
 Front Henry VIII.'s time till about 1820 Devizes 
 was a great cloth mart ; now its chief manufac- 
 
 
 tures are tobacco, agricultural implements, an4 
 other machinery. It returned two members till 
 1867, then one till 1S85. Pop. 6600. See A His- 
 tory of Devizes (1859). 
 
 Devon, a Scottish stream winding 84 miles 
 from the Ochils to the Forth near Alloa. 
 
 Devonport (before 1824 called Plymouth 
 Dock), a parliamentary, municipal, and county 
 borough, maritime town, and naval arsenal, of 
 Devonshire, on the estuary of the Tamar (which 
 is 4 miles long by ^ mile broad, and called the 
 Hamoaze), 2 miles WNW. of Plymouth. It 
 stands on high ground, and is separated from 
 its growing suburbs of Stoke and Morice Town 
 by the glacis of its fortifications, once important, 
 but now dismantled. Devonport owes its exist- 
 ence to the dockyard established here by William 
 III. in 1689, and is one of the chief naval arsenals 
 in Britain. The government establishments 
 stretch for nearly 4 miles along the Hamoaze, 
 The original dockyard, extended from time to 
 time until it contained six building-slips, Avas 
 supplemented in 1844 by the formation at Morice 
 Town of the Keyham Steam Yard and Factory, 
 which communicates with the dockj'ard and 
 gun-wharf (designed by Vanbrugh) by a tunnel. 
 Farther up the river are an engineers' college, 
 seamen's barracks, magazines, and powder- works ; 
 and the Hamoaze itself contains many men-of- 
 war. The official residences of the admiral of 
 the port and of the lieutenant-governor of the 
 western district are at Mount Wise, which is 
 fortified. Here also are the chief barracks of 
 the troops which garrison the 'three towns' of 
 Plymouth, Devonport, and Stonehouse. The 
 military hospital is on Stonehouse Creek. Pop. 
 of municipal borough (1841) 33,820 ; (1901) 70,437 ; 
 of parliamentary borough, which includes East 
 Stonehouse, and returns two members, 78,059, 
 
 Devonshire, a maritime county of south-west 
 England between the Bristol and the English 
 Channel, Its greatest length is 70 miles ; its 
 greatest breadth, 65 ; its coast-line, about 150 ; 
 and its area, 2586 sq. m., of which about three- 
 fourths are under cultivation. The north coast 
 is the boldest, with several hills over 1000 feet. 
 Its chief indentation is Bideford Bay, 18 miles 
 broad and 8 deep, into which fall the Taw and 
 the Torridgc. The south coast is also lined with 
 cliff's, chief among them being Bolt Head and 
 Start Point. Tor Bay is 3 by 3^ miles ; and Ply- 
 mouth Sound, the combined estuary of the Tamar 
 and Plym, is one of the finest harbours in the 
 kingdom. Devonshire is hilly, the most elevated 
 parts being the table-lands of Dartruoor in the 
 south-Avest, Exmoor in the north-west, running 
 into SoTnerset, and Blackdown in the east. These 
 are mainly open moor-lands. Dai'tnioor is very 
 rocky ; the lower hills grassy. High Willhayse, 
 on Dartmoor (2039 feet), is the highest point. 
 Copper, tin, lead, iron, and manganese occur in 
 commercial quantities, with ores of several other 
 metals ; china, terra-cotta, potter's, and pipe 
 clays ; granites, marbles, anthracite, lignite, gyp- 
 sum, and other earthy minerals. The Tamar, 59 
 miles, is the longest of numerous rivers, and 
 divides Devon from Cornwall ; the Exe, 54 miles, 
 rises in Somerset, The other rivers are the Dart, 
 Teign, Taw, Torridge, and Plym (all rising in 
 Dartmoor), Exe, and Tamar, The red deer still 
 run wild on Exmoor, The climate, especially in 
 the south, is mild and humid, and not liable to 
 great extremes. Hence, several of the coast- 
 towns have become famous as health-resorts — 
 notably Torquay and Ilfracombe, Myrtles and 
 
DEWAS 
 
 226 
 
 DIJON 
 
 aloes commonly flourish in the open air ; and in 
 specially favoured spots oranges and lemons, with 
 a little protection, will thrive and fruit. The 
 county is most fertile, especially in the South 
 Hams, and on the 'red land' of tlie Vale of 
 Exeter. The pastures are very rich, and dairy- 
 farming and cattle-breeding are prominent in its 
 agriculture. The red Devon cattle are one ot 
 the leading breeds ; and the sheep and ponies 
 of Dartmoor and Exmoor have more than a local 
 reputation. ' Clotted cream ' is a special product. 
 There are extensive orchards, from which great 
 quantities of cider are made. The fisheries are 
 extensive and valuable. Though in the main 
 a<^ricultural, Devon has a varied industrial char- 
 acter. Mining and quarrying and clay-working 
 are of considerable importance ; and the manu- 
 factures include serges, lace, gloves; extensive 
 potteries; manure, chemical, and soap works; 
 paper-mills, breweries, and distilleries. The 
 chief towns are Exeter, Plymouth, Devonport, 
 Torquay, Tiverton, Barnstaple, Stonehouse, Tavi- 
 stock, Teignmouth, Newton, Dartmouth, and 
 Brixham. Pop. (1801) 340,308; (1841) 582,959; 
 (1901) 661,314. Under the Reform Act of 1885 
 Exeter returns one member, Plymouth and Devon- 
 port two each, and the rest of the county is 
 divided into eight single-member constituencies. 
 No county save Middlesex has given birth to so 
 many great men— Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, 
 John Davis, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard 
 Grenville, Monk, Marlborough, Bishop Jewell, 
 Gay, St Boniface, Newcomen, Wolcott, Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, Coleridge, Kingsley, John Ford, among 
 them. See works by Worth (1886) and Page (1893). 
 Dewas', a protectorate of Central India, held 
 conjointly by two Rajput chiefs. Area, 289 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 172,073. The capital, Dewas, 20 miles 
 NB. of Indore, has a pop. of 12,921. 
 
 Dewsbury, a manufacturing town and muni- 
 cipal and parliamentary borough in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, at the base of a hill, on 
 the Calder's left bank, 32 miles SW. of York, and 
 8 SSW. of Leeds. The Calder navigation connects 
 the town with Liverpool and Hull. Dewsbury 
 has a chamber of commerce (1861), an infirmary 
 (1883), a new town-hall (1888), new county courts, 
 and a grammar-school (St Augustine's). Along 
 with Batley (q.v.) it is the centre of the shoddy 
 trade. Blankets, carpets, yarns, and iron are 
 also largely manufactured. Dewsbury obtained a 
 municipal charter in 1872, Pop. of mun. borough 
 (1861) 18,148; (1901) 28,060; of pari, borough, 
 which, formed in 1867, includes Batley and Soot- 
 hill, and returns one member, 72,986. 
 
 Dhar, a town of Central India, the capital of a 
 
 protected state, 33 miles W. of Mhov. Pop. 
 
 15,000. Area of state, 1740 sq. m. ; pop. 169,474. 
 
 Dharmsala, a hill-station in the Punjab, 110 
 
 miles NE, of Lahore. Pop. 5522. 
 
 Dharwar, a town in the southern Mahratta 
 country, Bombay presidency, separated by the 
 river Tungabhadra from Madras. Pop. 32,841. 
 
 Dholka, a town of Bombay presidency, 22 miles 
 SW. of Ahmadabad. Pop. 18,716. 
 
 Dholpore, a native state of Raj pu tana. Central 
 India, on the north bank of the Chumbul, with 
 an area of 1156 sq. m., and a pop. of 279,890. 
 Capital, Dholpore, on tlie Chumbul, 34 miles S. 
 of Agra by rail. Two religious fairs are held every 
 year at Machkund, a lake 3 miles to the west, 
 with 114 temples on its banks. 
 
 Dhuheartach, an Argyllshire islet, 15]^ miles 
 SW. of Iqna, with a lighthouse (1867-72). 
 
 Dhwalagiri (Bwalagii^ree, g hard), once sup- 
 posed to be the highest peak of the Himalayas 
 but really at most only the third (26,826 feet). 
 It is in Nepal, in 29° N. lat. and 82" 30' E. long. 
 
 Dlablerets (De-ah'Ur-ay'), a four-peaked moun- 
 tain (10,651 feet) of the Bernese Alps, Switzerland, 
 on the frontiers of Bern and Valais. There were 
 terrible landslips here in 1714 and 1749. 
 
 Diamantlna (Dee-a-man-tee'na), an episcopal 
 town in the Brazilian province of Minas Geraoe ; 
 centre of a rich diamond district. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Diamond Harbour, a port on the Hooghly, 38 
 miles SSW. of Calcutta by rail, 41 by river. 
 
 Diarbek'ir (anc. Amida), a decayed town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, on the right bank of the Tigris, 
 390 miles NW. of Bagdad. It is walled, and com- 
 manded by a citadel built on a high basalt rock, 
 against which the flat-roofed houses rise above 
 each other in terraces. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Didcot, the junction for Oxford, 53 miles W, 
 by N. of London. 
 Diedenhofen. See Thionville. 
 Diego Garcia (De-ay' go), a low coral island of 
 the Indian Ocean, a dependency of Mauritius, in 
 7° S. lat. and 72°-73'' E. long., extends 30 miles 
 in a horseshoe shape, embracing between its ex- 
 tremities three minor islets (the Chagos Islands). 
 It is convenient for coaling. Pop. 700. 
 
 Diego Suarez, a fine bay at the north end of 
 Madagascar, ceded to France by treaty in 1885. 
 
 Dieppe (De-epp', or Dyepp'), a seaport in the 
 French dep. of Seine-Inferieure, on the English 
 Channel, 40 miles N. of Rouen by rail. It is 
 situated among chalk-cliffs, at the mouth of the 
 river Arques, and is regularly built. It has a 
 castle (1433, now occupied as barracks), a fine 
 Gothic church of the 13th century, a handsome 
 bathing establishment and casino, and a harbour 
 which admits vessels of 600 tons. It manufac- 
 tures clocks, lace, and tobacco ; and its carved 
 articles of horn, bone, and ivory have long been 
 famous. There are also shipbuilding yards, dis- 
 tilleries, and important fisheries. Dieppe's pros- 
 perity attained its zenith between the middle of 
 the 14th century and the end of the 17tli ; many 
 expeditions sailed hence for the west coast of 
 Africa and Canada. But a terrible bombardment 
 by the English and Dutch destroyed all but two 
 01- three buildings in 1694; the town never re- 
 covered its importance, and even before the rise 
 of Havre had already sunk to a secondary port. 
 Nevertheless, steamers ply regularly to Newhaven. 
 Pop. 23,250. 
 
 Diest (Deest), a Belgian town, on the Deiuer, 37 
 miles SE. of Antwerp. Pop. 7599. 
 
 Digby, a seaport of Nova Scotia, on St Mary's 
 Bay, reputed for its cured pilchards. Pop. 1951. 
 Digne (Been), a cathedral city in the French 
 dep. of Basses-Alpes, on the Bleonne, 70 miles 
 NE. of Marseilles. Pop. 6584. 
 Dihong. See Brahmaputra. 
 Dijon (Dee-zTwng'), chief town in dep. of Cote- 
 d'Or, lies, spread out on a fertile plain, at the 
 foot of Mont Afrique (1916 feet), at the junction 
 of the Ouclie and Suzon, and on the Canal de 
 Bourgogne, 196 miles SE. of Paris by rail. Its 
 importance as a railway centre has rendered it of 
 consequence in the inner line of French defences 
 towards the east, and strong forts now crown the 
 neighbouring hills. Of the mediaeval defences, 
 the Gothic castle built by Louis XI. still remains, 
 employed as a gendarmerie barrack ; fonnerly it 
 was a state-prison. Among tlie public buildings 
 
DILLINGEN 
 
 227 
 
 DIZFUL 
 
 are the massive Gothic cathedral, dating from 
 the 13th century, with a wooden spire (1742) 301 
 feet high; the cliurches of Notre Dame (1252- 
 1334) and St Michel (1529) ; a handsome theatre ; 
 the palais de justice ; and the former palace of the 
 Dukes of Burgundy, which, commenced in 1366, 
 is now the town-hall, and contains a rich museum 
 and a library. The manufactures include beer, 
 brandy, woollen cloth, blankets, mustard, 
 candles, and pottery, and there is a noteworthy- 
 trade in flowers and agricultural produce ; but 
 Dijon's chief commercial importance is as the 
 centre of the Upper Burgundy wine trade. Pop. 
 (1872) 40,116 ; (1901) 65,320. The Dibia of the 
 Romans, Dijon in 1007 was united to the duchy 
 of Burgundy, of which it became the capital. On 
 Charles the Bold's death (1477) it came to 
 France. In October 1870 it capitulated to the 
 Germans, Cliarles the Bold, Crebillon, Bossuet, 
 and Raineau were natives, and close by is the 
 birthplace of St Bernard, of whom there is a 
 statue by Jouffroy (1847). 
 
 Dillingen (Dil'ling-en), a Bavarian town, on the 
 Danube, 51 miles WSW. of Ingolstadt. In the 
 castle the bishops of Augsburg formerly resided, 
 and here they founded a university (1554-1804), 
 from 1564 an active Jesuit centre. Pop. 5860. 
 
 Dilman', a town of Northern Persia, 75 miles 
 W. of Tabriz. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Dilston, the ruined seat of the Jacobite Earl of 
 Derwentwater, in Northumberland, 2^ miles E. 
 by S. of Hexham. 
 
 Dinajpur, a town in Rajshahi division (Kuch 
 Behar), Eastern Bengal, on tlie Purnabhaba, 221 
 miles N. of Calcutta by rail. Pop. 12,560. 
 
 Dinan (Deen-on^'), an old town in the French 
 dep. of C6tes-du-Nord, on the Ranee, 30 m. NW. of 
 Rennes, and 14 S. of St Malo. Its situation, on 
 the summit of a steep granite hill, with the 
 Ranee flowing through a valley 250 feet below, is 
 highly romantic. The valley is crossed by a fine 
 granite bridge of ten arches. The town is still 
 partly surrounded by its ivy-covered walls ; and 
 the old castle of the Dukes of Brittany is now in 
 part used as a prison. A fine Romanesque 
 church contains the heart of Du Guesclin. Many 
 Enghsh reside here. Pop. 8788. Four miles off 
 lies the village of Corseult, on an old Roman site, 
 where many antiquities have been found. 
 
 Dinant(I>ee7^-o?^*'),atown of Belgium, occupying 
 a narrow site between the Meuse and a limestone 
 hill, 17 miles S. of Namur by rail. On the cliff 
 above stands the citadel (1530). There are manu- 
 factures of cotton, paper, leather, iron, ginger- 
 bread, &c., with black marble quarries ; the copper 
 wares (Dinanderie), belong to the past. Pop. 8773. 
 
 Dinapore (Ddndpur), military headquarters of 
 the district of Patna in Bengal, on the Ganges, 
 12 miles W. of Patna. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Dlnard, the most fashionable watering-place in 
 Brittany, on the Ranee estuary opposite St Malo 
 (q.v.) and St Servan. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Dina'ric Alps, the mountains connecting the 
 Julian Alps with the Balkan system ; the main 
 range, stretching SB., separates Dalmatia from 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina. The highest summits 
 are Orjen (6225) and Dinara (5940). 
 
 Dinas Movrddwy (Din'as Moivth'ee), a market-, 
 town of Merionethshire, 10 miles E. by S. of 
 Dolgelly, Pop. of Mallwyd urban district, 885. 
 
 Din'digal, a town in the presidency of Madras, 
 40 miles NNW. of Madura by rail. Pop. 25,182. 
 Dangle, a seaport on the north side of Dingle 
 
 Bay, in County Kerry, Ireland, 27 miles SW. of 
 Tralee. Pop. 1964. 
 
 Dingwall (Scand., 'court hill'), the county 
 town of Ross-shire, near the head of the Cromarty 
 Firth, and at the entrance to the valley of Strath- 
 pefler, 13^ miles NW. of Inverness (by rail 18^). 
 A royal burgh since 1226, it unites Avith Wick, 
 «&c. to return one member. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Dlnkelsbilhl, an ancient walled town of Bavaria, 
 19 miles NNW. of Nordlingen. Pop. 4657. 
 
 Diomede Islands, a group of three small 
 islands in Behring Strait, fonning, as it were, 
 stepping-stones between Asia and America. 
 
 Dirk-Hartog Island, measuring 40 miles by 
 10, lies off the west coast of Australia. With 
 Peron Peninsula to the south, it encloses the 
 Freycinet Inlet, and, with two smaller islands to 
 the north, forms the breastwork of Shark's Bay. 
 
 Dirleton, a Haddingtonshire village, with a 
 fine ruined castle, 2^ miles WSW. of North 
 Berwick. Pop. 313. 
 
 Dirschau (Deer'shoiv), a town of Prussia, 20 
 miles SSE. of Danzig, on the Vistula, here crossed 
 by a railway viaduct (1857) 911 yards long. Polish 
 from 1466 till 1772, it now has great railway works 
 and sugar-factories. Pop. 13,146. 
 
 Disco, an island on the west coast of Green- 
 land, in 70° N. lat. It is 90 miles long and 3000 
 feet high, and lias good coal. The harbour of 
 Godhavn is on the south coast. 
 
 Dismal Swamp, measuring 30 miles from north 
 to south by 10 in breadth, lies chiefly in Virginia, 
 but partly in North Carolina, and in the centre 
 has Lake Drummond, 6 miles broad. It formerly 
 was a frequent hiding-place of runaway slaves. 
 Its dense growth of cypress and cedar has been 
 greatly thinned, and part of the region has been 
 reclaimed. It is intersected by a canal connecting 
 Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound. 
 
 Diss, a market-town of Norfolk, on a rising- 
 ground above a mere of 5 acres, 19 miles SSW. of 
 Norwich. Skelton was rector here. Pop. 3763. 
 
 District of Columbia, a district of the United 
 States, containing Washington (q.v.) and George- 
 town, is bounded west by the Potomac, and else- 
 where by Maryland. Area, 60 sq. m. ; pop. (1890) 
 230,392. Till 1871 the district remained an un- 
 oi-ganised territory, under congress ; but in that 
 year a territorial government was organised, and 
 in 1878 congress placed the whole control of it 
 under three commissioners, appointed by the 
 president and approved by the senate. 
 
 Ditmarsh, or Dithmarsciien, the western dis- 
 trict of Holstein, low-lying and fertile, between 
 the Eider and the Elbe, Avith an area of 531 miles. 
 
 DiU, a seaport situated at the eastern extremity 
 of a Portuguese island (7x2 miles) of the same 
 name, off the south coast of Kathiawar, 180 miles 
 NW. of Bombay. Once a city of 50,000 souls, it 
 has sunk in importance till now the whole island 
 has but 14,636 inhabitants, mostly fishermen. 
 Some magnificent buildings still attest its ancient 
 splendour, such as the Jesuit College (1601), now 
 a cathedral. The place has been Portuguese 
 since 1535, and stood a famous siege in 1545. 
 
 Dixon Entrance, a strait on the west coast 
 of North America, separating Queen Charlotte 
 Islands from the Prince of Wales Archipelago, 
 and so dividing British territory from Alaska. 
 
 Dizful, a town of Persia, on the river Diz, 190 
 miles W. of Ispahan. Pop. 35,000. The ruins of 
 S^isa lie 14 miles SSW. 
 
DJIBOUTIL 
 
 22g 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 
 
 Djiboutll (Jee-hoo'til). See Obock. 
 
 Dmitrov, a town of Russia, on a tributary of 
 the Volga, 42 miles N. of Moscow, Pop. 9206. 
 
 Dnieper (D'nee'pr; anc. Borysthenes), a river ris- 
 ing near the Volga and Western Dwina, in the N. 
 of the Russian province of Smolensk, and flowing 
 1330 miles southward past Kleff, Ekaterinoslav, 
 and Alexandrovsk to the Black Sea. Its em- 
 bouchure (Increased by the waters of the Bug) 
 forms a gulf nearly 50 miles long, and 1 to 6 
 miles broad. Its principal affluents are the 
 Desna and Soj from the east, and the Pripet, 
 Beresina, and Druz from the west. At Dorogo- 
 bu.sh the stream becomes navigable, but below 
 Kleff and at other points traffic Is interrupted. 
 The produce of the southern provinces Is usually 
 conveyed down the river to ports on the Black 
 Sea, but many vessels pass annually from the 
 Dnieper to the Baltic by the Brest-Lltovsk canal 
 (50 miles) and other water-ways. The stream is 
 permanently bridged at Kleff only. At Smolensk, 
 its waters are frozen from November to April ; at 
 Kleff, only from January to the end of March ; 
 and at Kherson it is frequently open all the year. 
 
 Dniester (D'nees'tr), a muddy river of Russia, 
 rises In the Carpathian Mountains, in Austrian 
 Gallcla, and flows 650 miles SSB., separating 
 Bessarabia from Podolla and Cherson, and enter- 
 ing the Black Sea by a shallow shore lake, 18 
 miles long and 5 broad. 
 
 Do'ab (Sanskrit, 'two rivers;' cf. Punjab), a 
 term used In India for the country between any 
 two rivers, but specially between the Jumna 
 and the Ganges — a space extending from Alla- 
 habad to the base of the Himalayas, a distance 
 of upwards of 500 miles, with an average breadth 
 of 55 miles. It is the granary of Upper India. 
 
 Dobcross, a town of Yorkshire, 6j miles NB. 
 of Ashton-under-Lyne. Pop. 2990. 
 
 Dobein, a town of Saxony, on an island formed 
 by the Mulde, 40 miles SE. of Leipzig by rail, 
 with foundries. Pop. 17,972. 
 
 Do'beran, a bathing-resort of Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerln, 2^ miles from the Baltic, and 25 NE. 
 of Wismar. It has a ducal palace (1232), is con- 
 nected by rail (4 miles) with a sea-bathing estab- 
 lishment, and has a chalybeate spring. Pop. 4905. 
 
 Dobrudja (also spelt Dobriija, Dobrudscha, Do- 
 brogea), the south-eastern portion of Roumanla, 
 between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, 
 transferred to Roumania by the Berlin Congress 
 of 1878. The north-east of this region Is occupied 
 by marshes and the Danube's delta ; the rest 
 mostly a treeless steppe. The climate Is malari- 
 ous. Area, 6102 sq. m. ; pop. 200,000. 
 
 Dodworth, a Yorkshire township, 2J miles W. 
 by S. of Barnesley. Pop. 310O. 
 
 Doesborgh {Doos'borhh; anc. Drususburg), a 
 Dutch fortified town, at the confluence of the Old 
 and New Yssel, noted for its mustard. Pop. 4484. 
 
 Doggerbank, an extensive flat sandbank in 
 the German Ocean, between England and Den- 
 mark, 100 miles off the Yorkshire coast. It is 
 170 miles long by 65 broad, with a depth of from 
 8 to 16 fathoms. Its fisheries are most valuable. 
 In October 1904 a Russian fleet on its way to 
 the China seas flred on English trawlers off the 
 Doggerbank, creating the ' Doggerbank incident.' 
 
 Dogs, Isle of, or Mili.wall, a low-lying penin- 
 sula on the Thames' left bank, formed by a sudden 
 bend of the river opposite Greenwich. 
 
 Dol, an antique walled town in the French 
 dep. of lUe-et-Vllalne, 10 miles SE. of St Malo. 
 
 Its former cathedral is a granite building of the 
 13th century. To the north is the isolated Mont 
 Dol (213 feet). Pop. 3902. 
 
 Doje (anc. Dola Sequanontm), a town in the 
 French dep. of Jura, the capital formerly of 
 Franche-Cointe, on the Doubs, 29 miles SE. of 
 Dijon. It has a Gotliic cathedral. Pasteur was 
 born here. Pop. 12,973. 
 
 Dolgellj (Dolgeth'ly ; 'dale of hazels'), capital 
 of Merioneth, Wales, on the Wnlon, 62 miles SW. 
 of Chester by rail. It lies at the foot of Cader 
 Idrls, and in summer is frequented by tourists. 
 It manufactures coarse woollens and flannels ; its 
 Welsh tweed is in great repute. Pop. 2437. 
 
 Dollar, a town of Clackmannanshire, at the 
 foot of the Ochlls, and near the Devon's right 
 bank, 6 miles NE. of Alloa. Its academy, a 
 domed Grecian edifice (1818-67), founded under 
 the will of Captain John M'Nab (1732-1802), 
 a Dollar herdboy and London shipowner, gives 
 higher and secondary education to 800 pupils 
 of both sexes. A mile north are the noble ruins 
 of Castle Campbell, crowning an almost insulated 
 knoll, with King's Seat (2111 feet) rising behind. 
 It belonged to the Argylls from 1465 till 1805, in 
 1556 sheltered John Knox, and in 1645 was burned 
 by Montrose. Pop. 1607. 
 
 Dollart, The, a gulf of the German Ocean, at 
 the mouth of the Ems, between Hanover and 
 Holland. It Is 8 miles long by 7 broad, and was 
 formed by inundations of the sea (1277-1362). 
 
 Dolnj a Tuzla (Do?n'i/a Tooz'la), a town of Bosnia, 
 52 miles (by rail 154) NNE. of Sarajevo. Pop. 7189. 
 
 Dolomite Mountains, a region of jagged out- 
 lines and Isolated peaks. In the south-east of 
 Tyrol and in the Carinthlan Alp masses— Dolo- 
 mite being a kind of limestone. 
 
 Domln'ica (Fr. Dominique), the largest and 
 most southerly British Island In the Leeward 
 group of the Lesser Antilles, midway between 
 the French Islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. 
 Area, 291 sq. m. ; population, 30,000, mostly 
 negroes, with a few Caribs and whites, and two- 
 thirds speaking a French patois. Dominica is 
 of volcanic origin, with many hot and sulphu- 
 reous springs. In 1880 there was a great erup- 
 tion of volcanic ash from the ' Boiling Lake ' at 
 the southern extremity of the Island. The tem- 
 perature is cool and even chilly in the mountains, 
 but sultry on the coast; rain falls nearly every 
 month, and the annual rainfall is 83 Inches. 
 Nearly one-half of the surface consists of wooded 
 mountains and deep ravines, and at one point 
 the surface attains 6234 feet. Agriculture is con- 
 fined to a narrow coast strip. The principal 
 product is sugar, but fruit, coffee, cocoa, and 
 timber also are exported, and the fisheries are 
 valuable. The capital is Roseau, a port on the 
 west coast, with a pop. of 4500. The majority 
 of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics. Dom- 
 inica was discovered by Columbus, on his second 
 voyage, on Sunday (whence its name ' the Lord's 
 Day '), 3d November 1493. In 1648 it was declared 
 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle a neutral Island ; 
 but in 1759 it Avas captured by England, and In 
 1763 ceded by France, who, however, held It 
 again in 1778-83, and in 1802-14, when It was 
 finally restored to Britain. 
 
 Dominican Republic, or Santo (commonly 
 San) Domingo, a state formed of the eastern 
 portion of Hayti (q.v.). Area, 20,587 sq. m., or 
 over two-thirds of the whole Island ; population, 
 617,000, mostly negroes or nuilattoes. The state 
 religion Is Roman Catholic ; the prevailing dia- 
 
DOMINION 
 
 229 
 
 DONGOLA 
 
 lect is Spanish. Civilisation has not reached a 
 high level ; but of late years the country has 
 made considerable progress under the impulse 
 of American enterprise. Large sugar plantations 
 and factories have been developed in the south 
 and west ; the culture of tobacco, coffee, and 
 cocoa has been greatly increased ; and the export 
 of mahogany, dye-woods, and guano has been 
 revived. Gold, silver, quicksilver, iron, and coal 
 have been found ; and there is a railway of 72 
 miles. The president is chosen for four years, 
 and the legislative power is a congress of twenty- 
 two deputies. The capital is San Domingo. — 
 This portion of the island remained Spanish when 
 the western part was ceded to France in 1697, 
 and was united with the neighbouring state in 
 1795-1808 and 1822-43. In 1843 it assumed a 
 separate standing as the Dominican Republic, 
 reconstituted in 1805, after having reverted to 
 Spain (1861-63). See works by Keim (Phila- 
 delphia, 1871) and Hazard (New York, 1873). 
 
 Dominion. See Canada. 
 
 Domo d'Os'sola, a cathedral city of Piedmont, 
 at the foot of the Simplon, near the Toce's right 
 bank, 56 miles by rail N. of Novara. Pop. 2300. 
 
 Domremy-la-Pucelle, Joan of Arc's birthplace, 
 a village in tlie French dep. of Vosges, on the 
 Meuse, 8 miles N. of Neufchateau. 
 
 Don, a river of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 rising in the Penistone moors on the borders of 
 Derbyshire and Clieshire, and running 70 luiles 
 SE. and NB. past Sheffield, Rotherham, Don- 
 caster, and Thorne, to the Ouse at Goole. 
 
 Don, a salmon-river of Aberdeenshire, rising 
 close to the Banffshire boundary in a peat-moss 
 1980 feet above sea-level, and winding 82 miles 
 eastward to the German Ocean, 1 mile NE. of 
 Old Aberdeen, and not far below the ' Auld Brig 
 o' Balgownie ' (c. 1320), commemorated in Byron's 
 Do)i Juan. Its chief affluent is the Ury. 
 
 Don (anc. Tanais), a river of Russia, having 
 its souace in a small lake in the government of 
 Tula, and flowing 1125 miles southward through 
 the governments of Tula, Riazan, Tambov, 
 Voronej, and the country of the Don Cossacks, 
 till it enters the Sea of Azov by several mouths, 
 of which the Aksai is the most considerable. 
 Among its afiiuents are the Voronej, Donetz, 
 Khoper, and Medvieditza. The Don is navigable 
 for large boats below Voronej, and in its upper 
 course is connected by canal and railway with 
 the Volga. Its waters abound in tish. 
 
 Donabyu, a town of Burma, on the Irawadi, 35 
 miles S. of Henzada. Pop. 3273. 
 
 Dona Francisca, a German colony in the 
 Brazilian province of Santa Catharina, 14 miles 
 from its port, Sao Francisco. Area, 97 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 18,000. Chief town, Joinville (pop. 2000). 
 
 Donaghadee (Donahadee'), a seaport of County 
 Down, 19 miles B. of Belfast and 21^ SW. of 
 Portpatrick in Scotland. Pop. 2886. 
 
 Donauworth (Dd-noio-verf), a decayed town of 
 Bavaria, at the confluence of Wornitz and Danube, 
 25 miles NNW. of Augsburg by rail. Pop. 3857. 
 Marlborough carried the intrenched camp of the 
 French and Bavarians near here in 1704 ; and 
 here in 1805 the French defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Don Benito, a town of Spain, near the Guadi- 
 ana, 69 miles E. of Badajoz by rail. Pop. 15,172. 
 
 Doncaster, a municipal borough in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, and an important railway 
 junction, on the right bank of the Don, 33 miles 
 B. of York, and 156 NNW. of London. Fine old 
 
 elms line the broad and level road from the town 
 to the racecourse. Doncaster is well built, and 
 the High Street is a mile long. The parish 
 church was rebuilt by Sir G. G. Scott, after 
 destruction by fire, in 1853-58, at a cost of 
 £43,128. Its noble tower is 170 feet high. The 
 water-works, constructed in 1880, were opened 
 at a cost of £180,000. The town has manufac- 
 tures of iron, brass, sacking, linen, and agri- 
 cultural machines. The locomotive and carriage 
 works of the Great Northern Railway are at Don- 
 caster. The agricultural trade is large, and there 
 is a corn-market. Pop. (1851) 12,042 ; (1881) 
 21,130 ; (1901) 28,932. Doncaster was the ancient 
 Danum, and lay on the Roman road from York to 
 Lincoln. It was the Dona Castre of the Saxons. 
 The Saxon Northumbrian kings had a palace here. 
 Doncaster was burned by lightning in 759, and 
 frequently ravaged by the Danes. It has long 
 been famous for its annual races, begun in 1703, 
 and held a mile south-east of the town in the 
 second week of September. Colonel St Leger, in 
 1776, founded stakes which have been yearly run 
 for by the best horses in England. See Tomlin- 
 son's History of Doncaster (1887). 
 
 Dondra Head. See Ceylon. 
 
 Donegal (Don-eh-gawV ; ' fort of the stranger'), 
 a seaport in the south of Donegal county, at the 
 Eske's mouth, on a shallow creek of Donegal 
 Bay (a valuable fishing-ground, especially for 
 herrings), 157 miles NW. of Dublin. It has ruins 
 of a castle and of a Franciscan monastery (1474), 
 and near it is a chalybeate spa. Pop. 1213. 
 
 Donegal, a maritime county of Ulster, washed 
 by the Atlantic on the north and west. Its 
 greatest length is 84 miles, its greatest breadth, 
 41 ; area, 1870 sq. m. The bold and rugged coast- 
 line (166 miles long) is indented by many deep 
 bays and loughs, and fringed with numerous 
 islands. The surface generally is mountainous, 
 moory, and boggy, with many small lakes and 
 rivers ; here is excellent fishing. The highest 
 hill, Erigal, rises 2462 feet, and several others 
 exceed 2000 feet. The largest stream is the 
 J'oyle, running 16 miles north-east into Lough 
 Foyle. Lough Derg is the largest lake. Beauti- 
 ful granites, inisurpassed freestone, and white 
 niarble are utilised. The climate in most parts 
 is moist, raw, and boisterous. There are manu- 
 factures of woollens, worsted stockings, worked 
 muslins, and kelp, and extensive fisheries. Pop. 
 (1841) 296,448; (1901) 173,625—76 per cent. 
 Catholics. Donegal sends four members to parlia- 
 ment. The towns are small, the chief being 
 Liflbrd, the county town, Ballyshannon, Letter- 
 kenny, Rathmelton, and Donegal, Till 1612, when 
 James L planted Ulster with English and Scotch 
 settlers, the south part of Donegal was called 
 Tyrconnel, and belonged to the O'Donnels. 
 Donegal has many ruins and traces of forts, 
 religious houses, and castles, and of the palace of 
 the North Irish kings on a hill near Lough Swilly. 
 Near Derry is the coronation-stone of the ancient 
 Irish kings. Tory Isle, towards the entrance to 
 Lough Swilly, contains the remains of seven 
 churches, two stone crosses, and a round tower. 
 
 Doneraile, a market-town of County Cork, on 
 the Awbeg, 5 miles SE. of Buttevant. Pop. 790. 
 
 Dongarpur (Dungarpur), a town of Rajputana, 
 Central India, 340 miles N. of Bombay. It is the 
 capital of a protected state, with an area of 1440 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 180,000. 
 
 Don'gola, NeWj or Ord£, a town of Nubia, on 
 the Nile's left bank, above the third cataract, and 
 750 miles S. of Cairo, with a citadel, and a pop. 
 
 I 
 
DONNYBROOK 
 
 230 
 
 POBSETSHIRE 
 
 of 10,000. In the operations against the Mahdi, 
 in 18S4-85, the town was employed by the British 
 as a base ; in March 1886 the British forces were 
 withdrawn, and Dongola, with all Nubia, fell into 
 the possession of the Sudanese. — Old Dongola is 
 a ruined town on the Nile's right bank, 75 miles 
 SSE. of New Dongola. The capital of the king- 
 dom of Dongola, it was destroyed by the Mame- 
 lukes in 1820. 
 
 Donnybrook, a former village and parish, now 
 mostly embraced in the borough of Dublin, till 
 1855 celebrated for a fair notorious for fighting, 
 which was chartered by King John. 
 
 Doon, an Ayrshire river, made classic by Burns, 
 issues from Loch Enoch, and runs north-west, 
 through Loch Doon, a gloomy sheet of water, 6 
 miles long by f mile wide, past Dalmellington, 
 Burns's Monument, and AUoway Kirk, and falls 
 into the Firth of Clyde 2 miles S. of Ayr. Its 
 whole length is 30 miles. 
 
 Dor, or Mont Dore (erroneously Mont d'Or), 
 a chain of the Auvergne Mountains in the French 
 dep. ofPuy-de-D6me. Puy-de-Sancy is the highest 
 peak of Central France (6190 feet). 
 
 Dorak-el-Atek, a town of Persia, on the Jer- 
 rahi, 55 miles B. of Basra. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Dor'chester, a municipal borough, the county 
 town of Dorsetshire, on the Frorae, 8 miles N. of 
 Weymouth, and 110 by rail (by road 119) WSW. 
 of London. Till 1867 it returned two members 
 to parliament, till 1885 one. It carries on a trade 
 in ale and beer, cattle, cereals, and butter ; and 
 has a free grammar-school (founded 1579), a 
 county museum, a guildhall (1848), a corn 
 exchange (1867), and a bronze statue (1889) of the 
 Dorset poet, the Rev. W. Barnes. Pop. (1841) 
 3249 ; (1901) 9458. Dorchester was the Roman 
 Durnovaria or Durimom, a walled town with a 
 fosse, and a chief Roman British station. Part 
 of the wall, 6 feet thick, still remains. Near 
 Dorchester are the remains of the most perfect 
 Roman amphitheatre in England, 218 by 163 
 feet, and 30 feet deep, the seats cut in the 
 chalk for 13,000 spectators ; as also a Roman 
 camp, and a large British station with three 
 earthen ramparts, 1^ mile in circuit, and pierced 
 by intricate passages, and enclosing barrows. 
 The inner rampart is 60 feet high. It is sup- 
 posed that this great camp, one of the largest 
 in the kingdom, was the Dunmm of Ptolemy and 
 the origin of Dorchester. In 1645 Cromwell made 
 the town his headquarters, and in 1685 Judge 
 Jeffreys held his 'bloody assize' here, and sen- 
 tenced 292 rebels to death. 
 
 Dorchester, an Oxfordshire village, 9 miles SE. 
 of Oxford, was the seat of the Mercian bishops 
 from the 7th century till 1073, when the see was 
 transferred to Lincoln. Its Augustinian abbey 
 church (mainly 13th century) is lavishly orna- 
 mented. Pop. of parish, 852. See J. H. Parker's 
 History of Dorchester (1882). 
 
 Dorchester, formerly a separate town of Mas- 
 sachusetts, 4 miles S. of Boston, was in 1869 
 annexed to that city. 
 
 Dordogne (Do r-doriO, a dep. in the SW. of France, 
 formed of the ancient Guiennese district of Peri- 
 gord, with small portions of Agenais, Limousin, 
 and Angouniois. Area, 3530 sq. m. ; pop. (1861) 
 501,687 ; (1901) 448,545. It derives its name from 
 the river Dordogne, which, after a course of 305 
 miles (185 navigable), unites with the Garonne to 
 form the large estuary of the Gironde. Dordogne 
 has five arrondissements — Bergerac, Nontron, 
 ^erigueux (the capital), Biberac, and Sarlat. 
 
 Dordrecht. See Dort. 
 
 Dorking, a pleasant old-fashioned market-town 
 of Surrey, stands in a incturesque valley near the 
 base of Box Hill (590 feet), 24 miles SSW. of 
 London. Its new church, with a spire 210 feet 
 high, is a memorial to Bishop Wilberforce, who 
 met his death riding over the Downs near Dork- 
 ing (1873). Deepdene, the lovely seat of ' Anas- 
 tasius ' Hope, where Beaconsfield wrote Coningsby, 
 fs close by. Since 1904 there is a bishop-suffragan. 
 Pop. 7800. 
 
 Dornbim, an Austrian town in the Vorarlberg, 
 7 miles S. of Bregenz. Pop. 13,100. 
 
 Dornoch (Dor'no/i?i), county town of Sutherland, 
 40 miles NNE. of Inverness, stands near the en- 
 trance to Dornoch Firth, which, running 22 miles 
 inland, separates Sutherland from Ross-shire. It 
 has splendid golf-links, handsome county build- 
 ings, and the former cathedral of the see of 
 Caithness (1245), which, burned in 1570, was re- 
 built for the parish church in 1837. The last 
 witch burned in Scotland suffered at Dornoch in 
 1722. It was made a royal burgh in 1628, and 
 with Wick, &c. returns one member. Pop. 614. 
 
 Dorogoi (Dorohoi), a town of Roumania, in the 
 extreme north of Moldavia, on the Shishja, 70 
 miles NW. of Jassy. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Dorp, a manufacturing place in Rhenish 
 Prussia, on the Wupper, now forming part of 
 the town of Solingen. 
 
 Dor'pat (or Derpt, Russian Jurjev), a town in 
 the Russian province of Livonia, on the Embach, 
 here crossed by a fine granite bridge, 165 miles 
 (247 by rail) SW. of St Petersburg. The Dom- 
 berg Hill was formerly occupied by the citadel, 
 cathedral, and bishop's palace, on whose site 
 now rise an observatory, the university library, 
 schools of anatomy, &c., with tasteful gardens ; 
 and close by are the other university buildings 
 and the town-house. The university, founded in 
 1632 by Gustavus Adolphus, was re-established 
 by Alexander I. in 1802, and since 1887 has been 
 thoroughly Russianised. It has five faculties, 
 above 70 teachers, and about 2000 students. 
 There is a notable botanical garden. Dorpat was 
 a Hanse town in the 14th and 15th centuries, 
 and until 1704 was alternately captured by Swedes, 
 Poles, and (finally) Russians. It possesses large 
 printing establishments, breweries, and manufac- 
 tories of cigars, tiles, and pianofortes. Pop. 
 42,500—80 per cent. German. 
 
 Dor'setshire, or Dorset, a county on the Eng- 
 lish Channel, between Hampshire and Devon- 
 shire. Its greatest length is 58 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth, 40 ; and its area, 998 sq. m., or 627,265 
 acres, of which a third is arable, a ninth waste, 
 and the rest pasture. The coast-line is 75 miles 
 long, with fine cliffs and headlands. St Alban's 
 Head (354 feet high) and Golden Cap (619 feeft 
 high) are among the highest coast points between 
 Dover and Land's End. About midway in the 
 coast-line is the so-called Isle of Portland, con- 
 nected with the mainland by the remarkable 
 Chesil Bank (q.v.). Chalk downs run along the 
 south coast, and through the middle of the county 
 nearly from east to west. The highest point is 
 Pillesden Pen (934 feet). The chief rivers are the 
 Stour and the Frome. The chief mineral pro- 
 ductions are the celebrated Purbeck and Portland 
 building-stones, and white china and pipe clays. 
 At Swanage is found the celebrated Purbeck 
 marble, seen in many English cathedrals. The 
 climate is mild. The chalk hills or downs are 
 covered with short fine pasture, on which numbers 
 
tOKt 
 
 ^31 
 
 DOVE 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 cf Southdown sheep are fed. The soil is chiefly 
 sand, gravel, clay, and chalk. Pop. (1841) 
 175,054; (1871) 195,537; (1881) 190,979; (1901) 
 202,962. The county has sent four members to 
 parliament since 1885, when Dorchester, Brid- 
 port, Poole, Weymouth and Melcombe Regis, 
 Shaftesbury, and Wareham, formerly sending up 
 ten members, ceased to be separate constituencies. 
 Dorsetshire has ancient British and Roman re- 
 mains, as stone circles, cromlechs, barrows, camps, 
 an ami)hitheatre, three Roman stations, and a 
 chambered long barrow, known as Gray Mare and 
 Colts, near Gorwell. There are some remains of 
 40 abbacies, priories, hospitals, &c. The ruins of 
 Corfe Castle (q.v.) are among the grandest in 
 England. The scenery of Dorsetshire has been 
 rendered familiar to many outside the county by 
 the works of Barnes and Hardy. See works by 
 Hutchins (2 vols. 1774 ; 3d ed. 4 vols. 1861-73), 
 Worth (2d ed, 1889), Mayo (1885), and Moule(1894). 
 
 Dort, or Dordrecht, a Dutch town on an 
 island formed by the Maas, 10 miles SE. of 
 Rotterdam by rail. An inundation in 1421, 
 which destroyed over 70 villages and drowned 
 100,000 people, separated its site from the main- 
 land. Founded in 1013, it is one of the oldest, 
 as it once was the richest of the trading towns 
 of Holland, Among its chief buildings are a 
 Gothic cathedral (1363) and a fine town-hall 
 (1339). The largest East-Indiamen, and gigantic 
 wood-rafts which come down the Rhine from the 
 Black Forest and Switzerland, are accommodated 
 in its roomy harbour. Close by are shipyards, 
 corn and saw mills, and manufactories of oil, 
 sugar, ironwares, and machinery. Pop. (1874) 
 25,577 ; (1901) 38,800. Here in 1572, the revolted 
 States of Holland held their first assembly ; and 
 here in 1618-19 sat the Protestant Synod of Dort, 
 which condemned the doctrines of Arminius. 
 The brothers De Witt, Cuyp, and Ary Scheff'er 
 were natives ; of the last there is a statue (1862). 
 
 Dortmund (Dort'moont), chief town of West- 
 
 ghalia, in the fertile Hellweg plain, near the 
 mscher, 74 miles NNE. of Cologne by rail. It 
 is the mining headquarters of Westphalia, and 
 an important railway centre ; and it has iron 
 and steel works, and manufactures of mining 
 material, nail-making and other macliines, safes, 
 thread, bricks, timber, and flour, besides over 
 30 breweries, most of the beer being exported. 
 Figuring from the 8th century as Therotmanni, 
 or Dorpmvnde, it became a free Hanse town, 
 but was ceded to Prussia in 1815 at the congress 
 of Vienna. An aged linden marks the site of the 
 famous free court of the Vehmgericht ; but since 
 the walls were removed in 1863, the general 
 aspect of the town has become quite modern. 
 Pop. (1846) 8732 ; (1900) 142,418. 
 
 Douamenez {Doo-ar-ne-nay'), a French port of 
 Finistere, on the Bay of Douarnenez, 8 miles 
 NW. of Quimper by rail. It is important for the 
 sardine-fishery, and has a pop. of 12,250. 
 
 Douay (Fr. Doo-ay', by English Catholics Dow'- 
 ay ; the Roman Duacum), a town in the French 
 dep. of Nord, on the river Scarpe, 20 m. S. of Lille 
 by rail. A great military town , it is strongly forti- 
 fied, contains an important arsenal, a cannon- 
 foundry, and a school of artillery. The principal 
 buildings are the hotel-de-ville, the public library, 
 containing 100,000 volumes and 3000 MSS., the 
 museum, hospital, and artillery barracks. The 
 manufactures include lace, cotton, oil, soap, and 
 iron machinery. Pop. (1872) 21,703 ; (1901) 29,172. 
 During the middle ages Douay was a constant bone 
 of contention between the Flemish counts and 
 
 the French rulers. It became the seat of a uni- 
 versity (1562), of a great English Catholic college 
 (1568), and of a Scotch Catholic college (1594), 
 which came to an end at the French Revolution, 
 Douay having passed with the rest of Flanders 
 under the dominion of Spain, but been taken by 
 Louis XIV. in 1667. 
 
 Doubs (Doob), a dep. of France, on the E. frontier, 
 adjoining Switzerland and Alsace. Area, 2010 
 sq. m. ; population, 296,000. It is traversed by 
 the river Doubs (total length, 270 miles), a tribu- 
 tary of the SaOne. Doubs is divided into the 
 four arrondissenients of BesanQon (the capital), 
 Baume-les-Dames, Montbeliard, and Pontarlier. 
 
 Douglas, the capital of the Isle of Man, a sea- 
 port and favourite watering-place, is so called 
 from its being situated near the junction of two 
 streams— the Dhoo (black) and Glass (gray). It 
 lies on a picturesque bay, on the east side of 
 the island, 75 miles NW. of Liverpool, 46 W. of 
 Barrow, and 94 NE. of Dublin. The old town, 
 on the south-westeni edge of the bay, presents 
 with its narrow tortuous streets a vivid contrast 
 to the liandsome modern terraces and villas which 
 occupy the rising ground beyond, and the ground 
 facing the north of the bay. It possesses an 
 excellent landing pier ; another pier and break- 
 water, constructed of concrete cement blocks, 
 was opened in 1879 ; the new street and charming 
 promenade following the line of the bay is one 
 of its most agreeable features. Conspicuous in 
 the centre of the crescent of the bay stands Castle 
 Mona, built by the fourth Duke of Athole, but 
 now converted into a first-class hotel and winter 
 gardens. The Tower of Refuge, a picturesque 
 object, occupies a dangerous rock in the southern 
 area of the bay, called Conister, and was erected 
 in 1833 for the safety of shipwrecked mariners. 
 The foundation-stone of an Eifi'el tower was laid 
 in 1890, and the Douglas Head Marine Drive 
 opened in 1891. Pop. (1851) 9880 ; (1901) 19,125. 
 
 Douglas, a decayed town of Lanarkshire, on 
 Douglas Water, 11 miles SSW. of Lanark. Of 
 the old kirk of St Bride, the burial-place of the 
 Douglases till 1761, only the choir and a spire 
 remain. Modern Douglas Castle (Earl of Home), 
 I mile NNE., is a poor successor to Scott's 
 'Castle Dangerous,' now represented by little 
 more than a tower. Pop. 1218. 
 
 Douglas, a small town of County Cork, Ireland, 
 4 miles SE. of Cork. Pop. 764. 
 
 Doune (Doon), a village of Perthshire, on the 
 Teith, 9 miles NW. of Stirling by rail. Pop. 930. 
 Doune Castle, built by Murdoch, Duke of Albany, 
 in the early part of the 15th century, is now a mag- 
 nificent ruin. It is described in Scott's Waverley, 
 and was reduced to ruins by Hawley's dragoons in 
 1746. A mile to the west is Deanston (pop. 723), 
 with its cotton-mills, long managed by the philan- 
 thropist, James Smith (1789-1850), the promoter 
 of 'deep draining and thorough ploughing.' 
 
 Douro {Dooro ; Span, form Diierd), a large river 
 of Spain and Portugal, rises in the Pico de Urbion 
 (7369 feet), in Old Castile, 30 miles NW. of Soria. 
 Thence it winds 490 miles SE., W., SW., and W. 
 to the Atlantic below Oporto. It is navigable to 
 Torre de Moncorvo, 90 miles. 
 
 Dove, a river rising 4 miles SW. of Buxton, and 
 flowing 45 miles S. and SE. along the borders of 
 Derby and Staff"ord shires to the Trent, at New- 
 ton Solney. It was the favourite fishing stream 
 of Izaak Walton, who lived here with Charles 
 Cotton ; and it is still beloved of anglers.— Dove- 
 dale is a romantic glen, forming the course of 
 
 L 
 
DOVER 
 
 23^ 
 
 i)RAk£NB£EG£ 
 
 this 'princess of rivers' for 3 miles, between 
 Tliorpe Mill and Mill Dale, below Alstontield. 
 
 Dover, a Cinque Port and parliamentary and 
 municipal borough of Kent, 77^ miles by rail 
 ESE. of London. It is not only a charmingly 
 situated watering-place, but, being the nearest 
 point of the English coast to France, is a seaport 
 of growing importance. Great harbour exten- 
 sions, costing over £5,000,000, were in progress 
 in 189S-1908. Tlie National Harbour will cover 
 685 acres, the Commercial Harbour 75. Dover, 
 see of a bishop-suffragan since 1898, is the seat 
 of the packet service for Calais and Ostend. The 
 fortifications comprise Dover Castle, on the chalk- 
 cliffs, 375 feet above the level of the sea; Fort 
 Burgoyne on the north side of the town, Archcliffe 
 Fort to the west, and the batteries on the Western 
 Heights, where large barracks are situated. There 
 are also remains of a Roman pharos or lighthovise, 
 and of a Romano-British church, which has been 
 restored. Dover has a new town-hall (1883), a mu- 
 seum, a hospital, a new promenade pier (1893), 900 
 ft. long, &c. It is chiefly dependent on its shipping 
 trade and its attraction as a watering-place, but 
 shipbuilding and sail and rope making are carried 
 on, and there are also flour and pajjer mills. Since 
 1885 it returns but one member. Pop. (1841) 
 17,795 ; '(ISOl) 41,782. The name (Roman Partus 
 Duris; Norman Dovere) is from the Celtic ' Dour,' 
 the name of the small river which runs through 
 the town. Fortified by William the Conqueror, 
 during whose reign it was nearly burned down, 
 noted as the place of King John's submission to 
 the pope, besieged by the French, held during 
 the Civil War by the parliamentarians, threat- 
 ened by the first Napoleon, and celebrated as 
 the headquarters of the Lord Wardens of the 
 Cinque Ports, Dover holds a distinguished place 
 in English history. Three submarine cables con- 
 nect it with the Continent, and here is the 
 entrance to the proposed Channel Tunnel. 
 
 Dover, (1) the capital of Delaware, U.S., on 
 Jones's Creek, 48 miles S. of Wilmington by rail. 
 Pop. 3811.— (2) The oldest town of New Hamp- 
 shire, founded in 1623, on the Cocheco River, (38 
 miles N. by E. of Boston by rail, with large cotton- 
 mills and print-works, and manufactures of boots 
 and shoes, woollens, and iron. Pop. 13,790. 
 
 Dover, Strait of (Fr. Pas de Calais), the 
 channel between England and France, connecting 
 the English Channel and the North Sea, whose 
 tides meet here. It is 18 to 25 miles broad, and 
 6 to 29 fathoms deep. See Channel (English). 
 
 Doveroourt, a watering-place forming a southern 
 extension of Harwich (q.v.). Pop. 2720. 
 
 Doveron. See Deveron. 
 
 Dovrefjeld (Dov'reh-fyeld), part of the moun- 
 tainous plateau of Norway, connecting the Kiolen 
 Mountains with the Jotun Fjelde. The average 
 elevation ranges from 2650 to 3600 feet; the 
 highest point is Snehaetten (7566). 
 
 Dowlais. See Merthyr-Tydvil. 
 
 Dowlatahad. See Daulatabad. 
 
 Down, a maritime county of Ireland, in the 
 south-east of the province of Ulster, 50 miles 
 long (NE. to SW.) and 35 broad. Area, 612,399 
 acres; pop. (1841)368,143; (1881) 272,107; (1901) 
 205,889 (80,024 Presbyterians, 64,467 Catholics, 
 and 47,130 Episcopalians). Tlie coast-line of 67 
 miles, or 139 counting inlets and islets, is in- 
 dented by Belfast Lough, Strangford Lough, 
 Dundrum and Carlingford Bays. The Mourne 
 Mountains cover 90 sq. m. in the south, and rise 
 in Slieve Donard to 2796 feet. The other parts 
 
 are mostly undulating and hilly, with plains and 
 fine meadows along the rivers. The chief rivers 
 are the Upper Bann and tlie Lagan. The Newry 
 Canal admits vessels of 50 tons, and with the 
 Ulster Canal opens communication through 
 almost all Ulster. Nearly one-half of the entire 
 area is under crop, mostly oats, potatoes, turnips, 
 wheat, flax, and barley. The chief manufacture 
 is linen, especially the finer fabrics. Down con- 
 tains 70 parishes, and since 1885 sends four 
 members to parliament, besides one for Newry 
 borough. Other towns are Downpatrick, New- 
 townards, Banbridge, Lisburn, Holywood, and 
 Donaghadee. On the top of Slieve Croob (1755 
 feet) are twenty-three stone cairns. 
 
 Down, a village of Kent, 16 miles SSE. of 
 London, residence from 1842 of Charles Darwin. 
 
 Downham Market, a town of Norfolk, on the 
 Ouse, in a flat fen country, 11 miles S. by W. of 
 Lynn. Pop. 2037. 
 
 Downpatrick, or simply Down, the capital of 
 County Down, near the influx of the Quoyle into 
 the south-west end of Lough Strangford, 27 miles 
 SE. of Belfast. It takes name from St Patrick, 
 and is the seat of the diocese of Down, united 
 with Dromore in 1842. It returned a member 
 till 1885. Pop. (1861) 4317 ; (1901) 2993. 
 
 Downs (Fr. dimes, from Celtic dun, 'a hill'), a 
 term applied, like denes in Norfolk, to hillocks 
 of sand thrown up by the sea or the wind along 
 the sea-coast. It is also a general name for any 
 xmdulating tract of upland too light for cultiva- 
 tion, and coA-ered with short grass. It is spe- 
 cially applied to two broad ridges of undulating 
 hills south of the Thames, beginning in the 
 middle of Hampshire, and running eastward, the 
 North Downs through the middle of Surrey and 
 Kent to Dover (about 120 miles), and the South 
 Downs through the south-east of Hampshire 
 and near the Sussex coast to Beacliy Head (about 
 80 miles). Between them lies the valley of the 
 Weald. The highest point of the North Downs 
 is Inkpen Beacon (1011 feet) ; and of the South 
 Downs, Butser Hill (888). These uplands ai-e 
 covered with fine short pasture, which, from its 
 aromatic quality, forms excellent feeding-ground 
 for the famous Southdown sheep. 
 
 Downs, The, a roadstead off the east coast of 
 Kent, opposite Ramsgate and Deal, between 
 North and South Foreland, and protected ex- 
 ternally by the Goodwin Sands (q.v.). This 
 large natural harbour of refuge is S miles by 
 6, with an anchorage of 4 to 12 fathoms. It 
 is unsafe only in south winds. The obstinate 
 but indecisive sea-fight of the Downs was fought 
 with the Dutch in June 1666. 
 
 Downton, a Wiltshire town, on the Avon, here 
 split into three branches, 6 miles SSE. of Salis- 
 bury. It has an Early English market-cross, a 
 cruciform church, an agricultural college (1880), 
 and a singular earthwork (the Moot); whilst 2 
 miles noi'th is Trafalgar House, presented in 1814 
 by the nation to Lord Nelson's brother and suc- 
 cessor. Pop. of parish, 3430. 
 
 Drachenfels ('Dragon's Rock'), a peak (1056 I 
 
 feet) of the Siebengebirge, on the Rhine's right | 
 
 bank, 8 miles SE. of Bonn. It commands a 
 glorious prospect, and may be gained by a moun- 
 tain railway (1883). 
 
 Draguignan (Dra-geen-yon^'), capital of the dep. 
 of Var, and at the base of the wooded Malmont 
 (2151 feet), 51 m. by rail NB. of Toulon. Pop. 8904. 
 
 Drakenberge {Drdh'ken-ber-geh, g hard ; in 
 Dutph, the ' Dragon Mountains '), the range 
 
DRAMMEN 
 
 233 
 
 DROITWICH 
 
 In the east of South Africa, between Cape Colony 
 and the Vaal River. From 29° S. lat. the three 
 chains which form the southern portion unite and 
 extend north-eastward in one mass, its highest 
 points the Mont aux Sources and Catkin Peak 
 (10,360 feet). The range is crossed by Van Reenen 
 (5415) and De Beers (5635) passes. 
 
 Drammen, a seaport of Norway, 33 miles SW- 
 of Christiania by rail, on the Dramselv, which 
 here discharges its waters through the Drams- 
 flord into the Gulf of Christiania, and which 
 is crossed here by three bridges, one of them 
 345 yards long. There are sawmills and chicory 
 factories. Pop. 24,100. 
 
 Drave (Ger. Drau), a river of Austria, rising 
 in the Tyrol, at an altitude of 5477 feet, and 
 flowing 447 miles ESE., through or along the 
 borders of Styria, Croatia, Slavonia, and Hungary, 
 till, 10 miles below Essek, it falls into the Danube. 
 At first a mountain-torrent, from Villach down- 
 wards (379 miles) it is navigable. 
 
 Drayton, West, a Middlesex parish, with a 
 racecourse, 3 miles S. of Uxbridge. Pop. 1118. 
 
 Drayton-in-Hales. See Market-Drayton. 
 
 Dren'the, a frontier province of the Nether- 
 lands, bordering on Hanover ; area, 1030 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 158,000. 
 
 Dresden, the capital of Saxony, is situated in 
 a charming valley on the Elbe, il6 miles SE. of 
 Berlin, and 62 ESE. of Leipzig. The Altstadt 
 and Friedrichstadt on the left bank of the Elbe, 
 and the Neustadt and Antonstadt on the right 
 or northern bank, are united by the Augustus 
 Bridge (1727-29), and the Albert Bridge (1875-77), 
 and by the Marienbriicke, which is at once a rail- 
 way and a carriage bridge. The Briihl Terrace 
 (1738), on the Elbe's south bank, is a charming 
 promenade. The museum (1847-54) contains col- 
 lections of engravings (400,000 examples) and 
 drawings, besides the famous picture-gallery. The 
 last, which owes its origin chiefly to Augustus III. 
 of Saxony, who purchased the Modena gallery in 
 1745, contains about 2400 paintings, mainly by 
 Italian and Flemish masters. The gem of the 
 collection is Raphael's 'Sistine Madonna ;' other 
 masterpieces being Titian's 'Tribute Money,' and 
 Correggio's ' Magdalene ' and ' La Notte.' Adjoin- 
 ing the museum is the Zwinger, a remarkable 
 rococo building of 1711-22, designed as the vesti- 
 bule of an elaborate palace, and containing valu- 
 able collections of casts, zoology, mineralogy, &c. 
 The Johanneum, erected as royal stables at the 
 end of the 16th century, now accommodates the 
 historical museum, founded in 1833, the gallery 
 of arms, and the priceless collection of porcelain. 
 The Augusteum, or collection of antiquities, 
 chiefly Roman objects of the Imperial times, and 
 the Royal Public Library, are deposited in the 
 Japanese Palace, built in 1715 in the Neustadt. 
 The library contains nearly 350,000 volumes, 
 20,000 maps, and 4000 MSS. The 'Green Vault' 
 in the royal palace contains a valuable collec- 
 tion of precious stones, pearls, and curios, and 
 articles in gold, silver, ivory, &c. The list of art 
 treasures in Dresden may be closed with the 
 collection of antiques (chiefly ecclesiastical), and 
 the gallery of casts of the works of the sculptor 
 Rietschel, both in the ' Lustschloss ' (1680), in 
 the Grossen Garten, a handsome public park, 350 
 acres in extent. Other buildings not yet men- 
 tioned are the royal palace, a large and rambling 
 edifice, begun in 1534 ; the prince's palace (1718) ; 
 the Bruhl Palace (1737) ; the town-house (1741-45) ; 
 and the magnificent new theatre (1871-78). Of the 
 churches, the finest are the Frauenkirche (1726- 
 
 34), with a lofty dome and lantern 320 feet high ; 
 the Roman Catholic church (1737-56), in an elabor- 
 ate baroque style, adorned on 'the exterior with 
 sixty-four statues ; the Soi)hienkirche (1351-57), 
 restored and provided with towers in 1865-69 ; and 
 the Kreuzkirche (1764-85). The Synagogue (1838- 
 40) is also noteworthy. The most important in- 
 dustries are the manufactures of gold and silver 
 articles, artificial flowers, machinery, chemicals, 
 paper-hangings, artists' canvas and colours, 
 chocolate, &c. ; and straw-plaiting, brewing, and 
 market-gardening. The so-called ' Dresden china ' 
 is manufactured not at Dresden but at Meissen. 
 Pop. (1871) 177,087 ; (1900) 395,349. 
 
 Dresden is of early Slavonic origin. Henry the 
 Illustrious made it his capital in 1270, and after 
 the division of the Saxon lands in 1485 it became 
 the seat of the Albertine line, and its prosperity 
 gradually increased. It suffered severely dur- 
 ing the Seven Years' War ; and again in 1813, when 
 the Allies were repulsed by Napoleon, but, after 
 he had left, forced the city to capitulate. Dur- 
 ing the revolution of 1849, also, very great dam- 
 age was inflicted upon the town, which was 
 occupied by the Prussians in 1866 during their 
 war with Austria. 
 
 Dreux (nearly Dreh ; anc. Durocassis), a town in 
 the dep. of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, 27 miles 
 NNW. of Chartres by rail. It lies at the foot 
 of a hill crowned with the ruins of the castle 
 of the Counts of Dreux ; from among them rises 
 a beautiful chapel, erected by the mother ot 
 Louis-Philippe in 1816, to which were removed 
 in 1876 the remains of him and other members 
 of the House of Orleans who had died in exile. 
 Pop. 8920. In 1562 the Constable Montmorency 
 defeated the Huguenots here, and took the Prince 
 of Conde prisoner. 
 
 Driflaeld, Great, the chief town in the Wolds, 
 East Riding of Yorkshire, 11 miles N. of Beverley 
 by rail, is connected with Hull, 19 miles S., by a 
 canal. It manufactures flour, linseed-cake, and 
 artificial manures. Pop. 5703. 
 
 Drighlington, a township in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 5 miles SE. of Bradford, with 
 worsted-spinning and coal-mining. Pop. 4322. 
 
 Drogheda (Droh' he-da), a seaport of Louth, built 
 mostly on the Boyne's north bank, 4 miles from 
 its mouth, 32 N. of Dublin by rail. The Boyne 
 is crossed here by a railway viaduct 95 feet high. 
 There are linen and cotton manufactures, iron- 
 works, tanneries, breweries, and salt-works, and 
 a considerable export trade, chiefly with Liver- 
 pool (140 miles distant). Vessels of 500 tons reach 
 the quay, and barges of 50 tons ply 19 miles up 
 the Boyne to Navan. Pop. (1851) 16,845 ; (1901) 
 12,765, almost all Catholics. Till 1885 Drogheda 
 returned one member. From the 14th to the 17th 
 centuries, Drogheda (or Tredah) was the chief 
 military station in Leinster. In 1649 Cromwell 
 stormed the town and massacred the garrison ; in 
 1690 Drogheda surrendered to William HI. See 
 D' Alton's History of Drogheda (2 vols. 1844). 
 
 Drohobycz (Dro'ho-bitch), a town of Austria, in 
 Galicia, 50 miles SW. of Lemberg, with salt-works, 
 paraflin-factories, and dyeworks. Pop. 19,714. 
 
 Droitwich (Droit'itch), a municipal borough in 
 Worcestershire, on the Salwarpe, 6 miles NNE. of 
 Worcester. Originally British, and probably the 
 Roman Salince, it was called Wych from the salt- 
 springs, to which Droit was afterwards prefixed, 
 expressing a legal right to them. Its brine- 
 springs yield over 100,000 tons of salt a year; 
 and the saline baths are visited annually by 
 
 \i 
 
£)R6m£ 
 
 234 
 
 bUBLlH 
 
 thousands. Droitwich returned one member till 
 1885. Pop. 4201. See Bainbrigg's Droitwich Salt 
 Springs (1873). 
 
 Drome, a dep. of France, on the east bank of 
 the Rhone. Area, 2508 sq. m. ; pop. (186(3) 
 324,231 ; (1901) 294,704. It is divided into the 
 four arrondissements of Valence (the capital), 
 Montelimar, Die, and Nyons. 
 
 Dromore, a town, with linen manufactures, in 
 County Down, on the Lagan, 17 miles SW. of 
 Belfast. It is still the seat of a Catholic diocese, 
 but its Episcopal one was in 1842 united with 
 Down. Jeremy Taylor was Bishop of Dromore, 
 and lies buried here in his cathedraL Pop. 2309. 
 
 Dronfield, a town of Derbyshire, 6 miles NNW. 
 of Chesterfield. It has large edge-tool factories 
 and neighbouring collieries. Pop. 3838. 
 
 Drontheim. See Trondhjem. 
 
 Droylsden, Lancashire, a suburb of Manchester, 
 3^ miles B. of it, with railway station. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Drumclog, a moorland tract in west Lanark- 
 shire, 6 miles SB. of Strathaven, Here, 2^ miles 
 B. of Loudon Hill, Claverhouse was defeated on 
 the 1st June 1679 by 200 Covenanters. 
 
 Drumlan'rig Castle, a seat (1689) of the Duke 
 of Buccleuch (till 1810 Queensberry), in Upper 
 Nithsdale, 17 miles NW. of Dumfries. See a 
 work by Ramage (1876). 
 
 Drummond Castle. See Crieff. 
 
 Drummond Island, the most westerly of the 
 Manitoulin chain, in Lake Huron, belongs to 
 Chippewa county, Michigan. It measures 20 
 miles by 10. 
 
 Drumore, a Wigtownshire seaport, 17^ miles 
 S. by E. of Stranraer. Pop. 459. 
 
 Dryburgh, a beautiful ruiiied Premonstraten- 
 sian abbey, in Berwickshire, 5 miles ESE. of 
 Melrose, on the Tweed, here crossed by a sus- 
 pension bridge. It contains the dust of Sir 
 Walter Scott and his son-in-law Lockhart. 
 Founded in 1150 by David I., it was more or 
 less destroyed by the English in 1322, 1385, 1544, 
 and 1545. See Spottiswoode's Liber de Dryburgh 
 (Bannatyne Club, 1847). 
 
 Dryfe Water, a Dumfriesshire stream flowing 
 18^ miles to the Annan, near Lockerbie. 
 
 Dryhope, a ruined peel-tower in Selkirkshire, 
 f mile N. of St Mary's Loch. It was the birth- 
 place of the ' Flower of Yarrow.' 
 
 Duhitza, a fortified town of Bosnia, on the 
 Unna, 10 miles from its confluence with the 
 Save. Pop. 3000, 
 
 Dublin, a maritime county in the province of 
 Leinster. Area, 354 sq. m., six-sevenths being 
 in cultivation, and one-fortieth in wood. The 
 coast, much indented with creeks and bays, is 70 
 miles long, and off it lie several islands. Dublin 
 Bay, one of the finest in the kingdom, is 6 miles 
 broad, with a sweep of 16 miles, and has precipi- 
 tous hills, 500 feet high, both at the north and 
 south ends. The surface inland is mostly a rich 
 level plain, with slight undulations, but rising in 
 the south in a hill-range, its highest point 
 Kippiire, 2473 feet. North of this range the only 
 prominent eminence is the Hillof Howth, 563 feet. 
 The chief river is the Liffey, running through 
 Dublin city into Dublin Bay. There are copper 
 and lead mines near the Scalp ; granite and lime- 
 stone are much quarried. There are many mineral 
 springs, the most important at Lucan. In the 
 north and west are grazing and meadow farms, 
 and around Dublin city, villas, dairy-farms, and 
 
 nursery-gardens. Dublin is the best cultivated 
 county in Ireland. Along the coast there are 
 important fisheries. The towns are Dublin and 
 Kingstown. Pop. (1841) 372,775 ; (1901) 448,200 
 —78 per cent, are Catholics. Dublin senas eight 
 members to parliament— two for the county, 
 fuiir for the city, and two for the university. 
 
 Dublin (Irish Duhli-linn, 'black pool;' the 
 Eblana of Ptolemy), the capital of Ireland, stands 
 on the river Liflfey, where it falls into Dublin 
 Bay, in 53° 20' 38" N. lat., and 6° 17' 30" W. long. 
 It is 64 miles W. of Holyhead, 138 W. of Liver- 
 pool, 223 SSW. of Glasgow, and 245 NW. of 
 Bristol. Some of Dublin is built on land re- 
 claimed from the sea, and the ground is generally 
 flat. The river, running from west to east, 
 divides the city into two almost equal portions. 
 The fashionable quarter is to the south-east of 
 the city ; the principal shops are in the centre 
 of the town ; and there are many good private 
 houses in the suburbs. The city is surrounded 
 by a ' Circular Road ' of nearly 9 miles in length. 
 The most important street is Sackville Street, 
 which is 700 yards long and 40 broad ; at its 
 north end stands the Rotunda, with Rutland 
 Square ; in its centre the beautiful Ionic portico 
 of the General Post-office, and Nelson's Monu- 
 ment (134 feet high); while on the south it is 
 terminated by O'Connell Bridge, and a wedge- 
 like block of houses formed by the converging 
 sides of Westmoreland and D'Olier Streets. A 
 peculiar feature of Dublin is its squares, which 
 are very numerous, spacious, and well kept. St 
 Stephen's Green, the largest, laid out with great 
 taste as a People's Park by the Guinness family, 
 occupies an area of nearly 20 acres, and is about 
 a mile in circuit. Somewhat smaller, but more 
 fashionable, are Merrion Square (13 acres), and 
 Fitzwilliam Square. The large park and quad- 
 rangles of Trinity College occupy more than 40 
 acres. Leinster House, once the town mansion 
 of the Dukes of Leinster, now the home of the 
 Royal Dublin Society, has been added to by the 
 erection of a National Art Gallery and a Museum 
 of Natural History. New buildings for a Science 
 and Art Museum and a National Library were 
 opened in 1890, having cost over £100,000. 
 Among the other public edifices may be men- 
 tioned the Bank of Ireland (formerly the Houses 
 of Parliament), Trinity College, the Custom- 
 house, and the Four Courts, which, from the 
 boldness of their design, and the massiveness of 
 their proportions, have a very imposing effect. 
 The Castle (the Lord Lieutenant's official resi- 
 dence) has no pretensions to architectural beauty. 
 The Chapel is interesting, and contains some 
 fine carved work of Grinling Gibbons. Dublin is 
 remarkable in possessing two Protestant cathe- 
 drals. St Patrick's, founded in 1190, was re- 
 stored in 1865 by the munificence of Sir Benjamin 
 Lee Guinness ; and Christ Church, dating from 
 1038, but not raised to cathedral rank till 1541, 
 is a smaller but more beautiful edifice, also re- 
 stored in 1878 by Mr Henry Roe. There are 
 monuments of William III. in College Green, 
 (once a green, but now a paved street); of 
 Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Goldsmith, 
 Burke, Grattan, O'Connell, &c. 
 
 Within the limits of the Circular Road, the 
 Liffey is crossed by twelve bridges (four of iron),, 
 and throughout the whole extent of the city the 
 banks of tlie river are faced with granite walls 
 and parapets. On each side of these ' quays,' 2* 
 miles long, there is a roadway, with houses and 
 shops. The quay proper extends eastward from 
 the Butt Bridge. Near the Custom-house, a 
 
 s 
 
DUBOVKA 
 
 236 
 
 &ULUTH 
 
 I 
 
 strikingly handsoirie classic building of native 
 granite, are large docks in conimuuication with 
 the Royal and Grand Canals ; the former connect- 
 ing Dublin with the Nortli Sliannon and the west 
 of Ireland, the latter with the southerly portion 
 of the same river and tlie sea. A large basin, 
 the ' Spencer Dock,' was opened in 1873 ; and the 
 harbour has been much improved by the com- 
 pletion of two large breakwaters, the North and 
 Sovith ' Walls.' 'riiere is a bar at the mouth of 
 the harbour, but even there the least depth at 
 low tide is about 11 feet. The chief manufacture 
 is porter, of whicli nearly half a million hogs- 
 heads are annually exported, ' Gjiinness ' being, 
 of course, the most important. Next in order 
 is whisky, and tlien poplin. The municipal 
 affairs are under the control of a town council, 
 which consists of a lord mayor, fifteen aldermen, 
 and forty-five councillors. The city sends four 
 members to parliament, the university two. Pop. 
 (1688) 64,500 ; (1804) 167,899 ; (1841) 232,726 ; (1881) 
 249,602 ; (1901) 290,638. 
 
 The university of Dublin, with a single college 
 (Trinity), was founded in 1591, and has a teaching- 
 staff" of more than 80, and over 1000 students. 
 Among its former alumni have been Berkeley, 
 Brady, Lord Cairns, Congreve, Curran, Farquhar, 
 Goldsmith, Sir W. Hamilton, Lever, Magee, Moore, 
 Swift, Tate, Toplady, and Ussher. There is also a 
 Roman Catholic university (since 1854). The 
 Royal University of Ireland, which superseded 
 in 1880 the Queen's University, is not a teaching 
 body, but resembles the university of London ; 
 it has its seat here. For the humbler classes 
 much has been done by the National Board, by 
 the Church Education Society, Roman Catholic 
 brotherhoods and sisterhoods such as the 
 Cliristian Brothers, and other agencies. There 
 are two botanic gardens — one at Glasnevin, 
 belonging to the Royal Dublin Society, and one 
 at Ballsbridge, connected with the university. 
 The environs of Dublin are especially beautiful. 
 Rathmines, a southern suburb, has become a large 
 township, and, together with Monkstown, Kings- 
 town, and Killiney, is the favourite residence of 
 the wealtliier part of the mercantile comnumity. 
 Glasnevin, on the north, has memories of Swift, 
 Addison, Steele, Tickell, Thomas Parnell, and 
 Thomas Sheridan ; its cemetery, opened in 1832, 
 is classic ground, and contains the ashes of Curran, 
 O'Connell (under a round tower 150 feet higli), 
 and C. S. Parnell. The Phoenix Park is a magnifi- 
 cent area of nearly 2000 acres, finely timbered. 
 Dublin, as a whole, with its fine bay — often com- 
 pared to the Bay of Naples— its splendid park, 
 massive public buildings, wide streets, spacious 
 squares, regular quays, and beautiful environs, 
 is one of the handsomest capitals in Europe. 
 
 The ancient history of Dublin is mainly legend, 
 but we know that in the 9th century the Danes 
 took the place, and it was in their hands for the 
 most part until the English Conquest. Henry 
 II. held his court there in 1171 ; the English 
 residents were almost extirpated in the rising of 
 • Black Monday ' in 1207. In 1689 James II. held 
 a parliament in Dublin, and the town was im- 
 mediately afterwards occupied by William III. 
 
 See histories of the city, by J. Warburton (2 
 vols. 1818) and J. T. Gilbert (3 vols. 1854-59) ; of 
 the university, by W. Taylor (1845), D. C. Heron 
 (1847), Stubbs (1889), and Mahafify (1903); also 
 The Book of Trinity College (1892). 
 
 Dubovka, a town in the Russian province of 
 Saratov, on the Volga. Pop. 13,300. 
 Dubuque {Doo-hUke'), a city of Iowa, on right 
 
 bank of the Mississippi, built partly on bluflf!* 
 rising 200 feet above the river, which is here 
 crossed by an iron railway bridge, 198 miles 
 WNW. of Chicago. It has an Episcopal and a 
 Roman Catholic cathedral, a city-hall, a custom- 
 house of marble, and a German Presbyterian 
 seminary. It is a seat of manufactures, and 
 has a large ri\'er and railway trade. Julien 
 Dubuque, a French trader, engaged in lead- 
 mining liere as early as 1788 ; but the first per- 
 manent settlement was made in 1833. Pop. (1870) 
 18,434 ; (1900) 36,297. 
 
 Ducato, Cape (Doo-kdh'to), an abrupt headland 
 at the south-west extremity of Leukas or Santa 
 Maura, one of the Ionian Islands. 
 
 Duddingston, a Midlothian village, 2^ miles 
 SE. of Edinburgh. Pop. 330. Duddingston Loch 
 measures 580 by 267 yards. 
 
 Duddon, a river of Cumberland and Lanca- 
 shire, flowing 20 miles to the Irish Sea near 
 Broughton-in-Furness. Wordsworth's sonneta 
 have made it famous. 
 
 Dudley, a parliamentary, municipal, and county 
 borougli in a detached part of Worcestershire and 
 the soutli of Staffordshire, 26 miles NNE. of 
 Worcester, and 8^ WNW. of Birmingham. Situ- 
 ated in the heart of the ' Black Country,' it is 
 a thriving town with coal-mining, busy brass and 
 iron foundries, glass and brick works, besides 
 tanning and brewing. One of the largest single 
 iron industries is nail-making. A chief ornament 
 of the place is the Renaissance drinking-fountain, 
 erected in 1867 by the late Earl of Dudley, a 
 statue of whom was erected in 1888. On a hill 
 to the north-east arc the beautiful ruins of an 
 old castle, said to have been founded in the 8th 
 century by Dodo, a Saxon prince, and the keep 
 of which dates from the 13th century. It was 
 burned in 1750. Near it are remains of a Cluniac 
 priory (1161). The vicinity yields abundant lime- 
 stone, which is wrought out of caverns, and 
 brought to the kilns through a tunnel IJ mile 
 long, carried through the basalt of the Castle 
 Hill. Pop. of parliamentary borough (1851) 
 87,962 ; (1901) 96,988, of whom 48,733 were in the 
 municipal. Dudley has returned one member 
 since 1832, the parliamentary boundary being 
 extended in 1867 ; the nuiiucipal borough dates 
 from 1865. See a work by Twamley (1867). 
 
 Duflf House. See Banff. 
 
 Duffield, a town of Derbyshire, on the Der- 
 went, 4 miles N. of Derby. Pop. of parish, I960. 
 
 Dufftown, a police-burgh of Banff"shire, 65 
 miles NW. of Aberdeen. Pop. 1869. 
 
 Duisbxirg (Doo'is-boorg), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, 16 m. N. of Diisseldorf by rail, in a fertile 
 district between the Ruhr and Rhine, with both 
 of which it is connected by a canal. Its manufac- 
 tures include tobacco, soda, sulphuric acid, soap, 
 candles, starch, and sugar ; and in and near it are 
 great ironworks and coal-mines. Pop. (1816) 
 4508 ; (1900) 92,730 (nearly half Protestants). 
 
 Dukeries. See Worksop. 
 
 Dukinfield, a Cheshire sub-district, mostly 
 within Stalybridge parliamentary borough. 
 
 Dulcigno (Dool-cheen'yo ; Serb Ultschin), a port 
 of Montenegro, 20 miles SW. of Scutari, and till 
 1880 a Turkish town. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Duluth (Doo-looth'), a city of Minnesota, the 
 capital of St Louis county, at the west end of 
 Lake Superior, 156 miles NNE. of St Paul. It 
 has one of the finest harbours in the United 
 States, protected by a natural breakwater kuowu 
 
DULVERTON 
 
 DUMFRIESSHIRE 
 
 as Minnesota Point, which is 7 miles long and 
 about 750 feet broad ; and great improvements 
 have been effected in the matters of dredging, the 
 construction of piers, and the extension of deep- 
 water navigation to the falls of the St Louis 
 River, 15 miles from the lake. The ship-canal 
 (depth about 23 feet) through Minnesota Point 
 forms the chief entrance way between Lake 
 Superior and the harbour. Duluth contains a 
 custom-house, United States land office, large 
 steam sawmills, a steam-forge, stock-yards, &c. 
 Advantageously situated at the head of naviga- 
 tion of the great chain 'of lakes, and with im- 
 mense deposits of iron, granite, and freestone in 
 the immediate vicinity, it has rapidly increased 
 in population and in wealth. Grain, flour, iron 
 ore, and lumber are the main exports. Pop. (1880) 
 3483 ; (1890) 33,115 ; (1900) 52,970. 
 
 Dulverton, a town of Somerset, on the Barle, 
 12 miles NNW. of Tiverton. Pop. 1265. 
 
 Dulwich (Dul'litch), a suburb of London, in the 
 north-east of Surrey, 4J miles S. of St Paul's 
 Cathedral, and a little to the west of Sydenham. 
 It consists chiefly of villa residences, and is noted 
 for its college and picture-gallery. Tlie college 
 was founded in 1619 by Edward AUeyn, the actor, 
 and comprises almshouses, upper and lower 
 schools, a chapel, &c., the upper school trans- 
 ferred in 1870 to new buildings, erected at a cost 
 of nearly £100,000. The picture-gallery was be- 
 queathed by the painter Sir Peter Francis Bour- 
 geois (1756-1811). Dulwich was in 1885 included 
 in Camberwell parliamentary borough. Pop. 
 97,820. See works by Hovenden (1873), Blanch 
 (1877), Galer (1891), and W. Young (1891). 
 
 Dumbarton, or Dunbarton, the county town 
 of Dumbartonshire, lies mainly on the left bank 
 of the Leven, a little above its influx to the 
 Clyde, and 15 miles WNW. of Glasgow. Its 
 chief public building is the Burgh Hall and 
 Academy, a French-Gothic pile of 1866, restored 
 since the fire of 1883 ; and there are a pier on the 
 Clyde (1875), and a public park of 32 acres (1885), 
 gifted to the town at a cost of £20,000. Dum- 
 barton ranks merely as a sub-port ; but its ship- 
 building, with the subsidiary industries, has 
 attained important dimensions since the opening 
 of the great shipyards of Messrs M'Millan (1834) 
 and Messrs Denny (1844). Between the town and 
 the Clyde rises the Rock of Dumbarton (280 feet), 
 a double-peaked, basaltic eminence, which is 
 crowned by the castle, a building of no great 
 strength now or architectural merit, but one 
 of the four Scottish fortresses that must bo 
 maintained in terms of the Treaty of Union. 
 Dumbarton was made a free royal burgh in 1222, 
 and unites Avith the other four Kilmarnock burghs 
 to return one member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 
 5445; (1901) 19,985. The capital of the Britons 
 of Strathclyde, Dumbarton was termed by them 
 Alchdth ('height on the Clyde'), by the Gaels 
 Dunbreatan (' fort of the Britons ') ; and the 
 history of its Rock extends over more than a 
 thousand years, from its capture by Picts and 
 Northumbrians (756), by Vikings (870), to Wallace's 
 captivity here (1305), the child Queen Mary's 
 residence (1548), and its daring surprise by Craw- 
 ford of Jordanhill (1571). 
 
 Dumbartonshiro, a Scottish county, 25 miles 
 long and 1\ to 15^ miles broad, with an area of 
 270 sq. m., of which 30 belong to a detached 
 south-eastern portion. Loch Lomond (22 by 5 
 miles) lies on the eastern boundary, and sends off" 
 the Leven 7 miles to the Clyde ; the southern is 
 washed by the Clyde's broadening estuary ; and 
 
 the western, for 17 miles by its offshoot. Loch 
 Long, which forms with the Gare Loch (7 miles 
 by 7 furlongs) the wooded Rosneath peninsula. 
 The surface, almost everywhere hilly or moun- 
 tainous, culminates in Ben Vorlich (3092 feet); 
 and the scenery, with its sea-lochs, lake, woods, 
 and glens, is lovely as that of few regions in 
 Scotland. Coal is mined in the detached portion, 
 which nowhere exceeds 480 fleet above sea-level. 
 The climate is mild and humid. Barely a fourth 
 of the entire area is in tillage ; but many sheep 
 and cattle are reared. Colquhoun of Luss is 
 much the largest proprietor. Rosneath Castle 
 is a seat of the Duke of Argyll. Since 1728 bleach 
 and print fields, dyeing and cotton works, have 
 multiplied in the Vale of Leven ; shipbuilding is 
 an important industry. The chief towns are 
 Dumbarton, Helensburgh, Kirkintilloch (in the 
 detached iiortiou), Alexandria, Renton, and Bon- 
 hill. Dumbartonshire returns one member. 
 Anciently part of the Levenach or Lennox, it 
 retains some vestiges of Antoninus' Wall, and 
 has memories of St Patrick, Bruce, Rob Roy, 
 Smollett, and Henry Bell. Pop. (1801) 20,710; 
 (1881) 75,333 ; (1901) 113,865, See works by J. 
 Irving (1860-79) and Sir W. Fraser (1860-74). 
 
 Dumdum (Davi David), a Bengal municipality, 
 4^ miles NE. of Calcutta. Here in 1857 was the 
 first open manifestation by the sepoys against 
 the greased cartridges. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Dumfries', the county town of Dumfriesshire, 
 the ' Queen of the South,' stands on the Nith's 
 left bank, and is connected with its Kirkcud- 
 brightshire suburb of Maxwelltown by three 
 bridges, of which the middle one was founded 
 about 1280 by Devorgilla Baliol. By rail it is 90 
 miles S. by W. of Edinburgh, and 33 WNW. of 
 Carlisle. Corbelly Hill, in Maxwelltown, on 
 which are a Catholic convent (1882) and an 
 observatory, commands a splendid view of the 
 surrounding hills, the Solway Firth, and the 
 Cumberland mountains. Dumfries itself is 
 scattered somewhat irregularly over a gentle 
 elevation. It is built of red sandstone, and 
 among its chief edifices are the Scottish baronial 
 county buildings (1866); the new post-office 
 (1888) ; the Mid Steeple (1707) ; Greyfriars' Church 
 (rebuilt 1867), with a spire of 164 feet ; the 
 Academy (1802) ; and, in St Michael's church- 
 yard, the mausoleum (1815) of Robert Burns, 
 whose small house still stands, and a statue of 
 whom was erected in 1882. The Crichton Insti- 
 tution (1835-70) is a lunatic asylum; rather 
 nearer is the infirmary (1871). The manufacture 
 of tweeds, introduced in 1847, is the leading 
 industry. Hosiery ranks next; and there is a 
 busy trade In pork and live-stock. The opening, 
 however, of the railways in 1850-69 has greatly 
 diminished the river traffic, though large suina 
 had been spent in improving the 14 miles of the 
 Nith's channel between the town and the Solway. 
 Dumfries was made a royal burgh by David I., 
 and it unites with Annan, Kirkcudbright, Loch- 
 maben, and Sanquhar in returning one member. 
 Pop. (1851) 13,166 ; (1901) 17,079. For the town's 
 memories of IBruce and Burns, of Border wars, 
 and of both the '15 and the '45, see W. M'Dowall's 
 History of Dumfries (2d ed. 1873). 
 
 Dumfriesshire, a Scottish Border county, 
 bounded SE. by Cumberland, and S. for 21 miles 
 by the Solway Firth. Its greatest length, from 
 east to west, is 47 miles ; its breadth varies be- 
 tween 13 and 32 miles ; and its area is 1103 sq. 
 m. From Clydesdale and Tweeddale it is shut off 
 by a sinuous rim of high green rounded moun- 
 
dWna 
 
 237 
 
 DUNDEE 
 
 tains— Lowther Hill (2377 feet), Queensberry 
 (2285), Hartfell (2651), White Coomb (2095), and 
 Bttrick Pen (2269). Thence, though broken by 
 Cairnkinna (1813 feet), Bineuswark (920), and 
 some lesser eminences, the surface has a general 
 southward slope to the dead level of Lochar 
 Moss, a peat bog, 10 by 3 miles, now largely 
 reclaimed. Three beautiful rivers, the Nith, 
 Annan, and Esk, all run to the Solway ; and all 
 but the first belong wholly to Dumfriesshire. 
 At Moffat are mineral springs. Besides seven 
 lakes round Lochmaben, there is 'dark Loch 
 Skene ' (| by J mile ; 1680 feet above sea-level), 
 which has its outlet by a waterfall, the Grey 
 Mare's Tail. The Enterkin Pass has been ren- 
 dered famous by Defoe and Dr John Brown. The 
 minerals include coal (at Sanquhar and Canon- 
 bie), limestone, antimony, and (at Wanlockhead) 
 lead, silver, gold. The climate is mild. Only 32 
 per cent, of the entire area is arable, the uplands 
 being pastoral or waste. Sheep, cattle, and pigs 
 are largely reared ; and there are valuable 
 salmon-lisheries. The coimty returns one mem- 
 ber to parliament. Towns and villages are Dum- 
 fries, Annan, Lochmaben, Sanquhar, Moffat, 
 Lockerbie, Langholm, Ecclefechan, Thornhill, and 
 Gretna Green. Among the numerous antiquities 
 are the Roman station at Birrenswark, the Ruth- 
 well Cross, Lincluden convent, and the castles 
 of Lochmaben and Caerlaverock. Among its 
 worthies are Bruce, Allan Cunningham, Thomas 
 Carlyle, and by residence, Robert Burns. Pop. 
 (1801) 54,597 ; (1881) 76,140 ; (1901) 72,571. 
 
 Diina. See Dwina. 
 
 Diinaburg (Dmmboorg'), a fortified town of 
 Western Russia, the capital formerly of Polish 
 Livonia, on the Dlina, in the government of Vit- 
 ebsk, 127 miles SE. of Riga by rail. Pop. 69,633. 
 
 Dunbar, a town on the rocky coast of Hadding- 
 tonshire, backed by the Lammermuirs, 29 miles 
 E. of Edinburgh by rail. Little remains of its 
 sea-built castle, the stronghold from 1072 to 1435 
 of Gospatric and his descendants, the Earls of 
 Dunbar and March. In 1339 ' Black Agnes ' held 
 it for six weeks against the English ; but it was 
 dismantled in 1568, the year after Queen Mary's 
 abduction hither by Bothwell. Dunbar was the 
 scene, too, of Cromwell's great victory over Leslie, 
 3d September 1650. Fishing is the principal in- 
 dustry, and the new Victoria Harbour was fonned 
 in 1844. Dunbar was created a royal burgh by 
 David II., and till 1885 it united with Hadding- 
 ton, &c. to return one member. Pop. 358L 
 
 Dunbarton. See Dumbabton. 
 
 Dunblane, a town of Perthshire, on the left 
 bank of Allan Water, 5 miles N. of Stirling by 
 rail. Founded by St Blane, a 7th-century bishop, 
 its church was rebuilt in 1141 by David I. as a 
 cathedral ; but except for the Romanesque four 
 lower stages of the steeple (128 feet), that cathe- 
 dral is now a First Pointed edifice of a hundred 
 years later— its glory the west window, than 
 which Mr Ruskin knew 'nothing so perfect in 
 its simplicity.' The choir was restored in 1873 ; 
 the ruinous nave in 1893. In 1661 the saintly 
 Robert Leighton chose Dunblane as the poorest 
 and smallest of Scotland's sees ; his path near the 
 river still bears the name of the Bishop's Walk, 
 and the library which he bequeathed to his 
 diocese is still preserved in the town. There are 
 also an antique bridge, a mineral spring, and a 
 fine hydropathic (1876) ; 2J miles to the east is 
 the battlefield of Sheriftmuir. Pop. 2516. 
 
 Duncannon, a coast-village of County Wexford, 
 9 miles SE. of Waterford, 
 
 Duncansbay Head, a promontory, 210 feet 
 high, forming the north-east extremity of Caith- 
 ness, 18 miles N. by E. of Wick. 
 
 Dundalk (Dun-dawk'), a thriving seaport, the 
 capital of County Louth, on Dundalk Bay, 55 
 miles N. of Dublin. It has salt-works, a dis- 
 tillery, an iron-foundry, flax-spinning, tanning, 
 and shipbuilding. The harbour has been much 
 improved. Pop. (1871) 11,327 ; (1901)13,076. Dun- 
 dalk sent one member to parliament till 1885. 
 It was taken by Edward Bruce (1315), Cromwell 
 (1649), and Schomberg (1689). 
 
 Dundas', (l) a baronial castle, dating from the 
 11th to the 15th century, on the south bank of the 
 Firth of Forth, near South Queensferry, the seat 
 from about 1124 till 1875 of the Dundas family. 
 — (2) A town of Wentworth county, Ontario, at 
 the head of Burlington Bay, at the west of Lake 
 Ontario, with mills and manufactories. Pop. 
 3709.— (3) An island of British Columbia, 40 
 miles NE. of Queen Charlotte Island.— (4) A 
 group of nearly 500 coral islets (also called Juba 
 Islands), off the east coast of Africa, in about 
 1°S. lat., with only one safe harbour. —(5) A strait, 
 18 miles wide, in North Australia, separating 
 Melville Island from Coburg Peninsula. 
 
 Dundee (Lat. Taodunum, 'hill or fort on the 
 Tay '), a ' city ' (since 1889) of Forfarshire, on the left 
 bank of the estuary of the Tay, here 2 miles broad, 
 10 miles from the sea, and 50 NNE. of Edinburgh. 
 It stands mostly on the slope between Dundee 
 Law (571 feet high) and Balgay Hill and the Tay. 
 Its most striking architectural features are the 
 Roman Ionic town-hall (1734), by the 'Elder 
 Adam,' with a spire 140 feet high ; the Albert 
 Institute, free library, &c. (1865-89), in 15th- 
 century Gothic, from designs by Sir Gilbert 
 Scott ; the Royal Exchange (1856), in the Flemish 
 pointed style of the 15th century; the Eastern 
 Club House ; the Kinnaird Hall, holding 2000 
 people ; the infirmary ; the Justiciary and 
 Sheriff Court Buildings ; the Town's Churches, 
 with the old steeple (156 feet). Dundee University 
 College, instituted by Miss Baxter for the educa- 
 tion of both sexes in science, literature, and fine 
 art, was opened in 1883, and incorporated with 
 St Andrews University in 1889. Dundee has 
 several public parks, one of which, the gift of Sir 
 David Baxter, on a beautiful slope to the east, is 
 37 acres in extent ; another of 60 acres, to the 
 west, occupies the hill of Balgay. Dundee is the 
 chief seat in Great Britain of the manufacture of 
 coarse linen fabrics (Osnaburgs, sheetings, ducks, 
 dowlas, drills, canvas, and cordage). Manufac- 
 tures of jute are also carried on here on an 
 immense scale. Dundee besides is famous for 
 its manufacture of marmalade and other con- 
 fectionery ; and it is the centre of the whale and 
 seal fishing trade of Great Britain. Shipbuilding 
 (both wood and iron) and machine-making are 
 carried on. Besides the tidal harbour, Dundee has 
 magnificent wet-docks, two graving-docks, and a 
 slip for large vessels. The docks have been erected 
 at a cost of upwards of £700,000 ; and the ton- 
 nage of vessels entering the port exceeds in some 
 years half a million. The direct railway com- 
 nnmication of Dundee with the south, established 
 in 1878 by the Tay Bridge, was interrupted on 
 2Sth December 1879, when a great part of the 
 bridge and a passenger-train passing over it were 
 thrown into the river. A new and more sub- 
 stantial bridge was built, 20 yards higher up the 
 river, at a somewhat lower elevation, and was 
 opened for traffic in 1887. It is 3593 yards long, 
 and has a clear height above high-water mark of 
 
DUNDONALD 
 
 238 
 
 DUNKIRK 
 
 77 feet. Pop. (1841) 63,732 ; (1901) 161,173. Dun- 
 dee returns two members. Since 1892 its chief 
 magistrate is styled Lord Provost. Edward I. 
 was here twice. Wallace is said to liave taken 
 the castle in 1297, and Bruce demolished it in 
 1313. The Duke of Lancaster burned Dundee in 
 1385, and the Marquis of Montrose pillaged it in 
 1645. On the refusal of Dundee to submit to 
 Cromwell, General Monk, in 1651, sacked and 
 burned it, massacring 1000 citizens and soldiers, 
 and filling 60 vessels with booty, which were 
 totally wrecked on their voyage to England. 
 Dundee was one of the first Scotch towns to 
 adopt the Eeformation. Wishart the martyr 
 preached here during the plague of 1544. 
 
 See works by Thomson (1847), Beatts (1873-82), 
 Maclaren (1874), Norrie (1876), Hay (1880), Millar 
 (1887), Maxwell (1884-92), and Lamb (1895). 
 
 Dundon'ald, a village of Ayrshire, 5^ miles SW. 
 of Kilmarnock. Its castle, now a ruin, was the 
 death-place of Robert XL, and gives the title of 
 Earl to the Cochrane family. 
 
 Dundrennan, a ruined Cistercian abbey (1142), 
 5 miles ESE. of Kirkcudbright. 
 
 Dundrum Bay, an inlet of the Irish Sea, in 
 County Down, 5 miles S. of Downpatrick. It is 
 13 miles wide at the entrance, and only 5 miles 
 long, forming a long curve into the shore. 
 
 Dunedin (Dun-ee'din), capital of the provincial 
 district of Otago, and the chief commercial city 
 in New Zealand, at the head of Otago Har- 
 bour, on the east side of South Island, towards 
 its southern extremity. It is 190 miles by sea 
 from Lyttelton, and 150 from Invercargill (139 
 by rail). Since its foundation by members of the 
 Free Church of Scotland in 1848, the city has 
 rapidly increased in importance, chiefly after the 
 discovery in 1861 of extensive gold-fields in the 
 neighbourhood. It is the seat of an Anglican 
 and a Roman Catholic bishop. There are many 
 fine churches and buildings, one of the finest the 
 new Bank of New Zealand (1882). Other edifices 
 are the post-office, hospital, government build- 
 ings, mechanics' institute, lunatic asylum, &c. ; 
 and there are also the Botanical Gardens, the 
 grounds of the Acclimatisation Society, a carriage- 
 drive through the reserve called the Town Belt, 
 Avhich encircles the city, and a fine racecourse, 
 near Ocean Beach, 2 miles distant. The high 
 school and the university are flourishing institu- 
 tions. Woollens are manufactured. Since the 
 opening and deepening of the new Victoria 
 Channel from Port Chalmers, large steamers can 
 approach the wharf. Tlie city was to have been 
 named New Edinburgh, but by a happy sugges- 
 tion of Dr William Chambers of Edinburgh, its 
 name was changed to Dunedin, the Celtic de- 
 signation of the Scottish capital. Pop. (1871) 
 14,857 ; (1901) 24,879, or, with suburbs, 52,390. 
 
 Dunfanaghy, a Donegal seaport, 40 miles NW. 
 of Strabane. Pop. 460. 
 
 Dunfermline, a 'city' of Fife, 16 miles NW. of 
 Edinburgh, and 20 E. by S. of Stirling. It stands 
 on a long swelling ridge, 3 miles from and 300 
 feet above the Forth, and, backed by the Cleish 
 Hills (1240 feet), presents a striking aspect from 
 the south. It is a place of hoar antiquity, from 
 1057 till 1650 a frequent residence of Scotland's 
 kings, and for more than two centuries their 
 place of sep\;lture. Malcolm Cantnore here 
 founded in 1072 a priory, which David I. re- 
 modelled in 1124 as a Benedictine abbey. The 
 nave alone of its church, Romanesque to Third 
 Pointed in style, was spared at the Reformation, 
 and now forms a stately vestibule to the New 
 
 Abbey Church (1818-21), in building which Robert 
 Bruce's grave was discovered. There are ruins 
 of the ' frater-house ' or refectory, of the ' pended 
 tower,' and of the royal palace (c. 1540) ; but 
 of Malcolm's Tower only a shapeless fragment is 
 left, and the 'Queen's House' (1600) was wholly 
 demolished in 1797. Nor otherwise is there any- 
 thing older than the great fire of 1624 ; indeed, 
 the churches and the public buildings are almost 
 all of quite recent erection. There are the Gothic 
 corporation buildings (1876-79) ; the county 
 building (1807-50); St Margaret's Hall (1878), 
 with a fine organ ; the Carnegie Public Library 
 (1881) ; the Carnegie Baths (1877) ; and the hand- 
 some new high school (1886). The staple in- 
 dustry is damask linen-weaving, which, dating 
 from 1716, now in some j'-ears turns out goods to 
 the value of a million sterling. Bleaching, iron- 
 founding, &c. are also carried on. Dunfermline 
 was made a royal burgh in 1588, and unites with 
 the other four Stirling burghs to return one 
 member to parliament. In 1902-3 Mr Carnegie 
 made over £500,000 to be held in trust for 
 behoof of the town. Pop. (1801) 5484 ; (1881) 
 17,085 ; (1901) 25,250. For Dunfermline's wor- 
 thies, St Margaret, Robert Henrysoun, Charles 
 I., Ralph Erskine, Sir Noel Paton, and Mr 
 Andrew Carnegie, and for its many memories, 
 of kings, Scottish and English, of Cromwellian 
 victory and Jacobite skirmish, reference may be 
 made to works by Chalmers (1844-59), Hender- 
 son (1879), and Beveridge (1888). 
 
 Dungannon, a municipal borough in Coimty 
 Tyrone, 40 miles W. of Belfast by rail. It manu- 
 factures linen and coarse eartheiiAvare ; and near 
 it are large lime-quarries and collieries. Till 1885 
 it returned one member. Dungannon was the 
 chief seat of the O'Neils till 1607. Its castle was 
 destroyed in 1641. Pop. 3694. 
 
 Dungarpur. See Dongarpur. 
 
 Dungarvan, a Water ford seaport, 141 miles 
 SW. of Dublin. Pop. (1861) 8614; (1901) 4850, 
 chiefly engaged in fishing. It has remains of an 
 Augustinian abbey, founded in the 7th c. by St 
 Garvan, and of walls erected by King John, who 
 also built the castle, now used as barracks. Till 
 1885 it returned one member. Dungarvan Bay is 
 3 miles long and 3 wide, and 1 to 5 fathoms deep. 
 
 Dungeness, a headland on the south coast of 
 Kent, lOJ miles SE. of Rye, with a lighthouse. 
 
 Dungiven, a Londonderry market-town, on the 
 Roe, 9 miles S. of Limavady. Pop. 630. 
 
 Dunipace. See Denny. 
 
 Dunkeld', a town of Perthshire, 16 miles NNW. 
 of Perth. It lies in a deep romantic hollow, on 
 the great east pass (of Birnam, q.v.) to the High- 
 lands, on the left bank of the Tay, here spanned 
 by Telford's handsome bridge (1805-9). A Culdee 
 church was founded here about 815 ; and in 1107 
 Alexander I. revived the bishopric, one of whose 
 holders was Gawin Douglas (1474-1522), translator 
 of Virgil's jEneid. The Cameronians successfully 
 held the place against 5000 Highlanders, 21st 
 August 1689. The cathedral was built between 
 1318 and 1501, and comprises nave, choir (now 
 the parish church), chapter-house, and tower, 
 with the Wolf of Badenoch's monument (1394). 
 The Duke of Athole's beautiful grounds include 
 the cathedral ; Craigvinean and Craig-y-Barns ; 
 50 miles of walks, and 30 miles of drives ; falls of 
 the Bran (upper one 80 feet); and 20 sq. m. of 
 larchwood. Pop. (1831) 1471 ; (1901) 586. 
 
 Dunkery Beacon. See Exmoor. 
 
 Dunkirk, or Dunkerque, the most northerly 
 
DUNKIRK 
 
 239 
 
 DURAZZO 
 
 seaport of France, on the Strait of Dover, in the 
 dep. of Nord, 189 miles N. of Paris by rail, and 
 67 W. of Ghent. It is a very strong place, as 
 well from recent fortification works, as from the 
 ease with which the surrounding country can all 
 be laid under water. As a seaport, botli naval 
 and mercantile, it is also a place of much conse- 
 quence ; and great harbour-works have been 
 carried out under the law of 1879, which author- 
 ised an expenditure of £2,000,000. The town 
 itself is well built and cleanly, Flemish rather 
 than French ; its principal features, the Gothic 
 church of St Eloi, the line detached belfry (196 
 feet), and the statue of Jean Barth. Dunkirk 
 has manufactures of linen, leather, cotton, soap, 
 beet-root sugar, &c. ; also metal-foundries, salt- 
 reflneries, great snipbuilding-yards, and cod and 
 herring fisheries. Since becoming a free port in 
 1826, it has also carried on a good trade in wine 
 and liqueurs. Pop. (1872) 34,342 ; (1901) 40,329. 
 Dunkirk is said to owe its origin to the church 
 built by St Eloi in the 7th century, in the midst 
 of the dreary sand-hills or dunes, and hence its 
 name, ' Church of the Dunes.' It was burned by 
 the English in 1388, taken by Cromwell in 1658, 
 but sold to Louis XIV. by Charles II. for 5,000,000 
 francs in 1062. 
 
 Dunkirk, a port of New York, on Lake Erie, 
 40 miles S\V. of Puffalo by rail, with a good 
 harbour and a busy lake traffic. Pop. 11,620. 
 
 Dunlavin, a Wicklow inarket-town, 26 miles 
 SSW. of Dublin. Pop. 480. 
 
 Dunlop', an Ayrshire village, 8 miles NNW. of 
 Kilmarnock. Its cheese since 1855 is almost 
 superseded by the Cheddar process. Pop. 474. 
 
 Dunluce, a ruined castle on the Antrim coast, 
 3J miles B. of Portrush. 
 
 Dunmanway, a town of County Cork, Ireland, 
 30 miles S\V. of Cork. Pop. 1775. 
 
 Dunmore, a Stirlingshire village, 8 miles ESE. 
 of Stirling. Near it are the seat of the Earl of 
 Dunmore, and a pottery. 
 
 Dunmore, a coal-mining town of Penn- 
 sylvania, 2 miles by rail ENE. of Scranton. 
 Pop. 12,590. 
 
 Dunmow, Great, a market-town of Essex, on 
 the Clielmer, 39 miles NNE. of London.— At 
 Little Dunmow, 2 miles ESE., are remains of a 
 stately Augustinian priory, founded in 1104. 
 The Dunmow Flitch of Bacon was a prize insti- 
 tuted in 1244 by Robert Fitzwalter, as a prize for 
 contented married coui)les after a year's probation. 
 
 Dunmurry, a town of County Antrim, Ireland, 
 5 miles SW. of Belfast. Pop. 1105. 
 
 Dunnet Head, in Caithness (q.v.). 
 
 Dunnottar Castle, the ruined seat of the 
 KeiUis, Earls Marischal of Scotland, on the Kin- 
 cardineshire coast, li mile S. of Stonehaven. It 
 crowns a sea-washed rock 160 feet high, shel- 
 tered the Scottish regalia in 1651, and in 1685 
 was the prison of 167 Covenanters. 
 
 Dunoon, an Argyllshire watering-place, ex- 
 tending, with Hunter's Quay and Kirn, 3 miles 
 along the west shore of the Firth of Clyde, and 7 
 miles W. of Greenock. The seat of a castle of 
 the Stewarts, in 1563 it received a visit from 
 Queen Mary, and in 1643 was the place where 
 thirty-six Lamonts were cruellv hanged by the 
 Campbells. But the present well-built town has 
 wholly arisen since 1822— with its steamboat- 
 piers, its esplanade, its half-dozen churches, its 
 numerous handsome villas, and the Convalescent 
 Homes (1869). Pop. (1841) 1296 ; (1901) 6779~a 
 Quraber sQinetimes doqbled by sumrner visitors. 
 
 Dunrohln Castle, the Duke of Sutherland's 
 seat, on the Sutherland coast, 2 miles NE. of 
 Golspie. It was built between 1098 and 1851. 
 
 Duns, a police-burgh of Berwickshirp, 44 miles 
 ESE. of Edinburgh (by rail 56), since 1853 has 
 divided with Greenlaw the rank of county town. 
 Thomas Boston was a native ; and on round 
 turf-clad Duns Law, which rises 700 feet above 
 the sea, and 280 above the town, the Covenanters 
 encamped in 1639. Pop. 2298. 
 
 Dunsln'ane, one of the Sid law Hills in Perth- 
 shire, 1012 feet high, 8^ miles NE. of Perth. 
 On its top are remains of a prehistoric fortress — 
 ' Macbeth's Castle.' 
 
 Dunsink, a hill 4 miles NW. of Dublin, the 
 site of the observatory of Trinity College. 
 
 Dun'stable, a town of Bedfordshire, at the east 
 base of the Chiltern chalk-hills or Dunstable 
 Downs, 36 miles NW. of London by rail. An old- 
 fashioned, brick-built place, with two main streets 
 crossing at right angles, it has the fine church, 
 partly Norman, of an Augustinian priory, which 
 in 1110 was the scene of the earliest miracle play 
 on record, so that Dunstable claims to be the 
 birthplace of the English drama. It has also an 
 ancient celebrity for larks and for straw-plait, 
 which still is the staple industry. The grammar- 
 school (1715) was rebuilt in 1888, at a cost of 
 £10,000. Dunstable, which stood at tlie inter- 
 section of Watling and Icknield Streets, was the 
 site of an Eleanor Cross (demolished 1643), and 
 the scene of Queen Catharine's divorce by 
 Cranmer. It was made a municipal borough in 
 1864. Pop. 5513. 
 
 Dunstaffnage, a ruined castle of Argyllshire, 
 3J miles NNE. of Oban. 
 
 Dunstanburgh, a ruined castle (1315) on the 
 Northumbrian coast, 7 miles NE. of Alnwick. 
 
 Dunster, a town of Somerset, 24 miles WNW. 
 of Bridgwater. Pop. of parish, 1114. 
 
 Duntocher, a town of Dumbartonshire, 9 miles 
 NW. of Glasgow, with cotton-mills. Pop. 2124. 
 
 Dunvegan, the Macleods' castle in Skj'e, on a 
 sea-loch, 23 miles W. by N. of Portree. 
 
 Dunwlch, a Suffolk coast- village of 213 inhabit- 
 ants, 4J miles S. of Southwold. Made the epis- 
 copal see of the Anglic Southfolk in 630, it be- 
 came a large place, but has mostly been swept 
 away by the sea. It returned two members till 
 1832, and till 1883 was a nmnicipal borough. 
 
 Dupplin, the castle (1832) of the Earl of Kin- 
 noull, in Perthshire, 6 miles SW. of Perth. Here 
 Edward Baliol defeated the Regent Mar ('" 
 
 Diippel, or Dybbol, a village in the Prussian 
 province of Sleswick-Holstein, 15 miles NE. ol 
 Flensburg. In 1848 its fortifications were stormed 
 by the Germans ; and again in 1864, by the 
 Prussians, after a month's bombardment. 
 
 Dura Den, between Cupar and St Andrews, 
 Fife, a small glen traversed by a tributary of the 
 Eden, and famous for the numerous and beauti- 
 fully preserved fossil fish entombed in its yellow 
 sandstone. See Dr Anderson's Dura Den (1859). 
 
 Durance (DU-ron^ss'), a river of SE. France, 
 rises in the dep. of Hautes-Alpes, and flows 225 
 miles to the Rhone, 3 miles below Avignon. 
 
 Durango (called also Guadiana and Ciudad de 
 Victoria), an episcopal city of Mexico, on a dry 
 plateau, 6700 feet above sea-level, 500 miles NW. 
 of the city of Mexico. Pop. 27,000. Area of state 
 of Durango, 42,373 sq. m. ; pop. 370,000. 
 
 Durazzo (Serb Dratsch, Albanian Durresi ; anc. 
 
DURBAN 
 
 240 
 
 DtJSSELDORF 
 
 Epidamiios or Dyrrachium), a decayed port of 
 Turkish Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles S. of 
 Scutari. Pop. 1200. 
 
 Durban, the seaport of Natal, is situated on 
 the northern shore of a nearly landlocked tidal 
 bay. It was laid out in 1834 by the Dutch, who 
 had formed a republic in Natal before the 
 British under Sir Benjamin D'Urban occupied 
 it in 1842. Its public buildings include a town- 
 hall, museum, library, theatre, &c. The Town 
 Ghardens form a conspicuous open space in 
 the middle of the town, and besides the 
 Botanical Gardens, there are two public parks 
 and a good racecourse. The residences are 
 chiefly situated on the Berea, a low range of hills 
 overlooking the town. The climate, though 
 hot, is healthy ; and the town is well supplied 
 with water and tramways. Harbour- works (1888- 
 91) have made the inner harbour (4700 acres) 
 accessible to large vessels. Durban is the termi- 
 nus of railways into the Transvaal and Orange 
 River provinces. Pop. (1866) 4991 ; (1904) 67,850. 
 See tlie history of the town by Ingram (1900). 
 
 Durdans, The, Lord Rosebery's seat, Epsom, 
 Surrey. 
 
 Diiren (Roman Marcodurum), an ancient town 
 of Rhenish Prussia, on the Roer, 18 miles E. of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. It manufactures cloth, iron, 
 paper, sugar, &c. Pop. 27,740. 
 
 Durham, a maritime coimty in the north-east 
 of England, between the Tyne and Tees. It has 32 
 miles of coast, generally low, and an area of 1012 
 sq. m., two-thirds being arable. The surface is 
 hilly, and slopes to the east. In the west, which 
 is waste but rich in minerals, are branches of the 
 Pennine chain, rising in Kilhope Law (2196 feet), 
 Collier Law (1678), and Pontop Pike (1018). The 
 chief rivers are the Wear, Tyne, and Tees, navi- 
 gable respectively for 12, 15, and 10 miles. The 
 valuable Durham coalfield measures 25 by 10 
 miles. Other mineral products are limestone, 
 black marble, freestone, ironstone, firestone, slate, 
 millstone, grindstone, iron pyrites, fluor-spar, zinc, 
 and lead. The principal lead-mines are in Teesdale 
 and Weardale; and there are many large iron- 
 furnaces. Durham has the lai-gest coal production 
 of any county in England, the annual output being 
 nearly 30,000,000 tons, and the number of persons 
 employed above or below ground at the mines 
 being over 100,000. The chief shipping ports are 
 Stockton-on-Tees, South Shields, Sunderland, and 
 Hartlepool. The Teeswater or Holderness breed 
 of cattle and the Durham horses are alike famed. 
 Many sheep are pastured on the hills. There are 
 manufactures of iron, coke, pottery, glass, alkalies 
 and chemicals, and salt, and niuch shipbuilding 
 at Jarrow, Sunderland, South Shields, Hartlepool, 
 and Stockton. Coal is the chief export. Durham 
 is one of the three counties palatiiie, the other 
 two being Lancaster and Chester. It is divided 
 into four wards and 2C9 civil parishes, and is 
 entirely in the diocese of Durham. Pop. (1801) 
 149,384; (1841) 807,963; (1881) 867,576; (1901) 
 1,187,324. The chief towns are Durham, the 
 county town, Sunderland, Darlington, Gateshead, 
 South Shields, Stockton, and Hartlepool. The 
 county includes eight parliamentary divisions, 
 each returning one member; and the following 
 parliamentary boroughs : Sunderland (2 members) 
 and Darlington, Durham, Gateshead, Hartlepool, 
 South Shields, and Stockton (each 1). There are 
 extensive remains of Roman stations at Lanches- 
 ter, Binchester, and Ebchester. Durham formed 
 part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria (547- 
 827). Subsequently it suffered severely from the 
 
 incursions of the Scots. See works by R. Surtees 
 (4 vols. 1816-40), Fordyce (2 vols. 1855-67), W. H. 
 Smith (1885), Boyle (1892), and Lapsley (1900). 
 
 Durham, a parliamentary and municipal bor- 
 ough, near the middle of Durham county, 12 
 miles S. of Newcastle, is built around a steep 
 rocky hill 86 feet high, nearly encircled by the 
 Wear, and crowned by the cathedral and castle. 
 Ancient walls partly enclose the hill, from which 
 are fine views of the fertile wooded country 
 around, and of the suburbs across the river. 
 The chief manufactures are mustard, carpets, and 
 iron. In the vicinity are coal-mines and coke- 
 ovens. Since 1885 Durham has returned only 
 one member. Pop. (1841) 14,151 ; (1901) 14,679. 
 Durham arose about 995, when Bishop Aldhun 
 brought hither St Cuthbert's bones from Ripon, 
 and built a church to enshrine them. On the 
 site of this church. Bishop William de Carilef in 
 1093 began the present cathedral, one of the 
 noblest specimens of Norman architecture, alike 
 from situation and from structure, that massive 
 pile—' half church of God, half castle 'gainst the 
 Scot.' Added to at various periods up till 1500, 
 it has an extreme length of 510 feet, and a breadth 
 across the transepts of 175 feet ; whilst the height 
 of the central tower is 214 feet, and of the two 
 western towers 138 feet. The cathedral con- 
 tains the tombs of St Cuthbert and Bede. The 
 castle, formerly the residence of the bishops of 
 Durham, but now occupied by the university, 
 was founded about 1072, by the Conqueror, but 
 has received many alterations and additions. The 
 dormitory of the monastery, now the new library 
 of the cathedral, is one of the finest in England. 
 The see extends over the county of Durham 
 (Northumberland having been detached in 1882 
 to form the diocese of Newcastle); among its 
 bishops have been Bek, Aungerville, Wolsey, 
 Cosin, Butler, and Lightfoot. The university 
 of Durham was opened for students in 1833 ; and 
 a royal charter in 1837 empowered it to bestow 
 degrees. It has two 'collegiate establishments- 
 University College and Bishop Hatfield's Hall. 
 The Colleges of Medicine and of Physical Science 
 at Newcastle-on-Tyne are affiliated with Durham. 
 
 Durlsdeer, a parish of upper Nithsdale, 21 
 miles NNW. of Dumfries. In its church are 
 interesting monuments of the Queensberry family. 
 
 Diirkheim (DUrk'hime), a town of Rhenish 
 Bavaria, 6 miles SW. of Mannheim. Pop. 6311. 
 
 Durlach (Door'laJih), a town of Baden, on the 
 Plinz, 4 miles E, of Carlsrnhe by rail. Pop. 11,350. 
 
 Diirrenstein(/)wr'reH-s<ui.e), a village of Lower 
 Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 45 miles 
 WNW. of Vienna. In its ruined castle, Richard 
 Cteur-de-Lion was confined by Leopold of Austria 
 for three months. Pop. 650. 
 
 Durrow, a market-town of Queen's county, 2 
 miles NW. of Attanagh station. Pop. 557. 
 
 Dursley, a town of Gloucestershire, near the 
 Coteswold hills, 15 miles SW. of Gloucester by 
 rail. Pop. of parish, 2369. 
 
 Diisseldorf, the chief town of the populous 
 district of Diisseldorf, in Rhenish Prussia, on 
 the right bank of the Rhine, at the influx of the 
 DUssel, 24 miles NNW. of Cologne. Its ramparts 
 were converted into promenades in 1802; its 
 streets are regular and spacious, while the squares 
 and garden-grounds in and near the town are 
 tastefully laid out and embellished with fountains 
 and .statues. Diisseldorf has developed its trade 
 and industries, but its chief importance is still 
 as an art centre. In the market-place rises a 
 
 1 
 
DWARKA. 
 
 241 
 
 EASTBOURNE 
 
 colossal equestrian statue of tlie Elector Johann 
 Wilhehu, who founded a famous picture-gallery 
 here in 1690, most of which, however, was 
 removed to Munich in 1S05. The Diisseldorf 
 Academy was founded in 1767, and attained 
 great eminence during 1822-59, under the manage- 
 ment of Cornelius and Schadow. The present 
 building, an imposing Renaissance edifice, with 
 a fagade 520 feet in length, was finished in 1879. 
 The Art Hall (1881) contains a gallery of modern 
 paintings. Among the other principal buildings 
 are the old electoral palace (1710-1846 ; burned 
 1872) ; the present palace, the residence of the 
 governor of the province ; the government house, 
 the observatory, town-hall (1567), theatre, gym- 
 nasium, public library (50,000 vols.), St Andrew's 
 (1629), formerly the church of the Jesuits, and 
 St Lambert (14th c). The Hofgarten is one 
 of the finest public gardens in Germany. The 
 iron and cotton industries of Diisseldorf are very 
 important, and it has also manufactures of piano- 
 fortes, paper, soap, beer, chemicals, tobacco, 
 chocolate, glass, &c,, besides mills of all kinds, 
 and photographic, lithographic, printing, and 
 other industries. Pop. (1875) 80,750 ; (1885) 
 115,190; (1900) 213,767— mostly Catholics. Made 
 a town by the Duke of Berg in 1288, Diisseldorf 
 became the capital of the duchy in 1385 ; in 1609 
 passed to the Palatinate ; and in 1815 it was 
 united to Prussia. The brothers Jacobi, Heine, 
 Varnhagen von Ense, and Cornelius were natives. 
 
 Dwarka, a town with a lighthouse near the 
 north-west comer of the peninsula of Kathiawar, 
 235 miles SW. of Ahmedabad. On an eminence 
 
 stands a great temple of Krishna, visited annually 
 by 10,000 pilgrims. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Dwina, two important rivers of Russia. — (1) 
 The Northern Dwina is formed by the Suchona 
 and the Jug, two streams rising in the govern- 
 ment of Vologda, and uniting in 60° 46' N. lat., 
 46° 20' E. long. It flows north-westward through 
 a flat country, to the Gulf of Archangel, which 
 it enters by tliree principal mouths, of which 
 only the easternmost is navigable. Its length ig 
 450 miles (with the Suchona, 760). The chief 
 tributaries are the Vaga, Emza, Pinega, and Vyt- 
 chegda, the last 625 miles long (500 navigable). 
 The river is free from ice from May to October. 
 Its waters are rich in fish. — (2) The Western 
 Dwina (Ger. Dilna) rises in the government of 
 Tver, not far from the sources of the Volga and 
 the Dnieper, and flows 580 miles WSW. and 
 WNW. to the Gulf of Riga, being navigable from 
 the Mezha's confluence, although .shallows and 
 rapids greatly impede traffic. It is connected by 
 canals with the Black Sea, the Caspian, the Gulf 
 of Finland, &c. 
 
 Dyrrhachium. See Durazzo. 
 
 Dy'sart, an old-fashioned seaport of Fife, on 
 the Firtli of Forth, 2^ miles NE. of Kirkcaldy, 
 much of whose extended municipal burgh lies 
 within Dysart's parliamentary boundary. It owes 
 its name (Lat. desertum, ' a solitude ') to St Serfs 
 cave near Dysart House, Lord Rosslyn's seat. 
 James V. made it a royal burgh, and with Kirk- 
 caldy, &c., it returns one member. Pop. of royal 
 burgh, 3539; of parliamentary, 15,256. 
 
 Dziingarla. See Zungabia. 
 
 AGLE, an island of County Mayo, 3 
 miles SW. of Erris Head. 
 
 Eaglehawk, a gold-mining town of 
 Victoria, 4 miles NNW. of Bendigo. 
 Pop. 8315. 
 
 Eaglesham, a Renfrewshire village, 8J miles 
 S. of Glasgow. Pop. (1861) 1769 ; (1901) 686. 
 
 Ealing, a municipal borough (1901) of Middle- 
 sex, 5| miles W. of Paddiiigton by rail. It is the 
 birtliplace of Huxley. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Earlestown, a town of Lancashire, 5 miles N- 
 of Warrington. It has manufactures of sugar, 
 iron, &c. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Earlsferry, a decayed royal burgh of Fife, 
 just W. of Elie (q.v.). Pop. with Elie, 1000. 
 
 Earlston, or Ercildoune, a Berwickshire 
 village, 4 miles NNE. of Melrose. It manufac- 
 tures ginghams, woollens, &c., and has a frag- 
 ment of the 'Rhymer's Tower,' the traditional 
 abode of Thomas the Rhymer ; 1 mile S. is Cow- 
 denknowes, with its ' bonny broom.' Pop. 1060. 
 
 Earn, a river and loch in the south of Perth- 
 shire, in the finely-wooded, beautiful valley of 
 Strathearn. Lying 306 feet above sea-level, Loch 
 Earn extends 6^ miles eastward, is 3J to 6J fur- 
 longs wide, and 600 feet deep ; and sends off" the 
 river Earn 46 miles eastward, past Comrie, Crieff", 
 and Bridge of Earn, to the Tay's estuary, 7 miles 
 SE. of Perth. 
 
 Easdale, an Argyllshire island, in the Firth of 
 Lorn, 16 miles SW. of Oban. It contains IJ sq. 
 m., and is separated from the much larger Seil 
 Island by a channel 400 yards wide. Its slate- 
 
 Suarries date from about 1630, and extend to a 
 epth of 220 feet below sea-level. Pop. 284. 
 
 Easingwold, a town in the North Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 13 miles NNW. of York. Pop. 1932. 
 
 East Anglla. See Anglia. 
 
 Eastbourne, a favourite Sussex watering-place, 
 in the Rape of Pevensey, nearly midway between 
 Brighton and Hastings, and 66 miles S. of London. 
 Roman remains bear witness to its antiquity, 
 but nothing is known of its ancient history. In 
 Domesday it is called Borne (after the burn or 
 stream which still flows here). The fine 12th- 
 century church clearly belonged to a much more 
 important place than the four groups of houses 
 and cottages which constituted the fishing-hamlets 
 of East-Borne, South-Borne, Meads, and Sea- 
 Houses, not a century ago. The last generation 
 has witnessed the growth of the modern water- 
 ing-place, which now challenges comparison, in 
 respect of its attractions to visitors and advan- 
 tages to residents, with any of its south-coast 
 rivals. Its air is singularly healthy, and on tha 
 hillside bracing ; whilst the close vicinity of the 
 bold promontory of Beachy Head and the ' front- 
 hills • of the South Downs affords unusual facili- 
 ties for exercise. Defended by a redoubt of 
 eleven guns and other fortifications, the sea-front 
 boasts a parade two miles long, laid out in 
 spacious terraces in three tiers, bordered by 
 creeping plants. The streets are broad and lined 
 with trees ; and there are a pier 1000 feet long, 
 the Devonshire Park, the Devonshire Baths, 
 theatre, cricket, football, and other clubs, ad- 
 mirable golf-links, electric-lighting, &c. A large 
 part of the improvements is due to the late Duke 
 of Devonshire, but the town has also taken an 
 enterprising share in them. The town-hall, cost- 
 ing £46,000, was opened in 1886, and the Princess 
 Alice Memorial Hospital in 1883. Eastbourne 
 was incorporated as a borough in 1882- Pop. 
 
EAST CAPE 
 
 242 
 
 ECCLESFIELD 
 
 fl821) 2007 ; (1861) 5795 ; (1901) 43,344. See 
 Chambers' Handbook for Eastbourne (23d ed. 1893). 
 
 East Cape, the name of the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of New Guinea, in Goschen Strait, and 
 of the most easterly headlands of Madagascar, 
 the North Island of New Zealand, and Siberia. 
 The last, on Behring Strait, in 169° 38' W. long., 
 is the easternmost extremity of Asia. 
 
 East Dereham. See Dereham. 
 
 Easter Island, a lonely Pacific islet in 27° 8' 
 S. lat., and 109° 24' W. long. Discovered by 
 Roggeveen on Easter Day 1722, and visited in 
 1773 by Captain Cook, it is 47 sq. m. in area ; 
 is entirely volcanic, with many extinct craters 
 rising more than 1000 feet; and is fertile, but 
 badly off for water. Sheep and cattle grazing 
 was started by a French tirm in Tahiti, after 
 the departure in 1878 of the missionaries, with 
 800 natives (fair Polynesians), for the Gambian 
 Archipelago, 500 having been .shipped to Tahiti 
 four years earlier, and most of the adults kid- 
 napped by Peruvians in 1863 to work the guano 
 deposits. Thus the pop. has dwindled from 3000 
 to 150. The 555 rude stone statues, for which 
 Easter Island is famous, are thought to have 
 been effigies, not idols. Thin-lipped, disdainful 
 of aspect, and capped by crowns of red tufa, 
 they are 3 to 70 feet high (16 on an average), and 
 stand on seaward platforms, 200 to 300 feet long, 
 of Cyclopean masonry. There are besides nearly 
 a hundred stone houses with walls 5 feet thick, 
 and interiors bearing paintings of birds, animals, 
 &c. In September 1888 Chili annexed Easter 
 Island for a convict settlement. See Thomson's 
 Report of the U.S. National Museum (Wash. 1892). 
 
 Eastern Roumelia. See Bulgaria. 
 
 Eastham, a township of Cheshire, on the 
 Mersey, 6^ miles SE. of Birkenhead by rail. 
 Near Eastham is the seaward terminus of the 
 Manchester Ship Canal. Pop. 1029. 
 
 East Indies, The, include the two great penin- 
 sulas of southern Asia, and all the adjacent islands 
 from the delta of the Indus to the northern ex- 
 tremity of the Philippines. For the Dutch East 
 Indies, see Holland. 
 
 Eastleigh and Bishopstoke, a Southampton 
 urb. dist. , 5 miles NE. of Southampton. Pop. 9320. 
 
 East Liverpool, a town of Ohio, on the Ohio 
 River, 44 miles WNW. of Pittsburgh by rail, 
 Pop. (1880) 5568 ; (1900) 16,485. 
 
 East London, a South African seaport, at the 
 mouth of the Buffalo River, 700 miles E. of 
 Capetown, with a large trade. It is the terminus 
 of a railway to the interior. Pop. (1904) 25,220. 
 
 East Lothian. See Haddingtonshire. 
 
 East Main, a region of the Hudson Bay terri- 
 tory, constituted a Canadian territory in 1897 
 under the name of Ungava, and comprising the 
 peninsula of Labrador (q. v.) except the Atlantic 
 coast strip (attached to Labrador) and the southern 
 
 S art (attached to Quebec). The East Main or Slade 
 liver enters James Bay after a course of 400 miles. 
 
 Easton, capital of Northampton county, Penn- 
 sylvania, stands in the fork between the Dela- 
 ware and Lehigh rivers, 67 miles N. of Phila- 
 delphia by rail. It carries on a considerable 
 transport trade by rail and canal, and has found- 
 ries, roUing-mills, and manufactures of locks, 
 wire, rope, flour, &c. Easton is the seat of 
 Lafayette (Presbyterian) College (1832). Pop. 
 (1880) 11,924 ; (1890) 14,481 ; a900) 25, 238. 
 
 East Orange, a manufacturing and residential 
 city of New Jersey, adjoining Orange, and 13 
 miles E. of Jersey City. Pop. 21,600. 
 
 East Providence, a town of Rhode Island, 
 separated from Providence by the Blackstone 
 River. Pop. 12,540. 
 
 East River, the strait between Long Island 
 Sound and New York Harbour, separating Brook- 
 lyn (q.v.) and New York. It is 10 miles long, 
 ^ mile wide at the narrowest, and navigable by 
 the largest ships. 
 
 East St Louis, a town of Illinois, connected 
 with St Louis, Missouri, by a bridge over the 
 Mississippi. Pop. (1880) 9185 ; (1900) 29,655. 
 
 Eastwood, an urban dist. in the county, and 8 
 miles N W. of the town, of Nottingham. Pop. 4820. 
 
 Eaton Hall, 3J miles S. of Chester, the Duke 
 of Westminster's splendid Gothic seat (1803). 
 
 Eau Claire (0 Clair), capital of Eau Claire 
 county, Wisconsin, at the mouth of the Eau Claire 
 River, and at the head of navigation on the Chip- 
 pewa River, 183 in. NW. of Madison by rail. It 
 has a vast trade in lumber, and numerous saw- 
 mills, besides planing-mills, foundries, machine- 
 shops, &c. Pop. (1870) 2293 ; (1900) 17,517. 
 
 Eaux Bonnes (0 Bonn), a French watering- 
 place, in a gorge of the Pyrenees, 2454 feet above 
 the sea, and 29 miles S. of Pan. Pop. 765, with 
 6000 to 10,000 visitors in the season (July to 
 August). The springs, both hot (53° to 91° F.) and 
 cold, contain sulphur and sodium, and are used 
 for disorders of the chest and respiratory organs. 
 
 Eaux Chaudes (0 Slwad), a watering-place of 
 France, 27 miles S. by W. of Pau, situated in a 
 narrow Pyrenean valley, 2215 feet above sea-level. 
 Its sulphurous waters (50° to 93° F.) are useful 
 for catarrh, rheumatism, and skin-diseases. 
 
 Ebal. See Gerizim. 
 
 Ebbsfleet. See Ramsgate. 
 
 Ebbw Vale (Ebboo), an urban sanitary district 
 of Monmouthshire, 21 miles NNW. of Newport, 
 lies in the middle of a rich iron and coal district, 
 and has numerous ironworks. Pop. 21,025." 
 
 Eberswalde (Ay'bers-val'deh), an industrial 
 town of Prussia, 28 miles NE. of Berlin by rail, 
 with manufactories of nails, paper, &c. Pop. 23,241. 
 
 Eboli (Eb'o-lee; anc. Eburl), a town of Italy, 49 
 miles SE. of Naples by rail. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Eboracum. See York. 
 
 Ebro (Lat. Hiberus), a Spani.sh river, rising at 
 an altitude of 2778 feet, in Santander province, 
 within 20 miles of the Bay of Biscay. Thence 
 it flows 442 miles SE. to the Mediterranean below 
 Tortosa. The mouth is choked up with sand, but 
 the San Carlos canal has been carried through the 
 delta. Aflluents are the Najerilla, Jiloca, and 
 Guadalope from the right, and the Aragon, Gallego, 
 and Segre from the left. Narrow and sometimes 
 rocky, its course is obstructed by shoals and 
 rapids ; but this is partly remedied by Charles 
 V.'s Imperial Canal, extending from Tudela to 
 40 miles below Saragossa. 
 
 Ecbat'ana. See Hamadan. 
 
 Ecclefechan (Ek'kel-feh'han), a Dumfriesshire 
 village, 20 m. NW. of Carlisle. The house iu 
 which Carlyle was born (4th Dec. 1795) still stands, 
 and in the churchyard of the U.P. church he was 
 laid beside his father and mother. Pop. 786. 
 
 Eccles, a municipal borough (incor. 1892), 4 
 miles W. of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 34,369. 
 
 Ecclesfield, a township in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 6 miles N. of Sheffield, with which it 
 is now partly incorporated. The chief industries 
 are cutlery and coal-mining. 
 
 i 
 
ECCLESHALL 
 
 243 
 
 EDAY 
 
 Eccleshall, a town of Staffordshire, 7J miles 
 NW. of Stafford. Pop. of parish, 3778. 
 
 Eccleshill, a town of Yorlcshire, on the Aire, 
 in 1899 incorporated with Bradford. 
 
 Echuca (formerly Hopwood's Ferry), a town 
 of Victoria, on a peninsula formed by the Murray 
 and Campaspe rivers, 150 miles N. of Melbourne 
 by rail. It has considerable trade in red-gum 
 timber, wool, and Avine, and important river 
 traffic by steamer. A roadway and railway bridge, 
 1905 feet long (cost £124,000), connects it with 
 Moama in New South Wales. Pop. 4234. 
 
 Ecija (Ay-the(^ha), a Spanish city, in the prov- 
 ince of Seville, 34 miles SW. of Cordova by rail. 
 An old Roman and Moorish town, it is popularly 
 known, on account of the great heat, as the 
 'Frying-pan of Andalusia.' Pop. 26,637. 
 
 Eckmlihl, a little village on the Laber, in 
 Bavaria, 15 miles by rail S. of Ratisbon. Here, 
 on 22d April 1809, Napoleon defeated the Arch- 
 duke Charles of Austria. 
 
 Ecuador', a republic of South America, so 
 named from its position on the equator, lies be- 
 tween 1° 23' N. and 4° 45' S. lat., and in about 
 ts'-Sl" W. long. Bounded on the west by the 
 Pacific, it is inserted like a wedge between 
 Colombia and Peru. But its only certain limits 
 are those defined by the ocean, where it has a 
 seaboard of some 400 miles ; most of the frontier 
 east of the Andes has never been determined. 
 The area, often stated at 160,000, is really under 
 120,000 sq. m. (i.e. rather less than the United 
 Kingdom), including the 2940 of the Galapagos 
 Islands (q.v.). The total population is stated at 
 1,400,000, of whom 1,000,000 may be Indians, 
 100,000 of European stock, and 300,000 of mixed 
 blood. The principal cities are Quito, the capital 
 (80,000 inhabitants), Guayaquil, tlie chief port 
 (50,000), Cuenca (30,000), Riobainba, Latacunga, 
 and Ambato. Ecuador consists of three divisions 
 —the lowlands west of the Andes, the mountain- 
 ous plateau of the interior, and the less elevated 
 forest-country to the east. Besides the main 
 range of the Andes (q.v.), forming the backbone 
 of the country, there is an outer range, with 
 peaks rising to 15,000 feet; from the Cordillera 
 proper numerous long spurs, attaining a height 
 of 14,000 feet, are thrown out towards the east, 
 between which rise great affluents of the Amazons, 
 while the coast-range possesses only short and 
 very precipitous spurs. The principal mountains 
 of Ecuador either are or have been volcanoes. 
 Tunguragua (16,690 feet) broke out in 1887 ; 
 Pichincha is by no means extinct ; Cotopaxi(q.v.) 
 and Sangai (17,465) are constantly active. Of the 
 coast-streams the principal are the Guayaquil 
 River, and the Rio Esmeraldas ; east of the 
 Andes the chief rivers are the Napo and its afflu- 
 ents, flowing into the Maranon. In mineral 
 wealth Ecuador has been ranked amongst the 
 poorest states of South America ; but gold is 
 wrought, and silver, quicksilver, iron, copper, 
 zinc, asphalt, and petroleum occur, as well as 
 graphite and anthracite. 
 
 Ecuador is an agricultural country. The eastern 
 winds become saturated as they pass over the 
 Atlantic and up the Amazons ; and their moisture 
 is almost ceaselessly precipitated as they ap- 
 proach the snowy peaks of the Andes, producing 
 a dense growth of vegetation on the eastern foot- 
 hills. On the other side also, where the rain- 
 clouds of the Pacific are caught, the gorges of the 
 western spurs become very hothouses. Natural 
 sdbanas or open plains are, however, found on the 
 western lowlands. Sarsaparilla, balsams, caout- 
 
 chouc, vegetable ivory, and wax are collected, and 
 coffee, rice, cotton, tobacco, &c. are grown, but in 
 smaller quantities ; while the trade in cinchona 
 promises soon to be a tiling of the past, owing to 
 the reckless destruction of the trees. The plateau 
 region and large tracts to the east are compara- 
 tively healthy ; the valleys on the Pacific side 
 are commonly full of disease. In the interior 
 tliere is a very small thermometric range, and a 
 perpetual spring reigns in the uplands. The 
 fauna is rich : the mammalia include the jaguar, 
 puma, ounce, ocelot, deer, tapir, peccary, capy- 
 bara, and several species of monkeys and bats ; 
 fish abound, both in the rivers and along the 
 coast ; and among reptilia are the boa constrictor, 
 turtles, and alligators. Chiefiy, however, is Ecua- 
 dor the paradise of birds (ranging from the condor 
 to the humming-bird) and insects. The live-stock 
 includes cattle, sheep, horses, mules, donkeys, 
 and llamas. 
 
 The state religion, to the exclusion of every 
 other, is the Roman Catholic ; and in no country 
 have the Jesuits had such a paramount influence 
 as in Ecuador, or employed it so well. Quito 
 possesses a university and an institute of sciences 
 (1884), with three faculties. The manufactures are 
 limited to coarse cloths, kerosene, ice, and the pre- 
 paration of spirits from the sugar-cane, and of flour 
 or starch from the yuca or cassava root. Guaya- 
 quil is famed for its hammocks and Panama hats, 
 made from the fibre of the 'pite ' plant. Commerce 
 is sadly handicapped by the want of roads. There 
 are only about 60 miles of railway open ; but the 
 chief towns have been connected by telegraph, and 
 there are even telephones in Quito and elsewhere. 
 The value of the exports, chiefly cocoa, cofiee, veg- 
 etable ivory, caoutchouc, and hides, varies from 
 £1,200,000 to £2,300,000 per annum ; tlie imports, 
 chiefly cottons, other textiles, and provisions, vary 
 between the same limits. Great Britain, the 
 United States, Germany, and France have large 
 shares in the trade. Exports to Britain vary 
 from £72,000 to £220,000 a year, and imports 
 from Britain from £260,000 to £300,000. 
 
 Constituted as an independent state on the 
 dissolution of Bolivar's Colombia (q.v.), the Re- 
 public of the Equator has, in little more than 
 half a century, passed through a succession of 
 violent political changes tliat render its history 
 equally difficult and profitless to follow. Under 
 its last constitution the executive is vested in a 
 president, elected for four years, with a vice- 
 president, a cabinet of four ministers, and a 
 council of state; the legislative power is en- 
 trusted to a senate and house of representatives. 
 The army consists of 3340 officers and men, and 
 there is a navy of one steel transport, two gun- 
 boats, and a cruiser. The finance of the country 
 is in hopeless embarrassment : the revenue, some 
 £670,000, is usually exceeded by the expenditure. 
 The foreign debt is stated at £700,000, and there 
 are heavy arrears of interest. 
 
 See Hassaurek, Four Years amonq Spanish 
 Americans (New York, 1867 ; 3d ed. 1881) ; Sim- 
 son, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador (1887) ; Col. 
 Church's Report to the U.S. Government in 1883 ; 
 Whymper's Great Andes of the Equator (1892). 
 
 Edam, a town of Holland, 13 miles NNB. of 
 Amsterdam. Its specialty is cheese. Pop. 5824. 
 
 Edar, a Rajput state of Guzerat in the Mahi 
 Kantha agency, tributary to Baroda, and subject 
 to Bombay. Area, 4966 sq. m. ; pop. 258,429. 
 Edar, its capital, has 6223 inhabitants. 
 
 Eday, an Orkney island, 13^ miles NNB. of 
 Kirkwall. Area, 11 sq. m. ; pop. 547. 
 
EDDYSTONE 
 
 244 
 
 EDINBURGH 
 
 EddTStone, a group of gneiss rocks, daily sub- 
 merged by the tide, in the English Channel, 
 9 miles off the Comish coast, and 14 SSW. of 
 Plymouth Breakwater. The rocks lie in 50° IC 
 64" N. lat., and 4° 15' 53" W. long., and have 12 
 to 150 fathoms water around. The frequent ship- 
 wrecks on these rocks led to the erection of a 
 wooden lighthouse, 100 feet high, by Winstanley, 
 1696-1700. The great storm of 20th November 
 1703 completely washed it away, with the archi- 
 tect. A similar lighthouse (1706-9) was burned 
 in 1755. The next, constructed by Smeaton in 
 1757-59, was built of blocks, generally one to 
 two tons weight, of Portland oolite, encased in 
 granite, the granite being dovetailed into the 
 solid rock, and each block into its neighbours. 
 The tower, 85 feet high, had a diameter of 26| 
 feet at the base, and 15 feet at the top. The 
 light was visible' at a distance of 13 miles. As 
 the rock on which it was built is undermined 
 by the action of the waves, the foundation of 
 another was laid on a different part of the reef 
 in 1879. The new lighthouse, completed in 1882 
 by Sir James N. Douglass, F.R.S.; is, like its 
 predecessor, ingeniously dovetailed throughout. 
 Its dioptric apparatus gives, at an elevation of 
 133 feet, a light equal to 159,600 candles, and 
 visible to a distance of 17^ miles. Smeaton's 
 lighthouse was taken down to the level of the 
 first room as soon as the new one was completed, 
 the removed upper portion being re-erected on 
 Plymouth Hoe. 
 
 Eden, a river of Westmorland and Cumber- 
 land, rising in the Pennine chain, and running 
 66 miles north-north-west; past Appleby and 
 Carlisle, to a fine estuary at the head of the 
 Solway Firth. There is another Eden in Sussex 
 and Kent (12 miles long), a third in Fife (29^), and 
 a fourth in Berwickshire (23^). 
 
 Edenderry, a town of King's county, 37J miles 
 W. of Dublin. Pop. 1677. 
 
 Edenhall, the ancient seat of the Musgraves 
 in Cumberland, 4 miles NE. of Penrith. Here 
 is still preserved the famous ' Luck of Edenhall,' 
 an old painted glass goblet (a chalice originally) 
 said to have been snatched from the fairies ; on 
 its safety the welfare of the house depends. 
 
 Edenkoben, a town of the Bavarian Palatinate, 
 6 miles N, of Landau. Pop. 600S. 
 
 Edessa (Arabic Er-Rulia, called by travellers 
 Or/a), a very ancient city, in the north of Meso- 
 potamia, between Aleppo and Diarbekir, 78 miles 
 SW. of the latter to>vn. Made a Soman military' 
 colony (216 a.d.), it was an early seat of Chris- 
 tianity, but was conquered by the Moslems in 
 638. It was twice wrested from them (1031-86 
 and 1097-1144) ; in 1147 it was laid waste ; and 
 all who were not massacred were sold as slaves. 
 Since 1515 it has fonned a portion of the Turkish 
 dominions. Edessa has numerous mosques and 
 bazaars; manufactures of cotton goods, gold- 
 smiths' wares, and morocco leather, and a large 
 trade. Easterns, to whom it is the residence of 
 Abraham, regard it as a sacred city. Pop. 20,000, 
 of whom 2000 are Armenian Christians. 
 
 Edfu (Coptic Atb6, Egypt. Teb, Gr. Apollino- 
 volis Magna), a town of Upper Egypt, on the 
 Nile's left bank, in 25° N. lat., and 32° 45' E. long. 
 It contains the remains of two temples : the larger 
 (451 by 250 feet) is the best-preserved monument 
 of its kind in Egypt, and was founded by Ptolemy 
 IV. Philopator about 210 b.c. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Edgbaston, a western suburb of Birmingham. 
 
 The Oratory here (1849) was founded by, and till 
 his death was the home of. Cardinal Newman. 
 
 Edgehill, a hill-ridge on the border of Warwick 
 and Oxford shires, 14 miles SSE. of Warwick. 
 A tower, erected in 1760, marks the scene of the 
 indecisive battle, the first in the Great Rebellion, 
 which was fought on Sunday, 23d October 1642, 
 between 12,000 royalists under Charles I. and 
 10,000 parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. 
 
 Edgewater, once a town of Staten Island, since 
 1897 included iu Richmond borough of New York. 
 
 Edgeworthstown, a town of County Longford, 
 67^ miles WXW. of Dublin. It was the home of 
 Maria Edgeworth. Pop. 670. 
 
 Edgware, a village of Middlesex, llj miles 
 NW. of Kings Cross station. In a forge here, 
 where he had taken refuge from the rain, Handel 
 conceived his 'Harmonious Blacksmith.' Pop. 
 of parish, 864. 
 
 Edinburgh (£d'di7i-&ur-ro), capital of Scotland, 
 and county town of Midlothian, situated in 55' 
 57' N. lat., 3° 11' W. long. By rail 393 miles 
 NNW. of London, 44 to 47i E. of Glasgow, it 
 stands2 miles from the Firth of Forth, on aseriesof 
 ridges, and is overlooked by Arthur's Seat and 
 other hills (see Edin-bubghshire), to the foot of 
 which it has now extended ; of hills within the 
 city itself the highest are the Castle Rock (437 
 feet) and the Calton (349). Although the Castle 
 Rock, which for centuries was considered an 
 almost impregnable fortress, must have been a 
 place of refuge and of arras from the earliest 
 times, Edinburgh is first noticed in history in the 
 beginning of the 7tli century, as a stronghold of 
 Northumbria, from whose king Edwin it is said 
 to derive its name. In 1093 its castle figures in 
 the story of St Margaret, queen of Malcolm Can- 
 more, and the little Norman chapel on the 
 summit of the rock, dedicated to her memory, is 
 the oldest building connected with the city. In 
 1128 David I. founded the abbey of Holyrood, 
 about a mile east of the castle, and round it grew 
 up the little burgh of the Canongate, which 
 maintained its separate municipality until 1856. 
 
 To the east of the castle, where the ground 
 slopes down from the rock in a narrow 'hog's 
 back,' there grew up the town of Edinburgh. In 
 1329 it was made a burgh by Robert the Bruc^ 
 by a charter which al.so granted the town the 
 right of establishing a port at Leith, 2 miles 
 distant ; thus began the vassalage of the port to 
 the capital, which continued until 1833, when 
 Leith was made a burgh. It was during the 15th 
 century, tmder the Stewart dynasty, that Edin- 
 burgh began to be recognised as the capital, and 
 parliament regularly met here, at first within the 
 great hall of the castle, and afterwards in the City 
 Tolbooth, until in 1631 the present Parliament 
 House was erected. James V. further confirmed 
 its choice as the capital by building a palace 
 within the abbey of Holyrood ; and by establish- 
 ing, in 1532, the Court of Session, as a supreme 
 court of justice for Scotland. In 1450 the first 
 wall was built ; and in 1513, after the defeat at 
 Flodden, an extended wall was erected to include 
 the suburb of the Cowgate, which had meantime 
 arisen in the valley to the south. The town 
 was defended on the west by the castle ; on the 
 north by a morass, called the ' Nor' Loch ; ' and 
 on the east and south by the city wall. As the 
 population increased, the houses rose higher and 
 higher J until the town abounded in great 'lands' 
 of houses, which, being erected on the steep sides 
 of the 'hog's back," had entrances from two 
 levels, and rose to ten, twelve, and even fourteen 
 
EDINBURGH 
 
 245 
 
 EDINBURGHSHIRE 
 
 stories in height. In 15S3 the university was 
 founded ; shortly after the middle of the 18th 
 century the town wall was broken down in 
 every direction, and the Nor' Loch was drained ; 
 whilst access was given to the country sloping 
 down to the Firth of Forth, on which arose the 
 New Town, by the erection in 1763-72 of the North 
 Bridge (rebuilt in 1894-95). In 1785 the valley to 
 the south, in which lies the Cowgate, was bridged, 
 and the town spread southwards. In 1815-19 
 another bridge was thrown over a deep hollow on 
 the north-east, and the Calton Hill was connected 
 with the city ; while in 1827-36 George IV, Bridge 
 was built across the Cowgate parallel to the 
 South Bridge. 
 
 The modern city now spreads on every side 
 round the steep ridge to which for centuries she 
 was confined. It is especially fortunate in its 
 open spaces and public parks. The Princes Street 
 gardens occupy the site of the old Nor' Loch, at 
 the foot of the Castle Rock ; the range of the 
 Meadows and Links — the remains of the once 
 extensive Burgh Muir — divides the town proper 
 from the southern suburbs ; the old royal liunt- 
 ing-ground attached to Holyrood— the King's 
 Park and Arthur's Seat— is open to the citizens ; 
 on the north are the Botanic Gardens and the 
 Arboretum (1824-81) ; and on the south Blackford 
 Hill and the Braids have been added (1884-89) to 
 the town property devoted to recreation. The 
 view from either Arthur's Seat or Blackford Hill 
 is a very noble and extensive one ; that from 
 the latter eminence is finely described in Scott's 
 Marmion. 
 
 Edinburgh has many buildings famous in 
 history, or important from their architectural 
 merit. The Abbey and Palace of Holyrood, the 
 latter rebuilt by Sir William Bruce of Kinross in 
 1671-79, and the fonner represented by its ruined 
 chapel, are a memorial of the old Scottish 
 monarchy ; of the castle, the earliest portion, 
 the old Parliament Hall, was restored (1888-92) 
 by the late Mr William Nelson, publisher, while 
 the Queen Mary portion contains the Scottish 
 regalia ; St Giles' Church, the old parish church 
 of Edinburgh, dating most of it from the 15th 
 century, was restored by the late Dr William 
 Chambers, the work being completed in 1883 ; 
 the Parliament House, erected in 1633 for the 
 Scottish parliament, is now used as the ' Outer 
 House ' of the Supreme Courts, and adorned with 
 many fine portraits and statues belonging to the 
 Faculty of Advocates ; John Knox's House is 
 the ' manse ' used by the great Reformer while 
 minister of the town ; the beautiful 17th-century 
 building of Heriot's Hospital is now (since 1885) 
 used as a technical school. Many of the modern 
 buildings are fine. The Episcopal Cathedral of 
 St Mary's, opened in 1879, is one of the largest 
 churches built in Britain since the Reformation ; 
 and many of the other churches are handsome 
 buildings ; Avhile the National Gallery (1850-58), 
 the Royal Institution (1823-36), the Museum of 
 Science and Art (1861-89), the National Portrait 
 Gallery and Antiquarian Museum (1885-90), the 
 Blackford Observatory (1893-95), and many of the 
 banks, insurance-offices, clubs, and public schools 
 are fine buildings, and occupy sites made remark- 
 able by the broken nature of the ground on 
 which the city is built. Among its numerous 
 monuments are the graceful Gothic spire (1844) 
 in memory of Sir Walter Scott, and the Prince- 
 Consort Memorial (1876). 
 
 Edinburgh has been long kno-\vn for its educa- 
 tional institutions, and these draw many inhabit- 
 ants to the city for the benefits they offer. At 
 
 the head of these is, of course, the university, 
 founded in 1582, and comprising the faculties of 
 arts, science, divinity, law, medicine, and music, 
 with 50 chairs and over 3000 students. The 
 present university buildings were begun in 1789 
 from designs by the elder Adam, and completed 
 in 1887 by the addition of a dome. New medical 
 buildings were opened in 1884, a students' union 
 in 1SS9, and the M'Ewan college hall in 1895. 
 Besides the university tliere are theological halls 
 connected with the United Free, Episcopal, 
 and other churches, and normal schools for train- 
 ing teachers. The High School and Academy, 
 and many of the private schools, have also 
 attained a high reputation ; but the most note- 
 worthy feature perhaps is the exceptionally large 
 sum which is annually derived for educational 
 purposes from bequests left by citizens. Among 
 the principal is the trust founded by George 
 Heriot in Charles I.'s time, which now yields 
 £30,000 per annum, applied by the Act of 1885 
 to the Heriot- Watt Technical College, and to 
 the maintenance of a Science and Technical 
 School ; the trusts under the charge of the 
 Merchant Company of Edinburgh, with an 
 annual income of £40,000, applied principally 
 to middle-class education ; and the Fettes en- 
 dowment, applied to higher-class education on 
 the English model. In libraries Edinburgh 
 is rich, having besides the University Library 
 (200,000 vols, and 5000 MSS.), the magnificent 
 collection of over 350,000 volumes belonging 
 to the Faculty of Advocates, and the valuable 
 library of the Society of Writers to the Signet, 
 amounting to nearly 90,000 volumes. A free 
 public library was also erected in 1887-89, the 
 building being a gift of Mr Andrew Carnegie of 
 Pittsburgh, U.S. The Royal Infirmary (1736), 
 which occupies spacious new buildings of 1870- 
 80, is a necessary atljunct to the great medical 
 school, and is one of the most admirably appointed 
 hospitals in Europe. 
 
 Edinburgh, as a residential town, is probably 
 the most important shopkeeping centre out of 
 London ; it is not in any great measure a manufac- 
 turing town, its most important industries being 
 brewing, printing, and publishing. It has been 
 known for its printers since 1507, when Walter 
 Chepman set up the first Scottish printing-press. 
 Tlie publishing of books, with the subsidiary 
 businesses of printing, bookbinding, and type- 
 founding, is now a most important industry ; 
 the publications of Messrs Blackwood, Chambers, 
 Nelson, and numerous other firms are well known ; 
 and the book-factories are exceptionally large 
 and well appointed. Tliere are many paper-mills 
 near the city ; and in or near it there are dis- 
 tilleries, india-rubber manufactories, tanneries, 
 and nurseries. Edinburgh is a great railway 
 centre, and, besides suburban railways, has a 
 complete cable system of tramways. It is divided, 
 for municipal purposes, into sixteen wards, and 
 for parliamentary purposes into four divisions. 
 Portobello was incorporated in 1896, and Granton 
 in 1900. Pop. (1831) 136,548 ; (1861) 221,846 : (1901) 
 316,837. 
 
 See works by Maitland (1753), Arnot (1779), 
 Sir D. Wilson (1847 ; new ed. 1892), Drunimond 
 (1879), R. L. Stevenson (1878), Grant (1880-82), 
 Sir A. Grant (for university, 1884), Lees (for St 
 Giles', 1SS9), Mrs Oliphant (1890), Hntton (1891), 
 Geddie (1900), Oliphant Smeaton (1904), and Miss 
 R. Massou (1904). 
 
 E^nburghshire, or Midlothian, a Scottish 
 county, extending 12 miles along the low southern 
 shore of the Firth of Forth. Its -greatest length 
 
EDIN'S HALL 
 
 246 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 from east to west is 36 miles ; its greatest breadth, 
 24 ; and its area, 367 sq. m. The surface has a 
 general southward rise to the Pentlauds, cul- 
 minating in Scald Law (1898 feet), and the Moor- 
 foot Hills, whose highest point is Blackhope 
 Scar (2136). Intermediate eminences are Arthur's 
 Seat (822), Blackford Hill (500), Corstorphine 
 Hill (520), Craiglockhart (550), the Braid Hills 
 (698), and the Dalmahoy Crags (800). The streams 
 — Esk, Water of Leith, and Almond— all flow to 
 the Forth, with the exception of Gala Water, 
 which runs to the Tweed. Coal has been largely 
 mined for nearly three centuries ; and ironstone, 
 oil-shale, and fireclay are also raised. There are 
 large quarries of sandstone at Craigleith and else- 
 where. Agriculture is highly advanced, though 
 only 57 per cent, of the entire area is in cultiva- 
 tion. Near Edinburgh are large market-gardens 
 and sewage-meadows ; and on the Esk and the 
 Water of Leith there are paper-mills. The 
 county returns one member to parliament, and 
 contains the parliamentary burghs of Edinburgh, 
 Leith, Portobello, and Musselburgh, besides the 
 police-burghs of Dalkeith, Bonnyrigg, Lasswade, 
 Loanhead, and Penicuik. Pop. (1801) 122,597; 
 (1841) 225,454 ; (1901) 487,554. Midlothian's four 
 battlefields are Roslin, Pinkie, Carberry Hill, 
 and Rullion Green; its antiquities are the Cat- 
 stane, the Roman remains of Inveresk and Cra- 
 mond, Roslin Chapel, and the castles of Borth- 
 wick, Crichton, Craigmillar, &c. See works by 
 Small (2 vols. 1883), and Miss Warrender (1890). 
 
 Edin's Hall, a ruined broch in Berwickshire, 
 on Cockburnlaw, 4^ miles NNW. of Duns. 
 
 Edmonton, an urban district of Middlesex, 10^ 
 miles NNE. of Liverpool Street Station, London. 
 Lamb spent his last years here, and is buried 
 in the churchyard; and here, too, is the 'Bell,' 
 where John Gilpin did not dine. Pop. of parish 
 (1861) 10,936 ; (1891) 36,351 ; (1901) 46,899. 
 
 Edmonton, the capital of tlie Canadian prov- 
 ince of Alberta, as defined in 1905, is situated on 
 the North Saskatchewan River, which is navigable 
 hither from Winnipeg. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Ednam, a Roxburgh parish, on the Eden, 2^ 
 miles NNE. of Kelso. The poet, James Thomson, 
 was a native. 
 
 Edom (Heb., 'red'), a name applied to the 
 whole country extending from the Dead Sea 
 southwards to the Gulf of Akabah. Its chief 
 town, Sela, stood on the eastern slope of Mount 
 Hor (4320 feet), the highest peak of Mount Seir, 
 other towns being Maon (now Maan), Bozrah 
 (now Buseirah), Punon, and the seaports Elath 
 and Ezion-geber on the Gulf of Akabah. 
 
 Edwardesabad, a town and cantonment in 
 the Kuram Valley, 50 miles up from the Indus, 
 named from Sir Herbert Bdwardes, who reduced 
 the tribes here to order. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Edzell Castle, Forfarshire, 7 miles N. by W. of 
 Brechin, a ruined seat of the Lindsays. 
 
 Eecloo, a town of Belgium, on the Li^ve, 12 
 miles NW. of Ghent by rail. It manufactures 
 woollens, cottons, &c. Pop. 13,164. 
 
 Eel Pie Island, Middlesex, in the Thames, 
 opposite Twickenham. 
 
 Egba, an African state or territory on the 
 borders of Dahomey and the Yoruba country. 
 
 Eger (Ay'ger; g hard), a Bohemian town, on 
 the river Eger, 66 miles NW. of Pilsen by rail. 
 It was formerly a border fortress of some import- 
 ance, but its fortifications were razed in 1809 ; it 
 is now a great railway centre. The ruins of the 
 
 imperial burg consist of a square black tower, a 
 chapel, and part of the great hall. The indus- 
 tries include weaving, brewing, shoemaking, &c. 
 In the town-house Wallenstein was murdered 
 (1634). Eger was taken by the Swedes in 1631 
 and 1647, and by the French in 1742. Pop. 
 27,148.— The river Eger rises 12 miles NW. of 
 the town, in the Fichtelgebirge, at an altitude of 
 2362 feet and flows 190 miles ENE. to the Elbe 
 opposite Leitmeritz. See also Erlau. 
 
 Egerdir, a small tovm of Konieh vilayet, Asia 
 Minor, gives name to a beautiful fresh-water 
 lake, 30 miles long, between the Sultan Dagh and 
 northern ofl'shoots of the Taurus Mountains. 
 
 Egg. See EiGG. 
 
 Egga, an African trading town on the Niger, 
 in Gando, since 1900 part of (British) Northern 
 Nigeria. Pop. 15,500. 
 
 Egham, a Surrey village on the Tliames, IJ 
 mile W. by S. of Staines. Pop. of parish (1861) 
 4864 ; (1901) 11,895. 
 
 Egilshay, an Orkney island, 11 miles N. of 
 Kirkwall. Area, 2J sq. m. ; pop. 142. 
 
 Eglinton Castle, the seat (1798) of the Earl of 
 Eglinton, in Ayrshire, 2^ miles N. of Irvine. 
 Here was held the Eglinton Tournament (1839). 
 
 Egremont (Eg're-mont), a Cumberland market- 
 town, on the Blien, 6 miles SB. of Whitehaven, 
 whither it sends by rail the iron ore mined in the 
 neighbourhood. On an eminence to the west 
 stands the ruined castle, the legend of whose 
 horn was sung by Wordsworth. Pop. of parish, 
 6105.— (2) A NW. suburb of Birkenhead. 
 
 Egripo. See Eubcea. 
 
 Egypt, a country in North-east Africa, extend- 
 ing from the Mediterranean to the first cataract 
 of the Nile at Assouan, from 31° 36' to 24° 6' N. 
 lat. The name is derived from the Greek 
 Aigyptos, perhaps a transliteration of Hakeptah, 
 'the city of Ptah' — i.e. Memphis. In Hiero- 
 glyphics and Coptic, it was called Kemi (Black 
 Land), from the colour of the soil ; the Hebrew 
 Mizraim is still preserved in the Arabic Misr. 
 Egypt is literally, what Herodotus tenned it, 
 ' the gift of the Nile ; ' for it extends only so far as 
 the annual inundation of the river spreads its 
 layer of alluvial sediment, brought down from 
 the washing of the Abyssinian mountains, and 
 turning the barren rock into cultivable soil. 
 Geologically and ethnologically, Egypt is con- 
 fined to the bed of the flooded Nile, a groove 
 worn by water in the desert ; and the bordering 
 deserts and the southern provinces of Nubia 
 and the Soudan towards the equator form no 
 part of tlie Egypt of nature or of history, though 
 from time to time they have been politically 
 joined to it. Thus limited, Egypt occupies little 
 more than 11,000 sq. m., or about a third of the 
 area of Ireland, and from Wady Haifa to the 
 Mediterranean, with the desert, the area is nearly 
 400,000 sq. m. 
 
 The Nile, after breaking through the rocky 
 barrier at Assouan, pursues a northerly course, 
 varied by only one considerable bend near 
 Thebes, until, a few miles north of Cairo, it 
 divides into two main streams, terminating in 
 the Rosetta and Damietta mouths, through 
 which, after a course of 3300 miles, it pours 
 during ' high Nile ' some seven hundred thousand 
 million cubit metres daily into the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea. The other five mouths which existed 
 in antiquity have silted up ; the triangular or 
 A-shaped district enclosed by them, formed the 
 Delta, now called Lower Egypt. The basin of 
 
EGYPT 
 
 S47 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 the Nile is bounded by the smooth rounded 
 ranges of the Arabian hills (which are not in 
 the Arabian peninsula, but in Egypt, between 
 the Nile and the Red Sea) on the east, and the 
 Libyan on the west ; neither rising as a rule 
 higher than 300 feet above the sea-level, though 
 near Thebes the eastern hills attain an altitude 
 of 1200 feet. One great physical peculiarity of 
 Egypt is the general absence of rain ; occasional 
 showers have indeed become more frequent of 
 late years, but the land still cej^ends for irriga- 
 tion upon the annual overflow of the Nile. The 
 reservoir works at Assouan and Assiout (1902 ; see 
 Niu:) add greatly to the cultivable area. The 
 climate is remarkably mild, especially south 
 of the Delta and in th« desert ; from Cairo 
 to Alexandria tlie air contains more moisture, 
 while the Metliterranean coast is subject to rain, 
 and infected by the belt of salt-marshes. From 
 June till February cool northerly winds prevail ; 
 then till June comes a period of easterly, or, 
 still worse, hot southerly sand-winds called the 
 Khamdsin. The simoom is a rare but violent 
 sand-wind. Earthquakes are occasionally felt. 
 The temperature in winter in the shade averages 
 50° to 60° F., and in the heat of summer 90° to 
 100° in Lower Egypt, 10° higher in the upper 
 valley. The most remarkable phenomenon is 
 the regular increase of the Nile, fed by the fall 
 of the tropical rains. In the middle of July the 
 'red water' appears in Egypt, and the rise may 
 be dated from that time ; it attains its maxi- 
 mum (an average rise of 36 feet at Thebes, of 25 
 at Cairo) at the end of September, and begiTis to 
 decline visibly in the middle of October, loses 
 half its height by January, and subsides to its 
 minimum in April. By the end of November, 
 the irrigated land, over which the water has 
 been carefully equalised by drains and embank- 
 ments, has dried and is sown ; soon it is covered 
 with green crops, which are reaped in March. 
 Except in the dry air of the valley and desert, 
 Egypt is by no means remarkably healthy. 
 
 The signal peculiarity of the vegetation of the 
 Nile Valley is the absence of woods and forests. 
 Even clumps of trees (except palms) are rare. 
 The date and the doom palm, the sycamore, 
 acacia, tamarisk, and willow are the commonest 
 trees. Among fruit-trees, the vine, fig, pome- 
 granate, orange, and lemon abound ; apricots, 
 peaches, and plums are of poor flavour ; Indian 
 figs (prickly pears) and bananas have been nat- 
 uralised ; and water-melons are at once the meat 
 and drink of the people in the hot days. Of 
 flowers, the lotus, or Avater-lily, has long been 
 famous. The lack of jungle or cover of any sort 
 accounts for the poverty of the Egyptian fauna. 
 The hycena, jackal, wolf, fox, hare, rabbit, jerboa, 
 lynx, ichneumon, and weasel are common enough ; 
 the antelope is the chief quarry ; but the wild ass 
 and wild cat are almost extinct ; and the croco- 
 dile, like the hippopotamus, scared by European 
 rifles, is beating a retreat to the tropics. The 
 ordinary beasts of burden are the ass and camel ; 
 and there are buff'aloes and short-horned cattle ; 
 goats also are common. There are three or four 
 varieties of vulture ; eagles, falcons, hawks, and 
 kites are common, as is also the ibis. Of reptiles, 
 besides the vanishing crocodile, lesser saurians— 
 chameleons and lizards— abound. Serpents are 
 numerous, and among these the dreaded cobra 
 and the cerastes. The Nile is full of fish, 
 generally of rather poor flavour. Tlie Sacred 
 Beetle (Scarabceus sacer) is one of the most re- 
 markable insects. Tlie scorpion's sting is some- 
 times fatal. Egypt is essentially an agricultural 
 
 country, and in some parts, by the aid of regu- 
 lated artificial irrigation, the rich alluvial deposit 
 will bear as much as three crops in the year. 
 Wheat is the principal cereal ; but barley, maize, 
 durra, beans, lentils, clover, &c. are also largely 
 grown, with very little trouble beyond the man- 
 agement of the water. The extensive culture 
 of papyrus, which anciently supplied material 
 for paper, has in modern times been superseded 
 by that of the sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, and 
 tobacco. 
 
 In ancient as in modern times Egypt was 
 always divided into the Upper and the Lower, or 
 the Southern and the Northern, country. For the 
 divisions of the territory outside Egypt proper, 
 annexed in 1876, and abandoned in 1885, extend- 
 ing as far south as the Victoria Nyanza, see 
 Soudan. The population of the country, placed 
 at 7,000,000 under the Pharaohs, in 1844 was 
 2,500,000; in 1859, 5,125,000; and in 1897, 
 9,734,405 in Egypt proper. There are about 
 10,000 schools (seven-eighths elementary), with 
 17,000 teachers and 228,000 pupils ; the govern- 
 ment has mider its immediate direction 150 
 schools, including schools for law, medicine, agri- 
 culture, and engineering. Of the inhabitants 
 92-23 per cent, are native Mohammedans; the 
 Copts are 600,000, and the rest include Beda- 
 wis (Bedouins), Negroes, Abyssinians, Turks, 
 Syrians, Armenians, Jews, Greeks, and other 
 Europeans. The dominant population in anti- 
 quity appears almost certainly to have been 
 of mixed origin, part Asiatic and part Nigritic ; 
 and there seems to have been an aboriginal 
 race of copper colour, with rather thin legs, 
 large feet, high cheek-bones, and large lips. 
 The chief towns of Egypt proper are Cairo 
 (pop. 570,062); Alexandria (319,766); Tantah 
 (57,289); Port Said and Assiout, over 40,000; 
 Zagazig, Mansourah, Damietta, and Fayoum, over 
 30,000 ; and Kena, 27,500. There are in Egypt about 
 113,000 foreigners, including 38,000 Greeks, 24,000 
 Italians, 20,000 Englishmen, and 14,000 French- 
 men. The Egyptian army is under the command 
 of an English general, and oflicered partly by 
 Englishmen and partly by Egyptians ; its total 
 strength is 18,000, while the English army of 
 occupation, which, since the rebellion of 1882, has 
 remained in Egypt, has a strength of over 5500. 
 The finance of Egypt has improved enormously 
 under British management, irrigation and cotton 
 cultivation greatly helping ; the revenues have 
 been increasetl, the burdens on the people greatly 
 lightened. The revenue in 1903 was £E11,000,000, 
 the expenditure £E10,975,00O ; in 1904 the revenue 
 was over £E13,000,000, being two mill ions in excess 
 of the estimates. The chief sources of revenue are 
 the land-tax, the tobacco monopoly, and customs ; 
 the principal items of expenditure are the ser- 
 vice of the debt and the internal administration. 
 The total debt of Egypt amounted in 1904 to 
 £B102,186,920, the interest on which was met 
 by a total charge of £E4,384,549 in the year's 
 budget, including the tribute to Turkey (£665,041). 
 The total exports in 1889-1903 (chiefly cotton, 
 cotton-seed, beans, sugar, and grain) increased 
 from £E7,020,000 to £E19,118,487 (of which over 
 one-half went to Britain); the imports (mainly 
 cotton goods and other textiles, machinery, and 
 coal) from £E11,950,000 to £E16,753,190 (about 
 a third from Britain). Some cotton is now ex- 
 ported to the United States. The railway 
 system embraces over 1450 miles, connecting 
 Alexandria and Damietta with Cairo and the 
 Suez Canal, and extending up the Nile Valley as 
 far south as Siout; the telegraphs reach 2562 
 
EHRENBPwEITSTEIN 
 
 248 
 
 EISENBERG 
 
 miles, and there is a telephone between Cairo 
 and Alexandria. 
 
 The epoch of Menes, the earliest known point 
 in Egyptian history, is variously calculated at 
 from 5004 B.C. to 3892. Egypt was in the height 
 of its glory under the 19th dynasty, to which 
 Rameses I. and II., and Meneptah (son of the 
 latter, and probably the Pharaoh of Exodus) be- 
 longed. The Persians conquered Egypt in 527 
 B.C., Alexander the Great in 332 b.c, and the 
 Romans after 81 b.c. The Arab and Moslem 
 conquest took place in 641 a.d. Napoleon in- 
 vaded the country in 1798 ; and a new epoch 
 in recent Egyptian history began with the able 
 reign of Mohammed Ali (Mehemet Ali) in 1805. 
 Ismail Pasha, his grandson, obtained in 1867 the 
 title of Khedive, and made extensive conquests 
 in the Eastern Soudan, but was deposed by the 
 Sultan in 1879, at the instance of the western 
 powers, and succeeded by his son Tewflk. In 
 1881 came the revolt by Arabi Pasha, suppressed 
 at Tel-el-Kebir by Britain, whose troops now 
 occupied Egypt, France having withdrawn. The 
 troubles with the Mahdi fall between 1881 and 
 1885, the year of Gordon's death. Egypt, still 
 nominally a tributary province of the Ottoman 
 empire, became under Ismail practically an 
 autonomous state under an hereditary Khedive. 
 Since the occupation in 1882 British influence 
 is supreme, and the Khedive, who has a native 
 ministry, is not allowed to contravene the advice 
 of the British minister resident (Lord Cromer). 
 Under Abbas II. (from 1892), who at first strove 
 to escape from British control, the prosperity of 
 the country has increased rapidly ; and the Anglo- 
 French agreement of 1904 removed the most 
 serious embarrassment to the administration. 
 
 For ancient Egypt, see works by Sharpe, Wil- 
 kinson, Brugsch, Mariette, Maspero, and others ; 
 for modern Egypt, S. L. Poole (1881), Mackenzie 
 Wallace (1883), Fraser Rae (1892), Milner (1892), 
 Steevens (1898), Cameron (1898), Silva White 
 (1899), Worsfold (1900), and Dicey (1902). 
 
 Ehrenbreitstein(^j/-re?i-&n(e'siine), a town and 
 fortress of Prussia, is situated on the Rhine's 
 right bank, directly opposite Coblenz, with which 
 it is connected by a bridge of boats and an iron 
 rail way- viaduct. Pop. 5299. The fortress (1672) 
 crowns a precipitous rock, 387 feet above the 
 river. The French vainly besieged it in 1688, 
 but captured it in 1799, and in 1801 blew up the 
 works. It was assigned to Prussia in 1815, and 
 in 1816-26 was thoroughly fortified. 
 
 Ehrenfeld, a busy town of Prussia, since 1888 
 incorporated with Cologne, manufactures glass- 
 wares, railway fittings, chemicals, bricks, &c. 
 Pop. about 30,000. 
 
 Eibenstook, a town of Saxony, 41 miles SSW. 
 of Chemnitz by rail. It has since 1775 become a 
 centre of lace-making industry. Pop. 7913. 
 
 Eichstatt (Ihh-statt), a town of Bavaria, in a 
 deep valley on the left bank of the Altmlihl, 67 
 miles NNW. of Munich. Here are the palace of the 
 Dukes of Leuchtenberg, the cathedral (1259), the 
 town-house (1444), and, on a neighbouring emi- 
 nence, the ruined Wilibaldsburg. Pop. 7631. 
 
 Eider (Tder), a river of N. Germany, forming 
 the boundary line between Sleswick on the north 
 and Holstein on the south, rises south-west of 
 Kiel, and winds 117 miles westward to the North 
 Sea at Tonning. It is navigable to Rendsburg, 
 whence the Eider Canal (constructed 1777-84) 
 stretches east to Kiel Harbour in the Baltic. 
 
 Eifel, The {I'fel), a bleak plateau of Rhenish 
 Prussia, between the Rhine, Moselle, and Rore. 
 
 Its surface, 1500 to 2494 feet in altitude, is for 
 the most part broadly undulating, and diversi- 
 fied by crater-like depressions and volcanic peaks 
 and ridges, whilst towards its edges it is seamed 
 by deep, wooded, rocky ravines. 
 
 Eigg, or Egg, a Hebridean island, 7^ miles W. 
 of the mainland of Inverness-shire, and 5 SW. of 
 Skye. With an utmost length and breadth of Q^ 
 and 4 miles, it is 12 sq. m. in area, and culminates 
 in the remarkable Scuir of Eigg (1346 feet), near 
 which are columnar cliffs like those of Staffa. 
 Pop. (1851) 546; (1901) 211. Here in 617 St 
 Donnan and fifty more monks from lona were 
 killed ; and here, towards the close of the 16th 
 century, 200 Macdonalds were smoked to death 
 in a cave by Macleod. 
 
 Eil, Loch, a sea-loch of Argyll and Inverness 
 shires. It consists of Upper Loch Eil (6g miles 
 X J mile), striking eastward, and Lower Loch 
 Eil (9| miles x 2 miles), striking south-westward. 
 The latter is rather part of Loch Linnhe. 
 
 Eildons, a triple-crested height in Roxburgh- 
 shire, S. of Melrose, whose middle and highest 
 peak (1385 feet) commands a glorious view, 
 
 Eilenburg (Tlen-boorg), a manufacturing town 
 of Prussian Saxony, on an island in the river Mulde, 
 15 miles by rail NE. of Leipzig. Pop. 16,032. 
 
 Eimeo (Fr. Moorea), one of the French Society 
 Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, 10 miles AVNW. 
 of Tahiti. Area, 51 sq. m. ; pop. 1500. It con- 
 sists of deep fertile valleys and abrupt wooded 
 hills. Here Christianity was introduced in Poly- 
 nesia; and here the South Sea College of the 
 London Missionary Society was established. 
 
 Einbeck, or Eimbeck, a decayed town of Han- 
 over, on the Ihne, 23 miles N. of Gottingen by 
 rail. It was noted in the 15th century for its 
 beer {Eimbecker Beer, whence ' Bock '). Pop. 7901. 
 
 Einsiedeln (Zne-zee'deln), a town in the Swiss 
 canton of Schwyz, 27 miles SE. of Zurich by rail. 
 It makes great numbers of prayer-books, images, 
 rosaries, &c., but is chiefly celebrated for its 
 Benedictine abbey (10th c. ; rebuilt 1719), to 
 which some 200,000 pilgrims resort annually to 
 the shrine of a black image of the Virgin, the 
 14th September being the principal day in the 
 year. Near the town the French defeated the 
 Austrians, 14tji August 1799. Pop. 8501. 
 
 Eisenach (I'zen-cMi), a town of Saxe-Weimar, 
 is beautifully situated at the north-western 
 verge of the Thuringian Forest, 69 miles by rail 
 SE. of Cassel, and 49 W. of Weimar. It has a 
 ducal palace (1742), now used as a court-house ; 
 a spacious market-place, and manufactures of art 
 pottery, leather, &c. Bach, of whom a statue 
 was erected in 1884, was a native; and Fritz 
 Renter died here in 1874. Population, above 
 31,000. On an eminence rising 600 feet 
 above the town, engirt by forests, stands the 
 Wartburg, founded in 1067, and till 1440 the 
 castle of the Landgrave of Tliuringia. It is 
 famous as the spot where the Minnesingers 
 assembled to hold a poetic contest (' the war of 
 the Wartburg ') about 1207 ; as the home of St 
 Elizabeth (1511-27); and as the ten months' 
 asylu7n to which Luther was carried by the 
 Elector of Saxony (May 1521). The chapel in 
 which Luther preached, and the chamber in 
 which he discomfited the Evil One by throwing 
 the inkstand at his head, are pointed out. The 
 pile was magnificently restored in 1847-70. 
 
 Eisenberg, a town of Saxe-Altenburg, between 
 the Saale and Elster, 36 miles SE. of Leipzig. 
 Pop. 8901. 
 
EISENER2 
 
 ^49 
 
 ELCnt 
 
 5, a mining town of Austria, in the 
 north of Styria, 20 miles NW. of Bruck. It 
 stands in a narrow mountain-valley at the north 
 foot of the Erzberg (5011 feet), a mountain so rich 
 in iron ore that the miners quarry the rock from 
 the outside. Pop. 6950. 
 
 Eisenstadt, a town of Hungary, 26 miles SB. 
 of Vienna. The Esterhazy palace (1683-1805) 
 here contaiusa valuable library. Pop. 2972. 
 
 Eislehen (Ize-lay'ben), Luther's birthplace, a 
 mining-town of Prussian Saxony, 24 miles WNW. 
 of Halle. Population, above 24,000. The house 
 in which Luther was born was partially burnt 
 in 1689, but was restored, as also have been 
 the house in which he died, the church (Peter- 
 Paulskirche) where he was christened, and an- 
 other (Andreaskirche) in which he preached. In 
 1883, his quatercentenary, a bronze statue was 
 unveiled of the Reformer, and a new gymnasium 
 inaugurated, successor to the one which he 
 founded two days before his death. 
 
 Ekaterinburg, a fortified town of Russia, on 
 the east slope of the Urals, and on the Isset, 312 
 miles SE. of Perm by rail. It has two cathedrals, 
 and a mint for copper coinage, and is in the 
 centre of the Ural mining districts. Its manu- 
 factures include iron, copper, machinery, soap, 
 candles, and linen. Pop. 56,750. 
 
 Ekaterinodar, a Russian town, capital of the 
 country of the Kuban Cossacks, on the Kuban 
 River, 100 miles from its mouth. It has a cathe- 
 dral and a military hospital. Pop. 66,308. 
 
 Ekaterinoslav, a government in South Russia, 
 reaching in the south-east to the Sea of Azov. 
 Area, 26,050 sq. m. ; pop. 2,153,543.— The capital, 
 Ekaterinoslav (' Catharine's fame "), on the Dnieper, 
 323 N. by E. of Sebastopol by rail, has a cathedral 
 and large tobacco-factories. It was founded in 
 1784 by Prince Potemkin for the summer resi- 
 dence of the Empress Catharine II. It was the 
 birthplace of Madame BlaA'atsky. Pop. 121,200. 
 
 Ekhmim, or Ikhmim (anc. Apu or Khemmis, 
 Greek Panopolis), a town of Upper Egypt (pop. 
 15,000), on the east bank of the Nile," 15 miles 
 S. of Girgeh. 
 
 Ekowe, the capital of Zululand (q.v.). 
 
 Ekron, the northernmost of the five great 
 cities of the Philistines, on the borders of Judah 
 and Dan. 
 
 El Araish, or Laraish, a seaport of Morocco, 
 45 miles SSW. of Tangier ; pop. 5000. 
 
 El Arish, an Egyptian town (pop. 17,000), on 
 the Mediterranean, at the month of the Wady- 
 el-Arish, held to mark the boundary between 
 Egypt and Syria, Africa and Asia. 
 
 Elba (Gr. JEthalia, Lat. Ilva), an Italian island 
 In the Mediterranean, 6 miles off the coast of 
 Tuscany. Area, 85 sq. m. ; pop. 2(i,907. The 
 coast is precipitous, the interior traversed by 
 three ranges which reach 3380 feet. The chief in- 
 dustry is iron-mining ; serpentine, chalk, granite, 
 and marble also are quarried, while salt is pro- 
 duced from salt-pans. Much wine is made, and 
 the tunny-fisheries are important. Porto Ferrajo, 
 the capital, has a pop. of 5391. Elba was the 
 place of Napoleon's exile, 1814-15. 
 
 El Bassan, a town of Turkey, in central 
 Albania, 75 miles SSE. of Scutari. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Elbe (the Roman Albis and the Bohemian Lahe), 
 an important river of northern Europe. It is 
 formed by numerous streams which rise on the 
 southern side of the Riesengebirge, a range on 
 the borders of Bohemia, and unite at an eleva- 
 
 tion of 2230 feet above sea-level. Thence it winds 
 725 miles north-westward through Bohemia, 
 Saxony, Anhalt, and Hanover, passing Pirna, 
 Dresden, Meissen, Torgau, Wittenberg, Magde- 
 burg, Harburg, and Hamburg, until it empties 
 itself into the North Sea at Cuxhaven, where 
 it attains a breadth of upwards of 10 miles. 
 Here the tide rises about 10 feet ; it is felt 100 
 miles up the river. The Elbe is navigable for 
 525 miles, as far as Melnik, but for sea-vessels 
 only up to Hamburg (84 miles) ; and it drains an 
 area of 55,000 sq. m., of which two-thirds is 
 German territory. Of its fifty and more tribu- 
 taries, the most important are the Moldau, Eger, 
 Mulde, Saale, and Havel (with the Spree) ; and 
 in connection with these is a fine system of 
 canals. The Elbe is divided into several branches 
 between Hamburg on the north, and Harburg 
 on the south, by the numerous islands that there 
 interrupt its course ; and between Hamburg and 
 the sea the sandbanks and shoals leave only 
 a very narrow channel, 4 to 5 fathoms deep. 
 The scenery of the Elbe, although generally 
 pleasing, is not remarkable, except in the Saxon 
 Switzerland, above Dresden, where the river's 
 course is between fantastic sandstone cliffs. 
 
 Elberfeld, one of the manufacturing capitals 
 of Germany, on the Wupper, an affluent of the 
 Rhine, 16 miles ENE. of Diisseldorf. It is fam- 
 ous for its dyeing, bleaching, and calico-printing 
 establishments, also for its extensive manufac- 
 tures of cotton, silks, tapes, ribbons, thread, lace, 
 buttons, fancy woollen goods, &c. Its Turkey- 
 red dyeworks are especially noted. There are 
 also manufactures of machinery, iron and steel 
 wares, pianofortes, paper, and carpets, besides 
 large breweries. For miles around an immense 
 number of weavers are labouring for the Elber- 
 feld factories. Pop. (1875) 80,599 ; (1890) 125,899 : 
 (1900)156,966. 
 
 Elbeuf (nearly El-buf), a town in the French 
 dep. of Seine-Inf6rieure, on the left bank of the 
 Seine, 14 miles S. by W. of Rouen by rail. The 
 manufactures of cloth, flannel fabrics, billiard 
 cloth, and light woollens of every colour and 
 description, employ some 25,000 men here and in 
 the neighbouring towns (Caudebec, &c.), and the 
 annual output of the district is valued at from 
 85,000,000 to 95,000,000 francs. Pop. (1872) 
 22,563 ; (1901) 18,164. 
 
 Elbing, a town of West Prussia, 48 miles by 
 rail ESE. of Danzig, on the navigable Elbing, 
 which enters the Frisches Haff 5 miles to the 
 north. Founded in the 13th century by colonists 
 from Liibeck and Bremen, it has a 14th-century 
 church, and a public library with over 25,000 
 volumes. A canal connects it with the Dreventz, 
 a tributary of the Vistula, and in 1877-84 a mole 
 was constructed in the harbour, 3500 yards long 
 and 5 J Avide. Steamships and torpedo-boats are 
 built here ; and there are large iron and brass 
 rolling-mills, and tinware, machine, and cigar 
 factories, &c. The linen industry and the export 
 of lampreys are also of importance. Pop. (1875) 
 33,572 ; (1900) 52,520. 
 
 Elburz (El-boorz'), a mountain-range of Persia, 
 running for 450 miles along the southe-n border 
 of the Caspian Sea, and culminating in Mount 
 Demavend (q.v.). — Elburz is also the name of 
 the loftiest summit of the Caucasus (q.v.). 
 
 Elche (El'tcliay), a Spanish town, 13 miles SW. 
 of Alicante by rail, fringed by an encircling grove 
 of nearly 100,000 palms, which gives the place an 
 appearance half Moorish. It has a fine collegiate 
 church, with a lofty tiled dome. Pop. 29,636. 
 
ELCHINGEN 
 
 250 
 
 ELLESMERE 
 
 Elchingen (Elhh'ing-en), a Bavarian village, 
 near tlie Danube, 5 miles NB. of Ulm. Here, on 
 14th October 1805, Ney defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Elcho Castle, a ruin, Perthshire, on the Tay, 
 6J miles ESE. of Perth. 
 
 Elderslie, a Renfrewshire village, 2i miles W. 
 by S. of Paisley. It is the traditional birthplace 
 of Wallace. 
 
 Eldon, a Durham township, 3^ miles SE. of 
 Bishop Aucl<land. 
 
 Elephanta (native GhdrdpuH), an island over 
 4 miles in circuit, in the harbour of Bombay, 6 
 miles E. of the city, and 4 from the mainland. 
 It owed its European name to a large figure of 
 an elephant near its former landing-place, which, 
 after 1814, gradually sank into a shapeless mass. 
 Of its far-famed Brahmanic rock-caves (9th c), 
 four are complete, or nearly so ; the most im- 
 portant is the Great Temple, still used by the 
 Hindus on Sivaite festivals. It is hewn out of 
 a hard trap-rock, and measures 130 feet either 
 way. The most striking of its many sculptures 
 is a three-headed bust of Siva, nearly 18 feet high 
 and 23 feet round the eyes. 
 
 Elephantine (Arab. Gezirat Asiodn or Gezirat-ez- 
 Zahr, ' isle of flowers '), a small island of the Nile, 
 with remains of an ancient city, lying opposite to 
 Assouan (q.v.), on the confines of Egypt and 
 Nubia, in 24° 5' N. lat., and 32° 34' E. long. Its 
 ruins were much demolished in 1822. 
 
 Eletz. See Jeletz. 
 
 Eleusis, an ancient town of Attica, on the Bay 
 of Eleusis, opposite Salamis. It was the seat of 
 the worship of Ceres, whose mystic rites were 
 performed here with great pomp. Its site is now 
 occupied by the little village of Lefsina, 16| 
 miles WNW. of Athens by rail. 
 
 Eleu'thera, one of the Bahamas (q.v.), has an 
 area of 238 sq. m., and a pop. of 7010. 
 
 Elgin (El'gin ; g hard), county town of Elgin- 
 shire, 5 m. by rail SSW. of its port, Lossiemouth, 
 37 ENB. of Inverness, 178 N. of Edinburgh. It lies 
 on the Lossie, in the ' garden of Scotland ; ' and 
 ■while it retains a few quaint old houses, a cross 
 (restored 1888), and its ruined cathedral, it has 
 brightened up much during the 19tli century. 
 The Elgin Institution was erected in 1832 as an 
 almshouse and school, out of £70,000 bequeathed 
 by General Anderson. Other edifices are Gray's 
 Hospital (1819) and the ad.joining asylum (1834- 
 65), the county buildings (1866), the court-house 
 fl841), the market buildings (1850), the academy 
 (1800), and the parish church (1828), with a tower 
 112 feet high. The once glorious Gothic cathe- 
 dral (1224-1538) was 289 feet long by 120 across 
 the transept, with two western towers, and a 
 loftier central spire (198 feet). It was partially 
 burned in 1270, and again in 1390 by the ' Wolf of 
 Badenoch ;' was dismantled in 1568 ; and in 1711 
 was finally reduced to ruins by the fall of the 
 great tower. The chapter-house, with its 
 ' prentice pillar,' is noteworthy. Little remains 
 of the royal castle, which in 1296 lodged Edward 
 I. of England ; its ruins are surmounted by a 
 monument (1839-55) to the last Duke of Gordon. 
 A royal burgh since the reign of David I. (1124- 
 53), Elgin unites with Bantt; Macdufi', Peterhead, 
 Inverurie, Cullen, and Kin tore to return one 
 member. Pop. (1831) 4493 ; (1901) S460. 
 
 Elgin, a city of Illinois, on the Fox River, 36 
 miles WNW. of Chicago, with large Avatch-works 
 and manufactures of carriages and agricultural 
 machinery. Pop. (1880) 8787 ; (1900) 22,433. 
 
 Elginshire, or Moray, a Scottish county ex- 
 tending 33 miles along the low shore of the Moray 
 Firth. It is 34 miles long, and 488 sq. m. in are'a, 
 a former detached portion having in 1870 been 
 annexed to Inverness-shire, whilst a correspond- 
 ing portion was transferred from that county to 
 Elginshire. The surface has a general southward 
 ascent, and attains a maximum altitude of 2328 
 feet. Rivers are the Spey, Lossie, and Findhorn ; 
 and of several small lakes much the largest is 
 Lochindorb (2 miles by 5 furlongs). West of the 
 Findhorn's mouth are the sand-dunes of Culbin, 
 due to drifting chiefly in 1694, and some of them 
 rising 118 feet. Agriculture is highly advanced 
 over all the flat fertile lower tract. Elgin and Nairn 
 sliires return one member to parliament. Pop 
 (1801) 27,760 ; (1841) 35,012; (1901) 44,800. Tlie 
 ancient province of Moray included the counties 
 of Elgin and Nairn, with parts of Banff" and In- 
 verness. Antiquities are Kinloss Abbey (1150), 
 Phiscarden Priory (1230), a Romanesque cliurch at 
 Biriiie, and the castles of Duffus, Lochindorb, 
 and Spynie. See the history by Rampini (1897). 
 
 Elgon, a volcanic mountain mass, 40 miles 
 square, in British East Africa, 50 miles NNE. 
 of the Victoria Nyanza, first visited by Joseph 
 Thomson in 1883 ; highest point of the crater's 
 rim, 14,100 feet above the sea. The southern 
 slopes show a series of vast caves, partly artificial. 
 
 Elie, a watering-place of Fife, 23 miles NE. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. with Earlsferry (q.v.) 1000. 
 
 Eliock House, the birthplace of the ' Admir- 
 able' Crichton, in Dumfriesshire, 3 miles SE. of 
 Sanquhar. 
 
 Elizabetgrad, a fortified town of South Russia, 
 in the government of Kherson, 283 miles by rail 
 NE, of Odessa. Soap-boiling, tallow-refining, and 
 candle-making are carried on, Elizabetgrad was 
 founded in 1754, and named after the Empress 
 Elizabeth. Pop. 63,418. 
 
 Elizabeth City, capital of Union county. New 
 Jersey, and formerly capital of the state, lies 5 
 miles SSW. of Newark by rail, with one quartet 
 (Elizabethport) on Staten Island Sound. It is 
 the seat of a large Singer sewing-machine factory, 
 and of manufactories of oilcloth, pottery, iron- 
 wares, hats, combs, &c. Elizabethport has 
 steamboat communication with New York City, 
 12 miles NW., and ships much anthracite coal, 
 A great drawbridge over Staten Island Sound, 
 800 feet long, with a draw-span 500 feet long, 
 connects New Jersey here with the Staten Island 
 shore. Pop. (1880) 28,229 ; (1900) 52,130. 
 
 Elizabetpol, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, 
 on a tributary of the Kur. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Elkhart, a town of Indiana, at the junction of 
 the St Joseph and Elkhart rivers, 101 miles E. by 
 S. of Chicago by rail, with manufactures of paper, 
 machinery, flour, starch, &c. Pop. 15,360. 
 
 EUand, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, on the river Calder, 3 miles SE. of Halifax 
 by rail. It has cloth-mills, and valuable stone- 
 quarries in the vicinity. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Ellen's Isle. See Katrine (Loch). 
 
 EUeray, the Westmorland seat of Prof. Wilson 
 (' Christopher North '), close to Windermere 
 village. 
 
 EUesmere, a Shropshire town, near a beautiful 
 lake or mere of 120 acres, 19 miles NNW. 
 of Shrewsbury. Population, 2000. The EUes- 
 mere Canal, connecting the Severn and the 
 Mersey, passes here. It is carried across the 
 Dee and the Vale of Llangollen by Telford's 
 EUesmere Aqueduct (1805), 1007 feet long and 
 
ELLESMERE LAND 
 
 251 
 
 ELY 
 
 127 high. Ellesmere Port, at its mouth, on the 
 Mersey, is on the Manchester Ship Canal. 
 
 Ellesmere Land, part of the Arctic territory 
 west of Smith Sound. 
 
 Elllce Islands, in the South Pacific, due N. of 
 Fiji, and SW. of Samoa, extend for 360 miles 
 from NW. to SE. between 5^° and 11° S. lat., and 
 176° and 180° E. long. They consist of nine 
 groups of atolls or coral islands, one of which 
 groups, known specially as Ellice Islands (the 
 main island in it being Funafuti), was discovered 
 in 1819 by the American Captain Peyster. An- 
 other had previously been discovered in 1781. 
 The islands grow little but cocoa-nut trees, copra 
 being the main export. Pop. 2500 Polynesians, 
 mostly Christianised. 
 
 Ellichpur, a town in tlie north of Berar, at one 
 time capital of the Deccan, and said to have con- 
 tained 40,000 houses. Its buildings include a 
 ruinous palace, a fort, and several handsome 
 tombs of the nawabs. The military cantonment 
 of Paratwada is 2 miles distant. Pop. 36,240. 
 
 EUisland, Burns's farm in Dumfriesshire, on 
 the Nitli's right banlt, 6 miles NNW. of Dumfries. 
 
 Ellon, an Aberdeenshire village, on the Ythan, 
 20 miles N. by E. of Aberdeen. Pop. 1554. 
 
 Ellora, a village in the Nizam's dommions, 13 
 miles NW. of Aurungabad. Of its wonderful 
 rock-cut temples, which date from the 7th cen- 
 tury, there are 34 of a large size, Buddhist, 
 Brahmanical, and Jain. Some are cave-temples 
 proper ; but others are vast buildings hewn out 
 of the solid granite of the hills, having an ex- 
 terior as well as an interior architecture. 
 
 Ellore (Elur), a town in the Godavari district, 
 Madras, on the Jammaler River, 255 miles N. of 
 Madras, with manufactures of woollen carpets 
 and saltpetre. Pop. 39,382. 
 
 Ellsworth, a port of entry in Maine, on the 
 river Union, 28 miles SE. of Bangor, with a large 
 lumber trade. Pop. 4304. 
 
 Ellwa,n.geTi.(Ell-vang'en), a town of Wiirtemberg, 
 on the Jagst River, 55 miles N. of Ulm. Pop. 
 4993. Hohen-BUwangen, an old castle close by, 
 has been an agricultural school since 1843. 
 
 Elm, a Swiss village in Glarus canton, with 
 1000 inhabitants when, in 1881, the whole of the 
 northern side of Tshingel Peak (10,230 feet) 
 crashed down upon it. 
 
 Elmalu, a town of Asia Minor, in the province 
 of Konieh, 45 miles W. of Adalia. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Elmlna, a British settlement on the Gold 
 Coast, W. of Cape Coast Castle. First settled by 
 merchants of Dieppe, it came to the Portuguese 
 in 1471, to the Dutch in 1637, and in 1872 to the 
 British, Avho destroyed the native town during 
 the Ashanti war. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Elmlra, capital of Chemung county. New York, 
 on the Chemung River, 149 miles ESE. of Buffalo 
 by rail. It manufactures iron rails, railway and 
 other carriages, flour, leather, woollens, boots, 
 &c. Pop. (1870) 15,863 ; (1900) 35,672. 
 
 Elmshorn, a town in the Prussian province of 
 Sleswick-Holstein, on a navigable feeder of the 
 Elbe, 20 miles NW. of Hamburg, Pop. 15,000. 
 
 El Obeid. See Obeid (El). 
 
 Elopura. See Borneo. 
 
 El Paso del Norte (FA Pdh'zo del Nor'tay, ' the 
 pass of the north '), or El Paso, a town of Mexico, 
 on the Rio Grande's right bank, 1232 miles NNW. 
 of Mexico City by rail. Pop. 6000.- On the 
 opposite bank is El Paso, capital of El Paso 
 county, Texas. Population, 16,100. 
 
 ElphIn, a town (once episcopal) of Roscommon, 
 9 miles SW. of Carrick-on-Shannon. Pop. 855. 
 
 Elsass-Lothringen. See Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 Elslnore (Dan. Helsingor), a seaport of Den- 
 mark, on the island of Zealand, and on the 
 western shore of the Sound, at its narrowest 
 part, 2^ miles nearly due west of Helsingboi-g in 
 SAveden, and 37 by rail N. of Copenhagen. The 
 harbour (enlarged in 1883-84) has 18 to 20 feet of 
 water, and the roadstead outside aftbrds excellent 
 anchorage. Pop. 14,082. Saxo Grammaticus was 
 l)orn here, and here too Shakespeare lays the 
 scene of Hamlet. A little east of the town is the 
 castle of Kronborg, built by Frederick II. in 
 1580, while to the north-west stands the royal 
 castle of Marienlyst. 
 
 Elster, the name of two rivers of Germany. 
 The AVhite Elster rises at the foot of the Elster 
 Mountains, on the NW. boundary of Bohemia, 
 and flows 122 miles N. to the Saale, above Halle, 
 in Prussian Saxony. The Black Elster rises in 
 Saxony, south of Elstra, and flows 112 miles 
 NW. to the Elbe, 9 miles SE. of Wittenberg. 
 
 Elstow, Bunyan's birthplace, 1^ mile S. of 
 Bedford. 
 
 Elstree, a village on the south border of Herts, 
 7 miles S. of St Albans, with a noted school. 
 Pop. 750. In a gig on the road near Elstree, 
 Thurtell in 1823 shot Weare ; and the ' Gills 
 Hill murder' and trial largely occupied con- 
 temporary literature. 
 
 Elswick, a western part of Newcastle, forming 
 tliree wards of the county borough. Here are 
 the works of Sir W. G. (Lord) Armstrong. The 
 engineering section dates from 1847, tlie ord- 
 nance-works fro)n 1857. Elswick Park, including 
 Elswick Hall, was opened as a recreation ground 
 in 1878. 
 
 Eltham, seat formerly of a royal palace in 
 I\ent, now part of the metropolitan borough of 
 Woolwich (q.v.). 
 
 Elton, a shallow, oval-shaped salt lake of 
 Russia, 62 sq. m. in area, is situated in the 
 government of Astrakhan, in lat. 48° 56' N., and 
 long. 46° 40' E. The annual yield of salt ranges 
 between 88,000 and 96,000 tons. 
 
 Elvas, the strongest fortified city of Portugal, 
 near the Spanish frontier, 10 miles W. of Badajoz 
 by rail. Pop. 13,471. 
 
 Ely (Ea'lie), a city of Cambridgeshire, crowns a 
 low eminence on the left bank of the Ouse, amid 
 the fen-land, 16 miles NNB. of Cambritlge, and 30 
 SE. of Peterborough. Here, in 673, St Ethel- 
 dreda founded a mixed monastery, which, burned 
 in 870 by the Danes, was refounded in 970 as a 
 Benedictine abbey. That abbey a century later 
 became Hereward's 'camp of refuge," until, in 
 1071, Abbot Thurstan had to surrender to the 
 Conqueror. In 1083 the first Nonnan abbot laid 
 the foundation of the present church, whicli was 
 made a cathedral in 1109, and which, as Ave see 
 it to-day, is one of the most glorious shrines in 
 Christendom. A cruciform structure, 537 feet 
 long by 179 feet across the great transepts, it 
 offers examples of all styles of Gothic, from early 
 Nonnan to late Perpendicular, and is a growth of 
 more than four centuries. There is the Avesteru 
 tower, 225 feet high (1174-1382) ; the late Norman 
 nave (1150-89), 208 by 78 feet, with modern 
 painted ceiling ; the richly sculptured choir 
 (1234-1533); and at the crossing, the exquisite 
 Decorated ' octagon ' and lantern (1322-42), built 
 by Alan de Walsingham on the fall of the great 
 central tower. This, 'the only Gothic dome in 
 
EMBA 
 
 252 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 existence,' rises to a height of 170 feet. The 13th- 
 ceiitury Guesteii Hall is now the deanery, and 
 the ' Ely Porta,' or great gateway (1380), houses 
 a grammar-school founded by Plenry VIII. in 
 1541. Tlie Bishop's Palace is a line brick Tudor 
 building. Cromwell lived here 1G36-40. There 
 is a weekly market; and oil, earthenware, and 
 clay-pipes are manufactured. The population is 
 about 7700. The *Isle' of Ely contains also 
 March and Wisbeach, and is 355 sq. m, in area. 
 Till 1837 it was a county palatine. 
 
 Emba, a river in the Kirghiz territory, Asiatic 
 Russia, flowing 450 miles SW. to the Caspian. 
 
 Embrun (On^brmf ; anc. Ebrodunum), a forti- 
 fied town in the French dep. of Hautes Alpes, on 
 the Durance, and at the base of Mont St Guil- 
 laume (8344 feet), 23 miles E. of Gap by rail. 
 The cathedral of its former see (374-1802) has a 
 lofty Romanesque tower. Pop. 3857. 
 
 Emden, the chief commercial town in the 
 Prussian province of Hanover, a little below the 
 embouchure of the Ems into Dollart Bay, 77 
 miles WNW. of Bremen by rail. Walled and 
 moated, it is well built, with several lofty antique 
 houses in the Dutch style, and is intersected by 
 numerous canals. A canal runs south from the 
 town to Dollart Bay, a distance of two miles ; 
 but it is navigable at high-water only, and then 
 only by vessels of 14 feet draught. The finest 
 building is the town-hall (1574-76). Emden has 
 a large shipping trade and several manufactures ; 
 the principal industry, however, is shipbuilding. 
 Pop. 17,020. Emden belonged originally to East 
 Friesland, and after various vicissitudes was 
 created a free imperial town under Dutch pro- 
 tection in 1595, but in 1744 passed to Prussia. 
 After belonging successively to Holland, France, 
 and Hanover, it again became Prussian in 1866. 
 
 Emilia, a compartimento of Central Italy, com- 
 prising the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, 
 Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Raveiina, and Reggio 
 Emilia. Through them passed the ancient Via 
 Emilia, and hence the name. 
 
 Emmericli (Em'mer-Wi), an old town of Rhen- 
 ish Prussia, on the Rhine, 94 miles by rail E. of 
 Rotterdam. It manufactures iron, glass, tobacco, 
 &c. The seat of a famous Jesuit seminary from 
 1592 to 1811, its pop. dwindled from 40,000 in the 
 15th century to 8000 ; it is now 11,000. 
 
 Em'poli, a town of Italy, on the Arno, 22 miles 
 WSW. of Florence. Pop. 6719. 
 
 Emporia, capital of Lyon county, Kansas, on 
 the Neosho, a tributary of the Cottonwood River, 
 61 miles SSW. of Topeka by rail. Pop. 8551. 
 
 Ems, a river of north-west Gennany, rises in 
 Westphalia, on the south-west slope of the Teuto- 
 burger AVald, and flows 205 miles NW. and N. to 
 Dollart Bay, an estuary of the German Ocean. 
 It is navigable as far as Greven (139 miles), and 
 canals connect it with the Lippe and Jade. 
 
 Ems, or Bad Ems, a German bathing-place 
 known to the Romans, on the river Lahn, 10 
 miles ESE. of Coblenz by rail. Pop. 6431, a 
 number more than doubled by patients. Its 
 warm mineral springs (80-135°) contain soda and 
 carbonic acid gas. Here, in 1870, Benedetti got 
 his final answer from King William. 
 
 Emsworth, a small seaport of Hampshire, 2 
 miles ESE. of Havant. Pop. 1881. 
 
 Enara, an isleted lake in the extreme north of 
 Finland, 550 sq. m. in area. 
 
 Enarea, or Limmu, a kingdom of Africa, SW. 
 of Shoa, with an area of over 1100 sq. m., and I 
 
 40,000 inhabitants. It is a land of forest-clad 
 hills, over 8000 feet high, their slopes covered 
 with the wild cofiee-plant. Its people, a stem 
 of the Gallas, are mostly Mohammedans. The 
 chief town is Saka, near the river Gibbe. 
 
 Enderby Land lies in 65° 57' S. lat., 47° 20* 
 E. long., discovered by the whaler John Briscoe 
 in 1831, and named after his employer, Samuel 
 Enderby, an adventurous London merchant, the 
 grandfather of Chinese Gordon. 
 
 Endor, a village of Palestine, 4 miles S. of 
 Tabor, now a poor mud hamlet. 
 
 Endrick, a Stirlingshire stream, winding 20 
 miles westward to the foot of Loch Lomond. 
 
 Enfield, a town of Middlesex, 13 miles N. of 
 London. The government small-arms factory 
 here is capable of turning out 5000 rifles a week ; 
 the ordinary output is, however, about 1800. 
 Pop. (1851) 9453 ; (1891) 31,532 ; (1901) 42,738. 
 
 Engadlne {Enq' ga-deen), a famous valley in the 
 Swiss canton of the Grisons, and one of the'loftiest 
 inhabited regions in Europe, extends 65 miles 
 NNE. along the Inn and its lakes, from the foot 
 of Mount Maloja to the village of Martinsbruck. 
 It is divided into two portions— the Upper En- 
 gadine towards the south-west, and the Lower 
 Engadine to the north-east, the latter the wilder 
 and bleaker of the two. The Inn has many 
 villages upon its banks, the highest of which, St 
 Moritz, is 6090 feet above sea-level, while the 
 lowest, Martinsbruck, is 3343 feet. Most of these 
 villages have of late years become health and 
 pleasure resorts. Pop. 11,600, almost all of the 
 Reformed Church. The language most generally 
 spoken is the Ladin (a corruption of Latin), a 
 Romance tongue, resembling Italian. 
 
 Enghien (On'-ghe-an^'), a watering-place and 
 summer-resort, 7 miles N. of Paris, on a small 
 lake. It has five sulphur-springs, good for the 
 skin and throat. Pop. 2670.— (2) In the Belgian 
 province of Hainault, a busy manufacturing place 
 (beer, salt, lace, linen, and cloth). Pop. 4387. 
 
 England is the southern, the larger, and by 
 far the more populous portion of Great Britain, 
 the largest and most important of European 
 islands. Separated from Belgium, Holland, Ger- 
 many, and Denmark by the North Sea, from 
 France by another 'streak of silver sea,' the 
 Channel, and from Ireland by St George's Chan- 
 nel and the Irish Sea, the kingdom of England 
 and Wales has only one short land frontier, that 
 towards Scotland. In shape it forms an irregular 
 triangle, of which the eastern side measures in 
 a straight line 350 miles, the southern 325 miles, 
 the western 425 ; but its shores are so deeply 
 indented by bays and estuaries as to make the 
 coast-line longer in proportion to the size of the 
 land than in any other country but Scotland and 
 Greece. The area of the British Islands (120,832 
 sq. m.) is less than T^jyth of the land-surface of 
 the world. The colonies and dependencies of 
 the empire of which England is the centre now 
 cover about a fifth of the land-area of the globe. 
 England without Wales (50,823 sq. m.) is about 
 the size of Roumania, less than a fourth of France 
 or of Germany, and but little larger than the 
 single state of New York (49,170 sq. m.); and 
 England with Wales (58,186) is not equal in area 
 to tlie state of Georgia (59,475), nor a fourth of 
 the size of Texas. Twenty-eight of the states or 
 territories in the Union are each larger than 
 England, several much larger than the whole 
 United Kingdom. Her name England owes to 
 the Engle or Angles, who with the kindred Jutes 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 253 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 (Gedtas) and Saxons (Seaxe) descended on Albion 
 or Britain, inliabited by Celts and Celticised 
 Iberians, and conquered and occupied tbe greater 
 part of it in the 5th-8th centuries. These kindred 
 peoples all learned to call themselves Englisc 
 or English, and by Englaland they understood 
 the whole area now occupied by them — an area 
 which in the 7th century extended from the Forth 
 to the English Channel. South-eastern Scotland, 
 as occupied by Angles, and not by Saxons or 
 Jutes, was in the stricter sense English; and 
 the people of the non-Celtic parts of Scotland, 
 though now markedly differing from the southern 
 English, are in blood and in mental and physical 
 type at least as English in the wider sense as 
 the people of Oxford or Kent. Political circum- 
 stances led the English and Anglicised Celts of 
 North Britain beyond Solway and Tweed to be- 
 come the subjects of the alien Scottish king, but 
 their language they still called Inglis, as distin- 
 guished from the Gaelic of their Highland fellow- 
 countrymen. 
 
 The people of the southern kingdom constitute 
 nearly three-fourths of the inhabitants of the 
 three kingdoms ; the English language in some 
 form is that of all but a small minority in any 
 of the three ; the English literature is the com- 
 mon inheritance of the whole ; the constitution 
 and polity of England, slightly modified, is the 
 British constitution under which the three king- 
 doms have unitedly become glorious. Hence it 
 is not strange that not merely by Englishmen, 
 but by all foreigners, the name of England is 
 used for what, after the union of the crowns of 
 Scotland and England in 1603, became officially 
 Great Britain, and even for the whole empire, 
 which, since the Irish Union of 1801, is strictly 
 the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land. For the physical features, geology, cli- 
 mate, and statistics of England, see Great 
 Britain, 
 
 The area of England without Wales is 50,823 
 sq. m. ;. that of Wales, 7363 ; together, 58,186. 
 So that, as the area of the United Kingdom, with 
 Scotland, Ireland, Man and the Channel Islands, 
 is 120,382, England alone covers 42 per cent, of 
 the whole, Wales 6, and England and Wales 48 
 per cent. The pop. of England and Wales in 
 1650 is estimated to have been 5,450,000. In 
 1750 it was probably 6,400,000. From that date 
 the increase was rapid ; and the census of 1801 
 showed a pop. of 8,892,536. In 1841 the pop. 
 of England alone was 15,002,443 ; in 1851 it was 
 16,921,888 ; in 1861, 18,954,444; in 1871, 21,495,331 ; 
 in 1881, 24,613,926. At the census of 1891, Eng- 
 land had 27,483,490, and Wales 1,519,035, or 
 together 29,002,525. In 1901 tlie population of 
 England was 30,807,243, and of Wales 1,720,600 ; 
 together 32,527,843, making 78-4 per cent, or 
 three-fourths of the total population of the 
 United Kingdom. The density of the pop. in 
 England is greater than in any other European 
 country (disregarding Monaco)' save Saxony (725 
 per sq. m.) and Belgium (5S9). In 1901 it was 
 for England alone 606 per sq. m. ; for England 
 and Wales, 558 ; for Scotland, only 150. In Eng- 
 land and Wales there were, in 1901, 33 towns 
 with more than 100,000 inhabitants, in Scot- 
 land only 4, in Ireland 2. In England there were 
 75 above 50,000, in Scotland 7, in Ireland .3. 
 For the Welsh counties, see Wales ; for the area 
 of the English counties in square miles, see the 
 articles on the counties. In 1901 the area (in 
 acres) and the pop. of the historic English coun- 
 ties were as in the following table (meanwhile, 
 under the Local Government Act of 1888, a county 
 
 of London had been created for administrative 
 purposes out of Middlesex and adjoining coun- 
 ties, with an area of 75,442 acres, and a pop. of 
 4,536,541, included in the following table in the 
 old counties) : 
 
 Counties. Area. 
 
 Bedford 294,983 
 
 Berks 462,210 
 
 Buckingham 477,151 
 
 Cambridge 524.935 
 
 Cheshire 657,123 
 
 Cornwall 863,665 
 
 Cumberland 970,161 
 
 Derby 658,624 
 
 Devon 1,655,208 
 
 Dorset 627,265 
 
 Durham 647,592 
 
 Essex 987,032 
 
 Gloucester 783,699 
 
 Population. 
 171,240 
 256,509 
 195,764 
 190,682 
 815,099 
 322,3;J4 
 266,933 
 
 Hampshire . 
 Hereford . . . . 
 
 Hertford 
 
 Huntingdon . 
 Kent 
 
 1,037,764 
 532,918 
 405,141 
 229,515 
 
 1,208.154 
 511,907 
 
 1,7(!7,879 
 181.317 
 370,350 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Norfolk 1,356,173 
 
 Korthampton 629,912 
 
 Northumberland 1,290.312 
 
 Nottingham 527,752 
 
 Oxford 483,621 
 
 Rutland 94,889 
 
 Shropshire 844,565 
 
 Somerset 1,049,812 
 
 Staflford 748.433 
 
 Suffolk 944,060 
 
 Surrey 485,129 
 
 Sussex 933,269 
 
 Warwick 566,271 
 
 Westmorland 500,906 
 
 Wiltshire 866,677 
 
 Worcester 472,453 
 
 York 3 882,851 
 
 661,314 
 
 202,936 
 
 1,187.361 
 
 1,085.771 
 
 634,729 
 
 797.634 
 
 114,380 
 
 250,152 
 
 57,771 
 
 1.348,841 
 
 4,406.409 
 
 434.019 
 
 498,858 
 
 3.585,323 
 
 292,317 
 
 460,120 
 
 514,578 
 181,120 
 19,709 
 
 1,234,506 
 384.293 
 
 2.012.744 
 605,202 
 897,835 
 
 273;869 
 
 488,338 
 
 3.584,762 
 
 Total of England 2.527.070 30,807,243 
 
 Total of the 12 Welsh Counties.. 4,712,281 1,720,600 
 
 Total of England and Wales. . . .37,239,351 32,527.843 
 The situation of Britain has been shown to be 
 in the very centre of the land-masses of the 
 globe, a very great advantage for commerce and 
 navigation ; England, being nearer the Euroi)ean 
 shores, enjoys the advantage in higher measure 
 than its sister-kingdoms. Its seas are less stormy, 
 and it has a greatly more developed system of 
 navigable rivers. The north-west of England is 
 mountainous and hilly, the east and south mainly 
 a plain crossed by lines of low hills. The fer- 
 tility of England is much greater than that of 
 Scotland or Ireland, especially that of the wheat- 
 bearing area of eastern England. The agricul- 
 turally productive area of England is estimated 
 at 80 per cent, of its total, and of Wales 60 per 
 cent., whereas that of Scotland is only 28-8 per 
 cent., and of Ireland 74. England, whose sur- 
 face has been said for variety to be an epitome 
 of Europe, is very rich in minerals, of which coal 
 and iron are incomparably the most important, 
 making nine-tenths in value of the whole. The 
 output of coal and iron in England is vastly 
 greater than in Scotland, and Ireland is excep- 
 tionally poor in both. 
 
 England (peopled by a mixed race descended 
 from pre- Aryan ' Euskarians,' Celts, 'Anglo- 
 Saxons,' Danes, Normans, and other elements) 
 became the special home and headquarters of agri- 
 cultural enterprise, mineral production, machine- 
 making of all kinds and steam-power, of com- 
 merce, navigation, and shipping. But the great 
 and rapid advance which made the commerce 
 and manufactures of England the wonder of the 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 254 
 
 Spinal 
 
 »?orld dates only from the later half of the 18th 
 century, and is largely owing to the unparalleled 
 development of machinery, the use of steam as 
 a motive power, improved communication, and 
 later, steam-navigation, railways, and electricity. 
 It is very observable that the local distribution 
 of the great industries of England has changed 
 very greatly since the 17th century. At the 
 Revolution period, most of the greater towns of 
 England were in the south and east ; but these 
 have now been long outstripped by northern 
 rivals, and what were then important manufac- 
 turing towns have in many cases sunk into 
 mere villages. Now English manufacturing in- 
 dustries have most of their special seats in the 
 north and midlands. The greater wealth of 
 England as compared with Scotland and Ire- 
 land may be shown by a few miscellaneous 
 figures as to textile industry, the collecting of 
 customs, and the assessments for income-tax. 
 There are in the United Kingdom about 7200 
 textile factories, of whicli 6185 are in England, 
 750 in Scotland, and 265 in Ireland. Of the total 
 trade (exports and imports) 90-6 per cent, falls to 
 England and Wales, 77 per cent, to Scotland, 
 and 1*7 per cent, to Ireland. Of the coal raised 
 in the United Kingdom in 1902 (227,084,871 tons) 
 Scotland produced 34,115,309 tons. Though this 
 indicates with approximate acctiracy the move- 
 ment of shipping, it , is true that a share of 
 the vessels in English ports belongs to Scottish 
 owners, and Scotland builds in some years almost 
 as large a tonnage as England does. The total 
 amount of the annual value of property and pro- 
 fits assessed to income-tax in 1901-2 in the United 
 Kingdom was £86(5,993,453 ; the share of England 
 being £749,127,300 ; of Scotland, £83,515,877 ; and 
 of Ireland, £34,350,276. 
 
 On England, besides the histories, and the 
 books cited at Great Britain, see for physical 
 geography works by A. Geikie, Seeley, Hull, 
 Ramsay, Green, &c., and works named in 
 Anderson's Book of British Topography (1S81) ; 
 also Escott, England (1879; 2d ed. 1886); 
 Grant White, England Without and Within (1881) ; 
 Thorold Rogers, Agricultural Prices in England 
 (1866-93) ; T. H. Ward, The Reign of Queen Vic- 
 toria; W. Besant, Fifty Years Ago (1887); W. 
 Cunningham, The Growth of English hidustry and 
 Conwierce (1882 ; 2d ed. 1890). 
 
 England, New^. See New England. 
 
 English Channel. See Channel (English). 
 
 English Harbour, a port of Antigua (q.v.). 
 
 English River, (1) an estuary on the west 
 Bide of Delagoa Bay ; (2) another name for the 
 Churchill River (q.v.). 
 
 Enkhuizen (Enk-hoi'zen), a town of North Hol- 
 land, one of the ' dead cities of the Zuider Zee,' 
 35 miles NNE. of Amsterdam. It was the first 
 town to throw off the Spanish yoke (1572), and 
 was Paul Potter's birthplace (1625). Pop. 6751. 
 
 Enna. See Castrogiovanni. 
 
 Ennerdale Water, a Cumberland lake (2^ miles 
 X i mile), 7i miles ESE. of Whitehaven. 
 
 Ennis, a municipal borough of County Clare, 
 on the Fergus, 151 miles WSW. of Dublin by 
 rail. Here are the Catholic cathedral of Killaloe 
 diocese, a fine court-house, the Clare lunatic 
 asylum, large flour-mills, a school founded by 
 Erasmus Smith (1689), a column to O'Connell 
 (1863), and a memorial to the 'Manchester 
 martyrs.' Till 1885 Ennis returned one member. 
 Pop. (1851) 7840 ; (1901) 5093. 
 
 Ennlscorthy, a Wexford market-to^vn, on the 
 
 na^'igable Slaney, 78 miles S. of Dublin by rail. 
 It has a Norman castle, a church by Pugin, with 
 a good spire, and a large corn-trade. Popula- 
 tion, about 5500. Cromwell took Enniscortliy 
 in 1649 ; and the rebels from Vinegar Hill stormed 
 and burned it in 1798. 
 
 Enniskillen, a municipal (till 1885, also parlia- 
 mentary) borough, the capital of County Fer- 
 managh, 87 miles WSW. of Belfast, is beautifully 
 situated on an isle in the river between Upper 
 and Lower Loughs Erne. It has barracks, a 
 lofty monument to Sir Lowry Cole, the Royal 
 Portora School, and a manufacture of straw- 
 plait. Population, about 6500. Enniskillen 
 is famous for the victory, in 1689, of William 
 III. over James II. The Enniskllleuers, or 6th 
 Dragoons, were drawn from the brave defenders 
 of the town. 
 
 Enns, an Austrian river, rises in Salzburg, 12 
 miles S. of Radstadt, and flows 190 miles (only 
 20 navigable) northward to the Danube below 
 Linz. It receives the Salza and the Steier. 
 
 Enoch, a little lonely loch of Kirkcudbright- 
 shire, 6 miles SSW. of the head of Loch Doon. 
 
 Enos (anc. ^nos), a Turkish seaport, on a 
 rocky isthmus near the Marltza's mouth, 35 miles 
 NW. of Gallipoli. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Enschede (En-skay'deh), a town of Holland, 30 
 miles ENE. of Zutphen. Rebuilt since the fire 
 (1862), it lias yarn and cotton mills. Pop. 27,600. 
 
 En'terkin, a Dumfriesshire (q.v.) burn, rising 
 on Lowther Hill, and running SJ miles SSW. to 
 the Nith between Sanquhar and Thornhill, with 
 a descent of 1720 feet. 
 
 Entrecasteaux. See D'Entrecasteaux. 
 
 Entre Douro e Minho (Entray Dooro-ay- 
 Meen'yo), or simply Minho, a province of NW. 
 Portugal, is bounded N. by the river Minho, and 
 S. by the Douro. Area, 2810 sq. m. ; pop. 
 1,014,"768. It comprises three districts, Braga, 
 Vianna, and Oporto (the capital). 
 
 Entre Rios {Entray Reefos, ' between rivers '), a 
 province in the 'Mesopotamia Argentina,' be- 
 tween the Parana and the Uruguay. Area, 29,021 
 sq. m. ; pop. 350,000. Capital, Parana. 
 
 Eperies (Ay-pay -ree-esh' ; Slovak Pressova), an 
 old town of Hungg,ry, on the Tarcza, 150 miles 
 NE. of Pesth by rail. A fire of 7th May 1887 
 destroyed 400 houses. It manufactures earthen- 
 ware, linens, and woollens ; and In the vicinity 
 are the Sovar salt-works. Pop. 15,139. 
 
 fipernay (Ay-per-nay'), a French town in Mame, 
 the headquarters of the wines of Champagne, on 
 the Marne's left bank, 19 miles WNW. of Chalons. 
 It manufactures earthenware, hosiery, refined 
 sugar, and leather. Pop. (1872) 12,877; (1891) 
 18,252 ; (1901) 19,243. 
 
 Eph'esus, an ancient Ionic city of Asia Minor 
 in Lydia, near the mouth of the Cayster, cele- 
 brated for the famous temple of the Ephesian 
 Diana, the largest Greek temple ever built. It 
 was the seat of one of the Seven Churches of Asia, 
 and the scene of a great church council in 431, 
 but perished utterly during the later Byzantine 
 empire. There is now a wretched village, 
 Ayasaluk, on its site ; the ancient ruins include 
 the theatre, the odeon, and the temple, exca- 
 vated by Mr Wood in 1869-74. 
 
 fipinal (Ay-pee-ndW), capital of the French dap. 
 of Vosges, at the western base of the Vosges Moun- 
 tains, on the Moselle, 46 miles SSE. of Nancy 
 by rail. It has a ruined castle, a church founded 
 abotit 960, and manufactures of cotton, paper. 
 
EPIRUS 
 
 256 
 
 EBIE 
 
 &c. Pop. (1872) 10,938 ; fl^01> 21,392, an increase 
 largely due to the influx of Alsatians. 
 
 Epirus (Ep-i'rus), a mountainous region of 
 the Balkan Peninsula, between Mount Pindus 
 and the Ionian Sea. Peopled largely since the 
 14th century by Albanians, it formed latterly a 
 part of the Turkish vilayet of Janina. Under 
 pressure from the great powers, Turkey ceded the 
 portion east of the river Arta to Greece in 1881. 
 
 Epping, a market-town of Essex, at the north 
 end of Epping Forest, 16 miles NNB. of London. 
 It is noted for its cream, butter, sausages, and 
 pork. Population, 4000. — Epping (fornierly 
 Waltham) Forest once covered all Essex, and 
 extended almost to London. Enclosures gradu- 
 ally curtailed it from 60,000 acres to 12,000 in 
 1793, and to less than 4000 in 1871, when the 
 corporation of London undertook the preserva- 
 tion of all that was left, and the recovery of the 
 more recent enclosures. As an outcome of their 
 exertions, and at a cost of about £500,000, the 
 Queen declared 5600 acres of Epping Forest free 
 to the public on 6th May 1882. Reached easily 
 from Loughton, Chingford, and other stations, 
 Epping Forest is still a glorious place alike for 
 naturalist and mere holiday-maker. Its 9 sq. m, 
 of almost unbroken woodland, which at High 
 Beech or Queen Victoria's Wood attain 379 feet 
 above sea-level, form Oiie of the most extensive 
 and beautiful pleasure-grounds in Europe. Separ- 
 ated by a stream from Epping Forest is Hainault 
 Forest (the 'garden fair' of Mr Besant), dis- 
 afforested in 1851. Here, till 1820, stood Fairlop 
 Oak, the scene of a July fair, as famous in its way 
 as the old Epping stag-hunt on Easter Monday. 
 See works by Buxton (1884) and Fisher (1887). 
 
 Epsom, a market-town of Surrey, on the margin 
 of the Banstead Downs, 15 miles SSW. of London. 
 The sulphate of magnesia springs, which made 
 Epsom so fashionable a resort in the later half 
 of the 17th century, gave name to the Epsom 
 salt formerly manufactured froni them. The 
 Royal Medical College (1851), on the Downs, 
 provides education for the sons of medical men, 
 and affords a home to decayed members of the 
 profession and their widows. Pop. (1841) 3533 ; 
 (1901) 10,915. On the Downs, 1^ mile S. of the 
 town, the famous horseraces are held yearly; 
 the Derby stakes dating from 1780. 
 
 Epworth, a Lincolnshire market-town, in the 
 'Isle' of Axholme, 10 miles NNW. of Gains- 
 borough. John Wesley was a native. Pop. 2500. 
 Ercildoune. See Earlston. 
 Erdington, an urban district of Warwickshire, 
 5 miles NE. of Birmingham. Pop. 16,368. 
 
 Erebus, Mount, an active volcano (12,760 feet) 
 in Victoria Land, discovered in 1841 by Ross. 
 
 Eregll (Heraclea), a port on the Black Sea coast 
 
 of Asia Minor, 125 miles E, of the Bosporus, and 
 
 terminus of the Bagdad railway scheme. Pop. 700. 
 
 Eretria, an ancient trading town on the SW. 
 
 coast of Euboea. 
 
 Erfurt (Er-foortf), a city of Prussian Saxony, 
 once capital of Thuringia, stands in a highly culti- 
 vated plain, on the Gera, 13 m. W. of Weimar by 
 rail. Till 1873 it was strongly fortified. Its two 
 citadels, the Petersberg and the Cyriaksburg, were 
 formerly monasteries. The cathedral is one of the 
 most venerable Gothic buildings in Gennany, with 
 a very rich portal, and a bell cast in 1497, and 
 weighing 13^ tons. The monastery of St Augus- 
 tine, famous as the residence of Luther, whose 
 cell was destroyed by fire in 1872, was converted 
 in the year 1819 into a foundling asylum. From 
 
 1378 to 1816 Erfurt was the seat of a university, 
 of which the academy of sciences and the library 
 (60,000 volumes and 1000 MSS.) alone remain. 
 The growing of flowers and vegetables, and an 
 extensive trade in flower-seeds are carried on. 
 The principal manufactures are woollen, silk, 
 cotton, and linen goods, lamps, machines, shoes, 
 beer, malt, &c. Pop. (1871) 43,616; (1900) 
 85,190. Erfurt, originally called Erpesford or 
 Erpesfurt, was made a bishopric in 741. In the 
 15th century its woollen and linen manufactures 
 raised it to the position of one of the foremost 
 cities of Germany. Since 1803 (except during 
 1806-14) it has belonged to Prussia. 
 
 Ergasterla, a mining town of Attica, near 
 Cape Colonna, with ancient lead and silver 
 works, reopened in 1864. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Erlcht, Loch, a lonely lake between Perth and 
 Inverness shires, 1 mile from Dalwhinnie station, 
 and 60 miles NW. of Perth. Lying 1153 feet 
 above sea-level, it stretches 14| miles SSW., 
 is 512 feet deep, is overhung by Ben Alder 
 (3757 feet), and sends ott' a stream 6 miles to 
 Loch Rannoch.— Another Ericht runs 10 miles 
 SE. to the Isla near Coupar-Angus. 
 
 Erid'anus. See Po, 
 
 Erie (Ee'ry), the most southern of tlie five great 
 lakes which empty themselves by tlie St Law- 
 rence, separates tlie province of Ontario, in Can- 
 ada, from Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New 
 York. It receives at its western extremity the 
 waters of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron 
 by the river Detroit, and discharges them at its 
 north-east by the Niagara into Lake Ontario. 
 With a length of 240 miles, Erie has a breadth 
 varying from 30 to nearly 60 miles, with an area 
 of 9960 sq. m. It is 8| feet below Lake Huron, 
 and 326 and 573 respectively above the Ontario 
 and the Atlantic. The shores are for the most 
 part low and clayey. At its south-western ex- 
 tremity are several wooded islands, the largest 
 14 miles in circumference. It is by far the shal- 
 lowest of the five great lakes. Its mean depth is 
 70 feet, its maximum 210 feet ; and from this com- 
 parative shallowness and the consequent liability 
 to a heavy ground-swell, as well as the small 
 mnnber of good harbours, the navigation is 
 difficult and dangerous ; still the amount of traffic 
 is enormous. It is connected by one canal with 
 the Hudson, and by more than one with the 
 Ohio ; while, on the British side, it communi- 
 cates with the Ontario by means of the sliip- 
 channel of the Welland Canal. From the begin- 
 ning of December it remains more or less frozen 
 till March or April. Lake Erie was the scene of 
 a naval defeat of the British by the Americans, 
 September 10, 1813. 
 
 Erie, the capital of Erie county, Pennsylvania, 
 on Lake Erie, 88 miles SW, of Buffalo, and 95 
 NE. of Cleveland. It is a port of entry and im- 
 portant centre of trade, its harbour, one of the 
 largest and best on the lake, being formed by an 
 island 4 miles long, whose name, Presque Isle 
 (Fr., 'peninsula'), preserves the memory of its 
 having been once connected with the mainland. 
 The belt of water thus sheltered forms a natural 
 harbour ; it is now protected by a breakwater, is 
 3 to 4 miles long and 1 mile wide, and varies in 
 depth from 9 to 25 feet. The town's important 
 industrial works include oil-refineries, tamieries, 
 iron-foundries, paper, flouring, and planing mills, 
 factories for railroad cars, engines and boilers, 
 &c. It is a Roman Catholic bishop's see. A 
 natural-gas well was opened here in 1889. Pop. 
 (1870) 19,646 ; (1880) 27,737 ; (1900) 52,733. 
 
ERIN 
 
 253 
 
 SSK 
 
 Erin. See Ireland. 
 
 Eriskay, an Inverness-shire island, 2 miles S. 
 of South Uist. Here Prince Charles Edward 
 landed, 23d July 1745. Pop. 474, 
 
 Erith, a town of Kent, on the right bank of the 
 Thames, 15^ miles by rail E. of Charing Cross. 
 It is a summer-resort for Londoners, and the 
 headquarters of several yacht clubs ; in the Erith 
 and Plumstead Marshes are large powder-maga- 
 zines, the scene of a great explosion (1864). Here 
 the Grace de Dieu was built in 1515. Pop. of 
 parish (1851) 3231 ; (1901) 25,296. See C. J. Smith's 
 History of Erith (1873). 
 
 Eritrea. See Italy. 
 
 Erivan' (Persian Rewdn), the fortified capital 
 of a Transcaucasian government, on the elevated 
 plain to the north of Ararat, on the river Sanga, 
 3432 feet above sea-level. The town dates pro- 
 bably from the 7th century a.d. ; in later years it 
 was held alternately by Persians and Turks. 
 Pop. 29,000. The province has an area of 10,165 
 sq. m.,and a pop. of 805,000, nearly all Armenians 
 and Tartars. See Etchmiadzin. 
 
 Erlangen (Er'lang-en), a town of Bavaria, on 
 the Regnitz, 12 miles N. of Nuremberg. As old 
 as the 10th century, it owes its prosperity to the 
 settlement here of French Huguenots (1685), and 
 to its university (1743), which is celebrated as a 
 school of Protestant theology, and attended by 
 from 600 to 900 students. A statue of its founder, 
 the Margrave Frederick of Brandenburg-Baireuth, 
 was erected in the market-place in 1843. There 
 are manufactures of hosiery, gloves, mirror^ 
 tobacco, and especially beer. Burned in 1449 
 and 1632, Erlangen came to Bavaria in 1809. 
 Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Erlau(J5;r7ow; Hung. Eger), a city of Hungary, 
 on the Erlau, 89 miles NE. of Pesth. It has a 
 domed cathedral, built since 1837 at a cost of 
 £67,000, and 328 feet long ; a lyceuni (1761-99), 
 wiiih library and observatory ; a hospital (1830) ; 
 and two warm baths. The Erlau red wine is 
 the best of Hungary. Pop. 25,427. 
 
 Ermeland (Er'meh-lant), a district of the old 
 province of Prussia, inland of the Frisches Hafif. 
 
 Ermenonvllle (Erm'non^veeV), a village 18 miles 
 NNE. of Paris. Rousseau died here. 
 
 Erne, a river of Ulster, rising in Lough Gowna, 
 on the borders of Longford and Cavan counties, 
 and flowing 72 miles north-west, through Loughs 
 Oughter and Erne, to Donegal Bay. Lough Erne 
 extends 40 miles through Fermanagh county, 
 consisting of two lakes, the Upper and Lower, 
 which are joined by a network of channels 10 
 miles long. Both are studded with green hilly 
 islands, and teem with salmon and trout. 
 
 Erroman'go, one of the New Hebrides (q.v.), 
 the scene of the martyrdom of the missionary 
 John Williams. 
 
 Eryx, the ancient name of a mountain in NW. 
 Sicily, near Drepanum (mod. Trapani), with a 
 famous temple of Venus, hence called Eryclrux,. 
 
 Erzherg. See Eisenerz. 
 
 Erzerftm {Er-zer-oom'), a town in Turki.sh 
 Armenia, not far from the Kara-Su, or western 
 source of the Euphrates. It stands 6200 feet 
 above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. In 
 spite of the Transcaucasian Railway, Erzerfim 
 is still an entrepot between Europe and the 
 interior of Asia, particularly Persia. It imports 
 shawls, silk goods, cotton, tobacco, rice, indigo, 
 &c., and exports corn, sheep and cattle, horses, 
 mules, gall-nuts, and copper and iron wares. 
 
 Pop. 40,000. Erzerftra, which passed to the Turks 
 in 1517, had early in the 19th century 100,000 
 inhabitants ; but it suffered much in the wars of 
 1829, 1854-55, and 1877-78. 
 
 Erzgebirge (Ertz'ge-hir'ge, g hard ; ' Ore Moun- 
 tains '), a mountain-chain stretching SW. and NE. 
 for 96 miles on the confines of Saxony and 
 Bohemia, from the Elbe valley to the Fichtel- 
 gebirge, and culminating in the Keilberg (4052 
 feet) and Fichtelberg (3980). Silver and lead are 
 the chief metals ; next come tin, iron, cobalt. 
 
 Esbjerg (Es-byerg; g hard), a port of Denmark, 
 the best on the west coast of Jutland, with a 
 large export trade in cattle, &c., mostly to Eng- 
 land. Its harbour was rebuilt in 1868-74, and 
 the pop. has grown from 4000 to 15,000. 
 
 Eschscholtz Bay (Esh-shoUz), the innermost 
 part of Kotzebue Sound, in Alaska. It was named 
 after the naturalist Eschscholtz (1793-1834), who 
 sailed with Kotzebue. 
 
 Eschwege (Esh'vay-ge ; g hard), a town in the 
 Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the Werra, 
 40 miles ESE. of Cassel by rail. Pop. 9892. 
 
 Eschweiler (Esh'vei-ler), an industrial town of 
 Rhenish Prussia, 8 miles ENB. of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 has important iron, zinc, and tin works, machine- 
 shops, tanneries, &c. Pop. 22,889. 
 
 Escorial, or Escubial (Span., 'mining rub- 
 bish,' cf. scorice), an immense royal palace, 
 mausoleum, and monastery of Spain, 81 miles 
 NW. of Madrid, on the south-eastern slope of 
 the Sierra Guadarrama, at an altitude of 3700 
 feet. Of dark-gray granite, stern and forbidding 
 of aspect; it was built by Philip II. in 1563-84, 
 partly to provide a royal burying-place for the 
 kings of Spain, partly to commemorate his 
 victory over the French at St Quentin on St 
 Lawrence's day, 10th August 1557. Its general 
 shape is that of a quadrangular parallelogram, 
 706 feet long by 550 broad, with a smaller square 
 projecting from the east side, in shape thus some- 
 what resembling St Lawrence's gridiron. At each 
 corner rises a tower 200 feet high ; and in the centre 
 a cupola 312 feet. The library, once one of the 
 richest in Europe, still contains over 32,000 vols, 
 and 4500 valuable MSS., including 1900 written in 
 Arabic. In the palace the most interesting 
 apartment is the cell of Philip II., in which he 
 spent his last days. The Escorial was for the 
 second time greatly injured by fire in 1872. 
 
 Esdraelon (Ez-dra-ee'lon), or Plain of Jezreel, 
 a fertile valley of Palestine, constituting the basin 
 of the Kishon, extends westwards from Mount 
 Hermon to the slopes of the Carniel range. 
 Here Gideon defeated the Midianites, and here 
 in 1799 the Turks were defeated by the French. 
 
 Esher, a pretty village of Surrey, on the Mole, 
 15 miles SW. of London by rail. Here are Esher 
 Place, a brick gate-tower of Wolsey's palace, and 
 Claremont (q.v.). Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Esk (Cymric wysg, Gael, uisge, ' water,' akin to 
 Exe), the name of several small Scotch rivers. 
 The Dumfriesshire Esk, formed by the Black 
 and White Esks (12 and 14 miles long), runs 22 
 miles SSE., next 5 furlongs along the Border, 
 and lastly 8 miles SSW. through Cumberland to 
 the head of the Solway Firth. It passes Lang- 
 holm and Longtown, receives the Tarras, Liddel, 
 &c., and affords capital fishing. — The Edinburgh- 
 shire Esk, formed by the North and South Esks 
 (17 and 19 miles long), flows 4 miles northward 
 to the Firth of Forth at Musselburgh. Its 
 scenery is very pretty, the northern branch pass- 
 ing Habbie's Howe, Rosliij, Hawthornden, and 
 
ESKI-DJUMNA 
 
 257 
 
 ESTHONIA 
 
 Melville Castle.— In Forfarshire the South Esk 
 runs 49 miles SE. and E. to the North Sea at 
 Montrose, and the North Esk 29 miles SE. to a 
 point 4 miles N. of Montrose ; both give earls' 
 titles to branches of the Carnegie family— South- 
 esk (1633) and Northesk (1662).— There is an Esk 
 in SW, Cumberland, and one in the Cleveland 
 district of Yorkshire. 
 
 Eski-Djumna, a town of Bulgaria, 20 miles 
 WSW. of Shunila. Pop. 10,038. 
 
 Eskilstuna, 55 miles W. of Stockholm, is a very 
 important centre of the Swedish iron and steel 
 industries, and is \ery famous for its cutlery. 
 Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Eskl-Shehr, an Important railway junction in 
 the NW, of Asia Minor, 165 miles W. of Angora. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Eski-Zagra, a town of Eastern Roumelia, at 
 the southern base of the Balkans, 70 miles NNW. 
 of Adrianople. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Esla, a northern tributary of the Douro. 
 
 Esmeraldas (Span., 'Emeralds'), the most 
 northerly maritime province of Ecuador. Area, 
 5200 sq. m. ; pop. 14,600.— The capital, Esmer- 
 aldas (pop. 3000), stands 10 miles from the 
 mouth of the navigable river Esmeraldas. 
 
 Esn6, a town of Upper Egypt, on the Nile's 
 left bank, 36 miles above Luxor, with some in- 
 teresting remains of antiquity. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Espir'ito Santo (Port., 'Holy Spirit'), a mari- 
 time province of Brazil. Area, 17,053 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 131,562. Capital, Victoria. 
 
 Espir'itu Santo, (1) the largest and most west- 
 erly island of the New Hebrides, with an area of 
 1868 sq. m., and a pop. of 20,000.— (2) An island 
 in the Gulf of California, 30 miles N. of La Paz.— 
 (3) A cape of Tierra del Puego. 
 
 Esquimau, a port with docks at the south 
 end of Vancouver Island, on Juan de Fuca Strait, 
 5 miles W. of Victoria. Till Canada assumed 
 military and naval responsibility in 1905, it was 
 used as a British naval station. Its admirable 
 harbour, connected by rail with the coalfield of 
 Nanaimo, has increased since the opening of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, and the connected 
 Japanese and Australian mail routes. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Essek (Roman Mursia), the capital of Slavonia, 
 on the right bank of the Drave, 12 miles above 
 its confluence with the Danube, and 189 S. of 
 Pesth by rail. It has been the seat of a bishopric 
 since 335 a.d. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Essen, a town in Rhenish Prussia, 22 miles by 
 rail NE. of Diisseldorf, stands in the midst of a 
 rich coal and iron district. It possesses numer- 
 ous establishments for manufacturing iron, chief 
 among them being the celebrated Krupp works 
 and caimon-foundries.whosehandshaverisen from 
 74 men in 1848 to over 30,000, There are other 
 manufactures. Pop. (1875) 54,852 ; (1900) 182,100. 
 Although its industrial activity is recent, the 
 town itself dates from the foundation of the 
 Benedictine nunnery in 873. 
 
 Essendon, in Victoria, 5 miles NW. of Mel- 
 bourne, has a pop. of 16,000. 
 
 Essequitto, the most westerly of the great 
 rivers of British Guiana, rises in the Acarai Moun- 
 tains, 46 miles N. of the equator, and after a 
 course of 620 miles enters the Atlantic, forming 
 an estuary 15 miles wide, in wh4ch lie numerous 
 fertile islands, but the entrance to which is much 
 silted up. Navigable for 35 miles only, owing 
 to cataracts, it receives a nujnber of large tribu- 
 taries, as the Rupununi, and the united Cuyuni 
 
 Q 
 
 and Mazanmi ; on the Potaro, another affluent, 
 is the grand Kaieteur Fall, 741 feet in sheer 
 descent, discovered in 1870. 
 
 Essex, a county in the east of England, washed 
 by the North Sea, and separated from Kent by 
 the Thames estuary, from Suffolk by the Stour. 
 Measuring 57 miles from east to west, and 44 
 from north to south, it has an area of 1657 sq. ra. 
 The low flat seaboard is close on 100 miles long, 
 deeply indented by shallow creeks, and much of 
 it fringed by desolate salt-marshes. Inland the 
 surface becomes gently undulating or even hilly 
 with Danbury Hill (317 feet), Laindon Hill (378), 
 and High Beech (350), and in the NW. nearly 500 
 feet. The rivers are the Thames, Stour, Lea, Stort, 
 Colne, Blackwater, Crouch, Roding, and Chelmer 
 —rivers that sometimes flood the low-lying lands. 
 In 1884 an earthquake, proceeding from north- 
 east to south-west, did almost £10,000 damage. 
 Nearly 79 per cent, of the entire area is in cultiva- 
 tion. Epping Forest (q.v.) is a mere remnant 
 of the once wide woodlands, whose total area ia 
 now reduced to less than 44 sq. m. Fishing is 
 not very actively prosecuted ; and the Colne 
 has long been famous for its oysters. Brewing 
 iT an important industry, especially at Romford ; 
 but outside of the metropolitan area there are no 
 great manufactures. Essex since 1877 has been 
 included in the new diocese of St Albans, and 
 since 1885 has returned one member to parlia- 
 ment for each of its eight divisions— South-west 
 or Walthamstow, South or Romford, West or 
 Epping, North or Saffron Walden, North-east or 
 Harwich, East or Maldon, South-east, and Mid 
 or Chelmsford. Chelmsford is the county town ; 
 and towns other than the above are Colchester, 
 Stratford, Barking, Braintree, Brentwood, Cogges- 
 hall, Dunmow, Halstead, Harlow, Ilford, Ongar, 
 Witham. Pop. (1801) 227,682; (1881) 576,434; 
 (1901) 1,085,771. Essex was named after the East 
 Saxons. Castle Hedingham and Audley End are 
 famous mansions. Among Essex worthies have 
 been Tusser, John Ray, Quarles, Sydney Smith, 
 and Isaac Taylor. See works by Morant (1768), 
 Suckling (1845), E. Walford (1882), and Barrett 
 (1892). 
 
 Essex, a manufacturing village of Middlesex 
 county, Connecticut. Pop. 2530. 
 
 Esslingen (Ess' ling-en), a town of Wiirtemberg, 
 on the Neckar, 9 miles by rail ESE. of Stutt- 
 gart. The chief buildings are the old citadel; 
 the Liebfrauen Church (1440), with a beautiful 
 spire 246 feet high ; the old (1430) town-house, 
 and the new (1742). It has great machine-shops, 
 and manufactures ' Esslingen champagne,' besides 
 woollens, cotton and woollen yarns, lackered iron, 
 &c. Population, 30,000. 
 
 Essouan. See Assouan. 
 
 Es'te (anc. Ateste), a town of Italy, on the 
 southern slope of the Euganean Hills, 17 miles 
 SSW. of Padua. Pop. 6979. 
 
 Estella, an ancient city of Spain, on the Ega, 
 27 miles SW. of Pamplona. Pop. 6648. 
 
 Estepa, a town of Spain, 60 miles ESE. of 
 Seville. Pop. 8965. 
 
 Estepona, a maritime town of Spain, 26 miles 
 NNE. of Gibraltar. Pop. 9934. 
 
 Esthonia, called by the natives Wiroma, the 
 most northerly of the Baltic provinces of Russia, 
 is bounded S by Livonia, W. and N. by the 
 Baltic. Area, 7818 sq. m. ; pop. 415,000. A large 
 part of the surface is covered with forests, moors, 
 and small lakes ; rivers are numerous, but mostly 
 small and sluggish in flow ; erratic boiUders gf 
 
ESTHWAITE WATER 
 
 258 
 
 ETON 
 
 granite are common everywhere. The chief town 
 IS Revel (q.v.). The population consists of two 
 divisions, the Esths and the Esthlanders. The 
 latter are a mixed race of immigrants, the Ger- 
 man element strongly preponderating. The 
 Esths, a people of Finnish race, constitute the 
 peasantry, some 290,000 in number, and the 
 original possessors of the soil. About 440,000 
 of this people are also found in Livonia, and 
 11,500 more in the governments of St Petersburg, 
 Pskov, and Vitebsk. In spite of six centuries of 
 slavery to their German lords, the Esths have pre- 
 served their national characteristics— language, 
 customs, clothing, dwelling, physical attributes. 
 In religion they are mostly Lutherans, though 
 the Russians are making strenuous efforts to bring 
 them over to the Greek Church. Esthonia was 
 conquered by Waldemar II. of Denmark in 1219 ; 
 but in 1346 it was sold to the Teutonic Knights, 
 and incorporated with Livonia. From 1561 it be- 
 longed to Sweden, in 1710 it was seized by Peter 
 the Great, Serfdom was abolished in Livonia in 
 1816, and in Esthonia in 1819. 
 
 Esthwaite Water, a lake of Lancashire, 2 miles 
 long by i mile wide, extending from Hawkshead 
 towards the W. shore of Windermere. 
 
 Estremadu'ra, a district of Spain, lying be- 
 tween Portugal and New Castile, and watered 
 by the Tagus and the Guadiana. It was divided 
 in 1833 into the provinces of Badajoz and C^ceres. 
 Area, 16,701 sq. m. ; pop. 845,000. 
 
 Estremadura, a Portuguese province contain- 
 ing Lisbon. Area, 6876 sq. m. ; pop. 1,232,600- 
 
 Estremoz, a town of Portugal, 23 miles NE. of 
 Evora. It makes porous red jars. Pop. 7575. 
 
 Eszek. See Essek. 
 ' ^tampes (Ay-ton^p), a French town of Seine- 
 et-Oise, 35 miles SSW. of Paris by rail. An 
 ancient place, with a street 4 miles long, it has a 
 fragment of a royal castle (c. 1160), a statue of 
 the naturalist Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, a mediiieval 
 h6tel-de-ville, large flour-mills, market-gardens, 
 &c. Pop. 8860. 
 
 Eta'wah, a town of the Doab, picturesquely 
 situated among the ravines near the Jumna's left 
 bank, 70 miles SE. of Agra. Cloth, horn combs, 
 and sweetmeats are manufactured. Close by are 
 some famous Hindu temples, and the ghats lead- 
 ing to the river are lined with handsome shrines. 
 Pop. 42,793. 
 
 Etchmladzin, a monastery near Erivan, the 
 ecclesiastical metropolis of the Armenians since 
 302 A.D. 
 
 Ethiopia, a term of ancient geography, some- 
 what vaguely and variously used. Originally, all 
 the nations inhabiting the southern part of the 
 globe, as known to the ancients, or rather all 
 men of dark-brown or black colour, were called 
 Ethiopians (assumed by the Greeks to be from 
 the two Greek words aitko 62^8, and to mean 
 •burnt-face;' but more probably a form of 
 an unknown Egyptian word). Later, this name 
 was given more particularly to the inhabitants of 
 the countries south of Libya and Egypt, on the 
 Upper Nile, extending from 10° to 25° N. lat., 28° 
 to 40° E. long.— the present Nubia, Sennaar, 
 Kordofan, Abyssinia. The nucleus of the king- 
 dom of Ethiopia, which already powerful about 
 1000 B.C., fell under Egyptian power about 760, 
 was conquered by Cambyses of Persia in 530, and 
 became Roman and Christian in due time, was 
 Meroe on an island in the Nile ; and the dominant 
 people, the Ethiopians proper, were a Semitic 
 people originally from the other side of the Re4 
 
 Sea, speaking the Ethiopian, a well-marked 
 Semitic dialect, closely akin to old Sabsean, a 
 form of Arabic. See Abyssinia. 
 
 Etlve (Et'iv), a salmon-river and a sea-loch of 
 Argyllshire. The river runs from a loch on the 
 Moor of Rannoch, near Kingshouse Inn, 15 miles 
 south-westward to the loch, which itself extends 
 10^ miles south-westward, then 8 J westward, until 
 at Dunstaffnage Castle, 3 j miles NNE. of Oban, it 
 merges in the Firth of Lome. Narrowing from 
 1^ mile to less than 2 furlongs at Connel Ferry, 
 its reef-barred entrance, where the depth too 
 decreases from 420 feet to 6 at low-water, this 
 loch offers a good example of an ancient sub- 
 merged glen. Its scenery is magnificent, the 
 upper reach closely engirt by mountains, of which 
 the loftiest are Ben Cruachan (3689 feet) and Ben 
 Starav (3541). See Ardchattan and Dun- 
 staffnage. 
 
 Etna (modem Sicilian Monte Gibello— the 
 last part of the name being the Arabic Jebel 
 Italianised), an isolated volcanic mountain close 
 to the east coast of Sicily, with a base 90 miles in 
 circumference, and a height of 10,850 feet. It 
 slopes gently up to a single cone, containing the 
 crater, a chasm 1000 feet in depth and from 2 to 
 3 miles in circumference. The regularity of the 
 slope is, however, broken on the east by an im- 
 mense gully, 4 or 5 miles in diameter, and 2000 to 
 4000 feet deep. Many secondary cones are dotted 
 all over the flanks of the mountain, the principal 
 being the Monti Rossi, 450 feet high, twin peaks 
 which were cast up in 1669. The slopes are 
 divided into three sharply defined zones, the 
 cultivated, the woody, and the desert region. 
 This last, extending from about 6300 feet up- 
 wards, is a dreary waste of black lava, scoriae, 
 ashes, and sand, covered during the greater part 
 of the year with snow. The wooded region, 
 which stretches down to the line of 2000 feet, is 
 planted with forests of chestnuts, beeches, birches, 
 pines, maples, and oaks. Below this lies the 
 cultivated zone, a thickly peopled region of great 
 fertility. The ascent is usually made from 
 Catania (q.v.), a town on the coast to the south. 
 In 1169 Catania was destroyed ; in 1329 a new 
 crater opened near the Val del Bove ; in 1444 the 
 cone fell into the crater; in 1537 two villages 
 perished ; from 1603 to 1620 Etna was almost 
 continually in activity ; and in 1666 three new 
 craters were formed. In 1669 a chasm 12 miles 
 long opened in the flank of the mountain ; in 1755 
 a large flood of water was poured down from the 
 eastern gully ; in 1852-53 there was a violent 
 nine months' eruption, when a torrent of lava, 6 
 miles long by 2 broad, and some 12 feet in depth, 
 was ejected. In 1880 an observatory was built 
 on the south side of the mountain, 9075 feet 
 above the sea, being the highest inhabited house 
 in Europe (nearly 1000 feet higher than the hos- 
 pice of the Great St Bemard). 
 
 See Rodwell, Etna aiid its Eruptions (1878) ; and 
 Sartorius von Waltershausen, Der Aetna, edited 
 by Von Lasaulx (2 vols. Leip. 1880). 
 
 Eton, a town in the south of Buckinghamshire, 
 on the left bank of the Thames, 21 miles WSW. 
 of London. It lies opposite to Windsor, in Berk- 
 shire, and is included in its parliamentary borough. 
 Eton College was founded by Henry VI. in 1440, 
 and its beautiful buildings were completed in 
 1525, though many additions have been made 
 from time to time, notably in 1889. The boys 
 number about 1000, of whom 70 are king's 
 scholars or collegers, and the rest oppidans. 
 Famous Etonians have been Bolingbroke, Boyle, 
 
ETRETAT 
 
 259 
 
 EUREKA 
 
 Canning, Chatham, Derby, Fielding, Fox, Glad- 
 stone, Gray, Hallam, Kinglake, Lyttelton, Mil- 
 man, Porson, Praed, Pusey, Shelley, the Wal- 
 poles,Wellesley, and Wellington. Pop. 3300. See 
 works by Lyte, Creasy, Jesse, Lubbock (1899), 
 Benson, Cast, and Clutton Brock (1900). 
 
 Etretat (Aytr-tdh'), a Norman watering-place, 
 18 miles NE. of Havre. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Etrurla, the country inhabited or ruled by 
 the Etruscans, a very ancient people of Italy. 
 Lying west of the Tiber and the Apennines, and 
 including the Anio valley, it was a confederation 
 of twelve cities or states. Some of these cities 
 are now deserted sites, marked only by vast 
 cemeteries and the remains of cyclopean walls, 
 while others still retain more or less of tlieir old 
 importance. See works by Dennis (2d ed. 1878), 
 K. O. Miiller (1877), and Jules Martha (1888). 
 
 Etruria, a village of Staffordshire, in the 
 municipal borough of Hanley. Here, on 13th 
 June 1769, Josiah Wedgwood and Tliomas Bent- 
 ley opened their celebrated Etruria potteries, so 
 named after the Etruscan ware. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Etset. See Adige. 
 
 Ettrick Water, a stream of Selkirkshire, rising 
 on Capel Fell, and winding 32 miles north-east- 
 ward to the Tweed, 3 miles below Selkirk, and 5 
 from the influx of its chief affluent, the Yarrow. 
 In Ettrick churchyard, towards the stream's 
 source, lie Boston and Hogg the * Ettrick Shep- 
 herd.' Ettrick Forest, erst so ' fair,* now treeless 
 and pastoral, included all Selkirkshire, with parts 
 of Peebles and Edinburgh shires. 
 
 Eu(OA; nearly Uh), a French town of Seine-Infe- 
 rieure, on the Bresle, 2 miles from its mouth, and 
 21 NE. of Dieppe by rail. The Chateau d'Eu 
 (1578), a low red brick building, with high roofs 
 of slate, was purchased by Mademoiselle de Mont- 
 pensier in 1675; eventually, in 1821, it came to 
 Louis-Philippe, who here received Queen Victoria 
 in 1843. In 1874 Viollet-le-Duc restored it for the 
 Comte de Paris. Pop. 4900. 
 
 Eubcea (anc. Euboia, Turk. Egripo, Ital. Negro- 
 ponte), an island of Greece in the JSgean Sea, runs 
 98 miles south-eastward parallel to the mainland, 
 its breadth varying from 30 miles to 4. Area, 
 1457 sq. m., or a little smaller than Suffolk. 
 About midway along its west shore, the strait 
 (Euripus) separating Euboea from the main- 
 land contracts to 120 feet, and is spanned by a 
 bridge, resting on a rocky islet in the middle. 
 The island is traversed longitudinally by a chain 
 of wooded mountains, culminating in Mount 
 Delphi (5725 feet). Iron and copper occur in the 
 mountains ; and at Carystos, in the south of the 
 island, the marble called cipoUno is quarried. 
 Hot springs (sulphur) exist in the north. The east 
 coast is steep and rocky ; the west side of the 
 island slopes gradually. The chief towns are 
 Chalcis on the west coast and Carystos (pop. 
 4119) on the south coast. Pop. of the island, 
 110,000, mostly Greeks and Albanians. Euboea 
 was successively subjugated by the Athenians, 
 by Philip of Macedon, by the Romans, by the 
 Venetians (1351), and by the Turks (1470) ; since 
 1830 it has been part of the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 Euganean Hills, a range of well-wooded hills, 
 lying SW. of Padua in Northern Italy, and cul- 
 minating in Monte Venda (1749 feet). On their 
 slopes stand several villas, amongst them Pe- 
 trarch's house at Arqua. 
 
 Eupatorla (formerly Koslov), a Russian seaport, 
 on a bay in the west of the Crimea, 40 miles NW. 
 
 of Simferopol. The principal building is the 
 Tartar mosque (1552). Pop. 13,416. 
 
 Eupen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the 
 Vedre, close to the Belgian frontier, and 12 miles 
 by rail S. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has flourishing 
 woollen manufactures, besides dyeworks, machine- 
 shops, breweries, &c. French refugees settled at 
 Eupen after the peace of Luneville (1801); in 
 1814 it came from Limburg to Prussia. Pop. 
 15,441, almost all Catholics. 
 
 Euphrates (Pers. Ufratu, Heb. Phmt, Syr. 
 Ejyhrat, Arab. Furat), the largest river in Western 
 Asia, has its source in the heart of Armenia in 
 the Kara-Su (270 miles) and the Murad (300 miles), 
 of which the former rises NE. of Erzertim, and 
 the latter over 130 miles to the east, near Lake 
 Van — uniting close to Keban Maadin (2664 feet 
 above the sea). The united stream breaks through 
 the Taurus in a succession of rapids and cataracts 
 for about 40 miles. Flowing south and then 
 south-east, it separates Mesopotamia from Syria 
 and the deserts of Syrian Arabia, and is joined 
 by the Tigris at Kurna. The joint river, taking 
 the name of the Shat-el-Arab, empties itself 
 by several arms (only one of which is navig- 
 able by large vessels) into the Persian Gulf, 
 60 miles below Basra, after a course of fully 
 1700 miles. The principal of its few tribu- 
 taries are the Sajur, Balik-su, and Khabiir, be- 
 sides the Persian river Kariin, which enters 
 the estuary at Mohammera. The chief towns 
 now on its banks are SumeysAt, Bir, Ana, Hit, 
 and Hilla, Basra lying really on a creek a short 
 distance from the main stream ; the river be- 
 tween Ana and Hit is studded with islands, 
 many of them inhabited. The Euphrates is more 
 or less navigable for light craft as far as Bir 
 (nearly 1200 miles) ; war-vessels can ascend to 
 the junction at Kurna (120 miles). In ancient 
 times, when canals and embankments regulated 
 the river's inundations, these exercised the same 
 beneficial effect on the country as those of the 
 Nile on Egypt. Numerous remains of ancient 
 cities are still to be traced near the banks, such 
 as the famous site of Babylon, and the Bira 
 Nimnid. In 1831 Captain F. R. Cliesney, R.A., 
 descended the Euphrates, and established the 
 fact that the river was navigable for vessels of 
 moderate draught, at least as high up as Ana. 
 He maintained that this was the shortest and best 
 route to Bombay, and in 1835 he commanded a 
 second and equally successful expedition. Two 
 attempts, howcA-er, to establish a railway, in 1856 
 and 1862, both collapsed, though, as an alter- 
 native to the Suez Canal, and as an instrument 
 for opening up a rich but neglected country, the 
 Euphrates Valley route would still be a valuable 
 channel of commercial and military communica- 
 tion for the British empire. See works by Chesney 
 (1850), Cameron (1888), and Ainsworth (1888). 
 
 Eure {Ohr; nearly EAr), a dep. of Normandy, 
 south of the dep. of Seine-lnferieure. Area, 2290 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1846) 423,247 ; (1901) 334,781. The 
 river Eure, which gives it name, flows 141 miles 
 to the Seine. The dep. is divided into the five 
 arrondissements of Evreux (the capital), Louviers, 
 Les Andelys, Bernay, and Pont-Audemer. 
 
 Eure-et-Loir (Ehr-ay-Lwar), a dep. of France, 
 south of the preceding ; area, 2260 sq. m. Pop. 
 (1872) 282,622 ; (1901) 275,433. It is divided into 
 four arrondissements, Chartres (the capital), 
 Chateaudun, Dreux, and Nogent-le-Rotrou. 
 
 Eureka, (l) a port and capital of Humboldt 
 county, California, on Humboldt Bay, with 
 lumber-mills ; pop. 7658.— (2) A town, capital of 
 
EURIPUS 
 
 260 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Eureka county, Nevada, 90 miles by rail S. of the 
 Palisades station on the Central Pacific Railroad. 
 Here are silver and lead mines ; pop. 1000. 
 
 Euri'pus. See Chalcis, Bubcea. 
 
 Europe, historically and politically the most 
 important of the five great divisions of the world, 
 is, next to Australasia, the smallest in area, 
 but Asia alone exceeds it in population. Geo- 
 graphers are agreed that, apart from its history 
 and significance for the history of civilisation, it 
 should be regarded rather as a peninsula of Asia, 
 or as a portion of the great joint Eurasian con- 
 tinent ; for in regard to physical geography, fauna, 
 and flora, it is difficult to draw a sharp line be- 
 tween Europe and Asia. On three sides Europe 
 is bounded by sea — north by the Arctic Ocean, 
 west by the Atlantic, south by the Mediterranean, 
 Sea of Marmora, and Black Sea. But on the east 
 the Urals, Ural River, and Caspian, though com- 
 monly assumed as the boundary towards Asia, do 
 not mark a precise limit in respect of climate, 
 flora, fauna, or physical conditions generally ; 
 the governments of Perm and Orenburg in Euro- 
 pean Russia extend far beyond the Urals. Between 
 the Caspian and the Black Sea, the ridge of the 
 Caucasus seems a convenient dividing line be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, but the Manytch de- 
 pression is really, from the geographical point 
 of view, a more correct boundary; physically 
 the whole lieutenancy of the Caucasus is part 
 of Asia. It is more curious that North Africa 
 and South Europe are very closely related in 
 many respects, geological and biological. It has 
 even been said that the mountains of Auvergne 
 divide northern France more sharply from Pro- 
 vence than the Mediterranean (q.v.) does south- 
 em Provence from Morocco and Algeria. 
 
 Various etymologies have been proposed for the 
 name Europe. The old mythological one was that 
 it was named from Europa— the Phoenician damsel 
 whom the enamoured Zeus, in the form of a bull, 
 bore off" to Crete. Another was that it came 
 from Eurus, the south-east wind. A third notes 
 that the name is first applied, not to the whole 
 continent, but (in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo) 
 to the mainland of Thrace, as distinguished from 
 the Peloponnesus and the Greek islands, and 
 suggests that Europe therefore means Broad 
 Land (eurus ops, 'broad face')- Of late the 
 tendency is to assume that the name was first 
 given by Phoenician traders, and is from the 
 word Erebh, 'darkness'— i.e. the land of sunset, 
 of the west. The area to which the name of 
 Europe was applied grew with the extension of 
 Greek geographical knowledge. 
 
 Europe has a total length from Cape St Vincent 
 on the south-west to the mouth of the Kara River 
 on the north-east of 3400 miles ; and from North 
 Cape in Norway to Cape Matapan, the southern- 
 most point of Greece, a total breadth of 2400 
 miles. The continent of Europe, irrespective of 
 islands, lies within 36° 20'— 71° 10' N. lat., and 9° 
 30' W.— 66° 30' E. long. Its area is estimated at 
 3,800,000 sq. m., being about a third of that of 
 Africa, a fourth of that of America, and a fifth of 
 that of Asia. It does not greatly exceed the 
 total area of the United States. Its indented 
 coast-line is, owing to the number of deep inlets 
 and gulfs, more extensive in proportion to its 
 size than that of any other great natural division 
 of the globe, and is estimated to measure little 
 less than 50,000 miles. It has a pop. of above 
 892,000,000, wliich gives an average of over 103 
 for every square mile. 
 
 The body of the European continent divides 
 
 itself naturally into two great portions— the 
 great plain in the north-east, and the highlands 
 from near the centre towards the south-west, 
 the mountainous peninsula of Scandinavia lying 
 apart from either. The plain occupies about two- 
 thirds of the continent, reaching from the eastern 
 boundary, north to the Arctic Ocean, south to the 
 Caucasus and the Black Sea, and westward over 
 the whole extent of the continent. In shape this 
 plain resembles a triangle ; its base rests on the 
 eastern boundary, and it may be said to reach 
 its apex on the shores of Holland. It separates 
 the two mountain-systems of Europe— the Scandi- 
 navian system (highest summit 7566 feet) on the 
 north, and on the south the system of southern 
 Europe. The mass of the Alps, covering an area 
 of nearly 100,000 sq. m., forms the centre of the 
 mountain-system of southern and western Europe, 
 and stretches down on four sides towards France, 
 Germany, Hungary, and Italy ; the highest sum- 
 mit being 15,732 feet. The other chief mountain- 
 masses are the Carpathians (8343 feet), the Bal- 
 kans (9750), the Apennines (9574), the Pyrenees 
 (11,170), and the Sierra Nevada (11,670), and in 
 Sicily, Etna (10,850). 
 
 Europe is surrounded by water on three sides. 
 The White Sea comes in from the Arctic Ocean ; 
 the German Ocean (with the Baltic) and the Medi- 
 terranean from the Atlantic. The most import- 
 ant peninsulas are in the north Scandinavia, and 
 in the south the Crimea, Turkey and Greece, Italy, 
 and Spain. Except Iceland, the islands cluster 
 closely round the mainland, the chief being Great 
 Britain and Ireland, Iceland, Nova Zembla, Sar- 
 dinia, Corsica, and Crete. The lakes of Europe 
 are small as compared with those of Africa or 
 America, the largest being Ladoga and Onega in 
 Russia, and Wener in Sweden. The Volga (1977 
 miles), the Danube (1740), the Ural (1450), the 
 Don (1125), the Kama (1050), the Petchora (975), 
 and the Rhine (760) are the largest rivers of 
 Europe. The details of the geography of Europe 
 are given under the names of its several political 
 divisions, and of its lakes, rivers, and mountains. 
 
 In respect of climate, by far the greater portion 
 of the area of Europe belongs to the northern 
 section of the temperate zone, though parts of 
 Norway, Sweden, and Russia lie within the Arctic 
 Circle. The southern parts of Spain, Sicily, and 
 Greece are some twelve degrees from the northern 
 tropic. The natural history of Europe very much 
 agrees with that of the corresponding latitudes of 
 Asia. The most northern regions have the arctic 
 flora and fauna ; whilst the natural history of 
 the most southern countries assumes a subtrop- 
 ical character. The temperature of the western 
 and northern parts of Europe being raised by 
 the Gulf Stream and the winds from the great 
 mass of dry and desert land in Africa above what 
 is elsewhere found in similar latitudes; the flora 
 and fauna exhibit a corresponding character, 
 affected, however, by the great amount of mois- 
 ture derived from the Atlantic Ocean, and also 
 to a still greater degree by the comparative uni- 
 formity of temperature which the proximity of 
 the ocean produces. The eff"ect of the last-men- 
 tioned causes is so great that the northern limit 
 of some plants is sooner reached on the shores 
 of the Atlantic than in the more central parts 
 of Europe, where the winters are much colder, 
 and the average temperature of the year is lower. 
 Of this the vine and maize are notable examples. 
 Plants which require a mild winter will not grow 
 in the north — and scarcely even in the centre of 
 Europe — but they advance along the western 
 coast under the influence of the maritime climatei 
 
EUROPE 
 
 261 
 
 EVANSTON 
 
 Thus, the myrtle— although not indigenous— 
 grows even in the south of England. Amongst 
 plants the date-palm, and amongst animals a 
 species of ape, are found in the south of Europe 
 (the ape only on the Rock of Gibraltar) : Avhilst 
 some strictly African birds are frequent visitants, 
 and many birds — as the cuckoo, swallow, stork, 
 &c. — are common to Europe and Africa, inhabit- 
 ants in summer even of very northern regions, and 
 returning in winter to the warm south. Of the 
 plants now most commonly associated in our 
 thoughts with the southern countries of Europe, 
 many have probably been introduced from Africa 
 or from the East. This has probably been the 
 case even with the myrtle, and certainly has been 
 the case with the vine, olive, orange, lemon, fig, 
 peach, almond, apricot, &c. Some fruits are cer- 
 tainly indigenous to Europe, as the apple, pear, 
 plum, and cherry, although even of these the first 
 improved varieties may have been introduced from 
 the East. Among the wild animals of Europe, 
 the bison is still reckoned ; and the ox existed at 
 no very remote period in a truly wild state. The 
 reindeer inhabits the extreme north ; the elk, 
 the stag, the fallow-deer, and the roebuck are 
 found in more southern regions ; the ibex or 
 bouquetin exists on the high central mountains ; 
 two species of antelope — the chamois of the Alps, 
 and the saiga of the Russian plains — connect the 
 European fauna with the Asiatic and African. Of 
 mammals peculiar to Europe, the 7nost notable 
 are the chamois, musk rat, and fallow-deer, while 
 the civet, ichneumon, and porcupine are not 
 found in any other part of the paliearctic region 
 but in Europe. Of carnivorous animals, the most 
 noteworthy are the bear, wolf, fox, and lynx. 
 The European seas afford valuable fisheries, par- 
 ticularly of herring and of cod in the north, and 
 of tunny, anchovy, &c. in the Mediterranean. 
 
 The European races belong in the main to the 
 various branches of the great Aryan stock, though 
 in few European countries is there a pure race — 
 the admixture of various stocks being in some 
 cases very great and close. But, generally speak- 
 ing, Celtic blood is most largely found in France 
 (especially in Brittany, where a Celtic tongue is 
 still spoken) and parts of Great Britain and 
 Ireland ; Teutonic peoples occupy Germany, 
 Switzerland, Holland, part of Belgium, part 
 of Austria, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Ice- 
 land, and Great Britain. Slavonic races are 
 found in Austria, Prussia, the Balkan penin- 
 sula, and Russia. Romanic language and blood 
 are prominent in Italy, France, Spain and Por- 
 tugal, and Roumania. The Greeks belong to the 
 same Greco-Italian branch of the Aryans as the 
 Italians. Non-Aryan peoples are the Finns, 
 Lapps, and Samoyedes of the north and north- 
 east, various Turanian tribes in the east of Russia, 
 the Hungarians and the Turks, and the Basques 
 of the Pyrenees ; and a strong element of pre- 
 Aryan blood is also to be traced in other parts 
 of western Europe, as in Ireland and Britain. 
 The most obvious method of classifying races is 
 language. By this test, some 105,000,000 Euro- 
 peans are Teutonic (German, English, Dutch, 
 Flemish, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish) ; 95,000,000 
 Slavs (Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serb, Croat, 
 Slovenian, Bulgarian); 100,000,000 Romance- 
 speaking (French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 Roumanian, Walloon, Rhsetian); 3,000,000 Letts 
 and Lithuanians ; 5,250,000 Greeks and Albanians ; 
 3,600,000 Celtic (Welsh, Breton, Irish, Gaelic, 
 Manx); 1,050,000 Armenians, Ossetians, and Gyp- 
 sies. SoTue 18,000,000 are non- Aryan (Magyars, 
 Finns, Ugrians, Taitars, Turks, Kalmucks, 
 
 Basques, Circassians, &c. , and Maltese). Upwards 
 of fifty languages are spoken in Europe. But 
 language is by no means a sure test of race ; 
 thus, the Normans quickly took to speaking the 
 Romance tongue of their Romanised Gallic sub- 
 jects, whilst the French— Celts, with a strong 
 infusion of Frankish-Germanic blood, and a 
 smaller infusion of Italic blood— speak a modified 
 Latin tongue. Many parts of the German-speak- 
 ing area are mainly Wendish or Prussian (Slavonic) 
 in blood. The Bulgarians, speaking a Slavonic 
 tongue, are originally Ugro-Finnic. South Ger- 
 many is probably more Celtic and less Teutonic 
 than northern France. 
 
 Tlie table gives a comparative view of the 
 states of Europe, their areas, and populations in 
 1900-5 : 
 
 Stotes. EnSr^' m. Population. 
 
 Andorra 175 6,000 
 
 Austria-Hungary with Bosnia. 264,204 46,901,871 
 
 Belgium 11,373 6,693,548 
 
 Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia 37,8G0 3,733,189 
 
 Denmark 15,289 2,464,770 
 
 France 204,092 38,fi41,333 
 
 Germany 208,670 56,356,246 
 
 Great BriUin and Ireland 120,979 41 ,605,323 
 
 Greece 2.5,041 2,433,806 
 
 Holland 12,648 5,179,138 
 
 Italy 110,623 32.449,754 
 
 Liechtenstein 70 9,434 
 
 Luxemburg 998 236,543 
 
 Monaco 8 15,180 
 
 Montenegro 3,630 228,000 
 
 Portugal 34,038 5,428,800 
 
 Roumania 48,307 5,912,.520 
 
 Russia (in Europe) 2,095,504 106,264,136 
 
 San Marino 32 9,537 
 
 Servia 19,050 2,493,770 
 
 Spain 197,670 18,078,500 
 
 Sweden and Norway 297,321 7,376,321 
 
 Switzerland 15,976 3,315,443 
 
 Turkey (in Europe) 64,200 6,400,149 
 
 The density varies from 589 per sq. m. in Bel- 
 gium (606 in England without Wales, and 1897 in 
 Monaco, which is mainly two towns) to 34 in 
 Andorra, and 25 in Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Europe is practically a region of monotheists : 
 though there are Buddhist Kalmucks in South 
 Russia, and Pagans amongst the Lapps, Finns, 
 Samoyedes, and Tcheremisses. The Turks, some 
 Russian Tartars, many Albanians, and some Slavs 
 are Mohammedans (6,600,000), and there are nearly 
 7,000,000 Jews; but the bulk of Europeans are 
 professing Christians. The Catholic Church may 
 number some 156,600,000 adherents, the Greek 
 Church 80,000,000, while the various Protestant 
 communions number about 76,000,000. 
 
 See the relevant portions of Reclus, Kloden, 
 and Stanford's Compendium of Geography (1886), 
 J. Geikie's Prehistoric Europe (1880), J. Sime's 
 Geography of Europe (1889) ; Freeman's Historical 
 Geography of Europe (1881), and his General Sketch 
 of European History (1876)a.nd Frivier of the History 
 of Europe (1876) ; the Histories by Lodge (1886), 
 Dyer (1877), and FyflTe (1884-90) ; and the annual 
 Statesman's Yearbook and Almanack de Gotha. 
 
 Eurotas (mod. Iri or Vasilo), the chief river of 
 Laconia in Greece, rising in Arcadia, and flowing 
 past Sparta to the Laconian Gulf. 
 
 Euston, the seat of the Duke of Grafton, in 
 Suff^olk, 4i miles SE. of Thetford. 
 
 Eutaw Springs, a small aflluent of the Santee 
 River, in South Carolina. Near it, in the last 
 serious battle in the war of independence, 8th 
 September 1781, the Americans were repulsed 
 after a desperate engagement. 
 
 Euxine. See Black Sea. 
 
 Evanston, a city of Illinois, on Lake Michigan, 
 
EVANSVILLE 
 
 262 
 
 EXMOOR FOREST 
 
 12 miles N. of Chicago by rail, with the Garrett 
 Biblical Institute, the North-western University 
 (Methodist), &c. Pop. 19,250. 
 
 Evansville, a port of entry and capital of 
 Vanderburg county, Indiana, on the Ohio, 162 
 miles ESE. of St Louis by rail, with a city-hall, 
 a court-house, a handsome post-office and custom- 
 house, and a public library and art gallery. Coal 
 and iron ore abound near by, and the town has 
 a large number of mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 
 (1870) 21,830; (1880) 29,280; (1900) 59,007. 
 
 Evanton, a Ross-shire village, 6 miles NE. of 
 Dingwall. Pop. 490. 
 
 Evenlode, a river of Gloucester and Oxford 
 shires, flowing 35 miles SE. to the Thames. 
 
 Everest, Mount, a peak of the Himalayas, in 
 Nepal, and the highest ascertained point on the 
 globe's surface, attains 29,002 feet above the sea, 
 in 27° 59' 12" N. lat., and 86° 58' 6'' E. long. It 
 was named in honour of Sir George Everest 
 (1790-1866), surveyor-general of India. 
 
 Everett, a manufacturing town of Massachu- 
 setts, 3 miles N. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 4154 ; 
 (1890) 11,068; (1900) 24,336. 
 
 Everglades, a large shallow lake or marsh in 
 southern Florida, enclosing thousands of densely- 
 wooded islets, with many alligators. 
 
 Eversley, a Hampshire parish, 13 miles NE. 
 of Basingstoke. Charles Kingsley was rector 
 from 1842 till his death in 1875, and he rests in 
 the churchyard. 
 
 Everton, a NE. district of Liverpool. 
 
 Evesham {Eevz'am), a borough of Worcester- 
 shire, on the right bank of the navigable Avon, 
 15 miles SE. of Worcester. It lies in a fertile 
 vale, and the chief industry is market-gardening. 
 There are a fine modem bridge, public gardens, 
 water-works (1884), a 16th-century guildhall, 
 &c. ; the stately Benedictine abbey (709) is re- 
 presented chiefly by a beautiful Perpendicular 
 belfry (1533). Till 1867 Evesham returned two 
 members, till 1885 one. Simon de Montfort was 
 defeated here, 4th August 1265. Pop. (1851) 4605 ; 
 (1901) 7101. See May's History of Evesham (1845). 
 
 E'vora (anc, Ebora), the capital of the Portu- 
 guese province of Alemtejo, 72 miles E. of Lisbon 
 by rail. It is surrounded by ruinous walls, and 
 unfinished modern fortifications as yet. A very 
 ancient city, it has an archiepiscopal cathedral 
 (1186) and a wealth of Roman antiquities (a 
 temple of Diana, a still-used aqueduct, and a 
 beautiful tower, dating from 70 B.C.). There are 
 some manufactures of cotton, cloth, and hats, 
 and a trade in wine. Pop. 15,046. 
 
 Evreux (Ev-mh' ; named from the anc. Eburo- 
 vices), the capital of the French dep. of Eure, in the 
 fertile valley of the Iton, a feeder of the Eure, 
 67 miles by rail WNW. of Paris. Among its 
 buildings are the cruciform cathedral (11th to 
 18th c); St Taurin's, with the 13th-century 
 shrine of that saint, the first Bishop of Evreux ; 
 the episcopal palace (1484); and the 'Tour de 
 I'Horloge,' of the same century. Evreux manu- 
 factures paper, linen, &c. Pop. (1872) 10,702; 
 (1901) 14,920. At the neighbouring village of 
 Vieil Evreux excavations have disclosed remains 
 of a theatre, an aqueduct, baths, &c. 
 
 Ewe, a river and sea-loch of NW. Ross-shire, 
 the former running 3J miles from Loch Maree to 
 the sea-loch (10 x 3 miles) at Poolewe. 
 
 Ewes Water, a Dumfriesshire stream, flowing 
 8 miles S. by W. to the Esk at Langholm. 
 
 Exe, a river of Somerset and Devon, rising 
 in Exmoor, and flowing 54 miles SE. and S. to 
 the English Channel at Exmouth. The lower 5 
 miles form a tideway a mile broad, with wooded 
 shores. An ancient canal connects the estuary 
 with Exeter. Tributaries are the Barle (24 miles), 
 which also rises in Exmoor, Batham, Loman, 
 Culm, and Creedy. The Exe passes Dulverton, 
 Bampton, Exeter, and Topsham. 
 
 Ex'eter, the capital of Devonshire, 171 miles 
 by rail WSW. of London, and 75 SW. of Bristol. 
 Dominated by higher hills, it is built on the 
 summit and slopes of a flat ridge, rising 150 feet 
 from the left bank of the Exe ; and, having been 
 modernised chiefly in its suburbs, it is a pleasant 
 antique city. The quaint old High and Fore 
 Streets, crossed by North and South Streets, 
 still follow the line of the Ickneld Way ; and the 
 walls in great part remain, though their four 
 gateways were demolished between 1769 and 1819, 
 and though Rougemont Castle (1068) was almost 
 all swept away in 1774. In 932 Athelstan founded 
 here a Benedictine monastery, and hither in 1050 
 Edward the Confessor translated the western 
 bishopric from Crediton ; but St Peter's Cath- 
 edral was not begun till sixty-two years after- 
 wards. Measuring 408 feet by 76 (or 140 across 
 the transepts), and 66 feet high, it is a long, low 
 edifice, with massive transeptal towers— a feature 
 imitated at Ottery St Mary, but otherwise unique. 
 These towers, 140 feet high, are the original Nor- 
 man ones, but the rest of the pile, rebuilt between 
 1280 and 1369, is mainly in the purest Geometrical 
 Decorated. Special features are the exterior 
 western screen (c, 1388), adorned with sixty-seven 
 statues of saints and princes ; the beautiful choir- 
 screen (1324), surmounted by the fine organ (1665); 
 the minstrels' gallery (1353) ; a clock, dating from 
 1317 or earlier ; the Great Peter bell, brought 
 from Llandaft' in 1482, recast in 1616, and weigh- 
 ing 12,500 lb. ; and the chapter-house (1420-78), 
 containing 8000 MSS. and early books. The 
 picturesque guildhall (1464) has a cinque-cento 
 fagade (1593); of modern buildings, the most 
 noteworthy are the Devon and Exeter Hospital 
 (1743), the Lunatic Asyluju (1865), and the Albert 
 Memorial Museum (1868). The chief public walk 
 is Northernhay. A ship-canal (1563-1827) extends 
 5 miles to the tideway at Topsham ; and Exeter 
 has large nurseries and manufactures of gloves, 
 agricultural implements, &c., besides being the 
 chief mart of ' Honiton ' lace. The ' ever loyal 
 city ' got its earliest charter from Henry II. some 
 time prior to 1162 ; in 1537 was made a county of 
 itself, in 1888 a county borough ; and in 1885 lost 
 one of its two members. Pop. in 1901 of mun. 
 borough (as extended in 1900) 47,185; pari, 
 borough, 53,141. The Celtic Caerwisc, the 
 Roman Isca Damnonioriim, and in 876 the Exari' 
 ceaster of the West Saxons, who till 926 shared it 
 with the Britons, Exeter was six times captured 
 between 876 and 1646, and three other times 
 besieged. Natives were Archbishop Baldwin, 
 Cardinal Langton (doubtfully), John Vowel or 
 Hoker, the historian of Exeter (1625-1601), the 
 Judicious Hooker, Sir Thomas Bodley, and 
 Henrietta of Orleans. See works by P. Freeman 
 (1873), E. Freeman (1887), and Worthy (1892). 
 
 Forest, in the west of Somersetshire 
 and north-east of Devon, is a wild, mostly un- 
 cultivated waste, consisting of long ranges of 
 steep hills and lonely valleys, and bordered by 
 deep wooded glens. The hills rise in Dunkery 
 Beacon to 1707 feet, in Chapman Barrow to 1540, 
 and in Span Head to 1610. The ' forest ' proper 
 
EXMOUTH 
 
 263 
 
 PALAIS^ 
 
 Is about 25 sq. in. in area, but with the adjacent 
 commons Exmoor extends over 100. The out- 
 lines are less bold and rugged, and the general 
 aspect far less stern and desolate than that 
 of Dartmoor, ribbed and spread with granite. 
 Though ' improvejnents ' were attempted in 1818, 
 and many trees planted by Mr J. Knight, who 
 had purchased tlie forest from the crown, Exmoor 
 is still in the main covered with grass, bracken, 
 and heather, with dangerous bogs near the hill- 
 tops. Where it ranges down to the coast near 
 Lynton, the scenery is very bold and picturesque. 
 The Exe, Barle, Mole, and the two Lyns are the 
 chief streams rising here. Gold has been found 
 in Northmolton parish, and copper-mines have 
 been worked there from time to time. There is 
 a native breed of very small ponies, known as 
 Exmoor ponies, stout and hardy, as well as a 
 local breed of horned sheep of high quality ; and 
 Exmoor is the only place in England where the 
 red deer still run wild. Staghounds have been 
 kept here and stag-hunting followed since at 
 least 1598. Exmoor is the chief scene in Black- 
 more's Lorna Doone, which is based largely on 
 local traditions, and which abounds with admir- 
 able descriptions of its most characteristic 
 scenery. See also works by H. B. Hall (1849), 
 C. P. Collyns (1862), J. Fortescue (1886), B. J. 
 Rawle (1893), and F. J. Snell (1903). 
 
 Exmouth, a Devonshire watering-place, at the 
 east side of the mouth of the Exe, 11 miles by 
 rail SSE. of Exeter. A sheltered spot, with fine 
 climate, good beach, and beautiful views, it had 
 dwindled from a considerable seaport to a poor 
 fishing-village, when, about the beginning of the 
 18th century, it rose into repute as a seaside 
 resort ; and now it has terraces, hotels, baths, 
 promenades, and pleasure-grounds along the sea- 
 shore, and docks constructed in 1869. Pop. 
 
 (1851) 5123 ; (1901) 10,485. See Webb's Metnoriats 
 of Exmouth (1873). 
 
 Exuma. See Bahamas. 
 
 Eyam (pron. Eem), a village in North Derby- 
 shire, 5 miles N. of Bakewell, with a population 
 of 996, chiefly engaged in lead-mining. By a 
 visitation (1665-66) of the plague, then raging in 
 London, 260 out of a population of 350 perished. 
 See Wood's History of Eyam (4th ed. 1865). 
 
 Eye (A.S. ig, ' island '), a municipal borough of 
 Suttblk, 20 miles N. of Ipswich. It has a fine 
 Perpendicular flint-work church, with a tower 
 101 feet high, a small ruined castle, a corn 
 exchange, and a grammar-school. Till 1885 it 
 retmned one member. Pop. 2004. 
 
 Eyemouth, a fishing-town of Berwickshire, 8 
 miles by rail NNW. of Berwick-on-Tweed. A 
 new harbour was formed in 1885-87. Pop. 2476. 
 
 Eylau (I'low), a town (pop. 3546), 23 miles S. 
 of Konigsberg by rail. Here Napoleon repulsed 
 the Russians and Prussians, February 8, 1807. 
 The place is called Preussisch-Eylau, to distin- 
 guish it from Deutsch-Eylau (pop. 4574), 89 miles 
 NB. of Bromberg. 
 
 Eyre, Lake, a salt lake of South Australia, 
 lying due N. of Spencer Gulf, at an altitude of 79 
 feet, and with an area of 3706 sq. m. Except in 
 the rainy season, it is generally a mere salt-marsh. 
 Eyre discovered it in 1840. 
 
 Eyrecourt, a Galway village, 12 miles SB. of 
 Ballinasloe. 
 
 Eyria Peninsula, a rich pastoral district on 
 the south coast of South Australia, triangular in 
 shape, its base being formed by the Gawler 
 Range, whilst its sides are washed by Spencer 
 Gulf and the Great Australian Bight. 
 
 ^ABRIANO (Fabreedh^no), a cathedral city 
 of Italy, at the eastern base of the Apen- 
 nines, 44 miles by rail SW. of Ancona. 
 It has paper and parchment manufac- 
 tories (established 1564). Pop. 5593. 
 
 Faenza (Fah-en'tza; anc. Faventia), an Italian 
 town, 31 miles SB. of Bologna by rail, has an 
 imposing cathedral, an arcaded market-place, and 
 numerous palaces. Its manufacture of glazed and 
 coloured earthenware vessels (Ital. majolica, Fr. 
 faience) has declined, and its chief industries now 
 are silk, linen, and paper. Pop. 18,998. 
 
 Fahlun. See Falun. 
 
 Falfley, an eastern suburb of Duntocher (q.v.), 
 Dumbartonshire. Pop., with Hardgate, 966. 
 
 Fail, Ayrshire, IJ mile NNW. of Tarbolton, 
 the seat of a friary (1252). 
 
 Failsworth, a Lancashire township, 4J miles 
 NB. of Manchester. Pop. 14,150. 
 
 Faioum. See Fayum. 
 
 Fairford, a village of Gloucestershire, 9 miles 
 B. of Cirencester. Its fine 15th-century church 
 is famous for its splendid twenty-eight stained- 
 glass windows, often attributed to Diirer, but 
 really of Flemish workmanship. Keble was a 
 native. Pop. of parish, 1403. 
 
 Fair Head, or Benmore, a precipitous pro- 
 montory (636 feet) of the north coast of Antrim, 
 Ireland, opposite Rathlin Isle. 
 
 Fair Isle, a solitary Shetland island, 24 miles 
 SSW. of Sumburgh Head. It is 3 miles long by 
 2 broad, and 3 sq. m. in area, with high rocky 
 
 cliff's and promontories, rising to 480 feet in the 
 Sheep Craig. Pop. 223, chiefly engaged in fish- 
 ing, or knitting parti-coloured woollen articles— 
 the latter art said to have been learnt from sailors 
 of the flagship of the Spanish Armada, which 
 was shipwrecked here (1588). 
 
 Fairlie, a coast-village of Ayrshire, on the 
 Firth of Clyde, 2| miles S. by B. of Largs. It is 
 famous for its yacht-building. Pop. 671. 
 
 Fairllght, a Sussex coast- parish, 2J miles ENE. 
 of Hastings. 
 
 Faimilee, a Selkirkshire mansion, on the Tweed, 
 5J miles NNW. of Selkirk. Alison Cockburn, 
 author of The Flowers of the Forest, was bom here. 
 
 Faizabad (Fyzaiad'), capital of the Central 
 Asian state of Badakhshan (q.v.), on the Kokcha, 
 180 miles NB. of Kabul. It is noted for its rubies. 
 —For the Indian town, see Fyzabad. 
 
 Faizpur, a town of Bombay presidency, 200 
 miles B. of Surat. Pop. 9640. 
 
 Fakenham, a Norfolk market- town, on the 
 Wensum, 9^ miles S. of Wells. Pop. of parish, 
 2900.— Great Fakenham, a Suffolk parish, on 
 the Brandon, 5| miles SSE. of Thetford, is 
 described by Bloomfleld in his Farmer's Boy. 
 Pop. 205. 
 
 Falaise, a town in the French dep. of Cal- 
 vados, on the Ante, 23 miles (by rail 31) SSE. of 
 Caen. Crowning a rocky platform, with steep 
 cliff or falaise, stands the noble ruined castle of 
 the dukes of Nonnandy, the birthplace of 
 William the Conqueror. Pop. 7109. 
 
IPALC6N 
 
 264 
 
 FARINGDON 
 
 talcdn, a maritime state of Venezuela (q.v.). 
 
 Faleme, an important tributary of the Senegal, 
 rising in Futa-Jallon, and flowing northward to a 
 point above Bakel. 
 
 Falkirk, a town of Stirlingshire, 3 miles SW. 
 of its seaport Grangemouth, 22 NB. of Glasgow, 
 and 26 WNW. of Edinburgh. Including now the 
 suburbs of Grahamston, Bainsford, Laurieston, 
 and Camelon, it was constituted a parliamentary 
 burgh in 1832, and with Airdrie, Hamilton, 
 Lanark, and Linlithgow returns one member. 
 Its parish church — the Eglais Bhrec, Varia Ca'pella, 
 or Faw (' speckled ') Kirk of chartularies and local 
 tradition — was rebuilt in 1810. The famous cattle 
 'trysts' or fairs, where stock was sold to an 
 annual value of £1,000,000, have been largely 
 superseded by the weekly auctions. The iron 
 manufacture is carried on busily at Carron (q.v.) 
 and elsewhere. Pop. (1851) 8752 ; (1901) 29,280. 
 At Falkirk on 22d July 1298 Edward I. disas- 
 trously defeated Wallace, and on 17th January 
 1746 Prince Charles Edward defeated Hawley, 
 Antoninus' Wall (q.v.) is the cliief antiquity. 
 
 Falkland, a royal burgh (since 1458) of Fife, 
 at the NE. base of the steep East Lomond Hill 
 (1471 feet), 22 miles N. of Edinburgh. Nothing 
 remains of the old castle of the Earls of Fife, in 
 which David, Duke of Rothesay, was starved to 
 death (1402) ; but there are stately remains of the 
 later royal palace (c. 1450-1542). It was the death- 
 place of James V. With the estate and a modern 
 mansion (1844), it was purchased in 1888 by the 
 Marquis of Bute, and by him elaborately restored. 
 Pop. 1045. See Wood's Historical Description of 
 Falkland (Kirkcaldy, 1888). 
 
 Falkland Islands, a British colony in the 
 South Atlantic, lying between 51° and 53° S. lat. 
 and 57° and 62° W. loiig., 250 miles E. of Pata- 
 gonia. The group consists of East Falkland 
 (2849 sq. m.) and West Falkland (1990 sq. m.), 
 with about 100 small islands, besides the depen- 
 dency of South Georgia (q.v.). Many of the 
 islands are occupied only by myriads of penguins. 
 Pop. (1871) 811; (1901) 2043. The shores are 
 deeply indented, and contain many good har- 
 bours ; the surface culminates in Mount Adam 
 (2315 feet) ; small streams and lakes are numer- 
 ous ; there are no trees, nor is coal found, but 
 peat is plentiful. The climate is healthy, resem- 
 bling that of the Orkneys, but is characterised by 
 severe gales and abundance of moisture. Tlie 
 chief industry is sheep-breeding. Wool, frozen 
 meat, live sheep, tallow, skins, and hides are 
 exported. The capital is Stanley (pop. 694), on 
 East Falkland. The group, sighted by Davis in 
 1592, was renamed in 1689 by Captain Strong after 
 his friend Lord Falkland. It was definitely occu- 
 pied by Great Britain in 1833, and utilised as a 
 penal colony until 1852. 
 
 Fall River, a busy manufacturing city and 
 port of entry of Massachusetts, at the mouth of 
 the Taunton River, 49 miles S. of Boston by 
 rail. It has a deep and capacious harbour, and 
 is well built, the handsome city-hall and many 
 other buildings being constructed of a fine 
 granite quarried in the vicinity. Fall River is 
 noted for its cotton-mills, other manufactures 
 being nails and machinery. Abundant water- 
 power is supplied by a tributary of the Taunton, 
 which falls 130 feet in its last half-mile. Pop. 
 (1870) 26,766 ; (1880) 48,961 ; (1900) 104,863. 
 
 Falmouth, a Cornish seaport, on the south side 
 of the Fal's estuary, 18 miles NNE. of the Lizard, 
 and 66 by a branch line (1863) WSW. of Plymouth. 
 The harbour, one of the best in England, is 6 
 
 miles long by 1 to 2 miles wide, and 12 to 18 
 fathoms deep. The entrance is defended on the 
 west by Pendennis Castle (c. 1544), which crowns 
 a rock 198 feet high, and which in 1646 surren- 
 dered to Fairfax after a five months' siege ; on 
 the east, by St Mawes Castle (1543). Pop. of 
 municipal borough (1881) 5973; (1901) 11,789 
 (within boundary as extended in 1892); of the 
 parliamentary borougli of Penryn and Falmouth, 
 since 1885 returning only one member, 16,296. 
 From 1688 to 1850 Falmouth was a principal 
 j)acket-station for foreign mails. There is a con- 
 siderable pilchard-fishery. The chief exports are 
 tin, copper, pilchards, and fuel. Here orange 
 and lemon trees yield plenty of fruit on open 
 garden-walls. Falmouth has arisen since 1613, 
 and was incorporated in 1661 ; once it was a 
 stronghold of Quakerism. See works by C. J. 
 (Truro, 1876) and Caroline Fox (1882). 
 
 False Bay. See Cape Colony, 
 
 False Point, a cape and a good harbour of 
 Bengal, 43 miles E. of Cuttack by canal. 
 
 Falster, a Danish island in the Baltic, south 
 of Zealand. Area, 183 sq. m, ; pop. 34,212. 
 
 Falun, or Fahlun, a town of Sweden, 57 miles 
 W. of Gefle by rail. It has for over six centuries 
 been famous for its copper-mines, though the 
 annual yield of ore has dwindled from 3150 tons 
 in 1650 to about 400 tons. The excavations ex- 
 tend for miles underground. Pop. 9507. 
 
 Famagosta, or Famagusta, a decayed seaport 
 on the east coast of Cyprus, on the supposed site 
 of ancient Arsinoe. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Fanning, or American Island, a coral island 
 in the Pacific, lying in 3° 51' N. lat. and 159° 22' 
 W. long. It was formally annexed by Britain in 
 1888. Area, 15 sq. w\. ; pop. 150. The name 
 Fanning Islands is sometimes given to the group 
 comprising Fanning, Christmas, New York or 
 Washington, Jarvis, and Palmyra Islands. 
 
 Fano (Fdh-no; Lat. Fanum Fortunce, from the 
 temple of Fortune commemorating Hasdrubal's 
 defeat on the Metaurus), a seaport of Italy, on 
 the Adriatic, 29 miles NW. of Ancona by rail. 
 It has a cathedral, and a marble triumphal arch 
 raised in honour of Augustus. Pop. 9984, 
 
 Fareham, a market-town and watering-place 
 of Hampshire, on a creek at the north-west end 
 of Portsmouth harbour, 9 miles NW. of Ports- 
 mouth. It has earthenware manufactures and 
 shipbuilding. Pop. (1851) 3451 ; (1901) 8246. 
 
 Farewell, Cape, a blufl" nearly 1000 feet high, 
 on an island off the southern extremity of Green- 
 land, in 59° 44' N. lat. and 43° 54' W. long. 
 
 Fargo, capital of Cass county. North Dakota, 
 on the Red River of the North, 254 miles W. of 
 Duluth by rail. From an insignificant village in 
 1874 it has become the commercial centre of the 
 state. Flour is the chief manufacture. A fire 
 in 1893 did immense damage. Pop. 9664. 
 
 Faribault (Far-ee-ho'), capital of Rice county, 
 Minnesota, on the Cannon River, 53 miles S. of 
 St Paul by rail. It manufactures flour, bricks, 
 furniture, &c. Pop. 7620. 
 
 Faridkot (Fa-reed-kote'), one of the Sikh cis- 
 Sutlej states, SE. of Firozpur. Area, 643 sq. m.; 
 pop. 125,040. The town of Faridkot (pop. 6593) 
 is 60 miles SSE. of Lahore. 
 
 Faridpur, a town in the delta of the Ganges, 
 110 miles NE. of Calcutta. Pop. 10,263. 
 
 Faringdon, a town of Berks, 36 miles WNW. of 
 Reading. Pop. of parish, 3133. 
 
FARNBOROUGH 
 
 266 
 
 FAVERSHAM 
 
 Famborough, a village on the east border of 
 Hampshire, 32 miles SW. of London, contains 
 part of tlie camp of Aldershot (q.v.)- Near it is 
 Farnborough Hill, the residence of the Empress 
 Eugenie, with the mausoleum whither the remains 
 of her husband and her son were removed from 
 Chiselhurst in 1888. 
 
 Fame, Fearne, or Feme Isles, or the Staples, 
 a group of seventeen islets and rocks (area, 80 
 acres ; pop, 40), 2 to 5 miles off the North- 
 umbrian coast, opposite Bamborough. There 
 are two lighthouses, and on House Island are 
 remains of a Benedictine priory, dedicated to St 
 Cuthbert. Here Grace Darling rescued the sur- 
 vivors of the Forfarshire (1838). 
 
 Famham, a town of Surrey, on the Wey, 38 
 miles SW. of London by rail. The old castle of 
 the bishops of Winchester, razed by Heiuy III., 
 and afterwards rebuilt, was garrisoned by Charles 
 I., and restored in 1684 to its present state by 
 Bishop Morley, A handsome Italian town-hall 
 was built in 1866. Moor Park, the seat of Sir 
 William Temple, with memories of Swift and 
 'Stella,' is in the vicinity; so, too, are tlie 
 remains of Waverley Abbey (1128), whose Annates 
 Waverlienses suggested to Scott the name of his 
 first romance. The chief trade is in hops, a very 
 fine variety being grown here. Toplady and 
 Cobbett were natives. Aldershot Camp (q.v.) is 
 3 miles NE. Pop. 6545. 
 
 Farnworth, a Lancashire township, 12 miles 
 ESE. of Liverpool. It manufactures sail-canvas, 
 watches, files, &c. Pop. (1861) 8720 ; (1901) 25,925. 
 
 Faro, the capital of the Portuguese province 
 of Algarve, on the south coast, behind three 
 islands which fonn a good roadstead. It was 
 burned by the English in 1596, and partly de- 
 stroyed by the earthquake of 1755. Pop. 8671. 
 
 Faroe Islands (Dan. Faar-Oer, ' sheep islands '), 
 a Danish group of islands, twenty-two in number, 
 of which seventeen are inhabited, lying between 
 the Shetlands and Iceland, 200 miles NW. of the 
 former, in 61° 25—62° 25' N. lat., and 6° 19'— 
 7° 40' W. long. Area, 513 sq. ni. ; pop. (1850) 
 9150; (1901) 15,280. Seaward they present pre- 
 cipitous cliffs, 1000 to 2300 feet high, whilst in- 
 land they rise into flat-topped pyramidal moun- 
 tains, which attain 2502 feet in Stromo and 2895 
 in Ostero. The currents that run through the 
 sounds are swift and dangerous ; storms and 
 whirlwinds are frequent ; and the harbours and 
 anchorages in the fjords and bays are not very 
 secure, but, on the other hand, nearly always 
 free from ice. The islands yield peat and coal. 
 Trees there are none, owing to the stonns ; 
 timber for building purposes is imported from 
 Norway, The principal sources of Avealth are 
 sheep-farming, wild-fowling, and fishing ; and 
 the products of these, including wool, feathers, 
 salt and dried fish, train-oil, and skins, are the 
 principal exports. The largest islands are 
 Stromo (28 miles long by 8 broad), Ostero, 
 Vaago, Sando, and Siidero. The capital of the 
 group is Thorshavn in Stromo, with 984 inhabit- 
 ants ; Kirkebo, on the same island, was formerly 
 the seat of a bishop. The inhabitants, of Norse 
 descent, are Lutherans, and speak an Old Norse 
 dialect, though modern Danish is the language 
 of law-courts, churches, and schools. Since 1854 
 they have enjoyed a certain amount of self- 
 government. Froin the time of their first coloni- 
 sation in the 9th century the Faroe Islands be- 
 longed to Norway down to 1380, in which year 
 they passed to Denmark. 
 
 Farrar, a river of Ross and Inverness shires, 
 
 flowing 28 miles eastward, and uniting with the 
 Glass to form the Beauly. 
 
 Farringford, Freshwater, near the western 
 extremity of the Isle of Wight, 2^ miles SW. of 
 Yannouth, a home from 1853 of the poet Tennyson, 
 
 Fars, or Farsistan (anc. Persis), a sparsely 
 peopled province of Persia, bordering on the 
 Persian Gulf. Area, 53,500 sq. m. The capital is 
 Shiraz ; the port, Bushire, on the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Parsley, a town in tlie West Riding of York- 
 sliire, 4 miles NE. of Bradford. Pop. 5580. 
 
 Farukhabad, a city of tlie United Provinces of 
 India, near tlie right bank of the Ganges, 83 miles 
 NW. of Cawnpore. Pop. 08,000. 
 
 Fasano (Fa-zdk'no), a town of Italy, 35 miles 
 NW. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. 16,941. 
 
 Faster, a province of Dar-FCir (q.v.). 
 
 Fash'oda, a town in the Shilluk country, on an 
 island in the White Nile, 60 miles below the 
 naouth of the Sobat tributary. 
 
 Fasque, a Kincardineshire mansion (Sir J. R, 
 Gladstone), If mile N. by W. of Fettercairn. 
 
 Fast Castle, a ruin on the Berwickshire coast, 
 4^ miles N W. of Coldingham. It is Scott's ' Wolfs 
 Crag' in the Bride of hammer moor. 
 
 Fastnet Lighthouse, on a rock 4 miles SW. 
 of Cape Clear (q.v.), with a revolving light 148 
 feet above high-water, and visible for 18 miles. 
 
 Fatehganj ('Victory Market'), two villages 
 in the United Provinces of India. (1) East 
 Fatehganj, 23 miles SE. of Bareilly, was 
 founded by the Nawab of Oudh to commem- 
 orate a British victory over the Rohillas in 1774. 
 —(2) West Fatehganj, 35 miles NW. of the 
 former, was the scene of another victory over 
 the Rohillas in 1794. 
 
 Fatehgarh, the cantonment and administrative 
 headquarters of Farukhabad district, 3 miles E. 
 of Farukhabad city, forming with it one nmni- 
 cipality. There are many native Christians. A 
 British military station since 1802, the place was 
 attacked by Holkar in 1804, and here in 1857 
 over 200 Europeans — men, women, and children 
 — were massacred by the rebels. Pop, 12,435, 
 
 Fatehpur, (1) capital of a district in the United 
 Provinces, 70 miles NW. of Allahabad. Pop. 
 20,179.— (2) A fortified town of Rajputana, 145 
 miles NW. of Jaipur. Pop. 14,731, 
 
 Fatehpur Sikri, a ruined capital of the Mogul 
 empire, founded by Akbar in 1570, but soon 
 after abandoned for Agra, 23 miles to the east. 
 There are imposing remains of ancient buildings. 
 
 Fatshan, an important manufacturing city of 
 China, 6 miles SW. of Canton. Pop. 450,000. 
 
 Fauldhouse, a mining-town of Linlithgowshire, 
 7 miles WSW. of West Calder. Pop. 2762. 
 
 Fa vara, a town of Sicily, 4 miles SE. of Gir- 
 genti. Pop. 15,983. 
 
 Faversham, an ancient municipal borough and 
 river-port of Kent, 52 miles by rail ESE. of 
 London, and 10 WNW. of Canterbury. It has 
 a valuable oyster-fishery, and the creek on which 
 it stands admits vessels of 200 tons. In the 
 vicinity are important powder-mills. Pop. (1851) 
 4595 ; (1901) 11,290. As Favresfield it was a seat 
 of the Saxon kings, where Athelstan in 930 held 
 a Witenageraot. It has scanty remains of a 
 Clugniac abbey founded (1147) by King Stephen, 
 whose tomb is pointed out in the parish church, 
 a fine cruciform building, with a spire 148 feet 
 high. Near it is the house of ' Arden of Fevers- 
 ham,' whose murder by his wife in 1551 forms 
 
 I 
 
FAYAL 
 
 266 
 
 FERNIEHIRST 
 
 the theme of an anonymous tragedy (1592). A 
 grammar-school (1527) was rebuilt outside the 
 town in 1879. In 1688 James II. was seized at 
 Faversham, attempting to flee to France. See 
 local histories by Jacob (1774) and Giraud (1876). 
 
 Fayal (Fl-aV), one of the Azores (q.v.), with an 
 area of 69 sq. m., and a pop. of 26,264, attains 
 3000 feet in height, and on its SE. coast has a 
 safe bay with the town of Horta. 
 
 Fayettevllle, capital of Cumberland county, 
 North Carolina, at the head of navigation on the 
 Cape Fear River, 82 miles by rail (55 direct) S. of 
 Raleigh. Pop. 4822. 
 
 Fayyiim, or Favovh (Fi-yoom' ; Egypt. Phiom, 
 ' marsh-land '), a district of Egypt (pop. 360,000), 
 a nearly circular basin or oasis, about 30 miles 
 in diameter, or 840 sq. m. in area, sunk beneath 
 the level of the Libyan desert, 50 miles SW. 
 of Cairo, and connected with the Nile Valley by 
 a narrow pass, through which an ancient canal 
 pours the fertilising water which renders the 
 Fayyum one of the most productive parts of 
 Egypt. The irrigation was anciently regulated 
 by a lai-ge reservoir, called Lake Moeris (q.v.), 
 and the overflow now forms the large sheet of 
 brackish water, 35 miles long, known as the 
 Birket-el-Karn, which marks the eastern boundary 
 of the oasis. On the banks of Lake Moeris was 
 the famous 'labyrinth,' reckoned one of the 
 wonders of the world — a vast palace whose 
 renmins are seen in the ruins near the brick 
 pyramid of Hawara. For recent explorations 
 in Fay y Am, see Fe trie's Hawara, Biahma, and 
 Arsino'e (18S9), and Greii fell's Fayum Totons (1901). 
 
 Fear, Cape, the most southerly point of North 
 Carolina, forms the southern extremity of Smith's 
 Island, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River.— 
 Cape Fear River, formed by the Deep and Haw 
 rivers, runs 250 miles SE. to the Atlantic. 
 
 Fearne Islands. See Farne. 
 
 Feather River, California, rises in two forks 
 in the Sierra Nevada, and flows 250 miles S. to 
 the Sacramento. 
 
 Featherstone, a township of Yorkshire, 2^ 
 miles W. by S. of Pontefract. In a coal-.strike 
 riot here (1893) two men were killed and six 
 others wounded. Pop. 12,093. 
 
 Fecamp (Fay-kon^'), a town and seaport in 
 the French dep. of Seine-Infdrieure, 28 miles 
 NNE. of Havre by rail. It has a fine abbey 
 church (c. 1220), cotton-mills, sugar-refineries, 
 tanneries, shipbuilding-yards, &c. Pop. (1872) 
 12,651 ; (1901) 15,206. 
 
 Fehrbellin, a town of Prussia, with 1920 inhabit- 
 ants, 40 miles NW. of Berlin by rail. Here the 
 Great Elector defeated the Swedes in 1675. A 
 tower (1879) marks the battlefield. 
 
 Felaniche, or Felanitx, a town of the island 
 of Majorca. Pop. 12,053. 
 
 Felegyhaza, a town of Hungary, 80 miles SE. 
 of Pesth by rail. Pop. 33,406. 
 
 Felixstowe, a coast-village of Suffolk, lOj miles 
 by rail SE. of Ipswich. It is named from a priory 
 (1105), dedicated to St Felix, a Burgundian, the 
 first bishop of Dunwich (631-647). With a fine 
 beach for bathing, a pier, good golf-links, and 
 many Roman remains near by, the place is 
 rapidly becoming a popular resort. Pop. with 
 Walton, 1 mile to the Avest, 5815. 
 
 Felstead, an Essex village, Sj miles ESE. of 
 Dunmow. It has a richly-endowed grammar- 
 school (1554). Pop. of parish, 1959. 
 
 Feltre (Fel'tray), a town of northern Italy, 19 
 miles SW. of Belluno by rail. Pop. 6715. 
 
 Femern, an island of Sleswick-Holstein, Area, 
 71 sq. 111. ; pop. 9800. 
 
 Fenny-Stratford, a town of Bucks, on the 
 Ouzel, 7 miles S. of Newport-Pagnell. Pop. 4800. 
 
 Fens. See Bedford Level. 
 
 Fenwick, an Ayrshire village, on Fenwlck 
 Water, 4i miles NNE. of Kilmarnock. Pop. 329. 
 
 Feodosla, or Theodosia. See Kaffa. 
 
 Ferentino (Ferentee'no), a town of Italy, 55 
 miles by rail SE. of Rome. Pop. 7679. 
 
 Ferghana {Fergd'na), a province of Russian 
 West Turkestan, formerly the khanate of Kho- 
 kand, lies among the western ranges of tlie Tian- 
 Shan mountain complex. Area, 28,222 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 1,500,000. The chief towns are Khokand 
 (the former capital), Margliilan (the present 
 capital), Namangan, and Aiidijan. 
 
 Fergus, a river of County Clare, flowing 25 
 miles SE. to the Shannon. 
 
 Fermanagh (Ferman'a), an Irish county in the 
 south-west of Ulster, 45 miles long by 29 broad ; 
 area, 714 sq. m., one-fourth arable and one- 
 half pasture. The surface is mostly a succession 
 of hills, culminating in Belmore (1312 feet). 
 Some coal, iron, and marble occur. The chief 
 river is the Erne. Fermanagh is divided into 8 
 baronies and 23 parishes ; it returns two mem- 
 bers. Pop. (1851) 116,047 ; (1901) 65,430 (36,198 
 Catholics). Enniskillen is the county town. 
 
 Fermo (anc. Firmum), a town of Italy, 36 miles 
 SSE. of Ancona. It is the seat of an archbishop, 
 and once had a university. Pop. 6692. Its port 
 is Porto San Giorgio (pop. 3114), on the Adriatic. 
 
 Fermoy, a town in County Cork, Ireland, on 
 the Blackwater, here spanned by a noble bridge 
 (1866), 19 miles NE. of Cork city. In the 12th 
 century it became the seat of a Cistercian abbey ; 
 but the present town was the creation of a Scotch 
 merchant towards the close of the 18th century. 
 It contains a Catholic cathedral, St Colman's 
 College, and barracks for 3000 men. Pop. (1861) 
 8705 ; (1901) 6126. 
 
 Femandlna (Fernandee'na), a port of entry 
 and capital of Nassau county, Florida, on an 
 i.sland 28 miles NNE. of Jacksonville. It is the 
 seat of the Episcopal bishop of Florida, and a 
 popular bathing-resort. Pop. 3562. 
 
 Fernando Noronha {Noron'ya), a Brazilian 
 volcanic island in the Atlantic, in 3° 50' S. lat., 
 and 32° 25' W. long. Measuring 5^ by IJ miles, 
 it is cultivated by 2000 Brazilian convicts. 
 
 Fernando Po, an island on the west coast of 
 Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, and in 2° 39' N. lat. 
 Area, 739 sq. m. Its northern half is almost 
 entirely occupied by the volcanic peak (9300 feet) 
 known to the English as Mount Clarence, to the 
 Spaniards as Pico Santa Isabel. The island is 
 covered with luxuriant vegetation. The average 
 annual temperature at Santa Isabel, the capital 
 (pop. 1500), is 78° F. The island is inhabited 
 by 25,000 Bubis, a Bantu tribe, and some negroes. 
 Discovered by the Portuguese in 1472, the island 
 has belonged successively to Spain (1777-1827), 
 England, and Spain (since 1841). 
 
 Femey, a village of 1104 inhabitants, in the 
 French dep. of Ain, 4^ miles NW. of Geneva, and 
 2 miles W. of the lake. Here Voltaire spent the 
 last twenty years of his life. 
 
 Femiehirst, a castle on Jed Water, Roxburgh- 
 shire, 2 miles S. of Jedburgh. 
 
FERKILEE 
 
 267 
 
 PIPE 
 
 Femilee. See Fairnilee. 
 
 Fern Isles. See Farne. 
 
 Ferns, a Wexford village, on the Bann, 7 miles 
 N. of Enuiscorthy. Pop. 490. 
 
 Ferozabad, &c. See Firozabad, &c. 
 
 Ferrandina (Fen'andee'na), a town of Italy, 43 
 miles ESE. of Potenza by rail. Pop. 7325. 
 
 Ferrara (Ferrdh'ra), capital of the Italian prov- 
 ince of the same name, in the marshy delta of 
 the Po, 30 miles from the Adriatic, and 29 NE. of 
 I3olosna by rail. First made a walled city in 604, 
 it still is fortified with walls, bastions, ditches, and 
 a citadel. It has a cathedral, a small university 
 (1264), and the old ducal palace of the Estes, 
 built in the Gothic style in the 14th and 15th 
 centuries. Under the i)atronage of the Dukes of 
 Este, Ferrara produced a good school of painters ; 
 in literature it is closely associated with Tasso, 
 Ariosto, and Guarini, who, as well as Savonarola, 
 was born at Ferrara. At the height of its pros- 
 perity, Ferrara had 100,000 inhabitants. It was 
 subject to the House of Este from the close of the 
 12th century until 1598, when it passed to Pope 
 Clement VIII. In 1860 it was incorporated in 
 the kingdom of Italy. Pop. 40,695. 
 
 Ferro, or Hierro, the most westerly of the 
 Canary Islands (q.v.), Avas selected as a first 
 meridian by a scientific congress called together 
 at Paris by Richelieu in 1030. 
 
 Ferrol, a Spanish seaport in Galicia, stands on 
 a narrow arm of the sea, 11 miles by water and 
 33 by rail NB. of Corunna. A poor fishing- town 
 until 1752, it is now one of the strongest fortified 
 places in the kingdom, its large arsenal compris- 
 ing dockyards, naval workshops, &c. The liar- 
 bour is safe and capacious, and has a very narrow 
 entrance, defended by two forts. The town 
 manufactures naval stores, linen, cotton, and 
 leather. In 1805 a French fleet was defeated by 
 the English off Ferrol, which was taken by the 
 French in 1809 and 1823, and in 1872 was the 
 scene of a republican rising. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Ferryden, a Forfar fishing- village, at the South 
 Esk's mouth, opposite Montrose. Pop. 1382. 
 
 Fenyport. See Tayport. 
 
 Fesa, or Fasa, a town of Persia, 60 miles SE. 
 of Shiraz. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Festlniog, a village of Merionethshire, North 
 Wales, 22 miles by rail WNW. of Bala, and 3^ S. 
 of Blaenau-Festiniog. Standing aniid waterfalls 
 and mountains (the loftiest Moelwyn, 2529 feet), 
 it is a great tourist centre. Blaenau-Festiniog, 
 27 miles SSW. of Llandudno Junction, and 13 
 NE. of Port Madoc by the ' Toy Railway ' (1869), 
 is a town of recent growth, inhabited chiefly by 
 slate-quarrymen. Population (1851) 3460 ; (1881) 
 11,274 ; (1901) 11,435. 
 
 Fettercalrn, a Kincardineshire village, 12 miles 
 NNW. of Montrose. Pop. 358. 
 
 Fettes College (Fetftez), a fine Gothic public 
 school (1870), on the N. side of Edinburgh. 
 
 Fez, or more properly Faz, the second capital 
 of the sultanate of Morocco, lies in a hill-girt 
 valley, 100 miles E. of Rabat on the Atlantic. 
 With crumbling walls, and narrow, dirty, sunless 
 streets, Fez has for over a thousand years been one 
 of the sacred cities of Islam, renowned for its uni- 
 versity and schools of learning. The university, 
 attached to the venerated mosque of the Cherubim 
 or of Muley Edris, is frequented by 700 pupils 
 from all parts of the Mohammedan world, and 
 has about forty professors. Attached to this 
 mosque is a library, containing 30,000 MSS. The 
 
 I 
 
 extensive palace of the sultan is now partly 
 in ruins. Although thus falling into decay, Fez 
 is nevertheless one of the busiest commercial 
 towns of north-west Africa ; its merchants im- 
 port European manufactured wares, which they 
 despatch by caravans to Timbuktu and the in- 
 terior of Africa, and export fruits, gums, gold, 
 morocco leather, fez caps, pottery, and gold and 
 silver wares. The pop. is very variously esti- 
 mated from 150,000 to 54,000. Fez was founded 
 by Muley Edris in 808. From 1086 it was the 
 capital of an Ahnoravid independent kingdom, 
 and ranked, both as a sacred city and for its 
 learning, as one of the first cities of Islam. But 
 from the date of its incorporation with Morocco, 
 in 1548, it began to decay. 
 
 Fezzan, a Turkish province (since 1842) to the 
 south of, and politically attached to, Tripoli. 
 Extending some 390 miles N. and S. , and 300 E. 
 and W., between 24° and 29° N. lat. and 12° and 
 18° E. long., Fezzan belongs to the desert region 
 of North Africa. It consists of a huge depres- 
 sion, fenced in on all sides except the west by 
 ranges of hills (2000 to 3000 feet high), and 
 traversed by barren, stony, shelterless plateaus, 
 between which lie long shallow valleys, contain- 
 ing numerous fertile oases. The entire region 
 slopes gently towards the east. The oases, 
 mostly depressions in the valleys, are the only 
 cultivated spots, where a little grain and a few 
 vegetables are raised, and where grows the date- 
 palm, the principal source of food. The climate 
 is on the whole unifonn and healthy, although 
 malarial fever is very frequent. Fezzan is both 
 hotter in summer and colder in winter than 
 Tripoli ; its temperature ranges from 23' to 112°, 
 the annual mean being 70° F. The atmosphere 
 is very dry; rain scarcely ever falls. There is 
 no export trade except in soda, obtained from 
 extensive salt lakes north-west of Murzuk. The 
 50,000 inhabitants are a mixed race. ■ They are 
 immoral and idle, but honest and good-natured. 
 In religion they are Sunnite Mohammedans. The 
 principal town is Murzuk (pop. 6500). 
 
 Flchtelgebirge (Fihh'tel-ge-beer'geh, g'n liard), 
 a mountain-system of NE. Bavaria, once covered 
 with pines (Fichte, 'pine'), the watershed of 
 the Elbe, Rhine, and Danube. It culminates in 
 Schneeberg (3461 feet) and Ochsenkopf (3334). 
 
 Fldra, an islet with a lighthouse, 2i miles 
 WNW. of North Berwick, 
 
 Field Place. See Horsham. 
 
 Fiesole (Fyay'zo-lay; Lat. Fcesnla:), one of the 
 most ancient of Etruscan cities, 3 miles NB. of 
 Florence. It has a Cyclopean wall, a Roman 
 amphitheatre, a cathedral (1028), &c. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Fife, a peninsular Scottish county, washed by 
 the Firth of Tay, the German Ocean, and the 
 Firth of Forth. Its extreme length is 42 miles, 
 its extreme breadth 21, and its area 513 sq. m. 
 The surface ofters a succession of cultivated vales 
 and hills, the most prominent eminences being 
 the East and West Lomonds (1471 and 1713 feet). 
 Largo Law (965), and Burntisland Bin (632). 
 Almost the only streams are the Eden (30 miles 
 long) and the Leven (16) ; whilst of seven lakelets 
 the chief are Kilconquhar Loch (4 by 3 furlongs) 
 and Lindores Loch (7 by 3). Coal is largely 
 mined, besides shale, ironstone, limestone, and 
 freestone. The soil is some of it very fertile, 
 especially in the Howe of Fife, or Stratheden ; 
 and whilst barely one-fourth of the whole of 
 Scotland is in cultivation, in Fife the proportion 
 is nearly three- fourths. Many towns and fishing- 
 villages skirt its shores— Culross, Inverkeithiug, 
 
FIFE KESS 
 
 268 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 Burntisland, Kinghorn, Kirkcaldy, Dysart, Leven, 
 Largo, Elie, St Mouans, Pittenweem, the An- 
 strutliers, Kilrenny, Crail, St Andrews, Ferry- 
 port, Newport, and Newburgh. Inland lie Cupar, 
 Dunfermline, Falkland, Lochgelly, &c. Under 
 those towns, as also under Balcarres, Bahnerino, 
 Cults, Leuchars, Lindores, and Magus Muir, are 
 noticed the manufactures, the chief antiquities, 
 the illustrious natives, and the outstanding points 
 in the peaceful history of the ' Kingdom of Fife.' 
 Fife returns two members to parliament. Pop. 
 (1801) 93,743 ; (1841) 140,140 ; (1901) 218,840. See 
 works by Sibbald (1710), Wood (1862), M. Mackay * 
 (1890), Geddie (1894), and A. H. Millar (1895). 
 
 Fife Ness, the eastmost point of Fife, is a low 
 headland. A mile NNE. in the sea is the danger- 
 ous Carr Reef, with (since 1886) a lightship. 
 
 Figeac (Fee-zhak'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Lot, 32 miles ENE. of Cahors. Pop. 5770. 
 
 Figueira (Fee-gay' ee-ra), a watering-place in the 
 Portuguese province of Beira, at the mouth of the 
 Mondego, 23 miles W. by S. of Coimbra. Pop. 5470. 
 
 Figueras (Fee-gay'ras), a town in the north-east 
 corner of Spain, 25 miles N. of Gerona by rail, 
 below the fortress of San Fernando. Pop. 12,170. 
 
 Fiji Islands (Fee-jee), a British crown colony 
 of the South Pacific Ocean, in 15°— 22° S. lat. 
 and 176° E.— 178° W. long. Their nearest neigh- 
 bours are the Tonga or Friendly Islands, 200 to 
 300 miles to the south-east ; and they are about 
 700 from New Caledonia, 1100 from Auckland 
 in New Zealand, 1700 from Sydney, and 4700 
 from San Francisco. The island of llotumah, 
 250 niiles N. by W., has been since 1881 included 
 in the colony. The islands were sighted in 1643 
 by Tasman ; and Turtle Island (or Vatoa), in the 
 extreme south-east, was discovered by Cook in 
 1773 ; but the Fiji or Viti Archipelago was little 
 known before the 19th century. In 1804 some 
 escaped convicts from Australia are said to have 
 settled here ; in 1835 Wesleyan missionaries first 
 canae over from Tonga ; and trade in beche-de- 
 mer, sandalwood, &c., gradually led to a small 
 white settlement. In 1858 the sovereignty of the 
 islands was offered to Great Britain by the chief 
 Thakombau ; but it was not till 1874 that they 
 were taken over. The governor is also H.M. 
 Commissioner for the Western Pacific. 
 
 The Fiji Islands, over 200 in number, lie in a 
 ring, open on the southern side. On the west 
 and north are the two large islands of Viti Levu 
 (4250 sq. m.) and Vanua Levu (2400), with a 
 group of small islands and reefs outside them ; 
 and on the east there is a long string of small 
 islands. The total area of the colony (including 
 llotumah) is 7435 sq. m., or about the same as 
 Wales. Since 1882 the capital has been Suva, 
 with a fine harbour, on the south coast of Viti 
 Levu ; till then Levuka, on the little island of 
 Ovalau, off the east coast of Viti Levu, also 
 possessing a good harbour, was the European 
 capital. The Fiji Islands are of volcanic forma- 
 tion, the shape of the mountains (the highest of 
 which attain 4500 feet) and the existence of hot 
 springs testifying to volcanic agency ; and they 
 are surrounded by coral reefs, which act as nat- 
 ural breakwaters. Tliey are well supplied with 
 harbours, and have an abundant water-supply, 
 a rich soil, and a climate which, though tropical 
 and somewhat enervating to Europeans (who are 
 subject to dysentery), is not unhealthy or ex- 
 treme. They suffer, however, from the ravages of 
 hurricanes, and earthquakes occasionally occur. 
 Besides bananas, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut palms, 
 &c., the products include sugar, grown with the 
 
 help of Indian and Polynesian labour, maize, 
 cotton, vanilla, tea, and cofl'ee. The pop. in 1901 
 was 117,870, of wliom 2440 were Europeans, and 
 94,000 native Fijiaus. They are in race akin to 
 the Papuans, but an admixture of the lighter 
 Polynesians has, especially in the eastern islands, 
 leavened the native Melanesian breed. The 
 Pijians were notoriously ferocious cannibals ; but 
 now the Christian religion is almost universal in 
 the islands, the adherents of the Wesleyans being 
 estimated at over 100,000, and of the Roman 
 Catholics at more than 10,000. The revenue, 
 derived mainly from customs duties and native 
 taxation, has varied from £65,000 in 1867 to 
 £132,513 in 1902, in wliich last-mentioned year 
 the expenditure amounted to £113,341. The ex- 
 ports liave a total annual value of from £350,000 to 
 £550,000 ; of imports from £250,000 to £350,000. 
 Sugar, in spite of the depression of the industry, 
 is far the most important export, and next to it 
 in value come cocoa-nuts (mainly in the dried 
 form known as copra) and fruit. The export 
 of cotton has greatly diminished, but that of tea 
 has increased. The trade, both import and ex- 
 port, is almost entirely with New South Wales, 
 New Zealand, and Victoria. 
 
 See works by Seemann (1862), Forbes (1875), 
 Home (1881), and Miss Gordon Gumming (1881). 
 
 Filey, a rising watering-place on the east coast 
 of Yorkshire, 9 miles SE. of Scarborough by rail, 
 occupies a picturesque site on cliffs overlooking 
 Filey Bay. It has a spa and an ancient cruci- 
 form church. Pop. (1851) 1511 ; (1901) 3003, en- 
 gaged mainly in fishing. 
 
 FtQChley, a Middlesex urban district, 7J miles 
 NNW. of London. Pop. 22,126. 
 
 Findhorn, (1) a beautiful Scottish river, rising 
 among the Monadhliath Mountains at an altitude 
 of 2800 feet, and running 62 miles north-eastward 
 through Inverness, Nairn, and Elgin shires, till 
 it enters the Moray Firth at Findhorn village by 
 a triangular lagoon, 2 miles long and 2g wide. 
 Its waters abound in salmon and trout. At one 
 place it rose nearly 50 feet in the disastrous 
 floods of August 1829, known as the 'Moray 
 floods.' — (2) An Elginshire seaport, 5 miles N. 
 of Forres. Pop. 486. 
 
 Findlay, capital of Hancock county, Ohio, 
 37 miles SW. of Fremont, with foundries, flour- 
 mills, &c. Pop. (1880) 4633 ; (1900) 17,613. 
 
 Findochty, a Banffshire fisliing- village, 3i 
 miles W. by N. of Cullen. Pop. 1501. 
 
 Findon, a Kincardineshire fishing-village, 6 
 miles S. of Aberdeen. The well-known Findon 
 (Finnan) haddocks were first cured here. 
 
 Fingal's Cave. See Staffa. 
 
 Finhaven, a ruined castle, Forfarshire, 51 miles 
 NNE. of Forfar. 
 
 Finistere (Fee-nis-tair' ; Lat. finis terras, 'land's 
 end'), a western dep. of France, comprehend- 
 ing a part of the former duchy of Brittany, and 
 washed on three sides by the English Channel 
 and the ocean. Area, 2585 sq. m. Pop. (1872) 
 042,963 ; (1901) 773,014. It is divided into the 
 five arrondissements of Brest, Chateaulin, Mor- 
 laix, Quimper (the chief town), and Quimperl6. 
 
 Finisterre, Cafe, a promontory at the north- 
 western extremity of Spain, off which Anson 
 defeated the French (1747). 
 
 Finland (Finnish Suomi or Smmenmaa, 'the 
 land of fens and lakes '), a grand-duchy annexed 
 to Russia in 1809, which, though nominally en- 
 joying administrative autonomy, has (since 1890 
 
FINLAND 
 
 FIROZPUR 
 
 especially) been deprived of many of its most 
 cherished privileges. Finland, which from the 
 13th to the 19th century belonged to Sweden, 
 lies between 60°-70° N. lat. and 20°-32° E. long. 
 Area, 144,255 sq. m. (a sixth larger than the 
 United Kingdom); pop. (1901) 2,744,952, of whom 
 2,353,000 were of the native Finnish race, 350,000 
 Scandinavians, 6000 Russians, and the rest Ger- 
 mans and Lapps. All but 50,000 Greek and 
 500 Roman Catholics are Lutherans. The in- 
 habitants of Helsingfors, the capital (pop. 
 97,051), are mostly of Swedish descent, as is 
 also tlie case at Abo (39,238), and all along the 
 south and west coasts. About 80 per cent, 
 are agriculturists, mostly peasant-proprietors. 
 The coast is much indented, and studded with 
 thousands of small islands, whilst the interior 
 of the country is dotted with countless lakes, 
 some of vast size, and mostly connected with 
 each other naturally or artificially by means of 
 canals. About 12 per cent, of the total area 
 is occupied by lakes, and 15 per cent, by 
 marsh and bog. The largest of the lakes — 
 besides Lake Ladoga, of which part belongs to 
 Russia— are Lakes Saima, Enare, Kemi, Ulea, 
 and Piiijanne. The Saima consists of 120 large 
 lakes and several thousand smaller ones, all 
 connected, and having a natural outlet into 
 Lake Ladoga, over the famous Imatra Falls or 
 Rapids— the finest in Europe both from the 
 scenery and volume of water. Lake Saima is 
 likewise connected with the Gulf of Finland by 
 means of a splendid canal 36 miles long, with 
 twenty-eight locks for a fall of 250 feet. The 
 highest mountain is Haldefjall, in Lapland (4126 
 feet high), near the frontier of Norway. From 
 the lack of moimtain-ranges, the rivers are unim- 
 portant, the principal being the Kemi and Ulea 
 in the north, and the Kymmene in the south. 
 In spite of rocks and rapids, they are well suited 
 for floating logs from the forests of the interior, 
 they drive many mills, and are also rich in fish. 
 The forests cover three-fifths of the land-surface, 
 and more than half of them belong to the state. 
 Of cereals, rye is the most grown, then barley, 
 oats, and wheat ; this latter, however, rarely 
 ripens beyond lat. 61°. The potato flourishes as 
 far north as lat. 69°. Among wild animals we 
 find the bear, wolf, fox, lynx, ermine, otter, and 
 hare ; the elk and beaver are now rare. Seals are 
 plentiful along the coast, as also in the Saima 
 and Ladoga lakes. Reindeer are employed in 
 the far north. Finnish horses are remarkable 
 for their speed, hardihood, and docility. Of 
 birds there are 211 species, and of fish 80 species. 
 Tlie climate of Finland is very rigorous in winter, 
 even on the south coast, where 20° and 25° below 
 zero (Fahrenheit) are often registered ; but it is 
 generally healthy, and, owing to the proximity of 
 the sea, it is far milder than North Russia. The 
 summer, though short, is occasionally very hot 
 in June and July. The ground is generally 
 covered with snow from the middle of November 
 till April ; then follows a brief spring, accom- 
 panied by a rapid growth of vegetation. The 
 emperors of Russia are grand-dukes of Finland. 
 The country is governed by the grand-duke, the 
 senate, and the diet. The senate consists of 20 
 members, appointed by the grand-duke from 
 among his Finnish subjects. The diet consists 
 of four chambers— nobles, clergy, burgesses, 
 and peasantry; the nobles having hereditary 
 _ legislative rights, whilst the others are elected 
 |by constituents. In the end of 1905 the em- 
 sror restored Finnish autonomy and the powers 
 liat had been withdrawn from the native 
 
 senate and diet; in 1S99-1903 a series of edicts 
 transferred some of the powers of the senate 
 to the governor-general, introduced the Russian 
 military system, and made Russian (to the general 
 still a quite unknown tongue) an official language 
 along with Finnish and Swedish (the latter the 
 literary language of the educated). Education 
 in Finland is, taking all things into considera- 
 tion, very advanced, upwards of 90 per cent, of 
 the population being able to read and write ; 
 the university of Helsingfors has about 2500 
 students. 
 
 The railways of Finland have a total length of 
 4723 miles. The revenue in 1903 was £3,858,157, 
 whilst the expenditure left a large balance. The 
 public debt of Finland amounted in 1903 to 
 £5,367,300, nearly all expended on public works, 
 education, and the like, and is more than balanced 
 by the state property. Finland has a thriving 
 commercial marine. The value of the exports 
 (timber, butter, paper being the most important) 
 in 1902 was £4,100,000. The imports amounted to 
 £5,396,000, the chief items being cereals, iron and 
 steel, coffee, textiles, and sugar. Nearly half of 
 Finland's trade is with Russia; Germany being 
 second, and Great Britain third on the list. 
 Large quantities of iron are found in Finland, 
 and copper, tin, silver, and gold exist. Physically 
 the Finns proper are a strong, hardy race, with 
 round faces, square shoulders, fair hair, and blue 
 eyes, though intermarriage with Scandinavians 
 and Russians has in many cases caused varia- 
 tions. Ethnographically they belong to the 
 Ugro-Finnic (Mongolian) stock, and their lan- 
 guage is akin to that of the Lapps, the Voguls 
 and Ostiaks in Siberia, and the Magyars in Hun- 
 gary. Their chief literary monument is the 
 Kalevala, an ancient epic poem composed of in- 
 numerable popular traditions and songs in the 
 rhythm imitated by Longfellow in Hiawatha. 
 
 See the Kalevala translated by J. M. Crawford 
 (1888) ; J. C. Brown, The People of Finland in 
 Archaic Times (1893) ; works on Finland in French 
 or German bv Koskinen (1863), Ignatius (1878), 
 Jonas (1886), Fisher (1899), De Windt (1902), and 
 Frederiksen (1902). 
 
 Finland, Gulf of, the eastern arm of the Baltic 
 Sea, receives the waters of the great lakes Onega 
 and Ladoga, and is shallow and only very slightly 
 salt. ITie navigation on the northern or Finnish 
 coast is very dangerous, on account of the numer- 
 ous islands and shoals. 
 
 Finmarken, the most northern province of 
 Norway. Area, 18,295 sq. m. ; pop. 33,000, prin- 
 cipally Lapps. The capital is Hammerfest. 
 
 Finnan. See Glenfinnan and Findon. 
 
 Finsbury, a parliamentary borough of north 
 London, with three one-member divisions (Hol- 
 born. Central, East); the two latter forni since 
 1899 the metropolitan borough of Finsbury. 
 
 Finsteraarhom (Finsterdhr'horn), the highest 
 peak (14,026 feet) of the Bernese Alps. 
 
 Finsterwalde (Finsterval'deh), a town of 
 Prussia, 71 miles S. by E. of Berlin. Pop. 10,720. 
 
 Fintry Hills, Stirlingshire, 1676 feet high, and 
 17 miles N. by E. of Glasgow. 
 
 Fir'miny, a town in the French dep. of Loire, 
 9 miles SW. of St Etienne by rail. It has rich 
 coal-mines, and manufactures nails, ribbons, 
 buttons. &c. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Firozabad, a decayed town of India, North- 
 west Provinces, 24 miles E. of Agra. Pop. 16,023. 
 
 Firozpur, or Ferozepore, a town in the 
 Punjab, 3J miles from the left bank of the Sutlej. 
 
FIROZSHAH 
 
 270 
 
 FLINT 
 
 Founded, it is said, by Flroz Shah (1351-87), it 
 had sunk into insignificance before it became 
 in 1835 a British possession ; but since then it 
 has regained much of its former consequence. 
 It possesses the largest arsenal in the Punjab, 
 and a church in memory of those who fell in the 
 Sikh wars (1845-46). Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Firozshah, a battlefield in Firozpur district, 
 12 miles from the Sutlej's left bank, the scene 
 of the capture by the British of the Sikh camp, 
 December 21, 1845. 
 
 Fisherrow. See Musselburgh. 
 
 Fisher's Hill, in tlie Slienandoah valley, Vir- 
 ginia, 30 miles S. of Winchester. Here Sheridan 
 defeated the Confederates, 21st September 1864. 
 
 Fishguard, a Pembrokeshire (q.v.) seaport, one 
 of the seven Pembroke boroughs, 14^ miles N. of 
 Haverfordwest. The French made a small de- 
 scent here in 1797. Pop. 1886. 
 
 Fishkill-on-Hudson, or Fishkill Landing, 
 opposite Newburgh, and 58 miles N. of New York, 
 was in 1776-86 a great military depot. Pop. 3700. 
 
 Fitchburg, a city of Massachusetts, on the 
 Nasliua River, 50 miles WNW. of Boston. Pop. 
 (1880) 12,429 ; (1900) 31,531. 
 
 Fitzroy, the largest river of Western Australia, 
 flows 380 miles to the southern end of King 
 Sound. 
 
 Fiume(pron. Fu'md; Illyr, Rika, Lat. Famim 
 Sti Via ad fiumen), a great seaport of Hungary, 
 at the mouth of the Fiumara, 142 iniles WSW. of 
 Agram by rail, and 35 miles ESE. of Trieste across 
 the Istrian peninsula, stands at the head of the 
 beautiful Gulf of Quarnero, in the Adriatic, where 
 the Julian Alps end. Its extensive industries in- 
 clude manufactures of paper, torpedoes, tobacco 
 (government factory, with over 2000 hands), sails, 
 ropes, chemicals, starch, and liqueurs, besides a 
 large petroleum-refinery, rice and flour mills, &c. 
 The tunny-flsheries of the Gulf also are valuable. 
 Flume's chief importance, however, is as the 
 entrepot of a great and steadily increasing com- 
 merce. A free port from 1717 till 1891, it has a 
 harbour with a lighthouse and several break- 
 waters, which was greatly improved by the Hun- 
 garian government in the years following 1872, 
 when new moles and quays with warehouses, and 
 petroleum and other docks, were added, at a cost 
 of upwards of a million sterling, with the im- 
 mediate effect of increasing the trade (mainly 
 transit) fivefold within the next twelve years. 
 Pop. 39,000. 
 
 Flamborough Head, a Yorkshire promontory, 
 forming the northern horn of Bridlington Bay, 
 18 miles SE. of Scarborough (by road 24). it 
 tenninates a range of steep chalk-cliffs, 300 to 400 
 feet high, and pierced with many caverns. On 
 the Head is a lighthouse, 214 feet above sea-level, 
 and 80 feet high, seen 21 miles off. Across the 
 peninsula runs the so-called Danes' Dyke, really 
 an ancient British earthwork. 
 
 Flanders (Flemish Vlaenderen), tlie country of 
 the Flemings, a territory lying adjacent to the 
 North Sea, between the Scheldt and the Somme, 
 which embraced the present Belgian provinces of 
 East and West Flanders, the southern portion of 
 Zealand in Holland, and the greater part of 
 ancient Artois in France. 
 
 Flannan Islands, or The Seven Hunters, a 
 small group of uninhabited islets off the outer 
 Hebrides, 20 miles NW. of Gallon Head in Lewis. 
 
 Flatbush, a former village of Long Island, ad- 
 joining (now part of) Brooklyn, with an asylum. 
 
 Flattery, Cape, a headland of Washington 
 state, U.S., washed NE. by the Strait of Juan da 
 Fuca, and SW. by the Pacific. 
 
 F16che, La (Flehsh), a French town, in Sarthe, 
 on the Loir, 60 miles NW. of Tours by rail. 
 It manufactures paper, oil, leather, &c., and 
 since 1764 has been the seat of a famous mili- 
 tary scliool (Prytane.e), founded in 1607 as a 
 Jesuit college, wliere Prince Eugene and Descartes 
 were educated. Here, too, are the heart and a 
 statue (1857) of Henri IV. ; and here David Hume 
 spent three years (1734-37). Pop. 9375. 
 
 Fleetwood, a seaport and military station of 
 Lancashire, at the mouth of the Wyre, 21 miles 
 NW. of Preston by rail. Founded in 1836, it has 
 an excellent harbour, and is a favourite resort 
 for sea-bathing. A now dock was opened in 1877. 
 Steamers ply daily to and from Belfast, and there 
 is a regular service to the Isle of Man. Rossall 
 School (q.v.) is 2 miles to the SW. Pop. (1851) 
 3121 ; (1901) 12,082. 
 
 Flensborg, a seaport in the Prussian province 
 of Sleswick-Holstein, at the extremity of Flens- 
 borg Fjord, an inlet of the Baltic, 19 miles N. of 
 the town of Sleswick. It has iron and machine 
 Avorks, copper and zinc factories, shipbuilding- 
 yards, &c. ; fishing and fish-curing are also 
 carried on. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Flers (FJayr), a French town, in Ome, 41 
 miles S. of Caen by rail, with large cotton and 
 linen spinning, bleaching, and dyeing works. Its 
 old castle, burned down in the Chouan war, has 
 been restored. Pop. 14.000. 
 
 FletcMng, a Sussex parish, 8 miles N. of Lewes. 
 Gibbon is buried in the church. 
 
 Fleunis (nearly Fleh-reece'), a town (pop. 5084) 
 of the Belgian province of Hainault, on the 
 Sambre, 15 miles W. of Namur. Three great 
 battles have been fought here : (1) in 1622, when 
 the Germans defeated the Spaniards ; (2) in 1690, 
 when the French routed the allied Germans and 
 Dutch ; and (3) in 1794, when the French, under 
 Jourdan, defeated the Austrians and their allies. 
 
 Flint, the county town of Flintshire, North 
 Wales, on the left side of the Dee's estuary, 13 
 miles NW. of Cliester. In the vicinity are exten- 
 sive alkali-works, besides copper- works, collieries, 
 and lead-mines. Pop. (1851) 3296 ; (1901) 4625. 
 It unites with Caergwrle, Caerwys, Holywell, 
 Mold, Overton, Rhuddlan, and St Asaph to 
 return one member. Flint Castle, built by 
 Edward I., was captured by the parliament in 
 1643, and dismantled in 1647. Here Richard II. 
 surrendered to Bolingbroke, 19th August 1399. 
 See Taylor's History of Flint (1873). 
 
 Flint, a maritime county of North Wales, 
 bounded NE. by the river Dee, and N. by the 
 Irish Sea. The main portion of the county is 26 
 miles long by 10 to 12 broad, and the detached hun- 
 dred of Maelor, lying 8 miles SE. of the main part, 
 measures 9 miles by 5. Area, 289 sq. m. The 
 coast is low and sandy, but along the Dee estuary 
 fertile. The county is bisected by a low range of 
 hills stretching almost due north. Coal, iron, 
 lead, copper, calamine, zinc, and limestone are the 
 chief mineral products. There are numerous well- 
 watered and picturesque valleys. The uplands 
 afford good pasturage. The Dee in the east and 
 the Clwyd in the west of the county are the prin- 
 cipal rivers. Pop. (1801) 39,469; (1881) 80,587; 
 (1901) 81,725. Flintshire returns one member to 
 parliament. The chief towns are Flint, Mold, St 
 Asaph, Holywell, and Hawarden. 
 
 Flint, capital of Genesee county, Michigan, on 
 
FLINT RIVER 
 
 271 
 
 FL0RE3 
 
 the Flint River, 64 miles NNW. of Detroit by 
 rail, with sawmills and manufjictures of beer, 
 flour, bricks, paper, machinery, &c. Pop. 13,100. 
 
 Flint River, in Georgia, U.S., rises 10 miles S. 
 of Atlanta, and flowing southward 400 miles (150 
 navigable for steamboats), unites with the Chat- 
 tahoochee to form the Appalachicola (q.v.). 
 
 Flintshire. See Flint. 
 
 Flodden Field, a battlefield on the northern 
 slope of Flodden Hill, one of the eastern and low- 
 est of the Cheviots, 6 miles S. of Coldstream. 
 Here, on 9th September 1513, the Scots met 
 with a grievous defeat at the hands of the English 
 under the Earl of Surrey. They lost from 6000 
 to 12,000 men, including King James IV. and the 
 flower of his nobility. 
 
 Florence (Lat. Florentia; Ital. Firenze), a city 
 of Italy, capital of the former duchy of Tuscany, 
 194 miles NW. of Rome, and 62 E. of Leghorn. 
 Pop. (1881) of town, 132,039, of commune, 169,001; 
 In 1901, 205,589. The Arno, spanned by four 
 fine bridges, divides the city into two unequal 
 parts, the chief on the northern bank of the river. 
 Beyond the line of the ancient walls (now razed) 
 are thickly peopled suburbs, and a lovely, fertile, 
 and healthy neighbourhood, encircled by sloping 
 hills, and studded with picturesque villas and 
 fruitful vineyards and gardens. The massive and 
 austere forms of Florentine architecture impart 
 an air of gloomy grandeur to the streets, for the 
 most part regular and well kept. The Duomo or 
 Cathedral was founded in 1298, and built from 
 the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, Giotto, and 
 Brunelleschi ; the facade was completed in 1887. 
 The church contains sculptures by Ghiberti, 
 Luca della Robbia, Michael Angelo, Sansovino, 
 Bandinelli, and other famous artists. At the 
 side of the cathedral springs Giotto's famous 
 Campanile ; and in front is the octagonal Baptis- 
 tery of San Giovanni, with the glorious bronze 
 gates in basso-rilievo by Ghiberti. The church 
 of the Santa Croce, the Pantheon of Florence 
 (built in 1294 — architect, Arnolfo), contains 
 monuments to Galileo, Dante, Macchiavelli, 
 Michael Angelo, Alfieri, &c. The church of San 
 Lorenzo, consecrated in 393 by St Ambrose, and 
 rebuilt by Brunelleschi in 1425, contains in its 
 New Sacristy the two famous monuments by 
 Michael Angelo to Julian and Lorenzo de' Medici. 
 The Medicean chapel, gorgeous with the rarest 
 marbles and most costly stones, agate, lapis 
 lazuli, chalcedony, &c., stands behind the choir. 
 Annexed to the church of San Lorenzo is the 
 Ijaurentian Library, with its inexhaustible store 
 of rare MSS., founded by Giulio de' Medici. The 
 beautiful church of Santa Maria Novella, formerly 
 Dominican, dates from 1278 to 1360, and has 
 famous frescoes by Cimabue, Orcagna, Filippino 
 Lippi, and Ghirlandajo. The church of San 
 Marco dates from 1436; adjoining it is the 
 former monastery of San Marco, now secularised 
 as a museum. Fra Angelico, Savonarola, and Fra 
 Bartolommeo were inmates, and it is still adorned 
 with the famous frescoes of Fra Angelico. 
 Amongst the numerous palaces II Bargello, long 
 a prison, now a national museum, was formerly 
 the abode of the republican magistrate, the 
 Podesta. The Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of the 
 old republican government, is an imposing mass 
 of building, sunnounted by a lofty tower 260 feet 
 high. Adjoining the palace is the Piazza della 
 Signoria, a square with fine statues, and a noble 
 arcade, the Loggia dei Lanzi, under the porticoes 
 of which are magnificent groups of sculpture. 
 ^6 Palazzo degli Uffizi contains archives of 
 
 L 
 
 public offices, also the Magliabecchl Library, now 
 united with that of the Pitti Palace to fonn a 
 national library of 300,000 volumes and 15,000 
 MSS. On the second floor, in a suite of twenty- 
 three rooms, is contained the famous Florentine 
 gallery of art, rich in paintings, engravings, 
 sculpture, bronzes, coins, gems, and mosaics — 
 one apartment, the Tribuna, containing the rarest 
 treasures of the collection. The Palazzo Pitti, 
 formerly the grand-ducal residence, boasts of a 
 superb gallery of paintings ; behind it are the 
 beautiful Boboli Gardens. The Palazzo Riccardi 
 is the residence of the prefect. The Palazzo 
 Strozzi is a fine type of Tuscan architecture. 
 The Instituto di Studi Superior! has adopted the 
 ordinary university curriculum, and confers 
 various degrees. The School of Social Science, 
 the school of art, the musical institute, the 
 hospital of Santa Maria Nuova with its ancient 
 college of medicine and surgery, the Academy of 
 the Fine Arts, the Museum of Natural History, 
 deserve mention, as do the Accademia della 
 Crusca and the Accademia dei Georgofili. There 
 are nearly a dozen theatres. Florence is the see 
 of an archbishop, the seat of a prefecture and of 
 numerous provincial courts, as well as the mili- 
 tary headquarters of the district. The chief 
 industrial occupations of the Florentines are the 
 fabrication of silk and woollen textures, and of 
 straw- plaiting for hats, &c., jewellery, and ex- 
 quisite mosaics in rare stones. The Florentines 
 are famous for their caustic wit and natural gifts 
 of eloquence, as well as for their shrewd thrifti- 
 ness and unflagging labour. The beauty of the 
 city and neighbourhood, her grand historical 
 monuments, and her luiique collections of art, 
 attract many foreigners to fix their residence 
 here. 
 
 Florence originated in the old Etrurian town of 
 Fiesole (q.v.), on the hill behind, was a Roman 
 military colony luider Sulla, but was not an im- 
 portant place till the time of Charlemagne, when 
 it was governed by a duke. By the 11th century 
 the Florentines were wealthy traders, and the 
 city had practically republican government — at 
 first aristocratic, but gradually beconnng more 
 popular. In 1215 Florence became involved in 
 the deadly feud of Guelphs and Ghibellines, and 
 was never free from the contests of these and 
 other factions, native or alien, till the family of 
 the Medici secured supreme power at the close of 
 the 15th century. Her liberty was extinguished, 
 but under the Medici the city was the focus of 
 literature and art. In 1569 the Medici became 
 grand-dukes of Tuscany, with Florence as their 
 capital; and Tuscany, after several changes of 
 dynasty, became part of the Italian kingdom in 
 1860, Florence being the capital of Italy from 1864 
 till 1871. Among Florentine worthies have been 
 Dante, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Guicciardini, 
 Amerigo Vespucci, and Florence Nightingale. 
 Savonarola laboured and was executed here ; to 
 the Florentine school belong the painters Cima- 
 bue, Orcagna, Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, the Lippis, 
 Andrea del Sarto, Carlo Dolci ; the sculjrtors 
 Luca della Robbia, Donatello, and Ghiberti; 
 and the musicians Lully and Cherubini. 
 
 See works by T. A. Trollope (1865), Mrs Oliphant 
 (1876), Yriarte (1882), A. J. C. Hare (5th ed. 1901), 
 Villari (1895), Grant Allen (1897), E. G. Gardner 
 (1900), and Goffe (1905). 
 
 Florence, a to^vn in the Staffordshire Potteries, 
 2 miles SW. of Newcastle-under-Lyme. 
 
 Flores, (1) one of the Sunda islands in the East 
 Indies, lying due south from Celebes. Area, 
 
FLORIDA 
 
 272 
 
 FOLIGNO 
 
 602(5 sq. m. ; pop. 250,000. It is heavily timbered, 
 and mountainous in the interior. The western 
 half, Mangarai, is subject to a native chief; the 
 eastern half, known as Endeh, belongs to Hol- 
 land. The trade is principally in tortoiseshell, 
 cinnamon, sandalwood, and edible birds'-nests. 
 — (2) An island of the Azores (q.v.), where in 1591 
 Sir Richard Grenville in the little Revenge held at 
 bay fifteen Spanish war-ships till his own was a 
 mere wreck— the subject of a noble poem by 
 Tennyson. 
 
 Florida, called the ' Everglade State ' and 
 'Peninsula State,' lies in the extreme SE. of the 
 United States, between the Atlantic and the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and bounded N. by Georgia and Ala- 
 bama. The state is nearly 400 miles long, 84 
 miles in mean breadth, and 58,680 sq. m. in area 
 (about one-fifteenth water surface). Florida has 
 nineteen navigable rivers (1000 miles in all), with 
 many swamps, marshes, lakes, and ponds. Of the 
 lakes the largest is Okeechobee, a shallow fresh- 
 water expanse of about 1000 sq. m. ; the Ever- 
 glades (q.v.) form a delta-like expansion of this 
 lake. The long coast-line is dotted with innumer- 
 able islands and keys. In climate and products 
 Florida is like a great tropical island. It is 
 cooled by sea-breezes from the gulf, making the 
 climate remarkably equable ; and the state is a 
 favourite winter-resort, both for tourists and 
 invalids, although malarial fevers prevail in some 
 parts, and yellow fever has occasionally, as in 1889, 
 visited the seaports heavily. The range between 
 the mean summer and winter temperature is only 
 about 20° ; the greatest recorded extremes are 105° 
 and 10° F. The soil, while much of it seems a 
 sterile sand, is helped to fertility by the mois- 
 ture, the rainfall being about 54 inches annually. 
 Large areas are devoted to orange orchards, while 
 lemons, limes, grapes, pine-apples, bananas, pears, 
 guavas, figs, &c. grow with equal luxuriance ; and 
 coffee, rice, cotton, and tobacco are natural pro- 
 ducts. Cocoa-nuts also are grown in the sub- 
 tropical region. Market-gardening has become ini- 
 portant. Florida is not rich in minerals. Mineral 
 springs are numerous. Large tracts of alluvial 
 swamp and shallow lake-lands are being reclaimed 
 by drai nage. Next to these are the low hummocks 
 or bottom-lands, dry enough for cultivation, and 
 producing large crops of cotton, sugar-cane, 
 grain, fruits, and vegetables. The high hum- 
 mocks have a dark, gray soil, very rich at first, 
 but soon running out if not kept well fertilised. 
 Then come first-class pine, oak, and hickory 
 lands, sandy, but containing a good deal of lime. 
 There is a second-class pine land that is barren, 
 but supplies a tolerably good pasturage. Indian 
 corn is largely raised. In the central and 
 southern parts the black bear, the cougar, the 
 panther, wild-cats, wolves, foxes, raccoons, 
 opossums, fish-otters, deer, and smaller game are 
 at home ; alligators, turtles, and manatees are 
 found in the waters. The lumber trade, the 
 preparation of naval stores, turpentine, tar, 
 rosin, pitch, and cigar-making are amongst 
 the industries; all along the coast there are 
 valuable fisheries, oysters abound in many parts, 
 and the inland waters also teem with fish ; and 
 the evaporation of salt, the production of cotton- 
 seed oil and meal, the manufacture of fertilisers, 
 and sponge and coral fisheries are profitable pur- 
 suits. The chief towns are Key West, Jacksonville, 
 Pensacola, Tampa, St Augustine, and Tallahassee 
 (the capital). The State College is at Lake City. 
 Pop. (1870) 187,748; (1880) 269,493; (1890)391,422; 
 (1900) 528,542, of whom 230,730 were negroes. 
 
 Florida was discovered on Easter Day (Pasawi, 
 
 Florida), 1512, by Juan Ponce de Leon. In 
 1539 it was explored by De Soto, and in 1565 a 
 body of French Calvinists were butchered or 
 driven out by the Spaniards. Spanish till 1763, 
 English from 1763 till 1781, and Spanish again 
 till 1819, it was acquired by the United States 
 and became a territory ; it was admitted into the 
 Union as a state in 1845. In 1835-42 it was the 
 theatre of a desperate war with the aborigines 
 rSeminoles). In the civil war the state took the 
 Confederate side, and was not readmitted to the 
 Union till 1868. 
 
 See Davidson, The Florida of To-day (1889); 
 Whitehead, The Camp-fires of the East (1891); 
 Powell, The American Siberia (in reference to the 
 convict camps here, 1892). 
 
 Florida, capital of an Uruguayan dep., 67 miles 
 N. of Montevideo by rail. Pop. 2500.— The dep. 
 has an area of 4650 sq. m., and a pop. of 40,600. 
 
 Florida Strait, the channel separating the 
 American state of Florida from Cuba and the 
 Bahamas. It is 310 miles long, 50 to 100 miles 
 wide, and 2220 to 5070 feet deep. The Gulf 
 Stream flows through it. 
 
 Floors Castle. See Kelso. 
 
 Fliielen, a village at the southern end of the 
 Lake of Lucerne, on the St Gothard Road and 
 the St Gothard Railway. 
 
 Flushing (Dutch Vlissingen), a strong Dutch 
 fortress and seaport, on the south coast of the 
 island of Walcheren, at the mouth of the Western 
 Scheldt, 87 miles SW. of Rotterdam. Formerly 
 an important naval station, it was converted 
 into a commercial harbour in 1865-73. A daily 
 service of steamers connects Flushing with Queen- 
 borough in Kent (8 hours' passage). There is a 
 royal dockyard here ; and, since 1875, a large 
 floating-dock. Pop. 18,565. 
 
 Flushing, since 1897 included in the City of 
 New York, is in Long Island, on Flushing Bay, a 
 branch of Long Island Sound. 
 
 Fly, a river of New Guinea, flowing to the 
 west side of the Gulf of Papua, and fonning at 
 its mouth a wide delta. First ascended for 90 
 miles by MacFarlane and D'Albertis in 1875, it 
 was explored in 1885 by Everill for 200. 
 
 Foch'abers, a village of Elginshire, on the 
 Spey, 7 miles ESE. of Elgin, Milne's Free 
 School (1846) is the chief edifice. A mile north 
 is Gordon Castle, the old ' Bog of Gight,' the seat 
 now of the Duke of Richmond and Gordon. 
 Pop. 981. 
 
 Foggia (Fodfa), capital of an Italian province, 
 76 miles NW. of Bari by rail. Supposed to have 
 been built from the ruins of the ancient Arpi, 
 it has a cathedral dating from 1172, but partially 
 rebuilt after an earthquake in 1731. Pop. 53,852. 
 
 Fohr, a fertile island in the North Sea, oflT the 
 west coast of Sleswick. Area, 28 sq. m. ; pop. 
 4350, Frisians by race. The chief town is Wyk 
 (pop. 1063). 
 
 Foix (Ficah), capital of the French dep. of 
 Ari^ge, in a Pyrenean valley, 44 miles S. of Tou- 
 louse by rail. Of the ancient castle of the counts 
 of Foix (1362) there remain only three towers. 
 The town has iron and steel works. Pop. 6177. 
 
 Fokshanl, a town of Roumania, on the Milkoff, 
 a tributary of the Sereth, 123 miles by rail NE. 
 of Bucharest. Pop. 25,290. 
 
 Foldvar, DuNA, a town of Hungary, on the 
 Danube, 48 miles S. of Pesth. Pop. 12,V20. 
 
 Foligno (Folcen'yo), a cathedral city of central 
 Italy, 25 miles SE. of Perugia. Pop. 9753. 
 
FOLKESTONE 
 
 273 
 
 FORMOSA 
 
 Folkestone, a municipal borough, seaport, and 
 watering-place of Kent, 7| miles WSW. of Dover, 
 and 71^ ESE. of London. Built on uneven 
 ground, at the foot of hills 575 feet high, it has 
 rapidly extended and improved since the opening 
 of the railway (1844), and of a daily service of 
 steam-packets to Boulogne. The harbour is 
 much used by boats employed in the herring and 
 mackerel fisheries. In the vicinity are the 
 remains of Roman entrenchments. Harvey, the 
 discoverer of the circulation, was a native, and 
 a statue of hiin was erected in 1881. Folkestone 
 is included in the parliamentary borough of 
 Hythe (q.v.). Pop. (1851) 6726 ; (1901) 30,650. 
 
 Fond du Lac (Fon^ dii Lac,- Ft., 'end of the 
 lake'), capital of a Wisconsin county, at the 
 southern end of Lake Winnebago, 63 miles NNW. 
 of Milwaukee by rail. It carries on a large trade 
 in lumber, and is supplied with water by numer- 
 ous artesian wells. Pop. 15,024. 
 
 Fondl (Fori! dee), a walled cathedral city of Italy, 
 14 miles NW. of Gaeta. Pop. 6773. 
 
 Fonse'ca, a bay on the Pacific coast of Central 
 America, the proposed terminus of a projected 
 interoceanic railway through Honduras. 
 
 Fontalnebleau {FonHehn-hW), a French town 
 in Seine-et-Marne, near the Seine's left bank, 37 
 miles SE. of Paris. It is chiefly famous for its royal 
 chateau, and the beautiful forest, 65 sq. m. in 
 area, that surrounds it. The chateau, said to 
 have been founded by Robert the Good towards 
 the end of the 10th century, was rebuilt in 1169 
 by Louis VII., and enlarged by Louis XI. and 
 his successors. After being allowed to fall into 
 decay, it was repaired and embellished by Francis 
 I., Henry IV., Napoleon I., and Louis-Philippe. 
 Pop. 10,078. 
 
 Fontarabia, or FuENTERRABiA, a picturesque 
 old frontier town of Spain, at the mouth of the 
 Bidassoa, opposite the French town of Hendaye, 
 below the west extremity of the Pyrenees. It 
 was long an important fortress, often taken and 
 retaken. In the Roland legend, it is associated 
 with the defeat at Roncesvalles (q.v.). Pop. 4713. 
 
 Fontenay-le-Comte (Foncfnay-le-Tcon^f), a town 
 in the French dep. of Vendue, on the river 
 Vendee, 27 miles NB. of La Rochelle. It has a 
 beautiful Romanesque church, with a Gothic 
 spire 311 feet high ; a fountain from which it is 
 said to have derived its nanae ; and manufactures 
 of hats, woollens, linen, &c. Pop. 8369. 
 
 Fontenoy, a village (pop. 857) of Belgium, 5 
 miles SE. of Tournay. Here, on 11th May 1745, 
 the French under Marshal Saxe, defeated the 
 allies (Englisli, Dutch, and Austrians) under the 
 Duke of Cumberland. The victory was in great 
 measure due to the courage of the ' Irish Brigade ' 
 in the French army. 
 
 Fontevrault (Fon^t-e-vro'), a town in the 
 French dep. of Maine-et-Loire, 8 miles SE. of 
 Saumur. A celebrated abbey was founded here 
 in 1099 ; the 12th-century church contains sepul- 
 chral monuments to Henry II. of England, his 
 queen, Eleanor of Guienne, Richard Coeur-de- 
 Lion, and Isabella, the queen of John. Since 
 1804 the monastic buildings have been used as a 
 prison for 2000 convicts. Pop. 1571. 
 
 Poochow (Fii-Chdu), capital of the Chinese 
 province of FCl-chien, with suburbs extending to 
 the river Min, 25 miles above its mouth. The 
 town proper is surrounded with walls nearly 30 
 feet high, and 10 feet wide at the top. The river 
 is thronged with floating houses, and is crossed 
 by a great bridge, 329 yards long. The Min 
 R 
 
 provides an easy communication with the interior, 
 with which a large trade is carried on in timber, 
 paper, and cotton and woollen goods ; and the 
 port, opened to foreign commerce in 1842, is one 
 of the principal tea-markets and mission stations 
 in China. The imports are chiefly opium, cotton 
 goods, and lead. There are manufactories of silk 
 and cotton fabrics and paper; and on an island 
 3 miles down the stream there is a large govern* 
 ment arsenal managed by Europeans. The French 
 bombarded Foochow in 1884. Pop. 630,000. 
 
 Forbach, a manufacturing town in Lorraine, 
 6 miles SW. of Saarbruck. Here, on 6th August 
 1870, the French had to retreat. Pop. 8842. 
 
 Fordoun, a Kincardineshire parish, 6 miles N, 
 by E. of Laurencekirk. 
 
 Foreland, North and South, two promontories 
 of England, on the east coast of Kent, between 
 which are the Downs and Goodwin Sands. 
 
 ForTar, the county town of Forfarshire, at the 
 E. end of Forfar Loch, 14 miles NNE. of Dundee. 
 It was a royal residence as early as the reign of 
 Malcolm Canmore, whose son, David I. (1124-53), 
 made it a royal burgh ; but in 1308 Bruce razed 
 the castle — its site is marked by the town-crosg 
 of 1684. The making of brogues by the ' Forfar 
 souters ' is a thing of the long past ; and linen is 
 now the leading manufacture. The Reid public 
 hall (1869) may be noticed, and the Reid public 
 park (1894). With Montrose and three other 
 burglis it returns one member. Pop. of the royal 
 biugh (1901) 12,117. 
 
 For'farshire, or Angus, a Scottish county, 
 washed on the east by the Gennan Ocean, on the 
 south by the Firth of Tay. It has an utmost 
 length and breadth of 3<5 and 36J miles, and an 
 area of 890 sq. m. The surface is finely diversified, 
 the rich plain of Strathmore — the Howe of Angus 
 —dividing the Sidlaw Hills (1399 feet) from the 
 Grampian Braes of Angus in the north-west, which 
 culminate in Cairn na Glaslia (3484 feet) on the 
 Aberdeenshire boundary, and exceed 2000 feet in 
 twenty-two other summits. The chief streams 
 are the North and South Esks and the Isla ; and 
 Loch Lee (9 by 2 furlongs) is the largest of several 
 small lakes. Somewhat less than half of the 
 entire area is in cultivation, and more than one- 
 nineteenth under wood. Linen and jute are the 
 staple manufactures of the towns. These include 
 Dundee, Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar, 
 Broughty-Ferry, Kirriemuir, and Carnoustie. 
 The county returns one member to parliament. 
 Pop. (1801) 99,053; (1841) 170,453; (1901)284,082. 
 The antiquities include vitrified and other hill- 
 forts, cairns and standing-stones, weems, Roman 
 camps, the sculptured stones of Meigle, Aber- 
 lemno, St Vigeans, Glamis, &c., the ruins of 
 Restennoth priory and Arbroath abbey, the round 
 tower of Brechin, and the old castles of Glamis, 
 Edzell, Finhaven, Airlie, &c. See Warden's 
 Angus or Forfarshire (4 vols. 1880-83). 
 
 Forli (For'lee; anc. Forum Livii), an Italian 
 city at the foot of the Apennines, 40 miles SB. 
 of Bologna by rail. It has a cathedral, a citadel 
 (1361, now a prison), and manufactures of silk, 
 shoes, hats, and cloth. Pop. 39,442. 
 
 Formia (anc. Formice; formerly Mola di Gaeta), 
 a seaport of Italy, on the Gulf of Gaeta, with 
 the ruins of Cicero's villa. Pop. 8551. 
 
 Formosa (Chinese Taiwan), an island lying 
 off the coast of China, from which it is separ- 
 ated by the Fii-chien Strait, 90 to 220 miles 
 wide. It has a maximum length of 235 miles, a 
 varying breadth of 70 to 90 miles, and an area 
 
FORMOSA 
 
 274 
 
 FORTROSE 
 
 of 14,978 sq. m. The backbone of the island 
 is formed of a range of densely-wooded moun- 
 tains, which culminate in Mount Morrison 
 (12,847 feet). Eastward of tliis range lies a nar- 
 row strip of mountainous country, presenting to 
 the Pacific a precipitous cliff-wall with in many 
 places a sheer descent of from 5000 to 7000 feet. 
 West of the range is a broad alluvial plain. The 
 rainfall of the northern, central, and eastern 
 portions of the island is heavy. The mean tem- 
 perature of summer is 80° to 90° F. ; of winter, 
 50° to 60°. Malarial fever is prevalent in the 
 north, and violent typhoons are very common at 
 certain seasons. The island is famous for its 
 rich vegetation. Of animal life there are at least 
 forty-three species of birds peculiar to the island, 
 whilst insects are scarce, and noxious wild animals 
 few. The principal commercial products are tea, 
 sugar, coal, turmeric, rice, sweet potatoes, ground- 
 nuts, bamboos, grasses, tobacco, timber, and 
 sesamum-seed. In the south the staple crops are 
 sugar and turmeric, and in the north tea. The 
 imports consist principally of opium, cotton and 
 woollen piece goods, and lead. Sulphur, iron, 
 and petroleum also exist, but are not worked to 
 any extent. Camphor, once the chief product, 
 has again under Japanese rule become an im- 
 portant product ; and since 1895, when Formosa 
 was ceded by China to Japan, tlie Japanese have 
 done marvels for the development of the island — 
 in mining, roads, artesian wells, railways, post- 
 offices, savings-banks, sanitation, liospitals, and 
 education. The savage tribes of the interior 
 liave been reduced to order, not without some 
 trouble. (See Formosa Past and Present, 1903, 
 by J. W. Davidson.) Formosa forms a province 
 of Japan under its Cliinese name of Taiwan. 
 Taiwan and Takow are ports on the south-west, 
 and Tamsui and Kelung on the north. The in- 
 habitants, 2,810,000 in 1905, consist of Chinese 
 settlers and of aborigines, mainly of Malayan 
 and Negrito descent, witli some 25,000 Japanese. 
 The Pescadores, a group of islands with 10,000 
 inhabitants, 20 miles to the west, were ceded to 
 Japan at tlie same tin)e as Formosa. In the 14th 
 century the Chinese established several colonies 
 in Formosa. Although Portuguese and Spanish 
 navigators began to visit the island in the 16th 
 century, the first European people to establish 
 themselves on it were the Dutch, wlio in 1624 
 built Fort Zealandia, near the modern Taiwan. 
 They were, however, expelled in 1661 by a Chinese 
 adventurer, Koscinga, who retained possession of 
 the island for twenty-two years. Some years 
 later a regular Chinese colonisation of the western 
 half of the island was carried through. Subse- 
 quently the island became notorious for piracy, 
 and for its ill treatment of shipwrecked crews. 
 
 Formosa, a territory in the extreme north of 
 Argentine Republic, formed in 1884. The capital 
 is Formosa (1000 inhabitants), on the Paraguay, 
 100 miles NNE. of Corrientes. 
 
 For'res, a royal burgh of Elginshire, 5 miles S. 
 of Findhorn village on the Moray Firth, and 25 
 ENE. of Inverness, with which and Nairn and 
 Fortrose it returns a member. On its Castle 
 Hill, a royal residence from 1189 to 1371, stands 
 an obelisk (1857), 65 feet high, to the Crimean 
 hero, Dr Thomson of Cromarjty ; on wooded 
 Cluny Hill are a hydropathic and the Nelson 
 tower (1806), 70 feet high. Sueno's Stone is a 
 sculptured monolith ascribed to the year 900; 
 the Witch's Stone recalls Macbeth's meeting with 
 the weird sisters near Forres. Pop. 4313. 
 
 Forst, a town of Prussia, 80 miles SE. of 
 
 Berlin by rail, with manufactures of buckskins, 
 cloth, and leather. Pop. 83,539. 
 
 Fortaleza, the official name of Ceara (q.v.), an 
 important seaport of Bi'azil. 
 
 Fort Augustus, a village on the Caledonian 
 Canal, at the head of Loch Ness, 33 miles SW. of 
 Inverness. In 1730 General Wade named a fort 
 here after the Duke of Cumberland. Sold to Lord 
 Lovat (1857), it was presented to the Benedic- 
 tines, and in 1876-90 converted into a stately 
 abbey. Pop. 611. 
 
 Fort de France (formerly Fort Eoyal), capital 
 of Martinique (q.v.), in the French West Indies, 
 on the west coast. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Fort Dodge, capital of Webster county, Iowa, 
 85 miles NW. of Des Moines. It lias important 
 manufactures and coal-mines. Pop. 12,170. 
 
 Forteviot, the ancient capital of the Picts. 
 Its site is 7 miles SW. of Perth. 
 
 Fort Garry. See Winnipeg. 
 
 Fort George, a fortress 12 miles NE. of Inver- 
 ness, on a low sandy projection into the Moray 
 Firth, here only 1 mile broad. Built in 1748 at 
 a cost of £160,000, it covers 12 acres, and can 
 accommodate 2180 men. 
 
 Forth, a river and firth of Scotland. The river 
 is formed by two head-streams, Duchray Water 
 and the Avondhu, which, rising on and not far 
 from Ben Lomond, at altitudes of 3000 and 1900 
 feet, run 14 and 9 miles to a confluence near 
 Aberfoyle, the Avondhu traversing Lochs Chon 
 and Ard. From their confluence, 80 feet above 
 sea-level, the Forth itself winds 39 miles to 
 Stirling, then 12^ (the ' Links of Forth ') to Alloa, 
 the distances in a straight line being only 18^ 
 and 5| miles. It receives the Teith, Allan Water, 
 and Devon, and traverses or divides Stirling, 
 Perth, and Clackmannan shires. The Firth of 
 Forth extends 51 miles eastward from Alloa 
 to the German Ocean, between Clackmannan- 
 shire and Fife on the north, and Stirlingshire 
 and the Lothians on the south. It has a 
 width of ^ mile at Kincardine, 3 miles above 
 Bo'ness, ij at Queensferry, 5 between Granton 
 and Burntisland, 17 at Prestonpans, and 8^ at 
 Elie. Its waters, 3 to 37 fathoms deep, encircle 
 the islands of Inchkeith (fortified 1878-81), Inch- 
 colm (with a ruined abbey), Cramond, &c., whilst 
 at the entrance are the Bass Rock (q.v.) and the 
 Isle of May, on which last and on Inchkeith are 
 lighthouses. Rivers falling into it are the Carron, 
 Avon, Almond, Water of Leith, Esk, and Leven. 
 White fish are plentiful. In 1882-90 a great 
 cantilever railway bridge was erected across the 
 firth at Queensferry. It consists of two main 
 spans of 1700 feet each, and two of 675, its total 
 length, inclusive of piers, being 8296 feet, or a 
 little over 1^ mile. The clear headway under the 
 centre of the bridge is 152 feet at high-water, 
 and the highest part of the bridge is 361 feet. 
 Designed by Fowler and Baker, the bridge with 
 approaches cost £3,368,000. Above the bridge is 
 the roadstead of St Margaret's Hope, and Rosyth, 
 the new naval base (1904). 
 
 Fort Madison, capital of Lee county, Iowa, on 
 the Mississippi, 19 miles SW. of Burlington, with 
 manufactures of chairs, boots, &c. Pop. 9300. 
 
 Fortrose, a watering-place of Ross-shire, on the 
 inner Moray Firth, 10 miles NNE. of Inverness by 
 a railway (1894). With capital links and good 
 bathing, it is one of the Inverness burghs ; and 
 its two portions, Chanonry and Rosemarkie, were 
 constituted a royal burgh in 1590. The seat of a 
 Ctolumbaa monastery in the 6th century, of tho 
 
 f 
 
FORT ROYAL 
 
 275 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 bishopric of Ross from 1124, it retains the south 
 aisle and chapter-house of a fine cathedral, de- 
 molished to furnish materials for Cromwell's 
 fort at Inverness. Pop. 10(56. 
 
 Fort Royal. See Fort de France. 
 
 Fort Scott, capital of Bourbon county, Kansas, 
 on the Marmiton River, 98 miles S. of Kansas City. 
 It has foundries, machine-shops, &c. Pop. 11,940. 
 
 Fort St David, a ruined fortress (British from 
 1690) on the coast of Madras presidency, 100 miles 
 S. of Madras, on the outskirts of Cuddalore. 
 Clive became its governor in 1756. 
 
 Fort St George. See Madras. 
 
 Fort Sumter. See Sumter. 
 
 Fortunate Islands. See Canaries. 
 
 Fort Wayne, capital of Allen county, Indiana, 
 at the confluence of the St Joseph and St Mary's 
 rivers, which form the Maumee, and on the 
 Wabash and Erie Canal, 148 miles ESE. of Chicago. 
 It is an important railway centre, and manufac- 
 tures organs, woollens, engines, &c. It is the seat 
 of a Catholic bishop, and has Methodist (1846) 
 and Lutheran (1850) colleges. Pop. (1870) 17,718 ; 
 (1890) 35,392 ; (1900) 45,115. 
 
 Fort William, a police-burgh and great tourist 
 centre of Inverness-shire, near the head of salt- 
 water Loch Linnhe, the west base of Ben Nevis, 
 and the south end of the Caledonian Canal, 66 
 miles SSW. of Inverness. A fort, built here by 
 Monk in 1655, and rebuilt in 1G90, was vainly 
 besieged by the Jacobites in 1746. It was dis- 
 mantled about 1860, and in 1890 made room for 
 the station of the West Highland Railway from 
 Glasgow. Pop. 2087. See also Calcutta. 
 
 Fort Worth, capital of Tarrant county, Texas, 
 on the west fork of the Trinity River, 33 miles 
 W. of Dallas by rail, with several mills, and a 
 trade in cotton. Pop. (1880) 6663 ; (1900) 26,688. 
 
 Fossa'no, a town of North Italy, 15 miles NE. 
 of Cuneo by rail. It has a cathedral and a 14th- 
 century castle. Pop. 7959. 
 
 Fossombro'ne (anc. Forum Sempronii), a cathe- 
 dral city of Italy, on the Metauro, 10 miles E. 
 of Urbino. Pop. 4266. 
 
 Potheringhay, a village of Northamptonshire, 
 on the Nen, 9 miles SW. of Peterborough. Its 
 castle, founded shortly after the Conquest, in 
 which Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded in 
 1587, was allowed to fall into decay after James 
 I.'s accession to the English throne. 
 
 Fougeres, a town in the French dep. of Ille-et- 
 Vilaine, 23 miles by rail N. of Vitre. It has a 
 picturesque old castle, granite-quarries, and manu- 
 factures of sailcloth, leather, &c. Here the Ven- 
 deans defeated the republicans in November 1793. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Foula, a lonely island of Shetland, 16 miles 
 WSW. of the nearest point of the mainland. 
 Measuring 3J by 2^ miles, it is 5 sq. m. in area, 
 and culminates in the Sneug (1372 feet). The 
 Old Red Sandstone cliffs on its north-west side, 
 rising 1220 feet almost sheer from the sea, are 
 denizened in the breeding season by myriads of 
 sea-fowl— puffins, kittiwakes, and the rare great 
 skua or 'bonxie,' which formerly was preserved 
 by the islanders to keep down the eagles. The 
 only landing-place is at the fishing-hamlet of 
 Ham, on the south-east. Foula was the last 
 island where the old Norse tongue lingered on 
 Into the 19th century. Pop. 230. 
 
 Fountains Abbey, one of the largest and best- 
 OTeserved monastic edifices in England, in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, 3 miles SW. of Ripon. 
 
 Founded for Cistercians in 1132, it was not coro- 
 pleted till the 16th century. 
 
 Fourchambault {Foor-shong-io), a town in the 
 French dep. of Ni^vre, 5 miles NNW. of Nevers, 
 near the Loire, here crossed by a suspension 
 bridge. There are large iron-foundries, nail- 
 works, and wire-works. Pop. 6126. 
 
 Four Lakes, a chain of deep lakes (Mendota, 
 Menona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa) in Dane county, 
 Wisconsin, connected by short outlets. Madison, 
 the state capital, stands on an isthmus between 
 Mendota and Menona. 
 
 Fourmies, a town in the French dep. of Nord, 
 12 miles SE. of Avesnes by rail, with mines, iron- 
 works, and mills. There were great labour riota 
 here in 1891. Pop. (1861) 3422 ; (1901) 13,828. 
 
 Fowey, or For, an old Cornish town, on the 
 right bank of the river Fowey, 11 miles SSE. of 
 Bodmin. It is the ' Troy Town ' and the home 
 of Quiller- Couch. Pilchards are cured, and 
 'china-stone' and iron ore exported from its 
 harbour. Poj). 2657. 
 
 Fox Channel, the northern portion of Hudson 
 Bay, washing the western shores of Baffin Land, 
 and named from Luke Fox, an English navigator, 
 who explored Hudson Bay in 1631. 
 
 Fox Islands. See Aleutian Islands. 
 
 Foyers (Fl'ers), a stream of Invemess-shire, 
 running 9 miles N. to the east side of Loch Ness, 
 lOi miles NE. of Fort Augustus. During the 
 last IJ mile it descends 400 feet, and forms two 
 magnificent cascades, 40 and 165 feet high. 
 
 Foyle, Lough, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the 
 north coast of Ireland, between Londonderry and 
 Donegal counties. It is 15 miles long, 1 mile 
 wide at its entrance, and 10 miles along its south 
 side. Vessels of 600 tons ascend the lough, and 
 also as far as Derry, its principal tributary the 
 Foyle, which, formed near Liftbrd by the Finn 
 and the Mourne, has a NNE. course of 72 miles. 
 
 Fraga, a town of Spain, on the Cinca, 63 miles 
 ESE. of Saragossa. Here, in 1134, the Moors 
 defeated Alfonso I. of Aragon. Pop. 7110. 
 
 Framlngham, a town of Massachusetts, on the 
 Sudbury River, 24 miles W. by S. of Boston by 
 rail. The township includes Saxonville and South 
 Framingham, with manufactures of blankets and 
 straw goods. Pop. 11,300. 
 
 Framlingham ('strangers' town'), a Suffolk 
 market-town, 22 miles NNE. of Ipswich by a 
 branch line. The fine flint- work church, restored 
 in 1888-89, has a tower 90 feet high, and con- 
 tains noble altar-tombs of the Howards (the 
 third Duke of Norfolk, the poet Earl of Surrey, 
 &c.). Separated by the Mere from the red-brick 
 Albert middle-class college (1864) rises the great 
 Edwardian castle, the stronghold successively of 
 Bigods, Mowbrays, and Howards, and Queen 
 Mary's refuge after Edward VI. 's death. Pop. 
 2515. See Hawes's History of Framlingham (1798). 
 
 Francavllla, a town of Italy, 22 miles WSW. of 
 Brindisi. Pop. 18,559. 
 
 France, occupying a most advantageous posi- 
 tion between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, 
 is a compact hexagonal mass, bounded N. by the 
 Channel and the Strait of Dover, NE. by Belgium 
 and Luxemburg, E. by Lorraine, Alsace, Switzer- 
 land, and Italy, S. by the Mediterranean Sea 
 and Spain, from which it is separated by the 
 Pyrenees, and W. by the Atlantic. Its utmost ex- 
 tremities are comprised between 51° 5'— 42° 20' N. 
 lat. and the 4° 42' W.— 7° 39' E. long. ; its greatest 
 dimensions being 606 miles from N. to S., 556 
 
FRANCE 
 
 276 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 miles from W. to E., and 675 miles from NW. to 
 SB. As diminished in 1871 by the loss of Alsace 
 and part of Lorraine (5590 sq. m.), France covers, 
 by the measurement of 1894, an area of 206,381 
 sq. m, — one-eighteenth part of Europe. Pop. 
 (1872) 36,102,921 ; (1901) 38,961,945, or about one- 
 tenth of the population of Europe. 
 
 France, formerly divided Into some 30 prov- 
 inces (Normandy, Brittany, Champagne, Bur- 
 gundy, Auvergne, Languedoc, Provence, fee- 
 see the separate articles), was at the Revolu- 
 tion re-distributed into deps. named generally 
 after the rivers. Tliese deps., mostly between 
 1500 and 2500 sq. m. in area, are, including Corsica 
 and the territory of Belfort, 87 in number, 
 and each is separately discussed in this work. 
 Exsept the island of Corsica, which, geogra- 
 phically and ethnologically, belongs rather to 
 Italy, France has no islands of importance. The 
 islands off the Mediterranean coast, as well as 
 those off Brittany, are practically but small de- 
 tached fragments of the mainland ; while the 
 Channel Islands, situated between Brittany and 
 the Cotentin peninsula, belong to Great Britain. 
 
 The possessions of France outside of Europe, 
 both colonies and protected countries, cover an 
 aggregate of 4,000,000 sq. m,, and have a pop. 
 of more than 51,000,000 inhabitants. Of them 
 Algeria (q.v.) is rapidly becoming a part of 
 France proper, and is considered as such for 
 nearly all administrative purposes. The large 
 territory of Tunis has since 1881-83 been under 
 French protection. By a treaty signed in 1885 
 Madagascar was placed under the protection of 
 France, which also now holds a large area in 
 West Africa, in Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and on 
 the Gaboon and Congo. In Asia, Tonkin was 
 annexed to France in 1884, and Annam placed 
 under its protectorate, and portions of Siam 
 acquired in 1893. The details of the French 
 colonies and protectorates are given In the sub- 
 joined table : 
 
 In Asia— in sq. m. ^°v- 
 
 French India 196 273,000 
 
 Cochin-Chiua 22,000 2,968,600 
 
 Tonkin and Laos 144,400 7,641,900 
 
 Annam 52,100 6,124,000 
 
 Cambodia 37,400 1,500,000 
 
 Jn Africa — 
 
 Algeria 184,474 4,739.300 
 
 Tunis 51,000 1,900,000 
 
 Western Sahara 1,544,000 2,550,000 
 
 Senegal 80,000 1,800,000 
 
 Senegambia and Niger 210,000 3,000,000 
 
 French Guinea 95,000 2,200,000 
 
 Ivory Coast 116,000 2,000,000 
 
 Dahomey 60,000 1,000,000 
 
 Congo 1,160,000 10,000,000 
 
 Somali Coast 45,000 200,000 
 
 Edunion 966 173,200 
 
 Comoro Isles 620 47,000 
 
 Mayotte 140 11,640 
 
 Madagascar 227,950 2,505,240 
 
 In America — 
 
 Guiana 30,500 32,910 
 
 Guadeloupe, &c 688 182.110 
 
 Martinique 380 203,780 
 
 St Pierre and Miquelon 92 6,250 
 
 In Oceania — 
 
 New Caledonia, Ac 7,650 51,410 
 
 Establishments, Oceania 1,620 29,000 
 
 Total 4,072,076 51,139.340 
 
 A general idea of the leading geographical 
 features of France can be given in a few words. 
 Its territory embodies highlands in the south 
 and south-east only : in the south it comprises 
 the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, and towards 
 
 the south-east frontier part of the Alps. The 
 remainder of the territory is nearly equally 
 divided between extensive lowlands in the north- 
 west and a great plateau, which covers the south- 
 eastern half, but is separated from the Alps by 
 the broad and deep valley of the Lower Rhone. 
 The climate of France, its vegetation, the dis- 
 tribution of its population, and its very history 
 have been determined by these leading features 
 of its orography. 
 
 The extensive mass of elevated plains which 
 rises between the lowlands of the Mediterranean 
 coast and those sloping towards the Atlantic 
 reaches a height of from 3000 to 4000 feet in its 
 higher central parts only ; several chains, partly 
 of volcanic origin, piled over its surface, attain 
 from 5000 to 6000 feet; while the river-valleys 
 are dug so deeply into the plateau that it often 
 assumes a hilly aspect. The whole slopes gently 
 towards the north-west, gradually melting into 
 the lowlands of the Garonne, the Loire, and the 
 Seine ; but the plateau has a short steep slope 
 towards the valley of the Rhone and the Medi- 
 terranean coast, and the southern part of that 
 slope is fringed by the C6vennes Mountains, 
 which raise their granitic and crystalline sum- 
 mits to more than 5000 feet above the sea 
 (Mont M6zenc, 5754 feet). This lofty chain 
 separates two entirely different worlds— the 
 fertile, sunny, and warm plains of the Lower 
 Rhone and Languedoc from the plains of the 
 Rouergue, dreary, cold, and 3000 feet high, upon 
 which only rye is grown, and flocks of sheep find 
 rich grazing-grounds. The sunny slopes of the 
 Monts du Beaujolais, turned towards the Saone, 
 are covered with rich vineyards ; while the 
 plateau to the west of them is dotted with iron- 
 works, coal-mines, and manufacturing cities. 
 The Vosges, although making a steep descent to 
 the valley of the Rhine, rise but gently over 
 the plateau, their highest points being not more 
 than from 3300 to 4000 feet above the sea (the 
 Ballon de Soultz, 4579 feet, is now on German 
 territory). The Massif Central of Auvergne, 
 the highest part of the plateau, covers nearly 
 one-seventh of France's total area, and is a 
 region of granites, gneisses, and crystalline 
 slates fringed by Jurassic deposits, and dotted 
 on its surface with extinct volcanic cones sur- 
 rounded by wide sheets of lava. The heights 
 of the Massif Central, suffering as they do from 
 a protracted winter, have but a poor, rapidly- 
 diminishing population. The forests which once 
 covered them have inostly been destroyed, save 
 in the picturesque Margeride chain, and only 
 flocks of sheep graze on their meagre pasture- 
 grounds. The Gausses receive rain in abundance, 
 but are exceedingly dry— the water rapidly dis- 
 appearing in the numberless crevices of the soil. 
 A narrow passage near Belfort (la Troupe de 
 Belfort), utilised by both the canal which con- 
 nects the Sa6ne with the Rhine and the railway 
 which leads from Paris to Switzerland, separates 
 the Vosges from tlie limestone plateaus of the 
 Jura, part of which belongs to France. Since 
 the annexation of Savoy in 1860 the Alps of 
 Savoy, as well as a portion of the main chain, 
 including Mont Blanc (15,780 feet), belong to 
 France. The Pyrenees, a wild complex of lofty 
 chains, extends for a length of 260 miles between 
 the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. 
 A plateau, from 1600 to 2000 feet high (Lanne- 
 mezan), spreads out at the northern foot of the 
 Pyrenees. Its limestone soil is exceedingly dry, 
 and its grazing-lands have to be irrigated. 
 
 The whole of north-western France, with the 
 
 i 
 
FRANCE 
 
 277 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 exception of a few hilly tracts in La Vendee, Brit- 
 tany, and Normandy, is occupied by wide plains 
 which constitute the real wealth of the country. 
 Taking them in order from the south-west, we 
 have first the Landes— a Avide triangular space 
 between the Bay of Biscay, the Adour, and the 
 Loire, covered with Pliocene sands, which would 
 be an immense marshy fever-den, bordered by 
 shifting sands on the sea-coast, if it were not 
 intersected by canals, and the sands were not 
 fixed by plantations of trees. The Adour 
 River fringes the Landes. The Dordogne and 
 the Garonne join to form the Gironde, which 
 is a true marine estuary, with the left bank 
 bordered by the low hills of Medoc, covered 
 with vineyards yielding every year not less than 
 2,200,000 gallons of the finest wines. The mono- 
 tony of the rich plains between the Gironde and 
 the Loire, which include the old province of 
 Poitou, is broken by the dreary hills of the 
 Gatine, a link between the chains of Margeride 
 and Limousin and the hilly tracts of Brittany. 
 Next we have the immense plains watered by 
 the Loire, which becomes a great river after 
 receiving the AUier, and has a drainage area 
 covering one-fifth of the area of France. The 
 peninsula of Brittany is formed by two ridges 
 of granitic hills, from 1000 to 1200 feet high, 
 separated by a region of crystalline slates. Its 
 scenery and moist climate, as well as those of 
 the Cotentin peninsula, remind one of England. 
 The plateaus of Normandy (Le Perche), which 
 rise from 1000 to 1300 feet above the surrounding 
 plains, are also covered with beautiful meadows, 
 cornfields, and forests, and French agriculture 
 reaches there its highest development. The Seine 
 separates them from the cretaceous chalky plains 
 of the Caux, which raise their clifts over the 
 Channel, and are deeply cleft by valleys of a 
 remarkable fertility. The wide Tertiary basin 
 which the Seine and its tributaries water has from 
 remote antiquity been the dominant portion of 
 historical France. Numerous large cities, as 
 Auxerre, Sens, Troyes, Chdlons, Rheinis, Laon, 
 Rennes, and Paris, are situated either on the 
 Seine or on its right-bank tributaries which 
 water the fertile plains of Champagne. Havre 
 is the great port at the mouth of the river. 
 Artois and French Flanders are low tracts 
 of land to some extent conquered from the 
 sea. They have a flourishing agriculture, vast 
 coalfields, and a great industry in their chief 
 cities. At the other extremity of France the 
 lowlands of the south occupy the sea-coast and 
 the broad valley of the Rhone, along which they 
 extend between the Alps and the plateau, as far 
 north as Lyons, to be continued farther north 
 by the valley of the Saone. The littoral of Pro- 
 vence has no great fertility, and, except the 
 stony or marshy plains in the neighbourhood of 
 the Rhone, there is but a narrow strip of land 
 left between the mountains and the sea-coast, 
 which is utilised for vineyards and fruit-gardens. 
 The eastern part of the coast, acquired from Italy 
 in 1860, is well known for its mild climate and 
 rich vegetation, which render Nice, Villefranche, 
 Cannes, and Mentone the chief resort of the 
 invalids of Europe. 
 
 France enjoys on the whole a very fine climate ; 
 not so continental as that of central Europe, nor 
 80 maritime as that of England. If we omit the 
 high hilly tracts of the Alps and the Pyrenees, 
 the coldest region of France is evidently that of 
 the high plateau with its cold winters, though 
 it has hot summer days. The climate of Brittany 
 is very much like that of the south-west of 
 
 England ; while that of the plains on the Bay 
 of Biscay is warm and dry, and Pau, on the 
 slopes of the Pyrenees, has the deserved reputa- 
 tion of a sanitary station. The climate of Lan- 
 guedoc and Provence assumes to some extent an 
 African character— a temperate winter is suc- 
 ceeded by a burning hot summer, moderated 
 from time to time by the mistral. 
 
 The dominant language of France is French, a 
 Romance tongue developed out of the lingua 
 Romana rustica of the Roman conquerors, which 
 displaced the native Celtic tongues, and was 
 afterwards modified in vocabulary and phonetics 
 (but not in structure) by the invading Teutonic 
 Franks, who gave their own name both to the 
 language and to the country. In the south the 
 Provengal, another Romance type, is still the 
 popular dialect. In the north-west the ancient 
 Celtic Breton tongue survives ; and in the south- 
 west the distinct and peculiar Basque language 
 is spoken in the dep. of Basses Pyrenees. Flem- 
 ish is spoken in French Flanders ; the Walloons 
 speak their own Romance dialect in the north- 
 east of France ; and German is still spoken in 
 some districts of those parts of Alsace and Lor- 
 raine still left to France. The character of the 
 French people combines the impressionability, 
 the vivacity, the rapidity of conception, and the 
 artistic feeling of the men of the south with the 
 persistence, laboriousness, and rationalism of the 
 men of the north. 
 
 Pop. (1801) 27,349,003 ; (1831) 32,569,223 ; (1861) 
 37,382,225 ; (1872) 36,102,921— the decrease being 
 mainly due to the war with Germany and loss 
 of territory ; (1881) 37,672,048 ; (1891) 38,343,192 ; 
 (1901) 38,961,945. But between 1886 and 1891 
 there was an actual decrease in 55 of tlie depart- 
 ments. The annual increase throughout France 
 is notably slower tlian in the other chief coun- 
 tries of Europe, and its low rate is due to the 
 relatively small number of married people, and to 
 the small proportion of children in each family — 
 21 7 births per 1000 inhabitants (1902), as against 
 29 in Great Britain, and over 40 in Germany. This 
 low birth-rate does not hold good for all France : 
 the small yearly increase of the total population 
 is chiefly due to the more numerous births in 
 the north and centre. Frenchmen emigrate but 
 little. Still, the last census showed 300,000 
 Frenchmen in Algeria ; besides, there are 200,000 
 in the Argentine Republic and Uruguay, 110,000 
 in the United States, 54,000 in Switzerland, 
 45,000 in Belgium, and more than 20,000 in 
 Spain. On the other hand, no less than 1,037,800 
 foreigners (chiefly Belgians, Italians, Germans, 
 Spaniards, and Swiss) were returned in the 
 census of 1901 as living in France. In 1850, 75 
 per cent, of the population lived in the country, 
 and 25 only in the cities ; but at present some 
 37'4 per cent, live in the cities. Migration is 
 especially active into Paris and its neighbour- 
 hood, and to the seaports. In 1901 over 7,500,000 
 people lived in the seventy-one chief cities having 
 each more than 30,000 inhabitants ; and fifteen 
 cities have pops, of more than 100,000 : Paris 
 (2,715,000), Marseilles (491,000), Lyons (459,100), 
 Bordeaux (257,600), Lille (210,700), Toulouse, St 
 ifitienne, Roubaix, Nantes, Le Havre, Rouen, 
 Rlieims, Nice, Nancy, and Toulon. Nearly one- 
 half of the population still live by agriculture. 
 
 The land-holdings are subdivided into small 
 plots of less than five acres apiece on an average, 
 and this subdivision is the source of many draw- 
 backs. Cereals cover about 25 per cent, of the 
 territory. Beet -root for sugar covers about 
 850,000 acres. The terrible ravages of the 
 
 k 
 
FRANCE 
 
 278 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 phylloxera have reduced the area under vineyards 
 from 6,382,000 acres in 1875 to little more than 
 4,000,000 in 1901. One of the most promising 
 features of French agriculture is the high develop- 
 ment of nursery-gardening, which achieves most 
 remarkable results in variety and richness of 
 crops. The exports of cattle, butter, eggs, cheese, 
 and poultry, especially to England, are very 
 large. The fisheries are of great importance for 
 France, both the deep-sea fishery (especially 
 about Newfoundland) and also the coast fisheries. 
 There are over 600 mines of all kinds at work 
 in France, and the total annual value of the 
 products is over £22,000,000. The metal ores 
 raised annually sufl[ice to turn out in all about 
 5,000,000 tons of iron, 61,500 tons zinc, 20,600 
 tons lead, 10,000 tons antimony, and 3500 tons 
 copper. Ores to the value of over £3,000,000 are 
 imported annually into France. Tlie coal-mines 
 scattered over the north, the region of the Upper 
 Loire, and in Languedoc, doubled their produce 
 between 1870 and 1900, and now produce over 
 32,000,000 tons annually, while over 11,000,000 
 tons are imported. 
 
 Manufactures have made rapid progress during 
 the 19th century. The textile industry gives 
 occupation to at least 2,000,000 persons. In silks 
 France has no longer the monopoly she formerly 
 had ; but she still occupies the first rank, 
 especially with regard to the finer stuffs and the 
 production of new ones. Then there are also 
 sugar-works, chemical industries, potteries, paper- 
 mills, and industries connected with furniture, 
 dress, carriages, and all possible articles of 
 luxury. In the small industries, which occupy 
 two-thirds of the French industrial workers, the 
 artistic taste and inventive genius of the nation 
 are especially apparent. Paris is the world's 
 emporium for such small industries. 
 
 The highways in France as a rule are kept in 
 an excellent state, and no less than 120,000 miles 
 of rotbtes nationales, and twice as many miles of 
 district roads, are the feeding-arteries of the 
 network of railway lines, which covered an 
 aggregate length of 24,250 miles in 1902. The 
 navigable rivers and canals have a length of 
 6510 miles. The French mercantile marine is 
 behind not only those of Britain, the United 
 States, and Norway, but even of Germany and 
 Italy. Nevertheless, three-fourths of the French 
 coasting and foreign trade is carried on under 
 the flag of the republic. France is an illustra- 
 tion of the fact that a country having a well- 
 developed agriculture may be very wealthy 
 without having a great foreign trade. During 
 the years 1881-1902 the annual foreign trade 
 varied in value from £161,040,000 to £240,000,000 
 for the imports, and from £123,524,000 to 
 £224,000,000 for the exports. The chief import 
 is raw produce, and the chief item of export is 
 manufactured goods. Raw silk, cotton, and 
 wool are imported both for home use and for 
 re-exportation in the shape of stuffs. Hides 
 are imported to be manufactured into fine 
 leather, gloves, or shoes ; timber leaves France 
 in the shape of artistic furniture, &c. France 
 imports, as already said, a good deal of coal and 
 iron ore, as well as of colonial wares, cattle, 
 cereals, and other alimentary substances. None 
 of the French colonies is a source of enrichment 
 to the mother-country. 
 
 The unit of French administration is the com- 
 mune, which administers its own local affairs by 
 means of an elected municipal council and an 
 elected mayor. Every ten to fifteen communes 
 constitute a canton, and next comes the arron- 
 
 dissement, or district, composed of not more 
 than nine cantons; this has its own elected 
 council, entrusted with the assessment of the 
 local taxes, and subject to the sub-prefect. Four 
 arrondissements on an average compose a de- 
 partimnt. Each dep. has a ' general council * 
 elected by universal suffrage — each canton elect- 
 ing one councillor. The general councils have 
 wide powers as regards taxation and the promo- 
 tion of institutions of public utility ; but their 
 decisions are jealously controlled by the prefect 
 (prefet), who is the representative of the state in 
 the dep. The legislative functions of the central 
 government are vested in the Chamber of Deputies 
 and the Senate ; and the executive power in the 
 ministry and the President of the Republic. A 
 formidable army of functionaries stands under 
 the central government, in subjection to the 
 prefects, who themselves are wholly under the 
 authority of the Ministry of the Interior, and 
 exercise a poAverful influence on the results of 
 the elections through their subordinates. 
 
 There is complete religious toleration in France, 
 but till the separation of church and state, in 
 1905, three faiths were supported by the state— 
 the Jewish as well as the Roman "Catholic and 
 Protestant, in proportion to numbers. There 
 has been no religious census in France since 1872, 
 but it is estimated that about three-fourths of the 
 population are (nominally at least) Roman Catho- 
 lic ; the Protestants are estimated at 2,000,000, 
 chiefly Calvinist, and the Jews at about 80,000. 
 The statistics for 1903 show an aggregate of 
 42,000priests, besides 4376 teachers and 8500 pupils 
 in ecclesiastical seminaries. Compulsory and free 
 primary education has been introduced under the 
 control of the state ; the privileges of the church 
 have been abolished ; and, instead of religious 
 teaching, the teaching of 'civic morality' from 
 handbooks issued by the state has been intro- 
 duced. But there is constant controversy on the 
 relation of the schools to the church. Private 
 schools of all degrees are permitted, provided 
 the teachers pass the obligatory examinations. 
 France is divided into scA'enteen educational dis- 
 tricts called academies, the rectors of which are 
 entrusted with the administration of higher and 
 secondary education, as also with the inspection 
 of the primary schools. Each educational dis- 
 trict has an academic council, and each dep. has 
 a council. Nearly one-tenth of the recruits are 
 still illiterate. Secondary education, which may 
 be classical, scientific, or technical, is provided 
 for in upwards of 110 lycees and 250 colleges for 
 boys, and 71 lycees and colleges for girls, the latter 
 of quite recent introduction. Under the law of 
 1901 (which caused much debate), about 14,000 
 clerical schools had been closed in 1904, but more 
 than one-half of these had been re-opened under 
 ])rivate direction. Higher education, given in the 
 facultis (universities), is of a high standard, and 
 almost quite free. The chief centres are at Paris, 
 Lyons, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Montpellier, Nancy, 
 Lille, Nantes, and Grenoble ; but most of these 
 have only three, two, or even one of the four 
 separate facultes (law, medicine, natural science, 
 literature). Indeed, there is but one University 
 of France, officially so called, which comprises 
 the facultes at all the various centres. Altogether, 
 these have 1600 professors and about 18,000 
 students. The clergy have their own 'free 
 universities.' Various special institutions, such 
 as the College de France, the Museum of Natural 
 History, the Polytechnic School, and many others, 
 have ahigh reputation of long standing. 
 
 At the outbreak of the German war of 1870-71 
 
 I 
 
FRANCE 
 
 279 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 France met the invaders with less than 400,000 
 men and 1250 guns ; and it was not till after the 
 fall of Napoleon that 700,000 men, mostly un- 
 trained and very badly provisioned, could be 
 brought into the field. The whole system was 
 totally reorganised in 1872-89. Every French- 
 man twenty years old, if not infirm, or exempted 
 from service for educational reasons, must enter 
 the army and serve three years in the active 
 army, ten in the reserve, six in the territorial 
 army, and six in the territorial reserve. Nearly 
 300,000 young mei\ are called out every year, and 
 more than 200,000 enter the ranks. The army 
 numbers 600,000 men and lias 643,000 liorses in 
 time of peace. But in war it can be raised to 
 2i million men ; and IJ million more, all having 
 received military training, may be added to the 
 number. The French navy is second only to that 
 of Great Britain. It consists of 43 ironclad 
 battle-ships (first, second, and third class), 65 
 cruisers (armoured or protected), over 200 gun- 
 boats and destroyers, and 50 submarines, with a 
 total strength of over 51,000 men. 
 
 The chief source of revenue is indirect taxation 
 (excise, registry, customs, and stamps), which 
 forms about 62 per cent, of the revenue ; the 
 direct taxation (land, trade licenses, personal 
 property, and doors and windows) comes next 
 and makes 15 per cent, of the revenue ; the 
 monopolies (such as tobacco) and the remunera- 
 tive services (e.g. the post-office) supply 20 per 
 cent, of the yearly income, and all these sources 
 together have yielded annually during the ten 
 years 1898-1903 over 3500 million francs 
 (£140,000,000). But, as the expenditure usually 
 exceeds the income, extraordinary sources of 
 revenue — chiefly loans— have frequently to be 
 resorted to. Between 1869 and 1905 the ordi- 
 nary revenue had more than doubled, irrespec- 
 tive of these ' comptes speciaux ' or budgets for 
 special purposes. The French debt is now heavier 
 than that of Great Britain, and the more so as 
 France pays much higher interest on it. In 1903 
 the total debt was calculated at 30,345 million 
 francs (£1,213,825,200), and the interest and an- 
 nuities at 1216 million francs (£48,677,400). The 
 aggregate debts of the separate nmnicipalities 
 reach about 3800 million francs. Paris is one of 
 the most heavily indebted cities of Europe. 
 
 At the dawn of history what is now France 
 was occupied by a multiplicity of tribes, belong- 
 ing to several different races; but the Celtic 
 Gauls were the dominant people, and held the 
 greater part of the country. The Ligurians 
 occupied the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean 
 shores ; the Iberians or Basques held the south- 
 west; and in the north-east were the Belgae, 
 who seem to have been Germanic immigrants 
 who had adopted a Celtic tongue, or Celts who 
 had been in some respects Germanised or mixed 
 with Germans. The Gauls were sufficiently 
 energetic to have conquered North Italy and ter- 
 rorised Rome from the 5th century b.c. to the 
 middle of the 3d century b.c, and even pushed 
 victorious armies into Thrace and Galatia. But 
 the Romans conquered the Cisalpine Gauls about 
 225 B.C., and by 150 had conquered the south 
 of Transalpine Gaul (Provence) ; and in 58-50 b.c. 
 Julius Caesar conquered the sixty-four different 
 states in Gaul, and from that time the Gauls 
 rapidly adopted the Roman polity, the Latin 
 speech, and Roman manners. From the 4th cen- 
 tury A.D. on, Romanised Gaul— now Christian- 
 was invaded by swarms of Teutonic barbarians, of 
 whom the Visigoths founded a state in the south- 
 west of Gaul, the Burgundians in the valleys of 
 
 L 
 
 the Saone and Rhone, and the Franks in the 
 north-east. Chlodwig or Clovis, the Frank, 
 laid the foundations of the future kingdom of 
 France, and established the Merovingian dynasty ; 
 but the Franks, like the other German invaders, 
 speedily adopted the language, laws, manners, 
 and Christian religion of their Celtic subjects. 
 Charlemagne established a military monarchy 
 from the Ebro to the Elbe and the North Sea, 
 which fell to pieces under his Carloviiigian suc- 
 cessors. In the 10th century the Rhine became 
 the eastern boundary of France, and Paris its 
 capital ; and the Northmen occupied Normandy, 
 now called after them. In the 12th cen- 
 tury the kings of England, dukes also of 
 Normandy, acquired by inheritance or marriage 
 Brittany, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, Guienne, and 
 Gascony, and were more powerful in France 
 than the native kings. Philippe Auguste (1180- 
 1223) recovered much of this area from the 
 English John, and at the end of the Hundred 
 Years' War (1451) only Calais remained to Eng- 
 land of all her continental possessions. Under 
 Louis XI. and Charles VIII, (1461-98), last of the 
 Valois kings in the direct descent, the hold of 
 France on Maine, Anjou, Provence, and part of 
 Burgundy (the dukedom) was definitely estab- 
 lished. Francis I., of the Valois-Angouleme 
 house, secured all Burgundy for France. The 
 horrors of the Huguenot wars were put an end to 
 by Henry IV. of Navarre, first of the Bourbons, 
 who passed the Edict of Nantes (1598) — to be 
 revoked by Louis XIV., whose minister Richelieu 
 crushed the Fronde insurrection, and put all 
 powers and classes under the heel of the monarch. 
 Wars disastrous to France in the middle of the 
 18th century deprived her of her power in India, 
 which fell to Britain ; and by the peace of Paris 
 in 1763, she ceded to Britain Nova Scotia, Cape 
 Breton, Canada, and the Mississippi Valley (New 
 France), as well as the islands of Grenada, St 
 Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago. The ancien 
 rcgivie disappeared in the Revolution (1789- 
 99); as First Consul (1799) Napoleon paved 
 his Avay to the Empire (1804) with its military 
 glories and the extension of French domination 
 over Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, and parts of 
 Germany. After the disastrous Russian cam- 
 paign (1812) the empire fell, and the Bourbons 
 were restored in the person of Louis XVIII. (1814), 
 The ' Hundred Days ' of Napoleon's recovered 
 popularity and power ended with Waterloo (1815) 
 and his abdication, and the renewed restoration 
 of the Bourbons. The elder line of Bourbons was 
 superseded by Louis-Philippe, the citizen king, 
 at the ' July Revolution ' of 1830. The Second 
 Republic commenced with the 'February Revolu- 
 tion' of 1848, and was succeeded in 1852 by the 
 coup d'ttat and the second empire of Napoleon HI., 
 which fell in the disasters of the Franco-German 
 war of 1870-71. The Third Republic had to sup- 
 press the Commune, pay the milliards to Ger- 
 many, and cede Alsace-Lorraine. Since then the 
 Republic has been on the whole confirmed in the 
 affections of the nation. The colonial posses- 
 sions of France in Indo-China and in Africa were 
 greatly extended in the last decades of the 19th 
 century. The alliance with Russia (1895) was 
 followed in 1905 by the entente cordiale witli 
 Britain ; and 1905 saw the disestablishment of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 See France as It is, by Lebon and Pelletier 
 (1888) ; French and English, by Hamerton (1889) ; 
 Moder7i France, by Bodley (1898) ; France of To- 
 day, and The French at Home, by Miss Betham 
 Edwards (1892-1905); La France Coloniale, 
 
Prance 
 
 FRAN2-J0§£P LAND 
 
 by Rambaud (6th ed. 1893). For the history of 
 Fiance, besides the French works by Michelet, 
 Martin, Guizot, Thierry, Thiers, Lamartine, 
 Louis Blanc, and Taine, dealing with the whole 
 or with periods (several of them translated), see 
 Kitchin's History of France (1873-77), and the 
 short works by Mrs Brook and Miss Yonge ; 
 Carlyle's French Revolution (1837), and Morse 
 Stephens's French Revolution (2 vols. 1886-92). 
 
 Prance, Isle de. See Mauritius. 
 
 Franche Comte, an old French province in the 
 basin of the Rhone, comprising the present deps. 
 of Doubs, Haute-Saone, and Jura. Its capital 
 was Besangon, 
 
 Francisco, San. See San Francisco. 
 
 Franconia, a loosely connected aggregate of 
 districts and territories lying chiefly within the 
 basins of the Rhine, Main, and Neckar. The 
 name was officially disused froTU 1806 to 1837, 
 when the three northern divisions of Bavaria 
 were called Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia. 
 
 Fra'neker, a town of the Netherlands, 9 miles 
 WSW. of Leeuwarden by rail. It was the seat of 
 a university from 1585 to 1810. Pop. C920. 
 
 Frankenberg, a town of Saxony, 32 miles SW. 
 of Dresden. It manufactures cottons, woollens, 
 silk-stuffs, &c. Pop. 12,898. 
 
 Frankenhausen, a town of Germany, in 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on the Wipper, 27 
 miles NNW. of Weimar. It has brine-springs 
 and a hospital for scrofulous children ; and in 
 the vicinity are the Kyff hjiuser and Falkenburg 
 with Barbarossa's Cave. Pop. 5985. 
 
 Frankenstein, a town of Prussian Silesia, 37 
 miles SSW. of Breslau. Pop. 8117. 
 
 Frankenthal, a town of the Bavarian Palatin- 
 ate, 7 miles SW. of Worms by rail, and 3^ W. of 
 the Rhine by a canal. It manufactures sugar, 
 machinery, corks, &c. Pop. 16,942. 
 
 Frankfort, the capital of Kentucky, on the 
 Kentucky River, 29 miles NW. of Lexington by 
 rail. It contains a state-house built of Kentucky 
 marble, the state library, penitentiary, distilleries, 
 flour-mills, and a cotton-factory. Pop. 9892. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maln (Ger. Frankfurt-am- 
 Main), a wealthy commercial city in the Prussian 
 province of Hesse-Nassau, long a free city, the 
 place of election of the German emperors, and 
 seat of the Diet (1816-66), is situated on the right 
 bank of the Main, 22 miles from its confluence 
 with the Rhine at Mainz, and 112 SE. of Cologne 
 by rail. Pop. (1800) 40,000 ; (1875) 103,315 ; (1900) 
 288,989. The fortifications have given place to 
 ornamental promenades ; the river is bordered by 
 broad quays; and the ancestral house of the 
 Rothschilds is now the solitary relic of the fam- 
 ous Juden-Gasse, the ghetto of Frankfort. The 
 Gothic Rbmer or town-house (1405-16) contains 
 the Kaisersaal or imperial hall. The coronation 
 took place in the cathedral of St Bartholomew 
 (13th to 16th centuries). The palace of the 
 Prince of Thurn and Taxis (1730) was the meeting- 
 place of the North German Diet, while the Con- 
 stituent Assembly of 1848-49 met in the church 
 of St Paul. The Saalhof stands on the site of an 
 earlier palace of the Carlovingian kings ; the 
 chapel dates from the 12th century. The new 
 exchange was oijened in 1879, the opera-house in 
 1880, and there are several other imposing new 
 public buildings. One of the squares is adorned 
 with a statue of Goethe, a native ; in another is 
 the elaborate Gutenberg monument, commemorat- 
 ing the invention of printing. Frankfort is con- 
 
 nected with the suburb of Sachsenhausen, on the 
 left bank of the Main, by seven bridges (three 
 railway bridges), the oldest of which was built in 
 1342. The city lies at the junction of seven rail- 
 ways, which since 1888 have converged in the 
 new Central Station, one of the largest and hand- 
 somest in Europe. Its commerce has at all times 
 been considerable ; and in the 16th century its 
 spring and autumn fairs were among the most 
 important in Europe. The chief articles of trade 
 are colonial wares, iron and steel goods, leather, 
 hides, skins, coals, wine, and beer. The manu- 
 facturing industry has largely developed since 
 the town became Prussian. Sewing-machines 
 and other machinery, chemicals, soap and 
 perfumery, iron goods, straw and felt hats are 
 among the chief manufactures. Its chief im- 
 portance, however, is due to its position as one 
 of the leading money-markets of the world. 
 
 Tlie capital from 843 till 889 of the eastern 
 Prankish kingdom, and the place of election of 
 the German emperors from 1152, Frankfort in 
 1257 was made the first free city of the Gennan 
 empire, and it also became the most important. 
 The city embraced tlie Reformation in 1530 ; for 
 awhile lost its independence (1810-13); and in 
 1866, having espoused the Austrian cause in the 
 seven weeks' war, was seized by the Prussians, 
 and incorporated with Prussia. The peace of 
 Frankfort, which ended the Franco-German war 
 of 1870-71, was signed 10th May 1871 at the 
 Swan Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules Favre. 
 See works by Home and Grotefend (1882-84). 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, a town of Prussia, 51 
 miles ESE. of Berlin, is a handsome, well-built 
 town, with three suburbs, one of which lies on 
 the right bank of the Oder, and is connected 
 with the remainder of the town by a wooden 
 bridge. The university, founded in 1506, was in 
 1811 incorporated with that of Breslau. The manu- 
 factures embrace machines, hardware, organs, 
 chemicals, stoneware, sugar, tobacco, spirits, 
 leather, paper, &c. Pop. (1875) 47,176; (1900) 
 61,852. A flourishing member of the Hanseatic 
 League in the 14th and 15th centuries, Frankfort 
 since then has been several times besieged. At 
 Kunersdorf, 4J miles B., on August 12, 1759, 
 Frederick the Great suflered a great defeat from 
 the Russo- Austrian forces. 
 
 Franklin, capital of Venango county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, on the Alleghany River, 123 miles by rail 
 (65 direct) N. of Pittsburgh, Avith machine-shops, 
 flour-mills, and oil-refineries. Its chief trade is in 
 petroleum, obtained in the vicinity. Pop. 7221. 
 
 Franzensbad, or Franzensbrunn, a watering- 
 place on the north-west frontier of Bohemia, 3 
 miles NW. of Eger by rail. There are a number 
 of mineral springs. Pop. 2308, increased by 7000 
 visitors during the season. 
 
 Franz-Josef Land, an archipelago in the 
 Arctic Ocean, north of Nova Zembla, between 
 80° and 83° N. lat. It consists of two large masses 
 of land, Wilczek Land to the east, and Zichy 
 Land to the west, separated by Austria Sound 
 and its north-east arm, Rawlinson Sound. Be- 
 tween these sounds lies Rudolf Land, whilst to 
 the north of this again comes Petermann Land, 
 and to the north-west King Oscar Land. The 
 southern shores are deeply indented with fjords ; 
 and the whole archipelago, which rises into 
 isolated flat-topped or dome-shaped mountains 
 of basalt, 5000 feet high, is sheeted with ice. 
 Owing to the open water round its shores in 
 summer, and the comparative abundance of its 
 animal life— bears, walruses, foxes, and numerous 
 
FRASCATI 
 
 281 
 
 FREISTADTL 
 
 birds occurring— Franz-Josef Land is regarded as 
 a favourable base whence to reach the North Pole. 
 It was discovered and partly explored by Payer 
 and Weyprecht in 1873-74 ; and its southern 
 shores were explored by Leigh Smith in 1880-82. 
 
 Frasca'tl, a town of Italy, with many splendid 
 villas, 15 miles SB. of Rome by rail, stands on 
 the slope of the Alban Hills, not far from the site 
 of ancient Tusculum. Cardinal York was bishop 
 of Frascati, and his brother, Charles Edward, 
 died here in 1788. Pop. 7134. 
 
 Fraser or Great Sandy Island lies off the 
 east coast of Queensland, in Australia. 
 
 Fraserburgh, a fishing-town of Aberdeenshire, 
 47 miles N. of Aberdeen by a branch line (1865). 
 It stands on a bay, 2J miles wide, immediately 
 south of Kinnaird Head, on which are the 
 Frasers' old castle, a lighthouse now, and the 
 mysterious 'Wine Tower,' with a cave below. 
 It was founded as Faithlie in 1569 by Alexander 
 Fraser of Philorth, Lord Saltoun's ancestor, and 
 in 1601 was erected into the free port of Fraser- 
 burgh. There are a handsome town-house (1855), 
 a restored market-cross, a public hall, &c. ; but 
 hardly a trace remains of an abortive university 
 (1592). The harbour has been much extended 
 since 1855, and the rapid growth of the place is 
 due to the development of the herring-fishery. 
 Pop. (1861) 3472 ; (1901) 9105. 
 
 Fraser River, the principal stream of British 
 Columbia, is formed by two branches, which 
 unite near Fort George, in 54° N. lat. and 122° 
 45' W. long. ; thence the river flows 800 miles 
 southward to the Georgian Gulf, just north of 
 the international boundary of 49° lat. Its chief 
 aflluent is the Thompson River. The rich 
 alluvial deposits of gold along the Fraser's lower 
 basin first attracted emigration to British Col- 
 umbia; the lower valley contains some of the 
 best farming land in the province. The salmon- 
 canneries are also important. Steamboats can 
 ascend for 100 miles. 
 
 Fraserville, or Riviere du Loup, a town and 
 watering-place of Quebec, on tlie Riviere du Loup 
 at its confluence with the St Lawrence, 127 miles 
 from Quebec. Pop. 4570. 
 
 Fratta-Maggiore, a town of Italy, 9 miles by 
 rail N. of Naples. Pop. 10,848. 
 
 Fraustadt (Polish Wszoiva), a town of Prussia, 
 14 miles NB. of Glogau by rail. Near here 
 Charles XII. of Sweden routed the Saxons, 13th 
 February 1706. Pop. 7378. 
 
 Fray Bentos (officially Independencia), capital 
 of the Uruguayan dep. of Rio Negro, on the 
 Uruguay River, 72 miles SSW. of Paysandu. 
 Here is the great Liebig meat-factory. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Fredericia, a Danish seaport on the east coast 
 of Jutland, at the northern entrance to the Little 
 Belt. Founded by Frederick III. in 1652, in 1657 
 it was stormed and razed by the Swedes, nor was 
 it refortified until 1709. It suffered during the 
 wars of 1848-49 and 1864. Pop. 13,042. 
 
 Frederick, a city of Maryland, 61 miles W. by 
 N. of Baltimore by rail, with a college (1797), 
 foundries, tanneries, flour-mills, &c. Pop. 9193. 
 
 Fredericksburg, a town of Virginia, on the 
 Rappahannock, 61 miles N. of Richmond, with 
 flour, paper, and sumach mills, &c. Pop. 5528. 
 
 Fredericton, capital of the province of New 
 Brunswick, Canada, stands on the St John River, 
 68 miles NNW. of the port of St John. It is 
 the seat of an Anglican bishop and of a uni- 
 versity. Pop. 721& 
 
 I 
 
 Frederikshald, a fortified seaport of Norway, 
 on the Idde Fjord, near the Swedish border, 85 
 miles by rail SSE. of Christiania. It was burned 
 down in 1826. To the south-east stands the 
 never-captured fortress of Frederiksteen (1661), 
 before which Charles XII. of Sweden was killed 
 (1718). Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Frederikshavn, a port of Jutland, on the 
 Cattegat, 52 miles NE. of Aalborg. Pop. 6891. 
 
 Frederikstad, a seaport of Norway, at the 
 mouth of the Glommen, 58 miles S. of Christiania 
 by rail. Pop. 14,217. 
 
 Freeport, capital of Stephenson county, Illi- 
 nois, on the Pecatonica River, 121 miles WNW. of 
 Chicago by rail. Pop. 13,189. 
 
 Free- town, capital of Sierra Leone (q.v.), on 
 the north side of the peninsula, 5 miles from the 
 Atlantic. Founded as Granvilletown in 1787, it 
 is enclosed by a range of wooded hills. The 
 climate, is unhealthy, especially for Europeans. 
 Pop. 35,000, almost all negroes. 
 
 Freiberg, a mining-town of Saxony, on the 
 northern slope of the Erzgebirge Mountains, 20 
 miles SW. of Dresden. Its cathedral, successor 
 to one burned in 1484, contains tombs of the 
 Saxon electors of the Albertine line, and has a 
 Romanesque portal called the Golden Gate. The 
 town owes its origin to its silver-mines, dis- 
 covered about 1163, and has a famous school of 
 mines (1765). The mineral ores extracted near 
 Freiberg are silver, bismuth, nickel, cobalt, zinc, 
 arsenic, &c. The manufactures comprise gold 
 and silver ware, wire, chemicals, machines, 
 leather, and cigars. Pop. (1875) 23,559; (1890) 
 28,955 ; (1900) 30,175. [Frl-berg.] 
 
 Freiburg, or (French) Feibouro, a Swiss can- 
 ton, bounded N. and E. by Bern, and S. and W. 
 by Vaud and the Lake of Neuchatel, with three 
 enclaves in Vaud. Area, 644 sq. m. ; population, 
 128,000, principally French-speaking and Catholic. 
 —The capital is Freiburg, or Fribourg, 19 miles 
 by rail SW. of Bern, on the Sarine or Saane, here 
 spanned by a suspension bridge (1834), 870 feet 
 long. St Nicholas Church, dating from 1283, has 
 one of the finest-toned organs in Europe, and a 
 lofty belfry. Since 1889 there is here an academy 
 with faculties, like a university. Pop. 16,840. 
 
 Freiburg in Breisgau, a town of Baden, on 
 the western edge of the Black Forest, 32 miles 
 NNE. of Basel. It is an open, well-built town ; 
 the walls and ditches with which it was formerly 
 surrounded have been converted into promenades 
 and vineyards. The beautiful Gothic cathedral 
 (1122-1513) has a western steeple, 381 feet high. 
 The university (1455) has 106 professors and 
 teachers and over 800 students. The chief manu- 
 factures are sewing silk, cotton and thread, 
 buttons, artificial beads, chicory, paper, par- 
 quetry, &c. Population, over 61,500, of whom 
 more than one-half are Protestants. Founded in 
 1091 by the Duke of Zahringen, and created a 
 town in 1115, Freiburg has repeatedly changed 
 masters ; twice it Avas given over to France 
 (1679-97 and 1744-48). In 1806 it fell to Baden ; 
 and in 1848 the Baden revolutionists were 
 defeated liere by the troops of the German 
 confederation. 
 
 Freising, a town of Bavaria, on the Isar, 22 
 miles NNE. of Munich by rail. It has a beautiful 
 cathedral (1160) and a former episcopal palace 
 (now a theological seminary); whilst close by 
 is a Benedictine abbey (725-1803), now a royal 
 model-farm. Pop. 9550. 
 
 Freistadtl (Hung. Galgocz), a market-town of 
 
tREJUS 
 
 FROME 
 
 Hungary, 40 miles NE. of Presburg by rail, on 
 the Waag, opposite the fortress and prison of 
 Leopoldstadt. Pop. S409. 
 
 FrejUS (Frd-zhiis; anc. Forum Julii), a town in 
 the French dep. of Var, a mile inland from tlie 
 Mediterranean, and 22 miles SW. of Cannes by 
 rail. The birthplace of Agricola, it has traces 
 of a lighthouse, walls, an amphitheatre (restored 
 1869), and other Roman remains. The old har- 
 bour, in which Augustus stationed the 300 galleys 
 captured at Actium, is silted up. Here, or rather 
 at the new harbour of St Raphael, IJ mile off. 
 Napoleon landed on his return from Egypt in 
 1799, and embarked for Elba in 1814. Pop. 4634. 
 
 Fremantle, the principal seaport of Western 
 Australia, at the mouth of the Swan River, 12 
 miles SW. of Perth by rail. It was named after 
 Captain Fremantle, R.N. (1829). Pop. 20,450. 
 
 Fremont', (1) capital of Dodge county, Ne- 
 braska, on the Platte River, 42 miles WNW. of 
 Omaha by the Union Pacific Railway. Popula- 
 tion, about 7500,— (2) Capital of Sandusky county, 
 Ohio, at the head of navigation on the Sandusky 
 River, 30 miles SE. of Toledo by rail. It manu- 
 factures flour, iron, lime, &c. Pop. 8500, 
 
 French Congo. See Gaboon. 
 
 French Guiana. See Guiana, 
 
 French River, a stream of Ontario, flowing 60 
 miles from Lake Nipissing to Georgian Bay in 
 Lake Huron. 
 
 Frendraught, Aberdeenshire, 11 miles ENE. 
 of Huntly, an old mansion, the treacherous 
 burning of whose tower in 1630 cost the lives of 
 Viscount Aboyne and five others. 
 
 Freshwater, a parish at the western extremity 
 of the Isle of Wight. See Farrinoford. 
 
 Fresnillo, a mining-town of Zacatecas state, 
 Mexico, 7200 feet above sea-level. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Fresno, capital of Fresno county, California, 
 in the centre of an irrigated raisin-growing dis- 
 trict, 207 miles SE. of San Francisco by rail. 
 Pop. (1880) 1113 ; (1900) 12,47a 
 
 Freston, a Suffolk parish, on the Orwell, 3J 
 miles S. of Ipswich, Here is Freston Tower. 
 
 Friars Garse, a mansion near the Nith, 6J 
 miles NNW. of Dumfries. 
 
 Frlbourg, See Freiburg, 
 
 Friedland, (1) a town of East Prussia, on the 
 Alle, 26 miles SB. of Konigsberg, with 3182 in- 
 habitants. Here Napoleon, on 14th June 1807, 
 defeated the Russian and Prussian forces, — (2) 
 A town in the north-east of Mecklenburg, with 
 5502 inhabitants.— (3) A manufacturing town in 
 the north of Bohemia, on the Wittig, 16 miles 
 N, of Reichenberg by rail, with a pop. of 4817. 
 From the last Wallenstein took his ducal title, 
 
 Friedrichroda, a town of Thuringia in the 
 charming Schilfwasser valley, 13 miles SW, of 
 Gotlia by rail, is a summer-resort for some 7000 
 visitors. Here is the Duke of Gotha's beautiful 
 country seat, Reinhardsbrunn, Pop. 4146. 
 
 Friedrichsdorf, a town of Hesse-Nassau, on 
 the southern slope of the Taunus, 3 miles NE. 
 of Homburg. Pop. 1189— French-speaking de- 
 scendants of a Huguenot colony (1687). 
 
 Friedrichsmh (Fridriks-roo), the castle and 
 estate of Bismarck, in Lauenburg, Sleswick-Hol- 
 stein, 16 miles SB. of Hamburg. 
 
 Friendly Islands, or Tonga Group, lie 250 
 miles BSE, of Fiji, number 32 inhabited and 
 about 150 small islands, and consist of three 
 sub-groups, with a collective area of only 385 
 
 sq. m. Tonga-tabu (130 sq. m.) is the largest ; and 
 next in importance are Eooa, Vavu, Namuka and 
 Lefuka, Tofoa, Late, and Kao. The great majority 
 are of coral formation ; but some are volcanic ; 
 there are several active volcanoes, such as Tofoa 
 (2781 feet) and Late (1787) ; and earthquakes are 
 frequent. A treaty was concluded with Germany 
 in 1876, with Great Britain in 1879 ; and a Berlin 
 convention (1886) provides for the neutrality of 
 this archipelago. The Friendly Islands were dis- 
 covered by Tasman in 1643, but named by Cook, 
 who visited them in 1777. Both these navigators 
 found the soil highly cultivated, and the people 
 apparently unprovided with arms. Among the 
 products of the islands are copra, tropical fruits, 
 coffee, sponges, cocoa-nuts, and arrowroot. The 
 flora resembles that of the Fiji group ; but the 
 native animals are very few. The Friendly 
 Islands were first visited by missionaries in 1797 ; 
 in 1827 the work of evangelisation fell into the 
 hands of the Wesleyan Methodists ; and now 
 almost all the islanders (who, unlike the Fijians, 
 belong to the fair Polynesian stock) are Wes- 
 leyans. Many can speak English, and schools 
 are numerous. In mental development, skill 
 in house-building, and in the preparation of 
 weapons, dress, &c., they are superior to other 
 South Sea islanders. They are, however, de- 
 creasing in numbers ; once estimated at 50,000, 
 they had dwindled to 18,960 in 1900. The various 
 islands in 1845 were brought under the rule of 
 one chief, King George (1818-93), and in 1899 
 recognise<l as practically a British dependency. 
 See Basil Thomson's Savage Island (1902). 
 
 Friesland, or Vriesland (Fres'land; anc. 
 Frisia), in its widest sense, as the country of the 
 Frisian race, included the provinces of Zealand, 
 North and South Holland, part of Utrecht, Fries- 
 land proper (1280 sq. m. ; pop. 342,290), and Gron- 
 ingen in Holland, together with Prussian East 
 Friesland (1200 sq. m. ; pop. 239,960) and a part 
 of Oldenburg, the western coast of Sleswick be- 
 tween the Eider and the Tondern, and the 
 islands of Sylt, Fohr, Nordstrand, and others. 
 
 Frisches Haff (' Fresh-water Bay '), a Prussian 
 lagoon, SE. of the Gulf of Danzig, 50 miles long, 
 4 to 11 broad, and 332 sq. m. in area. 
 
 Friuli (Fre-oo'le; Lat, Forum Julii), a once 
 independent duchy at the head of the Gulf of 
 Venice, With a total pop, of about 700,000, and 
 a total area of 3470 sq, m., it is divided between 
 Austrian Friuli (the districts of Gorz, Gradisca, 
 and Idria) and Italian Friuli (the province of 
 Udine and the district of Portogruaro), 
 
 Frobisher Bay, an inlet opening westward 
 near the mouth of Davis Strait, into the territory 
 called by Frobisher Meta Incognita, at the south- 
 ern end of Baffin Land. It is 200 miles long by 
 above 20 wide, with rugged mountainous shores, 
 
 Frodsham, a market-town of Cheshire, near 
 the confluence of the Weaver and Mersey, 10 
 miles NE. of Chester, Pop. 2333, 
 
 Frogmore, in the Little Park, Windsor, Berks, 
 with the mausoleum of the Prince-Consort, 
 
 Frohsdorf, a village in Lower Austria, on the 
 Leitha, 30 jniles S. of Vienna, Its splendid castle 
 from 1844 till 1883 was the residence of the 
 Comte de Chambord, 
 
 Frome, a market-town of Somerset, on the 
 Frome, a branch of the Avon, 12 miles S. of Bath 
 (19 by rail). Its parish church is a fine Decorated 
 building, with a spire 120 feet high, stations of 
 the cross, and the grave of Bishop Ken. Frome's 
 specialties are broadcloths and other fine wool- 
 
 d 
 
PftONTlQNAK 
 
 FttRSTENWALDfi 
 
 lens, and it also produces cards for dressing 
 cloth, ale, silk, &c. Population, a little over 
 11,000. Till 1885 Frome returned one member. 
 The forest of Selwood was in tlie vicinity. 
 
 Frontlgnan (Frong-teen-yong), a town of the 
 French dep. of Herault, 12 miles SW. of Mont- 
 pellier, famed for its muscatel wine. Pop. 4744. 
 
 Frosino'ne (anc. Frusino), a town of Italy, 60 
 miles SE. of Rome. Pop. 9018. 
 
 Frozen Strait, a passage, 15 miles wide, separ- 
 ating Southampton Island, in the north of Hudson 
 Bay, from Melville Peninsula. 
 
 Fuca, or Juan de Fuca, Strait, a passage 
 separating Washington state from Vancouver 
 Island, and connecting the Pacific Ocean with 
 the Gulf of Georgia. It contains several islands, 
 one of which, San Juan, was awarded in 1872 by 
 the emperor of Germany to the United States ; 
 and it and several neighbouring islands now form 
 a county of Washington state, 
 
 Fft-chau. See Foochow. 
 
 Fucino (Foo-cMno), Lake of (anc. Fucinus 
 Lacxis), or Lago di Cela'no, a lake of Italy, in 
 the province of Aquila, 61 sq. m. in area, and 2172 
 feet above sea-level. Being only 75 feet deep and 
 having no constant outflow, it was subject to 
 sudden risings, which inundated the surrounding 
 regions. In 44-54 a.d. the Emperor Claudius 
 cut a subterranean channel, nearly 3 miles long, 
 through Monte Salviano. This tunnel, however, 
 soon became obstructed ; and as the lake had 
 been steadily rising from 1783, a new canal was 
 made (1852-62). By 1875 the lake was dry ; it is 
 now under cultivation. 
 
 FuegO, TlERRA DEL. ScC TiERBA DEL FUEOO. 
 
 Fuente Alamo, a town of Spain, 20 nules S. of 
 Murcia. Pop. 8167. 
 
 Fuente Ovejuna, a small walled town of 
 Spain, 45 miles NW. of Cordova. Pop. 9698. 
 
 Puenterrabia. See Fontarabia. 
 
 Fuentes de Ofloro, a village of Salamanca, 
 Spain, on the Portuguese frontier, 15 miles WSW. 
 of Ciudad Ilodrigo. Pop. 1342. Here, on 5th 
 May 1811, Wellington defeated Massena. 
 
 Fiilinen. See Funen. 
 
 Fuji-san. See Fusiyama. 
 
 Pu-klan, or Fu-chien, an eastern maritime 
 province of China. 
 
 Fukul, an important town in the main island 
 of Japan, about 75 miles NNE. of Kioto, noted 
 for its silk manufactures. It is a clean and 
 cheerful city, and has several Christian missions. 
 Pop. 45,000. 
 
 Fukuoka, a town on the NW. coast of Kiu-sliiu 
 Island, Japan, 65 miles NNE. of Nagasaki, with 
 consideraljle commerce in silk, &c. Pop. 67,000. 
 
 Fukushima, a town in the main island of 
 Japan, about 75 miles E. of Niigata. It is an 
 important centre for trade in silkworms' eggs 
 and raw silk. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Fulda, a town of the Prussian province of 
 Hesse-Nassau, on the river Fulda, 67 miles NE. of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main. Its famous Benedictine 
 abbey was founded by St Boniface, the 'Apostle 
 of Germany,' in tlie 8th century ; from the 10th 
 century it had a primacy over all the abbeys of 
 Germany. The cathedral, six times destroyed 
 by fire, was rebuilt in 1704-12. In 1734-1804 
 
 IPulda had a university. Pop. 17,000. 
 I Fulham, one of the metropolitan and par- 
 liamentary boroughs (returning one member) 
 i 
 
 of London, in the south of Middlesex, on the left 
 bank of the Thames, 4^ miles SW. of Charing 
 Cross. Here since 1141 has been the palace of 
 the bishops of London, but the present building 
 is mostly not more than a century old. The 
 church is ancient, and contains the tombs of 
 many of the bishops. Fulham also has memories 
 of Bodley, Florio, Richardson, Hallam, Crotch, 
 and Albert Smith. 
 
 FuUarton, a suburb of Irvine (q.v.). 
 
 Fullarton House, 1^ mile ESE. of Troon, a 
 seat of the Duke of Portland. 
 
 Fulnek, a town of Moravia, 10 miles NNW. of 
 Neutitschein. Pop. 3692. Fulnek was formerly 
 a principal seat of the Moravian Brethren, and 
 gave its name to Fulneck in Yorkshire, 5^ miles 
 E. of Bradford, where a Moravian settlement 
 was established in 1748. 
 
 Funchal (Foon'tchal), the capital of Madeira, on 
 the south side of the island, is, in spite of its 
 exposed harbour and roadstead, the chief port 
 and commercial town of the island. Pop. 37,606. 
 
 Fundy, Bay of, an arm of the Atlantic, separ- 
 ating Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, and 
 branching at its head into Chignecto Bay and 
 Minas Basin. It has an extreme breadth of 45 
 miles and a length up to Chignecto Bay of 140 
 miles ; it receives the St John, the principal 
 river of New Brunswick, and the St Croix, which 
 separates that province from Maine. The tides 
 rush in with impetuous force, rising 60 to 70 feet. 
 
 Fiinen, or FOhnen (Dan. Fyen), the largest of 
 the Danish islands after Zealand, is separated 
 froin Sleswick and Jutland on the W. by the 
 Little Belt, and from Zealand on the E. by the 
 Great Belt. Area, 1135 sq. m. ; pop. 206,528. 
 The coast is flat and sandy, indented on the 
 north by the deep Odense Fjord. The interior is 
 flat, except towards the south and west, where 
 a range of hills rises to 420 feet. The principal 
 towns are Odense, Svendborg, and Nyborg. 
 
 FUnfhaus, a south-western suburb of Vienna. 
 
 Fiinfkirchen ('Five Churches,' from the five 
 mo.sques built during the Turkish occupation, 
 in the 16th century ; Hungarian Pecs), a free 
 town of Hungary, on the vine-clad southern 
 slope of the Mecsek Mountains, 139 miles S. by 
 W. of Pesth by rail. It has a Romanesque 
 cathedral (1136), and manufactures of leather, 
 woollens, flannels, majolica, &c. Pop. (1881) 
 28,801; (1900)42,730, 
 
 Fumeaux Islands, a group of barren Islands 
 in Bass Strait, between Australia and Tasmania, 
 Flinders Island being the largest. About 300 
 inhabitants, of mixed breed, capture seals and 
 sea-birds. The group takes its name from Fur- 
 neaux, who discovered it in 1773. 
 
 Fumes, a town of Belgium, 16 miles by rail 
 E. by N. of Dunkirk. Pop. 5322, 
 
 Fumess, a district in the north-west of Lan- 
 cashire, forming a peninsula between Morecambe 
 Bay and the Irish Sea. The chief town is Barrow- 
 in-Furness (q.v.). The ruin of Furness Abbey, 
 2 miles from !Barrow, is a fine example of transi- 
 tion Norman and Early English. Founded in 
 1127 for the Benedictines, it afterwards became 
 a Cistercian house. See J. Richardson's Furness, 
 Past and Present (Barrow, 1880), 
 
 Furmckabad. See Farukhabad, 
 
 Fursten-walde, a town of Prussia, on the 
 Spree, 30 miles SE. of Berlin. It has breweries, 
 a large malting-house, &c. Pop. 16,064. 
 
FttRTH 
 
 284 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH 
 
 Pttrth, a town of Bavaria, at the confluence 
 of the Rednitz and Pegnitz, 5 miles NW. of 
 Nuremberg by the earliest German railway 
 (1835). It is famous for its mirrors, tinsel, lead 
 pencils, combs, optical instruments, metal toys, 
 &c. Pop, (1875) 27,360; (1900) 54,820, mainly 
 Protestants. Burned to the ground in 1634 and 
 1680, Fiirth fell to Bavaria in 1806. 
 
 Fury and Hecla Strait, in 70° N. lat., 
 separates Melville Peninsula from Cockburn 
 Island, and connects Fox Channel with the 
 Gulf of Boothia. It was discovered by Parry 
 in 1822, and named after his ships. 
 
 Fusan, one of the ports of Ckjrea, on the 
 south-east shore of the peninsula, has long been 
 practically a Japanese settlement, under a treaty 
 of 1876. The imports include Manchester goods, 
 salt, and Japanese wares ; the exports, rice, 
 beans, hides, &c. 
 
 Fusaro, Lake of (anc. Acherusia Palus), a 
 small brackish lake of Italy, 11 miles W. of 
 Naples. It is near the site of the ancient Cumse, 
 and during the Roman empire its banks were 
 studded with villas. Oysters have been culti- 
 vated here since Roman times. 
 
 Fusiyama (properly Fuji-san), a sacred vol- 
 cano, the loftiest mountain of Japan, stands on 
 
 the main island, 60 miles SW. of Tokio, and 
 rises 12,365 feet above sea-level, with a crater 
 500 feet deep. Its last eruption was in 1707. 
 
 Futa Jallon, a large area under French pro- 
 tection lying NB. of Sierra Leone, and forming 
 the 'hinterland' to the coastal region of French 
 Guinea (with which it is sometimes included). 
 The area is 30,000 sq. m., and tlie pop. (who are 
 of the Fulah stock) some 600,000. It is a hilly, 
 healthy country, lying round a lofty mountain 
 mass, and contains some of the head-streams of 
 the Gambia, tlie Senegal, and the Niger. 
 
 Futehgunge, &c. See Fatehganj, &c. 
 
 Fyne, Loch, an Argyllshire sea-loch, running 
 40 miles N. and NE. from the Sound of Bute to 
 beyond Inveraray. It is 1 to 5 miles broad, and 
 40 to 70 fathoms deep. On the west side it 
 sends off Loch Gilp (2| x 1| miles) leading to the 
 Crinan Canal. The herrings of Loch Fyne are 
 held in high estimation. 
 
 Fyzabad (better Faizahad), a city of Oudh, on 
 the Gogra, 78 miles E. of Lucknow by rail. 
 Built on part of the site of Ajodhya (q.v.), it was 
 the capital of Oudh from 1760 to 1780, but is now 
 greatly fallen from its old-time splendour. It 
 maintains, however, an active trade. Pop. 54,927. 
 —For the capital of Badakhshan, see Faizabad. 
 
 ;ABLONZ, a town of the north of Bo- 
 hemia, 6 miles SB. of Reichenberg. 
 Its glass manufactures employ some 
 12,000 men. Pop. 21,100. 
 Gaboon and French Congo, a French 
 colony on the west coast of Africa between the 
 Atlantic and the middle Congo. Its north bound- 
 ary touches the German colony of the Cameroons ; 
 from below Brazzaville to the entrance of the 
 Ubangi (Mobangi), the Congo is the boundary on 
 the south-east and east, and the Ubangi for an 
 indefinite distance ; below Brazzaville to the sea, 
 the south boundary is formed by the river Tshi- 
 loango and the water-parting between the Congo 
 and the Kwilu. Its area is estimated at 250,000 
 sq. m., and the population — very loosely — at 
 5,000,000. The coast is tolerably uniform, the 
 principal indentations being Corisco Bay and the 
 estuaries of the Gaboon and Ogowe in the north- 
 west. These last are with the Kwilu the principal 
 rivers. The Gaboon, not a river, but an estuary, 
 10 miles wide at its entrance, penetrates 40 miles 
 inland, with a width of from 6 to 12 miles. On 
 the north bank is the settlement of Libreville. 
 The climate on the coastal strip is extremely 
 unhealthy ; mean annual temperature, 83° F. 
 On the inland plateau (2600 feet above sea- 
 level) it is better. Amongst the exports figure 
 timber, gum, ivory, gutta-percha, palm oil and 
 kernels, earth-nuts, sesamum, and malachite ; 
 other products are brown hematite, quicksilver, 
 sugar-cane, cotton, and bananas. The principal 
 imports are salt, spirits, gunpowder, guns, to- 
 bacco, cotton goods, and iron and brass Avares. 
 The people belong for the most part to tribes of 
 the Bantu stock. This part of Africa was dis- 
 covered by the Spaniards in the 15th century. 
 The French made their first settlement on the 
 Gaboon estuary in 1842 ; twenty years later they 
 extended their sway to the Ogow6. But they 
 seem never to have attached any importance to 
 tlie colony until after De Brazza began to explore 
 it in 1876-86. The principal towns are Libreville 
 (the capital), Franceville, Loango, and Brazzaville. 
 
 Gad'ames, or Ghadames (the Cydamus of the 
 Romans), an oasis and town of Africa, on the 
 northern border of the Sahara, in 30° 9' N. lat. and 
 9° 17' B. long. The gardens owe their fertility to 
 a hot spring (89* F.). The town is an entrepot for 
 manufactures and foreign goods from Tripoli to 
 the interior, and for ivory, beeswax, hides, ostrich- 
 feathers, gold, &c., from the interior to Tripoli. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Gad'ara, a ruined town of Syria, in the Deca- 
 polis, a few miles SB. of the Sea of Galilee. For 
 its exploration by Schumacher, see his Northern 
 'Ajlun (1890). 
 
 Gades. See Cadiz. 
 
 GadsMU, 3 miles NW. of Rochester, commands 
 a splendid prospect, and was the scene of Fal- 
 stafTs famous encounter with the 'rogues in 
 buckram suits.' Gadshill Place, an old-fashioned 
 red-brick house here, which Dickens coveted as 
 a boy, was bought by him in 1856, and was his 
 home from 1860 till his death in 1870. 
 
 Ga'eta (Lat. Caieta), a strongly fortified mari- 
 time town of Italy, picturesquely situated on a 
 lofty promontory, 50 miles NW. of Naples. On 
 the summit of the promontory stands the circular 
 Roland's tower, said to be the mausoleum of 
 Plancus, the friend of Augustus. The beauty of 
 the Bay of Gaeta, which almost rivals that of 
 Naples, has been celebrated by Virgil and Horace. 
 Often besieged, Gaeta in 1848-49 was the refuge 
 of Pope Pius IX. ; in 1860-61 of Francis II. of 
 Naples. The citadel contains the tomb of the 
 Constable Bourbon^ killed at the taking of Rome 
 in 1527. Pop. 17,848. 
 
 Gaeta, Mola di. See Formia. 
 
 Gaillac, a town in the French dep. of Tarn, 
 32 miles by rail NE. of Toulouse. Pop. 7910. 
 
 Gaillard, ChAteau. See Andelys. 
 
 Gainesville, a town of Texas, 34 miles W. of 
 Sherman. Pop. 7563. 
 
 Gainshorougli, a market-town of Lincolnshire, 
 on the Trent's right bank, 21 miles above its 
 
 1 
 
GAIRLOCH 
 
 GALILEE 
 
 embouclmre in the Humber, and 16 miles by rail 
 NW. of Lincoln. It has a parish church, rebuilt 
 in 1736, with the exception of a fine 12th-century 
 tower ; a manor-house, built by John of Gaunt, 
 and now forming part of the corn exchange ; and 
 a grammar-school (1589). Vessels drawing 12 feet 
 of water can ascend the Trent to Gainsborough, 
 which manufactures linseed cake and oil, malt, 
 cordage, and machinery. Pop. (1851) 7506 ; (1 901) 
 17,660. See the history by Stark (2d ed. 1843). 
 
 Oalrloch, an inlet of the sea on the west coast 
 of Ross-shire, 6 miles in length, which gives name 
 to a parish and village. See J. H. Dixon, The 
 Guirloch (1888). 
 
 Gairney Bridge, a place If mile SSE. of Kin- 
 ross, where the first Secession presbytery met in 
 1733. An obelisk marks it. 
 
 Galabat, a settlement or state of Negroes from 
 Dar-Fi\r and Wadai, situated just beyond the 
 western frontiers of Abyssinia. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Galacz. See Galatz. 
 
 Galapa'gos (Span. Galapagos, 'tortoises'), a 
 group of volcanic islands, lying on the equator, 
 600 miles W. of Ecuador, to which they belong. 
 The islands all possess English names — probably 
 bestowed by the buccaneers. The group consists 
 of seven principal islands, with about half-a-dozen 
 of lesser size, and innumerable islets and rocks ; 
 the area is estimated at 2940 sq. m., of which 
 Albemarle Island embraces over half. Rising to 
 a height of nearly 5000 feet, the islands are covered 
 with a dense vegetation on the south side ; on 
 the northern they are barren and forbidding in 
 aspect, the lower parts covered entirely with ashes 
 and lava or with prickly scrub. Darwin puts 
 the number of craters in the group at 2000 ; some 
 appear to be not yet extinct. The archipelago 
 was annexed by Ecuador in 1832. Charles Island 
 and Chatham Island are inow occupied by agri- 
 cultural colonists, the chief crop being sugar. 
 Pop. 400. 
 
 Galashiels, a town of Selkirkshire, the chief 
 seat in Scotland of the Scotch tweed manufac- 
 ture, occupies 2^ miles of the narrow valley of 
 the Gala, immediately above its junction with 
 the Tweed. It is 33^ miles SSE. of Edinburgh, 
 and 4 WNW. of Melrose. In the 15th century 
 it is spoken of as 'the forest-steading of Gala- 
 shiels;' and its tower, demolished about 1814, 
 was then occupied by the Douglases. In 1599 
 it was made a burgh of barony, having then 400 
 inhabitants. As early as 1581 cloth was manu- 
 factured here, but so great has been the progress 
 of the tweeds trade of the town during the 
 19th century, that the annual value of its 
 woollen manufactures rose from £1000 in 1790 
 to £1,250,000 in 1890. Tiie town lias also dye- 
 works, iron-foundries, engineering works, and 
 boot- factories. In 1868 Galashiels was made a 
 parliamentary burgh, with Hawick and Selkirk 
 returning one member. Pop. (1831) 2209 : (1871) 
 10,312 ; (1891) 17,367 ; (1901) 13,615. 
 
 Galata, a suburb of Constantinople (q.v.). 
 
 Galatia, in ancient geography, a country in the 
 heart of Asia Minor. 
 
 Galatina, a town of Italy, 13 miles SW. of 
 Lecce. Pop. 8720. 
 
 Galatz, a river-port of Moldavia, the commer- 
 cial centre of the Roumanian kingdom, on the 
 Danube's left bank, 85 miles from its Sulina mouth, 
 and 166 by rail NE. of Bucharest. It has a dock- 
 yard, grain-stores, and manufactures of iron, 
 copper, wax candles, and soap. Pop. 
 36.000; (1900)62,850. 
 
 Gala Water, a Scottish stream rising among 
 the Moorfoot Hills, and winding 21 miles SSE., 
 past Stow and Galashiels, till, after a total de- 
 scent of 800 feet, it falls into the Tweed, a little 
 below Abbotsford, and 2^ miles W. of Melrose. 
 In its valley, the ancient Wedale, Skene localises 
 one of Arthur's battles ; its ' braw, braw lads ' 
 are famous in song. 
 
 Galena, a city of Illinois, on the Fevre River, 
 6 miles above its junction with the Mississippi, 
 and 133 WNW. of Chicago by rail. Pop. 5035, 
 
 Galesburg, a city of Illinois, 53 miles WNW. 
 of Peoria by rail. It has foundries, machine- 
 shops, and agricultural manufactories, and is the 
 seat of the Lombard University (Universalist, 
 1857) and of Knox College (Congregational, 1841). 
 Pop. (1860) 4959 ; (1900) 18,600. 
 
 Galesville, a post-village of Wisconsin, 15 
 miles ENE. of Winona, with a Methodist uni- 
 versity (1855). Pop. 810. 
 
 Galicia, formerly a kingdom and afterwards a 
 province in the north-west of Spain. With an 
 area of 11,340 sq. m., it has been divided since 
 1833 into the minor provinces of Corufta, Lugo, 
 Orense, and Pontevedra, whose joint pop. is now 
 close on 2,000,000. 
 
 Galicia (Polish Halicz), an Austrian province 
 lying between the Carpathians and Russian 
 Poland. Area, 30,300 sq. m. ; population, 
 7,300,000, almost all of Slavonic race, the west- 
 ern part being occupied mainly by Poles, the 
 eastern by Ruthenians. In religion about 2^ 
 millions, mostly Ruthenians, belong to the Greek 
 Church, and nearly 2| millions, chiefly Poles, 
 to the Roman Catholic Church. The south- 
 ern portion of the country is a high terrace, 
 flanking the northern face of the Carpathians. 
 Thence the land slopes away northwards, through 
 a low hilly region, to the deep plains of the 
 Dniester and the Vistula. There are many large 
 rivers — those in the west being feeders of the 
 Vistula, those in the east of the Danube and 
 Dniester. One-fourth of the surface is covered 
 with forests. Salt is the most important min- 
 eral ; but coal, iron ore, sulphur, lead, zinc, and 
 petroleum are also extracted. There are about 
 thirty-flve mineral springs, most of them con- 
 taining sulphur. Lemberg (the capital) and 
 Cracow are the chief towns. The western portion 
 of the country belonged from 1382 till 1772 to 
 Poland ; in 1846 Cracow, with its territory, was 
 given up to Austria, and annexed to Galicia. 
 
 Galicz. See Halicz. 
 
 Galilee, Sea of, called also Lake of Gentiesaret 
 and Sea of Tiberias (in O. T. Sea of Chinnereth or 
 Cinneroth), a lake in north Palestine, 13 miles 
 long'.by 6 broad. Its surface lies 682 feet below 
 sea-level, at the bottom of a volcanic basin ; its 
 maximum depth, heretofore given at 820 feet, 
 was in 1890 fixed at 148 feet by M. Barrois. 
 Although the Jordan runs into it red and turbid 
 from the north, and many warm and brackish 
 springs also find their way thither, its waters 
 are cool, clear, and sweet. The shores on the 
 east and north sides are bare and rocky ; on the 
 west they are covered with luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 In the time of our Lord, Galilee (Heb. Galil, 
 * circle ') embraced the whole northern portion of 
 Palestine from the Mediterranean to the Jordan, 
 It was divided into Upper and Lower Galilee, 
 the former hilly and well wooded, the latter level 
 and very fertile. At that time it was mainly 
 inhabited by Syrians, Phoenicians, Arabs, and 
 Greeks, with a few Jews. The principal towns 
 
GALION 
 
 286 
 
 GALWAY 
 
 were Tiberias and Sepphoris ; those that figure in 
 the gospels are Cana, Capernaum, Nazareth, and 
 Nain. After the destruction of Jerusalem the 
 despised Galilee became the refuge of the proud 
 doctors of Jewish law, and the city of Tiberias 
 the seat of Rabbinical learning. Galilee now 
 forms part of the pashalic of Damascus, in the 
 Turkish province of Syria, and is remarkable for 
 its beauty and fertility. See Dr S. Merrill, Galilee 
 in the Time of Christ (new ed. 1885). 
 
 Gallon, a town of Ohio, 58 miles N. by E. of 
 Columbus, with cigar-factories, machine-shops, 
 railroad-shops, &c. Pop, 732(5. 
 
 Galla Country, a region south of Abyssinia 
 and west of Somaliland, inhabited by two or 
 three millions of fierce, energetic, mainly heathen 
 Gallas, some of whom have been Mohammedanised, 
 and others, on the Abyssinian frontiers, profess 
 a corrupt Christianity. Many parts of southern 
 Abyssinia are held by Gallas, who belong prob- 
 ably to the Hamitic stock. 
 
 Galle, or Point de Galle, a fortified seaport 
 of the south-west extremity of Ceylon, stands on 
 a low rocky promontory, and has a good harbour. 
 It has lost its former importance as a coaling and 
 transhipping station.for the great lines of ocean- 
 steamers since the completion of the breakwater 
 at Colombo. Pop. 40,000. i 
 
 Galle'go, a principal affluent of the Ebro. 
 
 Gallip'oli (Greek Kallipolis), a cathedral city 
 of southern Italy, on a steep insulated rock in 
 the Gulf of Taranto, connected with the main- 
 land by a bridge, 59 miles by rail S. of Brindisi. 
 It has a fortified harbour protected by a mole, 
 and exports olive-oil. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Galllpoll (anc. Kallipolis), a seaport of Turkey, 
 on the peninsula of the same name (the ancient 
 Thracian Chersonesus), at the north-eastern ex- 
 tremity of the Dardanelles, 90 miles S. of Adrian- 
 ople, and 130 WSW. of Constantinople. It is the 
 headquarters of the Turkish fleet. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Galloway, an extensive district of south-west 
 Scotland, once somewhat larger, but now en- 
 tirely comprised in the shire of Wigtown and 
 stewartry of Kirkcudbright. It is 70 miles long 
 by 40 at its utmost breadth, and contains the 
 greatest diversity of scenery— mountain, lake, 
 and stream, as well as dreary waste and almost 
 pathless moor. The province owes its name to 
 the fact that the natives were called Gall-Gael, 
 or foreign Gaels, at first because of their falling 
 under the foreign rule of the Anglians ; but as 
 the Picts of Galloway they continued to be 
 known so late as the Battle of the Standard in 
 1138. See works by Sir Andrew Agnew (2d ed. 
 1893) and M'Kerlie (1870-91), 
 
 Galloway, Mull of, a bold headland, the 
 southern extremity of the peninsula called the 
 Rhinns of Galloway, in Wigtownshire, and the 
 most southern point of Scotland, 23 miles S. of 
 Stranraer, It is IJ mile long, and J mile broad, 
 and rises to 210 feet at its eastern extremity, on 
 which stands a lighthouse, 60 feet high, whose 
 light is visible 23 nautical miles. 
 
 Galston, an Ayrshire village, 5 miles SE. of 
 Kilmarnock by rail. It manufactures muslins and 
 lace, and has neighbouring coal-pits. Pop. 4885, 
 
 Gait, a town of Ontario, Canada, on the Grand 
 River, 25 miles by rail E. by N. of Hamilton. It 
 manufactures flour, machines, cast-iron, paper, 
 leather, &c. Gait was founded in 1816. Pop. 
 8000, mostly of Scotch descent. 
 
 Galtee Mountains, a range of Tipperary and 
 Limerick, attaining 3008 feet in Galteemore. 
 
 Galveston, a seaport of Texas, on Galveston 
 Island, at the opening of Galveston Bay into the 
 Gulf of Mexico, 214 miles ESE. of Austin by rail. 
 The island is a low strip of land, 30 miles long by 
 3 broad ; the bay extends northward from the 
 city to the mouth of the Trinity River, a dis- 
 tance of 35 miles, and has a breadth of from 12 to 
 18 miles. The city contains a Catholic cathedral, 
 the Catholic University of St Mary, and the 
 Texas Medical College ; and it has foundries, 
 mills, and machine-shops. Since the hurricane and 
 flood of 1900, its harbour is protected by a sea-wall 
 and other works. The foreign trade (£21,000,000 
 in 1901) is mainly the export of cotton and cotton- 
 seed oil. Pop. (1850) 4177 ; (1900) 37,790. 
 
 Galway, a maritime county of Ireland, in the 
 province of Connaught, and, after Cork, the 
 largest of all the Irish counties. Area, 1,569,505 
 acres, of which a little more than one-half is 
 arable. Pop. (1831) 414,684 ; (1871) 248,458 ; (1881) 
 241,662 ; (1901) 192,549 (187,220 Catholics). It is 
 watered in the east by the Shannon, the Suck, 
 and their feeders ; and in the west by Loughs 
 Mask and Corrib, and by the streams which fall 
 into them and Galway Bay. In the south are the 
 Slieve-Baughta Mountains ; and in the west are 
 the Maam-Turk Mountains, and the Twelve Pins 
 (2395 feet). South-west from Lough Corrib to the 
 sea is the district called Connemara, which con- 
 tains vast bogs, moors, lakes, and morasses. 
 North-east of Connemara is Joyce's Country, and 
 south-east of it is lar-Connaught, or Western 
 Connaught. The shore is much broken, with 
 many islands and bays. Agriculture and fishing 
 are the chief pursuits. Raths and cromlechs are 
 numerous ; there are seven round towers ; whilst 
 of many monastic ruins the finest is that of 
 Knockmoy, near Tuam, Since 1885 Galway 
 county has returned four members to parliament. 
 
 Galway Bay is an inlet of the Atlantic, on the 
 west coast of Ireland, between the counties of 
 Galway and Clare. It is a noble sheet of water, 
 30 miles long from W. to E., and 10 in average 
 breadth, and is sheltered by the Aran Isles. 
 
 Galway, a municipal and parliamentary 
 borough of Ireland, a seaport, and county of 
 itself, at the mouth of the Corrib, on the north 
 shore of Galway Bay, 50 miles NNW. of Limerick, 
 and 127 W. of Dublin by rail. The old town is 
 poorly built and irregular. In the wall of a 
 house here is the 'Lynch Stone,' where in 1493 
 ' Mayor Lynch ' had his own son hanged for the 
 murder of a Spaniard. The new town consists of 
 well-planned streets, and is built on a rising- 
 ground which slopes gradually toward the sea 
 and the river. A suburb, called Claddagh, is 
 inhabited by fishermen, Galway is the see of 
 a Catholic bishop. The principal buildings are 
 the cruciform church (Episcopal) of St Nicholas 
 (1320), St Augustine's Catholic Church (1859), 
 the county court-house, &c. Queen's College 
 (1849) has eighteen professors and about a hun- 
 dred students ; its quadrangular buildings are 
 spacious and handsome. Galway has flour-mills, 
 a distillery, a foundry, extensive salmon and 
 sea fishing, a good harbour, with docks that 
 admit vessels of 500 tons, and a lighthouse. The 
 exports consist mainly of agricultural produce, 
 wool, and black marble. Galway returns one 
 member to parliament. Pop, (1851) 20,686 ; (1881) 
 15,471; (1901) 13,426 (nine-tenths Catholics), 
 Galway was taken by Richard de Burgh in 1232, 
 by Sir Charles Coote in 1652, and in 1691 by 
 General Ginckell. See Hardiman's History of tht 
 Town and County cj Goilway (Dublin, 1820), 
 
 1 
 
GAMBIA 
 
 287 
 
 GARAYE 
 
 Gambia, a river of western Africa, the more 
 BoHtherly of the two great streams of Senegambia, 
 enters the Atlantic after a course of over 1400 
 miles, by an estuary which in some parts measures 
 nearly 27 miles across, but contracts to little 
 more than 2 at the mouth. It is navigable from 
 June to November for vessels of 150 tons up to 
 Barraconda, 400 miles from the sea. — The British 
 settlement of Gambia occupies the banks of the 
 river as far up as Georgetown. Its actual area is 
 about 69 sq. m. ; but an additional protected 
 area, consisting of a strip on both sides of the 
 river, was added in 1890, making, after conces- 
 sions to the French in 1904, a total area of 
 over 3000 sq. m. Pop. of settlements, 14,000 
 (some 200 Europeans) ; with protectorate, 90,000. 
 The climate is 'fuirly healthy during the dry 
 months.' The staple product is the ground-nut ; 
 other products being hides, rice, cotton, beeswax, 
 kola nuts, and india-rubber, and there is an active 
 entrep6t trade with the neighbouring French 
 settlements in cotton goods, spirits, rice, kola 
 nuts, and hardware. Formerly a dependency of 
 Sierra Leone, the settlement was created an 
 independent colony in 1S43, a portion of the West 
 African Settlements in 1876, and a separate govern- 
 ment in 18S8. It is now practically shut in by 
 French territory. The settlement is connected 
 with Europe by telegraph cables, and the Liver- 
 pool mail-steamers call fortnightly. In February 
 1894 a small British expedition to puni.sh a slave- 
 raiding Mandingo chief received a check, an 
 event which led to decisive measures. 
 
 Gambier Islands, or Mangar^va, a Polynesian 
 group of six larger and several smaller islands, 
 under a French protectorate, in 23° 8' S. lat. and 
 134° 55' W. long. Area, 15 sq. m. ; pop. 445. 
 
 Gamrun. See Gombroon. 
 
 Gand. See Ghent. 
 
 Gandak, a river of India, rises in the Nepal 
 Himalayas, and flows SE. between the North- 
 west Provinces and Bengal, to the Ganges at Patna. 
 
 Gandamak, an Afghan village, between Kabul 
 and Peshawar, where in 1842 the last remnant of 
 the British force from Kabul was massacred. 
 Here a treaty was signed with Yakub Khan in 1879. 
 
 Gandersheim (Gan'ders-Mm), a town of 2507 
 inhabitants in Brunswick, 30 miles N. of Gottin- 
 gen by rail. Its famous abbey (852) gave the title 
 of abbess to the daughters of German princes, 
 and until 1803 was itself a principality. 
 
 Gandia, a town of Spain, near the mouth of 
 the Alcoy, and 47 miles SSE. of Valencia by rail. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Gando, a Fulah state of the western Soudan, 
 lying west of Sokoto, and on both sides of the 
 Niger north of Borgu ; most of it is now, since 
 1900, within (British) Northern Nigeria, while the 
 western part is in the French Sahara.— Gando, 
 50 miles S W. of the town of Sokoto, is the capital ; 
 the trading town on the Niger is Bgga (q.v.). 
 
 Gandolfo. See Castel Gandolfo. 
 
 Ganges, the great river of northern India, 
 rises in Garhwal in 30° 56' 4" N. lat. and 79° 6' 40" 
 E- long., issuing, under the name of the Bhagir- 
 athi, from an ice-cave 8 miles above Gangotri 
 and 13,800 feet above sea-level. A few miles 
 below Gangotri it receives the Jahnavi, and 133 
 miles from its source the Alaknanda, from 
 which point the united stream is known as the 
 Ganges. From Sukhi, where it bursts through 
 the Himalayas, it flows south-west to Hardwar, 
 and thence winds south-east to Allahabad, where 
 it is joined by the Jumna. Hence the great 
 
 river rolls on, past the holy city of Benares, 
 and across the plains of Behar, fed by the Son, 
 the Gandak, and the Kusi. It then turns sharply 
 to the southward, and begins to throw out the 
 branches which enclose the level delta, at a point 
 220 miles from the Bay of Bengal. The main 
 channel, called the Padma or Padda, runs south- 
 east to Goalanda, where it is met by the main 
 stream of the Brahmaputra, and the vast con- 
 fluence of waters flows in a broad estuary, the 
 Meghna, into the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali. 
 Between this most easterly mouth, and the Hugli 
 or Hooghly (q.v.), the most westerly and the 
 great channel of navigation, lies the delta, 
 with a multitude of mouths and channels. The 
 delta in its upper angle is very fertile, but in the 
 south, towards the sea, the country is a desolate 
 waste of swamps (see Sundarbans), intersected 
 by a network of canals. The Ganges has a total 
 length of 1557 (by the Hugli mouth, 1509) miles ; 
 its drainage basin embraces over 390,000 sq. m. 
 In spite of the shoals and rapids that lie above 
 Allahabad, it is in some sense navigable from the 
 point where it enters the lowlands, near Har- 
 dwar; and its stream, which never fails in the 
 hottest summer, distributes fertility throughout 
 its course, and even its inundations spread over 
 the fields a rich top-dressing of alluvial silt. The 
 ruined or decayed cities near its banks, however, 
 bear mute witness to the loss inflicted by the con- 
 stant changes which take place in the river-bed. 
 The Ganges excels all the great rivers of India 
 in sanctity ; from the source down to the sea 
 every foot of 'Mother GangS,*s' course is holy 
 ground, to bathe in her waters will wash away 
 sin, to die and be buried on her banks secures 
 free entry to eternal bliss. 
 
 The Ganges Canal, opened in 1854, is an im- 
 portant irrigation work and navigable channel, 
 extending, on the right of the Ganges, from 
 Hardwar to Cawnpore, with a long branch to 
 Hamirpur on the Jumna. The main canal is 445 
 miles in length. The Lower Ganges Canal, planned 
 in 1866, and begun in 1873, is a southward exten- 
 sion of the main line to Allahabad. 
 
 Gangl, a town of Sicily, 18 miles SSE. of 
 Cefalu. Pop. 11,935. 
 
 Gan-bwuy, or An-hui, an eastern inland prov- 
 ince of China, crossed by the Yang-tsze-Kiang. 
 
 Ganjam, a town of Madras presidency, at the 
 mouth of the Rishikuliya, 18 miles NE. of Ber- 
 hampur. Pop. 5037. 
 
 Gannat, a town in the French dep. of Allier, 
 245 miles SSE. of Paris by rail. Pop. 5187. 
 
 Gantang Pass, 18,295 feet high, leads eastward 
 from the Bashahr hill state, across the Himalayas 
 into Chinese territory. 
 
 GantTir. See Guntuk. 
 
 Gap (anc. Vapincum), the capital of the French 
 dep. Hautes Alpes, on the Luye, 2424 feet above 
 sea-level, 47 miles SE. of Grenoble. It has a 
 cathedral (rebuilt since 1866). Pop. 8898. 
 
 Garabit, a point on the railway from Mar- 
 vejols (Lozere) to Neussargues, 10 miles S. of St 
 Flour, in the French dep. of Cantal, where the 
 line crosses a gorge through which the waters of 
 the Truyere run, 401 feet below the rails. The 
 Eiffel viaduct here is 1852 J feet long, and crosses 
 the river by an arch, with a span of 641 J feet. 
 
 Garamantes. See Fezzan. 
 
 Garaye, La, a ruined chateau in Brittany, 2 
 miles from Dinan. Its last owners, Claude Tous- 
 saint and his countess, in the first half of the 
 
 I 
 
QARD 2 
 
 18th century converted it into a hospital, which 
 forms the theme of the Hon. Mrs Norton's poem, 
 ' The Lady of La Garaye ' (1862). 
 
 Gard, a French dep. on the Mediterranean, and 
 bounded E. by the Rhone, with an area of 2245 sq. 
 m., one-third arable. It is divided into the ar- 
 rondissements of Alais, Nimes (the capital), Uz6s, 
 and Vigan. Pop. (1861) 422,107 ; (1901) 418,470. 
 
 Garda, Lago di (Roman Lams Benacus), a 
 beautiful, clear lake, the largest of Italy, lies 
 between Lombardy and Venetia, its northern end 
 extending into the Austrian Tyrol. Situated 226 
 feet above sea-level, it has an area of 115 sq. m., 
 a greatest length of 35 miles, a breadth of 2 to 
 11 miles, and a maximum depth of 967 feet ; the 
 surface is studded with many islands. It is 
 drained by the Mincio, a tributary of the Po. 
 The mild climate and the beauty of the vicinity 
 have caused its shores to be lined with villas. 
 
 Gardaia, or Ghardaia, a town in the Algerian 
 Sahara, stands on a conical hill, in an oasis- 
 valley full of date-palms, 82 miles WNW. of 
 Wargla. In 1882 a garrisoned fort was established 
 here by the French. Pop. 38,782. 
 
 Gardelegen, an old town of Prussian Saxony, 
 on the Milde, 28 miles (53 by rail) NNW. of 
 Magdeburg. Pop. 7358. 
 
 Garden City, in Long Island, now part of 
 Queens borough. New York, was laid out as a 
 town of model villas by the New York million- 
 aire, A. T. Stewart (1803-76).— Garden City is 
 the name given to a model city planned on an 
 estate acquired at Letchworth, near Hitchin in 
 Herts, the amenities of country life being speci- 
 ally secured, 
 
 Gardenstown, a Banffshire fishing-village, 8 
 miles ENE. of Banff. It was founded in 1720 
 by A. Garden, Esq., of Troup. Pop. (1861) 607 ; 
 (1891)1109. 
 
 Gardiner, a port of Maine, on the Kennebec 
 River, 56 miles NNE. of Portland. Pop. 5491. 
 
 Gardner, a town of Massachusetts, 70 miles 
 WNW. of Boston by rail, with manufactures of 
 wooden wares. Pop, 10,820. 
 
 Gareloch. See Dumbartonshire. 
 
 Garelochhead, a Dumbartonshire village at 
 the head of the Gareloch, 7J miles NNW. of 
 Helensburgh by rail. Pop. 577. 
 
 Gargano (anc. Gargdnus), a mountainous pen- 
 insula, the 'spur' of Italy, in the province of 
 Foggia, jutting out 30 miles into the Adriatic, 
 and attaining 5110 feet in Monte Calvo. 
 
 Garhmukhtesar, a town in the North-west 
 Provinces, on the Ganges, 26 miles SE. of Meerut, 
 with four shrines of Ganga, and a fair, which 
 attracts 200,000 pilgrims. Pop. 6305. 
 
 Garhwal, a native state in the United Pro- 
 vinces of Agra and Ondh, on tlie borders of Tibet ; 
 area, 4164 sq. m. ; pop. 270,000. Also an adjoin- 
 ing Britisli district in the United Provinces ; 
 area, 5629 sq. m. ; pop. 450,000. 
 
 Gariep. See Orange River, 
 
 Garigllano (anc. Liris; Liri still in its upper 
 course), a river of Italy, rises in the Abruzzi, 
 and flows 90 miles S. to the Gulf of Gaeta. It 
 is navigable below Pontecorvo. On its banks 
 in 1503 the Spaniards defeated the French. 
 
 Garioch, a district of mid-Aberdeenshire. 
 
 Garleton Hills, a range (590 feet), IJ mile N. 
 of Haddington, crowned with a column to the 
 EJarl of Hopetoun, the Peninsular hero. Ruined 
 
 3 GASFt 
 
 Garleton or Garmylton Castle, at its N. base, was 
 perhaps Sir David Lyndsay's birthplace. 
 
 Garliestown, a Wigtownshire seaport, 9i miles 
 by rail SSE. of Wigtown. It was founded about 
 1760 by Lord Garlics (the seventh Earl of Gallo- 
 way), Pop, 532. 
 
 Garmoutli, an Elginshire seaport, 5 miles N. 
 by W. of Fochabers. Charles II. landed here 
 in 1650. Pop. 535. 
 
 Garmylton. See Garleton. 
 
 Garnkirk, a Lanarkshire village, with fireclay- 
 works, 4 miles WNW. of Coatbridge. Pop. 871. 
 
 Gamock, an Ayrshire stream flowing 21 miles 
 southward to the Firth of Clyde at Irvine. 
 
 Gamqueen, a Lanarkshire village, 2^ miles N. 
 by W. of Coatbridge. Pop. 1660. 
 
 Garo Hills, a mountainous district forming 
 the SW. corner of Assam, with an area of 3270 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 138,300. 
 
 Garonne (anc. Garumna), the principal river 
 of south-west France, rises within the Spanish 
 frontier in the Val d'Aran, at the base of Mount 
 Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, 6142 feet above sea- 
 level. About 26 miles from its source it enters 
 the French territory in the dep. of Haute Gar- 
 onne, and flows NE. and NW. until, joined by 
 the Dordogne, 20 miles below Bordeaux, and 
 widening afterwards into the Gironde estuary, 
 it enters the Atlantic at the Pointe de Grave. 
 The estuary, the largest in France, is nearly 50 
 miles long. The total length of the river is 
 346 miles ; it drains an area of 22,020 sq. m. Its 
 navigation, which, however, is much impeded 
 above Toulouse, commences for small craft at 
 Caz6res ; ocean steamers go up to Bordeaux. Its 
 principal afiluents are the Tarn, Lot, and Dor- 
 dogne, on the right; and on the left, the Save, 
 Gers, and Baise, At Toulouse it is joined by the 
 Canal du Midi, running eastward to the Mediter- 
 ranean ; and the river's own caiial lateral, start- 
 ing also from Toulouse, runs 120 miles along 
 the right bank, 
 
 Garonne, Haute, a dep, in the south of 
 France, embracing portions of ancient Gascony 
 and Languedoc. Area, 2428 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 
 479,362 ; (1901) 439,769. It is divided into the 
 four arrondissements of Toulouse (the capital), 
 Muret, St Gaudens, and Villefranche. 
 
 Garry, See Glengarry. 
 
 Garscadden, a Dumbartonshire village, 3 miles 
 WNW, of Maryhill, Pop. 524. 
 
 Garstang, a Lancashire market-town, on the 
 Wyre, 10^ miles S. of Lancaster. Pop. 800. 
 
 Garston, a Lancashire town, on the Mersey, 
 4 miles SE. of Liverpool, to which it was added 
 in 1902 (pop. in 1901, 17,289). 
 
 Gartsherrie. See Coatbridge. 
 
 Gasconade, a river of Missouri, winding 200 
 miles north-eastward to the Missouri River, 35 
 miles below Jefferson City. 
 
 Gascony, an ancient district of SW. France, 
 now included in the deps. of Landes, Gers, Hautes- 
 Pyrenees, and the south portions of Haute- 
 Garonne, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Lot-et-Garonne. 
 
 Gask, a Perthshire parish, 8 miles WSW. of 
 Perth. Its lairds were the Jacobite Oliphants, 
 to whom belonged Lady Nairne, the song- writer. 
 
 Gasp6, a peninsula of Quebec province, pro- 
 jecting into the Gulf of St Lawrence, between 
 the river St Lawrence on the N. and the Bay of 
 Chaleurs on the S.— GASPfi Basin, where Cartier 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
GASTEIN 
 
 289 
 
 GENAZZANO 
 
 landed in 1584, is a port in Gaspe Bay, now the 
 seat of fisheries. Pop. 426. 
 
 Gastein, a romantic valley (pop. 4000) in the 
 south of the Austrian duchy of Salzburg, 28 
 miles long, with many small villages. The chief, 
 Wildbad-Gastein, is visited every summer by 
 some 5000 guests to drink of its seven warm 
 springs. Here, on 14th August 1865, a conven- 
 tion was signed between Austria and Prussia 
 for the partition of Sleswick-Holstein. 
 
 Gatchlna, a town of Russia, 30 miles by rail 
 SSVV. of St Petersburg. Ifc has porcelain manu- 
 factures, barracks, and a palace long the favourite 
 residence of Alexander III., and guarded witli 
 extraordinary care. Pop. 15,063. 
 
 (Jatehouse-of-Fleet, a pretty Kirkcudbright- 
 shire river-port, on the Fleet, 9 miles WNW. of 
 Kirkcudbright. Pop, 1026. 
 
 Gateshead, a town on the northern verge of 
 the county of Durham, and on the south bank of 
 the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. Governed for 
 centuries by a chief bailiff appointed by the 
 prince-bishop of the palatinate, aided by popu- 
 larly elected burgesses, Gateshead became a 
 parliamentary borough (sending one member) in 
 1832, a municipal borough in 1835, and a county 
 borough in 1888. Pop. (1831) 15,177; (1851) 
 25,568 ; (1881) 65,855 ; and (1901) 109,888. The 
 two towns are intimately connected by a splen- 
 did suspension bridge (1871) at Redheugh ; by 
 Stephenson's celebrated .high-level road and 
 railway bridge (1849) ; and by a swing-bridge 
 (1876), which opens to allow the passage of ships. 
 Engine-works, shipyards, electric cable, hempen 
 and wire rope manufactories, chemical works, 
 cement-works, glass-works, and ironworks em- 
 ploy many of the inhabitants. The town-hall 
 and free library are among the architectural 
 ornaments of the borough, wliich also has a 
 grammar-school (1700), King James's Hospital 
 (1611) for poor brethren, a public park at Salt- 
 well (1874), public libraries (1886), high schools, 
 swimming-baths, &c. St Mary's Church in 1080 
 was the scene of the murder of Bishop Walcher ; 
 and at Gateshead Defoe wrote Rohinson Crusoe. 
 The quarries yielding the world-famous New- 
 castle grindstones are worked at Gateshead Fell. 
 See Welford's History of Newcastle and Gateshead 
 (2 vols. 1884-85). 
 
 Gath, one of the five chief cities of the Philis- 
 tines, was situated on the frontiers of Judah. 
 Its site is probably the Blanche Garde of the 
 Crusaders, who built a castle here. 
 
 Gatineau, a river of Quebec, Canada, issuing 
 from a chain of lakes just N. of 48° N. lat., flows 
 400 miles SSW. to the Ottawa River, a mile below 
 Ottawa City. 
 
 Gatschlna, Gatshina. See Gatchina. 
 
 Gattonslde, a Tweedside village, opposite 
 Melrose, famous for its fruit. 
 
 Gauhati. See Assam. 
 
 Gaul. See France. 
 
 Gaur, or Lakhnauti, the medieval capital of 
 Bengal, whose ruins still cover a space of seven 
 lilies by two, on a branch of the Ganges, and 
 nclude Hindu buildings and interesting 15th- 
 ;entury mosques, besides extensive reservoirs, 
 channels, and embanked roads. 
 
 Gaya, a town of Bengal, on the Phalgu, 57 
 aUes S. of Patna by rail. It is a place of the 
 •reatest sanctity, from its associations with Bud- 
 
 ha, and is annually visited by 100,000 Hindu 
 
 'ilgruns. Pop. 72,350. 
 
 Gaya, the wine suburb of Oporto (q.v.). 
 
 Gaza, one of the five chief cities of the ancient 
 Philistines, situated in the south-west of Pales- 
 tine, 3 miles from the sea, on the borders of the 
 desert which separates Palestine from Egypt. 
 In 333 B.C. it was taken after a five months' siege 
 by Alexander the Great, and from then to 1799, 
 when the French captured it, it witnessed 
 the victories of the Maccabees, Calif Abu-bekr, 
 the Templars, and the heroic Saladin. Constan- 
 tino the Great, who rebuilt the town, made it 
 the seat of a bishop. The modern Guzzeh is a 
 collection of mere villages, its only building of 
 interest the great mosque. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Gebweiler (Fr. Guebwiller), a town of Alsace- 
 Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges, 15 miles 
 SSW. of Colmar, has cotton-spinning, dyeworks, 
 machine-factories, and vineyards. Pop. 13,395. ^ 
 
 Gedrosia. See Beluchistan. 
 
 Geelong (g soft), a city of Victoria, on the south 
 side of Corio Bay, 45 miles SW. of Melbourne by 
 rail. The river Barwon forms the southern bound- 
 ary of the city, and 3 miles farther spreads into the 
 Connewarre Lakes, falling into the sea at Point 
 Flinders. The gold discoveries in 1851 added to 
 the prosperity of Geelong, which had been incor- 
 porated as a town in 1849, and became a princi- 
 pal seat of the wool trade— the first woollen mill 
 in Victoria being erected here. Alongside of the 
 railway jetty the largest ships can load and dis- 
 charge, and through the bar at the entrance to 
 Corio Bay a channel lias been dredged for steamer 
 traffic. The industries include the manufacture 
 of woollen cloths and paper, meat-preserving, 
 tanning, rope-making, fishing, &c. The Exhibi- 
 tion Hall and general produce exchange, theatre, 
 and assembly-rooms combined, stands in the 
 market-square. The city has two parks, botanical 
 gardens, government buildings, a town-hall, a 
 post-office (1889), an excellent hospital, a chamber 
 of commerce, &c. Corio Bay is a favourite bathing- 
 resort. Pop. (1871) 22,618 ; (1901) 25,000. 
 
 Geelvlnk Bay penetrates 125 miles southward 
 into the western arm of New Guinea. Islands 
 protect its entrance, 155 miles wide. 
 
 Geestemiinde, a Prussian seaport, at the 
 Geeste's confluence with the Weser, just SE. of 
 Bremerhaven. Its docks and wharves were con- 
 structed in 1857-63. Pop. 20,120. 
 
 Gefle, a town of Sweden, on an inlet of the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, 71 miles by rail N. by W. of 
 Upsala. Rebuilt since its destruction by fire in 
 1869, it has a castle (16th and 18th c), ship- 
 building yards, and manufactures of sailcloth, 
 cotton, and tobacco, and fisheries. It ranks third 
 among Sweden's commercial towns, exporting 
 iron, timber, and tar, and importing corn and 
 salt. Pop. (1874) 16,787 ; (1900) 29,522. 
 
 Gelderland. See Guelderland. 
 
 Gellivara, a great Swedish iron-mining centre, 
 145 miles by rail NW. of LuleA, at the head of 
 the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Gelnhausen, a town of Prussia, on a hill, 26 
 miles NE. of Frank fort-on-Main. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Gelsenkirchen (g hard), a modern manufactur- 
 ing town of Westphalia, 4 miles NW. of Bochum. 
 It owes to coal and iron its rise from a mere village 
 since 1860. Pop. (1880) 14,615 ; (1900) 36,935. 
 
 Gemml Pass (g hard), a narrow Alpine path, 
 nearly 2 miles long and 7553 feet high, connect- 
 ing the Swiss cantons of Bern and Valois. 
 
 Genazza'no, a town 27 miles E. of Rome, con- 
 taining an old castle of the Colonnas, and a fiir- 
 fained pilgrimage-chapel. Pop. 4008. 
 
 \ 1. 
 
GENESEE 
 
 290 
 
 GENOA 
 
 Genesee, a river rising in Pennsylvania, and 
 flcJwing nearty 200 miles north through western 
 New York into Lake Ontario, 7 miles N. of 
 Rochester. Three of its extraordinary falls occur 
 within li mile ; two being 68 and 90 feet high, 
 and the Portage Falls 110 feet. The river has 
 also a sheer fall of 95 feet at Rochester, utilised 
 for water-power ; and another cascade, a few miles 
 below, is almost as high. 
 
 Ctoneva (Fr, Genhve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra), 
 a canton m the south-west of Switzerland, 
 bounded S., B., and W. by the territories of 
 France. Area, 108 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 131,674, 
 about half being Catholics, and 85 per cent. 
 French-speaking. It is watered by the Rhone 
 and Arve, which unite 2 miles from the south- 
 west extremity of the Lake of Geneva. The sur- 
 face is hilly, chief eminences being the steep 
 Saleve (4528 feet) and the Reculet (5631). 
 
 Geneva, the capital, is situated at the exit of 
 the Rhone from the Lake of Geneva, 388 miles 
 by rail SE. of Paris. A Gallic town originally, 
 Geneva acknowledged Roman supremacy in 120 
 B.C. ; passed backwards and forwards from and 
 to Burgundy; was made a bishop's seat in 
 the 4th century ; and having secured Freiburg 
 (1519) and Bern (1526) for allies, finally won its 
 complete independence from Savoy, a few years 
 later accepting Protestantism. In 1535 Calvin 
 arrived at Geneva, and began his reconstitution 
 of the political and social life of the republic, 
 which created it one of the chief strongholds of 
 Protestantism in Europe. Formerly Geneva was 
 walled, and consisted of clusters of narrow streets ; 
 but since the accession of the radical party to 
 power in 1847 the town has been almost entirely 
 rebuilt in modern style. The ancient ramparts 
 have been removed, streets widened and well 
 paved, and new and commodious quays con- 
 structed along the lake and river. In its course 
 through the town the Rhone forms two islands, 
 on one of which still exists an antique and 
 picturesque cluster of buildings ; on the other, 
 laid out as a pl^blic pleasure-ground, is a statue 
 of Rousseau. In the Place des Alpes is a sumptu- 
 ous monument to Duke Charles XI. of Bruns- 
 wick, who, dying here in 1873, left 16,500,000 
 francs to the city. Famous as a theological, 
 literary, and scientific centre, Geneva has given 
 birth to Rousseau ; to the physicist De Saussure ; 
 to the naturalist Bonnet and the Pictets ; to 
 Necker, the French minister of finance ; to the 
 humorist Toepffer ; and to the sculptor Pradier. 
 The principal edifices are the Transition cathe- 
 dral of St Peter (1124) ; the town-hall, in which 
 the Alabama arbitrators met in 1872 ; the 
 academy, founded by Calvin in 1559, with a 
 library of 110,000 volumes, and in 1873 converted 
 into a university (with over 700 students); the 
 magnificent theatre (1879); the Rath Museum 
 (1824-26) ; the Fol Museum, with Greek, Roman, 
 and Etruscan antiquities ; the Athenaeum, 
 devoted to the fine arts ; and the museum 
 of natural history, &c. The staple manufactures 
 of the town are watches, musical-boxes, and 
 jewellery. Pop. (1870) 61,486 ; (1901) 105,139. 
 
 Geneva, a town of New York, at the north end 
 of Seneca Lake, 26 miles "W. of Auburn by rail, 
 with flouring-mills and manufactures of engines, 
 boilers, &c. It is the seat of Hobart College 
 (Episcopal, founded in 1824). Pop. 10,450. 
 
 Geneva, Lake of, or Lake Leman (Lacus 
 Lemanus), situated between Switzerland, to 
 which the larger portion belongs, and France. 
 It lies 1218 feet above sea-level, and curves 45 
 
 miles westward, in the form of a crescent. Its 
 greatest breadth is 9 miles, its area 223 sq. m 
 and its niaximum depth 1092 feet. The lake 
 abounds in fish. Tlie Pays de Vaud shore is 
 celebrated by Rousseau and Byron, while the 
 names of Voltaire and Madame de Stael are 
 connected with Ferney and Coppet at the Geneva 
 extremity, Gibbon's with Lausanne. The south- 
 ern French shore rises solemn and stern, with 
 the mountains of Savoy in the background ; Mont 
 Blanc, though 60 miles distant, is often reflected 
 in the water. The tidal phenomenon called 
 seiches has been studied in the lake. The Rhone 
 enters it at the upper end, turbid and yellow, 
 and leaves it at the town of Geneva as clear as 
 glass, and of a deep blue tint. 
 
 Gennesaret, Sea of. See Galilee. 
 
 Genoa (Ital. Geneva, Fr. Genes, anc. Genua), a 
 city of Italy, situated on the Mediterranean gulf 
 of the same name, at the foot of the Apennines, 
 is the capital of a province and the most import- 
 ant seaport. By rail it is 801 miles SB. of Paris, 
 171 NB. of Marseilles, and 93 SSW. of Milan. 
 Pop. (1900) 237,490. The slopes of the hills 
 behind the city down to the shore are covered 
 with buildings, terraced gardens, and orange and 
 pomegranate groves; while the bleak summits 
 of the loftier ranges rising still farther back are 
 capped with strong forts, batteries, and out- 
 works. The fine semicircular harbour, with a 
 diameter of rather less than a mile, is protected 
 seawards from the south and south-east winds 
 by two piers. In front of this inner harbour 
 another one has been made by the construction 
 of two outer moles. In 1889 graving-docks and 
 other works were completed. On the north side 
 of the port is a naval harbour and a marine 
 arsenal ; and on the east side the warehouses of 
 the former (until 1867) free port. Genoa is the 
 commercial outlet for a wide extent of country, 
 of which the chief exports are rice, wine, olive- 
 oil, silk goods, coral, paper, macaroni, and marble. 
 The imports are principally raw cotton, wheat, 
 sugar, coal, hides, coffee, raw wool, fish, petro- 
 leum, iron, machinery, and cotton and woollen 
 textiles. The annual exports (by sea) of Genoa 
 are valued at nearly £4,000,000, while the imports 
 are returned at more than £15,000,000. About 
 5800 vessels, of 2,970,000 tons burden, enter 
 annually, and about 5750 of 2,979,000 tons clear. 
 The principal industrial establishments of the 
 city embrace ironworks, cotton and cloth mills, 
 macaroni-works, tanneries, sugar-refineries, and 
 vesta match, filigree, and paper factories. Genoa 
 benefited greatly by the opening of the St Gothard 
 Railway. From 70,000 to 200,000 emigrants sail 
 every year from Genoa for Soutli America. 
 
 While strikingly grand as viewed from the sea, 
 and so far worthy of being entitled Geneva la 
 Superba, Genoa is in reality built awkwardly on 
 irregular rising ground, and consists of a labyrinth 
 of narrow and intricate lanes. Of the palaces 
 the most famous are the former palace of the 
 doges, now the meeting-place of the senate ; and 
 the Doria, presented in 1529 to the great Genoese 
 citizen Andrea Doria. Foremost amongst the 
 churches stands the cathedral, a grand 12th- 
 century pile in the Italian Gothic style. The 
 marble municipal palace and the palace of the 
 Dogana must also be mentioned. The university 
 (with nearly 1000 students), originally built in 
 1623, reorganised in 1812, has a library of 116,000 
 volumes. To Columbus, Genoa's most famous 
 son, there is a fine monument (1862) by Lanzio. 
 A great raediseval republic, the rival of Pisa and 
 
 fi 
 
GENOA 
 
 291 
 
 GEORGIAN BAY 
 
 Venice, Genoa in 1768 ceded Corsica to France, 
 and in 1802 was made a French dep., in 1815 a 
 province of Piedmont. See works by Bent (1880) 
 and W. W. Johnson (1892). 
 
 Genoa, Gulf of, a large indentation in the 
 northern shore of the Mediterranean, north of 
 Corsica, has between the towns of Oneglia on the 
 west and Spezia on the east a width of nearly 90 
 miles, with a depth of about SO miles. 
 
 Gensan, or Wonsan, a town and port of Corea, 
 at tlie liead of an arm of Broughton Bay, near the 
 middle of tlie east coast of the peninsula. Pop. 
 20,000, including 3000 Japanese. 
 
 GentlUy (Zhang-te-ye), a southern suburb of 
 Paris, at tlie foot of Bicetre hill. Pop. 7450. 
 
 Genza'no, a town of Italy, on the Via Appia, 10 
 miles SE. of Rome. Pop. 5800. 
 
 George, a division of the western province of 
 Cape Colony, on the south coast, east of Cape- 
 town. Area, 2600 sq. m. ; pop. 11,000. Tlie 
 town of George stands 6 miles N. of the coast, 
 and has a pop. of over 2000. On the coast is the 
 port of Mossel Bay. 
 
 George, Lake, or Horicon, a beautiful lake, 
 32 miles long, near the eastern border of New 
 York state. It discharges to Lake Champlain, is 
 studded with hundreds of islands, and on its 
 shores has several favourite summer-resorts, 
 especially the village of Caldwell or Lake George. 
 In the battle of Lake George the French and 
 Algonquins were utterly defeated by the English 
 and Iroquois, 8th September 1755. 
 
 Georgetown, a port of entry in the District of 
 Columbia, on the Potomac, 2 miles above Wash- 
 ington, at the head of navigation. Here the 
 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal crosses the Potomac 
 by a great viaduct 1446 feet long. Containing 
 many educational institutions, one of them a 
 Ronan Catholic college (1789), it is now included 
 witlnn the limits of Washington, and is regularlv 
 styled West Washington. ^ 
 
 Georgetown (formerly the Dutch Stabroek), 
 capital of British Guiana, on the right bank of 
 the Demerara River, near its mouth. It consists 
 of wide, clean streets, intersecting at right 
 angles ; the brightly painted wooden houses, 
 with their verandas, are generally raised on piles 
 a few feet above the unhealthy soil, and em- 
 bosomed in trees, of which the cabbage- palm and 
 cocoa-nut are the chief. Some of the streets are 
 traversed by canals, with bridges at the cross 
 streets. The principal public edifices are the 
 government building, the cathedral, the Queen's 
 College, and a museum and library. There are 
 botanical gardens, two markets, a short railway 
 to Mahaica, a good harbour, a lighthouse, and 
 fortifications ; the foreign trade is virtually that 
 of the colony. Population, 54,000, of whom only 
 ibont 5500 are whites. 
 Georgetown. See Penang. 
 Georgia, the most southerly of the original 
 thirteen states of the American Union, is bounded 
 )y Tennessee, North and South Carolina, the 
 Ulantic Ocean, Florida, and Alabama. It has 
 .n area of 59,475 sq. m.— a little more than the 
 rea of England and Wales; and its low-lying 
 nd sandy coast is bordered with islands. The 
 tate falls into five physical divisions : (1) The 
 ea Islands, famous for their cotton, and covered 
 dth a growth of oak, palmetto, magnolia, cedar, 
 ine, and myrtle ; (2) the Swamp Region, con- 
 stmg of rich alluvial lands and deltas, verdant 
 ith a dense and semi-tropical vegetation, and 
 Imirably fitted for rice-culture ; (3) the Pine 
 
 Barrens, with a thin soil, sheltered by vast 
 forests of pitch-pine ; (4) Middle Georgia, fertile, 
 salubrious, hilly, crowned with forests of oak 
 and hickory, the home of the short-staple cotton- 
 plant, a line fruit region, and yielding Indian 
 corn, oats, wheat, antl other cereals ; and (5) 
 Cherokee Georgia, abounding in mountains, with 
 fertile valleys, streams, and waterfalls. Rivers 
 emptying into the Atlantic Ocean are the Sa- 
 vannah, the Great Ogeechee, and the Altamaha, 
 with the Oconee and the Ocmulgee. Belonging 
 to the Gulf system are the Chattahoochee, the 
 Flint, and the Alapaha. 
 
 With the exception of the swamp-region in the 
 south and south-east of the state, the climate is 
 salubrious and agreeable. The mean temperature 
 is 78° in summer and 47° in winter ; the annual 
 rainfall nearly 50 inches. In the lowlands oranges 
 and other semi-tropical fruits readily mature, 
 whilst in the uplands peaches, apples, pears, &c. 
 flourish ; and fruits and market vegetables are 
 exported to the North. Game is still plentiful. 
 Sea-fowl throng the coast and estuaries, alli- 
 gators are numerous in the rivers, and food- 
 fishes, oysters, clams, turtle, &c. are abundant. 
 Food-fishes have largely disappeared from the 
 streams, and the pearl-bearing unio is now seldom 
 seen. The mineral wealth includes gold, coal, 
 iron, copper, silver, and lead ores, marble, granite, 
 slate, gypsum, limestone, &c., and occasional 
 diamonds and other precious stones. Prior to 
 the civil war, the inhabitants were almost ex- 
 clusively engaged in agriculture and commerce ; 
 but more recent industries are the lumber, iron, 
 and steel trades, and extensive cotton, woollen, 
 and other manufactures. The chief agricultural 
 products of Georgia are cotton (about 1,300,0(X) 
 bales yearly), rice, Indian corn, wheat, oats, 
 sweet potatoes, sugar, and tobacco. From the 
 ports of Savannah, Darien, Brunswick, and St 
 Mary shipments of lumber and naval stores are 
 annually increasing. Atlanta is the capital, and 
 Savannah the commercial metropolis ; Augusta, 
 Macon, Columbus, and Athens are other cities. 
 Pop. (1790) 82,548; (1860) 1,057,286; (1880) 
 1,542,180; (1900) 2,216,000, slightly more than 
 one-half whites. The colony of Georgia, named 
 from George II., was founded by James Ogle- 
 thorpe in 1733, as a refuge for poor debtors and 
 religious refugees. It has long been regarded as 
 the Empire State of the South, 
 
 Georgia, the name formerly applied to the 
 central portion of what is now Russian Trans- 
 caucasia (q.v.), bounded by the Caucasian moun- 
 tains on the north, and on the south by the 
 Armenian mountains. The Russian name is 
 Gruzia ; the Persian Gurjestan, from which form 
 the name Georgia probably arose, it being perhaps 
 a corruption of Guria, the name of one of the 
 western provinces. An independent kingdom 
 from the time of Alexander the Great, and 
 earlier, Georgia was united with Russia betAveen 
 1799 and 1829. It now is mainly included in the 
 governments of Kutais, Tiflis, and Elizabethpol. 
 The Georgians, who speak agglutinative lan- 
 guages, form the southern group of Caucasian 
 peoples. Their numbers are variously estimated 
 at something over or under a million. See 
 Wardrop, The Kingdom of Georgia (1888). 
 
 Georgia, Gulf of, an arm of the Pacific, 30 
 miles broad and nearly 250 long, between Van- 
 couver's Island and British Columbia, communi- 
 cating with the ocean by Queen Charlotte's 
 Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
 
 Georgian Bay. See Huron (Lake). 
 
GEORGSWALDE 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Georgswalde, a town of Bohemia, 112 miles N. 
 of Prague, with a mineral spring. Pop. 9604. 
 
 Gera (Gd-ra), the capital of the small German 
 principality of Reuss-Schleiz, on the White 
 Elster, 42 miles E. by S. of Weimar by rail. 
 Nearly destroyed by fire in 1780, it has broad 
 and regular streets ; its older buildings include 
 a castle and a fine town-hall. There are wool- 
 len factories, cotton-works, dyeing and printing 
 works, manufactures of machinery, leather, to- 
 bacco, beer, &c. Pop. (1843) 11,300; (1880) 
 27,118; (1900) 45,650, nearly all Protestants. 
 
 Gerace (Jd-rd-eM), a town of southern Italy, 
 4 miles from the sea, and 37 (58 by rail) NE. of 
 Reggie. It has a cathedral, rebuilt after the earth- 
 quake of 1783, and a trade in wine. Pop. 5265. 
 
 Gerardmer (' Queen of the Vosges '), a holiday 
 resort much frequented by Parisians, and famous 
 for its cheeses, in the French dep. of Vosges, 
 32 miles SE. of ifipinal by rail. Pop. 9197. 
 
 Ger'asa, a ruined city of Palestine, among the 
 mountains of Gilead, 20 miles E. of the Jordan. 
 
 Gerizim and Ebal, the two highest mountains 
 in the central Palestine chain, are separated from 
 each other by a deep narrow valley, in which 
 stands the town of Nabulus, the ancient Shechem, 
 the metropolis of the Samaritan sect. The tops 
 are about 3000 feet above sea-level, with a fertile 
 valley between 1500 feet deep. 
 
 German Ocean. See North Sea. 
 
 Germantown, a former borough of Pennsyl- 
 vania, included since 1854 in the limits of Phila- 
 delphia. Here an attack by Washington on the 
 British camp, 4th October 1777, was repulsed. 
 
 Germany (from Lat. Germania) is the English 
 name of the country which the natives call 
 Deutschland, and the French L'Allemagne. The 
 word is sometimes used to denote the whole 
 area of the European continent within which 
 the Germanic race and language are dominant. 
 In this broad sense it includes, besides Gei-many 
 proper, parts of Austria, Switzerland, and per- 
 haps even of the Netherlands ; but in the present 
 article the name is to be understood as denoting 
 the existing Germanic empire, of which Prussia 
 is the head. Germany occupies the central por- 
 tions of Europe, and is bounded on the N. by 
 the North Sea, the Danish peninsula, the Baltic, 
 Russia, Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium, 
 and the Netherlands. Its area is 211,168 sq. m., 
 or about ^^gth of that of all Europe— slightly 
 larger than France, but not twice as large as 
 Great Britain and Ireland. Germany is com- 
 posed of a federation of twenty-five states, with 
 one imperial territory (Relclisland), which vary 
 enormously in area and influence. Thus, while 
 Prussia alone exceeds the British Islands in area, 
 Bavaria is almost as large as Scotland, Wiirtem- 
 berg is larger than Wales, and Baden and Saxony 
 are neither of them equal to Yorkshire. Waldeck 
 is about equal to Bedford, and Reuss-Greiz is 
 smaller than Rutland, the smallest English 
 county. The Duke of Sutherland's estates (1838 
 sq. m.) are larger in area than all Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz, or than all Brunswick, respectively tenth 
 and ninth in size of the German states. The 
 Duke of Buccleuch's Scottish estates alone (676 
 sq. m.) exceed in area Saxe-Altenburg or any of 
 the eleven smaller states. In 1901 Berlin, the 
 capital of the empire, had 1,888,848 inhabitants; 
 next come Hamburg, 705,738; Munich, Dresden, 
 Leipzig, and Breslau, with oveir 400,000 ; Cologne, 
 372,529. There are 26 other towns with between 
 100,000 and 200,000; and 175 towns between 
 
 20,000 and 100,000. The population of the Ger- 
 man empire at the census of 1871 was 41,058,792; 
 in 1880, 45,234,061; in 1885, 46,855,704; in 1901, 
 56,367,178. 
 
 Btates. %^.^t ^op.inim. 
 Kingdoms — 
 
 1. Prussia 136,073 34.472,509 
 
 2. Bavaria 29,632 6,176,057 
 
 3. Saxony 5,856 4,202,216 
 
 4. Wurtemberg 7,619 2,169,480 
 
 Grand-duchi es — 
 
 5. Baden 5,891 1,867,944 
 
 6. Hesse 3,000 1,119,893 
 
 7. MecklenbTirg-Schwerin 5,197 607,770 
 
 8. Saxe-Welmar 1,404 362,873 
 
 9. Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1,144 102,602 
 
 10. Oldenburg 2,508 399,180 
 
 Duchies— 
 
 11. Brunswick 1,441 464,333 
 
 12. Saxe-Meiningeu 964 250,731 
 
 13. Saxe-Altenburg 517 194,914 
 
 14. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 765 229,550 
 
 15. Anhalt 917 816,085 
 
 Principalities — 
 
 16. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.. 337 80,898 
 
 17. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 367 93,059 
 
 18. Waldeck 438 57,918 
 
 19. Eeuss-Greiz 123 68,396 
 
 20. Eeuss-Schleiz 323 139,210 
 
 21. Schaumburg-Lippe 133 43,132 
 
 22. Lippe-Detmold 475 138,952 
 
 Free-Towns — 
 
 23. Lubeck 116 96,775 
 
 24. Bremen 100 224,882 
 
 25. Hamburg 160 768,349 
 
 Reichsland — 
 
 26. Alsace-Lorraine 5.668 1,719,470 
 
 211,168 66,367,178 
 
 Germany presents two very distinct physical 
 formations. (1) A range of high tableland, occu- 
 pying the centre and southern parts of the 
 country, interspersed with numerous ranges and 
 groups of mountains, the most important of 
 which are the Harz and Teutoburgerwald, in the 
 north ; the Taunus, Thiiringerwald, Erzgebirge, 
 and Riesengebirge, in the middle ; and the Black 
 Forest (Schwarzwald), Rauhe Alb, and Bavarian 
 Alps in the south (with the Zugspitz, the highest 
 point in Germany, 9665 feet high) ; and contain- 
 ing an area of 110,000 sq. m. (2) A vast sandy 
 plain, which extends from the centre of the 
 empire north to the German Ocean, and from the 
 Netherlands into Russia, contains an area of 
 about 98,000 sq. m., and is varied by slight 
 terrace-like elevations marked by summits of 
 500 to 800 feet high. A large portion of the plain 
 is occupied by sandy tracts interspersed with 
 deposits of peat ; but other parts are moderately 
 fertile, and admit of successful cultivation. 
 
 The surface of Germany may be regarded as 
 belonging to three drainage basins. The Danube 
 (q.v.) from its source in the Black Forest to the 
 borders of Austria belongs to Germany ; and 
 through its channel the Avaters of the greater 
 part of Bavaria are poured into the Black Sea. 
 By far the greater part of the surface has a 
 northern slope, and belongs partly to the basin 
 of the North Sea, partly to that of the Baltic 
 The chief German streams flowing into the North 
 Sea are the Rhine (q.v.), with its tributaries the 
 Neckar, Main, Lahn, Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and 
 Lippe on the right, and the 111 and Moselle on 
 the left; the Weser and the Elbe. Into the 
 Baltic flow the Oder, Vistula, Memel, and Pregel. 
 The natural and artificial waterways of Ger- 
 many are extensive, especially in the northern 
 plain, and connect the rivers flowing into the 
 Baltic and the North Sea with those flowing into 
 the English Channel and the Black Sea. The 
 North Sea and Baltic Ship Canal, from Brun9- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 293 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 battel at the mouth of the Elbe to Kiel (1887- 
 95), is intended chiefly for war-ships. Numerous 
 lakes occur, but few of them are of any great 
 size. The so-called ' Hafls ' of the north coasts 
 are landlocked salt-water lagoons or coast-lakes. 
 Mineral springs occur principally in Nassau, 
 Wurtemberg, Baden, Bavaria, and Rhenish 
 Prussia. TTie climate of Germany presents less 
 diversity than a first glance at the map might 
 lead one to infer, for the greater heats of the 
 more southern latitudes are considerably modi- 
 fied by the hilly character of the country in those 
 parallels, while the cold of the northern plains is 
 mitigated by their vicinity to the ocean. 
 
 The mineral products of Germany are very 
 rich and varied, and their exploitation forms a 
 most important industry. The chief mining and 
 smelting districts are in Silesia, on the Lower 
 Rhine, in the Upper Harz, and in Saxony. Silver 
 is found in the Upper Harz and Saxony. Iron 
 occurs in numerous mountain-ranges, especially 
 in Upper Silesia and in Rhenish Westphalia. 
 Alsace and Lorraine contain a great part of per- 
 haps the largest iron-deposit in Europe, which 
 stretches into France and Luxemburg. The 
 iron of the Thiiringerwald is flue, though not 
 abundant. The chief coalfields are in Silesia, 
 Westphalia (on the Ruhr), and Saxony — the first 
 containing the largest coalfield in Europe. 
 Prussia yields nearly one-half of the zinc annu- 
 ally produced in the world. Lead is found in 
 the Harz, in other parts of Prussia, and in 
 Saxony. A little copper is mined at Mansfeld. 
 Tin and tungsten are yielded by the Erzgebirge ; 
 manganese at Wiesbaden ; quicksilver in West- 
 phalia ; antimony in Thuringia. Salt is pro- 
 duced at Halle, Stassfiirt, and other parts of 
 Prussia. Germany is rich in clays of all kinds, 
 from the finest to the coarsest : the porcelain of 
 Meissen, the pottery of Thuringia, and the glass 
 of Silesia and Bavaria are celebrated. Building- 
 stone is well distributed ; marble, alabaster, 
 slates, and lithographic stones also occur; and 
 cobalt, arsenic, sulphur, saltpetre, alum, gypsum, 
 bismuth, pumice-stone, Tripoli slate, kaolin, 
 emery, ochre, and vitriol are all among the 
 exports of Germany. The average value of the 
 total production of the chief minerals is over 
 £65,000,000 a year. All the ordinary cereals 
 are extensively cultivated in the noT:th, and 
 potatoes are exported. Hemp and flax, madder, 
 woad, and saftron grow Avell in the central dis- 
 tricts, and the vine is cultivated in suitable 
 localities as far north as 51°. Tobacco and chicory 
 are largely grown. Magdeburg is the centre of 
 a large beet-root growing industry. About 50 per 
 cent, of the total area is arable ground ; 15 per 
 cent, is occupied by heath, meadow, and pasture ; 
 and 26 per cent, is forest, 9 per cent, being un- 
 productive. The most extensive forests are found 
 in central Germany, while the deficiency of wood 
 in the north-west parts of the great plain is in 
 some degree met by the abundance of turf. 
 
 The forests of northern and central Germany 
 ibound in small game ; some still shelter wild 
 boars. The Bavarian Alps shelter the chamois, 
 ■yhe red deer and wild goat, the fox and marten. 
 SVolves are still found in Bavaria, eastern Prussia, 
 md Lorraine. In the plains of the north storks, 
 vild geese, and ducks are abundant. Both fresh 
 .nd salt water fisheries are diligently taken 
 dvantage of. Forestry receives almost as much 
 ttention in Germany as agriculture. The oldest 
 nd most important of the German industrial 
 rts are the manufactures of linen and woollen 
 cods. The chief localities for linen production 
 
 are the mountain-valleys of Silesia, Lusatia, West- 
 phalia, and Saxony (for thread-laces) ; while 
 cotton fabrics are principally made in Rhenish 
 Prussia and Saxony. The same districts, together 
 with Pomerania, Bavaria, Alsace, Wiirtemberg, 
 and Baden, manufacture the choicest woollen 
 fabrics, including damasks and carpets. The 
 silk industry has its central point in Rhenish 
 Prussia, specially about Diisseldorf. Germany 
 rivals France in the production of satins. Jute- 
 spinning is carried on in Brunswick, at Meissen, 
 and at Bonn ; thread is manufactured in Saxony, 
 Silesia, and the Rhine provinces ; and hosiery 
 is most largely produced in Saxony and Thur- 
 ingia. The making of toys and wooden clocks, 
 and Avood-carving, which may be regarded as 
 almost a speciality of German industry, flourish 
 in the hilly districts of Saxony, Bavaria, and the 
 Black Forest. Paper is made chiefly in the 
 districts of Aix-la-Chapelle, Arnsberg, and Lieg- 
 nitz, and in Saxony. Tanning is prominent in 
 the south-west. The best iron and steel manu- 
 factures belong to Silesia, Hanover, and Saxony. 
 Silesia probably possesses the finest glass-manu- 
 factories, but those of Bavaria are also important ; 
 while Saxony and Prussia stand pre-eminent for 
 the excellence of their china and earthenware. 
 Augsburg and Nuremberg dispute with Munich 
 and Berlin the title to pre-eminence in silver, 
 gold, and jewellery work, and in the manufacture 
 of scientific and musical instruments ; while 
 Leipzig and Munich claim the first rank for 
 typefounding, printing, and lithography. The 
 trading cities of northern Gennany nearly mono- 
 polise the preparation of beet-root sugar, tobacco, 
 snuff", &c., and the distillation of spirits from 
 the potato and other roots ; while vinegar and 
 oils are prepared in central and southern Ger- 
 many. Prussia and Bavaria produce most beer. 
 
 In 1898-1903 the total annual value of German 
 imports fluctuated from £271,983,800 (in 1898) to 
 £310,057,300 (in 1903). The exports for the same 
 years varied from £200,528,250 (in 1898) to 
 £256,518,550 (in 1903). Great Britain, Russia, 
 Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France 
 contributed more of the German imports tlian 
 any other countries ; Great Britain, Austria, the 
 Netherlands, and France took more of tlie ex- 
 ports. In 1893-1903 German exports to Britain 
 varied from £26,364,849 to £34,533,390 a year, 
 according to British Board of Trade returns ; but, 
 as much German produce comes through Hol- 
 land and Belgium, from 10 millions to 14 jnil- 
 lions have to be added to the figures given. The 
 German mercantile fleet is the fourth in the 
 world, being excelled only by those of Great 
 Britain, the United States, and Norway. In her 
 commercial policy Germany has of late years 
 committed herself more and more to protection. 
 The silver mark, superseding guldens and thalers, 
 is almost exactly equal to a shilling in value, and 
 gold is now the monetary standard. Since 1872 
 the metrical system of weights and measures 
 has been in use. The length of railways in the 
 empire in 1904 was 34,314 miles, of which total all 
 but 3111 belonged to the state. The postal and 
 telegraphic systems of all the German states, 
 except Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, are now under 
 a central imperial administration. 
 
 The German-speaking inhabitants of the empire 
 number upwards of 51,500,000 ; but a consider- 
 able proportion of these are not of the Germanic 
 stock. Among the peoples retaining their own 
 language (about 4J millions) are Poles (exclusively 
 in eastern and north-eastern Prussia), 3,329,000; 
 Wends (in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), 
 
GERMANY 
 
 294 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 93,000 ; Czechs (in Silesia), 107,000 ; Lithuanians 
 (in eastern Prussia), 103,000 ; Danes (in Sleswick), 
 141,000 ; Frencli (in Bhenisli Prussia, Alsace, and 
 Lorraine) and Walloons (about Aix-la-Chapelle 
 in Rlienisli Prussia), 224,000. The Germans are 
 divided into High and Low Germans ; the lan- 
 guage of the former is the cultivated language of 
 all the German states ; that of the latter, knovi'n 
 as Platt-Deutsch, is spoken in the north and 
 north-west. It is computed that there are about 
 25,000,000 persons of German race and language 
 beyond the boundary of the empire, of whom 
 9 millions are in Austria, 2^ in the United States, 
 2^ in Switzerland, 400,000 in Poland (besides 
 800,000 German Jews). There are also many in 
 the Volga country, in middle and south Russia, 
 Boumania, and Turkey. The average density of 
 the population of Germany is 269-9 per sq. m. 
 The most densely populated country of the 
 empire is Saxony, with 743-4 per sq. ni. ; the most 
 sparsely populated is Mecklenburg-Strelitz, with 
 90*7 per sq. ra. The concentration of the popu- 
 lation in large towns has not gone so far in 
 Germany as in some other countries. After 
 1830 emigration from Germany steadily swelled ; 
 the highest total (220,798) was reached in 1881. 
 Between 1830 and 1892, 4,750,000 emigrants left 
 the country, flve-sevenths of whom were bound 
 for the United States of North America. In the 
 succeeding ten years to 1903 the total number 
 of emigrants was 347,618, of whom 303,201 went 
 to the United States. There are about 50,000 
 persons of German birth in England and Wales. 
 To balance this efflux of native blood there 
 were, in 1900, 778,698 foreigners in the Ger- 
 man empire, of whom 371,023 were Austrians, and 
 16,173 British subjects. In the last decade of the 
 19th century there were large extensions of Ger- 
 man territory abroad. In 1884-99 the following 
 regions became German possessions or came under 
 German protection : In Africa, Togoland, Came- 
 roon, German South-west Africa, and German 
 East Africa ; total area, 931,460 sq. m. ; total pop. 
 13,047,000. In Asia, Kiao-chau Bay; area, 200 
 sq. m. ; pop. 32,000. In the Pacific, German New 
 Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm Land, Bismarck Archi- 
 pelago, Caroline Islands, Pelew Islands, Marianne 
 Islands, Solomon Islands), Marshall Islands, &c., 
 Samoan Islands ; total area, 96,160 sq. m. ; total 
 pop. 443,000. 
 
 Education is more systematically cultivated in 
 Germany than in any other country of Europe. 
 Besides the Lyceum at Braunsberg, there are 
 21 universities: Heidelberg, Wiirzburg, Leipzig, 
 Rostock, Greifswald, Freiburg, Munich, Ttibin- 
 gen, Marburg, Konigsberg, Jena, Giessen, Kiel, 
 Gottingen, Erlangen, Berlin, Breslau, Halle, 
 Bonn, Strasburg, and Miinster. Berlin had 356 
 professors and teachers and 5371 students in 
 1891-92. Of the universities, 14 are Protestant 
 in the theological faculty, four are Roman 
 Catholic, and three are mixed. There are also 
 9 polytechnic institutions ? nearly 1400 gym- 
 nasia, realschulen, &c. ; numerous special schools 
 of technology, agriculture, forestry, mining, com- 
 merce, military science, &c. ; seminaries for 
 teachers and preachers; and about 60,000 ele- 
 mentary schools. Among the military recruits 
 only -05 per cent, are illiterate. Public libraries, 
 museums, botanical gardens, art-collections, pic- 
 ture-galleries, schools of music and design, and 
 academies of arts and sciences are to be met 
 with in most of the capitals, and in many of the 
 country towns, upwards of 200 of which possess 
 theatres. The chief centres of the book and pub- 
 lishing trade are Leipzig and Stuttgart. Protes- 
 
 tantism predominates in the north and middle, 
 and Roman Catholicism in the south, east, and 
 west, although very few states exhibit exclusively 
 either form of faith. The Protestants belong 
 chiefly to the Lutheran confession, except in 
 Hesse, Anhalt, and the Palatinate, where the 
 Reformed or Calvinistic Church predominates. 
 A union between these two churches has taken 
 place in Prussia. The total number of Protestants 
 in 1900 was 35,231,104, of Catholics 20,321,441, of 
 Jews 586,948, the rest being ' other Christians ' or 
 'unclassified.' 
 
 In 1871 the Prussian military system was ex- 
 tended to the whole empire ; and alterations have 
 since been introduced, especially (in the way of 
 strengthening the army) in 1893. Every German 
 who is capable of bearing arms must be in the 
 standing army for seven years (generally his 
 twenty-first to his twenty-eighth year). Three 
 (in some cases two) of these years must be spent 
 in active service, and the remainder in the army 
 of reserve. He then spends five years in the 
 first class of the Landiuehr, after which he be- 
 longs to the second class till his thirty-ninth 
 year. Besides this, every German, from seven- 
 teen to twenty-one, and from thirty-nine to 
 forty-five, is a member of the Landsturm, a force 
 only to be called out in the last necessity. Those 
 who pass certain examinations require to serve 
 only one year with the colours. The whole of 
 the land forces of the empire form a united army 
 under the command of the emperor in war and 
 peace. The imperial army, on its peace footing, 
 consisted at the end of 1904 of 34,374 officers, 
 582,498 rank and file, and 105,885 liorses. On its 
 war footing, 3,000,000 trained men would be avail- 
 able. In 1905 the imperial fleet comprised 126 
 vessels, with a total tonnage of 509,460 tons. Of 
 these 21 were sea-going ironclads, 8 armoured 
 guardships, 12 armoured gunboats, 10 first-class 
 cruisers, 32 smaller cruisers, and over 120 torpedo- 
 boats. This fleet was manned by 37,889 officers 
 and men. The seafaring population of Germany 
 are liable to service in the navy instead of in the 
 army. 
 
 The revenue of the German empire is derived 
 (1) from the customs dues on tobacco, salt, and 
 beet-root sugar, which are entirely made over to 
 it by all the states ; from those on brandy and 
 malt, which are also assigned by most of the 
 states ; from taxes on playing-cards and stamps, 
 from posts, telegraphs, and railways, the imperial 
 bank, and various miscellaneous sources ; (2) 
 from extraordinary sources — as votes for public 
 buildings and loans ; and (3) from the propor- 
 tional contributions of the various states. The 
 chief items of expenditure are the maintenance 
 of the Reichstag and various government offices, 
 the army and navy, posts and telegraphs, rail- 
 ways, justice, pensions, and other miscellaneous 
 claims. The revenue and expenditure in the year 
 1903-4 balanced at a little over £120,000,000. The 
 public debt of the empire in the year 1905 was 
 just about £150,000,000. 
 
 The empire, as reconstituted in 1871, possesses 
 the exclusive right of legislation on all military 
 and naval aff'airs ; on civil and criminal law for 
 general application ; on imperial finance and 
 commerce ; on posts, telegraphs, and railways 
 in so far as the interests of the national defence 
 and general trade are concerned. In all disputes 
 that arise among the individual states, the im- 
 perial jurisdiction is supreme and final. There 
 are two legislative bodies in the empire— the 
 Bundesrath, or Federal Council, the members of 
 which are annually appointed by the govern- 
 
 J 
 
GERMANY 
 
 huAts 
 
 ments of the various states ; and the Reichstag, 
 the members of which are elected by universal 
 suffrage and ballot for a period of three years. 
 The former deliberates on proposals to be sub- 
 mitted to the latter, and on the resolutions re- 
 ceived from it. The Reichstag contains approxi- 
 mately one member for every 131,600 inhabitants ; 
 in 1905 there were 397 members. They are un- 
 paid, but enjoy various privileges and immunities. 
 The Reichstag at present falls into no fewer than 
 sixteen parties or groups (conservatives, national 
 liberals, social democrats, &c.). 
 
 When first in the 4th century B.C. the 
 Romans heard of new peoples of common kin 
 whom they called Germani, the German tribes 
 were living between the Elbe and Rhine and to 
 the north of the Main. In 58 B.C. Caesar drove 
 back the Germans who had crossed the Rhine. 
 Successful Roman incursions were made into 
 Germany under Augustus ; but in 6 a.d. the 
 German tribes rose under Arminius (Hermann) 
 and utterly destroyed Varus and his legions. 
 Henceforth the Romans were in the main con- 
 tent to hold a strip of territory from the Lower 
 Rhine to the Upper Danube, and to guard the 
 frontiers of the empire against German raids. 
 From the 3d century on this became imposs- 
 ible, and in the 4th, the Germans continued to 
 force their way into Roman territory. The 
 settlement of the Franks in the north of Gaul 
 founded the French nation and the German 
 empire, or rather the 'Holy Roman Empire,' or 
 Germany. Charlemagne, who received the im- 
 perial crown from the pope in 800, extended his 
 dominions north over the heathen Saxons and 
 as far east as Hungary. Under his successors 
 France and Germany fell apart, and in 911 the 
 national diet of the Germans claimed and secured 
 the right of electing their emperor, who could 
 not assume the imperial title till crowned by 
 the pope. At this period there were in Germany 
 five nations— the Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, 
 Swabians, and Lorrainers. A duke of Franconia 
 was emperor 911-918 ; his rival and successor, 
 Henry, Duke of Saxony, and Henry's son Otho 
 extended the empire over northern Slavs, Mag- 
 yars, and into Lombardy. Burgundy was added 
 by Conrad II., first of a new Franconian dynasty, 
 in 1030, and his successor temporarily annexed 
 Denmark, Bohemia, and Hungary. Henry IV., 
 of this line, was constantly at feud with Pope 
 Gregory VII.; but it was under Conrad III., 
 first of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, that the wars 
 of Guelphs and Ghibellines, between pope and 
 emperor, so disastrously weakened the empire. 
 His nephew Barbarossa was more concerned 
 about his interests in Italy and the Crusades than 
 about the internal well-being of Germany. From 
 the accession in 1273 of Rudolf, first of the 
 Hapsburgs, till 1806, the Austrian princes were 
 emperors almost without break, and the imperial 
 crown was all but hereditary (see Austria). The 
 emperor Charles V. was also king of Spain, and 
 lord of the Netherlands and of great part of 
 Italy. The influence of the Reformation and the 
 Thirty Years' War was to weaken the imperial 
 power, and cut up the empire into a crowd of 
 petty factions and almost independent states : 
 at one time there were as many as 300 states in 
 the empire. Alsace and Lorraine were lost to 
 the empire in 1648-97. The Napoleonic wars 
 reconstructed the map of Germany. In 1806 the 
 emperor resigned the German crown and con- 
 tented himself with being Emperor of Austria ; 
 and the Confederation of the Rhine was formed 
 under French influence, to be succeeded in 1815 
 
 by the German Confederation, which comprised 
 virtually all Germany, including German Austria, 
 in 35 states, with a diet at Frankfort. The 
 political discontents of 1848 and 1849 led to not 
 a few local insurrectionary movements which 
 were swiftly crushed, and followed by a period 
 of severe reaction and repression. The rivalries 
 of Austria and Prussia for pre-eminence in the 
 Confederation, ended at Koniggrjitz (1866) with 
 the exclusion of Austria from Germany. The 
 great Franco-German war of 1870-71 led to the 
 re-annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and the con- 
 stitution of the new German empire, with the 
 kings of Prussia as hereditary emperors. German 
 colonial extension began in 1884. Commerce has 
 vastly developed. The alliance of Germany with 
 Austria and Italy (to balance Russia and France), 
 the strengthening of the army (in spite of the 
 Socialists, wlio polled 3,000,000 votes in 1903), 
 diplomatic energy at Constantinople and Peking, 
 and the great increase of the fleet are keynotes 
 of recent policy. 
 
 See books on Germany by Baring-Gould (1881), 
 Whitman (1889), Dawson (1893), 'Veritas ' (1902), 
 Schierbrand (1904) ; histories by Sime (1874) and 
 B. F. Henderson (1904) ; Bryce's Hobj Roman 
 Empire (20th ed. 1905) and Herbert Fisher's 
 Medkeval Empire (1898) ; and The Franco-German 
 War, by German officers (trans. 1900). 
 
 Germershelm (Ger'mers-hlm ; g hard), a town 
 of the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Rhine's left 
 bank, 8 miles SSW. of Spires. Pop. 6132. 
 
 Gero'na, the capital of a Spanish province, 65 
 miles by rail NE. of Barcelona, with a fine Gothic 
 cathedral and some manufactures. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Gers (Zhdr), a dep. of SW. France, separated 
 by Landes from the Bay of Biscay. Area, 2415 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1861) 298,931 ; (1901) 238,448. 
 
 Gersau (g hard), a village in the Swiss canton 
 of Schwyz, on the Lake of Lucerne, and near the 
 foot of the Rigi. Pop. 1871. 
 
 Gersoppa, a village of South India which gives 
 name to the great falls of the Sharawati River, 
 960 feet high, 30 miles SE. of Honawar. 
 
 Gethse'mane (Heb. gath, 'a wine-press,' and 
 shemen, ' oil ') was a small farm or estate at the 
 foot of Mount Olivet, somewhere on the east 
 slope of the Kedron valley, and rather more than 
 i mile from Jerusalem. 
 
 Gettysburg (g hard), in Pennsylvania, 50 miles 
 by rail SSW. of Harrisburg, with a Lutheran 
 college (1832) and seminary. Pop. 3500. Here 
 in 1863 (July 2-3) Meade defeated Lee. 
 
 Gex, once capital of the Pays de Gex in Savoy, 
 now a town of 2500 inhabitants in the French 
 department of Ain, is 12 miles NW. of Geneva, 
 on the slopes of the Jura. 
 
 Geyser Springs, a number of boiling springs 
 (not real geysers) in the Devil's Cafton, in Cali- 
 fornia, 90 miles NW. of San Francisco and 2000 
 feet above the sea. 
 
 Ghadames. See Gadames. 
 
 Ghats, or Ghauts ('gates, passes, or landing- 
 stairs '), Eastern and Western, two converging 
 ranges of mountains, which run parallel with the 
 east and west coasts of southern India, and meet 
 at an angle near Cape Coniorin. (1) The Eastern 
 Ghats commence a little north of the Mahanadi, 
 and run through Madras, with an average height 
 of 1500 feet, for the most part at a distance of 
 from 50 to 150 miles from the coast. (2) The 
 Western Ghats stretch from the valley of the 
 Tapti to their junction with the kindred ridge, 
 and on to Cape Comorin itself. Their elevation 
 
6laAZIABAD ^i 
 
 varies from 8000 feet to 8760 in the peak of 
 Doflabetta, in the Nilgiri hills. 
 
 Ghaziahad, a town and important railway 
 junction in the United Provinces of India, 28 
 miles SW, of Meerut. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Ghazipur, a city in the United Provinces of 
 India, on the left bank of the Ganges, 44 miles 
 NB. of Benares. It has the ruins of the Palace 
 of Forty Pillars, a marble statue by Flaxman to 
 Lord Cornwallis, who died here in 1805, and 
 manufactures of opium. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Ghazni (also Ghizni and Ghuzme), a fortified 
 town of Afghanistan, stands 7729 feet above sea- 
 level, and 84 miles SW. of Kabul, on the road to 
 Kandahar and at the head of the Gomal route 
 to India. From the 10th to the 12th century 
 it was the capital of the Ghaznevid empire ; and 
 was captured by the Mongols, and in 1738 by 
 Nadir Shah of Persia. It was taken by Lord 
 Keane in 1839, and in 1842 by General Nutt. The 
 celebrated gates of Somnath were kept at Ghazni 
 from 1024 to 1842. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Gheel, a famous colony for the insane, in Bel- 
 gium, 26 miles ESE. of Antwerp by rail. 
 
 Ghent (Flem. and Ger. Gent, Fr. Gand), a 
 city of Belgium, capital of the province of East 
 Flanders, is situated at the confluence of the Lys 
 and the Scheldt, 34 miles by rail NW. of Brussels. 
 It is divided by canals into 26 islands, connected 
 by 270 bridges, and is encompassed with gardens 
 and meadows. It is in general well built ; in the 
 older part it retains several quaint and pictur- 
 esque houses. Among the chief buildings are 
 the splendid cathedral of St Bavon, of the 13th 
 and 14th centuries, containing the ' Adoration of 
 the Lamb,' by the brothers Van Byck ; the belfry 
 (1183-1339), 280 feet high, or 375 with the iron 
 spire of 1855 ; the new citadel (1822-30) ; the hotel- 
 de-ville (1480-1628) ; the Palais de Justice (1835- 
 43) ; the university (1816) ; the Beguinage ; and 
 the Academy of Painting. The industries include 
 cotton, woollen, and linen manufactures, besides 
 leather, lace, sugar, iron, beer, &c. Specially 
 noteworthy is the floriculture of Ghent. By the 
 Great Canal, which flows into the Scheldt, Ghent 
 is united with the sea, and it can receive into 
 its docks vessels drawing 17 feet of water. The 
 harbour is capable of holding 400 vessels, new 
 docks having been opened in 1881. Pop. (1846) 
 102,977 ; (1902) 162,925. Ghent, which in the 
 12th century was made the capital of Flanders, 
 and which in 1830 fell to Belgium, was the birth- 
 place of Jacob van Artevelde and of John of 
 Gaunt, i.e. Ghent. 
 
 Ghllan', a province of Persia, the western por- 
 tion of the narrow strip of country lying between 
 the Blburz range and the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Ghizeh. See Gizeh. 
 
 Ghizni. See Ghazni, 
 
 Gh^, or Ghore, a mountainous district of 
 western Afghanistan, lying south-east of Her^t. 
 
 Giants' Causeway (deriving its name from a 
 legend that it was the commencement of a road 
 to be constructed by giants across the channel to 
 Scotland) is a sort of natural pier or mole, of 
 columnar basalt, projecting from the northern 
 coast of Antrim, Ireland, into the North Channel, 
 7 miles NE. of Portrush by an electric tramway 
 (1883). It is part of an overlying mass of basalt, 
 from 300 to 500 feet thick, which covers almost 
 all Antrim and the eastern part of Londonderry. 
 The first bed appears at the bold promontory of 
 Fair Head ; its columns exceed 200 feet in height. 
 The other two are seen together rising above the 
 
 ; GIBRALTAR 
 
 sea-level at Bengore Head, the lower one forming 
 the Giants' Causeway. It is exposed for 300 
 yards, and exhibits an unequal ];)avement, formed 
 of the tops of 40,000 vertical closely-fitting col- 
 unms, which in shape are chiefly hexagonal, 
 though examples may be found with 5, 7, 8, or 9 
 sides. Their diameter varies from 15 to 20 inches. 
 
 Giarre (Jar're), a town of Sicily, on the eastern 
 slope of Mount Etna. Pop. (1901) 26,000. 
 
 Giaveno (Ja-vay'no), a town of Piedmont, 17 
 miles W. of Turin. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 Giheah (g hard ; Heb. ' hill '), 4 miles N. of 
 Jerusalem, near Ramah, Avas the residence, if 
 not the birthplace, of King Saul. 
 
 Gibeon, a city of ancient Palestine, on a hill 
 5 miles NW. of Jerusalem. 
 
 Gibraltar (Span. Gibraltar'), an isolated mass 
 of rock, in the SW. of Spain, rising to an altitude 
 of 1408 feet, 3 miles in length, and | mile in 
 average breadth, is situated at the extremity of 
 a low sandy peninsula, which connects it on the 
 north with Andalusia. By the completion of the 
 railway route in 1892, Gibraltar is Avithin four 
 days of England. Its western side is washed by 
 the Bay of Gibraltar, called also the Bay of 
 Algeciras ; and at the foot of the rock, on this 
 same side, is the town of Gibraltar, Avhich con- 
 sists of two parts, the South Town, above the 
 dockyard, and the North Town, which has narrow 
 streets and many mean houses, and is inhabited 
 by a motley agglomeration of English, Spaniards, 
 Jews, and Moors. Pop. (1901), civil, 20,365 ; mili- 
 tary, 6475 ; total, 26,830. One may notice the 
 numerous barracks; the governor's official resi- 
 dence, an old Franciscan convent ; the naval 
 hospital ; the Alameda Gardens ; the signal- 
 station, crowning the central eminence of the 
 rock, 1255 feet high ; the remains of the Moorish 
 castle (10th c.) ; and the lighthouse (1841), on 
 Point Europa, whose light, 150 feet above the 
 sea, is seen for 20 miles. At the northern base 
 of the rock is the open space called the North 
 Front, extending as far as the British lines ; here 
 are the cemetery, the cricket-ground, the race- 
 course, &c. Between the British and the Spanish 
 lines is the neutral ground, Avhich is uninhabited. 
 The harbour and dock improvements in progress 
 in 1900-10 (mainly for naval purposes) were 
 estimated to cost some £6,500,000. There is 
 good anchorage in the Bay of Gibraltar, 8 miles 
 deep by 5 wide. Gibraltar has been a free 
 port since its capture by the British, was for a 
 time one of the chief commercial emporiums of 
 the Mediterranean, and is an important coaling- 
 station. Since 1842 it has been the see of an 
 Anglican bishop. Almost the entire rock bristles 
 with artillery ; and the approaches from the 
 north and froni the sea are guarded by many 
 powerful batteries. Towards the north and north- 
 west the defences are aided by a series of fortified 
 galleries, 2 to 3 miles in length. The eastern 
 side is so precipitous as to be altogether secure 
 from assault. In these days, however, of steam- 
 ships and heavy long-range guns, the military 
 iTuportance of Gibraltar has certainly diminished. 
 The rocky mass is perforated by numerous 
 caverns, some of which penetrate for several 
 hundred feet into the rock. The largest, called 
 the ' Hall of St Michael,' is 220 feet long, 90 wide, 
 and 70 high, and its floor is connected with the 
 roof by stalactite pillars ranging up to 50 feet in 
 height ; the entrance lies 1100 feet above the sea. 
 Gibraltar is the only place in Europe where 
 monkeys (some 20 Barbary apes) live wild. 
 Gibraltar was known to the early Phoenician 
 
 i 
 
GIBRALTAR 
 
 297 
 
 GISBORNE 
 
 navigators. The Greeks called it Calpe, and it 
 and Abyla opposite (now Ceuta) formed the Pillars 
 of Hercules, long held to be the western boundary 
 of the world. In 711 a.d. the Saracen leader 
 Tarik fortified it, as a base of operations against 
 the Visigothic kingdom ; and from him it took the 
 name of Gebel el-Tarik, or Hill of Tarik, of which 
 Gibraltar is a corruption. In 1302 Ferdinand II. 
 of Castile won it from the Moors ; but in 1333 it 
 fell into the hands of the king of Fez. In 1410 
 Yussuf, king of Granada, ijossessed himself of 
 the fortress, which, however, was finally wrested 
 from the Moors by the Spaniards in 1462. A 
 combined Dutch and English force compelled 
 the governor to capitulate in 1704 ; and since 
 then Gibraltar has remained continuously in the 
 possession of the British, in spite of many des- 
 perate eftbrts on the part of Spain and France to 
 dislodge them, the greatest in 1779-82, when it 
 was defended with heroic valour by General 
 Eliott (Lord Heathfleld) and 5000 men, including 
 1100 Hanoverians. 
 
 See works by Drinkwater (1785), Gilbard (1881), 
 and H. M. Field (New York, 1889). 
 
 Gibraltar, Strait of (anc. Strait of Hercules), 
 connects the Mediterranean with the Atlantic. 
 It is 36 miles long, and narrow eastward ; its 
 width between Point Europa and Cajje Ceuta 
 being only 15 miles, at the western extremity 
 24, and at the narrowest 9. 
 
 Giddlng, Little, a parish of Hants, 11 miles 
 NW. of Huntingdon, Here in 1625 Nicholas 
 Ferrar founded the religious community so well 
 known through John Inglesant. 
 
 Gien, a town in the French dep. of Loiret, on 
 the Loire, 38 miles SE. of Orleans. Pop. 7767. 
 
 Giessen (Ges'sen; g hard), a town of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, on the Lahn, 40 miles N. of Frankfort- 
 on-the-Main. It has a university (founded in 
 1607), with over 60 professors and 500 students, 
 and manufactures tobacco, iron, beer, &c. Pop.' 
 25,500. 
 
 GiflFord (g hard), a Haddingtonshire village, on 
 Gifford Water (a feeder of the Tyne), 4^ miles 
 SSE. of Haddington. Pop. 305. 
 
 Giffordg«ate, a suburb of Haddington, the birth- 
 place of Knox, 
 
 Glggleswick, a village in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 1 mile WNW. of Settle. It has a well- 
 endowed grammar-school (1553). Pop. 980. 
 
 Gigha {Ge'ha; g hard), an Argyllshire i-sland, 
 1 J mile W. of Kintyre. It measures 6 by 2 miles, 
 and attains 260 feet. Pop. 378. 
 
 Gljon, a seaport of Spain, on a peninsula and 
 bay of the Atlantic, 20 miles by rail NB, of 
 Oviedo, It manufactures tobacco, glass, and 
 earthenware. Pop. 47,144. 
 
 Gila (He'la), a river rising in the state of New 
 Mexico, and flowing nearly 650 miles westward, 
 across Arizona, to the Colorado, 75 miles above its 
 mouth in the Gulf of California. 
 
 Gilbert Islands, a British archipelago in the 
 Pacific, lying on the equator between 172° and 
 177° E, long. Area, 166 sq, m, ; pop, 36,800, The 
 group consists of sixteen atolls, several of them 
 triangular in shape, with two outlying hilly 
 islands. Cocoa-nuts and copra are the chief pro- 
 ducts, Marshall and Gilbert discovered it in 1788. 
 
 Gilboa, a bare chain of hills between 500 and 
 
 600 feet high, overhanging the site of the ancient 
 
 city of Jezreel, between the Jordan and the plain 
 
 of Esdraelon. Here King Saul met his doom. 
 
 Qilead, a mountainous district on the east side 
 
 of the Jordan, described by Laurence Oliphant 
 as a country of wine and oil, with rich alluvial 
 deposits. See his Land ofGilead (18S0), 
 
 Gilford, a town of County Down, on the Bann, 
 4 miles NW, of Banbridge. Pop. 1276. 
 GilgMt. See Cashmere, Dardistan. 
 Gillingliam (g hard), a Dorset market-town, 
 on the Stour, 22 miles by rail W. of Salisbury. 
 Near it are the ' Pen Pits,' thought to be either 
 quarry-holes or prehistoric dwellings. Pop. of 
 parish, 3303, 
 
 Gillis Land, a Polar land NE, of Spitzbergen, 
 first sighted in 1707 by Gillis, a Dutchman, in 
 81° 30' N, lat. and 36° E. long. 
 
 Gilmerton, a Midlothian village, 4 miles SSE. 
 of Edinburgh. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Gilnockie (g hard), Dumfriesshire, on the Esk, 
 4j miles SSE. of Langholm, was the site of the 
 peel-tower of Johnny Armstrong, hanged by 
 James V. at Caerlanrig in 1529. 
 
 Gilolo, one of the Moluccas (q.v,) or Spice 
 
 Islands, 
 
 Gilp, Loch, an arm of Loch Fyne, 3 miles long. 
 
 Gilsland (g hard), a Cumberland village, with a 
 
 sulphur-spring, 8 miles NE. of Brampton. Here 
 
 Scott met his future wife. Pop. 365. 
 
 Gioja del Colle, a town of Italy, 33 miles by- 
 rail S. of Bari. Pop. 16,573. 
 
 Giovinazzo, an Italian cathedral town on the 
 Adriatic, 14 miles WNW, of Bari, Pop. 11,250. 
 
 Gipping (g hard), a Suffolk river, flowing 15 
 miles south-south-eastward from Stowmarket to 
 Ipswich (q.v.), where it becomes tidal, and takes 
 the name Orwell. 
 
 Gippsland, the southern one of the four im- 
 portant districts of Victoria, Australia, It was 
 originally called Caledonia Australis by Mac- 
 millan, its first explorer (1839), and then Gipps- 
 land after the governor. Sir George Gipps, 
 
 Girgeh, a town of Egypt, on the Nile's left 
 bank, in 26° 20' N. lat. and 31° 58' E. long., lOJ 
 miles N. of the ancient Abydos. Outside it is a 
 Roman Catholic monastery, said to be the oldest 
 in Egypt. Pop. 17,819. 
 
 Girgenti (Jer-jen'te; anc. Agrigentum), a coast- 
 town of Sicily, 84 miles by rail SSE. of Palermo, 
 witli maguilicent Greek ruins. Pop. 25,100. 
 
 Girnar, a sacred mountain (3500 feet) of India, 
 in Kathiawar, Bombay. As a holy place of 
 Jainism, it is covered with ruined temples. 
 
 Gironde (Zhe-rongd), a maritime dep. of south- 
 west France, is formed out of part of the old prov- 
 ince of Guienne. Area, 3760 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 
 705,149 ; (1901) 821,131. It is watered mainly 
 by the Garonne and the Dordogne, and by the 
 Gironde, the estuary formed by the union of 
 these two rivers. It includes the six arrondisse- 
 inents of Bazas, Blaye, Bordeaux (the capital), 
 Lesparre, Libourne, and Reole. 
 
 Girton (g hard), a parish 3J miles NNE. of 
 Cambridge. Girton College for women was re- 
 moved hither from Hitchin in 1873. 
 
 Girvan (gr hard), an Ayrshire seaport and water- 
 ing-place, at the mouth of the river Girvan, 21 
 miles SSW. of Ayr by rail. The harbour is 
 small, but has been improved since 1881. Pop. 
 4024. 
 
 Gisborne, a post-town of New Zealand, in the 
 North Island, on the Turanganui (fine bridge, 
 1885), 250 miles SE. of Auckland. It is the port 
 of entry for Poverty Bay, a name given by 
 
GISOBS 
 
 GLASGOW 
 
 Captain Cook in 1769, and sometimes still retained 
 for the town ; only small vessels can come up to 
 the wharves, but in 1889 a harbour was under- 
 taken, to cost £200,000. In 1886 petroleum was 
 struck in the neighbourhood. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Gisors (ZM-zor'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Eure, on the Epte, 43 miles NW. of Paris by 
 rail. The octagonal donjon of the ruined castle 
 was built by Henry I. of England. Here Richard 
 I. defeated the French in 1198 ; his watchword, 
 Dieu et mon Droit, has ever since been the motto 
 of the royal arms of England. Pop. 4745. 
 
 GitscMn (Czech Jicin), a town of Bohemia, 60 
 miles by rail NE. of Prague. It was once the 
 capital of the duchy of Friedland, where Wallen- 
 stein built a splendid palace (1630). On 29th 
 June 1866 the Austrians were severely defeated 
 here by the Prussians. Pop. 9871. 
 
 Glugliano, a town of Italy, 8 miles NW. of 
 Naples. Pop. 14,748. 
 
 Giurgevo (Joor-je-vo; Roumanian Gmrgiu), a 
 town of Roumania, on the Danube's left bank, 
 opposite Rustchuk, 40 miles by rail SSW. of 
 Bucharest, of which it is the port. It was orig- 
 inally settled by the Genoese in the 14th cen- 
 tury, who called it St George. Pop. 20,866. 
 
 Givet (Zhe-veh), a frontier town and first-class 
 fortress in the French dep. of Ardennes, on the 
 Meuse, 31 miles by rail S. of Namur in Belgium. 
 The citadel of Charlemont, on a rock 700 feet 
 above the stream, was reconstructed by Vauban. 
 Pop. 5100. 
 
 Givers (Zhe-vor), a smoky town in the French 
 dep. of Rhone, on the Rhone, 14 miles S. of Lyons 
 by rail. Glass bottles and silk and iron goods 
 are extensively manufactured. Pop. 12,100. 
 
 Gizeh, or Ghizeh, a town in Egypt, on the 
 opposite side of the river from Old Cairo, and 
 approached from Cairo, since 1905, by more than 
 one bridge over the Nile. The Boulak Museum 
 was transferred hither ill 1889. The Pyramids (q. v.) 
 of Gizeh are 5 miles away to the W. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Gladbacli, or Bergisch-Gladbach, an in- 
 dustrial town of Rhenish Prussia, 8 miles NE. 
 of Cologne. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Gladbach, or Monchen-Gladbaoh, a rapidly 
 growing manufacturing town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 16 miles W. of Diisseldorf. The centre of the 
 Rhenish cotton-spinning industry, it also has 
 manufactures of silk, wool, linen, and paper, 
 cotton-printing works, dyeworks, bleachtields, 
 iron-foundries, machine-shops, breweries, ami 
 brickworks. Gladbach, which has been a town 
 since 1366, was formerly the seat of an important 
 linen trade ; the cotton industry was introduced 
 in the end of the 18th century. The town for- 
 merly contained a famous Benedictine abbey, 
 founded in 792. Pop. (1858) 13,965; (1871) 
 26,354 ; (1900) 58,014, mostly Roman Catholics. 
 
 Gladsmulr, a Haddingtonshire parish, 3^ miles 
 E. of Tranent. With the Jacobites it gave name 
 to the battle of Prestonpans. 
 
 Glamls Castle (Gldmz), the seat of the Earl 
 of Strathmore, in Forfarshire, 5 miles WSW. of 
 Forfar. It is a splendid chateau-like pile of 
 (mainly) the 17th century. 
 
 Glamorganshire (Welsh Gwlad Morgan), the 
 most southerly county of Wales, bounded S. and 
 SW. by the Bristol Channel. Area, 855 sq. m. ; 
 pop. (1801) 70,879 ; (1841) 171,188 ; (1881) 511,433 ; 
 (1901) 860,022. This unexampled increase is due 
 to the development of the mineral industries. 
 lu the west of the county the coast is indented 
 
 by Swansea Bay, from which it projects west- 
 ward into the peninsula of Gower. The north- 
 ern district is covered with rugged hills, the 
 highest of which, however, Llangeinor, is only 
 1859 feet in height. Here is one of the richest 
 coalfields in the kingdom. The southern por- 
 tion of the county consists of a series of fertile 
 valleys, richly wooded and with a mild climate, 
 the finest being the Vale of Glamorgan, the ' gar- 
 den of Wales.' The chief rivers— the Rhymney, 
 TafT, Neath, Tawe, and Llwchwr— flow southward 
 into the Bristol Cliannel. Besides coal, anthra- 
 cite or stone-coal, coking-coal, ironstone, and 
 limestone are found. At Merthyr-Tydvil and 
 Dowlais are large ironworks ; at Swansea, Neath, 
 Aberavon, large copper-smelting works. Tin and 
 lead are also smelted in the county. The county 
 sends five members to parliament ; the repre- 
 sented boroughs are Merthyr-Tydvil (with two), 
 Swansea (two), and the Cardiff boroughs (one). 
 Oystermouth Castle, Caerphilly Castle, and 
 Castle Coch are fine ruins ; Cardiff Castle is a 
 stately restored edifice. See Thomas Nicholas, 
 History of Glamorganshire (1874). 
 
 Glarus, a canton of Switzerland, bounded by 
 the cantons of St Gall, the Grisons, Uri, and 
 Schwyz. Area, 266^ sq. m. ; population, 82,500, 
 mainly Protestant and German-speaking. It is 
 an Alpine region, in the Todi peak attaining 
 11,887 feet. The climate is very severe, and only 
 one-fifth of the land is arable. The capital is the 
 town of Glarus (pop. 5330), 43 miles SE. of Zurich 
 by rail. It was founded by an Irish monk, 
 Fridolin, in the end of the 5th century. Zwingli 
 was pastor here, 1506-16. 
 
 Glasbuiy, a Radnorshire village, on the Wye, 
 4 miles SW. of Hay. Pop. of parish, 488. 
 
 Glasgow, the industrial metropolis of Scotland 
 and the most populous city in Great Britain next 
 to London, is situated on the banks of tlie Clyde, 
 In the county of Lanark, the portions heretofore 
 in Renfrew and Dumbarton shires having been 
 transferred to Lanark under the act of 1889. At 
 Greenock, 22 miles below, the river spreads out 
 into a great estuary, the Firth of Clyde. Glasgow 
 is 405i miles by rail from London, and from 44 to 
 47i miles from Edinburgh. In 1801 the popula- 
 tion was only 77,385, but the increase has been 
 rapid and enormous. In 1881 the municipal 
 population was 511,415. In 1891, before the 
 extension of boundary, it was 565,839 ; after the 
 extension in that year, when the area of the city 
 was increased from 6111 acres to 11,861 by the 
 addition of six suburban burghs and other dis- 
 tricts, it was 658,198. In 1901 the mmiicipal and 
 police burgh contained a population of 761,709, in- 
 cluding parts of the parishes of Cathcart (20,983), 
 Eastwood (3534), Glasgow (547,645), Govau com- 
 bination (189,470), and Rutherglen (77). The total 
 area of the city, including the conterminous but 
 still independent burghs of Partick, Kinningl 
 Park, and Govan, is about 15,660 acres, The| 
 parliamentary burgh has a population of 622,372, 
 divided into seven constituencies — viz. Bridgeton 
 Division, Camlachie Division, St Rollox Division,! 
 Central Division, College Division, TradestonJ 
 Division, and Blackfriars and Hutchesontownj 
 Division. In 1893 Glasgow was constituted tj 
 county of a city. 1 
 
 As an archiepiscopal seat, and subsequently! 
 as a centre of Covenanting activity, Glasgow has 
 a prominence in the religious history of Scot- 
 land ; but as an industrial city its history can 
 hardly be dated farther back than the Union 
 of 1707. This event opened up to the town 
 
GLASGOW 
 
 GLASGOW 
 
 — the most favourably situated in Scotland for 
 the enterprise — an immense trading prospect 
 with America, and roused in its inhabitants the 
 extraordinary mercantile activity which has been 
 its leading feature ever since. And yet the city 
 of Glasgow is a very old one. It was about 5G0 
 A.D. that St Kentigern or Mungo, the apostle 
 of the rude Celts of Strathclyde, on the banks of 
 the Molendinar, built his little wooden church 
 on the very spot where now rises the venerable 
 cathedral. In 1116 the diocese was restored ; and 
 between 1175 and 1178 Jocelyn, Bishop of Glas- 
 gow, received authority from William the Lion 
 to ' have and hold ' a burgh in the neighbourhood 
 of the cathedral ; but it was not till 1636 that 
 Glasgow received the position of a royal burgh. 
 Of buildings possessing historical interest Glas- 
 gow is conspicuously destitute, with the very 
 notable exception of the cathedral, which is a 
 fine example of the Early English Gothic style of 
 architecture. Built between 1197 and 1446, it 
 was saved from injury at the Reformation by the 
 Glasgow craftsmen, and afterwards, from time to 
 time, was carefully repaired by the Protestant 
 archbishops who governed the see until the 
 Revolution. It is 319 feet long, and 63 wide. 
 From the centre rises a tower, surmounted by a 
 graceful spire, 225 feet in height. The richly- 
 ornamented so-called crypt under the choir is 
 really a lower church formed to take advantage 
 of the ground sloping eastward towards the 
 Molendinar. The city chambers, opened in 1889, 
 built at a cost of £530,000, occupy a prominent 
 
 ¥osition, filling the east side of George Square, 
 he Royal Excliange (1829) is a handsome build- 
 ing ornamented with colonnades of Corinthian 
 pillars. The architecture of many of the churches, 
 banks, and other public buildings is varied in 
 style and rich in detail, and the post-office build- 
 ings, though severely plain and massive, deserve 
 mention for their great size and perfect planning. 
 Many extensive improvements have been made 
 by the corporation. A plentiful supply of water 
 from Loch Katrine has been introduced (1854-59 
 and 1889-96) at a total cost of nearly 3^ million 
 pounds. The municipality controls the lighting 
 (including the electric system) and the electric 
 tramways, as well as the sanitation and sewage 
 disposal. Over £2,000,000 have been spent on im- 
 proved dwellings for the working-classes. Tiie 
 corporation have a telephone exchange under their 
 own management. 
 
 Glasgow has several public pleasure-grounds 
 besides the Glasgow Green— a wide expanse along 
 the north bank of the river. The equestrian 
 statue of Wellington stands opposite the Royal 
 Exchange, and that of William III. at the east end 
 of Argyle Street, near the site of the old cross. 
 There are a number of monumental statues 
 hi George Square, including, besides Sir John 
 Moore and Lord Clyde (natives), Scott, Burns, 
 Livingstone, and others. 
 
 The university, founded in 1451 by Bishop 
 TurnbuU, occupies fine new buildings at Gil- 
 morehill, overlooking the West End Park, de- 
 signed by Sir G. G. Scott, and opened in 1870, 
 their total cost being upwards of half a million, 
 including the Marquis of Bute's common hall, 
 the students' union, &c. It has five faculties- 
 arts, science, divinity, law, and medicine — a teach- 
 ing staff of 100, and, if we include the Queen 
 Margaret College for Women, 2000 students. 
 There are over 300 bursaries of from £6 to £80, 
 besides the Snell exhibitions to Balliol College, 
 Oxford, and the Clark scholarships. The Glas- 
 gow and West of Scotland Technical College was 
 
 formed in 1886 by the amalgamation of several 
 institutions (including the arts department of 
 Anderson's College). It has over 2000 students 
 attending its day and evening classes. St Mungo's 
 College, dating from 1889, has faculties in medi- 
 cine and law ; and the medical department of 
 Anderson's College is a separate school. The 
 latter college was founded by John Anderson 
 (1726-96), professor of Natural Philosophy, and 
 has nearly twenty teachers of medicine, science, 
 languages, music, &c. St Margaret's College is 
 for women. The Free Church College possesses 
 conspicuous buildings ; and mention should also 
 be made of the Normal Schools, and of the 
 School of Arts and Haldane's Academy, Of tlie 
 secondary schools in Glasgow the principal is the 
 High School. There is no free lending library, 
 but there are several great collections which 
 may be used free of charge as consulting libraries. 
 Of these the Mitchell Library, which is under 
 corporation management, contains over 125,000 
 volumes ; and the Stirling's and GIa.sgow Public 
 Library contains about 65,000. Baillie's Library 
 ;is under the same roof. In the Kelvingrove in- 
 dustrial museum (1871-76) a considerable collec- 
 tion, especially in natural history, is displayed. 
 A valuable collection of pictures and statuary 
 (1854) belonging to the corporation is now housed 
 in a fine buikling which formed part of the exhi- 
 bition of 1901 in the Kelvinside Park. In addition 
 to numerous hospitals and dispensaries for special 
 diseases, there are three general infirmaries, wliicli 
 among them acconnnodate upwards of one thou- 
 sand patients. 
 
 Three vast terminal railway stations bring 
 traffic to the heart of the town ; and there are 
 several systems of underground railways, be- 
 sides electric tramways, extending to outlying 
 suburbs and adjoining towns. Another means 
 of transit is found in the magnificent fleet of 
 river-steamers. The river Clyde (q.v.) has been 
 a chief source of the great prosperity of Glasgow. 
 Its utility has been almost created by the gigantic 
 works of narrowing the channel and dredging, so 
 as to permit of tlie passage of the largest vessels. 
 The quayage of the harbour and docks froin 
 the Broomielaw extends to over 8 miles, and the 
 water space covers over 200 acres, wliile since 1875 
 three graving-docks have been provided capable 
 of acconnnodating the largest mercantile steamers 
 afloat. On the river and liarboiu' the Clyde Navi- 
 gation Trust has spent about twenty millions 
 sterling. An average of about 11,500 vessels 
 of 4,500,000 tons clear the port annually. The 
 principal feature of the Clyde beyond the 
 harbour is the great shipbuilding and marine 
 engineering yards which line its sides, and 
 which have flourished since the second quarter 
 of the 19th century. The pioneers of these in- 
 dustries—the Napiers, Charles Randolph, John 
 Elder, &c. — have a world-wide fame. They 
 launched from their yards the most perfect ex- 
 amples of naval architecture and engineering 
 skill of their day, and their present successors 
 amply uphold that reputation. The greatest 
 tonnage launched in any year on the Clyde was 
 419,600 in 1883 ; in 1903 there were (exclusive of 
 war-vessels) 176 steamers and 46 sailing-vessels, 
 of a gross tonnage of 303,306 tons, built. To 
 the success of the little Comet, the earliest trading 
 steamship in the Old World, which began to ply 
 between Glasgow and Greenock in 1812, may be 
 traced the great development of shipbuilding and 
 shipping on the Clyde, 
 
 But another factor in the industrial prosperity 
 of the city is the fact that it is built over a 
 
GLASNEVIN 
 
 300 
 
 GLENGARIFP 
 
 coalfield rich in seains of ironstone. It was in the 
 neighbourhood of the city that the first experi- 
 ments with Neilson's hot-blast in iron-furnaces, 
 patented in 1828, were made, and the economy 
 thereby eff"ected developed the iron industry so 
 rapidly in Glasgow as to distance for a long 
 period all competition. Great forges, with power- 
 ful steam-hammers and other appliances, the mak- 
 ing of steam-tubes, boiler-making, locomotive- 
 engine building, sugar machinery, and general 
 engineering are among the most important indus- 
 trial features of the city. 
 
 Bleaching and calico-printing were established 
 in Glasgow in 1738, nearly thirty years earlier 
 than in Lancashire. The dyeing of Turkey-red 
 was inaugurated in 1785 as a British industry 
 by two Glasgow citizens, David Dale and George 
 Macintosh ; and this branch of trade has developed 
 in Glasgow and the neighbourhood to an extent 
 unequalled in any other manufacturing centre. 
 In Glasgow, also, bleaching-powder (chloride of 
 lime) was patented in 1799 by Charles Tennant, 
 who thereby laid the foundation of the gigantic 
 St RoUox chemical works, and gave the first im- 
 petus to chemical works generally. These, with 
 the spinning and weaving industries, aff"ord em- 
 ployment for a great proportion of the population. 
 
 See works by M'Ure (1736), Gibson (1779), Brown 
 (1795-97), Cleland (1829), Macgeorge (3d ed. 1888), 
 MacGregor (1881), Walhvce (1882), Bell and Baton 
 (1896) ; Innes and Robertson (1854) and Stewart 
 (1891) on the university ; for the cathedral, Byre 
 Todd (1898) ; for the Glasgow school of painting, 
 D. Martin (1897). 
 
 Glasnevin, incorporated in 1900 with Dublin 
 as one of the city wards. 
 
 Glastonbury, an ancient municipal borough 
 of Somerset, lies, engirt by the river Brue, amid 
 orchards and level pastures — once fen-land— at 
 the foot of the conical tower-crowned Tor (500 
 feet), G miles by rail SSW. of Wells. The Celtic 
 Ynysvitrin, the Avalon of Arthurian legend, and 
 the Glcestingaburh or Glsestings' borough of the 
 West Saxons, it was hither, says William of 
 Malniesbury, that Josejjh of Arimathea came 
 bearing the Holy Grail, here that he founded 
 the first Christian church in Britain. On Weary- 
 all Hill he planted his pilgrim's staff; it took 
 root, and grew into the Holy Thorn, which 
 blossomed miraculously every Old Christmas-eve 
 until it was cut down by a Puritan. A wattled 
 basilica, which contained the grave of a St 
 Patrick and of Gildas, was in 630 encased by 
 Paulinus of York in boards and lead ; and to 
 the east of it in 719 King Ine reared the great 
 church of SS. Peter and Paul. This, spoiled 
 by the Danes, was the abbey refounded by St 
 Dunstan about 946, and became the sepulchre 
 of Kings Edmund, Edgar, and Edmund Iron- 
 side, if not indeed of Dunstan himself, of Joseph 
 of Arimathea, or of Arthur and Guinevere. It 
 had just been rebuilt when in 1184 the whole 
 pile was consumed by fire ; and the splendid 
 minster, 528 feet long, then undertaken by Henry 
 II., was not dedicated till 1303. In 1539 Richard 
 Whiting, the last abbot, was hanged on the Tor 
 by Henry VIII. ; and the ruins of this great 
 Benedictine house, which had covered 60 acres, 
 are now comparatively scanty. Yet still on the 
 site of the ' Vetusta Ecclesia ' stands the roofless 
 chapel of Our Lady or St Joseph, a fine example 
 of Transition Norman, with its 15th-century 
 crypt ; still there is the massive stone Abbot's 
 Kitchen (14th c), 33J feet square, and 72 high, 
 with its four huge fireplaces and pyramidal roof. 
 
 Apart from its abbey and its two parish churches, 
 one of which has a noble tower 140 feet high, Glas- 
 tonbury is a quaint, old-world place, with the 
 15th-century Pilgrims' Inn (now the ' George '), the 
 Tribunal, and the Abbot's Barn. Sharpham, 2 
 miles SW., was Fielding's birthplace. Sheep- 
 skins, mats, rugs, gloves, and pottery are manu- 
 factured. The population is a little over 4000. 
 See Willis's Architectural History of Glastonbury 
 Abbey (1866). 
 
 Glasvein, a mountain (3006 feet) of Ross-shire, 
 5 miles ENB. of Invershiel. 
 
 Glatz (Czech Kladsko), a town of Prussian 
 Silesia, between two fortified hills, on the Neisse, 
 58 miles by rail SSW. of Breslau. It manufac- 
 tures linen, cigars, leather, &c. Pop. 15,585. 
 
 Glauchau (Glow-how), the second manufactur- 
 ing town of Saxony, on the Mulde's right bank, 20 
 miles W. of Chemnitz by rail. It is the centre of 
 the woollen- weaving industry, goods to the vahie 
 of £2,000,000 being exported annually. There are 
 also dyeworks, print-works, iron-foundries, and 
 carpet, paper, and machine factories. Pop. (1834) 
 6292; (1900)25,677. 
 
 Gledstanes, Easter, in Libberton parish, 
 Lanarkshire, 5 miles NW. of Biggar, was the 
 ancient seat of the Gledstane or Gladstone family. 
 
 Gleiwitz, a town of Prussian Silesia, 40 miles 
 SE. of Oppeln. It has extensive iron, glass, 
 paper, and wood manufactures. Pop. (1900)52,362. 
 
 Glenalmond, a romantic valley of Perthshire, 
 much visited for its scenery, and for Ossian's 
 grave— the subject of Wordsworth's verses on 
 the 'Narrow Glen.' It is the seat, 12 miles 
 WNW. of Perth, of Trinity College, Glenalmond 
 (1847), a public school of about 100 boys. 
 
 Glenarm, an Antrim seaport, on Glenarm Bay, 
 11 miles NW. of Larne. Pop. 1048. 
 
 Glencoe, a valley of northern Argyllshire, 
 descending 7^ miles west-by-northward from a 
 'col,' 1011 feet high, to .salt-water Loch Leven, 
 2 miles ENE. of Ballachulish. It is traversed 
 by the Coe (or Co?i« of Ossian), and flanked by 
 conical mountains, the Pap of Glencoe (2430 feet) 
 the most prominent, Benveedan (3766) the lofti- 
 est. On 13th February 1692 it was the scene of 
 the massacre, by 120 soldiers (Campbells mostly), 
 of thirty-eight Macdonalds, others also perishing 
 of cold and hunger. 
 
 Glencorse. See Penicuik. 
 
 Glencroe, an Argyllshire glen descending 4i 
 miles south-eastward to Loch Long, 2^ miles 
 SW. of Arrochar. At its head is a stone seat 
 inscribed ' Rest and be thankful.' 
 
 Glendalough, a valley in Wicklow county, 15 
 miles SW. of Bray, which combines the attractions 
 of fine scenery and remarkable ruins. It became 
 a seat of religion with St Kevin in the 6th cen- 
 tury ; and some of the ruined ' seven churches,' 
 as well as the round tower (110 feet high), may 
 date from the 7th century. 
 
 Glenelg, a shallow river of Australia, rising 
 in the Grampians in SW. Victoria, and flowing 
 281 miles to the Southern Ocean between Capes 
 Northumberland and Bridgewater, at the bound- 
 ary of South Australia and Victoria. 
 
 Glenfinnan, a glen in Inverness-shire, 18 miles 
 W. of Fort-William. Here, on 19th August 1745, 
 the clans gathered under Prince Charles Edward's 
 banner, and here in 1815 a tower was built with 
 an inscription in Gaelic, Latin, and English. 
 
 Glengariflf, a village of County Cork, at the 
 
GLENGARNOCK 
 
 301 
 
 GLOUCESTER 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 head of the island-dotted Glengariff Harbour, an 
 Inlet of Bantry Bay, and at the foot of a moun- 
 tain glen, much frequented by tourists. 
 
 Glengamock, an Ayrshire village, with iron- 
 works, 3^ miles NNE. of Dairy. Pop. 2090. 
 
 Glengarry, (1) a glen of W. Inverness-shire, 
 through which the Garry winds, 19 miles east- 
 ward, from Loch Quoich to Loch Oich, 8 miles 
 SW. of Fort Augustus.— <2) A glen of NW. Perth- 
 shire, traversed by the Highland Railway. Its 
 Garry falls into the Tummel. 
 
 Glenififer, Braes of, a range of hills (749 feet), 
 3 miles SSW. of Paisley. They are celebrated by 
 Tannahill. 
 
 Glenisla (Glen-l'la), a Forfarshire parish, 9 miles 
 N. by W. of Alyth. 
 
 Glenlivet (Glen-U'vet), the valley in Banffshire of 
 Livet Water, which runs 14 miles north-westward 
 till, at a point 5 miles S. of Ballindalloch station, 
 it falls after a total descent of 1600 feet into the 
 Aven, itself an affluent of the Spey. Its popula- 
 tion still is largely Catholic. Since 1824 its 200 
 whisky bothies have given place to one cele- 
 brated distillery. In the battle of Glenlivet or 
 Alltacoileachan (4th October 1594), 10,000 Pro- 
 testants under the Earl of Argyll were routed by 
 the Catholic insurgents under the Earl of Huntly. 
 
 Glenluce', a Wigtownshire village, 15 miles 
 WSW. of Newton-Stewart. Near it are the ruins 
 of Glenluce Abbey (1190). Pop. 800. 
 
 Glenlyon, a Perthshire glen descending 24 
 miles ENE. to the Vale of Fortingall. 
 
 Glenmore-nan-Albin ('great glen of Scot- 
 land'), the Highland depression, 60 miles long, 
 now traversed by the Caledonian Canal (q.v.). 
 
 Glenroy', a deep Inverness-shire glen, descend- 
 ing 14 miles south-westward to a point 13 miles 
 NE. of Fort- William. Its three ' parallel roads ' 
 mark the shore-lines of former fresh-water lakes, 
 which were dammed up by glacier ice, and 
 gradually sunk as the barrier melted away. 
 
 Glen's Falls, a town of New York, on the 
 Hudson, 60 miles by rail N. of Albany, with 
 sawmills and machine-shops, and a quarry of 
 black marble. The river, which is crossed by a 
 bridge, here falls about 50 feet, and is very 
 picturesque. Pop. (1880) 4900 ; (1900) 12,613. 
 
 Glenshiel', a valley of Ross-shire, 58 miles SW. 
 of Inverness. Here, on 11th June 1719, 1500 
 Jacobites and 274 Spaniards encountered 1600 
 Hanoverians. The fight was indecisive, but 
 next day the Highlanders dispersed, and the 
 Spaniards surrendered. 
 
 Glentles, a Donegal village, on the Owenea, 26 
 miles W. of Stranorlar. 
 
 Glentilt', in north Perthshire, the deep narrow 
 glen of the troutful, impetuous Tilt, which issues 
 from Loch Tilt (3 by 2 furlongs ; 1650 feet), and 
 runs 16 miles SW. to the Garry at Blair- Athole. 
 
 Glockner, or Gross-Glockner, the highest 
 peak (12,458 feet) of the Noric Alps, on the 
 boimdary between Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salzburg. 
 
 Glogau, or Gross-Glogau, a town and fortress 
 in Prussian Silesia, on the Oder's left bank, 60 
 miles NNW. of Breslau by rail. It manufactures 
 agricultural implements, pottery, tobacco, sugar, 
 &c., and has a cartographical institute. Pop. 
 about 25,000. 
 
 Glommen, or Stor-Elv (i.e. 'great river'), the 
 largest river in Norway, issues from Lake Aur- 
 sund, at 2339 feet above sea-level, and winds 350 
 iftiles southward to the Skager Rack at Frederik- 
 
 stad. Its course is interrupted by frequent 
 waterfalls, the last, with a descent of 74 feet, 
 being the Sarpsfos, 7 miles from the mouth. 
 
 Glossop, a market-town of Derbyshire, amid 
 bleak but picturesque hills, 13 miles ESE. of 
 Manchester, and 24 WNW. of Sheffield. It is the 
 chief seatof the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire, 
 and has also woollen and paper mills, dyeing, 
 bleaching, and print works, and iron-foundries. 
 Near it is Glossop Hall, the seat of Lord Howard 
 of Glossop. The town was incorporated in 1866. 
 Pop. (1871) 17,046 ; (1901) 21,526. 
 
 Gloucester (Glos'ter), the capital of Glouces- 
 tershire, a parliamentary and county borough, 
 is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the 
 Severn, which here becomes tidal. It is 114 miles 
 by rail (by road 106) WNW. of London, 38 NNE. 
 of Bristol, and 55 SSW. of Birmingham. The 
 Caergloui of the Britons, and Glevum of the 
 Romans, whose cruciform ground-plan survives 
 in the four main streets, Gleaiianceastre or Glou- 
 cester was the seat successively of a nunnery (681), 
 a monastery (821), and a great Benedictine abbey 
 (1022). The last was suppressed in 1539 ; and its 
 church two years later became the cathedral of 
 the new see of Gloucester — a see conjoined with 
 that of Bristol in 1836, but made independent 
 again in 1897. Built between 1088 and 1498, 
 and restored since 1853, the cathedral measures 
 420 feet by 144 across the transept, and though 
 substantially Norman — crypt, chapter-house, and 
 the interior of the nave are Norman — in general 
 character is Perpendicular. Its pinnacled central 
 tower (1457) rises 225 feet, and contains the 
 ' Great Peter ' bell, weighing 3 tons 2 cwt. Other 
 noteworthy features are the lofty round piers of 
 the nave, the east window (the largest in England 
 — 72 by 38 feet) with its splendid stained glass of 
 1350, the shrine of King Osric of Northumbria, 
 the exquisite canopied shrine of Edward II., the 
 statue of Jenner, and a group by Flaxman, the 
 'whispering gallery' in the triforium, and the 
 matchless fan-vaulted cloisters (1351-1412). A 
 new episcopal palace was built in 1862 ; the 
 picturesque deanery is the old prior's lodge ; and 
 other buildings are the 12th-century West Gate, 
 the New Inn (built about 1450 for pilgrims), the 
 Tolsey or guildhall, the shire-hall (1816), the 
 infirmary (1755), the county lunatic asylum (1823), 
 the King's or College school, the Crypt grammar- 
 school, the Blue-coat hospital, and a theological 
 college. There is a cross (1863) to Hooper, and a 
 statue (1880) of Raikes, the founder of Sunday 
 schools ; in the public park is a chalybeate 
 spring, which was discovered in 1814. Gloucester's 
 commerce is now more important than its manu- 
 factures—chemicals, soap, matches, railway plant, 
 shipbuilding, &c. The Gloucester and Berkeley 
 Canal, 17 miles long, and admitting vessels of 
 600 tons, was completed in 1827 at a cost of 
 £500,000. The number of vessels entering the 
 port has almost trebled during the last thirty 
 years ; the imports include corn and timber, the 
 exports agricultural produce and the minerals of 
 the Forest of Dean. Gloucester returns one 
 member. Pop. (1841) 14,152 ; (1871, as extended) 
 31,844 ; (1901, as extended in 1900) 47,955. In 
 the Great Rebellion (1643) Gloucester held out 
 successfully against Charles I. till Essex relieved 
 it. Among its natives have been (doubtfully) 
 the chronicler Robert of Gloucester ; Taylor, the 
 water-poet ; Whitefield, Raikes, Wheatstone, and 
 W. E. Henley. See works by Rudder (1781), 
 Britton (1829), F. Bond (1848), Waller (1856), 
 Mass6 (1898) ; also Murray's Western Cathedrals. 
 
GLOUCESTER 
 
 302 
 
 GODAVARI 
 
 Gloucester, a port of entry of Massachusetts, 
 on the south side of Cape Ann peninsula, 28 
 miles NNE. of Boston. It has an excellent 
 harbour, and the cod and mackerel fisheries 
 employ several thousand men ; but there are also 
 a large trade in the granite quarried here, ship- 
 building, and manufactures of anchors and rail- 
 road iron. Gloucester was incorporated as a 
 town in 1642, and made a city in 1874. Pop. 
 (1880) 19,329 ; (1900) 26,121. 
 
 Gloucester City, a town of New Jersey, on the 
 Delaware, opposite Philadelphia. It contains 
 ironworks and cotton-factories. Pop. 6864. 
 
 Gloucestershire, a west midland county of 
 England, lying around the lower course and the 
 estuary of the Severn, and bounded by the 
 counties of Monmouth, Hereford, Worcester, 
 Warwick, Oxford, Berks, Wilts, and Somerset. 
 With a maximum length and breadth of 64 by 43 
 miles, and an area of 1258 sq. m., it offers a very 
 irregular outline. There are three well-marked 
 divisions, each with its natural characteristics— 
 the Hill, the Vale, and the Forest. The first is 
 formed by the Coteswold Hills (q.v.), whose 
 highest point is Cleeve Hill (1134 feet); the 
 second, comprising the Vales of Gloucester and 
 Berkeley, by the low rich meadow-lands lying 
 along the Severn ; and the third, to the west of 
 the Severn, by the Forest of Dean (q.v.). The 
 principal rivers are the Severn, Wye, Upper and 
 Lower Avon, and Thames, which receives all the 
 waters east of the Coteswolds. Pennanent pas- 
 ture and corn-crops occupy more than two-thirds 
 of the entire area. Gloucestershire is famous as 
 a dairy country, and raises large numbers of 
 cattle. The well-known double and single 
 Glo'ster cheese is produced in the Vale of Berke- 
 ley. The orchards yield great quantities of 
 cider; and woods and plantations cover 82 sq. 
 m. Building-stone is plentiful ; and there are 
 two rich coalfields— that of Bristol in the SW., 
 and the Forest of Dean in the W. ; but the iron- 
 works are of less importance than formerly. 
 The woollen manufacture is of ancient standing. 
 Gloucestershire since 1885 contains the parlia- 
 mentary boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, 
 with part of Bristol, and five parliamentary 
 divisions— Mid or Stroud, North or Tewkesbury, 
 East or Cirencester, Forest of Dean, and South 
 or Thornbury. Pop. (1801) 250,723 ; (1881) 572,433 ; 
 (1891) 599,947 ; (1901) 634,729. See Worth's Glou- 
 cestershire (1888), and larger works there cited. 
 
 GloversvlUe, a town of New York, 53 miles 
 NW. of Albany. It manufactures buckskin and 
 other gloves. Pop. (1880) 7133 ; (1900) 18,349. 
 
 Gluchov, a Russian town, 112 miles E. of 
 TchernigoflT. Pop. 16,440. 
 
 Gllickstadt, a town in the Prussian province 
 of Sleswick-Holstein, on the Elbe's right bank, 
 32 miles NW. of Hamburg. Founded in 1616 by 
 Christian IV. of Denmark, it is a pretty town, 
 regularly built, and intersected by canals, its chief 
 building the Rathhaus (1642). Its harbour, much 
 improved since 1880, remains open in winter, when 
 the Elbe higher up is frozen. Pop. 6483. 
 
 Glukhov. See Gluchov. 
 
 Gmiind, a town of Wlirtemberg, in the fertile 
 valley of the Rems, 30 miles E. of Stuttgart by 
 rail. It manufacturesjewels and hardware. Pop. 
 about 20,000. 
 
 Gmunaen (Ge-moon'den, g being hard), a town 
 of Upper Austria, 159 miles W. of Vienna by rail. 
 It lies 1439 feet above sea-level, amid the grand- 
 est scenery of the Salzkannnergut, at the lower 
 
 pnd of the Traunsee or Lake Gmunden (8 by 2 
 miles), above which towers the Traunstein (5536 
 feet). It is a favourite summer bathing-place. 
 Near it are salt-mines. Pop. 7150. 
 
 Gnesen (Polish Gniezno), a Prussian town, 
 situated in a region of hills and lakes, 31 miles 
 ENE. of Posen by rail. It has a Catholic 
 cathedral (965), till 1320 the coronation -place of 
 the Polish kings. Pop. 21,700. 
 
 Goa, a Portuguese possession on the west coast 
 of India, 250 miles SSE. of Bombay, with an area 
 of 1469 sq. m., and a population of 475,500. 
 A hilly country, bounded on the east by the 
 Western Ghats, the territory is watered by nu- 
 merous rivers. Half the land under cultivation, 
 which embraces a third of the entire area, is 
 devoted to rice ; stately forests cover nearly a 
 fourth of the remainder. Captured by Albu- 
 querque in 1510, 'Golden Goa' reached by the 
 end of the century a high pitch of military and 
 ecclesiastical splendour and commercial pros- 
 perity. The decline of the Portuguese power 
 quickly followed the appearance of the Dutch, 
 and in 1759 the city of Old Goa, once the chief 
 emporium of trade between the east and west, 
 was deserted by all but its ecclesiastical inhabit- 
 ants, and left to the decay in which it has since 
 lain. Its former pop. of 200,000 has sunk to less 
 than 1900 ; its arsenal, its palaces, its quays, even 
 many of its churches are in ruins, their sites 
 covered with cocoa-nut plantations, and the 
 streets overrun with grass. Ajnong the edifices 
 that survive are the majestic archiepiscopal 
 cathedral, and the splendid church of Bom Jesus, 
 containing the magnificent tomb of St Francis 
 Xavier.— The new capital is Nova Goa or Panjim, 
 nearer the sea, on the Mandavi, 3 miles from its 
 mouth. It presents a picturesque appearance ; 
 its streets are wide and clean ; and new harbour 
 and railway works were inaugurated on 31st 
 October 1882. The public buildings include the 
 viceregal palace and spacious barracks, one wing 
 of which accommodates the national lyceuni, the 
 public library, and a college for practical sciences. 
 Pop. 8440. See works by Fonseca (1878) and Lady 
 Burton (1879). 
 
 Goalanda, a town of Bengal, on a tongue of land 
 at the confluence of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, 
 is an important river-trade entrepot, the Bengal 
 Railway terminus, and the starting-point of the 
 Assam steamers. Pop. 8652. 
 
 Goalpara, a town of Assam, on the Brahma- 
 putra. Pop. 6700. 
 
 Goatfell, the highest point (2866 feet) of Arran, 
 3i miles NNW. of Brodick. 
 
 Gobi, Desert of. See Asia. 
 
 God'alming, a borough of Surrey, 34 miles SW. 
 of London. Hither in 1872 was removed from 
 London the Charterhouse public school, founded 
 in 1611 by Thomas Sutton on the site of a 
 Chartreuse or Carthusian monastery. Among 
 its scholars have been Addison, Steele, Wesley, 
 Thackeray, Leech, Thirlwall, Eastlake, and Helps. 
 The new school forms a quadrangle, with a gate- 
 house tower 130 feet high, and a chapel rich in 
 stained glass. Pop. 8797. See works by Dr 
 Haig Brown (1879) and Eardley-Wilmot (1894). 
 
 Goda'varl, the largest river of the Deccan, 
 rises within 50 miles of the Indian Ocean, and 
 flows 898 miles south-east across the peninsula to 
 the Bay of Bengal, entering it by seven mouths. 
 Where by a rocky gorge the river bursts through 
 the barrier of the Eastern Ghats, its picturesque 
 scenery has earned for it the name of the Indian 
 
GODERICH 
 
 303 
 
 GONDOKORO 
 
 Rhine. The magnificent ani<Mt or dam at the 
 head of the delta throws off three main irri- 
 gating canals which turn the entire delta into a 
 great garden. The upper navigation is impeded 
 by three impassable rocky barriers or rapids 
 within a space of 150 miles ; the works under- 
 taken in 1861 to get rid of them were abandoned 
 ten years later. The Godavari is one of the 
 twelve sacred rivers of India, and the great 
 bathing festival, called Pushkaram^ is held on its 
 banks once in twelve years. 
 
 Goderich (God'er-itch), a port of entry of Ontario, 
 on Lake Huron, ICO miles WNW. of Buffalo by 
 rail, with a good harbour, factories and mills, and 
 eight salt-wells. Pop, 4164. 
 
 Goderich Castle. See Goodrich. 
 
 Godesberg, a village of Rhenish Prussia, on 
 the Rhine, 4 miles 8. of Bonn. It has a mineral 
 spring, and a ruined castle (1213). Pop. 8901. 
 
 GoAmaJXoiiester (Gum' sester). See Huntingdon. 
 
 QodoUo, a town of Hungary, 15 miles NE. of 
 Pesth, with a castle and park presented by the 
 Hungarians in 18G7 to their king, the emperor of 
 Austria-Hungary. Pop. 3940. 
 
 Godolphin, a Cornish manor, 5J miles NW. of 
 Helston. It was the seat of the Godolphins from 
 the Conquest until 1785. 
 
 Godthaab. See Greenland. 
 
 Godwin-Austen, the second highest peak in 
 the world, is situated in the Himalayan system, 
 in the western range that is crossed in the east 
 by the Karakorum Pass. Its height is 28,250 
 feet. Formerly known only by the sign K2, it 
 was named in 1888 after Lieut. -colonel Godwin- 
 Austen of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. 
 
 Goes (Hoos), or Ter Goes, a Dutch town in 
 South Beveland, IG miles NE. of Flushing. Pop. 
 7000. 
 
 Gogmagog Hills, a range of hillocks, 4 miles 
 SE. of Cambridge. 
 
 Gogo, a decayed seaport of India, in the pen- 
 insula of Kathiawar, and on the Gulf of Cam bay, 
 193 miles NW. of Bombay. Pop. 7063. 
 
 Gogra, or Ghagra, a river flowing COO miles 
 SE. to the Ganges at Chapra. 
 
 Godstow, a ruined nunnery (1138) with Fair 
 Rosamond's grave, on the Isis, 3^ miles NNW. of 
 Oxford. 
 
 Gohelwar', or Gohelwad, a tract of country 
 in Bombay presidency, comprising several tribu- 
 tary states, and lying along the Gulf of Cambay, 
 on the eastern coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. 
 
 Goil, Loch, a picturesque loch in Argyllshire, 
 a branch of Loch Long, is 6 miles long and less 
 than 1 mile broad. The mountains in the neigh- 
 bourhood rise to the height of more than 2000 
 feet.— LocHGOiLHEAD, 20 miles NNW. of Green- 
 ock, is a favourite summer watering-place. 
 
 Gol'chika, a small port at the mouth of the 
 Yenisei (q.v.). 
 
 Golconda, an extensive fortress of the Nizam, 
 situated on a granite ridge, 7 miles W. of Hyder- 
 abad. In its neighbourhood are the ruins of an 
 ancient city, till 1687 the metropolis of a power- 
 ful kingdom. Golconda is proverbially famous 
 for its diamonds ; but, in truth, they were merely 
 cut and polished here. 
 
 Goldau, formerly a small town of the Swiss 
 canton of Schwyz, is memorable for its destruc- 
 tion by a stupendous landslip, 2d Septeinber 1806. 
 Goldberg, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the 
 
 Katzbach, 13 miles by rail WSW. of Llegnitz. It 
 owes both origin and name to its former rich 
 gold-mines. Pop, 6786. 
 
 Gold Coast, a British crown colony and pro- 
 tectorate on the Gulf of Guinea, with a coast-line 
 of about 350 miles, is bounded east by German 
 Togoland, west by the French Ivory Coast, and 
 north by the French Soudan. The area, includ- 
 ing Adansi and Asliaiiti, is about 74,000 sq. miles, 
 witli a pop. of 1,490,000 (646 Europeans). The 
 chief towns are Accra (14,840), Cape Coast Castle 
 (28,950), Elmina (3970), Kwitta, Saltpond, Win- 
 neba, Axim, and Akuse. Ashanti came under 
 British protection in 1896, and in 1901, with the 
 Northern Territories, was definitely annexed. 
 The principal exports are palm kernels and oil, 
 india-rubber, gold-dust, ivory, and monkey skins ; 
 but cocoa-nuts, copra, coffee. Calabar beans, corn, 
 ground-nuts, Guinea grains, ginger, cam-wood, 
 gum copal, tobacco, and porcupine quills are also 
 produced. The climate on the low and swampy 
 coast is very unhealthy, but is better inland. 
 The exports and imports have an annual value 
 of £875,000 and £1,300,000 respectively. In 1902 
 nearly £18,000 was spent on roads ; there are 720 
 miles of telegraph lines in operation, and a rail- 
 way was opened to Coomassie in 1903. See Ellis, 
 History of the Gold Coast (1893), and Lucas, British 
 Colonies, vol. iii. (1895). 
 
 Golden Gate, a channel 2 miles wide, the en- 
 trance to the magnificent Bay of San Francisco. 
 
 Golden Horn. See Constantinople. 
 
 Gold Hill, a town of Nevada, 7000 feet above 
 the sea, and 1 mile S. of Virginia City, with rich 
 silver-mines, and quartz-mills. Here, on Mount 
 Davidson, is the famous Comstock Lode. 
 
 Goletta (Fr. La Goulette), the former port of 
 Tunis, from which it is 11 miles N. by rail. It 
 has lost much of its importance since the opening 
 in 1893 of the ship-channel from it across the 
 lagoon to the capital. Pop. 3000. 
 
 GoUnitz, or Gollniczbanya, a town of Hun- 
 gary, 17 miles SW. of Eperies. It has iron and 
 copper mines, and ironworks. Pop. 4353. 
 
 Gollnow, a town of Prussia, in Pomerania, 15 
 miles NE. of Stettin. Pop. 8430. 
 
 Golspie, a Sutherland coast-village, 84 miles by 
 rail N. by E. of Inverness. Pop. 1025. 
 
 Gombroon', or Bender Abbas, a seaport of 
 Persia, on the Strait and the island of Ormuz. 
 It owes its name Bender Abbas to Shah Abbas, 
 who, assisted by the English, drove the Portu- 
 guese in 1622 from Ormuz, ruined that seaport, 
 and transferred its commerce to Gombroon. 
 For a while the new town prospered ; but at 
 present it is a wretched place. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Gome'ra, one of the Canary Islands (q.v.). 
 
 Gom'etra, an Argyllshire island, measuring 2 
 miles by 1, W. of Ulva. Pop. 53. ' 
 
 Gomorrah. See Sodom and Gomorrah. 
 
 Gomul. See Zhob. 
 
 Gonaives, a seaport of Hayti, on the W. coast, 
 65 miles NNW. of Port au Prince. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Gondar, capital of Amhara in Abyssinia, is 
 situated on a basaltic hill 23 miles N. of Lake 
 Tzana. It was formerly the capital of Abyssinia, 
 with 50,000 inhabitants ; now barely 4000, though 
 there are still some forty churches. 
 
 Gondo'koro, a trading-post (for ivory, &c.) in 
 
 the country of the Bari negroes, on the Upper 
 
 Nile, in about 4° 54' N. lat. To put down the 
 
 I slave-trade Baker established a strong military 
 
 I m 
 
GOOD HOPE 
 
 304 
 
 GOSHEN 
 
 station here in 1871 ; later Gordon removed the 
 station to Lado, 6 miles lower down the Nile. 
 
 Good Hope. See Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Goodrich Castle, a stately ruin in Hereford- 
 shire, on the Wye, 4 miles SSW. of Ross. Good- 
 rich Court is the seat of the Meyricks. 
 
 Goodwin Sands, famous sandbanks stretching 
 10 miles NE. and SW. at an average distance of 
 5J miles from tlie east coast of Kent. Large level 
 patches of sand are left dry when the tide re- 
 cedes, and afford a firm foothold, so that cricket 
 has often been played upon them. When covered 
 the sands are shifting, and may be moved by the 
 prevailing tide to such an extent as to consider- 
 ably change the form of the shoal ; still, the 
 general outline has been fairly constant. The 
 shoal is divided into the North and the South 
 Goodwin, between which is the deep anchorage 
 named Trinity Bay. These sands, which are 
 marked by four lightships, have always been 
 dangerous to vessels passing through the Strait 
 of Dover. They serve as a breakwater to form a 
 secure anchorage in the Downs (q. v.) when easterly 
 or south-easterly winds are blowing; but when 
 the wind blows strongly off-shore, ships are apt 
 to drag their anchors, and to strand upon the 
 perfidious Goodwins. Many wrecks have taken 
 place here, the most terrible the loss of an entire 
 fleet of thirteen men-of-war, during the ' great 
 storm' on the night of 2Gth November 1703. 
 These dangerous sands are said to have once been 
 a low fertile island called Lomea (Infera Insula of 
 the Romans), belonging to Earl Godwin ; but in 
 1014, and again in 1099, it was overwhelmed by a 
 sudden inundation of the sea. The tale is that 
 at the period of the Conquest these estates were 
 taken from Earl Godwin's son, and bestowed upon 
 the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. The 
 abbot having diverted the funds with which the 
 sea-wall should have been maintained to the 
 building of Tenterden (q.v.) steeple, in 1099 the 
 waves rushed in ; and thus ' Tenterden steeple 
 was the cause of the Goodwin Sands. ' But geology 
 indicates a date long anterior. See Gattie, 
 Memorials of the Goodwin Sands (1889). 
 
 Goodwood, the seat of the Duke of Richmond, 
 3^ miles NE. of Chichester. An 18th-century 
 building by Chambers and Wyatt, it has a notable 
 collection of portraits ; and its park is famous 
 for its cedars and other trees, which in 1754 in- 
 cluded thirty different kinds of oaks and 400 
 different American trees and shrubs. Here is 
 the picturesque racecourse, where the famous 
 Goodwood meeting is held at the end of July, 
 at the close of the London season. It was estab- 
 lished in 1802 ; but its importance (since 1825) 
 was due to Lord George Bentinck. 
 
 Goole, a town and river-port in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, at the junction of the Ouse 
 with the Don, 22 miles SSE. of York. It has 
 grown rapidly since 1829, and now ranks amongst 
 the chief ports of the kingdom, its extensive 
 docks being annually entered and cleared by 
 some 4600 vessels of over 1,100,000 tons burden. 
 The annual value of the imports amounts to 
 about 4J millions sterling, of the exports to more 
 than 4f millions. Amongst the imports are 
 shoddy for manufacturing purposes, oil, logwood, 
 timber, champagne, farm-produce, and groceries. 
 Coal, cloth, and machinery are amongst the chief 
 exports. There are iron-foundries, alum, sugar, 
 and cordage manufactories, ship and boat build- 
 ing yards, and establishments for sail-making 
 and agricultural machine-making. Pop. (1851) 
 4722 ; (1891) 15,168 ; (1901) 16,576. 
 
 Goppingen, a town of Wiirtemberg, 26 miles 
 by rail ESE. of Stuttgart, has a 16th-century 
 castle, a mineral spring, and manufactures of 
 woollens, paper, toys, &c. Pop. 19,352. 
 
 Gorakhpur, a town in the North-west Provinces 
 of India, on the Rapti, 430 miles NW. of Calcutta. 
 Pop. 65,000. 
 
 Gordon Bennett, Mount, an African mountain 
 seen by Stanley in 1875. It lies S. of Albert 
 Nyanza, a little N. of the equator and E. of 30° E. 
 long. Sometimes snow-covered, it is a truncated 
 cone, probably an extinct crater, and rises 14,000 
 or 15,000 feet. See Ruwenzori. 
 
 Gordon Castle. See Fochabers. 
 
 Goree, a small island of French Senegal, 8. of 
 Cape Verd, is almost entirely covered by the town 
 of Goree (pop. 2200), whose commerce has been 
 transferred to Dakar the mainland. 
 
 Gorey, a municipal borough of County Wex- 
 ford, 59 miles S. of Dublin by rail, and 3 from St 
 George's Channel. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Gorgonzo'la, a village of Italy, 12 miles NE. of 
 Milan, with a fine church and trade in a special 
 kind of cheese. Pop. 4300. 
 
 Gorkum (Dutch Gorinchem), a fortified town 
 of South Holland, on the Merwede, 22 miles ESE. 
 of Rotterdam, possesses an arsenal. Pop. 11,519. 
 
 Gorleston, a Suffolk suburb of Yarmouth. 
 
 Gorlitz, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the left 
 bank of the Neisse, 49 miles W. of Liegnitz. 
 One of its old mural towers, the Kaisertrutz, is 
 now the guard-house and armoury. Among the 
 beautiful Gothic churches is that of SS. Peter and 
 Paul (1423-97), with five naves. There are monu- 
 ments of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia(1891) 
 and the Emperor William (1893) ; and outside the 
 town is the Kreuzkapelle (1489), an imitation of 
 the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. A railway 
 viaduct, 2720 feet long and 118 high, here crosses 
 the Neisse's valley. Gorlitz has manufactures of 
 cloth, which is its staple, cotton, linen, and fictile 
 wares, with iron-foundries and machine-shops. 
 Here Jacob Boehme lived and died. Pop. (1843) 
 15,200 ; (1890) 62,135 ; (1900) 80,931. 
 
 Gorton, a south-eastern suburb of Manchester. 
 
 Gorz (Girts), capital of the Austrian province 
 of Gorz-Gradisca, in the Kiistenland, in a fruitful 
 plain, 35 miles NNW. of Trieste by rail. Shut 
 in by mountains on all sides except the south, it 
 enjoys an almost Italian climate, and has some 
 fame as a health-resort. Among its princii^al 
 buildings are the old castle and the former Jesuit 
 college, both now used as ban-acks ; the cathedral ; 
 and the prince-bishop's palace. Gorz's specialty 
 has long been the printing of Hebrew books for 
 the East. There are dyeworks, and important 
 manufactures of flour, sugar, cotton, silks, roso- 
 glio, paper, leather, soap, and matches. In a 
 Franciscan cloister close by are the graves of 
 Charles X. of France, the Due d'Angouleine and 
 his wife, and the Cointe de Chambord. Pop. 
 20,750. 
 
 Gosford, the seat of the Earl of Wemyss, 6 
 miles NW. of Haddington. 
 
 Goshen, that part of ancient Egypt which 
 Pharaoh presented to Joseph's kindred, appears 
 to have lain between the eastern delta of the 
 Nile and the Isthmus of Suez, as far south as the 
 modern Ismailia. — Goshen was the name given 
 to a part of Bechuanaland, South Africa (now 
 British), which in 1884 was the seat of a mush- 
 room Boer republic. 
 
GOSHEN 
 
 305 
 
 GOUROCK 
 
 Goshen, the capital of Elkhart county, Indi- 
 ana, on the Elkhart River, 111 miles E. by S. of 
 Chicago. Pop. 7820. 
 
 Goslar, an ancient town of Hanover, on the 
 north slope of the Harz Mountains, 27 miles SB. 
 of Hildesheim. At one time a free imperial city, 
 and the residence of the emperors, it has the 
 ' Zwinger ' tower, with walls 23 feet thick ; the 
 emperor's house (1050), the town-house (1136-84), 
 and the Kaiserworth, an old building containing 
 statues of eight emperors. Goslar was founded 
 by Henry I. in 920. About 1350 it joined the 
 Hanseatic League. It suffered severely in tlie 
 Tliirty Years' War. Here were born the Emperor 
 Henry IV. and Maurice of Saxony. Pop. 16,090. 
 
 Gosple, a town of Croatia, Austria-Hungary, 14 
 miles from the Adriatic. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Gosport (' God's port'), a seaport of Hants, on 
 the west shore of Portsmouth harbour, directly 
 opposite Portsmouth, with which it is connected 
 by a floating bridge. Here are an iron-foundry 
 for making anchors and chain -cables, naval 
 powder-magazines, barracks, tlie Clarence victual- 
 ling-yard, and Haslar Naval Hospital (174G). Pop. 
 (1851) 7414 ; (1901, with Alverstoke) 28,884. 
 
 Gosselies, a manufacturing town of Hainaut, 
 Belgium, 4 miles N. of Charleroi. Pop. 10,050. 
 
 Gotha (Go'ta), a town of Germany, alternately 
 with Coburg the capital of the duchy of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, stands 81 miles W. by S. of Weimar, 
 on the northern outskirt of the Thuringian Forest. 
 The castle of Friedenstein, rebuilt in 1648 on a 
 rock 78 feet above the town, contains a library of 
 200,000 volumes and 6000 MSS. The new museum 
 (1878), in the Renaissance style, includes the pic- 
 ture-gallery, a natural history collection, &c. A 
 new observatory was built in 1874. Gotha is an 
 active industrial town, the principal manufac- 
 tures being shoes, fire-engine pipes, sugar, toys, 
 and sausages. Many designers, engravers, print- 
 ers, and map-colourers are employed in the large 
 geographical establishment of Perthes, which also 
 publishes the Almanack de Gotha. Population, 
 35,000. See Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 
 
 Gotham, a Nottinghamshire village, 7 miles 
 SSW. of Nottingham, whose inhabitants from at 
 least Henry VI. 's time were reputed to be fools. 
 
 Gothard. See St Gothard. 
 
 Gothenburg (usually pron. Gotenburg ; Swed. 
 Goteborg), next to Stockholm the most important 
 town of Sweden, stands at the mouth of the Gcita, 
 284 miles by rail SW. of Stockholm. Although 
 originally founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 
 1618-21, the town, in consequence of numerous 
 fires, is quite modern — regularly built and clean, 
 with several canals, crossed by numerous bridges, 
 and an excellent harbour seldom obstructed 
 by ice. The few buildings which deserve special 
 mention are the exchange, cathedral, town-hall, 
 museum (art, zoology, industry), and a fine gar- 
 den belonging to the Horticultural Society. The 
 industries embrace shipbuilding, iron-working, 
 sugar-refining, the brewing of porter, and her- 
 ring-fishing. During the Continental blockade 
 of 1806, Gothenburg became the chief British 
 depot in northern Europe. The town has given 
 its name to the much-debated Gothenburg Licens- 
 ing System, which originated here in 1865. All 
 the wiTie and spirit shops are kept by a company 
 licensed by the town authorities, and are con- 
 ducted by salaried managers ; all profits remain- 
 ing after the company has been allowed 5 per 
 lent, on its capital go into the town treasury. 
 Pop. (1877) 71,707 ; (1890) 104,657 ; (1900) 130,619. 
 
 IL 
 
 Gothland (Swed. Gdtaland and Gotarike), the 
 southernmost of the three old provinces of 
 Sweden, with an area of 35,803 sq. m. and a 
 pop. of 2,595,194.— (2) A Swedish island (Swed. 
 Gottland) in the Baltic, 44 miles E. from 
 the mainland, constitutes with Faro, Gotska 
 Sando, and other smaller islands the province 
 of Gottland or Wisby. Area, 1217 sq. m. The 
 island consists mainly of terrace-like slopes of 
 limestone, encircled on the west by cliffs broken 
 by numerous deep fjords. Next to agriculture, 
 the chief occupations of the inhabitants, 55,074 
 in 1892, are shipping, fishing, seal-fishing, fowling, 
 and lime-burning. In the middle ages, and till 
 1645, the island belonged to the German Han- 
 seatic League. The capital is Wisby. 
 
 Gottingen {Golf ting -en), a town in the former 
 kingdom of Hanover, lies 538 feet above sea- 
 level in the Leine's wide valley, encircled by 
 gentle hills— the highest, the Hainberg (1246 
 feet). By rail it is 67 miles S. of Hanover, and 
 36 NE. of Cassel. The ramparts, long since 
 outgrown, and now planted with lindens, form 
 a charming promenade ; but architecturally Got- 
 tingen has nothing much to boast of— a quaint 
 rathhaus, a statue of William IV., and a few 
 antique buildings, one of which, the Jacobikirche, 
 has a steeple 320 feet high. The celebrated uni- 
 versity was founded 1734-37 by Baron Mlinch- 
 hausen, under the auspices of George II., Elector 
 of Hanover and king of England, and now has 
 120 professors and more than 800 students. Con- 
 nected with it are the library (500,000 vols, and 
 5000 MSS.), museum, botanic garden, observatory, 
 laboratory, hospital, &c., as also the Royal Society 
 (1750). Coleridge, Beddoes, Pusey, Lever, Long- 
 fellow, Motley, Ticknor, and Bancroft studied at 
 Gottingen, whose native alumni include many of 
 Germany's most famous sons, among them Prince 
 Bismarck, in whose honour a tower was built in 
 1894. The 'Gottinger Dichterbund ' was a small 
 poet band (Voss, the two Stolbergs, Klopstock, 
 Biirger, &c.) ; by the ' Gottinger Sieben ' are meant 
 the seven professors (Albrecht, Dahlmann, Ewald, 
 Gervinus, the two Grimms, and Weber) who for 
 their liberal tendencies were in 1837 expelled by 
 King Ernest Augustus. The book-trade is of more 
 importance than the manufactures — woollens, 
 sugar, chemicals, &c. Pop. (1875) 17,057 : (1890) 
 23,689 ; (1900) 30,234. 
 
 Gouda (Dutch pron. Hou'da), or Ter Gouwe, 
 a town of South Holland, on the right bank of the 
 HoUaendsche Yssel, 13 miles by rail NE. of Rot- 
 terdam. The church of St John has seventy-five 
 magnificent stained-glass windows, which were 
 executed between 1560 and 1603 by the brothers 
 Crabeth. The organ, too, has a fine vox humxina 
 stop. Gouda, which has memories of Erasmus, 
 was formerly famous for its clay-pipes, and is 
 now notable on account of its brickworks and 
 stearine candle factory. It has a large trade in 
 butter and Gouda cheese. Pop. 22,535. 
 
 Goulburn, a town of New South Wales, 134 
 miles SW. of Sydney by rail, with tanneries, boot 
 and shoe factories, flour-mills, and breweries, and 
 a busy trade in agricultural produce. It is a 
 substantially built town, with gas (1879), a good 
 water-supply, a Gothic Anglican cathedral (1884), 
 and a Roman Catholic cathedral, college, and 
 convent. Pop. 10,700. 
 
 Gourock {Goof ok), a watering-place of Ren- 
 frewshire, on the Firth of Clyde, 3 miles WNW. of 
 Greenock by a railway opened in 1889. At Kemp- 
 och Point here, behind which rises Barrhill (478 
 feet), stands 'Granny Kempoch,' a prehistoric 
 
GOVAN 
 
 306 
 
 GRANADA 
 
 monolith associated with the witches of Renfrew- 
 shire (1662). In 1688 the first red herring ever 
 cured in Great Britain was cured at Gourock. 
 Pop. (1841) 2169 ; (1901) 5261. 
 
 Govan (Guv'van), a police-burgh (since 1864) of 
 Lanarksliire, on the .soutli bank of tlie Clyde, 
 outside tlie municipal boundaries of Glasgow, 
 but connected witli the city by continuous rows 
 of buildings. Its leading industry is shipbuild- 
 ing and engineering. Govan Park, 40 acres in 
 extent, was gifted in 1885 by Mrs Elder, at a 
 cost of £50,000. Pop. (1836) 2122 ; (1871) 19,200 ; 
 (1891) 63,625 ; (1901) 82,174. 
 
 Gower, a peninsula forming the west part of 
 Glamorganshire (q.v.). 
 
 Gowhatty. See Assam. 
 
 Grow ran, a village in the county, and 8 miles 
 E. of the town, of Kilkenny. Pop. 416. 
 
 Gowrie, Cabse of. See Perthshire. 
 
 Goyana, a town of Brazil, 40 miles N, by W. 
 of Pernambuco. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Goyaz, the central province of Brazil, falls 
 within the dry plateau region, rising in the south 
 to an important range of mountains. Area, 
 287,430 sq. m. ; pop. (1888) 211,721, mostly half- 
 castes. — The capital, Goyaz, on the Vermelho, a 
 tributary of the Araguay, preserves, in its cathe- 
 dral and large government buildings, traces of 
 better days. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Gozo (Roman Gaulus), a British Mediterranean 
 island, 4 miles NW. of Malta, has, with the 
 adjacent smaller island of Comino, an area of 
 20 sq. m. and a pop. of 19,620. The chief town is 
 Babato, near the centre. 
 
 Graaf-Reinet, a town of Cape Colony, nearly 
 
 firdled by the Sunday River, 185 miles N, of 
 ort Elizabeth by rail. Founded in 1784, it still 
 S reserves the quaint characteristics of the old 
 •utch town. Behind it the Sneeuwberg Mountains 
 rise to a height of 1000 to 1500 feet. Pop. 10,100, 
 
 Gradisca, a town of Austria, on the Isonzo, 
 25 miles NW. of Trieste, which came to Austria 
 in 1511, and in 1754 was united to Gorz (q.v.). 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 Graemsay, an Orkney island, J mile S. of 
 Stromness, measuring IJ by 1 mile. Pop. 195. 
 
 Grafenberg, a village in the north-west corner 
 of Austrian Silesia, 50 miles N. of Olmiitz. The 
 spot where tlie water-cure was introduced in 
 1826 by Vincenz Priessnitz (1799-1851), it still is 
 visited yearly by some 1500 persons. 
 
 Grafrath (Gref'rdt), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 12 miles E. by S. of Diisseldorf. Pop. 6299. 
 
 Grafton, (l) a town of New South Wales, 350 
 miles NE. of Sydney, on the navigable Clarence 
 River, 45 miles from the sea. The rich agricul- 
 tural land in the neighbourhood yields sugar, 
 tobacco, &c., and gold, silver, coal, and copper 
 are also found. Pop, 4160.— (2) A town of Massa- 
 chusetts, 9 miles SE. of Worcester. Pop. 4889. 
 
 Gragnano (Gran-yd'no), a town of Italy, 20 
 miles by rail SE. of Naples. Pop. 14,100. 
 
 Graham's Land, an island of the Antarctic 
 Ocean, discovered by Biscoe in 1832, lies between 
 65"" and 67° S. lat. In front, towards the north, 
 are a number of islets, called Biscoe's Chain. 
 
 Grahamston. See Falkirk. 
 
 Grahamstown, the capital of the eastern prov- 
 ince of Cape Colony, stands near the centre of 
 the maritime division of Albany, 1728 feet above 
 sea-level. By rail it is 106 miles NB. of Port 
 Elizabeth, and 43 NW. of Port Alfred. It is 
 
 the seat of two bishops— Anglican and Roman 
 Catholic ; and in its Anglican cathedral is a 
 monument to Colonel Graham, after wliom the 
 city was named in 1812. Leather is manufac- 
 tured, and among the institutions are the museum, 
 St Andrew's College, public library, hospital, and 
 barracks. The population (one-tliird of it col- 
 oured natives) is ai^out 15,000. 
 
 Grahamstown, New Zealand. See Thames. 
 
 Graian Alps. See Alps. 
 
 Grammichele {Gram-mi-Tcafle), a town of Sicily, 
 33 miles SW, of Catania, on a mountain-ridge, 
 1768 feet above sea-level. Pop. 15,804. 
 
 Grammont (Fr. ; Belg. Geeraerdsbergen), a 
 small town in the Belgian province of East 
 Flanders, on the Dender, 14 miles by rail S. by 
 E. of Ghent. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Grampians, a name very loosely applied to 
 the mountain-system of the Scottish Highlands. 
 Some, for instance, restrict it to a 'chain' of 
 heights bordering the Lowland plain from Dum- 
 barton to Stonehaven, whilst others include a 
 ' range ' extending from Stonehaven to Ben Nevis, 
 as well as the Cairngorm group, Schiehallion, &c. 
 Hector Boece adopted the name in 1527 from 
 Tacitus's Mons Grampius or Graupius, the scene 
 in 86 A.D. of Agricola's crushing defeat of Gal- 
 gacus. Where that battle was fought has itself 
 been hotly contested. Ardoch, Dalginross, near 
 Comrie, and Urie, near Stonehaven, are among 
 the sites named, but Dr Skene prefers the pen- 
 insula formed by the Isla's junction with the 
 Tay. — Grampians is also the name of a range 
 of Australian mountains, rising to 5600 feet, in 
 the west of Victoria (q.v.). 
 
 Grampound, a decayed Cornish market-town, 
 7 miles SW. of St Austell. Pop. 495. 
 
 Gran, a royal free-town of Hungary, on the 
 riglit bank of the Danube, here crossed by a 
 bridge of boats, 25 miles NW. of Pesth, and 
 opposite the mouth of the riA'er Gran (length, 
 150 miles). Its great domed cathedral (1821-56), 
 on the castle hill, rivals in its magnificent pro- 
 portions St Peter's at Rome. Near is the palace 
 of the prince-archbishop, who is primate of Hun- 
 gary. Tlie warm mineral springs of Gran have 
 also some fame. Pop. 16,950. Here St Stephen, 
 the first king, was born in 979, and baptised and 
 crowned in 1000 ; soon it became the greatest com- 
 mercial town in the kingdom, but never recovered 
 from the storming by the Tartars in 1241. The 
 old name, Istrogranum (' Danube grain-town 'X 
 appears now in the Magyar Esztergom. 
 
 Grana'da, an ancient Moorish kingdom of 
 Spain, embracing the south-eastern portion of 
 Andalusia, and now divided into the three modern 
 provinces of Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. 
 Area, over 11,000 sq. m., with a population of 
 1,500,000. Except in the narrow strip of coast- 
 region along the Mediterranean, the surface is 
 a succession of mountain and plateau rising in 
 the centre to the snow-capped Sierra Nevada; 
 but the soil is fertile, and the ancient Granada, 
 which became an independent kingdom after the 
 fall of the caliphate of Cordova in 1236, supported 
 a population of 3 millions, and sent 100,000 men 
 into the field, but in 1492 was conquered by 
 the Spaniards. Area of the modern province, 4928 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1877) 479,066 ; (1900) 492,460. 
 
 Granada, the town, has sadly declined since 
 the days of its Moorish masters, but still ranks 
 as one of the larger cities of Spain. It lies at , 
 the foot of the Sierra Nevada, on and between , 
 two hills, the southernmost being the site on 
 
GRANADA 
 
 307 
 
 GRANT LAND 
 
 the famous Alhambra (q.v.), and is 2245 feet 
 above sea-level, and 126 (by rail 179) miles E. by 
 S. of Seville. It overlooks a fertile and extensive 
 plain, and stands on the right bank of the Jenil. 
 The modern town is commonplace and dull, 
 with wide streets and open squares ; but the 
 old houses, with their flat roofs, turrets, parti- 
 coloured awnings, balconies, and fountains, pre- 
 serve a half oriental aspect, and the labyrinths 
 of narrow, tortuous, ill-paved, ancient streets 
 oflFer picturesque views. Granada is the seat of 
 an archbishop, and has a university (1531) attended 
 by nearly 1000 students. The cathedral, begun 
 in 1529, contains the tombs of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, and of Philip I. and his consort Juana, 
 fine specimens of Italian Renaissance sculpture. 
 In the n)onastery of San Geronimo the 'Great 
 Captain,' Gonsalvo di Cordova, is buried. The 
 industry and trade of the town are inconsider- 
 able. Population, about 76,000. Granada was 
 founded by the Moors in the Sth century, 
 not far from the ruins of an ancient Celtiberian 
 town, Illiberis, and rapidly rose to distinction as 
 a wealthy trading city and as a seat of arts, 
 
 Granada, the capital of a Nicaraguan dep., 
 founded in 1522, stands on the north-west side 
 of Lake Nicaragua, and is connected with Managua 
 by rail. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Granard, a town of County Longford, 3 miles 
 W. of Ballywillan station. Pop. 1622. 
 
 Gran Chaco, an extensive central tract of 
 South America, extending from the southern 
 tropic to 29° S. lat., and bounded on the E. by 
 the Paraguay and Parana, and on the W. by the 
 Argentine provinces of Santiago del Estero and 
 Salta. Its area, about 180,000 sq. m., exceeds 
 that of Great Britain and Ireland by one-half. 
 The portion south of the Pilcomayo belongs to 
 Argentina, and the remaining third to Paraguay. 
 Since 1885 many agricultural settlements have 
 been made. 
 
 Grand Bassam, See Gold Coast. 
 
 Grand Cailon. See Colorado. 
 
 Grand-combe, La, a coal-mining town In the 
 French dep. of Card, 41 miles NNW. of Nimes. 
 Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Grand Forks, capital of Grand Forks county, 
 North Dakota, on the Red River of the North, 
 opposite the mouth of Red Lake River, is 55 
 miles N. of Fargo. It has flour and saw mills 
 and ironworks. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Grand Haven, capital of Ottawa county, 
 Michigan, on Lake Michigan, and on the south 
 bank of Grand River, 31 miles W. by N. of Grand 
 Rapids by rail. It has a medicinal spring and a 
 harbour, shipping lumber and grain. Pop. 5023. 
 
 Grand Lahou. See Gold Coast. 
 
 Grand Popo, a French settlement in Guinea, 
 on the Slave Coast, 25 miles W. of Whydah. 
 
 Grandpr^, a village in the French dep. of 
 Ardennes, on the Aire, 40 miles NNE. of Chalons. 
 Here, in 1792, Dumouriez was defeated by the 
 Allies. 
 
 Grand Rapids, capital of Kent county, 
 Michigan, stands at the head of steamboat naviga- 
 tion on Grand River, here crossed by six bridges, 
 60 miles WNW. of Lansing. The river, which 
 enters Lake Michigan 40 miles below, here falls 
 18 feet in a mile, and across it extend the rapids 
 which give name to the town. Conducted by 
 canals, it supplies motive-power to numerous 
 sawmills and manufactories of furniture and 
 irooden ware, farming implements, flour, machin- 
 
 IL 
 
 ery, &c., though steam is now in use in most of 
 the factories. Stucco-plaster and white bricks 
 are largely made here. The city is the seat of 
 an Episcopal bishop. Pop. (1870) 16,507; (1880) 
 32,016; (1890)60,278; (1900)87,565. 
 
 Grangemouth, a rising port in Stirlingshire, 3 
 miles ENE. of Falkirk. Founded in 1777, and 
 erected into a police-burgh in 1872, Grangemouth 
 has extensive quays and warehouses, docks (in- 
 cluding a large one opened in 1882), a graving- 
 dock, and shipbuilding yards. The trade of the 
 port has risen very rapidly. In 1840 the shipping 
 entering and clearing it was 31,686 tons annually ; 
 in 1876, 840,326 ; since 1904 it has exceeded 
 2,230,000 tons — the port then ranking fifth in im- 
 portance in Scotland. Since 1887 there has been 
 a regular line of passenger-steamers between 
 Grangemouth and London, owned by the Carron 
 Iron Company, whose works are within 2 miles 
 of the port. The principal^ imports are timber, 
 hemp, flax, tallow, deals, iron, and grain ; and 
 the exports are manufactured iron, and coal. At 
 Grangemouth some of the earliest experiments in 
 steam-navigation were made, the Charlotte Dundas 
 being built there in 1801. Pop. (1831) 1155 ; (1871) 
 2569 ; (1891) 6354 ; (1901) S3S6. 
 
 Gran Sasso d' Italia (' Great Rock of Italy'), 
 or Monte Corno, from its resemblance to a horn 
 on the east, is situated on the borders of the 
 Abruzzi, between Teramo and Aquila. It is the 
 highest summit (9574 feet) of the Apennines. 
 
 Granson, or Grakdson, an ancient town in 
 Switzerland, on the Lake of Neuchatel, 21 miles 
 SW. of NeuchUel ; pop. 1762. Here in 1476 the 
 Swiss defeated Charles the Bold. 
 
 Grantchester, a village on the Cam, 2 J miles 
 SSW. of Cambridge. Pop. of parish, 1196. 
 
 Grantham (Gran'tham), a market-town on the 
 Witham's left bank, 25 miles SSW. of Lincoln, 
 and 105 NNW. of London. It lies on the ancient 
 Ennine Street, and is an important junction on 
 the Great Northern Railway ; whilst a canal (1793), 
 30 miles long, connects it with the Trent near 
 Nottingham. High over the red-tiled brick 
 houses soars the noble gray spire (278 feet high) 
 of St Wolfran's Church, which, in style mainly 
 Early English of the 13th century, has been finely 
 restored since 1865. An Eleanor cross was 
 demolished in 1645, and a castle has left no 
 trace ; but the quaint Angel Inn is still standing, 
 in which Richard III. signed Buckingham's death- 
 warrant. Of King John, too, Grantham has 
 memories, and of Oliver Cromwell, who here on 
 13th May 1643 won his first success ; but the 
 town's greatest glory is Sir Isaac Newton, who 
 during 1655-56 idled, fought, and rose to be head- 
 boy in its grammar-school. A bronze statue of 
 him was erected in 1858 ; and there is also a 
 bronze statue of the Hon. Fred. ToUemache 
 (1890). The said school was founded by Bishop 
 Fox in 1528, re-endowed by Edward VI. in 1553, 
 and reconstituted in 1876. The manufacture of 
 agricultural implements, malting, and brick- 
 making are industries. Grantham, since 1905 the 
 see of a suffragan bishop, from 1463 till 1885 re- 
 turned two members to parliament — now only 
 one. The borough boundary was largely extended 
 in 1879. The population, hardly 11,000 in 1851, 
 had by tlie beginning of next century reached 
 17,600. See the local histories of Turnor (1806), 
 Marrat (1816), and Street (1857). 
 
 Grant Land, a North Polar region, north of 
 Grinnell Land, between 81° and 83° N. lat., dis^ 
 covered by Hayes, Hall, and Nares in 1875, and 
 partly explored by Nares, who wintered here. 
 
GRANTON 
 
 308 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Granton, a harbour on the Firth of Forth, 3 
 miles NNW. of Edinburgh. It was constructed 
 by the Duke of Buccleuch in 1835-45 at. a cost of 
 nearly a quarter of a million. 
 
 Qrantown, a village of Elginshire, | mile from 
 the Spey's left bank, and 142 miles by rail N. by 
 W. of Edinburgh. Founded in 1776, and a police- 
 burgh since 1890, it is surrounded by pine woods, 
 and is a holiday and health resort. Pop. 1523. 
 
 Granville, a fortified seaport in the French 
 dep. of La Manche, on a rocky promontory in the 
 English Channel, 23 miles NB. of St Malo. The 
 industries include fishing, shipbuilding, tanning, 
 and the manufacture of brandy, chemicals, and 
 iron-ware. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Graslitz, a town of Bohemia, on the Saxon 
 border, 142 "miles WNW. of Prague. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 Grasmere, a Westmorland village, 4 miles NW. 
 of Ambleside. Tliere are four hotels. Pop. 784. 
 Its antique church is the church of the Excursion; 
 and in the churchyard, washed by the Rothay, 
 are the graves of Wordsworth and Hartley Cole- 
 ridge. ' Grasmere's peaceful lake,' with its 'one 
 green island,' lies J mile to the south, between 
 Loughrigg Fell (1101 feet) and Helm Crag (1299). 
 Measuring IJ by i mile, it is 208 feet above sea- 
 level, and 130 feet deep. 
 
 Grasse, a town in the French dep. of Alpes- 
 Maritimes, on the southern slope of the Basses- 
 Alpes, 1066 feet above sea-level, and 12 miles N. 
 of Cannes by rail. The seat of a bishopric from 
 1244 to 1801, it has steep, narrow, crooked 
 streets, a cathedral, and an interesting hotel-de- 
 ville. Grasse is second only to Paris in its 
 manufactures of perfumes, made from the roses, 
 orange-flowers, heliotropes, mint, &c. grown here, 
 it also manufactures olive-oil, silk, &c., and is 
 growing in favour as a winter-resort. Queen 
 Victoria stayed here in 1891. Pop. 13,960. 
 
 Gratz, or Graz (formerly Grdtz), the capital of 
 Styria, in Austria, 141 miles SSW. of Vienna by 
 rail, is a picturesque old town on both sides of 
 the Mur, encircled by fine gardens. RcTuains of 
 the former fortress still stand on a hill in the 
 centre of the town. Old buildings are the 
 cathedral (1462), two other Gothic churches (one 
 built in 1283), the ancient castle of the Styrian 
 dukes, the Landhaus, the university (with over 
 1200 students, and a library of 120,000 volumes), 
 &c. The industries include the manufacture of 
 machines, steel goods, rails and railway carriages, 
 sugar, wine, perfumery, stearine candles, soap, 
 &c. Pop. 140,000. 
 
 Graubiinden. See Orisons. 
 
 Graudenz {Grou-dentz!), an old town in the 
 province of West Prussia, on the Vistula, 37 
 miles N. of Thorn. It has iron-foundries, brew- 
 eries, and tapestry and cigar manufactories. Pop. 
 (1875) 14,553 ; (1900) 32,800. About a mile north 
 of it on a hill (282 feet) is the fortress of Graudenz 
 (1776), since 1874 a barrack and military prison. 
 
 Gravelines (Grdv-leen'), a fortified town in the 
 French dep. of Nord, in a marshy locality at 
 the mouth of the Aa, 13 miles by rail ENE. 
 of Calais. A desolate-looking place now, with 
 grass-grown streets, it has an historic past, as 
 the scene of Egmont's victorv over the French 
 (1558), and the place off which the English dis- 
 persed the Armada (1588). Pop. 5900. 
 
 Gravelotte, a village of Lorraine, 7 miles W. 
 of Metz. Here, on 18th August 1870, Bazaine 
 was severely defeated by the Germans. 
 
 Gravesend, a port and borough of Kent, on 
 the right bank of the Thames, 24 miles ESE. of 
 
 London. It consists of the old town, with 
 narrow, irregular streets, and of the handsome 
 new town on the high ground. In the vicinity 
 are extensive market-gardens ; and many of the 
 inhabitants are employed in fishing. Gravesend 
 forms the limit of the port of London ; and here 
 pilots and custom-house officers are taken aboard 
 vessels going up the river. The salubrious air 
 and beautiful scenery at Gravesend render it a 
 favourite watering-place with Londoners. It 
 carries on some shipbuilding, iron-founding, soap- 
 making, and brewing, and a considerable trade 
 in supplying ships' stores. Gravesend was incor. 
 porated under Elizabeth, and since 1867 has re- 
 turned one member to parliament. Pop. of the 
 municipal borough (1901) 27,175 ; of the parlia- 
 mentary borough, 39,766. At Gravesend the 
 fleets of early voyagers, as that of Willoughby 
 in 1553, and of Frobisher in 1576, assembled, 
 and here the lord mayor, aldermen, and city 
 companies of London were wont to receive all 
 strangers of eminence, and to conduct them up 
 the river in state. A great fire in 1850 did 
 damage to the amount of £100,000. See Arden's 
 History of Gravesend (1843). 
 
 Gravina, a town of southern Italy, 33 miles 
 SW. of Bari. Pop. 15,612. 
 
 Gray, a town in the French dep. of Haute- 
 Saone, on the Saone, 25 miles NW. of Besan§on. 
 It has a ruined castle of the dukes of Burgundy. 
 Pop. 5759. 
 
 Grays Thurrock, a town of Essex, on the 
 Thames, 19^ miles E. by S. of London. Pop. of 
 urban district, 13,834. 
 
 Graz. See Gratz. 
 
 Grazalema, a town of Spain, 53 miles ENE. of 
 Cadiz. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Great Basin. See Great Salt Lake. 
 
 Great Bear Lake. See Bear Lake (Great). 
 
 Great Britain, as distinguished from Britannia 
 Minor, or Brittany, in France, was not officially 
 so called till in 1604 James I. styled himself 
 king of Great Britain. Lying between 49° 57' 
 30" and 58° 40' 24" N. lat., and between 1° 46' 
 E. and 6° 13' W. long., Great Britain is the 
 largest island of Europe, and is bounded by the 
 Atlantic, the North Sea, the English Channel, 
 the Irish Sea, and St George's Channel. The 
 most northerly point is Duimet Head, in Caith- 
 ness ; the most southerly. Lizard Point, in Corn- 
 wall ; the most easterly, Lowestoft Ness, in 
 Suffolk ; and the most westerly, Ardnamurchan 
 Point, in Argyllshire. Its greatest length is 
 about 608 miles, and its greatest breadth (from 
 Land's End to the east coast of Kent) about 325 
 miles ; while its surface contains 88,226 sq. m. 
 The geology of Great Britain is of peculiar im- 
 portance. Nearly all the recognised 'systems' 
 occur in Britain, although some of these are more 
 fully represented elsewhere ; the only system not 
 found here is the Miocene. The mountainous 
 regions of the north and west are fonned of the 
 oldest rocks, and as we rnove south-eastwards, we 
 gradually pass over newer strata, until, in the east 
 of England, we come to the uppermost divisions 
 of the Tertiary. The mineral wealth, especially 
 the coal and the iron, are the real sinews and 
 muscles of Britain's mighty power. No other 
 country has similar advantages in such an area. 
 In some respects the most important of British 
 minerals is coal. Formerly, the only iron pro- 
 duced in the country was obtained from the 
 greensand of the south-east of England, and 
 from the brown hematite of the Dean Forest 
 
 J 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 The ore was smelted with charcoal. But the 
 introduction of coke and coal for smelting, 
 and the discovery of numerous additional and 
 unthought-of deposits, especially in connection 
 with coal-bearing strata, immensely increased 
 the production of iron. The most important 
 ore is the ferruginous shale, or impure argilla- 
 ceous carbonate of iron, which occurs in con- 
 nection with every coalfield in Britain. The 
 brown and red hematites, associated with the 
 oldest Palaeozoic rocks, yield also a large amount 
 of metallic iron. Tin is obtained from only two 
 counties — Cornwall and Devon. Copper is princi- 
 pally obtained from the same two counties. 
 Lead and silver are obtained from the same ore 
 from numerous mines in Palaeozoic districts ; the 
 most productive English mines being in North- 
 umberland, Durham, Cumberland, Shropshire, 
 Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Cardiganshire, Glamorgan- 
 shire, and the Isle of Man. In Scotland the most 
 productive lead and silver mines are at Wanlock- 
 head and Leadhills. Zinc is obtained chiefly 
 from Cardigan, Denbighshire, Carnarvon, Flint, 
 Cumberland, and the Isle of Man. Sulphur ores 
 (iron pyrites) are raised in different parts of 
 Great Britain ; as also arsenic, manganese, gold, 
 nickel, silver-copper, fluor-spar, and wolfram. 
 Salt occurs chiefly in Cheshire and Ulster. 
 The total value of the coal and other minerals 
 raised in the United Kingdom was £40,345,945 
 in 1866, £74,094,638 in 1880, and £107,134,854 in 
 1902. The total value of the metals obtainable 
 by smelting from ores produced in the United 
 Kingdom (aluminium, antimony, copper, gold, 
 iron, lead, magnesium, silver, sodium, tin, zinc) 
 in 1887 was £12,795,993 ; in 1902, £15,287,357. 
 
 The physical features of a country are inti- 
 mately connected with its geological structure. 
 Thus the Highlands and Southern Uplands of 
 Scotland are built up chiefly of crystalline schists 
 and the older Palaeozoic strata, while the inter- 
 vening lowlands of the so-called Central Plain are 
 composed mainly of the younger Palajozoic rocks 
 and overlying accumulations of superficial de- 
 posits. The mountainous tracts of Scotland consist 
 therefore of more enduring or less readily eroded 
 materials than the lowlands. The mountains are 
 monuments of erosion ; they are the wreck of an old 
 tableland. The Highlands (q.v.) are intersected 
 from south-west to north-east by the Great Glen, 
 which probably occupies the line of a dislocation. 
 It is customary in geographical text-books to 
 speak of the 'range of the Grampians,' but the 
 Highland mountains do not trend in linear direc- 
 tions, but rather fonn confused groups. The 
 greatest height reached is 4406 feet in Ben 
 Nevis, less eminences being Ben Macdhui (4296 
 feet) and Ben Lawers (3984; with cairn, 4004). 
 The southern limit of the Highlands is defined 
 by a line drawn from the Firth of Clyde at Helens- 
 burgh north-east to the sea-coast at Stonehaven. 
 North of this line there are of course consider- 
 able tracts of less elevated ground, especially 
 along the coast in Aberdeenshire, the boi'ders of 
 the Moray Firth, and Caithness. The coast-line 
 of the Highlands, particularly in the west, is 
 repeatedly broken by numerous and large fjords 
 or deep sea-lochs. And opposite the same coasts 
 appear the numerous islands of the Inner and 
 Outer Hebrides. These fjords are simply sub- 
 merged land-valleys, Avhile the islands are the 
 higher parts of the depressed continental plateau. 
 The fresh-water lakes vary in size from mere tarns 
 to large mountain- valley lakes like Lochs Lomond, 
 Ness, Awe. Shin, Maree, Tay, &c. 
 
 The Central Plain of Scotland may be described 
 
 as a broad depression of relatively easily eroded 
 materials lying between two tablelands of less 
 readily denuded rocks. The principal features of 
 this low-lying tract have a north-east and south- 
 west trend determined by geological structure, 
 as is seen in the Sidlaw Hills, the Ochil Hills, 
 the Lennox Hills, &c., in the north, and in the 
 Pentland Hills in the south. The surface of the 
 lowland tracts is likewise diversified by many 
 more or less abrupt and isolated hills, such as 
 Arthur's Seat, Dalmahoy Crags, the Castle- 
 rocks of Edinburgh and Stirling, &c. Most of 
 these heights consist of igneous rocks of a more 
 durable character than the strata of sandstone, 
 shale, &c., which surround them. 
 
 The Southern Uplands of Scotland form a broad 
 belt of high ground extending from the sea-coast 
 of Haddingtonshire and Berwickshire south-west 
 to the shores of Ayrshire and Galloway. Like 
 the Highlands the area of the southern uplands 
 is simply an old tableland, furrowed into narrow 
 ravine and wide dale by the operation of the 
 various agents of erosion. The rocks that enter 
 into their composition are chiefly Silurian, grey- 
 wackes, and shales, and consequently there is 
 less variety of contour and colour than in the 
 Highlands. Now and again, however, the moun- 
 tains assume a rougher aspect, more esi)ecially in 
 Carrick and Galloway (highest point Merrick, 
 2764 feet). The Silurian strata are overlaid 
 towards the south by younger Palaeozoic rocks ; 
 thias we have the broad vale of Tweed and the 
 lower reaches of Teviotdale occupied chiefly 
 by sandstones and shales. The Cheviot Hills, 
 again, are built up in the north-east chiefly of 
 bedded igneous rocks which towards the south- 
 west give place to sandstones. 
 
 Crossing the borders of Scotland and England 
 we find the high ground just referred to is con- 
 tinued southwards through Northumberland, 
 Cujnberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lancashire, 
 and Derbyshire to form what is called the Pennine 
 Chain. This ' chain ' varies in height from 1200 
 to 3000 feet, reaching its highest summit in 
 Scafell Pike, Cumberland, which is 3210 feet 
 high. The Lake district of Cumberland and 
 Westmorland, being built up mainly of Silurian 
 rocks, reproduces the characteristic features of 
 the southern uplands of Scotland. And the same 
 is to a large extent true of the mountainous parts 
 of Wales (whose highest point, Snowdon, is 3571 
 feet), while not a few of the features of the 
 Scottish Highlands reappear on a small scale in 
 Devonshire and Cornwall. All these hillier tracts 
 are composed essentially of Palaeozoic and associ- 
 ated igneous rocks. The major portion of Eng- 
 land, however, consists principally of younger 
 strata, and may be considered on the whole as a 
 somewhat undulating plain traversed by ridges 
 of varying elevation, which trend in a general 
 direction from north-east to south-west. The 
 band of Jurassic strata, extending from the York- 
 shire Moors south and south-west to the coast of 
 Dorset, fonns a tortuous belt of tableland and 
 escarpment, rising sometimes to a height of 1500 
 feet, and throughout its course presenting 
 usually a bold face to the west and a gentle 
 slope to the east. Similar escarpments accom- 
 pany the outcrop of the chalk, but they are neither 
 so lofty nor so bold. They form the Wolds of 
 Yorkshire and Lincoln, and rise into a low range 
 of hills that extend from Norfolk to Wilts, the 
 more prominent portions of which are known as 
 the Chiltern Hills, the Marlborough Downs, and 
 Salisbury Plain. On the north and south side of 
 the Wealden anticlinal axis, similar chalk-hills 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 310 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 appear, forming the North Downs in Surrey and 
 Kent, and the South Downs in Hants and Sussex. 
 Lying between the Pennine Chain in the west, 
 and the Yorkshire Moors and Wolds and Lincoln 
 Heights and Wolds in the east, lies the broad 
 depression traversed by the Ouse and Trent which 
 is occupied chiefly by Triassic strata. In like 
 manner, a low plain separates the mountain-tracts 
 of Wales from the Pennine Chain, which is sim- 
 ilarly occupied by Triassic and younger Palaeozoic 
 strata. The maritime parts of Lincoln, Norfolk, 
 Suffolk, Essex, and Middlesex are for the most 
 part low-lying, being composed of Cretaceous 
 and overlying Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. 
 The whole surface of Britain, with the exception 
 of the extreme south of England, has been more 
 or less modified by glacial action, to which is 
 largely due the rounded contour and flowing 
 outline of all but the highest elevations. The 
 surface-features of the low-lying tracts have also 
 been greatly modified by the enormous morainic 
 and fluvio-glacial accumulations which were 
 spread over the country in Pleistocene times. 
 
 The physical geography of Ireland is discussed 
 elsewhere (see Ireland); in its geological rela- 
 tions it is intimately related to Great Britain — 
 its orographic features being likewise determined 
 by the character of its various rock-masses. 
 Ireland, like its sister-island, forms a portion of 
 the depressed continental plateau— its highly 
 indented coast-line, more especially in the west 
 and south-west, being the result of a compara- 
 tively recent submergence. There can be no 
 doubt that in post-glacial times Ireland was 
 joined to Britain, which at that period formed a 
 part of the continent of Europe. 
 
 The climate of Great Britain derives its peculiar 
 character from the insular situation of the 
 country, taken in connection with the prevailing 
 direction of the winds. It is mild and equable 
 in a remarkable degree, the winters being con- 
 siderably warmer, and tlie summers colder than 
 at other places within the same parallels of lati- 
 tude. For at least three months, the mean 
 monthly temperature ranges between 50 "0° and 
 60-0° ; for other three months it continues 
 about 60'0°, or occasionally a little higher, seldom 
 more than four degrees ; and for the remaining 
 six months it ordinarily ranges between 36'0° and 
 48-0°. Since the Reports of the Registrar-general 
 clearly prove that the temperature most con- 
 ducive to health is between 50"0° and 60"0°, it 
 follows that, as far as concerns temperature, the 
 climate of Great Britain is one of the healthiest 
 in the world. The mean temperature of Eng- 
 land is 49*5°, and of Scotland 47"5°. There is a 
 difference of fully six degrees between Falmouth, 
 in Cornwall, and Shetland, attributable chiefly 
 to the diff'erence of their latitudes. It becomes 
 greater as the force of the sun's rays increases ; 
 so that, while the winter temperatures are re- 
 spectively 44-2° and 39-0°, the summer tempera- 
 tures are 60-6° and 53-4°. The highest summer 
 temperature is 64*2'' in London, and the lowest 
 52-2° at North Unst, the difference being 12-0°. 
 The temperatures of places on the west are in 
 excess of those of places in the same latitudes, 
 but at some distance from the Atlantic. In 
 winter, the differences between the west and the 
 other parts of the country are still gi-eater. 
 
 The south-west winds are the most prevalent 
 throughout the year, except in April and May, 
 when they give place in a considerable degree to 
 the north-east winds. The notoriously dry and 
 parching character of the latter renders them very 
 deleterious to health. On the other liand, the 
 
 south-west winds, coming from the Atlantic, are 
 moist and genial, and it is on their greater fre- 
 quency — being, as compared with the north-east, 
 in the proportion of two to one — that the salubrity 
 of the British climate in a great measure depends. 
 
 In those districts of England where hills do 
 not intervene, the annual rainfall is about 25 
 inches, and in similar parts of Scotland about 28 
 inches ; but these amounts, which may be con- 
 sidered as the rainfalls of the driest districts of 
 the two countries, are variously increased by 
 proximity to hills or rising grounds, according as 
 the place is situated in the east or west of the 
 island, viewed in relation to the direction of the 
 wind which brings the rain, and by its lying on 
 the wind or on the lee side of these hills. Since 
 it is the south-west -svinds which bring by far the 
 larger proportion of the rainfall, the heaviest 
 falls take place among the hills in the west of 
 the country, in great i)art of the area about 40 
 inches. But over broad districts in the West 
 Highlands and Skye, and in limited areas in the 
 Lake district, and in North and South Wales, the 
 annual rainfall exceeds 80 inches. At the head 
 of Glencroe, Argyllshire, it rises to 128J inches, 
 and at the Stye, Cumberland, to 186 inches. 
 
 Area and population were in 1901 : 
 
 Area. Pop. 
 
 England 50,823 ) v> 'iVr aA9 
 
 Wales 7,363j 32,527.843 
 
 ScotlanJ 29,820 4.472,103 
 
 Ireland 32,531 4,-158,775 
 
 Isle of Man 220 54,752 
 
 Channel Islands 75 95,618 
 
 Soldiers and sailors abroad — 367,736 
 
 United Kingdom 120,832 41,976,827 
 
 Indian Empire l,76il,797 294,361,056 
 
 Colonies and Protectorates . . 10,039,203 61,588,944 
 
 British Empire 11,926.832 397,926.827 
 
 Tliere were, in 1904, in Great Britain and 
 Ireland 88 towns above 50,000 in population, of 
 which seventy-four were in England, eight in 
 Scotland, tliree in Ireland (Belfast, Dublin, 
 Cork), and three in Wales (Cardiff, Rhoiidda, and 
 Merthyr-Tydfil). Of the total area of 56,786,741 
 acres in Great Britain, 32,317,610 acres were 
 under cultivation in 1904. Of 20,710,589 acres in 
 Ireland, 15,230,124 were under cultivation. 
 
 In 1903-4 the net revenue was £141,545,579, and 
 the expenditure £140,961,136. In 1904-5 the 
 estimated revenue was £143,610,000. In 1904 
 the national debt was £794,498,100, In 1888 
 the total imports Avere £387,035,743, and the 
 exports £298,577,541. In 1904 the total im- 
 ports were £551,362,124, and the total exports 
 £371,139,816. Of tlie latter sum £300,817,897 
 represented British produce, the remaining 
 £70,321,918 being foreign and colonial produce 
 re-exported. In addition, the imports of gold 
 and silver bullion in 1904 amounted to £45,503,927, 
 and the exports to £46,302,932. In 1903 the 
 imports from British possessions amounted to 
 £113,670,792, and from foreign countries to 
 £428,929,497, of which £122,112,652 were from 
 the United States, £49,347,184 from France, 
 £34,533,390 from Germany, and about the same 
 amount from Holland. Of the exports of 
 British produce in 1903, £111,146,864 went to 
 British possessions, and £179,653,244 to foreign 
 countries— £22,605,131 to the United States, 
 £15,800,011 to France, and £23,550,631 to Ger- 
 many, The number of vessels in 1903 was 20,452 
 (10,122 steamers) of 10,268,604 tons. Tlie railways 
 had a length of 22,435 miles, the telegraph lines 
 of 51,483 miles. In 1905 the regular army com- 
 prised 217,000 men ; besides army reserve, 80,000 ; 
 
GREAT FISH RIVER 
 
 311 
 
 GREECE 
 
 militia and militia reserve, 142,446; yeomanry, 
 28,114; volunteers, 346,136 ; making, with Indian 
 and colonial native corps, a total of 884,095. The 
 navy in 1905 consisted of 365 vessels, of which 44 
 were battle-ships, 28 armoured cruisers, 10 pro- 
 tected cruisers of the first class, 20 of the second 
 class, and 25 of the third class, besides torpedo 
 gunboats, torpedo boats and destroyers, and sub- 
 marines, with a total of 131,100 officers and men 
 of all ranks. 
 
 On the colonies, details will be given under 
 their several heads ; but it may be useful here 
 to name the chief colonies and dependencies : 
 Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand ; Canada 
 and Newfoundland ; Cape Colony, Natal, and 
 associated South African lands ; India and Ceylon ; 
 the West Indies. Other dependencies reckoned 
 to Asia are the Straits Settlements, North 
 Borneo, Labuan, Sarawak, Aden, Hong-kong ; 
 to the Mediterranean, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus ; 
 to Africa, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, 
 Lagos, Nigeria, East Africa and Central Africa, 
 with Uganda, &c., Rhodesia, Orange River 
 Colony, Transvaal, Swaziland ; to Austral- 
 asia and the Pacific, Fiji, Fanning, Christmas, 
 Maiden, Starbuck, Ellice, Gilbert Islands ; to the 
 Indian Ocean, Mauritius and Rodriguez ; to the 
 Atlantic, Bermudas, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan 
 da Cunha, Falkland Islands. 
 
 See the articles England, Scotland, Ireland, 
 Wales ; Anderson's Book of British Topography 
 (1881) ; works on the geography and physiography 
 of the British Islands, by Ramsay (1878), Hull 
 (1882), Rudlerand Chisholm (1885), Reclus (1888), 
 A. Geikie (1889), Seeley, and others ; on ethnology, 
 Beddoe (1886), Lubbock, Nicholas, Roemer ; on 
 trade and commerce, Leone Levi (1880) ; Cun- 
 ningham (1890), Dymes, &c. ; besides Thorold 
 Rogers on agriculture, Bevans on manufactures, 
 &c. ; Mulhall's Dictionary of Statistics (1886 ; new 
 ed. 1891) ; and for the colonies, Dilke (1868-90) 
 and C. P. Lucas (1888-94). 
 
 Great Fish River, (1) in Cape Colony, rises in 
 the Sneeuwberg Mountains, and flows 230 miles 
 SE. to the Indian Ocean in 33° 25' S. lat. and 27° 
 E. long.— (2) Or Back's River, in North America, 
 is over 440 miles long, and enters an inlet of the 
 Arctic Ocean in 95° W. long. , after passing through 
 Lake Pelly. Sir George Back in 1834-35 traced 
 its course to the ocean. 
 
 Great Grimsby. See Grimsby. 
 
 Great Kanawha (pron. Kanaw'wa), an affluent 
 of the Ohio, is called New River in its upper 
 course, and rises in the Blue Ridge of North 
 Carolina. It is 450 miles long, and is navigable 
 to a fall 30 miles above Charleston. 
 
 Great Marlow. See Marlow. 
 
 Great Ormes Head. See Llandudno. 
 
 Great Salt Lake, in Utah, stretches along the 
 western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about 
 4200 feet above the sea, forming a principal drain- 
 age centre of the vast plateau known as the Great 
 Basin, 800 miles long by 500 broad, in Utah, Nevada, 
 Oregon, California, and Idaho. Well-marked 
 shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching 
 1000 feet higher than the present level, show that 
 the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent. 
 Great Salt Lake is over 80 miles long and from 
 20 to 32 broad, but for the most part exceedingly 
 shallow. It contains several islands, the largest, 
 Antelope Island, about 18 miles long. Its tribu- 
 taries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan, and Weber, 
 the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake 
 Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save 
 evaporation, and its clear water consequently 
 
 holds a large quantity of saline matter in solu- 
 tion, which has varied from 22*4 per cent, (in 
 1850, when the lake had an area of 1700 sq. m.) to 
 18 "4 (in 1869, when the area had increased to 2360 
 sq. m.). Of late, the lake has been shrinking 
 again. Several species of insects and a brine- 
 shrimp have been found in its waters, but no 
 fishes ; large flocks of water-fowls frequent the 
 shores. The Great Salt Lake was first explored 
 in 1843 by Fremont, and surveyed in 1849-50 by 
 Stansbury. See Salt Lake City, and Utah. 
 
 Great Slave Lake lies in the Canadian North- 
 west Territory (62° N. lat.). Its greatest length 
 is about 300 miles, and its greatest breadth 50 
 miles. By the Slave River it receives the surplus 
 waters of Lake Athabasca (q. v.) ; and it discharges 
 by the Mackenzie River into the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Greece is the easternmost of the three penin- 
 sulas projected southwards by Europe into the 
 Mediterranean. The mountain-range which cuts 
 off the peninsula from the continent of Europe 
 is an extension of the Balkans. From it run 
 chains from north-north-west to south-south-east, 
 which form the skeleton of Greece. The western 
 boundary of Thessaly is formed by Pindus (7111 
 feet), the main offshoot of the Balkans. The east- 
 ern boundary is also marked not only by the sea, 
 but by important mountains derived from the 
 Balkan system. These are Olympus (9750 feet), 
 Ossa, Mavrovuni, and Pelion (5310). Othrys, a 
 branch of Pindus, forms the south boundary of 
 Thessaly. This branch is continued in the cele- 
 brated mountains Parnassus (8036 feet) and Heli- 
 con, forms the land of Attica, and reappears as 
 the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siph- 
 nos. The Peloponnese, ' the island of Pelops,' or 
 by its modern name the Morea, is connected with 
 northern Greece merely by the narrow isthmus 
 of Corinth (q.v.), now pierced by a canal ; its high- 
 est point is Taygetus (Hagios Elias, 7901 feet). 
 The rivers of Greece are unimportant. 
 
 The ancient Greeks were a branch of that 
 family which includes most European peoples, 
 and also the Persians and the Hindus, and is 
 variously called Indo-Germanic, Indo-European, 
 and Aryan. Successive waves of Aryan tribes 
 entering from the north drove emigrants on 
 to and over the isles of Greece to plant Greek 
 cities and Greek culture on the coasts of Asia 
 Minor. At later times Sicily, the Black Sea, 
 Libya, &c. were dotted with Greek colonies ; and 
 wherever Greeks were, there, to the Greek 
 mind, was ' Hellas,' which is thus an ethnological 
 rather than a territorial term. The Greeks called 
 themselves Hellenes, and the inhabitants of Italy 
 called them Groici. The modern Greeks are by 
 no means pure-bred descendants of the ancient 
 Greeks. Indeed, it has been maintained by 
 Fallmerayer that from the 7th century a.d. there 
 have been no pure Greeks in the country, but 
 only Slavs. It is, however, pretty certain that 
 the 2\ million of modern inhabitants are descend- 
 ants of the three races that occupied the soil 
 at the time of the Roman Conquest— viz. Greeks, 
 Thracians (mod. Wallachians), and lUyriana 
 (Albanians). Greek, ancient and modern, is a 
 typical Aryan speech. 
 
 In 1879 the area was 19,810 sq. m., with a pop. 
 of 1,679,775; the Thessalo-Epirot districts in- 
 corporated with the kingdom in 1881 (as an 
 outcome of the Berlin Treaty) added to this 
 the remainder, with a pop. of 299,677, making 
 a total of 25,020 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,979,452. 
 In 1903 the pop. was 2,645,175. Besides the 
 Greeks of the kingdom, the Greeks iu various 
 
 I 
 
GilEECE 
 
 31^ 
 
 GREEN BAY 
 
 parts of the Ottoman empire— notably in Con- 
 stantinople, Macedonia, the western parts of Asia 
 Minor, Crete, Cyprus, and the smaller islands — 
 Kumber above 6,000,000. Athens, the capital, 
 has now a population of 115,000; the towns 
 next in size being Patras, Pirseus, and Trikhala, 
 all above 20,000 ; and there are eight others 
 between 20,000 and 10,000. Greece, although 
 one-half of its area is pasture-land or waste, is 
 mainly an agricultural country ; the land is 
 mostly in the hands of peasant-proprietors, and 
 the implements of husbandry are of the most 
 primitive type. Besides cereals, fruits, sugar, 
 tobacco, cotton, and dyestuffs are raised. The 
 chief articles of export are currants (about half 
 of the total), lead and other ores, olive-oil, wine, 
 honey, sponges, &c. The principal ijnports are 
 cereals and textile goods. The imports have an 
 annual value of from £4,000,000 to £5,500,000 ; 
 the exports from £3,000,000 to £4,250,000. The 
 ■exports to Britain average about IJ million, and 
 tlie imports from Britain 1^ million annually. 
 Tlie herding of sheep (3,000,000) occupies about 
 9 per cent, of the people ; the sponge and coral 
 fisheries employ more than 900 boats. The min- 
 erals of Greece include lignite, argentiferous lead, 
 zinc, magnetic iron, and marble. There are 
 some 1200 flour-mills worked by water and wind, 
 and about 100 by steam ; over 200 distilleries ; 
 and numerous dyeworks, tanneries, and manu- 
 factures of machinery, cotton and silk goods, 
 &c. About 700 miles of railway are open, and 
 others are in course of construction ; and there 
 are nearly 4400 miles of telegraph lines. 
 
 The legislative power is vested in a single 
 chamber of representatives, the Boule, wliicli con- 
 sists of about 235 paid representatives, elected 
 under the ballot by universal suflfrage for a period 
 of four years. Greece is divided for administrative 
 purposes into twenty-six nomarchies or depart- 
 ments, wliich are again subdivided into 69 dis- 
 tricts and 450 communes. Tlie revenue averages 
 from £4,000,000 to £4,750,000, and the expendi- 
 ture nearly balances. The total debt amounts 
 to £33,000,000, without the last war indemnity. 
 Fully a third of the exi)enditure is absorbed 
 by the interest on the debt, and a fifth by 
 the ministries of war and marine. The Greek 
 Orthodox Church is established by law, and to it 
 the great mass of the people belong ; but there 
 are some 25,000 Mohammedans in Thessaly and 
 Epirus. There are more than 160 monasteries 
 and nunneries, with over 2600 monks and some 
 500 nuns. Elementary education is com- 
 pulsory for children between the ages of five and 
 twelve ; but the law is not carefully enforced 
 outside the towns, and the majority of the people 
 are illiterate. In 1905 the nominal strength of 
 the army on a peace footing was 24,076— which 
 in the event of war could easily be raised to 
 100,000 ; all able-bodied males are liable to ser- 
 vice. The navy consisted of four small ironclads, 
 sixteen gunboats, twenty-one torpedo boats and 
 launches, and several other vessels ; the officers 
 and men number nearly 3000. 
 
 Before the dawn of history, we have traces of 
 the encroachments on one another by various 
 Hellenic or Greek races, tribes, or alliances— 
 Pelasgians, Aetolians, lonians, Boeotians, and 
 Achaians being amongst them. The first really 
 historical fact is the invasion from the northward 
 by the Dorians, who made themselves masters of 
 the Peloponnesus about the beginning of the 12th 
 century b.c. A consequence of this Dorian 
 invasion was the colonisation of the islands and 
 of the coasts of Asia Minor by iEolians, lonians, 
 
 and later by Dorians also. The seeds of that 
 literature, art, and philosophy, which afterwards 
 made Greece, and specially Athens, glorious were 
 sown and first nurtured in the colonies. By 
 degrees Greek colonies established themselves 
 on the shores of the Black Sea, and along both 
 north and south coasts of the Mediterranean, 
 Sicily was largely Hellenised, and South Italy 
 became Magna Grsecia. Neither at home nor 
 abroad had the Greeks the faculty of union as a 
 nation or race ; even in the fatherland there were 
 multitudes of small states, a city with three or 
 four miles of territory being often an independent 
 state of itself, and frequently at war with its 
 neighbours. Almost the only central bond of 
 union, besides the Hellenic tongue in its various 
 dialects, was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. For 
 long, two Greek states were pre-eminent. The 
 powerful Dorian state of Sparta was reorganised 
 about 800 B.C. by Lycurgus, the kingly institution 
 being retained. Athens was democratic before 
 that date, and its constitution, fixed by Solon in 
 594 B.C., ultimately triumphed over the tyranny 
 of Pisistratus and his sons. Encroachments of 
 the Persians on the Greek colonies of Asia Minor 
 led to the invasion of Greece by the Persians in 
 490 B.C., an invasion gloriously repelled by the 
 Athenians at Marathon. Xerxes was defeated at 
 Thermopylae, Salamis (480), Platsea, and Mycale, 
 Athenians and Spartans for a time combining 
 their forces. Now it was that Greek literature 
 and Greek art attained a perfection that has 
 made the rest of the world ever since scholars 
 and imitators of the Greeks of the Periclean 
 period. The next period is marked by the fratri- 
 cidal struggle between Athens and Sparta in the 
 Peloponnesian war, which ended in tlie humilia- 
 tion of Athens in 404 B.C., and the enfeeblement 
 of all Greece, In 379-371 the Thebans asserted 
 themselves victoriously against the Spartans ; 
 and forty years later Philip of Macedon subjected 
 Greece to a semi-barbarous nation. Under his 
 son, Alexander the Great, the Greek name and 
 the Greek fame were extended into Asia and 
 Africa by the Macedonian king's campaigns. In 
 197 the Romans broke the Macedonian power, 
 and by 146 were masters of Greece, which sub- 
 sequently shared the fortunes of the Roman 
 empire. When the Roman empire was divided 
 (395 A.D.) into the Eastern and Western empires, 
 Greek was of course the language of the Eastern, 
 Greek, or Byzantine half of the Roman dominion. 
 The Byzantine emperors fell in 1453 before the 
 Turks, under whom the Greek race reached the 
 lowest stage of political, intellectual, commercial, 
 and spiritual decadence, though the Greek Church 
 survived, and the old Greek tongue, in corrupted 
 guise, continued to be spoken. A national re- 
 awakening began in 1821 ; and by 1828, with the 
 support of Britain, France, and Russia, Greece 
 Avas again a free, but small and weak kingdom. 
 The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 added Thessaly 
 and part of Epirus to its area ; but the ambition 
 of the Greeks to secure a large share of the ' sick 
 man's' inheritance — especially Macedonia and 
 Constantinople— is one of the causes that has led 
 to growing embarrassment in the national finances, 
 and to national bankruptcy in 1893. 
 
 On the land of Greece and its people, see 
 works by Leake (1830-35), Wordsworth (1831 ; 
 new ed. 1883), Tozer (1873), Sergeant (1879, 1880), 
 Jebb (1880), and Rennell Rodd (1892); on the 
 history, the works of Thirlwall, Grote, Curtius, 
 Finlay, and Bury. 
 
 Green Bay, capital of Brown coimty, Wis- 
 consin, at the head of Green Bay and the mouth 
 
 i 
 
GREENCASTLE 
 
 313 
 
 GREENOCK 
 
 of Fox River, 65 miles NNE. of Fond du Lac by- 
 rail. It lias a handsome Roman Catholic cathe- 
 dral, a good harbour, export of lumber, iron- 
 works, and sawmills. Pop. 18,700. 
 
 Greencastle, once a little Antrim village, now 
 part of northern Belfast. 
 
 Greenhithe, a Kentish village on the Thames, 
 3 miles B. by N. of Dartford. Hence Franklin 
 sailed in 1845. 
 
 Greenland, an extensive region, stretching 
 from 59° 45' to 83^° N. lat. and from 17° to 73° 
 W. long., now known to be an island engirt 
 by smaller islands, but an island of almost 
 continental size. Even its southern end has a 
 thoroughly arctic character. It was discovered 
 by the earliest Scandinavian settlers in Iceland. 
 After having been sighted by Gunbjorn, it was 
 visited by Erik the Red, who, having explored 
 it, founded there in 986 two colonies. The 
 colonies afterwards came under the dominion 
 of Norway, but were neglected and suffered 
 from disaster and privation, until the western 
 settlement was attacked and destroyed by 
 Eskimo intruders from the north some years 
 after 1340. Subsequently the connection with 
 Europe gradually grew less and less, wholly 
 ceasing after 1448, when Greenland almost passed 
 into oblivion. On its rediscovery by John Davis 
 in 1585 the Eskimo were the only inhabitants. 
 In 1721 the modem Danish settlements on the 
 west coast were founded by Hans Egede as 
 missionary stations. Remarkable ruins of un- 
 doubted Scandinavian origin were early dis- 
 covered on two points of the west coast, one 
 between 60° and 61° N. lat., the other between 
 64° and 65°. In each case the ruins lie scattered 
 over an area of some hundred square miles, 
 occupying small flat and fertile spots around 
 the heads of the fjords. The whole coast-line 
 may be roughly estimated at 3600 miles, or 192,000, 
 following every island, fjord, and peninsula. The 
 area again may be variously estimated at 512,000 
 and 320,000 sq. m., according as one includes or 
 omits the islands and fjords running inland, which 
 are 60 miles long on an average. A huge ice-sheet 
 covers the whole of the interior. The surface of 
 this enormous glacier, only occasionally inter- 
 rupted by protruding mountain-tops, rises slightly 
 towards the interior. In 1888, when Greenland 
 was crossed from east to west (by Nansen), the 
 ' divide ' was found to attain some 10,000 feet above 
 the sea. On account of this ice-cap Greenland 
 has no rivers corresponding to its magnitude ; 
 instead of its being drained by rivers, the inland 
 ice at certain points of the coast is thrust into 
 the sea by forces which have their origin in 
 extensive lateral glaciers in the interior. These 
 points are represented by the so-called ice-fjords, 
 through which the ice, whose thickness may be 
 estimated at 1000 feet, is pushed on an average 
 with a velocity of 50 feet in twenty-four hours 
 into the sea, where it breaks into fragments — the 
 bergs. The coast-margin, itself largely bounded 
 with perpetual ice, is very mountainous ; bold 
 headlands, 3000 to 5000 feet high, are common, 
 some even rising 6000 to 7000 feet. Low flat 
 land is found only in small patches, especially 
 round the heads of some of the Qords. These 
 inlets generally take the form of narrow channels, 
 frequently more than 1000 feet deep. 
 
 The climate of Greenland, when contrasted with 
 the climate of the eastern coasts of the Atlantic 
 in the same latitude, shows a surprising difference. 
 The southern point of Greenland has a mean 
 temperature corresponding to that of the most 
 
 northern shores of Iceland and Norway. But 
 the difference consists more in the want of sum- 
 mer than in the severity of the winter. The 
 mean of summer, of winter, and of the year at 
 Upernivik (73° N. lat.) is respectively 38*2°, -6-6°, 
 and 13-3° F. The mountains of Greenland consist 
 chiefly of granitic and gneissose rocks. Metallic 
 ores have hitherto proved rather scarce. Besides 
 coal, graphite has been discovered ; and 10,000 
 tons of cryolite are annually exported for the 
 manufacture of soda and alum. A mineralogical 
 rarity is the native iron, of which a mass found 
 on Disco Island was estimated to weigh 46,200 
 pounds. In sheltered slopes and valleys around 
 the fjords south of 65° N. lat. copse-woods are 
 found, consisting of alder, white birch, more 
 rarely rowan-trees, which grow to 6 or 8 feet 
 high. Ben-ies are abundant, especially crow- 
 berries and whortleberries. The Greenland flora 
 comprises 395 species of phanerogams and higher 
 cryptogams, and 330 species of mosses. The 
 fauna numbers 33 species of mammalia, 124 of 
 birds, 79 of fishes. It is from the animal king- 
 dom, especially from the seals and whales, that 
 the natives derive almost their whole subsistence. 
 Reindeer, of which 25,000 were shot annually in 
 the years 1845-49, are now rather scarce. Of 
 fish, sharks only have any commercial value, but 
 several other kinds aff"ord food for the inhabit- 
 ants. American ships have for some years tried 
 halibut-fishery on the banks off' the west coast. 
 The dogs used for draught are of great import- 
 ance in the north. A few goats and horned 
 cattle have been kept by the Europeans, but 
 mainly as a curiosity. 
 
 The inhabitants of Greenland are of the Eskimo 
 race, more or less mixed with European blood. 
 The individuals of the mixed race hardly difl"er 
 as to language and habits from the pure Eskimo. 
 Besides the natives, about 250 Europeans usually 
 reside in the countiy. Total pop. about 11,600. 
 Since 1774 the trade of Greenland has been a 
 royal monopoly. There are 12 chief stations for 
 trading and the Danish Mission ; the southern- 
 most is Julianehaab (60° 42' N. lat.), the northern- 
 most Upernivik (72° 48' N. lat.). At Godthaab 
 there is a seminary for training native catechists ; 
 of late natives have been appointed pastors. The 
 Moravian Mission has four chief stations. 
 
 See Danish Greenland, by Rink (Lond. 1877), and 
 works on the expeditions of Scoresby, Clavering, 
 Kane, Hall, Nares, Greely, Nansen, and Peary. 
 
 Greenlaw, a small town of Berwickshire (q. v.), 
 on the Blackadder, 38 miles ESE. of Edinburgh 
 (by rail 55). Its court-house (1834) is a large 
 Grecian pile. Pop. 744. 
 
 Greenlet Island, a small island in Belle Isle 
 Strait, in 51° 34' N. lat. and 56° 36' W. long. 
 
 Green Mountains, a portion of the Appala- 
 chians (q.v.). 
 
 Greenock, an important seaport of Renfrew- 
 shire, the seventh largest town in Scotland, on 
 the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3| 
 miles by water S. of Helensburgh, and 22^ by 
 rail WNW. of Glasgow. For more than four 
 miles it stretches along the level strip of ancient 
 sea-margin, or climbs up the slopes of the hills, 
 which rise rapidly behind it to a height of 813 
 feet, and which command splendid views of the 
 opposite coasts of Argyll and Dumbarton shires. 
 Greenock has a reputation of being always wet, 
 and the yearly rainfall does exceed 60 inches; 
 but as the prevalent winds are from the south 
 and west, they are generally mild. The west end 
 of the town, with its elegant and commodious 
 
 I 
 
GEEENORE 
 
 314 
 
 GREIZ 
 
 villas of every style of architecture, its beautiful 
 esplanade, 1^ mile long, its wide and well-paved 
 streets, planted with trees, is particularly attrac- 
 tive. The public buildings, many of them very 
 handsome, include the Renaissance town-hall 
 (1886), with a tower 245 feet high, the county 
 buildings (1867), the custom-house (1818), the 
 poorhouse and lunatic asylum (1876), Wood's 
 Mariners' Asylum (1851), and the Watt Institu- 
 tion (1837), containing a marble statue of Watt 
 by Chantrey. To Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart the 
 town is largely indebted for the Well Park (1851), 
 the Wellington Park (1872), and the Lyle Road 
 (1880). The new cemetery, 90 acres in extent, 
 with its Watt cairn, and the magnificent water- 
 works (1827-83) also deserve mention. The har- 
 bour-works date from 1707, and have cost 
 upwards of 1^ million pounds. Accessible at all 
 states of the tide, they include Victoria Harbour 
 (1850), the Albert Harbour (1866), and the James 
 Watt Dock (1886). The tonnage of vessels be- 
 longing to Greenock rose from 29,054 in 1825 to 
 103,919 in 1867, and 278,097 in 1893 (besides 313 
 fishing-boats); whilst the tonnage of vessels 
 entering the port ranges between 1,000,000 and 
 1,600,000 per annum. Shipbuilding (mostly iron 
 or steel steamers) has been carried on since 1760 ; 
 and sugar-refining, commenced in 1765, in spite 
 of bad recent years has still its chief seat at 
 Greenock. There are also manufactures of steam- 
 engines, anchors and chain-cables, ropes, sail- 
 cloth, paper, wool and worsted, &c. Since 1832 
 Greenock has returned a member to parliament. 
 Pop. (1696) 1328; (1801) 17,190; (1851) 36,689; 
 (1881) 66,704 ; (1901) 68,142. Created a burgh of 
 barony in 1635, Greenock owes its growth from a 
 mere fishing-village to the Shaw family and to 
 the Treaty of Union (1707), by which free com- 
 merce was opened up with America and the West 
 Indies. Besides being the birthplace of Watt, 
 Kidd the pirate, Spence the mathematician. 
 Principal Caird, and Hamish MacCunn, it has 
 memories of Rob Roy, John Wilson, and Gait, 
 and contains the grave of Burns's ' Highland 
 Mary.' See Provost Dugald Campbell's Historical 
 Sketches of the Town and Harbours of Greenock (2 
 vols. 1879-81). 
 
 Greenore, a small village (pop. 323), railway 
 terminus, and pier of County Louth, on the S. 
 side of Carlingford Lough, 13 miles SE. of Newry. 
 
 Green River (l) rises in Wyoming, and flows 
 750 miles through Colorado and Utah to the 
 Grand River, a branch of the Colorado. — (2) Rises 
 in Kentucky, and flows 350 nnles to the Ohio. 
 
 Greenville, capital of Greenville county. South 
 Carolina, on Reedy River, 95 miles (143 by rail) 
 NW. of Columbia, with a Baptist university 
 (1851), and manufactures of cotton, oil, flour, 
 furniture, and machinery. Pop. 11,900. 
 
 Greenwich (fir en' itch; A.S. Green-wic, 'green 
 creek or bay '), a parliamentary borough of Kent 
 (now, officially, the county of London), 5 miles 
 ESE, of London Bridge, on the south bank of the 
 Thames, hei-e crossed by a steamship ferry, on the 
 American system, which was opened in 1888. 
 Greenwich Hospital occupies the site of an old 
 royal palace, in which Henry VIII. and his 
 daughters Mary and Elizabeth were born, and 
 Edward VI. died. Founded in 1694 by Queen 
 Mary as a mark of the gratitude which England 
 felt towards her brave sailors who had fought at 
 La Hogue, it consists of four distinct quad- 
 rangular piles— King Charles's building (1664), 
 designed by Inigo Jones, and Queen Anne's, 
 King William's, and Queen Mary's buildings, 
 
 all designed by Sir Christopher Wren. The 
 Great Hall is remarkable for its painted ceil- 
 ing, a work carried out by Sir James Thornhill 
 in 1707-27. It contains several valuable pictures 
 of great naval battles and of the heroes who 
 fought in them ; there is still preserved the 
 coat which Nelson wore when he was shot at 
 Trafalgar. The chapel is a fine specimen of Greek 
 architecture. A statue of George II. by Rysbrach 
 adorns the central square. The first pensioners 
 were received in the hospital in 1705 ; these 
 numbered 100 ; in 1814 the maximum number 
 was reached— viz. 2710. In 1763 out-pensions 
 were granted ; in 1849 the number of in-pensioners 
 began to decrease, until in 1865 they only nujn- 
 bered 1400. For some time the in-pensioners had 
 been discontented, and in 1869, when they had 
 the option of receiving an out-pension, a very 
 large majority preferred to go to their friends. 
 Greenwich Hospital was thus disestablished by 
 the votes of the very men for whose benefit it 
 was originally founded. The annual income 
 of the hospital is £167,259. From this sum 
 numerous pensions are paid ; 1000 boys, the 
 sons of seamen and marines, are maintained 
 and educated at Greenwich Hospital Schools at 
 an average cost of £23,000 a year ; gratuities are 
 granted to widows of seamen and marines ; and 
 50 orphans of officers receive grants for their 
 education. It is estimated that 9000 persons, 
 exclusive of the children mentioned, derive 
 benefit from the funds. In 1873 Greenwich 
 Hospital became the college for the Royal 
 Navy, and all combatant naval officers are now 
 compelled to take their degree at Greenwich. 
 There are also the Naval Museum, the Royal 
 Hospital School (1712), and the Royal Observa- 
 tory, which crowns the hill behind the hospital, 
 and was built by Charles II. in 1675, the first 
 astronomer-royal being Flamsteed. The White- 
 bait Dinner is a banquet held intermittently by 
 the cabinet-ministers to celebrate the termina- 
 tion of a parliamentary session. The manufac- 
 turing establishments include engineering, tele- 
 graph works, chemical works, &c. Greenwich 
 returned two members down to 1885, wlien it was 
 divided into three parliamentary boroughs — 
 Greenwich, Deptford, and Woolwich, all now 
 metropolitan boroughs of London. Pop. of 
 Greenwich (1901) 95,757. In 1881 it was but 65,411. 
 See a work by L'Estrange (2 vols. 1886). 
 
 Greenwich, the south-westernmost town of 
 Connecticut, with many handsome residences, 28 
 miles NE. of New York. Pop. 12,131. 
 
 Greifenberg, a town in the Prussian province 
 of Pomerania, 55 miles NE. of Stettin. Pop. 5636. 
 
 Grelfenhagen, a town of Prussia, on the Oder, 
 13 miles SSW. of Stettin. Pop. 6603. 
 
 Greifswald, a town in the Prussian province 
 of Pomerania, 2^ miles from the mouth of the 
 Ryck, and 25 by rail SE. of Stralsund. The uni- 
 versity (1456) has from 700 to 1000 students, 
 chiefly in medicine and theology, and a library 
 of 140,000 volumes. There is a considerable 
 shipping trade. The industries include the mak- 
 ing of machinery, chains, and railway wagons, 
 the curing of herrings, and iron-founding. Pop. 
 (1875) 18,016 ; (1900) 22,950. Shortly after being 
 made a town (1250), Greifswald joined the Han- 
 seatic League. At the peace of Westphalia (1648) 
 it came to Sweden ; but, with the whole of 
 Swedish Pomerania, was ceded to Prussia in 1815. 
 
 Greinord. See Gruinard. 
 
 GreiZ (Greits), capital of the German princi- 
 pality of Reuss-Greiz, on the White Elster, 47 
 
GRENADA 
 
 315 
 
 CRINNELL LAND 
 
 miles SSW. of Leipzig. It has three castles, a 
 13th-century church, and manufactures of cotton 
 and woollen goods, shawls, linen, &c. Pop. 
 (1875) 12,657 ; (1900) 22,350. 
 
 Grena'da, a volcanic island in the British West 
 Indies, lying N. by W. from Trinidad, mountain- 
 ous and picturesque, with an area of 133 sq. m. 
 Some of the craters in the central ridge of moun- 
 tains, rising to 3200 feet, have been transformed 
 into large lakes. Streams and mineral springs 
 abound. There are several good natural harbours, 
 that of St George (pop. 4000), the capital of the 
 island and the headquarters of the government of 
 the Windward Islands, being one of the best in 
 the West Indies. Pop. (1881) 42,403 ; (1901) 63,438, 
 who are almost all negroes, and cultivate cocoa, 
 coffee, and oranges. A little rum is manufactured. 
 Columbus in 1498 was the discoverer of the 
 island, Avhich in 1783 was ceded by France to 
 England. 
 
 Grenadines, a chain of West Indian islets, 
 extending between Grenada and St Vincent, with 
 a total area of 13 sq. m., and 7800 inhabitants. 
 The largest is Carriacou (11 sq. m.). 
 
 Grenelle, a south-western suburb of Paris. 
 
 Grenoble (Lat. Gratianopolis), since 1839 a 
 first-class fortified city of France, capital of the 
 dep. of Isere, on the river Isere, 59 miles SE. of 
 Lyons. The 15th-century cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, St Laurent, St Andre (with Bayard's 
 monument, transferred hither in 1822), and the 
 Gothic palais-de-justice are the most interesting 
 buildings. The university has some 275 students. 
 The library contains 170,000 volumes and 7500 
 MSS. The staple manufacture is kid gloves (em- 
 ploying 22,000 persons in 115 factories). There 
 are also manufactures of liqueurs (Chartreuse), 
 hats, cement, and hardware. Pop. (1872) 35,280 ; 
 (1901) 59,480. Grenoble, originally a city of the 
 Allobroges, was fortified by the Romans. Later 
 on it became the capital of Dauphine, passing with 
 it to P'rance in 1349. 
 
 Greta, a Cumberland stream flowing 4 miles to 
 the Derwent at Keswick, where is Greta Hall, 
 Southey's home. 
 
 Gretna Green, a Dumfriesshire village, near 
 the head of the Solway Firth, 10 miles NNW. of 
 Carlisle. After the abolition of Fleet marriages 
 (1754), English persons wishing to marry clandes- 
 tinely had to get out of England. Thus the 
 practice arose of crossing the Border into Scot- 
 land, where Gretna Green, or Springfield, as the 
 first village, had by 1771 become the resort of 
 runaway couples. The ' priest ' or ' blacksmith ' 
 might be any one— ferryman, toll-keeper, or land- 
 lord ; his fee ranged from half a guinea to £100 ; 
 and 'church' was commonly the tollhouse till 
 1826, and afterwards Gretna Hall. At the toll- 
 house nearly 200 couples were sometimes united 
 in a twelvemonth. Coldstream and Lamberton, 
 in Berwickshire, were chapels-of-ease to Gretna 
 for the eastern Border, as also till 1826 was Port- 
 patrick, in Wigtownshire, for Ireland. One of 
 the earliest Scottish runaway matches on record 
 is Richard Lovell Edgeworth's (1763); amongst 
 his successors were Lords Brougham, Dundonald, 
 Eldon, and Erskine, besides numerous scions of 
 the noble families of Villiers, Fane, Beauclerc, 
 Coventry, Paget, &c. In 1856 all irregular 
 marriages were rendered invalid unless one of 
 the parties had been residing in Scotland for 
 three weeks previously. See Hutchinson's 
 ^Chronicles of Gretna Green (2 vols. 1844). 
 ^m Grey Mare's Tail, a Dumfriesshire waterfall, 
 
 10 miles NE. of Moffat, on the Tail Burn, running 
 from Loch Skene to Moffat Water. 
 
 Greymouth, a rising port of New Zealand, on 
 the west coast of South Island, at the mouth of 
 the Grey River, 190 miles SSW. of Nelson. Ex- 
 tensive harbour- works, including two breakwaters, 
 have been erected since 1885, and railways to 
 Nelson and Christchurch were undertaken in 
 1887. The entire district is auriferous, but is 
 even more famous for its coal. Pop. 378'r. 
 
 Greytown, or San Juan del Norte, the only 
 Nicaraguan port on the Caribbean Sea, is on the 
 north fork of the San Juan, which was nearly 
 silted up till 1889, when labourers were des- 
 patclied from the United States to commence 
 work on the Nicaraguan inter-oceanic canal, of 
 which Greytown is the proposed Atlantic ter- 
 minus, and to construct a breakwater. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Grigoriopol, a town of South Russia, on the 
 Dniester, 82 miles NW. of Odessa. Pop. 7918, 
 
 Grimes Dyke. See Antoninus' Wall. 
 
 Grimisay, an Inverness-shire island, between 
 North Uist and Benbecula, measuring 3 by 1^ 
 miles. Pop. 291. 
 
 Grimma, a town of Saxony, on the Mulde, 19 
 miles SE. of Leipzig by rail. It has a town-hall 
 (1442), a former royal castle (now a court-house), 
 and a celebrated school (1550, the ' Moldanum 
 lUustre '). Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Grimsby, or Great Grimsby, a parliamentary, 
 municipal, and county borough and seaport of 
 Lincolnshire, on the Humber's right bank, 20 
 miles ESE. of Hull and 41 NE. of Lincoln. The 
 parish church, a good cruciform Early English 
 edifice, was restored in 1859. A statue of the 
 Prince-Consort was unveiled in 1879, and a public 
 park of 27 acres opened in 1883. In Edward III.'s 
 time Grimsby was a port of considerable import- 
 ance, which, however, it gradually lost as its 
 harbour became silted up. The town is famous 
 as the largest fishing-port in the kingdom, its 
 trawlers and smacks being mostly engaged in the 
 cod, herring, and whelk fisheries. Its import- 
 ance as a landing-place of fish dates from 1849- 
 58, when docks began to be constructed under 
 the auspices of the Manchester, Sheffield, and 
 Lincolnshire Railway, which carries the fish to 
 the towns of the northern Midlands. The docks 
 cover altogether 350 acres. The industries include 
 shipbuilding, tanning, brewing, cordage-making, 
 and flax-dressing. About 3000 vessels, of 1,000,000 
 tons, enter every year. The imports reach an 
 annual value of 4| millions sterling, and the 
 exports of 7J millions. Grimsby since 1832 has 
 returned only one member. Pop. (1851) 12,263 ; 
 (1871)28,503; (1881)45,351; (1901)78,198, of whom 
 63,138 were within the municipal boundary. See 
 works by Oliver (1825) and Davenport (1866). 
 
 Grindelwald, a beautiful Swiss valley (3468 
 feet) in the Bernese Oberland, 12^ miles long and 
 4 broad, forms the approach to the two Grindel- 
 wald glaciers. It is a winter health-resort. 
 
 Grinnell Land, a barren, mountainous Polar 
 tract on the west side of Kennedy Channel (the 
 northern continuation of Smith's Sound), Avliich 
 separates it from Greenland. It was discovered 
 by Dr Hayes in 1854, and named after Henry 
 Grinnell (1800-74), of New York, who had fitted 
 out Kane's expedition. Greely in 1882 thoroughly 
 explored it. North and south it is covered with 
 ice-caps ; between them lie valleys that get quit 
 of their snow in summer, and support herds of 
 musk oxen. In the interior are Lake Hazen, 60 
 miles long, and two ranges of mountains, one 
 
GRINSTEAD 
 
 316 
 
 GUADALAJARA 
 
 with Mount Arthur (5000 feet).— Another Grinnell 
 Land, discovered by De Haven in 1S50, lies far- 
 ther SW., off the NW. extremity of North Devon 
 Island. 
 
 Grinstead, East, an old-fashioned town of 
 Sussex, 36 miles S. by E. of London by rail, 
 which till 1832 returned two members to parlia- 
 ment. Here is Sackville College, of which Dr 
 J. M. Neale was warden, and the convent of 
 the sisterhood of St Margaret, with Home and 
 Orphanage. Pop. of urban district, 6100.— West 
 Grinstead is 18 miles to the SW. Pop. 1502. 
 
 Griqualand West and East are two British 
 districts of South Africa, one a part of Cape 
 Colony (q.v.), the other a dependency of it, and 
 named from the Griquas or Bastaards, who are 
 a mixed race sprung from Dutch settlers and 
 native women. — Griqualand West lies to the 
 north-east of Cape Colony, is bounded S. by the 
 Orange River, N. by Bechuana territory, E. by 
 Orange Free State, W. by the Kalahari country. 
 Portions of the country are suitable for sheep- 
 farming and agriculture, but the chief source of 
 wealtli is the diamond-fields. From the discovery 
 of the first diamond in 1867, a steady stream of 
 immigration set in; settlements were formed 
 representing all ' nationalities, and digging was 
 vigorously prosecuted. Diamonds to the value of 
 above £12,000,000 were found there during 1871-80, 
 and of perhaps £100,000,000 between 1867 and 
 1900. Griqualand West was annexed in 1871, 
 and incorporated with Cape Colony in 1880. 
 Kimberley, connected by rail with the Cape 
 since 1885, is the seat of government. Other 
 towns are De Beers, Du Toit's Pan, Bultfontein, 
 Barkly, and Griqua Town. Area, 15,197 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 100,000, of whom about 40,000 are whites.— 
 Griqualand East is that part of No-Man's-Land 
 which lies between the Kaffir border and southern 
 Natal. It was allotted to the Griqua chief, 
 Adam Kok, who had removed thither with 15,000 
 Griquas, and to the Basutos who had previously 
 migrated hither. This territory was annexed to 
 the Cape In 1875. Chief village, Kokstadt. Area, 
 about 8000 sq. m. ; pop. 200,000, of whom about 
 20,000 are whites. 
 
 Gris-nez (Gree-nay'), Cape, a headland (164 feet 
 high) in the French dep. of Pas-de-Calais, opposite 
 Dover, is the point of land nearest to England 
 (barely 20 miles). A lighthouse surmounts it. 
 
 Griaons {Gree-zong' ; Ger. Graubiinden), the \SiVg- 
 est and the most thinly peopled of the Swiss can- 
 tons, is bounded E. by Tyrol and S. by Lombardy. 
 Area, 2773 sq. m. ; population, 106,000, nearly half 
 of German stock, and more than half Protestants. 
 The whole canton is an assemblage of mountains 
 intersected by narrow valleys. These last form 
 three groups, of which the first and most im- 
 portant lies along the course of the Rhine ; the 
 second, forming the Engadine (q.v.), extends 
 north-east along the Inn ; and the third belongs 
 to the basins of the Ticino and the Adige. During 
 the jniddle ages the Bishop of Chur sought to 
 oppress the people, who in self-defence formed 
 themselves into leagues. One of these (1424), was 
 called the gray league (Ger. der graue bund), from 
 the gray home-spun worn by the unionists, and 
 hence the German and French names of the 
 canton. In 1471 these separate unions entered 
 into a general federation, which in 1497-98 formed 
 an alliance with the Swiss cantons. 
 
 Grodek, a town of Austrian Galicia, 20 miles 
 SSW. of Lemberg. Pop. 12,116. 
 
 Grodno, the capital of a Russian province, on 
 the Niemen's right bank, 148 miles by rail NE. 
 
 of Warsaw. It manufactures cloth and tobacco. 
 Pop. 46,788.— The province has an area of 14,926 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,650,000. 
 
 Groly, a Leicestershire manor, the birthplace 
 of Lady Jane Grey, 4J miles WNW. of Leicester. 
 
 Groningen (Gro'ning-en), the north-eastern 
 province of Holland. Area, 887 sq. m. ; pop. 
 over 303,000. — The capital, Groningen, is 25 
 miles "by rail SW. of Delfzihl, on Dollart Bay, 
 and 34 E. of Leeuwarden. The iiniversity (1614), 
 with new buildings of 1850, and some 360 students, 
 possesses a library, a botanic garden, an observ- 
 atory, &c. A celebrated deaf and dumb institu- 
 tion was founded in 1790. The manufactures 
 include linen and woollen goods, tobacco, brushes, 
 Dutch tiles, and boat-building. Groningen, al- 
 ready an important place in the 9th century, 
 joined the Hanseatic League in 1282. Pop. (1876) 
 40,165 ; (1901) 67,570, 
 
 Groote Eylandt (Dutch, ' great island '), a hilly 
 uninhabited island, 40 miles in diameter, on the 
 west side of the Gulf of Carpentaria, in North 
 Australia. It is surrounded by reefs. 
 
 Grossenhain, a town of Saxony, 21 miles by 
 rail NNW. of Dresden. It manufactures cloth, 
 hosiery, machinery, &c. Pop. 12,544. 
 
 Grosse'to, a Tuscan town on the Ombrone, 
 near its mouth, 160 miles SE. of Leghorn by rail, 
 with a fine cathedral. Pop. 6962. 
 
 Grossglockner, the highest peak (13,458 feet) 
 of the eastern Alps, is situated near the meeting- 
 point of Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salzburg. 
 
 Grosswardeln (Magyar Nagy-Varad), an old 
 town of Hungary, on the Sabes (Rapid) Koros, 
 152 miles by rail SSE. of Pesth. Formerly a for- 
 tress, it is the seat of Roman Catholic and Greek 
 bishops, and manufactures spirits, oil, vinegar, 
 tiles, matches, pottery, and wine. Population, 
 above 50,000. Near it is the Bishop's Bath, with 
 alkaline sulphur-springs (104°-106° F.). 
 
 Grottaglle, a town of Italy, 12 miles ENB. of 
 Taranto. Pop. 8880. 
 
 Grotte, Le, a town of Sicily, in the province 
 of Girgenti. Pop. 8775. 
 
 Gruinard, a Ross-shire bay, forming part of 
 Loch Broom. 
 
 Gruinnard, a north-west sea-loch of Islay 
 island, 4^ miles long. 
 
 Griinberg, a town of Prussian Silesia, 34 miles 
 NW. of Glogau by rail. Pop. 20,396. 
 Griitli. See RiixLi. 
 
 Gruy^re (Groo-yehr'), a little Swiss town, 16 
 miles SSW. of Freiburg, gives its name to the 
 famous whole-milk Gruyere cheese. Pop. 1375. 
 
 Gryfe, a Renfrewshire stream, flowing 16 miles 
 ESE. to the Black Cart. 
 
 Guadalajara (Guadalahd'ra), (1) the decayed 
 capital of a Spanish province on the Henares, 35 
 miles NE. of Madrid by rail. Pop. 11,051.— The 
 province occupies the northern part of New Castile, 
 and has an area of 4660 sq. m. Pop. a little 
 over 200,000.— <2) Capital of the Mexican state 
 of Jalisco, and the second city of the republic, 
 on the Rio Grande de Santiago, here crossed by a 
 fine bridge of 26 arches, 280 miles WNW. of 
 Mexico City by rail. It has an archiepiscopal 
 cathedral, the government palace, a mint, uni- 
 versity, tramways, hospitals, and school of art. 
 It is the chief seat of the cotton and woollen 
 manufactures of the country, and the Guadalajara 
 pottery and metal wares, like the confectionery, 
 have a reputation all over Mexico. Pop. 101,200. 
 
GUADALAVIAR 
 
 317 
 
 GUATEMALA 
 
 Guadalaviar (anc, Turid), a river of eastern 
 Spain, rises near the Tagus, in SW. Aragon, and 
 flows 190 miles SSB. to the Mediterranean at 
 Grao, 1^ mile below Valencia. 
 
 Guadalquivir (Gtutdalkiveer' ; Arab. Wcidi-al- 
 Kebir, ' the great river ; ' anc. Bcetis), the chief 
 river of Spain, rises in the Sierra de Cazorla, in 
 the east of the province of Jaen, and flows 374 
 miles SW. through or along the borders of the 
 provinces of Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Huelva, and 
 Cadiz, to the Gulf of Cadiz at San Lucar de 
 Barranieda. The principal towns on its banks 
 are Cordova and Seville, to the last of which, 
 about 80 miles above its mouth, the river is 
 tidal and navigable for steamers. Below Seville 
 it twice divides into two branches, forming two 
 islands. Its chief aflluents are the Guadajoz, 
 Jenil, Guadalimar, and Guadiato. At Montoro 
 it breaks through the outlying spurs of the 
 central Sierra Morena in a series of rapids, but 
 its lower course is sluggish and dreary. During 
 the equinoctial rains the river rises sometimes 
 10 feet, and the country is yearly flooded as 
 far up as Seville. 
 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo, 5 miles by tramway N. 
 of Mexico City, is the chief Mexican place of 
 pilgrimage, its brick cathedral having a miracu- 
 lous picture of a brown Virgin. The treaty Avhich 
 ended the war with the United States was signed 
 here, 2d February 1848, 
 
 Guadeloupe, the chief of the French Lesser 
 Antilles in the West Indies, lies 77 miles N. 
 by W. of Martinique, and contains, including 
 dependencies, 583 sq. m., with a pop. of about 
 185,000, mostly blacks and mulattoes. It is • 
 divided into Grande-Terre on the east, and Basse- 
 Terre or Guadeloupe proper on the west, by a 
 strait of from 40 to 150 yards in width, which 
 bears the name of Salt River. The nomenclature 
 of the two islands appears curiously perverse, 
 for Basse-Terre is the loftier of the two (the vol- 
 canic summit La Soufriere, 5497 feet), and Grande- 
 Terre is the smaller. Earthquakes are frequent. 
 The chief product is sugar ; coffee also is ex- 
 ported. Point-i-Pitre (18,000) is the principal 
 town and port. The dependencies are the islets 
 of Desirade, Marie-Galante, and Les Saintes, be- 
 sides St-Barthelemy and part of St-Martin to the 
 north-west. Guadeloupe, discovered by Colum- 
 bus, became finally French in 1816. 
 
 Guadiana (Arab. Wddi Ana, anc. Anas), one 
 of the five principal rivers of the Iberian pen- 
 insula. Rising as the Zancara in the east of the 
 plateau of La Mancha, it flows south and west 
 to the Ojos, below which point it receives the 
 name of the Guadiana. It bends southward at 
 Badajoz, forms for some miles the boundary be- 
 tween Spain and Portugal, then flows through 
 part of Alemtejo province, returning to form the 
 frontier again, until it empties into the Gulf of 
 Cadiz. It is 510 miles long, but is navigable 
 only for 42 miles. Its chief affluents are the 
 Jabalon, Zujar, Matachel, Ardila, and Chanza. 
 
 Guaira, La, the port of Caracas (q.v.), on a 
 narrow, shadeless strip of land between the 
 mountains and the Caribbean Sea. Pop. 15,293. 
 
 Gualeguay, a town of Entre Rios, Argentina, 
 on the Gualeguay River, a sub-afaluent of the 
 Parand : there is a railway (7 miles) to Puerto 
 Ruiz at its mouth. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 GualeguaycM, a town of Entre Rios, Argen- 
 tina, on the Gualeguaychii River, which enters 
 the Uruguay 11 miles below, with a great beef- 
 preserving factory. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Guanabacoa, a town of Cuba, 5 miles E. of 
 Havana. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Guanajuato {Gwanaliwa'td), an inland state of 
 Mexico, with an area of 12,500 sq. m., and a pop. 
 of over 1,100,000. The capital, Guanajuato, is 
 a mining-town curiously situated on a deep 
 ravine, traversed by a mountain-torrent. The 
 public buildings include a large government 
 palace, a mint, cathedral, public granary, &c. 
 The electric light and telephones have been intro- 
 duced. There are amalgamation works, blanket- 
 factories, and cotton-printing works. Pop. 
 52,112. 
 
 Guanare, capital of the state of Zamora, in 
 Venezuela, on the river Guanare. Pop. 10,390. 
 
 Guapor6, a head-stream of the Madeira (q.v.). 
 
 Guardafui, Cape, the most eastern point of 
 the African continent, and the extremity of the 
 Somali coimtry. It is in 11* 50' N. lat. and 51° 
 14' E. long. 
 
 Guardbridge, a Fife village, 4 miles WNW. of 
 St Andrews. Pop. 724, 
 
 Guastalla, a town of Italy, on the Po, 19 miles 
 NB. of Parma. A bishop's seat (since 1828), it 
 has an old castle, and gave name in 1406 to a 
 countship, in 1621 to a duchy. Pop. 8648, 
 
 Guatemala (GtMtdmd'la), a republic of Central 
 America, bounded by Mexico, Belize, the Gulf 
 of Honduras, Honduras, San Salvador, and the 
 Pacific. Area, 46,600 sq. m., much of it wholly 
 unexplored. The greater part of Guatemala is 
 mountainous, the highlands having a mean eleva- 
 tion of 7000 feet above the sea ; but the surface 
 presents great variety, with extensive plateaus, 
 terraces, and upland valleys — the last notable for 
 their beauty, fertility, and favourable climate. 
 Of the volcanoes, several are active ; the most 
 noted is Fuego (12,075 feet). Earthquakes are 
 frequent; sulphur and other hot springs are 
 numerous. The climate, except in the low-lying 
 districts (where the temperature ranges from 70° 
 to 90°), may be described as perpetual spring, 
 and is generally healthy, but the hot coast-lands 
 on the Pacific are liable to yellow fever. Gold 
 and silver are worked, as also salt and saltpetre. 
 Other minerals are lead, iron, copper, coal, quick- 
 silver, marble, porphyry, suphur, zinc, gypsum, 
 &c. But the wealth of the country consists in its 
 rich soil, which, according to the altitude, yields 
 the products of every zone. The forests contain 
 over a hundred kinds of timber trees. Maize, 
 haricot beans, peas, potatoes, wheat, rice, grow 
 well in various districts. Other products are 
 coflee (the chief export), sugar, cacao, india- 
 rubber, tobacco, cotton, hemp, sarsaparilla, and 
 many medicinal plants, bananas, and other fruits. 
 The fauna includes the jaguar, puma, ocelot, 
 coyote, red-deer, tapir, peccary, armadillo, several 
 monkeys, iguanas, turtles, and snakes. The 
 birds are of great variety and beauty; the 
 national emblem is the superbly coloured quetzal. 
 The industries are chiefly confined to the manu- 
 facture of woven fabrics, pottery, saddlery, 
 chocolate, and the fiery aguardiente, the sale of 
 which is a government monopoly, yielding about 
 a fourth of the annual revenue. The develop- 
 ment of the country, however, is greatly ham- 
 pered by the absence of serviceable roads. The 
 average annual imports vary from six to eight 
 million dollars, the annual exports average about 
 fourteen million dollars. The imports, of which 
 the United States supplies about one-half and 
 Britain one-fourth, are chiefly specie, cotton, 
 woollen, and silk goods, wines and spirits, rail- 
 
 I 
 
GUATEMALA 
 
 318 
 
 GUIANA 
 
 way plant, and flour ; the princip^ exports are 
 coffee, rubber, sugar, fruits, and hides. 
 
 About a third of the people are said to be of 
 European descent, and the rest aborigines (Maya- 
 Quiches) and mixed races. In 1905 the total 
 pop. was 1,845,000. The capital, Guatemala (q.v.), 
 is the largest town. Tlie state religion is the 
 Roman Catholic. The executive is vested in a 
 president and council. The standing army con- 
 sists nominally of about 7000 men, the militia and 
 reserve of nearly 87,000. The revenue, 17,500,000 
 dollars, is supposed to cover the expenditure ; 
 but the finances are mismanaged, and there is a 
 foreign debt of about £1,838,672, and an internal 
 debt of 28,118,000 silver dollars. After three 
 centuries of Spanish rule, under which the vice- 
 royalty of Guatemala embraced all Centra] 
 America, independence was proclaimed in 1821 ; 
 and the present republic was founded in 1839. 
 There are about 400 miles of railway in operation, 
 and over 3100 miles of telegraphs. 
 
 Guatemala {Santiago de Guateitmla; also G^iate- 
 mala la Nueva), capital of the republic of Guate- 
 mala, and the largest and most important city 
 of Central America, stands on a wide plateau, 
 nearly 4900 feet above sea-level, and 72 miles by 
 rail NNE. of its port, San Jose. In the plaza 
 the metropolitan cathedral towers above the gov- 
 ernment buildings and the archbishop's palace. 
 Tramways and the electric light have been intro- 
 duced, and all the foreign trade of the republic 
 is concentrated here. Pop. 93,000. The present 
 city is the third capital of the name. The first, 
 now called Ciudad Viejo, has a pop. of some 3000 
 Indians. The second, Guatemala la Antigita (Old 
 Guatemala), 2^ miles NB. of the first and 21 
 miles WSW. of the present capital, was one of 
 the finest cities of America, with 60,000 inhabit- 
 ants ; in 1773 it was for the second time destroyed 
 by an earthquake, but among the noble ruins 
 a new city has arisen, sheltering a pop. of 14,000. 
 Guaxaca. See Oaxaca. 
 
 Guayaquil (Gwlakeel'), the chief commercial 
 city of Ecuador, lies in the fertile valley of the 
 Guayas, 30 miles above its mouth. It has a 
 custom-house, cathedral, town-hall, tramways, 
 water-works, a statue to Bolivar (1889), &c. The 
 manufactories include steam sawmills, foundries, 
 machine-shops, ice-factories, and a lager beer 
 brewery; and the place is noted for its straw 
 hats and hammocks. Ships drawing 18 feet can 
 come up to the breakwater, and below the town 
 are a wharf and dry-dock. A railway penetrates 
 the interior to Chimbo (64 miles). The annual 
 exports average £1,500,000, of which cocoa re- 
 presents nearly two-thirds ; other items are coffee, 
 ivory-nuts, rubber, hides, and specie. The town 
 was founded by Orellana in 1537, and removed to 
 its present site in 1693. Pop. 54,515. The Bay 
 of Guayaquil is the only Important bay on the 
 west coast of South America north of Patagonia. 
 Guaymas, a well-sheltered port of Mexico, on 
 the Gulf of California, the terminus of the Sonora 
 Railway. Pop. 6000. 
 Guayra. See Guaira. 
 
 Gubbio (anc. Iguvium or Eugubium), a decayed 
 city of Central Italy, on the SW. declivity of the 
 Apennines, 20 miles NNE. of Perugia. It has a 
 13th-century cathedral, several mediaeval palaces, 
 and remains of an ancient theatre. The celebrated 
 Eugubine Tables are preserved in the town-house. 
 Gubbio was noted about 1525 for its majolica 
 ware, still imitated in a few factories. Pop. 9540. 
 Guben, a manufacturing town in the Prussian 
 
 province of Brandenburg, at the head of the 
 navigable portion of the Neisse, 28 miles S. of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The principal staples are 
 hats and cloth. There are also wool-spinning, 
 tanning, machine factories, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 23,738 ; (1900) 33,122. 
 Guebwiller. See Gebweiler. 
 Guelderland (Geldem, Gelderland), a Dutch 
 province between the Zuider Zee on the NW. 
 and the Prussian dominions on the SE. It has 
 an area of 1957 sq. m. ; a population of 600,000, 
 two-thirds Protestants. The former duchy was 
 more extensive than the modern province, stretch- 
 ing southwards along the Meuse to beyond Venlo. 
 In 1814 it was finally divided between Holland 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Guelph, an inland port of entry in Ontario, 
 capital of Wellington county, on the river Speed, 
 45 miles W. by S. of Toronto by rail. It is the 
 seat of an agricultural college, and has several 
 flour-mills, woollen-mills, and manufactories of 
 sewing-machines, &c. Pop. 11,359. 
 
 Guernsey, the second in size of the Channel 
 Islands (q.v.). It is about 30 miles in circum- 
 ference, and 28 sq. m. in area. Pop. (1821) 
 20,339 ; (1851) 29,806 ; (1901) 40,777. The lowest 
 part is to the north (L'Ancresse), the highest 
 to the south (Haut Nez) being 349 feet above 
 sea-level. St Peter Port, the only town, has a 
 good harbour ; a large public school (1563), named 
 after Queen Elizabeth ; a fine church, dating 
 from the 13th century; two libraries; a good 
 public market ; &c. The climate is equable and 
 favourable to the growth of fruit, flowers, and 
 vegetables. Two-thirds of the island are under 
 cultivation, and great quantities of fruit and 
 vegetables are exported to England, as is also 
 a hard gray building granite. Guernsey is 127 
 miles from Land's End, 109 from Falmouth, 
 113 from Southampton, 69 from Start Point. 
 
 Guerre'ro, a southern state of Mexico, on the 
 Pacific, with an area of 22,863 sq. m. It is a 
 broken mountainous country, rich in minerals. 
 Population, 485,000. Capital, Chilpancingo (6500); 
 chief port, Acapulco (q.v.). 
 
 Guiana, or Guayana, in its widest significa- 
 tion is the region lying between the Orinoco and 
 the Amazon in South America, with no defini- 
 tive boundaries on the west. It consists of five 
 divisions, known respectively as Venezuelan, 
 British, Dutch, French, and Brazilian Guiana. 
 But Venezuelan and Brazilian Guiana being in- 
 corporated in those states, we have to describe 
 here only British, Dutch, and French Guiana. 
 These three colonies abut upon the Atlantic, in 
 the order named, between Venezuela on the north 
 and Brazil on the south. The physical confonna- 
 tion is practically the same in all three. Next 
 the Atlantic is a fringe of very fertile alluvial 
 soil, lying in many parts below the sea-level, 
 and generally inundated in the rainy seasons, 
 with mangrove swamps and mud-flats skirting 
 the coast. This alluvial zone, from 10 to 40 
 miles wide, contains virtually the only cultivated 
 territory in the three colonies. Beyond it the 
 contour rises by a series of terraces up to an 
 undulating savannah region 150 feet higher. 
 The third and innermost division consists of the 
 almost unexplored upland country, a plateau 
 region ridged with mountain-chains (which rise 
 in places to 3000 or 3500 feet), and everywhere 
 covered with a dense primeval forest. The rivera 
 are navigable only up to the line of the rapids and 
 falls ; communication is nevertheless principally 
 effected by the rivers and canals. The climate, 
 
GUIANA 
 
 319 
 
 GUILDFORD 
 
 as beseems a region lying between 1° and 8° N. 
 lat., is hot and moist, but on the whole toler- 
 ably uniform, though the thermometer ranges 
 from 95° to 70° F. The rainfall is heavy— 75 to 
 140 inches in the year. Vegetation is of extra- 
 ordinary richness and luxuriance — many kinds 
 of timber, gums, balsams, wax, bark, fibre, oil, 
 nuts, juices, drugs, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, 
 cinchona, tonka beans, arnotto, angelica, cotton, 
 tobacco, food-plants, fruits, and a prodigious 
 quantity of creepers, ferns, tree-ferns, and 
 flowers, including orchids. The most conspicu- 
 ous branch of the fauna is the birds, includ- 
 ing the stink-bird (a vulture), eagles, owls, 
 humming-birds, orioles, toucans, and parrots. 
 Mammals are represented by jaguars, tiger cats, 
 peccaries, tapirs, deer, sloths, armadillos, ant- 
 eaters, agoutis, capybaras, and manatees. The 
 native Indians, who still for the most part 
 lead a ' wild ' life in the forests, constitute 
 several different tribes, and seem to belong to 
 two distinct stocks, indigenous tribes and Caribs. 
 The first Europeans to explore the coast of 
 Guiana seem to have been the Spaniards Alonzo 
 de Ojeda in 1499 and Vicente Pinzon in 1500. 
 Apart from semi-buccaneering expeditions and 
 landings, the first successful colonisation of 
 Guiana seems to have been made by the Dutch, 
 on the Essequibo, shortly before 1613. The 
 English got firm footing at Surinam in 1650, 
 and the French on the Kourou and Oyapock in 
 1664. Two years later the English seized both 
 French and Dutch Guiana, but restored them in 
 1667, and at the same time handed over Surinam 
 to the Netherlands in exchange for New Amster- 
 dam— i.e. New York. During slave-holding times 
 sugar-planting brought the colonies some degree 
 of prosperity ; but it was very sensibly crippled 
 by the abolition of slavery, and the cultivation 
 of beet-root for sugar caused a serious crisis in 
 Guiana cane-planting. Gold-mining is a pro- 
 gressive industry. 
 
 British Guiana, or Demerara, with a coast- 
 line of 320 miles, is separated from Dutch Guiana 
 on the E. by the river Corentyn ; on the S. and 
 W., next Brazil and Veiiezuela resi)ectively, the 
 boundaries are disputed. Estimated area, 109,000 
 sq. m. The western partof the colony is diversified 
 by chains of the Pacaraima or Parima mountain- 
 system, which rise to some 8000 or 9000 feet in 
 the table-topped Roraima (q.v.). The more im- 
 portant rivers are the Corentyn, Berbice, Deme- 
 rara, Essequibo, all flowing north into the 
 Atlantic ; and the Takutu, which feeds a tribu- 
 tary of the Amazon. The exports embrace sugar, 
 rum, molasses, timber, shingles, charcoal, cocoa- 
 nuts, balata and other gums, and gold. The total 
 value of the exports, which go principally to the 
 United Kingdom, United States, and West Indies, 
 fell from £3,208,000 in 1882 to £1,753,835 in 1903. 
 The imports (mostly from the United Kingdom), 
 which consist chiefly of flour, rice, dried fish, 
 butter, pork, and beef, average from £1,300,000 
 to £1,650,000. In 1881 the pop. was 252,535, in 
 1901, 294,000, and included Europeans, Creoles, 
 negroes, coolies from India, Chinese, natives of 
 Madeira and the Azores, and some 8000 aboriginal 
 Indians. Most of the plantation work is done 
 by immigrant coolies from British India and by 
 Chinese. The colony is divided into three counties, 
 Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo. The ports are 
 Georgetown (q.v.), the capital, and New Amster- 
 dam. The administration is in the hands of the 
 governor, appointed by the crown, and two legis- 
 lative councils. The colony possesses one line of 
 railway, from Georgetown to Mahaica (21 miles 
 
 L 
 
 long), telegraphic communication with Europe 
 and the United States, and a good system of 
 postage. 
 
 Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, with an area of 
 46,058 sq. m., and a coast-line of 240 miles, has 
 for its boundary on the west the river Corentyn, 
 and on the east the Maroni or Marowijn, which 
 separates it from French Guiana — some parts on 
 the upper Maroni being claimed both by Dutch 
 and French. Other rivers are the Surinam, 
 Saramacca, Coppename, and Nickerie. The 
 greater part of the surface is covered with unex- 
 plored primeval forest, scarcely more than 210 
 sq. m. of the entire area being cultivated. Sugar, 
 cocoa, gold, rum, molasses, bananas, rice, and 
 corn are the staple productions. The total 
 annual value of the exports is from £350,000 to 
 £450,000, of the imports from £500,000 to £600,000. 
 Trade is carried on principally with Holland, 
 the United States, Britain and her dependen- 
 cies. The capital is Paramaribo (q.v.). The 
 pop., which is very heterogeneous, in 1905 num- 
 bered about 75,000, of whom nearly one-half live at 
 Paramaribo. Included in the total are about 
 4000 Bush Negroes (negroes who escaped during 
 slavery times— i.e. before 1863), and 6000 Indians. 
 
 French Guiana, or Cayenne, is separated 
 from Dutch Guiana on the west by the Maroni, 
 from Brazil by the Tumuc-Humac Mountains and 
 the Oyapock, although the French claim all the 
 coastal districts as far south as the Amazon. 
 Taking the Oyapock as provisional boundary, 
 the area of the colony is about 31,000 sq. m., 
 whilst the length of coast-line is about 240 miles ; 
 the area, as ofl[icially given, is 46,850 sq. m. 
 Cayenne (q.v.), the capital of the colony, stands 
 on a rocky promontory. The only considerable 
 exports are cocoa, arnotto (roucou), and gold. 
 Tlie total exports and imports have an annual 
 value of about £400,000, the exports repre- 
 senting but a small part of that sum. The 
 pop. of the entire colony only amounts to about 
 35,000. From 1853 to 1864 an attempt was made 
 to found penal colonies in French Guiana, all of 
 which proved disastrous, partly owing to the un- 
 healthiness of the climate, and partly to the harsh 
 and ill-devised regulations. The immigrant 
 criminals now come (since 1864) exclusively from 
 Africa (Arabs and negroes) and Asia (AnnamitesX 
 Slavery was abolished in 1848. 
 
 See Raleigh's Discovery of Guiava (1595 ; ed. 
 Schomburgk, 1848) ; for British Guiana, various 
 works by Schomburgk (1840-48), Brete (1868), 
 B. im Thurn (1883), and Bronkhurst (1883) ; for 
 Dutch Guiana, Palgrave (1876); and for French 
 Guiana, French works by Mourc6 (1874), and 
 Ribaut (1882). 
 
 Guienne, an old French province, comprehend- 
 ing the present deps. of Gironde, Lot, Dordogne, 
 Aveyron, with portions of Tarn-et-Garonne and 
 Lot-et-Garonne. With Gascony it formed Aqui- 
 tania, of which name Guienne is a corruption, 
 
 Guildford, the county town of Surrey, lies in a 
 break of the chalk-ridge of the North Downs, on 
 the navigable Wey, 30 miles SW. of London. In 
 Cobbett's phrase a 'happy-looking' place, it 
 wears an air of order and cleanliness, and mainly 
 consists of one street, running up the steep east 
 side of the river, which here is crossed by an old 
 five-arch bridge. Its houses are still rich in 
 quaint gables, projecting fronts, and long latticed 
 windows. The square Norman keep of its royal 
 castle (c. 1150) is 70 feet high with walls 10 feet 
 thick ; on St Catharine's Hill is a ruined chapel 
 (1313); Trinity Hospital, founded in 1619 by 
 
GUIMARAES 
 
 320 
 
 GWALIOR 
 
 Archbishop Abbot for twelve brethren and eight 
 sisters, is a picturesque red-brick pile ; and other 
 buildings are the churches of St Nicholas, St 
 Mary, and the Holy Trinity, the guildhall (1687), 
 county hall (1862), county hospital (1868), and 
 grammar-school (1509-50). A railway junction 
 of some importance, Guildford now is chiefly 
 famous for its grain market. From Edward I.'s 
 reign till 1867 it returned two members to parlia- 
 ment, then till 1885 one. Since 1874 it has been 
 the seat of a bishopric suffragan to Winchester. 
 Pop. (1851) 6740; (1901) 15,937. Bequeathed in 
 901 by Alfred the Great to his nephew Ethel wald, 
 Guildford in 1036 was the scene of the decimation 
 by King Harold's men of the Norman followers 
 of Alfred the Atheling— a crime that led up to 
 the Norman conquest. The Dauphin Louis took 
 the castle in 1216 ; and in 1685 Monmouth was 
 temporarily confined in Trinity Hospital, 
 
 Guimaraes, a town of Portugal, on the Ave, 12 
 miles SE. of Braga. Two noted hot sulphur- 
 springs are in the vicinity. Pop, 8805. 
 
 Guinea, the name of a large section of the west 
 coast of Africa, which first came into general use 
 in the 15th century, and is generally applied to 
 the stretch of coast-lands extending from the 
 mouth of the Senegal, in about 14° N. lat., to Cape 
 Negro, in 16° S. lat. By conventional usage it is 
 further divided into two parts. Upper and Lower 
 Guinea, the dividing line being taken variously 
 as the equator, the Gaboon, the Ogoway. The 
 coast-line is throughout tolerably uniform, and 
 everywhere flat, with numerous shallow lagoons 
 separated from the ocean by narrow spits of 
 sand, lying parallel to the coast. Proceeding in- 
 land, the country rises to the central plateau of 
 the continent by a series of broad terrace-like 
 steps, down which the longer rivers are generally 
 precipitated in cataracts and rapids. The Ivory 
 Coast, the Gold Coast, the Slave Coast, are names 
 for portions of the coast between Liberia and the 
 Niger mouths. Some part of Guinea belongs to 
 native states and some to the Liberian republic ; 
 most of it is now cut up into dependencies of 
 Britain, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, in 
 somewhat inconvenient fragments. The Genoese 
 claim to have been the first Europeans to reach 
 (in 1291) the coasts of Guinea. They were, how- 
 ever, first regularly visited, from 1364 onwards, 
 by merchant adventurers from Rouen and Dieppe, 
 and first colonised in 1481 by the Portuguese, 
 under Prince Henry the Navigator. 
 
 Guinea, Gulf of, a portion of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, forming the huge angle of the West African 
 coast from Cape Palnias to Cape Lopez. 
 
 Guinegate, or Enguinkgatte, a historical vil- 
 lage in tlie French department of Pas-de-Calais, 
 where the French were twice defeated— (1) on 
 17th August 1479 by Maximilian I. of Austria ; 
 (2) on 16th August 1513 by Henry VIII. and the 
 Emperor Maximilian. This battle was called the 
 Battle of the Spurs — the French knights having 
 made more use of their spurs than of their swords. 
 
 Guingamp, a town in the French dep. of Cotes- 
 du-Nord, on the Trieux, 74 miles E. of Brest, the 
 capital formerly of Penthievre duchy. The name 
 gave rise to the word Gingham. Pop. 7181. 
 
 Guipuzco'a, the smallest but the most densely 
 peopled of the Spanish Basque provinces on the 
 Bay of Biscay. The capital is San Sebastian. 
 Area, 728 sq. m, ; pop. near 200,000. 
 
 Gulsborough, a market-town in the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 9 miles ESE. of Middles- 
 borough, lies at the foot of the Cleveland Hills, 
 
 in the midst of the iron-mining district. The 
 earliest alum-works in England were established 
 here about 1600. Here too is a ruined priory 
 built in 1119 by Robert de Brus, and at the 
 Reformation one of the wealthiest in the kingdom. 
 Pop. (1851) 2062 ; (1881) 6616 ; (1901) 5645. 
 
 Guise, a town in the French dep. of Aisne, on 
 the Oise, 25 miles by rail ENE. of St Quentin. 
 From its ruined castle the famous Dukes of Guise 
 derived their title. The ironworks here are con- 
 ducted on a profit-sharing scheme. Population, 
 under 10,000. 
 
 Gujarat, or Gdzerat, the northern maritime 
 province of Bombay, with an area of 10,296 sq, m,, 
 and a pop. just over 4,000,000. Within its limits 
 lie the British districts of Surat, Broach, Kaira, 
 Pancli Mahals, and Ahmedabad. 
 
 Gujranwala, a town of the Punjab, 40 miles 
 N. of Lahore by rail. Pop. 29,785. 
 
 Gujrat, or Guzerat, a town of the Punjab, 
 left (by a change in the river's course) a few 
 miles north of the Chenab's present bed, but a 
 place of some military and political importance. 
 Here in 1849 a decisive battle finally broke the 
 Sikh power, and brought the whole Punjab under 
 British rule. Pop. 18,743. 
 
 Gulf Stream, the best known, the best defined, 
 and the most remarkable of all the ocean currents. 
 It derives its name from the Gulf of Mexico, out 
 of which, as a great current of warm water, it 
 flows through the Strait of Florida, along the 
 eastern coast of the United States of America, 
 and is then deflected near the banks of Newfound- 
 land diagonally across the Atlantic. This great 
 body of warm water indirectly modifies the 
 climate of western Europe, and it is possible to 
 trace its effects as far as the coasts of Spitz- 
 bergen and Nova Zembla. 
 
 Gullane, a Haddingtonshire coast-village, with 
 golf-links, 4 miles NW. of Drem Junction. 
 
 Gumbinnen, a town of East Prussia, 72 miles 
 E. of Konigsberg. Dating from 1724, it owes 
 its prosperity to the settlement here in 1732 of 
 many Protestant Salzburgers. Pop. 14,206. 
 
 Gumri. See Alexandropol. 
 
 Gumti, a navigable river of India, rises in the 
 North-western Provinces, and winds nearly 500 
 miles south-eastward to the Ganges, 56 miles 
 below Jaunpur. 
 
 Gundamuk. See Gandamak. 
 
 Gunfleet, an Essex sandbank, with a light- 
 house, 12 miles S. of Harwich. 
 
 Giins (Magyar Koszeg), a free town of Hungary, 
 57 miles SSE. of Vienna. Pop. 7905. 
 
 Guntur', a town of Madras, 46 miles WNW. of 
 Masulipatam. Pop. 30,359. 
 
 Gurgaon, a district of the Punjab, in the 
 division of Delhi, with an area of 1984 sq. m. 
 Pop. 768,929. The commercial centre is Rewari; 
 the civil headquarters is Gurgaon (pop. 5000X 
 •21 miles SW. of Delhi by rail., 
 
 GurhwaL See Garhwal. 
 
 Giistrow, a town of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 70 
 miles E. by S. of Liibeck, with castle (1565), old 
 church, breweries, iron-foundries, a sugar-factory, 
 &c. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Guthrie, capital of Oklahoma, U.S., 32 miles N. 
 of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1890) 5333 ; (1900) 10,006. 
 
 Guzerat. See Gujarat. 
 
 Gwalior, a native state of Central India, the 
 dominions of the Mahiatta Maharajah Sindia, 
 
GWEEDORE 321 
 
 HADDINGTONSHIRE 
 
 consists of several detached districts. Area, 19,067 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 2,187,612, mainly Hindus. 
 Lying partly in the basin of the Jumna and 
 partly in that of the Nerbudda, it divides its 
 drainage between the Bay of Bengal and the 
 Arabian Sea. The principal export is opium. 
 Though Gwalior is a Mahratta principality, yet 
 the Mahrattas do not form any considerable pro- 
 portion of the people. Since 1803 the country 
 has been under British protection ; and during the 
 troubles of 1857 the young Maharajah remained 
 faithful to the British government, although 
 deserted by his troops.— Gwalior, the capital, 
 stands 65 miles S. of Agra by railway. Its 
 nucleus is an isolated rock 340 feet high, per- 
 pendicular on all sides; it measures 1^ mile by 
 300 yards, and its citadel (said to date from the 
 8th century) is virtually impregnable against 
 any native force. Along the eastern base of 
 this eminence lies the old town of Gwalior; 
 and to the south-west there extends for several 
 miles the new town called Lashkar, wliere the 
 Maharajah resides. 
 
 Gweedore, a Donegal hamlet, 3 miles from the 
 we.st coast. 
 
 Gwelo, a townsliip of Soutliern Rhodesia, on 
 the railway from Bulawayo to Salisbury, 110 miles 
 NE. of the former. It is the centre of a gold- 
 nwiiing district, with a fully equipped hospital, 
 &c. Top. 1500. 
 
 Gyantse, a fortified town of Tibet, 110 miles SW. 
 of Lhasa, with a sacred monastery. The British 
 expedition under Macdonald in 1904 entered it. 
 
 Gyarmat-Balassa, a town of Hungary, 40 milea 
 N. by E. of Pesth. Pop. 6788. 
 
 Gympie, a town of Queensland, 61 miles S. of 
 Maryborough, with gold-reefs. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Gyoma, a town of Hungary, on the Koros, 89 
 miles SE. of Pesth by rail. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Gyongyos, a town of Hungary, with mineral 
 baths, 59 miles by rail NE. of Pesth. Pop. 15,896. 
 
 Gyula, a town of Hungary, 35 miles N. of Arad, 
 It has a monument to the composer Erkel. Pop. 
 22.100. 
 
 AARLEM, a town of Holland, 10 miles 
 W. of Amsterdam, is intersected, like 
 most Dutch towns, with canals and 
 avenues of trees. Of its churches the 
 principal is the Great or St IBavon's, 
 
 built in the 15th century, one of the 
 churches in Holland, and specially noted for" its 
 lofty tower and its organ (1738). Before the 
 church stands a statue of Laurens Coster, to 
 whom his countrymen ascribe the invention of 
 printing. The town-hall, formerly the residence 
 of the Counts of Holland, has portraits by Franz 
 Hals. The Teyler Institution promotes the study 
 of theology, natural science, and the fine arts. 
 Although Haarlem is no longer celebrated, as it 
 was in the 17th century, for its commerce, it still 
 weaves cotton, casts type, bleaches linen, and 
 trades largely in tulips, hyacinths, &c. It under- 
 went a seven months' siege (1572-73) from the 
 Spaniards, in which the citizens displayed the 
 noblest heroism. In the wood of Haarlem stands 
 the 'pavilion' containing the colonial and in- 
 dustrial museums, and a collection of modem 
 pictures. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Haarlem Lake, now drained, lay between 
 Haarlem, Leyden, and Amsterdam, and com- 
 municated with the Zuider Zee by the Y. 
 Originally it embraced four small lakes, Avhich, 
 in consequence of several irruptions of the 
 sea, eventually merged into one sheet of water, 
 covering an area of about 70 sq. m., and not above 
 15 feet deep. The lake, however, frequently rose 
 during storms to an alarming height, necessitating 
 a large annual outlay in keeping the dams and 
 sluices in repair. In consequence of the damage 
 done to Amsterdam and Leyden by two over- 
 flows of the lake in 1836, the government set 
 about draining it (1839-52). The enterprise cost 
 £1,080,000, but the sale of the lands reduced 
 this by £780,000. 
 
 Habble's Howe, the scene of Allan Ramsay's 
 Gentle Shepherd, 4^ miles WSW. of Penicuik. 
 
 Hackensack, the capital of Bergen county, 
 New Jersey, on the Hackensack River, 12 miles 
 by rail N. of Jersey City. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Hacketstown, a village of Carlow, 7 miles 
 NW. of Tinahely station. Pop. 508. 
 
 Hackney, a parish of Middlesex, now forming 
 )ne of the metropolitan boroughs of London. 
 
 I 
 
 In its earlier and fashionable days it is said to 
 have given its name to hackney-coaches. Pop. 
 of borough (1901) 219,272; of parliamentary 
 borough, which returns three members, 253,291. 
 Hadden Rig, a Roxburghshire ridge (541 feet), 
 5 miles ENE. of Kelso. It was the scene in 1540 
 of an English defeat. 
 
 Haddington, the county town of Haddington- 
 shire, lies at the southern base of the Garleton 
 Hills, on the Tyne, 17 miles E. of Edinburgh. 
 Its Abbey Church, the Lucerna Laudonice or 
 ' Lamp of Lothian,' is a cruciform Decorated red 
 sandstone pile, with a central tower 90 feet high, 
 and ruinous all but the nave, which serves as the 
 parish church (restored 1892). Then there are 
 the county buildings (1833), the large corn 
 exchange (1854), the town-hall (1748-1831), the 
 county lunatic asylum (1866), and a school, the 
 Knox Memorial Institute (1880). Haddington's 
 worthies have been Knox, John Brown and Samuel 
 his grandson, Samuel Smiles, and Jane Welsh 
 Carlyle, whilst its chief memories have been 
 perils by flood and Are, and the great siege of 
 the English by the Scotch in 1549. An ancient 
 royal burgh, it united till 1885 with North 
 Berwick, Dunbar, Jedburgh, and Lauder to 
 return one member to parliament. Pop. (1831) 
 3857 ; (1881) 4043 ; (1901) 3993. See works by 
 James Miller (1844) and John Martine (1883). 
 
 Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian, a mari- 
 time county of Scotland, washed on the north 
 for 32 miles by the German Ocean and the Firth 
 of Forth. Its utmost length is 26 miles, its 
 utmost breadth 19, and its area 280 sq. m. In 
 the south are the Lammermuir Hills, culminating 
 in Lammer Law (1733 feet) ; whilst isolated 
 heights are North Berwick Law (612), Traprain 
 or Dumpender Law (724), and the Garleton Hills 
 (594), on which stands a conspicuous column, 
 erected in 1824 to the fourth Earl of Hopetoun. 
 The Tyne flows 16 nules north-eastward through 
 the county. The rocks yield coal, iron, and lime- 
 stone, the coal having been mined near Tranent 
 since the 13th century. Haddingtonshire has 
 for two hundred years enjoyed high agricultural 
 fame, having been the first Scottish county to 
 adopt the sowing of turnips in drills (1734), the 
 thrashing-machine (1787), and the steam-plough 
 (1862). About 64 per cent, of the entire area 13 
 
HADDO HOUSE 
 
 322 
 
 HAINAULT 
 
 in cultivation, and more than one-seventeenth is 
 under wood. The county returns one member 
 to parliament. Its towns are Haddington, Dun- 
 bar, North Berwick, Prestonpans, Tranent, and 
 East Linton ; and under these and the Bass Rock 
 are noticed the chief events in its history. The 
 antiquities include the ruined castles of Dirleton 
 and Tantallou. Pop. (1841) 35,886 ; (1881) 38,502 ; 
 (1901) 38,665. See works by D. Croal (3d ed. 1885) 
 and J. Small (1883). 
 
 Haddo House, the seat of the Earl of Aber- 
 deen, in Aberdeenshire, 6^ miles WNW. of Ellon. 
 Haddon Hall, a splendid old baronial mansion, 
 In Derbyshire, on the Wye, 2 miles SE. of Bake- 
 well, and 23 NNW. of Derby. It was the seat 
 successively of Avenells, Vernons, and the Rut- 
 land family. See works by Cattermole (1846-67), 
 S. C. Hall (1871), and W. E. Cooke (1892). 
 
 Hadersleben, or Haderslev, a town of Sles- 
 wick-Holstein, 32 miles N. of Flensborg, on a 
 narrow arm of the Little Belt. Pop. 9635. 
 
 Hadlelgh, (1) a quaint old market-town of 
 Suffolk, on the Bret, 9^ miles (12^ by a branch- 
 line) W. of Ipswich. Its chief buildings are the 
 brick Rectory Tower (1495) and the noble parish 
 church, with a spire 135 feet high. Formerly, 
 from 1331, an important seat of the cloth-trade, 
 Hadleigh was the scene of the death of the 
 Danish king Guthrum (889), of the martyrdom of 
 Dr Rowland Taylor (1555), and of the ' great con- 
 ference ' (1833) out of which grew the ' Tracts for 
 the Times.' Woolner, the sculptor was a native. 
 Pop. of urban district, 3250.— (2) An Essex 
 parish, near the N. shore of the Thames estuary, 
 2 miles NE. of Benfleet station, and 37 E. of 
 London. It has a ruined castle (1231), and in 
 1892 became tlie seat of the Salvation Army 
 farm-colony. Pop. 1350. 
 
 Hadramaut, the coast-region of South Arabia 
 from Aden to Cape Ras-al-Hadd ; more properly 
 the plateau region lying between 48° and 51° E. 
 long. Pop. 450,000. Towns, Saiun and Terim. 
 
 Hadrian's Wall, a fort-protected stone wall, 
 with a ditch on its north side, and on its south 
 side a vallum or series of ramparts, between the 
 estuary of the Tyne and the Solway Firth. 
 Hadrian is now generally believed to have been 
 the builder of the whole structure (c. 119 a.d.). 
 and Severus to have repaired it nearly a century 
 later. In Northumberland the remains of it are 
 considerable, the wall being still in two places 
 9 feet high. See works by Collingwood Bruce 
 (1851-85) and G. Neilson (1891). 
 Hsemus, Mount. See Balkan. 
 HafF, a Danish word meaning ' sea," and used 
 to designate three lagoons along the Prussian 
 shore of the Baltic— the Stettiner or Pommersches 
 Haff, Frisches Haff, and Kurisches Haff. 
 
 Hagen (Hdgen), a town of Prussia, in the 
 Ruhr coal-district of Westphalia, 12 miles NE. 
 of Elberfeld-Barmen. It manufactures iron, steel, 
 and tin goods, cotton, cloth, leather, paper, beer, 
 and tobacco. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Hagenau (Hdgenow), a town of Alsace-Lor- 
 raine, 21 miles by rail N. by B. of Strasburg. 
 It manufactures porcelain stoves, and has cotton 
 and woollen spinning. Pop. 18,460. 
 
 Hagerstown, capital of Washington county, 
 Maryland, on Antietam Creek, 85 miles WNW. of 
 Baltimore by rail. It has machine-shops, flour- 
 mills, and manufactories of furniture and other 
 wooden wares, fertilisers, farming implements, 
 ^nd cigars. Pop. (1880) 6627 ; (1900) 13,590. 
 
 Hague, The (Dutch 's Gravenhage, ' the count's 
 hedge '), the capital of the Netherlands, 2 miles 
 from the North Sea and 15 NNW. of Rotterdam. 
 It is intersected by canals and shady avenues of 
 lime-trees, and has many fine public buildings 
 and private houses. In the centre of it is the 
 Vijver, or Fish-pond, to the south of which 
 stands the old castle of the Counts of Holland, 
 where the Dutch parliament sits. In its gate- 
 tower the brothers De Witt were confined till 
 dragged thence and torn to pieces by the popu- 
 lace (1072). The picture-gallery has a splendid 
 collection of works by native painters (Paul 
 Potter's 'Buir and Rembrandt's 'Lesson in 
 Anatomy ') ; and there are tlie royal library, with 
 200,000 volumes, 4000 MSS., &c. ; the municipal 
 and other museums ; the town-house ; and the 
 royal palaces. Amongst the numerous statues 
 are tho.se of William I. (two in number), William 
 II., Spinoza, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and the 
 monument which commemorates the deliverance 
 from the French. Close to the town is the 
 beautiful pleasure-park called ' The Wood ' (Bosch), 
 in which stands a royal residence (1647) with the 
 magnificent so-called ' Orange Hall.' Tlie great 
 Peace Conference was lield here in 1899; The 
 Hague is the seat of the resulting arbitration 
 courts, for which Mr Carnegie provided per- 
 manent buildings. (See also Scheveningen, 
 RvswicK.) Industries are iron-founding, copper 
 and lead smelting, cannon-founding, printing, fur- 
 niture and carriage making, and the manufacture 
 of gold and silver lace. Pop. (1875) 100,254; 
 (1903) 229,840. From 1250 a hunting-lodge of 
 the Counts of Holland, The Hague in 1527 became 
 the seat of the supreme court in Holland, in 1584 
 the place of assembly of the States of Holland 
 and of the States-general ; and it was also the 
 residence of the stadtholders. 
 
 Haidarabad. See Hyderabad. 
 
 Haifa, a seaport of Syria, at the foot of Mount 
 Carniel ; pop. 6000. A railway to Damascus was 
 undertaken in 1892. A little NW. is a settle- 
 ment (1869) of the Wurtemberg ' Society of the 
 Temple,' now a flourishing agricultural colony of 
 300 persons. Here Laurence Oliphant settled in 
 1882. See his Haifa (1887). 
 
 Halkh, the native name of Armenia (q.v.). 
 
 Halleybury College, 2 miles SE. of Hertford, 
 was erected in 1809 as a cadets' training-college, 
 by the East India Company, and in 1862, four 
 years after the transference of the Company's 
 powers to the crown, was reopened as a public 
 school for 600 boys. See works by Higgen (1887) 
 and Monier Williams (1894). 
 
 Hailsham, a market-town of Sussex, 11 miles 
 E. by S. of Lewes. Pop. of parish, 4200. 
 
 Hainan, an island of China, the southernmost 
 land of the empire, lying between the Gulf of 
 Tongking and the China Sea, and 15 miles 8. 
 from the mainland. It measures 150 miles (fVom 
 SW. to NE.) by 100. The centre and south of 
 the island are mountainous. The island is purely 
 agricultural. The capital is Kiung-chow (pop. 
 40,000), whose port. Hoi-how (15,000), 3 miles 
 distant, has been open to foreign trade since 
 1876. Pop. 2,500,000, the plains being inhabited 
 by Chinese (1,500,000), the interior by the abo- 
 riginal Les. Eight to ten thousand Chinese emi- 
 grants leave Kiung-Chow every year for Singapore 
 and Bang-kok. Gold exists, the island is subject 
 to earthquakes and typhoons. See B. C. Henry's 
 Ling-Nam (1886). 
 
 Haiuault (formerly spelt in a perplexjng vwiet 
 
 1 
 
HAINBURG 
 
 323 
 
 HALIFAX 
 
 of ways from Haysneaultx to Hino; pron. Hay- 
 no ; Ger. Hennegau), a southern province of Bel- 
 gium, Area, 1437 sq. m. ; population, 1,200,000, 
 principally Walloons. The surface consists In the 
 north and west of flat and fruitful plains ; the 
 south is occupied by spurs of the Forest of Ar- 
 dennes. The principal rivers are the Haine— from 
 which the province has its name — the Scheldt, the 
 Dender, and the Sarabre, the last a tributary of 
 the Meuse. Toward the south and south-east, 
 in the neighbourhood of Mons and Charleroi, are 
 very extensive coalfields. Iron is also produced. 
 The capital is Mons. From tlie 9th century 
 Hainault was a countship, embracing both 
 French and Belgian Hainault. French Hainault 
 (now the dep. of Nord) was separated in 1659. 
 For Hainault Forest, see Eppino. 
 
 Hainburg, a walled town of Austria, on the 
 Danube, 27 miles ESE. of Vienna. Identified 
 with the ancient Carnuntum, it figures in the 
 Nibelungenlied. Pop. 6857. 
 
 Hainichen, a Saxon town, the centre of the 
 German flannel manufacture, 13 miles NE. of 
 Chemnitz. Pop. 8053. 
 
 Haiti. See Hayti. 
 
 Hajipur, a river-port of Bengal, on the Gandak, 
 just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite 
 Patna. Pop. 21,387. 
 
 Hakodate, the chief port of Yezo in Japan, on 
 a peninsula in the Strait of Tsugaru, is built 
 partly on the inner slope of the Gibraltar-like 
 hill (1200 feet) which dominates the strait, partly 
 on the low sandy peninsula connecting the hill 
 with the main island. It has a magnificent har- 
 bour, is (since 1859) one of the open ports of 
 Japan, and exports seaweed, sulphur, b6che-de- 
 mer, salted salmon, &c. Pop. 85,650. 
 
 Hal, a town in South Brabant, 9 miles by rail 
 SSW. from Brussels. Pop. 12,290. 
 
 Halas, a town of Hungary, 82 miles by rail 
 SSE. of Biidapest. Pop. 19,860. 
 
 Halberstadt, a quaint old town of Prussian 
 Saxony, in a fertile plain extending from the 
 north foot of the Harz Mountains, 25 miles SW. 
 of Magdeburg. The cathedral, rich in stained 
 glass, was erected in the 13th and 14th centuries. 
 Other buildings are the church of Our Lady 
 (1146); the town-house (1360-81), before it a 
 Roland pillar; and the Peterhof, fornierly the 
 bishop's palace. The chief industries are gloves, 
 cigars, machines, sugar, leather, paper, spirits, 
 &c., besides large railway workshops. Halber- 
 stadt dates from 820, and was given to Branden- 
 burg in 1648. Pop. 44,200. 
 
 Haleb. See Aleppo, 
 
 Halesowen, a market-town of Worcestershire, 
 m the river Stour, 7^ miles WSW. of Birming- 
 tiam. Its people are nail-makers and manu- 
 facturers of small ironwares. One mile to the 
 iouth-east lie the ruins of the Premonstratensian 
 ibbey founded by King John. Shenstone (1714- 
 13), a native of the place, carried on his land- 
 cape-gardening at the Leasowes, a mile distant. 
 
 lis tomb is in the church. Pop. 4060. 
 
 Halesworth, a Suffolk town, on the Blythe, 9 
 
 liles SSW. of Beccles. Pop. 2250. 
 
 Halicarnassus. See Budrun, 
 
 Halicz, a town in Austrian Galicia, on the 
 
 •niester, 69 miles SSE. of Lemberg by rail. On 
 neighbouring hill is the ruined 12th-century 
 
 wtle of the rulers of the former principality 
 
 f Halicz. From this word the name Galicia is 
 
 BTived. Pop. 3464. 
 
 Halidon Hill, an eminence in Northumber- 
 land, 2 miles NW. of Berwick, overlooking the 
 Tweed, was the scene of a bloody defeat of the 
 Scots by the English, 19th July 1338. 
 
 Halifax, a thriving market-town, municipal, 
 parliamentary, and county borough, in the West 
 Riding of Yoi"kshire, is situated on the river 
 Hebble, a feeder of the Calder, on the slope of 
 an eminence, and is almost wholly surrounded 
 by hills. It is 43 miles SW. of York, and 194 
 miles NNW. of London. Its name is probably 
 derived from the four ways travelled by pilgrims 
 converging towards the parish church, called 
 Holy Ways ; fax (as in Carfax) being Norman- 
 French for ' forks ' or ways. Its ample supply of 
 water-power and of coal, its facilities for trans- 
 port both by water and by leading lines of rail- 
 way, and its position in proximity to many of 
 the great towns of the north of England, con- 
 tribute materially to its manufacturing and com- 
 mercial importance, which dates from the settle- 
 ment here of Flemish artisans in the reign of 
 Henry VII. The parish church of St John, 
 restored in 1879, is a fine specimen of Perpen- 
 dicular Gothic ; All Souls (1861), by Sir G. G. 
 Scott, is one of the best and most elaborate of 
 all his churches. The Congregational 'Square 
 Church' was erected in 1855. The town-hall, 
 opened by the Prince of Wales in 1863, is a 
 very ornate Renaissance edifice, from designs by 
 Sir Charles Barry ; the new post-oflice was 
 opened in 1887. Another important building is 
 the Piece Hall, erected in 1779 for the sale of 
 manufactured goods ; it was presented to the 
 corporation in 1868, and is now used as a Market 
 Hall. Besides the Heath grammar-school (1585), 
 at which Sterne was educated, and the Blue-coat 
 School, there is the Crossley and Porter Orphan 
 Home and School, built by the Crossley brothers, 
 with an endowment of £135,894. Halifax has 
 five parks— Savile, Shrogg's, Claremont, Akroyd, 
 with free library, museum, and art-gallery, and 
 the People's Park. The last, the gift of the late 
 Sir F, Crossley in 1857, was laid out by Sir 
 Joseph Paxton. There are two theatres (one 
 dating from 1888). The Public Libraries Act 
 was early adopted ; there are also a Mechanics' 
 Institute and the Dean Clough Institute erected 
 by the Crossleys for their work-people. The 
 tramways are on the overhead electric system, 
 and the electric light is in use. There is a 
 strong co-operative society. The worsted and 
 carpet trades are the staple industries, Crossley 's 
 carpet-works, the largest in the world, employ 
 more than 5000 hands. Other manufactured 
 goods are worsted coatings, fancy dress goods, 
 damasks, and merinos. Cotton fabrics and wool- 
 cards are inanufactured, while dyeing and hosiery 
 trades are on an extensive scale. There is also 
 some trade in corn ; iron, chemicals, boots, and 
 mill-machinery are manufactured, and freestone 
 is quarried. The water-works, which are very 
 complete, have cost the corporation about 
 £950,000, Pop, (1851) 33,582; (1871) 65,510; 
 (1881) 73,633 ; (1901) 104,936, the boundary having 
 been extended in 1900. The borough since 1832 
 has returned two members. See Watson's History 
 of Halifax (1775 ; ed, by Leyland, 1869). 
 
 Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia and the 
 principal Atlantic seaport of Canada, is situated 
 in 44° 39' N. lat, and 63° 37' W, long. It is the 
 nearest to Great Britain of any city on the 
 American continent, being but 2178 miles from 
 Cape Clear, The magnificent sheet of water that 
 constitutes its harbour is easily accessible at all 
 
TTAT.T - 
 
 324 
 
 HAMBURG 
 
 seasons of the year, at all times of the tide, by- 
 ships of any tonnage ; and is capable of affording 
 safe anchorage to the whole British navy. Its 
 selection as the American rendezvous of D'An- 
 ville's ill-starred expedition against the British 
 American colonies in 1746, led to a demand on 
 their part that a place of such strategic import- 
 ance should no longer be unoccupied by British 
 troops. The demand was ably supported by Lord 
 Halifax, and accordingly an expedition was fitted 
 out in 1749, which founded the city and gave to 
 it the name of its English patron. It at once 
 becaine the capital of the province, and the 
 principal naval and military station of Great 
 Britain in America, and, strongly fortified, was 
 garrisoned by British troops till 1905, when 
 Canada assumed full responsibility for its de- 
 fence, Tlie dockyard is one of the finest in 
 the British colonies. The town is built on the 
 western side of the harbour, and extends along it 
 about 2^ jiiiles. It is the residence of the Roman 
 Catholic archbishop of Halifax and of the Angli- 
 can bishop of Nova Scotia. It is also the seat 
 of Dalhousie University. It is the eastern or 
 Atlantic terminus of the Intercolonial Railway of 
 Canada and of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and 
 has lines of steamers connecting it with London, 
 Liverpool, New York, Boston, &c. It has also 
 the largest graving-dock (580 by 102 feet) in 
 America, constructed in 1880-89, at a cost of 
 $1,000,000, and capable of receiving the largest 
 ship afloat. The proximity of Halifax to the 
 coalfields of Pictou and Cape Breton and its 
 extensive wharf accommodation make it a great 
 coaling-station. Pop. (1881) 36,100 ; (1901) 40,787. 
 Dartmouth (pop. 6000), on the harbour's opposite 
 shore, is practically a suburb of Halifax. 
 
 Hall, or Schwabisch-Hall, a town (since 1802) 
 of Wiirtemberg, in the deep valley of the Kocher, 
 33 miles by rail E. by S. of Heilbronn. Hall 
 (meaning 'salt') has salt-works, the brine being 
 obtained from Wilhelmsgliick, 5 miles distant. 
 There are also manufactures of cotton, silk, 
 leather, &c. Pop. 9225. 
 
 Hall, an Austrian health-resort, in Tyrol, on 
 the Inn, 6 miles by rail E. of Innsbruck. From 
 the Salzberg, 7 miles N., salt brine is conveyed 
 to the pans of Hall. Pop. 6456. 
 
 Halladale, a Sutherland stream, flowing 20 
 miles north to the sea at Portskerry. 
 
 Hallamshire, an ancient manor of the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, with Sheffield for its capital. 
 It now gives name to a parliamentary division. 
 
 Halle (Hal-leh), a city of Prussian Saxony, on 
 the right bank of the Saale and on several small 
 islands of the river, 20 miles by rail NW. of Leip- 
 zig. As an important railway centre, Halle has 
 of late years rapidly increased in size, industry, 
 and prosperity. Its university was founded in 
 1694 by Frederick I. ; suppressed by Napoleon in 
 1806 and in 1813, it was re-established in 1815, 
 and with it was incorporated the university of 
 Wittenberg. At first a chief seat of the pietistic 
 school of theology, Halle subsequently became 
 the headquarters of the rationalistic and critical 
 schools. It has over 1500 students, and 140 pro- 
 fessors and lecturers. The Francke schools (1695) 
 rank amongst the most important establishments 
 of the place. Noteworthy are St Mary's Church 
 (1529-54) ; the Gothic church of St Maurice (12th 
 c), with fine wood-carvings and sculptures ; the 
 red tower, 276 feet high, in the market-place ; the 
 town-hall ; the remains of the Moritzburg (1484), 
 the ancient residence of the archbishops of Magde- 
 burg ; a deaconesses' home ; the university library 
 
 (220,000 vols.) ; and an archaeological and other 
 museums. Salt is obtained from brine-springs 
 within and near the town,which have been worked 
 from before the 7th century. Other industries are 
 machine-making, sugar-refining, printing, brew- 
 ing, the manufacture of mineral oil, and fruit 
 cultivation. Halle is the birthplace of Handel. 
 Pop. (1871) 52,639 ; (1880) 71,484 ; (1900) 156,609. 
 
 Hallein, an Austrian town, 10 miles S. of Salz- 
 burg, has salt-works and salt baths. Pop. 6727. 
 
 Halluin, a town in the French dep. of Nord, 
 10 miles NNE. of Lille. Pop. 16,530. 
 
 Halmstad, a seaport of Sweden, on the Catte- 
 gat, 75 miles SE. of Gothenburg. Pop. 15,492. 
 
 Halstead, an Essex market-town, on the Colne, 
 56 miles NE. of London. It has a parish church 
 with a wooden spire and many old monuments, 
 a free grammar-school (1590), and manufactures 
 of crape, silk, paper, and straw-plait. Pop. 6059. 
 
 Haltwhistle, a market-town of Northumber- 
 land, on the South Tyne, 16^ miles W. of Hex- 
 ham. Pop. of parish, 3150. 
 
 Halys. See Asia Minor, 
 
 Ham, a town in the French dep. of Somrae, 
 on the river Somme, 12 miles SW. of St Quentin. 
 Its ancient fortress (rebuilt in 1470) is used as 
 a state-prison. It was the place of confinement 
 of Joan of Arc, Louis Napoleon, &c. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Ham, West, a suburb of East London, and a 
 county borough of Essex, on the north bank 
 of the Thames, opposite Greenwich. The rapid 
 growth of the population has been princi- 
 pally owing to the Victoria and Albert docks 
 and the gas-works. It is a busy industrial parish, 
 and has silk-printing, shipbuilding, distilling, 
 and chemical manufactures. In 1885 it was made 
 a parliamentary borough, returning two members 
 to the House of Commons. Here is Mrs Elizabeth 
 Fry's house, 'The Cedars.' Pop. (1851) 18,817; 
 (1901) 267,358. —East Ham, situated in the south- 
 west of the same county, 1^ mile SW. of Barking, 
 has a pop. of 96,018. See Katherine Fry's History 
 of the Parishes of East and West Ham (1888). 
 
 Hamadan (anc. Ecbatana), a town of Persia, at 
 the northern base of Mount Elwend, 160 miles 
 WSW. of Teheran. It contains some notable 
 tombs— e.g. Avicenna's and others affirmed to 
 be those of Mordecai and Esther. It is the 
 centre of converging routes from Bagdad, Erivan, 
 Teheran, and Ispahan, and manufactures leather, 
 coarse carpets, and woollen and cotton fabrics. 
 Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Hamah (Gr. Epiphania; Bible Hamath), a 
 very ancient city of Syria, on the Orontes, 110 
 miles N. by E. of Damascus. In 1893 it was 
 proposed to connect Hamah and Hems (q.v.) 
 with Damascus and with Aleppo by rail. Pop. 
 45,000. 
 
 Hambato, or Ambato, capital of Tunguragua 
 province, Ecuador, in a sheltered amphitheatre 
 on the northern slope of Chimborazo, 8860 feet 
 above the sea. It was twice destroyed — by an 
 eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, and by an earth- 
 quake in 1796. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Hamburg, a state of the German empire, in- 
 cludes the free city of Hamburg, the towns 
 Bergedorf and Cuxhaven, and several suburbs, 
 with a total area of 158 sq. m. The free city 
 of Hamburg is on the Elbe, 75 miles from the 
 German Ocean, 112 N. of Hanover, and 177 NW, 
 of Berlin. Founded by Charlemagne in 808, 
 Hamburg was made a bishopric in 831. The 
 commercial history of Hamburg began in 1189-90, 
 
HAMELN 
 
 325 
 
 HAMPSHIRE 
 
 when the emperor granted it various privileges, 
 amongst others a separate judicial system and 
 exemption from customs dues. In 1241 it joined 
 with Liibeck in laying the foundation of the 
 Hanseatic League, and from 1259 associated itself 
 closely with Bremen also. From that time it 
 increased rapidly in wealth and commercial ina- 
 portance. In 1510 it was made an imperial town ; 
 it early embraced the doctrines of the Reforma- 
 tion. From 1410 to 1712 there were repeated 
 risings against the governing classes ; during 
 1806-14 it was occupied by the French, when 
 its pop. decreased by nearly one-half, namely to 
 55,()00, and it endured losses of property esti- 
 mated at £7,000,000. In 1815 Hamburg joined 
 the German Confederation. In three days, in 
 1842, one-third of Hamburg was destroyed by 
 fire, and more than two millions sterling worth 
 of property lost. In 1888 Hamburg entered the 
 German Customs Union, though still retaining 
 part of its territory as a ' free port.' The public 
 buildings include the ' school house ' (containing 
 the town library of 600,000 volumes and 5500 
 MSS., and a natural history museum), town- 
 house, picture-gallery, &c. Four churches are 
 noticeable— St Nicholas, built from designs by 
 Sir Gilbert Scott, as a memorial of the fire of 
 1842, a Gothic building, with a spire 482 feet 
 high ; St Michael's, an 18th-century Renaissance 
 church, with a spire 469 feet high ; and St Cather- 
 ine's and St James's, both Gothic edifices of the 
 14th and 15th centuries. The older portion is 
 intersected by canals, which serve as waterways 
 between the river and the warehouses. 
 
 Hamburg is the busiest commercial city on the 
 Continent, and the principal commercial seaport 
 of Germany. Next to London it has the largest 
 money-exchange transactions in Europe ; its bank 
 was founded so long ago as 1619. As a commer- 
 cial centre its only rivals are London, Liverpool, 
 Antwerp, and New York. Its industries are 
 cigar-making, distilling of spirits, sugar-refining, 
 brewing, engineering, iron-founding, manufac- 
 ture of chemicals, india-rubber wares, furniture, 
 starch, and jute, and shipbuilding. Of the im- 
 ports about one-half represent the value of goods 
 brought into Hamburg by rail and river (Elbe) 
 from the interior. Hamburg owes a large part of 
 its trade to its position as a distributing centre 
 for commodities brought from distant parts of 
 the world, to be afterwards sent to the diff"erent 
 countries of Europe. Besides coff"ee, the more 
 important objects of trade are sugar, woollen and 
 cotton goods, butter, tobacco, wine and spirits, 
 hides, machines, rice, saltpetre, leather, herrings, 
 flour, furs, linen, petroleum, coal, iron, and silks. 
 Hamburg ranks second to Bremen as a port of 
 embarkation for emigrants from Germany. Pop. 
 (1875) 374,930 ; (1890) 622,530 ; (1900) 768,349, of 
 whom 705,738 lived in the city itself. 
 
 Hameln, a town of Hanover, on the Weser, 
 25 miles SW. of Hanover. It presents a quite 
 mediaeval appearance, having many Gothic and 
 Renaissance houses and buildings. The chain- 
 bridge (1839) over the Weser is 840 feet long. 
 The industries include machine-making, iron- 
 founding, wool-spinning, &c. Pop. 19,831. With 
 this town is connected the well-known legend 
 of the Pied Piper (or Ratcatcher) of Hameln or 
 Hamlin, who in 1284 freed the town from rats 
 through the mystic charm of his pipe. 
 
 Hamilton, a town of Lanarkshire, on the left 
 bank of the Clyde, 10 miles SE. of Glasgow. 
 The principal edifice is the burgh buildings (1863), 
 With a clock-tower nearly 130 feet high; and 
 
 there are also the county buildings, large bar- 
 racks, a public park (1894), and a good race- 
 course. The former manufactures of lace, tam- 
 boured bobbinette, and cambric have declined ; 
 and coal-mining is now the chief industry of the 
 district. Lord Dundonald was a native. Hamilton 
 was made a royal burgh in 1548, and one of the 
 five Falkirk parliamentary burghs in 1832. Pop, 
 (1841) 8724 ; (1881) 18,517 ; (1901) 32,775. —Hamilton 
 Palace, successor to Cadzow Castle, is the seat of 
 the Duke of Hamilton. Dating partly from 1594, 
 but greatly enlarged in 1705 and 1822, it is a 
 sumptuous classical structure, though its choicest 
 art-collections were sold in 1882 for nearly 
 £400,000. Within its policies are a superb 
 mausoleum (1852), the ruins of Cadzow Castle, 
 the herd of wild white cattle, and some primeval 
 oaks. 
 
 Hamilton, a city of Ontario, Canada, is situated 
 on Burlington Bay, at the west end of Lake 
 Ontario, 40 miles by rail SW. of Toronto, and 
 56 WNW. of Niagara Falls. The business por- 
 tion lies at the foot of ' The Mountain,' on whose 
 slope many fine residences are embowered among 
 trees and gardens. Trees line the wide, hand- 
 some streets ; the houses are mostly substantial 
 stone erections, and the court-house and county 
 buildings are among the finest in Canada. The 
 manufactures include iron, cottons, woollens, 
 sewing-machines, boots, glass-ware, &c. Hamil- 
 ton, which was founded in 1813, is the seat of 
 Anglican and Roman Catholic bishops. Pop. 
 (1861) 19,096 ; (1881) 35,961 ; (1901) 52,550. 
 
 Hamilton, metropolis of the western part of 
 Victoria, on Grange Bum Creek, 224 miles by 
 rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. 4050. 
 
 Hamilton, (1) capital of Butler county, Ohio, 
 on the Great Miami River, and on the Miami and 
 Erie Canal, 25 miles by rail N. of Cincinnati. It 
 has paper and flour mills, foundries, breweries, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 12,122 ; (1900) 23,914.— (2) A post- 
 village of New York, 37 miles SE. of Syracuse, 
 is the seat of Madison University, and of a Theo- 
 logical Seminary, both Baptist. Pop, 1628. 
 
 Hamilton, capital (pop. 2300) of Bermuda. 
 
 Hamirpur, capital of a district in the United 
 Provinces of India, on the Jumna, and at the 
 head of a branch of the Ganges Canal, 110 miles 
 NW. of Allahabad. Pop. 7200. 
 
 Hamm, a town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on 
 the Lippe, 25 miles NE, of Dortmund by rail, 
 has large iron-foundries, wire-works, machine- 
 factories, &c. It was a Hanse town, and until 
 1763 a fortress. Pop. 32,500. 
 
 Hammerfest, the most northern town of 
 Europe, in 70° 40' N. lat. and 23° 30' E. long., is 
 on the island of Kvalo, in the Norwegian province 
 of Finmark. It was destroyed by fire in 1890. 
 Pop. 2289. 
 
 Hammersmith, a metropolitan and parliament- 
 ary borough of the county of London. A sus- 
 pension bridge was opened here in 1827, and a 
 new one by Prince Albert Victor in 1887. The 
 borough returns one member. Formerly a de- 
 tached village, Hammersmith is now a large town. 
 Pop. of the metropolitan borough (1901) 112,239 ; 
 of the parliamentary borough (1901) 111,970. 
 
 Hamoaze. See Plymouth. 
 
 Hamoon. See Seistan (Lake of). 
 
 Hampden House, Bucks, among the Chiltems, 
 4 miles S, by W. of Wendover, was the home of 
 John Hampden, who is buried in the church here. 
 
 Hampshire, Hants, or, officially, the County 
 OF Southampton, a maritime county in the south 
 
HAMPSTEAD 
 
 HANLEY 
 
 of England, bounded by Dorset, Wilts, Berks, 
 Surrey, Sussex, and the English Channel. In- 
 cluding the Isle of Wight, it has an area of 1621 
 sq. ra., or 1,037,764 acres, 700,000 of which are 
 generally under culture. Pop. (1801) 219,290; 
 (1841) 354,682; (1861) 481,815; (1881) 593,465; 
 (1901) 797,634. The surface is diversitted by the 
 North and South Downs, the loftiest points being 
 Sidown Hill (940 feet), and, on the Berkshire 
 border, Inkpen Beacon (1011 feet), the highest 
 chalk-down in England. The south-western por- 
 tion of the county, almost wholly detached from 
 the main portion by Southampton Water, is 
 occupied mainly by the New Forest (q.v.). In 
 the south-east and east there are remains of the 
 forests of Bere, Woohner, and Waltham Chace. 
 The principal rivers are the Test, Itchen, and 
 Avon, all flowing southward ; the last named 
 forms the western boundary of the New Forest. 
 The county, exclusive of the parliamentary 
 boroughs of Portsmouth, Southampton, Win- 
 chester, and Christchurch, and the Isle of 
 Wight, returns live members for its Ave divisions 
 — North or Basingstoke, West or Andover, Bast 
 or Peterstield, South or Fareham, and New Forest. 
 Hampshire is wholly in the diocese of Winchester. 
 Towns other than the four boroughs are Alder- 
 shot, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Bishops 
 Waltham, Bournemouth, Fareham, Gosport, 
 Havant, Lymington, Petersfield, Ringwood, 
 Romsey, and Titchfield. Among Hampshire's 
 worthies have been Jane Austen, Walter Besant, 
 Dickens, William Gilpin, Keble, Kingsley, George 
 Meredith, Archbishop Warham, Gilbert White, 
 William of Wykeham, and Edward Young. See 
 works by Woodward (3 vols. 1861-69) and T. W. 
 Shore (1892). 
 
 Hampstead, a metropolitan and parliamentary 
 borough of the county of London, is finely situated 
 on a range of hills. It was formerly famous 
 for its medicinal springs, and is still a favourite 
 place of residence and of holiday resort among 
 Londoners. On the summit of the hill (430 feet), 
 above the village, is the Heath, which affords ex- 
 tensive and pleasant prospects of the surrounding 
 country. A house on the Heath, formerly called 
 the Upper Flask Inn, and now a private resi- 
 dence, was the place of resort of the Kit-Cat 
 Club, at which Steele, Addison, Richardson, 
 Walpole, and others used to assemble. Hamp- 
 stead is associated with many names in literature 
 and art, as those of Pope, Gay, Johnson, Aken- 
 side, Joanna Baillie, Byron, Constable, Romney, 
 Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Landseer, 
 and Sir W. Besant. Pop., met. bor. (1901) 81,942 ; 
 pari. bor. (one member) 82,329. See works bv W. 
 Howitt (1869), Lobley (1889), and Baines (1890). 
 
 Hampton, a village of Middlesex, on the 
 Thames, 15 miles SW. of London. In the vicinity 
 are many fine mansions and beautiful villas, in- 
 cluding Garrick's villa. Pop. 6822. 
 
 Hampton Court Palace, till George II. 's time 
 a royal residence, and now partially occupied by 
 persons of good family in reduced circumstances, 
 stands about a mile from the village in the midst 
 of grounds that extend to the Thames. The 
 original palace was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, 
 and by him presented (1526) to Henry VIII., who 
 enlarged it and formed around it a royal deer-park. 
 Here Edward VI. was born, his mother, Jane 
 Seymour, died, and Charles I. was a prisoner. 
 Here too was held in 1604 the famous con- 
 ference between the bishops and the Presby- 
 terians. A considerable portion of Hampton 
 Court was rebuilt by William III,, from designs 
 
 by Wren, and he also laid out the park and 
 gardens in the formal Dutch style. The picture- 
 gallery contains several Italian works, Lely's 
 Beauties of the Court of Charles II., and 
 valuable specimens of Holbein, Kneller, West, 
 &c. ; but Raphael's cartoons have been removed 
 to the South Kensington Museum. The gardens 
 present a series of raised terraces, formal flower- 
 plots, and long and shady arcades, and have 
 among other attractions a ' maze ' or labyrinth. 
 Damage, estimated at £20,000, was caused by fire 
 in November 1886. See Ernest Law's Hampton 
 Court (3 vols. 1885-91). 
 
 Hampton, a bathing-resort of Virginia, gives 
 name to Hampton Roads, a channel between 
 Chesapeake Bay and the James River estuary. 
 Pop. 3684. 
 
 Hanau, a town in the Prussian province of 
 Hesse-Nassau, at the confluence of the Kinzig and 
 Main, 13 miles E. by N. of Frankfort. It is 
 divided into the Old Town (1393) and the New 
 Town ; the latter was founded in 1597 by Protes- 
 tant refugees from the Low Countries, who intro- 
 duced the woollen and silk manufactures, which 
 still flourish. Hanau stands pre-eminent in Ger- 
 many for its jewellery and gold and silver wares. 
 It also manufactures carpets, chocolate, leather, 
 cards, paper, hats, &c. Here the brothers Grimm 
 were born. In the neighbourhood is the water- 
 ing-place of Wilhelmsbad. Near the town, in 1813, 
 Napoleon defeated the Austrians and Bavarians. 
 Population, 31,000. 
 
 Handsworth, a NW. suburb of Birmingham. 
 
 Hang-chow, a city of China, the gate of the 
 great imperial canal, on the left bank of the Tsien- 
 tang, where it enters the Bay of Hang-chow, 110 
 miles SW. of Shanghai. It was the capital of 
 the Sung empire before its overthrow by the 
 Mongols, and was a splendid city when visited 
 by Marco Polo early in the 14th century. It still 
 has many magnificent temples, is a principal seat 
 of the silk manufacture, and of gold and silver 
 work, and is noted for the beauty of its surround- 
 ings. Several thousands of candidates assemble 
 here every year for the public examinations. The 
 river is subject to a dangerous bore or eagre. 
 Previous to the Taiping rebellion, the city had 
 some 2,000,000 inhabitants ; but it was then 
 (1861) laid in ruins, and its pop. is now estimated 
 at from 500,000 to 800,000. 
 
 Han-hai, a dried-up sea in central Asia, now 
 represented only by Lake Lob-nor (q.v.). 
 
 Hankow, a river-port of China, at the junction 
 of tlie Han River with the Yang-tsze, 600 miles 
 W. of Shanghai. Strictly speaking, Hankow is 
 a suburb of the towns of Wu-chang and Han-yang, 
 the three together forming one huge city. Vessels 
 of large size can reach Hankow, the river being 
 navigable to Ichang, 420 miles higher up. Since 
 1862 Hankow has been open to foreign trade. The 
 principal article of export is tea, others being 
 silk, oil, vegetable tallow, tobacco, hides, nut- 
 galls, coal, musk, and wax. The imports are 
 opium, cotton, piece-goods, Avoollens, metals, 
 sugar, &c. In 1889 a decree of the emperor 
 authorised the construction of a railway from 
 Hankow to Peking, 700 miles in length. Before 
 the Taiping rebellion the three cities had a pop. 
 of over 5,000,000 ; it is now about 1,700,000, Han- 
 kow having 750,000 of these. 
 
 Hanley, a Staffordshire town, in the Potteries, 
 18 miles N. of Stafford. It manufactures china, 
 earthenware, and encaustic tiles ; and near it are 
 coal and iron mines. It was constituted a muni- 
 
IgANNlBAL 
 
 327 
 
 HARFLEITR 
 
 fcipal borough in 1857 ; a parliamentary borough, 
 returning one member, in 1885 ; and a county 
 borough in 1888. Pop. of municipal borough 
 (1851)25,369; (1871)39,976'; (1901)61,600; of pari, 
 borough (including Burslem, q.v.), 100,365. 
 
 Hannibal, a city of Missouri, on the Mississippi, 
 here crossed by an iron railroad bridge, 111 miles 
 by rail NNW. of St Louis. An important railway 
 centre, it has a Methodist college, an extensive 
 trade in lumber, flour, and cattle, and manu- 
 factories of flour, tobacco, lime, and railroad 
 cars. There are coal-mines close by. Pop. 12,757. 
 
 Ha-noi, the capital of Tongking, and head- 
 quarters of the French administration, on the 
 left bank of the Song-coi or Red River, 80 miles 
 in a direct line from the sea. Pop. 120,000. 
 
 Han' over (Ger. Hanno'ver), formerly a kingdom 
 of northern Germany, but since 1866 incorporated 
 with Prussia. Area, 14,833 sq. m., or nearly twice 
 the size of Wales ; pop. (1871) 1,963,080 ; (1900) 
 2,590,340. Except in the south, where the Harz 
 Mountains (q.v.) attain 3037 feet, the surface be- 
 longs to the great North German plain, with great 
 stretches of moor and heath, the largest the Liine- 
 burg. It is watered by the Elbe, Weser, Ems, 
 and their tributaries. Norderney and Borkum 
 (islands) are seaside resorts. Gottingen is the 
 seat of a university, and tlie capital is Hanover. 
 The people of the north-eastern and central 
 provinces are mostly Saxons ; those on the 
 coast are of Frisian origin ; those on the west 
 of the Ems, Dutch ; and those in the southern 
 provinces, Thuringians and Franconians. Platt- 
 Deutsch, or Low Gennan, is commonly spoken 
 in the rural districts ; but High German is the 
 language of the educated classes, and is spoken 
 with more purity than in any other part of 
 the empire. The second elector of Hanover 
 became in 1714 George I. of England, and the 
 connection lasted until Queen Victoria's accession 
 to the British crown in 1837, Hanover then pass- 
 ing to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland. His 
 son, the blind George V. (1819-78), succeeded in 
 1851, and in 1866 sided with Austria, and was de- 
 throned, Hanover (which in 1815 had been con- 
 stituted a kingdom) being annexed to Prussia. 
 
 Hanover, the capital, is situated on a sub- 
 tributary of the Weser, 78 miles SE. of Bremen 
 and 158 W. of Berlin, It consists of the old 
 town, with narrow streets and mediaeval houses, 
 and the handsome modern town, lying N., E., 
 and SE. of the older portion. The most interest- 
 ing buildings are the town-hall (1439), with 
 antique sculpture and fine frescoes ; the royal 
 library (200,000 vols, and 4000 MSS. ) ; the theatre, 
 one of the largest in Germany ; the palaces ; the 
 nmseum, with natural history and art collections ; 
 the Kestncr Museum, with antiquities and a col- 
 lection of engravings (120,000) ; the polytechnic 
 school, formerly a ducal castle ; the castle church ; 
 the 14th-century 'market ' church ; and the ' new 
 town ' church, with the tomb of Leibnitz ; and 
 the magnificent railway station. Close by is the 
 royal palace of Herrenhausen, whose beautiful 
 groimds are open to the public. Hanover is a 
 centre of the North German railway system, and 
 amongst its industries are railway repair shops, 
 iron-founding, typefounding, the manufacture of 
 pianofortes, india-rubber goods, tobacco, linen, 
 sugar, chocolate, hardware, brewing, and distil- 
 ling. Pop. (1871)87,641; (1900)235,650. Hanover 
 is the birthplace of the brothers Schlegel ; Louisa, 
 queen of Prussia ; and Sir William Herschel. 
 
 Hanover, a New Hampshire village, near the 
 
 Connecticut, 55 miles NW. of Concord. Here is 
 Dartmouth College (1770). Pop. 1834. 
 Hanse Towns. See Hamburg, Bremen, Lu- 
 
 BECK. 
 
 Hansi, a town of the Punjab, 80 miles NW. of 
 Delhi, was a British cantonment from 1802 down 
 to the Mutiny (1857). Pop. 15,656. 
 
 Hanwell, the Middlesex lunatic asylum (1831), 
 7^ miles W. of Paddington station, London. 
 
 Han-yang. See Hankow. 
 
 Haparanda, a town in the Swedish province 
 of Norrbotten, near the Tornea's mouth, and 
 opposite the Russian town of TomeS. Pop. 1250. 
 
 Harar, or Harrab, a town in the Galla country 
 now belonging to Abyssinia, connected by rail 
 with the port of Jibutil in French Somaliland 
 (186 miles NNE.). Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Harbin, or Kharbin, a town of Manchuria, on 
 tlie Sungari, a tributary of the Amur (which divides 
 Manchuria into northern and southern sections), 
 where the Siberian railway sends ofl" the branch to 
 Port Arthur. In 1903 the Russian civil population 
 was about 10,000. 
 
 Harborough. See Market-Harborough. 
 
 Harbour Grace, port of entry and second town 
 of Newfoundland, 84 miles WNW. of St John's. 
 Pop. 5500, 
 
 Harburg, a Prussian seaport in Ltineburg, 5 
 miles S. of Hamburg, on the Elbe. Its industries 
 include gutta-percha goods, palm-oil, cotton-seed 
 oil, chemicals, &c. Since the deepening of the 
 Elbe, Harburg's commerce has greatly increased. 
 It is a holiday resort for the Hamburgers. Pop, 
 51,000. 
 
 Hardanger Fjord, Norway, a narrow sea-inlet, 
 20 miles S, of Bergen. It is 930 feet deep, and 
 extends 68 miles north-eastward without reckon- 
 ing branches, amidst magnificent mountain 
 scenery. The Hardanger Fjeld is a tract of the 
 mountainous backbone of Norway, NE. of the 
 Fjord. 
 
 Harden, the seat of Lord Polwarth, in Rox- 
 burghshire, 4 miles W. of Hawick. It has be- 
 longed to the Scotts since 1501. 
 
 Harderwijk, a Dutch fishing- town, on the 
 south-east shore of the Zuider Zee, 31 miles NB. 
 of Utrecht by rail. From 1648 to 1811 it was the 
 seat of a university. Pop. 7339. 
 
 Hardwar (Hari-dwdra, 'Vishnu's gate'), per- 
 haps the most famous spot on the Ganges, stands 
 where the river emerges from the sub-Himalaya 
 into the plains of Hindustan, 39 miles NB, 
 of Saharuiipur, United Provinces. It attracts 
 immense numbers of pilgrims at the end of 
 March and the beginning of April— a great fair 
 at the same time engrafting commerce on religion. 
 In ordinary years the attendance is about 100,000 ; 
 but every twelfth year (as in 1882, 1894, &c.) 
 peculiarly sacred rites takes place, attended by 
 perhaps 300,000 (formerly 2,000,000). Hardwar 
 is 1024 feet above the sea, and has a pop. of 25,600, 
 Since 1891 elaborate and successful efforts have 
 been made, by means of rigid and scientific 
 sanitation, to prevent the fair from being as 
 heretofore a great means of spreading cholera. 
 
 Hardwick Hall, a Derbyshire seat of the Duke 
 of Devonshire, 6^ miles SE. of Chesterfield. It 
 was built in 1590 by the duke's ancestress, the 
 famous ' Bess of Hardwick.' 
 
 Harfleur (mediaeval Hareflot), a town in the 
 French dep. of Seine-Inferieure, on the Seine's 
 estuary, 4 miles B. of Havre. Formerly it was 
 an important seaport and fortress. Pop. 2616. 
 
Maringvliet 
 
 328 
 
 HARTLEPOOL 
 
 Haringvliet. See Meuse. 
 
 Hari-Rud, or Heri-Rud, a river of Asia, which 
 rises in the Hindu Kush, 150 miles W. of Kabul, 
 and flows 500 miles westward and northward 
 through Afghanistan, and along the boundary 
 between Persia and Turkestan, until it loses itself 
 in several arms in the Tekke Turkoman oasis. 
 
 Harlaw', 18 miles NW. of Aberdeen, the scene 
 on 24th July 1411 of the great defeat of the 
 Highlanders led by Donald, Lord of the Isles, by 
 the Lowlanders under the Earl of Mar. 
 
 Harlech, an ancient town of Merionethshire, 
 North Wales, stands on the coast, 10 miles N. of 
 Barmouth. On a steep hill overlooking the sea is 
 its massive castle, which held out for the Lancas- 
 trians in the AVars of the Roses, and later for 
 Charles I. The ' March of the Men of Harlech ' 
 commemorates its capture by the Yorkists in 14G8. 
 
 Harleston, a Norfolk market-town, near tlie 
 Waveney, 6^ miles SW. of Bungay. Pop., with 
 Redenhall, 2003. 
 
 Harlingen (Frisian Hams), a Dutch seaport, 
 in Friesland, on the Zuider Zee, 14 miles W. by 
 S. of Leeuwarden. It has a good harbour (1876). 
 Pop. 10,274. 
 
 Harlow, an Essex town, near the Stort, 6 miles 
 SSW. of Bishop-Stortford. Pop. of parish, 2643. 
 
 Haro, a town of Spain, on the Ebro, 31 miles 
 by rail NW. of Logrono. Pop. 7526. 
 
 Harper's Ferry, a post-village of West Virginia, 
 situated among beautiful scenery at the conflu- 
 ence of the Shenandoah with the Potomac, 81 
 miles W. of Baltimore by rail. It was the scene 
 of John Brown's abolition raid in 1859 ; and here 
 a Union army of over 11,500 men surrendered to 
 Stonewall Jackson in 1862. Pop. 864. 
 
 Harpurhey, a township within the parliament- 
 ary borough of Manchester. 
 
 Harrar. See Harar. 
 
 Harrington, a Cumberland coast-town, 4J miles 
 N. of Whitehaven. Pop. of parish, 3635. 
 
 Harris, in the Hebrides, is the southern i)ortion 
 ofthe island of Lewis (q. v.), with islets; pop. 6300. 
 
 HarrlsTmrg, the capital of Pennsylvania, is 
 situated amid beautiful scenery on the left bank 
 of the Susquehanna River, which is here crossed 
 by several long bridges, 106 miles W. by N. of 
 Philadelphia. It contains the capitol, court- 
 house, arsenal, insane asylum, and a Roman 
 Catholic cathedral. The city has a number of 
 blast-furnaces and rolling-mills, and large manu- 
 factures of steel and iron, including boilers, 
 machinery, nails, and files ; cotton goods, flour, 
 bricks, shoes, brooms, &c. are also produced, 
 and there is a large trade in lumber. Founded 
 in 1785, Harrisburg became the state capital in 
 1812. Pop. (1870) 23,104 ; ^1900) 50,167. 
 
 Harrismith, a town in the east of the Orange 
 River Colony, 160 miles NW. of Durban by rail. 
 Pop. (1904) 8300. 
 
 Harrison, a town of New Jersey, on the Pas- 
 saic, opposite Newark. It manufactures oilcloth, 
 wire, thread, &c. Pop. 10,600. 
 
 Harrogate, or Harrowgate, a watering-place 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire, lies among the 
 moors, 450 feet above sea-level, and by rail is 
 17 miles N. of Leeds and 20 WNW. of York. It 
 consists of two parts. High and Low, and is 
 celebrated for its sulphureous, saline, and chaly- 
 beate springs. The sulphureous springs are of 
 laxative and diuretic quality, while the chaly- 
 beate are tonic. The waters are used both ex- 
 
 ternally and internally, and are in great repute 
 in many diseases of the skin and in some cases of 
 dyspeptic disorders, scrofula, gout, jaundice, rheu- 
 matism, &c. The springs were discovered in 1596. 
 Harrogate is a remarkably healthy place, the 
 death-rate per 1000 ranging in six years between 
 13 2 and 10-3. It was incorporated as a municipal 
 borough in 1883. Pop. (1851) 3678 ; (1901) 28,423. 
 See Smollett's Ihimphrey Clinker (1771) and 
 Grainge's History of Harrogate (1871). 
 
 Harrow, or Harrow-on-the-Hill, a town of 
 Middlesex, 11^ miles WNW, of St Paul's, stands 
 on a hill, 200 feet high, that looks over thirteen 
 shires. Its ' visible church,' which crowns the 
 hill-top, was founded in 1094, and rebuilt about 
 the middle of the 14th century. Exhibiting every 
 style of Gothic architecture, from Norman to 
 Perpendicular, it has a lofty spire and eleven 
 brasses (one of them to John Lyon) : whilst in 
 the churchyard is a flat tombstone on which 
 Byron as a schoolboy used to lie. Pop. of the 
 parish (1851) 4951 ; (1900) 10,220. 
 
 Harrow School, founded by John Lyon in 1571, 
 ranks as one of the great English public schools, 
 with some 600 boys. Former distinguished 
 alumni having been Lord Byron, the Marquises 
 of Dalhousie and Hastings, Dean Merivale, Lord 
 Palmerston, Sir Robert Peel, Admiral Rodney, 
 Lord Shaftesbury, Sheridan, TroUope, and Colonel 
 Burnaby. The buildings date from 1608, and in- 
 clude the chapel (1857), Vaughan Library (1863), 
 and Speech-room (1877). See works by Pitcaim 
 (1870), Rimmer (1S81), Thornton (1885), Minchin 
 (1898), Howson, Wanen, and twenty-four otliers 
 (1898), and Fischer Williams (1901). 
 
 Hartford, the capital of Connecticut, on the 
 right bank of the Connecticut River, 50 miles 
 from its mouth, and 112 by rail NE. of New 
 York. It is a handsome city, with streets not 
 all too regular, and an imposing state capitol of 
 white marble, arsenal, post-office, and, on the 
 outskirts, the new buildings of Trinity College 
 (Episcopal), which was founded in 1823. Hart- 
 ford contains a Congregational seminary, a large 
 hospital, asylums, and several libraries ; it is the 
 seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. There are 
 extensive manufactures of Colt's pistols. Catling 
 guns, engines, boilers, and machines, hardware, 
 stoneware, and wooden wares, and a trade in 
 Connecticut tobacco. The site of a Dutch fort 
 in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts settlers 
 as early as 1635-36, Hartford was incorporated as 
 a city in 1784, and has been sole capital of the 
 state since 1873. About 1780 the ' Hartford wits,' 
 of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the city a 
 literary centre. Here in 1814 took place the 
 meeting of New England delegates known as the 
 Hartford Convention. Pop. (1870) 37,180; (1880) 
 42,015 ; (1890) 53,230 ; (1900) 79,850. ( 
 
 Harthill, a collier-village of Lanarkshire, 6 
 miles SW. of Bathgate. Pop. 1608. 
 
 Hartland Point, a Devon headland, on the 
 south side of Barnstaple Bay, at the mouth of 
 the Bristol Channel. 
 
 Hartlebiiry Castle, the seat of the bishops of 
 Worcester, 4 miles S. by E. of Kidderminster. 
 
 Hartlepool, a municipal borough and seaport 
 in the county of Durham, is situated on a small 
 peninsula north of the estuary of the Tees, 12 
 miles NNE. of Stockton, and 18 BSE. of Durham. 
 Its ancient sea-fishing industry has recently ex- 
 tended. The ancient boundaries were in 1883 
 extended so as to take in the township of Throston 
 and part of Stranton. The local industries are iron 
 
HARTZ 
 
 HASTINGS 
 
 shipbuilding, marine engineering, and cement- 
 manufacture. The former considerable shipping 
 trade is now almost entirely transferred to West 
 Hartlepool. The harbour entrance is safe, and 
 communicates by a channel direct to the more 
 modern port. A substantial sea-wall and delight- 
 ful promenade, completed in 1889, have added 
 much to the attractive appearance of the town 
 on the seaward side. Pop. of municipal borough 
 (1851) 9503 ; (1901) 22,723. 
 
 West Hartlepool, a municipal borough and 
 seaport, is situated to the south as Hartlepool is 
 to the north of Hartlepool Bay, and practically 
 forms one town with Hartlepool. It was founded 
 in 1847 by Ralph Ward Jackson, an enterprising 
 railway projector, afterwards M.P. It possesses 
 a theatre, athenaeum and mechanics' institute, 
 custom-house, market-house, exchange, a muni- 
 cipal hall opened by Prince Albert Victor in 
 1889, a school of art, &c. The first harbour was 
 constructed here in 1847, of 12 acres, and has 
 since been greatly enlarged. The dock area 
 of Hartlepool and West Hartlepool together, in- 
 cluding the timber and shipbuilding yards, &c., 
 is over 300 acres in extent. Extensive iron- 
 shipbuilding yards, cement-works, wood-pulp 
 works, and marine-engine building establish- 
 ments have been founded. There are graving- 
 docks leased by the North-Eastern Railway Com- 
 pany, and also one extensive graving-dock open 
 to public use. The imports include coal, flax and 
 hemp, grain, timber, butter, cheese, fruit, cattle, 
 tallow, and iron ; the exports, woollen and cotton 
 goods, copper, cement, drugs, machinery, earthen- 
 ware, yarn, hides, &c., the trade being carried on 
 for the most part with the Baltic ports, and with 
 Hamburg and Rotterdam. Governed from 1854 
 by a local commission, the town was created a 
 municipal borough in 1887. Pop. of municipal 
 district (1861) 12,603 ; (1881) 28,167 ; of municipal 
 borough (1901) 62,227. In 1867 ' The Hartlepools ' 
 were constituted a parliamentary borough, re- 
 turning one member. Pop. (1901) 86,305. 
 
 Hartz. See Harz. 
 
 Harwlcli (Har'ritch), a municipal borough, sea- 
 port, and market-town of Essex, is situated on a 
 promontory at the influx of the confluent Stour and 
 Orwell to the sea, 71 miles by rail NE. of London. 
 Southward of Harwich is the watering-place of 
 Dovercourt, with a sea-wall 2 miles long. The 
 chief industries are shipbuilding, fishing, and the 
 manufacture of cement. Steamers run daily to 
 Ipswich, and there are regular lines of packets to 
 Antwerp, Rotterdam, London, &c. The harbour 
 is capacious, safe, and commodious, having been 
 much improved since 1844. It is defended by a 
 battery, and, on the Suffolk side, by Landguard 
 Fort, which dates from the reign of James I. 
 From the 14th century till 1867 Harwich returned 
 two members, and from then till 1885 one. Pop. 
 (1851) 4451 ; (1881) 7842 ; (1901) 10,070. 
 
 Harz Mountains, a mountain-range of Ger- 
 many, extending between the rivers Weser and 
 Elbe, south of Brunswick, with a length of 57 
 miles, a breadth of 20, and a superficial area of 
 784 sq. m. It forms an elevated plateau, rising 
 on most sides somewhat steeply from the plains, 
 and ridged with irregular and in some parts 
 forest-clad mountains. The range, which is 
 divided into Upper and Lower Harz, the average 
 elevations of which are 2100 and 1000 feet respec- 
 tively, attains 3740 feet in the Brocken (q.v.), the 
 highest peak of central Germany. The Harz are 
 exceedingly rich in metals and minerals, as silver, 
 iron, lead, copper, zinc, marble, alabaster, and 
 
 granite. They are the scenes of many of the 
 weird legendary tales of Gennan literature. 
 
 Haskeval. See Rum. 
 
 Haslar Hospital. See Gosport. 
 
 Haslemere, a town of Surrey, 12 J miles SW. 
 of Guildford by rail, manufactures walking-sticks 
 and woodware ; till 1832 it was a parliamentary 
 borough. Pop. 2674. Three miles south, and 
 over the Sussex border, is Blackdown Common, 
 on the southern heights of which stands Aid- 
 worth, the home built for himself by Lord Tenny- 
 son from his own design, in which he died. 
 
 Haslingden, a municipal borough (since 1891) of 
 Lancashire, 19 miles NW. of Manchester. It has 
 cotton, silk, and woollen manufactures, with 
 neighbouring ironworks, coal-mines, and stone 
 and slate quarries. Pop. (1851) 6164 ; (1901) 18,543. 
 
 Hasselt, capital of the Belgian province of 
 Limburg, 18 miles NW. of Maastricht. Pop. 15,194. 
 
 H^stinapiir, a ruined city of India, on the old 
 bed of the Ganges, 22 miles E. of Meerut. 
 
 Hastings (A.S. Hcestingas), a parliamentary, 
 municipal, and county borough and famous 
 watering-place of Sussex, is picturesquely situ- 
 ated on the shore, and surrounded by high 
 cliffs on all sides except the south, which is 
 open to the sea. By rail it is 33 miles E. of 
 Brighton, and 62 SSE. of London. It con- 
 sisted fonnerly of only two streets, intersected 
 by a small stream called the Bourne, but is 
 now a large place, whose resident population is 
 doubled during the holiday season. Since the 
 middle of the 19th century the borough has been 
 greatly extended, and some portions of the hills 
 which shelter the town contain several fine streets 
 and terraces. The breezy esplanade, over 3 miles 
 in length, forms one of the finest sea walks and 
 drives in the kingdom. Tlie climate is dry, 
 mild, and equable, and the bathing very good. 
 During cold weather in winter and spring the 
 place is a resort for pulmonary patients, being 
 sheltered by the hills inland from easterly and 
 northerly winds. The drainage is good ; the 
 water-supply pure and abundant ; and salt water 
 is laid on for watering the streets and for bath 
 purposes. The corporation have purchased the 
 East and West Hills, fine open plateaus command- 
 ing beautiful land and sea views, and admirably 
 adapted for golf and other outdoor sports. 
 There are three large public gardens, and an 
 extensive Alexandra Park, opened by the Prince 
 and Princess of Wales in 1882. Hotels are 
 plentiful, and several large and flourishing 
 schools have been established, the Hastings 
 centre taking a large place in the Oxford and 
 Cambridge local examinations. One of the great 
 attractions of the town to visitors is the hand- 
 some pier (1872), extending 900 feet from the 
 parade, and having a spacious pavilion at the 
 sea, with accommodation for between 2000 and 
 3000 persons. A similar pier (1890) is at St 
 Leonards, about a mile westwards. The ' premier 
 Cinque port' is one of the three richest fishing- 
 stations on the south coast. Tlie castle, now in 
 ruins, was built by one of the followers of William 
 the Conqueror. Hastings (since 1865) returns 
 only one member. Pop. of parliamentary borough 
 (1881) ,47,619; (1901) 62,913—65,528 in the munici- 
 pal borough, extended in 1897. For the battle of 
 Hastings, see Battle ; and see also works by W. 
 D. Cooper;(1862) and Montagu Burrows (1888). 
 
 Hastings, the capital of Adams county, 
 Nebraska, 151 miles SW. of Omaha. Pop. 17,190. 
 
 I. 
 
HATFIELD 
 
 330 
 
 HAWAII 
 
 Hatfield, or Bishops Hatfield, a market- 
 town of Hertfordshire, 18 miles NNW. of London 
 by rail. There exist a few scanty remains of the 
 12th-century palace of tlie bishops of Ely, seized, 
 together with the manor, by Henry VIII., and suc- 
 cessively the residence of that king, of Edward 
 VI. and Queen Elizabeth before their accession, 
 and of James I. Hatfield House, the Marquis of 
 Salisbury's seat, was built by Sir Robert Cecil in 
 1611, and is a fine specimen of Jacobean architec- 
 ture, rich in portraits and historical manuscripts. 
 Pop. of paiisli, 4630. See Brewer's English 
 Studies (1881). 
 
 Hatfield Chase, a fenny tract of land in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, lying between the 
 Trent and Doncaster, some 180,000 acres in extent, 
 which has been drained, and is now cultivated. 
 See a work by John Tomlinson (1882). 
 
 Hathras, a town in the United Provinces, 21 
 miles S. of Aligarh. The commercial centre for 
 tlie Upper Doab, it exports sugar, grain, cotton, 
 &c., and is famous for its delicate carved work. 
 Pop. 42,580. 
 
 Hatteras, Cape, a low point of North Carolina, 
 fonning part of a sandbank, in 35° 15' N. lat. and 
 75° 31' W. long. 
 
 Hatzfeld (Hung. Zsombolya), a town of Hun- 
 gary, 20 miles W. of Temesvar. Pop. 8621. 
 
 Haulbowline Island, a fortified islet in Cork 
 Harbour, with a fine harbour and the only dock- 
 yard in Ireland. 
 
 Haupur, a town of India, in the United Pro- 
 vinces, 18 miles S. of Meerut. Pop. 15,212. 
 
 Hauran (anc. Auranitis), a district in Syria, 
 lying E. of the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Haussa, the name of an old empire in the 
 Soudan, comprising what is now Sokoto and 
 Gondo ; also the warlike negro race inhabiting 
 that region. 
 
 Haute Garonne, &c. See Garonne, &c. 
 
 Havana, or Havannaii, capital of the Spanish 
 island of Cuba, and the principal centre of com- 
 merce in the West Indies, is situated on the north 
 side of the island. Access is obtained to its mag- 
 nificent well-sheltered harbour by a channel 350 
 yards wide, the entrance to which is defended by 
 forts. The streets of the older part of the town, 
 which until 1863 was walled, are narrow and 
 dirty, and the harbour has been for generations 
 polluted by the town sewage. With this older 
 part the more modern portion lying to the west 
 is connected by broad tree-shaded avenues and 
 gardens. The cathedral, built in the old Spanish 
 style in 1724, claims to contain the bones of 
 Columbus. The public institutions include an 
 arsenal, great hospital, a botanical garden, uni- 
 versity, technical school, and some fine theatres. 
 Yellow fever, almost endemic, was stamped out 
 by American sanitation in 1898-1904. The staple 
 industry is the manufacture of cigars ; sugar, 
 tobacco, and molasses are the main exports 
 (mostly to the United States). The chief imports 
 are food-stuffs and cotton. San Cliristobal de la 
 Habana, founded on the south coast by Diego 
 Velasquez in 1515, was four years later transferred 
 to its present site. It was burned to the ground 
 by the French in 1538, plundered by another 
 band in 1554, captured by a third in 1563, and 
 by the English in 1762. In the 17th century it 
 was made the chief Spanish emporium in the West 
 Indies— a position it held till 1898, when, in the 
 Spanish-American war, Cuba was occupied by the 
 United States, becoming an independent state in 
 1902 (see Cuba). Pop. (1902) 275,000. 
 
 Havant, a market-town of Hampshire, 5 miles 
 NB. of Portsmouth. Tanning and matting are 
 the chief industries. Pop. of parish, 3874. 
 
 Havel, a river issuing from a small lake in 
 Mecklenburg, flows 220 miles SW. and NW. past 
 Spandau, Potsdam, and Brandenburg, to its 
 junction with the Elbe, opposite Werben. It 
 receives the Spree, on which Berlin stands. 
 
 Haverfordwest (Welsh Hwlffordd), a parlia- 
 mentary and municipal borough, seaport, and 
 market-town of Wales, capital of Pembrokeshire, 
 on the river Cleddau, 10 miles NNE. of Milford 
 by rail, and 162 W. of Gloucester. A body of 
 Flemings was settled here by Henry I. in 1107. 
 The 14th-century castle (its keep now the county 
 jail) was erected by the first Earl of Pembroke. 
 There are also remains of a 12th-century Augus- 
 tinian priory. Paper-making is the chief in- 
 dustry. Since 1885 Haverfordwest has been one 
 of the Pembroke boroughs, which return one 
 member. Pop. (1861) 7019 ; (1901) 6007. 
 
 Haverhill, an ancient market-town of SW. 
 Suffolk, 18 miles SE. of Cambridge. Pop. of 
 urban district, 4862. 
 
 Haverhill, a city of Massachusetts, at the head 
 of navigation on the Merrimac River, 33 miles N. 
 of Boston by rail. The manufacture of boots and 
 shoos employs over 6000 men in 200 factories ; and 
 there are manufactures also of iron, hats, glass, 
 &c. Pop. (1870) 13,092 ; (1900) 37,175. 
 
 Havre, Le (a contraction of the original name, 
 Le Havre de Notre Dame de Grace), a seaport 
 of France, second only to Marseilles, in the dep. 
 of Seine-Inferieure, on the north side of the 
 Seine's estuary, 143 miles NW. of Paris. The 
 chief imports are coals, wheat, cotton, dye woods, 
 coffee, hides, petroleum, wool, palm-oil, alcohol, 
 cocoa, and sugar. The exports include wine, 
 woollen and cotton goods, millinery, potatoes, 
 salt, butter, paper, silks and ribbons, china- 
 ware, eggs, and ochre. Havre possesses excellent 
 harbour accommodation, having nine separate 
 dock basins ; two new dry-docks were opened in 
 1889. The port is very greatly handicapped by 
 its poor railway connection, the heavy harbour 
 dues, and the shifting sandbanks that lie in the 
 estuary. Havre is one of the chief emigrant 
 ports in France ; and it has great shipbuilding- 
 yards, machine-factories, cannon-foundries, flour- 
 mills, petroleum and sugar refineries, and dye- 
 works. The buildings include the 16t.h-century 
 church of Notre Dame, a museum, a Renaissance 
 town-house, a marine arsenal, &c. There are 
 statues to Bernardin de St Pierre and Casimir 
 Delavigne, both natives. Pop. (1876) 85,407; 
 (1901) 127,640. Down to 1516 Havre was only a 
 fishing-village. Its history as a seaport dates 
 from the reign of Francis I. Havre was held for 
 some months in 1562 by the English, who were 
 expelled by Charles IX. after a hot siege. Louis 
 XIV. made it a strong citadel, and it was several 
 times bombarded by the English in the 17th and 
 18th centuries. The town walls were demolished 
 in the middle of the 19th century. Mdlle. de 
 Scudery was born at Havre. 
 
 Hawaii, a small archipelago in the North 
 Pacific, named Sandwich Islands by Captain 
 Cook after Lord Sandwich, First Lord of the 
 Admiralty. The islands, twelve in number, form 
 a rich, beautiful, and interesting chain, which 
 runs from south-east to north-west, and lies in 
 19° to 22° N. lat. and 155° to 160° W. long. Their 
 total area is 6564 sq. m., or rather smaller than 
 Wales. The names and areas of the eight prifl" 
 
HAWAII 
 
 331 
 
 HAWKE'S BAY 
 
 cipal islands are : Hawaii (the ' Owhyhee ' of 
 Captain Cook), 4210 sq. in. ; Maui, 760 ; Oalui, 
 600 ; Kauai, 590 ; Molokai (the ' Lepers' Island '), 
 270 ; Lanai, 150 ; Kahulaui, 63 ; Niihau, 97. The 
 Hawaiian Islands lie in mid-ocean, but nearer 
 America (2100 miles) than Asia; they conse- 
 quently form a convenient station for the coaling 
 and repairing of vessels on their way across the 
 Pacific. The islands are of volcanic origin, with 
 coral-reefs partly encircling most of them ; the 
 only well-protected harbour being that of Hono- 
 lulu, on Oahu. The larger islands are moun- 
 tainous, and contain some of the principal vol- 
 canoes, both active and extinct, in the world. 
 The two highest mountains, Mauna-Kea and 
 Mauna-Loa, are in the island of Hawaii, and are 
 13,805 and 13,675 feet high respectively. On the 
 eastern slope of Mauna-Loa, in Hawaii, is the 
 far-famed Kilauea, the largest active volcano in 
 the world. It is over 4000 feet above sea-level. 
 Its oval crater, 9 miles in circumference, is 
 bounded by a range of cliffs, and contains a fiery 
 lake of molten lava rising and falling like the 
 waves of the sea. Mauna-Loa itself is an active 
 volcano. On Maui is the crater of Haleakala, 
 by ftir the largest known in the world. It is 
 from 25 to 30 miles in circumference, from 2000 
 to 3000 feet deep, and is 10,032 feet above sea- 
 level. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands, though witliin the trop- 
 ics, enjoy a fairly temperate climate— 90° to 52° 
 F., or a mean of 74-3° F. Rains, brought by the 
 north-east trade-wind, are frequent on the side 
 of the mountains which faces that quarter, but 
 on the other parts of the islands little rain falls, 
 and the sky is generally cloudless. The yearly 
 rainfall of the islands generally is about 54 
 Inches. In Hawaii alone, on the Waimea plains, 
 thousands of sheep of the merino breed find graz- 
 ing ground ; and on most of the islands, while 
 the upland slopes of the mountains are clothed 
 with dense forests, the lower levels spread into 
 grassy plains rich with sugar and rice plantations. 
 The staple food of the natives consists of poi, 
 a thick paste made from the root of the taro 
 plant (Antm esculentum) and raw or dried fish. 
 The only indigenous animals are rats, mice, bats, 
 dogs, and hogs, but others have been added by 
 the white men. There are large numbers of 
 semi- wild horses, and some wild dogs. 
 
 The most important trade was with Pacific 
 whalers down to 1876, when a Reciprocity Treaty 
 was concluded with the United States, and there 
 was an enormous development of the sugar ex- 
 port ; other exports being rice, wool, inolasses, 
 tallow, and bananas. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of dry-goods. Nine-tenths of the trade 
 is witli the United States. On Hawaii and Maui 
 there are telegraphs and 56 miles of railway. 
 
 The islands are said to have been discovered 
 by Gaetano in 1542, and rediscovered in 1778 by 
 Captain Cook, who met his death at the hands of 
 the natives in Kealakekua (Karakakoa) Bay, 1779. 
 Kamehameha I. formed the islands into one king- 
 dom. Missionaries came from America in 1820, 
 and in less than forty years they taught the 
 whole Hawaiian people to read and write, to 
 cipher and sew. In 1843 the independence of 
 ttie kingdom was guaranteed by the French and 
 English governments. Kalakaua, elected king in 
 1874, died in 1891, and was succeeded by his 
 eldest sister, Liliuokalani, who was dethroned 
 in January 1893, the islands next month being 
 annexed to the United States— an annexation, 
 however, repudiated by President Cleveland, 
 whereupon a provisional republican government 
 
 L 
 
 was established ; but the islands were finally 
 annexed by the United States in 1898, and in 
 1900 were organised as one of the territories of 
 the republic. The total pop. of all the islands 
 amounted in 1788 to some 200,000, and in 1900 to 
 153,727, of whom 29,834 were natives, and 25,750 
 Chinese, 61,122 Japanese, and 28,533 Europeans 
 and Americans. The natives of the Hawaiian 
 Archipelago belong to the brown Polynesian 
 stock, and are a remarkably liandsome race ; in 
 character indolent, joyous, and contented. Of 
 the foreign diseases that have reduced the popu- 
 lation, leprosy is now the most dreaded. In 
 1865 the island of Molokai was set apart for 
 lepers (900 in 1900), among whom Father Damien 
 laboured and died (1889). 
 
 See works by Miss Bird (Mrs Bishop ; 1875), 
 Miss Gordon Cumming (1883), Alexander (1892); 
 also Musick, Shoemaker, Young, Whitney, Black- 
 man, Brain, Twombly, and Griffin (all between 
 1897 and 1900). 
 
 Hawarden (pron. Harden), a small market- 
 town of Flintshire, Nortli Wales, 7 miles W. of 
 Cliester. The church, almost destroyed by fire 
 in 1857, was restored by Sir G. G. Scott. Hawar- 
 den Castle, Mr Gladstone's home, dates from 
 1752. Tlie park contains the ruined circular keep 
 of a 13th-century castle. St Deiniol's Library 
 here was established by Mr Gladstone. Lady 
 Hamilton passed her girlhood at Hawarden. 
 Pop. of parish, 7057. 
 Hawash, a river of Abyssinia. 
 Hawes Water, a Westmorland lake, measur- 
 ing 2^ miles by ^ mile, and 694 feet above sea- 
 level, between Mardale and Bampton. 
 
 Hawick (Hau'ick), a manufacturing town of 
 Roxburghshire, at the confluence of the Slitrig 
 with the Teviot, 52 miles by rail SSE. of Edinburgh 
 and 45 NNE. of Carlisle. Built in and round a 
 hollow, with villas and mansions above, it is a place 
 of hoar antiquity, but bears few traces thereof be- 
 yond the Moat, an artificial earthen mound 30 
 feet high and 312 in circumference, and part of 
 the Tower Hotel, which, once the peel-tower of 
 the Drumlanrig Douglases, and later a residence 
 of Monmouth's widowed duchess, was the only 
 building not burned by the Earl of Sussex in 
 1570. In the neighbourhood are Branxholm and 
 Harden, old homes of the Scotts ; and, older than 
 either, there is the refrain of the June Common- 
 riding song, 'Teribus ye Teri Odin,' which carries 
 us back to days of heathendom. Else, all is 
 modern — the handsome municipal building (1885); 
 the churches, more than a dozen in number, and 
 the oldest (1214) rebuilt in 1763 ; the splendid 
 water-supply (1865-82) ; and the hosiery and tweed 
 mills, to which, with dye works, tanneries, &c., 
 Hawick owes its prosperity. The hosiery manu- 
 facture dates from 1771, and that of shepherds' 
 plaids, tweeds, blankets, &c. from 1830. The 
 ancient municipal constitution of the burgh, 
 based on a charter granted by Sir James Douglas 
 of Drumlanrig in 1537, and confirmed by Queen 
 Mary in 1545, was reformed by special act of par- 
 liament in 1861 ; and since 1867 Hawick, Selkirk, 
 and Galashiels (the Border burghs) have returned 
 one member. Pop. (1891)19,204; (1901)17,303. 
 See a local history by Mrs Oliver (1887). 
 
 Hawkes Bay, a provincial district of New 
 Zealand, on the east coast, between Auckland 
 and Wellington. Area, 4765 sq. m. ; pop. (1871) 
 6059; (1901) 35,424. It presents rich alluvial 
 plains and undulating hills, with enormous 
 forests. The bay known as Hawke's Bay was 
 first entered by Captain Cook on 8th October 
 
HA.WKESBURY 
 
 332 
 
 HEANOR 
 
 1769, and was so named after Sir Edward Hawke, 
 then First Lord of the Admiralty. Napier (q.v.) 
 is the port and chief city. 
 
 Hawkesbury, a river of New South Wales, 
 rises in the CuUarin Range, and under the names 
 of WoUondilly and Nepean flows NB., then turns 
 as the Hawkesbury SB., and enters the Pacific 
 at Broken Bay, about 20 miles NE. of Sydney. 
 It has a total length of 330 miles, and is navigable 
 for vessels of 100 tons as high as Windsor. It 
 is crossed by a seven-span steel girder bridge 
 (1886-89), 2900 feet long, on the railway which 
 connects Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and 
 Brisbane. 
 
 Hawkshead, a town of north Lancashire, 5 
 miles SW. of Ambleside. Wordsworth was edu- 
 cated at the grammar-school, which was founded 
 by Archbishop Sandys in 1585. Pop. of parish, 638. 
 
 Haworth, a moorland town in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 4 miles SSW. of Keighley by a 
 branch-line. The old church has been ruthlessly 
 demolished, but in the churchyard are the graves 
 of Charlotte and Bmily Bronte. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Hawthornden, the romantic home of the poet 
 Drummond, in Midlothian, on the Esk, IJ mile 
 NE. of Roslin. 
 
 Hay, a Brecon market-tovra, on the Wye, 21 
 miles W. of Hereford. Pop. 1630. 
 
 Haydock, a Lancashire township, 3^ miles 
 ENE. of St Helens. Pop. 8575. 
 
 Haydon Bridge, a Northumberland town, on 
 the South Tyne, 7^ miles W. of Hexham. Pop. 
 of parish, 2045. 
 
 Haye, La. See Hague. 
 
 Hayes Barton, Devon, Raleigh's birthplace, 
 now a farmhouse, 4 miles WSW. of Sidmouth. 
 
 Hayle, a Cornish seaport, 4 miles SB. of St 
 Ives. Pop. 1073. 
 
 Hay River,' in the Canadian North-west, on 
 its north-eastward course to the southern shore 
 of the Great Slave Lake, forms the two Alexandra 
 Falls, 250 feet high and 300 yards wide. 
 
 Hayti, or Haiti (' mountainous country,' other- 
 wise HisPANiOLA— i.e. 'little Spain'— or Santo 
 Domingo), is, after Cuba, the largest of the West 
 Indian Islands, now divided into the independent 
 states of Hayti and the Dominican Republic 
 (q.v.). Nearly equidistant from Porto Rico, Cuba, 
 and Jamaica, it lies between 17° 37' and 20° N. 
 lat., and between 68° 20' and 74° 28' W. long. 
 As in the rest of the Greater Antilles, its 
 greatest length (about 400 miles) is in the direc- 
 tion—from west to east— of the chain of which it 
 forms a part ; its greatest breadth is 160 miles. 
 Area, including the islands of Tortuga, Gonaive, 
 &c., 28,820 sq. m., or nearly that of Scotland. 
 The country is mountainous, being traversed 
 longitudinally by northern, central, and southern 
 ridges, terminating in headlands on either coast ; 
 but between these ranges are wide and fertile 
 plains. The highest peak is Loina Tina (10,300 
 feet). The climate is hot and moist in the low 
 lands, the temperature at Port-au-Prince ranging 
 from 67° to 104° F. ; the mean range in the high- 
 lands is from 60° to 76° F. Earthquakes are fre- 
 quent, and occasional hurricanes visit the island. 
 It has excellent harbours. The mountains are 
 clothed with forests of pine and oak, and the 
 island is rich in mahogany, satinwood, rosewood, 
 and other valuable timbers. Cotton, rice, maize, 
 cocoa, ginger, arrowroot, yams, tobacco, and 
 numerous fruits are indigenous ; and the mango, 
 bread-fruit, sugar, coffee, and indigo are also 
 
 produced; but agriculture is very backward. 
 The minerals are now little worked, though some 
 gold-washing is still carried on. The rivers are 
 not navigable. Both rivers and lakes abound in 
 caymans as well as fish. The agouti is the lai-gest 
 wild mammal. 
 
 Hayti was discovered in 1492 by Columbus; 
 and within little more than one generation the 
 aborigines had been swept away by the remorse- 
 less cruelties of the Spaniards. Their place was 
 filled with negro slaves, who were introduced 
 as early as 1505. Next, about 1630, came the 
 buccaneers; and, as they were chiefly French, 
 the western portion of Hayti, which was their 
 favourite haunt, was in 1697 ceded to France by 
 the peace of Ryswick. For nearly a hundred 
 years vast reinforcements of Africans were im- 
 ported ; subsequently the mulattoes grew into an 
 intermediate caste, neither citizens nor bondsmen. 
 In 1791 the mutual antipathies of the three classes 
 — white, black, and mixed — burst forth into a 
 struggle which, before the close of the century, 
 led to the extermination of the Europeans, and 
 the independence of the coloured insurgents. 
 In 1801 France sent out a powerful armament, 
 treacherously seizing and deporting the deliverer 
 of his brethren, Toussaint I'Ouverture. In 1804 
 Dessalines, aping Napoleon's example, proclaimed 
 himself Emperor of Hayti. Sometimes one state, 
 and sometimes two, the country alternated be- 
 tween despotism and anarchy, between monarchy 
 and republicanism. Its only tranquil period of 
 any duration coincided with the rule (1820-43) of 
 President Boyer, at whose close the Spanish or 
 eastern portion of the island formed itself into 
 the Dominican Republic (q.v.). The western por- 
 tion of the island remained republican until 1849, 
 when its former president, the negro General 
 Soulouque proclaimed himself emperor as Faustin 
 I. In 1859 a republic Avas again proclaimed. 
 Few presidents have since been permitted to 
 complete their term of ofiice (seven years), 
 which has usually been cut short by revolutions. 
 Official peculation, judicial murder, and utter 
 corruption of every kind underlie the forms and 
 titles of civilised government ; the religion, 
 nominally Catholic, is largely vaudoux or serpent- 
 worship, in which cannibalism is even now a most 
 important element. Instead of progressing, the 
 negro republicans have gone back to the lowest 
 type of African barbarism. 
 
 The area of the republic of Hayti is about 9200 
 sq. m. ; the pop. is estimated at about 1,200,000. 
 The capital, Port-au-Prince, has some 70,000 in- 
 habitants. The dialect is a debased French. The 
 chief exports are coff'ee, cacao, logwood, maho- 
 gany, and cotton. See works by St John (1884), 
 Marcuse (German, 1894), Marcelin (French, 1893), 
 Vibert (French, 1895), Jean Owen (1898), Black- 
 man (1899), and Hesketh Prichard (1900). 
 
 Hayward's Heath, a Sussex market-town, 12]^ 
 miles N. of Brighton. Pop. 3720. 
 
 Hazaribagli, a town of Cliota Nagpore, Bengal. 
 Pop. 17,306. 
 
 Hazebrouck, a town in the French dep. of 
 Nord, 28 miles WNW. of Lille. Pop. 12,650. 
 
 Hazleton, a borough of Pennsylvania, 100 miles 
 NNW. of Philadelphia, has ironworks, lumber- 
 mills, and railway-car shops, and is the centre 
 of the rich Lehigh coalfield. Pop. 15,500. 
 
 Headford, a village 20 miles N. of Galway. 
 Pop. 511. 
 
 Heanor, a Derbyshire town, 6 miles B. by S. 
 of Belper, with coal-pits and ironworks. Pop« 
 of urban district, 16,250. 
 
HEART'S CONTENT 
 
 333 
 
 HEIDELBERG 
 
 Heart's Content, a port of Newfomulland, on 
 tlie east side of Trinity Bay. Pop. 1080. 
 
 Heathfield, a Sussex parish, 8 miles N. of 
 Hailsham, a great poultry-fanning centre, with 
 natural gas from borings. Heathfield Park was 
 purchased in 1763 by General Eliott, Lord 
 Heathfield. Pop. 2700. 
 
 Heath Town, a north-east suburb of Wolver- 
 hampton. Pop. 9450. 
 
 Heaton-Norris, a Lancashire town, suburban 
 to Stockport (q.v.). Pop, 9480. 
 
 Hebbum, a Durham town, on the Tyne, 3 
 miles WSW. of South Shields, It has chemical 
 works and shipbuilding. Pop. (1881) 11,802; 
 (1901) 20,901. 
 
 Hebden Bridge, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, at the Hebden's influx to the Calder, 
 8 miles W. by N. of Halifax, It manufactures 
 cotton, silk, iron, &c. Pop. 7658. 
 
 Heb'rides, or Western Islajstds, the general 
 name applied to all the islands on the west coast 
 of Scotland, To the Outer Hebrides belong 
 Lewis with Harris (Long Island), North Uist, 
 Benbecula, South Uist, Barra, and remote St 
 Kilda, 00 miles to the west. The principal of 
 the Inner Islands are Skye, Eigg, Coll, Tiree, 
 Mull, lona, Staffa, Ulva, Lismore, Kerrera, Colon - 
 say, Oronsay, Jura, and Islay, Bute, the Cum- 
 braes, and Arran are usually counted amongst 
 the Hebrides ; and to the same group were 
 anciently assigned the peninsula of Kintyre, the 
 island of Rathlin, and the Isle of Man, The 
 total number of islands of any size is about 500, 
 but of these four-fifths are uninhabited. Of the 
 whole surface only about 200,000 acres are arable ; 
 the rest is pasture-land of little value, morasses, 
 peat-mosses, lakes, and barren sands and rocks. 
 Owing to the Gulf Stream, the Hebrides have a 
 mild thovigh humid climate. Politically they are 
 distributed among the Scottish counties of Ross, 
 Inverness, Argyll, and Bute, The crofters, who 
 mostly speak Gaelic, are much occupied in fish- 
 ing and fowling. Much of the area has been 
 converted into sheep-walks, whilst extensive 
 tracts are let to sportsmen. The Hebrides are 
 the Ebudce of Ptolemy and Pliny's HebMes (of 
 which 'Hebrides' is a corruption), and Sxidrey- 
 jar (Southern Islands) of the Norwegians. This 
 last name was Latinised as Sodorenses, which 
 survives in the title ' Bishop of Sodor and Man." 
 The early Celtic inhabitants were converted to 
 Christianity by St Columba in the 6th century. 
 After 872 several of the islands were colonised 
 by Norwegians, who came hither to escape the 
 iron rule of Harold Haarfager. But to punish 
 their depredations on the coast of Norway, 
 Harold sent an expedition westwards, which 
 subdued all the Western Islands as far south 
 as Man. To Norway they remained subject till 
 1266. In 1346 the head of the Macdonalds sub- 
 dued them, and took the title of Lord of the Isles ; 
 and froni 1504 they became definitively Scottish 
 possessions. Ecclesiastically they remained de- 
 pendent on Norway till 1374. In the 19th century 
 the population greatly declined. All the prin- 
 cipal islands are separately treated. 
 
 See works by Martin (1703), Pennant (1774), 
 
 Dr Johnson (1775), Gregory (1836), R. Buchanan 
 
 (1883), Miss Gordon Gumming (1883), and Miss 
 
 Goodrich-Freer (1902). 
 
 Hebrides, New. See New Hebrides. 
 
 J Hebron, one of the oldest cities in Palestine, 
 
 miles SSW. of Jerusalem. It was the seven 
 
 irs' residence of King David before he con- 
 
 quered Jerusalem. The modern town, El Khalll 
 (' the friend '—of God, Abraham), is a poor place, 
 with some 18,000 inhabitants. It lies low down 
 in a narrow valley — the Valley of Eshcol, famous 
 now, as of old, for its gmpes. The church erected 
 by the Empress Helena, and converted into a 
 mosque called El-Haram, ('sanctuary'), encloses 
 the cave which is the traditional burial-place of 
 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 
 
 Heckmondwlke, a market-town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 8 miles NE. of Huddersfield. 
 It is the chief seat of the carpet and blanket 
 manufactures in the West Riding, and also makes 
 rugs, pilot-cloth, and flushings. There are iron- 
 works, machine-shops, and coal-mines in the 
 neighbourhood. Here was born John Curwen, 
 the inventor of the Tonic Solfa system. Pop. 
 (1851) 4540 ; (1901) 9460. 
 
 Hecla, or Hekla, a volcano in Iceland, stands 
 isolated 20 miles from the SW. coast and 68 E. 
 of Reykjavik. Its snow-clad summit is 5102 feet 
 high, and has five craters ; its sides are seamed 
 by numerous deep ravines. The principal rocks 
 are lava and tuff". Since the 9th century there 
 have been eighteen outbreaks, generally very 
 violent, and often long continued. In September 
 1845 a terrific outbreak occurred and lasted for 
 more than a year. A fine dust from this eruption 
 was scattered over the Orkney Islands, a distance 
 of 500 miles. 
 
 Hedgeley, a Northumbrian township, 8 miles 
 WNW. of Alnwick. It was the scene of a skirm- 
 ish (1464), in which Sir Ralph Percy fell. 
 
 Hedjaz. See Arabia. 
 
 Hedon, a decayed borough in the East Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 5i miles E. of Hull. Pop. 1000. 
 
 Heide, the chief town of northern Ditmarsh, in 
 the Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, 58 
 miles by rail WSW. of Kiel. Pop. 7355. 
 
 Heidelberg, an ancient city of Baden, extends 
 3 miles along the left bank of the Neckar, in one 
 of the most beautiful districts in the country, 13 
 miles by rail SE. of Mannheim and 54 S. of Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main. It lies 380 feet above sea-level, 
 at the base of the Konigsstuhl (1863 feet). Among 
 its most important buildings are the Church of 
 the Holy Ghost, a splendid example of Late 
 Gothic architecture, in which service according 
 to the Catholic and Protestant rituals is simul- 
 taneously carried on ; the church of St Peter's, on 
 the door of which Jerome of Prague nailed his 
 celebrated theses; and the magnificent castle, 
 which crowns a hill 330 feet above the town. 
 Begun at the close of the 13th century, and 
 added to in 1410, 1559, and 1607, it Avas formerly 
 the residence of the Electors Palatine, and was 
 in great part destroyed by the French in 1689 
 and 1693, and further injured by lightning in 
 1764. In 1890 was undertaken the work of restor- 
 ing its ruins at a cost of £50,000. In the cellar 
 under the castle is the famous Heidelberg Tun, 
 once capable of containing 50,000 gallons of wine. 
 Heidelberg is celebrated for its university (1386), 
 which declined from the Thirty Years' War until 
 1802, when the town and territory was assigned 
 to the Grand-duke of Baden. It has about 
 150 professors and lecturers, and over 1500 
 students. Its library contains 500,000 volumes 
 and 4700 MSS. Many of the most famous 
 German scholars have been professors here— 
 Reuchlin, (Ecolampadius, Spanheim, Puffen- 
 dorf, Voss, Schlosser, Creuzer, Gervinus, Paulus, 
 Kuno Fischer, Helmholtz, Bunsen, Bliintschli, 
 &c. Heidelberg, originally an appanage of 
 
HEILBRONN 
 
 334 
 
 HELSINGBORG 
 
 the bishopric of Worms, was the seat of the 
 Counts Palatine from the 12th till the 18th 
 century. After the Reformation it was long the 
 headquarters of Gennan Calvinism. The trade 
 is chiefly in books, tobacco, beer, and wine. 
 The town sufl'ered much during the Thirty Years' 
 War, was savagely treated by the French in 1689, 
 and was in 1693 almost totally destroyed by them. 
 Pop. (1871) 19,988 ,• (1900) 40,121, of whom two- 
 flfths are Catholics. 
 
 Heilbronn, an old town of Wiirtemberg, on the 
 right bank of the Neckar, in a beautiful and 
 fertile region, 28 miles by rail N. of Stuttgart. 
 The churcli of St Kilian, partly Gothic and partly 
 Renaissance ; the old town-hall ; the Diebsthurm 
 (' Thief s Tower '), in which Gotz von Berlichingen 
 was confined ; and the house of the Teutonic 
 Knights, now a barrack, are the principal build- 
 ings. The industries include the manufacture of 
 silver-plate, paper,, iron, sugar, salt, chicory, and 
 chemicals. Pop. 39,000. 
 
 Heiligenstadt, a Catholic town of Prussian 
 Saxony, situated on the Leine, 32 miles ENE. of 
 Cassel by rail. Pop. 5861. 
 
 Heilsberg, a town of Prussia, 40 miles S. 
 of Konigsberg. Here the Russians and Prussians 
 defeated the French in 1807. Pop. 5705. 
 
 Heilsbronn, a Bavarian village of Middle 
 Franconia, 16 miles SW. of Nuremberg by rail, 
 was the seat of a celebrated Cistercian inonastery, 
 founded in 1132, and suppressed in 1255. 
 
 Hekla. See Hecla. 
 
 Helder, The, a strongly-fortified seaport in 
 the Dutch province of North Holland, 51 miles 
 by rail NNW. of Amsterdam. It stands on the 
 Marsdiep, which connects the Zuider Zee and 
 the German Ocean, and at the northern extremity 
 of the North Holland Canal. First fortified by 
 Napoleon in 1811, it has an arsenal, a college for 
 cadets, a meteorological institute, and an ex- 
 cellent harbour. Pop. 25,760. r 
 
 Helena, capital of Montana state, U.S., on the 
 Northern Pacific Railway, is an important mining 
 centre. The famous Last Chance Gulch gold- 
 mine runs through the city. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 Helensburgh (El'hm-bur'row), a Scottish 
 watering-place in Dumbartonshire, on the right 
 bank of the Firth of Clyde, at the entrance to 
 the Gareloch. It was founded in 1777 by Sir 
 James Colquhoun, and named after liis wife 
 Helen. Pop. about 8600, wliich is nearly doubled 
 in summer. In 1871 it was barely 6000. 
 
 Helicon, a mountain-range (5736 feet) of SW. 
 Boeotia, in ancient Greece, was celebrated as the 
 favourite seat of the Muses. At the foot of the 
 range stood the village of Ascra, the residence of 
 Hesiod, and the seat of the earliest school of 
 poetry in Greece. On the slopes were the famous 
 fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene. 
 
 He'ligoland ('Holy Land;' Ger. Helgoland), a 
 small island in the North Sea, belonging since 
 1890 to Germany, is situated 36 miles NW. of the 
 mouth of the Elbe. It is 1 mile long from N. to 
 S., i mile from E. to W., and f sq. m. in area. 
 Tlie Oberland is a rock 206 feet high, on which 
 stands a town of 400 houses, and access to which 
 is obtained by 192 steps or by a steam-lift ; while 
 the Unterland is a patch of shore with 70 houses 
 south-east of the cliff". The resident pop. was 
 hardly more than about 2500 in 1905 ; but in the 
 bathing season Heligoland is visited by upwards of 
 12,000 summer visitors— attracted by the bathing 
 facilities of the 'Sandy Island,' or Diine, once 
 connected with the main island, separated from 
 
 it by a channel about a mile wide. Denudatlng 
 agencies are reducing Heligoland itself, which 
 between 1890 and 1905 lost nearly a fourth 
 of its area. The soil on the flat top of the 
 rock of Heligoland suffices for a little pasture- 
 land, and for growing potatoes and cabbages. 
 The spit of the Unterland gives partial shelter 
 to two harbours, one north, the other south. 
 The inhabitants are supported chiefly by the 
 lobster and other fisheries, and by the summer 
 visitors ; the public gaming-tables, established in 
 1830, having been suppressed in 1871. A light- 
 house stands on the cliff" near the village. The 
 island, taken by the British from the Danes in 
 1807, and formally ceded to England in 1814, was 
 ceded to Germany in 1890, in return for conces- 
 sions made to Britain in East Africa. It has 
 since been strongly fortified. A dialect of North 
 Frisian is the native tongue, but German is 
 currently spoken. Heligoland was anciently 
 sacred to the goddess Hertha. Christianity was 
 first preached here by St Willibrod in the 7th 
 century. The fishers are Frisians, a tall and 
 muscular race of hardy seamen. The merchants 
 are immigrants from the mainland, or their de- 
 scendants. The people, though they had been 
 very loyal to Great Britain, accepted without 
 opposition the annexation to Germany ; and after 
 a visit from the Emperor, Heligoland was form- 
 ally incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia 
 and the province of Sleswick-Holstein. See 
 works by Black (1888), Lindemann (German, 
 1889), and Lipsius (German, 1892). 
 
 Heliopolis ('city of the sun'), the Greek name 
 of the city called by the Egyptians On or An, 
 which stood on the east side of the Pelusiac 
 branch of the Nile, near the apex of the Delta, 
 and was one of the most ancient and important 
 of Egyptian cities. It was the chief seat of the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians. See also Baalbek. 
 
 Hellas. See Greece. 
 
 Hellespont. See Dardanelles. 
 
 Hell Gate, or Hurl Gate, named by the 
 Dutch settlers of New York Helle Gat, is a pass 
 in the East River, between New York City and 
 Long Island, formerly very dangerous to vessels 
 from its rapid current and from its numerous 
 rocks — blasted away only in 1885. 
 
 Hellin, a town of Spain, 69 miles by rail NNW. 
 of Murcia. In the vicinity are productive sulphur- 
 mines and sulphur-springs. Pop. 12,714. 
 
 Hell's Glen, an Argyllshire glen between 
 Inveraray and Lochgoilhead. 
 
 Helmingham Hall, the fine moated Elizabethan 
 seat of Lord ToUemache, in Suff"olk, 9 miles N. 
 by E. of Ipswich. 
 
 Helmond, a Dutch town, 23 miles NW. of Venlo 
 by rail. Pop. 11,450. 
 
 Helmsdale, a Sutlierland fishing-village, 83 
 miles by rail NNE. of Dingwall. Pop. 780. 
 
 Helmsley, a Yorkshire town, 31 J miles N. of 
 York, with linen manufactures. Pop. 1500. 
 
 Helmstedt, a Gennan town, 24 miles ESB. of 
 Brunswick. From 1574 to 1809 it was the seat 
 of a Protestant university. Pop. 14,260. 
 
 Helmund, or Helmand, a river of Afghanistan, 
 rises on the south slopes of the Hindu Kush, and 
 flows 680 miles south-west, west, and north-west 
 to the lake of Hamun or Seistan. 
 
 Helslngborg, a seaport of southern Sweden, 
 32 miles by rail NW. of Malinb, on the Sound, 
 opposite Elsinore (Dan. Helsingor). It has a 
 good harbour. Pop, 26,000. 
 
HELSINGFORS 
 
 335 
 
 HEECULANEUM 
 
 HelBingfors, a fortified seaport and naval 
 station, capital of the grand-duchy of Finland, 
 is situated on a peninsula, surrounded by islands 
 and rocky cliffs, in the Gulf of Finland, 191 miles 
 W. of St Petersburg by sea and 256 by rail. A 
 series of formidable batteries, called the forti- 
 fications of Sve^borg, protect the liarbour. 
 Helsingfors is the largest and handsomest town 
 of Finland ; the broad streets intersect at right 
 angles, and there are several fine parks and public 
 squares. Of the public buildings the most strik- 
 ing are the house in which the diet meets, the 
 senate-house, and the university buildings. The 
 university, removed hither from Abo in 1828, 
 lias over 2500 students, a library of 300,000 
 volumes, a hospital, a botanic garden, and ob- 
 servatory. Helsingfors, truly ' a slumless city,' 
 is a favourite bathing-place. It carries on trade 
 in Baltic produce; exports timber, paper, and 
 butter, and imports iron and steel goods, machin- 
 ery, colonial wares, &c. Pop. (1870) 32,113; 
 (1902) 100,812. Helsingfors was founded by 
 Gustavus I. of Sweden in the 16th century. In 
 August 1855, during the Crimean war, SveSborg 
 was bombarded, with no great result, for two 
 days and nights by the allied fleet. 
 
 Helston, an old Cornish market-town, 10 miles 
 WSW. of Falmouth. It was made a borough by 
 King John in 1201 ; and from Edward I.'s reign 
 to 1832 returned two members, then one till 1885. 
 It has long been noted for its Furry or Flora 
 Dance, held on 8th May. There is a branch rail- 
 way (1887) from Gwinear Road. Pop. 3098. 
 
 Heluan, or Helwan, a town 15 miles SE. of 
 Cairo by rail, with well-appointed mineral 
 springs, batlis, ajid hotels. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Helvellyn, one of the liighest mountains of 
 England, in the west of Cumberland, between 
 Keswick and Ambleside. It is 3118 feet high, is 
 easy of ascent, and commands magnificent views. 
 
 Helvoetsluys, or Hellevoetsluis, a fortified 
 Dutch seaport, on the Haringvliet, an arm of the 
 Maas, 17 miles SW. of Rotterdam. Here William 
 III. embarked for England in 1688. Pop. 4362. 
 
 Hemel Hempstead, a market-town of Hert- 
 fordshire, 23 miles NW. of London, a centre of 
 the straw-plaiting industry. It has also paper- 
 mills, iron-foundries, tanneries, and breweries. 
 Pop. of parish, 11,500. 
 
 Hems, HoMS, or Hums (Lat. Emesa), a city of 
 Syria, near the right bank of the Orontes, 63 
 miles NE. of Tripoli. In ancient times it was 
 chiefly celebrated for its temple of the Sun, Pop. 
 60,000. See Hamah. 
 
 Henderson, capital of Henderson county, 
 Kentucky, on the Ohio, 10 miles S. of Evans- 
 ville by rail, with tobacco-factories. Pop. 10,280. 
 
 Hengrave Hall, a splendid Tudor mansion 
 (1538) in Suffolk, 3 miles NNW. of Bury St 
 Edmunds. 
 
 Henley-ln-Arden, a Warwickshire town, on 
 the Arrow, 8 miles WNW. of Stratford-on-Avon. 
 Pop. 1043. 
 
 Henley-on-Thames, a municipal borough of 
 Oxfordshire, at the base of the Chiltern Hills, 
 and on the left bank of the Thames, 8 miles NB. 
 of Reading, 36 W. of London, and 24 SE. of 
 Oxford by road (by river 47). The five-arch 
 bridge was built in 1786 at a cost of £10,000 ; 
 the parish church. Decorated in style, was re- 
 stored in 1864; and the grammar-school was 
 founded in 1605. Malting and brewing are carried 
 on ; and there is a considerable trade in corn, 
 flour, ana timber. The principal amateur regattJ^ 
 
 of England has been held here every summer 
 since 1839. Pop. 600a 
 
 Hennegau. See Hainault. 
 
 Herat', capital of the most westerly of the 
 three divisions of Afghanistan, stands on the 
 Hari-Rud, 2500 feet above sea-level, and 390 miles 
 W. of Kabul, in 34° 50' N. lat., 62" 30' E. long. 
 Situated near the boundaries of Afghanistan, 
 Persia, and Russian Turkestan, Herat is one of 
 the principal marts of Central Asia, and has 
 manufactures in wool and leather. The vicinity, 
 naturally fertile, is rendered much more so by 
 irrigation. Long the royal seat of the descendants 
 of Timur, Herat is fortified by a ditch and wall, 
 and is commanded on its north side by a strong 
 citadel built about 1837 under British direction. 
 In modern times the place has acquired European 
 importance, being, towards Persia and Russia, the 
 key of Afghanistan, and so of western India. In 
 1856 the Shah captured Herat ; but he was within 
 a few months constrained to relinquish his prey by 
 a British expedition. Since Russia, after having 
 annexed Merv (1884), pushed her frontiers to 
 within 40 miles of the city, Herat is the pivot 
 of the Central Asian question. Indigo, dried 
 fruits, dyes, asafoetida, rice, wool, carpets, raw 
 hides, silk, and leather wares are the chief items 
 of export, whilst chintzes, cloth, sugar, iron- 
 wares, and European arms are imported— recently 
 from Russia. The town, once famous for its 
 splendid buildings, is to-day a heap of ruins, 
 amid which the citadel, the Charsu, the Tuma 
 Musjid, and parts of the Musallah are prominent 
 as remnants of a bygone glory. The population, 
 chiefly Persians, Tajiks, and Chihar Aimaks — 
 Afghans constitute only the garrison — has fluctu- 
 ated within the century from 100,000 to 10,000 ; 
 the average pop. now being about 40,000. See 
 Malleson's Herat (1880), and Yate's Northern 
 Afghanistan (1888). 
 
 Herault, a maritime dep. in the south of 
 France, washed by the Gulf of Lyons. Area, 
 2393 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 429,878 ; (1901) 489,421. 
 It is divided into the four arrondissements of 
 Beziers, Lod^ve, Montpellier (the capital), and 
 Saint-Pons. 
 
 Herculaneum, an ancient city of Italy, so 
 called from the local worship of Hercules, was 
 situated at the north-western base of Mount 
 Vesuvius, 5 miles E. of Naples. In 63 a.d. it 
 was seriously injured by a violent earthquake, 
 and in 79 buried, along with Pompeii and Stabise, 
 by the memorable eruption of Vesuvius. It now 
 lies at a depth of from 40 to 100 feet below the 
 surface, and is filled up and covered with volcanic 
 tufa. Above it, on the modern surface, are the 
 villages of Portici and Resina. In 1738 syste- 
 matic excavations were commenced, the chief 
 building explored being the theatre, which has 
 eighteen rows of stone seats, and could accom- 
 modate 8000 persons. Part of the Forum with 
 its colonnades, a colonnade, two small temples, 
 and a villa have also been discovered ; and from 
 these buildings many beautiful statues and re- 
 markable paintings have been obtained. In 1880 
 ruins of extensive baths were brought to light. 
 Among the art-relics of Herculaneum, which far 
 exceed in value and interest those found at 
 Pompeii, are the statues of yEschines, Agrippina, 
 the Sleeping Faun, the Six Actresses, Mercury, 
 the group of the Satyr and the Goat, the busts 
 of Plato, Scipio Africanus, Augustus, Seneca, 
 Demosthenes, &c. — mostly now in the National 
 Museum at Naples, 
 
HERCYNIAN FOREST 
 
 336 
 
 HERTFORD 
 
 Hercynian Forest (Lat. Hercynia silva), the 
 wooded inouutain-ranges of middle Germany, 
 from the Ehitie to the Carpathian Mountains. 
 
 Her'eford, the county town of Herefordshire, 
 on the left bank of the Wye, 144 miles by rail 
 WNW. of London, and 51 S. of Shrewsbury. Its 
 noble cathedral was built between 1079 and 1535, 
 and so exhibits every variety of style from 
 Norman to Perpendicular. Measuring 342 feet 
 by 146 across the transept, it has a central tower 
 165 feet high. It suffered niuch at Wyatt's hands 
 after the fall of the western tower in 17S6, but 
 has been judiciously restored by Cottingham 
 (1841-52) and Sir G. G. Scott (1856-63). Special 
 features are the elaborate metal-work screen, the 
 shrine of St Thomas de Cantilupe (1282), the 
 organ, and the 'Mappa Mundi,' or map of the 
 world (c. 1314). Hereford, with Gloucester and 
 Worcester, is one of the meeting-places of the 
 'Three Choirs.' Other edifices are the Doric 
 shire-hall (1817), in front of it a statue (1864) of 
 Sir G. C. Lewis; the corn exchange (1858), the 
 episcopal palace (formed out of a Norman hall), 
 the college of vicars choral (c. 1474), the 14th- 
 century grammar-school, the half-timbered 'Old 
 House,' the guildhall, the butchers' guildhall, 
 the Coningsby Hospital (1610), the free library 
 (1876), &c. The Nelson column (1807) marks the 
 site of the almost obliterated castle ; and the 
 White Cross, one mile out on the Hay road, 
 commemorates the Black Death of 1347. Nell 
 Gwynne and Garrick were natives. A large trade 
 is done in agricultural produce ; and the rose- 
 gardens of Hereford are famous. The seat of a 
 bishopric from 676, the city was chartered by 
 Henry III., and returned two members to parlia- 
 ment—now only one— from Edward I.'s reign till 
 1885. It has stood many sieges from Stephen's 
 time down to the Great Rebellion. Pop. (1851) 
 12,108; (1881) 19,822 ; (1901) 21,382. See works 
 by Britton (1831) and Havergal (1869). 
 
 Herefordshire, an inland county in the west 
 of England, bounded by Shropshire, Worcester, 
 Gloucester, Monmouth, and South Wales. In 
 length it measures 38 miles, in breadth 35, and 
 its area is 833 sq. m. Pop. (1801) 89,191 ; (1871) 
 125,370 ; (1881) 121,062 ; (1901) 114,380. The sur- 
 face is mostly hilly with occasional valleys open- 
 ing into widespread plains, the chief hill-ranges 
 being those of the Hatterell or Black Mountains 
 (2631 feet) on the south-western, and the Malvern 
 Hills (1395) on the eastern boundary of the 
 county. It is watered by the Teme, and the 
 beautiful Wye with its affluents the Lugg, Arrow, 
 and Monnow. Hops are largely cultivated, and 
 the area of the orchards exceeds 27,000 acres. 
 Herefordshire is celebrated for its cattle, and 
 its horses and sheep are in a lesser degree well 
 known. Cider-making is the principal manu- 
 facture, and malting is also carried on ; whilst 
 sandstone, limestone, and marble have been 
 largely quarried. The county, divided into 11 
 hundreds and 258 parishes, returns three mem- 
 bers, one for each of its two divisions (Leomin- 
 ster and Ross), and one for the city of Hereford. 
 The principal towns are Hereford, Leominster, 
 Ross, and Ledbury. Of places of interest in the 
 county mention may be made of Offa's Dyke 
 (q.v.); of Dorstone, where there is a large and 
 curious cromlech known, as ' Arthur's Stone ; ' 
 of the ruins of Clifford Castle, the birthplace of 
 'Fair Rosamond;' and of the Hereford Beacon 
 on the Malvern Hills, on which is a camp, 
 ascribed to Caractacus. Robert Devereux, Earl 
 of Essex (Queen Elizabeth's favourite), Richard 
 
 Whittington, David Garrick, John Kyrle ('The 
 Man of Ross '), and Nell Gwynne, were all natives 
 of Herefordshire ; and Mrs Browning, the poetess, 
 passed her childhood there. See the Quarterly 
 Review for 1879, and works there cited, with 
 one also by Thornhill Timmins (1892). 
 
 Herencia, a town of Spain, 40 miles NE. of 
 Ciudad Real. Pop. 5968. 
 
 Hereros. See Damaraland. 
 
 Herford, a Prussian town in Westphalia, 59 
 miles SW. of Hanover by rail. It manufactures 
 cottons, linens, sugar, &c. Pop. 25,902. 
 
 Heri-rud. See Hari-rud. 
 
 Herisau, a town, with cotton-mills, in the 
 Swiss canton Appenzell, 2549 feet above sea-level, 
 and 5^ miles SW. of St Gall by rail. Pop. 13,783. 
 
 Heristal, or Herstal, an industrial town of 
 Belgium, on the Meuse, virtually a suburb NB. 
 of Liege. It is mostly inhabited by workers in 
 the coal-mines and the iron and steel works. 
 Here King Pepin was born and Charlemagne 
 often lived. Pop. 18,200. 
 
 Herkulesbad. See Mehabia. 
 
 Hermannstadt (Lat. Cibinium, Hung. Nagy- 
 Szeben), a town of Hungary, formerly capital of 
 Transylvania, at the terminus of a branch rail- 
 way (28 miles long), 370 miles SE. of Pesth. It is 
 the seat of a Greek archbishop and of a ' Saxon ' 
 university. The fine Bruckenthal palace con- 
 tains a picture-gallery and a library of 30,000 
 volumes. Tanning, wax-bleaching, and the mak- 
 ing of cloth, paper, candles, sugar, and hats are 
 carried on. Pop. 26,500. 
 
 Hermitage Castle, a ruin in Liddesdale, Rox- 
 burghshire, 5| miles N. by E. of Newcastleton. 
 It has memories of Bothwell and Queen Mary. 
 
 Hermon, Mount (now Jebel-es-Sheikh), 9150 
 feet high, is the culminating point of the Anti- 
 Libanus range. See Lebanon. 
 
 Hermopolis Magna (mod. Ashmun or Eshmoon), 
 an ancient town of Egypt, on the Nile, at the 
 border of the Thebaid, and near the frontier line 
 of upper and middle Egypt. 
 
 Hennosillo, capital of the Mexican state of 
 Sonora, on the Rio Sonora, 50 miles by rail N. 
 of the port of Guaymas. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Hermoupolis. See Syra. 
 
 Hermus, a river of Asia Minor, flowing through 
 the plain of Sardis to the Gulf of Smyrna. 
 
 Heme Bay, a watering-place of Kent, 12 miles 
 W. of Margate. Pop. 6800. 
 
 Heme Hill, a London suburb, 8J miles S. of 
 St Paul's. 
 
 Hemosand, a Swedish port on the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, 250 miles N. of Stockholm, exporting 
 timber, wood-pulp, and iron. Pop. 8500. 
 
 Herrnhut, a small town of Saxony, 18 miles 
 SE. of Bautzen, the chief seat, from 1722, of the 
 Moravian Brethren or Herrnhuters. Pop. 1225. 
 
 Hersfeld, an old town of Hesse-Nassau, on the 
 navigable Fulda, 27 miles N. of Fulda by rail. 
 Here are a fine Gothic church (1320) ; a ruined 
 cathedral, destroyed by the French in 1761 ; 
 and the once celebrated Benedictine abbey, 
 founded in 769. Pop. 7871. 
 
 Herstmonceaux. See Hurstmonceaux. 
 
 Hertford, the county town of Hertfordshire, 
 26 miles N. of London by rail, on the Lea, which 
 is navigable for barges up to this point. It has 
 a town or shire hall (1768), an infirmary, a corn 
 exchange and free library (1859), a grammar- 
 school and several charity schools, whilst nt tha 
 
HERTFORDSHIRE 
 
 337 
 
 HEXHAM 
 
 entrance into the town on the London Road is a 
 preparatory school in connection with Christ's 
 Hospital in London. A considerable trade is 
 carried on in corn, malt, and flour. Hertford, 
 whose municipal boundary was extended in 1892, 
 returned two members to parliament till 1867, 
 and then till 1885 one. Pop. (1851) 6605 ; (1901) 
 9322. The New River (q.v.) has its source a mile 
 east of tlie town, and 2 miles westward is Pan- 
 shanger, the seat of Earl Cowper, with its valu- 
 able collection of pictures. Of the old castle of 
 Hertford, commenced by Edward the Elder about 
 905 to protect the inhabitants from the Danes, 
 and strengthened by the Conqueror, but a small 
 portion now remains ; the present castle was 
 built by William Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, or Sir 
 William Harrington, in the reign of James I., and 
 in 1805-9 was occupied by the East India Com- 
 pany as a temporary college during the erection 
 of Haileybury (q.v.). See Turner's History of 
 Hertford (1830). 
 
 Hertfordshire, or Herts, an inland county of 
 England, bounded by Cambridge, Essex, Middle- 
 sex, and Bucks, is 35 miles long from NE. to SW., 
 20 miles in mean breadth, and 611 sq. m. in area, 
 of which more than one-half is under tillage, one- 
 fourth pasture, and one-seventeenth in wood. It 
 is divided into 8 hundreds, 2 municipal boroughs 
 (Hertford and St Albans), and 188 parishes, and 
 has 11 market-towns, the chief of which are Hert- 
 ford (the county town), St Albans, Watford, 
 Hitchin, Hemel Hempstead, and Bishop-Stort- 
 ford. Pop. (1801) 97,577 ; (1841) 156,660 ; (1881) 
 203,140 ; (1901) 250,152. The surface is mostly 
 level, except in the north, where a branch of 
 the Chiltern Hills skirts the county, Kensworth 
 Hill (904 feet) being the highest point. The prin- 
 cipal rivers are tlie Lea, Stort, and Colne, all 
 affluents of the Thames, and the artificial New 
 River (q.v.) : the Grand Junction Canal, too, 
 passes through the south-western extremity of 
 the county. Straw-plaiting is largely carried on 
 in the north and west portions, where the land 
 is least adapted for agriculture ; near Watford 
 and Rickmansworth are paper and silk factories, 
 and at Great Berkhampstead extensive chemical 
 works. Ware is the chief seat of the malting 
 trade in the kingdom ; Cheshunt, Waltham Cross, 
 and Bishop-Stortford are famous for their rose- 
 gardens, and in some districts watercress is ex- 
 tensively cultivated for the London market. 
 Herts is almost entirely in the diocese of St 
 A-lbans and in the South-eastern Circuit, and 
 since 1885 has returned one member to parlia- 
 nent for each of its four divisions — North or 
 Sitchin, East or Hertford, Mid or St Albans, 
 md West or Watford. Herts contains the battle- 
 ields of St Albans and Barnet ; and other places 
 »f historic interest are Rye House, Kings Lang- 
 ey, Hunsdon House, Hatfield, and Theobalds. 
 Vmongst the worthies of Herts have been 
 ficholas Brakespeare, afterwards Pope Adrian 
 V. ; Francis Bacon ; Richard Gough, the anti- 
 uary; the poet Cowper ; Bulwer Lytton ; Charles 
 amb ; and John Leech. See Cussan's History of 
 
 ^.erts (1880). 
 
 Hertogenbosch. See Bois-le-Duc. 
 
 Hervey Islands. See Cook Islands. 
 
 Herzegovina. See Bosnia. 
 
 Hesse (Hes'seh; Ger. Hessen), or Hesse-Darm- 
 
 ADT, a German grand-duchy, divided by a strip 
 Hesse-Nassau into a northern part, Ober- 
 
 !ssen, completely enclosed by Prussia, and a 
 
 uthern part, comprising Starkenburg, east of 
 
 e Rhine, and Rheinhessen, west of the Rhine. 
 
 Besides, there are eleven enclaves in Baden and 
 Prussia. Oberhessen is partly occupied in the 
 east by the Vogelsberg, culminating in Tauf- 
 stcin (2532 feet), in the south-west by a ramifica- 
 tion of the Taunus, the fertile and undulating 
 valley of Wetterau lying between them. Stark- 
 enburg, in the south-east, is covered by part of 
 the Odenwald. The Bergstrasse divides the up- 
 lands of Starkenburg from the plain of the Rhine. 
 Rheinhessen, fertile and populous uplands, laid 
 out largely in vineyards, lies between Kreuz- 
 nach, Mainz, and Worms. Except some streams 
 draining into the Fulda and Weser, the waters 
 of Hesse— Main, Neckar, and Lahn— belong to 
 the Rhine system. Of the total surface, com- 
 prising 2966 sq. m., 50 per cent, is tilled land 
 and garden, and 31 forest. The most important 
 products are corn, pulse, potatoes, rape, poppy, 
 tobacco, flax, fruit, vines, iron, manganese ore, 
 and peat. The industries— mainly in Mainz, 
 Offenbach, and Worms— include the making of 
 leather, boots, upholstery, tobacco, cigars, chemi- 
 cals, &c. The total pop. amounted in 1875 to 
 882,349, in 1900 to 1,119,893. Of these 489,512 
 belonged to Starkenburg, and 746,201 were Pro- 
 testants. The chief towns are Mainz, Darmstadt 
 (tlie capital), Offenbach, Worms, and Giessen. 
 Tlie Hessians were an ancient German tribe in 
 Tliuringia ; but we first hear of the landgrave of 
 Hesse in the 13th century. In 1806 Louis X. 
 assumed the title of grand-duke. In 1866 Hesse, 
 having sided with Austria, had to yield up Hesse- 
 Homburg, &c., to Prussia. 
 
 Hesse-Cassel, once a German electorate, now 
 the district of Cassel in the Prussian province 
 of Hesse-Nassau (q.v.). Area, 3700 sq. m. ; pop. 
 nearly 900,000. The landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel 
 was constituted an electorate in 1803, occupied 
 by the French in 1806, incorporated with West- 
 phalia in 1807, and reconstituted an electorate in 
 1813. The elector having joined Austria in 1866, 
 Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with Prussia. 
 
 Hesse-Homblirg, from 1596 to 1866 a land- 
 graviate of Germany, consisting of Homburg vor 
 der Hohe, on the right bank of the Rhine, and 
 Meisenheim, on the left bank. Area, 106 sq. m.; 
 population, 30,000. Since 1866 Hesse-Homburg 
 has been Incorporated with Prussia, the grand- 
 duke having sided with Austria. 
 
 Hesse-Nassau, a province of Prussia, between 
 Bavaria and Saxony on the east and the Rhine 
 on the west, was formed (1867-68) out of parts 
 of the former electorate of Hesse-Cassel, of the 
 former duchy of Nassau, of the lordship of 
 Homburg, of the larger part of the former free 
 town of Frankfort-on-the-Main, and small parts 
 of Bavaria. It comprises 5943 sq. m. The sur- 
 face consists mostly of uplands, attaining 3096 
 feet in the Grosse Wasserkuppe. Among the 
 minerals are iron, copper, lead, manganese, and 
 building-stone. It is rich in mineral waters, such 
 as at Wie.sbaden, Ems, Kronthal, Homburg, &c. 
 Population, now close on 2,000,000, mainly Pro- 
 testants. The chief towns are Frankfort, Cassel, 
 Wiesbaden, Haiiau, Marburg, and Fulda. 
 
 Heves, a town of Hungary, 60 miles ENB. of 
 Pesth. Pop. 6698. 
 
 Hexham, an ancient town of Northumberland, 
 beautifully situated on the right bank of the 
 Tyne, here spanned by a nine-arch bridge, 24 
 miles W. of Newcastle by rail. The noble 13th- 
 century Abbey Church is represented only by 
 the greater part of the choir, the transepts, and 
 the central tower ; it still retains its old ' frith- 
 stool.' Its nave was destroyed by the Scots iu 
 
 it 
 
HEYSHAM 
 
 338 
 
 HIMALAYA 
 
 1296, and never rebuilt ; but under its ruins has 
 been discovered the Saxon crypt of St Wilfrid, 
 who originally founded the monastery in G74— 
 the seat of a bishopric (681-821). The refectory 
 remains and the abbey gateway of Norman archi- 
 tecture. Near Hexham the Lancastrians were 
 defeated in 1464. Pop. 7000. See works by 
 Wright (1823), Raine (1865), and Hodges (1888). 
 
 Heysham, a village on Morecambe Bay, 5 miles 
 SW. of Lancaster, made into a railway port for 
 trade with the Isle of Man and Ireland in 1900-4. 
 Pop. 2500. 
 
 Heywood, a municipal town of Lancashire, 3 
 miles E. of Bury and 9 N. of Manchester. It is 
 connected with the Rochdale Canal by a branch 
 canal. Incorporated in 1881, Heywood has in- 
 creased with great rapidity, both in population 
 and wealth, since the beginning of the 19th cen- 
 tury, partly in consequence of extensive coal- 
 mines in the neighbourhood and partly in conse- 
 quence of the enterprise of the Peel family, who 
 introduced the cotton manufacture. Iron and 
 brass founding, boiler-making, and the manu- 
 facture of cotton, woollens, machinery, railway 
 plant, and chemicals are also carried on. The 
 Free Libraries Act was adopted in 1873 ; and 
 the Queen's Park, 20 acres in extent, was opened 
 in 1879. Pop. (1851) 12,194 ; (1901) 25,458. 
 
 HlerapoUs, (1) a ruined city on the high-road 
 from Antioch to Mesopotamia, 14 miles W. of 
 the Euphrates. It had a great temple of Astarte. 
 —(2) An ancient city of Phrygia, with hot springs, 
 between the rivers Lycus and Meander, 5 miles 
 N. of Laodicea. Bpictetus was a native ; and 
 here St Paul founded a Christian church. 
 
 Higham Ferrers, a Northamptonshire market- 
 town, till 1832 a parliamentary borough, 15^ 
 miles ENE. of Northampton. Pop. 2810. 
 
 Hlghgate, a northern suburb of London, 4^ 
 miles NNW. of King's Cross Station by rail. Here 
 Bacon and Coleridge died ; Whittington's Stone 
 at the foot of Highgate Hill marks the spot where 
 Dick heard Bow Bells, and turned again ; Cole- 
 ridge's remains, buried in the old churchyard, 
 are now covered by the chapel of the Highgate 
 grammar-school ; and in the great cemetery (con- 
 secrated 1839) have been buried Faraday, Lord 
 Lyndhurst, 'George Eliot,' &c. 
 
 Highlands, that portion, roughly, of Scotland 
 to the N. and NW. of a line stretching diagonally 
 across the country from Nairn on the Moray 
 Firth to Dumbarton on the Clyde. The moun- 
 tainous parts, however, of the counties of Banlf, 
 Moray, Aberdeen, Kincardine, and Perth are 
 imderstood to be included in the designation 
 Highlands, whilst Caithness is excluded, as are 
 Orkney and Shetland. Separated but vaguely 
 from the Lowlands, the Scottish Highlands may 
 best be defined as that portion of Scotland in 
 which the Gaelic language and manners have 
 more or less lingered until modern times. 
 
 High Wycombe. See Wycombe. 
 
 Hildburghausen. See Saxe-Meiningen. 
 
 Hilden, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 8 miles 
 SE. from Diisseldorf, has woollen, silk, velvet, 
 and carpet manufactures. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Hildesheim, a town in the Prussian province 
 of Hanover, stands on a feeder of the Weser, 24 
 miles by rail SSE. of Hanover. It is an antique 
 town, with narrow streets, high-gabled houses, and 
 many towers, its cathedral dating from the 11th 
 century, and the bishopric from 822. The cathe- 
 dral is rich in antiquarian and artistic treasures, 
 as the bronze gates (1015) with bas-reliefs, the 
 
 so-called Irmin pillar, a rose-tree said to be 
 a thousand years old, the brazen Christ pillar 
 (1022), the carillon, &c. The St Godehard Church 
 (1133-72) and St Michael's are splendid examples 
 of Romanesque architecture. The ' Templar 
 House,' the town-house (c. 1440), and certain 
 antique private houses are the most interesting 
 among the secular buildings. The industries 
 embrace sugar-refining, iron-foundries, brick- 
 making, machine-shops, and the manufacture of 
 tobacco, stoves, church-bells, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 22,581 ; (1900) 42,978. 
 
 Hillah, or HiLLA, a town of Turkey in Asia, on 
 the Euphrates, 60 miles S. of Bagdad, on the site 
 of Babylon. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 Hillsborough, a village of County Down, on 
 the Lagau Canal. Pop. 618. 
 
 Hilversiim, a town of North Holland, 18 miles 
 by rail SE. from Amsterdam. Pop. 20,199. 
 
 Himalaya (properly Hiind'laya; from two 
 Sanskrit words meaning ' snow-abode '), the south- 
 ern escarpment of the great Central- Asian plateau 
 in so far as it falls between the Indus and the 
 Brahmaputra. Thus limited, it extends from 73" 
 to 95° E. long., over a distance of some 1500 
 miles. The Himalayas are not a single range, 
 but a system of for the most part parallel ranges 
 lying obliquely to the general direction of the 
 system. They front the plain of the Ganges iu 
 northern India like a stupendous mountain-wall. 
 On the east the system is connected with the 
 mountain-ranges of south-west China and north- 
 ern Burma and Siam. On the north it is backed 
 by the lofty plateau of Tibet, 10,000 to 17,000 
 feet high. At its north-western extremity it runs 
 up into the Pamir plateau, from which radiate 
 also the Hindu-Kush and the Kuen-Lun Moun- 
 tains. The southern foot of the system rests 
 upon the plain of the Ganges, which nowhere 
 rises more than 1000 feet above sea-level. The 
 edge of the outermost hills is skirted as far west 
 as the Ganges by the Terai, a belt of swampy 
 grass-land, 10 or 15 miles wide. Next above the 
 Terai lies a belt of forest, called the Bhabar. 
 Above the Bhabar rise the foot-hills of the 
 Himalayan system, generally designated the Siwa- 
 lik Hills. They vary in height from a few hun- 
 dred feet up to 4000, and present steep faces to 
 the plains. It is on the north side of the Siwalik 
 foot-hills that the first mountains appear. They 
 rise up abruptly to elevations from 7000 to 10,000 
 feet. On these ranges stand the sanatoriums, 
 Simla, Darjiling, Almora, &c. 
 
 In the Himalayas proper two main axes can be 
 detennined with tolerable distinctness. One, the 
 southern, contains the line of the great snowy 
 peaks ; the other, the northern, forms the water- 
 shed between the rivers of India and of Tibet. 
 The mountains in the southern chain are amongst 
 the loftiest in the world ; a very great number 
 of them exceed 20,000 feet (3J miles) in height. 
 Mount Everest (29,002 feet) is the highest 
 measured mountain iu the world. Other lofty 
 peaks are Godwin-Austen (28,265), Kinchin- 
 jinga (28,156), Dhawalagiri (26,286), Nanda-Devi 
 (25,700), and Trisul (23,400). The chain of great 
 snowy peaks is, strictly speaking, a series of 
 mountain-groups, each of which is connected 
 with the watershed chain to the north by a 
 transverse snow-clad ridge. These transverse 
 spurs form deep valleys on either side in the 
 space between the two chains ; and these deep 
 valleys are the cradles of the great rivers of north* 
 em India — the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, &c. 
 
 The snowy region of the Himalayas is plenty* 
 
 leul^ 
 
HINCKLEY 
 
 339 
 
 HOANG-HO 
 
 fully studded with glaciers, one in the western 
 part of the system being 36 miles long. In the 
 same region they descend to 11,000 and 12,000 
 feet, in the eastern part of the system not lower 
 than 13,000 and 14,000 feet ; and on the Tibetan 
 side they are seldom found to come lower than 
 15,000 and 16,000 feet. The snow-line, too, 
 ranges higher on the Tibetan side than on the 
 Indian. Whereas, on the watershed chain, it 
 seldom descends lower than 18,000 feet, and on 
 the tableland remains at 20,000, on the southern 
 faces of the mountains it runs at 15,000 or 16,000 
 feet. The watershed chain has been little ex- 
 plored ; it lies chiefly within Tibetan territory. 
 It forms an almost continuous line of peaks, its 
 crest being probably over 18,000 feet in elevation. 
 So far as is known, it is only broken by one pass 
 of less altitude than 16,000 feet, namely the Dras 
 pass (11,300) leading from Kashmir. The Niti 
 Pass (16,676), SE. of Ladak, connects India with 
 East Turkestan. 
 
 The Himalayas possess few lakes. In the east, 
 north of Sikkim, are Yamdok-cho, or Palti, 45 
 miles in circuniference, with an island, 2000 to 
 3000 feet high, in the centre ; and Chomto-dong, 
 20 miles long by 16 broad, at an altitude of 14,700 
 feet. More to the west lie the holy Tibetan 
 lakes of Manasarowar and Rakas Tal, which give 
 birth to the river Sutlej. Besides these there are 
 Nainital in Kumaon and the Lake of Kashmir. 
 In nearly all parts of the Himalayas metallic ores 
 exist ; but only gold, iron, copper, and lead are 
 extracted. Goldislargely mined in Tibet ; copper 
 and iron ore are worked in Kumaon and Garwlial. 
 
 Within Indian territory most of tlie inhabitants 
 of these mountains are Hindus. The Tibetan 
 portions are occupied by peoples of Turanian 
 stock. In Hindu mythology these majestic 
 mountains are invested with great sanctity; 
 thousands of pilgrims travel year after year to 
 the holy sources of tlie Ganges. The temples they 
 visit stand beside the glaciers from which the 
 river emerges, at Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badri- 
 nath. See works by Medlicott and Blanford (3 
 vols. 1879), A. Wilson (1875), and Strachey (1890). 
 
 Hinckley, an ancient manufacturing town of 
 Leicestershire (partly in Warwickshire), on the 
 old Watling Street, 13 miles SSW. of Leicester, 
 with a 13th-century church. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Hindhead, a hill ridge, common, and health- 
 resort in Surrey, 2 miles SW. of Haslemere. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 Hindley, a Lancashire town, 3 miles SE. of 
 Wigan, with coal-works and cotton manufactures. 
 Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Hindu Kush (Hindoo Koosh ; anc. ' Indian Cau- 
 casus '), the westward continuation of the Hima- 
 layan system, from which it is separated by the 
 chasm through which the Indus breaks its way 
 to the plains. It strikes off from the south-west 
 angle of the Pamir plateau, and extends 365 miles 
 westward to the Bamian valley in Afghanistan, 
 separating that country on the south from Turke- 
 stan on the north. Near its point of origin several 
 rivers take their birth ; the Oxus goes off north- 
 west through Turkestan, and the Helmund south- 
 west through Afghanistan. The main range breaks 
 into four subsidiary ridges, and has a total width 
 of about 200 miles. Unlike the Himalayas, it sinks 
 suddenly to the plains of Turkestan on the north. 
 It is crossed by several passes, 12,000 or 13,000 
 feet high. From the Bamian valley the range is 
 continued westwards as a low watershed elevation, 
 known as Koh-i-Baba. (Koh-i-Baba is also the 
 name of a peak in the Hindu Kush.) The peak of 
 
 Hindu Koh, 80 miles N. of Kabul, rises more than 
 20,000 feet above the sea. The highest point ex- 
 ceeds 23,000. Minerals, especially iron, occur in 
 great abundance. The inhabitants consist princi- 
 pally of Dards and Shins. A loose kind of Moham- 
 medanisnr is the prevalent form of religion. See 
 Biddulph, Tribes of Hindu Kush (Calcutta, 1880). 
 
 Hindustan, ' the land of the Hindus,' is a term 
 of the same class as Turkestan or Afghanistan. 
 It properly refers only to the plain of the Ganges 
 and Jumna, but is loosely used for India at large. 
 See India. 
 
 Hinojosa-del-Duque, a town of Spain, 45 miles 
 NNW. of Cordova. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Hiogo. See Hvogo. 
 
 Hiroshima, a Japanese city and port on the 
 Inland Sea, with a sacred island, 50 miles SW. of 
 Hyogo. Pop. 125,000. 
 
 Hirschberg, a town of Prussian Silesia, 78 
 miles WSW. of Breslau, witli textile, lace, and 
 paper manufactures. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Hispania. See Spain. 
 
 Hispan'iola (' Little Spain '). See Dominican 
 Republic and Hayti. 
 
 Hissar, a province of Bokhara, from which it ia 
 separated by a southern offset of the western 
 prolongation of the Thian-Shan Mountains. The 
 country consists of a series of southward valleys, 
 traversed by streams which flow to the Oxus or 
 Amu-Daria. The soil is fertile. Copper and rock- 
 salt abound. The inhabitants (number unknown) 
 are chiefly Usbegs and Tajiks. The main route 
 from India to Bokhara passes through the province, 
 which was annexed by Bokhara in 1869. The 
 capital, Hissar (pop. 10,000), is on the Kaflrnihan 
 River. Its people are noted sword-makers. 
 
 Hissar, a town in the Punjab, on the Western 
 Jumna Canal, 102 miles W. of Delhi. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Hissarlik. See Troy. 
 
 Hit (anc. 7s), a town of Turkey in Asia, on the 
 Euphrates, 85 miles WNW. of Bagdad, with bitu- 
 men-pits and naphtha-springs. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Hitchin, a thriving market-town of Hertford- 
 shire, on the Hiz, through the Ivel, a feeder of 
 the Ouse, 32 jniles NNW. of London. An import- 
 ant railway junction, it has a fine old parish 
 church, a modern town-hall, a free school (1622), 
 a Friends' school, &c. The principal trade is in 
 corn, malt, and flour; there are several large 
 breweries ; and many females are employed in 
 straw-plaiting. Lavender has been grown here 
 since 1568, and commercially, for lavender-water, 
 since 1823. Hitchin was a place of some conse- 
 quence in the days of King Alfred. It was the 
 original seat (1869) of Girton College (q.v.). Pop. 
 (1851) 5258 ; (1901) 10,072. 
 
 Hit'teren, an island off the west coast of Nor- 
 way. Area, 203 sq. m. ; pop. 2900. 
 
 Hjelmar, a lake of Sweden (40 miles by 15) 
 discharging into Lake Malar. 
 
 H'Lassa. See Lhassa. 
 
 Hoang-ho ('Yellow River'), or simply Ho, one 
 of the principal rivers of China, rises in the plain 
 of Odontala, south of the Kuen-Lun Mountains, 
 and winds more than 8000 miles. From the 
 southernmost corner of the province of Chih-11, 
 which it crosses, the Yellow River flowed east- 
 ward to the ocean, 650 miles distant, in 34° lat. ; 
 but in 1851-53 this wayward and turbulent 
 stream, which is said to have shifted its course 
 nine times in 2500 years, turned off north-east- 
 ward near Kaifung-foo. Since then it discharges 
 its waters into the Gulf of Pechili, 320 miles 
 
HOBART 
 
 340 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 NNW. of its former mouth, the mountainous 
 province of Shau-tung lying between the two. 
 The river is little used for navigation. In some 
 parts of its eastern course the river-bed is above 
 the great plain through which it passes. The 
 embankments are a source of never-ending ex- 
 pense to the government, and their yielding to 
 floods a frequent cause of desolation to extensive 
 districts. In 1887, by a dreadful inundation in 
 Ho-nan, 'China's sorrow' destroyed millions of 
 lives. The measures subsequently taken to regu- 
 late its course proved futile. About 170 miles of 
 the upper course of the Hoang-ho were explored 
 for the first time by Prejevalsky in 1880. The 
 vast quantity of sediment conveyed to the sea 
 by this river, giving it its colour and name, is 
 taken up in that part of its course which lies 
 between the provinces of Shan-hsi and Shen-hsi ; 
 beyond which its waters are remarkably clear. 
 
 Hobart (till 1881 known as Hobart Town), the 
 capital of Tasmania, stands on the estuary of the 
 Derwent, 12 miles from its mouth, in the south 
 of the island. It forms nearly a square, built on 
 several hills, covering an area of about 1300 
 acres. Besides Government House, the houses 
 of parliament, and the government buildings, 
 Hobart has a museum, library, and two cathe- 
 drals, and is well supplied as to churches, schools, 
 water, lighting, and tramways. The park known 
 as the Queen's Domain has fine drives, and covers 
 1000 acres. In Franklin Gardens, in the centre 
 of the town, are statues to Sir J. Franklin, a 
 former governor of Tasmania, and Dr Crowther. 
 The fine natural harbour and quay acconmiodate 
 ships of the largest size ; and there are three first- 
 class patent slips. The cooler and more invig- 
 orating air of Hobart attracts summer visitors 
 from Australia. The chief industries are the 
 manufacture of flour and jam, tanning, and iron- 
 founding. Hobart has railway communication 
 with Launceston, 133 miles distant, and frequent 
 steam communication with Melbourne (443 miles 
 NW.), Sydney, and New Zealand. Founded in 
 1804, it was incorporated in 1857. Pop. (1871) 
 19,092; (1901)34,626. 
 
 Ho'boken (named from a southern suburb of 
 Antwerp), a city in New Jersey, on the west 
 bank of the Hudson River, adjacent to Jersey 
 City, and opposite New York, with which it is 
 connected by steam-ferries. It has a large ship- 
 ping trade, especially in coal ; iron-castings and 
 lead-pencils are among the manufactures. The 
 Stevens Institute of Technology here is an im- 
 portant school. Pop. (1880) 30,999 ; (1900) 59,364. 
 
 Hoclielaga. See Montreal. 
 
 Hochheim, a town of Prussia, in Hesse-Nassau, 
 on the Maine's right bank, 3 miles E. of Mainz. 
 Here is produced the excellent white wine called 
 Hochheimer (whence Hock). Pop. 2800. 
 
 Hochklrch, a Saxon village, E. byS. of Bautzen. 
 Here Frederick the Great was defeated by the 
 Austrians (14th October 1758). 
 
 Hoclistadt. See Blenheim. 
 
 Hodeida, a seaport of Yemen, in Arabia, on the 
 Red Sea. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Hof, a town of Bavaria, on the Saale, 30 miles 
 NE. of Baireuth. It manufactures ironwares, 
 cottons, and woollens. Hof, almost entirely 
 rebuilt since the great fire of 1823, is associated 
 with Jean Paul Richter's earlier years. Pop. 
 88,500. 
 
 Hofhuf, a town and fortress of the Arabian 
 district of El-Hasa, over against the islands of 
 Bahrein in the Persian Gulf. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Hogue, Cape La. See La Hogue. 
 
 Hohenems, a small town of Vorarlberg, Austria, 
 15 miles S. of Bregenz by rail. Pop. 4700. 
 
 Hohenllnden, a village of Bavaria, 20 miles E. 
 of Munich. Here 70,000 French under Moreau 
 defeated 60,000 Austrians, 3d December 1800. 
 
 Hohenlolie, a former German principality in 
 Franconia, now comprised in Wiirtemberg and 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Hohenschwangau, a royal castle in Bavaria, 
 55 miles SW. of Munich, near the Lech's right 
 bank, 2933 feet above sea-level. It was pur- 
 chased in 1832 by the crown-prince Maximilian, 
 who restored it in the style of a magnificent 
 feudal castle. On an opposite crag stands the 
 castle of Neuschwanstein, wliich was built in 
 1869-71 on the site of the original Hoheu- 
 schwangau by King Louis. 
 
 Hohenstein, a Saxon town, with textile in- 
 dustries, 12 miles NE. of Zwickau. Pop. 13,400. 
 
 HohenzoUern, two united principalities 
 (Hechingen and Sigmaringen) of South Germany, 
 but belonging to Prussia, consist of a narrow 
 strip of land entirely surrounded by Wiirtem- 
 berg and Baden. Area, 441 sq. m. ; pop. (1890) 
 66,085, mostly Catholics. The territory, gener- 
 ally mountainous, stretches south-east from 
 the Black Forest, across the Neckar and the 
 Danube. The seat of government is Sigmaringen, 
 Frederick VI., of the younger line of the Hohen- 
 zollerns, in 1415 received from the Emperor 
 Sigismund the electorate of Brandenburg, thus 
 founding the reigning dynasty of Prussia. The 
 two branches of the elder line continued un- 
 broken till 1849, when the reigning princes ceded 
 their principalities to the king of Prussia. 
 
 Hokitika, the capital of Westland, New Zea- 
 land, and the chief town on the west coast, is the 
 centre of a gold-producing district. Pop. 1950. 
 
 Holbeach, (1) a market-town of south Lincoln- 
 shire, 7i miles by rail ENE. of Spalding. It has 
 a fine Decorated church, with a spire 189 feet 
 high ; and Roman reinains have been found here. 
 Pop. of urban dist. 4755.— (2) An old Staftordshire 
 mansion, 3 miles W. by N. of Dudley. It was 
 the final retreat of the Gunpowder conspirators. 
 
 Holderness, a parliamentary division (includ- 
 ing Bevei-ley) and a wapentake in the East Rid- 
 ing of Yorkshire. Pop. of former, (1901) 42,150. 
 
 Holkham, the splendid seat (1734-60) of the 
 Earl of Leicester, in Norfolk, near the coast, 2 
 miles W. of Wells. 
 
 Holland, the popular name of a country 
 officially described as 'Netherland,' or 'The 
 Netherlands,' applies to a maritime kingdom 
 bounded by the North Sea, Prussia, and Bel- 
 gium. Its greatest length (N. to S.) is 195 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth 110 miles. It contains 
 12,630 sq. m. — little more than one-tenth of the 
 size of Great Britain and Ireland. Luxemburg 
 (q.v.) was till 1890 connected with Holland. 
 
 Provinces. ^m? ^°P ''^ ^^^• 
 
 North Brabant 1980 581.718 
 
 Guelderland 1950 597,016 
 
 South Holland 1160 1.240,687 
 
 North Holland 1070 1,0:J8,530 
 
 Zealand 690 223,427 
 
 Utrecht 530 268,159 
 
 Friesland 1280 350,744 
 
 Overyssel 1290 354,914 
 
 Groningen 800 812,461 
 
 Drenthe 1030 159,122 
 
 Limburg. 880 304.318 
 
 13,630 
 
 5,430,981 
 
HOLLAND 
 
 341 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 Holland is the most densely peopled country 
 in Europe after Saxony (725 per sq. in.), England 
 (without Wales, 606), and Belgium (589). While 
 the average for the whole country is 429 per sq. m., 
 it rises to 1064 in South Holland and 971 in North 
 Holland. Three-fifths of the population are 
 Protestants, 1| million Roman Catholics, be- 
 sides 104,000 Jews. In 1903 Amsterdam (the 
 old capital) had 546,534 inhabitants ; Rotter- 
 dam, 357,474; The Hague, seat of government, 
 229,839; Utrecht, 110,648; other four towns 
 above 50,000, eight above 30,000, and eight more 
 above 20,000. 
 
 Mainly a delta formed by the alluvium from 
 the great rivers that flow through it into 
 the North Sea, Holland ('Hollow-land') is not 
 only flat; it is actually hollow — much of the 
 area lies below the level of the water, salt or 
 fresh. Along the canals the meadows are often 
 10 or 12 feet beneath the water-line ; between 
 land and sea at high tide there may be a differ- 
 ence of 25 feet or more. Of course all these 
 lands have to be protected by embankments or 
 dykes, the tops thereof, broad and flat, being 
 used for carriage-roads and foot-paths. The 
 Hollanders have covered the country with a 
 network of canals, which are mostly navigable 
 for small craft, help to irrigate the land, and in 
 winter are splendid ice highways. Large wind- 
 mills are posted at the main points to pump out 
 the superfluous water. The most ancient canal 
 is the Fossa Drusi in the east, made in the time of 
 Augustus. Many canals, regulated by locks, 
 connect the parallel rivers, and the Yssel forms 
 a link between the Rhine and the canals and 
 meres of Friesland. Thus it is possible to travel 
 on water through the whole of Holland. The 
 principal canals are the North Holland Canal, 
 from' Amsterdam to Den Helder (51 miles) ; the 
 William's Canal, through North Brabant and 
 Limburg (71^ miles) ; the North Sea Canal, from 
 Amsterdam to Ymuiden, on the German Ocean ; 
 and the canal from the Maas, near Rotterdam, 
 to the Hoek van Holland, which now enables 
 ocean-steamers to reach Rottei'dam at all times. 
 The cutting and maintaining of canals and dykes 
 in Holland is one of the chief functions of the 
 Waterstaat, a public department ; another duty 
 is the reclamation of land by the drainage of 
 lakes, and the erection of ' polders ' by pushing 
 back the sea. These newly-reclaimed polder- 
 lands always fetch high prices. The di^aining 
 of Haarlem Lake will be eclipsed, should the 
 scheme of laying dry the Zuider Zee (q.v.), which 
 involves an estimated outlay of £16,000,000, be 
 carried out. This would give Holland a new 
 province of 1200 sq. m. — a tenth of the area of 
 the kingdom. The maintenance of dykes by the 
 Waterstaat forms another task of vital moment. 
 The rivers, when swollen by heavy rains or 
 falls of snow, are much more dangerous to the 
 dykes than the sea ; and in times of peril a special 
 dyke service is organised, and headquarters are 
 kept infonned night and day by a body of Water- 
 staat engineers. The most costly sea-dykes are 
 round the western coast-line of Walcheren Island, 
 and near Den Helder in North Holland. These 
 dykes are veritable ramparts, formed by piles at 
 the base, which support a superstructure of earth 
 and stones. The annual cost of keeping one 
 in repair frequently reaches £8000 to £10,000. 
 Despite all precautions, disasters through inunda- 
 tions form but too familiar a feature in the 
 history of Holland. Violent irruptions of the 
 ocean created the Zuider Zee in the 13th century. 
 In 1905 there were about 1800 miles of railway, 
 
 about half owned and worked by the state. 
 The country roads, mostly paved with bricks, are 
 broad and excellent. The old-fashioned way of 
 navigating the canals in trekschuiten, or boats 
 drawn by horses, or men and even women, along 
 a towing-path, is disappearing. The climate of 
 Holland is much like the climate of England, 
 especially in its frequent and rapid changes ; 
 but, as a rule, the Dutch summer is hotter and 
 the Dutch winter colder. Ague is prevalent in 
 the low-lying regions of the west. 
 
 Cattle-rearing and dairy-farming have been the 
 Dutch farmer's chief occupations from time im- 
 mejnorial. The staple agricultural products are 
 wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, beet-root, chicory, flax, 
 and tobacco. The soil of Holland is not uniformly 
 fertile. Large tracts of land, especially in the 
 eastern provinces, are simply heath; and the 
 waste lands cover 1,700,000 acres. The orchards 
 of Boskoop should be mentioned, as also the 
 culture of Dutch bulbs at and round Haarlem. 
 
 Minerals are scarce ; but clay for tiles, bricks, 
 and pottery is found everywhere. Coal is worked 
 in Limburg, and also a soft sandstone. There 
 are manufactures of linen, woollen, cotton, and 
 silk fabrics, paper, leather, glass, &c. Iron- 
 founding, rolling and hammering of lead and 
 copper, and cannon-founding are carried on in 
 some places. The distilleries of gin (' Hollands ') 
 form an important branch of Dutch industry, as 
 also the liqueur-factories. Amsterdam has had 
 the largest diamond-cutting trade in the world. 
 Sugar-refining, salt-making, soap-boiling, and the 
 manufacture of cocoa are large interests. North 
 Brabant is the principal centre of the Dutch 
 margarine trade. The fisheries, though less im- 
 portant than formerly, in 1903 employed 21,467 
 men and boys, and about 6000 vessels, and are 
 estimated to yield annually £3,000,000. The 
 total imports increased from £81,600.000 in 1882 
 to £189,810,364 in 1903; the total exports from 
 £62,282,000 to £162,579,775. The imports from 
 Great Britain vary from £8,500,000 to £11,000,000 
 a year; the exports thither from £30,400,000 to 
 £35,000,000. Much of this trade, however, con- 
 sists of goods in transit from and to Germany. 
 Holland of all European countries does the largest 
 amount of foreign trade per head of population. 
 The revenue of 1902 was £13,428,534, and the ex- 
 penditure £13,512,954. The East Indies revenue 
 is nearly as large as that of the mother-country ; 
 but the East India colonies, once a burden, then 
 long a source of profit, are now a burden again. 
 The great bulk of the national debt— £95,032,537 
 —is held in Holland. The colonies of Holland 
 (separately treated under their own heads) have 
 an area of upwards of 720,000 sq. m. (more than 
 three times the area of the German empire), with 
 a pop. of about 36,000,000. They fall into two 
 groups : (1) the Bast Indian possessions, includ- 
 ing Java and Madura, Sumatra, the Moluccas, 
 Celebes, Timor, parts of Borneo, and the western 
 part of New Guinea ; and (2) the West Indies, of 
 Avhich the chief are Surinam and Curagao. 
 
 The government of Holland is a limited consti- 
 tutional monarchy. The crown is the executive 
 power ; legislation is vested in the States-general 
 of two chambers. There is no state religion, but 
 the state gives financial support to the different 
 churches. There are ancient universities at Ley- 
 den, Utrecht, and Groningen, and since 1877 
 a new university at Amsterdam, supported by 
 the municipality. The four universities have 
 upwards of 3000 students. There are Latin 
 schools in the leading numicipalities, the Royal 
 Military and Naval Academy (at Breda), that 
 
HOLLAND 
 
 342 
 
 HOLY ISLAND 
 
 Ibr engineers and the Indian civil service (at 
 Delft), besides seminaries for the training of the 
 Roman Catholic clergy, &c. The state pays 30 
 per cent, of the expenditure on the public 
 schools, and the communes or parislies 70 per 
 cent. There is no compulsory attendance in 
 Holland, and nearly 10 per cent, of the popula- 
 tion can neither read nor write. 
 
 The strength of the regular army in Exirope is 
 about 70,000 men (on the permanent peace footing 
 30,000), and of the colonial army about 37,000 
 men, some 13,000 thereof being Europeans. Dutch 
 troops are not allowed to be sent to the Indies. 
 The Dutch home army is composed of volunteers, 
 and of a varying proportion of men drawn by 
 lot for five years' service. There is also a local 
 force, called Schutterij, drawn by lot from those 
 between twenty-five and thirty-four years of age, 
 to assist in keeping order in peace, and in case 
 of war to act as a mobile corps, and do garrison 
 duty. North and South Holland can bo inun- 
 dated at short notice. The royal navy in 1905 
 consisted of 2 battle-ships, 5 coast-defence ships, 
 8 unprotected cruisers, and 41 torpedo-vessels ; 
 besides, 9 additional vessels were in process of 
 building, and 17 more were projected. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of the country, the 
 Batavians and the Frisians, became subjects or 
 allies of the Romans in the 1st century a.d., 
 and so remained till in the 4th century their 
 territories were overrun by the Saxons and Salian 
 Franks. At the end of the 8th century the Low 
 Countries submitted to Charlemagne, and various 
 feudal dukedoms, counties, and lordships were 
 gradually established (the countship of Holland 
 in the 11th century). In 1384 the earldom of 
 Flanders passed to the Dukes of fturgundy, and 
 Philip the Good (c. 1450) made the Low Countries 
 as prosperous as any part of his Burgundian 
 state. The Emperor Charles V. inherited the 
 Burgundian dominions ; and under his son, Philip 
 
 II. of Spain, broke out the bitter quarrel between 
 Holland and Spain, between Dutch Protestantism 
 and persistence and Spanish tyranny and per- 
 secution, which ended in 1581 in the establish- 
 ment of the Dutch Republic as an independent 
 state under William the Silent (of Orange), though 
 the war continued with intervals till 1648, and 
 the Belgian provinces abode by their allegiance 
 to the kings of Spain. In the 17th century 
 Dutch commerce, especially at sea, Dutch science, 
 Dutch classical scholarship, Dutch literature and 
 Dutch art attained an eminence hardly after- 
 wards equalled. The rivalry of Holland and 
 England at sea led to the unfortunate wars of 
 1652-54 and 1664-67. The accession of William 
 
 III. of Orange to the Stadholdership of the 
 United Provinces (1672) proved the salvation of 
 the republic from France ; in 1678 Louis XIV. 
 signed the peace of Nimeguen. Ten years later 
 William was hailed as the saviour of English 
 liberties, and became king of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. On William's death, the United Prov- 
 inces became a pure republic once more ; the 
 hereditary Stadholdership was re-established in 
 1747 ; and when after the French Revolution, 
 French armies overran Holland, the Stadholder 
 William V. fled to England, and the United 
 Provinces became the Batavian Republic. In 
 1806 Louis Bonaparte was made king of Holland 
 by Napoleon ; and on the fall of Napoleon, the 
 Northern or Dutch (and mainly Protestant) Prov- 
 inces were iinited with the Southern or Belgian 
 (and purely Catholic) Provinces into the ill- 
 assorted kingdom of the Netherlands, under the 
 princes of the Orange dynasty. Belgium seceded 
 
 in 1830, and Holland fully recognised the inde- 
 pendence of the Belgian kingdom in 1839. 
 
 See works on Holland and its people by Havard 
 (1876-80), De Amicis (1882), Lane Poole (1882), 
 and others ; and the historical works of Prescott, 
 Motley, Thorold Rogers (' Story of the Nations' 
 series, 1888), besides the works of the great 
 Dutch historians, Bilderdijk, Arend, Blok, &c. 
 
 Holland, Parts of. See Lincolnshire. 
 
 Holland House, an historic mansion (1607) of 
 Kensington, London. 
 
 Holloway, a district of London, in the parlia- 
 mentary borough of Islington, on the north. 
 
 Holmby House, a fine Tudor mansion, 6J- miles 
 NW. of Northampton, was built by Sir Christo- 
 pher Hatton in Elizabeth's reign. Sold to James 
 I., it was for four months the prison of Charles 
 I. in 1647. It was dismantled in 1652. 
 
 Holmfirth, a Yorkshire town, at the Holme's 
 and Rippleden's confluence, 6 miles S. of Hudders- 
 field. It has woollen manufactures. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Holstein, formerly a duchy belonging to Den- 
 mark, and at the same time a member of the 
 Germanic Confederation, was annexed in 1866 to 
 Prussia, which incorporated it in the province 
 of Sleswick-Holstein (q. v.). It is separated from 
 Sleswick on the N. by the river Eider and the 
 North Baltic Canal. Area, 3237 sq. m. ; pop. 
 about 660,000— mostly of Low German stock. 
 
 Holsworthy, a Devon town, 14 miles N. of 
 Launceston. Pop. of urban district, 1371. 
 
 Holt, (1) one of the Denbigh district of bor- 
 oughs, on the Dee, 5^ miles NE. of Wrexham. 
 Pop. 1086.— <2) A town of Norfolk, 10 miles E. 
 by N. of Walsingham. It was the birthplace of 
 Sir Thomas Gresham. Pop. of parish, 1850. 
 
 Holy Cross. See Thurles. 
 
 Holyhead, a seaport of Anglesey (q.v.), on the 
 small island of Holyhead, 60 miles E. of Dublin, 
 85 W. of Chester, and 264 NW. of London. 
 Although recently much improved, it is still a 
 primitive, irregularly-built town. It is the ter- 
 minus of the London and North- Western Rail- 
 way (1850), and the port for the mail steam- 
 packets to Dublin. The harbour was extended 
 in 1873-80, and the quay lengthened to 4000 feet. 
 The roadstead or harbour of refuge (1847-73), 
 with an area of about 400 acres, is protected on 
 the north by a solid masonry wall, rising 38 feet 
 9 inches above low-water mark, and backed by 
 a strong rubble mound. Pop. (1875) 5622 ; (1901) 
 10,079, employed in the coasting trade and in 
 shipbuilding and rope-making. 
 
 Holyhead Island, lying west and forming 
 part of Anglesey, is 8 miles long by 3J broad. 
 Area, 9658 sq. acres ; pop. 9610. It is separated 
 from Anglesey by a narrow sandy strait, crossed 
 by a causeway, which carries over the highroad 
 and the railway, and is arched in the centre for 
 the tide to pass beneath. The surface is rocky 
 and barren. On the north-west coast are two 
 islets, the North and South Stacks, the latter 
 with a lighthouse, whose light, 197 feet above 
 high-water, is seen for 20 miles. The Stacks and 
 the north coast are hollowed out into magnificent 
 caves, the haunt of sea-fowl. 
 
 Holy Island, or Lindisfarne, a small island 
 of Northumberland, 9^ miles SE. of Berwick-on- 
 Tweed. It is 3 miles long by If broad, and has 
 an area of 2457 acres, and a pop. of 700. At low- 
 Avater it can be reached by walking across the 
 sands, a distance of 3^ miles ; at high-water the 
 strait covered by the sea is 1^ mile wide. The 
 
HCLY LAND 
 
 343 
 
 HONGKONG} 
 
 village is guarded by the castle, built about 
 1500, and still in good repair. The island is 
 chiefly interesting for its ruined Benedictine 
 priory church. This was built in 1093 out of 
 the materials of the ancient cathedral, founded 
 here in 636 by Bishop Aidan. Here a company 
 of Columban monks established themselves, and 
 grew into the famous priory of Lindisfarne, the 
 lona of England. It reached its greatest glory 
 under St Cuthbert. The cathedral suttered 
 severely from the Danes, and gradually fell into 
 ruins as Durham grew into i7ni)ortance. In 
 August 1887 three thousand barefooted pilgrims 
 crossed the sands to Lindisfarne. See works by 
 G. Johnston (1853) and F. R. Wilson (1870). 
 Holy Land. See Palestine. 
 Holy Loch, an inlet (2J miles by 1) of the Firth 
 of Clyde, near Dunoon. 
 
 Holyoke, a city of Massachusetts, 8 miles N. 
 of Springfield, on the Connecticut River, which 
 is here crossed by a dam over 1000 feet long 
 and falls 60 feet in less than a mile, supplying 
 immense water-power. Holyoke has paper-mills, 
 cotton-factories, woollen-mills, grist-mills, and 
 manufactures of metal and wooden wares. It 
 contains a fine city-hall of granite. Pop. (1870) 
 10,733 ; (1890) 35,637 ; (1900) 45,712. 
 Holyrood. See Edinburgh. 
 Holytovm, a mining- town of Lanarkshire, 5 J 
 miles SSE. of Coatbridge. Pop. 4811. 
 
 Holywell (Welsh Treffynnon), a parliamentary 
 borough and market-town of Flintshire, on an 
 eminence 15 miles NW. of Chester. It is the 
 seat of numerous lead, iron, copper, and zinc 
 mines, and has smelting- works, manufactures of 
 paper, flannel, and Roman cement, tanyards, and 
 breweries. The borough unites with those of 
 Flint, Mold, &c. in returning one member. 
 Population, about 2650. Holywell owes its origin 
 to the renowned well of St Winifred, which, 
 until diminished by drainage works, delivered 
 4700 gallons of water per minute. The Perpen- 
 dicular chapel over the well is attributed to 
 Margaret, mother of Henry VII. It is still a 
 place of Catholic pilgrimage. See Pennant's His- 
 tory of Holywell (1796). 
 
 Holywood, a seaport and watering-jjlace, 4^ 
 miles NE. of Belfast. Pop. 3889. 
 
 Homhurg, a town in the Prussian province of 
 Hesse-Nassau, at the foot of the Taunus Moun- 
 tains, 8 miles NNW. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 It has beautiful environs, and its five saline and 
 chalybeate springs attract about 12,000 visitors 
 annually. They are good for disordered liver 
 and stomach, gout, rhe>unatism, scrofula, and 
 .skin diseases. About 400,000 bottles are sent 
 away yearly. The gaming-tables Avere suppressed 
 in 1872. Pop. 9663. 
 Homerton, a district in Hackney, E. London. 
 Homildon Hill, an eminence in Northumber- 
 land, 1 mile NE. of Wooler, where on 14th Sep- 
 tember 1402 Earl Douglas and 10,000 Scots were 
 defeated by an English army under Hotspur. 
 Horns. See Hems. 
 
 Honan, a central province of China, desolated 
 in 1887 by the inundation of the Hoang-ho. 
 
 Honawar, a seaport on the Malabar coast of 
 India, 340 miles SSE. of Bombay. Pop. 6658. 
 
 Hondu'ras, a republic of Central America, lies 
 between Nicaragua and San Salvador and Guate- 
 mala, and is bounded on the N. and NE. by the 
 Bay of Honduras and the Caribbean Sea, having 
 here a coast-line of some 400 miles ; while on the 
 
 S. the Bay of Fonseca, over 50 miles long and 
 about 30 wide, opens to the Pacific. The area 
 Is calculated at 46,500 sq. m. ; the population at 
 750,000. Except for a narrow strip of swamp- 
 land along either coast, the country is a table- 
 land, its series of elevated plateaus broken by 
 broad and fertile plains and valleys, or rising to 
 mountain-ridges that culminate in the Montana 
 de Selaque (10,120 feet). The Cordilleras proper 
 traverse the country irregularly in a north-west 
 and south-east direction. Honduras is watered 
 by innumerable (seldom navigable) streams ; the 
 Wanks or Segovia, part the boundary with Nicar- 
 agua, has a length of 350 miles. Roatan and the 
 other fertile Bay Islands (q.v.), off the north 
 coast, belong to Honduras. The climate is hot 
 on the coast, where also fever prevails ; but the 
 highlands are cool, and frost is not unknown. 
 The flora and fauna are like those of Guatemala. 
 Cattle-raising is an important industry. Hon- 
 duras is the richest of the Central American 
 republics in minerals— silver, gold, iron, copper, 
 antimony, platinum, zinc, tin, lignite, and opals. 
 The exports, mostly to the United States, include 
 cattle, fruits and cocoa-nuts, india-rubber, sarsa- 
 parilla, timber, and indigo. 
 
 Honduras (Span., ' depths ') was discovered by 
 Columbus on his fourth voyage, in 1502, and 
 named from the difficulty of anchorage. There 
 are numerous pyramids and other remains of the 
 ancient inhabitants. Honduras threw off" the yoke 
 of Spain, with the rest of Central America, in 
 1821, and became independent on the dissolution 
 of the confederation in 1839. Revolutions and 
 frequent wars with Guatemala and San Salvador 
 have been almost constant. The whites are very 
 few in number, the Indians (including Caribs), 
 negroes, and mixed races including all but some 
 6000 or 7000 of the population. The capital is 
 Tegucigalpa, with 35,000 inhabitants. The ports 
 are Amapala, on the Bay of Fonseca, Puerto 
 Cortez or Puerto Caballos, Omoa, and Truxillo. 
 See works by Squier (1870), Soltera (1884), and 
 Lombard (New York, 1887). 
 
 Honduras, British. See Belize. 
 
 Honfleur, a seaport in the French dep. of 
 Calvados, on the southern side of the Seine 
 estuary, opposite and 7 miles from Havre. The 
 commerce has been absorbed in great measure 
 by Havre ; but the harbour and its approaches 
 were greatly improved in 1874-81. Pop. 9400. 
 
 Hong-kong, or Hiang-kiang (' sweet waters '), 
 a British island of southern China, on the east 
 side of the Canton River, 90 miles S. by E. of 
 Canton city. It consists principally of a rugged 
 ridge of granitic rocks, extending from north- 
 west to south-east, and has an area of 29 sq. m. 
 Barren and desolate, the island presents a strik- 
 ing contrast with the beauty of its harbour, a 
 magnificent sheet of water, 10 sq. m. in extent, 
 which stretches between Hong-kong and the 
 peninsula of Kowloon on the mainland. The 
 straits that separate the two are scarcely half 
 a mile wide on the east. To the excellence of its 
 harbour and to its free port it owes its import- 
 ance as the principal commercial entrepdt of 
 southern China, if not of eastern Asia. The 
 annual value of the trade of Hong-kong (exclusive 
 of that which merely passes through the har- 
 bour) amounts to about £20,000,000. The trade 
 between Hong-kong and Great Britain amounts 
 to I of a million pounds for exports from Hong- 
 kong, and 2| million for imports. Tlie prin- 
 cipal items are opium, cottons, woollens, and 
 machinery (imported), and tea and silk (exported). 
 
 I. 
 
HONISTER PASS 
 
 344 
 
 BOBSHAM 
 
 The mean annual temperature is 75° F. The 
 summer is hot and generally rainy ; but the island 
 is not unhealthy, except at certain seasons. 
 Pop. (1841) 5000; (1851) 37^58; (1861) 123,511; 
 (1901) 283,905, of whom only 77,743 were females. 
 For purposes of defence, 376 sq. m. of ad- 
 jacent territory on the Cliinese mainland was 
 leased for ninety-nine years in 1898. Hong-kong 
 is the seat of a British governor and is a 
 British naval station. The city of Victoria, the 
 capital of the island, stretches some 4 miles 
 along the northern shore, and from its situation 
 on the slopes and terraces of the hills overlook- 
 ing the harbour and its handsome streets and 
 houses, is justly called one of the finest cities 
 in the Bast. On the mainland the extremity 
 of the peninsula of Kowloon, of 2| sq. m. in 
 area, was ceded to Great Britain in 1861, and 
 now forms administratively part of the depend- 
 ency of Hong-kong. The island was first occu- 
 pied by Great Britain in 1841, and was secured 
 to her next year by the treaty of Nanking. 
 
 Hon'ister Pass, a mountain way (1190 feet) in 
 the Lake Country, Cumberland, leading to Butter- 
 mere, and flanked by Honister Crag (1750 feet). 
 
 Hon'iton, a market- town and municipal borough 
 (1846) of Devonshire, near the left bank of the 
 Otter, 17 miles by rail ENE. of Exeter. Four 
 times devastated by fire between 1747 and 1797, 
 it is a modern well-built place ; but its old parish 
 church, on a hill, contains a fine oak-screen, 
 erected in 1482 by Bishop Courtenay of Exeter. 
 The famous Honiton pillow-lace, a manufacture 
 introduced here by Flemish refugees in the 
 middle of the 16th century, is still a specialty 
 of the district. The beautiful vale of Honiton 
 is famous for its butter. Honiton was disfran- 
 chised in 1868. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Honolu'lu, the capital of the Hawaiian or Sand- 
 wich Islands, on the southern coast of the island 
 of Oahu. Its spacious harbour, the only really 
 ■well-protected port in the archipelago, is entered 
 through an opening, 150 yards wide. The town 
 stands close to the shore, on a narrow plain at 
 the mouth of the Nuuanu valley. The moun- 
 tains, which protect the harbour from the north- 
 easterly trade-winds, also keep off the rain, so 
 that the rainfall at Honolulu is much smaller 
 than in some other parts of the islands. Water- 
 works, however, supply irrigation, which keeps 
 the gardens of the town bright with flowers and 
 foliage. The centre of the town is well laid 
 out in rectangular streets, with houses built in 
 European style ; most of the appliances of civilisa- 
 tion are to be found, notably telephones ; there 
 are fine government buildings, and an interesting 
 public library. Pop. 39,907, including a large 
 number of foreigners ; for the trade is almost 
 entirely in foreign hands. 
 
 Hood, Mount. See Cascade Range. 
 
 Hooghly, or Hi5oLi, a river of Bengal, the most 
 westerly and iinportant of the channels by which 
 the Ganges reaches the sea. Taking its distinctive 
 name near the town of Santipur, it has a southerly 
 course of 64 miles to Calcutta, and a further 
 course of 81 miles to the Bay of Bengal. Being 
 a deltaic river, the Hooghly is much subject to 
 being silted up, and is only kept open to naviga- 
 tion by vigilant works. Vessels, however, draw- 
 ing 26 feet of water are safely taken up to Cal- 
 cutta. At its mouth the Hooghly is 15 miles 
 wide. Its ' bore ' often attains a height of 7 feet. 
 
 Hooghly (Hugli), a city of Bengal, on the 
 river Hooghly's right or western bank, 25 miles 
 
 by rail N. of Calcutta. Pop. with Chinsurah, 
 immediately to the south, 29,400. 
 
 Hooker, Mount, a peak in the Canadian 
 Rockies, 10,500 feet high, situated on the east 
 boundary of British Columbia. 
 
 Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland), a landing- 
 place N. of the northernmost mouth of the Maas. 
 
 Hoom, a decaying seaport of North Holland, 
 on a bay of the Zuider Zee, 27 miles NNE. of 
 Amsterdam by rail. Pop. 10,711. 
 
 Hoosao Mountain, a part of the Green Moun- 
 tain range in western Massachusetts, through 
 which is pierced the most notable railway tunnel 
 in America. Nearly 5 miles long, it was com- 
 menced in 1851 for the line between Boston and 
 Albany, was twice abandoned, and was finally 
 opened in 1875, having cost about $18,000,000. 
 
 Hopeman, a fishing-village (founded 1805) of 
 Elginshire, 6^ miles NW. of Elgin. Pop. 1404. 
 
 Hopetoun House, the Earl of Hopetoun's seat 
 in Linlithgowshire, near the Firth of Forth, 3 
 miles W. by N. of South Queensferry. 
 
 Hor, Mount. See Edom. 
 
 Horbury, a village of the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 4 miles SW. of Wakefield, manufactures 
 Avoollens, worsteds, flannels, &c. Pop. 6673. 
 
 Horde, a town of Westphalia, 2i^ miles SE. of 
 Dortmund, has large ironworks (employing more 
 than 4000 men) and coal-mines, with iron, steel, 
 and zinc manufactories. Pop. 25,598. 
 
 Horeb. See Sinai. 
 
 Horn, Cape, commonly spoken of as the south- 
 ernmost point of America, is a steep, black, bare 
 mountain-headland of one of the small islands of 
 the Fuegian Archipelago, 55° 59' S. lat., 67°14' W. 
 long. Sighted by Drake in 1578, it was named 
 Hoorn, anglicised ' the Horn,' when rounded in 
 1616 by the Dutch navigators, Lemaire and 
 Schouten. To avoid the dangerous doubling of 
 Cape Horn, steamers now pass through the Strait 
 of Magellan. 
 
 Horncastle, an ancient market-town of Lin- 
 colnshire, at the foot of the Wolds, between the 
 confluent Bain and Waring, 21 miles E. of Lin- 
 coln by a branch-line (1855). It has a handsome 
 Perpendicular church (restored 1861), a corn ex- 
 change (1856), a grammar-school (1562), and a 
 great August horse-fair. Roman remains have 
 been found here, and in the neighbourhood are 
 Scrivelsby, long the seat of the Dymokes, cham- 
 pions of England ; Winceby, the scene of a 
 Royalist defeat (1643) ; Woodhall Spa, with a salt- 
 spring discovered in 1820 ; and the site of the 
 Cistercian abbev of Revesby (1142). Population, 
 about 4000. See a work by Weir (1820). 
 
 Hornellsville, a town of New York, 91 miles 
 SE. of Buffalo by rail, with railway workshops, 
 and manufactures of mowing-machines, shoes, 
 &c. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Hornsea, a Yorkshire town, near the sea, 16 
 miles NE. of Hull. Pop. 2380. 
 
 Horodenka, a town of Austria, in East Galicia, 
 106 miles SE. of Lemberg. Pop. 11,226. 
 
 Horsens, a Danish seaport, at the head of the 
 Horsensliord, 32 miles SSW. of Aarhuus by rail. 
 Pop. 22,250. 
 
 Horsforth, a township of Yorkshire, on the 
 Aire, 5 miles NW. of Leeds. Pop. 7782. 
 
 Horsham, a inarket-town of Sussex, near the 
 source of the Arun, 26 miles NNW. of Brighton 
 and 35 SSW. of London. The noble parish church, 
 Early English in style, was restored in 1865; 
 
HORTEN 
 
 345 
 
 other buildings are the corn exchange (1766), 
 grammar-school (1540; rebuilt 1840-57), &c. 
 Christ's Hospital was traiisrerred hither from 
 London in 1902. Horsham returned two 
 members from the 14th century till 1832, and 
 then one till 1885. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Horten, the chief naval port of Norway, on the 
 Christiania Fjord, 30 miles S. of Christiaiiia. It 
 lias an arsenal and shipbuilding yards. Pop. 
 8500. 
 
 Horvrich, a Lancashire town, 4 miles WNW. of 
 Bolton, It has cotton, bleaching, paper, terra- 
 cotta, and other industries. Pop. (1881) 3761; 
 (1901) 15,084. 
 
 Hoshangabad, a town in the Central Prov- 
 inces of India, on the Nerbudda River, 40 miles 
 SSB. of Bhopal by rail. It trades in English 
 piece-goods, cotton, grain, &c. It has been in 
 British hands since 1817. Pop. 13,863. 
 
 Hoshiarpur, a Punjab town, near the Siwalik 
 Hills, 90 miles E. of Lahore. Pop. 21,552. 
 
 Hospital, a Limerick village, 3 miles NW. of 
 Knocklong station. Pop. 695. 
 
 Hot Springs, a town of Arkansas, 56 miles 
 WSW. of Little Rock. It has over fifty thermal 
 springs (95" to 148° F.). Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Houghton-le-Sprlng, a town in the county, 
 and 6J miles NE. of the city, of Durham. Its 
 rapid growth is mainly due to the extension of 
 neighbouring collieries. The fine cruciform parish 
 church contains the altar-tomb of Bernard Gilpin, 
 wlio founded here a grammar-school (1574) ; later 
 rectors were Peter Heylin and Archbishop San- 
 croft. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Hounslow, a town of Middlesex, 10 miles W. 
 by S. of London, was formerly a place of much 
 importance in the old coaching days, it being the 
 first stage out of London on the Bath and 
 Southampton roads. As many as 800 horses were 
 then maintained here, 500 coaches passed through 
 daily, whilst a most extensive business in posting 
 was carried on. With the opening of the rail- 
 ways, however, the place gradually declined, and 
 now it contains but little of interest. West 
 from Hounslow, stretching for 5 miles along 
 the road, and in 1546 containing an area of 
 4293 acres, was Hounslow Heath, the scene 
 of many military encampments, and notori- 
 ous in the aimals of highway robbery. It now 
 is mostly enclosed. Near the town are large 
 gunpowder-mills and cavalry and militia barracks, 
 and at Kneller's Hall, once the painter Sir G. 
 Kneller's residence, are the quarters of the Royal 
 Military School of Music (1857). Pop. (1851) 3514 ; 
 (1901) 11,380. 
 
 Hourn, Loch, the 'Lake of Hell,' an Inver- 
 ness-shire sea-inlet, striking 14 miles off Sleat 
 Sound. 
 
 Housaton'ic River rises in Massachusetts, 
 flows through Connecticut, and enters Long 
 Island Sound near Bridge^wrt. In its course of 
 145 miles, it affords abundant water-power. 
 
 Houssa. See Haussa. 
 
 Houston, capital of Harris county, Texas, on 
 the navigable Buffalo Bayou, 49 miles by rail 
 NW. of Galveston. It is the great railway centre 
 of the state, stands in the midst of a fertile coun- 
 try, and ships cotton, grain, and cattle, besides 
 the products of the great pine-forests, which are 
 prepared here. Other manufactures are machin- 
 ery, iron-castings, railway carriages, farming im- 
 plements, fertilisers, cotton-seed oil, &c. Pop. 
 (1870) 9382 ; (1890) 27,557 ; (1900) 44,633. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD 
 
 Howden, a town of Yorkshire, 8J miles ESE. 
 of Selby. Pop. of parish, 1964. 
 
 Howrah, or Haura, a town of India, with 
 growing manufactures, on the Hooghly's right 
 bank, opposite Calcutta. It is connected with it 
 by a floating bridge (1874), and is the Bengal 
 terminus of the East Indian Railway. Pop. 
 (1872) 97,784 ; (1891) 116,606; (1901) 157,600. 
 
 Howth, a peninsula on the east coast of Ire- 
 land, forming the north side of the Bay of Dublin, 
 terminates in a lofty cliff, the ' Hill of Howth ' 
 (563 feet), at whose foot nestles the fishing-village 
 of Howth (pop. 1160). 
 
 Hoxton, a district of London, partly in Hack- 
 ney, but mainly in Shoreditch. 
 
 Hoy (Scand. Hoey, 'high island'), one of the 
 Orkneys, \\ mile SW. of Mainland or Pomona. 
 It is 13J miles long, 3 furlongs to 6? miles broad, 
 and 53 sq. m. in area. Unlike the rest of the 
 group. Hoy rises abruptly from the sea, with 
 stupendous cliffs that attain 1140 feet in Brac- 
 brough or St John's Head, and 595 in Bervy Hill ; 
 inland are Cuilags Hill (1420 feet) and the Ward 
 Hill (1564), commanding a splendid view. Near 
 the south end is the fine natural harbour of Long 
 Hope (5^ X 1§ miles). The ' Dwarfle Stone' is 28 
 feet long, 14^ broad, 62 high, with a chamber hol- 
 lowed out of it ; and the ' Old Man of Hoy ' is an 
 insulated pillar of rock, 450 feet high. Pop. 
 1200. 
 
 Hoylake, a small watering-place of Cheshire, 
 at the extremity of Wirral peninsula, 8 miles by 
 rail W. of Birkenhead. It has a celebrated golf- 
 links, opened in 1869. Pop. 10,900. 
 
 Hradsohin. See Prague. 
 
 Hualla'ga, a river of Peru, 650 miles long, 
 rises near the Cerro de Pasco, over 14,000 feet 
 above the sea, and flows north on the east side of 
 the Central Cordillera, breaking through the range 
 at tlie gorge of Chasuta, to the Maraiion. It is 
 navigable as far as Yurimaguas. 
 
 Huamanga. See Ayacucho. 
 
 Huancaveli'ca, the capital of a Peruvian dep., 
 150 miles SE. of Lima. Near it are famous quick- 
 silver mines. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Huan'uco, the capital of a Peruvian dep., lies 
 in a lovely valley on the Huallaga. Pop. 7300. 
 
 Hubertushurg, a royal Saxon hunting-seat, 
 25 nules E. by S. of Leipzig, built in 1721. It 
 was much injured during the Seven Years' War ; 
 and here in 1763 was signed the treaty ending 
 that war. Since 1840 it has served as prison, 
 hospital, and lunatic asylum. 
 
 Hubli, a town of Dharwar, in Bombay presi- 
 dency, 102 miles NE. of Karwar on the Malabar 
 coast. It is an important cotton-mart. Pop. 
 60,500. 
 
 Hucknall-Torkard, a village 8 miles NNW. 
 of Nottingham. Byron is buried here. 
 
 Huddersfield, a ' clothing town ' in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, a parliamentary, municipal, 
 and county borough, 26 miles NE. of Manchester, 
 15 S. of Bradford, 17 SW. of Leeds, and 189 NNW. 
 of London. Well built of stone and regular, it 
 occupies a considerable extent of high ground, 
 sloping down to the left bank of the Colne, which 
 here receives the Holme ; and it owes its rapid 
 extension to its situation in a rich coal-district, 
 to its abundant water-power, and to its transit 
 facilities by rail and canal. Among the chief 
 edifices are the circular cloth-hall (1768-80) ; the 
 railway station (1848), with a marble statue of 
 Peel (1875) before it ; the classical toAvn-hall (1880) ; 
 
 I. 
 
HUDSON 
 
 346 
 
 HULL 
 
 the technical college (1883 ; developed from the 
 mechanics' hall, c. 1840) ; the market-hall (1880) ; 
 and the infirmary (1831-74). The first parish 
 church was built before 1110, and rebuilt in Tudor 
 times, and again in 1835 ; St John's Church (1853) 
 was designed by Butterfield, and St Thomas' (1859) 
 by Sir G. G. Scott. The Beaumont Park, 21 acres 
 in area, was opened by the Duke of Albany in 
 1883, and there is also Greenhe^d Park of 26 acres. 
 The chaTuber of commerce (1880) is an important 
 local body. Huddersfield is the chief seat in the 
 north of England of the ' fancy trade,' and every 
 description of plain woollen goods is also manu- 
 factured ; whilst other industries are cotton and 
 silk spinning, iron-founding, machine-making, 
 &c. The Roman station of Canibodunum was in 
 the parish, and remains have been found here ; 
 but Huddersfield has no history to speak of. In 
 1750 Bishop Pococke described it as 'a little 
 town.' It was enfranchised by the Reform Act 
 of 1832, and made a municipal borough in 18ti8, 
 the boundary having been greatly extended in 
 1867. Pop. (1861) 34,877 ; (1881) 86,502 ; (1901) 
 95,047. 
 
 Hudson, a river in New York, and one of the most 
 beautiful and important in America. It rises in 
 the Adirondack Mountains, 4326 feet above sea- 
 level. At Glen's Falls it has a fall of 50 feet, and 
 thence runs nearly due south to its mouth at 
 New York City. It is tidal up to Troy, 151 miles 
 from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply 
 daily between New York and Albany. Below New- 
 burg, 60 miles from New York, the river enters 
 the beautiful highlands, which rise abruptly 
 from the water to the height of 1600 feet. Here 
 was the scene of Arnold's treason and of Andr6's 
 fate ; and West Point is 8 miles below Newburg. 
 Emerging from the highlands, the river widens 
 into a broad expanse called Tappan Bay, 4^ miles 
 wide and 13 long. Below, on the right bank, a 
 steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, 
 rises from the river's brink to a height of 300 
 to 510 feet, and extends for nearly 20 miles to 
 the upper portion of the city of New York. The 
 river from here is known as the North River, 
 and is froin 1 to 2 miles wide ; and after passing 
 between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, 
 it falls into Now York Bay. Its whole length is 
 350 miles, and its principal tributaries are the 
 Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill. The Hudson 
 has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries. It is 
 connected by canals with Lakes Erie and Cham- 
 plain, and with the Delaware River. Henry 
 Hudson, the English navigator, explored it in 
 1609. Robert Fulton's first successful experiment 
 in steamboat navigation was made on it in 1807. 
 
 Hudson, capital of Columbia county, New 
 York, on the Hudson River's left bank, 116 miles 
 N. of New York City. It extends along a high 
 ridge ending in a bold promontory, and has an 
 active river-trade, a fine court-house, a city-hall, 
 blast-furnaces, and manufactures of fire-engines, 
 paper, leather, flour, &c. Pop. 9570. 
 
 Hudson Bay, a gulf, or rather inland sea, in 
 the north-east of North America, is completely 
 landlocked except on the north, where South- 
 ampton Island and Fox Channel lie between it 
 and the Arctic Ocean, and where Hudson Strait, 
 running 500 miles south-east, connects it with 
 the Atlantic. Including its south-eastern exten- 
 sion, James's Bay (q.v.), it measures about 1000 
 miles in length and 600 in average width, and has 
 an area of some 500,000 sq. m. The eastern shore, 
 called the East Main, is for the most part rocky, 
 and is fenced with several small islands; the 
 
 western shore, the West Main, is flat. This s6& 
 is the great drainage reservoir of the Canadian 
 North-west Territories, its chief feeders being 
 the Churchill, whose deep and narrow mouth 
 forms the best harbour on the shores of Hudson 
 Bay, and the Nelson, of whose total course of 
 400 miles only 70 or 80 are navigable. The fur 
 trade began with the Hudson Bay Company 
 (founded 1670) ; fish-oil has also been exported. 
 It has been proposed to open up direct com- 
 munication from England with Manitoba and the 
 North-west of Canada by way of Hudson Bay 
 and Strait (navigable only about three months 
 annually, by reason of the ice) ; the scheme pro- 
 viding for a railway from Winnipeg to Fort Nelson 
 on the bay, a distance of 650 miles. 
 
 Hue, the capital of Annam, 10 miles from the 
 mouth of the Hue River, or Truongtien. In 1801 
 it was strongly fortified by French officers. The 
 heart of the city is occupied by the palace ; much 
 of the rest is composed of mud huts. Since 1884 
 there has been a French garrison in Thuanan, the 
 port of Hue. Pop. 60,000 (with suburbs, 90,000), 
 including many Chinese. 
 
 Huelva, a thriving town of Spain, near the 
 confluence of the Odiel and the Tinto, 68 miles 
 by rail WSW. of Seville. Fishing and the plait- 
 ing of esparto grass are the chief industries. 
 Huelva is the port for the Rio Tinto copper- 
 mines, in British hands, and a shipping place 
 for wine. An iron pier was erected in 1889-90. 
 Pop. 19,677.— Huelva province has an area of 
 3913 sq. m., and a pop. of 262,000. 
 
 Huesca, a picturesque town of Spain, 55 miles 
 by rail NE. of Saragossa. Among its chief 
 buildings are the beautiful Gothic cathedral 
 (1400-1515) ; the Romanesque church of San 
 Pedro (1150-1241); the university, founded in 
 1354 ; and a former palace of the kings of Aragon. 
 Huesca is the Osca of the Romans, where Ser- 
 torius was murdered in 72 b.c. Pop. 11,764. — 
 Huesca province has an area of 5848 sq. m., and 
 a pop. of 250,000. 
 
 Huescar, a town of Spain, 75 miles NB. of 
 Granada. Pop. 7737. 
 
 Hughenden (locally Hitchendon), a parish of 
 Buckinghamshire, among the Chiltern Hills, 2 
 miles N. of High Wycombe. Hughenden Manor, 
 a large brick three-story mansion, mostly modem, 
 was purchased before 1847 by Benjamin Disraeli, 
 Earl of Beaconsfield. It is rich in interesting 
 jwrtraits; and in its terraced gardens are trees 
 planted by Queen Victoria in 1877 and the Prince 
 of Wales in 1880. The ancient parish church, 
 much restored in 1874, contains a monument to 
 the earl, erected by the Queen ; and in its vault 
 he lies buried by the side of Lady Beaconsfield. 
 
 Hugh Town. See Scilly Islands. 
 
 Hugir. See Hooohly. 
 
 Hull, or KiNGSTON-ON-HiiLT-, a river-port, a 
 parliamentary and municipal borough, and (since 
 1897) a city and county of itself, is situated in 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire, in a low, level 
 plain on the north bank of the Humber, here 2 
 miles wide, and liere joined by the Hull, 42 miles 
 BSE. of York and 173 N. of London. Of churches 
 the most notable are Holy Trinity, Decorated and 
 Perpendicular in style, with a central tower 140 
 feet high ; and St Mary's Lowgate (1333), one- 
 half of which was removed to make room for the 
 mansion-house of Henry VIII., who stayed here 
 in 1640. Both were restored by Sir G. G. Scott. 
 The most important educational establishments 
 are Hull and East Riding College; the Hull 
 
 
mSLt 
 
 347 
 
 HtJNSTANTOU 
 
 grammar-school (I486), where Andrew Marvell 
 was educated ; and Trinity House School (1716), 
 which gives a nautical education ; besides the 
 Literary and Philosophical Society, the Royal 
 Institution, &c. An equestrian statue (1734) of 
 William III. stands in the market-place, and in 
 Junction Street is a column (1834) surmounted 
 by a statue of Wilberforce, who was a native, 
 as also was Mason the poet. The Trinity House, 
 instituted in 1369 for decayed seamen, was re- 
 built in 1763, and the Charterhouse, an endowed 
 institution for the poor, in 1645. There are three 
 prettily laid out public parks. A town-hall, 
 Italian Renaissance in style, was opened in 1866, 
 as also was a new exchange. There are also a 
 spacious jail (1869), a new post-office (1877), the 
 Theatre Royal (1873), the dock-office (1871), public 
 baths (1850), a new market-hall (1887), and the 
 James Reckitt Free Library (1889). The docks 
 and basins, comprising an area of upwards of 200 
 acres, have been constructed since 1774. The 
 Victoria Dock (1850-64) covers 20 acres, exclusive 
 of two large timber ponds and tidal basins which 
 cover 9 acres. The Albert Dock (24^ acres) was 
 opened in 1869 ; and the Alexandra Dock (40 acres) 
 in 1883. Hull was one of the first ports in Eng- 
 land to engage in the whale-fishery, an enterprise 
 now abandoned ; but its fisheries employ, in con- 
 junction with those of Grimsby, large fleets of 
 boats, attended by steam auxiliaries. Hull is a 
 principal steam-packet station, and ocean- 
 steamers ply regularly to many of the principal 
 ports of Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Russia, Ger- 
 many, Scandinavia, America, Australia, and India. 
 It is the great outlet for the woollen and cotton 
 goods of the midland counties, and the chief 
 entrepot for German and Scandinavian oversea 
 trade. Hull ranks third among British ports in 
 the value of its trade, its imports exceeding 
 £32,000,000, and its exports £20,000,000. Ship- 
 building yards are in operation ; and, in addi- 
 tion to iron ships, important ironclads have 
 been built here. The chief manufactures are 
 ropes, canvas, chain, chain-cables, machinery, 
 &c. Many mills of various kinds are carried 
 on, as well as chemical factories, tanneries, 
 and sugar-refineries. Seed-crushing for oil is 
 also an important staple industry. Constituted 
 the free borough of Kingston-on-Hull by Edward 
 I. in 1299, the town owed much to its great 
 merchant-house, the De la Poles, whose head, 
 Michael, in 1385 was created Earl of Suffolk. In 
 1642 the refusal of its governor. Sir John Hotham, 
 to admit Charles, marked the outbreak of the 
 Civil War, during which Hull was twice besieged 
 by the royalists. It Avas made the seat of a 
 suffragan bishop in 1534, and again in 1883. In 
 April 1893 it was the scene of the strike of 8000 
 dockers. Since 1885 Hull has returned three 
 instead of two members to parliament. Pop. 
 (1851)84,690; (1901, extended in 1897)240,259. 
 
 Hull, the chief town of Ottawa county, Quebec, 
 is on the Ottawa River, opposite Ottawa City, 
 with which it is connected by a suspension 
 bridge. It was almost entirely burnt down in 
 1900, but was quickly rebuilt. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Humber, the estuary of the rivers Ouse and 
 Trent (and so of the Dove, Derwent, Wharfe, 
 Sec), runs 38 miles E. and SE., separating the 
 Jounties of York and Lincoln, with a breadth vary- 
 ing from 1 to 7 miles. Its drainage basin, with 
 m area of 9770 miles, is the largest in England ; 
 md by means of navigable streams and canals 
 ■he Humber is connected with the Mersey, the 
 Jevern, and the Thames. The navigation is 
 
 obstructed, especially on the north side, by 
 banks and shoals. By way of the Humber Danes 
 and Northmen made many terrible incursions 
 into England, notably in 867, 1013, 1066, and 
 1069. The great port on the Humber was 
 anciently Ravenser or Ravenspur, just inside 
 Spurn Head. The process of erosion by the sea 
 was already at work when Henry Bolingbroke 
 landed here in 1399 ; soon after the place was 
 wholly covered by the encroaching waters, and 
 Hull (q.v.) became the great port on the north 
 shore, as Grimsby (q.v.) now is on the southern 
 side. See The Rivers of England (Cassell, 1889), 
 and Boyle's Lost Towns of the Humber (1889). 
 
 Humbleton. See Homildon. 
 
 Humboldt, a river rising in the NE. part of 
 Nevada, and flowing 350 miles WSW. to Hum- 
 boldt Sink, a lake over 40 miles in circumference, 
 with no outlet. Unnavigable even for canoes, it 
 is strongly impregnated with alkaline matter. 
 
 Hume Castle, Berwickshire, 6 miles N. by W. 
 of Kelso, on Hume Crags (700 feet), is now a 
 mere sham antique, on the site of the old strong- 
 hold of the lords of Home. 
 
 HiVnan, a province of China (q.v.). 
 
 Hungary (Hung. Magyarorszdg, Ger. Ungarn, 
 Lat. Hungaria) is the eastern and larger half of 
 the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, with an area 
 of 124,633 sq. in., and a pop. (1900) of 19,254,559. 
 With Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonia, and 
 Fiume, it forms the realm of the crown of St 
 Stephen or Transleithania, which is a coequal 
 factor with Austria or Cisleithania in the empire- 
 kingdom ruled over by the Hapsburg dynasty. 
 The two have been united since 1526, and since 
 1867 have been reconstructed as a dual empire, 
 each with its own laws, parliament, ministers, &c. , 
 but both under one monarch for military, diplo- 
 matic, and customs purposes. The geographi- 
 cal, industrial, and statistical features of Hungary 
 have been dealt with in the article Austria. The 
 Hungarians or Magyars, who entered Europe in 
 884, and established themselves in their present 
 country five years later, speak a non-Aryan lan- 
 guage, reckoned to belong to the Ugric branch 
 of the Finnish stock. Hungary became a regular 
 Christian kingdom in 1000 under King Stephen. 
 Mathias Corvinus in the 15th century waged war 
 successfully with the Turks and with the Bohem- 
 ians. At the battle of Mohacs in 1526 Louis 
 II. was utterly defeated by the Turks, and after 
 an intestine struggle the Austrian Ferdinand 
 became king. Since then the chief event in 
 Hungary's history has been the great Magyar 
 rising of 1848-49. See Felbermann, Hungary and 
 its People (1892). 
 
 Hungerford, a town of Berkshire, partly also 
 in Wiltshire, is situated on the river Kennet, 26 
 miles WSW. of Reading. It is a hunting centre, 
 and a favourite resort of anglers, having been 
 even in Evelyn's time 'a towne famous for its 
 troutes." In the town-hall (1870) is a horn gifted 
 by John of Gaunt in 1362. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Hiinlngen (Fr. Hunin{fue), a town of Alsace, 
 on the Rhine's left bank, 2^ miles N. of Basel, 
 is celebrated for its fish-breeding establishment 
 (1852). Vauban's fortifications (1679-81) were 
 razed in 1815. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Hunstanton (pron. Hunston), a watering-place 
 of Norfolk, on the Wash, 18 miles NE. of King's 
 Lynn by a railway (1862). It has a broad beach 
 of firm sand, and good bathing and sea-fishing, 
 a pier, a lighthouse (1840), and a splendid 
 Decorated church (c. 1330). Hunstanton Hall, 
 
 I 
 
HUNTINGDON 
 
 348 
 
 HYBLA 
 
 dating from the Tudor period, but greatly in- 
 jured by lire in 1859, was tlie seat of Sir Roger 
 L'Estrange. Pop. 1725. 
 
 Huntingdon, the county town of Hunting- 
 donshire, on the left bank of the Ouse, and the 
 Ermine Street of the Romans, 59 miles N. of 
 London. It became the seat of a royal castle 
 in 917, and was incorporated in 1189. It has 
 the Buckden Library (1890), breweries, brick- 
 works, carriage-works, and nursery gardens. 
 Here Oliver Cromwell was born (1599), and here 
 the poet Cowper lived (1765-67) ; the chronicler, 
 Henry of Huntingdon, from 1110 to 1155 was 
 Archdeacon of Huntingdon. With the municipal 
 borough of Godmanchester (pop. 2095), on the 
 opposite bank, it formed a parliamentary borough, 
 returning till 1867 two members, till 1885 one. 
 Pop. (1851) 3882 ; (1901) 4261. 
 
 Huntingdon, a town of Pennsylvania, 34 miles 
 E. of Altoona. Pop. 6053, 
 
 Huntingdonshire, or Hunts, an inland county 
 of England, 30 miles long and 23 broad, is 
 bounded N. and W. by Northampton, Cambridge, 
 and Bedford shires. Area, 359 sq. m., almost 
 all arable or in pasture. Pop. (1801) 37,568; 
 (1861) 64,250 ; (1901) 57,773. Hiintingdon.shire is 
 watered cliiefly by the Nene and the Ouse, 
 and comprises four hundreds and the municipal 
 boroughs of Huntingdon, Godmanchester, and St 
 Ives, with part of Peterborough. It is almost 
 entirely in the diocese of Ely and the South- 
 eastern Circuit, and returns two members. Two 
 Roman roads traverse Huntingdonshire ; at Al- 
 walton, Earith, and Chesterton are remains of 
 camps ; and in many places Roman remains have 
 been found. Among places of interest are the ruins 
 of Ramsey Abbey and Buckden Palace, formerly 
 the residence of the bishops of Lincoln ; Hinchin- 
 broolt House, anciently the seat of the Crom- 
 well family ; Kimbolton Castle, the seat of the 
 Duke of Manchester, where Queen Catharine 
 resided for some time after her divorce from 
 Henry VIII.; Horeham Hall, the residence of 
 the Princess Elizabeth during Mary's reign ; 
 Denton, the birthplace of Cotton the antiquary; 
 Little Gidding (q. v.) ; and Brampton, where lived 
 for some years Samuel Pepys. 
 
 Huntington, the name of several towns in the 
 United States. The largest are (1) capital of 
 Cabell CO., W, Virginia, on the Ohio River, 18 
 miles from Ironton. It has a college and many 
 factories. Pop. 11,970.— (2) A town of New York, 
 80 miles E. by W. of New York City. Pop. 9483. 
 —(3) A city of Indiana, on the Little River, 24 
 miles SW, of Fort Wayne, Pop. 9491. 
 
 Huntingtower, or Ruthven Castle, a ruin, 
 3 miles WNW. of Perth. James VI. was kid- 
 napped here in the ' Raid of Ruthven ' (1584). 
 
 Huntly, a Scottish town, 41 miles NW. of 
 Aberdeen. Near it is ruined Huntly Castle, the 
 seat of the earls and marquises of Huntly. Dr 
 George Macdonald was born here. Pop. 4150. 
 
 Huntsville, capital of Madison county, Ala- 
 bama, in the valley of the Tennessee, 212 miles 
 ESE. of Memphis by rail. It manufactures 
 cotton, oil, ice, iron, and flour. Pop. 8100. 
 
 Huon Gulf, an inlet on the east side of New 
 Guinea, in Kaiser Wilhelm's Land. 
 
 Hii-pel, one of the central provinces of China, 
 watered by the Yang-tsze. 
 
 Hurdwar. See Hardwar. 
 
 Hurlford, an Ayrshire town, on the Irvine, 2 
 miles ESE. of Kilmarnock. It has ironworks, 
 collieries, &c. Pop. 4605. 
 
 Hurlingham, at Fulham (q.v.) In Middlesex, 
 on the Thames below the bridge, the headquarters 
 of aristocratic pigeon-shooting. 
 
 Huron, the second largest of the five great 
 lakes on the frontier between the United States 
 and Canada, is connected at the north-west by 
 St Mary's River with Lake Superior, and through 
 the strait of Mackinaw with Lake Michigan. On 
 the south it has an outlet by way of the St Clair 
 River. It is bounded on the W. and SW. by 
 Michigan, and elsewhere by Ontario. The lake 
 is divided into two unequal parts by the Cabot's 
 Head peninsula and Grand Manitoulin island, 
 the parts to the north being called North Channel 
 and Georgian Bay. Its extreme length is 263 
 miles ; its greatest breadth, exclusive of Georgian 
 Bay, 105 miles ; average breadth, 70 miles. The 
 total area is 23,800 sq. m. ; and its mean eleva- 
 tion is 581-^iy feet above sea-level, it being 20J 
 feet below Lake Superior, and 8■^% above Lake 
 Erie. Huron has a mean depth of about 250, 
 and a maximum depth of 760 feet. There is an 
 average difference between high and low water 
 (due to winds and rain) of IfV foot. Huron, 
 like the other lakes, is subject to violent storms. 
 It contains about three thousand islands, nearly 
 all Canadian. The waters are very clear and 
 pure, and abound in fish. There are numerous 
 good harbours and roadsteads, most of them on 
 the Canadian side ; at Sand Beach, Michigan, 
 there is a harbour of refuge. 
 
 Hursley, a village of Hampshire, 5 miles SW. 
 of Winchester. John Keble, author of the Christ- 
 ian Year, was vicar here from 1835 till his death 
 in 1866. In 1848, with the profits of that cele- 
 brated work, he restored the church, which is 
 rich in modern stained glass. Keble himself lies 
 buried in the churchyard, and in the chancel is 
 the grave of Richard Cromwell. 
 
 Hurst Castle, a Hampshire fortress, dating 
 from 1535, at the west entrance of the Solent, 4 
 miles S. by W. of Lymington. Charles I. was 
 imprisoned here. 
 
 Hurstmonceaux (Hurst'mon-so), a village of 
 Sussex, 5 miles N. of Pevensey, with the extensive 
 ivy-covered ruins of a fine castle, built of brick 
 by Sir Roger de Fienes, one of the heroes of 
 Agincourt. It passed in 1727 into the hands of 
 the Hares or Hare-Naylors. The famous Broad 
 Church leader. Archdeacon Hare, was rector from 
 1832 till 1855, and lies buried in the churchyanl. 
 
 Hurstpierpoint, a market-town of Sussex, 8, 
 miles N. by W. of Brigliton. Here is St John's 
 College (1849), a middle-class school in connection 
 with Lancing (q.v.). Pop. of parish, 2883. 
 
 Husch, or Husi, a town of Moldavia, near the 
 Pruth, 38 miles SSE. of Jassy. Fugitive Hussites 
 founded it in the 15th century. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Husum, an old town in the Prussian province 
 of Sleswick-Holstein, 23 miles W. of Sleswick by 
 rail and 2^ from the North Sea. Pop. 8267. 
 
 Hutchinson, a town of Kansas, on the Arkansas 
 River, 48 miles NW. of Wichita, Pop. 9682. 
 
 Huy {Hoo-ee ; Flem. Hocy), a town of Belgium, 
 is romantically situated amid lofty rocks on the 
 Meuse, 19 miles SW. of Liege by rail. Its citadel 
 (1822) commands the passage of the river, and its 
 trade depends on ironworks, coal-mines, and 
 manufactures of paper, leather, beer, spirits, &c 
 Pop. 14,403. Peter the Hermit founded here the 
 former abbey of Neufmoustier (Novum MovM- 
 terium), and here in 1115 he died. 
 
 Hybla, three cities of ancient Sicily. 
 
HYDASPE3 
 
 349 
 
 lEEA 
 
 Hydaspes. See Jhelum. 
 
 Hyde, an important manufacturing town of 
 Cheshire, 7 miles ESB. of Manchester, and 5 NE. 
 of Stockport. Standing in a coalfield, and enjoy- 
 ing ample facilities of communication by road, 
 rail, and canal, it has risen from a mere village 
 to a considerable town, which in 1881 was in- 
 corporated as a municipal borough. Cotton is of 
 course the staple manufacture ; then come the 
 felt-hat industry, engineering, boiler-making, &c. 
 The town-hall is a handsome building. Pop. 
 (1811) 1806 ; (1861) 13,722 ; (1901) 32,768. 
 
 Hyde Park, a manufacturing town of Massa- 
 chusetts, on the Neponset River, 8 miles by rail 
 S. by W. of Boston. Pop. 13,293. 
 
 Hyderabad (Haidardbdd), or the Nizam's 
 Dominions, a feudatory state of India, occupies 
 the greater part of the Deccan proper or central 
 plateau of southern India, between the provinces 
 of Madras and Bombay. Area, 82,698 sq. m. (ex- 
 cluding the British assigned districts of Berar, 
 q.v.) ; pop. (1901) 11,141,142. Only 1,138,666 are 
 Mohammedans, found mainly in the capital, though 
 the Nizam and state are Mohammedan. Telugu, 
 Kanarese, and Marathi are the principal languages 
 spoken. Education is making rapid strides. The 
 surface is a slightly elevated tableland. The 
 chief rivers are the Godavari, with its tributaries 
 the Dudna, Manjira, and Pranhita ; and the 
 Kistna (Krishna), with the Bhima and Tunga- 
 bhadra. In 1687 the territory, long called the 
 Nizam's Dominions, became a province of tlie 
 Mogul empire ; but soon after 1713 the viceroy of 
 the Deccan made himself independent. 
 
 Hyderabad, the capital of the state, stands on 
 the Musi's right bank, 1700 feet above the sea, 390 
 miles by rail NW. of Madras. It is 6 miles in 
 circumference, and is surrounded by a stone 
 wall. Population, 450,000. The palace of the 
 Nizam, though architecturally unimportant, is of 
 vast size. Hyderabad is a great stronghold of 
 Mohammedanism. The principal mosque was 
 fashioned after the model of the Great Mosque at 
 Mecca ; in the interior are fine monolithic granite 
 columns, and outside the building is crowned by 
 lofty minarets. Another remarkable edifice is the 
 Char Minar or College, with four minarets resting 
 on four connected arches, at which the four prin- 
 cipal thoroughfares converge. On the opposite 
 side of the river is the magnificent British Resi- 
 dency ; it stands in the midst of fine gardens, 
 and communicates with the Nizam's palace by a 
 bridge. The neighbourhood boasts of wild and 
 picturesque scenery, and abounds with huge tanks 
 and beautiful gardens.— Secunderabad (Sikan- 
 dardbdd) is a British military cantonment 6 miles 
 NE. of Hyderabad. 
 
 Hyderabad, the historical capital of Sind, and 
 chief city of a district, stands 3^ miles E. of the 
 left bank of the Indus. On the other side is the 
 Sind railway, terminating at Kurrachee. Hyder- 
 abad is famous for its silks, gold-work, pottery, 
 lacquered ware, and arms. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Hydra, a bleak, rock-bound Greek island, lies 
 
 4 miles from the coast of the Peloponnesian de- 
 partment of Argolis and Corinth. It is a narrow 
 rocky ridge, 11 miles long, 1960 feet high, and 20 
 sq. m. in area. On the north-west coast is the 
 seaport of Hydra (6446). The 7342 islanders, 
 mostly of Albanian origin, make excellent sea- 
 men, and carry on cotton and silk weaving, tan- 
 ning, shipbuilding, sponge-fishing, and commerce. 
 Prior to the war of Greek independence the 
 Hydriotes numbered 28,000. 
 
 Hyeres, a town of Provence, in the French 
 dep. of Var, on a southern hill-slope, crowned by 
 a ruined castle, 3 miles from the Mediterranean, 
 and 13 B. of Toulon by rail. Embosomed in 
 palm-groves and orange-orchards, it is celebrated 
 for the beauty of its situation and its mild, dry 
 climate, and is therefore growing more and more 
 in favour as an invalid resort between October 
 and May. An English church was built in 1884 ; 
 and since 1875 great improvements have been 
 carried out in the way of drainage, water-works, 
 boulevards, &c. Massillon was a native. Pop. 
 (1872) 5881 ; .(1901) 15,236. Near the coast lie 
 the wooded lies d'Hy6resor d'Or(anc. S<cecftad«s). 
 
 Hymettus (now Trelo Vouni), a mountain (3368 
 feet) in Attica, SE. of Athens, was famous of old 
 for its honey and bluish marble. 
 
 Hyndlee, the Roxburghshire farm, 10 miles 
 SE. from Hawick, of James Davidson, the proto- 
 type of ' Dandle Dinmont. ' 
 
 Hyogo, or Kobe, a port of central Japan, 
 on the west shore of the Gulf of Osaka, 20 miles 
 S. of that city. Population, 285,000. The foreign 
 settlement is finely laid out, and the town is one 
 of the most attractive and prosperous in Japan. 
 It has been open to foreign trade since 1860, and 
 has wharves, shipbuilding-yards, and a paper-mill. 
 
 Hythe, a parliamentary and municipal borough 
 and market-town of Kent, 5 miles WSW. of 
 Folkestone, and 67 SE. by E. of London by rail, 
 is one of the Cinque Ports, although Lympne or 
 Lymm (anc. Partus Lemanis of the Romans), 
 now 3 miles inland, was probably the original 
 liarbour. The town, which is pleasantly situ- 
 ated some distance from the sea, is built on 
 the side of a hill. Its church, a cruciform build- 
 ing of great beauty, in part Romanesque, has 
 been restored since 1866, and contains in a crypt 
 an extraordinary collection of human skulls and 
 bones. Near to Hythe are the headquarters of 
 the School of Musketry and Shorncliffe camp, 
 both established in 1854; the picturesque ruins 
 of Saltwood Castle, with memories of Becket; 
 and the obsolete Royal Military Canal, 23 miles 
 long, constructed in 1805 for the conveyance of 
 military stores to Rye. In 1881 a sea-wall and 
 parade, extending from Hythe to Sandgate and 
 Folkestone, was opened. These and some smaller 
 places are included in the parliamentary borough 
 of Hythe, which since 1832 has returned only one 
 member. Pop. of that borough (1851) 13,164; 
 (1901) 46,619, of whom 5557 were within the 
 municipal limits, which include West Hythe. 
 
 *BADAN, chief commercial town of Yoruba 
 
 in Africa, in the British colony of Lagos, 
 
 124 miles from Lagos by rail. Pop. 200,000. 
 
 Ibague, capital of the department of 
 
 Tolima in Colombia, 60 miles W. of Bogota, 
 
 on a fertile plain 4000 ft. above the sea. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Ibajay, a town of Panay, in the province of 
 
 Capiz, in the Philippines. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Ibarra, capital of Imbabura province, Ecuador, 
 7000 feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Ibea, a word coined from the initials of Im- 
 perial British East Africa, was disused when in 
 1898 the company was superseded by the British 
 Foreign Office. British East Africa consists of 
 the East Africa Protectorate (200,000 sq. miles on 
 the mainland ; pop. 4,000,000), with the Uganda 
 
IBERIA 
 
 350 
 
 ICELAND 
 
 (q.v.) Protectorate, and the islamis of Zanzibar 
 and Peiuba, governed through thuir sultan. 
 
 Iberia, the name by which Georgia (q.v.) was 
 known to the Greeks and Romans ; and aLso an 
 ancient name for Spain. 
 
 Ibrail. See Braila. 
 
 Ibrox, a south-west suburb of Glasgow. 
 
 lea, a coast dep. of Peru, with an area of 6295 
 sq. m. and a pop. of 90,111. The capital, lea, is 
 50 miles by rail SE. of Pisco, its port. Pop. 9000. 
 
 leeland, an island in the North Atlantic imme- 
 diately south of the Polar Circle, which just 
 touches its northernmost point. It lies between 
 63" 23' and 66° 33' N. lat., and between 13° 22' and 
 24° 15' W. long. The distance from Iceland to 
 Greenland is about 250 miles, to Norway 600, to 
 the Faroe Islands 250, and to Scotland 500. Its 
 area is 40,300 sq. m. (more than a third larger 
 than Scotland) ; its length from east to west 300 
 miles, and its breadth from north to south 200. 
 The south coast from east to west is entirely 
 wanting in bays and fjords. Other parts of the 
 coast, especially the north-west and east coasts, 
 are very much indented by fjords and bays, so 
 that the coast-line, measured from point to point, 
 is only 900 miles, but following the indentations 
 would be over 2000. 
 
 Taken as a whole, Iceland may be said to be a 
 tableland about 20(X) feet high. In some parts 
 it slopes pretty evenly down to the coast— e.g. 
 on the south side between Eyafjallajokull and 
 Reykjanes. Here is the largest extent of low- 
 land, about 1400 sq. m. The fjords in the north- 
 west, north, and east are mostly narrow cut- 
 tings, and hills rise to about 2000 feet abruptly 
 from the water, ending in steep precipices, which 
 afford breeding-places to myriads of sea-fowl. In 
 the north, and in some parts of the east, there 
 are several broad valleys running from the fjords 
 into the interior. Iceland is throughout vol- 
 canic. The interior and highest part of the island 
 consists of volcanic tufa ; the hills of the east and 
 west are mainly basaltic. The whole of the in- 
 terior is occupied by barren sands, lava tracts, 
 and icefields. The largest of these lava tracts is 
 Odathahraun, about 1200 sq. m. The largest ice- 
 field is that of VatnajokuU, about 3000 sq. m., 
 and all the icefields together cover 5360 sq. m. 
 At the south-east corner of VatnajokuU is the 
 highest mountain in Iceland, called OraefajokuU 
 (6550 feet) ; its upper part is covered with ever- 
 lasting snow or ice, as more or less are all moun- 
 tains above 4000 feet, the snow-line being usually 
 at from 3000 to 4000 feet. There are twenty 
 volcanoes which have been active since the island 
 was inhabited ; the eruptions of Hecla (cj^.v.) have 
 been most frequent. Laki, near Skapta, in 1783 
 threw out a lava stream 45 miles long and nearly 
 15 broad— an outpour unexampled anywhere else. 
 The south-west peninsula, Reykjanes, has fre- 
 quently been disturbed by volcanic outbursts ; 
 and islands in the sea round it have beeji thrown 
 up or submerged alternately by submarine vol- 
 canic action. As a result of this volcanic activity, 
 2400 sq. m. of Iceland are covered with lava. 
 Many of the ice-hills have been active volcanoes 
 during the last 600 years, such as Craefajokull 
 and Eyafjallajokull. These ice-volcanoes never 
 throw out any lava, but mud and ashes. 
 
 The numerous hot springs scattered about the 
 island are in many jKirts made use of by the 
 inhabitants for cooking and washing purposes ; 
 some are just warm enough for bathing, others 
 convert their water into steam at a degree far 
 above the boiling-point. The most famous is 
 
 the Great Geyser, near Hecla. Earthquakes 
 sometimes do much damage. Many rivers, all too 
 rapid to be navigable, and the longest over 100 
 miles, run from the interior either north or south. 
 Lakes also are numerous, and pretty waterfalls. 
 The climate of the south of Iceland is somewhat 
 like that of the north of Scotland— i.e. rather wet 
 and changeable, but colder. In the north the 
 climate is drier and colder still. The winter is 
 mild considering the latitude, but spring and 
 summer are frequently cold. The greatest pecu- 
 liarity of the climate is the varying mean tem- 
 perature of the same month, the dill'erence some- 
 times being 27°. This is owing to the arrival or 
 non-arrival of the Greenland ice, which not un- 
 frequently blocks up the north and east coasts 
 from April to September. Sulphur, lignite, and 
 brown coal are found, as well as iron and lime. 
 The only cereal is mclur, a kind of wild oata. 
 Turnips, carrots, cabbages, and potatoes thrive 
 well, and are cultivated to some extent. The 
 grasses, both wild and cultivated, however, are 
 the principal product. Of trees there is the 
 birch, seldom exceeding 12 feet in height, and 
 some willows and juniper bushes ; amongst the 
 heather are found crowberries and whortleberries. 
 Iceland moss, a kind of lichen, is plentiful, and 
 is available for food. There are both white and 
 blue foxes ; and of reindeer, introduced in 1770, 
 there are still a few herds running wild on the 
 hills in the interior. Large numbers of sheep 
 are now exported alive to Scotland and England. 
 The cows are small, but yield abundant milk. 
 Thousands of ponies are brought to Scotland every 
 year. The genuine Iceland dog resembles the 
 Eskimo dog and the Scotch collie. There are 
 about 22.000 cattle, 1,000,000 sheep, and 40,000 
 ponies. Of birds there are immense numbers, 
 especially of water-fowl ; the most important 
 the eider-duck. The ptarmigan is the only game- 
 bird. The most remarkable bird of prey is the 
 Icelandic falcon. The whooper or wild swan 
 breeds largely. The neighbouring sea is very 
 rich in fish, especially cod and herring ; the fish- 
 eries, very important to the islanders, also attract 
 French and Norwegians. Finbacked whales and 
 seals are also numerous. Many of the salmon and 
 trout rivers are rented by Englishmen. 
 
 Iceland was discovered about 800 by Irishmen 
 or Scots, but they did not make any permanent 
 settlement. In 874 it was rediscovered and 
 colonised by Norwegians, who preferred to leave 
 their native land rather than submit to the rule 
 of Harold Haarfager. In about sixty years the 
 whole island was inhabited, and an aristocratic 
 republic was formed. In 1262-64 the Icelanders 
 acknowledged the sovereignty of the king of 
 Norway ; in 1388, when Norway was united with 
 Denmark, Iceland shared the same fate ; but 
 when Denmark had to give up Norway in 1814, 
 Iceland remained with Denmark. In 1874 a new 
 constitution was granted, and in 1893 a fonn of 
 home rule. Christianity was introduced in 1000, 
 and the Reformation about the middle of the 16th 
 century. Cliurch matters are now superintended 
 by one Lutheran bishop at Reykjavik. The most 
 notable events in the recent history of Iceland 
 are calamities caused by volcanic outbursts, 
 severe seasons, epidemics, and, in some cases, mis- 
 government. Pop. (1801) 46,240; (1880) 72,442; 
 (1901) 78,470. Since 1870 there has been consider- 
 able emigration to America. In the 12th and 13th 
 centuries the Icelanders produced more vernacu- 
 lar literature than any other nation in Europe; 
 the present-day elementary education is so 
 general that a child of ten unable to read is 
 
ICHANQ 
 
 351 
 
 ILETZK 
 
 quite an exception. The Icelandic still spoken 
 is practically the old Norse tongue once spoken 
 in Norway, Sweden, and Ueniuark. Reykjavik 
 (pop. 6000), on the south-west coast, is the capital. 
 IsaQord in the north-west and Akureyri in the 
 north have each about 500 inhabitants. For the 
 rest the population is scattered all round the 
 island on isolated farms. The principal means of 
 support of the Icelanders are the rearing of live- 
 stock and fishing. The only native industry con- 
 sists in working the wool of the sheep into various 
 articles of clothing ; this is chiefly done by the 
 women in winter. Tlie Icelanders make a sort 
 of tweed, the principal clothing material of the 
 inhabitants. See works by C. S. Forbes (18G0), 
 Baring-Gould (1864), Sir R. Burton (1875), and 
 W. L. Watts (1877). 
 
 Ichang, a walled Chinese town, stands on the 
 Yang-tsze-kiang, where it escapes from the lime- 
 stone gorges of its middle course, and 1000 miles 
 from Shanghai at its mouth. In 1877 it was 
 declared open to foreign trade. Pop. 35,575. 
 
 Icknleld Street, an ancient Roman road, cross- 
 ing England from Norfolk to Land's End. 
 
 Ickworth House, the splendid seat (1792) of 
 the Marquis of Bristol, in Suffolk, 3 miles SW. 
 of Bury St Edmunds. 
 Icolmkill. See Iona. 
 
 Iconium, an ancient town of Asia Minor, situ- 
 ated on the \V. edge of the plateau skirting the 
 northern slopes of the Taurus Mountains, 310 
 miles E. of Smyrna. In 1832 Ibrahim Pasha 
 defeated the Turks there. The modern Konieii 
 or KoNiYA, the capital of a Turkish vilayet, has 
 a pop. of 20,000 or 30,000. Here is the chief 
 monastery of the Mevlevi or 'dancing' dervishes. 
 Ruins of mosques, madrasas (colleges), &c. attest 
 its decayed splendour. 
 
 Ida, a mountain-range in Asia Minor, extend- 
 ing from Phrygia through Mysia into the Troad. 
 Troy stood at its base. On the highest peak 
 (5749 feet) was a temple of Cybele, the Idcean 
 Mother. From Ida flow the Granicus, Simois, 
 and Scamander.— On another Ida (8055 feet) in 
 Crete, Zeus was said to have been educated. 
 
 I'daho, till 1890 a territory, now a state of the 
 American Union, lies between 42° and 49° N. lat., 
 and mainly between 111° and 114° W. long. Its 
 greatest length is 490 miles ; the breadth varies 
 from 42 miles at the 'pan-handle' which forms 
 the northern part, to 300 miles along the south- 
 ern boundary. Its area is 84,800 sq. m. One of 
 the main ranges of the Rocky Mountains sep- 
 arates Idaho from Montana, and in the south is 
 part of the continental divide between the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans. About 70,000 sq. 
 m. of the area is situated in the drainage basin 
 of the Columbia River, the rest in the Great 
 Basin. Except a small area in the south, the 
 entire surface is rugged and mountainous, tra- 
 versed by spurs of the high range in the north- 
 east, of which Salmon River Mountains separate 
 northern Idaho from the plateau-region in the 
 centre and south. Most of these ranges reach 
 elevations of 10,000 feet and upwards ; the average 
 height of the state is about 5000 feet. The lowest 
 level is the valley of Snake River, which at Bois6 
 City (the capital) is 2000 feet above the sea-level. 
 Snake River, Shoshone, or Lewis River drains by 
 far the largest part of the state. In its course 
 (about 850 miles in length), open valleys alternate 
 with narrow canons through which the river flows 
 in ' dalles ' and cataracts. Shoshone Falls almost 
 rival those of Niagara. Salmon River, a tribu- 
 
 tary, drains the central part. There are two lake< 
 regions : one in the pan-handle, the other in the 
 south-east. The former includes Pend d'Oreille, 
 Cceur d'Alene and Kaniksu lakes ; the latter, 
 John Day and Bear lakes. These lake-regions 
 abound in game. Vegetation is abundant in the 
 northern and central parts, but not in the arid 
 lands of the south, where irrigation is necessary. 
 Forests of conifers cover the western slopes of 
 the Bitter Root and Coeur d'Alene mountains. 
 In the central and southern part the forests give 
 place to extensive mesas overgrown with sage 
 brush, and rolling lands covered with bunch 
 grass. The mineral wealth consists chiefly in 
 silver, lead, gold, copper, and coal. In the basin- 
 region of the south-east soda, gypsum, sulphur, 
 &c. abound. Mineral springs are numerous. The 
 climate is exceedingly healthy. Grain-farming 
 is of necessity confined to the narrow river- 
 valleys, and, as a whole, Idaho is best adapted 
 to stock-raising. Pop. (1870) 14,999; (1880) 
 32,610; (1890) 84,385, nearly a fifth being Mor- 
 mons ; (1900) 161,772, including 2297 Indians. 
 
 Iddesleigh, a Devon parish, 4 miles NE. of 
 Hatherleigh. It gave his earl's title (1885) to 
 Sir Stafford Northcote. 
 
 Idle, in 1899 incorporated with Bradford, was 
 till then a distinct Yorkshire town, lying to the 
 east of Bradford. 
 
 Idxia, an Austrian town in Carniola, celebrated 
 since 1497 for its quicksilver mines, lies 1093 feet 
 above sea-level in the deep valley of the river 
 Idria, 23 miles W. by S. of Laibach. Pop. 5984. 
 Idumsea. See Edom. 
 
 If, a rocky island in the Gulf of Marseilles, 
 crowned by the Chateau d'lf, built by Francis I. 
 Here were confined Mirabeau and Philip Egalite, 
 not to mention ' Monte Cristo.' 
 
 Iffley, a village, with a fine Norman church, 
 on the Isis, If mile below Oxford. 
 
 Ifni, a small seaport of southern Morocco, 35 
 miles S. of Aguilon, ceded to Spain in 1883. 
 
 Iglau (Bohm. Jihlava), the second largest town 
 of Moravia, is situated 1703 feet above sea-level, 
 on the river Iglawa, close to the Bohemian 
 boundary, 123 miles NNW. of Vienna by rail. 
 It has some old churches (one founded in 799). 
 Its staples are cloth and woollen goods, besides 
 glass and tobacco. Pop. 24,378. 
 
 IglOOlik, an island near the east end of Fury 
 and Hecla Strait in the Arctic Ocean. Here 
 Parry passed the winter of 1822-23. 
 
 Igualada, a town of Spain, 32 miles NW. of 
 Barcelona. Pop, 10,218. 
 
 Ilala, a place near the south shore of Lake 
 Bangweolo in British S. Africa, where Dr Living- 
 stone died. 
 
 Il'chester, a decayed village of Somerset, on 
 the Yeo, 5 miles NW. of Yeovil. Supposed to be 
 the Ischalis of Ptolemy, it was an important 
 Roman station, and a flourishing Saxon town. 
 Roger Bacon was a native. Till 1832 Ilchester 
 returned two members. Pop. 664. 
 
 ile-de-France, an old province of France, having 
 Paris for capital, and now mostly comprised in 
 the deps. of Seine, Seine-et-Oise, Aisne, Seine-et- 
 Marne, Somme, and Oise. Ile-de-France was the 
 former name of Maiuritius. 
 
 netzk, a town in the Russian government of 
 Orenburg, near the confluence of the Ilek with 
 the Ural. Pop. 97G9. Close by is the richest 
 salt-bed in Russia. 
 
 I. 
 
ILFORD 
 
 352 
 
 INAQUA 
 
 nford, a town of Essex, on the Roding, 3^ 
 miles ENE. of Stratford. Pop. (1901) 41,234. 
 
 nfracombe (Il'fra-coom), a watering-place of 
 North Devon, is finely situated on a cove of the 
 Bristol Channel, 11 miles NNW. of Barnstaple 
 (15 by a branch-line). Its air ' combines the soft 
 warmth of South Devon with the bracing fresh- 
 ness of the Welsh mountains ' (Charles Kingsley). 
 This and its fine rocky coast-scenery and admir- 
 able sea-bathing annually attract large numbers 
 of visitors. On the north side of the good harbour 
 there is a lighthouse, the light, 127 feet above 
 high-water, being visible for 10 miles. In the 
 14th century it was a port of some consequence, 
 and contributed six vessels to the siege of Calais. 
 Population, 8700. 
 
 Ilhavo, a Portuguese town, 40 miles S. of 
 Oporto. Near it are the glass and porcelain 
 works of Vista Alegre. Pop. 12,600. 
 
 111. See KuLJA. 
 
 Ilkeston, a market-town of Derbyshire, near 
 the Ere wash River, 9 miles ENE. of Derby, and 
 20 S. of Che.sterfield. It enjoys repute from its 
 6,lkaline spring and baths (opened in 1830). The 
 parish church, with a lofty pinnacled tower, has 
 interesting Norman and Early English features. 
 The town-hall was built in 1868. Ilkeston has 
 manufactures of hosiery, lace, silk, and earthen- 
 ware, with coal and iron mines in the vicinity. 
 In 1251 a charter for holding a market and fair 
 here was granted to Hugh Fitz-Ralph ; and in 1887 
 Ilkeston was incorporated as a municipal borough. 
 Pop. (1861) 3330 ; (1881) 14,122 ; (1901) 25,383. 
 
 Ilkley, a watering-place in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the Wharfe, among heathery hills, 
 13 miles NNW. of Bradford and 16 NW. of Leeds 
 by a branch-line (1865). Since 1846 it has become 
 the seat of several hydropathic establishments — 
 Ilkley Wells House, Ben-Rhydding (q.v.), &c. It 
 occupies the site of a Roman station, and in the 
 churchyard are three curious Saxon crosses ; 
 whilst Bolton Abbey (q.v.) is 5 miles north-west. 
 Pop. (1851) 811 ; (1901) 7455. 
 
 ni, a river of Alsace, flowing 127 miles NNE. 
 to the Rhine, 9 miles below Strasburg. 
 
 Ille-et-Vilaine, a maritime French dep., formed 
 out of the north-eastern portion of the old prov- 
 ince of Brittany. Area, 2596 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1872) 589,532 ; (1901) 611,477, mostly of Celtic 
 race. It is watered chiefly by the Vilaine and its 
 tributary the Ille, which unite near Rennes. — Tlie 
 dep. is divided into six arrondissements — Rennes 
 (the capital), Foug^res, Montfort, St Malo (the 
 chief seaport), Vitre, and Redon. 
 
 niima'nl, a chief summit (21,150 feet) of the 
 Bolivian Andes, 40 miles SE. of La Paz. 
 
 Illinois (Ill-i-noy'), seventeenth in area of the 
 United States, but third in population, extends 
 from Wisconsin and Lake Michigan on the N. and 
 NE. to the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi 
 rivers at the extreme SW. — a distance of nearly 
 400 miles. It is bounded E. by Indiana, from 
 which it is partly separated by the Wabash River ; 
 S. it is separated from Kentucky by the Ohio ; 
 and on the W. the Mississippi flows between it 
 and Iowa and Missouri. The area is 56,650 sq. m., 
 or nearly that of England and Wales. The sur- 
 face of Illinois is the most level of any .state, 
 except Delaware and Louisiana ; and its wide 
 grassy plains, though broken by numerous streams 
 fringed with belts of fine timber, have gained for 
 it the name of the Prairie State. The Illinois 
 River is formed by the union of two streams, 
 45 miles SW. of Lake Michigan, and flows 600 
 
 miles SW. to the Mississippi. The fertile soil— . 
 a heavy black loam— with a favourable climate, 
 makes this the richest agricultural state in the 
 Union ; and Illinois ranks first for the production 
 of corn, cattle, hogs, and horses. The mineral 
 output, especially of bituminous coal, is also 
 large, nearly a fifth of the entire coalfield of the 
 United States being found in this state. Other 
 minerals are lead, limestone, salt, and fluor-spar. 
 The position of Illinois presents unusual facilities 
 for commerce. The rivers that cross or touch 
 the state are navigable for over 400 miles, 
 while by way of the great lakes Cliicago has 
 also a water-highway to the Atlantic. More- 
 over, Illinois has more railroads than any other 
 state, upwards of 10,800 miles. Formerly a part 
 of the North-west Territory, Illinois was organ- 
 ised as a territory in 1809, and admitted as a 
 state in 1818, with a pop. of 34,620. Pop. (1830) 
 157,445; (1850) 851,470; (1870) 2,539,891; (1880) 
 3,077,871 ; (1900) 4,821,550. Chicago is by far the 
 largest city ; its limits embrace inore than a 
 fourth of the entire population of the state. 
 Peoria, Quincy, Springfield (the capital), and 
 Rockford rank next in population. During the 
 civil war the state contributed 259,092 men to 
 tlie Union armies, of whom over 29,000 were 
 killed in action or died of wounds or disease. 
 See works by S. Breese (Chicago, 1884), and J. 
 Moses (Chicago, 1889). 
 
 Illyrla (Lat. Illyricum), the country that 
 stretched along the eastern side of the Adriatic 
 Sea, from Epirus northwards, coinciding now 
 with Bosnia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, &c. 
 
 Ilmen, a lake of Russia, witli an area of 354 
 sq. m., discharging through the river Volkhof to 
 Lake Ladoga. 
 
 Ilmenau, a town and summer resort in Saxe- 
 Weimar, 30 miles S. of Erfurt, manufactures glass, 
 pottery, toys, and ironware. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Ilminster, a market-town of Somerset, on the 
 Isle, 11 miles SE. of Taunton. Pop. 2300. 
 
 II Obeid. See Obeid. 
 
 Ilorl, or Illorin, capital of a territory in 
 Nigeria, and an important commercial centre, 
 stands at an elevation of 1300 feet, 160 miles 
 NNE. of Lagos on tlie coast, and 50 SW. of the 
 Niger. Once an independent Yoruba state, it 
 became subject to Sokoto, and so came into the 
 sphere of the Niger Company ; since 1897 it gives 
 name to a province of (British) Northern Nigeria. 
 
 Ilsley, East, a Berkshire market-town, amid 
 bleak downs, 9 miles N. of Newbury and 6J S. 
 of Didcot. Its sheep-markets count among the 
 most important in the kingdom. Pop. 519. Arch- 
 bishop de Dominis was rector of West Ilsley, 2 
 miles north-west. Pop. 376. 
 
 Imbros, a Turkish island of the ^Egean Sea, 
 14 miles NE. of Lemnos, and 14 W. of the month 
 of the Dardanelles. Area, 98 sq. m. ; pop. 9000, 
 mostly of Greek descent. It attains 1959 feet 
 above sea-level. The chief village, Kastro, on 
 the north coast, occupies the site of the ancient 
 town of Imbros. 
 
 Imerltia. See Caucasus. 
 
 I'mola (anc. Forum Corjielii), a picturesque 
 town of Italy, on an islet formed by the river 
 Santerno (Vatremis), 22 miles SE. of Bologna by 
 rail. Its cathedral has been spoiled by modern 
 restoration. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Imphail, the native name of Manipur (q.v.). 
 
 Inaccessible Island. See Tristan da Cunha. 
 
 Inagua. See Bahamas. 
 
INCHAFFRAY 
 
 353 
 
 INDIA 
 
 InchaflFray, a ruined Augustinian abbey (1200) 
 of Perthshire, 6^ miles B. by N. of Crieff. 
 
 Inchcape. See Bell Rock. 
 
 Inchcolm ('Columba's island'), a Fife islet, in 
 the Firth of Forth, 1^ mile S. by W. of Aberdour. 
 It has remains of a 12tli-centiiry Augustinian 
 abbey and an earlier hermitage. 
 
 Inchgarvie. See Forth Bridge. 
 
 Inchkeith, a strongly fortified islet of Fife, in 
 the Firth of Forth, 2| miles SSE. of Kinghorn 
 Ness. It rises to 182 feet, and is crowned by a 
 lightliouse, dating from 1803. 
 
 Inchmahome. See Menteith. 
 
 India, the Indian empire of the British crown, 
 is an extensive region of southern Asia, and next 
 after China the most populous area in tlie world. 
 The name India is a Greek word from the Persian 
 Hind, the Persian form of Sindhu, a Sanskrit 
 name for the Indus River. Hindustan is pro- 
 perly only a province — the region of the Jumna 
 and the Ganges. 'Further India' is the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula. 
 
 India is the central peninsula of southern 
 Asia, and lies in 8° 4'— 35° N. lat. and 67°— 92° 
 E. long., with a length of some 1900 nules, a 
 breadth of 1600, and an area— inclusive of 
 Burma— of 1,766,650 sq. m. The natural bound- 
 aries of this vast region are, on the N., the range 
 of the Himalaya Mountains, which separates it 
 from Tartary, China, and Tibet ; on the W. the 
 mountainous frontiers of Afglianistan and, further 
 south, of Persia ; on the SW. and S. the Arabian 
 Sea and the Indian Ocean ; on the E. the hill- 
 ranges which border upon Burma and the Bay of 
 Bengal. The region presents a diversified surface 
 and scenery. It has indeed been called 'an epi- 
 tome of the whole earth,' consisting as it does of 
 mountains far above the level of perpetual snow, 
 broad and fertile plains, bathed in intense sun- 
 shine, arid wastes, and impenetrable forests. Its 
 natural divisions are the Himalaya, the sub- 
 Himalayan ranges, the plains of the Ganges and 
 the Brahmaputra, the basin of the Indus, the 
 highlands of Hindustan, the Vindhya and Sat- 
 pura ranges, and the peninsula south of those 
 ranges. The Himalaya (q.v.) is the dominating 
 factor in the geography of northern India, being 
 the source of the Indus, the Ganges, the Brahma- 
 putra, and of their principal affluents. The sub- 
 Himalayan ranges, between the Himalaya and 
 the plains of ihe Ganges and Indus, occupy Cash- 
 mere, the Simla hill-states, Gurhwal, Kumaon, 
 Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan, which, owing to their 
 elevation above the sea (5000 to 9000 feet), have 
 a climate like central Europe in summer and 
 cold as Switzerland in winter. The plains of the 
 Ganges and the Brahmaputra, which include 
 Bengal, Behar, the Doab, Oudh, and Rohilcund, 
 form an alluvial flat, terminating in a delta at 
 the Bay of Bengal. The Punjab occupies the 
 ■lorthern portion of the basin of the Indus. 
 South of the Punjab, and parallel with the river, 
 ,he great sandy desert of the Indus extends for 
 learly 500 miles. The valley of the Indus is 
 'ontinued through Sind to the Arabian Sea. 
 Between the Indus region and the Aravalli Hills 
 ies the Thur desert, 400 miles long and 100 
 iroad. It is only in the neighbourhood of the 
 ndus and some of its tributaries that the surface 
 an be cultivated by means of river-ii-rigation. 
 "he highlands of Hindustan include the table- 
 ind of Malwa and Rajputana or Rajasthan, 
 ^hich has an elevation of about 2000 feet. 
 
 The Vindhya and Satpura ranges, running from 
 \yest, with an elevation from 2500 to 4000 
 W 
 
 ^ to \yest 
 
 feet, form, with the Nerbudda River between 
 them, a broad wall dividi)ig northern from 
 southern India. The peninsula south of the Sat- 
 pura range is in two divisions. The first, the 
 Deccan (q.v.), is a central tableland rising from 
 1500 to 2000 feet above the sea, and enclosed on 
 all sides by mountain-ranges. These ranges are 
 the Satpuras, the Eastern Ghats, and the Western 
 Ghats. Between the Eastern Ghats and the sea 
 are fertile littoral tracts known to history as the 
 Northern Circars and the Carnatic. Between 
 the Western Ghats and the sea is a similar tract 
 known geographically as the Konkan. As a 
 northern continuation of this tract is Gujarat, 
 with its offshoots the peninsulas of Kathiawar 
 and Cutch. From the low land of the Konkan 
 to the Deccan plateau the mountains rise in a 
 succession of gigantic terraces. The rivers of 
 the Deccan rise in the Western Ghats, and, after 
 traversing the tableland, descend to the sea by 
 passages through the Eastern Ghats, The slope 
 of the country corresponds with the course of 
 the rivers ; it has a gradual eastward inclination. 
 The second division begins geographically from 
 the hills south of Cuddapah, extends right down 
 to Cape Comorin as to the apex of an inverted 
 triangle, and includes Madras, Tanjore, Trichino- 
 poli, and Tinnevelli. 
 
 There are auriferous deposits in parts of the 
 Deccan. Silver has never been discovered in 
 appreciable quantity within the country ; in the 
 Shan dependencies of Burma, however, it is ex- 
 tracted from lead ore. Coal is obtained largely 
 in western Bengal, in the Satpura Hills to a 
 considerable extent, and in the Deccan to some 
 extent. Iron and copper are found and worked 
 in many parts of the country. Diamonds are 
 still found in the central hills, and ruby-mines 
 are worked near the Irawadi. The mineral re- 
 sources on the whole are less important than 
 the agricultural. In a country extending over 
 26° of latitude— one extremity of which runs 
 far into the torrid zone, and the other ter- 
 minates in a range of mountains rising far 
 above the line of perpetual snow — a country em- 
 bracing lowland plains, elevated plateaus, and 
 alpine regions, the climate must be extremely 
 varied. The whole country has three well-marked 
 seasons— the cool, the hot, and the rainy. This 
 characteristic applies even to the Himalayas, 
 which have otherwise a climate like that of 
 Switzerland. The cool months are November, 
 December, January, and a part of February ; the 
 dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot 
 weather follows the periodical rains. The rainy 
 season falls in the middle of summer ; its begin- 
 ning is earlier or later according to circumstances, 
 its ending is in September. The winter is the 
 pleasant period ; the spring is generally hot and 
 healthy ; the summer depends on the duration 
 of the rains ; the autumn is close, malarious, 
 and unhealthy. The occasional failure of the 
 monsoon causes the periodical famines to which 
 the country is liable. The central tableland is 
 cool comparatively. In the north-west there is 
 burning heat with hot winds in summer, and 
 frost at night in winter. In the south the heat 
 is more tempered, but the winter is cool only, 
 and not cold. In the north-eastern and other 
 outlying parts the rainfall exceeds 75 inches (at 
 Cherra Punji 600 inches) in the year ; in the 
 Deccan, in the upper basins of the Ganges and 
 the Indus, it is 30, and in the lower regions of 
 the Indus less than 15 inches. The remainder of 
 India is placed between the extremes repi-esented 
 by these damp and dry belts, but is, as coip- 
 
INDIA 
 
 354 
 
 INDIA 
 
 pared with Europe, an arid country. Hence the 
 necessity of tanks and irrigation canals. 
 
 The domesticated animals are, first, the cattle 
 —cows, buffaloes, oxen ; the last two do the 
 work of agriculture. The bull and cow are sacred 
 animals to Hindus, and by them are never killed 
 for food. The indigenous breeds of horses in 
 India are being improved by the importation of 
 foreign sires. They have never been employed 
 in agriculture. The pony, the donkey, and the 
 mide are largely used. Sheep and goats are 
 abundant. The pig is plentiful, but is despised 
 by the upper and middle classes of the people. 
 The wild animals include the tiger, panther, 
 cheetah, boar, bear, bison, elephant, and rhinoc- 
 eros. The crocodile and alligator infest most 
 of the rivers. Deer of all sorts abound every- 
 where, and mainly supply sustenance to the 
 carnivorous animals. The monkeys are tame and 
 are held sacred. The lion, the hyaena, the lynx, 
 and the wolf are unimportant. The elephant is 
 used for purposes of war or of state. The ibex 
 and the ovis-ammon (the wild goat and the wild 
 sheep) are found only in the highest parts of the 
 Himalayas. Poisonous snakes abound, the worst 
 being the cobra da capello (the black-hooded) : 
 many thousands of the natives die from snake- 
 bite in the year. The birds are infinitely various. 
 Nearly half of the country is tropical, though 
 none of it is equatorial, and a part is not only 
 temperate, but cold ; accordingly the vegetation 
 varies greatly. As compared with equatorial 
 regions, the country has tropical products plen- 
 tiful and good, but not first-rate, such as tobacco, 
 sugar, ginger, and spices of all sorts. Rice has 
 from time immemorial been a staple. Maize and 
 millet are articles of food for the stronger races. 
 Oil-seeds are largely exported. The cultivation 
 of wheat has greatly developed for exportation 
 since the development of railways and the open- 
 ing of the Suez Canal. Tea is grown largely 
 under European supervision in the Eastern Hima- 
 layas, and already surpasses the China teas. 
 Coffee is grown in the south, but with chequered 
 success. Among the dyes, indigo and lac (red) 
 are noteworthy. The indigenous flowers are not 
 rich, the wateV-lilies being the best ; the flower- 
 ing shrubs are very fine. Of trees i7i the plains 
 near the coasts the palm order with its several 
 varieties strikes the observer. Inland the mango 
 fruit-tree and the orange, the umbrageous banyan, 
 the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are features 
 in the landscape. In the hills the teak and other 
 useful timber trees are obtained. In the Hima- 
 layas are the cedar, the pine, the fir, the juniper. 
 Conservation of forests is now carefully attended 
 to. Barely one-third of the whole country is 
 cultivated or grazed. Of the remainder a portion 
 is available for cultivation ; the rest is unculti- 
 vable — hillsides, deserts, river-beds, &c. 
 
 At the census of 1881, the total pop. was 253 
 millions for the British territories and the native 
 states ; in 1901, 294 millions including Burma, but 
 excluding Ceylon, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and the 
 small French, Portuguese, and Dutch territories. 
 Including these the population may be stated at 
 300 millions. But though populous, the countiy 
 is not as a whole densely peopled ; the average 
 per sq. m. being 213 for the British area, 98 
 for native states, and 167 for the whole country. 
 Only 30 millions are urban. Calcutta has 1,026,987 
 inhabitants, Bombay 976,006, and Madras 509,346 ; 
 below these there are other 26 cities with more 
 than 100,000 inhabitants, and 49 more with over 
 50,000. The inhabitants of India speak languages 
 belonging to four very different stocks— Aryan, 
 
 Dravidian, Kolarian, and Tibeto-Burman. The 
 Aryans, the dominant people of India, speak 
 tongues derived from the ancient Sanskrit, the 
 more important being Bengali, Uriya, Hindi, 
 Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Gujarati (Sinhalese is the 
 language of Ceylon). Urdu or Hindustani, formed 
 after the Moslem conquest, is Hindi mixed with 
 Persian and Arabic words. Of the Dravidian 
 tongues of the Deccan, the chief are Tamil, 
 Telugu, Canarese, and Malayalam. The Kolarian 
 tongues are named from the Kol hill-tribes iu the 
 Central Provinces. The Tibeto-Burman tongues 
 are agglutinative. Of the total pop. 207,147,026 
 are Hindus or Brahminists in faitli, 62,458,077 
 Mohammedans, 8,584,148 aboriginal pagans, 
 9,476,759 Buddhi.sts (almost all in Burma), 
 2,195,339 Sikhs (modified Hindus), 1,334,148 Jains 
 (also a modified Hindu sect), 94,190 Parsees 
 (chiefly in Bombay), 2,923,241 Cliristians (of 
 wliom 1,202,169 are Roman Catholics), and 
 18,228 Jews. Tlie inhabitants of India, accord- 
 ingly, so far from being one nation or people, 
 are a congeries of peoples differing widely in 
 blood, physique, character, language, and religion. 
 Since Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress, 
 India is an empire, including the British terri- 
 tories and the Indian allies, feudatories, and 
 vassals from the Tibetan and Tartar watershed 
 of the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. The empire 
 is under one supreme authority in India — the 
 Viceroy and Governor-general in Council. It 
 may thus be divided into two categories — the 
 British territories, comprising about three-fifths 
 of the total area, and four-fifths of the total 
 population ; and the native states. The Hima- 
 layan states of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan do 
 not ordinarily appear in the official tables, though 
 they are in communication with British political 
 agents. In their internal affairs they are un- 
 controlled. The native states which aj)pear in 
 the oflScial tables occupy more than a third of 
 the area of the empire, and contain more than 
 one-fifth of its entire population : 
 
 Native states and Agencies, .f-.l-. ^<^Vn^^^]<>-' 
 
 Beluchistan (Agency Tracts) .... 86,511 502,«)0 
 
 Baroda State 8,099 1,952,692 
 
 Bengal States 38,652 3,748,814 
 
 Bombay States 63,761 6,908,648 
 
 Central India Agency 78,772 8,628,781 
 
 Central Provinces SUtes 29,4:55 1 ,996,383 
 
 Hyderabad State 8--',698 11,141,142 
 
 Cashmere State 80,900 2,905,578 
 
 Madras States 9,909 4,188,086 
 
 Mysore State 29,444 6,.539,399 
 
 Punjab States :!H,532 4.424,398 
 
 Kajputana Agency 127,.541 9,723,301 
 
 United Provinces States 5.079 802,097 
 
 Total Native States .... 679,393 62,461.549 
 
 Hyderabad as given above is exclusive of 
 Berar, which, thougli part of the Nizam's 
 dominions, is administered as part of British 
 India. The United Provinces Native States 
 comprise those that were fonnerly (till 1901) 
 described as in the North-west Provinces and 
 Oudh. 
 
 The relations of the native princes to British 
 authority differ very widely. Some are practi- 
 cally independent sovereigns, except that the 
 suzerain power does not permit any of them to 
 make war on one another, or to form alliances 
 with foreign states ; while some are under toler- , 
 ably strict control. As a rule they govern their 
 states under the advice of an English resident 
 appointed by the Governor-general. There are in 
 all about 300 states, allied or feudatory, great and 
 small; they ^re divided into allied, tributary, 
 
IITDIA 
 
 355 
 
 INDIA 
 
 and protected. Another classification is accord- 
 ing to the religion and race of the native dynasty : 
 Mahratta states, other Hindu states, Moham- 
 medan states, and frontier states. 
 
 The British territories, containing 1,087,249 
 sq. m. and 231,899,507 .souls, are broken up into 
 nine divisions and six minor ones. Tliey were 
 originally in three divisions, called presidencies — 
 Bengal, Aladras, and Bombay. The old presi- 
 dencies of Madras and Bombay .still .survive 
 under governors in council as of yore ; the 
 Bengal Presidency, being much the largest, has 
 been subdivided. The four main subdivisions 
 are : Bengal, with Behar and Orissa ; Eastern 
 Bengal, with Assam ; the United Provinces of 
 Agra and Oudh ; the Punjab, with Delhi. Each 
 of these is under a lieutenant-governor. Tlie 
 Central Provinces and Burma have each a chief- 
 commissioner. Tlie North-west Frontier Prov- 
 ince is under an agent to the governor-general; 
 Ajmer-Merwara, British Beluchistan, Coorg, 
 Berar, and the Andamans have each its com- 
 missioner. 
 
 Provinces. /'"t*-,*" 
 
 sq. miles. 
 
 Ajmer-Merw.ara 2,711 
 
 Andamans and Nicobars 3,188 
 
 56,243 
 
 Assam 
 
 Beluchistan 
 
 Bengal 1.51,185 
 
 Berar 17,710 
 
 Bombay Presidency 12.5,064 
 
 Burma 2:56,7.38 
 
 Central Provinces 86,4-59 
 
 Coorg 1,582 
 
 Madras 141,726 
 
 North-west Frontier Province. . . 16,466 
 
 Punjab 97,209 
 
 United Provs. of Agra and Oudh.. 107,164 
 
 Population, 
 1901. 
 476,912 
 24,649 
 6,126,343 
 308,246 
 74,744,866 
 2,754,016 
 18,.559,561 
 10,490,624 
 9,876.646 
 180,607 
 38,209,436 
 2,125,480 
 20,.'530,339 
 47,691,782 
 
 Total 1,087,249 231,899,507 
 
 Burma includes the Shan States, tlie Chin Hills, 
 and the Karen country. The North-west Fron- 
 tier Province was formed in 1901 out of Peshawar, 
 Kohat, and parts of three other Punjab districts, 
 and areas occupied by frontier tribes. Agra and 
 Oudh (till then in the Nortli-west Provinces and 
 Oudh) now constitute the United Provinces. In 
 1905 Bengal (q.v.) was divided into Bengal with 
 Behar and Orissa, and Eastern Bengal with Assam. 
 In 1858 the government was transferred from 
 the East India Company to the crown. In 
 1877 the Queen assumed the title of Empress of 
 India (Kaisar-i-Hind). The government of India 
 s in the highest resort vested in a Secretary of 
 5tate in London, who is a member of the cabinet, 
 md has a i^arliamentary under-secretary and a 
 •ouncil of ten to fifteen members. The executive 
 :overnment in India is administered by the 
 Iceroy and Governor-general in Council, acting 
 nder the control of the Secretary of State for 
 ndia. The Viceroy and Governor-general, ap- 
 ointed by the crown, is assisted by an executive 
 Duncil, consisting of six ordinary members (ap- 
 ointed by the crown), each of whom has charge 
 fa department of the executive; together with 
 16 extra-ordinary member, the commander-in- 
 lief of the army. This council virtually sits as 
 cabinet. The legislation for the empire is con- 
 icted by a ' legislative council,' composed of the 
 embers of the executive above mentioned, to- 
 ther with members, from six to twelve in 
 unber, appointed by the Viceroy and Governor- 
 neral. The larger units of administration are 
 e districts or collectorships, of which there are 
 all the provinces above mentioned about 250, 
 3h under a collector-magistrate or deputy- 
 mmissioner. The head of the district has most 
 ^ifarigus and responsible duties ; he is fiscal- 
 
 officer, charged with collecting the revenue, as 
 well as magistrate, and besides superintends 
 police, jails, education, sanitation, and roads. 
 The administration is conducted by members of 
 the Indian civil service, the great majority of 
 whom are European, though some are natives. 
 The service is recruited from the successful candi- 
 dates at competitive examinations held in 
 London ; but while the direction is in European 
 hands, the local civil service, constituting the 
 great mass of civil officials, consists of natives. 
 In 1859 the troops of the East India Company be- 
 came the Indian military forces of the British 
 crown. The relations of the governor-general to 
 the commander-in-chief in India and his other 
 military advisers were rearranged in 1905. In 1904 
 the total strength of the army in India was 324,650. 
 Of these 74,450 were British regulars, and 154,110 
 Indian regulars. In 1904 Lord Kitciiener (com- 
 mander-in-chief) made considerable changes in 
 the organisation of the army. There are now 
 three principal commands — the Northern, West- 
 ern, and Eastern Army Corps, each under a lieu- 
 tenant-general. Tlie East Indies Squadron of the 
 royal navy (4 cruisers and 3 attached vessels) is 
 stationed at Bombay and Colombo. 
 
 The educational system, dating from 1854, com- 
 prises three principal universities at Calcutta, 
 Madras, and Bombay, eacli liaving many affili- 
 ated colleges; there are also two new universities 
 at Allahabad and Lahore. Tlie other educational 
 institutions are of several kinds, public, aided, 
 private and unaided ; together they number 
 148,525, with 4,529,491 scholars. The total im- 
 ports in 1890-91 had a value of near £94,000,000, 
 in 1903-4 of £88,481,000; the exports in 1890- 
 91 were valued at £102,300,000, in 1903-4 at 
 £113,193,000. Of the imports more than four- 
 fifths, and of the exports, more than half, pass 
 by the Suez Canal. Again, of the imports nearly 
 all come from the United Kingdom ; but of the 
 exports a considerable portion is sent to other 
 countries. Of the imports the principal item 
 consists of cotton goods ; next metals ; then 
 machinery, railway plant and rolling-stock, 
 manufactured silk, sugar, and woollen manufac- 
 tures. The principal items of export are coffee, 
 raw cotton, cotton twist, yarn, manufactures, 
 dyes, grains, including rice and wheat, hides and 
 skins, jute raw and manufactured, seeds (oil 
 chiefly), tea, wool. Of shipping, about 4550 
 vessels, with a tonnage cf between 4,300,000 and 
 5,500,000 tons, enter the ports annually ; of these 
 almost the whole are British. All this is exclu- 
 sive of the coasting trade, valued at 70 millions 
 annually. The length of railways open is over 
 25,950 miles, largely .state lines (19,673 miles), the 
 rest mainly guaranteed and assisted by the state. 
 There are 56,000 miles of telegraphs. Of the total 
 length of roads in India (160,000 miles) about 
 one-third has been bridged and macadamised. 
 The manufactures, whether in metals or in fibres, 
 have always been very fine, and are still main- 
 tained. The local manufactures of cotton goods 
 are very extensive ; but foreign trade has during 
 the 19th century checked the development of 
 indigenous manufactures, while it has stimulated 
 new manufactures, especially in jute and cotton. 
 The total length of the irrigation canals and. 
 their branches is calculated at 14,000 miles. The 
 irrigated area in its grand total is reckoned at 
 33 millions of acres, of which over 14J millions 
 are watered from canals. Owing to extensive 
 failures of the monsoon rains at periodically 
 recurring intervals, droughts and famines have 
 Qccufred. Jn years of plenty a sum varying 
 
INDIA 
 
 356 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 from 1 to IJ million sterling is set aside out 
 of current income to meet the cost of reliev- 
 ing distress in time of famine. The revenue 
 of the empire has since increased from £60,419,138 
 in 1891-92 to £76,355,400 in 1903-4, the expendi- 
 ture from £59,107,699 to £75,406,500. The total 
 debt in 1902 was £226,232,105, including 114^ 
 millions for railways and 24 millions for irrigation 
 works. The depreciation of the rupee has greatly 
 embarrassed Indian finance ; it is now fixed at 
 Is. 4d., or Rsl5 = £l. The largest item of taxa- 
 tion is the land-tax (18i millions); the next 
 salt (6 millions), opium (4| millions), and smaller 
 amounts for stamps, excise, customs, &c. Owing 
 to the excessive density of population in several 
 parts of the empire, government has for many 
 years past encouraged and facilitated emigra- 
 tion to the tropical and sub-tropical colonies. 
 In the decade ending 1905, about 100,000 
 Indians emigrated as coolies to Mauritius, Natal, 
 British Guiana, British West Indies, Fiji, French 
 West Indies, and Surinam. There is also migra- 
 tion from the central regions to the rice-plains of 
 Burma, and to the tea-plantations in Assam and 
 in the Eastern Himalayas. 
 
 It is impossible to speak positively as to the 
 aboriginal prehistoric populations of India ; prob- 
 ably the most primitive peoples now left— the 
 Dravidian hill-tribes represented by the Gonds, 
 and Kolarians such as the Santals and Bhils— 
 represent waves of invasion from the north. The 
 history of civilisation in India may, however, 
 be traced from the invasion— probably 1000 years 
 or more e.g.— of the Aryan race from Central 
 Asia, a race of the Indo-Germanic type in phys- 
 ique and speech. Their language was Sanskrit, 
 their religion and civilisation that of the Vedas 
 or ancient Hindu Scriptures. Out of the union 
 of the Aryans with the earlier inhabitants, the 
 modern races of India have sprung. Buddhism 
 arose in India with the teaching of Buddha about 
 500 B.C., and for a while superseded the Vedic 
 faith, corrupted as it had been by the degraded 
 aboriginal superstitions ; and India was substan- 
 tially Buddhist till the revival of Hinduism, in 
 its modern or Brahmanic form (more idolatrous 
 and superstitious than the ancient faith), in the 
 6th century a.d. In 1001 a.d. came the first 
 wave of Mohammedanism, and soon all India 
 fell under Mohammedan domination, though the 
 bulk of the people clung to the Hindu religion. 
 By the beginning of the 18th century a new 
 Hindu power, that of the Mahrattas, arose, and 
 seriously weakened the Moslem emperor, the 
 Grand Mogul. The Dutch, Portuguese, and 
 French, as well as the British established them- 
 selves in the empire ; in the 18th century the 
 French more than rivalled the British in power. 
 But the power of the British East India Com- 
 pany, originally traders, became dominant after 
 the battle of Plassey in 1757. Gradually English 
 power as represented by the Company, its 
 diplomatists, and its soldiers, extended over great 
 part of India, and the governors— Clive, Warren 
 Hastings, Wellesley, Amherst, Bentinck, Dal- 
 housie. Canning— consolidated what was really 
 the empire of Britain in the East. Then in 1857 
 came the great mutiny, stamped out in blood, 
 and the government was assumed by the British 
 crown in 1858. British rule in India has been 
 steadily consolidated, but no great annexation 
 has since taken place, except that of Upper 
 Burma in 1886. 
 
 See the Imperial Gazetteer of India (2d ed. 
 1887), Sir W. Hunter's India (3d ed. 1893), and 
 works on India by Campbell, Monier Williams, 
 
 Temple, Tupper, Strachey, Cotton, Holdich 
 (1905); for history, Mill, Thornton, Marshman, 
 Wheeler, Keene, Boulger, Frazer, Hunter (1903); 
 and for the Mutiny, Forrest (1904). 
 
 Indiana, the thirty-first state of the American 
 Union in area, and the eighth in population, is 
 centrally situated between Lake Michigan, Michi- 
 gan state, Ohio, Kentucky (from which it is 
 separated by the Ohio River), and Illinois. Its 
 greatest length (N. and S.) is 276 miles, its 
 average breadth 140 miles, and its area 36,350 
 sq. m. The surface has a slight slope towards 
 the west and south-west, the highest point, 
 near the eastern boundary, being 1250 feet above 
 sea-level. Drainage is in four main dii-ections : 
 to Lake Michigan, to Lake Erie, to the Missis- 
 sippi, and to the Ohio. The northern half of 
 the state is generally level, except for occa- 
 sional irregular ridges forming ' divides ' between 
 streams. Hills increase in frequency from the 
 centre of the state to the south and south-east, 
 and along the Ohio ' knobs ' 200-500 feet high are 
 almost continuous, with deep gorges and river- 
 bottoms between. Much of the north-western 
 regions is flooded most of the year; but this 
 land is being actively reclaimed by drainage. 
 The fertility of the soil, whether clay or sandy 
 loam, is greatly increased by a vast system of 
 under-draining. The minerals include coal, bog 
 and hematite iron ores, and stratified limestones 
 and sandstones in abundance, ochre beds, kaolin, 
 fireclays, and some gold. The actual workable 
 coalfield covers an area of 6000 sq. m. The 
 natural-gas field, the centre of which is in Dela- 
 ware county, 40 miles NE. of Indianapolis, has 
 been largely developed since 1886. In the gas 
 region, and in the districts within reach of its 
 pipes, it is used both as fuel and as illuminant. 
 The principal industry of Indiana is agricul- 
 ture. More than 10,000,000 acres are cultivated, 
 the chief crops being maize, wheat, and oats, with 
 barley, rye, flax, hay, potatoes, sweet potatoes, 
 and tobacco. Wool, honey, maple-sugar, sorv 
 ghum-sugar, cider, and wine are also largely pro- 
 duced. Among the largest manufactories are 
 the wagon and plough factories at South Bend, 
 the manufactories of flour-mill machinery and 
 carriages at Indianapolis, the plate-glass works 
 at New Albany, and the encaustic tile works at 
 Indianapolis. Indianapolis is great in pork- 
 packing and in making sofas and other furni- 
 ture. There are some 6500 miles of railway in the 
 state. The Wabash and Erie Canal, the largest 
 in the United States (476 miles), has 374 miles in 
 Indiana. The Ohio is here navigable throughout ; 
 the Wabash is navigable to Lafayette. The 
 pop. of Indiana (known as the 'Hoosier state,' 
 Hoosier being a nickname for an inhabitant of 
 Indiana) in 1800 numbered 4577 whites and 163 
 coloured, 135 of the latter being slaves. In 
 1860 the pop. was 1,350,428; in 1880, 1,978,301; 
 in 1900, 2,516,462. Indianapolis had in 1900 
 169,164 inhabitants, Evansville had 59,000, 
 Fort Wayne 45,115, Terre Haute 36,673, and 
 South Bend 36,000. In the state university 
 at Bloomington, the Purdue University and state 
 institute of technology at Lafayette, and the 
 state normal school at Terre Haute, as well as 4 
 hundred high schools, instruction is free. Nof 
 under state control are some fifteen universitie 
 and colleges, and numerous academies and special 
 schools. Indiana was discovered by La Salle iB 
 1671 ; in 1763 France ceded the country to Gr" 
 Britain : bv the treaty of 1783 it became a p 
 of the United States ; and in 1816 it was ad^ 
 mitted to the Union, 
 
INDIANAPOLIS 
 
 357 
 
 INDORE 
 
 Indianap'olis, the capital of Indiana, on the 
 west fork of White River, in a level plain, 195 
 miles SSE. of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly- 
 built and beautiful city. Its streets, many of 
 them 100 feet wide, for the most part cross at 
 right angles ; but four main avenues, radiating 
 from a central park, cross the others diagonally. 
 The principal buildings include a handsome new 
 state capitol (1888), a fine county court-house, a 
 city-hall, the Propylseum (a women's literary 
 institute), asylums for the insane, blind, &c., be- 
 sides an imposing monument to those who fell in 
 the civil war. Indianapolis is a great railway 
 centre, fifteen main lines converging here. The 
 trade in agricultural produce is very consider- 
 able. Pork-packing is the leading industry, but 
 there are also large flour and cotton and woollen 
 mills, numerous foundries, and manufactories 
 of furniture, carriages, tiles, «&c. The site of 
 Indianapolis, then covered with dense forest, 
 was selected for the future capital in 1820, and 
 the city was founded in 1821. Pop. (1860) 18,113 ; 
 (1880) 75,056 ; (1890) 105,436 ; (1900) 169,164, 
 
 Indian Ocean, bounded W. by Africa, N. by 
 
 Asia, E. by Australia and the Australasian Islands, 
 
 according to modern geographers is limited to 
 
 the S. by the 40th parallel of south latitude, in 
 
 which region it opens widely into the Southern 
 
 Ocean. It gradually narrows towards the north, 
 
 and is divided by the Indian peninsula into the 
 
 Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea 
 
 on the west, the latter sending northward two 
 
 arms, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Within 
 
 these limits the Indian Ocean has an area of 
 
 17,320,500 sq. in. Its mean depth is about 2300 
 
 fathoms, or slightly greater than that of the 
 
 Atlantic. The greatest depths are in the eastern 
 
 part to the south of the equator, where there 
 
 are fully 50,000 sq. m. with a depth of over 3000 
 
 fathoms. The area of land draining into the 
 
 Indian Ocean is 6,813,600 sq. m., and the annual 
 
 rainfall on this land is equal to 4379 cubic miles 
 
 of water. The rivers flowing from the Asiatic 
 
 continent are by far the most important, and 
 
 they carry an immense amount of detrital matter 
 
 into the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, these 
 
 forming extensive deposits of blue mud. The 
 
 temperature of the surface waters varies much 
 
 in different parts of the ocean, and at the same 
 
 place at different times of the year or states of the 
 
 wind. In tropical regions the temperature usually 
 
 varies from 70° to 80° F., and the yearly range is 
 
 only 7° or 8° F. Off" the Cape of Good Hope and 
 
 off Cape Guardafui, however, the annual range 
 
 of temperature may be from 20° to 30° F. The 
 
 temperature of the water at the bottom of the 
 
 Indian Ocean is very uniform, and subject to 
 
 little, if any, annual variation. In the Bay of 
 
 Bengal and Arabian Sea temperatures of 33° "7 F. 
 
 and 34° "2 F. have been recorded at the bottom ; 
 
 these are not more than the fraction of a degree 
 
 higher than those observed by the Challenger in 
 
 50° of south latitude. It is certain, therefore, 
 
 :hat this deep cold water is slowly drawn into the 
 
 Indian Ocean from the Antarctic to supply the 
 
 ilace of the warm surface currents that are 
 
 Iriveu southward by the winds. The currents of 
 
 ;he Indian Ocean are less constant than in the 
 
 (ther great oceans, and are largely controlled by 
 
 he direction and strength of the monsoons. 
 
 iome of the most characteristic coral atolls and 
 
 ilands are to be found towards the central part 
 
 f the Indian Ocean, such as the great Maldive 
 
 roup, the Chagos, Diego Garcia, and the Keeling 
 
 slands. Almost all the tropical shores are 
 
 kirted by fringing and barrier reefs. Christmas 
 
 ik 
 
 Island is an upraised coral formation. St Paul's, 
 Mauritius, Rodriguez, and others are of volcanic 
 origin, while Madagascar, Ceylon, and Socotra 
 are typical continental islands. 
 
 Indian Territory, a portion of the region 
 originally set apart by the United States govern- 
 ment as a home for Indian tribes, is bounded by 
 Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, and in 1906 
 was incorporated with Oklalionia, then made into 
 a state. Tiie Clierokee Outlet, S. of Kansas, is 
 sometimes described as a part of Indian Terri- 
 tory, although it is under the jurisdiction of 
 Oklahoma (q.v.). The area, not including the 
 Cherokee Outlet, is 31,000 sq. m. The surface of 
 the territory consists mainly of rolling prairie 
 land rising gradually from the south-east toward 
 the N. and W. In the south-east the surface is 
 broken by low ranges of the Ozark Mountains 
 which cross the Arkansas border. In the south- 
 west are the Arbuckle Mountains. The mineral 
 resources are practically undeveloped, but coal, 
 copper, iron, marble, and building-stones are 
 known to exist in considerable quantities. The 
 territory is well watered, and is drained by the 
 Red and Arkansas Rivers and their numerous 
 tributaries. The river-bottoms are wide and 
 fertile, subject to overflow in the spring. The 
 Indian Territory, designed for occupation by all 
 the tribes east of the Mississippi, originally ex- 
 tended west to 100°, and included portions of 
 Kansas and Nebraska. In 1833 and 1834 the 
 Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Cherokees 
 were removed hither ; the Seminoles in 1838, and 
 portions of tribes from west of the Mississippi 
 have been subsequently settled there. By pur- 
 chase or consent of the Indians the territory has 
 been gradually reduced to its present limits, 
 Oklahoma (q.v.) having been thrown open in 
 1890. Most of the tribes have made considerable 
 progress in civilisation, and have farms, schools^ 
 churches, &c. There are three districts. Pop. 
 (1900) 392,060, of which total 97 per cent, is 
 distributed amongst four of the live Indian 
 civilised nations. 
 
 Indigirka, a river in the Siberian government 
 of Yakutsk, rises in a western offset of the Stan- 
 ovoi Mountains, and flows 870 miles northward 
 through a frozen desert to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Indo-Cliina, the eastern of the two great 
 Asiatic peninsulas which extend southwards into 
 the Indian Ocean, sometimes called Further 
 India. It is washed on the east by the Gulfs 
 of Tongking and Siam and the Chinese Sea, and 
 on the west by the Bay of Bengal. For its various 
 states see Annam, Burma, Cambodia, Cochin- 
 China, Malacca, Siam, and Tonquin. — The term 
 Indonesia is sometimes used for the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, the islands to the SE. of Asia. 
 
 Indore, a Mahratta principality of India, com- 
 prising the territories of the Holkar dynasty, and 
 consisting of several detached tracts, covers an 
 area of 8402 sq. ra. The bulk of it lies between 
 Sindhia's dominions on the north and Bombay 
 Presidency on the south. It is traversed from 
 east to west by the Nerbudda, which almost 
 bisects it ; by the Vindhya Mountains, here 2500 
 feet above the sea; and by the Satpura Moun- 
 tains. Principal products, poppy, cotton, to- 
 bacco, wheat, rice, millets, &c. ; principal indus- 
 tries, cotton and opium manufacture. Pop. (1901) 
 850,700. The state was founded about the middle 
 of the 18th century ; in 1818 its ruler became a 
 feudatory of the Britisli Indian empire. — Indore, 
 the capital, is situated in 22" 42' N. lat. and 75° 
 54' E. long., 1786 feetabove sea-level. Population, 
 
INDRE 
 
 358 
 
 INNSBRUCK 
 
 88,000, mostly Hindus. During the revolt of 1857, 
 though the maharaja remained faithful, his troops 
 mutinied, holding their prince a prisoner in his 
 own palace, and butchering many Europeans. 
 
 Indre, a French dep., formed principally out 
 of the western portion of the old province of 
 Berri, lies immediately south of the dep. of Loir- 
 et-Cher. Area, 2623 sq. m. Pop. (1872) 277,693 ; 
 (1901) 288,788. The dep. is quite flat, and well 
 watered by the Indre (which flows, from the dep. 
 of Creuse, 152 miles north-westward to the Loire) 
 and the Creuse. The dep. is divided into four 
 arrondissements — Chateauroux (the capital), Le 
 Blanc, Issoudun, and La Chatre. 
 
 Indre-et-Loire {Angdr-ay-Ltvar), a dep.' of 
 France, formed chiefly out of the ancient province 
 of Touraine, is crossed by the Loire from NE. to 
 SW. Area, 2360 sq. m.; pop. (1872) 317,027; 
 (1901)335,541. The dep. is watered by the Loire 
 and its tributaries, the Cher, Indre, and Vienne, 
 all of them navigable. It is divided into the 
 three arrondissements of Tours (the capital), 
 Chinon, and Loches. 
 
 Indus (Sansk. Sindhu), a river of India, rising 
 in an unexplored region in Tibet, near the sources 
 of the Sutlej, in 32' N. lat. and 81° E. long., and 
 at about 16,000 feet above sea-level. Its general 
 course is at first north-westward, through Tibet 
 and Cashmere, where it turns abruptly south- 
 south-westward, and follows that direction right 
 down to the sea. In the mountains its current 
 is very rapid ; the river passes through wild 
 gorges (one in north-west Cashmere, having a 
 depth of 10,000 feet), and is liable to tremendous 
 floods. The Indus enters the Punjab 812 miles 
 from its source. Near Attock (q.v.), 48 miles 
 lower down, it receives the Kabul River from 
 Afghanistan, and then becomes navigable ; 450 
 miles below Attock it receives, on the left, the 
 accumulated waters of the Punjab through the 
 single channel of the Panjnad. Each of the ' five 
 watercourses,' as well as the Kabul, is practic- 
 able for inland craft to the mountains. Below 
 its confluence with the Panjnad the Indus, instead 
 of increasing in volume, becomes gradually less. 
 Its basin is narrow, and the afiluents are insig- 
 nificant, while there is a great loss by evapora- 
 tion. The river also divides into numerous 
 channels, many of which become lost in the 
 sand, while others return much shrunken in 
 volume. The delta of the river covers an area 
 of about 3000 sq. m., and extends for 125 miles 
 along the Arabian Sea. The main channel is con- 
 stantly shifting. The delta is bare and not fertile. 
 In both Punjab and Sindh the bed of the river 
 is littered with islands and sandbanks. Tlie 
 cultivation of the arid plains through which the 
 lower Indus passes is dependent upon the annual 
 overflow of the river and artificial irrigation. 
 The total length of the river is over 1800 miles, 
 and the area of its drainage basin 372,700 sq. m. 
 The Indus abounds with excellent fish, and is 
 infested by crocodiles. Since the opening of the 
 Indus Valley Railway in 1878 the navigation has 
 been greatly superseded. 
 
 Ingatestone, a town of Essex, 6 miles NB. of 
 Brentwood. Pop. 1688. 
 
 Ingleborougli, a mountain (2373 feet) in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, 8 miles NW. of Settle. 
 On its south skirt is a splendid stalactite cave, 
 penetrating nearly a thousand yards, and mainly 
 discovered in 1837. 
 
 Ingle-wood Forest, Cumberland, a former royal 
 forest between Carlisle and Penrith. 
 
 Ingolstadt (called A^lreat^l'nl and Chryso'polis— 
 i.e. 'the golden city'), a fortified town of Bavaria, 
 on the Danube's left bank, 53 miles by rail N. of 
 Munich. It contains two castles of the former 
 dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt (now used for mill- 
 tary purposes) ; the Gothic church of Our Lady 
 (1425) ; and the former Jesuit college. Brewing, 
 cannon-founding, and the manufacture of gun- 
 powder and salt are the only industries. Pop. 
 22,390, mostly Roman Catholics. A university 
 founded here in 1472, reckoned Reuchlin among 
 its professors, and a century after its founda- 
 tion had 4000 students. It was removed to Land- 
 shut in 1800, and to Munich in 1826. Ingolstadt 
 was the first German town at which the Jesuits 
 were permitted to teach publicly ; Loyola called 
 it 'his little Benjamin.' Dating the 9th century, 
 it was first fortified in 1539. In 1827 the forti- 
 fications, destroyed by the French in 1800, were 
 restored upon a first-class scale, and have since 
 been strengthened. 
 
 Inhamha'ne, the Portuguese capital of a dis- 
 trict on the east coast of Africa, lies just south 
 of the tropic of Capricorn, beautifully situated 
 on its bay, but unhealthy. Pop. 2500, of whom 
 only 70 were Europeans. 
 
 Inishall, an islet in Loch Awe, with remains 
 of a nunnery. Here Mr Hamerton pitched his 
 camp in 1857. 
 
 Inlshannon, a village of County Cork, on the 
 Bandon, 16 miles SW. of Cork city. 
 
 Inishmore, one of the Aran Islands (q.v.). 
 
 Inkermann, a village in the Crimea, situated 
 near the eastern extremity of the harbour of 
 Sebastopol. Here, on 5th November 1854, was 
 fought the 'Soldiers' Battle," when 8000 British 
 sustained a hand-to-hand fight against six times 
 that number of Russians, till 6000 French came 
 to their aid, and completed the rout of the enemy. 
 
 Inn (anc. (Enus), the most important Alpine 
 afiluent of the Danube, rises in the south of the 
 Swiss canton of Grisons, and flows 317 miles 
 north-east through the Engadine, and onwards 
 through Tyrol and Bavaria, to its junction with 
 the Danube at Passau. 
 
 Innellan, an Argyll village, on the Firth of 
 Clyde, 3| miles S. by W. of Dunoon. Pop. 836. 
 
 Innerleithen, a police-burgh (1869) of Peebles- 
 shire, near the Tweed's left bank, 6 miles ESB. 
 of Peebles, and 12 W. of Galashiels. Its first 
 woollen-factory was established in 1790, about 
 which time its saline spring (Scott's ' St Ronan's 
 Well ') came into celebrity ; but the great exten- 
 sion of its woollen industry dates from fifty years 
 later. Pop. 2200. 
 
 Innsbruck, the capital of Tyrol, 109 miles by 
 rail S. of Munich, stands on the Inn at its junc- 
 tion with the Sill, 1880 feet above sea-level, 
 surrounded and overhung by mountains 7500 to 
 8500 feet high. It is a beautiful place, with 
 broad tree-shaded streets, arcaded shops, and 
 four squares adorned with statues. The Fran- 
 ciscan church, or Hofkirche, built in the Renais- 
 sance style in 1553-63, contains a beautiful and 
 elaborate cenotaph to the Emperor Maximilian I. 
 It consists of a marble sarcophagus supporting 
 the emperor's kneeling efligy in bronze ; while 
 on both sides of the aisle are twenty-eight bronze^ 
 figures of royal personages, by Peter Vischer anc 
 others. In the same church are monuments to 
 Andreas Hofer and to the Tyrolese who fell in 
 the wars against France (1796-1809). Othe 
 buildings are the imperial castle, built by Maxi^j 
 milian I. and restored by Maria Theresa in IW " 
 
mOWRACLAW 
 
 359 
 
 lOifA 
 
 ?0; the 'Golden Roof Palace;' the national 
 museum, the Ferdinandeum ; and the university 
 (1677, reorganised 1826), with over 800 students, 
 105 professors and lecturers, a library of 92,000 
 volumes, a botanical garden especially rich in 
 Alpine flora, laboratories, &c. Amongst the eight 
 monasteries is the first that the Capuchins 
 founded in Germany (1594). A colossal statue of 
 Hofer was unveiled in 1893. Innsbruck manu- 
 factures cloth, machines, glass, and stained glass. 
 Population, 27,000;. or, including the suburbs 
 of Hotting and Wilten, 35,800. The Romans had 
 here their principal colony in Rhsetia. From 
 1180 the town belonged to the Counts of Meran ; 
 in 1363 it passed with Tyrol to Austria. 
 
 Inowraclaw (I-noi/ratz-lav), iNOWRAzr.AW, or 
 Jung Breslau ('Young Breslan'), a town of 
 Prussia, near the Polish frontier, 66 miles NE. 
 of Posen. It carries on salt-mining, iron-found- 
 ing, &c. Pop. 26,548. 
 
 Insterburg, a town of East Prussia, on the 
 Angerap River, 55 miles E. of Kdnigsberg, had its 
 origin in a castle of the Tuetonic knights, built 
 in tlie fourteenth century. It has important 
 manufactories. Pop. 27,300. 
 
 Interla'ken (' between the lakes'), a Swiss vil- 
 lage in the Aar's beautiful valley, between Lakes 
 Thun and Brienz. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Invera'ray, the county town of Argyllshire, is 
 picturesquely seated on the north-west shore of 
 Loch Fyne, 16 miles SSW. of Dalmally station, 
 and 45 NNW. of Greenock (vid Loch Eck). 
 Removed to its present site in 1742, it has a 
 sculptured stone cross from lona (c. 1400), and 
 an obelisk to seventeen Campbells, executed 
 here without trial in 1685 for their share in 
 Argyll's expedition. Inveraray Castle, the Didje 
 of Argyll's seat, was rebuilt in 1744-61. A royal 
 burgh since 1648, Inveraray with Ayr, &c. returns 
 a member. Pop. (1841) 1233 ; (1901) 678. 
 
 Inverbervie. See Bervie. 
 
 Invercar'gill, a town in the province of Otago, 
 New Zealand, capital of the county of Southland, 
 stands on an estuary called the New River Har- 
 bour, 139 miles by rail SW. of Dunedin. It 
 has fine wide streets, and steam trams, public 
 parks, the government buildings, an athenaeum, 
 a hospital, sawmills, foundries, steam flour-mills, 
 breweries, manufactures of boots, bacon, cordials, 
 extensive meat-freezing works, &c. Pop. 9962. 
 
 Inveresk. See Musselburgh. 
 
 Invergorden, a seaport and police-burgh of 
 Ross-shire, on the NW. shore of the Cromarty 
 Firth, 12| miles NE. of Dingwall. Pop. 1117. 
 
 Inverkeithing, a royal burgh of Fife, at the 
 head of Inverkeithing Bay, 13 miles WNW. of 
 Edinburgh. With Stirling, &c., it returns one 
 member to parliament. Pop. 1976. 
 
 Inverloch'y, a ruined castle of Inverness-shire, 
 2 miles NE. of Fort William, near which on 
 Sunday, 2d February 1645, Montrose completely 
 routed his rival, Argyll. 
 
 Inverness', the county town of Inverness-shire, 
 and capital of the northern Highlands, stands on 
 the Ness, near its mouth in the Moray Firth and 
 the north-east end of the Caledonian Canal, 108 
 miles by rail WNW. of Aberdeen, 144 NNW. of 
 Perth, and 190 NNW. of Edinburgh. Its wooded 
 environs, hemmed in by hills (Tomnahurich, 228 
 feet ; Torvean, 300 ; Craigphadrick, 430 ; Dunean, 
 940, &c.), form a picturesque and interesting land- 
 scape. Visited by Columba about 565, and by 
 Malcolm Canmore made the seat of a royal castle, 
 by Cromwell of a citadel (1652), Inverness has 
 
 a wealth of memories. It was garrisoned by the 
 English in 1296 ; in 1411 was burned by Donald 
 of the Isles on his way to Harlaw ; and figures 
 repeatedly in the history of the Stuarts, down to 
 their final overthrow at CuUoden, hard by. In 
 front of the Scoto-Flemish town-hall (1882), pro- 
 tected now by a fountain, is the Clach-na-Cudain, 
 or ' stone of the tubs,' the palladium of the burgh. 
 The Episcopal cathedral (1867) is a fine Decorated 
 edifice ; other features of the place are the county 
 hall (1835) on the site of the castle, the infirmary 
 (1804), the lunatic asylum (1860), the royal acad- 
 emy (1792), barracks (1884), the suspension bridge 
 (1855), and the Islands, a favourite promenade. 
 Malting, thread-making, and bleaching have given 
 place to woollen manufacture, shipbuilding, dis- 
 tilling, &c. , with considerable shipping and com- 
 merce, the harbour having been much improved 
 in 1847. The great wool fair (established in 1817) 
 is held in July ; and the Northern Meeting (1788) 
 in September. A royal burgh since about 1067, 
 Inverness unites with Forres, Fortrose, and Nairn 
 to return one member to parliament. Pop. (1831) 
 9663 ; (1901) 23,066, of whom 6500 were Gaelic- 
 speaking, though Inverness still is famous, as in 
 Defoe's and Dr Johnson's day, for the purity of 
 its English. 
 
 Inverness-shire, a Highland county, the larg- 
 est in Scotland, and larger than any in England 
 but Yorkshire, stretches from sea to sea, and has 
 a total area of 4323 sq. m., of which 1284 belong 
 to the Outer Hebrides — Skye, Harris, North and 
 South Uist, Benbecula, Barra, Raasay, Eigg, St 
 Kilda, and thirty-seven other inhabited islands. 
 The mainland portion, measuring 85 by 55 miles, 
 is intersected NE. and SW. by the Great Glen and 
 the Caledonian Canal (q.v.). It includes Bade- 
 noch, Glenroy, and the valley of the Spey on the 
 east ; Lochaber on the south ; Glenelg, Glen- 
 garry, Arasaig, and Moidart on the west ; Strath- 
 glass on the north ; Glenurquhart and Glenmoris- 
 ton towards the centre. It is truly a ' land of 
 the mountain and the flood,' for it contains Ben 
 Nevis (4406 feet), the highest point in Britain, 
 with twenty-six other summits exceeding 3500 
 feet, whilst the chief of its rivers are the Spey, 
 Ness, and Beauly, and of ninety good-sized lakes 
 Lochs Ness, Archaig, Shiel, Lochy, Morar, Lag- 
 gan, and Ericht. The west coast is indented by 
 salt-water Lochs Hourn, Nevis, and Moidart. 
 Only 4*6 per cent, of the whole area is in cultiva- 
 tion ; and 255 sq. m. are under wood, the rest 
 being sheep-walks, deer-forests, moss, and barren 
 heath, valuable only as grouse-moors. Sheep, 
 numbering some 700,000, are the principal live- 
 stock ; and there are five deer-forests of 50 sq. in. 
 and upwards. The rivers and lakes afford splen- 
 did fishing. The county returns one member to 
 parliament. Inverness is its only town of any 
 size ; Kingussie and Fort William, though police- 
 burghs, "are mere villages, as also are Beauly, 
 Fort Augustus, and Portree. Pop. (1801) 72,672 ; 
 (1841) 97,799; (1901) 90,674, or less than twenty- 
 one inhabitants per square mile. 
 
 Inversnaid, a place on the east shore of Loch 
 Lomond, 3 miles NE. of Tarbet. 
 
 Invenigle (g hard), a ruined castle of Aberdeen- 
 shire, 3 miles NW. of Peterhead. It was the 
 birthplace of Marshal Keith. 
 
 Inverurie, a royal burgh of Aberdeenshire, at 
 the influx of the Urie to the Don, 16 miles NW, 
 of Aberdeen. With Elgin, &c. it returns one 
 member to parliament. Pop. 3625. 
 
 Zona, the most famous of the Hebrides, l\ mile 
 W. of the south-western extremity of Mull. Its 
 
 L 
 
IONIA 
 
 360 
 
 IPSWlCH 
 
 modern name is believed to have originated in a 
 mistaken reading of n for u ; the word in the 
 oldest manuscripts being clearly written lova. 
 From the 6th century to the 17th century the 
 island was most generally called I, Hi, Y, &c. — 
 that is, simply, ' the island ; ' or Icohnkill, I- 
 Columb-KUle, &c.— that is, ' the island of Columba 
 of the church.' It is 3^ miles long, 1^ mile 
 broad, and 3i sq. m., or 2264 acres in area, of 
 which more than a fourth is under tillage. Dunii, 
 the highest point, is 327 feet above the sea. Pop. 
 247. In 563 St Columba sailed from Ireland for 
 lona with twelve disciples. Having obtained a 
 grant of the island, he built upon it a monastery, 
 which was long regarded as the mother-church of 
 the Picts, and was venerated not only among the 
 Scots of Britain and Ireland, but among the Angles 
 of the north of England, who owed their conver- 
 sion to the self-denying missionaries of lona. 
 Neither piety nor learning availed to save it from 
 the ravages of the fierce and heathen Norsemen, 
 who wasted it and massacred the monks in 
 795, 802, 806, 825, and 986. About 1074 the 
 monastery was repaired by St Margaret, the 
 queen of Malcolm Canmore ; and in 1097 it was 
 visited by King Magnus Barefoot of Norway, of 
 which kingdom it now formed part. In 1203 a 
 Benedictine monastery was founded here, and a 
 Benedictine (afterwards Augustinian) nunnery. 
 In 1506 lona became the seat of the Scottish 
 Bishop of the Isles, the abbey church being his 
 cathedral. St Oran's Chapel, now the oldest 
 church in the island, may probably be of the latter 
 part of the 11th century. The Cathedral, or St 
 Mary's Church (c. 1203), has a dioir, with a sacristy 
 on the north side, and chapels on the south side ; 
 north and south transepts ; a central tower, 70 
 feet high, and a nave. On the north of the cathe- 
 dral are the chapter-house and other conventual 
 remains. The ruin was given by the Duke of 
 Argyll to the Church of Scotland in 1899, and in 
 1902-5 partly restored. See books by the Duke 
 of Argyll (1871), Macinillan (1898), and others, 
 
 Ionia, the ancient name of the coast districts 
 and islands of western Asia Minor. 
 
 Ionian Islands, a group, or rather chain, of 
 about forty islands, stretching along the west and 
 south coasts of Greece. Corfu (Corcyra), Paxo, 
 Santa Maura, Ithaca (Theaki), Cephalonia, Zante, 
 and Cerigo (Cythera) are the largest, and are all 
 separately noticed. Total area, 1010 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1879) 244,433, (1896) 265,280, mostly of Greek 
 descent. The surface is generally mountainous, 
 the plains and valleys being fertile. The collective 
 term ' Ionian ' is of modern date. In 1081 Corfu 
 and Cephalonia fell into the hands of Robert 
 Guiscard ; from 1401 Corfu and most of the other 
 islands came into the possession of the Venetians, 
 who retained them until 1797, and then ceded 
 them to France. They were seized by Russia and 
 Turkey in 1799 ; and created the Republic of the 
 Seven United Islands, under the protection of 
 Turkey. But in 1807 they were given back to 
 France. In 1809 Great Britain seized Zante, 
 Cephalonia, and Cerigo, in 1810 Santa Maura, in 
 
 1814 Paxo, and after Napoleon's fall Corfu ; in 
 
 1815 were constituted the United States of the 
 Ionian Islands, under the protectorate of Great 
 Britain ; and in 1863 they were incorporated in 
 Greece-r-after which their prosperity declined. 
 There have been great earthquakes, as in 1867 and 
 1893. See works by Ansted (1863), Kirkwall 
 (1864), Von Warsberg (Vienna, 1878-79), and 
 Riemann (Paris, 1879). 
 
 lo'wa, one of the United States of America, with 
 
 an area of 56,025 sq. m., is bounded by Minnesota, 
 the Mississippi River, the state of Missouri, and 
 the Missouri and Big Sioux rivers. The climate 
 is continental, with cold winters, hot summers, 
 and sudden changes of temperature ; the autumns 
 aie beautiful and of long duration ; and Iowa is 
 noted for its healthfulness. The surface is a 
 rolling prairie ; there are no mountains, and hills 
 or blufts can only be found along the principal 
 streams. The average elevation is not far from 
 900 feet ; the highest point 1694 feet. Iowa has 
 extensive and valuable mineral deposits, as coal, 
 lead, gypsum, limestone, clay, and mineral paints. 
 The coal, which is bituminous and of good quality, 
 extends over an area of nearly 20,000 sq. m. , and 
 above 4 million tons are raised annually. There 
 are several small lakes in the north. Iowa is pre- 
 eminently an agricultural state, its fertile soil 
 producing vast quantities of maize, wheat, oats, 
 with barley, flax, buckwheat, rye, hay, sorghum, 
 potatoes, butter, cheese, wool, and eggs. Nearly 
 98 per cent, of the total land area is under farms. 
 The importance of live-stock in the state results 
 in the growth of large quantities of hay and other 
 forage crops. Manufactures are comparatively 
 unimportant, the principal industries, after agri- 
 culture, being meat-packing and tlie preparation 
 of other food-products. Amongst the principal 
 exports are, besides agricultural and dairy pro- 
 ducts, considerable quantities of coal, gypsuin, 
 and lead. The territory of the state formed part 
 of the 'Louisiana Purchase" (see Louisiana). 
 Iowa was organised as a territorv in 1838, and 
 as a state in 1846. Pop. (1850) 192,214; (1880) 
 1,624,615 ; (1900) 2,231,853. The capital is Des 
 Moines (pop. over 62,139) ; and there are five other 
 cities with over 25,000 (Dubuque, Davenport, 
 Sioux City, Council Bluffs, and Cedar Rapids). 
 
 Iowa City, capital of Johnson county, Iowa, 
 and the seat of government from 1839 to 1856, is 
 situated on the Iowa River, 120 miles by rail E. 
 of Des Moines. The old capitol is now the state 
 university. Pop. 7986. 
 
 Ipsambul. See Abu-Simbel. 
 
 Ipsden, an Oxfordshire parish, close to the 
 Chilterns, 4 juiles SB. of Wallingford. Charles 
 Reade was a native. 
 
 Ipswich, the county town of Suffolk, a par- 
 liamentary, municipal, and county borough, 69 
 miles NE. of London by rail, is situated on the 
 side of a hill on the left bank of the river Gipping, 
 which, taking here the name of the Orwell, be- 
 comes tidal, and after a south-easterly course of 
 12 miles more falls into the German Ocean at 
 Harwich. In the older portions of the town, 
 principally grouped near the river, the streets 
 are narrow and irregularly built, and still retain 
 many picturesque old buildings, decorated with 
 carved work, such as Sparrowe's House (1567), 
 the Neptime Inn (1639), Archdeacon's Place 
 (1471), and Wolsey's Gateway (1528). Of public 
 buildings the principal are a town-hall (1868), 
 in the Italian Renaissance style of architecture, 
 surmounted by a clock-tower 130 feet high ; post- 
 office (1881), and corn exchange (1882), both close 
 by, and in the same style ; public hall (1868) ; mu- 
 seum, schools of science and art, and free library 
 (1881-87), the first of which, founded in 1847, is 
 notable for its splendid collections of Suff'olk Crag 
 fossils and British birds ; custom-house (1845) ; 
 mechanics' institute (1824) ; hospital (1835-69-77) ; 
 artillery and militia barracks ; a theatre (1891), 
 in whose predecessor Garrick, Mrs Keeley, and 
 Mr Toole made their d^but ; St Mary Le Tower, 
 with a spire 176 feet high, and a fine peal of 
 
IPSWICH 
 
 361 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 twelve bells ; and the grammar-school (c. 1477 ; 
 reorganised by Queen Elizabeth in 1565, rebuilt 
 in 1851, and reconstituted in 1881). Near it are 
 two arboretums, charmingly laid out, and Christ- 
 church Park, with its fine Tudor mansion (1549). 
 Another favourite resort is the promenade by 
 the river-side, skirting the west side of the dock. 
 This latter, opened in 1842, covers 30 acres, and 
 is approached from the Orwell by an entrance 
 lock (1881) capable of admitting vessels of 1400 
 tons. The principal manufactures are those of 
 agricultural implements, railway plant, artificial 
 manures, and clothing. Cardinal Wolsey was a 
 native, and Gainsborough a resident for fifteen 
 years. Ipswich has returned two members to 
 parliament since 1447. Pop. (1801) 11,336 ; (1841) 
 25,264 ; (1901) 66,622. See works by Clarke (1830), 
 Wodderspoon (1842-50), Glyde (1850-87), and Dr 
 J. E. Taylor (1889). 
 
 Ipswich, a town of Queensland, on the Bremer, 
 23 miles W. of Brisbane by rail. It stands in a 
 rich coal-mining district. Pop. 11,190. 
 
 Iqulque (Ee-kee'kay), the port and capital of the 
 Chilian territory of Tarapaca (Peruvian till 1881). 
 It has amalgamating works in connection with 
 neighbouring silver-mines. Pop. 35,391. 
 
 Iqultos, a town in the Peruvian dep. of Loreto, 
 on the left bank of the Maranon, 75 miles above 
 the jnouth of the Rio Napo. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Irak-Ajemi, a central province of Persia, nearly 
 coincident with ancient Media. Area, 138,190 
 sq. m. ; pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 Irak-Arabi (Arabian Irak), the most south- 
 easterly district of Turkey in Asia, almost con- 
 terminous with ancient Babylonia, lies between 
 the lower courses of the Tigris and the Euphrates. 
 Pop. 2,000,000. 
 
 Iran, or Eran, originally the great Asian 
 plateau bounded N. by the Hindu Kush and the 
 Elburz, E. by the Indus, S. by the Persian Gulf, 
 and W. by Kurdistan and the Tigris. The term 
 is now the official designation of Persia. 
 
 Irawadi, or Irrawaddy, the principal river 
 of Burma, long believed by many to have its 
 origin in the Sanpo (q.v.), the great river of Tibet, 
 which was shown in 1878-82 to be the upper 
 waters of the Brahmaputra. In 25° 50' N. lat., 
 a short distance above Bhamo, two arms, the 
 Mali-kha and the Meh-kha, unite to form the 
 river that is undoubtedly the Irawadi of Burma. 
 From Bhamo the Irawadi winds 700 miles south- 
 ward, throughout navigable for small boats, in 
 spite of islands, sandbanks, and two rock-bound 
 defiles. Its waters are muddy and its current 
 generally rapid. Before reaching the sea, in nearly 
 a dozen mouths, in the west of the Bay of Marta- 
 ban, the river spreads out in a wide delta, 18,000 
 sq. m. in extent. Of its mouths two only are used 
 by sea-going vessels, the Bassein on the west and 
 the Rangoon on the east. The valley and plain 
 of the Irawadi are very fertile, and grow vast 
 quantities of rice. The river is the chief artery 
 of the country : on its banks stand the principal 
 towns, Bassein, Rangoon, Prome, Ava, Mandalay, 
 Bhamo ; its banks were the home of Burmese 
 civilisation ; its waters have served as the main 
 means of communication not only to the interior 
 of Burma, but to the south-western provinces of 
 China and of Tibet. The river drains at least 
 158,000 sq. m. Its largest affluent, coming from 
 the right hand, is the Chindwin. This and the 
 two left-hand tributaries, the Shweli and Myit- 
 nge, are alone navigable. The plain for 150 miles 
 
 from the sea, being liable to inundations, h&& 
 been protected by embankments since 1863. 
 
 Irbit, a town of the Russian government of 
 Perm, 1170 miles nearly due E. of St Petersburg. 
 Its February fair is next in importance to that of 
 Nijni-Novgorod. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Ireland, an island forming part of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, is washed 
 on the N., W., and S. by the Atlantic, and on 
 the E. by the North Channel (13 miles wide), 
 the Irish Sea (138 miles), and St George's Channel 
 (47 to 69 miles), which separate it from the larger 
 island of Great Britain. Its greatest length is 
 302 miles ; its average breadth 110 miles. Eirinn 
 was known to the Greeks as lerne, to the Romans 
 as Hibernia and Juverna, in the 6-13th centuries 
 as Scotia and the 'Isle of Saints.' It is divided 
 into the four provinces of Ulster, Leinster, Mun- 
 ster, and Connanght, and subdivided into thirty- 
 two counties. The total area is 20,819,928 acres, 
 or 32,531 sq. m., or nearly two-thirds of that of 
 England without Wales. In 1801 the pop. was 
 5,395,456 (166 per sq. m.); in 1841, 8,175,124(251 
 per sq. in.) ; in 1901, after a steady decrease from 
 emigration, only 4,458,775 (137 per sq. in.). 
 
 Provinces and Area in Pop. Pop. Pop. 
 
 Counties. Stat. Acres. 1841. 1881. 1901. 
 Leinster. 
 
 Carlow 221,344 86,228 46,568 37,748 
 
 Dublin 226,895 372,773 4]8,9]0 448,206 
 
 KiWare 418,496 114,488 75,804 6:3,566 
 
 Kilkenny 509,732 202,420 99,.^31 79,159 
 
 King's 493,985 146,857 72,852 60,187 
 
 Longford 269,409 115,491 61,009 46,<i72 
 
 Louth 202,123,128,240 77,684 65,820 
 
 Meath 579,861 183,828 87,469 67,497 
 
 Queen's 424,854 153,930 73,124 57,417 
 
 Westmeath 453,4.53 141,300 71,798 61,629 
 
 Wexford 576,588 202,033 123,854 104,104 
 
 Wicklow 500,178 126,143 70,386 60,824 
 
 Total.... 4,876,918 1,973,731 1,278,989 1,152,829 
 
 MUNSTEB. 
 
 Clare 827,994 286,394 141,457 112,334 
 
 Cork 1,849,686 854,118 495,607 404,611 
 
 Kerry 1,185,918 293,880 201,039 165,726 
 
 Limerick 680,842 330,029 180,632 146,098 
 
 Tipperary 1,061,731 4.35,553 199,612 160,232 
 
 Waterford 461,552 196,187 112,768 87,187 
 
 Total.... 6,067,723 2,396,161 1,331,115 1,076,188 
 
 Antrim .' 762,080 360,875 421,943 461,532 
 
 Armagh 328,086 232,393 163,177 125,392 
 
 Cavan 477,399 243,158 129,476 97,541 
 
 Donegal 1.197,154 296,448 206.035 173,722 
 
 Down 612,399 361,446 272,107 289,627 
 
 Fermanagh 457,369 1.56.481 84,879 65.430 
 
 Londonderry .522,315 222.174 164,991 144,404 
 
 Monaghan 319,741 200.442 102,748 74.611 
 
 Tyrone 806,658 312,956 197,719 150,567 
 
 Total.... 5,483,201 2,386,373 1,743,075 1,582,826 
 
 CoNir AUGHT. 
 
 Galway 1,569,505 440.198 242,005 192,549 
 
 Leitrim 392,363 155,297 90,372 fi9,343 
 
 Mayo 1,360.731 388,887 245.212 199,166 
 
 Koscommon 607,691 253,591 132,490 101,791 
 
 Sligo 461,796 180,886 111.578 84,083 
 
 Total.... 4,392,086 1,418,859 821,657 646,932 
 
 General Total.... 20,819,928 8,178,124 8,174,836 4,458.773 
 
 In 1901 there were eight towns with pops, over 
 20,000 (Dublin 290,638, and Belfast 349,180); when 
 there were 631,629 persons of Irish birth in Eng- 
 land and Scotland, 1,618,567 in the United States, 
 227,561 in Australasia, 4184 in Cape Colony, and 
 in Canada 989,858 persons of Irish origin. In 
 1851-1902, 3,921,222 persons emigrated from Ire- 
 laud, over three-fourths to the United States. 
 
 IL 
 
iRELAKD 
 
 36^ 
 
 I^LANtk 
 
 'The surface of Ireland is, generally speaking, 
 an undulating plain, relieved, more particularly 
 towards the coasts, by detached groups of low 
 hills. The priucipal ranges are the Mourne Moun- 
 tains in Down, which attain their highest eleva- 
 tion in Slieve-Donard (2796 feet) ; the mountains 
 of Wicklow, which rise in Luguaquilla to a maxi- 
 mum height of 3039 feet; and Macgillicuddy's 
 Reeks, in Kerry, their highest peak, Carran-Tual 
 (3414 feet), being the loftiest in all Ireland. The 
 mountains are built up of relatively hard crys- 
 talline schists and disturbed Lower Palaeozoic 
 rocks, while the low grounds are nearly co-exten- 
 sive with less indurated and comparatively un- 
 disturbed Upper Palaeozoic strata. The interior 
 and larger portion of the island is quite flat, its 
 centre being only 250 feet above the sea ; it be- 
 longs almost exclusively to the carboniferous 
 system. Ireland is not rich in minerals, but 
 some coal (about 100,000 tons a year), a little 
 iron, lead, besides salt, stone, limestone, &c. are 
 wrought. The coasts on the N., W., and S. are 
 in many places rocky and high, and indented 
 with deep inlets, many of which form admir- 
 able harbours. The islands are small. Bogs 
 or morasses occupy altogether 1,772,450 acres, 
 or nearly one-ninth of the entire area — the 
 largest being the Bog of Allen. The principal 
 river of Ireland, and the largest in the United 
 Kingdom, is the Shannon (q.v.). Others are 
 the Liffey and Boyne, the Suir, Barrow, and 
 Nore, the Blackwater, Erne, Foyle, Bann, &c. 
 Dublin has water-communication with the Shan- 
 non by means of the Grand (165 miles) and 
 Royal (76) canals, and Lough Neagh witli the 
 same river by the Ulster Canal and river Black- 
 water. The largest lake is Lough Neagh (100,000 
 acres) ; others are Erne and Derg, also in Ulster ; 
 Conn, Mask, and Corrib, in Connaught ; Allen, 
 Ree, and Derg, expansions of the river Shannon ; 
 and the lakes of Killarney (q.v.) in Munster. 
 The name lough is also applied to many salt- 
 water inlets. 
 
 The climate of Ireland bears a close resem- 
 blance to that of Great Britain, but is modified 
 by the marked difi'erence in the configuration of 
 the surface, the greater distance from the con- 
 tinent of Europe, and the fact that it is more 
 directly under the influence of the Gulf Stream. 
 The mean annual temperature is 50*0° (that of 
 England is 49-5°, that of Scotland 47'5°) ; and the 
 temperature in Ireland is more equable. The 
 eastern half of the island has a rainfall of from 
 30 to 40 inches, and the western half from 40 to 
 50 inches. 
 
 Ireland is mainly an agricultural country, but 
 agriculture is backward, and fanns and cai)ital 
 small ; relations between landlord and tenant 
 were very bad from of old ; the landlords seldom 
 erected buildings, repaii'ed farmsteads, or made 
 permanent improvements. In 1879-80 the dis- 
 tress amongst the poorer sections of the com- 
 munity reached sucli a pitch that in 1881 the 
 Land Law (Ireland) Act was passed. Its princi- 
 pal measures were designed to protect the tenant 
 from paying more than a ' fair rent,' and to pro- 
 vide for loans being made to tenants to enable 
 them to purchase their holdings on fair and equit- 
 able terms. Several subsequent amending acts 
 have been passed, that of 1903 giving increased 
 facilities for tlie purchase of holdings, and pro- 
 viding an aid fund of £12,000,000. The Local 
 Government (Ireland) Act, 1898, established 
 county councils in Ireland, reduced the poor 
 assessment on agricultural land to half of its value, 
 &c. Agriculture has benefited largely (especially 
 
 small farms) by the development of co-operative 
 agricultural societies, of which there were 908 
 in 1904, 876 of them being creameries. Above 
 10,000,000 acres are permanently under grass, 
 some 1,300,000 being devoted to cereals (oats 
 110,000, barley 158,000), 618,500 acres to potatoes, 
 and 286,000 to turnips. The seas around the 
 coasts of Ii-eland teem with fish ; but, except 
 that for salmon, the fisheries are not flourishing. 
 The bulk of the commerce of Ireland is the ex- 
 portation of agricultural produce and animals, 
 principally to Great Britain. 
 
 Manufactures are few, except in Ulster, where 
 linen is the staple Industry ; but little of the 
 flax used is Irish-grown, most of it being now 
 imported from Belgium, &c. Shipbuilding is 
 centred at Belfast ; and brewing and distilling 
 are also important industries. 
 
 Ireland is represented in the imperial parlia- 
 ment by 28 peers elected for life in the House of 
 Lords and 103 members in the House of Com- 
 mons. The executive is vested in a lord-lieu- 
 tenant, who is assisted by a chief-secretary and a 
 privy-council (appointed by the crown). Most of 
 the inhabitants (over 3,310,000 in 1901) belong to 
 the Roman Catholic Church, which has four arch- 
 bishops (Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam)and 
 24 bishops. Until 1871 the established church of 
 Ireland was a branch of the Church of Eng- 
 land ; since its disestablishment the Church 
 of Ireland is presided over by two archbishops 
 (Dublin and Armagh) and eleven bishops. Next 
 in importance come the Presbyterians and Meth- 
 odists. The most important university in Ire- 
 land is that of Dublin (q.v.) or Trinity College. 
 The Royal University of Ireland (1880) is not a 
 teaching, but only an examining body. Teaching 
 institutions are the three Queen's Colleges of Bel- 
 fast, Cork, and Galway (1849), and the Royal 
 College of Science (1867) in Dublin. The Roniau 
 Catholic University of Ireland (1854) is supported 
 by private contributions. St Patrick's College, 
 Maynooth (q.v., 1795) educates Roman Catholic 
 priests. And there are Presbyterian theological 
 colleges at Belfast and Londonderry. There are 
 over 8700 elementary schools in Ireland under 
 the Commissioners of National Education, with 
 726,550 enrolled pupils and an average attend- 
 ance of aboiit 482,500. Of the schools 4199 were 
 Ronian Catholic, 1523 were Protestant, and 2981 
 were mixed. Seven training-colleges had over 
 1000 students. There are 3300 miles of railway 
 in Ireland. 
 
 In prehistoric times Ireland seems like Britain 
 to have been inhabited by peoples of the Iberian 
 stock, who were successively invaded and sub- 
 dued by Nemedians, Firbolgs, Tuatha De Danann, 
 and Scots or Milesians. Most of these invaders 
 seem to have been Celtic, some of the Cymric 
 (British), and some of the Goidelic branch. The 
 Scots were distinctly Goidelic. Ultimately the 
 resulting races, Iberian at base but Celticised by 
 degrees, had assumed the Celtic type of civilisa- 
 tion and the Erse (Goidelic) language. The 
 septs, tribes, or kingdoms were numerous, and 
 constantly at war; though with curious per- 
 mutations and combinations, some, or many of 
 them, at times accepting the over-lordship of an 
 Ard-righ or chief king. Irish history really 
 begins with the christianisation of Ireland by St 
 Patrick, a Briton of Strathclyde, early in the 5th 
 century. In the 8th century came Danish or 
 Norse sea-rovers, who established themselves in 
 the east of Ireland, and, weakened by Brian 
 Born, and utterly defeated by hiin at Clou- 
 tarf in 1014, were ultimately absorbed in tha 
 
miSH SEA 
 
 363 
 
 IdAR 
 
 liiass of the population. The intestinal strifes of 
 the Irish potentates still went on as before, and 
 led in 1167-72 to the Norman invasion. Ireland 
 had to undergo just 100 years later, and under 
 Henry II., the fate England underwent under 
 Henry's great-grandfather, William the Con- 
 queror. Much of the Irish soil was parcelled 
 out, as England had been, amongst Norman 
 nobles ; but this change, so far from tending to 
 consolidate Ireland into one kingdom, or into an 
 organised province of the English monarchy, 
 seemed but to have introduced additional elements 
 of faction, feutl, and warfare. The Nonnan chiefs 
 fought with the Irish ones, and with one anotlier ; 
 and became, as was said, 'more Irisli than the 
 Irish themselves.' Henry VII. made an eflbrt to 
 reduce Ireland to order on Tudor lines ; rebellions, 
 expeditions, slaughterings, and confiscations went 
 on in tlie reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, 
 the Reformation providing a new element of 
 hostility between the English government and 
 the Irish people. Under James I. vast con- 
 fiscations took place, and great settlements, 
 especially in Ulster, of English and Scottish 
 immigrants. ' The massacre of 1641 ' was directed 
 against these aliens. Cromwell made a re-settle- 
 ment with a vengeance. The adhesion of the 
 Irish to James II. brought William III. on them ; 
 and after the battle of the Boyne and the surren- 
 der of Limerick (1691) came the penal laws, which 
 with many vastly more cruel provisions, debarred 
 Catholics from all share in the Irish parliament. 
 In 1782 the Irish Protestant parliament had 
 greater powers and dignities conferred on it ; 
 and under Grattan's influence, the emancipation 
 of the Catholics seemed near. But Irish hopes 
 were blighted by the obstinacy of George III. 
 Hereupon the society of the United Irishmen 
 became a distinctly rebellious organisation, and 
 fomented the short and futile rebellion of 1798. 
 The union of the parliaments came into force in 
 1801. The next great events in Irish history 
 are Roman Catholic Emancipation in 1829 ; 
 O'Connell's agitation for the repeal of the iinion, 
 begun in 1842 ; the Potato Famine of 1846 ; the 
 Fenian movement of 1867 ; the Disestablishment 
 of the Irish Church (1871) ; Mr Gladstone's Land 
 Act (1881) ; tlie Home Rule movement under 
 Parnell ; the Home Rule Bill of 1886, defeated in 
 the House of Commons ; and that of 1893, de- 
 feated in the House of Lords. 
 
 There are histories of Ireland by Darcy M'Gee 
 (1869), Keating (1880), J. H. M'Carthy (1883), 
 Lady E. Lawless (1888), Joyce (1893 and 1903), 
 Walpole (1893), O'Grady (1893), O'Connor Morris 
 (1898), and Fatlier D'Alton (1904). 
 
 Irishi Sea, between the north of Ireland and 
 the north of England, with the south-western 
 counties of Scotland on the north, is connected 
 NW. with the Atlantic by the North Channel, 
 and S. by St George's Channel. Between the 
 coasts of Louth (Ireland) and Lancaster it has 
 its greatest width of 150 miles ; its greatest 
 length north and soutli is about the same. 
 Within it lie the Isle of Man and Anglesey. 
 
 Irkutsk, a mountainous government of south- 
 ern Siberia, to the NW. of Lake Baikal, occupies 
 an area of 287,061 sq. m. Tlie pop., 550,000 in 
 1905, consists of Burials, Tunguses, and Russians 
 (one-third exiles). The towns are Irkutsk, 
 Kirensk, Nijniudinsk, and Verkholensk. 
 
 Irkutsk, the capital, on the Angara, is the 
 residence of the governor-general of eastern 
 Siberia. Although 3722 nriles from St Petersburg 
 ^aiid 40 from Lake Baikal), Irkutsk is the best- 
 
 built town in Siberia, with straight, wide streets, 
 and handsome public buildings. It possesses a 
 cathedral, public library, natural history museum, 
 &c. Tlie pop., 32,512 in 1875, had increased to 
 53,000 in 1905; it consists mostly of Russians 
 and Burlats. Irkutsk was founded by a Cossack 
 chief in 1652. Owing to its position on the great 
 Siberian highway between China and Russia, it is 
 the commercial centre of Siberia, especially for 
 the tea-trade ; the annual value of its trade 
 amounts to about £1,100,000. It is on the line of 
 the great Siberian railway in progress. The 
 Angara and Lena rivers are valuable water-ways. 
 A fire in 1879 did £2,000,000 worth damage. 
 
 Ironbiidge, a village on the Severn, 1 mile E. 
 of Coalbrookdale. It takes name from the 
 bridge (1779), lOOj feet in span, the earliest large 
 cast-iron bridge in the kingdom. 
 
 Iron Gates. See Danube. 
 
 Iron Mountain, a mining-town of Michigan, 
 on the Menomonce River, 208 miles by rail N. of 
 Milwaukee. It has risen since 1880. Pop. 9300. 
 
 Ironton, capital of Lawrence county, Ohio, on 
 the Ohio River, 142 miles above Cincinnati. It is 
 the chief business centre of an important iron 
 region. Pop. 11,939. 
 
 Irrawaddy. See Irawadi. 
 
 Irtish, a river of Siberia, the chief affluent of 
 the Obi (q.v.), rises at the east end of the Altai 
 Mountains, passes through Lake Saisan, breaks 
 througli the Altai in the west at the bottom of 
 a savage gorge, and flows north-westwards across 
 the steppes of Western Siberia to join the Obi, 
 from the left, at Samarow. At that point it has 
 a width of 2000 yards ; its total length is 1620 
 miles ; the area of its basin, 647,000 sq. m. The 
 towns of Semipalatinsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk stand 
 on its banks. Its tributaries include the Buch- 
 tarma and Om from the right, and the Tobol and 
 Ishim from the left. 
 
 Irun (Ee-roon), a town in the Spanish province 
 of Guipuzcoa, on the Bidassoa, near the French 
 frontier, 24 miles by rail SW. of Bayonne. In 
 1837 General Sir De Lacy Evans captured it from 
 the Carlists. Pop. 9800. 
 
 Irvine, a seaport of Ayrshire, on the river 
 Irvine, IJ mile from the Firth of Clyde, and 11 
 miles by rail N. of Ayr, 29 SW. of Glasgow. 
 Made a sub-port of Troon in 1863, its harbour has 
 been improved since 1873 ; and there are chemical 
 works, foundries, grain-stores, &c. The bridge 
 (1746-1837), the new town-hall (1859), a statue of 
 Lord-justice-general Boyle (1867), and the academy 
 (1814) are features of the town, which became a 
 royal burgh about 1230, and which with Ayr, &c. 
 returns one member to parliament. It was the 
 birthplace of Gait and James Montgomery, and 
 has memories also of Burns and the Buchanites. 
 Pop. (1841) 4594 ; (1901) 9618. 
 
 Irvinestown, a town of County Fermanagh, 8 
 miles N. of Enniskillen. Pop. 781. 
 
 Irwell, a river of Lancashire, flowing 30 miles 
 past Manchester, to the Mersey below Floxton. 
 
 Isandu'la, or Isandhlwana, in the north-east 
 of Natal, on the left bank of the Buffalo River, 
 110 miles N. by W. of Durban. There, on 22d 
 January 1879, the British camp Avas surprised by 
 18,000 Zulus in Lord Chelmsford's absence and 
 almost annihilated. The British loss exceeded 
 800, that of the Zulus 2000. 
 
 Isar, or Iser, a river of Bavaria, rises in the 
 Tyrol, north-east of Innsbruck, and flows 220 
 miles north and north-east to the Danube near 
 
ISAU^IA 
 
 364 
 
 ISPAHAN 
 
 Deggendorf. Munich and Landshut are on the 
 banks ' of Iser, rolling rapidly ; ' Hohenlinden 
 (q.v.) is 20 miles away. Large quantities of wood 
 are floated down the Isar from the mountains. 
 
 Isauria, in ancient geograi)hy, a district of 
 Asia Minor, occupying the summit and northern 
 slopes of Mount Taurus. 
 
 Ischia (Is'kee-a; anc. Mnaria and Pithecusa), an 
 island on the north side of the entrance to the Bay 
 of Naples, 6 miles from the mainland. Area, 26 
 sq. m. ; pop. 27,500. Ischia is a favourite suin- 
 mer-resort, being noted for the excellence of its 
 warm mineral waters, the richness of its soil, the 
 flavour of its fruits and wines, and the beauty of 
 its scenery. Its highest point is the volcanic 
 Monte Epomeo, 2608 feet, the last outbreak of 
 which occurred in 1302. In 1881 Casamicciola 
 was nearly destroyed by two earthquake shocks, 
 and in 1883 it was utterly overwhelmed, 1990 
 persons losing their lives. Chief towns : Ischia 
 (7000), a bishop's seat ; Casamicciola (3963) ; and 
 Forio (7500). See Johnston-Lavis, The Earth- 
 quakes of Ischia (1886). 
 
 Ischl (Eeshl), a town of Upper Austria, the capi- 
 tal of the Salzkammergut, is finely seated, 1536 feet 
 above sea-level, on the river Traun, amid magnifi- 
 cent Alpine scenery, 33 miles E. by S. of Salzburg. 
 Its situation, and the saline baths, established 
 in 1822, attract 5000 visitors annually, including 
 the Austrian royal family, who have a villa here. 
 Yearly 8000 tons of salt are manufactured in the 
 salt-works, opened in 1571. Pop. 9700. 
 
 Iseghem (Ee'ze-khem), a town of Belgium, 10 
 miles by rail N. by W. of Courtrai. Pop. 12,200. 
 
 Iseo (Ee-zaiZ-o), Lake (Lacus Sebinus), a lake of 
 northern Italy, situated between the provinces of 
 Bergamo and Brescia. Length, 12^ miles ; maxi- 
 mum breadth, 3J miles ; area, 24 sq. m. It con- 
 tains two small islands, and is traversed by the 
 Oglio, a tributary of the Po. 
 
 Isfere (Ee-zehr'), a dep. in the south-east of 
 France, round which on the north and west flows 
 the river Rhone. It was formed out of the ancient 
 province of Dauphine. Area, 3200 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1872) 575,784 ; (1901) 563,813. The dep. contains 
 the four arrondissements of Grenoble (the capital), 
 La Tour-du-Pin, St Marcellin, and Vienne. 
 
 Iserlohn (Ee-zer-loan), a town of Prussian 
 Westphalia, on a tributary of the Ruhr, 14 miles 
 SE. of Dortnmnd. It manufactures brass and 
 bronze articles. The calamine mines are cele- 
 brated. The neighbouring Dechen stalactite cave, 
 292 yards long, was discovered in 1868. Pop. 
 30,000. 
 
 Isernia (anc. ^sernia), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, 52 miles N. of Naples. Pop. 9678. 
 
 Ishim. See Irtish. 
 ' Ish'peming, a city of Michigan, 15 miles W. 
 of Marquette on Lake Superior, and 392 N. of 
 Chicago by rail. Much iron ore is mined close 
 by, and the town possesses foundries, blast- 
 furnaces, &c. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Iskanderoon. See Scanderoon. 
 
 Isla (Tla), (1) a river of Forfar and Perthshire, 
 flowing 46 miles SE. and S\V. to the Tay near 
 Cargill, 4^ miles WSW. of Coupar-Angus.— (2) 
 A Banffshire stream, running 18 miles to the 
 Deveron near Grange Junction. 
 
 Isla de Finos. See Pinos, Isla de. 
 
 Islamabad. See Chittagono. 
 
 Islandshlre, a part of Northumberland in 
 England, embracing the Fame Islands, together 
 
 with three parishes adjoining Berwick-6n-Tweed 
 (q.v.) and portions of two others. Till 1844 it 
 formed a detached part of Durham county. 
 
 Islay {I'lay), an Argyllshire island, 13 miles W. 
 ofKintyre, and ^ mile SW. of Jura, from whichitis 
 separated by the Sound of Islay. Deeply indented 
 on the south by Loch Indal (12 x 8 miles), Islay 
 has a maximum length and breadth of 25^ and 19 
 miles, and an area of 246 sq. m. It contains 
 several small fresh-water lakes, and attains a 
 height of 1444 feet. More than half the whole 
 area is capable of cultivation, and great improve- 
 ments have been effected in the way of road- 
 making, draining, reclamation, &c. Dairy-farm- 
 ing, stock-raising, and whisky-distillation are 
 leading industries; whilst slate, marble, iron, 
 lead, and silver have been worked. Pop. (1831) 
 14,982 ; (1901) 6875. 
 
 Isle of France. See Mauritius. 
 
 Isle of Man, Wight, «&c. See Man, Wight. 
 
 Isleworth {!' zel-worth), a Middlesex parish, on 
 the left bank of the Thames, 12 miles WSW. of 
 London. Here is Sion House, a seat of the Duke 
 of Northumberland, the place where the crown 
 was ottered to Lady Jane Grey. 
 
 Islington (Iz'ling-ton), (1) one of the metro- 
 politan boroughs of the county of London. Pop. 
 (1861) 155,341 ; (1901) 334,906. It has numerous 
 religious, educational, and benevolent insti- 
 tutions. Tlie Agricultural Hall (1861), where 
 the great national cattle and horse shows are 
 held, is capable of holding 50,000 people. In 
 1885 Islington was made a parliamentary borough. 
 It returns four members. — (2) A former parish of 
 Norfolk, 4 miles SW. of Lynn. It is the I.slington 
 probably of ' The Bailifi^s Daughter.' 
 
 Ismail, a town and river-port in the Russian 
 government of Bessarabia, stands on the north 
 bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube, 48 miles 
 from its mouth. Formerly a Turkish fortress, 
 it was taken and destroyed by Suwaroff in 1790 ; 
 came to Russia in 1812 ; was assigned to Moldavia 
 (1856), its fortifications being razed ; and was 
 transferred to Russia again in 1878. Pop., with 
 the adjoining Tutchkoft', 33,084. 
 
 Ismailia (Iz-ml-lee'a; named after the Khedive 
 Ismail), a small town on Lake Timsah, through 
 which the Suez Canal passes. It stands on the 
 railway from Cairo to Suez and on the Sweet- 
 water Canal. During the construction of the 
 Suez Canal it was the headquarters of the work, 
 having been founded in 1863, but it is now a 
 place of less than 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 Isn'ik. See Nic^a. 
 
 I'sola Bella. See Borromean Islands. 
 
 Isola Grossa, or Isola Lunga (Great or Long 
 Island), an Austrian island, 27 miles by 3, parallel 
 to Dalmatian coast, off Zara. Pop. 3000. 
 
 IspaMn, properly IsfahAn, a famous city of 
 Persia, capital of the province of Irak-Ajemi, and 
 in the 17th century of the entire country, is 
 situated on the Zenderud, in an extensive and 
 fertile plain, 226 miles S. of Tehran. The river, 
 here 600 feet broad, is crossed by three noble 
 bridges. Groves, orchards, avenues, and culti- 
 vated fields surround the city for miles ; but the 
 permanent beauty of the vicinity only serves to 
 make the contrast all the more striking between 
 the former splendour of the city and its present 
 ruinous condition. Miles of street are now 
 almost tenantless, and many of the palaces are 
 falling to decay. The suburb Julfa, on the 
 southern bank of the river, once a flourishing 
 
ISSIK-KUL 
 
 365 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Armenian settlement of 30,000 inhabitants, is 
 now little better than a mass of ruins. Ispahan, 
 however, is still an important city and the 
 seat of extensive manufactures, including all 
 sorts of woven fabrics, from rich gold brocades 
 and figured velvets to common calicoes. Trink- 
 ets and ornamental goods in great variety, with 
 firearms, sword-blades, glass, and earthenware, 
 are also manufactured. Of late years, too, 
 many of its edifices have been rebuilt ; and rice 
 is now largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. 
 Pop. 80,000— not a tenth of what it was once. 
 
 Issik-kul (Kirghiz, ' warm water '), a salt-lake 
 in central Asia, in the Russian province of Serair- 
 schensk, between the Terskei Ala-tau range on 
 tlie south and the Kungei Ala-tau on the north. 
 Lying 5000 feet above sea-level, it is 112 miles 
 long, 38 miles broad, and 1980 sq. m. in area. 
 Although it receives forty rivers, its surface falls 
 permanently 8 or 9 inches a year. 
 
 Issolre {Is-swahr' ; anc. Issiodorum), a town in 
 the French dep. of Puy-de-D6me, near the con- 
 fluence of the Couze and AUier, 21 miles by rail 
 SE. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. 5560. 
 
 Issoudun, a town in the French dep. of Indre, 
 72 miles S. of Orleans by rail. It manufactures 
 parchment, cloth, agricultural instruments, &c. 
 Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Issus, an ancient seaport on a gulf of the 
 same name in Cilicia, Asia Minor. Here Alex- 
 ander the Great routed Darius (333 B.C.). 
 
 Issy, a village in the French dep. of Seine, J 
 mile SW. from Paris. Pop. 12,830. Here on 
 3d July 1815 Blucher defeated Davofit. During 
 the siege of Paris (1870-71) by the Germans, the 
 fort of Issy suffered severely from bombardment. 
 
 Istakhr, or Stakhr, an ancient city of Persia, 
 built near Persepolis (q.v.). 
 
 Istambol. See Constantinople. 
 
 Istrla, an Austrian margraviate, forming a 
 mountainous peninsula in the north-east corner 
 of the Adriatic, between the Gulf of Trieste and 
 the Gulf of Fiume or Quarnero. Area, with the 
 adjacent islands, 1812 sq. m, ; pop. 344,200., 
 Capital, Rovigno. 
 
 Italy, a kingdom occupying the central of the 
 three great peninsulas of southern Europe to- 
 gether with Sicily, Sardinia, and some smaller 
 islands. The peninsula, which at the Strait of 
 Otranto approaches within less than 50 miles of 
 Albania, is bounded \V. and S. by that portion of 
 the Mediterranean known as the Tyrrhenian Sea, 
 E. by the Adriatic, and N. by the Alps, separat- 
 ing it from France, Switzerland, and Austro- 
 Hungary. Its greatest length is 710 miles ; the 
 breadth ranges from 351 miles in the north to 
 about 20 between the Gulfs of Sta Eufemia and 
 Squillace, but in most places is about 90 or 100 
 miles. The seaboard of the peninsula extends to 
 2272 miles. The area formerly given at 114,416, 
 has been officially reduced to 110,657 sq. m. Pop. 
 (1871) was 26,801,154 ; (1904) 33,218,328. The 
 area of Italy is nearly equal to that of Great 
 Britain and Ireland ; the population about four- 
 fifths that of the United Kingdom. To the 
 kingdom proper must be added Italy's colonial 
 possession in Africa. This consists of the terri- 
 tories of Assab and Massowah (q.v.) on the Red 
 Sea, Keren and Asmara in Abyssinia, and the 
 Dahlak archipelago, which embrace a total area 
 of nearly 4000 sq. m., and were united into a 
 colony bearing the name of Eritrea (from the old 
 name of the Red Sea, Mare Erythneuvi) in 1889. 
 In 1889 King Menelek ticknowledged the protQc- 
 
 torate of Italy over Abyssinia. The table shows 
 the area and population of the 16 great divisions 
 called Compartimenti (the administrative pro- 
 vinces are 69 in number and named after the 
 chief towns) at the census of 1901. 
 
 Compartimenti. Area. Population. 
 
 Piedmont 11,340 3,326.311 
 
 Ligurla 2,037 1,080,944 
 
 Lombardy 9,386 4,278,183 
 
 Venetia 9,476 3,130,429 
 
 Emilia (with Romagna) 7,990 2,451,752 
 
 Umbrla 3,748 644,367 
 
 The Marches 3,763 1,064,749 
 
 Tuscany 9,304 2,548,154 
 
 Rome (and Latium) 4,663 1,206,354 
 
 Abnizzi and Molise 6,380 1,442,365 
 
 Campania 6,289 3,142,378 
 
 Apulia 7,376 1,949,423 
 
 Basilicata 3,845 490,000 
 
 Calabria 5,819 1,375,760 
 
 Sicily 9,936 3,529,266 
 
 Sardinia 9,305 789,314 
 
 Total 110,657 32,449,754 
 
 Tlie number of foreigners in Italy at the census 
 of 1901 was 61,606, including 11,616 Au.strians, 
 10,757 Swiss, 10,745 Germans, 8768 British, and 
 6953 French. The Italian pop. includes in Pied- 
 mont about 120,000 of French and some 3000 of 
 Teutonic origin, in soutliern Italy at least 60,000 
 of Albanian and 20,000 of Greek origin, and in 
 Sardinia 7000 or 8000 of Spanish origin. Within 
 the five years 1898-1902 over 2,000,000 left Italy, 
 of wliom nearly 1,000,000 went to t)tlier European 
 countries, and almost all tlie rest to America 
 (chiefly the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and 
 Canada). Tlie largest town is Naples (563,540 in 
 1901), Rome (the capital) having 462,783 ; Milan, 
 491,460 ; Turin, 335,656 ; Palermo, 309,692 ; Genoa, 
 234,710; Florence, 205,589; four about 150,000; 
 and other 23 towns over 50,000. 
 
 On the northern frontier of Italy the Alps 
 sweep round in a mighty arc from Nice to 
 Trieste ; and some of the loftiest peaks in the 
 system, including Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, 
 belong to this mountain-girdle. The highest 
 mountain entirely within the kingdom is Gran 
 Paradiso (13,652 feet), the culminating point of 
 the Graian Alps, in Piedmont. Between the 
 Alps and the Apennines spreads the broad fertile 
 Loinbardo-Venetian plain, a nearly level country. 
 Most of this great alluvial tract, which fills 
 nearly the whole of northern Italy, belongs to 
 the basin of the Po ; it is irrigated by numerous 
 streams and canals, and is one of the most fruit- 
 ful and flourishing districts of Italy. The Adige 
 and Brenta are other streams. Many of the Po's 
 tributaries spread out at the foot of the Alps 
 into considerable bodies of water, among which 
 are the Lago di Garda (127 sq. m.), Lago Maggiore 
 (81), and Conio (58). From Rimini to the Gulf 
 of Trieste the Adriatic coast is flat and marshy, 
 and fringed by lagoons. On the Riviera, from 
 Nice to Spezia, the sunny, rugged mountains 
 come close to the water's edge. The geology of 
 the north and west of northern Italy is that of 
 the Alps (q.v.). 
 
 In the peninsula the Apennines are the most 
 important feature. The chain, after stretching 
 across from the Gulf of Genoa to the Adriatic, 
 turns and runs down in a broad, iiTCgular mass 
 to the extremity of Calabria. The mean elevation 
 is only some 5200 feet. The limestone rocks of the 
 Apennines, rugged and cleft, fill the interior of the 
 country with picturesque mountain-scenery. The 
 culminating peak of the Apennines is Monte 
 Corno (9577 feet), in the great mountain-mass 
 called Gran Sasso d'ltalia. Ou the west side of 
 
ITALY 
 
 366 
 
 ITALY 
 
 the peninsula, between the main chain and the sea, 
 a volcanic tract extends from Tuscany as far 
 south as Vesuvius (420G), the only volcano still 
 active. The entire Campanian plain, the Roman 
 Campagna, and the country round Viterbo are 
 mainly of volcanic origin. To the volcanic centres 
 within the peninsula may be added Etna in 
 Sicily, and Stromboli in the Lipari Islands. Tus- 
 cany is a hilly country, wlilch seldom rises into 
 mountains. Fartlier south the Roman plain, the 
 Pontine Marshes, and the fertile Campanian plain 
 are connected ; on the east side of the Apen- 
 nines tlie only plain is that of Apulia. The chief 
 rivers of tlie peninsula flow into the Tyrrhenian 
 Sea ; but only tlie Tiber (for 90 miles) and, to a 
 less extent, the Arno (66 miles), Volturno, and 
 Garigliano are navigable. 
 
 The generally warm climate of Italy is con- 
 siderably modified in places by the presence of 
 the mountain-ranges or the proximity of the sea. 
 The plain of the Po, open to tlie icy winds frcnn 
 the Alps, and closed to those from the south, has 
 a cold if short winter, while along the Riviera the 
 temperature is as high as, and sometimes higher 
 than, that of Rome or Naples. Throughout the 
 peninsula the temperature is lowered by the pres- 
 ence of the Apennines. Moreover, the Adriatic 
 coast, exposed to the north-east winds, is colder 
 than the corresponding west coast. The highest 
 temperature recorded is 109° F. (in Apulia), the 
 lowest —25° F. (on Monte Stelvio, in Lombard y). 
 In the very south there are but two seasons, a wet 
 and a dry ; whereas in northern Italy there are two 
 greater and two lesser rainy periods in the year, 
 most rain falling in October and in spring, and 
 least in winter. Over all the peninsula autumn 
 is the wet season. The cold mistral blows in 
 the Gulf of Genoa, and the wann sirocco affects 
 the coast sometimes as far north as Venice. In 
 many districts the evil presence of malaria, from 
 July to October especially, forms a serious draw- 
 back to the sunny climate. 
 
 The vegetation of northern Italy is in the main 
 such as can endure the frosts of winter. But by 
 the lake-sides we find orange and olive trees, and 
 the summer heat is sufficient to ripen rice and 
 maize, of which, as well as other cereals and 
 legumes, large crops are raised. Forests of 
 chestnuts clothe the mountains, vineyards the 
 lower hills, and the mulberry-tree is extensively 
 grown. The Riviera, so far as vegetation is con- 
 cerned, belongs to southern Italy. In southern 
 Italy the flora of central Europe gives place to 
 palms and orange and lemon and citron trees, the 
 cactus and agave, laurels, myrtles, oleanders, and 
 forests of arbutus and the evergreen oak. Italy is 
 pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of its 
 entire area 87 per cent, is returned as productive ; 
 and nearly half of the productive area is under 
 cultivation. The grape harvest in Italy is second 
 in value to the cereals alone, though inost of the 
 Italian wines are still comparatively poor. Below 
 the 44th parallel the olive is among the most valu- 
 able products. Large quantities of fruit are ex- 
 ported. The chestnut yields an important article 
 of food. Cultivation is still carried on in a very 
 primitive fashion in some parts, but in northern 
 Italy, Tuscany, and round Naples, indeed, the 
 farming is of a very high character. The system of 
 
 })easant proprietorship is extending. Otherwise, 
 and may be held by the metayer system, or by 
 rent, paid either in money or in kind ; or the 
 cultivator may be simply the paid servant of the 
 landlord, receiving a share of the produce for 
 his labour. In any case, the life of the Italian 
 peasant is, as a rule, one of unremitting drudgery 
 
 and poverty, often of privation. There are 
 fisheries round the coast and in the lagoons. 
 The tunny is the most valuable fish, and after 
 that the anchovy and sardine ; but the eel-fish- 
 eries of Comacchio are also of importance. 
 
 Italy contains no deposits of bituminous coal, 
 nor, except in a few localities, of iron. A very 
 little anthracite and about 800,000 tons of lignite 
 are raised annually, most of the latter in Tuscany 
 and Umbria. Nearly all the iron is raised in 
 Elba. The great mineral product of Italy is sul- 
 phur. Marble, granite, and alabaster are quarried 
 to the amount of nearly a million sterling annu- 
 ally. The silk industry employs, especially in 
 northern Italy, some 172,000 persons, besides over 
 550,000 engaged in rearing the silkworni. The 
 manufacture of thread and of cotton tissues 
 .shows a steady advance, as does also the spin- 
 ning and weaving of wool. The north is the 
 seat of the iron industry ; the i)rincipal copper- 
 works are at Leghorn. The manufactures of 
 glass and ceramic wares are valued at £2,500,000. 
 With these may be classed the cutting of cameos 
 and the production of mosaics at Rome, Naples, 
 and Florence, and also the working of coral. 
 The manufacture of tobacco is a government 
 monopoly. There are numerous paper-mills in 
 Piedmont, Lombardy, and Campania, and fac- 
 tories of straw-hats, the principal at Florence, and 
 of cloth, silk, and felt hats in Piedmont especially. 
 Sulphuric and tartaric acid, sulphate of quinine, 
 salt, soap, oils, candles, wax matches, gloves, &c. 
 are also exported. 
 
 The foreign trade of Italy is facilitated both by 
 the extensive seaboard and good harbours and by 
 railway connections \^ith the countries beyond 
 the Alps. The imports and exports have Taeen 
 steadily increasing since 1800. In the five years 
 from 1898 to 1902 the special imports (imports for 
 home consumption) increased from £56,671,165 
 to £72,420,730. The special exports (exports of 
 national merchandise) during the same years in- 
 creased from £48,927,276 to £59,296,104. The 
 commercial intercourse of Italy is, in the order 
 of value, principally with Germany, the United 
 Kingdom, the United States, France, Switzerland, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The war of tariffs 
 with France came to an end with the 19th century. 
 The principal imports from Britain are coal, iron, 
 cottons and woollens, machinery, chemicals, and 
 fish ; the chief exports thither are olive-oil, 
 oranges and lemons, with their essences and 
 syi'ups, hemp, hides, chemicals, dye-stuft's, and 
 jnarble. More than half the steamers entering 
 Italian ports are British, and these carry nearly 
 four-fifths of the maritime trade. The most im- 
 portant seaports are Genoa and Savona, Leghorn, 
 Naples, Venice, Messina, Catania, and Palermo. 
 There are between 9000 and 10,000 miles of rail- 
 way in operation. The principal occupation, 
 agriculture, employs nearly a third of the entire 
 population, and the manufactures only about 
 half as many. Nevertheless, the proportion of 
 inhabitants congregated in cities is unusually 
 large, and in southern Italy and the islands 
 even the peasants prefer to have their homes in 
 some town or village. The death-rate frojn 
 malaria steadily diminishes, as does that from 
 pellagra, a disease resulting from insufficient and 
 unwholesome food. The character of the people 
 is in general sober and thrifty, and they prove 
 excellent workmen where sheer labour is required, 
 as in quarries and drainage operations. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the recognised state 
 religion, and claims all but a very small fraction 
 of the people. Of Protestants there are about 
 
ITALY 
 
 367 
 
 ITHACA 
 
 66,000, and of Jews 36,000 ; tlie former in- 
 clude some 22,500 Waldensians. There are in 
 Italy 49 Catholic arclibishops and 226 bishops, 
 and over 70,500 parish priests. The rank and 
 dignity of the pope, as a sovereign prince, is 
 recognised by tlie law of 1871. The great 
 majority of the religious houses have been sup- 
 pressed. In 1861, of those over nineteen years of 
 age, 05 per cent, of the males and 81 per cent. 
 of the females were unable to read or write ; 
 in 1901 the percentage had fallen to 43 'S for the 
 males and 60*3 for tlie females. Primary edu- 
 cation is now coni])nlsory, and schools of all 
 kinds have increased largely of late ; since 1801 
 the pupils in elementary schools have increased 
 from 885,000 to 2,750,000. There are in Italy 21 
 universities, with 23,000 students. Tlie oldest 
 university is that of Bologna (q.v.), the largest 
 that of Naples (5500 students). The great body 
 of Italian students are enrolled in the faculties 
 of medicine and jurisprudence ; theology is not 
 taught in any of the universities. 
 
 Italy is a constitutional monarchy, the execu- 
 tive power vested in the king being exercised 
 through responsible ministers. The legislative 
 functions are in the hands of the king and parlia- 
 ment conjointly, the latter consisting of a senate 
 of about 330 life-members, nominated by the 
 king, and of a chamber of over 500 deputies. The 
 franchise is extended to all citizens who are of age, 
 can read and write, and pay 20 lire of direct taxes. 
 The government of the provinces, with a prefect 
 at the head of each, is very much the same as in 
 France. Military (or naval) service is compulsory 
 for all citizens from the age of twenty to thirty- 
 nine, but only about 95,000 annually are drafted 
 into the standing army (3000 into the navy). 
 The standing army in 1905 numbered 204,500 men, 
 besides 500,000 on unlimited leave; the total 
 war strength, including mobile and territorial 
 militia, is a little above 3 million men. Italy is dis- 
 proportionately strong at sea, having 15 armoured 
 battle-ships, 20 armoured and protected cruisers, 
 and about 60 torpedo-boats (various), with a total 
 force of 1799 officers and 25,000 men. Some of 
 the armour-clads are amongst the largest of 
 existing war-ships. The finances are uot on a 
 satisfactory footing; the enormous military and 
 naval expenditure is out of all proportion to the 
 resources of the country, and the constant deficits 
 and schemes for expanding the revenue have led 
 to frequent crises and changes of ministry. The 
 extension and maintenance by government of 
 railways far beyond commercial needs have 
 saddled the country with a very serious burden. 
 The estimated reveiuie of 1904-5 was £74,190,481, 
 and the estimated expenditure for the same year 
 restricted to £73,437,117. The total public debt 
 is about £505,000,000, 
 
 Tlie history of Italy is generally begun where 
 that of Rome (q.v.) ends— with the total fall of 
 the Western Roman Empire in 476 a.d. under the 
 attacks of the invading Herulian barbarians. In 
 489 Theodoric and his Ostrogoths founded a 
 Gothic monarchy in Italy, which was subverted 
 by the generals of the Eastern or Byzantine 
 empire in 553. In 568 came the Lombards, who 
 soon held the greater part of the peninsula, and 
 were only crushed by the Franks, whose king, 
 Charlemagne, was crowned emperor of the 
 Romans by the pope in 800. In 962 Italy be- 
 canie a part of the Holy Roman Empire as recon- 
 stituted under the German Otto ; and hencefor- 
 ward Italy was the scene of constant struggles 
 between German rivals for the imperial power, 
 between the emperors and the popes, the Ghibel- 
 
 I 
 
 lines and the Guelphs, the various cities against 
 the emperor, the pope, or one another. With the 
 fall of the Hohenstaufens in 1254 the emperors 
 ceased from troubling, and the popes became the 
 chief power in Italy, their faction being also 
 dominant in the most powerful of the cities, 
 many of which had now fallen under the power 
 of hereditary tyrants. In the 14th and 15th 
 centuries Italy was parcelled out amongst five 
 powers — the kingdom of Naples (first under 
 Angevin, then under Spanish kings), the duchy 
 of Milan, the republics of Florence and Venice, 
 and the papacy. From the time of Charles V. 
 Spanish- Austrian influence became dominant, 
 Charles being able to leave both Naples and 
 Milan to his son,. Philip II. In the war of the 
 Spanish succession the little state of Savoy so 
 skilfully used its power (against the French) as to 
 secure the island of Sardinia and the rank of king- 
 dom. After the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), 
 the House of Savoy held Sardinia and Piedmont ; 
 the Austrians, Milan and Tuscany ; the Bour- 
 bons, Naples, Sicily (the kingdom of 'the two 
 Sicilies '), and Parma ; the papal power held the 
 centre of the peninsula ; Venice survived as a 
 republic till 1797 ; and Modena and Genoa were 
 under the protection of France, to which power 
 the Genoese now gave Corsica. Despotism was 
 everywhere universal. After the French Revolu- 
 tion numerous republics were established under 
 French influence ; in 1805 Napoleon, now em- 
 peror, was crowned king of Italy. The Congress 
 of Vienna restored the map of Italy pretty nuich 
 to its old ai)pearance, but even more power was 
 given to Austria, Venice as well as Lombardy 
 being now Austrian (though Genoa fell to Sar- 
 dinia). Austrian despotism i)ressed heavily on 
 the rising spirit of independence ; the revolu- 
 tionary movement of 1849 had but momentary 
 success, but henceforth Sardinia was regarded as 
 the only possible nucleus of an Italian kingdom. 
 The war of 1859 between France and Austria 
 ended in the cession of Lonsbardy and part of 
 Venetia (though the French had to get Savoy and 
 Nice); soon after the central Italian states voted 
 themselves into the kingdom ; and southern Italy 
 welcomed Garibaldi and his volunteers, and for 
 ever expelled the Bourbons. In 1806 the Austro- 
 Prussian war gave Venice to Italy ; during the 
 Franco-German war of 1870 Victor Emmanuel 
 entered Rome, henceforth the capital. The uni- 
 fication of the kingdom was now practically 
 complete— Italy being no longer a 'mere geo- 
 graphical expression ; ' the republic of San Marino 
 (q.v.) is independent ; and ardent Italian patriots 
 regard the southern Tyrol, Trieste, Istria, the 
 Dalmatian coast, and Nice and Savoy as ' Italia 
 irredenta,' whose incori)oration with the kingdoui 
 is yet to be worked for. 
 
 See works on Italy by Gallenga (1875 and 1887), 
 De Amicis (1883), W. D. Howells (1883), Laveleye 
 (1886), Orsi (1900), Bolton King and Okey (1901), 
 and Deecke (trans. 1904) ; for history, see Hodg- 
 kin's Italy and her Invaders; Bryce's Holy Roman 
 Empire; Ranke's History of the Popes ; Syinonds's 
 Renaissance in Italy ; besides small manuals, such 
 as Hunt's (new ed. 1883). 
 
 Itasca Lake. See Mississippi. 
 
 Itchen, a Hampshire river, flowing 25 miles 
 SSW. past Winchester to Southampton Water. 
 
 Ith'aca, now Thiaki, one of the Ionian Islands 
 (q.v.), the smallest of them except Pa.\'0, is a long, 
 narrow strip of land off the north-east of Cepha- 
 lonia, 20 miles W. of the Greek mainland. The 
 surface is luountainous (2648 feet), the coast stepp 
 
ITHACA 
 
 368 
 
 JAISALMER 
 
 and rocky. Area, 37 sq. m. Ithaca was Ulysses' 
 home. Pop. 11,050. Chief town, Vathy. See 
 Schliemanu's Ithalca (1869). 
 
 Ithaca, capital of Tompkins county, New 
 York, picturesquely situated on Cayuga Lake, 
 35 miles NNE. of Elmira by rail. It has a large 
 trade in coal, and many foundries, mills, and fac- 
 tories, and is the seat of Cornell unsectariau 
 )nale and female university, founded in 18G8 by 
 Ezra Cornell. Pop. 14,079. 
 
 Itzehoe, a town of Holstein,-40 miles NW. of 
 Hamburg by rail. It manufactures sugar, cotton, 
 machinery, chicory, and soap. Pop. 16,772, The 
 original castle (Eselsfleth), around which Etzehoe 
 or Itzehoe gradually arose, was built by Charle- 
 magne in 809. 
 
 Ivano'vo, or Ivanovo-Voznesensk, the 'Man- 
 chester ' of Russia, in Vladimir government, 210 
 miles by rail NE. of Moscow. It has been the 
 centre of the Russian cotton industry since about 
 1750. Pop. 54,000. 
 
 Ivel, a river of Herts and Bedfordshire, flowing 
 30 miles N. to the Ouse at Tempsford. 
 
 Ivinghoe, a market-town of Bucks, 2 miles 
 SSE. of Cheddington Junction, and 38 NW. of 
 
 London. Ivinghoe Beacon (904 feet) is one of 
 the Chiltern Hills. Pop. of parish, 1077. 
 
 Iv'lza, or Ibiza (anc. Ebusris), the most south- 
 westerly of the Balearic Isles (q.v.), 56 miles 
 from the Spanish mainland. It is mountainous, 
 and its coasts are indented. Area, 228 sq. ra. ; 
 pop. 21,568. Iviza, the chief town, is fortified, 
 and a bishop's see. Pop. 6400. 
 
 Ivory Coast, a part of the northern coast of 
 the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, embraces the 
 districts between Cape Palmas and the river 
 Assini. Its western portion belongs to Liberia ; 
 its eastern, now counted as part of the Gold 
 Coast, is shared between Britain and France. 
 
 Ivre'a, a town of Piedmont, 38 miles NNE. of 
 Turin by rail. Its cathedral is on the site of a 
 temple to Apollo. Pop. 9883. 
 
 Ivry, a village (pop. 1074) in the French dep. of 
 Eure, 16 miles NNW. of Dreux. Here, 14th 
 March 1590, Henry of Navarre defeated the 
 League.— Ivry-sur-Seine, a SE. suburb of Paris, 
 on the Seine. Pop. 28,357. 
 
 Ivybridge, a Devon village, 11 miles E. byN. 
 of Plymouth. It has paper-mills. Pop. 1582. 
 
 Ixworth, a Suffolk village, 6J miles NE. of 
 Bury St Edmunds. Pop. of parish, 951. 
 
 >ABALPUR, or Jubbulpore, a town of 
 the Central Provinces, India, 228 miles 
 by rail SW. of Allahabad. An important 
 railway junction, it has a trade worth 
 about £2,000,000 annually, and manufac- 
 tures cotton, tents, and carpets. Pop. (1877) 
 55,188 ; (1901) 89,708. 
 Jablonoi. See Yablonoi. 
 Jackson, (1) a flourishing city of Michigan, 
 capital of Jackson county, on tlie Grand River, 
 76 miles W. of Detroit, at the intersection of 
 several railways. It has flour, paper, and planing- 
 mills; foundries and machine-shops ; locomotive- 
 works ; breweries ; and manufactures of furni- 
 ture, carriages, wagons, boilers and machinery, 
 farming implements, corsets, soap, &c., besides 
 boots and shoes at the state-prison. Close by 
 are several mines of bituminous coal. Jackson 
 was settled in 1830, and became a city in 1857. 
 Pop. (1860) 4799; (1870) 11,447; (1900) 25,180.— 
 (2) Capital of the state of Mississippi, on Pearl 
 River, 45 miles B. of Vicksburg by rail, with 
 trade in cotton. Pop. 7920.— (3) Capital of Madi- 
 son county, Tennessee, on the South Fork of tlie 
 Forked Deer River, 107 miles by rail S. by E. of 
 Cairo, Illinois. It is the seat of the South- 
 western Baptist University (1874), and has a 
 cotton market, planing and other mills, and rail- 
 way shops. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Jacksonville, (1) capital of Duval county, 
 Florida, on the St John's River, 23 miles from its 
 mouth. The meeting-place of five railways, it is 
 165 miles by rail B. of Tallahassee. It exports 
 lumber, cotton, moss, oranges, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 7650 ; (1900)28,429.— <2) Capital of Morgan county, 
 Illinois, 34 miles W. by S. of Springfield. Here 
 are the Illinois College (Congregational ; founded 
 1830), a Methodist female college (1847), a con- 
 servatory of music, &c. ; and here, too, are 
 state asylums for the blind, deaf and dumb, 
 and insane. There are manufactures of woollens, 
 paper, machinery, boilers, lumber, furniture, con- 
 fectionery, &c. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Jacotaabad, a town of Upper Sind, 26 miles 
 I|?W. of Shil^arpur by rail, near the Beluchi 
 
 frontier. Here is the tomb of General John 
 Jacob, commandant of the Sind Horse, who in 
 1847 founded the place. Pop. 12,352. 
 
 Jaen (Hd-en'), the capital of a Spanish pro- 
 vince, on a tributary of the Guadalquivir, 50 miles 
 N. by W. of Granada. Its Moorish walls are 
 fast crumbling away; its cathedral dates from 
 1532. Population, 25,600. By the Moors tlie 
 town was called 'Jaen of the Silk,' from its 
 former silk manufactures. The province (area, 
 5184 sq. m. ; pop. 475,000), part of Andalusia 
 (q.v.)i lies in the Guadalquivir's basin, and is 
 mountainous. In 1246 it was reconquered from 
 the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile, 
 
 Jaffa, or Joppa, a town on the sea-coast of 
 Syria, 37 miles NW. of Jerusalem — 57 by a rail- 
 way opened in 1893. Under Constantine the 
 place, which had been destroyed by Vespasian, 
 became a bishop's see, and, as the Crusaders' 
 great landing-place, was taken and retaken by 
 Christian and Moslem. In 1799 Napoleon stormed 
 it; in 1832 it was talcen by Mehemet Ali, and 
 restored to the Turks by British help. The 
 open roadstead, the ancient walls, tlie yellow 
 sand-dunes, and the orange gardens are now the 
 chief features of the brown town on its hillock. 
 The export of oranges to the United Kingdom 
 more tlian tripled in the last three decades of 
 the 19th century, and the poimlation grew from 
 16,000 to about 40,000. Tliere is a German 
 colony (1869) of 300 persons near. 
 
 Jaffnapatam', a seaport on an island at the 
 north end of Ceylon. Pop. 37,000. 
 
 Jiigemdorf (Yay-gern-dorf, g hard), a town of 
 Austrian Silesia, 34 miles by rail W. of Ratibor. 
 It manufactures woollens, linen, organs, &c. 
 Pop. 14,792. 
 
 Jahde, or Jade (Yd-deh), a bay of Oldenburg, 
 now Prussian, with the naval station of Wil-i, 
 helmshaven (q.v.). 
 
 Jaipur. See Jeypore. 
 
 Jaisalmer, or Jeysulmere, capital of a nativfl 
 Indian state in Rajputana, stands on the 
 of the Indian Desert, and was founded in US 
 
JAKUTSK 
 
 369 
 
 JAMMU 
 
 It has several Jain temples. Pop. 10,965.— Area 
 of state, 16,039 sq. m. ; pop. 115,701. 
 Jakutsk. See Yakutsk. 
 Jalalpur, a town of the Punjab, 8 miles N. of 
 Gujrat, with shawl manufactures. Pop. 12,884. 
 Jalandhar. See Jullundeb. 
 Jalapa (Hald'pa), capital of the Mexican state 
 of Vera Cruz, 60 miles by rail NW. of Vera Cruz 
 City, and 4330 feet above the sea. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Jalisco (Hcdi^co), a state of Mexico, on the 
 Pacific, with an area of 38,840 sq, m. Popu- 
 lation, over 1,160,000. The capital is Guadala- 
 jara (q.v.). 
 
 Jalna, a town and British cantonment in the 
 {iizain's dominions, India, 210 miles NE. of Bom- 
 bay. Pop. 16,191. 
 Jaluit, chief town of the Marshall Islands (q.v.). 
 Jamaica, aboriginally Xaymaca ('Land of 
 Springs'), by far the most important of the 
 British West Indian Islands, is 90 miles S. of 
 Cuba, and stretches between 17° 43'— 18° 32' N. 
 lat., and 76° 11'— 78° 20' W. long. It is divided 
 into three counties, Sun-ey, Middlesex, and Corn- 
 wall; its area is 4193 sq. m., or a little more 
 than the three English counties of the same 
 names with Hampshire thrown in. The greatest 
 length is 144 miles; the greatest breadth, 50 
 miles. Turk's and Caicos Islands, as well as 
 the three Cayman Islands, are dependencies. The 
 island is traversed from east to west by the Blue 
 Mountains, which rise to 7400 feet. From this 
 range nearly 120 streams descend to the coasts, 
 but they are not navigable, except Black River 
 (80 miles for small craft). Incomparably the 
 best of many fine harbours is that of Kingston 
 (q.v.). Jamaica is believed to be rich in minerals, 
 but none are wrought. The chief towns are 
 Kingston (the capital) and Spanish Town (the 
 former capital), on the south-east of the island ; 
 ind Montego Bay, Falmouth, and Port Maria, 
 )n the north. Port Royal, at the western ex- 
 ;remity of the spit of sand that shuts in Kingston 
 larbour on the south, previous to the great 
 •arthquake of 1692 was one of the chief cities in 
 he West Indies, but is now a place of only 
 200 inhabitants, and of little importance. 
 ?he climate varies considerably, falling on an 
 verage 1° for every 300 feet in altitude, and at 
 Kingston ranging between 70° during the night 
 ad 90° during the day ; but the heat is tem- 
 ered by the sea-breezes. On the whole, the 
 land is very healthy ; invalids even come from 
 le United States to enjoy the salubrious air of 
 16 interior. There are two rainy seasons, one 
 . spring and the other in summer. In the 
 tter the rains are exceptionally heavy ; violent 
 lUnder-storms are frequent, and hurricanes some- 
 nes occur. Enormous damage was done by 
 clones in 1880 and 1893. 
 
 The vegetation is very luxuriant. The pri- 
 
 jval woods are rapidly disappearing ; yet there 
 
 ) still many valuable trees, such as mahogany, 
 
 jwood, lignum vitse, ebony, cocoa-nut and 
 
 ler palms, cactuses, &c. Tropical fruits are 
 
 )wn in great variety, also many of the fruits 
 
 more temperate climes. Spices, dye-woods, 
 
 dicinal plants, and food plants, such as ginger, 
 
 '.hineal, castor-oil, arrowroot, maize, vanilla, 
 
 lento (allspice), &c., are extensively grown. 
 
 inea grass and pasture land occupy the greater 
 
 tion of the north and west of the island. The 
 
 ngoose, imported to prey on the rats that 
 
 isted the sugar estates, has, after exter- 
 
 lating them, become a plague, and has nearly 
 
 extirpated lizards, harmless snakes, and small 
 birds, so that insect pests (especially the trouble- 
 some ticks) abound. The negroes, who are mostly 
 sinall holders, are the cliief growers of fruit. 
 The exports, which consist chiefly of dye-woods, 
 fruits (oranges, lemons, bananas, cocoa-nuts, 
 &c.), sugar and rum, coffee, ginger, pimento, and 
 cocoa, range between 1^ and 2 millions annually ; 
 as also do the imports, consisting of food- 
 stuffs, clothing, hardware, liquors, coals, build- 
 ing materials, &c. About 40 per cent, of the 
 trade is with the United Kingdom, and 43 per 
 cent, with the United States. Since 1850 the 
 white inhabitants have increased far less rapidly 
 in numbers than the black and coloured popula- 
 tion. In 1861 the total pop. was 441,255 (13,816 
 whites); in 1871, 506,154 (13,101 whites); in 1881, 
 580,804 (1"4,432 wliites); and in 1904, 795,600, of 
 whom over 700,000 are black or coloured, about 
 15,000 whites, about 11,000 East Indian coolies, 
 and a few Chinese. About 35,000 belong to the 
 Church of England, 33,000 are Baptists, 25,000 
 Methodists, 12,000 Presbyterians, 5000 Roman 
 Catholics, &c. — children being excluded. Besides 
 nearly 720 government schools, with over 80,000 
 pupils, there are three government training-col- 
 leges for teachers. Besides a British garrison, there 
 are volunteers and a semi-military police force. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, 
 and occupied by the Spaniards in 1509. The 
 original inhabitants were peace-loving Indiana 
 (not Caribs) ; but they were practically extinct 
 in 1655, when the island was conquered by the 
 English, to whom it was celled in 1670. The 
 place of the native Indians was taken by negro 
 slaves, imported by the Spaniards. During the 
 18th century more than half a million slaves 
 were brought over from Africa. Under English 
 rule the chief events were frequent rebellions of 
 the Maroons, a community of runaway slaves ; 
 in 1831-32, a negro insurrection ; on August 1, 
 1834, the emancipation of the slaves, Jamaica 
 receiving £6,161,927 as compensation ; the failure 
 of the experiment ; and in 1865 the rebellion of 
 the negroes and massacre of twenty-three whites, 
 suppressed by Governor Eyre. Under the con- 
 stitution of 1866, the island is governed as a 
 crown-colony. See the history by Gardner (1873) 
 and the annual Handbook, 
 
 Jambusar, a town in the presidency of Bom- 
 bay, 30 miles SW. of Baroda. Pop. 11,479. 
 
 James River is formed by the union of the 
 Jackson and Cowpasture streams in the west of 
 Virginia, and has its entire course of 450 miles in 
 that state. It flows east-south-eastward, passing 
 Lynchburgh and Richmond ; and, widening into 
 an estuary for the last 60 miles, falls into the 
 Atlantic at the southern extremity of Chesapeake 
 Bay. It is navigable for large steamers to City 
 Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. It was 
 at Jamestown, now a ruined village on the north 
 bank of this river, that the first English settle- 
 ment in America was formed (1607). 
 
 James's Bay, the southerly arm of Hudson 
 Bay, 250 miles long by 175 wide, beset with islands. 
 
 Jamestown, a town of Dumbartonshire, on the 
 Leven's left bank, | mile N. of Bonhill. It has 
 large print-works. Pop. 2100, 
 
 Jamestown, a town of New York, on Chautau- 
 qua Lake, 70 miles S. by W. of Buffalo by rail. 
 It manufactures woollens and alpacas, pianos, 
 furniture, &c. Population, about 25,000. See 
 also James River, St Helena. 
 
 Jammu (/wmmoo), capital of a province of Cash- 
 I mere, on an aflluent of the Chenab. Pop. 86,200. 
 
JAMNOTRI 
 
 370 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 Jamnotri, hot springs (194-7'' P.) near the 
 Jumna's source, in northern India, in 30° 59' N. 
 lat. and 78° 35' E. long., 10,849 feet above the sea. 
 They are overhung by the three Jamnotri Peaks 
 (20,100 to 21,150 feet). 
 
 JanesvlUe, a city of Wisconsin, on Rock 
 River, 91 miles NW. of Chicago. The river's 
 •water-power is utilised in flour, cotton, and 
 woollen mills. Pop. 15,886. 
 
 Janina (Yanina), or Joannina, capital of a 
 vilayet in Turkish Albania, stands in a striking 
 situation on a lake (12 miles long by 3 broad), 
 50 miles inland from the shore opposite Corfu. 
 Here is the ruined castle of Ali Pasha. Gold 
 lace is manufactured, as well as morocco leather, 
 silks, and linens. The pop. has sunk from 40,000 
 in 1800 to 26,000, three- fourths of them Greeks. 
 The town has been Turkish since 1430. 
 
 Jan Mayen Land, a volcanic island in the 
 Arctic Ocean, named after its Dutch discoverer 
 in 1611. It lies between Iceland and Spitzbergen, 
 and is 35 miles long, with an extiuct volcano 
 (8350 feet) in it. 
 
 Japan, an island empire off the east coast of 
 Asia, separated from Corea and Siberia by the 
 Sea of Japan. Japan Proper comprises four 
 large islands — HoushiTi (the Japanese mainland), 
 Shikoku, Kyushu, and Yezo— with an area of 
 147,655 sq. miles (not very much larger than the 
 British Islands), and a pop. in 1903 of 46,732,841 
 (35,460,507 in Honshu alone). Tlie empire of 
 Japan includes also nearly 4000 small islands, 
 among them the Liu Kiu (' Loo Choo ') and Kurile 
 groups ; Formosa and the Pescadores, ceded by 
 China in 1895 (area, 13,500 sq. m. ; pop. close on 
 8,000,000) ; and the southern half of Saghalien 
 (q.v.), or Sakhalin, restored by Russia in 1905 
 (area, 10,000 sq. m. ; pop. 15,000). In 1905 some 
 160,000 Japanese were resident in foreign coun- 
 tries ; and 14,000 foreigners were resident in Japan. 
 The name Japan is a corruption of Marco PolO'S 
 Zipangu, itself a corruption of the Chinese pro- 
 nunciation of the native name Nihon or Nippo7i 
 (' Land of the Rising Sun '). 
 
 The islands of Japan appear to be the highest 
 portions of a huge chain of mountains which 
 rises from a deep ocean bed. This chain, though 
 dotted with volcanoes, is not therefore itself of 
 volcanic origin. Earthquakes occur very fre- 
 quently in Japan, although the western slope is 
 exempt. Japan is one of the most mountainous 
 countries in the world. Its plains and valleys 
 with their foliage of surpassing richness, its 
 forest-clad heights, its alpine peaks towering in 
 grandeur above ravines noisy with waterfalls, its 
 foam-fringed headlands, give it a claim to be con- 
 sidered one of the fairest portions of the earth, 
 Tlie sublime cone of the sacred Fuji-san (Fusi- 
 yama), a rather dormant volcano, rises to a height 
 of 12,365 feet ; and there are six peaks between 
 8000 and 10,000 feet (one an active volcano) in Hon- 
 slm. The three other large islands also abound 
 in mountains. Yezo has eight active volcanoes. 
 Throughout the empire there are many solfataras 
 and sulphurous springs. The plains, most of the 
 valleys, and many of the lower hills are highly 
 cultivated. Most of the countless rivers are too 
 impetuous for navigation. The harbours are 
 spacious and deep, but not numerous. 
 
 The different parts of Japan vary widely in 
 climatic conditions. At Tokyo (Yedo) we find 
 the annual average temperature to be 577° F., 
 while in winter the mercury occasionally falls to 
 16-2°, and in su)nmer it may rise to 96°; at 
 Nagasaki the lowest winter temperature is 23-2° ; 
 
 at Hakodate the annual extremes are 2° and 84'. 
 The ocean current known as the Kuroshiwo 
 (' Black Stream ') modifies the climate of the south- 
 east coast; thus, whilesnow seldom lies more than 
 5 inches deep at Tokyo, in the upper valleys of 
 Kaga, near the west coast, less than 1° farther 
 north, 18 and 20 feet are common. The rainfall, 
 which varies much in different years, is on an 
 average 145 inches. No month passes without 
 rain, but it is most plentiful in summer. The 
 climate, though somewhat relaxing to Europeans, 
 is fairly salubrious, highly so in the mountains. 
 In Japan the vegetation of the tropics is strangely 
 intermingled with that of the temperate or frigid 
 zone ; the tree-fern, bamboo, banana, and palm 
 grow side by side with the pine, oak, and beech, 
 and conifers in great variety. The camellia, the 
 Paulownia, and the chrysanthemum are indig- 
 enous. Wild animals are not numerous, but 
 bears, wild boars, monkeys, deer, small foxes, 
 stoats, and squirrels occur ; and there are several 
 varieties of the seal and the whale. The Japanese 
 cat has only a stump of a tail. There are numerous 
 water-birds ; land-birds are less plentiful. Edible 
 fishes, including salmon, are abundant, and insect 
 life is specially varied. Agriculture is the chief 
 occupation of the Japanese, and they are very 
 careful farmers, thoroughly understanding the 
 rotation of crops. The soil is not naturally very 
 fertile, being mostly derived from igneous rocks, 
 but it is made productive by careful manuring, 
 especially with night-soil from the villages and 
 towns. Rice is tlie stajile production, while 
 barley, wheat, millet, buckwheat, maize, and 
 many varieties of bean and pea are everywhere 
 produced. The culture of tea, introduced from 
 China in 770 a.d., is universal in the middle and 
 south. Sericulture is on the increase, and cotton 
 and hemp are also widely grown. Sugar, tobacco, 
 and many kinds of fruit are grown. Gold, silver, 
 copper, iron, lead, antimony, tin, sulphur, coal, 
 basalt, felspar, greenstones, granites (red and 
 gray), rock-crystal, agate, carnelian, amber, scoria 
 and pumice-stone, talc, alum, &c. are found. 
 Good building-stone is scarce. 
 
 With the exception of the wilds of Yezo, 
 peopled by 12,000 Ainos, the Japanese islands 
 are inhabited by a single race speaking various 
 dialects of the same tongue. Probably the Jap- 
 anese are the issue of the intermarriage of vie 
 torious Tartar settlers, who entered Japan from 
 the Corean peninsula, with Malays in the south 
 and Ainos in the main island. There are two 
 distinct types of Japanese face, that which is 
 found in art designs being the aristocratic aud 
 rarer type. It is distinguished by an oval head 
 and face, a high forehead, a curved nose, narrow 
 and slightly oblique eyes. The complexion ' 
 pallid or slightly olive, the face of the me 
 almost hairless, and the expression demure, 
 commoner and vulgar type, almost universal i^ 
 the northern districts, is pudding-faced, full 
 eyed, flat-nosed, and good-humoured in expr" 
 sion. The women soon lose any pretensions 
 good looks ; but the girls, with their rosy cheeks 
 fascinating manners, and exquisitely tastefui 
 dress, are particularly attractive, and the chil-l 
 dren are bright and comely — indeed Japan is thffl 
 paradise of children. The Japanese have nianyJ 
 excellent qualities : they are kindly, courteous- 
 law-abiding, cleanly in their habits, frugal, and, 
 have a high sense of personal honour. Nowhere,^ 
 are good manners and artistic culture so wide-/ 
 spread. On the other hand, the people are de-; 
 licient in moral earnestness and courage. ^ 
 though the Japanese are a singularly united 
 
JAPAN 
 
 371 
 
 JARROW 
 
 people, yet the nation divides itself into two 
 portions, the governing and the governed. The 
 former, representatives of the military class and 
 numbering some 4000 families, are high-spirited 
 and masterful ; the rest of the nation are sub- 
 missive and timid. Japanese towns are very 
 subject to conflagrations, the houses being slight 
 constructions of wood. Many of the customs 
 once characteristic of Japan have, since the aboli- 
 tion of feudalism, become obsolete. Among these 
 is seppuku or hara-kiri, for long a legalised mode 
 of suicide. 
 
 The Japanese language belongs structurally, 
 like Corean and Manchurian, to the Altaic family. 
 The introduction of Chinese civilisation in the 
 6th century a.d. was followed by a wholesale 
 absorption of Cliinese words and cliaracters. 
 There are two prevailing religions in Japan — , 
 Shinto, the indigenous faith ; and Buddhism, 
 introduced from China in 552, and still the 
 dominant religion among the people. Francis 
 Xavier introduced Christianity in 1549, but his 
 work was extinguished in blood. The Roman 
 Catholic Church and the Greek Cliurch both 
 carry on a flourishing work in Japan. Of the 
 Protestant missions tliose of the Presbyterians 
 and the American Congregationalists are tlie 
 most flourishing ; American Methodists, Baptists, 
 Anglicans, and others are also actively at work ; 
 and there are some 20,000 converts. 
 
 Education is general and compulsory. There 
 is a complete system of local elementary, middle, 
 and normal schools, and two universities at Tokyo 
 and Kyoto. Daily newspapers abound. Tlie 
 Japanese army was organised after European 
 metliods in the years 1868-72. Military service 
 is obligatory from 17 to 40 years of age The 
 army on a peace footing comprises 167,630 
 officers and men, with 632,000 reserves. In 
 1905 tliere were over 500,000 men in Man- 
 churia. During the wars of 1895 and 1904-5 
 the Japanese sanitary and surgical methods 
 and appliances were scientilically perfect. The 
 navy consists of 6 battle-ships, 8 armoured 
 cruisers, 15 protected cruisers, besides numei-ous 
 torpedo-vessels. Tlie total mileage of railways 
 open is 4650 miles. In the meclianical arts the 
 Japanese have attained to great excellence, espe- 
 cially in metallurgy, and in the manufacture of 
 porcelain, lacquer ware, and silk fabrics; in some 
 of these departments works of art are produced 
 so exquisite in design and execution as to excel 
 the best products of Europe. As to tlie cotton 
 manufacture, between 1890 and 1900 the import of 
 raw cotton increased sixfold, and in 1902 there 
 were over eiglity prosperous cotton - factories. 
 The cliief ports are Yokohama, K5be, Osaka, Naga- 
 saki, and Hakodate. The commercial develop- 
 ment of Japan has of late been marvellous. Tlie 
 total value of exports rose from £10,300,000 in 
 1887 to £28,950,000 in 1903; that of imports, 
 which was £10,500,000 in 1887, was £31,720,000 
 In 1903. In respect of volume of trade with 
 Japan, Britain (including British possessions) 
 comes first, then the United States, then China, 
 riie imports from Great Britain vary from 
 £5,000,000 to over £9,000,000 (from British India, 
 'rom 5 to 7 millions) ; the exports to Britain 
 'roin £1,500,000 to £2,275,000. From Great 
 Britain come chiefly cotton and woollen goods, 
 ron and machinery, and chemicals. Tlie imports 
 i-om the United States average about £4,700,000, 
 .nd the exports thither £8,200,000. Tlie staple 
 xports of Japan are raw and manufactured silk, 
 otton yarn, coal, copper, tea, matting, earthen- 
 nxe, rice, and straw-plaiting. In 1903 over 
 
 L 
 
 9000 vessels of 13,570,000 tons entered the ports, 
 of which 1777 vessels of 4,758,534 tons were 
 British. The government is a hereditary mou- 
 arcliy. Tlie imperial diet consists of two Houses — 
 a House of Peers and a House of Representatives. 
 The ordinary revenue varies from £25,700,000 to 
 £29,700,000, and generally covers the expendi- 
 ture. The public debt in 1904 was £56,500,000. 
 
 Before 500 a.d. Japanese history is mere legend. 
 Buddhism was introduced from Corea in 552 ; 
 and next century Chinese civilisation strongly 
 influenced Japan. About the end of the 12th 
 century, the weakness of the emperor led the 
 Generalissimo (Shogun) to assume a large share 
 of the supreme power, and he handed it on 
 to his descendants. Hence the fable current in 
 Europe that Japan had a Mikado or spiritual 
 emperor who reigned but did not govern, and 
 a ' Tycoon ' (Shogun) who did govern though he 
 paid homage to the nominal sovereign. The 
 military caste was now dominant until the reign 
 of lyeyasu (c. 1600), whose descendants reigned 
 till 1868. Total exclusion of foreigners was the 
 rule till 1543, when the Portuguese effected a 
 settlement ; but in 1624 all foreigners were ex- 
 pelled and Christianity interdicted. The policy 
 of isolation was rigidly pursued from 1638 till 
 1553, when the U.S. Commodore Perry steamed 
 into a Japanese harbour, and extorted a treaty 
 from the frightened Shogun. Soon sixteen other 
 nations had followed the American example, and 
 free ports were opened to foreign commerce. In 
 1867-68, a sharp civil war broke the feudal power 
 of the daimios or territorial magnates, suppressed 
 the Shogunate, and unified the authority under 
 the Mikado. In a very few years Japanese 
 students took a place of tlieir own in western 
 science ; and how thoroughly the Japanese had 
 laid to heart wliat they had learned from Europe 
 in the military and naval arts was partially re- 
 vealed by the swift and complete success. of the 
 war with China about Corea (q.v.) in 1894, and 
 more impressively by their amazing triumph over 
 the great military empire of Europe in 1904-5, 
 when they defeated the Russians in a succession 
 of bloody battles, took Port Arthur, and utterly 
 destroyed the Russian fleet — so that by the peace 
 the Russians not merely evacuated Manchuria, 
 but recognised Japan's ' preponderance ' in Corea, 
 and gave up to Japan the ' leases ' of Port Arthur 
 and the Liao-tung peninsula Russia had wrested 
 from China. In 1905, also, Britain concluded a 
 treaty with Japan, more thorough-going than that 
 of 1902, for mutual support in eastern Asia and 
 India against unprovoked attack, and for the 
 maintenance of the integrity of China and of 
 the ' open door ' there. 
 
 See the works of Kaempfer (1727), Siebold 
 (1851), Griffls (New York, 1876), Rein (Eng. trans. 
 1884), Sir E. Arnold (1891), Hearn (1894, 1904), 
 Brinkley (8 vols. 1901-4), Murray (1904) ; Japan 
 by the Japanese, edited by Stead (1904); and 
 books by Okakura, lyenaga, and other Japanese 
 authors. 
 
 Jamac, a village in the French dep. of Char- 
 ente, 23 miles by rail W. of Angouleme. Here 
 in 1569 the Catholics defeated the Huguenots. 
 
 Jaroslav (Yaroslaf), capital of a Russian 
 government on the Volga, 173 miles NE. of 
 Moscow. Pop. 70,600. — The government has an 
 area of 13,751 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,075,000. 
 
 Jarrow, a municipal borough and portof Dur- 
 ham, on the Tyne, 3 miles by rail SW. of South 
 Shields and 7 E. of Newcastle. Its growth from 
 a small colliery village has been due to the con- 
 
JASHPUR 
 
 372 
 
 JAXARTES 
 
 Btruction of its docks (since 1859), and to the 
 establishment of Palmer and Co.'s iron-shipbuild- 
 ing and marine engine works, blast-furnaces, iron- 
 foundries, gun-factory, &c., which together em- 
 ploy upwards of 7000 hands. Paper and chemicals 
 are also manufactured, and coal is shipped in large 
 quantities. At Jarrow in 682 Benedict Biscop 
 founded the Benedictine monastery with which 
 the name of Bede is inseparably associated. The 
 chancel of the parish church, reconstructed in 
 the 11th century, retains portions of Benedict's 
 work ; the nave was rebuilt in 1783 and again 
 in 1866. Bede's chair is still preserved in the 
 church. Jarrow was made a municipality in 1875. 
 Pop. (1871) 18,115 ; (1901) 34,294. See Jewitt's 
 Jarrow Church (1864). 
 
 Jashpur, a native state of Chutia Nagpur, in 
 Bengal. Area, 1963 sq. ra. ; pop. 90,240. 
 
 Jassy {Ydssy), the capital of Moldavia, the 
 northern division of Roumania, stands 5 miles 
 W. of the Pruth, 205 by rail NW. of Odessa, and 
 289 NNE. of Bucharest. It was almost destroyed 
 by fire in 1827, and, as rebuilt, has broad streets 
 paved with asphalt, and houses mostly one-storied 
 and of wood. There are more than forty Greek 
 churches and close upon sixty Jewish synagogues. 
 The most noticeable secular buildings are the 
 palaces of the boyars or nobles. There is a small 
 university. There is an active trade in corn, 
 spirits, and wine, mostly with Galatz. Pop. 
 80,000. Jassy was the residence of the Moldavian 
 princes from 1565. 
 
 Jaszbereny, a town of Hungary, 39 miles E. 
 of Budapest. Pop. 24,331. 
 
 Jativa, or Xativa, San Felipe dr (Hd'teeva), 
 a town of Spain, 35 miles by rail SSW. of 
 Valencia. Here was born the painter Ribera (Lo 
 Spagnoletto) in 1588. It was also the home of the 
 notorious Borgia (Borja) family. Pop. 15,071. 
 
 Jauer (Yow'er), a town of Prussian Silesia, on 
 the Neisse, 13 miles by rail S. of Liegnitz. It 
 is famous for its sausages and its weekly corn- 
 market, held regularly since 1404. Pop. 13,178. 
 
 Jaura, the capital of a native state of Central 
 India. Pop. 23,844, 
 
 Jaunpur, the capital of a district in the North- 
 west Provinces of India, on the Gumti, here 
 crossed by a bridge (1573) 712 feet long. The 
 former capital of a Mohammedan kingdom, it 
 has several splendid architectural monuments, 
 including Ibrahim's baths (1420), mosques, and 
 ruins of mosques and of the fort. Pop. 42,819. 
 
 Java (DjSwa), an island of the Dutch East 
 Indies, the seat of the colonial government, 
 separated from Borneo by the Sea of Java, and 
 from Sumatra by the Straits of Sunda. It 
 extends almost due west and east, and is crossed 
 by 110° E. long, and 7° S. lat. Its length is 600 
 miles, its breadth 40 to 125 miles, and its area 
 49,000 sq. m. (excluding Madura, q.v.). From 
 end to end of the island (most probably corre- 
 sponding to a volcanic line of fissure) there is 
 a mountain-chain, Gunung Kendang, attaining 
 12,000 feet ; of forty-three volcanoes, several are 
 still active. The climate is rather hot and un- 
 healthy on the coast, but pleasant in the hills. 
 The thermometer seldom indicates more than 
 95° F., the nights, especially in the highlands, 
 are cool. The population of Java has rapidly 
 increased ; in 1850 it was 9,570,000, and in 1900 
 (with Madura) it was 28,746,638, including 50,000 
 Europeans (and half-castes), 300,000 Chinese, 
 17,900 Arabs, and 3500 Hindus. The natives 
 belong to the Malay race. The Madurese, in 
 
 the eastern part of the island, the Sundanese, 
 living in the western part, and the Javanese 
 proper differ in physique and in language. Most 
 of them are Mohammedans, at least in name. 
 There are about 12,000 native Christians. One of 
 the chief vices is opium-smoking, which yields 
 about £1,000,000 a year for licenses and profit 
 on the import. 
 
 The chief wealth of Java consists in its luxu- 
 riant vegetation. The fauna is not very rich: 
 tigers, rhinoceros, deer, and wild swine are types ; 
 only a few birds are conspicuous for tlieir plumage, 
 and hardly any are distinguished for their song. 
 Several species of serpents (some venomous) and 
 crocodiles are found on the island. A little gold 
 is found ; silver is scarce ; salt (a government 
 monopoly) is prepared fi-om sea- water ; and coal 
 is worked in the Preanger, and marble in the 
 Madiun residency. Under the ' culture-system,' 
 established by the Dutch in 1830, the natives 
 are compelled to cultivate part of the ground 
 and plant staple articles on it, whilst the produce 
 is delivered at a fixed price to the magazines of 
 the government. The system though highly 
 profitable, has always evoked disapproval as 
 being unfair to the natives. Sugar, coffee, indigo, 
 tea, and tobacco are planted for export. Rice 
 is grown mainly for native consumption. The 
 teak-forests belong exclusively to the govern- 
 ment. Java may be considered the centre of 
 the commerce and trade of a great part of the 
 Dutch East Indies. The countries which trade 
 most extensively with Java are Holland, the 
 Straits Settlements, and Great Britain. The 
 chief imports are cotton and linen goods, wine 
 and spirits, provisions, machinery, railway-plant, 
 &c. There are 1120 miles of railway, and an ex- 
 tensive telegraphic system. The island is divided 
 into twenty-one residencies — two of which (Sura- 
 karta and Jokjakarta) are under native princes. 
 Madura constitutes a twenty-second residency. 
 
 The earliest historical references date back to 
 the beginning of the 5th century a.d. About the 
 year 800 the intercourse of the Hindus with the 
 island appears to have become more important. 
 Already by tha,t> time the Javanese had attained 
 to a considerable degree of civilisation, and many 
 antiquities were left by the early Hindu con- 
 querors, especially in middle and eastern Java 
 (Boro Budor, Brambanan, Dieng). There were 
 three periods of Hindu ascendency — a period 
 of Buddhism, a period of Sivaism, and a period 
 of compromise. At the beginning of the 15th 
 century Mohammedanism reached the island and 
 quickly got a firm footing. At the end of the 
 16th century European merchant-adventurers 
 established themselves in Java ; whilst the Dutch 
 rule dates from 1610. Then began a long, tough 
 struggle with the natives, but Java was practi- 
 cally a Dutch possession by 1811 when, untQ 
 1817, the English occupied it in connection with 
 the French war. 
 
 See the exhaustive work by Veth (in Dutch, 
 3 vols. 1875-78); the history by Sir Stamford 
 Raffles (1817) ; Wallace's Malay Archipelago (new 
 ed. 1894) ; the novel. Max Havelaar (trans. 1868), 
 by 'Multatnli;' and books by Worsfold (1893), 
 Scidmore (1898), and Clive Day (1904). 
 
 Jaworow (Yd'vorov), a town of Austrian 
 Galicia, 30 miles WNW. of Lemberg, was the 
 favourite residence of John Sobieski, king of 
 Poland. Pop. 9959. 
 
 Jaxartes, now called SihOn, or Syb-Daria 
 (both syr and daria mean 'river'), a river of 
 western Asia, which rises at an altitude of 12,000 
 
JEANTOWN 
 
 373 
 
 JEBICHO 
 
 feet, 30 miles S. of Lake Tssik-kul, in the Tian- 
 Shan Mountains. It is at first called the Jaak- 
 tash, then the Taragai, and under the name of 
 the Naryn it descends, through a wild narrow 
 gorge, to the level of 6800 feet at Fort Narynsk, 
 and flowing W. and SW. A little west of Khojend 
 it breaks through another gorge ; then turns 
 suddenly to the north-west, and, retaining that 
 direction for 850 navigable miles, finds ite way 
 into the Sea of Aral by a delta with three mouths. 
 Its total lengtli is 1500 miles ; area of its drainage 
 basin, 320,000 sq. m. Five centuries ago the 
 Syr-Daria used to send off a south-western branch 
 at Perovsk, which flowed into the Sea of Aral 
 on its south-east side, not far from the mouth 
 of the Amu-Daria. This branch is now lost in 
 the sand. The Syr-Daria is the Nile of Turkestan. 
 The people fertilise their valleys by its water, 
 carried off in irrigation channels. 
 
 Jeantown, or Lochcarron, a Ross-shire village, 
 on the N. shore of Loch Garron, 3J miles SW. 
 of Strathcarron station. Pop. 383. 
 
 Jed, a Roxburghshire stream, flowing 22 miles 
 N. by E. to the Teviot, near Mounteviot House. 
 
 Jedburgh, the coimty town of Roxburghshire, 
 is beautifully situated on Jed Water, 56 miles 
 by a branch-line (by road 49) SE. of Edinburgh. 
 Of its magnificent Augustinian abbey, founded 
 by David I. in 1118-47, and finally spoiled by 
 the English in 1544-45, the ruined cluirch only 
 remains. This, Norman to Second Pointed in 
 style, is 235 feet long, and has a central tower 
 86 feet high. In 1823 a jail (now disused) was 
 built on the site of the royal castle (razed 1409), 
 where a skeleton appeared to Alexander III. at 
 his marriage-feast (1285). Other memories has 
 Jedburgh — of Mary Stuart and Prince Charles 
 Edward, of Thomson, Burns, Scott, and Words- 
 worth, of Mary Somerville and Sir David 
 Brewster. A Border town, it nurtured a war- 
 like race, whose slogan, 'Jeddart's here!' was 
 seldom long silent. Their chief weapon was the 
 'Jeddart axe,' a stout steel-headed pole, 4 feet 
 long; and 'Jeddart justice' is still a byword 
 for hanging first and trying afterwards. Jed- 
 burgh has been a royal burgh from time im- 
 memorial, and till 1885, with Haddington, &c., 
 returned a member to parliament. "Woollen 
 goods have been manufactured here since 1728. 
 Pop. (1841) 3277 ; (IPOn 3136. See Watson's Jed- 
 burgh Abbey (2d ed. 1894). 
 
 Jeddah. See Jiddah. 
 
 Jefferson City, the capital (since 1826) of 
 Missouri, on the Missouri River, 125 miles by 
 rail W. of St Louis. It has a state-house, U.S. 
 court-house, state armoury and penitentiary (1500 
 convicts), the Lincoln Institute for coloured 
 students, flour-mills, &c. Pop. 9742. 
 
 Jeffersonville, a city of Indiana, on the Ohio 
 River, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, with which 
 it is connected by an iron railway bridge nearly 
 a mile long. The falls of the river here are 
 utilised in railway workshops, foundries, machine- 
 shops, flour-mills, &c. There are also boat-yards, 
 and hydraulic cement is manufactured in the 
 vicinity. Pop. 10,766. 
 
 Jehlam. See Jhelum. 
 
 Jeisk, or Eisk, a town in the Russian province 
 )f Kuban (Caucasus), on a small bay at the east 
 md of the Sea of Azov, 65 miles SW. of Azov. 
 Pounded in 1848, it has grown rapidly, exports 
 ;orn, flax, and wool, and has cloth manufactures 
 ind tanneries. Pop. 38,288. 
 
 Jelalabad', a town of Afghanistan, near the 
 
 Kabul River, about half-way between the Indian 
 frontier fortress of Peshawur and the city of 
 Kabul. Formerly a strong fortress itself, it is 
 now a dirty village of 3000 inhabitants. It is 
 interesting from its heroic defence by Sir R. 
 Sale in 1841-42 ; in the war of 1878 it was held 
 by the British until 1880. 
 
 Jelatom, or Elatma, a town of Russia, 170 
 miles ESE. of Moscow. Pop. 7560. 
 
 Jeletz, or Eletz, a town of Russia, 120 miles 
 by rail ESE. of Orel. It exports wheat and flour, 
 has a great trade in cattle, and manufactures 
 leather, soap, candles, &c. Pop. 36,346. 
 
 Jellalabad. See Jelalabad. 
 
 Jemappes, a village in the Belgian province 
 of Hainault, 3 miles by rail SW. of Mons. Here 
 the French republicans under Dumouriez, on 6th 
 November 1792, defeated the Austrians. The 
 village stands on one of the richest Belgian coal- 
 fields, and manufactures stoneware, glass, and 
 chemicals. Pop. 12,722. 
 
 Jena (Yay'na), a town of Saxe- Weimar, at the 
 Leutra's influx to the Saale, 14 miles by rail SE. 
 of Weimar, and 31 NNE. of Saalfeld. It lies 518 
 feet above sea-level, engirt by steep chalk-hills, 
 of which the Hausberg (1069 feet) is crowned by 
 the old Fuchsturm, and the Forstberg by a tower 
 in memory of the Jena students who fell in the 
 Franco-German war. It is still a quaint old- 
 world place, with its ducal schloss, the ' Black 
 Bear ' inn where Liither halted on his flight from 
 the Wartburg, and a church whose steeple is 311 
 feet high. Goethe here wrote his Hermann and 
 Dorothea, Schiller his Wallensiein ; and the houses 
 of these and of other illustrious residents were 
 marked with tablets in 1858-, on occasion of the 
 tercentenary of the university, when, too, was 
 erected a bronze statue of its founder, the Elector 
 John Frederick of Saxony. He founded it in 
 1547-58 to take the place of Wittenberg as a seat 
 of learning and evangelical doctrine ; it attained 
 its zenith in the days of Goethe's patron, Duke 
 Karl August (1787-1806). To that period belong 
 the names of Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schiller, 
 the Schlegels, Voss, Fries, Krause, and Oken ; to 
 our own, of Hase and Haeckel. Jena now has 
 85 professors and lecturers, over 600 students, 
 and a library of 200,000 volumes. In 1883 a 
 memorial was erected of the Burschenschaft. 
 Pop. (1875) 9020 ; (1900) 20,456. The battle of 
 Jena is often applied as a collective name to two 
 separate engagements fought on the same day, 
 14th October 1806 — one at Auerstadt, 14 miles 
 to the north ; the other, on the heights round 
 Jena, where Napoleon commanded in person. la 
 both the Prussians were totally defeated. 
 
 Jenissei. See Yenisei. 
 
 Jeno'lan Caves, a series of vast limestone 
 caverns (rivalling the Mammoth Caves of Ken- 
 tucky), on the west side of the Blue Mountains, 
 in New South Wales, 160 miles W. of Sydney. 
 Discovered in 1841, they became in 1866 public 
 property. See S. Cook's Jenolan Caves (1889). 
 
 Jerash. See Gerasa. 
 
 Jerba, a small island of Tunis, in the Gulf of 
 Gabes, being separated from the mainland by a 
 narrow channel. Area, 425 sq. m. ; pop. 45,000. 
 
 Jerez. See Xeres. 
 
 Jericho, once one of the most flourishing cities 
 of Palestine, two hours' journey westward from 
 the Jordan, and six hours north-east from 
 Jerusalem. It is now a shapeless ruin, with a 
 miserable village, Riha or Ariha, and excavations 
 
 t 
 
JEltSBY 
 
 374 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 into the green mounds have disclosed only sun- 
 dried bricks. 
 
 Jersey, the chief of the Channel Islands (q.v.), 
 14 miles from the Norman coast, 133 from South- 
 ampton, 95 from Weymouth. Measuring 11 miles 
 bv 5i, it is 45 sq. m. in area, of which nearly two- 
 thirds is cultivated. Pop. (1806) 22,855; (1851) 
 57,020 ; (1901) 52,796, of whom 29,000 were m the 
 capital, 8t Helier. The land rises northward, 
 culminating in Mount Mado (473 feet). On all 
 sides are large open bays ; Boulay on the north 
 is capable of becoming a fine harbour; that of 
 St Helier is dry at low-water. The rocks on the 
 coasts have been eroded by the sea, which has left 
 many caverns and fantastic pinnacles. About the 
 south-east are numerous dangerous reefs. Be- 
 tween Jersey and the French shore the Ecrehos, 
 Boeuffetins, and Minquiers indicate a former con- 
 nection with the mainland. It is also noticeable 
 that moles and toads are found in Jersey, as also 
 in Alderney, while there are none in Guernsey. 
 The chief staple is the potato, Avhich comes into 
 the London market a fortnight before that of 
 the west of England. Consequently other cul- 
 tivation has been much neglected, and the land 
 greatly stimulated by artificial manures. The 
 potato export is about 100,000 tons yearly, of a 
 value of £350,000. The rearing of cattle is also 
 lucrative; it is estimated that there are fifty- 
 eight head of cattle to every 100 acres— nearly 
 three times the ratio of the United Kingdom. 
 The purity of the breed is maintained by careful 
 official registration, and the stock fetches high 
 prices from breeders in England and America. 
 The number of cattle exported averages nearly 
 1600 head annually. The imports consist largely 
 of potatoes and butcher-meat from France and 
 England, as the island produces little food for 
 its own consumption. The language of legisla- 
 tive and judicial business is French, though the 
 people among themselves use either English or 
 a form of the ancient Norman. The parish 
 churches are old, but have lost many traces of 
 their primitive architecture in frequent restora- 
 tions. The royal court is a large but ill-lighted 
 building containing a portrait of Marshal Con- 
 way, by Gainsborough. The character of the 
 people is orderly and frugal, the deposits in the 
 savings-bank exceeding £350,000. There is little 
 pauperism and hardly any serious crime. 
 
 Jersey City, the second city of New Jersey, 
 and capital of Hudson county, on the west bank 
 of the Hudson River, opposite New York, of 
 which it is, in fact, though in another state, an 
 extension, and with which and Brooklyn it is 
 connected by steam-ferries ; a tunnel was com- 
 menced in 1874. Its site forms the broadest part 
 of a peninsula bounded on the west by the 
 Hackensack River and Newark Bay ; on the 
 south-east it extends along New York Bay. 
 Jersey City is a busy but not a beautiful city. 
 It is an important railway terminus, and is con- 
 nected with Easton, Pennsylvania, by canal; 
 and at its wharves many ocean-steamers receive 
 and discharge their freight. It is thus the 
 entrepot of a large trade, especially in iron, coal, 
 and agricultural produce. Its own manufactures 
 are on a large scale, and include sugar, flour, iron 
 and steel, zinc, boilers and machinery, loco- 
 motives, oils and chemicals, oakum, lumber, 
 silk, watches, and jewellery, lead-pencils, tobacco, 
 pottery, soap, beer, &c. The city has large 
 abattoirs and stock-yards, and grain-elevators 
 notable both for their size and efficiency. The 
 Bite of Jersey City was fonnerly called Paulus 
 
 Hoeck (Hook); the town received its present 
 name and became a municipality in 1838. Pop. 
 (1860) 29,226 ; (1890) 163,003 ; (1900) 206,433. 
 
 Jerusalem (in the form Urusalem on the Tel. 
 el-Amarna tablets ; Yerushalaim, in Hebrew 
 ' dwelling of peace ; ' Moslem El-Kuds, ' the 
 Holy '), regarded as a holy city alike by Jews, 
 Christians, and Moslems, long the capital of 
 Palestine, stands 37 miles SE. (57 by rail) of its 
 port Jaffa, on the Mediterranean shore of Syria. 
 It stands— from 2364 to 2582 feet above the sea- 
 level— on the spurs of two hills surrounded and 
 divided by two valleys, once deep, now partly 
 or wholly filled up with rubbish. The Eastern 
 Hill was originally a rounded top crowned with 
 the ' threshing-floor of Araunah,' and the rock and 
 cave, probably a sacred site from time imme- 
 morial. The Western Hill, higher than the other 
 by more than a hundred feet, was also bounded 
 by steep slopes. Either hill was therefore a 
 strong hill-fortress. 
 
 The history of Jerusalem covers a period of 
 about 3500 years. Of these, 500 at least are 
 prehistoric ; and of the 3000 years which remain, 
 less than 500 show us Jerusalem independent, 
 the capital of a free country, and the centre of a 
 national religion. For 600 years longer the city 
 was in the hands of the Israelites, but nevei 
 wholly independent. Its name is found on an 
 inscription 500 years at least before David (see 
 also Gen. xiv. 18) ; it was besieged almost im- 
 mediately after the death of Joshua, c. 1400 b.c. ; 
 it was again taken by David about 1046 B.C. ; it 
 was surrendered by Jehoiachin 597 b.c. ; it was 
 taken from Zedekiah 586 b.c, and wholly de- 
 stroyed. Fifty years later (536 B.C.) the edict of 
 Cyrus enabled the people to return ; the temple 
 was rebuilt ; Ezra arrived 457 b.c, Nehemiah 445 
 B.C. For 500 years after this Jerusalem knew 
 not a single generation of peace. Internal factions 
 tore it to pieces ; the city was the possession in 
 turn of Persian, Macedonian, Syrian, Egyptian, 
 and Roman. Under Antiochus the temple was 
 consecrated to Zeus Olympios ; and swine were 
 sacrificed on the altars. But for the Maccabees, 
 the religion of the Jews would have been aban- 
 doned and their nationality lost. The city was 
 besieged, taken, and totally destroyed by Titus, 
 70 A.D. In the early centuries of Christianity 
 the land was covered with monasteries, churches, 
 and hermitages. The city contained the great 
 group of clmrches of which the most splendid 
 was Constantine's Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 The Persians came 614 a.d., sacked the city, 
 and destroyed all the churches. During Moslem 
 rule (637-1099) the Mosque el-Aksa was built, 
 Justinian's great church of St Mary furnishing 
 the principal edifice ; the Dome of the Rock was 
 built ; and, by order of the mad calif Hak6m Bi 
 Asur Illah, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was 
 again destroyed. The next period is that of the 
 Latin kingdom (1099-1244). In the last period 
 Jerusalem is again under the Moslems (since 1244). 
 It was in 1517 that the Turkish sultan Selim 
 took Jerusalem. The principal biiildings and 
 monuments for which the explorer of the modem 
 city has to look are the first, second, and third 
 wails of the great temple itself ; the royal towers 
 of Phasaelus, Hippicus, Psephinus, and Mariamne ; 
 the Tyropoeon Bridge ; Baris or Antonia ; Ophel ; 
 the Tombs of the Kings ; and certain pools. The 
 town was carefully examined by Sir Charles Wilson 
 in 1865 ; and excavations were conducted by Sir 
 Charles Warren in 1867-70, Major Conder in 1871- 
 76, Clermont Ganneau in 1874-76, the Russians, 
 the French, and the Germans. The site of the 
 
JERVAULX 
 
 375 
 
 JOHN 0' GROAT'S HOUSE 
 
 temple wafs apparently within the Haram area, 
 which is defined by the ruins of its gigantic walls. 
 There exists a long catena of evidence from the 
 Bordeaux pilgrim of the 4th century to the present 
 day, which leaves it impossible to doubt that the 
 basilica erected by Constantine was on the site of 
 the present Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The 
 present city contains about 28,000 inhabitants, 
 of whom half are Jews, a quarter Moslems, and 
 the rest Christians of various denominations. 
 There are three sects of Jews, the Sephardim, of 
 Spanish origin ; the Ashkenazim, of German or 
 Polish origin, themselves divided into several 
 sects ; and the Karaites. The Christians consist 
 of Greeks, Armenians, Georgians, Copts, Syrians, 
 Abyssinians, Latins, and Protestants. Lying 
 among not very fertile mountains, the city has 
 but little commerce, and practically no manu- 
 factures, although there is of course trade in 
 curios and 'antiquities,' real or other. Of late 
 years the town has grown beyond its walls, 
 the dull, uniform, windowless one-storied houses 
 stretching on every side. The climate has been 
 compare<l to that of the south of France. Snow 
 sometimes falls in January and February ; rains 
 begin in October and continue to fall at intervals 
 till April, when a cloudless sky begins and lasts 
 until October. There are now banks and hotels ; 
 the railway from Jaffa was made in 1890-93 ; and 
 the number of pilgrims and tourists has increased. 
 
 See De Vogue's Temple de Jerusalem; Warren 
 and Conder's Jerusalem (Palestine Exploration 
 Fund, 1884) ; Mrs Oliphant's Jerusalem (1891). 
 
 Jervaulx (locally Jarvis), a place in the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 3 miles SE. of Middleham, 
 with remains of a Cistercian abbey (115G). 
 
 Jesmond. See Newcastle. 
 
 Jessor, or Kasba, a town of Bengal, 74 miles 
 NE. of Calcutta. Pop. 8495. Since the opening 
 of the Central Bengal Railway, it has developed 
 into a trading-mart. 
 
 Jejrpore (Jaipur), a protected native state in 
 Rajputana (q.v.), with an area of 14,465 sq. ni., 
 and a population of 2,700,000, chiefly Hindus. 
 It came imder British protection in 1818. The 
 maharajah was eminently loyal during the 
 Mutiny, and was rewarded with an extension of 
 territory. — The capital, Jeypore, is a walled city, 
 850 miles NW. of Calcutta and 149 NE. of Ajmere 
 by rail. It is a handsome and regularly-built 
 town, with the maharajah's palace in the centre, 
 and is the most important commercial centre of 
 Rajputana. It was founded as late as 1728 ; the 
 ancient and now deserted capital. Amber, lies 5 
 miles to the NE. The commercial business of 
 Jeypore is chiefly banking and exchange, with a 
 capital engaged of over £7,000,000. In addition 
 to the banks there are the maharajah's college, 
 an industrial and economic museum, a school of 
 art, an observatory, a mint, and the 'Mayo' 
 Hospital, besides the beautiful Ram Newas Gar- 
 dens (70 acres). Pop. 160,000. 
 
 Jhansi, a fortified town in Gwalior state. 
 Central India (till 1861 in the British North-west 
 Provinces). During the Mutiny of 1857 its 
 native garrison murdered all the Europeans ; 
 next April it was recovered by Sir Hugh Rose. 
 Pop., with British cantonment, 56,000. 
 
 Jhelum, Jehlam, or Bitasta (hence anc. 
 Hydaspes), one of the rivers of the Punjab, rises 
 in the mountains of Cashmere. About 250 miles 
 from its source it enters the plains, and, after a 
 total course of 450 miles, joins the Chenab at 
 rimmu. On its banks was fought the battle 
 Ijetween Alexander the Great and Porus (326 
 
 B.C.).— Jhklum, headquarters of a district in the 
 Punjab, on the Jhelum River. Poj). with can- 
 tonment, 25,580. 
 
 Jiboutil. See Obock. 
 
 Jiddah, or Jeddah, a seaport of the Hedjaz, 
 Arabia, stands on the Red Sea, 65 miles W. of 
 Mecca. It is an unhealthy town, suff'ering 
 greatly from want of water. As the port, how- 
 ever, of Mecca, it is the i)lace of disembarkation 
 for pilgrims bound for the holy city (46,953 in 
 1891). Besides this it has an active, though a 
 decreasing, trade. The imports comprise corn, 
 sugar, metals, earthenware, textiles, &c. ; the 
 exports, mother-of-pearl, hides, coffee, balsams, 
 dates, carpets, «&c. A quay and a quay-railway 
 were built in 1889. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Jihiin. See Oxus. 
 
 Jlmena, or Ximena, a town of Spain, 21 milea 
 N. of Gibraltar, has some remarkable caves and 
 the remains of a Moorish castle. Pop. 8677. 
 
 Joachimsthal (Yo'aheemstdl), a mining- town of 
 Bohemia, at an altitude of 2400 feet, on the 
 southern slopes of the Brzgebirge, 10 miles N. of 
 Carlsbad. The mines yield still a little silver, 
 and also nickel, bismuth, uranium. Pop. 7628. 
 
 Jock's Lodge, or Piekshill, a Midlothian 
 village. If mile E. by N. of Edinburgh, with 
 large cavalry barracks, dating from 1793. 
 
 Jodhpur, or Ma'kwar, the largest in area of 
 the Rajputana states, containing 37,445 sq. m. ; 
 and the second in pop. (about 2,000,000).— The 
 capital is Jodlipur, founded in 1459 ; pop. 60,450. 
 
 Johanna. See Comoro Isles. 
 
 Johannesburg, the chief town and mining 
 centre of the Transvaal goldlields, is situated 
 about 6000 feet above sea-level, 298 nnles NE. 
 of Kimberley, and 838 NE. of Capetown, being 
 connected with both by rail (1892). In 1886 the 
 Transvaal government proclaimed as goldfields 
 certain farms on and around the now famous 
 Reef of Witwatersrandt, 30 miles SSW. of the 
 capital Pretoria. The progress of the place and 
 the mining industry was steady and rapid. Fine 
 banks, churches, hotels, club-houses, a magnifi- 
 cent stock exchange, and some handsome streets 
 reflect the wealth of the town, though much 
 of it consists of mean huts and shanties. The 
 Transvaal Institute promises to become a uni- 
 versity for the province. The climate is healthy, 
 save for dust-storms ; the supply of water is 
 still imperfect. Johamiesburg was largely the 
 scene of the intrigues and struggles that led to 
 the war of 1899-1902. It was occupied by Lord 
 Roberts in May 1900. The British Association 
 hehl some of its sittings here in 1905. Pop. 
 (1905) 160,000 (84,000 whites). 
 
 Johannisberg, a village of Prussia, overlooking 
 the Rhine, 13 miles WSW. of Wiesbaden. It is 
 noteworthy chiefly for the castle (1732) of the 
 Metternich family, and the famous vineyards (38 
 acres) on the castle hill, producing the choice 
 Johannisherger white wine. Pop. 1316. 
 
 John o' Groat's House, in Caithness, If mile 
 W. of Duncansbay Head, and IS miles N. of Wick, 
 was, according to tradition, an octagonal build- 
 ing with eight doors and windows and an eight- 
 sided table within, built by John o' Groat to 
 prevent dissensions as to precedence among the 
 eight different branches of his family. Certain 
 it is that between 1496 and 1525 there was one 
 ' John o' Grot of Duncansbay, baillie to the Earl 
 in those pairts,' and probably a Hollander. An 
 outline on the turf marks the site of the house •, 
 and the neighbouring hotel (1876) has, appropri- 
 
 I 
 
JOfiNSHAVEN 
 
 376 
 
 JtfGGERNAtJT 
 
 fctely enough, an octagonal tower, ' Frae Maiden- 
 kirk to John o' Groat's ' (Burns) is the Scottish 
 equivalent of * from Dan to Beersheba,' Maiden- 
 kirk being Kirkraaiden in the Mull of Galloway. 
 
 Johnshaven, a Kincardineshire fishing-village, 
 9i miles NNB. of Montrose. Pop. 987. 
 
 Johnston, formerly a town of Rhode Island, 
 now forming part of Providence (q.v.). 
 
 Johnstone, a manufacturing town of Renfrew- 
 shire, on the Black Cart, 3^ miles W. by S. of 
 Paisley. Founded in 1781, it contains a large 
 flax-mill, cotton-mills, a paper-mill, foundries, and 
 machine-shops. Pop. (1831) 5617 ; (1901) 10,502. 
 
 Johnstown, (1) capital of Fulton county, New 
 York, on Cayadutta Creek, 48 miles WNW. of 
 Albany. It has mills and large manufactories of 
 gloves and mittens. Pop. 10,150.— (2) A town of 
 Pennsylvania, on the Ooneinaugli River, 78 miles 
 E. by S. of Pittsburgh by rail, with large iron 
 and steel works, tanneries, and flour, planing, 
 and woollen mills, Johnstown was overwhelmed 
 by the bursting of a reservoir on 31st May 1889. 
 Pop. (1880)8380; (1890) 21,805; (1900)35,936. 
 
 Johore, an independent state at the S. ex- 
 tremity of the Malay Peninsula. It is densely 
 timbered, and rises into several mountain-peaks, 
 the highest Mount Ophir (4186 feet). Area, 
 10,000 sq, m. ; pop, 200,000, mostly Malays and 
 Chinese. The capital is Johore, 15 miles NE, of 
 Singapore, 
 
 Joigny (Zhwan'yee, anc, Joviniacum), an old 
 walled town in the French dep, of Yonne, 90 
 miles by rail SB. of Paris, manufactures cloth, 
 linen, and sporting rifles. Pop, 5271. 
 
 Joinville (Zhwanfveell), a small town of 4000 
 inhabitants in the French dep. of Haute-Marne, 
 22 miles N. of Chaumont by rail. 
 
 Jokjakarta, a residency in the centre of Java. 
 Area, 1191 sq. m. ; pop. 500,000. Tlie capital, 
 Jokjakarta (pop. 58,000), lias the sultan's palace 
 and ruins of ancient temples. 
 
 Joliba. See Niger. 
 
 Joliet, capital of Will county, Illinois, is on 
 Des Plaines River, 40 miles SW. of Chicago by 
 rail, and its water-power is increased by a canal 
 from Lake Michigan. It has a state prison, 
 manufactures flour, steel rails, wire, stoves, tools, 
 boots, paper, tiles, cigars, &c. There are large 
 quarries of limestone, and a coalfield in the 
 neighbourhood. Pop. (1880) 11,657; (1900)29,353. 
 
 Jonkoping (YdncMping), the capital of a 
 Swedish Ian or county (area, 4468 sq. m. ; i)op. in 
 1892, 193,389), is beautifully situated at the south 
 end of Lake Wetter, 115 miles by rail E. of 
 Gothenburg. It is famous for its safety-matches. 
 Paper, carpets, tobacco, &c. are also made. Pop. 
 (1875) 13,142 ; (1900) 23,143. 
 
 Joplin, a town of Missouri, 167 miles by rail S. 
 of Kansas City, with lead and zinc mines and 
 smelting furnaces. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 Joppa. See Jaffa and Portobello. 
 
 Jordan (' descending '), the principal river of 
 Palestine, forms a great valley stretching from 
 north to south. The highest source is the Has- 
 bany, which rises near the Druse town of Has- 
 beiya, on the west side of Mount Her7non ; 
 another spring is on the south side at Banias 
 (Paneas or Csesarea Philippi). The Jordan flows 
 south for over 100 miles, passing through the 
 small Huleh Lake (The Waters of Merom) and 
 the Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), and falls 
 Into the northern extremity of the Dead Sea 
 (q,v.), 1292 feet below the Mediterranean. As 
 
 the source is 1700 feet above the Mediterranean, 
 the total fall is 3000 feet. The river, which varies 
 ranch in breadth, from 30 to 50 yards, flows 
 latterly in a sunken channel. Its banks of white 
 marl are in some places flat, in others steep ; in 
 the north partly occupied by fields of barley, 
 but barren below Jericho. 
 
 JoruUo (Ho-rool'yo), a volcanic mountain in 
 the Mexican state of Michoacan, 4315 feet above 
 sea-level, and 1640 feet above the plain on which 
 it stands, 150 miles WSW. of Mexico City. It 
 was thrown up one night, 29th September 1759, 
 after several months of subterranean convulsions. 
 
 Josephstadt, an important Austrian fortress, 
 stands at the confluence of the Mettau and the 
 Elbe in Bohemia, lOj miles N. by B, of Konig- 
 gratz. Pop. 6963. 
 
 Joyce's Country, a mountainous district in 
 the north-west of the county of Galway. 
 
 Juan Fernandez, called also Mas-X-tierea 
 ('nearer the mainland'), a rocky Chilian island 
 in the Pacific Ocean, 420 miles W. of Valparaiso. 
 It is 13 miles long and 4 broad, and is for the 
 most part a series of rocky peaks of volcanic 
 origin (the highest 3000 feet). The trees are 
 mostly ferns. Horses, pigs, and goats run wild. 
 The island was discovered by the Spaniard whose 
 name it bears in 1563, and was frequently visited 
 by buccaneers. Here Alexander Selkirk, a ma- 
 rooned privateer, a native of Largo, lived from 
 1704 to 1709. His story is supposed to have 
 suggested the RoMnson Crusoe of Defoe ; though 
 in the story Robinson's island is placed on the 
 other side of South America, near the mouth of 
 the Orinoco. Chili used the island as a penal 
 settlement from 1819 to 1835. It is usually 
 inhabited by a few Chilian sea-lion hunters ; and 
 in 1877 it was leased to a Swiss, who established 
 a small colony there. See Mackenna, Juan Per- 
 nandez (Santiago, 1883). 
 
 Juba, or Jub, a great river of eastern Africa, 
 which flows into the Indian Ocean at about 0° 5' 
 S. lat., and whose mouth marks the northern 
 boundary of the coast placed under British con- 
 trol by the agreement with Gennany in 1890. 
 
 Jubbulpore. See Jabalpur. 
 
 Juby, Cape, on the west coast of Africa, 100 
 miles south of the frontier of Morocco. 
 
 Judaea. See Palestine, 
 
 Juggernaut, or Puri, a town on the coast of 
 Orissa, at the southern end of the delta of the 
 Mahanadi, celebrated as one of the chief holy 
 places in India, With a resident pop, of 50,000, 
 it owes its reputation to a temple erected there 
 in honour of Vishnu, and containing an idol 
 of this Hindu god, called Jaganndth or Jugger- 
 naut, a corruption of the Sanskrit word Jagan- 
 ndtha—i.e. Lord of the World. The first his- 
 torical mention of him is in 318 a,d. The place, 
 too, was long a sacred city of the Buddhists, the 
 abode of the Golden Tooth of Buddha, The great 
 festivals sometimes bring 100,000 pilgrims, llie 
 temple enclosure comprises 120 temples, the chief 
 pagoda being that of Jagannath, with a tower 
 192 feet high. There are twenty-four annual 
 festivals in his honour, the chief being the car 
 festi\'al, when Jagannath (who is armless) is 
 dragged on his car (45 feet high, with sixteen 
 wheels, each 7 feet in diameter) to his country- 
 house. This is less than a mile distant from the 
 temple, but the heavy sand extends the short 
 journey to several days. The car festival has 
 been falsely believed to be the occasion of numer- 
 
JUJUY 
 
 377 
 
 KADIAK 
 
 ous cases of self-immolation, the frantic devotees 
 throwing themselves before the wheels. See Sir 
 W. W. Hunter's work on Orissa (1872). 
 
 Jujuy (Hoo-hwee'), the northeniniost province 
 of Argentina; area, 20,000 sq. ni. ; pop. 54,500.— 
 The capital, Jujuy, on the San Francisco River, 
 44 miles N. of Salta, has a national college and 
 sugar-reflueries. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Julfa, a suburb of Ispahan (q.v.) in Persia. 
 
 Jiillch (Yii'lihh; Roman Juliacum; Fr. Juliers), 
 a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Roer, 20 
 miles by rail NE. of Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. 5234. 
 Jiilich was the capital of a duchy annexed in 
 1814 to Prussia. 
 
 Jullunder, or JAlandhar, a very ancient city 
 of the Punjab, stands in the Doab between the 
 Sutlej and the Beas, on the railway between 
 Umballa and Umritsar. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Jumet, a busy place in the Belgian province 
 of Hainault, near Charleroi, with ironworks, 
 collieries, glass-works, &c. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Jumilla, a town of Spain, 36 miles N. by W. 
 of Murcia. Pop. 15,900. 
 
 Jumna, or Jamuna, the principal feeder of the 
 Ganges, has its source 10,849 feet above the 
 sea, 5 miles N. of Jamnotri. After a southerly 
 course of 95 miles it breaks into the plains from 
 the Siwalik Hills at an altitude of only 1276 feet. 
 It continues to flow south as far as Haniirpur, 
 beyond Agra, and then turns to the east, finally 
 joining the Ganges from the right 3 miles below 
 Allahabad, after a total course of 860 miles. As 
 a rule its banks are high and craggy. Many 
 tributaries add their waters to swell its current. 
 The towns of Delhi, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, 
 and Allahabad are on its banks. Where it 
 emerges from the Siwalik Hills, two great irriga- 
 tion canals, an Eastern and a Western, were made 
 in 1817-30. 
 
 Junagarh, capital of a native Indian state 
 (area, 3283 sq. m. ; pop. 490,000) in the peninsula 
 of Kathiawar, NW. of Bombay, is one of the most 
 picturesque towns in India. Pop. 34,250. 
 
 Juneau, a mining settlement (named from one 
 of the original prospectors) on the shore of the 
 Alaska strip, till 1903 claimed by Canada, oppo- 
 site Douglas island. Pop. 3000. There are gold 
 and silver mines in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Jungfrau (' the Maiden '), a magnificent peak 
 of the Bernese Alps, 13,671 feet high. A railway 
 to the top was made in 1895-1905. 
 
 Juniper Green, a Midlothian village, 5^ miles 
 SW. of Edinburgh. Pop. 1607. 
 
 Jura (Scand. deor-oe, ' deer-isle '), an Argyll- 
 shire island, ^ mile NE. of Islay, and 2^ miles W. 
 of the nearest point of the mainland. It extends 
 28 miles north-eastward ; varies in width from 
 I mile, at Loch Tarbert in the middle, to 8^ miles ; 
 and is 143 sq. m. in area. The western side is 
 rugged and desolate, the eastern green and pleas- 
 ing. The conical Paps of Jura are 2571 and 2412 
 feet high ; and most of the surface is deer-forest. 
 Pop. (1831) 1312 ; (1901) 560. 
 
 Jura, a range of mountains of a peculiar lime- 
 stone formation, oolitic in composition, and gener- 
 ally called Jurassic, which extends from the angle 
 formed by the Rhone and the Ain, in a north- 
 easterly direction (with a gradually declining 
 elevation) for more than 450 miles, to the upper 
 course of the Main. But it is usual to restrict 
 the name to the ranges that lie along the frontier 
 of Switzerland and France — mainly in the deps. 
 of Doubs, Jura, and Ain. These constitute a 
 plateau about 155 miles long by 40 wide, with an 
 average height of 2000 to 2500 feet. The loftiest 
 peaks are Reculet (5643 feet), Cret de la Neige 
 (2653), Mont Tendre (5512), and Dole (5507). 
 
 Jura, an eastern French dep., bounded on the 
 E. by Switzerland. Area, 1928 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 
 285,263 ; (1901) 261,288. It is divided into the 
 four arrondissements of Ijons-le-Saunier (the 
 capital), Poligny, Sainte-Claude, and Dole. 
 
 Jiiterbog, or Juterbogk, a town of Prussia, 
 39 miles by rail SSW. of Berlin. Pop. 7797. 
 
 Jutland (Dan. Jylland), the only considerable 
 peninsula of Eurojje that points directly north, 
 has since early in the 10th century formed a 
 portion of the kingdom of Denmark (q.v.). Area, 
 9754 sq. m. ; pop. (1900)1,063,792. Jutland was 
 culled the Cinibric Chersonesus, from the Cimbri, 
 its early inhabitants. In the 5th century it was 
 inhabited by the Jutes, who took part in the 
 expedition of the Saxons to England ; and the 
 Jutes were succeeded by the Danes. 
 
 Jyhoon. See Oxus. 
 
 See Godwin- Austen. 
 Kabul, or Cabul (Kau'bal; the 
 Kabura of Ptolemy), the capital of 
 Afghanistan, is charmingly situated at 
 I the foot of the Takht-i-Shah and Asmai 
 hills, on a spur of which to the south is the 
 fortress of Bala Hissar (or 'upper fort'), once 
 an important stronghold, but now abandoned. 
 The city is composed almost entirely of mud- 
 built buildings with flat roofs, and is traversed 
 by the main bazaar, whose streets diverge from 
 the central square, and divide Kabul into four 
 quarters. The bazaar rivals that of Kandahar, 
 and includes every variety of trade. Carpets, 
 camel-hair cloth, and skins are perhaps the 
 specialities ; but there are now many shops in 
 which European goods can be purchased, and 
 Kabul is rapidly assuming the general character 
 of an Indian mart. Communication with India 
 is now regular and constant : there is a growing 
 trade with central Asia. The cantonment of 
 Sherpur, situated about a mile north of the Bala 
 Hissar, where the British troops were beleaguered 
 
 in 1880, is maintained in good repafr. Close to 
 it are still to be traced the outlines of the old 
 British entrenchment of 1840-41, when, after a 
 nine weeks' siege, a British force had to capitulate. 
 At the western extremity of the Bemara ridge, 
 which flanks Sherpur on the north, is the English 
 cemetery, now protected by a high wall. Kabul 
 is celebrated for its fruit, its grapes and melons 
 being especially famous. The elevation of the 
 plain above sea-level is about 6000 feet, which 
 ensures a delightful temperature and fine climate 
 in summer ; but it is sometimes severely cold in 
 winter, when snow occasionally covers the ground 
 to the depth of several feet, and communication 
 is frequently interrupted. Pop. 90,000. 
 
 The Kabul River rises at Sar-i-Chashma, near 
 the source of tlie Helmund, flows through Kabul 
 city, and, mainly by a long series of precipitous 
 defiles, finally reaches the Indus at Attok. The 
 length of its course (generally south-easterly) is 
 about 270 miles. 
 
 Kadiak, a wooded, mountainous island off" the 
 Su coast of Alaska. It contains good harbours. 
 
 I 
 
KAFPA 
 
 378 
 
 KALNA 
 
 and has an area of 3465 sq. m. Pop. 1482 
 Eskimos, engaged in the salmon-fishery. 
 
 Kaffa (anc. Theodosia or Feodosia), a Russian 
 seaport, on a bay on the east side of the Crimea, 
 62 miles B. by N. of Simferopol. It is defended 
 by walls and a citadel, and has the ruined palace 
 of the Khans of the Crimea, a Greek cathedral, 
 and, near by, an Armenian monastery (1442). 
 Soap and caviare, camel-hair carpets, and sheep- 
 skin rugs are manufactured ; and here is the only 
 oyster-fishery in Russia. Pop. 27,500. 
 
 KaflFraria, properly the country inhabited by 
 the Kaffirs or Caff"res, who inhabit the E. of 
 Cape Colony, Natal, Swaziland, Zululand, &c. ; 
 but usually restricted to the coast-districts be- 
 tween the Great Kei River (Transkei) and the 
 Natal frontier. British Kaflfraria was the country 
 from the Great Kei westward to the Keiskamma, 
 some time an independent colony after being 
 wrested from the Kaffirs in the war of 1846-47, 
 but ultimately incorporated with Cape Colony. 
 Neither Kaffraria nor British KafTraria is now 
 an administrative division. 
 
 Kafiristan, a mountainous region of Asia, 
 lying between the Kabul River on the south and 
 the Hindu Kush on the north-west ; its eastern 
 and western boundaries are formed by the 
 Chitral and Panjshir rivers respectively, feeders 
 of the Kabul. Area, 5000 sq. m. ; pop. 200,000, 
 primitive Aryan heathens, of many tribes, united 
 only by their hatred of Mohammedans. See 
 Leitner's Kafiristan (Lahore, 1881). 
 
 Kagoshi'ma, a town of Japan, on a large bay 
 of the same name, at the south end of Kiu-siu 
 Island, with manufactures of pottery and porce- 
 lain, arms, and cotton. Population, 55,000. It 
 was bombarded by a British fleet in 1863. 
 
 Kaleteur Fall. See Essequibo. 
 
 Kai-fung, capital of the Chinese province of 
 Honan, near the southern bank of the Hoangho, 
 where the great inundation occurred in 1887, 
 long the chief settlement of the Jews in China. 
 Pop. 100,000— many Mohammedans. 
 
 Kailas. See Elloea, Indus. 
 
 Kaira, capital of a district in northern Giyarat, 
 20 miles SW. of Ahmedabad by rail. Pop. 10,640. 
 
 Kalrwan', a decayed walled town of Tunis, 
 in an open, marshy plain, 80 miles S. of the 
 capital. It contains about fifty ecclesiastical 
 structures, of which the mosque of Okba, who 
 founded Kairwan about 670, is one of the most 
 sacred of Islam. Outside the city, to the north- 
 west, is the mosque of the Companion— i.e. of 
 the Prophet; this and other sacred tombs have 
 rendered Kairwan ('caravan') the Mecca of 
 northern Africa. As such, it has been jealously 
 guarded from defilement by the presence of 
 Jews and for the most part of Christian trav- 
 ellers ; but it was entered and investigated by 
 the French in 1881, and is now under their pro- 
 tection. Kairwan makes copper vessels, potash, 
 carpets, and articles in leather. Population, 
 23,000. See works by Rae (1877), Broadley (1882), 
 and Boddy (1885). ' 
 
 Kaisarieh. See C-ssarea. 
 
 Kaiserslautern (IGserslowtem), a town of the 
 Bavarian Palatinate, 52 miles by rail SW. of 
 Worms. The chief manufactures are tiseues, 
 yarn, sewing and other machines, ultramarine, 
 furniture, beer, bricks, &c. ; and there are iron- 
 works, steam-sawmills, and railway shops. Pop. 
 (1875) 22,699 ; (1900) 48,300. Frederick I. built 
 a castle here in 1152 (destroyed by the French in 
 
 1713) ; and near by the French republican armies 
 were defeated in 1793 and 1794. 
 
 Kaiserswerth, a Prussian town (pop. 2388) on 
 the Rhine, 10 miles below Dilsseldorf. Here is 
 Pastor Fliedner's deaconesses' house. 
 
 Kaiser Wilhelm's Land. See New Guinea. 
 
 Kaithal, an ancient town in the Punjab, India, 
 93 miles NNW. from Delhi. It has saltpetre- 
 refineries, and manufactures lac ornaments and 
 toys. It became British in 1843. Pop. 14,754. 
 
 Kalaha'ri Desert, a vast tract of South Africa, 
 extending 600 miles from the Gariep or Orange 
 River northwards to 21° S. lat., with an average 
 breadth of about 350 miles. The so-called desert 
 is an elevated basin, 3000 to 4000 feet high, witli 
 numerous depressions, and bordered in most 
 parts b'y a wide belt of sandy waterless country. 
 But the rainfall in the interior is sufficient to 
 nourish a fair amount of vegetation. Many parts 
 are thickly covered with high, thorny bushes, 
 which harbour game. The inhabitants, called 
 Bakalahari, keep cattle and grow corn, and live 
 by these and by the chase ; wandering Bushmen 
 are also found in the 'desert.' See Farini, 
 Across the Kalahari Desert (1886). 
 
 Kalamata, or Kalam^, a seaport in the Greek 
 Peloponnesus, on the Gulf of Koron, is the seat 
 of an archbishop. Pop. 14,300. 
 
 Kalamazoo', capital of Kalamazoo county, 
 Michigan, on a river of the same name, 144 miles 
 by rail BNE. of Chicago. An important railway 
 junction, it is the seat of the state insane asylum 
 and of Kalamazoo College (Baptist), and manufac- 
 tures machinery, paper, flour, carriages, wind- 
 mills, agricultural tools, furniture, &c. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Kalbe, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the 
 Saale, 17 miles S. of Magdeburg. Pop. 12,300. 
 
 Kale, a Roxburghshire stream, running 20 
 miles to the Teviot, 4^ miles S. by W. of Kelso. 
 
 Kalgan, a Chinese town, 110 miles NW. of 
 Peking, opposite the passage through the Great 
 Wall, is a chief emporium of the Chinese tea trade 
 with Mongolia and Siberia. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Kalgoorlle, now third in population of Western 
 Australian towns (after Perth and Fremantle), is 
 350 miles ENE. of Perth and 25 NE. of Coolgardio 
 by a railway opened in 1896, in the centre of a 
 rich gold-field employing 15,000 miners. The 
 rush hither began in 1893 ; the water difficulty, 
 for a time formidable, was satisfactorily sur- 
 mounted in 1896. Pop. 7200. Originally the 
 place was called Hannan's. 
 
 Kalinjar, an Indian fortress and .shrine on 
 an isolated rock (1230 feet high), a spur of the 
 Vindhya Mountains, overlooking the plains. 
 
 Kallsz, capital of a government (area, 4390 
 sq. m. ; pop. 850,000) in Russian Poland, 132 
 miles WSW. of Warsaw. Pop. 22,750. 
 
 Kalmar, a seaport of Sweden, capital of a Ian 
 or county (area, 4436 sq. m. ; pop. 231,396), on an 
 island in Kalmar Sound, opposite the island of 
 Oland. It has a good harbour, a handsome 
 cathedral, and a castle, in which, on 20th July 
 1397, was signed the 'Union of Kalmar." The 
 manufactures include matches, chicory, and 
 tobacco, and some shipbuilding. Population, 
 12,720. 
 
 Kalna, or Culna, a town of Bengal, 47 miles 
 N. of Calcutta and 28 E. of Bardwan, on the 
 Bhagirathi (Hooghly). Pop. 10,463. 
 
KALOCSA 
 
 379 
 
 KANDY 
 
 Kalocsa, a town of Hungary, near the Danube, 
 86 miles S. of Budapest by rail. It has a cathedral, 
 archbishop's palace, and observatory. Pop. 12,789. 
 
 Kalpi, a town in the North-western Provinces 
 of India, stands among rugged ravines near the 
 bank of the Jumna, 50 miles SW. of Cawnpore. 
 Here on 23d May 1858 Sir Hugh Rose defeated 
 12,000 mutineers. Pop. 14,306. 
 
 Kalu'ga, chief town of a Russfan government, 
 76 miles by rail NW. of Tula and 188 SSW. of 
 Moscow. It has a large trade. Pop. 50,610. 
 Area of government, 11,942 sq. m. ; pop. 1,244,018. 
 
 Kama, the principal affluent of the Volga, rises 
 in the Russian government of Vyatka, and joins 
 the Volga 43 miles below Kazan. The Kama is 
 navigable from Perm (930 miles). It is free of ice 
 about 200 days in the year, and is one of the great 
 highways of communication between Siberia and 
 Ni.jni Novgorod and St Petersburg. 
 
 Kamakura, a coast village of Japan, 12 miles 
 S. of Yokohama. It dates from tlie seventh cen- 
 tury, and was the capital of the Shogunate for 
 400 years, but is now only of interest to tourists 
 for its beauties and its famous bronze image of 
 Buddha, the Dai-butsu, 50 feet high. 
 
 Kama'ran, a little island in the Red Sea, on 
 the Arabian side, nearly opposite Massofwah, with 
 an area of 102 sq. m., and inhabited by a few 
 fishermen. It was annexed by Britain in 1858. 
 
 Kamhakonam. See Combakonum. 
 
 Kamchatka (Kam-tcJmt'ka ; Ger. Kamtschatka), 
 a peninsula of eastern Siberia, stretches S. into 
 the Pacific between Behring Sea on the E. and 
 the Sea of Okhotsk. Area, 465,590 sq. m. The 
 peninsula is long and narrow, terminating in a 
 point only 7 miles distant from the northernmost 
 of the Kurile Islands. A chain of volcanic moun- 
 tains runs down the centre, and reaches 15,408 
 feet in Kojerevska and 16,988 in Kluchefskaya (in 
 eruption in 1854 and 1885). Hot springs abound. 
 The coast on the south-east is formed of rugged, 
 precipitous cliffs. The principal river is the Kam- 
 chatka, which flows into the Pacific. The climate 
 is colder than in corresponding latitudes in Europe, 
 and very humid ; grass and tree vegetation are con- 
 sequently luxuriant. The principal occupations 
 of the inhabitants are fishing and hunting. Kam- 
 chatka was annexed to Russia at the end of the 
 17th century. Pop. 6500, made up of Kamcha- 
 dales, Koryaks, Lamuts, and a few Russians. 
 The fort of Petropaulovsk (pop. 850), Avith a 
 magnificent harbour covered with ice only a brief 
 period of the year, is situated on the east coast. 
 See works by Kennan (5th ed. New York 1879) 
 and Guillemard (2 vols. 1887). 
 
 Kamenetz-Podolsk (Polish Kamieniec), capital 
 of the Russian government of Podolia, near the 
 frontier of Austrian Galicia, on a steep rock above 
 an affluent of the Dniester, 243 miles NW. of 
 Odessa. There are a Roman Catholic cathedral 
 (1861), a Greek cathedral (16th century), and an 
 Annenian church. Pop. 36,630. 
 
 Kamenz, a small manufacturing town of 
 Saxony, 22 miles NB. of Dresden by rail. It was 
 the birthplace of Lessing. Pop. 9211. 
 
 Kamerun. See Cameroons. 
 
 Kames, (1) a Berwickshire mansion, 6 miles E. 
 of Greenlaw.— (2) A castellated mansion, John 
 Sterling's birthplace, in Bute, 2| miles NNW. of 
 Rothesay. 
 
 Kamesburgh. See Port Bannatyne. 
 
 Kamloops, a station on the Thompson tribu- 
 tary of the Fraser River, British Columbia, 230 
 miles NE. of New Westminster. 
 
 Kampen, a town of Holland, near the mouth 
 of the Yssel, 5^ miles by rail NW. of ZwoUe. 
 It was formerly a Hanse town, and has partly 
 recovered since 1850 the trade which left it as 
 the Yssel sanded up. The church of St Nicholas 
 is one of the finest niediaival churches in the 
 country. Pop. (1840) 7760; (1900)19,700. Kampen 
 is the Gotham of the Dutch, 
 
 Kamschatka. See Kamchatka. 
 
 KamtM, or Kampti, a town and cantonment 
 of the Central Provinces, India, 9 miles NE. of 
 Nagpur, on the Kanhan River. Pop. 40,159. 
 
 Kamyshin, an important shipping town of 
 Russia, on the Volga, about 100 miles below 
 Saratov. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Kanagawa. See Yokohama. 
 
 Kanara, North, a coast-district of Bombay, 
 lies south-east of Goa. Area, 3910 sq. m. ; pop. 
 454,230.— South Kanara, immediately south of 
 North Kanara, belongs to Madras. Area, 3902 
 sq. ni. ; pop. 1,134,600. The capital is Mangalore. 
 
 Kanauj, one of the great legendary centres of 
 Aryan civilisation in India, stood originally on 
 the Ganges, 65 miles NW. of Lucknow. At 
 present the site consists of ruins, extending over 
 the area of five villages, 4 miles from the Ganges, 
 the river having altered its bed. The most 
 remarkable buildings are Mohainmedan mauso- 
 leujns. Its most prosperous era was the 6th 
 century; early in the 11th it fell before the 
 sultans of Ghazni. Among the ruins there is a 
 modern town of 17,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Kanawha. See Charleston, and Great 
 Kanawha. 
 
 Kanazawa, a town of Japan, on the west 
 coast of the main island, NW. from Tokyo, manu- 
 factures porcelain and silk. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 Kanchinjanga. See Kinchinjinga. 
 
 Kandahar', or Candahar, the capital of cen- 
 tral or southern Afghanistan, 200 miles SW. of 
 Kabul. It stands in 32° 37' N. lat. and 66° 20' E. 
 long. , 8484 feet above sea-level. It is in the form of 
 an oblong square, while all its streets run straight, 
 and cut one another at right angles. At the inter- 
 section of the two main streets there is a large 
 dome (Charsu). Pop. variously estimated from 
 25,000 to 100,000. Kandahar is well watered by 
 two canals, and stands amid gardens and orchards. 
 It has much trade with Bombay, Herat, Bokhara, 
 and Samarcand. About 2 miles N. rises a precipi- 
 tous rock, crowned by a fortress. Here, amid all 
 the disasters of 1839-41, the British maintained 
 their ground under Rawlinson. Kandahar is sup- 
 posed to have been founded by Alexander the 
 Great, was wrested from the Afghans by the 
 famous Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030), and from 
 then down to 1747 was, with brief intervals of in- 
 dependence, held by Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, 
 and by various rulers of Tartary, India, and 
 Persia in turn. In the war of 1878-80 the British 
 entered Kandahar unopposed, and held it till 
 1881, some months after they had evacuated the 
 rest of Afghanistan. The Sibi-Pishin Railway 
 from the south has greatly enhanced both its 
 political and its commercial importance. 
 
 Kandavu, one of the Fiji Islands (q.v.). 
 
 Kandy, a town of Ceylon, on a beautiful little 
 lake among the mountains, 74 miles by rail NE. 
 of Colombo. It is 1665 feet above the sea, and 
 has a mean annual temperature of 76° F. Here 
 are ruins of the palace of the former native 
 kings, and a temple in which a reputed tooth 
 of Buddha is preserved. Pop. 26,200. 
 
EANEM 
 
 380 
 
 EARATEGIN 
 
 Eanem, a vassal state of Wadai (q.v.) lying 
 north of Lake Chad. 
 
 Kangaroo Island, an island of South Australia, 
 at the inouth of the Gulf of St Vincent, is 87 
 miles by 34 broad. Pop. 379. 
 
 Kanizsa, two towns in Hungary. (1) Nagy 
 (or Great) Kanizsa, 136 miles by rail SW. of 
 Budapest. Pop. 24,619.— (2) Old Kanizsa, on the 
 Theiss, 15 miles SSW. of Szegedin. Pop, 16,060. 
 
 Kankakee', capital of Kankakee county, Illi- 
 nois, on Kankakee River, 56 miles SSW. of Chicago, 
 with factories and foundries. Pop. 13,600. 
 
 Kano', a town and sultanate in Hausaland, 
 Northern Nigeria, 250 miles SSE. of the city of 
 Sokoto. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 Kansas, the central state of the American 
 Union, and the eighth in area, is bounded N. by 
 Nebraska, B. by Missouri, S. by Indian Territory, 
 and W. by Colorado. It is about 400 miles from 
 east to west, and 200 from north to south, and 
 contains an area of 82,080 sq. m. The surface 
 is for the most part a rolling prairie, rising from 
 800 feet in the east to between 3000 and 4000 
 feet in the north-west. Kansas has no navigable 
 river except the Missouri, which forms part of its 
 eastern boundary. The Kansas or Kaw (300 miles) 
 drains nearly half the state, and the Arkansas 
 drains another large portion. The climate is 
 subject to extremes of temperature. A record 
 of 106° F. above zero has been observed ; but 
 the mercury rarely falls below zero. The mean 
 annual rainfall is 37*10 inches ; but in the 
 west the supply is scanty, and in the upper 
 Arkansas valley irrigation has been introduced. 
 The minerals of Kansas include lead and zinc, 
 excellent coal, lignite, rock-salt, mineral paint, 
 gypsum, good building-stones, brick-clay, and 
 material for hydraulic cement. Kansas is an 
 agricultural and pastoral state, wheat, maize, and 
 oats being the chief crops. Horticulture has 
 steadily extended, and the growing of sorghum 
 cane for sugar. Great quantities of prairie hay 
 are cut ; and thousands of acres of planted timber 
 now break the surface of the prairie. Creameries 
 are numerous, and more attention is given to 
 the raising of stock. Of the manufacturing 
 industries the most important is beef and pork 
 packing (mainly at Kansas City), flour-milling, 
 foundry-work, and the manufacture of stoves 
 and agricultural implements. The suffrage pro- 
 visions allow women to vote at school and muni- 
 cipal elections ; and there is a prohibitory liquor 
 law. The state university is at Lawrence ; an 
 agricultural college at Manhattan ; and a normal 
 school at Emporia. The name is derived from 
 the Kaw or Kansas Indians. The state, mostly ac- 
 quired in the Louisiana purchase, was organised as 
 a territory in 1854, and at once became the battle- 
 ground between the partisans of slavery and free- 
 dom. The Federal administration sided with the 
 pro-slavery party. John Brown took part in the 
 civil war which prevailed, and many fights that 
 were almost battles took place. The Free State 
 party was steadily reinforced from the north, and 
 after several futile endeavours the Wyandotte con- 
 stitution was finally adopted in 1859, and in 1861 
 Kansas was admitted as a non-slaveholding state 
 of the Union. Pop. (1860)107,206 ; (1900)1,470,495. 
 Tlie largest cities are Kansas City (q.v.), Topeka, 
 the capital (33,650), and Wichita (24,700); next 
 come Leavenworth, Atchison, and Fort Scott. 
 
 Kansas City, the second city of Missouri, and 
 one of the great towns of the west, is situated 
 on the south bank of the Missouri (here crossed 
 
 by a fine railway bridge), where the river makes 
 a sharp bend to the east, 283 miles by rail W. 
 by N. of St Louis. Great part of the city is 
 built upon a series of steep hills. The state 
 frontier-line bounds the city on the west, and 
 consequently a large suburb on this side, also 
 called Kansas City, is in the adjoining state of 
 Kansas. This suburb, connected with Kansas 
 City by a remarkable elevated railway, has a 
 pop. of 51,316, and contains great stock-yards 
 and pork-packing establishments. The larger 
 Missouri town possesses numerous fine streets, 
 and handsome residences on the hills. Its public 
 edifices include a fine United States court-house 
 and the imposing building of the Board of Trade ; 
 there are two medical colleges here. The city is 
 the terminus of a number of important railways, 
 and is a principal distributing centre for the rich 
 agricultural region to the south and west. There 
 are great grain-elevators and stock-yards, and 
 pork-packing is a principal industry ; while the 
 manufactories turn out railroad iron and car- 
 wheels, shot, flour, beer, butterine, soap, fur- 
 niture, &c. Pop. (1860) 4418; (1870) 32,260; 
 (1880) 55,785 ; (1900) 163,752. 
 
 Kan-su', the north-west province of China. 
 
 Kanturk, a market-town, 24 miles NW. of 
 Cork. Pop. 1539. 
 
 Kappel. See Cappel. 
 
 Kara, a gold-mining district in eastern Siberia, 
 300 miles from Chita and nearly 5000 from St 
 Petersburg. The mines are the czar's private 
 property, and are worked by 2000 convicts. 
 
 Karachi. See Kurrachee. 
 
 Karagwe, a territory between the east coast 
 of Africa and the Victoria Nyanza, divided be- 
 tween German and British East Africa. 
 
 Kara-hissar. See Afium-Kara-Hissar. 
 
 Klara-kol. See Bokhara. 
 
 Karakorum, (1) a name given, but according 
 to the best geographers erroneously, to the Muz- 
 tagh range, in the western Himalayas ; some- 
 times also it is given, again erroneously, to the 
 Kuen-Luu range on the north of Tibet. The 
 Mustagh or Muztagh range is that part of the 
 Himalayas which lies to the west of the Indus 
 and extends as far as the head of the Gilgit 
 Valley. It embraces some of the loftiest peaks 
 of the Himalayan system, Dapsang being 28,700 
 feet high.— (2) The name is properly appropriate 
 to a pass (18,550 feet), the culminating point of 
 the route between India and East Turkestan, in 
 35° 33' N. lat. and north from Leh.— (3) Kara- 
 korum is also used to indicate the ruined Mon- 
 golian capital, to the north of the desert of Gobi, 
 on the Orkhon, a tributary of the Selenga Eiver. 
 
 Kara-kum. See Kizil-kum. 
 
 Karaman. See Caramania. 
 
 Karamnasa, a river of Bengal, rises in 24° 
 34' N. lat. and 83° 41' E. long., and, after a 
 course of 146 miles — for some distance along the 
 boundary between Bengal and the North-western 
 Provinces — enters the Ganges from the right. 
 The Hindus hold it in religious abhorrence. 
 
 Kara Sea, the portion of the Arctic Ocean 
 lying between Nova Zembla and the Yahnal 
 Peninsula. Some trade with western Europe 
 now passes over the Kara Sea in summer to and 
 from the rivers Obi and Yenisei. 
 
 Karategin, the easternmost province of Bok- 
 hara, a highland region (6000-7000 feet), traversed 
 by a tributary of the Arau-Daria. Area, 8310 
 sq. m. ; pop. 100,000. 
 
EARAULI 
 
 381 
 
 KATHIAWAR 
 
 I^araull (KerowUe), a hilly, well-timbered 
 native state in Rajputana, separated by the river 
 Chambal from Gwalior. Area, 1229 sq. m. ; pop. 
 156,587.— The capital, Karauli, is 75 miles NW. 
 of Gwalior. Pop. 25,124. 
 
 Karczag, a town of Hungary, 99 miles by rail 
 B. by S. of Budapest. Pop. 25,825. 
 
 Karelia, an old name for the south-east part 
 of Finland, annexed to Russia in 1721. 
 
 Karikal, the second in importance of the 
 French possessions in India, is on the Coro- 
 mandel coast, 12 miles N. of Negapatam, and 
 has an area of nearly 53 sq. m. The pleasant 
 capital (pop. 34,719), about a mile from the sea, 
 was four times taken by the British, There is 
 an active trade in rice. Pop. 70,526. 
 
 Karll, a place with a famous sculptured cave- 
 temple, 126 feet long and 45 feet high, 40 miles 
 NW. of Poona by rail. 
 
 Karlsbad. For Karlsbad, Karlskrona, Karls- 
 ruhe, &c., see Carlsbad, &c. 
 
 Karlsburg (Hung. Gyula-FeMrvdr), a town and 
 fortress of Transylvania, near the Maros, 170 
 miles E. of Szegedin by rail. Pop. 9388. 
 
 Karluk, a place in Alaska, with the greatest 
 salmon cannery in the world. 
 
 Karnac. See Thebes. 
 
 Kamal, a town of the Punjab, 7 miles W. of 
 the Junma's present course, and on the western 
 Jumna Canal. Pop. 24,963. 
 
 Kiirnthen. See Carinthia. 
 
 Karnul, a town in Madras Presidency, 110 
 miles S. by W. of Hyderabad. Pop. 25,376. 
 
 KaiTOO, a generic name given to the high 
 plains of Cape Colony; especially the Great 
 Karroo, the elevated basin, more than 3000 feet 
 above sea-level, and 350 miles long by 70 to 80 
 wide, which lies between the Nieuweveld Berge 
 on the north and the Zvvarte Berge on the south. 
 
 Kars, a fortress of Russian Armenia, 110 miles 
 NE. of Brzerum. It is situated on a tableland 
 over 6000 feet above the sea; the climate is 
 therefore rather severe. Pop. 20,900, mostly Ar- 
 menians. Kars, long a bulwark of the Ottoman 
 empire in Asia, was taken by the Russians in 
 1828, resisted them for six months in 1855, and 
 was stormed by them in 1877. It was ceded to 
 Russia by the Berlin Congress in 1878, and its 
 fortifications have been since augmented. 
 
 Karshi, a town of Bokhara, 95 miles SE. of 
 Bokhara city and 80 SW. of Samarcand. It is 
 of great importance in the transit trade between 
 Bokhara, Kabul, and India ; and its knives and 
 firearms are famed. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Karst. See Croatia. 
 
 B^rtum. See Khartoum. 
 
 Kilnin River, the sole navigable river of Persia, 
 rising in the Zardah Koh Mountains, near Ispa- 
 han, flows w^est through gorges of the Bakhtiari 
 Range to Shuster, where it becomes navigable. 
 At Ahwdz a reach of rapids and broken water 
 bars the course of vessels to the Lower Kanin ; 
 and here since 1890 a tramway has been con- 
 structed. Below Ahwaz the river is 300 to 500 
 yards wide, and flows for 117 miles without an 
 obstacle through a country naturally rich and 
 fertile. Mohammerah lies at the Kanin junction 
 with the waters of the Euphrates and Tigris 
 (Shat-el-Arah). In 1842 Lieutenant Selby ascended 
 the KArxxn to Shuster; but it was not till 1888 
 that the navigation was thrown open. See W. F. 
 Ainsworth, The River Kdrim (1890). 
 
 Kasal. See Congo. 
 
 Kasanlik, a town of Eastern Roumelia, at the 
 Balkans' base, 5 miles from the southern end of 
 the Shipka Pass, and 87 NW. of Adrianople. It 
 manufactures otto of roses. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Kaschau (Kd-shoiv' ; Hung. Kassa), one of the 
 handsomest towns of Hungary, in the beautiful 
 valley of the Hernad, 130 miles by rail NE. of 
 Budapest. It has a cathedral (1270-1468), the 
 finest Gothic edifice in Hungary, and manufac- 
 tures tobacco, stoneware, furniture, starch, nails, 
 and paper. Of the Jesuit university (1659) only 
 the law academy remains. Pop. 87,500. 
 
 Kashan, a flourishing town of Persia, 3690 feet 
 above sea-level, and 92 miles N. of Ispahan. It 
 manufactures silk-stuff's, gold brocade, glazed 
 tiles, carpets, and copper- wares. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Kashgar, the political capital of Eastern or 
 Chinese Turkestan, and, next to Yarkand, the 
 second place of importance. The town and dis- 
 trict have a pop. of 120,000. The old city is a 
 small fortified place overlooking the Kizil River, 
 separating it from the new city, in which stands 
 the palace of the Chinese governor of the prov- 
 ince, as well as the Mosque (Juma Mesjid). The 
 people excel in certain branches of industry, as 
 the making of cottons, silks, carpets, saddlery, 
 &c., and carry on trade, chiefly \^ith Russia. 
 Kashgar, the centre of Mohannuedan learning in 
 eastern Turkestan, is besides a famous pilgrimage 
 place. In 1758 the Chinese seized Kashgar, and 
 with short interruption it has remained in their 
 power. A successful rebellion was that of Yakub 
 Kushbeghi (1864-77), but since the country was 
 retaken by the Chinese, Kashgar has been left to 
 the influence of Russia. See Colonel Kuropatkin's 
 Kashgaria (Eng. trans. 1883). 
 
 Kashkar. See Chitral. 
 
 Kashmir. See Cashmere. 
 
 Kaskaskia, a river of Illinois, flowing nearly 
 300 miles SW. to the Mississippi at Chester. On 
 its right bank, a few miles from the mouth, is 
 Kaskaskia village, the first capital of Illinois. 
 
 Kassai. See Congo. 
 
 Kas'sala, a fortified town on a tributary of the 
 Atbara, 260 miles S. of Suakin. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Kassas'sin, a lock on the canal between 
 Ismailia and Zagazig, in Egypt, 21 miles W. of 
 Ismailia. In the Egyptian campaign of 1882 it 
 was the scene of a sharp action on the evening of 
 August 28, in which Arabi's forces were com- 
 pletely routed, principally by the British cavalry. 
 
 Kassel. See Cassel. 
 
 Kastamu'nl, capital of a province in Asia 
 Minor, 76 miles SW. of Sinope. It manufactures 
 cotton goods, leather, &c. Here is the ancestral 
 castle of the Comneni, 'Kastamuni' being a cor- 
 ruption of ' Castra Comneni.' Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Kasvin. See Kazvin. 
 
 Katahdin, the highest mountain in the state 
 of Maine, 5385 feet high. 
 
 Katanga, a town and district in the very heart 
 of Africa, between two head-streams of the Congo 
 —below the Luapula issuing from Lake Bang- 
 weolo, and passing on through Lake Moero, and 
 a more westerly Lualaba, passing through a chain 
 of lakes. Other names belonging to the adjoin- 
 ing territories are Msiri's country, Kasongo, &c. 
 — all in the sphere of the Congo Independent 
 State. 
 
 Kathiawar, or Strashtra, a peninsula on the 
 west coast of India, lying between the Gulf of 
 
 I 
 
KATMANDHU 
 
 382 
 
 KEI ISLANDS 
 
 Cambay and the Gulf of Cutch. Politically, the 
 name Kathiawar Agency (formed in 1822) is given 
 to a collection of 187 states, some independent, 
 some tributary to native princes, and some (105) 
 tributary to the British government in India. 
 Area of agency, 20,559 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 
 2,327,500. 
 
 Katmandhu. See Khatmandu. 
 
 Kat'rine, Loch, one of the most celebrated of 
 Scottish lakes, in Stirling and Perth shires, 5 
 miles B. of Loch Lomond and 9j W. of Callander. 
 Lying 364 feet above sea-level, it curves 8 miles 
 east-south-eastward, is now^here quite a mile 
 broad, and has a maximum depth of 468 feet, and 
 an area of 3119 acres. It discharges through 
 Lochs Achray and Vennachar, to the Teith ; 
 and since 1859 has supplied Glasgow with water. 
 Huge Benvenue (2393 feet) and Ben A'an (1500) 
 rise steeply at its lower end, whose shores are 
 beautifully wooded, with the mountain defile of 
 the Trossachs beyond. Scott was often here 
 during 1790-1809, as also in 1805 was Wordsworth 
 with his sister Dorothy. 
 
 Kat River, a branch of the Great Fish River, 
 in the Cape Colony, rising in the Didimaberg. 
 
 Kattowitz, a town of Prussian Silesia, 105 
 miles SE. of Breslau. It has manufactures and 
 coal-mines. Pop. 31,750. 
 
 Katzbach, a river of Prussian Silesia, which 
 falls into the Oder at Parchwitz. On its banks, 
 near Liegnitz, on 26th August 1813, the French 
 were defeated by the Prussians and Russians. 
 
 Kaub. See Caub. 
 
 Kava. See Ava. 
 
 Ka'veri, or Cauvery, a river of southern India, 
 rises in the Western Ghats, and flows 475 miles 
 south-east across Mysore and Madras, to the Bay 
 of Bengal, which it enters through two principal 
 moutlis. The Kaveri is of no value for naviga- 
 tion, its bed being rocky, with numerous rapids 
 and falls— as those at the island of Sivasamudram, 
 in Mysore, famous for their romantic beauty. 
 Other islands formed by it are Seringapatam, 
 in Mysore, and Sriringam, just above the delta. 
 It is important for irrigation in Mysore and 
 Coimbatore, but especially in the marvellous 
 fertile delta. For this purpose the main stream 
 has been dammed since the 4th century a.d., the 
 Coleroon (the northern branch) since 1838. 
 
 Kayes, or Khayes, a town of the French 
 Soudan, on the river Senegal, with a railway of 
 94 miles to Bafoulabe. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Kazan, capital of the Russian government of 
 Kazan, and in the 15th century capital of the Mon- 
 gol kingdom of the Golden Horde, stands 3 miles 
 from the Volga's north bank, and 200 miles E. by 
 S. of Nijni-Novgorod. In 1552 the Russians, 
 under Ivan the Terrible, stormed the town, and 
 put an end to the Mongol kingdom. The kremlin 
 or fortress embraces within its walls the archi- 
 episcopal cathedral (1562), a magnificent monas- 
 tery (1579), an arsenal, &c. ; the red brick Sumbek 
 Tower is an object of veneration to the Tartars. 
 The university, founded in 1804, has four faculties, 
 nearly 1000 students, a library of 80,000 vols., an 
 observatory, &c. The principal objects of in- 
 dustry are leather, soap (made from mare's milk), 
 candles, gunpowder, books, hempen goods, 
 cotton, &c. Close by are the shipbuilding-yards 
 in which Peter the Great built his Caspian fleet. 
 The Tartar merchants of Kazan trade as far as 
 Bokhara and Persia on the one side and as Asia 
 Minor on the other. Pop. (1871) 8(),000 ; (1905) 
 160,000. The town has sufl"ered severely from lire 
 
 more than a dozen times, especially in 1774, 1815, 
 and 1825. 
 
 Kazbek, or Casbeck. See Caucasus. 
 
 Kazvln, or Casein, a town of Persia, 95 miles 
 NW. of Teheran. It manufactures brocade, 
 velvet, cotton, and iron-ware, and has obtained a 
 new commercial importance through the opening 
 of the Transcaucasian Railway. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Keady, a market-town, 8 miles SW. of Armagh. 
 Pop. 1466. 
 
 Kearney, a town of Nebraska, on the Platte 
 River, 196 miles by rail W. by S. of Omaha. It 
 manufactures flour, ploughs, wagons, furniture, 
 &c. Pop. 5640. ' 
 
 Kearsarge, a mountain of New Hampshire, 22 
 miles NW. of Concord, and 2950 feet high. 
 
 Kearsley, a town of Lancashire, 4 miles SE. of 
 Bolton, with neighbouring coal-mines and paper- 
 mills. Pop. 9260. 
 
 Kecskemet, a town of Hungary, 55 miles by 
 rail SE. of Budapest. Pop. 57,500. 
 
 Keeling (or Cocos) Islands, a group of more 
 than a dozen coral atolls in the Indian Ocean, 
 500 miles SW. of Java, attaclied since 1886 to 
 the Straits Settlements. They are covered with 
 cocoa-nut palms, whence oil is extracted, and 
 are inhabited by about 400 Malays, but owned by 
 a Scotsman named Ross. These islands were 
 discovered by Captain Keeling in 1609 and were 
 visited by Darwin in 1836. 
 
 Keen, Mount, a conical Grampian summit 
 (3077 feet), 7 miles SSB. of Ballater. 
 
 Keene, a pretty town of New Hampshire, the 
 capital of Cheshire county, on the Ashuelot River, 
 92 miles by rail NW. of Boston. Pop. 9446. 
 
 Keewa'tin, part of the country lying north of 
 Manitoba. It is nominally administered by the 
 lieutenant-governor of Manitoba, but is nearly 
 uninhabited, except by Eskimos in the north. 
 It embraces the northern part of Lake Winnipeg, 
 and includes the mouth of the Saskatchewan 
 River, which is navigable, except for a short 
 distance, for nearly 1000 miles. The Nelson and 
 Churchill rivers also pass through Keewatin; 
 and Chesterfield Inlet, on the west side of Hudson 
 Bay, penetrates nearly to its western boundary. 
 
 Kef, El, a walled town of Tunis, 95 miles SW. 
 of the capital, with a ruined temple, thermae, and 
 cisterns of Roman construction. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Kegworth, a Leicestershire town, 6 niilea 
 NNW. of Loughborough. Pop. of parish, 2149. 
 
 KeM. See Strasburq. 
 
 Keig, an Aberdeenshire parish, 29 miles WJNW. 
 of Aberdeen, the birth and burial place of Pro- 
 fessor W. Robertson Smith. 
 
 Kelghley (Keethley), a market and 'manufac- 
 turing town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 on the Aire, amid the moorland scenery of the 
 Brontes' country, 9 miles NW. of Bradford and 
 17 WNW. of Leeds. It has a parish church 
 (rebuilt 1848), a Gothic mechanics' institute (1870- 
 87), the Drake trade school (1713 ; rebuilt 1860X 
 extensive water-works (1876), two public parks of 
 9 and 15 acres gifted in 1887-88 by the Duke of 
 Devonshire and Mr J. Lund, and important manu- 
 factures of worsted and woollen goods, worsted- 
 spinning machinery, and sewing and washing 
 macliines. Keighley was constituted a municipal 
 borough in 1882. Pop. (1851) 13,050 ; (1901) 41,563. 
 See R. Holmes, Keighley, Past and Present (1858). 
 
 Kel Islands. See Key. 
 
 I 
 
KENNINGTON 
 
 Keir, the seat of the late Sir William Stirling- 
 Maxwell, If mile NW. of Bridge of Allan. 
 
 Kei River, Great, a river of South Africa, 
 which in 1848 was made the boundary between 
 Cape Colony and KafTraria. See Transkei. 
 
 Keiss, a Caithness fishing-village, 7| miles N. 
 by W. of Wiclv. Pop. 341. 
 
 Keith, a town of Banffshire, on the Isla, 18 
 miles ESE. of Elgin. It manufactures tweeds, 
 blankets, farm implements, &c. Pop. (1851) 2101 ; 
 (1891) 4622. 
 
 Kelat (also Khelat and Kalat), the capital of 
 Beluchistan, stands at an elevation of more than 
 7000 feet, in 28° 52' N. lat. and 66° 33' E. long. 
 It was occupied by England (1839-41); and in 
 1877 a treaty was concluded with the khan, by 
 which a British agent, with military escort, be- 
 came resident. Pop. 14,000. — Kelat-i-Ghilzai 
 is a fortress of Afghanistan, 75 miles NE. of 
 Kandahar. 
 
 KelatI Nadirl, a strong natural fortress in the 
 Persian province of Khorassan, close to the 
 Russian fz'ontier of Transcaspia. 
 
 Kells (anc. Kenlis), a town of County Meath, on 
 the Blackwater, 26 miles by rail W. of Drogheda. 
 Interesting antiquities are St Columba's house, a 
 round tower, and three or four stone crosses. 
 Kells was in 807 made the seat of a bishopric, 
 united to Meath in the 13th century. Prior to 
 the Union it returned two members. Pop. 2427. 
 
 Kelmscott, an Oxfordshire mansion, on the 
 Thames, 2^ miles E. by S. of Lechlade, the resi- 
 dence of the poets Rossetti and Morris. 
 
 Kelso, a pleasant market-town of Roxburgh- 
 shire, 23 miles by rail WSW. of Berwick-on- 
 Tweed and 52 (by road 42) SE. of Edinburgh. It 
 stands on the north bank of the Tweed, here 
 joined by the Teviot, and si)anned by Rennie's 
 noble five-arch bridge (1803), 165 yards long. In 
 1126 David I. translated to ' Calchou ' a Tiron- 
 ensian abbey, founded by him at Selkirk seven 
 years before. This, wrecked by the English 
 under Hertford in 1545, is now represented by 
 the stately ruin of its cruciform church, Roman- 
 esque and First Pointed in style, Avith a massive 
 central tower 91 feet high. Across the river, on 
 the peninsula formed by the Teviot, stood the 
 royal castle and town of Roxburgh, demolished 
 in 1460; and 1 mile W. is Floors Castle (1718- 
 1849), the seat of the Duke of Roxburghe. Kelso 
 itself has a town-hall (1816), corn exchange (1856), 
 racecourse, coach-building and other industries, 
 and memories of the 15, Scott, the Ballantynes, 
 and Sir William Fairbairn. Pop. (1851) 4783; 
 (1901) 4008. See works by Haig (1825), Cosmo 
 Innes (1846), and Rutherfurd (1880). 
 
 Kelung. See Formosa. 
 
 Kelvin, a stream flowing 21 miles south-west- 
 ward to the Clyde at Partick, near Glasgow. 
 
 Kemnay, an Aberdeenshire parish, 18 miles 
 WNW. of Aberdeen, with great granite-quarries. 
 
 Kempen, (1) a town of Rhenish Prussia, 7 
 miles NW. of Krefeld. Pop. 5952.— <2) A town 
 in the Prussian government of Posen, 48 miles 
 by rail NE. of Breslau. Pop. 5787. 
 
 Kempten, a town of Bavaria, 54 miles by rail 
 S. by E. of Ulm. The old town was made a free 
 town of the empire in 1289 ; the new town grew 
 up around a monastery (8th centurv) founded by 
 disciples of St Gall. Cotton-spinning and weav- 
 ing and the making of machines and hosiery are 
 csarried on. Pop. (1875) 12,682 ; (1900) 18,860. 
 
 Kempton Park, in Middlesex, 4 miles W. of 
 Kingston-on-Thames, once a royal residence, is 
 now noted for its race-meetings. 
 
 Ken, a Kirkcudbrightshire stream, flowing 28J 
 miles to the Dee at Parton, and expanding during 
 the last 4^ miles of its course into Lake Ken. 
 
 Kendal, or Kirby Kendal, a market-town of 
 Westmorland, on the Kert, 22 miles by rail N. 
 of Lancaster and 13 SW. of Ambleside. It is a 
 gray straggling place, with an ancient Gothic 
 church, a ruined castle (the birthplace of Cath- 
 arine Parr), a town-hall (1828), and a grammar- 
 school (rebuilt 1887). Flemings settled here in 
 1337, and the town became famous for its 
 woollens and ' Kendal-green ' buckram ; whilst 
 Pococke in 1754 refers to its ' manufacture of a 
 sort of frieze calFd cotton, at 8d. a yard, sold 
 mostly for the West Indies, for the slaves.' Now- 
 adays the industries include heavy textile fabrics, 
 such as hoi-se-cloths and railway rugs, besides 
 leather, snuff, paper, &c. Incorporated as a 
 municipal borough in 1575, Kendal returned one 
 member to parliament from 1832 to 1885. Pop. 
 (1851) 11,829; (1901) 14,183. See two works by 
 C. Nicholson (1832-75). 
 
 Kenfig, a Swansea (q.v.) borough, Glamorgan- 
 shire, 6^ miles W. by N. of Bridgend. Pop. 380. 
 
 Kenla, Mount, an isolated snow-capped moun- 
 tain mass in British East Africa, about 10' S. of 
 the equator, and not far N. of Kilima-Njaro. 
 The crater wall rises 16,000 feet, but the loftiest 
 pinnacle towers 3000 feet higher. 
 
 Kenil worth, a market-town of Warwickshire, 
 on a small sub-affluent of the Avon, 5 miles N. of 
 Warwick and 5 SSW. of Coventry. The castle, 
 founded about 1120 by Geofl"rey de Clinton, was 
 defended for six months (1265-66) by Simon de 
 Montfort's son, and passed by marriage (1359) to 
 John of Gaunt, and so to his son, Henry IV. It 
 continued a crown possession till in 1563 Eliza- 
 beth conferred it on Leicester, who here in July 
 1575 entertained her for eighteen days at a daily 
 cost of £1000— that sumptuous entertainment 
 described in Scott's Kenilworth. Dismantled by 
 the Roundheads, the castle has belonged since 
 the Restoration to the Earls of Clarendon. Its 
 noble ruins comprise 'Caesar's Tower,' the original 
 Norman keep, with walls 16 feet thick ; Mervyn's 
 Tower and the Great Hall, both built by John of 
 Gaunt ; and the more recent but more dilapidated 
 Leicester's Buildings. There is a fragment also 
 of an Augustinian priory (c. 1122) ; and the parish 
 church has a good Norman doorway. Tanning is 
 the chief industry. Pop. (1851) 2886 ; (1901) 4544. 
 
 Kenmare, a town of Kerry, near the head of 
 the sea inlet called Kenmare River. Pop. 1120. 
 
 Kenmore, a Perthshire village at the foot of 
 Loch Tay, 6 miles WSW. of Aberfeldy. 
 
 Kenmure Castle, the Kirkcudbrightshire seat 
 of the Gordons of Lochinvar, f mile S. by B. 
 of New Galloway. 
 
 Kennebec, a river of Maine, rises in Moose- 
 head Lake, and, passing Augusta, runs 150 miles 
 south to the Atlantic Ocean. It is navigable for 
 large vessels to Bath, 12 miles, and for steamers 
 beyond Augusta. It falls in its course 1000 feet, 
 aff"ording abundant water-power, and is mostly 
 closed by ice for three to four months in the year. 
 
 Kennet, a river of Wilts and Berks, flowing 44 
 miles eastward to the Thames at Reading. It 
 has good trout-fishing. 
 
 Kennlngton, a district of Lambeth parish, and 
 a division of Lambeth pari, borough, London. 
 
 I 
 
KENOSHA 
 
 384 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 Kennington Oval, a little S, of Vauxhall Bridge, 
 is a famous cricket-ground. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Kenoslia, a town of Wisconsin, U.S., 51 miles 
 by rail N. by W. of Chicago. Pop. 12,700. 
 
 Kensal Green, a cemetery on the NW. of 
 London, with the graves of many famous men, 
 including Thackeray, Leech, Kemble, Charles 
 Mathews, Tom Hood, and Cardinal Manning. 
 
 Kensington is, since 1899, a metropolitan 
 borougli of the county of London. Kensington 
 Palace, built of red brick, was originally the 
 seat of Heneage Finch, Earl of Nottingham and 
 Lord Chancellor of England, from whose suc- 
 cessor William III. bought it in 1689 : he and 
 his wife Mary, Queen Anne and her consort 
 Prince George of Denmark, and George II. all 
 died within its walls, and it was also the birth- 
 place of Queen Victoria. Kensington Gardens, 
 which at first only consisted of the grounds of 26 
 acres attached to the palace, have been frequently 
 enlarged, and are now 2J miles in circuit ; they 
 are connected with the northern part of Hyde 
 Park by a stone bridge over the Serpentine built 
 by Rennie in 1826. At their southern extremity 
 is the Albert Memorial (1872), designed by Sir 
 Gilbert Scott, and consisting of a bronze-gilt 
 seated statue (by Foley) of the prince, placed 
 beneath a gorgeous canopy 180 feet high, and 
 surrounded by works of sculpture illustrating 
 the various arts and sciences. Opposite, in 
 Kensington Gore, is the Albert Hall (1867-71), a 
 huge circular building in the modern Italian 
 style, of red brick with yellow dressings, used 
 as a concert-room and capable of holding 10,000 
 persons ; its cost was £200,000, and the interior 
 measures 200 feet by 180 feet and is 140 feet high. 
 Other buildings in the vicinity are the South 
 Kensington Museum (1857), Natural History 
 Museum, Royal School of Art Needlework, 
 Royal College of Music (1883), City and Guilds 
 of London Institute for the advancement of 
 technical education (1884), and Imperial Insti- 
 tute (1887-93). The parish church is a fine 
 building in the Gothic style, designed by Sir 
 Gilbert Scott (1869), with a spire 295 feet high. 
 Close by are the town-hall (1880) and the Roman 
 Catholic Pro-cathedral (1869). Next to Kensing- 
 ton Palace, the most interesting building from 
 a historical point of view is Holland House, a 
 quaint mansion in the Elizabethan style, erected 
 (1607) by Sir Walter Cope, and the great resort 
 of the Whig politicians at the commencement of 
 the 19th century. Campden House, rebuilt in 
 1862 on its destruction by fire, is noteworthy 
 from the former house, erected in 1612, having 
 been the residence, before her accession, of Queen 
 Anne. Of the residences occupied by Swift, Sir 
 Isaac Newton, Jack Wilkes, Wilberforce, George 
 Canning and his son, Dr Dibdin, Sir David Wilkie, 
 William Cobbett, Mrs Inchbald, Count D'Orsay, 
 Talleyrand, Lord Macaulay, Thackeray, and John 
 Leech, but few traces now remain. The borough 
 returns two " members to parliament. It is a 
 suffragan bishopric under London. Pop. (1871) 
 120,299 ; (1891) 166,308; (1901) 176,628. 
 
 See Leigh Hunt's An Old Court Suburb (1855), 
 Loftie's Picturesque Kensington (1888), and Marie 
 Lichtenstein's Holland House (1873). 
 
 Kent, an important maritime county in the 
 SB. of England, is bounded by the estuary of 
 the Thames, the Strait of Dover, Sussex, the 
 English Channel, and Surrey. Its greatest length 
 is 64 miles ; its greatest breadth, 38 miles ; and 
 its area 1624 sq. m., or 1,039,419 acres. The 
 Burfiace is for the most part hilly, except in the 
 
 south-east, where lies a marshy tract, some 14 
 miles long by 8 broad, and in the north, where 
 a line of marshes skirts the banks of the Thames 
 and Medway ; these last are backed by a succes- 
 sion of wooded hills, stretching inland and gradu- 
 ally increasing in height until they culminate in 
 the North Downs, a chalk range which traverses 
 the middle of the county from west to east, 
 attaining at Knocksholt Beeches, near Sevenoaks, 
 a height of 782 feet above sea-level. Below these 
 downs lies the Weald of Kent, a district abound- 
 ing in beautiful scenery, and occupying nearly 
 the whole southern side of the county. Of rivers 
 in Kent, besides the Thames, the principal are 
 the Medway, Stour, and Darent. The rich 
 meadows of the Romney Marsh afford excellent 
 pasturage for vast flocks of sheep. All branches 
 of agriculture are extensively carried on, especi- 
 ally market-gardening and the growing of hops 
 and fruit. Other industries are the manufacture 
 of paper, bricks, and gunpowder. Large numbers 
 of hands are employed in the government estab- 
 lishments at the Woolwich arsenal and the dock- 
 yards of Chatham and Sheerness ; whilst at 
 Ashford are the South-Eastern Railway, and at 
 Whitstable and Faversham are important oyster- 
 fisheries. Kent is divided into five lathes, and 
 comprises 73 hundreds, the Cinque Ports of 
 Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, the cities 
 of Canterbury and Rochester, and 18 municipal 
 boroughs, the whole containing 435 civil parishes, 
 almost entirely in the dioceses of Canterbury 
 and Rochester. Maidstone is the assize town. 
 Pop. (1801) 307,624 ; (1841) 549,353 ; (1881) 977,706 ; 
 (1901) 1,351,849, of whom only 936,003 were within 
 the ' administrative county," Kent having given 
 off 31 sq. m. to the ' county of London,' formed 
 under the Local Government Act of 1888. Kent 
 includes eight parliamentary divisions, and the 
 parliamentary boroughs of Canterbury, Chatham. 
 Dover, Gravesend, Hythe, Maidstone, aivi Ro- 
 chester, each returning one member. Thl' other 
 cliief towns are Ramsgate, Margate, Folkestone, 
 and Tunbridge Wells, all popular watering-places. 
 
 Of its early inhabitants Kent has numerous 
 traces in the shape of Roman roads, and many 
 camps and barrows ; at Aylesford and Hartlip 
 Roman villas and baths have been discovered, 
 and near the former place is a curious dolmen 
 known as Kits Coity House. There are also 
 the cathedrals of Canterbury and Rochester, 
 the Norman fortress of the latter place, with 
 those of Chilham and Dover, and the moated 
 mansions of Hever (the home of Anne Boleyn), 
 Ightham Mote, and Leeds Castle (where Richard 
 II. was imprisoned). Amongst Kentish worthies 
 have been Caxton the printer, Elizabeth Barton 
 the 'nun of Kent,' Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir 
 Francis Walsingham, Camden the antiquary. Sir 
 Philip Sidney, Harvey the discoverer of the 
 circulation of the blood, the 'judicious' Hooker, 
 the Earl of Chatham and his son William Pitt, 
 General Wolfe, Richard Barham, author of the 
 Ingoldsby Legends, the historians Hallam and 
 Grote, Charles Dickens, and Gordon Pasha. See 
 the county histories of Hasted (4 vols. 1778-99 ; 
 new and enlarged ed. 1886, &c.) and Dunkin 
 (3 vols. 1856-58). 
 
 Kentish Town, a district in St Pancras parish, 
 in the north of London. 
 
 Kent's Cavern, near Torquay, Devonshire, a 
 prehistoric bone-cave, 650 feet long, 2 to 70 wide, 
 and 18 high. 
 
 Kentucky, a state of the American Union, in 
 the Mississippi Valley; greatest length, E. to 
 
KEOKUK 
 
 385 
 
 KERTCH 
 
 W., 400 miles; breadth, N, to S., 175 miles; 
 area, 40,400 sq. m. The eastern and south-east- 
 ern parts of the state are mountainous, broken 
 by the Cumberland Mountains (2000-3000 feet) 
 and their offshoots ; westward from this region 
 is a plateau sloping gradually toward the Ohio 
 and the Mississippi rivers, which bound the state 
 on the north and west. Large cypress-swamps 
 still exist in the south-west. The Cumberland, 
 Tennessee, Licking, and Kentucky rivers rise 
 among the mountains in the east, and cross the 
 state to the Ohio. Southward from the Ohio 
 River extends a semicircular tract of land of 
 Silurian formation ; here the soil is produced by 
 the disintegration of the fossiliferous blue lime- 
 stone, and in this, the famous Blue Grass country, 
 the most exhausting crops, such as tobacco and 
 hemp, may be raised continuously for a series 
 of years without materially impairing the pro- 
 ductive value of the soil. A somewhat narrow 
 belt of Devonian shale is also very fertile, and the 
 lower strata contain petroleum. Tlie eastern coal- 
 field (10,000 sq. m.) is a prolongation of the Appa- 
 lachian deposits ; the western (4000 sq. m.) belongs 
 to the Illinois tract. The coal is bituminous, 
 and some excellent cannel occurs. The iron ores 
 are of excellent quality, and are found through- 
 out a district of 20,000 sq. m. Galena, building- 
 stones, and salt are obtained. Through the lime- 
 stone formations the streams have cut deep 
 gorges, and in a region of about 6000 sq. m. much 
 of the drainage is subterranean. The long- 
 continued erosive action of the water has under- 
 mined a large part of this region, and produced 
 numerous and often extensive caverns — the 
 best known being the Mammoth Cave (q.v.). 
 Kentucky is densely wooded over two-thirds of 
 its area. Notwithstanding this large proportion 
 of forest land, it has always been one of the 
 leading agricultural states ; it is the principal 
 tobacco-producing state in the union, and breeds 
 excellent stock and racehorses. The chief manu- 
 facture is whisky ; next the smelting and working 
 of iron. Pop. (1860) 1,155,684; (1880) 1,648,690; 
 (1900) 2,147,174. The largest cities are Louisville 
 (205,000), Covington (43,000), Lexington (26,500), 
 and Paducah (19,500); the capital is Frankfort 
 (9500). Numerous remains indicate that the 
 mound-builders lived here ; the name Kentucky, 
 'dark and bloody ground," commemorates the con- 
 flicts between various warlike tribes. Included 
 in the original grant to the colony of Virginia, 
 Kentucky in 1790 was made a territory, and in 
 1792 a state. Though a slave-holding state, it 
 did not secede during the civil war. 
 
 Ke'okuk, a city of Iowa, almost at its south- 
 east extremity, on the Mississippi River (here 
 crossed by a railroad bridge), 161 miles by rail 
 ESE. of Des Moines. It contains law, medical, 
 and commercial colleges, and has foundries, saw 
 and flour mills, and factories, with a large trade 
 by rail and river. The biggest steamboats could 
 always come up to Keokuk, and the ' Des Moines 
 rapids," just above, are now passed by a great 
 canal, 11 miles long. Pop. 14,700. 
 
 Ker'bela, a town and holy place in Asiatic 
 Turkey, 60 miles SW. of Bagdad. Pop. 65,000, 
 The pilgrims number at least 200,000 annually, 
 the sanctity of the place arising from its being 
 built on the battlefield where Hussein, son of 
 Ali and Fatima, perished (680), seeking to main- 
 tain his claim to the califate. 
 
 Ker'guelen's Land, or Desolation Island, of 
 volcanic origin, in the Antarctic Ocean, between 
 «• 39'— 49° 44' S. lat. and 68° 42'— 70° 35' E. long., 
 
 is 85 miles long by 79 wide. Mount Ross attains 
 6120 feet ; and most of the interior is covered 
 with an ice-sheet and its glaciers. Numerous 
 islands and rocks encircle the coasts, which are 
 penetrated by long fjords, that form good har- 
 bours. The climate is raw, and storms are 
 nearly constant. The island was discovered in 
 1772 by a Breton sailor, Kerguelen-Tremarec, 
 and was visited by Captain Cook (who christened 
 it Desolation Island) in 1776, and in 1874 by the 
 Challenger, and by English, American, and Ger- 
 man expeditions to observe the transit of Venus. 
 France annexed it in 1893. 
 
 Kerki, a town of central Asia, on the left bank 
 of the Amu-Daria or Oxus, 120 miles S. of Bok- 
 hara city. An important place both commer- 
 cially and strategically, it was occupied and 
 garrisoned by Russia in 1887. 
 
 Kermadec Islands, a group of volcanic islands 
 in the Pacific Ocean, 700 miles NE. from Auck- 
 land in New Zealand. It consists of four prin- 
 cipal islands — Raoul or Sunday (7200 acres), 
 Macaulay (756 acres), Curtis, and L"Esperance — 
 and several smaller islands. The group was 
 discovered in 1788, annexed by Britain in 1886, 
 and in 1887 declared part of New Zealand. Pop. 
 8. See a work by S. Percy Smith (1887). 
 
 Kerman, or Karman (anc. Cannania), one of 
 the eastern provinces of Persia, lying south from 
 Khorassan. Area, 59,000 sq. m. ; pop. 300,000. 
 Kerman, the chief town, near the middle of the 
 province, in the central mountain-range, contains 
 a pop. of 70,000. In 1722 the Afghans destroyed 
 it ; in 1794 it was pillaged by Aga Mohammed, 
 and 30,000 of the inhabitants made slaves. But 
 the chief cause of the decline of Its trade was 
 the fall of Gombroon, its port, before the rising 
 prosperity of Bushire. At present it is only 
 noted for the manufacture of the famous Kennan 
 carpets, felts, and brass cups. 
 
 Kermanshali (also Karmanshah and Kirman- 
 sliahan), a flourishing town of Persia, capital of 
 Persian Kurdistan, near the right bank of the 
 river Kerkhah. It manufactures carpets and 
 weapons. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Ker'rera, an Argyllshire island, screening the 
 Bay of Oban. It is 4^ miles long. If mile wide, 
 5 sq. m. in area, and 617 feet high. Alexander 
 II. died here. Pop. 99, 
 
 Kerry, a maritime county of SW. Ireland, in 
 the province of Munster, is bounded N. by the 
 Shannon estuary, and W. by the Atlantic. Area, 
 1853 sq. m. or 1,185,918 acres, of which less than 
 one-tenth is under crops. One-fourth is barren 
 mountain-land, and more than 11 per cent, bog 
 and marsh. Maximum length, N. to S., 67 miles ; 
 maximum width, 55 miles. Its coast-line, 220 
 miles long, is fringed with islands, of which 
 the chief are Valentia, the Blasquets, and the 
 Skelligs ; and is deeply indented by Kenmare, 
 Dingle, and Tralee Bays. The principal moun- 
 tain group is Macgillicuddy's Reeks, whose sum- 
 mit, Carran Tual (3414 feet), is the highest in 
 Ireland. The rivers are short. The county con- 
 tains many lakes, those of Killarney (q.v.) being 
 of exquisite beauty. The climate is mild, but 
 moist, especially on the coast. Iron, copper, 
 and lead ores abound, but are not much worked. 
 Slate and flagstone are quarried in Valentia. The 
 coast fisheries employ nearly 2000 men and boys. 
 Since 1885 Kerry returns four members. Pop. 
 (1841) 293,880; (1871) 196,014; (1901) 165,331, 
 nearly all Roman Catholics. 
 
 Kertch, previous to being levelled witU tl^e 
 
KESTEVEN 
 
 386 
 
 KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS 
 
 ground by the allies in 1855 the most important 
 port of the Crimea, is situated on the eastern 
 shore of the peninsula, on the strait of Kaft'a or 
 Yenikale, which, 26 miles long and 3 to 25 wide, 
 connects the Sea of Azov with the Black Sea. 
 It still has an export trade to the extent of nearly 
 £200,000 annually in grain, linseed, leather, flsh, 
 and caviare. Kertch, founded in the middle of 
 the 6th century b.c. by Miletans, from 1318 to 
 1475 was a depot of the Genoese, then came to 
 the Turks, and finally, in 1771, to the Russians. 
 Pop. with the neighbouring Yenikale, 30,500. 
 
 Kes'teven, The Parts of, the south-west divi- 
 sion of Lincolnshire. 
 
 Keswick (Kez'ick), a market-town of Cumber- 
 land, near the confluence of the Greta and the 
 Derwent, 16 miles NNW. of Ambleside, and by a 
 branch-line (1865) 18 W. of Penrith junction, 36 
 SSW. of Carlisle. In its immediate vicinity are 
 wooded Castle Head and beautiful Derwentwater, 
 whilst to the north towers Skiddaw (3058 feet). A 
 great tourist centre, it is a pleasant little place, 
 with half-a-dozen hotels, a good public library, a 
 recreation ground, a town-hall (1813), lead-pencil 
 factories, Greta (q.v.) Hall, and a church (1839), 
 besides the old church of Crosthwaite (q.v.), | 
 mile N. Pop. (1851) 2618 ; (1901) 4451. 
 
 Keszthely, a market-town of Hungary, on the 
 western shore of Lake Balaton, 113 miles by rail 
 SW. of Budapest. Pop. 5393. 
 
 Ket'tering, a market-town (since 1227) of 
 Northamptonshire, 75 miles NNW. of London 
 by rail. The parish church (1450 c. ; restored 
 1862) is a fine Perpendicular structure, with tower 
 and spire. A town-hall and corn exchange was 
 built in 1863 ; and Kettering has also a free 
 grammar-school, water-works (1872), and manu- 
 factures of boots and shoes, stays, plush, brushes, 
 &c. Pop. of parish (1861) 5845 ; (1901) 28,653. 
 
 Kew, a village in Surrey, 6 miles W. of Hyde 
 Park Corner, and on the right bank of the 
 Thames, which is here crossed by a fine stone 
 bridge of seven arches, built 1789 and freed 1873. 
 The Royal Botanic Gardens and Arboretum con- 
 tain magnificent collections of plants, ferns, trees, 
 and shrubs. Established in 1760 by George III.'s 
 mother, and made a national institution in 
 1840, the gardens now extend over 70 acres, 
 and the arboretum 178 acres. SW. of the 
 gardens is an observatory, chiefly used as a 
 meteorological station. Close to the northern 
 entrance is Kew Palace, formerly a favourite 
 residence of George III., and of Queen Charlotte, 
 who died there. In Kew churchyard is buried 
 Gainsborough. Pop. (1801) 424 ; (1901) 2500. See 
 Chancellor's Richmond, Kew, &c. (1894). 
 
 Kewatin. See Keewatin. 
 
 Ke'weenaw, a peninsula of Michigan, on Lake 
 Superior, with famous copper-mines. 
 
 Keyham, seat of a naval engineering college, 
 on an inlet of the Hamoaze, close to Devon- 
 port. 
 
 Key or Kei Islands, a small group in the East 
 Indies, lying S. of Dutch New Guinea and NE. of 
 Timor, consists of Great Key, Little Key, and 
 some smaller islets. Total area, 680 sq. m. ; pop. 
 20,000, Malays and Alfuros, three-fourths on 
 Great Key. This is a long narrow island, stretch- 
 ing north to south, volcanic in origin, and with a 
 rocky, hilly surface that rises to nearly 3000 feet. 
 Little Key, to the west, is of coral formation, and 
 lies low ; it is said to have made its appearance 
 in the middle of the 19th century during an earth- 
 quake disturbance. All the islands are covered 
 
 with dense jungle, valuable timber being the 
 principal product. Fishing is the chief occupa- 
 tion ; and Mche-de-mer is gathered. The group 
 has been Dutch since 1645.— The islets of the 
 Bahama group in North America are called gener- 
 ally keys or cays (Span. ' rocks ' or ' reefs '). 
 
 Key West, a port of entry and health-resort, 
 the capital of Monroe county, Florida, is situated 
 on the island of Key West (Span. Cayo Hueso 
 ' Bone Reef '), 60 miles SW. of Cape Sable. It is a 
 coral island, 7 miles long, 2 to 3 wide, and no- 
 where more than 11 feet above the level of the 
 sea. There is a good harbour, defended by a fort. 
 The streets are wide and straight, with tramway 
 lines ; most of the houses are built of wood. The 
 exports are salt, turtles, sponges, fruits and vege- 
 tables, and cigars manufactured here. Pop. 
 20,000. 
 
 Khabarovsk, or Khabauovka, capital of the 
 Maritime Province, and seat of the governor- 
 general of the Amur (q.v.). 
 
 Khairpur, the chief town of Khairpur state, in 
 Sind, stands among marshes 15 miles E. of the 
 Indus. Pop. 7000.— Area of state, 6109 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 200,000, mostly Mohannnedans. 
 
 Khandesh, or Candeish, on the northernmost 
 edge of the Deccan in India, lies south of tlie 
 Nerbudda and east of Baroda, and is intersected 
 by the Tapti River. Area of the district (in Bom- 
 bay presidency), 10,907 sq. m. ; pop. 1,460,851. 
 
 Khania. See Canea. 
 
 Kharbin. See Harbin. 
 
 KharkoflF, capital of a Russian government, 
 and one of the chief towns of the Ukraine, is by 
 rail 312 miles NW. of Taganrog and 465 S. by W. 
 of Moscow. It is the seat of a Greek bishop and 
 of a university (1805), with four faculties, 900 
 students, an observatory, a library of 56,000 vol- 
 umes, a botanical garden, &c. There are also 
 a theological seminary, a veterinary school, and 
 a government model farm. The chief industrial 
 products are sugar, soap, candles, felt, brandy, 
 tobacco, and iron ; but the place is principally 
 celebrated for its four great fairs, at two of which 
 (in horses and wool) the united turnover amounts 
 annually to the sum of nearly £3,000,000. Pop. 
 176,500. — The government, situated in Little 
 Russia, has an area of 21,035 sq. m., and a 
 population of 2,537,900. 
 
 Khartoum, or Khartum, the most important 
 town in the eastern Soudan, stands on the low 
 tongue of land between the Blue and the White 
 Nile, just above their junction, 445 miles SW. of 
 Suakim {via Berber), and 1625 S. of Cairo, follow- 
 ing the windings of the Nile. Khartoum is the 
 starting-point and terminus of caravans to the 
 interior, and has been notorious for its great 
 activity in the slave-trade. It was founded under 
 the rule of Mehemet Ali in 1823, and soon became 
 a place of commercial importance, and was made 
 the capital of the Egyptian Soudan. It has a 
 melancholy interest for Engli.shmen since its 
 heroic defence by General Gordon against the 
 forces of the Mahdi in 1884-85. Two days before 
 the rescuing army reached it, Khartoum fell, and 
 with it Gordon (26th January). At the time of 
 the Mahdi's revolt its pop. was set down as 60,000. 
 Since then Omdurman, on the opposite bank, has 
 largely superseded it. 
 
 Khasi and Jaintla Hills, a district in Assam. 
 Area, 6041 sq. m. ; pop. 197,904 ; administrative 
 headquarters, Shillong (pop. 3640). It forms 
 part of the watershed between the Brahmaputra 
 and the Surma, and rises in a series of step- 
 
KHATMANDU 
 
 387 
 
 KIDDERMINSTER 
 
 like plateaua The rainfall in some parts is 
 enormous ; the average for twenty-five years 
 being 489 inches. In 1861, 805 inches (366 in July 
 alone) are recorded to have fallen. For ages 
 Bengal has been supplied with limestone, lime, 
 and oranges, and since 1830 with potatoes, from 
 this district ; and coal and iron ore exist, but 
 only the latter is extracted. The Khasis are an 
 Indo-Chinese race. 
 
 Khatmandu', the capital of Nepal, at the con- 
 fluence of the Baghmati and Vishnumati rivers. 
 The principal building is the immense ugly palace 
 of the Maharaja. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Khelat. See Kelat. 
 
 Kherson, or Cherson, capital of a Russian 
 government, stands on the Dnieper, 19 miles from 
 its mouth, and 81 NE. of Odessa. The town was 
 laid out by Prince Potemkin in 1778 as a port for 
 the construction of ships of war ; but was soon 
 supplanted by Odessa and Nikolaieff, both as a 
 dockyard and a commercial outlet. It has a 
 large trade in timber, and manufactures soap, 
 tallow, beer, and tobacco. Wool-cleansing is an 
 important industry. At Kherson Potemkin is 
 buried, and John Howard, tlie prison reformer, 
 died. Pop. a little over 70,000.— Tlie government 
 borders on the Black Sea, having tlie Dnieper for 
 its eastern boundary and the Dniester for its 
 western, while the interior is watered by the 
 Bug, Ingul, &c., which form sliallow, salt lagoons 
 next the sea. Area, 27,515 sq. m. ; pop. about 
 2,800,000. Tlie cliief towns are Kherson, Odessa, 
 Nikolaieff, OtchakofF, Yelisavetgrad, Voznesensk, 
 and Tiraspol. 
 
 Khiva, also called Kharasm, Khwari'zm, or 
 Urgenj (anc. Ghorasmia), a khanate of Turkestan 
 in central Asia, lies between 37° 45'— 44° SO' N. 
 lat. and 50° 15' — 63° B. long., and contains about 
 25,000 sq. m., the surface being mostly a sandy 
 desert, with many fertile tracts scattered over it. 
 It is bounded N. by the Russian territory and 
 Sea of Aral, E. by Bokhara, S. by Persia, and W. 
 by the Caspian Sea. The chief oasis, in which 
 the capital Khiva is situated, stretches from the 
 mouth of the Oxus or Amu-Daria for 200 miles 
 along its banks, and is watered by canals fed by 
 it. The inhabited area is about 5000 sq. m. ; the 
 pop. about 260,000 settled inhabitants and nearly 
 as many nomads. Khiva, successively subject to 
 Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the Califate, became 
 an independent monarchy in 1092 a.d., but in 
 1221 succumbed to the Mongols, under Genghis 
 Khan, and in 1370 came to Timiir. Timor's de- 
 scendants were subdued in 1511 by a chief of the 
 Uzbegs. In 1717 Peter the Great endeavoured to 
 conquer Khiva, in 1839 the attempt was renewed 
 by the Czar Nicholas ; but it was not till 1873 
 that a great and final eff'ort was made to crush 
 Khiva. The Russians entered it on 10th June ; 
 and the khan had to cede to Bokhara the 
 Khivan possessions on the right bank of the 
 Amu-Daria. The rest of Khiva is ruled by 
 the khan, under Russian suzerainty.— Khiva, 
 the capital of the khanate, is on the Hazveti 
 Pehlivan Canal, in the western portion of the 
 great oasis. It consists almost entirely of earth- 
 huts. Pop. 20,000. Other towns are Yenghi- 
 Urgenj, the commercial centre of the khanate, 
 and Kungrat, not far from the Aral. See works 
 by Vamb6ry (1864), Burnaby (1876), Stunim (Eng. 
 trans. 1885), and Lansdell (1885). 
 
 Khodavendighiar, a Turkish division of Asia 
 Minor, south of the Sea of Marmora. 
 
 Khol, a town in the Persian province of Azer- 
 
 bijan, 75 miles NW. of Tabriz. Here Selim L 
 defeated the Persians in 1514. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Khojak, a pass in the Khwaja Amran range, at 
 the head of the Pishiu valley, has been pierced 
 at a height of 6400 feet above the sea by a tunnel, 
 2^ miles long, on the railway from India to 
 Kandahar. 
 
 Khojend, a walled town of Russian Turkestan, 
 on the Sir-Daria, 76 miles S. by W. of Khokand. 
 It manufactures silk. The Russians seized it in 
 1865. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Khokand, once a khanate of Turkestan, now 
 forming the Russian government of Ferghana 
 (q.v.). The town of Khokand has 84,000 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Khonsar, or Khunsar, a Persian town, 80 miles 
 NW. of Ispahan. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Khorassan (old Persian 'eastward'), the 
 largest province of Persia, bordering on Afghan- 
 istan, contains about 210,000 sq. m., of which 
 nearly one-third is a vast salt waste ; of the 
 remainder a large portion consists of plains of 
 shifting sand. The fertile districts are in the 
 north, where the high range of the Elburz 
 cros-ses the province. The chief towns are 
 Meshed (the capital), Nishapur, Kutchan, Shah- 
 rud, Khaf, Kain, and Tebbes. 
 
 Khorsabad. See Nineveh. 
 
 BLhotan, or Ilchi, a city of eastern Turkestan, 
 at the northern base of the Kuen-Lun Moun- 
 tains. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Khulm, a city (pop. 15,000), capital of a small 
 state in Afghan Turkestan, adjoining Balkh. 
 
 Khurja, a town of India, 50 miles SE. of Delhi. 
 There is a large export of raw cotton to Cawn- 
 pore and Calcutta. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Khuzlstan (anc. Susiana), a province of Persia, 
 having Fars and the Persian Gulf on the south. 
 
 Khyber Pass, the great northern military 
 road between the Punjab and Afghanistan, winds 
 33 miles north-westward, and varies in width 
 from 150 yards to 20, in one place only ' 10 feet 
 or less.' It is liable to sudden inundations. The 
 mountains on either side are often sheer walls of 
 smooth rock ; they vary in height from 1400 to 
 over 3000 feet. The Khyber Pass has been the 
 key of the adjacent regions in either direction 
 from the days of Alexander the Great ; and it 
 was stipulated in the treaty of Gandamak (1879) 
 that the Anglo-Indian authorities were in future 
 to have full control of it. 
 
 Kiachta, or Kiakhta, a town of theSiberian pro- 
 vince of Transbaikalia, 165 miles SE. of Irkutsk, 
 close to the Chinese town of Maimatchin. Pop! 
 9000. Kiachta was from 1689 to 1800 the sole 
 trading-place between China and Russia. 
 
 Kiangsi, Kiangsu, provinces of China (q.v.). 
 
 Klao-chao, or Kiao-chow, a city inland from 
 the bay of the same name, in the Cliinese proinon- 
 tory of Sliantung. In 1898 tlie town, witli an 
 area of 130 sq. m. and a pop. of 60,000, was leased 
 to Germany for ninety-nine years, forming a 
 German protectorate. The foreign settlement 
 and port are at Tsiiig-tao, on the same bay, where 
 fine streets have been built, and waterworks, 
 telephones, electric liglit, &c. establislied, 
 
 Kidderminster, a parliamentary and muni- 
 cipal borough of Worcestershire, on the Stour, 
 4 miles above its junction with the Severn, and 
 14^ miles by rail N. of Worcester, 121 NW. of 
 London. It is a busy, thriving-looking place, 
 chiefly noteworthy for its carpet manufacture, 
 which dates from 1735. Worsted spinning and 
 
 I. 
 
KIDWELLY 
 
 KILDONAN 
 
 dyeing are also carried on. Richard Baxter was 
 for fourteen years vicar, and tliere is a statue of 
 him (1875). An illustrious native was Sir Row- 
 land Hill ; a marble statue of him was erected 
 in 1881. Chief buildings are the parish churcli, 
 Early English to Perpendicular in style, with a 
 noble pinnacled tower ; a Renaissance town-hall 
 (1877), a corn exchange (1855), a free library, and 
 a free grammar-school, founded in 1637. Kidder- 
 minster was incorporated as a municipal borough 
 by Charles I., and since 1832 has returned one 
 member. Pop. (1851)18,453; (1901) 24,692. See 
 Burton's History of Kidderminster (1890). 
 
 Kidwelly, a Carmarthenshire municipal 
 borough (1885), near Carmarthen Bay, 9| miles 
 WNW. of Llanelly. Pop. 2282. 
 
 EaeflF {Kee-yef), one of the oldest towns of 
 Russia, stands on the Dnieper, by rail 586 miles 
 SW. of Moscow and 381 N. of Odessa. From 882 
 to 1169 it was the capital of the Russian princi- 
 pality, and here in 988 Christianity was first 
 preached in Russia by St Vladimir. Captured by 
 the Mongols in 1240, it was held by Litliuania 
 from 1320 till 1569, and then by Poland till 1654, 
 when it was annexed to Russia. The town is 
 built on elevated ground (350 feet above the 
 river), and the Dnieper is spanned by a fine sus- 
 pension bridge (1851). The celebrated Petclierslc 
 monastery is visited by 250,000 pilgrims annually. 
 Tlie cathedral of St Sophia (1037) contains the 
 tombs of the grand-dulces of Russia ; and the 
 cathedral church of the Assumption has a beauti- 
 ful belfry with a peal of twelve bells. Kieff has 
 nearly seventy churches, many of them with 
 gilded domes and pinnacles, which give the city 
 a strilving appearance. The university, removed 
 here from Vilno in 1833, has four faculties and 
 1700 students. There are also theological colleges, 
 a military school, and an arsenal. The industry 
 is unimportant, except tanning and the manu- 
 facture of candles. Considerable trade is done, 
 especially at the January and other fairs. The 
 fortress of Kieff, begun by Peter the Great in 
 1706, occupies a commanding site on the Dnieper's 
 riglit banlc. Pop. 250,000. — The government em- 
 braces great part of the Ulcraiiie, and is bounded 
 NE. by the Dnieper ; the area is nearly 20,000 
 sq. m., and tlie population 3,600,000. 
 
 Kiel (Keel), chief town of the Prussian province 
 of Sleswiclf-Holstein, stands GQ miles N. by E. 
 of Hamburg by rail, at the head of a deep inlet 
 (11 miles long) of the Baltic, which admits large 
 ships to anclior close to the town. It is the 
 Baltic headquarters of the German navy, and 
 has imperial shipbuilding-yards, slips, dry and 
 wet doclcs, &c., naval marine stores, a naval 
 academy, and an observatory. It is also an 
 important commercial port, some 1,100,000 tons 
 of merchandise passing in and out annually. The 
 chief imports are corn, coal, timber, and cattle, 
 whilst coal, flour, beer, butter, cheese, and fish 
 are exported. There are iron-foundries, ship- 
 building-yards, corn-mills, breweries, and cabinet- 
 makers' works. Kiel is the seat of a university, 
 founded in 1665, with new buildings completed 
 in 1876, 85 professors and teachers, and nearly 
 500 students. The 13th-century castle shelters 
 the university library of 200,000 volumes and a 
 museum with sculptures by Thorwaldsen. The 
 bay is defended by forts. For the Baltic Canal 
 connecting the Elbe and the Bay of Kiel, see 
 Baltic Sea. Kiel affords good bathing facilities. 
 Pop. (1875) 37,270 ; (1890) 69,172 ; (1900) 121,790. 
 
 Kielce, the smallest of the Polish governments 
 of Russia, on the Austrian frontier. Area, 3897 
 
 sq. m. ; pop. 780,000. The capital, Kielce, 85 
 miles NE. of Cracow, has 25,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Kikinda, Naoy, a town of Hungary, 36 miles 
 by rail W. of Temesvar. Pop. 24,500. 
 Kilauea, the great volcano of Hawaii (q.v.). 
 Kilbarchan (Kilbar'hhan), a town of Renfrew- 
 shire, 12 miles W. by S. of Glasgow. It manu- 
 factures silks, cottons, &c. Pop. 2887. 
 
 Kllbeggan, a town of Westmeath, 4 miles 
 SE. of Horseleap station. Pop. 900. 
 
 Kilbirnle, an Ayrshire town, on the Garnock, 
 20 miles SW. of Glasgow. It manufactures linen- 
 thread, wincey, nets, &c. Pop. 4578. 
 
 Kllbowle, now part of the police-burgh of 
 Clydebank, in Dumbartonshire, is the seat of the 
 Singer sewing-machine works. 
 
 Kilbride, East, a town of Lanarkshire, 12 
 miles SSE. of Glasgow. Pop. 1230. 
 
 Kilbride, West, an Ayrshire town, 4J miles 
 NNW. of Ardrossan. Pop. 2320. 
 
 Kilburn, a metropolitan suburb, 5 miles NW. 
 of St Paul's. See also Kinburn. 
 
 Kilchurn (Kilhoom'), a ruined castle of the 
 Campbells, in Argyllshire, at the NE. end ol 
 Loch Awe, 2^ miles W. by N. of Dalmally. 
 
 Kilcreggan, a coast-village in Rosneath penin- 
 sula, Dumbartonshire, 3J miles NW. of Greenock. 
 It forms a police-burgh with Cove. Pop. 916. 
 
 Kilcullen, a town of Kildare, 5 miles S. of 
 Newbridge station. Pop. 616. 
 
 Kildare', a county of Leinster, Ireland, bounded 
 by Dublin, Wicklow, Queen's and King's coun- 
 ties, Meath, and Carlow. Its chief town is Naas, 
 and other municipal towns are Kildare, Kilcullen, 
 Maynootli, and Athy, besides many villages. The 
 area is 418,836 acres, or 654 sq. m. ; the surface 
 is generally flat, and the soil very productive. 
 In the northern part the great Bog of Allen 
 covers some 40,000 acres, intersected by elevated 
 ridges of dry ground. From this bog rises the 
 conical Hill of Allen, 300 feet high. Agriculture 
 is the main occupation. The' most fertile and 
 best-farmed districts are the valleys of the Liffey 
 and the Greese ; other rivers are the Boyne and 
 Blackwater (both having their source in County 
 Kildare), the Barrow and the Lesser Barrow. To 
 the south of the town of Kildare is the Curragh 
 (q.v.) of Kildare, an undulating plain of bright 
 green grass covering about 8000 acres. Kildare 
 retnrns two members. Pop. (1841) 114,488 ; (1901) 
 63,469, of whom 54,794 were Catholics. Kildare 
 is noted for its antiquities— giant stone pillars, 
 earthworks, sepulchral mounds, a stone circle, 
 five round towers, and the ruins of many religious 
 houses and castles. 
 
 The town of Kildare is 30 miles SW. of Dublin. 
 St Bridget (453-523) founded a nunnery here, and 
 the older name Druivi Criaidh was changed to 
 Cil-dara, the cell or church of the oak, from an 
 old tree under which she built her cell. There 
 are remains of three other monastic institutions, 
 and a round tower, the finest in the county, 
 103 feet high. The Protestant see (1550) is now 
 united with Dublin, and the Roman Catholic see 
 fonns the diocese of Kildare and Leighlin. Kil- 
 dare suffered severely in the Avars of the 16th 
 and 17th centuries. The rebellion of 1798-99 
 began in Kildare, which prior to the Union 
 returned two members. Pop. 1572. See works j 
 by Rawson (1807) and O'Byrne (1867). 
 
 Kildo'nan, a Sutherland parish, 83 miles NNB. 
 of Dingwall. Gold was mined here in 1868- "" 
 and experimental diggings were renewed in 1894. 
 
KILFINNANE 
 
 389 
 
 KILLIN 
 
 Baifinnane, a village of County Limerick, 5 
 miles SE. of Kilmallock. Pop, 101(3. 
 
 KiUa, a town in the portion of Bessarabia 
 ceded by Rouinania to Russia in 1878, is situated 
 on the northern bank of the Kilia branch of the 
 Danube, 20 miles NB. of Ismail. Pop. 11,700. 
 
 Bailma-Nja'ro, an isolated mountain mass in 
 East Africa, standing between Victoria Nyanza 
 and the coast, just within the northern limit of 
 the Grerman East African Company's territory, 
 in 3° 20' S. lat. and 37° 50' E. long. It consists 
 of two peaks, or rather craters, Kibo and Kima- 
 wenzi, connected by a broad saddle (14,000 feet) 
 studded with lava hills. Kibo was climbed by 
 Dr Meyer in 1889. Its highest point is 19,680 
 feet above sea-level ; its crater is 650 feet deep 
 and 6500 feet in diameter. He also climbed 
 Kimawenzi, and found it to exceed 17,250 feet. 
 The crater rim of both peaks is covered with a 
 thick crust of ice. In 1894, with the assent of 
 the I.B.E.A. Company, a community of peaceful 
 (but armed) Austrian Communists established 
 themselves on the slopes of Kilima-Njaro. See 
 H. H. Johnston's Kilimanjaro Expedition (1880). 
 
 Blilkee, a watering-place of County Clare, on 
 Moore Bay, 8 miles NW. of Kilrush. Pop. 1666. 
 
 Kilkeel, a seaport of County Down, 10 miles 
 SE. of Warrenpoint station. Pop. 1377. 
 
 Kilkenny, an inland county of Leinster, bor- 
 dering on Queen's County, Carlow, Wexford, 
 Waterford, and Tipperary. Its area is 509,732 
 acres, or 796 sq. m. Vegetation is earlier here 
 than in the rest of Ireland, and the soil along 
 the Suir, Nore, and Barrow is very rich. In the 
 northern part there are large tracts of moor 
 devoted to sheep and cattle. S. and SE. the 
 surface rises to a considerable elevation ; and in 
 the north there is another hilly region forming 
 part of the Castlecomer anthracite coalfield, 
 whose output is about 80,000 tons per annum, 
 or more than one-half that of all Ireland^ In 
 the western district are the Walsh Mountains. 
 The chief towns are Kilkenny, Callan, Thomas- 
 town, Freshford, Urlingford, and Castlecomer. 
 Pop. (1841) 202,420 ; (1901)78,821, of whom 74,572 
 were Catholics. Prior to the Union Kilkenny 
 returned sixteen members to the Irish parlia- 
 ment, but now the county returns two and the 
 city one. Kilkenny, anciently part of the king- 
 dom of Ossory, was formed into a county by 
 King John in 1210. Its Norman remains are 
 very numerous, and among other antiquities are 
 circular groups of stones on Slieve Grian and the 
 Hill of Cloghmanta, cromlechs and raths, forts 
 and mounds, five round towers, and monastic 
 ruins at Jerpoint, Rosbercon, Thomastown, 
 Knocktopher, &c. The most notable castle is 
 Graney, in Iverk, supposed to have been founded 
 by the Earls of Ormonde in 1521. The cave of 
 Duninore, between Kilkenny and Castlecomer, 
 which opens with a natural arch 50 feet high, 
 is noted for its stalactite chambers and its sub- 
 terranean stream. See J. G. Robertson's An- 
 tiquities and Scenery of Kilkenny (1851). 
 
 Kilkenny, the county town, is situated on 
 the Nore, 81 miles SW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 
 (1851) 19,975 ; (1901) 10,493. At one time it was 
 the seat of linen and woollen manufactures ; and 
 It does some marble-polishing, and has a trade in 
 provisions. The name is Celtic— Cil-Canice— the 
 church of St Canice or Kenny, a building dating 
 from 1052, and the largest ecclesiastical edifice 
 in Ireland except St Patrick's at Dublin. It is 
 in the Early English stvle. 226 feet long by 123 
 across the transepts. There are many old sepul- 
 
 I. 
 
 chral monuments, and the remains of a round 
 tower still 100 feet high. Other ecclesiastical 
 remains are the preceptory of St John's (1211) ; 
 the Dominican abbey (1225), still used as a 
 Roman Catholic church ; and the Franciscan 
 abbey (1230). In 1857 was erected the Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, at a cost of £30,000, with 
 a massive central tower 186 feet high. On 
 a precipitous rock above the Nore is Strong- 
 bow's famous castle (1175), restored during 
 the 19th century as a residence for the Marquis 
 of Ormonde. The 16th-ceutury grammar-school 
 also stands by the river, fronting the castle; 
 here Swift, Congreve, and Bishop Berkeley 
 received their education. Near the city is the 
 Roman Catholic college of St Kyran. Crom- 
 well laid siege to the city in 1648, and in 1650 
 it capitulated on honourable terms. The fable 
 of the 'Kilkenny cats,' which fought till only 
 the tails were left, was a satire on the contentions 
 of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, 
 
 Elillala, a seaport of County Mayo, 8 miles 
 NW. of Ballina station. Pop. 510. 
 
 Killaloe (Killaloo'), a town of Clare, on the 
 Shannon, 17 miles NE. of Limerick. Pop. 885. 
 
 Klllarney, a Kerry market-town, 185 miles by 
 rail SW. of Dublin, and 47 WNW. of Cork. The 
 Roman Catholic cathedral, a very imposing struc- 
 ture, along with the Bishop's Palace, was designed 
 by Pugin. There are also a large Episcopal 
 church, a lunatic asvlum, a court-house, &c. 
 Pop. (1851) 7127 ; (1901) 5656. 
 
 Killarney, The Lakes of, are a series of three 
 connected sheets of water, the lowermost of 
 which is within 1^ mile of the town of Killarney. 
 The outflow is by the river Laune north-west to 
 Castlemain Harbour. These famous lakes are 
 situated in a basin in the midst of the mountains 
 of Kerry, some of which rise abruptly from the 
 water's edge densely clothed with trees from base 
 to summit. The lower lake. Lough Leane, covers 
 5001 acres in area, is studded with richly-wooded 
 islands— the largest Ross Island, on which is an 
 old stronghold of the O'Donoghues. Another 
 island is the ' sweet Innisfallen ' of Moore's song, 
 and on this is the picturesque ruin of an abbey, 
 founded by St Fiiiian the leper in the 6th century. 
 The upper lake covers 430 acres, and is also 
 studded with islands. Between the two is Lough 
 Tore (680 acres). Connecting the upper with the 
 lower and middle lakes is the Long Range, a 
 beautifully- wooded, winding stream 2 J miles long. 
 Midway in its course occurs the famous echo, 
 caused by a lofty rock, the Eagle's Nest. Between 
 the lower and the middle lake is the fine ruin of 
 Muckross Abbey, founded by the Franciscans in 
 1440. A peculiarity of the scenery is the luxuriant 
 growth of arbutuses on the islands of the lakes. 
 See works by Mr and Mrs Hall (1843-78). 
 
 Killashandra, a town of Cavan, 6 miles NW. 
 of Crossdoney station. Pop. 559. 
 
 Killearn, a Stirlingshire village, 16^ miles 
 NNW. of Glasgow. At the farmhouse of Moss, 
 IJ mile SSW., was born George Buchanan. 
 
 KlUenaule, a town of Tipperary, 11 miles SE. 
 of Thurles. Pop. 560. 
 
 Killlecrankie, a beautiful wooded pass in 
 Perthshire, on the Garry, 15 miles NNW. of 
 Dunkeld. It is traversed by Wade's Great High- 
 land Road (1732), and by the Highland Railway 
 (1863). At its head, on 27th July 1689, Claver- 
 house defeated Mackay and was slain. 
 
 KilUn', a Perthshire village, near the head of 
 Loch Tay, 37 miles NW. of Stirling. Pop. 539. 
 
KILLORGLIN 
 
 390 
 
 KINCARDINESHIRE 
 
 Bailorglin, a town of County Kerry, 13 miles 
 NW. of Killarney. Pop. 1018. 
 
 Killybegs, a Donegal seaport, 17 miles W. of 
 Donegal town. Pop. 1(307. 
 
 Killyleagh {Killylay'), a seaport of County 
 Down, on the west side of Lough Strangford, 
 6 miles N. of Downpatrick, Pop. 1410. 
 
 Kilmalnham, a western suburb of Dublin city. 
 Pop. 5390. Here are the Royal Hospital for 250 
 old soldiers, founded by Charles II., and the 
 prison of Kihnainham. 
 
 Kilmalcolm (locally Kil-ma-koam'), a Renfrew- 
 shire village,15 miles WNW. of Glasgow. Pop. 2220. 
 
 Kllmallook, a market-town, 17 miles S. of 
 Limerick. Pop. 1029. 
 
 Kllmar'nock, the largest town in Ayrshire, on 
 Irvine and Kilmarnock waters, 15^ miles by rail 
 NNB. of Ayr, and 24 SSW. of Glasgow. It 
 received its name Kil-mo-Ernin-occ (Gael., ' church 
 of my little Ernin') from the dedication of its 
 church about 1200 to an Irish saint of the 7th 
 century ; and in 1591 it was made a burgh of 
 barony under the Boyds, from which date its 
 hose and bonnet making grew into thriving 
 industries. The great carpet manufacture was 
 introduced in 1777, and the printing of calicoes 
 in 1770, of shawls in 1824; tweeds, winceys, 
 boots, &c. are also manufactured ; and the Glas- 
 gow and South- Western Railway works were 
 transferred hither in 1858. The staple trade, 
 however, is in connection with iron, owing to 
 Kilmarnock's situation in a great mineral dis- 
 trict; and the October cheese- fair (established 
 1855) is second to none in the kingdom. iThe 
 Boyds' Dean Castle, 1 mile NE., was reduced by 
 fire to ruin in 1735 ; and the town itself, which 
 has suffered twice from fire (1668 and 1800), and 
 once from flood (1852), has few buildings of 
 interest. The town-hall (1805), the court-house 
 (1852), the corn exchange (18G2), with its Albert 
 tower 110 feet high, and the new academy (1876) 
 may be noticed, as also may a statue of Sir 
 James Shaw (1848), and the Kay Park of 41 acres 
 (1879), with its Burns monument, a tower 80 feet 
 high. Of Burns and of the Covenanters Kil- 
 marnock has memories ; and it was the birth- 
 place of Alexander Smith. Since 1832 it has 
 united with Rutherglen, Dumbarton, Port-Glas- 
 gow, and Renfrew to return one member, its 
 parliamentary boundary having been extended in 
 1885. Pop. (1841) 19,398; (1901) 35,091. See 
 WKay's History of Kilmarnock(lSiS; 4th ed. 1880). 
 
 Kilmaurs', a town of Ayrshire, 2J miles NNW. 
 of Kilmarnock. Pop. 1803. 
 
 Kilmuii-', a Skye hamlet, 20 miles NNW. of 
 Portree, with Flora Macdonald's grave. 
 
 Kilmun', an Argyllshire village, on the NB. 
 shore of the Holy Loch, 7^ miles WNW. of 
 Greenock. Pop. 447. 
 
 Kilpatrick, Old, a Dumbartonshire village 
 nearthe N. bank of the Clyde, Hi miles WNW. 
 of Glasgow, It is the traditional birthplace of 
 St Patrick. The Kilpatrick Hills attain 1313 
 feet. Pop. 1533. 
 
 Kllravock {KilrawK), an old castellated man- 
 sion of Nairnshire, long the seat of the Roses, on 
 the river Nairn, 7 miles SW. of Nairn town. 
 
 Kilrea, a town of Londonderry, on the Bann, 
 18 miles S. of Coleraine. Pop. 785. 
 
 Kilrenny, a royal burgh in the East Neuk of 
 Fife, li mile NE. of Anstruther. It is one of the 
 Bt Andrews parliamentary burghs. Pop. 2510. 
 
 Kllrush', a Clare seaport and watering-place, 
 on the N. shore of the Shannon estuary, 36 miles 
 W, of Limerick. Pop. 4175. 
 
 Kilsyth (Kil-sith'), a town of Stirlingshire, 13 
 miles NE. of Glasgow, with quarries and coal and 
 iron mines. Founded in 1665, it was made a 
 burgh of barony in 1826. Here, on 15th August 
 1645, Montrose with 4900 followers almost anni- 
 hilated 7000 Covenanters. Revivals took place 
 here in 1742 and 1839. Pop. (1851) 394.9; (1901) 
 7292. See Anton's History of Kilsyth (1890). 
 
 Kllwa. See Quiloa. 
 
 Kilwinning, a town of Ayrshire, on the Gar- 
 nock, 3^ miles NNW. of Irvine and 26 SW. of 
 Glasgow. The stately Tironensian abbey, founded 
 in the 12th and demolished in the 16th century, 
 was dedicated to Winnin, an Irish saint, who is 
 said to have founded a church here about 715. 
 The traditional birthplace of Freemasonry in 
 Scotland, with a new 'mother lodge' (1893), 
 Kilwinning was also celebrated (1488-1870) for 
 archery ; its July shooting at the popinjay, which 
 was placed on the steeple (105 feet high), is de- 
 scribed in Scott's Old Mortality. Eglinton Castle 
 (1798), the seat of the Earls of Eglinton (q.v.), 
 is l| mile SE. ; and the Eglinton Ironworks 
 (1846) afibrd employment. Pop. 4450. See works 
 by Wylie (1878) and Lee Ker (1883). 
 
 Kim'berley, (1) a town of Notts, 5f miles NW. 
 of Nottingham. Pop. of ecclesiastical parish, 
 5130.— (2) A Norfolk parish, 3^ miles NW. of 
 Wymondham, with the seat of the Earl of 
 Kimberley.— (3) Capital of Griqualand West, 
 South Africa, the most important inland town 
 of Cape Colony, is situated 540 miles NB. of 
 Capetown by rail (30 hours). With the rest of 
 Griqualand West, Kimberley became part of Cape 
 Colony only in 1880 ; but the town owes its exist- 
 ence and rapid growth to the diamond-mines, the 
 working of which dates from 1871. It is on the 
 main line from Capetown and the sea to the Orange 
 River Colony, the Transvaal, and the immense 
 territories to the north. Tliere are a liandsome 
 town-hall, post-office, high court, public library, 
 and botanic gardens. In the South African war 
 Kimberley was defended by British troops 
 against the Boers for 122 days in 1899-1900, 
 until relieved by French. Pop. (1891) 28,718; 
 (1904) 34,260, of whom half are whites.— (4) A 
 fertile district in the Fitzroy basin in northern 
 (tropical) Western Australia, where gold was 
 found in 1893. 
 
 Kimbolton, a market-town of Hunts, on the 
 Kym, 11 miles WSW. of Huntingdon. Kim- 
 bolton Castle is the seat of the Duke of Man- 
 chester, Pop. of parish, 993. 
 
 KLimmerldge, a Dorset parish, 3^ miles SW. of 
 Corfe Castle. It gives name to Kimmeridge Clay, 
 the lowest series of the Upper Oolite. 
 
 Kim'polung, (1) a town of Wallachia, stands in 
 a valley at the foot of the Carpathians, 80 miles 
 NW. from Bucharest. Pop. 9090.— (2) A town in 
 the extreme south of Bukowina. Pop. 5534. 
 
 Klnabalu. See Borneo. 
 
 Klnbum, or Kilburn, a former fort (razed 
 1860) of south Russia, opposite Otchakoff, on a 
 long narrow sandbank which forms the southern 
 boundary of the Dnieper's estuary. 
 
 B:incar'dlne, a seaport now of Fife (till 1889 
 Perthshire detached), on the Forth's left bank, 
 10 miles W. by N. of Dunfermline. Pop. 1700. 
 
 Kincar'dlneshlre, or The Mearns, a maritime 
 county of Scotland, with Aberdeenshire and th« 
 
KINCSINJIN6A 3 
 
 l)ee on the N., Forfarshire and the North Esk on 
 the S. and W., and the North Sea on the B. 
 Area, 383 sq. ni., or 245,346 acres, of which 120,050 
 are in cnltivation, and 23,153 in wood. The county 
 may be divided into four sections— viz. the Coasty* 
 the 'Howe o' the Mearns,' the Grampians, and 
 Deeside. Much of the first two is of superior 
 quality ; the ' Howe ' forms a continuation of the 
 Valley of Strathmore (q.v.). The Grampians, 
 running across the country from east to west, 
 parallel to the Dee, attain in Mount Battock 
 2555 feet high. The principal towns and villages 
 are Stonehaven, Bervie, Laurencekirk, Banchory, 
 Johnshaven. Of the objects of antiquarian in- 
 terest the most noted are Dunnottar Castle and 
 Raedyke's Camp, one of the sites of the Battle of 
 the Grampians. Kincardineshire was the birth- 
 place of George Wishart, Robert Barclay, Dr J. 
 Beattie, and Dr Thomas Reid ; and the father 
 of Robert Burns was born in Dunnottar parish. 
 Pop. (1801) 26,349 ; (1871) 34,630 ; (1901) 40,923. 
 
 Kinchin jlnga, or Kanchanjanga, a Himalaya 
 peak (28,176 feet) between Sikkim and Nepal. 
 
 Kinder Scout, the highest summit (2080 feet) 
 of the Peak district, Derbyshire. 
 
 Kineton, a Warwicksliire market-town, 11 
 miles S. by E. of Warwick. Pop. of parish, 1008. 
 
 Kinfare, See Kinver. 
 
 iUnfauns, a Gothic mansion (1322) of Perth- 
 shire, 3 miles E. by S. of Perth. 
 
 King Country. See Waikato. 
 
 King George's Sound, an inlet 5 miles north 
 and south, and 5 miles broad, at the south-west 
 angle of West Australia, which is an excellent 
 roadstead, and contains two landlocked recesses, 
 Princess Royal and Oyster Harbours. 
 
 Kinghom, a royal burgh of Fife, on the Firth 
 of Forth, 3 miles S. of Kirkcaldy by rail. It has 
 shipbuilding-yards, a bleachfield, manufactures 
 of flax and glue, and golf-links. Alexander HI. 
 was killed (1286) at Kinghorn Ness, and a monu- 
 ment was erected on the spot in 1887. Pop. 1550. 
 
 Kingsbridge, a town of Devon, at the head of 
 Salcombe haven, 10^ miles SW. of Potness. John 
 Walcot ('Peter Pindar') was a native. Pop. of 
 urban district (1901) 3025. 
 
 Kingsburgh, a Skye mansion on the E. side of 
 Loch Snizort, 9 miles NW. of Portree. It has 
 memories of Prince Charlie, Flora Macdonald, 
 and Dr Johnson. 
 
 King's County, an inland county of Ireland, 
 in Leinster, is separated on the W. by the Shan- 
 non from Roscommon and Galway. It is 20 miles 
 long from N. to S. by 58 wide. Area, 493,985 
 statute acres, or 772 sq. m. Of this 23 per cent, 
 is covered with bogs, including a large part of 
 the Bog of Allen, and about 26 per cent, is under 
 crops. Pop. (1841) 146,857 ; (1861) 90,013 ; (1901) 
 60,129, of whom 53,788 were Roman Catholics. 
 The surface is flat, except for the Slieve Bloom 
 Mountains (1733 feet) on the south boundary. 
 The Grand Canal traverses the north of the county, 
 and joins the Shannon. The river Barrow separ- 
 ates it from Queen's County on the south-east. 
 King's County, constituted a shire in 1557, and 
 named in honour of King Philip, returns two 
 members. In the north-west is Clonmacnoise 
 Abbey (q.v.) ; at Birr Castle Lord Rosse erected 
 his great telescope. The chief towns are TuUa- 
 niore, Parsonstown or Birr, and Portarlington. 
 
 Kingsclere, a town of Hants, 9 miles NW. of 
 Basingstoke. Pop. of parish, 2450. 
 
 Klingscourt, a town of Cavan, 20 miles N. of 
 Navan. Pop. 843. 
 
 1 ^INGSTON-IiPON-THAMiS 
 
 King's Lynn. See Lynn. 
 
 Kingsmill Islands, another name for the 
 Gilbert Islands (q.v.). 
 
 King's-Norton, a Worcestershire town, 5^ miles 
 SW. of Birmingham. It manufactures paper, 
 screws, chocolate, &c. Pop. of urban district, 
 Kiiig's-Norton and Northfield (1901), 57,122. 
 
 King's Seat. See Ochils. 
 
 Kingston, chief town of Frontenac county, 
 Ontario, is situated at the head of Lake Ontario, 
 and at the mouth of the Cataraqui Creek, 161 
 miles by rail BNE. of Toronto. It has hand- 
 some public buildings, and is the seat of the 
 Royal Military College of Canada (1876), of 
 Queen's University (1841), with museums and 
 an observatory, and of the Royal College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons (1854), and the Women's 
 Medical College (1883) affiliated to it. The 
 city has, besides excellent railway facilities, 
 good water-communication by the lake, the St 
 Lawrence, and the Rideau Canal, which la.st 
 connects it with Ottawa. It possesses a large, 
 sheltered harbour, with an active trade, and 
 strongly fortified ; and, besides busy shipyards, 
 has manufactories of locomotives and stationary 
 engines, machinery, leather, boots and shoes, 
 agricultural implements, wooden wares, &c. 
 Grant Allen and George Romanes were born here. 
 The capital of Canada from 1841 to 1844, Kingston 
 is the seat of an Anglican bishop and of a Roman 
 Catholic archbishop. Its site was occupied by 
 the old French fort of Frontenac. Population, 
 nearly 20,000. 
 
 Kingston, the capital of Jamaica, stands on the 
 north side of a landlocked harbour, the best in 
 the island, and, for its size, one of the best in 
 the world. Population, about 48,000. It was 
 founded in 1693-1703, after the neighbouring 
 town of Port Royal had been destroyed by an 
 earthquake. From this place, afterwards rebuilt, 
 Kingston is distant 6 miles, the breadth of its 
 noble haven ; while with Spanish Town, towards 
 the interior, it has since 1846 been connected by 
 railway. In 1758 Spanish Town was made the 
 capital, but in 1872 the seat of government was 
 removed to Kingston. Kingston was visited in 
 1880 by a violent hurricane, and by a vast con- 
 flagration in December 1882, as also before in 
 1782 and 1843. The most interesting public build- 
 ing is the Old Church, where Benbow the ' old 
 sea-dog ' is buried. 
 
 Kingston, capital of Ulster county. New York 
 state, stands on the right bank of the Hudson, 54 
 miles S. of Albany. It is a railway and canal 
 terminus, and forwards enormous quantities of 
 blue-stone flags. Kingston is also a centre of 
 the hydraulic cement business, and contains 
 breweries, tanneries, flour-mills, foundries, brick- 
 yards, &c. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Kingston-on-HuU. See Hull. 
 Klngston-upon-Thames, a municipal borough 
 of Surrey, 12 miles SW. of London, lies on the 
 right bank of the Thames, here crossed by two 
 bridges — one of stone completed 1828 and freed 
 1870, and the other an iron railway viaduct. Of 
 late years, with its suburbs of Norbiton, Sur- 
 biton, and New Maiden, it has grown rapidly, its 
 easy access to London, coupled with its facilities 
 for boating and its pleasant surroundings, notably 
 Hampton Court, Bushy and Richmond Parks, 
 having attracted large numbers of residents. 
 The borough is within the London Metropolitan 
 Police District. Pop. (of parish, 1801) 4886 ; (1891) 
 27,059 ; (1901) 34,375. The parish church has some 
 
 I. 
 
iSlNGSTOWN 
 
 392 
 
 KIRKCALDY 
 
 fine moniiinents ; the county council buildings, 
 costing £36,000, were undertaken in 1890. Seven 
 of the Anglo-Saxon kings were crowned here, as 
 recorded on the coronation-stone still standing 
 near the market-place ; King John, who granted 
 the town its first charter, was a frequent visitor 
 in 1204-15 ; in 1264 Kingston Castle (of which no 
 traces now remain) was captured by Henry III.; 
 Fairfax made the town his headquarters in 1647 ; 
 and a year later took place in the neighbourhood 
 the last fight between the royalists and Round- 
 heads. At Ham Common lived Gay's ' Kitty,' 
 Duchess of Queensberry. See Bideu's History of 
 Kingstoni-upon-Thames (1852). 
 
 Kingstown, a populous and important suburb 
 of Dublin, 7 miles SSB. from the G.P.O. Previous 
 to 1817, when the harbour- works were commenced, 
 it was merely a fishing- village known as Dunleary. 
 On the occasion of George IV. 's visit in 1821 its 
 name was changed to Kingstown. The situation 
 of the town and the invigorating air have made 
 it a favourite residence. The mail-packets sail 
 hence to Holyhead twice a day. There is little 
 general trade, though the harbour, completed by 
 the Admiralty in 1859 at a cost of £825,000, is 
 one of the finest in the United Kingdom. The 
 east pier is 3500 feet in length; the west, 5000 
 feet, enclosing an area of over 250 acres, with a 
 depth of from 13 to 27 feet. Vessels drawing 24 
 feet can come alongside the quay at any state of 
 the tide. Kingstown is within the parliament- 
 ary division of South Dublin. Pop. (1901) 17,356. 
 
 ISingstown, capital of the British West Indian 
 island of St Vincent, at its SW. extremity, on a 
 large bay, at the foot of a spur of Mount St 
 Andrew (2000 feet). Pop. 4547. 
 
 Kingswinford, a Staffordshire village, 3^ miles 
 N. by W. of Stourbridge. It has coal and iron 
 mines, and manufactures of iron, glass, bricks, 
 &c. Pop. of rural district, 20,000. ' 
 
 King-te-chin, the principal seat of porcelain 
 manufacture in China, in the province of Chiang- 
 hsi, on a small river which falls into Lake Po- 
 yang from the east. Pop. 500,000. 
 
 Kington, a Herefordshire town, 13 miles W. 
 by S. of Leominster. Mrs Siddons made her 
 d^but in a barn here. Pop. of rural dist. 5254. 
 
 Kingussie (Kin-yoos'sie), a police-burgh of 
 Inverness-shire, on the Spey's left bank, 72 miles 
 by rail NNW. of Perth. Pop. 990. 
 
 King Williamstown, a town in the SE. of 
 Capo Colony, on the Buffalo River, 80 miles 
 ENE. of Grahamstown, and by rail (1877) 42 
 WNW. of Bast London, on the coast. It has 
 considerable trade, military barracks and stores, 
 and a college. Pop. 8226. 
 
 Kinibalu. See Borneo. 
 
 Klnloss', an Elginshire parish, 3 miles NE. of 
 Forres, with a ruined Cistercian abbey (1150). 
 
 Kinnaird' Castle, the seat of the Earl of 
 Southesk, 3^ miles SE. of Brechin. 
 
 Kinnaird Head. See Fraserburgh. 
 
 KinnouU Hill (Kin-nool'), a beautiful wooded 
 eminence (729 feet) E. of Perth. 
 
 Kinross'-shire, the smallest Scotch county 
 after Clackmannanshire, lies between Perthshire 
 and Fife, and, measuring 9| by 12J miles, has an 
 area of 78 sq. m., or 49,812 acres, of which 3327 
 are water. Most of the drainage belongs to 
 Loch Leven (q.v.), from which the surface rises 
 to encircling hills 734 to 1573 feet high. Nearly 
 63 per cent, of the surface is in cultivation, and 
 2733 acres are under wood. A separate county 
 
 since 1252 and earlier, Kinross-shire unites with 
 Clackmannanshire to return one member to 
 parliament. Pop. (1801) 6725 ; (1851) 8924 ; (1901) 
 6980, of whom 2136 were in the county town, 
 Kinross, 27 miles NNW. of Edinburgh, and near 
 the west end of Loch Leven. Kinross House 
 (1685-92) was designed by Sir William Bruce, the 
 architect of the later portions of Holyrood. See 
 iEneas Mackay's History of Fife and Kinross (1890). 
 
 Kinsale', a municipal borough and seaport of 
 County Cork, at the head of Kinsale Harbour, 
 which is formed by the estuary of the river 
 Bandon, 24 miles SSW. of Cork by a railway 
 (1863). Down to the Union Kinsale returned 
 two members ; thenceforward one until 1885. Kin- 
 sale is much frequented by summer visitors. The 
 harbour, landlocked, is about 2 miles long and J 
 mile in average breadth. Formerly Kinsale was 
 one of the most flourishing ports on the south of 
 Ireland ; but its trade has been ruined by its more 
 successful rivals Cork and Queenstown. Valuable 
 fisheries are carried on. On the Old Head of 
 Kinsale stands a lighthouse whose light, 236 
 feet above high-water, is visible 21 miles. Pop. 
 (1851) 5506 ; (1901) 4250. In 1601, 3000 Spaniards 
 landed at Kinsale to fight for the O'Neill con- 
 federacy. Here James II. landed on 12th March 
 1689, and here he re-embarked in July 1690. 
 
 Kintore', an ancient royal burgh of Aberdeen- 
 shire (one of the Elgin pari, burghs), near the 
 Don, 13| miles N W. of Aberdeen. Pop. 789. 
 
 Kintyre', or Cantire (Gael, ceann-tir, ' head- 
 land '), a long, narrow peninsula of Argyllshire, 
 between the Atlantic and the Firth of Clyde, 
 extending 42 miles south by westward, and 4^ to 
 11^ miles broad. At the north end it connects 
 with the mainland by the isthmus of Tarbert, 1| 
 mile broad, between East Loch Tarbert, a bay of 
 Loch Fyne, and West Loch Tarbert. The surface 
 is diversified by a ridge of low, moorish hills, with 
 many lochs, the highest point being Ben-an-Tuirc 
 (1491 feet). Coal is found at Drumlemble, 4 miles 
 to the west of Campbeltown. Machrihanish Bay, 
 on the west coast, just beyond, possesses noted 
 golf-links. A lighthouse (1787), 297 feet above 
 sea-level, stands on the Mull of Kintyre, which 
 is overhung by Ben-na-Lice (1405 feet), and is 
 only 13 miles distant from Ireland. 
 
 Kinver, a town of Staffordshire, 4 miles WSW. 
 of Stourbridge. Pop. of parish, 2180. 
 
 Kioto. See Kyoto. 
 
 Kirghiz Steppes (Keer-geez, g hard), the region 
 of the Kirghiz Tartars or Turks, between the 
 Volga, Irtish, Caspian, and Sea of Aral. 
 
 Kirin, a Manchurian town, on the Sungari, 
 220 miles NE. of Mukden. Pop. 85,000. 
 
 Kirkburton, a Yorkshire town, 5 miles SE. of 
 Huddersfield. Pop. 2976. 
 
 Kirkby-Lonsdale, a Westmorland town, on 
 the Lune, 11 miles SSE. of Kendal. Pop. 1650. 
 
 Kirkby Moorside, a Yorkshire town, on the 
 Dove, 7i )niles WNW. of Pickering. Pop. 4800. 
 
 Kirkby Stephen, a AVestmorland town, on the 
 Eden, 9| miles SB. of Appleby. Pop. 1713. 
 
 Kirkcaldy {Kir-caw' dy), a seaport of Fife, on 
 the Firth of Forth, 15 miles N. of Edinburgh. 
 Including Linktown and Newtown of Abbots- 
 hall on the west, and Pathhead, Sinclairtown, 
 and Gallatown on the north-east, it is nearly 
 4 miles in length ; hence the name ' The Lang 
 Toun.' It was created a royal burgh in 1460, and, 
 with Dysart, Kinghorn, and Burntisland, returns 
 one member. Its harbour is small and shallow, 
 but there is wet-dock accommodation for ships 
 
KlRKCtTDBElGHT? 
 
 393 
 
 KISHM 
 
 of considerable burden, and a bill was passed in 
 1890 for the construction of a large new harbour. 
 Its manufactures are spinning flax, tow, and 
 jute, and bleaching and weaving linen yarns, 
 which are extensively carried on, the products 
 being the usual varieties of linen cloth ; mechan- 
 ical (including marine) engineering on a large 
 scale ; iron-founding ; and tanning. Tliere are 
 also several potteries. The manufacture of floor- 
 cloth and linoleum has been developed into a 
 great trade, and Kirkcaldy is the chief seat of 
 this important manufacture. There is also a 
 direct exi)ort trade to the United States. The 
 Beveridge public park was opened in 1892. Pop. 
 of parliamentary burgh (1841) 5704 ; (1871) 12,422 ; 
 (1901) 22.346 ; of royal burgh, as extended in 1S76 
 (1901), 34,063. Kirkcaldy is the birthplace of 
 Adam Su)ith (memorial hall, 1895); and Edward 
 Irving and Thomas Carlyle were teachers here. 
 
 Kirkcudbright (Kir-koo'bry), Stewartry of, 
 a county of south-west Scotland, washed on the 
 south for 50 miles by the Solway Firth, and 
 elsewhere bounded by Wigtown, Ayr, and Dum- 
 fries shires. Measuring 41 by 38 miles, it has an 
 area of 954 sq. m. ; is watered by the Nith, Urr, 
 Dee, Fleet, and Cree ; and in the south-east sends 
 up conspicuous Crift'el (18G7 feet), on the north- 
 west border Merrick (2764), tlie loftiest summit 
 in the south of Scotland. Little more than a 
 fourth of the entire area is in cultivation, though 
 great improvements have been eff'ected since the 
 foundation in 1809 of the Stewartry Agricultural 
 Society. Nearly 31 sq. m. are occupied by woods. 
 Towns are Kirkcudbright, New Galloway, Castle- 
 Douglas, Dalbeattie, Gatehouse, Creetown, and 
 Maxwelltown ; and the antiquities include the 
 Deil's Dyke, Threave Castle, and the ecclesiastical 
 ruins of Dundrennan, Lincluden, New Abbey, St 
 Mary's Isle, and Tongueland. Among worthies 
 of the Stewartry have been Samuel Rutherford, 
 Paul Jones, Thomas Brown, and Alexander 
 Murray. It returns one member to, parliament. 
 Pop. (1801) 29,211 ; (1851) 43,121 ; (1901) 39,407. 
 
 Kirkcudbright, the county town, 30 miles SW. 
 of Dumfries by a branch-line (1864), is beautifully 
 situated on the left bank of the Dee, which soon 
 begins to broaden into Kirkcudbright Bay, open- 
 ing into the Solway Firth 6 miles below. Its 
 name is derived from the church of St Cuthbert, 
 as old at least as 1164 ; and it is a royal burgh 
 (1455), uniting with Dumfries, &c. to return one 
 member. Chief buildings are the court-house 
 (1868) and town-hall (1879) ; a lattice-bridge (1868), 
 500 feet long, spans the Dee. The ivy-mantled 
 ruins of the castle (1582) of Maclellan of Bombie 
 still dominate the town. Pop. 2400. 
 
 Kirkdale Cave, Vale of Pickering, Yorkshire, 
 28 miles W. of Scarborough, is 245 feet long, but 
 very low. Discovered in 1821, it has yielded 
 many remains of Tertiary mammals. 
 
 Kirkham, a market-town of Lancashire, 8^ 
 miles W. by N. of Preston. It has a grammar- 
 school (1673), and manufactures of cotton, flax, 
 sailcloth, sacking, and cordage. Population, over 
 8700. 
 
 Klrkheaton, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, near the Colne, 3 miles ENE. of 
 Hudderstield. Pop. 2632. 
 
 Kirklntil'loch, a town in Dumbartonshire 
 (detached), on the Forth and Clyde Canal, 7 miles 
 NNE. of Glasgow. Its Celtic name CaerpenUi- 
 lach (' fort at the end of the ridge ') referred to a 
 strong fort on Antoninus' Wall, which has left 
 some remains ; as early as 1170 it was made a 
 burgh of barony. Chemicals, iron, &c. are manu- 
 
 factured. In the southern suburb, Lenzie, are 
 the large Barony lunatic asylum (1875) and the 
 Glasgow convalescent home (1864). Pop. (1851) 
 6342; (1901) 10,502. 
 
 Kirk-Kilissia (the 'forty churches'), a town 
 of Turkey, 104 miles NW. of Constantinople. It 
 is famed for its confections. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Kirklees, a Yorkshire village, on the Calder, 4 
 miles NE. of Huddersfield. Kobiii Hood died, it 
 is said, in a Cistercian nunnery here. 
 
 Kirkmaiden, a parish, the southernmost of 
 Wigtownshire and Scotland ; hence the phrase, 
 ' frae Maidenkirk to John o' Groat's.' 
 
 Kirkoswald, an Ayrshire parish, 4^ miles WSW. 
 of May bole. 'Tarn o" Shanter' and 'Souter 
 Johnnie ' are buried in the churchyard. 
 
 Kirkpatrick-Irongray, a Nithsdale parish of 
 Kirkcudbrightshire, 7 miles W. of Dumfries. 
 Helen Walker (' Jeanie Deans ') is buried here. 
 
 Kirk'stall Abbey, a Cistercian abbey in York- 
 shire, stands 3 miles NW. of Leeds, in the midst 
 of modern manufacturing establishments. First 
 founded at Barnoldswick in 1147, but five years 
 later moved to its present site, the abbey is mainly 
 Transition Norman and Perpendicular in style. 
 The church is, like most Cistercian cliurches, 
 long and narrow, with little ornamentation, and 
 a low tower. The abbey was purchased by Col. 
 North in 1888 for £13,500, and presented next 
 year to Leeds. 
 
 Kirkstone Pass (1500 feet), in Westmorland, 
 3i miles NNE. of Ambleside. 
 
 Kirk'wall, the capital of Orkney, on the east 
 coast of Mainland, 49 miles NE. of Thurso, and 
 225 N. of Leith. St Magnus' Cathedral (1137- 
 1500) is a stately cruciform pile, mixed Norman 
 and Gothic in style. It measures 253 feet by 102 
 across the transept, and has a central tower 133 
 feet high, though shorn by lightning of its spire in 
 1671. The choir serves as a parish church. The 
 last vestige of the royal castle was demolished in 
 1865 ; but the roofless Earl's Palace (1607) remains, 
 and a tower (1550) of the Bishop's Palace, in which 
 King Haco died in 1263. Much has been done for 
 drainage, paving, and water-supply ; the harbour 
 has been improved, and tlie iron pier superseded 
 by a .stone one. Its shipping has increa,sed eight- 
 fold since 1850. Made a royal burgh in 1486, 
 Kirkwall luiites with Wick, &c. to return one 
 member to parliament. Pop. 3660. 
 
 Kirk-Yetholm. See Yetholm. 
 
 Kirriemuir, a police-burgh (1875) of Forfar- 
 shire, on Gairie Burn, 5 miles WNW. of Forfar. 
 It manufactures brown linen, and is famous as 
 the ' Thrums ' of Mr J. M. Barrie, whose birth- 
 place it was. Pop. 4100. 
 
 Kirton-in-Lindsey, a town of Lincolnshire, 10 
 miles NE. of Gainsborough. Pop. of parish, 2400. 
 
 KisMneff', capital of the Russian government 
 of Bessarabia, stands on a tributary of the 
 Dniester, 162 miles NW. of Odessa by the railway 
 to Jassy. When it became Russian in 1812 it had 
 only 7000 inliabitants ; in less than a century it 
 had nearly 110,000, of whom about 10,000 are of 
 Russian race, the others being, in about equal 
 proportions, Moldavians and Jews. In 1903 tlie 
 town became notorious for anti-Semitic riots and 
 the massacre of hundreds of Jews. Kishineff" is 
 tlie seat of an archbishop. Pop. (1897) 108,506. 
 
 Kislim, or Tawilah (anc. Oaracta), a barren 
 island of Persia, at the entrance to the Persian 
 Gulf, is 56 miles long, and 515 sq. m. in area. 
 
 L 
 
KiSMAYt; 
 
 3d4 
 
 KOLAPUR 
 
 Klsmayu, an island and port on the coast of 
 British East Africa, 10 miles S. of the Juba 
 River, a region inhabited by Somali tribes. 
 
 Kissingen (Kis'sing-en), the most popular 
 watering-place in Bavaria, on the Saale, 60 miles B. 
 by N. from Frankfort-on-Maiii. Its three n)ineral 
 springs (51° F.)are both drunk and used as baths, 
 and are considered specially efficacious in cases 
 of dyspepsia, skin-diseases, gout, &c. ; and the 
 waters are largely exported in bottles. Though 
 their existence was known in the 9th century, it 
 was not until the ICth century that their medical 
 properties were recognised, and not until the 
 19th that they came into high repute. The pop. 
 (5000) is increased by an annual influx of 13,000 
 to 14,000 visitors. 
 
 Kistna, or Krishna, a river of southern India, 
 rises in the Western Ghats within 40 miles of the 
 Arabian Sea, at a height of 4500 feet, in 18° 1' 
 N. lat., and flows 800 miles E. across the pen- 
 insula to the Bay of Bengal. It forms for some 
 distance the boundary between the Nizam's 
 dominions and Madras Presidency, and has a 
 delta extending 100 miles inland. It is only 
 navigable for 50 miles and during six months. 
 
 Kit's Coity House, the best-known dolmen 
 in England, 1^ mile NW. of Aylesford, Kent. 
 Three upright blocks of sandstone 8 feet high 
 support a ' covering stone' 12 feet long. 
 
 Kiil-kiang, or ChiO-chiang, a Chinese treaty- 
 port on the Yang-tsze-kiang. Pop. 53,000. 
 
 Klung-chovr, chief city of Hainan (q.v.). 
 
 Kizll-Irmak ('red river;' anc. Halys), the 
 largest river of Asia Minor, rises 70 miles above 
 the town of Siwas, and curves 560 miles SW. and 
 NNE. to the Black Sea. 
 
 Kizil-Kum ('red sands'), a sandy desert in 
 Russian Turkestan, lying between the lower 
 courses of the Amu-Daria and Syr-Daria. 
 
 Kjobenhavn. See Copenhagen. 
 
 Klagenfurt (Kldgevfoort, g hard), capital of the 
 Austrian duchy of Carinthia, 262 miles SW. of 
 Vienna. Pop. 24,500. 
 
 Klausenburg (Hungarian Kolozsvdi'), one of 
 the chief cities in Transylvania, 95 miles by rail 
 E. by S. of Grosswardein. Here are a university 
 (1872) and a Unitarian College, Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Klausthal (Kloivstdl), the chief mining-town of 
 the northern Harz Mountains, 25 miles NE. of 
 Gottingen. Theores raised are silver, lead, copper, 
 and zinc. Pop. 9000, or, with Zellerfeld, 20,000. 
 
 Klondike, or Klondvke, a small tributary of 
 the Yukon River in the Canadian district of 
 Yukon, separated from the North-west Territories 
 in 1895. The Klondike (properly Thron-duick, 
 'plenty offish') gives name to an extraordinarily 
 rich auriferous region, partially known in 1873. 
 Gold-mining was being carried on on the Lewis 
 and Stewart rivers when in 1806 gold was found 
 on the Klondike in such abundance as to cause 
 the desertion of the adjoining diggings and to 
 create a rush from Europe. Dawson, where the 
 Klondike enters the Yukon River, is 60 miles east 
 of the Alaskan (U.S.) frontier. 
 
 Kluchevskaya. See Kamchatka. 
 
 Knapdale, an Argyllshire district, bounded 
 N. by the Crinan Canal. 
 
 Knaresborough, a market-town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, on the Nidd, 3J miles NE. 
 of Harrogate and 17 WNW. of York. It has a 
 church (restored 1872), with interesting Slingsby 
 monuments; a grammar-school (1616); remains 
 of a castle (1170), in which Richard II. was im- 
 
 prisoned, and which was dismantled in 1648 ; A 
 'dropping well,' with petrifying properties; and 
 St Robert's Cave, where Eugene Aram buried his 
 victim in 1745. Mother Shipton is claimed as a 
 native, also Jack Metcalf, the blind road-sur- 
 veyor, and Bishop Stubbs. Linen and woollen 
 rugs are manufactured. Knaresborough returned 
 two members from 1550 till 1867, and one until 
 1885. Pop. a little under 5000. See works by 
 Calvert (1844) and Grainge (1871). 
 
 Knebworth, a parish, 8^ nnles NW. of Hert- 
 ford, with the seat of Lord Lytton. 
 
 Knighton, a Radnorshire market-town, on the 
 Teme, 16 miles W. of Ludlow. Pop. 2140. 
 
 Knock, a village in County Mayo, Ireland, 17 
 miles ESE. of Castlebar, where an alleged lumin- 
 ous apparition of the Virgin appeared on the 
 chapel wall in 1880. 
 
 Knockmeledown, or Knockmealdown, a range 
 (2609 feet) between Tipperary and Waterford. 
 
 Knole. See Sicvenoaks. 
 
 Knossos. See Cnossus. 
 
 Knowsley Hall, Lancashire, 3 miles NW. of 
 Prescot, seat (since 1385) of the Earls of Derby. 
 
 KnoxvlUe, a city of Tennessee, stands anud 
 picturesque scenery on the Holston River, at 
 the head of steamboat navigation, 165 miles E. 
 of Nashville. The seat of the state university 
 and a railway junction, it manufactures iron 
 goods, wooden wares, flour, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 10,917; (1900) 32,637. 
 
 Knoydart, a district in the west of Inverness- 
 shire, between Lochs Hourn and Nevis. 
 
 Knutsford (' Canute's ford '), a pleasant look- 
 ing town of Cheshire, 15 miles SW. of Manchester 
 by rail, the ' Cranford ' of Mrs Gaskell's sketches, 
 with manufactures of cotton, worsted, and leather 
 goods. Pop. a little over 5100. See H. Green's 
 History of Knutsford (1859). 
 
 Knysna, a forest and elephant-preserve, be- 
 tween the sea and the Outeniqua Mountains in 
 Cape Colony, 150 miles W. of Port Elizabeth. 
 
 Kobbe. See Dab-F6r. 
 
 Kobe. See Hyooo. 
 
 Kodiak. See Kadiak. 
 
 Kohat', in the NW. Frontier Province, is 37 
 miles S. of Peshawar. It has cantonments and 
 a fort. Guns are manufactured. Pop. 27,003. 
 
 Koh-i-baba. See Afghanistan. 
 
 Kohistan', a name given to certain mountainous 
 regions in Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. 
 
 Koil. See Alioarh. 
 
 Ko'komo, a city of Indiana, on Wild Cat River, 
 54 miles by rail N. of Indianapolis, with busy 
 mills, &c. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Koko-nor, or Kuku-nor, a lake of Tibet, near 
 the Chinese frontier, fills a depression surrounded 
 by mountains, and lies 12,097 feet above sea-level. 
 Its very salt, blue waters, cover 66 miles by 40. 
 One of its five islands has a Buddhist monastery. 
 
 Kokstadt. See Griqualand. 
 
 Kola, the capital (pop. 770) of Russian Lap- 
 land, and the most northern town of European 
 Russia, is situated on the peninsula of Kola, 
 near the head of the Kola inlet. The peninsula 
 is a dreary expanse of forests and lakes, but in 
 the Umbdek Mountains, east of Lake Imandra, 
 rises to 3300 feet. 
 
 Kolapur {Kolhdprir), the capital of a tributary 
 state in Bombay, 144 miles S. by E. of Pooiia, 
 famous for its ancient temples. Pop. 54,500.— 
 Area of state, 2816 sq. m. ; pop. 915,000. 
 
KOLGUEF 
 
 KOSTIIOMA 
 
 Kolguef, or Kalguef, an island in the Russian 
 government of Archangel, in the Arctic Ocean. 
 Area, 1350 sq. m. 
 
 Kolin, or Kollin, a town of Bohemia, on the 
 Elbe, 38 miles by rail E. by S. of Prague, is a 
 centre of the sugar industry of the country, and 
 manufactures chemicals, oil, metal wares, &c. 
 Pop. 15,636. Near it, on June 18, 1757, the Aus- 
 triaus defeated Frederick the Great. 
 
 Koln. See Cologne. 
 
 Kolome'a, a town of Austrian Galicia, on the 
 Pruth, 43 miles by rail NW. of Czernowitz. Near 
 a rich petroleum region, it has petroleum and 
 jiaraffin-candle works. Pottery is, however, the 
 staple manufacture. Pop. 35,235. 
 
 Kolomna, a town of Russia, on the Moskva, 
 68 miles SB. of Moscow. It manufactures silk, 
 linen, leather, soap, and machines. Pop. 28,323. 
 
 Kolosvar. See Klausenburg. 
 
 Kolyma', a river of B. Siberia, flowing from 
 the Stanovoi Mountains 995 miles NE. to the 
 Arctic Ocean. It is frozen forty weeks. 
 
 Ko'mom, a town of Hungary, on the island of 
 Schiitt, in the Danube, here crossed by a bridge 
 of boats, 48 miles NW. of Pesth. Its strong 
 fortress dates from about 1300. Pop. 23,042. 
 
 Konakry. See Conacry. 
 
 Kong, a district of West Africa, stretching 
 from 8° 30' to 12" N. lat. along the upper course 
 of the Comoe (mouth at Grand Bassam on the 
 Ivory Coast). It forms a plateau 2300 feet above 
 sea-level ; and the Kong Mountains of geographers 
 are really mere isolated granitic peaks only 300 
 feet higher. The people are Mandingoes by race 
 and Mohammedans by religion. The capital, 
 Kong, has 12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. Kong 
 was declared a French protectorate in 1889. 
 
 Konieh, or Koniya. See Iconium. 
 
 Konlggratz (Koniggraytz), a cathedral city of 
 Bohemia, on the Elbe, 73 miles by rail E. by 
 N. of Prague. Here Ziska was buried in 1424. 
 Pop. 9166 ; wiU suburbs, 17,715. A signal victory 
 was gained here on 3d July 1866 by the Prussians 
 over the Austrians : the latter name the battle 
 Sddowa from a village nearer the battlefield. 
 
 Konigsherg, (1) a town and fortress in Bast 
 Prussia, on the river Pregel, 4^ miles from the 
 Frisches HafT and 366 by rail NE. of Berlin. The 
 nucleus of the place was the block-house built in 
 1255 by the Teutonic Knights, but Konigsberg is 
 quite a modern town. The castle, chiefly of the 
 16th and ISth centuries, was the headquarters 
 of the grand-master of the Teutonic Order, and 
 from 1525 to 1618 the residence of the Dukes of 
 Prussia. In the castle chapel (1592) Frederick 
 I. crowned himself first king of Prussia in 1701. 
 The Gothic cathedral (1333) was restored in 1856 ; 
 in an adjoining building Kant lies buried. The 
 university was founded as a Lutheran institution 
 in 1544, and rebuilt in 1844-65, has an observatory 
 (1811), a zoological museum (1819), a botanical 
 garden (1809), a library of 200,000 volumes, 96 
 teachers, and over 650 students. One of the most 
 imposing edifices in the town is the new exchange 
 (1875). The industries include the manufacture 
 of iron, machinery, pianos, thread, meerschaum, 
 tobacco, beer, &c. Konigsberg is a chief con- 
 tinental centre for the tea trade, and ships 
 immense quantities of corn. Large merchant- 
 vessels unload at Pillau, 28^ miles by rail to 
 the west, at the entrance from the Baltic to 
 the Frisches Haff". Pop. (1875) 122,636; (1905) 
 102,500.— (2) There is another Konigsberg, 34 miles 
 B. of Stettin by rail. Pop. 5968. 
 
 Konlgshut'te, a rapidly-growing centre of great 
 coal, iron, zinc, and copper works in Prussian 
 Silesia, 110 miles SE. of Breslau by rail. It was 
 constituted a town in 1869, out of several mining- 
 villages. Pop. 61,000, 
 
 Konigsteln, a fortress of Saxony, once regarded 
 as impregnable, but now of no military import- 
 ance, stands on a rock 800 feet above the Elbe, 
 24 miles SE. of Dresden by rail. 
 
 Konigswart, a town of Bohemia, 14 miles by 
 rail SB. of Eger, in a romantic valley, has a fine 
 castle of Prince Metternich, chalybeate springs, 
 and a bathing establishment. Pop. 2112. 
 
 Konlgswinter, a village on the Rhine (pop. 
 3200), 21 miles SE. of Cologne. 
 
 Konkan, a strip of coast-districts in Bombay 
 Presidency, extending from Gujarat on the north, 
 past Goa, to the south of North Kanara. Its 
 breadth varies from 1 or 2 to 50 miles, as the 
 Western Ghats approach or recede from the sea. 
 
 Kootenay, a river of British Columbia, which 
 rises in the mountains that separate it from 
 Alberta, and, after passing through a corner of 
 the U.S., forms the Kootenay Lake, and after a 
 course of 450 miles falls into the Columbia River. 
 There have been ricli gold finds here since 1896. 
 
 Kopparberg, another name for Falun (q.v.). 
 
 Kordofan', or the White Land, since 1899 once 
 more a province of the Egyptian Soudan, is separ- 
 ated from Sennaar on the E. by the White 
 Nile, and from Dar-Fflr on the W. by a strip of 
 desert. It extends from 12° to 16° N. lat. and 
 from 29° 30' to 32° 3^ B. long. ; its area, includ- 
 ing Takalla on the S., has been estimated at 
 41,500 sq. m., and its pop. at 280,000. The sur- 
 face is undulating. The chief product is millet, 
 the principal food of the inhabitants. The capital 
 is El-Obeid, with 30,000 inhabitants, situated in 
 the centre of the country. 
 
 Korea. See Corea. 
 
 Koros, Nagy (' Great Koros '), a town of Hun- 
 gary, 55 miles SB. of Budapest by rail. Pop. 
 26,584.— Kiss KoRos (' Little Koros '), a town, 66 
 miles by rail S. by E. of Budapest, is the birth- 
 place of Petofl. Pop. 8734. 
 
 Korosko, a small village of Lower Nubia, with 
 a few wretched huts straggling along the right 
 bank of the Nile, about midway between the 
 first and second cataracts. 
 
 Kosciusko, Mount. See Australia, p. 62. 
 
 Koslin, a town of Prussia, 5 miles from the 
 Baltic and 85 NE. of Stettin. It manufactures 
 iron, paper, soap, bricks, &c. Pop. 27,277. 
 
 Koslow. See Kozlof. 
 
 Kos'sovo, the * Field of Blackbirds,' a plain in 
 Turkey, near the Servian frontier, west of the 
 Prishtina, the scene of two Turkish victories — 
 (1) of Sultan Murad I. over the Servian Tsar 
 Lazar in 1389, when both sovereigns fell, and the 
 Servians lost their independence ; (2) of Sultan 
 Murad II. over the great Hungarian general 
 Hunyady in 1448. 
 
 Kostendll, an archiepiscopal city of Bulgaria, 
 near the Struma, 43 miles SW. of Sofia, has gold 
 and silver mining, warm baths, and numerous 
 ruins. Pop. 11,400. 
 
 Kostnltz. See Constance. 
 
 Kos'troma, capital of a Russian government, 
 near the Kostroma's influx to the Volga, 216 miles 
 by rail NNE. of Moscow. The spinning and 
 weaving of cotton and linen, brandy distilling, 
 dyeing, corn-grinding, and tanning are chief 
 
 L 
 
SOTAH 
 
 396 
 
 KUM 
 
 Industries. Pop. 41,196. — Area of government, 
 82,692 sq. m. ; pop. 1,428,900. 
 
 Kotah, the chief town of a native state in 
 Rajputana, on tlie right bank of the Chambal. 
 Pop. 33,624. The area of the state is 3S03 sq. ni. ; 
 pop. 544,350. 
 
 Kothen, a town in the German duchy of Anhalt, 
 till 1853 the capital of the principality of Anhalt- 
 Kothen, 22 miles by rail N. of Halle, and 31 SSE. 
 of Magdeburg. It has a cathedral ; the castle of 
 the former dukes, rebuilt in 1597-1606 after a fire ; 
 iron-foundries, sugar-factories, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 14,403 ; (1900) 22,100. 
 
 Kot'onou. See Cotonou. 
 
 Koubbet. See Obock. 
 
 Kovno, capital of the Russian government of 
 Kovno, stands near the confluence of the Vilia 
 and the Niemen, 523 miles by rail SW. of St 
 Petersburg and 94 ENE. of Konigsberg. It was 
 long a stronghold of the Teutonic knights, and 
 was taken by Russia from Litliuaiiia in 1795. 
 Pop. 73,550. — The government lies soutli of Cour- 
 land, bordering on Prussia and Poland. Area, 
 15,687 sq. m. ; pop. 1,600,000. 
 
 Koweit, or Kuweit, a good port of Turkey in 
 Asia, on the Shat-el-Arab, dependent on Muscat 
 or Oman (and so on Britain) ; the proposed ter- 
 minus of the German railway through Asia Minor. 
 
 Kowloon. See Hong-kong. 
 
 Koyunjik. See Nineveh. 
 
 Kozlof, a Russian town, 123 miles SE. of Moscow 
 by rail. Pop. 45,053. 
 
 Kra, or Krao, the isthmus connecting Slam 
 with the Malay Peninsula, whose minimum 
 breadth is 44 miles. A ship-canal through it 
 would shorten the journey from Ceylon to Hong- 
 Kong by 300 miles, and that from Calcutta to 
 Hong-Kong by 540. A railway has also been 
 suggested. See a work by Loftus (1883). 
 
 Kragujevatz, a town of Servia, 61 miles S. of 
 Belgrade, has an arsenal. Till 1842 it was the 
 residence of the Servian princes. Pop. 14,669. 
 
 Krain. See Carniola. 
 
 Krajova, or Craiova, a town of Roumania, 
 154 miles by rail W. of Bucharest. Near it are 
 productive salt-mines. Pop. 43,000. 
 
 Krakatoa, or Krakatau, a volcanic island in 
 the Strait of Sunda, between Java and Sumatra, 
 was in 1883 the scene of a tremendous volcanic 
 disturbance. From May the volcano on the island 
 had been ejecting ashes ; during 26-28th August 
 the crater walls fell in, together with a part of 
 the ocean bed, carrying with it 8 sq. m. or two- 
 thirds of the island. At the same time a gigantic 
 ocean-wave inundated the adjoining c<msts of 
 Java and Sumatra, causing a loss of 36,500 lives, 
 and then careered round the entire globe. See 
 a work by G. J. Symons (1888). 
 
 Krangantir. See Cranganore. 
 
 Krasnovodsk, a Russian railway terminus and 
 harbour, on the east side of tlie Caspian Sea, in 
 the Transcaspian territory. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Krasnoyarsk, the chief town of the Siberian 
 government of Yeniseisk, on the Upper Yenisei, 
 870 miles E. from Tomsk. It is the centre of the 
 gold-washings of the province. Pop. 27,154. 
 
 Krefeld, one of the most important manufac- 
 turing towns of Germany, 4 miles from the left 
 bank of the Rhine and 12 NW. of Diisseldorf. It 
 owes its importance to the settlement here, in 
 the 17th and 18th centuries, of refugees from 
 JUlich and Berg, who established Krefeld's noted 
 
 silk and velvet manufactures. Here are also 
 large railway repair shops, iron-foundries, and 
 manufactures of machinery, che)nical.s, soaps 
 spirits, &c. Pop. (1875) 62,840 ; (1900) 109,116. 
 
 Kremenchug, a town of Russia on the Dnieper, 
 74 miles by rail SW. of Pultowa. From 1765 to 
 1789 it was the chief town of New Russia ; it is 
 now the seat of great industrial activity, especi- 
 ally in wool, timber, and tobacco, and of factories 
 for agricultural machines, leather, tobacco, 
 candles, &c. Pop. 58,000. 
 
 Kremlin. See Moscow. 
 
 Kremnitz, a town of Hungary, 83 miles N. of 
 Budapest. Its gold and silver mines were once 
 more famous than now. Pop, 10,000. 
 
 Krems, a town of Lower Austria, at the con- 
 fluence of the river Krems with the Danube, 47 
 miles by rail W. by N. of Vienna. Pop. 13,042. 
 
 Kremsier, a pretty town of Moravia, on the 
 March, 35 miles E. by N. of BrUnn. Pop. 13,816. 
 
 Kreuznach (Kroitz^nahh), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, dating from the 9th century, on the 
 Nahe, 35 miles by rail SSE. of Coblenz. Its chief 
 manufacture is champagne ; but it is most not- 
 able for its hot salt-springs (50° to 90° F.), attract- 
 ing over 5000 visitors annually. Pop. 21,404, 
 
 Krimmitschau, a town of Saxony, 45 miles S. 
 of Leipzig. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Krishna. See Kistna. 
 
 Kronenberg, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 4 
 miles S. of Elberfeld. Pop. 9958. 
 
 Kronstadt (Magyar Brasso), a town in the 
 extreme SE. of Transylvania. Pop. 36,660. — For 
 the Russian Kronstadt, see Cronstadt. 
 
 Kroonstad, a town of Orange River Colony, 
 on the railway from the Cape to Pretoria, 130 
 miles NE. of Bloemfontein. Pop. 7200. 
 
 Krugersdorp, a town of the Transvaal Colony, 
 about 20 miles W. of Johannesburg. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 Kuban, a river of Caucasia, giving name to a 
 province (area, 39,277 sq. m. ; pop. 1,922,800). 
 
 Kuch Behar. See Behar. 
 
 Kuen-Lun, a great snow-clad mountain-chain 
 of central Asia, which forms the northern wall 
 of the Tibetan plateau, as the Himalayas do the 
 southern. Starting from the Pamir plateau (82° 
 E. long.), the Kuen-Lun curves eastward to 94* 
 E. long., its width varying from 100 to 150 miles. 
 The peaks are 18,000 to 25,000 feet high, and the 
 passes 13,000 to 18,000 feet. 
 
 Kuilenburg. See Culenborg. 
 
 Kuka, or Kukawa. See Bornu. 
 
 Kulja, a town of Zungaria, central Asia, stands 
 on one of the great highways leading from China 
 to West Turkestan, and on the Hi, which flows 
 750 miles from the Tian-Shan Mountains to Lake 
 Balkhash. Kulja (pop. 12,500) is the chief town 
 of a fertile district (Kulja or Hi), which revolted 
 against China in 1865, was occupied by Russia in 
 1871, but ten years later restored to China, except 
 4300 sq. m. now incorporated in Semiretchensk. 
 The Chinese province has an area of 23,130 sq. 
 m. and a pop. of 70,000. New Kulja, 25 miles W. 
 of Kulja, was destroyed by the rebels in 1866 ; it 
 then had 75,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Kulm, a village of Bohemia, 8 miles NE. of 
 Teplitz. Here the French were routed by the 
 Prussians and Russians, 29-30th August 1813. 
 
 Kum, next to Meshed the most sacred city of 
 Persia, is a straggling, half-ruined town between 
 Ispahan and Teheran. Its shrines and tombs of 
 
 I 
 
KUMAMOTO 
 
 397 
 
 KYLES OF BUTE 
 
 Mohammedan (Shiite) saints attract thousands 
 of pilgrims. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Kumamoto', a town on the west coast of the 
 island of Kiu-siu, Japan. Pop. 64,500. 
 Kumania. See Cumania. 
 Kumaun, a district in the North-west Prov- 
 inces of India. It lies chiefly on the sonth slope 
 of the Himalayas, and comprises summits rising 
 to over 20,000 feet. Almora is the capital. 
 Area, 7151 sq. m. ; pop. 1,250,000. 
 Kunawar, a division of Bashahr (q.v.). 
 Kunduz. See Afghanistan. 
 Kunersdorf. a village in Prussia, 4 miles E. 
 of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Here Frederick the 
 Great, after gaining a half victory, was routed 
 by the Russians and Austrians, August 12, 1759. 
 
 Kungur, a town in Russia, 50 miles SSB. of 
 Perm. Pop. 15,300. 
 Kura, a river of the Caucasus. 
 Kuram, a river rising in Afghanistan near the 
 northern end of the western Suliman range, and 
 flowing to the Indus near Isakhel. 
 
 Kurdistan' (' the Country of the Kurds '), an 
 extensive geographical, though not political, 
 region mainly to the NE. of Turkey in Asia, 
 S. and W. of Erzerdm, but including the part of 
 Persia about Urumia. Area, 50,000 sq. m. ; pop. 
 over 2,250,000— nearly 1,500,000 in Turkey, 700,000 
 in Persia, and 45,000 in Russian Transcaucasia. 
 The surface ranges from 5000 up to 15,000 feet 
 in altitude. Numerous rivers force their way 
 through the mountains, and go to feed the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates. The bulk of the inhabitants 
 are Kurds (the ancient Carduchi), partly nomad 
 and pastoral, partly settled and agricultural, 
 by race Turanian, but speaking an old Persian 
 dialect. Their forays have been a sore affliction 
 to their Armenian neighbours. In 1880 an exten- 
 sive Kurdish rising against Persia took place. 
 Some Nestorian Christians inhabit the valley of 
 the Tigris ; but the Kurds are Mohammedans. 
 The chief towns are Bitlis, Van, Urumia, Diar- 
 bekr, and Kermanshah. See Millingen, Wild 
 Life Ainong the Koords (1870). 
 
 Kuria-Muria, a group of five islands, 21 miles 
 from the south-east coast of Arabia. Area, 21 
 miles ; pop. 34. They were ceded to England in 
 1854 by the Imam of Muscat. On one of theni 
 is a signalling telegraphic station. 
 
 Kuriles, a sparsely-populated group of twenty- 
 six islands, extending from Kamchatka to Yezo, 
 and belonging to Japan. In 1875 tlie Japanese 
 surrendered their good claims on the southern 
 part of Saghalien (resumed by the treaty of 
 1905 closing the war with Russia), and received 
 in exchange from Russia the northerly portion 
 of the Kuriles. With a few exceptions the popu- 
 lation remains in this misty and inhospitable 
 region only during the summer, as long as the 
 fishing season lasts. 
 
 Ku'risches Haff, a fresh-water lagoon of East 
 Prussia, extending 61 miles south from Memel, 
 with an average width of 14 miles. It is con- 
 nected with the Baltic by the ' Memel Deeps,' a 
 channel 500 yards wide and 20 feet deep. The 
 spit of sand-dunes, 1 to 2 miles wide, that separ- 
 ates it from the Baltic, is encroaching on the haff. 
 Kurland. See Courland. 
 Kurrachee (Knrat'cM), the capital of Sind and 
 the chief port of entry for the Punjab, stands at 
 the northern end of the great Indius delta, and 
 close to the frontier of Beluchistan, It is 1169 
 
 miles by rail (about 700 direct) SW. of Delhi. 
 Kurrachee has an extensive harbour, sheltered 
 by a breakwater and a long reef, with a fixed 
 light 120 feet high. The landing-place is on 
 Kiamari Island, which is connected with the 
 town by the Napier mole, 3 miles long. The 
 harbour improvements, completed in 1873, cost 
 £450,000 ; there is now a lowest depth over the 
 bar of 20 feet. The Frere municipal hall (with a 
 library and museum) was named after Sir Bartle 
 F\ere, of whom there is also a statue liere. To 
 the east and north are the cantonments, and, 
 close by, a public garden of 40 acres. There are 
 ironworks and large cotton presses in the town, 
 the cotton of Sind and the Punjab forming an 
 important article of export, though less so than 
 wheat and oil-seeds. The annual trade of the 
 port has risen to above £7,000,000; the inland 
 trade extends to Afghanistan and Beluchistan. 
 Pop. (1881) 73,560; (1901) 115,407. See Baillie, 
 Kurrachee, Past, Present, and Future (1890). 
 
 Kursk (Koorsk), chief town of a Russian govern- 
 7nent, 312 miles by rail S. by W. of Moscow and 
 274 NNE. of Kieff. The chief industry is tan- 
 ning ; but soap, tobacco, candles, and spirits are 
 also manufactured. Kursk is celebrated for its 
 orchards, and has an observatory. Pop. 52,957. 
 Near the town a great fair is held after Easter.— 
 The government has an area of 17,931 sq. m., and 
 a pop. (1897) of 2,396,900. 
 
 Kuruman, a mission-station in Bechuanaland, 
 130 miles NW. of Kimberley. Dr Moffat laboured 
 here for years, and here too was Livingstone. 
 
 Kusi, a considerable tributary of the Ganges, 
 rises in the Nepal Himalayas, NW. of Mount 
 Everest, and flows 325 miles generally south, in 
 a rapid stream. 
 
 Kus'koqulm. See Alaska. 
 
 Kustendji, or more properly since 1878 Con- 
 stanza, a seaport in the Dobrudja, Roumania, 
 stands on the Black Sea, at the end of Trajan's 
 Wall and of the railway to Tchernavoda on the 
 Danube. Pop. 12,800. Not far distant was Tonii, 
 the place of Ovid's banishment. 
 
 Kiistenland ('coast-land'), an Austrian divi- 
 sion comprising Gcirz, Gradisca, Istria, Trieste. 
 
 Kustrin, a fortified town of Prussia, amidst 
 great marshes, at the confluence of the Warthe 
 with the Oder, 51 miles E. of Berlin. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Kutaia, or Kutaya, a town of Asia Minor, 70 
 miles SE. of Brusa, and connected by rail with 
 Eski-Shehr and the railway system. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 Kuta'is, capital of a Black Sea department of 
 Transcaucasia, 70 miles NE. of Batoum. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Kuttenberg, a silver-mining town 6t Bohemia, 
 185 miles by rail NNW. of Vienna. Close by is 
 a large imperial tobacco-factory. Pop. 15,154. 
 
 Kwando, or Chobe. See Zambesi. 
 
 Kwango, a tributary of the Congo. 
 
 Kwanza. See Coanza. 
 
 Kwilu, a river of the French West African 
 colony Gaboon, rises near the Leflmi, and reaches 
 the Atlantic north of Loango. 
 
 Kyle, the central district of Ayrshire. 
 
 Kyleakin. See Skye. 
 
 Kylemore, a district in the west of County 
 Galway, 10 miles NE. of Clifden, with a castle, 
 and a small lough from which a river runs 3 
 miles through a reinarkable ravine to the sea. 
 Kyles of Bute. See Bute. 
 
 L 
 
KYOTO 
 
 398 
 
 LADOGA 
 
 Kyoto, MiAKO, or Saikio, from 784 a.d. to 1868 | singing-girls of Kyoto are noted for their graceful 
 
 the capital of Japan, on the Kanio River, 26 
 miles inland from Ozaka. At the N. end are situ- 
 ated, in an enclosure, the plain wooden buildings 
 where the emperors of Japan dwelt so long in 
 seclusion. The Honganji temples of the Monto 
 sect of Buddhists, the centre of the Buddhist faith 
 in Japan, rise at the S. end of the city. The 
 
 dances. The pottery, porcelain, enamels, inlaid 
 bronze-work, crapes, velvets, and brocades of 
 Kyoto are highly esteemed. Pop. (1884) 255,403 ; 
 (1892) 297,527 ; (1900) 354,230. 
 
 Kyouk-pyoo, a district of Arakan in Burmah, 
 named from the capital (pop. 4000), on an island, 
 96 miles SE. of Akyab. 
 
 AALAND, or Lolland, a flat and fertile 
 Danish island, at the southern entrance 
 to the Great Belt, 36 miles long by 9 
 to 15 broad. Area, 445 sq. m. ; pop. 
 72,000. The capital is Maribo (pop. 
 2403) ; the largest town, Nakskov (pop. 6278). 
 
 Lab'rador, the north-eastern peninsula of the 
 North American continent, lying between Hudson 
 Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence. The coasts 
 were probably visited by Norsemen about the 
 year 1000 ; they were sighted by Cabot in 1498. 
 In 1500 the Portuguese Cortereal is said to have 
 visited it and to have given it its euphemistic 
 name of ' cultivable land.' But another ti'adition 
 derives the name from a Basque whaler called 
 Labrador. Labrador extends from 49° to 63° N. 
 lat., and from 55° to 79° W. long. The greatest 
 length is 1100 miles, and the area 420,000 sq. m. 
 The portion draining into the St Lawrence forms 
 the larger part of Quebec province ; the Atlantic 
 coast strip— to which the name Labrador is 
 officially restricted— is attached to Newfound- 
 land ; the remainder is, since 1895, the terri- 
 tory of Ungava. The Atlantic coast is stern 
 anci precipitous (1000 to 4000 feet high), entirely 
 destitute of vegetation, deeply indented with 
 narrow fjords, and fringed with rocky islands. 
 The interior, very imperfectly explored, consists 
 mainly of a plateau 2000 feet above sea-level, 
 and mostly covered with fine forest trees, firs, 
 birches, &c. Numerous lakes, including Mistas- 
 sini (q.v.), with the rivers, afford in summer 
 continuous waterways for great distances. The 
 only inhabitants of this interior plateau are Cree 
 Indians, nomads. There are numerous rivers, 
 200 to 300 miles long and 2 and 3 miles wide at 
 their mouths, flowing towards the Atlantic and 
 Hudson Bay. The Grand Palls, 2000 feet high, 
 on Grand River are amongst the largest in the 
 world. Bears, wolves, foxes, martens, otters, 
 beavers, lynxes, &c., are found. Iron and the 
 felspar called labradorite are abundant. The 
 climate on the coast is very rigorous, owing 
 mainly to the ice-laden Arctic current whicli 
 washes the shores. The short three-months' 
 summer is marred by the swarms of mosquitoes 
 and black flies. The mean annual temperature 
 at the missionary stations varies from 22° to 28°. 
 By far the most important wealth of the Labra- 
 dor coast is its fish— cod, salmon, herrings, and 
 trout ; some 30,000 fishermen from Newfoundland, 
 Canada, and the United States visit its fishing- 
 grounds in the season. The 6000 permanent 
 settlers, Eskimo and French Acadians, in the 
 coast-region, are collected chiefly at the Mor- 
 avian missionary stations— Nain (founded 1770), 
 Okkak, Hebron, Hopedale, &c. See works by 
 Hind (1863) and Packard (1892). 
 
 Labuan, an island 30 sq. m. in area, 6 miles 
 from the NW. coast of Borneo. It has a good 
 harbour (Victoria), and an extensive bed of 
 excellent coal. It became British in 1846, and 
 since 1891 is administered by the British North 
 Borneo Company. Pop. 8500. 
 
 Laccadives (Sansk. Laksha Dwipa, 'the Hun- 
 dred Thousancl Islands'), a group of fourteen 
 coral islands in the Arabian Sea, between 10° and 
 14° N. lat., and 200 miles W. of the Malabar 
 coast. Area, 744 sq. m. ; population, 15,500, 
 Mohammedans of Hindu descent. They are low 
 and flat, and all but two are comparatively 
 barren. The cocoa-nut is the chief plant, and 
 coir (cocoa-nut fibre) the staple product. The 
 group was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1499. 
 Lachine {La-sheen'), a summer residence of 
 Quebec, 8 miles SW. of Montreal by rail. There 
 is a canal hence to Montreal to avoid the Lachine 
 Rapids of the St Lawrence. Pop. 5600. 
 
 Lachlan, an Australian river, a tributary of 
 the Murrumbidgee, which flows to the Murray. 
 
 Lackawanna River, Pennsylvania, is a tribu- 
 tary of the Susquehanna, and its valley nearly 
 coincides with the Wyoming and Lackawanna 
 coal basin (55 miles long). 
 
 Lacock Abbey, a Wiltshire seat, 3J miles S. 
 by W. of Chippenham. Representing an Augus- 
 tinian nunnery (1232), it was the home of W. H. 
 Fox Talbot, the photographic inventor. 
 
 La Crosse, capital of La Crosse county, Wis- 
 consin, stands on the Mississippi, at the mouth 
 of La Crosse River, and at the junction of six 
 railways, 195 miles by rail WNW. of Milwaukee. 
 It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, and manufac- 
 tures of farming-implements, engines and boilers, 
 sashes and blinds, &c., besides large lumber- 
 mills, iron-foundries, and breweries. Pop. (1870) 
 7785 ; (1900) 28,895. 
 
 Ladakh', one of the outlying governorships of 
 Cashmere, in the valley of the Upper Indus, and 
 behind the great central range of the Himalayas. 
 The Ladakhis, some 30,000, are of Turanian stock 
 and Buddhists in religion. The capital is Leh. 
 
 Ladismlth, (1) a village of 800 (named from a 
 colonial governor's wife), in Cape Colony, at the 
 southern base of the great Zwarte Bergen, 70 
 iniles inland from Aliwal South.— A larger place 
 is distinguished from it as Ladysmith (q.v.). 
 
 Lado, a station on the left bank of the White 
 Nile, in 8° 5' N. lat., established by Gordon in 
 1875. The Lado enclave, over which Britain 
 has sovereign rights, but through which it has 
 leased to the Congo State certain rights of access 
 to the Nile, extends from the river on the east to 
 30° E. long, on the west, the Congo boundary 
 on the SW., and 8° 50' N. lat. on the north. 
 
 Lad'oga, Lake, the largest lake of Europe, a 
 little N. of St Petersburg, on the Finnish frontier. 
 It is 129 miles long and 78 broad. Tlie lake 
 receives the waters of Lakes Onega and Ilinen 
 in Russia, and of Lake Saima and other lakes in 
 Finland ; and its own waters are carried ofl" to 
 the Gulf of Finland by the Neva (q.v.). The 
 average depth does not exceed 300 feet, except 
 in the NW. (730 feet). The navigation is exceed- 
 ingly dangerous owing to shallows and sunken 
 roqks, Of the canals connected with it the chief 
 
LADR0NE3 
 
 399 
 
 LAKE DISTRICT 
 
 is the Ladoga Canal (70 miles long and 60 feet 
 wide). This caiial-systeni forms the thorough- 
 fare for a very extensive traftic between the Volga 
 and the Baltic. Two of the islands in the north- 
 west, Valaam and Konevetz, have monasteries 
 (founded 9(j0 and 1393) much visited by pilgrims. 
 Ladrones, or Mariana Islands, a group of 
 fifteen islands in the western Pacific, north of 
 the Carolines, in 13°— 21° N. lat. and 144°— 146° 
 E. long., disposed in a row almost due north and 
 south ; their united area is 420 sq. m. They were 
 discovered by Magellan (1521), whose sailors 
 called tliem the 'Thieves' (Ladrones) Islands;' in 
 1668 they received the name of Mariana Islands, 
 A channel divides tlieni into two groups. Most 
 of the group are thickly wooded, and all are 
 fruitful. Pop. 10,000. In 1898 Guam, the largest 
 island (poP- TOGO), was ceded by Spain to the 
 United States, and in 1899 the remainder of the 
 group were sold to Germany. 
 
 Ladybank, a police-burgh of Fife, 5J miles 
 SW. of Cupar. Pop. 1350. 
 
 Ladysmith (see also Ladismith), a town of 
 6000 in Natal, 140 miles NW. of Durban. Here 
 in 1899-1900 the British forces under Sir George 
 White were invested by the Boers for 120 days, 
 till relieved by Sir Redvers BuUer. 
 
 Laeken(Ld'A.cn), a northern suburb of Brussels, 
 containing the I'oyal palace (1782), with valuable 
 works of art and historical documents. Pop. 
 (1902)31,350. 
 
 Lafayette, in Indiana, on the Wabash River, 
 is (53 miles NW. of Indianapolis. It contains 
 the Purdue state university, and manulactures 
 farming-implements, machinery, cars and wagons, 
 &c. Pup. 20,000. 
 
 Lagan, a river of Ulster, flowing 35 miles to 
 Belfast Lough at Belfast. 
 
 Laggan, a hamlet and parish of Inverness- 
 shire, 11 miles WSW. of Kingussie, on the Sjiey. 
 Loch Laggan, 7 nules farther to the SW., is 7 
 miles long, and discliarges by the Spean to the 
 Lochy, Between Laggan and Kingussie is Cluny 
 Castle, seat of the chief of the Macphersons. 
 Lago Magglore. See Maggioue. 
 Lagos, a seaport on tlie south coast of Portu- 
 gal, 30 miles ENE. from Cape St Vincent. Pop. 
 7900. In the Bay of Lagos Boscaweu defeated 
 the French Toulon fleet in 1759. 
 
 Lagos, a British colony and protectorate on 
 the Guinea coast of Africa. Tlie colony com- 
 prises the islands of Lagos and Iddo (annexed in 
 1801), and about 140 miles of coast between 
 Dahomey and Southern Nigeria. Area, 3400 
 sq. m.— The protectorate (arranged 1901) extends 
 to the French possessions on the Middle Niger, 
 and has an area of 25,240 sq. m. The total popu- 
 lation is about 1,500,000. Lagos island is 3| sq. m. 
 in area; at its W. end stands Lagos town (pop. 
 40,000), Ihe only safe harbour for 1000 miles. 
 La Guaira. See Guaira. 
 La Hague, the north-west extremity of the 
 peninsula of Cotentin (q. v.) over against Alderney. 
 It is crowned by a lighthouse, 158 feet high. 
 
 Lahn, an important affluent of the Rhine in its 
 middle course. 
 
 La Hogue, a roadstead on the east side of the 
 peninsula of Cotentin (q.v.). On May 19, 1092, 
 the French fleet under Tourville, which Louis 
 XIV. had collected to invade England for James 
 il, was defeated here by the English and Dutch 
 ■nts under the Jacobite Admiral Russell. 
 
 Lahore, capital of the Punjab, stands near the 
 left bank of the Ravi, 1080 miles NW. of Calcutta 
 by rail. Pop. (1808) 125,413; (1901) 202,964, of 
 whom 85,000 are Mussulmans. A railway 
 centre, Lahore is surrounded by a brick wall 16 
 feet high. The fort occupies a connnanding posi- 
 tion to the north-east, and near it are the mosque 
 of Aurungzebe and Runjeet Singh's tomb. The 
 British civil station is called Anarkalli, and a 
 broad road, the Mallj^connects it with the govern- 
 ment house and the Lawrence Gardens. Three 
 miles farther is the dreary cantonment of Mian 
 Mir. The flourishing Punjab University was 
 largely endowed by native chiefs and gentlemen 
 — Moslem, Sikh, and Hindu. There are also the 
 Oriental College, Government College, Govern- 
 ment Medical School, Mayo Hospital, Roberts 
 Institute, and a good museum. Under the Mogul 
 empire the city, which dates from the 7th cen- 
 tury A.D., had a pop. of over 1,000,000. The 
 remains of the magnificent buildings erected by 
 the Mogul emperors are still considerable, as well 
 as Jahangir's wonderful gardens at Shadra and 
 Shalimar. In 1849 Lahore became the capital of 
 the new British province of the Punjab (q.v.). 
 
 Lahr, a town of Baden, on an aflluent of the 
 Rhine, 20 miles SSE. of Strasburg. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Laihach (Li-halili), capital of the Austrian pro- 
 vince of Carniola, on the Laibach, 92 miles NB. 
 of Trieste. Pop. 30,091. 
 
 Laing'S Nek, a defile in the Drakenberge Moun- 
 tains, Natal, 10 jniles from the N. point of its 
 frontier. Here tlie Boers defeated the British 
 forces under CoUey, January 28, 1881. 
 
 Lairg, a Sutherland village, on the Shin, 67 
 miles by rail N. by W. of Inverness. 
 
 Lake District, the name applied to the pictur- 
 esque and mountainous region comprised within 
 the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland, and a 
 small portion of Lancashire, within which are 
 grouped as many as sixteen lakes or meres, be- 
 sides innumerable mountain tarns and streams, 
 and a series of mountains rising in four points to 
 a height of over 3000 feet. The district extends 
 about 30 miles from north to .south by about 25 
 from east to west, and contains within its com- 
 pass the utmost variety and wealth of natural scen- 
 ery ; it is fringed by such considerable towns 
 as Penrith, Kendal, Lancaster, Barrow, Cocker- 
 mouth, and Whitehaven. The principal lakes 
 are Windermere, Esthwaite Water, and Coniston 
 in the south ; Ullswater and Hawes Water in the 
 east; Bassenthwaite in the north; Wast Water, 
 Ennerdale Water, Buttermere, and Crummock 
 Water in the west ; and Derwentwater, Thirlmere, 
 Grasmere, and Rydal Water in the heart of the 
 district. The highest mountain-summits are Sea- 
 fell Pike (3210 feet), Scafell (3161 feet), Helvellyn 
 (3118 feet), and Skiddaw (3060 feet). The lakes 
 are fed and emptied by beautiful mountain- 
 streams and becks, often forming noble waterfalls 
 or forces. Among the places most visited are the 
 towns or villages of Keswick, Coniston, Bowness, 
 Hawkeshead, Ambleside, Ulverston, Rosthwaite, 
 Grasmere, Patterdale, and Borrowdale ; the Lang- 
 dale Pikes ; the Duddon Valley, Honister Pass, 
 and Kirkstone Pass ; the Castle Rock of St John, 
 celebrated in Scott's Bridal of Triermain; and 
 such minor but imposing mountain-peaks as 
 Blencathara or Saddleback (2847 feet), near Kes- 
 wick ; Coniston Old Man (2633), near Coniston ; 
 and the Great Gable (2950), near Wastdale Head. 
 
 See Wordsworth's Description of the Scenery of 
 the Lakes (1822) ; Professor Knight's English Lake 
 District, as interpreted by Wordsworth (new ed. 
 
LAKE OF THE THOUSAND ISLANDS 400 
 
 LANCASHIRE 
 
 1891), and his Through the Wordsworth Country 
 (1887); also Harriet Martiiieau's English Lalces 
 (1858), and books bv Boiniey (1876), Waugli, 
 Rawiisley, Bradley, and Collingwood (1902). 
 
 Lake of the Thousand Islands, an expansion 
 of the St Lawrence (q.v.) extending about 40 
 miles below Lalte Ontario. It contains some 
 1500 roclcy islets, the largest, Wolfe Island (48 
 sq. m. ; pop. 2383), measuriag 21 miles by 7. 
 
 Lake of the Woods, a lake of North America, 
 studded with wooded islands, in 49° N. lat. and 
 95° W. long. It is mostly in Ontario, but extends 
 into Manitoba and Minnesota. Nearly 100 miles 
 long, and 300 in circuit, it is fed by the Rainy 
 River, and drained by the Winnipeg. 
 
 Lakhnao. See Lucknow. 
 
 Laleham, a Middlesex village, on the Thames, 
 2 miles SSE. of Staines. Matthew Arnold was 
 born and is buried here. 
 
 Lalitpur, capital of adistrict in the United Prov- 
 inces of India, 55 miles S. of Jhansi. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 La Mancha. See Mancha. 
 
 Lambay, an island of Dublin county, 3 miles 
 SE. of Rush. It measures 1^ by 1 mile, and rises 
 418 feet. Pop. 61. 
 
 Lambayeque (Lam-ha-yeh'ke), a province of 
 Peru, with an area of 17,939 sq. m., and a pop. 
 of 85,984.— The capital, Lambaycque, is 7 miles 
 from the mouth of the river Lambayeque, and 
 128 miles NW. of Trujillo. Pop. 8300. 
 
 Lambeth, a metropolitan and parliamentary 
 borough S. of the Thames, but within the county 
 of London, has an area of O.J sq. m. Since 1885 
 it returns four members, its pop. (1901) being 
 301,895. Lambeth Bridge dates from 1862, Lam- 
 beth Palace has been the official residence of the 
 archbishops of Canterbury since 1197. It contains 
 a splendid series of portraits of the archbishops, 
 and a library of 30,000 volumes, with many iine 
 MSS. The Lollards' Tower, so named in com- 
 paratively modern times from the notion that 
 heretics were here imprisoned, was really a water 
 tower. It dat<!S from 1434. See the Rev. J. 
 Cave-Browne's Lambeth Palace (1883). 
 
 Lamboum, a Berkshire town, on the river 
 Lambo\irn, 7 miles N. by W. of Hungerford. 
 Pop. of parish, 2238. 
 
 Lamlash', an Arran village, 5J miles S. by E. 
 of Brodick, on a beautiful bay protected by Holy 
 Isle (1030 feet high). Pop. 315. 
 
 Lammermoors, a broad range of moorish hills 
 in Haddington and Berwick shires, extending 
 east-north-eastward from the vale of Gala Water 
 to the German Ocean at St Abb's Head, and 
 culminating in Lammer Law (1733 feet). 
 
 Lampedu'sa, a small Mediterranean island, 150 
 miles S. of Sicily, and 80 E. of Tunis. Belong- 
 ing physically to Africa, it has since 1843 been 
 reckoned part of Sicily. Pop. 1074. 
 
 Lam'peter, a market-town of Cardiganshire, 
 27 miles by rail NNE. of Carmarthen. It is the 
 seat of St David's College (1827), which was 
 founded by Bishop Burgess, and has power to 
 grant B.A. and B.D. degrees. Pop. 17C9. 
 
 Lan'ark, the county town of Lanarkshire, on a 
 slope near the right bank of the Clyde (q.v.), 33 
 miles by rail SW. of Edinburgh, and 31 SE. of 
 Glasgow. It has an interesting ruined church, a 
 large Catholic chapel (1859), the county buildings 
 (1836), a good racecourse, memories of Wallace, 
 and some weaving and other industries. A royal 
 burgh since the 12th century, it unites with Fal- 
 kirk, &c. to return a member to parliament. 
 
 Pop. (1851) 5008; (1901) 6567.— New Lanark, U 
 mile S. by W., is a manufacturing village, founded 
 in 1783 by David Dale, and for twenty-eight years 
 the scene of the social experiments of his son-in- 
 law, Robert Owen. Pop. (1831) 1901 ; (1901) 795, 
 
 Lan'arkshire, or Clydesdale, a Scottish 
 county, enclosed by Stirling, Diunbarton, Linlith- 
 gow, Edinburgh, Peebles, Dumfries, Ayr, and 
 Renfrew shires. Its length is 50 miles, its greatest 
 breadth 32 miles, and its area 889 sq. m. Drained 
 almost entirely by the Clyde (q.v.) and its numer- 
 ous affluents, Lanarkshire is subdivided into three 
 wards, of which the upper or southern comprises 
 332,338 acres, the middle 194,211, and the lower 
 42,319. These offer a striking diversity of aspect 
 — lonely uplands, smiling orchards, busy coal- 
 fields and manufacturing district. The principal 
 hills are Green Lowther (2402 feet) and far-seen 
 Tinto (2335) ; whilst the mining- village of Lead- 
 hills (1300 feet) is the highest in Scotland. The 
 county possesses great mineral wealth — coal, 
 ironstone, fireclay, shale, and lead, with some 
 silver and even gold. The coal alone in the 
 Lanarkshire coalfield is estimated to exceed 2000 
 million tons. The soil is as various as the 
 scenery ; and barely one-half of the whole area is 
 in cultivation, whilst woods occupy 20,000 acres, 
 orchards nearly 600, and market-gardens over 
 1300. The orchards of Clydesdale were famous 
 as early as the time of Bede, and yielded into the 
 19th century £8000 per annum ; but now the 
 ground is more profitably employed in producing 
 strawberries, gooseberries, vegetables, &c. for the 
 Glasgow market. Lanarkshire is not a great 
 grain county ; but much of it is excellently 
 adapted for the rearing of stock and for dairy pur- 
 poses. The sheep are Cheviots and black-faced, 
 the cattle Ayrshires ; and the celebrated Clydes- 
 dale cart-horses issue from a Flemish cross (about 
 1720). The mineral, textile, and other industries 
 are very extensive, and are noticed under the 
 towns — Glasgow, Rutherglen, Lanark, Hamilton, 
 Airdrie, Coatbridge, Motherwell, Wishaw, &c. 
 Besides prehistoric and Roman remains, Lanark- 
 shire contains the castles of Bothwell, Dougla.s, 
 and Craignethan (Scott's ' Tillietudlem '), the 
 priories of Blantyre and Lesmahagow, and the 
 battlefields of Langside, Drumclog, and Bothwell 
 Brig. Among its worthies have been Joanna 
 Baillie, Dr John Brown, Sir Colin Campbell, 
 Thomas Campbell, Lord Dundonald, David 
 Livingstone, and Sir John Moore. Tliough only 
 the twelfth in size, Lanarkshire is far the most 
 populous and wealthy of all the thirty-three 
 Scottish counties. Pop. (1801) 147,692; (1841) 
 426,972 ; (1901) 1,339,327— Lanarkshire now in- 
 cluding the whole of Glasgow under the Local 
 Government (Scotland) Act of 1889. 
 
 See works by Hamilton of Wishaw (Maitland 
 Club, 1831), Irving and Murray (1864), and others 
 cited at Glasgow, Clyde, Biggar, &c. 
 
 Lan'cashire, a county palatine of England, 
 ranking sixth in point of area, first in population, 
 and first in return of revenue from all sources. 
 It forms the north-western division of England, 
 stretching along the Irish Sea from the river 
 Dnddon and the mountains of Cumberland on 
 the north to the river Mersey on the south. 
 The extreme length from N. to S. (including 
 the hundred of Furness) is 75 miles, and the 
 greatest breadth at the south end 43, at the 
 north end 10 miles. The area is 1905 sq. m., 
 or 1,219,221 statute acres. Pop. (1801) 673,486 ; 
 (1841) 1,667,054 ; (1861) 2,429,440 ; (1901) 4,406.787. 
 The coast is low, with numerous far-reaching 
 
LANCASTER 
 
 401 
 
 LANDSBERG 
 
 estuaries. This has made the county the prin- 
 cipal outlet for the commerce of the country in 
 a westerly direction, one-third of the whole foreign 
 trade of Great Britain being carried on from its 
 ports. The chief rivers are the Mersey, Kibble, 
 Lune, Wyre, Kent, Leven, and Duddon. An out- 
 lying portion of the county, galled Furness, 25 
 miles long by 20 wide, is separated from the main 
 portion by Morecanibe Bay, and seems to belong 
 properly to the Lake District. Coniston, Estli- 
 waite, and Windermere lakes lie within its bor- 
 ders. The highest point here is 'Coniston Old 
 Man' (alt maen, 'high rock'), 2633 feet high. 
 The larger division is intersected in the north 
 and east by branches of the hill-system which 
 runs southward through the counties of York and 
 Derby, the chief eminences being Pendle Hill 
 (1831 feet), Bleasdale Moor (1709), Boulsworth 
 Hill (1689), and Rivington Moor (1545). Coal is 
 the chief mineral product, the coalfield being 
 estimated at 217 sq. m. in extent. Limestone 
 and iron are connnon in the north ; lead, copper, 
 sulphur, and fireclay are also found. The whole 
 surface of the county is covered with a network 
 of canals and railways. Lancashire is the great 
 centre of the cotton manufacture of the world, 
 having about two-thirds of the entire trade ; and 
 there are other textile manufactures, such as 
 woollens, silk, carpets. It is pre-eminent in the 
 manufacture of engineers' tools ; and the making 
 of all kinds of iron and steel machinery is ex- 
 tensively carried on ; as also shipbuilding, sai^- 
 making, the manufacture of boots, shoes, and 
 hosiery. The county returns, since 1885, twenty- 
 three members to parliament (formerly eight), 
 besides thirty-two for the seventeen boroughs 
 (Ashton-under-Lyne, Barrow-in-Furness, Black- 
 burn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Liverpool, Man- 
 chester, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale, St Helens, 
 Salford, Stalybridge, Stockport, Warrington, and 
 Wigan). The phrase, 'Lancashire Witches," 
 which is now used as an expression of admiration 
 for the young maidens of the county, arose from 
 the prevalence of the ' crime ' of witchcraft in 
 Lancashire in the reign of James I. At the time 
 of the Reformation the Roman Catholic party 
 was extremely strong in Lancashire ; and an 
 unusually large proportion of the land-owners 
 still adhered in the reign of James I. to the old 
 faith. The people of Lancashire have long been 
 noted for their love of music and natural history ; 
 while their politics and opinions have had such 
 influence in the country that the proverb has 
 arisen that ' What Lancashire thinks to-day 
 England says to-morrow.' Amongst Lancashire's 
 worthies have been Mrs Gaskell, Mrs G, L. Banks, 
 and Miss Martineau ; Roscoe, De Quincey, Sir 
 Robert Peel, Horrocks, Clough, Dalton, Hodg- 
 kinson. Joule, Greg, Bamford the weaver poet, 
 Edwin Waugh, William Henry the chemist. Sir 
 W. Fairbairn, Sir J. Whitworth, Bishop Light- 
 foot, James Martineau, and Gladstone ; and, 
 connected with the success of the cotton trade, 
 John Kay (inventor of the fly-shuttle), Crompton, 
 Arkwright, Hargreaves. 
 
 See Baines, Lancashire (1836 ; new ed. by 
 Croston, 1888) ; Espinasse, Lancashire Worthies 
 (1873-77) ; Nodal and Milner, Dialect (1882) ; and 
 other works by Butterworth (1841), Grindon (1866, 
 
 f2, 1892), Axon (1883), and Fishwick (1894). 
 an'caster, the capital of Lancashire, is pictur- 
 uely situated on an eminence on the left bank 
 the Lune, 7 miles from its mouth, 51 J NNW. 
 )f Manchester and 231 NW. of London "by rail, 
 rhe ancient castle, which overlooks the town, 
 na built on the site of a Roman castle, and was 
 
 restored by John of Gaunt, ' time-lionoured Lan- 
 caster;' it is now used as the county jail. The 
 clmrch of St Mary (15th century) contains some 
 good oak-carvings and stained glass. The Ripley 
 Hospital is an asylum for orphan children. The 
 Lune is here crossed by a bridge of five arches, 
 erected in 1788, and by an aqueduct carrying the 
 Lancaster Canal across the river. Owing to the 
 sanding of the Lune, lai'ge vessels have to unload 
 at Glasson, 5 miles distant. The chief manufac- 
 tures are furniture, cotton, silk, oilcloth, table- 
 covers, machinery, and railway plant. A public 
 imrk was presented in 1881. Sir R. Owen and 
 Dr Whewell were natives. In 1698 the town was 
 nearly burned to the ground. A very ancient 
 municipal borough, it returned two members from 
 1547 to 1867, when it was disfranchised for corrupt 
 practices. The municipal boundary was extended 
 in 1888 and 1900. Pop. (1851)14,602 ; (1901)40,329. 
 See works by Hall (1843) and Simpson (1852). 
 
 Lancaster, (l) capital of Fairfield county, Ohio, 
 on the Hocking River and Canal, 32 miles SE. of 
 Columbus, with machine-works and railway shops. 
 Pop. 9555. —(2) Capital of Lancaster county, Penn- 
 sylvania, 69 miles by rail W. of Philadelphia. 
 It has a large court-house, the Franklin and 
 Marshall (German Reformed) College, large cotton- 
 mills, tanneries, breweries, potteries, and exten- 
 sive warehouses for tobacco. Founded in 1730, 
 Lancaster was the state capital from 1799 to 1812. 
 Pop. (1870) 20,233 ; (1900) 41,460. 
 
 Lancaster Sound, a western outlet of Baffin 
 Bay, first navigated by Parry in 1819. 
 
 Lan-chau, or Lan-chow, capital of Kan-su pro- 
 vince, China, on the Hoang-ho, near the Great 
 Wall. It is an important commercial centre, 
 and has manufactures of cloth, &c. Pop. 500,000. 
 
 Lancing, a Sussex watering-place, 8^ miles W. 
 of Brighton. St Nicholas's College (1848) here is 
 a High Church middle-class school. Pop. of 
 parish, 1245. 
 
 Landau (Lan-dow), (1) a town of the Bavarian 
 Palatinate, 11 miles W. of the Rhine and 17 SW. 
 of Spires. In 1816 Bavaria became mistress of 
 it ; and in 1870-71 its fortifications were razed. 
 Pop. 15,136.— (2) Another town of Bavaria, on 
 the Isar, 72 miles NE. of Munich. Pop. 3165. 
 
 Landaur, a sanitary station in the North-west 
 Provinces, forming part of the town of Masuri. 
 It is on the slope of the Himalayas, 7459 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 Landemeau, a seaport in the French dep. of 
 Finistere, stands at the head of Brest harbour, 
 12 miles by rail NE. of Brest. Pop. 6520. 
 
 Landes (LonPd), a dep. of southern France, 
 one of the largest and most thinly peopled in 
 the country, is bounded on the W. by the Bay 
 of Biscay. Area, 3598 sq. m. ; pop. (1876) 303,508 ; 
 (1901) 291,657. The chief river is the Adour (navi- 
 gable). The greater portion of the dep. consists 
 of the landes, tracts of barren sand, interspersed 
 with marshes and forests of pine and oak and 
 cork. Much land has been rendered available 
 by draining and planting with pines. The dep. 
 is divided into the three arrondissements of Mont- 
 de-Marsan (the capital), St Sever, and Dax. 
 
 Landguard Fort (Lang'gard). See Harwich. 
 
 Landquart, a village of E. Switzerland, on the 
 Landquart, a tributary of the Upper Rhine, 8 
 miles N. of Chur, and 31 NW. of Davos by rail. 
 
 Landsberg, a Prussian town, on the Warthe, 
 80 miles by rail NNE. of Berlin. Its industrial 
 establishments include sawmills, machine-works, 
 breweries, distilleries, &c. Pop. 33,600. 
 
 L 
 
LAND'S END 
 
 402 
 
 LA PAZ 
 
 Land's End. See Cornwall. 
 
 Landshut (Lands-hoote), a picturesque town of 
 Upper Bavaria, on the Isar, 44 miles by rail NE. 
 of Munich. Of its eleven churches, St Martin's 
 (1477) has a steeple 436 feet high. The castle 
 of Trausnitz (c. 1232) was partially restored in 
 1872-74. Landshut has manufactures of tobacco, 
 beer, wagons, hats, &c. The Dominican monas- 
 tery (1271) was the seat of the university, removed 
 hither from Ingolstadt in 1800, and transferred 
 to Munich in 1826. Here, on 16th April 1809, the 
 Austrians drove back the Bavarians, but were in 
 turn defeated by Napoleon five days later. Pop. 
 22,500. 
 
 Landskrona, a Swedish seaport, on the Sound, 
 16 miles NNB. from Copenhagen. A fortress 
 down to 1870, it has a good harbour, and carries 
 on sugar-refining, shipbuilding, and the manu- 
 facture of tobacco and leather. Pop. 14,633. 
 Opposite lies the island of Hvem, on which Tycho 
 Brahe built his observatory of Uranienborg. 
 
 Lanercost, an Augustinian priory, founded 
 about 1169, lies in the valley of the Irthing, 16 
 miles NE. of Carlisle. It is partly in ruins ; but 
 the nave is used as a parish church. Naworth 
 Castle, 1 mile S. of the priory, is associated with 
 the ' Belted Will Howard ' of Scott's Lay of the 
 Last Minstrel; it contains old armour, tapestry, 
 &c. See R. S. Ferguson's Lanercost (1870). 
 
 Langdale Pikes, two Westmorland summits, 
 at the head of Great Langdale Valley, 2401 and 
 2323 feet high. 
 
 Langeland (i.e. 'long land'), a low, fertile 
 Danish island, 33 miles long by 5 broad, at the 
 southern entrance to the Great Belt. Area, 106 
 sq. m. ; pop. 19,000. Chief town, Rudkjobing 
 (pop. 3179), on the west coast. 
 
 Langensalza (Lang-en-salt'za), a town of Prus- 
 sian Saxony, 13 miles by rail N. by W. of Gotha, 
 with a pop. of 12,924, a neighbouring sulphur- 
 spring, and woollen and cloth manufactures. 
 Here, on 27th June 1866, 19,000 Hanoverians 
 encountered 8200 Prussians ; the latter were at 
 first defeated, but being reinforced compelled the 
 former to capitulate two days later. 
 
 Lang'holm, a market-town of Dumfriesshire, at 
 the junction of Ewes and Wauchope Waters with 
 the Esk, 23 miles SSW. of Hawick, and 22 (by a 
 branch-line) N. of Carlisle. Near the town-hall is 
 a marble statue of Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm 
 (1768-1838), and on White Hill an obelisk to his 
 brother. General Sir John Malcolm (1769-1833). 
 Shepherd's plaid and tweeds have been manu- 
 factured since 1832. In 1890 Thomas Hope, a 
 New York merchant and native of Langholm, left 
 £80,000 to found a hospital here. Langholm is a 
 burgh of barony (1643), under the Duke of Buc- 
 cleuch, whose seat, Langholm Lodge, is close by. 
 The Douglases were defeated here in the battle 
 of Arkinholm (1455). Pop. 8143. 
 
 Langkat, a place on the NE. coast of Sumatra, 
 30 miles S. of the frontiers of Atcheen, produc- 
 ing tobacco and petroleum. 
 
 Langley Castle, a ruin in Northumberland, 2 
 miles S. of Haydon Bridge. 
 
 Langness, a headland at the south-east ex- 
 tremity of the Isle of Man. 
 
 Langport, a Somerset market-town, on the 
 Parret, 14 miles E. by N. of Taunton. Pop. 890. 
 
 Langres (Longr), a town in the French dep. of 
 Haute-Marne, lies 1530 feet above sea-level (one 
 of the highest towns in France), 184 miles ESE. 
 of Paris by rail. As key of the communication 
 
 between the Seine and the Rhone, it has been 
 strongly fortified since 1868, and has a cathedral 
 of the 12th and 13th c. Pop. 7846. Langres 
 (anc. Andematunnum) in Caesar's time was cap- 
 ital of the Lingones, whence the name. 
 
 Langslde, a southern suburb of Glasgow. 
 Here, after her escape from Loch Leven, Queen 
 Mary's forces were defeated, 13th May 1568. A 
 monument (1887) commemorates the battle. 
 
 Lang-son, a town in Tongking, situated north- 
 east of Ha-noi, near the Chinese frontier. 
 
 Languedoc (Ldng-doc'), a former province of 
 the south of France, bounded E. by the Rhone, 
 and S. by the Mediterranean, and now embraced 
 in the deps. of Lozere, Gard, Ardeche, Aude, 
 Herault, Upper Loire, Tarn, and Upper Gar- 
 onne. The name is derived from langue d'oc, the 
 southern French dialect, or Provengal, so called 
 from its use of oc instead of the northern oui 
 for ' yes.' 
 
 Lannion, a town in the French dep. of C6tes- 
 du-Nord, on the Guer, 69 miles by rail ENB. 
 of Brest. Pop. 5593. 
 
 Lansdown, a hill (813 feet) to the north of 
 Bath, commanding a prospect of exceptional 
 beauty. Lansdown Tower (130 feet) was built 
 by Beckford, and 2 miles beyond, on 5th July 
 1643, Waller's entrenchments were stormed by 
 the Cornish royalists. On the spot where Sir 
 Bevil Grenville fell Lord Lansdowne raised a 
 monument in 1723. 
 
 Lansing, the capital (since 1847) of Michigan, 
 on the Grand River, 85 miles WNW. of Detroit, 
 at the meeting-point of four railways. It con- 
 tains the state capitol, library, agricultural college, 
 a school for the blind, several manufactories, &c. 
 Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Lansingburg, a village of New York, annexed 
 to the city of Troy in 1901. It contains an 
 Augustinian priory, and has extensive manufac- 
 tures of brushes and oilcloth. 
 
 Laodicea, a name given to several cities — eight 
 at least can be distinguished — founded or rebuilt 
 by the Seleucid rulers of Syria ; it is adapted 
 from Laodice, a favourite name for the female 
 relatives of these sovereigns. The most famous, 
 situated 2 miles from the river Lycus in Phrygia, 
 is now a heap of ruins, known as Eski-Hissar. 
 One of the Seven Churches of Asia, it was stigma- 
 tised as lukewarm (Rev. iii. 16), but was the scene 
 of great church councils in 363 and 476.— For 
 another Laodicea, see Latakia. 
 
 Laon (La' on?), chief town of the French dep. 
 of Aisne, is situated on a steep isolated hill (594 
 feet), 87 miles by rail NE. of Paris. Occupying 
 a naturally strong position, it has been a fortress 
 since the 5th century, was capital of the kings 
 of the West Franks, and from 515 to 1790 was 
 the seat of a bishop. The Gothic 12th-century 
 cathedral, and the bishop's palace (now a law- 
 court), still remain. The inhabitants are noted 
 market-gardeners. At Laon, in March 1814, 
 Napoleon was repulsed by BlUcher and Billow ; 
 and it surrendered to a German force on 9th 
 September 1870, when the explosion of the 
 powder-magazine by a French soldier cost 500 
 lives. Pop. 12,000. ■ 
 
 Laos. See Shan States. 
 
 La Paz, (1) a dep. of Bolivia, bordering on 
 Peru ; area, 171,200 sq. m. ; pop. 646,139.— The 
 capital. La Paz, lies in a valley 11,952 feet above 
 the sea, 42 miles SE. of Lake Titicaca. It is from 
 time to time (as in 1893) capital also of the whole 
 
LAPLAND 
 
 403 
 
 LATHOM HOUSE 
 
 country. It has a handsome but unfinished 
 cathedral, and a trade in copper, alpaca wool, 
 cinchona, &c. Pop. 50,000. —(2) A town of Argen- 
 tina, on the Parana, 530 miles by river N. by W. 
 of Buenos Ay res. Pop. 9800. 
 
 Lapland is a collective name for the exten- 
 sive region (Norwegian, Swedish, P'innish, and 
 Russian) in the north of Europe that is inhabited 
 by the Lapps, who belong to the Ural-Altaic 
 stock. N. it is bounded by the Arctic Ocean, 
 NW. by the Atlantic, B. by the White Sea. The 
 total Lapp pop. is about 28,000—18,000 in Nor- 
 way, 7000 in Sweden, 800 ,in Finland, and 2000 
 in Russia. 
 
 La Plata (La Plah'ta), the capital of the Argen- 
 tinian province of Buenos Ayres, was founded in 
 1884, after Buenos Ayres City, from which it is 
 about 30 miles SE., had been made the federal 
 capital. The new city was rapidly built, with 
 wide streets, and over a score of squares ; the 
 central portion is lit with the electric light, and 
 there are tramways. Buildings of note are the 
 handsome capitol, an observatory, and a flue 
 railway station. Cottons and woollens are manu- 
 factured ; and a canal connects a harbour here 
 with a larger outer one at Ensenada, on the La 
 Plata River. Pop. 75,000. 
 
 La Plata, Rio de, a wide estuary of South 
 America, between Uruguay on the north and the 
 Argentine Republic on the south, through which 
 the waters of the Parana and the Uruguay sweep 
 down to the ocean. It is about 200 miles long, 
 28 wide at Buenos Ayres, and 140 broad at its 
 mouth. The northern shore is somewhat steep 
 and lofty, but that along the province of Buenos 
 Ayres is low and flat, with wide sandbanks. The 
 estuary has thus no shelter from the tempestuous 
 storms from the SW. ; and even the only good 
 harbour, that at Montevideo, is open to the SE. 
 The outflow of the estuary is exceeded only by 
 that of the Amazon ; the yellow, muddy stream 
 is recognisable 60 miles out at sea. The estuary 
 was discovered in 1515 or 1516 by Diaz de Solis, 
 who was shortly afterwards roasted and eaten 
 by the Indians on its bank. Plata is the Spanish 
 word for 'silver.' See Sir Horace Rumbold's 
 Great Silver River (2d ed. 1890). 
 
 Laporte, capital of Laporte county, Indiana, 
 50 miles ESE. of Chicago. Pop. 7126. 
 
 Lar, capital of Laristan, in south Persia, 170 
 miles SE. of Shiraz. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Lar'acor, a Meath parish, on the Boyne, 3 
 miles SE. of Trim. Swift was vicar of Laracor. 
 
 Lar'amie, a river which rises in northern 
 Colorado, and flows 200 miles NE. through south- 
 eastern Wyoming to the North Fork of the Platte 
 at Fort Laramie. It gives name to the Laramie 
 Plains, a treeless plateau, 7500 feet above sea- 
 level, and 3000 sq. m. in extent ; and to the 
 Laramie Mountains, a Rocky Mountain Range 
 which bounds this plateau N. and E. Laramie 
 City, Wyoming, on this great plain, and on the 
 Union Pacific Railroad, 573 miles W. of Omaha, 
 has a rolling-mill and railway shops. Pop. 8388. 
 
 Larbert, a railway junction in Stirlingshire, 
 2 miles W. by N. of Falkirk. 
 
 Lare'do, capital of Webb county, Texas, on 
 the Rio Grande, opposite Nuevo Laredo, by rail 
 153 miles SSW of San Antonio and 840 N. of 
 Mexico. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Largo, a village of Fife, on Largo Bay, and at 
 the base of Largo Law (965 feet), 14 miles NE. 
 of Kirkcaldy. It has a bronze statue (1885) of 
 
 Alexander Selkirk, who was born here. Popula- 
 tion, 481. 
 
 Largs, an Ayrshire watering-place, on the Firth 
 of Clyde, 14 miles S. of Greenock, and 11 N. of 
 Ardrossan by a railway (1885). Here, on 12th 
 October 1263, Alexander III. defeated Haco of 
 Norway. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Larlssa (Turkish Yenisher), anciently the chief 
 town of Thessaly, and ceded by Turkey to Greece 
 in 1881, stands on the Salambria (anc. Peneus), 
 and manufactures silk and cotton goods ajid 
 tobacco. The seat of a Greek archbishop, it is 
 connected by rail (37^ miles) with the port of 
 Volo : an Athens-Larissa railway was in progress 
 in 1894. Pop. 15,169. 
 
 Laristan, the south-west part of the Persian 
 province of Kerman (q.v.). Area, 22,954 sq. m. ; 
 pop. about 90,000. 
 
 Lark, a river of Suftblk and Cambridgeshire, 
 flowing 26 miles NW., past Bury St Edmunds and 
 Mildenhall, to the Ouse near Littleport. 
 
 Larkhall, a Lanarkshire town, 3J miles SSE. 
 of Hamilton. Pop. (1861) 2685 ; (1901) 11,879. 
 
 Larkhana, the capital of a Sind district, called 
 'the Eden of Sind,' 150 miles N. of Hyderabad 
 by rail. Pop. 13,188. 
 
 Lar'naka (anc. Citium), the chief port of 
 Cyprus, 27^ miles S. of Nicosia. The British have 
 built a court-house, custom-house, &c., on the 
 sea front, as well as two iron piers. Sea-going 
 vessels have to lie 1^ mile from the shore owing 
 to the shallow water. Pop. 7933. 
 
 Lame, a seaport of County Antrim, at the 
 entrance of Lough Lame, 25 miles NE. of Belfast 
 by rail. There is daily conununicatiou with 
 Stranraer by mail-steamer. Pop. 6670. 
 
 Larnica. See Larnaka. 
 
 La Rochelle. See Rochelle. 
 
 Larvlk. See Laurvik. 
 
 La Salette. See Salette. 
 
 La Salle, a city of Illinois, at the head of 
 steam-navigation on the Illinois River, 99 miles 
 by rail WSW. of Chicago, with which it is also 
 connected by the Illinois Canal. Bituminous 
 coal is mined here, and the city has manufactures 
 of zinc, glass, and iron. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Lashkar. See Gwalior. 
 
 Las Palmas, chief town of the Canary Islands, 
 on the north-east coast of Gran Canaria, is the 
 seat of a bishop. Pop. 47,800. 
 
 Lassa. See Lhassa. 
 
 Lasso'die, a collier-village of Fife, 4 miles NNB. 
 of Dunfennline. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Lasswade', a Midlothian village, on the North 
 Esk, 6i miles SSE. of Edinburgh. Drummond 
 of Hawthornden is buried in the churchyard 
 (memorial, 1893); and Scott and De Quincey 
 lived here. Pop. 869. 
 
 Lataki'a (Turk. Ladikiyeh; anc. Laodicea ad 
 Mare), a decayed seaport of Syria, with a sanded- 
 up harbour, stands on a rocky cape 75 miles 
 N. of Tripoli. It possesses remains of Roman 
 buildings, and was still a wealthy city at the 
 time of the Crusades. Pop. 20,000, who export 
 the Latakia tobacco, grown on the hills in the 
 interior, and some grain, silk, sponges, oils, &c. 
 
 Lathom House, the seat of the Earl of Lathom, 
 in Lancashire, 4^ miles ENE. of Ormskirk. It 
 is a Grecian mansion, built about 1750. Its 
 predecessor was splendidly defended by Charlotte 
 de la Tremouille, Countess of Derby, in 1644. 
 
 Bfe 
 
LA TRAPPE 
 
 404 
 
 LAXEY 
 
 La Trappe. See Trappb, La. 
 Lautoan, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the 
 Queiss, 15 miles E. of Gorlitz. Pop. 14,336. 
 
 Lauder, a quaint little royal burgh of Berwick- 
 shire, on Leader Water, 25 miles SE. of Edin- 
 burgh. Near it is Thirlestane Castle, the seat of 
 the Earl of Lauderdale. Till 1885 with Hadding- 
 ton, &c. it returned one member. Pop. 719. 
 
 Lauenburg, or Saxe-Lauenburg, a German 
 duchy, formerly united to the crown of Denmark, 
 and lying on the Elbe's right bank between Hol- 
 stein and Mecklenburg. In 1876 it was incorpor- 
 ated with Sleswick-Holstein, of which it is now 
 a district. Area, 457 sq. m. ; pop. 52,000.— Tlie 
 town of Lauenburg, once capital of the duchy, 
 stands on the Elbe, 25 miles SE. of Hamburg. 
 Pop. 5748.— Lauenburg, in Pomerania, 38 miles 
 NW. of Danzig, has a pop. of 10,500. 
 
 Laugharne, or Llaugharne, a market-town at 
 the Corran's influx to the Taf estuary, 12 miles 
 SW. of Carmarthen. It has a fine church and a 
 ruined castle. Pop. 1150. 
 
 Launceston (Launs'ton or Lon'son), till 1838 
 the county town of Cornwall, on the Kensey, a 
 tributary of the Tamar, 36 miles NW. of Ply- 
 mouth and 50 W. of Exeter by branch-lines 
 opened in 1865 and 1886. It has a fine granite 
 church (1511) ; the circular Norman keep of a 
 castle which figured in the Great Rebellion, and 
 in which Fox the Quaker was imprisoned (1656) ; 
 an old gateway ; and a new town-hall (1887). A 
 municipal borough since 1227, it returned two 
 members till 1832, one till 1885. Pop. (1851) 3397 ; 
 (1901) 4053, the boundary having been extended 
 in 1889. See a work by A. F. Bobbins (1885). 
 
 Launceston, the second city of Tasmania, is to 
 the north of the island what Hobart, the capital, 
 is to the south— the chief port of entry and mart 
 of trade. It stands in a valley enclosed by hills 
 at the junction of the Esk with the Tamar, which, 
 after a course of 40 miles, enters Bass Strait at 
 Port Dalrymple. There is a railway (133 miles) 
 to Hobart. The principal buildings are the 
 government-house, new post-office, theatre, town- 
 hall, and mechanics' institute. Launceston was 
 incorporated in 1858, and raised to a city in 1889. 
 Pop. (1881) 12,753 ; (1901) 21,180. 
 
 Laurencekirk, a Kincardineshire market- town, 
 30 miles SW. of Aberdeen. The 'minstrel' 
 Beattie was a native, and Ruddiman the gram- 
 marian was schoolmaster here. Pop. 1526. See 
 Eraser's History of Laurencekirk (1880). 
 
 Laurentian Mountains. See Canada, p. 148. 
 
 Lauriston Castle, a Midlothian mansion, 3f 
 miles WNW. of Edinburgh. It was the seat of 
 the famous financier, John Law. 
 
 Laurium, a mountain (1171 feet) of Attica, 
 NW. of Cape Colonna, and connected by a rail- 
 way with Athens. It was famous for its silver- 
 mines, already exhausted in Strabo's day. Since 
 1874, however, the great heaps of slag have been 
 profitably worked, and fresh deposits found of 
 argentiferous lead and of zinc ore. The modern 
 mining-town has a pop. of over 8000. 
 
 Laurvlk, a seaport of Norway, at the head of 
 a small fjord on the west side of Christiania 
 Fjord, 98 miles by rail SSW. of Christiania. It 
 has several sawmills. Pop. 11,261. 
 
 Lausanne (Lazann'), capital of the Swiss 
 canton of Vaud, on the S. slope of the Jura Moun- 
 tains, close to the N. shore of the Lake of 
 Geneva, the village of Ouchy (where Byron wrote 
 'rhe Prisoner of Chillon) iovming its harbour. It 
 
 is bisected by a valley, across which a fine bridge 
 (617 feet long and 82 high) was thrown in 1844. 
 Lausanne is famous for its educational institu- 
 tions ; amongst them are the new cantonal uni- 
 versity (1891), and industrial, music, and other 
 schools. Tlie cathedral is a beautiful Gothic 
 building of the 10th and 13th centuries. Here, 
 too, are the cantonal museum of natural history 
 and antiquities, the Arlaud Museum (1846) of 
 Art, a statue of Tell, &c. Since 1875 Lausanne 
 has been the seat of the Federal Tribunal. 
 Benjamin Constant was a native ; and here 
 Gibbon wrote most of the Decline and Fall. 
 John Kemble, the actor, died and was buried 
 here. Pop. nearly 50,000, of whom 86 per cent, 
 are Reformed, and 78 per cent, speak French. 
 Lausitz. See Lusatia. 
 
 Lauterbrunnen (Lowterhroon'nen), an Alpine 
 valley in the Swiss canton of Bern, through 
 which flows the Weisse Lutschine, a principal 
 feeder of the Aar. It is surrounded by perpen- 
 dicular walls of sandstone 1000 to 1600 feet high, 
 down which pour a score of waterfalls. Of these 
 the Staubbach (' dust-stream ') is 866 feet high. 
 
 Laval, capital of the French dep. of Mayenne, 
 picturesquely situated on the river Mayenne, 46 
 miles by rail E. of Rennes. Its chief buildings 
 (both 12th century) are the cathedral and the 
 old ducal castle (a prison now). Since the 13th 
 century, when Flemish weavers settled here, the 
 town has been a centre of linen-manufactures— 
 linen, ticking, sacking, &c. Near it the Vendeans 
 under Larochejaquelein defeated the Republicans 
 in 1793. Pop. 27,110. 
 La Valetta. See Valetta. 
 Lavaur, a town in the French dep. of Tarn, 
 on the Agout, 25 miles ENE. of Toulouse. A 
 bishop's see from 1317 to 1801, it was the strong- 
 est fortress of the Albigenses, but in 1211 was 
 taken by Simon de Montfort. Pop. 6293. 
 La Vendee. See Vendi^e. 
 Lavenham, a SufTolk town, lOj miles SSE. of 
 Bury St Edmunds, with a noble flint-work church. 
 Pop. of parish, 1908. 
 
 Lawfeldt, or Laveld, close to Maestricht in 
 Belgium. Here the French defeated the com- 
 bined Austrian, Dutch, and Englisli forces, 2d 
 July 1747. 
 
 Lawrence, (l) capital of Douglas county, 
 Kansas, on the Kansas River, 34 miles SSW. of 
 Leavenworth by rail. It is the seat of the state 
 university (1864), and has manufactures of flour, 
 castings, furniture, &c. Pork-packing is exten- 
 sively carried on. Lawrence was founded in 
 1854 by Free-soil settlers, shared in the violent 
 struggle against slavery, and was partly burned 
 by Quantrell's guerillas in 1863. Pop. 11,000.— 
 (2) One of the capitals of Essex county, Massa- 
 chusetts, and an important manufacturing city, 
 on the Merrimack River, 26 miles N. of Boston 
 by rail. The river, which here falls 28 feet in 
 half a mile, is crossed by a dam of granite, 900 
 feet long and 40 high ; and channels on either 
 bank conduct the water to the mills. These, 
 some of them amongst the largest in the world, 
 manufacture cotton and woollen goods, cloth, 
 and paper; and engines, boilers, machinery, 
 clothing, hats, &c. are also produced here. Pop. 
 (1870) 28,921 ; (1880) 39,151 ; (1900) 62,559. 
 Lawrence, St. See St Lawrence. 
 Lawrenceburg, a city of Indiana, on the 
 Ohio, 22 miles below Cincinnati. Pop. 4384. 
 
 Laxey, a coast-village in the Isle of Man, 7i 
 miles NNB. of Douglas. Near it are lead-mines. 
 
LAXFORD 
 
 405 
 
 LEE CASTLE 
 
 Laxford (Norse, ' salmon fjord '), a stream and 
 a sea-loch of NW. Sutherland, 5i and 3| miles 
 long. 
 
 Laybach. See Laibach. 
 
 Laycock. See Lacock. 
 
 Lazareff, Port, a fine natural harbour, 40 to 
 60 feet deep, and 8 sq. m. in extent, in Broughton 
 Bay on the east side of Corea. It is 390 miles 
 from Vladivostok to the N. and 480 from Port 
 Hamilton to the S., and is free from ice in winter. 
 
 Lazistan', a coast strip at the south-east corner 
 of the Black Sea, partly Turkish, partly Eussiau, 
 inhabited by the rough Lazes. 
 
 Le, or Leh, the walled capital of Ladakh (q.v.), 
 stands 3 miles from the bank of the Indus, 11,538 
 feet above the sea. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Lea, a stream of Hertfordshire, Middlesex, and 
 Essex, rises near Houghton Regis, and flows 46 
 miles SE. and S. to the Thames near Blackwall. 
 
 Leader, a Berwickshire stream, running 21 
 miles south-south-eastward to the Tweed at a 
 point 2 miles E. by N. of Melrose. 
 
 Leadgate, a mining-town of Durham, 2J miles 
 ESB. of Shotley Bridge. Pop. 4660. 
 
 LeadhlUs, a village of Lanarkshire, the highest 
 in Scotland (1300 feet), on Glengonner Water, 45 
 miles SSW. of Edinburgh. Allan Ramsay and 
 Symington were natives. Lead has been mined 
 here for six hundred years, the output ranging 
 between 700 and 1800 tons. Pop. 835. 
 
 Leadvllle, a mining-town of Colorado, capital 
 of Lake county, stands in a valley 10,200 feet 
 above the sea, 70 miles (151 by rail) S\V. of 
 Denver. Its mines produce gold, silver, and lead. 
 The town, which was incorporated in 1878, con- 
 tains smelting-furnaces and stamp-mills. Pop. 
 12,500. 
 
 Leam, a river flowing 25 miles to the Avon, 
 near Warwick. 
 
 Leamington (Lem'ing-tun), a watering-place of 
 Warwickshire, is beautifully situated on the 
 Leam, 2 miles NE. of Warwick. It is wholly of 
 modern growth, having become important only 
 since the rediscovery of its mineral waters in 
 1784. They are saline, sulphureous, and chaly- 
 beate ; and the watering-season lasts from Octo- 
 ber till May. The town, too, stands in the 
 centre of a good hunting-country. Among its 
 buildings are the Pump-room (1868), the Warne- 
 ford Hospital (1832), assembly-rooms (1813), 
 music-hall (1821), tennis-court (1847), college 
 (1844), new municipal offices, and the fine old 
 parish church. The manufacture of cooking- 
 ranges is an important industry. Visited by the 
 Duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria in 
 1830, Leamington in 1838 received the name of 
 I Royal Leamington Spa.' It was incorporated 
 in 1875, and since 1885 has united with Warwick 
 to return one member. Pop. (1811) 543 ; (1851) 
 15,692; (1901) 26,888, the borough having been 
 extended in 1890. See F. W. Smith's Leamington 
 Waters (1884). 
 
 Leasowes. See Halesowen. 
 
 Leatherhead, a town of Surrey, on the Mole, 
 4 miles SSW. of Epsom. Pop. 4700. 
 
 Leavenworth, a city of Kansas, the capital of 
 Leavenworth county, on the Missouri River, 25 
 miles NW. of Kansas City by rail. First settled 
 in 1854, it is now a handsome town, of broad 
 avenues, and contains a Soldiers' Home, the state 
 normal school, and large factories and mills. 
 Eight lines of railway centre here, and the river 
 
 is crossed by a fine iron bridge. Adjoining the 
 city is Fort Leavenworth (1827), an important 
 depot for troops and supplies, with large bar- 
 racks, &c. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Leb'anon, a mountain-range in Syria, extending 
 from Homs in the north to Mount Hermon in 
 the south. The name is derived from a Semitic 
 root meaning 'white,' and was probably given, 
 not because the peaks are snow-clad even in sum- 
 mer, but because of the whitish colour of the 
 limestone rocks. They are divided into two 
 parallel ranges, the Lebanon on the west and the 
 Anti-Lebanon (or Anti-Libanus) on the east. 
 Between them lies the deep valley of the Buka'a 
 (anc. Code-Syria), 4 to 6 miles wide, which is 
 watered by the Litany and El-Asi (anc. Orontes). 
 The former flows SW. and W. to the sea a little 
 north of Tyre ; Avhilst the latter flows NE. till, 
 after crossing the plains of Hamath, it turns W. 
 to the Mediterranean. The highest summits 
 occur in the north in both ranges : in Lebanon 
 they vary from 10,018 (Bl-Kazib) to 7000 feet and 
 less, and in Anti-Lebanon are about 8000 or 9000 
 feet. In both ranges the eastern versant is the 
 steeper and sterner. The western valleys and 
 the lower slopes are generally verdant. Vines, 
 mulberry-trees, olive-groves, and orchards (nuts 
 and figs) abound everywhere. Tlie higher slopes 
 are in many districts covered with forests of oak, 
 cypress, pine, plane, &c. Contrary to the current 
 belief, remains of the great cedar forest of Solo- 
 mon's time exist in more places than the single 
 grove of 377 trees at the head of Keclisha Valley. 
 Streams of clear water are numerous. The in- 
 habitants (estimated at 221,000) are a hardy, 
 ruddy race of people, of Syrian (Aramaean) de- 
 scent, who keep large herds of sheep and goats. 
 The predominating element is the (Christian) 
 Maronites ; next come the Druses, heretical Mos- 
 lems. After the bloody quarrels of the Druses 
 and Maroiutes in 1860, the district of Lebanon 
 was separated (1861) from the Turkish pashalik 
 of Syria, and put under a Christian governor, 
 the European powers constituting themselves the 
 ' guardians ' of the new province. 
 
 Lebanon, capital of Lebanon county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, 28 miles W. of Reading, with ironworks 
 and mills. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Lebedln, a town of Russia, 87 miles NW. of 
 Kharkoff". Pop. 14,788. 
 
 Lebrija (anc. Nebrissa-Veneria), a town of 
 Spain, 44 miles S. by W. of Seville. Pop. 11,879. 
 
 Lecce (Let'chay), a cathedral city of Italy, 7 
 miles from the Adriatic and 24 by rail SSE. of 
 Brindisi. As Lycia (hence Lecce) it was the seat 
 of a Norman countship. Pop. 32,051, 
 
 Lech, a right-hand tributary of the Danube, 
 rises in the Alps in Vorarlberg, flows northward 
 past Augsburg, and after a course of 177 miles 
 joins the Danube a few miles east of Donauworth. 
 
 Lechlade (Letch'lade), a Gloucestershire town, 
 on the Thames, 23 miles SW. of Oxford. Pop. 1166. 
 
 Ledbury, a pleasant, old-fashioned market- 
 town of Herefordshire, 13 miles ESE. of Here- 
 ford. It has an interesting church, Romanesque 
 to Perpendicular in style, St Catharine's Hospital 
 (1232 ; rebuilt 1822), and a clock-tower (1890) to 
 the memory of Mrs Browning, who passed her 
 girlhood here. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Lee, a river flowing 50 miles eastward to Cork 
 harbour. 
 
 Lee Castle, a Lanarkshire mansion, 8 miles 
 NNW. of Lanark. It is the ancient seat of the 
 Lockharts, with the ' Lee penny ' talisman. 
 
 L 
 
LEEDS 
 
 406 
 
 LEGHORN 
 
 Leeds, the first town in Yorkshire, and fifth 
 In England in point of population, is a parlia- 
 mentary, municipal, and county borough, return- 
 ing since 1885 five members to parliament. By 
 rail it is 25J miles SW. of York, 196 NNW. of 
 London, and 112 SSE. of Carlisle. It is situated 
 in the north-west of the West Riding of York- 
 shire, in the valley of the Aire, and is the seat of 
 important manufactures, especially of clothing in 
 all its branches. The woollen trade exceeds in ex- 
 tent that of any other part of England ; and the 
 iron industries,' employing about 30,000 persons, 
 are now as important as the woollen manufactures. 
 The manufacture of leather is carried on in some 
 of the largest tanneries in the kingdom, and 
 about 100 firms are engaged in making boots and 
 shoes. Other manufactures are those of loco- 
 motives, machines, glass, ready-made clothes, 
 tobacco, oil, chemicals, earthenware, worsted, 
 and silk. St Peter's Church in Kirkgate, rebuilt 
 in 1838 at a cost of £29,770, is 180 feet long by 
 86 wide ; the tower is 139 feet high, and contains 
 a peal of thirteen bells. St John's, New Brig- 
 gate, consecrated by Archbishop Neile in 1634, 
 is an almost unique example of a 'Laudian' 
 church, and still retains the original fittings. 
 The town-hall (1858) has a tower 225 feet high, 
 and a richly-decorated great hall, with one of the 
 largest organs in Europe. There are colossal 
 statues of Queen Victoria and the Prince-Consort 
 in the vestibule, and of Wellington in the front of 
 the building. Contiguous to the town-hall are 
 the municipal buildings (1884-88, comprising also 
 reading- room, free library, and fine art gallery), 
 and the school-board offices. The General 
 Infirmary was erected in 1868 from designs by 
 Sir G. G. Scott, at a cost of £120,000; the 
 mechanics' institute (1867) contains a lecture- 
 hall accommodating 1700 persons ; and the 
 grammar-school (1859), from designs by Barry, 
 is a cruciform Decorated structure. Other build- 
 ings are the Royal Exchange (1875) ; the fine oval 
 corn exchange ; the new general post-ofiice, on 
 the site of the old coloured-cloth hall (demolished 
 1889) ; the Coliseum ; the Philosophical Hall, 
 with a fine museum ; the Wesleyan training- 
 college (1868) ; Turkish Baths ; Beckett's Bank, 
 a fine work by Sir G. G. Scott. There is also a 
 library of 80,000 volumes, founded by Priestley 
 in 1768. The University of Leeds, which re- 
 ceived its charter in 1903, was founded in 1874 as 
 the Yorkshire College, and was a member of the 
 Victoria University ; in 1905 it had 28 professors, 
 of whom eight were in the medical faculty. In 
 1885 it was housed in a handsome Gothic pile. 
 The Central Higher Grade School (1880) provides 
 for 2000 scholars. Since 1897 the mayor of 
 Leeds is called Lord Mayor. The municipality 
 owns the markets, gas and water works, tram- 
 ways, electric light, free libraries, and ceme- 
 teries, subsidises technical education, and 
 provides garden allotments. Kirkstall Abbey 
 (q.v.) is about 3 miles from Leeds. Roundhay 
 Park, 2 miles from Leeds, was bought by the cor- 
 poration in 1872, at a cost of £140,000, and coa- 
 verted into a recreation ground. Near Adel 
 Church (erected 1140), about 4 miles from Leeds, 
 ■was a Roman station. Pop. (1851) 172,270 ; (1881) 
 809,112 ; (1901) 428,935. Amongst Leeds worthies 
 have been Dean Hook ; Dr Priestley ; Cope and 
 Rhodes, artists ; the Teales, physicians, &c. ; 
 besides the Becketts, the Baines's, the Gotts, the 
 Fairbairns, the Denisons, and other families 
 identified Avith the town. See Ralph Thoresby's 
 Ducatus Leodiensis (1715) ; Baines's Historic Sketch 
 qf Leeds (1822) ; and Jackson's Guide to Leeds (18S9). 
 
 Leek, a manufacturing and market town of 
 Staffordshire, on the Churnet, 13^ miles SSE. of 
 Macclesfield, and 24 NNE. of Stafford, The 
 parish church, dating from 1180, but mainly 
 Decorated in style, was restored by Street in 
 1867-75. There are also a grammar-school 
 (1723), a cottage-hospital (1870), and, IJ mile 
 distant, the ruined Cistercian abbey (1214) of 
 Dieulacres (De la Croix). Leek, whose civic 
 charter dates from the days of King John (1208), 
 is the largest centre of silk-dyeing in England. 
 Pop. (1851) 8877 ; (1901) 15,484, See works by 
 Sleigh (2d ed, 1884) and M, H. Miller (1891), 
 
 Lee Priory a mansion in Kent, on the Little 
 Stour, 4 miles E, by S, of Canterbury, It was 
 the seat of Sir Egerton Brydges, 
 
 Leer (Layr), a port in (Prussian) East Friesland, 
 on the Leda, near its entrance to the Ems, 32 
 miles NW, of Oldenburg. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Lees, a Lancashire village, 1^ mile E. by S. of 
 Oldham. 
 
 Leeuwar'den, capital of the Dutch province of 
 Friesland, 113 miles by rail NNE. of Utrecht. 
 It has a fine town-hall and law-courts, an old 
 palace of the Princes of Orange, a library with 
 valuable archives, and manufactures of linen 
 fabrics, mirrors, pianofortes, and wagons, besides 
 being a great fruit and cattle market. The popu- 
 lation is about 34,000, In the 13th c, it stood on 
 an arm of the sea, now sanded up, 
 
 Leeuwin, Cape, the south-west corner of 
 Australia, notable on account of the tempestuous 
 weather usually encountered there. 
 
 Leeward Islands, See West Indies. 
 
 Lefkosia. See Nicosia, 
 
 Leghorn (Ital, Livomo), the third seaport of 
 Italy, is situated on the west coast, 13 miles by 
 rail SW. of Pisa, and 62 W, by S, of Florence. 
 Its importance dates from the decline of Pisa; 
 its growth was especially rapid after it fell into 
 the hands of Florence in 1421, Cosiino I. declared 
 it a free port, and invited foreign traders to settle 
 there. Early in the 19th century it was a great 
 depot for the British trade with the Levant. It 
 ceased to be a free port in 1868 ; and its foreign 
 commerce, carried on chiefly with Britain (New- 
 castle and Cardiff), France (Marseilles), and the 
 United States, is less than its coasting trade. The 
 imports include spirits, sugar, dyeing materials, 
 woven goods, corn and flour, and machinery; 
 the exports, wine, silk, marble, olive-oil, boracic 
 acid, hemp, iron, preserved fruits, leather, coral, 
 and straw hats ('Leghorn hats'). The harbour 
 (improved in 1854-63) is an enclosed basin, on 
 which stand two arsenals and numerous ship- 
 building-yards. The roadstead is protected by 
 an artificial breakwater (1883). There has been 
 a lighthouse since 1303, and outside the har- 
 bour stands a lazaretto. Besides shipbuilding, 
 the most important industry is the manufacture 
 of coral ornaments. The north-western portion 
 of the city is intersected by numerous canals, 
 and called ' New Venice.' The most interesting 
 buildings are the cathedral (17th century), its 
 fagade designed by Inigo Jones, the Jewish syna- 
 gogue (next in size to that of Amsterdam), the 
 former grand-ducal palace (1605), the Academy of 
 Sciences, and the naval academy. The sulphur- 
 springs and sea-bathing attract many visitors. 
 Leghorn is defended by forts, bastions, &c., con- 
 structed for the most part in 1835-37. Smollett 
 and Francis Horner lie buried in the English 
 cemetery. The composer Mascagni was born 
 here. Pop. of the city (1861) 83,543; (1871) 
 
LEGKAGO 
 
 407 
 
 L£lNST£It 
 
 80,948; (1881) 78,988; of the commune (1871) 
 97,096 ; (1905) 100,000. 
 
 Legnago {Len-yd'go), one of the four fortified 
 towns of northern Italy known as the Quadri- 
 lateral, is on the Adige, 33 miles by rail 
 SE. from Verona. The fortifications, razed by 
 Napoleon in 1801, were rebuilt in 1815. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Loh. See Le. 
 
 Le'higli, a river flowing 120 miles through E. 
 Pennsylvania to the Delaware. Some of its 
 scenery is very picturesque, but the valley is 
 more famous for its anthracite coal-mines. 
 
 Leicester (Lester), the county town of Leicester- 
 shire, a municipal, parliamentary, and county 
 borough, is situated on the Soar, a tributary of 
 the Trent, 22 miles S. of Nottingham, 38 ENE. of 
 Birmingham, 20 NNB. of Rugby, and 97 NNW. of 
 London. Traditionally founded by the British king 
 Lear, it occupies the site of the Roman Ratce; 
 and pavements, urns, and other Roman relics 
 have been found, while the 'Jewry Wall,' 20 feet 
 high and 75 long, which got its name from the 
 mediaeval ghetto, is composed of rubble and 
 Roman bricks. Its present name comes from the 
 Anglo-Saxon Leirceastre, or ' fortress of the Leire,' 
 as the river was called of old. The Norman 
 castle, dismantled by Charles I. in 1645, is re- 
 presented chiefly by the modernised assize hall, 
 and by an artificial earthwork, the Mount or 
 Castle View, on which stood the donjon-keep ; 
 the Abbey of Black Canons (1143), where Wolsey 
 died in 1530, is an insignificant if picturesque 
 ruin. In the Blue Boar Inn, demolished about 
 1829, Richard III. slept the night before Bosworth 
 (1485) ; and his corpse was brought back hither 
 for burial. A handsome memorial cross or clock- 
 tower (18G8) bears the effigies of Simon de Mont- 
 fort, Earl of Leicester, Sir Thomas White, Alder- 
 man Newton, and William of Wyggeston. There 
 is a statue also of Robert Hall ; and among the 
 other edifices are the old town-hall, with good 
 carving and stained-glass of Henry VII. 's time ; 
 the new municipal buildings (1876), Queen Anne 
 in style, with a clock-tower 134 feet high ; the 
 post-oftice (1887), public baths (1879), free library 
 (1870), scliool of art (1876), opera-house (1877), 
 poor-law offices (1883), corn exchange (1852), 
 lunatic asylum (1836), the museum (1848), rich in 
 local antiquities ; the Wyggeston Hospital 
 Schools (1513; rebuilt 1877-78) ; and five interest- 
 ing old churches— St Nicholas', St Mary's, All 
 Saints', St Margaret's, and St Martin's, the last 
 with a spire 218 feet high. The New Walk is a 
 pleasant tree-shaded promenade; the racecourse 
 of 1806 is now a recreation ground, known as the 
 Victoria Park, its successor being at Oadby, 3i 
 miles distant ; the Abbey public park was opened 
 by the Prince of Wales in 1882 ; and there is a 
 third public park called the Spinney Hill Park. 
 The abnormally rapid growth of Leicester has 
 been due to its central position, to its transit 
 facilities by three railway companies and by 
 water, and to the great extension of its industries. 
 The manufacture of plain and fancy hosiery, in- 
 troduced in 1680, is equalled only by Nottingham ; 
 in that of pegged and riveted boots and shoes 
 Leicester vies with Northampton ; elastic web- 
 bing, sewing-cotton, and lace are made, and iron- 
 fouuding is carried on. First chartered by King 
 John, Leicester has returned two members from 
 Edward I.'s time. Leicester, which is the see of 
 a bishop-suff"ragan under Peterborough, is an anti- 
 vaccination centre. Pop. (1801) 17,005; (1861) 
 68,056 ; (1881) 122,351 ; (1901) 211,574. 
 See local histories by Throsby (1777-91), T. 
 
 Robinson (1793), Thompson, Hollings, Read, Mrs 
 Johnson (1892) ; and the Rucords of the Borotigh, 
 edited by Miss Bateson (1899-1905). 
 
 Leicestershire, a midland county of England, 
 surrounded by Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland. 
 Northampton, Warwick, and Derby shires. lu 
 has a maximum length and breadth of 44 miles by 
 40, and contains 803 sq. m., or 514,164 acres. 
 Pop. (1801)131,081 ; (1841)215,867 ; (1901)433,994. 
 Its surface is for the most part undulating table- 
 land, the highest ground being at Charnwood 
 Forest in the north-west, where Bardon Hill at- 
 tains 853 feet above sea-level. The Soar, itself an 
 affluent of the Trent, which for a short distance 
 borders the county on the north, is, with its 
 tributary the Wreak, the principal river. The 
 soil, varying in fertility, is generally loamy : in 
 the north-west are valuable coal-mines, also 
 granite, slate, and limestone quarries, but, the 
 greater part of the county being under pasture, 
 the quantity of corn grown is comparatively 
 S7nall. The principal objects of agriculture are 
 grazing and sheep and cattle breeding, Leicester- 
 shire being especially noted for its breed of the 
 former. The chief manufactures are of hosiery 
 and boots and shoes ; basket-making is carried on 
 at Castle Donnington ; and Stilton cheeses are 
 for the most part made in this county. Leices- 
 tershire comprises six hundreds, the parlia- 
 mentary borough of Leicester, and the municipal 
 borough of Loughborough, and 332 parishes, 
 almost entirely in the diocese of Peterborough, 
 and, for judicial purposes, in the Midland Circuit. 
 Leicester is the assize town, and other towns are 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Hinckley, Loughborough, 
 Lutterworth, Market Harborough, and Melton 
 Mowbray, the last two being great hunting 
 centres. There are four parliamentary divisions. 
 In the battle of Bosworth Field (1485) Richard 
 III. lost his life ; whilst Leicestershire worthies 
 have been Wyclif, Cardinal Wolsey, Lady Jane 
 Grey, Mary, Queen of Scots, Beaumont the 
 dramatist, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 
 Cleveland the poet, George Fox, Simpson the 
 mathematician, Dr Johnson, Lord Macaulay, 
 Hobart Pasha, Colonel Burnaby, and last, but 
 not least, Daniel Lambert. See works by Burton 
 (1622 ; 2d ed. 1777), Nichols (4 vols. 1795-1816), 
 and Cvu-tis (1831). 
 
 Leiden. See Leyden. 
 
 Leigh (Lee), a town of Lancashire, 21 miles NB. 
 of Liverpool and 16 W. of Manchester. Silks and 
 cotton goods are extensively manufactured ; and 
 there are also iron-foundries, breweries, malt- 
 kilns, and glass-works, with neighbouring coal- 
 mines. Pop. (1861) 10,621 ; (1901) 40,000. See 
 Worsley's History of Leigh (1870). 
 
 Leighlin (Lay'lin), a village of County Carlow, 
 71 miles SSW. of Dublin. It was the seat of a 
 diocese, now united to Ossory and Ferns. 
 
 Leighton-Buzzard. (Lay'ton), a market-town of 
 Bedfordshire, on the Ouse, 41 miles by rail NW. of 
 London. Its fine cruciform church, mainly Early 
 English, has a spire of 193 feet, and was restored 
 in 1886 ; in the market-place is a pentangular 
 cross ; the corn exchange was built in 1862. 
 Straw-plait is the staple industry. The suflGlx 
 Bxizzard is a corruption of Beaudesert or Bosard, 
 a great family hero in the 14th century. Pop. 
 about 6500. 
 
 Leinster (Lens^ter), one of the four provinces of 
 Ireland (q.v.), occupies the south-east portion of 
 the country, comprising the counties of Carlow, 
 Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King's, Longford, 
 
 I 
 
LEIPA 
 
 408 
 
 LEITH 
 
 Louth, Meath, Queen's, "Westmeath, Wexford, 
 and Wicklow. 
 
 Leipa, a town of Bohemia, 40 miles N. by B. 
 of Prague. Pop. 10,700. 
 
 Leipzig (Fr. Leipste), tlie fifth city of Germany, 
 is situated in a large and fertile plain in the 
 kingdom of Saxony, SO miles by rail WNW. of 
 Dresden, and 101 SSW. of Berlin, within 6^ miles 
 of the Prussian border, and 3 miles above the 
 junction of the three small streams. Bister, 
 Pleisse, and Parthe. The inner or ancient town, 
 the centre of the business activity, with narrow 
 and crooked streets and quaint houses, is separ- 
 ated by a broad, tree-shaded promenade (laid out 
 .since 1784 on the site of the old walls) from the 
 much more extensive modern suburbs, bounded 
 in their turn by a girdle of busy manufacturing 
 •villages.* Pop. (1800) 32,146; (1860) 85,394; 
 (1880) 149,081 ; and in 1905 about 475,000, after tlie 
 extension of tlie boundary so as to include the vil- 
 lages. Many handsome edifices have been erected, 
 and great civic improvements eff"ected in the last 
 quarter of the 19th century. The Thomaskirche 
 and the Nicolaikirche date respectively from 
 1496 and 1525 ; the quaint old Rathhaus, or 
 town-hall, from 1556. The old castle, the Pleis- 
 senburg, used as barracks and magazine, and 
 till lately partly also as an art-school, succeeded 
 in 1549-51 an older fortress dating from 1213. 
 Amongst the modern buildings are the Municipal 
 Theatre (1868), one of the largest and handsomest 
 in Germany ; the Museum (1856-86) ; the new 
 Exchange (1886); the Observatory (1861); the 
 Booksellers' Exchange (1888), Avith an interesting 
 museum ; St Peter's Church (1885), a fine speci- 
 men of modern German Gothic ; and the Law- 
 courts. The New Gewandhaus has since 1884 
 superseded the old Gewandhaus (so called be- 
 cause originally a drapers' hall), in which, since 
 1781, some of the best concerts in Europe were 
 given. Of numerous squares and open spaces, 
 affording ample room for the stalls and booths 
 of the retail dealers at the fairs, the largest is 
 the Augustus-Platz ; the quaintest the Market- 
 place, in which a large war monument for 1870-71 
 was unveiled in 1888. The Rosenthal and the 
 Johanna-Park are fine parks on the outskirts ; 
 while farther out are oak and beech woods. 
 
 Leipzig has been the seat of the supreme court 
 of the German empire since 1879, tlie new build- 
 ing for which dates from 1888. The university, 
 founded in 1408 by a secession from Prague, has 
 nearly 220 professors and lecturers, and over 3500 
 students. The Augustenm, or main building, in 
 the old town, was rebuilding in 1894 ; it is supple- 
 mented by a great system of spacious and admir- 
 ably equipped medical and physical labora- 
 tories and other ' institutes ' in other parts of 
 the town, including a magnificent new library- 
 building with 550,000 vols, and 6000 MSS. The 
 City Library has 120,000 vols, and 1500 MSS. 
 Among the numerous other educational establish- 
 ments are two gymnasia, a justly famous School 
 of Commerce, a conservatory of music, reckoned 
 amongst the first in Europe, &c. The hospital 
 system of I>eipzig has largely benefited the 
 medical faculty of the university. As a seat of 
 trade Leipzig is inferior only to Hamburg and 
 Berlin in Germany. The chief articles of com- 
 merce are furs and skins, cloth, leather, and 
 books. The famous Leipzig fairs are held at 
 Easter, Michaelmas, and the New Year, and last 
 from three to five weeks. Their origin is traced 
 as far back as 1180 ; their importance dates from 
 about 1500; but since 1865 that importance 
 
 has gradually dwindled, though they are still 
 attended by about 30,000 strangers, including 
 Jews, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, and 
 even Chinese. Transactions to the extent of over 
 £10,000,000 sterling are said to take place at the 
 Easter fair. Nearly 500 houses are engaged in 
 the book-trade, and there are also about eighty 
 printing establishments ; while type-founding has 
 here its chief centre in Germany. The wool- 
 market, in June, is still much frequented. Among 
 the chief manufactures (carried on largely in the 
 ' villages ') are pianofortes, paper, chemicals, oils, 
 scientific instruments, spirits, beer, tobacco, and 
 some textiles, with iron-founding. 
 
 Leipzig (formerly Lipzk, from the Slavic Lipa, 
 a 'lime-tree'), originally a Wendish settlement, 
 is first mentioned as a town in 1015. It suffered 
 greatly in the Thirty Years' War, in the Seven 
 Years' War, and amidst the terrible struggles of 
 the years 1812 and 1813, when it was alternately 
 in possession of the French and of the allies, 
 whose signal victory over Napoleon was fought 
 during October 16-18, 1813. In 1866 it was 
 occupied for some months by Prussian troops. 
 Leipzig was the birthplace of Leibnitz and of 
 Wagner, and a residence of Bach and Mendelssohn. 
 One of the scenes in Goethe's Faust is placed 
 in Auerbach's Keller here. 
 
 Leiston (Lay'son), a town of Suffolk, 4 miles 
 BSE. of Saxmundham by rail. It manufactures 
 agricultural implements, and has a ruined abbey 
 (1363). Pop. 3500. 
 
 Leith, the sixth largest town in Scotland, an 
 important seaport, and a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh, stands on the southern shore of 
 the Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the Water 
 of Leith, 2 miles N. of Edinburgh, with which 
 it is now connected by continuous lines of streets. 
 It is even less attractive than most seaport towns ; 
 still, great improvements have been effected since 
 1877. Among the public buildings are the court- 
 house or town-hall (1827), custom-house (1812), 
 exchange, corn exchange (1862), Trinitv House 
 (1816), hospital (1850), Sailors' Home (1883-84), 
 and St James's Episcopal Church (1862-69), by 
 Sir G. G. Scott, with a spire 180 feet high. Leith 
 Fort (1779) is now the artillery headquarters in 
 Scotland. The harbour- works have cost upwards 
 of a million sterling. They comprise five docks, 
 constructed between 1801 and 1881, and having 
 an aggregate area of 43 acres ; seven graving- 
 docks ; and two piers, 1177 and 1041 yards long. 
 The construction of a sixth dock (60 acres in area) 
 was undertaken in 1892, and it was completed in 
 1904. The imports (corn, flour, wines, chemicals, 
 sugar, esparto, timber, fruits, &c.) have an 
 annual value of more than £12,500,000; the 
 exports (coal, iron, paraflUn, whisky, beer, 
 linen goods, paper, &c.) of about £4,500,000. 
 There is regular steamboat communication with 
 London, the north of Scotland, several conti- 
 nental ports, and New York. Shipbuilding is 
 carried on ; and employment is also afforded by 
 large flour-mills, sugar-refineries, distilleries, 
 breweries, engineer-works, sawmills, rope-works, 
 chemical works, &c. Leith was constituted a 
 parliamentary burgh in 1833, and with Portobello 
 and Musselburgh returns one member. Its nine 
 months' siege by the Protestants (1559-60), the 
 surprise of its citadel by the Jacobites (1715), 
 and royal visits innumeraljle, are the chief events 
 in its history. Home, the author of Douglas, 
 was a native ; John Logan was a minister ; and 
 Robert Nicoll is buried here. Pop. (1841) 26,026; 
 (1881) 59,485 ; (1901) 77,439. See works by A. 
 
LEITHA 
 
 409 
 
 LEPANTO 
 
 Campbell (1827), D. H. Robertson (1851), and J. 
 Martina (1888), witn others cited at Edinburgh. 
 
 Leitha (Lei'ta), an Austrian stream rising in 
 Lower Austria, and flowing NE. to join the 
 Danube nearly along the frontier of Lower Austria 
 and Hungary. See Austria. 
 
 Leit'merltz, an old town, partly walled, of 
 Bohemia, at the head of steamboat navigation on 
 the Elbe, 34 miles W. by N. of Prague. It has a 
 cathedral (1671) and a town-house (1535). Brew- 
 ing is the staple industry. Pop. 18,854. 
 
 Leltomlschl, an old town of Bohemia, 85 miles 
 ESB. of Prague. Pop. 8258. 
 
 Leitrim (Lee'trim), a county in the NE. of the 
 province of Connaught, in Ireland. Its greatest 
 length, north-east to south-west, is 51 miles ; its 
 greatest width, 21 miles ; and its area 588 sq. m., 
 or 376,212 acres, of which 282,400 are arable, 11 
 per cent, barren, and 7 per cent. bog. The county 
 touches the ocean on the north, and is divided 
 into two parts by Lough Allen (q.v.), from which 
 the Shannon forms the south-west boundary of 
 the county. The southern division contains 
 numerous small lakes. The nortliern division is 
 intersected by several ridges. Leitrim is more 
 a grazing than a tillage district, 53 per cent, of 
 its area being grass-land. Coal is found in the 
 Lough Allen basin ; and iron and lead ores are 
 abundant, though little mined. The comity town 
 is Carrick-on-Shannon. Leitrim returns two 
 members. Pop. (1841) 155,297 ; (1901) 69,201. 
 
 Leman, Lake. See Geneva (Lake of). 
 
 Le Mans. See Mans. 
 
 Lemberg (formerly Lowenburg; Polish Lrvdw), 
 the capital of the Austrian province of Galicia 
 and Lodomeria, is situated on a small tributary 
 of the Bug, in a narrow basin among hills, 212 
 miles E. of Cracow. Pop. (1869) 87,109; (1905) 
 162,000. Several of thecliurches are line buildings, 
 as the Dominican, with its venerated image of tlie 
 Virgin ; the Greek cathedral (1740-79) ; the Gothic 
 Roman Catholic cathedral (1350-1460) ; and the 
 Armenian cathedral, dating from the 14th cen- 
 tury. The university (1784 ; reorganised 1817) 
 has nearly 1200 students and a library of 86,000 
 volumes and 470 MSS. Here also is the seat of 
 the national institute (1817), with a library of 
 81,000 volumes and 3000 MSS., chiefly of Polish 
 literature, and large collections of coins, paint- 
 ings, &c. The manufactures embrace machinery, 
 earthenware, oil, beer, &c. Founded in 1259, 
 Lemberg was an important Polish city from 1340. 
 It fell to Austria at the first partition of Poland. 
 
 Lemnos, a Turkish island, 40 miles SE. of 
 Mount Athos, and 40 SW. of the Dardanelles. 
 It is nearly split in two by two large bays on the 
 south and north coasts. The interior consists of 
 an undulating plateau. None of the hills exceed 
 1400 feet. Area, 180 sq. m. ; pop. 30,000, all 
 Greeks, except 5000 Turks. In 1657 Lemnos 
 passed to the Turks from the Venetians. The 
 chief town is Kastro (anc. Myrina), on the W. 
 coast ; pop. 3000. 
 
 Lena, a river of eastern Siberia, .3000 miles 
 long, rises amid the mountains on the north-west 
 shore of Lake Baikal, in the government of 
 Irkutsk, flows first NE. to Yakutsk, where it is 
 6^ miles wide, then N. to the Arctic Ocean, into 
 which it falls by several mouths, forming a delta 
 250 miles wide. It receives the Vilni (1300 
 miles) on the left, and the Vitim (1400), Olekma 
 (800), and Aldan (1300) on the right. Navigation 
 18 open from Yakutsk upwards from May till 
 
 October. During spring the waters overflow their 
 banks. See Melville's In the Lena Delta (1885). 
 
 Lencoran, a Russian seaport on the Caspian 
 Sea, 130 miles S. of Baku. Near it are sulphur- 
 springs. Pop. 5540. Persia ceded it in 1813. 
 
 Lencziza, an ancient Polish town, 80 miles 
 WSW. of Warsaw. Pop. 15,546. 
 
 Lennep, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 18 miles 
 E. of Diisseldorf. Pop. 9844. 
 
 Lennox (Levenachs, ' fields of the Leven '), an 
 ancient Scottish territory, comprising the basin 
 of the Leven and Loch Lomond— the whole of 
 Dumbartonshire, great part of Stirlingshire, and 
 a portion of Perthshire. The Lennox Hills, 
 between Dumbarton and Stirling, attain 1894 
 feet. The Lennox gave name to an earldom 
 (1174-1581), and then to a dukedom, conferred 
 by Charles II. in 1680 on one of his illegiti- 
 mate sons, Charles, Duke of Richmond and 
 Lennox, who in 1702 sold the Lennox estates 
 to the Marquis ot Montrose. See The Lennox, by 
 Sir W. Fraser (3 vols. 1874). 
 
 Lennoxtown, a village of Stirlingshire, 11 
 miles N. by E. of Glasgow by rail, Avith bleach- 
 works, print-works, and alum-works. Pop. 2638. 
 
 Lens (Lon^), a town in the French dep. of Pas- 
 de-Calais, 17 miles by rail SW. of Lille. Here are 
 coal-mines, sugar-factories, &c. Pop. 24,862. 
 
 Lentinl (anc. Leontini), a town of Sicily, on a 
 lake, 17 miles SW. of Catania. Pop. 17,740. 
 
 Leobschiitz, a town in Prussian Silesia, 24 
 miles by rail N\V. of Ratibor. Pop. 15,239. 
 
 Leominster (Lemster), a market-town of Here- 
 fordshire, on the Lug, 13 miles N. of Here- 
 ford. A monastery was founded here in 658 ; 
 and the fine church of a later priory presents 
 every style from Norman to Perpendicular. The 
 quaint old timber Butter Cross (1633) was in 
 1855 transferred to a new site to make room for 
 an Italian town-hall ; there is also a corn exchange 
 (1859). Leather gloves are the staple manufac- 
 ture, and there is a great trade in hops and cider. 
 Incorporated as a municipal borough by Queen 
 Mary, Leominster till 1868 returned two mem- 
 bers, and till 1885 one. Pop. (1851) 5214 ; (1901) 
 5826. See local histories by Price (1795) and 
 Townsend (1863). 
 
 Leon, an ancient kingdom of Spain, equivalent 
 generally to the modern provinces of Leon, 
 Palencia, Valladolid, Zamora, and Salamanca. 
 The modern province has an area of 6167 sq. m. 
 and a population of 390,000.— Tlie capital, Leon 
 (the Leglo septivia gemina of the Romans), is 
 situated in a plain, 256 miles by rail NW. of 
 Madrid, and has important linen manufactures. 
 The beautiful cathedral (c. 1195-1512) contains 
 the tombs of many sovereigns, saints, and 
 martyrs. Pop. 17,500.— Leon is also the name 
 of a part of Brittany. 
 
 Leon, a city of Mexico, 32 miles W. of Guana- 
 juato, is a great industrial centre, manufactures 
 saddlery, cottons, and woollens, and has a cathe- 
 dral, convents, and theatres. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Leon, a city of Nicaragua, 32 miles by rail 
 (1882) SE. of its port, Corindo. Once the boast 
 of Spanish America, founded at the head of Lake 
 Managua in 1523, removed hither in 1610, and 
 sacked by Dampier in 1685, it is now partly in 
 ruins, and of its noble buildings only the cathedral 
 and churches remain. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Leonfor'te, a walled Sicilian town, 49 miles 
 by rail W. by N. of Catania. Pop. 19,645. 
 
 Lepanto (anc. Naupactus; mod. Greek Epakto), 
 
 I. 
 
LEItlDA 
 
 410 
 
 LEWISTON 
 
 a small town of Greece, seat of a bishop, is situ- 
 ated on the north side of the entrance to the 
 Gulf of Corinth. Near it was fought the great 
 naval battle in which the Papal, Venetian, and 
 Spanish galleys under Don John of Austria 
 defeated the Turks, 7th October 1571. 
 
 Ler'lda, a town of Spain, capital of a prov- 
 ince (area, 4775 sq. m. ; pop. 285,417 in 1887, 
 having decreased from 314,530 in 1860), on a 
 tributary of the Bbro, 114 miles by rail W. by 
 N. of Barcelona. The second city of Catalonia, 
 it has a castle and two cathedral churches, 
 one an ancient Byzantino-Moorish edifice, now 
 used as a barracks, the other a modern Grseco- 
 Roman building. It manufactures woollens, 
 cottons, leather, paper, and glass. Pop. 25,311. 
 
 Lerlns (Leran^'), a group of French islands in 
 the Mediterranean, 2^ miles SE. of Cannes. In 
 a fortress on Sainte-Marguerite (anc. Lerona), 4 
 miles in circumference, the Man with the Iron 
 Mask and Marshal Bazaine were confined, Bazaine 
 escaping hence in 1874. On Saint-Honorat (anc. 
 Lerina), 2 miles in circuit, are the ruins of a 
 once famous monastic school. 
 
 Lerwick (Ler'ivilc), the county town of Shet- 
 land, on the east coast of Mainland and on 
 Bressay Sound, 116 miles NB. of Kirkwall. 
 Demolished and refounded in the 17th century, 
 it has been much improved since 1850, and has a 
 town-hall (1883), county buildings (1872), water 
 and drainage works (1871); whilst, to meet the 
 growth of its shipping and fisheries, extensive 
 harbour-works were carried out during 1883-86. 
 Pop. 4541. 
 
 Lesbos, or Mytilene, a Turkish island in the 
 iEgeau, 10 miles from the coast of Asia Minor, 
 north of the Gulf of Smyrna. Area, 676 sq. in. ; 
 pop. 36,000, mostly Greeks. The ancient capital 
 was Mitylene ; the existing town, Castro, 'a 
 straggling dirty village' (pop. 12,000), stands on 
 a peninsula on tlie east coast, and has a mediaeval 
 castle and a shallow harbour. The modern town 
 of Agiasso has 8000 inhabitants. Between 700 
 and 500 B.C. Lesbos was the flourishing liome of 
 poets and literary men — Alcaeus, Sapplio, Ter- 
 pander, Pittacus, Tlieophrastus, Tlieophanes, &c. 
 It belonged successively to Macedonia, Pontus, 
 Rome, and Byzantium, and from 1355 to 1462 
 was owned by a Genoese merchant family, who 
 lost it to Mohammed II. 
 
 Leslie, a town of Fife, 12 miles SW. of Cupar, 
 and 3 W. of Markinch. It has fiax-spinning, 
 bleaching and paper works. Pop. 3621. 
 
 Lesmaha'gow (Celt., 'green of St Machutus'), 
 a Lanarkshire village, on the Nethan, 6 miles SW. 
 of Lanark. It was the seat of a Tironensiau 
 priory (12th c). Pop. 1737. See a work by J. 
 Greenshields (1864). 
 
 Letchworth, in Herts, is the first practical de- 
 velopment of the 'garden city' movement, and 
 was commenced in 1903. It is on the Great Nor- 
 thern Railway, between Hitcliin and Cambridge, 
 and 34 miles N. of London. Pop. in 1905, 1600. 
 
 Letterfrack, a tourist centre on the west coast 
 of County Galway, 8J miles N. of Clifden. 
 
 Letterkenny, a town of Donegal, on the Swilly, 
 16 miles WSW. of Londonderry. Pop. 2370. 
 
 Leucadia. See Leukas. 
 
 Leuchars, a Fife village, 4 miles WNW. of St 
 Andrews, with a fine Norman church. Pop. 711. 
 
 Leuctra, a village of Boeotia. Here the Thebans 
 under Epaminondas routed the Spartan king 
 Cleorabrotus (371 b.c.). 
 
 Leuk (Fr. Lokhe), a town (pop. 14ll) in thd 
 Swiss canton of Valais, on the Rhone's right 
 bank, 15 miles above Sion. It is the station, on 
 the Simplon railway, for the Baths of Leuk (4643 
 feet above sea-level), 5 miles N. The springs 
 (124°-199° F.) are saline, chalybeate, and sulphur- 
 eous, and are used both for drinking and bathing, 
 chiefly in skin and stomachic diseases. 
 
 Leukas, Leucadia, or Santa Maura, one of 
 the Ionian Islands, lies close to the west coast 
 of Greece ; about 660 b.c. the Corinthians cut 
 through the peninsula that joined it to the main- 
 land. It is 20 miles long by 8 wide, with an area 
 of 110 sq. m. The backbone of the island is a 
 ridge of white limestone ; hence the name (leukos, 
 'white'). Pop. 25,000.— The capital, Amaxichi 
 or Leukas, on the east coast, is the seat of an 
 archbishop; pop. 3800. Long Venetian, the 
 island was occupied by Britain in 1810. 
 
 Leuthen, a village of Prussia, in Lower Silesia, 
 10 miles W. of Breslau. Here, on 5th December 
 1757, Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Levant' (from the Ital. Levante, the ' Orient,' 
 or 'Rising'— i.e. the East), the eastern parts of 
 the Mediterranean Sea and the coast-regions of 
 Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt. In a wider sense, 
 the name is given to all the regions eastward 
 of Italy, as far as the Euphrates and the Nile. 
 
 Leven, a police-burgh (1867) of Fife, on the 
 Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the river Leven, 
 near a rich coalfield, 11 miles by rail NE. of 
 Kirkcaldy. It is a summer-resort, and has good 
 golf-links. Pop. (1841) 1827 ; (1901) 5577. 
 
 Leven, Loch, a salt-water loch between Argyll 
 and Inverness shires, extending 11| miles west- 
 ward to Loch Linnhe. See also Lochleven. 
 
 Levis, or Point Levi, capital of a county sonth 
 of the St Lawrence, opposite Quebec (q.v.), with 
 a large graving-dock. Pop. 8000, 
 
 Levkosia. See Nicosia. 
 
 Levuka, till 1882 the caj)ital of Fiji (q.v.). 
 
 Lewes, the county town of Sussex, 50 milea 
 S. of London, is picturesquely situated on the 
 eastern declivity of one of the South Downs, at 
 the foot of which flows the navigable river Ouse 
 on its way to the sea at Newhaven, 7 miles 
 distant. Pop. (1831) 8592 ; (1901) 11,249. The 
 chief objects of interest are the ruins of a priory 
 and castle which once stood here, the former built 
 (1072-78) by William de Warenne, Earl of Surrey, 
 who with his wife Gundreda, a daughter of 
 William the Conqueror, was buried within its 
 precincts. Of the castle which stood on high 
 ground in the centre of the town, the keep and 
 gateway, the only portions now remaining, are 
 occupied as a museum. Lewes has seven churches, 
 mostly Perpendicular in style, a county hall 
 (1812), free library (1862), school of science and 
 art (1868), and a town-hall (1872). Newspaper- 
 printing and tanning are carried on. Till 1867 the 
 town, which Avas incorporated in 1881, returned 
 two members, till 1885 one. Race-meetings are 
 held three times a year near Mount Harry on 
 the Downs, where, on 14th May 1264, Henry III. 
 was routed by Simon de Montfort. See works by 
 Horsfield (2 vols. 1824-27), Mantell (1846), and 
 Lower (3d ed. 1880). 
 
 Lewis, or Snake River, the great southern 
 branch of the Columbia (q.v.). See Idaho. 
 
 Lewisham, 6 miles SSE. of Charing Cross, since 
 1885 a parliamentary borough (pop. 67,500). 
 
 Lewiston, a city of Maine, on the Andro- 
 scoggin River, 35 miles N. of Portland. The 
 
LEWIS- WITH-HARRIS 
 
 411 
 
 LtBERU 
 
 river, which is crossed by several bridges, has 
 here a fall of 50 feet. The principal manufactures 
 are woollens and cottons. Lewiston contains a 
 Baptist college. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Lewis-with-Harris, a Scottish island, the 
 largest and most northerly of the Outer 
 Hebrides, separated from the mainland by the 
 Minch, and containing the town of Stornoway 
 (q.v.), 43 miles NW. of Poolewe and 180 N. by 
 W. of Oban. Its length is 60 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth is 28 miles ; and its area is 859 sq. m., 
 of which 683 belong to Lewis, the Ross-shire 
 portion, in the north, and 176 to Harris, the 
 Inverness-shire portion, in the south. The 
 coasts are wild and rugged, the chief indenta- 
 tions being Broad Bay and Lochs Erisort, Sea- 
 forth. Resort, and Roag. The Butt of Lewis, a 
 promontory at the extreme north, rises sheer 
 to a height of 142 feet ; the surface, attain- 
 ing 2662 feet in Harris and 1750 in Lewis, con- 
 sists mainly of hill, moor, and moss, treeless and 
 almost shrubless, with much peat and fresh- 
 water lakes innumerable. Less than 4 per cent, 
 of the entire area is in cultivation. In 1844 
 ' the Lews ' was purchased for £190,000 from the 
 Mackenzies of Seaforth by Sir James Matheson 
 (1796-1878), who expended £330,000 on improve- 
 ments. Pop. (1801) 12,164; (1831) 18,440; (1901) 
 32,160, mostly Gaelic-speaking— a population of 
 crofters and fishermen greater than the island 
 is well able to sustain. See "W. A. Smith's 
 Lewsiana (1875). 
 
 Lexington, (1) capital of Fayette county, 
 Kentucky, stands in the fertile blue-grass 
 region, 77 miles S. of Cincinnati. It is a hand- 
 some city, its principal edifices the court-house, 
 state university, and state lunatic asylum. The 
 Henry Clay monument also is noteworthy. There 
 are manufactures of spirits, hemp, and especially 
 of tobacco. Pop. (1880) 16,656 ; (1900) 26,369.— 
 (2) A village of Massachusetts, 11 miles WNW. 
 of Boston, where the first blood of the Revolution 
 was shed, April 19, 1775. A monument has been 
 erected to the eight men who fell here.— (3) Capital 
 of Lafayette county, Missouri, on the Missouri 
 River, 42 miles by rail (84 by water) E. of Kansas 
 City. It contains Baptist and Methodist ladies' 
 colleges, and manufactures hemp and woollen 
 goods. Pop. 4537.— (4) A pretty village of Virginia, 
 on the North River, 32 miles NN W. of Lynchburg. 
 It is the seat of the Washington and Lee Uni- 
 versity and the Virginia Military Institute ; and 
 here Robert E. Lee and ' Stonewall ' Jackson are 
 buried. Pop. 3771. 
 
 Leyburn, a town of Yorkshire, 7i miles SSW. 
 of Richmond. Pop. of parish, 850. 
 
 Leyden (Dutch pron. Ll-den), a town of Hol- 
 land, on the Old Rhine, 5 miles from the North 
 Sea, and by rail 9 miles N. by W. of The Hague 
 and31W. of Utrecht. It is a typical Dutch town, 
 spotlessly clean, with canals bordered by avenues, 
 md sleepy squares and streets. It has an air of 
 academic repose, and is the seat of a celebrated 
 university, which formerly attracted students 
 from all parts of Europe, including Prince Rupert, 
 3ir Thomas Browne, Evelyn, Bos well, Goldsmith, 
 lohn Wilkes, Alexander Carlyle, and Alexander 
 tfonro ; whilst among its professors and other 
 students have been Anninius, Goraarus, Grotius, 
 Descartes, Salniasius, Scaliger, Boerhaave, Hem- 
 ■terhuis, Linnaeus, Ruhnken, Valckenaer, &c. 
 t was founded in 1575 by William of Orange as a 
 eward to the citizens for their heroic twelve 
 nonths' defence against the Spaniards (1573-74). 
 t has about 50 teachers and 800 students ; a 
 
 I 
 
 library of 160,000 volumes and 5000 oriental and 
 other MSS. ; a botanic garden ; a magnificent 
 museum of natural history, &c. The town art 
 museum contains pictures by Rembrandt, Jan 
 Steen, Gerard Douw, Lucas of Leyden, the family 
 Mieris -all natives of the town, and others. Here 
 too were born some of the Elzevirs, the celebrated 
 printers, and John of Leyden, the Anabaptist. 
 The quaint and picturesque town-hall dates from 
 1574-98. In the centre of the town stands an old 
 round tower, said to date from the Roman 
 occupation. Leyden was in the 15th century 
 famous all over Europe for its manufactured 
 cloth, baize, and camlet. The same industries, 
 but to a much less extent, together with the 
 manufacture of cotton, twine, and yarn, the dye- 
 ing of cloth and leather, &c., are still carried on. 
 In 1650 the pop. numbered 100,000 ; but a century 
 later it had fallen to 75,000, and by 1800 to 
 30,000. In 1876 it was 40,724, and 56,000 in 1905. 
 
 Leyland, a town of Lancashire, 4i miles S. of 
 Preston. Pop. 6972. 
 
 Leyton, a suburban town of Essex, 1 mile N. 
 of Stratford. Pop. 99,106. 
 
 Lhassa (' the Seat of the Gods '), the capital of 
 Tibet, and a sacred city of the Buddhists, is 
 situated in a fertile plain, 45 miles NE. of the 
 junction of the Ki-chu with the Yaro San-po, 
 11,910 feet above the sea, and surrounded by 
 mountains from 2000 to 4000 feet higher. The 
 densely packed city proper is surrounded 
 with a wall, outside which lie extensive 
 suburbs, the houses standing in gardens, ranged 
 on each side of broad, tree-shaded streets. ITie 
 monasteries, some fifteen in number, are scattered 
 over the plain and in the suburbs. Just outside 
 the central city on the north-west stands a coni- 
 cal hill, Potala, which is thickly encrusted with 
 palaces and temples, their roofs all gilded ; this 
 is tlie abode of the Grand Lama. Lhassa is 
 not only the centre of the Lamaist form of 
 Buddhism, but is an important trading centre. 
 The resident population, exclusive of many 
 thousands of monks, is about 15,000 ; sometimes 
 augmented by a floating population of 40,000 
 pilgrims and traders. Its mysteries were first 
 fully revealed to the Britisli expedition which 
 forced its way hither in 1904, and concluded a 
 treaty here. See Tibkt, and tlie works on Lhassa 
 by Landon, Candler, and Waddell (all in 1905). 
 
 Liakhov Islands. See Siberia. 
 
 Liao-tung, properly the part of southern 
 Manchuria east of the river Llao, but latterly 
 restricted to the peninsula at the end of which 
 Port Arthur (q.v.) and Dalny (q.v.) are situated. 
 — Liao-yang, scene of one of tlie great battles in 
 1905, is on a western tributary of the Llao. 
 
 Libau (Lee'boxu), a seaport and watering-place 
 of Courland, in Russia, on the Baltic, 146 miles 
 by rail W. by S. of Riga. Its fine harbour 
 admits vessels that draw 17 and 18 feet, and 
 is free from ice except for a fortnight in the 
 year. The exports consist of grain, linseed and 
 linseed oU-cake, petroleum, eggs, spirits, flax, 
 hemp, &c. ; the imports of coals, herrings, arti- 
 ficial manures, cotton, dye-wood, and iron. In 
 1890 the Russian government began to construct 
 a first-class naval harbour ; there already existed 
 shipbuilding-yards and a school of navigation. 
 The industries include iron-founding, brewing, 
 &c. Trinity Church contains an organ (1886), 
 one of the largest in the world. Pop. 65,540. 
 
 Liberia, a Negro republic on the Pepper Coast 
 (Guinea) of West Africa, extending 500 miles NW. 
 and NE. of Cape Palmas, and reaching 200 miles 
 
LIBERTON 
 
 412 
 
 L1EGNIT2 
 
 inland. The coast-vegion consists of mangrove 
 swamps, lying behind a belt of sand-dunes, is 
 traversed by numerous rivers, and interrupted 
 by projecting headlands of rock. About 20 miles 
 or so inland the surface begins to rise into un- 
 dulating uplands. The climate and vegetation 
 are tropical, the temperature ranging between 
 75° F. and 88" F. The rainy season lasts about 
 seven and the dry season five months. The chief 
 exports are coffee, sugar, palm-oil and palm- 
 kernels, cocoa, arrowroot, caoutchouc, ivory, 
 kola nuts, &c. The total value of the trade does 
 not probably much exceed £500,000. The pop. 
 amounts to 2,068,000, of whom 18,000 are liber- 
 ated American slaves and their descendants, the 
 remainder indigenous Negroes, including the 
 Kroomen. Capital, Monrovia (pop. 5000), now 
 greatly decayed. Liberia owes its origin to the 
 American Colonising Society, which in 1821 
 bought land here and settled a small body of 
 freed African slaves. As newcomers arrived 
 from the United States, fresh lands continued to 
 be bought. In 1847 the republic was constituted ; 
 and it has enlarged repeatedly its boundaries, 
 being joined in 1854 by the Negro republic Mary- 
 land (founded 1821), to the east of Cape Palmas. 
 The constitution is modelled on that of the 
 United States, with a president, a House of 
 Representatives, and a Senate. No white man is 
 allowed to acquire citizen's rights or to hold 
 property. There is no standing army, but all 
 citizens capable of bearing arms are enrolled in 
 the militia. Complete religious toleration exists, 
 the Methodist forms prevailing. The republic 
 does not enjoy much favour in the eyes of the 
 native Negroes, nor yet of those in the United 
 States, although a few immigrants still arrive. 
 There has been much intertribal warfare in the 
 interior, but at Monrovia in 1904 all the important 
 chiefs signed a declaration of peace. 
 
 Liberton (' leper town '), a Midlothian village, 
 21 miles SSE. of Edinburgh. Pop. 550. 
 
 Litoourne, a town in the French dep. of 
 Gironde, at the confluence of the Isle with the 
 tidal Dordogne, 22 miles by rail NB. of Bordeaux. 
 It is one of the ancient free towns founded by 
 the English, about 1269. Woollens and military 
 clothing are maimfactured. Pop. 18,245. 
 
 Libyan Desert. See Sahara. 
 
 Libyan Hills. See Egypt, p. 247. 
 
 Lichfield {Utch'jkld), a municipal (and till 1885 
 parliamentary) borough of Staffordshire, and the 
 seat of a bishopric, is pleasantly situated in a 
 valley watered by an affluent of the Trent, 15 
 miles SE. of Stafford and 118 NW. of London. 
 Pop. (1801) 4712 ; (1901) 7902. Its cathedral— a 
 noble pile, measuring 411 feet by 66 (or 149 
 across the transepts), and surmounted by three 
 towers with spires, the central 258 feet high- 
 dates from the 13th century, when the Mercian 
 see, founded in 656, and constituted an arch- 
 bishopric 786-800, was, after its translation to 
 Chester in 1075, and subsequently thence to 
 Coventry, re-established here at its original seat. 
 Despoiled, and with its central tower beaten 
 down during the siege of Lichfield by the parlia- 
 mentarians (1643), the cathedral was subsequently 
 (1661-70) efl^ectively repaired, and 1860-84 both 
 the exterior and interior were ably restored at a 
 cost exceeding £40,000. At the north-east angle 
 of the Close, adjoining the cathedral, is the 
 Bishop's Palace (1687), and hard by once stood 
 the vanished castle, with memories of Richard 
 II. Amongst other edifices may be noted the 
 grammar-school, at which Addison, Dr John- 
 
 son, and Garrick were educated; two hospitals 
 founded 1495 and 1504; the theological college 
 (1857); and a concert hall. A statue of Dr 
 Johnson was erected in 1838 in the market-place, 
 opposite the house in which he was born, and 
 which was bought by a Mr Johnson in 1887 ' to 
 save it from the hands of spoilers.' Among 
 residents or natives have been Ashmole, Bishop 
 Newton, Dr Darwin, his biographer Miss Seward, 
 and Honora Sneyd, afterwards Mrs Edgeworth. 
 See works by Harwood (1806) and Beresford 
 (' Diocesan Histories ' series, 1883). 
 
 Lichtenstein, a town of Saxony, on the Rod- 
 litz, 45 miles SSE. of Leipzig. Pop. 7395. 
 
 Liddesdale (Lidsdale), in Roxburghshire, the 
 valley of Liddel Water, which flows 27 miles 
 SSW. near to or along the Border, till it joins the 
 Esk 12 miles N. of Carlisle. See a work by R. 
 B. Armstrong (1883). 
 
 Liechtenstein, a mountainous independent 
 principality of Europe, separated from Switzer- 
 land on the west by the Rhine ; on the east it 
 is bounded by Vorarlberg. Area, 61 sq. m. ; pop. 
 9634. The chief town, Vaduz or Liechtenstein 
 (pop. 1139), lies 28 miles SSW. of Bregenz on 
 Lake Constance. The Prince of Liechtenstein 
 possesses extensive estates in Austria, Prussia, 
 and Saxony. The little state is a constitutional 
 sovereignty, and belongs to the Austrian customs, 
 postal, judicial, and coinage system. 
 
 Liege (Lee-ayzh' ; Ger. Lilttich, Flemish Luik), a 
 city of Belgium, at the confluence of the Ourthe 
 with the Meuse, 62 miles by rail S. by E. of 
 Brussels and 47 SW. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It con- 
 sists of the old town, built on tlie hills that 
 overlook the Meuse on the left, the new town, 
 down below on the right bank, and several 
 suburbs. It is a fine city, with elegant bridges, 
 handsome squares and gardens, and fine churches 
 and private houses. Its defences consist of a 
 ring of modern forts and the citadel (1650) on the 
 high ground on the Meuse's left bank. The old 
 cathedral church, St Lambert's, was founded in 
 712, destroyed by the French republicans in 1794, 
 and wholly removed in 1802. Since then St Paul's 
 (968-1528) has been the church of the see. The 
 former bishop's palace (1508-40) has been con- 
 verted into law-courts. The university was 
 founded in 1817, and lias over 1200 students, and 
 a library of 210,000 vols. Situated in the centre 
 of the east Belgian coal-mining district, Liege is 
 one of the first manufacturing cities in Belgium, 
 Its great staple is firearms, of which it turns out 
 animally large numbers. But manufactures of 
 wool, leather, and iron-plates, together with 
 breweries, and distilleries, give large employ- 
 ment. The government have here a cannon- 
 foundry and a small-arms factory. At Seraing 
 (q.v.), 4 miles distant, are the huge Cockerill 
 Works. Pop. (1876)115,851 ; (1900) 173,706, mostly 
 Walloons. The Bishop of Maestricht transferred 
 the see to Li6ge in 720; his successors became 
 princes of the empire witli the title of Dukes of 
 Bouillon. The city was seized by Charles the 
 Bold of Burgundy in 1467 and 1468, in 1091 by 
 the French, in 1702 by Marlborough, and once 
 more by the French in 1792. The Congress of 
 Vienna assigned the city and its territories to the 
 Netherlands ; but in 1831 they were incorporated 
 in the new kingdom of Belgium. — The province ^ 
 of Li^ge has an area of 1117 sq. m. and a pop. i 
 of 860,000. 
 
 Liegnitz, a town of Prussian Silesia, on tiie! 
 Katzbach, 38 miles W. by N. of Breslau. In the 
 neighbourhood (Wahlstadt) the Mongols in 1241 ^ 
 
LIERRE 
 
 413 
 
 LIMERICK 
 
 defeated the Poles, and filled nine sacks with 
 the ears of their slaughtered foes. Liegnitz came 
 to Prussia in 1742. Here in 1760 Frederick the 
 Great routed the Austrians, and in 1813 BlUcher 
 defeated the French (Katzbach). It is now a 
 place of great industrial activity, with iron- 
 foundries, machine-shops, pianoforte-factories, 
 and manufactures of woollens, cloth, hats, gloves, 
 &c. Pop. 56,000. 
 
 Lierre, a town of Belgium, 11 miles by rail 
 SE. of Antwerp, manufactures silk, lace, shoes, 
 beet-root sugar, salt, and beer. Pop. 28,156. 
 
 Liffey, a river of Ireland, winding 50 miles west- 
 ward and east-north-eastward through Wicklow, 
 Kildare, and Dublin counties, to Dublin Bay. 
 
 Lifford, the county town of Donegal, on the 
 Foyle, opposite Strabane, and 15 miles SSW. of 
 Londonderry. Pop. 450. 
 
 Ligny (Leen'yi), a Belgian village, 13 miles NE. 
 of Charleroi. Here Napoleon defeated the Prus- 
 sians under Bliicher, 16th June 1815, the same 
 day as Quatre-Bras. 
 
 Llgonyi, or Elgon, a mountain, 14,000 feet 
 high, W. of Lake Baringo in East Equatorial 
 Africa, with extensive artificial caves. 
 
 Ligurian Republic, the name given by Bona- 
 parte to the republic of Genoa (q.v.) in 1797, from 
 Liguria, the ancient name of the region. 
 
 Lille (Flemish RysseT), a manufacturing town 
 and first-class fortress of France, chief town of 
 the dep. of Nord, is situated on a sub-tributary 
 of the Scheldt, 66 miles by rail SE. of Calais. 
 Lille derives its name from the 11th-century 
 castle of tlie Counts of Flanders around which 
 it arose, and which from its position in the 
 midst of marshes was called L'Isle. Burgundian 
 from 1365, Lille was conquered by Louis XIV. in 
 1667, and finally handed over to France in 1713. 
 Its defences consist of Vauban's pentagonal 
 citadel, and a series of seven forts encircling the 
 town. The old fortifications were mostly levelled 
 from 1858 onwards. The town possesses few 
 notable buildings except the church of Notre 
 Dame (1855), and the town-hall with the museum, 
 the famous Wicar collection of drawings by the 
 Old Masters, and a library of 41,000 volumes. 
 It has a Catholic ' free university,' independent 
 faculties of medicine and science, technical 
 schools, a music school, and an academy of art. 
 Lille is a great centre of textile industries : the 
 spinning of linen and cotton, the manufacture of 
 thread, damask, cloth, tulle, tickings, &c.— these 
 textile industries employ 20,000 workpeople— as 
 also of tobacco, beer, paper, sugar, machinery, 
 &c. Pop. (1872) 152,775 ; (1901) 215,431. 
 
 Lillebonne, a Norman town on the Bolbec, 
 28 miles AVNW. of Rouen by rail. The Julia 
 Bona of the Romans, it has remains of a Roman 
 theatre, a 15th-century church, and a ruined 
 castle of William the Conqueror. Pop. 5705, 
 
 Lima (Leema), the capital of Peru, lies in a 
 broad valley 6 miles E. of Callao, its port, with 
 which it is connected by two railways (9 miles). 
 The archiepiscopal cathedral (rebuilt 1746) is, 
 after that of Mexico, the most noteworthy in 
 Spanish America. The university (1551) is now 
 housed in the old Jesuits' college. The national 
 library was looted during the Chilian occupation 
 (1881-83), and numerous statues and works of 
 art found their way to Santiago. This disaster, 
 added to revolutions and earthquakes (the worst 
 that of 1746), has wrought sad havoc in Lima, 
 which, with its wide and regular streets, remains 
 still picturesque, but somewhat shabby and very 
 
 dirty. The trade is almost entirely in the hands 
 of foreigners. The manufactures include iron- 
 casting, copper-smelting, and the making of 
 furniture, silver-ware, gold-lace, and stamped 
 leather. There is a railway to Oroya (128 miles). 
 Lima is the old Indian name revived of what was 
 founded as Ciudad de los Reyes in 1535 by Pizarro 
 (murdered here in 1541, buried in the cathedral 
 crypt). Pop. 115,000. 
 
 Lima, capital of Allen county, Ohio, 71 miles 
 N. of Dayton, on the Ottawa River. It has 
 steam-mills and manufactures of engines, furni- 
 ture, &c. Pop. 23,500. 
 
 Limasol, or Limassol (Gr. Lemisou), the chief 
 seaport of Cyprus, though it has no harbour. 
 Tliere is a large trade in wine and carobs. Limasol 
 is the only place in Cyprus where English troops 
 are permanently quartered. Pop. 8388. 
 
 Limavad'y, a market-town, on the Roe, 16 
 miles NE. of Londonderry. Pop. 2696. 
 
 Limbach, a Saxon town, 10 miles WNW. of 
 Chemnitz, manufactures hosiery. Pop. 12,494. 
 
 Limburg, a territory on the Meuse, lying 
 between the provinces of Liege and Brabant. 
 In 1839 it was finally re-divided, the lands to the 
 west of the Meuse remaining with Belgium, 
 whilst a long narrow strip on the east side was 
 constituted the Dutch province of Limburg. The 
 Belgian province has an area of 931 sq. m. and 
 a pop. (1892) of 225,000. Capital, Hasselt. The 
 area of the Dutch province is 850 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1892) 261,853. Capital, Maestricht.— The well- 
 known Limburg cheese is made at the little town 
 of Limburg (pop. 4768), the former capital of 
 the duchy, which is now in the province of Liege, 
 19 miles E. of the city of Liege. — Limburg-an- 
 der-Lahn, a town of Hesse-Nassau, 32 miles E. 
 of Coblenz, has a fine Catholic cathedral (Rhenish 
 style, 1243) ; pop. 8485. 
 
 Limehouse, a Thameside parish of E. London. 
 
 Limekilns, a Fife coast-village, on the Firth of 
 Forth, 3 miles SSW. of Dunfermline. Pop. 552. 
 
 Lim'erick, a county of Munster, separated by 
 the Shannon on the N. from Clare, and bounded 
 elsewhere by Tipperary, Cork, and Kerry. Its 
 greatest length is 35 miles, its greatest breadth 54 
 miles, and its area 680,842 acres, or 1063 sq. m. 
 Pop. (1841)330,029; (1861)217,223; (1901)146,018, 
 mainly Roman Catholics. The surface is an undu- 
 lating plain, except in the extreme N. and S. 
 The soil in general is fertile, especially the Golden 
 Vale, and a portion beside the Shannon below 
 Limerick. Dairy-farming flourishes ; woollens, 
 flour, and paper are manufactured. The county 
 returns two members. Limerick is the only town 
 of any size. Limeriok is more than usually rich 
 in antiqaities, both ecclesiastical and civil, of 
 the Celtic as well as the Anglo-Norman period. 
 There are monastic ruins at Adare, Askeaton, &c. 
 
 Limerick, the county town, stands at the head 
 of the estuary of the Shannon, 120 miles by rail 
 WSW. of Dublin. The town consists of English 
 Town, the original English settlement made in 
 the reign of King John, on King's Island ; Irish 
 Town, immediately S. , on the left bank ; and 
 Newtown-Pery, S. of Irish Town, the handsomest 
 part of the city, dating from 1769. There are few 
 objects of interest except the Protestant cathedral 
 of St Mary (1180 ; rebuilt 1490) ; the Gothic R.C. 
 cathedral (1800) ; and the fine bridges over the 
 Shannon. Limerick manufactures a little lace, 
 grinds flour, and cures bacon. Fourth among 
 Irish seaports, it has a graving and a floating 
 dock, and extensive quays ; and imports grain. 
 
 11. 
 
LIMFIORD 
 
 414 
 
 LINCOLNSHIRE 
 
 petroleum, wine, spirits, and timber. It returns 
 one member (till 1885 two). Pop. (1851) 53,448; 
 (1901) 38,085. See the county history by Fitz- 
 gerald and M'Gregor (2 vols. Dublin, 1826-27). 
 
 Llmfiord. See Denmark. 
 
 Limoges {Lee-imzh'), capital of the French dep. 
 of Haute- Vienne, and of the former province of 
 Limousin, is picturesquely situated on the Vienne, 
 248 miles S. by W. of Paris and 218 N. of 
 Toulouse. Its Gothic cathedral was begun in the 
 13th century and completed in 1851. The manu- 
 facture of porcelain employs over 5000 people ; 
 and flannels, cotton, paper, &c. are also made. 
 The enamel-work for which Limoges was formerly 
 celebrated is now no longer carried on. There 
 is a fine ceramic museum (1867). Pop. (1826) 
 48,862 ; (1905) 85,000. Limoges was an important 
 town under the Romans, and is so still in spite 
 of plagues, fires, and sieges (the worst that by 
 the Black Prince in 1370). 
 
 Limon, a port of Costa Rica, founded in 1861, 
 on the Caribbean Sea. The railway begins here, 
 and the place has a landing-pier. Pop. 4400. 
 
 Limpopo, OoRi, or Crocodile River, rises in 
 the heart of the Transvaal, and after a course of 
 800 miles, during which it describes a great curve 
 northwards, falls into Delagoa Bay. Some 50 
 miles are navigable by steamer; the Olifant is 
 the chief tributary. 
 
 Linares {Lee-na'res), a town of southern Spain, 
 90 miles by rail BNE. of Cordova, is celebrated 
 for its mines of lead and copper, and has lead 
 and iron foundries, gunpowder and dynamite 
 factories. Pop. 35,229. 
 
 Linclu'den, a ruined abbey, IJ mile NNW. of 
 Dumfries, at the Cluden's influx to the Nith. 
 It was founded about 1164 for Benedictine nuns. 
 See M'Dowall's Chronicles ofLinchiden (1886). 
 
 Lincoln (Lin'con), the capital of Lincolnshire, 
 and a parliamentary, county, and municipal 
 borough, is situated on the Witham, 42 miles S. of 
 Hull, 33 NE. of Nottingham, and 130 N. by W. 
 of London, Built on the slope of a hill, which 
 rises 210 feet above the river, and is crowned by 
 the cathedral, the city is imposing in eff'ect, and 
 can be seen from afar in the flat fen-country. 
 It is very ancient, is irregularly laid out, and 
 contains many interesting specimens of early 
 architecture — notably the castle, commenced in 
 1086 by William I. ; the Newport Gate, or Roman 
 arch, on the north side of the city; the Ex- 
 chequer and Stonebow gateways, the latter 
 supporting a guildhall of medifeval architecture ; 
 the Jew's House (Norman), associated with the 
 legend of Hugh of Lincoln ; St Mary's Guild 
 (Norman); and the middle grammar-school, 
 founded in 1567 in the Grey Friars. But the 
 chief glory of Lincoln is its cathedral, admittedly 
 one of the finest in England. Erected between 
 1075 and 1501, it measures 524 feet by 82 (or 250 
 across the transepts), and in style is mainly 
 Early English. Its matchless central tower (1235- 
 1311 ; 265 feet high) was previous to 1547 sur- 
 mounted by a spire, as till 1808 were the two 
 western towers (completed 1450). Other notice- 
 able features are the west front (partly Norman), 
 with its three doorways (1123); the Galilee or 
 south porch (c. 1240) ; the Decorated choir (1254) ; 
 the decagonal chapter-house ; Norman font (1075- 
 93) ; and Great Tom of Lincoln (5J tons), hung 
 in the central tower, which also contains a 
 mellow-chiming clock (1880). There are also a 
 county hall (1823-26), theological college, school 
 of science, and bishop's palace (1887) embodied 
 
 with a former palace of 1149. Several iron- 
 foundries and important manufactories of agri- 
 cultural machinery are in operation here, and an 
 active trade is done in flour. The spring horse- 
 fair is one of the largest in the world, and the 
 race-meetings date back to James I. 's reign. One 
 member is returned to parliament for the city. 
 In the history of Lincoln the most noteworthy 
 incidents have been frequent invasions by the 
 Danes (786-875) ; great fires (1110 and 1124) ; a 
 battle (1141) between the adherents of Stephen 
 and the Empress Matilda ; the second coronation 
 of Henry II. (1155-58) ; an earthquake (1185) ; the 
 battle of Lincoln, or Lewis Fair, fought 4th June 
 1218 ; five parliaments (1301-86) ; and lastly, the 
 siege of the town, and desecration of the cathe- 
 dral, by the parliamentarians (1644). Pop. (1801) 
 7398 ; (1881) 37,313 ; (1901) 48,784. 
 
 Lincoln, (l) capital of Nebraska, on Salt Creek, 
 66 miles by rail SW. of Omaha. Laid out in 1867, 
 it is a handsome and thriving city, with state 
 capitol, university, prison, insane asylum, and the 
 United States court-house. There are flour and 
 planing mills, foundries, &c. ; limestone is largely 
 quarried, and there are extensive salt-works in 
 connection with brine-springs near by. Pop. 
 (1880) 13,003 ; (1900) 40,169, -(2) Capital of Logan 
 county, Illinois, 28 miles NNE. of Springfield, 
 manufactures castings and farm-implements. 
 Here are Lincoln University (Cumberland Pres- 
 byterian) and a state asylum for feeble-minded 
 
 children. Pop. 9200. ;-(3) A town of Rhode 
 Island, 6 miles by rail N. of Providence, con- 
 taining several cotton-manufacturing villages. 
 Pop. 8950. 
 
 Lincoln, Mount, a peak (14,297 feet) of the 
 Rocky Mountains, in Colorado, 8 miles NE. of 
 Leadville. A railway was made to silver-mining 
 works at the sunmiit, and here is a meteoro- 
 logical station conducted by Harvard College. 
 
 LincolnsWre, a maritime county of England, 
 after Yorkshire the largest in the country, is 
 bounded N. by the Humber, E. by the North Sea, 
 the Wash, and Norfolk, and elsewhere by Cam- 
 bridge, Northampton, Rutland, Leicester, Not- 
 tingham, and York shires. Measuring 75 miles 
 from N. to S., and 48 from E. to W., it has a sea- 
 board of about 90, and contains 2672 sq. m., or 
 1,767,879 acres. Pop.(1801)208,557; (1841)362,602; 
 (1901) 498,781. The surface is comparatively flat : 
 along the coast stretch low-lying marshes, from 
 which in places the sea is only kept out by means of 
 embankments. West of these marshes lie the 
 Wolds, a range of chalk downs, which, commenc- 
 ing near Barton-on-Humber in the north, extend 
 thence 40 miles south-eastward to the neighbour- 
 hood of Spilsby and Horncastle. The western 
 side of the county, from the Humber in the north 
 through Lincoln to Grantham in the south, con- 
 sists principally of light uplands, whilst in the 
 south-east are fens forming part of the Bedford 
 Level (q.v.). The chief rivers are the Trent, 
 Witham, and Welland ; and a noticeable feature 
 of the county are the numerous canals which 
 intersect it — Car-dyke and Foss-dyke, the two 
 largest, being probably the work of the Romans. 
 Near Ancaster limestone is extensively quarried, 
 and in the western districts ironstone abounds. 
 The chief crops are corn and turnips, and in 
 places flax is cultivated ; the county is famous . 
 for its rich ' warp-lands ' along the banks of the , 
 Trent, and its immense flocks of sheep. Horse- j 
 breeding, too, is extensively prosecuted, with] 
 great horse-fairs at Horncastle and Lincoln;' 
 other industries are the manufacture of agri- 
 
LINDISFARNE 
 
 415 
 
 LIPETZK 
 
 cultural implements and machinery, and the 
 shipping trade and fisheries of Grimsby. 
 
 Lincolnshire is divided into three districts or 
 • Parts '—viz. the Parts of Holland in the south- 
 east, comprising the greater part of the Fens, the 
 Parts of Kesteven in the south-west, and the Parts 
 of Lindsey, which is by far the largest, occupying 
 the remainder of the county. These Parts, each 
 with its own county council, are subdivided into 
 thirty-one wapentakes or hundreds, the city of 
 Lincoln and the municipal boroughs of Boston, 
 Grantham, Great Grimsby, and Louth, with part 
 of Stamford (the rest being in Northamptonshire), 
 and contain in all 757 parishes, almost entirely 
 situate in the diocese of Lincoln and midland 
 circuit. For parliamentary purposes the county 
 is divided into seven divisions, and the boroughs 
 of Boston, Grantham, Grimsby, and Lincoln , each 
 returning one member. Other towns are Glee- 
 thorpes (practically a suburb of Grimsby), Gains- 
 borough, Sleaford, Spalding, and Sutton, 
 
 The insurrection known as the ' Pilgrimage of 
 Grace' (1536) broke out in Lincolnshire; and 
 in 1643, during the Civil War, Ancaster, Gains- 
 borough, Grantham, and Winceby were the scene 
 of contests between the rival forces. To the 
 antiquary Lincolnshire is of special interest on ac- 
 count of the beauty of its many churches— Boston, 
 Crowle, Grantham, Heckington, Louth, Long 
 Sutton, and Tattershall amongst them ; whilst of 
 other places of interest it will suffice to mention 
 here the ruined abbey of Crowland, and Boling- 
 broke Castle, the home of John of Gaunt and of his 
 son Henry IV. Other eminent persons associated 
 with the county include Bishop Grosseteste ; John 
 Foxe, the martyrologist ; William Cecil, Lord 
 Burghley ; Captain John Smith ; Archbishop 
 Whitgift ; Heywood, the dramatist ; Sir Isaac 
 Newton ; Thomas Sutton, founder of the Charter- 
 house ; Dr Busby, head-master of Westminster ; 
 John Wesley ; Scott, the commentator ; Sir John 
 Franklin ; Dr Dodd, the forger ; Dr Lingard ; 
 Lord Tennyson ; Dr Latham ; Worth ' of Paris ; ' 
 Jean Ingelow ; and Conington. See works by 
 Allen (1834), Anderson (1880), Venables and Perry 
 (1897). 
 
 Lindisfarne. See Holy Island. 
 
 Lindores. See Newburgh. 
 
 Lindsay, capital of Victoria county, Ontario, on 
 the river Scugog, 60 miles NE. of Toronto, with 
 trade in grain and lumber, and manufactories of 
 agricultural machinery, &c. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Lingah, a Persian port near the entrance of the 
 Persian Gulf. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Linkoping, one of the oldest towns in Sweden, 
 capital of East Gothland, 142 miles SW, of 
 Stockholm, with a Romanesque 12th-ceutury 
 cathedral. Pop. 15,968. 
 
 Links of Forth. See Forth. 
 
 Linlithgow, an ancient royal burgh, the county 
 to\vn of Linlithgowshire, lies 16 miles W. of 
 Edinburgh, near the southern shore of Linlithgow 
 Loch, which, 150 feet above sea-level, covers 102 
 acres, and deepens westward from 10 to 50 feet. 
 On a promontory, 66 feet high, stands the stately 
 ruin of Linlithgow Palace, mostly rebuilt between 
 1425 and 1628, fired by Hawley's dragoons in 
 1746, and repaired in 1892. It was the birthplace 
 of James V. and Mary Stuart. The neighbouring 
 parish church of St Michael's (restored 1894-95) 
 is a very good Decorated structure of mainly 
 the 15th and 16th centuries ; within its south 
 transept James IV. received the Flodden warn- 
 ing. Another event in Linlithgow's history was 
 the murder of the Regent Moray. The Cross 
 
 U 
 
 Well (rebuilt 1807) and the town-hall (1889) are 
 also noteworthy. With Falkirk, &c., Linlithgow 
 returns a member. Pop. (1831)3187 ; (1901) 4279. 
 See a work by Waldie (3d ed. 1879). 
 
 Linlithgowshire, or West Lothian, a Scottish 
 county, washed on the north for 17 miles by the 
 Firth of Forth, and elsewhere bounded by Edin- 
 burgh, Lanark, and Stirling shires. Its length 
 south-westward is 22 miles, its average breadth 
 7 miles, and its area 127 sq. m. The only large 
 streams are the Almond on the south-eastern, and 
 the Avon on the western boundary ; the prin- 
 cipal eminences are Cairnnaple (1016 feet), Cockle- 
 rue (912), Dechmont Law (686), and Glower-o'er- 
 'em (559), the last with a monument to General 
 Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. 
 Coal has been largely mined since the 12th cen- 
 tury, as also are ironstone, fireclay, and shale 
 for the manufacture of paraffin. Excellent sand- 
 stone is quarried at Binny. Of the whole area 
 73 per cent, is in cultivation ; woods cover 4982 
 acres. Towns, noticed separately, are Linlith- 
 gow, South Queensferry, Bathgate, Bo'ness, and 
 Broxburn ; among the mansions are Hopetoun, 
 Dalmeny, Dundas, and Kinneil ; and the antiqui- 
 ties include prehistoric and Roman remains, the 
 Romanesque church of Dalmeny, the castles of 
 Barn bougie. Blackness, Niddry, &c., and the 
 preceptory at Torphichen of the Knights of St 
 John. The county returns one member. Pop. 
 (1801) 17,844; (1841) 26,872 ; (1901) 65,708. See 
 works by Sibbald (1710) and Small (1883). 
 
 Linmouth. See Lynmouth. 
 
 Linnhe, Loch (Lin'nie), a sea-loch of Argyll 
 and Inverness shires, extending 31 miles north- 
 eastward to Fort William, and 8^^ miles to IJ 
 furlongs (at Corran Narrows) wide. The upper 
 9| miles are sometimes called Lower Loch Eil. 
 
 Linton, East, a Haddingtonshire police-burgh, 
 on the Tyne, 23^ miles E. by N. of Edinburgh. 
 Pop. 920.— West Linton, a Peeblesshire village, 
 on Lyne Water, 16 miles SSW. of Edinburgh. 
 Pop. 412. ^ 
 
 Llnz (Lintz), capital of Upper Austria, on the 
 right bank of the Danube (here crossed by an 
 iron bridge 780 feet long), 117 miles by rail W. 
 of Vienna. It has a splendid Gothic cathedral 
 (1862-90), the old cathedral (1670), the bishop's 
 palace, a museum, a library of 33,000 vols., &c. 
 Its industries include the manufacture of woollen 
 goods, tobacco, linen, leather, machinery, and 
 shipbuilding. Pop. 59,560. 
 
 Lions, Gulf of (Golfe du Lion), the large Medi- 
 terranean gulf of S. France, from the Spanish 
 frontier E. to the Hyfires Islands. 
 
 Llp'ari Islands, known also as the iEoLiAN 
 Islands, a volcanic group in the Mediterranean, 
 off the N. coast of Sicily, NW. of Messina. It 
 comprises six larger and numerous smaller islands, 
 with an aggregate area of 116 sq. m. Many of 
 the smaller islands form part of the rim of a 
 gigantic crater. Stromboli (3022 feet) is almost 
 constantly active, and Vulcano (1017 feet) inter- 
 mittently ; the rest are extinct. The ancient 
 classical poets localised in these islands the abode 
 of the fiery god Vulcan — hence their ancient 
 name, Vulcanice Insulce. Their collective pop. 
 is 19,312, of whom 7542 belong to the island 
 of Lipari (area, 32 sq. m.), the largest of the 
 group. The warm springs are much resorted to, 
 and the climate is delightful. Lipari, the chief 
 town, is a bishop's see and a seaport ; pop. 4968. 
 
 Lipetzk, a town in the Russian government of 
 Tamboff, on the right bank of the Voronezh, a 
 
LIPPE 
 
 416 
 
 LISKEARD 
 
 tributary of the Don, 300 miles by rail SSE. of 
 Moscow. It has chalybeate springs. Pop. 25,860. 
 
 Llppe (Lip'pey), or Lippe-Detmold, a princi- 
 pality of northern Germany, lying between West- 
 phalia on the W. and Hanover on the E. The 
 Weser touches it on the N. and the Teutoburger 
 Wald crosses it in the S. Area, 475 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1875) 112,442 ; (1900) 139,238, mainly Protestants. 
 Capital, Detmold (q.v.); other towns, Lemgoand 
 Horn. The surface is hilly ; woods cover 28 per 
 cent. Every spring some 12,000 of the inhabit- 
 ants spread themselves over central Europe, even 
 to south Russia, as brick-burners and tile-makers, 
 returning home in autumn. The state is named 
 from the Lippe river, a tributary of the Rhine, 
 outside the present principality. 
 
 Lippstadt, a town of Prussia, on the Lippe, 30 
 miles E. by N. from Dortmund. It manufactures 
 spirits, beer, cigars, brushes, ropes, iron, &c. 
 Pounded in 1168, it was captured by the Spaniards 
 in 1620, and by the French in 1757. Pop. 13,504. 
 
 Liria, a town of Spain, 14 miles NW. of Val- 
 encia. Pop. 9029. 
 
 Lisbon (Port. Lisboa), capital of Portugal, 
 stands on the northern shore of a bottle-shaped 
 expansion of the Tagus, 9 miles from its mouth ; 
 it is 412 miles by rail WSW. of Madrid. The 
 city extends for 4 or 5 miles along the shore, 
 and climbs up the slopes of a low range of 
 hills, occupying a site of imposing beauty. The 
 oldest part of Lisbon is that which escaped the 
 earthquake of 1755 ; it lies on the east, round 
 the citadel, and consists of narrow, intricate 
 streets, not over clean. It is still known by its 
 Moorish name of Alfama. The western portions 
 were built after the earthquake, with wide and 
 regular streets, fine squares, and good houses. 
 The summits are mostly crowned with Avhat were 
 formerly large monasteries. The gloomy cathe- 
 dral of the •patriarch,' built in 1147, restored 
 after 1755, has a Gothic fagade and choir. The 
 large church of St Vincent contains the tombs 
 of the royal (Braganza) family. The church of 
 Estrella is a reduced copy of St Peter's at Rome. 
 In San Roque is a chapel thickly encrusted with 
 mosaics and costly marbles. But the finest 
 structure in the city is the Gothic monastery and 
 church of Belem, a monument to the great sea- 
 men of Portugal ; it was begun in 1500 on the 
 spot from which Vasco da Gama embarked (1497) 
 on his momentous voyage. Inside the church 
 are new tombs (1880) to Camoens and Vasco 
 da Gama, and the grave of Catharine, wife 
 of Charles II. of England. The monastery is 
 now used as an orphanage and foundling hospital. 
 Neither of the royal palaces possesses features 
 of great interest. A fine square facing the bay 
 is surrounded with government offices, the hand- 
 some custom-house, and the marine arsenal. 
 There are an academy of sciences (1779), with a 
 library of 60,000 vols., a polytechnic school, a 
 medical school, a conservatory of music, a public 
 library of 200,000 vols, and 9500 MSS., museums, 
 two observatories, &c. A magnificent aqueduct 
 (1738) brings water to the city from springs 9 
 miles to the north-west. In the cemetery of the 
 English church Fielding was buried in 1754. 
 The pop. of the city was 246,343 in 1878 ; but the 
 municipal boundaries were enlarged in 1885 so 
 as to include Belem and other suburbs, and the 
 pop. is now about 350,000. A series of forts 
 protect the seaward approaches. The harbour is 
 one of the finest in the world, well sheltered, 
 deep close to the quays, and capacious enough to 
 hold all the navies of Europe at once. Neverthe- 
 
 less the government spent (1886-1900) £2,400,000 
 in improving the port. The imports include corn, 
 cotton goods, sugar, fish, coal, timber, tobacco, 
 coff"ee, and petroleum ; the exports, wine, cork, 
 fish, cattle, oil, salt, and fruits. "The most im- 
 portant industries are in gold and silver wares 
 and in jewellery ; next come cotton-spinning and 
 weaving, the manufacture of silk, hemp, chemi- 
 cals, hats, boots, tobacco, soap, cutlery, and 
 stoneware, and iron-founding. 
 
 Lisbon is a contraction of Olisipo, its name as 
 capital of the Lusitanians. From the Romans it 
 passed to the Goths, from the Goths to the Moors 
 (716), who kept their hold of it down to 1147, 
 when Alfonso I. of Portugal seized it with the 
 help of English, German, and Flemish crusaders. 
 It was made the capital of the kingdom in 1422. 
 In 1580 it was seized by Alva for Philip II. of 
 Spain ; and it was from this port that the ' in- 
 vincible' Armada set sail. When the Duke of 
 Braganza roused his countrymen to shake off the 
 Spanish yoke (1640), he recaptured Lisbon, and 
 once more it became the capital. On 1st Novem- 
 ber 1755, in less than ten minutes, the greater 
 part of the city was made a heap of ruins, 30,000 
 to 40,000 persons were killed, and damage done 
 to the extent of nearly 20 millions sterling. The 
 French held the city for ten months during 
 1807-8. St Antony of Padua, Camoens, and Pope 
 John XXI. were natives. See Macedo, Guide to 
 Lisbon (1875). 
 
 Lisbum, a town (since 1898 wholly) in Antrim, 
 on tlie Lagan, 93 miles by rail N. by E. of Dublin, 
 and 8 SW. of Belfast. Tlie Conway fauiily built 
 a castle here in Charles I.'s time, and introduced 
 the existing industries — manufactures of linens, 
 damasks, muslins, &c., with flax-spinning and 
 bleaching. Its parish church is the cathedral of 
 Down, Connor, and Dromore, and contains a 
 monument to Bishop Jeremy Taylor. Pop. (1851) 
 6569 ; (1901) 11,459. 
 
 Llscard, a township in Wallasey parish, 
 Cheshire, containing New Brighton (q.v.). 
 
 Llsdoonvarna, a spa in County Clare, 9 miles 
 N. of Ennistimon station, with one sulphurous 
 and several chalybeate springs. 
 
 Llsieux (Lee-zi-yuW ; anc. Nomomagiis Lexo- 
 viorum), a town in the French dep. of Calvados, 
 30 miles by rail E. by S. of Caen. In the church 
 of St Pierre (1045-1233 ; a cathedral down to 
 1801), Henry II. of England married (1152) 
 Eleanor of Guienne. Lisieux is the centre of an 
 extensive manufacture of coarse linens {cretonnes, 
 from the original maker), woollens, flannels, 
 cottons, &c. Population, about 16,000. Four 
 miles distant is Val Richer, where stood 
 the abbey of which Thomas Becket was first 
 abbot ; its ruins were restored as a summer resi- 
 dence for Guizot. 
 
 Liskeard (Lis'kard), a municipal borough in 
 Cornwall, stands on steep hills overlooking the 
 Looe, 18 miles WNW. of Plymouth. It has manu- 
 factures of leather and iron, and trade with thej 
 neighbouring mines. St Martin's Church, Per- 
 pendicular in style, is one of the largest in Corn- 
 wall, with a 14th-century tower. The town-halll 
 (1859) is a good Italian building. A stannary or I 
 coinage town, Liskeard was made a free borough! 
 in 1250 by Richard, king of the Romans, whol 
 built a castle here. Till 1832 it returned two! 
 members (Coke and Gibbon the most illustrious),! 
 and then till 1885 one member. Pop. (1851)1 
 4386 ; (1901) 4011. Two miles south is the famouy 
 spring of St Keyne (q.v.). See Allen's History of 
 Liskeard (1856). 
 
LISMORE 
 
 417 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 Llsmoro, a town on the Blackwater, in the two 
 counties of Cork and Waterford, and 43 miles 
 SW. of Waterford city. The cathedral, the parish 
 church since the see was united to Cashel, was 
 rebuilt in 1663, on the site of a monastery founded 
 before 540. The castle, originally founded in 
 1185, was the residence of the bishops till the 
 16th century. In 1587 it was given to Sir W. 
 Raleigh, who sold it to the ' great ' Earl of Cork, 
 and in it his son, Robert Boyle, was born. In 
 1753 it passed to the Duke of Devonshire. Lis- 
 more returned two members from Charles I.'s 
 reign to the Union. Pop. 1582. 
 
 Lismore' (Gael., 'great garden'), an island of 
 Lorn, Argyllshire, in Loch Linnhe, 1 furlong 
 from the mainland, and 8 miles N. of Oban. It 
 rises to 417 feet, and is lOi^ miles long, IJ mile 
 broad, and 6014 acres in area. Besides a light- 
 house (1833), it contains several interesting 
 remains — the choir of the cathedral (1236) of the 
 pre-Reformation diocese of Lismore or Argyll 
 (since 1749 used as the parish church) ; Achan- 
 duin Castle, the residence of the bishops ; and 
 Castle-Rachal, a Scandinavian fort. Pop. (1831) 
 1790; (1901) 500, mostly Gaelic-speaking. 
 
 Lisnaskea, a town of Fermanagh, 11 miles SE. 
 of Enniskillen. Pop. 773. 
 
 Lissa (Pol. Leszno), a Prussian town, 40 miles 
 S. by W. of Posen, was during the 16th and 17th 
 centuries the headquarters of the Bohemian 
 Brethren in Poland : here were their most cele- 
 brated school, a seminary, a printing-office, and 
 their archives. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Lissa, a mountainous island of Dalmatia, in 
 the Adriatic, 32 miles SW. of Spalato. Area, 40 
 sq. m. ; pop. 9871—4317 at the capital, Lissa, and 
 the rest at Comisa, both seaports. Fishing is the 
 chief occupation. The island was held by Great 
 Britain 1810-15. Off it the Italian fleet was 
 defeated by the Austrians in 1866. 
 
 Listowel, a town of County Kerry, 20 miles 
 NE. of Tralee by rail. Pop. 3606. 
 
 Litany. See Lebanon. 
 
 Litchfield, a town of Illinois, 50 miles NE. of 
 St Louis. Pop. 5911. 
 
 Lithuania, a former grand-duchy, correspond- 
 ing to the portion of Russia between the Baltic 
 and the upper Dnieper (including Livonia, Cour- 
 land, Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Mohilev, 
 Smolensk, and Vitebsk). From the 14th century 
 on it became closely associated with Poland 
 ;q.v.), with which it was finally united in 1569 ; 
 in the 15th century it extended as far south as 
 3dessa and the Sea of Azov, and as far east as 
 -,he Moskva. The Lithuanians, a race to whom 
 3elong the Letts of Livonia, the Cours of Cour- 
 and, and the Borussians or ancient inhabitants 
 )f East Prussia, constitute a main division of the 
 
 ndo-European stock (akin to the Slavs), number- 
 ng some 3^ millions in all, 
 
 Littleborough, a town of Lancashire, 3J miles 
 TE. of Rochdale, of which it is virtually a suburb. 
 
 'op. 11,270. 
 
 Little Falls, a post-village of New York, 73 
 
 liles WNW. of Albany. The Mohawk River 
 
 ere passes through a narrow rocky gorge, with 
 
 ills of 44 feet, giving water-power to several 
 
 lills and factories. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Littlehampton, a seaport and watering-place 
 
 ' Sussex, 18 miles W. of Brighton and 63 SW. of 
 
 ondon. It is the port for Arundel. Pop. 7455. 
 
 Uttlemore, a hamlet 2J miles SSE. of Oxford, 
 
 m associations (1828-43) with Newman. 
 2A 
 
 I 
 
 Little Rock, the capital of Arkansas, on the 
 south bank of the Arkansas River, 280 miles from 
 its mouth, and 345 by rail SSW. of St Louis. It con- 
 tains the state capitol, prison, and blind and deaf- 
 mute asylums, a U.S. arsenal, a Roman Catholic 
 cathedral, and a college founded by the Free- 
 masons in 1857. Pop. (1880) 13,138 ; (1900)38,300. 
 
 Livadia (anc. Lebadeia), a town of Greece, 60 
 miles NW. of Athens. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Livadia, an estate, with a couple of palaces 
 and magnificent gardens and vineyards, belong- 
 ing to the imperial family of Russia, on the south 
 coast of the Crimea, 30 miles SB. of Sebastopol. 
 
 Liverpool (prob. from the Cymric Llyvrpwl, 
 ' the expanse at the pool '), if we" include Birken- 
 head, on the south or opposite side of the Mersey, 
 disputes with Glasgow the rank of second largest 
 town in the United Kingdom ; and as a port 
 surpasses London for trade with America. It is 
 situated | hour distance by railway from Man- 
 chester (31^ miles), 4^ hours from London (201 
 miles), 6 hours from Edinburgh (220 miles), and 
 7 hours by rail and steamer from Dublin. As a 
 port Liverpool figures for about one-fifth of the 
 British tonnage, one-tenth of the foreign, and 
 one-sixth of the total, and just falls behind London 
 in respect of the foreign tonnage. Through it 
 passes one-fourth of the imports, more than two- 
 fifths of the exports, and nearly one-third of the 
 entire foreign trade of the United Kingdom. Of 
 160 million cwt. of bread-stuffs annually im- 
 ported, Liverpool admits nearly 40 million ; in 
 1892 it imported 15 million out of 16 million cwt. 
 of cotton ; and has usually exported more than 
 half of the total cotton products. In 1903 the 
 total imports had a value of £129,028,142 ; the 
 total exports of £114,579,058. This gigantic trade 
 has given rise to the magnificent system of docks 
 extending along the margin of the river for a 
 distance of nearly 6^ miles, containing 25 miles 
 of quay-space and 380 acres of water-space, be- 
 sides 9 miles of quay-space and 164 acres of water- 
 space at Birkenhead, making a total of 34 miles 
 and 544 acres respectively. There are also 17 
 acres of water-space in the docks worked by the 
 various canal companies, besides the graving- 
 docks on both sides of the river. Several of the 
 docks are enclosed with large warehouses : the 
 erection of those round the Albert Dock cost 
 £358,000. The steamer traffic, conducted by 
 regular liners with every port of importance in 
 the world, draws large numbers of emigrant and 
 other passengers to the town. 
 
 Seven railways have direct connection with 
 the city. There are five tunnels under the town. 
 The Mersey railway tunnel, 1230 yards long, con- 
 necting Liverpool with Birkenhead, was made 
 in 1881-86, on a capital of £2,224,000. Proposals 
 have been made to erect a bridge from Liverpool 
 to Birkenhead, The Liverpool Overhead Rail- 
 way, on a framework of wrought iron, runs (6 
 miles long, opened in 1893) along almost the 
 whole length of the docks, and there is a 
 very complete system of electric tramears. In 
 1881-92 vast new water-works were constructed 
 at Lake Vyrnwy (q.v.), about 25 miles from 
 Oswestry, and 45 miles in a straight line from 
 Liverpool. Liverpool has several extensive ship- 
 building-yards, iron and brass foundries, chain- 
 cable and anchor smithies, engine-works, tar 
 and turpentine distilleries, rice and flour mills, 
 tobacco, cigar, and soap manufactories, breweries, 
 sugar-refineries, roperies, glass-works, chrono- 
 meter and watch manufactories. 
 
 fbe architecture of the town has been greatly 
 
LIVERPOOL 418 
 
 LLANDUDNO 
 
 improved in the later half of the 19th century, 
 and it now possesses many fine thoroughfares, 
 thronged with numerous splendid edifices. The 
 Corinthian Town-hall was built in 1754, but has 
 since been enlarged. St George's Hall (1838-54), 
 in the Graeco-Roman style, is nearly 500 feet 
 long, and was built at a cost of £330,000. Muni- 
 cipal offices, custom-house, sailors' home, police- 
 courts, workhouses, baths and wash-houses, 
 water-works, and gas-offices are also noteworthy. 
 The Free Library and Museum (1860) cost £40,000 ; 
 with it are incorporated the Museums of Natural 
 History and Antiquities. Other institutions are 
 the Walker Art Gallery, Picton Reading-room, 
 Botanic Gardens, Observatory, Liverpool College, 
 Liverpool Institute, Queen's College, Medical 
 Institute, Royal Institution, Academy of Fine 
 Arts, the Exchange, Lyceum, and Athenaeum. 
 University College, on the model of Owens 
 College, was inaugurated in 1882 ; its new 
 Victoria Buildings were opened in December 
 1892. The college, affiliated to the Victoria Uni- 
 versity, Manchester, in 1884, is now by charter 
 (1902) a distinct university, with about 50 pro- 
 fessors and lecturers. Of some 270 churches and 
 chapels, nearly 100 belong to the Established 
 Church. The see of Liverpool was created in 
 1880. The Exchange, rebuilt and enlarged in 
 French Renaissance style in 1864-67, cost about 
 £600,000. There is a corn exchange, and several 
 markets; the banks and clubs have handsome 
 premises. Of monuments the chief are those of 
 the Queen, Prince Albert, William IV., Nelson, 
 Wellington, Huskisson, and Beaconsfleld, besides 
 several in the Town-hall, St George's Hall, Free 
 Library, and parks. The parks are eight in 
 number. There are seven cemeteries, only one 
 of which is situated within the city. There are 
 six daily (four morning and two evening) and 
 four weekly newspapers, besides the Daily Tele- 
 graph and Bill of Entry, exclusively devoted to 
 shipping matters, three weekly literary periodi- 
 cals, and one scientific monthly magazine. Since 
 1885 Liverpool returns nine members. 
 
 Notable Liverpudlians have been Horrocks (the 
 astronomer), Mrs Hemans, William Roscoe, A. 
 H. Clough, Viscount Cardwell, Bishop Light- 
 foot, General Barle, and Mr Gladstone ; the mod- 
 ern writers Hall Caine, William Watson, J. A. 
 Noble, and Richard Le Gallienne, have been called 
 the 'Liverpool school.' Pop. (1561) 690; (1697) 
 5000 ; (1700) 25,700 ; (1801)85,300 ; (1861) 443,938 ; 
 (1881) 552,208 municipal and 601,050 parliament- 
 ary ; (1901) 684,958 in nuinicipal borough and 
 county of the city, and 626,634 in parliament- 
 ary — a temporary reduction in 1891 being caused 
 by the pulling down of many liouses to make 
 room for new streets, increased trade require- 
 ments, &c. ; and the removal of the population 
 to the suburbs. In 1895 and 1902 the munici- 
 pal boundaries were extended so as to take in 
 a portion of the suburbs, bringing the pop. up 
 to 702,247 (the parliamentary boundaries being 
 unaltered). With Bootle, Birkenhead, and the 
 suburbs beyond the new boundary, the popu- 
 lation of the i)ort may be stated to be 
 over 880,000, of whom about 150,000 are Irish. 
 The trade grew rapidly at the end of the 18th 
 century, largely owing to tlie development of 
 the cotton industry ; and Liverpool, which 
 gradually put Bristol in the shade, Avas the great 
 headquarters of the slave-trade ; as late as 1807 
 her shipowners had 185 vessels engaged in the 
 business, capable of carrying about 44,000 slaves. 
 It was expected that the port would not lose 
 yrftat Manchester gained by the opening of the 
 
 Manchester Ship Canal (1894), but that the more 
 economical management of the dock estate and 
 reduced railway charges will bring more business 
 to Liverpool than the canal will take away. 
 
 See Baines, History of the Commerce and Town 
 of Liverpool (1852); Picton, Memorials of Liver, 
 pool (2 vols. 1873 ; 2d ed. 1876) ; and T. Ellison. 
 Ihe Cotton Trade of Great Britain (1886). 
 
 Liversedge, a township of Yorkshire, 6^ miles 
 SE. of Bradford. It has manufactures of iron, 
 cottons, woollens, &c. Pop. 13,968. 
 
 Livingston, a port of Guatemala, on tlie Dulce. 
 
 Livingstone, a township near the Victoria Falls 
 of the Zambesi (q.v.). 
 
 Livingstonia, a mission station near the lower 
 end of Lake Nyassa (q.v.). 
 
 Livonia (Ger. Livland), one of the three Baltic 
 provinces of Russia, forms the eastern side of 
 the Gulf of Riga, and is separated from Courland 
 by the Dwina. The country is mostly flat, and 
 nearly one-fourth of it is covered witli forests. 
 Lakes and streams and marshes are common. 
 Area, 18,153 sq. m. ; pop. (IS70) 1,000,876 ; (1897) 
 1,300,640, of whom 43 per cent, are Letts, 41^ 
 per cent. Esthonians. The Livonians proper, 
 a Finnic race akin to the Esthonians, have 
 dwindled down to about 2400. Capital, Riga; 
 other towns, Dorpat, Pernau, Wenden. 
 
 Livorno. See Leghorn. 
 
 Lixouri, a town of Cephalonia, on the Gulf of 
 Argostoli, 3 miles W. of the capital, Argostoli, 
 by water, but nearly 20 by road. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Lizard Point. See Cornwall. 
 
 Lla-nberis (Hhlan-ber'r is ; X?- nearly like Thl-), 
 the ' Chamonix of Wales,' 9 miles ESE. of Car- 
 narvon, lies at the north-west base of Snowdon, 
 and near the foot of the wild Pass of Llanberis. 
 The two lakes of Llanberis, 2 and 1^ miles long, 
 are sadly disfigured by slate-quarries. Popula- 
 tion, about 3000. 
 
 Llandaff, a small town of Glamorganshire, on 
 the right bank of the Taff, 2 miles NW. of Cardiflf 
 (q.v.). It is the seat of a very ancient bishopric, 
 founded, it is said, by St Dubricius, who died in 
 612. The cathedral was built between 1120 and 
 1450, and is mainly Early English in style. It 
 had fallen into utter ruin in 1575, in 1735-52 
 was barbarously patched up into an 'Italian 
 temple,' and in 1843-69 was thoroughly restored. 
 Pop. of parish, 5800. See works by E. A. Free- 
 man (1850), Bishop Ollivant (I860), and R. J. 
 King (1873). 
 
 Llandi'lo, a town of South Wales, on the Towy 
 14 miles ENE. of Carmarthen. Pop. 1934. 
 
 Llandovery, a municipal borough (1484) o 
 South Wales, on the Bran, 25 miles ENE. 
 Carmarthen. Pop. 1828. 
 
 Llandrindod, a Radnorshire spa, near thi 
 Ithon, 7 miles N. by E. of Builth. 
 
 Llandud'no, a fashionable watering-place it 
 Carnarvonshire, North Wales, is situated on th( 
 level neck of a promontory between the Greal 
 and Little Orme's Heads, 48 miles by rail WNW, 
 of Chester. Its bracing and delightful climat^ 
 its good sea-bathing, and its picturesque sur 
 roundings — the Great Orme's Head (700 feet] 
 commanding views of Snowdon and Anglesey,] 
 and even of Man and the Cumberland mountains 
 — have combined to raise Llandudno since 1841 
 from a small fishing-village to a yearly resor 
 of some 20,000 visitors, with many hotels and] 
 tjoarding-houses, hydropathics, a fine promenadfl 
 
LLANELLY 
 
 419 
 
 LOCHWINNOCH 
 
 a pier (1250 feet), a 'marine drive' (5§ miles), &c. 
 Resident pop. (1851) 1131 ; (1901) 9307. 
 
 LlajiellY (Hhlan-ehh'ly ; nearly like Thlanethly), 
 a manufacturing town and seaport of Car- 
 marthenshire, South Wales, 11 miles WNW. of 
 Swansea. The mineral wealth of the vicinity, 
 and the easy access to the sea, have raised it 
 from a mere village in 1813 to a town of con- 
 siderable commercial importance. The Cambrian 
 Copper- works employ a great number of the in- 
 habitants ; but there are also silver, lead, iron, 
 and tin works, potteries, chemical works, &c. 
 Large docks have been constructed, and coal is 
 largely exported. With Carmarthen it returns 
 one member. Pop. (1851) 8710 ; (1901) 25,617. 
 
 Llanerchymedd, a village of Anglesey, 14 
 miles ENE. of Beaumaris. Fop. of parish, 1232. 
 Llanfairfechan, a pleasant little watering- 
 place of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, at the 
 base of Penmaenmawr, 7 miles WSW. of Conway. 
 Pop. of parish, 2800. 
 
 Llanfyllin, one of the Montgomery boroughs, 
 15 miles NNW. of Montgomery. Pop. 1653. 
 
 Llangefni, an Anglesey market-town, 9 miles 
 W. by S. of Beaumaris. Pop. 1750. 
 
 Llangollen (HJilan-gohh'len ; nearly Thlan- 
 goth-len), a town of Denbighshire, North Wales, 
 picturesquely situated on the Dee, 22 miles 
 SW. of Chester and 26 NW. of Shrewsbury. 
 It has a town-hall (1866) and flannel manufac- 
 tures, and is visited by tourists on account of 
 the beauty of the famous Vale of Llangollen, 
 and for its antiquities, among which are Dinas 
 Bran or Crow Castle, Valle Crucis Abbey (1200), 
 and Eliseg's Pillar (8th or 9th century). Plas 
 Newydd, }f mile S. of the bridge, was for half 
 a century the residence of the two Irish recluses, 
 the 'Ladies of the Vale,' or ' Maids of Llangollen,' 
 Lady Eleanor Butler (1745-1829) and Miss Sarah 
 Ponsonby (1755-1831), who were visited here by 
 Madame de Genlis, Miss Seward, De Quincey, 
 and many other celebrities. Pop. 3325. See 
 Simpson's History of Llangollen (3d ed. 1852). 
 
 Llangorse, a parish, with a lake 5 miles in 
 circuit, and 6| miles ESE. of Brecon. 
 
 Llanidloes (Hlan-id'lo-es), a municipal and par- 
 liamentary borough of Montgomeryshire, on the 
 Severn, 56| miles NW. of Hereford by rail and 56 
 SW. of Shrewsbury. Its interesting church, built 
 partly with materials from Cwmhir Abbey, was 
 restored in 1882. Manufactures of flannel and 
 3ther woollen fabrics are carried on ; and in the 
 leighbourhood are extensive lead-mines. With 
 VIontgomery, &c., Llanidloes returns one mem- 
 ber. Pop. 2774. 
 Llanrwst (Hlan-roosf), a market-town of Den- 
 )ighshire, on the river Conway, 10 miles S. of 
 'onway town. Pop. 2650. 
 Llantho'ny, on the Honddu, in Monmouth- 
 hire, 20 miles N. of Abergavenny, a Cistercian 
 bbey, founded in 1108. Its church and chapter- 
 ouse form a fine ruin in the Transition Norman 
 byle. In the Prior's Lodge, now an inn, Walter 
 avage Landor lived for three years after his 
 lan-iage. Four miles up the valley is Llanthony 
 Monastery,' founded by 'Father Ignatius.' 
 Llantrisalnt, a town of Glamorganshire, llj 
 iles NW. of Cardiff. It is one of the Cardiff^ 
 )roughs. Pop. 1937. 
 
 Llerena (L'yeraina), a town of Spain, 83 miles 
 T^l&il N. of Seville. Near here the British 
 routed the French cavalry on April 11, 
 
 ■Ary rout 
 
 Loanda (Lo-an'da), Saint Paul de, chief town 
 of the Portuguese possessions on the West Coast 
 of Africa, on a small bay, 210 miles S. of the 
 Congo's mouth. It has broad, tree-shaded, but 
 dirty streets, forts (1578), and the residences of 
 the governor and bishop. The harbour is sand- 
 ing up, so that vessels lie IJ mile from shore to 
 load and unload. Gas was introduced in 1893, 
 and in 1892 was opened part of a railway to 
 Ambaca, 140 miles inland. Pop. 50,000—15,000 
 Europeans. 
 
 Loango (Lo-ang'go), a coast-district of West 
 Africa, stretching northwards from the mouth 
 of the Congo to about 4° S. lat. By the Berlin 
 conference of 1885 it was divided between the 
 Congo Free State, Portugal, and France. The 
 town Loango (former pop. 15,000) consists now 
 of only a few mercantile establishments. 
 
 Loanhead, a police-burgh, 5 miles S. by E. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. (1861) 1310 ; (1901) 3011. 
 
 Liibau, a town of east Saxony, 12 miles SE. of 
 Bautzen, has mineral springs and manufactures 
 of linens, cottons, woollens, &c. Poj). 9977. 
 
 Lob Nor, a lake of central Asia, in the desert 
 of Gobi, receiving the river Tarim. 
 
 Lobos Islands, two small groups of rocky 
 islands, 12 miles off the coast of Peru, famous 
 formerly for their guano. 
 
 Locha'ber, a district of S. Inverness-shire. 
 
 Locheamhead, a Perthshire village, at the 
 head of Loch Earn, 14 miles NNW. of Callander. 
 
 Lochee', a north-west suburb of Dundee. 
 
 Lochgelly, a police-burgh of Fife, 73 miles 
 ENE. of Dunfermline. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Lochgllp'head, a police-burgh of Argyllshire, 
 80 miles WNW. of Glasgow. Pop. 1310. 
 
 Lochinvar', a little lake of Kirkcudbrightshire, 
 6 miles NNE. of New Galloway. 
 
 Lochin'ver, a village in Assynt parish, in the 
 SW. of Sutherland, on Loch Inver. 
 
 LocMe'ven, a beautiful oval lake of Kinross- 
 shire, 23 miles NNW. of Edinburgh. Lying 353 
 feet above sea-level, and engirt by Benarty (1167 
 feet), the West Lomond (1713), and other hills, 
 it measures 3f miles by 2 ; discharges by the 
 Leven, flowing 16 miles eastward to the Firth 
 of Forth ; is 10 to 90 feet deep ; and has an area 
 of 3406 acres, drainage operations having reduced 
 its size by one-fourth in 1826-36. Of seven 
 islands, the largest ai-e sandy, treeless St Serfs 
 Inch, an early seat of the Culdees, and Castle 
 Island, with the 14th-century keep of a castle 
 which in 1567-68 was for ten months the prison 
 of Mary, Queen of Scots. Since 1633 and earlier 
 the loch has been famous for its delicate pink- 
 fleshed trout, and since 1856 for its fly-fishing. 
 The imported American water-weed Anacharis 
 proved for a while extremely troublesome. See 
 Robert Burns-Begg's History of LocMeven Castle 
 (Kinross, 1888). See also Leven (Loch) ; and for 
 Lochs Lomond, Long, &c., see Lomond, &c. 
 
 Lochma'ben, a market-town of Annandale, 
 Dumfriesshire, 10 miles by rail NE. of Dumfries. 
 It stands amid seven lochs, two of which contain 
 the rare vendace, and has a town-hall (1878), 
 with a statue in front of it of Robert Bruce, and 
 the Bruces' ruined castle. A royal burgh, it 
 unites with Dumfries, &c. to return one member. 
 Pop. 1050. See W. Graham's Lochmaben (1865). 
 
 Loch'Winnocli, a Renfrewshire village, at the 
 SW. end of Castle-Semple Loch, 17 miles WSW. 
 of Glasgow. Pop. 2130. 
 
LOCHY 
 
 420 
 
 LOMBARDY 
 
 Lochy, an Inverness-shire loch, 10 miles long, 
 through which the Caledonian Canal (q.v.) passes ; 
 and the river (8 miles) that issues from it. Also 
 a Perthshire stream which flows 15 miles to tho 
 Dochart near its influx into Loch Tay. 
 
 Lock'erbie, a market-town, with a great August 
 lamb-fair, in Annandale, Dumfriesshire, 15 miles 
 ENE. of Dumfries and 26 NW. of Carlisle. It 
 has a conspicuous town-hall (1891). Pop. 2361. 
 
 Lock Haven, capital of Clinton county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in a beautiful mountain- valley, on the 
 south bank of the West Branch of the Susque- 
 hanna River, 69 miles NB. of Altoona by rail. 
 It contains a state normal school, foundries, 
 tanneries, machine-shops, and mills. Pop. 7358. 
 
 Lockport, capital of Niagara county, New 
 York, on the Brie Canal, 25 miles NNE. of 
 Bufiklo by rail. The canal here passes through 
 a deep channel, cut in the solid limestone, and 
 falls 66 feet, by ten combined double-locks. Its 
 surplus water drives lumber, flour, woollen, and 
 cotton mills, besides foundries, machine-shops, 
 &c. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Locle (Loci), a Swiss town, 10 miles NW. of 
 Neuchatel, is one of the chief seats of the Swiss 
 watch-making industry. Pop. 12,464. 
 
 Loddon, a Norfolk village, 10^ miles SE. of 
 Norwich. Pop. of parish, 1069. 
 
 Lod^ve (anc. Luteva), a town in the French 
 dep. of Herault, at the foot of the Cevennes, 43 
 miles by rail NW. of Montpellier. A bishop's 
 see till 1790, it has a cathedral, founded in 950, 
 but rebuilt in the 14th century. Cardinal Fleury 
 was a native. Pop. 7761. 
 
 Lodi, a town of North Italy, on the Adda, 18 
 miles by rail SB. of Milan. It has a 12th-cen- 
 tury cathedral; manufactures of linens, silks, 
 and Majolica porcelain ; and a great trade in 
 cheese and wine. Pop. 28,689.— At Lodi Vec- 
 CHio, a ruined village, 4 miles W., Bonaparte in 
 1796 forced the long, narrow bridge in the face of 
 a tremendous fire from the Austrian batteries. 
 
 Lodomeria (Lat. for Vladimir), formerly an 
 independent principality in Volhynia, and, since 
 the partition of Poland in 1772, part of the 
 Austrian 'kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria." 
 
 Lodore', a famous waterfall at the head of 
 Derwentwater. 
 
 Lodz, sometimes called ' the Manchester of 
 Poland,' lies 76 miles SW. of Warsaw on a branch 
 railway. It consists chiefly of one main street, 
 6 miles or more long, and has over 120 manu- 
 factories making cotton and woollen stuff's. Pop. 
 (1870) 39,078 ; (1881) 49,592 ; (1905) with an en- 
 largement of the boundaries, 315,800. 
 
 Lofo'den, or Lofoten, a chain of islands on 
 the north-west coast of Norway, between 67° and 
 69° 15' N. lat., stretching SW. and NE. for 150 
 miles. They include the Lofoten proper and 
 the Vesteraalen, lying farther north. Total area, 
 2247 sq. m. All of them are rugged and moun- 
 tainous, many of the summits being crater- 
 shaped. The highest point is 3090 feet. The 
 waters on the east side of these islands are 
 visited in January to March every year by vast 
 shoals of cod-fish, which attract a large fleet of 
 fishermen. Permanent pop. 80,000. 
 
 Loftus, a town of Yorkshire, 9 miles SE. of 
 Saltburn. It manufactures cordage, and has 
 large market-gardens. Pop. 6508. 
 
 Logansport, capital of Cass county, Indiana, 
 at the confluence of the Eel River and Wabash, 
 75 miles N. by W. of Indianapolis. There are 
 
 extensive railway-shops, besides flour and lumber 
 mills and foundries. Pop. 17,328. 
 
 Logrofio (Lat. Julia Briga), the capital of a 
 Spanish province (1945 sq. m. ; pop. 181,465), on 
 the Ebro, 65 miles E. by N. of Burgos. It 
 manufactures woollens, machinery, and leather 
 goods. Pop. 19,993. 
 
 Loheia, a seaport of Arabia, on the Red Sea 
 coast of Yemen, 170 miles NW. of Mocha, with 
 10,000 inhabitants, and a trade in coffee. 
 
 Loire {Lwdr; anc. Liger), the longest river in 
 France, has its source in the Cevennes, in the 
 dep. of Ardfeche, at an elevation of 4511 feet, 
 flows north and north-west through the centre 
 of France as far as Orleans, where it bends round 
 to the south-west and continues on to Tours; 
 thence it follows, in general, a western course to 
 its embouchure in the Bay of Biscay. It is tidal 
 to Nantes, 35 miles from its mouth. Entire 
 length, 620 miles. It becomes navigable a little 
 above Roanne, 550 miles from the sea. At one 
 time the depth of water at its mouth was 19J 
 feet at ebb-tide ; now it is only 6i feet. This is 
 due to the vast quantity of sedimentary matter 
 brought down by the river. To the same cause 
 are due the numerous islands that obstruct its 
 lower course and the sandbanks that lie athwart 
 its mouth. The Loire is notorious for the de- 
 structive inundations it causes, although the 
 lower part of its course is protected by large 
 dykes or levees, 20 feet high. The chief tribu- 
 taries are the Nievre and the Maine (which is 
 formed by the Sarthe, its affluent the Loir, and 
 the Mayenne) on the right ; and the AUier, Cher, 
 Indre, and Vienne on the left. See T/ie Seine 
 and the Imre, with sixty-one illustrations by 
 Turner (new ed. 1886). 
 
 Loire, a dep. of SB. France, formerly part of 
 the province of Lyonnais and the county of 
 Forez. The arrondissements are Montbrison, 
 Roanne, and St ;6tienne (the capital). Area, 
 1838 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 550,611 ; (1901) 644,532. 
 
 Loire, Haute, a dep. of central France, formed 
 out of Languedoc, Auvergne, and Forez. The 
 Loire crosses it northwards, the Allier north- 
 westwards. Area, 1915 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 
 308,732 ; (1901) 306,671. The arrondissements are 
 Le Puy (the capital), Yssingeaux, and Brioude. 
 
 Lolre-Inf^rieure (Lwar-ane-fayr'yehr), a mari- 
 time dep. of W. France, formed out of southern 
 Brittany, and comprising the arrondissements 
 of Nantes (the capital), Ancenis, Paimboeuf, 
 Chateaubriant, and St Nazaire. Area, 2654 sq. 
 m. ; pop. (1872) 602,206 ; (1901) 656,998. 
 
 Loiret (Lwar-aif), a dep. of central France, 
 formed out of the old provinces of Orl6anaia 
 and Berri, and comprising the arrondissements 
 of Orleans, Montargis, Gien, and Pithiviers, lies 
 on the northern loop of the Loire. Area, 2614 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 355,021 ; (1901) 303,812. 
 
 Loir-et-Oher (Livar-ay-shayr'), a dep. of Franc 
 formed out of the old province of Orleanaii 
 cojnprises the arrondissements of Blois (the cap 
 tal), Vendome, and Romorantin. Area, 2452 " 
 m. ; pop. (1872) 268,801 ; (1901) 274,836. 
 
 Loja (iM-ha), a decayed town of Spain, on til 
 Genii, 32 miles by rail W. of Granada. It sir 
 fered from earthquake in 1885. Pop. 19,272. 
 
 Lok'eren, a town of Belgium, 11 miles by 
 NE. of Ghent, with manufactures of linen, cotto^ 
 and woollen goods, lace, &c. Pop. 22,841. 
 
 Lom'bardy, that part of Upper Italy whio 
 lies between the Alps and the Po, having tl| 
 
LOMBOK 
 
 421 
 
 LONDON 
 
 territory of Venice on the east, and Piedmont on 
 the west. Milanese from 1337 till 1447, Lom- 
 bardy then belonged to Spain till 1713, when 
 the duchies of Milan and Mantua came into tlie 
 hands of Austria, and were designated ' Austrian 
 Lombardy.' Napoleon made it part of the Cis- 
 alpine republic, the Transpadane republic, and 
 the kingdom of Italy successively. But in 1815 
 it was restored to Austria, and annexed politi- 
 cally to the newly-acquired Venetian territory 
 under the name of the Lorabardo- Venetian King- 
 dom. This union was dissolved in 1859, when 
 Lombardy was given up to the new kingdom of 
 Italy, which divided it into the provinces of 
 Bergamo, Brescia, Coino, Cremona, Mantua, 
 Milan, Pavia, and Sondrio. 
 
 Lombok, one of the Sunda Islands (q.v.), be- 
 tween Java and Timor. It is mountainous (some 
 volcanic peaks reach 11,620 feet) but fertile, pro- 
 ducing maize, cotton, tobacco, indigo, sugar, and 
 coffee. Area, 209S sq. m. ; pop. 635,000, mainly 
 aborigines, Moslems in faith, with 20,000 Brah- 
 minical immigrants from Bali. 
 Lomond Hills. See Lochleven. 
 Lomond, Loch, the ' queen of Scottish lakes,' 
 in Dumbarton and Stirling shires, lies 23 feet 
 above sea-level, and is 22 miles long, | mile to 5 
 miles wide, 6 to 630 feet deep, and 27 sq. ra. in 
 area. It is studded with thirty wooded islands ; 
 receives the Endrick and six other principal 
 streams ; sends off the Leven 7 miles southward 
 to the Clyde ; contains trout, pike, and perch ; 
 is sometimes frozen over as far northward as 
 Luss ; and is engirt by hills and, towards its 
 head. Highland mountains, the highest of which, 
 Ben Lomond (q.v.), attains 3192 feet. In 1263 
 Norsemen launched their galleys on Loch Lo- 
 mond, having drawn them across the narrow 
 isthmus of Tarbet ; on Inchcailloch stood of old 
 a nunnery ; and a cave is associated with both 
 Bruce and Rob Roy. 
 
 Lomza, the capital of a Polish government 
 (area, 4667 sq. m. ; pop. 586,683), 80 miles NE. of 
 Warsaw. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 London is situated mainly on the north or left 
 bank of the Thames, about 60 miles from the sea, 
 in 51° 30' 48" N. lat. and 5' 48" W. long. The city 
 was, according to many authorities, founded in 43 
 A.D., when Aulus Plautius was the Roman gover- 
 nor of Britain. The name is Celtic, and would 
 appear to signify a fort on a lake or lagoon, the 
 Thames being here a tidal estuary. During the 
 greater part of the Roman occupation of Britain 
 London consisted of two forts, one at either end of 
 the bridge, built where the Thames is 900 feet wide 
 (narrower than either above or below). The un- 
 walled suburbs seem to have been populous and 
 wealthy from an early period ; and, when aban- 
 doned by Suetonius, they were burned by Boadicea 
 in 61 A.D. They were still undefended in 286 and 
 long after. The wall which for so manv cen- 
 buries was destined to defend the boundaries of 
 :he city was built in 350-369, and enclosed 380 
 icres. From 369 till 412 London was the capital 
 )f Britain, with the title of Augusta. After the 
 iloman departure London disappears from history 
 mtil 457, when the Britons, fleeing before the 
 'ictorious Hengest, took refuge behind the Roman 
 rail. In 604 we find it named as the ' Metropolis ' 
 -the ecclesiastical capital— of the East Saxons. 
 )uring the Danish wars London was abandoned 
 nd lay desolate for thirty years. To King Alfred 
 'e must look as the real founder of modern Lon- 
 on. William recognised the great position and 
 acient rights of London in a special charter by 
 
 which the privileges enjoyed by the citizens under 
 Edward the Confessor were confirmed to them ; 
 but the most important grant from the crown 
 was that of Henry I. in 1101. The ' Lord Mayor,' 
 appointed for one year, is still held to rank as an 
 earl, but within the city, where he has the position 
 of the Lord-lieutenant of a county, next to the 
 sovereign. The Court of Aldermen consists of 
 twenty-six members. The Common Council was 
 first elected in 1200 ; there are now upwards of 200 
 common councillors. The Common Hall consists 
 only of members of the Livery Companies, and has 
 obtained or usurped many of the rights of the whole 
 body of citizens. The growth of the municipality 
 was slow. Nevertheless, commerce increased, and 
 the settlement of such foreign merchants as those 
 of the so-called Steelyard, and of the Lombard 
 and other Italian bankers, raised London by the 
 time of Edward III. to a wealthy and prosperous 
 condition. The usurpation, as many deemed it, 
 of Henry IV. could hardly have succeeded had it 
 not been for the support of the city ; and Henry 
 v., whose French victories inflated trade, was 
 most popular with the citizens. After a period 
 of depression, the reign of Edward IV., by reviv- 
 ing and creating outlets for foreign trade, restored 
 the prosperity of the city. Under the Tudors 
 there were great fluctuations. The tenets of the 
 Reformation were warmly welcomed in London. 
 The accession of Queen Elizabeth gave a consider- 
 able impetus to London trade ; and the Merchant 
 Adventurers, chartered by her father, now stepped 
 into the place previously occupied by the Germans 
 of the Steelyard. The last charter of Queen Eliza- 
 beth was granted to the East India Company. 
 The silk manufacture, driven out of Flanders by 
 the cruelties of the Spaniards, was naturalised in 
 England ; and even the .short-sighted policy of 
 the first Stuart could not repress the rapidly- 
 growing enterprise of the Londoners, whom the 
 discovery of America and of a sea-passage to 
 India stimulated to greater and greater exertions. 
 While the wealth and population of London 
 thus increased during the 16th and part of the 
 17th century, the city itself became less and less 
 fit for habitation. Its unheal thiness was partly 
 caused by the deficiency of the water-supply, 
 partly by overcrowding; the plague scarcely 
 ever left its narrow streets and filthy alleys. Sir 
 Hugh Myddelton, by bringing clean water to the 
 city in abundant quantity in 1620, bestowed upon 
 it the greatest possible boon. James I. had re- 
 verted as far as he could to the mistaken policy 
 of such kings as Henry III. and Richard II. ; but 
 it was reserved for Charles I., after a long series 
 of high-handed proceedings, to seize the money 
 of the city goldsmiths deposited in the Tower. 
 His downfall was certain when the city turned 
 against hiin ; but, except for a very brief period, 
 the Commonwealth found little favour in London, 
 and Cromwell imposed one humiliation after 
 another upon the citizens. Charles II. was 
 warmly welcomed, but followed in the footsteps 
 of his father. Extortion and oppression were 
 the instruments of his policy, and in 1672 he 
 closed the Exchequer, and ruined nearly all the 
 London bankers at a bloAV. Meanwhile two 
 even greater disasters had come— the Great 
 Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of 1666. 
 During the fearful epidemic of 1665 the deaths 
 during the year were officially stated at 97,306. 
 As the population was reckoned at about 500,000, 
 it will be seen that nearly a fifth perished. The 
 Great Fire commenced on the 2d September, at 
 1 o'clock A.M., and raged for five days. It was 
 estimated that 396 acres of houses were destroyed, 
 
 L 
 
LONDON 
 
 422 
 
 LONDON 
 
 fifteen city wards were consumed utterly, and 
 eight others damaged, comprising 400 streets, 
 13,200 private houses, 88 churches and St Paul's 
 Cathedral, and four city gates. The loss in mere 
 money was estimated at about four millions. Sir 
 Christopher Wren built a new St Paul's, and many 
 other beautiful buildings, including the Monu- 
 ment, a column 202 feet high, erected near where 
 the fire began. St Paul's has a dome 404 feet high 
 and 145 feet in external diameter ; the length of the 
 building east and west is 500 feet. It contains 
 many memorials, the best of which are Welling- 
 ton's, by Stevens ; Lord Melbourne's, by Maro- 
 chetti ; and a recumbent figure of General Gordon, 
 by Boehm. In the crypt are buried Lord Nelson 
 (1805), Reynolds (1792), Turner (1851), Wellington 
 (1852), Landseer (1873), and Wren himself (1723). 
 The Exchange of Sir Thomas Gresham was 
 burned, rebuilt, and then burned again, and 
 finally rebuilt in 1844. The Guildhall, partly of 
 the 13th century, partly of the 15th, which had 
 been the scene of so many historical events, was 
 damaged by the Great Fire of 1666, but not de- 
 stroyed, and was handsomely restored. Among 
 the churches spared by the fire is St Bartholo- 
 mew's, in part a fine Norman structure ; St 
 Giles's, Cripplegate, built 1545, in which John 
 Milton was buried, 1674 ; St Helen's, Bishopsgate, 
 full of fine monuments ; St Katharine Cree, said 
 to have been designed by Inigo Jones, 1631 ; and 
 St Andrew Undershaft, in which is Stow's monu- 
 ment. 
 
 Charles II. seized the charter and nominated a 
 so-called Lord Mayor. At first James II. carried 
 on his brother's evil policy towards the city. In 
 December 1688 the citizens formally petitioned 
 William to assume the crown, and in a few hours 
 found ample funds for his use. The opposi- 
 tion of London, in old tijnes fatal to a king or 
 his family, aff'ects still the fortunes of ministries. 
 The remaining events that need be noticed 
 here are the establishment of the Bank of 
 England in 1694; the removal of the old wall 
 and its gates in 1760 ; the clearing of the houses 
 from London Bridge about the same time, and 
 its complete rebuilding in 1831, when it was only 
 one of a large number of bridges. Many have 
 been built since then ; the latest addition is a 
 bridge below the Tower. The Mansion House is 
 the official residence of the Lord Mayor. The 
 population of the city has dwindled year by year, 
 and especially since the multiplication of railways. 
 Few tradesmen now live above their place of 
 business, and the difference between the number 
 of people who actually reside within the ancient 
 boundaries and of those who only come in to busi- 
 ness is immense. In 1881 there were 6493 inhab- 
 ited houses and a night pop. of 50,526 ; but 25,143 
 houses were used during the day, when the pop. 
 rose to 261,061. In 1891 the night pop. was only 
 37,694; while the day pop. was 301,384. Mean- 
 while the suburbs have spread in all directions, 
 and the houses of Londoners are found in 
 Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, and 
 Sussex, as well as in Kent, Surrey, Essex, and 
 Middlesex. The bishop resides in Westminster, 
 and at an ancient manor-house of the see 
 at Fulham. There is a dean of St Paul's who 
 resides close to his church. He is assisted by 
 four residentiary or stagiary canons, and by a 
 precentor, a chancellor, and two archdeacons, 
 and there are thirty canons of the old founda- 
 tion, now usually called prebendaries, and a col- 
 lege of minor canons. 
 
 The County of London. Under the Local 
 Government Act of 1888 a new county was defined, 
 
 to consist of London and the suburban parishes 
 of Middlesex, Surrey, and Kent — previously 
 called ' the Metropolitan Area. ' By the Act of 1888 
 a county council was provided for tins district ; 
 the county of Middlesex was divided, one part 
 forming a new county of Middlesex, and the 
 other, united with parts of Surrey and Kent, 
 foi'ming the new county of London. By the 
 Act of 1899 the administrative county of London 
 (with tlie exception of the City), heretofore 
 under more than a hundred and twenty local 
 authorities (vestries, district boards, burial 
 boards, &c.), was reorganised into twenty- 
 eight municipal boroughs, each under a muni- 
 cipal council. These boroughs are : Battersea, 
 Bermondsey, Betlinal Green, Camberwell, Chel- 
 sea, Deptford, Finsbury, Fulham, Greenwich, 
 Hackney, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Holborn, 
 Islington, Kensington, Lambeth, Lewisham, 
 Paddiiigton, Poplar, St Marylebone, St Pancras, 
 Shoreditch, Southwark, Stepney, Stoke Newing- 
 ton, Wandsworth, Westminster, AVoolwich. The 
 councils liave all the powers and duties of the 
 old vestries and district boards, and some of 
 those of the London County Council. 
 
 The suburbs of London grew in spite of city 
 and jjarliament; by 1222 a continuous street 
 united Westminster with London ; another 
 stretched beyond the Tower to Stepney ; and 
 a third, flowing out of Bishopsgate, reached 
 northward to Islington. In the same 13th 
 century a great ' ward without ' was formed 
 westward, extending to the Temple and Hol- 
 born Bars ; and, on the north, part of Moor- 
 fields was made a 'ward without' in the juris- 
 diction of the alderman of Bishopsgate. But, 
 except for the formal addition of Southwark in 
 Surrey, made in 1327, confirmed and defined in 
 1550, no further extension of the city liberties 
 took place. 
 
 Tlie precinct of the Tower, eastward of the 
 city wall, was formed partly by aggressions on 
 the citizens, partly by acquisitions from the lord 
 of Stepney, and partly by reclamations from the 
 Thames. Two bastions of the old wall, generally 
 called Roman, and certainly dating back to the 
 reign of Alfred, were removed, and the White 
 and Wakefield towers were built on them. Gmi- 
 dulf, a monk of Bee, designed the White Tower, 
 begun in 1078; the chapel of St John in the 
 White Tower being supplemented by the parish 
 or precinct church of St Peter ' ad Vincula ' on 
 the Green in the reign of Henry II. The keep is 
 approximately in the centre, and is surrounded 
 by walls and towers forming the inner and outer 
 wards. The towers of the inner ward were those 
 chiefly used for prisoners' lodgings, but a com- 
 plete royal palace was in the south-eastern corner. 
 Of this palace, from which Queen Anne Boleyn 
 went to her death on the adjoining green, scarcely 
 a vestige remains. The lieutenant's lodgings, 
 where, or in the chief-warder's house next door. 
 Lady Jane (Grey) Dudley lived, is now called 
 the Queen's House. The Beauchamp and Devereux 
 towers seem to have held the most illustrious 
 prisoners ; they, with the Bell Tower, in which 
 Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1534), and Mary, 
 Countess of Lennox (1565), were confined, fonn 
 the western side of the inner ward. It is im- 
 possible to name more than a very few of the^ 
 most famous persons who have suffered imprison^ 
 ment in the Tower : Sir Thomas More, Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, the Earl of Strafford, Archbishop LaudJ 
 the Duke of Monmouth, the Jacobite lords of 171? 
 and 1745. Many of these prisoners were burie 
 in St Peter's Church, which having been bume 
 
LONDON 
 
 423 
 
 LONDdll 
 
 in 1512 was rebuilt in time to receive the 
 bodies of Queen Anne Boleyn and other victhns 
 of the Tudor times. It was ' restored ' some 
 years ago in a very thorough manner, every 
 vestige, except some monuments of the period 
 which witnessed these sad scenes, being carefully 
 obliterated. The crown jewels were long kept 
 in the Brick Tower, at the north-eastern corner, 
 but in 1867 were removed to a chamber in the 
 Wakefield Tower, also now 'restored.' The 
 great collection of armour, founded by Henry 
 VIII. in his palace at Greenwich, is on the upper 
 floor of the White Tower. The ticket-office, 
 by which the visitor enters the fortress, is on the 
 site of a menagerie which dates back to the time 
 of Henry I., whence the saying 'to see the lions,' 
 meaning to visit the Tower. The principal feature 
 of the outer ward is St Thomas's Tower, or the 
 Traitor's Gate, facing the Bloody or Garden 
 Tower, the entrance of the inner ward. A little 
 farther east, still on the Thames bank, we come 
 to one of the numerous divisions, known as the 
 Tower Hamlets, into which the original parish 
 of Stepney has been parcelled. This used to be 
 Ratclifl'e and Wapping, but has long been known 
 as St George's in the East. Next to it is Lime- 
 house. Next to Liinehouse is Poplar, which 
 includes the Isle of Dogs (' Docks '), a kind of 
 delta formed by the river Lea. Farther inland 
 are Bethnal Green, a vast district, chiefly 
 covered with factories and with the houses of 
 artisans and labourers. Mile End, Old and 
 New Towns, with Whitechapel north of the 
 Tower, fonn a complete ring round Stepney. 
 The Bethnal Green Museum of the Science and 
 Art Department has housed and exhibited various 
 fine collections of pictures and works of art. 
 Much of Hackney, which adjoins Stepney on the 
 north, has been kept open ; an old park of the 
 bishops being now laid out as Finsbury Park. 
 South of this district, which stands high, are 
 Haggerston and Hoxton, densely populated 
 parishes, comprising the ancient Shoreditch, and 
 reaching to the city wall. Westward are the 
 two divisions of Finsljury, St Luke's and Clerken- 
 well. In Clerkenwell, but not strictly speaking 
 of it, is the Carthusian monastery, now a kind 
 of refuge for decayed gentlemen, known as the 
 Charterhouse (see GoDALMiNo). Clerkenwell, the 
 site of the house of the Hospitallers, has still its 
 St John's Gate, with memories of Dr Johnson. 
 Islington, northwards and westwards, has a very 
 ancient history, extending back to the Conquest ; 
 Stoke Newington has a curious old church and 
 a new one ; in St Andrew's, Holborn, Lord 
 Beaconsfield was baptised, and in its cemetery, 
 in Shoe Lane, Chatterton was buried. In 
 Bloomsbury the British Museum is situated. St 
 Giles's, long a rookery of wretched tenements, 
 has been greatly cleansed and improved of late, 
 but the too famous Seven Dials continue to 
 deserve an evil reputation, Nell Gwynn lived in 
 Wardour Street, the Duke of Monmouth in Soho 
 Square, Dryden in Long Acre and in Gerard 
 Street. The small parish of St Paul, Covent 
 Garden, boasts of a church designed by Inigo 
 Jones, of the greatest vegetable and flower 
 market in London, and of innumerable literary 
 associations. In Bow Street was Wills's CoflTee- 
 house, where Pepys met Dryden ; Turner, the 
 landscape-painter, was born in Maiden Lane ; 
 Charles Lamb lived in Russell Court ; and there 
 are memories also of Pope, Sheridan, Butler, and 
 Prior. At the eastern end of the Strand, next to 
 (the site of) Temple Bar, we have the colossal 
 buildings of the New Law Courts (1874-82), of 
 
 which George E. Street was the original designer, 
 but so thwarted by the authorities, that only the 
 best features, such as the noble hall (238 feet 
 long) and the tower, can be considered his. 
 North of the courts is Lincoln's Inn Fields, the 
 largest square in London. Before we reach 
 Waterloo Bridge we are in the precinct of tlie 
 Savoy, of which the hospital was suppressed in 
 1703, and the chapel, where Gavin Douglas is 
 buried, made 'royal' in 1773. 
 
 The Tliaiiies Embankment (1864-1903) borders 
 the Strand from the city round a great bend of 
 the Thames at Charing Cross to Westminster. 
 When we pass the city boundary near the Temple, 
 we are abreast of the offices of the London 
 School Board, by Shaw, next to which is the 
 river-front of Somerset House, by Chambers. 
 Gardens beautifully laid out conduct us past the 
 Savoy, the Adelphi Terrace, and the Egyptian 
 obelisk called 'Cleopatra's Needle.' Charing 
 Cross station occupies the site of Hungerford 
 Market. The cross in the court toward the 
 Strand was meant for a reproduction of the 
 Eleanor Cross erected by Edward I. Northum- 
 berland Avenue was made in 1874. Trafalgar 
 Square is on the site of the old Kings' Mews. Its 
 chief ornament is the church of St Martin ' in 
 the Fields,' by Gibbs (1726). The National 
 Gallery is a poor building (by Wilkins, 1838). 
 The monumental Corinthian column to Nelson 
 is very conspicuous, with four lions by Landseer 
 at its base. Behind it is a statue of General 
 Gordon by Thornycroft. Cockspur Street leads 
 us i)ast the Haymarket and its great opera- 
 house to Waterloo Place, where are the Guards' 
 Memorial, a very poor bronze Victory ; the Duke of 
 York's column with statue by Westmacott ; and 
 monuments, mostly very bad, to Franklin, Lord 
 Clyde, Lord Lawrence, &c. The clubs in Pall Mall 
 and St James's Street are in many cases justly 
 admired. Piccadilly begins a little to the eastward 
 of Waterloo Place and its continuation Regent 
 Street, and is called from a kind of tea-garden, 
 Peccadillo Hall, which stood where the Criterion 
 is now. The formation of Regent Street must 
 be ascribed to Nash. In the Regent's Park are 
 situated the Zoological and Botanic Gardens. In 
 Piccadilly there are still some tine palaces, as 
 Devonshire House, Northampton House, the resi- 
 dence of Lord Rothschild, Apsley House, and 
 Burlington House (injured by alterations and 
 additions). Here are lodged the Royal Academy, 
 the Royal, the Antiquarian, the Linnean, and 
 several other learned societies. The gardens are 
 covered by the exhibition rooms of the academy, 
 and by the offices and theatre of the university 
 of London. Northward and westward is the 
 great parish of St George, Hanover Square, 
 which comprises Mayfair, Grosvenor Square, and 
 Belgravia, extending from Oxford Street on the 
 north to the Thames on the south. St George's 
 Church is heavy in design, except the portico. 
 The parish nearly all belongs to the Duke of 
 Westminster. In St Pancras parish is Kentish 
 town. The new parish church of St Pancras, in 
 the Euston Road, was built in what was thought 
 to be a Grecian style in 1822. The Midland 
 Railway terminus at St Pancras, by Sir G. G. 
 Scott, is one of the largest and most imposing 
 buildings of the kind. 
 
 Tyburn, named from a little brook or bourne 
 which formerly ran through it, was anciently 
 the name of the parish which we know as St 
 Marylebone. The place of execution was at 
 first by the burnside. As the suburbs Increased 
 and crept towards St Marylebone, the gallows 
 
 I 
 
tONDON 
 
 424 
 
 LONDOif 
 
 was removed farther west. In 1512 it stood 
 in the adjoining manor of Lilleston, close to the 
 modern Marble Arch, and eventually it was 
 set up for each execution at the foot of Edgware 
 Road. At one or other of these places the Holy- 
 Maid of Kent (1534), many priests in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, Felton, the assassin of Buckingham 
 (1628), Jack Sheppard (1724), Jonathan Wild 
 (1725), Lord Ferrers (1760), Mrs Brownrigg (1767), 
 and the Rev. W. Dodd (1777) were hanged. 
 The last execution here was that of John 
 Austen (1783). Tyburnia is not in Tyburn, nor 
 yet in Lilleston, but in Paddington. Oxford 
 Street is called after Edward Harley, second Earl 
 of Oxford and Mortimer, who married the heiress 
 of the property on which it was built. North 
 of St Marylebone is Hampstead (q.v.), with its 
 splendid open heath, some parts of it 450 feet 
 above the sea. Paddington lies wholly west- 
 ward of the Edgware Road. A small part of 
 Kensington Gardens is in Westbourne. West- 
 ward of Kensington (q.v.) is Hammersmith, a 
 populous suburb, taken out of Fulham, which 
 reaches down to the Thames, and forms the 
 western extremity of the county. Fulham boasts 
 of an ancient church and of the palace of the 
 bishops of London. Chelsea (q.v.) adjoins Ful- 
 ham. 
 
 Crossing the Thames, we reach that part of 
 Surrey which has been included in the new 
 county. Battersea is chiefly remarkable now 
 for the beautiful park, opened in 1852. West- 
 ward of Battersea is Wandsworth, south of it 
 is Clapham, and beyond that Penge, in which is 
 the Crystal Palace, usually called from the neigh- 
 bouring Sydenham (q.v.). Kennington, the site 
 of a manor-house of the princes of Wales, Brixton 
 a little farther south, and Norwood, on the 
 summit of the southern line of hills which 
 enclose what is called the London Basin, come 
 next, and the manor of Lambeth (q.v.) faces West- 
 minster. The domestic parts of Lambeth Palace 
 are modern, but the chapel was built about 1250, 
 the 'Lollards' Tower," 1440, the gateway, 1490, 
 and the hall, now the library, in 1663. Two 
 modern buildings are very conspicuous at Lam- 
 beth— Doulton's terra-cotta factory, south of the 
 palace, and St Thomas's Hospital, removed to 
 this site in 1871. 
 
 From this point eastward to Southwark the 
 low-lying area is occupied with mean streets and 
 lanes, and with great warehouses, stores, and 
 wharves ; Shakespeare's Bankside Theatre is prob- 
 ably covered by the approaches to Waterloo 
 Bridge. Eastward of Southwark are Bermond- 
 sey, where a famous abbey flourished before 
 the Reformation, and Rotherhithe, at an abrupt 
 bend of the Thames. Both districts are densely 
 covered with factories and labourers' dwellings. 
 Farther inland and southward are Newington, 
 Walworth, the immense parish of Cainberwell, 
 with Dulwich (q.v.) College and picture-gallery, 
 and Peckham. Eastward of Camberwell we enter 
 those parishes which are taken from Kent. They 
 comprise Lewisham, a good part of which is still 
 open, and Deptford, Greenwich, and Woolwich, 
 which are separately noted. 
 
 Westminster originally comprised a district 
 outside of London, extending from the walls of 
 London almost to the village of Kensington, but 
 was gradually reduced in area. The present 
 borough, included in the county of London, com- 
 prises the parishes of St Margaret and St John 
 Westminster, St George Hanover Square, St 
 James Westminster, St Martin-in-the-Fields, and 
 %he district of the Strand Board of Works and in- 
 
 cluding the close of the collegiate church of St 
 Peter Westminster. The name contains a reference 
 to an ancient abbey church, probably founded 
 about the time of Offa, but refounded by Dunstan 
 in the time of King Edgar, about the year 971 ; 
 as also to another minster, that of St Paul. 
 Edward the Confessor, who lived chiefly at West- 
 minster, rebuilt the church, and of his work an 
 archway in the south transept may be identified. 
 The church was consecrated in 1065, and Free- 
 man was of opinion that the ill-fated Harold was 
 crowned in it, as certainly was the Conqueror. 
 In 1269 a new church, that which we now see, 
 was consecrated, having been built by Henry III. 
 in honour of Edward the Confessor (canonised 
 1163). The nave was finished under Richard 
 II., but the western towers were not built till 
 1735. The chapel of the Annunciation, or chantry 
 of Henry V., was built in the reign of Henry VI. 
 The Lady Chapel, or chapel of Henry VII., an 
 elaborate example of the last phase of the old 
 Gothic style, was built by Henry VIII., who 
 subsequently suppressed the monastery and made 
 Westminster a bishopric (for ten years only), since 
 which the surrounding town has been reckoned 
 a city. James I. set up the last of the royal 
 monuments — those, namely, to his mother, Mary 
 of Scotland, and to his predecessor Elizabeth. 
 The north front was rebuilt by Wren, and was 
 a beautiful example of his taste in Gothic. It 
 was pulled down, and a new and less appropriate 
 design by Mr Pearson substituted in 1890. The 
 church is the burial-place of thirteen kings of 
 England, including Henry III., Edward I., 
 Edward III., Richard IL, Henry V,, Henry VIL, 
 Edward VI., James I., Charles II., William III., 
 and George II., as well as of five queens in their 
 own right, and the queens of many of the kings. 
 In the reign of Richard II. the practice of bury- 
 ing court favourites and others in the abbey 
 commenced. The first poet to be laid in the 
 south transept, often called the Poets' Corner, was 
 Chaucer; here also are buried Spenser, Dryden, 
 Garrick, Johnson, Dickens, Browning, Tennyson, 
 and others of less note. The first Lord Lytton 
 was buried in the chapel of St Edmund. Han- 
 del's grave is in the south transept. Dean 
 Stanley's in the chapel of Henry VII. The 
 north transept contains the graves of Mans- 
 field, the two Pitts, the three Cannings, and 
 other statesmen. In the nave are buried Newton, 
 Sir Gilbert Scott, Street, Livingstone, Ben 
 Jonson, Sir Charles Barry, Robert Stephenson, 
 and Charles Darwin. Nearly all English kings 
 and queens have been crowned here, and since 
 Edward I.'s reign have used the chair holding 
 under its seat the Stone of Scone. Shortly be- 
 fore the dissolution of the monasteries William 
 Caxton had set up the first English printing- 
 press in the Almonry, a little to the west of the 
 western front of the abbey. He is commemorated 
 by a monument in the church of St Margaret, 
 where he is buried. The Westminster Assembly, 
 called by the Long Parliament to settle the 
 doctrine, ritual, and government of the Church 
 of England, met first in 1643 in Henry VII. 's 
 chapel, and held the most of its 1163 meetings 
 in the Jerusalem Chamber. The abbey remains 
 are numerous, some of them being in the occupa- 
 tion of the school. The cloisters, except for 
 restorations, are unusually perfect, and the 
 domestic buildings of the Confessor's period are 
 extensive. The Abbot of Westminster was a 
 peer of parliament, took precedence of all other 
 English abbots, and had an income which would 
 be reckoned at about £60,000 of our money. 
 
LONDON 
 
 425 
 
 LONDON 
 
 The dean has succeeded to some of the privileges 
 and more of the duties. The chapter includes six 
 canons, one of whom is archdeacon. Kensington 
 Gardens are still reckoned in the parliamentary 
 borough of Westminster ; and the palace of Kens- 
 ington is within the boundary. The Dean of West- 
 minster is still nominally lord of the manor, and 
 appoints a steward, generally some nobleman of 
 high rank. There are also a bailiff and sixteen 
 burgesses. The deanery contains the 'chamber 
 called Jerusalem,' probably from a painting of the 
 holy city among its original decorations. Jeru- 
 salem forms a chapter-house, the original chapter- 
 house in the east cloister having for centuries 
 been used by the House of Commons ; having 
 become ruinous, it was almost rebuilt by Sir 
 Gilbert Scott. The school closely adjoins the 
 abbey, and the great school-room is part of the 
 monks' dormitory, remains of the Confessor's 
 buildings. Among the masters of the school, 
 founded as St Peter's College by Queen Elizabeth 
 in 1560, have been Camden, the Elizabethan anti- 
 quary, Busby, and Vincent Bourne ; the scholars 
 have included George Herbert, Cowley, Dryden, 
 Prior, Cowper, and Southey, poets ; the architect 
 Wren ; Locke and Gibbon ; and the statesmen 
 Warren Hastings, Lord Mansfield, and Lord 
 Russell. 
 
 The churches of Westminster are now very 
 numerous, but the original parish churches are 
 only St Margaret's and St John's. St Margaret's 
 seems to have first been built before 1140, but 
 as we see it now is in a poor style of Gothic, 
 with many modern additions. The headless 
 body of Sir Walter Raleigh was buried in it in 
 1618. The east window is old Dutch. The church 
 is supposed to be the special charge of tlie House 
 of Commons. All the royal palaces of London 
 used to be in Westminster, but since the parish has 
 been dismembered only Whitehall, Kensington, 
 and the Houses of Parliament can be reckoned 
 within the boundaries. Of Whitehall but little 
 remains. The chief relic was till lately the Chapel 
 Royal, Whitehall. Henry VIII. first made a 
 palace here. James I. constantly used Whitehall, 
 and set Inigo Jones to design him a great palace 
 on the site. Nothing was ever built except the 
 chapel, as it was till lately called, then a banquet- 
 ing hall. On the street front of this banqueting 
 house are some blank windows ; one of these, the 
 fourth from the north end, was broken through to 
 provide an exit from the ground-floor of the hall to 
 a ladder outside, leading to the scaffold, and by 
 this passage Charles I. went to his doom. The 
 Chapel Royal was closed in 1890, and in the 
 following year was made over to the Royal 
 United Service Institution. 
 
 The present ' palace of parliament ' stands on a 
 site consecrated by nearly six centuries of repre- 
 sentative institutions. According to the local 
 tradition it was Canute or Knut who first lived 
 at Westminster, and here he rebuked the tide. 
 It became the chief residence of successive 
 kings, and the headquarters of the courts of 
 law. The palace had numerous great public 
 chambers and lialls, where cases could be heard, 
 great court functions could be carried out, and 
 banquets given to hundreds of guests together. 
 As the centuries went on these chambers formed 
 not a homogeneous house, but a village of single 
 apartments, such as the Painted Chamber, the 
 Whitehall, the Wliite Chamber, the Star Chamber, 
 the Court of Requests, St Stephen's Chapel, and 
 the Great Hall. To the westward of the Great 
 Hall were the law-courts, and to the north and 
 east the royal apartments. William Ilufus re- 
 
 built the Confessor's hall on an immense 
 scale. Henry III. improved the palace greatly. 
 Richard II. transformed the hall, and raised 
 over it the magnificent roof of oak which is 
 still intact. In 1512 a fire took place in the 
 royal apartments, and Henry VIII. removed his 
 court first to; Bridewell and then to Whitehall, 
 but the law-courts were fixed in Westminster 
 Hall from 1224. Many of the greatest events of 
 English history, and all the greatest pageants 
 have had their place in this old hall. In 1834 
 a conflagration resulted in the destruction of 
 all that remained of the ancient palace, except 
 the hall, the cloister of St Stephen's Chapel, 
 and the crypt. All were worked into Sir Charles 
 Barry's new design for the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment, in the Perpendicular style. The whole 
 contains 11 courts, 1100 apartments, and cost 
 some £3,000,000. The first bridge here was 
 opened in 1750. The present Westminster Bridge 
 was completed in 1862. 
 
 London University, founded by charter of 
 1836, was not a teaching but an examining body 
 granting degrees in arts, science, medicine, law, 
 and music. The Act of 1898, with the royal sanc- 
 tion of its statutes in 1900, reconstituted it as a 
 teaching body, comprising numerous ' schools ' in 
 or near London — University College and King's 
 College in all their faculties ; in theology, five 
 Nonconformist colleges ; in arts, science, or 
 agriculture, HoUoway College, Bedford College, 
 Westfield College, the Royal College of Science, 
 the Agricultural College at Wye ; in medicine, 
 the sc!tiools attached to Bartholomew's, Guy's, St 
 Thomas's, and eight other London hospitals ; in 
 engineering, the Central Technical College and 
 the City and Guilds Institute; and in economics, 
 the London School of Economics and Political 
 Science. In all the University thus constituted 
 reckons eight faculties— theology, arts, laws, 
 music, medicine, science, engineering, and econo- 
 mics and political science ; and the headquarters 
 are now in the Imperial Institute at South 
 Kensington. 
 
 While the London Government Act of 1899, 
 establishing the borough councils, simplified the 
 management of the capital, there is still rnuch 
 overlapping and conflicting of authorities. 
 Amongst nearly 300 different autliorities en- 
 gaged in public administration are : London 
 County Council, London School Board, City 
 Common Council, Metropolitan Borough Coun- 
 cils (28), Commissioners of London Police, Sick 
 Asylum Boards (2), District School Boards (4), 
 Boards of Guardians (31), Thames and Lea Con- 
 servancy Boards. The administrative county of 
 Loudon, established in 1889, has an area of 118 
 square miles, and consists of the City and the 
 districts which had grown up round it, known 
 as the metropolis. Greater London (the Metro- 
 politan and City of London Police Districts) in- 
 eludes the counties of London and Middlesex, 
 and parts of Kent, Surrey, Essex, and Herts, and 
 has an area of 693 square miles. The metro- 
 politan water area is 620 miles in extent, and 
 differs in boundary. The metropolis for criminal 
 jurisdiction has an area of 420 square miles. The 
 County Court and Police Court areas differ from 
 all these and from each other. The population 
 of the City (37,702 in 1890) was in 1901, 26,923, 
 reckoning only persons sleeping within the area ; 
 the number entering the City during the day has 
 been estimated at considerably over 1,000,000. 
 The administrative county (4,228,317 in 1891) had 
 in 1901 a pop. of 4,536,541, including the City. 
 The Metropolitan and City Police District had 
 
 IL. 
 
Loimoif 
 
 426 
 
 LONGFORfi 
 
 6,581,872. The rateable value of the City in 
 1901-2 was £4,888,378, and the corporation ex- 
 penditure £649,215 ; and for the administrative 
 county the corresponding figures were £35,455,315 
 and £4,595,364. London is divided into 60 par- 
 liamentary divisions, including West Ham (2), 
 each returning one member, except the City, 
 wliich has two. 
 
 The number of steam and sailing vessels which 
 entered the Port of London, with cargoes and 
 in ballast (excluding coast trade), in 1902 was 
 11,444, with a total tonnage of 10,179,023 ; and 
 8346 vessels, of 7,385,085 tons, cleared. The 
 proportion of imports into London as com- 
 pared with the remainder of the kingdom has 
 slightly declined from 35 per cent, in 1872 to 32*5 
 per cent, in 1900. 
 
 The death-rate of London in 1855 was 24 3 per 
 1000 ; in 1901 it was 17-1 per 1000. At the census 
 of 1901 there were in London 56,435 persons of 
 Scottish birth and 60,211 of Irish birth. Of 
 . 135,277 foreigners, 38,117 were Russians, 15,420 
 Russian Poles, 27,427 Germans, 11,264 French, 
 10,889 Italians, 6189 Austrians, 5561 Americans 
 (U.S.), 4249 Dutch, 4419 Swiss, 2102 Belgians, 
 1675 Swedish, 1067 Norwegian, 946 Danish. 
 
 See Stow's Survey (1599); Maitland's History 
 (1756) ; Newcourt's llepertorium (2 vols. 1708) ; 
 Cunningham's Handbook (1849 ; new ed. by 
 Wheatley, 3 vols. 1891) ; Sharpe's London and the 
 Kingdom (1894:) ; Paul's Vanishing London (1896) ; 
 Thome's Environs (2 vols. 1877); Walford's 
 Greater London (2 vols. 1885) ; Baedeker's Hand- 
 book (1889) ; Button's Literary Landmarks (4th ed. 
 1888) ; Cassell's Old and New London (6 vols. 
 1887); Loftie's London (1890); and a series of 
 works (1892-1904) by Sir W. Besant. 
 
 London, a city and port of entry, capital of 
 Middlesex county, Ontario, is situated at the 
 junction of the two branches of the Thames, 116 
 miles by rail SW. of Toronto. It is a handsome 
 city, regularly built ; and the aim of its founders 
 is visible in the names of the principal streets- 
 Pall Mall, Oxford Street, Piccadilly, Cheapside, 
 &c. — as well as of the river, which is crossed by 
 a Westminster and a Blackfriars Bridge, and of 
 the Covent Garden Market, Hyde Park, and St 
 Paul's Cathedral. It has large petroleum refin- 
 eries, foundries, mills, tanneries, &c. ; and its 
 white sulphur-springs attract many invalids. 
 London is the seat of Anglican and R. C. bishops. 
 Pop. (1881) 19,746 ; (1900) 37,983. 
 
 Londonderry, a maritime county of Ulster, 40 
 miles long by 34 broad, is bounded N. by the 
 Atlantic, and elsewhere by Antrim, Lough Neagh, 
 Tyrone, and Donegal. Area, 816 so. m. Pop! 
 (1841) 222,174; (1901) 144,404, of whom 65,296 
 were Catholics, 45,682 Presbyterians, and 27,804 
 Episcopalians. The surface rises inland, Mount 
 Sawell, on the southern border, being 2236 feet 
 high. The coast-line (30 miles long) is generally 
 bold and precipitous ; but the shore of Lough 
 Foyle is in most places an unvarying plain, large 
 tracts having been reclaimed. 'ITie river Bann 
 from Lough Neagh forms part of the eastern 
 border; the river Foyle intersects the Avestern 
 extremity. Thirty-seven per cent, of the area is 
 permanent grass, and much of the cultivated soil 
 IS meadow land and clover. Linen is the staple 
 manufacture. The county returns two members, 
 and the county town, Londonderry, one. The 
 other towns are Coleraine and Limavady. 
 
 Londonderry, or Derry, the county town, is 
 situated on an eminence overlooking the river 
 Foyle, 3 miles from its mouth and 18 from the 
 
 entrance to Lough Foyle, by rail 163 miles NNW 
 of Dublin and 95 NW. of Belfast. Pop. (185li 
 19,888 ; (1881) 29,162 ; (1901) 39,892. Londonderry 
 grew up round a monastery founded in 546 by 
 St Coluinba. It formed part of the escheated 
 territory granted in 1613 to the London com- 
 panics, and under their management rose to 
 importance, and was strongly fortified. In the 
 Irish war of the Revolution thirteen Londonderry 
 apprentices closed its gates against James II. ; 
 and the townsfolk, shouting 'No surrender,' 
 manned the walls. The 105 days' siege that then 
 ensued, from April to August 1689, is one of the 
 most celebrated events in Irish history. The 
 walls still surround a part of the town one mile 
 in circumference, but now the greater part of the 
 city lies outside them. Tlie left bank of the 
 river is connected by an iron bridge, 1200 feet in 
 length, with an extensive suburb called Water- 
 side. The Protestant cathedral dates from 1633 ; 
 it was restored in 1886. A handsome Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, the court-house, guildhall 
 (1890 ; cost £20,000), harbour-offices, post-office, 
 custom-house, and banks are the other chief 
 buildings. The siege is commemorated by a 
 triumphal arch— one of the gates of the city- 
 erected in 1789, and a column to the Rev. 
 George Walker, who was the soul of the defence. 
 The Presbyterian theological Magee College was 
 founded in 1865. The industrial establishments 
 include linen (shirt-making) factories, distilleries, 
 iron-foundries, flour-mills, and shipbuilding- 
 yards. In Lough Foyle are valuable salmon- 
 fisheries. The harbour is deep, extensive, and 
 safe. The imports include grain, flour, timber, 
 and spirits ; the exports are chiefly agricultural 
 produce. Londonderry returns one member. See 
 works by Hempton (1861) and Dwyer (1893). 
 
 Long, Loch, a beautiful Scottish sea-loch, 
 striking off from the Firth of Clyde 17 miles 
 north-north-eastward between the counties of 
 Argyll and Dumbarton, and 3 furlongs to 2 miles 
 broad. It sends off Loch Goil (q.v.) ; is flanked 
 by steep and fantastic mountains, 2000 feet high ; 
 and at Arrochar, near its head, approaches to 
 within If mile of Tarbet on Loch Lomond. A 
 railway (1889-94) from Helensburgh to Fort- 
 William skirts its eastern shore. Since 1862 the 
 loch has been defiled with the dredgings from 
 the Clyde at the rate of 1,250,000 tons a year. 
 
 Long Branch, a fashionable bathing-place of 
 New Jersey, on the Atlantic, 30 miles S. of New 
 York, and 13 S. of Sandy Hook. Pop. 9231. _ 
 
 Longchamp, the racecourse, on the SW. "side 
 of the Bois du Boulogne, to the W. of Paris, 
 where the race for the Grand Prix is run. 
 
 Long Eaton, a Derbyshire town, 8 miles SSW. 
 of Notti n ghani. Pop . 1 3 , 1 00. 
 
 Longford, an inland county of Leinster, Ire- 
 land, bounded W. by the Shannon and SW. by 
 Lough Ree. Its maximum length is 29 miles, 
 its maximum breadth 20. Area, 421 sq. m. Pop. 
 (1841)115,491; (1901)46,672, of whom 91-6 per cent, 
 were Roman Catholics. The surface is for the 
 most part flat, and the soil on the whole fertile, 
 though extensive tracts of bog exist ; 51 per cent, 
 of the area is pennanent grass. The county is 
 studded with numerous small lakes, and is crossed 
 by the Royal Canal. It returns two members 
 to parliament. The islands of Lough Ree are 
 especially rich in monastic remains.— Longford, 
 the county town, on the river Camlin and a 
 branch of the Royal Canal, 76 miles NW. of 
 Dublin by rail. Its best building ia the neW 
 R. C. cathedral (1840-93). Pop. 3727. 
 
LONG ISLAND 
 
 427 
 
 LORNS 
 
 Long Island, an island which forms three 
 counties of New York state, bounded by Long 
 Island Sound, the Atlantic, and the Bast River 
 (spanned by the Brooklyn suspension bridge). 
 It is 115 miles long, 12 to 24 wide, and 1682 
 sq. m. in area. On its south shore is a series of 
 lagoons, the largest 40 miles long and 5 or 6 
 wide. A line of low hills rises in the interior 
 to 384 feet. There are numerous small lakes and 
 watercourses, and mai'ket-gardening is carried on 
 with success — for the most part by Germans. 
 But much of the island is waste land or forest, 
 and such popular watering-places as Coney Island 
 are planted among deserts of sand. There is still 
 some game, and the fisheries and oyster-beds are 
 very valuable. The chief towns are Brooklyn, 
 Long Island City, and Flushing, Creedmoor is 
 the principal American rifle-range. 
 
 Long Island Sound, lying between Long 
 Island and the mainland of New York and Con- 
 necticut, is from 2 to 20 miles wide, and from 75 
 to about 200 feet in depth. 
 
 Long Island City, on Long Island, separated 
 from New York City by the East River, and from 
 Brooklyn by the navigable Newtown Creek, was 
 formed in 1870 from five villages. Pop. (1880) 
 17,129 ; (1900) 48,272. It is now included in the 
 borougli of Que\)iis, New York City. 
 
 Longjumeau {Longzheemo'), a French town in 
 Seiue-et-Oise, 12 miles SW. of Paris. Pop. 2330. 
 
 Longleat, the seat of the Marquis of Bath, in 
 Wiltshire, 4^ miles SW. of Warminster. It is 
 one of the noblest Elizabethan mansions in the 
 kingdom, with a fine collection of portraits, 
 memories of Bishop Ken, and a magnificent park. 
 
 Long Melford. See Melford. 
 
 Longridge, a small manufacturing town of 
 Lancashire, 6i miles by rail NE. of Preston, on 
 the side of the Longridge Fell, which extends 5k 
 miles NE. to the Yorkshire boundary. Here are 
 Preston reservoirs and manufactures of cotton, 
 nails, &c. Pop. 4301. See Tom C. Smith, History 
 of Longridge (Preston, 1889). 
 
 Longton, a municipal borough of Staffordshire, 
 at the southern extremity of the Potteries, 2^ 
 miles SE. of Stoke-upon-Trent, and included 
 within its parliamentary boundary. It Avas in- 
 corporated as a inunicipal borough in 1865. The 
 prosperity of the town is due to the manufacture 
 of china and earthenware, though malting, brew- 
 ing, and brick-making are also carried on. Close 
 by are ironworks and collieries. Pop. (1851) 
 15,149 ; (1881) 18,620 ; (1901) 35,815, the borough 
 having been extended in 1883. 
 
 Longtown, a town of Cumberland, on the Esk, 
 8^ miles N. by W. of Carlisle. Pop. of Arthuret 
 parish, in which it is situated, 2439, 
 
 Longwood. See St Helena, 
 
 Longwy (Long-wee'), a small town in the ex- 
 treme north of the French dep. of Meurthe-et- 
 Moselle, 18 miles WSW. of Luxemburg. Its 
 fortress capitulated to the Prussians in 1792, 1815, 
 and 1871. Pop. 7448. 
 
 Lons-le-Saunier (LonS-le-Soan-yay'), capital of 
 the French dep. of the Jura, stands in a basin 
 of the Jura Mountains, surrounded with vine- 
 clad hills, 42 miles by rail E. by S. of Chalon-sur- 
 Saone. It was founded in the 4th century, when 
 its salt-springs were discovered ; these are still 
 in use for bathing, and salt is manufactured. 
 Population, 10,500. Rouget de Lisle, the author 
 of the Marseillaise, was born here. 
 
 Loochoo (otherwise Liukiu or Riu Kiu), a group 
 Of thirty-seven Japanese Islands. The islands 
 
 extend SW. about halfway from Kyushu in Japan 
 towards Formosa. Their aggregate area is 1863 
 sq. m., and the pop. is 160,000. China has made 
 a claim upon the islands, but they are essentially 
 Japanese. Oshhna possesses a good harbour, but 
 Nafa, the port of Shinri, capital of Okinawa, is 
 an unsafe anchorage. Sugar is largely raised, 
 also the sago-palm, and an aromatic orange. 
 
 Loodiana. See Ludhiana, 
 
 Looe, East and West, Cornish fishing-towns 
 on Looe Bay, on either side of the Looe stream, 
 15 miles W. of Plymouth. Tlie population of the 
 urban district of Looe is 2700, 
 
 Lookout Mountain, a ridge extending from 
 near Chattanooga, in Tennessee, across the north- 
 west corner of Georgia, and into Alabama, and 
 rising to 1600 feet above the Tennessee River. It 
 was carried by General Hooker in the battle of 
 24th November 1863. 
 
 Lorca, a town of Spain, 36 miles SW. of Murcia. 
 The gloomy Moorish part is picturesquely situ- 
 ated on an eminence crowned by a castle, whilst 
 the modern town spreads out on the fertile plain. 
 Here are saltpetre, gunpowder, and lead-smelting 
 works, and manufactures of cloth, with neigh- 
 bouring silver and sulphur mines. Pop. 68,239. 
 
 Lord Howe Islands, a main island, 5 sq. m. in 
 extent, with some small islets, lying in the 
 Pacific in 31° 33' S. lat. and 159° 5' E. long., 300 
 miles E. of Port Macquarie in New South Wales. 
 It was discovered by Lieutenant Ball in 1788, 
 colonised in 1840, and is attached administra- 
 tively to New South Wales. It consists of tliree 
 volcanic ridges, rising to 2840 feet, and is cres- 
 centic in shape. Pop. 50,— A group of the 
 Solomon Islands bears the same name ; and a 
 Lord Howe's Island is one of the Society Isles. 
 
 Lorelei (Lo-re-lV), or Lurlei, a rock rising 427 
 feet perpendicularly from the Rhine, near St 
 Goar, It used to be dangerous to boatmen 
 (through the fascinations of a siren, according to 
 Heine's famous song), and has a celebrated echo, 
 
 Lorenzo Mar'ques, a Portuguese station on 
 Delagoa Bay (q.v.), E. Africa. Pop. about 6500, 
 of whom 3500 are Europeans. 
 
 Lore' to, an interior dep. of Peru, watered for 
 thousands of miles by the Maraiion and its tribu- 
 taries. Area, 33,000 sq. m. ; pop. 100,000. The 
 capital is Iquitos. 
 
 Loretto (properly Loreto), a city of Italy, 3 
 miles from the Adriatic, and 15 by rail SSE. from 
 Ancona. It has a royal palace (designed by 
 Bramante) ; but is chiefly noticeable as the site 
 of the Santa Casa, or Holy House, reputed to be 
 the house in which the Virgin lived in Nazareth. 
 It was miraculously translated, first in 1291 to 
 the neighbourhood of Fiume in Dalmatia, thence 
 in 1294 to a wood near Recanati in Italy, and 
 finally to its present site in 1295, Pop.- 7134,— See 
 also Musselburgh. 
 
 L'Orient {Lor-yonP'), a seaport in the French 
 dep. of Morbihan, 116 miles by rail NW. of 
 Nantes, with a deep and spacious harbour. It 
 was founded in 1664 by the F'rench East India 
 Company ; but, after the ruin of their trade by 
 the English, their plant was acquired by the 
 government, who since 1815 have made L'Orient 
 the principal naval shipbuilding- yard in France. 
 The inhabitants are also engaged in fishing (espe- 
 cially sardines). Pop. (1872) 30,928 ; (1901) 39,781. 
 Off this port a British fleet defeated a French 
 one, 23d June 1795. 
 
 Lome, a district of Argyllshire, between Lochs 
 Leven and Awe. 
 
 k 
 
LORRAINE 
 
 42d 
 
 LomsiANA 
 
 Lorraine. See Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 Los Angeles (Los An'je-les), a city of California, 
 capital of Los Angeles county, 483 miles SE. of 
 San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Ra.ilroad. 
 It is one of the oldest towns in the western 
 states, and was already a thriving place when 
 the Franciscan fathers established a mission here 
 in 1781 ; its full name being Pueblo de la Reina 
 de los Angeles. In 1835-47 it was the capital of 
 the state of California. To-day it possesses a 
 handsome opera-house, the University of south- 
 ern California, a magnificent observatory, a 
 R. C. cathedral, fine botanic gardens, &c. Pop. 
 (1870) 5728 ; (1900) 102,479, tlie Spanish forming 
 only an insignificant minority. Los Angeles is 
 the centre of the orange-growing industry, and 
 in the city alone are two reservoirs, with a 
 capacity of 850,000 gallons, used solely for irriga- 
 tion. The chief occupation is the cultivation 
 and export of oranges, grapes, &c., as well as the 
 manufacture of wine. Many invalids resort to 
 Los Angeles in the winter. See California of the 
 South, by Lindley and Widney (1888). 
 
 Lossiemouth, an Elginshire seaport, at the 
 mouth of the Lossie (31 miles long), 5J miles 
 NNE. of Elgin. Its harbour was formed in 1837- 
 39, and deepened and improved in 1852 and 1893. 
 Pop. 3986, of whom 2086 were in the adjoining 
 village of Branderburgh (founded 1830). 
 
 Lostwithiel {Los'withiel), a Cornish mining- 
 town and municipal borough (1885), on the Fowey, 
 5 miles SSE. of Bodmin. Pop. 1339. 
 
 Lot (Lot!), a dep. in the south of France, formed 
 out of the old province of Guienne, and com- 
 prising the arrondissements of Cahors (the cap- 
 ital), Gourdon, and Figeac, is watered by the 
 Dordogne and the Lot — the latter (anc. Oltis) 
 one of the largest tributaries (300 miles) of the 
 Garonne, which rises in Mount Lozere in the 
 Cevennes. Area, 2012 sq. m. Pop. (1872) 281,404 ; 
 (1901) 226,720. 
 
 Lot-et-Garonne (Lo-tay-Garonn'), a dep. of SW. 
 France, formed out of the old provinces of Guienne 
 and Gascony. It comprises the arrondissements 
 of Agen, Villeneuve, Marmande, and Nerac, and 
 is watered by the Garonne and its tributaries the 
 Gers and Lot. Area, 2067 sq. m. Pop. (1841) 
 347,073 ; (1901) 278,740. 
 
 Lothian, the whole territory anciently between 
 the Tweed and the Firth of Forth, which, from 
 547 a portion of Bernicia or Northumbria, was not 
 finally annexed to Scotland till 1018. The name 
 is now restricted to Haddington, Edinburgh, and 
 Linlithgow shires, which are called respectively 
 East, Mid, and West Lothian. 
 
 Lothringen. See Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 Loudoun {Low' don — ow as in now), an Ayrshire 
 parish, 7^ miles B. by S. of Kilmarnock, with 
 the seat of the Earl of Loudoun, and with conical 
 Loudoun Hill (1034 feet), where Bruce routed the 
 English in 1307. 
 
 Loughborough (Luff'borough) a municipal bor- 
 ough, incorporated iii 1888, of Leicestershire, 11 
 miles NNW. of Leicester. The Decorated parish 
 church dates from the 14th century, but has a 
 Perpendicular tower. There are a grammar- 
 school (1495), a girls' grammar-school (1849), and a 
 free library (1885). Hosiery is the staple manu- 
 facture ; and bell-founding was introduced in 1840, 
 the great bell of St Paul's being cast here in 1881. 
 Other industries are dyeing, brick-making, and 
 the manufacture of machinery. John Howe was 
 a native, and Chancellor Wedderburn took hence 
 his title Lord Loughborough. Pop. (1851) 10,900 ; 
 
 (1901) 25,508. See Dimock-Fletcher's two mono- 
 graphs (1883). 
 
 Loughor, a town of Glamorganshire, on the 
 Loughor River, 7 miles WNW. of Swansea. It 
 is one of the Swansea (q.v.) district boroughs. 
 Pop. 2564. 
 
 Loughrea', a market-town in County Galway, 
 on a little fresh-water lake, 17 miles SW. of Bal- 
 linasloe. It has ruins of a castle and Carmelite 
 monastery, both of about 1300. Pop. 2515. 
 
 Loughton {Low'tun), an Essex town, 4 miles 
 SSW. of Bpping. Pop. of parish, 4880. 
 
 Louistourg, a decayed fishing-village near the 
 E. point of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. 
 There are the ruins of the old town, which was 
 the strongest French fortress in North America, 
 until taken by Wolfe in 1758. 
 
 Louisiade Archipelago (Looizidd), a British 
 group of islands, fonning an eastward extension 
 of New Guinea. It embraces Sudest (45 miles 
 long by 4 to 10 miles wide), Rossel, St Aignan's 
 (28 miles long), and a vast number of smaller 
 islands. All are mountainous, rising to 3500 in 
 St Aignan's, and covered with vegetation, 
 
 Louisiana (Looiziah'na), one of the Gulf states 
 of the American Union, extends 200 miles from 
 N. to S. and 290 from E. to W. Its land area, 
 including the marshes bordering on the Gulf, 
 is 40,790 sq. m. ; its inland waters cover 2328 
 sq. m. ; total area, 43,118 sq. m. This area is 
 divided nearly equally between alluvial lands 
 and uplands. The mean elevation above sea- 
 level is 75 feet, the highest point 484 feet. For 
 25 miles inland from the Gulf, marshes subject 
 to tidal flow cover one-eighth of the state's entire 
 surface ; low, sandy pine flats and prairie lands 
 occupy about one-eighteenth each, arable lands 
 one-eighth, the flood-plains near the rivers one- 
 tenth, and bluff lands, pine hills, and uplands 
 more than one-fifth each. Most of the large 
 rivers flow above the level of the surrounding 
 country on ridges formed by their own de- 
 posits, and the plains around, protected by dykes 
 (called levees), slope away into dense, wooded 
 swamps. The bottom-lands of the Mississippi 
 are from 20 to 70 miles in breadth, those of the 
 Red, Ouachita, and other streams range from 
 6 to 20 miles. The uplands embrace all the 
 northern and north-eastern parts of the state, 
 inclining gently towards the south, and crossing 
 these are bluff lands, extending through the 
 alluvial lands to the Gulf, and forming wonder- 
 ful 'islands' covered with vegetation. Nor is 
 the immense plain surrounding these bluffs ever 
 inundated, but elevated and fertile, traversed 
 by deep ' bayous ' — minor and tributary streams. 
 Even in the coast marshes occasionally an island- 
 hill rises, with soil firm and fertile ; and at other 
 points cattle graze, whilst thousands of acres 
 yearly are being drained and reclaimed and 
 planted with rice. Besides the Mississippi the 
 chief rivers are the Red, Sabine, Ouachita, and 
 Pearl ; there are also several lakes. The forests 
 are dense with trees — pine, cypress, oaks, cotton- 
 wood, magnolia, poplar, beech, &c. Fruits are 
 abundant, oranges and figs the most important. 
 The staple crops are cotton, sugar, rice, and 
 maize. The principal manufactures are shingles 
 and tanks, cotton-seed oil, machinery, tobacco, 
 and clothing and boots and shoes (by machinery), 
 besides the cleaning and polishing of rice and 
 the refining of sugar and molasses. The only 
 mineral of importance is rock-salt, which is 
 found in inexhaustible quantity at Petit Anse 
 on Avery's Island; but hematite iron ore and 
 
LOUISVILLE 
 
 429 
 
 LOWELL 
 
 sulphur have also been discovered, besides lig- 
 nite. The principal city is New Orleans (pop. 
 287,500), the next in size, Shreveport, liaviiig 
 only 16,020 inhabitants, and Baton Rouge (the 
 capital) 11,270. The population is very mixed. 
 The negroes in the country districts are some- 
 what in excess of the whites, of whom many 
 are of French (called Creoles), German, or Irish 
 descent, and some of Spanish and Italian. In 
 most of the southern parishes French is spoken ; 
 and Spanish also is still used in a few places. 
 Pop. (1820) 153,407 ; (1860) 708,002 ; (1880) 939,946 ; 
 (1900) 1,381,625. Louisiana was so named by La 
 Salle in 1682 in honour of Louis XIV. ; was ceded 
 to Spain in 1762, and retroceded to France in 
 1800 ; was sold by Napoleon to the United States 
 for $12,000,000 in 1803 ; and was admitted as a 
 state in 1812. See the History of Loxdskina by 
 C. Gayarre (3d ed. 4 vols. 1885). 
 
 Louisville (Loo'i-vil or Loo'is-vil), the largest 
 city of Kentucky, a port of entry and capital of 
 Jefferson county, is situated on the Ohio, 130 
 miles below Cincinnati. The river here forms a 
 series of rapids, descending 22 feet in 2 miles ; 
 except during floods steamboats pass these by a 
 canal. The city is handsomely built, with wide 
 and regular streets, on a plain sloping up from 
 the river. It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, 
 a law school, four medical colleges, colleges of 
 dentistry and of pharmacy, the state institution 
 for the blind, <fec. Louisville is the greatest 
 market for tobacco in the world, and has large 
 pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and 
 tanneries, with manufactures of ploughs, furni- 
 ture, castings, gas and water pipes, machinery, 
 flour, and cement. The city is the terminus of 
 a number of railway lines ; the Ohio is crossed 
 here by two railway bridges, one of them nearly 
 a mile long. Louisville was founded in 1778, 
 and in 1780 named in honour of Louis XVI. of 
 France, whose troops were then assisting the 
 Americans. A great part of the town, including 
 the tobacco-market and the city-hall, was des- 
 troyed by a cyclone on 27th March 1890. General 
 Zachary Taylor is buried close by. Pop. (1880) 
 123,758 ; (1890) 161,005 ; (1900) 204,731. 
 
 Louie (Loo'lay), a town in the S. of Portugal, 
 10 miles N. by W. of Faro (on the coast). It is 
 surrounded by old Moorish walls. Pop. 24,448. 
 
 Lourdes (Loord), a place of pilgrimage in the 
 French dep. of Hautes Pyrenees, 12 miles SSW. 
 of Tarbes by rail ; pop. 9182. The town nestles 
 at the foot of a high isolated rock rising in a 
 plain which is bounded on the south by the foot- 
 hills of the Pyrenees. Here, in a niche above a 
 cave, the Blessed Virgin is said to have appeared 
 on 11th February 1858 to a poor girl fourteen 
 years old, called Bernadette Soubirous ; the 
 apparition was seventeen times repeated during 
 the succeeding six months. A spring rising from 
 the spot, which was hitherto unknown to exist, 
 was endowed with miraculous powers ; and many 
 miracles were reported. A great basilica (1876) 
 now marks the spot, and on a level with its 
 crypt has been added the church of the Rosary 
 (1889) for the accommodation of the pilgrims. 
 
 Louth (hard th, as in loth), a municipal borough 
 of Lincolnshire, on the rivulet Lud, at the foot 
 of the Wolds, 27 miles ENE. of Lincoln, contains 
 a beautiful parish church in the Perpendicular 
 style, built in the 13th and rebuilt in the 15th 
 century, with an octagonal spire (1501) 288 feet 
 in height, ' one of the noblest in England,' and 
 an Edward VI. grammar-school, pupils of which 
 have been Tennyson, Franklin, and Hobart Pasha, 
 
 Ruins of Louth Park Abbey, built by the Cister- 
 cians in 1139, exist IJ mile E. of the town. Iron- 
 foundries, carpet-factories, breweries, and car- 
 riage-works are in operation. Louth is connected 
 with the Humber by a canal, dug in 1761. Pop. 
 (1851) 10,467 ; (1901) 9518. See Goulding's Loutfi 
 Corporation Records (1892). 
 
 Louth (soft th, as in loathe), a maritime county 
 of Leinster, the smallest in Ireland, is washed 
 for 49 miles on the east, from Carlingford Lough 
 to the Boyne, by the Irish Sea. The average 
 width is 10 miles. Pop. (1841) 128,240; (1901) 
 65,741. Its area is 202,123 acres, of wliich 40 per 
 cent, is under grass. The surface is flat, except 
 for a range on the north, which culminates 
 in Carlingford Mountain (1935 feet), overlooking 
 Carlingford Lough. Coarse linens are manu- 
 factured. The fisheries are valuable, especially 
 the oyster-fishing in Carlingford Lough. The 
 chief towns are Drogheda, Dundalk, and Ardee. 
 There are two round-towers, at Monasterboice 
 and at Dromiskin. At Mellifont is a beautiful 
 ruined abbey. In Drogheda other ruined abbeys 
 are still visible, as also at Louth and Carlingford. 
 But the most interesting of all the relics of 
 antiquity are the sculptured crosses of Monaster- 
 boice, the largest 18 feet high. The county 
 returns two members. 
 
 Louvaln (Loo-van^ ; Ger. Lowen, Flemish Leu- 
 ven), a city in the Belgian province of Brabant, 
 19 miles by rail E. of Brussels. In the 14th cen- 
 tury it was rich, prosperous, and large (200,000 
 inhabitants), due to its cloth manufactures and 
 its position as the capital of Brabant (from 994). 
 In 1382 the townsmen revolted against their 
 rulers, and the harsh punishment meted out to 
 them drove large numbers away to England. 
 The town was the seat of a celebrated university 
 (1426-1797), with 6000 students in the 16th cen- 
 tury. Reconstituted in 1817, it is still a Roman 
 Catholic university, with about 1600 students, 
 and a library of 250,000 volumes. A severe blow 
 was struck at Louvain's prosperity by the plague 
 in the 16th century. The modern industry is 
 confined chiefly to bell-founding, brewing, and 
 the manufacture of leather, paper, lace, starch, 
 and chemicals. The town-house is a fijie Gothic 
 building (1448-69) ; the church of St Peter has a 
 beautiful flamboyant rood-loft, a wrought-iron 
 chandelier by Quentin Matsys, and some good 
 pictures; in St Gertrude's Church are exquisite 
 carved oak stalls. The Weavers' Hall (1317) was 
 appropriated by the university in 1679. Pop. 
 (1877) 33,917 ; (1900) 42,308. 
 
 Louvlers (Loov-yay'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Eure, 16 miles S. of Rouen, has a Gothic 
 cathedral (13-15th c), and celebrated cloth (since 
 1681) and ticking manufactures. Pop. 9973. 
 
 Lovedale, an important educational and mis- 
 sion station in the eastern part of Cape Colony, 
 40 miles W. of King William's Town. It was 
 founded in 1841, and has been generously sup- 
 ported by the Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 Low Archipelago, the most easterly group of 
 Polynesian islands, known also as Paumotu, 
 Tuamotu, Pearl or Dangerous Islands. They are 
 about eighty in number, very flat and thinly 
 peopled (8000 in all), and surrounded by coral 
 atolls. Since 1846 they are under a French pro- 
 tectorate. There are rich pearl-fisheries. 
 
 Low Countries. See Holland, Belgium, 
 
 Lowell, a manufacturing city of Massachusetts, 
 on the Merrimac River (mostly on the south 
 bank), 25 miles N. by W, of Bostoo. The site is 
 
 t. 
 
LOWESTOFT 
 
 430 
 
 LUCE BAY 
 
 uneven and hilly, and the river falls 33 feet, 
 aftbrdi ng great hydraulic power. There are many 
 large cotton and woollen factories ; 2,500,000 
 yards of cotton are produced here in a week. 
 Among the other manufactures are leather, paper, 
 and iron goods, chemicals, carriages, «&c. Lowell 
 was incorporated in 1826. The operatives were 
 for years gathered from the rural districts fifty 
 or a hundred miles round, and lived in boarding- 
 houses owned by the corporations, and kept 
 under strict management. Foreign emigration 
 has brought a large resident manufacturing popu- 
 lation. Evening and technical schools, reading- 
 rooms, a free library, and lectureships are main- 
 tained, and unusual attention is paid to the well- 
 being of the work-people. The painter Whistler 
 was a native. Pop. (1880) 59,485 ; (1900) 94,970. 
 
 Lowestoft (Loa'stoff), a municipal borough and 
 seaport on the Suffolk coast, 118 miles NE. of 
 London by rail and 49 NNB. of Ipswich, has of 
 late years rapidly grown In favour as a watering- 
 place, its healthfulness and the picturesqueness 
 of its neighbourhood, combined Avith its easy 
 means of access to the Broads (q.v.), all tending 
 to its popularity. The older part of the town, 
 which lies to the north, is built on a cliff facing 
 the sea, on its summit being a lighthouse (1874) 
 123 feet above the sea-level, whilst at its base, 
 on the Ness— the most easterly point of land in 
 England— stands another lighthouse (1866). The 
 modern part of the town, which has a fine esplan- 
 ade 800 yards long, extends southwards into the 
 parish of Kirkley, and is separated from the old 
 town by the harbour, formed partly by two piers 
 extending seawards 1300 feet, and partly by Lake 
 Lothing, a piece of water sti'etching inland two 
 miles : adjoining the harbour is a dock (1883) 
 with a depth of water at low tide of 13^ feet, and 
 extensive fish-markets (1865-83), the property of 
 the Great Eastern Railway. On the new South 
 Pier is a splendid pavilion, opened in 1890. Other 
 features of interest in the town include the parish 
 church (of which Whiston, the mathematician, 
 and Potter, the translator of Greek plays, were 
 former vicars), 183 feet in length, and surmounted 
 by a tower and spire 120 feet high, dating from 
 the first half of the 14th century ; town-hall 
 (1857), noticeable for its stained-glass windows; 
 hospital (1882) ; and Bellevue Park (1874), not far 
 from which was found the clay formerly used in 
 making Lowestoft china. The principal incidents 
 in the history of the town have been visitations 
 of the plague in 1349, 1547, 1579, and 1603 ; its 
 occupation in 1643 by Cromwell ; its partial 
 destruction by fire in 1644 ; and a great naval 
 defeat of the Dutch off the coast on the 3d June 
 1665. Pop. (1841) 5304 ; C1901) 29,842. See works 
 by Gillingwater (1790) and Nail (1866). 
 
 Lowther, a Westmorland stream, flowing 17 
 miles to the Eamont (a tributary of the Eden), at 
 Brougham Castle. Lowther Castle (1810), 4 miles 
 S. of Penrith, is the seat of the Earl of Lonsdale. 
 
 Lozere (Lozehr'), a dep. in the south of France, 
 derives its name from Mont Lozere, one of the 
 summits of the Cevennes. It comprises the 
 arrondissements of Mende (the capital). Florae, 
 and Marvejols. Area, 1996 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 
 135,190; (1901) 128,866. The dep. forms the 
 south-east extremity of the central uplands of 
 France, and embraces the highest peaks of the 
 Cevennes (Pic de Finiels, 5584 feet). 
 
 Lualatoa. See Congo. 
 
 Liibeck, a free city of Gerinany, the former 
 head of the Hanseatic League, and now an im- 
 portant shipping town, stands on the river Trave, 
 
 12 miles from the Baltic, and 40 by rail NE. of 
 Hamburg. This city was founded 1143 ; Henry 
 the Lion, Duke of Saxony, gave it a charter, 
 and built the cathedral. Frederick Barbarossa 
 greatly enlarged its privileges, and Frederick II. 
 made it a free city of the empire. The city be- 
 came the commercial metropolis of the Baltic and 
 northern Europe, but decayed with the other 
 Hanseatic cities. Full administrative rights were 
 not conferred upon the burghers until 1848 ; now 
 the constitution, embracing a senate (14 mem- 
 bers) and a representative assembly (120 mem- 
 bers), is thoroughly democratic. The French 
 held Lubeck almost uninterruptedly from 1806 
 to 1815. In 1866 it joined the North German 
 Confederation. Lubeck possesses 115 sq. m. of 
 territory, including the port of Travemixnde, 
 near the river's mouth. The industries include 
 the manufacture of cigars and vinegar, brewing, 
 brandy-distilling, soap-boiling, and iron-founding. 
 Lubeck is the great centre for trade between 
 Hamburg, Germany, and the Baltic countries. 
 The imports reach an annual value of about 9^ 
 millions, and the exports of 8 millions— mostly 
 transit business. The port is entered annually 
 by some 2300 vessels of 443,000 tons. The Trave 
 was deepened to 15 feet in 1878-82. The churches 
 include St Mary's (1170 ; rebuilt 1276-1310), with 
 two towers 407 feet high ; the cathedral (1173— 
 14th c), with a tower 394 feet high ; St James's, 
 built before 1227, and St Peter's, before 1163. 
 The town-house is the most notable secular build- 
 ing. There are a school of navigation, a library 
 of 98,000 vols., ethnographic, antiquarian, zoo- 
 logical, and art collections, &c. Pop. (1 875) 44,799 ; 
 (1900) 82,089, besides 15,000 outside the city. 
 
 Lublin, the capital of a Polish government, on 
 a sub-tributary of the Vistula, 96 miles by rail 
 SE. of Warsaw. It has a 13th-century cathedral, 
 and was plundered by the Mongols in 1240, 1344, 
 and 1477. From the end of the 14th to that of 
 the 16th c. it was the chief commercial town 
 between the Vistula and the Dnieper. There are 
 manufactures of tobacco, beer, candles, soap, 
 &c., and a large trade in corn and wool. The 
 population is over 50,000.— Area of government, 
 6497 sq. m. ; pop. 1,165,000. 
 
 Lubnaig, Loch, a Perthshire loch (4 miles >c 
 3 furlongs ; 405 feet), 3| miles NW. of Callander. 
 
 Lucan, a village on the Liffey, 9 miles W, of 
 Dublin. Pop. 874. 
 
 Lucania, a province of ancient Italy, south- 
 east of Calabria, and bordering on the Gulf of 
 Tarentum. It corresponds nearly to the present 
 province of Potenza and part of Salerno. 
 
 Lucca (Look'ka ; anc. Luca), chief town of an 
 Italian province, is situated in a plain, bounded 
 by picturesque hills and watered by the Serchio, 
 14 miles by rail NE. of Pisa. 'Lucca the Indus- 
 trious' has a great trade in olive-oil and silk. 
 The cathedral, begun in 1063, has a cedar crucifix 
 reputed to have been brought hither in 782. 
 There are nearly forty other churches, some 
 dating from the 7th and 8th centuries. A splen- 
 did aqueduct (1820) supplies the town with water 
 from the Pisan hills. The nmnicipal buildings 
 (1578) contain valuable paintings. Lucca was a 
 bishopric as early as 347, and in 1726 was made 
 an archbishopric. The environs abound in de- 
 lightful villas. In a charming valley, 16 miles 
 N., are the mineral baths of Lucca (96° to 136° 
 F.), which have been famous since the 15th cen- 
 tury. Pop. 72,970. 
 
 Luce Bay, Wigtownshire, measures 18J mile^ 
 
 i 
 
LUCENA 
 
 431 
 
 LUGAR 
 
 from the Mull of Galloway to Burrow Head, and 
 penetrates 16 miles. 
 
 Lucena (Loo-thm/na), a town of Spain, 36 miles 
 8. by E. of Cordova. Pop. 21,500. 
 
 Lucera {Loo-tcliay'ra ; anc. Luceria), a town of 
 southern Italy, 12 miles by rail NW. of Foggia, 
 has a cathedral (1302), and a ruined castle of 
 Frederick II. Pop. 17,067. 
 
 Lucerne (usu. Loo-sem' ; Ger. Luzern), the 
 capital of a Swiss canton, 59 miles SE. of Basel, 
 147 SSE. of Strasburg, and 177 NNW. of Milan 
 by the St Gothard railway. It is beautifully 
 situated where the Reuss issues from the Lake 
 of Lucerne, opposite Mount Pilatus, and is partly 
 surrounded (on the north) with mediseval towers. 
 On a rock in the Reuss is an old tower, said to 
 have been a lighthouse (lucerna) in Roman times, 
 whence the name of the town. Outside one of 
 the gates is the Lion of Lucerne, hewn (1821) out 
 of the solid rock after a model by Thorwaldsen, 
 a monument to the Swiss guards who perished 
 at the Tuileries in 1792. Near by is the Glacier 
 Garden, with rocks illustrating the action of ice. 
 Pop. 29,461.— The canton has an area of 579 sq. 
 m. and a pop. (1888) of 135,722, mainly Catholic. 
 The highest point is 6998 feet, a peak of Mount 
 Pilatus. 
 
 The Lake of Lucerne, called also Vierwald- 
 stdttersee ('Lake of the Four Forest Cantons' — 
 Uri, Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Lucerne), is one 
 of the most beautiful in Europe. In shape it 
 resembles a cross with a crumpled stem ; its 
 shores are mostly steep and rocky. Length from 
 Lucerne to Fliielen, 23 miles ; average breadth, 
 IJ mile ; area, 44 sq. m. ; greatest depth, 702 
 feet. The lake is associated with William Tell. 
 
 Luckenwalde (Ijook'envalda), a town of Prussia, 
 SI miles by rail SSW. of Berlin. Pop. 28,400. 
 
 Lucknow (Ldkhnao), capital of the province 
 of Oudh, and the fourth largest city in India, 
 stands on the river Gumti, 42 miles by rail NE. 
 of Cawnpore and 199 NW. of Benares. The 
 appearance of magnificence and splendour which 
 the city presents when seen from the outside is 
 not borne out by close internal inspection, 
 though a vast improvement has been effected 
 since the Mutiny. The chief architectural glory 
 of the place is the Iinambara or mausoleum of 
 Asaf-ud-Daula, the fourth Nawab, who did much 
 to embellish Lucknow. This edifice, built in 
 1784, stands within the Machi Bhawan fort (built 
 by Asaf s predecessor), and is now converted into 
 a British arsenal. The Rumi Dorwaza, a grand 
 and massive gateway, leading out of the fort, the 
 magnificent Residency palace, and the country 
 palace of Bibiapur, were all erected by the same 
 prince. The Jama Masjid or chief mosque, and 
 the huge palaces of Chattar Manzil, Kaisar Bagh, 
 Farhat Baksh, four royal tombs, and an observa- 
 tory (headquarters of the rebels during the 
 Mutiny) are the most noteworthy amongst the 
 remaining public buildings, though the palaces, 
 debased in style and gaudily decorated, are re- 
 markable only for their great size. The educa- 
 tional establishments embrace Canning College, 
 established in 1864; the Martiniere College, 
 in which 120 soldiers' sons are educated and 
 slothed ; and more than two dozen mission and 
 other schools. The staple native industry is 
 |old and silver brocade, besides muslins and other 
 ight fabrics, embroidery, glass, clay-moulding, 
 ihawls, jewellery, and paper. There are here 
 extensive railway workshops. Lucknow is a busy 
 commercial town, trading in country products 
 grain, butter, sugar, molasses, spices, tobacco, 
 
 oil-seeds), European piece-goods, salt, leather, 
 &c. Pop. (1869) 284,779 ; (1901) 264,050. 
 
 Originally a village called Lakshmanpur, 
 founded by a brother of Rama Chandra, the 
 hero of the epic llamayana, the city first rose 
 into importance as the capital (1732) of the inde- 
 pendent state of Oudh. Lucknow was the scene 
 of stirring events during the nmtiny of 1857 — 
 its defence by Sir Henry Lawrence, its relief by 
 Havelock and Outram, and its final succour by 
 Sir Colin Campbell. 
 
 LuQOn, a French episcopal city (dep. La 
 Vendee), 71 miles SSE. of Nantes. Pop. 6311. 
 
 Liidenscheid, a town of Westphalia, 19 miles 
 ESE. of Elberfeld-Barmen, is the seat of numer- 
 ous hardware manufactures. Pop. 25,067. 
 
 Luderltzland, a name given to Angra-Pequena 
 (q.v.) and the adjoining territory. 
 
 Ludgvan, a Cornish village, 3 miles NE. of 
 Penzance. Pop. of urban district, 2274. 
 
 Ludhiana (Loodiahna), a town of the Punjab, 
 8 miles from the south bank of the Sutlej. It 
 was founded in 1480, and is now a thriving corn- 
 mart, with manufactures of Cashmere sliawls, 
 scarves, cottons, turbans, furniture, and car- 
 riages. Pop. 48,334. 
 
 Ludlow, a market-town and municipal borough 
 of Shropshire, at the Corve's influx to the Teme, 
 28 miles S. of Shrewsbury. It is a very old and 
 interesting place, with two noble monuments of 
 antiquity. First, there is the massive Norman 
 keep, 110 feet high, of the castle, where Prince 
 Arthur wedded Cathaiine of Aragon, and died 
 less than five months afterwards ; where, in the 
 banqueting-hall, Milton produced his Comus ; and 
 Avhere, too, Butler wrote Hvdibras. Captured by 
 King Stephen, the Lancastrians, and the Round- 
 heads, it was finally dismantled in 1689. Secondly, 
 there is the cruciform collegiate church (restored 
 in 1863-91), Perpendicular in style, with a tower 
 130 feet high. The grammar-school, founded in 
 1282, and refounded in 1552, is almost the oldest 
 in the kingdom ; and one of seven gates still 
 remains. From Edward IV. 's reign till 1867 
 Ludlow returned two members, then one till 
 1885. S. J. Weyman, novelist, was born here. 
 Pop. (1851) 4730 ; (1901) 4552. See works by T. 
 Wright (1820-69) and O. Baker (2d ed. 1889). 
 
 Ludwigsburg {Uod'vigsboorg'), a town of Wiir- 
 temberg, 8 miles N. of Stuttgart. It grew up 
 round a ducal hunting castle (1704), and has a 
 military school and a royal castle, with picture- 
 gallery and splendid gardens. Pop. 20,000. B. 
 F. Strauss and Kerner were natives. 
 
 Ludwlgscanal. See Danube. 
 
 Ludwigshafen (Lood' vigs-lmh' fen), &to\i\i of the 
 Bavarian Palatinate, on the Rhine's left bank, 
 opposite Mannheim. Granted town rights only 
 in 1859, it has grown rapidly owing to its manu- 
 factures (soda, aniline dyes, wagons, <fec.). Pop. 
 (1864) 3911 ; (1875) 12,093 ; (1900) 61,920. 
 
 Lugano (Loogah'no), a town in the Swiss can- 
 ton of Ticino, on the NW. .shore of the Lake of 
 Lugano, 49 miles by rail N. by W. from Milan. 
 In appearance the place is thoroughly Italian ; 
 froni Monte Salvatore (2982 feet) a magnifi- 
 cent view may be obtained. Pop. 9129. — The 
 Lake of Lugano, also called Ceresio, lies at 
 the southern foot of the Alps, 889 feet above sea- 
 level. Its length is 14| miles, average breadth 
 1 J mile ; area, 19J sq. m. ; maximum depth 915 
 feet, and average depth 246. 
 
 Lugar, an Ayrshire village, with ironworks, on 
 
 L 
 
LUGDUNUM 
 
 432 
 
 LUTTERWORTH 
 
 Lugar Water, IJ mile ENB. of Cumnock, Pop. 
 1286. 
 
 Lugdunum. See Lyons, Leyden. 
 
 Luggie, a stream, besung by David Gray, flows 
 11 miles W. to the Kelvin at Kirkintilloch. 
 
 Lugnaquilla. See Wicklow. 
 
 Lugo (Lucus Augusti of the Romans), capital 
 of a province of NW. Spain, on the Minho, 72 
 miles by rail SE. of Corunna. Still walled, it 
 has a cathedral (1129-77), and manufactures of 
 linen and leather. Its warm sulphur baths were 
 known to the Romans. Pop. 19,938.— Area of 
 province, 3787 sq. m. ; pop. 466,000. 
 
 Lugo, a town of Italy, 18 miles by rail W. of 
 Ravenna. Pop. 27,500. 
 
 Luku'ga, an intermittent outflow from Lake 
 Tanganyika (q.v.) into the Congo. 
 
 Lulel, a town of Sweden, at the mouth of the 
 river LuleS,, on the Gulf of Bothnia, It is a great 
 iron-ore exporting port. Pop. 9392. 
 
 Lulworth, East and West, two Dorset coast- 
 parishes, 5| and 8^ miles SW. of Wareham. 
 Lulworth Castle is the seat of the Catholic Welds, 
 and Lulworth Cove is a beautiful inlet. 
 
 Lumsden, an Aberdeenshire village, 9f miles 
 NW. of Alford. Pop. 485. 
 
 Lunawara, a state under British protection 
 in Gujarat province. Area, 388 sq. in. ; pop. 
 75,450. The capital, Lunawara, is 60 miles N. by 
 W. from Baroda. Pop. 9059, 
 
 Lund (Ijondinum GotJiorum), a city of Goth- 
 land, in the extreme south of Sweden, by rail 
 374 miles SW. of Stockholm and 10 NE. of Malmb. 
 In the 10th century it was a large and powerful 
 city, was made a bishopric in 1048, and an arch- 
 bishopric in 1104. It became the chief seat of 
 the Danish power in the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and capital of the Danish kingdom, with a pop. 
 of 200,000. But after the Reformation (1536) the 
 city began to decay, and sank to a mere village 
 in the 17th century. The fine Romanesque 
 cathedral, with its imposing crypt, dates from 
 the 11th century. Lund owes its revival to the 
 founding there of a university in 1668, which 
 now has about 800 students, a library of 150,000 
 volumes and 3000 MSS., a zoological museum, 
 and a botanic garden. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Lundy (Scand., 'grove island'), a granitic 
 island of Devonshire, in the mouth of the Bristol 
 Channel, 11| miles NNW. of Hartland Point, 
 17 NW. of Clovelly, 24 W. of Ilfracombe, and 30 
 SSE. of St Gowan's Head in Wales. It measures 
 ^ miles by 1 ; has rocky and precipitous shores, 
 with only one landing-place on the south side ; 
 and attains an altitude of 525 feet. Here, near 
 the southern end of the island, is a lighthouse, 
 built in 1820. The antiquities include prehistoric 
 kists, remains of round towers and a chapel, and 
 the ruined castle of the Mariscoes (11th to 14th 
 centuries), from whose time on into the 17th 
 century Lundy was a stronghold successively of 
 pirates, buccaneers, privateers, and smugglers. 
 It figures in Kingsley's Westward Ho ! ; was the 
 death-place of ' Judas ' Stukely ; was garrisoned 
 till 1647 for Charles I. ; and in 1834 was pur- 
 chased for £9870 by the Heaven family. The 
 population is about 180, See Chanter's Lundy 
 Island (1877), 
 
 Lune, a river of Westmorland and Lancashire, 
 flowing 45 miles SW, and S, to the Irish Sea, 6 
 miles SW, of Lancaster, 
 
 LUneburg (M'ne-boorg), a town of Hanover, on 
 tlje river iTmenau, 31 miles by rail SE, oC Ham- 
 
 burg. The 15th-century church of St Michael 
 contains the tombs of the Liineburg princes. 
 The five-aisled church of St John dates from the 
 14th century, is pure Gothic in style, and has a 
 tower 371 feet high. The mediaeval town-house 
 is adorned with old pictures and stained glass. 
 A salt-mine, discovered in 906, still has an annual 
 yield of over 21,000 tons. There are also a 
 gypsum-mine, ironworks, chemical manufactories, 
 &c. Liineburg lampreys are well known in 
 Germany. Pop. 25,665. Liineburg acquired im- 
 portance after the founding of the Benedictine 
 monastery in 904, joined the Hanseatic League 
 in the 14th c, and was the capital of an inde- 
 pendent duchy. But it lost most of its privileges 
 in the 16th c, and in the 17th suffered much 
 from the Swedes and their enemies. From the 
 Brunswick-Liineburg princely line, founded in 
 1235, is descended the British royal family.— 
 South of Liineburg stretches for 50 miles the 
 Liineburg Heath, a grazing-ground for sheep, 
 
 Lunel, a town in the south of France, 14 miles 
 by rail NE. of Montpellier. Pop. 6494. 
 
 Luneville (Lu-nay-veeV), a town in the French 
 dep. of Meurthe-et-Moselle, at the confluence of 
 the Meurthe and the Vezouse, 20 miles by rail 
 SE. of Nancy. It was a residence of the Dukes of 
 Lorraine ; their palace is now a cavalry barrack, 
 this town being a great cavalry station. Here 
 was signed the peace of Luneville, on February 
 9, 1801, between Germany and France. The in- 
 dustry embraces gloves, hosiery, cottons, &c. 
 Pop. 19,100. 
 
 Lunkah, or Lanka (Sansk., 'island'), the 
 ancient name for Ceylon. Lunkah cheroots are 
 made in the Godavari delta. 
 
 Lurgan, a town of County Armagh, 20 miles 
 SW. of Belfast by rail. It manufactures cam- 
 brics, lawns, damasks, and diapers. Pop. 11,429, 
 
 Luristan, a mountainous province in the west 
 of Persia, Area, 15,060 sq. m. ; pop. about 300,000. 
 
 Lurlei. See Lorelei. 
 
 Lusatia {Lausitz), a region in Germany, on the 
 borders of Bohemia, now belonging in part to 
 Saxony and in part to Prussia. 
 
 Lushai Hills, a hill-country on the borders of 
 Assam and Burma. 
 
 Lusignan (M-zin-yan^, a picturesque town 
 in the French dep. of Vienne, 17 miles SW. of 
 Poitiers. It has a fine 11th-century church, but 
 its castle, associated with the fairy Melusine, was 
 razed by the Catholics in 1574. Pop. 2284. 
 
 Lusitania. See Portugal. 
 
 Luss, a village on the W. side of Loch Lomond, 
 12 miles N. of Dumbarton. 
 
 Luton, a market-town of Bedfordshire, on the 
 little Lea, among the Chiltern Hills, 31 miles by 
 rail NNW. of London. St Mary's Church, mixed 
 Decorated and Perpendicular in style, is a noble 
 structure, with a flint-work tower 90 feet high. 
 Luton is the chief seat in England of the straw- 
 plait (for hats, bonnets, &c.), an industry which 
 dates from the reign of James I., and employs 
 20,000 persons here and in the neighbourhood. 
 The Plait-hall (1869) is a flue building ; and there 
 are also a town-hall, corn exchange, people's 
 park, &c. Luton was re-incorporated as a muni- 
 cipal borough in 1876. Pop. (1851) 10,648 ; (1901) 
 36,404. See F, Davis, History of Luton (1855). 
 
 Lutterworth, a small town of Leicestershire, 
 on the Swift, 8 miles NNE. of Rugby. The fine 
 old church contains the pulpit and other relics 
 of Wyclif, who was rector from 1374 till his deatn 
 
LUTTICH 
 
 433 
 
 LYNN 
 
 on 28th December 1384. He was burled here, 
 but in 1428 liis remains were dug up and burned, 
 and the ashes cast into the Swift. 'This brook 
 conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon into Severn, 
 Severn into the narrow seas, they into the main 
 ocean; and thus the ashes of Wyclif are the 
 emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed 
 all the world over.' Pop. of parish, 1800. 
 
 LUtticli. See LifcE. 
 
 Llittrlnghausen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 5 miles SE. of Elberfeld. It manufactures cloth, 
 calico, silk, brandy, &c. Pop. 12,216. 
 
 Liitzen, a town of 4501 inhabitants, in Prussian 
 Saxony, 9 miles SE. of Merseburg. Two great 
 battles were fought in its vicinity— the first, a 
 brilliant victory of the Swedes, who lost, how- 
 ever, Gustavus Adolphus, 6th November 1632 ; 
 the second, on 2d May 1813, a victory of Napoleon 
 over the Russians and Prussians. 
 
 Luxemburg (Fr. Luxemho-urg ; old Ger. Liitzel- 
 burg), since 1815 an independent grand-duchy, 
 wedged in between France, Prussia, and Belgium. 
 It consists of a plateau, furrowed with valleys, 
 and connecting together the uplands of Lorraine, 
 the Forest of Ardennes, and the Eifel ; nearly 
 all its streams flow to the Moselle, which for 
 some 20 miles forms its eastern border. The 
 country is well wooded, yields wheat and wine, 
 and is rich in iron ore. Area, 998 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1871) 197,528 ; (1900) 236,543, nearly all Catholics, 
 and of Low German stock, though French is the 
 language of the educated classes. For commercial 
 purposes Luxemburg is included in the German 
 customs union. The grand-duke— the king of 
 Holland till 1890, and since then the Duke of 
 Nassau — is the head of the House of Orange- 
 Nassau. — The Belgian province of Luxemburg, 
 which down to 1839 formed part of the grand- 
 duchy, constitutes the south-eastern extremity of 
 the kingdom of Belgium. Area, 1706 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1902) 222,500. Chief town, Arlon.— Luxemburg, 
 the capital of the grand-duchy, by rail is 42 
 miles N. of Metz and 32 SW. of Treves. Its 
 situation has often been compared to that of 
 Jerusalem : the city stands on a rocky platform, 
 connected with the neighbouring country only 
 on the west, and elsewhere engirt by a steep 
 valley, 200 feet deep, in which nestle the indus- 
 trial suburbs of Klausen, Pfaflfenthal, and Grund. 
 The intermediate gorges are crossed by fine via- 
 ducts. The Spaniards, Austrians, French, and 
 Dutch, who successively held possession of the 
 town, increased and strengthened its fortifica- 
 tions, hewn, like those of Gibraltar, in great 
 part out of the solid rock. But they were de- 
 molished in accordance with the treaty of London 
 of 1867, and the site of the walls has been laid out 
 as beautiful gardens. There are in the town the 
 ruins of Count Mansfeld's palace, the cathedral 
 (1613), the government house, and the athenaeum. 
 There are manufactures of cotton, cloth, and 
 brandy, and a trade in woollen and leather goods. 
 Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Luxor. See Thebes. 
 
 Luzern. See Lucerne. 
 
 Luzon', the largest of the Philippines (q.v.). 
 
 Lybster, a fishing-village of Caithness, 13J 
 miles SW. of Wick. Pop. 610. 
 
 Lycaonia, a country anciently in Asia Minor, 
 bounded by Cappadocia, Galatia, Pisldia, Isauria, 
 and Cilicia. Its capital was Iconium. 
 
 Lycia, a country on the south coast of Asia 
 Minor, bounded by Caria, Phrygia, Pisldia, and 
 Famphylia. It is a mountainous region, formed 
 2b 
 
 by lofty spurs of the Taurus, which reach 10,000 
 feet in height ; the valleys are very fertile. 
 
 Lydd, a borough of Kent, 3.^ miles SW. of New 
 Ilonmey, gives name to lyddite. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Lydenburg, a mining- village in the Transvaal, 
 180 miles NW. of Delagoa Bay. 
 
 Lydia, anciently a country in the W. of Asia 
 Minor, celebrated for its fruitful soil and its 
 mineral wealth, particularly for the gold of the 
 river Pactolus. Sardis was the capital, and 
 Croesus its last king. 
 
 Lyme Regis, a seaport and watering-place of 
 Dorsetshire, at the mouth of the Lyme rivulet, 5 
 miles SE. of Axminster and 23 W. of Dorchester. 
 The Cobb breakwater, dating from the 14th cen- 
 tury, was reconstructed by government in 1825- 
 26. Chartered by Edward I., and incorporated 
 by Elizabeth, Lyme returned two members till 
 1832, and then one till 1868. It beat off Prince 
 Maurice (1644), and was Monmouth's landing- 
 place (1685). Natives have been Sir George 
 Somers, Captain Coram, and Miss Mary Anning, 
 the discoverer of the Ichthyosaurus and Plesio- 
 saurus in the Lias rocks here, which are largely 
 quarried. Pop. (1851) 2661 ; (1901) 2095. See 
 Roberts's History of Lyme Eegis (1834). 
 
 Lymington, a watering-place and municipal 
 borough of Hampshire, at the mouth of the 
 Lymington River in the Solent, 12 miles (by a 
 branch-line 18) SW. of Southampton. The salt- 
 works belong to the past; and yacht-building is 
 now the principal industry. It commands fine 
 prospects of the Isle of Wight, and its vicinity 
 abounds in charming scenery. Till 1867 it re- 
 turned two members, then till 1885 one. Pop. 
 (1851) 2651 ; (1901) 4165, the borough having been 
 extended in 1889. See works by Garrow (1825), 
 Grove (1835), and King (1879). 
 
 Lynchburg, a city of Virginia, lies in a pic- 
 turesque mountain-region, on the James River, 
 124 miles by rail W. by S. of Richmond. It is a 
 thriving place, with the electric light and electric 
 trams, and has manufactories of nails, cotton, 
 iron, farming implements, furniture, &c., besides 
 tobacco, which is the staple of the town's trade. 
 Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Lyndhurst, a Hampshire village, the capital 
 of the New Forest, 9 miles SW. of Southampton. 
 Its church (1863) is a brick Early English struc- 
 ture, with conspicuous spire, good stained glass, 
 a monument by Flaxman, and a fresco by Sir 
 Frederick Leigh ton of the 'Ten Virgins." Near 
 it is the Verderers' Hall, with Rufus's stirrup. 
 Pop. of parish, 2140. 
 
 Lynmouth. See Lynton. 
 
 Lynn, or King's Lynn, a seaport, parliamen- 
 tary and municipal borough of Norfolk, at the 
 mouth of the Great Ouse, 48 miles WNW. of 
 Norwich and 99 N. by E. of London. It still 
 retains traces of the ramparts and a fosse, which 
 once guarded it on the landward side, and abounds 
 in picturesque old timbered houses, ornamented 
 with carved work. Of its four churches the 
 principal are St Margaret's and St Nicholas. 
 Other features of interest are the octagonal Red 
 Mount Chapel ; the hexagonal tower of the Grey 
 Friars ; a grammar-school, founded in or before 
 Henry VIII.'s reign, at which Eugene Aram was 
 usher ; a guildhall, in which is preserved the 
 Red Register of Lynn, one of the earliest paper 
 books in existence ; custom-house (1683) ; hos- 
 pital (1834-47) ; museum (1854) ; library (1883) ; 
 technical schools (1894) ; and two extensive docks 
 (1869-84), admitting vessels drawing 21 feet at 
 
LYNN 
 
 434 
 
 LYTHAM 
 
 spring-tides. Trade is carried on in com, oil- 
 cake, coals, and timber, and shrimps are caught 
 and sent to London. In Edward I.'s reign Lynn 
 was one of the principal ports of the kingdom ; 
 in 1474 the Hanse merchants had a factory or 
 'steelyard ' here ; and in 1549 it was a flourishing 
 seat of cloth manufacture. In that year, during 
 Ket's rebellion, one body of tlie insurgents was 
 encamped here, and in 1643 the town capitulated 
 to the parliamentary force after three weeks' re- 
 sistance. King John (who in 1204 granted the 
 town its first charter), the dowager-queen Isabella 
 (see Castle Bising), Edward III., Henry VI., 
 Edward IV., Henry VIL, and Oliver Cromwell all 
 visited Lynn, which was the birthplace of Cap- 
 grave the chronicler, and the residence of Dr 
 Charles Burney. Pop. (1801) 10,096 ; (1901) 20,288. 
 See Richards's History of Lynn (2 vols. 1812). 
 
 Lynn, a city and port of Massachusetts, on 
 Mas.sachusetts Bay, 10 miles NNE. of Boston. 
 Most of the houses are built of wood ; among 
 them are many handsome villas belonging to 
 Boston merchants. The chief industry is the 
 manufacture of ladies' and children's shoes, 
 10,000,000 pairs sometimes in one year. There 
 are also large tanneries. Though founded in 
 1629, Lynn became a city only in 1850. A great 
 fire in 1889 destroyed property worth $5,000,000. 
 Pop. (1880) 38,274 ; (1900) 68,513. 
 
 Lynton and Lynmouth, two villages of North 
 Devon, on the Bristol Channel, 18 miles NE. of 
 Barnstaple. Lynmouth stands close to the sea, 
 and Lynton half-way up the cliH", 428 feet above. 
 They were 'discovered' in 1883, and have since 
 been developed, now possessing a cliff-railway 
 1000 feet in vertical ascent, electric light, nine 
 hotels, &c. Shelley stayed at Lynmouth in 1812, 
 and Southey called it 'the finest spot, except 
 Cintra and Arrabida, I ever saw.' Pop. 1700. 
 
 Lyonesse. See Scilly Islands. 
 
 Lyonnais, a former province of France, coin- 
 ciding nearly with the present deps. of Rhone, 
 Loire, Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-D6me. 
 ' Lyons (Fr. Lyon ; anc. Lugdimum), the second 
 city of France, stands at the confluence of the 
 Rhone and the Saone, by rail 315 miles SSE. of 
 Paris and 218 N. by W. of Marseilles. The com- 
 mercial and fashionable quarters of the city lie 
 on the long narrow tongue of land between the 
 rivers, and are connected with the suburbs be- 
 yond by more than twenty bridges. Tliis central 
 part of Lyons contains many narrow streets, 
 with tall gloomy houses ; but much has been 
 done to lighten it since 1852 by the making of 
 long straight, wide streets, and the opening up 
 of squares. In this district stand the nuiseum 
 (1667), with valuable Roman antiquities, a library 
 of 120,000 vols, and 1500 MSS., and art collec- 
 tions ; the clMrch of St Martin d'Ainay, dating 
 from the 10th century ; St Nizier Church, at first 
 the cathedral, a fine 15th-century Flamboyant 
 building; the graceful town-house (1646); the 
 museum of arts and industry ; the academy, 
 with five faculties ; the hospital, founded in the 
 6th century, though the pre.sent building dates 
 only from 1773 ; and the arsenal. To the north 
 lies the suburb of La Croix Rousse, where the 
 silk-weavers dwell. Across the Saone, and on 
 its right bank, is the steep, high suburb of 
 Fourviferes, the Forum Vetus of Trajan, whose 
 summit (410 feet) is now crowned by the church 
 of Notre Dame (the new church dates from 1872- 
 80). Here is the miracle-worlving image of our 
 Lady of Fourvi6res that is believed to have pre- 
 served the city from the cholera in 1832, 1835, 
 
 and 1850. From its tower, which is surmounted 
 by a gilded statue of the Virgin, 18 feet high, 
 a view can be had of the distant Alps. On this 
 elevated site too stands the church of St Irenajus, 
 in the crypt of which are preserved what purport 
 to be the bones of 19,000 Christian martyrs who 
 perished in the persecution by Severus. At the 
 foot of the hill next the Saone is the archi- 
 episcopal cathedral of St John, of the 13th and 
 14th centuries, with magnificent stained-glass 
 windows and a celebrated clock of 1598 ; the 
 palace of the archbishop, who ranks as primate 
 of France ; and the law-courts. On the left 
 bank of the Rhone, which is so low that it has 
 to be protected with embankments, is the hand- 
 some new suburb of Les Brotteaux, terminated 
 on the north by the park of the Tete-d'Or, in 
 which are an oriental museum, a zoological col- 
 lection, and a fine botanical garden. Lyons 
 possesses also a Roman Catholic University with 
 three faculties, a first-class veterinary school, a 
 school of art with 1200 pupils, of great value for 
 the silk manufactures, a school of the industrial 
 arts, a municipal library of 66,000 vols., and a 
 silk-conditioning house. The city is a fortress 
 of the first rank, being defended by a double 
 ring of forts. Pop. (1872) 301,868 ; (1901)441,799, 
 or, of the commune, 459,099. The staple indus- 
 try is the silk ; it is computed that there are 
 in all, within the city and its environs, from 
 75,000 to 85,000 hand-looms and 20,000 power- 
 looms employed in this manufacture. Silk-dye- 
 ing and printing give employment to nearly 4060 
 workmen ; 25,000 more are engaged in the vari- 
 ous chemical industries (dyes, starch, candles, 
 soap), machinery-making establishments, foun- 
 dries, brass-works, fancy-wares, gold and silver 
 goods, hats, paper, mathematical instruments, 
 &c. The position of Lyons makes it a great 
 emporium of trade between central and southern 
 Europe. Besides importing silk raw and export- 
 ing it manufactured, chiefly to Great Britain 
 and the United States, cotton is imported from 
 America and Egypt, and a large business done 
 in cloth and linen, chestnuts, coal, charcoal, 
 cheese, and wine and spirits. The list of notable 
 persons born in Lyons includes Germanicus and 
 the Roman emperors Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, 
 and Caracalla, Jules Favre, Roland, Say, Suchet, 
 the De Jussieus, Ampere, Mme. Recamier, Bon- 
 net, Delorme, Meissonier, and Jacquard. 
 
 Tlie Romans settled a colony here in 43 B.a 
 and made it the starting-point for their network 
 of highways through Gaul. The introduction of 
 the silk industry must be set down to Francis 
 I.'s credit. The Reformation, entering from 
 Geneva, had a short but violent reign ; the emi- 
 gration of the Huguenots struck a blow at the 
 industrial prosperity of the town from which it 
 took long to recover. In 1789 the city embraced 
 the cause of the Revolution, though royalist 
 feeling was also strong here. In 1792 it refused 
 obedience to the National Convention ; in re- 
 venge it was besieged, captured, its buildings 
 destroyed, its name changed (till 1794) to Ville- 
 Aftranchie, and 6000 of its citizens slain. Trade 
 riots in 1831, 1834, and 1849 assumed very for- 
 midable dimensions ; and since the war of 1870 
 Lyons has been a focus of red republicanism. 
 
 Lys, or Leye, rises near Lysbourg, in the 
 French dep. of Pas-de-Calais, and flows 130 miles 
 north-eastward to the Scheldt at Ghent. 
 
 Lytham, a Lancashire watering-place, on the 
 N. shore of the Ribble estuary, 14 miles W. of 
 Preston, and 7 SSE. of Blackpool. Pop. 720a . 
 
 I 
 
MAAM 
 
 435 
 
 nrAcoN 
 
 >AAM, a locality in Coiinty Gal way, in 
 a fine pass near the NW. end of Lough 
 Corrib. To the west are the Maain- 
 turk Mountains ; 8 miles N. is Maam- 
 trasna (2-207 feet high), giving name to 
 a district west of Lough Masic. 
 Maas. See Meuse. 
 Maastricht. See Maesteicht. 
 Mablethorpe, a Lincolnshire coast-village, 13 
 miles by rail (1888) SE. of Louth, with good sands 
 and a submerged forest. Pop. 940. 
 
 Macao (Ma-kd'o), a Portuguese settlement on the 
 south coast of China, and on the west side of the 
 Canton River estuary, Hong-kong being 40 miles 
 distant on the opposite side. The settlement 
 occupies a small peninsula projecting from the 
 SE. island of Hiang-shang. The islands Colovane 
 and Taipa also belong to the settlement, whose 
 total area is 4^ sq. m. and pop. 87,030 (less than 
 5000 Portuguese, the rest mostly Chinese). Tlie 
 principal public buildings are the cathedral and 
 churches. Great part of the revenue is derived 
 from licensed gambling-houses. The Portuguese 
 obtained permission to settle in Macao in 1557, 
 but the Chinese exacted an annual ground- 
 rent until 1886. The anchorage is defective; 
 large vessels cannot approach nearer than six 
 miles. Since the rise of Hong-kong the com- 
 merce of Macao lias suffered severely. Shortly 
 after it was declared a free port (1845) it became 
 the headquarters of the coolie trade, especially 
 with Peru and Cuba; but in consequence of 
 fearful abuses the British and the Chinese con- 
 strained the Portuguese government to abolish 
 the traffic in 1873. The imports include opium, 
 kerosene, piece goods, yarn, and provisions; the 
 exports, tea, oils, silk, and rice. In a grotto 
 here Camoens is traditionally believed to have 
 written his Lusiad. 
 
 Macassar, the most southern portion of Cele- 
 bes, contains the chief town and port, Macassar 
 (pop. 20,000), on the west coast. 
 
 Maccaluba, a small mud volcano, 138 feet in 
 height, situated 6 miles N. of Girgenti in Sicily. 
 
 Macclesfield, an ancient municipal borough 
 and important manufacturing town in the Mac- 
 clesfield parliamentary division of Cheshire, is 
 situated on the river Bollin, and on the western 
 declivity of a range of low hills, 15 miles SSE. 
 of Manchester and 167 NW. of London. Among 
 its buildings are the fine old church of St Michael, 
 founded by Queen Eleanor in 1278, the town- 
 hall (1823-70), the infirmary (1872), and King 
 Edward's grammar-school (1553), rebuilt in 1866, 
 and reorganised in 1880, with an endowment of 
 £2000 a year, which also supports a modern free 
 school. Macclesfield has a public park of 16 
 acres (1852), public baths, a free library, a tech- 
 nical school, a school of science and art, &c. 
 The old button trade belongs to the past, and 
 the silk manufacture, established in 1756, is now 
 the staple industry; cotton goods and small- 
 wares are also manufactured, and there are dye- 
 works and breweries. In the vicinity coal, slate, 
 md stone are obtained. Macclesfield possesses 
 line charters (the first by Prince Edward, Earl of 
 :!hester, in 1261), and returned two members 
 Irom 1832 till 1880, but was disfranchised in 1885. 
 ?op. (1851) 39,048 ; (1901) 34,624, See works by 
 :!orry (1817) and Earwaker (1877). 
 Macduflf. See Banff. 
 Macedonia, anciently the name of a country, 
 
 now part of Turkey, lying NW. of the jEgean Sea, 
 mountainous, witli fertile plains. Philip II. be- 
 came (338 B.C.) master of Greece ; his son, Alex- 
 ander the Great (356-323 B.C.), conquered half the 
 known world. Tlie present population is mainly 
 Bulgarian, with Greeks on the coast and in some 
 districts ; tlie Turks are not numerous. In con- 
 sequence of the opjiression of tlie Christian 
 population and the failure of Turkey to carry 
 out promised reforms, there have been troubles 
 and tlireatened revolt since 1875. These became 
 acute in 1903, when many encounters between 
 the antagonistic nationalities took place. In 
 1905 tlie Powers made a naval demonstration to 
 enforce upon Turkey the carrying out of financial 
 and other reforms. 
 
 Maceio (Masay'o), a port of Brazil, the capital 
 of Alagoas state, on a peninsula that .shuts in the 
 Lagoa do Norte from tlie sea. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Macerata (Matchayrdta), a cathedral town of 
 Italy, 44 miles S. of Ancona. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Macgillycuddy Reeks, a mountain group in 
 Kerry, west of tlie Lakes of Killarney ; Carran- 
 Tual (3414 feet) is the loftiest peak in Ireland. 
 
 Machrihanish, a bay on the west coast of 
 Kintyre, 5 miles across from Campbeltown, 
 famous for its golf links and as the wirele.s3 
 telegraph station (with tower over 400 feet high) 
 for trans-Atlantic messages. 
 
 Machynlleth (Ma-hun'tleth), one of the Mont- 
 gomery district of boroughs, on the Dovey, 21 
 miles NNE. of Aberystwith. Pop, 2040. 
 
 M'Keesport, a borough of Pennsylvania, on 
 the Monongahela River, at the mouth of the 
 Youghiogheny, 15 miles SE. of Pittsburgli. It 
 has flour, saw, and rolling mills, tubing factories, 
 glass-works, a distillery, &c. Natural gas is 
 u.sed. Pop. (ISSO) 8212 ; (1900) 34,227. 
 
 Mackenzie River, in Nortli America, has its 
 origin as the Athabasca (q.v.), in a Rocky Moun- 
 tain lake ill British Columbia, flows over 600 
 miles to Lake Athabasca, and 240 as the Slave 
 River to Great Slave Lake (q.v.). As tlie Mac- 
 kenzie River, it now conveys the waters of the 
 Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean at Mac- 
 kenzie Bay, after a final course which is reckoned 
 at 1045 miles, making a total river-system of 
 nearly 2000 miles. Its great tributaries, the 
 Liard and the Peace and Atliabasca rivers, drain 
 an immense fertile country, with abundance of 
 petroleum, and some coal and lignite. It was 
 discovered by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789. 
 The Mackenzie district has an area of 562,182 
 sq. in., and the population does not exceed 5250. 
 It is largely forested, and the climate is exces- 
 sively severe in winter. 
 
 Mackinaw, or Mackinac, an island 8 miles 
 long by 2 broad, in tlie Strait of Mackinaw, 
 which connects Lakes Huron and Michigan. 
 
 Mackinley, Mount, the highest mountain 
 in North America, is in Alaska, in lat. 63° 4' N. 
 and long. 151° W., and is 20,464 feet high. 
 
 Macon {Md-konO; Matisco of Caesar), the capital 
 of the French dep. of Saone-et-Loire, on the right 
 bank of the Saone, 41 miles by rail N. of Lyons. A 
 dull, modernised place, it has a twelve-arch bridge, 
 with a view of Mont Blanc ; a fragment of an old 
 cathedral, demolished at the Revolution ; the 
 fine Roman esque church of St Pierre (rebuilt 1 866) ; 
 and a statue of Lamartine, who was born here. * 
 It trades largely in wines known as Macon, like 
 
MACON 
 
 436 
 
 MADEIRA 
 
 but lighter than Burgundy, and manufactures 
 watches, brass, faience, &c. Pop. 18,497. 
 
 Macon (May'kon), capital of Bibb county, 
 Georgia, on tlie Ocmulgee, stands among forest- 
 clad hills, at the head of navigation, 103 miles 
 SSE. of Atlanta. It is the seat of Mercer Uni- 
 versity (Baptist) and a R. C. college, and has 
 foundries, flour and lumber mills, cotton-factories, 
 &c. Pop. 25,300. 
 
 Macjquarie Land, a grassy island, 20 miles 
 long, in the Antarctic Ocean, in 54° 30' S. lat. and 
 158° 50' E. long. It was discovered in 1811. 
 
 Macquarie River, a tributary of the Darling 
 in New South Wales, 750 miles long, named after 
 Governor Macquarie. 
 
 Macroom, a market- town on the Sullane, 25 
 miles W. of Cork. Pop. 3020. 
 
 Madagas'car, the third largest island in the 
 world, is situated to the SB. of Africa, and is 
 about four times as large as England and Wales. 
 It is in 12° 2'— 25" 35' S. lat. and 42°— 51° 40' E. 
 long. ; length, 978 miles ; greatest breadth, 350 
 miles ; area, 230,000 sq. m. It consists of two great 
 divisions — (1) an elevated interior region, almost 
 central, from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea ; and 
 (2) a comparatively level country surrounding 
 the high land, not much exceeding 600 feet in alti- 
 tude, althougli there are lofty mountains extend- 
 ing to the SE. corner of the island. The interior 
 highland comprises nearly half tlie total area ; the 
 highest mountain-mass, Ankaratra (9000 feet), 
 is probably an ancient volcano. The lower region 
 of Madagascar is fertile and well wooded, especi- 
 ally on the eastern side of the island, tliough a 
 large district in the south is barren. From tlie 
 SE. to the NW. and N. a series of extinct volcanic 
 craters has been traced, and there are many liot 
 springs. There are fine bays and harbours on the 
 NW. coast. All round the island is a nearly un- 
 broken belt of dense forest, 10 to 40 miles across, 
 and most largely developed in the NE. Tlie flora 
 of Madagascar is very rich and varied, and con- 
 tains large numbers of valuable timber trees. 
 Three-fourths of the species of plants are peculiar 
 to Madagascar, showing that the island is of very 
 great antiquity. The fauna contains several ex- 
 ceptional and ancient forms of life ; it is the home 
 of the Lemurs, including the Aye-aye, as also of 
 the chamseleons. The remains of an immense 
 struthious bird {Mpyornis) have been discovered, 
 as well as of an extinct hippopotamus. Tlie 
 Malagasy people appear to be mainly derived 
 from the Malayo-Polynesian stock, with some 
 Melanesian, African, and Arab admixture. Tlie 
 Hovas, the most civilised and powerful tribe, in- 
 habit the central province of Imerina. The 
 Sikalavas are found along the entire west coast. 
 Although there are many dialectic differences, 
 the language of the whole country is substantially 
 one, and is evidently nearly allied to those of the 
 Malayan and Melanesian islands. The pop. of 
 Madagascar is probably about 3,000,000. In their 
 heathen state they are very immoral and untruth- 
 ful, and cruel in war ; but they are also courage- 
 ous, aff'ectionate, and firm in friendship, law- 
 abiding and loyal, courteous and hospitable. 
 The capital, Antananarivo, has a pop. of about 
 100,000. The chief ports are Tamatave, on the 
 east coast, and Mojangi, on the north-west. 
 Amb6himanga in Imerina, and Fianarantsda in 
 B6tsil6o, are important places in the interior. 
 
 The principal exports (£165,000 per annum) of 
 Madagascar are cattle, hides, gum-copal, india- 
 rubber, rafla bast, rice, ebony, and other valuable 
 woods ; coffee, sugar, and vanilla are also culti- 
 
 vated. The chief imports (£165,000 per annum) 
 are cotton goods, ironmongery, crockery, and 
 rum. The principal trade is from the eastern 
 ports to Mauritius and Reunion, and there is also 
 now an increasing trade from the western side 
 with South Africa. Iron is abundant, copper and 
 tin exist, lead, silver, and gold are mined, sul- 
 phur is plentiful. The people excel in weaving, 
 in straw-work, in carpentry, and in the working 
 of gold and silver. 
 
 Madagascar was known to the Greeks as 
 Menuthias; it is first mentioned by Marco Polo as 
 Madeigascar or Magastar ; but the first European 
 who saw the island appears to have been the 
 Portuguese Fernam Soares in 1506. The Dutch 
 formed short-lived settlements ; the French, who 
 made vain but persistent eftbrts for nearly two 
 centuries to maintain military posts on the east 
 coast, hold the islands of Ste Marie (east coast) 
 and Nosibe (north-west coast) ; and in 1890 the 
 Englisli government formally acknowledged the 
 French protectorate of Madagascar, but this has 
 never been agreed to by the Malagasy govern- 
 ment. Up to the middle of the 17th century 
 Madagascar was divided into a number of inde- 
 pendent chieftaincies ; about that time, however, 
 the warlike S4kal4vas made themselves masters 
 of the western half of the island. But in the 
 early part of the 19th century the Hovas threw 
 off the Sakalava yoke, and, with the aid of 
 English arms and discipline, made themselves 
 masters of almost the whole of Madagascar, 
 Radaina I. abolished the export slave-trade, and 
 from 1820 encouraged English missionaries. But 
 under Queen Ranavalona I. the missionaries 
 and Europeans generally were obliged to leave 
 (1836), and a severe persecution of the native 
 Christians ensued. Madagascar was reopened to 
 Europeans at the accession of her son Radima 
 II. Queen RAnavalona II., and her husband, 
 the prime-minister, identified themselves with 
 Cliristianity in 1868 ; idols were burnt, and masses 
 of the people put themselves under instruction; 
 and erelong about 1600 Protestant Christian con- 
 gregations had been formed, with about 280,000 
 adherents, besides 1300 schools, with 100,000 
 scliolars. The Roman Catholics number some 
 50,000. In 1883 the French invaded Madagascar, 
 and two years afterwards it became a French pro- 
 tectorate. Another French expedition in 1895 
 forced Queen Ranavalona III. to confirm the 
 treaty of 1885. In 1896 the country was declared 
 a French colony ; and in 1897 the queen was de- 
 posed and exiled. The French regime, peaceful 
 and on tlie whole prosperous, has not been 
 favourable to Protestant missions, nor to British 
 trade with Madagascar. See works on Mada- 
 gascar by Ellis (1838, 1858, and 1870), Sibree 
 (1870-96), Oliver (1886), Grandidier (1876-1902), 
 Dawson (1895), Foucart (1899), Killer (1901), and 
 Matthews (1904). 
 
 Maddalo'nl, a city of Italy, 17 miles by rail 
 NNE. of Naples. Pop. 20,700. 
 
 Madeira iMadai/ra), the largest (38 miles by 
 15) of a small group of islands in the North 
 Atlantic, 390 miles NW. of Morocco, 1164 SW. 
 of the Lizard, and 535 SW. of Lisbon, Madeira 
 (Portuguese, ''timber'), first settled in 1419, is 
 treated as an integral province of Portugal, send- 
 ing representatives to tlie Cortes at Lisbon. 
 Pop. (1881) 132,223 ; (1905) 150,500. Madeira is 
 traversed by a mountain-chain running E. and 
 W., with deep ravines between the lateral ridges, 
 the most notable the ' Grand Curral,' which is 
 more than 2000 feet deep. The islands are of 
 
MADEIRA 
 
 437 
 
 MADRAS PRESIDENCY 
 
 volcanic origin ; there are three summits between 
 5895 and 6059 feet. Slight earthquakes occur. 
 The south is treeless and arid ; the north side is 
 more luxuriant and fertile, with wider areas of 
 cultivated ground ; in the north-west are undu- 
 lating grassy plains. The coasts are steep 
 and precipitous, the only harbour being that of 
 Funchal (q.v.) on the south coast, which is little 
 better than an open roadstead. The clouds, 
 attracted by the mountains, yield plenty of 
 moisture, and the climate is remarkable for its 
 constancy; mean temperature, 61° F. ; minimum, 
 50° F. ; while in the hottest days of summer it 
 seldom rises above SO" ; 90° is exceptional. The 
 average rainfall is 29 inches ; there are few really 
 wet days. The temperate and constant warmth of 
 its climate has made it a favourite resort for in- 
 valids affected by pulmonary disease. The fruits 
 and grains of Europe are cultivated on the lower 
 levels; the products include wheat, barley, 
 Indian corn, the potato, oranges, lemons, guavas, 
 mangoes, figs, and bananas. Travellers praise the 
 golden splendour of the wide expanses of gorse 
 and broom, and of the marvellous masses of 
 colour of the flora. ITiere are betAveen 300 and 
 400 genera of wild flowering plants. Wine, especi- 
 ally that known as Madeira, is the chief export. 
 The vines were nearly exterminated in 1852 and 
 succeeding years by oidium, but were soon re- 
 planted ; and oidium and the phylloxera have 
 since been kept in check by sulphur. Sugar- 
 canes flourish. The inhabitants are of mixed 
 Portuguese, Moorish, and Negro descent; they 
 are vigorous, lively, and industrious. A great 
 drawback to visitors is the absence of roads. 
 Loads are carried on the head by natives, and 
 hammocks and sledges drawn by bullocks are 
 used. Roman Catholicism is predominant. At 
 Funchal (q.v.) are the governor's palace, town- 
 hall, opera-house, lyceum, cathedral, JEnglish 
 church, and Scottish Free Church. 
 
 See works by White (2d ed. 1860), Grabham 
 (1869), Piazzi Smyth (1882), Miss Taylor (1882), 
 Yate Johnson (1885), Brown (1890), Fraser's 
 Magazine (1875), and Blackwood (1888). 
 
 Madeira, the great affluent of the Amazon, 
 has its origin in the confluence of the Mamore 
 and Guapore, at about 12° S. lat., the Beiii 
 joining 110 miles lower down. The river then 
 flows north-east to the Amazon, the distance 
 from its mouth to its flrst falls being 578 miles ; 
 above this point navigation is broken by a series 
 of nineteen falls, rapids, and cataracts. 
 
 Mad'eley, a Shropshire town, on the Severn, 6 
 miles NB. of Much Wenlock, and within the 
 municipal limits of Wenlock, with ironworks and 
 coal and iron pits. Pop, 10,000. 
 
 Mad'lson, (1) the capital of Wisconsin, founded 
 in 1836 on an isthmus between Lakes Mendota 
 and Monona, 82 miles W. of Milwaukee. It con- 
 tains the state capitol, university (founded in 
 1849, and open to both sexes), and lunatic asylum, 
 and has manufactures of flour, farming imple- 
 ments, machinery, &c. Pop. 19,426.— (2) Capital 
 of Jefl'erson county, Indiana, on the Ohio River, 
 86 miles by rail SSE. of Indianapolis. It has 
 flour-mills, boiler and engine works, steamboat- 
 yards, and manufactories of furniture and leather, 
 besides pork-packing establishments. Pop. 7936. 
 
 Madras' City (native Chemmpatnam) is situ- 
 ated on the Coromandel Coast of India in 13° 4' 
 N. lat. and 80° 17' E. long., and is the capital of 
 the presidency of the same name. The town, 
 originally a number of separate villages, extends 
 9 miles along the shore, and covers an area of 27 
 
 sq. m. The roadstead, in which till quite recently 
 all ships had to lie, is very much exposed ; a pier 
 was erected in l$59-62 ; a harbour (1876) was 
 seriously damaged in 1881, but greatly facilitates 
 the landing of cargo during rough weather— pass- 
 engers have no longer to cross the heavy surf in 
 going to or coming from steamers. The port is 
 liable to be visited by cyclones towards the end of 
 May and beginning of June, when the south-west 
 monsoon sets in, and in October, November, and 
 early December, during the prevalence of the 
 north-east monsoon. The climate is hot, moder- 
 ately dry, and on the whole healthy, the rainfall 
 averaging 49 inches, and the mean temperature 
 82° F. On the shore, midway between N. and S., 
 is Fort St George (1750), the original settlement. 
 North of the fort lies Black Town, which contains 
 most of the business offices and a crowded native 
 population ; south of it lies Triplicane, the chief 
 Mohammedan centre. Inland and to the extreme 
 south lie the houses chiefly occupied by Euro- 
 peans, most of which stand in large ' compounds ' 
 surrounded by trees. Madras cannot compete 
 with Calcutta or Bombay in magnificent public 
 buildings, yet Government House, the Chepauk 
 Palace, the Senate House, St Andrew's Kirk, St 
 George's Cathedral (with Chantrey's monument 
 to Bishop Heber), the Madras Club, the post- 
 office, and the new High Court buildings are 
 worthy of note. Many of the buildings are 
 rendered striking by the free use of polished 
 chunam made from shell lime. The Madras Uni- 
 versity, founded in 1857, is simply an examining 
 body, the teaching being done by affiliated colleges 
 throughout the presidency. In addition to col- 
 leges for the study of arts, medicine, and engineer- 
 ing, there are, in or near the city, a School of Art, 
 a College of Agriculture, a branch of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society, and a large museum, containing 
 very valuable collections of Indian coins and of 
 sculptured marbles from the Buddhist ' tope ' at 
 Amravati. The chief articles of export are coffee, 
 tea, cotton, grain, hides, indigo, oil-seeds, dye- 
 stuffs, sugar, and horns. Pop. (1871) 397,552; 
 (1901) 509,346, of wlioin between 4000 and 5000 
 were Europeans, 12,000 Eurasians, 54,000 Moham- 
 medans, and the rest chiefly Hindus. 
 
 Madras Presidency, one of the administra- 
 tive divisions of India, occupies the southern 
 part of the peninsula. It extends from lat. 20° 
 18' on the east coast and lat. 14° on the west 
 coast to Cape Comorin in lat. 8° 4'. The total 
 area, excluding native states, is 141,189 sq. m. ; 
 and the pop. in 1901 was 38,209,436. (The native 
 states have an area of 10,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 
 4,188,000.) Ofthese about 2^ millions are Moham- 
 medans, and 1,030,000 Clu-istians. Tlie principal 
 mountains belong to the Eastern and Western 
 Ghats. The former have an average height of 1500 
 feet, but rise in parts to 3000 or 4000 feet ; the 
 latter have a greater average height, with a num- 
 ber of peaks rising from 5000 to 8000 feet, and a few 
 even higher. A central tableland includes the 
 native states of Mysore and the Deccan, rising to a 
 height of from 1000 to 3000 feet. A very notable 
 geographical feature is the Palghdt Gap in the 
 Western Ghdts, 25 miles wide, and only 1000 feet 
 above sea-level. Through it passed the old trade- 
 route between the west and east coast, now 
 superseded by a railway, and through it the 
 south-Avest monsoon blows strongly, bringing 
 rain to a considerable area lying east of it. The 
 Neilgherry (Nilgiri) Hills, on Avhich at Ootaca- 
 mund is the summer seat of the government, 
 may be looked on as the junction of the Eastern 
 and Western Ghats. The chief rivers, the Goda- 
 
 L 
 
MADRID 
 
 MADURA 
 
 vari, Kistna, and Kaveri, all rise in the Western 
 Ghats, and cross the peninsula SE. to the Bay of 
 Bengal. Very extensive irrigation-works have 
 been carried out. Railway communication is ex- 
 tensive ; and there are good roads in most parts 
 of the presidency. The climate differs greatly in 
 different parts. Rice is the chief crop. Cotton 
 is grown in the drier parts, and tobacco of ex- 
 cellent quality is produced. Trichinopoly cigars 
 and cheroots are increasingly exported. On the 
 hills tea, cofTee, and cinchona are cultivated. 
 The manufacturing industry is represented by 
 cotton, sugar, gunny bags, paper, ice, and tiles. 
 Madras is not rich in minerals ; gold is found in 
 many parts ; excellent iron abounds ; but the 
 want of fuel prevents any great development of 
 the iron industry. Diamonds have been largely 
 found, chiefly in the Karnul district. The forests 
 are now protected by the state, and are of great 
 value, especially the teak forests. 
 
 The first English settlement was made at 
 Masulipatam in 1611 ; in 1616 on the west coast at 
 Calicut and Cranganore ; and in 1639 at Madras. 
 Christian missions have made more progress in 
 Madras than in any other part of India, there being 
 over 240 Christians in every 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Madrid' (Span. pron. Madh-reedh'), the capital 
 of Spain, is situated in the dep. of Madrid (part 
 of the ancient province of New Castile), in 40° 
 24' N. lat. and 3" 25' W. long., 880 miles by rail 
 from Paris. It is built on a treeless, ill- watered 
 plateau, on the left bank of the Manzanares, 20G0 
 feet above the sea-level. The Manzanares is 
 merely a mountain-torrent falling into the 
 Jarama, a tributary of the Tagus ; water is brought 
 from the Guadarrama Mountains by an aqueduct 
 42 miles in length. The sole recommendation of 
 Madrid as capital is its central position in the 
 Peninsula. Swept during winter by icy winds 
 from the snow-capped mountains on the north, 
 and exposed in summer to a burning sun, it has 
 a climate which, though dry and bright, shows 
 extreme variations of temperature (104° to 14°). 
 The average of the eight warmer months (March 
 to October) is 66° F., and that of the four remain- 
 ing ones 44°, but the difference at the same time 
 between sun and shade is sometimes as great as 
 20°. At the beginning of the 19th century the 
 pop. was about 160,000 ; in 1860 it was 298,000 ; 
 in 1870, 332,000 ; and in 1905, 550,000. Madrid 
 in the 10th century was known as Medina 
 Magerit, a fortified post of some importance on 
 the frontier of the Moorish kingdom of Toledo. 
 Retaken by the Christians of Castile in 939, it was 
 not finally conquered till 1085. On the high 
 ground where the royal palace now stands was 
 the stronghold that gave the place celebrity. 
 The city received its earliest charter in 1202, 
 and the Cortes were first held in it by Ferdi- 
 nand VI. (1309). Under Isabel the Catholic it 
 became a place of some importance owing to 
 the more frequent presence of the court. It 
 received such privileges from the Emperor Charles 
 V. that its pop. rose rapidly from 3000 to 
 6000 households. When in 1561 Madrid was 
 declared capital of Si)ain by Philip II., it con- 
 tained about 30,000 inliabitants. With the court 
 came the great nobles, Avho built palaces, and 
 innumerable 'friars, who established convents ; 
 nevertheless till the middle of the 17th century 
 the city presented a mean appearance. Philip 
 IV. made some improvements, and in his time 
 Madrid, though still unpaved and filthy, was 
 the seat of one of the most brilliant courts of 
 Europe. The greatest benefactor of the city was 
 Charl&v III., many of whose splendid works 
 
 still exist. Madrid, during the domination of 
 Napoleon, made a gallant attempt (1808) to 
 shake off the foreign yoke ; but although taken 
 by the allied forces imder the Duke of Wellington 
 in 1812, it was not finally rid of the French till 
 1813. Madrid, aided by the suppression of the 
 convents (1836), the introduction of railways 
 (1850), and an abundant supply of good water 
 (1858), has rapidly advanced in importance and 
 prosperity. 
 
 The general aspect of the city is clean and gay, 
 whilst the older parts are picturesque ; no trace 
 now remains of the mediaeval city. The new 
 streets are generally fine, broad, and planted 
 with trees ; the houses well built, lofty, and 
 inhabited by several families living in flats. A 
 great feature is the magnificent open spaces, chief 
 of which is the Prado, running north and south 
 through the eastern part of the city, and, with 
 its continuations, three miles long : it contains 
 four handsome fountains with groups of statuary, 
 a fine obelisk to commemorate the gallant struggle 
 of the citizens with the French (May 2, 1808), 
 monuments to Columbus, Isabel the Catholic, &c. 
 The picture-gallery here, founded by Charles III., 
 is one of the finest in Europe, and contains many 
 of the masterpieces of Velasquez, Murillo, Raphael, 
 Tintoretto, Rubens, Teniers, and Van Dyck. Two 
 other parks are the Buen Retiro, the fashionable 
 promenade on the east of the city, and the Casa 
 de Campo on the west. Midway between its ex- 
 tremities the Prado is crossed at right angles by 
 the Calle de Alcala, the finest street in the city, 
 about a mile in length, and leading from outside 
 the fine triumphal arch rebuilt by Charles III. 
 to the Puerta del Sol, the square which is the 
 heart of Madrid ; here converge the principal 
 tramway lines, and in it and the streets branch- 
 ing off from it are situated the principal shops 
 and places of business. The finest square is the 
 Plaza Mayor, formerly the scene of bull-fights 
 and autos-da-fe; it contains a gigantic equestrian 
 statue of Pliilip III., its founder. On the west 
 of the city are the new cathedral and the royal 
 palace ; the latter, commenced in 1738 to replace 
 the ancient Alcazar, which had been burned down, 
 was finished in 1764 at a cost of £3,000,000. 
 Other fine buildings are the palace of justice, 
 formerly a convent ; the houses of parliament ; 
 Buena Vista Palace, now the ministry of war ; 
 and the new national bank. Besides a flourish- 
 ing university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes, and 
 two high schools, Madrid contains 120 municipal 
 (besides pauper) schools, with an aggregate of 
 12,000 pupils. Madrid is well provided with 
 newspapers and public libraries, the chief being 
 the National Library, with more than half a 
 million volumes, and the library of the university. 
 The opera-house is one of the finest in the world ; 
 all the theatres must by law be lit by electricity. 
 The bull-ring, situated outside the gates on the 
 east, is a solid structure seating 14,000. Iron- 
 founding, and the manufacture of furniture, car- 
 riages, and fancy articles are carried on on a small 
 scale. The manufacture of tobacco employs many 
 hands, chiefly women. The publishing trade is 
 important, and books are well printed and cheap. 
 The old tapestry-factory still turns out beautiful 
 work, as do the potteries at Moncloa. 
 
 Madron, a Cornish town, 2 miles NW. of 
 Penzance. Pop. 3755. 
 
 Madu'ra, a maritime district of India, in the 
 south of Madras Presidency, is bounded E. by the 
 Gulf of Manaar ; it has an area of 8S0S sq. m., 
 and a pop. of 2,908,404. For nearly 2300 years 
 
MADURA 
 
 439 
 
 MAGENTA 
 
 Madura, its chief town (pop. above 102,000), was 
 the capital of the southernmost part of India. 
 
 Madura, a barren island of the Dutch East 
 Indies, separated by a narrow strait from the 
 north-east of Java (q.v.). Area, with some eighty 
 smaller islands, 2040 sq. m. ; pop. 1,773,948. 
 
 Maeander (now Bojitk Meiider), the ancient 
 name of a river of Asia Minor, rising in Phrygia, 
 and flowing 240 miles WSW. to the ^gean at 
 Miletus. Its windings, proverbial since Cicero's 
 day, are after all nothing remarlcable. 
 
 Maelstrom (' grinding stream '), a famous whirl- 
 pool or rather current between Moskenjis and 
 Mosken, two of the Lofoden Isles (q.v.). The 
 strait is regularly navigated at high tide and 
 low tide, though in one place the water is always 
 rough ; and in high winds is dangerous. Tales 
 (such as Poe's) of ships sucked down into the 
 vortex are mere fables. 
 
 Maeshowe, a chambered mound in the Main- 
 land of Orkney, 9 miles WNW. of Kirkwall. It 
 is 36 feet liigh and 92 in diameter, and probably 
 belongs to the Stone Age. 
 
 Maesteg, a town of Glamorganshire, on the 
 Llynvi, 9 miles NW. of Bridgend. Pop. 15,020. 
 
 Maestrlcht (Mdhs-trihht), the capital of the 
 Dutch province of Limburg, 19 miles NNE. of 
 Liege by rail, 19 WNW. of Aix-la-Cliapelle, and 
 152 SSE. of Amsterdam. It lies on the left bank 
 of the Meuse or Maas, a stone bridge (1683), 133 
 yards long, connecting it witli the suburb of 
 Wijk. Formerly an important fortress, it is still 
 a garrison town ; but the fortifications were 
 dismantled in 1871-78. The town-hall, with spire 
 and carillon (1662), contains many paintings and 
 a library ; and in the three-towered church of 
 St Servatius (12-1 4th century), the cathedral once, 
 is a ' Descent from the Cross,' by Van Dyck. 
 But Maestricht's great sight is the subterranean 
 quarries of the Pietersberg, formerly called 
 Mons HuiDiorum (330 feet). Their labyrinthine 
 passages, 12 feet wide, and 20 to 50 feet high, 
 number 16,000, and extend over an area of 13 by 
 6 miles. They are supposed to have been worked 
 first by the Romans, and, amongst other fossils, 
 have yielded two heads of the huge Mosasaurus. 
 The manufactures include glass, earthenware, 
 and carpets. Pop. (1876) 29,083; (1903) 35,320. 
 Maestricht, the Roman Trajectum ad Mosam, was 
 six times besieged between 1579 and 1814, and in 
 1830 witlLstood the insurgent Belgians. 
 
 Mafeking {Md-fe-king'), in the NE. corner of 
 British Becluianaland, near the Transvaal fron- 
 tier, and on the railway (1894) from Cai)etowu to 
 the northward — the future 'Cape to Cairo rail- 
 way;' famous for its defence by Baden- Powell 
 in the Boer war of 1899-1902. 
 
 Mafra, a town of Portugal, 20 miles NW. of 
 Lisbon. Pop. 3020. Tlie palace here (1717-31), 
 now a barrack, contains 866 rooms, and a library 
 of 50,000 vols. 
 
 Magadoxo, or Mukdishu, a port on the east 
 coast of Somaliland, 250 miles NE. of the mouth 
 of the Juba River ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Mag'dala, anciently a village of Palestine, on 
 the west shore of the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Magdala {Mag-d/ih'la), a hill- fortress of Abys- 
 sinia, 300 miles 'S. of Annesley Bay on the Red 
 Sea, stood perched on a plateau 9110 feet above 
 sea-level ; the stronghold of Theodore, taken and 
 destroyed by the English expedition in 1868 
 under Napier, created Lord Napier of Magdala. 
 
 Magdale'na, the principal river of Colombia, 
 
 rises in the Central Cordillera, only 8 miles from 
 the source of the Cauca. These streams flow 
 north on either side of the Cordillera, uniting 
 about 130 miles from the sea. The Magdalena, 
 which ends in a large delta, is closed to sea-going 
 vessels by a bar ; merchandise is conveyed by a 
 railway (18 miles) from Barranquilla to Puerto 
 Colombia, whence it is navigable for 500 miles. 
 
 Mag'dalen Islands, a small group near the 
 centre of the Gulf of St Lawrence, 54 miles NW. 
 of Cape Breton Island. The largest is Coffin's 
 Island. Pop. 5172. 
 
 Magdeburg (Mag-de-ioorg), the capital of Prus- 
 sian Saxony, and one of the chief fortresses of 
 the German empire, 90 miles by rail SW. of 
 Berlin and 72 N. of Leipzig. It lies in a cheer- 
 less country, on the left bank mainly of the 
 Elbe, which, here 280 yards wide, branches into 
 three channels, and forms two islands. On the 
 smaller of these still stands the Citadel (1683- 
 1702); but otherwise the old fortifications have 
 since 1866 been built over or converted into 
 promenades, their place being taken by a cordon 
 of thirteen forts. The cruciform Gothic cathe- 
 dral, rebuilt between 1207 and 1550, is 400 feet 
 long, and has two western towers 341 feet high. 
 It contains the tombs of the Emperor Otho the 
 Great, of his first wife, the English princess 
 Editha, and of Archbishop Ernest, whose monu- 
 ment (1497) is a masterpiece of Peter Vischer of 
 Nuremberg. In front of the town-hall (1691- 
 1866) is the equestrian statue of Otho (13th cen- 
 tury) ; and of several other monuments the most 
 noteworthy are the Soldiers' Memorial (1877) and 
 a statue of Luther (1886). The industries com- 
 prise huge ironworks, distilleries, cotton-mills, 
 &c. ; for sugar it is the first market of Germany. 
 Pop. (1875) 122,789 ; (1900) 229,670, of whom over 
 15,000 are Catholics, and 2000 Jew.s. Founded 
 by Charlemagne in 805, and refounded by Editha 
 after its destruction by the Wends in 924, Magde- 
 burg was in 968 made the seat of an arch- 
 bishopric, and had 40,000 inhabitants in 1524, 
 when, embracing the Reformation, it incurred 
 the combined wrath of emperor and primate. It 
 successfully withstood Maurice of Saxony (1550) ; 
 but during the Thirty Years' War it suff'ered fear- 
 fully. In 1629 it was vainly besieged for six 
 months by Wallenstein ; in May 1631, after an 
 heroic defence (2000 against 25,000), it was taken 
 by Tilly and burned to the ground, the cathedral 
 (reconsecrated for Catholic worship) being almost 
 all that remained after the three days' sack, in 
 which nearly the whole pop. of 36,000 perished 
 by fire or sword or drowning in the river. In 
 1648 the archbishopric was converted into a 
 secular duchy, and conferred on the House of 
 Brandenburg. In 1803 the French annexed it to 
 the kingdom of Westphalia ; but in 1814 it was 
 finally restored to Prussia. 
 
 Magee' Island (g hard), a low-lying peninsular 
 portion of County Antrim, nearly severed from 
 the mainland by Lough Larne. 
 
 Magellan (g hard). Strait of, separates South 
 America from Tierra del Fuego. It is 375 miles 
 long, and its breadth varies mostly between 12 
 and 17 miles. Discovered by Magellan in 1520, 
 it was explored by King and Fitzroy in the Adven- 
 ture and Beagle (1826-36). The narrower western 
 half is shut in by steep, wooded mountains ; the 
 current runs strong through it. See works by 
 Cunningham (1878) and Miller (1884). 
 
 Magenta, an Italian town, 18 miles W. of 
 Milan. Pop. 7573. Here, 4th June 1859, the 
 French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians. 
 
 k. 
 
iVEAGERO 
 
 440 
 
 MAINE 
 
 Magero, See North Cape, 
 
 Magersfontein, on the frontiers of Griqnaland 
 West and the Orange River Colony, where in 
 December 1899 Lord Methuen failed to carry the 
 Boer entrenchments. 
 
 Maggiore, Lago (Madjo'ray), one of the largest 
 lakes in Italy, is partly in the Swiss canton of 
 Ticino, It is 39 miles long, and J mile to 5J 
 miles broad, lies 646 feet above sea-level, and has 
 a maximum depth of 1250 feet. The river Ticino 
 flows through it. In a south-western expansion 
 of the lake are the Borromean Isles (q.v.). 
 
 Maghera (Mah'cra), a market-town of London- 
 derry, 44 miles NW. of Belfast. Pop. 879. 
 
 Magne'sia, an ancient city of Ionia in Asia 
 Minor, nearly 10 miles NE. of Miletus, in the 
 valley of the Mseander. Here stood a famous 
 temple of Artemis ; and here Themistocles died 
 (449 B.C.). It was called Magnesia ad Mseandrum, 
 to distinguish it from Magnesia ad Sipylum, 
 which stood on the Hermus, near Mount Sipylus ; 
 this is the modern Manissa (pop. 50,000), 41 miles 
 NB. of Smyrna by rail. 
 
 Magus Muir, a place in Fife, 3^ miles WSW. of 
 St Andrews, the scene in 1679 of Archbishop 
 Sharpe's murder. 
 
 Mahabaleshwar, the chief sanatorium of 
 Bombay Presidency, on the eastern slope of the 
 Western Ghats, at a height of 4717 feet, and 74 
 miles S. of Poona ; pop. 3500. 
 
 Mahanadl (' the great river '), a river of India, 
 rises in the Central Provinces. After an east- 
 ward course of 520 miles, 300 of which are navi- 
 gable, having divided into several branches near 
 Cuttack, which forms the head of its delta, it 
 falls by several mouths into the Bay of Bengal. 
 
 Mahanoy' City, a mining-town of Pennsyl- 
 vania, 109 miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia, 
 with collieries and manufactories. Pop. 13,286. 
 
 Mah6, the only French settlement on the west 
 coast of India, in the Malabar district, 35 miles 
 NNW. of Calicut. Area, 3| sq. m. ; pop. 9280. 
 
 MaW Kantha Agency, a group of fifty-two 
 native states in Bombay Presidency. Of the total 
 area of 9300 sq. m., nearly half belongs to the 
 state of Edar or Idar. Pop. 381,568. 
 
 Mahon. See Port Mahon. 
 
 Malda Hill, a NW, suburb of London. 
 ■^ Maidenhead, a municipal borough and mar- 
 ket-town of Berkshire, is situate amidst beauti- 
 ful scenery, 13 miles E. by N. of Reading, and 26 
 W. of London, on the right bank of the Thames. 
 It was the scene in 1399 of an engagement between 
 the rival forces of Richard II. and Henry IV., 
 and in 1647, at the Greyhound Inn, of the inter- 
 view of Charles I. with his children. On the 
 opposite, or Bucks, side of the river is Taplow 
 (pop. 1029), whose wooded slopes are crowned by 
 Cliveden (q.v.). Maidenhead has a recreation 
 ground of 12 acres, opened in 1890. Pop. (1851) 
 3697 ; (1901) 12,980. 
 
 Maidstone, the county town of Kent, on the 
 right bank of the Medway, 34 miles ESE. of 
 London by road (41 i by rail), and 25 W. of 
 Canterbury. At its west entrance, overlooking 
 the river, which is spanned by a three-arch stone 
 bridge, built 1877-79 at a cost of £55,000, stand 
 the picturesque remains of All-Saints' College, 
 originally established in 1260 as a hospital for 
 pilgrims travelling to Canterbury. Close by is 
 All-Saints' Church, a fine example of the Per- 
 pendicular style, built towards the end of the 
 14th century. Schools of art and music occupy 
 
 a former palace of the archbishops of Canter- 
 bury ; and other features of interest are a gram- 
 mar-school, founded 1549, and rebuilt on a new 
 site, 1871 ; museum and public library, estab- 
 lished 1858 in Chillington House ; town-hall 
 (1764) ; county jail (1812-19) ; hospital (1832-89) ; 
 cavalry and militia barracks ; corn exchange 
 (1835) ; and a public park on Penenden Heath to 
 the NB. of the town. Lining the river-banks are 
 numerous paper-mills and a large oil-mill, whilst 
 several breweries are in operation, and an import- 
 ant traffic is carried on in hops. Maidstone re- 
 turned two members till 1885, when the number 
 was reduced to one, and was first incorporated 
 as a municipal borough in 1548. Pop. (1801) 
 8027 ; (1831) 15,387 ; (1901) 33,516. Maidstone 
 was stormed in 1648 by Fairfax. Woollett the 
 engraver, Hazlitt the essayist, and Newman 
 Hall were natives ; and Sir Thomas Wyatt the 
 poet lived at Allington Castle, 2 miles distant. 
 See works by J. M. Russell (1881) and the Rev. 
 J. Cave-Browne (1889). 
 
 Maimana (Mi'mana), a mountainous state 
 tributary since 1874 to Afghanistan, situated on 
 the northern frontier next Russian Turkestan. 
 Area, 4750 sq. m. ; pop. of 100,000, mostly warlike 
 Uzbegs and Tajiks. The capital is "Maimana 
 (pop. 2500). 
 
 Maimansingh, a district of Eastern Bengal, 
 the capital of which is Nasirabad. Area, 6382 
 sq. m. ; pop. 3,917,500. 
 
 Maimatchin (Ml-ma-cheen'), a Chinese trading- 
 town on the northern boundary of Mongolia, 
 opposite Kiachta (q.v.). Pop. 300*0. 
 
 Main (Ger. pron. Mirie), the largest afiluent the 
 Rhine receives from the right, is fonned by the 
 union of two branches, the White and the Red 
 Main, 4 miles below Kulmbach, in north-east 
 Bavaria. The river flows westwards by huge 
 zigzags past Bamberg, Schweinfurt, WiiVzburg, 
 Aschaffenburg, Hanau, Offenbach, and Frank- 
 fort, and mingles its yellow waters with the 
 green current of the Rhine opposite Mainz, after 
 a total course of 307 miles (205 navigable). The 
 chief affluents are, on the right, the Saale, and 
 on the left, the Regnitz. The Main flows 
 through a beautiful country, the castled hill- 
 slopes covered Avith vineyards. Its waters com- 
 municate with those of the Danube by the 
 Ludwigs-Kanal and the Altmiihl. The Main 
 separates North Germany from South Germany. 
 
 Maine, an old French province (capital, Le 
 Mans), with Normandy on the N., Brittany on 
 the W., and Anjou on' the S., corresponding to 
 the modern deps. of Sarthe and Mayenne. 
 
 Maine, the north-easternmost state of the 
 American Union, is bounded by the Canadian 
 provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick, the 
 Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Maine), and New Hamp- 
 shire. Area, 33,040 sq. m. (somewhat larger than 
 Ireland), of which one-tenth is water, there being 
 many large and fine lakes (Moosehead, Chesun- 
 cook, Schoodic, Grand, Sebago, &c.) and import- 
 ant rivers (Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, 
 Saco, St Croix, Aroostook, and Walloostook or 
 St John). Measured in a direct line the coast 
 extends some 270 miles, but counting sinuosities 
 and the island-shores about 2500 miles. The 
 rocky coast-line, broken by the force of the 
 waves and trenched in bygone ages by glaciers, 
 forms almost a hundred harbours. Towards the 
 south-west the shore is sandy, with salt-marshes. 
 In the north-central regions and the west the 
 surface is mountainous. Tlie highest mountain 
 is Katahdin (5385 feet). The soil is mostly stony 
 
MAINE-ET-LOIRE 
 
 441 
 
 MAJUBA HILL 
 
 and hard, as in New England generally, but some 
 sections are very fertile — e.g. the Aroostook region 
 in the north-east. The northern portion of the 
 state is densely wooded and very sparsely 
 peopled. Granite and lime are largely produced ; 
 traces of coal are found ; and there are local 
 beds of valuable graphite. Silver, copper, felspar, 
 flagstone, excellent slate (in vast quantities),lead 
 ores, talc, manganese, &c., are all wrought more 
 or less. Mineral waters are shipped in large 
 quantities. The cool climate and the oppor- 
 tunities for fishing and shooting make this state a 
 favourite summer-resort. The winter climate is 
 severe for the latitude. The leading crops are 
 hay, potatoes, apples (of excellent quality), and 
 the ordinary grains and small fruits. The 
 sweet varieties of maize (sugar-corn) are exten- 
 sively cultivated. The rainfall is copious. The 
 rivers afford an enormous water-power. Tim- 
 ber, building-stone, ice, cattle, wool, and farm 
 products are shipped. Maine has considerable 
 shipbuilding (more than any other state), and 
 the coasting trade is carried on largely. The 
 fishing interests are extensive. The principal 
 manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, 
 leather, boots and shoes, flour, paper, and foun- 
 dry products, lumbering, shipbuilding, the can- 
 ning of fruit and lobsters, &c. The chief towns 
 are Portland, Lewiston, Bangor, Biddeford, 
 Auburn, Augusta (the state capital), Bath, Rock- 
 land, &c. The Maine Liquor Law, one of the ear- 
 liest of the stringent Liquor Laws of the United 
 States, was enacted in 1851. The population is 
 mainly of the English Puritan stock of New Eng- 
 land. Pop. (1820) 298,335; (1860) 628,279; (1880) 
 648,936 ; (1900) 694,466, including many French- 
 speaking Canadian immigrants, and a few Indians. 
 Early Dutch, English, and French attempts at 
 settlement were failures ; the Puritan settlements 
 of 1624 and 1630 proved permanent. Western 
 Maine was long part of Massachusetts state (till 
 1820); and eastern Maine until 1691 formed a 
 part of Acadia or Nova Scotia. Maine became 
 a state in 1820. See G. J. Varney, Brief History 
 o/Maiue (Portland, 1889). 
 
 Malne-et-Loire (Mayn-ay-Liudr), a French dep. 
 formed out of the old province of Anjou, and 
 watered by the Maine and Loire, is divided into 
 the arrondissements of Angers (the capital), 
 Beauge, Cholet, Saumur, and Segre. Area, 2749 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 518,471 ; (1901) 514,658. 
 
 Mainpuri (Mine-poo'ree), a town of the Indian 
 province of Agra, 75 miles E. of Agra. Pop. 
 20,000. fa F 
 
 Mainz (Ger. pron. Mlntz; Fr. form Mayence; 
 old-fashioned English form Mentz), an imperial 
 fortress of the first rank, in the grand-duchy of 
 Hesse, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the 
 junction of the Main, 22 miles WSW. of Frankfort. 
 The Rhine is here crossed by a stone bridge (super- 
 seding in 1885 the former pontoon bridge) to the 
 village of Kastel, included in the fortifications, and 
 by an iron railway bridge, 140 yards long, to the 
 port of Gustavsberg, at the mouth of the Main. 
 Pop.' (1875) 56,421 ; (1900) 84,251, of whom two- 
 thirds are Ron^an Catholics ; in the 14th century 
 it is said to have reached 90,000. Mainz is one of 
 the most ancient cities in Germany ; but its oldest 
 part, Kdstrich, has been rebuilt in a modern 
 style since its almost total destruction in 1857 
 by the explosion of a powder-magazine ; while 
 a handsome new quarter has sprung up on the 
 north, in the space afforded by the advancing 
 of the fortifications in 1874. The cathedral, 
 originally built in 978-1009, was thrice destroyed 
 
 by fire, and dates in its present form from the 
 13-14th century. In 1870-78 it was thoroughly 
 restored, and the present central Romanesque 
 tower, 270 feet high, built. There are also the 
 18th-century palace of the grand-duke, an arsenal 
 of 1736, and the large red-sandstone electoral 
 palace, with a library of 150,000 vols., and the 
 Romano-German Museum, a matchless anti- 
 quarian and historical collection. Mainz is an 
 important centre of the Rhine trade with Hol- 
 land and Belgium, and also carries on a very 
 large transit trade by railway. Great harbour- 
 works, docks, and storehouses, were opened in 
 1887 at a cost of £250,000 ; while the Rhine is 
 skirted by a broad quay, four miles long. Furni- 
 ture, leather goods, machinery, musical instru- 
 ments, chemicals, gold and silver ware, hats, 
 soap, &c., are among the manufactures ; and 
 brewing, printing, and market-gardening in 
 the environs are also important industries. 
 In 13 B.C. Drusus built here the fort of Mogunt- 
 iacum or Maguntiacum. The real importance 
 of the town dates, however, from the Prank- 
 ish emperors. In the 13th century Mainz was 
 the head of the confederacy of the Rhenish cities, 
 but in 1462 it was added to the domains of the 
 archbishops of Mainz, the premier spiritual elec- 
 tors of the empire. The city was several times 
 in the possession of France, notably in 1801-14. 
 In 1816 it was assigned to Hesse-Darmstadt, but 
 to remain a federal stronghold, garrisoned by 
 Prussian and Austrian troops. After 1866 it was 
 held by Prussian troops, until in 1870 it was 
 declared an imperial German fortress. Mainz 
 was the birthplace of Gutenberg. 
 
 Maitland, a town of New South Wales, 93 miles 
 NNE. of Sydney by rail, and 20 NW. of New- 
 castle. It is divided by the Hunter River into 
 Bast and West Maitland, which are separate 
 municipalities. The town is the see of a Roman 
 Catholic bishop ; and West Maitland has mills, 
 coach-building, tobacco, and boot factories. Good 
 coal abounds in the neighbourhood. Pop. of the 
 two municipalities, 12,000. 
 
 Maiwand, 50 miles NW, of Kandahar, where 
 an English army was defeated by Ayub Khan, 
 27th July 1880. 
 
 Majorca (Ma-yor'ca), or Mallorca, the largest 
 of the Balearic Isles (q.v.), lies about 100 miles 
 from the Spanish coast, and 150 N. of Algiers. 
 It is 60 miles long by 40 broad, and 1310 sq. m. 
 in area. In the north there are mountains reach- 
 ing 3500 to 5000 feet. The hillsides are terraced ; 
 olive groves abound everywhere, and vine, abnond, 
 orange, fig, and other fruit trees are common. 
 The soil is extraordinarily fertile, and is culti- 
 vated with marvellous patience and skill by 
 the inhabitants, who manufacture cloth, cotton 
 goods, ropes, silk, soap, shoes, &c. There are 
 railways (total 48 miles) connecting the capital, 
 Palma (pop. 65,052), with Manacor (19,570), and 
 La Puebla (5680). The marshes of Albufera (5000 
 acres) were drained by a London company in 
 1865-71. Raymond LuUy was born at Palma ; 
 at Valdemosa' George Sand resided in 1838 ; and 
 at Miramar is the beautiful seat of an Austrian 
 archduke. Large quantities of lustred ware 
 (Majolica) were exported in the 15th century ; a 
 little is still made. Pop. 253,650. 
 
 See Bidwell's Balearic Isles (1876)", the sump- 
 tuous Balearenin Wortund Bild (5 vols. 1869-84), 
 by Archduke Ludwig Salvator ; and C. W. Wood, 
 Letters from Majorca (1889). 
 
 Maju'ba Hill, in the extreme north of Natal, 
 was the scene of the defeat of 648 British troops. 
 
 I. 
 
MAKO 
 
 442 
 
 MALDON 
 
 with the loss of their leader, Sir George CoUey, 
 by a greatly superior force of Transvaal Boers 
 on 27th February 1881. 
 
 Mako, a market-town of Hungary, on the 
 Maros, 19 miles ESB. of Szegedin. Pop. 35,663. 
 
 Malabar', a district (5585 sq. m.) on the south- 
 west coast of India, in the Presidency of Madras. 
 Pop. 2,852,565, over two-thirds Hindus, and one- 
 fourth Mohammedans. The name is applied to 
 the whole SW. coast of Southern India. 
 
 Malac'ca, or Malay Peninsula, anciently 
 the Golden Chersonese, the long strip of land 
 extending from Indo-China S. and SB. towards 
 Sumatra. The peninsula begins at the head 
 of the Gulf of Siam, and thus includes part 
 of Siam proper and Tenasseriin in Burma ; but 
 it is usual to limit the name to the portion 
 south of the river Pakshan, the frontier of 
 Tenasserim. In the larger sense Malacca extends 
 from 13° 30' to 1° 16' N. lat., and its area is 
 75,000 sq. m., of which 40,000 belong to Siam, 
 and the remainder to the Straits Settlements 
 and their dependencies, the protected states. 
 The width varies from 44 miles at the isthmus 
 of Kra to 210 at Perak. The interior consists 
 mainly of magnificently- wooded mountain-ranges, 
 disposed parallel to the long axis of the peninsula 
 (Mount Riam is 8000 feet high), while along the 
 coast there are mangrove swamps, half-a-dozen 
 miles deep, backed by low fertile plains reaching 
 to the mountains. A double belt of islands runs 
 along parts of both coasts. The peninsula is 
 the richest tin-yielding region in the world. The 
 tin ore occurs in con,j unction with gold and silver ; 
 iron and coal exist, the former in great quantity. 
 The climate is pretty uniform all the year round. 
 The low districts are hot and moist, and neither 
 they nor the highlands are healthy for Europeans. 
 Rain falls on 190 days in the year. Pop. 1,200,000 
 — 800,000 in British territory and dependencies. 
 They are mainly Siamese in the north, civilised 
 Malays along the coast and in the south, and 
 uncivilised Malays, mixed with aboriginal Negrito 
 tribes, in the interior. The crops chiefly culti- 
 vated are rice, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, yams, 
 batata, and cocoa and areca nuts. Politically, 
 Siam extends as far south as 5° 30' on the west 
 coast, and to 4° on the east coast. The southern 
 portion embraces the British settlements Penang, 
 Malacca, and Singapore, all treated in separate 
 articles, and the protected states (Johore, Perak, 
 &c.). See Miss Bird's Golden Chersonese (1883), 
 and Keane's Malay Peninsula (1887). 
 
 The Strait of Malacca separates the Malay Pen- 
 insula on the north-east from the island of 
 Sumatra on the south-west, and connects the 
 Indian Ocean with the Chinese Sea. It is 480 
 miles long, and from 30 to 115 broad. 
 
 Malacca, one of the British Straits Settle- 
 ments, on the SW. coast of the Malay Peninsula, 
 100 miles from Singapore. It is 42 miles in 
 length, and from 8 to 25 broad. Area, 659 sq. m. ; 
 population, 100,000. The coast-lands are flat and 
 swampy ; inland there are low hills. Besides rice, 
 the chief products are tapioca, pepper, fruits, 
 &c. Tin is mined. The mean annual rainfall 
 varies from 68 to 91 inches. The town of Malacca 
 (the capital), at the mouth of a small river, has a 
 pop. of 20,000, and contains the churcli of Our 
 Lady del Monte, the scene of the labours of St 
 Francis Xavier. Malacca was taken by the Portu- 
 guese in 1511 ; became a Dutch possession in 
 1641, and fell in 1795 into the hands of the British, 
 who restored it to the Dutch in 1818 ; but they 
 returned it to Britain in 1824. 
 
 Maladetta ('accursed'), a great mountain of 
 the Pyrenees, 12 miles SE. of Bagneres de Luchon, 
 containing the highest peak of the whole range, 
 the Pic de Nethou (11,170 feet). 
 
 Ma'laga, a Spanish seaport on the Mediter- 
 ranean, 65 miles NB. of Gibraltar. Sheltered on 
 the north and east by mountains, and with a 
 wonderfully dry, sunny, and equable climate 
 (56° to 82° P.), this place is an admirable health- 
 resort. The only noteworthy buildings are the 
 cathedral (1528-1765 ; still unfinished) and the 
 Moorish castle (13th c. ; on the site of a former 
 Phoenician stronghold). Malaga is one of the 
 most important seaports of Spain, though disease 
 in vines and orange and lemon groves, heavy octroi 
 duties, unscientific methods of agriculture and 
 of extracting olive-oil, have caused depression. 
 The exports include olive-oil, wine, raisins, lead, 
 almonds, lemons, grapes, chick peas, and esparto 
 grass ; the imports, cotton, timber, coal, petro- 
 leum, sugar, and codfish. The harbour is pro- 
 tected by two large moles. The manufactures 
 comprise cotton and linen goods, machinery, art 
 pottery, flour, soap, &c. Pop. (1900) 130,200. 
 Founded by the Phoenicians, and the Malaca of 
 tlie Romans, the town was an important city 
 under the Moors, down to 1487, when it was 
 captured by P'erdinand and Isabella.— Ai-ea of 
 province of Malaga, 2836 sq. m. ; pop. 512,000. 
 
 Malar, Lake, most beautiful of Swedish lakes, 
 is 80 miles in length from E. to W., and has 
 numerous long narrow arms and offsets ; area, 
 650 sq. m. It is studded with over 1200 wooded 
 islands. Its east end is close by Stockholm, 
 where its waters are jjoured into the Baltic. 
 
 Malatla (anc. Melitene), a town in the province 
 of Diarbekir in Asia Minor, 8 miles from the 
 Euphrates. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Malay Peninsula. See Malacca. 
 
 Mal'degem, a town of Belgium, 12 miles by 
 rail E. of Bruges. Pop. 8522. 
 
 Maiden, a village of Surrey, 3 miles SB. of 
 Kingston-upon-Tliames. The manor-house and 
 estate here of Bishop Walter de Merton was the 
 original endowment (1264) of Merton College at 
 Oxford. New MaMen is 2 miles E. of Kingston, 
 of which it is practically a suburb. 
 
 Maiden, a town of Massachusetts, 5 miles by 
 rail N. of Boston. It manufactures india-rubber 
 goods, cords and tassels, sand-paper, &c. Pop. 
 (1880) 12,017 ; (1900) 33,664. 
 
 Maiden Island, a British possession in the 
 Central Pacific, NW. of the Marquesas. It is a 
 coral island 5 miles long by 4 broad, and has 
 deposits of guano. Pop. 168. 
 
 Maldive Islands, a chain of coral atolls in 
 the Indian Ocean, lying SW. of Ceylon, 550 miles 
 in length by 45 in breadth ; the seventeen groups 
 embrace several hundred islands, all small, with 
 a total pop. of 30,000. Less than 200 are inhabited. 
 Male (pop. 2000), the residence of the Sultan, is 
 1 mile long. The people are closely akin to the 
 Singhalese. They are Mohanunedans by religion, 
 and are peaceful, affectionate, and cleanly. Coir, 
 cowries, dried bonito fisli, cocoa-nuts and copra, 
 and tortoise-shell are exported. Ibn Batuta lived 
 on the islands in 1343-44. The Portuguese had 
 factories there after 1518. Since 1645 they have 
 been dependent on Ceylon. 
 
 Maldon, a municipal borough of Essex, 9 miles 
 E. of Chelmsford and 38 NE. of London (by rail 
 44), stands on a hill near the confluence of the 
 Chelmer and the Blackwater, in the vicinity of 
 which traces are still extant of a Roman encamp- 
 
MALDON 
 
 443 
 
 MALTA 
 
 ment. It has two flue churches, and a quaint 
 town or moot hall dating frona the reign of 
 Henry VI., and manufactures salt; near it are 
 oyster-fisheries. From 1328 to 1807 Maldon re- 
 turned two members to parliament, and thence 
 to 1885 one. Pop. (1801) 2358 ; (1901) 55G5. 
 
 Maldon, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, 80 
 miles NE. of Melbourne. It is the centre of a 
 good gold district. Pop. 3600. 
 
 Maldona'do, a coast dep. in Uruguay ; area, 
 1584 sq. m. ; pop. 27,000.— Also a fortified seaport 
 in same department ; pop. 2500. 
 
 Malines (Md-leen'), or Mechlin (Flem. Mech- 
 elen), a city of Belgium, on the navigable Dyle, 
 14 miles SSE. of Antwerp. It has fine squares, 
 noble buildings, and wide regular sti'eets, but 
 is devoid of all signs of life and industry. As 
 the see of the primate of Belgium it still retains 
 a certain degree of ecclesiastical importance, and 
 possesses numerous churches, the most note- 
 worthy of which is St Rombold's cathedral, a 
 vast building, covering nearly two acres, its 
 interior adorned with Van Dyck's ' Crucifixion ' 
 and many other fine pictures and carvings. It 
 was mostly built in 1437-52, but its clock-tower, 
 324 feet high, remains unfinished. The churches 
 of St John and of Our Lady contain works by 
 Rubens ; the town-hall dates from the 15th cen- 
 tury ; the Cloth Hall (1340) is now used as a 
 guard-house; noteworthy also are the splendid 
 modern archiepiscopal palace, the Beguinage, the 
 Salni inn (1534), and the monument to Margaret 
 of Austria (1840). The manufacture of i>illow- 
 lace, so famous in the 17th century, has been 
 largely transferred to Brussels and elsewhere ; 
 but linen and woollen fabrics, beer, needles, &c. 
 are made here. Pop. 57,000. 
 
 Mallaig, a hamlet in the NW. corner of Morar, 
 Inverness-shire, where Loch Nevis unites with 
 the Sound of Sleat, the terminus of an extension 
 from Fort William, opened in 1901, of the West 
 Highland Railway. 
 
 Mailing, West, a market-town of Kent, 5^ 
 miles NW. of Maidstone. It has remains of 
 a Benedictine nunnery (1090). Pop. of parish, 
 2320. See a work by C. H. Fielding (1893). 
 
 Mallow, a watering-place of Ireland, beauti- 
 fully situated on the left bank of the Blackwater, 
 20 miles by rail N. by W. of Cork. Across the 
 river is the suburb of Ballydaheen. The town 
 is resorted to in summer on account of its tepid 
 mineral waters, and contains a neat spa-house. 
 Close by is the ivied ruin of the Desmonds' castle, 
 destroyed in 1641, and the 18th-century Mallow 
 Castle. Tanning and some small manufactures 
 are carried on. Pop. (1851) 5436 ; (1901) 3016. 
 Till 1885 Mallow returned one member. 
 
 Mallwyd (Mal'lud), a Merionethshire village, 
 Dn the Dyfi, 2 miles SE. of Dinas Mowddwy. It 
 .8 a great haunt of artists and fishermen. 
 
 Malmaison, a chateau on the Seine's left 
 5ank, 10 miles W. of Paris. It has memories of 
 Richelieu, the Empress Josephine, and Maria 
 Christina of Spain, and was restored by Napoleon 
 11. in 1861. 
 
 Malmedy (Mdl-may-dee'), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, on the Warche, 51 miles S. by rail of 
 lix-la-Chapelle. Here in 1894 the German govern- 
 aent established a fortified camp. Pop. 5078. 
 
 Malmesbury {Mdm^hury), an old-world mar- 
 ;et-town of Wiltshire, on a bold eminence be- 
 ween two head-streams of the Avon, 26 miles 
 
 y rail NNE. of Bath and 17 WNW. of Swindon, 
 t owes its name to Maildulf, an Irish missionary. 
 
 Aldhelm, his scholar, became about 673 first 
 abbot of the famous abbey here, in which 
 Athelstan was buried, and of which William of 
 Malmesbury (c. 1095-1143) was librarian and pre- 
 centor. To his time belong the building of a 
 short-lived castle, and the rebuilding (aLso by 
 Bishop Roger of Salisbury) of the abbey church, 
 which. Transition Norman in style, and cruci- 
 fonn in plan, with a central spire, was 350 feet 
 long. Little more than the nave— now the parish 
 church— remains ; but this is a most interesting 
 fragment, its finest feature the south porch. At 
 the Dissolution (1539) the nntred Benedictine 
 abbey became a cloth-factory. A beautiful 
 market-cross (temp. Henry VII.) is also note- 
 worthy. Hobbes was a native. Malmesbury 
 returned two members till 1832, and then one till 
 1885. It was incorporated in 1886. Pop. 2864, 
 See works by Moflatt (1805), Sir T. Phillippa 
 (1831), J. E. Jackson (1863), W. de Gray Birch 
 (1874), and Brewer and Martin (2 vols. 1879-81). 
 
 Malmo, the third largest town of Sweden, on 
 the Sound, nearly opposite Copenhagen, 17 miles 
 distant. Besides being a busy seaport, it has 
 manufactures of cigars, sugar, beer, and woollens, 
 and some shipbuilding. The exports include 
 grain, flour, butter, eggs, cement, chalk, matches, 
 live-stock, and timber ; and the imports, coal, 
 machinery, cotton, grain, textiles, coffee, &c. 
 The old castle in which the Earl of Bothwell 
 was confined is now used as a prison. The town- 
 house is a fine Renaissance building of 1546. 
 Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Malpas, a Cheshire market-town, 15 miles SSE. 
 of Chester. Matthew Henry and Bishop Heber 
 were natives. Pop. of parish, 1144. 
 
 Malplaquet (Mdlpldlcay'), a village in the 
 French dep. of Nord, 10 miles S. of Mons in 
 Belgium. Here, on 11th September 1709, Marl- 
 borough and Prince Eugene defeated the French 
 under Marshal Villars. 
 
 Malstrom. See Maelstrom. 
 
 Malta (Ital. Mdhl-ta; nmaWy Maulta), a British 
 Mediterranean island, 17^ miles long by 8J broad, 
 with an area of 95 sq. m. It stands on the sub- 
 marine plateau which, stretching across from 
 Sicily to Africa, divides the Mediterranean into 
 two basins. From its central position in the 
 Mediterranean Sea, 58 miles S. of Sicily, and 180 
 ESE. of Cape Bon in Algeria, and from the enor- 
 mous strength of its fortifications— Disraeli 
 called it ' the little military hothouse '—Malta is 
 a very important British dependency. It is the 
 headquarters of the British Mediterranean fleet, 
 the principal coaling station in the Mediterranean 
 —between 500,000 and 600,000 tons of coal are 
 imported for use and re-exportation annually — a 
 powerful stronghold (Valetta), a sanatorium for 
 troops employed in the Orient, and an interest- 
 ing island historically and architecturally. The 
 governorship (area, 117 .sq. m.) includes the island 
 of Gozo (q.v.), and several smaller islets. Malta 
 is oval in shape, the north-eastern and eastern 
 shores being broken into several good harbours ; 
 the southern coast rises in picturesque cliffs 400 
 feet high. Tlie culminating point of the island is 
 758 feet. Malta has a bare, stony appearance, 
 owing to the absence of trees and the fact that 
 the fields and gardens are enclosed in high walls, 
 to shelter the crops against the violent winds. 
 There are no rivers or lakes ; but water is easily 
 obtained from springs, and since 1880 there are 
 government water-works. The soil is thin, but 
 remarkably fertile ; and its fertility is increased by 
 the skilful cultivation and the diligent toil of the 
 
 I. 
 
MALTA 
 
 444 
 
 MAN 
 
 Inhabitants. Large crops of wheat and potatoes 
 are raised, early varieties of the latter being 
 largely exported to England ; maize, barley, 
 cotton, clover, oranges, figs, grapes, carob beans, 
 and peaches and other fruits are also grown. 
 Fine honey is produced ; in spring the island is 
 gay with flowers. Filigree ornaments and a little 
 cotton are manufactured. During the summer 
 months the thermometer ranges from 75° to 90° 
 F., during the coldest from 50° to 71°. The 
 annual rainfall is 24-23 inches. When the hot 
 sirocco wind blows — not dry as in Africa, but 
 laden with moisture — the climate is enervating ; 
 otherwise Malta is fairly healthy. Earthquakes 
 are not infrequent. 
 
 In 1881 Malta (132,129) and Gozo (17,653) con- 
 tained 149,782 inhabitants; in 1904, 197,070, 
 including about 20,000 British and foreign resi- 
 dents, but excluding imperial troops. The lan- 
 guage of the people is a corrupt dialect of Arabic, 
 with a strong admixture of Italian and other (but 
 not Phoenician) words. Most educated Maltese 
 speak Italian ; but in 1899, on a plebiscite, 75 per 
 cent, of the inhabitants chose English as the 
 school language for their children. The Maltese 
 are a sober, industrious race, though quick- 
 tempered and ignorant, and are devout Roman 
 Catholics. There are two bishops (Malta, Gozo) 
 and 1200 clergy. Canon law is recognised as the 
 civil law of Malta, and a difficulty about mixed 
 marriages was settled only in 1890. Owing to 
 the rapid growth of the population and its 
 density, large numbers are compelled to emi- 
 grate ; 50,000 of them are scattered all over North 
 Africa and the Levant. Education is provided 
 for in a university (over 100 students), a lyceum 
 (530 pupils), and about 130 government schools 
 (18,000 pupils). Causes of discontent have ari.sen 
 in the ecclesiastical jealousy of the predominant 
 church, and social jealousy between the impover- 
 ished native nobility (for the most part counts 
 and marquises created by the Knights of St 
 John, and fully recognised since 1878) and the 
 upper classes of the British. A constitution 
 based on popular representation was conferred in 
 1887. Legislation is carried on by six official 
 and fourteen elected members, the governor, 
 with the power of veto, being president. There 
 is also an executive council ; the crown retains 
 the right to legislate also through orders in coun- 
 cil. There is no direct taxation. The govern- 
 ment own two-sevenths of the land (the rest is 
 divided about equally between the ecclesiastical 
 establishments and private owners); from the 
 rents of this and other crown property, and from 
 customs, licenses, &c., the annual revenue of 
 £3(50,000 to £465,000 is derived. The public debt 
 is £79,000 (1894). There is a railway, 8^ miles 
 long, connecting Valetta (q.v.), the present 
 capital, with the old capital Citta Vecchia, 
 founded in 700 e.g., with the cathedral of St 
 Paul (1697). In the south of the island are 
 megalithic Phoenician temples. The traditional 
 scene of St Paul's shipwreck is on the north side 
 of the Bay of St Paul. The imports in 1903-4 
 amounted to £7,158,079, and the exports to 
 £6,145,883. 
 
 The Hyperion or Ogygia of Homer is sometimes 
 identified with Malta. The Phoenicians colonised 
 the island in the 11th century b.c., and after 700 
 found rivals in the Greeks, who were driven out 
 about 480. The Romans finally took possession 
 in 216 B.C., retaining the Greek name Melita. 
 During the 5th century a.d. it fell successively 
 under the Vandals and the Goths ; in 533 Belis- 
 arius recovered it for the Byzantine empire ; in 
 
 the 9th century the Arabs occupied it ; in 1282 it 
 was conquered by Pedro of Aragon ; and in 1530 
 given in perpetual sovereignty by Charles V. to 
 the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, who raised 
 stupendous fortifications, and sustained success- 
 fully a three months' siege by the Turks in 1565. 
 The island surrendered to the French in 1798, 
 was occupied by the British during the French 
 war, and in 1814 finally became British. 
 
 See historical works on Malta by Miege (1840), 
 Eton (1802), Avales (1830), Tullack (1861), Winter- 
 berg (1879), Bedford (1894), and Bono (Malta, 1899). 
 
 Malton, a town in the North and East Ridings 
 of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 22 miles NE. of 
 York. It consists of New Malton, Norton, and 
 Old Malton. The Derventio probably of the 
 Romans, it has the Norman church of a Gilber- 
 tine priory (1150), and a free grammar-school, 
 founded in 1545 by Archbishop Holgate ; but no 
 trace remains of a Norman castle. Iron and brass 
 founding, tanning, brewing, &c. are carried on ; 
 and Norton is famous for its training stables. 
 Till 1868 Malton returned two members, and then 
 till 1885 one. Population of the urban district, 
 under 5000. 
 
 Malvern, Great, one of the most fashionable 
 watering-ijlaces in England, is situated 9 n)iles 
 SW. of Worcester, and 129 WNW. of London, on 
 the east side of the Malvern Hills, at the foot of 
 the Worcestershire Beacon (1444 feet). It has a 
 fine cruciform church, with a central tower 124 
 feet high, rebuilt in the reign of Henry VII., and 
 restored in 1860-1. In the centre of the town are 
 large Assembly Rooms (1884) with winter pro- 
 menade and gardens, and on the outskirts is 
 Malvern College (1863-65), a handsome Gothic 
 building, with 250 boys. Madame Goldschmidt 
 (Jenny Lind) long resided near Malvern. Pop. 
 (1801) 819 ; (1881) 7934 ; (1901) 16,449. 
 
 Malwa, a former kingdom of India. 
 
 Mamers, a town in the French dep. of Sarthe, 
 43 miles NNE. of Le Mans. Pop. 4799. 
 
 Mammotli Cave, in Kentucky, 85 miles by rail 
 SSW. of Louisville. It is about 10 miles long ; 
 but it is said to require upwards of 150 miles of 
 travelling to explore its multitudinous avenues, 
 chambers, grottoes, rivers, and cataracts. The 
 main cave is only 4 miles long, but it is from 40 
 to 300 feet wide, and rises in height to 125 feet. 
 Lucy's Dome is 300 feet high, the loftiest of the 
 many vertical shafts that pierce through all the 
 levels. Some avenues are covered with a con- 
 tinuous incrustation of the most beautiful 
 crystals ; stalactites and stalagmites abound. 
 There are several lakes or rivers connected with 
 Green River outside the cave, rising with the 
 river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they 
 are generally impassable for more than six months 
 in the year. The largest is Echo River, three- 
 fourths of a mile long, and in some places 200 
 feet wide. The air of the cave is pure and health- 
 ful ; the temperature remains constant about 54°. 
 
 Mam Tor, a Derbyshire height (1709 feet), If 
 mile NW. of Castleton. 
 
 Man, Isle of, is situated in the Irish Sea, 16 
 miles S. of Burrow Head in Wigtownshire, 27 miles 
 SW. of St Bees Head, and 27 E. of Strangford 
 Lough. Its length is 33J miles, breadth 12J 
 miles, and area 145,325 acres (227 sq. m.), of which 
 nearly 100,000 are cultivated. At the south- 
 western extremity is an islet called the Calf of 
 Man, containing 800 acres. A chain of mountains 
 extends from north-east to south-west, culminat- 
 ing in Snaefell (2024 feet). The coast-scenery from 
 
MAN 
 
 445 
 
 MANCHE 
 
 Maughold Head on the east, passing south to 
 Peel on the west, is bold and picturesque, especi- 
 ally in the neighbourhood of the Calf, where 
 Spanish Head, the southern extremity of the 
 island, presents a sea-front of extreme grandeur. 
 The Douglas Head Marine Drive was opened in 
 1891. Most of the island consists of clay-slate. 
 Through the clay-schist granite has burst in two 
 localities, in the vicinity of which mineral veins 
 have been largely worked. Nearly 5000 tons of 
 lead are extracted annually, some zinc, and smaller 
 quantities of copper and iron. The principal 
 mines are at Laxey on the east coast, and Foxdale 
 near the west. The climate is mild and equable ; 
 myrtles, fuchsias, and other exotics flourish 
 througliout the year. The Manx cat is tailless. 
 The tisheries (herring, cod, &c.) afford employ- 
 ment to nearly 4000 men and boys. Fat cattle 
 and wheat are shipped to English markets. 
 Castle Rushen, probably the most perfect build- 
 ing of its date extant, was founded in 947. The 
 ruins of Rushen Abbey (1154) are picturesquely 
 situated at Ballasalla. Peel Castle, with the 
 cathedral of St German, is a very beautiful ruin, 
 dating from the 12th century. There are numer- 
 ous so-called Druidical remains and Runic monu- 
 ments ; the. Runic crosses, of which there are 
 some forty,' are especially numerous at Kirk 
 Michael. The circular and artificial Tynwald 
 Hill at St John's, near the centre of the island, 
 is a perfect relic of Scandinavian antiquity. 
 The towns, noticed separately, are Castletown, 
 Douglas, the modern capital. Peel, and Ramsey. 
 The principal line of communication is between 
 Douglas and Liverpool, by means of a swift fleet 
 of steamers. There is a submarine cable between 
 Maughold Head and St Bees Head. In 1873 a 
 railway was opened between Douglas and Peel ; 
 in 1874 to Castletown and the south ; and in 1879 
 to Ramsey. Extensive improvements in the way 
 of harbour-works, piers, and promenades have 
 been carried out at Douglas, Ramsey, and Peel. 
 Pop. (1821) 40,081 ; (1871) 54,042 ; (1901) 54,758, 
 the smallness of the increase being due to emigra- 
 tion. Visitors number about 130,000 annually. 
 
 The Isle of Man was ruled by Welsh kings from 
 the 6th until near the end of the 9th century, 
 and then by Scandinavian kings, until Magnus, 
 king of Norway, ceded his right in it and the 
 Hebrides to Alexander III. of Scotland (1266). 
 On Alexander's death the Manx placed them- 
 selves in 1290 under the protection of Edward I. 
 of England ; in 1406 the island was granted to 
 Sir John Stanley in perpetuity, to be held of the 
 crown of England. The Stanley family continued 
 to rule it as Kings of Man, until 1651, when the 
 style of Lord was adopted. On the death of 
 James, tenth Earl of Derby, without issue in 
 1735, James, second Duke of Athol, descended 
 from the seventh Earl of Derby, became Lord of 
 Man. The Isle of Man having long been the seat 
 of an extensive smuggling trade, the sovereignty 
 of it was purchased by the British government, 
 in 1765, for £70,000 and an annuity of £2000 a 
 year, the duke still retaining certain manorial 
 rights, church jiatronage, &c. The last remaining 
 interest of the Athol family in the island was 
 transferred to the British crown in 1829 ; the 
 total amount paid for the island being £493,000. 
 The Isle of Man forms a separate bishopric under 
 the title of Sodor and Man, the bishopric of the 
 Sudoreys— Scandinavian for 'Southern Isles' — 
 having for a time been annexed to Man. The 
 see is, for certain purposes, attached to the prov- 
 ince of York; the bishop sits in the House of 
 Lords, but does not vote. 
 
 The Isle of Man has home rule — its own laws, 
 law-officers, and courts of law. The legislative 
 body is styled the Court of Tynwald, consisting 
 of the Lieutenant-governor and Council — the 
 latter being composed of the bishop, attorney- 
 general, two deemsters (or judges), clerk of the 
 rolls, water bailiff", archdeacon, and vicar-general 
 —and the House of twenty-four Keys, or repre- 
 sentatives. A bill is separately considered by 
 both branches, and on being passed by them is 
 transmitted for the royal assent ; it does not, 
 however, become law until it is promulgated in 
 the English and Manx languages on the Tynwald 
 Hill. The House of Keys was formerly self-elec- 
 tive ; but in 1866 an act was passed establishing 
 a septennial election by the people ; and another 
 in 1880 abolished the property qualification for 
 members, granted household suffrage in towns, 
 £4 owner and £6 tenant franchise in the country, 
 and conferred the suffrage on women. The 
 armorial bearings of Man are three legs in armour 
 conjoined at the thighs. The Manx people are 
 of Celtic origin, with a strong dash of the 
 Scandinavian. The language, belonging to the 
 Goidelic group of the Celtic languages, is now 
 but little spoken. Church service in Manx has 
 been discontinued since the middle of the 19th 
 century. There is no literature beyond a few 
 songs and carols. The Prayer-book was translated 
 into Manx in 1765, the Bible in 1772. A dictionary 
 was compiled in 1835. Down to the middle of 
 the 19th century the island was almost exempt 
 from taxation, and consequently looked upon as a 
 cheap place of residence, while its laws afforded 
 protection to English debtors. 
 
 See works by the Rev. J. G. Gumming, Joseph 
 Train, Brown, A. W. Moore (place-names, 1890), 
 Hall Caine (1891 and 1894), Spencer Walpole (1893), 
 A. W. Moore (1893 and, on a larger scale, 1900); 
 also Chronica Rcguin Mannice, edited by Munch 
 (Christiania, 1860) ; and the works published by 
 the Manx Society (19 vols. 1858-68). 
 
 Manaar', Gulf of, between Ceylon and the 
 Madras coast, is nearly 200 miles wide at the 
 widest, and is closed on the north by a low reef 
 of rocks and islands called Adam's Bridge. It is 
 famous for its pearl-fisheries. 
 
 Manacor', a town of Majorca, in a fertile plain, 
 30 miles E. of Palma by rail. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Mana'gua, the capital of Nicaragua, lies in a 
 fertile district, on the south shore of Lake 
 Managua, 53 miles by rail SE. of Leon. Pop. 
 18,000. For the lake, see Leon. 
 
 Manaos, capital of the Brazilian province of 
 Amazonas, on the Rio Negro, 12 miles above its 
 confluence with the Amazon. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Manasarowar. See Tibet. 
 
 Manassas, formerly Manassas Junction, a 
 village close to Bull Run (q.v.). The Confederates 
 here won two victories. 
 
 Manbhum, an eastern district of Chota Nag- 
 pore (q.v.). Area, 4147 sq. m. ; pop. 1,500,000. 
 
 Mancha, La (Man'tcha), a district of Spain, the 
 southernmost part of the old kingdom of New 
 Castile, comprising most of the province of 
 Ciudad Real, with parts of Albacete, Toledo, 
 and Cuenca. It is the country of Don Quixote. 
 
 Manche (Mon^sh ; ' sleeve '), a maritime Norman 
 dep. of NW. France, derives its name from La 
 Manche (the English Channel), which washes 
 its rocky coasts. Greatest length, 81 miles ; 
 average breadth, 28 miles ; area, 2289 .sq. m. 
 Pop. (1872) 544,776 ; (1901) 491,372. The dep. is 
 divided into the six arrondissements of St LO 
 
 I. 
 
MANCHESTER 
 
 446 
 
 MANCHESTER 
 
 (the capital), Coutances, Valognes, Cherbourg, 
 Avranches, and Mortaiii. 
 
 Man'chester (Sax. Mamcestre), a municipal, 
 parliamentary, and (since 188S) county borough 
 of Lancashire, is situated on the east bank of the 
 Irwell, 31 miles E. of Liverpool and 187 NNW. 
 of London. Salford is on the opposite bank ; 
 and the two boroughs, connected by sixteen 
 bridges (besides railway viaducts), may be con- 
 sidered one city. Manchester is the acknow- 
 ledged centre of the greatest manufacturing dis- 
 trict in the world, and is surrounded by a ring 
 of populous suburban townships, many of which 
 have by degrees been incorporated with it. Pop. 
 (1801) 75,275 ; (1851) 303,382 ; (1871) 351,189 ; (1901) 
 543,969— or with the county borougli of Salford, 
 764,925. In and around Manchester and Salford 
 two-thirds of the entire cotton manufactures of 
 the United Kingdom are located ; and there are 
 some 700 other industries practised in the dis- 
 trict, including bleaching, dyeing, with silk- works 
 and manufactories of all kinds of animal and 
 vegetable fibre. Both boroughs were enfran- 
 chised by the Reform Bill of 1832, Manchester 
 returning two members and Salford one member 
 to parliament. The Reform Bill of 1867 gave 
 Manchester three and Salford two members, and 
 that of 1885 six and three members respectively. 
 
 The Cathedral, or ' Old Church ' (1422), is a fine 
 Gothic structure, and between 1845 and 1868 
 underwent complete restoration ; it comprises a 
 stalled choir of great beauty, a retrochoir, lady 
 chapel, lateral chapels, chapter-house, and a 
 tower 139 feet high, with ten bells. Besides 
 many Anglican, Roman Catholic, and dissenting 
 churches, Manchester has 5 Jewish synagogues, 
 5 German churches, a Greek church, and an 
 Armenian church. The magnificent Gothic town- 
 hall (1868-83), by Waterhouse, is triangular in 
 form, built of brick, faced with freestone and 
 granite, and cost £1,053,000. Its great hall is 
 decorated with twelve remarkable pictures illus- 
 trating the history of Manchester, by Madox 
 Brown. The clock-tower, 286 feet high, contains 
 a fine peal of twenty-one bells. In the Royal 
 Infirmary (1755) 32,000 patients are treated 
 annually. The Royal Institution (1825-30), a 
 noble Doric edifice by Barry, contains a gallery 
 of paintings, a school of design, and a lecture 
 theatre. The Royal Exchange (1864-74), an im- 
 posing building in the Italian style, has a meet- 
 ing-hall with the vast area of 5170 square yards. 
 The Free-trade Hall (1856) holds 5000 people, and 
 stands on the scene of the ' Peterloo Massacre. ' 
 The Assize Courts (1864), by Waterhouse, are a 
 splendid specimen of Gothic architecture, and 
 cost £100,000. The Literary and Philosophical 
 Society (1789) has a valuable scientific library and 
 a chemical laboratory, and publishes memoirs. 
 There are about seventy other societies and 
 institutions. 
 
 The old water-supply was collected on the slopes 
 of Blackstone Edge, distant about 20 miles ; but 
 in view of the rapid increase of the population 
 the city council purchased Thirlmere Lake in 
 Cumberland, from which comes, by works 100 
 miles long and carried out in 1885-94, a further 
 supply of 25,000,000 gallons daily. There are 
 now in Manchester and Salford eleven parks, 
 with eight recreation grounds, covering alto- 
 gether 300 acres. Manchester was the first 
 borough to take advantage in 1852 of the Free 
 Libraries Act. Manchester in 1890 received 
 the Whitworth Institute, a park, library, and 
 museum from the Whitworth legatees, to be 
 incorporated with the Technical School and 
 
 School of Art. The Chetham Library, founded 
 by Humphrey Chetham in 1653, contains 30,000 
 volumes, with many rare and curious books and 
 manuscripts, and was the first free library in 
 England. Mention may be made also of the 
 Athenseum, Royal Exchange, Portico, and Law 
 and Foreign Libraries, &c. Among statues and 
 monuments are those of the Duke of Wellington 
 Sir R. Peel, Watt, Dalton, Prince Albert, Bishop 
 Fraser, Dr Joule, John Bright, Cobden, Hum- 
 phrey Chetham, Cromwell, and O. Heywood. 
 
 Tlie Grammar-school was founded by Hugh 
 Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, in 1515, had a revenue 
 of £4000 a year in 1825, and in 1868 was re- 
 organised for 350 boys, with scholarships at 
 Brazenose, Oxford, and St John's, Cambridge. 
 There is also a hospital school, founded in 1651 
 by Humphrey Chetham, for maintaining, educat- 
 ing, and apprenticing forty (now 100) healthy 
 and poor boys. Owens College (1851 ; chartered 
 as an independent Victoria University, 1903) is 
 due to tlie liberality of John Owens, who died in 
 1846, leaving by will £100,000 for the purpose; 
 and in 1870 a further sum of £90,000 was ex- 
 pended on new buildings, &c. Tlie college has 
 professors and lecturers in the Arts, Science, and 
 Law department, and in the Medical department, 
 with departments for Avomen and for evening 
 classes, and excellent library and museum. The 
 students number over 1100 (including about 250 
 women), besides evening scholars. The Tech- 
 nlcal School, with which in 1883 was incorporated 
 the Mechanics' Institute, and in 1890 the Man- 
 chester Whitworth Institute, gives thorough 
 technical training in theoretical and practical 
 engineering, designing, spinning and weaving, 
 printing, dyeing, and bleaching, metallurgy, 
 chemistry, &c. The sanitary condition of Man- 
 chester is not a satisfactory one, and in conse- 
 quence the death-rate, averaging 24 per 1000, is 
 abnormally high ; much has been done to improve 
 matters, but the smoke nuisance remains, and 
 the disease and death dealing river, the Irwell, 
 which flows through a dense population, receiving 
 sewage from more than a million persons and 
 pollution from thousands of public works. 
 
 Manchester is mentioned as a Roman station 
 (Mancunium), and was called by the Anglo- 
 Saxons Manigceaster. In the 13th century there 
 was a fulling-mill, and dyeing yarns or cloth 
 was practised. Camden, in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, writes of it as surpassing neighbour- 
 ing towns in elegance and populousness, with 
 woollen and cotton manufactures, a church, 
 Tuarket, and college. In 1724 Stukely describes 
 it as ' the largest, most rich, populous, and busy 
 village in England. Here are about 2400 families, 
 and their trade, which is incredibly large, con- 
 sists of fustians, tickings, girth-webbs, and 
 tapes.' The great revolution in the Industrial 
 life of England— the development of the factory 
 system — began here about the middle of the 18th 
 century, and was accompanied by the applica- 
 tion of many inventions, notably the steam- 
 engine, to the service of man. In 1720 the Irwell 
 was made navigable. In 1762 the Brldgewater 
 Canal put Manchester in communication with the 
 coalfields of Lancashire and the salt-mines of 
 Cheshire, and made an outlet to the sea. In 
 1830 Manchester had its first perfect railway. 
 To render ' Cottonopolis ' an Inland seaport, the 
 gigantic work of making a ship-canal from East- 
 ham near the mouth of the Mersey, a distance 
 of 35J miles, was carried out in 1887-94, at a cost 
 of £15,500,000. A perfect network of railways 
 and canals radiates from Manchester in all direo 
 
MANCHESTER 
 
 447 
 
 MANIPUR 
 
 tions. It became a city and the see of a bishop in 
 1847, and since 1893 its mayor is officially lord- 
 mayor. The Anti-corn-law League had its 
 origin here ; and the Manchester School was a 
 party of English Radicals, including Cobden, 
 Bright, and Mihier Gibson, which identified itself 
 witli free-trade principles and resistance to 
 government interference (as with factory labour), 
 supported a policy of laissez faire, and in foreign 
 affairs was a peace party, insisting strongly on 
 non-intervention. See works on Manchester by 
 Whitaker (1771), Prentice (1850-53), Reilly (1861), 
 Proctor (1880), Axon (1886), Saintsbury (1887), 
 Crowther (1894), and Perkins (1901). 
 
 Manchester, (1) the largest city of New Hamp- 
 shire, stands mostly on the east bank of the 
 Merrimac River, 16 miles S. of Concord, and 59 
 NNW. of Boston. Its principal streets are wide 
 and shaded with elms, and it has several public 
 parks. The river here falls 54 feet, affording 
 abundant water-power. The chief industry is the 
 manufacture of cottons and woollens ; but loco- 
 motives, fire-engines, sewing-machines, wagons, 
 edged tools, boots and shoes, paper, &c. are also 
 manufactured, Manchester is the seat of a R. C. 
 bishop. Pop. (1870) 23,536 ; (1900) 56,987.— (2) A 
 town of Connecticut, on the Hockanum River, 9 
 miles by rail ENB. of Hartford, with manufac- 
 tures of cotton, woollens, silk, paper, &c. Pop. 
 10,600.— (3) A manufacturing town of Virginia, on 
 the James River, opposite Riclniiond. Pop. 9746. 
 Manchuria, or the country of the Manchus, 
 is the north-easternmost division of the Chinese 
 empire, bounded by the river Amur, the Usuri, 
 the Russian Maritime Province, Corea, the Yellow 
 Sea, and Mongolia. It embraces three provinces 
 — Moukden, Heilung-chiang, and Kirin. Total 
 area, 280,000 sq. m. ; pop. 21,000,000. The east 
 and centre are largely occupied by the Long 
 White Mountains (8000 feet), whilst the northern 
 province is crossed by the Chingan Mountains. 
 The central parts of the country are watered by 
 the Sungari, which after a covirse of 850 miles 
 joins the Amur. The hills are rich in timber, 
 pines predominating ; in minerals, chiefly gold, 
 silver, coal, and iron ; and in fur-bearing and 
 other animals. The rivers swarm with salmon 
 and trout. The climate is temperate in summer 
 (May to September), but very severe in winter. 
 The soil is extremely fertile. Of the population 
 perhaps a million are Manchus, the rest being 
 Chinese innnigrants. The principal towns are 
 Moukden, the capital ; Kirin ; Harbin (or Khar- 
 bin), junction of the terminal lines of the Siberian 
 railway ; New-chwang (q.v.) ; besides Port Arthur 
 and Dalny, under Japanese rule. The Russian 
 occupation of northeru Manchuria was a main 
 cause of the Russo-Japanese war (1904-5), of 
 which southern Manchuria was the main theatre. 
 The religions dominant are those found in China, 
 though the original creed of the Manchus was 
 Shamanism. In the 17tli century a Manchu chief 
 ascended the throne of China, and founded the 
 reigning Chin dynasty. French Catholics have 
 had missions in Manchuria since 1838, and Pres- 
 byterians since 1861. See books by Hosie (1901) 
 ind Wliigham (1904). 
 
 Man'dalay, the capital of Upper Burma, stands 
 ! miles from the left bank of the Irawadi, a little 
 vT. of Amarapura, the foriner capital, and 410 
 niles by rail (1889) N. of Rangoon. Founded in 
 860, it was the capital of independent Burma 
 ntil its capture by the British in 1885. Silk- 
 heaving is the chief industry ; the others are 
 old and silver work, ivory and wood carving, 
 
 bell and gong casting, and knife and sword mak- 
 ing. In 1886 one-tenth of the city was burned 
 to the ground, and an inundation of the river 
 caused immense damage ; in 1892 two-thirds of 
 the city were burned. Pop. 198,815. 
 
 Mandogarh, or Mandu', a ruined city of India, 
 formerly capital of the Mohammedan kingdom of 
 Malwa, 15 miles N. of the Nerbudda, and 38 SW. 
 of Indore. The ruins stretch for 8 miles along 
 the crest of the Vindhya Mountains. 
 
 Manduria, a town of southern Italy, 22 miles 
 E. by S. of Taranto ; pop. 13,120. 
 
 Mandvl, the seaport of Cutch, in India, on the 
 north shore of the Gulf of Cutch ; pop 28,155. 
 
 Manfredonia, a seaport of Italy, on a bay of 
 the Adriatic, 23 miles by rail NB. of Foggia. 
 Founded by Manfred in 1261 from the ruins of 
 ancient Sipontum, it has an old castle and a 
 cathedral. Pop. 12,200. 
 
 Mangalore, a seaport and military station in 
 South Kanara district, Madras. A clean, pictur- 
 esque town, embosomed in cocoa-nut palm groves, 
 it ships much coffee, has a R. C. cathedral and 
 college, and is also the headquarters in India of 
 the Basel Lutheran Mission. Thrice sacked by 
 the Portuguese in the 16th c, Mangalore was 
 taken by Hyder Ali in 1763. In 1784 its English 
 garrison yielded to Tippoo Sultan after a nine 
 months' siege. British since 1799, it was burned 
 by the Coorg rebels in 1837. Pop. 44,922. 
 
 Manhattan Island, the island on which the 
 great part of New York City stands. 
 
 Manica (Manee'ca), a gold-field long worked by 
 the Portuguese, 130 miles NW. of the port of 
 Beira at the mouth of the Pungwe River, whence 
 a railway was making in 1894. It is now mostly 
 included with Mashonaland (q.v.), in the British 
 South Africa Company's territory. Part is 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Manihiki Islands (Mannyhee'kee), a group of 
 low, wooded atolls, scattered over the central 
 Pacific, between the Marquesas and Union groups. 
 Total area, 55 sq. m. ; pop. 1900. Most of them 
 (Caroline, Maiden, Starbuck, Penrhyn, Hum- 
 phrey, Vostok, Flint, &c.) belong to Britain. 
 
 Manila (Manee'la; often spelt Manilla), chief 
 town of the Philippine Islands, stands on a wide 
 bay on the south-west coast of Luzon, 650 miles 
 SE. of Hong-kong, with which city it has been 
 connected by telegraph since 1881. On the south 
 bank of the little Pasig River stands the sleepy 
 old town (founded in 1571), with the archbishop's 
 palace, churches and monasteries, the cathedral, 
 university, Jesuit observatory, arsenal, and bar- 
 racks. On the north bank are the modern 
 suburbs, Binondo, <fec., the commercial and native 
 quarters, with the palace of the governor-general, 
 &c. There was a great fire in May 1893, and the 
 city is specially liable to visitations of earth- 
 quakes, typhoons, and thunder-storms. The heat 
 is great, the mean for the year being 82° F. The 
 total pop. is estimated at nearly 300,000, includ- 
 ing some 70,000 Chinese and 7000 Spaniards. 
 Cigars and tobacco, sugar, the so-called Manilla 
 hemp or abaca, and coftee are the chief exports, 
 and cotton goods, rice, wine, silk, and flour the 
 imports. In Manila Bay in 1898 Dewey de- 
 stroyed the Spanish fleet, and since the American 
 occupation of the Philippine Islands, the city, 
 still the capital, has been cleansed and paved, 
 electric light has been introduced, and harbour 
 improvements carried out. 
 
 Manipur, a native state in the north-east of 
 India, occupying some 8000 sq. m. of for the most 
 
 i 
 
MANITOBA 
 
 448 
 
 MANS 
 
 part heavily timbered mountain-land between 
 Burma^ Assam, Chittagong, and Cachar ; pop. 
 about 284,000 — mainly Kukis and semi-Hindu 
 hill and forest tribes— collected most thickly in 
 one valley, 650 sq. m., situated 2500 feet above 
 sea-level. Most of the work in the country is 
 performed by women. The men are incorrigibly 
 lazy, but passionately fond of the game of polo. — 
 The capital, called Manipur, also Imphail, is a 
 vast group of suburban residences, situated in the 
 midst of a large forest; pop. 67,100. In March 
 1892 a British force of 470 men, that had been 
 sent to depose the rebellious ' senaputti ' or 
 commander-in-chief, was forced to retire, after 
 the chief commissioner and four others had 
 been treacherously murdered. In April General 
 Graham avenged this outrage, and the ' sena- 
 putti ' was hanged. 
 
 Manitoba (originally Manitoba; now usually 
 Manito'ba), a province of Canada, bounded by 
 Saskatchewan, Keewatin, Ontario, and on tlie S. 
 by Minnesota and North Dakota in the United 
 States. Area, 74,000 square miles ; population 
 (1886) 108,640; (1901) 254,947 (65,310 Presby- 
 terians, 44,874 Anglicans, 35,622 Catliolics, &c.). 
 The cliief towns are Winnipeg (42,340), Brandon, 
 and Portage la Prairie, The province is traversed 
 by several rivers, among others the Assiniboine, 
 with its many tributaries, the Souris, Pembina, 
 Red River, &c. The Winnipeg River flows for 
 60 or 70 miles through the eastern portion of 
 the province into Lake Winnipeg. The principal 
 lakes are Winnipeg, 8500 sq. m. ; Manitoba, 1900 
 sq. m. ; and Winnipegosis, 1936 sq. m. The 
 country consists for the most part of a level 
 plain, with occasional undulations. The summer 
 mean temperature is 65° to 70°— nearly the same as 
 that in the state of New York. In winter the ther- 
 mometer occasionally, but very rarely, sinks to 30°, 
 40°, and 50° below zero. The atmosphere is bright 
 and dry, and the cold is not so much felt as in 
 many countries with a higher temperature and a 
 more humid atmosphere. Very little snow falls on 
 the prairies, the average depth being about 18 to 
 24 inches ; the native horses graze out of doors all 
 the winter. The soil is of remarkable depth and 
 fertility, and in favourable seasons the crops are 
 large. Vegetables and roots are unusually prolific 
 and of great size. Wheat-growing was for some 
 few years the staple industry ; but the farmers are 
 now engaged more in mixed farming, including 
 dairy-farming and the raising of cattle and sheep. 
 In minerals the province is not very rich, but coal 
 is found in southern Manitoba. Big game is still 
 found in the less accessible parts of the province 
 — moose, bear, and some kinds of deer. Small 
 game is plentiful — principally prairie chicken and 
 wild duck. A considerable fishing industry is 
 carried on in the rivers and lakes. The govern- 
 ment is administered by a lieutenant-governor, 
 appointed by the governor-in-council. He is 
 assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative 
 Assembly of 40 members elected by the people. 
 There is only one House of Parliament in Mani- 
 toba. The province is represented by four mem- 
 bers in the Dominion Senate, and by seven in the 
 House of Commons. Keewatin (q.v.) is under 
 the Lieutenant-governor. 
 
 Manitoba is in communication by rail with the 
 Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific, and with all 
 parts of Canada and the United States. The 
 construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway — 
 completed in 1885— has naturally been of immense 
 advantage to the province. A railway is projected 
 from Winnipeg to Hudson Bay. Until 1868 what 
 is now known as Manitoba formed a portion of 
 
 the territory under the control of the Hudson 
 Bay Company, and hither in 1812 the Earl of 
 Selkirk brought a party of Highland settlers. 
 In 1868 the company gave up their rights, on 
 certain conditions— among others a money pay- 
 ment of £300,000 and a considerable grant of 
 land. The province was constituted by an Act 
 of 1870. The Riel rebellion in 1869-70 arose out 
 of a feeling of some of the inhabitants that their 
 rights had not been considered in the transfer. 
 See books on Manitoba by Bryce (1882), Christie 
 (1885), Macoun (1883), and Legge (1893). 
 
 Manitou, a summer-resort at the base of Pike's 
 Peak, Colorado, 6296 feet above sea-level. It is 
 the Saratoga of the west, with soda springs and 
 several large summer hotels. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Manitoulln Islands, a chain of wooded islands 
 in Lake Huron, separating it from Georgian Bay. 
 The chief are Grand Manitoulin (80 by 28 miles), 
 Cockburn Isle, and Drummond Isle ; the last 
 belongs to Michigan, the rest to Ontario. 
 
 Manitowoc', capital of Manitowoc county, 
 Wisconsin, at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, 
 on Lake Michigan, 77 miles by rail N. of Mil- 
 waukee. It has a good harbour, and carries on 
 Shipbuilding, lumber-sawing, and the manufac- 
 ture of furniture, machinery, &c. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 Manka'to, capital of Blue Earth county, Min- 
 nesota, on the right bank of the Minnesota River, 
 86 miles SW. of St Paul. It has a state normal 
 school, R. C. college, &c. Pop. 10,600. 
 
 Mannheim {Mann'hlme), once capital of the 
 Rhenish Palatinate, and now the chief trading- 
 town in Baden, on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 here joined by the Neckar, 53 miles S. of Frank- 
 fort. The town is remarkable for its cleanliness 
 and regularity. The palace (1720-29) is one of the 
 largest in Germany, covering 15 acres, with a 
 fagade 580 yards long, and 1500 windows. The 
 Schillerplatz is adorned with colossal statues of 
 Schiller, Dalberg, and the actor and dramatist 
 IflSand (1759-1814). There are manufactures of 
 iron, cigars, carpets, india-rubber, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 46,453 ; (1900) 141,131, of whom about 50,000 were 
 Catholics. Mannheim was a mere village till 
 1606, when a castle was built by the elector- 
 palatine, around which a town grew up, peopled 
 chiefly by Protestant refugees from the Low 
 Countries. It was totally destroyed by the French 
 in 1689, rebuilt and strongly fortified, and in 1795 
 severely bombarded by the Austrians. 
 
 Manningtree, an Essex town, on the tidal 
 Stour, 8| miles NE. of Colchester. Pop. 900. 
 
 Manorbier, a ruined castle on the Pembroke- 
 shire coast, 5 miles ESE. of Pembroke. It was 
 the birthplace of Giraldus Cambrensis. 
 
 Manorhamilton, a market-town of Leitriii^ 
 23i miles E. of Sligo. Pop. 870. 
 
 Manor Water, a Peeblesshire stream, runnin 
 lOJ miles N. by E. to the Tweed, 1| mile WSM 
 of Peebles. Manor parish was the home of th 
 ' Black Dwarf." 
 
 Manresa, a town of Spain, on the Cardonei 
 41 miles by rail NW. of Barcelona. It has a fin 
 church (1020-15th century), the cave of Ignatiu 
 Loyola, and manufactures of cotton, broadclothi 
 brandy, &c. In 1811 it was fired by Marshi 
 Macdonald. Pop. 23,835. 
 
 Mans, Le (Mon^), a picturesque city of Frana 
 the capital formerly of the province of Main( 
 and now of the dep. of Sarthe, on the left bank ( 
 the river Sarthe, 132 miles SW. of Paris by rai 
 The cathedral, 390 feet, long, has a Romanesqi- 
 nave of the 11th and 12th centuries, and a mat 
 
 ssqui 
 
 1 
 
MANSFIELD 
 
 MARBURO 
 
 less Pointed-Gothic choir of the 13th century, 
 104 feet high, with splendid stained glass. In 
 the right transept is the monument of Berengaria, 
 Coeur-de-Lion's queen. Le Mans does a large 
 trade in poultry and clover-seed, and manu- 
 factures candles, woollens, lace, soap, &c. Pop. 
 (1872) 42,654 ; (1901) 56,700. The Cenomanum of 
 the Romans, and the birthplace of Henry II. of 
 England, Le Mans witnessed in 1793 the disper- 
 sion of 10,000 Vendeans ; and in 1871 the defeat, 
 after a stubborn resistance, of 100,000 Frenchmen 
 under Chanzy by Prince Frederick-Charles. A 
 statue of Chanzy was erected in 1885, and one of 
 the naturalist Belon in 1887. 
 
 Mansfield, a municipal borough (incorporated 
 1891) of Nottinghamshire, in Sherwood Forest, 
 17 miles N. of Nottingham. Its grannnar-school 
 (1561) has been rebuilt at a cost of £10,000 ; and 
 there are a memorial cross (1850) to Lord George 
 Bentinck, a town-hall (1836), an interesting parish 
 church, &c. Mansfield stands in the centre of 
 a mining district, and manufactures lace-thread 
 andiron. Pop. (1851) 10,012; (1901) 21,445. See 
 Ilarred's History of Mansfield (1801). 
 
 Mansfield, capital of Richland county, Ohio, 
 179 miles by rail NB. of Cinciimati. It has iron- 
 foundries and manufactories of flour, agricultural 
 implements, stoves, tiles, &c. Pop. 18,473. 
 
 Mansourah, a town of Lower Egypt, on the 
 Damietta branch of the Nile, 30 miles SW. of 
 Damietta by rail. Pop. 36,942. The place was 
 founded in 1220, and here St Louis of France 
 vas imprisoned in 1250. 
 
 Mantchuria. See Manchuria. 
 
 Mantes (Mon'H), a town in the French dep. of 
 5eine-et-0ise, on the Seine's left bank, 36 miles 
 )y rail WNW. of Paris. It has a striking tower 
 1344) and a beautiful church, a reduced copy of 
 ^otre Dame at Paris. The Celtic Medunta, 
 tantes in 1083 was sacked by William the Con- 
 
 ueror, who here received the injury that caused 
 
 is death ; and here too Henry IV. was converted 
 fom Protestantism. Pop. 7832. 
 
 Mantlne'a, an ancient city of Arcadia, in the 
 'eloponnesus, on the river Ophis. Here Epamin- 
 
 ndas fell in the moment of a great victory over 
 
 ^le Spartans, 362 B.C. 
 
 Mantua (Ital. Man'tova), a strongly fortified 
 
 ty of northern Italy, formerly capital of a 
 
 achy, 38 miles by rail N. of Modena and 25 S. 
 
 y W. of Verona. It occupies two islands formed 
 
 V the Mincio, and, standing in the midst 
 
 ■ a marshy district, is one of the four fortresses 
 
 ■ the Quadrilateral. Chief amongst the build- 
 gs are the ducal palace, dating from 1302 ; the 
 ilazzo Te, outside the city walls on the south, 
 e greatest monument to the skill of Giulio 
 imano as architect, painter, and sculptor ; the 
 thedral of San Pietro ; and the church of San 
 idrea, one of the finest Renaissance churches 
 Italy, containing the tomb of Mantegna. There 
 3 an academy of arts and sciences, a library 
 th 80,000 vols, and 1000 MSS., a museum of 
 tiquities, an observatory, &c. Virgil was born 
 Pietole (anc. Andes), now a suburb of Mantua, 
 e industries include weaving, tanning, and 
 tpetre-reflning. Mantua, an Etruscan town, 
 3 successively held by Romans, Ostrogoths, 
 1 Lombards, and from 1328 till 1708 was 
 /erned by the Gonzaga family. The last duke 
 ing childless, his duchy was confiscated by 
 stria, who retained it till 1866. Pop. 30,000 
 ui8 4000 Jews). 
 
 4anytch. See Asia, p. 52. 
 
 L 
 
 2c 
 
 Manzanares. See Madrid. 
 
 Manzanilla, (1) a port of Mexico, on a fine 
 bay opening to the Pacific, 31 miles by rail 
 WSW. of Colima. Pop. 4000.— (2) A port on the 
 south coast of Cuba. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Mapledurham, (1) Hampshire, 2 miles SW. of 
 PetersHeld, the seat of Gibbon the historian.— 
 (2) Oxfordshire, on the Thames, 3| miles NW. of 
 Reading, a fine Tudor mansion (1523), 
 
 Mar, an ancient district of Scotland, between 
 the Dee and the Don, comprising nearly the south 
 half of Aberdeenshire, and subdivided into Brae- 
 mar, Midmar, and Cromar. 
 
 Maracaybo (Marakiho), a fortified city of 
 Venezuela, on the west shore of the strait which 
 connects the lake and gulf of Maracaybo. It is a 
 handsome town, with many gardens and squares, 
 a college, theatre, German club-house, &c. The 
 trade is chiefly in the hands of Germans, Danes, 
 and North Americans. The staple exports are 
 coffee, boxwood, lignum vitiB, cedar, and other 
 woods, hides and skins. Pop. 44,284.— The Gulf 
 of Maracaybo is a wide inlet of the Caribbean Sea, 
 connected with the fresh- water Lake of Maracaybo, 
 which is shut in by lofty mountains, and though 
 deep is difficult of entrance by reason of a bar. 
 
 Maragha, a town of western Persia, 55 miles 
 S. of Tabriz. Pop. 15,260. 
 
 Marajo, a low, fertile island (17,860 sq. m.) 
 between tlie Amazon and Para estuaries. 
 
 Maranham', or Maranhao, a maritime state of 
 Brazil, bounded N. by the Atlantic. Area, 177,566 
 sq. m. ; population, 431,000.— The chief city is 
 Maranham, or San Luiz de Maranham, on an 
 island between the mouths of the Mearim and 
 Itapicurfl. It has a cathedral, a technical school, 
 sugar and cotton factories, and docks that admit 
 ships drawing 14 feet. The exports are cotton, 
 sugar, hides, gum, balsam, cotton-seed, india- 
 rubber, &c. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Maraiion. See Amazon. 
 
 Marash, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 80 miles 
 NE. of Alexandretta, its port. It is a market 
 for Kurt carpets and embroideries. Hittite anti- 
 quities have been discovered. Pop. about 50,000. 
 
 Mar'athon, a village on the east coast of 
 ancient Attica, 22 miles NE. of Athens. It stood 
 in a plain 6 miles long and from 3 to li miles 
 broad, between the sea and the mountains, and 
 saw tlie great ilefeat of the Persian hordes of 
 Darius by the Greeks under Miltiades (490 b.c). 
 
 Marazi'on, or Market-Jew, a Cornish watering- 
 place, on Mounts Bay, 3J miles E. by N. of Pen- 
 zance. Pop. of parish, 1342. 
 
 Marhlehead, a seaport of Massachusetts, 18 
 miles NE. of Boston. Pop. 9202. 
 
 Marburg (Mar'boorg), a quaint old town in the 
 Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, 
 59 miles by rail N. of Frankfort. It is built on a 
 terraced hill, whose summit is crowned by a 
 stately castle, dating from 1065, in which was 
 held in 1529 a conference between the Witten- 
 berg and the Swiss reformers. The fine Gothic 
 church with two towers 243 feet high, was built 
 in 1235-83 by the Teutonic Knights over the 
 splendid shrine of St Elizabeth. The university 
 occupies new Gothic buildings of 1879. It was 
 founded in 1527 for the Reformed Church ; and 
 among its earliest students were Patrick Hamil- 
 ton and William Tyndale. It has 800 to 1000 
 students. Pop. 18,000.— (2) A town of Austria- 
 Hungary, on the Drave, 30 miles NE. of Gratz. 
 It is the seat of a bisliop, and lias notable schools 
 and manufactories. Pop. 24,500. 
 
MARCH 
 
 450 
 
 MARITZA 
 
 March, a market-town of Cambridgeshire, on 
 the Nen, 14 miles E. of Peterborough and 16 
 NW. of Ely. Pop. 7570. 
 
 March {Marhh; Slav. Morava), the principal 
 river of Moravia, rises on the boundary with 
 Prussian Silesia, and flows 214 miles south to the 
 Danube, 6 miles above Presburg. 
 
 Marchena (Marehay'na), a town of Spain, 47 
 miles by rail E. by S. of Seville, with a ducal 
 palace and sulphur-baths. Pop. 14,154. 
 
 Marcianisi (Marchanee'zee), a town of Italy, 18 
 miles by rail N. of Naples. Pop. 11,083. 
 
 Mardln, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 60 miles 
 SE. of Diarbekir, Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Maree', Loch, a beautiful lake of Eoss-shire, 
 40 miles W. of Dingwall. Lying 32 feet above 
 sea-level, it is 12^ miles long, 3 furlongs to 2i 
 miles broad, 360 feet deep, and 11 sq. m. in area. 
 It is overhung by mountains 3000 feet high ; 
 sends off the Ewe, 3 miles long, to the sea ; and 
 contains twenty-seven islets, one with remains 
 of an ancient chapel and a graveyard. Queen 
 Victoria stayed here in 1877. 
 
 Marem'ma (corrupted from Marittima, ' sea- 
 board'), a marshy region of Italy, extending 
 along the Tuscan sea-coast from the Ceciua to 
 Orbitello, and about 1000 sq. m. in area. 
 
 Maren'go, a village of northern Italy, in a 
 marshy district near the Bormida, 3 miles SB. of 
 Alessandria. Here, on 14th June 1800, Napoleon 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Mareo'tis, or Mareia, Lake, the modern El 
 MariiU, a salt lake or marsh of Egypt, extends 
 southward from Alexandria, and is separated from 
 the Mediterranean by a narrow isthmus of sand. 
 In the 15th and 16th centuries it was a navigable 
 lake ; in 1798 the French found it a dry sandy plain ; 
 but in 1801 the English army cut the dikes of the 
 canal that separated it from the Lake of Aboukir, 
 to cut off the French water-supply, and Mareotis 
 became once more a marsh. The like happened 
 again in 1803, in 1807, and in 1882, when the sea 
 was introduced directly through a cutting 15 feet 
 wide and half a mile long. 
 
 Margarita (Margaree'ta), an island in the 
 Caribbean Sea, belonging to Venezuela. Area, 
 380 sq. m. ; pop. 40,000. Discovered by Columbus 
 in 1498, Margarita was long famous for its pearl- 
 fisheries, but now its chief export is salted ttsh. 
 
 Margate, a seaport and municipal borough in 
 the Isle of Thanet, Kent, 3 miles W. of the North 
 Foreland and 74 E. by S. of London, is the favourite 
 seaside resort of London holiday-makers, who, 
 during the season, by rail and by steamer, pour 
 into the town in their thousands. Possessed 
 of many natural advantages in its bracing air, 
 good bathing, and excellent firm sands, Margate 
 offers besides all the customary attractions of 
 a watering-place, Avith its pier (900 feet long), 
 jetty (over \ mile long), theatre, assembly-rooms, 
 baths, zoological gardens, t&c. It contains also 
 two interesting churches— one exhibiting traces of 
 Norman and Early English work, and the other 
 with a tower of 135 feet, forming a conspicuous 
 landmark ; the Royal Sea-bathing Infirmary 
 (1792 ; enlarged 1882) ; a town-hall (1820) ; and an 
 extensive deaf and dumb asylum (1875-86). Queen 
 Victoria visited the town in 1835, where too 
 Turner the painter was at school. Pop. (1801) 
 4766; 0901)23,057. 
 
 Margaux (Mar-go'), a village 15 miles by rail 
 NNW. of Bordeaux, near the Gironde's left bank. 
 Its cMteau (a handsome Italian villa) and cele- 
 brated vineyards are J mile distant. Pop. 1819. 
 
 Marghilan, capital of Ferghana (q.v.). 
 
 Marianna, an episcopal city of Brazil, 8 milea 
 E. of Ouro Preto. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Marianne Islands. See Ladrones. 
 
 Maria-Theresiopel. See Szabadka. 
 
 Mariazell (Maree' atzelV), the most famous place 
 of pilgrimage in Austria, in the extreme north 
 of Styria, 25 miles N. of Bruck and 60 SW. of 
 Vienna. The image of the Virgin (brought here 
 in 1157) is enshrined in a magnificent church, 
 rebuilt in 1644. Pop. 1165. 
 
 Marie Galante (Maree' GalonH), a wooded coral 
 French island, in the West Indies, discovered 
 by Columbus in 1493, lies 17 miles SE. of Guade- 
 loupe. Area, 58 sq. m. Sugar, coftee, cocoa, and 
 cotton are exported. Pop. 15,000. Chief town, 
 Grandbourg or Marigot, on the SW. coast. 
 
 Marienbad (Maree' enbad), one of the most 
 frequented of the Bohemian spas, 47 miles by 
 rail NW. of Pilsen, and 2057 feet above sea-level. 
 Its saline springs (48"'-54° F.) had long been used, 
 both internally and as baths, by the people of the 
 vicinity, but it is only since 1807-8 that it has 
 become a great health-resort. The waters are 
 largely exported. Marienbad is surrounded by 
 wooded heights, has a pop. of 5000, and is visited 
 every season by over 14,000 patients. 
 
 Marienberg, a mining-town of Saxony, 38 miles 
 SW. of Dresden. Pop. 7139. 
 
 Marienburg (Maree'enboorg'), a Prussian town, 
 on the Nogat, 30 miles by rail SSE. of Danzig. 
 From 1309 till 1457 it was the headquarters of 
 the Teutonic Order, and thereafter till 1772 be- 
 longed to Poland. The Gothic castle (1274) was 
 rastored in 1817-42. Pop. 10,736. 
 
 Marienwerder (Maree' enver'dur), a town of 
 West Prussia, 3 miles E. of the Vistula and 55 
 by rail S. of Danzig. It was founded in 1233 by 
 the Teutonic Knights, and has an old castle and 
 a minster (1384). Pop. 9679. 
 
 Marietta, capital of Washington county, Ohio, 
 on the Ohio River, 105 miles SE. of Columbus. 
 Founded in 1788, it is the seat of a college (1885X 
 trades in the neighbouring petroleum, and has 
 remains of the earth-builders. Pop. 13,350. 
 
 Marinette, a town of Wisconsin, on Green 
 Bay, at the mouth of the Menomonee River, 177 
 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee, with a busy trade 
 in lumber, &c. Pop. 18,000. ' 
 
 Marino (Maree'no\ a town on the Alban Hills, 
 21 miles SE. of Rome, has an old castle of the 
 Colonnas, and a cathedral. Pop. 6071. 
 
 Marion, (1) capital of Grant county, Indiana, 
 on Mississinewa River, 157 miles by rail SE. of 
 Chicago, with foundries, lumber-mills, &c. Pop. 
 17,500.— (2) Capital of Marion county, Ohio, 46 
 miles by rail N. of Columbus, with manufactures 
 of machinery, farm implements, &c. Pop. 11,900. 
 
 Mariposa, a central county of California, with 
 the Sierra Nevada on its north-east border. It 
 contains the Yosemite Valley, besides a grove of 
 giant sequoias. 
 
 Marisco Castle. See Lundy. 
 
 Maritime Province (Prirtwrslcaya), part of 
 eastern Siberia, extending along the Pacific from 
 Corea to the Arctic Ocean, and including Kam- 
 chatka and north Saghalien ; with a length of 
 2300 miles, and the enormous area of 730,000 
 sq. )n. (nearly four times the size of Germany). 
 
 Maritza (anc. Hehrus), a river of European 
 Turkey, rises in the Bal leans, and flows 270 miles 
 E. by S. and S. by W. past Philippopolis " 
 Adrianople to the Gulf of Bnos in the Mi 
 
MARITZBURG 
 
 451 
 
 MARSALA 
 
 Marltzburg. See Pietermaritzburg. 
 Mariu'pol, the seaport for the south Russian 
 coaltield, on the Sea of Azov, 65 miles W. of 
 Taganrog. It was founded in 1779 by Greek 
 emigrants from the Crimea. Pop. 18,980. 
 Market-Bosworth. See Bosworth. 
 Market-Deeping, a Lincolnshire town, on the 
 Welland, 7^ miles SSE. of Bourn. Pop. 980. 
 
 Market-Drayton, or Drayton-in-Hales, a 
 town of Shropshire, on the Tern, 18 miles NE. of 
 Slirewsbury. It has a grammar-school (1554) and 
 a church dating from the 12th century, up whose 
 spire Clive clambered as a boy. At Bloreheath, 
 S miles to the east, the Yorkists won a victory in 
 1459. Pop. of parish, 5089, See works by Lee 
 (1861) and Marshall (1884). 
 
 Market-Harhorough, a market-town of Leices- 
 tershire, on the river Welland and the Union 
 Canal, 16 miles SE. of Leicester, 18 N. of North- 
 ampton, and 84 NNW. of London. It has traces 
 of a Roman camp ; a fine Perpendicular church, 
 built by John of Gaunt as an atonement for his 
 intrigue with Catharine Swynford, with a broach 
 spire 154 feet high ; a corn exchange (1858) ; and 
 a grammar-school (1614 ; restored 1869). Charles 
 I. slept here before Naseby. Situated in a rich 
 grazing couiitry, it is a famous hunting-centre, 
 and gives title to one of Whyte- Melville's novels. 
 Pop. (1851) 2325 ; (1901) 7735. See works by John 
 H. Hill (1875) and J. E. Stocks (1890). 
 
 Markethill, a town of Armagh, 13 miles NW. 
 of Newry, Pop. 750. 
 Market-Jew. See Marazion. 
 Market-Rasen, a market-town on tlie Rasen, 
 15 nnles NE. of Lincoln. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Market-Weighton, a town of Yorkshire, 19 
 miles ESE. of York. Pop. of parish, 1767. 
 
 Markinch, a town of Fife, Hi miles SSW, of 
 Cupar. Pop. 1497. 
 
 Markircli (ilfar-ZdrAA; Fr. Ste-Marie-aux-Mines), 
 I town of Upper Alsace, on the Leber, 40 miles 
 5W. of Strasburg by rail, with important cotton 
 ,nd woollen mills. Pop. 11,421. 
 Marlborough (Mol'bro), an interesting market- 
 own of Wiltshire, pleasantly situated in the 
 alley of the Kennet, near Savernake Forest, 75 
 liles W. of London and 11 SSE. of Swindon. Its 
 road High Street contains some picturesque 
 onses, and at the east end is St Mary's Church 
 ith the town-hall (1790) ; at the west St Peter's 
 ith the college. Near the latter is a British 
 ound, on which early in the 12th century 
 ishop Roger of Salisbury built a castle. This 
 terwards became a royal residence ; and here in 
 :67 Henry III. held the parliament which en- 
 ted the ' Statutes of Marleberge ' for restoring 
 od government after the Barons' wars. An 
 cient municipal borough, Marlborough, till 
 67, returned two members, and till 1885 one. 
 .p. (1851) 3460; (1901) 3046.— Marlborough 
 liege was incorporated in 1845, and obtained 
 additional charter in 1853 ; the number of 
 pils is between 500 and 600, about 70, sons of 
 rgymen, being on the foundation. The nucleus 
 the college buildings was formerly a famous 
 iching-house ; and their special glory is the 
 y Early Decorated chapel, with apsidal chancel, 
 npleted in 1886, at a cost of £30,000. William 
 rris was a Marlborough boy. See works by 
 ylen (1854), Hulme (1881), Bradley (1893), and 
 jkwood (1893). 
 
 larlborough, a provincial district of New 
 4an(i, in the north-east corner of the South 
 
 L 
 
 Island, 130 miles long by 30 broad ; area, 3,051,920 
 acres, of which 200,000 are agricultural land and 
 1,300,000 pastoral. Amongst the minerals are 
 gold, antimony, copper, and coal. Pop. 12,767. 
 
 Marlborough, a Massachusetts town, 38 miles 
 by rail W. of Boston, with boot-factories, machine- 
 workf^, &c. Pop. 13,805. 
 
 Marlow, Great, a town of Bucks, on the 
 Thames, 29 miles W. of London by rail, has manu- 
 factures of lace and paper, an iron suspension 
 bridge, a house where Shelley lived in 1817, and 
 a grammar-school. It returned two members till 
 1867, and one till 1885. Pop. of parish, 4530. 
 
 Mar'mora, Sea of (anc. Propontis), separating 
 European froni Asiatic Turkey, and communi- 
 cating with the Mgean by the Dardanelles, with 
 the Black Sea by the Bosphorus. It is 175 miles 
 long, 50 broad, 4499 sq. ni. in area, and 4250 feet 
 in maximum depth. The Gulf of Ismid extends 
 30 miles eastwards into Asia. The largest of the 
 islands is Marmora or Marmara (area, 50 sq. m.), 
 famous for its marble and alabaster. 
 
 Marne (Mam), a river of France, rises in the 
 plateau of Langres, and flows 326 miles NW. and 
 W. past Chalons and ]6pernay to the Seine at 
 Chai-enton, a few miles above Paris. It is navig- 
 able for 126 miles up to St Dizier. 
 
 Marne, a dep. of NE. France formed out of 
 the old province of Champagne, is traversed by 
 the river Marne, and to a less extent by the Seine 
 and Aisne. Area, 3159 sq. m. ; population, 
 432,000. Its arroiidissements are Ch&lons-sur- 
 Marne (the capital), Epernay, Rheims, Sainte- 
 M^nehould, and Vitry-le-Frangois. 
 
 Marne, Haute, a dep. of NE. France, formed 
 chiefly out of the old province of Champagne, 
 and embracing the upper basins of the 3Iarne 
 and Meuse. Area, 2402 sq. m, ; population, 
 225,000. There are three arrondissements, Chau- 
 mont (the capital), Langres, and Vassy. 
 
 Mamoch, a Banffshire parish, 8^ miles NNE. 
 of Huntly. It figures in Disruption annals. 
 
 Marocco. See Morocco. 
 
 Maros-Vasarhely, capital of the Szekler dis- 
 tricts in Transylvania, on the Maros, a tributary 
 of the Theiss, 28 miles SE. of Klausenburg. It 
 has a castle. Pop. 19,883. 
 
 Marple, a Che.shire town, 4 miles SE. of Stock- 
 port. Bradshaw the regicide was a native. Pop. 
 5600. ' 
 
 Marquesas Islands (Marlay'sas), or Men- 
 DANAS, a volcanic group in Polynesia, since 1842 
 a French protectorate, N. of Tuamotu or Low 
 Archipelago, between 8° and 11° S. lat. and 138° 
 and 141° W. long. The name strictly applies to 
 four or five islands discovered by Mendana in 
 1595, but usually includes now the Washington 
 group of seven islands, to the north-west. Total 
 area, 492 sq. m. In Cook's time (1774) there were 
 100,000 inhabitants, but in 1838 they had decreased 
 to 20,000, and now to 5000. 
 
 Marquette, capital of Marquette county, 
 Michigan, on the S. shore of Lake Superior, 430 
 miles by rail N. of Chicago. It has a R. C. 
 cathedral, foundries, blast-furnaces, sawmills, 
 machine-shops, and a slate-quarry. Pop. 9993. 
 
 Marsala (Marsd'la ; anc. Lilybceum), a seaport 
 on the westernmost point of Sicily, 102 miles by 
 rail and 55 as the crow flies SW. of Palermo. It 
 has a citadel, a cathedral, and a large trade 
 in wine, the well-known sherry-like Marsala. 
 It got its present name from the Saracens, who 
 occupied it in the 9th c, but were expelled by 
 
MARSDEN 
 
 452 
 
 MARTINSBURG 
 
 the Normans in the 11th. The harbour, filled up 
 in 1567 to prevent a Turkish attack, was recon- 
 ptructed during the 19th c. Garibaldi landed 
 here in 1860. Pop. 50,750. 
 
 Marsden, a town of Yorkshire, on the Colne, 
 7 miles SW. of Huddersfiekl. It has woollen, 
 cotton, and silk factories. Pop. 4855. 
 
 Marseilles (usu. Marsayles' ; Fr, Marseille), 
 the third city of France, and the chief town of 
 the dep. Bouches-du-Ehone, is situated on the 
 south coast, about 27 miles E. of the mouth of 
 the Rhone, and 536 by rail SSE. of Paris. It is 
 the principal commercial port of France, if not 
 of the entire Mediterranean. Wheat, oil-seeds, 
 coal, wine, spirits, beer, sugar, maize, oats, 
 barley, coffee, oils, pepper, flour, and tallow 
 are the chief imports ; whilst the exports com- 
 prise clay tiles, wheat, oil-cakes, flour, sugar, oil, 
 wine and spirits, soaj), and candles. Marseilles 
 is the headquarters of the Messageries Maritimes 
 and other great French companies. The old 
 harbour, a natural basin of nearly 70 acres, 
 runs into the heart of the city ; to the W. of it 
 new docks, quays, and warehouses extend fully 
 a mile along the shore, and cover a hundred 
 acres ; between these and a breakwater is an 
 outer roadstead; and there are also dry-docks, 
 slips, &c. Soap, vegetable oils, oil-cake, soda, 
 sugar, macaroni, iron, lead, zinc, tiles, and 
 leather are manufactured. The city of Marseilles 
 is built on the slopes that overlook the old har- 
 bour, and at the foot, and has of late years ex- 
 tended to the south-east. Its buildings include 
 the cathedral, built in the form of a Byzantine 
 basilica (1852-93) ; the pilgrimage church (1214 ; 
 rebuilt 1864), with an image of the Virgin greatly 
 venerated by sailors ; the church of St Victor 
 (1200), with crypt and catacombs of the 11th 
 century ; the health office of the port, with 
 fine paintings by Vernet, David, Gerard, and 
 Guerin ; the museum of antiquities, in the Chateau 
 Bor61y ; the Longchamp palace, a very fine Re- 
 naissance building (1870), with picture-gallery 
 and natural history museum ; the public library, 
 with 95,000 volumes and 1530 MSS. There are 
 also a botanical and a zoological garden, a marine 
 and an astronomical observatory, a faculty of 
 sciences, and schools of medicine, fine arts. 
 Oriental languages, music, commerce, hydro- 
 graphy. Pop. (1861) 200,910; (1886) 376,143; 
 (1901)474,326, including a colony of 90,000 Italians. 
 
 Marseilles was founded by Phoceans from Asia 
 Minor about 600 B.C., and down to 300 a.d. was a 
 centre of Greek civilisation. The Greeks called it 
 Massalia, the Romans Massilia. It supported 
 Pompey against Cajsar, but was taken by the 
 latter in 49 B.C., after an obstinate defence. 
 During subsequent ages it fell into the hands 
 of the Saracens (9th c), Charles of Anjou 
 (13th c), Alphonso V. of Aragon (1423), and 
 Henry III. of France (1575). In 1112 it had 
 become a republic ; but in 1660 it was deprived 
 by Louis XIV. of the privileges it had enjoyed 
 as a free port almost from its foundation. The 
 years 1720-21 are memorable for the devastations 
 of the plague, when nearly half the population of 
 100,000 perished. Marseilles was the scene of 
 stirring events in 1792-93, and sent large bands 
 of cut-throats to Paris ; in 1871 it proclaimed 
 the commune. In August 1885 there were 1250 
 deaths from cholera ; but the insanitary condi- 
 tion of the place has, it is hoped, been remedied 
 by the great drainage works inaugurated in 
 1891. Marseilles was the birthplace of Pytheas, 
 Petronius, Thiers, and the sculptor Puget. 
 
 Marshall, capital of Harrison county, Texas, 
 40 miles W. of Shreveport. It has railway 
 machine-shops, foundries, &c. Pop. 7907. 
 
 Marshall Islands, a group in the western 
 Pacific, annexed by Germany in 1885. Bisected 
 by 10° N. lat., and having the Caroline group to 
 the west, it consists of two parallel chains of low 
 coral-reefs — one, the Ratak group, consisting of 
 thirteen islands (48 sq. m.) ; the other, the Ralik 
 group, eleven islands (107 sq. m.). Copra is the 
 only export. Pop. 13,600. 
 
 Marshalltown, capital of Marshall county, 
 Iowa, near the Iowa River, 50 miles NE. of Des 
 Moines. Pop. 11,550. 
 
 Marshfield, a Gloucestershire town, on the 
 Cotswokls, 11^ miles E. of Bristol. Pop. 1250. 
 
 Marshfield, in Wisconsin, is 185 miles NW. of 
 Milwaukee. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Marsivan', a town of Asia Minor, 23 miles 
 NW. of Amasia. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Marske-by-the-Sea, a Yorkshire watering- 
 place, 3 miles SE. of Redcar. Near it are iron- 
 stone mines. Pop. of parish, 3090. 
 
 Mars-la-Tour. See Vionville. 
 
 Marston Moor, in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 7 miles W. of York, the scene of a great 
 parliamentary victory, 2d July 1644. 
 
 Martaban', a town in Burma, on the right 
 bank of the Salween, opposite to Maulmain. The 
 capital of Pegu down to 1324, it was taken by 
 the Siamese 250 years later, and by the British 
 in 1824 and in 1852. Pop. 1781. The Bay of 
 Martaban receives the Irawadi and Salween. 
 
 Martha's Vineyard, an island on the south 
 coast of Massachusetts, 21 miles long by 6 broad. 
 It is a summer health-resort. 
 
 Martigny (Marteen'yee), or Martinach (anc 
 Octodurus), three united hamlets in the Swiss 
 canton of Valais, on the Simplon railway, 24 
 miles SE. of the Lake of Geneva. Pop. 4417. 
 
 Martigues {Marteeg'), the ' Provencal Venice,' 
 a town in the French dep. of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, 
 is situated on several i.slands, united by bridges, 
 at the entrance to the iSltang de Berre, 20 miles 
 NW. of Marseilles. Pop. 6340. 
 
 Martina (Martee'na), a town of S. Italy, be^ 
 tween Taranto and Monopoli. Pop. 24,454. 
 
 Martinique (MartineeU ; native Madiana), on 
 of the Lesser Antilles, in the West India Islano' 
 It is 43 miles long by 12 to 20 broad. Area, 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1889) 175,863 ; (1902) 185,000. 
 island was discovered by the Spaniards in 1493, 
 colonised by tlie French in 1635, and except fo 
 three short intervals (1761-63, 1794-1802, 180»-| 
 14), when it was held by the British, it has ' 
 French colony ever since. A mountain-knot in thej 
 north (4430 feet) and another in the south are con- 
 nected by a low ridge, all being densely covered ! 
 with trees. An eruption of Mont Pelee in 1902' 
 entirely destroyed the town of Saint Pierre, the i 
 chief commercial place, with about 33,000 people. 
 Fort de France (18,000) is the capital. The climate 
 is moist and hot (annual mean 79° F.), and yellow 
 fever is not unfrequent. The soil is very pro- 
 ductive. About one-half of the land in cultiva- 
 tion is occupied with sugar-cane. The exports 
 include sugar, molasses, and rum ; the imports, 
 textiles, flour, fish, rice, and cotton. Slavery was 
 abolished in 1848 ; labour is largely performed 
 by coolies (27,000). Railways connect the prin- 
 cipal towns. 
 
 Martlnshurg, capital of Berkeley county, 
 
MARTIN'S FERRY 
 
 453 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 West Virginia, in tlie Slieuaudoah Valley, 114 
 miles by rail W. of Baltimore. It lia.s a^ large 
 distillery, mills, railway shops, &c. Pop. 7726. 
 
 Martin's Ferry, a town of Ohio, on the Ohio 
 River, 89 miles by rail SW. of Pittsburgh, has iron- 
 works, glass-works, &c. Pop. S250. 
 
 Martos, a town of Spain, 16 miles SW. of Jaen, 
 on a castle-crowned hill. Pop. 16,627. 
 
 Marugama, a seaport on the NW. coast of the 
 island of Shikoku, Japan. Pop. 25,000. 
 Miirwir. See Jodhpur. 
 Maryborougli, tlie capital of Queen's County, 
 51 miles SW. of Dublin. Pop. 2900. 
 
 Maryborough, (1) a port of Queensland, on the 
 Mary River, 25 miles from its mouth and 180 N. 
 of Brisbane. Gold from Gympie (61 miles by 
 rail), copper, sugar, and timber are the chief 
 exports. Pop. 10,360.— (2) An important gold- 
 mining town of Victoria, 90 miles NW. of Mel- 
 bourne. Pop. 5700. 
 Maryhill, a north-west suburb of Glasgow. 
 Maryland, one of the United States, on the 
 Atlantic, separated from Pennsylvania and Dela- 
 ware by 'Mason and Dixon's Line,' and from 
 Virginia by the Potomac River. It contains 
 12,210 sq. in.— very nearly the size of Holland— 
 of which about one-fifth is water. The length 
 from east to west is 196 miles, and the breadth 
 128 miles. The surface elevation varies greatly, 
 from sea-level to an altitude of 3500 feet. In the 
 west it is mountainous (see Blue Ridge) ; in the 
 middle hilly and rolling ; in the east and south- 
 east low and undulating. The mean summer 
 temperature is 75°, the mean winter temperature 
 34°. The annual rainfall varies from 38 inches in 
 the mountains to 46 near the Atlantic. The 
 minerals include fine bituminous coal ; over 200 
 kinds of marble'; copper, chrome, large beds of 
 clay, and soapstone. The soil is well adapted to 
 cultivation. The forest-trees are principally pine, 
 chestnut, and oak. The staple fruit-tree is the 
 peach, which covers many thousands of acres. 
 Tobacco is the principal crop in the peninsula 
 between the Chesapeake and the Potomac. Toma- 
 toes, melons, small fruits, and all kinds of vege- 
 tables are cultivated on the eastern shore. Deer, 
 wild ducks (especially the famous canvas-back), 
 wild geese, swans, and turkeys are found, as well 
 is woodcock, grouse, and quail (locally called par- 
 tridge). The Chesapeake Bay divides Maryland 
 nto two unequal portions, tifie Eastern and the 
 SVestern Shore. With its estuaries it gives the 
 itate a coast-line of more than 500 miles. Shad 
 md herring are caught in large numbers, and the 
 .verage aimual supply of oysters reaches 20 
 nillions of bushels, giving employment to more 
 han 40,000 persons. Besides railways, Maryland 
 as two canals (from Cumberland to Washington, 
 84J miles, and between the Chesapeake and 
 )elaware Bays, 12^ miles). Maryland returns 
 ix members to congress. The Legislature is 
 byled the General Assembly, and consists of two 
 ouses. The seat of government is at Annapolis, 
 altimore is the chief port and commercial 
 mtre. Other towns are Cumberland, Hagers- 
 )wn, Frederick, Westminster, on the western 
 lore; Salisbury, Easton, and Cambridge, on the 
 istem. Pop. (1830) 447,030; (1860) 687,049; 
 880) 934,943; (1900) 1,188.044. Included in 
 larles I.'s grant to Lord Baltimore (1632), Mary- 
 nd was named in honour of Henrietta Maria, 
 was among the first of the colonies to take an 
 lave part in the War of Independence. Divided 
 sentiment in the civil war of 1861-65, it yet 
 
 remained within the Union. See Scharf s History 
 of Maryland (2 vols. Bait. 1879). 
 
 Marylebone, a NW. parliamentary borough of 
 London, returning two members. Pop. 132,295. 
 Maryport, a seaport of Cumberland, at the 
 mouth of the Ellen, 28 miles SW. of Carlisle by 
 railway (1837). The town gets its name from the 
 fact that Mary, Queen of Scots, landed here in 
 her flight from Scotland, though it was called 
 Ellenfoot down to 1750, when its harbour was 
 constructed, A new dock was opened in 1884 ; 
 and there are shipbuilding-yards, iron-foundries 
 and iron-furnaces, sawmills, flour-mills, tanneries, 
 breweries, &c. Pop. (1851) 5698 ; (1901) 11,897. 
 
 Marysville, capital of Yuba county, California, 
 on the Yuba River, at the head of navigation, 52 
 miles by rail N. of Sacramento. It is a great 
 resort of gold-miners, and contains flour-mills, 
 a foundry, woollen-factory, &c. Pop. 3300. 
 
 Masampho (Ma-san-po), a Corean port on the 
 south coast, near the mouth of the Nak-tong 
 River. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Masaya (Mazl'a), a town of Nicaragua, near the 
 volcano of Masaya. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Mascara', a town of Algeria, 50 miles SE. of 
 Oran, 1800 feet above sea-level. Pop. 21,400. 
 
 Mascarenes, the collective name given (from 
 the discoverer) to the islands of Reunion, Mauri- 
 tius, and Rodriguez. 
 Mashhad. See Meshhed. 
 Mashonaland, or Mashunaland, the region 
 lying NE. of Matabeleland, between 16° 30'— 19° 
 10' S. lat. and 30°— 32° E. long. It embraces the 
 plateau (4000-4600 feet) whose backbone is the 
 Umvukwe Mountains, and in which rise some of 
 the chief feeders of the Zambesi, Limpopo, Sabi, 
 and Mazoe. It has rich soil, grass all the year 
 round, and an abundance of running streams. 
 A constant cold south-east wind tempers the 
 heat, and renders the air strong and bracing, 
 though some of the valleys breed fever. A 
 peaceful and industrious people (392,000 in 
 number), of Bantu race, the Mashonas and their 
 kinsmen the Makalakas long lived in fear of their 
 fierce neighbours, the Matabele. They are the 
 best husbandmen in South Africa, and before 
 being dispossessed of their country owned large 
 herds of cattle. They now grow rice, Kaffir corn, 
 maize, ground-nuts, sweet i)otatoes, tobacco, and 
 cotton ; this last they weave into blankets. 
 They are also good iron- workers. Iron, copper, 
 and gold (in quartz and river sand) exist in 
 immense quantities. There are very ancient ruins 
 and old gold-mines, especially at Zimbabye (q.v.). 
 Mashonaland was put under British protection 
 in 1888, and now, with Matabeleland, forms 
 Southern Rhodesia (q.v.). See Selous' Travels in 
 Sovth-East Africa (1893), and other books cited 
 at Matabeleland. 
 
 Mask, Lough, an isleted lake of Galway and 
 Mayo, measures 12 miles by 2 to 4. 
 
 Massa, or Massa di Carrara, a city of N. 
 Italy, 20 miles by rail SE. of Spezia. It has a 
 cathedral and a ducal palace. Pop. 26,400. 
 
 Massachus'etts, one of the New England state.s 
 of the American Union, is bounded E. by Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, from which the state derives its 
 familiar name of the Bay State. It is irregular in 
 outline, its greatest length being about 182 and its 
 average breadth 47^ miles ; and it has an area of 
 about 8315 sq. m. — larger than Wales. The sur- 
 face is uneven, varying from low plains, near the 
 Atlantic sea-coast, containing numerous small 
 lakes, to a rolling country in the interior, be- 
 
MASSAFRA 
 
 454 
 
 MATTERHORN 
 
 coming mountainous towards the western bound- 
 ary. Tlie highest of the peaks, most of them 
 wooded to the summit, is Greylock (3505 feet). 
 The soil is in many portions, particularly in the 
 east, rocky and sterile ; along the river-valleys, 
 however, and in certain other sections it is 
 fertile. The woodland in the state covers over 
 2100 sq. m. The rivers, while not important 
 for navigation, are the source of valuable water- 
 power which has been utilised in manufacturing ; 
 and in its annual output the state leads all 
 others, except New York and Pennsylvania. The 
 chief manufactures are textiles, boots and shoes, 
 food preparations, building materials, clothing, 
 iron and other metallic goods, leather, wooden 
 wares, rubber goods, paper and wood-pulp, 
 besides cotton, woollen, and worsted goods. 
 There are 2150 miles of railway in the state. 
 The ' commonwealth of Massachusetts ' contains 
 fourteen counties and returns 14 members to 
 congress. The state senate consists of 40, the 
 House of Representatives of 240 members. There 
 are in the state two technical institutes and twelve 
 colleges and universities, the latter including 
 Harvard, Williams College, Amherst College, and 
 Boston University and College. The leading cities 
 are Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Holyoke, 
 Fall River, Lowell, Lawrence, Lynn, Haverhill, 
 Brockton, Salem, New Bedford, Taunton, Glou- 
 cester, Cambridge, the seat of Harvard Univer- 
 sity. Pop. CISCO) 422,845; (1850) 994,514; (1880) 
 1,783,085 ; (1900) 2,805,000. 
 
 The coast Is supposed to have been visited by 
 Northinen about 1000 a.d., but the first per- 
 manent settlement was made at Plymouth, near 
 Cape Cod, by the Pilgrim Fathers, December 22, 
 1620. In 1628 a company of Puritans settled at 
 Salem upon the coast farther north, and, together 
 with settlements at Boston, Lynn, and else- 
 where, became the Massachusetts Bay Company. 
 The two colonies were united in 1692. After the 
 War of Independence, begun in Massachusetts 
 in 1776 with the battles of Lexington and Bunker 
 Hill, the colony became one of the original thir- 
 teen states of the Union. See J. S. Barry's 
 History of Massachusetts (3 vols. 1855-57). 
 
 Massafra, a town of Italy, 11 miles by rail 
 NW. of Taranto. Pop. 9463. 
 
 Massillon, a city of Ohio, on the TuscaraAvas 
 River, 66 miles S. of Cleveland, with manufac- 
 tures of iron, glass, and paper. Pop. 21,092. 
 
 Massow'ali, or Massaua, a town built on a 
 coral island off the west coast of the Red Sea, in 
 15° 36' N. lat., 39° 28' E. long. It was seized by 
 Turkey in 1557, but in 1866 given by her to 
 Egypt, and in 1885 was occupied by Italy. The 
 island is 1\ mile in circumference, and is con- 
 nected with the mainland by a causeway ; and is 
 the terminus of a military railway into the in- 
 terior. Pop. about 8000, of wliom 600 are Euro- 
 peans (exclusive of the garrison). Fishing for 
 pearls and mother-of-peail is the principal in- 
 dustry. The imports include cottons, chemical 
 products, animals, grain and flour, groceries, 
 spirits, hides, and timber. Massowah is very hot 
 (mean of the year, 85*8° F.) and unhealthy. 
 
 Masulipatam', a seaport in Madras presi- 
 dency, 215 miles N. of Madras city. Vessels 
 anchor 5 miles from shore. Here the English 
 established an agency in 1611. In 1864 a storm 
 wave destroyed 30,000 lives. Pop. 39,809. 
 
 Masiiri. See Mussooree. 
 
 Matabe'leland, a country stretching north- 
 wards from the Transvaal towards the Zambesi, 
 and having Khama'a territory on the south-west, 
 
 and Mashonaland (q.v.) to the north-east. It 
 measures about 180 miles from north to south 
 and 150 from east to west, and embraces the 
 watershed between the river-systems of the 
 Zambesi and the Limpopo. When in the first 
 quarter of the 19th century the despotic Chaka 
 ruled over the Zulus, a section of the nation 
 under a rival chief, Mosilikatze, rebelled and 
 moved off towards the north. After remaining 
 for a while in what is now the Transvaal, they 
 settled in 1840 in their present country, almost 
 exterminating the Mashona and Makalaka native 
 tribes. The Matabele, who preserved the warlike 
 habits of the Zulu race, number in all some 
 255,000 persons, of whom 15,000 are fighting men. 
 Quartz reefs rich in gold exist in various parts of 
 the country, and mines have been worked at Tati 
 and elsewhere. Tlie British South Africa Com- 
 pany in 1893 broke the power of Lobengula, son 
 of Mosilikatze, whose kraal was Bulawayo, still 
 the capital, and now connected by rail with Cape- 
 town. Since 1896 the natives have had a share 
 in the government. The district is now the 
 southern part of Rhodesia. See works by Baines 
 (1877), Montagu Kerr (1886), Gates (1889), Colqu- 
 houn (1894), Selous (1893), and Norris (1895). 
 
 Matadi, in the Congo State, is at the head of 
 the navigation of the Congo, 100 miles from its 
 mouth, and the starting-point of tlie railway. 
 Pop. 8000. 
 
 Matamo'ros, (1) a river-port of Mexico, oppo- 
 site Brownsville, Texas, on the Rio Grande's S. 
 bank, 40 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Pop. 13,740. — (2) A town, with coal- 
 mines, in the Mexican state Piiebla. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Matanzas, a fortified seaport on the north 
 coast of Cuba, 55 miles by rail E. of Havana,- 
 with distilleries, iron-foundries, and a large trade 
 in sugar, molasses, rum, and cigars. Pop. 36,500. 
 
 Matapan', Cape, the southernmost point, bold 
 and precipitous, of the Morea in Greece. 
 
 Mata'ro, a seaport of Spain, 17 miles by rail 
 NE. of Barcelona. Pop. 18,727. 
 
 Matera, an Italian cathedral city, 37 miles 
 NW. of Taranto. Pop. 17,700. 
 
 Mathura. See Mottra. 
 
 Matlock, a Derbyshire parish, 17 miles N. by 
 W. of Derby, containing Matlock Bath, Matlock 
 Bridge, Matlock town, and Matlock Bank, which 
 extend 2 miles along the romantic valley of tlie 
 Derweiit. Matlock Bath has hot springs of 68* 
 F., charged with carbonic acid. At Matlock Bank 
 are several hydropathics, one dating from 1851. 
 Pop. (1901) of Matlock urban district, 5979. 
 
 Matoppo Hills, the mountainous region in 
 which the Matabele tableland (itself reac.liing 
 4500 feet above the sea) culminates, the Avater. 
 shed between the Limiwpo and the Zambesi. 
 Bulawayo (q.v.) is on their slopes ; and amongst 
 them Cecil Rhodes was buried. 
 
 Mat'sumal, or Fukuyama, a Japanese port in 
 Yesso, now supersedeil by Hakodate (q.v.). In 
 feudal days it was the seat of ' the lords of Mat- 
 sumai.' Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Matsuyama, a Japanese town of 40,000 inhabit- 
 ants, 5 miles from its port of Mitsu, on the west 
 coast of Shikoku. 
 
 Matterhom (French Mont Cervin; Italian 
 Monte Silvio), a peak (14,705 feet) of the Alps 
 between the Swiss canton of Valais and Piedmont. 
 It was first scaled by Lord Francis Douglas, the 
 Rev. C. Hudson, Hadow, and AVhymper, with 
 three guides, on 14th July 1865, when the thre« 
 
MATTO G&OSSO 
 
 455 
 
 MAVNOOTfl 
 
 first liamed and one of the guides fell over a 
 precipice and were killed. See Whyraper, Ascent 
 of the Matterhorn (1880). 
 
 Matto Grosso (' dense forest ')i an inland state 
 of Brazil, bordering on Bolivia. Area, 532,550 
 sq. m. (next in size to Aniazonas) ; pop. 95,000. 
 The capital is Cuyaba (q.v.). 
 
 Mattoon, a town of Illinois, 172 miles by rail 
 S. by W. of Chicago. Pop. 9833. 
 
 Maturin, a town of Venezuela, 25 miles above 
 its port, Colorado, by rail. Pop. 10,351. 
 
 Maubeuge (Mo-bvzh'), a fortified town in the 
 French dep. of Nord, 4 miles from the Belgian 
 frontier and 23 ESE. of Valenciennes. Pop. 
 (1881)5360,- (1901)19,370. 
 
 Mauch Chunk {MawTc Chunk), a mining-town 
 of Pennsylvania, capital of Carbon county, among 
 picturesque hills on the Lehigh River, 90 miles 
 NNW. of Philadelphia. There is a switchback 
 railway, 9 miles long, to Summit Hill— a place 
 famous for its ' burning mines,' which have been 
 on fire since 1858. Pop. 4100. 
 
 Mauchline, a town of Ayrshire, 12 miles ENB. 
 of Ayr. It has long been noted for its wooden 
 snuff-boxes and similar nicknacks. There is a 
 monument (1830) to live martyred Covenanters ; 
 and 1 mile N. is Mossgiel, Burns's farm from 1784 
 till 1788, whilst in the village itself are ' Poosie 
 Nancy's,' the scene of his Jolly Beggars, and 
 Mauchline kirk, whose predecessor was the scene 
 of his Holy Fair. Pop. 1754. See works by W. 
 Jolly (1881) and the Rev. Dr Edgar (1886). 
 
 Maulmaln, or Moulmkin, a town in Tenas- 
 serim province, Burma, near the Salween's mouth. 
 It is backed by a fine range of hills, on whose 
 heights flash tifie gilded spires of innumerable 
 pagodas. Pop. (1856) 43,683 ; (1901) 58,450. The 
 exports include teak-wood and rice ; the imports 
 piece-goods, hardware, and provisions. 
 
 Mauna Loa. See Hawaii. 
 
 Mauritania, or Mauretania, was anciently 
 the most north-western part of Africa, corre- 
 sponding to Morocco and western Algeria. 
 
 Mauritius, or Isle of France, an island in 
 the Indian Ocean, belonging to Great Britain 
 since 1810, and situated 550 miles B. of Madagas- 
 car. It is of volcanic origin and elliptical in 
 shape. A girdle of reefs, broken only by passages 
 opposite the mouths of the small streams, renders 
 it somewhat difficult of approach. The contour 
 rises rapidly into a tableland, that shoots up into 
 ridges ; Riviere Noire (2711) is the culminating 
 point of the island. Lavas, basalts, and volcanic 
 lakes abound. Its picturesque beauty forms the 
 appropriate background of Bernardin St Pierre's 
 Paul and Virginia, and is well described in 
 Besant and Rice's novel. My Little Girl. But 
 during the 19th century the forests were cut 
 down to make room for sugar-cane plantations ; 
 and this has made the rainfall insufficient and 
 uncertain. The extinct fauna enibraced the in- 
 teresting dodo, the rail called Aphanapteryx, and 
 a short-winged heron. Fossil tortoises of great 
 size have been discovered. Terrific cyclones are 
 common ; one in 1892 did tremendous damage to 
 Port Louis and other places. At Port Louis the 
 annual mean is 78° F. ; in the uplands the climate 
 resembles that of the south of France. In 1854 
 the cholera carried off 17,000 people, and thirteen 
 years later 30,000 perished of a malignant fever. 
 The upper classes, very intelligent, cultured, and 
 well educated, are mostly descended from the 
 old French colonists. There is a large number of 
 half-castes, and a considerable body of Negroes, 
 
 Malagasy, Singhalese, Malays, Chinese, &c. But 
 the greater part of the population consists of 
 Indian coolies, who have been imported nearly 
 every year since 1842 to Avork the sugar-fields. 
 Pop. (1881) 359,874; (1903) 874,644, of whom 
 207,000 were Hindus, 113,238 Roman Catholics, 
 41,200 Mohammedans, and 6650 Protestants. The 
 chief towns are Port Louis (q.v.), the capital, on 
 the north-west coast ; Curepipe (pop. 7880) ; and 
 Mahebourg (4490) on the south coast. There are 
 105 miles of railway. The one great crop of the 
 island is sugar ; and the other exports include 
 rum, cocoa-nut oil, vanilla, and aloe fibres (Maur- 
 itius heinp). The crown colony of Mauritius, 
 with its dependencies the Seychelles Islands, Rod- 
 riguez, Diego Garcia, and several minor islands, is 
 administered by a governor, aided by an execu- 
 tive council. The island, then uninhabited, was 
 discovered by Mascarenhas (see Mascarenes) in 
 1507. The Portuguese held it till 1598; the 
 Dutch, who named it after their Prince Maurice, 
 from 1598 till 1710. It was the French governor 
 Mahe de Labourdonnais (] 735-46) who introduced 
 the sugar-cane, and laid the foundation of its pros- 
 perity as a colony, during the French occupation 
 (1715-1810). Theodore Hook was treasurer in 
 1812-18. See works by Grant (1801), Flemyng 
 (1862), Ryan (1864), Boyle (1867), J. G. Baker 
 (1877), G. Clark (1881), ifpinay (French, 1890), 
 Decotter (French, 1891), and Keller (1901). 
 
 Maxstoke, an Edwardian castle of Warwick- 
 shire, 3 miles SE. of Coleshill, 
 
 Maxwelltovra. See Dumfries. 
 
 May, Isle of, a Fife islet in the Firth of 
 Forth, 5i miles SSE. of Crail. It is 146 acres in 
 area, rises 150 feet, was the seat of a priory, and 
 has a lighthouse, whose flashing electric light is 
 visible 22 nautical miles. Pop. 17. 
 
 Maybole, a town of Ayrshire, 3| miles inland, 
 and 9 by rail (1856) S. by W. of Ayr. In feudal 
 times the capital of Carrick, and a burgh of 
 barony since 1516, it is an old-world place, which 
 once boasted twenty-eight baronial mansions, 
 several of which still remain ; besides which, it 
 has a new town-hall (1887) and a fine Roman 
 Catholic church (1879). Shoemaking is the 
 staple industry. The abbey of Crossraguel (q.v.) 
 is in the vicinity. Pop. 5900. 
 
 Mayence. See Mainz. 
 
 Mayenne (Ma-yenn' ; Lat. Meduana), a French 
 dep. formed out of the provinces of Maine and 
 Anjou, now containing the arrondissements of 
 Laval, Chateau-Gontier, and Mayenne, has an 
 area of 1996 sq. m. and a pop. of (1872) 350,637 ; 
 (1901) 313,803.— The river Mayenne, flowing 127 
 miles S., joins the Sarthe at Angers to form the 
 Maine, a tributary of the Loire. — The town of 
 Mayenne, on the river Mayenne, 78 miles by rail 
 S. by W. of Caen, has a picturesque ruined castle 
 (taken by the English in 1424), and manufactures 
 calico and linen. Pop. 8360. 
 
 Mayfield, a Staffordshire village, on the Dove, 
 2 miles SW. of Ashborne. Here Moore wrote 
 Lalla Rookh. 
 
 Maynooth', a village of County Kildare, Ire- 
 land, 15 miles NW. of Dublin by rail ; pop. (1891) 
 948, It has the ruined castle of the Geraldines, 
 and is the seat of the Roman Catholic college, 
 established (1795) by the Irish parliament during 
 Pitt's ministry, to meet a necessity created by 
 the destruction, through the French Revolution, 
 of the places of education in France, upon which 
 the Irish Catholic clergy had been driven to rely. 
 The original endowment, an annual vote of £8928, 
 
 I 
 
MAYO 
 
 456 
 
 MECCA 
 
 was continued, although not without controversy 
 and keen opposition on the part of zealous Pro- 
 testants, by the imperial parliament after the act 
 of union. In 1846 Sir Robert Peel carried a bill 
 for a permanent endowment of £26,000 a year, to 
 which was added a grant of £30,000 for building 
 purposes ; in 1869 the endowment was with- 
 drawn, a capital sum of £364,000 being granted 
 in its stead. The building erected under the 
 original endowment is a plain quadrangle. The 
 new college is a very striking Gothic quadrangle 
 by Pugin, containing professors' and students' 
 apartments, lecture-halls, and a singularly fine 
 library and refectory. The chapel was (witli the 
 exception of a tower and spire 275 feet high) com- 
 pleted at a cost of £50,000, and dedicated in 1890. 
 Designed by the late J. J. M'Carthy in the 
 Decorated Gothic style, it consists of a great 
 nave, choir, and sanctuary, ending in a five-sided 
 apse, from which radiate five chapels. A great 
 I)art of the college buildings was burned in 
 November 1878, but has since been restored. 
 
 Mayo, a maritime county of the Irish province 
 of Connaught, is bounded by the Atlantic, Sligo, 
 Roscommon, and Galway. Area, 1,360,731 acres, 
 of which nearly 26 per cent, is bog and 18 per 
 cent, barren ; pop. (1841) 388,887; (1901) 199,166, 
 of whom 213,602 were Catholics. The eastern 
 half of the county is more or less a plain, the 
 western half mountainous, the highest points 
 being Muilrea (2688 feet), Nephin (2530), and 
 Croagh Patrick (2370). Ironstone abounds, but 
 is not worked ; there are several valuable slate- 
 quarries. The chief towns are Castlebar, West- 
 port, Ballina, and Ballinrobe. The coast-line is 
 about 250 miles, and is indented by Killala, 
 Blacksod, and Clew Bays, Killary Harbour, and 
 Broad Haven. Off Mayo, too, lie the islands 
 Achil (35,283 acres), Clare (3959), &c. Loughs 
 Mask and Corrib lie on the southern border, and 
 Loughs Conn, Castlebar, Cullen, Carragh, Corra- 
 more within the county. A valuable salmon- 
 fishery exists in the river Moy, and Longh Mask 
 is the home of the ' gillaroo ' trout. Four mem- 
 bers are returned. The antiquities are chiefly 
 ecclesiastical — four round towers, and at Cong a 
 splendid ruined abbey of the 12th c. 
 
 Mayotte, one of the Comoro Isles (q.v.). 
 
 MaysvlUe, capital of Mason county, Kentucky, 
 on the Ohio River, 69 miles by rail NE. of 
 Lexington. Pop. 7358. 
 
 Mazamet (Mazarnay'), a French town, 43 iniles 
 ESE. of Toulouse. Pop. 13,588. 
 
 Mazanderan', a province of northern Persia, 
 fringing the Caspian Sea for 200 miles, consists 
 of a belt of low marshy coast-land, 10 to 20 miles 
 wide, backed by the well-wooded northern slopes 
 of the Elburz. Area, 10,400 sq. m. ; pop. 300,000. 
 The chief town is Sari, though Balfrush is the 
 seat of the trade with Russia. 
 
 Mazarron, or Almazarron, a seaport of Spain, 
 27 miles WSW. of Cartagena. Pop. 24,398. 
 
 Mazatlan', a Mexican seaport, at the entrance 
 of the river Mazatlan into the Gulf of California, 
 230 miles SE. of Sinaloa. It has a cathedral, 
 cotton factory, foundries, &c. Pop. 13,395. 
 
 Mazza'ra, a walled cathedral coast-town of 
 Sicily, 32 miles by rail S. of Trapani. Pop. 13,074. 
 
 Mazzarlno (Mazzaree'no), a town of Sicily, 15 
 miles SE. of Caltanisotta. Pop. 22,964. 
 
 MeadvlUe, capital of Crawford county, Penn- 
 .sylvauia, on French Creek, 113 miles by rail N. 
 of Pittsburgli. It manufactures woollens, paper, 
 glass, machinery, oil, &c., and is the seat of 
 
 Alleghany College (Methodist, founded 18J5), and 
 of a Unitarian theological school. Pop. 10,300. 
 
 Mealfour'vonie. See Ness, Loch. 
 
 Meanee. See Meeanee. 
 
 Mearns. See Kincardineshire. 
 
 Meath, a maritime county of Leinster, Ireland 
 bounded E. for 10 miles by the Irish Sea, and by 
 the counties of Dublin and Louth. Area, 906 
 sq. m., or 579,861 acres, of whicli 34,300 are 
 waste, bog, &c. Pop. (1841) 183,116 ; (1861) 
 110,373; (1901) 67,497, of whom 71,690 were 
 Catholics. The soil is a rich loam ; but close 
 upon 67 per cent, of it is devoted to pasture. 
 The surface is mostly undulating. The chief 
 rivers are the Boyne and Blackwater. The prin- 
 cipal towns are Trim, Navan, and Kells. John's 
 Castle at Trim is one of tlie most extensive 
 monuments of English rule in Ireland. There 
 are a round tower and sculptured crosses at 
 Kells, and a round tower at Donoughmore. 
 Monastic ruins survive at Bective, Clonard, and 
 Duleek. Meath returns two members. 
 
 Meaux (Mo), a town in the French dep. of 
 Seine-et-Marne, on a height above the river Marne, 
 28 miles NE. of Paris. In its noble Gothic 
 cathedral (12-16th century, but still unfinished) is 
 the grave of Bossuet, who was bishop for twenty- 
 three years. Meaux trades largely with Paris in 
 corn, flour, cream-cheeses, &c. It was besieged 
 by the serfs of La Jacquerie (1358), and captured 
 from tlie League (1594). Pop. 12,704. 
 
 Mecca is one of the oldest cities of Arabia and 
 the capital of the Hedjaz, and as tlie birthplace 
 of Mohammed a holy city and focus of pilgrim- 
 age for Islam. It is situated in 21° 80' N. lat 
 and 40= 8' E. long., 50 miles E. of Jiddah, its 
 port on the Red Sea, in a narrow barren valley, 
 surrounded by bare hills penetrated by two 
 passes. The streets are broad and airy, but 
 unpaved and filthy ; the houses, climbing the 
 hills on either side, are of stone, and well built. 
 There are cliaritable lodgings for the poorer 
 pilgrims, and also public baths and a liospitaL 
 Drainage there is none, though there is plenty 
 of water. The pop., which is notorious for its vice 
 and corruption of every sort, is probably under 
 60,000, but is annually reinforced by at least as 
 many pilgrims. The Great Mosque stands in the 
 broadest part of the valley, and consists of a large 
 quadrangle, capable of holding 35,000 persons, 
 surrounded by arcades or cloisters, with pillars 
 of marble and granite, and entered by nineteen 
 gates surmounted by seven minarets. In the 
 centre is the Kaaba (i.e. 'cube'), the temple of 
 Mecca ages before the time of Mohammed, who 
 invented the legend that the Kaaba was built 
 by Abraham. It has been twice rebuilt in his- 
 torical times, but the old form (which is not 
 quite square), has been preserved ; it measures 
 about 18 paces by 14, and 35 or 40 feet high. 
 The celebrated fetish, or Black Stone, is appar- 
 ently a meteorite, about a span long, built 
 into the south-east corner at the proper height 
 for kissing. Hard by, and also within the 
 court, is the well of Zemzem, the tepid water 
 of which may once have been mineral, but the 
 largest item in whose present analysis consists 
 of sewage matter. In 1893 European scientists 
 traced the recent destructive visitations of 
 cholera to this same sacred well ; and the Powers 
 alarmed the Sublime Porte by demanding that 
 it should be cleansed or shut up. Mohammed 
 reconquered Mecca from the Koreish in 627, five 
 years after his Flight or Hegira therefrom. It 
 long remained under the rule of the caliphs, 
 
MECHLIU 
 
 457 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN SEA 
 
 ifho spent large sums in its adornment. In 
 930 it was sacked by the Kannathians. Mecca 
 afterwards fell under the influence of whatever 
 dynasty — Fatimite, Ayytibite, or Mameluke — 
 happened to rule in Egypt ; and thus finally it 
 came into the jiossession of the Ottoman sultans, 
 whose power, however, is nominal, whilst the 
 real governor is the sherif, or rei^uted head of 
 the descendents of the Prophet. 
 
 See Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka (German, 1888) ; 
 W. Robertson Smith in Ency. Brit. (1883); Sir 
 Richard Burton's Pilgrimage (1855 ; new ed. 
 1894) ; Burckhardt's Travels in Arabia (1829). 
 
 Mechlin. See M alines. 
 
 Mecklenburg (« as oo), the name of two grand- 
 duchies of Germany, distinguished respectively 
 as Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz, and bounded by the Baltic, Pomerania, 
 Brandenburg, Sleswick-Holstein, and LUbeck. 
 The former is a compact territory, abutting on 
 the Baltic for 65 miles, its area 'being 5197 sq. 
 m. (much less than Yorkshire). Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz (1144 sq. m.) consists of two detached 
 portions, the grand-duchy of Strelitz, lying SE. 
 of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and the principality 
 of Ratzeburg, wedged in between Schwerin and 
 Llibeck. The region indicated forms part of the 
 great Nortli German plain, but is crossed by a 
 low north-westward ridge. Along the line of 
 this ridge there are more than 500 lakes. Except 
 for some sandy tracts and turfy moors the soil is 
 fertile ; agriculture is the chief occupation. The 
 chief ports are Wismar and Rostock (Warne- 
 miinde). Pop of Schwerin (1875) 553,754 ; (1900) 
 607,770; of Strelitz (1875) 95,673; (1900)102,602. 
 The rural population are almost entirely German- 
 ised Slavs, the nobility and the townsfolk for 
 the most part of Saxon stock. The popular 
 dialect is Platt-Deutsch or Low German ; the 
 religious confession Lutheran. Society in Meck- 
 lenburg is still organised on a feudal basis; 
 serfdom was abolished only in 1824. At the 
 head of each grand-duchy stands a grand-duke ; 
 but both grand-duchies are represented in one 
 and the same national assembly, which meets 
 every autumn at Sternberg and Malchin alter- 
 nately. The principality of liatzeburg and the 
 towns of Wismar and Neustrelitz have each an 
 independent administration. 
 
 Medellin, (1) a Spanish town (pop. 1477), the 
 birthplace of Cortes, on the Guadiana, 66 miles 
 by rail E. of Badajoz.— (2) The second city of 
 Colombia, capital of the dep. of Antioquia, lies 
 in a lovely mountain-valley, 4850 feet above the 
 sea, and 150 miles NW. of Bogota. It has a 
 cathedral, college, and manufactures of pottery, 
 porcelain, and jewellery. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Medford, a Massachusetts town, on the Mystic 
 River, 5 miles by rail NNW. of Boston. It 
 manufactures rum, buttons, &c., and has a Uni- 
 versalist college (1852). Pop. 19,078. 
 
 Media, in ancient times, the NW. part of 
 Iran or Persia, bounded by the Caspian Sea and 
 Parthia on the E. It corresponded to the 
 modern Persian provinces of Azerbijan, Ghilan, 
 and Irak-Ajemi, and E. Kurdistan. 
 
 Medina, El- {Medee'na; Arabic for 'The City ;' 
 more fully, Medinat en-Nebi, 'City of the Pro- 
 phet,'), the second capital of the Hedjaz in 
 western Arabia, is the holiest city of the Moham- 
 medan Avorld after Mecca, because it was there 
 that Mohammed took refuge after his Hegira or 
 Flight from Mecca in 622, and there that he 
 lived till his death. Situated 250 miles N. of 
 Mecca, and 132 N. by E. of the port of Yaubu' 
 
 on the Red Sea, it forms an irregular oval within 
 a walled enclosure, 35 to 40 feet high, flanked by 
 thirty towers, and enclosing the castle of the 
 Turkish garrison. The Prophet's Mosque El- 
 Haram, supposed to be erected on the spot where 
 Mohammed died, and to enclose his tomb, is 
 smaller than that of Mecca, being a parallelogram, 
 420 feet long and 340 broad, with a spacious 
 central arcaded ai-ea. The present building is, 
 however, only the last of many reconstructions. 
 The Mausoleum, or Hujrah, in which the Prophet's 
 body is supposed to lie undecayed, is an irregular 
 doorless chamber in the south-east corner, and 
 is surmounted by a crescented 'Green Dome,' 
 springing from a series of globes. That his coffin 
 rests suspended in the air is of course an idle 
 Christian fable. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Medina, a river of the Isle of Wight, flowing 
 12 miles N. to the Solent at Cowes. 
 
 Medina Sidonia (Medee'na), a city of Spain, 
 25 miles SSE. of Cadiz, stands on an isolated 
 hill, and has a ruined castle, the ancestral seat 
 of the dukes of Medina Sidonia. Pop. 11,699. 
 
 Medinet-el-Fayyum. See FayyOm. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea, so named from its lying 
 between the continents of Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa, is the largest enclosed sea in the world, 
 and is connected with the open ocean only by 
 the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, 9 nules wide. 
 Since 1869, however, it has been artificially con- 
 nected with the Red Sea and Indian Ocean by 
 means of the Suez Canal. The Mediterranean is 
 2200 miles long from the Strait of Gibraltar east- 
 ward to the Syrian coast ; its width varies from 
 500 or 600 miles in some i)laces to less than 100 
 miles between Sicily and Cape Bon, where it is 
 divided by relatively shallow banks into two 
 distinct hj^drographic basins, the eastern one 
 being the larger. It is connected with the 
 Black Sea by the Dardanelles, Sea of Marmora, 
 and Bosphorus. The African and Syrian coasts 
 are comparatively even and un indented ; the 
 shores of Europe and Asia Minor are cut up 
 into numerous gulfs and bays, the largest of 
 which is the Adriatic Sea. Various parts of the 
 Mediterranean have been known by special 
 names, such as the Tyrrhenian and Iberian Seas 
 in the western, and the Levant, jEgean, and 
 Ionian Seas in the eastern basin. The principal 
 islands in the western part are Sardinia and 
 Corsica, the Balearic and Lipari Islands. The 
 continental islands of Sicily and Malta are situ- 
 ated on the banks dividing the two basins. In 
 the eastern regions there are the large islands of 
 Cyprus and Crete, with the Ionian Islands and 
 the islands of the Archipelago. The Mediter- 
 ranean is frequently subject to earthquakes, and 
 Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna are among its 
 active volcanoes. The countries bordering the 
 Mediterranean have been the cradle of civilisa- 
 tion, and still this inland sea is commercially the 
 most important Avaterway of the world. 
 
 The area of the Mediterranean is estimated at 
 about 900,000 sq. m., or, including the Black Sea 
 and Sea of Azov, at 1,053,000 sq. m. The area 
 of land draining into the Mediterranean is esti- 
 mated at 2,969,350 sq. m., or nearly 3,000,000 
 sq. m. The principal rivers flowing into the 
 Mediterranean are the Rhone, Po, Danube, 
 Dnieper, Don, and the Nile, On the ridge 
 between Sicily and Africa which separates the 
 Mediterranean into two basins, there is a depth 
 of 200 fathoms; 2040 fathoms is the greatest 
 depth recorded in the western, and 2187 fathoms 
 the greatest in the eastern basin ; the mean depth 
 
MEDMENHAM 
 
 458 
 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 of the whole sea is 768 fathoms. The Mediter- 
 ranean is usually called a tideless sea. At 
 Algiers there is a rise of 3^ inches at springs, 
 and half that amount at neaps ; at other places 
 the rise and fall is about 18 inches, and in the 
 Gulf of Gabes the range reaches 5 feet. There is 
 an extensive red coral fisliery and tunny fishery 
 on some parts of the coasts. The Mediterranean 
 region appears to have been covered by the sea 
 from early geological times, and daring Tertiary 
 times must have had much wider communication 
 with the open ocean. See Murray's Mediterranean 
 Handbook (3d ed. 2 vols. 1890). 
 
 Medmenham (Med'nam), a village of Bucks, 
 near the Thames, 3 miles SW. of Marlow. Here 
 stood a Cistercian abbey (1204) ; and here, soon 
 after 1750, Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards 
 Lord le Despencer (1708-81), founded his mock 
 brotherhood of 'Franciscans.' 
 
 Medoc', a French district on the left bank of 
 the Gironde estuary, famed for the quantity and 
 excellence of the wine it yields, some of the most 
 famous growths of Bordeaux. 
 
 Medway, a river of Kent, rising in three head- 
 streams in Sussex and Surrey, and flowing 70 miles 
 north-eastward (including 12 miles of estuary), 
 past Tunbridge, Maidstone, Rochester, Chatham, 
 and Sheerness, until it joins the estuary of the 
 Thames. It is tidal and navigable to Maidstone, 
 but large vessels do not ascend above Rochester 
 bridge. In 1667 the Dutch sailed up the Medway. 
 
 Meeanee, or Miani, a village in Sind, India, 
 on the Indus, 6 miles N. of Hyderabad, was the 
 scene of Sir Charles Napier's victory with 2800 
 men over a Baluch army, 22,000 strong, on 
 February 17, 1843. 
 
 Meerane (May-rd'nuh), a prosperous manu- 
 facturing town of Saxony, 43 miles by rail S. of 
 Leipzig. From a small country town, it has 
 increased rapidly through its woollen manufac- 
 tures and export trade with England, France, 
 and America. Pop. (1849) 7345 ; (1900) 23,850. 
 
 Meerut, or Merath, a town in the North-west 
 Provinces of India, 40 miles NE. of Delhi, about 
 half-way between the Ganges and the Jumna. 
 Its most important edifice is the English church, 
 with a fine spire. Here in 1857 the great mutiny 
 broke out. Pop. (1881) 99,565 ; (1901) 118,130, 
 inclusive of the cantonment. 
 
 Meg'arls, a mountainous district of Greece, 
 between Attica and the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 Meghna. See Ganges. 
 
 Megid'do (g hard), an ancient city of Palestine, 
 in the plain of Esdraelon. In the battle there 
 Josiah was slain in 609 B.C. 
 
 Mehadia (Mehah'dia), a town (pop. 2500) of 
 SE. Hungary, 20 miles N. of Orsova by rail ; 3 
 miles east of it, in a romantic mountain-valley, 
 is the Herkulesbad, or waters of Hercules, 
 eighteen warm springs, of which nine, richly 
 impregnated with various salts, have since Roman 
 times been used for the cure of rheumatism, 
 neuralgia, gout, hypochondria, and skin affec- 
 tions.— Mehadia, or Mahdiah, is also the name 
 of an African seaport and health-resort, 115 miles 
 SE. of the town of Tunis ; pop. 3500. 
 
 Meigle (Mee'gle), a Perthshire parish, 21 miles 
 NE. of Perth, with remarkable sculptured stones. 
 
 Meinam. See Siam. 
 
 Meinlngen (Ml'ning-en), the capital of the 
 German duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, lies in a 
 narrow valley on the Werra, 43 miles by rail 
 NW. of Coburg. The ducal castle (1682) con- 
 
 tains a library, picture-gallery, coin-collection, 
 &c. The town has been largely rebuilt since the 
 fire of 1874. It was an appendage of Wiirzburg 
 1008-1542, and in 1583 came to the Saxon ducal 
 family. Pop. (1875) 9521 ; (1900) 14,483. 
 
 Meissen (Ml'sen), a town of Saxony, on the 
 left bank of the Elbe, 14 miles by rail NW. of 
 Dresden. Its chief building is the cathedral (c. 
 1266-1479), one of the finest Gothic churches in 
 Germany, surmounted by an exquisite spire (263 
 feet) of open work. The castle was built in 
 1471-83, and in 1710 was converted into the 
 porcelain factory presided over by Bottger, a 
 statue of whom was erected in 1891. In 1863 
 the castle was restored, and its walls adorned 
 with frescoes by modern painters, the porcelain 
 factory having been removed in 1860 to other 
 premises ; 800 men are employed. Other manu- 
 factures are iron, machinery, jute, and cigars. 
 Here is the celebrated school of St Afra (founded 
 1543), where Gellert and Lessing were educated. 
 Meissen was founded in 928, and was burned 
 down by the Swedes in 1637. Pop. 35,474. 
 
 Meklong, a town of Slam, near where the 
 Meklong enters the Gulf of Siam. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Mekong, or Mekhong, the greatest river of 
 the Siam peninsula, the boundary in great part 
 since 1893 of Siam and Indo-China, is usually 
 identified with the Lan-tsan, which rises in the 
 neighbourhood of Chiamdo in Tibet. It pursues 
 a generally southerly direction to the China Sea, 
 which it enters by several mouths in Cochin- 
 China, a country formed by its deltaic deposits. 
 It has a total length of 2800 miles, but is navig- 
 able only to 14" N. lat. owing to rapids. 
 
 Melanesia. See Polynesia. 
 
 Melboum, a parish 7 miles SE. of Derby. 
 It has noted market-gardens. 
 
 Melbourne (Mel'burn), the metropolis of the 
 Australian colony of Victoria, and the most im- 
 portant city of Australasia, stands at the northern 
 extremity of Port Phillip Bay, and is bisected by 
 the river Yarra ; it is in 37° 49' S. lat. and 144° 
 58' E. long., and is 11,940 miles from London 
 (via Brindisi and the Suez Canal). Since 1888 
 there is a ship-canal from a point near the mouth 
 of the river to the Melbourne quays. Port Phillip 
 Bay, the maritime approach, is a spacious land- 
 locked inlet covering 800 sq. m. The entrance, 
 known as ' The Heads,' is very narrow, and strong 
 fortifications have been carried out since 1875. 
 Williamstown and Port Melbourne, on the shores 
 of the bay, are thriving ports. Melbourne is a 
 chessboard city, its streets intersecting at right 
 angles ; the principal thoroughfares are of greater 
 width (99 feet) than is desirable in such a warm 
 climate. Collins Street is architecturally im- 
 posing, being lined on either side by tall, massive, 
 and ornate buildings, chiefly banks, offices, ware- 
 houses, and hotels. In Bourke Street most of 
 the theatres, music-halls, and retail shops are 
 situated. Melbourne has a flourishing university, 
 founded in 1853, with three affiliated colleges- 
 Trinity (Episcopalian^ Queen's (We-sleyan), and 
 Ormond (Presbyterian). The last — a very fine 
 structure — was built at the expense of the Hon. 
 Francis Ormond, to whom Melbourne is indebted 
 also for its working-men's college. The Wilson 
 Hall is also a noteworthy adjunct of the university. 
 The Exhibition building and the General Post- 
 office are two of the most striking public build- 
 ings. The Houses of Parliament, erected in 1855- 
 91 at a cost of nearly a million of money, form 
 a magnificent pile of buildings. The Trades 
 Hail (1857) stands on the northern boundary of 
 
MELCOMBE REGIS 
 
 459 
 
 MELVILLE 
 
 the city proper. Melbourne possesses a public 
 library of over 250,000 vols., and associated with 
 it are a national art gallery and a technological 
 museum. The town-hall has an immense assembly- 
 room, and an organ of colossal size. Crowning 
 the summit of the western hill of Melbourne are 
 the law-courts, forming an extensive square, and 
 topped by a lofty and graceful dome. Close by 
 is the Melbourne branch of the Royal Mint (1872). 
 Other notable public institutions are the Mel- 
 bourne and Alfred hospitals, the Benevolent 
 Asylum, the Immigrants' Home, the Orphan 
 Asylums, the Custom-house, the Treasury, and 
 the Public Offices, the last-named a vast and 
 labyrinthine pile in which most of the govern- 
 ment departments are housed. St Patrick's 
 R. C. cathedral, a towering Gothic structure, 
 is the most conspicuous ecclesiastical edifice in 
 Melbourne. The Anglican cathedral of St Paul 
 was consecrated in 1891. The Scots Church, the 
 architectural gem of Collins Street, has a graceful 
 soaring spire of 211 feet. In 1841 the pop. was 
 11,000 ; in 1851, the year of the gold discoveries, 
 it was less than 25,000 ; in 1861, 191,000 ; in 1871, 
 with suburbs, 206,780; in 1881, 282,907; in 1901, 
 494,129 (of whom 68,379 were in the 'city'). 
 Foundries, flour-mills, boot and clothing factories, 
 &c. are numerous in the suburbs. The Royal 
 Park, the Carlton, Fitzroy, Botanical, and Flag- 
 staff Gardens are the principal recreation reserves. 
 The abundant water-supply (1857) comes from the 
 Yan-Yean reservoir in the Plenty Valley. Tram- 
 ways were introduced in 1886. The sanitary con- 
 dition is not so good as might have been expected. 
 "■ Melbourne was first occupied by white men in 
 1835, and known as Doutta-Galla from the neigh- 
 bouring tribe of blacks. In 1837 it was chris- 
 tened after the reigning premier. Lord Melbourne, 
 in 1842 it was incorporated, and in 1851 it was 
 advanced to the dignity of a capital when the 
 Port Phillip province was separated from New 
 South Wales and erected into the colony of 
 Victoria. Then too the Victorian goldfields were 
 opened up. The International Exhibition held in 
 Melbourne in 1888 cost the colony a quarter of a 
 million. A great conflict between labour and 
 capital took place in 1890, and Melbourne like 
 the rest of Australia suffered severely in the 
 commercial crises of 1893. See Victoria and Us 
 Metropolis (Melbourne, 2 vols. 1889). 
 Melcombe Regis. See Weymouth. 
 Melegnano (Melenydh'no), formerly Marionano, 
 a town of northern Italy, by rail 12 miles SE. of 
 Milan. Pop. 5438. Here in 1513 the French 
 defeated the Swiss, and in 1859 the Austrians. 
 
 Mel'fi, an ancient town of S. Italy, 30 miles 
 N. of Potenza. The once magnificent cathedral 
 (1155) was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- 
 quake in 1851. Pop. 14,765. 
 
 MeFford, Long, a picturesque village of Suf- 
 folk, 13 miles S. of Bury St Edmunds by rail. 
 It has a very fine Perpendicular church 260 feet 
 long. Pop. of parish, 3253. See two works by 
 Sir W. Parker (1873) and E. L. Conder (1888). 
 
 Melfort, LocH, an Argyllshire sea-loch, oppo- 
 site Luing Island, 
 
 MellUa, a fortified convict settlement belong- 
 ing to Spain, on the N. coast of Morocco, on the 
 E. side of the mountainous promontory of Tres 
 Porcas, which in 1893-94 nearly led to a war 
 between Spain and Morocco. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Melksham, a Wiltshire market-town on the 
 Avon, 9| miles E. by S. of Bath. Pop. 2473. 
 Mellifont Abbey, a ruin 4 miles NW. of Drog- 
 
 heda, was the first Cistercian foundation in 
 Ireland, founded by St Malachy in 1142. Its 
 remains were excavated during 1884-85. See 
 Mellifont Abbey, by K. F. B. (1886). 
 
 Melo, a town of Cerro Largo in Uruguay, on 
 the Tacuari. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Melos (Mel'los; Ital. Alilo), a Greek volcanic 
 island, the most south-westerly of the Cyclades, 
 13 miles long by 8 broad, with 4200 inhabitants. 
 Amongst the ruins of the ancient city of Melos 
 was found the priceless Venus de Milo, now one 
 of the chief treasures of the Louvre. 
 
 Melrose, a pleasant little town of Roxburgh- 
 shire, on the south bank of the Tweed, and at the 
 north base of the triple Eildons (q.v.), 37 miles 
 SSE. of Edinburgh by rail. At Old Melrose, 
 2^ miles farther east, was founded about 635 the 
 Columban monastery, of which St Cuthbert 
 became a' monk. It was burned by Kenneth 
 MacAlpine in 839, and had been quite deserted 
 for upwards of fifty years, when in 1136 the great 
 Cistercian abbey of Melrose itself was founded 
 by David I. Twice burned by the English, this 
 was slowly rebuilt on a scale of increased mag- 
 nificence between 1322 and 1505, only forty years 
 after which date two fresh English invasions 
 commenced the destruction that was speedily 
 completed by the Reformers. The abbey was 
 beyond doubt the most beautiful structure of 
 which Scotland could boast in the middle ages. 
 What now remains is the ruined conventual 
 church, 215 feet long by 116 across the transepts, 
 with some fragments of the cloister, which seems 
 to have been a square of 150 feet. The carv- 
 ings and traceries are scarcely surpassed by any 
 in England. The second abbot, St Waltheof, 
 the royal founder's stepson ; Alexander II. and 
 Johanna, his queen ; the heart of Robert Bruce ; 
 the good Sir James, the Knight of Liddesdale, 
 the hero of Otterburn, and others of the Douglas 
 line; the 'wondrous Michael Scott;' and Sir 
 David Brewster— all these are buried here ; else 
 the annals of Melrose have little to record. A 
 burgh of barony since 1609, the town possesses 
 a market-cross (1642), a suspension foot-bridge 
 over the Tweed (1826), a hydropathic (1871), and 
 half-a-dozen hotels. Pop, 2432, 
 
 Melrose, a town of Massachusetts, 7 miles by 
 rail N, of Boston, with manufactures of boots. 
 &c. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Melton, a Suffolk village, on the Deben, IJ 
 mile NE. of Woodbridge. Near it is a large 
 lunatic asylum. Pop. of parish, 1510. 
 
 Melton-Mowbray, a town of Leicestershire, 
 in the centre of a great hunting district, is seated 
 on the river Eye near its junction with the Wreak, 
 15 miles NE. of Leicester, and 104 NNW. of 
 London. It has a fine cruciform church, mainly 
 Early English, and is famous for its manufac- 
 tures of pork pies and Stilton cheese. Near the 
 town in February 1644 the royalists defeated the 
 parliamentarians ; and amongst its natives have 
 been Archbishop de Melton, who lies buried in 
 the church, and 'Orator' Henley. Pop, (1801) 
 1766; (1901)7454. *- v / 
 
 Melun (Melun"'), the capital of the French dep. 
 of Seine-et-Marae, on the Seine, near the Forest 
 of Fontainebleau, 28 miles SE. of Paris. It 
 manufactures leather, pottery, &c. Melun, the 
 Melodunum of Cfesar, was after a six months' 
 siege held by the English (1420-30). Pop. 10,723. 
 Melville, a polar island, crossed by 75° N. lat. 
 and 110° W. long., and separated on the west by 
 Fitzwilliam Strait from Prince Patrick Island. 
 
MEMEL 
 
 460 
 
 MENZALEH 
 
 Greatest length, 200 miles ; greatest breadth, 
 130 iniles. In 1819 Parry passed the winter here 
 with his crews. — Melville Sound, 250 miles long 
 by 200 broad, extends south-east of the island, 
 and communicates with the Arctic Ocean on the 
 west by Banks Strait, and with Baffin Bay on 
 the east by Barrow Strait and Lancaster Sound. 
 —Melville Peninsula projects from the N. 
 American mainland at its north-eastern corner.— 
 Another Melville Island lies across the entrance 
 to Van Diemen Gulf off the shore of the northern 
 territory of South Australia ; area, 143 sq. m. 
 
 Memel {May'mel), a fortified Prussian seaport, 
 lies at the northern extremity of the Kurisches 
 Haff, at its opening into the Baltic, 70 miles 
 NNE. of Danzig. Fpunded in 1252, and almost 
 totally destroyed by fire in 1854, it has a large 
 harbour, exports timber, flax and linseed, coal, 
 manure, grain, and herrings, and has manufac- 
 tories of brandy, soap and chemicals, saw-mills, 
 iron-foundries, breweries, and shipbuilding-yards. 
 Pop. 20,748. For the river Meinel, see Niemen. 
 
 Memmlngen (Mem'ming-en), an old town of 
 Bavaria, 33 miles SSE. of Ulin. Here Moreau 
 defeated the Austrians, May 1800. Pop. 10,900. 
 
 Memphis, a city and port of entry of Tennessee, 
 stands on a high bluff on the east bank of the 
 Mississippi River, 826 miles above New Orleans, 
 and 230 miles by rail WSW. of Nashville. The 
 river to this point is navigable for the largest 
 sea-going vessels, and eight lines of railway 
 terminate here ; the trade of Memphis is accord- 
 ingly very large. The river is spanned here by 
 a steel cantilever bridge of five spans, with a 
 total length of 1886 feet, and a height above 
 high water of 75 feet, which was opened in May 
 1892. Memphis is a handsome town, with wide, 
 regular streets, and great warehouses bordering 
 the esplanade that extends along the bluff. The 
 public buildings include a custom-house, cotton 
 exchange, a large hospital, a Roman Catholic 
 college, &c. Memphis is one of the first cotton 
 marts in the United States, and has foundries, 
 machine-shops, oil, lumber, and flour mills, 
 steam-gins, &c. The city was visited by fearful 
 epidemics of yellow fever in 187S and 1879, 
 since when its drainage and sewerage have been 
 thoroughly reconstructed. Pop. (1850) SS41 ; 
 (1870) 40,226 ; (1890) 64,495 ; (1900) 102,320. 
 Menado. See Celebes. 
 
 Menai Strait, a channel between Carnarvon- 
 shire and Anglesey, running 14 miles east-north- 
 east from its southern extremity to Bangor, 
 where it widens out into Beaumaris Bay. Its 
 width varies from about 200 yards to 2 miles, 
 whilst the scenery on both sides is very pictur- 
 esque. The navigation is hazardous, but for 
 the sake of expedition vessels under 100 tons, and 
 occasionally some of larger size, pass through 
 the strait. At its entrance the tides sometimes 
 rise 30 feet; ordinary neap-tides, however, do 
 not rise more than from 12 to 15J feet. Com- 
 munication with Anglesey was formerly solely 
 maintained by ferry-boats, but since 1825 access 
 has been afforded by Telford's suspension bridge, 
 1710 feet long, and 100 feet above the water- 
 level, and since 1850 by Stephenson's Britannia 
 Tabular Bridge. 
 Menam. See Siam. 
 
 Mende, capital of the French dep. of Loz^re, 
 on the Lot, 60 miles NW. of Nimes, with a 
 cathedral, and cloth manufactures. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Mendip Hills, a range in Somersetshire, extend- 
 ing 23 miles SE. from Weston-super-Mare to 
 
 Shepton Mallet, and 3 to 6 miles broad. The 
 highest point is Black Down (1067 feet). The 
 limestone of the Mendips is pierced by numerous 
 caverns, some of which have yielded prehistoric 
 remains ; and lead-mining, now unimportant, has 
 been carried on from pre-Roman days, calamine- 
 mining being a later industry. See Compton, A 
 Mendip Valley (1892). 
 
 Mendo'za, a western dep. of the Argentine 
 Republic. Area, 62,000 sq. m. ; pop. 117,200. 
 The Andes occupy the western portion: Acon- 
 cagua (22,427 feet), the highest peak in America, 
 is on the north-west frontier. The rest of the 
 province is pampa land, fertile where it can be 
 irrigated by the Mendoza and other streams, but 
 elsewhere almo.st worthless.— The capital, Men- 
 doza, 655 miles by rail W. by N. of Buenos 
 Ayres, and 2320 feet above sea-level, is on the 
 trans-continental railway, carried hither in 1884. 
 An earthquake in 1861 destroyed Mendoza 
 (founded 1559) and 13,000 of its 14,600 inhabitants ; 
 many of the ruins are still visible in the larger 
 city raised on its site. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Menin {MenanF), a town of Belgium, 7 miles 
 SW. of Courtrai, on the left bank of the Lys, 
 which separates it from France. Pop. 19,513. 
 
 Menominee, capital of Menominee county, 
 Michigan, at the mouth of Menominee River, 
 on Green Bay, 179 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee, 
 with a large trade in lumber, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 3288; (1900)12,820. 
 
 Menstrle, a Clackmannanshire village, 4J miles 
 NE. of Stirling. 
 
 Montana (Mentah'na), a village 12 miles NB. 
 of Rome, where in 1867 the Garibaldians were 
 defeated by the papal and French troops. 
 
 Mentelth, Lake of, a beautiful sheet of water 
 in south-west Perthshire, 17 miles W. by N. of 
 Stirling. Lying 55 feet above sea-level, it has 
 an utmost length and breadth of 1^ and 1 mile, 
 and a depth in places of 80 feet. It sends off 
 Goodie "Water 9 miles ESE. to the Forth, and 
 contains three islets — Inchmahome, Inchtalla, 
 and Dog Isle. Inchmahome has remains of an 
 Augustinian priory (1238), the refuge in 1547-48 
 of the child-queen Mary Stuart ; whilst on Inch- 
 talla is the ruined tower (1427) of the Earls of 
 Menteith. See works by Dun (1866) and Sir W. 
 Fraser (2 vols. 1880). 
 
 Mento'ne (Fr. Menton), a town in the French 
 dep. of Alpes Maritimes, is pleasantly situated 
 on the Mediterranean, ij mile from the Italian 
 frontier and 14 miles by rail NE. of Nice. Owing 
 to its southern exposure, and the fact that spurs 
 of the Alps shelter it on the north and west, it 
 enjoys a beautiful cliiuate — average for the year 
 61° — and so has become a favourite winter health- 
 resort. The vegetation is luxuriant, and lemons 
 are largely grown. It stands on a promontory 
 that divides its bay into two portions ; the native 
 town clings to the mountain side, whilst the hotels 
 and villas extend along the water's edge. The 
 harbour is protected by a sea-wall (1889). The 
 place belonged to Monaco (q.v.) from the 14th c. 
 until 1848. Great damage was done by an earth- 
 quake in February 1887. Pop. 10,000. 
 Mentz. See Mainz. 
 
 Menza'leh, Lake, a coast lagoon of Egypt, 
 extending east from the Damietta branch of the 
 Nile, is separated from the Mediterranean by a 
 narrow strip of land, with several openings. It 
 has an average depth of only 3 feet, and is 460 
 sq. m. in extent, studded with islands, the most 
 interesting of them, Tenuees (anc. Tennesus), 
 
MEPPEL 
 
 461 
 
 MERTHYR-TYDVIL 
 
 with Roman remains of baths, tombs, &c. The 
 Suez Canal traverses the E. portion. 
 
 Meppel, a Dutch town, 18 miles N. by E. of 
 Zwolle. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Me'quinez. See Miknas. 
 
 Meran, a town in the Tyrol, at the south side 
 of the Alps, 100 miles by rail S. by W. of Iinis- 
 bruck, i.s a celebrated winter- resort, especially 
 for sutferers from chest diseases. Pop. 9334. 
 • Mercedes (Mer-say'des), in Argentina, (1) a city 
 61 miles by rail W. of Buenos Ayres (pop. 9000) ; 
 and (2) a town 55 miles by rail ESB. of San Luis 
 City (pop, 6000) ; (3) the capital (4000) of Soriano 
 province, in Uruguay. 
 
 Merchiston, a south-west suburb of Edinburgh. 
 
 Mercia, the great Anglian kingdom of central 
 England. The name refers to the 'march' or 
 frontier that had to be defended against the Welsh. 
 
 Mere, a Wiltshire town, 21 miles S. by E. of 
 Bath. Pop. of parish, 2740. 
 
 Mergul, a seaport of Burma, on an island in 
 the Tenasserim River, 2 miles from its mouth. 
 Pop. 8633.— The Mergui Archipelaoo is a group 
 of mountainous, sparsely inhabited islands in the 
 Bay of Bengal, lying off Burma. 
 
 Mer'ida (anc. Augusta Emerita), a decayed town 
 of Spain, on the Guadiana's right bank, 36 miles 
 by rail E. of Badajoz. Its Roman remains 
 include Trajan's bridge of 81 arches, 2575 feet 
 long ; the ruins of half-a-dozen temples, an aque- 
 duct, a circus, the Arch of Santiago, 44 feet high, 
 &c. There is also an old Moorish palace. Merida 
 was built in 23 b.c, and flourished as the capital 
 of Lusitania. Pop. 9159. 
 
 Merida, (1) capital of the Mexican state of 
 Yucatan, 25 miles S. of the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 95 miles NE. of Campeachy. Founded by the 
 Spaniards in 1542, it has a cathedral, a university, 
 &o. Pop. 37,000.— (2) A town of Venezuela, 
 lies 5290 feet above sea-level, and 70 miles S. of 
 the lake of Maracaybo. Founded in 1558, it was 
 destroyed by an earthquake in 1812, and again 
 in 1894. It has a cathedral, a university, and 
 woollen and cotton manufactures. Pop. 11,750. 
 
 Meriden, a city of Connecticiat, 19 miles by 
 rail N. by E. of New Haven, with manufactures 
 of metal' wares, cutlery, fireanns, woollens, &c. 
 Pop. (1880) 15,540 ; (1900) 24,296. 
 
 Meridian, capital of Lauderdale county, 
 Mississippi, 135 miles by rail N. by W. of Mobile, 
 has manufactures of iron, cotton, blinds, furni- 
 ture, &c. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Merion'eth, a triangular county of North Wales, 
 with a maximum length and breadth of 45 miles 
 by 30, a seaboard on Cardigan Bay of 38 miles, 
 and an area of 602 sq. m., or 385,219 acres, is 
 bounded by the counties of Carnarvon, Denbigh, 
 and Montgomery. Pop. (1801) 27,506; (1881) 
 52,038; (1901) 49,149. The surface is rugged 
 and mountainous, interspersed with picturesque 
 valleys, lakes, and waterfalls. Aran Mowddy 
 (2970 feet), Cader Idris (q.v., 2914), and Aran 
 Benllyn (2902) are the highest peaks ; Bala is 
 the largest lake ; whilst of rivers the principal 
 are the Dee, Dovey, and Mawddach. The soil 
 generally is poor, and large tracts are unfit for 
 profitable cultivation. Sheep are bred, and 
 flannels and woollens manufactured, but the 
 principal wealth of the county arises from its 
 mineral products. Slate and limestone are largely 
 quarried, much manganese ore is i)roduced, and 
 gold has been mined in the vicinity of Dolgelly 
 and Bala. Merioneth is divided into five hun- 
 
 dreds, and thirty-three civil parishes, partly in 
 the diocese of Bangor, and partly in that of St 
 Asaph. It returns one member. The principal 
 towns are Dolgelly, Bala, Barmouth, Corwen, 
 Festiniog, Harlech, and Towyn. 
 
 Meroe. See Ethiopia. 
 
 Merom, Waters of. See Jordan. 
 
 Merrimac, a river rising among the White 
 Mountains of New Hampshire, flowing south into 
 Massachusetts, and falUng into the Atlantic near 
 Newburyport, after a course of 150 miles. It 
 has numerous falls, aflbrding immense water- 
 power. It is navigable to Haverhill. 
 
 Merse. See Berwickshire. 
 
 Merseburg {Mer'seh-boorg), a town of Prussian 
 Saxony, on the Saale, 8 miles S. of Halle. Its 
 Domkirche is a four-towered pile, with Roman- 
 esque choir (1042), transept (c. 1274), and 16th- 
 century nave — the whole restored in 1884-86. 
 The organ (1666) has 4000 pipes. The picturesque 
 15th-century castle was once the bishop's palace, 
 and afterwards (1656-1738) the residence of the 
 dukes of Sachsen-Merseburg. Beer, iron, paper, 
 &c. are manufactured. Pop. 19,828. 
 
 Mersey, an important river of England, separ- 
 ates, in its lower course, the counties of Chester 
 and Lancaster, and has its origin in the junction 
 of the Btherow and Goyt, on the borders of 
 Derbyshire. It flows in a west-south-west direc- 
 tion, and is joined on the right by the Irwell 
 6 miles below Manchester, from which point it 
 was made navigable to Liverpool for large vessels 
 in the year 1720. Besides the Irwell the chief 
 afilueiits are the Bollin and the Weaver from 
 Cheshire. At its junction with the Weaver the 
 Mersey expands into an estuary which forms the 
 Liverpool channel, and which is 16 miles long 
 and 1 to 3 miles broad (IJ opposite Liverpool). 
 In this estuary on the Cheshire side is the entrance 
 to the Manchester (q.v.) Ship-canal. The estuary 
 is much obstructed by sandbanks, but excellent 
 pilotage, combined with the admirable construc- 
 tion of the sea-walls, renders the navigation 
 comparatively secure. Entire length, with the 
 estuary, 70 miles. A railway Mersey tunnel 
 between Liverpool and Birkenhead was opened on 
 January 20, 1886. The alluvial meadows along the 
 Mersey are famous for their fertility ; and by 
 embanking the river, many thousands of acres of 
 most valuable land have been reclaimed. 
 
 Merthyr-Tydvil or Tydfil (so called from the 
 martyrdom here of a Welsh imncess of that 
 name), a parliamentary borough and market-town 
 of South Wales, on the confines of the counties 
 of Glamorgan and Brecknock, 24 miles N. by W. 
 of Cardiff, its port, and 178 W. of London. Pop. 
 (1801) 7705; (1871) 51,949; (1901) 69,228. Sur- 
 rounded by lofty and bleak hills, the town stands 
 on the banks of the TafF, and is partly built on 
 slag foundations, the refuse of mines in the 
 vicinity. Its streets are narrow and irregular, 
 but since the formation of a Local Board of Health 
 in 1850, great improvements have been eflected 
 in the widening of thoroughfares, the supply of 
 pure water, and the construction of eft'ective 
 sewage-works. The industries depend on the 
 numerous collieries and iron and steel works in 
 the vicinity ; Merthyr being the centre of the 
 Glamorganshire coalfield. With Aberdare it is 
 noted for the excellence of its steam coal, and 
 the quantity of iron and steel annually turned 
 out from the great works of Dowlais, Cyfarthfa, 
 and Plymouth is enormous. In 1816, and again 
 in 1831, the town was the scene of severe riots, 
 
 I. 
 
MERTON 
 
 462 
 
 METZ 
 
 the latter disturbance being only quelled by the 
 military with a loss of twenty-three lives. The 
 pari, borough (1867), which embraces Aberdare 
 and two other outlying districts, and in 1901 had 
 a pop. of 122,545, returns two members. 
 
 Merton, Lower, a Surrey parish, on the Wandle, 
 10 miles SW. of London by rail. Only a frag- 
 ment remains of the Augustinian priory (1115) 
 where the parliament met which passed, In 1235, 
 the Statute of Merton. Here were educated 
 Thomas Becket and Walter de Merton, Bishop of 
 Rochester and Chancellor, who in 1264 founded 
 Merton College, Oxford. Pop. 4360. 
 
 Merv, an oasis of Turkestan, lying between 
 Bokhara and the north-eastern corner of Persia, 
 512 miles by rail (1886) from the Caspian and 118 
 from the Oxus. The oasis consists of a district 
 60 miles long by 40 broad, watered by the river 
 Murghab, and is inhabited by from 150,000 to 
 200,000 Tekke Turkomans. There is an old 
 citadel, and adjoining it a new Russian fort 
 garrisoned by nearly 3000 men ; on the opposite 
 bank of the Murghab a new Russian town is 
 growing up. The oasis, in which Alexander the 
 Great built a town, was held successively by 
 the Parthians and the Arabs, who made Merv 
 capital of Khorassan. It was the seat of a 
 Nestorian archbishop in the 5th century, and of 
 a Greek archbishop in the 14th. Under the 
 Seljuk Turks Merv enjoyed its greatest splendour, 
 and it decayed after being sacked by the Mongols 
 in 1221. In 1856 the Turkomans made themselves 
 masters of the oasis ; but they in turn submitted 
 to the Russians in 1883. Merv occupies an im- 
 portant strategic position at the intersection of 
 the routes Bokhara-Meshhed and Khiva-Herat. 
 See works by Marvin (1880), O'Donovan (1882), 
 and Lansdell (1883-8.5). 
 
 Mesagna (Mezan'ya), a town in southern Italy, 
 12 miles SW. of Brindisi. Pop. 9601. 
 
 Meshhed (' place of martyrdom '), the principal 
 city of north-east Persia, the capital of Khor- 
 assan, on a tributary of the Hari-Rud, 460 miles E. 
 by N. of Teheran and 200 NW. of Herat. Above 
 the walls shine the gilded dome and minarets of 
 one of the most splendid mosques of the East, 
 that of Imam Riza. Meshhed is the sacred city 
 of the Shiites, and is held in as much veneration 
 by them as Mecca is by the Sunnite Moslems ; it 
 is visited yearly by almost 100,000 pilgrims. The 
 people make excellent felt-rugs, carpets, swords, 
 turquoise jewellery, velvet, and cotton and silk 
 goods. The Transcaspian Railway has given 
 Russia the predominance in trade. Owing to its 
 elevated situation (3055 feet), the city has a cold 
 climate in winter. Close by are the ruins of Tus, 
 the old capital of Khorassan, where Firdausi, 
 Haroun-al-Raschid and the Imam RLza were 
 buried. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Meskoutin, or Hammam Meskoutin ('the 
 Accursed Baths '), a place in Algeria, 48 miles (77 
 by rail) E. by N. of Constantine, with remark- 
 able hot baths (203° F.), known to the Romans as 
 Aqucp, TiUlitincB. They and the adjoining fer- 
 ruginous and sulphureous springs (170°) are still 
 used medicinally. 
 
 Mesolonglii. See Missolonghi. 
 
 Mesopotamia ('between the rivers'), the dis- 
 trict between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, 
 extending from the foot of the Armenian moun- 
 tains south-eastwards to near Bagdad. It has an 
 area of about 55,000 sq. m. The soil of the great 
 plain is sandy, but, when well watered or, as it 
 was in ancient times, well irrigated, it develops 
 
 extraordinary fertility. Yet since the Turks 
 (Seljuks) made themselves masters of the region 
 (1515) it has fallen more and more a prey to 
 barrenness and neglect. Held successively by 
 the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, 
 Romans, Arabs, and Turks, it has been the battle- 
 ground of these mighty empires ; and amongst 
 its historic cities may be mentioned Harran, 
 Serug (Seruj), Apamea, Edessa, Nisibis, Nice- 
 phoriura (Rakka), Hit (Is), Mardin, Mosul 
 (Nineveh), Amid (Diarbekr), and Thapsacus. In 
 summer excessive heat (up to 122° F.) prevails ; 
 in winter the thermometer may go down to 14° P. 
 
 Messenia, the western of the three peninsulas 
 that project southwards from the Peloponnesus, 
 now a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. 
 
 Messina (Messee'na), the second city of Sicily, 
 stands on the western shore of the Strait of 
 Messina, 110 miles E. by N. of Palermo, and 195 
 SSE. of Naples. It occupies a narrow strip of 
 coast between the hills and the deep, safe harbour, 
 whose opposite or eastern side is formed by a 
 sickle-shaped tongue of rock, that only leaves a 
 narroAV entrance on the north. Although a very 
 ancient city, Messina possesses few antique build- 
 ings, the greater part of it having been laid out 
 regularly after the earthquake of 1783. The 
 archiepiscopal cathedral was begun by Count 
 Roger the Norman in 1098. The citadel was 
 built by Charles II. of Spain in 1680, the Gonzaga 
 Castle in 1540, and another castle in 1547-57. 
 There are here a university, founded in 1549, with 
 45 teachers and 830 students, a college of tlie fine 
 arts, &c. The industry is confined chiefly to 
 muslin, linen, and silk goods, the working of 
 coral, and the preparation of fruit essences. The 
 imports include wheat, cottons, flour, hides, 
 coals, dried fish, woollens, iron, &c. ; the exports, 
 fruits, wine, essence.s, olive-oil, &c. Pop. of the 
 commune, 150,000. 
 
 Founded in 732 b.c. "by the people of Cum», 
 the place was first called Zancle (i.e. 'sickle')— a 
 name changed in 495 to Messana (Messene). 
 Held successively by Carthaginians, Mamertines, 
 Romans, and Saracens, Messina was the scene in 
 1282 of the Sicilian Vespers' massacre, and from 
 then to 1713 belonged to Spain. It revolted in 
 1671, but was reduced to submission in 1678. 
 In 1743 the plague, and in 1783 an earthquake, 
 wrought the ruin of the city. It was, moreover, 
 bombarded by the Neapolitans in 1848, and in 
 1861 it was the last place in Sicily to yield to the 
 Sardinian (Italian) troops. 
 
 The Strait of Messina (Lat. Mamertinum fre- 
 turn, or Fretum Siculum), separating Italy from 
 Sicily, is 24 miles long, and 2^ to 14 miles wide. 
 
 Metaurus (modern Metauro or Metro), a river 
 of central Italy, entering the Adriatic near Fano. 
 On its banks the Romans defeated the Cartha- 
 ginian Hasdnibal in 207 b.c. 
 
 Methil, a coal-shipping port with a good 
 harbour, on the south coast of Fife, 1 mile SW. 
 of Leven. Docks were constructed in 1875 and 
 1893-94. 
 
 Met'kovicll, in Dalmatia, the port of Mostar, 
 111 miles by rail SSW. of Sarajevo. Pop. 1342. 
 
 Mettray, a village of France, 5 miles N. of 
 Tours by rail, noted for its great agricultural and 
 industrial reformatory dating from 1839. 
 
 Metz (Fr. pron. Mess), the strongest fortress 
 of German Lorraine, was before 1871 the principal 
 bulwark of the north-eastern frontier of France, 
 and capital of the dep. of Moselle. It stands on 
 the river Moselle at the influx of the Seille, 21§ 
 
MEUDON 
 
 463 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 miles E. of Paris ; and its strength consists in 
 its cordon of forts. The cathedral, a Gothic 
 etlifice (14th to 16th century), is remarkable for 
 its vast size and its architectural lightness, and 
 has a beautiful spire of open work, 3(33 feet high. 
 Apart from tanning and the making of saddles 
 and shoes, there are few industries, though there 
 are several ironworks in the vicinity. Pop. 
 (1869) 48,325 ; (1875) 37,925 ; (1900) 58,462, includ- 
 ing the garrison. Metz, known to the Romans 
 as Divodurum, was afterwards called Mettis (cor- 
 rupted from Mediomatrici, the name of the 
 people). Under the Franks it was the capital of 
 Austrasia, and in 870 passed to the empire. In 
 1552 it was treacherously taken possession of by 
 the French ; and, although Charles V. besieged 
 the place in 1552-53, they kept it till it was form- 
 ally ceded to them in 1648. The fortifications 
 were completely reconstructed by Vauban in 
 1674, and often strengthened. In August 1870 
 Bazaine was forced to retire with 179,000 men 
 into Metz, which after a long siege (27th October) 
 surrendered to the Germans ; by the treaty of 
 Frankfort it was annexed to Germany. 
 
 Meudon {Meh-donP'), a village 5 miles W, of 
 Paris. The chateau, rebuilt by Mansard for the 
 Dauphin in 1695, and fitted up for Marie Louise 
 by Napoleon in 1812, was reduced to ruin during 
 the bombardment of Paris in 1871. The Forest 
 is a favourite holiday -resort. A chapel, dedicated 
 to Notre Dame des Flammes, commemorates the 
 terrible railway accident of May 1842, in which 
 over 100 persons were burned alive. Rabelais 
 was cure of Meudon. Pop. 9950. 
 
 Meulebek^ (Meh'le-bay'kay), a Belgian town, 
 24 miles SW. of Ghent. Pop. 9063. 
 
 Meurthe-et-Moselle {Murt-ay-mozelV), a dep. 
 of NE. France, fonned, after 1871, out of what 
 remained of the former deps. of Moselle and 
 Meurthe. It has four arrondissements— Briey, 
 Luneville, Nancy (the capital), and Toul. Area, 
 2020 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 365,137 ; (1901) 484,722. 
 
 Meuse (Fr. pron. nearly Mehz; Dutch Maas), a 
 river of France and Belgium, rises in the French 
 dep. of Haute-Marne, and flows 500 miles N., 
 then E., again N., and W. past Verdun, Sedan, 
 Namur, Liege, and Maestricht, until it joins the 
 Waal, one of the mouths of the Rhine, from the 
 left opposite Gorkum. The united streams take 
 the name of the Maas, which soon divides again. 
 The southern branch passes through the Bies- 
 bosch and Hollandsche Diep, and, again dividing, 
 reaches the sea in two wide estuaries, Haringvliet 
 and De Krammer. The northern branch, called 
 the Merwede as far as Dordrecht and to the west 
 of that town the Old Maas, likewise reaches the 
 sea in two channels, the Old and the New Maas. 
 On this last stands Rotterdam (q.v.). The river 
 is navigable from Verdun. Its principal affluents 
 are the Sambre and Ourthe on the right. 
 
 Meuse, a dep. in NE. France, touching Belgium. 
 Area, 2404 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 284,725; (1901) 
 283,480. Its arrondissements are Bar-le-Duc (the 
 capital), Commercy, Montm^dy, Verdun. 
 
 Mevaglssey {g hard), a Cornish fishing-town, 
 5J miles S. of St Austell. Pop. of parish, 2200. 
 
 Mexborough, a town of Yorkshire, 5| miles 
 NE. of Rotherham, with ironworks and potteries. 
 Pop. 10,630. 
 
 Mexico (or Mejico ; Spani.sh pron. Meh'M-co, 
 from a native word), a federal republic of North 
 America, embracing twenty-seven states, a federal 
 district, and two territories. It extends between 
 the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme 
 
 length of nearly 2000 miles ; its breadth varies 
 between 1000 and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) 
 130 miles. It has a coast-line of almost 6000 
 miles, but with scarcely a safe harbour beyond 
 the noble haven of Acapulco : on the Atlantic 
 side, with its sandbanks and lagoons, there are 
 only open roadsteads, or river-mouths closed to 
 ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbour- 
 works, however, have been constructed at Vera 
 Cruz and Tampico. From the SE. and NW. 
 extremities of the republic there extend the pen- 
 insulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclos- 
 ing the Gulfs of Campeche and California re- 
 spectively. In area (751,300 sq. m.) Mexico almost 
 equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Ger- 
 many, and Austria-Hungary together. Of the 
 entire pop.— 13,604,923 in liWO— the whites are 
 estimated to form 19 per cent., the Indians 38, 
 and the half-castes (mestizos) 43 per cent. 
 
 For the most part Mexico consists of an im- 
 mense tableland, which commences in the United. 
 States, and rises to over 8100 feet at Marquez, 76 
 miles N. by W. of Mexico City : at El Paso, on 
 the northern frontier, the elevation is only 3717 
 feet. The most important range is the Sierra 
 Madre (over 10,000 feet, and extending from 
 Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel 
 with this run the sierras of the east coast and 
 of Lower California. The surface of the country 
 is also much broken up by short cross-ridges 
 and detached peaks, the principal being the 
 Cordillera de Anahuac (q.v.), culminating in 
 Toliica (19,340 feet), the highest point on the 
 North American continent, and Popocatepetl 
 (17,523). Orizaba is 18,205 feet high. Most of 
 the Mexican volcanoes are extinct or quiescent, 
 and violent earthquakes are of rare occurrence. 
 On the Atlantic side the plateau descends 
 abruptly to the narrow strip (about 60 miles) of 
 gently sloping coast-land ; towards the Pacific, 
 where the coast-lands vary in width from 40 to 
 70 miles, the descent is more gradual. Of the 
 lakes the largest is Chapala (q.v.). The rivers of 
 Mexico are of little use for navigation. South of 
 the Rio Grande del Norte, on the Texan frontier, 
 they are mostly impetuous mountain-torrents. 
 In the plateau region the climate is almost that 
 of perpetual spring ; but agriculture is dependent 
 on irrigation, and an immense desert tract extends 
 between Chihuahua and Zacatecas. On the coast- 
 lands wood and water are abundant, and the soil 
 fertile, but the climate is such that white men 
 cannot work as labourers there. Northern 
 Mexico is the original home of the ' cattle-ranche ' 
 business. The coast-belt and the terraces up to 
 3000 feet constitute the tierras mlientes, where 
 the temperature ranges from 60° to 110" F., and 
 in the south magnificent tropical vegetation and 
 yellow fever reign. The cold lands, or tierras 
 frias, embrace all the country above about 8000 
 feet. South of about 28° N. there are only the 
 wet and the dry season, the former from June to 
 October. Farther north there are four seasons. 
 The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide 
 range as the climate. In the lowlands dye-woods 
 and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, 
 as well as medicinal plants, india-rubber, palms, 
 &c. ; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of 
 cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, 
 rice, indigo, cotton, and tobacco, besides the 
 omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes 
 in some districts. In Lower California archil 
 is collected. But agriculture in Mexico is 
 steadily developing. Silver-mining has been an 
 important industry ever since the conquest 
 Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined 
 
MEXICO 
 
 464 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 in some sections. Other minerals are iron, copper, 
 lead, sulphur, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinna- 
 bar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, 
 alabaster, gypsum, and rock-salt in great quan- 
 tities. There are also said to be large deposits of 
 coal. The manufacturing industries have in recent 
 years, owing to good government and the help 
 of foreign capital, developed rapidly ; the chief 
 manufacture is coarse cotton clotli. In 1903 there 
 were 155 factories with 36,000 looms, consuming 
 60,000,000 lb. of raw cotton per annum. There 
 are also 2000 distilleries and over 700 tobacco- 
 factories ; paper and sugar mills ; with manufac- 
 tures of candles, glass, and henequen fibre. In 
 1890-1904 the iniports advanced from 65,000,000 
 to 78,308,450 dols., and the exports from 
 148,659,000 to 196,690,500 dols. ( = 24d.). Of the 
 exports the precious metals represented more than 
 half; henequen, coffee, hides, animals, and tobacco 
 came next. Nearly two-thirds of the total trade 
 is with the United States, and one-eighth Avith 
 Great Britain. Great Britain iniports from 
 Mexico mainly mahogany, logwood, and silver 
 ore, and exports thither cottons, woollens, and 
 linens, iron, machinery, and coal. 
 
 The Mexican constitution is closely modelled 
 upon that of the United States. The president, 
 who is assisted by six secretaries of state, is 
 elected for four years ; the senators and repre- 
 sentatives receive a salary of 3000 dols, a year ; 
 and the several states have elective governors and 
 legislators. Since Diaz was first appointed presi- 
 dent in 1876, the progress in stability, order, and 
 prosperity has been marvellous. Federal revenue 
 has increased from §19,088,158 to $81,061,078 in 
 1904, and the state and municipal revenues in 
 like proportion. The interest on the public debt 
 ($25,829,000) has been regularly paid, and a large 
 reserve fund exists. Instead of one bank there 
 are thirty-two, with a joint capital of over 
 $100,000,000 ; and foreign capital to the amount 
 of over $1,352,600,000 is invested in the country. 
 The assessed value of property has increased from 
 $283,297,317 to $1,171,089,076. Railways have 
 increased from 567 to 16,285 kilometres, seven 
 great lines crossing the country connecting all 
 the Atlantic and Pacific ports. The haibours 
 have been greatly improved, roads have been 
 made, and electric tramways introduced. Im- 
 ports have increased by four times, and the 
 exports by eight times. Twenty-four agricultural 
 colonies have been established in the country, 
 and the export of agricultural produce has in- 
 creased nearly eleven times. The irrigatioJi of the 
 great central tableland of Mexico is being actively 
 considered. The value of cattle and horses has 
 increased from $14,800,000 to over $120,500,000 ; 
 the mineral industries have greatly increased. 
 Education is compulsory, and the i)upils at the 
 public schools have increased from 192,837 to 
 764,353. 
 
 Under 20 per cent, of the population are pure- 
 blooded whites; 43 per cent, are of mixed blood, 
 mestizos, who are the farmers and rancheros, the 
 muleteers and servants. "Whites and mestizos 
 speak Spanish. Indians, speaking 150 dialects 
 (in three main groups, Otonii, Maya-Quiche, and 
 Nashua), may be 38 per cent, of the population. 
 From them chiefly are drawn the peons, or agri- 
 cultural labourers. The Indians not employed 
 on the estates usually live in communities re- 
 sembling the old village communities of Europe. 
 The houses in Mexico are mostly of adobe (sun- 
 dried bricks), one story high. The great mass of 
 the people are Roman Catholics, but there is no 
 established church. In 1867 the church property 
 
 was confiscated; convents and religious houses 
 were suppressed. 
 
 The oldest inhabitants, the Toltecs, had by the 
 8th or 9th century a.d. attained a comparatively 
 high civilisation. About the 11th or 12th cen- 
 tury the kindred but fiercer Aztecs became 
 donunant, and grafted on the institutions of the 
 Toltecs gloomy religious beliefs and bloody rites. 
 Cortes and his Spaniards landed at Vera Cruz 
 in 1519 ; and the conquest of the empire was 
 as creditable to the audacity and bravery of 
 the Europeans as it was dishonourable to their 
 humanity. Mexico was long the richest province 
 of Spanish America, and was systematically and 
 mercilessly exploited for the benefit of Spain. 
 Discontent on the part of the inhabitants, 
 Spanish as well as of mixed blood, broke into 
 open rebellion in 1810, and the capital was surren- 
 dered by the last of the viceroys in 1821. Itur- 
 bide proclaimed himself emperor next year ; and 
 after various convulsions and rebellions the fed- 
 eral republic was established in 1823. For the 
 next fifty years the history of Mexico is a mere 
 record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 
 1845 Texas was incorporated with the United 
 States ; and after the war of 1848, Mexico ceded 
 half a million square miles to the United States. 
 The emperor Napoleon III. declared war against 
 the president, Juarez, in 1862 ; the Austrian 
 emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the 
 French, was executed in 1867, and the republic 
 re-established. Under Uiaz, the whole energy of 
 the government has been given to the develop, 
 ment of railways, mines, and other indtistries. 
 
 See works by Prescott (1843), Lester (1878), 
 Castro (1882), Bancroft, Wells, Ballou (1890), 
 Miss Hale, Butler, Lummis (1898), Mrs Tweedie 
 (1901), and Mallen (Mexico, 1904). 
 
 Mexico, capital of the republic, is situated 
 7347 feet above the sea, at the lowest level of 
 the great lacustrine basin (1400 sq. m.) of the 
 Anahuac plateau. The largest of the six lakes 
 that occupy this hill-girt valley. Lake Tezcuco, 
 amid whose waters, Venice-like, the city first 
 rose, has now retired 2 J miles to the north-west. 
 All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, 
 where the site of the old temple of Huitzilo- 
 pochtli is occupied by the imposing cathedral 
 (1573-1657). Facing the cathedral is the Muni- 
 cipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza 
 are the National Palace, the national Monte 
 de Piedad, the post-office, and the national 
 museum. Other noteworthy buildings are the 
 picture-gallery and library, the school of mines, 
 the mint, the former palace of the Inquisition 
 (now a medical college), a sumptuous new legis- 
 lative palace, and a national pantheon for the 
 ashes of the great men of Mexico. There are also 
 schools of law and engineering, an academy of fine 
 arts. The principal streets are broad, clean, and 
 well paved and lighted, with houses of stone 
 gaily painted in bright colours. There are monu- 
 ments to Columbus (1877), the last of the Aztec 
 emperors, and others. There is a fine alameda, 
 and tree-lined avenues stretch far into the 
 country. Since 1607 many attempts have been 
 made to drain the valley of Mexico, but tiU 
 recently, in vain; typhoid fever is common; 
 and it is only the extreme dryness of the 
 atmosphere that renders the site habitable at 
 all. New works, on a very large scale, to dram 
 the valley, were begun in 1890 and finished ni 
 1898, at a total cost of over $16,000,000. Iho 
 trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, although 
 it has a few manufactures, slowly developuig, 
 as cigars, gold and silver work, paper, pottery, 
 
MEXICO 
 
 465 
 
 MIDDELBURQ 
 
 religious pictures, hats, saddlery, &c. The rail- 
 v&y connections are extensive. Pop. 344,721. 
 
 Mexico, Gulf of, a basin of the Atlantic 
 Dcean, is closed in by the United States and 
 Mexico, and its outlet on the east is narrowed by 
 ;he jutting peninsulas of Yucatan and Florida, 
 vhich approach within 500 rniles of each other, 
 flight in the middle of this entrance is planted 
 ;he island of Cuba, dividing the strait into two— 
 ;he Strait of Florida and that of Yucatan. The 
 ixtreme length from SW. to NB. is over 1100 
 niles ; the area of the gulf, 716,200 sq. m. The 
 ihores are very shallow, more than 400,000 sq. m. 
 )eiiig less than 100 fathoms deep; but 58,000 
 iq. m. exceed 2000 fathoms in depth. The best 
 )f the few good harbours are those of New 
 Means, Pensacola, and Havana. The principal 
 ■ivers the gulf receives are the Mississippi and 
 ihe Rio Grande del Norte. See Gulf Stream. 
 
 Mezieres {Mezee-eW), the capital of the French 
 lep. of Ardennes, on a bend of the Meuse, oppo- 
 iite Charleville (q.v.), 155 miles by rail NE. of 
 Paris. In 1521 it was successfnlly defended by 
 Bayard (statue, 1893), with 2000 men, against 
 10,000 Spaniards ; in 1815 held out for two months 
 igainst the Allies ; and in 1870-71 capitulated 
 liter a frightful bombardment. In its Flam- 
 )oyant church, restored in 1884, Charles IX. was 
 aarried (1570). Pop. 6551. 
 Mezo-Tur, a town of Hungary, 40 miles by 
 ail SE. of Budapest. Pop. 25,757. 
 Mfumbiro, a mountain (10,000 feet) of Central 
 .frica, situated in 1° 30' S. lat. and 30° 30' E. 
 mg., and west of Victoria Nyanza, just within 
 tie British East Africa Company's boundary. 
 Mhow, or Mhau, a British cantonment in 
 idore state, Central India, 13 miles by rail SW. 
 I Indore city. It is 1919 feet above the sea. 
 op. 36,773, mostly Hnidus. 
 Miako. See Kyoto. 
 
 Michigan (Mish'e-gan ; Chippewa Mitchi Saw- 
 
 'egan, ' Great Lake '), the third in size of the 
 
 'e great fresh-water lakes of North America, 
 
 d the only one lying wholly in the United 
 
 ates, between Michigan and Wisconsin. It is 
 
 5 miles long, and 50 to 88 broad ; the mean 
 
 pth is 325 feet, the maximum 870. It has the 
 
 aie elevation as Lake Huron (with which it is 
 
 anected by the Strait of Mackinaw)— 581f'„ feet 
 
 ove sea-level ; this is 20^ feet lower than Lake 
 
 perior, and 8/^ feet above Lake Erie. Its sur- 
 
 e area is 22,450 sq. m. There is a neap-tide of 
 
 inch, and a spring-tide of about 3 inches. 
 
 e shores of Lake Michigan are for the most 
 
 ■t low. Its principal harbonrs are those of 
 
 icago, Milwaukee, and Racine. 
 
 Michigan, one of the northern states of the 
 
 lerican Union, the seventeenth in area and 
 
 th in population, has an area of 58,915 sq. m., 
 
 nore than that of England and Wales ; 1114 
 
 m. are occupied by 5173 small lakes. It is 
 
 letimes called the Peninsular State, being 
 
 ded into two great peninsulas by Lake 
 
 higan. The upper, lying between the north 
 
 of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, is 
 
 tly rugged, broken, rocky, and comparatively 
 
 en, though teeming with mineral wealth. In 
 
 north-west, near Lake Superior, is the high- 
 
 and in the state, among the hills known as 
 
 Porcupine Mountains (1830 feet). The lower 
 
 nsula lies between Lake Michigan and Lakes 
 
 on and Erie. No part of it is more than 1780 
 
 above sea-level ; and the mean height is only 
 
 'eet above the environing lakes. The upper 
 
 2d 
 
 II 
 
 peninsula is 318 miles by 164 ; the lower 277 by 
 177. The greatest length of the state from Mon- 
 treal River in the north-west to Maumee Bay on 
 Lake Erie is about 500 miles. The state touches 
 Ohio, Indiana^ Illinois, and Wisconsin, being else- 
 where bounded by the lakes and their outlets. 
 The mean annual temperature is 46'1° F. (summer, 
 68-5°; winter, 23-8°); the annual rainfall is 35-8 
 inches. Both peninsulas, with occasional excep- 
 tions of swamps or small prairies, were originally 
 covered with dense forests, the products of which 
 have proved exceedingly valuable. The centre 
 of the loAver peninsula is a coal-bearing area of 
 about 5000 sq. m., carrying, however, compara- 
 tively little workable coal. In the Michigan salt 
 group are the rich brine wells of the Saginaw 
 valley ; in the Marshall or Waverley are the 
 Huron grindstones. Michigan is exceptionally 
 rich in iron and copper ; the great Calumet and 
 Hecla copper-mines are on the Keweenaw Pen- 
 insula, running into Lake Superior. Gypsum 
 appears in immense deposits at Grand Rapids, 
 in the lower peninsula. Building-stones abound 
 in both peninsulas, and in the upper there are 
 also statuary and other marbles, and such orna- 
 mental stones as agates, jasper, chalcedony, and 
 chlorastolites. Glass sand is found in the extreme 
 south-east ; and lime, bricks, and tiles are made 
 in many parts. Of the numerous mineral springs, 
 nineteen have become popular resorts, and the 
 waters of four have a commercial value. Lum- 
 bering is the second great industrial interest of 
 the state, the forests of northern Michigan being 
 mostly pine. Other leading manufactories are 
 grist-mills, foundries and machine-shops, iron 
 and steel works, and those of agricultural im- 
 plements and of furniture. But agriculture 
 remains the chief industry, employing about 
 half the population. The most important crops 
 are wheat, maize, oats, and barley ; and in the 
 * fruit belt,' a narrow strip of about 200 miles in 
 length on the west shore of Lake Michigan, 
 peaches, plums, grapes, &c., are grown in great 
 quantity. Much wool is produced. The com- 
 merce of the state is very great, and is promoted 
 by three ship-canals. 
 
 The Michigan country was probably visited by 
 Jean Nicolet in 1634, at the Sault de Ste Marie, 
 where the first permanent white settlement was 
 made by Father Marquette in 1668 for a Jesuit 
 mission. Detroit was founded in 1701 by a 
 French colony. The country passed to the Eng- 
 lish in 1760, and to the United States in 1796 ; it 
 was again occupied by Great Britain in 1812, but 
 was recovered by the Americans the next year. 
 It was organised as Michigan territory in 1805, 
 and admitted as a state in 1837. Pop. (1800) 
 551 ; (1840) 212,267 ; (1900) 2,420,982. Detroit has 
 remained the chief city from the beginning, other 
 cities being Grand Rapids, Bay City, Jackson, 
 Muskegon, Kalamazoo, Port Huron, Lansing (the 
 capital). Battle Creek, West Bay City, Manistee, 
 Ishpeming, Menonimee, Flint, Ann Arbor, Adrian, 
 &c. See J. M. Cooley, Michigan (Boston, 1885). 
 
 Michigan City, a town of Indiana, on Lake 
 Michigan, 38 miles by water (57 by rail) ESE. of 
 Chicago. It has a good harbour, contains a 
 college, a state prison, and railway-shops, and 
 manufactures cars, refrigerators, furniture, boots, 
 &c. Pop. (1860) 3320 ; (1900) 14,850. 
 
 Micronesia. See Polynesia. 
 
 Middelburg, capital of the Dutch province of 
 Zealand, in the island of Walcheren, and 4^ miles 
 by rail NE. of Flushing. In former times it was 
 one of the leading mercantile cities of the United 
 
MIDDLE LEVEL 
 
 466 
 
 MIKNAS 
 
 Provinces ; but its commercial importance has 
 greatly declined, though it has cotton-factories, 
 Thomas Cromwell was a merchant here. The 
 town-house, founded by Charles the Bold in 1468, 
 is adorned with twenty-five statues of counts 
 and countesses of Holland and Zealand. A once 
 celebrated abbey (12th c.) is now used as adminis- 
 trative offices. Pop. 19,455. 
 
 Middle Level. See Bedford Level. 
 
 Middlesbrough, a great iron-manufacturing 
 and shipping centre in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, is a municipal, parliamentary, and county 
 borough, and capital of the district of Cleveland. 
 It is on the soutli bank of the Tees near its 
 mouth, 15 miles by rail ENE. of Darlington, 50 
 N. of York, and 246 N. by W. of Loudon. In 
 1829 the site was occupied by a solitary farm- 
 house surrounded by marshy land ; the town owes 
 its remarkably rapid growth partly to the exten- 
 sion thither (in 1830) of the Stockton and Dar- 
 lington Railway, but mainly to the discovery of 
 iron ore in the adjoining Cleveland hills (1850). 
 Another industry— that of boring salt— was added 
 in 1886. There are here iron and steel works, 
 blast-furnaces, chemical works, wood and iron 
 sliipbuilding-yards, saw-mills, marine engineer- 
 ing works, wire, nail, and tube works, salt 
 and soda works, &c. A graving-dock was 
 finished in 1875 at a cost of £120,000; and 
 the Soutli Gare breakwater (1804-88) is nearly 
 2^ miles long. The shipbuilding-yards employ 
 3000 men ; and the export of coal is extensive. 
 There are, besides Anglican and Nonconformist 
 churches, a Roman Catliolic cathedral and a 
 synagogue. The town-hall and nuxnicipal build- 
 ings were erected at a cost of £120,000, and were 
 opened in 1889 by the Trince and Princess of 
 "Wales. Among other public buildings are a 
 market-house, corporation baths, royal exchange, 
 high school, &c. ; and there are theatres, clubs, 
 masonic and temperance halls. The Albert Park 
 of 72 acres was given in 1868 to the borough by 
 Mr H. W. F. Bolckow (1806-78), the first mayor 
 and member of parlianient; on the celebration of 
 Middlesbrough Jubilee in 1881 a monument to 
 his memory was unveiled. There is also a monu- 
 ment in Exchange Place to Mr Vaughan, the 
 founder of the Cleveland iron trade. The first 
 governing body was established in 1841 ; the 
 borough was incorporated in 1853 ; and since 
 1867. Middlesbrough returns one member to 
 parliament. Pop. (1831) 154; (1841) 5463; of 
 municipal borough (1861) 18,892 ; (1871) 39,824 ; 
 (1881) 55,288 ; (1901) 91,302. See H. G. Reid's 
 Middlesborough and its Jubilee (1881). 
 
 Middlesex, a small county in the south of Eng- 
 land, bounded by Hertfordshire, Essex, Buck- 
 inghamshire, the Thames, and the county of 
 London (as established in 1888). On the east 
 the river Lea and on the west the Colne and 
 Brent form the natural boundaries. Although 
 the area is only 233 sq. in., the pop. is large 
 (792,314 in 1901), Avhich is accounted for by the 
 neighbourhood of the county and city of London. 
 (For tlie ' ancient ' county, including the districts 
 now in London county, see the table at England, 
 p. 253.) We first hear of Middlesex as a sub- 
 kingdom dependent on Essex. Its position be- 
 tween the territory of the East Saxons and that 
 of the West Saxons accounts for the name. The 
 greater part of the surface was covered with a 
 forest, of which Enfield Chase and Hainpstead 
 Heath are relics ; but it was traversed by the 
 great road whicli crossed the Thames, probably 
 by a ford at Westminster, and led north-west- 
 
 ward under the name of the Watling Street. 
 There is but little tillage, except for market- 
 gardens, and a great part of the county consists 
 of grazing land, being occupied largely with villa 
 residences, sui-rounded in many places with large 
 parks. Brickfields occupy the western border, 
 and the number of large suburban villages— 
 without, however, any important town— is 
 remarkable. Brentford, Uxbridge, and Ealing 
 are to the west of London, and the first-named 
 is usually reckoned the county town. North- 
 ward are Harrow, Enfield, and Tottenham. East- 
 ward are Highgate and Honisey. London, it 
 may be well to note, was never in Middlesex. 
 
 Middletou, a town of Lancashire, on the Irk, 
 3 miles W. of Oldham and 6 NNE. of Manchester. 
 Dating mainly from 1791, when it received a 
 charter for a weekly market, it was incorporated 
 as a municipal borough in 1886, the boundary 
 being extended in 1891. It is chiefly dependent 
 upon its manufactures of silk and cotton, and 
 has an interesting parisli church, a grammar- 
 scliool (1572), public baths and libraries, &c. 
 Pop. (1851) 5740 ; (1901) 25,178. 
 
 Mlddleton, a town of Ireland, 13 miles by rail 
 E. of Cork. At the college (1696) Currau was 
 educated. Pop. 3446. 
 
 Middleton-in-Teesdale, a town of Durham, on 
 the Tees, 9 miles NW. of Barnard Castle. Pop. 
 of parish, 2000. 
 
 Middletown, (1) a port of Connecticut, on the 
 right bank of the Connecticut River, 15 miles 
 below Hartford. It is a well-built city, dating 
 from 1636, with wide, shaded streets, theWesleyau 
 University (1831), the Berkeley Divinity School 
 (Episcopal), a large state hospital for the insane, 
 a girls' industrial .school, and manufactures of 
 sewing-machines, tape, webbing, Britannia ware, 
 &c. Pop. 9613.— (2) A town of New York, 67 
 miles NNW. of New York City. It contains the 
 state homoiopathic insane asylum, and manu- 
 factures iron, blankets, hats, &c. Pop. 14,977.— 
 (3) A town of Ohio, on the Miami River and 
 Canal, 35 miles N. of Cincinnati, with paper- 
 mills and tobacco-factories. Pop. 9681. 
 
 Middlewich, an old-fashioned market-town of 
 Cheshire, on the river Dane and the Grand Trunk 
 Canal, 21 miles E. of CJiester. Its salt-manu- 
 facture has declined. Pop. 4706. 
 
 Midhurst, a market-town of Sussex, on the 
 Rother, a navigable tributary of the Arun, 65 
 miles by rail SW. of London and 12 N. of 
 Chichester. Cobden was born close by, and 
 Lyell was educated at the grammar-school (1672). 
 Cowdray House, ^ mile NE., was built about 
 1530 by the Earl of Southampton, and for 239 
 years had been the seat of eight Viscounts 
 Montague, when in 1793 it was reduced by fire 
 to a beautiful ruin. Till 1885 Midhurst borough 
 (35 sq. m. in area) returned a member to parlia- 
 ment. Pop. of parish, 1674. 
 
 Midi, Canal du. See Garonne. 
 
 Midlothian. See Edinburghshire. 
 
 Midnapur, a town of Bengal, on the Kasai 
 River, 68 miles W. of Calcutta. Pop. 33,264. 
 
 Mid'somer Norton, a town of Somerset, 10 
 miles SW. of Bath, with malting and brewing, 
 and a R.C. college (1814). Pop. 5850. 
 
 Miknas, or Mequinez, a walled town of 
 Morocco, 82 miles W. by S. of Fez and 70 from 
 the coast. The palace is the sultan's summer 
 residence, and the mosque of Mule.y Ismail is the 
 royal burial-place. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 1 
 
MILAN 
 
 467 
 
 MILVERTON 
 
 Milan (usn. Mil'an; Ital. spelling Jlfi?ano), one 
 of the three chief Italian cities, stands in the 
 great plain of Lonibardy, 80 miles NE. of Turin, 
 155 W. of Venice, and 25 S. of Lake Conio. The 
 city, nearly circular in shape, is surrounded on 
 three sides by walls, has a circuit of nearly 8 
 miles, and is entered by 14 gates. The principal 
 church is the cathedral of the archbishop, rebuilt 
 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1386, and completed 
 by order of Napoleon I. in 1805-13. It is built 
 entirely of marble, and in the Gothic style ; but 
 the windows and portals of the fa§ade (partly 
 of the loth century) are not Gothic, but Italian. 
 The exterior is adorned with pinnacles and GOOO 
 statues in niches. Other churches are St Ambrose, 
 founded in 8G8, on the site of one dedicated by 
 the saint himself in 387 ; St Eustorgius, dedicated 
 in 320 ; St Maria delle Grazie (1463), on the walls 
 of whose refectory is Leonardo da Vinci's ' Last 
 Supper ;' and St Maurice the Greater (1497-1506), 
 with paintings by Luini and his school. The 
 Brera Palace (12th century), formerly a Jesuit 
 college, has now a great gallery of paintings by 
 Raphael, Da Vinci, Luini, Mantegna, the Bellinis, 
 Titian, Vandyck, &c., an academy of art, a 
 collection of casts, the magnificent monument 
 of Gaston de Foix, the national library (1770) of 
 162,000 vols, and 8650 MSS., an archaeological 
 museum, and an observatory. In the famous 
 Ambrosian Library (1609) there are 164,000 vols, 
 and 8100 MSS., besides collections of drawings, 
 engravings, and pictures. The city is adorned 
 with numerous palaces, as that of the arch- 
 bishop (1570) ; the royal palace, with fine modern 
 frescoes ; the Late Renaissance municipal palace 
 (1558) ; tlie former castle of the Visconti (15th 
 century), with frescoes by Luini ; the Poldi- 
 Pezzoli palace, &c. The arcaded colonnade of 
 Victor Emmanuel (1865-67), lined with flue shops, 
 forms a favourite promenade. The Arch of Peace, 
 built of white marble (1807-38), commemorates 
 the exploits of Napoleon. The Delia Scala opera- 
 house (1778) is the second in size (after San Carlo 
 at Naples) in Italy ; and the Milan conservatoire 
 is the most famous school of music in Europe. 
 Beccaria, Manzoni, the popes Pius IV. and Gregory 
 XIV. were natives. The Great Hospital (1448) 
 can accommodate 2500 patients. Owing to its 
 situation Milan has always been a place of great 
 commerce, much increased since the opening of 
 the Gothard railway. It manufactures silks, 
 velvets, gold, silver, and iron wares, railway 
 carriages, tobacco, porcelain, and electric-light 
 ipparatus, besides being an active centre of the 
 arinting-trade. Pop. (1876) 283,225; (1881, city 
 ind suburbs) 295,543 ; (1901, commune) 491,460. 
 
 Milan (Lat. Mediolanum) was conquered by the 
 Romans in 222 B.C., and sacked by the Huns 
 under Attila) in 452, by the Goths in 539. It 
 )assed to the Longobards (569), the Franks, and 
 he German empire. Here several of the German 
 «iperors were crowned with the Iron Crown, 
 i'rederick I. twice besieged it and razed it to 
 he ground. Supreme power became (from 1277) 
 ■ested in the Ghibelline Visconti, who extended 
 he ascendency of Milan over the whole of 
 jombardy, and in 1395 became dukes. The 
 uccessors of the Visconti were the Sforzas (1450- 
 535). From 1555 to 1713 Milan submitted to 
 pain, and from Spain passed to Austria. Under 
 (onaparte it was declared the capital of the 
 'isalpine Republic, of the Italian Republic, and, 
 nally, of the Kingdom of Italy. From 1815 till 
 559, when it became Italian, Milan was again the 
 ipital of the Austro-Italian dominions. 
 Milazzo (Milat'so; anc. Mylce), a fortified sea- 
 
 I. 
 
 port of Sicily, on a promontory 21 miles W. of 
 Messina. Off Mylse in 260 b.c. the Romans won 
 a great sea-fight over the Carthaginians; and 
 here in 1860 Garibaldi, with 2500 men, defeated 
 7000 Neapolitans. Pop. 7971. 
 
 Mllborne Port, a town of Somerset, 3^ miles 
 NE. of Sherborne. Pop. of parish, 1951. 
 
 Mlldenhall, a Suffolk market-town, on the 
 Lark, 12 miles NW. of Bury-St-Edmunds. Pop. 
 of parish, 3732. 
 
 Mlle'tUS, anciently the most flourishing city of 
 Ionia, in Asia Minor, stood near the mouth of 
 the Maeander. It was the birthplace of Thales, 
 Anaximander, Anaxiinenes, and Hecatseus. 
 
 Milford, a parliamentary borough (contribu- 
 tory to Pembroke) and seaport of South Wales, 
 in the county of Pembroke, on the north side of 
 Milford Haven, 271 miles W. of London. The 
 fortified Haven, which as a natural harbour is 
 unequalled in area, comi)lete shelter, and facility 
 of entrance, stretches inland 10 miles, varies in 
 breadth from 1 to nearly 2 miles, and has a depth 
 in most i)laces of from 15 to 19 fathoms. In 1485 
 the Earl of Richmond (afterwards Henry VII.) 
 disembarked here from Brittany shortly before 
 the battle of Bosworth. Docks designed by Sir 
 E. J. Reed, and capable of accommodating vessels 
 of the largest size, were completed in 1882, but 
 not opened to shipping until 21st September 
 1888 : their total area is 60 acres, and the depth 
 of water inside 28 feet. Pop. 5110. 
 
 Milford, a town of Massachusetts, 36 miles W. 
 by S. of Boston, with boot-factories. Pop. 11,380. 
 
 Military Frontier. See Croatia. 
 
 Militello, a town of Sicily, 21 miles SW. of 
 Catania. Pop. 10,505. 
 
 Millau (Mee'yo), a town in the French dep. of 
 Aveyron, on the Tarn's right bank, 52 miles NW. 
 of Montpellier. During the lOtli and 17th cen- 
 turies it was a Calvinist stronghold. Leather 
 and gloves are manufactured. Pop. 18,181. 
 
 Millbury, Massachusetts, on the Blackstone 
 River, is 39 miles by rail W. of Boston, and has 
 cotton and woollen factories. Pop. 4455. 
 
 Milledgeville, the former capital of Georgia 
 (q.v.), 32 miles ENE. of Macon. Pop. 4800. 
 
 Mill Hill, a village of Middlesex, 8k miles NW. 
 of London by rail, with an important Noncon- 
 formist school and a R. C. missionary college. 
 
 Millom, a town of Cumberland, on the west 
 side of the Duddon estuary, 30 miles SSE. of 
 Whitehaven. It has mines and ironworks. Pop. 
 (1851) 1070 ; (1901) 10,426. 
 
 Millport. See Cumbrae. 
 
 Millville, a city of New Jersey, on the Maurice 
 River, 41 miles S. by E. of Philadelphia. It 
 manulactures cottons and glass. Pop. 10,600. 
 
 Milnathort, a town of Kinross-shire, 1^ mile 
 N. by E. of Kinross. Pop. 1050. 
 
 Milngavie (Mil-guy'), a town of Stirlingshire, 
 7 miles NNW, of Glasgow. Pop. 3503. 
 
 Milnrow, a town of Lancashire, 2 miles ESE. 
 of Rochdale. John Collier ('Tim Bobbin') was 
 schoolmaster here. Pop. 8246. 
 
 Milnthorpe, a town of Westmorland, on the 
 Kent, 7^ miles S. of Kendal. Pop. 1064. 
 
 Milton-next-Sittingbourne, a town of Kent, 
 at the head of a creek of the Swale, 10 miles 
 ESE. of Chatham. Pop. of parish, 7213. 
 
 Milverton, a town of Somerset, 13^ miles SW. 
 of Bridgwater. Pop. of parish, 1562. 
 
MILWAUKEE 
 
 468 
 
 MINORCA 
 
 Milwau'kee, capital of Milwaukee county, 
 Wisconsin, and the largest city in the state, is 
 situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan, at 
 the common mouth of three improved and navig- 
 able rivers, which, with a canal, supply 20 miles 
 of dockage. It is 85 miles by rail N. of Chicago, 
 and overlooks Milwaukee Bay, which has a width 
 of 7 miles and contains a harbour of refuge. The 
 parked and terraced bluffs have an average height 
 of 80 feet above the water. Milwaukee is built with 
 light yellow bricks, and hence called ' the Cream 
 City.' The streets are wide and lined on either 
 side by magnificent elms. The public parks con- 
 tain some 600 acres, and are connected by wide 
 boulevards. The street railway lines are operated 
 by electricity, and the streets mainly lighted by 
 arc lights. A new and vast system of intercept- 
 ing sewers is in operation, and the river is flushed 
 by means of a huge tunnel from the lake, built 
 at a cost of $250,000. In 1889 two new railway 
 passenger depots were built at a cost of $200,000 
 each ; and more recent undertakings have been a 
 new government building to cost $2,000,000, a new 
 city-hall, and a public library and museum build- 
 ing. The public library contains 100,000 volumes. 
 In 1888 was completed the Lay ton Free Art 
 Gallery, the gift for which, exclusive of the value 
 of pictures and statuary, was $300,000. Mil- 
 waukee, founded in 1835, is essentially a manu- 
 facturing city, chief products being lager beer, 
 flour, pork, engines, machinery, iron and brass 
 goods, &c. In October 1892 there was a tremen- 
 dous fire. Pop. (1870) 71,440; (1880) 115,578; 
 (1900) 285,315 (64,000 Germans). 
 
 Minas, capital of a mountainous Uruguayan 
 province (area, 4844 sq. m. ; pop. 38,200), 75 miles 
 by rail NE. of Montevideo. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Minas Geraes (Meenas Zhayrah'ez), the most 
 populous state of Brazil, lies inland from Espirito 
 Santo and south of Bahia. Area, 222,160 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 3,218,807. The surface rises in the Serra do 
 Espinhaco to 5900 feet ; the chief rivers are the 
 navigable Sao Francisco and the Rio Grande, 
 which with the Paranahyba forms the Parana. 
 
 Minch (Minsk), the channel separating the 
 island of Lewis from the mainland of Scotland. 
 It is 24 to 40 miles wide, and has a rapid current. 
 The Little Minch, separating Skye from North 
 Uist, &c., is 14 to 20 miles wide. 
 
 MincMnhampton, a market-town of Glouces- 
 tershire, 3^ miles S8E. of Stroud. James Bradley 
 is buried in the churchyard. Pop. of jjarish, 3736. 
 
 Mlnchmoor, a mountain (1856 feet), 3 miles 
 SE. of Innerleithen, Peeblesshire. 
 
 Mincio (Mintchio), a tributary of the Po, rises 
 in south Tyrol, flows (as the Sarca) 80 miles to 
 Lake Garda, and thence has a southerly course 
 of 93 miles i)ast Mantua to the Po. 
 
 Mindanao. See Philippine Islands. 
 
 Mlnden, a Prussian town in Westphalia, on 
 the Weser, 40 miles W. of Hanover. Till 1873 a 
 second-class fortress, it was already a town in 
 Chai'lemagne's day, and suffered nuich in the 
 Thirty Years' War, and again in the Seven Years' 
 War, when, in 1759, the French were defeated 
 here by an Anglo-Hanoverian army. It has a 
 fine new bridge (1874), a Gothic town-hall, a 
 Catholic church (11th c— 1379 ; till 1811 cathe- 
 dral), and manufactures of tobacco, beer, brandy, 
 glass, &c. Pop. 25,223. See also Munden. 
 
 Minehead, a watering-place (till 1832 pari, 
 borough) of Somerset, on the Bristol Channel, 25 
 miles NW. of Taunton. Pop. 2511. 
 
 Mlnervino, an agricultural town of southern 
 Italy, 44 miles W. of Bari. Pop. 17,972. 
 
 Mlngrella. See Georgia, Caucasus. 
 
 Minho (Min'yo; Span. Miiio, anc. Minius), a 
 river rising in Galicia, and flowing 174 miles SW. 
 through Spain and along the Portuguese frontier 
 to the Atlantic. 
 
 Minieh, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of 
 the Nile, 150 miles above Cairo. It lias a govern- 
 ment cotton-factory. Pop. 20,500. 
 
 Mlnneap'olis, the largest city of Minnesota, 
 stands on both sides of the Mississippi. The 
 Falls of St Anthony, with a perpendicular de- 
 scent of 16 feet, aff'ord a water-power which has 
 been a chief source of the city's prosperity. The 
 streets are wide and handsome, and there are 
 beautiful public parks. Notable buildings are 
 the masonic hall, the post-office, the Exposition 
 Building, and the Guarantee Loan edifice. This 
 last is twelve stories high, built of granite and 
 sandstone; it contains 400 offices, and on the 
 roof is a garden where concerts are given. The 
 state university here has nearly four thousand 
 students of botli sexes. Tliere is a public 
 library of over 150,000 volumes. The lumber and 
 flour mills of Minneapolis, which dates only from 
 1838, are among the largest in the country. Pop. 
 (1870) 13,066 ; (1880) 46,887 ; (1900) 202,718, many 
 of them Scandinavians.— Five miles by rail SE. of 
 Minneapolis are the Falls of Minnehaha (' Laugh- 
 ing Water '), celebrated in Longfellow's Hiawatha. 
 
 Minnehaha. See Minneapolis. 
 
 IVUnneso'ta (an Indian name, signifying ' sky- 
 tinted water '), one of the noith-ceiitral states of 
 the American Union, the nortliernmost in the 
 Mississippi valley. It is bounded by Manitoba, 
 Ontario, Lake Superior, Wisconsin, Iowa, and 
 North and South Dakota. Its area is 83,530 sq. 
 m., or nearly as large as Great Britain. In Min- 
 nesota are the remote sources of the great rivers 
 Mississippi, Red River of the North, and St 
 Lawrence, whose waters flow in difl"erent direc- 
 tions to the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, and 
 the Atlantic. Within the state the Minnesota 
 River is the largest tributary of the Mississippi 
 Between the St Croix River and Red River 
 of the North are hundreds of clear lakes, the 
 largest of which are Red Lake (530 sq. m.), Mille 
 Lacs, and Leech Lake. Over a half of the land 
 area is under farms, but in the north there 
 are extensive pine-forests, and in tlie north-east 
 great marshes. The minerals include iron (which 
 is profitably worked), slate, granite and other 
 rocks, and the red pipestone. The climate is 
 bracing in winter, very dry and equable. Min- 
 nesota is an agricultural and especially a wheat- 
 producing state ; its principal manufactories are 
 flour and lumber mills. The Mississippi is navig- 
 able as high as St Paul ; the lakes, with Dulufll 
 for a port, open a water-way to the Atlantic ; and 
 there are over 7000 miles of railway in the state. 
 
 Minnesota was visited by French explorers in 
 1659-60, and the portion west of the Mississippi 
 was part of the province of Louisiana purchased 
 by the United States from France in 1803. In 
 183'7 the Chippeway Indians surrendered all the 
 land east of the Mississippi ; immigration then 
 began, and Minnesota became a territory in 1849, 
 a state in 1858. In 1862 occurred a terrible 
 massacre by the Indians, who in ten days killed 
 some 800 persons. The principal cities are the 
 capital, St Paul, Minneapolis, and Duluth. Pop. 
 (1860) 172,023; (1880) 780,773; (1900) 1,751,394, 
 including many Scandinavians and Germans. 
 
 Minorca, the second largest of the Balearic 
 
MINSK 
 
 469 
 
 MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI 
 
 Isles (q.v.), lies 25 miles NE. of Majorca. It is 
 28 miles long by 10 wide, and has an area of 284 
 sq. ni. Pop. 39,173. Its coast is rocky and in- 
 accessible, but broken by numerous inlets, and 
 its surface low, iindulating, and stony. The 
 chief towns are Port Mahon and Ciudadela. The 
 island has many megalithic remains (called 
 talayots) and stalactite caves (at Prella). 
 
 Minsk, the chief town of a Russian govern- 
 ment, on an affluent of the Beresina, 436 miles by 
 rail WSW. of Moscow and 331 ENE. of Warsaw. 
 Pop. 95,048. Area of government, 85,282 sq. m., 70 
 per cent, marsh, moor, and forest ; pop. 2,156,613. 
 
 Miquelon (Meek'elon^), Great and Little, two 
 ishmds connected by a long, narrow, sandy 
 isthmus, off the SW. coast of Newfoundland, 
 forming with St Pierre tlie only remaining French 
 colony in North America. Fishing is the sole in- 
 dustry. Area, 78 sq. m. ; pop. (with St Pierre) 6500. 
 
 Miraj, a native state of India in the southern 
 Mahratta country ; pop. 123,500. The capital is 
 Miraj, near the Kistna River (pop. 26,060). 
 
 Miramar, a palace on the Adriatic, near Gri- 
 gnano, 6 miles NW. of Trieste, the home of the 
 Archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of 
 Mexico. See also Majorca. 
 
 Mlramichi (Meeraviishee'), the second river (21i0 
 miles) of New Brunswick, entering the Gulf of 
 St Lawrence through Miramichi Bay. It is 
 navigable to 2 miles above Newcastle. 
 
 Mlran'dola, a cathedral city of northern Italy, 
 19 miles by rail NNE. of Modena, Pop. 13,800. 
 
 Mlrecourt (Meercoor'), a town in the dep. of 
 Vosges, 236 miles ESE. of Paris. Pop. 4700. 
 
 Mirfield, a manufacturing town of Yorkshire, 
 3 miles W. by S. of Dewsbury, and 4^ NE. of 
 Huddersfield. It has a town-hall (1868), a parish 
 church (restored in 1871 by Sir G. G. Scott), and 
 manufactures of woollen cloths, carpets, blankets, 
 and the like. The population, almost stationary 
 since 1881, is 11,340. 
 
 Mlrzapur, a town in the North-west Provinces, 
 on the right bank of the Ganges, 45 miles by 
 rail SW. of Benares. It manufactures shellac, 
 carpets, and brass- wares. Pop. 84,130. 
 
 Miseno (Meezay'no), a promontory forming the 
 western side of the Bay of Pozzuoli (CumcB), 10 
 miles SW. of Naples. On it are ruins of the 
 ancient city and naval station of Misenum. 
 
 Misiones (Meezio'nes), an Argentinian territory, 
 lies between the Uruguay and the Parana, and is 
 bounded on all sides but the SW. by Brazil and 
 Paraguay. Area, 20,823 sq. m. ; pop. 30,000. 
 Capital, Posadas (pop. 3000), on the Parand.. 
 
 Mlskolcz, a town of Hungary, 113 miles by 
 rail NE. of Pesth. Pop. 40,408. 
 
 Mississlp'pi, one of the Gulf States of the 
 American Union, lies west of Alabama and south 
 of western Tennessee, and is bounded on the W. 
 by the Mississippi River. Length, north to south, 
 335 miles ; width, 150 miles ; area, 46,810 sq. m. 
 The surface, except in the Yazoo delta, is gener- 
 ally hilly, though nowhere mountainous, the 
 highest hills rising only 800 feet above the 
 5ea-level. There are three distinct watersheds, 
 represented by the Tombigbee, the Pascagoula, 
 ind the Yazoo. There are mineral springs here 
 md there. Mississippi is essentially an agri- 
 lultural state. The north-eastern prairie region, 
 '0 miles long and 15 to 20 wide, with its fertile, 
 )lack, calcareous soil, contains nmch of the 
 )e8t farming and grazing land in the state. 
 rhere are no springa here, but cisterns dug in 
 
 L 
 
 the rotten limestone, bored wells, and artesian 
 wells furnish ample water. In the north the 
 bottom-lands along the numerous creeks and 
 rivers especially are well adapted to agriculture ; 
 while in the central portion stock-raising is 
 carried on, and in the yellow-pine region large 
 herds of sheep are raised. The Yazoo Delta, em- 
 bracing the elliptical area of alluvial bottoms be- 
 tween the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers, was sub- 
 ject to inundations ; but levees now protect the 
 lands. The delta contains 4^ millions of acres of 
 alluvial land, only 500,000 acres of which are under 
 cultivation. Virgin forests of hardwoods cover 
 the rest. Chief products are cotton, corn, oats, 
 fruits, and vegetables. The winters are short and 
 mild, the mean temperature 45° F.,the annual rain- 
 fall 48 to 58 inches. Cotton is manufactured, and 
 there is some trade in lumber. Mississippi was 
 first settled by the French in 1699, as part of 
 Louisiana. It was ceded to Great Britain in 
 1763 ; was admitted into the Union as a state 
 in 1817 ; seceded in 1861 ; was readmitted into 
 the Union, 1869. Vicksburg, Greenville, and 
 Natchez are principal ports on the Mississippi 
 River, and Pascagoula and Biloxi on the Gulf. 
 Meridian is the second town, and Jackson is the 
 capital. Pop. (1820) 75,448 ; (1850)605,948 ; (1880) 
 1,131,597 ; (1900) 1,551,270. 
 
 Mississippi-Missouri. The Mississippi River 
 (Algonkin Missi Siin, ' Great River '), the largest 
 river of North America, is, with its tributaries, 
 wholly within the boundaries of the United 
 States. It drains most of the territory between 
 the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains, embracing 
 an area of 1,257,545 sq. m., or more than two- 
 fifths of the United States. Besides the Missouri, 
 Ohio, Red River, and Arkansas, there are forty- 
 one other tributaries navigable. The total length 
 of the Mississippi is 2960 miles, of which 2161 are 
 navigable ; but the Missouri affluent is longer 
 than the Upper Mississippi, and with the lower 
 river gives a total of 4200 miles. The total navig- 
 able waters amount to 16,090 miles. 
 
 The source of the Mississippi is Lake Itasca (7 
 by 3 miles) in the north-west central part of 
 Minnesota, which has, however, several feeders, 
 the principal being Elk or Glazier Lake. The 
 remotest springs of Itasca rise in 47° 34' N. lat. 
 and 95° 20' W. long., and are 1680 feet above sea- 
 level. As it issues from this lake the Mississippi 
 is about 12 feet wide and 18 inches deep. 
 Through pine-forests and swamps for hundreds 
 of miles it winds from lake to lake, with frequent 
 rapids and picturesque falls, until, 400 yards 
 wide, at Minneapolis it plunges over the Falls of 
 St Anthony — the head of river-navigation. After 
 receiving the St Croix, the Mississippi becomes 
 the boundary between the states of Minnesota, 
 Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana on the 
 right, and Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, and Mississippi on the left. On the Wis- 
 consin boundary the river expands into Lake 
 Pepin, and thereafter, fully a mile wide, flows 
 between bluffs 200 and 300 feet high, and some- 
 times through dense forests. At Rock Island 
 there are rapids with 22 feet of fall, and 125 miles 
 farther down are the Des Moines rapids with 24 
 feet of fall. Around these obstructions to naviga- 
 tion the United States government has con- 
 structed ship-canals. For several miles after the 
 entrance of tlie turbid Missouri the diverse waters 
 refuse to mingle, the Missouri's muddy tribute 
 taking the right bank and the Upper Mississippi's 
 clear stream the left. From the mouth of the 
 Ohio the trough of the Mississippi is about 1490 
 yards wide, but as it approaches the Red it is 
 
MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI 
 
 470 
 
 MITAU 
 
 narrowed to 1000, and at New Orleans to 830. 
 The usual depth of the channel southward from 
 the Ohio is from 75 to 100 feet, and its surface is 
 sometimes higher than the country beyond its 
 banks ; from the Missouri to the Gulf the Missis- 
 sippi rolls in serpentine course through vast 
 alluvial tracts or ' bottoms,' whose width varies 
 from 30 to 150 miles. Though of unsurpassed 
 fertility, scarcely one-tenth of these lands is 
 cultivated owing to the dangers of the annual 
 overflow. The melting of the ice and snow in 
 the upper basin swells the lower current from 
 March to June. Levees or embankments, largely 
 built by the government, now extend for more 
 than 1600 miles. Below the Red River the waters 
 are discharged through numerous ' bayous ' into 
 the Gulf of Mexico. The main channel runs 
 south-eastward, and finally divides into five or 
 six passes— the principal, the South Pass. The 
 vast deposits and the constant changes caused 
 by floods tend to embarrass the entrance to the 
 great river. To keep an open channel, Captain 
 Eads made (1875-79) an admirably successful 
 system of jetties at the South Pass, which has 
 secured a depth exceeding 30 feet. The mouth 
 of the Mississippi is essentially tideless. The 
 principal cities on the great river are Minne- 
 apolis, St Paul, La Crosse, Dubuque, Keokuk, 
 Quincy, Hannibal, St Louis, Memphis, and New 
 Orleans, at several of which the river is crossed 
 by railway bridges (at St Louis by two). 
 
 Missouri River ('Big Muddy'), the principal 
 branch of the Mississippi River, is formed by 
 the confluence of the Jefferson, Gallatin, and 
 Madison rivers, at Gallatin City, Montana, 4132 
 feet above the sea-level. These rivers rise in the 
 Rocky Mountains, close to the sources of the 
 Columbia and Colorado rivers, and to the Con- 
 tinental Divide. The Madison has the remotest 
 source in a small lake of the same name in 
 Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, 44° 19' 
 N. lat. and 110° 50' W. long., at an elevation of 
 7632 feet, and flows north-west and north to the 
 junction of the Three Forks. Thence the Missouri 
 flows N. and NE. to Fort Benton, the head of 
 navigation, 225 miles from Gallatin City. About 
 40 miles above Fort Benton are the Great Falls, 
 where the river descends 327 feet in 15 miles by 
 a series of cataracts (the highest 87 feet). From 
 Fort Benton the course is easterly, the river 
 being flanked by bluiTs about a mile apart until 
 it passes the rapids 400 miles below, when the 
 valley opens to a width of 10 miles. The Milk 
 River is its first large tributary, but at the 
 boundary of North Dakota the still larger Yellow- 
 stone (1152 miles) joins it. From the last 
 junction, which is the head of navigation in the 
 low-water season, the Missouri flows B. and SB. 
 through North Dakota, to Bismarck (1610 feet 
 above sea-level, where it is crossed by the splen- 
 did bridge of the Northern Pacific Railroad), and 
 through South Dakota to Sioux City, whence 
 flowing south the river bounds Nebraska and 
 Kansas on the right and Iowa and Missouri on 
 the left. On receiving the tributary Kansas the 
 stream turns to the east, and flowing across the 
 state of Missouri pours its muddy waters into 
 the Mississippi, 20 miles above St Louis. The 
 Missouri is 3047 miles long, of which 2682 are 
 called navigable, but owing to its tortuous, 
 treacherous, and obstructed channel navigation 
 is attended Avith great risks. The chief towns on 
 the banks are Bismarck, Yankton, Sioux City, 
 Omaha, Council Bluff's, Nebraska City, St Joseph, 
 Atchison, Leavenworth, and Kansas City. 
 See Commerce aiid Navigation of the Mississippi 
 
 (1888), and other works by Humphrey and Abbot 
 (1861), and Glazier (1893). 
 
 Missolonghi (Missolong'gee; g hard), a Greek 
 seaport, on the N. shore of the Gulf of Pati-as, 
 24 miles W. of Lepanto. A modern place, built 
 on a swampy flat, it was vainly invested by the 
 Turks in 1821-22 ; in 1825-26, after ten months of 
 resistance, its garrison, reduced from 5000 to 3000 
 fighting-men, cut their way through the enemy, 
 carrying with them a great number of the women 
 and children. There is a statue (1835) over the 
 grave of Bozzaris, and one (1881) of Lord Byron, 
 where his heart is interred. Pop. 8324. 
 
 Missouri (Mis-soo'ree), one of the central states, 
 and the fifth in order of population, of the 
 American Union. It is 280 miles long from N.toS., 
 and gradually increases southward in width from 
 208 miles to 312. Area, 68,735 sq. m., or nearly that 
 of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The Missouri 
 River divides the state into two unequal sections, 
 north and south. North Missouri is generally 
 level or slightly undulating, consisting of rolling 
 prairies and level bottom-lands, with a luxuriant 
 growth of timber along the streams. The southern 
 section derives its distinctive features from the 
 Ozark Mountains, throughout the greater part 
 of their length rather tablelands, reaching their 
 highest altitude (1500 feet) in Greene and Webster 
 counties, and gradually breaking up into narrow 
 ridges, spurs, knobs, and peaks farther east. The 
 entire eastern boundary is washed by the 
 Mississippi River, with a water front of 560 miles. 
 The general drainage of the surface is indicated 
 by long gentle .slopes toward the Mississippi and 
 Missouri rivers, except in the south-west, where 
 the streams flow into the Arkansas. The extremes 
 of heat and cold peculiar to this latitude are 
 experienced; but the mean annual temperature 
 is 54°, and the mean average rainfall is 41 inches, 
 Missouri is pre-eminently an agricultural state. 
 The soils are rich, deep, and unsurpassed in 
 variety and productiveness. The principal crops 
 are Indian corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, rye, barley, 
 hemp, flax, cotton, sorghum, buckwheat, hay, 
 and tobacco ; whilst orchard products are grown 
 in great abundance. There are vast numbers of 
 grazing animals, though sheep are not largely 
 raised. The immense quantities of dressed beef 
 and pork shipped annually are constantly increas- 
 ing. The mineral resources are exceedingly rich, 
 comprising coalfields that cover more than 20,000 
 sq m. ; also vast deposits of iron ore, lead, and 
 zinc; while copper, cobalt, nickel, fireclays, fine 
 marble, granite, and limestone abound. Excellent 
 transportation facilities are aftbrded by the Missis- 
 sippi River along the eastern border, and by the 
 Missouri River across the state ; and the radroads 
 are about 7000 miles in length. The metropolis 
 of Missouri is St Louis. Next come Kansas City, 
 St Joseph, Springtield, Sedalia, Hannibal, Jop™. 
 Moberly, Carthage, Nevada, &c. Pop. (1820) 
 20,845 ; (1840) 140,455 ; (1860) 1,182,012 ; (1880) 
 2,168,380 ; (1900) 3,106,665. Missouri was first 
 explored by De Soto in 1541. It formed part of 
 the ' Louisiana Purchase = (1803); in 1821 Missouri 
 was admitted into the Union, but the present 
 limits of the state were not established tdl 1836. 
 
 Missouri River. See Mississippi. 
 
 Mistassini (Mistassee'nee), Lake, in Labrador, 
 100 miles long by 12 broad, and some 300 iniles 
 N. by W. of Quebec, is an expansion of the 
 Rupert, which flows into Hudson Bay, 
 
 Mistretta, a town of Sicily, near the north 
 coast, 60 miles ESE. of Palermo. Pop. 12,23j. 
 
 Mitau {Mitow'l the capital of the Russian 
 
MITCHAM 
 
 471 
 
 MOHAVE DESERT 
 
 government of Conrland, on the right bank of 
 the Aa, 27 miles by rail SW. of Riga. Founded 
 in 1271 by the Teutonic Knights, and annexed 
 to Russia in 1795, it has a castle, begun by Biron 
 in 1738, and a museum. Pop. 39,615. 
 
 Mitcham, a village of Surrey, 8^ miles by rail 
 SVV. of Victoria Station, London, lies in the 
 centre of a district in which flowers and aromatic 
 herbs (roses, lavender, camomile, &c.) are exten- 
 sively grown. Pop. of parish, 15,127. 
 
 Mitchell, capital of Davison county. South 
 Dakota, 70 miles by rail W. of Sioux Falls, has a 
 foundry and machine-shop, flour-mills, packing- 
 house, &c. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Mitchelstown, a market-town of County Cork, 
 Ireland, 11 miles N. of Fermoy, scene of a 
 memorable riot in 1887 ; 7^ miles NE. there are 
 stalactite caves. Pop. 2100. 
 
 Mito, a town of the main island of Japan, near 
 the coast, 70 miles NE. of Tokyo. Pop. 33,800. 
 
 Mitrovlcza, a town of Austria-Hungary, 24 
 miles SSW. of Peterwardein. Pop. 11,520. 
 
 Mittweida (Mit-vl'da), a town of Saxony, 11 
 miles by rail N. by E. of Chemnitz. Pop. 16,120. 
 
 Mitylene. See Lesbos. 
 
 Moate, a Westmeath market-town, 18 miles 
 SW. of Mullingar. Pop. 1280. 
 
 Mobangi. See Congo. 
 
 Moberly, in Missouri, 148 miles WNW. of St 
 Louis, is in a rich coal country. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Mobile (Mobeel'), the principal city and only 
 seaport of Alabama, is situated on the west side 
 of Mobile River, and at the head of Mobile Bay, 
 which opens into the Gulf of Mexico, and is 
 defended by Fort Morgan. It is 141 miles by 
 rail ENE. of New Orleans, and is built with 
 broad shaded streets on a sandy plain, rising 
 gradually from the river. It has a fine custom- 
 house and post-office (1859), a city-hall and 
 market-house (1857), a R. C. cathedral, a medical 
 college, a Jesuit college, &c. Mobile contains 
 a floating dry-dock and shipyards, foundries, 
 cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, a tannery, a 
 manufactory of chewing-gum, cigar-factories, &c. 
 Before the war the chief business was the export 
 of cotton ; but since then this trade has greatly 
 shrunk, while the export of timber has increased. 
 Settled by the French in 1702, Mobile was a 
 Spanish town until 1813, and still shows traces 
 of this Latin origin. In 1879 the city limits were 
 curtailed. Pop. (1870) 32,034 ; (1901) 38,469. 
 
 Mocha (usu. Mokka), a decayed seaport, once 
 the capital of Yemen in Arabia, on the Red Sea, 
 130 miles WNW. of Aden. From early in the 
 16th c. until the middle of the 17th, Mocha was 
 the port whence the coff"ee of Yemen ('Mocha 
 coffee ') was principally exported. Pop. 5000. 
 
 ModbTiry, a town of Devon, 12 miles E. of 
 Plymouth. Pop. of parish, 1206. 
 
 Mod'ena (anc. Mutina), capital of a former 
 duchy, stands on a broad plain in northern 
 Italy, 23 miles by rail NW. of Bologna. Pop. 
 65,000. The ancient Via ^Emilia divides it into 
 the old an<l new city. The Romanesque cathe- 
 dral dates from 1099, and has a fine facade ; its 
 campanile is one of the great towers of Italy. 
 The ducal (now royal) palace, a picturesque 
 structure of the 17th century, contains the Este 
 ibrary of 132,000 volumes and 8000 MSS., the 
 5ste archives, collections of coins, and pictures 
 )y Guido, the Carracci, Guercino, Correggio, &c. 
 tfodena possesses besides a university (1678), 
 vith 45 teachers and 500 students. The chief 
 
 manufactured products are silk, leather, vinegar, 
 and cast metals. Originally an Etruscan town, 
 Modena was conquered successively by the Gauls 
 and the Romans, and destroyed by Constantino 
 the Great, the Goths, and the Longobards. The 
 Este family became its masters in 1288, in 1452 
 became dukes, and were expelled in 1860, when 
 the duchy was incorporated with the Kingdom 
 of Italy. 
 
 Mod'ica, an inland town of Sicily, 45 miles SW. 
 of Syracuse. Pop. 48,390. 
 
 Moel Famman, a hill (1823 feet) of North 
 Wales, 4 miles W. of Mold. 
 
 Moen, a Danish island, 20 miles long, in the 
 Baltic, at the SE. end of Zealand. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Mceris (Meeris), Lake, the ancient Greek name 
 of a brackish sheet of water in Egypt, now in 
 the province of Fayyftm (q.v.), 50 miles SW. of 
 Cairo ; extreme length from NE. to SW., 35 miles. 
 See a work by Major Brown (1893). 
 
 Moero (Meero), or Meru, Lake, lies SW. of 
 Tanganyika in Central Africa, on 9° S. lat. and 
 29° E. long., and is traversed by the Luapula. 
 It was discovered by Livingstone in 1868. 
 
 Mcesia (Mezia), an ancient Roman province, 
 divided by the river Cibrus (Zibritza) into two 
 parts, the eastern corresponding to Bulgaria, and 
 the western (Mcssia Superior) to Servia. 
 
 Mo£fat, a pleasant watering-place and bnrgh 
 of barony (1635) in Upper Annandale, Dumfries- 
 shire, 51 miles SSW. of Edinburgh by road, and 
 64 by a short branch (1883) of the Caledonian 
 Railway. It lies 370 feet above sea-level, engirt 
 by round grassy hills (the loftiest, Hartfell, 2651 
 feet), and in the midst of delightful scenery, 
 chief features of which are 'dark Loch Skene,' 
 the Grey Mare's Tail, and the Devil's Beef-tub. 
 Its mineral springs, the principal of which, like 
 that of Harrogate, is saline and sulphurous, have 
 been celebrated since 1653 ; and its visitors have 
 included Home, Hume, Carlyle, 'Ossian Mac- 
 pherson,' Boswell, Blair, Burns, and William 
 Black. Pop. (1841) 1413 ; (1901) 2153. See Turn- 
 bull's History of Moffat (1871). 
 
 Mogador', or Sueira, a seaport 130 miles 
 WSW. of the city of Morocco, on a rocky promon- 
 tory opposite a small island. It is the best 
 built town in the empire, having been laid out 
 in 1760 by a French engineer. The exports in- 
 clude almonds, olive-oil, wool, goat-skins, hair, 
 &c. ; the imports woollens, cottons, glass, can- 
 dles, and hardware. The manufactures are brass 
 trays, daggers, furniture of arar wood, woollen 
 cloth, &c. Pop. 19,000, of whom SOOO are Jews, 
 and 200 Europeans. 
 
 Mogileff. See Mohileff. 
 
 Moguer {Mo-gayr'), a small port of Spain, on 
 the Rio Tinto, near its mouth, and 8 miles E. 
 of Huelva. Pop. 8714. 
 
 Mohacs (Mo'Jiatch), a town of Hungary, on the 
 western arm of the Danube, 37 miles by rail ESE. 
 of Fiinfkirchen. Pop. 15,385. Here, on 29th 
 August 1526, Louis II. of Hungary, with 25,000 
 Hungarians, was routed by 200,000 Turks. Here, 
 too, on 12th August 1687, the Turks in their turn 
 were defeated by an Austro-Hungarian army 
 under Charles of Lorraine. These two battles 
 marked the beginning and the end of Turkish 
 dominion in Hungary. 
 
 Moham'merah, a town of Khuzistan, Persia, 
 on the Lower Karnn, near the Turkish frontier. 
 Pop. 5000. 
 
 Mohave Desert (^Mohah'veh), a basin, with 
 
 I. 
 
MOHE^ 
 
 472 
 
 MOMBASA 
 
 little water or vegetation, chiefly in the SE. of 
 California, and extending into Arizona, The 
 Mohave River rises in the San Bernardino range, 
 and finally disappears in the Mohave Sink. 
 
 Moher, Cliffs of, a wall of rock facing the 
 Atlantic, on the coast of Clare, 20 miles NW. of 
 Bunis, 4 miles long and from 440 to 660 feet high. 
 
 Mohileff, or Mooileff, (1) the capital of a 
 Russian government (area, 18,551 sq. m. ; pop. 
 1,715,258), on the right bank of the Dnieper, 
 95 miles SW. of Smolensk. It has two archi- 
 episcopal cathedrals, Greek (1780) and Roman 
 Catholic (1692), an old castle, and a town-house 
 (1679). Tanning is the principal industry. Pop. 
 44,500, largely Jews. The town was burned down 
 by Peter the Great for strategical reasons in 1708. 
 Here, on 23d July 1812, the French under Davoftt 
 defeated the Russians under Bagration.— (2) A 
 town of Podolia, Russia, on the left bank of the 
 Dniester, 190 miles NW. of Odessa. Pop. 18,421. 
 
 MoMIl, a town of counties Leitrim and Long- 
 ford, 5 miles NE. of Dromod station. Pop. 790. 
 
 Moidart, a coast-district, SW. Inverness-shire. 
 
 Moissac {MvMssak'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Tarn-et-Garonne, on the Tarn, 111 miles SE. 
 of Bordeaux. Pop. 8241. 
 
 Mola, a seaport of Italy, on the Adriatic, 12 
 miles by rail SE. of Bari. Pop. 14,070. 
 
 Mola dl Gaeta. See Formia. 
 
 Mold, a town of Flintshire, on the Alyn, in a 
 rich mineral district, 14 miles by rail W. by S. 
 of Chester. Its fine 15th-century church, rich 
 in stained glass, contains the grave of the painter 
 Wilson. The county prison, recently built at a 
 cost of £25,000, was sold in 1880 for £3500 to 
 expelled French Jesuits, who renamed it St Ger- 
 manus' House, in memory of the Britons' ' Alle- 
 luia Victory' over the Picts and Saxons. With 
 Flint, &c.. Mold returns one member. Pop. 4257. 
 
 Moldau (Moldow .- Bohemian Vltava), the chief 
 river of Bohemia, and an important tributary of 
 the Elbe, rises in the Bohmerwald Mountains, 
 on the south-west frontier, at an elevation of 
 8870 feet, and flows 278 miles SE. and N. past 
 Budweis and Prague to the Elbe opiwsite Meluik. 
 
 Moldavia, a former principality, now the 
 northern division of Roumania (q.v.). 
 
 Mole, two rivers of Devon and Surrey, affluents 
 of the Taw and the Thames. 
 
 Molfetta, a seaport and cathedral city of 
 southern Italy, on the Adriatic, 16 miles by rail 
 NW. of Bari. Pop. 39,697. 
 
 Mollne (Mo-leen'), a city of Illinois, on the 
 Mississippi, 179 miles by rail W. by S. of Chicago, 
 and separated from Rock Island only by a swift 
 and narrow channel affording great water-power 
 to many busy mills and factories. Pop. 17,491. 
 
 MoUendo (Span. Mo-yen'do), a port of Peru, 
 lying SW. from Lake Titicaca. It has railway 
 connection with Puno (107 miles), and thence to 
 Arequipa (218). Pop. 2500. 
 
 Mollwltz (Mol-veetz), a village of Prussian 
 Silesia, 7 miles W. of Brieg. An obelisk (1878) 
 marks the battlefield where Frederick the Great 
 defeated the Austrians, April 10, 1741. 
 
 Molo'ga, a town in the Russian government of 
 Jaroslav, near the confluence of the Mologa and 
 Volga, 68 miles WNW. of Jaroslav. Pop. 6361.— 
 The river Mologa winds 337 miles SE. through 
 Tver, Novgorod, and Jaroslav governments. 
 
 Molokai. See Hawaii. 
 
 Molten, SoDTH. See South Molton. 
 
 Moluo'cas (also called Spice Islands), the 
 easternmost division of the Malay Archipelago 
 comprising most of the islands between Celebes 
 and New Guinea, belonging to the Dutch. Tlie 
 northern group comprises Morotai (Morty) and 
 Rau (Riao) in the north, Jilolo, Ternate, Tidor 
 &c. in the centre, Batchian (Batjan), Tawalij 
 Mandioli, and Great and Little Obi in the south, 
 with a total area of nearly 10,000 sq. m. (of which 
 Jilolo has 7000). The pop. is estimated at 60,000, 
 nearly half in the small but politically important 
 islands of Tidor and Ternate. The Southern 
 Moluccas comprise the two large islands of Buru 
 (8500 sq. m.) and Cerara (7000), the small Amboyna, 
 Uliasser, Banda, and Ceram Laut sub-groups, 
 the outlying Ke and Aru clusters, &c., with a 
 collective area of 16,500 sq. m., and a pop. of 
 850,000, of whom 200,000 are in Ceram, 60,000 
 in Buru, and 30,000 in Amboyna. Tims the 
 Moluccas have a total area of over 26,000 sq. m., 
 and a pop. of some 400,000, chiefly civilised Malays 
 in the Little Moluccas (the small islands west of 
 Jilolo), Banda, and Amboyna, elsewhere ' Alfuros' 
 (uncivilised natives), some Indonesians, Malays, 
 and Malayo-Papuans. 
 
 The Moluccas lie partly on the line of the great 
 volcanic fault, which sweeps round in a vast curve 
 from Sumatra to the Philippines and Japan, and 
 which in the Moluccas is indicated by the still 
 active volcanoes Gunong-Api (1870 feet) in Banda, 
 Tidor (5730), Ternate (5650), Motir (2800), three 
 cones in Jilolo, Tolo in Morotai. Despite their 
 tropical position, being nearly bisected by the 
 equator, the Moluccas enjoy a relatively healthy 
 climate, and in some places the European race 
 (Portuguese and Dutch) has even been acclima- 
 tised. The excessive heats are everywhere tem- 
 pered by sea-breezes and by the mountainous 
 character of the islands, which in Buru and 
 Ceram rise to heights of 8000 and even 10,000 
 feet. Indigenous to most parts of this region 
 are the clove, nutmeg, and other spices, allowed 
 by the Dutch to be cultivated only in Amboyna 
 and the Banda group ; also the sago-palm, pan- 
 danus, dammar pine, and cajeput. Amongst 
 animals are the babiroussa, the bird of paradise, 
 the marsupial cuscus and flying opossum, the 
 cassowary, the mound-building bird, the crimson 
 lory, and many gorgeous parrots and pigeons. 
 
 Notwithstanding their small size, Ternate and 
 Tidor have always been the chief centres of 
 political power in the northern, and Amboyna 
 in the southern Moluccas, as having long been 
 occupied by civilised Malays. In Ternate is 
 still centred most of the trade of the northern 
 Moluccas, which export spices, tortoise-shell, 
 trepang, beeswax, bark, and birds of i)ai-adise. 
 Amboyna, capital of all the Dutch Moluccas, 
 exports cloves. Banda is the home of the nut- 
 meg, and yields sago and cocoa-nuts. 
 
 See A. R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (new 
 ed. 1894); Reclus, Universal Geography; Miiller's 
 Reizen; and German works by Bastian, Von 
 Rosenberg, and Bernstein. 
 
 Mombas'a, a seaport of growing importance 
 and capital of the British East Africa Protecto- 
 rate, is situated on a small coralline island 3 miles 
 long by 2^ broad close to the coast, 150 miles N. 
 of Zanzibar. It was held by the Portuguese 
 pretty continuously from 1505 to 1698; was 
 under British protection in 1825-30, and then 
 under the sultan of Zanzibar, who in ISSS ceded 
 it provisionally to the British East Africa Com- 
 pany. They were made definitive masters of the 
 place two years later, when they also were put 
 in possession of a vast tract of country, extend 
 
 ! put ■ 
 tend- ■ 
 
 J 
 
MOMI£N 
 
 473 
 
 MONMOUTHSHIRE 
 
 tog 400 miles along the coast, and inland up to the 
 Victoria Nyanza (see Ibea) ; but in 1895 the com- 
 pany's territory was declared a British protec- 
 torate. Hence in 1896-1902 a railway was made to 
 the Victoria Nyanza, a distance of 572 miles. The 
 harbour, one of the largest, safest, and healthiest 
 on the east coast of Africa, was in 1890 made a 
 British naval coaling station. The town has 
 been largely rebuilt ; and extensive harbour- 
 works were undertaken in 1890. Pop. about 
 20,000, mostly Africans, with some Arabs and 
 Banyans. On the mainland opposite is Frere 
 Town, the see of an Anglican bishop. 
 
 Momien, a Chinese frontier-town in the extreme 
 west of Yunnan, 135 miles NE. of Bhanio. 
 
 Mompox, or Mompos, a town of Bolivar in 
 Colombia, on the Magdalena, 110 miles SB. of 
 Cartagena. It was founded in 1538. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Mon'aco, a small principality on the Mediter- 
 ranean, 149 miles ENB. of Marseilles, and 9 from 
 Nice. Area, 8 sq. m. ; pop. (1873) 5741 ; (1900) 
 15,180, of whom 3292 were in the town of Monaco, 
 6218 in Condan)ine, and 3794 in Monte Carlo. 
 The territory, which is encircled by the French 
 dep. of Alpes Maritimes and the sea, consists 
 mainly of the rocky promontory on which the 
 capital is built, and a small strip of coast. The 
 family of Grimaldi acquired Monaco in 968, 
 Mentone and Iloquebrune and Castillon about 
 1230, and Antibes in 1237. Honore II, put his 
 country under a French protectorate in 1644. 
 In 1846 Mentone and Roquebrune were annexed 
 by Sardinia, and after 1859 the whole territory 
 belonged for a short time to Victor Emmanuel ; 
 and in 1861 the lawful owner sold Mentone and 
 Roquebrune to Napoleon III. for 4,000,000 francs. 
 About 1000 of the inhabitants are employed in 
 the rooms and gardens of the celebrated Casino. 
 These gambling-rooms, built at Monte Carlo on 
 
 f round leased till 1913 from the Prince of Monaco, 
 elong to a joint-stock company, and have about 
 400,000 visitors annually. The climate of Monaco 
 is milder than that of any other place in the 
 Riviera ; palms and aloes grow most luxuriantly, 
 and rare wild flowers are found on its rocky 
 promontory. See Pemberton's Moiiaco, Past and 
 Present (1867), and French works by Metivier 
 (2d ed. 1865) and Boyer de Sainte-Suzanne (1884). 
 Monadlillath (usu. Monalee'a), Inverness-shire 
 mountains (3087 feet), 20 miles W. of Kingussie, 
 
 Monaghan (Mon'ahan), an inland county of 
 Ulster, Ireland, between Tyrone on the N. and 
 Meath (in Leinster) on the S. Its greatest length 
 from north to south is 37 miles ; the total area 
 being 319,741 acres (496 sq. m.), of which about 
 140,000 are under tillage. Pop. (1841) 200,442 ; 
 (1901) 74,611, of whom 54,757 were Catholics, 
 The general surface is undulatory ; the highest 
 point is 1254 feet above the sea. Monaghan is 
 interspersed with lakelets, and has many small 
 streams. Limestone, freestone, aiid slates are 
 worked. The flax crop has greatly increased of 
 late years, and the linen manufacture is thriving. 
 The principal towns are Monaghan, Carrick- 
 macross. Clones, and Castle-Blayney. There are 
 two county members. Monaghan possesses two 
 round towers, at Clones and Inniskeen ; and there 
 are several raths and Danish forts. 
 
 Monaghan (Gaelic Muinedian, ' Monkstown '), 
 the county town, is 76 miles NNW. of Dublin by 
 rail. It returned two members to the Iri.sh 
 parliament, and is the centre of some trade in 
 agricultural produce. Pop. (1861) 3910 ; (1901) 
 2932. See Evelyn P, Shirley's History of the 
 County of Monaghan (1877-80). 
 
 Monasterboice, 6 miles NW. of Drogheda, has 
 a round tower 90 feet high, three tine Celtic 
 crosses, and the ruins of two churches. 
 
 Monastere'vln, a Kildare market-town, 37 
 miles SW. of Dublin. Pop. 769, 
 
 Monastlr', or Bitolia (anc. Pelaqonia), a town 
 of Turkish Macedonia, 90 miles NW. of Salonica. 
 It makes carpets and filigree. Pop, 45,000. 
 
 Moncalierl (Mon-lca-lyay'ree), a town of Italy, 
 on the Po, 5 miles S, of Turin, Pop, 11,560, 
 
 Moncontour (Mon^con^toor'), a village in the 
 French dep. of Vienne, 48 miles SW. of Tours, 
 Here the Huguenots were routed, 3d Oct. 1569. 
 
 Moncton, a New Brunswick town, on the Petit- 
 codiac, 89 miles NE, of St John, Pop. 9500. 
 
 Mon'dovi, a cathedral city of Italy, 58 miles 
 S. of Turin by rail. Here, on 22d April 1796, 
 Napoleon routed the Sardinians. Pop. 10,302, 
 
 Moness, Falls of. See Aberfeldy, 
 
 Moneymore, a market-town of Londonderry, 
 4 Miles NE. ofCookstown, Pop, 517, 
 
 Monghyr, a picturesque city of Bengal, on 
 the Ganges' right bank, 80 miles E. by S. of 
 Patna, with a fort on a rocky crag. Pop. 37,077. 
 
 Mongolia, the country of the Mongols, a term 
 now vaguely applied to the northern portion of 
 tlie Chinese Empire. 
 
 Moniaive (Minniehive'), a Dumfriesshire vil- 
 lage, 16^ miles NW, of Dumfries, Pop. 530, 
 
 Monk Bretton, a town of Yorkshire, 3i miles 
 NE. of Barnsley. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Monkland, Old and New, two Lanarkshire 
 parishes, containing Coatbridge and Airdrie. 
 
 Monk Soham, a Suflfolk parish, 5 miles WNW. 
 of Framlingham. 
 
 Monkwearmouth. See Sunderland, 
 
 Monmoutli (Mon'viuth), the county town of 
 Monmouthshire, stands, girt by wooded hills, at 
 the influx of the Monnow to the Wye, 16 miles 
 N, of Chepstow, 18 S. of Hereford, and 26 WSW, 
 of Gloucester, Its chief features are the ruined 
 castle of John of Gaunt, in which Henry V. was 
 born ; the parish church, dating from the 14th 
 century, and restored in 1882 by Street at a cost 
 of £7000, with a graceful spire 200 feet high ; the 
 bridge over the Monnow (1272), with its ' Welsh 
 gate,' and near it, a small Norman chapel ; a 
 fragment of a Benedictine priory, with ' Geoff'rey 
 of Monmouth's study ; ' the new town-hall, built 
 in 1888 at a cost of £10,000 ; and a granunar- 
 school (1614). In the neighbourhood are the 
 temple-crowned Kymin (800 feet), commanding a 
 glorious view ; the Buckstone, a rocking-stone, 
 displaced by tourists in 1885, but since re-poised ; 
 and, 7 miles SW., the superb ruins of Raglan 
 Castle, defended for ten weeks in 1646 against 
 Fairfax by the old Marquis of Worcester. First 
 chartered by Edward VI., Monmouth unites with 
 Newport and Usk to return a member. Pop, 
 5070. See Charters of Monmouth (1826), and works 
 by Heath (1804) and Greene (1870), 
 
 Monmouth, capital of Warren county, Illinois, 
 179 miles by rail WSW, of Chicago, is the seat 
 of Monmouth College (United Presbyterian, 1856), 
 with 400 students, and manufactures farm imple- 
 ments, sewer pipes, and cigars. Pop, 7936, 
 
 Monmouthshire, a county in the west of 
 England, bounded by Hereford, Gloucester, the 
 estuary of the Severn, and South Wales. With 
 a maximum length and breadth of 32 and 28 
 miles, it contains 578 sq. m,, or 370,350 acres, of 
 which more than one half is under permanent 
 
MONNOW 
 
 474 
 
 MONT BLANC 
 
 pasture, and about one-twelfth in woods. Pop. 
 (1801) 45,582 ; (1841) 134,368 ; (1001) 292,317. Its 
 surface is for the most part hilly, especially in 
 the north and north-west (the Sugar Loaf is 1954 
 feet high), but the Caldicotand Wentloog Levels, 
 which for a distance of 25 miles skirt the southern 
 coast, are so low as to require in places the pro- 
 tection of sea-walls and earthworks. The Wye, 
 with its tributary the Monnow, the Uslc, Ebwy, 
 and Rumney, all flowing south into the estuary 
 of the Severn, are the principal rivers. There 
 are extensive orchards. The great wealth of 
 Monmouthshire is derived from its minerals, coal 
 and ironstone abounding in the region of Ponty- 
 pool and Rhyinney. The county comprises six 
 hundreds, the municipal boroughs of Monmouth 
 and Newport, and 147 civil parishes. Three 
 members are returned to parliament for the 
 county, and one for the combined borough of 
 Monmouth, Newport, and Usk. Towns other 
 than the above are Abergavenny, Blaenavon, 
 Caerleon, Chepstow, and Tredegar. Monmouth- 
 shire, which until 1535 formed part of Wales, and 
 which was treated as such in the Welsh Disestab- 
 lishment Bill of 1894, is noted for its beautiful 
 scenery and for tlie many remains of feudal castles, 
 &c. scattered througliout it. Of these the finest 
 examples are the castles of Raglan, Caldicot, and 
 Chepstow, and the abbeys of Llanthony and 
 Tintern. See the county histories by Williams 
 (1796) and Coxe (1801). 
 
 Monnow, a river of Hereford and Monmouth, 
 flowing 28 miles to the Wye at Monmouth. 
 
 Monongahe'la, a river rising in West Virginia 
 and flowing north to Pittsburgh, where it unites 
 with the Alleghany to form the Ohio. 
 
 Mono'poli, a town of S. Italy, on the Adriatic, 
 43 miles by rail NW. of Brindisi, with a cathedral, 
 and ancient walls and castle. Pop. 23,154. 
 
 Monreale (Mon-re-ah'le), a city of Sicily, 5 
 miles SW. of Palermo. On its 'royal mount' 
 (1231 feet high) stands the Norman cathedral 
 (1176), with its mosaics. Pop. 23,898. 
 
 Monroe', a city of Michigan, on the Raisin 
 River, 2 miles by a ship-canal from Lake Erie, 
 and 40 by rail SSW. of Detroit, with flour-mills, 
 a woollen-mill, &c. Pop. 5068. 
 
 Monrovia. See Liberia. 
 
 Mons (Mo)i^ss; Flem. Berghen), the capital of 
 the Belgian province of Hainault, on the Trouille, 
 38 miles SSW. of Brussels. Its fortifications were 
 demolished in 1862 ; but the country around can 
 be laid under water. The church of St Waudru 
 (1450-1580) is a masterpiece of Gothic ; and there 
 are a town-hall (1458), a belfry (1662) 275 feet 
 high, a good library, &c. The manufactures 
 include woollen and cotton goods, cutlery, and 
 sugar; in the vicinity is an extensive coalfield. 
 Pop. (1875) 24,539 ; (1901) 27,015. 
 
 Montagnana (Mon-tan-yuh'na), a town of 
 northern Italy, 32 miles SW. of Padua. Pop. 8200. 
 
 Montalcino (Monlalchee'no), a catliedral city of 
 Italy, on a hill (1900 feet), 22 miles SSE. of 
 Siena. Pop. 3353. 
 
 Montana {Montah' mi), one of the north-western 
 states of the American Union, bounded by the 
 Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, 
 North and South Dakota, Wyoming, and Idaho. In 
 area— 140,080 sq. m., or nearly live times the size 
 of Scotland— it ranks third among the states and 
 territories, but in population only forty-fourih. 
 The density of the population is only 1.7 penson 
 per square mile. The Rocky Mountains occupy 
 fully one-fifth of the surface, in the south and 
 
 west ; the rest of the state is made up of valleys 
 or high, rolling prairies. The head-waters of the 
 Columbia and Missouri have their sources in 
 Montana. The mean elevation of the state is 
 about 3000 feet ; the highest peaks of the Rocky 
 Mountains rise to 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The 
 Yellowstone National Park forms part of the 
 southern boundary. In the south-east the Bad 
 Lands extend into the state from Wyoming. 
 The climate is mild, and the atmosphere remark- 
 able for its clearness. The soil contains all that 
 is needed for sustaining vegetation, but it is 
 almost valueless without irrigation ; with that, 
 however, the yield of grains and vegetables is 
 enormous. Stock-raising, however, is more profit- 
 able than agriculture. But the great industry is 
 the mining and reduction of gold, silver, lead, 
 and copper ores. The first systematic working 
 of placer mines for gold commenced in 1862 ; in 
 1863 the first gold-quartz mill was built. The 
 portion of Montana east of the Rocky Mountains 
 was part of the Louisiana Purchase ; that to the 
 west was part of Oregon and Washington. It 
 was first visited by the French in 1742, and by 
 Lewis and Clarke in 1804-6 ; these were followed 
 by fur-traders and trappers, and by Jesuit mission- 
 aries. Gold was discovered in 1861. In 1864 the 
 territory was organised, and in 1889 Montana 
 became a state of the Union. The chief towns 
 are the capital, Helena, and Butte City. Pop. 
 (1870) 20,595 ; (1880) 39,159 ; (1900) 243,329. 
 
 Montargis {Mon^tarzhee'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Loiret, 47 miles E. by N. of Orleans, with 
 a fine church (12th century— 1868) and ruins of 
 a vast castle. Here in 1371 is said to have 
 occurred the famous judicial combat between 
 ' the dog of Montargis ' and Macaire its master's 
 murderer. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Montauban (Mon^tohonF), the capital of the 
 French dep. of Tarn-et-Garonne, on the river 
 Tarn, 31 nules N. of Toulouse. A well-built, 
 handsome place, it has a modernised brick bridge 
 (1335), 224 yards long ; a fine cathedral (1739) in 
 the Italian style ; and a monument (1871) to 
 Ingres, the painter, a native. It has woollen 
 manufactures, and trades in wine, grain, leather, 
 &c. Montauban was founded in 1144, became 
 the seat of a bishop in 1317, embraced the 
 Reformation in 1560, and acquired historical 
 celebrity as the stronghold of the Huguenots, 
 vainly besieged for three months in 1621. Nearly 
 half the inhabitants still are Protestants, and it 
 has a Protestant college. Pop. (1872) 18,855; 
 (1901) 24,979. 
 
 Montbeliard(Mo?i^7jf(.2/?-7/rtr'; Ger. Mompelgard), 
 a town in the French dep. of Doubs, 48 miles 
 NE. of BcsanQon. It lies in a valley between 
 the Vosges an<l Jura Mountains, is sunnounted 
 by an old chateau (now a prison), and manu- 
 factures watch-springs, watchmaking tools, and 
 cotton. A possession of the Honse of Wiirtem- 
 berg from 1397, it was a Protestant centre from 
 1525, was formally ceded to France in 1801, 
 and suff'ered much in the Franco-German war. 
 Cuvier was a native ; there is a statue of him, 
 as also of Denfert, the defender of Belfort. Pop. 
 (1872) 5865 ; (1901) 9154, mostly Lutherans. 
 
 Mont Blanc (Mon^ Blon^), the highest mountain 
 in Europe (if we regard the Caucasus as Asiatic), 
 15,782 feet above sea-level, is situated in France, 
 close to the Italian frontier, 40 miles S. of the 
 Lake of Geneva. The waters which spring from 
 its western slopes are drained off" to the Rhone, 
 those which originate on the east side to the 
 Po. It rises into several sharp peaks (aiguilles) 
 
MONTBHISON 
 
 475 
 
 MONTEVIDEO 
 
 and forms great glaciers — the Glacier du Geant, 
 Mer de Glace, &c. lu 1760 Saussure offered a 
 prize for the discovery of a practicable route to 
 the summit, which was gained in June 1786 by 
 Balmat and Paccard, guides. There is au obser- 
 vatory (1890) at a height of 14,470 feet. 
 
 Montbrison, a French town in Loire, 35 miles 
 SW. of Lyons, with mineral wells. Pop. 6880. 
 
 Mont Cenls {Mon^ Saynee'), or Monte Cenisio, 
 an Alpine peak (11,792 feet) and pass (6884) 
 between Savoy and Piedmont. Over the pass a 
 road was constructed (1802-10) by Napoleon's 
 orders, at au expense of £300,000. A railway 
 tunnel, 13 miles W. of the pass and 7^ miles 
 long, was begun in 1857 on the Italian side, and 
 in 1863 on the French, and was linished in 1870 
 at a cost of £3,000,000. 
 
 Mont-de-Marsan {MonF<le-Marsov?\ capital of 
 the French dep. of Landes, 92 miles by rail S. of 
 Bordeaux, with a mineral spring and manufac- 
 tures of chemicals, iron, &c. Pop. 10,954. 
 
 Mont-Dore-les-Bains (Mon^-dor-lay-Ban% a vil- 
 lage of Auvergne, in the dep. of Puy de Dome, 
 26 miles SSW. of Clermont-Ferrand. It lies 3412 
 feet above the sea-level, in the picturesque valley 
 of the Dordogne. The eight mineral springs 
 (102°-114°) were used by the Romans. The resi- 
 dent pop. of the village is 1339 ; but the baths, 
 which are every year becoming better known, 
 are thronged during the short season (July to 
 September) with visitors from all parts. 
 
 Montebello Castegglo (Mon-tey-bdlo Casted'jo), 
 an Italian village, 14 miles S. by W. of Pavia. 
 The Austrians were twice defeated here— by the 
 French in June 1800 ; and by French and Pied- 
 montese in May 1859. 
 
 Monte Carlo. See Monaco. 
 
 Monte-Cassino (Montey-Cassee'no), the monas- 
 tery founded (529) by St Benedict, stands nobly 
 on beetling cliffs, 70 miles by rail NW. of Naples 
 and 92 SB. of Rome. It was dissolved in 1866. 
 
 Monte Catini (Montey Catee'nee), a watering- 
 place of Italy, by rail 30 miles NW. of Florence. 
 Its saline springs range between 82° and 86° F. 
 The season lasts from May to September. 
 
 Monte Como. See Apennines. 
 
 Monte Cristo, an uninhabited islet of granite 
 off the Italian coast, 26 miles S. of Elba. 
 
 Montego Bay, a northern port of Jamaica (q.v.). 
 
 Monteith. See Menteith. 
 
 Montelimar(i1fo?i^-<a2/-?i-?)iar/), a French town, 
 85 miles S. of Lyons. Pop. 11,121. 
 
 Montene'gro (Italian translation of the native 
 Czrnagora, ' Black Mountain '), an independent 
 state in the Balkan Peninsula, between Herze- 
 govina and Albania, about 80 miles long by 70 
 broad. Its area was extended in 1878 by the 
 addition of a large district on the north, a 
 narrow strip on its east side, and the port of 
 Antivari on the Adriatic, and again in 1880 
 by the addition of the port of Dulcigno. The 
 area, thus extended, is 3255 sq. m., consider- 
 ably less than half the size of Wales. Beyond 
 the low coastal fringe, which has a climate like 
 that of the south of France, comes a rugged 
 mountain-region ranging up to 6500-8000 feet, 
 not in a series of chains, but in a confusing maze 
 of peaks and gigantic crags and blocks, wild 
 gorges and natural caves, the bare gray crystal- 
 line rock being everywhere visible. The streams 
 in some cases have underground channels. The 
 centre of the country is occupied by the branch- 
 ing valleys of the rivers Zeta aiid Moratcha, 
 
 which flow south into Lake Scutari. East and 
 north of them the mountains are well wooded, 
 principally with beech and pine, and afford good 
 pasturage to sheep, goats, and cattle. The 
 exports consist chiefly of cattle, goats, hides, 
 smoked fish and mutton, cheese, sumach, fruits, 
 and wine ; the imports, of wheat, gunpowder, 
 hardware, groceries, cloth, and glass. The Monte- 
 negrins, a race of primitive mountaineers, are 
 a brave, warlike, and simple people, noted for 
 their honesty and their chastity. They live in 
 small stone houses, in small villages. They 
 belong to the Servian branch of the Slavs, 
 number (1900) 228,000, and belong, except about 
 10,000 Mohammedans and 4000 Roman Catholics, 
 to the Greek Orthodox Church. In the 14th 
 century the country was tributary to Servia ; 
 but maintained its independence when Servia 
 was subjugated by the Turks (1389). From 
 that time down to 1880 the Montenegrins waged 
 almost incessant Avar with the Turks. From 
 1516 till 1851 the little state was governed by 
 ecclesiastical princes, but the civil was then 
 separated from the ecclesiastical functions, and 
 the throne was declared hereditary. The prince 
 is an absolute sovereign ; but he is assisted by 
 a state council and a ministry. During the 
 last quarter of the 19th century the little land 
 has progressed greatly in civilisation ; educa- 
 tion has made rapid strides, the men have taken 
 to cultivating their fields, and roads have been 
 constructed ; while the old militia has been 
 converted into a standing army of 30,000 men, 
 though not more than 100 serve permanently, as 
 a bodyguard to the prince. Tlie village of Cetinje 
 is the capital. See works by Denton (1877), Carr 
 (1884), Brown (1888), Wyon and Prance (1903). 
 
 Montenotte (Montey not' teh), a village of north- 
 ern Italy, 26 miles AV. of Genoa, where Napoleon 
 won his first victory over the Austrians in 1796. 
 
 Montepulclano (Mon-tey-pool-tchee-ah'no), an 
 episcopal city of Italy, on a high hill, 43 miles 
 by rail SE. of Siena. It was the birthplace of 
 Politian and Bellarmine, and is famous for its 
 red wine. Pop. 15,400. 
 
 Montereau (Mon'tero'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Seine-et-Marne, at the confluence of the 
 Seine and Yonne, 49 miles SE. of Paris. Here 
 in 1419 the Duke of Burgundy was assassinated ; 
 and near this Napoleon, in 1814, gained his last 
 victory over the allies. Pop. 7479. 
 
 Monterey (Monteyray'), a cathedral city, 670 
 miles by rail N. of Mexico City. Founded in 
 1599, it was taken by Taylor in 1846. Pop. 66,000. 
 
 Monterey, a post-village of California, capital 
 of California when it was a Mexican province, on 
 Monterey Bay of the Pacific, 94 miles S. by E. of 
 San J'rancisco by rail. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Monte Rosa, an Alpine mountain mass with 
 four principal peaks, in the Pennine ridge which 
 separates the Swiss canton of Valais from Italy. 
 The highest peak, the Dufourspitze, 15,217 feet 
 high, was first climbed by Mr Smyth in 1855. 
 
 Monte Sanf Angelo (An'jelo), a city of 
 southern Italy, 28 miles NE. of Foggia, and 
 2790 feet above sea-level. Pop. 25,109. 
 
 Monte Sarchio {Sar'keeo), a town of southern 
 Italy, 13 miles NW. of Avellino. Pop. 5238. 
 
 Montevideo (usu. Mon-tey-vid'e-o ; Span. pron. 
 Monteyveeday'o), the capital of the republic of 
 Uruguay, is situated on the north shore of 
 the La Plata estuary, 125 miles E. by S. of 
 Buenos Ayres. It was built originally on a 
 low pronxoutory between the ocean and a horse- 
 
MONTFERRAT 
 
 476 
 
 MONTPELLIER 
 
 shoe-shaped bay, 2 miles across ; but its exten- 
 sive suburbs now stretch far into the flat country 
 behind, and have crept round the bay to the 
 landmark which gives the city its name — the 
 Cerro, a smooth, isolated cone, 505 feet high, 
 crowned with a lighthouse and an old fort. At 
 its base there are nearly a score of great saladeros, 
 or beef-salting establishments, where 200,000 
 cattle yearly are killed ; and here, too, is the 
 largest of the city's dry-docks. High above the 
 flat house-roofs rises the cathedral (133 feet), with 
 two side towers and a dome. Other buildings 
 are the large opera-house, town-hall, custom- 
 house, exchange, the Cabildo (law-courts and 
 parliament house), the school of arts and 
 trades, the university, museum, the English and 
 Basque churches, &c. Tramcars run in all direc- 
 tions ; there are local electric lighting and tele- 
 phone companies ; and water is brought from a 
 distance of 34 miles. The depth of water in the 
 bay ranges from 9 to 15 feet, and vessels of heavy 
 draught are compelled to anchor in the exposed 
 roadstead outside ; but great port improve- 
 ments were begun in 1901. Pop. (1877) 110,200 ; 
 (1905) 268,000, of whom nearly one-third were 
 foreigners. A fort was built on the Cerro, by 
 the Spaniards, in 1717, and the first settlement 
 of the town made in 1726 ; in 1828 it became the 
 capital of the newly-formed republic of Banda 
 Oriental. See Uruguay. 
 
 Montferrat (Mon^ferrah'), formerly an inde- 
 pendent marquisate and duchy of Italy, between 
 Piedmont, Milan, and Genoa, in 1631-1703 ac- 
 quired by the Dukes of Savoy, and now forming 
 part of the kingdom of Italy. It consisted of 
 two separate portions, both lying between the 
 Maritime Alps and the Po, and having a united 
 area of over 1300 sq. m. The capital was Casale. 
 
 Montgomery (Montgurn'mery), the capital of 
 Alabama, on the left bank of the Alabama River, 
 400 miles above Mobile. It contains a fine state- 
 house and a handsome Masonic hall, and has 
 foundries, flour-mills, steam cotton-gins, a cotton 
 factory, and oil-works. Several railways meet 
 here, and an active trade is carried on, much 
 cotton, especially, is shipped. Montgomery was 
 for a time the capital of the Confederate States. 
 Pop. (1880) 16,713 ; (1900) 30,346. 
 
 Montgomery, a town of the Punjab, in the 
 Multan division, midway between Lahore and 
 Multan. It was named in 1865 after the governor 
 of the Punjab. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Montgomeryshire, an inland county of North 
 Wales, 40 miles long and 35 broad, bounded NB. 
 and NW. by the counties of Denbigh, Merioneth, 
 Salop, Radnor, and Cardigan. Area, 773 sq. m., 
 or 495,089 acres, of which more than one- third 
 is laid down in pennanent pasture, and 58,000 
 acres are under tillage. Pop. (1801) 47,978 ; (1831) 
 65,700 ; (1881) 65,718 ; (1901) 54,901. The surface 
 is for the most part barren, and in places moun- 
 tainous, Plinlimmon (2469 feet), on the Cardigan 
 border, the Berwyn Mountains in the NB., and 
 the Breidden Hills— some 12 miles B. of Shrews- 
 bury—being the principal elevations ; but to- 
 wards the English border it consists of a series 
 of fertile and well-wooded valleys. The Severn, 
 with its tributary the Vyrnwy (q.v.), and the 
 Dovey — alike noted for their fishing — are the 
 most important rivers, whilst Offa's Dyke (q.v.) 
 traverses the south-east corner of the county. 
 Of manufactures, that of Welsh flannel at New- 
 town is the most extensive. The county com- 
 prises nine hundreds, the municipal boroughs of 
 Llanfyllin, Llanidloes, Montgomery, and Welsh- 
 
 pool, and sixty-eight parishes. One M.P. is re- 
 turned for the county, as also one for the Mont- 
 gomery district of boroughs — viz. Llanfyllin, 
 Llanidloes, Machynlleth, Montgomery, Newtown, 
 and Welshpool. — The county town, Montgomery', 
 is 7 miles S. of Welshpool, and was incorporated 
 in 1885. Pop. 1038. 
 
 Montilla (Monteelya), a town of Spain, 23 miles 
 SSB. of Cordova by rail. Pop. 13,701. 
 
 MontlUQon (MonHiisson^'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Allier, on a castle-crowned hill whose 
 base is washed by the Cher, 202 miles S. of 
 Paris. It owes its rapid growth to the Com- 
 mentry coalfield, and has ironworks and plate- 
 glass manufactories. Pop. (1872) 20,251 ; (1901) 
 34,042.— Neris-les-Bains, 18 miles SB., is the 
 Nerioma.gus of the Romans — of whom many 
 traces are left — and since 1821 has again risen 
 into repute through its warm alkaline mineral 
 waters (126° F.). Pop. 2395. 
 
 Montmartre. See Paris. 
 
 Montmedy (Mon^maydee'), a town and fortress 
 in the French dep, of Meuse, 25 miles N. of 
 Verdun and 31 SE. of Sedan, lies in the valley 
 of the Chiers, a tributary of the Meuse. It 
 long was part of the Spanish Netherlands, was 
 often taken and retaken, but became finally 
 French in 1659, and was re-fortified by Vauban. 
 It was, however, captured by the Germans in 
 1815 and again in 1870. Pop. 2417. 
 
 Montmorency, a river of Quebec, a tributary 
 of the St Lawrence, famous for its beautiful falls, 
 8 miles NB. of Quebec. Here the stream is 100 
 feet wide, and falls 250 feet. 
 
 Monto'ro, a town of Spain, on the Guadal- 
 quivir, 26 miles BNB. of Cordova. Pop. 11,935. 
 
 Montpe'Uer, the capital of Vermont since 1805, 
 on the Winooski or Onion River, 206 miles by 
 rail NNW. of Boston. It contains a granite state- 
 house, with a statue of Ethan Allen. Pop. 6260. 
 
 Montpellier (Mon^pel-yay'), the capital of the 
 French dep. of Herault, on the Lez, 6 miles froia 
 the sea and 31 SW. of Nimes. Pop. (1872) 54,466; 
 (1901) 69,193. Lying near the centre of Langue- 
 doc, on the great route from Italy and Provence 
 to Spain, with its seaport at a point off'ering 
 the shortest land-route not only to all parts of 
 Languedoc, but to north France, Montpellier's 
 position was a highly favourable one during the 
 middle ages. Its schools of medicine, law, and 
 arts were formally constituted a university by 
 a papal bull in 1289, at which time the schools of 
 law and medicine (the latter founded by Arabian 
 physicians) rivalled those of Paris. Among its 
 students and professors have been Petrarch, 
 Amaud de Villeneuve, Rabelais, Rondelet the 
 anatomist, Ca.saubon, Lobel, Clusius, the brothers 
 Bauhin, Magnol, Tournefort, the elder De Jussieu, 
 and De CandoUe ; Clarendon also and Locke were 
 residents. The oldest botanic garden in France 
 was founded here in 1592, and De Candolle laid 
 out the first botanic garden upon the natural 
 system in 1810. The medical school also has had 
 a notable history; and in 1890 the university 
 celebrated its sexcentenary and was reorganised. 
 The town has an important picture-gallery and 
 library. A centre of wine production, Mont- 
 pellier suffered greatly by the phylloxera ; it was 
 here that the cure of grafting French vines upon 
 American stocks was earliest applied. Of the 
 raediajval town little remains, its fortifications 
 and most of its buildings, save the cathedral and 
 the acl,joining bishop's palace (which now houses 
 the school of medicine), having been destroyed 
 
MONTREAL 
 
 477 
 
 MOORFOOT HILLS 
 
 In the religious wars, in the Revolution, or by 
 municipal improvements. The chief modern 
 buildings are the theatre and law-courts ; but 
 the principal glory of the town is its two great 
 terraces, forming public promenades overlooking 
 the undulating country away to the Mediterran- 
 ean, Cevennes, Pyrenees, and Alps. 
 
 Montreal (Montreav)l' ; Fr. pron. Mon^-tmy- 
 ahV), the lai'gest city of the Dominion of Canada, 
 is built on the south-east side of an island formed 
 by the junction of the Ottawa River with the St 
 Lawrence, and may be said to be situated on 
 the northern bank of the St Lawrence, which is 
 spanned here by the tubular Victoria Railway 
 Bridge (1854-59), nearly IJ mile long, the rails 
 being 60 feet above the river's level. The city 
 is about 4 miles long and 2 wide, the Central 
 Mountain in the rear narrowing the city at its 
 base. It is not the official capital of the province 
 of Quebec, but it exerts an immense political and 
 commercial influence, and is also the seat of the 
 greatest universities, hospitals, convents, and 
 seminaries in all Canada. Finally it is during 
 the season of navigation — i.e. from May to Nov- 
 ember—the great maritime port of the Dominion, 
 headquarters of several transatlantic shipping 
 companies, irrespective of acti ve lake and river and 
 coast navigation. It is nearly 1000 miles from 
 Montreal to the ocean proper, and 250 to the first 
 salt water. Pop. (1871) 107,225 ; (1881) 140,747 ; 
 (1901) 206,826 (with suburbs, 323,221), over half 
 being of French descent. The growth of the com- 
 merce of Montreal is very remarkable, having more 
 than doubled since 1870, though agreat fue in 1901 
 caused damage to the amount of $4,000,000. The 
 1500 miles of the St Lawrence River contribute 
 to growth of exports, and distribute largely the 
 growth of import. The canal system which finds 
 its outlet at Montreal is remarkable, the canals 
 affording a continuous course of water-communi- 
 cation extending from the Straits of Belle Isle 
 to Port Arthur at the head of Lake Superior, a 
 distance of 2260 miles. Montreal is the head- 
 quarters of the Grand Trunk Railway, the CaTi- 
 adian Pacific Railway (to Vancouver City, 2906 
 miles), the South-Eastern Railway, the Central 
 Vermont Railway. In the boot and shoe manu- 
 facture over 3000 hands are employed, in cloth- 
 ing-factories over 2500, in tobacco-factories 3000, 
 in the breweries 500 ; and in the railway-work- 
 shops a perfect anny of men. There are also 
 rubber-factories, saw-mills, sack-factories, tool- 
 factories, silk- factories, cotton-mills, and a variety 
 of small industries protected by the tariff. 
 
 Of the Episcopal churches, Christ Church 
 Cathedral has a tower 224 feet in height, and 
 St George's of 230 feet. The Catholic churches 
 are numerous and some of them splendid : St 
 Peter's Church is a repetition on a smaller scale 
 of the church at Rome ; Notre Dame is said to 
 hold 10,000 people ; St Patrick's is the church 
 of the Irish Catholics. M'Gill University (1821) 
 has been active since 1852. Laval University of 
 Quebec has a branch at Montreal ; the seminary 
 3f St Sulpice (1657) is a theological institution ; 
 the Presbyterian College was chartered in 1865 ; 
 md others in the long list are the Wesleyan 
 rheological College (1873), the Congregational 
 l/ollege, the Anglican Diocesan College, St Mary's 
 Fesuit College (1848), the Jacques Cartier Normal 
 Jchool, &c. The Montreal Gazette (1778) was, 
 ifter the Quebec Gazette (1764), the first paper 
 mblished in Canada. There are several fine 
 ibraries, and musical, art, and historical asso- 
 iations also, which maintain in Montreal a taste 
 or art, literature, and science not common in 
 
 colonial commercial cities. Founded as Ville- 
 Marie de Montreal in 1642, the town was in 1760 
 surrendered by the French to the British ; in 
 1776-77 it was occupied by invaders from the 
 revolted American colonies. 
 
 Montreux (Mon^tmh'), a group of villages on 
 the north shore of the Lake of Geneva, 15 miles 
 by rail SE. of Lausanne. The name properly 
 belongs to one small hamlet, but is popularly 
 extended to the adjoining villages of Clarens, 
 Vernex, Veytaux, &c., with a pop. of 8019. The 
 beauty and climate of 'the Swiss Nice' attract 
 many invalids. Near it is the castle of Chillon. 
 
 Montrose, a seaport of Forfarshire, 76 miles 
 NNE. of Edinburgh and 42 SSW. of Aberdeen. 
 It stands on a level peninsula between Montrose 
 Basin (a tidal loch, measuring 2 by If nnles, 
 but almost dry at low-water) and the mouth of 
 the river South Esk. A fine suspension bridge 
 (1829), 432 feet long, leads to Inchbrayock or 
 Rossie Island, in the Esk's channel, and is con- 
 tinued thence by a drawbridge ; and there is 
 also a railway viaduct (1883). Montrose has a 
 plain town-hall (1763-1819) ; a large parish church 
 (1791-1834), with a steeple 200 feet high; an 
 academy (1820) ; a lunatic asylum (1868), 2 miles 
 NNW. ; good links ; and a wet-dock (1840). The 
 foreign trade— timber its staple— is chiefly with 
 the Baltic and Canada. Flax-spinning is the 
 principal industry ; and ropes, canvas, soap, &c. 
 are manufactured. Montrose was the birth- 
 place of Robert Brown, botanist ; Joseph Hume ; 
 Sir Alexander Burnes ; and George Paul Chalmers, 
 R.S.A. It has memories of Edward I., the two 
 Melvilles. the Great Marquis, the Old Pretender, 
 Dr Johnson, and Lola Montez. A royal burgh 
 since 1352 and earlier, it unites with Arbroath, 
 Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie to return one member. 
 Pop. (1851) 15,238 ; (1901) 12,472. See Mitchell's 
 History of Montrose (Montrose, 1866). 
 
 Montserrat (Mon^ser-raif ; Lat. Mans Serratus, 
 so named from its saw-like, fantastic outline), a 
 mountain of Catalonia, in north-east Spain, 30 
 miles NW. of Barcelona. Its height is 4055 feet. 
 The mountain owes its celebrity to the Bene- 
 dictine abbey built half-way up, with its wonder- 
 working image of the Virgin. 
 
 Montserrat (Mon-ser-raf), one of the Lesser 
 Antilles, belonging to Britain, lies 27 miles SW. 
 of Antigua. It is about 11 miles in length, 7 in 
 breadth, and has an area of 32 sq. m. Pop. 
 between 12,000 and 13,000. The surface is moun- 
 tainous (3000 feet), and heavily timbered. Sugar 
 and limes and lime-juice are produced. The island, 
 discovered in 1493, was colonised by the British 
 in 1632. In 1664-68 and 1782-84, it was held by 
 France. The chief town is Plymouth (pop. 1460). 
 
 Mont St Michel. See St Michel. 
 
 Monza (Montsa), a town of Italy, on the 
 Lambro, 9 miles by rail NNE. of Milan. The 
 ancient capital of the Lombard sovereigns, it was, 
 in the middle ages, in spite of thirty-two sieges, 
 conspicuous for the wealth of its citizens and 
 nobles, and for its cloth-trade. The cathedral, 
 founded in 595 by Theodelinda, contains many 
 relics of this great queen. The famous Iron 
 Crown, removed to Vienna in 1859, was restored 
 in 1866. The town has an interesting town-hall 
 (1293), a royal palace (1777), and manufactures of 
 cottons, hats, leather, &c. Pop. 42,600. 
 
 Mooltan. See Multan. 
 
 Moorfoot Hills, a range in Midlothian and 
 Peeblesshire, culminating in Blackhope Scar 
 (2136 feet). 
 
 I. 
 
MOORHOUSE 
 
 478 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 Moorhouse, a farm 3 miles W. of Eaglesham, 
 Eenfrewshire, was birthplace of Robert PoUok, 
 
 Moorwinstow. See Morwenstow. 
 
 Moradabad', a town of British India, on the 
 Ramganga, 100 miles B. by N. of Delhi. It is 
 noted for its metal-work, especially brass and tin 
 inlay. Other objects of industry are chintz and 
 cotton cloth. Pop. 75,500. 
 
 Morano (Morah'no), a city of southern Italy, 
 37 miles NNW. of Cosenza. Pop. 8259. 
 
 Morar, a west coast district of Inverness-sliire, 
 with Loch Morar, 12 miles long and 2 wide. 
 
 Morar. See Gwalior. 
 
 Morat (Morah' ; Ger. Murten), a town in the 
 Swiss canton of Freiburg, 12 miles ESE. of 
 Neuchatel, lies on the Lake of Morat (3^ by 2 
 miles, 1428 feet above sea-level). Here in 1476 
 the Swiss defeated Charles the Bold. Pop, 2364. 
 
 Mora'va. See March (river). 
 
 Moravia (Ger. Mcihren), a crown-land of tlie 
 Austrian empire. Area, 8579 sq. m. ; pop. (1870) 
 2,017,274 ; (1900) 2,437,706. It is enclosed on all 
 sides by mountains, being separated from Silesia 
 by the Sudetes, from Bohemia by the Moravian 
 chain, and from Hungary by the Carpathians ; 
 while branches of these various chains intersect 
 the whole country except in the south, where 
 there are extensive plains. The March or 
 Morava, from which the country derives its 
 name, joins the Danube. The Oder, which rises 
 among the mountains on the north-east, soon 
 leaves the country. Moravia is essentially an 
 agricultural region. The mineral products are 
 coal and iron, with some graphite. The in- 
 dustries include the manufacture of woollen, 
 linen, and cotton goods, and beet-root sugar, 
 silk-weaving, lace-making, iron-founding, tan- 
 ning, brewing, distilling, &c. Briinn is the 
 capital, and another chief town is Olmtitz. The 
 majority (95 per cent.) of the people are Catholics. 
 By nationality 71 per cent, are Slavs (Czechs and 
 Moravians) and 28 per cent. Germans. From 
 1029 Moravia was associated with Bohemia, and 
 in 1526, with all the other Bohemian lands, fell to 
 Austria. In 1849 it was formally separated from 
 Bohemia, and declared a distinct crown-land. 
 
 Moray Firth, an indentation of the German 
 Ocean, on the north-east coast of Scotland, 
 measuring 21 miles across its entrance from 
 Tarbat Ness, in Ross-shire, to Stotfield Head, 
 near Lossiemouth in Elginshire, and 39 miles 
 thence to the mouth of the river Beauly. The 
 name is applied in a wider sense to the whole 
 extent of sea between Kinnaird's Head in Aber- 
 deenshire and Duncansbay Head in Caithness. 
 
 Morayshire. See Elginshire. 
 
 Morbihan (Morbeeon"'), a maritime dep. of 
 France, formed out of ancient Brittany, with the 
 Atlantic on the south and Finist^re on the west. 
 Area, 2624 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 490,352 ; (1901) 
 563,468. It is divided into the arrondisseinents 
 of Vannes, L'Orient, Ploermel, and Pontivy. 
 
 More'a, the name borne since the middle ages 
 by the ancient Peloponnesus, or southern pen- 
 insula of Greece. 
 
 Morecambe Bay, a sea-inlet of Lancashire and 
 Westmorland, measuring 10 miles across the en- 
 trance (from Fleetwood to Walney), and 18 miles 
 thence to its inmost recess.— The watering-place 
 of Morecambe, 3h miles WNW. of Lancaster, is 
 a rismg place, with good sea-bathing, a pier, 
 aquarium and gardens, and other attractions. 
 Popu 12,300. 
 
 a Devon village, 5J 
 
 Moreleigh, or Morley, 
 miles SSW. of Totnes. 
 
 Morelia {Moray'lia), capital of the Mexican 
 state of Michoacan, in a valley 6400 feet above 
 sea-level, 115 miles (234 by rail) W. by N. of 
 Mexico City. It has a cathedral, and manufac- 
 tures of cotton, tobacco, and candles. Morelia, 
 which from 1541 to 1828 was called Valladolid, 
 was the birthplace of the patriot Morelos, in 
 whose honour the name was changed, and of 
 Iturbide, emperor of Mexico. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Morelia (Morel'ija), a town of Spain, 80 miles 
 N. by E. of Valencia. Pop. 6661. 
 
 Moresnet (Moraynay'), a small neutral terri- 
 tory between Belgium and Prussia, 5 miles SW. 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. Area, 70 acres ; pop. 3000. 
 
 Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Queensland, 
 Australia, is formed inside the islands of Moreton 
 and Stradbroke. The bay is 40 miles long by 17 
 broad ; its southern half is dotted with islands 
 and sandbanks. Brisbane (q.v.) is on one of the 
 streams falling into it. 
 
 Moreton-Hampstead, a town of Devon, 12 
 miles WSW. of Exeter. Pop. of parish, 1543. 
 
 Moreton-in-the-Marsh, a market-town of 
 Gloucestershire, 6 miles SE. of Chii)ping-Carap- 
 den. Pop. of parish, 1346. 
 
 Morgan, Mount. See Mount Morgan, 
 
 Mor'garten, a mountain slope on the east 
 margin of Lake Egeri, in the Swiss canton of 
 Zug. Here 1400 men of the Forest Cantons 
 routed 15,000 Austrians, November 15, 1315. 
 
 Moriah, Mount. See Jerusalem. 
 
 Morlaix (Morlay), a picturesque and flourish- 
 ing port in the Breton dep. of Finistere, on the 
 tidal Dossen, 6^ nules from the sea and 38 ENB. 
 of Brest. It has many quaint timbered houses, 
 a huge railway viaduct 207 feet high, and manu- 
 factures of tobacco, paper, &c. Moreau was a 
 native, and so probably was St Bernard, the 
 author of 'Jerusalem the Golden.' Population 
 about 15,000. 
 
 Morley, a municipal borough in the West Rid- 
 ing of Yorkshire, 5 miles SW. of Leeds, with 
 woollen manufactures, coal-mines, and stone 
 quarries. Mentioned in Domesday, it became a 
 borough only in 1885, and had its boundary ex- 
 tended in 1891. Pop. (1851) 4821 ; (1901) 23,636. 
 
 Morningslde, a south suburb of Edinburgh. 
 
 Moroc'co, or Marocco (Arab. Maghreh-el-Aksa, 
 ' the farthest west '), is an empire or sultanate in 
 that part of north-west Africa bounded on the 
 E. by Algeria, and on the S. by Cape Nun and the 
 Wad Draa, though both here and on the Sahara 
 side of the Atlas the limits of the empire are rather 
 indeterminate. It contains about 314,000 sq. m., 
 of which the ' Tell,' or fertile region west of the 
 Atlas contains 78,000, the Steppes or flat sterile 
 upland pastures 27,000, and the Desert or Sahara 
 209,000 sq. m. Politically, Morocco comprises at 
 present the old kingdoms of Fez and Morocco 
 and the territories of TaHIet (Tafilalet) and Sns; 
 but the latter two are almost independent, recog- 
 nising the sultan only as the Prince of True 
 Believers, an office which he holds as the most 
 powerful of the Shereefs or descendants of Mo- 
 hammed. Many of the Arab and most of the 
 mountain tribes are practically independent. 
 The pop. has been variously estimated at from 
 2,500,000 to 13,000,000— the actual number being 
 perhaps between three and four millions. Mor- 
 occo is, as a rule, mountainous, the Atlas (q.v.) 
 traversing it in several chains from south-west to 
 
MOROCCO 
 
 479 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 north-east, and by various spurs both to the 
 coast country and to the desert. There are, 
 however, numerous level plains, some of which 
 are of great extent, and very rich. There are also 
 numerous more or less level plateaus similar to 
 those of Algeria. Most of the country has been 
 denuded of timber. Consequently the country 
 looks bald, with its rolling hills and monotonous 
 plains, green in spring, brown during summer 
 and autumn. Farther south, and on the other 
 side of the Atlas, where long droughts, followed 
 by famines, are common calamities, and the rain- 
 fall is at the best of times scanty and uncertain, 
 sandy wastes arc the prevailing characteristic. 
 In western Morocco, though the soil is some- 
 times thin, actual desert is rare. 
 
 The central range of the Atlas forms the water- 
 shed separating the streams which flow into the 
 Atlantic and Mediterranean from tliose which 
 run southward toward the desert, where they 
 are often lost in marshy ' sinks.' And of the 
 streams falling into the Atlantic and Mediter- 
 ranean, many are in the hot season or after long 
 droughts little better than a succession of pools 
 connected by threads of Avater, though rolling in 
 brown floods from bank to bank during the wet 
 season. None of tliem are navigable for any 
 distance. The climate of Morocco varies much, 
 though the western slope, being tempered by the 
 sea-breezes and protected from the hot desert- 
 winds by the Atlas, is temperate, the ther- 
 mometer seldom falling below 40° or rising above 
 90'. But in summer the interior valleys are very 
 hot, and in winter snow often falls in Fez and 
 Mequinez. Farther south extremes of heat and 
 drought are more common, though as a rule the 
 climate is equable, and, unless in swampy places 
 during summer, extremely healthy. In the Sus 
 country and tlie region of Tafllet rain is scarce 
 and in places almost unknown. But farther 
 north, and on the Atlantic and Mediterranean 
 slopes, it falls with tolerable regularity every 
 year between October and April, the amount 
 being at times so great that the low lands are 
 flooded and the rivers impassable. The Atlas 
 is capped deep with snow in winter. Morocco 
 is thus fitted for growing any crops of the tem- 
 perate and tropical zones, and luider a better 
 government would become, as Barbary was in 
 Roman times, the granary of Europe. Wheat 
 and barley, were they allowed to be freely 
 exported, would be produced in innnense quan- 
 tities. Maize forms the chief export of Mazagan. 
 Various gums, oranges, figs, almonds, lemons, 
 and dates are among the other vegetable pro- 
 lucts, with cotton, hemp, and sugar. Most 
 European fruits grow well. The exports (maize, 
 t)eans, chick-peas, olive-oil, wool, almonds, dates, 
 towls, eggs, hides, bones, esparto, cattle to 
 Gibraltar, &c.) amount to near £1,600,000, and 
 he imports (cotton goods, cloth, tea, coffee, 
 ugar, candles, hardware, &c.) to £2,800,000, 
 iiore than half being from Great Britain. The 
 nterior of the country is so little known that 
 ittle can be said with certainty regarding its 
 nineral wealth. But enough has been ascer- 
 ained to enable us to assert that gold (placer 
 ,nd in quartz), silver, copper, tin, argentiferous 
 alena, nickel, antimony, iron, manganese, and 
 ock-salt abound. Coal and petroleum have 
 •een indicated. But these mineral deposits are 
 carcely touched, and no European is allowed 
 ven to visit the mines. The flora of Morocco 
 i essentially European on the western side of 
 ^e Atlas. The fauna partakes of a similar 
 tiaracter, the Barbary fallow-deer, wild boar, 
 
 I. 
 
 Barbary monkey (found also in Gibraltar), a 
 species of porcupine, and wild cat being the 
 most characteristic mammals; the lion is now 
 very rare in the inhabited parts of the country. 
 The birds and fishes are those of southern Europe ; 
 of the forty species of reptiles and amphibia 
 known, twenty-two also belong to Spain— facts 
 pointing to a time when the Strait of Gibraltar 
 did not divide Europe from Africa. Locusts 
 often devastate the country. The inhabitants 
 consist of six principal groups — Berbers or 
 Kabyles (Tuaregs, &c.), the aborigines, Arabs, 
 Jews, a few thousand Spaniards, Moors (Arabs 
 with an admixtm-e of Spanish blood, living in 
 towns, though the name is often given to all the 
 Mohannnedan inhabitants), aiid Negroes. 
 
 The sultan, who is the last independent sove- 
 reign in the Barbary States, is one of the 
 most perfect specimens of an absolute monarch 
 existing ; his so-called ministers are simply the 
 favourites of the hour. He receives the entire 
 revenue, believed to be about £1,800,000 per 
 annum, and spends as little or as much of it as 
 he pleases. Every office is directly or indirectly 
 purchased, small salaries or none are paid, the 
 holders recouping themselves by plunder and 
 oppression. All justice is bought and sold. 
 Yet, owing to the religious fanaticism of the 
 people, and tlie mutual jealousies of tlie Euro- 
 pean powers, whose representatives reside at 
 Tangier, the political equilibrium is preserved. 
 Spain has a fortress at Ceuta, four convict settle- 
 ments, and a fishing-station at Ifni. The Grand 
 Shereef of Wazan, as the nearest descendant of 
 Mohammed, governs that city and is lord para- 
 mount of a large territory. Education is at a 
 low ebb ; the so-called ' university ' of Fez is 
 nowadays merely a seminary attached to the chief 
 mosque for the training of religious acolytes. 
 There are no roads except bridle-paths, and no 
 wheeled carriages in the interior except the 
 sultan's state coaches. The chief industry be- 
 sides the rude agriculture of the Berbers and 
 Arabs, and the breeding of horses and mules, is 
 the making of ' morocco ' leather, harness, slip- 
 pers, red ' Fez ' caps, cloth for native apparel, 
 the chiselling of brass trays, the making of rough 
 pottery and of inlaid flint-lock muskets, and the 
 weaving of carpets (principally in Rabat). The 
 best mechanics and the jewellers are Jews. The 
 army, reorganised under European officers, has 
 about 10,000 men, drilled, anned, and clothed 
 after an approach to the European fashion, the 
 rest being mainly undisciplined native levies. 
 Altogether, the sultan is believed to be able to 
 mobilise ui)wards of 100,000 men. Morocco is 
 connected with Spain by telegraph, and the 
 telephone is in use in Tangier, Casablanca, and 
 other coast-towns. The posts also are confined 
 to the Europeans. Morocco has three capitals 
 or imperial residences— Fez (q.v.), Makinas or 
 Mequinez (q.v.), and Marakesch or the City of 
 Morocco (q.v.). Beside these the principal coast- 
 towns are Tangier, Tetuan, Larache (El-Arish), 
 Rabat, Sallee, Casablanca, Mazagan, Saffi, and 
 Mogador (q.v.). But all of them are decaying, 
 most of them in partial ruins, and without any 
 exception filthy, undrained, and insanitary. 
 
 Part of Mauritania under the Romans, the 
 country fell under the Vandals in 429 a.d., but 
 was restored to the Eastern Empire in 533. In 
 680 the Arab invasion began, and with little 
 intermission the Arabs have ever since been 
 possessors of tlie country, and the entire popula- 
 tion are now the most fanatical adherents of 
 Mohammedanism. At first, with Spain, part of 
 
MORON 
 
 480 
 
 MOSCOW 
 
 the califate of Bagdad, it was not a distinct but 
 united kingdom till the beginning of the 18th 
 century. It is still very backward, and a passive 
 resistance is offered to every improvement ; but 
 though Christian slavery lias been abolished and 
 traders l)ave, nominally, access to all parts, the 
 interior is little different from what it was a 
 thousand years ago, and many cities and districts 
 are still dangerous or impossible to visit. The 
 slave-trade is as brisk as ever. The unsettled 
 condition of aflfairs compelled other countries 
 interested to come to an understanding, and by 
 the Anglo-French Convention in 1904, the right 
 of France to promote administrative reforms in 
 Morocco was recognised. A difficulty raised by 
 Germany in 1905 was referred to a Conference of 
 the Powers. 
 
 Tlie city of Morocco (Arab. Marakesch), the 
 southern capital of the empire, is situated between 
 4 and 5 miles from the left bank of the Tensift, 
 at the northern end of an extensive and fertile 
 plain dotted with date-palms, 1447 feet above 
 the sea, about three and a half days' journey 
 from Mogador and Mazagan. It is surrounded 
 by a lime and earth wall, now dilapidated, more 
 than five miles in circumference, between 20 
 and 30 feet high, flanked at regular intervals by 
 square towers. The town is squalid and ill-built, 
 though it bears the marks of former grandeur. 
 A large portion of the immense space within the 
 walls is occupied by ill-kept gardens, open areas, 
 and market-places. In the bazaar and merchants' 
 quarter a considerable local trade is carried on 
 with the country-people, the mountaineers from 
 the neighbouring Atlas, and with Sus, Tafilet, 
 Mazagan, Saffi, and Mogador. Morocco possesses 
 many mosques, one of which, the Kutubia, has a 
 tower after the model of the Hassan in Rabat 
 and the Giralda in Seville, 230 feet high. There 
 are several tanning and leather-dyeing establish- 
 ments, though of late years European goods have 
 been gradually displacing native manufactures. 
 The population varies according to the presence 
 or absence of the sultan, his court, and army. 
 In ordinary times it does not exceed 60,000, of 
 whom from 7000 to 8000 are Jews, living in a 
 Ghetto. No Europeans reside permanently in 
 the city. On the south, outside the walls, stands 
 the imperial palace, an irregular conglomeration 
 of gardens and buildings covering about 180 acres. 
 Morocco was founded in 1072, and reached the 
 summit of its prosperity in the 13th century, 
 when it is said to have had 700,000 inhabitants. 
 Owing to its excellent situation in sight of the 
 Atlas, from which cool streams are always flowing, 
 its genial healthy climate, and its command of 
 the trade-routes across the mountains, Marakesch 
 is safe to have a great future when Morocco 
 knows other masters than the Moors. See books 
 by Hooker and Ball (1878), Stutfield, Thomson, 
 Harris, Cunninghame Graham, Meakin, Bensusan 
 (1904) ; and French works by Chenier, Godard, 
 Eenou, Martin iere, Montbard. 
 
 Moron (Moroan'), a Spanish town, on the Gua- 
 daira, 32 miles by a branch-line SE. of Seville. Its 
 ruined castle was once impregnable. Pop. 16,005. 
 
 Mor'peth, a market-town of Northumberland, 
 on the winding Wansbeck, 16 miles N. of New- 
 castle. The parish church dates from the 14th 
 century ; the free grammar-school (1552) was 
 rebuilt in 1859, after a chancery suit lasting 150 
 years. The town-hall (restored in 1870) was 
 erected in 1714 by Sir John Vanbrugh, and the 
 county -hall in 1818 at a cost of £80,000. Morpeth 
 has flannel-factories, breweries, tanneries, iron- 
 
 foundries, &c., with neighbouring collieries and 
 quarries. From 1553 till 1832 it returned two 
 members, but now only one ; the parliamentary 
 borough was extended in 1868. Pop. (1851) 
 10,011 ; (1901) 50,043, of whom only 6158 were in 
 tlie municipal borough. 
 
 Morristown, capital of Morris county. New 
 Jersey, on the Whippany River, 30 miles by rail 
 W. of New York. It has ironworks and various 
 mills ; 3 miles to the north is a large state lunatic 
 asylum. Pop. 11,270. 
 
 Morshansk, a town of Russia, 58 miles N. of 
 Tamboff, almost wholly burned in 1874. Pop. 
 31,190. 
 
 Mortimer's Cross, a Herefordshire village, on 
 the Lugg, 5J miles NW. of Leominster. Here, 
 in 1460, the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians. 
 
 Mortlake, a parish of Surrey, on the south 
 bank of the Thames, 2 miles ENE. of Richmond 
 and 8 W. by S. of London. From 1619 to 1703 it 
 was famous for tapestry ; now malting and brew- 
 ing are the industries. It is also a great boating, 
 place, the Oxford and Cambridge race being rowed 
 from Putney to Mortlake. It has associations 
 with Archbishops Anselm and Cranmer, the astro- 
 logers Dr Dee and John Partridge, Cromwell, Swift 
 and Stella, Sir Philip Francis, Sir Richard Owen, 
 and Sir Richard Burton. Pop. (1851) 3110 ; (1901) 
 7774. See John E. Anderson's history of Mortlake 
 (priv. printed, 1888). 
 
 Morvan (MorvonP), Le, a barren district of 
 France, a north-easterly extension of the central 
 plateau, is mainly in the dep. of Nievre. 
 
 Morvem, a peninsula of north-west Argyll- 
 shire, between Lochs Sunart and Linnhe. It is 
 the ' Highland parish ' of Norman Macleod. 
 
 Morwenstow, or Moorwinstow, a parish in 
 the extreme north of the Cornish coast, 7 miles 
 N. of Bude. Its church, dedicated to St Mor- 
 wenna, is mainly of Norman date ; R. S. Hawker 
 was its vicar. Pop. 704. 
 
 Mos'cow, formerly the capital of Russia, and 
 still venerated as such by the Russian peasantry, 
 stands on the little river Moskwa, a sub-tributary 
 of the Volga, 403 miles by rail SB. of St Peters- 
 burg, 768 ENE. of Warsaw, and 967 NNE. of 
 Odessa. Its centre is the enclosure called the 
 Kreml or Kremlin ('Citadel'), which is sur- 
 rounded by walls, crowned by eighteen towers 
 and pierced by five gates. This enclosure is the 
 most sacred spot in all the vast Russian empire. 
 The most notable of the religious buildings inside 
 the Kremlin are the cathedral of the Assumption 
 (1326 ; rebuilt 1475-79) ; its interior is encrusted 
 with mosaics and jewelled ornaments, adorned 
 with venerated pictures, and sanctified by numer- 
 ous relics ; within its walls the early czars and 
 all the Russian metropolitans and patriarchs 
 have been consecrated, and the metropolitans 
 buried. In the cathedral of the Archangel (1333 ; 
 restored 1505) were buried the Russian czars 
 down to the brother of Peter the Great. The 
 cathedral of the Annunciation (1489; rebuilt 
 1554) was formerly the private chapel of the 
 czars. There are numerous churches of minor 
 rank, and several monasteries ; in the Voznesenski 
 monastery (1393) the czarinas are buried. In 1600 
 Boris GodunofT built in the Kremlin the Ivan 
 Veliki tower, 270 feet high, the sum7nit of which 
 commands a magnificent view of Moscow, with 
 her gilded cupolas and fantastic towers, her half 
 Asiatic, half European architecture. Close by, 
 at its foot, stands the gigantic ' king of bells,' 19 
 feet high, and 198 tons in weight ; it was cast in 
 
MOSELLE 
 
 481 
 
 MOUNT EDGCUMBE 
 
 1653, but cracked, so never hung. Here are also 
 the imperial palace (1849) ; the palace built in the 
 reign of Ivan III. ; the new palace Orushenaya, 
 which serves as a museum of Russian antiquities ; 
 the palace of the patriarchs, with archteological 
 treasures and rare MSS. ; the arsenal (1701-30), 
 before which is the trophy of 1812, a pile of 850 
 French cannon ; and the Hall of the Synod, with 
 a valuable library. Outside the Kreinl the chief 
 objects of interest are the colossal ' Temple of the 
 Saviour' (1838-81), a building commemorative of 
 1812 ; the cathedral of St Basil (1554), a ' night- 
 mare in stone,' with fantastic towers ; the gigantic 
 bazaar ; the historical museum ; the library of the 
 synod and its typographical museum ; the uni- 
 versity (1755), with 3350 students ; tlie public 
 museum (1861), containing a library of 300,000 
 vols, and 5000 MSS. ; a first-rate ethnological 
 museum ; the Golitzyn Museum (1805), &c. ; an 
 observatory ; and a large foundling hospital (1704). 
 Next to St Petersburg, Moscow is the busiest 
 industrial city in the empire, manufacturing 
 cotton and woollen goods, sillis, leather, tobacco, 
 candles, metallic articles, machinery, paper, 
 chemicals, bricks, carriages, pottery, and watches. 
 Situated nearly in the centre of European Russia, 
 midway between the Baltic, the Black Sea, and 
 the Caspian, it is a chief meeting-place of Asiatic 
 md European commerce. An enormous trade is 
 lone in grain, timber, furs, hides, tallow, and 
 cattle ; in the mineral products of the Ural 
 -egion ; in tea, sugar, and other groceries ; in 
 !Ottons, silks, and woollens, and various Russian 
 nanufactures. Pop. (1804)305,000; (1905)1,100,000. 
 Finnish first, it became Great Russian in the 
 .2th century. In 1325 the metropolitan of cen- 
 ral Russia moved his seat here ; the Kremlin 
 vas built in 1300. The principality of Moscow 
 •ontinued to grow in area and in political in- 
 luence, and Ivan III. (1462-1505) assumed the 
 itle Czar of all Russia. In 1713 Peter the Great 
 ounded St Petersburg and made it his capital ; 
 ■loscow suR'ered greatly from fires in 1739, 1748, 
 nd 1753 ; and the cup of misfortune was filled 
 the brim when the city was set on fire and 
 lurned in 1812, according to the traditional belief 
 he patriotic act of its own inhabitants to save it 
 ram Napoleon and the French. — The government 
 f Moscow has an area of 12,855 sq. m., and a 
 op. of about 2,500,000. 
 
 Moselle (MozeV ; Ger. Mo'sel), a left-hand 
 
 fflueut of the Rhine, rises in the SW. of the 
 
 osges Mountains in France, at an elevation of 
 
 tl2 feet. Thence it winds 315 miles NW. and 
 
 E., past Epinal, Metz, Thionville, and Treves, as 
 
 -r as Toul, through Luxemburg and Rhenish 
 
 russia, till it falls into the Rhine at Coblenz. It 
 
 navigable to Frouard, 214 miles. Its prin- 
 
 pal tributaries are the Meurthe, Seille, and Saar 
 
 1 the right, and the Orne, Sure, and Kyll on 
 
 le left. The Moselle wines are well known. 
 
 Moselle was formerly a frontier department in 
 
 e north-east of France, but the greater part of 
 
 was taken by Germany after the war of 1870- 
 
 , and became as of old part of Lorraine. The 
 
 lall portion left to France was joined to the 
 
 p. of Meurthe. See Meurthe-et-Moselle. 
 
 Moskwa, a navigable branch of the Volga's 
 
 butary, the Oka, rises in a marsh E. of Smolensk, 
 
 d has a course of 305 miles, passing Moscow. 
 
 Mosquito Coast (Moskee'to), British from 1655 
 
 I 1850, is now an eastern section of Nicaragua 
 
 v.). The inhabitants, of Mosquito Indian and 
 
 rican blood, number about 15,000. The chief 
 
 vn is Blueflelds (pop. 500). 
 
 2E 
 
 Mossame'des, a seaport on Little Fish Bay, in 
 Angola, the Portuguese territory on the West 
 Coast of Africa. Pop. 0000. 
 
 Mossend', a Lanarkshire mining town, 4\ miles 
 S. by E. of Coatbridge. Population above 
 3500. 
 
 Mossgiel (Moss-geel'; g hard). See Mauchline, 
 
 Mossley, a manufacturing town of Lancashire, 
 at the Yorkshire and Cheshire boundary, on the 
 Tame, 3 miles NE. of Ashton-under-Lyne. A 
 municipal borough since 1885, it has cotton and 
 woollen mills, and foundries. Pop. 13,162. 
 
 Moss Side, a southern suburb of Manchester. 
 
 Mostaganem', a coast-town of Algeria, 45 
 miles NE. of Oran. Once a place of 40,000, it 
 decayed utterly, but has thriven again since the 
 French took possession in 1833. Pop. 17,768. 
 
 Mos'tar, the chief town of Herzegovina, on the 
 Narenta, 27 miles by rail NNE. of the port of 
 Metkovich and 84 SSW. of Sarajevo. It takes its 
 name (= ' old bridge ') from a so-called Roman, 
 but really Venetian bridge of one arch, 95 feet in 
 span, has numerous mosques, and is the seat of a 
 Roman Catholic and a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,655. 
 
 Mosul (MozooV), a decayed town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, in Mesopotamia, on the right bank of 
 the Tigris, opposite the ruins of Nineveh, 200 
 miles up the river from Bagdad. Once it was a 
 very prospei'ous city, with much industry— mwsZm 
 takes name from it ; now its bazaars are filled 
 with the manufactures of the West, and almost 
 the only export is gall-nuts. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Motherwell, a town of Lanarkshire, 12 miles 
 SE. of Glasgow. Owing its rapid growth to the 
 amazing extension of its mineral industries, it 
 has a good water-supply (1877), municipal build- 
 ings (1887), a public park (1887), large iron and 
 steel works, &c. Pop. (1841) 726; (1861) 2925; 
 (1871) 6943 ; (1881) 12,904 ; (1901) 30,243. 
 
 Motrll, a Spanish town, 31 miles S. by E. of 
 Granada, and 3 miles from the sea, with sugar 
 and cotton works, and lead-mines. Esparto is 
 exported. The port is Calahonda, 6^ miles SB. 
 Pop. 17,016. 
 
 Moukden. See Mukden. 
 
 Moulins (Moolan^'), capital of the French dep. 
 of Allier, on the Allier, here crossed by a bridge 
 of thirteen arches, lies 196 miles by rail SSE. of 
 Paris and 124 NW. of Lyons. A clean, well-built 
 town, with pretty promenades, it has a cathedral 
 (1468-1871), the choir old ; a square tower of the 
 castle of the dukes of Bourbon ; and a 15th- 
 century belfry. Marshals Villars and Berwick 
 were natives, and Clarendon wrote here great 
 part of his History. Nor must Sterne's Maria 
 be forgotten. Pop. 20,000.' 
 
 Moulmein. See Maulmain, 
 
 Moulsay, East and West, two Surrey parishes 
 on the Thames, opposite Hampton Court, and 
 2^ and 3| miles WSW. of Kingston. 
 
 Moultan. See Multan. 
 
 Moultrie (Moal'try), Fort, a fortress on Sulli- 
 van's Island, at the mouth of Charleston Har- 
 bour, South Carolina, celebrated for the repulse 
 by Colonel Moultrie of a British squadron in 1776. 
 
 Mountain Ash, a coal and iron urban district 
 of Glamorgan, 4 miles NE. of Aberdare. Pop. 
 (1901) 31,093. 
 
 Mount Bischoflf. See Bischoff. 
 
 Mount Carmel, a borough of Pennsylvania, 
 135 miles NW. of Philadelpliia. Pop. 13,180. 
 
 Mount Edgcumbe, scat of the Earl of Mount 
 Edgcunibe, is opposite Plymouth. 
 
MOUNT MELLERAY 
 
 482 
 
 MULHAUSEN 
 
 Mount Melleray, a monastery of Irish Trappist 
 monks (1830), on the southern slopes of the 
 Knockmeaklown Mountains, 3^ miles N. of Cappo- 
 quin in County Waterford. 
 
 Mountmellick, a town in Queen's County, on 
 the Grand Canal, 7 miles N. of Maryborough by 
 rail. It manufactures woollens, tobacco, leather, 
 and beer. Pop. 2323. 
 
 Mount Morgan, a gold-mining township in 
 Queensland, 28 miles SSW. of Rockhampton, 
 Tho gold-mine at the summit of the mount, 
 sold for £640 to a copartnery, including the 
 brothers Morgan, became a limited liability com- 
 pany, with a capital of £1,000,000. Pop. 9514. 
 
 Mount Pleasant, a town of Iowa, U.S., 235 
 miles SW. of Chicago by rail, has a pop. of 4118. 
 
 Mountrath, a market-town of Queen's County, 
 60 miles SW. of Dublin. Pop. 1350. 
 
 Mount's Bay. See St Michael's Mount. 
 
 Mountsorrel, a town of Leicestershire, on the 
 Soar, 4 miles SE. of Loughborough, with granite 
 quarries near. Pop. of parish, 2200. 
 
 Mount-Stuart. See Bute. 
 
 Mount Vernon, residence and burial-place of 
 General Washington, is on the right bank of the 
 Potomac, in Virginia, 15 miles below Washington. 
 It is national property since 1856. — It has given 
 name to many places in the United States, one of 
 them a city, capital of Knox county, Ohio, on the 
 Vernon River, 44 miles by rail NNE. of Columbus, 
 with manufactories of doors and sashes, furniture, 
 machinery, &c. ; pop. 6027.— Also a post-village, 
 15 miles by rail ENE. of New York, on the Bronx 
 River, which, with adjoining villages of the same 
 name (East, Central, West), has a population of 
 22,500.— Mount Vernon, in Indiana, 142 miles 
 ESE. of St Louis, has a population of 5150. 
 
 Mourne Mountains. See Down. 
 
 Mourzouk. See Fezzan. 
 
 Mousa, a Shetland island, 11 miles S. by W. 
 of Lerwick. Here is a very perfect ' broch,' or 
 dry-built circular tower, 42 feet high, with walls 
 15 feet thick. 
 
 TAovisehole (Moiiz'l), a Cornish village, 2 miles S. 
 of Penzance. Here died Dolly Pentreath (1686- 
 1788), the last speaker of Cornish. 
 
 MovlUe, a seaside resort in County Donegal, 
 on Lough Foyle, 19 miles NNE. of Londonderry. 
 Off it New York steamers pause for the tender 
 with and for mails. Pop. 1217. 
 
 Moy, a market-town of Tyrone, on the Black- 
 water, 6J miles N. of Armagh. Pop. 484. 
 
 Moydart. See Moidart. 
 
 Mozambique (Mozambeek'), the collective name 
 for the northern section of Portuguese East 
 Africa, extending from the Rovuma to the 
 Zambesi, and bordering on German East Africa, 
 Lake Tanganyika, and British Central Africa. 
 The coast-belt is low and swampy ; but the 
 interior ri.ses into well-wooded plateaus, which 
 furnish valuable timber. The soil is naturally 
 fertile, and yields, in addition to maize, rice, 
 manioc, &c., an abundance of natural products, 
 such as cotton, sesame, cocoa-nut, medicinal 
 plants, and india-rubber, but very little is done 
 to cultivate them. The imports are cotton 
 goods, beads, hardware, arms and gunpowder, 
 coals, spirits, and provisions. The shipping is 
 mostly (seven-tenths) in British hands. Customs 
 duties are exceptionally heavy ; agriculture does 
 not flourish ; mining is little prosecuted, although 
 the country is rich in minerals ; and pearls abound 
 
 on the reefs. The pop. of the province is est!- 
 mated at one million. 
 
 Mozambique, the capital, stands on a small 
 coral island lying clo.se to the mainland, and has 
 a fine government house, a cathedral, an arsenal, 
 &c. Pop. 7380, of whom 6800 are natives, 280 
 Banyans, and 300 Europeans. It was once a 
 centre of the slave-trade ; now its total trade 
 ranges annually between £250,000 and £320,000. 
 —The Mozambique Channel lies between Mada- 
 gascar and the east coast of Africa. 
 
 Mozdok, a town of Russian Caucasus, on the 
 Terek, 58 miles N. of Vladikavkaz. Pop. 14,008. 
 
 Mozuffernugger. See Muzaffarnagar. 
 
 Msket, or Mtsketha, capital of the old Georgian 
 kings, now little more than a village, stands on 
 the south side of the Caucasus, 10 miles NNW. of 
 Tiflis. Its cathedral dates from the 4th century. 
 
 Mtzensk, a town of Russia, 31 miles by rail 
 NE. of Orel. Pop. 15,067. 
 
 Much Wenlock. See Wenlock. 
 
 Much Woolton (i.e. 'Great Wool ton'), a town 
 of Lancashire, 6 miles SE. of Liverpool. Near 
 it are large quarries. Pop. 4745. 
 
 Mudki (Moodkee), a Punjab village, 26 miles 
 S. of the Sutlej, between Firozpur and KarnsJ. 
 Here, in 1845, Sir Hugh Gough repulsed the Sikhs. 
 
 Miihlberg, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the 
 Elbe, 36 miles SE. of Wittenberg. Pop. 3441. 
 Here, on 24th April 1547, Charles V. defeated 
 the Elector of Saxony. 
 
 Miihlhausen {MUlhow'zen), a town of Prussian 
 Saxony, on the Unstrut, 25 miles by rail NNW. 
 of Gotha. An imperial free city in the 13th 
 century, it came finally to Prussia in 1815 ; it 
 has manufactures of woollen and cotton goods, 
 hosiery, &c. Pop, 35,000. 
 
 Muirkirk, a town of Ayrshire, 26 miles E. by 
 N. of Ayr, and 720 feet above sea-level. It is 
 the seat of great ironworks (1787). Pop. 3929. 
 
 Mukden, or Moukden, capital of Manchuria, 
 is situated in the south&ru part of the country, 
 on a branch of the river Liao, 425 miles NE, 
 of Peking. The Chinese call it Shingking. In 
 1625 Nurhachu, the founder of the present Chinese 
 dynasty, made it his capital. It was the scene of 
 severe fighting in the war of 1904-5. Good coal 
 exists in the vicinity. The port is Newchwasg 
 (q.v.) Pop. 250,000. 
 
 Mukdishu. See Magadoxo. 
 
 Mulgrave Castle, the seat of the Marquis of 
 Normandy, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, 
 4 miles W. of Whitby. 
 
 Mulgrave Islands, a name given to some of 
 the Marshall Islands (q.v.) from their discoverer, 
 the navigator Lord Mulgrave (1744-92). 
 
 Mulhacen. See Sierra Nevada. 
 
 Mlilhausen (Miilhow'zen ; Ft. Mulhouse), a 
 town of Alsace-Lorraine, on the 111 and the 
 Rhone and Rhine Canal, 68 miles by rail SSW. 
 of Strasburg and 20 NW. of Basel. It is a place 
 of first-rate industrial importance. The cotton 
 manufacture employs 16,000 workpeople in the 
 town and 60,000 in' the adjacent villages. Mill- 
 hausen has printing and dye works for cotton, 
 linen, calico, wool, and si'lk fabrics, chemical 
 factories, iron, machinery, and other metal works, 
 &c. Pop. (1821) 13,027; (1861) 45,887; (1900) 
 89,118. Miilhauseii, a free imperial city in 1273, 
 joined the Swiss Confederation in 1515 ; in 1798 
 it was incorporated with France, and came 
 the front as an industrial place after 1S29 ; an<J 
 it became German after the war of 1870-71. 
 
 1 
 
MULHEIM 
 
 483 
 
 MUNICH 
 
 Miilheim (Miil'liime), a manufacturing town of 
 Rhenish Prussia, on the Ruhr, 16 miles N. of 
 Diisseldorf, with ironworks and a trade in coal. 
 Pop. with suburbs, 81,000.— MtiLHEiM-AM-RHKiN, 
 3 miles above Cologne, manufactures silk, 
 velvet, thread, leather, &c. Population over 
 47,000. 
 
 Mull, an Argyllshire island, the largest of the 
 Hebrides after Lewis and Skye, is separated from 
 the mainland by the Sound of Mull (19 miles long 
 and 1^ to 3i miles wide), and is engirt by a num- 
 ber of smaller islands— Goinetra, Ulva, Stafia, 
 lona, &c. It is 347 sq. m. in area, and has a 
 maximum length and breadth of 30 and 29 miles, 
 but is so deeply indented, especially towards the 
 Atlantic, by a dozen sea-luchs and bays— the 
 chief, Loch-na-Keal and Loch Scridain — that the 
 coast-line cannot be less than 300 miles. Ben- 
 more (3185 feet) is the loftiest summit, Bentalloch 
 the most beautiful, where there is much that is 
 beautiful — these misty heights, the stretching 
 moors, the sea-cliffs at Garsaig, the terraced 
 basaltic plateaus, the glens, streams, and lakes, 
 and the patches of wood and green pasture. The 
 climate is good for the Highlands, and the soil of 
 fair fertility, but grazing answers much better 
 than corn -crops. Tobennory, in the north, 28 
 miles WNW. of Oban, is the only town. It was 
 founded in 1788 at the head of its sheltered har- 
 bour, and has a pier (1864), a telegraph, a new 
 water-supply (1882), and 1174 inhabitants. Aros 
 and Duart Castles are interesting ruins ; and 
 Mackinnon's Cave was pronounced by Dr John- 
 son ' the greatest natural curiosity he had ever 
 seen,' Pop. (1851) 7485; (1901) 4334, of whom 
 B060 were Gaelic-speaking. See Gali.oway (Mull 
 of), Kintyre. 
 
 MulUngar', the chief to^vn of Westmeath, 50 
 ■niles WNW. of Dublin by rail, on the Royal 
 I!anal and the river Brosna. It is a trading town, 
 las infantry barracks, and is a centre for anglers. 
 ^'op. 4500. 
 
 Multan (Mooltayi), an ancient city of India, in 
 he Punjab, 4 miles from the left bank of the 
 'henab, surrounded except on the south by a 
 vail 10 to 20 feet high. The European quarter 
 ies to the north and west of the city, whilst to 
 he south is the citadel, which contains two 
 lohammedan shrines, the ruins of an ancient 
 lindu temple, and a massive obelisk (70 feet) to 
 lie memory of Vans Agnew and Anderson, mur- 
 ered here in 1848. The vicinity abounds in 
 losques, tombs, shrines, &c. It has much trade, 
 id manufactures silks, cottons, carpets, glazed 
 
 ottery, and enamel work. In 1849 it was taken 
 
 id annexed. Pop. 88,500. 
 
 Mumbles, a lighthouse at the west extremity 
 
 ' Swansea Bay. 
 
 Miinchen, See Munich. 
 
 Munoie, capital of Delaware county, Indiana, 
 miles by rail ENE. of Indianapolis, is a rail- 
 
 ly junction, and manufactures furniture, cast- 
 as, &c. Pop. 22,500. 
 
 Miinden, a town of Hanover, at the influx of 
 
 e Werra and Fulda to the Weser, 15 miles NE. 
 Cassel. Girt by wooded hills, it has a .school 
 
 forestry (1868), and manufactures india-rubber, 
 
 iss, sugar, &c. Pop. 9553. See JMinden. 
 
 Munich (Ger. Miinchen), the capital of Bavaria, 
 
 a barren plain, 1700 feet above sea-level, chiefly 
 the west bank of the impetuous Isar, a tribu- 
 •y of the Danube. By rail it is 440 miles SSW. 
 Berlin, 272 W. of Vienna, and 867 SE, of 
 ndon. The elevated site and the nearness of 
 
 I. 
 
 the Alps render the city liable to sudden changes 
 of temperature, sometimes ranging over 20° in 
 twenty-four hours. Pop. (1801) 48,885 ; (1880) 
 230,023; (1900) 499,959, of whom 84 per cent, were 
 Catholics. Munich is one of the handsomest cities 
 in Germany, and the richest in art-treasures, while 
 itself famous for its school of painting. Especi- 
 ally under Louis I. (1825-48), who spent £1,000,000 
 in beautifying the city, it was decorated with 
 buildings of almost every .style of architecture ; 
 wide and handsome streets have been con- 
 structed ; and the squares and gardens adorned 
 with statues and other monuments. Among the 
 imposing edifices are the Glyptothek (1816-30), 
 with its magnilicent collection of ancient and 
 modern sculpture, including the famous jEgine- 
 tan marbles ; the Old Pinakothek (1826-36), con- 
 taining paintings by the old masters, besides 
 engravings, drawings, and antique vases; the 
 New Pinakothek (1846-53), devoted to the works 
 of modern painters ; the Royal and National 
 Library, with over 1,400,000 volumes and 30,000 
 MSS. ; and the Bavarian National Museum. The 
 New Palace includes an older palace and chapel, 
 the Konigsbau (1826-35), in the style of the Pitti 
 Palace at Florence, with Schnorr's frescoes of the 
 Nibelungenlied, and the sumptuous Banqueting 
 Hall. Other public structures are the Court 
 Theatre ; the old and the new town-house ; the 
 Temple of Fame, a Doric colonnaded building 
 containing busts of illustrious Bavarians, in front 
 of which rises the colossal statue of Bavaria, 65 
 feet high ; the Generals' Portico (1844), a copy of 
 the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence ; and the Maxi- 
 milianeum, on its terrace on the right bank 
 of the Isar, a college for civil servants. The 
 Gate of Victory was designed after Con- 
 stantine's triumj)hal arch in the Forum ; the 
 old Isar gate has elaborate frescoes ; and the 
 Propylaja (1862) commemorates the Greek war of 
 independence. The oldest church is St Peter's 
 (1294), The huge brick cathedral of Our Lady 
 (1468-88) is remarkable for its two unfinished 
 towers (325 feet), now capped with cupolas ; in 
 the interior is the elaborate tomb of the Emperor 
 Louis the Bavarian. St Michael's, or the Jesuits' 
 church (1583-91), contains a monument by Thor- 
 waldsen to Eug6ne Beauharnais ; the Theatine 
 Church (1767) contains the royal burial-vault ; 
 the Louis Church (1830-44) is embellished with 
 Cornelius' fresco of the ' La.st Judgment;' the 
 beautiful church of Mariahilf (1831-39) is noted 
 for its gorgeous painted glass and fine wood- 
 carvings ; and the basilica of St Boniface (1835- 
 50) for its sixty-six monoliths of gray Tyrolese 
 marble and resplendent interior decoration. The 
 Court Chapel is a perfect casket of art-treasures. 
 The university, removed from Landshut to 
 Municli in 1826, has 200 profe.ssors and teachers, 
 and some 4100 students; its library contains 
 over 400,000 voltunes. Munich's stained-gla.ss 
 works, iron, brass, and bell foundries, litho- 
 graphing and engraving works, and manufac- 
 tories of optical and mathematical instruments, 
 and various artistic articles are deservedly 
 noted. Still more famous are the enormous 
 breweries of Bavarian beer, which annually pro- 
 duce about 50,000,000 gallons, of which 37,000,000 
 are consumed in the city itself. 
 
 In 1158 Henry the Lion established here a 
 mint and a salt-emporium. In the 13th century 
 the dukes of the Wittelsbach dynasty selected 
 Munich for their residence and fortified the town. 
 
 J^?/u^ ^[^^ "^^^^y ^lestroyed by fire, and was 
 rebuilt by the Emperor Louis the Bavarian ; and 
 when the fortifications were razed at the close gf 
 
MUNKACS 
 
 484 
 
 MUSSELBURGH 
 
 the 18th century, the limits of the town were 
 enlarged. Identified with Munich are Klenze and 
 Gartner the architects, Schwanthaler the sculp- 
 tor, and Cornelius, Kaulbach, Piloty, and Diez, 
 the painters. See Mrs Howitt- Watts' Art-stvdent 
 in Munich (2d ed. 1879). 
 
 Munkacs, a market-town of Hungary, at the 
 foot of the Carpathians, 101 miles by rail NB. of 
 Dobreczin, has mines of iron and rock-crystals, 
 called Hungarian diamonds. The citadel, on a 
 height, is now a state-prison. Pop. 14,50a 
 
 Munnipore. See Manipur. 
 
 Munster, the south-west and largest of the 
 four provinces of Ireland. It contains the six 
 counties of Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tip- 
 perary, and Waterford. Area, 6,064,579 statute 
 acres. Pop. (1841) 2,396,161; (i861) 1,513,558; 
 (1901) 1,076,188 (1,007,876 Catholics). 
 
 Miinster, capital of Westphalia, 101 miles by 
 rail N. by E. of Cologne and 106 SSW. of Bremen. 
 It retains numerous remains of medijeval archi- 
 tecture, including the mixed Romanesque and 
 Gothic cathedral (12th-14th c.) ; the Gothic town- 
 hall, in which, in 1648, the peace of Westphalia 
 was signed ; the castle, built in 1767, and sur- 
 rounded by fine pleasure-grounds ; and the 
 16th-century town wine-cellar, with its old pic- 
 tures. The Catholic university of Miinster was 
 dissolved in 1818 ; there is now an academy, with 
 a Catholic theological and a philosophical faculty, 
 about 470 pupils, and a library of 128,000 voluines. 
 The industrial products include woollen, cotton, 
 and silk fabrics, and paper, besides dyeing, print- 
 ing, and enamelling. Pop. (1875) 35,705; now, 
 with suburbs, 72,300, mainly Catliolics. In 791 
 Charlemagne made Mimigardevord the see of the 
 new bishop of the Saxons, and about 1050 a 
 monastery (whence Miinster) was founded on the 
 spot. In the 13th c. the city became a Hanse 
 Town ; and in 1535 was the scene of the violent 
 movement of the Anabaptists, till the bishop 
 repossessed himself of the city. In both the 
 Thirty Years' War and the Seven Years' War 
 Miinster suffered severely. The principality, 
 into which the bishopric had been elevated in the 
 12th century, was secularised in 1803, and the 
 Congress of Vienna gave the greater part of it to 
 Prussia. — There is another Miinster in Alsace, 
 12 miles SW. of Colmar by rail ; pop. 3390. 
 
 Murano. See Venice. 
 
 Murcla (Span. pron. Moor'the.ea), a town of 
 Spain, 46 miles by rail SW. of Alicante and 50 N. 
 by W. of Cartagena. An old-fashioned Moorish 
 town, it is embosomed in gardens of mulberry, 
 orange, fig, palm, and otlier fruit trees. The 
 cathedral, reconstructed in 1521, is surmounted 
 by a fine bell-tower. Silks, saltpetre, soda, gun- 
 powder, musical instruments, and glass are manu- 
 factured. Population, 113,000.— The province of 
 Mnrcia has an area of 4478 sq. m. and a pop. of 
 580,000. 
 
 Murfreesborough, capital of Rutherford 
 county, Tennessee, in 1819-26 capital of the state, 
 is 33 )niles by rail SE. of Nashville. Close by 
 the battle of Stone River was fought, 31st Decem- 
 ber 1862 and 2d January 1863. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Murghab, a river that rises in the mountains 
 north-east of Herat, flows north-west, and loses 
 itself in the desert of Turkestan beyond Merv. 
 
 Murray River, the principal river of Australia, 
 1120 miles long. It rises in the Australian Alps, 
 flows north-west along the frontiers of New 
 South Wales and Victoria, and in South Australia 
 passes southward through the shallow LaHe 
 
 Alexandrina to the sea at Encounter Bay. It is 
 navigable part of the year as far as Albury, 190 
 miles NB. of Melbourne, but its mouth cannot 
 be entered by ships of any size. The chief 
 tributaries are the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, and 
 Darling, themselves large rivers. 
 
 Murshidabad', a town of India, on the left 
 bank of the Bhagirathi, a branch of the Ganges, 
 124 miles N. of Calcutta. During the 18th cen- 
 tury it was the capital of Bengal ; but when, in 
 1772-90, the British made Calcutta their head- 
 quarters Murshidabad began to decline, and in 
 1901 its pop. was only 28,553. The chief build- 
 ings of note are the palace of the Nawab (1837), 
 the Imambara (' house of prayer '), and a mosque. 
 Two miles south of the city is Motijhil or Pearl 
 Lake ; on its bank stood the palace of Suraj-ud- 
 Dowlah, in which Clive enthroned Mir Jafar, and 
 where the English Residents — Warren Hastings 
 the iirst — dwelt. The city is noted for ivory- 
 carving, embroidery in gold and silver lace, silk- 
 weaving, hookahs, and musical instruments. 
 
 Murten, battle. See Morat. 
 
 Murviedro (Moor-vee-ay'dro ; 'old walls'), or 
 Saounto, a town of Spain, 18 miles NNE. of 
 Valencia, stands on the site of Saguntum, a Greek 
 colony, the siege of which by Hannibal in 219 B.C. 
 began the second Punic war. Pop. 6436. 
 
 Murzuk. See Fezzan. 
 
 Muscat', or Mask at, capital of the independent 
 state of Oman or Muscat, in the south-eastern 
 corner of Arabia. Its situation in a narrow 
 rocky pass from the interior to the Indian Ocean 
 makes it important for the commerce between 
 eastern Arabia, Persia, India, East Africa, and the 
 Red Sea. Its total trade reaches £1,100,000 
 annually, the chief exports being pearls, fish, 
 salt, dates, drugs, dyestiiff, horses, and the im- 
 ports, coffee, rice, sugar, piece-goods, oil, &c. 
 Pop. 20,000. In 1508 the Portuguese took pos- 
 session of Muscat, and under them it developed 
 into a prosperous commercial centre. From 1658 
 it was governed by native rulers (iiJiams), who 
 also (till 1856) succeeded the Portuguese as 
 masters of Zanzibar. 
 
 Muscatine, capital of Muscatine county, Iowa, 
 is mostly on rocky bluffs on the west bank of the 
 Mississippi, 211 miles by rail AVSW. of Chicago, 
 It has iwrk-packing, flour and lumber mills, and 
 plough and furniture factories. Pop. 14,454. 
 
 Muscovy. See Russia. 
 
 Musha Islands. See Obok. 
 
 Muske'gon, capital of Muskegon county, 
 Michigan, is on the Muskegon River, which here 
 (4 miles from its mouth in Lake Michigan) widens 
 into Muskegon Lake, the best harbour on tlie east 
 side of Lake Michigan. Muskegon is 40 miles by 
 rail NW. of Grand Rapids, and saws and ships 
 enormous quantities of lumber. It has also 
 foundries, machine-shops, boiler-works, &c. 
 Pop. 21,700. 
 
 Musselburgh, an old-fashioned town of Mid- 
 lothian, near the mouth of the Esk in the Firth of 
 Forth, 6 miles E. of Edinburgh by a branch-line 
 (1847). Since 1832 it has united with Leith and 
 Portobello to return one member, the parlia- 
 mentary burgh including the large fishing-suburb 
 of Fisherrow, with a small tidal harbour, and the 
 pretty village of Inveresk, whose conspicuous 
 spired church was rebuilt in 1805 by 'Jupiter' 
 Carlyle, and occupies a Roman pr,Ttorium. 
 Musselburgh's chief features are its golf-links 
 (since 1817 also the Edinburgh racecourse). 
 Loretto school (marking the site of a famed 
 
MUSSOOREE 
 
 486 
 
 NAIBNSHIEE 
 
 place of pilgrimage), Pinkie House (1613), the 
 • Roman' bridge, the quaint tolbooth, and a 
 statue (1853) of David Moir. Colonel Yule was a 
 native. The manufactures include paper, nets, 
 leather, &c. Pop. (1841) 6366 ; (1901) 11,711. See 
 Paterson's History of Musselburgh (1857). 
 
 Mussooree, or Masuri, a sanatorium on a range 
 of Himalayan foot-hills 7433 feet high, 12 miles 
 NE. of Delira, in the NW. Provinces of India. 
 It forms a municipality with Landaur (q.v.). 
 
 Mus'tapha, a suburb of Algiers (q.v.). 
 
 Muta Nzlge. See Albert-Edward Nyanza. 
 
 Muttra, or Mathura', a town of India, in the 
 United Provinces, on the riglit bank of the 
 Jumna, 30 miles above Agra. There are numer- 
 ous temples and mosques ; the river is lined with 
 magnificent flights of stairs, leading down to the 
 bathing-places in the sacred river ; large numbers 
 of pilgrims resort to the city on the occasion of 
 its religious festivals ; and troops of monkeys and 
 river-turtles are supported by charity. The city, 
 for centuries a centre of Buddhism, was sacked 
 by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and plundered by 
 the Afghans in 1756 ; in 1803 it passed to the 
 British. Pop. 61,800. 
 
 Muyscas. See Colombia. 
 
 Muzaffarnag'ar, a town in the United Pro- 
 vinces, 80 miles NE. of Delhi. Pop. 23,450. 
 
 Muzaflfarpur', a Bengal town, on the I.ittle Gan- 
 dak, 140 miles N. by rail of Patna. Pop. 45,620, 
 
 Mycale (Ml'ka-lee), a promontory of ancient 
 Ionia, over against Samos ; in the channel between, 
 the Greeks defeated the Persian fleet, 479 b.c. 
 
 Myce'nas, a very ancient city in the north- 
 eastern part of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, 
 built upon a craggy lieight. It was the capital of 
 Agamemnon's kingdom, and the princiiial city 
 in Greece. About 468 B.C. it was destroyed by 
 
 the inhabitants of Argos, and never rose again 
 to its former prosperity. In Strabo's time its 
 ruins alone remained ; these are still to be seen 
 in the neighbourhood of Kharvati, and are noble 
 specimens of Cyclopean architecture. The most 
 celebrated are the ' Gate of Lions,' chief entrance 
 to the ancient Acropolis, and the ' Treasury 
 of Atreus.' Excavations by Schliemann in 1876- 
 89 brought to light another subterranean treasury 
 and ancient tombs containing terra-cottas, vases, 
 weapons, gold death-masks, &c. See Schlie- 
 niann's Mycence and Tiryns (trans. 1877). 
 
 Mysla, a district of ancient Asia Minor, having 
 the Propontis (Sea of Marmora) on the N., and 
 the iEgean on the W. 
 
 Mysore, or Maisur, a native state of southern 
 India, surrounded entirely by districts of the 
 Madras Presidency. Area, 29,444 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1881) 4,186,188, (1901) 5,539,399. Mysore is an 
 extensive tableland much broken by hill-ranges, 
 and divided into two portions by the watershed 
 between the Kistna and Kaveri. Gold is mined 
 at Kolar. The rivers are used for irrigation. The 
 annual value of the exports (betel-nut and leaves, 
 coffee, cotton, piece-goods, cardamoms, rice, silk, 
 and sugar) exceeds £1,200,000; of the imports 
 (piece-goods, cloth, wheat, &c.), £1,500,000. The 
 ruinous misgovernment of the native prince led 
 the British to assume the administration in 1831 ; 
 but in 1881 Mysore was restored to the native 
 dynasty. The famine years (1876-78) told with 
 great severity.— The capital, Mysore, situated 
 amid picturesque scenery, 245 miles WSW. of 
 Madras, is a prosperous, well-built town. On the 
 south stands the fort, which encloses the rajah's 
 palace, with a magnificent throne. Population 
 above 70,000. 
 
 Mzensk, a town in the Russian government of 
 Orel, 200 miles SSW. of Moscow, Pop. 15,067. 
 
 AAS (Nmjce or Nay'as), a garrison town 
 of Kildare, 20 miles SW. of Dublin by 
 rail. Once the capital of Leinster, it 
 obtained charters from Henry V., Eliza- 
 beth, and James I., but was disfran- 
 chised at the Union. Pop. 3835. 
 
 Nabha, a Sikh principality of the Punjab, E. 
 of Patiala ; area, 928 sq. m. Pop. 298,200. 
 
 Nablus (Na-Uoos^ ; corrupted from Gr. Nea- 
 polls; anc. Shechem), a town of Palestine, between 
 Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. The Samaritans' re- 
 ligious centre, it was Justin Martyr's birthplace. 
 
 Nadder, a Wiltshire stream, flowing 18 miles 
 E. to the Avon at Wilton. 
 
 Nadiad. See Nariad. 
 
 Nad'iya, a town of Bengal, on the Bhagirathi 
 River, 63 miles N. of Calcutta. Pop. 14,105. 
 
 Naga Hills, a mountainous district of British 
 India, the south-eastern extremity of Assam, 
 with an area of 5710 sq. m. and a pop. (1801) of 
 122,867 aboriginal Nagas and other semi-savages. 
 
 Nagar. See Bednor. 
 
 Nagasaki (Nagasdh'kee), a seaport of Kyushu, 
 Japan, for two centuries the only Japanese gate 
 of communication with the outer world. Its 
 harbour, famous for its beauty, is a narrow inlet 
 about 3 miles long. Near its head is the low, fan- 
 shaped island of Deshima, to which from 1637 to 
 1859 the Dutch traders were limited. The great 
 Takashima coal-mine is on an island 8 miles to 
 seaward. Nagasaki has a fine dockyard and 
 patent slip. Pop. (1892) 60,581 ; (1905) 156,500. 
 
 Naglna (Nagee'na), a town in the United Prov- 
 inces, 48 miles NW. of Moradabad. Pop. 20,503. 
 
 Nagoya, a town of the main island of Japan, 
 170 miles W. of Tokyo. It has a famous Buddhist 
 temple, and is the most important pottery centre 
 in Japan. Pop. (1904) 288,700. 
 
 Nagpur (Nagpore), capital of the Central Pro- 
 vinces of British India, 450 miles ENE. of Bombay 
 by rail. Pop. (1872) 84,441 ; (1901) 127,734. 
 
 Nahant, a summer-resort of Massachusetts 
 Bay, 12 miles NE. of Boston. Pop. 1190. 
 
 Naihati (Nyliat'ee), a town of Bengal, 23^ miles 
 NW. of Calcutta by rail. Pop. 45,293. 
 
 Nailsworth, a Gloucestershire town, 6 miles 
 SE. of Stonehouse, with woollen manufactures. 
 Pop. 3030. 
 
 Naini Tal (Ny'nee Tal), the summer-resort and 
 sanatorium of the United Provinces of India, 
 nestles between spurs of the Himalaya, beside a 
 beautiful lake 6409 feet above sea-level, 70 miles 
 N. of Bareilly. By a landslip here in 1880, 150 
 lives were lost. Pop. 12,500, but much more iu 
 the season (September). 
 
 Nairnshire, the fourth smallest county of 
 Scotland, is washed on the north for 10 miles 
 by the Moray Firth, and elsewhere bounded by 
 Elgin and Inverness shires. Till 1891 it con- 
 sisted of a main body, with a maximum length 
 of 18 miles, a mean breadth of 11, and an area 
 of 169 sq. m., and also of five detached portions 
 situated in Elgin, Inverness, and Ross shires, 
 which, having a total area of 31 sq. m., were 
 
NAIVASHA 
 
 486 
 
 NANTES 
 
 annexed to Nairnshire in 1476, but disjoined 
 therefrom by the Boundary Coniuiissioners in 
 1891. The chief rivers are the Nairn and the 
 Findhorn, the former rising in Inverness-shire, 
 and flowing 38 miles nortli-eastward to the Moray 
 Firth. The surface has a generally southward 
 ascent from the fertile and well-wooded ' laigh 
 of Moray' near the coast, till at Cam Glas on 
 the southern boundary it attains 2162 feet. Loch 
 Loy (1^ by J mile) is the largest of seven small 
 lakes. Less than one-fifth of the entire area is 
 in cultivation. The chief antiquities are Kil- 
 ravock (1400) and Cawdor Castle (q.v.) ; at Auld- 
 earn, near Nairn, Montrose won his fourth vic- 
 tory. With Elginshire the county returns one 
 member; and with Inverness, &c. Nairn town 
 returns another. Pop. (1801) 8322 ; (1841) 9217 ; 
 (1881) 10,455 ; (1901) 9291—1335 Gaelic-speaking. 
 
 Nairn, the county town, stands on the west 
 bank of the river Nairn at its mouth in the 
 Moray Firth, 16 miles by rail ENE. of Inverness. 
 A pleasant little watering-place, with a small 
 harbour and golf-links, it was made a royal burgh 
 by William the Lion. Grant, the African trav- 
 eller, Avas a native. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Naivasha, Lake, an equatorial lake in British 
 East Africa, S\V. of Mount Keiiia. 
 
 Nakhichevan, or Naiiitchevan, a town of 
 Russian Armenia (Transcaucasia), near the Per- 
 sian frontier, 100 miles SE. of Erivan. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Namaqualand, or Namaland, a region north 
 of Cape Colony, extending from the Orange 
 River to Damaraland (q.v.). Since 1885 a 
 Gerinan possession, with the exception of the 
 Bi'itish territory of Walvisch Bay (q.v.), it has 
 an area estimated at 460,000 sq. m. It is mainly 
 a sterile and barren region, and along a coast- 
 line of upwards of 400 miles does not present a 
 single running stream ; but a few little bays 
 along the coast, such as Angra-Pequena (q.v.) 
 and Walvisch Bay, afford safe anchorages. The 
 Rhenish Mission has several stations with over 
 2500 converts. The country is named from the 
 natives, the Namaquas, a tribe of Hottentots. 
 — Little Namaqualand is a barren district of 
 Cape Colony (q.v.), south of the Lower Orange 
 River. Much copper is mined here. 
 
 Namur (Namur^ ; Flem. Namen), a city of 
 Belgium, at the confluence of the Sainbre with 
 the Meuse, 35 miles by rail SE. of Brussels. 
 With the exception of the picturesque citadel 
 (1784), the old fortifications have been razed 
 since 1866, their place being taken by a cordon 
 of seven forts. The town itself has suffered so 
 much by war that it off'ers little of interest— the 
 cathedral, completed in 1772, with the grave of 
 Don John of Austria ; the Jesuit church of St 
 Loup (1653), a large military school, an anti- 
 quarian museum, monuments of Leopold I. and 
 the geologist Omalius d'Halloy (1783-1875), &c. 
 Namur is noted for its cutlery, and also manu- 
 factures firearms, leather, paper, and tobacco. 
 Population, 32,700.— The province of Namur, on 
 the French frontier, lying between llainault and 
 Luxembourg, has an area of 1414 sq. m. Pop. 
 350,000. ^ 
 
 Nanalmo (Nany'mo), a town on the east coast 
 of Vancouver Island, 74 miles by rail NNW. of 
 Victoria. There are large coal-mines in the dis- 
 trict, which has a pop. of 6600. 
 
 Nancy (Non^se^, a beautiful French town, 
 capital of Meurthe-et-Moselle, lies on the river 
 Meurthe, at the foot of vine-clad hills, 220 miles 
 by rail E. of Paris and 94 W. of Strasburg. It 
 
 owes much of its architectural adornment to 
 Stanislas Leszcinski, who, after abdicating the 
 crown of Poland in 1735, resided here as Duke 
 of Lorraine till his death in 1766. His statue 
 (1831) adorns the Place Stanislas, the principal 
 square, which is surrounded by the hotel-de-ville, 
 the bishop's palace, and the theatre. Other 
 noteworthy features are the cathedral (1742); the 
 churches Des Cordeliers and Notre Dame de Bon 
 Secours (1738), St Epvre (1875) ; the 16th-century 
 ducal jjalace, with the Lorraine museum ; statues 
 of General Drouot (1853) and Thiers (1879) ; and 
 half-a-dozen gates. The institutions include a 
 university, a lyceum, and a library of 40,000 
 volumes. Nancy, which has grown in importance 
 since the German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, 
 manufactures cotton and woollen goods, artificial 
 flowers, iron, tobacco, &c. ; but its staple industry 
 is embroidery on cambric and muslin. Pop. (1872) 
 52,565 ; (1901) 90,539. The capital of the duchy 
 of Lorraine (q.v.), it was the scene of the death 
 of Charles the Bold (1477), and the birthplace of 
 Callot and Claude Lorraine. 
 Nanda Devi. See Himalaya. 
 Nandidrug. See Nundydroog. 
 Nanking, capital of the province of Kiangsn, 
 formerly the capital of China, on the Yangtsze 
 River, 130 miles from its mouth. Its name sig- 
 nifies the Southern Capital. Since the removal 
 of the seat of government to Peking (Northern 
 Capital) in the 15th century, the official name 
 has been Kiangning. From 1853 to 1864 it was 
 the capital of the Taiping rebels, who destroyed 
 nearly all the magnificent public buildings for 
 which the city was once famous. Till then the 
 walls, 50 to 70 feet high, enclosed an area nearly 
 20 miles in circumference. The most memorable 
 of the ruined buildings were the Porcelain Tower 
 (1430), the summer palace, and the tombs of the 
 kings, with remarkable sepulchral statues. Since 
 its recapture by the Chinese imperialists, Nanking 
 shows few signs of recovery. Although the manu- 
 facture of ' nankeen ' (hence named), and of satin, 
 has been revived, its once famous pottery, arti- 
 ficial flowers, and paper now are hardly produced. 
 The government has established an arsenal on the 
 European model. In 1842 Nanking was captured 
 by the British. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 Nantes (NonH), eighth largest city of France, 
 capital of Loire-Inferieiire, lies on the right bank 
 of the tidal Loire, 35 miles from the sea, and 248 
 by rail SW. of Paris. The old town having been 
 demolished between 1865 and 1870, Nantes is one 
 of the handsomest cities in all France, Avith its 
 noble river, quays, bridges, shady boulevards, 
 squares, and statues. The unfinished cathedral 
 (1434-1852) contains Colonib's splendid monu- 
 ment (1507) to the last Duke and Duchess of 
 Brittany, and another (1879) to General Lamori- 
 ciere. The ducal castle, founded in 938, and 
 rebuilt in 1466, was the occasional residence of 
 Charles VIII. and most of his successors, and the 
 place where, on 15th April 1598, Henry IV. signed 
 the famous Edict of Nantes. Other noteworthy 
 buildings are the splendid church of St Nicholas 
 (1854), the palais-de-justice (1853), the theatre 
 (1787), and the post-oflice (1884), besides a 
 museum, a picture-gallery, and a library of 50,000 
 volumes. Between 1831 and 1887 £180,000 was 
 expended on harbour-works, but the rise since 
 1845 of the port of St Nazaire, near the mouth 
 of the Loire, and the increasing difficulty in the 
 navigation of the river, have reduced the com- 
 mercial importance of Nantes ; to restore which 
 is the object of the ship-canal (1891) between the 
 
ifANTICOKE 
 
 48t 
 
 NAPLES 
 
 two places. The chief exports are hardware, 
 cereals, and preserved provisions, the chief im- 
 ports sugar, iron, cocoa, and wines. Industries 
 are shipbuilding (decayed), sardine-preparing, and 
 the manufacture of sugar, leather, iron, nets, 
 soap, machinery, &c. ; whilst 10 miles below 
 Nantes is the vast government steam-engine 
 fectory of Indret, employing from 2000 to 3000 
 hands, and familiar to readers of Daudet's Jaxik. 
 Pop. of Nantes (1872) 112,947; (1886) 120,106; 
 (1901) 123,242. The Portas Navmetum of the 
 Romans, and the former capital of Brittany, 
 Nantes witnessed the 'noyailes' of tlie execrable 
 Carrier and the fall of the Vendeau leader 
 Catlielineau (1793). Fouche and Jules Verne 
 were natives. 
 
 Nanticoke, a mining borough of Pennsylvania, 
 in the Wyoming Valley, 24 miles SW. of Scran- 
 ton. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Nantuck'et, an island (15 miles long) off the 
 SE. coast of Massachusetts. On the N. shore is 
 Nantucket town (pop. 3027), with a nearly land- 
 locked harbour. Once a great seat of the whale- 
 fishery, it is now mainly a summer-resort. 
 
 Nantwlch, a market-town of Cheshire, on the 
 Weaver, 4 miles SW. of Crewe. It has some 
 quaint old timber houses ; a fine cruciform parish 
 church, with a central octagonal tower, 110 feet 
 high ; a Gothic town-hall (1858) ; a market-hall 
 (1867); a grammar-school (1611); and brine-baths 
 (1883). The Halen Gwyn (' white salt town ') of 
 the Welsh, Nantwich was once the second largest 
 town in Cheshire, the seat of 300 salt-works in 
 Leland's day, since when the industry has 
 gradually quite died out. Boot and shoe making 
 now is the principal industry. A great fire 
 (1583), and its siege by the royalists under Lord 
 Byron (1644) are the chief events in the history 
 of Nantwich. Pop. (1851) 5424 ; (1901) 7722. See 
 works by Piatt (1818) and Hall (1885). 
 
 Napier, chief port and city of the provincial 
 district of Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, on the 
 east coast of the North Island. Port Ahuriri 
 (or Scinde Island) is within the municipal boun- 
 dary. Timber, wool, and tinned and frozen meat 
 are exported. Napier is the seat of the bishop of 
 Waiapu. Pop. 9341. 
 
 Naples (Nay'pels; Gr. and Lat. Neapolis, Ital. 
 Napoli), till 1860 the capital of the kingdom of 
 Naples, is the largest of Italian cities, and, with 
 the doubtful exception of Constantinople, the 
 most beautifully situated in Europe, 161 miles 
 by rail SE. of Rome. The attractiveness of 
 Naples, due not only to its site, but to its 
 delightful climate, has inspired the proverb, 
 'See Naples and die.' Its charms have remained 
 proof against defective drainage, impure water- 
 supply, and the fever preserves of its poorer 
 quarters, in course of reTnoval since 1889. The 
 Impetus to this work was given by the cholera 
 outbreak in September 1884, when in one night 
 nearly 2000 people were attacked, and half of 
 them died. The new drainage-works carry the 
 sewage to Cumse, thus relieving the sea-margin 
 of the liquid poison that used to stain the water 
 black. An aqueduct opened in 1885 furnishes 
 pure drinking-water to every part of the city. 
 More recent still are a new harbour, solid embank- 
 ments, and commodious promenades, new streets 
 cut through the more populous quarters, and a 
 fine embankment carried along the sea-front. 
 
 Naples occupies the base and flanks of a hill- 
 range rising, amphitheatre-wise, from the sea, 
 and divided into two unequal parts by the Capo- 
 dimonte, S. Elmo, and Pizzofalcone heights. The 
 
 most ancient and populous part of the city lies 
 in the eastern crescent, and is intersected from 
 north to south by the historic and densely 
 peopled Via Toledo (now Via di Roma). A fine 
 quay extends eastward to the Castel del Car- 
 mine. Westward runs the less ancient city, 
 smaller in extent, but freer as to air and pros- 
 pect. Along the sea-margin extend the royal 
 gardens and the Riviera di Chiaja. Naples is 
 three miles long and two broad. It has a modern 
 look, but in spite of external change still pre- 
 sents the same noisy, vivacious, mercurial life. 
 Its National Museum is becoming daily riclier 
 in archaeological treasure-trove from Pompeii, 
 while its splendid aquarium teems with typical 
 specimens of the flora and fauna of the Medi- 
 terranean. Of architectural interest Naples has 
 little. Besides her live forts and four gates 
 of mediaeval construction, she has upwards of 300 
 churches, including the archiepiscopal cathedral 
 (1272-1316) of St Januarius, whose blood is said 
 to liquefy in the phials containing it on three 
 yearly festivals. The university (1224), with 
 nearly 100 teachers and 5150 students, the royal 
 palace, the catacombs, and, still more, the law- 
 courts are worth visiting. The National Library 
 (1804) has 375,000 books and 8000 MSS. ; the 
 University Library (1812), 150,000 books ; and 
 the Brancacciana (1673), 150,000 books and 3000 
 MSS. The San Carlo Theatre (chiefly for opera) 
 is one of the largest in Italy, though much less 
 popular than the San Carlino. Naples is one of 
 the busiest ports of the kingdom, exporting wine 
 and olive-oil, chemicals and jserfumery, live 
 animals and animal products, hemp and flax, 
 cereals, curriery, &c. ; and importing cereals, 
 metals, cottons, woollens, earthenware, glass, 
 curriery, silks, groceries, specie, hemp and flax, 
 dyes, chemicals, &c. She trades principally 
 with Britain and France. Naples has many 
 employments but few industries, and these in- 
 significant, consisting mainly of woollen, silk, 
 and linen manufactures, gloves, soap, perfumery, 
 jewellery, earthenware, hats, and carriages. Maca- 
 roni is largely produced on the Neapolitan sea- 
 board. Fishing supports many of the inhabit- 
 ants. The neighbourhood is the market-garden 
 of Italy. Pop. (1881) 463,172 ; (1901) 563,540. 
 
 Naples owes its foundation to the two Greek 
 settlements of Palceopolis and Neapolis (' Old and 
 New Town'), combined in Parthenope. In 328 
 B.C. it was subdued by Rome, and under the 
 empire became a fashionable resort. It had been 
 held successively by Normans and Hohenstaufens, 
 when the popes conferred the sovereignty of 
 Naples on Charles of Anjou. The Angevine 
 dynasty, expiring in 1435, was succeeded by that 
 of Aragon, which had ruled Sicily from the time 
 of the Sicilian Vespers (1282). The territory of 
 Naples (great part of south Italy) was united to 
 Sicily, forming the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 
 and till 1707 was governed by Spanish viceroys. 
 Naples was wrested then from Spain by Austria, 
 but in 1735 was given to Don Carlos, third son of 
 Philip V. of Spain, who founded the Bourbon 
 dynasty. In 1789 the troops of the French 
 Republic invaded Naples and converted it into 
 the Parthenopean Republic (1799). A second 
 invasion by Napoleon (1806) ended in the pro- 
 clamation of his brother, Joseph, as king of 
 Naples ; and, when Joseph assumed the Spanish 
 crown in 1808, that of Naples was awarded to 
 Joachim Murat. On the defeat and execution of 
 Murat in 1815 the Bourbon monarch, Ferdinand 
 IV., was restored. The insurrectionary move- 
 ments of 1821 and 1848 were the forerunners of 
 
NARBADA 
 
 488 
 
 i^ATAl 
 
 the overthrow of the Bourbon rule by Garibaldi 
 and the Sardinians, and the incorporation of 
 Naples in the kingdom of Italy (1861). 
 
 Narbada. See Nerbudda. 
 
 Narberth, one of the Pembroke boroughs, llj 
 miles NE. of Pembroke. Pop. 1071. 
 
 Narbonne {Narhonn'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Aude, on the La Robine branch of the 
 Canal du Midi, 8 miles from the Mediterranean, 
 and 93 by rail ESB. of Toulouse. The removal 
 since 1865 of the fortifications has been an 
 improvement, but the place remains dirty and 
 unattractive, with only three noteworthy build- 
 ings. These are the Romanesque church of St 
 Paul (1229) ; the quondam cathedral of St Just 
 (1272-1332), only the fine Gothic choir of which, 
 131 feet high, has been completed ; and the 
 former archbishop's palace, now the hotel-de- 
 ville, in one of whose three old towers Louis 
 XIII. in 1642 signed the order to arrest Cinq 
 Mars, and in which are a museum, library, and 
 
 Sicture-gallery. The white heather-honey of 
 'arbonne maintains its ancient celebrity; the 
 wine is chiefly used for blending purposes. Pop. 
 28,200 ; (1901) 27,185. Narbonne was the earliest 
 Roman colony (118 b.c.) beyond the Alps. Varro 
 and Montfaucon were natives. 
 
 Nariad, a town of Bombay, 29 miles SE. of 
 Ahmadabad by rail. Pop. 31,500. 
 
 Narragansett Bay. See Rhode Island. 
 
 Narva, a Russian town, 101 miles WSW. of St 
 Petersburg, on the Narova, 10 miles from its 
 mouth in the Gulf of Finland. Charles Xll. won 
 a great victory here in 1700. Pop. 16,600. 
 
 Narvik, a Norwegian port opposite the Lofoten 
 Islands, shipping iron ore brought by rail from 
 the mines of Gellivara in Sweden. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Naseby, a Northamptonshire parish, 7 miles 
 SW. of Mar ket-Har borough. Here, on 14th June 
 1645, 7500 royalists under Charles I. and Prince 
 Rupert were totally defeated by 14,000 parlia- 
 mentarians under Fairfax and Cromwell. 
 
 Nash'ua, a city of New Hampshire, 40 miles 
 by rail NW. of Boston, at the junction of the 
 Merrimac and Nashua rivers. The falls of the 
 latter, rendered available by a canal 3 miles 
 long, supply motive-power to cotton-factories 
 and ironworks, paper and carpet mills, &c. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Nashville, capital and second largest city of 
 Tennessee, on the Cumberland River, 200 miles 
 above the Ohio, and 185 by rail SSW. of Louis- 
 ville. The city, which is a great railway centre, 
 is built mainly on the left bank of the river, 
 which is crossed by a suspension bridge and 
 a railway drawbridge to the suburb of Edge- 
 field. Nashville is a handsome, well-built town, 
 with an imposing state capitol of limestone 
 (11,500,000), a penitentiary (400 cells), a large 
 lunatic asylum, the Nashville University (1806), 
 Vanderbilt University (Methodist Episcopal 
 South, 1875), Central Tennessee College (for 
 coloured Methodists, 1866), Fisk University (Con- 
 gregationalist, 1867), Roger Williams University 
 (Baptist), the state normal college, &c. The city 
 has a large wholesale trade, the staples being 
 cotton and tobacco ; while its manufactures in- 
 clude cotton, flour, oil, paper, furniture, timber, 
 leather, iron, and spirits. Founded in 1780, Nash- 
 ville became the legal capital in 1843. In Decem- 
 ber 1864 the Confederates under Hood were 
 completely defeated here by General Thomas. 
 Pop. (1870) 25,865 ; (1880) 43,350 ; (1900) 80,865. 
 
 Nasik, a town of Bombay, on the Godavari, 31 
 
 miles from its source, 100 miles NE. of Bombay, ia 
 a great Hindu place of pilgrimage. Pop. 21,490. 
 
 Nasirabad, capital of Maimansingh district, 
 Eastern Bengal, 75 miles N. of Dacca. Pop. 
 20,500. 
 
 Nassau (Nass'oiv), formerly a German duchy, 
 now the Wiesbaden district of IIesse-Nassau(q. v.). 
 The reigning duke sided against Prussia in 1866, 
 and his duchy was incorporated with Prussia; 
 on the extinction of the male line of the Orange 
 branch by the death of William III. of Holland, 
 in 1890, the Duke of Nassau became Grand-duke 
 of Luxemburg. 
 
 Nassau, on New Providence, is the capital of 
 the Bahamas (q.v.), a bisliop's see, and a great 
 winter-resort of American invalids. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Natal , a British colony on the SE. coast of 
 Africa, formerly part of the Cape settlement, 
 was erected into a separate colony in 1856. Zulu- 
 land (10,461 sq. m.) was added in 1897, and after 
 the Boer war (1902) part of the Transvaal (Utrecht, 
 Vryheid, and part of Wakkerstroom districts, in 
 all 6970 sq. m.) was also added, making a total of 
 35,306 square miles, with a seaboard of about 
 360 miles, and extending inland to the Drakens- 
 berg or Qwathlamba Mountains. Durban, its 
 port and largest town, lies 800 miles ENE. of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. The coast-region, extending 
 for 30 miles inland, is highly fertile, the climate 
 being subtropical and healthy. In 1856 the cul- 
 tivation of the sugar-cane was introduced on the 
 coast, and besides supplying all South Africa, the 
 colony exports sugar to England. The immigra- 
 tion of Indian coolies for sugar culture began in 
 1863, and in 1891 there were 35,000 coolies in the 
 colony with their attendant traders. The Assam 
 tea-plant was successfully introduced in 1877. 
 Coffee and tobacco have been reared, as have 
 also indigo, arrowroot, and ginger. All tropical 
 fruits thrive well. The midland terrace is more 
 fit for the cereals and usual European crops ; 
 while on the higher plateaus along the foot of 
 the mountains are immense tracts of the finest 
 pasturage for cattle and sheep. The climate is 
 very healthy ; the thermometer ranges between 
 90° and 38° F., but the heat even in summer is 
 seldom oppressive. The mean annual tempera- 
 ture at Pietermaritzburg, the capital, is 64-71°. 
 The winter begins in April and ends in Septem- 
 ber. In summer thunder-storms are very fre- 
 quent and severe in the uplands. The annual 
 rainfall averages nearly 40 inches, the greatest 
 fall being in summer. The colony has one 
 admirable harbour in Durban (q.v.) or Port 
 Natal. The Tugela, Buffalo, Umkomanzi, Um- 
 geni, Umzimkulu, and Mooi rivers have perman- 
 ent streams, and though not navigable, are often 
 available for irrigating purposes. The area of 
 the coal-measures is estimated at 1400 sq. m. 
 Copper has been found, and much is hoped from 
 the iron near the coal. The colony is also be- 
 lieved to be rich in asbestos, mica, and plumbago, 
 and some gold has been obtained. Great forests 
 of fine timber abound in the mountain-passes. 
 A railway runs through the colony to the Orange 
 Colony and Transvaal. The government is now 
 representative, the first colonial ministry being 
 constituted in the end of 1893. The law is a 
 modification of old Dutch law. Natal's chief 
 exports are bullion, wool, sugar, tea, and coal. 
 The value of exports by sea in 1903 was £3,302,818 
 (besides £8,007,673 by land, principally to the 
 Transvaal), and the imports by sea, £16,221,617. 
 In 1903 the revenue was £4,334,175, and expendi- 
 ture £5,039,003. The trade is mainly with the 
 
HAtAL 
 
 489 
 
 NAZE 
 
 mother-couuti'y, also with Australia, India, and 
 North and South America. In 1876 the pop. 
 numbered 326,957 (20,490 whites); in 1904, 
 1,108,754, including 97,109 whites, 100,918 Indian 
 coolies, and 895,641 natives. Eland and harte- 
 beest are the only big game left ; the hippopo- 
 tanms and alligator are found in some of the 
 rivers. Snakes are plentiful. 
 
 Natal was discovered by Vasoo de Gama in 1497, 
 on Christmas Day (hence its name). A large body 
 of discontented Boers from Cape Colony settled in 
 the country in 1837, but after a short struggle 
 and long negotiations with the Cape authorities, 
 accepted British rule, the malcontents migrating 
 to Transvaal. Natal was annexed in 1843, made 
 
 Sart of Cape Colony in 1844, and constituted a 
 istinct colony in 1855. In 1865 the Colenso 
 case threw the Anglican church into embarrass- 
 ments. In 1873 the chief Langalibalele was sup- 
 pressed ; and Natal suffered severely in connec- 
 tion with the Zulu war (1879), the Transvaal war 
 (1881), and the Boer war (1899-1902). 
 
 See books by Brooks (1869), Peace, Noble, 
 and Bird (1889), others quoted at Cape Colony, 
 and the blue-books and almanacs. 
 
 Natal, a seaport of Brazil, capital of the prov- 
 ince of Rio Grande do Norte, at the mouth of the 
 river of that name. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Natchez, capital of Adams county, Mississippi, 
 on the east bank of the Mississippi, 214 miles 
 by rail NNAV. of New Orleans. The public build- 
 ings include a Roman Catholic cathedral and a 
 U. S. marine hospital. Natchez, settled by the 
 French in 1716, was named from an Indian tribe. 
 Pop. 12,250. 
 
 Natlck, a town of Massachusetts, on Charles 
 River, 18 miles by rail WSW. of Boston. It 
 makes shoes, baseballs, chairs, &c. Pop. 9518. 
 
 National Parks. See Yellowstone, and 
 YosEMiTE. Others in the States are the Sequoia 
 National Park, and the General Grant National 
 Park, both in California, and the Hot Springs 
 Reservation in Arkansas. In Canada a domain 
 26 miles by 10 in extent has been set aside as a 
 national park at Banff in Alberta (by rail 562 
 miles NB. of Vancouver) ; it embraces one of the 
 most beautiful sections of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and contains hot sulphur-springs. Roger's Pass, 
 135 miles to the west, is also reserved as a govern- 
 ment park. See besides the article Niagara. 
 
 Natron Lakes. See Nitrian Desert. 
 
 Nau'cratls, an ancient city of Egypt, in the 
 Nile delta, 47 miles SE. of Alexandria. 
 
 Naugatuck', in Connecticut, on the Naugatuck 
 River, 22 miles by rail NNW. of New Haven, 
 manufactures gloves, rubber goods, cutlery, and 
 iron-wares. Pop. 10,550. 
 
 Nauheim, or BAD-NAUHEiM,in Hesse-Darmstadt 
 and near tlie Taunus Mountains, 24 miles N. of 
 Frankfort. Its hot, saline, and chalybeate springs 
 are impregnated with carbonic acid. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Naumburg (Nowm'boorg), a quaint old town 
 of Prussian Saxony, on the Saale, in an amphi- 
 theatre of vine-clad hills, 30 miles by rail SW. 
 of Leipzig. Of its six churches, the triple- 
 towered cathedral (1207-42) is a noble Roman- 
 esque and Gothic structure. The manufactures 
 include ivory carvings, combs, hosiery, wine, &c. 
 The yearly 'cherry feast' commemorates the 
 raising of the siege of Naumburg by the Hussite 
 leader Procop in response to the supplication 
 of the children (28th July 1432); but recent 
 historians cast doubt on the whole episode. 
 The seat of a bishopric (1059-1564), Naumburg 
 
 suffered much in the Thirty Years' War ; in 1814 
 it came to Prussia. Pop. 28,200. 
 
 Nauplia (Noiv'pleea), a fortified seaport in the 
 Morea, Greece, at the N. end of the Gulf of Argos 
 or Nauplia, 25 miles S. of Corinth. Pop. 10,880. 
 
 Naushara, or Nowshera, a town of the native 
 state of Baliawalpur (q.v.), under the Punjab, 20 
 miles from the left bank of the Indus, on the rail- 
 way between Mooltan and Karachi. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Nauvoo' (from a Heb. word for ' beautiful '), a 
 village of Illinois, on the east bank of the Missis- 
 sippi River, 14 miles above Keokuk. It was 
 built by the Mormons in 1840, and soon contained 
 a pop. of 15,000. Its principal feature was a 
 great temple of white limestone (1841-45) ; but 
 it had also mills and factories, and the begin- 
 nings of a university. After the expulsion of 
 the Mormons in 1846, the temple Avas half 
 destroyed by fire in 1848, and further ruined by 
 a tornado in 1850. The town was occupied by a 
 French Socialist community. Pop. 1350. 
 
 Navan (Nah'van), a market-town in Meath, at 
 the junction of the Boyne and Blackwater, 16 
 miles W. of Drogheda by rail. Pop. 3863. 
 
 Navarino (Navaree'no; officially Pylos), on a 
 bay on the south-west coast of the Morea in 
 Greece, contains only 1462 inhabitants, but has 
 an excellent deep harbour. The Bay of Navarino 
 was the scene of a great sea-victory of the 
 Athenians over the Spartans (425 b.c.) ; and on 
 the 20th October 1827 it saw the annihilation of 
 the Turkish and Egyptian navies by the British, 
 French, and Russian fleets. 
 
 Navarre (Basque Nava, 'a mountain plain,' 
 and erri, ' country '), one of the kingdoms which 
 arose in the Pyrenees after the downfall of the 
 Goths, but since 1512 divided into Spanish 
 Navarra, and French or Basse-Navarre (now 
 Basses Pyrenees). Spanish Navarra, by far the 
 greater division, has an area of 6046 sq. m. ; pop. 
 304,151, speaking Basque in the north. 
 
 Naver, a Sutherland stream, flowing 19 miles 
 N. by E. to Torrisdale Bay out of Loch Naver 
 (6i miles x i mile). 
 
 Navigators' Islands. See Samoa. 
 
 Nawanagar, a seaport of India, and capital 
 of a Kathiawar state (area, 1379 sq. m. ; pop. 
 316,147), stands on the Gulf of Cutch, 310 miles 
 NW. of Bombay. Pop. 58,530. 
 
 Naworth Castle. See Lanercost. 
 
 Naxos, the largest and most fertile of the 
 Cyclades, is situated in the iEgean, midway 
 between Greece and Asia Minor. It is 20 miles 
 in length, and has a pop. of 25,880. The shores 
 are steep, and the island is traversed by a ridge 
 of mountains, which culminate in Dia (3289 feet). 
 The wine of Naxos was famous in ancient as it 
 is in modern times, hence the island was cele- 
 brated in the legends of Dionysus and Ariadne. 
 It was Turkish from 1566 till Greece became "a 
 kingdom. Naxos, the capital (pop. 2000), is the 
 seat of a Greek bishop and a Latin archbishop. 
 
 Nazareth, the home of Jesus, anciently in the 
 district of Galilee, 21 miles SE. of Acre, is still 
 a small but flourishing town of Palestine. The 
 principal building is the Latin convent, on the 
 supposed scene of the Annunciation. Pop. 10,000, 
 of whom 6500 are Christians (mostly Roman 
 Catholics and Greek Catholics) and 3500 Moslems. 
 
 Naze, The, or Lindesnaes, the southernmost 
 headland of Norway (q.v.), near the entrance of 
 the Skager Rack, with a lighthouse.— A head« 
 
KEAQH 
 
 490 
 
 NEN 
 
 land of Essex, 5 miles S. of Harwich. Naze 
 means 'nose' or 'promontory.' 
 
 Neagh, Lough (Lohh Nay), the largest lake of 
 the British Islands, in Ulster, Ireland, is sur- 
 rounded by the counties of Armagh, Tyrone, Lon- 
 donderry, Antrim, and Down. It is 16 miles in 
 length and 10 in average breadth, contains 98,255 
 acres, is 102 feet in greatest dei)th, and is 48 
 feet above sea-level. The chief of its numerous 
 feeders are the Upper Bann, Blackwater, and 
 Callan ; and its surplus waters are carried off 
 northward to the North Channel by the Lower 
 Bann. The southern shores are low, marshy, and 
 dreary. Fish abound— trout, char, and pullen. 
 
 Neanderthal (Ne-an'der-tal), a romantic valley 
 between Diisseldorf and Elberfeld in Rhenish 
 Prussia. In a limestone cave here was found in 
 1857 the skeleton of a prehistoric man. 
 
 Neath, a parliamentary and municipal borough 
 and river-port of Glamorganshire, on a navigable 
 river of the same name, 8 miles ENE. of Swansea 
 by rail. It is believed to stand on the site of 
 the Roma,n Nidicm ; and near it are the remains 
 of a castle burned in 1231, and ruins of Neath 
 Abbey, described by Lelancl as ' the fairest abbey 
 in all Wales,' but now sadly decayed and begrimed 
 by smoke and coal-dust. Neath has copper and 
 tin-plate works, iron-foundries, and chemical 
 works. It is one of the Swansea district boroughs. 
 Pop. (1851) 5831 ; (1901) 13,720. 
 
 Nebraska, a central state of the American 
 Union, the eleventh in area, lies between South 
 Dakota, Iowa (separated by the Missouri River), 
 Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming. Area, 76,855 
 sq. m. The surface is chiefly an elevated, undu- 
 lating prairie ; it is very level in the eastern and 
 southern portions, but in the north and west 
 the 'Bad Lauds' extend into the state, while 
 north of the Niobrarah River there are great 
 sandhills. The avei-age elevation of the state 
 rises from about 1200 feet in the east to 6000 
 feet towards the western border. The principal 
 rivers, the Platte, Niobrarah, and Republican, all 
 flow east. The atmosphere is dry and invigor- 
 ating ; great extremes of heat and cold are 
 sometimes experienced. Wolves, foxes, skunks, 
 rabbits, &c. abound. The soil is mostly a rich 
 black mould, 2 to 8 feet deep. The staple crop 
 is maize. Tobacco and sugar-beet also are culti- 
 vated. The manufactures include agricultural 
 implements, canned provisions, vitrified brick, 
 woollen clothing, soap, and beet-sugar. Pop. 
 (1860) 28,841 ; (1880) 452,402 ; (1900) 1 ,066,300. The 
 principal cities are Omaha, Lincoln (the capital), 
 Beatrice, Hastings, and Nebraska City. Nebraska, 
 included in the Louisiana Purchase, was organised 
 in 1854, with an area of 351,558 sq. m. But of 
 this vast area great portions were afterwards 
 carved out for Colorado, Dakota, and Idaho. 
 Nebraska became a state in 1867. 
 
 Nebraska City, capital of Otoe county, Ne- 
 braska, on the west bank of the Missouri, 74 miles 
 below Omaha (44 by rail). It contains the 
 Nebraska College (Episcopal, 1863), mills and 
 factories, &c. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Nebraska River. See Platte. 
 
 Neches River (Netch'ez), rises in eastern Texas, 
 and flows 350 miles SSE. to Sabine Lake, its 
 waters passing thence into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Neckar, the principal river of Wiirtemberg, 
 rises on the eastern declivity of the Black Forest, 
 and winding 250 miles, joins the Rhine at Mann- 
 heim — the other towns on its banks being Tubin- 
 gen, Heilbronn, and Heidelberg. From Cann- 
 
 stadt, about midway, the Neckar is navigable. 
 Fair wines are grown on its banks. 
 
 Nedjd. See Arabia. 
 
 Needham Market, a Suffolk town, on the Gip. 
 ping, 3 miles SB. of Stowmarket. Pop. 1313. 
 
 Needles, a group of chalk rocks off the W. end 
 of the Isle of Wight, 4| miles SW. of Yarmouth. 
 The westernmost bears a lighthouse. 
 
 Needwood Forest, a former royal forest in 
 Staffordshire, along the Trent. 
 
 Neerwinden (Nayr'winden), a small village in 
 the north-west corner of the Belgian province of 
 Liege. Here the French under Luxembourg 
 defeated the English under William III. (29th 
 July 1693), and here under Dumouriez they were 
 defeated by the allies (18th March 1793). 
 
 Negapatam', a seaport on the Coromandel 
 coast, ISO miles S. by W. of Madras city. 
 Originally Portuguese, it was taken by the Dutch 
 in 1660, and by the English in 1781. It exports 
 cottons, live-stock, ghi, and imports spices, piece- 
 goods, coal, gunny bags. Pop. 57,221. 
 
 Negropont. See Euboea. 
 
 Neidpath, a ruined castle, on the Tweed, 1 
 mile W. of Peebles. 
 
 Nellgherry Hills (Neelgerry, g hard ; properly 
 Nilgiri; Sansk. nila, 'blue,' and giri, 'moun- 
 tain'), a mountainous district in the south of 
 India, rising abruptly from the plains to the 
 height of 6000 feet, though individual peaks 
 shoot up to 8760 feet. They have a delightfully 
 cool climate, and are much resorted to by invalided 
 Europeans, the principal station being Ootaca- 
 mund. See a work by H. B. Grigg (1880). 
 
 Neilston, a Renfrewshire town, on the Levern, 
 2 nules SW. of Barrhead. Pop. 2713. 
 
 Neisse (Nlce-seh), a fortified town of Prussian 
 Silesia, on the Neisse, an affluent of the Oder, 
 50 miles SE. of Broslau. It manufactures arms, 
 linen, and chemicals, and has great wool-markets. 
 Emin Pasha was born here. Pop. 22,444. 
 
 Nejd. See Arabia. 
 
 Nellore, a town of India, on the Pennar, 107 
 miles N. of Madras. Pop. 32,336. 
 
 Nelson, a manufacturing town of Lancashire, 
 3J miles NNB. of Burnley, made a municipal 
 borough in 1890. Pop. (1871) 10,381 ; (1901) 32,816. 
 
 Nelson, the capital of a provincial district in 
 New Zealand, on a harbour at the north end of 
 South Island, where the Maitai enters Blind Bay. 
 Founded in 1841, it has a cathedral, museum, 
 and manufactures of cloth, leaEIier, soap, and 
 jam. Pop. 7200 ; with suburbs, over 12,000. 
 
 Nelson River issues from the north end of 
 Lake Winnipeg in Canada, and, after a north- 
 easterly course of 400 miles through Keewatin, 
 falls into Hudson Bay (q.v.). It is navigable for 
 127 miles from its mouth, though only some 70 
 or 80 miles for large steamers. 
 
 Neme'a, anciently the name of a well-Avatered 
 valley of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Nemi (Nay'rnee), Lake of, an extinct crater, 
 20 miles S. of Rome, accounted for its beauty 
 the gem of the Alban Mountains. There was 
 here a famous temple of Diana. 
 
 Nemours {Nemoor'), an ancient town of 4607 
 inhabitants in the French dep. of Seine-et-Marne, 
 40 miles SB. of Paris by rail. 
 
 Nen, a river of England, rising near Naseby, 
 and flowing 70 miles NB. to the Wash, past North- 
 ampton, Oundle, Peterborough, &c. 
 
KEHA6H 
 
 4dl 
 
 NEUSTADT 
 
 Nenagh (Nay'tia), a Tipperary town, 28 miles 
 NE. of Limerick by rail. Its Norman keep is 
 called Nenagh Round. Pop. 4702. 
 
 Nepal {Ne-'pawV), a native kingdom of India, on 
 the southern slope of the Himalayas, between 
 Tibet and Bengal. It is 512 miles in length, by 70 
 to 150 in breadth. Area, 54,000 sq. m. ; pop. esti- 
 mated by native authorities at 5,500,000, more 
 probably 2,500,000. The northern parts of the 
 state embrace the main range of the Himalayas, 
 with Everest, Dhawalagiri, &c. On the south 
 of the state lies the Terai. The intervening 
 territory consists of mountain-ridges, embracing 
 valleys drained by the Kurnali, Gandak, Kosi, 
 &c. The climate varies greatly according to 
 altitude ; the principal valley, in which stands 
 the capital Khatinandu (q.v.), has a climate like 
 that of southern Europe. The soil is very 
 fertile. The hillsides are terraced and the land 
 is irrigated. Copper, iron, sulphur, &c., are 
 little worked. The forests contain valuable tim- 
 ber trees. The valleys are inhabited by numer- 
 ous different hill-tribes, partly aboriginal, partly 
 of Mongolian or Chinese descent ; but the domi- 
 nant race are the Goorkhas, whose ancestors came 
 from Rajputaua in the 12th century, though it 
 was not until 1769 that they made themselves 
 masters of Nepal. In 1815 Sir David Ochterlony 
 defeated the Goorkha armies in the west ; and 
 in 1816 a British force, 33,000 strong, within 
 three days' march of Kliatmandu, compelled the 
 Goorkhas to sign a treaty of peace : they have 
 since been helpful, especially during the mutiny. 
 
 Nerbudda, or Narbada, a river of India, rises 
 on the Amarliantak plateau, 3493 feet above sea- 
 level, and flows west, through the Central Prov- 
 inces, past Jabalpur, through the great depres- 
 sion between the Vindhya Mountains on the 
 north and the Satpura Mountains on the south, 
 and reaches the Gulf of Cambay half-way be- 
 tween Baroda and Surat. The river, a sacred 
 stream, has a total length of 800 miles, and is 
 navigable to Broach, 30 miles from its mouth. 
 
 Nerchinsk. See Nertcuinsk. 
 
 Nerls-les-Bains. See Montluqon. 
 
 Nertchinsk, a mining-town of eastern Siberia, 
 in the Trans-Baikal Territory, on the Nertcha, a 
 tributary of the Shilka (a head-stream of the 
 Amur), 875 miles E. of Irkutsk. Pop. 675a — 
 Nertchinskiy-Zavod, 180 miles SB., on a tribu- 
 tary of the Argun, is also a mining centre, many 
 of the workers being convicts. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Ness, Loch, a long, narrow lake of Inverness- 
 shire, the second largest in Scotland, 6g miles 
 SW. of Inverness. Lying 50 feet above sea-level, 
 it extends 22^ miles north-north-eastward, and 
 has an average breadth of 1 mile, with an area 
 of 19 sq. m. It receives the Morriston, Oich, 
 Foyers (q.v.), and other streams, and sends off 
 the river Ness 7 miles to the Moray Firth. It 
 lies in the valley of Glenmore, on the line of 
 the Caledonian Canal (q.v.), and is enclosed by 
 steep mountains— the highest, Mealfourvoni'e 
 (2284 feet). Owing to its depth (in places 780 
 feet) it never freezes much. See Fort Augustus. 
 
 Neston and Parkgate, a town on the Dee 
 estuary, 12^ miles NW. of Chester. Pop. 4577. 
 
 Netherlands, a triangular region between 
 France, Germany, and the sea, lying mainly in 
 the basins of the Scheldt, the Meuse, and the 
 lower Rhine, and now divided between the 
 kingdoms of Holland (q.v.) and Belgium (q.v.). 
 
 Nethou. See Pyrenees. 
 
 Netley, a place on the east side of Southampton 
 
 Water, 3 miles SE. of Southampton, with a ruined 
 Cistercian abbey, founded in the time of Henry 
 III., and the Royal Victoria Military Hospital 
 (for 878 patients), the foundation-stone of Avliich 
 was laid by Queen Victoria on 19th May 1856. 
 
 Neu- Brandenburg (Noy-Brandenboorg'), a town 
 of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on Lake Tollens, 20 
 miles NNE. of Neu-Strelitz by rail. Pop. 10,550. 
 
 Neuburg (Noyboorg), an ancient town of 
 Bavaria, on the Danube's right bank, 29 miles 
 NNE. of Augsburg. Pop. 8485. 
 
 Neuchatel, or NeufchAtel {Nuh-sJia-teV ; Ger. 
 Neuenbtirg), a canton in the west of Switzerland, 
 between Lake Neuchatel and the French frontier. 
 Most of its streams flow into the Rhine ; several 
 are feeders of the Lake of Neuchatel, which, 
 lying 1420 feet above sea-level, and 472 feet deep, 
 is 25 miles long by from 3 to 6 wide. The Thiele 
 carries its waters into the lake of Bienne, and 
 thence into the river Aar. Pop. (1870) 97,284 ; 
 (1900) 126,279, of whom tliree-fourths speak 
 French, and four-fifths are Protestants. The 
 speciality of the canton is watch-making, which 
 occupies 20,000 persons, mainly in their own 
 homes. Neuchatel was associated with Prussia 
 from 1707 till 1806, when Napoleon bestowed it 
 upon General Berthier; in 1814 it was restored 
 to the House of Brandenburg. A republican 
 constitution was adopted in 1848 ; and there was 
 civil war in 1856. The connection with Prussia 
 was dissolved in 1857, and Neuchatel became a 
 member of the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 Neuchatel, chief town of the canton, occupies 
 a magnificent site on the north-west shore of the 
 Lake of Neuchatel, 85 miles by rail NNE. of 
 Geneva. It is noted for its many charitable, 
 educational, and artistic institutions, and has a 
 chateau (restored 1866), a college (1828), a statue 
 of Farel (1875), &c. It manufactures watches, 
 jewellery, &c. Pop. (1870) 13,321 ; (1904) 22,012. 
 —The famous Neufchatel cream-cheeses are made 
 at NeufchAtel-en-Bray, a small Norman town, 
 25 miles SE. of Dieppe by rail. 
 
 NeulUy (Nuh-ee-yee'), or Neuilly-sur-Seine, a 
 town in the French dep. of Seine, N. of the Bois 
 de Boulogne, and practically a suburb of Paris. 
 Here, near the Seine, and in a beautiful park, 
 stood Louis-Philippe's favourite Chateau de 
 Neuilly, built by Louis XV., and burned at the 
 revolution of 1848. Pop. 39,444. 
 
 Neu-Mecklenburg. See New Ireland. 
 
 Neumiinster (Noymiinster), a town of Holstein, 
 20 miles by rail S. by W. of Kiel, with cloth- 
 mills, dyeworks, breweries, &c. Pop. 13,659. 
 
 Neu-Pommern. See New Britain. 
 
 Neusatz (Noy-zatz), or Uj Vid6k, a town of 
 Hungary, on the Danube's left bank, opposite 
 Peterwardein (q.v.). Pop. 24,717. 
 
 Neusiedler Lake (Noyzeed'ler), a shallow, 
 brackish lake on the north-west frontier of Hun- 
 gary, 22 miles SE. of Vienna, which has lost 
 much of its former area (133 sq. m.) by draining, 
 
 Neuss (Noyss), a town of Rhenish Prussia, near 
 the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles W. of Dlissel- 
 dorf by rail. Its church of St Quirinus was 
 founded in 1209. Neuss has ironworks, foundries, 
 flour and iron mills, and manufactures of cottons, 
 woollens, leather, paper, chicory, &c. Pop. 
 close on 80,000. 
 
 NeMStadt (Noy-stat), a town of Prussian Silesia, 
 25 miles SW. of Oppeln. It manufactures woollen 
 and linen fabrics and carpets. Pop. 26,093.— (2) 
 Nbustadt, or Wikner-Neustadt, one of the most 
 
NEUSTRELITZ 
 
 492 
 
 NEWARK 
 
 beautiful towns of Lower Austria, 32 miles S. of 
 Vienna by rail. It is overlooked by the old castle 
 of the Dukes of Babenberg, now a military 
 academy, whose fine Gothic chapel (14(30), rich in 
 painted glass, is the burial-place of Maximilian I. 
 Locomotives and machinery, wire, bells, pottery, 
 starch, leather, and ribbons are manufactured. 
 The city, called 'the Ever-faithful,' was founded 
 in 1192, and rebuilt after a great fire in 1834. Pop. 
 29,040. — (3) Neustadt-an-der-Hardt, a town of 
 Rhenish Bavaria, at the foot of the Hardt Moun- 
 tains, 20 miles W. of Spires. It manufactures 
 paper, cloth, soap, wine, &c. Pop. 18,255. 
 
 Neustrelitz (Noy-stray'litz), capital of the 
 grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, in a hilly 
 district, between two lakes, 62 miles NNW. of 
 Berlin. Founded in 1733, it is built in the form 
 of an eight-rayed star, and contains the ducal 
 palace, with magnificent gardens. Pop. 11,540. 
 
 Neustrla, the portion of the Frank empire 
 containing Soissons, Paris, Orleans, and Tours. 
 
 Neuwied (Noy'veed), a town of Prussia, on the 
 Rhine's right bank, 8 miles below Coblenz, was 
 capital of the principality of Wied ; the castle 
 has a beautiful garden, with many Roman an- 
 tiquities. The town contains a great institute of 
 the Moravian Brethren. Pop. 11,650. 
 
 Neva, a river of Russia, flows westward from 
 the south-west corner of Lake Ladoga to the Bay 
 of Cronstadt, in the Gulf of Finland, passing 
 through St Petersburg, and carries to the sea an 
 enormous volume of water (greater than that of 
 the Rhine) from the lakes Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen, 
 &c. Its total length, with windings, is about 
 40 miles ; its width varies from 4000 feet to ISO ; 
 and in places the navigation is embarrassed by 
 reefs and rapids. It is frozen on an average from 
 November 25 to April 21. 
 
 Nevada (Nevah'da), one of the Pacific states of 
 the American Union, is bounded by Oregon, 
 Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and California. Its great- 
 est length from north to south is a little less than 
 500 miles, and its greatest width more than 300 
 miles. In area (110,700 sq. m.) it is the fourth 
 largest state of the Union ; in population it is the 
 lowest of all the states and territories — (1870) 
 42,491 ; (1880) 62,266 ; (1900) 42,335. Nearly the 
 whole of Nevada is included in the Great Basin 
 (q.v.), once occupied by a vast inland sea, whose 
 deepest depressions are yet marked by Walker, 
 Humboldt, Carson, Pyramid, and Winnemucca 
 lakes, and by other ' sinks ' and playas, while the 
 ancient shore-lines are clearly visible in places. 
 The climate, now nearly rainless, was once moist; 
 the soil of the Great Basin is now almost totally 
 unfit for agriculture. At present Nevada is a 
 high plateau with an average altitude of 4000 
 feet, crossed by numerous ranges of mountains, 
 separated by valleys from 5 to 20 miles in width. 
 SoTne of these valleys are barren and desolate ; 
 others, through which the rivers flow, have 
 areas of arable land. The mineral production of 
 Nevada, especially of silver, has been enormous 
 in the past ; and mining is still the chief interest. 
 Nevada lies almost wholly in the great basin of 
 Interior drainage, where none of the water reaches 
 the sea. The Humboldt River i)ursues a winding 
 course of 350 miles. There are numerous hot 
 springs. The atmosphere is dry, the temperature 
 subject to extremes, and the rainfall exceedingly 
 light. The Mormons established a few temporary 
 camps in 1848, and in 1850 a settlement was made 
 at Genoa ; but the real history of the state begins 
 with the discovery of silver in 1859. Nevada 
 was separated from Utah in 1861, and in 1864 waa 
 
 admitted a state. The larger towns are Reno, 
 Virginia City, and Carson (the capital). 
 
 Never Never Country, a name given to part 
 of tlie central Australian desert, north of Lake 
 Eyre, mainly in the state of South Australia, but 
 including part of western Queensland. 
 
 Nevers (Neli-vayr'), capital of the French dep. of 
 Nievre, and formerly of the iiroviiice of Nivernais, 
 is picturesquely seated on a hillside at the influx 
 of the Nievre to the Loire, 159 miles by rail SSE, 
 of Paris. The Novioduiium of Ciesar, it has been 
 the seat of a bishop since 506 ; its beautiful 
 cathedral belongs mainly to the 13th century. 
 The industries comprise the manufacture of 
 cannon, iron cables and chains, porcelain (intro- 
 duced by Italians about 1565), &c. Pop. 25,600. 
 
 Nevlansk, a town in the Russian government 
 of Perm, 50 miles N. of Ekaterinburg by rail, 
 stands on the Siberian side of the Ural Moun- 
 tains, and on a tributary of the Tobol. The 
 district is rich in gold and iron. Pop. 16,066. 
 
 Neville's Cross, l\ mile SW. of Durham, the 
 scene of the defeat and capture of David Bruce, 
 17th October 1346. 
 
 Nevln, a Carnarvonshire fishing-town on Car- 
 narvon Bay, 5 miles NW. of Pwllheli. It is one 
 of the six Carnarvon boroughs. Pop. 1798. 
 
 Nevis, one of the British Leeward Islands, 2 
 miles SE. of St Kitts, with which it is administra- 
 tively connected. It is circular in form, rises in 
 the centre to a wooded ancient crater (3200 feet), 
 and has an area of 50 sq. m. Sugar is the princi- 
 pal crop, and limes and oranges are grown. Pop. 
 (1881) 11,864; (1903) 13,300. Tlie capital is the 
 port of Charlestown (pop. 1500). Nevis was dis- 
 covered by Columbus in 1498, colonised by Eng- 
 land in 1628, and long a great slave-mart. It has 
 suff'ered much from hurricanes and earthquakes. 
 
 Nevis, Ben. See Ben Nevis. 
 
 Nevis, Loch, a sea-inlet of West Inverness- 
 shire, 14 miles long and 1 to 4 miles broad. 
 
 Newabbey, a Kirkcudbrightshire parish, 8 
 miles S. of Dumfries, with the beautiful ruins of 
 New or Sweetheart Abbey, founded for Cistercians 
 by Deverguila in 1275. 
 
 New Albany, capital of Floyd county, Indiana, 
 on the north bank of the Ohio River, nearly 
 opposite Louisville, and 317 miles by rail S. by 
 E. of Chicago, 267 E. of St Louis. It contains 
 iron and brass foundries, rolling-mills, potteries 
 and brick-yards, flour, woollen, cotton, and 
 planing mills, &c. ; while its plate-glass works 
 are the largest in the United States. Pop. (1880) 
 16,423 ; (1900) 20,630. 
 
 New Almaden. See Almaden. 
 
 New Amsterdam. See New York, St Paul. 
 
 Newark, a ruined tower of Selkirkshire, on the 
 right bank of Yarrow Water, 4i miles WNW. of 
 Selkirk town. It figures in the Lay of the Last 
 Minstrel. See also Port-Glasgow. 
 
 New' ark, (l) the capital of Essex county. New 
 Jersey, on the Passaic River, 9 miles by rail W. 
 of New York. A handsome city, with parks 
 and elm-shaded streets, it has a city-hall, court- 
 house, public library, nearly 150 churches, and 
 400 industrial establishments, producing brass 
 and iron work, hardware and machinery, carriages, 
 trunks, saddlery, boots, hats, clothing, jewellery, 
 &c. The line ofdocks is over a mile long. Newark 
 was settled in 1666 by a colony from Connecticut, 
 and received a city charter in 1836. Pop. (1850) 
 38,983 ; (1890) 181,830 ; (1900) 246,070.— (2) Capital 
 
NEWARK-UPON-TRENT 
 
 493 
 
 NEWBURGH 
 
 of Licking county, Ohio, on the Licking River 
 (here crossed by four iron bridges), 33 miles by 
 rail E. by N. of Columbus. Stoves, boilers, 
 machinery, wagons, flour, woollens, and glass-ware 
 are manufactured. Pop. (1880)9600; (1000)18,160. 
 
 Newark-upon- Trent, a town of Notts, on a 
 navigable branch of the Trent, 18 miles by rail 
 NE. of Nottingham, and 120 N. by W. of London. 
 It is approached from the north by a causeway, 
 IJ mile long, constructed by Smeaton in 1770, 
 and carried over the flat island formed by the 
 Trent on the west and the Newark branch on 
 the east. The fine parish church, built mainly 
 between 1350 and 1489, has an octagonal spire 
 223 feet high. Other edifices are the town-hall 
 (1805), corn exchange (1848), hospital (1881), 
 coflee-palace (1882), free library (1882), and 
 grammar-school, founded by Archdeacon Magnus 
 in 1529. Newark has a very important corn- 
 market and great malting industries, besides iron 
 and brass foundries, manufactures of boilers and 
 agricultural implements, and plaster of Paris 
 works. Incorporated by Edward VI., it returned 
 two members to parliament till 1885. Pop. (1851) 
 11,230 ; (1901) 14,992. A British town and Roman 
 station, Newark in Saxon times became the seat of 
 a castle, which was rebuilt in 1125 by Alexander, 
 Bishop of Lincoln (hence the name Neiu Wark), 
 and was long known as the 'key of the north.' 
 King John died in it (1216) ; and in the Great 
 Rebellion it stood three sieges, in the second of 
 which it was relieved by Prince Rupert (1644), 
 whilst in the third it was surrendered to the 
 Scots by order of Charles I. , who had just delivered 
 himself up (5th May 1646). It was then dis- 
 mantled, and is now represented only by a very 
 picturesque ruin in a public garden. See works 
 by Shilton (1820) and Cornelius Brown (1879). 
 
 Newbattle Abbey, Midlothian, 1 mile S. by 
 W. of Dalkeith, the seat of the Marquis of 
 Lothian, on the site of a Cistercian monastery 
 (1140). Andrew Cant and Robert Leighton were 
 ministers of Newbattle. 
 
 New Bedford, a city and port of entry of 
 Massachusetts, is on the Acushnet estuai-y (here 
 crossed by a bridge 4000 feet long), 3 miles N. 
 of Buzzard's Bay and 56 by rail S. of Boston. 
 The public buildings include a city-hall of granite, 
 a custom-house, a public library, and a fine high 
 school (#126,000). There is a broad drive (4 miles) 
 round Clark's Point, where there is a granite fort. 
 For a century (1755-1854) New Bedford was the 
 chief centre of the American whale-fisheries, send- 
 ing out more than 400 whaling-vessels. Besides 
 several great cotton-mills, it has foundries, oil- 
 refineries, and manufactories of drills, cordage, 
 boots, flour, glass, plated ware, carriages, candles, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 26,845 ; (1900) 62,442. 
 
 Newbern, capital of Craven county, North 
 Carolina, at the.jujiction of the navigable Neuse 
 and the Trent (here crossed by a long bridge), 
 107 miles by rail SE. of Raleigh. It manufactures 
 railroad-cars, cotton-seed oil, and wood-pulp, and 
 does oyster-canning. Pop. 9843. 
 
 Newbiggin, a Northumberland watering-place, 
 7i miles E. by N. of Morpeth. Pop. 2032. 
 
 New Brighton, a Cheshire watering-place, 4 
 miles N. of Birkenhead. Pop. 4366. 
 
 New Brighton, since 1898 part of Richmond, 
 one of the five boroughs of New York city, on the 
 NE. shore of Staten Island. — There is another 
 New Brighton in tlie coal district of Pennsyl- 
 vania, 30 miles NW. of Pittsburgh. Pop. 7100. 
 
 New Britain, a town of Connecticut, 9 miles 
 
 SW. of Hartford, producing hardware, cutlery, 
 locks, jewellery, hooks and eyes, hosiery, &c. It 
 has two parks, the state armoury, and a normal 
 school. Pop. 26,800. 
 
 New Britain, by Germans called Neu-Pom- 
 MERN, an island of the Western Pacific, a member 
 of the German Bismarck Archipelago (q.v.), 
 separated from the north-east coast of New 
 Guinea by the Dampier Strait. In the forest- 
 clad interior there are several volcanoes, active 
 and quiescent, the highest being the P'ather (3900 
 feet). The climate is hot and moist. Cocoa- 
 nuts, yams, bananas, bread-fruit, betel-nuts, and 
 similar fruits are the chief products. The natives 
 are Melanesian cannibals. Area, 9600 sq. ni. 
 
 New Brunswick, an eastern province of 
 Canada, washed on the E. by the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, and on the S. by the Bay of Fundy. 
 It has an area of 27,322 sq. m. — rather smaller 
 than Scotland. Its coast-line, with many fine 
 harbours, is 500 miles in length, interrupted 
 only at the point of juncture with Nova Scotia, 
 where an isthmus 11 miles broad connects the 
 two provinces. The surface is generally undu- 
 lating. There are low hills skirting the Bay of 
 Fundy and the rivers of St John and Restigouche. 
 These two rivers are 450 and over 200 miles long ; 
 the Miramichi River is 220. The lakes are num- 
 erous but small, the largest being Grand Lake, 
 30 miles long and 3 to 7 miles wide, communi- 
 cating with the St John River. Pop. (1881) 
 321,233 ; (1901) 331,120, of whom nearly one-third 
 were Catholics. The principal towns are St John 
 (with Portland, 40,711), Fredericton (the capital), 
 and Moncton. The climate is subject to extremes, 
 ranging between 80° and — 15°. Except in a 
 strip of country adjacent to the Bay of Fundy, 
 the soil is very fertile, and every kind of grain 
 and roots produced in England is grown, as well 
 as others ; live-stock is raised. The province, 
 which has cheap coal, manufactures sawn lumber, 
 leather, cotton and woollen goods, wooden-ware, 
 paper, iron-castings, nails, mill machinery, bolts 
 and nuts, railway engines and carriages. A 
 number of mines are worked. Shipbuilding is 
 prosecuted. Timber is the chief export. Land 
 is cheap, and sport excellent. New Brunswick, 
 as a part of Nova Scotia, was ceded by France 
 to Great Britain in 1713, but the boundaries were 
 not settled until 1763. The first British settlers 
 emigrated from Scotland to the Miramichi district 
 in 1764 ; and in 1783, at the close of the 
 American revolution, a large body of the loyalists 
 from the United States settled near St John. 
 
 New Brunswick, capital of Middlesex county. 
 New Jersey, is at the head of navigation on the 
 Raritan River, 31 miles by rail SW. of New York. 
 It contains a Roman Catholic cathedral, and is 
 the seat of Rutger's College (1771), connected 
 with which is the theological seminary of the 
 Dutch Reformed Church, as well as an observa- 
 tory and a state agricultural college and model 
 farm. New Brunswick is noted for its great 
 india-rubber factories, and has also iron and 
 brass foundries, and manufactories of hosiery, 
 lamps, needles, paper-hangings, &c. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Newburgh, a city of Orange county, New 
 York, is on the west bank of the Hudson (here 
 \\ mile wide), 57 miles by rail N. of New Y'ork, 
 amid the grand scenery of the Highlands. Its 
 handsome edifices, villas, and gardens, rising 300 
 feet from the river, command a noble prospect. 
 The city has, besides foundries, boiler-works, 
 shipyards, and powder-mills, manufactures of 
 WQoUeu and cottjon goods and carpets, leather, 
 
NEWBURQH 
 
 NEWCA8TLE-UP0N-TYNB 
 
 Hoar, WMip, oilcloth, brushes, paints, plaster, 
 Ulea, ho. Butter, gniin, flour, and coal nro 
 •hipped. Newburg saw the disbandment or the 
 American anuy, sId June 1783 : and ' Washing- 
 ton'* Headquarters ' is preserved as the proijerty 
 of the state. Pop. J7,000. 
 
 Naw'borgh, a toxhI bureh of Fife, near the 
 Firth of Tav, 11 niiliw KSK. of IVrtli. It arose 
 in connection witli the neighbouring Benetiictine 
 abbev of Lin«iores (c. 1196); and in its vicinity 
 also is the fkmous Cross Macduff. Pop. 19S6. 
 See A. Laing's UmUtm and Ntwburph (1876). 
 
 New'bunr, a thriving market-town of Berk- 
 shire, on the 'swia' Kenneth 17 miles W. by 8. 
 of Reading and :>5 fVoni London. Its gray old 
 ehurcli, restore*! in 18t>7 at a cost of £15,000, is 
 a fine pMpendlcular e«lilice, with a noble tower 
 added in 1510 by John Winchcombe or Sniall- 
 -woo<ie, otherwise" 'Jack of Nowburj-,' a famous 
 clothier, who sent a hundred of his own men 
 to fight at Flodden. The largo Italian corn 
 exchange was built in 1862. in which )*n.%r was 
 started a great yearly wool-market; and still 
 more recent are the handsome municipal offices 
 and the new grammar-scluxjl, thoiigh this claims 
 King John for its foinider (1-216). Newbury— 
 ' new ' only as distinguishe<l from the old Koui.in 
 station of '5/nn/r (now Si>een)— besides has many 
 ancient and wealthy charities. It was inoorpor- 
 ate^l by Bllxabeth in 1.596, and the borough 
 bonndM7 was extended in 1878. Pop. (ISOl) 
 4275; (1851) 6574; 0901) 11,061. Two hani- 
 fonght battles took place here in the Great 
 Rebellion— the one between Charles and Knsex, 
 on SC^ September 1643; the other Itetween 
 Charles and Manchester, on S7th Oc toller 1614. 
 The advantage of the first was, on the whole, 
 on the side of the king, but it cost the lives of 
 Lords Falkland, Carnarvon, and Sunderland, to 
 whom a memorial was erected in 1S78. Tlie 
 second would have been a decisive royalist defbat 
 but for Manchester's hesitancy. 
 
 See Uie /Tutory t^f NtwbH.m 0S39X a work on 
 the two batUes by W. Money (1S81X and his 
 History <^N*wlmrtiOxtbTA, 1887). 
 
 HeWbTuyporV, a city and port of entry of 
 Massachusetts, on the Merrlmac's 8. Uank. 8 miles 
 from Its mouth, and 87 by rail NE. of Boston. 
 It has a long, shady High Street, with a six- 
 acre* pond, and manutectories of cottons, shoes. 
 coml»s, hats, pumps, Ac Here Whitefield (died 
 1770) is buried. Pop. 15,947. 
 
 Mew CalodonU, a South Pacific island, be- 
 longing to France, and lying midway between 
 the Fyi Islands and Queensland ; on it the 
 Loyalty Islands and Isle of Pines are dejwndent 
 Surrounded by coral-reefs, It Is 240 miles In length, 
 S5 in aN'erage breadth, and 6450 »q. m. in area. 
 Tlie lnt«rlor Is greatly broken by Irregular moun- 
 tain-chains (highest point. Mount Humboldt, 
 6S80 feet). Noumesj the capital (4<Wl inhabit- 
 antsX Is on the south-west coast The minerals 
 include nickel, copper, cobalt, antimony, chrome, 
 Ac. Wines and spirits, flour, drapery, groceries, 
 ironinongery. machinery, ooal, Ac are imported, 
 and nickel, cobalt, and other metals, preserved 
 meat, copra, coffee. Ac exported. Every year 
 about 180 vessels of 75,000 tons visit the Island, 
 one-half lieing British. The total nop. in 1901 
 numliered 51,415, Including— aborigines, S6,10(>; 
 free Kuroi>eans, 12,2.58; convicts, 6326 ; lilwrate*! 
 convicts, 8730. The island was discovered by Cap- 
 tain Cook in 1774, and was annexed by France in 
 1853. She began to use it as a convict station, and 
 After 1871 sent out great numbers of Communists. 
 
 Mew Castile. See Castilk. 
 
 Newcastle, 0) * watering-place in Down, 11 
 miles SW. of Howniwtrlck. Poji. 1551— (2) A 
 town, 27 miles SW. of liitnerlck. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Mew Castle, capital of I^wrence county, 
 Pennsvlvania, on the Shennngo River, 50 miles 
 by rail NNW. of Pittsburgh, has rolllng-milla, 
 foundries, and nail-factories. Pop. 28,850. 
 
 Mewoastlft, a port of New South Wales, 75 miles 
 NK. of Sydney by rail, at the mouth of the Hunter 
 River. Coal and wool are the niain exiwrts. Tlie 
 harbour Is defondwl by a fort Pop. (1881) 15,596 ; 
 (1<K)1) with suburbs, 53,740. 
 
 Newcastle Emlyn, a C^armarlhenshire town, 
 on the Teifi, 26 miles NNW. of Carmarthen. 
 Pop. 855. 
 
 NewoMtloton, a Roxbnighshlre vilUge. on 
 Liddel Water, XlJ miles S. by W. of Hawick, 
 Pop. 820. 
 
 Mewoastld-under-Lyme, a parliamentary and 
 municlinl borough of Staflfbrdshire, on the Lyme 
 brook, and in what used to be the Lyme 
 Forest, 16 miles NNW. of Stafford and 147 by 
 rail NW. by N. of London. Pop. (1801) 4604; 
 (1901) 19,914. Amongst new public buildings are 
 the town-hall (1890) and the high school (1876X 
 Tlie high school was reconstructed in 1874 ; its 
 distinctive features are the study of natural 
 science and modern languages. The jiarish 
 church. Early English and Decorated, was rebuilt 
 in 1876 from designs Of Sir Qilbert Scott, and has 
 a quaint old sguare tower of red sandstone, and 
 a mie peal of bells. Brewing, malting, and the 
 making of pajwr and army clothing (fonnerly 
 hats) are industries, whilst the district Is noted 
 fbr its potteries and coal-mines. Of the ca.stle 
 all traces have disappeared. The town now 
 returns only one M.P. (two ttom 1853 till 1885). 
 
 Mewoastle-upon-TTne, a city and county, on 
 the north l>ank of the Tyne, 275 miles from 
 Ixindon, 117 from K<linburgh, an<l 10 from the 
 Oerinan Oce.nn. It is the seat of a bishopric 
 foundwl in 1882, and it returns two members 
 to parliament Pop. (1801) 28,894 ; 0841) 71,850 ; 
 (18Sn 14.5.359; (IWl) 215,328. Tlie city, built 
 for the most part on steep slojies and gently 
 rising ground, abounds in contrasts, such as 
 the grim old keep and the High I^evel Bridge; 
 the mwlerii Grey Street and tlie ancient Side; 
 the stately stone buildings erecteil by Grainger 
 and the half-timbered Elizabethan houses with 
 projecting stories and latticed casements; the 
 Elswic.k Works, a mile in extent, and Jesmond 
 I">ene, one of the loveliest ravines In the country ; 
 the closely-|weke<l hillsides and the rolling ex- 
 panse of common calleil the Town M(xir. The 
 church of St Nicholas, now the cathedral, said 
 to have l»een founde*i In 1091, was destroyed by 
 Are in 1216. The present building belongs to 
 the Decorated and Perpendicular periods; the 
 nave and transepts dating fnnn 1859, the chancel 
 from I.VkS, and the tower with ita beautifbl archi- 
 tectural crown from about 1435. The reredos 
 was erected in 1888. There is also a Itoman 
 Catholic cathedral 0844), ftt>ra designs by Pugln. 
 
 The central part of Newcastle with it-s stately 
 and ornate buildings is a monument to the genios 
 of Riohani Grainger (1798-1*".!). Grey Street and 
 Grainger Street^ built in 1834-88, are the finest 
 thoroughftutts in the dt.v. Monuments have be«i 
 ere(*ted to Earl Grey 838) and George Stephenson 
 0862). With the town-hall (1868) are associated 
 the corporation offices and the corn-market. 
 Other public buildings are the guildhall 00^) 
 
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 
 
 495 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 and exchange on the Sandhill, the Moot Hall 
 (1810), the general post-office (1876), the central 
 police-courts (1874), the jail (1823-28). the Wood 
 Memorial Hall (1870), the Trinity House (chapel, 
 c. 1651 ; hall, 1721 ; almshouse, &c., 17S2-95X the 
 Central Exchange News-room and Art Gallery 
 (1838), the Assembly Rooms (1774-76), the 
 (branch) Bank of England (1834), the Royal 
 Arcade nS31-32X the Butchers' Market (1835), 
 and the barracks (1806). There are two theatres. 
 The museum of the Natural History Society (1883- 
 84, costing £42,000), contains collections of British 
 birds, fossils from the coal-measures, and a unique 
 series of Bewick's drawings. The Literary and 
 Philosophical Society (1793) has a library of 
 about 40,000 volumes. The public library (1881) 
 contains over 70,000 volumes. The College of 
 Medicine (1851) and the College of Science (1871) 
 are both affiliated to the university of Durham : 
 the Collie buildings were opened in 1888, and 
 have since been greatly extended. The Royal 
 PYee Grammar-school, founded in 1525, has since 
 1870 occupied new premises. Among benevolent 
 institutions are the Royal Infinnary (1751), the 
 Jesus Hospital (1681), the Keelmen's Hospital 
 (1701), the Trinity Almshouses (incorporated 1492), 
 the Nortliern Counties Institution for the Deaf 
 and Dumb (1861), the Fleming Memorial Hospital 
 (1887), and the Northern Counties Orphan Institu- 
 tion (1876). Tlie Central Station in Neville Street 
 (1850: remodelled 1893-94) is a great railway 
 terminus. The public pleasure-grounds of New- 
 castle are the Town Moor (987 acresX Castle 
 Leazes, and Nuns Moor, the Leazes, Elswick, 
 Brandling, Heaton, and Armstrong Parks, the 
 Cruddas recreation-ground, and Jesmond Dene. 
 For the Armstrong Park and Jesmond Dene, 
 Newcastle is indebted to Lord Armstrong. 
 
 Newcastle is connected with Gateshead by three 
 bridges : (1) the High Level Bridge, erected in 
 1846-49 from the plans of Robert Stephenson and 
 T. E. Harrison, at a cost of £491,153 ; it is 1337 
 feet long, and consists of six cast-iron arches, 
 which, springing from piers of solid masonry, 
 support a railway at a height of 112 feet and a 
 roadway at a height of 83 feet above high-water. 
 (2) The Swing Bridge, erected 1868-76, at a cost 
 of £233,000, on the site of the Roman, mediaeval, 
 and 18th-century bridges ; the movable portion, 
 which weighs 1450 tons and is 281 feet long, is 
 worked by hydraulic machinery. (3) Tlie Red- 
 heugh Suspension Bridge, erected 1868-71, at a 
 cost of £35,000, is 1453 feet in length. The port 
 of Newcastle is a very ancient and important 
 one. Since 1840 some 100 million tons of stuff 
 have been dredged from the bed of the river, 
 which is now navigable by large vessels to 
 Elswick. The quay is about 1540 yards in length. 
 Since the 13th centiuy the chief trade of New- 
 castle has been in coal. In shipbuilding, the 
 river Tyne is second to the Clyde. The principal 
 manufactures of Newcastle are locomotive and 
 marine engines, machinery, heavy ortlnance, car- 
 riages and harness, white and red lead, sheet and 
 pipe lead, glass of various kinds, earthenware, 
 chemical manures, alkali, cement, bricks, tiles, 
 fireclay goods, colours, shovels, grindstones, wire 
 rope, nails, sails, &c. Tlie works of Sir W. G. 
 Annstrong, Mitchell, & Co., founded in 1847, 
 comprise blast-furnaces, engine-shops, foundries, 
 and steel-works. Since the amalgamation of the 
 original finn with that of C. Mitchell & Co., in 
 1882, several war-ships have been completed at 
 Elswick, the largest the ill-fated Victoria. New- 
 castle is the birthplace of Lords Eldon and Col- 
 lingwood, Mark Akeoside, Hutton the mathe- 
 
 matician, and Lord Armstrong. Under the 
 Romans the high ground overlooking the river 
 near the castle was the site of the military station 
 of Pons 2Eii\. At the time of the Conquest it 
 was a monastic settlement, known as Monk- 
 chester. Robert Curthose in 1080 constructed a 
 fortress here ; but the present Norman keep was 
 built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £911, 
 10s. 9d. In 1644 Newcastle, which had declared 
 for the king, was besieged for ten months by the 
 Scots under General Leslie. Tragic events were 
 the visitations of the Asiatic cholera in 1831 and 
 1853, and the great fire of 1854. See works by 
 Gray (1649), Bourne (1736), Mackenzie (1827), 
 Welford (3 vols. 1884-87X Charleton (1885), and 
 Boyle (1890). 
 
 New-chwang, the port of Manchuria, and a 
 treaty port since 1858, stands on tlie river Liao, 
 20 miles from its mouth and 120 from Mukden. 
 Vessels are, however, obliged to load and dis- 
 charge at Ying-tzu, at the mouth of the river, now 
 called also by the name of the old city farther 
 up, a greatly decayed place. Ying-tzu imports 
 cotton, woollen, and silk goods, sugar, paper, 
 metals, opium, tobacco, &c., and exports beans, 
 silk, ginseng, skins, and horns. The port is 
 closed four or five months with ice. Pop. 60,000. 
 New Cumnock. See Cuknock. 
 New England, the six Eastern States of the 
 United States of America— Maine, New Hamp- 
 shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and 
 Connecticut— embracing an area of 65,000 sq. m. 
 The people, distinctively known as Yankees, are 
 celebrated for industry and enterprise. The 
 joint pop. is now about 6,000,000. 
 
 New'ent, an old market-town 8 miles NW. of 
 Gloncester. Pop. of parish, 2500. 
 
 Newera Ella, better Nuwaba Eliya, the sana- 
 torium of Ceylon, near Mt. Pedrotallagalla, on a 
 plain 6240 feet above the sea. Pop. 6000. 
 
 New Forest, a triangular district of south-west 
 Hampshire, 9 miles SW. of Southampton, bounded 
 by the river Avon, the Solent and English Chan- 
 nel, and Southampton Water. It measures 14 by 
 16 miles, and has an area of 144 sq. ni., or 92,365 
 acres, of which, however, only 64,232 belong to the 
 crown demesnes. The name dates from 1079, 
 when the Conqueror here made a • mickle deer- 
 frith,' and cleared away several hamlets. This 
 afforestation, enforced by the savage 'Forest 
 Laws,' was regarded as an act of the greatest 
 cruelty; and the violent deaths here of two 
 of his sons, Richard and William Rufiis, were 
 looked on as sxiecial judgments. The deer were 
 removed under an act of parliament (1851); and 
 under another of 1877 the New Forest now is 
 managed by the court of Verderers as a public 
 pleasure-ground and cattle-farm. Enclosed plan- 
 tations occupy one-fourth of the entire area, the 
 rest being open woodland, bog, and heath. The 
 chief trees are oaks and beech. The former once 
 supplied timber for the navy ; the beech-mast 
 still feeds large herds of sv»ine. There is also a 
 herd of small, rough-coated ponies. The hollies, 
 the rhododendrons, and therewith the general 
 absence of underwood, give a beautiful park-like 
 aspect to the forest, within which or on whose 
 verge are Lyndhurst, Beaulieu, and Lyniington. 
 
 See Gilpin's Forest Scenery (ed. by Heath, 1879); 
 Blackmore's Cradock Novxll (1866); and J. R. 
 Wise's Xew Forest (1863 ; 4th or ' Artist's ed.,' 1883). 
 Newfoundland(-Vcwr7und/a)Mr), a British island 
 colony in North America, not yet incorporated 
 with the Dominion of Canada, lies at the mouth 
 of the Gujf of St Lawrence, separated frow 
 
NEW GALLOWAY 
 
 496 
 
 NEW GUINEA 
 
 Labrador on the north by the Straits of Belle Isle 
 (q.v., 11 miles broad). It is 370 miles in length 
 and 290 miles in breadth, and has an area of 40,200 
 sq. m. Pop. (1874) 168,958; (1901) 220,249. By 
 the Anglo-French agreement of 1904, the French 
 withdrew their tronblesome claim to certain ex- 
 clnsive rights 'on the French Shore,' till then a 
 source of trouble and a hindrance to its develop- 
 ment. The fishermen number 35,000, and 21,000 
 women and children cure fish. The island pre- 
 sents a wild and sterile appearance. The moun- 
 tains in the Avalon Peninsula to the SE. (con- 
 nected with the rest of the island by an isthmus 
 only 3 miles in width) rise to over 2000 feet. 
 The number of the lakes and ' ponds ' is remark- 
 able, and about one-third of the whole surface 
 is covered with fresh water. The coast-line is 
 everywhere deeply indented with excellent har- 
 bours. There is considerable cultivation along 
 the seaboard of the settled districts, but the 
 best land and timber are in the river- valleys and 
 upon the west coast. Now about 1,000,000 bushels 
 of potatoes are produced annually, and turnips, 
 hay, carrots, clover, barley, and oats are culti- 
 vated with success. The chief seat of copper- 
 mining is around the shore of Notre Dame Bay. 
 Gold has been found. Rich deposits of lead ore 
 exist. Gypsum, marble, and roofing-slate are 
 found in abundance. Coal and iron exist side 
 by side near the west coast. Cod, herring, and 
 salmon are the most important fish. Tlie annual 
 value of the cod-fishery is over $6,000,000, and of 
 lobster-canning $500,000 ; seal-fishing is also im- 
 portant. There are over 660 miles of railway, 
 2450 miles of postal and district roads, and 2100 
 miles of telegraph. 
 
 Newfoundland was discovered in 1497 by John 
 Cabot, and visited by the Portuguese Cortereal 
 in 1500; by 1578, 400 vessels, 50 of them English, 
 were engaged in the fisheries here. In 1583 Sir 
 Humphrey Gilbert took possession of the island 
 for Queen Elizabeth ; in 1621 Sir George Calvert 
 (afterwards Lord Baltimore) settled in the Avalon 
 peninsula. In 1713 the island was ceded to 
 Britain, while the French retained the right, ex- 
 tended in 1783, to catch and dry fish on a defined 
 part of the coast. The government, established 
 in 1855, consists of the governor, an executive 
 council of 7 members, a legislative council of 15 
 (appointed by the crown), and a general assem- 
 bly of 36 (elected). In 1894-95 Newfoundland 
 suffered from a great political and commercial 
 crisis. See works by Auspach (1827), Little (1855), 
 Fraser Rae (1881), Murray, Howley, Harvey, 
 Prowse, Willson, and Smith (1901). 
 
 New Galloway, a royal (till 1885 also parlia- 
 mentary) burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, 25 miles 
 W. of Dumfries. Close by was born Mr S. R. 
 Crockett, the novelist. Pop. 374, 
 
 New Granada, See Colombia. 
 ' New Guinea, the largest island next after the 
 Australian continent, from which it is separated 
 by the shallow island-studded Torres Strait, 80 
 to 90 miles wide at its narrowest part. The two 
 regions at one time formed continuous land, and 
 an upheaval of less than sixty fathoms would 
 again unite them. Elsewhere the mainland is 
 washed by deep waters ranging from 500 to 1300 
 fathoms. The island stretches 1500 miles NW. 
 and SE. from Cape Goede Hoop, just south of 
 the equator, to South Cape ; its width varies 
 from under 20 miles to 480 miles at 141° E. long. 
 It forms a large central mass from which two 
 peninsulas project south-east and north-west, and 
 has a total area roughly estimated at 320,000 sq. 
 
 m., or six times as large as England. It is 
 essentially mountainous, being traversed by lofty 
 ranges, rising in some places 2000 or 3000 feet 
 above the snow-line. These ranges develop in 
 the broader central parts two or more parallel 
 chains with a general south-easterly trend. 
 Thus, the Arfak Hills of the north-west peninsula 
 (10,000 feet) are continued in the central region 
 by the Charles-Louis range (over 14,000 feet), 
 with many peaks of 18,000 and even 20,000 feet. 
 The northern coast-range is known as the Finis- 
 terre Mountains (1 1 , 500 feet). Between these two 
 chains run the Bismarck and Kratke ranges (10,000 
 feet). All these mountain-ranges converge in the 
 south-east peninsula in a single lofty chain which 
 traverses the whole of British New Guinea, the 
 various sections of which take the names of the 
 Albert Victor, Yule, Owen Stanley, and Lome 
 ranges. The prevailing formations appear to be 
 very old plutonic and sedimentary rocks. There 
 are numerous indications of gold. Earthquakes 
 are frequent in some places, but no active vol- 
 canoes appear to exist, although there are several 
 recent craters. The three largest rivers appear 
 to be the Amberno (Mamberan, or ' Great River ') 
 in Dutch, the Empress Augusta in German, and 
 the Fly in British territory. In the rainy season 
 the Empress Augusta is navigable for many miles 
 by large vessels ; the Markham also gives access 
 to the interior. The Fly, discovered in 1845 by 
 Blackwood, was ascended in a steam-launch in 
 1889 for over 600 miles by Sir W, Macgregor, 
 The tides ascend the Fly for 150 miles. The 
 Douglas, Centenary, Stanhope, and Queen's 
 Jubilee all converge in a common delta about 
 the head of the Gulf of Papua. The east side of 
 that gulf is joined by other navigable streams 
 from the Owen Stanley range. 
 
 The whole of New Guinea lies within the track 
 of the south-east trade-winds, followed by the 
 north-west monsoons, whose rain-bearing clouds 
 are condensed on the cold alpine slopes of the 
 island. The consequent large rain or snow fall, 
 combined with an average high temperature of 
 from 85° to 90° P., results in a hot, moist climate 
 on all the low-lying coast-lands and fluvial valleys 
 — hence fever is endemic. But soine of the up- 
 lands beyond the fever zone may be found 
 adapted for the establishment of health-resorts 
 for officials, traders, and missionaries. New 
 Guinea is almost everywhere clothed with a rich 
 and highly diversified flora. Sir W, Macgregor's 
 party in 1889, after passing successively through 
 the domains of tropical plants, such as the cocoa- 
 nut, sago, banana, mango, taro, and sugar-cane, 
 and of such temperate or sub-tropical growths 
 as the cedar, oak, fig, acacia, pine, and tree-fern, 
 were gladdened on the higher slopes by the sight 
 of the wild strawberry, forget-me-not, daisy, 
 buttercup, and other familiar British plants ; 
 while towards the summits these were succeeded 
 by a true alpine flora, in which Himalayan, 
 Bornean, New Zealand, and sub-antarctic forms 
 were all numerously represented. In New Guinea 
 the Asiatic and Malayan floras are far more richly 
 represented than the Australian. On the other 
 hand, the New Guinea fauna is closely related to 
 that of Australia, as is seen in the almost total 
 absence of placental mammals, and the presence 
 of over thirty species of marsupials (such as the 
 cuscus and kangaroo) and the bower-bird. The 
 spiny ant-eater is allied to the Australian echidna, 
 and like it oviparous. Of the bird of Paradise, 
 a typical New Guinea bird, many varieties occur, 
 and many gorgeous parrots, cockatoos, pigeons, 
 &C. Reptiles are numerous. Between the AU3« 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 497 
 
 NEW HAVEN 
 
 tralians and Papuans, who form the great bulk 
 of the New Guhiea population, there is little in 
 common except the dark colour, considerably 
 darker, however, in the latter than in the former. 
 But the New Guinea natives seem to combine 
 at least four ethnical elements : Papuan proper, 
 diffused qver the whole region ; Negrito; Eastern 
 Polynesian ; and Malay. Through the mingling 
 of these elements small tribal groups speak a 
 surprising number of distinct languages. Canni- 
 balism is very prevalent ; some tribes are preda- 
 tory ; but many others are peaceful, industrious, 
 and keen traders, displaying remarkable skill in 
 the arts of pottery, wood-carving, and husbandry. 
 New Guinea appears to have been first sighted 
 by D'Abreu in 1511 ; it received its present name 
 in 1546 from Retez (Roda), who was struck by 
 the resemblance of its inhabitants to those of the 
 Guinea coast. In 1793 the East India Company 
 occupied the island of Manassari in Geelvink Bay. 
 In 1848 the Dutch proclaimed their sovereignty 
 over the western half of the island as far as 141° 
 E. long., and this meridian was accordingly taken 
 as the western boundary of the eastern half in 
 1884, when that section was divided between 
 Great Britain and Germany. The boundary 
 between the northern or German and the southern 
 or British division coincides with the main water- 
 parting. The areas and populations of the three 
 territories are thus roughly estimated : 
 
 Area in sq. m. Population. 
 
 Dutch New Guinea 158,000 200,000 
 
 British 90,000 350.000 
 
 (Jerman 70,000 100,000 
 
 Total 318,000 650,000 
 
 In the Dutch section there are no towns or 
 administrative centres. German New Guinea, 
 officially known as Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, is a 
 protectorate administered by the German New 
 Guinea Company, and yields for export tobacco, 
 areca, sago, bamboo, ebony, and other woods. 
 British New Guinea, which includes the 
 D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade Archipelagoes, 
 was administered as a protectorate till 1888, when 
 the sovereignty of Britain was proclaimed. It 
 was made over to the Australian Comuionwealth 
 in 1902, who agreed to contribute £20,000 annu- 
 ally for its administration. The territory is 
 divided into four districts, the chief station being 
 Port Moresby, The revenue does not yet cover 
 the expenditin-e ; and the exports, chiefly gold, 
 pearl-shells, beclie-de-mer, and copra, rose in 
 1897-1901 from £19,320 to £50,000 a year. 
 
 See, besides A. R. Wallace's Malay Archii~ielago 
 (1869 ; new ed. 1894) and A. H. Keane's Eastern 
 Geography (1887), works by D'Albertis (1881), 
 Chalmers and Gill (1885 and 1887), Lindt (1887), 
 Guilleniard (1887), Strachan (1888), Bevan (1890), 
 J. P. Thomson (1892), and Krieger (1900). 
 
 New Hampshire, the ' Granite State,' the most 
 northerly of the thirteen original United States 
 of North America, lies between the province of 
 Quebec, Maine and (for 18 miles) the Atlantic 
 Ocean, Massachusetts, and the right bank of the 
 Connecticut River. Area, 9305 sq. m.— a fourth 
 larger than Wales. The average elevation of the 
 state is about 1200 feet, the highest point being 
 Mount Washington (6293 feet), in the White 
 Mountains ; among the other peaks over 5000 feet 
 high are those bearing the names of the succes- 
 sive presidents, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, and 
 Monroe. The largest lake is Winnipiseogee (72 
 sq. m.) ; the principal rivers are the Connecticut, 
 Merrimac, and Piscataqua. From Dover Point 
 to its mouth the Piscataqua is about half a mile 
 2f 
 
 wide ; and the volume and swiftness of its current 
 at ebb-tide prevent the freezing of the water in 
 Portsmouth harbour during the coldest winters. 
 The Merrimac is said to turn more spindles and 
 propel more shuttles than any other river in the 
 world. The mean annual temperature at Con- 
 cord is 46° F. There are still over a million acres 
 of forest in the state. Of late New Hampshire 
 has become very popular as a summer-resort, 
 and the farmers, who owing to the rough and 
 sterile soil could not compete in the great 
 markets with those of the West, now find a new 
 and important market brought to their very 
 doors. But manufacturing is the leading industry 
 in New Hampshire, the chief centres being Man- 
 chester (the largest city), Nashua, and Dover. 
 Dartmouth college was founded in 1769. The 
 earliest settlements were made in 1623 near 
 Dover and Portsmouth. In 1641-79, 1689-92, 
 and 1699-1741 New Hampshire was joined to 
 the Massachusetts colony, but during the inter- 
 vening dates and until 1775 it was under royal 
 governors of its own. A provisional government 
 was formed in 1776, a state constitution adopted 
 in 1784 ; and New Hampshire was the ninth 
 state (1788) to ratify the national constitution. 
 Among the eminent men born here have been 
 President Pierce, Daniel Webster, Lewis Cass, 
 Salmon P. Chase, and Horace Greeley. Pop. 
 (1840) 284,574 ; (1880) 346,991 ; (1900) 411,588. 
 
 New Hanover, one of the Bismarck Archi- 
 pelago, lying off the north-east coast of New 
 Guinea, with an area of 570 sq. m. 
 
 New Harmony, a village (pop. 1495) of Indiana, 
 28 miles by rail NW. of Evansville, was first 
 settled in 1815 by a German community of 
 religious socialists, called Harmonists. In 1824 
 the village was purchased by Robert Owen for 
 his community, which failed after three years. 
 
 Newhaven, a Sussex seaport, at the mouth 
 of the Ouse, 8^ miles E. of Brighton and 56 S. of 
 London, noted for its steamboat traffic, particu- 
 larly to Dieppe (5J hours). It has a large fort 
 (1864-69)and a little Norman 12th-century church, 
 with an east tower and small semicircular apse. 
 Pop. (1851) 1358 ; (1901) 6772. 
 
 Newhaven, a fishing-village of Midlothian, on 
 the south shore of the Firth of Forth, 1 mile 
 WNW. of Leith, and 2 miles N. of Edinburgh. 
 Dating from about 1490, it has a tidal harbour, 
 reconstructed in 1876-77 at a cost of £10,000, and 
 is famous for its fish dinners and fishwives. 
 Pop. of parish (1841) 2103 ; (1901) 7636. 
 
 New Haven, the chief city and seaport of 
 Connecticut, and capital of New Haven county, 
 at the head of New Haven Bay, 4 miles from 
 Long Island Sound, and 73 miles by rail ENE. of 
 New York. Its broad streets are shaded with 
 elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, 
 with its handsome public and private edifices, 
 make it one of the most beautiful of American 
 cities. It has since 1718 been the seat of Yale 
 College, founded in 1701 at Saybrook, and having 
 over 325 professors and lecturers, 3000 students, 
 and libraries of 380,000 volumes. New Haven 
 also contains tlie Sheffield scientific school, and 
 the Hoijkins grammar-school (1660). The har- 
 bour has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted 
 by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting 
 trade. But New Haven is of more consequence 
 as a manufacturing town, employing many thou- 
 sands of hands in its large works, and producing 
 hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, 
 corsets, india-rubber goods, carriages, furniture, 
 paper, matches, musical instruments, &c. New 
 
NEW HEBRIDES 
 
 498 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 Haven was settled in 1638 by a company from 
 London, and the colony was not united to that 
 of Connecticut until 1662; and till 1873 it was 
 recognised as, jointly with Hartford, the capital 
 of the state. It was incorporated as a town 
 about 1665, and chartered as a city in 1784. 
 Pop. (1850) 22,529 ; (1880) 62,882 ; (1900) 108,027. 
 
 New Heb'rides, a chain of islands in the Western 
 Pacific, extending NNW. to SSB., and lying W. 
 of Fiji and NB. of New Caledonia. There are in 
 all some thirty islands (area, 5110 sq. m.), of 
 which twenty are inhabited, the people, mostly 
 of the Melanesian race, numbering about 70,000. 
 There are active volcanoes, but the islands rest 
 upon a coral foundation. The larger islands are 
 Bspiritu Santo (70 miles long by 40 wide), Mallicolo 
 (56 by 20), Anibrym (22 by 17), Vate or Sandwich 
 (30 by 15), Erromango (80 by 22), Tanna (18 by 
 10), and Aneityuin (35 miles in circumference). 
 All are wooded, and some lofty, reaching 3000 feet. 
 The seas swarm with fish. The people are savage 
 cannibals of a low type, decreasing in number, 
 who speak a great number of dialects. The 
 southern islanders (Erromango to Aneityum) 
 have been civilised by English and Scottish 
 missionaries. This chain was discovered by the 
 Portuguese Quiros in 1606, and was thoroughly 
 explored by Cook in 1773. They are claimed by 
 the British, though nothing is done to occupy 
 them. The French have cast covetous eyes upon 
 the group, but their attempts to annex it have 
 encountered the strenuous opposition of the 
 Australian colonies. Since 1863 many natives 
 have been carried away to serve as labourers in 
 Queensland, Fiji, and New Caledonia. See Dr 
 J. Inglis' In the New Hebrides (1887). 
 
 New Holland. See Australia. 
 
 New Ireland, now, as part of the German 
 Bismarck Archipelago, called Neu-Mecklenburg, 
 a long, narrow island in the Pacific, lying NE. of 
 New Guinea. Area, 4900 sq. m. ; length, 300 
 miles ; width, 15 miles. The hills rise to 6500 ft. 
 
 New Jersey, one of the thirteen original states 
 of the American Union, is bounded by New York, 
 the Hudson River, Staten Island Sound, Raritan 
 Bay, the Atlantic, Delaware Bay, and the Delaware 
 River, Its greatest length is 167 miles ; its width 
 from 32 to 59 miles ; and its area 7577 sq. m. ; 
 it being the smallest of all the states save 
 three, but ranking eighteenth in population. 
 In the north-west are two portions of the 
 Appalachian system. The Blue or Kittatinny 
 Mountains (1400-1800 feet) extend along the 
 Delaware from the Water Gap. The Navesink 
 highlands, south of Sandy Hook, reach a height 
 of 282 feet, and support two lighthouses. The 
 central portion of the state is generally level and 
 fertile ; the southern part is in large measure 
 sandy, covered with pine-woods, and marshy near 
 the coast. The state is abundantly watered ; its 
 chief rivers, the Passaic, Raritan, Little and Great 
 Egg Harbor, flow south-east into bays. The coast 
 from Sandy Hook to Cape May is generally pro- 
 tected by peninsular or island beaches. About 
 60 per cent, of the total laud area is included in 
 farms. The chief products— mainly agricultural — 
 are maize, oats, wheat, rye, hay, potatoes and 
 sweet potatoes, cattle, butter, and milk. The 
 leading mineral products are iron ore, limestone, 
 zinc, and slate. Glass, pottery, machinery, 
 leather, silk, and sugar are the chief manufac- 
 tures. New Jersey has two canals, and some 
 fifty railroads, with 3000 miles of length. Its 
 south-west portion has Philadelphia for a market ; 
 its north-east section, including its two largest 
 
 towns, is a suburb of New York. Its coast fron 
 Navesink to Squan is covered with villas, cottages 
 and hotels. Cape May, Long Branch, and Atlanti 
 City are noted seaside resorts. Asbury Parl< 
 Ocean Grove, Seabright, &c. are growing places 
 crowded in summer. Newark and Jersey Cit; 
 are by far the largest cities ; next come Patersor 
 Camden, Hoboken, Trenton, Elizabeth, Nei 
 Brunswick, and Orange. Pop. (1800) 211,149 
 (1840) 373,306; (1880) 1,131,116; (1900) 1,8S3,66C 
 In 1617 the Dutch settled at Bergen, near Ne'i 
 York ; in 1623 Cornelius May ascended th 
 Delaware, and built a fort four miles below th 
 site of Camden. In 1664 the territory wa 
 granted by Charles II. to the Duke of Yorl 
 See the History by Raum (1880). 
 
 New Lanark. See Lanark. 
 
 New London, a port of entry of Connecticui 
 is on the right bank of the river Thames, 3 mile 
 from Long Island Sound, 51 by rail E. of Ne^ 
 Haven, and 126 NNE. of New York. The mam 
 factures include woollens, sewing-silk, agricu 
 tural machinery, hardware, and crackers (Anglia 
 biscuits) ; fruit-canning also is carried on. Th 
 harbour (30 feet deep) is one of the best in th 
 States. On the left bank of the river is a U. S 
 navy yard. New London was settled in 164i 
 and in 1781 was burned by Benedict Arnok 
 Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Newlyn, a Cornish fishing-village and artisti 
 headquarters, on Mount's Bay, 2 miles SW. ( 
 Penzance. 
 
 Newmarket, the 'racing capital of England 
 lies on the border of Suffolk and Cambridgeshin 
 14 miles ENE. of Cambridge and 69 NNE. c 
 London. Twice almost destroyed by fire, in 168 
 and 1700, it chiefly consists of one long street 
 and contains an unusual number of hotels an 
 fine private houses, belonging to the great patron 
 of the turf. Principal edifices are the Jocke 
 Club (1773); the adjoining Subscription Room 
 (1844) ; the Proprietary Club (1882) ; the Rou 
 Memorial Hospital (1883); with almshouses fc 
 eight jockeys and trainers or their widows ; S 
 Mary's Church, Perpendicular in style ; and A: 
 Saints (1877). The town owes its prosperity t 
 its horseraces, as old at least as 1605 ; and nearl 
 half the male population are jockeys, trainer! 
 or stablemen (Holcroft the dramatist was one 
 one of their number). The race-ground, on Nev 
 market Heath, to the west, which is traverse 
 by the Devil's Dyke, is owned partly by tli 
 Jockey Club, partly by the Duke of Rutlanc 
 and, with its soft elastic turf, is one of the ver 
 finest in the world. Of its ten courses, tli 
 longest is 4^ miles in circuit. The training 
 ground bears a like character for excellence ; an 
 400 horses are constantly in training. There ai 
 seven annual meetings, the principal events bein 
 the Two Thousand at Easter and the Cesarewitc 
 in October. Pop. (1851) 3356 ; (1901) 10,688. Se 
 J. P. Hore's History of Newmarket (3 vols. 1886). 
 
 Newmarket, a town of County Cork, 8 mih 
 NW. of Kanturk station. Pop. 966. 
 
 Newmarket-on-Fergus, a village of Count 
 Clare, 12 miles SE. of Eniils. Pop. 500. 
 
 New Mexico, a territory in the SW. of tli 
 United States, is bounded by Colorado, Oldahomi 
 Texas, Mexico, and Arizona. The area is 122,58 
 sq. m.— larger than that of Great Britain an 
 Ireland — and the pop. (1880) 119,565; (190( 
 195,310. The surface of New Mexico belongs t 
 the great plateau upon which rests the Rock 
 Mountain system. From an altitude of 6000 t 
 
NEW MILLS 
 
 499 
 
 NEW PLYMOUTH 
 
 6500 feet in the north it descends gradually to 
 about 4000 feet along the Mexican border, and 
 sinks to 3000 or 3500 in the Llano Estacado of 
 the south-east. Except in the east the whole 
 region is traversed by broken ranges of mountains 
 having in general a north and south trend. In 
 the northern central part the Santa Fe, Las 
 Vegas, and Taos ranges form part of the main 
 axis of the Rodky Mountains, with peaks over 
 12,000 feet high. Farther south, and east of the 
 Rio Grande, are numerous broken ranges ; and 
 west of the Rio Grande the Sierra Madre rises 
 above the level of the mesa (plateau). Tliese 
 mountains and the intervening mesas are cut by 
 deep canons. Among the mountains, especially 
 in the north-east, are many 'parks' noted for 
 their beauty and fertile soils. The precious 
 metals are found in almost all parts of the 
 territory. Some of the mines were rudely worked 
 by the early Spaniards, who compelled the 
 Pueblos to labour like slaves. Copper and iron 
 occur in valuable deposits, and near Santa Fe are 
 the famous turquoise mines. There are also 
 fields of both bituminous and anthracite coal. 
 Mineral and hot springs are numerous. The 
 great mountain-divide causes the drainage of 
 New Mexico to flow south to the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and west to the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande 
 traverses the central part of the territory and 
 receives many tributaries. The Rio Pecos which 
 joins it in Texas drains the south-eastern part. 
 In the north-east are streams which unite to form 
 the Canadian River, and in the west are the head- 
 waters of the San Juan, Little Colorado, and Gila, 
 all aflluents of the Colorado. In the river-valleys 
 the soil is fertile and produces excellent crops ; 
 and many acres in other sections may be success- 
 fully cultivated by irrigation. The climate is 
 healthful, and on the whole remarkably uniform, 
 and the atmosphere is very pure and dry. There 
 are extensive forests on the mountains, and in 
 the hilly regions of the western part of the 
 territory, and on the pastoral plains nutritions 
 grasses which support great numbers of cattle 
 and sheep. Stock-raising is a leading industry ; 
 the herds need no housing in the winter. 
 
 After the Mexican war, part of the territory 
 ■was acquired by the United States in 1848 ; addi- 
 tions were made by a later i)m'chase from Mexico, 
 and by a cession from Texas. Tlie bulk of the 
 pop., some 190,000, are Mexicans, or of Mexican 
 descent, and there are 13,150 Indians. The terri- 
 tory when originally organised in 1850 included 
 Arizona and parts of Colorado and California. 
 The scheme for its incorporation in 1906 with 
 Arizona (then to become a state of the Union) 
 was successfully opposed both in and out of 
 the Senate. Tlie principal cities and towns are 
 Santa Fe (the capital), Albuquerque, Las Vegas, 
 Fernandez de Taos, and Socorro. 
 
 New Mills, a town of Derbyshire, on the Goyt, 
 8J miles ESE. of Stockport. It has manufactures 
 of calico, cotton band, iron, &c. Pop. (1851) 
 4366 ; (1901) 7773. 
 
 Newmilns, a police-burgh of Ayrshire, on the 
 Irvine, 7^ miles E. by S. of Kilmarnock. It 
 manufactures lace and muslins. Pop. 4470. 
 
 Newnham, a town on the Severn, 11 miles SW. 
 of Gloucester. Pop. 1184. 
 
 New Orleans (Or'lee-anz; but often Or-leens'), 
 the chief city of Louisiana, and a great port and 
 mart, is situated on both sides of the Mississippi 
 River — the greater portion on the east bank — 107 
 miles from its mouth, and 1190 miles SW. of 
 New York. The city proper has a river frontage 
 
 of 13 miles, and its western district, 'Algiers,' 
 of 3 miles. The Mississippi makes two bends 
 here, whence the city was called ' The Crescent 
 City,' but it is now shaped like the letter S. 
 The river is from 600 to 1000 yards wide, 
 and 60 to 240 feet deep. The bar at its 
 mouth was removed in 1874-79 by the Eads 
 jetties in South Pass, and vessels of 30 feet now 
 easily reach New Orleans. The city is the 
 second in the United States for exports ; next 
 to Liverpool it is the greatest cotton market 
 of the world. It is the terminus of three canals, 
 and of six large railroads and three local lines, 
 while tliirty lines of steamships connect it with 
 other American and foreign ports. Since 1876 
 it has made great progress in manufactures, 
 particularly in cotton goods, cotton-seed oil, 
 machinery, lumber, furniture, fertilisers, sugar- 
 refining, rice-milling, beer, cigars, &c. The site 
 is perfectly flat, and lies from 3 to 6 feet below 
 the level of tlie Mississipjn at high-water, being 
 protected from overflow by levees or dykes of 
 earth. Similar levees in the rear keep out the 
 waters of Lake Pontchartrain. The soil is satu- 
 rated with water, and cellars are impossible. 
 Hence also in its cemeteries the dead are buried 
 in mounds above the level of the ground. The 
 climate is warm and damp, the mean temperature 
 for the year being 69° F. The summer is tempered 
 
 by winds from the Gulf, and is not oppressively 
 warm. On account of its situation, the city is 
 badly drained. 
 
 Tlie imposing custom-house of granite cost 
 $4,500,000 ; the catliedral of St Louis (1794) is a 
 good sample of Creole-Spanish architecture. The 
 archiepiscopal palace (1737) is the oldest building. 
 Other noteworthy structures are the cotton ex- 
 change, U. S. mint, St Charles Hotel, Christ and 
 St Patrick's churches, Tulane University (known 
 as the University of Louisiana from 1834 to 1883), 
 the affiliated Sophie Newcomb Memorial College 
 (1887) for the higher education of girls, and the 
 Jesuit College of the Immaculate Conception. The 
 Howard Memorial (1888), Tulane, and Louisiana 
 state libraries, all free, contain together 120,000 
 volumes. The Charity Hospital (1784) is the 
 largest institution of its kind in the States, with 
 accommodation for 800 to 1000 persons. There 
 are several parks little improved, but with monu- 
 ments to Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. 
 
 The site of New Orleans was first visited in 
 1699 by Bienville, who in 1718 laid the founda- 
 tions of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. 
 In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the 
 rest of Louisiana ; but when in 1765 the Spanish 
 governor attempted to take possession, he was 
 driven out, and the people established a govern- 
 ment of their own till 1769, when the Spaniards 
 occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802, and 
 transferred to the United States a few days later. 
 Incorporated as a city in 1804, it Avas divided in 
 1836-52 into three separate municipalities, in 
 consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles 
 and the Americans. Other outstanding events 
 have been the defeat of the British by Andrew 
 Jackson in 1815 ; the capture in 1862 by the 
 Federal fleet ; serious political troubles with 
 flghting in 1874 and 1877 ; and the lynching in 
 1891 of 11 Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of 
 Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to 
 Baton Rouge. Pop. (1802) 10,508 ; (1840) 102,193 ; 
 (1880) 216,190 ; (1900) 287,104— very cosmopolitan. 
 
 New Plymouth, the chief town of the pro- 
 vincial district of Taranaki, New Zealand, 220 
 miles NW. of Wellington by rail. Two milea 
 off is an extensive harbour. Pop. 5932. 
 
NEWPORT 
 
 tm 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES 
 
 Newport, (l) the capital of the Isle of Wight, 
 on the navigable Medina, near the centre of the 
 island, 4i miles 8. of Cowes and 10 SW. of Ryde. 
 The church, rebuilt in 1854-56 on the site of one 
 nearly 700 years old, is a fine Decorated edifice, 
 and contains Marochetti's beautiful monument, 
 erected by Queen Victoria in memory of the 
 Princess Elizabeth (died at Carisbrooke Castle in 
 1650). Newport besides lias a town-hall (1810) ; a 
 free grammar-school (1612), the scene in 1648 
 of the fruitless negotiations between the par- 
 liament and Charles I. ; a girls' endowed school 
 (1761) ; a diocesan school (1860) ; and a literary 
 institute and museum. To the north-west 
 are a reformatory (1838) and barracks (1798). 
 A municipal borough, Newport returned two 
 members till 1867, and then one till 1885. Pop. 
 (1851) 8047; (1901) 10,911.— (2) A thriving town 
 of Monmouthshire, and a parliamentary, muni- 
 cipal, and county borough (the first conjointly 
 with Monmouth and Usk), is seated on the river 
 Usk, about 4 miles from its mouth, 24 miles 
 SSW. of Monmouth and 145 W. of London. 
 A principal outlet for great collieries and iron 
 and steel works, it has greatly increased its ship- 
 ping trade and its dock accommodation, which 
 covers more than 80 acres. Amongst its public 
 buildings are the town-hall (1885), erected at a 
 cost of £30,000, and St WooUos' Church, partly 
 Norman and partly Perpendicular. Newport 
 manufactures india-rubber, gutta-percha, and 
 railway and telegraph plant and wagons, and has 
 brass and iron foundries, breweries, potteries. In 
 1839 the town was the centre of a Chartist out- 
 break. Pop. (1801) 1087 ; (1881) 38,427 ; (1901) 
 67,270.— (3) A market-town of Shropshire, on the 
 Shrewsbury Canal, 11 miles WSW. of Stafford. 
 Chartered by Henry I., and burned in 1665, it 
 has a 15th-ceutury chiucli, a grammar-school 
 (1656), and manufactures of machinery and agri- 
 cultural implements. Population, 3500. — (4) A 
 town of Pembrokeshire, on Newport Bay, 6 miles 
 E. by N. of Fisliguard. Pop. 1337. 
 
 Newport, a town of Fife, on the Firth of Tay, 
 IJ mile by water SSE. of Dundee. It has a small 
 harbour designed by Telford (1822), and municipal 
 buildings (1890). Pop. 3000. 
 
 Newport, (1) a watering-place of County Mayo, 
 11 miles NW. of Castlebar. Pop. 578.— (2) A 
 town of Tipperary, on the Mulkear, 11 miles NE. 
 of Limerick. Pop. 637. 
 
 Newport, (1) capital of Campbell county, Ken- 
 tucky, is on the Ohio, opposite Cincinnati, and at 
 the mouth of the Licking River, which separates 
 it from Covington. The city contains large roll- 
 ing-mills, a foundrv, bolt-works, tile-works, and 
 steam-mills. Pop. (1880) 15,693 ; (1900) 28,301.— 
 (2) Fourth of the cities of Rhode Island, on the 
 west shore of the island of Rhode Island, in 
 Narragansett Bay, 5 miles from the ocean, and 69 
 miles by rail S. by W. of Boston. It has a deep, 
 excellent harbour, defended by Fort Adams, and 
 a torpedo station; also cotton-mills, a brass- 
 foundry, lead and fish-oil works, &c. There are 
 a brick state-house, a custom-house, a city-hall, 
 the Redwood Library, inany palatial villas, and 
 large hotels ; it is one of the most fashionable 
 watering-places in America. In Touro Park 
 stands the ' Round Tower," or • Old Stone Mill,' 
 which suggested Longfellow's 'Skeleton in 
 Armour.' It was settled in 1638 by eighteen 
 adherents of Roger Williams ; Bishop Berkeley 
 resided here. Till 1900 it shared with Providence 
 the dignity of capital of the state. Pop. (1880) 
 15,693; (1890)19,457; (1900)22,034. 
 
 Newport News, an important seaport ( 
 Virginia, on the estuary of the James River, 1 
 miles SE. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 19,635. 
 
 Newport-Pagnell, a market-town of Buckini 
 hamshire, at the influx of the Ousel to the Ous^ 
 56 miles NNW. of London. The fine parish churc 
 was restored in 1858. Pop. 4030. 
 
 Newquay, a bathing-resort on the N. coast ( 
 Cornwall, 12 miles N. of Truro. Pop. 3115. 
 
 New Quay, a watering-place on an inlet of Card 
 gan Bay, 5 miles SW. of Aberayron. Pop. 3284. 
 
 New River, an artificial cut, running 38 mile 
 southward from Chadswell Springs in Hertfort 
 shire into reservoirs at Hornsey and Stoke Nev 
 ington. It was designed for the water-suppl 
 of London, and completed (1609-20) at a cost c 
 £500,000 by Sir Hugh Myddelton, goldsmith, wh 
 died poor in 1631. The seventy-five origim 
 shares, sold for £100 apiece, sell now at the rat 
 of from £85,200 to £95,100. 
 
 New Roohelle, a town of villas, on Long Islan 
 Sound, 17 miles NE. of New York. Pop. 14,720 
 
 New Romney. See Romney. 
 
 New Ross, a market-town and river-port c 
 Leinster, on the Barrow, partly in Kilkenny, bu 
 chiefly in Wexford, 92 miles S. by W. of Dubli 
 and 15 NE. of Waterford. The two portions c 
 the town are connected by an iron swing-bridf2 
 (1869). Before the Union New Ross— Old Ros 
 lies 5 miles E. — returned two members, and dow 
 to 1885 one. Pop. 5840. 
 
 Newry, a seaport, mainly in County Down, bu 
 partly in Armagh, on the Newry River, 38 mik 
 SSW. of Belfast by rail. A canal connects i 
 with Carlingford Lough and with Lough Neagl 
 Flax spinning and weaving, with rope and sa 
 making, tanning, and granite-polishing, are tli 
 industries. The castle was taken by Edwar 
 Bruce in 1318. Newry returns one M.P. Poj 
 (1851) 13,191 ; (1901) 12,884. 
 
 New Shoreham. See Shoreham. 
 
 New Siberia, a Siberian group of uninhabite 
 islands, rocky and icebound, in the Arctic Oceai 
 between the mouths of the Lena and Indigirki 
 The principal are Kotelnoi (the largest), Liakhoi 
 Fadeyeff, and New Siberia. 
 
 New South Wales, the oldest colony of Am 
 tralasia, now a state of the Australian Commoi 
 wealth. The name formerly applied to the whol 
 of the eastern part of Australia ; but since tli 
 delimitation of the other 'colonies' New Sout 
 Wales, lying between Queensland, Victoria, an 
 South Australia, has an area of 310,700 sq. ni 
 five times the size of England. Of the Australia 
 states it is fourth in area, and in 1901 first i 
 population. A series of mountain-chains, 20 t 
 100 miles distant from the sea, extend soutl 
 ward from near Cape York. The southernmo; 
 are the Australian Alps, running into Victori; 
 which culminate in Mounts Townsend (7350 fee 
 and Kosciusko (7308 feet). Northward are tl 
 Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, with peal 
 4000 feet, and containing the Jenolan Cav( 
 (q.v.). Liverpool Range is more northerly ; an 
 the New England hills, north-east, rise 5000 fee 
 With the exception of some isolated mountain 
 the region to the west consists of vast plain 
 up to the Barrier Ranges near South Australi; 
 The mountains give birth to short and rapi 
 streams toward the sea, but long and sluggis 
 ones westward. The Hawkesbury or Nepeai 
 Hunter, Clarence, Shoalhaven, and Macleay ai 
 eastern. The Lachlan, 700 miles long, runs int 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES 
 
 501 
 
 NEWTON-IN-MAKERFIELD 
 
 the Murrunibidgee, which flows 1350 miles before 
 falling into the Murray. The Murray, after 1100 
 miles on the New South Wales border, passes 
 into South Australia. The Darling, rising in 
 Queensland, has more than 1000 miles through 
 the colony before reaching the Murray. The 
 Macquarie and Namoi go northward to the 
 Darling. The dry interior has few streams. 
 There are some fine bays on the coast. The 
 capital, Sydney (q.v.), is on Port Jackson, and 
 is the headquarters of the Australian naval 
 squadron. The sea-coast, with from 40 to 70 
 inches of rain a year, differs much from the west- 
 ern interior, where in some years as little as 5 
 inches may fall. But the climate is so uncertain 
 that a region may suffer from fearful drought in 
 one season and floods in another. Cold and ice 
 with heavy snows may be experienced on the lofty 
 plains ; but Sydney, 33° 50' lat., had no snow in 
 thirty years. Though in summer the thermo- 
 meter may rise to beyond 100°, the nights are 
 generally cool. The eucalyjjtus-tree prevails in 
 the colony, but acacias also are common, and 
 pines and cedars, as well as palms in the north- 
 east. The fauna consists mainly of marsupials. 
 Birds are of great variety, many of very beautiful 
 plumage, and some of pleasant note. Insects 
 are numerous, and not always welcome. Liz- 
 ards and snakes may run to a good size, but 
 there are no alligators. Fish, especially in the 
 bays, are plentiful. The Silurian and Devonian 
 formations, with granitic, igneous, and meta- 
 morphic rocks, are rich in gold, silver, lead, 
 copper, tin, and other metals. Gold, known in 
 1823, and first worked in 1851, near Bathurst, is 
 found over an area of 70,000 sq. m. The output 
 to 1903 was close on £53,000,000. Silver abounds 
 in the Barrier Ranges near South Australia ; dis- 
 covered in 1883, the silver area is 100 miles by 12 ; 
 the Broken Hill Company had, to 1903, raised 
 115,500,000 oz. Copper extends over 8000 sq. m. 
 Tin, lead (chiefly from silver-mines), antimony, 
 manganese, bismuth, &c. are mined. Iron is 
 abundant, but not profitable owing to the cost of 
 labour. The diamond, emerald, zircon, sapphire, 
 topaz, &c. occur. Asbestos, zinc, mercury, cobalt, 
 alum, graphite, kaolin, and building-stone are 
 also found. Coal, the most valuable mineral, ex- 
 tends over 24,000 sq. m. ; in 1903, 6,354,846 tons 
 were raised, value £2,319,660. There is rich 
 kerosene shale in tlie Blue Mountains. 
 
 New South Wales is a great pastoral coun- 
 try, and owns 50,000,000 sheep. The stock was 
 originally imported from Bengal and the Cape ; 
 but as their wool was rather hairy, the breed 
 was improved by the introduction of Spanish 
 merinoes. Wool exports exceed 200,000,000 lb. 
 weight annually. While 140,000,000 acres are 
 devoted to flocks and herds, there are little over 
 2 million acres devoted to culture, of which total 
 1,561,100 acres are under wheat, and 226,834 
 acres maize. The principal crops are wheat, 
 maize, barley, oats, potatoes, lucerne, and 
 tobacco, with sugar and wine. The sugar- 
 plantations in the north-east are not so pro- 
 ductive as in Queensland ; nor are tlie apple- 
 orchards and potato-furrows equal to those of 
 Tasmania. But all tlie fruits that thrive in 
 Englajid and Italy grow here. Tlie trade of New 
 South Wales, long a free-trade colony, exceeds 
 that of any of the neighbouring states. From 
 1893 to 1003 the exports varied from £20,577,673 
 to £28,445,466, and the imports from £15,801,941 
 to £27,561,071. The chief exports to Britain are 
 wool, tin, silver ore, copper, tallow, and leather. 
 The imports from Britain are iron goods, cloth- 
 
 ing, cottons and woollens. Over 3200 miles of 
 railway are in use. Tlie governor is appointed 
 by the Imperial Government. The executive is 
 of 8 ministers ; the Upper House or Legislative 
 Council has 61 members ; the Lower, or Legis- 
 lative Assembly, 90 members, receiving £300 a 
 year. The franchise is adult, including females 
 since 1902. The parliament is triennial. In 1901 
 New South Wales joined with the other Australian 
 colonies in forming the Commonwealth of Aus- 
 tralia, and to the Federal parliament it sends 6 
 senators and 26 members to the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. The revenue in 1904 was £11,248,328. 
 The public debt, contracted for useful works, was 
 £80,033,581. The militia and volunteer forces 
 comprise about 14,500 men. The pop. (1901), 
 1,359,133, of whom 646,677 were female, included 
 7434 aborigines, black and half-caste. The Church 
 of England claims nearly one-half the population, 
 the Roman Catholic about one-fourth. There are 
 technological, industrial, and general museums, 
 picture-galleries, public libraries, schools of arts, 
 and mining schools ; and a noble state university, 
 having affiliated colleges, crowns the educational 
 edifice. The colony was established in 1788, under 
 Governor Phillip, with a party of transported 
 prisoners from England. For years the settlement 
 suffered much from want of food. The introduc- 
 tion of free colonists, to whom grants of land 
 were given, promoted pastoral and agricultural 
 pursuits ; and the change from despotism to re- 
 sponsible government was gradually made. The 
 cessation of transportation in 1840 was followed 
 by social and political advance ; and the gold 
 discovery in 1851 gave a great impetus to in- 
 dustry and prosperity. A great wave of depres- 
 sion and financial difficulty passed over this 
 and the other Australasian colonies in 1893. 
 
 See Australia and works there cited ; Dilke's 
 Problems of Greater Britain (1890) ; and works on 
 New South Wales by Flanagan (1862), TroUope 
 (1874), Lang (1875), Griffin (1888), Coghlan (1890), 
 and Barton (1890 et seq.). 
 
 Newstead Abbey, 10 miles NNW. of Notting- 
 ham, on the border of Sherwood Forest, was 
 founded for Augustinian Canons by Henry II. 
 in atonement for Becket's murder (1170), and in 
 1540, after the dissolution, was given to 'Sir 
 John Byron the Little, with the great beard.' 
 His descendant, the poet Lord Byron, made the 
 half-ruinous old place his home in 1808, but sold 
 it in 1818, since which time about £100,000 have 
 been spent on its restoration. 
 
 New Sweden. See Pennsylvania. 
 
 Newton, (1) capital of Harvey county, Kansas, 
 134 miles by rail SW. of Topeka, is the centre 
 of a rich coalfield. Pop. 6605.— (2) A city of 
 Massachusetts, 7 miles WSW. of Boston by rail, 
 and almost surrounded by the Charles River. It 
 manufactures cloth, silk, shoddy, machinery, 
 glue, &c. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Newton-Abbot, a market-town of Devonshire, 
 at the influx of the Lemon to the Teign estuary, 
 15 miles (by rail 20) S. of Exeter. Ford House 
 has lodged both Charles I. and William of Orange, 
 who here in 1688 was first proclaimed king. Pop. 
 12,800. 
 
 Newton Heath, a north-eastern ward of the 
 city of Manchester. 
 
 Newton-in-Makerfield (otherwise Newton-le- 
 WiLLOWs), with its suburb of Earlstown, a thriv- 
 ing town of Lancashire, 16 miles E. of Liverpool 
 and 16 W. of Manchester. An important railway 
 junction, it has grown rapidly, and has print- 
 ing-works, paper-mills, iron-foundries, a sugar- 
 
NEWTON-SfEWARf 
 
 502 
 
 NEW YORK CITY 
 
 refinery, brick-fields, and railway-works. On 
 the neighbouring fine racecourse a meeting is held 
 annually in July, At Parkside, i mile distant, 
 Mr Huskisson met with the accident which caused 
 his death, at the opening of the railway (1830). 
 Newton returned two M.P.s from 1558 to 1832. 
 Pop. (1801) 1455 ; (1881) 10,580 ; (1901) 16,699. 
 
 Newton-Stewart, a town of Wigtownshire, 
 near the mouth of the Cree, 50 miles by rail W. 
 of Dumfries. It owes its name to a son of the 
 Earl of Galloway, who obtained a charter making 
 it a burgh of barony in 1677. Its buildings are 
 a fine town-hall (1884) and an endowed school, 
 the Ewart Institute (1864). Pop. 263a 
 Newton-upon-Ayr. See Ayr. 
 Newtown (Welsh Drefnewydd ; anc. Llanfair 
 Cedewain), a town of Montgomeryshire, 13 miles 
 SS W. of Welshpool. It is the centre of the Welsh 
 flannel manufacture, and also produces tweeds, 
 shawls, &c. With Montgomery, (fee, it returns 
 one member. Robert Owen was a native. Pop. 
 6500. 
 
 Newtownards, a town of County Down, 14 
 miles E. of Belfast by rail. Flax-spinning, 
 muslin-weaving and embroidering, and nursery- 
 gardening are industries, and there are large 
 markets. Pop. (1851) 9567 ; (1901) 9110. 
 
 Newtownbarry, a Wexford market-town, 9 
 miles NW. of Ferns. Pop. 909. 
 
 Newtown Hamilton, a market-town, 12 miles 
 SE. of Armagh. Pop. 688. 
 
 Newtown St Boswells, a Roxburghshire 
 village, 40J miles SE. of Edinburgh, on the Tweed, 
 opposite Dryburgh. Pop. 620. 
 
 New Westminster, formerly the capital of 
 British Columbia, is on the north bank of the 
 Fraser River, 10 miles from its mouth and 113 
 miles by rail and steamer NNE. of Victoria, on 
 Vancouver Island. Here are saw-mills and great 
 salmon-canning establishments. Pop. C700. 
 
 New York, the ' empire state ' of the American 
 Union, is the twenty-fifth in area and the first 
 in population. It has a very irregular outline ; 
 two-thirds along the shores of Lake Erie, the 
 Niagara River, Lake Ontario, the St Lawrence, 
 and Lake Cham plain, and the rest artificial 
 straight lines. Area, 49,170 sq. m., or almost 
 that of England. Long Island is the largest, 
 and Manhattan, containing the most populous 
 part of New York City, the most important 
 of the many islands. The state is traversed 
 by numerous chains of mountains and hills, 
 among which lie beautiful valleys. There is 
 also much rolling land, and there are several 
 extensive plains. The greatest elevations are in 
 the E. and NE., but nearly all the SE. part 
 is hilly or mountainous. From this highland 
 region the land slopes gradually, and declines 
 in a series of terraces, north and west toward 
 Lake Ontario. The most level portions are 
 those bordering that lake and the St Lawrence 
 River. The mountainous region in the east is 
 cut by the gap of the Mohawk River. The 
 narrow valley of this stream, once traversed by 
 a mighty river which drained the great Ontario 
 basin, joins at right angles the deep depression 
 in which are Lake Cham plain, Lake George, and 
 the Hudson River. Both of these valleys pass 
 directly through the Appalachian system of 
 mountains, and divide the state into three distinct 
 sections. The mountains are also disposed in 
 three groups. The Adirondacks (highest point. 
 Mount Marcy, 5400 feet), in the NE., are com- 
 pletely isolated by the valleys of Lake Champlain 
 
 and the Mohawk River. South of the Mohaw] 
 valley are the Catskills with the Helderberg am 
 Shawangunk Mountains, covering an area of abou 
 500 sq. m. The Shawangunk Mountains are con 
 tinuous with the Blue or Kittatinny Mountain 
 of Pennsylvania. The Taconic range of Nca 
 England enters the state still farther south, an( 
 passes south-westerly into New Jersey. Thi 
 range is cut by the Hudson River, and forms th 
 celebrated Highlands. There are extensive iron 
 mines, deposits of lead, copper, zinc, &c., an( 
 abundance of building-stones. The salt-springs 
 especially those of the Onondaga salt group, ar 
 of great value. There are also valuable petroleuii 
 springs, and mineral and medicinal springs. 
 
 The most important river belonging entirely t 
 the state is the Hudson. The Oswego, drainin: 
 a chain of central lakes, the Black, and th 
 Genesee are afiluents of Lake Ontario; the S 
 Lawrence forms part of the northern boundary 
 the Niagara connects Lakes Erie and Ontario 
 and the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and th 
 Alleghany rise within and drain the southeri 
 portions of the state. New York lies mainly ii 
 the lake region of North America, and claim 
 the eastern part of Lake Erie, one-half of Lak^ 
 Ontario, and one-half of Lake Champlain. Lak^ 
 George and the Adirondack lakes are in the NE 
 The mountains, rivers, lakes, and waterfall 
 (including Niagara) of New York make it famou; 
 for its scenery. Other beautiful falls are tin 
 Falls of the Genesee, Trenton Falls, the Kaaters 
 kill Falls in the Catskills, and those of Cohoes 
 Ticonderoga, and at Watkin's Glen. The averagi 
 temperature is about 47° F. , with a range of ove: 
 100°. More than one-half the area is undei 
 cultivation. In the lake valleys there are manj 
 vineyards ; hops and tobacco are crops ; near Nev 
 York and the other large cities market-gardening 
 is profitable. But manufacturing is the leading 
 industry, and in the value of its manufacturec 
 products New York is the foremost state of th( 
 Union. Moreover, its geographical position anc 
 its natural avenues of communication with othei 
 parts of the country, together with the system oi 
 canals and railroads, make it the leading com 
 mercial state. Of several canals the Erie is th( 
 most important, and within the state there an 
 nearly 8000 miles of railway. 
 
 Before the coming of the whites the territorj 
 now known as New York was occupied by the 
 Iroquois Indians. Almost simultaneously, in 1609, 
 Samuel Champlain discovered the lake whicli 
 bears his name, and Henry Hudson explored the 
 Hudson River as far as the present site of Albany, 
 A few years later settlements were made by the 
 Dutch, but they were looked upon as intruders 
 by the English, who in 1664 forced them to sur- 
 render their city of New Amsterdam (New York 
 City, q.v.). In the struggle for independence, 
 in the war of 1812, and in the civil war New York 
 played a prominent part. No other state has 
 so many large cities and thriving towns. New 
 York City is the centre of a thickly populated 
 district, which is second only to Loiidon in the 
 number of its people and the importance of its 
 commercial interests. The other most important 
 cities are Albany (the capital), Buff'alo, Rochester, 
 Syracuse, Troy, Utica, Yonkers, Binghamton, 
 Sclieiiectady, Auburn, Elmira, Oswego, Kingston, 
 Pouglikeepsie, Colioes, Newburgh, Hudson, and 
 Dunkirk. Pop. (1800) 589,051 ; (1850) 3,097,394; 
 (1880) 5,082,871 ; (1900) 7,268,894. 
 
 New York City, the largest and most impor- 
 tant city on the American continent, the third 
 wealthiest ou the globe, and, next to London, 
 
New YORK CITT? 
 
 m 
 
 New ZEALANfi 
 
 the most populous in the world. It is situated 
 at the mouth of the Hudson River, which enters 
 the Atlantic Ocean tli rough New York Bay. 
 Previous to 1874 the city only included Man- 
 hattan Island, but in that year and in 1895 it was 
 extended ; and in 1898 a greater extension took in 
 Kings county, part of Queens county (Long 
 Island), Richmond county (Staten Island), and 
 the towns of East Chester and Pelham. For 
 administrative purposes the whole is now divided 
 into five boroughs — Queens, Brooklyn, Richmond, 
 the Bronx, and Manhattan— and the total area is 
 309 square miles. 
 
 The bar at Sandy Hook, 18 miles south of the 
 city, which divides the Atlantic Ocean from the 
 outer or lower bay, is crossed by two ship-channels, 
 from 21 to 32 feet deep at ebb-tide. The lower 
 bay covers 88 sq. m. The Narrows, through which 
 all large ships pass on their way to the inner 
 harbour, is a strait between Long Island and 
 Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like 
 other approaches is defended by forts. New 
 York's harbour or inner bay covers about 14 sq. 
 m. ; it is one of the amplest, safest, and most 
 picturesque on the globe, open all the year 
 round. Bridges span the East River and Harlem 
 River, and there are some thirty steam-ferries. 
 The city is the centre of finance and commerce of 
 the United States. Of the total trade of the 
 States about 46 per cent, passes through New 
 York, and the tonnage of vessels entering the 
 port in 1904 was 9,235,524, and of the vessels 
 cleared 8,000,590. The annual exports of mer- 
 chandise amount to about $550,000,000, tlie im- 
 ports to over $530,000,000. Much business is 
 also done at the wharves of Brooklyn (q.v.). 
 Liberty Island, in the harbour, about If mile 
 from tlie city, contains the statue of Liberty 
 (1886) by Bartholdi. The New York and Brooklyn 
 (q.v.) Suspension Bridge and the new East River 
 Bridge (1896-1904) span the East River. 
 
 Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here 
 the money interests and wholesale traffic are 
 centred ; Wall, New, and Broad streets being 
 the great centres of banking and speculative 
 enterprises. The newer part of the city, from 
 14th Street to the end of the island, northward, 
 is divided into twelve great avenues and several 
 smaller ones, from 75 to 150 feet in width, 
 running north and south. These are crossed at 
 right angles by streets, mostly 60 feet in width, 
 running from river to river. Fifth Avenue, the 
 great modern central thoroughfare, divides the 
 city into eastside and westside. Several of the 
 city's avenues are traversed their full length by 
 elevated steam passenger- railroads. Twenty 
 street blocks measure a mile, and every tenth 
 street is double the usual width, designed for 
 business purposes. Wooden buildings have been 
 interdicted in the lower part of the city. The 
 modern method is to build roomy, tall, fireproof 
 and semi -fireproof structures for apartmoit- 
 houses and for business purposes, the ascent 
 being by elevators. Most of these range from 
 75 to 100 feet in height ; some of them run to 
 twenty stories, constructed of steel frames filled 
 in with non-combustible material. Many of 
 them are costly and elegant. Among prominent 
 
 Eublic edifices are the City Hall, County Court- 
 ouse, Custom-house, Treasury Building, Tombs 
 (prison). Barge Office, Masonic Temple, Academy 
 of Design, Cooper Union, Post-office, Produce 
 Exchange, Madison Square Garden Hall, Uni- 
 versity of the City of New York, Lenox Library, 
 Temple Emanuel, Trinity Church, and the Roman 
 Catholic cathedral, besides large, imposing hotels 
 
 and palatial dwellings and business depots. Im- 
 mense retail bazaars and arcades are found on 
 Broadway, Grand Street, 14th, 23d, and 125th 
 Streets, and 3d, 6th, and 8th Avenues. 
 
 The city government is under a mayor and 
 board of aldermen ; these offices are mostly filled 
 by adopted citizens from Ireland and Germany. 
 New York has a fire-department conducted at an 
 annual expense of $5,000,000, divided into 300 
 companies with 3000 men. The Croton Aqueduct 
 conveys an ample supply of water from the 
 Croton River and its lakes, a distance of about 
 40 miles, to the four reservoirs of the city. The 
 New York General Post-office building, erected 
 of granite, at a cost of $6,500,000, was first occu- 
 pied in 1875. The Battery Green encloses twenty- 
 one acres, and occupies the southern point of 
 Manhattan Island. On its west side is Castle 
 Garden (q.v.), Central Park (1857), comprising 
 843 acres of beautifully laid out grounds, con- 
 tains the Egyptian obelisk (1880), and museums 
 of Art and Natural History. Other parks are 
 Riverside, Jerome, Van Cortlandt parks. Nearly 
 300 newspapers (daily, weekly, and monthly) 
 are published— some in foreign languages. There 
 are three general colleges— Columbia, the Uni- 
 versity of the City of New York, and the College 
 of the City of New York, besides the Normal 
 College, Union Theological Seminary (Presby- 
 terian), the Episcopal Seminary, &c. Among 
 libraries may be naTued the Astor (300,000 
 vols.), Mercantile (250,000), and Columbia College 
 (110,000). The Museum of Art, Museum of 
 Natural History, and Lenox Gallery are free. 
 Noted clubs are the Manhattan, IJnion, New 
 York, St Nicholas, Knickerbocker, Union League, 
 University, Lotus, Harmonic, and Century. 
 
 John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the 
 first European who entered New York Bay, in 1525. 
 In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan 
 Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was 
 made, named Nieuw Amsterdam. In 1674 Man- 
 hattan Island came into the possession of Great 
 Britain, who gave it the name New York, in honour 
 of James, Duke of York. At the Revolution the 
 population was less than that of Philadelphia and 
 Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great 
 Britain in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the 
 seat of government of the United States. Pop. 
 (1774) 22,861 ; (1800) 60,489 ; (1825) 166,136 ; (1850) 
 550,394; (1860) 813,669; (1870) 942,292; (1880) 
 1,206,599; (1890) 1,515,301; and 'Greater New 
 York ' (1900) 3,437,202. See Histories by Lossing 
 (1885), Roosevelt (1891), and Grant Wilson (4 vols. 
 1891-93); and Historic New York, by Misses 
 Goodwin, Royce, and Putnam (1898). 
 
 New Zealand, a British colony in the South 
 Pacific Ocean, comprises three main islands— 
 North Island, South or Middle Island, and Stewart 
 Island, the last being much the smallest — besides 
 a number of islets. The North and South Islands 
 are long and narrow, so that no place is more 
 than 75 miles from the coast. They lie 1200 miles 
 E. of Australia, and stretch 600 miles farther 
 south. The main islands have a length of 1100 
 miles, and lie between 34° 22' and 47° 18' S. lat. 
 and 166° 27' and 178° 34' E. long. The total area 
 of the colony is 106,240 sq. ra., or about one- 
 eighth less than that of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land. Cook Strait, a deep and somewhat stormy 
 passage of 13 miles, separates the North and 
 South Islands. Foveaux Strait (15 miles) 
 divides the South Island from Stewart Island. 
 In its northern half the North Island is deeply 
 indented by the sea, and contains many excel- 
 lent harbours ; the southern half has but one 
 
NEW ZEALAND 
 
 504 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 harbour, that of Wellington in the SW. corner. 
 The coast of the South Island is little broken 
 except in the mountainous north-east and south- 
 west corners ; but the volcanic projections of 
 Banks and Otago peninsulas supply commodi- 
 ous harbours. The great ports are Auck- 
 land, Napier, and Wellington in the North 
 Island, and Lyttelton, Dunedin (Port Chalmers), 
 and Bluff Harbour in the South Island. New 
 Zealand is composed of rocks of all geological 
 ages, and the chief mountain-chains are of great 
 antiquity. Both of the great island s are traversed 
 by a great mountain-chain running NE. and 
 SW., which practically divides them into an 
 eastern and a western side, between which traffic 
 is mainly carried on by sea. Resting on the 
 main chain of the North Island on its west side 
 lies a vast triangular plateau. On this stand up 
 two extinct volcanoes — the majestic cone of 
 Mount Egmont, near the west coast, and the 
 massive Ruapehu (9008 feet) in the centre, with 
 the active cone of Tongariro hard by. In this 
 plateau the chief rivers of the North Island take 
 their rise. The Waikato, the largest and longest, 
 passes through the beautiful Lake Taupo, and at 
 length flows out on the west coast. The better 
 lands of the South Island are now mostly taken 
 up, but in the North Island there remain vast 
 tracts of excellent land waiting to be cleared. 
 Much of it belongs to the natives. Two-thirds 
 of the South Island is covered by the broad and 
 lofty chain of the Southern Alps, and its eastern 
 and southern offshoots. It culminates in Mount 
 Cook (12,349 feet), mantled by glaciers of greater 
 magnitude than any in the Alps of Europe. This 
 elevated region is penetrated by the great valleys 
 of the numerous rivers flowing away to the east 
 and south. The principal rivers are the Buller, 
 Waimakariri, Waitaki, Clutha, and Waiau. The 
 vast Canterbury plains skirt the east coast, 
 and the Southlands plain lies between the moun- 
 tains of Otago and the south coast. The west coast 
 consists of a narrow belt of low land clothed with 
 impenetrable forest, save where miners and 
 fanning settlers have made clearings, and where 
 the broad river-beds come down to the sea. In 
 the North Island much of the finest land is 
 covered by forests of tropical luxuriance, which 
 ascend the mountains to a height of 4000 feet, 
 but the greater part of the South Island is very 
 scantily supplied with timber, and mountains 
 and lowlands alike are open and well grassed. 
 The climate is one of the best and healthiest 
 in the world. Owing to the great length of 
 the islands it presents considerable variety, and 
 the direction of the mountain-chains increases 
 the difference due to latitude alone. The average 
 temperature is remarkably equable, and the air 
 is singularly fresh, being constantly agitated 
 by winds (sometimes chilly and boisterous). 
 The average daily range of temperature is 20°. 
 The average annual temperature of the North 
 Island is 7° higher than that of London, and 
 of the South Island 4°. The great peninsula 
 north of Manukau Harbour gnjoys a humid semi- 
 tropical climate, and is the home of the kauri pine. 
 Near the western seaboard the climate is more 
 equable and much moister than on the long 
 eastern and northern slopes. More rain falls than 
 in England, and the weather is generally more 
 changeable, but there are fewer wet days. The 
 country is everywhere well watered, and prolonged 
 droughts are unknown. Snow seldom falls even 
 in the south. The mildness of the winter allows 
 cattle and horses to remain in the fields without 
 shelter. For variety, picturesqueness, and wild 
 
 grandeur, the scenery of New Zealand is unrivalled 
 in the southern hemisphere. In the North Island 
 is the wonderland of the volcanic belt, remarkable 
 for its hot lakes and pools, which possess great 
 curative virtue for all rheumatic and skin diseases, 
 its boiling geysers, steaming fumaroles, sulphur- 
 basins, and pumice plains. The exquisite siliceous 
 terraces of Rotomahana are now buried beneath 
 the debris of Mount Tarawera, shattered by the 
 gigantic explosion of June 1886. In the South 
 Island the Central Alps of the Mount Cook dis- 
 trict display to the visitor the grandest glaciers 
 in the temperate zones, and splendid clusters of 
 snowy mountain-peaks. Farther south are the 
 lovely Otago lakes, embosomed in mountains 5000 
 to 8000 feet high. Near Milford Sound are the 
 famous Sutherland Falls, 1904 feet high. 
 
 New Zealand is a group of true oceanic islands. 
 Originally it contained no mammals except two 
 species of bat. The next highest animals were 
 a few small lizards. Among the birds are several 
 parrots, one of which — the mountain kea — has 
 acquired the habit of killing sheep, and several 
 wingless kiwis or apteryxes, the puny surviving 
 relatives of the gigantic but extinct Moas. The 
 Maoris brought dogs with them, and doubtless 
 the native rat also. Cook gave them pigs. The 
 colonists introduced the common domesticated 
 animals of Europe. Many kinds of English 
 birds, and also black swans from Australia have 
 been established in the country. Unfortunately 
 rabbits also have been acclimatised, and become 
 a serious pest, which it costs more than £100,000 
 a year to keep in check. Fresh-water fishes of 
 many kinds have been introduced with great 
 success. Nearly all the native trees and shrubs 
 are evergreen. The most important plants are 
 the timber-trees. The Phormium or native flax 
 grows wild in great profusion. Ferns of many 
 kinds greatly abound, including numerous tree- 
 ferns. The fruit and other trees of temperate 
 zones thrive admirably. European grasses and 
 trefoils spread with great rapidity, and so do 
 weeds of every kind. Considerable tracts of the 
 Canterbury and the inland plains are shallow 
 and arid, and require irrigation. The principal 
 crops are wheat, oats, barley; of other agricul- 
 tural produce wool, frozen meat, butter and 
 cheese are the most important. 
 
 The chief mineral product is gold, mainly from 
 alluvial workings. The annual produce which 
 declined till 1890 (when it was £773,438), increased 
 in 1903 again to £2,037,831. Silver, lead, copper, 
 antimony, and manganese are produced in small 
 quantities. The coal raised in 1903 was 710,096 
 tons. The manufactures, stimulated by liigli pro- 
 tective duties, are mainly woollen cloths, avooIs, 
 hosiery, blankets, soap, candles, leather, biscuits 
 and confectionery, boots and shoes, paper, 
 machinery and implements, apparel, ropes and 
 twine, beer, &c. From 1893 to 1903 the imports 
 rose from £6,911,515 to £12,788,675 a year, and 
 the exports from £8,985,364 to £15,010,378. 
 Tlie imports from Britain in these years were 
 between £4,000,000 and £7,512,668 ; the exports to 
 Britain between £7,036,515 and £11,345,075. The 
 chief exports were in 1903, wool (£4,044,223), 
 frozen meat (£3,197,043), gold (£2,038,075), butter 
 and cheese (£1,513,065), kauri gum (£631,102), 
 flax (£595,684), grain (£494,689), tallow, sheep, 
 hides and leather. The imports are mainly 
 clothing and cloth ; iron and steel goods ; sugar ; 
 paper, books, and stationery ; spirits, wines, and 
 beer; tea; tobacco and cigars; fruit; and oils. 
 The revenue of the colony has in 1893-190S 
 increased from £4,407,964 to £7,201,002, and 
 
NEZHIN 
 
 505 
 
 NICARAGUA 
 
 always exceeds the expeiulituve. The debt in 
 1904 was £57,522,215. There are 2440 imles of 
 railway ; and the islands are connected with one 
 another, with New South Wales, and so with the 
 rest of the world, by telegraphs. Elementary 
 education is free, compulsory, and secular. Ihe 
 three university colleges at Auckland, Christ- 
 church, and Dunedin, attended by 700 students, 
 are affiliated to the University of New Zealand, 
 an examining body which grants degrees. 
 
 White pop. (1851) 26,707 ; (1861) 99,022 ; (1871) 
 256,260 ; (1881) 489,933 ; (1901) 772,719, besides 
 43 143 Maoris (almost all in North Island). 516,106 
 were born in the colony; 111,964 in England, 
 47,858 in Scotland, 43,524 in Ireland, and 1765 in 
 Wales. Only 18,593 were of non-British de.scent, 
 including 2900 Chinese. Of the total, 603,916 
 were Protestants. Anglicans predominate in 
 Canterbury, Presbyterians in Otago, and there 
 are many Wesleyans. Up to 1876 the North 
 Island was divided into four provinces— Auck- 
 land, Hawke Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington; 
 and the South Island into five— Nelson, Marl- 
 borough, Canterbury, Westland, and Otago. 
 These are now known as provincial districts, and 
 subdivided into numerous counties. The colony 
 is administered by a governor with a ministry of 
 8 members, a legislative council of 45 members 
 appointed by the governor, and a legislative 
 assembly of SO members (four being Maoris 
 elected by natives) elected by adult suffrage, in- 
 cluding women. Wellington is the capital (pop. 
 49,844). Auckland is the largest city (pop. 67,226). 
 The other chief towns are Napier, Waiiganui, and 
 New Plymouth in the North Island ; and Nelson, 
 Blenheim, Christchurch (57,041), Timarii, Oaniaru, 
 Dunedin (52,390), and Invercargill in the South 
 Island. Stewart Island has a sparse population 
 on the north-east coast, and several excellent 
 liarbours. The Maori natives belong to the 
 Polynesian race, and are well-built, generous, 
 and warlike ; cannibalism was associated with 
 their warfare. Tliey still own large areas of land, 
 on which they raise crops and keep great numbers 
 of sheep, but they are not very industrious. 
 The islands were discovered by Tasinan, (and 
 called Nova Zeelanda, in 1642, but became known 
 really through Captain Cook. Some trade sprang 
 up early in the 19th century, and the islands 
 became definitely British in 1840 ; there were 
 wars with the Maoris in 1843 and 1869, and self- 
 government was granted in 1852. See books on 
 New Zealand by Hochstetter (1867), Pennefather 
 (1893), and Pember Reeves (1898), besides the 
 official and other handbooks ; and histories by 
 Rusden (1895) and Frank Parsons (Phila. 1904). 
 
 Nezhin, or Nizhan, a town in the government 
 of Tchernigov, Russia, on the Oster River, about 
 80 miles NE. of Kiev. It has a historico-philo- 
 logical institute of high rank, with a library of 
 60,000 volumes. Tobacco is cultivated in the 
 vicinity, and vegetables and fruit are important 
 products. Pop. 32,100. 
 
 Ngami (Ngah'mee; ng as in shig), Lake, a 
 former South African lake, in Southern Rhodesia 
 and situated at the northern extremity of the 
 Kalahari Desert, in 20° 30' S. lat. and 23° E. long., 
 at an altitude of 2810 feet. When discovered by 
 Livingstone in 1849, it was a lake of about 60 
 miles long by 10 to 20 miles broad, its chief 
 tributary being the Cubango. It is now only a 
 reed-grown swamp in the dry season. 
 
 Ngan-king, one of the interior Chinese 
 ports, capital of the province of Ngan-hwei, 
 opened to foreigu commerce in 1897, is situated 
 
 on the Yang-tsze-kiang, 190 miles SW. of Nanking. 
 Pop. about 40,000. 
 
 Niagara (iVt«S('ara— originally Neeagah'ra ; 
 'Thunder of Waters '), a river of North America, 
 which forms part of the boundary between New 
 York state and the province of Ontario. It flows 
 from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, a course of 36 
 miles, during which it makes a total descent of 
 326 feet— about 50 feet in the rapids immediately 
 above the gi'eat falls, and nearly 110 feet in the 
 seven miles of rapids below. It encloses several 
 islands, the largest Grand Island, which is nearly 
 10 miles long. Four miles below this island are 
 the most famous falls in the world. The centre 
 of the river here is occupied by Goat Island, 
 dividing the cataract into two — the Horseshoe 
 (Canadian) Fall, with a descent of 158 feet, and 
 the American fall, 162 to 169 feet ; the width of 
 the former is about 2640 feet, of the latter 1000 
 feet. The volume of water which sweeps over 
 this immense chasm (nearly nine-tenths passing 
 over the Canadian fall) is about 15,000,000 cubic 
 feet a minute. The depth of water on the crest 
 of the falls is less than 4 feet, except in a few 
 places, notably at the apex of the Horseshoe 
 Fall, where it is about 20 feet. The limestone 
 edge of both falls is rapidly wearing away in the 
 centre. For seven miles below the falls (to the 
 point, that is, where it has been supposed that 
 the falls originally stood) the river is shut in 
 between perpendicular walls of rock, from 200 
 to 350 feet high. For some distance below the 
 falls there is still water, the body of water which 
 pours over the precipice sinking, and only coming 
 to the surface again two miles below, where the 
 whirlpool rapids begin ; a little lower is the 
 whirlpool, where a sharp turn sends the waters 
 hurling against the Canadian side, and then 
 sweeping round in a great eddy before they find 
 a vent at a right angle with their former course. 
 Just below the cataract the river is crossed by a 
 suspension bridge for carriages and foot-pass- 
 engers, and a mile and a half farther down there 
 are two railway bridges— one a cantilever bridge 
 —about 100 yards apart. On both shores the 
 lands bordering on the river, for some distance 
 above and below the falls, are under the im- 
 mediate control of the respective governments. 
 The 'New York State Park at Niagara Falls' 
 (1885) embraces 115 acres, and the ' Queen Vic- 
 toria Niagara Falls Park ' (1888) about 154 acres. 
 Only in 1890 was the tunnel begun for the utilisa- 
 tion of the water-power of the falls to generate 
 electricity for transmission to more or less dis- 
 tant centres ; by 1900 one company alone had 
 usefully applied 40,000 horse-power, and by 1904 
 the plant on the Canadian side alone repre- 
 sented 675,000 horse-power (partly transmitted to 
 Toronto).— Niagara Falls, a city of New York, 
 is connected by the suspension bridge with the 
 Canadian side. Pop. 20,000.— Niagara, a summer- 
 resort of Ontario, is situated on Lake Ontario, at 
 the mouth of the Niagara, 15 miles from the falls. 
 Pop. 4250. 
 
 Nias (Nee' as), a Dutch island, W. of Sumatra. 
 
 The surface is mountainous, attaining 1970 feet. 
 
 Area, 1767 sq. m. ; pop. 170,000, who grow 
 
 pepper, rice, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, sugar-canes, &c. 
 
 Nicsaa. See Nice. 
 
 Nicaragua (Nlkardh'gwa), an independent state 
 of Central America, stretching right across the 
 isthmus from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific, 
 between Costa Rica and Honduras, with an area 
 of 47,837 .sq. m. The Central American Cordil- 
 leras (4000-5000 ft.) form tlie backbone of the 
 
NICE 
 
 506 
 
 NIERSTEIN 
 
 country. On the west the surface sinks rapidly 
 to a longitudinal depression (110 feet), the south- 
 ern two-thirds of which are filled by the large 
 lakes of Nicaragua (115 miles long, 45 broad, and 
 140 feet deep) and Managua (35 miles long, 20 
 broad, 30 feet deep). This depression is studded 
 with a chain of volcanic cones, mostly quiescent, 
 from 3800 to 6800 feet high. The western dis- 
 tricts are the chief seats of the population; 
 there stand the towns Managua (the capital), 
 Leon, Granada, Chinandega, Rivas. Rivers flow- 
 ing eastward are the Coco or Wanks (350 miles 
 long), the northern boundary ; the San Juan (125 
 miles), which drains Lake Nicaragua and separ- 
 ates Nicaragua from Costa Rica ; the Blueftelds 
 and the Rio Grande (230 miles). The low coast- 
 belt, called the Mosquito Territory (q.v.), is lined 
 with salt lagoons. The mountain-spurs east of 
 the main chain are rich in minerals— gold, silver, 
 coal, copper, tin, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, 
 quicksilver, marble, &c. The forests include 
 mahogany, rosewood, logwood, fustic, sandal- 
 wood, india-rubber, medicinal plants, gums, and 
 dye-woods. The rich soil of the cultivated 
 western region yields maize (the staple food), 
 coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, indigo, 
 and a great variety of tropical fruits. Of the 
 population of 480,000, one-third are Indians, and 
 one-half mulattoes and negroes. The country is 
 governed by a president (elected for four years), 
 a legislative assembly of eleven members, and a 
 senate of ten. A ship-canal from sea to sea, 170 
 miles long, by way of the San Juan River and 
 Lake Nicaragua, was begun by a U.S. company 
 in 1889; but, though some authorities held this 
 route preferable on various grouiuls, the works 
 were soon suspended, and ultimately the Panamd. 
 Canal (see PanamX) was taken up by the U.S. 
 government. During the Spanish supremacy 
 (after 1550) Nicaragua was a province of Gua- 
 temala. In 1821 it asserted its independence, 
 and its history down to 1865 is a record of war 
 and dissension ; there was a revolution and a 
 counter-revolution in 1893. See works by Squier 
 (1852), Belt (1873), Leoy (Paris, 1873), Bancroft 
 (1882), and Bonvallius (Stockholm, 1886). 
 
 Nice, or Nic^a, a city of ancient Bithynia, in 
 Asia Minor, situated on the eastern shore of Lake 
 Ascania. The First and Seventh Ecumenical 
 Councils were held here in 325 and 787 a.d. 
 
 Nice (Neece; Ital. Nizza), chief town of the 
 French dep. of Alpes Maritimes, stands on a 
 beautiful well-sheltered site on the coast, 140 
 miles E. by N. of Marseilles and 110 SW. of 
 Genoa. On the north of the city the hills rise 
 in terraces and shield it froin the cold winds ; 
 on the south it faces the sea, which tempers the 
 heat in summer. Owing to the advantages of 
 its situation, Nice has for many years been cele- 
 brated as a winter-resort for invalids, the number 
 of visitors ranging between 15,000 and 45,000. 
 The mean temperature of winter is 49° F., of 
 summer 72°. Pop. (1872) 42,363 ; (1901) 98,865. 
 The New Town on the west is the part frequented 
 by foreigners, particularly English (whence its 
 name of ' English town '). Beautiful promenades 
 stretch along the seashore, and are overlooked 
 by villas and hotels. Numerous bridges across 
 the little river Paglione (Paillon) connect the 
 New Town with the Old or Upper Town. This 
 part, with narrow streets, clusters at the foot 
 of a rocky height, the Castle Hill,; on the other 
 (east) side of this hill is the harbour, which was 
 enlarged to twice its original size in 1889, and 
 deepened to 25 feet. The Castle Hill is an isolated 
 
 mass of limestone 318 feet high, crowned by a 
 ruined castle, and laid out in public gardens. 
 The chief public buildings are the cathedral, the 
 Gothic church of Notre Dame, the natural history 
 museum, art gallery, library, observatory, casino, 
 &c. The people manufacture artistic pottery, 
 perfumery, and macaroni, grow flowers and 
 southern fruits, the last of which they preserve, 
 and produce inlaid work in olive-wood. The 
 chief export is olive-oil. The ancient Ligurian 
 town of Nicsea, founded by a colony of Phocseans 
 from Massalia (Marseilles), became subject to 
 Rome in the 2d century B.C. It was in the 
 hands of the Saracens in the 10th century. In 
 1543 it was pillaged by the Turks. From 1600 
 onwards it was repeatedly taken by the French ; 
 they held it from 1792 to 1814 ; and in 1860 it 
 was ceded to France by Sardinia (Savoy). Mas- 
 sena was born near the city, and Garibaldi in it. 
 
 Nic'obar Islands, a group of islands in the 
 Indian Ocean, south of the Andamans, and form- 
 ing with them an extension of the great island 
 chain of which Java and Sumatra are the principal 
 links. Just a score in number, of which twelve 
 are inhabited, they have an area of 684 sq. m., 
 and consist of two divisions — the northern, 
 low and planted with cocoa-nut trees, and the 
 southern, mountainous (2000 feet) and covered 
 with timber. The people belong to two races, 
 an indigenous inland tribe, little civilised, and 
 the coast people, 6000 in number, who are of 
 mixed Malay blood. The archipelago was occu- 
 pied by Denmark 1756-1856. In 1869 it was 
 annexed by Britain. A penal colony for India 
 exists at Nankauri, on the island Kamorta. 
 
 Nicome'dia, the capital of ancient Bithynia, 
 situated at the NE. angle of an inlet of the 
 Propontis, was built in 264 b. c. by Nicomedes I. 
 The small town of Ismid now occupies its site. 
 
 Nicop'olis, a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, 
 56 miles W. of Rustchuk. Pop. 6652. 
 
 Nicosia, (1) called also Levkosia, the capital of 
 Cyprus, situated near the middle of the northern 
 half of the island, has some manufactures of silk, 
 leather, and cotton. Pop. 14,536.— (2) A city of 
 Sicily, 40 miles NW. of Catania. Pop. 15,941. 
 
 Nictheroy, a town of Brazil, and till 1894 the 
 capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, on the 
 east side of the entrance to tlie bay, and 5 miles 
 E. of the city of Rio de Janeiro. It has beautiful 
 suburbs. Pop. 25,000. i 
 
 Nidderdale, the valley of the river Nidd, which 
 rises at the foot of Whernside, in Yorkshire, and 
 flows SE. and E. to the Ouse above York. 
 
 Niddry Castle, a Linlithgow ruin, 1 mile SSB. 
 of Winchburgh. Queen Mary fled hither from 
 Lochleven. 
 
 Niederwald (Nee'dervalt), the western end of 
 the Taunus range, that abuts upon the Rhine 
 opposite Bingen. On a commanding site was 
 erected in 1883 the national memorial of the war 
 of 1870-71— a pedestal, surmounted by a bronze 
 figure of Germania, 34^ feet high. Toothed-rail- 
 ways carry visitors up from Riidesheim and Ass- 
 mannshausenat the foot, both noted for their wine. 
 
 Niemen (Nee'men), a river of W. Russia, whose 
 lower course (70 of its 500 miles) lies within 
 East Prussia, where it is called the Memel, rises 
 S. of Minsk. It is navigable to Grodno ; below 
 Tilsit it divides into two branches, which reach 
 the Kurisches Haff each by four mouths. 
 
 Nierstein (Neer'stlne), a village of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, on the Rhine, 10 miles SSE. of Mainz, 
 famous for its Rhine wine. Pop. 3283. 
 
NIEUWE DIEP 
 
 607 
 
 NUB 
 
 Nieuwe Diep, or Willemsoord, a small port 
 of North Holland, 1 mile E. of the Helder (q.v.). 
 
 Nieuwveld. Mountains. See Cape Colony. 
 
 Nievre (Nyelivr ; y consonantal), a central 
 dep. of France, occupies a portion of the water- 
 shed between the Loire and the Seine. Area, 
 2632 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 339,917 ; (1901) 319,506. 
 Arrondissements, Nevers, Chateau-Chinon, 
 Claniecy, and Cosne ; capital, N«vers. 
 
 Niger, a river of West Equatorial Africa, whose 
 name first appears in Ptolemy, and may be 
 derived from a native root gir or jur. The 
 problem as to its course remained almost till the 
 19th century one of the most perplexed in the 
 whole range of geography — it was an affluent of 
 the Nile ; an affluent of the Congo ; an inde- 
 pendent river terminating in an inland basin ; 
 and so on. It was left to Mungo Park and 
 other workers in the service of the African 
 Association (1788) to lay the basis of our present 
 knowledge. The Niger proper (Joliba, Isa, Quorra, 
 &c.) has a total length of 2600 miles, and the area 
 of the entire basin (including that of the Benue) 
 is estimated at 1,023,280 sq. m. The head- waters 
 are situated in the Samory region, inland from 
 Sierra Leone and Liberia, and are contiguous to 
 the sources of the Senegal. The Tembi and its 
 sister streams soon gather into a good navigable 
 river, which holds a north-easterly course as 
 far as Timbuctoo (q.v.), 2 miles from the river. 
 Beyond this, split into channels, it holds a jnore 
 easterly direction for 200 miles, and then with its 
 now united forces turns south-east to cut its way 
 through a rocky tract of country, and to pass in 
 succession Say ; Bussa, wliere Park came to his 
 untimely end ; Rabba, one of the largest cities on 
 its course ; and Egga, where the river turns more 
 to the south. Having received in the Benuij a 
 rival in volume, the united river traverses a series 
 of bold, picturesque hills by a narrow gorge, and 
 begins to break up into one of the most remark- 
 able mangrove-covered deltas in the world. The 
 upper and middle basin of the Niger is under 
 French authority; the lower basin constitutes 
 (British) Nigeria. 
 
 Nigeria, since 1900 a British protectorate in 
 West Equatorial Africa, includes all the terri- 
 tories administered till that date by the Royal 
 Niger Company, and the Niger Coast Protectorate. 
 On the east it is bounded by (German) Cameroon 
 north-eastwards to the south-west corner of Lake 
 Tsad ; on the west by the Lagos Protectorate and 
 the (French) hinterland of Dahomey. It includes 
 the whole of the lower basin of the Niger from 
 Ilo downwards, and nearly the whole of its great 
 tributary, the I3enue. Its area is from 400,000 to 
 500,000 square miles, and the population is esti- 
 mated to be between 30 and 40 millions. The 
 British United African Company (after 1886 the 
 Royal Niger Company) began operations in 1879, 
 and finally acquired rigiits over nearly the whole 
 region now called Nigeria. In 1899 the govern- 
 ment arranged to take over all the powers and 
 rights of the company on 1st January 1900, on 
 payment of £565,000, and certain royalties on 
 minerals for ninety-nine years. For administra- 
 tive purposes the protectorate is divided into 
 Nortli and South Nigeria by a straight line be- 
 tween Lagos and Cameroon at 7° 15" N., each 
 administered by a High Connnissioner. Northern 
 Nigeria is fertile, Avith greatagricultural resources, 
 and fairly healthy. Cotton, indigo, rubber, hides, 
 ivory, and minerals (silver, tin, and lead) are the 
 chief products. The native Haussa race is civi- 
 lised and industrious. The chief towns are Kano, 
 
 Yola (capital of Adamawa), Wnrno (capital of 
 Sokoto), Gando, Bida, lllorin, Yakoba, Sokoto, 
 and Zaria, with a reserved port in South Nigeria 
 at the mouth of the Forcados River. There is 
 a military force of about 3000 Haussas of all 
 arms. Southern Nigeria includes the whole of 
 the Coast Protectorate and part of the Niger 
 Protectorate. The inhabitants are pagan negro 
 tribes, more or less cannibal in habits. Asaba, 
 Benin, and Idda are the chief inland towns ; and 
 on the coast, Wari, Barutu, Akassa, Brass, New 
 Calabar, Bonny, Opoba, and Old Calabar, where 
 the customs for both N. and S. Nigeria are 
 collected. The chief products are palm-oil and 
 kernels, rubber, ivory, indigo, gums, coft'ee, and 
 hides. There is a native police force of over 7000 
 men. 
 
 Nigritia. See Soudan. 
 
 Niigata (Nee-ee-gah'ta), a seaport of western 
 Japan, at the mouth of the Shinano River, opened 
 to foreign trade in 1859. Pop. 53,500. 
 
 Nijni-Novgorod (Nidj'nee Noi/gorod; 'Lower 
 Novgorod'), a great commercial city of Russia, 
 at the confluence of the Oka with the Volga, 274 
 miles E. of Moscow. The great fair (July— Sept.) 
 still brings buyers and sellers from all climes 
 between Germany and China. During it the 
 resident pop. (95,124 in 1897) is increased fivefold ; 
 and the value of the goods sold is not much short 
 of £20,000,000.--The government of Nijni-Nov- 
 gorod has an area of 19,797 sq. m. and a pop. of 
 1,600,000. 
 
 Nijni-Tagilsk (Nidfnee Tah-gilsk' ; g hard), a 
 Russian town amid the Ural Mountains, 150 
 miles E. of Perm by rail, with great platinum, 
 copper, and iron works. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Nikolaevsk (Ni-ko-lah-evsk), a decayed town of 
 eastern Siberia, 23 miles from the Amur's mouth. 
 Pop. 3500. 
 
 Nikolaiefif (Nikolieff'), headquarters of the 
 Russian Black Sea fleet, in the government of 
 Kherson, at the confluence of the Ingul with the 
 Bug, and 42 miles from the Black Sea. It is a 
 great fortified naval station, with docks, an 
 arsenal, &c., and exports grain. Pop. 95,840. 
 
 Nikolsburg (u as oo ; Czech Mikulov), a town 
 of Moravia, 27 miles S. of Briinn by rail, lies at 
 the foot of hills famous for their rich red wines. 
 In the middle of it, on a rock, stands the castle of 
 the princely Dietrichstein family. Pop. 8642. 
 
 Nikosia. See Nicosia. 
 
 Nile, the longest river of Africa, of the greatest 
 interest historically and geographically, and to 
 the ancient Egyptians pre-eminently the sacred 
 river, draws its largest supplies of water from 
 the Victoria and Albert Nyanzas. Its furthest 
 head-streams (Shimiyu, Isanga, &c.) flow into the 
 Victoria Nyanza from the south. The Nile leaves 
 Victoria Nyanza at its northern end, pouring 
 over the Ripon Falls, 150 to 170 yards wide 
 but only 12 feet high, and then for 300 miles 
 races between high rocky walls, over rapids 
 and cataracts, at first north-west, then west, 
 until it joins the Albert Nyanza (q.v.) near its 
 north-east corner. About 20 miles from this 
 lake the river leaps down 120 feet into a wild 
 gorge, with high rocky walls. The section be- 
 tween the two Nyanzas is called the Victoria 
 Nile or Somerset River. At its south-western 
 extremity the Albert Nyanza is joined by the 
 river Semliki, which drains the Albert Edward 
 Nyanza. The combined river leaves the northern 
 extremity of the Albert Nyanza as the Bahr-el- 
 Jebel, and from that point flows in a general 
 
NILE 
 
 508 
 
 NiNa-PO 
 
 northerly direction to the Mediterranean. At 
 Lado (5° N. lat.) it enters the plains, and moves 
 tlience slowly and sluggishly down to Khartoum, 
 900 miles to the north. The whole of this stretch 
 is navigable for fairly large river-steamers. In 
 7i° N. lat., however, the main channel divides 
 into two arms, which flow, at no great distance 
 apart, through a low swampy region. In 9^° N. 
 lat. the Bahr-el-Jebel is met by the Bahr-al- 
 Ghazal from the west, which gathers the waters 
 of many rivers. Sixty miles east of the con- 
 fluence the river, now called White Nile, receives 
 the Bahr-el-Zeraf, and 30 miles farther east still 
 the Sobat, from the Galla country. Hence the 
 White Nile flows almost due N. to Khartoum 
 without receiving a single tributary. At Khar- 
 toum (in 15° 37' N. lat.) the White Nile, or 
 Bahr-al-Abiad, is joined from the south-east 
 by the Blue Nile, the Bahr-al-Azrak, 950 miles 
 long, from Lake Tana (5658 feet above sea-level) 
 on the Abyssinian plateau. From Khartoum 
 the Nile flows north-north-east, and 200 miles 
 below that city is joined from the right by 
 the Atbara or Black Nile. In its course through 
 the Nubian Desert the great river makes two 
 deep bends, first round by the north, then round 
 by the south, and subsequently resumes its 
 northerly flow. Below Khartoum navigation is 
 rendered extremely dangerous by the cataracts 
 which obstruct the bed of the river, the sixth 
 occurring not far north of Khartoum, the first 
 near Assouan, in Egypt, just above 24° N. lat. 
 The course of the river from Assouan to the sea, 
 its inundations, &c., are described under Egypt 
 (q.v.). The total length of the river cannot be 
 stated precisely; from Victoria Nyanza it is 
 estimated to measure 3400 miles. Irrigation is 
 largely regulated by the great Nile Barrages at 
 Rosetta and Damietta, constructed by French 
 engineers in 1843-61, and practically recon- 
 structed by British engineers in 1886-90 at a cost 
 of £405,000 ; and by the immense dams at Assouan 
 (completed 1902) and Assiout, at a total cost of 
 nearly £5,000,000. 
 
 The ancients had little authentic knowledge of 
 the Nile above Meroe, half-way between Berber 
 and Khartoum. The Emperor Nero began the 
 work of searching for the sources of the Nile by 
 sending two expeditions into Nubia. Ptolemy 
 speaks of two streams issuing from two lakes 6 
 and 7 degrees south of the equator and uniting 
 in 2° N. lat., and being joined in 12° N. lat. by 
 the Astapus, which likewise flowed from a lake 
 (Coloe). The two lakes in the far south were 
 fed by the melting snows of a great range of 
 mountains, the Mountains of the Moon. This 
 remained the sum total of information about the 
 river down to the 19th century, except that in 
 1770 Bruce discovered that the Blue Nile issued 
 from Lake Tana. The Egyptian government in 
 1839-42 sent three expeditions as far as Gondo- 
 koro. In 1858 Speke reached the Victoria Nyanza, 
 in 1860 Sir Samuel Baker discovered Albert 
 Nyanza, and in 1868-71 Schweinfurth explored 
 the western feeders of the White Nile. Stanley, 
 in 1875, sailed all round Victoria Nyanza, and 
 in 1889 traced the course of the Semliki, and 
 discovered Albert Edward Nyanza and Mount 
 Ruwenzori. The British occupation of Uganda, 
 between the Victoria and Albert Nyanzas, and 
 the arrangement made with the Congo State in 
 1894, tended to retain the whole valley of the 
 Nile, from the Nyanzas to the Mediterranean, 
 under British influence. 
 
 See works of the explorers named, also others 
 by Wilson and Felkin, Petherick, Junker, &c., 
 
 with Walter Budge's The Nile (1890). For the 
 battle of the Nile, see Aboukir. 
 
 Nllgir'i. See Neilgherry. 
 
 Nimach {Neematch), a town of India, in the 
 native state of Gwalior, on the north-west border 
 of Malwa, 370 miles SW. of Delhi by rail, 1613 
 feet above sea-level, with an agreeable climate. 
 There has been a British cantonment here since 
 1817. Pop. of town, 5161 ; of cantonment, 13,069. 
 
 Nimeguen (Neem'e-gen; Fr. Nimegue; Dutch 
 Nijmegen), a town of Holland, in Guelderland, on 
 the left bank of the Waal, 73 miles by rail B. of 
 Rotterdam. It is built on the slope of the ' Hill 
 of the Huns,' on which the Romans formed the 
 permanent camp of Novioinaguni. Near by stood 
 till 1796 a castle, said to have been founded by 
 Caesar and inhabited by Charlemagne ; here still 
 stands a little sixteen-sided Romanesque bap- 
 tistery of the 12th or 13th century. On another 
 eminence is a modern Belvidere. The fortifica- 
 tions have been demolished ; but Nimeguen re- 
 tains its Renaissance town-hall (1554), and the 
 fine Gothic church of St Stephen (dating from 
 1272). The manufactures include tobacco, eau 
 de Cologne, metal-work, beer, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 22,929; (1900) 42,756. Regained by the Spaniards 
 (1585-91), Nimeguen is celebrated for its great 
 peace congress in 1678-79, at which France made 
 treaties with Holland, Spain, and Austria. 
 
 Nimes (Neem), the capital of the French dep. 
 of Gard, lies in a fertile plain, engirt by the vine- 
 clad Cevennes, 31 miles by rail NE. of Mont- 
 pellier and 30 SW. of Avignon. The old town, 
 with narrow crooked streets, is separated by 
 shady boulevards from the well-built faubourgs ; 
 and mediaeval and modern edifices are a much 
 mutilated cathedral, the prison (formerly citadel, 
 1687), the palais-de-justice, St Paul's (1850), St 
 Baudile's (1875), &c., with a most magnificent 
 fountain, and a monument (1874) to Antoninus 
 Pius. But the glory of Nimes is its Roman 
 remains of the ancient Nevtausus. Tliese include 
 the ' Maison Carree ' (now a museum, with Dela- 
 roche's masterpiece, ' Cromwell looking on Charles 
 I.'s corpse'), a splendid specimen of Corinthian 
 architecture ; an amphitheatre (now a bull-arena), 
 70 feet high, and seating 20,000 spectators ; the 
 exquisite Nymphseum ; a mausoleum ('La Tour 
 Magne'), baths, and two gates, whilst 14 miles 
 NE. is the 'Pont du Gard,' most perfect of aque- 
 ducts. Nimes manufactures silk and cotton 
 goods, carpets, shawls, wine, brandy, boots, 
 &c. Pop. (1872) 60,020 ; (1901) 72,749, one-third 
 Protestants. Supposed to have been colon- 
 ised from Massilia (Marseilles), Nimes, one of 
 the great cities of Roman Gaul, was taken by 
 the Visigoths (465), the Franks (507), and the 
 Saracens (725), and subsequently became an 
 appanage of Aragon, but was restored to France 
 in 1259. The inhabitants adopted Calvinism in 
 the 16th century ; and it was a stronghold of 
 the Camisards. In 1791 and 1815 it was the 
 scene of bloody religious and political reactions. 
 Nicot, Guizot, and Daudet were natives. 
 
 Nln'eveh, long capital of the ancient kingdom 
 of Assyria. Rich in 1818 conjectured that the 
 mounds of Kouyunjik, opposite the modern town 
 of Mosul, concealed its ruins beneath, but it was 
 not until the excavations of Botta in 1842 and 
 Layard in 1845 that the remains of Nineveh were 
 revealed to the world. 
 
 Nlng-po, a treaty-port of the Chinese province 
 of Che-keang, stands in a fertile plain, 16 miles 
 from the mouth of the Takia (Ning-po) River 
 and 100 S. of Shanghai. It is surrounded by a 
 
NIORT 
 
 509 
 
 NORFOLK 
 
 wall 25 feet high and 16 thick, and contains 
 numerous temples, colleges, &c., chief amongst 
 them the temple of the Queen of Heaven, founded 
 in the 12th century, though the present building 
 dates from 1680. The imports include opium, 
 cottons and woollens, tin, iron, medicines, &c. ; 
 the exports, green tea, cuttle-lish, sedge hats and 
 mats, silk goods, and cotton. Pop. 250,000. 
 
 Niort (Nee-orr^), capital of the French dep. of 
 Deux-Sevres, on the Sevre Niortaise, 43 miles 
 NE. of La Rochelle. An important railway 
 junction, it has an old castle, an hotel-de-ville 
 (1530), a fine public garden, and the 16th-century 
 church of Notre Dame, with a spire 246 feet 
 high. Tanning and glove-making are the leading 
 industries. The population is about 21,000. 
 Niort, which in the 14th century was lield for 
 eighteen years by the English, was the birth- 
 place of Madame de Maintenon. 
 
 Nip'igon, an island-studded lake of Ontario, 30 
 miles NW. of Lake Superior, with which it is 
 connected by the Nipigon River. It is 70 miles 
 long, but its deeply indented coast-line measures 
 580 miles. Its greatest depth is 540 feet. 
 
 Nip'isslng, a lake (50 x 28 miles) of Ontario, 
 NE. of Lake Huron, into which (Georgian Bay) it 
 drains through French River (55 miles). 
 
 Nippon. See Japan. 
 
 Nisch (Neesh), the chief town of southern 
 Servia, 152 miles by rail SE. of Belgrade, con- 
 spicuous in the Turkish wars from 1375 to 1878, 
 when it was regained by Servia. Pop. 25,877. 
 
 Nishapur', a town of the Persian province of 
 Khorassan, 53 miles W. of Meshed. It was the 
 birthplace, and contains the grave, of Omar 
 Khayyam. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Nith, a beautiful Scottish river, rising in Ayr- 
 shire, and flowing 71 miles SSE. (mainly through 
 Dumfriesshire), until, 14 miles below Dumfries, 
 its estuary joins the Solway Firth. 
 
 Nitrian Desert, containing the Natron Lakes, 
 lies W. of the Damietta branch of the Nile, and was 
 of old famous for its nionasteries and hermits. 
 
 Nlvelles (Nee-veV ; Flem. Nyvel), a Belgian town, 
 on the Thines, 19 miles by rail S. of Brussels. Its 
 line Romanesque church (1045) contains the relics 
 of Pepin's daughter, St Gertrude. In 1381 the 
 townsfolk of Ghent were defeated here by Count 
 Louis of Flanders, and 6000 burned in a monastery. 
 Nivelles manufactures cotton, paper, lace, &c. 
 Pop. 11,788. 
 
 Nlvernals (Nivernai/), formerly a province in 
 the middle of France, nearly corresponding to 
 the present dep. of Nievre. 
 
 Nizam's Dominions. See Hyderabad. 
 
 Nocera (No-chay'ra), an episcopal city of south 
 Italy, 8 miles NW, of Salerno. Pop. 22,522. 
 
 Nogent-le-Rotrou (Nozhon^-leh-Rotroo'), a town 
 in the French dep. of Eure-et-Loir, on the 
 Huisne, 93 miles by rail SW. of Paris, with the 
 ruined chateau of the great Sully, his violated 
 sepulchre, and a statue of General Saint-Pol, 
 who fell before Sebastopol, The Germans here 
 won two fights in 1870-71. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Noisseville (Nivass-veel), a village of Lorraine, 
 5 miles E, of Metz, where in 1870 Bazaine vainly 
 attacked the German besiegers of Metz. 
 
 Nola, an episcopal city of Italy, 16 miles ENE. 
 of Naples, on a very ancient Canii)anian site. 
 Augustus died here, 14 a.d. Pop. 14,700. 
 
 No Man's Land, a name given to various out- 
 lying districts prior to settlement, especially 
 Griqualand East, and parts of South Australia. 
 
 Nome, the largest town in Alaska, on the south 
 shore of the Seward Peninsula, is the centre of 
 a productive gold-mining district. Pop. about 
 13,000. 
 
 Nootka Sound, a harbour on the west coast of 
 Vancouver Island, British Columbia, its entrance 
 protected by an island of the same name. 
 
 Nord, the most northerly dep. in France 
 (whence its name), corresponding with the old 
 French Flanders. Area, 2193 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 
 1,603,259; (1901)1,866,994. The arrondissements 
 are Lille (the capital), Douai, Cambrai, Valen- 
 ciennes, Avesnes, Hazebrouck, and Dunkirk. 
 
 Norden, a west suburb of Rochdale. 
 
 Nordenham. See Bremerhaven. 
 
 Norderney (Norderni), a small treeless island, 
 lying 3 miles off the coast of the Prussian district 
 of East Friesland. Area, 4 sq. m. ; pop. 4850. 
 Its sea-bathing attracts 13,000 summer visitors. 
 
 Nordhausen (Nordhow'zen), a flourishing town 
 of Prussian Saxony, pleasantly situated at the 
 southern base of the Harz Mountains and the 
 west end of the fertile Goldene Am ('golden 
 plain'), on the Zorge, 48 miles by rail NNW. of 
 Erfurt. A free imperial city from 1253, Nord- 
 hausen fell to Prussia in 1803. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Nordlingen (Ndrd'ling-en), a town in the west 
 of Bavaria, on the Eger, 44 miles NW. of Augsburg 
 by rail, with carpet manufactures. Here in 1634 
 the Swedes were defeated by the Imperialists 
 with a loss of 12,000. Pop. 8295. 
 
 Note, a sandbank in the estuary of the Thames, 
 3 miles NE. of Sheerness and 47 from London. 
 Oft" its east end is the floating light, which 
 revolves 50 feet above high-water. The naval 
 'mutiny at the Nore' broke out on 20th May 
 and lasted until 13th June 1797. 
 
 Norfolk (Nor'fok), an eastern county of England, 
 bounded by the North Sea, Suffolk, Cambridge- 
 shire, Lincolnshire, and the Wash. With an 
 extreme length and breadth of 66 miles by 42, 
 it has an area of 2119 sq. m. or 1,356,173 acres. 
 Pop. (1801) 273,371 ; (1831)390,000; (1881)444,637; 
 (1901) 460,040. Its coast-line, upwards of 90 miles 
 in length, is for the most part flat, and skirted 
 by low dunes, except near Cromer, and again 
 at Hunstanton, where cliff's, from time to time 
 undermined by the sea, rise to a height of from 
 100 to 200 feet. Inland the surface is undulating, 
 well timbered, and well watered, the principal 
 rivers being the Ouse, Bure, Yare, and Waveney, 
 which last three fall into the sea near Yarmouth, 
 and in their course link together the numerous 
 Broads (q.v.). The soil consists chiefly of light 
 loams and sands — in places there are extensive 
 rabbit-warrens, and with so much wood (over 
 50,000 acres) there is naturally an abundance of 
 game. Agriculture has here been brought to the 
 highest state of perfection ; upwards of 3400 acres 
 are occupied as market-gardens and orchards ; 
 whilst great attention is paid to the rearing of 
 turkeys and geese for the London markets, and 
 on the rich marsh-lands in the extreme west of 
 the county, as well as on the pastures bordering 
 the various rivers, great quantities of cattle are 
 grazed. Norfolk comprises 33 hundreds, the city 
 of Norwich, the municipal boroughs of Lynn, 
 Yarmouth, and Thetford, and 736 civil parishes 
 with parts of 9 others, mostly in the diocese 
 of Norwich. Its parliamentary divisions are six 
 in number. Towns other than the foregoing 
 are Dereham, Diss, Downham Market, North 
 Walsham, Swaflham, and Wymondham. In the 
 history of the county the most notable incidents 
 
NORFOLK 
 
 510 
 
 NORTHAMPTON 
 
 have been the settlements within its borders of 
 the Flemish refugees and Walloons in the reigns 
 of Henry I., Edward III., and Queen Elizabeth ; 
 and Ket's rebellion (1549). Venerable antiquities 
 are the ruins of priories at Castle Acre, Thetford, 
 and Walsingham, the castles of Norwich, Castle 
 Rising, and Caistor, the earthworks at Bucken- 
 ham, Caistor, and Thetford, and the old halls of 
 Blickling, Holkham, Houghton, Oxburgh, and 
 East Barsham. Among Norfolk 'worthies' 
 (omitting those noticed under Norwich) are Sir 
 John Fastolf, the Earl of Surrey, Sir Thomas 
 Gresham, Skelton and Shadwell (poets-laureate). 
 Sir Edward Coke, Spelman, L'Estrange, SirCloud- 
 esley Shovel, Sir Robert Walpole and his son 
 Horace, Tom Paine, Windham, Godwin, Lord 
 Nelson, Porson, Manby, Sir Astley Cooper, Eliza- 
 beth Fry, Fowell Buxton, Lord Cranworth, Cap- 
 tainMarryat, Cattermole, Borrow, Bulwer Lytton, 
 and Rider Haggard. See county histories by 
 Blomefield (11 vols. 1805-10), Chambers (1829), 
 Rye (1885), and White (new ed. 1890). 
 
 Norfolk, a city and port of entry of Virginia, 
 on the right bank of the Elizabeth River, 8 miles 
 from Hampton Roads, and 33 miles from the sea. 
 Its large deep harbour is fortified. A govern- 
 ment navy yard, dry-dock, and hospital are at 
 Gosport, a naval suburb of Portsmouth, on the 
 opposite bank of the river. Norfolk ships cotton, 
 oysters, and early fruits and vegetables. Off 
 here the turret-ship Monitor defeated the Con- 
 federate MerriToac, 9th March 1862. Pop. (1880) 
 21,966 ; (1900) 46,624. 
 
 Norfolk Island lies in the Western Pacific, 
 about half-way between New Zealand and New 
 Caledonia, 400 miles NNW. of the former. The 
 coasts are high and steep, and the surface gener- 
 ally uneven, rising in Mount Pitt to 1050 feet. 
 The island is 6 miles long, and has an area of 13^- 
 sq. m. The soil is fertile and well watered, and 
 the climate healthy. The Norfolk Island Pine 
 grows to a height of 200 feet. Norfolk Island 
 was discovered by Cook in 1774. In 1788-1805, 
 and again in 1826-55, it was a penal settlement 
 for convicts sent from New South Wales. In 
 1856 many of the inhabitants of Pitcairn Island 
 (q.v.) were transferred hither by the British 
 government. In 1905 the pop. was 830. Norfolk 
 Island is the headquarters of the diocese of 
 Melanesia, founded in 1861. The people govern 
 themselves, under the superintendence of the 
 government of New South Wales ; they fish, 
 farm, and supply provisions to passing vessels. 
 
 Norham Castle (Norr'am), the Border fortress 
 of the Bishops of Durham, on the Tweed's right 
 bank, 8 miles SW. of Berwick. Founded in 1121, 
 and deemed impregnable in 1522, it has memories 
 of Kings John, Edward I., and James IV., but is 
 known best through Marmion. The picturesque 
 ruins comprise a great square keep, 70 feet high. 
 See Jerningham's Norham Castle (1883). 
 
 Nor'lcum, a Roman province, corresponding to 
 Styria, Carinthia, and part of Salzburg in Austria. 
 The name survives in the Noric Alps. 
 
 Nor'manby, a town of Yorkshire, 3^ miles SE. 
 and mainly within the parliamentary bounds of 
 Middlesbrough. Pop. 9118. 
 
 Nor'mandy, formerly a province of France, 
 lying along the seaboard of the English Channel, 
 between Brittany and French Flanders. In area 
 it corresponded approximately to the modern 
 deps. of Seine-Inferieure, Eure, Orne, Calvados, 
 and Manche, its capital being Rouen. From the 
 middle of the 9th century its coasts were harried 
 by the vikings or sea-rovers of the north ; by 
 
 912 they had established themselves in such 
 force along the Seine that Charles, king of the 
 Western Kingdom, was glad to make an agree- 
 ment with their leader Rolf or RoUo, Duke of 
 the Northmen, who became the king's vassal and 
 a Christian. After the conquest of England by 
 Duke William (1066), Normandy continued an 
 appanage of the English crown until 1203-4, 
 wlien the duchy was taken away from John by 
 the king of France, on the plea that as the 
 murderer of his nephew Arthur he (John) had 
 forfeited his French fiefs. The claim to the title 
 was, however, only formally renounced by Henry 
 III. in 1259. Twice subsequently Normandy was 
 in English hands: Edward III. conquered it in 
 1346, and Henry V. in 1417-18 ; but the English 
 were finally driven out in 1450. The Channel 
 Islands (q.v.) are a remnant of the Norman pos- 
 sessions still belonging to the descendants of the 
 Norman kings of England. See works by Black- 
 burn (1869) and K. Macquoid (1874). 
 
 Nor'manton, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, by rail 3 miles NE. of Wakefield and 
 10 SE. of Leeds, a railway junction and seat of 
 coal-mining and iron-working. Pop. 12,234. 
 
 Noronha, Fernando (Noron'ya), a volcanic 
 group of one large (6J miles by 2) and several 
 small islands belonging to Brazil, in the South 
 Atlantic, 200 miles ENE. of Cape San Roque. 
 The islands are fertile and thickly wooded. The 
 group was visited in 1775 by Cook, in 1832 by 
 Darwin, and in 1873 by the Challenger Expedi- 
 tion. 'The main island is a penal settlement. 
 
 Norristown, capital of Montgomery county, 
 Pennsylvania, on the left bank of the river 
 Schuylkill (crossed by three bridges to Bridge- 
 port), 17 miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia. It 
 contains a fine marble court-house, cotton-mills 
 and woollen factories, rolling-mills and foundries, 
 flour-mills, and manufactories of glass, tacks, &c 
 Pop. 23,500 
 
 Norrkoping (Nofchd-ping), first manufacturing 
 town of Sweden after Stockholm, stands at the 
 head of the Brivik, 113 miles by rail SW. of 
 Stockholm. The rapid river Motala from Lake 
 Vetter affords water-power for cloth-mills, cotton 
 spinning and weaving ; and there are manufactures 
 of sugar, paper, tobacco, &c., and shipbuilding. 
 Pop. 43,300; 
 
 North Adams, a manufacturing village of 
 Massachusetts, on the Hoosac River, near the 
 west end of the Hoosac tunnel, 143 miles by rail 
 W. by N. of Boston. It has woollen and cotton 
 mills, shoe and print-cloth factories, a foundry, 
 &c. Pop. 25,200. 
 
 Northal'lerton, the capital of the North Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 80 miles NNW. of York. It has a 
 town-hall (1874) ; a fine cruciform church, Norman 
 to Perpendicular in style; a cottage hospital 
 (1877) ; and sites of a Roman camp and a Norman 
 castle of the bishops of Durham. At Standard 
 Hill, 3 miles N., was fought, on 22d August 1138, 
 the great battle of the Standard, in which Arch- 
 bishop Thurstan routed David I. of Scotland. 
 From 1640 to 1832 Northallerton returned two 
 meinbers, and then till 1885 one. Pop. 4050. 
 See works by Ingledew (1858) and Saywell (1886). 
 
 Northamp'ton, the capital of Northampton- 
 shire, and a county, parliamentary, and muni- 
 cipal borough, is seated on rising ground on the 
 Nen's left bank, 66 miles NW. by N. of London 
 and 50 SE. of Birmingham. It has a fine town- 
 hall (1861-64), with other municipal oflfices ; a 
 county hall ; corn exchange (1850) ; museum, Area 
 
NORTHAMPTON 
 
 611 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 library, and schools of science and art (enlarged 
 1889) ; large hospitals ; a theatre (1884) ; infantry 
 barracks (1797 ; rebuilt 1877-78) ; and thirteen 
 churches, the most interesting of which are St 
 Peter's (Norman), St Sepulchre's (Norman and 
 Decorated, one of the few remaining round 
 churches in England), All-Saints', and St Giles'. 
 The town is the English centre of the boot and 
 shoe manufacture ; leather is dressed, some lace 
 is made, and extensive breweries are in operation. 
 On the outskirts of the town is a tine race- 
 course, on which meetings are held in April and 
 November. In the autumn of 1892 Ubington 
 Abbey and 20 acres therewith were offered as a 
 free gift to Northampton by Lord Wantage. In 
 the grounds is a mulberry jjlanted by Garrick. 
 Pop. (1801) 7020 ; (1831) 15,351 ; of the municipal 
 borough, (1901) 76,072, and of the parliamentary 
 borough, which returns two members, 87,021. 
 Northampton was burnt by the Danes (1010); 
 it had a castle (of which no traces now remain) 
 built about 1075, and a university, founded in 
 12G0, but abolished some few years later. In a 
 battle (10th July 1400) fought in the meadows 
 below the town, Henry VI. was defeated by the 
 Yorkists ; a great fire (20th September 1675) 
 almost entirely destroyed the town. 
 
 Northampton, capital of Hampshire county, 
 Massachusetts, stands near the west bank of the 
 Connecticut River (here crossed by a bridge to 
 Hadley), 103 miles by rail W. of Boston and 3 
 miles NW. of Mount Holyoke. It contains the 
 state lunatic asylum, the Clarke Institute for 
 deaf-mutes, a public library, housed in the hand- 
 some Memorial Hall, and Snuth College for 
 women. The manufactures include paper, silk, 
 cotton and woollen goods, sewing-machines, cut- 
 lery, baskets, brushes, jet ornaments, &c. Pop. 
 20,100. 
 
 Northamp'tonshire, or Northants, a midland 
 county of England, 67 miles long, and 25 where 
 broadest, is surrounded by the counties of Rut- 
 land, Lincoln, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, 
 Buckingham, Oxford, and Warwick. Area, 984 
 sq. m., or 629,912 acres, of which more than half 
 is pasture. Pop. (1801) 131,757 ; (1841) 199,208 ; 
 (1881) 272,558 ; (1901) 338,088. In the north-east 
 near Peterborough the county is flat, and forms 
 part of the Bedford Level (q.v.), but elsewhere 
 the surface is undulating, the highest ground — 
 about 800 feet above sea-level — being found in 
 the neighbourhood of Daventry. The Nen and 
 the Welland are the chief rivers. Corn and 
 green crops are largely grown ; many cattle are 
 grazed on the broad pastures, and dairy-farming 
 is carried on ; but, although Northants is a great 
 hunting county, the breeding of horses is not 
 much encouraged. Limestone is quarried in the 
 north-east, and excellent ironstone is found near 
 Kettering and Wellingborough. The county com- 
 prises twenty hundreds, the municipal boroughs 
 of Brackley, Daventry, Higham Ferrers, North- 
 ampton, Peterborough, and Stamford (the last 
 two extending into Huntingdonshire and Lincoln- 
 shire), and has 344 civil parishes, with parts of 
 four others, almost entirely in the diocese of Peter- 
 borough. The parliamentary divisions are four, 
 each returning one member. Northamptonshire 
 has witnessed the battles of Edgecote (1469) and 
 Naseby (1645), the beheading of Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, at Fotheringay Castle (1587), and the im- 
 prisonment of Charles I. at Holmby House 
 (1647). Of its natives, besides Richard III. and 
 (perhaps) Catharine Parr, the best known are 
 Archbishop Chichele, Sir Christopher Hatton, 
 
 Catesby, Thomas Fuller, James Harrington, 
 Bishop Cumberland, Dryden, Charles Montagu, 
 Earl of Halifax, William Law, Doddridge, James 
 Hervey, Cartwright (' the father of Reform'), Dr 
 Paley, William Lisle Bowles, Clare (the peasant 
 poet), the Earl of Cardigan (leader of the Bala- 
 clava charge), and Dean Mansel. See the county 
 histories by Bridges (2 vols. 1791), Baker (2 vols. 
 1822-41), and Whellan (2d ed. 1874).— Hampshire 
 (q.v.) is the county of So^ti/iampton. 
 
 North Berwick, a fashionable watering-place 
 of Haddingtonshire, at the entrance to the Firth 
 of Forth, 23 miles by a branch-line (1848) ENE. 
 of Edinburgh and 10 by water SSE. of Elie in 
 Fife. Behind it rises conical North Berwick 
 Law (612 feet); and westward stretch splendid 
 golf-links. Tantallon Castle, 3 miles E., fronting 
 the Bass Rock, is a magnificent ruin, finely de- 
 scribed in Scott's Marmion. A stronghold of 
 the Douglases, and the birthplace of Gawin 
 Douglas, it resisted James V. in 1528, but in 1639 
 was 'dung down' by the Covenanters. Robert 
 III. made North Berwick a royal burgh, and 
 till 1885 it returned, with Haddington, &c., one 
 member to parliament. Pop. 2900. See Ferrier's 
 North Berwick (11th ed. 1890). 
 
 North Cape, the northernmost point in Europe, 
 in 71° 10' N. lat., is on the island of Magero. The 
 northernmost point on the continent is Cape 
 Nordkyn (71° 6' N. lat.), 6 miles farther S., and 
 45 miles E. of North Cape. 
 
 North Carolina, one of the thirteen original 
 United States, is situated on the Atlantic sea- 
 board, S. of Virginia. Its extreme length is 500, 
 its breadth 186 miles. Area, 52,250 sq. m., or 
 larger than that of England. The eastern part 
 is low, and in parts swampy, the central part 
 undulating, and the western mountainous; but 
 almost everywhere the soil is remarkably fer- 
 tile and the climate healthy. The highest moun- 
 tains in the United States east of the Mississippi 
 are in North Carolina, more than fifty peaks ex- 
 ceeding 6000 feet— Mitchell's Peak (6707 feet) the 
 highest. Most of these are clothed to their tops 
 with thick forests, but some have prairie-like 
 summits covered with turf. All this picturesque 
 region, known as 'the Land of the Sky,' is a 
 favourite resort in summer for southerners and 
 in winter for northerners. North Carolina is rich 
 in mineral products — silver, lead, zinc, iron, 
 copper, plumbago, coal, corundum, granite, 
 marble, gems, &c. Maize, cotton, wheat, oats, 
 hay, tobacco, and sweet potatoes are the most 
 valuable products. A chief industry in eastern 
 North Carolina is the making of tar, rosin, and 
 turpentine. Since 1880 the manufactures of 
 cotton and woollen fabrics have largely increased, 
 tobacco-factories have been enlarged, and in 1888 
 the first silk-factory in the southern states was 
 established. Fisheries employ 12,000 men. The 
 state has 3700 miles of railway. The chief port 
 and largest city is Wilmington, the capital Raleigh. 
 In 1584 Raleigh's first expedition landed on 
 Roanoke Island. In 1629 Charles I. granted to 
 Sir Robert Heath the territory, also claimed by 
 Spain and called Florida, from lat. 30° to 36° as 
 Carolana Florida. In 1653 a colony from Virginia 
 settled on the Roanoke and Chowan rivers. In 
 1663 Charles II. granted the region across the con- 
 tinent between lat. 31° and 36° N. (extended to 29° 
 and 36° 30') to eight of his favourites, under the 
 name of Carolina. The proprietors adopted a con- 
 stitution prepared by Locke and Shaftesbury. In 
 1729 the king bought out the proprietors, and 
 North Carolina became a royal province. It waa 
 
NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 512 
 
 NORTHUMBERLAND 
 
 the last state but one to ratify the federal constitu- 
 tion in 1789. It was the last, too, of the eleven 
 Confederate States to pass the ordinance of seces- 
 sion in 1861. The capture of Fort Fisher in 
 January 1865 led to the federal occupation of 
 Wilmington, the advance on Raleigh, and the 
 surrender of General Johnston, which practically 
 ended the war of secession. Pop. (1800) 487,103 ; 
 (1840) 753,419 ; (1880) 1,399,750 ; (1900) 1,893,810 
 —making North Carolina the fifteenth state in 
 order of population. Presidents Jackson, Polk, 
 and Johnson were natives. 
 
 North Dakota, a state of the American Union, 
 bounded by Canada(Saskatchevvan and Manitoba), 
 Minnesota, South Dakota, and Montana ; area, 
 70,795 sq. m.— a fifth larger than England and 
 Wales ; pop. (1900) 319,146. The surface is largely 
 undulating plain. The Turtle Hills in the north 
 cross the Canadian frontier ; and a belt of high 
 plateau, the Coteau du Missouri, crosses the 
 state from the NW., dividing it into two 
 unequal sections, through the SW. of which 
 flows the Missouri River, with its tributaries, 
 including the Little Missouri. Devil's Lake or 
 Minniwaukon, in the NE,, has no outlet and is 
 salt. Great part of the NW. overlies beds of 
 lignite. In the NE. are the rich wheat lands 
 of the Red River basin. Some of the great 
 'Bonanza' farms of North Dakota are from 10 
 to 80 sq. m. in extent ; continuous furrows are 
 sometimes ploughed for miles in a line. Other 
 crops are maize, flax, oats, rye, potatoes, buck- 
 wheat, and hay. The cattle interest is great ; 
 the ranche system prevails in the less settled 
 districts. The rainfall is relatively low. The 
 winters are cold, but dry and sunny. The first 
 settlement was by French Canadians near Pem- 
 bina about 1780. Dakota territory, including 
 North and South Dakota, was organised in 1861. 
 The two Dakotas were admitted as separate states 
 in 1889. The capital of North Dakota is Bis- 
 marck ; the largest town is Fargo (9600), others 
 being Grand Forks and Jamestown. 
 
 Northern Territory. See South Australia. 
 
 Northfleet, a western suburb of Gravesend. 
 
 Northleach, a Gloucestershire town, near the 
 Leach's source, 10 miles NE. of Cirencester. It 
 has a grammar-school (1607). Pop. 660. 
 
 North Marston, a Bucks parish, 7^ miles N. 
 of Aylesbury. Here is Schorne College (1875). 
 
 Northowram, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkslure, since 1900 incorporated with Halifax. 
 
 North Queensferry. See Queensferry. 
 
 North Sea, or German Ocean, a southern 
 extension of the Arctic Ocean. Its northern 
 boundary would be represented by a line drawn 
 from the Shetland Islands to the opposite coast 
 of Norway, and its southern boundary is the 
 Strait of Dover; W. it is bounded by Great 
 Britain, and B. by Norway, Denmark, Germany, 
 Holland, and Belgium. With the Atlantic it 
 communicates through the Strait of Dover and 
 the English Channel on the south, and on the 
 north by the Pentland Firth and the channel 
 between the Orkney and Shetland Islands ; and 
 with the Baltic by the Skagerrack and Cat- 
 tegat. The North Sea is over 600 miles in 
 length and about 400 miles in maximum width, 
 and its area exceeds 160,000 sq. m. By far the 
 greater proportion of this area is less than 100 
 fathoms in depth, the only part where deeper 
 water— 360 fathoms— is found being off" the coast 
 of Norway. The sea is very shallow towards the 
 south and east, and the coasts in this direction 
 
 are low and flat, being in some places below the 
 level of the sea, whereas to the north and west, 
 where the water is deeper, the sea-coast is high, 
 and the deep ' Norwegian Gully ' is faced by the 
 high and bold cliffs of Norway. The sea-bottom 
 is very irregular, a number of banks running 
 across from the Yorkshire coast towards the 
 Skagerrack, the most important of which is the 
 Dogger Bank (q.v.), and there are also depressions 
 like the Silver Pit ; off the low-lying coasts of 
 Holland, Belgium, and Britain there are numer- 
 ous shoals and sandbanks formed of the materials 
 brought down by the rivers. The North Sea 
 receives many rivers, the principal being the 
 Tliames, Ouse, Humber, Tyne, Tweed, Forth, 
 and Tay, the Scheldt, Rhine, Weser, and Elbe. 
 The North Sea has been from the earliest times 
 one of the most important highways of the world, 
 and is surrounded by some of the most prosper- 
 ous commercial nations. Its fisheries are among 
 the greatest in existence, providing employment 
 for thousands of fishermen. 
 
 North Shields. See Shields. 
 
 Northum'berland, the most northern county 
 of England, separated from Scotland by the 
 Tweed, and from Durham by the Tyne and Der- 
 went. The German Ocean bounds it on the E., 
 and Cumberland, with a part of Roxburghshire, 
 on the W. Among the English counties it ranks 
 fifth in size, having an area of 1,290,312 acres. 
 Its greatest length is 70 miles and its greatest 
 breadth 47 miles. The surface, except near the 
 coast, is picturesquely broken into rounded and 
 conical hills and high moorland ridges. The 
 main valleys are fertile and well wooded. The 
 principal heights belong to the Cheviot Hills 
 (q.v.), and are seated in the north-west part of 
 the county. Tliese are Cheviot (2676 feet), Hedge- 
 hope (2348), Cushat Law (2020), Bloody Bush 
 Edge (2001), and Windy Gyle (1963). The Simon- 
 side Hills near Rothbury attain 1447 feet. The 
 chief rivers are the Tyne, Wansbeck, Coquet, Aln, 
 Breamlsh, Till, and Tweed. In the south-west 
 are some small sheets of water called the North- 
 umbrian Lakes, the largest of which is Greenley 
 Lough. Off the coast lie Lindisfarne or Holy 
 Island, the Fame Islands, and Coquet Isle. The 
 climate is cold ; still, the winters are often much 
 milder than in the south, and the average rainfall, 
 except in the Cheviot district, is considerably less 
 than in Devon, Dorset, Hampshire, and Sussex. 
 Northumberland contains 541 civil parishes, and, 
 ecclesiastically, is in the province of York. It is 
 divided into nine wards (answering to hundreds 
 or wapentakes), three of which formed part of 
 Durham till 1844 ; and it comprises four parlia- 
 mentary divisions — theTyneside, Wansbeck, Hex- 
 ham, and Berwick-upon-Tweed. The principal 
 towns are Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Alnwick, Mor- 
 peth, Hexham, and North Shields. A large 
 portion of the county is agricultural, especially 
 the fertile tracts along the principal valleys and 
 near the coast. The western portion is pastoral, 
 the Cheviots supporting large flocks of hardy 
 sheep. The staple trade is in coal, and the chief 
 manufactures are connected with its mining and 
 transit ; there are over 110 collieries. The salmon- 
 fisheries of the Tyne and Tweed have long been 
 famous. Pop. asoi) 168,078; (1841) 266,020; 
 (1881) 434,086 ; (1901) 602,859. 
 
 In the 6th century Northumberland was 
 colonised by the Angles, forming part of the 
 kingdom of Bernicia. Being a Border county, 
 it suffered much during the Scottish wars, 
 and from the 11th to the 17th century was 
 
NORTHUMBRIA 
 
 513 
 
 NORWAY 
 
 ft-eqnently the scene of much bloodshed. The 
 battles of Otterburn, Homildon Hill, and Plodden 
 were fought on its soil. Northumberland is very 
 rich in n)eniorials of the past, some of which are 
 noticed separately under Bamburgh, Dunstan- 
 burgh, Hexham, Alnwick, Holy Island, Norham, 
 &c. Natives have been Bishop Ridley, Thomas 
 Bewick, Akenside, Lord Eldon, George and Robert 
 Stephenson, Grace Darling, the second Earl Grey, 
 Birket Foster, and Lord Armstrong. See works 
 by Wallis (1769), Hutchinson (1778), Mackenzie 
 (1825), Hodgson (1820-40), Hartshorne (1858), and 
 Bateson (1893 et seq.). 
 
 Northumbria, the most northern of the 
 ancient English kingdoms, stretching from the 
 Humber northwards to the Firth of Forth, and 
 separated from Cumbria and Strathclyde by the 
 Pennine range and the Ettrick Forest. 
 
 North Walsham. See Walsham. 
 
 North-west Frontier Province, a new province 
 of India (1901) under a chief commissioner, com- 
 prising the districts of Peshawar and Kohat, wilh 
 parts of Bannu, Dera Ismail Klian, and Hazara, 
 all heretofore in tlie Punjab. Area, lt),466 sq. m.; 
 pop. (1901) 2,125,480. Peshawar is capital. 
 
 North-west Passage, a route for ships from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific by the north of 
 America; proved by Franklin and his followers 
 to exist, but to be impracticable for commerce. 
 The North-east Passage is that by the north of 
 Asia, utilised by Nordenskiold. 
 
 North-west Provinces, a lieutenant-governor- 
 ship of British India (since 1835), occupying the 
 upper basin of the Ganges and Jumna, and ex- 
 tending from Bengal to the Punjab. Oudh, from 
 1857 a separate government, was in 1877 put 
 under the same lieutenant-governor, and in 1901 
 the name of the whole was clianged to the United 
 Provinces of Agra and Oudh (q.v.). The pro- 
 vince, which constitutes the great part of Hindu- 
 stan proper, is maiidy a great alluvial plain, 
 sloping from the Himalayas, and comprises the 
 Doab, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, kc, and the 
 Upper Ganges valley. It is the great wheat 
 country of India, but is not on a level with 
 Bengal as to resources or trade. The head- 
 quarters of Hinduism, and containing some of 
 the most sacred memorials of the Aryan race, it 
 was long subject to Moslem sway ; still a seventh 
 of the population are Mohammedans. Area of 
 the United Provinces, 107,164 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 
 47,691,782 (40,757,137 Hindus). 
 
 North-west Territories, in Canada (q.v.), has 
 been most currently used of Alberta, Saskat- 
 chewan, Assiniboia, and Athabasca, rearranged 
 and organised in 1904 as the two provinces of 
 Alberta and Saskatchewan (which now include 
 the others). Keewatin is a territory under Mani- 
 toba ; Yukon is since 1898 a separate territory ; but 
 under the term North-west Territories still fall 
 not merely Mackenzie in the north-west, but 
 Ungava in the peninsula of Labrador in the far 
 north-east, and Franklin, comprising some of 
 the Arctic islands of the north. 
 
 Northwich, a town of Cheshire, on the river 
 Weaver and the old Watling Street, 18 miles ENB. 
 of Chester. Underneath and around are brine- 
 springs, used for making salt since before the 
 Christian era, and the town is being undermined 
 by the pumping of the brine. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Norwalk (iVor'ofc), a town of Connecticut, at the 
 mouth of Norwalk River, on Long Island Sound, 
 41 miles by rail NE. of New York. It has a good 
 harbour, oyster-fisheries, the largest straw-hat 
 
 2g 
 
 factory in America, foundries and ironworks, and 
 manufactories of felt-hats, cloth, woollens, shirts, 
 shoes, locks, and door-knobs. Pop. (with South 
 Norwalk, 900) 19,932. —(2) Capital of Huron 
 county, Ohio, 55 miles by rail WSW. of Cleveland. 
 It manufactures organs, shoes, ploughs, sewing, 
 machines, tobacco, and fanning-mills. Pop. 7195. 
 
 Norway (Norweg. Norge), the western division 
 of the Scandinavian peninsula, extends from lat. 
 57" 59' N. in the south-west to 71° 11' in the 
 north-east, overlapping Sweden and Lapland on 
 the N. Quite 1160 miles in length (coast-line 
 3000 miles), it varies in width from 20 to 100 
 miles north of 63° N. lat. ; below that line it 
 swells out to 260 miles. Area, 124,495 sq. m. 
 Norway is separated from Sweden by the Kjolen 
 Mountains (3000 to 6000 feet), the backbone of 
 the peninsula, which bifurcate south of 63° ; the 
 western branch widens out into a broad plateau, 
 undulating between 2000 and 4000 feet and em- 
 bossed with mountain-knots— Dovre, Jotun, 
 Lang, Fille, Hardanger Fjekle (fells)— the separate 
 peaks of which slioot up to 6000 feet and higher 
 (Galdhoppigen, 8399 foet). Norway presents a 
 bold front to the Atlantic ; on the inner or eastern 
 side — the 'Eastland ' — the slope is more gradual. 
 Finmark, which is inhabited chiefly by Lapps, is 
 a monotonous undulating plateau (1000 to 2000 
 feet). The greater part of the country lies be- 
 tween the same degrees of latitude as Greenland, 
 and it is mainly owing to the Gulf Stream 
 that Norway is habitable. In winter the 
 west coast districts are the warmest, and the 
 cold increases in intensity according to the dis- 
 tance inland. The places that have the lowest 
 winter mean (11-8°) are all inland (where mercury 
 sometimes freezes at - 40° F.). The prevalent 
 south-west winds bring considerable rainfall, 40 
 to 70 inches in the year, to the west coast of 
 southern Norway ; in the interior only 12 to 16 
 inches fall. The pop. has much more than 
 doubled since 1820, when it was 977,500 ; in 1901 
 it was 2,239,880. There is one town with over 
 100,000— Christiania (227,626) ; four above 20,000 
 —Bergen (72,251), Troudlij<'m (38,180), Stavaiiger 
 (30,613), and Drammen (23,003) ; eightabove 10,000, 
 and nine above 5000. The density of the popula- 
 tion is only 18 per sq. m. ; but then fully 70 per 
 cent, of the total area is wholly uncultivable, 
 and 24 per cent, is forest. 
 
 From the North Cape to below 59° N. lat., to 
 the point nearest Scotland (280 miles distant), 
 the precipitous coast is protected from the 
 Atlantic waves by a belt of rocky islands, called 
 the Skjsergaard (' Skerry Fence '). The outermost 
 are tlie mountainous Lofoten and Vesteraalen 
 chains, where 30,000 fishermen congregate in 
 winter to prosecute the herring and cod fisheries. 
 All the islands of the Skjsergaard are frequented 
 by enormous quantities of sea-birds. The penin- 
 sular rampart is crowned with several gigantic 
 glaciers— the shores (6000 feet) of Lyngen Fjord 
 in the north are lined with them, besides great 
 snowfields ; south Norway possesses the second 
 largest glacier in Europe (Vatnajokull in Iceland 
 being the largest), the roof-shaped Justedal (4600 
 to 5400 feet), which has an area of 580 sq. m. (87 
 miles long by 6 to 22 miles wide). Throughout 
 Norway the limit of perpetual snow ranges from 
 3100 feet on Justedal to 5150 on the Dovre Fjeld, 
 The lofty west coast region is everywhere cleft 
 by gigantic fissures, very narrow and winding, 
 into which the sea-water flows — the fjords. In 
 some cases they are of great depth, much deeper 
 than the sea outside (200 fathoms) : Sogne Fjord, 
 for instance, is 2820 feet deeper; Hardanger 
 
NORWAY 
 
 614 
 
 NORWAY 
 
 Fjord, 930 feet. Sogne Fjord cuts its way to the 
 foot of the Jotun Fjeld, 106 miles from tlie ocean, 
 and Hardanger Fjord is 68 miles long. The finest 
 of the valleys stretching inland from the fjords is 
 Romsdal, where the rounded, pure gneiss moun- 
 tains tower up to 6000 feet with almost perpen- 
 dicular walls. The steep sides and extremities 
 (2000 to 4000 feet) of these fjords and valleys are 
 braided with waterfalls. The only considerable 
 break in the lofty coast-wall is the basin of 
 Trondhjem. The southern coast-lands, bordering 
 the Skagerrack and the wide Christiania Fjord, are 
 comparatively low and tame. East of the penin- 
 sular rampart the valleys converge upon Chris- 
 tiania Fjord. Most of these valleys are traversed 
 by mountain torrents and streams, the longest 
 being the Glommen (350 miles) and Drammen 
 (163). Some of these streams in their lower 
 courses expand into long narrow lakes. The 
 coast of northern Norway is estimated to have 
 risen between 400 and 600 feet. 
 
 Norway's natural wealth lies in her fisheries 
 (especially for cod and herring), her forests, and 
 her shipping ; her manufactures, her mines, and 
 her agriculture are all unable to meet the home 
 demands. Salted fish and cod-liver oil are largely 
 exported. Over 100,000 are engaged in the cod 
 and herring fisheries. The forests, their saw- 
 mills, and wood-pulp factories employ some 
 12,000 men. The rearing of cattle, sheep, and 
 goats — in the north reindeer — constitutes im- 
 portant branches. The area under cultivation is 
 only 2 per cent, of the entire surface of the 
 country, and meadows and grazing laud add 
 another 2-8 per cent. The output of the copper 
 and iron mines of Roros and the silver-mines of 
 Kongsberg have greatly declined. The total 
 mineral output of Norway (iron pyrites, silver, 
 copper, apatite, nickel)has an average yearly value 
 of £300,000, and employs some 3500 men. The 
 purely industrial establishments are grouped 
 mainly around Christiania, include textile fac- 
 tories, machine-shops, chemical works, flour- 
 mills, breweries, &c., and do not employ more 
 than 80,000 persons altogether. The Norwegians 
 rank amongst the busiest sea-carriers of the 
 world, the Norwegian mercantile marine ranking 
 third among maritime nations, or first in propor- 
 tion to population. The number of ships is about 
 7200, the tonnage 1,450,000 tons. The total ex- 
 ports of Norwegian goods amount annually to 
 from £8,500,000 to £10,700,000 (about £5,500,000 
 to Britain), the chief being fish, timber, and 
 wood-pulp, minerals, oils, tallow, tar, hides, 
 horns, textiles, paper, and dyestuffs. The im- 
 ports have an annual value of from £15,500,000 to 
 £16,200,000 (about £3,000,000 from Britain), and 
 include grain, textiles, bacon, butter, iron, coffee, 
 coals, wines, tobacco, &c. 
 
 The Norwegians share with the Swiss the dis- 
 tinction of being the most democratic people in 
 Europe ; all titles of nobility were abolished in 
 1821. During the 19th century large numbers of 
 the population emigrated, mostly to the United 
 States. In 1897 the number fell to 4669, but in 
 1900 increased to 10,931, in 1903 to 26,831. Since 
 1871 earnest endeavours liave been made to 
 diminish the consumption of spirituous liquors, 
 the agency chiefly relied upon being the Gothen- 
 burg licensing system. The railway lines radiate 
 chiefly from Christiania, and have a total le7igth 
 of nearly 1500 miles. Norway is now visited in 
 summer by large numbers of tourists. Attend- 
 ance at school is free and compulsory. Besides 
 primary schools, there are 84 secondary schools, 10 
 normal schools, and the university of Christiania 
 
 Except 52,700 persons (including 10,286 Method 
 ists, 5674 Baptists, 1969 Roman Catholics, Jews 
 Mormons, &c.), the entire population belonj 
 to the Lutheran Church (8000 Lutheran non 
 conformists). The language of the educated ii 
 Danish, the pronunciation diverging slightly 
 the dialect of the people is substantially similar 
 The Storthing or parliament consists of 117 (paid 
 members ; and divides for legislative purpose 
 into two chambers. The national expenditur 
 averages slightly over five and a half millions pe 
 annum, and is just balanced by the revenue. Q'h' 
 national debt amounted in 1905 to £14,500,000 
 There is an army of about 30,000 (includini 
 reserves), raised by universal military service 
 and a navy serviceable only for coast defence. 
 
 When we first hear of Norway it was occupiec 
 by Lapps and by several Gothic tribes. Haroh 
 Haarfager (863-930 a.d.) unified the country b; 
 making himself over-king over numerous mino* 
 kings or chiefs as far north as Trondhjem 
 Many of these, refu-sing to become his vassals 
 emigrated with their followers to Orkney, Shet 
 land, the Hebrides, Ireland, and Iceland. Ola 
 Tryggve-son (991-994), a typical viking, yet mad 
 his people Christian at least in name ; Olal 
 saint and king, welded the country into i 
 united Christian kingdom (c. 1015). Canute th 
 Great souglit to incorporate Noi'way with hi 
 Danish kingdom (1028). Harold Hardraada, win 
 died at Stamford Bridge near York in 1066 
 conquered Denmark. Magnus Barefoot wagec 
 war in the Orkneys and Hebrides, and fell ii 
 Ireland in 1103. Iceland acknowledged th 
 supremacy of Haco, who died at Kirkwall ii 
 1263, after his defeat at Largs. In 1319 th 
 crown passed through a female heir to the Swed 
 ish royal house, and again through marriage t 
 the Danish (13S0). The great Queen Margaret o 
 Denmark united all three kingdoms (1383). Th 
 Hebrides had been ceded to Scotland in 1266 
 the Orkneys and Shetlands were pledged t 
 Scotland in 1468. From 1536 Denmark treate( 
 Norway as a conquered province ; and it wa 
 not till 1814 that the cession of Norway to Swe 
 den gave the Norwegians (who at first opposei 
 the transference) their national rights again, witl 
 a free constitution, under the Swedish king. Ii 
 1821 the Norwegians abolished all titles o 
 nobility ; and the union of democratic — almos 
 republican — Norway with aristocratic Swedei 
 never worked smoothly. The nationalist move 
 ment became pronounced in 1890. A move 
 ment for an even larger measure of home rule 
 and diplomatic representation distinct from tha 
 of Sweden, ended in the refusal by Sweden t 
 grant the concessions asked and in the forma 
 proposal by Norway, in 1905, to withdraw froii 
 the union with Sweden. After some negotiation 
 and the meetings of Swedish and Norwegia) 
 parliaments, a separation was amicably agree( 
 to, and in October Norway was again a distinc 
 and independent state. By a vast majority, thi 
 Norwegians agreed to a.sk Prince Carl, second soi 
 of the Crown-prince of Denmark, to become thei 
 king ; and the new king was welcomed, a 
 Haakon VII. (Haco), in December. 
 
 See books on Norway by Mary Wollstonecraf 
 (1796), J. D. Forbes (1853), Wood (1880), Du Chailli 
 (1881), Vincent (1S81), Lovett (1885), beside 
 guidebooks by Nielsen, Baedeker, Tbnsberg, Ben 
 nett, Jc5rgensen,and Wilson ; and for the history 
 Laing's Heimskringla (1833 ; new ed. 1890), Car 
 lyle's Early Kings of Norivay (1878), Boyesen'; 
 History of Norway (new ed, 1890), and Nisbe 
 Bain in the ' Cambridge History ' (1905). 
 
NORWICH 
 
 515 
 
 NOTTINGHAM 
 
 Norwich (Nor'ridge), a cathedral city, the capi- 
 tal of Norfolk, and a parliamentary, county, and 
 municipal borough (the first returning two mem- 
 bers), is situated on the Wensum, immediately 
 above its confluence with the Yare, 18 miles W. 
 of Yarmouth and 114 NNE. of London. Pop. 
 (1801)34,975; (1831).61,110 ; (1881) 87,842; (1901) 
 111,728. Built on the summit and slopes of a 
 hill which gradually rises from the river, the 
 city, with its liamlets, covers an area of 7472 
 acres, as compared with that of 1300 enclosed 
 by its ancient walls (1294-1342). Its narrow, 
 winding streets are rich in examples of early 
 architecture— as Pull's Ferry and the Bishop's 
 Bridge (1295), both on the river-banks ; St Giles' 
 Hospital (1249); the Etlielbert Gateway (c. 1272); 
 Bishop Salmon's Gateway (c. 1325); the Guildhall 
 (completed 1413); Erpingham Gate (1420); the 
 Music House (partly Norman, and once a resi- 
 dence of Sir Edward Coke) ; the Bridewell (Decor- 
 ated and Perpendicular, c. 1400) ; and the Dolphin 
 Inn (1587). The cathedral, almost wholly Nor- 
 man in plan, but the growth of more than four 
 centuries, occupies a site close to the river, and 
 was founded in 1096 by Bishop Herbert Losinga : 
 its dimensions are 407 feet in length by 72 in 
 breadth (or 178 across the transepts), and it is 
 surmounted by a noble (Norman) tower and 
 (Decorated) spire of 315 feet — the highest in 
 England next to Salisbury. Close by is the 
 grammar-school, founded as a Mortuary Chapel 
 in 1319, and famous as the place of education 
 of Lord Nelson, Rajah Brooke, and other celeb- 
 rities ; also St Andrew's Hall (Perpendicular ; 
 formerly the church of the Black Friars), in 
 which are held the triennial nuisical festivals, 
 first established at Norwich in 1824. Next after 
 the cathedral the most striking edifice is the 
 castle, crowning the summit of a sugar-loaf 
 mound in the centre of the city : its massive 
 quadrangular Norman keep, the only portion 
 now standing, has since 1886 been converted 
 from a prison to a museum. On the cattle- 
 market beneath the castle is held annually, on 
 Maundy Thursday, the famous cattle and sheep 
 fair, formerly held on Tombland, and so graph- 
 ically described in Borrow's Lauengro. The 
 churches, forty-four in number, are for the most 
 part built of flint, and in the Perpendicular 
 style : those of St Peter Mancroft, St Andrew, 
 St Giles, St Lawrence, St Michael Coslany, and 
 St Stephen are the finest examples ; whilst of 
 modern public buildings may be mentioned the 
 hospital (founded 1771 and rebuilt 1879-83), an 
 Agricultural Hall (1882), and a Volunteer Drill- 
 hall (1886). Formerly one of the largest seats 
 in England of the worsted-weaving trade, the 
 city is still noted for its textile fabrics — espe- 
 cially its crapes ; but the principal manufactures 
 now carried on are those of mustard, starch, 
 ornamental ironware, boots and shoes, whilst 
 extensive breweries and a vinegar distillery, as 
 well as large nursery-gardens on the outskirts 
 of the town, give employment to many hands. 
 The bishopric was translated hither from Thet- 
 ford in 1094 ; and the chief subsequent event in 
 the city's history was the encampment of Ket's 
 rebels on Mousehold Heath (1549). Of citizens 
 the best known are Tliomas Bilney ; Archbishop 
 Parker ; Dr Caius ; Greene (the dramatist) ; 
 Bishops Cosin and Tanner ; Sir Thomas Browne ; 
 Dr Samuel Clarke ; ' Old ' Crome, his son. Cot- 
 man, Stark, and Vincent (the 'Norwich school' 
 of painters) ; Mrs Opie ; Crotch (the composer) ; 
 W. Taylor ; Professor Brewer ; Sir W. J. Hooker ; 
 Gumey and Ijis sister, Elizabeth Fry ; Lindley 
 
 (the botanist); and Harriet Martineau and her 
 brother James. 
 
 See works by Stacy (1819), Bayne (1858), Goul- 
 burn (1876), Jarrold (1883), and Jessopp (1884); 
 also those cited under Norfolk. 
 
 Norwich (Nor'ritch or Nor'witch), capital of 
 New London county, Connecticut, at the head 
 of the Thames River, 13 miles by rail N. of New 
 London. The chief portion of the city lies on 
 an eminence between the Yantic and Shetucket 
 rivers, which here unite to form the Thames. 
 There are manufactories of paper, cotton and 
 woollen goods, worsted, picture cords, pistols, 
 files, locks, iron pipes, &c., besides rolling-mills 
 and ironworks. The city's site was granted by 
 Uncas the Mohican to an English ensign who 
 in 1656 reached him by night with a canoe-load 
 of provisions, when he was besieged ; a memorial 
 obelisk was erected in 1825. Pop. 17,260. 
 
 Norwood, now part of the county borough of 
 Croydon, gives name to a parliamentary division 
 (pop. 85,730) of Lambeth. 
 
 Noss. See Bressay. 
 
 Nossi-Bd (Bay), a volcanic island NW. of Mada- 
 gascar. Area, 115 sq. m. ; pop. 9500. 
 
 Nostell, or NosTAL, a hamlet 5J^ miles SB. of 
 Wakefield, with ruins of a famous Augnstinian 
 priory, founded 1121. 
 
 Notley Abbey, Bucks, 2 miles NNE. of Thame, 
 a ruined Augnstinian canonry (1162). 
 
 Noto, an ancient episcopal town of Sicily, 16 
 miles SW. of Syracuse by rail. Pop. 22,600. 
 
 Nottingham, capital of Nottinghamshire, a 
 parliamentary (three members) and municipal 
 city (1897), county borough, and suff"ragan see 
 under l^incoln, is seated on the Trent, 126 miles 
 NNW. of London, 15 E. of Derby, and 38 S. by 
 E. of Sheffield. Formerly surrounded by ancient 
 walls (910-1265), of wliich all traces have now 
 disappeared, the town covers an area of about 16 
 sq. jn., and its appearance of late years has been 
 much improved by the widening of its streets ; 
 by the erection of a new town-hall. University 
 College, and other public buildings ; by the open- 
 ing and laying out of an arboretum of 17 acres, 
 of a public park and recreation grounds of over 
 150 acres, and of a tract of open land, called 
 'Bulwell Forest' (135 acres); as also by the 
 spanning of the Trent— which is here 200 yards 
 wide — with a broad granite and iron bridge 
 in the place of a former narrow structure of 
 seventeen arches. Crowning a precipitous rock, 
 which rises 133 feet above the river, stands the 
 castle, built (1674-83) on the site of an ancient 
 Norman fortress, dismantled during the Parlia- 
 mentary wars, and itself much damaged by fire 
 during the Reform Bill riots of 1831. It was 
 restored in 1878, and transformed into an art 
 museum. Near to it are the county hall (1770); 
 St Mary's Cliurcli (restored 1867-85), a cruciform 
 building in the Perpendicular style, 216 feet in 
 length ; and a spacious market-place, 5^ acres in 
 extent, having at its eastern end the exchange, 
 with a richly-decorated fagade (rebuilt 1814). In 
 another group not far off are the guildhall and 
 other municipal offices (1888), in the French 
 Renaissance style of architecture ; two theatres 
 (1865-84); and University College (1879-81 ; char- 
 tered in 1903), with 1700 students, and a library, 
 natural history museum, &c. Other edifices 
 are a hospital (1781, with additions 1829-79); 
 a Roman Catholic cathedral (1844) ; and the high 
 school, founded as a grammar or free school in 
 1513, moved into new buildings in 1867, and sine© 
 
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 
 
 516 
 
 NOVA ZEMBLA 
 
 1882 controlled under a new scheme. Of the 
 various manufactures carried on in the town the 
 most important are those of lace and hosiery; 
 baskets, bicycles, cigars, and needles are also 
 made, whilst several iron-foundries are in opera- 
 tion, and malting and brewing are carried on. 
 There is a great Michaelmas goose- fair. Pop. 
 (1801) 28,801 ; (1831) 50,220 ; (1881) 186,575 ; (1901) 
 239,753. Charles I. raised his standard (1642) at 
 Nottingham ; and it was the scene of riots (1795- 
 1816), partly owing to a bread famine and partly 
 to the Luddites. See works by Dickinson (1816), 
 Wylie (1853-65), Hine (1876), Stevenson (1890), 
 and the Records of the Borough (5 vols. 1882-1900). 
 Nottinghamshire, or Notts, an inland county 
 of England, bounded by Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, 
 Leicestershire, and Derbyshire. Its greatest 
 length is 50 miles ; average breadth, 20 iniles ; 
 and area, 824 sq. m., or 527,752 acres. Pop. (1801) 
 140,350 ; (1831) 225,400 ; (1881) 391,815 ; (1901) 
 514,537. Apart from tlie valley of the Trent, 
 which is very flat, the general aspect of the 
 county is undulating and well wooded, the highest 
 ground — 600 feet above the sea-level — being in 
 the west, in the vicinity of Sherwood Forest 
 (q.v.). In the south are the Wolds, consisting 
 of upland moors and pasture-lands broken up 
 by many fertile hollows, whilst the northern 
 boundary for upwards of 15 miles is skirted by 
 the Car, a tract of low-lying land, formerly a 
 swami)y bog, but since 1796 drained and brought 
 into cultivation. The Trent, with its tributaries, 
 the Erewash, Soar, and Idle, is the principal 
 river. As regards productiveness the county is 
 not above mediocrity, except in the Vale of 
 Bel voir to the east of Nottingham. The principal 
 mineral products are coal, gypsum, iron ore, and 
 limestone. The manufactures are noticed under 
 the chief towns — viz, Nottingham, Newark, 
 Mansfield, Retford, and Worksop. Lying wholly 
 in the diocese of Southwell, Notts is divided into 
 six wapentakes, nine poor-law unions, and 273 
 parishes, and returns seven M.P.s, one for each 
 of its four divisions (Bassetlaw, Newark, Mans- 
 field, and Rushcliflfe), and three for Nottingham 
 (its capital and assize town). Of its natives the 
 best known are Archbishops Cranmer, Seeker, 
 Sterne, and Manners-Sutton ; Garnet (the Jesuit) ; 
 Denzil, Lord Holies ; General Ireton ; Colonel 
 Hutchinson ; Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ; 
 Bishop Warburton ; Dodsley, Kippis, and Wake- 
 field (the authors) ; Admiral Earl Howe ; Sandby 
 and Bonington (the artists); Dr Erasmus Dar- 
 win ; Edmund Cartwright ; Kirke White and 
 Bailey (the poets) ; Lord Byron ; ' Speaker ' 
 Denison; and 'General' Booth. See works by 
 Thoroton (3 vols. 1797), Bailey (4 vols. 1852-55), 
 Briscoe (1881), White (1885), C, Brown (1891), 
 and W, Stevenson (1893). 
 
 Netting Hill, a London district, in Kensington 
 and Chelsea parishes. 
 
 Noumea. See New Caledonia, 
 
 Novara, a town of north Italy, 60 miles N. of 
 Turin by rail. Here the Sardinians Avere utterly 
 defeated by the Austrians in 1849, Pop. 45,250. 
 
 Nova Scotia, a province of Canada, consists of 
 a long, narrow peninsula, and the island of Cape 
 Breton, which is separated from the mainland by 
 the Strait of Canso. It is bounded N. by North- 
 umberland Strait and the Gulf of St Lawrence ; 
 NE., S., and SE. by the Atlantic ; W. by the Bay 
 of Pundy ; and NW. by New Brunswick, with 
 which it is connected by an isthmus only 11 miles 
 wide, separating the Bay of Fundy from Northum- 
 berland Strait. The greatest length is 350 miles, 
 
 the greatest breadth 120 miles, and the area 20, 
 sq. m. (13,380,480 acres)— one-third less than tl 
 of Scotland. One-fifth of the area consists 
 lakes, rivers, and inlets of the sea. Of upwa 
 of 6,000,000 acres occupied, nearly 2,000,000 an 
 crop and pasture, and over 30,000 are gardens e 
 orchards. Pop. (1806) 67,515; (1851) 276.1 
 (1871) 387,800 ; (1901) 459,574. 
 
 The coast-line is about 1000 miles in leng 
 and the shores abound with excellent harboi 
 There are numerous rivers, few of them m 
 than 50 miles long. Bras d'Or in Cape Brel 
 (q.v.) is a much indented sea-inlet. Lj 
 Rossignol is 20 miles in length ; Ship Harbo 
 a lake 15 miles long. Mines Basin, the east a 
 of the Bay of Fundy, penetrates 60 miles inlai 
 and terminates in Cobequid Bay. The tides r 
 30 to 50 feet in the basin with great impetu 
 ity, and form a 'bore.' On each side of 1 
 Cobequid range are two extensive areas of f 
 arable lands ; the Annapolis valley is especia 
 rich. The northern part of Cape Breton is b( 
 and steep (North Cape, 1800 feet). The princi] 
 cities and towns are Halifax, Dartmouth, Y 
 mouth, Truro, Pictou, Amherst, Windsor, Ke 
 ville, and Annapolis. The extreme of cold is 
 below zero, and of heat 98° in the shade. Spri 
 is rather tedious, and the winter variable ; f( 
 are prevalent along the coasts, but do not pe: 
 trate far inland. Rye, oats, and barley, bu( 
 wheat, Indian corn, tomatoes, potatoes, turni 
 and all root-crops grow in abundance ; wheat 
 not much grown ; hay is a very important cr( 
 Apples, pears, plnms, cherries, and other gard 
 fruits attain the utmost perfection. Attentior 
 now devoted to dairying and to the raising 
 live-stock. Sport is excellent throughout 1 
 province. The manufactures are limited, but ; 
 being developed. Mining (gold, coal, iron, & 
 is extensively carried on. The fisheries of No 
 Scotia are among the finest in the world. T 
 Avaters abound with mackerel, cod, herring, shj 
 salmon, halibut, haddock, lobsters, &c. The ch 
 exports are fish, minerals, lumber, agricultu 
 products, and general manufactures. There i 
 700 miles of railway. Education is free, and th( 
 are six colleges. The public affairs are admin 
 tered by a lieutenant-governor, and executi 
 council of twenty-one members, and a legislati 
 as.sembly of thirty-eight members elected by t 
 people for four years. The province is represent 
 in the Dominion parliament by ten senators a 
 eighteen members of the Lower House, 
 
 Discovered by Cabot in 1497, the coimtry w 
 partly settled in 1604 by the French, to whom 
 was known as Acadie. It long remained a bo 
 of contention between France and England, b 
 became finally British in 1713. The" Acadia 
 who refused to fall in with the new settleme 
 were expelled in 1755 (Longfellow's Evangeline 
 not historically just) ; the well-being of No 
 Scotia dates from the immigration of loyalis 
 from the United States after the Revolutiona 
 war. It entered the Dominion in 1867. S 
 works by Haliburton (1829), Murtioch (1867), ai 
 Hannay (1889), besides the histories of Canada. 
 
 Nova Zembla (Russ, Novaja Zemlja, 'N( 
 Land '), an Arctic island lying between the Ka 
 Sea and Barents Sea, Long and narrow, it mef 
 ures 600 miles from north to south and 60 
 average width, and is cut in two nearly midwi 
 by a narrow winding sea-passage, the Matochk 
 Shar. The centre and north are monntainoii 
 rising to 4000 feet or higher, and are coven 
 with snow and ice. Although not permanent 
 inhabited, it is visited by Russian and Norwegij 
 
NOVGOROD 
 
 617 
 
 NUREMBERG 
 
 Seamen and hunters. It was known to the 
 hunters of Novgorod in tlie 11th century, but 
 was rediscovered by Willoughby in 1553. 
 
 Nov'gorod ('new-town'), a famous city of 
 Russia, is situated on the Volkhof, near where it 
 issues from Lake Ihnen, 110 miles SSE. of St 
 Petersburg by rail. It is the cradle of Russian 
 history. In 864, according to tradition, Rurik 
 (a Varangian, apparently a Scandinavian) was 
 invited hither by the neighbouring tribes, and 
 with him Russian history begins. In the 12tli 
 century it had connections with the Hanse cities, 
 and it became the market of north-east Europe. 
 'Novgorod the Great,' a kind of republic, had 
 400,000 inhabitants, but in 1471 the czar Ivan III. 
 nearly destroyed the town, and bereft it of its 
 liberties. St Sophia, founded in the 11th cen- 
 tury, is built on the model of St Sophia at Con- 
 stantinople. Pop. 26,599. ^ThQ government, lying 
 E. of that of St Petersburg, contains 3000 lakes 
 and for three-fourths is covered with forests. 
 Area, 47,236 sq. m. ; pop. 1,390,507. 
 
 Novl, a town of Italy, 30 miles NW. of Genoa. 
 Pop. 9917. Here in 1799 the P'rench were defeated 
 (15th August) and victorious (6th November). 
 
 Novibazar' (also Jenipasar and Rascia), a town 
 where Austrian and Turkish authority meet, 
 on the river Rashka, an affluent of the Morava, 
 120 miles SE. of Saraievo in Bosnia. Pop. 12,000. 
 The sanjak of Novibazar (3842 sq. m. ; pop. 
 153,000) is mountainous and barren, but as lying 
 between Servia and Montenegro is of strategic 
 importance. The W. part is occupied by Austria. 
 
 Novogeorgievsk {Novojorjevsld), a Russian for- 
 tress of the first rank, on the Vistula, 20 miles 
 NW. of Warsaw. With Warsaw, Ivangorod, and 
 Brest Litovsk, it forms the Polish Quadrilateral. 
 
 Novorossisk', a fortified port on the Black Sea, 
 to the SE. of Anapa in Caucasia. A breakwater 
 and quay were begun in 1890. Pop. 16,200. 
 
 Novotcherkask', a town of southern Russia, 
 capital of the province of the Don Cossacks, on 
 the Aksai, a tributary of the Don, 40 miles from 
 the Sea of Azov, and 70 ENE. of Taganrog. The 
 administration was transferred hither from Tcher- 
 kask in 1805 ; but the choice was not a happy 
 one, the distance of the town from the Don (12 
 miles) being much felt. Pop. 47,091. 
 
 Noyon {Nwa-yomP'), a tovra in the French dep. 
 of Oise, 67 miles NNE. of Paris by rail. It has a 
 fine cathedral in the Transition style of the 12th 
 century, an hotel-de-ville (1485-1523), and a former 
 episcopal palace. Pop. 5812. The Noviodunum 
 of Caesar, Noyon was a residence of Charlemagne 
 and Hugo Capet, and the birthplace of Calvin. 
 
 Nubia is a comparatively modern name for a 
 large regioTi of Africa, formerly a portion of 
 Ethiopia (q.v.), and extending on both sides of 
 the Nile from Egypt to Abyssinia ; touching the 
 Red Sea on the east and the desert on the west. 
 Nubia Proper, or Lower Nubia, extends from 
 Assouan on the Egyptian frontier to Dongola ; 
 beyond that is Upper Nubia. But of late the 
 name of Egyptian Soudan, properly applicable to 
 a section of Upper Nubia, has come to be used 
 for Nubia in its widest sense, together with the 
 once Egyptian territory actually in the Soudan, 
 and the Equatorial Provinces. Both in its lower 
 and upper sections Nubia is for the most part an 
 expanse of rocky desert, with patches where grass 
 sometimes grows, and ravines in which moisture 
 enough is found to keep alive a few mimosas or 
 palms, and to raise pasture for gazelles and 
 camels. There are also wells and small oases 
 
 here and there. The great ' Nubian Desert ' lies 
 east of the Nile, opposite the great western bend 
 of the river. I3elow Khartoum rain is almost 
 unknown ; the clhnate is accordingly excessively 
 hot and dry, and, except in the river-ports after 
 the fall of the Nile, is very healthy. The only 
 exception to the general aridity is the narrow 
 strip of country on both sides of the Nile, wliich 
 nowhere exceeds four niiles in breadth, and in 
 many places is only a quarter of a mile wide. 
 The most fertile part is near Dongola. A moun- 
 tain barrier bounds the valley on both sides of 
 the Nile, and consists of granite and sandstone. 
 
 Nuble, a province of Chili ; capital, Chillan(q. v.). 
 
 Nueva Esparta. See Margarita. 
 
 Nuevo Leon (Nivay'vo Lay-oan'), a northern 
 state of Mexico ; Monterey (q.v.) is the capital. 
 
 Nukha {Noo-liha), a town of Caucasia ; it is on 
 the southern slope of Caucasus, and 120 miles B. 
 ofTiflis. Pop. 24,719. 
 
 Numidia (Gr. Nomadia, 'land of Nomads'), 
 the Roman name for part of the north coast of 
 Africa, largely corresponding with Algiers. 
 
 Nun, Cape. See Morocco. 
 
 Nuncham Park, an Oxfordshire seat, on the 
 Thames, 5J miles SSE. of Oxford. 
 
 Nundydroog, or Nandidri5g, a fortified hill 
 and health-resort in Mysore, 31 miles N. of Banga- 
 lore, and 4810 feet above the sea. It was stormed 
 by a British force in 1791. 
 
 Nun'eaton, a market-town of Warwickshire, 
 on the river Anker and the Coventry Canal, 14 
 miles NNW. of Rugby, 9 N. by E. of Coventry, 
 and 22 E. of Birmingham. It has a good Gothic 
 parish church, some remains of a 12th-century 
 nunnery, with a modern church built thereon, 
 and a grammar-school (1553). The ribbon manu- 
 facture has given place to worsted, cotton, and 
 woollen spinning. ' George Eliot,' born at Arbury 
 farm to the south, went to school at Nuneaton, 
 and here saw her Felix Holt riot. Pop. of 
 Nuneaton and Chilvers Coton (1901) 24,996. 
 
 Nuremberg (Ger. Nilrnberg), a city in the 
 Bavarian province of Middle Franconia, in a 
 sandy but well-cultivated district, on the little 
 Pegnitz (a sub-affluent of the Main), 95 miles N. 
 by W. of Munich, and 145 ESE. of Frankfort. It 
 is the quaintest and most interesting town of 
 Germany, on account of the wealth of mediseval 
 architecture which it presents in its many-towered 
 walls, its gateways, its picturesque streets with 
 their gabled house-fronts, its bridges, and its 
 beautiful Gothic fountains. The Burg or royal 
 palace was built (c. 1024-1158) by Conrad II. and 
 Frederick Barbarossa ; in its courtyard is a 
 coeval linden-tree. Of eight fine churches the 
 two finest are St Lawrence (1274-1477), with two 
 noble towers 233 feet high, exquisite stained 
 glass, the famous stone tabernacle (1495-1500) by 
 Adam Kraift, and the wood-carvings of Veit 
 Stoss ; and St Sebald's (c. 1225-1377), with the 
 superb shrine of Peter Vischer. Other note- 
 worthy objects are the Italian Renaissance town- 
 hall (1622); the new law-courts (1877); the 
 gymnasium, founded by Melanchthon (1526) ; the 
 Germanic museum (1852) ; an industrial museum 
 (1871) ;alibraryof200,000voliunes; Albert DUrer'3 
 hou.se ; and the statues of him, Hans Sachs, and 
 Melanchthon, with the 'Victoria' or soldiers' 
 monument (1876). Although the glory of Nurem- 
 berg's foreign commerce has long since passed 
 away, the home trade is still of high importance. 
 It includes the specialities of metal, wood, and 
 bone carvings, and children's ' Dutch ' toys and 
 
NUWARA ELIYA 
 
 518 
 
 OATLANDS PARK 
 
 dolls, which, known as 'Nuremberg wares,' find 
 a ready sale in every part of Europe, and are 
 largely exported to America and the East. In 
 all there are close on 200 factories, producing also 
 chemicals, ultramarine, type, lead-pencils, beer, 
 &c. ; and the town besides does a vast export 
 trade in hops, and import trade iu colonial wares 
 from the Netherlands. Pop. (1818) 26,854 ; (1875) 
 91,018; (1900) 261,081— the great majority Pro- 
 testants. First heard of in 1050, Nuremberg 
 was made a free imperial city in 1219. In 1417 
 the Hohenzollerns sold all their rights to the 
 magistracy. This put an end to tlie feuds which 
 raged between the burggrafs and the municipal- 
 ity ; and Nuremberg for a time became the chief 
 home iu Germany of the arts and of inventions- 
 watches or 'Nuremberg eggs,' air-guns, globes, 
 &c. In 1803 it retained its independence, with a 
 territory of 483 sq. m,, containing 80,000 inhabit- 
 ants ; but in 1806 it was transferred to Bavaria. 
 See books by Headlam, Ree, and Bell (1905). 
 
 Nuwara Eliya. See Newera Elia. 
 
 Nyangwe, a station on the Upper Congo or 
 Lualaba, where Stanley commenced the descent 
 of the Congo in 1876. 
 
 Nyanza. See Albert and Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 Nyassa, or Nyasa (Nee-ah'sa), the southern- 
 most of the equatorial great lakes of East Africa, 
 is situated about 260 miles SE. of Tanganyika 
 and 400 inland from the east coast. It lies at an 
 altitude of 1570 feet, is very deep in the middle, 
 shelving rapidly from the shores, which are rocky 
 and high. Long and narrow, it measures 350 
 miles from north to south and an average of 40 
 from east to west. The river Shire goes S. from 
 its southern extremity to the Zambesi. Although 
 the Portuguese knew of the lake as Maravi early 
 in the 17th c, Livingstone was the first to fix 
 ill 1859 its situation and to navigate it. 
 
 Nyassaland is the unofficial name for a region 
 west and south of Lake Nyassa, in which, since 
 1878, the African Lakes Company and British 
 missionaries — especially of the Established and 
 Free Churches of Scotland— have been at work. 
 In 1889 it was declared within the British sphere 
 of influence, and in 1891 formally created the 
 British Central Africa Protectorate. It is the 
 most important part of a much wider area within 
 the British sphere — British Central Africa — which 
 extends from Lake Nyassa on the east, right 
 
 across Africa to the German and Portuguese wes 
 coast possessions, with the Congo Independen 
 State to the north, and the Zambesi dividin 
 it from Southern Rhodesia. British Centra 
 Africa, since 1891 under the British South Afric 
 Company as North-eastern and North-wester: 
 Rhodesia, has an area of about 500,000 sq. m., am 
 a pop. estimated in 1903 at 360,000 (250 Burc 
 peans). The Protectorate proper of British 
 Central Africa is administered by an Imperia 
 Commissioner, whose authority also extends, unde 
 the charter of the British South Africa Companj 
 to the whole of Northern Rhodesia. Lying o 
 the western and southern shores of Lake Nyassa 
 it forms the eastern boundary of North-easter 
 Rhodesia, and has an area of 40,000 sq. ni. an- 
 a population of about 900,000. Blantyre (poj 
 6000, 150 Europeans) is the largest place; Zonibs 
 on the Shire, is the seat of the connni.ssionei 
 Other places are Bandawe, Port Maguire, an 
 Fort Johnston. The Livingstonia mission her 
 was originally founded in accordance with 
 suggestion of Dr Livingstone, as was also th 
 Lakes Company, with the express purpose o 
 counteracting the influence of the Arab slave 
 dealing marauders who were the curse of th 
 region. The missions and the company had ; 
 fierce struggle with the slave-catching interest 
 until relieved by the government establishments 
 There are also settlements on Lake Moero and oi 
 Lake Bangweolo. The imports of the protec 
 torate (cottons, provisions, hardware, machinery 
 agricultural implements, &c.) have an annua 
 value of about £180,000 ; the exports, ivory 
 india-rubber, oil-seeds, rhinoceros' horns, hippo 
 potamus' teeth, strophanthus seed, beeswax, rice 
 are worth near £40,000. Cott'ee and wheat ar 
 also grown : merino sheep thrive. 
 
 Nyborg. See FOnen. 
 
 Nyiregyh^za, a town of Hungary, 130 miles 
 E. by N. of Budapest. It is the centre of ai 
 extensive wine district, with allied manufactures 
 It has an important annual fair. Pop. (1900 
 81,875. 
 
 Nykerk (Nye'kerk), or Nieuwkerk, a Dutcl 
 town, 28 miles SE. of Amsterdam by rail, and Is 
 mile from the Zuider Zee. Pop. 7599. 
 
 Nykoping (nearly Nee-chup'ing), a seaport o 
 Sweden, on a bay of the Baltic, 62 miles SW. o 
 Stockholm (100 miles by rail). Pop. 7374. 
 
 AHU. See Hawaii. 
 
 Oajaca (0-a-hah'ka), a mountainous 
 
 Pacific state in the south of Mexico. 
 
 The capital, Oajaca, lies 5060 feet above 
 
 the sea, in the fertile valley of the 
 
 Atoyac. It has a large cathedral (1729), 
 
 a quaint bishop's palace, the State Institute, 
 
 manufactures of chocolate, cotton goods, cigars, 
 
 candles, and soap. Pop. 37,856. 
 
 Oakengates, a Shropshire market-town, 14 
 miles W. of Shrewsbury. Pop. 10,900. 
 
 Oakham, the county town of Rutland, in the 
 vale of Catraose, 25 miles WNW. of Peterborough. 
 The castle, every peer passing which must forfeit 
 either a horseshoe or a fine, is in ruins except the 
 hall, used for county business. The fine parish 
 church, with a lofty spire, was restored by Scott 
 in 1858-59 at a cost of £6100 ; and Archdeacon 
 Johnson's grammar-school (1584 ; reconstituted 
 1875) has an endowment of £1200 a year. Beer, 
 boots, aud hosiery are made. Pop. 3342. 
 
 Oakland, capital of Alameda county, Cal 
 fornia, on the east side of San P'rancisco Baj 
 4^ miles from San Francisco. It has wide street 
 adorned with evergreen oaks, and is surrounde 
 with gardens and vineyards. It is the terminii 
 of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and steam ferrj 
 boats ply constantly to San Francisco. Beside 
 a Congregational seminary, a large R. C. colleg 
 (1889), and the state home for the blind, the cit 
 contains canning-factories, manufactories of co' 
 tons, woollens, jute, iron, nails, shoes, potterj 
 carriages, &c. Pop. (1870) 10,500 ; (1900) 66,960 
 
 Oakworth, a town in the West Riding of Yorl 
 shire, 3 miles SW. of Keighley, with cotton an 
 worsted industries. Pop. 4681. 
 
 Oamaru (O-a-Ttm-roo'), a port and bathlnj 
 resort of New Zealand, 78 miles by rail NE. ( 
 Dunedin. Pop. 5621. 
 
 Oatlands Park, Surrey, near the Thames, 
 miles ESE. of Chertsey, a former royal palac( 
 purchased in 1794 by the Duke of York, aud i 
 1858 opened as an hotel. 
 
&BA1( 
 
 51^ 
 
 (ELANI) 
 
 01)3,11, a fashionable watering-place of Argyll- 
 shire, 84 miles WNW. of Stirling, and 136 of 
 Edinburgh, by a railway opened in 1880. It 
 curves round a beautiful and almost land-locked 
 bay, which, sheltered from every wind by the 
 island of Kerrera on the west and by the high 
 shores of the mainland, forms a spacious haven, 
 crowded in summer by yachts and steamers. A 
 mere 'clachan' when Dr Johnson visited it in 
 1772, Oban began to be feued in 1803-20, and 
 in 1832 was constituted one of the Ayr parlia- 
 mentary burghs. It is now the great tourist 
 headquarters of the West Highlands, possessing 
 some thirty hotels and splendid steamboat facili- 
 ties. Objects of interest are the picturesque 
 ruins of Dunolly and Dunstaffnage Castles, and 
 a prehistoric cave-dwelling, discovered in 1890. 
 Pop. (1821) 1359 ; (1901> 5274. 
 
 Obeid, El, capital of Kordofan, in the eastern 
 Soudan, 220 miles SW. of Khartoum, with trade 
 in gum-arabic, ivory, gold, and ostrich-feathers. 
 Pop. 35,000. Near this, in Nov. 1883, an Egyptian 
 force under Hicks Pasha, with an English staff, 
 was exterminated by the Mahdi. 
 
 Ober-Ammergau(^mmergfoty'), a village of 1281 
 inhabitants, in the valley of the Ammer in Upper 
 Bavaria, 45 miles SW. of Munich. Here the 
 famous Passion Play (established 1633) has been 
 performed every ten years. 
 
 Oberhausen, an important manufacturing 
 town in the Rhine province of Prussia, 40 miles 
 N. of Cologne. It has large iron and other 
 works, and coal-mines. Pop. 42,500. 
 
 Oberland. See Bern. 
 
 Obi, or Ob, tlie great river of Western Siberia, 
 rises in two branches, the Biya and the Katun, 
 in the Altai Mountains, within thQ Chinese 
 frontier, and flows 2120 miles NW. and N. to 
 the great Gulf of Obi in the Arctic Ocean. Its 
 chief tributaries are the Irtish, Tcharysli, Tom, 
 and Tchulym, all navigable. It has been proved 
 to be accessible for some time yearly to sea-borne 
 trade with Europe round the North Cape. 
 
 Obock, a French possession on the African 
 coast of the Red Sea, inside Bab-el-Mandeb, and 
 opposite Perim, including the protectorates of 
 Tajurra and Koubbet. Area, 2300 sq. m. ; pop. 
 24,600. In 1894 the capital was fixed at Djiboutil. 
 
 Ocean Grove, a Methodist Episcopal seaside 
 resort and pleasure retreat, on the New Jersey 
 coast, established by a church society in 1870, is 
 6 miles by rail S. of Long Branch, and 54 from 
 New York. Bathing, riding, and driving are as 
 stringently forbidden on Sundays as are theatri- 
 cals, smoking, or drinking at all times ; and the 
 25,000 summer visitors spend much of their time 
 in religious services in an Auditorium built to 
 hold 5000 persons. 
 
 Oceania, a name sometimes given to the fifth 
 division of the globe, comprising all the islands 
 which intervene between the south-eastern shores 
 of the continent of Asia and the western shores 
 of America. It naturally divides itself into three 
 great sections— the Malay Archipelago, Austral- 
 asia or Melanesia, and Polynesia (q.v.). 
 
 Ochil Hills (Oa'hil), a pastoral range occupying 
 parts of the Scottish counties of Clackmannan 
 and Fife, and extending 24 miles from the vicinity 
 of Stirling north-east to the Firth of Tay. Chief 
 summits are Bencleugh (2363 feet), Dunmyat 
 (1375), and King's Seat (2111). See Beveridge's 
 Between the Ochils and the Forth (1888). 
 
 Ochiltree (Oa'hil-tree), an Ayrshire village, on 
 Lugar Water, llj miles E. of Ayr. Pop. 699. 
 
 Ocmulgee. See Georgia. 
 
 Oconto, capital of Oconto county, Wisconsin, 
 on Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto River, 
 149 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee. It has large 
 steam saw-mills. Pop. 6219. 
 
 Odense (O'den-seh; 'Odin's island'), the chief 
 town of the Danish island of Fiinen (q.v.). Its 
 cathedral was founded in 1086. Pop. (1880) 
 20,804; (1900)40,138. 
 
 Odenwald, a mountainous system partly in 
 Baden and Bavaria, but mainly in Hesse (q.v.). 
 
 Oder (Slavon. Vjodr), one of the principal 
 rivers of Germany, rises in the Odcrberg on the 
 tableland of Moravia, 1950 feet above sea-level, 
 and flows 550 miles NW. and N. through 
 Prussian Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, 
 to the Stettiner Half, whence it passes into the 
 Baltic by the triple arms of the Dievenow, Peene, 
 and Swine, which enclose the islands of Woollin 
 and Usedom. The rapidity of the current and 
 the silting at the embouchures of the numerous 
 tributaries render the navigation difficult. Canals 
 connect the Oder with the Spree, Havel, and 
 Elbe ; the Warthe is a navigable tributary. On 
 the banks are Ratibor, Brieg, Breslau, Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, Stettin, and Swinemiinde. 
 
 Odessa, the fourth city of Russia, on the 
 Black Sea, midway between the estuaries of the 
 Dniester and Dnieper, by rail 967 miles SSW. of 
 Moscow and 381 S. of Kieff". It is built facing 
 the sea on low cliffs, seamed with deep ravines 
 and hollowed out by galleries in the soft rock, 
 in which numbers of the poorest inhabitants herd 
 together. Above ground its streets are long and 
 broad, and cross each other at right angles. 
 Odessa was only founded in 1794, near a Turkish 
 fort that fell into Russian hands in 1783 ; but it 
 quickly became the port for the corn-growing 
 districts of South Russia. Its progress was 
 greatly aided by its being a free port from 1817 
 to 1857, and again by the railway to Kieff 
 (1866). The pop. increased from 3150 in 1796 
 to 25,000 in 1814, 100,000 in 1850, 184,800 in 
 1873, and 405,000 (very many Jews and some 
 Greeks) in 1905, when there were fleet mutinies, 
 riots, massacres of Jews, and a local civil war. 
 The harbour or roadstead, protected by moles, 
 is blocked by ice about a fortnight in the 
 year. The exports include wheat, sugar, wool, 
 and flour ; the imports, raw cotton, oils, groceries, 
 iron and steel, coal, food-stuffs, fruits, tea, tobacco, 
 machinery. The chief industries are flour-milling, 
 sugar and oil refining, the manufacture of tobacco, 
 machinery, leather, soap, chemicals, biscuits, &c. 
 Odessa has a university (1865) with 600 students, 
 a public library (1829) of over 40,000 vols., the 
 cathedral (1802-49) of the Archbishop of Kherson, 
 a very fine opera-house (1887), palatial grain-ware- 
 houses, corn-elevators, and the 'palais royal,' 
 with its gardens and park. Monuments to Count 
 Worontsoff (1863), the Duke de Richelieu (1827)— 
 both great benefactors of Odessa— and Pushkin 
 (1889) adorn the city. Water is brought by 
 aqueduct (27 miles long) from the Dniester. 
 Numerous coast batteries have been built. 
 Odeypoor. See Udaipur. 
 Odiham, a market-town of Hampshire, 28 
 miles NE. of Winchester. Pop. of parish, 2667. 
 
 Oedenburg {Qdetiboorcf ; Hung. Soprony ; the 
 Scardbantia of the Romans), a town of Hungary, 
 3 miles W. of the Neusiedler See and 48 S. by 
 E. of Vienna. It manufactures candied fruits, 
 sugar, soap, &c. Pop. 33,320. 
 (Eland, a Baltic island, 4 to 17 miles from tho 
 
OELS 
 
 520 
 
 OIL CITY 
 
 east coast of Sweden. It is 55 miles long and 5 
 to 12 broad ; pop. 30,400. Scarcely more than a 
 limestone clifT, it is scantily covered with soil, 
 but in some parts is well wooded. 
 
 Oels, a manufacturing town of Prussian Silesia, 
 16 miles ENE, of Breslau by rail. Pop. 10,876. 
 
 CEr'ebro, a town of Sweden, where the Svarta 
 enters the Hyelmar Lake, 170 miles W. of Stock- 
 holm by rail, with an old castle. Pop. 14,893. 
 
 Oesel, a Baltic island belonging to Livonia, 
 and lying across the mouth of the Gulf of Riga. 
 It is 45 miles long from NE. to SW., and has 
 an area of 1000 sq. m., with a pop. (chiefly 
 Esthonian) of 56,600. The surface is broken by 
 low hills, marshy, and well watered and wooded. 
 The only town is Arensburg, on the south-east 
 coast (pop. 4000). Long governed by the Teutonic 
 Knights, Oesel became Danish in 1559, Swedish 
 In 1645, and Russian in 1721. 
 
 Ofen. See Pesth, 
 
 Offa's Dyke, the ancient boundary between 
 Mercia and Wales, extending from the mouth of 
 the Dee to that of the Severn. 
 
 Offenbach, a manufacturing town of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, on the Main's south bank, 5 miles 
 by electric railway SE. of Frankfort. Among 
 its manifold industrial products are chemicals, 
 fancy leather goods, machines, and carriages. 
 Pop. (1831) 7802 ; (1875) 26,012 ; (1900) 50,468. 
 
 Ogasawara. See Bonin. 
 
 Ogden, capital of Weber county, Utah, is 
 situated, at an elevation of 4340 feet, at the con- 
 fluence of the Weber and Ogden rivers, where the 
 former passes through the Wahsatch Mountains, 
 87 miles N. of Salt Lake City. A great railway 
 junction, it has a Methodist university (founded 
 1890), a foundry and mills, bre\veries, and manu- 
 factories of woollens, brooms, boots and shoes, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 6069 ; (1900) 16,313. 
 
 Ogdensburg, a port of New York, on the St 
 Lawrence, at the mouth of the Oswegatchie, 
 opposite Prescott, Canada, and 515 miles by rail 
 NNW. of New York City. It has a Catholic 
 cathedral, a large lake and river trade, a huge 
 grain-elevator, and manufactories of flour, lumber, 
 and leather. Pop. 12,662. 
 
 Ogowe, or Ogoway, a river of West Africa, 
 rises on the Avest side of the watershed that parts 
 its basin from that of the Congo, in 2° 40' S. lat., 
 14° 30' E. long., and flowing north-west and west, 
 finally curves round by the south to Nazareth 
 Bay, on the north side of Cape Lopez. It forms 
 a wide delta of some 70 sq. m. in extent. During 
 July-September it shrinks to a narrow current ; 
 at other times it is a deep, broad stream ; but 
 numerous islands and sandbanks and shallows 
 prevent vessels of any size from ascending. It 
 has been dominated by France, through her 
 colony on the Gaboon (q.v.), since 1885. 
 
 Ohi'o, next to the Missouri the largest affluent 
 of the Mississippi, is formed by the union of the 
 Alleghany and Monongahela at Pittsburgh, Penn- 
 sylvania, and flows Avest-south-west 975 miles, 
 with a breadth of 400 to 1400 yards. In its 
 course it separates the northern states of Ohio, 
 Indiana, and Illinois from the southern states 
 of West Virginia and Kentucky. Towns on its 
 banks are Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Cincinnati, Louis- 
 ville (where there are rapids of 22 feet in a mile, 
 with a steamboat canal), Evansville, New Albany, 
 Madison, Portsmouth, Covington, and Cairo. The 
 chief affluents are the Tennessee, Cumberland, 
 Wabash, Kentucky, Great Kanawha, Green, 
 
 Muskingum, and Scioto. It is usually navigabU 
 from Pittsburgh ; in 1884 it rose 71 feet. 
 
 Ohio, the fourth in population of the states ol 
 the American Union, lies between Lake Erie and 
 the Ohio River. It stretches from north to soutli 
 210 miles, and from east to west 220 miles ; area, 
 39,964 sq. m., equal to that of Ireland and Wales, 
 The country is an extensive, moderately undulat- 
 ing plain ; in many places streams have forced a 
 way through bold cliff's of sandstone. A low 
 ridge enters the state near the north-east corner 
 and crosses it in a south-westerly direction ; this 
 'divide' (1300 feet above sea-level) separates the 
 waters of Lake Erie and the Ohio River. North 
 of this ridge the surface of the country gently 
 declines toward the lake. The central part ol 
 Ohio is almost a level plain, about 1000 feet 
 above the sea, slightly inclining southward. The 
 southern part is somewhat hilly, the valleys grow- 
 ing deeper as they approach the Ohio River, 
 whose tributaries here water many extensive 
 and fertile valleys. The coalfields cover ovei 
 12,000 sq. m. ; and immense deposits of lime- 
 stone, freestone, and mill-stones abound. Ir 
 no other state have been found so many evi- 
 dences of man's antiquity exemplified in imple- 
 ments of stone, bone, copper, and clay ; while 
 the most extensive and elaborate systems ol 
 earthworks in America are at Newark, neai 
 Chillicothe, and on the Miami bluff's near Waynes- 
 vllle. Ohio is one of the chief manufacturing 
 states in the Union, leading all others in the 
 manufacture of farm machinery, carriages and 
 wagons, woollen and cotton goods, furniture, and 
 wine and spirits. It has also great rolling-mills 
 and iron -factories, glass- factories, potteries, and 
 oil-works. In agriculture the state is first in the 
 Union in many regards; its annual productior 
 of maize is .some 155,000,000 bushels, of wheal 
 40,000,000, of wool about 15,000,000 lb. Cattle 
 and hogs are reared in large numbers. In the 
 southern sections cattle may be left in the fields 
 all winter. The belt adjoining Lake Erie is 
 famous for its fruit ; excellent melons are growr 
 in almost all parts of the state. The oil 
 fields and stores of natural gas are sources o: 
 wealth. 
 
 Ohio is part of the original North-west Terri- 
 tory, claimed mostly by Virginia under charters 
 from English kings. In 1787 the Ohio Companj 
 of Associates was organised by soldiers of the 
 revolution war, and under their auspices a large 
 tract of land was purchased from government, 
 In 1788 Marietta and Cincinnati were founded, 
 In 1791 the Indians became troublesome, and ir 
 1794 a signal victory was gained over them bj 
 General Wayne. Soon after settlers occupied 
 rapidly the land, and Chillicothe was made the 
 seat of government. In 1803 Ohio was admlttec 
 into the Union. Ohio has given birth to fouj 
 presidents— Grant, Hayes, Garfield, and Benjamir 
 Harrison. The largest cities are Cincinnati, 
 Cleveland, Columbus (the capital), Toledo, 
 Dayton, Youngstown, and Springfield. Pop, 
 (1816)230,760; (1850) 1,980,329; (1870) 2,665,260 
 (1880) 3,198,062 ; (1900) 4,157,545. 
 
 Ohlau (Oa-low'), a town of Prussian Silesia, 2( 
 miles SE. of Breslau, on the Oder. Pop. 9575. 
 
 Oicb, a loch of Inverness-shire, measuring < 
 miles by i mile, 105 feet above the sea, at the 
 summit-level of the Caledonian Canal (q.v.). II 
 sends off' the Oich, 6| miles NNE. to Loch Ness. 
 
 Oikell, a Sutherland stream, running 35 miles 
 SSW. and E. by S. to the Dornoch Firth. 
 
 Oil City, Pennsylvania, on the Alleghany River, 
 
OIL RIVERS 
 
 521 
 
 OLDHAM 
 
 l33 miles by rail N. by E. of Pittsburgh, is a 
 great oil market, and contains, besides oil-re- 
 tineries, engine and boiler factories, and a large 
 cooperage. There were fearful inundations here 
 in June 1892. Pop. (1870) 2276 ; (1900) 13,264. 
 
 Oil Rivers. See Niger. 
 
 Oise (Wdz), a dep. in the north of France, 
 separated from the English Channel by Seine- 
 Inferieure ; area, 2261 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 404,555 ; 
 (1901) 405,642. The rivers are the Oise, a tribu- 
 tary of the Seine, 150 miles loiig, with its 
 affluents the Aisne and Therain. The arron- 
 disseinents are those of Beauvais (the capital), 
 Clermont, Compiegne, Senlis. 
 
 Oka, a navigable river of central Russia, the 
 Volga's chief affluent fi'oiu the south, rises in 
 Orel, and flows 706 miles NE. to the Volga at 
 Nijni-Novgorod. Towns on its banks are Orel, 
 Bielev, Kaluga, Riazan, and Murom ; affluents 
 are the Moskwa, Kliasma, and Tzna. 
 
 Okavango. See Ngami. 
 
 Okeechobee, a lake of Florida (q.v.). 
 
 Okehampton, a Devon market-town, 26 miles 
 W. by N. of Exeter. It returned two members 
 till 1832. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Okhotsk, Sea of, an inlet of the North Pacific 
 Ocean, on the east coast of Siberia, nearly en- 
 closed by Kamchatka and the Kuriles and Sag- 
 halien. On its north shore, at the mouth of the 
 Okhota, is the seaport of Okhotsk (pop. 300> 
 
 Oklaho'ma, between Texas and Kansas, was 
 organised iit 1890 as a territory, and in 1906, 
 absorbing tlie Indian Territory, became a state. 
 In 1890 it consisted of two detached sections 
 separated by the Cherokee Outlet, which, sold by 
 the Indians in 1893, was then incorporated witli 
 the territory. Tlie Public Land Strip situated 
 N. of the Texas 'pan-handle 'and S. of the parallel 
 37° N., ceded to the United States by Texas at its 
 annexation, was not included in any state or 
 territory until its incorporation in Oklahoma, 
 and was known as No Man's Land. The area is 
 39,030 sq. m. Pop. (1890) 78,475 ; (1900) 398,331, 
 including 18,831 negroes and 11,945 Indians. 
 The surface, which rises gradually toward the 
 north and west, is for the most part an upland 
 prairie. The most important elevations are the 
 Wichita Mountains in the south. Oklahoma 
 is fairly well watered by the Red and Arkansas 
 rivers and their affluents, but many of the streams 
 are brackish, and so saturated with alkaline salts 
 as to be at times unfit for drinking purposes or 
 for irrigation. The rainfall is much lighter and 
 also less uniform than in Indian Territory. In 
 the river-valleys and in some of the upland 
 regions there are fertile and productive spots. 
 The Public Land Strip has an arid and unproduc- 
 tive soil covered here and there with a sparse 
 growth of cactus, yucca, and sage-brush. The 
 climate is subject to sudden changes produced by 
 'northers.' In 1886 the tribes to whom the 
 lands of Indian Territory had been granted ceded 
 the western portion of their domain to the United 
 States. Notwithstanding the stipulation that it 
 should be used only for settlement by other 
 Indian tribes or freedmen, western speculators 
 claimed that the lands were the property of the 
 government, and open, like other public lands, 
 for settlement under the Homestead laws. In 
 1879 an organised effort was made to take forcible 
 possession of the lands, but the adventurers from 
 Texas, Kansas, and Missouri were finally ejected 
 by United States troops. After many difficulties 
 from the renewed invasions of the 'boomers,' 
 
 negotiations with the Indians Avere renewed, as a 
 result of which, upon the receipt of an additional 
 sum, the Indians waived all claims. This un- 
 occupied area was opened for public settlement 
 on April 22, 1889. No one was allowed to 
 enter the borders until noon, but by twilight the 
 population had increased by at least 50,000. 
 Claims Avere selected, town sites staked out, and 
 portable houses erected before nightfall. The 
 territory was organised in 1890, and was, witli tlie 
 Indian Territory added, made a state in 1906. 
 Chiefcentres of population are Oklahoma (11,000), 
 Guthrie (10,000), East Guthrie, and Kingfisher. 
 
 Old'bury, a busy manufacturing town of Wor- 
 cestershire, 5^miles WNW. of Birmingham, stands 
 in a rich mineral district, and has iron and steel 
 works, factories for railway plant, edge-tools, 
 chemicals, &c. Pop. (1851) 11,741 ; (1901) 25,191. 
 
 Oldcastle, a Meath market-town, 72 miles NW. 
 of Dublin. Pop. 745, 
 
 Oldenbiirg (Ol-den-boorg), a grand-duchy of 
 northern Germany, consisting of three distinct 
 territories — Oldenburg Proper, the principality 
 of Liibeck, and Birkenfeld. Total area, 2508 sq. 
 m. (less than Devonshire); pop. (1900) 398,499. 
 Oldenburg Proper, which comprises ^ths of this 
 area, is bounded by the German Ocean and Han- 
 over. The principal rivers are the Weser, the 
 Jahde, and various tributaries of the Ems. The 
 country is flat, part of the great sandy plain of 
 northern Germany, and mainly moors, heaths, 
 marsh or fens, and sandy tracts. The principality 
 of Liibeck, consisting of the secularised bishopric 
 of the same name, does not contain the city (north 
 of which it lies), and is surrounded by Holstein. 
 Its area is 209 sq. m. The principality of Birken- 
 feld (q.v.) lies among the Hundsriick Mountains, 
 in the very south of Rhenish Prussia ; its area 
 is 192 sq. m. Oldenburg became an independent 
 state in 1180. The family that then established 
 its poAver has continued to rule to the present 
 day, giving, moreover, new dynasties to Den- 
 mark, Russia, and Sweden. Danish from 1667 to 
 1773, Oldenburg acquired the Liibeck territories 
 in 1803, and Birkenfeld at the Congress of Vienna, 
 Avhen it became a grand-duchy. 
 
 The capital, Oldenburg, is pleasantly situated 
 on the Hunte, 30 miles WNW. of Bremen by rail. 
 It has the grand-ducal palace, with fine gardens 
 and art collections, a public library of 100,000 
 volumes, a i)icture-gallery, museum, &c. Olden- 
 burg is the seat of an active river-trade, and is 
 noted for its great cattle and horse fairs. Pop. 
 28,000. 
 
 Oldham, a parliamentary, municipal, and 
 county borough of Lancashire, on the Medlock, 
 7 miles NE. of Manchester, 5 SSE. of Rochdale, 
 and 38 ENE. of Liverpool. It has grown since 
 1760 from a small village, through its proximity 
 to the Lancashire coalfields and the extension of 
 its cotton manufactures. It has nearly 300 mills, 
 Avith more than 12 million spindles, Avhich con- 
 sume one-fifth of the total British imports of 
 cotton ; and the other manufactures include 
 fustians, velvets, silks, hats (once a leading 
 industry), cords, &c., besides huge weaving- 
 machine Avorks, one employing 7000 hands. The 
 town-hall (1841) is a good Grecian edifice, en- 
 larged in 1879 at a cost of £29,000 ; and there 
 are the lyceum (1854-80), a school of science 
 and art (1865), public baths (1854), an infirmary 
 (1870-77), and the Alexandra Park of 72 acrea 
 (1865). Oldham receiA^ed its charter in 1849. It 
 Avas enfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1832, 
 and returns two members, the pari, borough (which 
 
OLD POIl^T dOMFORt 
 
 5^S 
 
 tMAti 
 
 extends into Ashton-imcler-Lyne parish) covering 
 194 sq. m., the municipal only 7|. Pop. of the 
 former (1891) 183,871 ; of the latter (1801) 12,024 ; 
 (1841) 42,595 ; (1881) 111,343 ; (1901) 137,238. 
 
 Old Point Comfort, a village and watering- 
 place of Virginia, at the mouth of James River, 
 on Hampton Roads, is the site of Fortress Monroe. 
 
 Old Sarum. See Sarum. 
 
 Oleron {OlayronF'), a fertile island 2 to 10 miles 
 oflf the west coast of France, and part of the dep. 
 Charente-Inferieure. It is 19 miles long by 5 
 broad. Pop. 17,020, mostly Protestants. 
 
 Ollfant River, a forked stream of Cape Colony, 
 rises in the mountains north-east of Capetown, 
 and flows 150 miles NW. to the Atlantic— 
 Another stream of the same name rises in the 
 Transvaal, and goes east to the Limpopo. 
 
 Olinda, a city of Brazil, 4 miles NB. of Per- 
 nambuco. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Ollvenza, a fortified Spanish town, 20 miles 
 SSW. of Badajoz. Pop. 8934. 
 
 Olives, Mount of, or Mount Olivet, a lime- 
 stone ridge E. of Jerusalem, from which it is 
 separated by the narrow Valley of Jehosaphat. 
 The modern Jebel-al-T6r, it took its familiar 
 name from a once magnificent grove of olive- 
 trees on its western flank. 
 
 OUerton, a town of Notts, on the Maun and 
 near Sherwood Forest, 8^ miles NB. of Mans- 
 field. Pop. 690. 
 
 Olmiitz, a town of Moravia, Austria, on the 
 March, 129 miles NNB. of Vienna. The country 
 round can be laid under water, and during 1839- 
 75 the old walls and moats were superseded by 
 an outer cordon of forts. Chief buildings are 
 the 14th-century cathedral (restored 1887); the 
 church of St Maurice (1472), whose organ has 
 48 stops and 2342 pipes ; the noble town-hall, 
 with a steeple 255 feet high ; the archiepiscopal 
 palace ; and the lofty Trinity column on the 
 Oberring. The university (1581-1855) is reduced 
 to a theological faculty, with 200 students and a 
 library of 75,000 volumes. Pop. 22,176. Olmiitz, 
 which in 1640 was superseded by Briinn as capital 
 of Moravia, suffered severely in both the Thirty 
 and the Seven Years' Wars. 
 
 Olney, a pleasant little town of Buckingham- 
 shire, on the Ouse, 11 miles W. by N. of Bedford 
 and 10 SB. of Northampton, At the corner of 
 the market-place still stands the house where 
 Cowper lived from 1767 to 1786, writing with 
 John Newton the Olney Hymns (1779). The place 
 has memories of Scott the commentator, of 
 Carey, and many more missionaries. Brewing 
 and bootmaking are industries. Pop. 2349. See 
 Thomas Wright's Toiun of Cowper (1886). 
 
 Olonetz', a government of Russia, bounded 
 by Finland, Archangel, Novgorod, and St Peters- 
 burg. Area, 57,422 sq. m. ; population, 370,000. 
 Petrosavodsk is the capital. 
 
 Oloron (Oloron"), a town in the French dep. 
 of Basses-Pyrenees, on the Gave d'Oloron, 22 
 miles by rail SW. of Pau. Pop. 7266. 
 
 Olten, a Swiss town, on the Aar, 23 miles SB. 
 of Basel. Pop. 6980. 
 
 Olympia, scene of the Olympic games, was a 
 beautiful valley of Elis, in the Peloponnesus, 
 watered by the Alpheus. Great excavations have 
 been carried out by the Germans since 1875. 
 
 Olympia, capital of Washington state, on a 
 peninsula at the south end of Puget's Sound, 
 65 miles from the Pacific Ocean, and 121 by rail 
 N. of Portland, Oregon. Pop. 4098. 
 
 Omagh (O'ma or O-ina' ; Gael. OigTi magh, ' seat 
 of the chiefs'), county town of Tyrone, on the 
 Strule, 34 miles S. of Londonderry and 110 NNW. 
 of Dublin. It grew up around an abbey founded 
 in 792. On its evacuation by the troops of 
 James II. in 1689 it was partially burned, and 
 a second fire in 1743 completed its destruction. 
 But it was well rebuilt. Pop. 4790. 
 
 O'maha, the chief city of Nebraska, is on the 
 right bank of the Missouri, by rail 495 miles W. 
 of Chicago and 501 NW. of St Louis, It is the 
 terminus of four important railways, and the 
 Missouri is spanned by a bridge (2750 feet, cost 
 $1,250,000) to Council Bluffs, where a number of 
 others (including the Union Pacific) start. The 
 city is built on a plateau 80 feet above the river, 
 and has wide streets and street railways. Among 
 the large buildings are the city-hall, U. S. court- 
 house and post-office, Chamber of Commerce 
 (1885), Exposition (1886), Creighton College, the 
 high school, &c. The manufactures comprise 
 linseed-oil, boilers, safes, &c. ; but Omaha, 
 founded in 1854, became famous for the largest 
 silver-smelting works in the world, and the third 
 largest pork-packing business in the States. Near 
 it are the headquarters of the military department 
 of the Platte. Pop. (1860) 1912 ; (1870) 16,083 ; 
 (1880) 30,518; (1900) 102,555. 
 
 Oman', the most eastern portion of Arabia, a 
 strip of maritime territory, extending between 
 the Strait of Ormuz and Ras-el-Had, and bounded 
 on the SW. by the deserts of the interior. At a 
 distance of from 20 to 45 miles inland a chain of 
 mountains runs parallel to the coast, reaching 
 6000 feet in Jebel Akhdar. There are some richly 
 fertile tracts in this region, which is under the 
 rule of the sultan of Muscat. 
 
 Omdurman {Om-door'man), a town of the 
 eastern Soudan, on the Nile, opposite Khartoum 
 (q.v.), which, as the headquarters of Mahdism, 
 for a time it superseded. 
 
 Omsk, chief town of the Siberian province of 
 Akmolinsk, at the Om's confluence with the 
 Irtish, 1800 miles B. of Moscow, with a military 
 academy, Greek and R. C. cathedrals, museum, 
 governor's palace, &c. Pop. 44,721. 
 
 One'ga, a seaport in the north of Russia, at 
 the Onega's mouth in the White Sea, 87 miles 
 SW. of Archangel. Pop. 2547. 
 
 Onega, Lake, in the north of Russia (after 
 Ladoga, to which it sends off the Swir south- 
 westward, the largest lake in Europe), is 146 
 miles long, 50 in greatest breadth, 3764 sq. m. 
 in area, and 1000 feet deep. The northern end 
 is studded with islands and deeply indented with 
 bays. The shores in other parts are flat. Ice- 
 bound generally for five months, the lake is the 
 scene of busy traffic at other seasons. Fish 
 abound. Surveys were completed in 1890 for a 
 canal to connect Lake Onega with the White Sea, 
 and to be 145 miles long, 10 feet deep, and 63 wide, 
 mostly along natural water-ways. 
 
 Oneglia (O-nel'yd), a town on the Gulf of 
 Genoa, 3 miles NB. of Porto Maurizio by rail. 
 Pop. 8286. 
 
 Oneida (Oni'da), a manufacturing post-village 
 of New York, on the Oneida Creek, 58 miles SB. 
 of Oswego ; pop. 6383. Four miles S. was the 
 Oneida Community, long the headquarters of the 
 Perfectionists. 
 
 Ongar, or Chipping-Onqar, a town of Essex, 
 6 miles E. by N. of Epping, and 23J NE. of 
 London. It has memories of the Taylor family. 
 Pop. of parish, 970. 
 
ONTARIO 
 
 523 
 
 OPPELN 
 
 Onta'rio, the easternmost and smallest (7240 
 Sq. m.) of the five great lakes of North America, 
 receives at its south-west corner the waters of 
 the upper lakes by the Niagara River, and at 
 its north-east corner issues into the St Lawrence. 
 Its surface, which is subject to periodical varia- 
 tions of about 3^ feet, is 326f''jj feet below the 
 surface of Lake Erie and 2'i6-^-n feet above the 
 ocean-level. Its mean depth is about 300, its 
 maximum depth 738 feet. It is 190 miles long, 
 55 in its widest part, and over 500 in circum- 
 ference. Ports are Kingston, Coburg, Port Hope, 
 Toronto, and Hamilton on the Canadian shore, 
 and Sackett's Harbor, Oswego, and Charlotte in 
 the United States. Lake Ontario is connected 
 with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal, with the 
 Erie Canal and river Hudson by the Oswego 
 Canal, and by the llideau Canal with the Ottawa ; 
 and in 1890 a ship-railway (69 miles) was pro- 
 jected, to connect it with Lake Huron. The lake 
 is subject to violent storms, and it is probably 
 owing chiefly to the constant agitation of its 
 waters that it freezes only for a few miles from 
 the shore. The shores are generally very flat, 
 but the Bay of Quinte, near Kingston, a crooked 
 arm of the lake, 50 miles long, possesses attractive 
 scenery. Burlington Bay, on which Hamilton 
 lies, is a large basin almost enclosed by a fine 
 natural bank of sand. The name is Indian. 
 
 Onta'rio, the most populous and wealthy 
 province of Canada, is bounded by James Bay, 
 Labrador, Quebec, the St Lawrence and the Great 
 Lakes (separating it from the United States), 
 Mauitoha, and Keewatin. Area, 222,000 sq. m. ; 
 pop. (1901) 2,182,947. The surface is generally 
 undulating; for the Laurentian Hills, see 
 Canada, p. 148. The principal rivers are tribu- 
 taries of the Ottawa, which forms part of the NW. 
 boundary. Among smaller lakes are Simcoe, 
 Nipissing, and Nipigon. Immense crops are 
 raised of all the products of a temperate climate, 
 and in the south-west corner of the province 
 Indian corn is a regular crop, and grapes, 
 peaches, and tomatoes ripen in the open air. 
 Stock-i-aising, dairy-farming, and fruit-growing 
 are important industries. Iron is found in many 
 parts ; copper, lead, plumbago, apatite, antimony, 
 arsenic, gypsum, marble, and building-stone are 
 abundant; there are also gold and silver. The 
 nickel deposits at Sudbury are probably the 
 most extensive in the world. Petroleum wells 
 in the SW., and salt wells near Lake Huron are 
 very productive. The principal manufactures 
 are agricultural implements, iron and woodware, 
 wagons and carriages, railway rolling-stock (in- 
 cluding locomotives), cottons and woollens, 
 leather, furniture, flax, hardware, paper, soap, 
 woodenware, &c. The most thickly populated 
 part of Ontario more nearly resembles England 
 than any of the other colonies. There is only one 
 large city, Toronto (208,000) ; but smaller cities 
 and towns (including Hamilton, Ottawa, and 
 London, between 60,000 and 39,000) are scattered 
 all over the province. Ontario has a perfect net- 
 work of railways (between 6000 and 7000 miles). 
 Water-ways and water-power are exceptionally 
 developed. The exports are, in order of value, 
 agricultural products, animals and their produce, 
 manufactures, lumber, and minerals. The public 
 affairs are administered by a lieutenant-governor 
 and a legislative assembly. Methodists are the 
 most numerous religious body, followed by Pres- 
 byterians and the Church of England. Ontario, 
 long known as Upper Canada, was largely founded 
 by immigration of loyalists from the United States 
 after the revolutionary war. See Canada. 
 
 Oodeypore. See Udaipur. 
 
 Oojein. See Ujjain. 
 
 Ookiep (0-fceep), a copper-mining station in thd 
 north-west of Cape Colony, 90 miles SE. of Port 
 Nolloth by rail. 
 
 Gori. See Limpopo. 
 
 Oosterhout, a Dutch town in North Brabant, 
 6 miles NE. of Breda. Pop. 11,911. 
 
 Gotacamund', or Utakamand, the chief town 
 in the Neilgherry Hills, the principal sanatorium 
 of the Madras Presidency. It stands on a hill- 
 girt plateau, 7228 feet above the sea, 350 miles 
 WSW. of Madras city, and 24 from the nearest 
 railway station on the Madras line. There are a 
 public library (1859), the Lawrence Asylum (1858) 
 for the children of British soldiers, and botanic 
 gardens. The mean annual temperature is 58° F. 
 The first house was built in 1821. Pop. 15,335. 
 
 Ophir, the region to which Solomon's ships 
 traded, has been identified with the east coast 
 of Africa near Sofala, the south of Arabia, and 
 the west coast of India, as well as other less 
 likely countries (see Zimbabye). The name has 
 been given to a mountain of Sumatra, near the 
 equator (9600 feet) ; and to one 45 miles NE. of 
 the town of Malacca (5700 feet). 
 
 Openshaw, a SE. suburb of Manchester. 
 
 Oporto (Port. porto, ' the port '), the second 
 city of Portugal, stands high on the steep, rocky, 
 right bank of the Douro, which reaches the sea 
 3 miles W. One of the crags overlooking the 
 river is croAvned with a Crystal Palace (1865). 
 Many of the former monasteries are put to other 
 uses : one is a citadel, another the exchange, 
 a third barracks. There are seven principal 
 churches, including the cathedral (built by Henry 
 the Navigator), the old Gothic church of Cedo- 
 feita (originally founded in 559), and the Church 
 dos Clerigos, with a tower 213 feet high. The 
 English factory (1785), the bishop's palace, and 
 the hospital of St Antony are noticeable secular 
 buildings. Oporto possesses a polytechnic 
 academy, a medical school, art academy, com- 
 mercial museum, library (1796) of 200,000 vols, 
 and 9400 MSS., and two picture-galleries. On 
 the south side of the river, connected with Oporto 
 by a lofty bridge, is the suburb of Villa Nova de 
 Gaia, with a pop. of 9126, and extensive wine- 
 cellars. The railway to Lisbon (209 miles) crosses 
 the river a little higher up, on a fine steel bridge ; 
 the arch spans 549 feet, and its centre is 203 feet 
 above the river. The pop. of Oporto is about 
 175,000. They are chiefly engaged in the manu- 
 facture of cloth and silks, hats, porcelain, rib- 
 bons, tobacco, soap, and candles, in metal-cast- 
 ing, tanning, brewing, distilling, cork-cutting, 
 sugar-refining, and brick-making, and in com- 
 merce and shipping. Oporto is the principal 
 place of export for port wine ; other exports are 
 cattle, oranges and other fruits, cork, copper, 
 onions, meat, hides, and wool. The imports con- 
 sist chiefly of com and flour, cod-fish, metals, 
 machinery, textiles, rice, raw sugar, hides, coal, 
 and timber. Originally the Partus Cale of the 
 Romans (whence ' Portugal '), this city was long 
 a stronghold of the Christians against the Moors. 
 In 1808 the inhabitants were especially hostile 
 to the French ; and they stoutly opposed the 
 usurper Miguel (1828). 
 
 Gpoteca (Opotay'ca), a town of 1000 inhabit- 
 ants, In Honduras, 15 miles NNW. of Comayagua, 
 once famous for itsjgreat silver-mines. 
 
 Oppeln, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the 
 Oder, 51 mUes SB. of Breslau. Its church of St 
 
OPPENHEIM 
 
 624 
 
 O&EGOlT 
 
 Adalbert was founded in 995 ; and there is an old 
 castle on an island in the river. The manufac- 
 tures include pottery, cigars, cement, beer, 
 leather, &c. Pop. 30,120. 
 
 Oppenheim {Op'penhime), a town of Hesse- 
 Darinstadt, on the Rhine's left bank, 20 miles 
 SSE. of iMainz by rail. Pop. 3452. 
 
 Oran (OrCin' ; Arab. Waran), a seaport of 
 Algeria, on the Gulf of Oran, 261 miies by rail W. 
 by S. of Algiers and 130 by sea S. of Cartagena in 
 Spain. It climbs up the foot of a hill, has a 
 thoroughly French appearance, and possesses a 
 Roman Catholic cathedral (1839), a grand mosque, 
 a college, a seminary, and two citadels or castles. 
 The harbour is protected by moles constructed in 
 1887 at a cost of £280,000 ; alfa, iron ore, and 
 cereals are exported. The population is about 
 90,000. Oran was built by the Moors. In the 
 15th century it was a prosperous commercial 
 town, but was taken by the Spaniards in 1509 and 
 made a penal settlement. Taken and retaken by 
 Turks and Spaniards, it was finally annexed by 
 the French in 1831.— The province has an area of 
 33,236 sq. m. ; pop. 1,150,000. 
 
 Orange, or Gariep (Gareep'), the largest river 
 of South Africa, rises in the Kathlamba Moun- 
 tains, in the east of Basutoland, and winds 1000 
 miles W. by N. to the Atlantic. It separates 
 Cape Colony, on the south, from the Orange Free 
 State, Griqualand West, Bechuanaland, and Ger- 
 man Namaland. Its principal tributaries are the 
 Caledon and the Vaal. Its volume varies greatly 
 between the dry season, when it is not navigable, 
 and the rainy season, when it overflows its banks. 
 Its mouth is obstructed by a bar. 
 
 Orange (Fr. pron. OrovPzh'), a town in the 
 French dep. of Vaucluse, on the Aigue's left 
 bank, 18 miles by rail N. of Avignon. The 
 Arausio of the Romans, which contained 40,000 
 inhabitants, it has splendid Roman remains — a 
 triumphal arch, 72 feet high, and a theatre whose 
 fagade was 340 feet long by 118 high. There are a 
 Romanesque cathedral and statues of two of the 
 counts. Pop. 9804. Orange was the capital of a 
 small independent principality, which was ruled 
 by its own sovereigns from the 11th century to 
 1531, when it passed to the Counts of Nassau, and 
 so was associated with the fortunes of Holland ; 
 becoming finally French in 1713. 
 
 Orange, a city of New Jersey, 12 miles W. of 
 New York by rail, and 3 miles by tram-car from 
 Newark. The slope of Orange Mountain is laid 
 out in beautiful parks, with villas. There are 
 manufactures of hats, carriages, &c. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 Orange River Colony, a British crown colony 
 in South Africa, lying between the Vaal and 
 Orange rivers, and surrounded by Cape Colony, 
 the Transvaal Colony, Natal, and Basutoland. 
 This region is a plateau, rising 3000 to 5000 feet 
 above sea-level, with very little wood, except 
 alongside the numerous watercourses that tra- 
 verse it. Its vast undulating plains slope down 
 to the Vaal and the Orange, and are dotted over 
 Avith isolated hills called ' kopjes ' — magnificent 
 pasture-land. Area, 50,100 sq. m. ; pop. (1880) 
 133,518; (1904) 385,045—143,419 being whites, 
 mainly of the Dutch Reformed Church, Pastoral 
 pursuits predominate — the rearing of merino 
 sheep, cattle, horses, goats, and ostriches. Corn 
 (wheat, maize, Kaffir corn) is grown chiefly in the 
 east. Coal is mined in the north and diamonds 
 in the south-west, towards Kimberley. The 
 climate is healthy and temperate. The adminis- 
 tration is carried on by a lieutenaut-goveruor 
 
 with executive and legislative councils. Th( 
 revenue in 1904 was £1,139,576, and the expendi 
 ture £929,681. Bloemfontein (q.v.), the capital 
 is connected by railway with both the Capi 
 and Johannesburg. The exports include wool 
 diamonds, hides, ostrich-feathers, &c. Whei 
 the Dutch Boers left the Cape Colony (1836 
 and occupied this country, it was inhabited b; 
 Bushmen, Bechuanas, and Korannas. The Cap< 
 government appointed a resident in the republic 
 in 1845, and three years later it was annexed b; 
 Britain ; in 1854 it was given up to the Boers 
 who established a republic (Orange Free State) 
 but in consequence of its joining the Transvaa 
 in the Boer war (1899-1902), it was finally annexei 
 by Britain as a crown colony. See books uame( 
 at Cape Colony. 
 
 Oranienbaum, a palace and small town (poj 
 5500) of Russia, opposite Cronstadt (q.v.)- 
 
 Orchom'enos, an ancient city of Boeotia, capita 
 of the kingdom of the Minyse, was situated a 
 the NW. corner of Lake Copai's, where it wa 
 joined by the Cephissus. In 1880 Schlieman; 
 excavated an old 'treasury.' — A second Orchoni 
 enos, in Arcadia, lay NNW. of Mantinea. 
 
 Or'egon, one of tlie Pacific states of th 
 American Union, bounded by Washington 
 Idaho, California, and Nevada. Area, 96,03 
 sq. m., or almost twice that of England. Oregoi 
 on the west is literally rock-bound by the Coas 
 Range of mountains, having, however, numerou 
 indentations, which furnish good harbours. Th 
 Columbia River, which bounds the state on th 
 north, affords the largest and deepest entrance 
 Seventy miles east of the Coast Range) is th 
 Cascade Range, rising to 6000 to 8000 feet, an( 
 surmounted by snow-capped peaks of nearl; 
 double chat altitude. From the Cascade Rang 
 eastward to the Blue Mountains, about 70 miles 
 and farther on to the eastern boundary the surfac 
 is diversified by mountains and valleys, rollin: 
 plains, and tablelands. Here the soil and climat 
 are suitable for agriculture and grazing. Ii 
 Western Oregon, between the Coast and Cascad 
 ranges, is the Willamette valley, 130 miles long am 
 60 wide, every foot of which is arable— adapted t 
 grain and fruit. The climate is mild, in spite o 
 the northerly situation, owing to the Japanes 
 oceanic current and the shelter of the mountain 
 ranges. On the coast there is fog in summer an( 
 excessive rain in winter ; in the Willamette valle; 
 the summers are pleasant, the winters wet ; ii 
 Eastern Oregon there is a good deal of snow ii 
 Avinter. The grain-crops are wheat, oats, barley 
 rye, and maize. Flax-seed, hay, potatoes, tobaccc 
 and hops are also raised. Great quantities o 
 butter and cheese, and of fruit, both green am 
 dried (prunes, apples, pears, peaches, grapes, am 
 cherries), are annually shipped. The wealth o 
 Oregon in timber is remarkable. Among tin 
 other industries are the tinning of salmon, th 
 rearing of sheep, and mining. The minerals com 
 prise coal, iron ore, gold, copper, nickel, quick 
 silver, fireclay, chrome, silver, manganese, zinc 
 lead, and platinum. 
 
 Oregon formerly included all the land betweei 
 the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean nortl 
 of 42° N. lat. John Jacob Astor establishe( 
 Astoria (q.v.) in 1811 ; in 1813 it was sold to th 
 North-western Fur Company, and it afterward 
 passed to the Hudson Bay Company. There wa 
 joint occupation by Britain and the United State 
 from 1818 until 1846, when tlie long dispute wa 
 compromised, the boundary line with Britisl 
 America being fixed at 49° N. lat. Oregon becami 
 
OREGON RIVER 
 
 525 
 
 ORLEANS 
 
 a territory in 184S, and, ^^ith reduced limits, a 
 state in 1859. The principal cities are Portland 
 (90,500), Astoria (8400), Baker City (6670), and 
 Salem, tlie capital (5000). Pop. of the state (1860) 
 52,464 ; (1880) 174,768 ; (1900) 413,536. 
 
 Oregon River. See Columbia. 
 
 Orel', a town of Russia, on the Oka, 222 miles 
 by rail SSW. of Moscow, manufactures ropes, 
 tallow, bricks, machinery, and verdigris. It was 
 burned down in 1848 and 1858. Population, 
 70,000.— Area of the government, 18,036 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 2,075,000. 
 
 Orenburg (O'ren-ioorg), a toAvn of Russia, on 
 the river Ural, by rail 727 miles ESE. of Moscow. 
 Pop. 72,740. — The government has an area of 73,794 
 .sq. m. and a pop. of 1,610,000. 
 
 Oren'se, capital of a Galician province of Spain 
 (area, 2739 sq. m. ; pop. 405,074), near the Portu- 
 guese frontier, on the Minho's left bank, 60 miles 
 from its mouth. Pop. 15,440. 
 
 Orford, a Suffolk fishing-town on the Ore, 5 
 miles SSW. of Aldeburgh. It has a Norman 
 keep, till 1832 returned two members, and was 
 a municipal borough till 1887. Pop. of parish, 
 987. On the promontory of Orford Ness, 2^ 
 miles ESE., are two lighthouses. 
 
 Orihuela (Oreehooai/ld), a town in the Spanish 
 province of Alicante, on the Segura, 38 miles N. 
 of Cartagena. It has a cathedral and college, and 
 manufactures silk, linen, hats, &c. Pop. 21,125. 
 
 Orino'co, one of the great rivers of South 
 Ajnerica, has its origin on the slopes of the 
 Sierra Parima, in the extreme south-east of Vene- 
 zuela. Flowing at first W. by N., a mountain- 
 stream, it divides, a little below Esmeralda (65° 
 50' W. long.), and sends off to the south an arm, 
 the Cassiquiare, 180 miles to the Rio Negro, a 
 tributary of the Amazon. The other branch on 
 reaching San Fernando (68° 10' long, and 4° 2' N. 
 lat.) is met by the strong current of the Guaviare ; 
 the united stream then turns due north, and, 
 after passing over the magnificent cataracts of 
 Maypures and Atures, and picking up the Meta 
 and the Apure, turns east and traverses the 
 llanos of Venezuela, its waters being here 4 miles 
 broad. About 120 miles from the Atlantic, into 
 which it rolls its milk-white flood, its delta (8500 
 sq. m.) begins. Of the numerous mouths seven 
 are navigable. The waterway principally used 
 by ocean-going vessels, which penetrate 240 miles 
 up to Ciudad Bolivar (Angostura), is the Boca 
 de Navios, 3| to 23 miles wide. The total length 
 of the river is some 1550 miles, of which 900, up 
 to the cataracts of Atures, are navigable, besides 
 a farther stretch of 500 miles above the cataracts 
 of Maypures. Most of the larger affluents are 
 also navigable— the Meta, for instance, to within 
 60 miles of Bogota in Colombia. See lives of 
 Raleigh for his last voyage hither; and works 
 by Humboldt, Bonpland, and Schomburgk. 
 
 Orlssa, an ancient kingdom of India, extended 
 from Bengal on the N. to the Godavari on the 
 S. The present province is the extreme south- 
 west portion of Bengal. Orissa was long a 
 Buddhist stronghold ; in 474 a new dynasty made 
 it Brahmanical, and introduced the worship of 
 Siva. Orissa ceased to be an independent state 
 in 1568, being conquered for the Great Mogul. 
 Its next masters were the Mahrattas, who seized 
 it in 1742 ; but they were forced to surrender it 
 to th e English in 1803. The British commissioner- 
 ship has an area of 9853 sq. m. and a popula- 
 tion of 4,350,500 ; the tributary states, a liilly 
 country with dense jungle, lying between the 
 
 low coast districts and the interior plateau, have 
 an area of 14,387 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,996,710. 
 All this region was visited by severe famine in 
 1868-69. The principal river is the Mahanadi, 
 and the chief towns Cuttack, Balasor, and Puri. 
 The irrigation of a large portion of Orissa is 
 provided for by a costly system of canals. 
 
 Oriza'ba, a town or the Mexican state of Vera 
 Cruz, 82 miles WSW. of Vera Cruz City, and 181 
 ESE. of Mexico, lies in a fertile garden country, 
 4030 feet above the sea. It has a cotton-factory, 
 paper and corn mills, and railway-shops. Pop. 
 31,500. — The volcano of Orizaba, 25 miles to the 
 north, is a noble pyramid of 18,205 feet. Its last 
 severe eruption was in 1566. 
 
 Orkney Islands, a group of ninety Scotch 
 islands, islets, and skerries, of which only twenty- 
 nine are inhabited, and which have an aggregate 
 area of 376 sq. m., the largest being Pomona or 
 Mainland (207 sq. m.). Hoy (53), Sanday (26), 
 Westray, South Ronaldshay, Rousay, Stronsay, 
 Eday, Shapinshay, Burray, Flotta, &c. They 
 extend 50 miles north-north-eastward, and are 
 separated from Caithness by the Pentland Firth, 
 6J miles wide at the narrowest. With the excep- 
 tion only of Hoy (q.v.), which has fine cliffs, and 
 in the Ward Hill attains 1564 feet, the scenery 
 is generally tame, the surface low and treeless, 
 with many fresh-water lochs. The area under 
 cultivation has more than doubled since 1850, 
 but is still less than one-half of the total area. 
 The live-stock during the same period has trebled. 
 The holdings are small — 16^ acres on an average ; 
 and agriculture and fishnig are the principal 
 industries. Kirkwall and Stromness, the only 
 towns, are noticed separately, as also are the 
 standing-stones of Stennis and the tumulus of 
 Maeshowe. Orkney unites with Shetland to 
 return one member to parliament, but it was 
 dissevered therefrom as a county by the Local 
 Government (Scotland) Act, 1889. Pop. (1801) 
 24,445 ; (1861) 32,395 ; (1901)28,699. The Orkneys 
 (Ptolemy's Orcades) were gradually wrested by 
 Norse rovers from their Pictish inhabitants ; and 
 in 875 Harold Haarfager conquered both them 
 and the Hebrides. They continued subject to 
 the Scandinavian crown — under Norse jarls till 
 1231, and afterwards under the Earls of Angus 
 and Stratherne and the Sinclairs — till in 1468 
 they were given to James III. of Scotland as a 
 security for the dowry of his wife, Margaret of 
 Denmark. They were never redeemed ; and in 
 1590, on James VI.'s marriage with the Danish 
 princess Anne, Denmark formally resigned all 
 claims to the Orkneys. The landed proprietors 
 are chiefly of Scotch descent, the islanders gener- 
 ally of mixed Scandinavian and Scotch origin. 
 See Tudor's Orkwys and Shetland (1883). 
 
 Orleans (Or'leens or Or'le-anz ; Fr. pron. Or-lay- 
 -on^'), a city of France, the capital now of the dep. 
 of Loiret, and formerly of the old province of 
 Orleannais, which comprised most of the present 
 deps. of Loiret, Eure-et-Loir, and Loir-et-Cher, 
 with portions of four others. It stands in a 
 fertile plain on the right bank of the Loire, here 
 crossed by a nine-arched bridge (1760), 364 yards 
 long, and by rail is 75 miles SSW. of Paris. The 
 walls and gates have given place since 1830 to 
 handsome boulevards, but the town as a whole 
 wears a lifeless appearance. There are the 
 cathedral, destroyed by the Huguenots in 1567, 
 and rebuilt from 1601 onwards ; the Mairie (1530) ; 
 and the 15th-century Mxisee (till 1853 the hotel- 
 de-ville) ; besides the house of Agnes Sorel, Diane 
 de Poitiers, and Joan pf Arc, of whom there 
 
ORME'S HEAD 
 
 526 
 
 OSMINQTON 
 
 are three statues. The commerce is far more 
 important than the industries (of which the chief 
 is market-gardening). Pop. (1872) 48,976 ; (1901) 
 59,568. Tlie Celtic Genalnm, Orleans about 272 
 A.D. was renamed Civitas Aureliani, of wliich 
 the present name is a corruption. It was 
 besieged by Attila in 451, and twice plundered 
 by the Northmen (855 and 865). In 1428-29 it 
 was besieged by the English, but was delivered 
 by Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. It suffered 
 much in the Huguenot wars, and was occupied 
 by the Germans Oct. 11 to Nov. 9, 1870, and 
 then became the headquarters of the Army of 
 the Loire until its crushing defeat on Dec. 3-5. 
 
 Orme's Head, Great. See Llandudno. 
 
 Or'miston, a Haddingtonshire village, on the 
 Tyne, 12 miles ESE. of Edinburgh. Moffat, the 
 missionary, was born here. 
 
 Onnskirk, a town of Lancashire, 12 miles NNE. 
 of Liverpool. It has a grammar-school (1612) ; a 
 churcli, with a spire and the burial-vault of tlie 
 Earls of Derby ; and manufactures of cordage, 
 iron, silk, cotton, &c. Pop. 6898. 
 
 Or'muz, or Hormuz, a ruined town on the 
 island of Jerun (12 miles in circuit), in the strait 
 of Ormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, 
 4 miles S. of the Persian coast. About 300 b.c. 
 there existed on the mainland, 12 miles E., a city 
 Ormuz ; this in the 13th century was the head- 
 quarters of the Persian trade with India. But 
 about 1300 its ruler transferred his people to the 
 site of the present town, to escape the Mongols. 
 The new city maintained its commercial suprem- 
 acy even after Albuquerque's capture of it in 1507. 
 It was taken from the Portuguese in 1622 by an 
 English fleet, and given to Shah Abbas of Persia, 
 who transferred the trade to his port of Gom- 
 broon, 12 miles north-west on the mainland. The 
 Portuguese castle still stands. 
 
 Orne (Orn), a French dep. formed out of the 
 provinces of Normandy, Alengon, and Perche. 
 Area, 2353 sq. m. ; pop. (1861) 423,350 ; (1901) 
 326,952. Its arrondissements are AleuQon (the 
 capital), Argentan, Domfront, and Mortagne. 
 
 Orontes (Oron'tees), the ancient name of a river 
 in Syria, now called Nuhr-el-Asi. It rises in the 
 highest part of Coele-Syria, near Baalbek, and 
 flows 147 miles N. and W. past Antioch to the 
 Mediterranean. Its lower course is remarkably 
 beautiful, the rocky banks rising 300 feet. 
 
 Orota'va (a as ah), a town on the north coast 
 of Teneriffe, one of the Canaries. Pop. 9293. 
 
 Orpington, a village of Kent, 12 miles by rail 
 SE. of London, where Ruskin's books began to 
 be published in 1873 (see E. T. Cook's Studies in 
 Buskin, 1890). Pop. of parish, 4299. 
 
 Orrell, a town of Lancashire, 3 miles W. of 
 "Wigan. Pop. 5440. 
 
 Or'sova, the name of two towns on the Danube 
 at the Iron Gates. Old Orsova, a Hungarian 
 place, is 478 miles by rail SE. of Vienna, and is 
 a station for the Danube steamers. Pop. 5381. — 
 New Orsova, on the Servian side, is a fortified 
 town held by Austria (since 1878). 
 
 Ortegal', Cape, the north-west extremity of 
 Spain (q.v.), in Galicia. 
 
 Orthez (fir-tay), a town in the French dep. of 
 Basses-Pyrenees, on the Gave de Pau, 41 miles 
 by rail E. of Bayonne. The 'Tour de Moncade' 
 (1240), the stately castle of the Counts of Foix, 
 which Froissart visited in 1388, was reduced to 
 a ruin by Richelieu. Near Orthez Wellington 
 defeated Soult, 27th February 1814. Pop. 6374. 
 
 Ortler Spitz, highest(12,874feet)of the Rhsetian 
 Alps, in Tyrol, close to the Swiss frontier. 
 
 Orton, a Westmorland market-town, 8 miles 
 SW. of Appleby. Pop. of parish, 830. 
 
 Orto'na, a town of Italy, on the Adriatic, 104 
 miles by rail SSE. of Ancona. It has a cathedral 
 and a recently improved liarbour. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Oru'ro, capital of the Bolivian dep. of Oruro, 
 and sometimes of the republic, stands 11,960 feet 
 above the sea, near the salt lake of Aullagas, and 
 possesses mines of silver, gold, and tin. Founded 
 in 1590, it had 70,000 inhabitants in the 17th 
 century, but now has 15,500. 
 
 Orvleto (fir-vee-eh'td), a city in the Italian 
 province of Perugia, 78 miles NNW. of Rome, 
 crowns an isolated tufa rock, which rises 765 
 feet above the river Paglia, and 1327 above sea- 
 level. Tlie cruciform cathedral (1290-1580), one 
 of the most beautiful specimens of Italian Gothic, 
 is built of black and white marble, and measures 
 295 feet by 109. The facade is unsurpassed for its 
 mosaics, sculptures, and elaborate ornamenta- 
 tion. The interior al.so is magnificently decor- 
 ated with sculptures and with paintings by Luca 
 Signorelli, Fra Angelico, &c. The bishop's palace 
 and St Patrick's Well (1527 ; disused), with its 
 250 steps, are also noteworthy. Pop. 18,500. 
 Orvieto, called in the Vth c. a.d. Vrhs Vetus — 
 whence its present name— has by some been sup- 
 posed to occupy the site of the Etruscan Volsinii. 
 In the middle ages it gave shelter to thirty-two 
 popes in times of trouble. 
 
 Orwell. See Ipswich. 
 
 Osa'ka, or Ozaka, an important city of central 
 Japan, situated at the head of the gulf of the 
 same name, and at the mouth of the Yodo River, 
 which issues from Lalce Biwa. Its fine castle, 
 the stones of whose walls are of astonishing size, 
 was constructed in 1583, and the palace, built 
 in its precincts and destroyed in 1868, was per- 
 haps the most magnificent structure in Japan. 
 Intersected with canals, Osaka is the commercial 
 centre of the empire, and the headquarters of 
 the rice and tea trade. Pop. 821,250. ^ 
 
 Osborne House. See Cowes. 
 
 Oscott, a Roman Catholic college, 4 miles N. 
 of Birmingham. Dating from 1752, and rebuilt 
 in 1835, it has since 1889 become a seminary. 
 
 Oshkosh, capital of Winnebago county, Wis- 
 consin, on the Fox River, at its entrance to 
 Lake Winnebago, 80 miles by rail NNW. of Mil- 
 waukee. The lake (30 miles by 12) forms, with 
 the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, which are con- 
 nected by a canal, a water-route between Lakes 
 Michigan and Superior. The city extends along 
 the lake for 4 miles, and carries on a great trade 
 in lumber. It has also extensive door and sash 
 factories, and large manufactories of furniture, 
 matches, carriages, and soap, besides pork-pack- 
 ing establishments. It is the seat of a state 
 normal school, and close by is a state lunatic 
 asylum. Oshkosh was incorporated in 1853, and 
 burned down in 1859 ; it was again partially 
 destroyed by fire in 1874 and 1875, and in 1885 a 
 cyclone overwhelmed part of the suburbs. Pop. 
 (1880) 15,748 ; (1900) 28,284. 
 
 Oskaloosa, capital of Mahaska county, Iowa, 
 104 miles WNW. of Burlington. It mines bitu- 
 minous coal, and manufactures flour, woollens, 
 boilers, electric appliances, &c. Here are Penn 
 College (Quaker) and two others. Pop. 9558. 
 
 Osmington, a Dorset parish, 4 miles NE. of 
 Weymouth. Here is a mounted figure of George 
 III. cut out in the turf. 
 
OSNABRUCK 
 
 627 
 
 OTRANTO 
 
 Osnabriiok, a town in the Prussian province 
 of Hanover, in the fertile valley of the Hase, 75 
 miles by rail SSW. of Bremen and 70 WSW. of 
 Hanover. Its great Catholic cathedral, whose 
 see was founded by Charlemagne about 810, and 
 re-established in 1857, is in the Transition style of 
 the first half of the 13th century, and rich in 
 relics and monuments ; the town-hall (1486-1512) 
 contains portraits of all the plenipotentiaries 
 who here on 24th October 1648 signed the peace 
 of Westphalia. Osnabriick has important iron 
 and steel works, and manufactures of railway 
 plant, agricultural machinery, gas-meters, paper, 
 tobacco, &c. Dating from 772, it suffered much 
 in the Thirty Years' War, but recovered, thanks 
 to its linen industry, during the 18th century. 
 The name Osnaburgs given to coarse linens in 
 England is derived hence. Pop. (1852) 13,718 ; 
 (1900) 51,573, of whom one-third were Catholics. 
 
 Osrhoene (Oz-ree'nee), a district in the north- 
 west of Mesopotamia, containing Edessa (q.v.). 
 
 Ossa, the ancient name of a mountain on the 
 east side of Thessaly, near Peliou (q.v.), and 
 separated from Olympus by the vale of Tempe. 
 
 Ossett, a town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 3 miles W. of Wakefield. Pop. (1901) 12,903. 
 
 Ossining, the name of what used to he called 
 Sing-Sing (q.v.). 
 
 Ostashkoff, a town of Russia, 107 miles W. by 
 N. of Tver. Pop. 9905. 
 
 Ostend', a fashionable watering-place in the 
 Belgian province of West Flanders, on the Ger- 
 man Ocean, 77 miles by rail WNW. of Brussels. 
 Its Digue, or sea-wall, 3 miles long, 40 feet high, 
 and 35 yards broad, forms a favourite promenade, 
 as also do the two Estacades, or wooden piers, 
 projecting on both sides of the harbour's en- 
 trance. Two spacious floating basins for the 
 Dover mail-packets (a four hours' passage) were 
 completed in 1874; and as a station also for 
 London steamers, and the terminus of various 
 lines of railway, Ostend is a lively and active 
 place of transport traffic (butter, rabbits, oysters, 
 &c.), and the resort in the season (July to Sep- 
 tember) of 16,000 to 20,000 visitors from all parts 
 of the Continent. It is, moreover, an important 
 fishing-station, and has a good school of naviga- 
 tion, a handsome Cursaal (1878), an hotel-de-ville 
 (1711), a fish-market, and a lighthouse (1771 ; 175 
 feet). ! The manufactures include linen, sailcloth, 
 candles, and tobacco. Pop. (1874) 16,533 ; (1900) 
 39,484. Dating from 1072, Ostend is memorable 
 for the protracted siege by the Spaniards which 
 it underwent from 7th July 1601 to 20th Septem- 
 ber 1604. Twice again it surrendered— to the 
 Allies in 1706, and to the French in 1745. The 
 fortifications have been demolished since 1865. 
 
 Ostero'de, a town of Hanover, at the western 
 base of the Harz Mountains, on the Sose, an 
 affluent of the Leine, 30 miles by rail NW, of 
 Nordhausen. Its church of St Giles (724; re- 
 built 1578) contains the graves of the Dukes of 
 Grubenhagen, and there is also a fine town-hall. 
 Pop. 6435. — OsTERODE, in East Prussia, on the 
 Drewenz, 77 miles NE. of Thorn, has a castle of 
 the Teutonic knights (1270). Pop. 13,170. 
 
 Ostia, a city of Labium, at the moutli of the 
 Tiber, 14 miles SW. of Rome. It was a mere 
 ruin in 830, when Gregory IV. founded a village — 
 the modern Ostia— near the ancient one, whose 
 ruins extend for a mile and a half along the Tiber. 
 
 Ostrau, the name of two neighbouring towns in 
 Austrian Silesia, 80 miles W. by S. from Cracow. 
 Jkloravian Ostrau has extensive iron-works and 
 
 other manufactures. Pop. 30,120. Polish Ostrau 
 is the centre of a rich coalfield. Pop. 18,760. 
 
 Ostrog, a town of Russia, in Volhynia, 176 
 miles W. of Kieff. Pop. 16,522, mostly Jews. 
 
 Ostu'ni, a city of south Italy, 22 miles NW. of 
 Brindisi by rail. Pop. 18,199. 
 
 Osu'na, a town of Spain, 66 miles by rail ESE. 
 of Seville, stands on a triangular hill crowned by 
 the castle of the Girons, Dukes of Osuna, and 
 by a collegiate church (1534). Pop. 18,126. 
 
 Oswe'go, the capital of Oswego county. New 
 York, is situated at the mouth of Oswego River 
 (here crossed by three bridges), on Lake Ontario, 
 at the extremity of the Oswego Canal (to Syra- 
 cuse), 326 miles by rail NW. of New York City. 
 It has a United States government building, 
 court-house, city-hall, state armoury, &c., and is 
 the principal port on the lake, with a breakwater, 
 large elevators, and 4 miles of wharves. The 
 river falls here 34 feet, and the water-power is 
 utilised in flour-mills, knitting-mills, &c. Oswego 
 starch and corn-flour are household words. Pop. 
 (1880)21,116; (1900)22,200. 
 
 Os'westry, a thriving market-town and muni- 
 cipal borough (1397) of Shropshire, 18 miles NW. 
 of Shrewsbury. It has an old parish church, 
 restored in 1872 at a cost of £10,000 ; a fragment 
 of the Norman castle of Walter Fitzalan, pro- 
 genitor of the royal Stewarts ; and a 15th-century 
 grammar-school, rebuilt in 1810 and enlarged in 
 1863-78. Railway workshops were established 
 in 1865, and sewerage and water works in 1866. 
 Oswestry derives its name from St Oswald, slain 
 here in 642. In 1644 it was captured by the 
 parliamentarians. Pop. (1851) 4817 ; (1901) 9579. 
 See works by Price (1815) and Cathrall (1855). 
 
 Ota.go (Otah' go ; prob. from Maori Otakou, 'red 
 earth '), the most southern provincial district of 
 New Zealand, in the South Island, till 1876 one 
 of the original six provinces in the colony. It 
 was colonised in 1848 by the Otago Association. 
 It has a coast-line of 400 miles, and an area of 
 over 15,000,000 acres. Pop. (1891) 153,005 ; (1901) 
 173,145. Gold was discovered here in 1861. 
 Dunedin (q.v.) is the capital. 
 
 Otaheite. See Tahiti, 
 
 Otaru, a large seaport of Yezo (Hokkaido), 
 Japan, on the west coast, 22 miles W. of Sapporo. 
 It has important herring-fisheries and a well- 
 protected harbour, and has railway connection 
 with Sapporo. Pop. 57,000. 
 
 Otchakoflf, a Russian seaport, on the north 
 shore of the Dnieper's estuary, 38 miles ENE. of 
 Odessa. After it had been bombarded by the 
 Allied fleet in 1855, the Russians demolished the 
 fortifications. In 1887 a ship-canal was opened 
 here, which makes the estuary of the Bug and 
 Dnieper accessible to large ships. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 Otley, a market-town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the Wharfe's right bank, and at 
 the north base of Otley Chevin (925 feet), 10 miles 
 NW. of Leeds. It has an interesting church, a 
 court-house (1875), a mechanics' institute (1869), 
 and a grammar-school (1602). Machine-making is 
 the principal industry, with worsted and leather 
 manufactures. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Otranto (anc. Hydruntum), a decayed seaport 
 in the extreme south-east of Italy, 29 miles by 
 rail SE. of Lecce, and on the Strait of Otranto, 
 45 miles from the opposite coast of Albania. 
 Long the chief port for Greece, it has a ruined 
 castle, which gave title to Horace Walpole's 
 story, and ^n archiepiscopal cathedral, restore^ 
 
OTTAWA 
 
 528 
 
 OUDH 
 
 since the capture of Otranto in 1480 by the 
 Turks. Pop. 2400. 
 
 Ott'awa, one of the largest rivers of British 
 Novtli America, rises nearly 300 miles due north 
 of Ottawa City, flows 300 miles west to Lake 
 Temiscamingue, and thence 400 miles south-east, 
 and falls into the St Lawrence by two mouths, 
 which form the island of Montreal. During its 
 course it sometimes contracts to 40 or 50 yards ; 
 elsewhere it widens into numerous lakes of con- 
 siderable size. Of its many tributaries the chief 
 are the Petewawa, Bonnechere, Madawaska, and 
 Rideau on the right, and the Conlonge, Gatinean, 
 and Rivieres du Lievre and du Nord on the left. 
 These, with the Ottawa, form the means of 
 transit for the largest lumber trade in the world. 
 
 Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada, 
 is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa 
 River, 120 miles from its influx into the St Law- 
 rence at Montreal. The river here forms the 
 splendid Chaudiere Falls (200 yards wide and 40 
 feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans 
 the river, and which supply the motive-power for 
 the numerous lumber-mills, flour-mills, factories, 
 &c. East of the city the river Rideau forms a 
 second fall. The Rideau Canal (1827) passes 
 through the centre of the city, and connects with 
 the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes 
 beyond. Opposite the city, to the NE., the 
 Gatineau River joins the Ottawa. The industries 
 of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In 
 the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting 
 timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the 
 spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the 
 mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and 
 matches are also manufactured. The parlia- 
 mentary buildings, constructed in the Italian 
 Gothic style after 1860, when the Prince of Wales 
 laid the foundation-stone, are placed on a bluff' on 
 the bank of the Ottawa. These structures, includ- 
 ing the handsome library building and the Victoria 
 Tower (180 feet high), cost altogether about 
 $8,000,000. The residence of the governor-general 
 — an old-fashioned, ugly building, called Rideau 
 Hall — is about a mile from the city. The post- 
 office, city-hall, banks, and telegraph-offices are 
 handsomely built of stone. Ottawa is the place 
 of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of 
 England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of 
 Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a 
 normal school and a collegiate institute, a very 
 large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a 
 ladies' college, a musical academy, an art school, 
 a well-equipped geological museum, and the 
 parliamentary library, with 140,000 volumes. The 
 city was begun in the last years of the 18th 
 century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, 
 Massachusetts, who built himself a residence 
 near the Chaudiere, and called the village which 
 he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau 
 Canal (1827) stimulated the settlement, which 
 was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was 
 changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a 
 city. Pop. (1861) 15,000; (1871) 21,545; (1881) 
 27,412 ; (1901) 59,120, about one-half being Roman 
 Catholics. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the 
 administrative capital of Canada. The first 
 parliament met here in 1865. 
 
 Ottawa, (1) capital of La Salle county, Illinois, 
 at the confluence of the Fox and Illinois rivers, 
 82 miles by rail WSW. of Chicago. It has a 
 spring rich in bromine and iodine, and manufac- 
 tures glass, flour, cutlery, tiles, fire-proofing, 
 organs, and pianos. Pop. 10,600.— (2) Capital of 
 Franklin county, Kansas, qu the Osage River, 68 
 
 miles by rail SW. of Kansas City, with a college 
 foundry, and railway-shops, manufactures floui 
 furniture, carriages, and soap. Pop. 6948. 
 
 Otter, a Devon stream running 24 miles to th 
 English Channel, 5 miles SW. of Sidmouth. 
 
 Otterbourne, a Hampshire parish, 4 miles SW 
 of Winchester. 
 
 Otterburn, a small village in Redesdale, Nortli 
 umberland, 16 miles S. of the Border, and 3 
 miles NW. of Newcastle, on the benty upland 
 a little to the west of which, during the moonli 
 night of 19th August 1388, 2300 Scots under th 
 Earls of Douglas, Dunbar, and Moray, defeate( 
 8600 English under Harry Percy (' Hotspur '), th 
 latter being made prisoner, and Douglas slain 
 See Robert White's monograph (1857). 
 
 Ott'ery St Mary, a town of Devonshire, oi 
 the river Otter, 11 miles (15 by rail) E. of Exetei 
 Twice the scene of a great conflagration, in 176 
 and 1866, it retains its magnificent collegiat 
 church, a reduced copy of the cathedral of Exete 
 (q.v.), with the only other transeptal towers ii 
 England. Begun about 1260 by Bishop Brones 
 combe, it is Early English, Decorated, and Per 
 pendicular in style, and was restored by Buttei 
 field in 1849-50. The Old King's Grammar-schoc 
 was demolished in 1884. Alexander Barclay wa 
 a priest here ; Coleridge was a native ; an( 
 'Clavering' in Pendennis is Ottery St Mary, th 
 Devonshire residence of Thackeray's stepfather 
 Silk shoe-laces, handkerchiefs, and Honiton lac 
 are manufactured. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Ottoman Empire. See Turkey. 
 
 Ottum'wa, capital of Wapello county, Iowa 
 on the Des Moines River, 75 miles by rail W. b; 
 N. of Burlington, in the heart of the state'" 
 bituminous coalfields. The residence portion ex 
 tends along the high bluffs. A number of rail 
 ways meet here. Great da,ms concentrate tin 
 river's water-power ; and there are planing, flour 
 starch, and linseed-oil mills, foundries, plough 
 cutlery, and screen factories, bridge-works 
 cooperages, manufactories of fui'niture, boilers 
 &c., and a pork-packing establishment. Pop 
 20,000. 
 
 Oudenarda (Fr. pron. Ood'ndrd ; Flemish Ow 
 de-nar'day), a town of Belgium, on the Scheldt 
 37 miles W. of Brussels. It has a fine flamboyan 
 Gothic town-hall (1535) and two interestin| 
 cliurches. Margaret of Parma was born here 
 Pop. 6200. In 1706 Oudenarde was taken bj 
 Marlborough ; and a French attempt to retab 
 it brought about the third of Marlborough's fou: 
 great victories over the French, 11th July 1708. 
 
 Oudh (Owd), or Awadh, a great plain slopinj 
 soutliward to the Ganges and watered by th( 
 Gumti, Gogra, and Rapti rivers, was made i 
 British commissionei'ship in 1858, and from 187' 
 was administered by the lieutenant-governor o 
 the North-west Provinces (q.v.) ; but since 190 
 the latter term is disused, the two areas beiuj 
 jointly known as the United Provinces of Agn 
 and Oudli. Area, 24,246 sq. m. ; pop. (1881 
 11,387,741 ; (1901) 12,884,150. The bulk of tin 
 inhabitants of Oudh are Hindus, though tin 
 dominant native race for centuries has beei 
 Mohammedan. The Brahmans are about one 
 eighth of the whole population. The principa 
 towns are Lucknow (the capital), Faizabad 
 Bahraich, Shahabad, Rai Bareli. Oudh was oin 
 of the oldest homes of Aryan civilisation in India 
 After being the seat of a long native Hindu dynasty 
 it was subjugated by the ruler of Kanauj, and ii 
 1194 was made subject to the Mussulman empir( 
 
OUGHTERARD 
 
 529 
 
 OXFORD 
 
 of Delhi. In 1732-43 it became virtually an inde- 
 pendent state, and the dynasty of the Nawabs 
 lasted until the annexation by the British in 1856. 
 During the mutiny of 1857 Oudh was a centre of 
 rebellion.— For the city of Oudh, see Ajodhya. 
 
 Oughterard (Ohh-ter-ard'), market-town on the 
 W. shore of Lough Corrib, 17 miles NW. of 
 Galway. Pop. 690. 
 
 Oulton, (1) a Suffolk parish, on Oulton Broad, 
 2i miles W. of Lowestoft. George Borrow lived 
 and died here. — (2) A village in Kothwell parish. 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, 5J miles ESE. of 
 Leeds. Richard Beutley was born here. 
 
 Oundle, a small but ancient and pleasant town 
 of Northamptonshire, 13 miles SW. of Peter- 
 borough by rail, has an old church, partly Early 
 English and partly Decorated, restored in 1864. 
 Lace is made. Here St Wilfrid died. Laxton's 
 Grammar-school dates from 1550. Pop. 2480. 
 
 Ouro Preto (Ooro Pray'to.- 'Black Gold'), 
 capital of the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, 
 stands among barren mountains, 3780 feet above 
 sea-level, and 200 miles N. by W. of Rio Janeiro. 
 The gold-mining is now trifling. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Ouse (Ooz), a river of Yorkshire, formed by the 
 union of the Swale and the Ure near Borough- 
 bridge, and flowing 60 miles south-eastward past 
 York, Selby, and Goole. About 8 miles below 
 the last town it joins the Trent, and forms the 
 estuary of the Humber (q.v.). The last 45 miles 
 (from York) are navigable for large vessels. Its 
 principal affluents are the Wharfe, Aire, and 
 Derwent. — The Great Ouse, rising close to 
 Brackley, in the south of Northamptonshire, 
 flows 160 miles north-eastward through Bucking- 
 ham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Nor- 
 folk, till it falls into the Wash, 2^ miles below 
 Lynn. It is navigable for 50 miles. It receives 
 the Ivel, Cam, Lark, and Little Ouse. 
 
 Ousurl, or Usuei. See Amur. 
 
 Ovenden, a NW. suburb of Halifax. 
 
 Over, a town of Cheshire, 4J miles W. of 
 Middlewich. Pop. of parish, 6835. 
 
 Over Darwen. See Darwen. 
 
 Overton, a pai-liamentary borough of Flint- 
 shire (detached), near the Dee, 23 miles NNW. of 
 Shrewsbury. With. Flint, «fec., it returns one 
 member. Pop. 1131. 
 
 Overtown, a Lanarkshire village, IJ mile SE. 
 of Wishaw. Pop. 1395. 
 
 Overyssel (y like I), a Dutch province, lying 
 east of the Zuider Zee, and separated from 
 Guelderland on the south by the river Yssel. 
 Area, 1291 sq. m. ; pop. 350,000. The chief cities 
 are Zwolle, Deventer, and Kampen. 
 
 Ovledo (Oveeay'do; anc. Ovetum or Asturum 
 Lucus), the capital of the Spanish province of 
 Asturias, 20 miles by rail SSW. of Gijon on the 
 Bay of Biscay and 87 N. by W. of Leon. Sheltered 
 to the north by a hill 470 feet high, it has four 
 main streets, branching off from a central square, 
 and possesses a cathedral, a university (1604), a 
 theatre, a botanic garden, a fine aqueduct, &c. 
 The cruciform cathedral, dating from 781, but 
 mainly rebuilt 1388-1528, is a noble specimen of 
 Gothic, with a tower 284 feet high, the remains 
 of fourteen early kings and queens of Asturias, 
 many relics, and a fine old library. Linens, 
 woollens, hats, and firearms are manufactured ; 
 near by are ironworks, and at Prutia (12 miles 
 W.) a government foundry, producing cannon, 
 rifles, bayonets, «&c. Pop. 46,671. 
 
 Ovoca. See Avoca. 
 
 2H 
 
 Owe'gO, capital of Tioga county, New York, 
 on the Susquehanna River (here bridged), at the 
 mouth of Owego Creek, 228 miles by rail NW. of 
 New York City. It manufactures pianos, flour, 
 soap, leather, &c. Pop. 5025. 
 
 Owensboro, capital of Daviess county, Ken. 
 tucky, on the Ohio, 160 miles below Louisville 
 (112 by rail). It has tobacco-factories, whisky 
 distilleries, foundries, flour and planing mills, 
 &c. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Owen Sound, a town and port of entry of 
 Ontario, at the head of Georgian Bay, 122 miles 
 by rail NW. of Toronto. It possesses a deep 
 sheltered harbour (12 miles by 5), trades in lum- 
 ber and grain, and manufactures furniture and 
 wooden wares, machinery, woollen goods, &c. 
 The Canadian Pacific steamers leave here for 
 Port Arthur. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Owston Ferry, a Lincolnshire town, on the 
 Trent, 7 miles N. of Gainsborough. Pop. 1204. 
 
 Owosso, or OwASSo, a city of Michigan, on 
 the Shiawassee River, 78 miles by rail NW. of 
 Detroit. The river supplies abundant water- 
 power, and there are flour and planing mills, 
 furniture and sash factories, foundries, and rail- 
 way-shops. Pop. 8700. 
 
 Oxenhope, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 5 miles S. of Keighley. Pop. 2225. 
 
 Oxford, the capital of the county, the home of 
 the university, and the seat of the bishopric of 
 the same name, stands about the confluence of 
 the rivers Cherwell and Thames, 52 miles (63 by 
 rail) WNW. from London. Up to 1885 the city 
 returned two members to parliament ; since that 
 date only one. Until about 1830 the area and 
 population of the city remained almost stationary, 
 extending only a little beyond the limit of the old 
 city wall as reconstructed in the reign of Henry 
 III. But since then the city has grown rapidly, 
 and the rural districts of St Giles' on the north, 
 St Clement's on the west, Grandpont on the 
 south, and Botley on the east have been covered 
 with lines of close-built streets. Pop. (1801) 
 11,000; (1861)27,560; (1881)40,837; (1901)49,335. 
 The topography of Oxford is simple In the 
 extreme. The river Thames (locally called the 
 ' Isis '), takes here a sharp bend to the east, and 
 about a mile from the angle receives the Cherwell, 
 flowing from the north. All the old part of the 
 town stands in the rectangle thus formed by the 
 rivers. The centre of the town is at a place 
 called ' Carfax ' (derived from quadrifurcus, ' four- 
 forked '), from which four main streets (traversed 
 since 1883 by tram-lines) run to the four points 
 of the compass. North runs Cornmarket Street 
 (' the Corn ') ; east, High Street (' the High ') to 
 Magdalen Bridge over the Cherwell ; south, St 
 Aldgate's Street to Folly Bridge over the Isis; 
 and west, Queen Street to the Castle and station. 
 Among Oxford's countless buildings are All 
 Souls College (founded 1437); the Ashmolean 
 Museum (1682); Balliol College (c. 1268); the 
 Bodleian Library (1602; 500,000 books, 30,000 
 MSS.) ; Brasenose College (1509) ; Christ Church 
 College (1525-46 ; its chapel the cathedral 1120 and 
 onwards) ; the Clarendon Building (1712-30, till 
 1830 the University Press) ; Corpus Christi College 
 (1516) ; the Divinity Schools (1445-80) ; the Ex- 
 amination Schools (1882) ; Exeter College (1314) ; 
 Hertford College (1874); the Indian Institute 
 (1884) ; Jesus College (1571 ; still partly Welsh) ; 
 Keble College (1870); Lincoln College (1429) ; Mag- 
 dalen College (1458) ; Manchester College (1893) ; 
 Mansfield College (1886) ; the Martyrs' Memorial 
 (1841); St Mary's Church (1300-1488), with a spire 
 
OXFORDSHIRE 
 
 530 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 180 feet high ; Merton College (1264) ; the New 
 Museum (1856-60); New College (1379); Oriel 
 College (1326) ; Pembroke College (1624) ; Queen's 
 College (1340) ; the domed Radclitfe Library (1749 ; 
 since 1861 a reading-room for the Bodleian) ; the 
 RadclifTe Observatory (1795); St John's College 
 (1555) ; the Sheldonian Theatre (1669 ; in which 
 ' Commemoration ' is held) ; the Taylor Institution 
 (1843) ; Trinity College (1554) ; the Union Society 
 (1823; new building 1859); University College 
 (1249 ; not founded by King Alfred in 872) ; The 
 University Press (1830) ; Wadham College (1613) ; 
 and Worcester College (1714). To which may be 
 added Somerville Hall (1879), Lady Margaret 
 Hall, and St Hugh's Hall, all for women. 
 
 The university of Oxford, which dates from 
 the 12th century, comprises twenty-one colleges. 
 It has a teaching body of 54 professors, readers, 
 and lecturers, and upwards of 3500 undergrad- 
 uates, including about 150 unattached or non- 
 collegiate students. A few of its great alumni 
 have been Duns Scotus, Roger Bacon, Wolsey, 
 Raleigh, Jewel, Hooker, Sir Philip Sidney, 
 William Harvey, Blake, John Hampden, Burton, 
 Herrick, Jeremy Taylor, Lovelace, Hobbes, 
 Clarendon, Evelyn, Locke, Wycherley, Addison, 
 Steele, Collins, Dr Johnson, Wesley, Chatham, 
 Adam Smith, Gibbon, Gilbert White, Fox, 
 Southey, Shelley, De Quincey, Landor, Keble, 
 Cardinals Newman and Manning, Gladstone, 
 Froude, Freeman, Green, Ruskin, Matthew 
 Arnold, Clough, and Swinburne. 
 
 See, besides Anthony Wood's great works, others 
 by the Rev. C. W. Boase (' Historic Towns ' series, 
 Longmans, 1887) ; Maxwell Lyte (1886) ; Dr Bro- 
 drick (1886); the Rev. E. Marshall ('Diocesan 
 Histories ' series, 1882) ; A. Lang (new ed. 1890) ; 
 and A. Clark (1891) ; ' A Mere Don ' (1894) ; with 
 Parker's Handbook for Oxford, as an admirable 
 guide to the architectural features of the city. 
 
 Oxfordshire, an inland county of England, in 
 shape very irregular, and with an extreme length 
 and breadth of 48 miles by 26 ; is bounded by 
 Warwickshire, Northants, Bucks, Berkshire, and 
 Gloucestershire. Area, 755 sq. m., or 483,621 
 acres. Pop. (1801) 109,620 ; (1881) 179,559 ; (1901) 
 182,768. Flat and bleak in the north and west, 
 except near Edgehill (q.v.), on the Warwickshire 
 border, and undulating in the central district, 
 the county in the south presents a succession of 
 richly wooded hills, alternating with picturesque 
 dales, and terminating on the south-east border 
 with a branch of the Chiltern Hills, which, near 
 
 Nuffield, attain a height of nearly 700 feet abo 
 the sea-level. Foremost, however, among t 
 natural beauties of Oxfordshire are the numerc 
 rivers by which it is watered, notably the Tham 
 with its affluents the Windrush, Evenlode, Ch 
 well, and Thame. The soil in general is ferti 
 Ironstone is extensively worked near Banbui 
 whilst there are manufactures of blankets 
 Witney, paper at Shiplake and Henley, and, 
 a certain extent, gloves at Woodstock. T 
 county contains fourteen hundreds, the whole 
 part of the municipal boroughs of Abingdc 
 Banbury, Chipping Norton, Henley-on-Tham 
 Oxford, and Woodstock, and 292 civil parish 
 all in the diocese of Oxford. Three memb 
 are returned for the county, as also one for t 
 city of Oxford and two for the university. T 
 battlefields of Chalgrove (1643) and Cropre 
 Bridge (1644) may be mentioned ; and amo 
 Oxfordshire worthies are Edward the Confessi 
 Leland (the antiquary). Viscount Falklai 
 ' Doctor ' Fell, Warren Hastings, Miss Edgeworl 
 Charles Reade, and Green (the historian). £ 
 works by Skelton (1823) and Davenport (1869). 
 
 Oxus, the ancient name of the Amu or An 
 Daria, a river in western Asia, called by Ai 
 writers the Jihiln. It rises in the elevated tab 
 lands between the Tian-Shan Mountains and t 
 Hindu-Kush, and flows west as far as 66° E. loi 
 through Badakshan, and then north-west throu 
 Bokhara and Khiva, and empties itself by seve 
 mouths into the southern end of the Sea of Ar 
 There are two main head-streams issuing at 13,( 
 and 14,177 feet respectively, and uniting in ' 
 20' E. long, at 7500 feet. The Oxus receives f 
 tributaries after it turns north-west, its com 
 then running through the deserts of Turkests 
 The delta is 90 miles long, and embraces ma 
 lakes and marshes. The principal use made 
 the river is for irrigation ; Khiva owes its pr 
 perity to its waters. In 1894 it was navigal 
 by a Russian steamer as far as Faizabad Kali 
 the Afglian frontier. It is believed that bef( 
 the Christian era the Oxus flowed into the C 
 pian, and that since 600 a.d. it has twice chang 
 its course. Between Merv and Bokhara it 
 spanned by a railway viaduct (1888), 6804 f( 
 long. See works by J. Wood (1841 ; new ed. 
 Colonel Yule, 1872) and MacGahan (1876). 
 
 Oykell. See Oikell. 
 
 Oyster Bay, a watering-place of New Yc 
 State, on an inlet of Long Island Sound, 80 mi 
 E. by N. of New York. Pop. 1600. 
 
 ^AARL, capital of a district in Cape 
 Colony, 40 miles NE. of Capetown by 
 rail. Pop, 8500. 
 
 Pabbay, an Inverness-shire island, 6^ 
 miles S. of Barra. Pop. 7. 
 Pabna, a town of Bengal, on an arm of the 
 Ganges, 115 miles N. of Calcutta. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Pachacamac', a village of Peru, 18 miles SE. 
 of Lima, with the ruins of a temple from which 
 Pizarro took immense treasure. 
 
 PachmarW, a sanatorium in the Central Prov- 
 inces, India, 2500 feet above the plains, and 110 
 miles SW. of Jabalpur. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, the largest of the great divisions 
 of the ocean, occupying about one-half of the 
 water-surface of the globe and more than one-third 
 of the area of the world. It is almost landlocked 
 towards the north, communicating with the 
 Arctic Ocean by the narrow (40 miles) and shal- 
 
 low Behring Strait, whereas it opens widi 
 into the deep Southern and Antarctic Ocea 
 Its length from north to south (the Antarc 
 Circle) is about 9000 miles ; its greatest bread 
 at the equator, is over 10,000 miles ; its area 
 approximately 70,000,000 sq. m. It was first st 
 by Europeans in 1513, when Balboa, with a f 
 followers, viewed its waters from the summit 
 a peak in Darien ; the first European to s 
 upon it was Magellan (1520), who gave it the na 
 Pacific. Sir Francis Drake was the first Engli 
 man to sail upon it (1577). The area of la 
 draining into it— 7,500,000 sq. m.— is less tl 
 half of that draining into the Atlantic. 1 
 largest American river flowing into it is 1 
 Yukon (2000 miles); others are the Fraser, C 
 umbia or Oregon, Sacramento, and Colora( 
 The South American rivers are little more tli 
 mountain-streams. The Asiatic rivers incli 
 some of the largest rivers of the world— the Am 
 
PACTOLUS 
 
 631 
 
 PAISLEY 
 
 Hoang-ho, Yang-tse-klang, Mekong, and Menam. 
 Generally speaking, the American and Australian 
 coasts bordering the Pacific are mountainous and 
 free from indentations, while the Asiatic coasts 
 are low and fertile, with many gulfs and bays, 
 and fringed with island groups. 
 
 The Pacific Ocean is remarkable for the in- 
 numerable small islands and island groups which 
 stud its surface, but the area occupied by the 
 truly oceanic islands is very small ; they are 
 principally congregated towards the central and 
 western portions of its basin, while the east- 
 ern portion is comparatively free from islands. 
 The larger islands— Borneo, New Guinea, Celebes, 
 Java, Sumatra, &c. — are continental. The 
 oceanic islands — the Sandwich Islands, Ladrones, 
 Carolines, Gilbert Islands, Solomons, Fiji, 
 Friendly Islands, Samoa, &c.— of the Pacific are 
 all either of volcanic or coral origin, the volcanic 
 islands within the zone of coral-reef builders being 
 fringed with coral reefs, while many are entirely 
 of coral formation. Some of tlie greatest depths 
 in the world occur in the Pacific, in its western 
 basin ; on the whole it is deeper than the 
 Atlantic, its mean depth being about 2500 
 fathoms. The eastern basin is comparatively 
 uniform in depth, between 2000 and 3000 fathoms. 
 The western basin is much more diversified, 
 numerous groups of islands, shallow water, 
 and immense depths occurring irregularly. The 
 Challenger's deepest sounding, 4575 fathoms 
 ftiearly 5J miles), was in the sea between the 
 Caroline and Ladrone Islands, while the Ameri- 
 can ship Tuscarora found a depth of 4655 fathoms 
 to the north-east of Japan. The surface-currents 
 of the Pacific Ocean depend to a great extent 
 upon the direction of the prevailing winds, the 
 principal of which are the two trade- winds, blow- 
 ing more or less constantly, the one from the 
 north-east, the other from the south-east. Be- 
 tween these two regions is what is called the 
 equatorial belt of calms. In addition to the 
 trade-winds, there are the monsoons, which blow 
 with great regularity, but the direction of which 
 changes according to the season. A cold surface- 
 current flows constantly northwards from the 
 Antarctic. The great equatorial current flows to 
 the westward. The temperature of the surface- 
 waters of the Pacific varies with the season, but 
 in the tropical regions the variation is very small. 
 The highest temperature occurs among the 
 islands of the Malay Archipelago and off the 
 Mexican coast, where the mean temperature rises 
 to 85° F. The temperature of the water below 
 the surface as a general rule decreases as the 
 depth increases, the lowest temperature occur- 
 ring at great depths, where the bottom tempera- 
 ture appears to be nearly constant all the year 
 round, usually about 35° F. 
 
 Pacto'lus (mod. Sarabat), anciently the name 
 of a small brook of Lydia, in Asia Minor, flowing 
 to the Hermus, and famous for its gold-dust. 
 
 Padang, capital of a residency on the west 
 coast of Siunatra, at the mouth of the Padang 
 River. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Paddington, a parliamentary and metropolitan 
 borough of Loudon. Pop. (1901) 143,976. 
 
 Paderbom, a town of Westphalia, 50 miles 
 SW. of Hanover. It has been largely rebuilt 
 since a destructive fire in 1875. The fine Roman- 
 esque cathedral (R. C), completed in 1163, is 
 built over the sources of the Pader (a feeder of 
 the Lippe), and contains the silver coffin of St 
 Liborius. Other edifices are St Bartholomew's 
 Chapel (1017) and the town-house (1615 ; restored 
 
 1870-76). There are glass, soap, and tobacco 
 factories, breweries, railway and printing works, 
 and mineral springs close by. Pop. 23,600. 
 
 Padiham, a town of Lancashire, 3 miles W. of 
 Burnley and 8 NE. of Blackburn. Cotton is the 
 staple manufacture, with coal-mining and stone- 
 quarrying. Pop., with Hapten, 12,250. 
 
 Padstow, a Cornish seaport, on the Camel's 
 estuary, 12 miles WNW. of Bodmin. Pop. 1559. 
 
 Pad'ua (Ital. Pad'ova), a city of north Italy, 23 
 miles by rail W. by S. of Venice and 18 SE. of 
 Vicenza, is still surrounded with walls. The 
 municipal palace (1172-1219) is a huge structure 
 resting on arches, with balconies running round 
 the upper story. The roof (1420) of its great hall 
 (267^ feet long, by 89 wide, and 78 high) is per- 
 haps (with the exception of King's Chapel, Cam- 
 bridge) the largest in Europe unsupported by 
 pillars. The churches (nearly fifty) include the 
 cathedral (1552-1754); St Antony (1230-1307); 
 St Justina (16th century) ; and the chapel of the 
 Annunciation (1303), with frescoes by Giotto. 
 The ' saint's school ' is adorned with frescoes by 
 Titian and his pupils, illustrating the life of St 
 Antony. Donatello's fine equestrian statue of 
 Gattainelata, the Venetian captain, stands in 
 front of the church of St Antony. Padua has 
 enjoyed greatest fame from her university, 
 founded by the emperor Frederick II. in 1221, 
 though the fine Renaissance buildings date only 
 from 1493-1552 ; there are now 68 teachers and over 
 1200 students. To it is attached one of the oldest 
 botanical gardens in Europe, and a library (1629) 
 of 158,500 vols, and 2500 MSS. The city museum 
 (1881) contains antiquarian, art, and numismatic 
 collections, a library, and archives. Pop. (1901) 
 82,300. Padua's most celebrated natives were 
 Livy and the painter Mantegna. Patavia came 
 under the Roman supremacy in 215 b.c. Venice 
 held it from 1405 to 1797, and then Austria, until 
 it was incorporated in Italy in 1866. 
 
 Padu'oah, capital of McCracken county, Ken- 
 tucky, on the Ohio River, 48 miles above its 
 mouth, just below the entrance of the Tennessee, 
 and 226 miles WSW. of Louisville. It has ship- 
 yards, foundries, railway-shops, flour, saw, and 
 planing mills, and manufactures soap, vinegar, 
 ice, furniture, tobacco, &c. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 Paestum, an ancient Greek city of southern 
 Italy, on the Gulf of Salerno, with three well- 
 preserved Doric temples. 
 
 Pago-Pago, or Pango-Pango, an excellent har- 
 bour and coaling-station on Tutuila, one of the 
 Samoan islands belonging to the United States. 
 
 Pahang. See Straits Settlements. 
 
 Paignton {Pain'ton), a Devon watering-place, 
 2J miles S, of Torquay. Near it is a ruined palace 
 of the bishops of Exeter. Pop. of the urban 
 district (1901) 8385. 
 
 Painswick, a Gloucestershire town. 6 miles 
 SSB. of Gloucester. Pop. of urb. dist. 8385. 
 
 Paisley, a busy manufacturing town of Ren- 
 frewshire, stands, backed by the Braes of Glen- 
 iffer (749 feet), on the White Cart, 3 miles above 
 its influx to the Clyde, 7 WSW. of Glasgow and 
 16 ESB. of Greenock. Although commonly 
 identified with the Vanduara or Vindogara of 
 Ptolemy, which Skene places rather at Loudoun 
 Hill in Ayrshire, it first is heard of certainly 
 about 1157 as Passeleth, a possession of Walter 
 Fitzalan, the first Scottish ancestor of the royal 
 Stewarts. He six years later founded here a 
 Clugniac priory, which was dedicated to SS. 
 James, Mirin, and Milburga, and which in 1219 
 
FAEENHAM 
 
 532 
 
 PALERMO 
 
 was raised to the rank of an abbey. It was 
 burned by the English in 1307 ; suflered much at 
 the Reformation in 1561, and still more by sub- 
 sequent vandalism ; and now is represented 
 chiefly by the aisled Decorated nave (15th 
 century : the Abbey parish church, restored 
 since 1862), and by the chapel of St Mirin, called 
 the 'Sounding Aisle' (1499), with the altar-tomb 
 of Marjory Bruce. Near the abbey are statues 
 of Wilson the ornithologist and Tannahill, who, 
 like Professor Wilson (' Christopher North '), 
 were natives of Paisley. There are also statues 
 of George A. Clark, founder of the town-hall, and 
 (since 1891) of Sir Peter and Thomas Coats. 
 Motherwell and Alexander Smith were residents ; 
 Elderslie, 2 miles W., is the traditional birthplace 
 of Wallace. Public edifices are the municipal 
 (formerly county) buildings (1818) ; sheriff court- 
 house (1885); the Clark town-hall, Italian in 
 style, and built in 1879-82 at a cost of £110,000 ; 
 the new county buildings (1891), containing one 
 of the finest council halls in Scotland ; the Coats 
 free library and museum (1871), with a picture- 
 gallery and an observatory ; the grammar-school 
 (1576 ; rebuilt 1864) ; and the Neilson educational 
 institution (1852). The Coats Memorial Baptist 
 Church (1891-94), Early English in style, with 
 a Gothic crown completing the central tower, 
 is, it is claimed, the finest ecclesiastical 
 edifice built in Scotland since the Reforma- 
 tion, having cost £100,000. The Fountain 
 Gardens (1868), the Brodie Park (1877), and St 
 James's Park, round which is the racecourse, 
 have an area respectively of 6, 22, and 40 acres. 
 
 The linen, lawn, and silk-gauze industries, im- 
 portant during the 18th century, are now extinct ; 
 as, too, are the ' Paisley shawls,' so celebrated 
 between 1805 and the middle of the century, their 
 sale sometimes exceeding £1,000,000 per annum. 
 The manufacture of linen sewing- thread, intro- 
 duced in 1722 by the witch-denouncer Christian 
 Shaw of Bargarran, has been nearly superseded 
 since, 1812 by that of cotton thread, Avhich has 
 assumed gigantic proportions. Tliere are also 
 works for dyeing, bleaching, tartans, woollen 
 shawls, carpets, distilling and brewing, chemi- 
 cals, starch, corn-flour, preserves, engineering, 
 &c. Paisley is connected with Glasgow by elec- 
 tric tramway, and the electric light has been in- 
 troduced. Tlie Cart since 1786 has been deepened 
 (to 18 feet in 1888-90); and water-works (1834- 
 90) furnish 6,000,000 gallons per diem to Paisley 
 and Johnstone. Paisley was made a free burgh 
 of barony in 1488, the fourth centenary of that 
 event in 1888 being graced by the presence of 
 Queen Victoria, who afterwards placed a memorial 
 of the Stewarts in the ruined choir of the abbey. 
 Since 1833 it has returned one member to parlia- 
 ment. In 1843 the corporation had to suspend 
 payment, nor was the burgh clear of debt until 
 1877. Pop. (1801) 24,324 ; (1841) 48,125 ; (1881) 
 55,627 ; (1§01) 79,850. See Cosmo Innes' Regis- 
 trura Monasterii de Passelet (Maitland Club, 1832), 
 two works by Semple (1872-74), Dr Cameron 
 Lees' Abbey of Paisley (1878), and Robert Brown's 
 History of Paisley (2 vols. 1886). 
 
 Pakenham, a Suffolk parish, 5 miles ENB. of 
 Bury St Edmunds. Pop. 948. 
 
 Pakhol, a seaport of China, opened to trade 
 in 1876, stands on the northern shore of the 
 Gulf of Tonking. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Palamcottali, a town of India, in Madras, 50 
 miles NNE. of Cape Coniorin. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Palanpur', capital of a native state in Gujarat, 
 lies 83 miles N. of Ahmedabad by rail. Pop. 
 
 17,800. The state has an area of 3177 sq. m. ar 
 a pop. of 222,700, 
 
 Palap'we, or Palap'ye, capital of the Bechuan 
 land protectorate, is 60 miles NB. of Shoshon 
 long Khama's chief town, near the Transva 
 frontier, and on the trade route and telegra] 
 line to Matabeleland. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Palatinate (so called because governed origi 
 ally by a Count Palatine -i.e. ' of the palace 
 Ger. Pfalz), two German states, which we 
 united previously to the year 1623. They we 
 distinguished as the Upper and Lower Pa^ 
 tinates, having Amberg and Heidelberg as th( 
 capitals ; and they are now divided amo: 
 Bavaria, Prussia, Baden, and Hesse. 
 
 Pal'atine Hill (Palatmm or Mons Palatinu 
 the central hill of the famous seven on whi^ 
 ancient Rome (q.v.) was built. 
 
 Palem'bang, capital of a residency (former 
 an independent kingdom) near the south end 
 Sumatra, stands on the river Musi, 50 miles frc 
 its mouth ; the houses of the town are built i 
 great log rafts on either bank. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Palencia (anc. Pallantia), a walled city 
 Spain, in Old Castile, 180 miles by rail NNW. 
 Madrid and 29 NNE. of Valladolid. The Gotli 
 cathedral was built 1821-1504. The universi 
 founded here in 1208 was removed to Salaman 
 in 1239. Pop. 16,277. Area of the province 
 Palencia, 3256 sq. m. ; pop. 195,000. 
 
 Palenque (PaUn'kay), great ruins in Mexic 
 between the Michol and Chacamas rivers, in t 
 north of the state of Chiapas, 6^ miles E. of t 
 village of Santo Domingo de Palenque. Th 
 extend over 20 to 30 acres, are buried in a den 
 tropical forest, and consist of vast terrace 
 truncated pyramids, surmounted by solid edific 
 of cut stone, covered with figures in relief, 
 figures and hieroglyphics in stucco, with remai 
 of brilliant colours. 'The Palace' is 228 fe 
 long, 180 feet deep, and 25 feet high, not recko 
 ing the terrace. See works by Charnay (En 
 trans. 1887) and La Rochefoucauld (Paris, 1888] 
 
 Paler'mo, formerly the capital of Sicily, nc 
 in point of population the fifth city of Italy, i 
 archbishopric, and a seaport. It stands on a bi 
 in the north-west corner of the island, at tl 
 mouth of a fertile valley called the Conca d'O 
 (' Golden Shell '), 120 miles by rail W. of Messin 
 and occupies a picturesque site backed by mou 
 tains — on the north by Mount Pellegrino. Tl 
 cathedral of St Rosalia, built (1169-85) by i 
 Englishman, Archbishop Walter, contains tl 
 tombs of Roger I. and the emperors Henry V 
 and Frederick II. There are close upon thn 
 hundred churches and chapels in Palermo. Tl 
 royal palace, built by Roger I., is principally 
 Spanish construction ; other public buildings a 
 the arclibishop's palace, town-house, law-court 
 university, arsenal, &c. The university (1447)h; 
 70 teachers and over 1100 students. There a 
 also a national museum, the town library (177 
 with 141,000 vols, and 2640 MSS., and the nation 
 library (1804) with 110,000 vols, and 12,000 MSI 
 Machinery, essences, sumach, turnery, iroi 
 founding, books, gloves, and shoes represei 
 the industries. But Palermo is an importai 
 seaport, with a large, though not growing, trad 
 Oranges, lemons, dried fruits, sumach, tarta 
 grain, oils, manna, sulphur, wine, animal produc 
 and lemon -juice are the principal exports. Tl 
 imports include grain and vegetables, cottons an 
 woollens, coals, live-stock, iron, timber, groceriei 
 silk, hides, petroleum, machinery, linen, metali 
 
PALESTINE 6 
 
 and g1ass\Vafd. Population, 310,000. Panormxis, 
 the stronghold of Carthage in Sicily, was con- 
 quered successively by Pyrrhus (276 e.g.), the 
 Romans (254 B.C.), the Vandals (440 a.d.), Beli- 
 sarius (535), the Saracens (835), the Pisans (1063), 
 and the Normans from Apulia (1071). Hence- 
 forward it was the capital of the kingdom of 
 Sicily, first of the Norman kingdom, then of that 
 of the Angevins and their Spanish successors. 
 It suffered severely from earthquakes in 1693, 
 1726, and 1823. The city revolted against the 
 Bourbon kings of Naples in 1820 and 1848, and 
 was freed from them in 1860 by Garibaldi. 
 
 Palestine, Canaan, the Land of Israel, or the 
 Holy Land, scene of most of the great events of 
 sacred story, is a country in the SW. of Syria. 
 Palestine proper (i.e. without the territory be- 
 yond Jordan) contains an area of about 6000 sq. 
 m., or less than Yorkshire. The territory beyond 
 Jordan may be reckoned at 2000-3000 sq. m. in 
 addition. It is bounded N. by the river Kasim- 
 iyeh, E. by the Jordan, and W. by the sea. At 
 first sight the map shows ridge upon ridge of hills 
 running east and west, sloping gradually to the 
 west, and descending steeply to the east. On the 
 west is a long strip of low seaboard varying in 
 breadth, vanishingaltogether at the foot of Carmel, 
 and broadening southward into the Plain of Phil- 
 istia. Palestine, as a whole, is physically divis- 
 ible into four parts : (1) The maritime district, 
 extending along the Mediterranean, and includ- 
 ing Philistia ; (2) the central tableland or ' hill- 
 country ' of Judaia, culminating in the Lebanon 
 towards the north and spreading out into the 
 great plain of the Badiet-et-Tih to the south ; 
 (3) the depression of the Jordan Valley and 
 Dead Sea, separating Eastern from Western 
 Palestine ; and (4) the tableland of Edom, Moab, 
 and the region of Trachonitis to the east of the 
 Jordan Valley, bounded by an abrupt and lofty 
 escarpment, and stretching away towards the 
 east into the Desert of Arabia. In North Galilee 
 the watershed runs at an average height of 2800 
 feet above the sea, while the highest peak rises 
 to a height of 3934 feet. In Samaria the hills are 
 lower, not rising above 3000 feet, while south of 
 Jerusalem the hills again rise to over 3300 feet. 
 The north country contains the Plains of Buttauf 
 and the rich plain of Esdraelon, 20 miles long and 
 9 miles broad, elevated, at its highest point, 250 
 feet above the sea. The principal elevations 
 are Jebel Jermftk, 3934 feet ; Carmel, 1740 feet 
 (12 miles long); Mount Ebal, 3084 feet, and 
 Mount Gerizim, 2849 feet ; Tell Asilr, 3318 feet ; 
 and Has esh Sherifeh, 3258 feet. The Mari- 
 time Plain, formed partly by the denudation of 
 the mountains and partly by accumulation of 
 sand, possesses a fertile soil ; deep gullies run 
 across it, with, in some cases, perennial streams. 
 The Jordan Valley begins with the rise of the 
 stream 1000 feet above the Mediterranean, and 
 in 100 miles falls to 1292 feet below it. This is a 
 drop of nearly 2300 feet, or 23 feet in a mile. The 
 valley itself varies in width from 5 miles, where it 
 begins, to 13 miles in the Plain of Jericho. The 
 country terminates southward with the Jeshi- 
 mon, the ' Solitude ' of the Old Testament or the 
 • Wilderness of Judsea ' of the New, a plateau of 
 white chalk rising in cliff's 2000 feet high above 
 the Dead Sea. Palestine is poorly supplied with 
 rivers. Among the best known are the Kishon 
 (Mukatta), flowing to the Mediterranean ; the 
 Jalud and the Farah flowing into the Jordan 
 from the west ; the Jabbok (Zerka)and the Arnon 
 (Mojib) flowing into the Jordan from the east. 
 There are the three lakes of Huleh (the ' Waters 
 
 I PALESTINE 
 
 of Merom '), the Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea, 
 and plenty of springs. 
 
 The climate of Palestine is extremely hot in 
 summer, when the temperature reaches 100° F., 
 and in winter it is wet and cold, though frost does 
 not occur on the plains. There are heavy dews. 
 The ' former rain ' and the ' latter rain ' are those 
 which occur at the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. 
 The distinctive trees of the country are the tere- 
 binth, the olive, the cedar, and the sycamore. 
 The shittim-wood is supposed to have been the 
 acacia. The rose of Sharon is a white narcissus ; 
 and the lily of the valley is the blue iris. The 
 crocodile is still found in one or two of the rivers. 
 The wild-goat — ihex — is found in large herds 
 in the southern wilderness ; the lion is extinct ; 
 the bear lingers in the mountains ; the hysena is 
 common ; the wolf is rare ; the dog is an unclean 
 creature living in the outskirts of towns, and 
 feeding on garbage. Of birds, all those men- 
 tioned in the Bible which can be identified may 
 yet be found. The locust still devastates the 
 crops, and the grasshopper serves for food. 
 
 Since the 2d century, Palestine has been a land 
 of pilgrimage, and many early Christian writers 
 describe the country. After the Moslem con- 
 quest, Mohammedans wrote largely of it. The 
 Crusaders left accounts of their wars. Modern 
 exploration began in the 19th century with 
 Seetzen, Burckhardt, Buckingham, Irby and 
 Mangles, Tobler, De Saulcy, Van de Velde, and 
 Williams. The researches of Robinson in the 
 years 1838-52, forced upon the world the necessity 
 for an exhaustive survey of the country, which 
 was carried out (1865-77 as regards Western Pales- 
 tine) for the Palestine Exploration Fund (1865), 
 chiefly by Major Conder, R.E. The whole of 
 Western Palestine was (1880-81) mapped on a 
 scale which includes every ruin as well as every 
 spring, every watercourse, every wood, and 
 every hillock. At least 150 lost Biblical sites 
 have been recovered ; by means of these the 
 boundaries of the tribes can now be laid down ; 
 one-fourth only of the Bible names remain to 
 be identified. The topography of Josephus, of 
 the Talmud, of the pilgrims, and of the chroniclers 
 has also been illustrated and recovered. All im- 
 portant heights have been ascertained ; the levels 
 of the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee are laid 
 down ; all the remaining ruins have been planned 
 and drawn. The survey of Eastern Palestine was 
 begun under the same auspices in 1881. 
 
 The present condition of the country shows the 
 beginning of rapid changes in every direction. 
 There is a railway from Jaffa to Jerusalem ; other 
 railways, from Acre and Haifa to Damascus, and 
 from Beyrout to Damascus, are in progress ; there 
 are many practicable roads ; and there is even an 
 hotel at Jericho. As regards Jerusalem, a new 
 town has sprung np outside the walls ; it is said 
 that there are close upon 50,000 Jews in and 
 about the Holy City ; the Mount of Olives is being 
 covered with buildings. There are Jewish col- 
 onies between Ramleh, Lydda, and Jaffa ; there are 
 German colonies in the same region ; Circassians 
 occupy Annnan, and are settling in the Hauran ; 
 the people from the Lebanon are coming down and 
 covering the country east of the Jordan. 
 
 The name Palestine originally belonged merely 
 to the coast strip occupied by the Philistines. 
 The rest of the country west of the Jordan was, 
 prior to the Jewish Conquest (1274 B.C.), occupied 
 by some six or seven Canaanitish nations, all 
 except the Hittites apparently of Semitic stock. 
 East of the Jordan were the peoples of Moab, 
 Amraon, Edom, and Midiau, also Semitic, like 
 
PALESTINE 
 
 534 
 
 panamX 
 
 the Israelites themselves. Jerusalem became the 
 capital of a southern kingdom of Judah ; the 
 northern Israelite kingdom of the Ten Tribes 
 had its capital at Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria 
 in succession. The Ten Tribes mostly disappeared 
 during the captivity in Assyria (after 720 b.c), 
 a small remnant mixed with Assyrian colonists 
 forming the Samaritan people. After the people 
 of the southern kingdom returned from the great 
 captivity in Babylon (538 B.C.), they occupied 
 most of the country formerly belonging to the 
 whole people of Israel, and are henceforward 
 known to history as the Jews. The kingdom of 
 Herod the Great (37-4 b.c.) covered most of the 
 land divided by Joshua among the twelve tribes, 
 but was now divided into Galilee, Samaria and 
 Judaea, Idumsea and east of Jordan, Peraia, Gaul- 
 onitis, Auranitis, and Trachonitis. A period of 
 prosperity ended with the siege and capture of 
 Jerusalem by the Romans (70 a.d.), whereupon 
 the Jews were scattered to the four winds ; 
 and Palestine, held by Persians, Saracens, Latin 
 Crusaders, Turks, has never since been the home 
 of a nation. In its palmiest days Palestine may 
 have had from 2 to 3 millions of inhabitants ; the 
 present pop., estimated at 650,000, is very mixed 
 in origin, but consists mainly of Syro-Arabian 
 fellahin, speaking the Syrian dialect of Arabic. 
 
 See the Survey of Western Palestine (8 vols. 1881 
 et. seq.; discussing excavations, fauna, flora, 
 geology, &c., by Conder, Kitchener, Warren, 
 Tristram, Hull, &c.) ; The Survey of Eastern 
 Palestine ; Tristram, The, Land of Israel (2d ed. 
 1872); Conder, Palestine (1889), and Tent Work 
 in Palestine (1878); Thomson, The Land and the 
 Book (1859; new ed. 1880-86); Guy le Strange, 
 Palestine under the Moslems (1892) ; G. A. Smith, 
 Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1894); 
 Baedeker's guide by Socin, and Cook's ; books 
 by Temple (1888), Henderson (1893), A. W. Cooke 
 (1901), Kelman and Fulleylove (illustrated, 1902) ; 
 and works cited under Jerusalem. 
 
 Palestine, capital of Anderson county, Texas, 
 151 miles by rail N. of Houston. Pop. 8300. 
 
 Palestrina (Pa-les-tree'na ; anc. Prceneste), an 
 Italian city, 22 miles E. by S. of Rome, on the 
 slope of an offset of the Apennines, contains the 
 chief castle of the Colonnas and the palace of the 
 Barberini, the owners after 1630. It is built 
 almost entirely upon the gigantic substructions 
 of the ancient Temple of Fortune. Pop. 5855. 
 
 Palghat, a town of Malabar district, 68 miles 
 SE. of Calicut by rail. Pop. 44,200. 
 
 Pdll, the commercial capital of Jodhpur (q.v.), 
 45 miles by rail SE. of Jodhpur city. 
 
 Pallkao, a place on the canal between Peking 
 and its port on the Peiho. Here in 1860 was 
 fought an engagement between the Anglo-French 
 troops and the Chinese. 
 
 Palk Strait, the northern portion of the shallow 
 passage between south India and Ceylon (q.v.). 
 
 Pallas, in Co. Longford, 2J miles SE. of Bally- 
 mahon, was the birthplace of Oliver Goldsmith. 
 
 Palllce, La, a harbour opened in 1889 for large 
 vessels trading to La Rochelle (3 miles distant). 
 
 Palma, (1) capital of Majorca (q.v.) and of the 
 Balearic Islands, stands on the Bay of Palma, on 
 the south coast. The Gothic cathedral dates 
 from 1232-1601. The tomb of Raymond Lully is 
 in the church of St Francis. There is a beautiful 
 exchange (1426-46), an old Moorish palace, and a 
 16th-century town-hall. Population, 65,000, manu- 
 facturing silks, woollens, jewellery, &c. The 
 port is protected by a mole, and the town by a 
 
 wall and batteries.— (2) A town of Sicily, 14 mile 
 SE. of Girgenti. Pop. 14,702.— <3) The name ( 
 one of the larger of the Canary Islands (q.v.). 
 
 Palmheach, a fashionable watering-place c 
 Dade county, on the Atlantic coast of Florida 
 65 miles N. of Miami. Pop. 300, multiplied man 
 times in the season. 
 
 Palmerston. See also Port Darwin. 
 
 Palmy'ra, in the 2d and 3d centuries a ma^ 
 nificent city of northern Syria, situated in a 
 oasis on the edge of the Arabian desert, 15 
 miles NE. of Damascus. The Semitic name wa 
 Tadmor, Palmyra ( = 'city of palms') being th 
 Greek and Latin equivalent. Magnificent remain 
 of the ancient city still exist, chief among thei 
 being the great temple of the Sun (or Baal) ; tli 
 great colonnade, nearly a mile long, and consist 
 ing originally of some 1500 Corinthian columns 
 and sepulchral towers, overlooking the city. 
 
 Palni Hills, a range of southern India, linkin 
 the southern ends of the Eastern and Wester 
 Ghats ; height of the higher ridge, 7000 feet. 
 
 Palo Alto (Pdh-lo), 33 miles SE. of San Frai 
 Cisco, the seat of a university founded by Senate 
 Leland Stanford, opened in 1891, and destroye 
 by the earthquake of April 1906. 
 
 Pales (Pdh'los), a Spanish port at the mouth c 
 the Rio Tinto, 5 miles SE. of Huelva. Once a 
 important place, whence Columbus started o 
 his great voyage, it has now sunk to a village c 
 1422 inhabitants. 
 
 Pamir (Pameer' ; 'roof of the world;' ofte 
 called the Pamirs), the nucleus of the Centre 
 Asian highland system, is a lofty plateau-regior 
 with a mean elevation of 13,000 feet, uniting th 
 western terminations of the Himalaya and th 
 Tian-Shan Mountains, and both with the Hindi 
 Kush. It is traversed by mountain-ridges whic' 
 rise from 4000 to 5000 feet above the plateaus 
 and whose culminating points attain 25,500 fee 
 above sea-level. Between these ridges are a serie 
 of broad valleys. On the west side the Pami 
 sinks rapidly in terraces to the deserts of Turke 
 Stan. These lofty plateaus are exposed to grea 
 extremes of heat and cold, and are visited b 
 terrible snow and sand storms. Nevertheless th 
 Kirghiz drive up their flocks and herds for summe 
 pasture, and from time innnemorial their passe 
 have been traversed by traders and travellers- 
 e.g. by the famous Marco Polo on his journey t 
 the court of Kublai Khan. Among the lake 
 are Karakul, 120 sq. m., and Shivakul, 100 sq 
 m. The Pamir occupies the frontiers of Russian 
 Chinese, and Afghan Turkestan, Bokhara, am 
 Cashmere ; and Russian movements there ar 
 watched with jealousy by China as well as b, 
 Britain. See Geiger, Die Pamirgebiete (1887) 
 and the Earl of Dunmore, The Pamirs (1893). 
 
 Pamlico Sound, a shallow body of watei 
 some 75 by 10 to 25 miles, on the coast of Nortl 
 Carolina, separated from the ocean by long 
 narrow islands of sand, with narrow passages. 
 
 Pampelu'na, or Pamplona, a fortified city o 
 northern Spain, stands on a tributary of th 
 Ebro, 111 miles by rail NW. of Saragossa, an( 
 50 S. by W. of Bayonne in France. It has ; 
 citadel (a copy of that of Antwerp), a Gothic cathe 
 dral (1397), a viceregal palace, a fine aqueduct, an< 
 some manufactures. Pompeiopolis was built b; 
 Pompey in 68 B.C. From 907 it was the capital o 
 Navarre. Pop. 30,988. 
 
 Pamphylia, anciently a country on the soutl 
 coast of Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia. 
 
 Panamd, Isthmus of, formerly called th( 
 
PANCSOVA 
 
 585 
 
 fARAGtJAY 
 
 Isthmus of Darien (q.v.), embraces the narrow- 
 est part (35 miles) of Central America, connect- 
 ing Costa Rica on the W. with Colombia on the 
 E. Formerly a department of Colombia, it 
 asserted its independence in 1903 and formed 
 a repnblic, which was at once recognised by the 
 United States, and since by the chief European 
 powers. With an area of 31,570 sq. ni., and a 
 pop. of about 340,000, it is traversed by a low 
 chain of mountains, forming the barrier between 
 the Atlantic and Pacitic oceans. The chief trad- 
 ing ports are Panama and Colon (Aspinwall). 
 
 PanamX, capital of the dep., stands on a 
 projecting volcanic rock on the Pacific side ; 
 the massive walls the Spaniards built to pro- 
 tect their treasure city still stand in places. Old 
 Panama, founded in 1518, was captured and de- 
 stroyed by the buccaneers under Morgan (1671). 
 Modern Panama was built two years later, 4^ 
 miles distant fiom the old city ; pop. 28,000, the 
 majority of Indian and negro descent, and half- 
 breeds. Fires have destroyed Panama repeat- 
 edly, as well as its sister city Colon. The 
 principal buildings are the cathedral (1760)^ 
 town-hall, and bishop's palace (1880). Panama 
 is connected with Colon on the Atlantic by the 
 Panama Railway (48 miles long), built by Amer- 
 icans in 1850-55. 
 
 PanamX Canal. — The idea of connecting the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by a canal across 
 the Central American isthnms is as old as the 
 16th century ; but no steps were taken to carry 
 out any plan until Ferdinand de Lesseps, of 
 Suez fame, convened in Paris in 1879 an inter- 
 national congress to discuss the plan of cutting 
 through the Istlunus of Panama. On February 
 28, 1881, tlie first detachment of canal employes 
 arrived at Colon ; in 1882 the Canal Company 
 purchased the Panama Railway. An expert 
 commission to Panama in 1880 estimated that 
 a canal could be made for 843,000,000 francs, 
 but later De Lesseps announced that a tide- 
 level canal without locks could be completed for 
 600,000,000 francs. Work was begun, and loans 
 followed year after year, until the company was 
 forced into liquidation in 1889. The Panamd 
 scandals followed (1892-93), with prosecutions 
 and imprisonments (Lesseps, Eiffel, &c.). In 
 1902 the United States arranged to purchase the 
 existing works, with the right to finish the canal; 
 but tlie necessary treaty was rejected by Colom- 
 bia in 1903, whereon the department of Panama 
 revolted (see above), and the new republic signed 
 a treaty witli the States in November 1903, giving 
 the Americans full control of a strip of land on 
 either side the canal, which is practically a de- 
 pendency of tlie United States. The total cost of 
 the canal to the United States is estimated to be 
 about $200,000,000. 
 
 Panc'sova, a town of Hungary, on the Teraes, 
 near its junction with the Danube, 9 miles NE. of 
 Belgrade. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 Pandharpur, a town of India, 112 miles SB. of 
 Poona, on a branch of the Kistna. Pop. 36,910. 
 
 Pangbourne, a Berkshire parish, on the 
 Thames, here joined by the Pang, 5^ miles WNW. 
 of Reading. Pop. 885. 
 
 Pan'ipat, a town of the Punjab, 53 miles N. of 
 Delhi, near the old bank of the Jumna, and on 
 the great military road of northern India to 
 Afghanistan. Hence it has been the scene of 
 three great battles (1526, 1556, 1761) between 
 the people of India and her invaders, the two 
 iirst Mongol victories, and the third an Afghan 
 victory over the Mahrattas. Pop. 27,547. 
 
 Panjab. See Punjab. 
 
 Panjdeh. See Penjdeh. 
 
 Panjim. See Go a. 
 
 Panna, capital of a native state (area, 2568 
 sq. m. ; pop. 239,333) in Bundelkhand, 173 miles 
 SW. of Allahabad. Pop. 14,676. 
 
 Pannanich Wells. See Ballater. 
 
 Pannonia, an ancient Roman province, bounded 
 N. and E. by the Danube, and including most of 
 modern Hungary, Slavonia, Bosnia, Croatia, Car- 
 niola, Styria, and Lower Austria. 
 
 Panormus. See Palermo. 
 
 Panshanger, the seat of Earl Cowper, 2i miles 
 W. by N. of Hertford. 
 
 Panteg, a Monmouthshire parish, with iron- 
 works, 2 miles SE. of Pontypool. Pop. 7746. 
 
 Pantellarla, a volcanic island in the Mediter- 
 ranean, 36 miles in circumference, and 60 miles 
 SW. of Sicily. It is a great convict prison. 
 
 Papal States. See Church (States of the). 
 
 Pap'a Stour, a Shetland island, 34 miles NW. 
 of Lerwick. Pop. 274. 
 
 Pap'a Westray, an Orkney island, 25 miles N. 
 by E. of Kirkwall. Pop. 295. 
 
 Papenburg (Pd-pen-hoorg'), a small port of 
 Hanover, 25 miles W. of Oldenburg by rail and 
 near the Ems. Pop. 6916. 
 
 Paphlagonia, anciently a province of Asia 
 Minor, along the south shore of the Black Sea. 
 
 Paphos, two ancient cities in Cyprus. Old 
 Paphos (now Kyklia) was in the western part of 
 the island, 1^ mile from the coast, and was famous 
 for a temple of Venus, who was said to liave 
 risen from the sea close by. The other Paphos 
 (Papho or Baffa) was on the sea-coast, 8 miles 
 W., and was the place in which Paul preached. 
 
 Papua (Papoo'a). See New Guinea. 
 
 Par, a Cornish seaport, 4 J miles SSW. of 
 Lostwithiel. Pop. 1634. 
 
 Pard, the name which the river Tocantins(q.v.) 
 receives in its lower course (138 miles), 20 miles 
 wide opposite the city of Pard. The Paranan^ 
 an arm of the Amazon, which isolates Marajo 
 Island, runs into it. 
 
 Pard (official name BeUm), a seaport of Brazil, 
 on the east bank of the river Para, 70 miles from 
 its mouth. The harbour is nearly landlocked by 
 wooded islands. Tram-cars and telephones are 
 in general use, and there is a railway to Braganga 
 (108 miles). The principal buildings are the 
 theatre, the government building, custom-house, 
 and cathedral (1720). Para is the emporium of 
 the Amazon river-trade, supplying the interior 
 with foreign goods, and exporting india-rubber, 
 cacao, Brazil nuts, fish, &c. Pop. 50,600.— Area 
 of the state of Para, 443,653 sq. m. ; pop. 335,000. 
 
 Paraguay (Paragway' or Paragwl), an import- 
 ant river of South America, an affluent of the 
 Parana (q.v.), rises in the Brazilian state of Matte 
 Grosso, pursues a generally southward course of 
 about 1800 miles through plains, swamps, and 
 forests in Brazil, between Brazil and Bolivia, and 
 then through Paraguay to its junction with the 
 Parand, a few miles above Corrientes. Its chief 
 affluents are the Cuyaba, Tacuary, Mondego, and 
 Apa on the left, and the Jauru, Pilcomayo, and 
 Vermejo on the right. It is navigable for 
 steamers to the mouth of the Cuyaba. 
 
 Paraguay, an inland republic of South 
 America, divided into two distinct portions by 
 the Paraguay River. Eastern Paraguay, or Para- 
 
i»ARAGUAY 
 
 536 
 
 PARAY-tE-MONIAl. 
 
 guay proper, is a parallelogram between the 
 Paraguay and Parana rivers, and is bordered by 
 the Brazilian and Argentine republics. Western 
 Paraguay, or the Chaco (see Gean Chaco), the 
 smaller part, lies mainly between the Paraguay 
 and its tributary the Pilcomayo. The total area 
 of Paraguay is estimated at about 142,000 sq. m. 
 — a territory considerably larger than Great 
 Britain and Ireland. The population of Paraguay 
 is composed of whites of Spanish descent, Indians, 
 a few negroes, and a mixture of these several 
 races, and in 1905 was estimated at 535,000, ex- 
 clusive of the Indians in the Chaco. The north- 
 ern portion of Paraguay is in general undulating, 
 covered by low, gently-swelling ridges, separated 
 by large grass plains, dotted with palms. There 
 are mountains in the north-east and north-west 
 corners. The southern portion is one of the 
 most fertile districts of South America, consist- 
 ing of hills and gentle slopes richly wooded, of 
 wide savannahs, which afford excellent pasture- 
 ground, and of rich alluvial plains, some of 
 which are marshy, but a large proportion are of 
 extraordinary fertility and highly cultivated. 
 The banks of the rivers Parana and Paraguay are 
 occasionally belted with forest ; but in general 
 the lowlands are destitute of trees. The tempera- 
 ture occasionally rises to 100° in summer, but in 
 winter is usually about 45°. The natural pro- 
 ductions are very varied, although they do not 
 include the precious metals or other minerals. 
 Much valuable timber is found in the forests, 
 also dye-woods, india-rubber, orange-trees, gum- 
 yielding trees, the m&U, or Paraguay tea shrub 
 (growing wild in the NE.), which yields one of 
 the chief articles of commerce. Wax and honey 
 are collected, as is also cochineal, and the medi- 
 cinal plants are very numerous. The chief culti- 
 vated crops are maize, rice, coffee, cocoa, indigo, 
 manioc, tobacco, and sugar-cane. Tapirs, jaguars, 
 pumas, ant-eaters, wild-boars, peccaries, and deer 
 abound ; birds are innumerable ; the rivers teem 
 with fish, and their banks are the resort of 
 alligators and coypus. Snakes, including enor- 
 mous boas, are numerous, but very few of them 
 are venomous. The commerce of the country 
 has greatly increased since 1880. In 1880 the value 
 of exports was £252,000, that of imports less ; 
 inJ 1903 their respective values were £850,350 
 and £710,360. The chief exports are yerba-niat6, 
 tobacco, hides, oranges, timber, bark for tanning, 
 and lace ; the imports, cotton goods, hardware, 
 wine, grain, rice, linen, silk, petroleum, &c.— 32 
 per cent, of the imports being from Britain, 
 mostly passing through Brazil and the Argen- 
 tine Republic. Tliere are no direct exports to 
 Britain. The revenue fluctuates much — from 
 about $9,000,000 to $15,000,000; the expendi- 
 ture generally exceeds the revenue. The foreign 
 debt is about £6,500,000, the interest of 
 which is sometimes seriously in arrears or un- 
 paid. Trade in the towns is almost wholly in 
 the hands of Italians, French, and Germans. The 
 military force consists of 1500 men. The estab- 
 lished religion is the Roman Catholic. Educa- 
 tion is free and compulsory ; but of the adult 
 Paraguayans only one in five can read and write. 
 Paraguay was discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis 
 in 1515, and settled as a province of the viceroyalty 
 of Peru in 1535. The warlike Guaranis 'long 
 successfully resisted the Spanish arms. In the 
 17th century the home government placed in the 
 Jesuits' hands the entire administration, civil as 
 well as religious. From this time forward the 
 progress of civilisation as well as of Christianity 
 was rapid. On the expulsion of the Jesuits from 
 
 Paraguay in 1708, the province was again ma 
 subject to the Spanish viceroys. In 1810 Pa 
 guay joined with the other states in declaring 
 independence. In 1814 Dr Francia was p 
 claimed dictator, and exercised absolute pov 
 till his death in 1840. In 1865-70 the Paraguaya 
 made a heroic but unavailing fight against t 
 combined forces of Brazil, the Argentine Cc 
 federation, and Uruguay, closed by the deft 
 and death of the president Lopez at the bat 
 of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870. The results of t 
 war may be read in the returns of the pop. 
 (1857) 1,337,439; (1873) 221,079, including or 
 28,746 men and 106,254 women over fifteen yet 
 of age. Of late the country has made consideral 
 progress. In 1870 a new constitution was adopt( 
 It is modelled on that of the Argentine Confede: 
 tion. Asuncion (the capital) has a pop. of 63,0( 
 and is connected by railway (92 miles) with Vi 
 Rica. See works by Robertson (1840), Mansfle 
 (1856), Page (New York, 1867), Kennedy (186 
 Masterman (1869), Thompson (New York, 186 
 Washburn (Boston, 1871), and Mulhall(1885). 
 
 Parahyba (Par-a-ee'ba), capital of the Brazili 
 state of Parahyba, on the Parahyba River, 
 miles from the sea. It has a cathedral, govei 
 ment palace (formerly the Jesuit college), a: 
 large sugar-mill (1889). At the mouth of t 
 river is a bar ; but a railway (12 miles) was bu 
 in 1889 to the port and pier of Cabedello. T 
 exports include sugar, cotton, and cotton-see 
 chiefly to Great Britain. Pop. 18,000.— T 
 state, the easternmost in the republic, has ; 
 area of 28,854 sq. m. and a population of 400,0( 
 —A more important Parahyba River, fartl 
 south, enters the Atlantic in the state of P 
 de Janeiro, after a course of nearly 500 miles, 
 is navigable for 50 miles from its mouth. 
 
 Paramaribo, capital of Dutch Guiana, on t 
 Surinam, 10 miles from its mouth. Pop. 32,00C 
 
 Paramatta. See Parramatta. 
 
 Parana, (1) a river of South America, rises 
 the Rio Grande in the Brazilian state of Min 
 Geraes, and is known as Parana after its junctii 
 with the Paranahyba (not the Parnahyba, q.v 
 Thence its course is S., SW., and W., separatii 
 Parana state from Matto Grosso and from Pai 
 guay, round the southern border of which ] 
 public it sweeps westward to its confluence wi 
 the Paraguay River. It then rolls southwa 
 through the Argentine provinces, past Santa P 
 below which its channel frequently divides ai 
 encloses numerous islands, and finally sout 
 eastward, till it unites with the Uruguay, abo 
 Buenos Ayres, to form the Rio de la Plata. T] 
 entire length is over 2000 miles ; it drains 1,100,0 
 sq. m. At San Pedro (33° 40' S. lat.) a del 
 begins. The principal towns on its banks a 
 Corrientes, Parana, Santa F6, and Rosario — j 
 Argentinian. The river is navigable to t] 
 influx of the Paraguay (705 miles), and exce 
 at low water to the mouth of the Iguassu (4i 
 miles). Immediately above this point occu 
 one of the most remarkable rapids in tlie worl 
 extending for 100 miles between ranges of frow 
 ing cliffs. — (2) A southern state of Brazil, on tl 
 coast, with an area of 85,453 sq. m., and a po 
 of 250,000, including several colonies of Gennai 
 and Italians. The capital is Curitiba (14,00C 
 with a railway (69 miles) to the port of Paran 
 gua. — (3) Capital of the Argentinian province 
 Entre Rios, stands on a high bluff overlookii 
 the Parana, opposite Santa Fe, 410 miles 1 
 steamer from Buenos Ayres ; pop. 25,000. 
 
 Paray-lo-Monial {Par-ay-leh-Moyi-ee-dhl'), 
 
FARCHIM 
 
 537 
 
 PARIS 
 
 town in the French dep. of Saone-et-Loire, 48 
 miles by rail W. by N. of Macon. In its chapel 
 Mary Alacoque (d. 1690) believed herself to have 
 had a vision of the Saviour, and it is now the 
 object of pilgrimages. Pop. 4141. 
 
 Parchim (Par-hheem), a town of Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, 23 miles SB. of Schwerin. Pop. 10,250. 
 
 Par'dubitz, a town of Bohemia, on the Elbe's 
 left bank, 55 miles E. ot Prague, Pop. 17,292. 
 
 Parhafii, a Suffolk village, 2i miles SSB. of 
 Framlingham. Moated Parham Hall here was 
 the seat of the Willoughbys. 
 
 Paris (Fr. pron. Par-ee'), capital of France, and 
 the largest citv in Europe after London, is situ- 
 ated in 48° 50' N, lat. and 2° 20' E. long., on the 
 river Seine, about 110 miles from its mouth. It 
 lies in the midst of the fertile plain of the Ile- 
 de-France, at a point to which converge the chief 
 tributaries of the river, the Yoime, the Marne, 
 and the Oise ; and is the centre of a great net- 
 work of rivers, canals, roads, and railways ; hence 
 its commercial importance. The present city is 
 bounded by fortifications— a rampart (1840-60) 
 upwards of 22 miles in length. The extension of the 
 city boundary to this line explains the increase 
 of pop. from 1,174,346 in 1856 to 1,696,741 in 
 1861; subsequent pop. (1866) 1,825,274; (1881) 
 2,269,023 ; (1901) 2,714,068. Montniartre, within 
 the fortifications, is 400 feet high ; the city is 
 encircled at a distance of from two to five 
 miles by an outer range of heights, including 
 Villejuif, Meudon, St Cloud, and Mont-Valerien 
 (650 feet), some of which are crowned by the 
 detached forts which now form the main defences 
 of the city. At the fifty-six gates in the walls 
 of Paris are paid the octroi dues. The Seine 
 divides the city into two parts, and forms the 
 islands of La Cite and St Louis, both covered 
 with buildings. 
 
 France has long been the most highly central- 
 ised country in Europe, and Paris as its heart 
 contains a great population of government func- 
 tionaries. Paris is a city of pleasure, and attracts 
 the wealthy from all parts of the world ; hence 
 it is a city of capitalists and a great financial 
 centre. The provincial universities of France 
 have been deprived of their attraction by the 
 schools of Paris, to which flock the youth of 
 France. The publishing trade has followed the 
 same course. The chief and peculiar industries 
 of Paris produce articles which derive their 
 value from the skill and taste bestowed on them 
 by individual workmen, and include jewellery, 
 bronzes, artistic furniture, and decorative articles 
 known as ' articles de Paris.' The private houses 
 as well as the public buildings of Paris are built 
 of a light-coloured limestone, quarried in the 
 neighbourhood of the city. With this material 
 they are reared in huge blocks to a height of six 
 or seven stories, each floor constituting a distinct 
 dwelling ; access to all the floors in a tenement 
 being gained by a common stair, which is usually 
 placed under the charge of a porter or concierge 
 at the entrance. Very frequently the tenements 
 surround an open quadrangle. Among the great 
 new streets formed in the time of Napoleon III. are 
 the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in length, the Rue 
 de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St Honore, and 
 the Rue Royale. The Boulevards, which extend in 
 a semicircular line on the right side of the Seine, 
 between the nucleus of the city and its surround- 
 ing quarters, present the most striking feature of 
 Paris life. In all the better parts of the city they 
 are lined with trees, seats, stalls, and kiosques. 
 Among the public squares or places the most note- 
 
 worthy is the Place de la Concorde, which con- 
 nects the Gardens of the Tuileries with the 
 Champs-Elysees, and embraces a magnificent 
 view of some of the finest buildings and gardens 
 of Paris. In the centre is the famous obelisk of 
 Luxor (73 feet), brought hither in 1836. On the 
 site of this obelisk stood the revolutionary 
 guillotine, at which perished Louis XVI., Marie 
 Antoinette, Philippe Egalite, Charlotte Corday, 
 Danton, and Robespierre. Of the other squares 
 the following are some of the finest : the Place 
 du Carrousel, including the site of the Tuileries 
 burned by the Commune and not restored ; the 
 Place Vendome, with Napoleon's Column of 
 Victory ; the Place de la Bastille, where once 
 stood that famous prison-fortress ; the Place 
 Royale ; and the Place de I'Hotel de Ville. 
 Triumphal arches are a feature in the archi- 
 tecture of Paris. The Porte St Martin and Porte 
 St Denis were ei-ected by Louis XIV. to com- 
 memorate his victories in, the Low Countries ; 
 the Arc de Triomphe de I'Etoile, built in 1806-36 
 at a cost of more than £400,000, is ijrofusely 
 adorned with bas-reliefs and alto-reliefs. The 
 great streets which radiate from the Arc de 
 Triomphe were among the most magnificent of 
 those constructed by Nai)oleon III. The Seine 
 in passing through Paris is spanned by twenty- 
 eight bridges. The most celebrated and ancient 
 are the Pont Notre Dame (1500), and the 
 Pont-Neuf (1578-1604), which crosses the Seine 
 at the north of the tle-de-la-Cite. The bridges 
 all communicate directly with spacious quays, 
 planted with trees, which line both banks of 
 the Seine. Among the churches the grandest and 
 most interesting is the cathedral of Notre Dame, 
 which stands on a site successively occupied by 
 a pagan temple and a Christian basilica of the 
 Merovingian time. The main building, begun 
 in the 12th century, is 400 feet long, 150 wide, 
 and 110 high. The height of two towers is 218 
 feet, that of the fleche 300. It has been said 
 that if the pillars of Notre Dame could speak 
 they might tell the whole history of France. In 
 1793 it was converted into a ' Temple of Reason.' 
 The building was carefully restored in 1845. The 
 Sainte Chapelle, built by St Louis in 1245-48, is 
 perhaps the greatest existing masterpiece of Gothic 
 art, and was restored by Napoleon III. at a cost; 
 of £50,000. St Severin is partly in the English 
 Gothic of the 15th century ; it was erected dui> 
 ing the English occui)ation of Paris. St-Germain- 
 des-Pres, probably the most ancient, church in 
 Paris, was completed in 1163 ; St Etienne du 
 Mont contains the tomb of St Genevieve ; and 
 St Germain I'Auxerrois has very fine decorations. 
 Among modern churches is the Madeleine (1806- 
 42), like a Corinthian temple ; also the imposing 
 Romanesque-Byzantine Sacre Coeur (1875-1900), 
 crowning the height of Montniartre. The 
 Pantheon (1764) was begun as a church, but 
 converted by the Constituent Assembly into a 
 temple dedicated to the great men of the nation, 
 next restored to the church by Napoleon III. 
 and rededicated to St Genevieve, but once more, 
 on the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo 
 (1885), reconverted into a valhalla ; here are the 
 tombs also of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Carnot. 
 
 Paris has upwards of forty theatres. The lead- 
 ing houses are the Opera, the Theatre FrauQais — 
 chiefly devoted to classical French drama— the 
 Opera Comique, and the Odeon, which receive a 
 subvention from government. The new opera- 
 house, completed in 1875, cost, exclusive of the 
 site, £1,120,000. Beyond the fortifications at the 
 west of Paris is the Bois de Boulogne, converted 
 
f>A&IS 
 
 538 
 
 PARIS 
 
 by Napoleon III. from a wood covered with 
 stunted trees into one of the most beautiful 
 gardens in Europe. East of Paris is the Bois de 
 Vincennes. Paris has three large and twelve 
 lesser cemeteries, of which the principal one is 
 Pere-la-Chaise (over 2Qp acres). The Morgue at 
 the upper end of the Ile-de-la-Cite is a building 
 in which the bodies of unknown persons found 
 in the Seine are placed temporarily for recogni- 
 tion. The vast caverns under southern Paris, 
 whence the limestone for building has been 
 quarried, were converted in 1784 into catacombs, 
 in which are deposited the bones of the dead, 
 collected from the ancient cemeteries of Paris. 
 Two most interesting civil buildings of the 15th 
 century still exist — ^the Hotel de Cluny, one of 
 the finest existing monuments of the Gothic 
 Flamboyant style; and the Hotel de Sens, the 
 old palace of the archbishops of Sens, now 
 used for business purposes. The Palace of the 
 Tuileries was begun in 1566 by Catharine de 
 Medicis, and enlarged by successive monarchs, 
 until it formed a structure nearly J mile long, 
 running at right angles to the Seine. It was 
 connected with the Louvre (begun 1541 on the 
 site of a 13th-century castle, and completed by 
 Louis XIV.) by a great picture-gallery ; between 
 the two palaces lay the Place du Carrousel. The 
 Tuileries continued to be occupied as the resi- 
 dence of the imperial family; but the Louvre 
 proper formed a series of great galleries filled 
 with pictures, sculptures, and collections of 
 Egyptian, Greek, and Roman antiquities. The 
 Commune attempted to burn the whole pile, but 
 only succeeded in destroying the Tuileries and a 
 corner of the Louvre. North of the Louvre is 
 the Palais Royal, a mass of buildings, including 
 the old palace of the Orleans family, the Theatre 
 Frangais, and a quadrangle of shops, restaurants, 
 and cafes, enclosing a park or garden open 
 to the public, 700 feet long by 300 feet wide. 
 The Palace of the Luxembourg, south of the 
 Seine, since 1879 the meeting-place of the French 
 senate, was built by Marie de Medicis in the 
 Florentine style. Close to it a gallery has been 
 constructed for the reception of the works of 
 living artists acquired by the state. The Hotel 
 de Ville, north of the Seine, was burned by the 
 Commune, but has been rebuilt and restored in 
 the style of its predecessor. On the island of La 
 Cite stands the Palais de Justice, a vast pile, also 
 set fire to by the Commune ; some parts of it 
 date from the 14th century (the Sainte Chapelle 
 being within its precincts), and others are modern. 
 The old Conciergerie here constitutes one of the 
 eight prisons of Paris. The largest of tlie numer- 
 ous hospices or almshouses is La Salpetriere 
 for old Avomen ; Bicetre receives only men. 
 The Hospice des Enfans Trouves is the famous 
 Parisian foundling hospital. The Creches receive 
 the infants of poor women for the day at the 
 cost of 20 centimes. The oldest and most noted 
 hospitals are the Hotel Dieu, La Charite, and 
 La Piti6. 
 
 The chief institutions connected with the Uni- 
 versity of France, and with education generally, 
 are still situated in the Quartier Latin. The 
 Sorbonne, the seat of the Paris faculties of letters, 
 science, and Protestant theology, has been rebuilt 
 and increased in size (1885-93). Near the Sor- 
 bonne is the College de France, where gratuitous 
 lectures are also delivered by eminent scholars 
 and men of letters. The Scotch College stands 
 as it did in the 17th century. The ^cole Poly- 
 technique, the School of Medicine and the School 
 of Law, the Observatory, and the Jardin des 
 
 Plantes are situated in the same quarter of Par 
 The principal of the public libraries are those 
 the Rue Richelieu, now called the Bibliotheq 
 Nationale, rivalled only by the British Museu 
 in the number of its books and manuscripts. 1 
 city on this side of the Alps is richer than Paris 
 fine-art collections, and among these the museui 
 at the Louvre stand pre-eminent. Among i 
 chief treasures may be mentioned the famo 
 Venus of Milo, and the great works of the Italia 
 Flemish, and Spanish masters ; there is a lo 
 succession of galleries in which are exhibit 
 Egyptian, Assyrian, Elamitic, Greek, Roma 
 mediaeval, and Renaissance relics and works 
 art. The Musee . Carnivalet is the historic 
 museum of the municipality. The Palais d 
 Beaux- Arts is used as an exhibition of art, man 
 factures, and architectural models. The H61 
 de Cluny contains curious relics of the arts a: 
 usages of the French people from the earlie 
 ages. The Museum of Artillery at the Hotel d 
 Invalides is devoted to arms and armour, fla 
 and war dresses. The Musee Guimet includ 
 objects used in religious ceremonies, savaj 
 Indian, Chinese, &c. The Mint deserves noti 
 for the perfection of its machinery ; and t 
 Gobelins, or tapestry manufactory, may 
 included under the fine arts. The Conservatoi 
 des Arts et Metiers contains a great collecti 
 of models of machinery, and class-rooms i 
 workmen. The Palace of Industry, built for t 
 exhibition of 1854, now forms a permane 
 exhibition. The building for the exhibition 
 1878, named Palace of the Trocadero, is nc 
 used for musical entertainments and as an arcl 
 tectural and ethnological museum. For t 
 exhibition of 1889 was erected the Eiffel Tow( 
 of iron, 985 feet high. On the left bank of t 
 Seine is the :^cole Militaire (1752) ; near it is t 
 Hotel des Invalides, founded in 1670 for disabl 
 soldiers, containing in its crypt the remains 
 Napoleon, deposited there in 1840. The prefe 
 of the Seine is the chief of the municipal govei 
 ment, and is appointed by the government. The 
 is a large elected municipal council. Each of t 
 20 arrondissements has a maire and two assistai 
 councillors. The prefect of police is at the he 
 of the civic guard or gensdarmes, the fire-brigac 
 and the sergents de ville or city police, who a 
 armed witli swords. The cleaning, seweraj 
 and water-supplies of Paris are under the char 
 of the prefect. Paris is now abundantly suppli 
 with pure and wholesome water. Large catt 
 markets are held near the licensed abattoirs 
 slaughter-houses, since 1818 all in the suburl 
 There are in the heart of the city numerous hall 
 or wholesale, and inarches, or retail markets ; t 
 principal, the Halles Centrales, near the chur 
 of St Eustache, covering nearly 20 acres. 
 
 The small town of Lutetia, on the ile-de-Ci1 
 was the capital of the Parisii, an unimporta 
 tribe of Gauls, and did not take their name t 
 the time of the Roman emperors, of whom Co 
 stantius Chlorus and Julian lived much 
 Paris. Christianity came to the banks of t 
 Seine with St Denis in the 2d or 3d century ; 
 Genevieve settled here in the 5th. Clovis, t 
 Frank emperor, made it his home and the capit 
 of the Frankish states. Philip Augustus in t 
 13th century greatly extended the city and i 
 creased its privileges ; and Paris has down tl 
 centuries been not merely the capital of Fran 
 and the centre of its social and political histor 
 but in a very special sense the headquarters 
 French literature and art. Of recent episode 
 the most notable was the siege by the Gernu 
 
PARIS 
 
 539 
 
 PASCAGOULA 
 
 armies, from September 1870 till the capitulation 
 in January 1871. The disastrous Communist out- 
 break was suppressed in May 1871. 
 
 See the guidebooks of Murray, Baedeker, 
 Joanne, and topographical works by Du Camp 
 (7th ed. 6 vols. 1884), Colin (1885), Pontich (1884), 
 and the official Annuaire Statistique (since 1883) ; 
 G. A. Sala, Paris Herself Again (1879) ; P. G. 
 Hamerton, Paris in Old and Present Times (1884 ; 
 new ed. 1892) ; books by A. J. C. Hare (1888), De 
 Amicis (1892)T Grant Allen (1897), H. Belloc 
 (1900), T. Okey (1904) ; besides historical Avorks 
 by French authors, such as Piton (1891), Hoff- 
 bauer (1890), Lebeuf (15 vols. 1863), Dulaure (7 
 vols, new ed. 1874), De Gaulle (1840), Gabourd 
 (1863-65), Arago (2d ed, 1867); and the copious 
 Histoire Generale de la Ville de Paris, issued, 
 since 1866, by the municipal authorities. 
 
 Paris, (1) capital of Bourbon county, Ken- 
 tucky, on Stoner Creek, 19 miles by rail NB. of 
 Lexington. It has a military institute, and manu- 
 factures whisky, flour, cordage, &c. Pop. 6000. 
 —(2) Capital of Lamar county, Texas, 98 miles by 
 rail NB. of Dallas, making brooms, furniture, 
 sashes, wagons, ploughs, &c. Pop. 9354. 
 
 Parkersburg, capital of Wood county, West 
 Virginia, on the Ohio River (here crossed by a 
 railway bridge IJ mile long), at the mouth of the 
 Little Kanawhaj 195 miles by rail E. by N. of 
 Cincinnati. It has great oil-refineries, chemical 
 works, lumber-mills, and manufactories of furni- 
 ture, barrels, &c. Pop. 11,850. 
 
 Parma, a town of Italy, from 1545 to 1860 the 
 capital of the duchy of Parma, is situated on the 
 ancient Via Emilia, and on the river Parma, 12^ 
 miles S. from the Po, and by rail 56 miles NW. 
 of Bologna and 79 SE. of Milan. It is sur- 
 rounded by walls and has a citadel (1591); the 
 streets are straight and wide. Of some sixty 
 churches the chief is the Lonibardo-Romanesque 
 cathedral (1059-74), with frescoes by Correggio. 
 Other notable edifices are the splendid baptis- 
 tery (1196-1281) ; the church of Madonna della 
 Steccata (1521-39), containing the tombs of the 
 Farnese dukes ; the ducal palace, containing art- 
 galleries (Correggio's works), a library (214,000 
 vols, and 4500 MSS.), the archives, &c. ; and 
 numerous other palaces, public and private. 
 There are also a university (1599), with 45 
 teachers and over 250 students, a music school, a 
 museum of antiquities, &c. The principal in- 
 dustrial products are pianofortes, silks, cast-iron 
 wares, woollens, earthenware, paper, soap, &c. 
 Pop, 49,370. Founded by the Etruscans, Parma 
 became a Roman colony in 183 e.g. It was 
 besieged and taken by Frederick II. in 1245, and 
 again invested, but without success, in 1248. 
 It then belonged successively to the houses of 
 Correggio, Este, Visconti, and'in 1511 to the pope. 
 
 Pamahyba (PdrnMce'ba), a river of Brazil, rises 
 in the Serra Mangabeiras, about 9° S. lat., 
 throughout its course (650 miles) forms the 
 boundary between the states of Maranhao and 
 Piauhy, and enters the Atlantic by six mouths. 
 Fourteen miles from its mouth is the unhealthy 
 town of Parnahyba ; pop. 8000. See also Parana. 
 
 Parnassus, a juountain in Phocis, on whose 
 southern slope lay Delphi (q.v.), the seat of the 
 famous oracle, and the fountain of Castalia. The 
 highest peak (8036 feet) was the scene of the 
 orgies of the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus) ; all 
 the rest was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. 
 
 Paropami'sus, an ancient name still used for 
 a ridge, less than 1000 feet above the adjacent 
 country, which forms part of the northern edge 
 
 of the great plateau of Persia and Afghanistan, 
 almost connecting the Hindu Kush (q.v.) on the 
 east with the Elburz Mountains to the west. 
 
 Pares, one of the larger Cyclades (q.v.); it has 
 an area of 64 sq. m. and a pop. of nearly 7800, 
 of whom some 2500 live in the capital, Paroekia. 
 The quarries of the famous white Parian marble, 
 near the summit of Mount St Elias (anc. Mar- 
 pessa), are not yet exhausted. 
 
 Parramatta, a town of New South Wales, 
 stands on a western extension of Port Jackson, 
 14 miles W. of Sydney. The streets are wide and 
 regular. 'Colonial tweeds,' 'Parramatta cloths' 
 (first made at Bradford from wool exported hence), 
 beer, soap, candles, and tiles are manufactured. 
 Much fruit, especially the orange, is grown here. 
 Pop. (1881) 8433 ; (1901) 12,560. Parramatta is, 
 after Sydney, the oldest town in the colony, 
 having been laid out (as ' Rosehill ') in 1790. 
 
 Parret, a river of Dorset and Somerset, running 
 35 miles N. and NW, to the Bristol Channel at 
 Stert Point. 
 
 Parry Islands, a name sometimes given to 
 Melville Islands, and adjoining Arctic Islands. 
 
 Parsonstown, or Birr, a market-town of 
 King's County, on the Brosna, 89 miles by rail 
 W. of Dublin. The castle, anciently the seat of 
 the O'Carrols, was granted by James I. to Laur- 
 ence Parsons, ancestor of the present proprietor, 
 the Earl of Rosse. There are barracks, a statue 
 (1747) of the Duke of Cumberland, and another 
 in bronze (1876) by Foley of the Earl of Rosse, 
 the astronomer. Pop. 4513, 
 
 Partabgarh, (1) a division of Oude, ea.st of 
 Allahabad, Area, 1439 sq. m, ; pop. 910,895. 
 There is a town of Partabgarh; pop. 13,000. — 
 (2) A native state of Rajputana, bordering on 
 Gwalior. Area, 959 sq, m. ; poi). 53,000. Its 
 capital is Partabgarh, in the centre. 
 
 Parthla, anciently a district in what is now 
 northern Persia, lying between Media on the 
 west and Bactria on the east, Parthia had been 
 subject successively to the Assyrians, Medes, 
 Persians, Greeks (Alexander the Great and his 
 generals), and the Seleucids of Syria, when from 
 250 B.C. to 224 A.D. it became an independent 
 kingdom, its most famous ruler Mithridates I. 
 (171-138 B.C.). The capital was Ctesiphon. The 
 Parthian empire was finally overthrown by 
 Ardashir, who founded the dynasty of the 
 Sassanids. See histories of Parthia by Rawlinson 
 (1873 and 1893). 
 
 Partlck, a town of Lanarkshire, situated chiefly 
 on a rising ground on the Kelvin, immediately 
 above its junction with the Clyde, and 3 miles 
 WNW. of the Cross of Glasgow, of which city it 
 now forms a suburb. Nine-tenths of the work- 
 men of Partick are engaged in shipbuilding- 
 yards, but there is also brass- founding, machine- 
 making, &c. A large proportion of the inhabit- 
 ants are engaged in business in Glasgow. 
 Partick was made a police-burgh in 1852-66 ; it 
 has its own police, lire-brigade, &c., but depends 
 on Glasgow for its gas and water supply. Pop. 
 (1851) 3131; (1881) 27,410; (1901) 54,274. See 
 Wallace's Parish o/Govan (1877). 
 
 Partinico {Partinee'ko), a town of Sicily, 32 
 miles SW. of Palermo by rail. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Parton, a Cumberland seaport, 1^ mile N. of 
 Whitehaven, Pop. of parish, 1452. 
 
 Pasade'na, a town of California, 10 miles E. of 
 Los Angeles. Pop. (1880) 391 ; (1900) 9117. 
 
 Pascagoula (ow as oo), a navigable river of SE. 
 
PASCO 
 
 540 
 
 PATIAU 
 
 Mississippi, formed by the junction of the Leaf 
 and Chickasawha. It flows 85 miles south to a 
 small bay on the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Pasco. See Cerro de Pasco. 
 
 Pas-de-Oalais (Pdh-de-Calay' ; originally the 
 name of the Strait of Dover), a dep. in the north 
 of France, formed out of Artois and Picardy. 
 Area, 2550 sq. m, ; pop. (1861) 724,338 ; (1901) 
 949,968. There are six arrondissements — Arras 
 (the capital), Bethune, St Omer, St Pol, Bou- 
 logne, and Montreuil. 
 
 Pasewalk (Pd-ze-valk), a town of Prussia, 26 
 miles by rail WNW. of Stettin. Pop. 10,450. 
 
 Passage, a fishing-village, 6 miles SE. of 
 Waterford. Pop. 530. 
 
 Passage West, a seaport, 7 miles SE. of Cork. 
 Pop. 2030. 
 
 Passa'ic, a city of New Jersey, on the Passaic 
 River, 11 miles by rail NW. of Jersey City. 
 It has foundries and print-works, and manufac- 
 tures woollens and shoddy, whips, india-rubber, 
 chemicals, &c. Pop. (1880) 6532 ; (1900) 27,777. 
 
 Passamaquoddy Bay, in North America, 
 opens out of the Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of 
 the St Croix River, between Maine and New 
 Brunswick. It is 15 miles long by 10 wide, and 
 shut in by a cluster of islands. 
 
 Passar'ovitz, a town of Servia, 9 miles S. of 
 the Danube and 40 SB. of Belgrade. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Passau {Passow'), a town of Bavaria, stands on 
 a rocky tongue of land, on the right bank of the 
 Danube, beside the influx of the Inn, close to the 
 Austrian frontier, 72 miles by rail SE. of Ratisbon. 
 The cathedral was rebuilt after a fire in 1680 ; 
 the bishop's palace is now in part public offices. 
 Passau was long an important fortified post, 
 being the key of the Danube in that part of its 
 course. There were two strong citadels, one 
 dating from 737, the other from 1215-19. The 
 town grew up around an old Roman camp, and 
 in 739 was made the seat of a bishopric founded 
 by St Boniface. Bavarian since 1803, it manufac- 
 tures leather, porcelain, parquet-floors, boats, 
 metal-ware, and mirrors. Pop. 18,633. 
 
 Passy, a western suburb of Paris (q.v.). 
 
 Paste, a town in the south-west of Colombia, 
 in a fertile valley 8350 feet above sea-level. 
 Above it rises the volcano of Pasto (14,000 feet 
 above the sea). Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Fasten, a Norfolk coast parish, 8 miles NNE. 
 of Norwich. 
 
 Patagonia (from patagones, the large ' foot- 
 steps ' seen by early Spanish voyagers ; or from 
 the Indian pataciina, ' terraces '),'the most south- 
 ern region of the South American continent, 
 extending from S. lat. 39° southwards to the 
 Strait of Magellan. Length, upwards of 1000 
 miles ; greatest breadth, 480 miles ; area, 322,550 
 sq. m. ; pop. about 20,000. Like the rest of the 
 continent, Patagonia is divided by the Andes into 
 two very unequal and dissimilar territories. Since 
 1881 nearly the whole country east of the water- 
 shed is recognised as part of the Argentina ; 
 Chili has contented herself with the country to 
 the west and a strip along the southern coast. 
 
 Western or Chilian Patagonia (63,000 sq. m.), a 
 narrow strip between the mountains and the sea, 
 is rugged and mountainous. Along the coast are 
 numerous islands, the principal being Chiloe, the 
 Chonos Archipelago (q.v.), and Wellington Island. 
 In the Cordilleras proper the summits are less 
 lofty towards the south ; the volcanoes of Min- 
 chinmavida and Corcovado are 8000 and 7510 feet 
 
 high, and Monte San Valentin 12,697 feet. 
 Chiloe the mean temperature of winter is ab 
 40°, that of summer rather above 50°. The ati 
 sphere is very damp ; prevailing western wii 
 constantly deposit their burden of rain. Soi 
 of 47° S. lat. hardly a day passes without r£ 
 snow, or sleet. This continual dampness 
 produced luxuriant forests. Coal is mined n 
 Punta Arenas (Sandy Point), where there i: 
 Chilian penal settlement (pop. 6500). The po 
 lation consists of small nomadic tribes 
 Araucanian stock, and a few Chilian settlers. 
 
 Eastern or Argentine Patagonia consists mai 
 of high undulating plains or plateaus rising 
 successive terraces, and frequently intersected 
 valleys and ravines. These plateaus are oc 
 sionally covered with coarse grass, or stun 
 bushes and herbs ; elsewhere the surface 
 rugged with heaps of stones or ridges of b 
 rock. Keen blasts sweep chiefly from the we 
 and as this wind has already parted with 
 moisture on the other side of the mountai 
 hardly any rain falls in Argentine Patago 
 during seven or eight months of the year. ' 
 soil in many places is strongly iinpregna 
 with saltpetre, and salt-lakes and lagoons 
 numerous. Along the eastern base of the An 
 there is a great tract of picturesque and fer 
 forest-clad territory. The principal rivers 
 Argentine Patagonia rising in the Andes are 
 Rio Negro (q.v.), which forms its northern bou 
 ary, the Chubut (q.v.), and Deseado. Herds 
 horses and, in the more favoured regions, cai 
 are bred; guanacos, pumas, foxes, armadil 
 skunks, and tucotucos (a peculiar rodent) 
 met with ; and among the birds are rheas, c 
 dors, hawks, partridges, flamingoes, and due 
 Argentine herdsmen are beginning to past 
 their cattle in the northern valleys, and Chi] 
 immigrants are moving eastwards. The Ps 
 gonians proper or Tehuelche Indians, who 
 confined to Eastern Patagonia, are now ahr 
 quite extinct. They are often large but not gi^ 
 tic men, sometimes over, generally under, 6 f 
 Patagones, 18 miles from the mouth of the 
 Negro, has a pop. of about 2000, composed 
 Spanish settlers, negroes, and convicts. Tl 
 is a Welsh colony on the Chubut (q.v.). Mage] 
 sailed along the Patagonian coast in 1520. Bug 
 works on Patagonia are Falkner's (1774), Snc 
 (1857), Musters' (1871), Beerbohm's (1878), L 
 Florence Dixie's (1880), and Coan's (1880). 
 
 Patan, a town of India, in Baroda, 64 m 
 NW. of Ahmadabad, with lofty walls and anci 
 ruins. It manufactures swords, pottery, si' 
 and cottons. Pop. 42,646. 
 
 Pateley Bridge, a town of Yorkshire, on 
 Nidd, 11 miles WSW. of Ripon. Pop. 7910. 
 
 Paterno, a town of Sicily, 11 miles NW, 
 Catania, at the base of Mt. Etna. Pop. 25,23( 
 
 Paterson, capital of Passaic county, ! 
 Jersey, is on the Passaic River (which here hi 
 perpendicular fall of 50 feet), and on the Mo 
 Canal (connecting it with the Delaware Riv 
 15 miles by rail NW. of New York City, 
 has locomotive-works, an iron-forge and rolli 
 mill, and manufactures cotton, paper, linens, i 
 woollens, &c. ; but chiefly it is famous for 
 more than 100 silk-factories, which have mad 
 'the Lyons of America.' Pop. (1870) S3,£ 
 (1880) 51,031 ; (1890) 78,347 ; (1900) 105,171. 
 
 Pathhead, a village, on the Tyne, 11 miles I 
 of Edinburgh. Pop. 466. 
 
 Patlala (Putteedh'la), a native Indian Pur 
 
PATMOS 
 
 541 
 
 PEACE RIVER 
 
 state, partly S. of the Sutlej, partly in hills. 
 Area, 5951 sq. m. ; pop. 1,583,521. The capital, 
 Patiala, has a pop. of 55,856. 
 
 Patmos (mod. Patino), a rocky and barren 
 island, in the ^Egoan 8ea, one of the Sporades, 
 lies to the south of Sainos. Area, 16 sq. m. The 
 apostle John, exiled hither, saw here the visions 
 of the Apocalypse. On a mountain stands the 
 monastery of ' John the Divine,' built in 1088. 
 The island is under Turkish rule, but is inhabited 
 by about 4000 Greek sponge-tishers. 
 
 Patna, an Ayrshire village, on the Doon, 10 
 miles SE. of Ayr. Pop. 486. 
 
 Patna, called also Azimabad, a city of Bengal, 
 140 miles E. of Benares by rail, extends 9 miles 
 along the Ganges and 2 miles back from the river. 
 The chief buildings are the Gola or government 
 granary (1786), the government opium-factories, 
 Patna College, the shrine of Shah Arzani, the 
 mosque of Slier Shah, a Roman Catholic church, 
 and a Mohammedan college. Its railway com- 
 munication, and its central position at the junc- 
 tion of three great rivers, the Son, Gandak, and 
 Ganges, render Patna of great importance as a 
 commercial centre. Pataliputra was founded 
 about 600 B.C. The massacre here of British 
 prisoners in 1763 led to annexation ; and mutiny 
 broke out at Dinapur, the military station west 
 of Patna, in 1857. Bankipur, the civil station, 
 between the city and Dinapur, was in 1905 made 
 a sub-capital for Western Bengal. Pop. (1872) 
 158,900; (1881)170,654; (1901)134,785. 
 
 Patna, a native state of the Central Provinces, 
 India ; area, 2399 sq. m. ; pop. 287,959. Patna, 
 the chief town, has a pop. of 2053. 
 
 Patras', or Patr^, the chief seaport in the 
 west of Greece, on the S. shore of the Gulf of 
 Patras, by rail 81 miles W. by N. of Corinth and 
 137 W. by N. of Athens, is the seat of an arch- 
 bishop, and has a spacious harbour (1880) pro- 
 tected by a mole. It ships great quantities of 
 currants, also olive-oil, wine, valonia, &c. Pop. 
 (1879) 25,494; (1897) 37,960. Patrce alone of the 
 ' twelve cities ' of Achaia still exists as a town. 
 
 Patrlcroft, a town of Lancashire, 5 miles W. 
 of Manchester, with a huge iron-foundry, machine- 
 works, &c. Pop. 15,902, 
 
 Patrington, a decayed town of Yorkshire, 15 
 miles ESE. of Hull. Pop. of parish, HOT. 
 
 Pattan. See Patan. 
 
 Patterdale, a village of Westmorland, at the 
 head of UUswater, 8^ miles N. of Ambleside. 
 
 Pau (Po), the chief town of the French dep. of 
 Basses-Pyrenees, on the right bank of the Gave- 
 de-Pau, 66 miles by rail ESE. of Bayonne and 
 143 SSE. of Bordeaux. It occupies a rocky 
 height, 623 feet above sea-level, and commands 
 magnificent views of the Pyrenees. The ancient 
 capital of the kingdom of Beam and French 
 Navarre, it has a noble five-towered castle. 
 Rebuilt about 1363 by the Comte de Foix, and 
 restored by Louis-Philippe and Napoleon III., 
 this castle was the birthplace of Henri IV., as 
 also of his mother Jeanne d' Albret ; and Abd- 
 el-Kader was a prisoner here in 1848. Bernadotte 
 was a native. Linen and chocolate are manu- 
 factured; and in the vicinity Jurangon wine is 
 grown, and many swine are fed. Pau is a great 
 English resort, especially during the winter season 
 (October to May), and is famous for its golf-links. 
 Pop. (1872) 25,607 ; (1901) 30,811. See a work by 
 Count Henry Russell (new ed. 1891). 
 
 PaiUUac {Po-eel'yac), a French port on the left 
 
 bank of the Gironde's estuary, 30 miles N. by W. 
 of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. 5332. 
 
 Paul, a town and urban district of Cornwall, 2 
 miles S. of Penzance. Pop. (1901) 6332. 
 
 Pavla(Ital. Pawc'ft),acity of northern Italy and 
 a bishop's see, on tlie left bank of the Ticino, 2 
 miles above its confluence with the Po, and 21 
 miles by rail S. of Milan, is still partly sur- 
 rounded by walls, and was called the ' city of a 
 hundred towers.' The Lombard basilica of San 
 Michele is mentioned as early as 661 ; in it the 
 old ' kings of Italy ' were crowned ; in 1863 it was 
 granted the title of 'royal basilica,' and was 
 restored 1863-76. The unfinished cathedral, com- 
 menced in 1488, shelters the ashes of St Augustine 
 and Boetius and also Roland's lance. The Cer- 
 tosa, 5 miles N., is a celebrated Carthusian 
 monastery (1396). The castle of the Visconti 
 (begun in 1360) is a massive square arcaded 
 structure. The university, said to have been 
 founded by Charlemagne, but not formally con- 
 stituted until 1361, has 1100 students and 57 
 teachers. Attached to it are two colleges— Borro- 
 meo (1563) and Ghislieri (1569)— for poor students, 
 and a library (1772) of 185,000 vols., a botanic 
 garden, &c. Pop. 35,500. Pavia (ane. Ticinum; 
 later Papia, whence the modern name), was 
 founded by Gallic tribes, and was sacked by Attila 
 (452) and by Odoacer (476) ; Theodoric selected it 
 aa his capital after 489. Later on the Lombards 
 made it their capital, and then it became the 
 chief city of the kingdom of Italy. It was sacked 
 in 1500 and 1527-28 by the French, who in 1525 
 were defeated here by the imperialists, Francis 
 I. being taken prisoner. It fell to Austria in 
 1814, and to Italy in 1859. Lanfranc and Pope 
 John XIV. were natives. 
 
 Pavlograd, a town of South Russia, 45 milea 
 by rail ENE. of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. 17,442. 
 
 Pawtuck'et, a city of Rhode Island, on the 
 Pawtucket River, 4 miles by rail N. of Providence. 
 On account of a fall of nearly 50 feet on the river, 
 it was made in 1790 the site of the first cotton- 
 factory in the United States. It now contains 
 numerous large mills, where cottons, woollens, 
 haircloth, and thread are manufactured, besides 
 great calico-printing works, and bleaching and 
 dyeing establishments, &c. Pawtucket, settled 
 about 1655, became a city in 1886. Pop. (1870) 
 6619 ; (1900) 39,231. 
 
 Paxo, an Ionian island, has with Antipaxo an 
 area of 8J sq. m. and a pop. of 4000. 
 
 Paysandti, the chief town of a Uruguayan 
 department (pop. 38,507), on the Uruguay River, 
 280 miles by rail NW. of Montevideo. It exports 
 tinned meat. Pop. 24,000. 
 
 Payta, or Paita, a good port in the north of 
 Peru, only 370 miles distant from the point on 
 the Marauon to which steamers from the Atlantic 
 come. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Paz, La. See La Paz. 
 
 Pea'body, a town of Massachusetts, 16 miles 
 NNE. of Boston. Formerly called South Danvers, 
 it was in 1868 named after the philanthropist 
 Peabody, who was born here. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Peace River, a large river of Canada, rises in 
 two branches in the Rocky Mountains, in British 
 Columbia, and, flowing 1100 miles north-east, 
 joins the Slave River by five widely separate 
 mouths. The delta thus formed is, with that 
 of the Athabasca River, the most fertile part of 
 the country. The river, which is much encum- 
 bered with rapids, was followed by Sir A. Mac- 
 kenzie in his expedition of 1792-93. 
 
PEAK 
 
 542 
 
 PEKING 
 
 Peak, the hilly district of north-west Derby- 
 shire, having Castleton for its capital, 10 miles 
 NB. of Buxton. Measuring some 30 by 22 miles, 
 it is watered by the Dove, Derwent, and Wye, 
 and culminates in Kinderscout (2082 feet), other 
 eminences being Axe Edge (1810 feet) and Mam 
 Tor (1710). The Peak Cavern or Devil's Hole 
 near Castleton penetrates 750 yards ; and crown- 
 ing a rock above the village is Peveril Castle, so 
 named from its first lord, a bastard of William 
 the Conqueror's. The wonders of the Peak were 
 celebrated early by Thomas Hobbes (1666) and 
 Charles Cotton (1683) ; recent works are by Cros- 
 ton (1862 ; new ed. 1889), Bradbury (1879), Jenn- 
 ings (1880), and Leyland (1891), besides others 
 cited at Derbyshire. 
 
 Pe'-chi-ll, Gulf of, a land-locked extension of 
 the Yellow Sea (q.v.), between Corea and the 
 Chinese province of Shan-tung, into which the 
 Pei-ho (q.v.) discharges. 
 
 Pechora. See Petchora. 
 
 Peckforton Castle, the Cheshire seat (1851) 
 of Lord Tollemache, 4 miles SSW. of Tarperley. 
 
 Pecos, a river of New Mexico and Texas, flow- 
 ing 800 miles SSE. to the Rio Grande. 
 
 Pedrotallagalla. See Ceylon. 
 
 Peeblesshire, or Tweeddale, a southern 
 county of Scotland, bounded by Edinburgh, Sel- 
 kirk, Dumfries, and Lanark shires. Irregular in 
 outline, it has a maximum length and breadth of 
 29 and 21 miles, and an area of 356 sq. m. or 
 227,869 acres. The Tweed, rising in the extreme 
 south, winds 36 miles NNE. and E., descending 
 therein from 1500 to 450 feet ; and from it the 
 surface rises into big, round, grassy hills — 
 Windlestraw Law (2161 feet), Minchmoor (1856), 
 Hartfell (2651), Broad Law (2754), &c. Among 
 the Tweed's numberless affluents are Talla, 
 Biggar, Lyne, Manor, Eddleston, Leithen, and 
 Quair Waters ; and St Mary's Loch touches the 
 southern boundary. Less than one-fifteenth of 
 the entire area is under corn and root crops ; but 
 nearly 200,000 sheep graze on the hillsides. The 
 antiquities include over fifty hill-forts, the 
 'Romanno terraces,' a Roman camp at Lyne, 
 the ruined castles of Neidpath and Drochil, and 
 the old mansion of Traquair. Peebles and Inner- 
 leithen are the towns. The county unites with 
 Selkirkshire to return one member. Pop. (1801) 
 8735 ; (1841) 10,499 ; (1901) 15,066. 
 
 Peebles, the pleasant county town, stands on 
 the Tweed, 22 miles S. of Edinburgh. It has a 
 new parish church (1887) and five other modern 
 churches ; the Chambers Institution (1859), with 
 library, museum, &c., in the old house of the 
 Tester and Queensberry families ; a hydropathic 
 (1881) ; a public park (1887) ; tweed-manufactures ; 
 and the tower of St Andrew's Church (1196), 
 restored in 1882 by Dr William Chambers, who 
 rests beneath its shadow, and who, like his 
 brother Robert, was a native. Mungo Park 
 was a surgeon here. Peebles was made a royal 
 burgh in 1367, and tiU 1832 returned one mem- 
 ber. Pop. 5500. 
 
 See Dr A. Pennicuik's Description of Tweeddale 
 (3d ed. 1875), Dr W. Chambers's History of Peebles- 
 shire (1864), Dr John Brown's Minchmoor (1864), 
 and Charters of Peebles (1873). 
 
 Peekskill, a manufacturing village, on a beauti- 
 ful point of the Hudson River, 42 miles N. of New 
 Tork. Pop. 10,360. 
 
 Peel, a coast-town of the Isle of Man, 11 J miles 
 by rail NW. of Douglas. On Peel Hill (450 feet) 
 is a tower called Corrin's Folly ; and on an island 
 
 sheltering the harbour stand the beautiful ru 
 of Peel Castle, celebrated by both Scott £ 
 Wordsworth. It dates from the 12th centu 
 but was mainly rebuilt by the fourth Earl 
 Derby in 1593. St German's Cathedral, a cri 
 form ruin, with a crypt and low central tow 
 is included in its area. Fishing is Peel's cl 
 industry, but the place attracts yearly more a 
 more visitors. Pop. 3331. 
 
 Pegu', a town of Lower Burma, on the ri' 
 Pegu, 46 miles NE. of Rangoon, was long 1 
 capital of a powerful kingdom ; travellers in 1 
 16th century speak of its magnificence. It \ 
 destroyed in the middle of the 18th century, 
 celebrated pagoda still stands within part of 1 
 old walls. Pop. 10,700. — Tlie river flows 180 mi 
 S. to the Rangoon or HIaiiig River. 
 
 Pei-ho, a river of China, rises near the bord 
 of Mongolia, flows NE. and SE., past Peking a 
 Tien-tsin, and falls into the Gulf of Pe-chi-li af 
 a course of more than 350 miles. Its mouth 
 defended by the forts of Taku. 
 
 Peipus (Pi-poos), Lake, in NW. Russia, 1 
 between the government of St Petersburg a 
 Livonia. On the south it is connected w 
 Lake Pskoff" by a long, narrow channel, 1 
 length of both lakes being 87 miles, the great 
 breadth 30, the area 1356 sq. m., and the dej 
 from 14 to 49 feet. Their waters, which abou 
 in fish, are carried to the Gulf of Finland by 1 
 Narova. The shores are marshy and flat. 
 
 Pekin, capital of Tazewell county, Illinois, 
 the Illinois River, 10 miles S. of Peoria. It 1 
 foundries, flour-mills, distilleries, and mai 
 factures organs, ploughs, wagons, &c. Pop. 89 
 
 Peking, or Pei-Ching ('Northern Capital'), t 
 capital of the Chinese empire, is in 39° 54' 36" 
 lat. and 116° 27' E. long. It is situated in 
 sandy plain, and is surrounded by walls w 
 sixteen gates, each surmounted by towers ] 
 feet high ; and it consists, in fact, of two cit 
 — the Inner and the Outer — known also as t 
 Manchu or Tartar and the Chinese, the Northe 
 and the Southern. The walls of the Mane 
 city average 50 feet in height, and are fully 
 feet wide at the bottom; those of the Chin( 
 city (rectangular in plan) are 30 feet high and 
 wide. The circuit of the two cities measures 
 miles, including an area of nearly 26 sq. 
 Peking is one of the most ancient cities of t 
 world ; in the 13th century a.d. its Tartar c( 
 querors fell before the invading Mongols ; Kubl 
 a grandson of Genghis Khan, made Peking 1 
 capital in 1280, and there he was found by Mai 
 Polo, who styles tlie city Khan-haligh, 'city 
 the Khan ' — hence Cambaluc. Soon the Mong 
 were driven out by the Chinese Ming dynas 
 the founder of which fixed his capital at Nanki 
 (q.v.). The third Ming emperor returned to Peki 
 in 1421. The Manchus, who became masters 
 the empire in 1643, found this city ready for the 
 A new era in its history commenced in 1860, wh 
 it surrendered to the English and French allies 
 
 The Manchu or Inner City is divided into tin 
 portions ; and at the heart of it are two enc 
 sures, into the innermost of which entrance 
 forbidden to all except such as have official c( 
 nection with the court. It is called the Pur] 
 Forbidden City, is very nearly 2J miles in circu 
 and in it are the palaces of the emperor, 1 
 empress, and other members of the imper 
 family. The T'di Ho, or 'Hall of Grand Hi 
 mony,' is built of marble on a terrace 20 f( 
 high, and rising itself other 110 feet ; its pri 
 cipal apartment is 200 feet long and 90 wic 
 
PELESCH 
 
 543 
 
 PEMBROKESHIRE 
 
 Surrounding the Forbidden City is the ' Iinperial ' 
 or ' August,' about 6 miles in circuit, and encom- 
 passed by a wall 20 feet high. In the W. part of 
 the ' August City ' is the ' Western Park ' with a 
 large artificial lake, a summer-house, gardens, 
 the copper statue of Buddha (60 feet high), 
 and the temple of 'Great Happiness.' In the 
 General City are the principal offices of the 
 government, the observatory, the Provincial Hall 
 for literary examinations, the Colonial Office, and 
 the ' National Academy.' In the north-eastern 
 corner is the Russian mission, and west from it 
 the 'Palace of Everlasting Harmony,' a grand 
 lamasery for over a thousand Mongol and Tibetan 
 monks. A little farther W. stands, amidst 
 cypresses, the temple of Confucius. To the 
 'Temple of Emperors and Kings,' near the south 
 wall, the emperor goes to worship the spirits of 
 nearly two hundred predecessors ; the great Tute- 
 lary Temple of the capital is grimy, and full of 
 fortune-tellers. All the foreign legations and 
 Christian missions are within the Inner City. 
 The new R. C. cathedral (1888) is conspicuous. 
 
 The Chinese or Outer City is very sparsely 
 populated ; much of the ground is under culti- 
 vation or wooded. The 'Altar to Heaven,' with 
 its adjunct the 'Altar of Prayer for Grain,' and 
 the 'Altar of Agriculture,' are both near the 
 southern wall. The ' Altar to Heaven ' stands on 
 a splendid triple circular terrace of white marble, 
 richly carved, in a grove of fine trees. The 
 ' Altar of Prayer for Grain,' a similar but smaller 
 structure, was burned down in 1889. The prin- 
 cipal streets of the Chinese City are more than 
 100 feet wide, but the side streets are mere lanes. 
 The streets are seldom paved, and are deep either 
 in mud or in dust. In the smaller streets the 
 houses are miserable shanties ; in the main streets 
 both private houses and shops are one-story 
 brick edifices, the shops gay with paint and gild- 
 ing. There are three Catholic cemeteries (Portu- 
 guese, French, and native) and a Russian one ; 
 and there are mission buildings, Russian and 
 other, and hospitals. Free schools and charitable 
 institutions are not infrequent. The climate of 
 Peking is severe, the temperature in winter being 
 from 25" to 10° F., and in summer the heat is 
 great, the thermometer rising to 105°, though the 
 usual summer temperature is 75° to 90°. The 
 population is usually believed to be a million or 
 somewhat less ; the Chinese outnumbering both 
 Manchus and Mongols. Peking was connected 
 by railway with Tien-tsiu in 1897; the line to 
 Hankow, on the Yang-tsze-kiang, was completed 
 in 1902. There are also lines to Tung-ku (British) 
 and to the hill coal-mines. Tliere is also direct 
 telegraphic communication with Europe. Since 
 1868 there is an imperial university with American 
 and European professors. Peking was the scene 
 of the troubles connected witli the ' Boxer ' rising 
 in 1900, the siege of the legations, and their relief 
 by the allied forces, who occupied tlie ' Forbidden 
 City' after the flight of the Chinese court to 
 Singanfoo. See works cited under China. 
 
 Pelescli, a royal castle of Roumania, built in 
 1873-84, on the south side of the Transylvanian 
 Alps, 70 miles N. of Bucharest. 
 
 Pelew Islands, also Palau, a group in the 
 Pacific, SE. of tlie Philippines, purchased by 
 Germany from Spain in 1899. Tliere are twenty- 
 five islands, mountainous, wooded, and sur- 
 rounded with coral-reefs ; total area, 170 sq. m. 
 The 10,000 inhabitants are Malays. 
 
 Pelion, the ancient name of a wooded moun- 
 tain-range in Thessaly, extending along the east 
 
 coast. According to the myth, the Titans, to 
 scale Olympus, the gods' abode, piled Ossa on 
 Pelion, the highest peak (5310 feet) of the range. 
 
 Pella, capital of Macedonia and birthplace of 
 Philip II. and Alexander the Great, stood amidst 
 marshes, a few miles NW. of Thessalonica. 
 
 Peloponnesus. See Greece, Morea, 
 
 Pemba, a coral island off the east coast of 
 Africa, lies 50 miles NE. of Zanzibar Island ; area, 
 372 sq. m. With Zanzibar it forms, since 1890, 
 the British Zanzibar protectorate. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Pemberton, a town in Lancashire, 2 miles 
 from AVigan, with collieries and cotton-mills. 
 Pop. (1901) 21,664. 
 
 Pembina, capital of Pembina county. North 
 Dakota, on the Red River of the North, at the 
 mouth of the Pembina River, 68 miles by rail 
 SW. of Winnipeg and 293 NW. of St Paul. 
 
 Pembrey, a Carmarthen port, on the Burry, 
 5J miles W. of Llanelly. Pop. of parish, 6435. 
 
 Pembroke, the county town of Pembrokeshire, 
 on a navigable creek of Milford Haven, 9 miles 
 W. of Tenby and 80 W. by N. of Cardiff. On the 
 extremity of the ridge on which the town is built 
 stands Pembroke Castle, founded in 1094 by 
 Arnulf de Montgomery, a very imposing ruin, 
 with a Norman keep 75 feet high and 52 in 
 diameter. Beneath is a huge natural cavern, 70 
 by 50 feet. The birthplace of Henry VII., this 
 castle in 1648 was taken by Cromwell after a six 
 weeks' siege. Monkton Priory, with its roofless 
 Decorated choir, is another interesting structure. 
 The Pembroke district of boroughs, returning 
 one member, comprises Pembroke, Milford, 
 Tenby, Wiston, and also (since 1885) Haverford- 
 west, Fishguard, and Narberth. Pembroke for 
 more than four centuries has given the title of 
 earl to the House of Herbert. At Pembroke 
 Dock, or Pater, 2^ miles north-west, is the naval 
 dockyard and arsenal, established in 1814. With 
 an area of 70 acres, it has since 1861 been fortified 
 at a cost of more than a quarter of a million. 
 Pop. of Pembroke (1861) 15,071; (1901) 15,853; 
 of Pembroke district of boroughs, 36,880. 
 
 Pembrokeshire, a maritime county of South 
 Wales, the westernmo.st of the Principality. 
 Measuring 30 by 25 miles, it has an area of 611 
 sq. m., or 391,181 acres, of which three-fourths is 
 arable. The coast-line is much of it rugged and 
 precipitous ; and inland the surface is undulat- 
 ing, green hills alternating with fertile valleys, 
 and attaining a maximum altitude of 1754 feet in 
 the Precelly range, which traverses the north of 
 the county from east to west. Rivers are the 
 Teifi, separating Pembrokeshire from Cardigan, 
 and the East and the West Cleddau. Coal, slate, 
 lead, and iron have been worked. St David's 
 Cathedral and half-a-dozen mediaeval castles 
 make up the antiquities with Ogam inscriptions, 
 neolithic implements, and Roman coins. At 
 Haverfordwest and Tenby a colony of Flemings 
 was established in 1107. They adopted the Eng- 
 lish tongue ; and Pembrokeshire, or ' Little Eng- 
 land beyond Wales,' is now over more than half 
 its area inhabited by an English-speaking popula- 
 tion, although it is the remotest of all the Welsh 
 counties. It was harried by Owen Glendower in 
 1405; and on 22d February 1797 it witnessed the 
 last French invasion, when 600 regulars and 800 
 jail-birds landed near Fishguard, only to surrender 
 to some militia and yeomanry under Lord Cawdor. 
 Pembrokeshire returns one liiember. Pop. (1801) 
 56,280 ; (1861) 96,278 ; (1901) 88,732. See a work 
 by Fenton (1811). 
 
PENANQ 
 
 544 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Penang (Pulo Pin'ang, 'Betel-nut Island'), 
 officially Prince of Wales Island, one of the 
 British Straits Settlements (q.v.), lies at the 
 northern extremity of the Strait of Malacca, 2 
 to 10 miles from the west coast of the Malay 
 Peninsula, and 360 miles NNW. of Singapore. 
 Length, 15 miles ; breadth, 5 to 10 miles ; area, 
 107 sq. m., three-fifths being hilly. A sana- 
 torium crowns the highest point, 2920 feet 
 above sea-level. The whole is covered with 
 forest and vegetation, cocoa-nut and areca 
 palms predominating. In the low lands the 
 thermometer ranges from 70° to 95°, and at the 
 sanatorium from 60° to 75°. The rainfall averages 
 111 inches a year. The exports include tin, 
 spices, sugar, and tobacco. Pop. 90,951, of whom 
 one-half were Chinese, nearly one-fourth Malays, 
 and one-sixth Tamils and others from India. 
 Georgetown, the capital, is situated at the NB. 
 extremity, and is defended by forts. Pop. 30,000. 
 Province Wellesley, on the peninsula opposite, 
 forms part of this same settlement, and is 45 miles 
 in length by 4 to 11 in breadth, with an area of 
 270 sq. m. It produces tapioca, sugar, rice, and 
 cocoa-nuts. Another dependency is the Din- 
 dings, Including the island of Pangkor, 80 miles 
 S. of Penang. The native raja ceded Penang to 
 Britain in 1785 for a pension of £1000 ; Province 
 Wellesley was acquired in 1798. Pop. (including 
 Province Wellesleyand the Dhidings, 1901)248,207. 
 
 Penarth, a Glamorganshire seaport, 3 miles S. 
 of Cardiff, with a large dock (1851-65). Pop. in 
 1851, 105 ; now, 15,000. 
 
 Pendennis Castle. See Falmouth. 
 
 Pendle Hill. See Clitheroe, 
 
 Pendleton, a NW. suburb of Manchester, 
 wholly within the borough of Salford. 
 
 Penge, a township in the Dulwich division of 
 Camberwell, 6 miles S. of London Bridge Station. 
 
 Peniche (Pay-nee' shay), a seaport in the Portu- 
 guese province of Estremadura. Pop. 2969. 
 
 Penicuik (Pennycook), a town of Edinburgh- 
 shire, on the North Esk, 10 miles S. of Edinburgh 
 by road, but 16 by a branch line (1872). It has a 
 Romanesque church-tower and large paper-mills, 
 dating from 1709 ; whilst 2 miles NNE. are Glen- 
 corse barracks (1804-82), originally a depot for 
 French prisoners. Pop. (1841) 907 ; (1901) 3574. 
 See Wilson's Annals of Penicuik (1891). 
 
 Penielheugh, an eminence (774 feet) in Rox- 
 burghshire, 4^ miles NE. of Jedburgh, crowned 
 by a Waterloo column, 150 feet high. 
 
 Penistone, a market-town in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, on the Don, 13i miles NNW. of 
 Sheffield. It has steel-works, coUiei-ies, &c., and 
 a railway viaduct 76 feet high. Pop. 3080. 
 
 Penjdeh, an important strategical position, near 
 the fork of the Khushk and Murghab rivers, was 
 seized from Afghanistan by the Russians in 
 March 1885, and since 1887 has been formally 
 included in Russian Turkestan. • 
 
 Penkill Castle, an Ayrshire mansion, 8 miles 
 E. by N. of Glrvan, with paintings by W. B. 
 Scott and memories of Rossetti. 
 
 Penkridge, a town of Staffordshire, on the 
 Penk, 6 miles S. of Stafford by rail. Pop. 2343. 
 
 Penmaenmawr, a Carnarvonshire watering- 
 place (pop. 3510) 4 miles SW. of Conway by rail. 
 On Penmaenmawr mountain (1553 feet), the 
 northern extremity of the Snowdon group, are 
 remains of a great British fort, Dinas Penmaen. 
 
 Pennar, or Punnair, two rivers of southern 
 India, both running eastwards through Madras 
 
 Presidency to the Indian Ocean— the first ( 
 miles) a little N. of Nellore, the second (245) 
 of Cuddalore. • 
 
 Pennine Alps. See Alps. 
 
 Pennine Range, ' the backbone of England 
 chain running southward from Northumberl; 
 to Derbyshire, and varying in height from 1 
 feet to near 3000 (in Cross Fell). 
 
 Pennsylvania, since 1830 the second in po 
 lation of the United States, is a parallelogr 
 lying between New York and Maryland, 
 and New Jersey. The Delaware is the bound 
 on the E. ; and in the NW. the state has 45 m 
 of coast on Lake Erie. It is 160 miles wide j 
 302 long (E. to W.); in area (45,215 sq. m.] 
 is the twenty-ninth state of the Union. ': 
 Appalachians (q.v.) cross the state from NE 
 SW. ; between the Blue or Kittatinny Mounts 
 on the east and the higher Alleghany range (sc 
 peaks 2500 feet) on the west lie numerous mi 
 forest-clad chains. The surface is naturs 
 divided into three sections, the low district sou 
 east of the mountains containing some of 
 best farming land ; the mountainous region i 
 bracing a fourth of the area of the state, and c 
 brated for its picturesque scenery (especially 
 the gaps cut by the rivers through the ranges 
 hills) ; and the broken hilly plateau in the wi 
 covering half the state, much of it heavily wood 
 The geology is remarkable for the great devel 
 ment of the different periods of PalJEOzoic. '. 
 breaking of the strata and the enormous press 
 to which the eastern coal-deposits have been s 
 jected has resulted in giving Pennsylvania 
 most valuable anthracite basins of the counf 
 The excellent bituminous coal (especially aroi 
 Pittsburgh) is practically inexhaustible; i 
 ore has contributed materially to the prospei 
 of the state ; petroleum and natural gas are 
 portant products of western Pennsylvania ; 
 anthracite coal-basins are, however, the spi 
 alty. The anthracite tract covers an area of 
 sq. m., and is situated in the highland disti 
 between the Delaware and Susquehanna riv( 
 The proximity of coal and iron in such vast qn 
 titles has made Pennsylvania a great mining i 
 manufacturing state ; it leads in the manufact 
 of pig-iron. The successful boring for petrole 
 in 1859 produced an excitement hardly surpas 
 by the discovery of gold in California. Th 
 has been extensive utilisation of natural gas 
 heating and manufacturing purposes. Gc 
 silver, copper, and tin exist, but not in pay 
 quantities ; there are large zinc-works at Soi 
 Bethlehem, and nickel is obtained in Lancas 
 county. The eastern part of the state is draii 
 by the Delaware and its tributaries the Schuyll 
 and Lehigh. The Susquehanna, Avith its affiuer 
 occupies the central drainage area. The grea 
 part of western Pennsylvania is drained by 
 Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, uniting 
 Pittsburgh to form the Ohio. The climate 
 subject to extremes, and much modified 
 differences of elevation. Nearly one-fourth 
 the state is wooded ; lumbering is one of 
 sources of wealth in the north, and farther soi 
 and west are great forests of hemlock, wh 
 maintain some of the largest tanneries in 
 world. The soil, except in the mountains, 
 rich and fertile. The mountain regions and 
 western plateau are well suited for grazing. 1 
 most important industries of Pennsylvania 
 mining and manufacturing. Shipbuilding is 
 important interest. 
 
 The first permanent settlement was made 
 
PENNSYLVANIA CASTLE 
 
 545 
 
 PEBAK 
 
 1643 at Chester by Swedes, whose colony of New 
 Sweden was twelve years later conquered by 
 the Dutch. In 1664 the English obtained pos- 
 session, and the territory now called Penn- 
 sylvania was in 1681 granted by Charles II. to 
 William Penn. In the revolutionary and in the 
 civil war Pennsylvania took a prominent part. 
 Many of the miners and ironworkers are of Irish, 
 Hungarian, and Italian birth, and serious riots 
 have not seldom occurred ; a large proportion of 
 the farmers are of German desaeiit, and still 
 speak the patois known as ' Pennsylvania Dutch.' 
 Philadelphia, chief manufacturing city of the 
 Union, ranks third iu population (1,293,697). 
 Other cities are Pittsburgh (321,616), Allegheny 
 (129,896), Scranton (102,026), Reading (78,961), 
 Erie (52,733), Wilkesbarre (51,721), Harrisburg, 
 the capital (50,167), Lancaster (41,459), Altoona 
 (38,973), Johnstown (35,936), Allentown (35,416). 
 Pop. of the state (1800) 602,.365 ; (1840) 1,724,033; 
 (1880) 4,282,891 ; (1900) 6,302,115. 
 
 Pennsylvania Castle. See Portland (Isle). 
 
 Penob'scot, a river of Maine. The West Branch 
 rises near the Canadian frontier, and flows B. 
 and SE. to meet the East Branch or Seboois 
 River. Afterwards its course is SSW. to Penob- 
 scot Bay, a broad and sheltered inlet of the 
 Atlantic, 35 miles long and 20 wide, with numer- 
 ous islands. The river is tidal and navigable for 
 large vessels to Bangor, 60 miles from its mouth. 
 
 Penrhyn, great slate-quarries in Carnarvon- 
 shire, near Bethesda (q.v.). Penrhyn Castle, 
 close to Bangor, is the seat of Lord Penrhyn, 
 
 Penrith, a market-town of Cumberland, in a 
 picturesque and fertile valley, on the outskirts 
 of the Lake District, 18 miles SSE. of Carlisle, 
 It has a fine old ruined castle, where Richard 
 III. (then Duke of Gloucester) is said to have 
 resided, and a grammar-school (1395 ; refounded 
 1564). In the churchyard are two ancient monu- 
 ments, the 'Giant's Grave' and the 'Giant's 
 Thumb,' often visited by Sir Walter Scott ; and 
 north-east of the town is the wooded Beacon 
 (937 feet). There are sawmills, tanneries, and 
 breweries, but the chief trade is agricultural. 
 Pop. (1851) 6668 ; (1881) 9268 ; (1901) 9182. See 
 works by J. Walker (1856), and G. Watson (1893). 
 
 Penryn (Com. 'head of the river'), a town of 
 Cornwall, at the head of a creek of Falmouth 
 harbour, 3 miles NW. of Falmouth town, with 
 which it returns one member to parliament (till 
 1885 two). Scarce a trace remains of Glasney 
 College, founded in 1264 for thirteen Black 
 Augustinian Canons ; and none of a palace of 
 the bishops of Exeter. Neighbouring quarries 
 supply the famous Penryn granite— the material 
 of Waterloo Bridge, the Chatham Docks, &c. ; 
 and the town has besides some manufactures of 
 paper, woollen cloth, gunpowder, &c. Incorpor- 
 ated by James I., it was taken by Fairfax in 
 1646. Pop. (1851) 3959 ; (1901) 3190. 
 
 Pensacola, the capital of Escambia county, 
 Florida, is 244 miles by rail ENE. of New Orleans, 
 on the west shore of a deep bay opening into the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The entrance is defended by Fort 
 McRee and Fort Pickens, the latter on Santa Rosa 
 Island ; and near by is a navy-yard. Pensacola 
 contains foundries and lumber and planing mills, 
 and ships much yellow pine. It was settled by 
 the Spaniards before 1700, occupied by the British 
 in 1763-81, taken from them by Andrew Jackson 
 in 1814, and passed with Florida to the United 
 States in 1819. Pop. (1880) 6845 ; (1900) 17,747. 
 
 Penshurst, a parish of Kent, 4 miles SW. of 
 
 Tunbridge ; pop. 1677. Penshurst Place, a splen. 
 did old mansion, was the birthplace of Sir Philip 
 Sidney and Algernon Sidney. 
 
 Pentland. Firth, a dangerous but much navi- 
 gated channel between the Atlantic and German 
 Oceans, separating the mainland of Scotland 
 from the Orkney Islands. It is 14 miles long 
 and 6J broad at the narrowest. The Pentland 
 Skerries, 5 miles NE. of Duncansbay Head, con- 
 sist of two islets and several rocks. On the 
 larger of the islets is a lighthouse (1794), 
 
 Pentland Hills, Scotland, extend 16 miles SW. 
 froni a point 3 miles S. of Edinburgh, through 
 the counties of Midlothian, Peebles, and Lanark, 
 have a breadth of 4 to 6 miles, and attain a 
 maximum height in Carnethy (1890 feet) and 
 Scald Law (1898). In the battle of the Pentlands 
 or Bullion Green, 2 miles NNW, of Penicuik, 
 Sir Thomas Dalyell routed 900 westland Cov- 
 enanters, 28th November 1666, 
 
 Pentonville, a populous district in London in 
 the parish of St James's, Clerkenwell, the first 
 buildings in which were erected in 1773 on fields 
 belonging to Henry Penton, Esq. The name has 
 since been extended to part of Islington parish, 
 in which stands (in Caledonian Road) Pentonville 
 Prison, built in 1840-42. 
 
 Penza, a large rural town of Russia, 330 miles 
 by rail SE. of Moscow, has a cathedral (17th cen- 
 tury), a botanical garden, and manufactures of 
 paper, soap, &c. Pop. 60,000.— Tlie government 
 has an area of 14,992 sq. m., and a pop. of 1,470,500. 
 
 Penzance' (Corn., 'holy headland'), a town of 
 Cornwall, the most westerly in England, at the 
 head of Mount's Bay, 10 miles ENE. of Land's 
 End, 80 W. by S. of Plymouth, and 328 (by road 
 281) WSW. of London. Standing on a finely- 
 curved shore surrounded by rocky eminences, it 
 is famous for its mild, equable climate, though 
 the annual rainfall is heavy (43 inches). Its fine 
 esplanade commands splendid land and sea views ; 
 and its chief buildings, constructed largely of 
 granite, include a market-hall (1837) with a statue 
 before it of Sir Humphry Davy (a native), an 
 infirmary (1874), a post-office (1883), and public 
 rooms (1867), Italian Renaissance in style, and 
 comprising a guildhall, museum, library, &c. The 
 harbour has two piers (1772-1845) half a mile long, 
 forming a tidal basin of 21 acres ; and docks have 
 been added since 1882. Penzance is a head- 
 quarters of the mackerel and pilchard fisheries ; 
 market-gardening is an important industry ; and 
 of recent years the place has grown much in 
 favour as a Avatering-place. Burned by Spaniards 
 in 1595, and sacked by Fairfax in 1646, it was 
 incorporated in 1614, and from 1663 to 1838 was 
 one of the five 'coinage towns.' Pop. (1851) 
 9214 : (1901) 13,136. See works by Lach-Szyrraa 
 (1878) and Millett (1876-80). 
 
 Peo'ria, capital of Peoria county, Illinois, on 
 the west bank of the Illinois River, at the outlet 
 of Peoria Lake, 161 miles by rail SW. of Chicago. 
 It is an important railway centre, and is con- 
 nected by steamboat navigation with the Missis- 
 sippi and by canal with Lake Michigan. It has 
 a Roman Catholic cathedral, a high school, a 
 medical college, three hospitals, and ten parks, 
 the largest Jefferson (35 acres). Mines of bitu- 
 minous coal supply the great distilleries, breweries, 
 foundries, manufactories of flour, oatmeal, starch, 
 glucose, pottery, &c. In the lower city are large 
 stockyards. Pop. (1880) 29,259 ; (1900) 56,100. 
 
 Pera, a suburb of Constantinople (q.v.). 
 
 Perak', a Malay state on the west side of the 
 
PERCY'S CROSS 
 
 546 
 
 PERSEP0LI3 
 
 Malay peninsula, since 1874 under the protection 
 of Britain. Area, 7950 sq. ni. ; pop. (1879) 55,880 ; 
 (1901) 329,665. The interior attains 8000 feet 
 above sea-level. The soil is fertile, and covered 
 mostly with luxuriant vegetation. Tin is the 
 chief product, and after it lead, besides rice, 
 sugar, tobacco, coffee, tea, spices, &c. See 
 M'Nair's Perak and the Malays (1877). 
 
 Percy's Cross, a Northumbrian monument, 6 
 miles SSE. of Wooler, to Sir Ralph Percy, who 
 fell fighting against Edward IV. (1463). 
 
 Perekop, Isthmus of, connecting the Crimea 
 (q.v.) with the mainland of Russia. In the north 
 of it is the small town of Perekop ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Pereslavl, a town of Russia, 96 miles NB. of 
 Moscow by rail. It has a 12th-c. cathedral, cotton- 
 manufactures, and lake-fisheries. Pop. 7466. 
 
 Per'gamus, or Perqamum, an ancient city of 
 Mysia in Asia Minor, on the river Caicus, 15 
 miles from its mouth. It still exists as Bergama, 
 and is noted for the splendour of its ruined 
 temples, ijalaces, aqueducts, gymnasia, amphi- 
 theatres, and city walls. These were excavated 
 for the Prussian government in 1878-86. 
 
 Perlgueux (Payr-ee-guh'), a town of France, 
 formerly capital of Perigord, now in the dep. of 
 Dordogne, and situated on the right bank of the 
 Isle, a tributary of the Dordogne, 95 miles by 
 rail NE. of Bordeaux. The cathedral of St Front 
 is a Byzantine edifice, built in 984-1047, but 
 spoilt by 'restoration' in 1865. The town 
 museum is especially rich in Roman and other 
 antiquities. Statues of Montaigne, J'enelon, aud 
 the soldiers Daumesnil and Bugeaud adorn the 
 town. Iron is mined and worked, and woollens 
 are manufactured. The celebrated pates de Peri- 
 gueux, made of partridges and truffles, are largely 
 exported. Pop. (1872) 21,316 ; (1901) 28,875. The 
 Romans built another town on the opposite side 
 of the river to the Gallic Vesunna, at the junc- 
 tion of five Roman roads. Close to the modern 
 town are remains of a vast amphitheatre, aque- 
 ducts, baths, and temples. The tower of Vesunna, 
 89 feet high and 200 in circumference, has walls 6 
 feet thick, but has neither doors nor windows. 
 The district of Perigord is noted for its caves and 
 archaeological finds. 
 
 Perim (Per-eem'), a barren island, since 1883 a 
 coaling and telegraph station belonging to Britain, 
 in the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at the southern 
 entrance to the Red Sea, 97 miles W. of Aden, 1^ 
 from the Arabian shore, and 9 from the African. 
 It is 3J miles long by 2^ wide, and crescent 
 shaped, the two horns embracing a deep and 
 spacious harbour. The island, held by the 
 British in 1799-1800, and again occupied in 1857, 
 is under the jurisdiction of Bombay Presidency. 
 Pop. about 400, mostly coolie coal-heavers. See 
 H. Spalding, Perim as it is (1890). 
 
 Perleberg (Per'leh-berg), a Prussian town, in 
 Brandenburg, 80 miles NW. of Berlin. Pop. 7825. 
 
 Perm, a town of Russia, on the Kama, by 
 which it is 685 miles NE. of Kazan. It is the 
 chief seat of the extensive transit trade between 
 European Russia and Siberia, and has a cathedral, 
 tanneries, distilleries, flour-mills, oil-works, and 
 a government arsenal and cannon-foundry. Pop. 
 45,400. — The government has an area of 128,173 
 Bq. m. and a pop. of 3,003,300. 
 
 Pernambu'co, or Recife (Re-see'feh), the busiest 
 seaport of North Brazil, stands at the eastern- 
 most point of the coast. It consists of three 
 portions, connected by bridges — Recife ('the reef) 
 proper, with narrow, winding streets, the chief 
 
 seat of commerce, on a peninsula ; San Antor 
 with straight, wide streets, on an island betwi 
 the peninsula and tlie mainland ; and Boa Vii 
 where are the merchants' villas, on the mainla 
 The principal buildings embrace two arsenals, 
 observatory, the palace of the Bishop of Olii 
 (8 miles to the north), a law school, &c. •] 
 harbour, formed by a reef, has been much 
 proved since 1889. Cottons, machinery, i 
 tobacco are manufactured, and shipbuilding 
 carried on. The principal exports are su 
 and cotton, with rum, hides, dye-woods, & 
 the principal imports are cottons and w( 
 lens, fish and meat, vegetables, minerals, wii 
 &c. Britain, the United States, and Fra 
 have the largest shares in this trade. Pop. (18 
 94,493; (1905) 130,000. Recife was founded 
 the Spaniards in the second half of the 16th c 
 tury. Sir James Lancaster captured it in 1£ 
 the Dutch in 1630, and the Portuguese in 1654 
 The province has an area of 49,625 sq. in. am 
 pop. of 1,254,000. 
 
 Pemow (Ger. Pernau), a seaport of the Bal 
 Provinces of Russia, stands at the mouth of 
 river Pernow, at the northern extremity of 
 Gulf of Riga, 100 miles N. of Riga. Besi 
 linseed and barley, it ships large quantities 
 flax, principally to Great Britain. Pop. 12,91i 
 
 Perpignan (Per-peen-yon^'), a town and a : 
 tress in the French dep. of Pyren^es-Orienta 
 stands on the river Tet, 7 miles from the M( 
 terranean, 40 by rail S. of Narbonne, and 17 ft 
 the Spanish frontier. It commands the passes 
 the Eastern Pyrenees, and is defended on 
 south by a citadel, which encloses the old cas 
 of the Counts of Roussillon, and by a detacl 
 fort. There are a cathedral (begun in 13: 
 the Moorish-Gothic cloth-hall or bourse (13i 
 a town-house (1692), the building of a fori 
 university (1349 — French Revolution), a pal 
 of justice, and a college. The industries 
 elude the making of good red wine, bran 
 cloth, &c. As capital of the former county 
 Roussillon, Perpignan was in the hands of 
 kings of Aragon from 1172 to its capture 
 France in 1 475 ; it was restored to Spain 
 1493 ; but Richelieu retook it in 1642. Pop. 32,{ 
 
 Perranza'buloe ('Perran in the sands'), 
 Cornish coast parish, 10 miles N. by W. of Tri 
 The rude little stone oratory (25 by 12^ feet] 
 St Piran, sent to Cornwall by St Patrick in 
 6th century, had been burled in the sands 
 a thousand years, when it was discovered in U 
 Perran Round is a circular enclosure, with se' 
 rows of seats that could seat 2000, in wh 
 miracle plays were performed of old. See wo 
 by Haslam (1844) and Trelawny (8th ed. 1884). 
 
 Perr3r7ille, a village of Kentucky, 40 m 
 SW. of Lexington, was the scene of a hard-fou] 
 battle between the Union and Confederate am 
 of Buell and Bragg, 8th October 1862. 
 
 Persep'olis (' Persian City '), the Greek name 
 the capital of ancient Persia, was situated to 
 east of the river Medus (Murghab), 14 miles ab( 
 its confluence with the Araxes (Bendemir), 
 miles NE. of Shiraz. A series of most rema 
 able ruins is now all that remains of that ci 
 with which 'no other city could be compa 
 either in beauty or in wealth,' and which a 
 called 'The Glory of the East." Three grot 
 are chiefly distinguishable in the vast ru 
 existing on the spot. First, the Great Hall 
 Xerxes, or Chehel-Minar (Forty Pillars), with 1 
 Mountain of the Tombs (Rachmed), also cal 
 Takht-i- Jamshld or the throne of Jamshid, af 
 
FERSHORE 
 
 547 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 the reputed founder of Persepolis, The next in 
 order is Naksh-i-Rustam, to the north-west, with 
 its toinbs ; and the last, the buiUling called the 
 Harain of Jamshid. See the travels of Chardin, 
 Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, &c, ; Fergusson's 
 Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored, Vaux's 
 Nineveh and Persepolis, Rawlinson's Five Great 
 Monarchies, and for photographic views, Perse- 
 polis, by Stolze and Noldeke (Berlin, 1882). 
 
 Pershore, a pleasant, old-fashioned market- 
 town of Worcestershire (q.v.), in a fruit-growing 
 district, on the Avon, 9 miles SE. of Worcester. 
 Holy Cross, the church of a Benedictine abbey, 
 originally founded in 689, is but a fragment- 
 choir, south transept, and central tower, mainly 
 Decorated in style. It was restored by Scott in 
 1863-65. Pershore manufactures stockings and 
 farm implements. Pop. of parish, 2500. See a 
 work by Styles (1838). 
 
 Persia, called by the natives IrXn, the most 
 important native kingdom of western Asia, is 
 bounded by Russian Caucasia, the Caspian Sea, 
 the Russian Transcaspian provinces, Afghanistan, 
 Beluchistan, the Strait of Ormuz, the Persian 
 Gulf, and Asiatic Turkey. Extending 900 miles 
 from E. to W. and 700 miles from N. to S., it 
 has an area of about 638,000 sq. m., consisting 
 for the most part of a great tableland from 2000 
 to 5000 feet in height. North of this the majestic 
 range of Elburz (with its peak Demavend, q.v.) 
 runs, south of the low Caspian shores, eastward 
 towards Afghanistan and the Paropamisus ; and a 
 mountain belt running from the NW. to SE. with 
 snow-capped peaks, descends by steep terraces to- 
 wards the Persian Gulf, and bounds it on the W. 
 (see Asia). Demavend is an extinct volcano ; and 
 earthquakes occasionally occur. A great part of 
 Khorassan, the north half of Kerman, the east 
 of Irak-Ajemi, which form the great central plain, 
 and detached portions of all the other provinces, 
 with the exception of those on the Caspian Sea, 
 forming more than three-fourths of the surface 
 of Persia, are desert— that is to say, are unculti- 
 vated owing to the want of rain ; but by far the 
 greater portion of this region consists of light 
 dry soil, which only requires irrigation to be- 
 come fruitful. This great central desert con- 
 tains a few oases. A narrow strip of low 
 and level country extends along the Persian 
 Gulf and the Strait of Ormuz. Some parts 
 of the country are of exceeding fertility and 
 beauty ; the immense valleys, some of them 100 
 7niles in length, between the various ranges of 
 the Kerman Mountains, abound with the rarest 
 and most valuable vegetable products. Great 
 portions of the provinces of Pars, Khuzistan, 
 Ardelan, and Azerbijan have been lavishly 
 endowed by nature with the most luxuriant 
 vegetation ; while the provinces of Ghilan and 
 Mazanderan, which lie between the Elburz and 
 the Caspian Sea, and the southern slopes of the 
 Elburz are as beautiful as wood, water, and a 
 moderately hot climate can make them, 
 
 Persia has hardly one river that can properly 
 be termed navigable, though some of them are 
 several hundred miles in length, and of great 
 width and volume of water. The Karun (q.v.) 
 was opened to foreign steam-navigation from its 
 mouth to Ahwaz in 1889. Most of the ancient 
 irrigation works are ruins. Persia abounds with 
 saline lakes, the chief being Urmia (q.v.) and 
 Bakhtegan (60 miles by 9). Persia possesses three 
 climates — that of the Dushtistan, of the elevated 
 plateau, and of the Caspian provinces. In the 
 Pushtistan, the southern lowland, the autumnal 
 
 heats are excessive, those of summer more toler- 
 able, while in winter and spring the climate is 
 delightful. On the plateau the climate of Pars is 
 temperate. To the north and north-west the 
 winters are severe. The desert-region of the 
 centre and east, and the country on its border, 
 endure most oppressive heat during summer 
 and piercing cold in winter. The Caspian 
 provinces, from their general depression below 
 the sea-level, are exposed to a degree of heat 
 in summer almost equal to that of the West 
 Indies, and their winters are mild. Rains, how- 
 ever, are frequent and heavy, and many tracts 
 of low country are marshy and extremely un- 
 healthy. Except in the Caspian provinces, the 
 atmosphere of Persia is remarkable above that 
 of all other countries for its dryness and purity. 
 The cultivated portions of Persia, when supplied 
 with moisture, are very fertile, producing an 
 immense variety of crops. The chief cultivated 
 products are admirable wheat, barley, and other 
 cereals, cotton, sugar and rice (in Mazanderan), 
 and tumhaku or tobacco for the narghileh or 
 water pipe. The vine flourishes in several 
 provinces, and the wines of Shiraz are cele- 
 brated. Mulberries are also largely cultivated, 
 and silk is a most important product. The 
 forests of the Elburz swarm with wild animals, 
 as wolves, tigers, jackals, boars, buffaloes, foxes, 
 and the Caspian cat. Leopards abound in Mazan- 
 deran, and lions in parts of Pars and Arabistan. 
 The horses have always been celebrated for their 
 beauty, speed, and endurance. The Caspian 
 rivers abound with fish, especially sturgeon, great 
 quantities of which are cured and exported to 
 Russia. Except only salt, the mineral products 
 are insignificant, though iron, copper, lead, anti- 
 mony, coal, sulphur, and naphtha exist in plenty. 
 The settled population are chiefly Tajiks, the 
 descendants of the ancient Persian race, with 
 an intermixture of foreign blood. To this class 
 belong the agriculturists, merchants, artisans, 
 &c. The Tajiks are Mohammedans of the Shiite 
 sect, with the exception of the remaining Parsees 
 (some 9000 in number), who are found chiefly at 
 Yezd, and still retain their purity of race and 
 religious faith. The nomad or pastoral tribes are 
 of four distinct races — Tui-ks (not Osmanli Turk), 
 Kurds, Luurs, and Arabs. Of the four the Turk 
 is the most numerous, and to it belongs the 
 present Kajar dynasty. There is a small popula- 
 tion of native Christians — the Nestorians of 
 Urmia and Telmais, and Armenians, whose prin- 
 cipal settlement is at Julfa (Ispahan), where 
 there is an archbishop and a cathedral. Includ- 
 ing a few Roman Catholics and Protestants, the 
 whole number of Christians can hardly exceed 
 50,000. The Jews number 35,000. There can be 
 no doubt that in antiquity, and even during the 
 middle ages, while the irrigation-works still ferti- 
 lised large tracts of country, Persia supported a 
 great population- in the 17th century it was esti- 
 matetf at 40 millions. In 1905 the population 
 was estimated at about 9^ millions, and the prin- 
 cipal cities thus: Teheran, 250,000; Tabriz, 
 180,000 ; Ispahan, 80,000 ; Meshhed and Kerman, 
 70,000 each ; Yezd, 55,000 ; Barfurush and Shiraz, 
 50,000 each ; Hamadan, Kazvin, Kom, Kashan, 
 Resht, from 30,000 to 40,000 each. Of the nomads 
 260,000 are Arabs, 720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds 
 and Leks, 234,000 Luurs, and 20,700 Beluchis and 
 gypsies. The houses are generally built of mud, 
 and, seen from without, look contemptible, but the 
 interiors of the houses of the wealthy are some- 
 times perfect paradises of elegance. The miser- 
 able look of the towns is greatly redeemed by the 
 
PERSIA 
 
 548 
 
 FEETH 
 
 beauty of the garden s wliich surround them . The 
 roads are utterly neglected. 
 
 Persian trade is comparatively small. Silk has 
 declined, opium is increasing, cottons and wool- 
 lens, shawls, carpets, and felts are manufactured 
 both for home use and for export. The exports 
 mainly consist of wheat, rice, wine, raisins, 
 almonds and nuts, olive-oil, tobacco, drugs, 
 gums, resins, manna, opium, colouring matters, 
 boxwood, walnut-wood, silk, wool, carpets, 
 skins and furs, wax, pearls, turquoises, sulphur, 
 naphtha, salt ; the chief imports are cotton 
 goods from Britain, and broadcloths, jewellery, 
 arms, cutlery, watches, earthen, glass, and metal 
 wares, &c. The whole foreign trade has been 
 estimated roughly at— imports, £5,500,000; ex- 
 ports, £3,000,000. The imports of British produce 
 have of late years varied from £300,000 to £500,000 ; 
 while the exports to Britain were worth from 
 £100,000 to £250,000, without reckoning the much 
 greater value sent to India and other British 
 dependencies. In the north-west, north, and 
 north-east districts a decided Russian superiority 
 in trade is in parts disputed by British and 
 Indian competition; in the south and west 
 British ascendency is established. Many pro- 
 jects of railways have been formed, but up to 
 1894 only one of them had been carried out— viz. 
 from Teheran to Shah Abul Azim (6 miles). Tram- 
 ways have been laid down in Teheran. The Karun 
 river has been open since 1888 to foreign (mainly 
 British) navigation. Russia has easy access by 
 the Caspian. The principal centres of trade are 
 Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan ; the chief ports 
 Gombroon (Bender- Abbas), Lingah, and Bushire 
 on the Persian Gulf, and Enzeli, Meshed-i-Sar, 
 and Bender-i-Gez on the Caspian. The govern- 
 ment of Persia is a pure despotism, limited only 
 by the power and influence of the Mohammedan 
 moUahs or priests, domestic intrigues, dread of 
 private vengeance, and an occasional insurrection. 
 The 'Shah,' or 'Padishah,' possesses absolute 
 authority over the lives and property of his sub- 
 jects. His deputies, the governors of provinces 
 and districts, possess similar authority over those 
 under them ; their actions are, however, liable to 
 revision by the Sliah, who may summarily inflict 
 any punishment upon them for real or alleged 
 misgovernment. Frightful bribery and extortion 
 prevail. It is believed that the irregular exactions 
 amount to a sum equal to tlie legal assessments, 
 and that not a penny of the money so extorted is 
 applied to public purposes. The annual revenue 
 in 1890-1905 may be stated at from £1,400,000 to 
 £1,775,000. The regular army is really composed 
 of about 30,000 infantry and 1000 artillery, while 
 there are about 10,000 irregular cavalry, a few 
 thousand irregular infantry, and the guards. 
 
 The Medes (akin to the Persians), who occupied 
 the NE. of Persia, rebelled against the Assyrians 
 and founded a kingdom in 708 B.C., subverted in 
 537 by the Persians under Cyrus, who established 
 a vast and mighty empire, extending from the 
 JEge&n to the Oxus and Indus. Cambyses con- 
 quered Egypt (525 B.C.) ; Darius I. and Xerxes I. 
 failed in 490 and 480 to subdue Greece. After the 
 reign of Artaxerxes I. (465-425) decay set in, and 
 Alexander the Great reconstructed a new Persia 
 under Greek influence. At his death Persia fell 
 to the Seleucidaj, but Bactria and Parthia soon 
 became independent ; and then the Arsacidae, a 
 Parthian dynasty, ruled all Persia from 138 B.C. 
 to 218 A.D., when the Sassanian princes, of the 
 old Persian stock, restored a real Persian empire, 
 which contended with Rome on equal terms, re- 
 peatedly defeated Roman arniies, and took a 
 
 Roman emperor captive (260 a.d.). The 
 sanians were crushed in 639 a.d. by the Mol 
 medan Arabs, under whom Persia becani 
 favoured province of the Caliphs. After the 
 century various Turkish, Persian, or Ta 
 dynasties ruled over portions of Persia, but ■> 
 swept away by the Mongols of Genghis K 
 (1335). Timur the Tartar made Persia part o 
 dominion (1370). A Turkish dynasty had g 
 representatives in Ismail (1500-23) and Abbas 
 Great (1585-1628). The present Turkoman dyn 
 was established by Aga-Mohammed in 1795. 
 books on Persia by Arnold (1876), Wills (1883- 
 Benjamin (1886), Curzon (1891), and Browne (IJ 
 Morier's tale of Hajji Baba; and historic! 
 Rawlinson (of ancient Persia, 1876), Malcolm (IJ 
 Watson (1866), and Clements Markham (1874) 
 
 Persian Gulf, an arm of the Indian 0( 
 which penetrates 650 miles north-westward 
 tween Arabia and Persia. Its breadth xi 
 from 55 miles at the mouth to 250 miles, and 
 area is estimated at 77,450 sq. m., not incluc 
 the islands, which aye scattered over the wes 
 half, or lie close inshore along the eastern i 
 The chief of these islands are Ormuz, at 
 mouth ; Kishm, 810 sq. m. in extent ; and 
 Bahrein Islands. The Great Pearl Bank streti 
 along the western side from Ras Hassan to ne 
 half way up the gulf. On the Arabian side the c 
 is low and sandy, occasionally broken by m\ 
 tains and cliff's ; while on the Persian side i 
 higher and abrupt, with deep water close insh 
 owing to the mountain-ranges of Fars and Lari 
 running close to the water's edge. The isla 
 mostly barren and destitute of springs, pre 
 numerous traces of volcanic eruptions. With 
 exception of the Shat-el-Arab (see Euphrai 
 the Persian Gulf receives only insignifi( 
 streams. Its eastern side off"ers good anchor 
 either in the numerous bays or in the le( 
 islands. The greater portion of its soutl 
 shores now belongs to the Imam of Muscat, v, 
 the whole of the northern shore belongs to Pe: 
 The greatest depth does not exceed 50 fath( 
 The submarine telegraph cables of the gov 
 ment of India traverse the whole length of 
 Persian Gulf, and connect with the system; 
 Persia and India. 
 
 Perth, the county town of Perthshire, on 
 right bank of the tidal Tay, 43 miles NNW 
 Edinburgh, 22 WSW. of Dundee, and 62 NI 
 Glasgow. The beauty of its surroundings- 
 noble river ; the two wooded heights, Moncr 
 and Kinnoull Hills, 725 and 730 feet high ; 
 away to the north, the Grampians— makes 
 * Fair City ' worthy of the name. A hands 
 nine-arch bridge (1772 ; widened 1871), 840 
 long, and stretching over a waterway of 590 1 
 leads to the suburb of Bridgend, where Rui 
 spent much of his childhood ; along the T 
 west bank extend two beautiful public parks. 
 North and South Inches, 98 and 72 acres in a 
 St John's Church is the only old building 
 cruciform Decorated pile, with an earlier cen 
 square tower. Other edifices are St Nini 
 Episcopal Cathedral (1850-90), an Early Mi( 
 Pointed structure ; the Tudor municipal bi 
 ings (1879), tlie Grecian county buildings (11 
 67), the city hall (1844), the infirmary (1837- 
 and the penitentiary and general prison for S 
 land (1812-59), besides the water-works (1830- 
 two museums, the Albert statue (1864), and 
 auction-mart (1875). Railways have lar| 
 diverted the river-trade ; and dyeing is now 
 leading industry, with manufactures of ink, gai 
 
PERTH 
 
 649 
 
 PERU 
 
 glasses, linen, iron, beer, &c. A royal burgh 
 since 1210 or earlier, and taking precedence of all 
 others save Edinburgh, Perth returns one mem- 
 ber. Pop. (1831) 19,238 ; (1901) 32,873. 
 
 Perth, or St Johnstoun, as it was formerly 
 called, has a wealth of historic memories — the 
 bloody combat on the North Inch between sixty 
 members of the clans Chattan and Kay (1396) ; 
 the murder of James I. (1437); Knox's 'thunder- 
 ing sermon against idolatry ' in St John's (1559) ; 
 the Gowrie Conspiracy (1600) ; and Montrose's 
 victory of Tippermuir (1644) ; besides sixteen 
 ecclesiastical councils and fourteen parliaments, 
 and visits innumerable from royal personages, 
 including the two Pretenders and Queen Victoria. 
 See Perth Memorahilia (1806), Maidnient's Chron- 
 icle of Perth (Maitland Club, 1831), and works 
 by Penny (1836), Lawson (1847), Peacock (1849), 
 and J. Wilson (1860). 
 
 Perth, the capital of Western Australia, occu- 
 pies a picturesque site on the north bank of the 
 Swan River, 12 miles from Fremantle, its port, at 
 the mouth. The buildings include a town-hall, 
 Protestant (1888) and R. C. cathedrals, mechanics' 
 institute and museum, and the governor's resi- 
 dence. Pop. (1881) 5044 ; (1901) 36,274. 
 
 Perth, capital of Lanark county, Ontario, on 
 the river Tay, 141 miles by rail WSW. of Mon- 
 treal, contains mills and manufactories of 
 machinery, leather, woollens, &c. Pop. 4467. 
 
 Perth Amboy, a port of entry of New Jersey, 
 opposite South Amboy on the other side of the 
 mouth of the Raritan River, on the Kill van Kull, 
 26 miles by rail SW. of New York. There is a 
 steam-ferry to Tottenville on Staten Island 
 opposite. The manufactures include corks, 
 bricks, white-ware, and drain-pipes. Pop. 17,700. 
 
 Perthshire, the fourth largest county of Scot- 
 land, bounded by Inverness, Aberdeen, Forfar, 
 Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan, Stirling, Dumbar- 
 ton, and Argyll shires. Its greatest length, from 
 east to west, is 77 miles ; its greatest breadth, 
 from north to south, 68 miles ; and till 1891 its 
 area was 2601 sq. m., or 1,664,690 acres, of which 
 38,274 were water. In that year no fewer than 
 eighteen alterations were made by the boundary 
 commissioners, Perthshire receiving eight small 
 enclaves from Forfar, Fife, Kinross, and Stirling 
 shires, whilst giving off to the last three a like 
 number, including the Culross and Tulliallan 
 portion (13,125 acres). Partly Lowland, but 
 mainly Highland (Strathmore the dividing line), 
 it is called by Scott ' the fairest portion of the 
 northern kingdom,' and such, indeed, it is, with 
 its mountains and glens, its rivers and lakes, its 
 forests and fertile vales. The chief rivers are the 
 Forth and Tay, the former receiving the Teith, 
 Allan, and Devon, the latter the Tummel, Lyon, 
 Isla, Braan, Almond, and Earn ; whilst amongst 
 upwards of eighty lakes are Lochs Tay, Ericht, 
 Earn, Rannoch, Lydoch, Katrine, Achray, Ven- 
 nachar, and Menteith. In the south rise the 
 Ochils, with Dunmyat (1375 feet), and Blairdenon 
 Hill (2072) ; in the south-east the Sidlaw Hills, 
 with Dunsinane (1012) and King's Seat (1235) ; 
 and the Highland area is largely occupied by the 
 Grampians, of whose forty-six summits exceeding 
 2300 feet may be mentioned Ben Lawers (with 
 cairn, 4004), Benmore (3843), Ben-y-Gloe (3671), 
 Schiehallion (3547), Ben Vorlich (3224), Ben Ledi 
 (2875), Ben Vrackie (2757), and Ben Venue (2393). 
 The soil is extreinely varied, in places of great 
 fertility — e.g. in Strathearn and in the Carse of 
 Gowrie, which skirts the north side of the Tay's 
 estuary ; but barely a fifth of the entire surface 
 
 is in tillage, the rest being pasture, woods, deer- 
 forests, mountain, and desolate moorland, such 
 as Rannoch. The woods cover nearly 100,000 
 acres ; and the annual rental of the Perthshire 
 deer-forests, gi-ouse-moors, and rod- and net- 
 flshings exceeds in some years £70,000. Ancient 
 divisions were Athole (N.), Rannoch (NW.), 
 Breadalbane (W.), Balquhidder (SW.), Menteith 
 (S.), Perth (SE.), Gowrie (E.), Stormont and 
 Strathearn (central). The county since 1885 
 returns two members, one for the eastern and 
 one for the western division, besides one for 
 Perth. Other towns and villages are Aberfeldy, 
 Abernethy, Auchterarder, Birnam, Blair-Athole, 
 Blairgowrie, Callander, Conirie, Coupar-Angus, 
 Criefl', Doune, Dunblane, Dunkeld, Pitlochry, 
 Scone, and StaTiley. The Roman camp at Ardoch 
 is famous ; and Perthshire contains the battle- 
 fields of the Grampians, Tippermuir, Killie- 
 crankie, and Sheriffmuir ; whilst possessing 
 memories of Bruce, Queen Mary, Rob Roy, Burns, 
 Scott, Lady Nairne, Wordsworth, and Queen 
 Victoria. The mansions, which are very numer- 
 ous, include Taymouth, Drummond, and Blair 
 castles. Pop. (1801) 125,583 (1831)142,166; (1881) 
 129,007; (1901) 123,283, of wliom 11,524 were 
 Gaelic-speaking. See works by Drummond (1879), 
 Marshall (1880), Hunter (1883), and Millar (1890). 
 
 Peru {Per-oo'), a republic of South America, 
 extending from near 2° to 17° 20' S. lat. Previous 
 to the annexations by Chili, the Peruvian terri- 
 tory stretched southward to 22° 10', with a length 
 along the Pacific coast of 1400 miles, and a width 
 of 300 miles. It borders on the Pacific, Ecuador, 
 Brazil, Bolivia, and Chili. The area is roughly 
 estimated at 500,000 sq. m. The population was 
 in 1900 estimated to be about 4,600,000, the 
 aboriginal Inca Indians forming 57 per cent., the 
 Mestizos or half-castes 23 per cent., and the rest 
 being of pure Spanish descent, negroes, Chinese, 
 •fee. The Coast extends from the base of the 
 Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and consists of a 
 sandy desert crossed by some forty rivers along 
 whose banks there are fertile valleys ; the Sierra, 
 or region of the Andes, about 250 miles wide, con- 
 tains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated 
 plains and tablelands, warm and fertile valleys 
 and ravines ; and the Montana, skirting the 
 eastern slopes of the Andes, consists of tropical 
 forests traversed by great tributaries of the 
 Amazon. The absence of rain on the coast strip 
 of land between the mountains and the sea is 
 caused by the action of the lofty uplands of the 
 Andes on the trade-wind ; the last particle of 
 moisture is wrung out of the wind by the very 
 low temperature, and deposited as snow, and the 
 wind rushes down to the Pacific coast, cool and 
 dry. From November to April there is usually 
 constant dryness on the coast, from June to 
 September the sky is obscured for weeks by mist, 
 sometimes accompanied by drizzling rain. The 
 maximum temperature is about 78° in summer 
 and 60° in winter. Since 1570 there have been 
 seventy destructive earthquakes recorded on the 
 west coast, including those of 1868 and 1877. 
 
 The Peruvian Andes attain 22,000 feet. Tlie 
 mountain-system consists of three chains or Cordil- 
 leras. Two of these chains, running parallel and 
 near each other, are of identical origin. The west- 
 ern one is the maritime cordillera and comprises 
 the volcanoes. The eastern cordillera is a magnifi- 
 cent and almost continuous range, in great part 
 of Silurian formation, with clay-slates and erup- 
 tive granitic rocks. The western cordillera is 
 cut through by several streams which flow into 
 the Pacific, and the eastern cordillera by six 
 
PERU 
 
 550 
 
 t'ERU 
 
 tributaries of the Amazon, but the central chain 
 is an unbroken water-parting, consisting mainly 
 of crystalline and volcanic rocks. The valleys 
 and plateaus between tliese ranges form the 
 Sierra of Peru, and include every variety of 
 climate and scenery. They may be divided into 
 four sections, commencing from the north ; in 
 the third is Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, while 
 the fourth section is the basin of Lake Titicaca, 
 about 150 miles in length and breadth. The 
 lake itself is 80 miles long, and 12,545 feet above 
 the level of the sea. The Sierra of Peru is the. 
 original home of the potato. The animals which 
 specially belong to the Peruvian Sierra are the 
 domestic llamas and alpacas, and the wild vicuiias, 
 the viscacha, the chinchilla, deer, dogs, and foxes ; 
 notable among birds are the condor and the flamin- 
 goes, geese and wading birds of Lake Titicaca. 
 
 The Montana is the region of tropical forests 
 within the basin of the river Amazon ; the forests 
 drained by the Maraiiou, Huallaga, and Ucayali 
 forming the northern portion. The whole length 
 of the Montana, from the Maranon to the Bolivian 
 frontier, is 800 miles. The subtropical portion, 
 comprising the eastern slopes of the Andes, is 
 the region of the cinchona-trees, and of the coca, 
 and here coffee and cacao of the finest quality 
 are cultivated. From the forest-covered plains 
 come india-rubber, sarsaparlUa, and a great 
 variety of useful and ornamental timber. The 
 fauna of the forests includes monkeys, bats, 
 bears, pumas, jaguars, tapirs, wild cats, deer, 
 and many rodents ; withcurassows, ibises, cranes, 
 spoonbills, parrots, toucans, and many snakes. 
 The chief crops of the fertile valleys on the coast 
 of Peru are sugar, cotton, and grapes. Good wine 
 and spirits are made ; and before the disastrous 
 Chilian war (1879) mulberries, silkworms, and 
 cochineal were successfully cultivated. The ex- 
 portation of guano from the Chincha Islands 
 began in 1846 and ended in 1872, the supply- 
 being exhausted ; and the nitrates of Tarapaca 
 were seized and annexed by Chili. The staple 
 exports of the Sierra of Peru are silver and wool, 
 the great centre of mining industry being at Gerro 
 Pasco. Copper is also exported ; and there are 
 rich gold washings. The total value of metals 
 exported in 1903 was £952,812. From the Mon- 
 taiia the exports are cinchona bark, coca, coffee, 
 cacao, tobacco, india-rubber, and sarsaparilla, 
 besides maize and wlieat. 
 
 In the five years 1899-1903 the exports varied 
 from $33,600,000 to $47,300,000, and the imports 
 from $21,230,000 to $34,300,000 (10 'soles' or dol- 
 lars = £1), about one-lialf of tlie total trade being 
 with Great Britain. The exports to Britain are 
 chiefly copper and silver ore, wool, cotton, rubber, 
 sugar, and guano ; the imports from Britain 
 being cotton and woollen manufactures, iron- 
 work and machinery, and jute goods. In the 
 five years to 1903 tlie revenue varied from 
 $13,500,000 to $16,472,000, and the expenditure 
 from $12,630,000 to $14,800,000. The system 
 of railways consists of a dozen short lines in 
 the coast-valleys, and of two long lines across 
 the Andes. The first of these, from Callao and 
 Lima to Oroya, was commenced in 1870, and 
 tunnels the Andes at an altitude of 15,645 
 feet. The other great line across the Andes 
 connects the port of Mollendo with Puno on 
 the shores of Lake Titicaca, passing by Are- 
 quipa. The summit is crossed at a height of 
 14,660 feet, and the line is 346 miles long. Great 
 public works were mainly responsible for raising 
 the debt from £4,400,000 (1868) to £49,000,000 
 (1872). The financial difficulties culminated with 
 
 the disastrous war with Chili, when the niti 
 of Tarapaca, the chief resource of Peru, pas 
 into the hands of the enemy. The payment 
 interest ceased in 1876, having been reguh 
 paid since 1849 ; in 1890, when the outstand 
 interest of the debt amounted to £23,000,000, 
 bondliolders had the railways, mines of gu 
 deposits, and state lands ceded to them for 
 years ; and Chili made itself responsible for sc 
 part of the payment. 
 
 The bulk of the Peruvian population is ci 
 posed of the aboriginal Inca Indians, whose ] 
 guage, called Quichua, is still spoken in 
 Sierra. The Incas had attained to a high s1 
 of civilisation before the arrival of the Spaniai 
 they cultivated many of the arts, and had sc 
 knowledge of astronomy. Three centuries 
 oppression under Spanish rule have deteriora 
 the character of the Inca Indian, but he is s 
 industrious and honest. The wild Indians of 
 Montana were never subjugated by the Sf 
 iards. Spanish administration caused a ra 
 diminution of the population. The Indians 
 the Sierra were decimated, while those of 
 coast-valleys disappeared altogether. Ne 
 slaves were then introduced, and kept in bond 
 until 1855, when slavery was abolished. Fi 
 1860 to 1872 as many as 58,646 Chinese coo 
 were imported. Lima (q.v.), the capital of Pf 
 is nearly in the centre of the coast region, and 
 a population of almost 150,000. Trujillo is 
 chief coast town to the north, and Arequipa 
 the south ; there are many ports, including Cal 
 and Mollendo. The Roman Catholic is the 
 ligion of the state, but practically (not lega 
 there is tolerance for dissent. Besides the i 
 versity of Lima, there are lesser universities 
 Cuzco, Arequipa, and Trnjillo, besides sev( 
 state-supported high scliools, and about 1 
 primary schools with 105,000 enrolled pupils. 
 
 For four centuries before the Spanish Conqu 
 under Pizarro (1532) the Incas swayed a mig 
 empire, under a highly civilised and central! 
 system of government. After the rapid c 
 quest, there were many quarrels between 
 Spanish occupants and the mother-country ; 
 the people were incessantly ground down 
 order to satisfy the continual demands of Sp 
 for treasure. A great national rising in 1780 ' 
 crushed, but left the seeds of the desire 
 national independence, secured by the liberat 
 wars of 1821-24. Subsequently Peru repeate 
 had considerable spells of peace and prosper: 
 But the quarrel with Chili led to war in li 
 invasion and disastrous defeats ending in 188' 
 the permanent cession of Tarapaca, the occu 
 tion (to be terminated after 10 years on a plebisc 
 to that efl'ect) of Tacna and Arica, and other c 
 cessions favourable to Chili. 
 
 See works on Peru, its exploration and antic 
 ties by Markham (1862 and 1880), Hutchin 
 (1873), Duffield (1877), Squier (1877), and othe 
 the histories of the conquest by Prescott (18 
 new ed. 1889), Robertson, Helps, &c. ; for 
 war of independence, works by Stevenson, 
 autobiography of Lord Dundonald ; for the ' 
 with Chili, Markham (on the Peruvian side, 18: 
 
 Peru, (1) a city of Illinois, at the head 
 navigation on the Illinois River, 100 miles 
 rail WSW. of Chicago. It contains zinc-woi 
 a foundry, a plough-factory, and several 
 houses. Pop. 7000. —(2) Capital of Miami cour 
 Indiana, on the Wabash River, and on 
 Wabash and Erie Canal, 75 miles by rail N, 
 Indianapolis. Its factories produce woolh 
 bagging, furniture, basket-ware, &c. Pop. 85 
 
PERUGIA 
 
 ^6i 
 
 PETERBOROUGH 
 
 i»erugia (Per-oo'ja), a city of Italy, stands (1600 
 feet above sea-level) on the Tiber's right bank, 
 11 miles E. of the Lake of Perugia (anc. Laeus 
 Trasimenus) and 127 miles by rail N. of Rome. 
 It is surrounded with walls pierced by gates, 
 one of them very ancient. The broad Corso 
 unites two squares, in one of which stands the 
 Gothic cathedral, dating from the end of the 
 15th century, and adorned with many paintings, 
 carvings, &c. The church of St Dominic (1632) 
 contains the tomb of Pope Benedict XI. by 
 Giovanni Pi3ano, and stained windows (1402); 
 the remarkable church of St Peter (11th c.) has 
 granite pillars and pictures by Raphael, Peru- 
 gino, Parmigiano. In the cathedral square stand 
 also the Gothic municipal palace (1281); tlie 
 great fountain, adorned with statues by Niccolo 
 and Giovanni Pisaiio ; the statue of Pope Julius 
 III. (1555), described in Hawthorne's Marble 
 Faun; and the old money-changers' hall (1453- 
 57), decorated with some of Perugino's best 
 works. In the vicinity of the city many Etrus- 
 can tombs were discovered in 1840; they con- 
 tained cinerary urns, lamps, vases, bronze arm- 
 our, ornaments, &c. The university (1307) has 
 21 teachers and 160 students, a botanical garden, 
 an observatory, a library (1852) of 30,000 vols., 
 &c. Silk and woollen goods, wax-candles, and 
 liqueurs are manufactured. Pop. 61,385. Peru- 
 gia (anc. Perusia) was one of the twelve Etrurian 
 cities. It was captured by the Romans in 310 
 B.C. and in 40 B.C., and by Totila (549 a.d.). At 
 diflferent periods it was subjected to the popes, 
 at other times it was in the power of native 
 despots, and in 1860 it was made a part of the 
 kingdom of Italy. In the 15th century it became 
 the centre of the Umbrian school of painting, 
 
 Perugia, Lake of. See Trasimene Lake. 
 
 Pes'aro (anc. Pisaurum), a town of Italy, on 
 the right bank of the Foglia, here crossed by a 
 bridge of Trajan's age, 1 mile from the Adriatic 
 and 37 miles NW. of Ancona by rail. Walled and 
 defended by a citadel (1474) and a fort, it has two 
 cathedrals. Pop. 25,100. Pesaro is associated 
 with Tasso, and was Rossini's birthplace. 
 
 Pescadores Islands. See Formosa. 
 
 PescMera (Pes-kee-ay'rd), a fortress of Italy, a 
 member of the Quadrilateral, stands partly on an 
 island in the Mincio and partly on the right bank 
 of that river, at its outlet from the Lake of Garda, 
 14 miles by rail W. of Verona. Pop. 2360. 
 
 Peshaw'ar, or Peshawur, a town of India, lOj 
 miles from the entrance of the Khyber Pass, 190 
 E. by S. of Kabul, and 276 by rail NW. of Lahore. 
 It is since 1903 the capital of the North-west 
 Frontier Province (formerly in the Punjab). 
 Although occupying a strategic position of the 
 utmost importance, its fortifications are incon- 
 siderable. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 Pesth (Pest), or more correctly Budapest, be- 
 cause since 1873 it has been united with Buda 
 (Ger. Ofen) into one municipality, is the capital 
 of Hungary, and next after Vienna the second 
 city of the Austrian-Hungarian empire. It stands 
 on the Danube, Buda on the right bank and Pesth 
 on the left, 173 miles by rail SSE. of Vienna. 
 The two towns are connected by three bridges, a 
 chain bridge (designed by Clark Brothers of Eng- 
 land in 1842-49), 1280 feet long, uniting the 
 busiest quarters of the two ; another, built in 
 1872-75, a little higher up (1555 feet long) ; and a 
 railway bridge, Pesth is essentially a modern 
 place, the growth principally of the 19th century ; 
 it has many fine streets and squares, the magnifi- 
 cent quays (3 miles long) beside the Danube being 
 
 the favourite promenades. The buildings include 
 the Jewish synagogue ; the parish church (1500) 
 and the new Leopold basilica (1851-68); the 
 national museum (1850), with valuable picture- 
 galleries and a library of 400,000 volumes and 
 63,000 MSS. ; the academy of sciences (1862) ; the 
 university (1635), established first at Tyrnau, 
 then at Buda in 1777, and lastly at Pesth in 1873, 
 with 316 lecturers and about 5000 students, 
 equipped with laboratories, &c., and a library of 
 250,000 volumes ; the parliament house, the old 
 town-house, the redoubt (1859-65), the custom- 
 house (1870-74), barracks, the military academy 
 (1872), the slaughter-house (1870-72), &c. Whilst 
 Pesth stands on a plain, Buda straggles over 
 steep hills. It is a nmch older town, its central 
 features being the castle on the citadel (1749-71), 
 with the chapel of St Sigismund, in which are 
 preserved the regalia of Hungary and the hand 
 of St Stephen ; the church of the Ascension and 
 that of St John (13th century) ; the palaces of 
 the premier and Archduke Joseph ; the monu- 
 mental tomb of Gul Babas (1543-48), a Turkish 
 saint ; and the lunatic asylum (1860-68). 
 
 Both towns are exceptionally well provided 
 with baths, which are supplied both by the 
 Danube and by natural springs of mineral waters. 
 Some of these last — Hunyadi Janos, Rakoczy, 
 &c. — are exported. The artesian well (1868-79) 
 in the public garden of Pesth yields, at a depth 
 of 3182 feet, water of a temperature of 165° F. 
 The water- works of Pesth were planned and built 
 by the English engineer Lindley in 1868. There 
 is in Pesth a polytechnic (in Buda, 1846-72), with 
 faculties of chemistry, architecture, and engineer- 
 ing. There are two beautiful public gardens, 
 one in Pesth, the other on Margaret Island in the 
 Danube, just above the town. The squares and 
 streets of both Pesth and Buda are adorned with 
 many monuments, among them the Honved 
 Memorial (1893). The manufacture of machinery 
 and agricultural implements, wagons, ships, 
 small-arms, spirits, tobacco, beer, gold and silver 
 wares, cutlery, starch, glass, &c., the grinding 
 of corn, washing of wool, and printing are all 
 prosecuted on the large scale. But the commerce is 
 even more important : immense quantities of corn 
 are brought into the town, and exported further 
 either as corn or flour; wool, wine and spirits, 
 seeds, hemp, tobacco, plums, honey and wax, 
 bacon, hides, feathers, timber, coal, and manu- 
 factured wares ai-e the principal articles of the 
 extensive trade. Vast numbers of swine are 
 fattened and killed in huge yards just outside 
 Pesth. Pop. of Budapest (1813) 36,153; (1857) 
 116,683 ; (1900) 716,476. The Romans had a mill- 
 tary colony on the site of Buda. In the 13th c. 
 there existed here a flourishing German town, 
 Old Buda, destroyed by the Mongols in 1241 ; 
 but it soon recovered, and Buda was regarded as 
 the capital down to its capture by the Turks in 
 1527. From 1541 to 1686 the Turks held Buda, 
 though it was often besieged. Pesth meanwhile 
 was reduced to a heap of ruins, 
 
 Petcbo'ra, a large river in the north of Euro- 
 pean Russia, rises on the western slope of the 
 Urals, flows N. through the eastern parts of the 
 governments of Vologda and Archangel, then SE. 
 for 150 miles, and finally sweeping northward, 
 and expanding into an isleted estuary 30 miles 
 wide, falls into the Arctic Ocean, after a course 
 of 975 miles. See a work by Seebohm (1880). 
 
 Peterborough, a city partly in Huntingdon- 
 shire, but chiefly in Northamptonshire, the latter 
 portion being on the left or north bank of the 
 
PCl^EllBOROUGH 
 
 552 
 
 PETROVSS 
 
 river Nen, at the edge of the fen-country, 76 
 miles N. of London and 42 NB. of NorthaniiJton. 
 Here, at Medeshamstede, in 655, was founded a 
 great Benedictine abbey, which, destroyed by 
 the Danes in 870, was restored in 966, plundered 
 by Hereward in 1069, and again burned down in 
 1116. Its noble church, the cathedral since 1541 
 of a new diocese carved out of that of Lincoln, 
 was built between 1118 and 1528, and thus, whilst 
 essentially Nonnan, offers every variety of archi- 
 tecture down to the Perpendicular. It is 471 
 feet long, by 202 across the transept, and 81 high. 
 The Early English west front (c. 1200-22) consists 
 of three mighty arches, and 'is perhaps,' says 
 Freeman, 'the grandest conceiJtion for a single 
 feature which mediseval architecture has produced, 
 a Greek portico translated into Gothic language.' 
 Noteworthy also are the flat painted wooden ceil- 
 ing of the 12th century, the portrait of ' Old 
 Scarlett' the sexton (1496-1594), the blue slab 
 inscribed 'Queen Catharine, a.d. 1536,' and the 
 grave for twenty-live years (1587-1612) of Mary 
 Queen of Scots. In 1643 Cromwell and his 
 troopers did hideous havoc to monuments, stained 
 glass, and cloisters. In 1883 the fine central 
 tower was condenmed as unsafe ; but it has been 
 lovingly rebuilt, and in 1890 the cathedral was 
 reopened after restoration. Paley was a native. 
 Two ancient gateways, the bishop's palace and 
 the deanery (once the abbot's and prior's houses), 
 and the chancel of a Becket chapel (now a 
 museum) make up the remaining objects of 
 interest. A training-college for schoolmasters 
 (1864), a grammar-school, the town-hall (1671), 
 the corn exchange (1848), a cattle-market of five 
 acres (1867), and the bridge over the Nen (dating 
 from 1140, but in its present form from only 
 1872) may be mentioned. Peterborough is an 
 important railway centre, has manufactures of 
 agricultural implements, and carries on a large 
 trade in malt, coal, farm-produce, &c. Incor- 
 porated as a municipal borough in 1874, it has 
 returned two members from 1547 till 1885, and 
 since then one. Pop. (1841) 6959 ; (1881) 22,394 ; 
 (1901) 30,872. See works by Gunton (1686 ; new 
 ed. 1825), Britton (1828), Paley (1849), Davys (3d 
 ed. 1863), Sweeting (1869), and Poole (1881). 
 
 Peterborougll, chief town of Peterborough 
 county, Ontario, on the Otanabee River, 82 
 miles by rail NE. of Toronto. It exports 
 lumber and agricultural products, and manu- 
 factures flour, woollens, farming implements, 
 machinery, furniture, canoes, &c. Pop. 11,250. 
 
 Peterhead', a seaport and burgh of barony of 
 Buchan, Aberdeenshire, on a peninsula, 32 miles 
 by road, but 44 by a branch-line (1862), NNE. of 
 Aberdeen. Founded in 1593, it is somewhat 
 irregular in plan, but clean and largely built of 
 the celebrated ' Peterhead granite,' whose red- 
 dish variety is so much used for monumental 
 purposes. The Keiths, Earls Marischal, were 
 superiors of the place till the '15, when the Old 
 Pretender landed here, and after which their 
 forfeited estates were purchased by the Edin- 
 burgh Merchant Maiden Hospital, to whose 
 governors many improvements are owing. Of 
 Marshal Keith a bronze statue was presented to 
 the town in 1869 by King William of Prussia ; 
 and the market-cross, a granite Tuscan pillar 
 (1833), bears the arms of the Earls Marischal. 
 The public buildings include the town-hall (1788), 
 with a spire 125 feet high; the parish church 
 (1803), with one of 118 feet ; the free library and 
 museum (1891); the academy (1846); and con- 
 rict-prison (1889). Industries are woollen manu- 
 
 facture, boat-building, and granite-polishir 
 Peterhead was made a head-port in 1838. Frc 
 1788 it gradually became the chief British se 
 of the seal and whale fisheries, until in 1852 
 sent out 30 ships ; but since then there has be 
 a great decline. At present Peterhead is chie 
 important for its great hei'ring-fishery, whi 
 during the herring season brings some 5C 
 persons to the place. The south harbour w 
 commenced in 1773, and the north harbour 
 1818, a canal being formed between them 
 1850 ; whilst a new harbour was formed and t 
 south harbour deepened under Acts of 1873 a 
 1876. Their three basins, hewn out of the so: 
 rock, together cover about 22 acres, and ha 
 cost £300,000 ; but all three are as nothing co 
 pared with the great harbour of refuge, coi 
 menced in 1886, and to be completed in 1921 ( 
 convict labour), at a cost of £1,044,520. In t 
 neighbourhood are the ruins of Inverugie, Ravei 
 craig, and Boddam castles, all strongholds 
 different branches of the Keiths ; Buchan Nei 
 the most easterly point of Scotland, with a ligl 
 house (1827); and the Bullers of Buchan (q.v 
 Since 1833 Peterhead has united with Elgin, & 
 to return one member. Pop. (1801) 3264 ; (18/ 
 7298; (1901) 11,794. See works by W. Lai 
 (1793), Arbuthnot (1815), and Peter Buchan (181 
 
 Peterhof (Pay'ter-hof), a palace of the e 
 peror of Russia, on the S. shore of the Gulf 
 Finland, 18 miles W. of St Petersburg. Built 
 Peter the Great in 1711, it contains fine paintin; 
 and is surrounded by beautiful parks. The to) 
 of Peterhof has 14,298 inhabitants. 
 
 Petersburg. See St Petersburg. 
 
 Petersburg, the third city of Virginia, on t 
 south bank of the Appomattox River, 23 mi] 
 by rail S. of Richmond. The falls above supf 
 water-power for tobacco-factories, foundri{ 
 cotton, flour, and paper mills. In 1864 Grai 
 failing to take Richmond, besieged Petersbui 
 and was repulsed with heavy loss. Pop. 22,68( 
 
 Petersfield, a Hampshire market-town, 
 miles NNE. of Portsmouth by rail. Till 1832 
 returned two members, and then till 1885 or 
 Pop. of parish, 3270. 
 
 Peterwardein (Pay tervar^ dine), one of t 
 strongest fortresses in the Austrian dominioi 
 is situated in a marshy, unhealthy locality ^ 
 the Danube's right bank, 44 miles by rail NW. 
 Belgrade, and is connected Avith Neusatz opposi 
 by a bridge of boats. Pop. of town, 5603. 
 
 Petherton, South, a Somerset town, on t 
 Parret, 4^ miles N. of Crewkerne. Pop. 2250. 
 
 Petra (the Greek equivalent of the Heb. Sei 
 'Rock'), the ancient stronghold of the Nal 
 tseans was situated in the ' desert of Edom ' 
 northern Arabia, near the points of intersecti 
 of great caravan-routes from Palmyra, Ga; 
 Egypt, and the Persian Gulf, four days' journ 
 from the Mediterranean and five from the R 
 Sea. From it Arabia Petraa got its name. 
 
 Petropavlovsk', (l) a town of Asiatic Russ 
 on the river Islam, 175 miles WNW. of Oim 
 Pop. 25,000.— <2) A small port on the east coast 
 Kamchatka, with an admirable harbour. 
 
 Petropolis, a town of Brazil, 25 miles N. 
 Rio. It was originally a colony of Genua 
 (1845), and superseded Nictheroy as capital 
 the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1894. Pop. 12,0( 
 mainly Germans. 
 
 Petrovsk', a town of Russia, 65 miles NW. 
 Saratov, on a tributary of the Don. Pop. W,3] 
 
PETROZAVODSK 
 
 663 
 
 {>HILAD£LPHIA 
 
 Petrozavodsk', a town of Russia, on the west 
 shore of Lake Onega, 300 miles NE. of St 
 Petersburg, has a cannon-foundry and small- 
 arms factory. Pop. 13,0'J7. 
 
 Pettlgoo, a village of Donegal and Fermanagh, 
 23i miles NW. of Enniskillen. 
 
 Petworth, a market-town of Sussex, on an 
 eminence near the West Hother River, 14 miles 
 NNE. of Chichester. Petworth House, the seat 
 of Lord Leconlield, is an 18th-century mansion, 
 ■with a fine park and many portraits and other 
 relics of the Percies and Wyndhams. Pop. of 
 parish, 2907. See F. H. Arnold's Petworth (1864). 
 
 Pev'ensey, a village of Sussex, on the English 
 Channel, 12 miles by rail W. by S. of Hastings. 
 The Romans built here a castle, Avhose walls 
 enclose a Norman keep. The church is Early 
 English. "William the Conqueror landed on the 
 shore of Pevensey Bay. Pop. of parish, 467. See 
 Lower's Chronicles of Pevensey (M ed. 1880). 
 
 Peveril Castle. See Peak. 
 
 Pewsey, a small market-town of Wiltshire, in 
 a fertile vale, 18 miles E. of Devizes and 7 SSW, 
 of Marlborough. Pop. of parish, 1781. 
 
 Pezenas (Payz-na'), a town of France (dep. 
 H^rault), on the left bank of the river Herault, 
 32 miles by rail SW. of Montpellier. The vicinity 
 produces excellent wine and brandy, and makes 
 woollen and linen goods. Here Moli^re wrote 
 Les Precieuses Ridicules. Pop. 6991. 
 
 Pfafers (P'fay'fers), hot springs in the Swiss 
 canton of St Gall, in the deep and gloomy gorge 
 of the Tamina torrent, which joins the Rhine at 
 Ragatz, 2i miles to the north. 
 
 Pfalz, German for the Palatinate (q.v.). 
 
 Pfalzburg. See Phalsbourg. 
 
 Pforzheim (P'fortz'hime), the chief manufactur- 
 ing town of Baden, at the northern border of the 
 Black Forest, 20 miles SE. of Carlsruhe by rail. 
 It contains the remains of an ancient castle, from 
 1300 to 1565 the residence of the Margraves of 
 Baden-Durlach, and was the birthplace of Reuch- 
 lin. The town is famous for the manufacture of 
 gold and silver ornaments, in which 8000 people 
 are employed, and has further chemical and iron 
 works, machine-shops, tanneries, paper-mills, &c. 
 Pop. (1871) 19,801 ; (1900) 43,351. 
 
 Phalsbourg, or Pfalzburg, a town of Lor- 
 raine, stands on the north-west shoulder of the 
 Vosges, 25 miles NW. of Strasburg. It was forti- 
 fied by Vauban in 1680 ; invested, but not taken, 
 by the Allies in 1814-15 ; and bombarded and 
 taken by the Germans in 1870, after which they 
 razed the fortifications. It was the birthplace of 
 Erckmann, and is widely known through the 
 Erckmann-Chatrian novels. Pop. 3680. 
 
 Phantassie, a Haddingtonshire seat, near East 
 Linton, was the birthplace of Rennie. 
 
 Pharsalus, now Fersala, a town of Thessaly, 
 to the south of Larissa, on a branch of the Salam- 
 bria, notable for Caesar's great victory over Pom- 
 pey, 9th August 48 B.C. 
 
 Pha'sls, a river in Colchis, now called Rion or 
 Paz. It rises in the Caucasus, and flows west 
 into the Euxine near the ancient city of Phasis. 
 
 Phigalia, an ancient town of SW. Arcadia. 
 From its temple of Apollo, at Bassae, 6 miles 
 distant, a sculptured frieze was brought to the 
 British Museum in 1812. Next to the Theseum 
 at Athens it is the most perfect architectural 
 ruin in all Greece. See Cockerell, Temples of 
 ^gina and Bassce (I860). 
 
 Philadelphia. See Ala-shehr. 
 
 Philadelphia, the chief city of Pennsylvania 
 and the third city of the United States, is situated 
 on the Delaware River, about 100 miles by ship- 
 channel (via Delaware Bay and River) from the 
 Atlantic Ocean, 90 by rail SW. of New York 
 City and 136 NE. of Washington. It lies along 
 the Delaware from the mouth of the Schuylkill 
 River at League Island, northward, for about 15 
 miles, and has an average breadth of some 8 
 miles. Philadelphia is notably a ' city of homes ' 
 of the well-to-do middle class. The dominant 
 architecture of the older sections is of the severely 
 plain, substantial style (mainly in red brick) 
 which characterised its Quaker founders, and is 
 laid out with the regularity of a chessboard. A 
 marked departure has, however, lately taken 
 place in the style of both the public and the 
 private buildings of Philadelphia, as shown in the 
 city hall and public buildings (1871 et seq.), built, 
 at a cost of $20,000,000, of white marble upon 
 a granite base, in French Renaissance style, 
 and covering an area of 486 by 470 feet. The 
 height of the tower and dome is 537 ft. 4^ in. ; or 
 573 ft. 4^ in. with the colossal figure of Penn (36 
 ft.), to surmount the whole, the structure being 
 thus the second highest in the world. Other 
 buildings are the Masonic Temple, of granite 
 (cost $1,500,000) ; a United States government 
 building of granite— containing the Post-office, 
 court-rooms, &c.— (cost $8,000,000); a custom- 
 house of marble, modelled after the Parthenon 
 at Athens ; a naval asylum ; the United States 
 Mint ; the Academy of Fine Arts ; the Academy 
 of Natural Science (Gothic), with a scientific 
 library and museum ; the Academy of Music ; and 
 the buildings of the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Nearly every street of importance is traversed 
 by electric tramways, on the overhead trolley 
 system. There are numerous well-shaded com- 
 mons in the older portion of the city. In the 
 Fairmount Park, some 3000 acres in extent, and 
 bisected by the Schuylkill River and its affluent 
 the Wissahickon, was held in 1876 the Centennial 
 Exhibition ; and in its environs are the Zoological 
 Garden, the Fairmoimt Water-works (supplying 
 100,000,000 gallons daily), the beautiful Horti- 
 cultural Hall and Memorial Hall— remains of the 
 Centennial Exhibition- the Laurel Hill Cemetery, 
 &c. Among the statues are bronze equestrian 
 figures of Generals Meade, McClellan, and Rey- 
 nolds. The churches include the old Swedes' 
 Church (1700), Christ Church (Episcopal, 1727- 
 54), where Washington's pew is preserved, and 
 a R. C. cathedral. Philadelphia is noted for its 
 benevolent institutions : prominent are the Penn- 
 sylvania Hospital (1751); Episcopal, Presby- 
 terian, and Methodist hospitals, and the St 
 Joseph's and St Agnes' hospitals ; the hospitals 
 in connection with the university and the several 
 medical schools, &c. Besides the Girard College, 
 founded in 1831 by the miser-philanthropist 
 Stephen Girard for poor male white orphans, 
 the city contains the Drexel Industrial Institute 
 (endowed with $2,000,000) and the Cahill R. C. 
 High School ; whilst in Philadelphia or its im- 
 mediate environs are the Williamson Free 
 School of Mechanical Trades (endowed with some 
 $2,200,000), state institutions for the blind and 
 deaf and dumb, the Franklin Institute (1824, 
 for the mechanic arts). Spring Garden Institute 
 (for drawing, painting, and mechanical handi- 
 work), the Episcopal Academy (1785), several 
 R. C. colleges and convents, and Episcopal, 
 Lutheran, and R. C. theological seminaries. 
 Crowning all these is the University of Penn- 
 
p]aiL£ 
 
 554 
 
 I^HltlPPlUE ISUiTDg 
 
 fiylvania, founded as an academy by the sons of 
 William Penn, which became a college in 1755, 
 and a university in 1779 ; now it has over 2600 
 students and 270 professors and instructors, 
 and embraces faculties of arts, science, architec- 
 ture, natural history, finance and economy, 
 medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, law, 
 and physical education. The Jefferson Medical 
 College (1825), with nearly 600 students, is a famous 
 medical school ; others are the Hahnemann 
 Medical College (1869), the Medico-Chirurglcal 
 College (1880), the Woman's Medical College 
 (1850), and the Philadelphia Polyclinic and 
 College. The capital employed in manufacturing 
 is estimated at $477,000,000, the number of hands 
 employed at 260,000, and the value of the annual 
 products at $733,000,000. Among prominent in- 
 dustries are the manufacture of locomotives, car- 
 pets, woollens, and worsteds, upholstery, cottons, 
 and iron and steel products (saws, principally 
 made by one firm, employ 5000 workmen, and 
 have an annual value of $2,500,000). There are 
 sugar-refineries, oil-refineries, chemical works, 
 and many breweries. The imports are of the 
 annual value of about $50,000,000, and the 
 exports about $80,000,000. 
 
 Founded in 1682, Philadelphia the year after 
 was made the capital of Pennsylvania. It was 
 the central point in the war of independence, 
 and the city still preserves the Carpenters' Hall 
 (1770), where the first congress met (1774), and 
 the old State House (1735) or Independence Hall, 
 where the Declaration of Independence was 
 adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia the federal 
 union was signed in 1778 ; and here, too, the con- 
 stitution was framed in 1787. From 1790 to 1800 
 Philadelphia was the federal capital. Franklin, 
 Paine, and Cobbett lived here ; C. G. Leland was 
 a native. Pep. (1700) 4500 ; (1800) 70,287 ; (1860) 
 568,034; (1880) 847,170; (1900) 1,293,697. See 
 Scharf and Thompson's History of Philadelphia 
 (3 vols. 1884); Philadelphia and its Enviro7is 
 (Lippincott, 1890) ; and works by W. P. Hazard 
 (1879), T. Westcott (1877), F. Cook (1882), S. C. 
 Woolsey (1888), and Agnes Repplier (1899). 
 
 Philaa (Fye'lee ; Egyptian Pdlek), a Nile island 
 of Nubia, near Assouan and S. of Syene. It is a 
 small granite rock, fi'inged with rich verdure, 
 about 400 yards long and 150 broad, almost 
 covered with ancient buildings of great archi- 
 tectural beauty. They include a hypsethral or 
 roofless hall, commonly called 'Pharaoh's bed;' 
 the great temple of Isis, to whom the island was 
 sacred ; and the propylon or gateway, 60 feet 
 high and over 120 wide, which is the oldest part 
 of the temple (about 361 b.c). Tlie great irriga- 
 tion dam at Assouan, completed in 1902, does 
 not submerge or injure the ruins, which have 
 been carefully protected. 
 
 Philiphaugh (Philiphawhh'), on Yarrow Water, 
 3 miles WSW. of Selkirk, the property from 1461 
 till 1889 of the line of the ' Outlaw Murray ' of 
 the ballad. Here, on 13th September 1645, Mon- 
 trose was defeated by David Leslie, who butchered 
 more than a hundred Irish prisoners. 
 
 Philippevllle {PhilipveeV), a seaport of Algeria, 
 the harbour of Constantine, from which it lies 
 64 miles NNE. by rail. There is a magnificent 
 harbour (1882) protected by two moles, one 4590 
 feet long, the other 1310. The town was built 
 since 1838. Pop. 25,788. 
 
 PMlippl (Qk. pron. Fil'ipee), a city of Mace- 
 donia, named after Philip II. of Macedon, who 
 enlarged it because of the neighbouring gold- 
 mines. Two battles were fought in 42 b.c. 
 
 between Antony and Octavianus on the one s 
 and the republicans under Brutus and Cass 
 on the other, in the second of which the repul 
 finally perished. The apostle Paul addressed 
 epistle to the church he had founded here. 
 
 Philippine Islands, a large insular group fo 
 ing a northern section of the Eastern Archipela 
 from which it is separated by the two profoi 
 abysses of the Sulu (Mindoro) and Celebes Si 
 2000 to 4000 fathoms deep. It is washed on 
 east side by the Pacific Ocean and on the noi 
 west by the China Sea, lies in 4° — 21° N. lat. i 
 117° — 127° E. long., and comprises a vastaggreg 
 of over 2000 islands of all sizes, ranging fi 
 inere rocks and reefs to Luzon and Mindar 
 the former rather more, the latter somewhat li 
 than 40,000 sq. m. in area. The other cl 
 members of the group, collectively called Visai 
 are Mindoro, 9000 sq. m. ; Palawan (Paragi 
 5500 ; Samar, 5000 ; Panay, 4500 ; Negros, 4J 
 Leyte, 3000; Cebu and Bohol, both 1500; i 
 Masbate, 1200. The total area is 116,000; 
 pop. is variously estimated at from 7,500,00C 
 9,500,000. The archipelago is disposed ne£ 
 due north and south, and is essentially mc 
 tainous and volcanic. Two main ridges ran 
 through the group, and comprise several ■ 
 canoes ; the higliest peak being Apo in 
 SE. of Mindanao (10,400 feet). The undergroi 
 forces are still active, and reveal themselves 
 tremendous eruptions, and especially by ea; 
 quakes, which are almost continuous. Mar 
 was nearly destroyed by the earthquake of 1! 
 Cyclones, here called typhoons, range as far so 
 as about 10° N. lat. Thanks to the general eh 
 tion of the land and the prevailing sea-bree 
 the climate, although moist and hot, is less 
 salubrious than that of most tropical lands, 
 temperature varies from about 77° F. in Decen: 
 to 86° F. in May. The rainfall is 68 to 70 incl 
 The magnificent primeval forests contain ( 
 woods, hard-grained timbers, and medicinal 
 other useful plants. On the plantations 
 grown rice, maize, sugar-cane, cotton, cofl'ee, 
 tobacco (second only to that of Cuba), 
 largest wild mammal is the buffalo, and nexi 
 it the gibbon ; there are several other specie 
 apes and lemurs, antelopes and deer. The ca 
 vora are chiefly represented by several specie 
 civet, the insectivora by the porcupine, 
 only dangerous animals are the crocodile, sna! 
 and some other reptiles. Birds are very nur 
 ous, of the gallinacean family especially. Insi 
 are very various ; and the fresh and marine wa 
 abound in fishes, turtles, molluscs, and spon, 
 Of minerals the most widely diffused are coal 
 iron ; copper also occurs, as well as gold, h 
 sulphur, cinnabar, quicksilver, alum, besi 
 jasper, marble, and fine building stones, 
 original inhabitants of the Philippines v 
 undoubtedly the Negritos (Atas, Itas), i 
 reduced to a few isolated groups numbering a 
 gether less than 20,000. Half-caste Negrito c 
 munities are extremely numerous, the indigen 
 element having amalgamated with the intruc 
 Indonesian and Malay peoples. The Indonesi 
 (akin to the Polynesians) are mostly pagj 
 whereas nearly all the Malays are either Ror 
 Catholics or Mohammedans. The Tagal ; 
 Visayan languages are the predominant types, 
 
 Discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who was ki' 
 here, the Philippines were officially annexed 
 Spain in 1569, and till 1898 remained an intej 
 part of the Spanish dominion. A rebellion 
 1896 went on till the Spanish-American war 
 begun in 1898. As a result of the war the isla 
 
PHILIPPOPOLIS 
 
 655 
 
 PIAUHY 
 
 were ceded to the United States (1898) on a pay- 
 ment of £4,000,000. Besides Manila (the capital ; 
 pop. 294,000) there are several other considerable 
 towns— Banang (39,000), Lipa (38,000), San Mignel 
 (35,000), Laoag (30,000), Cabaera (30,000), and San 
 Carlos (27,000). The exports amount to £6,000,000 
 annually— chiefly of sugar, hemp, tobacco, and 
 copra. There is a submarine cable to Hong- 
 kong. See works by Sir J, Bowring (1851), Fore- 
 man (1899), Kobinson (N.Y. 1901), and Blair and 
 Robertson (55 vols. 1903 et seq.). 
 
 Philippo'polis, capital of Eastern Roumelia or 
 Southern Bulgaria, on the navigable Maritza, 110 
 miles by rail W. by N. of Adrianople. It manu- 
 factures silk, cotton, tobacco, leather, &c., and 
 prepares and exports otto of roses (to the value 
 of £55,000). It is the seat of a Greek archbishop. 
 Population, 43,800. 
 
 Philippsburg, a town of Baden, on the Rhine's 
 right bank, 16 miles N. of Carlsruhe. Fortified 
 until 1800, it was often besieged. Pop. 2922. 
 
 Phllipstown, a market-town of King's County, 
 49 miles W. by S. of Dublin, took its name from 
 Queen Mary's consort, Philip of Spain. Pop. 780. 
 
 Philllpsburg, a city of New Jersey, on the 
 Delaware River (crossed by two railroad bridges), 
 opposite Easton, at the western terminus of the 
 Morris Canal, and 73 miles W. of New York by 
 rail. It contains a rolling-mill, foundries, boiler- 
 and locomotive-works, &c. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Phocaea, the most northerly of the Ionian cities 
 in Asia Minor, stood on a peninsula between the 
 gulfs of Elais and Smyrna. 
 
 Phocis, a province of ancient Greece, west of 
 Bceotia, and N. of the Gulf of Corinth. With 
 Phthiotis it forms a province of modern Greece. 
 
 Phoenicia (Gr. Phoenike) was a comparatively 
 narrow strip of country lying to the north of 
 Palestine, along the coast of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, bounded by that sea westwards, and east- 
 wards extending to the mountain-crests of Bar- 
 gylus and Lebanon. The coast-line was about 
 230 miles in length, and the area of Phcenicia 
 proper about 3000 sq. m. The tract included 
 within these limits is one of a remarkably 
 diversified character ; lofty mountain, steep 
 wooded hill, chalky slope, rich alluvial plain, 
 and sandy shore succeeding each other. This 
 was the home of a famous and enterprising Semitic 
 people, the Phoenicians, who in 1600-1300 b.c. 
 seem to have been dependent on Egypt. After 
 this date the country rose to a high pitch of 
 prosperity and influence, and its people became 
 famous for their trading and nautical enterprise, 
 for their great colonies, their glass manufactures, 
 purple dye, and metal utensils. Perhaps their 
 greatest gift to civilisation was the alphabet, 
 from which practically all civilised systems of 
 writing and printing are derived ; possibly they 
 developed it out of one of the Egyptian hiero- 
 glyphic systems. Sidon and Aradus were 
 amongst the most ancient cities ; Tyre the 
 greatest and most populous. Carthage was the 
 greatest foreign colony, surpassing the mother- 
 country in power; but there were Phoenician 
 settlements in states in Asia Minor, the Greek 
 islands, Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, the Balearic 
 islands, and southern Spain (Carthagena, Tartes- 
 Bus, &c.). Phoenicians traded for tin and copper 
 with Cornwall and the Scilly islands, and with 
 the Baltic for amber ; and seem to have been a 
 means of exchanging the produce of Greece and 
 the extreme west with those of Babylon, Persia, 
 India, and East Africa. Hiram of Tyre cherished 
 
 friendly relations with David and Solomott. 
 Like Palestine, Phoenicia had to bow the neck to 
 the Assyrian yoke (880-030 B.C.), Egypt and 
 Babylon then quarrelled over Phoenicia, which 
 next fell a prey to Persia (527-333), and, after the 
 famous seven months' siege of Tyre to 332, to 
 Alexander the Great and his successors. See 
 works by Canon G. Rawlinson (1889). 
 
 Phoenix, since 1891 the capital of Arizona, in 
 the Salt River valley, 35 miles N. by a branch- 
 line from the Southern Pacific railway, and 890 
 miles SE. of San Francisco. Pop. 5600. 
 
 Phoenix Park. See Dublin. 
 
 Phcenixville, a town of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Schuylkill River, 28 miles NW. of Philadelphia. 
 Here are the extensive works of the Phoenix 
 Iron Company and the Phoenix Bridge Company. 
 Other manufactures are cotton goods, stockings, 
 shirts, needles, pottery, &c. Pop. 9200. 
 
 Phrygia (Fridj'ia), a country in Asia Minor, 
 which at the time of the Persian invasion 
 comprised the districts of Lesser and Greater 
 Phrygia — the former stretching along the shores 
 of the Propontis and the Hellespont to Troas 
 (afterwards part of Mysia), the latter occupying 
 the centre of Asia Minor. 
 
 Phthiotis, the south-east corner of Thessaly, 
 the home of Achilles. 
 
 Piacenza (P'yachent^a), a city of northern 
 Italy, on the right bank of the Po, a little below 
 its confluence with the Trebbia, 43 miles by rail 
 SE. of Milan, and 35 NW. of Parma. It is de- 
 fended with bastioned walls and an outer ring of 
 forts. The cathedral, in the Lombard-Roman- 
 esque style (1122-1233), has an immense crypt, a 
 campanile 223 feet high, and paintings by L, 
 Carracci, Guercino, &c. The church of Sant' 
 Antonino, the original cathedral, was founded in 
 324, but has been several times rebuilt. The 
 church of Santa Maria della Campagna is adorned 
 with fine frescoes by Pordenone ; and it was for 
 San Sisto that Raphael painted the celebrated 
 Sistine Madonna, sold in 1754 by the monks to 
 Frederick Augustus of Saxony. Among the other 
 buildings are the Palazzo Farnese (1558), once a 
 sumptuous edifice, but since 1800 in use as 
 barracks ; the communal palace (1281) ; the 
 palace of justice ; and 2 miles E. the theological 
 seminary founded by Cardinal Alberoni. The 
 municipal library contains 120,000 volumes. The 
 principal square is adorned with colossal bronze 
 equestrian statues of Alessandro and Ranuccio 
 Farnese. Manufactures of silks, cottons, pottery, 
 hats, &c. are carried on. Founded as Placentia 
 by the Romans in 219 b.c, Piacenza was cap- 
 tured by the Gauls in 200 and by Totila in 546, 
 was the scene of two church councils in 1095 and 
 1132, was sacked by Sforza in 1447, and finally 
 was united with Parma (q.v.). Pop. 36,987. 
 
 Plana Dei Greci (Piah'na Day-ee Greh'chee), a 
 town of Sicily, 10 miles SW. of Palermo. It was 
 the chief Albanian colony in Sicily in the 15th 
 century. Pop. 8847. 
 
 Piatlgorsk, a town in Russian Caucasia, at 
 the southern foot of Mount Beshtau (4587 feet), 
 facing Mount Elburz, and 124 miles by rail NW. 
 of Vladikavkaz, with warm sulphur-springs (83-7' 
 to 117-5° F.). Pop. 18,665. 
 
 Piatra, a town of Moldavia, 60 miles W. by S. 
 of Jassy, on the Bistritza, at the foot of the Car« 
 pathians, has a trade in timber. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Piauhy, a maritime province of northern Brazil, 
 of which Parauahyba (q.v.) is the principal town- 
 
PIAZ2A 
 
 556 
 
 PINOS 
 
 Piazza (Peeat/a), an episcopal town of Sicily, 
 16 miles SE. of Caltanisetta. Pop. 27,038. 
 
 Plc'ardy (Picardie), an ancient province in the 
 north of France, bounded W. by the English 
 Channel, and now forming the dep. of Somme, 
 with portions of Aisne and Pas-de-Calais. 
 
 Pic du Midi (Peak dil Meedee'), a summit of the 
 Pyrenees, 9466 feet high, in the south-east corner 
 of the French dep. of Basses-Pyrenees. 
 
 PicMncha (Pitcheen'tcha ; 'boiling mountain'), 
 the most populous province of Ecuador, em- 
 braces the Quito plateau and its slopes. Area, 
 8300 sq. m. ; pop. 205,000. The active volcano of 
 Pichincha, 8 miles NW. of Quito, the chief town, 
 has five peaks, two of which (15,918 feet) Mr 
 Whymper ascended in 1880. The enormous crater, 
 nearly a mile across at the top, and 1500 feet at 
 the bottom (which is 2500 feet below), is said to 
 be the deepest in the world. 
 
 Pickering, in the North Riding, 32 miles NNE. 
 of Yoik, has a ruined castle and a fine parisli 
 church. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Picton, capital of Prince Edward county in 
 Ontario, 38 miles S\V. of Kingston, has canning 
 industries. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Pictou (Pictoo'), a port on the N. coast of Nova 
 Scotia, on a large and sheltered harbour, 85 miles 
 NNE. of Halifax. Coal, mined nearby, is exported. 
 Sir J. W. Dawson was a native. Pop. 3250. 
 Picts' Work Ditch. See Catrail. 
 Piedmont, or Piemont (Peed'mont; Fr. pron. 
 Pyay-mon^' ; pied, 'foot,' mont, 'mountain'), a 
 former Italian principality, which now forms the 
 north-west part of the kingdom of Italy, is by 
 the Alps separated from Switzerland on the N. 
 and from France on the W. It embraces the 
 provinces of Alessandria, Cuneo, Novara, and 
 Turin. Area, 11,389 sq. m. ; pop. 3,365,000. See 
 a work by S. Butler (new ed. 1890). 
 
 Pieria (Pye-er'i-a), a coast district of ancient 
 Macedon, at the base of the Olympus, the fabled 
 birthplace of the Muses and of Orpheus. 
 
 Pierre (Pee-err'), the capital of South Dakota, 
 is a small town in the centre of the state, on tlie 
 Missouri River, at the mouth of Bad River, 781 
 miles by rail WNW. of Chicago. Pop. 3235. 
 Piershill. See Jock's Lodge. 
 Pietermaritzburg (Peetermar'itzioorg), or 
 Maritzburg, capital of Natal (q.v.), occupies a 
 fine situation near the river Umgeni, 54 miles N. 
 of Durban by rail. The chief buildings are 
 government house and the office of the colonial 
 secretary. It takes its name from its founders, 
 the Boer leaders Pieter Retief and Gert Maritz. 
 Pop. 35,000 (20,000 Europeans). 
 
 Pike's Peak, a peak (14,134 feet) of the Rocky 
 Mountains, in Colorado, 65 miles S. of Denver, 
 discovered by Captain Pike, U.S.A., in 1806. It 
 is situated in 38° 50' N. lat. and 105° 2' W. long. 
 On its summit is one of the highest meteorological 
 stations in the world. There is a railway to the 
 top, 9 miles long (4^ miles of curves), with a 
 maximum gradient of 1 in 4. 
 
 Pilatus, Mount (Swiss pron. Pee-lah'toos ; Lat. 
 Mons Pileatiis, 'the hooded peak,' from its top 
 being frequently enveloped in cloud ; the Pilate 
 legends have grown out of the altered name), an 
 isolated mountain at the W. end of the Lake of 
 Lucerne, rising opposite the Rigi. The lower half 
 is clothed with wood and meadow; the upper 
 portion is a mass of bare and jagged peaks, in 
 tlie Tomlishorn attaining 6998 feet. Below the 
 summit lies Lake Pilatus. On two of the peaks 
 
 there are hotels ; and since 1889 there has bei 
 tooth-and-rack railway from Alpiiach to the 
 whence there is a splendid view of the Bernese A 
 
 Pilcomayo (Pil-co-mye'o), a river of Sc 
 America, which takes its rise in two branche 
 the Bolivian Andes, in the dep. of Potosi, fl 
 in a very winding course south-east through 
 Gran Chaco, separating Paraguay and Argent 
 and finally joins the Rio Paraguay a little be 
 Asuncion. Its length is 1700 miles. The voli 
 of water brought down is comparatively insig 
 cant, much being spent in lagunes on its \ 
 It is rendered like brine by the great salt h 
 of the Chaco. There have been many attem 
 all fruitless, made to open the river route 
 tween Argentina and Bolivia. 
 
 Pilibhit, a town in the United Provinces 
 miles NB. of Bareilly by rail. Pop. 33,799. 
 
 Pillar Mountain, in Ennerdale, Cumberls 
 
 2927 feet high, 
 
 Pillau (Pil-lou'), a Prussian fortified town, ( 
 spit of land at the entrance of the Frisches E 
 30 miles W. of Konigsberg by rail. Pop, 4000 
 
 Pillnitz, the ordinary summer residence of 
 Saxon royal family, in a beautiful situation 
 the Elbe, 5 miles SE. of Dresden, 
 
 Pllsen, the second town of Bohemia, in a 
 tile and beautiful valley, 67 miles by rail SW 
 Prague, There are numerous active industr 
 producing building materials, machinery, me 
 work, porcelain, spirits, liqueurs, leather, 
 In the neighbourhood are mines of iron, all 
 vitriol, coal, and sulphuric acid ; and the tc 
 gives its name to the best Bohemian beer. Pil 
 was stormed by Ziska in the Hussite War and 
 Count Mansfeld in the Thirty Years' War (161 
 it was Wallenstein's head(iuarters in 1633- 
 Pop. (1869) 23,681 ; (1900) 68,079. 
 
 Pim'lico, a district of Westminster, soutli 
 the Green Park. 
 
 Pind Dadan Khan, a town in the Punj 
 1 mile N. of the Jhelum and 110 miles NW 
 Lahore. The people (17,724) make brass { 
 copper utensils, pottery, and woollens. 
 
 Pindus, See Greece, p. 811. 
 
 Pine Bluflf, capital of Jefferson cour 
 Arkansas, on a high bluff on the S. bank of 
 Arkansas River, 120 miles from its mouth, ; 
 43 by rail SSE. of Little Rock, It ships cott 
 and manufactures iron, cotton-seed oil, flc 
 bricks, &c. Pop. (1880) 3203 ; (1900) 11,500, 
 
 Pinero'lo, or Pignerol, a cathedral city 
 north Italy, at the east foot of the Alps, 23 m: 
 S W. of Turin, From 1042 a town of Savoy, it i 
 until 1713 strongly fortified, having a citadel, 
 which the Man with the Iron Mask, Lauzun, i 
 Fouquet were imprisoned. This fortress was 
 French hands, 1536-74, 1630-96, 1704-6, and m 
 14. Cloth, paper, leather, cotton, and silk ; 
 manufactured. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Pinkie, the scene of a battle fought on 1( 
 September 1547 near Musselburgh in Midlothij 
 in which 14,000 English under the Protec 
 Somerset.routed twice that number of Scots, 
 
 Pinner, a Middlesex parish, 2^ miles NW, 
 Harrow, with the Commercial Travellers' schi 
 (1855), Pop, 3370, 
 
 Pines (Pee'nos), Isla de, a Spanish island 
 the West Indies, south of Cuba, of which it is t 
 largest dependency. Discovered by Columbus 
 1494, it is part low and swampy, and part hii 
 (1600 feet). Area, 1200 sq. m, ; pop, 2200. 
 
FINSE 
 
 557 
 
 PITCAIRN ISLAND 
 
 Pinsk, a town of West Russia, 98 miles by rail 
 E. of Brest-Litovsk. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Piombino {Fyombee'no), a fonner principality 
 of Italy, lies opposite the island of Elba. Its 
 extent was 139 sq. m. ; and its pop., previous 
 to its incorporation with Italy in 1860, about 
 25,000. The town of Piombino, on a promontory 
 50 miles S. of Leghorn, is connected by a branch- 
 line (1892) with Campiglia, and is the seat of large 
 iron-rolling mills. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Piotrkow (Cer. Petrikau), a town of Russian 
 Poland, 87 miles by rail SW. of Warsaw. Pop. 
 32,200.— The government has an area of 4730 
 sq. m. and a population of 1,410,000, and is a 
 centre of the cotton and woollen industries. 
 
 Piqua, a city of Ohio, on the Miami River 
 (here crossed by two bridges), 28 miles by rail N. 
 of Dayton. It has manufactures of flour, furni- 
 ture, mattresses, &c. Pop. 12,200. 
 
 Piraeus (Pye-ree'us; Gr. Peiraieus), called also 
 Port Draco, the harbour of Athens since the 
 days of Pericles ; this ruler and Cimon before 
 him built the three 'long walls' that connected 
 it with the capital (5 miles to the NE.), and so 
 ensured a safe passage from one to the other. 
 Its fortifications were destroyed by Sulla in 86 
 B.C., and from that time the town sank into 
 decay. The modern Piraeus, which has grown 
 up since 1834, is a mean-looking place, with 
 a naval and military school, arsenal depots, 
 and some manufactures. A railway connects it 
 with Athens, and with the Turkish frontier. 
 Tlie imports include coal, railway plant, petro- 
 leum, sheep, and cattle ; the exports, tobacco, 
 valonia, hides, bones, horns, cheese, wool, &c. 
 Pop. (1871) 11,000 ; (1879) 21,055 ; (1900) 42,169. 
 
 Pirano (Pee-rah'no), a seaport of Austria, on a 
 promontory on the S. side of the Gulf of Trieste 
 and 12 miles SW. of Trieste city. Pop. 13,340. 
 
 Pirmasena {Peer-mah'zens), a town of the 
 Bavarian Palatinate, 34 miles by rail W. of 
 Landau. It manufactures shoes and musical 
 instruments. Close by the Prussians defeated 
 the French in 1793. Pop. 30,200. 
 
 Plrna, a Saxon town, stands on the Elbe's left 
 bank, 11 miles by rail SE. of Dresden. Here are 
 a fine 16th-century church ; a castle (1573), used 
 as a lunatic asylum since 1811 ; manufactures of 
 glass, chemicals, tobacco, stoves, &c. ; and great 
 sandstone-quarries. Pop. 18,898. 
 
 Plrot', a town of Servia, on the Nischava, 30 
 miles ESE. of Nisch. Pop. 10,450. 
 
 Pisa (Pee-za), one of the oldest cities of Italy, 
 the rival of Venice and Genoa, is situated on the 
 Arno, 6 miles from its mouth, by rail 49 miles W. 
 of Florence, and 13 NB. of Leghorn. It was 
 formerly a great port, but as the river has silted 
 up and long ceased to be navigable, its commerce 
 has been transferred to Leghorn. Tlie cathedral 
 (1063-1118), with a noble dome, fine paintings by 
 Cimabue, Andrea del Sarto, &c. , has the form of 
 a Latin cross, 311 feet long by 252 wide ; the 
 nave is 109 feet high. Externally it has a mag- 
 nificent fagade of four superimposed rows of 
 pilasters and arches, and fine bronze doors by 
 Giovanni da Bologna and others. Near the 
 cathedral stands the round marble campanile, 
 the ' Leaning Tower of Pisa ' (1174-c. 1350), a mag- 
 nificent specimen of the southern Romanesque 
 architecture, which is 183 feet high, and deviates 
 14 feet from the perpendicular— a peculiarity not 
 due to original design. The marble Baptistery, 
 or Church of St John (1152-1278), opposite the 
 cathedral, is circular, and supports a dome, 
 
 crowned with a cupola. The interior, noted for its 
 wonderful echo, contains the grand and elabo- 
 rate pulpit of Niccola Pi.sano (1260) and a large 
 marble font. The beginning of the Campo 
 Santo, the famous burial-place, was several loads 
 of earth brought from Jerusalem ; in 1278-83 it 
 was surrounded by cloisters by Giovanni Pisano, 
 whose walls were adorned with fresco-paintings 
 by Orcagna and others. The university (1338) 
 has a natural history museum, a botanical garden, 
 a library (1742) of 120,000 volumes, 60 lecturers, 
 and 600 students. Amongst natives may be named 
 the popes Eugenius III. and Nicholas V., the 
 Visconti, Giovanni (but not Niccola) Pisano, and 
 Galileo. The industrial activity is now confined 
 to cottons, silks, ribbons, and the working of 
 coral and alabaster. Dromedaries are bred at a 
 royal farm near. Pop. 61,350. 
 
 Pisagua (Pee-zah'gwa), a small port of the now 
 Chilian province of TarapacA, 40 miles N. of 
 Iquique by rail ; pop. 2131. It was bombarded 
 during the Chilian civil war in 1891. 
 
 Piscat'aqua, a river which is part of the 
 boundary between Maine and New Hampshire, 
 and forms the harbour of Portsmouth. 
 
 Pisek', a walled town of Bohemia, on an affluent 
 of the Moldau, 84 miles by rail S. by W. of 
 Prague. It manufactures iron, brass, paper, 
 boots, hats, &c. Pop. 14,596. 
 
 Pisgah, the mountain-range to the east of the 
 Lower Jordan, also called Abarim, one of whose 
 summits is Mount Nebo (2644 feet). 
 
 Pishin, a district of Southern Afghanistan, just 
 north of Quetta, which has been governed by a 
 British political agent since 1878. Area, 3600 
 sq. m. ; elevation, 5000 feet ; pop. 60,000. A 
 branch of the Indus line traverses it. 
 
 Pisidia, an ancient southern division of Asia 
 Minor, was separated from the sea by the narrow 
 strip of Pamphylia. 
 
 Pistoia (Pis-to'ya ; anc. Pistoria), a walled town 
 of Italy, stands 21 miles by rail NW. of Florence, 
 on a spur of the Apennines. The cathedral 
 (12th and 13th centuries) contains a magtiificent 
 altar of silver (1286-1407) ; the church of St Bar- 
 tholomew, a fine white marble pulpit by Guido 
 of Como (1250) ; St Andrea's, Giovanni Pisano's 
 pulpit (1301) ; and St John's, a font by Giovanni 
 Pisano. The principal manufactures are iron and 
 steel wares, and firearms— the word 'pistol' in 
 all probability takes its name through pistolese, 
 'a dagger,' from Pistoia (Pistoia). Pop. 30,190. 
 Here Catiline was defeated in 62 e.g. 
 
 Pltcaim Island, a solitary island in the Pacific 
 Ocean, between Australia and South America, in 
 25° 3' S. lat. and 130' 8' W. long., measures 2 J 
 miles by 1 mile. When discovered by Carteret 
 in 1767 it was uninhabited. In 1790 it was 
 taken possession of by nine of the mutineers of 
 H.M.S. Bounty, with six Tahitian men and a 
 dozen women. Four years later the Tahitian 
 men one night murdered all the Englishmen, 
 except one, who afterwards assumed the name 
 of John Adams. Thereupon the women, in 
 revenge, murdered all the Tahitian men. Accord- 
 ing to another account, the white men and the 
 Tahitians murdered each other at intervals. 
 Certain it is that at the end of ten years 
 John Adams was left alone, with eight or nine 
 women and several children ; and from them the 
 present inhabitants (126 in 1901) are descended. 
 Adams, changed by these tragic adventures, 
 set about the Christian education of his com- 
 panions, The little colony was discovered in 
 
PITCAITHLY 
 
 558 
 
 PLASENCIA 
 
 1808 by an American sealing ship ; the first 
 British vessel to visit it arrived in 1814. The 
 islanders in 1831 had increased to 87, so at their 
 own request they were removed to Tahiti by the 
 British government. But, disgusted by their 
 Tahitian relatives, most of them came back to 
 Pitcairn Island after about nine months. The 
 island was annexed to Britain in 1839. Nearly 
 200 of the islanders were transferred to Norfolk 
 Island in 1856, but a number of them again 
 returned. Pitcairn Island enjoys a lovely climate ; 
 its mountainous surface reaches 1008 feet in Out- 
 look Ridge ; the soil is fertile, and produces yams, 
 cocoa-nuts, bread-fruit, sweet potatoes, bananas, 
 &c. The people are degenerating, from inter- 
 marriage and tlieir being able to live without 
 exertion. See works by Sir J. Barrow (1831), 
 Lady Belcher (1870), and T. B. Murray (1854; 
 new ed. 1885). 
 
 Pitcalthly, or Pitkeathley, mineral springs 
 in Perthshire, 4^ miles S. of Perth. 
 
 Pitch Lake. See Trinidad. 
 
 Pitcur, Perthshire, 3 miles SE. of Coupar- 
 Angus, has a large weem and a ruined castle. 
 
 Pitlochry, a Perthshire village, on the Tum- 
 mel's left bank, 13 miles NNW. of Dunkeld. It 
 is a great health and summer resort, and has a 
 tweed factory. Pop. 1530. 
 
 Pitsligo, New, a town of Aberdeenshire, 11 
 miles SW. of Fraserburgh, Pop. 1676. 
 
 Pittenweem, a seaport of Fife, a royal (since 
 1542) and parliamentary burgh (St Andrews 
 group), 3^ miles NE. of Elie by rail, with fisheries 
 and a ruined 12th-century priory. Pop. 1802. 
 
 Pittsburgh (Pitts'burg), the second city of Penn- 
 sylvania, is built on a narrow strip of land where 
 the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers meet to 
 form the Ohio : it extends 7 or 8 miles up the 
 rivers, and 2 or 3 down the Ohio. By rail it is 
 444 miles from New York, 354 from Philadelphia, 
 and 468 frona Chicago. Allegheny City (q.v.), 
 north of the Allegheny River, is a distinct 
 municipality. The business portion of Pitts- 
 burgh is on a plain, less than a mile in width, 
 while the hills are covered with handsome resi- 
 dences. In this region, where the prevailing soft 
 shales and sandstones have been worn away by 
 the rivers to a depth of 500 or 600 feet, the hori- 
 zontal layers of coal are exposed ; the great Pitts- 
 burgh coal layer, 8 feet thick, lilce a broad black 
 band extends around the city 300 feet above the 
 river. Tlie court-house, costing §2,500,000, is of 
 Quincy granite, and is connected with the jail by 
 a 'bridge of sighs.' The government building 
 cost $1,500,000, and there are besides a city hall, 
 the Exposition Building, a large R. C. cathedral, 
 and Trinity Church (Episcopal). Pittsburgh is 
 the seat of a Catholic college ; its Carnegie free 
 library was built, and the Carnegie Institute 
 built and endowed, in 1890. Tlie three rivers 
 are crossed by fifteen bridges ; and the diflferent 
 parts of the city are connected by several lines 
 of electric cars. 
 
 Pittsburgh is now one of the most important 
 industrial cities in the United States. The 
 district, which practically extends over 25 miles 
 up the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers and 
 10 miles down the Ohio (Including the allied 
 boroughs of Allegheny and McKeesport and 
 about thirty smaller boroughs), is the great 
 centre of the steel, iron, and glass industries of 
 the United States. Its coalfields are very rich, 
 and it is an extensive shipping-point for bitu- 
 niinous coal. {ncluding the great Carnegie 
 
 steel- works at Homestead, and the Westinghous 
 works, the district contains nearly 3500 manii 
 factories, with an estimated capital of ove 
 $1,800,000,000, and employing over 240,00 
 people. Its manufactures Include everythiu] 
 that can be made of iron, froni a 58-ton gun ti 
 nails and tacks ; steel in its various applications 
 all descriptions of glass and glassware ; silve 
 and nickel-plated ware ; Japan and Britannii 
 ware ; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes 
 earthenware, crucibles, fire-pots, bricks ; furni 
 ture, wagons and carriages ; brushes, bellows 
 mechaniical supplies of all kinds ; natural-ga 
 fittings, and tools for oil and gas wells. Afte 
 1883 natural gas was largely used for domestic 
 and manufacturing purposes ; but of late tin 
 supply is less abundant, and the manufac 
 tories have returned to the use of coal. Ove 
 $15,000,000 have been spent in dams anc 
 locks on the Allegheny, Monongahela, an( 
 Ohio, to give slack-water navigation, and ai 
 ultimate expenditure of $50,000,000 is contem 
 plated. Tlie traffic on these rivers is enormous 
 chiefly coal and iron manufactures. Mucl 
 lumber-rafting is done on the Allegheny. Th 
 assessed value of Pittsburgh in 1903 wa 
 $375,163,000, and the revenue for general pur 
 poses was just over $7,094,200. In 1754 a fev 
 English traders built a stockade here, but wen 
 driven away by the French. The latter replacec 
 the stocka<le by a fort, which, in honour of thi 
 governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. Ii 
 1758 it was taken by the English, who next yea: 
 commenced a large and strong fortification 
 which, in honour of the elder Pitt, then priine 
 minister, they called Fort Pitt. The settlemen 
 became a borough in 1804, and in 1816 wai 
 incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. Pop 
 (1810) 4768; (1840) 21,115; (1870) 86,076 (wltl 
 Birmingham, included soon after, 121,799); (1880 
 156,389; (1900)321,616. 
 
 Pittsfield, capital of Berkshire county, Massa 
 chusetts, 151 miles by rail W. of Boston. Beautl 
 fully situated on a plateau where six lakes rount 
 the city give rise to the Housatonlc River, it hai 
 a marble court-house, a handsome athenaeum, an( 
 a fine park. Cotton and woollen goods, silk 
 boots and shoes, and tacks are manufactured 
 Pop. 22,500. 
 
 PittSton, a mining-town of Pennsylvania, oi 
 the Susquehanna River, 9 miles by rail NE. o 
 Wllkesbarre. Besides a railway bridge, there an 
 two other bridges connecting it with West Pitts 
 ton. It has foundries, knitting-mills, and a silk 
 factory. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Piuro (P'yoo'ro), near the Val d'Aosta, once i 
 rich city full of palaces, was crushed with all iti 
 wealth and thousands of people by the fall in 1611 
 of an overhanging mountain. It now is a chao: 
 of wooded knolls and moss-grown rocks. 
 
 Pladda, an islet with a lighthouse off" the SE 
 extremity of Arran. Pop. 6. 
 
 Plainfield, a city of New Jersey, on Greei 
 Brook, 24 miles by rail WSW. of New York 
 Clothing, hats, and machinery are manufactured 
 Pop. 15,800. 
 
 Plaistow, an East London district, in Wes' 
 Ham parliamentary borough. 
 
 Plasencia, a decayed town of Spain, in Estre 
 madura, 130 miles W. by S. of Madrid, is sur 
 rounded with double walls (1197), and has a fin( 
 Gothic cathedral (1498). Pop. 8000. The monas 
 tery of San Yuste, to which Charles V. retired 
 lies 24 miles E. 
 
PLASSEY 
 
 559 
 
 PLYMOUTH 
 
 Plassey (Bengali Paldsi), a battlefield, 96 miles 
 N. of Calcutta, on the Bliagirathi River, which 
 has eaten away the scene of tlie struggle. Here 
 Clive defeated Suraj ud Dowlah, subahdar of 
 Bengal, 23d June 1757, a victory which laid the 
 foundation of British supremacy in India. 
 
 Plataea (Gr. Plataiai), a city in the western 
 part of Boeotia, on the borders of Attica, and at 
 the foot of Mount Cithseron, 6 miles from Thebes. 
 In 479 B.C. it witnessed the glorious victory won 
 by the Lacedaemonian Greeks, under Pausanias 
 and Aristides, over the Persians ; in 429-27 it was 
 besieged by a Theban-Lacedsemoniau force, and 
 razed to the ground. 
 
 Platte, or Nebraska, an affluent of the Miss- 
 ouri, formed by the junction of the North and 
 South Forlts, which rise among the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, in Colorado, and flow 800 and 550 miles. 
 It winds 450 miles eastward, in a wide shallow 
 stream, over the treeless plains of Nebraska. 
 
 Platten-See. See Balaton. 
 
 Plattsburg, capital of Clinton county, New 
 York, on Lake Champlain, at the mouth of the 
 river Saranac, 73 miles by rail S. of Montreal. 
 It has planing-mills, machine-shops, and manu- 
 factures of iron, wagons, and sewing-machines. 
 In Plattsburg Bay, on September 11, 1814, a 
 British flotilla was defeated. Pop. 9010. 
 
 Plattsmouth, capital of Cass county, Nebraska, 
 on the Missouri, below the mouth of the Platte, 
 and 21 miles by rail S. of Omaha. It manufac- 
 tures flour, engines, organs, &c. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Plauen (Ploiu'en), a town of Saxony, on the 
 Elster, 78 miles S. of Leipzig by rail. It manu- 
 factures cotton goods, muslin, cambric, jaconet, 
 embroidered fabrics, cigars, paper, and machineryc 
 Pop. (1875) 28,756 ; (1900) 73,891. 
 
 Playford, a Suffolk parish, 4 miles ENE. of 
 Ipswich. Clarkson lived and died here, 
 
 Plessis-les-Tours. See Tours. 
 
 Plevna, a town of Bulgaria, 19 miles S. of the 
 Danube and 85 NE. of Sophia ; pop. 18,546. Here 
 in December 1877 Osman Pasha, the Turkish 
 general, after a three months' defence, was forced 
 to surrender to the Russians. 
 
 Plinlimmon, a large mountain -mass (2469 feet) 
 of Wales with three summits, on the boundary 
 between Montgomery and Cardigan, 10 miles W. 
 of Llanidloes. The name is said to be a corrup- 
 tion of a Celtic word signifying Five Rivers, the 
 Severn, Wye, and three other rivers rising here. 
 
 Plock (Ger. Plozk), an ancient town of Russian 
 Poland, on the Vistula, 60 miles NW. of Warsaw, 
 with an 11th-century cathedral. Pop. 28,660. 
 
 Plojeshtl, or Ploesci, a town of Roumania, 37 
 miles by rail N. of Bucharest, with petroleum- 
 refineries. Pop. 42,700. 
 
 Plombleres (Plomb-yehr'), a^spa in the French 
 dep. of Vosges, 14 miles S. of Epinal, was brought 
 into fashion by Napoleon III., though its waters 
 were known to the Romans. There are nearly 
 thirty springs of from 66° to 150° F. ; they are 
 helpful against skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, 
 dyspepsia, female complaints, &c. A handsome 
 casino was opened in 1876. Pop. 1819. 
 
 Plumstead. See Erith. 
 
 Plus'carden, a ruined Cistercian priory (1230), 
 6 miles SW. of Elgin. See Macphail's work (1881). 
 
 Plymouth (Plim'muth), one of the most famous 
 of English seaports, an ancient parliamentary, 
 municipal, and county borough, lies in the ex- 
 treme Syf. corner of Devonshire, 246 mijes by 
 
 rail (216 by road) WSW. of London, 128 SW. of 
 Bristol, and 53 SW. of Exeter. It occupies the 
 northern shore of Plymouth Sound, immediately 
 at the mouth of the Plym. The remaining space 
 between it and the Hamoaze, the estuary of the 
 Tamar, is occupied by the sister but much smaller 
 town of Stonehouse (q.v.), while still farther west, 
 along the Hamoaze itself, stretches the third of 
 the 'Three Towns,' Devonport (q.v.), now all 
 united by continuous lines of houses. The chief 
 government establishments are at Devonport— 
 the dockyard, gun-wharf, steam-factory, and 
 principal barracks ; while Stonehouse has the 
 victualling yard, marine barracks, and naval 
 hospital. Plymouth is the chief seat of com- 
 merce, trade, and manufacture. The site is a 
 very fine one. Between the two natural inlet 
 harbours of Sutton Pool and Mill Bay stretches 
 the bold rocky ridge of the Plymouth Hoe, its 
 eastern end occupied by a citadel built by 
 Cliarles II. Northward the ground rises in a 
 series of long hills, along which the town stretches 
 until it passes into a suburban hill of singular 
 attractiveness. From the Hoe there are mag- 
 nificent views both seaward and landward. Here, 
 according to tradition, the captains of the fleet 
 assembled to meet the Armada whiled away the 
 time with a game of bowls, which was not inter- 
 rupted by the news of the enemy's approach ; and 
 here stand a tercentenary memorial to the Armada 
 heroes (1890), and a statue (1884) of Sir Francis 
 Drake (one of Boehm's finest works). The upper 
 portion of the lighthouse erected by Smeaton on 
 the Eddystone (q.v.) was also rebuilt here in 1882- 
 84. Old Plymouth is chiefly clustered round the 
 shores of Sutton Pool — a dingy unattractive set 
 of narrow streets ; but of recent years miles of 
 excellent thoroughfares and many handsome 
 buildings have been erected, chief among them 
 a noble Gothic guildhall, opened in 1874 by the 
 Prince of Wales, Lord High Steward of the 
 borough. The 15th-century church of St Andrew 
 is a fine Perpendicular edifice ; Charles Church 
 (1646-58) is a singularly good example of post- 
 Reformation Gothic ; the Rom'an Catholic cathe- 
 dral is an effective Early English edifice (1858). 
 The Cottonian collection of sketches by the lead- 
 ing continental masters is at the Proprietary 
 Library ; there is a good local museum at 
 the Athenseum ; the South Devon Hospital was 
 opened in 1884 at a cost of £40,000; and the 
 Marine Biological Laboratory in 1888. In Mill 
 Bay are the Great Western Docks, which are 
 capable of taking the largest merchant-vessels. 
 Sutton Pool, the ancient tidal harbour of Ply- 
 mouth, in addition to a large general trade, is the 
 seat of important fisheries. Manufactures, mainly 
 chemical, are carried on — at Cattedown chiefly, 
 but also at Mill Bay. There is a large foreign, 
 and a very extensive coasting trade, and the port 
 is used by many lines of great passenger-steamers. 
 Though only a fishing-village at the Conquest, 
 under the name of Sutton, Plymouth has for 
 centuries played a leading part in the national 
 life. It was the favourite port of the Black 
 Prince ; the chief Elizabethan rendezvous of 
 Drake, Hawkins, Grenville, and Raleigh ; the 
 final port of departure of the Mayflower with the 
 Pilgrim Fathers. In the civil wars it sided with 
 the parliament, and it was the first town to 
 declare for William of Orange. In the great 
 French war it rivalled Portsmouth in naval 
 activities. Among its natives are Sir John Haw- 
 kins, Sir Richard Hawkins, Joseph Glanvill, 
 R. S. Hawker, Mortimer Collins, with North- 
 cote, Haydon, S. Prout, Sir C. Eastlake, P.R.A., 
 
PLYMOUTH 
 
 560 
 
 POLA 
 
 and S. Hart, the artists. Plymouth was first 
 incorporated by Henry VI. in 1439, and has since 
 always returned two members to parliament. 
 Pop. (1801) 43,194; (1881) 70,080 ; (1901) 107,636. 
 
 Plymouth Sound is a deep inlet, 2^ to 3 miles 
 wide, and 3 deep, into which the river Tamar 
 falls from the west, and the river Plym from the 
 east. It is sheltered by a great breakwater, con- 
 structed in 1812-41 at a cost of £1,300,000— an 
 insulated mole of stones, a mile in length, 
 stretching across the middle of the Sound, 2 
 miles from the Hoe. About lialf a mile from the 
 Hoe is a little islet, Drake's Island, which is 
 strongly fortified. A formidable stone fort has 
 also been built on an artificial island immediately 
 within the breakwater ; while on either sliore 
 there are extensive forts and batteries. The 
 estuary of the Plym is called the Cattewater, 
 and is a capacious inner mercantile anchorage, 
 protected by the Batten breakwater. The estu- 
 ary of the Tamar is called the Hamoaze, and 
 from the spot at which it enters tlie Sound 
 between Devil's Point and Mount Edgcumbe to 
 Saltash is nearly 4 miles in length— a still more 
 thoroughly protected anchorage for vessels of 
 the largest size, and occupied by men-of-war. 
 Plymouth Sound is exceedingly beautiful, and 
 has even been likened to the Bay of Naples. On 
 its western shore is Mount Edgcumbe, the de- 
 lightful seat of the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe. 
 Picturesque Rame Head is crowned by the ruins 
 of a mediaeval chapel ; and the Yealm's estuary, 
 with the peaked Mewstone at its mouth, is full of 
 romantic beauty. 
 
 See Worth's History of Plymouth (1871 ; new ed, 
 1891), and The Three Towns BiUiotheca (1873) ; 
 Jewitt's History of Plymouth (1873) ; and four 
 works by J. B, Rowe (1873-76). 
 
 Plymouth, (1) capital of Plymouth county, 
 Massachusetts, on Plymouth Bay, 37 miles by 
 rail SB. of Boston, is famous as the landing-place 
 in 1620 of tlie Pilgrim Fathers. Plymouth Rock 
 is a granite boulder at the water's edge on wliich 
 they landed. It is covered by a handsome granite 
 canopy, and there is also a national monument 
 (1858-89) to the pilgrims ; the pedestal, also of 
 granite, stands on a hill overlooking tlie landing- 
 place, and is 46 feet high, surmounted by a figure 
 of Faith, 36 feet high, with Morality, Education, 
 Freedom, and Law grouped round the base. In 
 Pilgrim Hall (1824-25) are many relics. Pop. 
 9600.— (2) A mining-town of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Susquehanna, 20 miles by rail SW. of Scranton. 
 Pop. 13,050.— (3) The capital of Montserrat(q. v.). 
 
 Plympton, a Devon market-town, near the 
 Plym, 4J miles E. by N. of Plymouth. It re- 
 turned two members till 1832. At its grammar- 
 school (1658) were educated Sir Joshua Reynolds 
 (a native) and Haydon. Pop. of parish, 1119. 
 
 Pljrnlimmon. See Plinlimmon. 
 
 Pnom Penh. See Cambodia. 
 
 Po (anc. Eridamis and Padus), the largest river 
 of Italy, rises on Monte Viso, one of the Cottian 
 Alps, at an altitude of 6405 feet, close to the 
 French frontier, and flows 360 miles E. to the 
 Adriatic. Over 55 miles from its mouth, above 
 Ferrara, it begins to form its delta, 60 miles wide 
 from north to south, and growing rapidly in area. 
 Ravenna, once on the seashore, now stands 4 
 miles inland. The Po receives from the left the 
 Ticino, Adda, Mincio, &c.,and from the right the 
 Trebbia. Below Piacenza its stream, now con- 
 siderably above the level of the plain, has from 
 ante-Roman days been embanked, 
 
 Pocklington, a market-town ip the East 
 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 16 miles ESE. of York. I 
 has an Early English church (restored 1850 
 and a grammar-school (1514 ; reconstituted 1876] 
 where Wilberforce was educated. Archbisho] 
 Ullathorne was sou of a grocer here. Pop. 2557. 
 
 Podgorltza, a town of Montenegro, 16 miles E 
 of Cetinje, ceded by Turkey in 1879. Pop. 7200. 
 
 Podolia, or Kamenetz, a government of Wes 
 or 'White' Russia, north of Bessarabia, am 
 touching Austria. Area, 16,224 sq. m. ; pof 
 3,050,000, mostly Russniaks. 
 
 Point-a-Pitre. See Guadeloupe. 
 
 Point de Galle. See Galle. 
 
 Poitiers (Fr. pron. Pwahteeay'), the capital o 
 the French dep. of Vienne, occupies the summi 
 and slopes of a little eminence, round whos 
 base flow the Clain and the Boivre, 61 mile 
 SSW. of Tours. Before the revolution it had ai 
 immense number of religious edifices, which evei 
 yet are sufficiently numerous. The most interest 
 ing are the little Temple de St Jean, originally ; 
 baptistery of the 6th or 7th century ; the abbe; 
 church of St Radegonde, with the saint's ceno 
 taph, much visited by pilgrims ; and the nobl 
 cathedral of St Pierre (1161-15th century), ii 
 which, or in the older edifice that occupied it 
 site, twenty-three councils were held— the firs 
 in the 4th, and the last in the 15th century 
 Other edifices are the Palais-de-Justice (th- 
 palace formerly of the Counts of Poitou) and tin 
 H6tel-de-Ville (1876). A university, founded b; 
 Charles VII. in 1431, is now represented by ; 
 school of law, with faculties also of science an( 
 literature. There are besides a public library o 
 30,000 volumes and 400 MSS., a museum, &c 
 Pop. (1872) 28,247 ; (1901) 39,886. Poitiers, th 
 Limonum of the Romans, derives its presen 
 name (earlier Poictiers) from the Pictavi or Pic 
 tones. In and around it are numerous Celti 
 and Roman remains, a dolmen, baths, fragment 
 of a huge amphitheatre, &c. ; and here in 1882 th 
 remains of a whole Gallo-Roman town were dis 
 covered, Avith temple, baths, and streets, sprea( 
 over 14 acres. In the vicinity Alaric II., th 
 Visigoth, was defeated and slain by Clovis ii 
 507 ; and between Poitiers and Tours Charle 
 Martel won his great victory in 732 over th 
 Saracens. Later still (19th September 1356), a 
 a spot 5 miles north of Poitiers, Edward th 
 Black Prince defeated King John of France 
 killing 11,000 and taking more than 2000 prisoners 
 among these the monarch himself and one of hi 
 sons. St Hilary was the first bishop of Poitiers 
 which long was capital of the province of Poitou 
 
 Poitou (Pwahtoo'), a former province of south 
 western France, coincident with the presen 
 deps. of Deux Sevres, Vendue, and Vienne. 
 
 Pokhurn (Pokaran), a town of India, in th 
 Rajput state of Jodhpur, 70 miles NW. of Jodh 
 pur. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Pola, the chief naval station of Austria-Hun 
 gary, near the south end of the peninsula c 
 Istria, 105 miles by rail S. of Trieste, with 
 sheltered, deep, and spacious harbour. Th 
 town is protected by forts and batteries, and i 
 overlooked by the citadel. The arsenal employ 
 2400 men. The cathedral dates from the 15tl 
 century, Pola is also a shipping port, exportin: 
 wood, fish, sand, and building stones, and im 
 porting provisions, coal, and bricks. Pop. (1851 
 1100 ; (1900) 45,205. Pola was destroyed b; 
 Augustus, but rebuilt at the request of hi 
 daughter Julia, and hence was named Pieta 
 Julia. About ?00 A-d. it had 30,000 inhabitants 
 
POLA 
 
 561 
 
 POLAND 
 
 and was a station of the Roman fleet. It was 
 destroyed in 1267 by the Venetians, who had 
 conquered it in 1148 ; and in 1379 the Genoese, 
 after routing the Venetians in a sea-fight off the 
 town, once more ravaged it. But it only passed 
 from Venice in 1797 to Austria, who made it her 
 chief naval harbour in 1848. It contains many 
 Roman remains, among them a well-preserved 
 amphitheatre, 450 feet long and 360 broad. 
 
 Poland (called by the natives Polska, a word 
 of the same root as Pole, ' a plain '), a former king- 
 dom of Europe, was, immediately previous to its 
 dismemberment, bounded N. by the Baltic Sea 
 from Danzig to Riga, and by the Russian prov- 
 inces of Riga and Pskov ; E. by the Russian 
 provinces of Smolensk, Tchernigoff, Pultowa, and 
 Kherson ; S. by Bessarabia, Moldavia, and the 
 Carpathian Mountains ; and W. by the Prussian 
 provinces of Silesia, Brandenburg, andPomerania. 
 Its greatest length from N. to S. was 713 English 
 miles, and from E. to W. 693 miles, embracing 
 an area of about 282,000 sq. m. (40,000 larger than 
 Austria-Hungary is now). This extensive tract 
 forms part of the great European central plain, 
 and is crossed by only one range of hills, which 
 run NE. from the Carpathians, forming the water- 
 shed between the Baltic and Black Seas. The 
 soil is mostly a light fertile loam, though there 
 are large barren tracts of sand, heath, and swamp, 
 especially in the east. Much of the fertile soil is 
 rich pasture-land, and much is occupied with 
 forests of pine, birch, oak, &c. Rye, wheat, 
 barley, and other cereals, hemp, timber, honey 
 and wax, cattle, sheep, and horses, vast mines of 
 salt and coal, some silver, iron, copper, and lead 
 constitute the natural riches of the country ; and 
 for commerce the Vistula, Dnieper, Dvvina, and 
 their tributaries afford great facilities. The 
 present population of the provinces included in 
 the Poland of former days consists of Poles, 
 Lithuanians, Germans, Jews, Malo-Russians, 
 Roumanians, Gypsies, &c. The Poles, who num- 
 ber 10,000,000, form the bulk of the population ; 
 the Lithuanians, 2,100,000 in number, inhabit the 
 north-east of the country ; the Germans, of 
 whom there are 2,000,000, live mostly in the 
 towns ; the Jews are very numerous, being 
 reckoned at 2,200,000. Of Roman Catholics there 
 are about 9,400,000; of members of the Greek 
 Church (including Uniates), 7,900,000 ; of Pro- 
 testants, 2,360,000 ; the rest are Jews, Armenians 
 in Galicia, &c. 
 
 The Polish people takes its name from the 
 Poliani, a tribe that early became dominant 
 amongst the Slavonic inhabitants of the Polish 
 area. The history of the kingdom begins with 
 its Christianisation about the end of the 10th 
 century; in the 11th the kingdom was extended 
 beyond the Oder, the Carpathians, and the 
 Dniester. In the 12th century a contested suc- 
 cession led to dissensions and the loss of 
 Pomerania. In the 13th the Teutonic Knights 
 were summoned by the kings to assist them, but 
 soon became the most formidable enemy of the 
 Polish monarchy, conquering large districts and 
 necessitating frequent wars. The Mongol in- 
 vasion of 1241 devastated the country, and was 
 followed by the immigration of German colonists 
 and Jews. The marriage of Hedwig or Jadviga, 
 daughter of King Louis, in 1385 to Jagiello, 
 grand-duke of Lithuania, led to the union of 
 Lithuania and Poland under the Jagellon 
 dynasty — a union made permanent and indis- 
 soluble in 1569. The kingdom at its greatest 
 extent was subdivided into about forty palatinates, 
 which were mostly governed by hex'editary chiefs. 
 2 J 
 
 The people were divided into two great classes- 
 nobles and serfs. The noble class, wliich was the 
 privileged and governing class, included the higher 
 nobles, the inferior nobles (a numerous class, corre- 
 sponding to the knights and gentry of other coun- 
 tries), and the clergy, and numbered in all 200,000 ; 
 the serfs formed the agricultural labourers, and 
 were attached to the soil. Their condition is 
 described by all travellers as a very pitiable one. 
 Such trade as the country had was mostly in the 
 hands of the Germans and Jews. The nobles were 
 the proprietors of the soil, and appropriated the 
 larger portion of its products. They were brave 
 and hospitable, but quarrelsome, and generally 
 preferred their own interests to that of their 
 country ; the serfs were sunk in poverty and 
 ignorance. Long ere the union with Lithuania, 
 the diet, first summoned in 1331, had absorbed 
 almost all the kingly power, and was becoming the 
 centre of furious and selfish dissensions amongst 
 the nobles, which did inore than anything else to 
 ruin the nation. Other causes were the feuds of 
 Catholics and Protestants, and the persecution 
 of the Greek Catholics ; the miserable condition 
 of the serfs, downtrodden by the nobles ; and 
 the want of natural frontiers. The crown was 
 practically elective — another source of difficulty 
 and civil war. Moldavia and Wallachia, long 
 under a Polish protectorate, were taken by the 
 Turks ; Livonia was conquered by Sweden (1605), 
 and ceded in 1660 ; and Brandenburg became in- 
 dependent (1657). The Cossacks, goaded by 
 Jesuit persecution, went over to Russia (1654). 
 Sobieski's glorious victory over the Turks (1683) 
 brought little good to the country, torn as it was 
 by the dissensions of the nobles. Disputed 
 elections and rival claimants to the crown led to 
 the intervention of the adjoining powers, and the 
 first partition (1772) of Poland, by which 84,000 
 sq. m. of Polish territory were divided between 
 Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Renewed dissen- 
 sions in 1792 led to a like result ; a second parti- 
 tion (1793) gave Russia and Prussia another slice 
 ofll8,000miles, in spite of the efforts of Kosciusko 
 and other patriots. A Polish national rising was 
 utterly inisuccessful, and merely precipitated the 
 tTiird 'partition (1795), when 82,000 miles of Polish 
 soil were divided amongst Russia, Prussia, and 
 Austria, and the Polish monarchy was at an end. 
 Some readjustment took place by the Treaty of 
 Vienna in 1815 ; and rebellions against Russian 
 rule in 1830, 1848, and 1863 have only brought fur- 
 ther humiliation on Polish hopes and aspirations. 
 
 The so-called ' Kingdom of Poland,' united to 
 Russia in 1815, had its own constitution till 
 1830, and a separate government till 1864, when 
 after the suppression of a widespread revolt, 
 the last visible remnant of independence was 
 taken away. The administration was at first 
 given to eight military governors, and then 
 to a commission sitting in St Petersburg. 
 Finally, in 1868, the Polish province was ab- 
 solutely incorporated with Russia, and the ten 
 governments into which it was divided are 
 grouped with the governments of Russia proper. 
 In 1867 the area of this section of old Poland 
 was about 49,000 sq. m., with a pop. of about 
 5,700,000, of whom 4,330,000 were Roman 
 Catholics. In 1905 the ten Polish provinces— 
 Kaliscz, Kielce, Lomza, Lublin, Piotrkow, 
 Plock, Radom, Siedlce, Ssuwalki, and Warsaw 
 —had a collective pop. of over 9,500,000. Com- 
 merce is still mostly in the hands of the Jews. 
 
 The Polish language, a typical representative 
 of the western Slavonic, is a highly cultivated 
 tongue, with a literature already extensive ip 
 
POLAR SEAS 
 
 562 
 
 POLYNESIA 
 
 the 16th century. Mickiewicz (1798-1855) is the 
 greatest poet; Sienkiewicz one of the most 
 esteemed and prolific of recent novelists. See 
 historical works on Poland by Lelewel (French 
 trans. 1844), Moltke's Poland (trans. 1855), and 
 Morfill's Poland (1893). 
 
 Polar Seas, the seas about the North and 
 South Poles, are the Arctic and Antarctic 
 oceans, and have been separately discussed in 
 this work under these heads, where mention is 
 made of the principal exploring expeditions to 
 either, and references given to books. 
 
 Polesworth, a Warwickshire village, on the 
 Anker, 4 miles ESE. of Tamworth. Pop. of 
 parish, 4670. 
 
 Pollgny (Pol-een-yee), a town of the French 
 dep. of Jura, prettily situated at the foot of the 
 Jura, 18 miles NE. of Lons-le-Saunier. Pop. 4180. 
 
 Pollanamia, a ruined city of Ceylon, 60 miles 
 ENB. of Kandy, with a massive dagoba, a i-ock- 
 cut temple, and a wide area of ruined buildings 
 that attest the size of the city, which became the 
 capital about 770 a.d. 
 
 PoUokshaws, a manufacturing town of Ren- 
 frewshire, on the White Cart, 3 miles SSW. of 
 Glasgow. It derives its name from the ' shaws ' 
 or woods of the estate of Pollok, held for more 
 than six centuries by the Maxwells. It was 
 made a burgh of barony in 1814 ; and its in- 
 dustries, started in 1742, comprise power-loom 
 weaving, dyeing, tapestry and chenille manu- 
 facturing, bleaching, iron-founding, paper-mak- 
 ing, &c. Pop. (1841) 4627 ; (1901) 11,369. 
 
 Pollokshields, a SW. suburb of Glasgow. 
 
 Polmont, a Stirlingshire village, 4^ miles W. 
 by N. of Linlithgow. Pop. 561. 
 
 Polotsk, a town of Russia on the Dwina, 62 
 miles by rail NW. of Vitebsk. Pop. 19,134. 
 
 Polperro, a small Cornish fishing-town, 6 miles 
 E. of Fowey. 
 
 Poltava. See Pultowa. 
 
 Polynesia (Gr. polys, ' many,* nesos, ' island '), 
 a term applied collectively by some writers to all 
 the Pacific islands of strictly oceanic character— 
 i.e. either of volcanic or coralline origin ; by 
 others restricted to the eastern groups inhabited 
 by the brown Polynesian race. Here it will be 
 taken in the broader sense so as to include all 
 the Pacific lands east of the Philippines, New 
 Guinea, and Australia, except Japan, the Kuriles, 
 Aleutians, Queen Charlotte, Vancouver, Revil- 
 lagigedo, and Galapagos, which are geographical 
 dependencies of the surrounding Asiatic and 
 American continents. These Polynesian, or 
 ' South Sea ' islands (most of them annexed by one 
 of the greater European powers), are distributed 
 over a hundred degrees of longitude from New 
 Britain (149° E.) to Easter Island (109° 17' W.), and 
 across seventy degrees of latitude from Hawaii 
 (23° N.) to Stewart Island at the southern extremity 
 of New Zealand (47° 20' S.). But the aggregate 
 extent of dry land in this boundless expanse of 
 some 11 million square miles scarcely exceeds 
 170,000 sq. m., of which nearly two-thirds are 
 coinprised in the New Zealand Archipelago, 
 while the total pop. is probably less than 
 1,500,000. Polynesia comprises the three broad 
 divisions of Micronesia, Melanesia, and East 
 Polynesia, which are determined partly by geo- 
 graphical position, and partly by ethnological 
 conditions, and each of which is again subdivided 
 into several secondary groups. Thus, Micronesia 
 (Gr. mikros, 'small/ nesos, 'island') lies in the 
 
 extreme north-west almost entirely north of th 
 equator, and consists exclusively of small vo! 
 canoes and atolls, forming the five archipelagoes 
 all inhabited by heterogeneous populations i 
 which most of the oceanic and perhaps some c 
 the continental elements are represented. S 
 also Melanesia (Gr. melas, 'black') lies in th 
 extreme west entirely south of the equator, an 
 consists mainly of comparatively large upraise 
 crystalline, coralline, and volcanic islands dii 
 posed in parallel chains from north-west to soutl 
 east, forming eleven archipelagoes, all inhabite 
 by the Melanesian or dark Oceanic race. Lastb 
 East Polynesia lies on both sides of the equato 
 mainly east of a line drawn from New Zealan 
 between Fiji and Samoa to Hawaii, and consisi 
 of twelve volcanic and coralline archipelago( 
 (suitable), besides the large sedimentary an 
 igneous region of New Zealand and numeroi 
 sporadic islets, such as Norfolk, Chatham, Rapait 
 Easter, Manihiki, Tongareva, Uvea, and man 
 others. This division is the exclusive domaii 
 apart from recent white immigrants, of the lar^ 
 brown race, commonly called ' Polynesians ' in 
 special sense. The table shows the size, area, an 
 political connection of these multitudinous group 
 
 Group. 
 
 MlCKONESlA — 
 
 Mariana 
 
 Pelew 
 
 Caroline 
 
 Marshall 
 
 Gilbert (Kingsmill}. 
 Melanesia — 
 
 Admiralty 
 
 Bismarck 
 
 D'Eutrecasteaux.. . . 
 Louisiade 
 
 Area in sq. m. Pop. 
 
 Banta Cruz 
 
 Banks 
 
 New Hebrides.. 
 Kew Caledonia.. 
 
 Loyalty 
 
 Fiji 
 
 East Polynesia— 
 
 Hawaii 6,700 
 
 Phcenix 15 
 
 Ellice 14 
 
 Tokelau 12 
 
 Bamoa 1,000 
 
 450 
 200 
 400 
 160 
 170 
 
 16,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 870 
 
 16,300 
 
 200 
 
 190 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,500 
 
 1,100 
 
 8.000 
 
 2,000 
 12.000 
 30,000 
 15.000 
 35,000 
 
 State. 
 
 Ger. and U.I 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 England. 
 
 2,000 Germany. 
 
 188.000 Germany. 
 
 1,000 (?) England. 
 
 2,000 (?) England. 
 
 Tonga . 
 
 Kermadec 
 
 Austral 
 
 Cook (Hervey).. 
 Tahiti (Society). 
 Tuamotu (Low). 
 Marquesas. . 
 
 4.'>0 
 40 
 105 
 140 
 
 175,000 
 5,000 
 4,500 
 62,000 
 43,000 
 20,000 
 120,000 
 
 154,000 
 
 60 
 
 3,300 
 
 620 
 
 85,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 100 
 
 1,400 
 
 11,500 
 
 17,000 
 
 5,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 772,720 
 
 Eng. and Ge 
 
 England. 
 
 England. 
 
 Independen 
 
 France. 
 
 France. 
 
 England. 
 
 Un. States. 
 
 England. 
 
 England. 
 
 England. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 England. 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 France. 
 
 France. 
 
 England. 
 
 New Zealand 104,000 
 
 Lying almost entirely within the tropics, ai 
 consisting nearly everywhere of igneous or cors 
 line groups exposed to the same atmospher 
 and marine currents, Polynesia presents gre 
 uniformity in its climatic and biological cone 
 tions (New Zealand, however, differs widelj 
 The rainfall is generally high, the flora relative 
 rich, the fauna remarkably poor, especially 
 mammals. There is a general consensus th 
 Polynesia has been occupied from prehistor 
 times by two distinct races, the dark Melanesian 
 who belong to the same stock as the Papuai 
 of New Guinea and Malaysia, and the brov 
 Polynesians, called also Mahori and Sawaioi 
 whose racial affinities have not been satisfactori 
 determined. Nearly all the Pacific languag 
 appear to be members of the great Malay 
 Polynesian family ; however it is to be explaine 
 both the dark and brown peoples speak idioii 
 derived from a common stock. For over a ce 
 tury the Oceanic peoples have been in conta 
 with Europeans, and nearly all the Polynesian 
 
POMERANIA 
 
 563 
 
 PONTIAC 
 
 as well as many of the Melanesians, profess some 
 form of Christianity— the first mission established 
 being that to Tahiti in 1797 by the London 
 Missionary Society. But as western influences 
 increase, the races themselves decrease. See 
 works by Ellis (1829), Sir George Grey (1855), 
 De Quatrefages (1866), Pritchard (1866), Angus 
 (1867), Moresby (1877), Foniander (1878-86), Gill 
 (1880), Keane (1880), and Codrington (1891), and 
 the articles on the separate groups. 
 
 Pomeranla (Ger. Pommern), a Prussian prov- 
 ince, from 1100 to 1G37 an independent duchy, 
 bounded N. by tlie Baltic, and S. by Branden- 
 burg. Area, 11,620 sq. m, ; population, 1,750,000. 
 It is one of the lowest and flattest regions in 
 Germany, and has numerous lakes. Stettin (the 
 capital) and Stralsund are the most important 
 towns. Greifswald is the seat of a university. 
 
 Pomeroy, capital of Meigs county, Ohio, be- 
 tween the Ohio River and a range of precipitous 
 hills, 133 miles by rail SB. of Columbus. Coal- 
 mining and the manufacture of salt are the chief 
 industries. Pop. 4640. 
 
 Pomfret. See Pontefract. 
 
 Pomona, or Mainland. See Orkney. 
 
 Pompeii (Pompeii; Ital. pron. Pom.pay'yee), once 
 a seaport at the mouth of the Sarnus, on the Nea- 
 politan Riviera, founded about 600 B.C. by the 
 Oscans, and, after them, occupied by the Tyr- 
 rheno-Pelasgians, and by the Samnites, till these, 
 about 80 B.C., were dispossessed by the Romans. 
 From that time down to its destruction, 79 a.d., 
 it became (with Herculaneum) a sort of Roine- 
 super-Mare, frequented by the aristocracy ; and 
 its public monuments were out of all proportion 
 to its size. On February 5, 63 a.d., by an earth- 
 quake, these buildings were all but levelled with 
 the ground, and some years elapsed ere the 
 fugitive citizens recovered confidence to re- 
 occupy and rebuild. Reconstruction was carried 
 out with haste and tawdriness. The city had 
 relapsed into more than its former gaiety and 
 licentiousness, when on the 23d August (or, 
 more probably, on the 23d November) 79, with 
 a return of the shocks of earthquake, Vesuvius 
 was seen to throw up a column of black smoke, 
 expanding into a great swarthy cloud, dense with 
 ashes, pumice, and red-hot stones, which settled 
 down on the doomed cities with a force increased 
 by the rain-torrents that intermittently fell. 
 Amid the impenetrable gloom the panic of the 
 citizens was aggravated by repeated shocks of 
 earthquake, and for three days the flight con- 
 tinued till Pompeii was abandoned by all who 
 could eff"ect their escape. The Emperor Titus 
 organised relief on an imperial scale, and even 
 undertook the rebuilding of the city. This 
 attempt was soon abandoned, and Pompeii 
 remained a heap of hardened mud and ashes, 
 gradually overgrown with grass — the wall of 
 the great theatre and the outline of the amphi- 
 theatre alone marking its site — till 1592, when 
 the architect Fontana, in cutting an aque- 
 duct, came on some ancient buildings. Un- 
 systematic, unscientific excavations proceeded 
 fitfully from 1748 till 1860, when the Italian 
 kingdom took in hand the unearthing of the 
 city. This was carried out with admirable in- 
 genuity, care, and success ; and the wonderfully 
 preserved remains of temples, theatres, shops, 
 and dwelling-houses attract pilgrims from all 
 lands to study these unique object-lessons of the 
 public and private life of antiquity. 
 
 See works by Neville Rolfe (1884), Mazois 
 tParis, 1812-38), Nissen (Leip. 1877), Overbeck- 
 
 Mau (Leip. 1884), and Bagot Molesworth (1903) ; 
 also Bulwer Lytton's Last Days of Pompeii. 
 
 Ponap^. See Caroline Islands. 
 
 Ponce, a town and port on the south coast of 
 Porto Rico, 50 miles SW. of San Juan. Pop. 28,000, 
 
 Pondicherry {Pon'di-sherr'ee), the chief of the 
 French settlements in India, on the Coromandel 
 Coast, 90 miles S. by W. of Madras. It is 
 divided into two parts by a canal, White (Euro- 
 pean) town being next the sea. It has handsome 
 streets, a government house, a college, a light- 
 house, and a cotton-mill employing 1500 hands. 
 Pop. 48,283. It exports chiefly oil-seeds. The 
 French colony of Pondicherry has an area of 115 
 sq. m. and a population of 175,000. Its governor 
 is governor-general of French India. The French 
 first settled here in 1674, but the town was held 
 by the Dutch in 1693-97, and by the English in 
 1761-63, 1778-83, and 1793-1816. 
 
 Pondoland, a district of Kaff'raria, on the 
 Natal frontier. South Africa, was mostly an- 
 nexed to Cape Colony in 1884-87, the remainder 
 being incorporated in 1894. Pop. 200,000. 
 
 Ponta Delgada. See Azores. 
 
 Pont-a-Mousson (Pon^-ta-Moossonf), a town in 
 the French dep. of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the 
 Moselle, 18 miles NNW. of Nancy and 18 SSE. of 
 Metz. Pop. 11,750. 
 
 Pontarlier, a French town (dep. Doubs), 35 
 miles SE. of Besangon, on the main Jura route 
 from Switzerland to France. Pop. 7760.' 
 
 Pontchartrain (Pon-shar-train'), Lake, in 
 Louisiana, 5 miles N. of New Orleans, is 40 miles 
 long and 25 wide. 
 
 Pontecorvo (Pontehcor'vo), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, 37 miles NW. of Capua. Pop. 12,240. 
 
 Pontefract, or Pomfret, a pleasant market- 
 town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on an 
 eminence near the influx of the Calder to the 
 Aire, 13 miles SE. of Leeds, 8 E. by N. of Wake- 
 field, and 14 NNW. of Doncaster. It stands on 
 the line of a Roman road, but seems to have 
 arisen round its Norman castle, which, founded 
 about 1076 by Ilbert de Lacy, was the scene of 
 the execution or murder of the Earl of Lancaster 
 (1322), Richard II. (1400), and Earl Rivers (1483), 
 was taken in the Pilgrimage of Grace (1536), and 
 during the Great Rebellion sustained four sieges, 
 being finally dismantled in 1649, after its capture 
 by Lambert. There are two old churches, a 
 town-hall (rebuilt 1796), a market-hall (1860), a 
 grammar-school of Edward VI. (1549), and large 
 market-gardens and nurseries, the growing of 
 liquorice for the lozenges called ' Pomfret cakes ' 
 being a specialty as old as about 1562. At Ack- 
 worth, 3 miles south, is a large Quaker school 
 (1778). Pontefract, called Taddenesscylf in pre- 
 Conquest times, seems to have received its 
 present name between 1086 and 1135 ; why Ponte- 
 fract (' broken bridge ') is uncertain, see Notes and 
 Queries for 1886-87. The borough, chartered by 
 Richard III., lost one of its two members in 
 1885. Pop. of pari, borough (1851) 11,515 ; (1901) 
 20,745, of whom 13,427 were within the municipal 
 boundary. See works by Paulden (1702), Tetlow 
 (1769), and Boothroyd (1807). 
 
 Pontevedra (Pontehvay'dra), a cathedral town 
 of Spain and capital of a Galician province, 30 
 miles S. of Santiago. Pop. 22,550. 
 
 Pontiac, capital of Oakland county, Michigan, 
 on Clinton River, surrounded by lakelets, 26 
 miles by rail NNW. of Detroit. It has a state 
 reform school, a lunatic asylum, flour and planing 
 mills, foundries, and brick-yards. Pop. 9770. 
 
PONTIANAK 
 
 564 
 
 PORT DARWIN 
 
 Pontianak', capital of the western division of 
 Dutch Borneo, near the mouth of the river 
 Kapuas. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Pontigny {Ponteen-yee'), a village of the French 
 (lep. of Yonne, 18 miles SE. of Auxerre, with a 
 famous Cistercian monastery. Three English 
 archbishops retired hither — Becket, Langton, and 
 St Edmund, the last being buried here. The 
 monastery was devastated by the Huguenots in 
 1567, and destroyed at the Revolution ; but the 
 church (1150-70) is the most perfect Cistercian 
 church in existence. 
 
 Pontine Marshes (Lat. Pometince Paludes), the 
 S. part of the Roman Cajnpagna, extending 26 
 miles SE. to the sea, and 17 broad. Many 
 attempts have been made to drain them. 
 
 Pontresina (Pontrehzee'na), a tourist centre in 
 the Swiss canton of Orisons, in the Upper Enga- 
 dine, on the road to the Bernina Pass. Pop. 483. 
 
 Pontypool, a market-town of Monmouthshire, 
 on the Afon Llwydd, 9 miles N. by W. of New- 
 port. Its 17th-century japanned wares have long 
 been a thing of the past, and iron and tinplate 
 works, brewing, and coal-mining now furnish em- 
 ployment. Pop. 6200. 
 
 Pontypridd, a town of Glamorgan, 12 miles 
 NW. of Cardiff by rail, at the junction of the 
 Rhondda and the Tarf. It has a famous one- 
 arched bridge (1750), iron and coal mines, iron 
 and brass foundries, and chemical and other 
 manufactures— to which is due its rapid growth 
 from a mere village at the beginning of the 19th 
 century. Pop. (1881) 12,317 ; (1901) 32,316. 
 
 Poole, a Dorset seaport, 5 miles W. of Bourne- 
 mouth and 30 E. of Dorchester. It stands on the 
 north side of Poole Harbour (7 by 4J miles), an 
 irregular inlet, formed by the projection of the 
 ' isle ' of Purbeck, almost dry at low-water, and 
 having four tides a day. On Brownsea or Brank- 
 sea Island, just within the narrow entrance to the 
 harbour, is a castle dating from the time of Henry 
 VIII. Poole itself has an old town-hall (1572), a 
 guildhall (1761), a town-house (1822), shipping, 
 yacht-bnilding, and trade in potter's and pipe 
 clay. The men of Poole were great fighters in 
 days of old by land and sea, as buccaneers, 
 smugglers, and Cromwellian soldiery. There was 
 'Arripay,' or Harry Page, who about 1400 kept 
 the seas against France and Spain ; and there 
 was William Thompson, who, with a man and a 
 boy, captured a French privateer in 1695. Till 
 1867 the borough returned two members, and 
 then till 1885 one. Pop. (1851) 9255; (1901) 
 19,463. See works by Hutchius (1788), Syden- 
 ham (1839), and Brannon (3d ed. 1859). 
 
 Poena, or Puna, a town of India, 119 miles by 
 rail SE. of Bombay, is the military capital of the 
 Deccan and seat of the government of the presi- 
 dency during half the year. The city is em- 
 bosomed in gardens, but its streets are mostly 
 narrow or crooked, and the houses poor. Under 
 tlie peshwas the city was the cajiital of the 
 Mahratta princes ; it was occupied and annexed 
 by the British in 1818. Here have been built 
 the Deccan College and the College of Science, 
 the latter for training civil engineers, a normal 
 school and normal college, a high school, &c. 
 The Europeans live chiefly at the cantonments, 
 north-west of the city. The natives manufacture 
 cottons and silks, gold and silver jewellery, ivory 
 and grass ornaments, and clay figures. Pop. 
 (1851) 73,209 ; (1881) 129,751 ; (1901) 153,320. 
 
 Popayan (Popl'an), capital of the dep. of Cauca 
 in Colombia, stands in a fertile plain, 5700 feet 
 
 above sea-level, near the river Cauca. It hi 
 ruined cathedral and a university. Pop. 10,C 
 
 Poperinghe (Fr. pron. Poperan^), a towi 
 Belgium, 4 miles from the French frontier ai 
 W. of Ypres by rail. It manufactures lace, lin 
 and woollen cloths. Pop. 11,565. 
 
 Poplar, a parish of E. London. 
 
 Popocatepetl ('smoking mountain'), a cor 
 volcano (17,784 feet) 40 miles SB. of the cit 
 Mexico. No eruption has been recorded s 
 1540; it still smokes, however. In and aro 
 its crater (5165 feet in diameter, and nearly : 
 deep) much sulphur is obtained. 
 
 Port Adelaide. See Adelaide. 
 
 Portadown, a market-town of Armagh, 
 land, on the Bann, 6 miles S. of Lough Ne 
 and 25 by rail SW. of Belfast. It trades 
 farm-produce, and manufactures linen, caml 
 and sheeting. Pop. (1871) 6735 ; (1901) 10,046 
 
 Portage City, capital of Columbia com 
 Wisconsin, at the head of navigation on 
 Wisconsin River, and on the ship-canal to 
 Fox River, 177 miles NW. of Chicago. It 
 grain-elevators and ironworks, and manufacti 
 leather, boots, clothing, &c. Pop. 5430. 
 
 Portage la Prairie, the market-town of a : 
 agricultural district in Manitoba, on the Ass 
 boine River, 56 miles by rail W. of Winni' 
 It has flour-mills and grain-elevators, a brew 
 a biscuit-factory, a paper-mill, &c. Pop. 390i 
 
 Portarlington, a market-town, partly in Ki 
 County, but chiefly in Queen's County, on 
 Barrow, 44 miles by rail SW. of Dublin. It 
 named from the Earl of Arlington, to wl 
 Charles II. granted it. William. III. plantec 
 it a colony of French and Flemish Protesta 
 Until 1885 it returned an M.P. Pop. 1950. 
 
 Port Arthur, the terminus of the east 
 division of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
 Thunder Bay, an arm of Lake Superior, 993 nj 
 by rail WNW. of Montreal. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Port Arthur, or Lushunko, a naval stal 
 and arsenal on the extremity of the rocky W 
 churian peninsula of Liao-tung, which stretc 
 southward betweoi the Gulf of Pe-chi-li and 
 Yellow Sea. The port, which had been forti 
 by German engineers, was taken by the Japai 
 from Cliina in 1894, but in 1898 it, with Ta-1: 
 wan (Dalny), was ' leased ' to Russia, enormot 
 strengthened, and made the main terminus of 
 Siberian railway system. In the Russo-Japar 
 war (1904-5) it was again taken by the Japan 
 (2d Jan. 1905), after a memorable siege of ei 
 months, tlie most severely contested on recc 
 Its English name is derived from a survey 
 officer who was liere in 1860. 
 
 Port-au-Prince {Por-to-PranFss'), the capita 
 Hayti (q.v.), is situated on the west coast, at 
 head of a bay of the same name. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Port Bannatyne, or Kamesburgh, a vill 
 of Bute on Kames Bay, 2^ miles NNW. of Rol 
 say by tram. Pop. 1170. 
 
 Port Breton, the SE. part of New Ireland (i 
 German), the scene in 1879 of a disastrous 
 periment in colonising by French Legitimists. 
 
 Port Clarence, a Durham seaport, at the 
 side of the mouth of the Tees, 9 miles S. 
 Hartlepool. 
 
 Port Darwin, one of the finest harbours 
 Australia, on the NW. coast of the North 
 Territory of South Australia. Its entrance i 
 miles wide. Palmerston, on the E. shore, 1 
 
PORT D'URBAN 
 
 565 
 
 PORTLAND 
 
 miles from Adelaide, is the land terminus of the 
 overland telegraph, and of the cable to Java, 
 and the starting-point of a railway (1891) to the 
 gold-fields 150 miles inland. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Port D'Urban. See Durban. 
 
 Port Durnford, a harbour in British East 
 Africa, on an indentation of the coast a little 
 more than 1° S. of the equator. 
 
 Port Elizabeth, a seaport of Cape Colony, on 
 the western shore of Algoa Bay, 85 miles by rail 
 SW. of Graham's Town and 350 S. of Kimberley. 
 Founded in 1820, it is the principal seaport of the 
 east part of Cape Colony, and also of the Orange 
 River Free State. Its public buildings are the 
 town-house, the provincial hospital, churches, 
 the Grey Institute, a college, a library (20,000 
 volumes), a museum, &c. Two piers were con- 
 structed in 1881 ; and an aqueduct, 28 miles long 
 (1878), brings good water. The exports include 
 wool, ostrich-feathers. Angora goats' hair, and 
 diamonds. Pop. (1875) 13,649 ; (1904) 32,921. 
 
 Port Erin, a village in the Isle of Man, 5J miles 
 W. of Castletown, with a breakwater, steamboat 
 pier, and marine biological station (1892). 
 
 Portessie, a Banffshire fishing-village, li mile 
 ENE. of Buckie. Pop. 931. 
 
 Port Essington, an inlet in the Coburg Penin- 
 sula in N. Australia, forming a line harbour, 
 where in 1831-50 there was a penal settlement. 
 
 Port Famine, the name given by Cavendish in 
 1587 to a spot on the north coast of the Straits of 
 Magellan, a Chilian penal colony in 1843-53. 
 
 Port-Glasgow, a town of Renfrewshire, on the 
 southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3 miles 
 ESB. of Greenock and 20 WNW. of Glasgow. It 
 was founded in 1668 by the magistrates of Glas- 
 gow as a harbour for their city, the deepening of 
 the Clyde (q.v.) not having yet been thought of. 
 In 1710 it was constituted the head custom-house 
 on the Clyde, and for a while took the lead of 
 Greenock ; in 1775 it was incorporated as a muni- 
 cipality ; and by the Reform Bill of 1832 it unites 
 with Kilmarnock, &c. to return one member. 
 Built on low alluvial ground, and backed by hills 
 700 feet high, it has a Doric town-house (1815), a 
 public hall (1873), ruined Newark Castle (1597), a 
 wet-dock of 12 acres (formed since 1834), a large 
 graving-dock (1874), extensive timber- ponds, ship- 
 building-yards, iron and brass foundries, &c. 
 Pop. (1841) 6938 ; (1881) 10,802 ; (1901) 16,840. 
 
 Portglenone, a Londonderry village, on the 
 Bann, 9 miles \V. of Ballymena. 
 
 Port Gordon, a Banffshire fishing-village, 2i 
 miles SW. of Buckie. Pop. 1204. 
 
 Port Hamilton, a spacious, well-sheltered har- 
 bour, formed by three islands of the Nan-how 
 group, 30 miles S. of Corea, and 45 NE. of Quel- 
 part. It was discovered and named by Belcher 
 in 1845, and held by Britain in 1885-86. 
 
 Portbcawl, a Glamorganshire seaport and 
 watering-place, 6j miles SW. of Bridgend. 
 
 Porthcwrnow (Porthcur'no), a Cornish cove, 8 
 miles SW. of Penzance. 
 
 Porthleven, a Cornish seaport, 2J miles WSW. 
 of Hilston. 
 
 Port Hope, a port of entry of Ontario, on the 
 north shore of Lake Ontario, 63 miles by rail E. 
 of Toronto. Pop. 4200. 
 
 Port Huron, capital of St Clair county, Michi- 
 gan, is on the St Clair River, where it issues from 
 Lake Huron, and at the mouth of the Black River, 
 69 miles by rail NNE. of Detroit. The rivers are 
 
 crossed by four iron bridges. The city has a finfl 
 custom-house (1877), shipyards and dry-docks, 
 sawmills, grain-elevators, and Tuachine and rail- 
 road shops. A railway tunnel here passes under 
 the St Clair (q.v.) River ; there is also a steam- 
 ferry to Samia. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 PortiCi (Por'tichee), a town of Italy, on the 
 slope of Vesuvius, 5 miles by rail SE. of Naples. 
 The royal palace (1738) is now an agricultural 
 college. Pop. 14,272. 
 
 Port Isaac, a Cornish seaport, 6j miles NE. of 
 Padstow. 
 
 Portisham, a Dorset parish, 6 miles SW. of 
 Dorchester. Here is a tower to NeLson's Hardy, 
 who was a native. 
 
 Portishead, a Somerset watering-place, on the 
 Severn estuary, 10 miles W. of Bristol. Pop. of 
 urban district, 2550. 
 
 Port Jackson. See Sydney. 
 
 Port Jervis, a town of New York, on the 
 Delaware River, 88 miles by rail NW. of New 
 York City. Pop. 9387. 
 
 Portland, (1) the largest city and chief seaport 
 of Maine, and capital of Cumberland county, on 
 Casco Bay, 108 miles by rail NE. of Boston. It 
 is situated on a narrow peninsula, 2^ sq. m. in 
 area, with broad shaded streets, a court and 
 custom-house, post-office, city hall, observatory, 
 and Baxter and Mechanics' Halls. There are 
 rolling-mills ; and locomotives, machinery, boilers, 
 stoves, carriages, and shoes are manufactured, 
 and sugar and petroleum refined. The harbour, 
 defended by three forts, is large, deep, and well 
 sheltered ; there are wharves, elevators, and dry- 
 docks, and steamers ply direct to Liverpool in 
 winter. The place was settled by an English 
 colony in 1632. In 1866 a fire destroyed 
 $10,000,000 Avorth of property. Portland is the 
 seat of Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishops, 
 and was the birthplace of Longfellow. Pop. 
 (1870) 31,413 -,(1900) 50,145. -(2) Portland, the 
 metropolis of Oregon, and capital of Multnomah 
 county, is on the Willamette River, 12 miles from 
 where it joins the Columbia, and 772 by rail N. 
 of San Francisco. Large ocean-going ships come 
 up to this point. A handsome city, well built, 
 with fine, shaded streets, it has a court-house, 
 a U.S. government building, and an asylum. 
 There are iron-foundries, machine-shops, saw- 
 mills, canneries, breweries, and manufactures of 
 furniture, flour, shoes, &c. Portland was 
 founded in 1844, and became a city in 1851. Pop. 
 (1870) 8293 ; (1880) 17,577 ; (1900) 90,426. 
 
 Portland, Isle of, a rocky peninsula of Dor- 
 setshire, connected with the mainland by the 
 Chesil Bank (q.v), and 4 miles S. of Weymouth 
 by a branch-line (1865). It is 4^ miles long, 1 j 
 wide, 9 in circumference, and 2890 acres in area. 
 From its highest point, the Verne (495 feet), it 
 shelves with a gradual and almost unbroken slope 
 to Portland Bill (20 feet), the southern extremity, 
 where stand two lighthouses (1716-89), showing 
 fixed lights 210 and 136 feet above sea-level, and 
 between which and the Shambles, a dangerous 
 reef, 3 miles SE., a surf, called the Portland 
 Race, is raised by the rushing of the impetuous 
 tides. The cliffs have in places been worn into 
 fantastic caverns ; and ancient raised beaches are 
 well marked near the Bill. Portland is one solid 
 mass of oolitic limestone, which has been largely 
 quarried for building purposes since the I7th 
 century, when Inigo Jones employed it for White- 
 hall and Sir Christopher Wren for St Paul's. 
 Goldsmiths' Hall, the Reform Club, and Pall Mall 
 
PORTLAW 
 
 566 
 
 PORTSEA ISLAND 
 
 generally are also built of it ; and the yearly ex- 
 port ranges between 50,000 and 70,000 tons. A 
 magniticent harbour of refuge has been formed 
 by the construction of a breakwater (1849-72), 
 stretching nearly due north for more than 2 miles 
 from the NE. point of the ' Isle ; ' most formidable 
 fortifications have moreover been constructed, 
 the Verne in especial being crowned by Fort 
 Victoria. New defence works were constructed 
 in 1894-1904, as well as a new breakwater, Port- 
 land Roads being thus almost entirely surrounded. 
 Other features of the ' Isle ' are its great convict- 
 prison, dating from 1848, and holding upwards of 
 1500 convicts ; Portland Castle (1520), built by 
 Henry VIII., and held for Charles I. till 1646; 
 Bow and Arrow Castle, ascribed to Rufus ; and 
 Pennsylvania Castle (1800), built by Governor 
 Penn, the great Quaker's grandson. The inhabit- 
 ants of the ' Isle ' long remained a peculiar people. 
 The ' Isle ' itself is remarkable for its copious and 
 excellent spring-water and for the mutton of its 
 small breed of black-faced sheep. Pop. (1851) 
 5195; (1881) 10,061; (1901)15,200. See Damon's 
 Geology of Weymouth and Portland (1860), and an 
 article in the Cornhill (1882). 
 
 Portlaw, a market-town on the Clodiagh, 11 
 miles W. of Waterford. Pop. 1100. 
 
 Port Louis, the capital and principal port of 
 Mauritius, is situated on an excellent harbour on 
 the north-west coast, and is enclosed by a ring of 
 lofty hills. It has graving-docks, is defended by 
 forts (1887-91), is a coaling station of the British 
 navy, and has barracks and military storehouses. 
 The city contains the government house, a Pro- 
 testant and a Roman Catholic cathedral, a royal 
 college, &G. It suffered terribly from the great 
 hurricane of May 1892. Pop. 63,200. 
 
 Portmad'oc, a Carnarvonshire seaport, on 
 Tremadoc Bay, 11 miles E. of Pwllheli. It ships 
 slate and copper. 
 
 Port Mahon (Ma-hoan' ; anc. Portus Magonis), 
 capital of Minorca (q.v.), is beautifully situated 
 on a deep, narrow inlet in the SE. of the island, 
 its excellent harbour being protected by fortifica- 
 tions. Stone, shoes, cottons, cattle, and honey 
 are exported. Pop. 17,397. The town was held 
 by the English in 1708-56 and 1762-82. 
 
 Portmoak', a Kinross-shire parish, on Loch- 
 leven. The poet Michael Bruce was a native. 
 
 Port Moody. See Vancouver. 
 
 Port Natal. See Durban. 
 
 Porto Alegre (Porto Alay'greh), capital of the 
 Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, stands at 
 the NW. end of the Lagoa dos Patos. Founded 
 in 1742, it has a cathedral, an arsenal, and manu- 
 factures of pianos, furniture, brandy, and beer. 
 Pop. 85,000 (3000 Germans). 
 
 Portohello, a Scottish watering-place, on the 
 southern shore of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles E. 
 of Edinburgh. Its first house (1742) was built by 
 one of Admiral Vernon's seamen in the expedi- 
 tion against Portobelo (whence the name) ; but 
 it dates, like its eastern extension Joppa, almost 
 wholly from a time later than 1804. An espla- 
 nade, 1 mile long, skirts tlie sands ; there are 
 a promenade pier of 1250 feet (1871), municipal 
 buildings (1878), and manufactures of pottery, 
 bricks, bottles, &c. Incorporated municipally 
 with Edinburgh in 1896 (pop. 8800), it unites 
 with Leith and Musselburgh to return an M.P. 
 
 Portobelo, a decayed seaport of Colombia, on 
 the northern shore of the Isthmus of Panama, 
 almost due north of the town of Panamd. It has 
 an excellent harbour, discovered by Columbus in 
 
 1502, but is very unhealthy, and has fallen int( 
 decay since 1739, when it was stormed by Admira 
 Vernon. Drake died off here. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Porto Ferrajo. See Elba. 
 
 Port of Spain. See Trinidad. 
 
 Porto-Maurizio (Moiv-reetz'i-o), a town of nortl 
 Italy, stands embowered in olive-groves on thi 
 Gulf of Genoa, 69 miles by rail SW. of Genoa, anc 
 41 E. by N. of Nice. Pop. 7150. 
 
 Porto Novo, (1) a small port on the Coroman^ 
 del coast of India, 145 miles S. of Madras by rail 
 Here, on 1st July 1781, Sir Eyre Coote, witl 
 8000 men, defeated Hyder Ali and 60,000. Pop 
 14,000.— (2) A trading station in French Guinea. 
 
 Porto Rioo (Ree'ko), or Puerto Rico, a fertile 
 West India island, 75 miles E. of Hayti or S 
 Domingo ; with an area of 3530 sq. m., it measure; 
 110 miles E. to W. by 40. It is traversed fron 
 E. to W. by ranges of mountains (El Yunque 
 3670 feet). From the base of the mountains ricl 
 alluvial well-watered tracts extend to the sea 
 the higher parts are covered with forests. Th( 
 principal crops are sugar, coftee, and rice (th( 
 food of the people) ; tobacco, maize, yams 
 bananas, plantains, and tropical fruits are alsc 
 grown. Cattle and horses are fed on the low 
 land pastures. The exports are sugar, coffee 
 molasses, tobacco, and cattle. Pop. (1800 
 155,400; (1864) 615,844; (1900) 953,500. Tin 
 towns are St John's (q.v.), the capital, and Ponct 
 (28,000). Columbus discovered Porto Rico ii 
 1493, and Ponce de Leon founded a settlement 
 in 1510. The island was ceded by Spain to tht 
 United States after the war of 1898, and in 190( 
 civil government was conferred. 
 
 Portpatrick, a decayed fishing-village ii 
 Wigtownshire, 7| miles SW. of Stranraer by rail 
 and 21J NE. of Donaghadee in Ireland. It wa 
 long the Gretna Green for Ireland, and a mail 
 packet station from 1662 till 1849. A pier wa; 
 built in 1774, and a great artificial harbour wa 
 commenced in 1821, but ultimately abandoned 
 the Orion steamship having been lost within thi 
 port in 1850, when seventy souls perished. Th^ 
 lighthouse was removed in 1869, and the harbour 
 works fell quickly into ruin, after having cos 
 £500,000. Pop. (1861) 1206 ; (1901) 451. 
 
 Port Phillip, the gate of Melbourne, discoverec 
 in 1802 by Murray, and named after Captaii 
 Phillip, first governor of New South Wales. 
 
 Portreath, a Cornish seaport, 4 miles NW. o 
 Redruth. 
 
 Portree, a seaport village of Skye, on Portrei 
 Bay, 32 miles WSW. of Strome Ferry, and 12( 
 NNW. of Oban. It got its name Port-an-rigi 
 ('Idng's harbour') from a visit of James V. ii 
 1540. Pop. 870. 
 
 Port Royal. See Jamaica. 
 
 Portrush', a watering-place with excellent golf 
 ing links in County Antrim, 6J miles by rail N 
 of Coleraine, and 7 W. by S. of the Giants' Cause 
 way, with which it is connected by an electrii 
 tramway (1883). Pop. 1955. 
 
 Port Said (Sah-eed'), a town of Egypt, on th( 
 west side of the Suez Canal, on a desolate stri] 
 of land between Lake Menzaleh and the Mediter 
 ranean. The place, which owes its origin to thi 
 Suez Canal (q.v.), is named after Said Pasha, anc 
 is mainly a coaling station. Pop. 46,560. 
 
 Portsea Island, a small island of Hampshire 
 4 miles long, separated from the mainland bj 
 a narrow channel crossed by bridges, and con 
 taining the towns of Portsea and Portsmouth. 
 
!»Oftt SIMPSON 
 
 56*7 
 
 tORTtJGAl. 
 
 Port Simpson, a British Columbian port on 
 the Portland Channel which separates Canada 
 and Alaska, selected as terininns for the Northern 
 Canadian Transoceanic Railway. Pop. 1000. 
 
 Portsmouth, (Ports'inutK), the chief naval 
 arsenal of Great Britain, and an important sea- 
 port, market-town, and municipal, parliamentary, 
 and county borough, in the south of Hampshire, 
 stands on the south-west shore of Portsea Island 
 (q.v.), at the entrance to Portsmouth Harbour, 
 and opposite the town of Gosport (q.v.), with 
 which it communicates by means of a steam- 
 bridge. It is 74 miles SW. of London, 44 W. of 
 Brighton, and 23 SB. of Southampton. Besides 
 the parish of Portsmouth, the limits of the 
 municipal and parliamentary borough, which are 
 co-extensive, include also the parish and town 
 of Portsea, and the out-wards Landport and 
 Southsea, and comprise the whole of Portsea 
 Island, with the exception of a small portion in 
 the north-east corner. Pop. of the borough 
 (1821) 69,479 ; (1851) 72,096 ; (1881) 127,989 ; (1901) 
 188,133. Portsmouth is for the most part a mean- 
 looking, dirty town, but has the most complete 
 fortifications in Britain, These comprise, on the 
 landward side, the outer line of the Portsdown 
 forts and the Hilsea lines ; to seaward, the Spit- 
 head (q.v.) forts. A portion of the imposing 
 bastioned ramparts, which encircled both Ports- 
 mouth and Gosport, have since 1872 been removed 
 as useless. Southsea, which is situated outside 
 the walls skirting Southsea Common, is now a 
 fashionable watering-place. Many improvements 
 have been carried out in Portsmouth, including 
 improved drainage, and the opening of the 
 Victoria Park in 1878 ; a new town-hall, built at 
 a cost of £140,000, was opened by the Prince of 
 Wales in 1890. The church of St Thomas, whose 
 chancel and transept date from the close of the 
 12th century, the nave and tower from 1698, 
 contains a ghastly cenotaph in memory of the 
 murdered Duke of Buckingham. The Garrison 
 Chapel, Early English in style, and finely restored 
 by Street in 1867, is a fragment of the hospital 
 of St Nicholas, founded in 1212. In it Charles 
 
 II. married Catharine of Braganza ; and in front 
 of it is buried the brave Sir Charles James 
 Napier, The dockyard, in the district of Portsea, 
 was till 1872 only 116 acres in extent ; but vast 
 works, carried out at a cost of £2,500,000, have in- 
 creased the area to 293 acres. Noteworthy features 
 are the mast and rope houses, hemp-stores, rigging- 
 stores, sail-loft, the twelve dry-docks, the building- 
 slips, the wood-mills, with the block-making 
 machines, the smithy, with its Nasmyth's hammer, 
 &c. Portsmouth Harbour, about 400 yards wide at 
 its entrance, expands into a spacious basin, extend- 
 ing 4 miles inland, and having a breadth of 3 
 miles along its northern shore. Large war- 
 vessels can enter and lie at anchor at all times 
 of the tide, there being 4 fathoms of water in the 
 channel at low-water. The outward entrance is 
 defended by Forts Monckton and Gilkicker, and 
 Southsea Castle, The harbour is situated in the 
 middle of the channel, close to the magnificent 
 anchorage of Spithead, where 1000 ships of the 
 line may ride without inconvenience, and is under 
 shelter of the Isle of Wight, and opposite the 
 French arsenal of Cherbourg. The importance 
 of this port dates only from the reign of Henry 
 VIII, Its defences were commenced by Edward 
 IV,, and strengthened by Elizabeth and William 
 
 III, Here, in a house that still remains, the 
 Duke of Buckingham was assassinated by Felton, 
 In 1782 the Royal George went down at Spithead, 
 and nearly 1000 lives were lost, Charles Dickens 
 
 was born at 387 Mile End Terrace, Commercial 
 Road, Landport, Portsea; and other worthies 
 have been Walter Besant, the younger Brunei, 
 Jonas Hanway, Sir Frederick Madden, George 
 Meredith, and John Pounds. See works by L. 
 Allen (1817), H. Slight (1828), H. P. Wright (1873), 
 W, H, Saunders (1880), and Murrell and East (1884), 
 
 Portsmouth, (1) the metropolis and only sea- 
 port of New Hampshire, on the Piscataqua's 
 south bank, 3 miles from the Atlantic, and 57 
 by rail NNE, of Boston. Built on a beautiful 
 peninsula, overlooking a capacious and deep har- 
 bour, it is a handsome old town, many of its 
 streets lined with shade-trees, and is a mvourite 
 summer-resort. It has a custom-house ; the 
 manufactures include cotton, hosiery, shoes, iron- 
 casting, and shipbuilding. At Kittery, on an 
 island opposite, is a U.S. navy-yard. Here in 
 1905 peace was concluded between Russia and 
 Japan. Pop. 10,640,— (2) Capital of Scioto county, 
 Ohio, stands among hills in an iron region, on 
 the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Scioto, and 
 at the south terminus of the Ohio Canal, 106 
 miles by rail ESB. of Cincinnati, Pop. 17,870.— 
 (3) A city and port of Virginia, on the Elizabeth 
 River, opposite Norfolk (q.v.), Gosport, with its 
 navy-yard, &c,, is a suburb, Portsmouth contains 
 a dry-dock and a naval hospital. Pop, 17,450, 
 
 Portsoy', a Banffshire seaport, 8^ miles W. of 
 Banff, a burgh of barony since 1550, Pop, 1878. 
 
 Port St Mary, a coast-village in the Isle of 
 Man, 4| miles W, by S, of Castletown, 
 
 Port Sunlight, a beautiful model village of 
 Cheshire, 3 miles SE. from Birkenhead, founded 
 in 1888 by the proprietors of a neighbouring 
 work for their workpeople. It has spacious 
 streets, with houses in Old English style, with 
 a complete system of religious, educational, and 
 social institutions. Pop. (1905) 3500. 
 
 Port Talbot. See Aberavon, 
 
 Port Townsend, capital of Jefferson county, 
 Washington, is on Puget Sound, near Juan de 
 Fuca Strait, 47 miles N. of Seattle. It has a 
 good harbour. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Por'tugal (named from Partus Cale, the Roman 
 name of Oporto, q.v.), a kingdom of Europe, lying 
 between Spain and the Atlantic, on the west side 
 of the Iberian Peninsula, stretches 350 miles be- 
 tween 36° 59' and 42° 8' N, lat., and varies in width 
 from 70 to 140 miles between 6° 10' and 9° 31' W. 
 long. The area is 36,038 sq. m.— a little larger 
 than Ireland, In 1851 the population numbered 
 3,487,000 ; in 1874, 4,160,315 ; and in 1900 it was 
 5,423,132, Some 20,000 persons emigrate every 
 year, chiefly to Brazil. Lisbon and Oporto 
 (356,000 and 167,955 respectively) are the only 
 towns with above 25,000 inhabitants. The six 
 home provinces are Minho,Traz os Montes, Beira, 
 Estremadura, Alemtejo, and Algarve ; to which 
 are to be added the Azores and Madeira, always 
 reckoned not as colonies but as parts of the 
 mother-country. 
 
 The coast is mostly low and flat, except immedi- 
 ately north and south of the mouth of the Tagus, 
 and at Cape St Vincent. The two northern prov- 
 inces are diversified by spurs (5000 feet) of the 
 mountains of Spanish Galicia, The Sierra da 
 Estrella (6540 feet) is a westward continuation of 
 the Spanish Sierra Guadarrama system. The 
 Sierra Morena is continued westwards in southern 
 Portugal. So the principal rivers of the country 
 —the Guadiana in the south, the Tagus in the 
 centre, and the Douro and Minho in the north 
 —are simply the lower courses of Spanish rivers ; 
 
PORTUGAL 
 
 POSEN 
 
 but the MoiKlego lias its sources in the country. 
 Minerals are little worked from want of fuel 
 and cheap means of transit. Salt is jjrepared; 
 copper, iron, lead, manganese, antimony, gyp- 
 sum, lime, and marble are exported. The vicinity 
 to the ocean tempers the climate, and exempts 
 it from the dry heat of Spain. The inequalities 
 of the snrface produce, however, diversities 
 of climate ; for, while snow falls abundantly on 
 the mountains in the northern provinces, it is 
 never seen in the southern lowlands. Rain falls 
 abundantly throughout the year. Malaria and 
 fever prevail in the low flat lands and near the 
 salt-marshes. The soil is generally rich, except 
 in the mountainous parts ; but agriculture is 
 everywhere in a backward state, little more than 
 half the area of the country being put to profit- 
 able use. Maize, wheat, rye, barley, and rice 
 are grown, but not in sufficient quantity for 
 the wants of the people ; also potatoes, vege- 
 tables (especially onions), flax, fruits (oranges, 
 leinons, chestnuts, almonds, &c.). But the vine 
 and the olive maintain the most prosi)erous 
 industries; the wine annually produced (especi- 
 ally port, named from Oporto) amounts to 
 88,000,000 gallons. Silkworms and bees are kept, 
 and fish (tunnies and sardines) are abundant. 
 Some 50,000 persons weave wool, and the others 
 cut cork, manufacture cotton, linen, silk, leather, 
 glass and porcelain, paper, and gold and silver 
 filigree, &c. The mercantile marine comprises 
 only 280 ships of little over 86,000 tons ; most of 
 the connnerce is carried in British bottoms. The 
 exports, xjrincipally wine (more than half of the 
 "wliole, and sent mainly to Britain, also to Brazil 
 and France), copper, salt, cork, fish, oxen, fruits, 
 vegetables, and wool, average C millions sterling 
 in value annually. The value of all the exports 
 sent to Great Britain every year ranges from 
 2J to 4 nnl lions sterling. From Great Britain 
 Portugal imports chiefly cottons (^ to f million 
 sterling), woollens, coal, metals, machinery, and 
 butter, to the annual value of ^ to J million 
 sterling. Her total imports, which also em- 
 brace bullion, flour and wheat, glass, live-stock, 
 silk, timber, linen, &c., have reached the value 
 of 12 millions. The revenue, from £12,000 to 
 £13,000, is usually exceeded by the expendi- 
 ture. The debt has reached near £170,000,000, 
 and the finances are in an utterly deranged con- 
 dition. There are over 1490 miles of railway. 
 The army is about 35,000 men — on a war footing, 
 150,000. The navy has five armoured cruisers 
 and over twenty third-class cruisers, besides 
 torpedo-boats, &c. 
 
 The colonies of Portugal are as follows : 
 Africa — Area in sq. m. Pop. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands ] ,480 ] 47,424 
 
 Guinea ]2,000 820,000 
 
 St Thomas and Prince's Island 360 42,103 
 
 Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, Mossa- 1 404 roo 4 nq nnn 
 
 medes, and Congo ) ^°*'0"" %iii),vw 
 
 East Africa 310,000 3,120,000 
 
 Asia— 
 
 Goa (in India) 1,080 501,400 
 
 Diu, Daman, &c 168 77,454 
 
 Timor, &c 7,4.')8 300,000 
 
 Macao (in China) 4 78,627 
 
 Total 817,350 9,266,008 
 
 The state religion is that of the Church of 
 Rome. There are three ecclesiastical provinces 
 presided over by the Cardinal Patriarch of l.isbon 
 and two other archbishops, and fourteen bishops. 
 The monasteries were dissolved in 1884. Com- 
 pulsory education was enacted in 1844, but is 
 very feebly enforced, and Portugal is far behind 
 m public instruction. The one university at 
 
 Coini bra (1300), one of the oldest in Europe, 1) 
 five faculties, 75 professors, and about 1060 st 
 dents. Portugal is a constitutional monarcl 
 the crown being hereditary alike in the fem; 
 and the male line. The Cortes consists of t 
 House of Peers and the House of Deputies. 
 
 The Portuguese are a mixed race— original 
 Iberian or Basque, with later Celtic admixtui 
 Jewish and Arabic blood are strongly present 
 the centre, and African in the south. The Port 
 guese diff'er widely from their Spanish brethre 
 whom they regard with inveterate hatred ai 
 jealousy, mainly on account of their attempts 
 subvert the independence of Portugal. Like t 
 rest of Iberia, Portugal (the southern part 
 which was known to the Romans as Lusitan 
 often taken as a poetical name for the whc 
 country) was thoroughly Romanised after t 
 conquest of the Carthaginians by the Romans 
 138 B.C. Then the peninsula was overrun by t 
 Visigoths, and next by the Saracens (see Spa 11 
 Northern Portugal fell under the influence 
 Castile ; but under Alfonso I. (1143) Portug 
 became an independent kingdom, though t 
 Saracens were not conquered in the south t 
 1250. Wars with Castile were frequent. Und 
 John (1385-1433) began a close alliance betwe 
 Portugal and England, and the Portuguese ki; 
 John married John of Gaunt's daughter. Wi 
 their son, Prince Henry the Navigator (died 146( 
 began the most brilliant era of over-sea ent( 
 prise and conquest, including the acquisition 
 Madeira, the Azores, and the doubling of t 
 Cape of Good Hope (1486), the reaching of Ind 
 by sea and settlements there (1497), and t 
 discovery and occupation of Brazil (1500). 
 the 16th century Portugal was one of the mo 
 powerful monarchies of Europe, and most pre 
 perous of commercial peoples ; but its decli; 
 was swift, and Philip II. annexed Portugal 
 Spain for sixty years. English assistance secun 
 the independence of the kingdom in 1640 (reco 
 nised by Spain in 1668) ; but the glory hi 
 departed. Portugal shared in the troubles of tl 
 French occupation and the Peninsular war ; aft 
 Napoleon's defeat, the old family, which hi 
 taken refuge in Brazil, was restored ; but tl 
 country was rent by intrigue, dissension, ai 
 civil war. The rush of the European powers 
 occupy central and southern Africa stirred Pc 
 tugal to tenaciously cling to her once gre 
 colonial empire in Africa; but the march 
 events has given to Britain, Germany, Franc 
 and the Congo Free State, much that Portug 
 once claimed as hers. 
 
 See Crawfurd, Portugal, Old and New (1880 
 Salisbury, Portugal and its People (1893) ; Murra.v 
 Handbook; and the histories by M'Murdo (188 
 and Morse Stephens (1890). 
 
 Portugalete (Por-too-ga-lay'tay), a Spanish sp 
 port in the province of Vizcaya, 8 miles N W. of B 
 bao, with a remarkable swing-ferry. Pop. 3500 
 
 Portum'na, a Gal way market-town, on tl 
 Shannon, 12 miles W. of Parsonstown. Pop. 96C 
 
 Poscharevatz. See Passarowitz. 
 
 Posen (Polish Poznan), a Prussian provinc 
 bounded N. by West Prussia, B. by Poland, S. 1 
 Silesia, and W. by Brandenburg, Area, 11,1' 
 sq. m. The navigable Warthe traverses it fro 
 E. to W. ; the Vistula touches it on the Nl 
 The province belongs to the great plain of norl 
 Germany. Pop. (1900) 1,887,275, of who 
 1,280,000 were Catholics, and 35,000 Jew 
 The great majority are of Polish stock, ai 
 speak Polish and its dialects. The chi 
 
i»OSIDONlA 
 
 P0U6HKEEFSI£ 
 
 towns are Posen (the capital), Gnesen, Brom- 
 berg, Lissa, and Rawitsch. Posen formed part 
 of Poland till 177'2, when, at the first partition, 
 the districts north of the Netze were given to 
 Prussia ; the rest was added in 1793. In 1807 
 Posen was included in the duchy of "Warsaw ; 
 but in 1815 it was re-assigned to Prussia. 
 
 Posen, the capital, and a fortress of the first 
 rank (1827-53), is situated on the Warthe, 158 
 miles by rail E. of Berlin. It became the seat of 
 a Christian bishop in 9(38, and it was the capital 
 of the early Polish dukes. In the 16th century 
 it was an important trading mart, but by 1600 
 had begun to decline. The fortifications have 
 been strengthened by detached forts built in 
 1876-84. The cathedral, a Gothic pile dating 
 from 1775, has attaclied to it the 'Golden 
 Chapel ' of Count Raczynski. Other buildings 
 are the town-house (1508), the Raczynski Palace, 
 the Dzialynski Palace, the archiepiscopal palace, 
 and a provincial museum of antiquities. The 
 manufactures are artificial manures, agricultural 
 implements, furniture, carriages, &c. ; and there 
 are breweries, distilleries, and flour-mills. Pop. 
 (1875) 60,998 ; (1900) 117,033. 
 
 Posidonia. See P/estum. 
 
 Posilip'o (from a villa here called Pmisilypon, 
 'Sans-souci,' of the Emperor Augustus), a moun- 
 tain on the north-west of Naples, close by the 
 city. It is remarkable for the tunnel known as 
 the Grotto of Posilipo, through which the road 
 from Naples to Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli) passes. 
 The grotto is 20 to 80 feet high, 20 to 30 feet 
 wide, and 755 yards long. It is traditionally 
 ascribed to the reign of Augustus, but was long 
 believed by the vulgar to have been made by th(j 
 poet Virgil, whom they regarded as a great 
 magician. Above the eastern outlet of the grotto 
 is the so-called ' Tomb of Virgil ; ' at the base of 
 the hill anciently stood the poet's villa. Two 
 other tunnels penetrate the hill, one north of the 
 grotto, made for the tramway, and another con- 
 structed at the command of Agrippa in 37 b.c. 
 
 Fossil Park, a northern suburb of Glasgow. 
 
 Potchefstroom (Pot'chefstroam), a town of the 
 Transvaal, 105 miles SW. of Pretoria. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Potenza (Potent'za ; anc. Potentia), a cathedral 
 city of South Italy, in a valley of the Apennines, 
 103 miles E. by S. of Naples. Pop. 17,978. 
 
 Poti (Po'tee), a seaport of Russian Caucasus, 
 at the Rion's mouth, on the east shore of the 
 Black Sea, 200 miles by rail W. of Tiflis. It ships 
 maize, manganese, &c. Poti was seized by 
 Russia in 1828. Pop. 7112. 
 
 Potidse'a, a Corinthian colony founded on the 
 westernmost isthmus of the Chalcidice peninsula 
 in ancient Macedonia. 
 
 Poto'mac, a river of the United States, formed 
 by two branches which rise in the Alleghany 
 Mountains in West Virginia, and imite 15 mile's 
 SE. of Cumberland, Maryland. Thence the 
 river flows 400 miles SE., and falls into Chesa- 
 peake Bay, after forming an estuary nearly 100 
 miles long, and from 2^ to 7 wide. The largest 
 ships can ascend to Washington, and the tide 
 reaches Georgetown. A few miles above Washing- 
 ton the river forms a cataract 35 feet high ; and 
 between there and Westport it falls more than 
 1000 feet. The scenery here is wild and beauti- 
 ful, especially where it breaks through the Blue 
 Ridge at Harper's Ferry. The principal affluents 
 are the Shenandoah, Cacapon, and Monacacy. 
 
 Potosi (Pot-o-zee' ; usually Poto'zee), capital of a 
 Bolivian dep., and a famous, though decayed, 
 
 mining-town, stands in a dreary, cold, and barren 
 district, nearly 50 miles SW. of Chuquisaca. It 
 is built on the side of the Cerro de Potosi (15,381 
 feet), at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the sea, 
 and is thus one of the loftiest inhabited places on 
 the globe. The public buildings include a liand- 
 some cathedral and a mint which employs 200 
 hands. The industry is limited to silver-mining. 
 The Cerro is still rich in this ore, although the 
 production has greatly fallen off. Potosi was 
 founded in 1545, and in 1611 had 160,000 inhabit- 
 ants. Its population does not now exceed 16,000. 
 
 Potsdam, chief town of the Prussian province 
 of Brandenburg, and second residence town of 
 the monarch, is situated on an island formed by 
 the lake-like river Havel, a canal, and other 
 waterways, 18 miles by rail SW. of Berlin. It 
 is a handsome city, with broad streets, public 
 gardens, and fine squares. The royal palace 
 (1667-1701), in the park of which are statues 
 of Frederick-William I., Alexander I. of Russia, 
 and Generals Bliicher, Gneisenau, Kleist, ancl 
 Tauenzien; the town-house, a coi)y of that at 
 Amsterdam; and the military orphanage are 
 the principal public buildings. The Garrison 
 Church, with a steeple 290 feet high, contains the 
 tombs of Frederick- William I. and Frederick II. ; 
 and the Frieden.skirche the tombs of Frederick- 
 William IV. and the Emperor Frederick III. 
 The Brandenburg Gate is a copy of Trajan's Arch 
 at Rome. Near the town are more than half-a- 
 dozen royal palaces, as Sans-Souci (1747), the 
 favourite residence of Frederick the Great, sur- 
 rounded by a splendid park and gardens, con- 
 taining Ranch's monument to Queen Louisa ; the 
 palace of Fried richskron, formerly the New 
 Palace (1763-70) ; Charlottenhof (1826); the Marble 
 Palace ; and Babelsberg. Potsdam has an obser- 
 vatory, and a cadet and other military schools. 
 Its manufactories produce sugar, chemicals, 
 harness, silk, waxcloth, beer, &c. Flower- 
 gardening, especially of violets, is a busy in- 
 dustry. Alexander von Humboldt was a native. 
 Pop. (1880) 48,447 ; (1905) 61,500. 
 
 Potteries, The, a district in North Stafford- 
 shire, 9 miles long by 3 broad, the centre of the 
 earthenware manufacture in England, includes 
 Hanley, Burslem, Stoke-upon-Trent, Newcastle- 
 under-Lyine, Tunstall, &c. 
 
 Potton, a market-town of Bedfordshire, 11 
 miles E. of Bedford. Pop. of parish, 1907. 
 
 Pottstown, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Schuylkill River, at the mouth of Manatawny 
 Creek, 40 miles NW. of Philadelphia. It contains 
 iron-foundries, blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, car- 
 works, &c. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Pottsville, capital of Schuylkill county, Penn- 
 sylvania, is built on the side of steep hills, on the 
 Schuylkill River, at the entrance of Norwegian 
 Creek, 93 miles NW. of Philadelphia. In the 
 midst of a rich coal and iron region it has iron- 
 furnaces, foundries, rolling-mills, machine-shops, 
 sawmills, &c. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Poughkeepsle (Po-ki2ysi), capital of Dutchess 
 county. New York, on the east bank of the 
 Hudson River, 73 miles N. of New York City, 
 is finely situated on a tableland, 200 feet above 
 the river. The Hudson is here crossed by a 
 steam-ferry, and spanned by a railroad bridge 
 (1888) of masonry, steel, and iron, 3094 feet long, 
 or, including the approaching viaducts, nearly 
 7100 feet. Poughkeepsle is the largest town 
 between New York and Albany ; its manufactures 
 include machinery, iron-ware, silk, boots and 
 shoes, clothing, beer, &c. Two miles N. is the 
 
POtlLtOT^ LE PYtDB 
 
 570 
 
 PRfiSTElGlTE 
 
 state hospital for the insane, which cost $750,000. 
 Vassar College (1865), for the higher education of 
 women, is just beyond the eastern city limit. 
 Poughkeepsie was settled by the Dutch about 
 1680 ; in 1778 it was the state capital. Pop. (1870) 
 20,080 ; (1900) 24,029. 
 
 Poulton le Fylde, a Lancashire town, near the 
 Wyre, 5 miles S. of Fleetwood. Pop. 2230. 
 
 Poverty Bay. See Gisborne. 
 
 Powerscourt, a Wicklow parish, 4^ miles SW. 
 of Bray, on the Dargle, in whose glen is a water- 
 fall of 300 feet. 
 
 Powis Castle. See Welshpool. 
 
 Pozsony. See Presburg. 
 
 Pozzuoli (Potz-oo-ol'ee), a city of Italy, on the 
 Bay of Naples, 7 miles W. of Naples by tramway, 
 is interesting from its classic memorials — the 
 cathedral (once the Temple of Augustus), the 
 Serapeum, and the amphitheatre in which Nero 
 fought as a gladiator, which could seat 30,000 
 spectators. There are also remains of temples 
 to Diana and Neptune, and of the ancient 
 harbour. Behind the town is the Solfatara, a 
 half-extinct volcano, from which issue currents 
 of hot sulphureous gases, and springs of saline 
 water. In the neighbourhood are Avernus (q.v.) ; 
 the royal hunting-lodge Astoni ; the Lucrine lake, 
 celebrated for its oysters ; the ruins of Baiae and 
 CumsE ; and the Lake of Agnano, with the famous 
 Grotta del Cane. A little west is a branch of the 
 famous Armstrong works at Elswick, near New- 
 castle, established here (1888-90) with the support 
 of the Italian government. Pop. 21,967. The 
 ancient Puteoli was made a Roman colony in 194 
 B.C., and subsequently became virtually the port 
 of Rome, and the first emporium of commerce in 
 Italy. It was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and 
 Totila, and, though rebuilt by Byzantine Greeks, 
 it was sacked by Saracens (10th century) and 
 Turks (1550), and ruined by earthquakes (1198 
 and 1538). St Paul landed there. 
 
 Praaneste. See Palestrina. 
 
 Prague (Ger. Prag ; Czech Praha), the capital 
 of Bohemia, is situated at the base and on the 
 slope of the hills which skirt both sides of the 
 isleted Moldau, 217 miles by rail NNW. of Vienna 
 and 118 SSE. of Dresden. It offers a highly 
 picturesque appearance from the beauty of its 
 site, and the numerous lofty towers (more than 
 seventy in number) which rise above the palaces, 
 public buildings, and bridges of the city. The 
 fortifications have been demolished since 1866. 
 The royal Burg, on the Hradschin (240 feet), the 
 ancient residence of the Dukes of Bohemia, dates 
 mainly now from the 16th and 17th centuries, 
 and has 440 rooms. The neighbouring cathedral 
 of St Vitus (1344) is still unfinished, though 
 building was resumed in 1867. Here are the 
 splendid royal mausoleum (1589) and the shrine 
 (1736) of St John of Nepomuk, containing IJ ton 
 of silver. Of forty-seven other Catholic churches 
 the chief are the domed Jesuit church of St 
 Nicolas, and the Teyn church (1407 ; the old 
 Hussite church), with Tycho Brahe's grave, and 
 its marble statues of the Slavonic martyrs, Cyril 
 and Methodius. Of five bridges and two railway 
 viaducts the most striking is the Karlsbriicke 
 (1357-1503, temporarily damaged by flood in 
 1890), 543 yards long, with gate-towers at either 
 end, and statues of John of Nepomuk and other 
 saints. Other noteworthy objects are the town- 
 hall (1381-1884), the Pulvertu'rm (1475), the new 
 Czech Theatre (1883), the old Jewish graveyard, 
 the Theresa Institution for Ladies, the vast 
 
 Czerni Palace (now used as barracks), the Picture- 
 gallery, and the Premonstratensian monastery of 
 Strahow. Prague has numerous public gardens 
 and walks, with several noble parks close by. 
 The suburb of Karolinenthal, which is traversed 
 by the great viaduct of the railway, and is of 
 modern growth, has barracks, and manufactur- 
 ing establishments ; farther north is the great 
 botanical garden. The university, founded in 
 1348, had 10,000 students at the beginning of the 
 15th century ; but subsequently it had a long 
 period of decay. It received a new constitution 
 in 1881, having now two co-ordinate sides or 
 sections, one German and one Czech, with respec- 
 tively 150 and 210 teachers, and 1350 and 3200 
 students. It possesses a library of 195,000 volumes 
 and 3800 manuscripts, a fine observatory, a 
 botanical garden, &c. The manufactures include 
 machinery, chemicals, leather, cotton, linen, 
 gloves, beer, spirits, &c. Pop. with suburbs 
 (1880) 293,822 ; (1900) 385,240 ; of the town proper 
 (1900) 201,589, of whom 87 per cent, were Czechs, 
 2 per cent. Protestants, and 7 per cent. Jews. 
 
 Prah, a river running between Ashanti and 
 the Gold Coast, and then through the latter to 
 the sea, 30 miles W. of Cape Coast Castle. 
 
 Praia Grande. See Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 Prato (Prah'to), a walled town of Italy, 11 
 miles NW. of Florence. It has a cathedral with 
 frescoes by Filippo Lippi. Pop. 15,510. 
 
 Prawle Point, the S. extremity of Devon. 
 
 Prenzlau (Prentz'loiv), an agricultural town of 
 Prussia, at the N. end of Lake Ucker, 67 miles 
 by rail NNE. of Berlin. Pop. 20,230. 
 
 Presburg (Ger. Presshurg ; Hung. Pozsony), a 
 town of Hungary, on the Danube's left bank, 
 40 miles by rail E. by S. of Vienna. It is backed 
 by the spurs of the Little Carpathians, and is 
 a pleasant town. Its principal buildings are the 
 Gothic cathedral (13th c), in which the kings of 
 Hungary used to be crowned ; the church of the 
 P'ranciscans (1290-97); the town-house (1288); 
 and the parliament house, in which the Hun- 
 garian representatives met until 1848. The royal 
 castle (1645) was reduced to ruin by fire in 1811. 
 The manufactures are beer, dynamite, wire, starch, 
 spirits, confectionery, biscuits, &c. Pop. (1881) 
 48,326 ; (1900) 61,537. Presburg grew to import- 
 ance during the 11th and 12th centuries. From 
 1541 (when the Turks seized Buda) down to 1784 
 it was the capital of Hungary. It was taken 
 by Bethlen Gabor in 1619, by the Austrians in 
 1621, and was bombarded by Davofit in 1809. 
 Here in 1805 Napoleon concluded a treaty with 
 the emperor after Austerlitz. 
 
 Prescot, a manufacturing town of Lancashire, 
 8 miles E. by N. of Liverpool. It has manufac- 
 tures (introduced from Yorkshire in 1730 ; and 
 revived since 1892) of watch-movements, watch- 
 tools, small files, &c., and there are potteries 
 near it. Prescot was the birthplace of John 
 Kemble. Pop. 8100. 
 
 Prescott, a town of Arizona, lies 6000 feet 
 above sea-level, 74 miles by a branch-line S. of 
 Prescott Junction, which is on the Atlantic and 
 Pacific Railroad, 595 miles SW. of Denver. Gold 
 and silver are found in the neighbourhood. It 
 was superseded by Phoenix as the state capital 
 in 1891. Pop. 3759. 
 
 Presshurg. See Presburg. 
 
 Prestatyn, a Flintshire market-town, 4 miles 
 E. of Rhyl. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Presteigne (Pres-teen'), a Radnorshire (q.v.) 
 
PflESTOH 
 
 671 
 
 PillNCE EDWARD iSLANft 
 
 market-town, on the Lugg, 6j miles ENB. of 
 New Radnor. Pop. 1260. 
 
 Preston, an important manufacturing town of 
 Lancashire, a municipal, parliamentary, and 
 county borough, at the head of the estuary of 
 the Ribble. 14 miles from the Irish Sea, 28 NNE. 
 of Liverpool, 31 NW. of Manchester, and 209 
 NNW. of London. Occupying an eminence 120 
 feet above the river, and built mostly of brick, 
 it is on the whole well laid out, and is surrounded 
 with pleasing scenery. The town-hall, built in 
 1862-67 from designs by Sir G. G. Scott at a cost 
 of £80,000, is a French Gothic pile, with a clock- 
 tower and spire 195 feet liigh. In 1882 were laid 
 the foundation-stones of the Lancashire county 
 hall and of the Harris free library and museum, 
 to the latter of which in 1883 Mr R. Newsham 
 bequeathed pictures and art-treasures worth 
 £70,000. The places of worship are all modern, 
 for even the parish church has been rebuilt. 
 St Walburge's (Roman Catholic, 1850-66), by 
 Hansom of cab celebrity, has a spire 306 feet 
 high, the loftiest built in England since the 
 Reformation, which amply redeems ' proud 
 Preston' from its old 'no-steeple' reproach. 
 Other edifices are the grammar-school (1550 ; 
 rebuilt 1841), the corn exchange and market- 
 house (1824), public baths (1851), a covered market 
 (1870), militia barracks (1856), the infirmary 
 (1869), &c. Three large public parks were laid 
 out in 1867 — the Miller and Avenham parks, and 
 the former unsightly ' Moor ' of 100 acres to the 
 north of the town. In the first a statue was 
 erected in 1873 of the fourteenth Earl of Derby ; 
 in Winekley Square is a monument to Sir Robert 
 Peel. Preston was constituted an independent 
 port in 1843 ; and great improvements have been 
 effected at a cost of over a million under the Act 
 of 1883, these including the deepening of the 
 channel so as to admit vessels of 1000 tons, the 
 construction of a dock of 40 acres (opened by 
 the Duke of Edinburgh, 25th June 1892), the 
 erection of warehouses, &c. Arkwright, who 
 was born here in 1732, in 1768 set up here his 
 famous spinning-frame ; and Preston now is one 
 of the ijrincipal seats of the cotton industry, 
 which gradually superseded the linen manufac- 
 ture. There are also iron and brass foundries, 
 iron shipbuilding yards, engineering and machine 
 shops, steam-boiler works, rope-walks, &c. A 
 guild-merchant festival, first clearly heard of in 
 1397, has been held every twenty years since 1562 
 — tlie last on 1st September 1902. Preston, the 
 first of whose royal charters was granted by 
 Henry VI., returns two members to parliament. 
 The borough boundary was extended in 1885. 
 Pop. (1811) 17,115 ; (1841) 50,073 ; (1881) 100,262 ; 
 (1901) 118,227 — 112,989 within the municipal 
 borough. 
 
 Preston arose whilst ancient Coccium or Rib- 
 chester, higher up the Ribble, decayed. In Athel- 
 stan's reign Amounderness, the hundred in which 
 it is situated, was granted to the cathedral church 
 of York ; hence its chief town came to be known 
 as Preston or ' priests' town.' Near Preston, in 
 1648, Cromwell routed the royalists ; and Preston 
 figures in both the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 
 and 1745. For Forster's little army surrendered 
 here ; and Prince Charles Edward occupied the 
 town on both his march to and his retreat from 
 Derby. In 1832 Joseph Livesey of Preston and 
 six others here signed a pledge of total absti- 
 nence—the first ever taken in England. See 
 works by Whittle (2 vols. 1821-37), Dobson (four, 
 1856-62), Hardwick (1857), Abram (1882), and T. 
 0. Smith (1891). 
 
 Prestonpans, a coast-town of Haddington- 
 shire, 8 miles E. of Edinburgh. Its salt-pans 
 flourished fro7n the 12th century till 1825 ; now 
 brewing and fishing are the principal industries. 
 Pop. 2624. To the SE., on 21st September 1745, 
 was fought the battle of Prestonpans, Preston, 
 or Gladsmuir, when in a five minutes' rush Prince 
 Charles Edward's 2500 Highlanders routed 2300 
 disciplined soldiers under Cope and Gardiner. 
 
 Prestvrlcll, a cotton manufacturing town of 
 Lancashire, 4 miles NNW. of Manchester. It 
 has a Gothic church (13th century ; restored in 
 1861), also many fine villas and a large lunatic 
 asylum. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Prestwick, a watering-place with famous golf- 
 links, 2| miles N. by E. of Ayr. Pop. 2800. 
 
 Pretoria, capital of the Transvaal Colony, 
 stands 4000 feet above the sea, in a ))lain sheltered 
 by encircling mountains, 35 miles NE. of Johan- 
 nesburg by rail, and is termiims of the line to 
 Delagoa Bay. Founded in 1855, it was named 
 after the Boer leader Andries Pretorius ; and it 
 was occupied by Roberts in 1900. Pop. 22,000. 
 
 Prev'eza, or Previsa, a fortified seaport in the 
 extreme SW. of Turkey, stands on the north side 
 of the entrance to the Gulf of Arta. The 
 Venetians held it from 1683 to 1797. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Pribram, a mining-town of Bohemia, 48 miles 
 by rail SSW. of Prague, employs 6000 men in the 
 royal lead and silver mines, and various manu- 
 factures. Pop. 14,020. 
 
 Pribylof Islands. See Alaska. 
 
 Priego (Pree-ay'go), a town of Spain, 46 miles 
 SE. of Cordova. Pop. 17,800. 
 
 Priene (Pri-ee'nee), anciently one of the 
 ' twelve ' cities of Ionia, stood a little NW. of the 
 mouth of the Mseander in Caria. 
 
 Prllu'kl, a town of Russia, 87 miles E. by N. 
 of Kieff. Pop. 19,100. 
 
 Primrose Hill, in the north-west of London, 
 beside Regent's Park. 
 
 Prince Edward Island, since 1873 a province 
 of Canada, is situated in the Gulf of St Lawrence, 
 and is separated from New Brunswick and Nova 
 Scotia by Northumberland Strait. Its greatest 
 length is 130 miles ; its breadth varies from 4 to 
 34 miles, and it has an area of 2133 sq. m., or 
 1,365,400 acres, nearly all of which are occupied. 
 Pop. (1871) 94,021 ; (1901) 103,259, or 48 to the 
 sq. m. It was discovered by the Cabots, but 
 annexed by France ; still, little was done towards 
 its settlement until 1715, when its fertility at- 
 tracted some Acadians from Cape Breton. It 
 was finally ceded to Britain in 1763. At first a 
 part of Nova Scotia, in 1768 it was made a separate 
 province. The pop. in 1763 was 4000 ; but emi- 
 gration set in, and the Acadians were expelled, 
 so that in 1768 it had sunk to 1300. Until 1799 
 called St John's Island, it was then renamed 
 Prince Edward Island, in compliment to the 
 Duke of Kent, who paid it a visit. The local 
 government passed a measure in 1875 giving 
 them powers to buy out tlie landlords, most 
 of them absentees, and to sell the land thus 
 acquired (843,981 acres) to the tenants or others 
 on easy terms. The surface is undulating, but 
 never exceeds 500 feet ; the soil is very fertile. 
 All kinds of cereals, roots, and vegetables are 
 raised. Oats and potatoes from the island enjoy 
 a special reputation, as do also its sheep and 
 horses, A natural manure, called mussel mud, 
 and made of decayed oyster, clam, and mussel 
 shells, is found on the coasts. Coal is known to 
 
PRINCE Ot WALES ISLAND 
 
 572 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 exist, but not worked. The climate is milder 
 than that of the mainland, and freer from fogs. 
 Prince Edward Island is the best tishing-station 
 in the Gulf of St Lawrence, but the habits of the 
 inhabitants are so decidedly agricultural that the 
 fisheries have been neglected. Mackerel, lobsters, 
 herring, cod, hake, and oysters are taken, besides 
 salmon, bass, shad, halibut, and trout. The coast- 
 line is a succession of bays and headlands ; the 
 largest bays are Egmont, Hillsborough, and Cardi- 
 gan, which by penetrating into the land from 
 opposite directions divide the island into three 
 distinct peninsulas. The rivers are short, but the 
 province is well watered. Charlottetown is the 
 capital, and has a pop. of 12,000. Other towns are 
 Summerside, Georgetown, and Sonris. A railway 
 traverses the island, which is connected by tele- 
 graph with the mainland. The settlers are largely 
 of English, Irish, and Scotch descent, besides 
 French, Germans, and Scandinavians. Free educa- 
 tion has prevailed since 1853. 
 
 Prince of Wales Island. See Penano. 
 
 Princes Islands (anc. Demonnesoi), a beautiful 
 group of nine islets near the eastern end of the 
 Sea of Marmora, 10 miles SE. of Constantinople, 
 the largest being called Prinkipo. See a mono- 
 graph by S. S. Cox (New York, 1888). 
 
 Princes Risborough, a town of Bucks, nnder 
 the Chilterns, 7J miles S. by W. of Aylesbury. 
 It had a moated palace of the Black Prince. 
 Pop. of parish, 2318. 
 
 Princeton, (1) capital of Gibson county, 
 Indiana, 161 miles by rail E. of St Louis. It has 
 woollen manufactures. Pop. 6050. — (2) A pleas- 
 ant borough of New Jersey, 50 miles SW. of 
 New York. Pop. 3900. On January 3, 1777, the 
 British were defeated here by Washington ; here, 
 too, the Continental Congress sat in 1783 ; and 
 from Princeton Washington dated his farewell 
 address to the army. Princeton, however, is 
 chiefly celebrated as the seat of the College of 
 New Jersey, better known as Princeton College, 
 and since 1896 as Princeton University. Founded 
 at Newark in 1746, it was in 1756 transferred to 
 Princeton, on the erection of a hall named 
 Nassau Hall in honour of William III. The 
 university now has over 100 instructors and 
 about 1400 students, with tine museums and 
 laboratories, two ol)servatories, and libraries 
 witli 250,000 volumes. Its endowment is 
 $3,000,000. Among its presidents have been 
 Jonathan Edwards and Dr James M'Cosh. 
 
 Prince Town. See Dartmoor, 
 
 Prior Park. See Bath. 
 
 Prisrend, a town of Albania, 72 miles E. by N. 
 of Scutari. Pop. 39,000. 
 
 Pris'tina, a town of European Turkey, 59 miles 
 by rail N. of Uskiib. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Procida (Protch'ida), an islet of Italy, between 
 the island of Ischia and the mainland (Cape 
 Miseno), 50 miles W, by S. of Naples. Area, 1^ 
 sq. m. ; pop. 13,930. On its shores is the city of 
 the same name, with a harbour, a royal palace, 
 a state-prison, and a marine school. 
 
 Progres'o, a seaport of Yucatan, 25 miles N. of 
 Merida. It stands on an open bay. 
 
 Prome, a town of Burma, on the Irawadi, 65 
 miles N W. of Rangoon by rail. Pop. 30,022. 
 
 Prossnitz, a town of Moravia, 13 miles by rail 
 SW. of Olmiitz. Pop. 24,500. 
 
 Provence (Provon^ss), formerly a maritime 
 province of France, was bounded on the S. by 
 the Mediterranean, and comprised the modern 
 
 deps. of Bouches du Rhone, Var, Basses-Atpes, 
 and parts of Alpes Maritinies and Vaucluse. It 
 included a portion of the Roman province of 
 Gaul generally called simply Frovincia ('the 
 Province '), whence it derived its name ; and it 
 was united to France in 1486. The Provencal 
 tongue was spoken over a much larger area. See 
 Baring-Gould's In Troubadour Land (1891). 
 
 Providence, seaport and, since 1900, sole capi- 
 tal of the state of Rhode Island, is situated at the 
 head of navigation, on an arm of Narragansett Bay 
 known as Providence River, 35 miles from the 
 ocean and 44 miles by rail SSW. of Boston. It 
 covers a wide area on both sides of the river, 
 which, above its two bridges, expands into a 
 cove, a mile in circuit, on the borders of which is 
 a handsome park, shaded with noble elms. It is 
 a city of large conunerce, manufactures, and 
 wealth, abounding with beautiful villas and 
 gardens. Founded before the conventional type 
 of American cities had been discovered, its streets 
 are pleasantly irregular, and the site singularly 
 uneven, rising in one place to 204 feet above high- 
 water, and in one ward, much of which is still in 
 farms, there are numerous hills and valleys. 
 Among the many notable public buildings and 
 institutions of Providence are a city hall, of 
 granite, which cost upwards of $1,000,000, and 
 has facing it the state's soldiers' monument ; 
 the State-house ; the custom-house and post-oflice ; 
 the Athenseum, and the buildings of the Rhode 
 Island Historical Society ; the arcade and the 
 Butler Exchange ; a great number of churches, 
 schools, and libraries, hospitals and asylums, in- 
 cluding a noble charity known as the Dexter 
 Asylum for the Poor ; the Friends' Boarding- 
 school (popularly, ' the Quaker College ') ; and the 
 Brown Baptist University (1764), with 900 stu- 
 dents. Two small rivers afford abundant water- 
 power ; and the chief manufactures are silver- 
 ware, jewellery, tools, stoves, engines, loco- 
 motives, cottons and woollens, laces, wicks, &c. 
 Providence was settled in 1636, and till 1900 was 
 only joint capital with Newport. Pop. (1870) 
 68,904 ; (1880) 104,857 ; (1900) 175,597. 
 
 Provins (Provan^'), a town of France, 59 miles 
 by rail SE. of Paris. Pop. 7975. 
 
 Provo City, capital of Utah county, Utah, on 
 the Provo River, between Utah Lake and the 
 Wahsatch Mountains, 46 miles by rail SSE. of 
 Salt Lake City. Pop. 6159. 
 
 Prussia (Ger. Preussen), by far the most im- 
 portant state in the German empire, is a kingdom 
 embracing nearly the whole of northern Ger- 
 many, and owning also HohenzoUern (q.v.) and 
 thirteen other detached territories lying within 
 the bounds of other German states. The area 
 is 136,000 sq. m. (one-tenth larger than the 
 United Kingdom, or half the size of Texas), with 
 (1900) 34,472,509 inhabitants— nearly two-thirds 
 of the entire German empire, with three-fifths 
 of the population. There are fourteen provinces;— 
 East and West Prussia, Berlin (city), Branden- 
 burg, Pomerania, Posen, Silesia, Saxony, Sleswick- 
 Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau, 
 Rhenish Prussia, and HohenzoUern. About one- 
 fifth of the present area has been acquired since 
 1853, the largest gains after the victorious war of 
 1866. The Prussia of Frederick the Great em- 
 braced only 47,800 sq. m. when he ascended the 
 throne, and 75,000 when he died. Pop. (1819) 
 10,981,934; (1864)19,254,649; (1871)24,689,252. 
 
 More than two-thirds of Prussia belongs to 
 the north European plain, already described at 
 Germany, while less than a third, chiefly in the 
 
PRUSSIA 
 
 578 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 south-west, is hilly or mountainous. The Schnee- 
 koppe (5250 feet) in the Reisengebirge is the 
 loftiest summit. The western and south-western 
 parts of the country, comprising Rhenish Prussia, 
 Westphalia, and Hesse- Nassau, cut off by the 
 Teutoburgerwald, the Weser Hills, the Harz, «&c., 
 from the sandy and heathy wastes of the north, 
 are quite distinct in their physical character from 
 the rest of Prussia. They are divided by tlie 
 Rhine into two portions. Q'he soil is generally 
 poor in these districts also, though they possess 
 special sources of wealth in their iron and coal 
 mines. The level country between the Rhone 
 and the Maas, bordering the Eifel, is extremely 
 fertile ; and Hesse-Cassel is particularly so. 
 Nassau is specially famous for its Rhine wines. 
 The northern plain is watered by five large rivers 
 — the Niemen, Vistula, Oder, Elbe, and Weser — 
 all of which rise beyond the borders of the 
 kingdom, and the Pregel, Eider, and Ems, which 
 are exclusively Prussian. In the west the chief 
 river is the Rhine. About 12,000,000 persons are 
 engaged in agriculture. Of the total area, 50 
 per cent, is occupied by arable land, 9^ per cent, 
 by meadows, and 11 per cent, by pasturage. 
 The forest-lands, chiefly in East Prussia, Posen, 
 Upper Silesia, Westphalia, Southern Hanover, and 
 Hesse-Nassau, occupy 10,000,000 acres. The 
 mineral products include, coal, iron, lead, zinc, 
 copper, cobalt, antimony, manganese, arsenic, 
 sulphur, alum, nickel, black lead, baryta, gypsum, 
 slate, lime, freestone, salt, amber, agate, jasper, 
 onyx, &c. Prussia yields about one-half of the 
 annual zinc production of the world ; and of the 
 total output of coal in Germany, Prussia produces 
 93 per cent. The chief coalfields are in Silesia, 
 Westphalia, and Rhenish Prussia, which are at 
 the same time the chief industrial provinces of 
 the kingdom. The region of the Harz in Hanover 
 is also famous for its mining industries. All 
 metals, salt, precious stones, and amber found 
 along the Prussian coast from Danzig to Memel 
 belong to the crown. Prussia has upwards of 
 100 mineral springs, of which the most noted are 
 those of Aix-la-Chapelle, Ems, Schwalbach, 
 Wiesbaden, Schlangenbad, and Selters. The 
 principal manufactures are linens and cottons, 
 also silk, wool, mixed cotton and linen fabrics. 
 Other great industries are the preparation and 
 manufacture of iron, steel (the steel and gun 
 works of Krupp, at Essen, being world-famous), 
 and other metallic wares, paper, leather, soap, 
 oil, cigars, tobacco, beer, chicory, starch, beet- 
 root, gunpowder, and glass. Berlin and Elber- 
 feld rank as the two most important centres of 
 manufacture on the Continent. The commerce 
 of Prussia is materially facilitated by her central 
 European position, and the network of river and 
 canal navigation, which makes her territories the 
 connecting medium between several of the great 
 European states, and which, with 21,120 miles of 
 railway, 50,500 miles of public roads, and a coast- 
 line of 1000 miles, gives her a free outlet to the 
 rest of the world. About seven-eighths of the 
 population of Prussia are Germans. Of the Sla- 
 vonic tribes the most numerous are Poles, num- 
 bering 2J millions. In Brandenburg and Silesia 
 there are about 85,000 Wends ; in East Prussia 
 upwards of 150,000 Lithuanians ; the western 
 part of the kingdom has 10,000 Walloons, using 
 the French language ; intermixed in its generally 
 German population Silesia has 55,000 Czechs or 
 Bohemians ; Sleswick-Holstein, 140,000 Danes — 
 making in all about 3 millions who do not use 
 the German language, or who employ it only as 
 secondary to their native tongues. The dominant 
 
 religion is Protestantism, and since 1817 the 
 Lutheran and Reformed Churches have been 
 united under the head of one common Evangelical 
 Church. The Protestants are over 64 per cent, 
 of the population, Roman Catholics about 34, 
 and Jews over 1. Education is widely diffused, 
 thorough, and compulsory, between the ages of six 
 and fourteen. Prussia has ten universities — viz. 
 Konigsberg, Berlin, Greifswald, Breslau, Halle, 
 Gottingen, Miinster, Bonn, Kiel, and Marburg, 
 which number above 1600 professors and teachers 
 and 18,200 students ; see Germany. In addition 
 to the libraries of the several universities there is 
 the Royal Library at Berlin, with 800,000 volumes 
 and about 15,000 MSS. Since 1848 Pru.ssia has 
 a Herrenhaus, or House of Lords, comprising 
 princes, the heads of the nobility, some life 
 peers, and a few representatives of provinces, 
 large towns, universities, &c. ; and a Chamber of 
 Deputies of 433 elected members. The monarchy 
 is hereditary in the male line, and is now con- 
 joined with the dignity of German emperor. The 
 sovereign and royal family must profess the 
 evangelical confession of faith. In the year 
 1905 the budget-estimate of the receipts was 
 2,803,805,050 marks (£140,190,252), just balanced 
 by the expenditure. The total national debt is 
 over £351,752,322. The Prussian contingent is 
 the most important jiart of the German army, 
 which is all under the command of the emperor- 
 king. For the army, navy, «&c., see Germany. 
 
 The Baltic lands now forming an important 
 part of Prussia, were originally inhabited by the 
 Slavonic Prussians, akin to the Lithuanians, who 
 resolutely resisted all attempts of the dukes of 
 Poland to christianise them, and were only con- 
 verted by the warlike measures of the Teutonic 
 Knights, who in 1230-83 became masters of the 
 region, and gradually peopled it with German 
 colonists. The knights, often at war with Poland 
 and Lithuania, declined in power in the 14th and 
 15th centuries, and in 1466 had to cede West 
 Prussia to Poland, holding the rest as fiefs of the 
 Polish crown. In 1511 the knights elected a 
 Hohenzollern prince as their head, who ulti- 
 mately became Duke of Prussia. In 1618 the 
 inheritance fell to another branch of the Hohen- 
 zollern house, which had since 1319 been mar- 
 graves and ultimately electors of Brandenburg. 
 Pomerania and parts of Franconia and other 
 districts had already made the electorate a power- 
 ful state, which, however, suffered terribly in 
 the Thirty Years' War. The 'Great Elector," 
 Frederick William, succeeded after 1640 in restor- 
 ing prosperity, and made the electorate a Euro- 
 pean state, which in 1703 was recognised as a 
 kingdom. Frederick the Great (1740-86) greatly 
 aggrandised the state by his wars and administra- 
 tion, obtaining all West Prussia at the first parti- 
 tion of Poland. The second and third partitions 
 were carried out under Frederick William II. 
 (1786-97). Frederick W^illiam III. (1790-1840) had 
 the difficult task of re-organising Prussia after 
 the misery and ruin of the French occupation ; 
 after Waterloo Prussia regained almost all she had 
 lost by the humiliating peace of Tilsit in 1807. 
 The troubles of 1848 did not affect the area, 
 which was added to under William I. and Bis- 
 marck by the incorporation of Hanover, Hesse- 
 Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, part of Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt, and Sleswick-Holstein, after the Austro- 
 Prussian war of 1866, another result of which was 
 that Austria ceased to be any part of Germany, 
 and Prussia became the predominant German 
 state. The Franco-German war of 1870-71 gave 
 Prussia still greater predominance and the im- 
 
PRUTH 
 
 574 
 
 PUNJAB 
 
 perlal crown. See books quoted at Germany, 
 aud the history by Tuttle (Boston, 1888). 
 
 Pruth (Proot), a left-hand affluent of the 
 Danube, rises in Galicia, on the NE. side of the 
 Carpathian Mountains, and flows 520 miles east- 
 ward past Kolomea and Czernowitz ; from where 
 it leaves Austrian territory to its inouth in the 
 Danube at Reni, 13 miles below Galatz, it forms 
 the boundary between Russian Bessarabia and 
 Roumania. It is navigable from near Jassy. 
 
 Przemysl, a town of Austrian Galicia, on an 
 affluent of the Vistula, 61 miles W. of Lemberg 
 by rail. It manufactures machinery, spirits, 
 wooden wares, &c. Since 1874 it has been strongly 
 fortified. Pop. 46,300, about one-third Jews. 
 
 Pskov, a decayed town of Russia, 9 miles SE. 
 of Lake Pskov (50 miles long by 13 broad), 160 
 miles SSW. of St Petersburg. During the 14th 
 and 15th centuries it was a Hanse town, with 
 60,000 inhabitants ; in 1510 it was annexed to 
 Moscow. Pop. 30,400. — The government has an 
 area of 17,064 sq. m. aud a pop. (1897) of 1,123,320. 
 
 Pudsey, a municipal borough (1900) of the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, 3 miles E. of Brad- 
 ford, with great manufactures. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Puebla {PweVla), the third city of Mexico, 
 capital of a state of the same name, stands on a 
 fruitful plain, 7120 feet above sea-level, and 68 
 miles (by rail 116) SE. of the city of Mexico. In 
 the vicinity are Orizaba, Popocatepetl, and other 
 lofty mountains. It was founded in 1531, and is 
 one of the handsomest towns in the republic, 
 with theological, medical, art, and normal schools, 
 a museum of antiquities (1728), two large libraries, 
 hospitals, &c. On the great square stands the 
 cathedral, a Doric building with two towers. The 
 chief manufactures are cottons, paper, iron, glass, 
 porcelain, leather. Pop. 93,550. Puebla was 
 besieged for two months by the French, and 
 then taken by storm, 17th May 1863. 
 
 Pueblo (Pweb'lo), capital of Pueblo county, 
 Colorado, on the Arkansas River, at the mouth 
 of Fountain Creek, 117 miles by rail S. by E. of 
 Denver. Through its iron and steel industry it 
 rapidly became the second city of the state and 
 an important railway centre ; immense quantities 
 of raw materials and fuel abound in the vicinity. 
 In 1890 a Mineral Palace was erected to hold a 
 permanent exhibit of Colorado's mineral produc- 
 tions — from stone and coal to pure gold. Pop., 
 in 1880 only 3250, is now 30,000. 
 
 Puente Nacional (Pwentey NasionaV), a town 
 of Colombia, in Santander dep., on the Rio 
 Suarez. Coal aud iron are mined. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Puerto Bello. See Portobelo. 
 
 Puerto Oabello (Pwerto Cavel'yo), a seaport of 
 Venezuela, 78 miles W. from Caracas. It stands on 
 a long, low, narrow peninsula on the Caribbean 
 Sea, and has a safe, roomy, and fortified harbour. 
 It is the port of Valencia, 34 miles distant by 
 rail. Pop. 15,145. 
 
 Puerto Cortez, a port of Honduras (q.v.). 
 
 Puerto de Santa Maria, a seaport of Spain, 
 at the mouth of the Guadalete, on the Bay of 
 Cadiz, 22 miles by rail (all round the bay) NE. 
 of Cadiz and 8 SW. of Xeres. It is a great 
 export harbour for sherry, and manufactures 
 silk, soap, hats, leather, spirits, beer, &c. Pop. 
 19,006. 
 
 Puerto Plata {Pwerto Plah'ta), the chief port 
 of the Dominican Republic, on the north coast of 
 Hayti. It has an open roadstead. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Puerto Principe {Pwerto Preen'seepay), an in- 
 
 land town in the east of Cuba, 40 miles S"W. of 
 its port, Nuevitas, by rail. Pop. 26,641. 
 
 Puerto Rico. See Porto Rico. 
 
 Puget Sound, a large inland sea in the north- 
 west of Washington, U.S., communicating with 
 the Pacific by the Admiralty Inlet and Juan de 
 Fuca Strait. It is divided into several branches, 
 penetrates far into the interior, and is every- 
 where navigable for the largest vessels. Great 
 quantities of pine and fir are shipped. 
 
 Pulborough, a Sussex market-town, on the 
 Arun, 9 miles N. by E. of Arundel. Pop. 1727. 
 
 Pulicat, a town of India, 20 miles N. of Madras, 
 the first settlement of the Dutch in India ; pop. 
 4967. It stands on an island in a large sea-inlet 
 called the Lake of Pulicat. 
 
 Pulkowa (Poolko'va), a village of Russia, 10 
 miles S. of the site of a magnificent observatory 
 (59° 46' 18" N. lat. and 30° 19' 40" E. long.), the 
 'St Petersburg observatory,' built by the Czar 
 Nicholas in 1838-39. In 1882 one of the largest 
 telescopes in the world was erected here. 
 
 Pulo-Penang. See Penanq. 
 
 Pulteneytown. See Wick. 
 
 Pultowa {Poolto'va), or Polta'va, a town of 
 Russia, on a tributary of the Diiieper, 88 miles by 
 rail SW. of Kharkoff, and 449 NE. of Odes.sa. A 
 bishop's seat, it manufactures tobacco and leather, 
 and has four great annual fairs. Here Charles 
 XII. was defeated by Peter the Great on 27th 
 June 1709. Pop. 53,214. 
 
 Pultusk (Pool-toosk'), a town of Poland, 32 miles 
 N. of Warsaw. Here Charles XII. of Sweden 
 defeated the Saxons in 1703, and here in 1806 
 the French defeated the Russians. The town 
 was destroyed by fire in 1875. Pop. 15,946. 
 
 Punchestown, a racecourse close to Naas, 20 
 miles SW. of Dublin by rail. 
 
 Pungwe, a river of Portuguese East Africa, 
 forming the principal waterway to Manicaland 
 and Mashonaland ; its mouth is situated some 25 
 miles NE. of Sofala and 130 SW. of the Zambesi 
 delta. After some dii)lomatic difficulties between 
 Britain and Portugal, it was agreed (1891) by 
 Portugal that British commerce should have 
 unimpeded access by this route to the British 
 sphere in the interior, the Pungwe being made 
 freely navigable for British vessels. The Pungwe 
 Massi Kesse Railway to the Mashonaland frontier 
 was partially opened in October 1893. 
 
 Punjab, or Pa-sjab (pdnj-ab, 'five rivers;' the 
 Pentapotamia of the Greeks), a province in the 
 NW. of India, bordering on Cashmere, is watered 
 by the Indus and its five great affluents— the 
 Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Till 
 the formation in 1901 of the North-west Frontier 
 Province (incorporating almost all the Punjab 
 territory lying beyond the Indu.s), the total area 
 had been 148,966 sq. miles, with a population 
 (1891) of 25,130,127 ; but since then the area is 
 133,741 sq. miles, and the population (1901) 
 23,235,917 — 2,905,000 being in the luimerous 
 native states. The capital is Lahore, but Delhi 
 is more populous. Amritsar, third in size, is 
 the religious capital of the Siklis. The northern 
 parts are traversed by spurs from the Himalayas. 
 In the south is the Salt Range, 2000 to 5000 feet 
 high, between the Indus and the Jhelum. The 
 climate in the plains is most oppressively hot 
 and dry in summer, reaching in May 87*4* to 
 116-6° F. in the shade ; but is cool, and sometimes 
 frosty, in wiTiter. Little rain falls except in the 
 districts along the base of the Himalayas. Trees 
 are few in number and small, and fuel is so scarce 
 
PUNTA ARENAS 575 
 
 that cow-dung is much used in its stead. Wheat 
 of excellent quality is produced, and indigo, 
 sugar, cotton, tobacco, opium, tea, rice, barley, 
 millet, maize, and numerous vegetables and 
 fruits are grown. The manufacturing industry- 
 cottons, wood-work, iron, leather, gold and silver 
 lace, silk, and shawls— is carried on for the most 
 part in the great towns. Punjab exports indigo, 
 grain, salt, metals, spices, tea, tobacco, manu- 
 factured cottons, hides, and leather to Kabul, 
 Cashmere, Turke-stan, and Tibet; and imports 
 dyes, goats' wool, raw silk, fruits, ghee, horses, 
 furs, timber, and shawl cloth. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly Jats, Sikhs, Rajputs, and Pathans. 
 Of the whole population, 56 per cent. wereMohani- 
 medans, 38 Hindus, and 6 Sikhs. 
 
 Punta Arenas {Poonta Aray'nas), (1) the chief 
 port of Costa Rica on the Pacific, stands on a 
 • sandy point ' jutting into the Gulf of Nicoya, 
 14 miles by rail WSW. of Esparza. Pop. 7000.— 
 (2) A town in Patagonia (q.v.). 
 
 Purbeck, Isle of, a peninsular district of 
 Dorsetshire, 12 miles long and 5 to 9 broad, is 
 bounded N. by the river Frome and Poole Har- 
 bour, E. and S. by the English Channel, and W. 
 by the little stream of Luckford Lake, which 
 runs from Lulworth Park to the Frome. The 
 coast is bold and precipitous, with St Albans 
 Head, 360 feet high ; inland a range of chalk 
 downs curves east and west, attaining a maxi- 
 mum height of 655 feet. The Purbeck Marble 
 is a fresh-water limestone, composed almost 
 wholly of shells. Nearly a hundred quarries 
 are worked ; the quarrymen still form a curious 
 kind of trade's guild. Of old the ' isle * was a 
 royal deer-forest. Swanage and Corfe Castle are 
 the chief places. See works by Robinson (1882), 
 and J. Braye (1890). 
 
 Purfleet, a village of Essex, on the north bank 
 of the Thames, 15 miles by rail E. by S. of London 
 and 8 miles E. of Woolwich, contains government 
 powder-magazines, built in 1781. 
 
 Puri. See Juggernaut. 
 
 Purley House, Surrey, 2J miles S. of Croydon, 
 the property of the regicide Bradshaw, and the 
 residence afterwards of Horne-Tooke, who hence 
 named his Diversions of Purley. 
 
 Purraerend, a town of Holland, 10 miles N. 
 of Amsterdam. Pop. 4960. 
 
 Purniah {Poor' ne-ah), a town of Bengal, 230 
 miles NNW. of Calcutta. Pop. 15,016. 
 
 Pusey, a Berks parish, 5 miles E. by N. of 
 Faringdon. Dr Pusey was born here. 
 
 Puteaux (Pii-to'), a town 2 miles from the west- 
 ern boundary of Paris, on the Seine's left bank, 
 opposite the Bois de Boulogne. Pop. 24,300. 
 
 Pute'oli. See Pozzuoli. 
 
 Putnam, a town of Connecticut, on the Quinne- 
 bang River, 56 miles ENE. of Hartford. Pop. 6712. 
 
 Putney, a suburb of London, in Surrey, 6 miles 
 WSW. of Waterloo, on the south side of the tidal 
 Thames, which, here nearly 300 yards broad, is 
 crossed by a new granite bridge (1884-86), leading 
 to Fulham. It is a great rowing place, the start- 
 ing-point of the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race ; 
 and from its ready access to town, the river, 
 Putney Heath, and Wimbledon Common, has 
 grown rapidly of recent years. The parish 
 church, with a 15th-century tower, was mainly 
 rebuilt in 1886 ; in the churchyard is Toland's 
 grave. Putney is the birthplace of Thomas Crom- 
 well and Gibbon, and the death place of Pitt, 
 Fuseli, and Leigh Hunt. From Putney's old 
 bridge Mary Wollstonecraft tried to drown her- 
 
 PYRENEES 
 
 self; and on Putney Heath Pitt fought his duel 
 with Tierney (1798), Castlereagh his with Canning 
 (1809). Pop. (1851) 5280 ; (1901) 24,140. 
 
 Putrid Sea. See Azov. 
 
 Putujnayo (Poo-too-ml'o), or Iqa, rises in 
 Colombia on the eastern side of the Andes, and 
 flows SE. 950 miles to the Amazon. 
 
 Puy (Pwee), Le, or Le Puy-en-Velay, a French 
 town (dep. Haute-Loire), 70 miles SW. of Lyons 
 by rail, stands at the base and on the steep 
 slopes of Mount Anis (2050 feet), from whose 
 summit starts up precipitously the basaltic mass 
 called Mont Corneille, crowned by a colossal 
 figure (53 feet) of the Virgin, made of Russian 
 cannon brought from Sebastopol. The most 
 notable building is the Romanesque cathedral 
 (6th-12th century), in the highest part of the 
 town. Lace and thread work are manufactured. 
 Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Puy-de-D6me (Pivee-de-Dome), a central dep. of 
 France. Area, 3070 sq. m. ; population, 550,000. 
 The western side is an elevated volcanic region, 
 studded with numerous extinct cones ; the highest 
 Puy-de-Sancy (0188 feet). The principal rivers 
 are the AUier, a tributary of the Loire, and the 
 Dordogne. The dep. is subdivided into the 
 arrondissements of Ambert, Clermont-Ferrand 
 (the capital), Issoire, Riom, and Thiers. 
 
 Pwllheli (Pool-hay'lee), a Welsh seaport and 
 watering-place, 22 miles by rail S. by W. of Car- 
 narvon, with lobster and oyster fisheries. It is 
 a municipal borough, uniting with Carnarvon, 
 &c. to return one member. Pop. 3631. 
 
 Pynes, the seat of the Earl of Iddesleigh, 2 
 miles N. of Exeter. 
 
 Pyramids, monumental structures of stone or 
 brick over the sepulchral chambers of Egyptian 
 kings, built in the well-known pyramidal shape. 
 The most famous are those of Gizeh, on the other 
 side of the Nile facing old Cairo and near the 
 ancient Memphis. The largest, that of Chufu or 
 Cheops, second king of the 4th dynasty (3756 
 B.C.?), was originally 481 feet high on a squaro 
 base of 774 feet— higher than St Paul's on an 
 area as large as Lincoln's Inn Fields— but many 
 of its exterior blocks have been removed for 
 buildings in Cairo. The second, that of Chephren, 
 the successor of Cheops, was 450 feet high on a 
 base of 700 feet square. The third is much 
 smaller, and there are six others smaller still at 
 Gizeh ; eleven at Sakkara, a few miles S. ; others 
 at Abou Roash, Abusir, at Dahshiir, at Meydiini, 
 in the Fayyilm, and in Nubia- 
 
 Pyr'enees, the mountain-chain that divides 
 France from Spain, stretches from the Mediter- 
 ranean to the south-east comer of the Bay of 
 Biscay, a distance of 270 miles, its breadth vary- 
 ing between 15 and 70 miles. They form a regular 
 and continuous chain, divisible into the Western, 
 Central, and Eastern Pyrenees. The Central 
 Pyrenees, extending from the Port de Canfranc 
 to the Col de la Perche, contain the highest peaks 
 and the most imposing mountain-masses, as Pic 
 de Nethou (in Maladetta), 11,170 feet ; Mont 
 Perdu, 10,998; Vignemale, 10,794; Marbore, 
 10,673 ; and Pic du Midi, 9466. On both north 
 and south the mountains sink down to the plains 
 in a series of terraces, with precipitous faces, the 
 slope on the Spanish side being steeper than on 
 the French side. The valleys or ravines cutting 
 into the mountain-mass on both sides terminate 
 in caldron-shaped basins, called cirques or oules 
 (= pots), the sides of which are precipitous and 
 seamed with waterfalls: the most celebrated is 
 
PYRENEES 
 
 576 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 the Cirque of Gavarnie, at the head of Gave de 
 Pau, with a waterfall 1380 feet high. The streams 
 on the Spanish side are mostly feeders of the 
 Ebro, whilst the French streams feed the Adour, 
 the Garonne, and some little Mediterranean 
 rivers. The lower Pyrenean valleys throngh 
 wliich these streams flow are in many cases 
 covered with grass or forest, or even vineyards 
 and olive-groves. Snow lies on the highest pin- 
 nacles, the snow-line being 9200 feet on the south 
 side and at 8300 on the nortli. A narrow belt 
 of glaciers runs from east to west just below the 
 Central peaks, but almost wholly on the French 
 side. Minerals are not generally abundant, 
 though iron is worked in Basses-Pyrenees and 
 Pyrenees-Orientales ; coal exists on the Spanish 
 side and lignite on the French. There are 
 numerous mineral springs (several being hot), 
 those of Eaux-Bonnes, Cauterets, Eaux-Chaudes, 
 Bagneres de Bigorre and de Luchon, and Bareges 
 being the best known. See Count Henry Russell, 
 Pau, Biarritz, and the Pyrenees (new ed. 1891). 
 
 Pyrenees (Pee-ray-nny'), Basses, a dep. of SW. 
 France, having tlie Bay of Biscay on the west. 
 Area, 2946 sq. m. ; population, 427,000. It is 
 divided into the arrondissements of Pau (the 
 capital), Oloron, Orthez, Bayonne, and Mauleon. 
 
 Pyrenees, Hautes, a dep. of France, lying 
 east of Basses-Pyrenees, is part of the old prov- 
 ince of Gascony. Area, 1749 sq. m. ; population, 
 215,000. Its arrondissements are Tarbes (the 
 capital), Argeles, and Bagneres de Bigorre. 
 
 Pyrenees-Orientales {Pee-ray-nay z'-O-ri-on^. 
 tahl'), a southern dep. of France, bounded E. by 
 the Mediterranean. Area, 1591 sq. m. ; popula- 
 tion, 213,000. Its arrondissements are Perpignan 
 (the capital), Prades, and Ceret. 
 
 Pyritz (Peereet/), a manufacturing town of 
 Pomerania, 25 miles SE. of Stettin. Pop. 8062. 
 
 Pyrmont (Peer-monf). See Waldeck. 
 
 Pytchley, a village of Northants, 3 miles SW. 
 of Kettering, whence the Pytchley Hunt takes 
 name. See a work by Nethercote (1888). 
 
 UANGTUNG. See Canton. 
 
 Quantocks, a Somerset range of hills, 
 
 extending 8 miles NNW. to the coast 
 
 near Watchet, and culminating in Wills 
 
 Neck (1262 feet). They have memories 
 
 of Coleridge and Wordsworth. 
 
 Quamdon, a village, with sulphur baths, 3 
 miles NNW. of Derby. 
 
 Quatre-Bras (Kdhtr-Brdh), a village of Belgium, 
 10 miles SSE. of Waterloo, situated at the inter- 
 section of the great roads from Brussels to Char- 
 leroi, and from Nivelles to Namur, whence its 
 name (' four arms '). Here, on 16th June 1815, 
 two days before Waterloo, the English under 
 Wellington defeated the French under Ney. A 
 monument to the Duke of Brunswick, a bronze 
 lion 10^ feet high, was erected in 1890. 
 
 Quebec {Kwe-held ; Fr. Quebec, pron. Kay-bek'), 
 a province of Canada, between Ontario and New 
 Brunswick. Area (with additions up to 1900), 
 347,350 sq. miles. The surface comprises great 
 rivers and lakes, large stretches of agricultural 
 land, and immense forests. S. of the St Lawrence 
 are the Notre Dame or Green Mountains, while 
 on the N, is the Laurentian Range. The St 
 Lawrence (q.v.) has many tributaries of great 
 length, the Ottawa, St Maurice, Saguenay, &c. 
 Of numerous lakes, the best known are Temisca- 
 mingue, Metapedia, Temiscouata, Memphre7nagog, 
 and St John. The province has a coast-line of 
 825 miles on the Atlantic. The winter is slightly 
 colder than in the other parts of eastern Canada. 
 The soil is rich and loamy, well adapted for 
 cereals, hay, and root-crops. Indian corn, 
 hemp, flax, and tobacco are also raised. Fruit 
 is grown, especially apples and plums, which 
 are exported ; grapes ripen in the open air. 
 Tomatoes are also a field-crop. Cattle-breeding 
 is carried on, and large numbers of animals 
 are exported to Britain. The fisheries in the 
 River and Gulf of St Lawrence are very pro- 
 lific, and all the smaller rivers teem with fish. 
 Alluvial gold is found in various places, and 
 copper in the eastern townships, while iron is 
 very generally distributed. Other minerals are 
 lead, silver, platinum, zinc, asbestos, and apatite, 
 or phosphate of lime. Agriculture and dairy- 
 farming form the chief occupations of the people ; 
 but lumbering, mining, shipbuilding, manufac- 
 tures, fisheries, and commerce employ many. The 
 
 affairs of the province, which is divided into 
 63 counties, are administered by a lieutenant- 
 governor, an executive council of 24 life-members, 
 and a legislative assembly of 73 persons elected 
 every four years. The province is represented in 
 the Dominion Senate by 24 inembers, and in the 
 House of Commons by 65. Pop. (1871) 1,191,516 ; 
 (1881) 1,359,027 ; (1901) 1,648,898, of whom about 
 80 per cent, were French-Canadians, descendants 
 of the French settlers living in the country when 
 it was transferred to Great Britain in 1763. The 
 French population then did not exceed 70,000, 
 so that the progress in 130 years is in strange 
 contrast to the state of things in old France. 
 Families of twelve and fourteen are quite com- 
 mon amongst French-Canadians. The English 
 population does not increase in the same way. 
 Farms are subdivided amongst all the children as 
 in France. In religion the Roman Catholics 
 naturally prevail, but the rights of the Protestant 
 minority are protected by statute. The two 
 Protestant universities are M'Gill at Montreal 
 and Bishop's College at Lennoxville ; Laval, the 
 Catholic university, is at Quebec. The principal 
 city in the province is Montreal (pop. 270,000), 
 the commercial metropolis of the Dominion. 
 Quebec, the most historic city in Canada, is the 
 seat of the provincial government. 
 
 Quebec, the capital, is situated on a steep 
 promontory, on the north-west bank of the St 
 Lawrence, 300 miles from the Gulf of St Lawrence 
 and 180 below Montreal (172 by rail). The high- 
 est part of the headland is Cape Diamond, 333 
 feet above the river. Quebec is the most import- 
 ant military position in Canada ; its citadel 
 occupies an area of 40 acres, and commands a 
 magnificent view. The harbour is spacious, and 
 the docks and tidal basin are perfect specimens of 
 engineering skill ; on the Levis side of the river in 
 the extensive graving-dock. The city is divided 
 into an Upper and Lower Town, whilst westward 
 are the thriving suburbs of St John, St Louis, and 
 St Roch's— the latter having immense warehouses 
 and stores. To the south-west of St John 
 are the Plains of Abraham, the historic battle- 
 field, with a column 40 feet high to the memory 
 of General Wolfe. Another monument, 65 feet 
 high, dedicated to Wolfe and Montcalm, is situ- 
 ated in the Governor's Garden, and immediately 
 overlooks the St Lawrence. On the Ste Foye 
 Road is an iron pillar crowned by a bronze statue. 
 
QUEDAH 
 
 6T7 
 
 QUEENSLAND 
 
 commemorating the deeds of the British and 
 French under Murray and Levis in 1760. There 
 is a shaft also to the memory of Jacques Cartier 
 and the Jesuit Brebeuf. Four martello towers 
 occupy elevated positions. In the Upper Town 
 is Dutferin Terrace, 1400 feet long and 200 feet 
 above the water level, commanding a noble view. 
 The Grand Battery is also picturesquely situated. 
 Three handsome modern gates liave replaced the 
 old ones. The principal edifices are the parlia- 
 mentary and departmental buildings, court-house, 
 post-office, custom-house, city hall, masonic hall, 
 basilica, the archiepiscopal palace, the Anglican 
 Cathedral, Church Hall, and Young Men's 
 Christian Association building. Laval Uni- 
 versity, named after the first Roman Catholic 
 bishop of Quebec, who in 1G(53 founded the semin- 
 ary, has a library of 150,000 volumes, a museum 
 and art gallery, laboratory, &c. Morrin College 
 (Presbyterian) is affiliated with M'Gill Uni- 
 versity. The water-supply is from Lake St 
 Charles. The city is lighted with gas and elec- 
 tricity, the power for the latter being afforded by 
 the Falls of Montmorency, 9 miles distant. 
 Quebec is connected with all parts of America by 
 rail, and is at the head of ocean steamship navi- 
 gation. Shipbuilding has fallen off. The manu- 
 factures are worsted goods, iron-castings, machin- 
 ery, cartridges, cutlery, nails, leather, musical 
 instruments, boots and shoes, paper, tobacco, 
 steel, &c. The chief exports are timber and 
 lumber. Quebec is the seat of a R. C. archbishop 
 and an Anglican bishop. Cartier visited the site, 
 Stadacone, in 1535 ; and in 1608 Champlain 
 founded and named the town, which was the 
 centre of French trade, civilisation, and missions 
 till 1759, when it was captured by Wolfe. In 
 1763 it was ceded to Great Britain, Pop. (1852) 
 42,052 ; (1881) 62,446 ; (1901) 68,844. See works 
 by Lemoine (1876), Mercier (1890), and Sir Gilbert 
 Parker (1903) ; and for the siege, Doughty and 
 Parnell (6 vols. 1903). 
 
 Quedab, or Kedah, a state on the west side of 
 the Malay Peninsula, with an area of 3600 sq. m. 
 and a pop. of 30,000, nominally subject to Siam. 
 The capital, Quedah, has 8000 inhabitants. 
 
 Qued'linburg (it as oo), a town of Prussia, at 
 the N. base of the Harz Mountains, 56 miles SE. 
 of Brunswick, founded by Henry the Fowler in 
 924. On an eminence stands the old castle of its 
 abbesses, in whose chapel rest Henry I., his wife 
 Matilda, and the Countess of Konigsmark. Here 
 Klopstock and Karl Ritter were born. The town 
 manufactures sugar, wire goods, and farinaceous 
 foods. Pop. 24,76i; 
 
 Queen'borough, a municipal borough on the 
 Isle of Sheppey, 2 miles S. of Sheerness, was 
 founded by Edward III. (1369), and named after 
 Queen Philippa. Steamers ply to Flushing. 
 Pop. 1550. 
 
 Queen Charlotte's Islands, a group N. of 
 Vancouver Island, off British Columbia. Area, 
 5100 sq. m. The two chief islands, Graham and 
 Moresby, are 160 miles long and nearly 70 broad. 
 Anthracite, coal, copper and iron ore, and gold- 
 bearing quartz are found. Pop. 2000 Indians. — 
 Queen Charlotte's Sound is a strait separating Van- 
 couver Island, on the N., from the mainland. 
 
 Queensberry, a Dumfriesshire mountain (2285 
 feet), 7 miles WSW. of Moffat. 
 
 Queensbury, a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 3^ miles NNE. of Halifax. Pop. 6440. 
 
 Queen's County, an inland county of Leinster, 
 ^3 bounded by King's County, Kilkenny, and 
 
 9^ 
 
 Tipperary, and measures 33 miles by 37. Area, 
 424,854 acres. Pop. (1841) 153,988 ; (1861) 90,650 ; 
 (1901) 57,225, of whom 60,000 were Catholics. 
 Nearly 14^ per cent, of the total area is barren. 
 Queen's County is, for the most part, within the 
 basin of the Barrow, and is flat and, except where 
 bogs prevail, fertile. It is also drained by the 
 Nore and crossed by the Grand Canal. On the 
 north-western border lie the Slieve Bloom Moun- 
 tains (1734 feet). Coal occurs in the south-east. 
 Agriculture is the principal occupation ; there is 
 much dairy-farming. This district was made a 
 shire in honour of Queen Mary, from whom also 
 the chief town, Maryborough (pop. 2960), was 
 called. The county returns two members. 
 
 Queensferry, a town of Linlithgowshire, 9 
 miles WNW. of Edinburgh, on the south shore of 
 the Firth of Forth, which here is crossed by the 
 great Forth Bridge (q.v.). Named after St 
 Margaret; it has been a burgh of royalty since 
 1363, a royal burgh since about 1639, and a police- 
 burgh since 1882 ; with Stirling, &c. it returns 
 one member. It has remains of a Carmelite 
 friary, converted in 1890 into an Episcopal 
 church, and a new town-hall (1894) ; and one of its 
 hotels is the Hawes Inn of Scott's Antiquary. 
 Pop. 1831.— North Qukensferry is in Fife, at 
 the other end of the bridge. Pop. 510, 
 
 Queensland, youngest and second largest of the 
 colonies included, after 1901, in tlie Australian 
 Commonwealth, comprises an area of 668,497 
 sq. m. It was little known until 1823, when 
 Oxley discovered the river which he named the 
 Brisbane, in honour of the governor of New South 
 Wales ; and it was first proclaimed a separate 
 colony in 1859. The island-studded coast-line 
 is 2250 miles in extent. The southern boundary 
 generally follows the twenty-ninth parallel of 
 S. lat. The northernmost point of the main- 
 land is Cape York. Queensland is 1300 miles 
 in length from N. to S., and 800 miles at 
 the greatest breadth in the S. Its western 
 boundary for the most part is 138" E. long. 
 Running more or less parallel with the eastern 
 coast, about 50 miles inland, is a backbone of 
 mountains, the Main Dividing Range, a continua- 
 tion of the Blue Mountains ; the highest peaks 
 are Bellenden-Ker (5500 feet) and Mount 
 Dalrymple (4250). The east side is ridgy and 
 thickly timbered with eucalypti ; the country 
 west of the mountains is to a large extent open 
 downs and plains, often of the richest black soil, 
 covered with the finest fattening herbage in the 
 world. The largest rivers on the east coast are 
 the Brisbane, Mary, Burnett, Fitzroy, Burdekin, 
 and Johnston. On the western watershed are 
 the Mulligan, Herbert, and Diamantina. The 
 headwaters of the Thomson and Barcoo flow 
 southward through the boundless prairie-country. 
 The Flinders, Leichhardt, Gilbert, Mitchell, and 
 Gregory flow northward to the Gulf of Carpen- 
 taria. Rockhampton is on the Fitzroy, Mary- 
 borough on the Mary, and Mackay on the Pioneer. 
 The principal harbour in Queensland is Moreton 
 Bay. The alluvial coast-lands are devoted to 
 ordinary and semi-tropical agriculture and timber 
 produce. The basaltic plains and tablelands be- 
 yond the Main Range, extending to the ' Never 
 Never country,' are occupied by pioneer pastoral- 
 ists with their herds of sheep and cattle. In 
 such a colony, two-thirds of which lies within 
 the tropics, there is a wide variety of climate and 
 natural capabilities. The summer heat is un- 
 doubtedly great ; but there is immunity from hot 
 winds, and the heat being dry is bearable, 
 
QUEENSLAND 
 
 578 
 
 QUILON 
 
 though the maximum register is 108°. For seven 
 months of the year the climate is most enjoyable. 
 The colony enjoys a high repute for health, gives 
 a low death and a high birth rate, and is free from 
 pulmonary and contagious diseases. Pop. (1871) 
 125,146; (1881) 213,525; (1901)503,266, including 
 9313 Chinese and 9327 Polynesian labourers, and 
 excluding some 7000 aborigines. A table of the 
 population, revenue, comparative crops, exporl^s, 
 &c. of Queensland and the other Australian 
 colonies will be found in the article Australia. 
 
 Much of the marked prosperity of Queensland 
 is due to the development of ocean and inter- 
 colonial steam communication. The navigable 
 streams have been dredged at enormous cost. 
 The railway system of Queensland (2997 miles) 
 connects with that of New South Wales, and 
 there are over 10,100 miles of telegraph lines. 
 From 1868 to the end of 1903 its mines have pro- 
 duced 17,454,418 ounces of gold, value £58,312,127. 
 In central Queensland is the remarkable Mount 
 Morgan (q.v.) mine. Copper, tin, silver and 
 lead, quicksilver, manganese, and iron are 
 found ; and there are valuable coal-mines. 
 Agates and fine opals are found, and specimens 
 of the diamond, ruby, sapphire, and topaz. 
 The annual exports of wool, hides, .skins, and 
 tallow represent a value of 4J millions. The 
 manufactories comprise metal-foundries, sugar- 
 mills, tanneries, flour-mills, distilleries, saw- 
 mills. Tweed-factories are worked near Ipswich. 
 Of late years the beche-de-mer and pearl-Hsheries 
 of Torres Straits have been highly productive ; 
 and meat-preserving has also become an estab- 
 lished industry. The seat of government is 
 Brisbane, and the next largest towns are Rock- 
 hampton, Townsville, Maryborough, Gympie, 
 Ipswich, Toowoomba, and Charters Towers. The 
 governor is appointed by the crown, and there 
 are an executive council and two houses of parlia- 
 ment. The state sends 9 members to the Com- 
 monwealth House of Representatives. Education 
 is free, secular, and compulsory. A small perma- 
 nent force, a defence contingent, and volunteers 
 make up an enrolment nearly 5000 strong ; but 
 every male between eighteen and sixty years old is 
 liable for military service in an emergency. The 
 entrance to the Brisbane River is defended by a 
 battery and torpedo works, and there are gun- 
 boats, torpedo and packet boats, and a naval 
 reserve. About 410 million acres of land still 
 belong to the crown, leased mostly to squatters 
 as sheep and cattle runs. Market-gardening in 
 Queensland, even in the large towns, is princi- 
 pally done by Chinamen. On the Darling Downs, 
 which is the garden of Queensland, wheat may 
 be grown ; and oats, barley, rye, maize, lucerne, 
 and European vegetables and fruits are raised ; 
 elsewhere sweet potatoes, yams and pumpkins. 
 Sugar-growing is a great industry, and arrow- 
 root and tobacco are grown. Cotton, rice, coffee, 
 and even tea have been proved to be suitable. 
 An immense variety of fruits, of both temperate 
 and tropical climes, grow well ; ginger, pepper, 
 and nutmeg are indigenous. Amongst the hard- 
 woods are the ironbarks, stringy-barks, gums, 
 and blood woods, and there are many easily- worked 
 and beautiful softwoods. Snakes (some of them 
 very poisonous)and alligators are the most danger- 
 ous wild animals. The fauna includes the usual 
 Australian marsupials— the platypus, dingo, fly- 
 ing-fox, &c. Kangaroos used to be a pest. Many 
 of the birds are of gorgeous plumage. The emu 
 roams the plains, and the cassowary is a rare ap- 
 pearance in the north. The rabbit has been fenced 
 ou^ from the southern borders with tolerable 
 
 success. The sea-fishing is unsurpassed, and tho 
 Moreton Bay oysters are exported. From the 
 dugong, besides the oil, is obtained a hide invalu- 
 able for thick machinery belting. Queensland 
 suffers occasionally from floods and from 
 droughts ; the necessity for artificial irrigation 
 is of paramount importance. By 1903 over 900 
 artesian bores had been sunk, giving a daily flow 
 of nearly 10,500,000 gallons. 
 
 See books by Bon wick (1880), Grant (1881), 
 Russell (18S8), Lumholtz (1889), Weedon (1898), 
 the annual Year-book, and Rutlidge's semi-official 
 Guide to Queensland (1899). 
 
 Queenstown, an Irish seaport, on the south 
 side of Great Island, in Cork harbour, 12 miles 
 by rail SE. of Cork and 177 SW. of Dublin. Its 
 original name was Cove of Cork ; the present 
 name commemorates the visit of Queen Victoria 
 in 1849. The town is built in parallel streets on 
 the slopes of a hill shaped like an amphitheatre. 
 Its climate enjoys a high reputation. The 
 splendid Catholic cathedral for Cloyne diocese 
 is the principal building. Queenstown is an 
 important port of call, the mails from the 
 United States being landed here and sent over- 
 land by rail to Dublin ; while the British mails 
 are in part taken on board here. Pop. (1871) 
 10,334 ; (1891) 9082 ; (1901) 7909. 
 
 Queen's Town stands on an arm of the Klaas 
 Smits River in the east of Cape Colony, 154 miles 
 by rail N. by W. of East London. Pop. 9850. 
 
 Quelpart, a rock-bound, wooded island 60 miles 
 off the S. coast of Corea, 40 miles long by 17 
 broad, attains in the volcanic Mount Auckland 
 6500 feet. It is fertile and populous. 
 
 Queretaro (Kay-ray'ta-ro), the capital of a 
 Mexican state, on a hilly plateau, 6273 feet above 
 .sea-level, 153 miles by rail NW. of Mexico city. 
 It contains a government palace, a cathedral, an 
 aqueduct with arches 90 feet high, and two cotton- 
 mills, employing 2300 hands. Here the Emi)eror 
 Maximilian was shot in 1867. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Quetta, or Shalkot, a fortified town near the 
 north frontier of Beluchistan, strategically im- 
 portant as commanding the Bolan Pass (q.v.) and 
 the Pishin Valley. Since 1887 it has been con- 
 nected with the Indian railways, and since 1877 
 has been under British officers. Coal and petro- 
 leum were found in 1890. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Quetzaltenango, the capital of a dep. of Guate- 
 mala, on the Siguila, 95 miles W. by N. of Guate- 
 mala city. Pop. 30,000, mostly Indians. 
 
 Quiberon {Kee'beron^, a small fishing-town of 
 France (dep. Morbihan), at the extremity of a 
 long narrow peninsula, 21 miles SW. of Vannes. 
 Pop. 3300. Here a body of French royalists 
 landed from an Engli-sh fleet in 1795, and en- 
 deavoured to rouse the people of Brittany and 
 La Vendue. On 20th November 1759 Hawke 
 defeated a French fleet in Quiberon Bay. 
 
 Quilimane (Kee-le-mdh'nay), a seaport of East 
 Africa, in Portuguese territory, stands 15 miles 
 from the mouth of the N. arm of the Zambesi. Pop. 
 8000, including 116 Europeans and 327 Asiatics. 
 
 Qnillo'ta, a town of Chili, in the fertile valley 
 of the Aconcagua, 13 miles from its mouth, and 
 25 miles by rail NE. of Valparaiso. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Quiloa, or Kilwa, a seaport of German East 
 Africa, 190 miles S. of Zanzibar. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Quilon {Qwee-lon'), a town of Southern India, 
 in the state Travancore, on the west coast, 85 
 miles NW. of Cape Comorin. A settlement of 
 the ancient S.VTian Church, it became Portuguese 
 in J503, and Dutch in 1653. Pop. 15,588. 
 
QUIMPER 
 
 C57d 
 
 RADOM 
 
 Qnimper (Kan^-pair), a town of Prance (dep. 
 Fiuistere), ou the Odet, 11 miles from its mouth, 
 and 63 by rail SE. of Brest. It has a stately 
 cathedral (1239-1515), potteries, tanyards, sail- 
 works, &c. Population, 10,500. 
 
 Quimperl6, a pretty Breton town of 5417 in- 
 habitants, amidst hills, 35 miles BSE. of Quiniper 
 by rail, with an old Romanesque church. 
 
 Quinag, a Sutherland mountain (2653 feet), on 
 the N. side of Loch Assynt. 
 
 Quincy, (1) the third city of Illinois, and 
 capital of Adams county, is on the Mississippi 
 River (here crossed by an important railway 
 bridge), 160 miles above St Louis and 262 by 
 rail SW. of Chicago. It has a fine court-house, 
 a medical college, an Episcopal cathedral, large 
 flour-mills, machine-shops, foundries, saw- and 
 planing-mills, breweries, and factories of stoves, 
 furniture, carriages, tobacco, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 27,268; (1900) 36,252.— (2) A town of Massa- 
 chusetts, near the sea, and 8 miles S. of Boston 
 by rail. The township produces the famous 
 Quincy granite, and was the birthplace of John 
 Hancock, John Adams, and his son, John Quincy 
 Adams. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Qiilraing {Kwee-rang'), a fantastic rock mass 
 (1779 feet) in the N. of Skye. 
 
 Quito (Kee'to), the capital of Ecuador, and of 
 the province of Pichincha, lies in 0° 14' S. lat., on 
 the east side of the great plateau of Quito, at the 
 foot of the volcano of Pichincha (q.v.), 9351 feet 
 above the sea. Its site is cut up by numerous 
 ravines ; but the streets are laid out regularly 
 at right angles, plunging into and scaling the 
 sides of the valleys. In the square stand the 
 cathedral, with its green-tiled dome, the arch- 
 bishop's palace, the municipal building, and the 
 capitol. Other public buildings are the uni- 
 versity, a seminary, an institute of science, an 
 observatory, a museum, a library of 20,000 vol- 
 umes, a penitentiary, a hospital, many monas- 
 teries, &c. The manufactures include cottons 
 and woollens and beer ; the drying of bird-skins 
 (humming-birds') and the production of sacred 
 images rank as important industries. Founded 
 in 1534, Quito has suffered frequently from earth- 
 quakes (especially in 1797 and 1854) and from 
 revolutions (as in 1877 and 1883). Pop. 80,000, 
 mainly Indians and mestizoes. 
 
 Quorn, or Quorndon, a village of Leicester- 
 shire, 2^ miles SE. of Loughborough, gives name 
 to a celebrated pack of foxhounds. Pop. 2180. 
 
 Quorra, one of the several names borne by the 
 Niger (q.v.) in its upper course. 
 
 ,AAB (Rdhb; Hung. Gyor), a town of 
 
 Hungary, at the confluence of the 
 
 Raab and the Little Danube, 67 miles 
 
 WNW. of Buda-Pesth. It has a beauti- 
 
 4v>^ ful cathedral, and manufactures tobacco 
 
 and cutlery. Pop. 27,795. 
 
 Raalte (Mhl-teh), a Dutch town, 11 miles 
 NNE. of Deventer. Pop. 5795. 
 
 Raasay (Mh'zay), an Inverness-shire island, 
 between Skye and the Scottish mainland. It is 
 13 miles long from N. to S., 3^ miles in greatest 
 breadth, and 24 sq. m. in area. Pop. (1841) 647 ; 
 (1901) 419. Dun Caan (1456 feet) is the liighest 
 point, and ruined Brochel Castle on the east 
 shore the chief object of interest. 
 
 Rabat, or New Sallee, a port of Morocco, at 
 the mouth of the Ragreb, opposite Sallee (q.v.). 
 It stands on cliff's amidst gardens, and has a fort 
 and the ruins of the Sultan's palace. It was once 
 the chief port for European commerce, but its 
 harbour is silted up. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Raby Castle, Durham, 6 miles NE. of Barnard 
 Castle, the seat (1379) of the Nevilles, and now of 
 the Duke of Cleveland. 
 
 Racalmu'to (u as oo), a town of south Sicily, 
 13 miles by rail NE. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,133. 
 
 Racconigi (Racconee'jee). a town of North Italy, 
 23 miles by rail S. of Turin. Pop, 9875. 
 
 Race, Cape. See Newfoundland. 
 
 Racine (Ra-seen'), capital of Racine county, 
 Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan, and on both sides 
 of Root River, which is crossed by five swing 
 bridges, and forms a good harbour. By rail it is 
 62 miles N. of Chicago and 23 S. of Milwaukee. 
 Racine has a handsome post-office and city hall, 
 a hospital, the Taylor Orphan Asylum, an Epis- 
 copal University (1852), a trade in lumber, flax, 
 flour, and woollen mills, and manufactories of 
 ploughs, boilers, pumps, wagons, linseed-oil, 
 hardware, wire-work, cordage, furniture, refriger- 
 ators, boots, rubber, &c. Pop. 29,014. 
 
 Racow (Ra-kof), a village in the south of the 
 Polish government of Radom, was in the 16th 
 Qentury a Socinian centre. Pop, 2109, 
 
 Radcliflfe, a town of SE. Lancashire, on the 
 Irwell, 2J miles SSW. of Bury and 7 NNW. of 
 Manchester. It has an ancient parish church 
 (restored 1873), a ruined tower, a market-hall 
 (1852), a co-operative hall (1878), cotton and 
 calico works, bleachfields, and neighbouring 
 coal-mines. Pop. (1851) 5002 ; (1901) 25,368. 
 
 Radhanpur, chief town of a protected state 
 (1150 sq. m. ; pop. 98,129) in Bombay Presidency, 
 150 miles NW. of Baroda. Pop. 14,722. 
 
 Radley, a Berkshire parish, near the right 
 bank of the Thames, 5 miles S. of Oxford. The 
 Bowyers' seat here was in 1847 converted into a 
 High Church public school— St Peter's College— 
 for 130 boarders. It has a fine chapel. Pop. 733. 
 
 Radnor, New, a Radnorshire village, on the 
 Somergill, 7 miles WSW, of Presteigne. Pop. 
 497.— Old Radnor (pop. 340) is 3 miles ESE. 
 
 Radnorshire, a border county of Soutli Wales, 
 bounded by the counties of Montgomery, Salop, 
 Hereford, Brecon, and Cardigan. Measuring 36 
 miles by 30, and 432 sq. m. in area, it is the 
 tenth in size and twelfth in population of all the 
 twelve Welsh counties. The beautiful Wye traces 
 all the south-western and southern boundary, tlie 
 Teme the north-eastern ; and the surface gener- 
 ally is hilly or mountainous, in the Forest of 
 Radnor attaining 2163 feet. Of half-a-dozen 
 mineral springs, those of Llandrindod are in 
 most repute. The soil is poor, less than half of 
 the total area being in tillage, whilst woods and 
 plantations cover nearly 8000 acres. The rearing 
 of stock is the principal industry. Radnorshire 
 returns one member to parliament ; and till 1885 
 another was returned by the Radnor district of 
 boroughs, which comprises Cefnllys, Knighton, 
 Knucklas, New Radnor, Presteigne, and Rhaya- 
 der. Pop. (1801) 19,135 ; (1841) 25,458 ; (1901) 
 23,281. See Williams' History of Radnorshire 
 (Tenby, 1858). 
 
 Rad'om, a town of Poland, on a sub-tributary 
 of the Vistula, 60 miles S, of Warsaw. Pop. 
 28,750.— Area of government of Radom, 4708 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 825,000, ^ 
 
RADSTOCK 
 
 580 
 
 RAMSGATE 
 
 Radstock, a town of Somerset, 7 miles NW. of 
 Frome. Pop. 8400. 
 
 Ragatz, a spa in the Swiss canton of St Gall, 
 68 miles by rail SE. of Zurich and 13 N. by W. of 
 Chur (Coire) ; it stands at the mouth of the ravine 
 leading to Pfaffers (q.v.), whence it gets its heal- 
 ing waters by a pipe (1838-40) 2| miles long. 
 Schelling is buried here. Pop. 1896, 
 
 Raglan Castle, a noble ruin, 7 miles WSW. of 
 Monmouth, was the seat of the Herberts, Earls 
 and Marquises of Worcester, and belongs now to 
 the Dulce of Beaufort. 
 
 Ragley Hall, Warwickshire, IJ mile SW. of 
 Alcester, the Marquis of Hertford's seat (1750). 
 
 Ragu'sa (m as oo ; Slav. Dubrovnilc), a decayed 
 city of Dalmatia, stands on the east shore of the 
 Adriatic, 100 miles SB. of Spalato. Greek first 
 and then Roman, Ragnsa afterwards became an 
 independent republic, and so maintained itself 
 until 1808 under the protection successively of 
 Byzantium, Venice, Hungary, and the Porte. 
 Napoleon in 1809 incorporated Ragusa in Illyria ; 
 and since 1814, like the rest of Dalmatia, it has 
 belonged to Austria. Ragusa had long before 
 this declined from her former greatness, having 
 suffered repeatedly from fires, plagues, and earth- 
 quakes. Chief amongst its buildings are the 
 palace (1435-64) of the rectors (chief-magistrates), 
 the custom-house and mint (c. 1312-1520), the 
 Dominican church (1306) and monastery (1348), 
 the Franciscan church and monastery (1317), 
 and the church of St Biagio (Blaise), the patron 
 saint of the town, built in 1348-52, but rebuilt 
 in 1715. The old cathedral was destroyed by 
 the disastrous earthquake of 1667 ; its successor 
 (1671-1713) has some valuable silver ornaments. 
 The harbour is now sanded up. Merchandise is 
 landed and shipped at the harbour of Gravosa, 
 to tlie N. Pop. 13,170. See T. G. Jackson's 
 Dalmatia (vol. ii, 1887). 
 
 Ragusa (anc. Hybla Hercea), a town of Sicily, 
 31 miles WSW. of Syracuse, stands on the Ragusa, 
 14 miles froni the sea. Pop. 31,943. 
 
 Rahway (Raw-way), a city of New Jersey, on 
 the Rah way River, 4 miles from its mouth, and 
 20 by rail W. of New York. It manufactures 
 carriages, printing-presses, &c. Pop. 7995. 
 
 Rai Bareilly (Rl Baray'lee), a town of Oudh, 
 stands 48 miles SE. of Lucknow, and has a fort 
 (15th century), a magnificent palace, and some 
 line mosques. Pop. 18,781. 
 
 Raichiir, a town of Hyderabad ; pop. 22,174. 
 
 Ralnford, a town of Lancashire, 4 miles NW. 
 of St Helens. It manufactures tobacco, pipes, 
 and crucibles. Pop. 3372. 
 
 Rainham Hall, Norfolk, the seat (1632) of the 
 Marquis of Townshend, 3J miles SW. of Faken- 
 ham. 
 
 Rainier, Mount. See Cascade Range. 
 
 Rainy Lake, on the boundary line between 
 Ontario and the United States, 10 miles W. of 
 Lake Superior. It is 50 miles long, and dis- 
 charges by Rainy River into Lake of the Woods. 
 
 Ralpur (Rl-pore), a town in the Central Pro- 
 vinces of India, stands on a plateau (950 feet), 
 180 miles E. of Nagpur. Pop. 32,120. 
 
 Rajamahendri (nearly as Rajakmundry), a 
 Madras town, on the Godavari, 30 miles from its 
 mouth. From 1753 to 1758 it was held by the 
 French. Pop. 36,400. 
 
 Rajkot, chief town of a native state in Kathi- 
 ftwar, Bombay ; pop. 30,150, 
 
 Rajmahal, a decayed town of India, on a steep 
 eminence on the right bank of the Ganges, 170 
 miles NNW. of Calcutta, with the remains of 
 many palaces. In 800 it had 25,000 inhabitants, 
 but now less than 4000. 
 
 Rajputana (Radjpootdh'na), a territory of India, 
 embracing twenty native states and the British 
 district (2711 sq. m. ; pop. 542,358) of Ajmere- 
 Merwara. It lies between Sind (on the W.) and 
 the Punjab (on the N.). Its total area is 132,979 
 sq. m., and its total pop. is about 10,000,000. 
 The most important native states are Jaipur, 
 Jodlipur, and Udaipur; next follow Alwar, 
 Bhartpur, Kotali, and Bikaner. This region is 
 crossed by the Aravalli Mountains, and consistis 
 in great part of sandy, barren plains. It gets its 
 name from the ruling Aryan race, the Rajputs, a 
 proud aristocracy, who have furnished ruling 
 dynasties to many of the native states. 
 
 Rajshahi. See Rampur Beauleah. 
 
 Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, is near 
 the Neuse River, 186 miles (by rail 271) SSW. of 
 Richmond. It is regularly built on an elevated 
 site, with a central square, from which four 
 principal streets radiate, each 99 feet wide, and 
 in which stands the domed granite capitol, which 
 cost over $500,000. The city manufactures iron, 
 clothing, carriages, &c. Pop. 13,650. 
 
 Ralik. See Marshall Islands. 
 
 Ramillies (Fr. pron. Ra-mee-yee'), a village of 
 Brabant, Belgium, 14 miles by rail N. of Namur. 
 Here, on May 23, 1706, Marlborough defeated the 
 French under Villeroy. 
 
 Ramnag'ar, (1) an Indian town of the North- 
 west Provinces, on the Ganges, 2 miles above 
 Benai-es ; pop. 11,859. — (2) A decayed town of the 
 Punjab, on the Chenab River ; pop. 6830. 
 
 Rampur', the capital of a native state (945 sq. 
 in. ; pop. 551,249) in the North-west Provinces, 
 on the river Kosila, 110 miles E. by N. of Delhi. 
 It manufactures damask, pottery, sword-blades, 
 and jewellery. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Rampur Bauleah, chief town of the Rajshahi 
 district (area, 2361 sq. m. ; pop. 1,338,638) of 
 Eastern Bengal, stands on the north bank of the 
 Ganges. Pop. 21,407. 
 
 Ramsbottom, a town of Lancashire, on the 
 Irwell, 4 miles N. of Bury. The first Sir Robert 
 Peel established calico-printing here, and it now 
 has manufactures of cottons, calicoes, ropes, 
 machines, &c. Here lived the Grants, the 
 ' Cheeryble brothers ' of Nicholas Nickleby. Pop. 
 16.000. 
 
 Ramsey, (1) a seaport and watering-place in 
 the north of the Isle of Man, 14 miles NNE. of 
 Douglas, and by rail (1879) 18 NE. of Peel. It 
 stands on a spacious bay, with a good sandy beach 
 and a background of wooded hills (1842 feet), and 
 from its beauty and salubrity has risen into a 
 favourite resort. It has two promenades, a park, 
 salt-water lake, a pier 730 yards long, and steam- 
 boat communication with Liverpool, Fleetwood, 
 Glasgow, Greenock, Whitehaven, and Douglas. 
 Population, 5000.— (2) A market-town of Hunt- 
 ingdon.shire, 12 miles NNE. of Huntingdon. It 
 has a branch-line (1863) and remains of a mitred 
 Benedictine abbey (960). Pop. 5000. Ramsey Mere 
 is long since drained, and bears rich wheat crops. 
 
 Ramsgate, a watering-place of Kent, in the 
 south-east of the Isle of Thanet, 72 miles E. by 
 S. of London, 4 SSE. of Margate, and 15 ENE. 
 of Canterbury. From a small fishing-village it 
 began to increase in importance during the 18th 
 century through successful trade with Russia, 
 
RANCHI 
 
 681 
 
 RATHO 
 
 and through the formation here (1750-95) of a 
 harbour of refuge for the Downs. That harbour, 
 51 acres in extent, with a sea-entrance 250 feet 
 Wide, Is enclosed on the east and west by two 
 piers 670 and 520 yards long. The aspect of the 
 place, which George Eliot calls ' a strip of London 
 come out for an airing,' is familiar through Frith's 
 ' Rauisgate Sands ' (1854) ; among its special 
 features are an obelisk marking the spot where 
 George IV. in 1821 embarked for Hanover, an 
 iron promenade pier (1881), the fine Granville 
 Hotel, a beautiful Roman Catholic church by the 
 Pugins, a Benedictine monastery, college, and 
 convent, and a Jewish synagogue and college, 
 erected by Sir Moses Monteliore, who, like the 
 elder Pugin, was a resident. To the north is 
 Broadstairs (q.v.), beloved of Dickens ; and to 
 the west Pegwell Bay, with Ebbsfleet, the land- 
 ing-place of St Augustine, and also, traditionally, 
 of Hengist and Horsa. Here, too, is Osengall 
 Hill, with an early Saxon cemetery. Ramsgate 
 was incorporated in 1884. Pop. (1851) 11,838; 
 (1881) 22,683 ; (1901) 27,733. See James Simson's 
 Historic Thanet (1891). 
 
 Ranchi (Rantchee), a town of Lohardaga district, 
 Bengal. Pop. 26,000. 
 
 Rand, or Witwatersrandt. See Johannes- 
 burg. 
 
 Randazzo (Randat'zo), a town of Sicily, at the 
 northern foot of Mount Etna. Pop. 9908. 
 
 Randers, a town in Jutland, on the Randers- 
 Fiord, 20 miles from its mouth in the Cattegat. 
 Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Ranelagh (Ran'e-la), North and South, two 
 suburbs of Dublin, lying south of the city. 
 
 Rangoon', the capital of Burma, stands on the 
 Hlaing or Rangoon River, 20 miles from its 
 entrance into the Gulf of Martaban. The existing 
 city is almost entirely modern, built since the 
 British took possession in 1852. It extends along 
 the left bank of the Hlaing, the docks being 
 opposite to it at the suburb of Da-la, on the 
 other side of the river. Behind is the large 
 military cantonment, grouped round the fortified 
 hill (166 feet) on which stands the Shway-Dagon 
 pagoda, 'the most venerated object of worship 
 in all the Indo-Chinese countries.* It is built 
 of brick, is lavishly gilded, and tapers up to a 
 cone 321 feet high ; it is said to have been erected 
 in the 6th century b.c. The streets are laid out 
 regularly ; the river is carefully embanked ; there 
 are live markets and an excellent water-supply ; 
 the thoroughfares are well lighted and traversed 
 by tramway cars ; and there has been an elective 
 municipality since 1883. Forts and batteries 
 protect the town. The principal buildings are 
 the public and governmental offices, the Anglican 
 cathedral (whose foundation-stone Avas laid by 
 Lord Dufferin in 1886), the native pagodas, the 
 chief jail of Lower Burma, the Phayre Museum 
 in the horticultural gardens, St John's College, 
 the high school, a hospital, &c. Along the river- 
 side are numerous rice-husking-mills and saw- 
 mills. Pop. (1852) 25,000 ; (1872) 89,897 ; (1881) 
 134,176 ; (1901) 234,885. Rangoon is the chief port 
 of Burma (q.v.), about 86 per cent, of the total 
 trade of that country passing in and out here. 
 Under British sway, its trade has grown wonder- 
 fully. A town has existed here since the 6th 
 century b.c, which was called Dagon till its 
 capture by the Burmese sovereign Alompra in 
 1760, when it was renamed and rebuilt. It was 
 first held by the British in 1825-27. 
 Rangpur' (u aa oo), a town of Bengal, on the 
 
 Ghaghat. an arm of the Brahmaputra, 110 mile* 
 SE. of Darjiling. Pop. 14,500. 
 
 Rannoch, a bleak, desolate moorland of north- 
 west Perthshire, with a mean elevation of 1000 
 feet above sea-level, and measuring 28 miles by 
 15. It is crossed by the West Highland Railway 
 (1894). In its western i^art is Loch Lydoch (5J 
 miles X ^ mile ; 924 feet above sea-level), which 
 winds amid flat and dismal scenery. Stretching 
 eastward from the moor is Loch Rannoch (9^ 
 miles X 1 J mile ; 668 feet), which is overhung 
 by Schiehallion, contains a crannog with a later 
 fortress, and sends off the Tummel 29 miles E. 
 and SSE. to the Tay. Loch Tummel (2| miles X 
 i mile ; 480 feet) is an expansion of this river, on 
 which are also the Falls of Tummel, 20 feet high. 
 Rapallo, a winter health-resort of Northern 
 Italy, 17 miles by rail ESE. of Genoa, with a 
 castle and the pilgrimage church of the Madonna 
 (1557) on the Monte Allegro. Pop. 5625. 
 
 Raph'oe, a market-town of Donegal, 15 miles 
 SSW. of Londonderry. Its former see was united 
 to Derry in 1835. Pop. 803. 
 Rapidan. See Rappahannock. 
 Rappahannock, a river of Virginia, rises in 
 the I31ue Ridge of the Alleghany Mountains, re- 
 ceives the Rapidan, and flows 125 miles south- 
 east to Chesapeake Bay. It is tidal and navigable 
 to Fredericksburg. 
 Raratong'a. See Cook Islands. 
 Ras'tatt, or Rastadt, a fortified town of Baden, 
 on the Murg, 3 miles from the Rhine, and 15 SW. 
 of Carlsruhe. Steel wares, beer, and tobacco are 
 manufactured. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Ras'trlCk, a town of Yorkshire, on the Calder, 
 
 with cotton and woollen manufactures and 
 
 quarries, now incorporated with Brighouse (q.v.). 
 
 Ratak. See Marshall Islands. 
 
 Rathang'an, a market-town on the Little 
 
 Barrow, 6 miles NW. of Kildare. Pop. 615. 
 
 Rathdowney, a town in Queen's County, 3J 
 miles S. of Ballybrophy station. Pop. 1046. 
 
 Rathdrum', a market-town on the Avonmore, 
 9 miles SW. of Wicklow. Pop. 644. 
 
 Rathenow (Rdh'te-now), a town of Prussia, on 
 the Havel's right bank, 43 miles W. by N. of 
 Berlin. Pop. 22,500, 
 
 Rathfry'land, a Down market-town, 9 miles 
 SE. of Newry. Pop. 1290. 
 
 Rathkeale', a town of Ireland, on the river 
 Deel, 19 miles SW. of Limerick by rail. Pop. 1750. 
 Rath'lin, a crescent-shaped island off the coast 
 of Antrim, 6J miles N. of Ballycastle. Measur- 
 ing Qk by li miles, and 3398 acres in area, it has 
 fine clifls, and attains a maximum altitude of 449 
 feet. The valleys are fertile, but fishing is the 
 leading industry. Rathlin is identified with the 
 Ricinia of Ptolemy, and Raghlin or Ragherin 
 ('fortress of Ireland') of later writers. St 
 Columba established a church here in the 6th 
 century ; and Bruce in 1306 took refuge in a 
 castle, now a ruin. Pop. 300. 
 
 Rathmel'ton, or Ramelton, a Donegal market- 
 town, on Lough S willy, 7 miles NE. of Letter- 
 kenny. Pop. 1165. 
 Rath'mlnes, a S. suburb of Dublin. 
 Rathmullen, a Donegal village, on Lough 
 Swilly, 7 miles NE. of Rathmelton. Pop. 511. 
 Rathnew', a village, 2 miles W. of Wicklow. 
 Rath'o, a Midlothian village, 8 miles WSW. of 
 Edinburgh. Pop. 755. 
 
RATIBOR 
 
 READING 
 
 Ratlbor', a town of Prussian Silesia, on the 
 OQer, 44 miles SSB. of Oppeln, chief town of the 
 principality of Ratibor, from 1288 to 1532, since 
 1742 subject to Prussia. It manufactures iron, 
 tobacco, shoes, paper, glass, sugar, &c. Pop. 
 30,750. 
 
 Rat'isbon (Ger. Regensburo), a town of 
 Bavaria, on the Danube's right bank, 82 miles by 
 rail NNE. of Munich. Formerly a free city of 
 the empire and seat of the Diet, Ratisbon pre- 
 sents a mediseval character, with narrow, crooked 
 streets, and high gabled houses. The noble 
 Gothic cathedral, begun in 1275, was not com- 
 pleted till 1534. The church of the Irish (Scoti) 
 Benedictines dates from the 12th century, and is 
 built in the pure Byzantine style. The old town- 
 hall was (1645-1806) the place of meeting for the 
 imperial diet. There are also the Thurn and 
 Taxis Palace, the royal villa, &c. A stone bridge 
 (1135-46), 1024 feet long, connects Ratisbon with 
 the busy trading suburb of Stadt am Hof. The 
 manufactures include porcelain and stoneware, 
 brass and steel wares, leather, tobacco, lead- 
 pencils, chemicals, &c., and there is an active 
 trade, especially in corn and salt. Pop. (1875) 
 31,487; (1900)46,215. Originally a Celtic town, 
 Radasbona was made by the Romans a frontier 
 fortress ; later it was the capital of the Dukes of 
 Bavaria, and one of the most populous cities of 
 southern Germany. Here were signed the Rat- 
 isbon Interim in 1541 and the armistice between 
 France and Austria in 1684. The city was 
 stormed by Bernhard of Weimar in 1633, and by 
 both Austrians and French in 1809. It was 
 ceded to Bavaria in 1810. 
 
 Ratlam. See Rutlam. 
 
 Ratnaglri (nearly as Rutnagher'ry), a coast- 
 town of India, 136 miles S. by E. of Bombay. 
 Pop 14,500. 
 
 Rattray, a police-burgh of Perthshire, on the 
 Ericht, opposite Blairgowrie. Pop. 2025. 
 
 Ratzeburg, a town of Lauenburg, 35 miles 
 BNE. of Hamburg. Here Coleridge learned Ger- 
 man. Pop. 4315. 
 
 Ravelston, a seat of the Keiths, 2J miles W. of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Ravenglass, a Cumberland seaport, 4^ miles 
 N. by W. of Bootle. 
 
 Ravenna, a walled city of Italy, 43 miles E. of 
 Bologna, once close to, but now some 5 miles from 
 the Adriatic, with which it is connected by the 
 Corsini Canal. It has been the seat of an arch- 
 bishop since 438, and possesses a museum, a public 
 library, a picture-gallery, municipal buildings 
 (with a leaning tower), a theatre, &c. It manufac- 
 tures silk, linen, paper, and glass. The streets are 
 wide, and the squares are adorned with statues 
 of the popes. Pop. 64,000. Deserted by the sea, 
 and strongly entrenched by canals and marshes, 
 Ravenna became the refuge of the Emperor 
 Honorius (402), and the capital of Italy for the 
 next 350 years. It attained its greatest glory 
 under Theodoric the Ostrogoth (493-526), whose 
 mausoleum (La Rotonda>— now empty— is with- 
 out the walls. Conquered by the generals of 
 Justinian, Ravenna was the seat of exarchs from 
 Constantinoi^le until 752, when it was taken by 
 the Lombards, and afterwards by the Franks, by 
 whom it was gifted to the pope. A republic in 
 the early part of the 13th century, governed by 
 its own dukes in the 14th, subject to Venice after 
 1440, it-was won by Pope Julius II. in 1509, and 
 continued papal until 1860. There are at least 
 six churches of the time of Galla Placidia (390- 
 
 450), the sister of Honorius and mother of Valen- 
 tinian III. The round campaniles, perhaps of the 
 10th century, form an architectural feature 
 peculiar to Ravenna. Dante died at Ravenna 
 in 1321, and is buried there. A column, 2 miles 
 from the walls, commemorates the fall of Gaston 
 de Foix at the head of the French army of 
 Louis XII., after a bloody and useless victory 
 over the papal and Spanish troops in 1512. 
 Byron resided at Ravenna, 1819-21. 
 
 Ravensburg (Mh-fens-boory), a town of Wiir- 
 temberg, 11 miles by rail NNE. of Friedrichsha- 
 fen on Lake Constance. Pop. 13,467. 
 
 Ravenspur. See Humbeb. 
 
 Ravi. See Punjab. 
 
 Rawal Pindl, a town and military station of 
 the Punjab, lies between the rivers Indus and 
 Jhelum, 160 miles by rail NW. of Lahore. It 
 has an arsenal (1883), a fort, a public park, and 
 an active transit-trade with Cashmere and Af- 
 ghanistan. Here the Sikhs surrendered in 1849. 
 Pop. (1868) 28,586 ; (ISSl) 52,980 ; (1901) 87,688. 
 
 Rawdon, a Yorkshire town, 6 miles NE. of 
 Bradford, with cloth manufactures. Pop. 3177. 
 
 Ravritsch (Edh'vltch), a town of Prussia, 64 
 miles by rail S. of Posen. Pop. 11,919. 
 
 Rawmarsh, a Yorkshire town, 2 J miles N. by 
 E. of Rotherham, with china and iron works and 
 collieries. Pop. (1851) 2533 ; (1901) 14,587. 
 
 Rawtenstall, a town of Lancashire, 4 miles 
 W. of Bacup. A municipal borough (1891), it 
 manufactures cottons and woollens. Pop, 31,050. 
 
 R6, Ile de {Bay; Rex insula), is a small, low- 
 lying island off the French dep. of Charente- 
 Inferieure, opposite La Rochelle. It is 18 miles 
 long and 3 broad, measures 28 sq. m., and has 
 about 14,000 inhabitants, who make .salt. The 
 west coast is rocky ; on the east are good har- 
 bours. Oyster-farming is an industry, and wine 
 is exported. The chief town, St Martin (pop. 
 2523), was fortified by Vauban. Ars and La 
 Flotte have 1547 and 2598 inhabitants. 
 
 Reading (Eed'ding), a municipal, parliament- 
 ary, and county borough, capital of Berkshire, 
 on the Kennet, near its influx to the Thames, 
 36 miles by rail W. of London (by road 
 39, by river 74). Its castle was wholly de- 
 molished by Henry II. ; but the splendid Bene- 
 dictine abbey, founded in 1121 by Henry I., who 
 was buried here, is represented by considerable 
 ruins and a fine gateway, restored in 1861, and 
 surrounded by public gardens. Nine parlia- 
 ments were held within its hall ; the last of its 
 mitred abbots was hanged by Henry VIII., with 
 two of the brethren. There are handsome muni- 
 cipal buildings and two excellent town-halls, 
 a lofty clock-tower, a free library, concert room, 
 museum, &c. Other buildings are the Italian 
 assize courts (1861) ; a large grammar-school 
 (1486; rebuilt 1870-71), of which Dr Valpy 
 was long head-master; St Lawrence's Church 
 (1434 ; restored 1868), with a large flint tower 189 
 feet high ; and the Royal Berkshire Hospital. 
 Drainage-works were completed in 1874, water- 
 works in 1878 ; and the largest (59 acres) of three 
 public parks was gifted in 1891 by Mr G. Palmer. 
 Reading is an important mart for corn and other 
 agricultural produce, and has manufactures of 
 iron, paper, sauce, &c., Avhilst two of its in- 
 dustrial establishments are world-famous— 
 Huntley and Palmer's huge biscuit factory and 
 Sutton's seed-emporium. Reading, which is in 
 the diocese of Oxford, gives title to a suffragan 
 bishop. Its representation was reduced from 
 
RfiADiNG 
 
 m 
 
 REGINA 
 
 two to one in 1885, when, however, the parlia- 
 mentary borough was extended. Tlie first charter 
 was granted by Edward III. Pop. (1851) 21,456 ; 
 (1891) 55,666; county borough (1901) 72,217. 
 Reading suffered much from the Danes between 
 868 and 1006, and in 1643 surrendered to Essex 
 after a ten days' siege. It was the birthplace of 
 Archbishop Laud, Justice Talfourd, and Goldwin 
 Smith. It has memories also of Chaucer and 
 Bunyan. See works by Coates (1802-9), Man 
 (1816), Doran (1835), and J. B. Jones (1870). 
 
 Reading, (1) a city of Pennsylvania, capital of 
 Berks county, on the Schuylkill River, 58 miles 
 by rail NW. of Philadelphia. It draws from the 
 neighbouring hills its water-supply and abun- 
 dant iron ore, the principal manufactories being 
 iron and steel works. It also makes shoes, hats, 
 beer, cigars, leather, paper, bricks, &c. Settled 
 in 1748, it became a city in 1847. Pop. (1880) 
 43,278 ; (1900) 78,961, many of German descent.— 
 (2) A town of Massachusetts, 12 miles NW. of 
 Boston. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Recanati, a town of Italy, 15 miles S. of 
 Ancona, has a Gothic cathedral. Here Leopardi 
 was born. Pop. 15,590. Porto Recanati, on the 
 Adriatic, 6 miles NE., has a pop. of 5000. 
 
 Recife {Ray-see' fey). See Pernambuco. 
 
 Recklinghausen, a town of Westphalia, 22 
 miles NW. of Dortmund. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Reculver, a village of Kent, 1 mile from the 
 sea, and 9 miles W. of Margate, with remains of 
 the Roman station RegulUum. Pop. 294. 
 
 Red'car, a popular bathing-resort in the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 10 miles by rail NE. of 
 Middlesborough. Its smooth, firm sands stretch 
 10 miles from the mouth of the Tees to Saltburn. 
 Pop. (1851) 1032 ; (1901) 7695. 
 
 Redditch, a busy town on the borders of 
 Worcester and Warwick shires, stands on an 
 acclivity 13 miles SSW. of Birmingham by rail. 
 Needles, pins, fish-hooks, and fishing-tackle are 
 made extensively. Pop. (1851) 4802 ; (1901)13,493. 
 
 Redesdale, the valley of the river Reed in 
 Northumberland, extending 21 miles SE. and 
 SW. from the Scottish border, until it opens into 
 the valley of the North Tyne at Reedsmouth. 
 Watliiig Street traverses its middle and upper 
 part. Near the southern end of Redesdale is the 
 famous field of Otterburn (q.v.); and near its 
 source was fought the ' Raid of the Redeswire,' 
 7th July 1575. The men of Redesdale of old 
 were brave and turbulent, and bore more than 
 their share in Border feuds and forays. 
 
 Redout Kale (Recloof Kah-lay'), a fortified post 
 on the Black Sea coast of Caucasia, 10 miles N. 
 of Poti, captured by the British fleet in 1854. 
 
 Red River, the lowest western tributary of the 
 Mississippi, rises near the eastern border of New 
 Mexico, and flows 1600 miles E. and SE. through 
 or along the borders of Texas, Indian Territory, 
 Arkansas, and Louisiana, till it enters the Missis- 
 sippi below 31° N. lat. Of its feeders the Washita 
 (Ouachita) is the most important. 
 
 Red River of the North, a navigable river of 
 the United States and Canada, rises in Elbow 
 Lake, Minnesota, near the sources of the Missis- 
 sippi, forms the boundary between Minnesota 
 and North Dakota, and flows into Manitoba and 
 through a flat country to Lake Winnipeg. Its 
 course is 665 miles (525 in the United States). 
 The Red River rebellion of the Canadian half- 
 breeds (1869-70) was headed by Louis Riel, and 
 suppressed by Colonel (Lord) Wolseley. 
 
 Bed River Settlement. See Manitoba. 
 
 Redruth (Red'rooth), a town of Cornwall, oli 
 a hillside (414 feet) in the centre of a great 
 mining-district, 9 miles by rail W. by S. of Truro. 
 It has a towu-hall (1850), public rooms (1861), a 
 miners' hospital (1863), &c. William Murdock 
 here in 1792 first used gas for lighting purposes. 
 Pop. 10,450. 
 
 Red Sea, an ann of the Indian Ocean, running 
 NNW. from the Gulf of Aden, with which it 
 communicates by the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 
 13^ miles across. Its length is about 1200 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth 205 miles ; it narrows 
 towards the southern entrance, while in the 
 north it is divided by the peninsula of Sinai 
 into two gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, 170 miles long 
 by 30 miles wide, and the Gulf of Akaba, 100 
 miles in length. The Arabian coasts of the Red 
 Sea are usually narrow sandy plains backed by 
 ranges of barren mountains ; the African coasts 
 towards the north are flat and sandy, but south- 
 wards high tablelands rise inland, culminating 
 farther south in the lofty mountains of Abyssinia. 
 A marked feature of the Red Sea is found in the 
 partly upraised coral-reefs running parallel to 
 both eastern and western shores ; the Farisan 
 Archipelago is in the eastern and larger reef, and 
 the island of Dahlak, off" Annesley Bay, in the 
 western reef. There is also a volcanic group 
 lying in 14° N. lat., the largest of which rises 
 2074 feet. The principal harbours are Mocha, 
 Hodeida, Lokeyyah, Jiddah, and Yenbo' on the 
 Arabian coast, and Massowah, Khor Nowarat, 
 and Suakim on the African coast. A great trade 
 route till the rounding of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, the Red Sea has become a vastly more 
 important route since the construction of the 
 Suez Canal. The tides are very variable, depend- 
 ing largely on the direction and force of the winds. 
 The mean temperature of the air generally ranges 
 between 70° and 94° F. during the day, though 
 readings of over 100° are often registered in the 
 shade ; but during the night the temperature 
 may fall to the freezing-point, owing to radiation 
 in the clear and cloudless atmosphere. The 
 mean temperature of the surface water varies 
 at the northern end between about 65° and 79° 
 F., in the central regions between 75° and 86°, 
 and at the southern end between 78° and 89°. 
 The salinity of the water is almost constant 
 at about I'OSO (ordinary ocean water is about 
 1"026). No rivers flow into it, little rain falls, 
 and evaporation is excessive. The greatest depth, 
 near the centre, is about 1200 fathoms, and the 
 mean depth about 375 fathoms. The marine 
 fauna and flora are extensive. The origin of the 
 name — Lat. Mare Rubrum and Gr. Erythra 
 Thalassa— is much disputed. 
 
 Ree, Lough, a lake between Connaught and 
 Leinster, is an expansion of the Shannon (q.v.). 
 
 Reed. See Redesdale, 
 
 Regalbu'to (u as oo), a town of Sicily, 25 miles 
 WNW. of Catania. Pop. 12,250. 
 
 Regensburg (Ray' gens-hoorg'). See Ratisbon. 
 
 RegglO (Red'jo ; anc. Rhegium Julii), (1) a sea- 
 port of South Italy, stands on the Strait of 
 Messina, 9 miles SE. of the city of Messina in 
 Sicily. It has a fine archiepiscopal cathedral, 
 and manufactures silks, scented waters, gloves, 
 stockings, and caps. Pop. 44,500. —(2) A walled 
 city of Central Italy, Ariosto's birthplace, on the 
 ancient Via Emilia, 17 miles by rail SB. of 
 Parma. It has a 15th-century cathedral, a fine 
 theatre, and a model lunatic asylum. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 Regina (Bejl'na), capital of the Canadian provi 
 
REICHENBACH 
 
 5d4 
 
 REPTON 
 
 Ince of Saskatchewan as constituted in 1905, and 
 including Assiniboia (of which it was capital), 
 357 miles by rail W. of Winnipeg. Pop. 2650. 
 
 Relchenbach (RVhhen-bahh), (1) a manufactur- 
 ing town of Saxony, 11 miles SW. of Zwickau, pro- 
 duces woollen fabrics — merinoes, flannel, shawls, 
 quilts, cashmere— and has wool-spinning, dyeing, 
 and calico-printing works. Pop. 25,500.— (2) A 
 town of Prussian Silesia, 46 miles by rail SE. of 
 Liegnitz. Pop, 15,250. 
 
 Beiclien'berg (Rl'hhen-berg), the chief seat of 
 the cloth manufacture in North Bohemia, stands 
 on the Neisse, 86 miles by rail NE. of Prague. 
 Apart from the principal industry, which dated 
 from the 16th century, and in which, in the town 
 and neighbourhood, some 10,000 workmen are 
 employed, cotton and woollen fabrics, machinery, 
 and leather are manufactured. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Reichenhall (Rl'hhen-Ml), an Alpine spa in 
 the extreme south-east of Bavaria, 10 miles SW. 
 of Salzburg. It was handsomely rebuilt after 
 the great tire in 1834, It is the chief centre of 
 the IBavarian salt-works, and in the manufacture 
 of salt its inhabitants are mostly employed, 
 though the delightful air of the valley in which 
 it stands, and its fifteen saline springs, attract 
 about 6000 visitors every summer. Pop. 4200. 
 
 Reigate (Ri'gayt), a thriving market-town of 
 Surrey, at the southern base of the North Downs, 
 21 miles S. of London. Of the castle of the Earls 
 of Warrenne little remains save a grassy mound, 
 with large vaults or caverns beneath it. The 
 church, with Transition Norman piers, but mainly 
 Perpendicular, contains the grave of Lord Howard 
 of Effingham, and a library (1701) with some 
 curious MSS, and many of Evelyn's books. Other 
 buildings are the public hall (1861) and the 
 grammar-school (1675). Foxe the martyrologist 
 is claimed for a resident ; and Archbishop Usher 
 died here. Till 1832 Reigate returned two mem- 
 bers, then one till 1867. It became a municipal 
 borough in 1863. Pop, (1851) 4927', (1901) 25,993, 
 
 Reiklavik (Rlk'ya-vik). See Iceland. 
 
 Reims. See Rheims. 
 
 Rembang, a town on the north coast of Java, 
 capital of a residency that has an area of 2896 
 sq, m. and a pop. of 1,500,000. 
 
 Remiremont (Jte-meer-mon?'), a town of France 
 (dep^. Vosges), on the Moselle, 17 miles by rail SE. 
 of Epinal, with sawmills and muslin, cotton, and 
 leather factories. It was the seat of a famous 
 Benedictine nunnery, founded in 620. Pop, 8870, 
 
 Remscheid (Rem-shide), a town of Rhenish 
 Prussia, 6 miles S. of Elberfeld-Barmen, manu- 
 factures iron wares, cutlery, &c. Pop, (1871) 
 22,017 ; (1890) 40,371 ; (1900) 58,100. 
 
 Renaix (Re-nay'), a Belgian town, 25 miles by 
 rail S. by W, of Ghent. Pop. 20,100. 
 
 Rendsburg (u as oo\ a town of Sleswick- 
 Holstein, on the North Sea and Baltic Canal, 19 
 miles W. of Kiel. Pop. 14,730. 
 
 Ren'frew, an ancient royal and parliamentary 
 burgh, the county town of Renfrewshire, stands 
 on the south bank of the Clyde, 6 miles below 
 Glasgow. A knoll called Castlehill marks the 
 site of the original seat of the royal house of 
 Stewart. Anciently the chief port on the Clyde, 
 Renfrew has still a small wharf ; and there is some 
 shipbuilding and weaving. It forms one of the 
 Kilmarnock (q.v.) group of burghs. There is a 
 town-hall (1873). Pop. (1841) 2013 ; (1901) 9296. 
 
 Renfrewshire, a Scottish county, bounded N. 
 by the river and firth of Clyde, and elsewhere by 
 
 Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, It is 31 miles long 
 by 13 broad, and contains 254 sq, in. or 162,428 
 acres, of which 5642 are water and foreshore. 
 Pop. (1801) 78,056 ; (1881) 263,374 ; (1901) 268,980, 
 Till 1889 part of the southern suburbs of 
 Glasgow was reckoned within the county. 
 The surface is irregular : besides the low lands 
 fringing the Clyde, there are three principal 
 valleys, those of the Gryfe, Black Cart, and White 
 Cart, with upland pastures and ranges of hills, 
 the highest point being the Hill of Stake (1711 
 feet) on the Ayrshire border. Agriculture and 
 the breeding of horses and cattle are carried on 
 with success ; dairy-farming is largely practised, 
 owing to the proximity of large towns. Rather 
 less than two-thirds of the whole extent is 
 arable, mainly in pasture or grass crops. The 
 minerals are coal, iron-stone, copper, barytes, 
 shale, and lime. Besides mining and agriculture, 
 the chief industries are the manufacture of thread, 
 cotton, and chemicals, print and bleach works, 
 shipbuilding, engineering, and sugar-reflning, 
 Renfrewshire is divided into two wards. Upper 
 and Lower, and two parliamentary divisions, 
 eastern and western, each returning one member. 
 The chief towns are Renfrew, Paisley, Greenock, 
 Gourock, Port-Glasgow, PoUokshaws, Johnstone, 
 and Barrhead. Renfrewshire, or at least the 
 western portion, was anciently called Strathgryfe, 
 and it was the chief patrimony of the house of 
 Stewart. In 1404 the title of Baron of Renfrew 
 (still borne by the Prince of Wales) was conferred 
 by Robert III. on his son James ; and about the 
 same time Renfrew was disjoined from Lanark- 
 shire and made a separate county. See Crawford's 
 History (1716), and Archceological and Historical 
 Collections (Paisley, 1885 et seq.). 
 
 Renl (Ray'nee), a Russian town of Bessarabia, 
 at the Pruth's influx to the Danube, 10 miles B. 
 of Galatz. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Rennes (Renn; the Condate of the Redones), 
 the capital formerly of the province of Brittany, 
 and now of the dep. of Ille-et-Vilaine, is situated 
 at the confluence of those two rivers, 234 miles 
 WSW. of Paris and 51 SSE. of St Malo. A seven 
 days' fire in 1720 destroyed nearly 4000 houses. 
 The most noteworthy of the public buildings are 
 the cathedral, finished in 1844, and Italian in 
 style ; Notre Dame, with its dome surmounted 
 by a huge image of the Virgin ; the archbishop's 
 palace (1672) ; the stately Palais de Justice (1618- 
 54) ; the university buildings (1855) ; the theatre 
 (1835) ; the HOtel de Ville, with a public library ; 
 and the Lycee. As the focus of railways between 
 Paris and the north-west of France, and com- 
 manding good river and canal navigation, Rennes 
 is favourably situated for commerce. The manu- 
 factures include sail-cloth, table-linen, &c. Pop. 
 (1872) 48,658 ; (1901) 64,395. 
 
 Renton, a town of Dumbartonshire, on the 
 Leven's right bank, 2 iniles N, by W, of Dum- 
 barton. Founded in 1782, it has a Tuscan column 
 (1774) to the novelist Smollett, who was born 
 close by, and it carries on calico-printing, dyeing, 
 and bleaching. Pop. 5100. 
 
 Repton, a Derbyshire village, 6J miles SSW, of 
 Derby and 4J NE. of Burton-upon-Trent. Here 
 was founded the first Christian church in Mercia. 
 of which Repton for a while was the royal and 
 episcopal capital. It was the seat from before 
 660 till its destruction by the Danes in 874 of a 
 celebrated nunnery, as afterwards of an Austin 
 priory from 1172 till the Dissolution, Remains 
 of this priory are incorporated in the buildings 
 of the free grammar-school, which, founded in 
 
&£QUE!JA 
 
 5S5 
 
 RHAYADER 
 
 1556 by Sir John Porte, has risen to be one of 
 the great English public schools, with some 20 
 masters and 275 boarders. The parish church has 
 a graceful spire and a very interesting Saxon 
 crypt, 17 feet square. Pop. of parish, 1700. See 
 Bigsby's History ofEepton (1854). 
 
 Requeiia (Ray-kayn'ya), a town of Spain, 37 
 miles W. of Valencia. Pop. 14,409. 
 
 ResM, a town of Persia, capital of the province 
 of Ghilan, stands near the south-west shore of 
 the Caspian Sea, 150 miles NW. of Teheran. The 
 port is Enzeli, on the other side of the bay, and 
 16 miles distant. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Resina (Rez'eena), a town of Italy, 4 miles SE. 
 of Naples, at the foot of Vesuvius, and facing the 
 sea. It is built on the site of ancient Hercu- 
 laneum. Pop. 16,626. 
 
 Restalrig, a village close to Jock's Lodge (q.v.). 
 
 Restigouche (Restigoosh'), a river of Canada, 
 flowing 200 miles SE., E., and NE. through or 
 along the borders of Quebec and New Brunswick, 
 into the Bay of Chaleurs. 
 
 Retford, East, a Nottinghamshire market- 
 town, on the right bank of the Idle, an affluent of 
 the Trent, 24 miles E. by S. of Sheffield and 138 
 NNW. of London. It has a handsome town-hall 
 (1867), a grammar-school (1552 ; rebuilt 1858), 
 paper-mills, iron-foundries, &c. It was incor- 
 porated by James I., the municipal boundary 
 being extended in 1878. The parliamentary 
 borough was extended in 1829 to take in all 
 Bassetlaw wapentake— since 1885 one of the four 
 county divisions. Pop. of mun. borough (1851) 
 2943 ; (1901) 12,340. See a History by Piercy (1828). 
 
 Rethel (Re-teV), a French town (dep. Ardennes), 
 24 miles NE. of Rheims. Pop. 6019. 
 
 Retimo (Rctee'mo), a seaport of Crete, on its 
 north coast, 40 miles W, of Candia. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Reunion (Fr. pron. nearly FMy-een-yov?'), a 
 French island in the Indian Ocean, 115 miles SW. 
 of Mauritius and 350 E. of Madagascar. An ellipse 
 in shape, it has an area of 970 sq. m., being 38 
 miles long and 28 broad. Population, 175,000, 
 mostly Creoles, with 15,000 negroes and nearly 
 30,000 natives of India. The backbone of the 
 island is a volcanic range, culminating in the 
 Piton de Neiges (10,069 feet), and in Piton de 
 Fournaise (8612 feet), an active volcano. Streams, 
 although not large, are very numerous, and fall 
 In cascades to the sea. The climate is hot, but 
 on the whole not unhealthy. Cyclones some- 
 times do serious damage. One-third of the 
 island is cultivated, one-third under timber, and 
 one-sixth is grass-land. Tropical fruits, sugar 
 (the staple crop), coffee, vanilla, cinchona, maize, 
 vegetables (potatoes, &c.), spices, tobacco, &c. 
 are grown. By far the chief export is sugar ; 
 coffee, vanilla, rum, potatoes, and tapioca are the 
 other exports. The capital is St Denis, on the 
 north coast, with 33,000 inhabitants, a college, 
 a botanic garden, &c. ; it is a bishop's seat. St 
 Paul, on the north-west, has 29,000 inhabitants ; 
 St Pierre, on the south-west coast, 25,000. The 
 coast towns are connected by a railway 78 miles 
 long. Reunion and Mauritius, the 'Mascarene 
 Islands,' were discovered by the Portuguese, 
 Mascarenhas. The French took this island in 
 1649, calling it successively lie de Bourbon, 
 Reunion (1798), Isle Bonaparte (1809), and Re- 
 union again since 1848. Tlie island was held by 
 Britain from 1810 to 1815. 
 
 Reus (Ray'oos), a town of Spain, 58 miles by 
 rail SW. of Barcelona and 4 N. of its seaport, 
 Balou. Its prosperity dates from 1750, when 
 
 English merchants settled here. It manufactures 
 cotton, silk, ribbons, wine, soap, brandy, and 
 leather. Pop. 27,500. 
 
 Reuss (Roiss), a tributary, 190 miles long, of 
 the Aar (q.v.), in Switzerland. 
 
 Reuss (Roiss), two sovereign principalities of 
 Germany, lying between Saxony, Prussian 
 Saxony, and Bavaria. Since 1666 the possessions 
 of the House of Reuss have been divided between 
 the Elder and the Younger lines. The princi- 
 l)ality of Reuss-Greiz (the Elder Line) is 122 sq. m. 
 in extent, and has some 70,000 inhabitants ; the 
 chief town is Greiz (q.v.). The principality of 
 the Younger Line is Renss-Schleiz-Gera ; area, 
 319 sq. m. ; population, 142,000; capital, Schleiz 
 (q.v.). Of both principalities the surface is hilly, 
 being traversed by the Frankenwald (Thiiringer 
 Wald), whose summits exceed 2000 feet. The 
 chief rivers are the Saale and White Elster. 
 
 Reutlingen (Roit'ling-en), a pleasant town of 
 Wlirtemberg, on a feeder of the Neckar, 8 miles 
 E. by S. of Tubingen, manufacturing woollen and 
 cotton yarns, cloth, leather, cutlery, hosiery, 
 paper, &c. The noble church of St Mary (1247- 
 1343), has a tower 243 feet high. Pop. 21,500. 
 
 Rev'al, or Revel, a Russian seaport, capital of 
 Esthonia, stands on a small bay on the south side 
 of the Gulf of Finland, opposite Helsingfors (52 
 miles distant), and 232 miles by rail WSW. of St 
 Petersburg. The (old) upper town contains the 
 cathedral, the castle, governor's residence, and 
 the houses of the (German) nobility. There are 
 several mediaeval guild-houses, and an important 
 museum of antiquities. Reval exports cereals 
 (chiefly oats), spirits, flax, &c. ; and imports 
 cotton, coal, &c. Brandy, vinegar, and wool are 
 manufactured. Pop. 64,600, one-half being Es- 
 thonians, and one-fourth of German descent. 
 Founded by Waldemar II. of Denmark in 1219, 
 Reval became a flourishing Hanse town. It was 
 long held (from 1346) by the Livonian Knights, 
 was made over to Sweden in 1561, and was an- 
 nexed to Russia in 1710. 
 
 Revere, a town and batliing-place of Mas.sa- 
 chusetts, 5 miles N. of Boston, named after the 
 patriot Paul Revere. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Revilla-Gigedo (Span. pron. Ite-ved'ya-Jhe- 
 hay'do), a rocky and uninhabited island-group 
 in the Pacific, 400 miles W. of the coast of 
 Mexico, to which it belongs. Socorro, a moun- 
 tain-island 24 miles long, is the largest. 
 
 Rewa (Ray-wa), the principal native state of 
 Baghelkhand (q.v.), named from a tributary of 
 the Son, which flows NE. to the Ganges near 
 Dinapur ; its chief town, also called Rewa (pop. 
 24,626), is 130 miles SW. of Allahabad.— RewX 
 Kantha ('Banks of the Rewa') is a political 
 agency under the government of Bombay, con- 
 taining sixty-one small states, mostly tributary 
 to Baroda. Covering 4980 miles, with a pop. of 
 500,000, it lies mainly along the south bank of the 
 lower Nerbudda, and on the west borders on 
 Broach, Baroda, and Ahmadabad. 
 
 Rewari (Ray-wah'ree), a town of Gurgaon dis- 
 trict, 50 miles SW. of Delhi by rail. Pop. 27,934. 
 
 Reykjavik. See Iceland. 
 
 Rheetia (ReesMa), an ancient Roman province 
 embracing a large part of the Alpine tract be- 
 tween the basins of the Po and the Danube, now 
 included in the Orisons and the Austrian Tyrol. 
 
 Rhayader (Welsh, ' waterfall '), a Radnorshire 
 (q.v.) market-town, on the Wye, 14 miles S. of 
 Llanidloes. Pop. of parish, 788. 
 
fM 
 
 686 
 
 fefilNfi 
 
 fth6 (Ray), Ile de. See R£ 
 
 Rhegium. See Reggio. 
 
 Rheidol, a Cardiganshire river, flowing 22 miles 
 to the sea at Aberystwith. 
 
 Rheims (Reems ; Fr. pron. Ran^ss), or Reims, 
 a city in the French dep. of Marne, situated on 
 the Vesle (a tributary of the Aisne), 100 miles 
 ENE. of Paris by rail. Strongly fortitied with 
 detached forts since the Franco-German war, 
 when it was for a time the German headquarters, 
 it is well built, and has a picturesque appearance. 
 It is built on the site of Durocortorum, which 
 Caesar mentions as the capital of the Remi, from 
 whom it subsequently took its present name. 
 Under the Frank rule it was a place of much im- 
 portance, and in 496 it was the scene of the 
 baptism of Clovis and his chief officers by the 
 bishop, St Remy. About 360 it became a 
 bishopric, and in the 8th century an arch- 
 bishopric. From 1179, when Philip Augustus 
 was crowned here, it was the coronation place of 
 the kings of France, who were anointed from a 
 vessel of sacred oil, the Sainte Ampoule, said to 
 have been carried to St Remy from heaven by 
 a dove. Joan of Arc brought the dauphin 
 hither, and the only sovereigns down to 1825 
 not crowned at Rheims were Henry IV., Napo- 
 leon I., and Louis XVIII. In 1793 the cathe- 
 dral was attacked by the populace, and the 
 sainte ampoule smashed by a sansculotte. The 
 cathedral (1212-1430), although the towers of 
 the original design are still unfinished, is one 
 of the finest extant specimens of Gothic archi- 
 tecture. Its nave is 466 feet long by 99 in 
 breadth, with a transept of 160 feet, and the 
 height is 144 feet. Its grandest features are the 
 west fagade, which is almost unrivalled, with its 
 magnificent doorway, and the so-called Angel 
 Tower, which rises 59 feet above the lofty roof. 
 The Romanesque church of St Remy (mainly 
 1160-80), with the saint's shrine, is nearly of 
 equal size. Also noteworthy are the hotel-de- 
 ville (1627-1880); the ancient 'Maison des 
 Musiciens ' and archiepiscopal palace ; the Porta 
 Martis, a Roman triumphal arch ; the Lycee, re- 
 presenting a former university (1547-1793) ; and 
 statues of Louis XV. and two natives, Colbert 
 and Marshal Drouet. Rheims is one of the 
 principal entrepots for the wines of Champagne, 
 and the hills round the town are planted with 
 vineyards. It is one of the great centres of the 
 woollen manufacture in France, and its manu- 
 factures, embracing woollen goods (especially 
 merinoes), mixed fabrics in silk and wool, &c., are 
 known in commerce as Articles de Reims, Pop. 
 (1872) 71,397 ; (1901) 108,385. 
 
 Rheingau (Rine'goio), a wine-growing district, 
 14 miles long, stretching along the right bank of 
 the Rhine, from opposite Mainz to the village of 
 Lorch, 8 miles below Bingen. 
 
 Rhenish Pmssia (Ger. Rheinland, or Rhein- 
 preussen), the most western and most thickly 
 peopled of the provinces of Prussia, lies on the 
 Rhine and Lower Moselle, and is bounded W. by 
 Luxemburg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Long 
 and narrow, it extends from Cleves in the north 
 to Saargemiind in the south, and contains Cologne, 
 Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Treves, Coblenz (the 
 capital), Elberfeld-Barmen, Essen, Bonn, Diissel- 
 dorf, and Crefeld. Area, 10,419 sq. 7n. ; pop. 
 (1885)4,344,527; (1900) 5,759,798, of whom 4,400,000 
 were Roman Catholics and 15,000 Walloons. The 
 surface is everywhere more or less mountainous, 
 except in the extreme north, reaching 2500 feet 
 on the west of the Rhine, but only 1800 on the 
 
 east side. The valleys of the Rhine, Moselle, and 
 Nahe are very fruitful, and so are the flat districts 
 in the north. Of the total area, 64 per cent, is 
 cultivated, including meadows and vineyards, 
 and nearly 31 per cent, under forest. More than 
 sixteen million tons of coal are mined in the year, 
 also large quantities of iron, zinc, and lead ore. 
 The sulphur-springs of Aix-la-Chapelle and Burt- 
 scheid have a European reputation. Industry and 
 manufactures are prosecuted with the greatest 
 energy and success, this province ranking first 
 in all Prussia in this respect. It was formed in 
 1815 out of the duchies of Cleves, Jiilich (Julffers), 
 Guelders, Berg, &c. 
 
 Rheydt (Rite), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 19 
 miles by rail W. by S. from Diisseldorf. It manu- 
 factures silks, velvets, cottons, machinery, hard- 
 ware, paper, dyeworks, and breweries. Pop. 
 35,000. 
 
 Rhin (Ran^), Bas and Haut, until 1871 frontier 
 deps. of France, corresponded nearly to what are 
 now the two districts of Lower and Upper Alsace, 
 in German Alsace-Lorraine (q.v.). See Belfobt. 
 
 Rhine (Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhijn, 
 Lat. Rhenus), one of the most important rivers 
 of Europe. A large number of rivulets, issuing 
 from Swiss glaciers, unite to fonn the young 
 Rhine ; but two are recognised as the principal 
 sources — the Nearer and the Farther Rhine. The 
 former emerges on the north-east slope of the St 
 Gotthard mass (7690 feet above sea-level), the 
 other side of which is the cradle of the Rhone ; the 
 Farther Rhine has its origin on the flank of the 
 Rheinwaldhorn (7270 feet), not far from the Pass 
 of Bernardino. The two mountain-torrents meet 
 at Reichenau, 6 miles SW. of Coire (Chur) in the 
 Grisons canton, after they have descended, the 
 Nearer Rhine 5767 feet in 28 miles, the Farther 
 Rhine 5347 feet in 27 miles. After ploughing its 
 way N. for 45 miles between Switzerland and 
 Austrian Vorarlberg, the river enters the Lake of 
 Constance, soon after leaving which, its water a 
 deep transparent green, it plunges down the falls 
 of Schaft'hausen, nearly 70 feet in three leaps, and 
 flows westwards to Basel, separating Baden from 
 Switzerland. In this stretch the river (490 feet 
 wide), receives from the left the waters of the 
 Aar. At Basel (742 feet), now 225 yards wide, it 
 wheels round to the north, and traversing an 
 open shallow valley that separates Alsace and 
 the Bavarian Palatinate from Baden, reaches 
 Mainz, split into many side arms and studded 
 with green islands. Navigation begins at Basel. 
 Of the immerous aflluents here the largest are 
 the navigable Neckar and the Main from the 
 right, and the navigable 111 from the left. A 
 little below Mainz the Rhine (685 yards wide) is 
 turned west by the Taunus range ; but at Bingen 
 it forces a passage through, and pursues a north- 
 westerly direction across Rhenish Prussia, past 
 Coblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Ruhrort, 
 and Wesel as far as the Dutch frontier ; here it 
 is 1085 yards wide and 36 feet above sea-level. 
 The first half of this portion of the river from 
 Bingen to Bonn is the Rhine of song and legend, 
 the Rhine of romance, the Rhine of German 
 patriotism. Its banks are clothed with vine- 
 yards that yield wine esteemed the world over ; 
 the rugged and fantastic crags that hem in its 
 channel are crowned by ruined castles ; the 
 treasure of the Nibelungs rests at the bottom of 
 the river (higher up, at Worms); the Binger- 
 loch (see Bingen) and the Mouse Tower of Bishop 
 Hatto, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, the rock 
 of the siren Lorelei, the commanding statue of 
 
UHlNiTS 
 
 mt 
 
 ItHODigSlA 
 
 Oermania (the trophy of German victory in 1870), 
 and innumerable other features lend interest to 
 this the middle course of 'Father Rhine.' Be- 
 tween Bingen and Bonn the steep rocky walls 
 that fence in the river approach so close that 
 road and railway have to find their way through 
 tunnels. The Nahe enters the Rhine at Bingen, 
 the Moselle at Coblenz ; from the right side the 
 Lahn enters above Coblenz. Gigantic rafts are 
 floated down from the Black Forest to Dordrecht 
 in Holland. Below Bonn the Rhine is joined by 
 the Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe from the right. 
 At Bonn the river enters the plains, and almost 
 immediately after passing the Netherlands fron- 
 tier its delta begins. The principal arm, carrying 
 two-thirds of the volume, flows under the name 
 of the Waal, and later the Mermede, to Dordrecht, 
 picking up the Maas (xMeuse) from the left. At 
 Dordrecht the river again divides for a bit, one 
 branch, the old Maas, running out to sea ; the 
 other, the Noord, forming a loop by way of 
 Rotterdam. The northern arm sends one branch, 
 the Yssel, due north to the Zuider Zee ; the other 
 branch is the Lek, which runs into the Waal- 
 Maas arm above Rotterdam. A thin stream, 
 called the 'Winding Rhine,' leaves the Lek and 
 splits at Utrecht into two channels, of which the 
 Old Rhine, a mere ditch, manages Avith the help 
 of a canal and locks to struggle into the North 
 Sea at Katwyk, NW. of Leyden, while the Vecht 
 flows due north from Utrecht to the Zuider Zee 
 near Amsterdam. In the delta tlie streams have 
 to be bordered by dykes. The area drained by 
 the Rhine is estimated to be 75,773 sq. m., and 
 its total length to be 760 miles, of which 550 in 
 all are navigable. By canals it is connected with 
 the Danube, Rhone, and Marne. Salmon, carp, 
 pike, sturgeon, and lampreys are fished. The 
 Rhine was the Romans' bulwark against the 
 Teutonic invaders. Under Charlemagne the 
 Rhine valley became the focus of civilisation. 
 Except between 1697 and 1871 the Rhine was 
 always a purely German river ; at the peace of 
 Ryswick, Alsace-Lorraine was appropriated by 
 France, and the Rhine became part of the divid- 
 ing line between France and Germany. In 1801 
 Napoleon incorporated the whole of the left 
 bank with France ; in 1815 the arrangement in 
 force before 1801 was restored ; and after 1871 
 the Rhine became once more wholly German. 
 Down to the 19th century navigation was ham- 
 pered by the riparian sovereigns or petty 
 princelings, who levied vexatious dues. From 
 1803 all the powers concerned, except Holland, 
 abolished most of the shipping dues on their 
 own vessels navigating the Rhine, and Holland 
 followed suit in 1831 ; but it was not until 1st 
 July 1869 that the river was declared an 
 absolutely free waterway to the ships of all 
 nations. The first steamboat churned up its 
 waters in 1817 ; now scores ply between Rotter- 
 dam and Mainz, and others along other stretches. 
 More than 18,000 vessels of about 2,000,000 tons 
 burden pass the frontier town of Emmerich going 
 up stream every year. See Murray and Baedeker, 
 and books by Stieler (trans. 1878), Simrock (1865- 
 83), and Mehlis (1876-79). 
 
 Rhlnns. See Wigtownshire. 
 
 Rhode Island, the smallest of the United 
 States, and one of the original thirteen states of 
 the Union, is not itself an island, but takes its 
 name from the island of Rhode Island (perhaps 
 a corruption of the Dutch Roodt Eylandt, ' Red 
 Island') in Narragansett Bay, which is but 15 
 miles long by 8J broad. The length of the state 
 
 from north to south is not quite 50 miles, its width 
 about 40 miles, and its area 1085 sq. m. The north- 
 ern and eastern sections are hilly, and the land 
 slopes toward a level region in the south. The 
 coast along the Atlantic Ocean ir.easures about 45 
 miles, but Narragansett Bay penetrates inland 
 some 30. The southern coast west of Point 
 Judith is low and sandy. To the west the shores 
 are formed by high rocky clifts interspersed with 
 beaches of sand. Newport (q.v.), Narragansett 
 Pier, and Watch Hill, on the ocean coast, are fam- 
 ous seaside resorts. Coal of inferior quality 
 has been mined ; and there are deposits of 
 iron ore, and excellent limestones and granite. 
 Market-gardening is a leading occupation. 
 Cotton manufacturing, with dyeing, bleaching, 
 and calico-printing, are the great industries. 
 The principal towns are Providence (since 1900 
 sole capital), Pawtucket, Woonsocket, Newport 
 (till 1900 joint capital with Providence), and 
 Central Falls. The Northmen are supposed to 
 have visited Rhode Island in the 10th century. 
 The first permanent settlement was made at 
 Providence by Roger Williams in 1636. Pop. 
 (1730) 17,935 ; (1830) 97,199 ; (1900) 428,556. 
 
 Rhodes, once a wealthy state of ancient Greece, 
 now Turkish, lies 12 miles off the SW. coast of 
 Asia Minor. It is 49 miles long by 21 broad, 
 and 563 sq. m. in area, and is traversed by a chain 
 of mountains, which in Mount Artemira (anc. 
 Atabyris) attain 4070 feet. The soil produces wine, 
 oranges, figs, olives, and other fruits ; but much 
 land lies waste, and the population is decreasing 
 —34,000 in 1843, now barely 30,000, all Greeks 
 except 7000 Turks and 2500 Jews. Sponges are 
 an article of export. The Khodians submitted to 
 the Persians in 490 B.C., and to Alexander of 
 Macedon in 332 B.C., beating off" Mithridates in 
 88 B.C., and sided with Ca?,sar. In 1309, after a 
 three years' siege, the city fell into the hands 
 of tlie Knights Hospitallers of St John. The 
 Turks besieged them there in 1480, and again in 
 1522-23, when they compelled them to capitulate. 
 — The city stood at tlie northern extremity of the 
 island, on the slopes of a natural amphitheatre ; 
 at the entrance of one of its two harbours stood 
 the bronze colossus of Helios, the Sun-god (280 
 B.C.), 90 to 120 feet high, one of the seven wonders 
 of the ancient world. The city has often suff'ered 
 from eartliquake ; the existing buildings date 
 mostly from the period of the Knights' occupa- 
 tion — the principal the church of St John (now 
 a mosque), the Knights' hospital, and the grand- 
 master's palace. Pop. 10,000. See a work on 
 Rhodes by Torr (1885-87). 
 
 Rhodesia, named from Cecil Rhodes, founder 
 of the British South Africa Company, is a vast 
 region extending from the frontiers of tlie Trans- 
 vaal and the 22d degree of south latitude to 
 the southern limits of the Congo Free State, and 
 froni Portuguese West Africa on the west to 
 Portuguese East Africa and the British Central 
 Africa Protectorate on the east, and German East 
 Africa on tlie north-east. The region, sometimes 
 called Zambesia, is divided by tlie Zambesi into 
 (unequal) southern and northern divisions. In 
 1889 a charter was given to the British South 
 Africa Company, with large administrative 
 powers, for the development of the region now 
 known as Rhodesia. Subsequent orders-in- 
 council in 1891, 1894, 1898, 1899, 1900, and 1903 
 further prescribed the company's powers, and 
 appointed a Resident Commissioner to be nomi- 
 nated by the Secretary of State. Southern 
 Rhodesia, which is much more fully developed 
 
RHODOPE 
 
 RtCHMOim 
 
 than the northern portion, consists of the two 
 provinces of Mashoualand and Matabeleland, 
 and has an area of about 144,000 sq. in. and a 
 native pop. of 565,000, besides about 12,600 
 Europeans and 2000 colonial natives and Asiatics. 
 The seat of government is Salisbury (pop. 1726), 
 the capital of Mashonaland. There are executive 
 and legislative councils, a high court with civil 
 and criminal jurisdiction, and magistrates' courts 
 in the various districts, municipalities at Salis- 
 bury and Bulawayo (chief town of Matabeleland), 
 with churclies, banks, schools, hotels, public 
 libraries, and telephones. There were in 1905 
 about 1900 miles of railway open, and the ' Cape 
 to Cairo' line reached the Victoria Falls in 1904, 
 and is being continued across Northern Rhodesia 
 to Lake Tanganyika. There are about 300 regis- 
 tered companies interested in mining and de- 
 velopment work in the territory. The output of 
 gold in 1904 was 267,737 oz. Other minerals are 
 silver, copper, blende, antimony, arsenic, lead, 
 and coal. The imports into Southern Rhodesia 
 in 1904 were valued at £1,576,619, and the exports, 
 excluding goods to Customs Union Territories 
 (which it .joined in 1903), to £334,717. Northern 
 Rhodesia (subdivided into North-eastern and 
 North-western Rhodesia) is still practically held 
 by the natives. Barotseland (North-western 
 Rhodesia) is ruled by King Lewanika. North- 
 eastern Rhodesia is divided into nine districts, 
 Fort Jameson on the Tanganyika plateau being 
 the administrative headquarters. Ivory and 
 rubber are exported, and cotton is being grown 
 with success. The area of North-eastern Rho- 
 desia is about 120,000 sq. m., and the native 
 pop. is estimated at about 350,000, with 250 
 Europeans, mostly British. Postal and tele- 
 graph services have been organised. The capi- 
 tal of the British South Africa Company is 
 £6,000,000, and the administrative revenue for 
 the whole region, from mining, trading, and 
 professional licenses, hut tax, customs, and 
 postal and telegraph services, amounted in 1903 
 to £633,038, and the expenditure to £1,051,400. 
 
 Rhodope (Rod'o-pee), the ancient name of a 
 mountain-chain (7474 feet) on the borders of 
 Macedonia and Thrace (between Turkish and 
 Bulgarian territory). The Bulgarians call it 
 Despoto Dagh. Of its many monasteries the chief 
 is the Bulgarian fortress-monastery of Rilo. 
 
 Rhondda {Ron' dm) is, since 1894, the official 
 name of an urban district (pop. 115,000) in 
 Glamorgan, South Wales, formerly known as 
 the township of Ystradyfodwg. The Rhondda 
 Valley is a great centre of coal-mining. 
 
 Rhone (Lat. Rhoddnvs), the only important 
 French river which falls into the Mediterranean, 
 takes its rise in the Swiss Alps, on the western 
 side of Mount St Gothard, at an altitude of 5752 
 feet, and not far from the sources of the Rhine. 
 Its entire length, from its source to its mouth 
 in the Gulf of Lyons, is 504 miles. It first runs 
 SW. through Valais to the Lake of Geneva (q.v.) ; 
 thence it forces a passage westward through the 
 Jura. At Lyons it is joined by its largest tribu- 
 tary, the Saone (q.v.), from the north, and flows 
 southward by Avignon and Aries, where begins 
 its delta. Affluents are, on the right, the Ain, 
 S.ione, Ardeche, and Card ; on the left, the Arve, 
 Is^re, Drome, and Durance. From Lyons south- 
 ward the Rhone is navigable, but by reason of the 
 swift current, sandbanks, and other obstructions, 
 communication with the Mediterranean is mainly 
 by canals. Canals likewise connect the Rhone 
 with the Rhine by the Sa6ne, with the Seine, the 
 
 Loire, and the Garonne. See a French work by 
 Lentheric (2 vols. 1892). 
 
 Rhone (Roan), a dep. of France, i)art of the 
 former Lyonnais. Area, 1077 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 
 741,470 ; (1901) 843,179. Its arrondissements are 
 Lyons (the capital) and Villefranche. 
 
 Rhuddlan (Hrith'lan), a decayed town of 
 Flintshire, North Wales, on the Clwyd, 8 miles 
 SSB. of Rhyl. Its ruined castle, dating from 
 1015, and dismantled after its capture by the 
 Roundheads in 1646, was the scene of the be- 
 trayal of Richard II. (1399); at the marsh of 
 Morfa Rhuddlan, across the river, Ott'a defeated 
 Caradoc (795). With Flint, &c., Rhuddlan re- 
 turns one member. Pop. 1357. 
 
 Rhyl (Hril), a watering-place of Flintshire, 
 North Wales, at the mouth of the Clwyd, 30 
 miles NW. of Chester. A mere fishing-village so 
 late as 1830, it has fine sands, a promenade pier 
 705 yards long, built in 1867 at a cost of £17,000, 
 an esplanade, an aquarium and winter garden, a 
 dozen hotels, baths, &c.; and, though the country 
 around is flat, it commands fine views of the Snow- 
 donian mountains. Pop. 8500. 
 
 Rhymer's Glen, a traditional haunt of lliomas 
 of Ercildoune, on Huntly Burn, near Abbotsford, 
 
 Rhymney, a town of Monmouthshire, on the 
 river Rhymney (running to the Bristol Channel 
 near Cardift), 2^ miles W. of Tredegar. It is the 
 seat of ironworks. Pop. (1861) 7630 ; (1901) 7914. 
 
 Riad, capital of Nejd, a town in the highlands 
 of central Arabia. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Riazan (Ree-a-zan'), a town of Russia, near the 
 Oka's right bank, 115 miles by rail SE. of Moscow. 
 Pop. 46,150. — The government has an area of 16,250 
 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,802,200. 
 
 Ribble. See Preston. 
 
 Rib'chester, a town of Lancashire, on the 
 Ribble, 5^ miles NNW. of Blackburn. It occu- 
 pies the site of a Roman station. Pop. 1235. 
 
 Ribeauville (Ri-bo-veeV ; Ger. Rn.ppoltsweiler), 
 a town of Upper Alsace, pleasantly situated amid 
 vineyards at the west foot of the Vosges, 33 miles 
 SSW. of Strasburg. Pop. 6902. 
 
 Ribstone Hall, a seat in the East Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the Nidd, 3J miles SE. of Knares- 
 borough. Here was grown the first ' Ribstone 
 pippin ' in England. 
 
 Richborough. See Sandwich. 
 
 Richmond, an ancient municipal borough in 
 the North Riding of Yorkshire, on the left bank 
 of the deep-channelled Swale, 49 miles by a branch- 
 line NW. of York. Its Norman castle (1072-1146), 
 now utilised for barracks, stores, &c., has a very 
 fine banqueting-hall and a keep 100 feet high. 
 Other buildings are the parish church, with 
 good wood-carvings ; Queen Elizabeth's grammar- 
 school (1567 ; rebuilt, 1849-68) ; the market-house 
 (1854) ; and the Perpendicular tower of a Fran- 
 ciscan friary (1258). The racecourse (847 feet 
 above sea-level) commands a magnificent view. 
 Till 1867 Richmond returned two members, and 
 then till 1885 one. Pop. 3830. See works by R. 
 Gale (Latin, 1722), Clarkson (1821), Whitaker (2 
 vols. 1823), Robinson (1833), and Longstafl"e (1852). 
 
 Richmond, a town of Surrey, 8^ miles WSW. 
 of London (by rail 9J, by river 16), stands partly 
 on the summit and declivity of Richmond Hill, 
 and partly on the level right bank of the Thames. 
 The Terrace, stretching along the brow of the hill, 
 commands an unrivalled prospect of hill and dale, 
 woodland and winding stream ; and one of the 
 fairest river-views in England may be gained 
 
RICHMOND 
 
 589 
 
 BI6I 
 
 from Richmond Bridge, which, 100 yards long, 
 was built in 1774-77 at a cost of £26,000. Only a 
 gateway remains of the ancient royal palace of 
 Sheen, where died Edward III., Anne of Bohemia, 
 Henry VII., and Elizabeth, and which was re- 
 built by Henry V. and Henry VII. (1499), who 
 renamed the place Richmond after his own 
 former Yorlvshire earldom. That palace, which 
 has memories also of Wolsey, Charles V., and 
 many others, was dismantled in 1648 ; but the 
 splendid deer-park, formed by Charles I. in 1634, 
 remains. It covers 2253 acres ; and its brick 
 wall is nearly 8 miles in circumference. Scott 
 here makes Jeanie Deans have her audience 
 with Queen Caroline. The well-known ' Star and 
 Garter,' which dates froni 1738, was largely de- 
 stroyed by fire in 1870, but rebuilt in 1872-74 at 
 a cost of £24,000 ; its banqueting-house escaped, 
 built by Barry in 1865. At the parish church are 
 buried the poet Thomson, Kean, Lady Di Beau- 
 clerk, and Dr John Moore ; and here, too, Swift's 
 Stella was baptised. St Mathias' (1858) is a 
 striking building by Scott, with a spire 195 feet 
 high ; the municipal buildings, opened by the 
 Duke of York in 1893, cost £24,000; and there 
 are also a Wesleyan theological college (1834), a 
 free library (1881), &c. ; whilst Richmond 
 worthies, other than those above mentioned, 
 have been Reynolds, Gainsborough, Collins, 
 and Earl Russell. Market and nursery garden- 
 ing is a chief industry. Richmond was incor- 
 porated as a municijtal borough in 1890. Pop. 
 (1861) 7423 ; (1901) 31,672. See works by Crisp 
 (1866) and Chancellor (1885 and 1894). 
 
 Richmond, (1) capital of Wayne county, 
 Indiana, on the East Fork of Whitewater River, 
 69 miles by rail NNW. of Cincinnati. It was 
 founded by the Society of Friends, who in 1859 
 established Earlham College here, for both sexes. 
 There are manufactures of agricultural imple- 
 ments, machinery, boilers, flour, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 12,743; (1900) 18,226.— (2) Capital of Madison 
 county, Kentucky, 120 miles by rail S. of Cin- 
 cinnati. It is the seat of the Central Uni- 
 versity (Presbyterian ; 1874). Pop. 4700.— (3) 
 The capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the 
 James River, at tlie head of tide water, 150 miles 
 from its mouth, and 116 by rail S. of Washing- 
 ton. It is a port of entry, and vessels drawing 
 14 feet of water can come up to the lower end of 
 tlie city, where there are large docks. Richmond 
 is picturesquely situated on a group of hills, the 
 summit of one— Shockoe Hill— being occupied 
 by the capitol (1796), which possesses a marble 
 statue of Washington, and in whose grounds are 
 statues of Henry Clay and ' Stonewall ' Jackson, 
 and the Washington monument, a noble bronze 
 group by Thomas Crawford. Patrick Henry is 
 buried in St John's churchyard, and President 
 Monroe and Jefferson Davis in Hollywood Ceme- 
 tery, where is a Confederate monument 90 feet 
 high. In the city are Richmond College (Bap- 
 tist ; 1832) and the VirgiTiia Medical College. 
 The James River Falls here supply immense 
 water-power for tobacco-factories, rolling-mills, 
 iron-foundries, nail-works, machine and loco- 
 motive-works, flour, meal-flour, and paper mills, 
 and fertiliser-works. The chief exports are 
 cotton, flour, and tobacco. Richmond was 
 founded in 1737, and became the capital in 1779. 
 On 26th December 1811 the burning of a theatre 
 cost sixty lives. In 1861 Richmond was selected 
 as the Confederate capital, but on 2d April 1865 
 it had to surrender, after almost a year's siege 
 and a series of sanguinary battles. A consider- 
 able portion of the city was burned by the re- 
 
 treating Confederates. Pop. (1860) 37,910 ; (1870) 
 51,038 ; (1900) 85,050. 
 
 Richmond, a SE. suburb of Melbourne (q.v.). 
 
 Rickmansworth, a town of Hertfordshire, at 
 the confluence of the Colne, Gade, and Chess, 4 
 miles W. by S. of Watford. It has a church 
 (rebuilt in 1890) with interesting monuments ; 
 and near it is Moor Park, the seat of the ill-fated 
 Duke of Moninouth. Population, 5800. See 
 R. Bayne's Historical Sketch (1870). 
 
 Riddings, a Derbyshire market-town, 8 miles 
 SE. of Alfreton, with neighbouring coal-pits and 
 ironworks. Pop. 6000.- 
 
 Riddon, Loch, an Argyllshire sea-loch, strik- 
 ing 4 miles N. from the Kyles of Bute. 
 
 Riesengebirge (Ree'zen-ge-beer'geh, g's hard ; 
 ' Giant Mountains '), a mountain-range, 23 miles 
 long by 16 broad, separating Bohemia from Prus- 
 sian Silesia. Tlie highest peak is the Schnee- 
 koppe (5260 feet). 
 
 Riesi {Re-ay' zee), a town of south Sicily, 10 
 miles NW. of Terranova. Pop. 14,914. 
 
 Rieti {Re-ay' tee ; anc. Reate), a walled city of 
 Italy, 40 miles NE. of Rome; the fine cathedral 
 has a mommient by Thorwaldsen. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Rievaulx Abbey {Ree'voas), 26 miles N. of 
 York and 10 E. by N. of Thirsk, a ruined Cis- 
 tercian monastery (1131), Norman and Early 
 English in style, occupying a beautiful site in 
 the valley of tlie river Rye. The meaning of 
 Rievaulx is ' Rye vale.' 
 
 Riflf, the coast districts of northern Morocco, 
 extending from Ceuta to the western frontier of 
 Algiers, and forming a line of steep cliffs with 
 few harbours. Its Berber inhabitants, once 
 savage pirates, are still turbulent. 
 
 Riga {Ree'ga), capital of Livonia, and next after 
 St Petersburg and Odessa the third seaport of 
 Russia, lies on the Dwina, 7 miles from its 
 mouth, and 350 by rail SW. of St Petersburg. 
 The old town has narrow streets and mediaeval 
 houses ; but the suburbs are laid out in broad 
 streets with handsome buildings. The chief 
 edifices are the archiepiscopal cathedral, lauilt in 
 1204, burned down in 1547, but rebuilt ; St 
 Peter's Church (1406), with a steeple 460 feet 
 high ; the castle of the old Knights of the Sword, 
 built 1494-1515 ; and several old guild houses and 
 Hanseatic halls. Its industries include the manu- 
 facture of cottons, machines, tobacco, corks, 
 spirits, oil, metal wares, glass, paper, flax, jute, 
 and oilcloth. Pop. (1867) 102,690 ; (1881) 169*,329 ; 
 (1897) 282,950. Nearly one-half are Germans (with 
 German-speaking Jews), one-fourth Russians, and 
 one-fourth Letts. Riga was founded in 1201, and 
 soon became a first-rate commercial place and a 
 Hanse town. It belonged to Poland from 1561. 
 in 1621 was taken by Gustavus Adolphus, and 
 in 1710 was annexed to Russia. 
 
 The Gulf of Riga is an inlet on the east side 
 of the Baltic Sea, which washes the shores of 
 Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia. It is 105 miles 
 long from north to south, and 60 broad. The 
 islands of Oesel, Dago, Mohn, and Worms lie 
 athwart the entrance, and there are many sand- 
 banks. The Dwina falls into the gulf. 
 
 Rigi {Ree'gee, g hard), or Righi, an isolated 
 Swiss mountain (5906 feet), standing between 
 the Lakes of Lucerne, Zug, and Lowerz, 
 commands views of some of the finest Swiss 
 scenery. Verdant pastures clothe the summit, 
 and the slopes are belted with forests. About 
 100,000 tourists ascend it every season, principally 
 by mefins of two toothed railways— one fyoiB 
 
RILO 
 
 590 
 
 BIOM 
 
 Vltznau (1871) on the Lake of Lucerne, the other 
 from Arth (1875) on the Lake of Zug, 4i and 7 
 miles long respectively. There are half-a-dozen 
 hotels near or at the summit, as well as a Capu- 
 chin monastery (1689), whose church contains a 
 wonder-working image of the Madonna. 
 
 Rilo. See Rhodope. 
 
 Bimlnl (Rim'i-nee), a walled city of Italy, 
 stands on the Adriatic, 69 miles by rail SE. of 
 Bologna. The cathedral, a beautiful Renaissance 
 structure, dates from 1446-50 ; tlie church of St 
 Giuliano is adorned with pictures by Veronese. 
 Tlie ancient castle of the Malatestas is now a 
 prison. The little river on which the city stands 
 is spanned by a five-arch white marble Roman 
 bridge, 236 feet long. Beside one of the gates 
 stands the triumphal arch, 46 feet high, erected 
 in honour of Augustus. The spot where Caesar 
 stood to address his soldiers after crossing the 
 Rubicon (q.v.) is marked in one of the squares by 
 a monumental pillar. The city manufactures 
 silks and sail-cloth. Pop. 20,000 ; with suburbs, 
 43,200. One of these suburbs is mucti visited for 
 sea-bathing. Originally an Umbrian, and then 
 for several centuries an Etruscan city, Rimini 
 (Ariminum) fell into the hands of the Romans in 
 286 B.C. After being battled for by Goths and 
 Byzantines, and held by the latter, the Lombards, 
 and the Franks, it became a shuttlecock between 
 the emperor and the pope. At last Rimini put 
 herself under the protection of the House of Mala- 
 testa (1237), in whose family-history befell the 
 killing of Francesca da Rimini and her lover by 
 his brother (1285), and the story of Parisina, the 
 subject of Byron's poem. 
 
 Rimouskl (Ri-moos'kee), a Canadian town, on 
 the south shore of the St Lawrence, at the influx 
 of the Rimouski River, 182 miles by rail NE. of 
 Quebec. It is a bishop's seat, a watering-place, 
 and a telegraphing station for ships. Pop. 2417. 
 
 Ringwood, a town on the Hampshire Avon, 25 
 miles WSW. of Southampton. Pop. of par. 4700. 
 
 Riobamba. See Cajabamba. 
 
 Rio Bravo. See Rio Grande. 
 
 Rio Cuarto (Ree'o Kwahr'to), a city in the 
 Argentine province of Cordoba, on the river of 
 the same name, 500 iniles NW. of Buenos Ayres 
 and 170 by rail S. of Cordoba. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro (^ee'o deh Zha-nay'e-ro), the 
 capital of Brazil, stands on the west side of one 
 of the most magnificent natural harbours in 
 the world. An inlet of the Atlantic, the bay 
 of Rio de Janeiro runs 15 miles northwards, 
 varying in width from 2 miles to 7 ; it is girdled 
 on all sides by 'picturesque mountains (1500 to 
 3000 feet), covered with tropical vegetation. 
 The entrance, less than a mile wide, passes be- 
 tween two bold headlands, one of them called the 
 Sugar-loaf (1270 feet). The city and its suburbs 
 stretch nearly 10 miles along the shore. About 3 
 miles SW. of the city stands the precipitous cone 
 of Corcovado (2336 feet), with a cog-railway up 
 to the top. Public institutions are the vast 
 hospital of La Misericordia (1200 patients), the 
 national library (1807), with 250,000 volumes, the 
 national museum, the large lunatic asylum (1841), 
 the botanical gardens, with a celebrated avenue 
 of palms, the observatory, the Geographical and 
 Historical institute (1838), the former royal palace 
 at Sao Christovao, the arsenal, the naval dock- 
 yards, the academy of fine arts, a cadet-school, a 
 school of medicine, a conservatory of music, a 
 polytechnic school, &c. In spite of a good water- 
 Supply, chiefly by at} aqueduct (1750) 12 milQS 
 
 long, and a new system of sewage-draining, the 
 city is not really healthy ; the surrounding hills 
 .shut out the breezes, and the heat grows intense 
 in summer. Yellow fever prevails during the 
 hot season ; and the Negro population suffer 
 from smallpox. Pop. (1872) 274,972 ; (1902) 
 750,000, including many foreigners— Portuguese, 
 Briti-sh, French, and Germans. Rio is the com- 
 mercial capital, sending out 51 per cent, of 
 the total exports of Brazil, and bringing in 45 
 per cent, of the imports. The chief export is 
 coffee ; the imports include cotton, gold and 
 silver, metals, wool, provisions, and machinery. 
 The whole sea-frontage of the city is lined with 
 quays, and in 1889 extensive new harbour- works 
 were begun, embracing a dock of 75 acres, a 
 breakwater 3200 yards long, an elevated railway, 
 hydraulic cranes, warehouses, &c. The city 
 possesses cotton, jute, and silk mills, tobacco 
 and hat factories, machine-shops, tanneries, &c. 
 
 On 1st January 1531 a Portuguese captain, De 
 Souza, entered the bay, and thinking it was the 
 mouth of a large river he called it Rio de Janeiro 
 —'January River.' The French held one of the 
 islands in 1555-67. Rio was founded in 1566; 
 was plundered by Duguay-Trouin in 1711 ; sup- 
 planted Bahia as the capital of the viceroy in 
 1763 ; and in 1822 was made the capital of the 
 empire of Brazil. The revolution of 1889 centred 
 in Rio ; and after the reconstitution of the united 
 states of Brazil Rio remained the capital, the 
 federal district in which the city stands (area 
 538 sq. m.) being administered directly by the 
 federal authorities. Rio suftered much from 
 bombardment during the rebellion of the fleet 
 (1893-94). — The maritime state of Rio de Janeiro 
 has an area of 26,627 sq. m., and a pop., exclusive 
 of the city, of 1,230,000. 
 
 Rio de la Plata. See La Plata. 
 
 Rio Grande (Ree'o Grandeh), also Rio Grande 
 del Norte, and Rio Bravo del Norte, a large river 
 of North America, rises in the San Juan Moun- 
 tains in SW. Colorado, and flows generally SE. to 
 the Gulf of Mexico, forming the boundary be- 
 tween Texas and Mexico. Its length is 1800 miles ; 
 small steamboats ascend nearly 500 miles. Its 
 chief aflJuent is the Rio Pecos. — See also Parana 
 and Senegambia. 
 
 Rio Grande do Norte (Ree'o Gran'deh do Nor'teh), 
 a maritime state of Brazil, occupies the north- 
 east angle of the country. Area, 22,195 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 325,000. one-half Indians. It is named 
 from the river Rio Grande, flowing into the At- 
 lantic at the capital, Rio Grande do Norte or Natal 
 (q.v.) ; but the principal river is the Piranhas. 
 
 Rio Grande do Sul (Ree'o Gran'deh do Sool; 
 ' Great River of the South '), sometimes called 
 San Pedro, the southernmost province of Brazil, 
 is bounded N. and W. by the river Uruguay, S. 
 by the republic of Uruguay, and E. by the 
 Atlantic. Area, 91,310 sq. m. ; iwpulation, 
 970,000, of whom 100,000 are Germans and 52,000 
 Italians. The principal towns are Porto Alegre 
 (q.v.), the capital, Rio Grande, and Pelotas. — 
 The town of Rio Grande stands on the south side 
 of the strait leading into the southern end of the 
 Lagoa dos Patos ; pop. 18,000. 
 
 Rioja (Ree-o'ha), a western province of the 
 Argentine Republic, with an area of 34,305 sq. m. 
 and a pop. of 86,000. — Rioja, the capital, founded 
 in 1591, lies at the foot of the Sierra Velasco, 350 
 miles by rail NW. of Cordoba. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Riom (Ree-on"), a town of France (dep. Puy-de- 
 Dome), on a hill, 8 miles by rail N. of Cleringnt' 
 Ferrand. Pop. 9700. 
 
RION 
 
 »91 
 
 ROANOKE 
 
 RIon. See Phasis. 
 
 Rio Negro (Ree'o Nay'gro), a principal affluent 
 of the Amazon, rises as the Guainia in SB. 
 Colombia, and flows 1350 miles E., S., E., and SB. 
 through Venezuela and Brazil, to the Maranon.— 
 (2) A river of Argentina, which rises in the Andean 
 lake of Nahuel-Huapi, and flows over 500 miles 
 NE., E., and SB. to the Atlantic. It bounds and 
 gives name to a national territory, formerly part 
 of Patagonia, with an area of 81,895 sq. m. of 
 mostly level but barren soil. 
 
 Rionegro, a town of Colombia, in Antioquia, 
 15 miles SE. of Medellin. Pop, 9000. 
 
 Rlonero {Ree'o-nay'ro), a town of southern 
 Italy, 12 miles N. of Potenza. Pop. 11,383. 
 
 Rio Tinto (Ree'o), a river in southern Spain, in 
 the province of Huelva, near wliose sources are 
 very rich copper-mines, worlced by the Romans, 
 and bought in 1872 by the Rio Tinto (London- 
 Bremen) Syndicate for £4,000,000. 
 
 RiOUW (Ree-oio'), capital of Bintang (q.v.). 
 
 Ripley, (1) a town of Derbyshire, 10 miles 
 NNE. of Derby, with sillv-lace manufactures and 
 large neighbouring collieries and ironworks. Pop. 
 (1851) 3071 ; (1901) 10,111.— (2) A pretty village 
 in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the Nidd, 3^ 
 miles NNW. of Harrogate. Rebuilt in 1829-30, 
 it has an hotel-de-ville (1854), an interesting 
 church, and Ripley Castle (1555), where Cromwell 
 slept the night before Marston Moor. Pop. 291. 
 
 Rip'on, a city in the "West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 on the Ure, 23 miles NW. of York, 28 N. of Leeds, 
 and 11 N. of Harrogate. A monastery, founded 
 here in 660 by St Cuthbert and other monks of 
 Melrose, was granted about 664 to St Wilfrid, who 
 rebuilt the church with stone, and dedicated it to 
 St Peter. Willibrord, the apostle of the Frisians, 
 was trained in this monastery, which in 678 was 
 made the seat of a short-lived bishopric, re- 
 erected in 1836 after a lapse of more than eleven 
 centuries. The beautiful minster, which from 
 the Conquest to the Dissolution was the church 
 of Augustinian canons, was built between 1154 
 and 1520, so exhibits every variety of style from 
 Transition-Norman to Perpendicular. A cruci- 
 form pile, 266 feet long, with three towers 120 
 feet high, which lost their spires in 1660, and 
 with a Saxon crypt, where a hole called ' St 
 Wilfrid's Needle ' was anciently used as an ordeal 
 of chastity, it suffered much through the Scots 
 (1319), decay, and vandalism, but in 1861-76 was 
 restored by Sir G. G. Scott at a cost of £40,000. 
 An obelisk, 90 feet high, in the market-place was 
 erected in 1781 by W. Aislabie, for sixty years 
 one of the two members for Ripon, whose repre- 
 sentation was reduced to one in 1867, and merged 
 in the county in 1885. At the free grammar- 
 school (1546) Bishop Stubbs was educated. 
 Studley Royal, the fine seat of the Marquis of 
 Ripon, is 2 miles south-west ; and near it is 
 Fountains Abbey (q.v.). Ripon spurs, once fam- 
 ous, belong to the past, but saddle-trees are manu- 
 factured, besides varnish, leather, machinery, &c. 
 The municipal borough was chartered by James 
 I. Pop. 5150. See works by Gent (1733), Waddi- 
 love (1810), Walbran, Fowler (1888), and on the 
 cathedral by Archdeacon Dauks (1899). 
 
 Risca, a town of Monmouthshire, on the Ebbw, 
 5| miles WNW. of Newport. Pop. 9670, 
 
 Ri'singham, a Roman camp in Northumber- 
 land, on the Reed, 4? miles NE. of Bellingham. 
 
 Ristigouche. See Restigouche. 
 
 Rlvas (Ree-vas), a decayed town of Nicaragua, 
 § miles from LaJ^e Nicaragua. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Rivaulx Abbey. See Rievaulx. 
 
 Rive-de-Gier (Reev-deh-Zhe-ay'), a town of 
 France (dep. Loire), on the Gier, in the middle of 
 the best coalfield in France, 13 miles NB. of St 
 Etienne by rail. In 1815 it had less than 4000 
 inhabitants ; now it has about 16,000. 
 
 Rivera (Reevay'ra), a dep. in the north-east of 
 Uruguay, separated by a mountain-chain from 
 Brazil. Area, 3790 sq. m. ; pop. 27,100. 
 
 Biverina (Riveree'na), a name given to the 
 extensive grazing districts in the western part of 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Riviera (Ree-vee-ay'ra ; 'seashore'), a term 
 applied to the narrow strip of coast-land border- 
 ing the Gulf of Genoa, strictly from Nice to 
 Spezzia, but generally understood to include the 
 whole coast of the dep. of the Al]ies Maritimes, 
 and the Italian coast as far as Leghorn. West of 
 Genoa it is called the Riviera di Ponente, or 
 western coast, and beyond Genoa the Riviera di 
 Levante, or eastern coast. From Hy^res to Genoa 
 is 203 miles ; from Genoa to Leghorn, 112. 
 Sheltered on the north by mountains, the dis- 
 trict enjoys an exceptionally favoured climate, 
 no other region north of Palermo and Valencia 
 being so mild in winter. The western section is 
 the mildest and most frequented. It abounds in 
 the most striking and beautiful scenery, and is 
 planted with numerous health and fashion resorts 
 — Nice, Monaco, Mentone, Ventimiglia, San Remo, 
 Bordighera, &c. ; and west of Nice are Hy^res, 
 Frejus, Cannes, Grasse, Antibes. The famous 
 Corniche (lta,\. Cornice) road, widened by Napoleon 
 I., leads along the coast from Nice to Genoa, and 
 commands magnificent views. See guidebooks 
 by Baedeker, Murray (1890), Black (1890), and 
 Macmillan (new ed. 1892) ; Augustus Hare's South- 
 eastern France (1890), and Miss Dempster's Mari- 
 time Alps and their Seaboard (1884). 
 
 Rivi&res du Sud (Ree-vee-ehr' dii Siid ; 'South- 
 ern Rivers') Avas, up till 1893, the name of the 
 coast region of French Guinea, on the west coast 
 of Africa, which lies between Portuguese Guinea 
 and the British colony of Sierra Leone. The 
 district has an area of about 95,000 sq. in., and 
 a population estimated at about 2,200,000. The 
 capital is Konakry. See Guinea, Senegambia. 
 
 Rivoli (Ree/vo-lee), a town of northern Italy, S 
 miles W. of Turin. Pop. 5314. It was not here, 
 but at another Rivoli, 12 miles NW. of Verona, 
 that Napoleon on 14th and 15th January 1797 
 defeated the Austrians. 
 
 Rizeh (Ree'zeh), a town of Asia Minor, on the 
 Black Sea, 40 miles B. of Trebizond. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Roag, a sea-loch 10 miles long and 8 wide across 
 the entrance, on the W. side of Lewis. 
 
 Roanne (Ro-ann'), a town of France (dep. 
 Loire), 52 miles by rail NW. of Lyons, stands on 
 the left bank of the Loire, which here becomes 
 navigable, and is crossed by a stone bridge (1820). 
 It has an old castle, a new hotel-de-ville with a 
 museum, some manufactures, &c. Pop. (1872) 
 18,615 ; (1901) 33,775, 
 
 Roanoke (Ro-an-oak'), a river of Virginia and 
 North Carolina, formed by the union, a mile above 
 Clarksville, Virginia, of the Dan and Staunton 
 rivers, which rise in the Alleghanies, It flows 
 230 SB. through the north-eastern portion of 
 North Carolina to Albemarle Sound. 
 
 Roanoke, a city of Virginia, on the Roanoke 
 River, 258 miles by rail W. of Norfolk. In 1880 
 it was a secliuled hamlet ; by 1890 it was grown 
 to a bustling city, with a court-house, opera- 
 house, hotels, churchesj jail, gas and elec^rio 
 
ROARING FORTIES 
 
 592 
 
 ROCHESTER 
 
 lights, large machine-shops, steel and iron works, 
 a rolling-mill, tobacco, spoiie, and canning 
 factories, mills, bottle-works, &c. Pop. (18S0) 
 669 ; (1890) 16,159 ; (1900) 21,495. 
 
 Roaring Forties, a sailor's term for a region 
 of the great Soutliern Ocean lying south of 40° S. 
 lat. (especially south of 45°), where the prevailing 
 strong WNW. and NW. winds are often stormy. 
 
 Robben Island (Dutch, ' seal island '), an islet 
 of Table Bay, 10 miles NW. of Capetown, with 
 a lunatic asylum and a leper colony. 
 
 Robin Hood's Bay, a fishing-village in the 
 North Riding of Yorkshire, 6J miles SE. of Whitby 
 by the coast railway (1885) to Scarborough, The 
 bay is picturesquely fringed by lofty cliffs, the 
 Old Peak, its southern horn, attaining 585 feet. 
 It owes its name to traditions of Robin Hood, 
 whose arrows shot from the tower of Whitby 
 Priory reached Hawkser, 3 miles distant. 
 
 Rocha, a SE. dep. of Uruguay, on the Atlantic. 
 Area, 4280 sq. m. ; pop. 30,500. 
 
 Rochdale (Rotcli-daU), a manufacturing town 
 of Lancashire, a municipal, parliamentary, and 
 county borough, on the Roche, 11 miles N. by 
 E. of Manchester and 202 NNW. of Ijondon. St 
 Chad's parish church, on an eminence approached 
 by a flight of 122 steps, dates from the 12th 
 century, but is mainly Perpendicular in style. 
 It is a handsome edifice, on which £10,000 was 
 expended in 1884-85. The town-hall (1866-71) is 
 a very fine Domestic Gothic building. The town 
 besides has an infirmary (1883), a free grammar- 
 school, founded in 1565 by Archbishop Parker, 
 and rebuilt in 1846, a free library (1884), a post- 
 office (1875), public baths (1868), a bronze statue 
 of John Bright (1891), and a public park of 12 
 acres. The trade in woollen goods dates from 
 the days of Elizabeth, when cotton goods also 
 were sold here, and coal-pits worked. It was 
 not till 1795 that the first cotton-mill was built, 
 in which in 1802 the father of John Bright began 
 his career as a weaver. Flannels and calicoes 
 are now the staple manufactures, but there are 
 also cotton-mills, foundries, ironworks, machine- 
 shops, &c. Roclidale is the birthplace of Co- 
 operation, and the membership of its Equitable 
 Pioneers' Society (1844) has increased from 28 to 
 over 11,000, with an aimual business representing 
 more than a quarter million. Since 1832 Roch- 
 dale has returned one member to parliament, 
 and in 1856 it became a municipal borough. The 
 latter in 1872 was made coterminous with the 
 parliamentary borough, whose boundary had 
 been extended in 1867. The manor of Rochdale 
 (Recedam in Domesday) was originally held by 
 the Lacys of Pontefract, and through their 
 descendants, the Dukes of Lancaster, passed to 
 the crown. In 1628 it was sold to Sir John 
 Byron, whose ancestors had been connected with 
 it since 1462, and whose descendant, the poet 
 Lord Byron, in 1823 sold it to Mr Dearden. Pop. 
 of county borough (1901) as extended in 1900, 
 83,114 ; of parliamentary borough, 76,124. See 
 Fisliwick's History of the Parish of Rochdale (1889). 
 
 Roche Abbey, a ruined Yorkshire Cistercian 
 monastery (c. 1147), 8 miles E. of Rotherham. 
 
 Rochefort-sur-Mer (Rosh-forr'-siir-Mayr), a 
 French seaport, naval arsenal, and fortress of 
 the first class, in the dep. of Charente-Inferieure, 
 stands on the Charente's right bank, 9 miles from 
 its mouth, and 18 miles SSE. of Rochelle, 89 SW. 
 of Poitiers. It was founded in 1665 as a naval 
 station by Colbert, and fortified by Vauban, being 
 Qovered now on the sea side by strong forts ; and 
 
 it is a modem, clean, well-built place. The naval 
 hospital (1783-88) has nearly 1300 beds and an 
 artesian well 2758 feet deep. There are both a 
 naval harbour and, higher up the river, a com- 
 mercial harbour with three basins ; and Rochefort 
 besides possesses rope-walks, cannon-foundries, 
 &c. From 1777 till 1852 it was the seat of a great 
 convict prison. Napoleon meant to take .ship 
 for America at Rochefort, but instead had to 
 surrender to Captain Maitland of the Bellerojphon, 
 15th July 1815. Pop. (1872) 26,619 ; (1901) 31,613. 
 
 Rochelle, La (Ro-sheW), a French fortified sea- 
 port, capital of the dep. of Charente-Inferieure, 
 on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, formed by the 
 islands Re and Oleron, 91 miles WSW. of Poitiers 
 and 297 SW. of Paris. Its harbour, still showing 
 the remains of Richelieu's famous dyke, is sur- 
 rounded by fine quays, close to which lie the 
 principal streets and squares. The most note- 
 worthy public buildings are the hotel-de-ville 
 (1486-1607), the palais-de-justice (1614), and the 
 heavy Grecian cathedral (1742-1862). Besides the 
 fine promenade of the Place du Chateau, there are, 
 outside the city, La Promenade du Mail and the 
 Champs de Mars. Shipbuilding is actively carried 
 on, specially for the Newfoundland fishing trade ; 
 and besides the manufacture of briquettes and 
 cotton yarns, Rochelle has numerous glass-works, 
 sugar-refineries, and brandy distilleries. Pop. 
 (1872) 19,070 ; (1901) 28,578. Known till the 12th 
 century under its Latin name of Rupella, ' Little 
 Rock,' of which its present name is a translation, 
 Rochelle originated in a colony of runaway serfs 
 of Lower Poitou. On the marriage of Eleanor of 
 Aquitaine with Henry II. , it came, as part of her 
 dowry, to the English kings, who retained it till 
 1224 ; and, though it was restored to England in 
 1360, it has been French since 1372. A Hugue- 
 not stronghold, it was unsuccessfully besieged in 
 1573, and in 1627-28 it for fourteen months again 
 offered a heroic though imavailing resistance 
 to Cardinal Richelieu. Buckingham's expedi- 
 tion to relieve it failed, and at last tlie defenders, 
 reduced from 27,000 to 5000, had to surrender. 
 With the exception of three towers (1384-1476) 
 its old fortifications were destroyed, and new 
 lines of defences subsequently erected by the 
 great Vauban. Reaumur, Bonpland, Billaud- 
 Varenne, Fromentin, Bouguereau, and Admiral 
 Duperre were natives. Of the last a statue was 
 erected in 1869. 
 
 Rochester (Rotch'es-ter), a city of Kent, 29 miles 
 ESE. of London, lies chiefly on the right bank 
 of tlie tidal Med way, continuous with Chatham, 
 and joined to Strood by an iron swing bridge, 
 constructed in 1850-56 at a cost of £170,000. The 
 castle or keep (1126), which crowns a steep 
 eminence near the bridge, is 104 feet high and 
 70 feet square, with walls 12 feet thick, and is 
 a very fine specimen of Norman architecture ; 
 it was taken by John (1215), vainly attacked by 
 De Montfort (1264), and taken again by Tyler 
 (1381). Both castle and grounds were purchased 
 in 1883 by the corporation from the Earl of Jersey. 
 The episcopal see was founded in 604 by St 
 Augustine, and the foundations remain still of 
 his cathedral. Bisliop Gundulf (1077-1107) built 
 a new cathedral, part of whose crypt survives. 
 This cathedral was rebuilt by Ernulf and John 
 of Canterbury (1115-37), the existing nave and 
 the choir was again rebuilt and enlarged in the 
 13th century in part out of off"erings of pilgrims 
 at the shrine of St William of Perth, a Scotch 
 baker, who, on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 was murdered near Cliathani by his companioR 
 
ROCHESTER 
 
 593 
 
 ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 and adopted son. The tower was rebuilt by 
 Cottingham (1825-26), the choir and transepts 
 restored by Scott (1871-77), and the west front 
 restored by Pearson in 1891. The whole pile 
 measures 306 feet in length, and has double 
 transepts ; and special features of interest are 
 the Norman west doorway and nave, the Early 
 English choir, the spacious crypt, and a line 
 Decorated doorway leading to the modern library. 
 Of Rochester's bishops since 604, some eighty in 
 number, may be mentioned Paulinus (previously 
 first bishop of York), Gundulf, Walter de Merton, 
 Fisher, Ridley, Atterbury, and Horsley. St 
 Bartholomew's Hospital, founded in 1078 for 
 lepers, was refounded in 1863 ; the Norman chapel 
 remains. Watts' Charity House, founded in 1579 
 to lodge 'six poor travellers, not being rogues 
 or proctors,' has been immortalised by Dickens, 
 whose home, Gadshill (q.v.), is 3 miles distant, 
 and who introduces Rochester into Pickwick, 
 Edwin Brood, and other novels. Tliree schools 
 are the cathedral grammar-school (Henry VIII.), 
 Williamson's mathematical school (1701 ; reopened 
 under a new scheme, 1880), and a grammar-school 
 for girls (1888) ; other buildings are Satis House, 
 Restoration House (Charles II. slept here in 
 1660), the guild-hall (1687), and the corn exchange 
 (1871). Rochester— the Roman Durobrivce and 
 Anglo-Saxon Hrofe-ceastre—-wa.s made a munici- 
 pal borough by Henry II. It lost one of its two 
 members in 1885. James II. embarked here in 
 his flight (1688). Pop. (1851) 16,508 ; (1901) 30,590. 
 See works by Wharton (1691), Thorpe (1769-88), 
 Rawlinson (1717), Fisher (1772), Rye (1861-65), 
 Walcott (1866), and Langton (1880). 
 
 Rochester, (l) capital of Monroe county. New 
 York, is on the Genesee River, 7 miles above its 
 entrance into Lake Ontario, 67 miles ENE. of 
 Buffalo and 360 NW. of New York. The river 
 has here three perpendicular falls of 96, 26, and 
 83 feet, and affords immense water-power. Among 
 the principal buildings are the city hall, of blue 
 limestone, and the court-house ; a state industrial 
 school for 500 boys and 200 girls ; a Roman 
 Catholic cathedral ; the Free Academy ; the 
 Baptist university (1850), and a Baptist theo- 
 logical seminary (whose library of 21,000 vols, 
 includes that of Neander). There is a handsome 
 stone aqueduct of seven arches (850 feet long) by 
 which the Erie Canal crosses the river. The 
 principal industries are flour-milling, and the 
 manufacture of ready-made clothing and boots 
 and shoes, rubber goods, photographic apparatus, 
 furniture, agricultural implements and machinery, 
 steam-engines, glass, tobacco, perfumery, &c. ; 
 and there are besides numerous foundries, iron- 
 bridge works, cotton-mills, breweries, seed-pack- 
 ing and fruit-canning establishments. Rochester, 
 a port of entry, was settled in 1810 by Colonel 
 Rochester, and incorporated in 1834. Pop. (1840) 
 20,191 ; (1880) 89,366 ; (1900) 162,608 — (2) Capital 
 of Olmsted county, Minnesota, on the Zumbro 
 River, 347 miles by rail NW. of Chicago. It has 
 flour-mills, foundries, and manufactories of furni- 
 ture, farming implements, &c. Pop. 6850. — (3) A 
 town of New Hampshire, 22 miles by rail NW. 
 of Portsmouth, with manufactures of flannel, 
 blankets, shoes, &c. Pop. 8470.— (4) A borough 
 of Pennsylvania, on the Ohio's north bank, at 
 the mouth of the Beaver River, 25 miles NW. of 
 Pittsburgh. Pop. 4690. 
 
 Roche-sur-Yon (Rosh-siir-Yon"), capital of the 
 
 French dep. of Vendee, on the Yon, 50 miles 
 
 SSE. of Nantes by rail, has a prefecture, lyceum, 
 
 library of 12,000 volumes, a museum, and a 
 
 2l 
 
 theatre. In 1805 Napoleon selected it— then a 
 mere village — to be the departmental capital. 
 From 1815 to 1848 it was called Bourbon-Vendee, 
 from 18i8 to IS70 Napoleon-Vendee. Pop. 11,190. 
 Rochford, an Essex town, on the Roche, 16^ 
 miles SE. of Chelmsford. Anne Boleyn was born 
 at Rochford Hall. Pop. of parish, 1812. 
 
 Rockall, on a sandbank in the Atlantic 50 
 miles long and 25 broad, in 57° 36' N. lat., 13° 41' 
 W. long., 184 miles W. of St Kilda, 290 from the 
 nearest point of the Scottish mainland, and 260 
 from the north of Ireland. It is a granite rock 
 of a rounded form, rising 70 feet above the sea, 
 and about 100 yards in circumference ; and is 
 situated at a greater distance from the main- 
 land than any other rock or islet of the same 
 diminutive size in any i^art of the world. 
 
 Rockford, capital of Winnebago county, Illinois, 
 on the Rock River, 86 miles WNW. of Chicago. 
 It has foundries, flour, paper, cotton, and woollen 
 mills, and manufactures of carriages, pumps, 
 churns, furniture, cutlery, &c. Pop. (1880) 
 13,129 ; (1900) 31,050. 
 
 Rockhampton, a town of Queensland, Aus- 
 tralia, on the Fitzroy, 35 miles from its mouth, 
 and 420 NW. of Brisbane. It has wide tree-lined 
 streets, and owes its beginning (1858) to extensive 
 gold-fields, the annual yield of which is valued 
 at £1,000,000 to £1,250,000 ; copper and silver 
 are also worked. The industries include tanning, 
 soap and boot making, and meat-preserving ; and 
 it is the chief port for central Queensland. A 
 bridge across the Fitzroy, with five spans of 232 
 feet each, connects Rockhampton with its suburb 
 North Rockhampton. Pop. (1901) 18,470. 
 
 Rockingham Castle, Northamptonshire, on 
 the Welland, 10 miles ENE. of Market Har- 
 borough, is the ancient seat of the Watsons. See 
 a work by C. Wise (1892). 
 
 Rock Island, capital of a county in Illinois, on 
 the Mississippi, opposite Davenport, Iowa (the 
 two are connected by a wrought-iron bridge 
 which cost $1,300,000), 181 miles by rail WSW. of 
 Chicago. The island from which the town is 
 named is used as a public park ; on it are also an 
 arsenal and armoury. The channel to the east 
 of the island has been dammed so as to furnish 
 innnense water-power, and the city has flour and 
 saw mills, foundries, machine-shops, glass-works, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 11,659 ; (1900) 19,500. 
 
 Rockland, (1) capital of Knox county, Maine, 
 on the west side of Penobscot Bay, 88 miles by 
 rail ENE. of Portland, with granite quarries, 
 lime-kilns, iron and brass foundries, shipbuilding, 
 &c. Pop. 8174. — (2) Rockland, Massachusetts, 19 
 miles by rail SSE. of Boston, has large boot and 
 shoe factories. Pop. 5400. 
 
 Rockland Lake, near the Hudson, 30 miles N. 
 of New York City, is 3 miles in circumference, 
 and furnishes 200,000 tons of ice annually. 
 
 Rock River rises in SE. of Wisconsin, and 
 flows (with many falls) 375 miles S. and SW. 
 through Illinois to the Mississippi, 3 miles below 
 Rock Island. 
 
 Rock Springs, a town of Wyoming, 258 miles 
 W. of Laramie. Pop. 4370. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, the eastern ranges of the 
 great Cordilleran system in North America, 
 which attains its greatest breadth within the 
 United States (over 1000 miles between 38° and 
 42° N.). The mountain-chains forming the western 
 boundary of the plateaus of this highland region 
 are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Ranges 
 (q.v.), and the eastern chains stretching con- 
 
EOCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 594 
 
 ROME 
 
 tinuously from the southern borders of the 
 
 gnited States through Canada to the Arctic 
 cean constitute the Rocky Mountains. The 
 name 'Rocky Mountains' is peculiarly appro- 
 priate, as there probably exists nowhere else such 
 an extensive region of naked rock almost entirely 
 devoid of vegetation. The geological structure 
 is complex, but the greater part of the rocks 
 exposed are Mesozoic intermingled vi'ith Tertiary 
 and Quaternary deposits. In comparatively recent 
 ages this vi^hole region has been the scene of 
 vast volcanic eruptions, and the lava overflows 
 which have covered the stratified rocks in many 
 places to a depth of thousands of feet have 
 augmented the expanse of sterile surface. The 
 high mountain barrier at the western boundary 
 of the highland robs the winds which sweep 
 across the Pacific of much of their moisture, and 
 the great aridity of this region thus prevents the 
 growth of vegetation. The surface is exposed to 
 continued erosive action, and the region displays 
 a labyrinth of naked crags and peaks rising from 
 plateaus crossed by towering clitt's or deep canons, 
 with here and there an isolated butte. The 
 ■wonderful mesa or plateau region extends from 
 southern Wyoming through western Colorado, 
 eastern Utah, and south into New Mexico and 
 Arizona. The country is divided by faults, 
 flexures, and deep canons into numerous blocks 
 or separate plateaus, and the carving of the rocks 
 and the brilliant colouring of the exposed strata 
 almost surpass belief. 
 
 A high plateau region in Wyoming, over which 
 passes the Union Pacific Railroad, marks a separ- 
 ation of the Rocky Mountains into a northern and 
 a southern group, each of which has its character- 
 istic features ; and in the continental divide here 
 are found the head-waters of the three great river- 
 systems of the United States — the Mississippi, 
 tiie Columbia, and the Colorado. The ranges of 
 the southern group are higher, and as there are 
 several elevated valleys known as ' Parks ' en- 
 closed between the parallel ranges, are known as 
 the Park System. Its greatest development is 
 in Colorado, where there are nearly forty peaks 
 over 14,000 feet in height. The Medicine Bow 
 Range and the Colorado or Front Range form the 
 eastern edge of the Rocky Mountain System, and 
 rise abruptly from the gentler slope of the Plains. 
 In this range are the well-known landmarks, 
 Long's Peak (14,271 feet) and Pike's Peak (14,134 
 feet), as well as Gray's Peak (14,341 feet), its 
 highest point, which is too far west to be visible 
 from the Plains. In the Sawatch Range to the 
 west are the Mount of the Holy Cross (14,176 
 feet) and Mount Harvard (14,375 feet). In the 
 Sangre de Cristo Range, almost a continuation of 
 the Sawatch, is Blanca Peak (14,463 feet), the 
 highest point of the ' Rockies.' In the Parks 
 rise the head- waters of the North and the South 
 Platte, the Arkansas, the Grand, and the Rio 
 Grande. The Uintah Mountains connect the 
 eastern and western ranges of the Rocky Moun- 
 tain System. The most important of the western 
 ranges are the Wahsatch Mountains, which form 
 a part of the eastern rim of the Great Basin, and 
 which serve as the connecting link between the 
 northern and southern groups of this system. 
 The Wind River Mountains in Wyoming are the 
 highest of the ranges in the northern group, with 
 Fremont's Peak (13,790 feet). The mountains of 
 the northern group are wilder and less accessible 
 than those of the southern chains, but not so 
 high. Yellowstone Park (q.v.), in Wyoming, is 
 famous for its wonderful scenery. Mount Hooker 
 aod Mount Brown are the most noted peaks be- 
 
 yond the Canadian line. The highland gradually 
 descends northward to an elevation of about 800 
 feet near the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Rocroi (Rokr-wa'), a fortress of France, dep. 
 Ardennes, 24 miles NW. of Sedan, and 2 from 
 the Belgian frontier. Here Conde defeated the 
 Spaniards in 1643. Pop. 2100. 
 
 Rodez (Ro-day'), a town of southern France 
 (dep. Aveyron), stands on a bold bluff" encircled 
 by the Aveyron, 148 miles by rail NW. of Mont- 
 pellier. The Gothic cathedral (1277-1535) has a 
 tower 260 feet high, crowned by a colossal image 
 of the Virgin. There are several mediaeval 
 houses, remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and a 
 restored Roman aqueduct. Coal-mining, cloth- 
 making, tanningj and cattle-dealing are carried 
 on. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Roding, an Essex river flowing 30 miles to the 
 Thames, near East Ham. 
 
 Rodos'to (anc. Rhccdestos), a town of Turkey, 
 on the north shore of the Sea of Marmora, 60 
 miles W. of Constantinople. Pop. 18,600. 
 
 Rodriguez (Ro-dree'ghez), or Rodrigues, a 
 hilly volcanic island (1760 feet), 18 miles long by 
 7 broad, lies 380 miles B. by N. of Mauritius, 
 of which it is a dependency. Hurricanes often 
 cause great damage to the island, which is en- 
 circled by a coral-reef. It was discovered by 
 the Portuguese in 1645, and has been a British 
 colony since 1814. The chief port is Port 
 Mathurin. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Roenuond (Roor-mond), an old Dutch town, at 
 the junction of the Roer and the Maas (Meuse), 
 29 miles N. by E. of Maestricht. The fine cathe- 
 dral (1218) is Romanesque. Pop. 12,350. 
 
 Roeskilde (Rus-lceel'deh), a city on the Danish 
 island of Zealand, at the southern end of the 
 Roeskilder Fjord, 20 miles by rail W. by S. of 
 Copenhagen. Founded in 980, it was the capital 
 of the Danish kings and the seat of the bishops. 
 The 13th-c. cathedral contains the tombs of most 
 of the kings. Here peace was signed between 
 Sweden and Denmark in 1658. Pop. 8370. 
 
 RoWlkhand, a division of the United Prov- 
 inces of Agra and Oudli, has an area of 10,908 
 sq. m. and a pop. of 5,500,000. 
 
 Rohtak, a town of British India, in the 
 Punjab, 42 miles NW. of Delhi. Pop. 16,700. 
 
 Rokeby, a parish in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, 2^ miles SB. of Barnard Castle. Rokeby 
 Hall (1724), after which Scott's poem is named, is 
 the seat now of the Morritts. 
 
 Rokitno, a vast swampy region, now being 
 gradually drained, between the rivers Pripet, 
 Dnieper, and Beresina in West Russia. 
 
 Romagna {Ro-man'ya), a region of Italy, 
 formerly the northern portion of the States of 
 the Church, and comprising the delegations of 
 Bologna, Ravenna, Ferrara, and Forli. 
 
 Romania, an old name for the eastern part of 
 the Morea, and for Roumelia (q.v.). 
 
 Romans (Romon^), a town of France (dep. 
 Drome), on the Isere's right bank, 12 miles by 
 rail NE. of Valence. A 9th-century bridge con- 
 nects it with Peage on the left bank. Romans 
 owes its origin to an abbey founded in 837. 
 Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Roman's Horn, a Swiss village on Lake Con- 
 stance, 12 miles SB. of Constance. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Roman Wall. See Hadrian's Wall. 
 
 Rome, the capital of the modern kingdom of 
 Italy, stands on the Tiber, about 15 miles from 
 
ROME 
 
 696 
 
 ROME 
 
 its mouth (from 85 to 44 hours' journey from 
 Paris by rail). Roman legend ascribed its founda- 
 tion to Romulus in 753 b.c. ; but recent explora- 
 tions have proved that the site was inhabited in 
 the neolithic and early bronze period. In the time 
 of the kings (753-510 B.C.) the city occupied 
 seven hills (Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, 
 Cselian, Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viniinal), whose 
 summits rise from 80 to 120 feet above the river 
 and the intervening valleys. The settlement on 
 the Palatine attributed to Romulus was certainly 
 fortified at a very early period. In the time of 
 the later or Etruscan kings at least five of the 
 settlements on the seven hills had been sur- 
 rounded by separate defences. These fortified 
 hills, with the marshy hollows between them, 
 were enclosed under Servius by a huge rampart 
 or agger of earth, faced with an exterior wall of 
 unmortared masonry. For 800 years, till the 
 reign of the Emperor Aurelian, the Servian agger 
 formed the only defence of the city. The wall 
 which bears the name of Aurelian is to a great 
 extent identical with the present walls ; it en- 
 closed the suburbs which had grown up beyond 
 the Cielian, the Esquiline, and the Quirinal, and 
 included two additional hills, the Pincian, and 
 part of the Janiculuin, as well as the low-lying 
 ground near the Tiber called the Campus Martius. 
 The Aurelian Wall, begun by Aurelian in 271 a.d., 
 completed by Probus in 280, restored by Honorius, 
 and repaired by Belisarius, is 12 miles in circuit. 
 The Leonine Wall, enclosing the Vatican Hill and 
 the remainder of the Janiculum, was built by Leo 
 IV. in 848. At the present time populous sub- 
 urbs have arisen to the east and north beyond 
 the walls, while to the south extensive spaces 
 within the wall are uninhabited. Some 1500 
 acres, chiefly on the Cselian and the Aventine, are 
 occupied by vineyards, fields, and gardens, while 
 public gardens and squares occupy over 100 
 acres. To the period of the kings belongs the 
 Cloaca Maxima, a huge arched sewer of Etruscan 
 masonry. The so-called Mamertine prison at the 
 foot of the Capitol was a deep vaulted well, and 
 is perhaps the most ancient structure in Ronie ; 
 in it, afterwards made into a prison, Jugurtha 
 and the Catiline conspirators (and according to 
 tradition St Peter) were confined. Of the four- 
 teen aqueducts, with an aggregate length of 351 
 miles, several date from the republican period, 
 some from the imperial age ; these vast struc- 
 tures, striding on their huge arches across the 
 Campagna, and still bringing water from the 
 Apennines and the Alban hills, are among the 
 most striking features of modern Rome. 
 
 In the time of the Republic the centre of the 
 public life of the city was the Forum Romanum, 
 an oblong space, containing about 2^ acres, and 
 traversed by the Via Sacra. Here are still to be 
 seen the remains of the temples of Saturn (491 
 B.C.), of Concord, of Castor and Pollux (496 b.c), 
 of Vesta, of Julius Caesar, of Vespasian, and of 
 Faustina. We see also the foundations of the 
 Triumphal Arch of Augustus, the vast ruins of 
 the Basilica Julia, and the milestone from which 
 all Roman roads were measured. To the north 
 of the Forum stands the Triumphal Arch of 
 Septimius Severus, to the south the Arch of Titus. 
 In the time of the emperors additional fora were 
 laid out to the east, and remains still mark the 
 Forum Julium, the Forum of Augustus, the 
 Forum of Nerva, the Forum Pacis (built by Ves- 
 pasian), and, most magnificent, the Forum of 
 Trajan. Beyond it stands the great Column of 
 Trajan, 124 feet in height, with spiral bas-reliefs 
 representing scenes from Trajan's campaigns 
 
 against the Dacians. Of inferior art is the 
 Column of Marcus Aurelius (the An tonine Column) 
 in the Piazza Colonna on the Corso. On the 
 western side of the Forum Romanum rises the 
 Palatine Hill, its summit covered with the sub- 
 structures of the Palaces of the Emperors and 
 the Houses of Augustus, Tiberius, Li via, Caligula, 
 Domitian, Hadrian, and Septimius Severus. Of 
 the 300 temples in ancient Rome, the names, and 
 in many cases the sites, of 153 are known — 
 several of them having been converted into 
 churches. S. Maria del Sole is a round temple 
 formerly called the Temple of Vesta, but now 
 believed to be the Temple of Hercules Victor. 
 Another temple, supposed to be the Temple of 
 Fortuna Virilis, is now the church of S. Mary 
 of Egypt. The church of SS. Cosmo e Damiano 
 is the Temple of Sacra Urbs, erected by the 
 Emperor Maxentius. The church of Santa 
 Maria sopra Minerva stands on the ruins of 
 a Temple of Minerva. In 27 B.C. Agrippa 
 built a vast dome in front of the Thermae 
 which he erected in the Campus Martius ; it is 
 called by Pliny and other writers the Pan- 
 theon, and may have served as a sort of entrance- 
 hall to the Thermae. It is now known to have 
 been rebuilt by Hadrian ; in 608 it was conse- 
 crated as the church of S. Maria ad Martyres, 
 and now, perfectly preserved, goes by the name 
 of S. Maria Rotonda. The diameter (142 feet) of 
 the dome, which is lighted only by a central 
 aperture in the roof, is larger than the dome of St 
 Peter's ; the walls are 19 feet in thickness. The 
 Thermae of Agrippa were the earliest of the eleven 
 great public baths — those of Trajan, of Con- 
 stantine, &c. The Thermae Antoninianae, usually 
 called the Baths of Caracalla, by whom they were 
 begun in 212 a.d., and completed by Alexander 
 Severus, were built to accommodate 1600 bathers ; 
 and, after serving for centuries as a quarry, they 
 are still the vastest of all the ruins in Rome. 
 A large marshy plain, which now forms the most 
 densely populated part of Rome, lay outside the 
 Servian Walls, extending from the foot of the 
 Capitoline and Quirinal hills to the Tiber. This, 
 being used for military exercises, was called the 
 Campus Martius. On these fields were built the 
 Baths of Agrippa and the Baths of Nero ; and 
 here were erected the Theatre of Balbus and the 
 vast Theatre of Pompey, said to have contained 
 seats for 40,000 spectators. Somewhat nearer to 
 the Capitol was the Theatre of Marcellus, of which 
 a considerable portion still stands. This theatre 
 was begun by Julius Caesar, and finished in the 
 year 11 b.c. by Augustus, who named it after his 
 nephew Marcellus. The great Flavian Amphi- 
 theatre, built for gladiatorial exhibitions and for 
 the combats of wild beasts, goes by the name of 
 the Colosseum ; commenced by Vespasian, it was 
 dedicated by Titus 80 a.d., and finished by Domi- 
 tian. It is built in the form of an ellipse, the 
 longer diameter measuring 613 feet and the shorter 
 510 feet. It rises to a height of 160 feet, covering 
 5 acres of ground. In the middle ages it was 
 used as a fortress and afterwards as a quarry ; 
 but, though so large a portion has been demol- 
 ished, it constitutes perhaps the most imposing 
 monument of Roman magnificence which is left. 
 The roads leading out of Rome beyond the 
 Servian Walls were bordered by tombs, many of 
 which, on the erection of the Aurelian Wall, were 
 included within the city. On the Appian Way 
 are the tombs of the Scipios. Outside the 
 Aurelian Wall is the Tomb of Caecilia Metella, 
 wife of the triumvir Crassus, which in the 13th 
 century was converted into a fortress ; it is a 
 
ROME 
 
 596 
 
 ROME 
 
 Cylindrical block of masonry, 65 feet in diameter, 
 resembling the keep of a feudal castle. The most 
 magnificent of Roman tombs was the Mausolemn 
 of Hadrian, now the castle of S. Angelo. It was 
 a cylindrical tower of masonry, 240 feet in dia- 
 meter and 165 feet in height, surmounted by a 
 colossal statue of the emperor. When the Goths 
 besieged Rome the tomb was converted into a 
 fortress by Belisarius. It afterwards became 
 the castle of the popes, and citadel of Rome, and 
 in 1527 was defended against the French by Ben- 
 venuto Cellini. The Mausoleum of Augustus 
 formed, in the middle ages, the castle of the 
 Colonna family, and is now occupied as the 
 Teatro Corea. Eleven Egyptian obelisks still 
 ornament the gardens and piazzas of Rome, 
 brought by Augustus and others. That in the 
 Piazza of S. John Lateran, 104 feet in height, is 
 the largest in existence. It was erected at 
 Thebes by Thothmes III., and removed by Con- 
 stantine to the Circus Maximus. The triumphal 
 arches of Septimius Severus, of Titus, and of 
 Constantine are still conspicuous. Of the bridges 
 over the Tiber, three are ancient. 
 
 Of modern Rome, the pop. was 226,022 in 1870 ; 
 800,467 in 1881 ; and 462,783 in 1901. The walls 
 are 14 miles in circuit. In the last thirty years 
 of the 19tli century many thousands of houses 
 were built, miles of street constructed, and 
 millions of money laid out. Under the strict 
 building regulations adopted in 1887, the streets 
 are much more spacious, and even the tene- 
 ment-houses of better character; meanwhile the 
 government has carefully guarded against the 
 destruction of buildings of historic or anti- 
 quarian interest. Daring recent excavations in- 
 teresting sites have been laid bare (especially near 
 the Forum), and many statues, busts, inscrip- 
 tions, and coins recovered. Old Rome stands 
 on the left bank of the Tiber ; on the right bank, 
 occupying the Vatican and Janiculum hills and 
 the low ground between these hills and the river, 
 are St Peter's, the Vatican Palace, the Borgo, 
 and the Trastevere (^ trans Tiberim,' the section 
 beyond the Tiber). The business part of the 
 city occupies the plain on the left bank between 
 the hills and the river, traversed by the Corso, 
 the principal thoroughfare of Rome, about a mile 
 in length, leading from the Porta del Popolo to 
 the foot of the Capitoline Hill, where is the great 
 national monument to Victor Emmanuel (1890-94). 
 From the Piazza del Popolo two great streets 
 diverge on either side of the Corso, the Via di 
 Ripetta to the right, skirting the Tiber, and to 
 the left the Via del Babuino, leading to the 
 Piazza di Spagna, whence the Scala di Spagna, the 
 resort of artists' models, ascends to the Pincian 
 Gardens, on the site of the gardens of LucuUus, 
 which command a splendid view of the city, and 
 form the fashionable drive and promenade. 
 
 Before Rome became in 1870 the capital of 
 Italy, the greater part of the Pincian, Quirinal, 
 and Bsquiline hills was occupied by villas of the 
 Roman nobles, with extensive gardens planted 
 with ilexes and vines. With two exceptions these 
 have been destroyed, and their sites have been 
 covered with modern houses, and too often by 
 blocks of ugly barrack-like buildings, many 
 stories in height, let out in tenements. The 
 dirty but picturesque mediaeval city is assuming 
 the aspect of a modern capital, broad, straight 
 thoroughfares having been driven through 
 quarters formerly occupied by narrow streets 
 and mean, crowded houses. Of the new streets 
 the most important are the Via Venti Settembre, 
 the Via Cavovir, and the Via Nazionale. The 
 
 older foreign quarter lay at the foot of the 
 Pincian, around the Piazza di Spagna, but the 
 healthier sites on the slopes and summits of the 
 Quirinal and Esquiline are now more frequented. 
 
 Of the palaces the largest are the Vatican, the 
 residence of the pope, and the Quirinal, now the 
 residence of the king, but formerly a papal palace, 
 in which the conclaves were held for the election 
 of the popes. Many of the palaces of the Roman 
 nobles contain collections of pictures and statu- 
 ary. Chief among them are the Palazzo Bor- 
 ghese, containing, next to the Vatican, the best 
 collection of pictures in Rome, the Palazzi Col- 
 onna, Doria, Barberini, Rospigliosi, Chigi, Tor- 
 Ionia, Farnese, Corsini, and di Venezia, now the 
 Austrian embassy. Among the notable villas 
 are the Villa Borghese, standing in a great park 
 below the Pincian ; the Villa Ludovisi, on the 
 Pincian ; the Villa Albani, outside the Porta 
 Salara; and the Villa Medici, on the Pincian, 
 now the Academie Franqaise, with a splendid 
 collection of casts. The CoUegio Romano, 
 formerly a great Jesuit college, is now occupied 
 by a public library of modern books, by the 
 Kircherian Museum of Antiquities, and by a well- 
 arranged prehistoric and ethnological museum. 
 The Palazzo dei Conservatori, on the Capitol, 
 contains many of the best ancient statues. In 
 the cloisters of the Carthusian convent in the 
 Therm* of Diocletian are stored the antiquities 
 brought to light during the recent excavations. 
 The Villa Medici contains a good collection of 
 casts from ancient statues. The Lateran Palace 
 contains an unrivalled collection of inscriptions 
 and sculptures from the Catacombs, and a few 
 good statues and mosaics. The chief papal col- 
 lections are contained in the galleries attached 
 to the Vatican, probably the largest palace in 
 the world. In addition to the private gardens 
 and apartments of the pope, the Vatican Palace 
 comprises immense reception-halls with a series 
 of chapels, libraries, picture-galleries, and vast 
 museums of sculptures, antiquities, and inscrip- 
 tions. The Sistine Chapel, built in 1473 by 
 Sixtus IV., is covered with magnificent frescoes 
 by Michael Angelo and the great Florentine 
 masters. The Capella Nicolina, built by Nicolas 
 v., and the Pauline Chapel, built by Paul III. in 
 1590, are also painted in fresco ; the first by Fra 
 Angelico, and the second by Michael Angelo. 
 Rapliael's Stanze and Loggie are halls and solars 
 covered with inimitable frescoes executed by 
 Raphael, Perugino, Giulio Romano, and other 
 masters of their school. Beyond the Loggie is 
 the great picture-gallery. The Vatican Library, 
 with its priceless MSS., its collections of early 
 printed books, of Christian antiquities, ancient 
 maps and jewellery, is contained in two immense 
 halls. The vast sculpture-galleries, with their un- 
 rivalled collections, comprise the Museo Chiara- 
 monte, the Braccio Nuovo, and the Museo Pio- 
 Clemente, which includes the Cortile di Belve- 
 dere, containing the Laocoon, the Apollo Belve- 
 dere, and the so-called Antinous. 
 
 Of the churches, over 300 in number, many are 
 rather mortuary or memorial churches, opened 
 only once a year on the festival of their patron 
 saint. The most noteworthy are the five patriar- 
 chal churches, the seven pilgrimage churches, 
 and the eight basilican churches. Others are 
 interesting either from their early date, their 
 historical associations, the archaeological or 
 artiiutic treasures they contain, or the fragments 
 of earlier structures which they enclose. St 
 John Lateran (S. Giovanni in Laterano), between 
 the Caelian and Esquiline hills, ranks as the first 
 
ROMB 
 
 697 
 
 ROME 
 
 church in Christendom. It dates from the time 
 of Constantine, and was, till the rebuilding of S. 
 Peter's, the metropolitan cathedral of Rome. It 
 retains its 5th-century baptistery and the beauti- 
 ful 13th-century cloisters. The Santa Scala, said 
 to have been brought by the Empress Helena 
 from Jerusalem, is still venerated by pilgrims. 
 The church itself was burned down and rebuilt 
 in the 14th century ; the adjoining palace of the 
 popes is now a nuiseum, chiefly of Christian 
 antiquities. The Basilica of St Peter (S. Pietro 
 in Vaticano), the largest church in the world, was 
 rebuilt in the 16th century from the designs of 
 Bramante, Michael Angelo, and Bernini. Begun 
 in 150(5, and consecrated in 1626, it is in the form 
 of a Latin cross, with a vast central dome. The 
 interior length is 615 feet, the height of the nave 
 150 feet, and of the cross which surmounts the 
 dome 435 feet. S. Paul beyond the Walls, till the 
 fire of 1S23 a vast 4th-century church, has been 
 rebuilt in a style of great magnificence. S. 
 Lorenzo beyond the Walls was rebuilt in 578, and 
 remodelled in the 13th century. The Basilica 
 Liberiana, commonly called S. Maria Maggiore 
 (as being the largest of the eighty churches in 
 Rome dedicated to the Virgin Mary), is one of the 
 oldest churches in Rome, the nave dating from 
 the 5th century. These five patriarchal churches, 
 together with S. Croce and S. Sebastiano, con- 
 stitute the seven ancient pilgrimage churches. 
 The five patriarchal churches, together with S. 
 Agnese, S. Croce, and S. Clemente, are the eight 
 basilican churches. S. Agnes beyond the Walls 
 was founded by Constantine, and rebuilt in the 7th 
 century. S. Croce is a 5th-century basilica. S. 
 Clemente is the most archaic church in Rome. 
 In addition to the eight basilican churches, others 
 conserve the remains of earlier buildings. S. 
 Pietro in Vincoli, a 5th-century basilica, with 
 twenty ancient Doric columns, contains Michael 
 Angelb's statue of Moses, and the supposed chains 
 of St Peter. S. Maria sopra Minerva, near the 
 Pantheon, the chief Dominican church, is the 
 only Gothic church in Rome. Among the vast 
 modern churches are the Gesii, the gorgeous 
 church of the Jesuits, containing the tomb of S. 
 Ignatius Loyola; S. Carlo al Corso, now the 
 fashionable church of Rome ; S. Andrea della 
 Valle ; SS. Apostoli ; S. Maria Vallicella, com- 
 monly called Chiesa Nuova ; and the Cappuccini. 
 Other objects of interest are the vast Catacombs, 
 extending underground for many miles, the 
 Ghetto (now almost wholly reconstructed), the 
 Sapienza, the Propaganda, and the Protestant 
 cemetery with the tombs of Keats and Shelley. 
 
 Rome is now a fairly healthy city, except in 
 the late summer months ; the walJer-supply is 
 unrivalled both for quality and quantity, and the 
 streets are well cleansed. No city excels Rome 
 in its public fountains. One of the greatest 
 improvements which has been effected is the 
 embankment of the Tiber, and the straightening 
 and deepening of its channel. This has put a 
 stop to the disastrous floods by which the lower 
 parts of the city were formerly inundated. The 
 opening of new streets and the widening of old 
 ones have also had a favourable result on the 
 public health. The streets are in great part lighted 
 by electricity, and electric street tramways are 
 in operation. There are practically no manufac- 
 tures in Rome. Hats, gloves, neckties, false 
 pearls, and trinkets are made, and there are 
 cabinet-makers, and a few foundries on a small 
 scale ; but compared with other great cities the 
 absence of factory chimneys is very notable. 
 There are printing-offices, but the Italian book- 
 
 trade is centred at Milan. The chief industry is 
 the manufacture of small mosaics, small bronzes, 
 of statuary, casts, and pictures, either original or 
 copies of the works of the great masters. All the 
 necessaries of life have to be imported from a 
 distance, the Campagna which extends for many 
 miles around Rome being uninhabitable on 
 account of the malaria. It is an unenclosed and 
 untilled waste, roamed over by herds of half- 
 wild cattle. Corn and wine are brought from 
 Tuscany, and from the fertile Terra di Lavoro 
 near Naples. The prosperity of the city depends 
 on the expenditure of the courts of the Quirinal 
 and the Vatican, of the army of functionaries in 
 the public offices, of the garrison, and of the 
 foreign visitors who crowd the hotels during the 
 winter months. The railways from all parts of 
 Italy converge outside the city, which they enter 
 near the Porta Maggiore on the Esquiline, and 
 have a common terminus on the summit of the 
 Quirinal close to the Baths of Diocletian. The 
 onmibus service is good, and well-managed tram- 
 ways traverse several of the broad new streets. 
 
 The history of Rome was for centuries the 
 history of the civilised world ; and even after it 
 ceased to be the capital of the empire it was the 
 centre of Christendom and the most interesting 
 and influential city on the planet. Rome was 
 the capital of a kingdom which gradually grew 
 till the foundation of the republic in 509 B.C. 
 The republic steadily extended, and after wars 
 with .^quians, Volscians, Latins, Saninites, 
 Sabines, Tarentines, &c., Rome Avas mistress of 
 Italy by the middle of the 3d century b.c. Then 
 came the wars with Carthaginians and Mace- 
 doruans, with Jugurtha and Mithridates, and 
 Rome becomes the mistress of southern Europe, 
 northern Africa, and western Asia. Gaul was con- 
 quered by Julius Caesar (51 B.C.), and next south 
 Britain. The republic was overthrown, and 
 Augustus, the first emperor, was at peace with 
 all the world soon after the birth of Christ. 
 The empire was extended to Germany and Dacia, 
 in Pai'thia and Asia ; but in the 3d century a.d. 
 the northern nations — especially the Goths and 
 kindred nations — began to do more than hold 
 their own, and the empire contracted on the north. 
 The seat of the empire was removed from Rome 
 to Byzantium or Constantinople by Constantine 
 in 330 A.D., and in 364 the empire was divided 
 into an eastern and a western empire, Rome re- 
 maining capital of the western half. Erelong 
 Rome was taken and retaken by the barbarians 
 (410, 476), and, retaken again by Belisarius, was 
 made dependent on Constantinople in 553, her 
 glory being departed. But as capital of the 
 popes, new glories were in store for her ; Charle- 
 magne and Otho of Germany were crowned em- 
 perors oC the west at Rome, and the city became 
 the independent capital of the increasing papal 
 dominions or States of the Church, the Romagna, 
 Bologna, and Perugia being conquered by Pope 
 Julius II. in 1503. Rome remained the mother 
 city of Christendom, and continued to flourish in 
 spite of the temporary sojourn of the popes at 
 Avignon and the short-lived republic of Rienzi 
 (1347). Again in 1798 the French proclaimed 
 Rome a republic, and in 1808 the city became 
 part of the French kingdom of Italy ; it was 
 restored to the popes in 1814, who, save during 
 the troubles of 1848-49, retained it as capital of 
 the States of the Church, under French protec- 
 tion. But in 1860 the papal states revolted to 
 Sardinia, and in 1870 Rome became part of the 
 Italian kingdom and national capital. 
 
 See R. Burn, Boine and the Campagna (1870); 
 
ItOMS 
 
 598 
 
 ROSETTA 
 
 J. H. Parker, Archeology of Rome (1872-80) ; T. H. 
 Dyer, The City of Rome, its Vicissitudes and Monu- 
 ments (2d ed. 1883) ; F. Wey, Rom£, (trans, from 
 Fr., new ed. 1886) ; R. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in 
 the Light of Recent Discoveries (1888) ; with other 
 works by Gell, Nibby, Hare, Professor Middleton, 
 &c.; and the histories of the Roman state, or 
 parts of it, by Mommsen, Durny, Ihne, Merivale, 
 Gibbon, Bury (1889), Hodgkin (1880-85), Gregor- 
 ovius, Ranke, &c., besides the Church histories. 
 
 Rome, (1) capital of Floyd county, Georgia, on 
 the Coosa River, 72 miles by rail NW. of Atlanta. 
 Pop. 7300.— (2) A city of New York, on the Mo- 
 hawk River, 109 miles by rail WNW. of Albany, 
 and at the junction of the Erie and Black River 
 canals. Ithas mills and manufactories of iron, 
 brass, copper, and other goods ; and here is Fort 
 Stanwix. Pop. 15,550. 
 
 Romford, a market-town of Essex, on the 
 Bourne or Rom, 12 miles ENE. of London. It 
 has large cattle and corn markets, iron-foundries, 
 extensive market-gardens, and a very large 
 brewery of 'Romford ale.' The church of St 
 Edward the Confessor was rebuilt in 1850. 
 Romford is the capital of the Liberty of Havering- 
 atte-Bower, once part of the lands of the Saxon 
 kings. Pop. (1851) 3861 ; (1901) 13,656 See George 
 Terry's Memories of Old Romford (1880). 
 
 Romney, New, a municipal borough and Cinque 
 Port in the south of Kent, 8 miles SW. of Hythe. 
 It ceased to be a port in the days of Edward, 
 and is not now either on the seashore or on a 
 navigable river. Pop. 1326. Old Romney, a 
 small village, is IJ mile further inland. 
 
 Romorantin, a town of France (dep. Loir-et- 
 Cher), 45 miles by rail B. of Tours. Pop. 6720. 
 
 Romsdal, the valley in central Norway of the 
 impetuous Rauma, which reaches the sea half- 
 way between Bergen and Trondhjem. Its scenery 
 is magnificent, the mountains culminating in the 
 Trolltinder or Witch Needles (5880 feet). 
 
 Romsey, a municipal borough of Hampshire, 
 on the Test, 8 miles NW. of Southampton. The 
 fine cruciform abbey church, mainly Norman, 
 ■was the church once of a Benedictine nunnery, 
 founded about 910 by Edward the Elder. Sir 
 William Petty was the son of a Romsey clothier ; 
 and Lord Palmerston, of whom there is a bronze 
 statue (1868) in the market-place, lived close by 
 at Broadlands. A corn exchange was built in 
 1865, a town-hall in 18(56. Pop. (1851)2080; (1901) 
 4365. See Littlehales' Romsey Abbey (1886). 
 
 Rona, an Inverness-shire island, between Skye 
 and the mainland, 4 sq. m. in area, and 404 feet 
 high. Pop. 161. 
 
 Ronaldshay, North and South, the most 
 northerly and the most southerly of the Orkney 
 Islands, 2| and 20^ sq. m. in area. South 
 Ronaldshay attains 389 feet. Pop. 442 and 1560. 
 
 Roncesvalles (Roii'se-va;7es ; orig. Rencesvals, a 
 Basque word), a hamlet on a small oval plain 25 
 miles NB. of Pampeluna, surrounded by Pyrenean 
 ridges, where Roland and the rear of Charle- 
 magne's army were cut off by the Basques. 
 
 Ronciglione (Ron-cheel-yo'nay), a town of 
 Italy, 30 miles NNW. of Rome. Pop. 5434. 
 
 Ronda, a Moorish town of Spain, 43 miles W. 
 of Malaga, on the gorge of the Guadiaro. One of 
 two bridges is 255 feet from the water. Pop. 20,850, 
 
 Rondout', till 1872 a post-village of New York, 
 on the Hudson River, now a part of Kingston. 
 
 Roquefort {Rok-forr^, a French village, dep. 
 
 Aveyron, 44 miles N. by W. of Beziers, cele- 
 brated for its ewe-milk cheeses. Pop. 943. 
 
 Roraima (Ro-rl'ma), an isolated, table-topped 
 sandstone mountain, near the west border of 
 British Guiana. First sloping gradually upwards 
 5000 feet above sea-level (2500 above the plain), 
 it next shoots up 2000 feet more in a perpendicular 
 cliff, furrowed with waterfalls. It was scaled by 
 Mr im Thurn in 1884. 
 
 Rorke's Drift, a .station on the Tugela River, 
 Zululand, South Africa, memorable for the heroic 
 defence of Lieutenants Chard and Bromhead, 
 with eighty men of the 24th Regiment against 
 4000 Zulu warriors the night after Isandula (q.v.). 
 
 Rosa, MoNTE. See Monte Rosa. 
 
 Rosario (Rozdh'rio), the third city of the 
 Argentine Republic, with an excellent harbour 
 and large commerce, is on the west bank of the 
 Parana, 190 miles by rail NW. of Buenos Ayres, 
 210 miles by river. Pop. 112,470. 
 
 Roscoflf", a seaport and watering-place of the 
 French dep. of Finistere, on the English Channel, 
 33 miles NB. of Brest, with a marine zoological 
 station. Pop. 4900. Here Mary Queen of Scots 
 landed in 1548, and Prince Charles Edward in 
 1746. It was long an emporium for smuggling 
 into the south of England. 
 
 Roscommon, an inland county of Connaught, 
 Ireland, bounded E. by the Shannon, is 62 miles 
 long from N. to S. , by 35 from E. to W. Area, 
 607,691 acres, of which barely one-fifth is under 
 crops ; more than one-half is permanent grass ; 
 one-sixth is waste. It belongs to the central 
 plain of Ireland, but rises in the north into the 
 Curlew (800 feet) and Braulieve (1377 feet) Moun- 
 tains. Several lakes occur, as Allen, Boderg, and 
 Ree, expansions of the Shannon, and Key, Gara, 
 and Glinn in the north-west. The chief industry 
 is the feeding, in the ' Plain of Boyle ' and else- 
 where, of sheep and cattle. The chief towns 
 are Roscommon, Boyle, Castlerea, Elphin, and 
 Strokestown. Pop. (1841) 254,551 ; (1861) 157,272 ; 
 (1881) 132,490; (1901) 101,791 — 99,085 Roman 
 Catholics. Rosconmion returns two members. 
 It possesses Celtic raths, remains of strong castles, 
 and fine ecclesiastical ruins. 
 
 Roscommon, the county town, 96 miles W. by 
 N. of Dublin, arose around a Dominican abbey, 
 founded in 1257, and a castle built ten years later ; 
 the remains of both .still exist. Pop. 1894. 
 
 Roscrea (Ros-kra-tf), a market-town of Tipper- 
 ary, Ireland, 77 miles SW. of Dublin, is a very 
 ancient town ; here St Cronan built a church, 
 and it had a celebrated school in the 7th century. 
 Remains of a castle, a round tower (80 feet higli), 
 and ruins of two abbeys exist. Pop. 2325. 
 
 Rosehearty, an Aberdeenshire fishing-village, 
 4g miles W. of Fraserburgh. Pop. 1189. 
 
 Rosemarkie. See Fortrose. 
 
 Rosendale, a village of New York, by rail 8 
 miles SSW. of King.ston, or 53 S. of Albany, has a 
 greatmanufactureof hydrauliccement. Pop. 1850. 
 
 Rosetta (Arab. Raschid, after Haroun el Ras- 
 chid; anc. Bolbitine), a town of Egypt, on the 
 old Bolbitic arm of the Nile delta, 9 miles from 
 the sea and 44 by rail NE. of Alexandria. During 
 the Crusades it was a place of great strength ; St 
 Louis in 1249 made it the basis of his operations. 
 Sultan Bevbers two years later founded the pre- 
 sent city "farther inland. Pop. 16,666. A few 
 miles to the north of the town was discovered 
 the Rosetta Stone, which gave the first clue to 
 the interpretation of the Hieroglyphics. At 
 Rosetta too is an irrigation barrage in the Nile, 
 
ROSHERVILLE 
 
 599 
 
 ROTHERHAM 
 
 508 yards long, originally constructed in 1843-61, 
 and rebuilt by Scott Moncrieff in 1886-90. 
 
 Rosherville, gardens near Gravesend (q.v.). 
 
 Roslin, a Midlothian village, near the wooded 
 glen of the North Esk, 0^ miles S. of Edinburgh. 
 Its castle, dating from the 14th century, was the 
 seat of the St Glairs, Earls of Orkney from 1379 to 
 1471, and afterwards of Gaithness, and hereditary 
 grand-master masons of Scotland from 1455 to 
 1736. The exquisite ' chapel,' built about 1450, is 
 really the choir of an intended collegiate church, 
 and is only 70 feet long, 35 broad, and 42 high. 
 Its beauty lies not in the outline, but in the pro- 
 fusion of stone-carving lavished on pinnacles, 
 niches, vaulted roof, and clustered columns, and 
 especially on the famous 'Prentice pillar.' The 
 building, essentially Scottish, has often been 
 wrongly ascribed to Spanish, at any rate to 
 foreign, masons. Much damaged by an Edinburgh 
 mob in 1688, it was restored by the third Earl 
 of Rosslyn at a cost of £5000, and has served 
 since 1862 as an Episcopal church. On Roslin 
 Moor the Scots twice defeated the English on 
 the 24th February 1303. Pop. 1130. 
 
 Rosneath. See Dumbartonshire. 
 
 Ross, a market-town in Herefordshire, on the 
 Wye's left bank, 14 miles SSE. of Hereford. In 
 the church (1316), whose 'heaven-directed spire' 
 is 208 feet high, is buried John Kyrle, celebrated 
 by Pope as the ' Man of Ross.' Pop. 3300. 
 
 Rossall College, a large public school on the 
 Lancashire coast, 2^ miles SSW. of Fleetwood, 
 was founded in 1844 for the sons of clergymen 
 and others. See the Jubilee Sketch (1894). 
 
 Ross and Cromarty, a Highland county, the 
 third largest in Scotland, extends from the 
 German Ocean to the Atlantic, and is bounded 
 N. by Sutherland, S. by Inverness-shire. In 
 1890-91 it was finally formed into a single county 
 by the boundary commissioners, who also added 
 to it the small Ferintosh (detached) district of 
 Nairnshire, and a much smaller fragment from 
 Inverness-shire. Its mainland portion measures 
 75 by 67 miles, and the total area is 2,084,900 
 acres, or 3260 sq. m., of which 103 are water and 
 736 belong to a dozen islands — the Lewis, Tanera, 
 Ewe, &c. The east coast is indented by the 
 Dornoch, Gromarty, and Moray Firths ; the west 
 coast by eight sea-lochs (Broom, Gruinard, Tor- 
 ridon, Garron, &c.). The chief of the innumer- 
 able streams are the Oykell, Alness, and Gonon ; 
 the Falls of Glomach, on a head-water of the 
 Elchaig, in the SW. are 370 feet high ; and beauti- 
 ful Loch Maree is the largest of nearly a hundred 
 good-sized fresh-water lakes. Mam Sodhail (3862 
 feet), on the Inverness-shire border, is the high- 
 est of more than thirty summits exceeding 
 3200 feet above sea-level, others being Ben 
 Dearg (3547), Ben more (3505), Ben Wyvis (3429), 
 and Ben Attow (3383). The high grounds afford 
 good pasture, and systematic sheep-farming 
 dates from about 1764. It reached its zenith 
 during 1860-70, when 400,000 sheep were grazed 
 in the county. Less than 7 per cent, of the 
 entire area is arable, and less than 70 sq. m. is 
 occupied by woods and plantations. Whisky is 
 distilled, and the salmon and sea fisheries are 
 very valuable. Montrose was defeated at Inver- 
 charron (1650), and a small Jacobite force in Glen- 
 shiel (1718). Sir Thomas Urquhart, Lord Lovat, 
 and Hugh Miller were natives. The chief places 
 are Dingwall, Tain, Stornoway, Forti'ose, Gro- 
 marty, Strathpeffer, and Invergordon ; and the 
 county returns one member. Pop. (1801) 56,318 : 
 (1851) 82,707 ; (1901) 76,185. 
 
 Rossbach, a village in Prussian Saxony, 22 
 miles W. by S. of Leipzig and 9 SW. of Merse- 
 burg. Here Frederick the Great defeated the 
 Frencli and Austrians on 5th November 1757. 
 
 Rosscar'bery, a Cork village, 12 miles E. of 
 Skibbereen. Pop. 530. 
 
 Rossendale, a parliamentary division of NE. 
 Lancashire. 
 
 Rossland, a centre of gold, silver, and copper 
 mining in tlie very south of British Columbia, 
 6 miles from the U.S. frontier. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Rostock, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a busy Bal- 
 tic port, stands on the Warnow, 7 miles from its 
 mouth and 60 by rail NE. of Schwerin. It has 
 busy fairs for wool, horses, and cattle ; imports 
 coal, wine, herrings, petroleum, groceries, timber, 
 &c. ; exports grain, wool, flax, and cattle ; and 
 has many industries. Tlie university (1418 ; re- 
 built 1867) has over 400 students. St Mary's 
 (1398-1472) is a noble Gothic church ; St Peter's 
 lias a steeple 414 feet high. Tlie ducal palace 
 (1702) and the 14th-ceiitnry Gotliic town-house 
 deserve mention. Bliicher was a native. Pop. 
 (1875) 34,172 ; (1900) 54,735. 
 
 RostOflf, (1) an important manufacturing town 
 of south Russia, at the head of the delta of the 
 Don and on the railway from Moscow to the 
 Caucasus. Pop. (1881) 44,500; (1897) 119,889.— 
 
 (2) One of the oldest towns of Russia, 129 miles 
 by rail NNE. of Moscow. Pop. 13,020. 
 
 Rostre'vor, a Down seaport and watering- 
 place, 8| miles SE. of Newry. Pop. 806. 
 
 Rosyth, a tract of land extending over 3 miles 
 on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, at St 
 Margaret's Hope, opposite Queensferry and just 
 inside the Forth Bridge, acquired by the govern- 
 ment in 1903 for the purpose of forming an 
 extensive naval base. The ruined 16th-century 
 castle of Rosyth, a rock-island connected with 
 the shore by a causeway, was said by tradition 
 (baseless) to have been tlie birthplace of Oliver 
 Cromwell's mother (named Steward). 
 
 Rothamsted Park, 4 miles NW. of St Albans, 
 seat of Sir J. Bennet Lawes (1814-1900), and scene 
 of his and Sir J. Gilbert's agricultural experi- 
 ments. 
 
 Rothay. See Grasmere. 
 
 Rothbury, a town of Northumberland, on the 
 Coquet, 11 miles SW. of Alnwick. Pop. 1300. 
 
 Rothenburg (Ro' ten-boor g), a mediaeval-looking 
 town of Bavaria, on the Tauber, 36 miles W. by 
 S. of Nuremberg. A historical play commemor- 
 ates periodically an episode in the Thirty Years' 
 War. Pop. 7930. 
 
 Rother, a river (1) of Derbyshire and York- 
 shire, flowing 21 miles to the Don ; (2) of Hants 
 and Sussex, flowing 24 miles to the Arun ; an<i 
 
 (3) of Sussex and Kent, flowing 31 miles to the 
 English Channel near Winchelsea. 
 
 'Rothevh.a.va. (Roth'er-am ; th as in this), a busy 
 manufacturing town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, on the right bank of the Don, here joined 
 by the Rother, 5 miles ENE. of Sheffield by a 
 railway opened in 1838. Its chief glory is the 
 magnificent 14th-century cruciform church, Per- 
 pendicular in style, with crocketted spire and 
 tine west front ; in 1875 it was restored by Sir 
 G. G. Scott at a cost of £9000. A handsome 
 Gothic edifice, built for an Independent College 
 in 1875 at a cost of £26,000, was bought at £8000 
 for the old grammar-school (1483) at which Bishop 
 Sanderson was educated. There are also a 
 mechanics' institute (1853); a free library (1881); 
 
botherhith£ 
 
 doo 
 
 ROtTEN 
 
 kn infirmary (1870) ; a covered market (1879); 
 public baths (1887) ; a park (1876) of 20 acres, 300 
 feet above the town ; and the Clifton Park of 57 
 acres, opened by the Prince of Wales in 1891. 
 The manufactures include stoves, grates, chemi- 
 cals, pottery, glass, railway carriages, &c. Eben- 
 ezer Elliott was a native of Masborough, incor- 
 porated with the municipality in 1871. It was 
 constituted a county borough in 1902. Pop. 
 (1851) 6325 ; (1901) 54,349. See John Guest's huge 
 Historical Notices of Eotherham (1879). 
 
 Rotherliithe (th as in this ; but usually called 
 Redriff), a London parish in Southwark (q.v.), 
 on the Thames. 
 
 Rothes (Roth'ez), an Elginshire police-burgh 
 (since 1884), near the Spey, 11 miles SSE. of 
 Elgin. Near it are distilleries. Pop. 1625. 
 
 Rothesay (Roth' say; th as in thick), a favourite 
 Scottish watering-place, the capital of Buteshire, 
 is beautifully situated on the north-east shore of 
 the island of Bute, 40 miles by water W. of Glas- 
 gow and 19 SSW. of Greenock. ' Sweet Rothesay 
 Bay,' rimmed by hills 400 to 530 feet high, offers 
 safe anchorage in any wind, and is spacious 
 enough to contain the largest fleet. Its charm- 
 ing scenery, its bathing facilities, its sheltered 
 position, and the extreme mildness of its climate 
 have rendered Rothesay a resort alike of holiday- 
 makers and of invalids. A score of the Clyde 
 steamers touch regularly at Rothesay, whose 
 commodious harbour was constructed (1822-84) 
 at a cost of over £30,000. An esplanade was 
 formed in 1870 ; and among the chief edifices are 
 the county buildings (1832-67), public hall (1879), 
 aquarium (1876), academy (1869), and Glenburn 
 hydropathic (1843). The ruins of Rothesay Castle, 
 founded about 1098, taken by Ilaco of Norway 
 (1263), the death-place of Robert III. (1406), were 
 repaired in 1871-77. Rothesay since 1398 has 
 given the title of duke to the eldest son of the 
 Scottish sovereign. Created a royal burgh in 
 1400, it returned a member from the Union till 
 1832, Pop. (1821) 4107; (1901)9378. See books 
 by J, Wilson (1848) and Thoins (1870). 
 
 Rothwell, (1) a Yorkshire town, 4 miles SE. of 
 Leeds. Pop. 11 ,702.— (2) A town of Northampton- 
 shire, 4 miles NW. of Kettering. Pop. 4193. 
 
 Rotomahana. See New Zealand. 
 
 Rotorua, a small lake of volcanic origin in the 
 North Island of New Zealand, 20 miles NW. of 
 Mount Tarawera and in the region of thermal 
 springs, the Wonderland of New Zealand, where 
 the government has established a sanatorium. 
 
 Rottenburg (u as oo), a town of Wiirtemberg, 
 on the Neckar, 6 miles SW. of Tiibingen, with a 
 Catholic cathedral. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Rotterdam, the busiest port of Holland, stands 
 on both sides of the Maas, 19 miles from its 
 mouth, 16 by rail SE. of the Hague, and 45 SW. 
 of Amsterdam. Its trade grew at an extraordi- 
 narily rapid rate after the separation of Holland 
 from Belgium, and in the second half of the 
 19th century; the quays measure 15 miles, 
 and there are spacious docks. Since 1872 sea- 
 going vessels have ceased to approach Rotterdam 
 by the old channel of Brill (Brielle) ; they liave 
 used instead the New Waterway— i.e. the Maas 
 and the Scheur, the latter of which has been con- 
 nected with the sea by a canal cut through the 
 Point (Hoek) of Holland, which now has a depth 
 never less than 22 feet at low tide, and big ships are 
 able to reach the sea in two hours from Rotterdam. 
 The imports consist principally of mineral ores 
 and metals, grain (wheat, rye, oats, maize), coal, 
 
 oil (petroleum chiefly), seeds, tallow and similar 
 greasy substances, sugar, rice, tobacco, hides, 
 indigo, &c. ; whilst the more important exports 
 are linen, flax, butter, cheese, cattle, and spirits 
 (gin, &c.). There are iron and other metal works, 
 shipbuilding, distilling, sugar-refining, and the 
 manufacture of tobacco, chemicals, &c. The town 
 is intersected by canals. On the south side of 
 the river, opposite the city proper, are the iron- 
 works, shipbuilding yards, and docks of the 
 island of Fijenoord, connected with the other 
 bank by two lofty bridges (one a railway bridge). 
 In the city the more important buildings are 
 the Gothic church of St Lawrence (15th cen- 
 tury), with a very large organ, the tombs of 
 Witt and other Dutch admirals, and a lofty tower 
 (295 feet high) ; the Boymans Museum (1847), with 
 a fine collection of paintings by Dutch masters ; 
 the yacht club-house, containing an ethnological 
 collection ; the town-house, exchange, and simi- 
 lar public buildings. The public institutions in- 
 clude an academy of art and science (nearly 1100 
 pupils), schools of music, navigation, and the 
 technical arts, and an excellent zoological 
 garden. Pop. (1880) 72,300; (1S58) 104,724; 
 (1903) 357,474. Rotterdam counts as her most 
 illustrious sons Erasmus and the poet Tollens ; 
 James, Duke of Monmouth, Grinling Gibbons, 
 and Mrs Molesworth were also born here. The 
 place was captured by Francis of Brederode in 
 1488, lost to the Austrians in the following year, 
 and occupied by the Spaniards in 1572. 
 
 Rotti (Rottee), a fertile Dutch island in the 
 Indian Archipelago, SW. of Timor. It is 36 miles 
 in length (655 sq. m.) ; pop. 80,000. The surface, 
 though hilly, nowhere exceeds 800 feet in height. 
 
 Rottweil, a town of Wiirtemberg, on the 
 Neckar, 68 miles SW. of Stuttgart. Pop. 6052. 
 
 Rotu'mah (u as oo), an island in the south 
 Pacific, 300 miles NNW. of Fiji, to which it was 
 annexed in 1880. Area, 14 sq. m, ; pop, 2207, all 
 Christians. 
 
 Roubaix (Roo-bai/), a toAvn of N. France (dep, 
 Nord), 6 miles by rail NE. of Lille. Here cloth, 
 shawls, velvet, &c. are manufactured to the 
 annual value of £16,000,000, thread, sugar, beer, 
 spirits, machinery, &c. being also produced. 
 Pop. (1810) 9000 ; (1876) 74,946 ; (1901) 123,195, 
 
 Rouen {Roo-on^' ; Lat. Rotomagns), formerly 
 capital of Normandy, and now chief town of 
 Seine-Inferieure, and a great manufacturing city, 
 is situated on the Seine's right bank, 87 miles 
 NW. of Paris. The ramparts have been converted 
 into boulevards, and the modern streets are well 
 and regularly built ; but old Rouen still largely 
 consists of ill-built picturesque streets and squares, 
 with tall, narrow, quaintly carved, wood-framed 
 and gabled houses. The Seine, over 300 yards 
 broad, makes Rouen, although 80 miles from the 
 sea, the fourth shipping port of France ; and 
 operations, in the way of deepening the river 
 and building quays, are yearly adding to its 
 capacity and importance, £750,000 having been 
 expended on the port since 1831. A stone bridge 
 and a suspension bridge lead to the Faubourg 
 St Sever on the left bank. Rouen possesses 
 several remarkably beautiful Gothic churches 
 — in particular the cathedral (13th century 
 onwards), St Ouen (14th-15th century ; per- 
 haps the best specimen of Gothic in exist- 
 ence), and St Maclou (florid style of the end of 
 the 15th century). The arch! episcopal cathedral, 
 begun by Philippe Auguste, has a very rich west 
 faQade, and two fine though unfinished west towers 
 —the Bouth one called the Tour de Beurre (1485- 
 
ROUERGUE 
 
 eoi 
 
 ROVIGNO 
 
 1507), but is disfigured by a lofty cast-iron spire 
 (487^ feet) erected upon the central tower in 1876. 
 It contains in its twenty-five highly ornamented 
 chapels numerous monuments of great interest, 
 especially those of Rollo and of his son William 
 Longsword. The heart of Richard Coeur de Lion, 
 once buried there, is now preserved in the 
 Museum of Antiquities. Among other note- 
 worthy buildings in Rouen are the palais de 
 justice (15th century) ; the hotel-de-ville, with its 
 public library of 150,000 volumes, and its picture- 
 gallery ; and the H6tel Dieu. The principal 
 branches of industry are manufactures of cotton, 
 nankeens, dimity, lace, cotton-velvets, shawls, 
 hosiery, mixed silk and wool fabrics, blankets, 
 flannels, hats, cordage, cotton and Ihien yarns, 
 shot, steel, lead, chemicals, paper, confectionery, 
 &c. There are also shipbuilding yards and en- 
 gineering works. Pop. (1872) 102,470; (1901) 
 110,717. The first home of the Norman dukes, 
 Rouen was captured by Philippe Auguste (1204), 
 was regained by England (1419-49), and in 1431 
 witnessed the burning of Joan of Arc, a statue of 
 whom adorns La Place de la Pucelle. Rouen 
 was the birthplace of Corneille, Fontenelle, 
 Boieldieu, and Armand Carrel, and the death- 
 place of Clarendon. It was occupied by the 
 Germans in the war of 1870-71. 
 
 Rouergue (Roo-erg'), an old province of south- 
 ern France, between Languedoc, Auvergne, and 
 Guienne. 
 
 Rougemont Castle. See Exeter. 
 
 Roulers (Roo-lay' ; Flem. Rousselaere), a town 
 of Belgium, 19 miles SSW. of Bruges, manufac- 
 turing cottons, lace, and chicory. Here the French 
 defeated the Austrians in 1794. Pop. 23,250. 
 
 Rouma'nia, a kingdom in SB. Europe, lying 
 mainly between the Carpathians, the Pruth, and 
 the Danube (the Dobrudja being soutli of the 
 Danube), and bordering on Hungary, Russia, 
 Bulgaria, and Servia. It is crescent-shaped, its 
 average length being 358 and its breadth 190 miles ; 
 area, 49,250 sq. m., and pop. (1900) 5,956,690, 
 including 5J millions of Orthodox Greek Chris- 
 tians, 206,650 Jews, and many gypsies. There are 
 besides some 4,000,000 Roumanians outside the 
 Roumanian kingdom — in Hungary (especially 
 Transylvania), Bukowina, Bessarabia, and adjoin- 
 ing Russian provinces, Servia, and Bulgaria, llou- 
 mania is an irregular inclined plane, sloping 
 down from the Carpathian Mountains (3000 to 
 9000 feet) to the northern bank of the Danube, 
 and it is traversed by numerous watercourses 
 (many of which are dry in summer). Roumania 
 is divided into the two provinces of Wallachia 
 and Moldavia, the first bordering on the Danube, 
 the second on the Pruth, and formerly distinct 
 principalities. The capital of Roumania is 
 Bucharest in Wallachia, about 30 miles from the 
 Danube ; and the chief town of Moldavia is 
 Jassy, near the Pruth. Other towns are the sea- 
 ports of Galatz and Ibrail (or Braila) at the mouth 
 of the Danube, Craiova (Krajova), Botoshani, 
 Ploiesti (Plojeschti), Pitesti, and the ancient 
 capital Curtea d'Ardges. The principal indus- 
 tries of Roumania are agriculture, salt-mining, 
 and petroleum-making. Maize and cereals are 
 largely exported, and amongst the fruits are 
 gourds, plums, peaches, walnuts, apples, pears, 
 and grapes. The manufacturing industries, which 
 are greatly handicapped by the cheap produc- 
 tions of Germany and Austria, include flour and 
 saw milling, match-making, and petroleum-dis- 
 tillation, tanning, boot and shoe making, and 
 cement manufacture. The peasantry are mainly 
 
 clothed in garments made by themselves of home- 
 spun, woven, and dyed fabrics, and they possess 
 much skill in the ornamentation of cloth, gauze, 
 and muslin. Before 1864 the whole of the 
 land was practically held by the boyards or 
 inferior nobles, who were frequently absentees, 
 or by the state. But when the government 
 became democratic it was determined to restore 
 one-third of it to its original owners at moderate 
 prices fixed by the state. The result was that 
 there exist over 406,000 holdings, averaging about 
 10 acres each. The government is a hereditary 
 limited monarchy, and the constitution provides 
 for a council of ministers, a senate, and a cliamber 
 of deputies. The revenue is over £9,000,000, and 
 more than balances the expenditure ; the debt, 
 £54,350,000. The value of imports varies from 
 £10,000,000 to £13,000,000, and of exports from 
 £10,000,000 to £14,000,000. Nearly lialf of the 
 exports (chiefly cereals and seed) goes to Britain ; 
 a third of the imports is from Germany. 
 
 The Roumanians are descended from tlie 
 ancient inhabitants— probably Thracians or 
 Dacians— of the country, modified by elements 
 derived from the Roman, Gothic, Bulgarian, and 
 Slavonic invaders. Dacia was a Roman colony 
 from 101 A.D. till 274, when it became the prey 
 of successive swarms of wandering tribes. Out 
 of numerous small states, two, Wallachia and 
 Moldavia, had become dominant, when they had 
 to bow to the Turkish yoke, and became tributary 
 to the Porte. They were governed by voivodes 
 and hospodars nominated by the Porte, wlio 
 were generally extortionate Fanariots, Greeks of 
 Constantinople. Russian intervention during the 
 18th centui-y somewhat improved the condition 
 of the down-trodden principalities, which at 
 times were wholly under Russian influence. In 
 1859 they elected the same prince Couza. He 
 ruled till he was deposed for misgovernment in 
 1866, and was succeeded by Prince Charles of 
 Hohenzollern. The Roumanians fought bravely 
 on the Russian side in the Turkish war of 1877- 
 78, and at the end obtained complete independ- 
 ence, though they had to give Russia Bessarabia 
 in exchange for the Dobrudja. In 1881 the 
 prince was recognised as a king. The Roumanian 
 language is derived mainly from Latin, with 
 Slavonic, Hungarian, and other elements. See 
 Samuelson, Roumania, Past and Present (1882). 
 
 Roumelia, or Ru'mili (' Land of the Romans '— 
 i.e. Byzantine Greeks), after the Turkish Conquest 
 a name for Thrace and Macedonia, of which 
 Eastern Roumelia is a portion ; see Bulgaria. 
 
 Roundhay Park. See Leeds. 
 
 Roundway Down, a hill 1§ mile N. of Devizes, 
 in Wiltshire, the scene of Waller's defeat by the 
 royalists under Lord Wilmot in July 1643. 
 
 Rousay, an Orkney island, 10 miles N. of 
 Kirkwall. Area, 18^ sq. m. ; pop. 627. 
 
 Roussillon {Roos-see-yons'), a former French 
 province, surrounded by Languedoc, the Mediter- 
 ranean, the Pyrenees, and the county of Foix, 
 and now forming the dep. of Pyrenees-Orientales. 
 
 Roveredo (Ro-ver-ay'do), a town of the Austrian 
 Tyrol, close to the Adige's left bank, 14 miles S. 
 of Trent by rail. It has been since the 15th 
 century the centre of the Tyrolese silk industry ; 
 it has also leather and tobacco factories. Pop. 
 10,200. Here the French defeated the Austrians, 
 September 3-4, 1796. Rosmini was a native. 
 
 Rovigno (Roveen'yo), an Austrian seaport, on 
 the west side of the peninsula of Istria, 40 miles 
 S. by W. of Trieste. Pop. 10,500. 
 
ROVIGO 
 
 602 
 
 RUGBY 
 
 Rovlgo (Rovee'go), a cathedral city of Italy, 27 
 miles by rail S. of Padua, Pop. 11,200. 
 
 Rovuma, a river of Africa, rises E. of Lake 
 Nyassa, and flows 450 miles E. to the Indian 
 Ocean N. of Cape Delgado, forming the boundary 
 between German and Portuguese East Africa. It 
 was ascended by Livingstone and Kirk in 1862. 
 
 Row (Roo), a village of Dumbartonshire, on 
 the east shore of the Gare Loch, 2 miles NW. of 
 Helensburgh by rail (1894). The .saintly John 
 M'Leod Campbell was minister from 1825 till his 
 deposition for heresy in 1831. Pop. 954. 
 
 Rowardennan, a steamboat-pier on Loch 
 Lomond, at the base of Ben Lomond. 
 
 Rowley Regis, a town of Staffordshire, 3 
 miles SE. of Dudley, within whose parliamentary 
 limits it partly lies. There at-e collieries, iron- 
 works, quarries, potteries, implement-works, and 
 breweries. Pop. (1851) 14,249 ; (1901) 34,670. 
 
 Rowton Heath, a royalist defeat in the Great 
 Rebellion, fought under the walls of Chester, 
 September 24, 1645. 
 
 Roxburghshire, a Scottish Border county, 
 bounded by Berwickshire, Northumberland and 
 Cumberland, Dumfriesshire, Selkirkshire, and 
 Midlothian. Its greatest length is 42 miles ; its 
 greatest breadth 30 miles ; and its area 670 sq. m., 
 or 428,494 acres. In the north the Tweed winds 
 25 miles eastward, receiving in tliis course Gala 
 and Leader Waters and the Teviot, which last 
 runs 37 miles north-eastward froni above Hawick 
 to Kelso, and itself receives the Ale, Slitrig, 
 Rule, Jed, &c. Thus the whole county, often 
 called Teviotdale, drains to the German Ocean, 
 with the exception only of Liddesdale, or Castle- 
 ton parish, in the extreme south, whose 106 sq. 
 m. belong to the western basin of the Solway 
 Firth. The Cheviots (q.v.) extend along the 
 south-eastern boundary, their highest point liere 
 Auchopecairn (2382 feet); in the interior rise 
 Ruberslaw (1392) and the triple Eildons (1385). 
 Rather less than two-thirds of the entire area is 
 in cultivation, and the raising of crops is of much 
 less imi)ortance than the grazing of half a million 
 sheep. The extinct burgh of Roxburgh, with a 
 vanished castle, gave tlie county its name, but 
 has been quite superseded by Kelso ; and Jed- 
 burgh, the county town, is very much smaller 
 than Hawick ; other places are Melrose, Den- 
 holm, St Boswells, Yetholm, &c. Chief seats are 
 Floors Castle, Mount Teviot, Minto House, and 
 Abbotsford. The antiquities include hill-forts ; 
 long stretches of the Catrail and Watling Street ; 
 the castles or peel-towers of Hermitage, Branx- 
 holm, Harden, Ferniehirst, Smailholm, &c. ; and 
 the noble monastic ruins of Melrose, Jedburgh, 
 and Kelso. Besides many more worthies, four 
 poets — James Thomson, Jean Elliot, Leyden, and 
 Aird — were natives ; but, although not his birth- 
 place, Roxburghshire is pre-eminently the land 
 of Scott. It witnessed many a fray, but no battle 
 greater than Ancruin Moor (q.v.). The county 
 returns one member. Pop. (1801) 33,721 ; (1861) 
 54,119; (1901) 48,904. See Jeffrey's History of 
 Roxburghshire (4 vols. 1857-64). 
 
 Roxbury, formerly a separate city of Massa- 
 chusetts, annexed in 1867 to Boston (q.v.). 
 
 Royal Canal, Leinster, from Liffey at Dublin 
 to Shannon at Richmond Harbotir, 96 miles long, 
 was made (1789-1802) at a cost of £1,500,000. 
 
 Royal Leamington Spa. See Leamington. 
 
 Royan (Rwah-yon^), a French seaport and 
 watering-place (dep. Charente-Inf^rieure), on the 
 
 north side of the Gironde's estuary, 60 miles NW. 
 of Bordeaux. Pop. 8300. 
 
 Royat (Rruah-yuh'), a watering-place in the 
 dep. of Puy de Dome, 3 miles SW. of Clermont- 
 Ferrand, has mineral springs. Pop. 1580. 
 
 Roy BarelUy. See Rai Bareli. 
 
 Royston, a market-town of Herts and Cam- 
 bridge, 12^ miles ENE. of Hitchin. Pop. 3520. 
 
 Royston, a town of the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 3 miles from Barnsley. Pop. 4500. 
 
 Royton, a town of Lancashire, 2 miles NNW. 
 of Oldham, with cotton-factories. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 RsheflF, or Rjev, a river-port of Russia, on the 
 Volga, 135 miles NW. of Moscow. Pop. 31,520. 
 
 Ruabon (Roo-ah'bon), a mining town of Den- 
 bigh, 4i miles SSW. of Wrexham. Pop. 3500. 
 
 RuapehU, tlie highest mountain (9068 feet) in 
 tlie North Island of New Zealand (q.v.), a volcano 
 which was in eruption in 1895 ; with Mount 
 Tongariro it is now a National Park. 
 
 Ruatan', or Rattan, an island in the Bay of 
 Honduras ; area, 106 sq. m. ; poj). 2000. 
 
 Ru'bicon, a stream qf Central Italy, falling 
 into the Adriatic a little north of Ariminum, 
 which formed the southern boundary of Caesar's 
 province, so that by crossing it in 49 e.g. he 
 virtually declared war against the Republic. It 
 was probably the modern Fiamicino or Rujone. 
 
 RUdesheim (nearly Ree'des-hime), a town of 
 Prussia, on tlie Rhine's right bank, opposite 
 Bingen, at the foot of the Niederwald (q.v.), and 
 16 miles W. of Mainz. Here is grown the 
 famous Riidesheimer Rhine-wine. Pop. 4840. 
 
 Rudolf, Lake, an equatorial sea in British 
 East Africa, near the edge of the Kaffa or South 
 Ethiopian highlands, is long and narrow, stretch- 
 ing 160 miles NE. and SW. by 20 broad, with an 
 area of 3000 sq. m., at a height of 1300 feet above 
 the sea. It is crossed by 4° N. lat. and 35' E. 
 long. It has no visible outlet, and its waters are 
 very brackish. It was discovered by Count 
 Teleki in 1888. See his Discovery of Lakes Rudolf 
 and Stephanie (Eng. trans. 1894). 
 
 Rudolstadt, capital of Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
 stadt in Germany, lies in a hill-girt valley on the 
 Saale, 18 iriiles S. of Weimar. There are two 
 royal castles, and factories of porcelain, chemi- 
 cals, and wool. Pop. 12,570, 
 
 Rufiji (Roo-fee-jee), or Lufiji, the chief river 
 of German East Africa, which rising far in the 
 interior enters the sea through a delta with 
 shoals and bars opposite the island of Mafia. 
 
 Rugby, a town of Warwickshire, at the Swift's 
 influx to the Avon, 83 miles NW. of London and 
 30 ESE. of Birminghain. It is an important rail- 
 way junction, a great hunting centre, and the 
 seat of a public school. Pop. (1851) 6317 ; (1901) 
 16,830. The grocer, Lawrence Sheritt", founded 
 the school in 1567 ; but it first became of national 
 reputation under Dr Arnold (1828-42), whose 
 successors have included Archbishop Tait, Dean 
 Goulburn, Bishop Temple, and Dr Jex-Blake. 
 When the last-named resigned in 1887 he left 
 behind him a school unrivalled in its appoint- 
 ments, including a new chapel (1872). Of illus- 
 trious Rugbeians may be named the poets Landor, 
 Clough, and Matthew Arnold ; Dean Stanley, 
 Judge Hughes (the author of Tom Brown's School- 
 days); Dean Vaughan, Lord Derby, Lord Cross, 
 Mr Goschen, Sir R. Temple, Franck Bright and 
 York Powell the historians, and Professor Sidg- 
 wick. See the Rugby School Registers (3 vols. 1881- 
 
RUGELEY 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 91) ; works by Dean Goulburn (1856), Bloxam and 
 Payne Smith (1889), and Rinamer (1892). 
 
 Rugeley {Roof ley), a market-town of Stafford- 
 shire, on the Trent, 10 miles ESE. of Stafford. 
 It has good public buildings (1879), a grammar- 
 school, ii'onworks, and neiglibouring collieries. 
 Pop. (1851) 3054 ; (1901) 4450. 
 
 Riigen (gr liard), a Prussian island in the Baltic, 
 a mile from the coast of Pomerania. Greatest 
 length, 33 miles ; greatest breadth, 25 miles ; area, 
 374 sq. m. ; pop. .50,000. Chief town, Bergen 
 (pop. 3761), in tlie middle of the island. 
 
 Ruhr {Root), a right-hand affluent of the Rhine 
 at Ruhrort, flowing 144 miles westward. 
 
 Ruhrort (Roor-ort), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 26 miles by rail N. of Diisseldorf, is one of the 
 busiest river-ports on the Rhine. In the vicinity 
 are ironworks and coal-mines. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 RuUion Green. See Pentland Hills. 
 
 Rlun,aiiiountaiiiousislaiidofInveniess-shire,15 
 miles N. by W. of Ardnamurchan Point. It is 8^ 
 miles long, 8 miles broad, and 42 sq. m. in area, 
 only 300 acres being arable, and the rest deer- 
 forest and moorland. The surface presents a 
 mass of high sharp-peaked mountains, rising in 
 Halival and Haiskeval to 2368 and 2659 feet. In 
 1826 the crofters, numbering fully 400, were, all 
 but one family, cleared off to America, and Rum 
 was converted into a single sheep-farm ; but in 
 1845 it was sold (as again in 1888) for a deer- 
 forest. Pop. (1851) 162 ; (1891) 53 ; (1901) 149, 
 
 Rumania. See Roumania. 
 
 Runcorn, a thriving market and manufacturing 
 town and river-port of Cheshire, on the left bank 
 of the tidal Mersey, 12 miles ESE. of Liverpool 
 and 28 WSW. of Manchester. The river is crossed 
 here by a railway viaduct, which, erected in 
 1864-69 at a cost of over £300,000, is 1500 feet 
 long and 95 feet above high-water mark. An 
 ancient place, where a castle was founded by the 
 Princess Ethelfreda in 916, and a priory in 1133, it 
 yet dates all its prosperity from the construction 
 of the Bridgewater Canal (1762-72), which at 
 Runcorn descends to the Mersey by a succession 
 of locks. More canal-boats plied to and from 
 Runcorn than from anywhere else in the kingdom 
 even before the opening of the Manchester Ship- 
 canal (1887-94) ; there are spacious docks, Run- 
 corn having been made a head-port in 1847. The 
 industries include shipbuilding, iron-founding, 
 rope-making, the manufacture of chemicals, 
 quarrying, &c. Hall Caine was born here. Pop. 
 (1851) 8049 ; (1871) 12,443 ; (1901) 16,491. 
 
 Runnimede, a long stretch of green meadow, 
 lying along the right bank of the Thames, 1 mile 
 above Staines and 36 miles by river WSW. of 
 London. Here, or on Charta Island, a little way 
 off the shore. Magna Charta was signed by King 
 John, June 15, 1215. 
 
 Runn of Cutch. See Cutch. 
 
 Rupert's Land, the name given, on the forma- 
 tion of the Hudson Bay Company (1670) by Prince 
 Rupert and others, to a territory comprising all 
 lands draining into Hudson Bay or Hudson Strait. 
 
 Ruppin, Neu (Nay Roop-peen), a town of 
 Prussia, on a lake communicating with the Elbe, 
 48 miles by rail NW. of Berlin. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Rurkl (Roor-kee), a town in the United Prov. ot 
 India, 22 miles E. of Saharanpur. Pop. 15,953. 
 
 Rush, a seaport of Ireland, 16 miles by rail NE, 
 of Dublin. Pop. 1075. 
 
 Rushden, a town in Northamptonshire, 15 
 miles NE. of Northampton. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Rusholme, a southern suburb of Manchester. 
 Russe. See Rustchuk. 
 
 Russell, a New Zealand port, on the Bay of 
 Islands, 147 miles NNW. of Auckland. Pop. 228. 
 Russia, an empire extending over eastern 
 Europe, the whole of northern Asia, and a part 
 of central Asia. Its limits are 38° 30' and 78° 
 N. lat. and 17° 19' and 190° E. long. This area, 
 which is more than twice as large as Europe, and 
 embraces one-sixth of the land-surface of the 
 globe, has a pop. estimated at near 130,000,000. 
 (at the census of 1859 the total was only 
 74,000,000). The Russian empire consists of Euro- 
 pean Russia, less than one-fourth of the whole, 
 but including nearly three-fourths of its popu- 
 lation ; Finland ; Poland ; Caucasia ; Siberia ; 
 Turkestan ; and the Transcaspian region. Khiva 
 and Bokhara are A'assal states. The Russian 
 dominions in America (Alaska) were sold to the 
 United States in 1867. The table shows the areas 
 and . populations of the various sections of the 
 empn-e in 1897. 
 
 Area „„„ 
 
 in sq. m. P°P- 
 
 The .50 governments of 
 
 European Russia 1,902,092 94,215,415 
 
 Tiie 10 Polisii goveniments.. 49,157 9,455,943 
 
 Finland 144,255 2,592,778 
 
 European Russia 2,095,504 106,264,136 
 
 Caucasus 182,457 9,248,695 
 
 Central Asia 1,638,825 7,721,654 
 
 Siberia 4,833,496 5.727,090 
 
 Asiatic Russia 6,564.778 22,697,439 
 
 Russian Empire 8,660,282 128,961,575 
 
 The density of the population, 53 per sq. m. in 
 the 50 governments, on the average varies from 
 189 in Moscow to 1 in Archangelsk. In the Polish 
 governments it is 193 overhead ; in Finland, 20 ; in 
 Caucasus, 54 ; in central Asia, 6 ; in Siberia, only 1. 
 The average for the empire is 15 per sq. m. The 
 Baltic Sea, with the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, 
 and Riga, is the chief sea of Russia ; but it 
 nowhere touches purely Russian territory, its 
 coasts being peopled by Finns, Letts, Esthonians, 
 and Germans. Nevertheless, four out of the five 
 chief portsof Russia — StPetersburg, Reval, Libau, 
 and Riga — are situated on the Baltic Sea, and ex- 
 cept Libau, are frozen for from four to five months 
 in the year. The Black Sea acquires more im- 
 poitance every year. Odessa is its great port; 
 Nikolaieff is the naval arsenal ; Sebastopol is a 
 naval station ; Batoum exports petroleum. — The 
 Caspian Sea receives the chief Russian river — 
 the Volga— connects Russia Avith its central Asian 
 dominions and the Caucasus. Finland, Poland, 
 Caucasus, Siberia, and Turkestan being dealt with 
 under those respective headings, what follows 
 relates only to European Russia. The leading 
 feature in its physical structure is a broad, 
 flat swelling about 700 miles wide, with an 
 average height of 800 feet (highest points 1100), 
 which crosses it from south-west to north-east 
 and connects the elevated plains of middle 
 Europe with the Urals. A belt of lowlands 
 stretching from east Prussia to the White Sea 
 fringes this central plateau on the north-west, 
 separating it from the hilly tracts of Finland ; 
 while the plains of Bessarabia, Kherson, the Sea 
 of Azov, and the lower Volga limit it on the 
 south-east. The central plateau is diversified 
 by three or four depressions. The Urals, which 
 separate the lowlands of European Russia from 
 those of Siberia, consist of a series of parallel 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 604 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 ridges running south-west to north-east, their 
 chief summits reacliing 4950-5100 feet high. The 
 chief rivers of Russia tal^e their origin along the 
 north-western border of the plateau, and some of 
 them flow NW., while the others, though describ- 
 ing great curves, trend SB. The Niemen, the 
 Dwina, the Lovat (continued by the Volkhoff 
 and the Neva), and the two chief streams that 
 reach the White Sea, the Onega and the North 
 Dwina, are in the first group ; while the Dnieper, 
 the Don, and the Volga belong to the second. 
 The Dniester and the Pruth rise on foreign terri- 
 tory ; the Vistula has its mouth in Prussia. By 
 means of three lines of canals and canalised rivers, 
 which connect the upper tributaries of the Volga 
 with the streams that flow into lakes Onega and 
 Ladoga, the outlet of the chief artery of Russia, 
 the Volga, has been transferred from the Caspian 
 to the Gulf of Finland, and St Petersburg is the 
 chief port for the Volga basin. The upper Volga 
 and the upper Kama are also connected by canals 
 with the North Dwina, and the Dnieper with the 
 Diina, the Niemen, and the Vistula. The rainfall 
 all over Russia is small, and as part of it falls in 
 snow, which is rapidly thawed in the spring, the 
 rivers are flooded then and in early summer, and 
 they grow shallow by the autumn. In winter 
 navigation ceases. 
 
 All over European Russia, except in the Baltic 
 Provinces, the south of the Crimea, and a narrow 
 strip of land on the Black Sea, the climate is con- 
 tinental. A very cold winter, followed by a 
 spring which sets in rapidly ; a hot summer ; an 
 autumn cooler than spring ; early frosts ; and a 
 small rainfall, chiefly during the summer and 
 the autumn, are the main features. The winter 
 is cold everywhere. All over Russia the average 
 temperature of January is below the freezing- 
 point, and it only varies between 22° F. in the 
 west and 5° to 7° in the east. All the rivers are 
 frozen over early in December, and they remain 
 under ice for from 100 days in the south to 160 
 in the north. In summer the temperature 
 is high all over Russia, and reaches 78° at 
 Astrakhan. The flora of Russia marks four 
 regions : (a) the Arctic tundras are chiefly covered 
 with mosses, lichens, and shrubs, (b) The forest- 
 region, which covers the whole of northern and 
 middle Russia, is either forest-region proper or 
 prairies dotted with forests. The forest-region 
 again is either of coniferous (in the north) or 
 deciduous trees, (c) The Steppes are immense 
 plains covered with grass, and devoid of forests. 
 (d) The flora of the Mediterranean region occupies 
 a narrow strip along tlie southern coast of the 
 Crimea. Tlie fauna of European Russia is very 
 much like that of middle Europe. Wolves and 
 bears are connnon in the north. The reindeer is 
 still met with in the north ; the wild boar and 
 the bison are each limited to one district ; the 
 elk, the lynx, the glutton, the beaver are now 
 very scarce. 
 
 The various sections of the country differ 
 much from one another. The Baltic provinces 
 form one section, another is the low-lying Lake 
 Region from the Gulf of Riga to the White Sea. 
 The central plateau contains the most populous 
 agricultural and industrial parts of European 
 Russia. Its physical aspects vary, however, a 
 good deal in the different parts. The Lithuanian 
 provinces of Kovno, Vilna, and part of Grodno 
 and Vitebsk, drained by the Niemen and the 
 upper Dwina, are, on the whole, a very poor 
 region. White Russia, watered by the upper 
 Dnieper and its right-hand tributaries, comprises 
 the governments of Moghileff, Minsk, and south- 
 
 em Vitebsk, as well as parts of Grodno, Vilna, and 
 Smolensk, and is one of the poorest regions of 
 Russia ; about one-tenth of the total area is 
 covered with marshes. Little Russia, or the 
 Ukraine, comprising the governments of Tcherni- 
 goff, Kieff, Poltava, and part of Kharkoff, as well 
 as Volhynia and Podolia on the spurs of the 
 Carpathians, belongs to the richest and most 
 populous parts of Russia. The soil is mostly a 
 rich black earth, and assumes farther south the 
 aspect of fine grassy steppes, or prairies, yielding 
 rich crops of wheat. Kieff is one of the chief 
 industrial centres of Russia, and woollen cloth 
 mills are rapidly spreading in Podolia. Middle 
 Russia comprises the provinces of Tver, Moscow, 
 Vladimir, Smolensk, Orel, Tula, Kaluga, Kur.sk, 
 Ryazan, Tamboff, Penza, part of Voronezh, 
 southern Yaroslav, and Simbirsk, peopled by 
 more than 25,000,000 Great Russians, the average 
 density being over 100 inhabitants per sq. m. 
 Except on its outskirts, this region presents 
 everywhere the same aspects, wide undulating 
 plains covered with cornfields and dotted with 
 small deciduous forests. The soil is of very 
 moderate fertility in the north, but very fertile 
 in the black earth belt of the south. Farther 
 north-east the country is more elevated, but less 
 effectively drained ; and vast forests stretch from 
 the upper Volga to the Urals. The governments 
 of Kostroma, Vologda, and Vyatka, together 
 with those parts of Nijni-Novgorod and Kazan 
 which lie on the left bank of the Volga, belong to 
 this domain ; and Perm (which includes the min- 
 ing districts on the Asiatic slope of the Urals) 
 and North Ufa are the chief centres for the iron 
 industry. The Middle Volga governments of Sim- 
 birsk, Saratoff, and Samara, and the South Ural 
 governments of South Ufa and Orenburg, belong 
 to a great extent to the steppe-region of south 
 Russia. The Steppe-region occupies a belt more 
 than 200 miles wide along the littoral of the Black 
 Sea and the Sea of Azov, and extends eastwards 
 through the region of the lower Volga and Ural 
 till it meets the steppes of central Asia. As far 
 as the eye can reacla tliere are gently undulating 
 plains, clothed with rich grass, and destitute of 
 trees ; yet in the deep ravines grow willows, wild 
 cherries, wild apricots, and so forth. The whole 
 is coated with a thick layer of fertile ' black earth.' 
 In the Crimea the soil is a clay impregnated 
 Avith salt. The Caspian Steppes form a link 
 between Europe and Asia. 
 
 The i>opulation of tlie empire embraces a great 
 variety of nationalities ; but the Russians, com- 
 prising the Velikorusses or Great Russians, the 
 Malorusses or Little Russians, and the Byelorusses 
 or White Russians, are the predominant race. 
 They number 77,000,000—70,000,000 in Euro- 
 pean Russia. None of the three is a pure race. 
 The Great Russians, who invaded a territory 
 occupied by Finnish tribes, ended by Russian- 
 ising them. The Little Russians assimilated 
 Turkish tribes, as the White Russians did Lithu- 
 anians. The Great Russians inhabit middle 
 Russia in a compact mass of over 35,000,000, and 
 even in east and north Russia they constitute 
 from two-thirds to three-fourths of the popula- 
 tion. The Little Russians, nearly 15,000,000 in 
 all, are settled in Little Russia, which contains 
 also in the borderlands some 12 per cent, of 
 Jews, and 6 per cent, of Poles. The White 
 Russians, who number about 5,000,000, dwell in 
 the west, but they are more mixed with Poles, 
 Jews, and Little Russians. The Poles number 
 5,000,000 in Poland (q.v.), and 1,000,000 in the 
 western governments of Russia. Some 120,000 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 605 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 other Slavs— Servians, Bulgarians, and Bohem- 
 ians—exist in small colonies in Bessarabia and 
 Kherson. The Letts and the Lithuanians number 
 2,600,000 in Russia and 400,000 in Poland. Ar- 
 menians, Kurds, and Persians number 1,300,000, 
 chiefly in Caucasia. The Caucasus (q.v.), in- 
 habited by a great variety of races, has a pop. of 
 7,500,000. Jews are very numerous in the towns 
 of west Russia (about 3,500,000) and Poland 
 (1,300,000). Nearly three-fourths of the Russian 
 Jews are artisans or factory-workers, while the 
 80,000 Jews in Bessarabia and Kherson are good 
 agriculturists. The Finnish race includes the 
 Finns and the Karelians (1,850,000 in Finland 
 and 350,000 in European Russia) ; the Esthonians, 
 the people of Livonia, and other Western Finns 
 in the Baltic Provinces (about 1,000,000); the 
 Lapps and the Samoyedes in the far north ; and 
 the Volga Finns and the Ugrians (1,750,000 in 
 European Russia and 50,000 in Siberia). The 
 Eastern Finns are being rapidly absorbed by the 
 Russians ; but the Western Finns warndy cherish 
 their nationality. The Turko-Tartars— i.e. Tar- 
 tars, Bashkirs, Kirghizes, &c. — are mere feeble 
 remnants of the tribes who once conquered 
 Russia. They are 3,500,000 in European Russia, 
 4,500,000 in central Asia, 1,500,000 in the Cau- 
 casus, and 350,000 (Tartars and Yakuts) in 
 Siberia. The Mongol race is represented by 
 480,000 Kalmucks in Russia and central Asia, 
 as well as by 250,000 Buriats in Siberia ; while 
 the Manchurian tribes (Tunguses, &c.) number 
 50,000 in Siberia (q.v.). Of west Europeans the 
 Germans (about 1,000,000, of wliom 500,000 are 
 in Poland) are the most numerous. They have 
 prosperous colonies in south Russia ; and in the 
 chief towns there are numbers of German 
 artisans and merchants. The Swedes are 300,000 
 in Finland. There are, besides, nearly 900,000 
 Roumanians in south-west Russia, and about 
 1,000,000 Europeans of various nationalities 
 scattered throughout the empire. The popula- 
 tion is rapidly increasing. Great numbers of 
 European Russians emigrate every year to the 
 Asiatic dominions. 
 
 The great bulk of the Russians — excepting a 
 few White Russians professing the Union — belong 
 to the Grseco-Russian Church, officially styled 
 the Orthodox-Catholic Church, or to one of its 
 numberless sects of dissenters (raskol). The Poles 
 and most of the Lithuanians are Roman Catholics 
 (11,500,000) ; while the Finns, the Esthonians, and 
 other Western Finns, the Swedes, and the Ger- 
 mans are Protestants (about 6,200,000). Islam 
 claims all the Turco-Tartars, Bashkirs, and Kir- 
 ghizes. Buddhism has the Kalmucks and the 
 Buriats. Shamanism is the religion of most of 
 the natives of Siberia, as well as of the nominally 
 Christian Mordvins, Votyaks, Tchuvashes, and 
 some Kirghizes. The Voguls, the Samoyedes, 
 and other inhabitants of the far north are 
 fetich worshippers. The Grseco-Russian, Roman 
 Catholic, Lutheran, Moslem, Jewish, and Bud- 
 dhist clergy are maintained or protected by 
 the state. The making of proselytes from the 
 Greek Church is severely punished. To the 
 numerous sects of dissenters, or raskolniks, one- 
 third of the so-called Orthodox Russians belong. 
 The Russian dissenters may be classed under 
 three divisions, all equally numerous : the ' Po- 
 povtsy' (who have priests), the ' Bezpopovtsy ' 
 (who have none), and the ' Dukhovnyie Khristi- 
 ane' (spiritualist Christians). The 'Stundist' 
 evangelical movement has spread rapidly in 
 Little Russia. 
 
 The political organisation of Russia is a very 
 
 heterogeneous structure. It has at bottom a great 
 deal of self-government. Till 1905 the empire was 
 an absolute and hereditary monarchy, the linal 
 decision in all legislative, executive, and judicial 
 questions resting with tlie emperor ; though a 
 state council discussed measures elaborated by 
 the separate ministries. The imperial authority 
 has been wont to be represented by an army of 
 officials, whose powers are very extensive. In 
 1905 a constitution and some measure of respon- 
 sible government was promised. Tlie Duma, a 
 democratic parliament of rather vague powers, 
 met for the first time in 1906, and was soon at 
 feud with the bureaucracy. The several states 
 and territories are ruled each by a governor or 
 governor-general. Finland (q.v.) is substantially 
 a separate state. Four-fifths of the population 
 are ' peasants.' Next come the burghers and the 
 ' merchants ' (9 per cent, in European Russia), 
 the clergy (less than 1 per cent.), the nobility 
 (1-3 percent.), the military (6'1), and foreigners 
 (0-3). The peasants, including the liberated 
 serfs, are grouped in village connnunes (107,943 
 in European Russia and Poland) ; and the 
 assembly of all the householders of the com- 
 nuine, the mir, enjoys a certain degree of self- 
 government. The land being held in common 
 throughout Great Russia and Siberia, it is the 
 mir that periodically distributes the land into 
 allotments. The administration of the economic 
 affairs of the district and the province was in 
 1866 committed to the district and provincial 
 assemblies or zemstvos. Since 1874 military service 
 has been rendered obligatory upon all able 
 citizens between twenty-one and forty-three. 
 But of the actual total (860,000) liable for con- 
 scription every year little more than one-third 
 (260,000) are selected for four years' service with 
 the colours ; the remainder are inscribed either 
 in the reserve or the militia. In peace the army 
 numbers nearly 1,000,000 men, scattered all over 
 tlie empire ; the war footing is reckoned at 
 4,500,000, with 580,000 horses and 5100 guns. 
 The navy was almost totally destroyed in the 
 Japanese war of 1904-5. There are in the empire 
 about 84,500 elementary schools, with 4^ million 
 pupils (1,231,256 were.girls); nearly 1500 middle 
 schools (classical gymnasiums, llealschulen, &c.), 
 with 350,000 pupils ; and 31 higher institutions, 
 of which nine are universities, with 20,000 male 
 and 600 female students. The language is pure 
 Slavonic, and the rich and varied literature has 
 of late become known in western Europe, from 
 Gogol and Pushkin to Turgenief and Tolstoi. The 
 finances of Russia are in a precarious state, though 
 the state revenue increased from £58,700,000 in 
 1877 to £200,000,000 in 1904 ; the debt in 1904 
 was £750;000,000. 
 
 Of European Russia, nearly one-fifth is unpro- 
 ductive and two-fifths are under forests. The 
 remainder is partly meadow or pasture-ground 
 and partly arable land. Two-fifths of the regis- 
 tered area belongs to the crown, one-third is 
 held by the peasants' communes (representing 
 25,000,000 men), and one-fourth is held by 
 481,400 private proprietors (most of it by the 
 nobility). Agriculture is the chief occupation of 
 the people of Russia ; only in central Russia 
 (Moscow, Vladimir, Nijni) does industry take the 
 lead. The conditions of agriculture are very 
 different in different parts of the country. A 
 line drawn from Kietf to Nijni-Novgorod and 
 Vyatka, will divide the country into two parts, 
 of which the south-eastern has a surplus of wheat 
 and rye and exports them, while the other has 
 to import both. Bad years recur, as in India, at 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 606 
 
 RUTHVEN CASTLE 
 
 intervals of from ten to twelve years, sometimes 
 followed by severe famine (as in 1891) in many 
 provinces. Flax and hemp are extensively cul- 
 tivated in the west, the sugar-beet is grown in 
 the south and south-west, and tobacco is pro- 
 duced in the south. The vine is widely culti- 
 vated on the Black Sea littoral and in Caucasia. 
 Cotton is widely planted in Turkestan. The 
 empire is very rich in all kinds of minerals. Gold 
 is obtained in Siberia and the Ural Mountains. 
 Silver and lead are obtained in Siberia, the 
 Kirghiz Steppes, the Caucasus, and Finland ; 
 platinum in the Urals. Iron ores are found in 
 profusion both in the Asiatic dominions and in 
 European Russia. Zinc is mined in Poland, tin 
 in Finland, and cobalt and manganese ore in 
 Caucasia. Salt is obtained from salt-lakes. 
 Russia has excellent coal-basins, especially in 
 the Don region. The rich oil-wells of Baku supply 
 Russia with petroleum and steam-fuel. In 1903 
 the annual production of the 17,000 manu- 
 factories of the empire, which employ 1,711,750 
 workmen, was valued at £130,000,000, without 
 reckoning the mining industry and the industries 
 which pay excise duties (tobacco, sugar, spirits, 
 beer, petroleum and matches). The chief in- 
 dustrial centres are Moscow and the surround- 
 ing governments, St Petersburg, and Poland. 
 The woollen trade is taking firm root in the south. 
 The production of alcohol (chiefly vodka, the 
 national spirit) averages 80 to 90 million gallons 
 of alcohol every year. There are over 280 sugar- 
 mills and nearly 400 tallow-factories in Russia. 
 The domestic industries, which are carried on lay 
 the peasants of central Russia along with agri- 
 culture, are of much greater importance in Russia 
 than in western Europe. Some 7,500,000 peas- 
 ants are engaged in these domestic trades, whose 
 yearly produce amounts to £180,000,000. The 
 exports to foreign countries consist principally of 
 corn and flour (55 per cent, of the total ex- 
 ports), various articles of food (butter, eggs, 
 &c.), flax, timber, linseed, raw wool, naphtha, and 
 illuminating oils, and reach an annual value of 
 £70,000,000 to £94,000,000. The imports (about 
 £60,000,000) consist chiefly of raw cotton 
 (£7,000,000 to £10,000,000), tea, raw metals, 
 machinery, raw wool, colours, iron and steel 
 goods, coal, coff"ee, wine and fruit ; the manu- 
 factured goods imported may amount to 
 £16,000,000. The exports to Great Britain, 
 which were £26,315,000 in 1888, were £22,000,000 
 in 1903; the imports, £4,810,000 in the former 
 year, were £11,200,000 in the latter. The ports 
 of Russia are entered every year by about 12,000 
 vessels of llj million tons, of which only 1100 
 to 1700 (chiefly belonging to Finns or Greeks) 
 sail under the Russian flag. The importance 
 of the Russian rivers for traffic lias already 
 been mentioned. About 1860 Russia had less 
 than 1000 miles of railways ; but in 1905 she liad 
 a network measuring 36,500 miles, out of which 
 5000 miles are in Siberia and 2000 in the Trans- 
 caspian region. Nine-tenths of the cost has been 
 defrayed by the state by means of loans. The 
 Siberian railway to Vladivostok was completed 
 in September 1904 by the opening of the Baikal 
 section ; and the Orenburg-Tashkend line was 
 finished in 1905. 
 
 The Russian monarchy is traced to the 
 Varangian or Nortliman Rurik. Vladimir and 
 his people were baptised at Kieff" in 988. In the 
 13th century befell the terrible Mongol invasion ; 
 irom 1240 to 1480 the Russian princes paid tribute 
 to the Mongol-Tartar Khans. Ivan the Great 
 (1462-1505) expelled the Mongols, and made 
 
 Moscow the capital of an important state, ex- 
 tending to the White Sea. Ivan the Terrible 
 (1533-84) extended his dominions to the Black 
 Sea and well into Siberia. Peter the Great (1689- 
 1725) planted Russia firmly on the Baltic. Under 
 Catharine II. (1762-96) great acquisitions were 
 made at the expense of Poland, Turkey, Persia, 
 and Sweden ; next century Russia, besides 
 annexing the Caucasus, made vast extensions of 
 her territory in central Asia and eastern Siberia; 
 so jthat now she nearly touches British India, 
 marches with China, and has a naval station at 
 Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan. But the too 
 great energy of the 'forward party' in the Far 
 East provoked Japanese suspicions ; the practical 
 annexation of Manchuria and intrigues in Corea 
 led to the Jaimnese war of 1904-5, in which the 
 fortress of Port Arthur fell, and Russian armies 
 were repeatedly defeated in great battles and 
 forced gradually to retreat. Peace was made 
 in 1905, only after violent agitation had begun 
 at home for a constitution and greater personal 
 freedom, attended by strikes, riots, mutinies, 
 revolutionary risings, and massacres of the Jews. 
 
 See works on Russia by Sir D. M. Wallace 
 (1877; newed. 1905), Sutherland Edwards (1879), 
 Geddie (1881), Morfill (1882), A. J. C. Hare (1888), 
 Stepniak (from the Nihilist point of view, 1885- 
 88), Tikhomirov (1887), Norman (1902), Skrine 
 (1903), and Kropotkine (1905). For history, see 
 the Russian historians Karamzin, Soloviev, 
 Kostomarov, Bestuzhef-Riumin, &c. ; Rambaud, 
 History of Russia (1878 ; Eng. trans. 1879 ; 2d ed. 
 1887) ; the shorter history by Mortill (1890) ; and 
 Nisbet Bain, The First Romanoffs (1905). 
 
 Rustchuk (w as od), or Russe (the old form re- 
 vived in 1892), a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube's 
 south bank, opposite Giurgevo, 14 miles by rail 
 NW. of Varna (on the Black Sea) and 40 S. by W. 
 of Bucharest. It was captured by the Russians 
 in 1810 and 1877, and played a prominent part 
 in the Russo-Turkish wars of 1773-90 and 1853- 
 54 ; and, until its fortifications were dismantled 
 after 1877, possessed considerable strategic im- 
 portance. Pop. (1900) 32,660. 
 
 Rutherglen {u as in cut, th as in tins; popularly 
 Ruglen), a town in Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 3 
 miles SE. of Glasgow, Avith whose eastern ex- 
 tremity it is connected by a bridge, built in 
 1890-91 at a cost of £29,000. Its principal build- 
 ing is a handsome town-hall (1862). Rutherglen 
 was the seat of a royal castle, which was captured 
 by Edward Bruce about 1313, burned by Moray 
 in 1568, and finally demolished in the l*8th cen- 
 tury. At Rutherglen, in 1679, the Covenanters 
 published a ' Declaration'— the prelude to Drum- 
 clog and Bothwell Bridge. A royal burgh since 
 1126, it unites with Kilmarnock, &c. to return 
 one member to parliament. Pop. (1831) 4741 ; 
 (1861) 80G2 ; (1901) 17,220. See Ure's History of 
 Rutherglen (1793). 
 
 Ruthin (Roothin), a town of Denbighshire, on 
 the Clwyd, 8 miles SSE. of Denbigh by rail. The 
 13th-century castle which gave it name (Cym. 
 rhyd-din, ' red fortress '), surrendered in 1646 to 
 the Roundheads, and was afterwards dismantled, 
 part of its site being now occupied by a castellated 
 mansion. A grammar-school (1594) was recon- 
 stituted in 1881 ; and there are also an interesting 
 collegiate church, a county hall, a corn exchange, 
 &c. Chartered by Henry VII. in 1507, Ruthin 
 unites with Denbigh, &c. to return one member. 
 Pop. (1851) 3373; (1901) 2643. See Newcome's 
 Castle and Town of Ruthin (2d ed. 1836). 
 Ruthven Castle. See Huntinqtower. 
 
RUTHWELL 
 
 607 
 
 SAARGEMtJND 
 
 Ruth well (th as in this ; locally El'well), a Dum- 
 friesshire coast parish, 9 miles ESE. of Dumfries. 
 Its famous sandstone cross, 17| feet high, bears 
 carvings in front and behind of the Crucifixion, 
 Annunciation, &c., with Latin inscriptions, and 
 on the sides of scroll-worlc, runic verses from 
 ' The Dream of the Holy Rood." Dating possibly 
 from about 680 a.d., the cross was cast down and 
 broken in 1642 as a monument of idolatry ; but 
 in 1802 was re-erected in the manse garden by 
 the Rev. Henry Duncan, minister of Ruthwell, 
 and founder of savings' banks ; and in 1887 was 
 removed to an apse adjoining the church. 
 
 Rutlam, a native state in the Western Malwa 
 agency. Central India. Area, 729 sq. m. ; pop. 
 89,160. The capital, Rutlam, is a great opium 
 mart, and has a college ; pop. 31,000. 
 
 Rutland, the smallest county in England, 
 bounded by Leicester, Lincoln, and Northampton 
 shires. It measures 18 by 15 miles, and has an 
 area of 150 sq. m. or 95,805 acres. The Guash or 
 Wash, flowing to the Welland (which traces the 
 south-east boundary), divides it into two portions 
 — the northern a somewhat elevated tableland, 
 while the southern consists of a number of valleys 
 running east and west, and separated by low 
 hills. Half the whole area is permanent pasture, 
 and woods occupy some 3000 acres. Towns are 
 Oakham and Uppingham, and tliere are fifty-one 
 parishes. Rutland gives the title of duke to the 
 family of Manners. Its representation was re- 
 duced to one in 1885. Pop. (1801) 16,380 ; (1861) 
 21,861; (1901)19,709, 
 
 Rutland, capital of Rutland county, Vermont, 
 on Otter Creek, close to the Green Mountains, 
 67 miles by rail SSE. of Burlington. The chief 
 industry is the quai'rying and working of marble ; 
 the place has also foundries and railroad shops. 
 From 1784 to 1804 it was one of the capitals of 
 Vermont. Pop- (1880) 7502 ; (1900) 11,499. 
 
 Riitli, or Grutli, a meadow on the west side 
 of the southern arm of Lake Lucerne ; here the 
 men of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden took the 
 oath (1307) to drive out the Austrians. It is 
 national property, having been purchased with the 
 pence of Swiss school children, and is adorned 
 with a monument (1860) to Schiller, and with 
 another (1884) in commemoration of the oath. 
 
 Ruvo in Apulia (anc. Rubi), a cathedral city 
 of S. Italy, 22 miles W. of Bari. Pop. 27,728. 
 
 Ruwenzo'ri, a mountain in the centre of 
 Africa, just north of the Equator, between Lakes 
 Albert Nyanza and Albert Edward Nyanza. It 
 was discovered by Baker in 1871, and visited by 
 Stanley in 1888 ; and its summit (19,000 feet) is 
 covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 Ruysselede (Roissehlay'deh), a Belgian town, 14 
 miles SE. of Bruges, has a large reformatory 
 for boys (1849). Pop. 6793. 
 
 Ryan, Loch, a Wigtownshire arm of the 
 sea, extending 8 miles SSE. to Stranraer from the 
 Firth of Clyde, with a breadth of from IJ to 
 almost 3 miles. 
 
 Rybinsk (Ree-binsk'), a town of Russia, on the 
 Volga's right bank, 48 miles NW. of Yaroslav. 
 It has a very large trade in forwarding to the 
 capital by canal the goods brought hither by 
 large vessels up the Volga. Boat-building, rope- 
 making, brewing, and distilling are industries. 
 Pop. 25,220, increased to 125,000 in summer. 
 
 Rydal Mount, Westmorland, 1^ mile NNW. of 
 Ambleside, was Wordsworth's thirty-seven years' 
 residence, and his death-place. 
 
 Ryde, a flourishing and fashionable watering- 
 place on the north-east coast of the Isle of Wight, 
 4J miles SSW. of Portsmouth, from which it is 
 separated by the roadstead of Spithead. It con- 
 sists of Upper and Lower Ryde, the former 
 occupying the site of an ancient village. La Rye 
 or Im, Riche, destroyed by the French in 1377, 
 and the latter of quite modern construction. 
 Fielding in 1753 described Ryde as 'a pleasant 
 village, separated at low-water from the sea by 
 an impassable gulf of mud ; ' but now there are 
 excellent sands, and the appearance of the town 
 with its streets and villas interspersed with trees 
 is pleasing and picturesque. The longer of the 
 two piers (768 feet) was constructed in 1813-61 ; 
 of the buildings may be noticed the town-hall 
 (1831) ; All Saints' Church (1870), by Scott, with 
 a spire 173 feet high ; St Mary's Roman Catholic 
 Church (1846), by Hansom ; and the Royal Vic- 
 toria Yacht Club-house (1847). Ryde was made 
 a municipal borough in 1868. Pop. (1851) 7147 ; 
 (1881)11,461; (1901)11,043. 
 
 Rye, a decayed seaport of Sussex, 11 miles NB. 
 of Hastings, and 2 miles inland now owing 
 to the retirement of the sea. It stands on an 
 eminence bounded east by the Rother, south and 
 west by the Tillingham, and presents a quaint, 
 old-world aspect. On a rock overlooking the 
 confluence of the streams is the 12th-century 
 Ypres Tower (now a police station) ; the church, 
 mainly Norman and Early English in style, and 
 one of the largest in the kingdom, was restored 
 in 1883. Then there are the old Land Gate, a 
 former Carmelite chapel, and a grammar-school 
 (1638). The Noviis Partus of Ptolemy, Rye was 
 granted by the Confessor to Fecamp Abbey, and 
 by Henry III. was made a Cinque Port. It 
 became a Huguenot asylum after 1562 and 1685 
 (Thackeray's Denis Duval is laid here); and it 
 returned two members till 1832, and then one till 
 1885. Fletcher the dramatist was a native. Pop. 
 3900. See HoUoway's History of Rye (1847). 
 
 Rye House, an old Hertfordshire mansion, 5\ 
 miles SE. of Hertford, where it was proposed by 
 some of the Whigs to waylay and assassinate 
 Charles II. (1683). 
 
 Ryswlck, a village 2 miles S. of the Hague, 
 where in 1697 a great treaty of peace was signed 
 between France, England, the Netherlands, 
 Spain, and Germany. 
 
 Ryton, a Durham town, on the Tyne, 6 miles 
 W. of Newcastle. Pop. 8460. 
 
 RzhefiF. See Rsheff. 
 
 AALE (^Sdh-leJi), a navigable river of 
 Germany, rises in the Fichtelgebirge 
 (Bavaria), and flows 226 miles north- 
 ward through Thuringia and Prussian 
 Saxony to the Elbe above Magdeburg. 
 Saalfeld (SdhVfelt), a town of Saxe-Meiningen, 
 on the Saal^ 31 miles SSW. of Jena. Pop. 11,700. 
 Saarbriick (Sdhr-briik), or Saabbbucken, a 
 
 town of Rhenish Prussia, on the Saar, 40 miles 
 SE. of Treves, is the centre of a coalfield, and 
 manufactures iron, glass, tobacco, chemicals, &c. 
 Pop. 23,250. Here, on 2d August 1870, in the 
 first engagement of the Franco-German war, the 
 Germans retreated. 
 
 Saardam. See Zaandam. 
 
 Saargemiind {Sahr-ge-miintf ; Fr. Sarregue- 
 
SAARLOUIS 
 
 608 
 
 SAGUENAY 
 
 nines), a town of Lorraine, 41 miles B. of Metz, 
 making pottery, silk, and velvet. Pop. 14,700. 
 
 SaarlOTiis (Sahr-loo-ee'), a fortified town of 
 Rhenish Prussia, on the Saar, 31 miles S. of 
 Treves. Fortified by Vauban, it was in 1S15 
 given from France to Prussia by the Congress 
 of Vienna. Here Ney was born. Pop. 7788. 
 
 Saaz (Sdhtz), a town of Bohemia, on the Eger, 
 66 miles by rail NW. of Prague. Pop. 16,200. 
 
 Saba (Sd/i'&a), a Dutch West Indian island (Lee- 
 wards), 40 miles NW. of St Kitts ; a volcanic cone, 
 1500 feet high. Area, 5 sq. m. ; pop. 2420. 
 
 Sabadeir, a town of Spain, 14 miles by railway 
 NW. of Barcelona, the ' Manchester of Catalonia,' 
 manufacturing woollens and cottons. Pop. 23,100. 
 
 Sabine {Sa-heeii'), a river of Texas and Louisi- 
 ana, flowing 500 miles SE. and S. until through 
 Sabine Lake (18 miles long by 9 wide) it empties 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Sable Island, a low-lying sandy island in the 
 Atlantic, in 44" N. lat. and 60° W. long., 85 miles 
 E. of Nova Scotia (and not near Cape Sable, at 
 the SB. corner of Nova Scotia, where there is 
 also a Sable Island). On this dangerous ' Ocean 
 Graveyard,' the Canadian government has estab- 
 lished six life-saving stations, with life-boats, 
 rockets, &c., and a staff of men. In 1802 Sable 
 Island was 40 miles long ; in 1890 it was reduced 
 to 20 miles ; in 1900 over 80,000 trees were planted 
 to check the shifting of the sands. 
 
 Sables D'Olonne (Sdhbl-d'0-lon'), Les, a French 
 seaport and watering-place (dep. Vendee), on the 
 Atlantic, 50 miles S. by W. of Nantes, with salt- 
 making, shipbuilding, and fishing. Pop. 11,900. 
 
 Sabri'na Land, a stretch of coast-land dis- 
 covered in the Antarctic Ocean (1839) by Balleny ; 
 it is crossed by 120° B. long, and the Antarctic 
 Circle.— Sabrina is the Latin form of Severn. 
 
 Sachsen. See Saxony, Saxon States. 
 
 Sacketts Harbor, a summer-resort (in 1812 an 
 important naval station) of New York, on a bay 
 of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of Black River, 
 12 miles by rail W. of Watertown. Pop. 12G0. 
 
 Saco (Sav/ko), a port of Maine, 16 miles by rail 
 WSW. of Portland, on the Saco River, here 
 crossed by a bridge to Biddeford, with falls of 50 
 feet supplying water-power for cotton and shoe 
 factories, sawmills, machine-shops, &c. Pop. 
 6175.— The Saco River rises in the White Moun- 
 tains of New Hampshire, and runs 170 miles SE. 
 through Maine to the Atlantic. 
 
 Sacramento, the largest river of California, 
 rises in the NB. part of the state, its head-streana, 
 Pitt River, draining Goose Lake, and flows 500 
 miles SW., S., and SSW. to Suisun Bay, through 
 which its waters pass into San Pablo Bay and so 
 to the Pacific. It is navigable for small vessels 
 to Red Bluff, nearly 250 miles. Near its mouth 
 it receives the San Joaquin. 
 
 Sacramento, capital of California, is on the 
 east bank of the Sacramento River, at the mouth 
 of American River, 90 miles by boat and rail NB. 
 of San Francisco. The principal public build- 
 ings are the state capitol (cost $2,000,000), county 
 court-house (formerly capitol) and hospital, post- 
 office, a Roman Catholic cathedral, the Crocker 
 Art Gallery, and Masonic and Oddfellows' halls. 
 Here are flour and planing mills, carriage, box, 
 and broom factories, foundries, potteries, spice- 
 mills, canneries, and the shops of the Southern 
 Pacific Railroad. Inundations led to the build- 
 ing of a levee in 1862. Sacramento was settled 
 in 1839 ; but it was not laid out till 1848, after 
 
 the discovery of gold. In 1854 it became state 
 capital. Pop. (1880) 21,420 ; (1900) 29,280. 
 
 Saddleback, or Blencath'aba, a Cumberland 
 mountain (2847 feet), 4J miles NE. of Keswick. 
 
 Sad'owa. See Konigoratz. 
 
 Safed, a town of Palestine, 6 miles NW. of the 
 Lake of Tiberias, famous as a stronghold of the 
 crusaders and of the Knights Templars, lost after 
 much fighting in 1266. It is still one of the four 
 holy cities of the Jews, and has a pop. of 25, 000, 
 most of whom are Jews. 
 
 Safl&, or AsFi, a seaport of Morocco, stands on 
 a little bay on the Mediterranean coast, 120 miles 
 WNW. of the city of Morocco. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Saflfron-Walden, a municipal borough of Essex, 
 15 miles S. of Cambridge, 27 NNW. of Chelras- 
 ford, and 45 by a branch-line (1865) NNB. of 
 London. The saffron crocus was formerly culti- 
 vated here. The parish church (Perpendicular) 
 has a spire 108 feet high, and brasses and monu- 
 ments — one to Lord Chancellor Audley (1488- 
 1544). There are also remains of a Norman castle, 
 a corn exchange (1848), a town-hall (1879), a cattle- 
 market (1834), and a grammar-school, founded in 
 1423. Audley End, ij mile SW., the seat of Lord 
 Braybrooke, was built in 1603 by Thomas Howard, 
 Earl of Suffolk, and is still a magnificent mansion, 
 though partly demolished since 1701. Pop. (1851) 
 5911 ; (1 901) 5896. See works by Lord Braybrooke 
 (1836) and John Player (1845). 
 
 Sagaing, a decayed town of Burma, once the 
 capital, lies on the Irawadl, opposite Ava. 
 
 Sagan, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the Bober, 
 33 miles by rail W. by S. of Glogau, manufactur- 
 ing cottons and woollens, beer, &c. Pop. 15,010. 
 
 Sagar, or Saugor, a well-built town in the 
 Central JProvinces of India, in a hilly tract, on a 
 feeder of the Junma, with barracks, magazine, 
 jail (1846), and park (1862). Pop. 44,674. 
 
 Sagar, a low, swampy, sacred island (area, 225 
 sq. m.), at the mouth of the Hooghly, with a 
 lighthouse (1808) and telegraph station. 
 
 Saghalien, or Sakhalin (Sa-ha-leen' ; but usu. 
 Sagay'lien), is a long (670 miles) and narrow (20 
 to 150 miles) island, running N. and S., off the 
 east coast of the Maritime Province of Siberia. 
 Owing to the vicinity of the misty chilly Sea of 
 Okhotsk, to the ice-floes off the east coast, and 
 to the dense forests on the mountains (5000 feet), 
 the rainfall is heavy and the climate is raw and 
 cold. The streams and the adjoining seas teem 
 with fish. Petroleum and naphtha exist, and 
 coal (over 2,000,000 tons in 1890) is mined. Area, 
 29,550 sq. m. ; pop. in 1905, 29,000— Russians 
 (many of them convicts), Gilyaks, and Ainos. 
 In 1875 the Japanese were compelled to cede the 
 southern part to Russia (in exchange for some of 
 the Kuriles), and the whole island became a great 
 Russian convict settlement. But in 1905, after 
 the Russo-Japanese war, the Japanese resumed 
 possession of the southern half. 
 
 Saginaw', the third city of Michigan, and 
 capital of Saginaw county, is built on an elevated 
 plateau on the Saginaw River, 108 miles by rail 
 NNW. of Detroit. It manufactures flour, salt, 
 lumber, barrels, sashes, doors, and blinds, &c., 
 and exports lumber and salt. There was a great 
 fire in May 1893. Pop. (1880) 29,541 ; (1900) 42,345. 
 — Saginaw Bay, an arm of Lake Huron, is 60 
 miles long by 30 wide, and has several fine har- 
 bours. The river Saginaw (SO miles) falls into it. 
 
 Saguenay (Sa-srai/-nai/'), a large river of Canada, 
 falling into the St Lawrence estuary on the north 
 
SAGUNTUM 
 
 ST ABBS 
 
 side, 115 miles below Quebec. It drains Lake 
 St John, and flows almost straight 100 miles ESE. 
 In its upper part, amid a wilderness of hills, it 
 has numerous cataracts ; but in the lower course, 
 from the village of Chicoutinii down, it flows 
 between precipitous cliffs, often 500 to 1500 feet 
 high, and is in many places 2 or 3 miles broad, 
 while the depth varies from 17 to 170, and even, 
 near the mouth, to 500 fathoms. The largest 
 vessels can ascend to near Chicoutirai ; and great 
 numbers of tourists visit the river. 
 
 Saguntum. See Murviedro. 
 
 Sahara (usually Sa-hay'ra, properly Sah'a-ra; 
 Arab. Sdh'ra), the vast desert region of North 
 Africa, stretching from the Atlantic to the Nile, 
 and from the southern confines of Morocco, 
 Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli southwards to near 
 the Niger and Lake Chad. The Libyan Desert, 
 lying between Egypt, the central Soudan, and 
 Tripoli, is a separate tract. The surface, instead 
 of being uniform and depressed below sea-level, 
 is highly diversified, and attains in one place an 
 altitude of fully 8000 feet. From Cape Blanco 
 in the west, the Erg, a vast semicircle of sand- 
 dunes (50 to 300 miles wide and 70 to 300 feet 
 high), stretches right round the northern side of 
 the Sahara to Fezzan. In the centre the country 
 rises into the lofty plateau of Ahaggar (4000 feet), 
 with veritable mountains 6500 feet high, and 
 actually covered with snow for three months in 
 the year. There are mountain-ranges in the east 
 reaching 8000 feet. The mountainous parts em- 
 brace many deep valleys, most of them seamed 
 with the dry beds of ancient rivers, which yield 
 abundance of water, if not on the surface, then a 
 short distance below it, and are inhabited, and 
 grazed by cattle, sheep, and camels. Another 
 characteristic type of Saharan landscape is a low 
 plateau strewn with rough blocks of granite and 
 other rocks, and perfectly barren. These elevated 
 stone-fields, called 'hammada,' alternate with 
 tracts of bare flat sand, with broad marshes, 
 where water has stood and evaporated, leaving 
 salt behind it, and with extensive tracts of 
 small, polished, smoothly-rounded stones. In 
 very many parts of the Sahara, especially in 
 the valleys of the mountainous parts, in the 
 recesses or bays at the foot of the hills, along- 
 side the watercourses, and in the hollows of the 
 sand-dunes, there are oases— habitable, cultivable, 
 watered spots. Lines of oases mark the great 
 caravan-routes between the Soudan states and 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 A large portion of the Sahara, though not the 
 whole, was undoubtedly under water at one time ; 
 and a process of desiccation has been going on 
 throughout the whole region from the earliest 
 historic time ; the Romans had colonies or 
 military posts a long way to the south. The 
 sand is simply the Saharan rocks (granite, 
 gneiss, mica-schists, and cretaceous rocks) 
 crumbled to dust by the alternations of heat 
 and cold. The range of temperature is exceed- 
 ingly great : often the thermometer falls from 
 more than 100° F. during the day to just below 
 freezing-point at night. Rain does fall in 
 certain districts at intervals of two to five 
 years. After a fall of rain it is not unusual to 
 see the river-beds in the mountainous regions 
 filled with foaming torrents. Owing to the ex- 
 treme dryness of the air, the Sahara is very 
 healthy. The plant-life is very rich in the oases, 
 the date-palm, oranges, lemons, peaches, figs, 
 pomegranates, &c., being grown, with cereals, 
 fice, durrha, and millet. In the desert regions are 
 
 2^ 
 
 found tamarisks, prickly acacias and similar 
 thorny shrubs and trees, salsolacea?, and coarse 
 grasses. The animals include, besides the camel, 
 horse, ox, sheep, and goat, the giraffe, antelopes, 
 wild cattle, the wild ass, desert fox, jackal, hare, 
 lion, ostrich, desert lark, crow, viper, python, 
 locusts, flies. The inhabitants, estimated at 
 between 1,400,000 and 2,500,000, consist of Moors, 
 Tuareg, Tibbu, Negroes, Arabs, and Jews. The 
 chief products are dates and salt, also horses, soda, 
 and saltpetre. A very active trade is carried on 
 by caravans, between the central Soudan and Niger 
 countries and the Mediterranean states, the 
 ivory, ostrich-feathers, gums, spices, musk, hides, 
 gold-dust, indigo, cotton, palm-oil, shea-butter, 
 kola-nuts, ground-nuts, silver, dates, salt, and 
 alum of the interior lands being exchanged for 
 the manufactured wares (textiles, weapons, gun- 
 powder, &c.) of European countries. The French 
 desire to get this trade into their own hands, and 
 have proposed to construct a light trans-Saharan 
 railway from the coast to the shores of Lake 
 Chad and the Niger. They have done much to 
 realise the ambitious idea of uniting their posses- 
 sions on the Senegal and on the Niger with 
 Algeria and Tunis— a union theoretically accom- 
 plished by the agreement of 1890 between Great 
 Britain and France, by which the whole of the 
 Sahara, except the west coast (which is claimed 
 by Morocco and Spain and Great Britain) and the 
 extreme east (beyond a line drawn from Murzuk 
 in Fezzan to Lake Chad), was acknowledged to 
 be within the French 'sphere of influence.' 
 There have been schemes for flooding the low- 
 lying 'shotts' south of Tunis, and much has 
 been done towards improving certain areas by 
 boring artesian wells and so irrigating the country 
 around. By a series of conventions between 
 Britain and Fi-ance (1893-99), one of which re- 
 cognised the right of France to all territory west 
 of the Nile basin, practically the whole of the 
 Sahara is now accounted French ; and the area 
 of the French Sahara is about 2,000,000 sq. m. 
 See German works by Barth (1858), Nachtigal 
 (1879-89), Rohlfs (1S74), Zittel (1884), and Lenz 
 (1884); French works by RoUand, Cat, Bissuel, 
 Vuillot, Toutee, Schirmer, Bonnefon, and Foureau 
 (1891-1902) ; and Somerville's Sands of Sahara 
 (Phila. 1901). 
 
 Saharanpur', a town of the United Provinces 
 of India, 125 miles by rail N. of Delhi, is the 
 station for the sanatorium of Masuri (Mussoorie). 
 It has an old Rohilla fort, a new mosque, St 
 Thomas' Church (1858), and botanical gardens 
 (1817). Pop. 71,000. 
 
 Saida. See Sidon. 
 
 Saigon (Sd-gon^'), capital of French Cochin- 
 China, stands on the river Saigon, a deltaic mouth 
 of the Mekong, 60 miles from the sea. The 
 French town has grown up since 1861, with its 
 fine streets, squares, and boulevards. It has a 
 magnificent governor's palace, a cathedral (1877), 
 two higher colleges, an arsenal, a floating-dock 
 and a dry-dock, and a botanical and zoological 
 garden. Its population, consisting principally of 
 Chinese, Anuamese, and French, amounts to 
 close on 50,000, while the business suburb of 
 Cholon, 4 miles SW., has 125,000 inhabitants, 
 more than a third of thein Chinese. It exports 
 rice, fish, salt, cotton, wood, beans, and hides. 
 
 Saikio. See Kyoto. 
 
 Saima, Lake. See Finland. 
 
 St Abbs, a seaside resort and flshing-village 
 in Berwickshire, 2^ miles SE. of St Abb's Head 
 (and formerly called Coldingham Shore). 
 
ST ABB'S HEAD 
 
 610 
 
 ST ASAPH 
 
 St Abb's Head, a rocky promontory (310 feet) 
 of Berwickshire, 4 miles NNW. of Eyemouth. 
 Here is a lighthouse (1861). 
 
 St Aflfrique (SanH Affreek'), a town of the 
 French dep. of Aveyron, 56 miles NW. of Mout- 
 pellier. Pop. 5163. 
 
 St Agnes, a town of Cornwall, on the Bristol 
 Channel, 9 miles NW. of Truro. Pop. of parish, 
 4249. See also Scilly Islands. 
 
 St Albans, a city of Hertfordshire, 20 miles 
 NNW. of London, on the top and northern slope 
 of an eminence washed by the Ver, one of the 
 chief feeders of the Colne, across which stood 
 Verulamium. That important Roman station is 
 perhaps identical with the fortress of Cassivel- 
 launus, destroyed in 54 B.C. by Caesar, and was 
 taken by Boadicea in 61 a.d. In honour of the 
 protomartyr Alban, said to have been beheaded 
 here about 303, Offa, king of Mercia, in 793 
 founded a great Benedictine abbey, which from 
 Pope Adrian IV. (born, Nicolas Breakspear, at 
 Bedmond, 3 miles SW.) obtained precedence over 
 all other abbeys in England. Rebuilt after 1077 
 with flat Roman tiles from Verulam, and dedi- 
 cated in 1115 in the presence of Henry I., the 
 abbey church, in spite of successive alterations 
 (Early English, Decorated, Perpendicular), is 
 still ' the vastest and sternest ' of early Norman 
 structures, its exterior length (548 feet) being 
 second only to Winchester's, whilst the transepts 
 measure 189 feet across, and the massive central 
 tower is 144 feet high. It was made the cathe- 
 dral of a new diocese in 1877, and in 1871-85 
 was very thoroughly restored. Special features 
 are the substructure of the shrine of St 
 Alban (its 2000 shattered fragments pieced to- 
 gether), the tombs of Duke Humphrey of Glou- 
 cester and 'Sir John Mandeville,' the superb 
 presbytery reredos, and Abbot Ramryge's 
 chantry. Of the forty abbots down to the Dis- 
 solution in 1539 the greatest was Cardinal 
 Wolsey ; and among the monks were Matthew 
 Paris, Roger Wendover, Rishanger, and the other 
 compilers of the Chronica Monasterii S. Albani, 
 which, like the Treatise of Dame Juliana Berners, 
 was printed here at Abbot Wallingford's press. 
 The abbey gatehouse was in 1869 converted from 
 a jail to the purposes of King Edward VI. 's 
 grammar-school, which till then had occupied 
 the Lady Chapel. In St Michael's Church is 
 Lord Bacon's monument; the 15th-century 
 clock-tower was restored in 1864 ; and a drink- 
 ing-fountaiu marks the site of an Eleanor's cross, 
 demolished in 1702. There are almshouses 
 founded by the famous Duchess of Marlborough, 
 a town-hall (1832), a corn exchange (1857), and a 
 free library (1880). The industries include straw- 
 plaiting, brewing, boot and brush making, and 
 silk-manufacture. St Albans, disfranchised for 
 bribery in 1852, was incorporated by Edward VI. 
 in 1553, and had its municipal boundary ex- 
 tended in 1879. It was the scene of two battles 
 in the Wars of the Roses— the first, on 22d May 
 1455, a victory for the Yorkists ; the second, on 
 17th February 1461, for the Lancastrians. Pop. 
 (1851) 7000 ; (1901) 16,019. See works by New- 
 come (1793), Williams (1822), Comyns Carr (1877), 
 James Neale (1878), and Aslidown (1894). 
 St Alban's Head. See Dorsetshire. 
 St Amand (San^t Amon'd'), a town of France 
 (dep. Cher), on the Cher, 25 miles SSE. of Bourges, 
 with ironworks and potteries. Pop. 7897. 
 
 St Amand-les-Eaux {SanH Amon'd'-leh-Zo), a 
 town of France, dep. Nord, 8 miles NW. of Val- 
 
 enciennes, with hot sulphur-springs and a ruined 
 abbey. Pop. 13,840. 
 
 St Andrews, a city of Fife, stands on a rocky 
 plateau at the edge of St Andrews Bay, 42 miles 
 NNE. of Edinburgh. The monkish legend, long 
 discredited, assigned its ecclesiastical origin to 
 St Regulus or Rule, who, warned in a dream, 
 brought certain bones of St Andrew from Patras 
 in the 4th century, and was wrecked at Muckros, 
 afterwards called Kilrimont, now St Andrews. 
 There is, however, reason for believing not only 
 that those relics were brought in the 8th century, 
 but that, befoi'e the end of the 0th, Cainnech 
 or Kenneth, the patron saint of Kilkenny, had 
 founded a monastery at Rig-Monadh, the Royal 
 Mount, and that thus arose the name of Kilri- 
 mont. Early in the 10th century it seemingly 
 became the seat of the ' Ardepscop Albain,' the 
 high bishop of the Scots— archbishop from 1471- 
 72. The Augustinian Priory, founded in 1144, 
 was the richest and greatest of all the religious 
 houses of Scotland. The Cathedral, founded in 
 or about 1160 in presence of Malcolm IV., and 
 consecrated in 1318 in presence of Robert the 
 Bruce, was stripped of its images and ornaments 
 in 1559, and afterwards fell into ruin. The 
 extreme length inside is 355 feet. The Bishop's 
 Palace or Castle, first built in 1200, was fre- 
 quently demolished and rebuilt, and is now a 
 ruin. George Wishart was confined in its ' bottle- 
 dungeon,' and Cardinal Beaton slain within its 
 massive walls. None of the ruins is less impos- 
 ing or more interesting than the foundations on 
 the Kirkhill— the site of the Celtic church. St 
 Rule's Tower, 108 feet high, is Romanesque, 
 probably of the 10th century. The schools of St 
 Andrews were noted in 1120; but the University, 
 the first in Scotland, dates only from 1411. St 
 Salvator's College was founded in 1455, St Leon- 
 ard's in 1512, and St Mary's in 1537. The two 
 first were united in 1747. The average attend- 
 ance of students is under 300. The library con- 
 tains over 100,000 volumes, and there is a good 
 museum. The parish church of St Leonard's is 
 roofless, and the congregation worships in the 
 beautiful chapel of St Salvator's. The Madras 
 College (1832) was endowed by Dr Andrew Bell. 
 There is also ,a large girls' school (St Leonard's). 
 The town was made a free burgh between 1144 
 and 1153 ; the St Andrews Burghs, returning one 
 member, are St Andrews, the two Anstruthers, 
 Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem. The 
 manufacture of golf-clubs and balls is a thriving 
 industry, St Andrews, with its fine links, being 
 the Mecca of golfers. Pop. (1801) 3263 ; (1901) 
 7621. See works by Martine (1787-97), Grierson 
 (1807), Lyon (1843), Rogers (1849), Anderson (1878), 
 Andrew Lang (1894), and Hay Fleming (1894). 
 
 St Annes on the Sea, a watering-place of N. 
 Lancashire, 4 J miles S. of Blackpool. Pop. 6840, 
 St Asaph, a little cathedral city of Flintshire, 
 North Wales, on an eminence between the rivers 
 Elwy and Clwyd, 6 miles SSE. of Rhyl. The 
 cathedral, 182 feet long, is the smallest in the 
 kingdom, and, rebuilt after 1284, is a plain, 
 cruciform, red sandstone structure, mainly Dec- 
 orated in style, with a massive central tower 
 93 feet high, fine oak stalls, and a tablet to Mrs 
 Hemans, who lived here 1809-28. It was restored 
 by Scott in 1867-75. St Kentigern is said to have 
 founded about 560 a bishopric at Llanelwy, re- 
 named St Asaph aiter his favourite disciple. 
 Among sixty-five bishops since 1143 have been 
 Reginald Pecock ; Isaac Barrow the elder ; Lloyd, 
 one of the Seveix Bishops ; and Horsley. St Asaph 
 
ST AUGUSTINE 
 
 611 
 
 ST DAVIDS 
 
 has a grammar-school, founded about 1600, and 
 rebuilt in 1882. It is one of the eight Flint par- 
 liamentary boroughs. Pop. 1858. See works by- 
 Browne Willis (1719), Freeman (1850), R. J. King 
 (1873), and D. R. Thomas (1888). 
 
 St Aug'ustine, an ancient Spanish town on 
 the east coast of Florida, now the capital of St 
 John's county, stands on Matanzas Sound, 2 
 miles from the Atlantic and 37 by rail SSB. of 
 Jacksonville. It was founded in 1565, and is the 
 oldest town in the United States. Its mild and 
 equable climate renders it a favourite winter- 
 resort for invalids. It has a Roman Catholic 
 cathedral (rebuilt after the fire of 1887), a Pea- 
 body Institute, and huge and really handsome 
 hotels. Pop. 4742, increased to 10,000 in winter. 
 
 St Austell, a town of Cornwall, 14 miles NE. 
 of Truro and 1^ NW. of the head of St Austell 
 Bay. Its woollen and iron manufactures are of 
 less importance than the china-clay, tin, and 
 copper worked in the vicinity. The interesting 
 church (13th to 16th century) was restored iu 
 1870. Pop. 3340. 
 
 St Bartholomew, or St BARTHifiLEMY, a French 
 West Indian island, 190 miles E. of Porto Rico. 
 Area, 8 sq. m. ; pop. 3000, The treeless surface 
 rises to 1003 feet; the climate is very dry. 
 French in 1648-1784, and Swedish till 1877, the 
 island was bought back by France for £16,000. 
 
 St Bees, a Cumberland watering-place, 4j 
 miles S. of Whitehaven by rail and 3 SE. of St 
 Bees Head (300 feet). A nunnery founded here 
 about 650 A.D. by an Irish princess, St Begha, 
 appears to have been destroyed by the Danes, 
 and to have been reconstituted as a Benedictine 
 
 Jjriory in the reign of Henry I. St Bees Theo- 
 ogical College, established in 1816 by Dr Law, 
 Bisliop of Chester, was closed in 1896 ; a gram- 
 mar-school, founded by Archbishop Grindall in 
 1587, was reconstituted in 1881. Pop. of parish, 
 1041, 
 
 St Bernard, two mountain-passes in the Alps. 
 (1) Great St Bernard (8120 feet) is on the road 
 between Aosta in Piedmont and Martigny in 
 Valais. Almost on its crest stands the Augustin- 
 ian hospice founded in 962 by Bernard de 
 Menthon for the benefit of pilgrims journeying 
 to Rome. It has sleeping-accommodation for 
 eighty travellers, and can shelter 300. — (2) Little 
 St Bernard, SW. of the above in the Graian Alps, 
 connects the valley of Aosta with that of Taran- 
 taise in Savoy. By this pass Hannibal is believed 
 to have led his forces into Italy. It too has a 
 hospice, 7143 feet above the sea. 
 
 St Blazey, a town of Cornwall, 4 miles ENE, 
 of St Austell. Pop. of parish, 2705. 
 
 St BoswellS, or Lessudden, a Roxburghshire 
 village, near the Tweed's right bank, 4 miles SE. 
 of Melrose. Pop. 424. 
 
 St Brieuo (San^ Bree-uW), a town of Brittany, 
 capital of the dep. of Cotes du Nord, on the 
 Gouet, 2 miles from its mouth in the English 
 Channel, and 93 E. of Brest. It has a port, Le 
 L6gue, at the river's mouth ; a cathedral, dating 
 from the 13th century ; the ruined Tour de 
 Cesson (1395, blown up 1598); and a lyceum, 
 with a library of 27,000 volumes. Pop. 16,741. 
 
 St Catherine's, a city of Ontario, on the Well- 
 and Canal, 5 miles S. of Port Dalhousie on Lake 
 Ontario. It manufactures machinery, and has 
 mineral springs. Pop. 997U. 
 
 St Chamond. (Sau* Sha-movF), a town of France, 
 4ep. Loire, 7 miles NE. of St fitienne by rail, 
 
 manufactures ribbons, silks, and iron, and has 
 coal-pits. Pop. 15,250. 
 
 St Charles, capital of St Charles county, 
 Missouri, on the high north bank of the Missouri 
 River, 23 miles by rail (44 by river) NW. of St 
 Louis. It has flour-mills, a railroad-car factory, 
 and large bridge-building works. Pop. 8000. 
 
 St Christopher, popularly St Kitts, one of the 
 Leeward group of the West India Islands, belong- 
 ing to Great Britain, lies 45 miles NW. of Guade- 
 loupe. It is long (23 miles) and narrow (5 miles), 
 and is traversed by a chain of rugged mountains 
 (Mount Misery, 4100 feet) ; area, 68 sq. m. The 
 capital is Basse-terre (q.v.). Principal products 
 are sugar, molasses, rum, salt, coffee, cocoa, 
 tobacco, and cattle. Administratively St Kitts 
 is united with Nevis (q.v.) and the little island 
 of Anguilla. Pop. (1 903) .'^0,250. This island was 
 discovered in 1493 by Columbus, and named from 
 a resemblance of its outline to statues of his 
 patron saint. Colonised by French and British 
 in 1625, it became English in 1713. 
 
 St Clair, a navigable river of North America, 
 in the line of the Great Lakes, and carrying into 
 Lake St Clair the waters of Lake Huron. It is over 
 40 miles long, and ^ mile broad. In 1891 a rail- 
 way tunnel under its bed was completed between 
 Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario, 20 
 feet in diameter, and 6026 (including excavated 
 approaches, 11,553) feet long. Lake St Clair is 
 26 miles long and 25 wide, has an area of 410 
 sq. m., and from its south-west end discharges 
 into Lake Erie through the Detroit. 
 
 St Clair, a borough of Pennsylvania, 5 miles 
 N. of Pottsville, with anthracite mines. Pop. 
 6950. 
 
 St Claude, a town in the French dep. of Jura, 
 30 miles SE. of Lons-le-Saunier. The monastery 
 here dates from 430 a.d. Pop. 8729. 
 
 St Clears, a river-port of Carmarthenshire, at 
 the head of the Taf estuary, 8 miles WSW. of 
 Carmarthen. Pop. of parish, 937. 
 
 St Cloud {San' Kloo), a town of France, dep. 
 Seine-et-Oise, on an eminence near the Seine, 10 
 miles W. of Paris. Henry III. was assassinated 
 here in 1589 by the fanatical monk Jacques 
 Clement. St Cloud was long famous for its 
 magnificent ch&teau, built by Louis XIV.'s 
 brother, the Duke of Orleans, which Napoleon 
 made his favourite residence. It was destroyed, 
 and its magnificent park (in which stands the 
 Sevres porcelain-factory) injured, during the 
 siege of Paris, in 1870. Pop. 5660. 
 
 St Columb Major, a Cornish town, on the 
 Trent, 14 miles NNE. of Truro. Pop. 2612. 
 
 St Croix (Sent Kroi), an American river, called 
 also the Passamaquoddy and the Schoodic, which, 
 flowing out of Grand Lake, on the E. border of 
 Maine, runs SE. 75 miles to Passamaquoddy Bay, 
 along the U.S. boundary. See Santa Cruz. 
 
 St Cyr {San' Seer), a French village, dep. 
 Seine-et-Oise, 2 miles W. of Versailles. The 
 institution for poor girls of good birth, founded 
 by Louis XIV., at the suggestion of Madame de 
 Maintenon, who died and was buried here, was 
 suppressed at the Revolution ; and in 1806 the 
 buildings were converted by Napoleon into a 
 great military school. Pop. 3613. 
 
 St Davids, a ' city ' of Pembrokeshire, South 
 Wales, in the westernmost corner of the princi- 
 pality, on the rivulet Alan, within 1^ mile of St 
 Brides Bay and 16 miles WNW. of Haverford- 
 west station, The ancient Menevia, it is now a 
 
ST DENIS 
 
 612 
 
 ST GALL 
 
 mere village ; but in the middle ages its cathe- 
 dral, with the shrine of its founder, St David, 
 the patron saint of Wales, attracted many jiil- 
 griins, among them the Conqueror, Henry 11., 
 and Edward I. and Queen Eleanor. Rebuilt be- 
 tween 1180 and 1522, that cathedral still is mainly 
 Transition Norman in character, a cruciform pile, 
 measuring 298 feet by 120 across the transepts, 
 with a central tower 116 feet high. Special 
 features are the reddish-hued stone, the richly 
 ornamented nave with rich oak roof, the rood 
 screen (c. 1338), the base of St David's shrine, 
 the tomb of Edmund Tudor, Henry VII. 's father, 
 and the eastern triplet. The west front was re- 
 built bv Nash in 1793 ; and the whole was restored 
 by Scott in 1862-78. North of the cathedral is 
 the ruined college of St Mary (1377), with a 
 slender tower 70 feet high ; and across the Alan 
 are the stately remains of Bishop Gower's palace 
 (1342), ' altogether unsurpassed by any existing 
 edifice of the kind.' A restored cross, the shat- 
 tered Close wall, and the imposing Tower Gate 
 deserve notice, and also St Davids Head, rising 
 100 feet above the sea. Pop. of parish, 1816. 
 See works by Browne Willis (1717), Manby (1801), 
 Bishop Jones and B. A. Freeman (1856), Sir G. 
 G. Scott (1869), and Rev. W. L. Bevan (1888). 
 
 St Denis (SanP De-nee'), a town in the French 
 dep. of Seine, 4 miles N. of Paris, within the line 
 of forts forming the outer defences of the city. 
 It manufactures calicoes, flour, chemicals, 
 machinery, white-lead, &c., and has a notable 
 fair. The chapel raised above the tomb of St 
 Denis, the patron saint of France, was replaced 
 in the 7th century by an abbey, built by Dago- 
 bert I., who was buried in its church, which there- 
 after became the mausoleum of the kings of 
 France. The existing abbey church was begun 
 in 1137, and skilfully restored by Viollet-le-Duc 
 from 1848 onwards, though it suffered again in 
 the German bombardment of 1871. The most 
 magnificent of the royal tombs are those of 
 Louis XII. and his queen, Anne of Brittany, 
 of Francis I. and Claude, and of Henry II. 
 and Catharine de' Medici. During the Revolu- 
 tion, in 1793, the royal tombs were sacrilegiously 
 rifled and demolished. Napoleon converted the 
 abbey into a school for the daughters of officers 
 of the legion of honour. Pop. (1872) 31,850; 
 (1901) 58,871. 
 
 St Denis, the capital of Reunion (q.v.). 
 
 St-Di6 {San^ -Dee-ay'), a French town, dep. 
 Vosges, stands on the Meurthe, 50 miles by rail 
 SE. of Nancy. It has a Romanesque-Gothic 
 cathedral, seminary, and museum, and manu- 
 factures cotton, hosiery, paper, machinery, and 
 iron goods. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 St Dizier {San" Deezeeay'), a French town (dep. 
 Haute-Marne), 38 miles by rail SE. of Chalons, is 
 on the Marne, which is navigable hence. It has 
 iron forges and foundries, boat-building yards, 
 and cotton-factories. Pop. 13,520. 
 
 St Domingo. See Hayti, San Domingo. 
 
 Sainte Anne, the name of two rivers in Quebec 
 Province, tributaries of the St Lawrence, of 
 which one has celebrated falls near its mouth, 22 
 miles below Quebec, Avhere stands the village of 
 Ste Anne de Beaupr6, a celebrated place of 
 pilgrimage for healing. 
 
 Sainte Croix. See Santa Cruz. 
 
 St Elias, Mount, a great volcanic mountain on 
 the Alaskan side of the Canadian frontier, 18,020 
 feet high. It stands in a wild, inaccessible region, 
 and is clothed almost from base to summit wjtli 
 
 eternal snow. There are huge glaciers and im- 
 passable precipices and yawning chasms ; but in 
 1886 a party reached a height of 7200 feet on the 
 mount. Long reckoned the highest mountain in 
 North America, it is exceeded by Mount Logan, 
 inside the Canadian line (19,539 feet), and by 
 Mount McKinley in Alaska (20,464 feet). 
 
 Ste Marie. See Madagascar. 
 
 Sainte Marie-Aux-Mines. See Markirch. 
 
 Saintes (San"t), an old town of France, dep. 
 Charente-Inferieure, on the Charente's left bank, 
 28 miles by rail SE. of Rochefort, manufactures 
 iron and copper goods, machinery and leather. 
 Mediolanum was the capital of the Santones, 
 whence the name. Its interesting Roman 
 remains include a triumphal arch and the ruins 
 of an amphitheatre. It was a bisliop's seat down 
 to 1790 ; the cathedral still stands. Palissy 
 lived at Saintes for fifty years. The old province 
 was called Saintonge. Pop. 15,595. 
 
 St Etienne (SanH Ay-te-enn'), one of the most 
 important industrial towns in France, stands 
 (dep. Loire) on a tributary of the Loire, 36 miles 
 by rail SW. of Lyons and 312 SSE. of Paris. 
 Built in the second largest coalfield of France, it 
 looks thoroughly grimy. The industries are in 
 iron and steel and in ribbons, and have all 
 steadily increased. Its hardware workshops 
 turn out steel and iron plates, gun -armour, 
 iron masts, large castings for machinery, firearms, 
 locks, cutlery, flies, nails, tools, ribbons, hats, 
 pottery, &c. The government small-arms factory 
 (1764) has since the Revolution supplied nearly 
 all the muskets and rifles and revolvers for the 
 army. Some 40,000 persons, mostly hand-workers 
 in their own homes, are engaged in the town and 
 its vicinity in making ribbons, laces, fringes, 
 &c. Some of the ribbon-looms are (since 1893) 
 driven by electricity. Pop. (1800) 16,000 ; (1851) 
 53,741 ; (1876) 126,019 ; (1901) 139,350. The coal- 
 mines began to be worked in the 14th century, 
 but only on an extensive scale in the end of the 
 18th. The town was twice captured by the 
 Huguenots, in 1563 and 1570. The first railways 
 in France were built from St ifitienne (1828-31). 
 
 St Eustatius, a Dutch West Indian island, 10 
 miles NW. of St Kitts. Area, 8 sq. m. ; pop. 
 1633. 
 
 Saintfield, a Down market-town, 11 miles 
 SE. of Belfast. Pop. 557. 
 
 St Fillans, a Perthshire village, on the Earn, 
 13 miles W. by N. of Crieff. 
 
 St Flour (SaiV^ Floor), a town in the French 
 dep. of Cantal, on a steep basaltic plateau (3000 
 feet) 50 miles S. of Clermont-Ferrand, has a 
 Gothic cathedral (1375-1466), and manufactures 
 pottery, cloth, &c. Pop. 4775. 
 
 St Gall, a Swiss canton, with the Lake of Con- 
 stance on the N. It is for the 7nost part moun- 
 tainous, rising to 10,660 feet in Ringelspitz, and 
 to 8216 in Siintis. The Rhine flows along the 
 eastern border. Area, 779 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 
 250,285, mainly Roman Catholic and German- 
 speaking. — St Gall, the capital, stands on the 
 Steinach, 2196 feet above sea-level (the highest 
 town in Europe), 53 miles by rail E. of Zurich, 
 and 9 from Rorschach on the Lake of Constance. 
 The buildings of its famous Benedictine monastery 
 are now used as government offices and schools, 
 and for housing the monastic library, founded in 
 830, of 41,700 volumes and 1800 MSS. Other 
 buildings are the old abbey church, made a 
 cathedral in 1846 ; the Protestant church of St 
 Lawrence; the town library, founded in 1536, 
 
ST GEORGE'S 
 
 613 
 
 ST IVES 
 
 &nd containing 60,400 volumes and 500 MSS. ; 
 and the museum. The city carries on a large 
 trade in embroidered textiles (cotton, muslin, 
 &c.), and in agricultural products. Pop. about 
 35,000. The original nucleus of the place was 
 the cell of St Gall (c. 550-645), an Irish follower 
 of St Coluniban, who settled here in 614. Around 
 this soon grew up a Benedictine monastery, 
 made by Charles Martel an abbey, which gradu- 
 ally became a masterpiece of mediaeval archi- 
 tecture and a home of the arts. At the French 
 Revolution the abbey was secularised (1798), and 
 its revenues sequestrated in 1805. 
 
 St George's. See Bermudas, Grenada. 
 
 St George's Channel. See Ireland. 
 
 St-Germain-en-Laye {San^-Zher'nian''-oi\?-Lay), 
 a town of France, dep. Seine-et-Oise, stands on an 
 eminence above the Seine, with a royal forest 
 (10,000 acres) behind it, 13 miles W. of Paris. 
 Above the river runs the famous terrace (2625 
 yards long by 115 feet wide), made in 1672. The 
 historic associations cluster round the old royal 
 chateau which, until Louis XIV. removed the 
 court to Versailles, was the favourite residence 
 of the kings of France. Here were born Henry 
 II., Charles IX., Louis XIII., and Louis XIV. ; 
 here died Louis XIII. ; and here James II. of 
 England lived from 1689 to his death in 1701. 
 Turned into barracks, then into a military prison, 
 it was made by Napoleon III. a museum of Gallo- 
 Roman antiquities. Pop. 14,076. — St Gevmain- 
 des-Prcs, named like the other from St Germanus, 
 was a famous Benedictine monastery ; its church 
 (1001-1163) is the oldest in Paris. 
 
 St Germans, formerly the seat of the ancient 
 diocese of Cornwall, now a small village on a 
 branch of the river Lynher, 9^ miles W. by N. of 
 Plymouth. Its fine parish church has an ex- 
 cellent Norman west front. Pop. of parish, 2384. 
 
 St Gervais-les-Bains {San^-Zhervay-leh-BavP), 
 a watering-place in tliQ French dep. of Haute- 
 Savoie, 42 miles SE. of Geneva, was over- 
 whelmed by an ice and water avalanche in 1892. 
 
 St Gilles {San^ Zheel), a town of France, dep. 
 Gard, 12 miles SSE. of Nimes. The west front of 
 its abbey church (1116) is a masterpiece of Roman- 
 esque. Pope Clement IV, was born here. Pop. 
 5094. 
 
 St Goar (Sankt Go-dW), a village on the Rhine, 
 14 miles SE. of Coblenz by rail ; pop. 1453. On 
 the other side of the Rhine is St Goarshausen. 
 
 St Gothard (Goftard; Ger. Gotthard), an Alpine 
 mountain-knot, 9850 feet high, in the Swiss 
 cantons of Uri, Grisons, Ticino, and Valais. It is 
 the source of the Rhine, Rhone, Ticino, and Reuss, 
 thus sending the water from its melted snows to 
 the German Ocean, the Mediterranean, and the 
 Adriatic. On its shoulder it bears the celebrated 
 Alpine pass (6936 feet) from the Lake of Lucerne 
 in Switzerland to the Lago Maggiore in Italy. 
 In 1820-24 the road was widened to 18 feet and 
 smoothed for carriages. Near the summit of the 
 pass stand two hotels and a hospice, the latter 
 for poor wayfarers, of whom some 12,000 used to 
 travel this way every year. Since 1882, however, 
 a railway has climbed up the lower slopes of the 
 St Gothard, and then burrowed through it in a 
 tunnel (1872-80), which extends from Gbschenen 
 (at a height of 3639 feet) in Uri to Airolo (3757 
 feet) in Ticino, measures 9i miles in length, is 
 26 feet wide and 21 high, and cost £2,270,000. 
 
 St Helena (generally called St Helena, not St 
 Helena), a lonely island in the Atlantic, 1200 
 miles from the west coast of Africa, 1695 from 
 
 Capetown, and 4477 from Southampton, measures 
 10 miles by 8, and has an area of 47 sq. m. Ijb is 
 part of an old volcano, and reaches 2823 feet in 
 High Hill. Its shores face the ocean as perpen- 
 dicular cliffs 600 to 2000 feet high. Pop. (1871) 
 6444; (1903) 3500, exclusive of garrison. Till 
 the cutting of the Suez Canal St Helena was a 
 port of call for vessels bound to and from India 
 by the Cape, and the inhabitants did a large 
 trade in provisioning these vessels. Since 1890, 
 too, the British government has been withdrawing 
 the garrison ; though, on the other hand, James- 
 town, the capital (pop. 2500), on the north-west 
 coast, has been made a second-class imperial 
 coaling station, and carefully fortified. St Helena 
 was discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, and 
 taken possession of by the British East India 
 Company in 1651. It has a governor and an execu- 
 tive council of five. The island was Napoleon 
 Bonaparte's prison from 1815 to his death in 1821. 
 His home was the farmhouse of Longwood, 3 
 miles inland from Jamestown ; and near there he 
 was first buried. There is an Anglican bishop 
 of St Helena. See works by Brooke (1808-24) 
 and Melliss (1875). 
 
 St Helens, (1) a town of Lancashire, on the 
 Sankey brook, flowing to the Mersey, 12 miles 
 ENE. of Liverpool and 21 W. by S. of Manchester. 
 Thanks to its railway and canal facilities, and to 
 the immediate neighbourhood of coal, it has grown 
 within recent years from quite a small village to 
 an important industrial centre, and now is the 
 great seat of the manufacture of crown, plate, 
 and sheet glass, and also possesses extensive 
 alkali, copper-smelting, and iron works. It be- 
 came a nmnicijjal borough in 1868; a parlia- 
 mentary borough, returning one member, in 1885 ; 
 and a county borough in 1888. The town-hall, 
 with library, was opened in 1876. Pop. (1851) 
 14,866; (1871)45,134; (1901) 84,410.— <2) A small 
 town in the Isle of Wight, 4 miles SE. of Ryde. 
 Pop. (1851) 1948 ; (1901) 4652. 
 
 St Helier (Fr. Sa'nft Eleeay), the capital of 
 Jersey, is situated on the south shore of the 
 island, and the east side of St Aubin Bay. It 
 is defended by Elizabeth Castle (1651-86), on a 
 rocky island off the shore, approached by a 
 causeway at low- water ; and by Fort Regent, on 
 the south-east side of the town, built in 1806- 
 15. Victoria College dates from 1852, the public 
 library from 1736. The harbour has outer and 
 inner basins. Pop. (1851) 29,153 ; (1871) 30,756 ; 
 (1901) 28,750. 
 
 St Henri, a town of Canada, practically a 
 suburb of Montreal. Pop. (1901) 21,192. 
 
 St Hyaclnthe, capital of a county in Quebec, 
 at the intersection of four railways, 35 miles ENE. 
 of Montreal, with manufactures, a Catholic col- 
 lege, and monasteries. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 St Ives, (1) a fishing-town of Cornwall, beauti- 
 fully situated on the west shore of St Ives Bay, 8 
 miles NNE. of Penzance. It has a branch-line 
 (1865) ; a harbour, with a pier by Smeaton (1770) 
 and a breakwater (1864) ; a 15th-century granite 
 church, with an ancient cross ; and a town-hall 
 (1832); whilst on a hill, 545 feet high, is a 
 pyramid (1782). St Ives is the chief seat of the 
 pilchard-fishery, and from its mild climate and 
 good bathing is a favourite resort. It is said to 
 take name from St la, an Irish princess, martyred 
 here in 450 a.d. Incorporated by Charles I. in 
 1639, it returned two members till 1832, and then 
 one till 1885. Pop. (1861) 7027 ; (1901) 6699. See 
 works by Lach-Szyrma (1878) and J. H. Matthews 
 (1892).— (2) A picturesque old monastic town of 
 
st-jean-d'ang±ly 
 
 614 
 
 ST LAWRENCE 
 
 Huntingdonshire, on the left bank of the Ouse, 5 
 miles E. of Huntingdon. Almost destroyed by- 
 fire (1689), and inundated by the river (1823), it 
 bears a curious likeness to Stratford-on- 
 Avon, and has a 15th-century parish church, a 
 corn exchange (1864), and a six-arch stone bridge 
 of singular beauty, built by the abbots of Ram- 
 sey, with an old chapel or lighthouse in the 
 middle. Cromwell lived at Slepe Hall, now built 
 over, in 1631-36, and Theodore Watts was born 
 here. This place is said to be named after Ivo, 
 a Persian bishop, who died here about 590, and it 
 became in 1017 the seat of a Benedictine priory. 
 A large weekly cattle-market was chartered in 
 1290, and the town was incorporated in 1874. 
 Pop. (1851) 3522 ; (1901) 2910. 
 
 St-Jean-D'Angely (San^-Zhon^-D'On^zhaylee'), 
 a small town of France, dep. of Charente- 
 Inferieure, 15 miles NNE. of Saintes. Pop. 6900. 
 
 St Jean de Luz (San^-Zhong-deh-Licz), a French 
 watering-place (once a famous port) of dep. Basses 
 Pyrenees, at the mouth of the Nivelle, 7 miles 
 from the Spanish frontier. Pop. 4280. 
 
 St Jerome, a river-port of Quebec, on the North 
 River, 33 miles NW. of Montreal. Pop. 4000. 
 
 St John, the largest river of New Brunswick, 
 rises in Maine, flows 450 miles NE. and SE. (the 
 last 225 within British territory), and falls into 
 the Bay of Fundy by an estuary 5 miles wide. 
 Part of its course separates Maine from Canada. 
 
 St John, commercial capital and largest city 
 of New Brunswick, stands on the left bank of 
 the estuary of the St John, 277 miles by rail 
 NW. of Halifax and 481 from Montreal. The 
 harbour is good, and accessible to the largest 
 vessels at all seasons. Shipbuilding and the 
 timber-trade are the chief industries, together 
 with fishing and the West India trade ; the 
 manufactures include engines and locomotives, 
 machinery and farming implements, nails, axes, 
 leather, boots and shoes, paper, cotton and 
 woollen goods, clothing, furniture, carriages, 
 soap, &c. On June 21, 1877, a fire destroyed the 
 greater part of the town ; but a new St John 
 speedily arose, with wide, clean streets, and 
 handsome buildings — custom-house, post-office, 
 city building, lunatic asylum, hospital, and 
 Roman Catholic cathedral. Adjoining St John, 
 and practically forming with it one city, is the 
 town of Portland. Pop. (1881)26,127; (1901)40,711. 
 
 St John. See Antigua. 
 
 St John's, (1) the capital of Newfoundland, 
 stands on the extreme east coast of the island, on 
 Avalon Peninsula, 1076 miles ENE. of Montreal 
 and 1730 W. by S. of Cork in Ireland. It is thus 
 the nearest port in America to Europe ; and it 
 possesses a small but excellent harbour, which is 
 well fortified. Railways run to Harbour Grace 
 (84 miles) and Placentia (25 miles). The city has 
 a number of oil-refineries (fish and seal), and also 
 tanneries, shoe- factories, cabinet-works, &c. It 
 was largely destroyed by fire in July 1892. Pop. 
 (1901)29,594 — (2) Chief town of St John county, 
 Quebec, on the left bank of the river Richelieu, 
 opposite the town of St Athanase, and 27 miles 
 by rail SE. of Montreal. It contains a lunatic 
 asylum, barracks, potteries, foundries, sawmills, 
 &c. Pop. 4314.— (3) St John's, or San Juan, 
 capital of Porto Rico, stands on a small island 
 connected by bridges with a peninsula on the 
 north coast. Pop. 34,000. 
 
 St Johnstoun. See Perth. 
 
 St Joseph, a city of Missouri, capital of 
 Buchanan county, on the Missouri River's left 
 
 bank, 110 miles (by rail 68) above Kansas City. 
 Eight lines of railway centre here, and the river is 
 crossed by an iron railway and foot bridge (1873) 
 of five spans, one a pivot-draw span of 365 feet. 
 St Joseph has large pork-packing establisliments 
 and manufactures of stoves, guns, carriages, 
 clothing, furniture, &c. Laid out in 1843, and 
 incorporated as a city in 1851, it was much of it 
 destroyed by fire on 25th September 1893. Pop. 
 (1870) 29,565 ; (1890) 52,324 ; (1900) 102,979. 
 
 St Just (Joosf), a Cornish town, 7 miles W. of 
 Penzance, with tin and copper mines. Borlase 
 was a native. Pop. of parish, 6119. 
 
 St Keyne, a Cornish parish, 2 miles S. of 
 Liskeard, with a well that gives the mastery to 
 the bridegroom or bride who first drinks of it 
 after their marriage. See Southey's poem. 
 
 St Kilda, a lonely island in the Atlantic, be- 
 longing to Harris in Inverness-shire, and 40 miles 
 W. of North Uist. With an extreme length and 
 breadth of 3 J and IJ miles, it is only 1-9 sq. m. 
 in area ; has lofty precipitous cliff's almost every- 
 where, except at the south-eastern landing-place ; 
 and attains a maximuii altitude of 1220 feet. 
 The climate is mild ; and the soil is black loam, 
 with very fine pasture, but only some 40 arable 
 acres. The live-stock includes nearly a thousand 
 sheep (which graze also on four neighbouring 
 islets), and about forty Highland cattle ; but a 
 principal source of wealth is tlie sea-birds — 
 fulmar petrels, solan geese, puffins, &c. — which 
 supply feathers, oil, and meat. Its native name 
 is Hirta (Gael. h-Iar-tir, ' the western land ') ; 
 and the name St Kilda is probably of Columbau 
 origin. Events in its 'history' have been the 
 reduction of the population by smallpox to four 
 adults and twenty-six children (1724) ; the im- 
 prisonment of Lady Grange here by her husband 
 (1734-42) ; the emigration of thirty-six islanders 
 to Australia (1856) ; the drowning of six (1864) ; 
 and the estabhshment of a regular school (1884). 
 Pop. (1851, the maximum) 110 ; (1901) 77. See 
 works by Dean Munro of the Isles (1585), Martin 
 (1698-1703), Kenneth Macaulay (1764), L. Mac- 
 Lean (1838), J. Sands (1877), G. Seton (1878), 
 and R. Connell (1887). 
 
 St Kilda, a coast suburb of Melbourne (q.v.), 
 on the east side of Hobson's Bay. 
 
 St Elltts. See St Christopher. 
 
 St Lawrence, a great river of North America, 
 which, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows north- 
 east 750 miles — part of the way forming the 
 boundary between Canada and the United States 
 —and falls into the Gulf of St Lawrence by a broad 
 estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name 
 includes the whole system of the Great Lakes 
 and their connecting streams, with a total length 
 from source to mouth of 2200 miles, and a drain- 
 age basin of 300,000 sq. m. The area of water- 
 surface in the five lakes alone is 94,650 sq. m., 
 and the system constitutes by far the largest 
 body of fresh water in the world. This migl*y 
 artery of North-east America rises, under the 
 name of the St Louis, on the spacious plateau 
 which sends forth also the Mississippi towards 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and the Red River of the 
 North towards Hudson Bay. Lake Superior (602 
 feet above sea-level), the next link in the chain, 
 finds its way to Lake Huron through St Mary's 
 River, whose rapids have a fall of 20J feet. 
 Below Lake Huron, which receives Lake Michi- 
 gan from the south, St Clair River, Lake St Clair, 
 Detroit River, and Lake Erie maintain pretty 
 nearly the same level (there is a fall of some 8 
 feet, however, in Detroit River) till the river 
 
ST LEONARDS-ON-SEA 
 
 Niagara descends 326 feet to Lake Ontario, which 
 is itself still 247 feet above the sea-level. The St 
 Lawrence proper, with a number of lake-like ex- 
 pansions (such as the Lake of the Thousand 
 Isles, of St Francis, St Peter, &c.), presents the 
 character first of a river, and then of an estuary, 
 down to the gulf. Prior to 1858 only vessels 
 drawing not more than 11 feet of water could 
 pass up above Quebec ; but since then a channel 
 has been made in the shallow parts of the river, 
 300 feet wide, and so deepened that practically 
 the largest ocean-steamers can now i)ass up to 
 Montreal, Between Lake Ontario and Montreal 
 there are sevei-al rapids, which, however, may be 
 all avoided by means of canals. Immediately 
 above the island of Montreal the St Lawrence is 
 joined by its principal auxiliary, the Ottawa (800 
 miles), from the north-west ; and a little more 
 than half-way between this confluence and Three 
 Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the 
 Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of 
 Lake Champlain. Other principal tributaries 
 are the St Maurice (400 miles), the Saguenay 
 (100), and the Batiscan (50). Steamers may now 
 by help of the canals convey their cargo from 
 Liverpool to Duluth at the far end of Lake 
 Superior without breaking bulk. The width of 
 the St Lawrence varies from less than 1 to 4 
 miles ; the estuary at its mouth is above 100 
 miles across. During winter the river is frozen 
 over and navigation closed. 
 
 The Gulf of St Lawrence, an inlet of the 
 North Atlantic, washes Newfoundland, Quebec, 
 New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. It has three 
 communications with the ocean — the Strait of 
 Belleisle, between Newfoundland and Labrador ; 
 the Gut of Canso, between the island of Cape 
 Breton and Nova Scotia ; and a far wider passage 
 than either, with the island of St Paul in the 
 middle, between Cape Breton and Newfoundland. 
 It narrows, at the west end of Anticosti, 
 into the estuary of the St Lawrence River. 
 Besides Anticosti, St Paul's, and Prince 
 Edward's, this arm of the sea contains many 
 other islands, rendered dangerous to shipping by 
 the fogs and the uncertain currents. Both Gulf 
 and River are celebrated for their fisheries. 
 
 St Leonards-on-Sea (St Len'nards). See 
 Hastings. 
 
 St L6, a town of Normandy, dep. Manche, is 
 built on a rocky elevation on the right bank of 
 the Vire, 60 miles by rail SE. of Cherbourg. A 
 St L6, Bishop of Coutances, built a church here 
 in the 6th century. Noteworthy are the beauti- 
 ful churches of Sainte-Croix, founded in 805, 
 and Notre Dame (15th c). Cloth, ribbons, wool, 
 and laces are manufactured. The astronomer 
 Leverrier was born here. Pop, 9190. 
 ^ St Louis, fourth city of the United States in 
 size, commercial metropolis of the Mississippi 
 valley, and principal city of the Missouri state, is 
 on the west bank of the Mississippi River, 21 
 miles S. of the mouth of the Missouri, and by 
 rail 1108 WSW. of New York, 2434 E. of San 
 Francisco, and 696 N. of New Orleans. In 1764, 
 Laclede, a fur-trader, established a trading-post 
 liere, which he named in honour of Louis IX. of 
 Prance ; in 1803 it passed from France to the 
 United States. Pop. (1840) 16,469 ; (1850) 74,439 ; 
 (1870) 310,864; (1900) 575,238. St Louis is built 
 upon three gently sloping terraces, the summit 
 of the third being 200 feet above and 4 miles W. 
 of the river. Beyond this point for miles the 
 country is almost perfectly level. The city has 
 {^ river frontage of 19 miles ; its greatest width is 
 
 616 
 
 ST MALO 
 
 7 miles. The streets in the old part of the city 
 are narrow, but all those west of Third Street, 
 three blocks from the river, are broad and 
 straiglit. The twenty-five parks of St Louis con- 
 tain 2270 acres— the largest Forest Park. The 
 principal public buildings are the Four Courts, 
 court-house, city hospital, insane asylum, and 
 women's hospital, the custom-house and post- 
 office, which cost over $5,000,000, the Merchants' 
 Exchange, Exposition Building, the Crow Museum 
 of Fine Arts, and the new city hall at Washington 
 Park. The Mercantile Library Building (150,000 
 vols.) is a handsome structure, and so too is the 
 new Public School Library Building (170,000). 
 The Washington and St Louis universities, and 
 the Christian Brothers and Concordia colleges 
 are advanced educational institutions. Eighteen 
 railroads enter the Union Depot (1874-92) of St 
 Louis. The Mississippi at St Louis is spanned 
 by two bridges— the Eads (1874, cost $6,536,730) 
 of three spans, the central being 520 feet, and 
 tlie two side spans 502 feet each ; and the 
 Merchants' Railway Bridge (1890) of steel, 2420 
 feet long, including approaches. Besides a vast 
 trade in grain and cotton, packed meats, live- 
 stock, timber, wool, furs, St Louis has manu- 
 factures of tobacco, beer, boots and shoes, hard- 
 ware, stoves, cars, biscuits ('crackers'), &c. See 
 Billon, Annals of St Louis in its Early Days (1887). 
 
 St Louis (San^ Looee'), capital of the French 
 colony of Senegal in West Africa, on a small low 
 island near the mouth of the Senegal River, 
 Bridges connect it with N'dar Toute, a watering- 
 place, on the right bank, and with Bouetville on 
 the left bank. The river is blocked by a bar ; 
 and ocean steamers land goods and passengers at 
 Dakar, on Cape Verde, 100 miles SW., and thence 
 they are conveyed by rail to Bouetville. The 
 place has a trade (gums, earthnuts, &c.) worth 
 £1,000,000 a year. There are a cathedral, gover- 
 nor's palace, &c. Pop. 20,000. See also Mauritius, 
 
 St Lucia, the largest of the Windward Islands, 
 in the West Indies, 42 miles long and 15 to 20 
 wide, with an area of 245 sq. m. Population, 
 55,000, of whom 2000 are whites. The exports 
 include sugar, cocoa, logwood, &c. Much of the 
 island is high and rocky land, covered with 
 forest, and it contains deposits of sulphur. The 
 island, discovered in 1502, was colonised by the 
 French in 1563; and before 1803, when it de- 
 finitively became English, it six times changed 
 hands between France and England. The capital 
 is Castries (pop. 8500). 
 
 St Lucia Bay, a lagoon at the mouth of the 
 Umfulosi River in Zululand. Cape St Lucia is a 
 promontory to the S. of the channel. 
 
 St Malo {San^ Ma-lo'), a seaport of Brittany, 
 dep. llle-et-Vilaine, on the Ranee estuary, 51 
 miles NNW. of Rennes. The old town clusters 
 all over a rocky islet that is surrounded with 
 walls and connected with the mainland by a 
 narrow causeway. Forts and batteries crown 
 several rocks lying off the town, and the defences 
 are completed by an old castle. The harbour is 
 safe, but difficult of approach ; the tides some- 
 times rise 50 feet, and storms dash over the top 
 of the battlements. About the end of the 17th 
 century the people of this town reaped large 
 fortunes by privateering in the English Channel, 
 and the port was the headquarters of the French 
 Bast India Company. St Malo exports potatoes, 
 buck-wheat, barley, butter, eggs, and fruit, and 
 imports coal, timber, pitch, and iron. There are 
 a quondam cathedral and a museum. St Malo was 
 the birthplace of Chateaubriand, Maupeytuis, 
 
BT MAUffARKTS HOPE 
 
 616 
 
 8T PAUL 
 
 Lanettzie^ and tbe Mflon Dngmy. 
 TtoaiD, Ovtier, and lAboiirdoii]iai& Dinard 
 (q.T.) is aeroas a amall stfcam; 8k Serrao (q.r.) 
 acron the Bance estnazy. Fop. 94S0. 
 
 St Mazgarak's Hbpa SeeFoKxa. 
 
 8k ]farti% one of tlie Leoaer Antilles, Wcsi 
 Indies, dirided alnee 164S between Fiance and 
 HoOand, exports salt» sogv, cotton, tobaceo^ 
 maixe, ke. Area, 37 sq. m. ; popu 2000L 
 
 8k Marttn'i. See Scuxr Islabhsl 
 
 8k Maiy Okardi, a suburb of Torquaj, and 
 now incorponted with it, oTerlooking BablH- 
 conibe Bay. Fop. (1801) 6849. 
 
 8k Mazy't. See Scnxr Islasin^ 
 
 8k Mazy's Lodi. See Tabbow. 
 
 8k Mazya Btver, fbe sbaifc brtween Lakea 
 Hnnm and Sapcarior, with mpids fidling 20| feet. 
 
 8k Mawaa, a Tillage of Cornwall, on an off- 
 shook of FUmooth Hazboor, 3 miles B. of Fid- 
 Viom 15<B to 183S it leknrned two 
 
 8k mohaal's, or SXo Migukl, the laigBsk and 
 mosk important of Ott Axoces (q.T.)L 
 
 8k mehatf s Momt^ a conical and isolated 
 gianite rock in MoantTs Bay, Cornwall, Smiles S. 
 oTFenaance. It communicates with the shore by 
 a causeway 560 yards long, wliidi, howvrei^ is 
 eovered witii water e^it bonis oat of the twetre, 
 and sometinies is impassable for two or three days 
 togBther. The Mount is 196 feet hi^ is 5 fur- 
 ) in drBumftrenee, and is crowned Iqr an old 
 —now used as a manorial 
 byatower, OD one amgfB 
 of which there is a projecting stone lantern, 
 popnhffly called <8k Midiael's Chair.' At the 
 base ot the north or landward side of the Mount 
 iaafishmg-Tillage. The 'guarded mount 'is i 
 to hsTe receiTBd its 
 St Michsel to some hermits; and 
 ConfcMor founded upon it a Benedictine priory, 
 wludi in 1068 was annexed to the abbey of Mont 
 8k Michel in Normandy. After the Dissolution it 
 became the lesidaiee oi fire fiunilies in turn, 
 nntil it was sold in 1060 to its present proprietors, 
 the St Anbyna. For a demcdition oT the notion 
 that the mount within Comisb-spcakii« times 
 has been converted from a wooded promontory 
 to an island, see Maz-Mfiller's Cft^ voL iiL 
 
 8k MkakA^oKf 8mf Mu^Adn, Mowr, an ex- 
 tnordinary roeky idek of the Normsn dep of 
 Manche, in the Bay oTSt Michel, 18 milea WSW. 
 of ATianches. Ik is a solitary cone of gianite, a 
 thousand yards in cireamference and 242 feet 
 hig^ It risea sheer out of a level expanse of 
 sand, and is a most striking itetuie in the lai 
 scape. Tini880-81it 
 ing the sands at low-water, there being a lirm 
 trade across them, with quicksands to n^t and 
 left; but a good road was then fonned aloi% a 
 canseway a mile in lei^th. A Druid stzongboid 
 once, the islet, as the scene of sn apparition of St 
 " 708, became the seat of a great I 
 
 land- 
 
 dictine monastery, wfaidi, 'half church of God, 
 half fortreaa,' has memraies of Henry L. IL, and 
 V. tfBn^bmd, resisting the last successftdly in 
 two neget. The Berolntioa tiansformed this 
 celebrated place of pilgrimage into a prison, and 
 such it remained until 18IB; in 1S74 it was 
 declared a * monument hlstoriqiw,' and laige sums 
 haTB been qpent on its restoration hf ▼iollet'le- 
 Dnc and his successor. The buildingB indude 
 flie church {e. 1140-1.S21X with Norman nave and 
 Flamboyant chmr ; the exquisite cknsteis 0328) ; 
 Hw BaUe des Cheralieri, where Louis XL in 1400 
 
 theorderoTSk Midmel ; and ' La Mef. 
 ▼eUle,' the monastery proper, so called bam ita 
 hnge nodOi wan of the ISOi century, S46 feet 
 hj^andlOBhi^ BeneaaLisariOa(BB(popL»<Qk 
 SkMoaaas, a fiahing-riUage of Fife, ^ milea 
 WSW. of Anstmther, with an antique church. 
 FopilSOi. 
 
 a ferourite waterii^-pteee in the 
 
 (q.T.X with dialybeate, sidphnr- 
 
 and a pop. orlSOOl 
 
 pop. orlSOOl 
 8k Vasatra(Saii« iTa-aoiO^ a seaport of Fteaee, 
 dmi Loire-Infifirieuie, is situated on the nortik 
 side of tiie estuary erf ttie Loire, 40 miles byiail 
 W. by N. of Nantes. Between 1831 and ISST 
 jei,450,000 was spent on harbour improremeata, 
 extensiTe docks (82 acres) havii^ been built for 
 large Teasels unable to get up tiw Loirs to 
 Nantes (q.v.X Fop. 0051) 2400 ; OWI) 34,ee6u 
 
 8k Heoka, a market-town of Hunts, on the 
 Ons^ 8 mUes 8SW. of Huntingdon. It takes 
 name bom Alfred the Greaf s eldest broths^ 
 whose rdies were translated from the Comin 
 paridi of 8k Neok(nowLiskeanl) to a Benedictine 
 founded at Bynesbnry, close by, in 
 irishehurdi, ' ~ ' 
 
 974 ; and it haa a fine parish ehc 
 
 withatower 
 
 156 liset hi^ a com exchange 0863X and 
 I of iron, Jiaper, ftc^ Fopu 0^1) 
 
 O901) 3880. See /Sorfaam's HiMtort of Efmaburw 
 
 and St NeaU (2 Tola. 1824X 
 8k noolaa, a town of Belgium, 12 mfles by ran 
 r. by 8. of Antwerp. It has a large flax-market, 
 nd manufectures cotton and woolka stuflb, laee. 
 
 needles^ feridks, snd pottery. 
 
 stalb,laee, 
 Fbpw 32,00a 
 a TiBage 1 mile 8. of 8tiilin& mans- 
 Ikctoring nails, screw-lK^ts, wooiknsi, snd leather. 
 
 8k Omar iSamH OmtO, a fortified town of 
 Fiance, dep. FuKle-Cihiis, stands in a mar^ 
 site, on flie Aa, 26 nules SB. of Gahds by xaiL 
 It haa a Gothic cathedral 0Sth-15th centuryX an 
 arsenal, museum, and library. A college for the 
 edncatioB of Bnglish and Iriah Gstholiea waa 
 opened at St Omer in 1592. Itwas dosed during 
 the Bevointion, but stiU exists ss a seminary. 
 Alban Butler waa a president, and (yConnen a 
 studenL The manufeetures include tobaoeo* 
 pipes, tolle, cambric, doth, and muaUn. Fop. 
 r,75a 
 
 SaiBtonge (SanPton^di), a Ibrmer French mari- 
 time province (capital, Saintes), now filming 
 mainly the dep. of Charente-Inlierieuie. 
 
 8k Paul, the cqiital of the state of MinnesotB, 
 on the Mississippi, near the mouth of the 10n> 
 nesoto Birer. It is the outgrowth of a hamlek 
 of Toyageurs, chie^ Omadian, employed in Hm 
 fur trade, and f 
 Fort Sndling. llie first 
 
 here in 1840, and in 180 a suaOl OrthoUe kg- 
 ctepd dedicated to St Fud. In 1849 the ci^was 
 made the capital of Minnesota territory. Upon 
 the lower platean of limestone rock are the capi- 
 tal, posk^aBoe, eourk-house, and large stons ; UM 
 best private lesldenoes are on the 1 
 overiooUng " - - - - 
 Avenue is noted fbr 
 ct flie houses. Then are several 
 under the control (rf the city or state : 
 Ooncse 08581 Hamline Methodist University 
 085$ and Sf Thomas Boman Catholic ~ " 
 The water-WDiks ftimish a daUy supply of 
 million gallons. AB parts of the d^ are i 
 by electric street-ranwaya. The free C^ 
 Library contains 70,000 ndumes. St Paul ia tiM 
 oeatie of the wholesale grocery and dzy-gooda 
 
 uefly qk 
 
 in MdUng vlusky to the aoidien ak 
 ~ st Iqg-huts were erected 
 
 rtmftwti, mi n t tmig^ mwum.vm , aa^ 
 
 oes are on the upper phiteaa, 
 
 MiasissippL The Sununik 
 
 itawidUi snd theeosffineas 
 
ft* PAUL 
 
 617 
 
 Sf PETERSBURG 
 
 business in Minnesota. Pop. (1860) 10,701 ; 
 
 (1880) 41,473 ; (1900) 163,065, 
 
 St Paul, a volcanic islet, 2 miles long and 860 
 feet high, in the Indian Ocean, midway between 
 Africa and Australia, in 38" 42' 8. lat. and 77' 32* 
 B. long. It is coinijaratively bare, in contrast 
 to the densely vegetated island of New Amster- 
 dam, 50 miles to the north, like which it was an- 
 nexed by France in 1892.— St Paul's Rocks, a 
 group of small islets 1' N. of the equator and 540 
 miles from the South American coast. 
 
 St Paul de Loanda. See Loanda. 
 
 St Peter Port, the town of Guernsey (q.v.). 
 
 St Petersburg, capital of the Russian empire, 
 stands at the head of the Gulf of Finland, and at 
 the mouth of the Neva, in 59' 56' N. lat. and 39' 
 19^ E. long. The flat and low marshy ground 
 upon which the city is built only recently emerged 
 firom the sea; the mighty Neva, which flows 
 36 miles front Lake Ladc^a, subdivides into 
 many branches, thus forming some 100 islands. 
 When a strong wind blows from the sea its 
 level rises, and the poorer streets are flooded ; 
 when the overflow exceeds 10 feet (as in 1891) 
 nearly the whole city is inundated, llie country 
 is so marshy and barren that the government of 
 St Petersburg (area, 20,760 sq. m. ; ik>I)., without 
 the capital, 850,000) has only 40 iuhabiUiits 
 
 ger sq. m. In 1702 Peter the Great captured the 
 wedish forts on the Neva, laid the foundations of 
 his capital on one of the islands of the delta, and 
 dreamed to make of it a new Amsterdam. The 
 Neva, connected by canals with the upper Volga, 
 became the outlet of the innnense basin of the 
 chief river of Russia and its numberless tribu- 
 taries ; and assisted by four main lines of railway 
 St Petersburg has for more than 150 years been 
 the chief port of Russia for the export of raw 
 produce and th« import of manufactured goods. 
 Foreign trade and the centralisation of govern- 
 ment have made St Petersburg a populous 
 city with more than a million inhabitants and 
 covering 42 sq. m., on the banks of the Neva and 
 the islands formed by its branches. The Great 
 Neva (400 to 700 yards wide within the city) is a 
 beautiful river of deep and pure water. But the 
 channel across the bar at its mouth is narrow and 
 sinuous, so that Cronstadt, on an island 16 miles 
 W. of St Petersburg, remains both the fortress 
 and the port of the capital ; though since 1885 a 
 ship-canal, 22 feet deep, admits ships to St 
 Petersburg, and two-thirds of the foreign vessels 
 unload within the city. The main body of the 
 city stands on the mainland, on the left bank of 
 the Neva ; and a beautiful granite quay, with a 
 long series of palaces and mansions, stretches for 
 2^ miles. Only two permanent bridges cross the 
 Neva ; two bridges of boats are removed in autumn 
 and spring. The island Vasilievsky, between the 
 Great and Little Nevas, contains the Stock Ex- 
 change, the Academy of Sciences, the University, 
 the Philological Institute, the Academy of Arts, 
 and various schools and colleges. On the Peter- 
 burgskiy Island, between the Little Neva and the 
 Great Nevka, stands the old fortress and prison 
 of St Peter and St Paul, facing the Winter Palace, 
 and containing the Mint and the cathedral where- 
 in the members of the imperial family are buried, 
 also the arsenal. Numerous islands, separated 
 from each other by the small branches into which 
 both Nevkas subdivide, and connected together 
 by a great number of wooden bridges, are covered 
 with beautiful parks and summer-houses. The 
 main peurt of St Petersburg has for its centre the 
 Old Admiralty ; its lofty gilded spire aad the 
 
 gilded dome of St Isaac's Cathedral are among 
 the first sights caught on approaching St Peters- 
 burg by sea. Three streets radiate from it, the 
 first of them tlie famous Nevskiy Prospect. The 
 street architecture, with its huge bnck houses 
 covered with stucco and mostly painted gray, is 
 rigid and military in aspect. A spacious square, 
 planted with trees, encloses the Old Admiralty 
 on three sides. To the east of it rise the magni- 
 ficent mass of the Winter Palace, the Hermitage 
 Gallery of Art, and the semicircular buildings of 
 the general stafT. In the Petrovskiy Square is 
 the well-known statue of Peter I. on an immense 
 block of Finland granite. Tlie ricldy decorated 
 cathedral of St Isaac of Dabnatia, erectefl by 
 Nicholas I., is an almost cubic building (330 
 feet long, 290 broad, and 310 high), siuinounted 
 by one large and lofty and four small gilded 
 domes. In Nevskiy Prospect are the Kazan 
 cathedral, the public library, the square of 
 Catharine II., and the Anitchkofi" Palace. 
 
 The climate is less severe than might be ex- 
 pects, but it is mihealthy and very changeable. 
 The average temperatures are 15-4' F. in January, 
 64° in July, and 38-6' for the year ; the Neva 
 is frozen for an average of 147 days in the 
 year. A short but hot summer is followed 
 by a damp autumn and very changeable winter, 
 severe frosts being followed by rainy days in the 
 midst of winter, and returning in April and May 
 after the first warm days of the spring. The 
 population has rapidly increa.sed during the 19th 
 century, and attained, with the suburbs, 1,500,000 
 in 1905, as against 918,016 in 1881. But it de- 
 creases very much during the summer, because 
 the crowds of peasants who come to work in the 
 factories in winter, return to their villages in 
 summer. The sanitary arrangements being very 
 imperfect, typhoid fever and European cholen 
 are endemic. The mortality, 31 to 39 per thou- 
 sand before 1885, is now 24. Tliere are 17,000 
 Finnish citizens, 45,000 of German race (mostly 
 from the Baltic provinces), and 22,500 Poles. 
 
 The total production of its factories (cottons, 
 various textiles, metals, leather, sugar, guns, 
 porcelain goods, «Scc.) is nearly £29,000,000. Yearly 
 20,000 boats and rafts, laden with com, hemp, 
 flax, linseed, leather, fuel- wood, and building 
 materials (3,000,000 tons), reach St Petersburg by 
 the Neva ; and 1,300,000 tons of goods, including 
 500,000 tons of com, come in by rail, chiefly from 
 the upper Volga. The export of com firom St 
 Petersburg alone is one-fifth of the total export 
 from Rnssia ; besides hemp, flax, linseed, leather, 
 crude petroleum, &c., the total value of the ex- 
 ports being from £8,000,000 to £10,000,000 ; the 
 imports, chiefly of coal, machinery, groceries, and 
 manufactured goods, reach about the same value. 
 The port is visited yearly by about 1800 ships. 
 
 The number and variety of scientific, literary, 
 educational, artistic, and technical institutions 
 concentrated in the capital, render life at St 
 Petersburg attractive. The St Petersburg Uni- 
 versity, and the numerous academies, medical, 
 technological, engineering, naval, military, 4a, 
 as well as the Ladies' University, number thou- 
 sands of students, both male and female. The 
 Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Arts 
 are well known ; there is an excellent conserva- 
 toire of music. The public libraries are num- 
 erous. Besides the Imperial Public Library 
 (1 ,200,000 volumes and 40.000 M88.), there are the 
 libraries of the Academy of Sciences, the Univer- 
 sity, the Council of State, as well as those of 
 the scientific societies. There are besides rich 
 museuios of art iu the Hermitage (Flemish^ 
 
ST PIEKI^B 
 
 618 
 
 SALAMlS 
 
 Russian, and early Italian schools well repre- 
 sented, and priceless collections of Greek and 
 Scythian antiquities), in the Academy of Arts ; 
 and there are important museums. The Russian 
 publishing trade is concentrated at St Petersburg. 
 
 St Pierre was the largest town, though not 
 the capital, of Martinique (q.v.), in the West 
 Indies, with a good harbour, cathedral, college, 
 and botanical garden. It was the birthplace of 
 Josephine, consort of Napoleon I. It was utterly 
 destroyed on 8th May 1902 by an eruption of Mont 
 Pelee, when its 30,000 inhabitants perished in 'a 
 whirlwind of fire,' followed by lava, ashes, and 
 dense sulphurous fumes. 
 
 St Pierre. See Reunion, and Miquelon. 
 
 St Pol de Leon {San^ Pol deh Lay-on^'), a de- 
 cayed town in the Breton dep. of Finistfere, near 
 the English Channel, 13 miles NNW. of Morlaix. 
 It has a 13th-century cathedral, and a church 
 with a beautiful spire 263 feet high. Pop. 7260. 
 
 St Quentin {San^ KovPtanF), a town in the 
 French dep. of Aisne, on the Somme, 95 miles 
 NB. of Paris and 33 S. of Cambrai. The church 
 of St Quentin is a fine Gothic structure, dating 
 from the 12th to the 15th century. The town- 
 hall (15th-16th c.) is also a fine specimen of 
 Gothic. The town is a centre of cotton industries 
 which give employment to 130,000 hands in the 
 making of calicoes, tulle, cretonnes, jaconets, 
 muslin, merino, cambric, and gauze. Embroidery 
 is largely prepared, and machinery, hats, paper, 
 sugar, soap, and beer are manufactured. Pop. 
 (1856) 26,887; (1901) 47,851. The Spaniards and 
 an English contingent inflicted a crushing defeat 
 upon the French in 1557. Shortly afterwards 
 the town, after a brilliant defence by Coligny, 
 capitulated to the Spanish army. In 1871 the 
 Germans routed the army of Faidherbe here. 
 
 St Radigunds Abbey, Kent, a ruin (1191) 3 
 miles W. of Dover. 
 
 St Raphael, a winter-resort on the French 
 Riviera, 2^ miles SE. of Frejus by rail. Pop. 4740. 
 
 St Ronan's Well. See Innerleithen. 
 
 St Servan {SainF Ser-von^), a seaport and water- 
 ing-place of France, dep. Ille-et-Vilaine, stands 
 on the east side of the estuary of the Ranee, just 
 above St Malo, from which it is separated by a 
 creek a mile wide. It has a floating-dock, and 
 carries on shipbuilding. Close by are the ruins 
 of the cathedral of Aleth (6th to 12th century). 
 St Servaii was the birthplace of the order of 
 • Little Sisters of the Poor.' Pop. 10,179. 
 
 St Thomas, a volcanic island of Africa be- 
 loTiging to Portugal, lies in the Gulf of Guinea 
 170 miles W. of the mouth of the river Gaboon. 
 Its southern extremity almost touches the equator. 
 Measuring 32 miles by 21, it has an area of 360 
 sq. ni. ; pop. nearly 40,000, including 4000 whites. 
 Although it rises to 6000 feet, it is very un- 
 healthy. Coffee, cocoa, pepper, cinnamon, maize, 
 indigo, &c. are the products. Chief town, St 
 Thomas (pop. 3000), on the NE. coast, the seat 
 of a bishop. The island was discovered in 1470, 
 and colonised in 1493 by the Portuguese, to whom 
 it reverted after a Dutch occupation from 1641 
 to 1844. See Crouch, Glimpses of Feverland (1889). 
 
 St Thomas, one of the Virgin Islands in the 
 West Indies, belongs to Denmark, and lies 36 
 miles E. of Puerto Rico. Area, 33 sq. m. ; pop. 
 14,389 (nearly 600 Jews). English is the language 
 of the educated classes. The surface is hilly (1555 
 feet) and the soil poor. The port is Charlotte 
 Amalie or St Thomas (pop. 12,000). 
 
 St Thomas, a town of Ontario, 9 miles N. of 
 Port Stanley on Lake Erie. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 St Trond, a manufacturing town of Belgian 
 Limburg, 12 miles WNW. of Tougres. 
 
 St Uhes. See Setubal. 
 
 St Valery, two French watering-places on the 
 English Channel, one (Valery-en-Caux) 17 miles 
 WSW. of Dieppe, the other (Valery-sur-Somme) 
 30 miles NE. of Dieppe, each with about 3500 
 inhabitants. 
 
 St Vincent, one of the British islands in the 
 West Indies, Windward Group, 105 miles W. of 
 Barbadoes. Area, 132 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 40,548 ; 
 (1903) 48,250, of whom 3000 were whites. The 
 island is traversed by a chain of volcanic moun- 
 tains, which rise in the volcano called the 
 Souffriere (destructive eruptions in 1812 and 
 1902 ; see St Pierre) to 3000 feet. Sugar, rum, 
 cocoa, spices, and arrowroot are the principal pro- 
 ducts. The chief town is Kingstown (pop. 5200), 
 
 St Vincent, Cape, a promontory forming the 
 SW. corner of Portugal. Off here, in 1693, Rooke 
 was defeated by the French ; in 1780 Rodney 
 destroyed here several Spanish ships ; in 1797 
 Jervis's great victory of Cape St Vincent resulted 
 in the total defeat of the Spaniards • and in 1833 
 the fleet of Queen Maria, commanded by Sir 
 Charles Napier, defeated that of Dom Miguel. 
 
 Sais (Say-iss or SaJi-eess), an ancient Egyptian 
 city, on the Canopic branch of the Nile. 
 
 Sakai (Sa-kl), a town of Japan, in the SW. of 
 Honshu, 7 miles S. of Osaka. Pop. 49,990. 
 
 Sakhalin. See Saghalien. 
 
 Sakkar. See Sukkur. 
 
 Sakkara (Sak-kah'ra), a village 10 miles S. of 
 Cairo, near the ruins of Memphis, and famous for 
 its eleven Pyramids (q.v.). 
 
 Salamanca, a city of Spain, stands on and 
 between four low hills beside the river Tormes, 
 110 miles N W. of Madrid. Its university, founded 
 in 1243, was till the close of the 17th c. one of 
 the most celebrated in Europe. In the 16th c. 
 it had from 6000 to 8000 students ; now there are 
 only 400. The university buildings date chiefly 
 from the 15th century, and are Gothic in style. 
 The library, founded in 1254, contains 70,500 
 vols, and 870 MSS. The city is still surrounded 
 with walls, pierced by ten gates, and preserves 
 very much of its medieval appearance. The 
 river is crossed by a bridge of twenty-seven 
 arches, in part of Roman construction. The 
 great square is one of the largest in Spain ; it is 
 surrounded by an arcade, and has on one side the 
 municipal buildings. The city possesses two 
 cathedrals ; the old cathedral, late Romanesque 
 in style, dating from the 12th century ; the 
 new cathedral (1513-1734), a florid Gothic pile. 
 Amongst the remaining noteworthy buildings are 
 the Jesuit College (1614) ; the Old College, now 
 the governor's palace ; the convents of the 
 Dominicans and the Augustinians. In the middle 
 ages Salamanca was famous for its leather- work ; 
 at the present day it manufactures a little cloth, 
 linen, leather, and pottery. Pop. (1900) 25,700. 
 The town was captured by Hannibal in 222 b.c. ; 
 and the Moors were expelled in 1055. During 
 the Peninsular war it was taken by the French 
 (1812), and in the vicinity Wellington defeated 
 Marinont, 22d July 1812.— The province has aa 
 area of 4940 sq. m. and a pop. of 320,770. 
 
 Sal'amis (now Koluri), a mountainous Greek 
 island, off" the coast of Attica, and forming with it 
 the Bay of Eleusis. Area, 35 scj. zu. ; pop. 6500, 
 
SALAKGOE 
 
 eid 
 
 SALISBURY 
 
 The chief town is the port of Koluri, on the west 
 coast, itself with over 3500 inhabitants. In 
 ancient times tlie towns of Old and New Sala- 
 inis lay, the former on the south, the latter 
 on the north-east coast. Salamis was an in- 
 dependent state till about 620 B.C., when it 
 fell, first to Megara, next to Athens. Its name 
 is ever memorable from the great naval victory 
 of the Greeks over Xerxes' vast Persian fleet, 
 fought (480 B.C.) a few days after the battle of 
 Thennopylae, in the narrow strait between the 
 east coast of Salamis and the west coast of Attica. 
 
 Salangor. See Selangor. 
 
 Salcombe, a South Devon town, on the W. 
 side of Salcombe Haven, 4 miles S. of Kings- 
 bridge. Its climate is reputed to be the warmest 
 in England. Froude is buried here. Pop. 1720. 
 
 Saldanha Bay. See Cape Colony. 
 
 Sale, a town of Cheshire, 5 miles SSW. of Man- 
 chester. Pop. 12,100. 
 
 Salem, a town of S. India, 120 miles by rail 
 SW. of Madras, with cotton manufactures. Pop. 
 70,650. 
 
 Salem, (1) a city and port of entry on a pen- 
 insula in Massachusetts Bay, 16 miles by rail N. 
 by E. of Boston. It has a good harboui-, which 
 fonnerly carried on a large foreign trade ; now 
 only a coast trade in ice and coal remains. 
 The East India Marine Society's collections are 
 now united with those of the Peabody Academy 
 of Science, the Essex Institute, and the Salem 
 AthenfEum, the last two housed in Plummer 
 Hall. The manufactures include cottons, jute, 
 leather, shoes, iron castings, lead pipes, &c. 
 Salem was settled in 1626. In the great witclicraft 
 delusion of 1692 nineteen persons were hanged and 
 one pressed to death. Hawthorne and Prescott 
 were born here. Pop. (1880) 27,563 ; (1900) 35,956. 
 — <2) Capital of Salem county. New Jersey, on 
 Salem Creek, 3^ miles from its entrance into the 
 Delaware and 36 miles by rail SSW. of Camden. 
 It has manufactories of glass, flour, oil-cloth, 
 carriages, besides a foundry, planing-mills, and 
 fruit-canneries. Pop. 5812.--<3)Capital of Oregon 
 since 1860, on the east bank of the Willamette 
 River, 52 miles by rail S. by W. of Portland and 
 720 N. of San Francisco. Here are the state capi- 
 tol, prison, insane asylum, the Willamette Univer- 
 sity (Methodist Episcopal, 1851), &c. Pop. 4515. 
 
 Salemi (Salay'viee), a town in the west of Sicily, 
 39 miles SW. of Palermo. Pop. 11,512. 
 
 Salerno (anc. Salemum), a city of Italy, on the 
 Gulf of Salerno, 33 miles by rail SE. of Naples. 
 A hill behind the town is crowned by an old 
 Norman castle. The beautiful cathedral of St 
 Matthew was erected by the Normans (1076-84). 
 The city was celebrated for its university (founded 
 in 1150, closed in 1817), and for its school of 
 medicine, long the first in Europe, which decayed 
 in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood are 
 the ruins of Psestum (q.v.). Originally a Roman 
 colony (194 B.C.), Salerno was made his capital 
 by Robert Guiscard, and sacked by the Emperor 
 Henry VI. Pop. 22,328. 
 
 Salette, La, an Alpine village of France, dep. 
 Isere, 28 miles SSE. of Grenoble. In 1846 the 
 Virgin was alleged to have appeared to two peasant 
 children on a spot where in 1852-61 a pilgrimage 
 church was built at an elevation of 5920 feet. 
 The apparition was discredited by Pope Leo 
 XIII. in 1879. Pop. 607. 
 
 Saleyer (Sall'er), a group of islands lying ©«■ 
 the south-west extremity of Celebes, in the East 
 Indies (total area, 404 sq. m. ; pop. 80,000), whose 
 
 chiefs pay tribute to Holland. Principal exports, 
 cotton, trepang, cocoa-nuts, tortoiseshell, salt, and 
 tobacco. The people, Malays, are Mohammedans. 
 
 Salford, though a separate municipal and 
 county borough, with a pop. in 1905 of 225,000, 
 is virtually a western division of Manchester 
 (q.v.), from whicli it is- separated by the Irwell. 
 
 Sali'na, a town of Kansas, 186 miles W. by S. 
 of Kansas City. Pop. 6080. 
 
 Salins (anc. Salince), a town of the French dep. 
 of Jura, 22 miles S. by W. of Besan^on, has valu- 
 able salt-sj)rings. Pop. 5392. 
 
 Salisbury is a cathedral city, the capital of 
 Wiltshire, and a parliamentary and municipal 
 borough, which stands in a valley near the con- 
 fluence of the rivers Avon, Bourne, Wily, and 
 Nadder, 84 miles WSW. of London. Old Sarum 
 {Sorhiodunum), from Roman times a castle and 
 a place of much importance, now consists of 
 a bare conical entrenched hill about a mile N. 
 of the present city. In 1075 Bishop Herman 
 removed the bishopric of the united sees of 
 Ramsbury and Sherborne to Old Sarum, and 
 began a cathedral (whose foundations are still to 
 be traced in very dry seasons), Avhicli was finished 
 by his successor, St Osmund, who compiled the 
 Use of Sarum. It was hi the form of a cross, 270 
 feet long by 70 feet wide, with a transept of 150 
 feet. Old Sarum returned two members to parlia- 
 ment until the passing of the Reform Bill, 
 although there had for years been no inhabitants. 
 The removal from Old Sarum to New Sarum or 
 Salisbury took place in 1220, when the foundations 
 of the new cathedral were laid. The Lady Chapel 
 was consecrated in 1225, and the whole building 
 in 1260. A double cross in plan, it is a perfect 
 example of pure Early Englisli style. The spire 
 (c. 1330) is the highest in England (400 feet) ; it 
 leans 27^ inches towards the south. The cathe- 
 dral suffered from a disastrous ' restoration ' at the 
 hands of James Wyatt (1782-91), when two 15th- 
 century chapels and two porches were destroyed, 
 much painted glass removed, the tombs re- 
 arranged, and a lofty isolated campanile pulled 
 down. Much of the damage then done has been 
 repaired in the restoration begun in 1863. The 
 library (c. 1450) contains about 5000 volumes and 
 many valuable MSS. The outside measurements 
 of the cathedral are : length 473 feet, width 111 
 feet ; the height of the nave and choir inside is 
 81 feet. The cathedral stands apart from any 
 other buildijig in the midst of a beautiful Close 
 of about half a square mile in extent, encircled 
 by a wall, within Avhich stand the Bishop's 
 Palace (an irregular building begun by Bishop 
 Richard Poore, c. 1220), the deanery and canons' 
 houses, and many other picturesque buildings. 
 Other notable buildings are the council-house, 
 where the assizes are held ; the county hall ; 
 the infirmary ; the ' Hall of John Hall ' and Audley 
 House, now the church-house of the diocese, two 
 fine examples of 15th-century domestic architec- 
 ture ; the old George Inn (now a shop), where 
 Pepys stayed ; St Nicholas' Hospital ; the market- 
 house ; the poultry-cross ; and the Blackmore 
 Museum, which contains one of the finest collec- 
 tions of prehistoric antiquities in England. The 
 plan of the city is very regular. Water originally 
 ran through most of the streets, but the streams 
 were covered over after the visitation of the 
 cholera in 1849. The spacious market-i/lace is 
 planted with trees, and contains statues of Lord 
 Herbert of Lea (Sidney Herbert) and Professor 
 Fawcett, who was a native of the city. Here the 
 Duke of Buckingham was beheaded in 1483 wbeu 
 
SALlSBURir 
 
 620 
 
 SALT LAKE CITY 
 
 Salisbury was the headquarters of Richard III. 
 The city chiefly depends upon its agricultural 
 trade, the former manufactures of cutlery and 
 woollens being extinct. Salisbury returns one 
 Jiiember. Pop. (1851) 11,657 ; (1881) 14,792 ; (1901) 
 17,117. See works by Hatcher, Britton (1814), 
 Price (1753), Dodsworth (1814), and Jones (1879, 
 &c.). — Salisbury Plain, an undulating tract of 
 chalky down, affords splendid pasture for sheep. 
 There are many ancient mounds and barrows, 
 and in the midst stands Stonehenge (q.v.). 
 
 Salisbury, capital of Southern Rhodesia (q.v.), 
 about 225 miles NB. of Bulawayo, with which, 
 as with Beira, it lias railway connection. It 
 has government offices, municipality, churches, 
 banlis, schools, &c. Wliite pop. about 500. 
 
 Salisbury, (1) in North Carolina, 44 miles NNE. 
 of Charlotte, has a coloured college and normal 
 school, and the national cemetery with over 12,000 
 graves. Pop. 6300.— (2) In Maryland, 32 miles 
 ENE. from Chrisfield, has canning factories and 
 manufactures. Pop. 4300. 
 
 Sallee, Sal^, or Sla, a seaport of Morocco, on 
 the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Bu-Ragreb, on 
 the north side of the river, opposite Rabat (q.v.). 
 It was for centuries notorious as a haunt of 
 pirates, the 'Sallee Rovers.' Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Salomon Islands. See Solomon Islands. 
 
 Salona, a ruined city of Dalmatia, at the head 
 of a gulf of the Adriatic, 8 miles NE. of Spalato. 
 
 Saloni'ca, or Saloniki (Turk. Selanik), the 
 second commercial city of European Turkey, 
 stands at the head of the Gulf of Salonica, 820 
 miles SSE. of Vienna by rail (1889), via Belgrade, 
 Uskiib, and Nisch. It climbs up the rocky 
 heights that stretch back from the shore, and is 
 overlooked by a citadel ; the white walls are 5 
 miles in circumference, and houses and mosques 
 are embowered in trees of dark foliage. The 
 mosques were, most of them, Christian churches. 
 St Sophia, modelled after its namesake at Constan- 
 tinople, built in Justinian's reign, and a mosque 
 since 1589, is shaped like a Greek cross, and sur- 
 mounted by a dome covered Avith mosaics. It 
 was injured in the great fire of September 3-4, 
 1890, which did £800,000 of damage to the town. 
 St George, dating from Constantine, is circular ; 
 its dome too is covered with fine mosaics. St 
 Demetrius (7th century) is decorated internally 
 with slabs of diff"erent coloured marble. The 
 Old Mosque was anciently a temple of Venus. 
 Here is the propylaeum of the hippodrome in 
 which Theodosius in 390 ordered the massacre of 
 7000 citizens. One of two fine handsome Roman 
 arches was taken down in 1867 ; the other still 
 stands, but in a ruinous condition. The com- 
 merce is increasing, especially since the opening 
 of the railway to Servia. The imports consist 
 chiefly of metal wares, textiles, coff"ee, petroleum, 
 salt, sugar, rice, and soap ; the exports of corn, 
 cotton, opium, wool, tobacco, skins, silk, cocoons, 
 &c. The industries include the manufacture of 
 cotton, flour, soap, bricks, leather, silk, and 
 carpets. Population, 100,000, of whom nearly 
 50,000 are Jews of Spanish descent, 35,000 Turks, 
 and 15,000 Greeks. Salonica is the ancient 
 Thessalonica, to whose Christian community St 
 Paul addressed two epistles. Here Cicero dwelt 
 for a time. Thessalonica was built by Cassan- 
 der about 315 b.c. on the site of the older Therme, 
 and was called after his wife, sister of Alexander 
 the Great. It soon became the principal harbour 
 of Macedonia. Under the Byzantine emperors it 
 successfully withstood the Goths and the Slavs, 
 but was captured by Moslems from Africa in 904, 
 
 and by the Normans of south Italy in 1185. 
 From the Venetians the Turks took it in 1430. 
 
 Salop. See Shropshire. 
 
 Salsette (Portu. X'ron. Sal-set' tay), an island 
 lying N. of Bombay, with which it is connected 
 by a bridge and a causeway. It is diversified by 
 mountain and hill, studded with the ruins of 
 Portuguese cliurches, convents, and villas, and 
 rich in rice-fields and cocoa-nut groves. Area, 
 241sq.m.; pop. 118,000; chief town, Thana (q.v.). 
 Nearly 100 caves and cave-temples excavated in 
 the face of a single hill at Kanhari or Keneri, 5 
 miles W. of Thana ; they contain colossal carvings. 
 There are other caves at Montpezir, Kanduti, 
 Amboli, &c. Salsette was occupied by the Portu- 
 guese early in the 16th century, and was cap- 
 tured by the British in 1774. 
 
 Salta, a northern province of Argentina, touch- 
 ing Chili and Bolivia ; area, 49,510 sq. m. ; pop. 
 200,000.— Salta, the capital, on the Rio Arias, 535 
 miles by rail N. by W. of Cordoba, was founded in 
 1582, is" the seat of an archbishop. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Saltaire, a model village of Yorkshire, on the 
 Aire, 3 miles NW. of Bradford, founded and built 
 by Sir Titus Salt, who opened his worsted and 
 alpaca factory here in 1853. This factory covers 
 12 acres, and is six stories high. The place pos- 
 sesses a church of Byzantine architecture, hospi- 
 tal, school, a park of 14 acres, workmen's club 
 and institute which cost £30,000, technical 
 schools (1887), &c. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 Saltash, a picturesque municipal borough and 
 seaport of Cornwall, on the west side of the 
 Tamar estuary, and 4| miles NW. of Plymouth 
 by a railway that crosses the Tamar by Brunei's 
 iron Royal* Albert Viaduct (1857-59), 2240 feet 
 long and 240 high (the roadway 102 feet above 
 high-water mark), constructed at a cost of 
 £230,000. The church of St Nicholas dates from 
 1225. The town was disfranchised in 1832. Pop. 
 3500. 
 
 Saltbum, a picturesque Yorkshire watering- 
 place, built on lofty cliff's facing the sea, 4 miles 
 SE. of Redcar, dates from the opening of the rail- 
 way in 1861. Pop. 2580. 
 
 Saltcoats, a watering-place of Ayrshire, on the 
 Firth of Clyde, 1 mile ESE. of Ardrossan and 30 
 miles SW. of Glasgow. It was a seat of salt 
 manufacture from 1686 to 1827. Pop. 8120. 
 
 Saltfleet, a Lincolnshire coast-village, 9J miles 
 ENE. of Louth. 
 
 Saltillo (Salteel'yo), capital of the Mexican 
 state of Coahuila, by rail 237 miles SW. of Laredo, 
 in Texas, and 603 N. by W. of Mexico city. Pop. 
 25,000. Near it is Buena Vista (q.v.). 
 
 Salt Lake City, the chief town and ecclesi- 
 astical capital of the state of Utah, is on the 
 river Jordan, 11 miles from Great Salt Lake (q.v.), 
 and 4265 feet above the level of the sea. By rail 
 it is 36 miles S. of Ogden, on the Union Pacific 
 Railroad (833 miles from San Francisco and 1031 
 from Omaha). It was settled by the Mormons in 
 1847, and incorporated in 1851 ; has an area of 12 
 sq. m., with corporate limits embracing 50 sq. m. ; 
 and its shaded streets, 137 feet wide, many of 
 them freshened by streams of running water from 
 the neighbouring mountains, are traversed by 
 tram-cars (1872), and lit by gas (1873) and the 
 eleatric light (1877). The public buildings in- 
 clude the Mormon temple (1853-93 ; cost over 
 $2,500,000), with walls built of blocks of dressed 
 granite, 20 feet thick at the basement, and taper- 
 ing to 6 feet thick at the top ; the Tabernacle, an 
 immense elliptical building, with a dome-shaped 
 
SALTLEY 
 
 621 
 
 SALZBURG 
 
 ('dish-cover') roof resting on sandstone pillars, 
 and seated for 9000 ; the new assembly hall, of 
 rough-hewn granite ; the endowment-house, &c. 
 Other religious bodies also are represented, and 
 there are Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presby- 
 terian, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches: 
 St Mark's Cathedral is a handsome building. 
 Other noteworthy edifices are those of the 
 museum, the Mining Institute, St Mary's Hospi- 
 tal, the university of Ueseret (1850 ; buildings 
 finished 1887), and the theatres and opera-house. 
 Manufactures are bricks, paper, timber, blinds, 
 window-glass, &c. Pop. (1870) 12,854 ; (1000) 
 53,531. See works by Burton (18G1) and Bancroft 
 (1889), and Stanford's Central America (1902). 
 
 Saltley, a NB. suburb of Birmingham. 
 
 Saltney, a Flintshire village on the Dee, 2 
 miles SW. of Chester, with docks and ironworks. 
 Pop. of township, 2675. 
 
 Salto (SaM'to), capital of a NW. dep. of Uruguay 
 (area, 4863 sq. m. ; pop. 43,567), stands near the 
 head of navigation on the Uruguay River, 86 miles 
 by rail N. of Paysandii. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Saltram, on the Catwater, 4 miles ENE. of 
 Plymouth, seat of the Earl of Morley. 
 
 Salt Range, a barren mountain-system, 3200 
 to 5000 feet high, in the Punjab, India, consists 
 of two E. and W. chains enclosing a lofty table- 
 land rich in rock-salt. 
 
 Saluzzo (Saloot'zo), an Italian city near the Alps, 
 42 miles by rail S. by W. of Turin. It hg(S a cathe- 
 dral (1480), with the tombs of the marquises of 
 Saluzzo, their old castle (now a prison), and the 
 ruined abbey of Staffarda (1131-1737). Silvio 
 Pellico was born here. Pop. 9716. 
 
 Salvador', the smallest but by far the most; 
 thickly populated of the Central American Re- 
 publics, consists of a strip of territory stretching 
 between Honduras and the Pacific. It is 140 
 miles in length by about 60 in average breadth, 
 and has an area estimated at 7225 sq. m., with 
 a pop. (1901) of 1,006,848, Except for a narrow sea- 
 board of low alluvial plains, Salvador consists of 
 a plateau, some 2000 feet above the sea, furrowed 
 by river valleys and broken by numerous volcanic 
 cones, and bounded on the N. by the Central 
 American Cordillera. Of the volcanoes (4900 to 
 6900 ft.), many are extinct ; earthquakes are fre- 
 quent(see San Salvador). The Lempa (140 miles) 
 receives the surplus waters of the Laguna de Cuija, 
 and the San Miguel drains the south-east portion 
 of the republic. The climate is equable, very 
 healthy in the interior, and even along the coast 
 less unwholesome than on the Atlantic side of 
 Central America. The land is well watered, and 
 the soil exceedingly fertile. The principal pro- 
 ducts are coffee, indigo, and balsam (on the Balsam 
 Coast); also tobacco, sugar, maize, rice, beans, 
 india-rubber, vanilla, and ornamental woods. Gold 
 and silver are mined, and coal and iron worked. 
 The exports (mainly coffee and indigo) range in 
 value froni 8 to 12 million dollars per annum ; the 
 imports from 4 to 7 millions. Of the imports 
 (cotton goods the principal item) 35 per cent, 
 is from Great Britain and 25 per cent, from the 
 United States. The population consists mostly of 
 (Aztec) Indians and mixed races : the whites num- 
 ber 20,000. The Indians ahnost all speak Spanish 
 and profess the Roman Catholic religion. The 
 government is carried on by a president, four 
 ministers, and a congress of seventy deputies. 
 The revenue, varying from 5 to 8 million dollars, 
 shows a slight excess over the expenditure ; the 
 internal debt is returned at $10,000,000, and the 
 
 external debt is about £750,000. There is an army 
 of 4000 men and 18,000 militia. Railways con- 
 nect Acajutia (the chief port) with Santa Ana 
 and Ateo-s, and nearly to the capital, San Salva- 
 dor (q.v.). Salvador, originally called Cuscatlan, 
 was conquered by Alvarado in 1525-26. In 1821 
 it threw off the Spani.sh yoke, and from 1823 to 
 1839 it belonged to the Central American con- 
 federacy. Since 1853 it has been an independent 
 republic disturbed by frequent pronuticiaviientos. 
 See books on Central America by Bates (1879) and 
 Squier (1868). 
 
 Salvatierra, a town of Mexico, 197 miles by 
 rail NW. of Mexico city, with cotton-factories. 
 Pop. 23,962. 
 
 Salween, a river of Asia that flows south 
 through the Shan country, then between Siam 
 and British Burma, to the Gulf of Martaban a 
 little below Maulmain. It is navigable for about 
 80 miles. The course of the Salween (also spelt 
 Salwen, Salwin, and Salouain) is known only as 
 high as 25° N. lat. It is uncertain whether the 
 Lukiang of the Chinese (Tibetan Giama Nu-Chu), 
 which has a course of some 700 miles through 
 Tibet, is the upper part of the Salween or the 
 upper part of the Irawadi (q.v.). 
 
 Salzbrunn (Sahltz'broon), a group of three 
 villages in Prussian Silesia, 40 miles by rail SW. 
 of Breslau. Their eight mineral springs attract 
 nearly 4000 visitors in the season. The alkalo- 
 saline water is largely exported. Pop. 6459. 
 
 Salzburg (Sahltz'boorg), a crown-land of 
 Austria, bounded W. by Bavaria and the Tyrol, 
 S. by Carinthia, and E. by Styria. Area, 2762 sq. 
 m. ; pop. (1880) 163,570 ; (1900) 192,762. It lies 
 on the northern face of the eastern Alps, and is a 
 mountainous region, attaining 12,000 feet in the 
 Hohe Tauern. The river Salzach (190 miles), a 
 tributary of the Inn, flows E. and then N. 
 through one of the most picturesque of Alpine 
 valleys. Salt is obtained, especially at Hallein 
 (q.v.). Salzburg became Austrian in 1805. 
 
 Salzburg, the capital, occupies a charming 
 situation on the Salzach, by rail 195 miles W. by 
 S. of Vienna and 80 miles B. by S. of Munich, 
 where the river passes between two wooded 
 rocks (1716 and 2133 feet) ; one of which, the 
 Monchsberg (Monk's Hill), is crowned by the old 
 citadel, dating partly from Roman times. The 
 river divides the city into two parts ; on the west 
 is the old city, v.ith many dark, winding streets, 
 getting access to the valley and plain on the north 
 through a gallery (440 feet long, 39 feet high, 
 and 23 feet wide), hewn (1767) in the .solid rock of 
 the Monchsberg. This portion of the city con- 
 tains the fine cathedral, with a white marble 
 fagade, and built (1614-34) in imitation of St 
 Peter's at Rome ; the Romanesque abbey church 
 of St Peter (1127) ; the palace of the Grand-duke 
 of Tuscany, in the Italian style (1592-1725) ; the 
 Benedictine monastery, with a valuable library 
 of 65,000 vols, and 900 MSS. ; and the arch- 
 bishop's palace. On the opposite bank lies the 
 modern town, with Italian-looking, flat-roofed 
 houses ; here the most prominent buildings are 
 Castle Mirabell (1607) ; the Capuchin monastery 
 (1599), and St Sebastian's Church (1512), with the 
 monument of Paracelsus. The city possesses 
 also a theological faculty, all that remains of the 
 former university (1623-1810); a public library 
 (1617) of 82,000 vols, and 1400 MSS. ; a museum 
 of Celtic and Roman antiquities, &c. ; a bronze 
 monument (1842) to Mozart, a native ; a new 
 park on the east bank ; the government build- 
 ings (1588) ; the tgwu-house (1407), &c. Industry 
 
SALZKAMMERGUT 
 
 622 
 
 SAMOA 
 
 Is confined chiefly to the manufacture of musical 
 instruments, marble ornaments, &c. Pop. 33,100. 
 On the site of the Roman Juvavicm, which was 
 ruined by the Goths and Huns, Salzburg in the 
 6th c. was made the seat of a monastery. Its 
 archbishops, who dated from 798, were princes of 
 the empire, generally noted for severity ; and in 
 1732, after live years' bitter persecution, 30,000 
 Protestants left their homes (as illustrated in 
 Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea) and on the invi- 
 tation of Frederick- William I. settled in Prussia. 
 
 Salzkammergiit (Sahltzkammergoof), called 
 the Austrian Switzerland, one of the most pictur- 
 esque districts of Europe, lies wedged between 
 Salzburg on the W. and Styria on the E. Area, 
 about 230 sq. m. ; pop. 17,500. The scenery com- 
 bines in rare beauty the features of valley, moun- 
 tain, and lake. The highest peak is the Dachstein 
 (9830 feet) ; of its lakes the most famous are Hall- 
 statt, Traun or Gmunden, Atter, St Wolfgang, 
 Aber, Mond, and Zell. It derives its name of 
 'Salt-exchequer Property' from its salt springs 
 and mines, which yield some 33,000 tons of salt 
 annually. The chief seats of the salt-works are 
 Ischl, Hallstatt, and Ebensee. 
 
 Salzwedel (Sahltzvay'del), a town of Prussian 
 Saxony, 72 miles by rail NW. of Magdeburg. 
 Pop. 9883. 
 
 Samara (SamaJi'ro), a town of European Russia, 
 on the Volga's left bank, at the influx of the 
 Samara, 656 miles ESB. of Moscow by rail. It 
 carries on a large river-trade, and has also 
 tanneries, tobacco-factories, soap-boiling-works, 
 and tile-works. Consumptive patients resort 
 to the Koumiss (fermented mares' milk) estab- 
 lishments here. The population increased from 
 85,000 (1870) to 93,000 (1905).— The government 
 has an area of 58,300 sq. m.; pop. 2,765,000 
 (100,000 Germans in agricultural colonies). 
 
 Samarang (Samah'rang), a seaport on the north 
 of Java, 255 miles E. of Batavia, is the principal 
 port of Middle Java, and is connected with 
 Jokjokarta and Surabaya by railway. Pop. 84,250. 
 
 Samarcand', a city of western Turkestan, on 
 the Transcaspian railway, 4 miles S. of the Zeraf- 
 shan river, and amongst the western spurs of the 
 Tian-Shan Mountains, 130 miles E. by S. of Bok- 
 hara and 150 N. by E. of Balkh. It is the ancient 
 Marcanda, the capital of Sogdiana, which was 
 destroyed by Alexander the Great. It was cap- 
 tured in 712 A.D. by the Arabs, and has ever since 
 been a sacred city in the eyes of the Moslems, 
 especially after Timur made it his capital in the 
 14th century. It had, however, suffered terribly 
 from Genghis Khan, who took it (1219) and de- 
 stroyed three-fourths of its 500,000 inhabitants. 
 In Timur's time it had a pop. of 150,000. The 
 Ulug-beg College, the tombs of Timur and his 
 wives, and two other colleges, the Tilla-Kari and 
 Shir-dar, both dating from the beginning of the 
 17th century, are magnificent structures. In the 
 15th century Samarcand was renowned as a school 
 of astronomy and mathematics. In 1868 it was 
 taken from Bokhara by the Russians, who have 
 built a citadel on a steep hill 4 miles in circuit, 
 and have laid out a handsome iiew town to the 
 west of it. On the other side of the citadel is 
 the old city, walled, with dark _and narrow 
 streets, and dirty houses. Pop. 55,000. 
 
 Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom 
 of Israel, after Israel (the Ten Tribes) and Judah 
 became two independent states. It was founded 
 by Omri, on the long flat summit of an isolated 
 hill (1450 feet), about 5 miles NW. of Shechem, 
 and near the middle of Palestine. About 721 
 
 B.C. it fell before the three years' persistency of 
 the Assyrian monarchs, Shalmaneser and Sargon, 
 who carried away nearly all the Hebrew inhab- 
 itants of Samaria and Israel captive into Baby- 
 lonia, sending in their place Assyrian colonists. 
 The new settlers adopted many of the religious 
 practices aud beliefs of the remnant of the 
 Israelites amongst whom they dwelt. When the 
 Jews returned from the Captivity and set about 
 the rebuilding of the temple, the Samaritans 
 desired to share in the work ; but the Jews 
 rejected their assistance, and the Samaritans built 
 (409 B.C.) on Mount Gerizim beyond Shechem a 
 sanctuary to Jehovah as a riva!l to the temple 
 at Jerusalem. This converted them into bitter 
 enemies, so that henceforward the ' Jews had no 
 dealings with the Samaritans.' The Samaritans 
 adhered to the revised Pentateuch of Ezra as 
 their sole religious code-book. At the present 
 day there still survive 150 of them, collected at 
 Nablus, the ancient Shechem. The Samaritan 
 language is an archaic Hebrew-Aramaic dialect ; 
 and in it are written a very ancient version of 
 the Pentateuch, certain chronicles, hymns, and 
 books of religious devotion. Samaria was taken 
 by Alexander the Great, and colonised by Mace- 
 donians and Hellenised. Twice it was besieged 
 and taken— by Ptolemy I. (312 B.C.), and by 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes (r. 296). Tlie Jewish cap- 
 tain John Hyrcanus laid siege to it (c. 110 B.C.), 
 and at the end of a year destroyed it utterly. 
 Nevertheless the Samaritans joined the Jews in 
 off"ering fierce resistance to the Romans, who 
 again destroyed the city. Herod refounded it 
 under the naine of Sebaste ; and on its site, now 
 called Sebastiya, there still exist parts of a 
 colonnade of the age of Herod, remains of a 
 temple to Augustus, and an old crusading church 
 (now a mosque) built over the tomb of John the 
 Baptist. The tombs of six or eight (Omri, Ahab, 
 Jehu, &c.) of the kings of Israel and those of the 
 prophets Obadiah and Elisha were also at Samaria. 
 
 Sambhal, a town in the United Provinces of 
 India, 23 miles SW. of Moradabad. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Sambor, a town in Austrian Galicia, on the 
 Dniester, 41 miles SW. of Lemberg. Pop. 17,050. 
 
 Sambre (Son^br), a river rising in the French 
 dep. of Aisne, and flowing 112 miles NE., until at 
 Namur in Belgium it joins the Meuse or Maas 
 from the left. Many prehistoric remains have 
 been discovered in caves in the Sambre valley. 
 
 Samland, a district of East Prussia, between 
 the Frisch and Kurisch Haff"s. Its western coast 
 is known as the Amber (Bernstein) coast. 
 
 Samo'a. The Samoa or Navigators* Islands 
 are a group of islands in the Western Pacific, 
 crossed by 170° W. and 14° S., between 400 and 
 500 miles NE. of Fiji. The group consists of nine 
 islands, besides rocks and islets. All, except 
 Rose Island, are volcanic, and are for the most 
 part surrounded with coral-reefs. They are very 
 mountainous, well wooded, and of very fertile 
 soil. Four islands alone are of any size, Savaii, 
 Upolu, Tutuila, and Manua (the latter really 
 consisting of three small islands). Savaii, the 
 westernmost and largest, is about 40 miles in 
 length by 20 in breadth, and has an estimated 
 area of 700 sq. m., and one peak which rises to 
 near 5000 feet. Upolu, about 8 miles SE. of 
 Savaii, has an area of between 550 and 600 sq. m. ; 
 on its northern side is the bay and harbour of 
 Apia, the centre of all political and commercial 
 life in the Samoan group. Thirty-six miles SE. 
 of Upolu is Tutuila, possessing a well-sheltered 
 harbour in Pango Pango. The climate of Samoa 
 
SAMOGITIA 
 
 623 
 
 SANDGATE 
 
 Is very moist and variable ; the pleasantest time 
 of the year is from May to November ; during the 
 rest of tlie year heavy gales and rains are frequent, 
 and occasionally disastrous hurricanes occur — 
 like that in which H.M.S. Calliope was safely 
 guided out to sea, all the other ships being 
 stranded. Copra, the dried kernel of the cocoa- 
 nut, is the chief article of export ; cotton, coffee, 
 tobacco, and cane-sugar being also grown. Fruit 
 is plentiful, and bananas and citrons are exported 
 to New Zealand and Australia. There are rich 
 pastures, upon which imported live-stock thrive. 
 Tlie islands were visited by Bougainville in 1T68, 
 and from liim they received the nauie of Ile.s des 
 Navigateurs, as a tribute to the skill of the native 
 boatmen. After 1889 Great Britain, Germany, 
 and the United States recognised the independ- 
 ence of tlie Samoan government, making provi- 
 sion for a supreme court and the regulation of 
 taxation and land-claims. By a further agree- 
 ment between Britain, Germany, and the United 
 States (1899-1900), Upolu and Savaii were assigned 
 absolutely to Germany, and the other islands to 
 the United States. The Sanioans belong to the 
 brown Polynesian race, and are a well-formed and 
 prepossessing race, decreasing in numbers, the 
 population being about 39,000, of whom 32,C00 
 are in the German islands. The exports from 
 the German islands of the group were in 1903, 
 £69,250, and the imports £134,050. From the 
 United States islands the exports were £8819, 
 and the imports £32,426. Tlie trade is mostly in 
 the hands of German, British, and American firms. 
 See works by Turner (1884), Cliurchward (1887), 
 Phillips (1890), and R. L. Stevenson (1892), who 
 from 1889 made Upolu his liojne, and is buried 
 on the summit of Vailima Mountain there. 
 Sam'oa is the native pronunciation. 
 
 Samogitia, a district in the Russian govern- 
 ment of Kovno, inhabited by pure Lithuanians. 
 
 Samos, an island in the iEgean, close to the 
 coast of Asia Minor, 45 miles SSW. of Smyrna ; 
 length is 30 miles, mean breadth 8, area 180 sq. 
 m. The highest peak. Mount Kerki (anc. Cerceteus), 
 reaches 4725 feet. Between Samos and the main- 
 land is the narrow channel of Mycale, where in 
 479 B.C. the Persians were totally defeated by the 
 Greeks. Between Samos and Nicaria (anc. Icaria) 
 on the west is the Great Boghaz, 3 to 8 miles broad. 
 Samos is well watered and very fertile ; its prin- 
 cipal product is wine, with olive-oil, carob beans, 
 raisins, and hides. The chief industry is tann- 
 ing. The capital of the island is Vathy (pop. 
 6000), on the north coast. The site of the ancient 
 city of Samos is occupied by Tigani. The island 
 was in Greek times celebrated for its red glossy 
 pottery. Pop. of island (1900) 54,850, all Greeks. 
 A portion (from 84 B.C.) of the Roman province of 
 Asia, and then a Byzantine possession, Samos was 
 conquered by the Turks. When the war of inde- 
 pendence broke out in 1821 no Greeks were more 
 ardent patriots than the Samians ; and deep was 
 their disappointment when, at the close of the 
 struggle, European policy assigned thein to their 
 former masters. They are, however, governed 
 (since 1833) by a Greek, the Prince of Samos, and 
 by a native council, paying tribute to the Porte. 
 
 Samos'ata (mod. Samisat), the capital till 73 
 A.D. of the Syrian kingdom of Cominagene, on 
 the Euphrates, 130 miles NNE. of Aleppo. It was 
 the birthplace of Lucian. 
 
 Samothrace (Samothray'see), or Samothraki, 
 an island of the yEgean Sea, 40 miles NW. of the 
 Dardanelles. It rises to 5248 feet in Mount Saoce 
 (Pbengari), which occupies nearly the whole of its 
 
 surface (68 sq. m.). Bare and repellent, the island 
 possesses no harbour and only one village, Chora, 
 of 2000 inhabitants. Anciently it was celebrated 
 for tlie worship of the Cabeiri, mysterious 
 divinities whose temples were excavated in 1873- 
 75 by Professor Couze. Parts of the Cyclopean 
 walls of the ancient city still remain. In 1457 
 it was conquered by the Turks, who then, and 
 again in 1821, nearly exterminated the iwpulation. 
 
 Samso, a Danish island in the entrance to the 
 Great Belt, between Zealand and Jutland. Area, 
 42 sq. m. ; pop. 6600. 
 
 Samsun, a seaport, with growing trade, on the 
 Blaclc Sea coast of Asiatic Turkey, 90 miles SB. 
 ofSinope. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Sanaa', the former capital of the Imams of 
 Yemen, 200 miles N. by W. of Aden, standi in a 
 valley 4000 feet above the sea. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 San Antonio, capital of Bexar county, Texas, 
 on the San Antonio River, 210 miles by rail W. 
 of Houston. It has a Roman Catholic cathedral 
 and seminary, an arsenal and government build- 
 ing, court-house, flour-mills, breweries, tanneries, 
 &c. In Fort Alamo, across the river, Mexicans 
 slaughtered the U.S. garrison of 188 men in 1836. 
 Pop. (1880) 20,550; (1900) 53,331. 
 
 San Carlos, a town of Venezuela, 125 miles 
 SW. of Caracas. Pop. 10,741. 
 
 San Cataldo, a town of Sicily, 10 miles W. of 
 Caltaiiisetta. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Sanchi {San' tehee), a village in Bhopal state, on 
 a rocky hill 5J miles SW. of Bhilsa. is remark- 
 able for its great Buddliist tope, dating from 250 
 B.C., with remains often smaller topes. 
 
 San Cristdbal, (1) a town of Cliiapas state, 
 Mexico. Pop. 16,000.— (2) A town of Venezuela, 
 in the states of Los Aiide.s. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Sancti Splritus. See Santo Espiritu. 
 
 Sanda, an Argyllshire islet, 10 miles S. by E. 
 of Campbeltown, 381 acres in area, and 405 feet 
 high, with a lighthouse (1850). Pop. 19. 
 
 Sandakan, the capital, founded about 1880, of 
 the territory of the British North Borneo Com- 
 pany. Pop. over 7000. 
 
 Sandal Magna, a small town in the West 
 Riding of Yorkshire, 2 miles SE. of Wakefield. 
 Near it are the remains of the old castle of the 
 Earls of Warren, ruined during the great Civil 
 War. Pop. 6900, 
 
 Sandalwood Island, or Sumba, one of the 
 Sunda group in the Dutch East Indies. Area, 
 4385 sq. m. ; pop. 200,000. 
 
 Sanday, an Orkney island, 2J miles N. of 
 Stronsay. Area, 26 sq. m. ; height, 173 feet ; 
 pop. 1729. 
 
 Sandbach, a market-town of Cheshire, near 
 the right bank of the Wheelock, 5 miles NE. of 
 Crewe. It has a good parish church, i)ublic 
 rooms (1859), a grammar-school (1594), and manu- 
 factures of boots and shoes, fustian, iron, &c. 
 Pop. 5750. 
 
 Sandbank and Ardnadam, an Argyllshire 
 watering-place, on the S. shore of the Holy Loch, 
 2| miles NNW. of Dunoon. Pop. 1018. 
 
 Sandec, a town of Galicia, 45 miles SE. of 
 Cracow, mostly burnt down in 1890. Pop. 15,750. 
 
 Sandefjord {j as y), a watering-place, 86 miles 
 by rail SSW. of Christiania. Pop. 5307. 
 
 Sandgate, a small watering-place on the south 
 coast of Kent, within the parliamentary limits of 
 Hythe, from which it is, however, nearly 3 miles 
 E. by rail. Sandgate Castle dat^ from 1539 ; 
 
SANDHURST 
 
 624 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 near by is Shorncliffe Camp. Two hundred houses 
 were wrecked here by a land subsidence on 4th 
 March 1893. Pop. 2050., 
 
 Sandhurst. See Bendigo. 
 
 Sandhurst Military College, Berkshire, 5 
 miles SSE. of Wokingham and 33 WSW. of Lon- 
 don, dates from 1799, was transferred from Great 
 Marlow in 1812, and remodelled in 1858 ; it gives 
 military training to some 200 cadets. 
 
 San Diego {De-ay'go), the principal port of 
 southern California, and capital of San Diego 
 county, 124 miles by rail SSE. of Los Angeles. 
 The beautiful bay, 6 miles long, forms an excellent 
 harbour, and the port is a very busy one. Pop. 
 17.700. 
 
 San (or Santo) Domingo, capital of the 
 Dominican Republic, stands on the south coast 
 of Hayti. It was founded by Columbus in 1494. 
 The principal buildings are the Gothic cathedral 
 (1514-40), where the ashes of Columbus rested 
 from 1536 till 1796, a college, hospital, arsenal, 
 and government buildings. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 San'doway, a district in the south of Arakan 
 in Burma, named after its chief town (pop. 2000), 
 15 miles from the mouth of a small river of the 
 same name, and 150 miles NW. of Rangoon. 
 
 Sandown, a watering-place on the south-east 
 coast of the Isle of Wight, 6 miles by rail S. of 
 Ryde. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Sandown Castle. See Deal. 
 
 Sandown Park, a race-course (130 acres) in 
 Surrey, near Esher, 15 miles SW. of London. 
 
 San'dringham, a Norfolk estate, 3 miles from 
 the sea and 7j miles NNE. of Lynn. Compris- 
 ing over 7000 acres, it was purchased in 18C2 by 
 the Prince of Wales for £220,000. The then 
 existing mansion was demolished, and the present 
 hall, built in 1869-71, a red-brick Elizabethan 
 country-house, standing in a pleasant park of 200 
 acres ; special features are the iron ' Norwich 
 gates,' the dairy, and the spleTidid cottages. A 
 lire on 1st November 1891 did damage to the 
 amount of over £10,000. Sandringham was the 
 scene of the six-weeks' illness of the Prince of 
 Wales (Nov. -Dec. 1871), and of the death of his 
 eldest son, the Duke of Clarence (14th January 
 1892). See Mrs Herbert Jones, Sandringham, 
 Past aiid Present (2d ed. 1888). 
 
 Sandus'ky, a port of Ohio, capital of Erie 
 county, on the south shore of Sandusky Bay, an 
 arm of Lake Erie, 56 miles by water (by rail 65) 
 W. of Cleveland. The bay, 15 miles long and 5 
 wide, forms an excellent harbour. The city has 
 machine-shops, railway-car factories, nian-u- 
 factories of cutlery and edge-tools, wheels, and 
 especially of carved and turned woodwork. Pop. 
 22,000. 
 
 Sandwich (Sand'witch or -wij), a decayed sea- 
 port of Kent, on the right bank of the Stour, 12 
 miles E. of Canterbury and 68 (by rail 84) ESE. 
 of London. It now stands 2 miles from the sea, 
 or 4 if one follows the windings of the river ; but 
 in the 11th century, when Edward the Confessor 
 made it one of the Cinque Ports, it was the ' most 
 famous of all the English harbours.' It was the 
 place of landing or embarkation of St Wilfrid, 
 Canute, Becket, Coeur-de-Lion, &c. ; under Edward 
 IV. had 95 ships and 1500 mariners; but has 
 never recovered the silting up of its harbour in 
 the 16th century, in spite of the settlement at it 
 of Protestant refugees (c. 1561), and of some har- 
 bour improvements since 1847. To-day its chief 
 fame is as headquarters of golf. The old walls have 
 teeo converted into a pleasant promenade, but 
 
 it retains the Fisher Gate and Barbican, and 
 offers a good deal of interest in its two churches 
 and hospitals, guildhall (1579), grammar-school 
 (1564), a house that lodged Queen Elizabeth, and 
 other quaint old buildings. Richborough, IJ 
 mile N., was tlie Roman Rutujnoi, the pre- 
 decessor of Sandwich, like which it declined as 
 the sea receded from its port. A great fortress, 
 460 feet square, it still has a wealth of Roman 
 remains — walls, towers, the base of a pharos, and 
 an amphitheatre. Sandwich was made a borough 
 by Edward III., and with Deal and Walmer re- 
 turned two members, but was finally dis- 
 franchised in 1885. Pop. (1851) 2966 ; (1901) 8170. 
 See works by Boys (1792), Smith (1830), Bell 
 (1831), and Montagu Burrows (1888). 
 
 Sandwich Islands. See Hawaii. 
 
 Sandy Hook, a narrow sandy peninsula of 
 New Jersey, between the Atlantic and Sand'y 
 Hook Bay, 16 miles S. of New York. It is 6 
 miles long, and extends northward towards New 
 York Lower Bay. On it are a lighthouse, with a 
 new and most powerful electric light (1893-94), a 
 fort, and a life-saving station. 
 
 Sandyknowe. See Smailholm. 
 
 Sandy Point. See Patagonia. 
 
 San Felipe (Faylee'pay), (1) capital of the 
 Chilian province of Aconcagua, 60 miles ENE. of 
 Valparaiso. Pop. 12,000.— <2) A town of Lara 
 state in Venezuela, 140 miles W. by S. of Caracas. 
 Pop. 7000. See also Jativa. 
 
 San Fernando, a Spanish town, near the head 
 of a bay, 9 miles SSE. of Cadiz. Pop. 29,920. 
 
 San Francisco, the largest city of the Pacific 
 coast, and commercial emporium of California, is 
 situated in 37° 47' 22" N. lat. and 122° 25' 40-76" W. 
 long., 2434 miles W. of St Louis by rail, and 3542 
 of New York. The city occupies the end of a pen- 
 insula or tongue of land, having the ocean on one 
 side and the Bay of San Francisco on the other. 
 The site is uneven ; from two heights (294 and 
 360 feet) the land inclines gently towards the 
 bay. The entrance to this landlocked bay is 
 through the Golden Gate, 5 miles long and 1 
 mile wide, with a depth of 100 feet, but only 30 
 feet on the bar at the entrance. The Bay of San 
 Francisco extends to the S. about 40 miles, vary- 
 ing in width from 6 to 12 miles. Northwards, 
 this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay 
 (10 miles long), which again is connected with 
 Suisun Bay (8 miles long). The Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin rivers debouch near the head of 
 Suisun Bay. Nearly in front of the city are three 
 important islands — Alcatraz (fortified). Angel 
 Island (fortified), and Yerba Buena or Goat 
 Island. Most of the pioneer wooden business 
 structures have disappeared ; many large and 
 costly buildings have been erected ; and marble, 
 granite, and terra-cotta are coming into exten- 
 sive use, with interior frames of iron and steel. 
 There are several theatres and opera-houses, a 
 sub-treasury, mint, custom-house, stock exchange, 
 city hall (cost over $4,000,000), and other struc- 
 tures of less note. The Palace Hotel cost upwards 
 of three million dollars, and accommodates 1200 
 guests. There are about a dozen public squares ; 
 the Golden Gate Park covers an area of 1050 acres. 
 Tlie new Roman Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian 
 church, Grace Church, and the First Congrega- 
 tional Church are notable religious edifices. The 
 state university is at Berkeley, and the Leland 
 Stanford University at Palo Alto (33 miles SE. by 
 rail). The higher institutions of the city include 
 the law, medical, and dental departments of t^? 
 
SAN FRATELLO 
 
 625 
 
 SAN MARINO 
 
 university, the Cooper Medical College, the 
 Hahnemann Medical College, the School of 
 Mechanic Arts (founded by a bequest from James 
 Lick of $540,000), and the Academy of Sciences. 
 The city has also a free library with near 150,000 
 vols. ; other large collections are the Mercan- 
 tile Library and the Mechanics' Library, the 
 Oddfellows' Library, and the Law Library. 
 The most conspicuous building is tlie City Hall 
 (begun 1875 ; finished 1900), with a dome 332 feet 
 high, and costing over $6,000,000. Most of the 
 streets are laid out in rectangular form, and with 
 little reference to the conformation of the sur- 
 face. The cable tramway was invented in San 
 Francisco, and there are still some 80 miles of 
 cable-roads, besides about 180 miles of electric 
 tramways. The water-supply is brouglit from 
 points about 20 miles distant from the city, 
 
 San Francisco is the western terminus of the 
 great continental railroads and of many short 
 lines, and has steamer communication with the 
 ports of the world. A stone dry-dock admits 
 vessels of 6000 tons, and there are smaller docks for 
 coasting craft. San Francisco is one of the most 
 important grain ports in the United States ; and 
 gold and silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported 
 (largely in British, bottoms). There are large 
 sugar-refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage- 
 works, wood-factories, woollen-mills, and many 
 others. The mission of San Francisco was 
 founded by the Mexicans in 1776, but the present 
 city sprang from tlie village of Yerba Buena, 
 8 miles E., founded in 1835, which became 
 American in 1846. In 1848, the year of the Cali- 
 fornian gold discovery, tlie pop. was 500 ; (1850) 
 25,000; (1870) 149,473; (1900) 342,782, including 
 about 14,000 Chinese (mainly in the curious 
 'Chinese quarter,' with its own joss-houses, 
 theatres, and opium-dens). A terrible earth- 
 quake (April 18, 1906), and the resultant fires, 
 destroyed the greater part of San Francisco 
 and many neighbouring towns, and a large part 
 of the state suff'ered at the same time. See 
 California, and works there cited. 
 
 San Francisco del Rincon, a town of Mexico, 
 40 miles W. of Guanajuato. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 San Fratello, a town of Sicily, 53 miles WSW. 
 of Messina. Pop. 9554. 
 
 Sangerhausen (Sang-er-how'zen), an old town 
 of Prussian Saxony, on the SE. of the Harz 
 Mountains, 22 miles E. of Nordhausen, with 
 manufactures of machinery, iron, copper, and 
 beet-root sugar. Pop. 12,188. 
 
 San Germano (Jermdh'no), or Cassino, a town 
 of Italy, 3 miles E. of the celebrated monastery 
 of Monte Cassino (q.v.) and 69 miles NW. of 
 Naples. It is built from the ruins of the ancient 
 Volscian Casinum. Pop. 6380. 
 
 San Gimlgnano (Jiminydli'no), a town of Italy, 
 25 miles S. by W. of Florence. Pop. 3591. 
 
 San Giovanni a Teduccio {Jovan'nee ah Tay- 
 doot'sio), a SE. suburb of Naples. Pop. 14,397. 
 
 San Giovanni in Fiore (Fyo'ray), a town of 
 South Italy, 25 miles E. of Cosenza. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 San Giovanni Rotondo, a town of South Italy, 
 27 miles NE. of Foggia. Pop. 8312. 
 
 Sangir Islands (Sangeer' ; g hard), a group of 
 fifty mountainous volcanic islands, lying between 
 the Philippines and Celebes. Area, 323 sq. m, ; 
 pop. 115,000. The largest. Great Sangir, is 28 
 miles long by 9 broad ; the eruption of the vol- 
 cano Abu here in 1856 cost 6000 lives. The 
 people are Malays, ruled by chiefs under Dutch 
 suzerainty. 
 
 221 
 
 Sang-kol. See Tonquin. 
 
 San Joaquin' (San Wah-keen'), a river of Call- 
 fornia, rises in the Sierra Nevada, and runs 400 
 miles SW. and NNW. to Suisun Bay, near the 
 mouth of the Sacramento River. 
 
 San Jose, capital of Santa Clara county, 
 California, on the Guadalupe River, 8 miles from 
 the Bay and 50 by rail SE. of the city of San 
 Francisco. Besides a fine court-house and a city 
 hall, it contains the state normal school and a 
 Roman Catholic college for girls ; and the Uni- 
 versity of the Pacific (Methodist Episcopal ; 1852) 
 and the Roman Catholic Santa Clara College are 
 both at Santa Clara, close by. Lick Avenue 
 extends from San Jose to the Lick Observatory. 
 The city has wide streets and three parks, is noted 
 for its gardens and fruit, and has foundries, fruit- 
 caimeries, woollen and flour mills, a furniture- 
 factory, &c. Much wine is made in the neigh- 
 bourhood. Pop. (1880) 12,567 ; (1900) 21,500. 
 
 San Jos6 (San Ho-zay'), the capital since 1823 
 of Costa Rica, on a fertile plain, 3711 feet above the 
 sea, 25 miles from Carillo, the terminus of the rail- 
 way (70 miles) from Limon, the Atlantic port. The 
 principal manufactories are the government dis- 
 tillery, steam flour-mills, and two foundries. Pop. 
 25,000.— (2) A thriving inland town of Uruguay, 
 capital of the soutlieru department of the same 
 name, 60 miles by rail NNW. of Montevideo. 
 Pop. 9000.— (3) Three towns in the Philippine 
 Islands, with from 7000 to 10,000 inhabitants.— 
 (4) A town in Cuba, 20 miles SB. of Havana. 
 Pop. 3100. See also C(5cuta. 
 
 San Juan (San Hoo-ahn'), a frontier province of 
 the Argentine Republic, bordering on Chili, with 
 an area of 37,697 sq. m. and a pop. of 100,000. The 
 capital, San Juan, on the river San Juan, is by 
 rail 735 miles \V. by N. of Buenos Ayres and 98 
 N. of Mendoza. Pop. 12,000.— (2) Of several San 
 Juans in Mexico the chief is on the river Tabasco, 
 70 miles from its mouth. Pop. 10,600. See also 
 St John's (Porto Rico), Greytown, and Fuca. 
 
 Sankuru, an affluent of the Kassai, itself a 
 tributary of the Congo (q.v,). 
 
 Sanlucar de Barrameda (Barramay'da), a sea- 
 port of Spain, 15 miles N. by W. of Cadiz, at the 
 mouth of the Guadalquivir. Pop. 23,746. 
 
 San Luis (Loo-eess'), a province of the Argentine 
 Republic, with an area of 29,304 sq. m. and a 
 pop. of 100,000. — The capital, San Luis, is on the 
 trans-continental railway, 480 miles W. by N. of 
 Buenos Ayres. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 San Luis Potosi (Potozee'), capital of the Mexi- 
 can state of the same name, stands on the edge 
 of a plateau, 7400 feet above the sea, 362 miles by 
 rail NNW. of Mexico city. It contains a hand- 
 some cathedral, railway workshops, a cotton- 
 factory, and great smelting-works. There are 
 silver-mines near by. Pop. 70,000. — The state has 
 an area of 27,503 sq. m. and a pop. of 582,500. 
 
 San Marco in Lamis, a town of South Italy, 
 18 miles N. of Foggia. Pop. 15,345. 
 
 San Marino (Marce'no), an Italian republic, 
 the smallest independent state of Europe, lies 
 among the eastern spurs of the Apennines, 9 miles 
 SW. of Rimini on the Adriatic. Area, 33 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 11,100, including a town of the same name 
 (pop. 1600) and some villages. The town is built 
 on a mountain crag, and is accessible only by one 
 road ; the streets are steep and narrow. In the 
 13th century San Marino cast in its lot with the 
 hou.se of Urbino ; but on the annexation of this 
 duchy to the Papal States in 1631 the independ- 
 ence of San Marino was recognised, and has 
 
SAN MIGUEL 
 
 626 
 
 SANTANDER 
 
 since been maintained, though it acknowledges 
 the king of Italy as its protector. From the 
 Grand Council of sixty life-iiieinbers, self-elected, 
 are selected the Council of Twelve. The execu- 
 tive is committed to two captains-regent. 
 
 San Miguel' (MeegayV), a town of Salvador, at 
 the foot of a volcano (7775 feet). Pop. 25,000. 
 
 San Miguel Alende, a town of Mexico, on the 
 side of a high hill overlooking the Rio de la Lara, 
 253 miles by rail NW. of Mexico. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 San Miniato {Min-i-ah'td), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, 22 miles W. by S. of Florence. It was the 
 original seat of the Bonapartes. Pop. 2147. 
 
 San Nicandro, a town of Italy, 26 miles N. of 
 Foggla. Pop. 8257. 
 
 San Nicolas, an Argentine city, on the Parana, 
 150 miles NW. of Buenos Ayres. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 San Paulo. See Sao Paulo. 
 
 Sanpo. See Brahmaputra. 
 
 Sanquhar {Sang'lmr or Sang'kar), a town of 
 Dumfriesshire, on the Nith, 26 miles NNW. of 
 Dumfries. It has a ruined castle, was the birth- 
 place of the 'Admirable' Crichton, and has many 
 Covenanting memories. Tlie Corda of Ptolemy, 
 it was made a royal burgh in 1598, and with 
 Dumfries, &c. returns one member. Pop. 1375. 
 See James Brown's History of Sanquhar (1891). 
 
 San Remo (Ray'vio), a city of Northern Italy, 
 stands on rising ground on a bay of the Gulf of 
 Genoa, 26 miles by rail ENE. of Nice and 84 SW. 
 of Genoa. The shelter of the hills behind and 
 its delightful climate make it one of the favourite 
 winter-resorts of the Riviera, especially for 
 Englishmen and Germans. There are two quarters, 
 an old town of steep, narrow streets, and a new 
 town of handsome streets and picturesque villas, 
 hotels, and palaces. Pop. 19,286. 
 
 San Roque, a town of Spain, 8 miles N. by W. 
 of Gibraltar. Pop. 8497. 
 
 San Salvador', or Banza Conoo, a decayed 
 town of Africa, in Portuguese Angola, 170 miles 
 E. by S. of the Congo's mouth. Pop. 700. 
 
 San Salvador', the capital of the republic of 
 Salvador (q.v.), stands in the midst of a fertile 
 plateau, among green hills, and at the foot of the 
 extinct volcano of San Salvador (8360 feet). The 
 government buildings are handsome ; the cathe- 
 dral is unfinished. San Salvador was founded in 
 1528, and in 1854, when it had a pop. of 25,000, 
 was destroyed by an earthquake. A town of 
 Nueva San Salvador was built 12 miles SW., the 
 capital until 1858. Violent shocks of earthquake 
 have since visited the old capital in 1873, 1879, 
 and 1891. Pop. 60,000.— San Salvador is also a 
 name for Bahia (q.v.), and for Cat Island in the 
 Bahamas (q.v.). 
 
 Sansanding, or Sansandio, a town of Africa, 
 on the Niger's left bank, 370 miles SW. of Tim- 
 buctoo. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 San Sebastian, a fortress and seaport in the 
 north of Spain, 402 uiiles by rail NNE. of Madrid, 
 and 11 from the French frontier. It is built on 
 a peninsula, stretching from the base of a conical 
 hill, Orgullo (400 feet), which is crowned with a 
 strong castle. Since its storming by Wellington 
 (1813), the town has been rebuilt on a regular 
 plan. On the west is a magnificent roadstead, 
 but difficult of access. It is bordered by a beauti- 
 ful shore, which attracts many summer visitors. 
 Most of the loading and unloading is done at 
 Pasages, 2^ miles E. Tlie imports include coal, 
 metals, fish, spirits, and yarn ; the exports wine, 
 minerals, textiles, and matches. Pop. 37,800. 
 
 San Severe (Sevay'ro), a cathedral city of Italy, 
 18 miles by rail N W. of Foggia, Pop. 25,000. 
 
 San Stef ano, a village 6 miles W. of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 Santa Ana, a town of Salvador, 40 miles NNE. 
 of Sonsonate. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 Santa Barbara, 'tlie Newport of the Pacific,' 
 is on tlie coast of S. California. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Santa Catharina (/■Ttitoree'iia), a southern coast 
 state of Brazil, with an area of 27,436 sq. m. and 
 a pop. of 295,000, largely Germans. Tlie capital 
 is Desterro (30,000), on a small island. 
 
 Santa Clara, capital of a province in the centre 
 of Cuba. Pop. 13,800. 
 
 Santa Cruz {Krooz), also called Sainte Croix, 
 one of the Virgin Islands, with an area of 74 sq. 
 m. and a pop. (1890) of 21,000, Sugar, rum, and 
 cotton are produced; the capital is Christianstadt 
 (pop. 5500). Discovered by Columbus on his first 
 voyage, the island was held by Dutch, English, 
 Spanish, French, and the Knights of Malta, and 
 was bought by Denmark in 1733. — (2) Or Nitendi, 
 the largest (area, 216 sq. m.) of a group of Mela- 
 nesian islands, sometimes called Queen Charlotte 
 Islands, east of the Solomon archipelago and 100 
 miles N. of the New Hebrides. Bisliop Patteson 
 was murdered on Nukapu, one of tlie smaller isles. 
 — (3) Or Tenerife, the capital and chief seaport of 
 the Canary Islands (q.v.), on the NE. side of 
 the island of Tenerife. It is the seat of a bishop. 
 Santa Cruz is much resorted to by steamers for 
 re-coaling. — (4) Santa Cruz de la Palma is the 
 capital of Palma, another of the Canary Islands 
 (q.v,). Pop. 7617.— (5) Santa Cruz, a southern 
 territory of the Argentine Republic, stretching 
 from the Atlantic to the watershed of the Andes ; 
 area, 106,890 sq. m. 
 
 Santa Fe {Fay), a wealthy province of the 
 Argentine Republic, N. of Buenos Ayres ; area, 
 54,790 sq. m. ; pop. 575,000. The largest town 
 is Rosario. The capital is Santa Fe, on the Rio 
 Salado, by rail 7 miles from its port, Colastin^, 
 on the Parana. Pop. 25,099. See also Bogota. 
 
 Santa F^, till 1906 capital of the territory of 
 New Mexico, in tliat year incorporated with the 
 state of Arizona, is 6840 feet above the sea. It 
 is an old Spanish-American town, and its adobe 
 archiepiscopal cathedral is the oldest existing 
 Christian edifice in the States. Pop. 6713. 
 
 Santa Lucia. See St Lucia.— Santa Lucia is 
 also the name of a town of Uruguay, 30 miles 
 NW. of Montevideo. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Santa Marta, a port of Colombia, on the 
 Caribbean Sea, was founded in 1525, the second 
 Spanish town planted on the mainland. In 1834 
 an earthquake almost utterly destroyed the place, 
 which is a bishop's see. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Santa Maura. See Leukas. 
 
 Santander (Span. pron. San-tan-dair'), a sea- 
 port of Spain, on an inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 
 316 miles by rail N. of Madrid, with cigar- 
 factories, breweries, cotton, paper, and flour 
 mills, iron-foundries, and shipbuilding yards. 
 The exports include flour, wine, food-stufts, and 
 metals ; the imports, tobacco, food-stuflfs, cod- 
 fish, iron and steel goods, textiles, coal, petro- 
 leum, chemicals, timber, &c. Santander is a 
 favourite seaside-resort in summer. Pop. 64,800. 
 It was here Charles I. embarked for England 
 after his trip to the Spanish court. The town 
 was sacked by Soult in 1808, and in November 
 1893 was wrecked, with great loss of life, by the 
 explosion of a dynamite-freighted ship in the 
 
SANTAREM 
 
 627 
 
 SAO PAULO 
 
 harbour.— Area of province of Santander, 2113 
 sq. m, ; pop. 276,000. 
 
 Santarem (San-ta-ren"), capital of the Portu- 
 guese province of Bstremadura, on the Tagus' 
 right bank, 46 miles NE. of Lisbon by rail. An 
 old Moorish castle, crowning a hill was the 
 ancient residence of the kings of Portugal ; and 
 there is also a cathedral with interesting tombs. 
 Pop. 8500.— {2) A town of Brazil, at the confluence 
 of the Tapajos with the Amazon ; pop. 5000. 
 
 Santa Rosa, capital of Sonoma county, Cali- 
 fornia, on Santa Rosa Creek, 51 miles by rail N. 
 by W. of San Francisco. Pop. 6700. 
 
 Santa Rosa, (l) a town of Chili, 82 miles by 
 rail E. by N. of Valparaiso ; pop. 6000.— <2) A 
 mining-town of Colombia, in Antioquia, 8335 feet 
 above the sea ; pop. 11,000.— (3) A town of Boyaca 
 in Colombia, 9055 feet above the sea ; pop. 9000. 
 
 Santee, a river of South Carolina, flowing 150 
 miles SE. to the Atlantic. 
 
 Santiago. See Cape Verd Islands. 
 
 Santiago (San-tee-dh'go), the capital of Chili, 
 stands near the western base of the Andes, 1700 
 feet above sea-level , and 115 miles by rail ESE. 
 of Valparaiso. The snow-capped Cordilleras seem 
 to enclose it on the north ancl east ; while in the 
 east of the city rises the picturesque Cerro de 
 Santa Lucia (800 feet above the plain), dotted 
 with grottoes, statues, kiosks, restaurants, a his- 
 torical museum, and an observatory. The small 
 but turbulent stream, the Mapocho, is crossed 
 by five bridges. The city is regularly laid out, 
 lit with gas and the electric light, and has tram- 
 ways in all directions ; most of the houses are 
 of one story only, owing to the earthquakes (the 
 most serious occurred in 1575, 1647, 1730, 1822, 
 1835, 1906). On the great Plaza Independencia 
 are the government palaces, the Grand English 
 Hotel, the cathedral, and the archbishop's palace. 
 On the site of the Jesuit church, burned down 
 in 1863, a monument was erected (1872) in memory 
 of the 2000 worshippers who perished in the fire. 
 Santiago boasts a noble Alameda, adorned with 
 four rows of poplars and statues. Facing it are 
 the university (1842), and the National Institute. 
 The city has also a military school, schools of arts 
 and agriculture, a conservatoire, a national 
 library (1813), with 102,000 volumes ; botanical 
 and zoological gardens, &c. The manufactures 
 include cloth, ship's 'jiscuits, beer, brandy, &c., 
 and it has also an ice-factory, a fruit-conserving 
 establishment, and copper-smelting works. 
 Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 
 1541. Pop. (1865) 168,553 ; (1902) 330,000.— Area 
 of the province, 5223 sq. m. ; pop. 485,000. 
 
 Santiago de Compostella, a city of Spain, 
 the former capital of Galicia, stands surrounded 
 by hills, 33 miles S. by W. of Corunna and 26 by 
 rail NE. of its port, Carril. Here in 835 the 
 bishop of Iria discovered, according to the 
 legend, the bones of St James (San lago), being 
 guided to the spot by a star, whence Compostella 
 (campus stellce = ' field of the star ') ; the relics were 
 in 1884 solemnly affirmed by the pope to be still 
 beneath the cathedral. This building, Roman- 
 esque in style, was built 1078-1188, and contains 
 some fine sculptures and metal-work. It was the 
 shrine that attracted every 25th July so many 
 thousands of pilgrims, especially Englishmen, in 
 the middle ages, but is now out of repute. Ruined 
 monasteries give the town a deserted appearance ; 
 but it is still an archbishop's see, and has a uni- 
 versity (1504) with 700 students. Ornaments are 
 made and linen is woven. Pop. (1900) 24,920. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, the former capital of Cuba, 
 and now the chief town of the eastern depart- 
 ment of the island, stands on a bay on the south 
 coast, and has a fortified harbour. It contains 
 a cathedral and seminary, foundries, cigar- 
 factories, sawmills, &c. Pop. 43,100. 
 
 Santiago del Estero (Santeedh'go del Es'tero), 
 a north central province of the Argentine 
 Republic. Area, 39,510 sq. m. ; pop. 180,700. — 
 The capital, Santiago, on the Rio Dulce, 750 
 miles by rail NNW. of Buenos Ayres, was 
 founded in 1553. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Santlpur', a town of Bengal on the Hooghly, 
 43 miles N. of Calcutta. Pop. 26,900. 
 
 Siintis, or Sentis, a mountain (8216 feet) on 
 the borders of the Swiss cantons of St Gall and 
 Appenzell. There are on it an observatory (since 
 1887) and a hotel. 
 
 Santo Domingo. See San Domingo. 
 
 Santo Espiritu(Sa?ic<i Spiritus), atown of Cuba, 
 40 miles by rail ENE. of Trinidad. Pop. 12,700. 
 
 Santorin', or Thera, an island of the ^Egean, 
 the southernmost of the Cyclades, 70 miles N. of 
 Crete. It is shaped like a crescent, the horns 
 pointing west ; between them lies the island of 
 Therasia. In the SE. of Santorin Mount St 
 Elias rises to 1887 feet. The chief town, Thera 
 or Phera, on the west coast of Santorin, is 
 perched some 900 feet above the water. Pop. of 
 island, about 12,000. Eruptions took place in 
 196 B.C., 726 A.D., 1573, 1650, 1707, and 1866. 
 
 Santos, a port of the state of Sao Paulo in 
 Brazil, founded in 1546, on the island of Sao 
 Vicente. It has fine wharves, tramways, and 
 a good water-supply ; but it is hot and un- 
 healthy. A railway (40 miles, 5 of them by cable 
 up the Serra do Mar— 2500 feet) connects vt with 
 Sao Paulo, whose port it is. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 San Vicente, a pretty town of Salvador, 40 
 miles NE, of San Salvador. Pop. 17,800. 
 
 Sao Francisco {Sown^ Fransees'ko), a large 
 river of Brazil, rises in Minas Geraes, and flows 
 1800 miles to the Atlantic. 
 
 Sao-Leopoldo, a town of Rio Grande do Sul, 
 Brazil, 20 miles N. of Porto Alegre. Pop. 10,000, 
 mainly Germans. 
 
 Sadne (Sowe), a river of France, an affluent of 
 the Rhone (q.v.), rises in the dep. of Vosges, in 
 the Faucelles Mountains, and flows 282 miles (170 
 navigable) SW. and S. to the Rhone at Lyons. 
 It receives the Doubs from the left. See Hamer- 
 ton's illustrated description of the river (1887). 
 
 Saone, Haute {Ote Sone), a dep. in the east of 
 France. Area, 2061 sq. m. ; pop. (1861) 317,183 ; 
 (1901) 266,605. The arrondissements are Gray, 
 Lure, and Vesoul (the capital). 
 
 Sa6ne-et-Loire (Sone-ay-Lwar), one of the 
 largest deps. of France, part of Burgundy. Area, 
 3300 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 598,344 ; (1901) 620,360. 
 There are arrondissements of Autun, Ch^lon, 
 Charolles, Louhan, and Macon (the capital). 
 
 Sao Paulo (Soiun^ Povj'Io), capital of a Brazilian 
 state, stands on a wide plain bounded by low 
 hills, 4 nnles from the Rio Tiete and 310 by rail 
 W. by S. of Rio de Janeiro. The principal build- 
 ings are the old Jesuit college, now the govern- 
 ment palace, the bishop's palace, and a celebrated 
 law-school. Sao Paulo is the headquarters of the 
 coffee trade, and has cotton-works, with manu- 
 factories of tobacco, cigars, spirits, matches, 
 gloves and hats. Pop. 100,000, including 12,000 
 Italians and 1500 Germans.— The state lias an area 
 of 112,330 sq. m. and a pop. of 1,750,000. 
 
SARA60SSA 
 
 628 
 
 SARDINIA 
 
 Saragossa (Span. Saragoza), a city of Spain, 
 formerly the capital of Aragon, by rail 212 miles 
 NE. of Madrid and 227 W. by N. of Barcelona, 
 stands on the Ebro, which is crossed by a noble 
 stone bridge of seven arches, bnilt in 1437. From 
 afar it has an imposing appearance with its many 
 towers and spires. Saragossa was the Celtiberian 
 Saldxiba, changed to Ccesarea Augusta in 25 b.c., 
 of which the present name is a corruption. One 
 of the first cities of Spain to adopt Christianity 
 (3d century), it was taken by the Goths in the 
 5th and by the Moors in the 8th century, and was 
 recovered from them in lllSafter a five years' siege, 
 during which great part of the inhabitants died of 
 hunger. The most momentous event in its recent 
 history was the siege by the French (June to 
 August 1808 and December 1808 to February 
 1809), in which the inhabitants offered a most 
 determined resistance, some 60,000 in all perish- 
 ing. The services of the 'Maid of Saragossa' 
 seem to have been greatly exaggerated by 
 Southey, Byron, and Sir David Wilkie. Sara- 
 gossa has two cathedrals, the older a Gothic 
 edifice (1316) ; the more modern (17th century) 
 boasts of a pillar on which the Virgin descended 
 from heaven. The citadel was anciently the 
 
 Ealace of the kings of Aragon and later the 
 eadquarters of the Inquisition. There are also a 
 university (1474) with 800 students, and a large 
 archiepiscopal palace. The leaning Torre Nueva, 
 dating froni 1504, was in 1890 voted unsafe and 
 doomed to demolition. The industries comprise 
 cloth, silks, leather, soap, and chocolate. Pop. 
 (1900) 99,50a— The province has an area of 6727 
 sq. m. and a pop. of 422,000. 
 
 Sarajevo {Sarl-yay'vo ; Turkish Bosna-Serai), 
 capital of Bosnia, stands on the hill-slopes that 
 overlook the Bosna River (3 miles distant), 166 
 miles SW. by rail of Bosna-Brod, on the Danube, 
 and 100 E. by rail (1891) of Metkovich, a port 
 near the mouth of the Narenta in the Adriatic. 
 The citadel and the minarets of 100 mosques, the 
 crowded charsia or bazaar, and the steep and 
 narrow streets climbing the hillsides amidst 
 gardens, represent the ancient moslem town ; the 
 wide streets on the plain near the railway station, 
 traversed by tramways and lit with the electric 
 light, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the 
 Bosnian museum reflect the swift progress that 
 has taken place since the Austrian occupation in 
 1878. The Bogova-Jamia mosque dates from 1506 ; 
 the Greek Cathedral is a large building ; and the 
 Moslem College (1890) is a fine building in Ori- 
 ental style. The town has considerable trade, and 
 manufactures tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes ; the 
 Hungarian government have revived, in a large 
 factory, the ancient Bosnian art of inlaying gold 
 and silver in copper and wood. Pop. 41,200, 
 mostly all Bosniaks by race, and more than half 
 Mohammedans, with 5000 Greek Catholics, and 
 nearly as many Roman Catholics, and 3000 Jews. 
 
 Sarakhs, a town of NE. Persia, mainly a col- 
 lection of Turkoman huts, with a strong fort, 
 stands on the Heri-Rud. The Russians in 1885 
 occupied the opposite bank. 
 
 Saransk, a town of Russia, 65 miles N. of 
 Penza. Pop. 13,921. 
 
 Saraswati. See Allahabad. 
 
 SaratoflF (Sar-dh'toff), a city of Russia, on the 
 Volga's right bank, exactly 500 miles by rail SE. of 
 Moscow. It is a city of broad streets and fine 
 squares, and stands on terraces rising from the 
 river. There are a handsome new cathedral (1825), 
 an old cathedral (1697), and the museum with its 
 art gallwy and a library. Manufactures of 
 
 brandy, liqueurs, flour, oil, and tobacco are 
 carried on. Fishing is prosecuted in the river, 
 and market-gardening (especially fruit and the 
 sun-flower) in the vicinity. Pop. (1830) 50,000 ; 
 (1870) 85,220 ; (1897) 137,109.— The government, the 
 east side of which is washed by the Volga, has an 
 area of 32,624 sq. m. and a pop. (1891) of 2,433,445, 
 including several flourishing German colonies 
 (pop. 120,000) which settled here in 1763-65. 
 
 Saratoga Springs, one of the chief watering, 
 places in the United States, is on a monotonous 
 plateau in New York, 38 miles by rail N. of 
 Albany. It contains about 30 mineral springs, 
 whose saline waters (some chalybeate, some sul- 
 phureous, and all impregnated with carbonic acid), 
 prescribed in diseases of the liver, chronic 
 dyspepsia, rheumatism, &c., are bottled in large 
 quantities for exportation. The hotels provide 
 for 20,000 visitors, and life in Sarat<)ga is notorious 
 for luxury. There is a race-track, and regattas 
 are held on Saratoga Lake, 4 miles distant. 
 Twelve miles to the east a handsome obelisk 
 (1877), 155 feet high, on a bluflf 350 feet above the 
 Hudson River and overlooking the scene, com- 
 memorates the surrender of Bnrgoyne to Gates, 
 on October 17, 1777. Pop. 13,500, 
 
 Sarawak (Sar-dh'wak), a state in the north- 
 west of Borneo, since 1888 a British protectorate. 
 The Chinese Sea washes its north-west side ; on 
 the north-east is the protected state of Brunei ; 
 and on every other side it is surrounded by Dutch 
 Borneo. Area 41,000 sq. m. ; pop. 600,000. The 
 coast-belt is in many parts low, the interior hilly, 
 rising to close upon 8000 feet near the frontiers. 
 The longest river, the Rajang, has a sinuous 
 course of 350 miles, and is navigable for 150 miles. 
 Antimony, quicksilver, gold, and coal are mined, 
 and copper, diamonds, and manganese exist. 
 Sago, pepper, gambler, gutta-percha, india-rubber, 
 birds' nests, rattans, tea, cofi"ee, and timber, are 
 exported. The people consist principally of 
 Malays, Chinese, and Dyaks. The chief town, 
 Knelling (pop. 25,000), stands 20 miles up the 
 Sarawak River. Sir James Brooke (1803-68), who 
 became Rajah of Sarawak in 1841, was succeeded 
 by his nei)hew. Sir C. J. Brooke, who, after 
 greatly extending his territory, put it in 1888 
 under the protection of Britain. See Spencer St 
 John, Life in the Forests of the Far East (1862) ; 
 his Life of Sir James Brooke (1879) ; and Charles 
 Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak (1866). 
 
 Sardes. See Sardis. 
 
 Sardinia, an island of Italy, after Sicily the 
 largest in the Mediterranean, lies 135 miles W. of 
 the Tiber mouth, and immediately south of 
 Corsica, being separated from it by the Strait of 
 Bonifacio, 7^ miles wide. It is 170 miles long 
 from N. to S., and 75 miles broad ; area, 9206 
 sq. m. The surface is generally mountainous, 
 the highest point (6233 feet) is Gennargentu. 
 The south-west corner is separated from the rest 
 by the low alluvial plain of Canipidano, at both 
 extremities of which are extensive salt lagoons. 
 Malaria prevails in the low-lying tracts ; the 
 higher parts are healthy. Sardinia has a fertile 
 soil, valuable mines, and forests, and fisheries ; 
 but owing to conservatism, apathy, lack of 
 enterprise, and imperfect means of communica- 
 tion, its resources are undeveloped. Of the 
 total area about one-third is arable land, one- 
 third pasture, and nearly one-third forest. The 
 principal produce is wlieat, barley, beans, pota- 
 toes, wine, olive-oil, oranges, lemons, tobacco, 
 flax and hemp, cheese, butter, and wool. The 
 growing of fruits and the breeding of the domestic 
 
gAKDlS 
 
 6S9^ 
 
 SAUTERNES 
 
 animals are important industries. Besides being 
 in ancient times the granary of Rome, Sardinia 
 was renowned for its mineral wealth. At the 
 present time some 12,000 persons are employed 
 in extracting lead (with silver) and zinc, lignite, 
 antimony, and manganese. Iron and copper also 
 exist. Granite, marble, and clay for pottery are 
 quarried. Salt is manufactured from sea-water. 
 Tlie centre and north of the island are chiefly 
 covered with forests — oak, ilex, cork, and wild- 
 olive — which yield timber, cork, bark for tan- 
 ning, acorns, and charcoal. The seas (to Italian, 
 not Sardinian, fishermen) yield large quantities 
 of tunny, sardines, anchovy, and coral. There is 
 some tanning and making of cigars, aerated 
 waters, macaroni, flour, and spirits. Until the 
 year 1828 Sardinia had no roads for wheeled 
 vehicles, the Roman roads having gone to ruin 
 centuries ago. Now there are good roads 
 throughout the island ; and they are supple- 
 mented by 350 miles of railway. The island has 
 good ports— Cagliari (the capital) being the chief. 
 The inhabitants are of mixed race, Spanish and 
 Italian elements predominating. Pop. (1815) 
 352,867; (1881)682,000; (1904)811,036— 87 -15 to the 
 sq. m. Education is in a very backward state. 
 The two universities at Cagliari and Sassari are 
 frequented by 260 students ; "83 per cent, of tlie 
 population are unable to read and write. The 
 vendetta and brigandage were extremely preval- 
 ent, but have now almost ceased. The language 
 is a mixture of Latin, Spanish, and Italian, but 
 the dialects differ considerably ; classical Italian 
 is the official language. The moufflon or wild 
 sheep, deer, and wild boar, are hunted. There 
 are two provinces of Cagliari and Sassari. Some 
 3000 nuraghe or round towers, and many ' giant's 
 graves,' are prehistoric or very ancient curiosities. 
 See works by Tennant (1885), Tyndale (3 vols. 
 1849), and Edwardes (1889). 
 
 Sardis, the capital of ancient Lydia in Asia 
 Minor, stood, on the golden-sanded Pactolus, at 
 the northern foot of Mount Tmolus (5906 feet) 
 and 2^ miles S. of the Hermus. On its site is 
 Sart, a small village, with ruin mounds. 
 
 Sargasso Sea. See Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Sari {Sdh'ree), the decayed capital of the 
 province of Mazanderan, Persia, 18 miles S. of 
 the Caspian Sea. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Sar-i-kol, or Sariq-qol, a great valley or de- 
 pression in Eastern or Chinese Turkestan, on the 
 eastern side of the Pamir plateau. 
 
 Sark (Fr. Gers), the smallest of the four Channel 
 Islands (q.v.), 6 miles E. of Guernsey and 12 
 NNW. of Jersey. Almost entirely rockbound, 
 and only 2 sq. m. in area, it consists of two por- 
 tions, Great and Little Sark, connected by an 
 isthmus. Fishing and agriculture are the occu- 
 pations. Pop. 500. 
 
 Sark, a Dumfriesshire stream, winding llj 
 miles SSW. (mainly along the Border) to the head 
 of the Solway Firth. 
 
 Sarnen, capital of one of the divisions of the 
 Swiss canton of Unterwalden, lies on its own 
 lake, 15 miles S. of Lucerne by rail. Pop. 4200. 
 
 Sarnia, a town and port of Canada, just below 
 the issue from Lake Huron of the St Clair River, 
 170 miles WSW. of Toronto by rail. Pop. 8847. 
 See St Clair. 
 
 Samo, a city of Italy, 30 miles by rail E. of 
 Naples, on the farther side of Vesuvius, has an 
 old castle, a cathedral (1625), paper, cotton, linen, 
 silk, and ribbon manufactories. Pop. 18,464. 
 
 Sarrakhs. See Sarakhs. 
 
 Sarreguemines. See Saargemund. 
 
 Sarthe (Sdhrt), a dep. of France, north of the 
 Loire, formed out of Anjou and Maine. Area, 
 2396 sq. m. ; pop. (1866) 465,615 ; (1901) 422,700. 
 
 Sarum. See Salisbury. 
 
 Sarzana (Sartzdh'na), a cathedral city of N. 
 Italy, 8 miles by rail E. of Spezia. Pop. 8016. 
 
 Sasebo, a great naval port of Japan, on the 
 west coast of Kiushiu, 30 miles N. of Nagasaki. 
 Pop. 70,000. 
 
 Saskatch'ewan, a large river of Canada, whose 
 North Branch rises among the glaciers near Mount 
 Hooker, its South Branch in the north of Mon- 
 tana, flowing respectively 770 and 810 miles before 
 they meet. The river then flows east 282 miles 
 to Lake Winnipeg, from wliich its waters are 
 carried to Hudson Bay by the Nelson River 
 (q.v.), rendered unnavigable by rapids. "With 
 the Nelson, tlie total length is 1514 miles. The 
 river gives name to a province of the Dominion, 
 constituted in 1905 out of the former territory of 
 Saskatchewan, together with half of Athabasca, 
 and the greater part of Assiniboia ; the extended 
 Alberta absorbing the rest of these two terri- 
 tories, which have now disappeared. Area of the 
 province of Saskatchewan, 275,000 sq. m. ; pop. 
 250,000. Regina (pop. 3000) is the capital. 
 
 Sassari (Sass'aree), a city of NW. Sardinia, 12 
 miles by rail from its port, Porto Torres (pop. 
 4500), on the Gulf of Asinara, and 162 miles N. by 
 W. of Cagliari. It has a cathedral (1531), castle 
 (1331), university (1677), &c. Pop. 38,500. 
 
 Sasun, or Sassoon, a small town of Armenia, 
 50 miles W. of Bitlis. In 1893-94 the Kurds and 
 Turks committed great atrocities here. 
 
 S4tdr5, (Satdh'ra), a town of Bombay, near the 
 Kistna, 56 miles S. of Poona. Pop. 29,601. 
 
 Satoralja-Ujliely, a town of Hungary, 30 miles 
 SE. of Kaschau, near a spur of the Carpathians. 
 Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Sauchie (Sau'hee), or Sauchieburn, a battle, 
 field 3 miles SSW. of Stirling, where in 1488 
 James III. was defeated and slain. 
 
 Saugor. See Sagar. 
 
 Sault Ste Marie, a town of Ontario, Canada 
 (pop. 7500), and one in Michigan (pop. 12,000), 
 separated by the St Mary's River and the St 
 Mary's Falls ship-canal, which connect Lake 
 Huron with Lake Superior. A vast system of 
 locks simplifies the navigation ; the falls or rapids 
 (Scmlt, pron. soo) generate electrical energy, which 
 is largely utilised for various industries. A great 
 bridge links the (American) North Pacific and 
 the Canadian Pacilic railways. 
 
 Saumur {Somiir', nearly So-meer'), a town of 
 France, dep. Maine-et-Loire, on the left bank and 
 on an islet of the Loire, 38 miles by rail W. by S. 
 of Tours. It has an old castle (now arsenal and 
 powder magazine), a 16th-century town-house, 
 a museum, and a cavalry school with some 400 
 pupils. Rosaries and articles in enamel are manu- 
 factured. Pop. 14,400. Saumur was a Huguenot 
 stronghold with 25,000 inhabitants, and from 1598 
 till the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) 
 had a famous school of Protestant theology. 
 Saumur was captured by the Vendeans in 1793. 
 The largest dolmen in France is 1^ mile S. ; and 
 prehistoric caves line the river. 
 
 Saundersfoot, a Pembrokeshire seaport village 
 on Carmarthen Bay, 3^ miles NE. of Tenby. 
 
 Sauternes, a village of the dep. of Gironde, 18 
 miles SE. of Bordeaux, noted for its white wines. 
 
SAVAGE ISLAND 
 
 630 
 
 SAXONY 
 
 Savage Island, or Niue, a coral islet E. of the 
 Friendly Islands. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Savali. See Samoa. 
 
 Savanilla, a port of Colombia, on a bay of the 
 Caribbean Sea, 17 miles WNW. of Barranquilla 
 by the railway to Puerto Colombia. 
 
 Savan'nah, a river which forms the boundary 
 between Georgia and South Carolina, rises near 
 the North Carolina frontier, and flows 450 miles 
 8SE. to the Atlantic. It is navigable from 
 November to June for large vessels to Savannah, 
 for steamboats of 150 tons to Augusta. 
 
 Savannah, a city and port of Georgia, capital 
 of Chatham county, stretches along the south 
 bank of the Savannah River, 18 miles from its 
 mouth, and 115 by rail SW. of Charleston. It is 
 built on a sandy plain, 40 feet above the river, 
 with broad streets shaded by beautiful trees. The 
 dozens of parks are a delightful feature of the 
 place ; and almost in the centre of the city is 
 Forsyth Place (30 acres), thickly planted with 
 forest pines. Here is a monument to the Con- 
 federate dead ; and others in the city commemo- 
 rate General Nathaniel Greene and Count Pulaski, 
 who fell here. The chief edifices are the custom- 
 house, city exchange, cotton exchange, court- 
 house, Hodgson Hall, the Telfair Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, a Roman Catholic cathedral, 
 the Independent Presbyterian Church, Christ 
 Church, on the site of the chapel where John 
 Wesley first ministered to the colonists, and the 
 hospitals and asylums. Savannah has long been 
 the first naval stores station and the second port 
 of the United States in respect of the quantity of 
 cotton exported. Other articles of export are 
 spirits of turpentine, resin, lumber, rice, and 
 cotton-seed. The imports include fertilisers, 
 brimstone, fruit, cotton ties, and salt. The in- 
 dustrial works comprise rice-mills, foundries, 
 planing-mills, flour, cotton, and paper mills, 
 cotton-presses, packing-houses, ice and furni- 
 ture factories, &c. The city was founded in 
 1733, and incorporated in 1789. It was taken 
 by the British in 1778, and by General Sherman 
 in December 1864, the harbour having been 
 closed to commerce by the Federal fleet from 
 1861. Pop. (1880) 30,709 ; (1900) 54,244. 
 
 Save (Ger. Sau ; Hung. Szdva), a river in S. 
 Austria, rises in Carniola, and flows 556 miles 
 (366 navigable) SE. and E., separating Carniola 
 from Styria, and Bosnia and Servia from Slavonia, 
 till it falls into the Danube at Belgrade. 
 
 Savemake, a beautiful woodland region in 
 Wiltshire, to the south of the town of Marl- 
 borough. Its 40,000 acres of farm and forest 
 and hill were sold in 1891 to Lord Iveagh for 
 £750,000 by the Marquis of Ailesbury, whose 
 ancestor acquired it by marriage in 1676— a sale, 
 however, cancelled two years later. 
 
 Savlgliano (Saveelyah'no), a town of Italy, by 
 rail 32 miles S. of Turin. Pop. 9932. 
 
 Savo'na, a seaport of Italy, on the Gulf of 
 Genoa, 26 miles by rail S. by W. of Genoa and 91 
 SSB. of Turin. A handsome modern town em- 
 bowered in orange-groves, it has a Renaissance 
 cathedral (1589-1604), with the tomb of Pope 
 Sixtus IV. ; a castle (1542), now a prison, in which 
 Mazzini was confined in 1830-31 ; the Delia 
 Rovere Palace, a picture-gallery, a marine insti- 
 tute, ironworks, potteries, glass-works, tanneries, 
 and brick- yards. Pop. 24,481. 
 
 Savoy', formerly a province of the kingdom of 
 Sardinia, was transferred to France in 1860, and 
 divided into the two deps. of Savoie and Haute- 
 
 Savoie. It is an alpine region, having the Graian 
 Alps on the eastern frontier, as the boundary 
 next Piedmont. On that side it runs up to 
 15,782 feet in Mont Blanc, and to 11,792 in Mont 
 Cenis ; thence it falls away gradually to the 
 Rhone (950 feet), which separates it on the west 
 from the French dep. of Ain. The area is 3889 
 sq. m. (2223 in Savoie and 1666 in Hante-Savoie) ; 
 the total pop. (1881) 540,525; (1901) 518,584, 
 of Avhom 254,781 were in Savoie and 263,803 in 
 Haute-Savoie. The dep. of Savoie has the four 
 arrondissements of Albertville, Cliambery (the 
 capital), Motitiers, St Jean-de-Maurienne ; Haute- 
 Savoie has the four arrondissements of Annecy 
 (the capital), Bonneville, St-Julien, Thonon. 
 
 Savu', an island of the East Indies, lies W. of 
 Timor, and is ruled by five Malay rajahs who pay 
 tribute to the Dutch. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Sawbridgeworth, a town of Herts, on the 
 Stort, 4 miles S. of Bishop Stortford. Pop. of 
 parish, 2085. 
 
 Sawley, a Derbyshire village, on the Trent, 8J 
 miles ESE. of Derby. Pop. of parish, 1751. 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, &c. See Saxon Duchies. 
 
 Saxmundham, a Suffolk market-town, 22^ 
 miles NE. of Ipswich. Pop. of urban dist., 1452. 
 
 Saxon Duchies, a group of Central German 
 states lying between Prussian Saxony, the king- 
 dom of Saxony, Bavaria, and Hesse-Nassau. 
 
 state. 
 
 Pop. In 1900. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. m. 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg 511 194,114 
 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 755 229,550 
 
 Saxe-Meiuingen 953 250.731 
 
 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach 1387 362,873 
 
 Altenburg and Coburg-Gotha each consists of 
 two principal portions, with smaller fragments ; 
 Weimar-Eisenach embraces three large divisions ; 
 and Meiningen has detached parcels. Except 
 the easternmost part of Altenburg, they are all 
 generally hilly, embracing the Thuringian high- 
 lands, and are watered by the Elbe's tributaries 
 —the Saale, Unstrut, Ilm, and Elster— and by 
 the Werra. The four duchies maintain the uni- 
 versity of Jena. At the head of each is a duke 
 (in Weimar a grand-duke), controlled or assisted 
 by an assembly. To the house of Saxe-Coburg, 
 an indepeiident duchy since 1680, belonged both 
 the mother of Queen Victoria and the Prince 
 Consort; the dukedom passed in 1893 to the 
 Duke of Edinburgh, and in 1900 to the son of 
 the Duke of Albany. 
 
 Sax'ony, a kingdom of Germany, fifth in area, 
 but third in population, amongst the states of 
 the empire ; it is surrounded by Bohemia, Silesia, 
 Prussian Saxony, and the minor Saxon states. 
 It measures 130 miles E. and W. by 90 miles, and 
 has a total area of 5787 sq. m. (a little smaller 
 than Yorkshire). The greater part of the surface 
 is diversified by the spurs of the Erzgebirge 
 (highest point 3343 feet), with to the west the 
 outliers (2900 feet) of the Fichtelgebirge and to 
 the east the northern extensions (2600 feet) ol 
 the Riesengebirge. The northern districts pass 
 over into the great North German plain. In many 
 parts the surface is studded with isolated peaks 
 of basalt and sandstone (e.g. the Saxon Switzer- 
 land above Dresden). It lies almost wholly within 
 the basin of the Elbe. The population grows 
 fast: (1815) 1.178,802; (1840) 1,706,276; (1880) 
 2,972,805 ; (1900) 4,202,216. By race the majority 
 of the people are Germanised Slavs, close upon 
 50,000 being Wends, living in Lusatia ; more than 
 96 per cent, are Lutherans, though the royal 
 
SAXONY 
 
 631 
 
 SCARPAKT6 
 
 dynasty are Catholic. The capital is Dresden ; 
 the largest towns are Dresden, Leipzig, and Chem- 
 nitz, having respectively about 480,700, 456,200, 
 and 214,100 inhabitants. Saxony is essentially a 
 mining and manufacturing country. The manu- 
 factures are the textile industries (linen, damaslc, 
 muslin, hosiery, ribbons, cloth and buckskin, 
 flannel, woollen goods, and waxcloth), the making 
 of machinery, pottery, porcelain and glass, chemi- 
 cals, beer, spirits, lace, paper, straw-plait, tobacco, 
 artificial flowers, pianofortes, hats, toys, watches, 
 books, musical instruments, ornamental wooden 
 articles, &c. Coal, argentiferous lead, zinc, iron, 
 and cobalt are produced ; and Freiberg is one of 
 the chief mineral centres in Germany. Amongst 
 the recruits of 1887 there was only 1 in 5000 who 
 could not read and write. Amongst the educa- 
 tional institutions are the university of Leipzig, 
 two famous schools at Meissen and Grimma, a 
 polytechnic at Dresden, an industrial academy 
 at Chemnitz, a mining academy at Freiberg, a 
 forestry school at Tharandt. The annual national 
 income and expenditure balance at about 
 £5,750,000 ; the public debt, principally incurred 
 for railways, amounted in 1892 to £41,500,000. 
 The king exercises the supreme executive, and 
 there are two legislative chambers. Saxony sends 
 23 members to the Reichstag of the empire, and 
 4 to the Reichsrath. 
 
 The old Saxons, a low-German people, once 
 occupied all North Germany from the Rhine to 
 the Elbe, from the Harz Mountains to the 
 North Sea, and sent out warlike emigrants to 
 found the English state. At home they had long 
 wars with their kinsmen the Franks, and were 
 not conquered and christianised (by Charlemagne) 
 till 804. Duke Henry extended the Saxon 
 dominion far east of the Elbe and over the present 
 kingdom, subduing the Slavic tribes there. The 
 Emperor Frederick I. (1180) confined the Saxon 
 duchy to the country east of the Elbe ; about 
 1360 the duke became an elector. In 1485 the 
 reigning family split into two main branches, the 
 electoral branch in the west, and the Albertine 
 line beyond the Elbe. The Emperor Charles V. 
 crushed the elector, conspicuous on the Prot- 
 estant side, in 1547, and gave lands and title to 
 the eastern branch. In the Thirty Years' War, 
 the electors of Saxony (now the part containing 
 the present kingdom) were driven to take the 
 Protestant side, but becoming for a time kings of 
 Poland, early in the ISth century returned (and 
 have ever since remained attached) to Catholicism. 
 Saxony sided with Austria in the Seven Years' 
 War, and was severely handled by Frederick the 
 Great. In 1806 the elector took the title of king 
 and went over to the side of Napoleon, in con- 
 sequence of which the Congress of Vienna took 
 away from Saxony a large part of its dominions, 
 and handed them over to Prussia (see Saxony, 
 Prussian). In the Franco-German war, the 
 Saxons fought bravely by the side of the Prussians. 
 
 Saxony, Prussian, a province of Prussia, 
 formed in 1815 out of districts taken from the 
 kingdom of Saxony, part of the duchy of Magde- 
 burg, the Altmark, the principalities of Halber- 
 stadt and Erfurt, &c. Anhalt (q.v.) almost 
 divides it in two. Area, 9746 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 
 2,832,616. The capital is Magdeburg ; other 
 towns are Halle, Erfurt, Halberstadt, Aschersle- 
 ben, Miihlhausen, and Nordhausen. 
 
 Say. See Niger. 
 
 Sca-feU (Skaio-feW), a double-peaked mountain, 
 the loftiest summit in England, on the Westmor- 
 land border of Cumberland, 14^ miles SSW. of 
 
 Keswick. Of its two peaks, the higher, Scafell 
 Pike, attains 3210 feet, the other 3161. 
 
 Scala Nova (Skdh'la Nova; Turkish Kuscha- 
 dassL), a port of Asia Minor, at the head of a gulf, 
 40 miles S. of Smyrna, opposite Samos, and near 
 the ruins of Ephesus (q.v.). Pop. 9000. 
 
 Scalloway, a seaport village of Shetland, 6 
 miles WSW. of Lerwick. Pop. 860. 
 
 Scalpa, an island of Harris, Inverness-shire, in 
 East Loch Tarbert. Area, 3 sq. m. ; pop. 587. 
 
 Scalpay, an island off the E. coast of Skye, 
 attains 994 feet. Area, 10 sq. m. ; pop. 35. 
 
 Scanderoon', or Alexandretta (Iskanderun, 
 ' Alexander's town '), the port of Aleppo (77 miles 
 SE.) on the Gulf of Scanderoon, in the NE. 
 angle of the Levant. It is a poor and unhealthy 
 place of 1500 inhabitants, with a neglected har- 
 bour ; yet it has a transit trade of over £2,000,000 
 a year. It was founded by Alexander the Great 
 to commemorate his victory of Issus (333 B.C.). 
 Off here Sir Kenelm Digby defeated a Franco- 
 Venetian squadron (1628) ; and close by Mehemet 
 Ali defeated the Turks in 1832. 
 
 Scandina'vla, the peninsula comprising Sweden 
 and Norway. Historically Scandinavia includes 
 also Denmark and Iceland. 
 
 Scarba, an Argyllshire island, 1^ mile N. of 
 Jura, attains 1500 feet. Area, 5| sq. m. ; pop. 13. 
 
 Scar'borough, the 'Queen of Watering-places,' 
 in the North Riding of Yorkshire, 54 miles N. of 
 Hull, 21 SSE. of Whitby, 43 NE. of York, and 
 233 N. of London. Backed by Oliver's Mount 
 (500 feet), it rises like an amphitheatre round a 
 beautiful sandy bay, protected on the north by a 
 castle-crowned headland (300 feet), beyond which 
 is the quieter North Cliff. The South Cliff" and 
 the old town (below the Castle) are separated by 
 a picturesque gully, which is spanned by the 
 Cliff' Bridge (1827 ; 414 feet long, 75 high), and, 
 farther up, by the Ramsdale Valley Bridge (1865). 
 Scarborough (A.S. Skardehurge, ' fortified rock ') 
 is an old place, for Harold Hardrada ravaged it 
 in 1066, and in 1181 it received a renewal of an 
 earlier charter ; it returned two members to parlia- 
 ment from Edward I.'s time till 1885, when the 
 representation was reduced to one. The castle, 
 now a shattered Norman keep, dates from 1136, 
 but was rebuilt as a royal fortress by Henry II. 
 Near it is St Mary's, the church originally of a 
 Cistercian priory (1320), Transition Norman and 
 Early English in style, with later additions. St 
 Martin's (1862) is a good Early English structure, 
 with windows by Morris. Other buildings are 
 the splendid aqviarium (1877), the museum (1828), 
 the market-hall (1853), the huge Grand Hotel 
 (1867), and the Spa (1880), the third on the site, 
 whose two saline and chalybeate springs were 
 discovered about 1620, and which has charming 
 grounds. The tidal harbour, with a lighthouse and 
 a floating-dock, was formed between 1732 and 
 1850, and is enclosed by three piers, the longest 
 and outermost curving 1380 feet ; on the North 
 Sands is a promenade pier 1000 feet long ; and 
 here, too, a promenade, nearly 4000 feet long 
 and 24 wide, was constructed in 1887-90 at a cost 
 of £50,000. The jet manufacture is a specialty. 
 The season lasts from June till the middle of 
 October, when visitors pour in by thousands. 
 Sir F. Leighton was a native. Resident pop. 
 (1851) 12,915 ; (1881) 30,504 ; (1901) 38,160. See 
 works by Gent (1735), Hinderwell (2d ed. 1811), 
 J. Brogden Baker (1882), and Haviland (1883). 
 
 Scarpan'to (anc. Carpatho), a long narrow 
 mountainous island, attaining 4000 feet, and 
 
feCA^TERY ISLAND 
 
 63^ 
 
 gCHWARZBURG-RtJDOLSTABf 
 
 belonging to Turkey, midway between Rhodes 
 and Crete. Area, 85 sq. m. ; pop. 5000 Greeks. 
 
 Scattery Island, an islet in the Shannon's 
 estuary, 3 miles SW. of Kilrush, with a lighthouse, 
 a fort, fragments of several small churches, and 
 an ancient round tower 87 feet high. 
 
 Scawfell. See Soafell. 
 
 Schaffhausen (Shaff-hovyzen), the most north- 
 ern canton of Switzerland, is bounded on all sides 
 but the south by Baden. Area, 114 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1870) 37,721; (1900) 41,514, German-speaking 
 and Protestant. The Rhine forms the southern 
 boundary ; and the surface is hilly. — Schaff- 
 HAUSEN, the capital, is beautifully situated on 
 the Rhine's right bank, 31 miles by rail WNW. 
 of Constance. Overlooking the town, remark- 
 able for its antique architecture, stands the 
 castle of Munoth (1564-90), and there are also the 
 cathedral (12th century), a concert hall, a lib- 
 rary, a museum, and a statue to the historian 
 Johannes von Miiller, a native. Pop. 10,648. 
 The grand falls of Schaffhausen, about 3 miles 
 below the town, are utilised for factories, which 
 turn out iron, arms, oil, flour, beer, spirits, soap, 
 candles, wool, cotton, and agricultural machines, 
 
 Schassbxirg. See Segesvar. 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe (Showm'boorg-Lippeh), a 
 sovereign German principality, lying between 
 Westphalia and Hanover. Area, 131 sq. m. ; 
 pop. (1900) 43,132, mostly Lutherans. Some coal 
 is extracted. Capital, Biickeburg (pop. 5186). 
 
 Scheldt (Skelt; Fr. Escaut), a river that rises 
 in the French dep. of Aisne, flows north past 
 Cambrai and Valenciennes, and, entering Belgium, 
 passes Tournai, Oudenarde, Ghent, Dendermonde, 
 and Antwerp, receiving the Lys, Dender, and 
 Rupel. Before it reaches the North Sea it is 
 divided by the islands of Beveland (N. and S.) 
 and Walcheren into two great arms, the Wester 
 (on which is Flushing) and the Coster Scheldt. 
 The river is navigable to Cambrai, 211 miles from 
 its mouth and 56 from its source. 
 
 Schellenberg (Shellenherg), a village 9 miles S. 
 of Salzburg, where Marlborough defeated the 
 Austrian s in 1704. 
 
 Schemnitz (Shem'neetz ; Magyar SelmeczMnya), 
 the most famous mining-town of Hungary, in 
 a mountain gorge, 65 miles N. by W. of Pesth. 
 The mines have since Roman times produced gold 
 and silver, copper and lead. Pop. 18,265. 
 
 Schenectady (Shenek'tady), a city of New York, 
 on the Erie Canal and the south bank of the 
 Mohawk River, 17 miles by rail NW. of Albany. 
 It is the seat of Union University (1795), and con- 
 tains locomotive works, stove-foundries, woollen 
 and flour mills, &c. Schenectady was settled by 
 the Dutch in 1661. Pop. 31,700. 
 
 Scheveningen (Skay'ven-ing-en), a Dutch sea- 
 side-resort on tlie North Sea, now practically 
 part of the Hague, 2 miles NW. Pop. 21,000. 
 Off Scheveningen the Dutch fleet was defeated, 
 and its admiral Tromp killed, by the English 
 under Monk on 8th-10th August 1653. 
 
 Schied&m (Skee-damm'), a Dutch town, 2^ miles 
 W. of Rotterdam, and close to the Maas ; here 
 Hollands gin is made, in some 300 distilleries. 
 There is a large shipping trade, cooperages, malt- 
 kilns, &c. Pop. 27,500. 
 
 Schiehallloii (Shee-hal'yon ; Gael, 'maiden's 
 pap'), an isolated Perthshire mountain (3547 
 feet), 11 miles WNW. of Aberfeldy. Here, in 
 1774, Maskelyne fixed the earth's mean density. 
 
 Schlpka. See Shipka. 
 
 Schlangenbad (SUang' en-bat), a German spa. 
 The Rheingau stands in a wooded valley of the 
 Taunus Mountains, 5 miles W. of Wiesbaden. 
 The water of the baths (82°-90° F.) is used, for the 
 most part externally, in baths, and is helpful in 
 nervous diseases, for women's complaints, and for 
 purifying the skin. Pop. 503. Visitors in the 
 season, 2000. The place gets its name (' snakes' 
 bath ') from a harmless snake found there. 
 
 Schleswig. See Sleswick. 
 
 Schlettstadt (ShUtt'stat), a town of Lower 
 Alsace, on the Ill's left bank, 27 miles by rail 
 SSW, of Strasburg, manufacturing wire-gauze. 
 In the 15th century, a free imperial city, it was 
 the seat of a great humanist school. In 1634 the 
 town became French ; it was fortified by Vauban 
 in 1676. The Germans, after capturing the town 
 in 1870, razed the fortifications. Here Bucer 
 the Reformer was born. Pop. 9500. 
 
 Schliisselburg (Schleess'elboorg), a town (pop. 
 5542) and prison-fortress of Russia, the fortress 
 being on a rocky islet in the Neva where it issues 
 from Lake Ladoga. Here Ivan VI. was murdered, 
 after twenty-three years' imprisonment. 
 
 Schmalkalden (Shmahlkahl'den), an old town 
 of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, 19 miles SW. of Gotha. 
 The Protestant ' League of Schmalkald ' was con- 
 cluded here on 4th April 1531, Pop. 8729. 
 
 Schneeberg {Shnay'berg), a mining-town of 
 west Saxony, 20 miles SW. of Chemnitz, produc- 
 ing silver (though not in its former great abund- 
 ance), cobalt, tin, and iron. Pop. 8949. 
 
 Schneekoppe (Shnay'kop-peh), the highest 
 point (5260 feet) of the Riesengebirge (q.v.). 
 
 Sclineidemuhl, a Prussian town half-way be- 
 tween Berlin and Danzig, in a flat and dreary 
 region in the north of Posen, with 19,700 inhabit- 
 ants and some manufactures of iron, machines, 
 starch, bone-dust, felt, and carpentry. An 
 artesian well sunk here in 1893-94 poured forth 
 such floods of water and mud as to inundate part 
 of the town, and cause serious subsidences. 
 
 Schonebeck (nearly Shay'neh-bek), a town of 
 Prussia, 9 miles by rail S. of Magdeburg, on the 
 Elbe's left bank. Here 65,000 tons for salt are 
 made annually, also machinery, chemicals, starch, 
 varnish, &c. Pop. 16,319. 
 
 Schonhausen (nearly Shaynhou/zen), a village 
 of Prussian Saxony, 60 miles WNW. of Berlin by 
 rail (pop. 1700), with the old seat of the Bismarck 
 family, and the institute or hospital for secondary 
 teachers and their widows and orphans, founded 
 in 1885 by Prince Bismarck with the fund raised 
 to celebrate his 70th birthday. 
 
 Schoodlc. See Maine. 
 
 Schouwen (Skow'wen), an island of the Dutch 
 province of Zealand, with an area of 62 sq. m. 
 and a pop. of 24,000. Chief town, Zierikzee. 
 
 Schreckhom, one of the mountains of the 
 Bernese Oberland, SE. of Grindelwald ; the 
 highest peak (13,886 feet) was first ascended by 
 Mr Leslie Stephen in 1861. 
 
 Schuylkill (Skoolkill), a river of Pennsylvania, 
 rising in the coal region, and flowing 130 miles 
 SE. to the Deleware at Philadelphia. 
 
 Schwalbach (Shval'bahh), or Langenschwal- 
 BACH, a German spa, 8 miles W. by N. of Wies- 
 baden, has eight springs impregnated with iron 
 and carbonic acid gas, efficacious in female com- 
 plaints, poor blood, and muscular weakness. 
 Pop. 2678, increased to 7000 in the season, 
 
 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, a German prin- 
 cipality, consists of the upper lordship (283 sq. 
 
gdHWARZBURG-SOltDSRSIiAtJSEK 63^ 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 m.) in Thuringia, surrounded by the Saxon 
 duchies of Weimar, Altenburg, and Meiningen ; 
 and the lower lordship (80 sq. m.), lying 40 miles 
 to the N. in Prussian Saxony. Pop. 94,000. 
 Both divisions are mountainous ; in the lower 
 lordship stands the Kyffhauser (1545 feet), under 
 which, according to legend, Frederick Barbarossa 
 sleeps. Capital, Rudolstadt. 
 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, a German prin- 
 cipality, consists of the lower lordship (200 sq. 
 m.) in Prussian Saxony and two separate portions 
 constituting the upper lordship (132 sq. m.) in 
 the Thuringia, surrounded by the Saxon duchies 
 of Gotha, Weimar, and Meiningen. Pop. 81,000. 
 Capital, Sondershausen. 
 
 Schwarzwald (Shvartzvalt). See Black 
 Forest, 
 
 Schwedt (Shvayf), a town in the Prussian prov- 
 ince of Brandenburg, on the Oder, 28 miles SSW. 
 of Stettin, the residence of the margraves of 
 Brandenburg from 1689 to 1788. Pop. 9756. 
 
 Schweidnitz (Shvide'neetz), a town of Prussian 
 Silesia, 36 miles by rail S W. of Breslau. Woollens 
 and linens, implements, gloves, needles, pottery, 
 beer, &c. are manufactured. Pop. 28,440. 
 
 Schwelnfurt (Shvine'foort), long an imperial 
 free city of NW. Bavaria, on the Main, 28 miles 
 NE. of Wiirzburg by rail. Riickert the poet was 
 born here (monument 1890). Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Schwerin (Shvay-reen'), capital of Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin, lies on the Lake of Schwerin (14 
 miles in length and 3 broad). It contains the 
 grand-duke's castle (1815-58), a Renaissance 
 structure ; the cathedral (1365-1430) ; an arsenal ; 
 a museum and picture-gallery ; and manufactures 
 of lacquered wares, machinery, cloth, &c. Pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 Schwyz (Shveets), a Swiss canton, touches in 
 the north the Lake of Zurich, and in the M'est the 
 Lakes of Zug and Lucerne. Area, 350 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 56,000, German -speaking and Catholics. 
 The surface is mountainous, rising on t)ie border 
 to 9052 feet. The monastery of Einsiedeln 
 attracts pilgrims, and the Rigi vast numbers of 
 tourists in the summer. Schwyz, the capital, is 
 picturesquely situated 26 }niles by rail E. of 
 Lucerne. Here, on 1st August 1891, was held the 
 sixth centenary of the League of Brunnen and the 
 seventh of the founding of Bern. Pop. 7624. 
 
 Sciacca (Shakka; anc. Thermce Selinuntince), 
 a seaport of S. Sicily, on a bold cliff 30 miles NW. 
 of Girgenti, has a fine 11th-century cathedral, 
 two ruined castles, and hot sulphurous and saline 
 springs. Off the coast coral banks were dis- 
 covered in 1875-80. Pop. 20,709. 
 
 Scicli (Shee'klee), a town in the SE. of Sicily, 36 
 miles SW. of Syracuse, Near by are the remains 
 of the ancient Casmence. Pop. 13,842. 
 
 Scilly Islands (Silly), a Cornish group, lie 
 about 27 miles WSW. of Land's End. They 
 occupy, as a group, about 30 .sq. m. of sea-room, 
 and consist of six large islands — St Mary's (1528 
 acres ; pop. 1290), Tresco (697 acres ; pop. 328), 
 St Martin's (515 acres ; pop. 175), St Agues (313 
 acres ; pop. 148), Bryher (269 acres ; pop. 103), and 
 Samson (78 acres, uninhabited) — and some thirty 
 small ones, besides innumerable rocks and ledges. 
 None reaches more than 160 feet above the 
 sea. They are wrongly identified with the Cassite- 
 rides or ' Tin Islands ' of the ancients. The idea 
 of a land of Lyonesse between the islands and the 
 mainland subTnerged within historic times is now 
 abandoned. The present name ' Scilly ' belongs 
 strictly to a small, very inaccessible, rocky island 
 
 in the north-west, and is probably derived from 
 Cornish silya, 'a conger eel.' Athelstan con- 
 quered the islands in 938, and e.stablished monks 
 upon Tresco. The islands were handed over to 
 Tavistock Abbey by Henry I., and in 1568 leased 
 by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Francis Godolphin. 
 In 1834 they were leased to Mr Augustus John 
 Smith, who made Tresco his home for thirty-eight 
 years, built churches and schools, suppressed 
 smuggling, encouraged agi-iculture, and forbade 
 overcrowded holdings. He was succeeded in 1872 
 by his nephew. 
 
 Tlie climate is mild, but necessarily damp, and 
 the weather is changeable and frequently stormy ; 
 but the temperature is extremely equable, 
 averaging 58° F. in summer and 45° F. in winter. 
 The leading natural features of the scenery are 
 the fantastically weathered rocks and rock-basins 
 and the bold coast-lines. There are remains of 
 cromlechs and stone circles. There has been a 
 lighthouse on St Agnes since 1680, on Bishop Rock 
 since 1858, and on Round Island since 1887 ; there 
 are also lights on the Wolf, the Seven Stones 
 (floating), and the Longships of Land's End. 
 Hugh Town, on St Mary's, is the only town on 
 the islands ; there is good anchorage in the road- 
 stead. Wrecks used to be a fruitful source of 
 wealth. One of the most famous was that of 
 three ships of Sir Cloudesley Shovel's fleet in 
 1707, when 2000 men, including the admiral, were 
 drowned. Smuggling was formerly largely in- 
 dulged in. Kelp-making, introduced in 1684, has 
 been given up ; so, too, has shipbuilding. Nowa- 
 days most of the young men emigrate. Farming 
 is practised, and early potatoes and broccoli are 
 exported ; but the chief industry now is the 
 cultivation of narcissus and other lilies — 100 tons 
 of flowers being shipped in a single spring. See 
 works by Borlase (1756), White (1850), Tonkin 
 (Penzance, 1887), and Besant (1890). 
 
 Scinde. See Sind. 
 
 Scindia's Dominions. See Gwalior. 
 
 Scio (Shee'o). See Chios. 
 
 Scioto (Sl-o'to), a beautiful river of Ohio, flow- 
 ing nearly 300 miles E. and S., to its junction at 
 Portsmouth with the river Ohio. 
 
 Sclavonia. See Slavonia. 
 
 Scone (Scoon), in Perthshire, on the Tay's left 
 bank, 2 miles N. of Perth, was the capital of 
 Pictavia as early as 710, and the coronation place 
 of the Scottish kings from 1153 till 1488, as after- 
 wards in 1651 of Charles II. The 'Stone of 
 Destiny ' was carried off in 1296 by Edward I. 
 An Augustinian abbey, founded by Alexander I, 
 in 1115, was demolished by a rabble in 1559 ; and 
 the subsequent Palace of the Viscounts Stormont, 
 occupied by the Old Pretender for three weeks in 
 1716, and visited by Prince Charles Edward, gave 
 place to a modern mansion, the seat of their 
 descendant, the Earl of Mansfield. See Urquhart's 
 History of Scone (1884). 
 
 Scotland, the northern part of Great Britain, 
 is washed on the W. and N. by the Atlantic, on 
 the E. by the North Sea, and on the S. is parted 
 from England by the Solway Firth and the 
 (largely artificial) line described in the article 
 Borders. Its length, from Cape Wrath to the 
 Mull of Galloway, is 274 miles ; its breadth varies 
 between 24 and 146 miles ; and its total area is 
 19,777,490 acres or 30,902 sq. m., of which 631 sq. m. 
 are water. The geology, physical geography, 
 meteorology, &c. have been sketched at Great 
 Britain. Of 787 islands, belonging mostly to 
 the Hebrides, Orkneys, or Shetland, sixty-two 
 
feCOTLAND 
 
 634 
 
 SCOTLANO 
 
 exceed 3 sq. m. in area, and of these the larg- 
 est are Long Island (Lewis and Harris, 859 
 sq. m.), Skye (643), the Mainland of Shetland 
 (378), Mull (347), Islay (246), Pomona (207), Arran 
 (168), Jura (143), and North Uist (136). Of 
 twenty-six rivers flowing direct to the sea the 
 chief are the Tweed (97 miles long), Forth (75), 
 Tay (93), Dee (87), Don (82), Deveron (62), Spey 
 (96), Clyde (106), and Nith (71) ; and of these the 
 Forth, Tay, and Clyde expand into important 
 estuaries. There is also the Moray Firth ; and 
 indeed the whole coast is so intersected by arms 
 of the sea that few places are more than 40 miles 
 inland. Fresh-water lakes are numerous — Lochs 
 Loinond (27 sq. m.), Ness (19), Awe (16), Shin, 
 Maree, Tay, Earn, Leven, Katrine, &c. The 
 division into Highlands and Lowlands is ex- 
 plained at Highlands. In the Lowlands the high- 
 est points are MeiTick (2764 feet) in Kirkcudbright- 
 shire, and Broad Law (2723) in Peeblesshire ; in the 
 Highlands 184 sunnnits exceed 3000 feet above 
 sea-level— among them Ben Nevis (4406), Ben 
 Macdhui (4296), Ben Lawers (4004), Ben Cruachan 
 (3689), Ben Wyvis (3429), and Ben Lomond (3192). 
 See Cheviots, Ochils, Grampians, &c. In the 
 whole Of Scotland the percentage of cultivated 
 area is only 24'2 — in Fife as high as 77"8, in Suther- 
 land as low as 2-4. Woods cover less than 1400 
 sq. m. ; and there are 2420 acres of orchards, 
 nearly 5300 of market-gardens, and 1400 of nur- 
 sery grounds. Between 1857 and 1903 horses 
 increased from 185,406 to 200,530, cattle from 
 881,053 to 1,247,246, sheep from 5,683,168 to 
 7,227,395 ; pigs decreased from 140,354 to 136,771. 
 In 1903 the qtiantities of the principal minerals 
 raised were, in tons : coal, 34,992,240 (7,448,000 
 in 1854) ; ironstone, 846,094 ; oil-shale, 2,009,265 ; 
 fireclay, 892,942 ; igneous rocks and sandstone 
 from quarries, 2,848,275. In 1905 there were in 
 all Scotland about 750 textile factories, with 
 some 2,500,000 spindles, 75,000 power-looms, and 
 170,000 hands. In shipbuilding there has been 
 of late a minimum output of about 200 vessels of 
 115,000 tons yearly, a maximum of 380 of 300,000 
 tons ; whilst at the same time foreign and 
 colonial imports ranged between £27,000,000 
 and £40,000,000, the exports between £18,000,000 
 and £30,000,000. In 1902, at the twenty- 
 eight principal ports, there entered (including 
 coastwise shipping) 63,395 sailing and steam 
 vessels of 15,643,745 tons, and cleared 62,600 of 
 16,126,435 tons. The railways grew from 1243 
 miles in 1857 to 3664 in 1903. Pop. (1801) 
 1,608,420 ; (1821) 2,091,521 ; (1841) 2,620,184; (1861) 
 3,062,294; (1881) 3,735,573; (1901) 4,472,103, of 
 whom 2,173,755 were males and 2,298,348 females, 
 and 230,800 were Gaelic-speaking. 3,120,241 (69-77 
 per cent.) lived in the towns. In 1901 the twelve 
 principal towns were Glasgow (pop. 761,709 ; 
 with suburbs, 1,010,000), Edinburgh (316,837), 
 Dundee (161,173), Aberdeen (153,503), Paisley 
 (79,363), Leith (77,439), Greenock (68,142), Coat- 
 bridge (36,991), Kilmarnock (34,165), Kirkcaldy 
 (34,079), Perth (32,873), Hamilton (32,775); the 
 other towns with over 20,000 inhabitants are 
 Motherwell, Falkirk, Ayr, Dunfermline, Ar- 
 broath, Airdrie, Inverness, Wishaw ; and with 
 over 10,000, Dumbarton, Stirling, Hawick, Port- 
 Glasgow, Rutherglen, Galashiels, Dumfries, 
 Montrose, Peterhead, Musselburgh, Alloa, For- 
 far, Pollokshaws, Johnstone, Kirkintilloch, and 
 Broughty- Ferry. Most Scotsmen adhere to the 
 Presbyterian churches, but there are also Episco- 
 palians, Independents, Baptists, Methodists, and 
 some 400,000 Roman Catholics (most of them 
 of Irish descent). The officers of state for Scot- 
 
 land are the Secretary for Scotland, the Lord 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal, the Lord Clerk Register, 
 the Lord Advocate, and the Lord Justice-clerk. 
 The duties of the first, appointed under an Act 
 of 1885 (amended 1887), were transferred to him 
 from the Home Secretary, and relate to education, 
 sanitation, manufactures, prisons, &c. Under 
 the Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1889, many 
 changes were made in the county boundaries, 
 detached portions of Nairn, Perth, Selkirk, &c. 
 being annexed to the counties surrounding 
 them ; whilst Orkney and Shetland, united for 
 parliamentary purposes, were dissevered. There 
 thus are thirty-three counties, whose area and 
 population are shown in this table : 
 
 Population. 
 
 Counties. Area in statute acres. 1801. 1901. 
 
 Aberdeen 1,262,097 121,065 304,439 
 
 Argyll 2,134,274 81,277 73,642 
 
 Ayr 735,262 84,297 254,468 
 
 Banff 413,791 37,216 61,488 
 
 Berwick 297,161 30,206 30,824 
 
 Bute 143,997 11,791 18,787 
 
 Caithness 448,867 22,609 3:J,870 
 
 Clackmannan 31,876 10,858 32,029 
 
 Dumbarton 172,677 20,710 113,865 
 
 Dumfries 70.5,946 54,597 72,.571 
 
 Edinburgh... 234,926 122,-597 488,796 
 
 Elgin 312,346 27,760 44,800 
 
 Fife 328,427 93,743 218,.S40 
 
 Forfar 569,8151 99,053 284,082 
 
 Haddington 179,142 29,986 38,665 
 
 Inverness 2,767,078 72,672 90,104 
 
 Kincardine 248,195 26,349 40,923 
 
 Kinross 49,812 6.725 6.981 
 
 Kirkcudbright 610,:i43 29,211 .39,383 
 
 Lanark 568,863 147,692 1,3.39,327 
 
 Linlithgow 81,113 17,844 65,708 
 
 Nairn 127,906 8,322 9,291 
 
 Orkney 240,640 24,445 28,699 
 
 Peebles 227,869 8,735 15.066 
 
 Perth 1,664,690 12.5,58.3 123,283 
 
 Renfrew 162,428 78,501 268.980 
 
 Ross and Cromarty ..1,861,572 56,318 76,450 
 
 Roxburgh 428,464 33,721 48,804 
 
 Selkirk 166,524 5,388 Xi.'SHe 
 
 Shetland 352,876 22,379 28.166 
 
 Stirling 298,579 50,825 142,291 
 
 Sutherland 1,359,846 23,117 21,440 
 
 Wigtown 327,906 22,918 32,685 
 
 When the Romans extended their conquests (84 
 A.D.) to the Forth and Clyde, the country beyond, 
 known to them as Caledonia, was occupied by the 
 Picts, a Celtic people (perhaps partly by Celtic- 
 ised Iberians) speaking Gaelic, who called their 
 country Alban or Albyn ; while the south of what 
 is now Scotland was possessed, like south Britain, 
 by Cymric Celts, speaking a kind of Welsh. In 
 the 5th century the Scots came from their home 
 in Ireland into Argyllshire, and after centuries 
 of war with the Picts, put the crown of Scots and 
 Picts on the head of their king, Kenneth, in 843. 
 The Scots, partially Christianised when they 
 came, had Columba as their great missionary, 
 and by means of him and his followers converted 
 the Picts, the Cymri, and the northern tribes of 
 the English, who since the 5th century had estab- 
 lished themselves in the eastern parts of Britain as 
 far north as the Forth. In the 10th century the 
 country of the Picts and Scots came to be known 
 by the name of ScoWa (till then the name of Ireland), 
 Nova Scotia, or Scotland ; and it soon came to in- 
 clude all of what is now called Scotland, and for 
 a time even Cumberland and Westmorland ; 
 Cymric Strathclyde became permanently Scot- 
 tish in the 10th century, and in the same cen- 
 tury and the beginning of the next, Lothian, the 
 Merse, and Teviotdale, all heretofore part of 
 Northumbria, all as English as any part of Eng- 
 land, and more Anglian perhaps than any part of 
 the south, were bestowed ou the Scottish kings. 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SEAfTLE 
 
 The reign of Malcolm Canmore (1057-93) was a 
 period of social, political, and religious revolu- 
 tion. Malcolm, long an exile in England, mar- 
 ried Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling. 
 Malcolm and his saintly queen (afterwards canon- 
 ised) encouraged the introduction of English 
 customs and civilisation, the English language, 
 and English settlers ; and began the process 
 which led to the conforming of the stubborn 
 Celtic Church to Roman usages. English (Anglo- 
 Saxon) settlers established themselves in large 
 numbers outside of the already purely English 
 region in the south-east, which more and more 
 became the headquarters of the kingdom ; and 
 the Anglo-Saxons were soon followed by many 
 Normans, bringing with them a measure of 
 French culture. David (1242-53) greatly pro- 
 moted the well-being of church and state ; and 
 Scotland was a prosperous country till the death 
 of Alexander III. (1286). Then the attempts of 
 Edward I. of England to get Scotland incorpor- 
 ated by hook or crook with the rest of south 
 Britain, led to the long, bloody, and destruc- 
 tive wars of independence, Avars disastrous to all 
 save national spirit and energy, and for 400 years 
 Scotland, though free, was poor, barbarous, and 
 torn by dissension. The Celtic element ven- 
 tured, under the Lord of the Isles, to try con- 
 clusions with the Saxon lowlanders at Harlaw in 
 1411, but were signally worsted. Bannockburn 
 (1314) encouraged the nation to resist to the 
 uttermost the superior might of England ; and 
 not till after the Reformation (when Scotland 
 adopted heartily the Presbyterian polity) were 
 the crowns of England and Scotland united in 
 the person of James VI. of Scotland, heir also to 
 the English crown (1603). The Scots, enraged by 
 the attempts of Charles I. to impose the Anglican 
 ritual, fought stoutly with the English Parlia- 
 ment against the king, but enthusiastically sup- 
 ported the Restoration. Under Charles II. and 
 James II. the National Church was depressed, 
 and the Covenanters persecuted ; and the Re- 
 volution was welcomed (1688) by the great bulk 
 of the nation. The crowns had been conjoined 
 by the personal tie of the sovereign in 1603 ; the 
 kingdoms were united by legislative union in 
 1707 (the Scottish Church and Scots law being 
 maintained intact), in spite of a good deal of Scot- 
 tish discontent ; and it was mainly the High- 
 landers who, in 1715 and 1745, rose in defence of 
 the claims of the family of the exiled James II., 
 under the old and the young Pretenders. From 
 this time the history of Scotland may be regarded 
 as merging in that of Britain, though Scotland 
 and England, Scotsmen and Englishmen, are still 
 in many respects very distinguishable. Scots- 
 men have taken a prominent part in the political 
 and intellectual life of the United Kingdom, and 
 done more than their share in building up the 
 colonial empire of Great Britain. 
 
 See P. Hume Brown's Early Travellers in Scot- 
 land, 1295-1689 (1891) ; F. Grose's Antiquities of 
 Scotland (2 vols. 1789-91); Sir John Sinclair's 
 Statistical Account of Scotland (21 vols. 1791-99) ; 
 Dorothy Wordsworth's Tour in Scotland (ed. by 
 Shairp, 1874); G. Chalmers' Caledonia (3 vols. 
 1807-24 ; new ed. Paisley, 7 vols. 1888 et seq.) ; 
 R. Chambers's Picture of Scotland (2 vols. 1827) ; 
 the New Statistical Account (15 vols. 1845); Sir 
 Thomas Dick Lauder's Scottish Rivers (ed. by Dr 
 John Brown, 1874) ; Billings' Baronial and 
 Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland (4 vols. 1848- 
 52); Cosmo Innes' Origines Parochiales Scotice 
 (3 vols. 1850-55); Hugh Miller's Cruise of the 
 Betsey (1858) ; Sir A. Geikie's Scenery of Scotland 
 
 viewed in connection with its Physical Geology 
 (1865 ; 2d ed. 1887) ; Dean Ramsay's Reminiscences 
 of Scottish Life and Character (22d ed. 1874) ; Dr 
 Joseph Anderson's Scotland in Early Christian 
 and Pagan Times (i vols. 1881-86) ; F. H. Groome's 
 Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland {2d ed. 3 vols. 1893- 
 95); C. Rogers' Social Life in Scotland (3 vols. 
 1884-86) ; MacGibbon and Ross's Castellated and 
 Domestic Architecture of Scotland (4 vols. 1886-92). 
 
 Scotsbrlg, a Dumfriesshire farm, 3 miles NE. 
 of Ecclefechan, the home (1826) of the Carlyles. 
 
 Scrabster. See Thurso. 
 
 Scranton, a city of Pennsylvania, the capital 
 of Lackawanna county, on the Lackawanna River, 
 144 miles by rail NW. of New York. It has a 
 great trade in coal and mining supplies ; and it 
 has car and carriage factories, and large iron and 
 steel manufactories, turning out locomotives, 
 boilers, machinery, stoves, and edge-tools. 
 Foinided in 1840, it became a city in 1856. Pop. 
 (1860) 9223 ; (1890) 75,215; (1900) 102,026. 
 
 Scrivelsby. See Horncastle, and a work by 
 the Rev. S. Lodge (1893). 
 
 Scutari (Italian or Levantine form of the 
 Turkish Zskiidar), a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, opposite 
 Constantinople, with mosques, bazaars, and baths, 
 and a college of howling dervishes. It manu- 
 factures silks and cotton fabrics and leather goods, 
 and has long been famed for its extensive ceme- 
 teries, adorned with magnificent cypresses. The 
 pop. is variously estimated at from 40,000 to 
 60,000. During the Crimean war the barracks 
 on the southern outskirts were occupied as 
 barracks and hospital by the English troops, and 
 formed the scene of Miss Nightingale's labours. 
 Scutari occupies the site of the ancient Chryso- 
 polis ; and 2 miles S. lies the village of Kadikoi, 
 the ancient Chalcedon. — (2) A town of European 
 Turkey, at the S. end of the Lake of Scutari, in 
 northern Albania, 16 miles from the Adriatic. 
 It is overlooked by an old Venetian citadel, 
 manufactures arms and cotton goods, and trades 
 in wool and skins. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Seacombe, a NW. suburb of Birkenhead. 
 
 Seaford, a watering-place of Sussex, 3 miles 
 E. of Newhaven, with golf-links. It was a 
 dependency of the Cinque Port of Hastings in the 
 15th century, and was disfranchised in 1832. Of 
 late it has grown in size and prosperity. Pop. 
 8500. 
 
 Seaforth, Loch, an arm of the sea, 14 miles long, 
 in the east of the island of Lewis-with-Harris. 
 
 Seaham Harbour (See'am), a seaport of 
 Durham, 6 miles S. of Sunderland. Founded in 
 1828 by the Marquis of Londonderry, it com- 
 municates by rail with neighbouring collieries, 
 and has docks and quays for the shipment of 
 coal. There are also bottle-works, blast-furnaces, 
 an iron-foundry, chemical works, and a seamen's 
 infirmary (1849). Pop. (1851) 3538 ; (1901) 10,163. 
 
 Sea Islands, a group of low sandy or marshy 
 Islands on the coast of South Carolina (q.v.), 
 famed for their rice and fine cotton. 
 
 Sealkote. See Sialkot. 
 
 Seathwaite. See Borrowdale. 
 
 Seaton, a Devon watering-place, on a bay at 
 the mouth of the Axe, 6i miles SW. of Ax- 
 minster. Pop. 1330. 
 
 Seaton Carew, a Durham watering-place, 2 
 miles S. of West Hartlepool. Pop. 1400. 
 
 Seattle (Se-at'tel), capital of King county, 
 Washington, on Elliott Bay, an arm of Puget 
 
SBBASTOPOL 6 
 
 Sound, 18 miles by rail N. of Tacoma, It owes 
 its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. 
 Over 1000 vessels of about 1,000,000 tons enter 
 and clear the port annually, carrying away coal 
 and timber. Shipbuilding and a busy fishery are 
 also carried on. There are cable and electric 
 tramways, and the town possesses a university. 
 In 1889 a terrible fire destroyed the whole busi- 
 ness portion, and did damage estimated at nearly 
 $10,000,000 ; but within a year 265 new buildings, 
 mostly of iron and stone, besides sixty wharves, 
 with a frontage of 2 miles, were erected. Pop. 
 (1880) 3533 ; (1890) 42,837; (1900) 80,671. 
 
 Sebas'topol (Russian pron. Se-vas-top'oT), a 
 Russian seaport and fortress, is situated on the 
 site of an old Tartar village near tlie south-west 
 extremity of the Crimea, on the southern side of 
 one of the finest natural harbours in the world, 
 4^ miles long from east to west, and J mile 
 across. The place is celebrated for its eleven 
 months' siege by the allies during the Crimean 
 war of 1854-55. It sustained repeated bombard- 
 ments until the capture of the MalakofF and 
 Redan works forced the Russians to evacuate the 
 lines and retire to the north side. The town 
 was completely ruined ; the docks and forts still 
 standing were blown up by French and English 
 engineers, and by the treaty of Paris (1856) were 
 not to be restored ; but the restrictions were 
 removed by the Conference of London (1871). 
 Since 1885 the Russian government have restored 
 fortifications and reconstructed the docks, mainly 
 for the imperial navy. The sole export is grain, 
 the chief imports cotton and coal. Pop. 50,720. 
 
 Sebenico (Seb-en-ee'ko ; Slav. Sihenik), a pictur- 
 esque town of Austrian Dalmatia, stands on a 
 landlocked bay of the Adriatic, 43 miles by rail 
 N W. of Spalato. The chief ornament of the place 
 is its cathedral (1430-1555). Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Secunderabad. See Hydekabad. 
 
 Sedalia, capital of Pettis county, Missouri, 188 
 miles by rail W. of St Louis. It has large railway- 
 shops, flour-mills, and manufactories of woollens, 
 machinery and agricultural implements, Avagons, 
 furniture, and soap. Pop. 15,250. 
 
 Sedan (Fr. pron. Se-donf'), a frontier town of 
 France, dep. Ardennes, stands on the Meuse, 64 
 miles by rail NE. of Rheiras. Colbert founded 
 here cloth- factories which are still busy ; metal- 
 working is carried on, and there is an active 
 trade in wool. Pop. (1872) 13,807 ; (1901) 16,120. 
 The citadel capitulated to the Germans in 1815 ; 
 but Sedan is chiefly noted for the surrender 
 (September 2, 1870) of Napoleon III. and 86,000 
 men to the Germans. The fortress was dismantled 
 after 1875. Marshals Turenne and Macdonald were 
 born here. Previous to its incorporation with 
 France (1642) Sedan was the capital of an inde- 
 pendent principality and a Protestant strong- 
 hold. Its industrial prosperity was largely due 
 to the influx of Huguenots ; and at its theological 
 seminary, famous until the revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, notable Scotsmen such as 
 . Andrew Melville taught. 
 
 Sedbergh, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, on the Rawthey, 82 miles NW. of Skipton. 
 It has a Norman church and a grammar-school 
 (1551) of high repute, where Sedgwick was 
 educated and Hartley Coleridge was a master. 
 Pop. of parish, 2474. See the Rev. W. Thompson, 
 Sedbergh, Garsdale, and Dent (Leeds, 1892). 
 
 Sedgefield, a town of Durham, 9 miles NW. of 
 Stockton, with a cruciform Early English church 
 and a grammar-school. Pop. of parish, 3170. 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 Sedgemoor, a marshy district of Somerset, 5 
 miles SE. of Bridgwater. Here, on 6th July 
 1685, James II. 's 4000 disciplined soldiers routed 
 the 8000 followers of the Duke of Monmouth. 
 
 Sedgley, a town of Staffordshire, 3 miles S. of 
 Wolverhampton. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Seein, a village of Tyrone, 3 miles S, 
 Strabane. Pop. 1175. 
 
 Seeland (Dan. Sjdlland). See Zealand. 
 
 Sefton, a Lancashire parish, 6 miles N 
 Liverpool, Avith the Liverpool race-course. 
 
 Seges'ta, an ancient city of NW. Sicily. 
 
 Segesvar (g hard ; Ger. Schcissburg), a town of 
 Transylvania, on the Great Kokel, 60 miles by 
 rail NE. of Hermannstadt. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Seghill, a Northumberland town, 6| miles NNB. 
 of Newcastle. Pop. 2269. 
 
 Sego'via, an old city of Spain, at the northern 
 foot of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 32 miles NNW. 
 of Madrid. It occupies a rocky eminence 3300 
 feet above sea-level, is surrounded by ruinous 
 walls with round towers, and consists of narrow 
 uneven streets, with quaint old stately houses. 
 The Moorish castle on the rocky height has been 
 restored since its destruction by fire in 1862 ; it 
 lodged our Charles I. in September 1623. The 
 cathedral (1521-77) is one of the finest specimens 
 of Late Gothic in Spain. The grand Roman 
 aqueduct, built in Trajan's time, consists of two 
 rows of arches, the one resting upon the other, 
 some 2600 feet long and 102 feet high. Pop. 
 14,328. Segovia was a place of importance under 
 the Romans, and was a frequent residence of 
 the kings of Castile and Leon. The unresisting 
 town was sacked in 1808 by the French.— Area of 
 province of Segovia, 2714 sq. m. ; pop. 154,443. 
 
 Segu, or Segu-Sikoko, an important trading 
 town of western Africa, stands on the Niger (here 
 called the Joliba), 400 miles SW. of Timbuctoo ; 
 once the capital of a large native state, now 
 practically French (1890). Pop. 36,000. See 
 Gravier, Voyage a Segu (1887). 
 
 Sell, an Argyllshire island, 4 miles SE. of Mull, 
 attains over 800 feet. Area, 6 sq. m. ; pop. 448. 
 
 Seine (Sayn or Sehn), one of the four chief 
 rivers of France, rises on the slope of the plateau 
 of Langres, north-west of Dijon, and winds 482 
 miles NW., past Troyes, Fontainebleau, Melun, 
 Paris, St Denis, St Germain, Mantes, Elbeuf, and 
 Rouen, till it falls into the English Channel by 
 a wide estuary, on Avhich stand the ports of Har- 
 fleur, Havre, and Honfleur. It is navigable for 
 boats from Marcilly, 350 miles from its mouth, 
 and since 1890 the canalisation of the Seine has 
 been one of two projects (the other a ship-canal) 
 for connecting Paris with the Atlantic. The 
 Seine receives the Aube, Marne, and Oise from 
 the right, and the Yoime, Loing, Essonne, and 
 Eure from the left ; and is connected by canals 
 Avith the Somme, Scheldt, Meuse, Rhine, Saone, 
 and Loire. Works for keeping open a navigable 
 channel through the estuary, Avhich is liable to 
 silt up, were carried out in 1848-70 ; by these 
 28,000 acres of land have been reclaimed, and 
 vessels of 2000 tons, draAving 20 feet of water, 
 can get up to Rouen. A canal connects Havre 
 Avith the Seine at Tancarville. 
 
 Seine, the metropolitan dep. of France, com- 
 pletely enclosed by the dep. of Seine-et-Oise, is a 
 portion of the former province of Ile-de-France. 
 One-sixth of its area is covered by the city of 
 Paris (q.v.), and the rest is thickly studded Avith 
 the suburban villages of the capital— Boulogne, 
 
SEINE-ET-MARNE 
 
 637 
 
 SELSEY 
 
 Puteaux, Clichy, Montreull, &c. It is at once 
 the smallest and the most populous dep. iu the 
 republic : its area is 185 sq. m. ; its pop. in 1876 
 was 2,410,849, and in 1901, 3,669,930. The auron- 
 are Paris, St Denis, and Sceaux. 
 
 Seine-et-Marne (Sehn-ay-Mam), a dep. in the 
 north of France, is bounded on the W. by the 
 dep. of Seine-et-Oise, and forms a portion of that 
 wide basin in the middle of which stands Paris. 
 Area, 2214 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 355,638. The 
 arrond^ssements are Melun (the capital), Coulom- 
 miers, Fontainebleau, Meaux, and Provins, 
 
 Selne-et-Oise (Sehn-ay-Wdhz), a dep. in the 
 north of France, encloses the dep. of Seine. Area, 
 2163 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 700,405. Arrondisse- 
 ments ; Versailles (the capital), Corbeil, Etampes, 
 Mantes, Pontoise, and Rambouillet. 
 
 Seine-Inferieure (Sehn-An^fayriehr'), a mari- 
 time dep. of northern France, part of Normandy, 
 and bounded N. and W. by the English Channel. 
 Area, 2380 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 843,928. The 
 arrondissements are Dieppe, Havre, Eouen (the 
 capital), Neufchatel, and Yvetot. 
 
 Seir, Mount. See Edom. 
 
 Seistan, Sistan, or Hamoon, Lake, a large 
 shallow lake or swamp in the west of Afghanistan, 
 close to the Persian frontier, a division of whose 
 province of Khorassan (mainly steppe) is named 
 Seistan after it. The lake is not a single expanse 
 of watei", but is divided into three depressions. 
 Much of the area is generally dry. 
 
 Selan'gor, a state of the Malay Peninsula, which 
 since 1874 has been under British protection. It 
 lies between Malacca and Perak, has an area of 
 6000 sq. m. and a population of 170,000, including 
 many Chinese. It contains rich deposits of tin. 
 The capital is Kwala Lampur, which is connected 
 by rail (22 miles) with the port of Klang. 
 
 Selbome, a pleasant Hampshire parish of 12 
 sq. m. and 1320 inhabitants, 5 miles SSE. of Alton 
 station and 20 E. of Winchester. Gilbert White 
 (1720-93) has made it for ever famous by his 
 Natural History of Selbome (1789). 'TheW^akes,' 
 the ivied house where he was born and died, still 
 stands, though added to ; the church, where he 
 lies, was restored in 1877. Nothing remains of 
 an Augustinian priory (1232). 
 
 Selby, a market-town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the right bank of the Ouse, 15 miles 
 S. of York and 20 E. of Leeds. The great cruci- 
 form parish church, measuring 283 by 59 feet, 
 was the church of a mitred Benedictine abbey, 
 founded in the 12th century. It exhibits every 
 style from Norman to Perpendicular ; lost its 
 south transept by the fall in 1690 of the central 
 tower (meanly rebuilt twelve years later) ; and 
 has undergone much restoration since 1873. 
 Other editices are a Roman Catholic church 
 (1859), St James's Church (1868), and a modern 
 market-cross. The river is navigable for vessels 
 of 200 tons ; and there is a carrying trade by 
 railway and canal. Selby has manufactures of 
 flax, ropes, leather, beer, &c., besides boat-build- 
 ing and brick-making. It is the traditional birth- 
 place of Henry I. (1068), and in the Great Rebel- 
 lion was recaptured from the royalists by Fairfax 
 (1644). Pop. (1851) 5109 ; (1901) 7786. See W. W. 
 Morrell's History of Selby (1867). 
 
 Selenga, a river (740 miles) of Mongolia and 
 Siberia, flowing by three arms into Lake Baikal. 
 It is navigable in summer for 200 miles from the 
 Chinese frontier, and steamers ply on it. 
 
 Seleu'cia, the name of several ancient cities in 
 
 Syria, Pisidia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Caria, and 
 Mesopotamia, founded under the Seleucid kings. 
 
 Seli'nus, an ancient Greek colony of Sicily, 
 now represented by ruins close to the modern 
 Castelvetrano (q.v.). 
 
 Selkirk, a Scottish royal burgh, the county 
 town of Selkirkshire, on an eminence 400 to 619 
 feet above sea-level, that flanks the right bank 
 of Bttrick Water, G\ miles S. by W. of Galashiels 
 by a branch-line (1856) and 40 SSE. of Edinburgh. 
 The county buildings (1870), the town-hall (1803), 
 with a spire 110 feet high, and the statues of 
 Scott (1839) and Mungo Park (1859) are the chief 
 features of the place, with the beautiful grounds 
 of the Haining House. The ' souters of Selkirk ' 
 were long famous for their ' single-soled shoon ;' 
 but to-day the staple manufacture is that of 
 tweeds, which dates from 1835. With Hawick 
 and Galashiels, Selkirk returns one member since 
 1868. Pop. (1831) 1880 ; (1861) 3695 ; (1901) 6292. 
 About 1113 Earl David founded at Schelechyrch 
 ('kirk of the shiels ') a Tironensian abbey, which 
 as David I. he removed about 1126 to Kelso (q.v.). 
 Mr Andrew Lang is a native. 
 
 Selkirk Mountains, an outlying range of the 
 Rocky Mountains, in British Columbia, extending 
 southwards from about 52° N. lat. to near the 
 United States frontier. The Canadian Pacific 
 Railway climbs over the mountains at a point 
 4300 feet above the sea. See W. S. Green, Among 
 the Selkirk Glaciers (1890). 
 
 Selkirkshire, an inland county in the south of 
 Scotland, bounded by Peebles, Edinburgh, Rox- 
 burgh, and Dumfries shires. Measuring 28 miles 
 by 17, it has an area of 260 sq. m. or 166,524 acres, 
 of which barely one-seventh is under crops. Silu- 
 rian in formation, and drained by Ettrick and 
 Yarrow Waters to the Tweed, it is a pastoral 
 region of grassy rounded hills— Minchmoor (1856 
 feet), Dun Rig (2433, the highest), Ettrick Pen 
 (2269), and eight otliers exceeding 2000 feet above 
 sea-level. Sheep-farming (over 160,000 head) is 
 an important industry ; and the manufactures are 
 confined to the two towns of Selkirk and Gala- 
 shiels. The Duke of Buccleuch owns about three- 
 fifths of the whole county. Since 1867 Selkirk- 
 shire has united with Peeblesshire to return one 
 member. Pop. (1801) 5388 ; (1851) 9809 ; (1871) 
 14,005 ; (1901) 23,356. Smaller than Middlesex, 
 and than all but six of the thirty-three Scotch 
 counties, Selkirkshire yet contains within its 
 narrow bounds almost all the old Forest of Ett- 
 rick ; St Mary's Loch ; the whole course of the 
 Yarrow ; the vale of Ettrick, %,'here the ' Shep- 
 herd ' was born and lies buried ; the birthplaces, 
 too, of Laidlaw and Mungo Park, of the ' Flower 
 of Yarrow ' and Alison Cockburn ; Ashiesteel, 
 where Scott wrote Marmion ; the scenes of the 
 ballads of 'The Douglas Tragedy,' 'The Dowie 
 Dens,' 'The Outlaw Murray,' and ' Young Tam- 
 lane;' the battlefield of Philiphaugh ; and the 
 ruins or sites of the castles and poel-towers of 
 Newark, Dryhope, Tushielaw, Oakwood, and 
 Buccleuch. See works by Craig-Brown (2 vols. 
 1886) and Angus (1894). 
 
 Selma, capital of Dallas county, Alabama, on 
 the Alabama River, 165 miles by rail NNE. of 
 Mobile. It has ironworks, cotton-factories, 
 steam planing-mills, car-works, &c. Pop. 8720. 
 
 Selsey, or Selsea, a village on a flat and 
 fertile peninsula on the Sussex coast, 7 miles S. 
 of Chichester. Here in the 7th century the 
 cathedral church of the South Saxons was 
 founded by Wilfrid of York ; and twenty-two 
 bishops held the see, ere in 1079 the bishopric 
 
SELTER3 
 
 638 
 
 SENNAAR 
 
 was transferred to Chichester. The sea has greatly 
 encroached on the peninsula, which ends in 
 Selsey Bill ; the site of the cathedral is now sub- 
 merged. Pop. of parish, 1260. 
 
 Selters, a village, 8 miles SE. by rail of Lini- 
 burg in Nassau, Its springs supply the mineral 
 waters called in England seltzer water. 
 
 Semendria, a fortress of Servia, on the Danube's 
 right bank, 26 miles SE. of Belgrade. Pop. 6578. 
 
 Semipalatinsk', a province of Asiatic Russia, 
 stretching northwards from Lake Balkash. It 
 embraces outliers of the great Altai, rising to 
 10,000 feet, and enclosing wide stretches of 
 steppe-land. Area, 183,145 sq. m. ; pop. 685,197, 
 mostly Kirghiz. The chief town, Semipalatinsk, 
 is on the right bank of the Irtish ; pop. 27,820. 
 
 Semlretchlnsk', a province of Asiatic Russia, 
 having East Turkestan on the SE., and Lake 
 Balkash on the N., is a mountainous region, 
 being crossed from east to west by the Ala-tau 
 and Thian-Shan Mountains, whose peaks run up 
 to 16,000 feet. Between them lies the mountain- 
 lake of Issyk-kul. Area, 147,298 sq. m. ; pop. 
 990,200. Vyeriiyi (pop. 22,980) is the cliief town, 
 
 Semliki (Sem-lee'kee), a river of equatorial 
 Africa, flowing NE. to Albert Nyanza. 
 
 Semlin (Hung. Zimony), a frontier town of 
 Hungary, stands on a tongue of land at the 
 junction of the Save and the Danube, above 
 Belgrade. It contains the ruined castle of John 
 Hunyady, who died here. Pop. 14,836. 
 
 Sem'mering, a mountain (4577 feet) on the 
 borders of Styria and Austria, 60 miles SW. of 
 Vienna, over which the Trieste Railway was con- 
 structed in 1850-53 at a cost of £2,000,000. 
 
 Sempach (Zevi'pahh), a small Swiss town (pop. 
 1183), 9 miles by rail NW. of Lucerne, on the east 
 shore of the lake of Sempach. Under its walls 
 Leopold of Austria, with 4000 men, was routed 
 on 9th July 1386 by 1500 Swiss. 
 
 Semprlngham, a Lincolnshire parish, 13 miles 
 E, by S. of Grantham. St Gilbert (1083-1189) was 
 probably a native. 
 
 Semple. See Lochwinnoch. 
 
 Senaar. See Sennaar. 
 
 Sendal, a coast-town of Japan, 220 miles NNE. 
 of Tokyo by rail. Pop. 83,500. 
 
 Sen'eca Falls, a post-village of New York, on 
 the Seneca River (which falls 50 feet here), 10 
 miles from the lake and 41 by rail WSW. of 
 Syracuse, with manufactories of steam fire- 
 engines, pumps, &c. Pop. 6880. 
 
 Sen'eca Lake, one of a range of narrow lakes 
 in the west of New York State, 36 miles N. and 
 S., two miles in average width, and 530 feet deep. 
 
 Seneffe', or Senef, a Belgian town (pop. 3438), 
 27 miles S. by W. of Brussels. Here William of 
 Orange (III. of England) was defeated by Conde 
 in 1674, and in 1794 the Austrians by the French, 
 
 Senegal (Sen-e-gaivV), a river of West Africa, 
 has two main sources, the Bafing from Futa- 
 Jallon, and the Bakhoy from the SE., which 
 meet at Bafulabe, 700 miles from the coast; 
 thence the united Senegal flows to the Atlantic 
 10 miles below St Louis. In July-October, boats 
 can get up to Kayes, 40 miles below Bafulabe. 
 The channel is in the higher reaches obstructed 
 by falls and narrows, its lower course is studded 
 with low, flat islands, and its mouth blocked by 
 a formidable bar. There is a railway along the 
 left bank between Kayes and Dioub^ba (25 miles 
 
 beyond Bafulabe), to be continued to Bara- 
 mako 0!i the Niger (320 miles from Kayes). For 
 the colony of Senegal, see next article. 
 
 Senegambia, a territory subject to Prance, 
 on the west coast of Africa and embracing the 
 colony of Senegal proper, a territory on both 
 banks of the river Senegal (pop. 135,500), and 
 various protected states, between the Atlantic 
 Ocean and the Senegal and Gambia rivers ; the 
 word ' Senegambia ' (not used by the French) is 
 compounded of the names of these two rivers. 
 Until 1890 Senegambia included the region known 
 as the ' Rivieres du Sud ' (q.v.) and districts on the 
 Gold Coast and Bight of Benin. To the north 
 the French claim the Atlantic coast southwards 
 from Cape Blanco to the mouth of the Senegal ; 
 whilst inland they have extended their authority 
 over Futa-Jallon, Beledugu, and Macina as far as 
 the Joliba (Niger). These protected states of the 
 interior are called the French Soudan, and adminis- 
 tered by an officer under the governor of Senegal. 
 Moreover, in virtue of recent treaties— e.g. with 
 Great Britain in 1890 — the vast expanse of the 
 Sahara south of Algiers and Tunis, right up to the 
 Niger, and to a line drawn eastwards from Say on 
 that river to Barrawa on Lake Chad, is recognised 
 as being within the French ' sphere of influence ; ' 
 and in 1894 the French, not without mishaps, 
 established themselves at Timbuctoo. South of 
 the Niger too they have, since 1889, established a 
 protectorate over the Kong states, an immense 
 area stretcliing almost down to the Gulf of 
 Guinea. Thus the territory claimed by France 
 in this part of Africa extends from Tunis to 
 Sokoto and the Gulf of Guinea, and from the 
 Atlantic and the frontier of Morocco to Lake 
 Chad. The only interruptions to the continuity 
 of this vast area are the British colonies of 
 Gambia and Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the 
 nmnerous small colonies belonging to different 
 European powers on the Guinea coast. 
 
 Of this gigantic territory France actually occu- 
 pies little more than the colonies of Senegal, 
 ' Rivers of the South,' and the two groups on the 
 Gold Coast. These, with protected states, are 
 estimated to have a total area of 165,000 sq. m. 
 and a total pop. of over 2,000,000, The people 
 are mostly Fulah and Mandingo Negroes, in 
 part Moslems, in part fetich-worshippers. The 
 ' French Soudan ' has an area of probably 54,000 
 sq. m. and an estimated pop. of nearly 300,000. 
 The French Sahara may have an area of a million 
 miles, mostly desert. The principal geographical 
 feature in these united regions is the plateau (2000 
 to 4000 feet) of Futa-Jallon (q.v.) ; from its valleys 
 issue many rivers that flow (e.g. the Gambia) 
 west and south-west to the Atlantic, north to 
 the Senegal, and east and north-east to the Joliba 
 (Niger). Ground-nuts, gums, india-rubber, timber, 
 &c. constitute the bulk of the exports— three- 
 fourths to France. The imports (textiles, liquors, 
 and food-.stuffs) are valued at £1,120,000— nearly 
 half from France. St Louis (q.v.) is the principal 
 town in these colonies. The French first settled 
 in this part of Africa early in the 17th century, 
 became active after 1854, and greatly extended 
 their influence since 1880. 
 
 Senlac. See Hastings. 
 
 Senlis {SonHeece'), a very ancient town of 
 France, dep. of Oise, 33 miles NNE. of Paris. 
 It has walls flanked with towers, partly Roman ; 
 the ruins of a royal castle ; and a small but 
 beautiful cathedral (begun 1155). Senlis ceased 
 to be a bishop's seat in 1801. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Sennaar, Sennae, or Senaar, a city of tbe 
 
SENNEN 
 
 SERVU 
 
 Eastern Soudan, on the Blue Nile, 160 miles 
 SSE. of Khartoum. Pop, 8000. It is the chief 
 town of a district lying between the Blue and 
 the White Nile, which was made an Egyptian 
 province in 1820, but fell to the Mahdi in 1884. 
 
 Sennen, a Cornish village, Laud's End. 
 
 Sens (Son^), an old walled town of France, dep. 
 Yonne, stands on the right bank of the Yonne, 
 70 miles by rail SE. of Paris. Its principal orna- 
 ment is the Gothic cathedral of St Stephen (1122- 
 68), with splendid portals, tine stained glass, and 
 the vestments of Thomas a Becket. Pop. 13,642. 
 
 Sentis. See Santis. 
 
 Seoni (Se-o'nee), a town in the Central Prov- 
 inces of India, half-way between Nagpur and 
 Jabalpur. Pop. 12,000. — There is another Seoni 
 (pop. 7100) 35 miles SW. of Hoshangabad. 
 
 Seoul, or Soul (Sowl), the capital of Corea, 
 stands on the river Han, 75 miles from its entrance 
 into the Yellow Sea and 57 miles from its port 
 Chemulpo. It was the objective of the armies of 
 Japan and China in the war of 1804. Pop. 1!)0,000, 
 or, with extensive suburbs, 300,000. See Curzon's 
 Problems of the Far East (1894). 
 
 Seraievo. See Sarajevo. 
 
 Seraing (Seran^'), a town of Belgium, 4 miles 
 by rail SW. of Liege, stands on the right bank 
 of the Meuse, and is connected by a suspen- 
 sion bridge with the village of Jemeppe. It is 
 the seat of a colossal manufactory of steam- 
 machinery, locomotives, &c., established by an 
 Englishman, John Cockerill (1790-1840), in 1817 
 in the old summer palace of the bishops of Liege. 
 It employs some 12,000 work-people in hundreds 
 of machine-shops, forges, coal-mines, &c. Pop. 
 (1827) 2000 ; (1881) 28,385 ; (1900) 39,623. 
 
 Serajgunj. See Sirajganj. 
 
 Serampur', a town of India, built in European 
 style, along the right bank of the Hooghly, 13 
 miles by rail N. of Calcutta. A Danish settle- 
 ment till 1845, it was the centre of the Baptist 
 mission. Pop. 44,460. 
 
 Serang. See Ceram. 
 
 Seres, in Turkey, 43 miles NE. of Saloniki, 
 trades in wool, skins, and tobacco. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Sereth, a river running nearly 300 miles S. 
 through Moldavia to the Danube. 
 
 Sergipe {Ser-zhee'peh), a maritime state of 
 Brazil, NE. of Bahia. Area, 7370 sq. m. ; popu- 
 lation, 380,000.— There is a small town,' Sergipe 
 or Sao Christovao, on the Sergipe River ; but 
 the capital is the port of Aracaju ; pop. 20,000. 
 
 Serinagar. See Srinagar. 
 
 Serlngapatam' (properly Sri lianga Patanam 
 = ' City of Vishnu '), the capital of Mysore state 
 in Southern India from 1610 to 1799, is built on 
 an island in the Kaveri, 10 miles NE. of Mysore 
 city. The island is 3 miles long and 1 broad ; at 
 its western end stands the fort enclosing the 
 palace of Tippoo Saib and the principal mosque. 
 Outside it are the garden in which was built the 
 mausoleum of Tippoo and his father, Hyder Ali, 
 and Tippoo's summer palace. The fort was be- 
 sieged by Lord Cornwallis in 1791, and again in 
 1792. A British army appeared before the walls 
 again in 1799, and on 3d May the fort was stormed 
 and Tippoo slain. Pop. 150,000 in Tippoo's day ; 
 now only 10,000, most of whom live in the suburb 
 of Ganjam, the ancient city being ruinous. 
 
 Seringham (Srirangam), a town in the Madras 
 Presidency, on an island in the Kaveri, 11 miles 
 W. of Trichinopoly, with a great temple of Vishnu, 
 a vast complex of halls and colossal gateways. 
 
 Notable Is one 'hall of a 1000 columns' (960 really), 
 460 feet long by 130 wide. Pop. 23,050. 
 
 Serpukoff, a Russian town, 57 miles by rail S. 
 of Moscow, with a cathedral (1380), manufactur- 
 ing cottons, woollens, leather, &c. Pop. 24,00a 
 
 Servia, a kingdom of the Balkan Peninsula, 
 south of the Danube, and bordering on Bosnia, 
 Hungary, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Turkey, with 
 an area of 18,750 sq. m. The surface is moun- 
 tainous ; the highest peaks occur in the frontier 
 chains (6382 feet in the SW.) ; and there are many 
 isolated peaks and groups, clothed with forests 
 and parted by fertile valleys. The principal 
 highway of the country is through the central 
 valley of the Morava, stretching SSE. from 
 the Danube. Servia is essentially an agri- 
 cultural country. Of the total area 58J per 
 cent, is cultivated, the principal crops being 
 wheat, maize, and other cereals, and grapes for 
 Avine. Plums are dried and exported to a value 
 between £250,000 and £500,000 a year, and from 
 them the Servian brandy is made. Large herds 
 of swine are fed on the acorns of the oak forests, 
 and then driven into Hungary to be sold. Cattle 
 and sheep are exported, also wheat and other 
 cereals, hides, wine, wool, timber, and cordage. 
 The total exports for the five years ending 1905 
 averaged over £2,630,000 annually. The imports 
 consist principally of cottons, woollens, salt, 
 timber, iron, steel, and other metals, hides, 
 sugar, cofiee, glass, paper, tobacco, machinery, 
 &c., and range from £1,500,000 to over £2,000,000. 
 And there is a rapidly growing transit trade. 
 By far the greater portion of the foreign trade 
 of Servia is in the hands of Austria-Hungary, 
 and is concentrated at Belgrade, the capital. 
 But a little is done by Nisch, the chief town of 
 southern Servia, by rail (since 1889) through 
 Salonica (q.v.). The manufacturing industry is 
 still in its infancy, but clothing and carpets are 
 made by the women in their own homes. The 
 country is naturally rich in minerals, and a little 
 coal, lignite, quicksilver, lead, silver, antimony, 
 copper, and oil shale is mined. Belgrade is the 
 capital. Along the valley of the Morava passes 
 the railway from Vienna to Constantinople ; and 
 Nisch or Nissa, on this line, is connected by rail 
 (1889) with Salonica. 
 
 The Servians are a well-built, stalwart Slavonic 
 (or perhaps in part Slavonised Albanian) race, 
 proud and martial by temperament; the most 
 striking feature of their social life is the family 
 community or Zadruga. Their literature is rich 
 in poetry, especially lyrics. Pop. (1884) 1,901,736 : 
 (1900) 2,493,770, including some 160,000 Rou- 
 manians, 46,000 Gypsies, and 20,000 of other 
 nationalities. Besides these the Montenegrins 
 (250,000) are almost all pure Servians by race, 
 as are also the Bosnians and Heizegovinians 
 (1,300,000), not to speak of over 2,400,000 Servians 
 in other parts of Austria-Hungary. The people 
 of Servia belong to the Greek Catholic Church. 
 There are 1100 elementary schools, some technical 
 and theological schools, and a university (300 
 students) at Belgrade. Servia is a constitutional 
 and hereditary monarchy, the legislative power 
 being vested in the king and the National Assembly 
 or Skupshtina. Besides this body and the min- 
 istry, there is a senate of sixteen members, elected 
 by the king and the Skupshtina, which acts as a 
 permanent state council. The national income 
 in 1904 was £3,312,000, and nearly balanced the 
 expenditure ; the debt is over £18,800,000. There 
 is a standing army (with universal military 
 service) of 27,000, and a war strength of 300,000. 
 
SESSA 
 
 640 
 
 SiVRES 
 
 fine 
 
 70 
 
 The Servians came from the Carpathians into 
 these regions in the 7th century, and were Chris- 
 tianised and founded a great state which about 
 1350 embraced not merely the present kingdom 
 but Albania and great part of Bulgaria and Mace- 
 donia ; but at Kossovo in 1389 the Turks crushed 
 the Servian power and made Servia first tributary 
 and then a pashalik of the Ottoman empire. A 
 national rising against Turkish tyranny had some 
 success under Kara George in 1807-10, and 
 through Russian influence it was arranged that 
 Servia should have some measure of internal 
 autonomy. Still more successful was a rising in 
 1815 under Obrenovich. Under his successors 
 there was considerable progress ; and after the 
 Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78, Servia obtained 
 complete independence, and became a kingdom. 
 King Milan abdicated in 1889. On 11th July 
 1903 a party of officers, representing a wide 
 conspiracy, assassinated King Alexander and 
 Queen Draga. A few weeks afterwards Prince 
 Peter Karageorgevitch was proclaimed king. 
 
 See Denton, Servia and the Servians (1862) ; 
 and books on the Balkan States by Laveleye 
 (trans. 1887) and Miller (1906). 
 
 Sessa, 32 miles NW. of Naples, has a 
 cathedral and ruins. Pop. 8000. 
 Sestos. See Abydos. 
 Sestri Ponente, a suburb of Genoa. 
 Setif, capital of a department of Algeria, 
 miles west of Constantine. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Settle, a town in the "West Riding of Yorkshire, 
 on the Ribble, and at the base of the Castlebergh 
 cliff (300 feet), 43 miles NW. of Leeds. Dr Birk- 
 beck was a native. Pop. of parish, 2300. 
 
 Setu'bal (called by English sailors St Ubes), 
 a seaport of Portugal, on the N. side of the Bay 
 of Setubal, 17 miles by rail SE. of Lisbon. Setubal 
 is the old Roman Cetobriga. Pop. 21,800. 
 Sevastopol. See Sebastopol. 
 Sevenoaks (Sen'oaks), a pleasant town of Kent, 
 on an eminence 22 miles SE. of London. It has 
 a Perpendicular church with some interesting 
 monuments, the Walthamstow Hall (1882) for 100 
 daughters of missionaries, and a grammar-school 
 founded in 1432 by Lord Mayor Sir W. Sennocke, 
 incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and recon- 
 stituted as a first-grade modern school in 1877, at 
 which Grote and Bishops Christopher and Charles 
 Wordsworth were educated. Knole, the magnifi- 
 cent seat of Lord Sackville, is close by. It was 
 mainly built between 1460 and 1608 by Arch- 
 bishop Bourchier and Thomas Sackville, first 
 Earl of Dorset, and has a park of 1000 acres. 
 Pop. 8250. 
 
 Severn (Lat. Sabrina), after the Thames, the 
 largest of the rivers of England, rises, 1500 feet 
 above sea-level, from a chalybeate spring on the 
 eastern side of Plinlimmon, 12 miles west of Llan- 
 idloes, in Montgomeryshire, North Wales. Plow- 
 ing eastward to Llanidloes, to which town it 
 retains its original British name of Hafren, it 
 afterwards flows north-east past Newtown (465 
 feet) and Welshpool to the eastern boundary of 
 Montgomeryshire, then east-south-east past 
 Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth in Salop, and finally 
 southward through Worcester and Gloucester, in 
 which last it begins to form the estuary that 
 merges in the Bristol Channel (q.v.). It is navi- 
 gable for barges to Welshpool (180 miles> Its 
 entire length is 210 miles (from source to mouth 
 as the crow flies only 80). The chief affluents are 
 Jthe Terne and the Upper and Lower Avon on the 
 east, and the Teme and Wye on the west. A 
 
 canal 18J miles long, and navigable for vessels of 
 350 tons, extends from Gloucester to the upper 
 portion of the estuary ; and in 1891 the improve- 
 ment of the navigation to Worcester was begun. 
 The Montgomery Canal extends from Welshpool 
 to Newtown, and other canals connect with the 
 Thames, Trent, Mersey, &c. In some of the 
 reaches below Gloucester, especially near Newn- 
 ham, the tide, which flows with great velocity, 
 produces a bore (locally termed hygre) or wave 
 sometimes 5 or 6 feet high. The railway twice 
 crosses the estuary— near Berkeley by a viaduct 
 (1879), 1194 yards long, and near Chepstow by a 
 tunnel (1873-85), 4i miles long. 
 
 Severe, Cape. See Chelyuskin. 
 
 Sev'ille'(Span. Sevilla; pron. Seveel'ya), one of 
 the most famous of Spanish cities, stands on the 
 left bank of the navigable Guadalquivir, 62 miles 
 (95 by rail) N. by E. of Cadiz, and is connected with 
 a large suburb (Triana) on the right bank by an 
 iron bridge (1848). Until quite recently it had 
 the appearance of a picturesque Moorish town ; 
 but during the last few years it has been greatly 
 modernised by the clearing away of the narrower 
 quarters to make room for wide straight streets and 
 modern houses and shops. The water-supply was 
 formerly brought from Alcala de los Panaderos 
 by an old Roman aqueduct of 410 arches, but this 
 has been superseded by new water- works con- 
 structed by Englishmen in 1883. The vast 
 Gothic cathedral, built in 1401-1519 on the site 
 of a Mooi'ish mosque, is one of the largest in 
 Europe, and contains valuable jjaintings by 
 Murillo (a native of Seville) and other masters ; 
 magnificent Flemish stained glass of the 16th 
 century ; one of the largest organs in the world ; 
 the tombs of King Ferdinand III. and Ferdinand 
 the son of Columbus ; and much most excellent 
 artistic work in bronze, wood-carving, and 
 sculptured work. Close beside it stands the 
 beautiful campanile called Giralda, 275 feet high. 
 Both cathedral and tower were seriously dam- 
 aged by an earthquake in 1884. Another of the 
 glories of Seville is the Alcazar, or Moorish royal 
 palace, begun in the end of the 12th century, 
 enlarged and beautified by Peter the Cruel ; its 
 halls and gardens are surpassed only by those of 
 the Alhambra. Amongst other places must be 
 mentioned the so-called House of Pilate ; the 
 museum, with masterpieces by Murillo, Zurbaran, 
 and other artists of the Seville school, as well as 
 by Velasquez (also a native of Seville) ; the 
 charity hospital ; the exchange (1585), sheltering 
 the valuable archives of the Americas ; the uni- 
 versity (1254 ; rebuilt 1567) ; the palace (1697) of 
 the archbishop ; the Palace of San Telmo, founded 
 as a naval college by Columbus' son, but now a 
 palace of the Duke of Montpensier ; and the bull- 
 ring for 18,000 spectators. There are manufac- 
 tures of cigars (a royal factory employing 4000 
 work-people), iron, machinery, pottery, cannon, 
 silks, cottons, &c. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of chemicals, timber, textiles, petroleum, 
 machinery, coal, metals, spirits, fish, haber- 
 dashery, tinplate, and furniture ; the exports of 
 lead, quicksilver, wine, copper, oranges, olives, 
 and olive-oil and corks. Pop. (1878) 133,938; 
 (1900) 148,350. The Roman Hispalis, and from 
 712 to 1248 the Ishbilia of the Moors, Seville was 
 then captured by Ferdinand III. of Castile, and 
 300,000 Moors abandoned the place.— Area of 
 province, 5428 sq. m. ; pop. (1887) 544,815. 
 
 Sevres (Sehvr), a town of France, dep. Seine-et- 
 Oise, lOi miles SW. of Paris, has since 1756 been 
 celebrated for its state factory of artistic por- 
 
SEVRES 
 
 641 
 
 BHAN STATES 
 
 celain. The Sevres vases are of great value and 
 are known the world over; painted glass and 
 mosaic are also made. Pop. 7950. 
 
 Sevres, Deux- {Diih-Sehvr), a dep. in the west 
 of France, formed chiefly out of the ancient prov- 
 ince of Poitou, Area, 2315 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 
 342,474. The arrondisseuients are Niort (the 
 capital), Bressuire, Melle, and Parthenay. 
 
 Seychelles (Say-sheW), a group of British 
 islands, dependent on Mauritius, are situated 
 near the middle of the Indian Ocean, 600 miles 
 NE. of Madagascar and 934 N. of Mauritius. 
 There are thirty larger islands and numerous 
 smaller ones, their total area being 102 sq. m. ; 
 the largest and most important is Mahe (17 miles 
 by 7). They were colonised by the French 
 in 1742, though they were known to the early 
 Portuguese navigators. The British wrested 
 them from the French when they also took 
 Mauritius (1794). The islands are mountainous, 
 and in Mahe reach close upon 3000 feet. Coral- 
 reefs grow round most of the islands. The 
 climate, though tropical (70° to 93° F.), is very 
 healthy. The soil is fertile and vegetation 
 luxuriant. The principal products are the fibre, 
 nuts, and oil of the cocoa-nut palm ; but coco- 
 de-mer, maize, manioc, tobacco, coffee, vanilla, 
 cloves, tortoiseshell, soap, and vacoa bags are 
 exported. The imports consist chiefly of cotton, 
 liaberdashery, coal, spirits and wine, and pro- 
 visions. Victoria, tlie chief town on Mahe, is a 
 coaling station. Pop. of the islands, upwards of 
 20,000 — negroes, coolies, and French Creoles. 
 
 Seymour, a city of Indiana, 88 miles by rail W. 
 of Cincinnati. Pop. 6450. 
 
 Seyne, La (Sayn), a seaport of France (dep. 
 Var), on the Mediterranean, 3 miles SW. of 
 Toulon, with shipbuilding yards. Pop. 19,160. 
 
 Sezze (Set'zeh ; anc. Setia), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, 40 miles SE. of Rome, has ruins of a temple 
 to Saturn, amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 6114. 
 
 Sfax, the second port of Tunis, on the Gulf 
 of Cabes, 150 miles S. by E. of the town of 
 Tunis. It trades in dates, olive-oil, esparto grass, 
 wool, fruits, sponges. &c. ; and manufactures 
 cottons, woollens, and 'silks. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Shadwell, a parish, now included in Tower 
 Hamlets (q.v.). 
 
 Shaftesbury (locally SMston), a very ancient 
 municipal borough in Dorsetshire, 3 miles SSW. 
 of Semley station and 22 WSW. of Salisbury. It 
 stands on a narrow chalk ridge, and commands 
 magnificent views over Dorset-, Somerset-, and 
 Wiltshires. The Caer Palladwr of the Britons, it 
 was made by King Alfred the seat of a famous 
 abbey of Benedictine nuns (880), whither Edward 
 the Martyr's body was translated in 980, and 
 where Canute died in 1035. At the date of 
 Domesday Shaftesbury had three mints and 
 twelve churches, but four remain— St Peter's 
 (Norman) the niost interesting. Till 1832 Shaftes- 
 bury returned two members, and till 1885 one. 
 Population, 2000. See Mayo's Municipal Records 
 of Shaftesbury (Sherborne, 1891). 
 
 Shahabad', a town of Oudh, 80 miles NW. of 
 Lucknow by rail, with a pop. of 20,153— only a 
 third of what it was in the 16th century. 
 
 Shahjahanpux', a town in the United Prov- 
 inces, 100 miles by rail NW. of Lucknow. It 
 was founded in 1647, in the reign of Shah-Jelian. 
 It was a hot-bed of rebellion in 1857. Sugar is 
 made and exported. Pop. 76,960. 
 Shamo, or Gobi. See Asia. 
 20 
 
 Shamo'kin, a borough of Pennsylvania, 188 
 miles by rail W. of New York, with rich mines ol 
 anthracite coal. Pop. 18,200. 
 
 Shandernagar. See Chandernagore. 
 
 Shandon, a Dumbartonshire village and large 
 hydropathic, on the E. shore of the Gare Loch, 
 5^ miles NW. of Helensburgh. See also Cork. 
 
 Shandy Hall, Sterne's residence (now cottages) 
 at Coxwold (q.v.). 
 
 Shanghai (Shang-Tii'), the most important sea- 
 port for central China, stands on an affluent of the 
 Yang-tsze-kiang, 12 miles from its mouth and 160 
 SE. of Nanking. The Chinese city, with narrow, 
 filthy streets, is surrounded by a wall, and 
 between it and the river lie densely-crowded 
 suburbs. On the north of the Chinese city the 
 French and English settlements, with broad 
 streets, well lighted, well paved, and handsome 
 houses and public buildings, stretch northwards 
 parallel to the river. The English cathedral was 
 designed by Sir G. G. Scott. Powerful batteries 
 guard the river-approach. The city lies low, and 
 sufl'ers greatly from dysentery, cholera, and 
 fevers during the very hot summers. Shanghai 
 has an enormous trade in tea and silks, and in 
 cottons, woollens, opium, metals, &c. It taps 
 the provinces of middle China by a vast and com- 
 plicated system of interlacing canals, and so gets 
 the lion's share of the tea and silk to export. 
 The total trade of the port has grown enormously 
 since Shanghai was thrown open to foreign com- 
 merce in 1842. A large proportion of the trade 
 of Shanghai is for goods in transit. The imports 
 of greatest value are cotton goods, opium, 
 metals, woollens, coal, kerosene oil, beche de 
 mer, edible birds'-nests, dyes, gin.seng, matches, 
 pepper, sandalwood, seaweed, timber, shark's 
 fins, &c. Pop. 450,000 (about 3000 foreigners). 
 
 Shanklln, a watering-place on the south-east 
 coast of the Isle of Wight, 8 miles by rail S. of 
 Ryde. It lias memories of Keats. Population, 
 upwards of 4500. 
 
 Shannon, the largest river of Ireland, rises in 
 the Cuilcagh Mountains, County Cavan, and falls 
 after a course of 254 miles into the Atlantic 
 Ocean between Loop Head and Kerry Head, 
 It flows SW. to Lough Allen in Leitrim ; thence 
 S. through a succession of expansions— Loughs 
 Boderg, Bofin, Forbes, Ree, and Derg— past the 
 towns of Carrick, Athlone, and Killaloe, to 
 Limerick ; and finally W., forming a wide estuary 
 some 70 miles long and 10 miles across at its 
 seaward extremity. About 10 miles from the 
 entrance the river narrows to 1^ mile in width. 
 Outward navigation commences at Foynes, 
 connected by railway with Limerick. Vessels 
 of 1000 tons can get up to Limerick, and small 
 steamers to Athlone ; boats ascend to beyond 
 Lough Allen. The Suck and Fergus enter from 
 the right, and the Inny, Brosna, Mulkear, Maigue, 
 and Deel from the left. The river is canalised 
 for some distance below Athlone, and between 
 Killaloe and Limerick ; and it is connected with 
 Dublin by the Grand and Royal Canals. 
 
 Shan-si, a province of northern China, having 
 the Hoang-ho on its western boundary. 
 
 Shan States, a collective name for a large area 
 between Burma, Siam, Annam and China, occu- 
 pied by numerous tribes of Shans or Laos, a 
 people akin to the Siainese and southern Chinese. 
 Some of the tribes are directly dependent on 
 Burma, still more on Siam, and others on China 
 and Annam ; many are virtually independent. 
 The country consists of valleys and hill country 
 
SHAN-TUNQ 
 
 642 
 
 BHEMAKHA 
 
 on the upper courses of the Irawadi, Salwen, 
 Mekong, and their tributaries. There are great 
 forests of teak ; iron, rubies, and silver are 
 ininsd ; copper, coal, and petroleum are known 
 to exist; the country has a large trade with 
 China, and schenjes for railways from Burma and 
 Siam to the Chinese frontiers have been pro- 
 posed. The total number of Shans is guessed 
 at 4,000,000. Zimme (Chieng-mai) and Luang- 
 Prabang give name to the chief states — the latter 
 now Annamite or French. 
 
 Shan-tung, a maritime province of N. China. 
 
 Shap, a Westmorland town, 12 miles SSE. of 
 Penrith. It has a ruined abbey, a mineral spring, 
 and granite-quarries near. Pop. 1260. 
 
 Shapinshay, an Orkney island, 4 miles NNE. 
 of Kirkwall. Area, 11 sq. m. ; height, 162 feet ; 
 pop. 765. 
 
 Shari (Shah'ree). See Chad, Lake. 
 
 Sharon, an extensive tract of plain and corn- 
 land in Palestine, lying between the sand-dunes 
 of the coast and the foot-hills of the interior, 
 and extending from Carmel to near Joppa. 
 
 Sharon, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Shenango River, 71 miles by rail NNW. of Pitts- 
 burgh, Pop. 8950. 
 
 Sha-shi, or Sha-tsze, a Chinese treaty port in 
 Hupeh, on the left bank of the Yang-tsze, 110 
 miles below Ichang, with a great trade. Pop. 
 80,000. 
 
 Shat-el-Arab. See Euphrates. 
 
 Sheboygan, capital of Sheboygan county, Wis- 
 consin, on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the 
 Sheboygan River, 53 miles by rail N. of Mil- 
 waukee. It has a harbour, foundries, tanneries, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 7314 ; (1900) 20,962. 
 
 Shechem. See Nablus. 
 
 Sheen. See Richmond. 
 
 Sheerness', a strongly fortified seaport and 
 royal dockyard in Kent, on the north-west ex- 
 tremity of the Isle of Sheppey, at the confluence 
 of the Thames and Medway, 11 miles ENE. of 
 Chatham and 52 E. of London by rail. It con- 
 sists of four divisions. Blue-town, Mile-town, 
 Banks-town, and Marina-town, and of these the 
 first is within the limits of the garrison. Tiie 
 dockyard, dating from 1814, is one of the finest 
 in Europe, and covers 60 acres, comprising wet 
 and dry docks, immense storehouses, and official 
 residences. At Garrison Point are the residence 
 of the port-admiral, the telegraph, coastguard 
 station, and barracks. The chief trade is in 
 supplying the requirements of the employees in 
 the govei-nment establishments, and seeds and 
 oysters are exported. The sea-bathing is ex- 
 cellent. Pop. (1851) 8549; (1881) 14,286; (1901) 
 18,273l Sheerness was captured by the Dutch 
 under De Ruyter in 1667, and here the mutiny 
 of the Nore broke out in 1798. 
 
 Sheffield, a municipal, parliamentary, and 
 county borough in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, in a hilly country, at the confluence of the 
 Sheaf with the Don, 46 miles SSW. of York, 41 
 E. of Manchester, and 165 NNW. of London. It 
 possesses some fine public buildings, such as the 
 parish church of St Peter, supposed to have been 
 erected in the reign of Henry I., 240 feet long by 
 130 feet broad ; St Mary's Roman Catholic Church 
 (1850), surmounted by a spire 195 feet high ; the 
 Albert Hall (1873), cutlers' hall, corn exchange ; 
 the new market-hall, or Norfolk Market, erected 
 iu 1861 by the Duke of Norfolk at a cost of 
 
 about £40,000 ; music-hall, assembly-rooraa, 
 theatres, &c. In 1875 and succeeding years a 
 street improvement scheme was carried out at 
 a cost of upwards of half a million. The new 
 town-hall (1891-97) cost, with site, about £130,000. 
 There are botanic gardens and fine cemeteries ; 
 the Free Grammar-school, the Wesley College 
 (1838). The Firth College (1879) became a univer- 
 sity in 1905, with faculties of arts and science, and 
 medicine, and a technical department, including 
 laboratories, foundries, and machine-shops. The 
 Mechanics' Institution dates from 1832. There 
 are free and other public libraries, an Athenaeum, 
 a Literary and Philosophical Society, and the 
 Mappin Art Gallery ; and Mr Ruskin founded 
 the St George's Museum here (formerly at Walk- 
 ley, but since 1890 in the town itself), in which 
 he deposited an important collection of minerals, 
 illuminated manuscripts, engravings, and draw- 
 ings. Sheffield has long been noted for the 
 manufacture of cutlery ; and at the present day 
 an endless variety of articles in brass, iron, and 
 steel is produced, such as knives, silver and 
 plated articles, Britannia-metal goods, coach- 
 springs, spades, spindles, hammers, files, saws, 
 boilers, stoves, grates, buttons, &c. The intro- 
 duction of the manufacture of armour-plates, 
 railway-springs, tires, and rails in 1871 gave a 
 remarkable impetus to the growth of the town. 
 Sheffield has several public parks (one presented 
 in 1878), and two sets of public baths. Pop. 
 (1821) 69,479 ; (1841) 111,091 ; (1861) 154,093 ; (1881) 
 284,508; (1901)380,717. 
 
 Sheffield has from Saxon times been the capital 
 of a district known as ' Hallamshire.' William 
 de Lovetot built a church at it about 1103. The 
 next lords of Sheffield, the Furnivals, sided with 
 Henry III. against the barons, and the castle was 
 burned in 1266. The Talbots inherited Sheffield, 
 and the third Earl of Shrewsbury greatly in- 
 creased the dignity of Sheffield castle. Queen 
 Elizabeth imposed on the sixth Earl of Shrews- 
 bury the responsibility of holding Queen Mary of 
 Scotland a prisoner here (1572-80, with sliort 
 intervals). Through the Arundels, the vast Shef- 
 field estates ultimately vested in the Dukes of 
 Norfolk. Sheffield sided against King Charles ; 
 and in August 1644 the castle was taken by the 
 parliamentarians, and soon afterwards demol- 
 ished. The cutlery trade had existed from the 
 earliest times ; the ' Sheffield whittle' was spoken 
 of by Chaucer, and the Cutlers' Company was 
 founded in 1624. Up to the middle of the 18th 
 century Sheffield was a mean place, but rose in 
 the 19th to be the 'capital of steel' in Britain, 
 and perhaps in the world. Till 1845 the whole 
 town was included in one parish ; there are now 
 thirty-seven ecclesiastical parishes. Sheffield was 
 first enfranchised in 1832 ; and by the bill of 1885 
 the borough was divided into five parliamentary 
 districts, each with one member. In March 1864 
 a new embankment, constructed for the Sheffield 
 Water Company, at Bradfield, gave way; 250 
 persons perished; mills, houses, and hamlets 
 were swept away, and damage done to private 
 property to the extent of near £300,000. In 1866 
 trade outrages in the form of 'rattening,' long a 
 discredit to Sheffield, were put an end to. See 
 Hunter's Hallamshire (1819 ; new ed. 1869) ; 
 Gatty's Sheffield, Past and Present (1873) ; Leader's 
 Reminiscences of Old Sheffield (1875); and Leader's 
 Sheffield in the Eighteenth Centnry (1901). 
 
 Shemakha (She-mdh'ha), a town of Russian 
 Caucasus, 63 miles W. by N. of Baku, with silk 
 manufactures. It was overwhelmed by an earth- 
 quake in 1859, and again In 1872. Pop. 28,545. 
 
 i 
 
SHENANDOAH 
 
 64B 
 
 SHETTLESTON 
 
 Shenando'ah, (l) a river of Virginia, drains 
 the beautiful and fertile valley between the Blue 
 Eidge and the principal range of the Alleghanies. 
 It rises in two branches, which unite 85 miles W. 
 of Washington, and runs 170 miles NE. to the 
 Potomac, at Harper's Ferry. — (2) A borough of 
 Pennsylvania, 105 miles north-west of Pliila- 
 deli)hia, with a trade in anthracite coal. Popula- 
 tion, 20,500. 
 
 Shendy, a town in Lower Nubia, on the Nile's 
 right bank, 100 miles NNE. of Khartoum. Pop. 
 5000 (40,000 before 1822). 
 
 Shen-si, a northern inland province of China. 
 
 Shepherd's Bush, a west suburb of London. 
 
 Shepley, a Yorkshire village, 7 miles SB. of 
 HuddersKeld. Pop. 1725. 
 
 Shepperton, a Middlesex Thames-side parish, 
 19 miles SW. of London. Pop. 1820. 
 
 Sheppey, Isle of, a portion of Kent, insulated 
 from the mainland by the Swale, an arm of the 
 Medway estuary. It now is only 9 miles long 
 and 4 broad, the sea having gradually eaten away 
 the northern shore, which is lined by cliffs of 
 London clay 60 to 80 feet high. Minster church, 
 formerly in the middle of the island, is now close 
 to the north coast. In the north corn is grown, 
 but the low south districts are laid out in grass. 
 Almost all the inhabitants are massed in Sheer- 
 uess (q.v.). 
 
 Shepton Mallet (locally Shep'un), an ancient 
 market-town of Somerset, 5 miles BSE. of Wells 
 and 15 SSW. of Bath, It has an hexagonal 
 market-cross of 1500, 51 feet high ; a church with 
 a splendid timber roof ; a grammar-school (1627) ; 
 and manufactures of silk, velvet, crape, ale. Pop. 
 (1851) 3885 ; U^Ol) 5238. See a work by Far- 
 brother (1860). 
 
 Sherborne (A.S., ' clear brook '), a pleasant old- 
 fashioned town of Dorsetshire, in the Vale of 
 Blackinore, on a gentle southern hill-slope above 
 the Yeo, 17 miles N. by W. of Dorchester and 5 
 E. of Yeovil. In 705 Ina, King of Wessex, made 
 it the seat of a bishopric, with St Aldhelra for 
 first bishop, whose twenty-fifth successor in 1075 
 transferred the see to Sarum. The noble cruci- 
 form minster, measuring 207 by 102 feet, with a 
 tower 114 feet high, was the church of a great 
 Benedictine abbey, founded by Bishop Roger in 
 the first half of the 12th century. It was con- 
 verted from Norman to Perpendicular after a great 
 fire in 1436, and was restored in 1848-58 at a cost 
 of over £32,000. Noteworthy are the clerestory, 
 vaulting, and choir ; and in the retrochoir are the 
 graves of Asser and two of King Alfred's brothers. 
 King Edward's School, comprising remains of the 
 abbey buildings, was founded in 1550, and re- 
 organised in 1871, since when it has risen to be 
 one of the great public schools of England, with 
 a yearly endowment of £800 and 300 boys. Among 
 former pupils may be named Dr J. M. Neale and 
 Mr Lewis Morris. Sherborne Castle is an Eliza- 
 bethan mansion, built in 1594 by Raleigh in the 
 grounds of Bishop Roger's Norman castle (c. 
 1125), which, taken by Fairfax in 1645, is now a 
 ruin. Sherborne has also a literary institute 
 (1859), Bishop Neville's 15th-century hospital, 
 and the Yeatman memorial hospital (1863), with 
 some manufactures of lace, buttons, and silk. 
 Pop. (1851) 4878 ; (1901) 5753. See Home's Sher- 
 borne Register (1893). 
 Sherbro, an island off the coast of Sierra Leone. 
 Sherbrooke, a city of Quebec, at the junction 
 of the rapid Magog (with falls) and St Francis 
 
 rivers, 168 miles by rail B. of Montreal, with 
 many busy factories. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 Sherburn. (l) a town of Yorkshire, 12 miles E. 
 of Leeds. Pop. 650.— (2) A place 3 miles BSE, 
 of Durliam, with a lepers' hospital (1181), now an 
 almshouse. 
 
 Sherlffmuir', in Perthshire, on the northern 
 slope of the Ochils, 2^ miles ENE. of Dunblane, 
 was the scene, on 13th November 1715, of an 
 indecisive battle between 8400 Jacobites under 
 Mar and 3500 Hanoverians under Argyll. 
 
 Sherman, capital of Grayson county, Texas, 
 64 miles by rail N. of Dallas. Pop. 10,250. 
 
 Sherringham, a Norfolk coast town, 4 miles 
 WNW. of Cromer. Pop. 2500. 
 
 Sherwood Forest, a stretch of hilly country in 
 the west of Nottinghamshire, lying between Not- 
 tingham and Worksop, about 25 miles N. to S. 
 and 6 to 8 miles E. to W. It was formerly a 
 royal forest, and the traditional scene of many of 
 the exi^loits of Robin Hood ; but it is now almost 
 wholly disafforested, and is occupied by gentle- 
 men's seats and fine parks. The town of Mansfield 
 and a number of villages are within the ancient 
 bounds. Numerous remains of the old forest 
 are still to be seen. See works by R. White 
 (1875) and Sissons (1888). 
 
 Shetland, or Zetland (Scand. Hjaltland, ' high 
 land '), a group of more than a hundred islands, 
 islets, and skerries, forming the northernmost 
 Scottish county, whose capital, Lerwick, is 116 
 miles NE. of Kirkwall, 300 N. by E. of Edin- 
 burgh, and 222 W. of Bergen in Norway. Extend- 
 ing 70 miles, and 36 in extreme breadth, they 
 have a total area of 551 sq. m., the largest of the 
 twenty-nine inhabited islands being Mainland 
 (378 sq. m.). Yell (83), Unst (47), Fetlar, Bressay, 
 Whalsay, and Foula. The cliff-scenery is very 
 fine, and the sounds and voes, or firths, are so 
 numerous that no spot is more than 3 miles from 
 the sea. The surface is more rugged than that 
 of Orkney, the highest points being Ronas Hill 
 (1475 feet) in Mainland, and the Sneug (1372) in 
 Foula. Metamorphic crystalline rocks predom- 
 inate, with isolated Old Red Sandstone ; and the 
 soil is peaty, barely one-sixth of the total area 
 being in cultivation, whilst trees there are none. 
 The live-stock includes from 100,000 to 120,000 
 sheep, some 19,000 cattle, and over 5000 shaggy 
 'Shetland ponies,' 9 to 10 hands high. The 
 climate is equable but moist (rainfall, 49 inches) ; 
 at the longest day the sun sets for only five 
 hours, at tlie shortest for over eighteen. The 
 herring and other fisheries are the leading in- 
 dustry, having been greatly developed since 1872. 
 Shetland unites with Orkney to return one mem- 
 ber to parliament ; but it was dissevered there- 
 from as a county by the Local Government (Scot- 
 land) Act, 1889. Pop. (1801) 22,379 ; (1861) 31,679 ; 
 (1901) 28,185. Subject, like Orkney (q.v.), to the 
 Scandinavian crown until 1468, Shetland — the 
 Ultima Thule of the ancients — is still markedly 
 Norse in many of its characteristics, Norse (spoken 
 in Foula as late as 1774) having bequeathed many 
 words to the Shetland dialect. In 1766 it was sold 
 by the Earl of Morton to the ancestor of the Earls 
 of Zetland, but the present earl's property here is 
 small. See Scott's Pirate; Edmondston's Shet- 
 land Glossary (1866) ; and other works by Brand 
 (1701), Tudor (1883), Sheriff' Rampini (1884), and 
 the Rev. J. Russell (1887). 
 
 Shettleston, a Lanarkshire mining-town, 3 
 miles E. by S. of Glasgow. Pop. (1861) 1947 ; 
 (1891) 5430 ; (1901) 12,154. 
 
SHIANT ISLET 
 
 644 
 
 SHIRAZ 
 
 Shiant Islet, a basaltic group, 21 miles S. of 
 Stornoway. Pop. 8. 
 
 SMel (Sheel), Loch, a fresh-water lake in the 
 west of Scotland, on the boundary between Moi- 
 dart in Inverness-shire and Ardgour in Argyll- 
 shire, 18 miles W. of Fort- William. It extends 
 17i miles south-westward, is 1 mile broad, is 
 overhung by mountains nearly 3000 feet high, 
 abounds in fisli, and communicates with the sea 
 by the river Shiel and salt-water Loch Moidart. 
 Prince Charles Edward was here, a fugitive, in 
 1746 ; and Queen Victoria in 1873. At the head 
 is Gleufinnan (q.v.). 
 
 Shields (Sheeldz), North, a seaport of North- 
 umberland, on the Tyne's north bank, near its 
 mouth, 8 miles ENB. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 
 the 13th c. the germ of the present town was a 
 collection of fishermen's huts or 'sheles' (hence 
 Shields). The prior of Tynemouth previous to 
 1279 built twenty-six houses and a quay here, but 
 the burgesses of Newcastle frustrated his design 
 to establish a town. For five hundred years 
 North Shields, oppressed by Newcastle, re- 
 mained a mere village, but during the 19th 
 century its development has been rapid. The 
 town is without any architectural character, the 
 streets being monotonously plain, and, near the 
 river, narrow and dingy. The principal public 
 buildings and institutions are the town-hall (1844), 
 the theatre-royal, tlie covered market, the free 
 library and museum, the Tyne Sailors' Home 
 (1856), and the Master Mariners' Asylum (1838). 
 The Northumberland Park (with remains of St 
 Leonard's Hospital) covers 17 acres. The mouth 
 of the Tyne forms an important harbour ; the 
 depth of water on the bar at low-water (spring- 
 tides) is 20 feet ; at high-water, 37. Within tlie 
 borough are two extensive docks — the North- 
 umberland (1857) and the Albert-Edward (1884), 
 the one having an area of 55 acres, the other of 
 24. Upwards of 2| million tons of coal and coke 
 are shipped hence in a twelvemonth ; the princi- 
 pal imports are corn, timber, and esparto grass. 
 There is nmch building and repairing of steam 
 and sailing vessels and manufactures of anchors, 
 chain-cables, ropes, &c. ; and fishing is carried 
 on. At Clifford's Fort is a submarine mine 
 station. In conjunction with Tynemouth (q.v.) 
 and three small townships North Shields forms 
 a municipal and parliamentary borough, named 
 after Tynemouth, and sending one member to 
 parliament. Pop. of this borough (1881) 44,118 ; 
 (1901) 51,514. This town is the birthplace of the 
 painters George Balmer and Birket Foster, also 
 of William Wouldhave (see South Shields). 
 
 Shields, South, a seaport, municipal and par- 
 liamentary borough of Durham, popular also as 
 a watering-place, stands on the south bank of 
 the Tyne at its mouth, 9 miles ENE. of New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. On the Lawe, an eminence 
 overlooking the river, the Romans had an im- 
 portant military station, in Saxon times called 
 Caer Urfa. Salt-pans were established here in 
 1489, and glass-works in 1619. The oldest, dingiest 
 part of the town extends for about two miles 
 along the river-bank. Ocean Road — a fine broad 
 thoroughfare nearly a mile long — stretclies from 
 the market-place to the pier. The die's to the 
 southward are hollowed into picturesque caves. 
 The principal public buildings are the town-hall 
 (1768); the public library, news-room, and museum 
 (1859); the marine school (1869); the theatre- 
 royal (1866); and the Ingham Infirmary (1873). 
 South Shields is in the parish of Jarrow (q.v.). 
 The North and South Marine Parks, 45 acres in 
 
 extent, are divided by the pier parade. A portion 
 of the site of the Roman station, containing the 
 remains of the forum, treasury, western gateway, 
 &c., has been enclosed and laid out as a recreation 
 ground. The south pier — a gigantic breakwater 
 5218 feet in length— was constructed in 1854-92. 
 The harbour is lined with ship and boat yards, 
 iron, glass, alkali, and rope works, paint and 
 varnish manufactories, &c. Tlie Tyne Docks, 
 covering an area of 50 acres, are the property of 
 the North-Eastern Railway, and ship over five 
 million tons of coal and coke. The large colliery 
 in the town— the St Hilda — was opened in 1810 ; 
 in an explosion here in 1839 fifty-nine persons 
 were killed. The first lifeboat was built at South 
 Shields, and used for the first time on January 30, 
 1790 ; a memorial to its inventors Wouldhave and 
 Greathead has been erected on the pier parade. 
 South Shields was incorporated in 1850. Since 
 1832 it has returned one member. Pop. (1851) 
 28,974; (1881)56,875; (1901)96,267. 
 
 Shlfnal, a town of Shropshire, 17 miles E. 
 by S. of Shrewsbury, with iron naanufactures. 
 Pop. 3234. 
 
 Shigatze, or Digarchi, a town (pop. 9000) of 
 Tibet, stands on the right bank of the Sanpo or 
 Brahmaputra, 140 miles W. by S. of Lhassa, at 
 an altitude of 12,000 feet. Near by is the great 
 monastery (3500 monks) of the Tashilunpo. 
 
 Shikarpur', a town in Sind, stands 18 miles 
 W. of the Indus, on the railway to Quetta and 
 Pishin. Carpets, cottons^ furniture, &c. are 
 manufactured. Pop. 49,500. 
 
 Shikoku. See Japan. 
 
 Shildon, a Durham town, 8 miles SSE. of 
 Bishop Auckland, witli neighbouring quarries 
 and coal-mines. Pop., with East Thickley, 11,760. 
 
 Shilka. See Amur. 
 
 Shillelagh (Shilleh'la), County Wicklow, 17 
 miles SW. of Aughrim, a once famous oak-forest. 
 
 Shlloh, one of the most desperate battles (6th 
 and 7th April 1862) of the American civil war, 
 named from a log meeting-house near the Ten- 
 nessee River, 8 miles above Savannah. 
 
 Shimonosek'i, a port of Japan, at the SW. 
 extremity of the main island, open to foreign trade 
 since 1890, was partly destroyed during a bom- 
 bardment by a combined Enghsh, French, Dutch, 
 and American fleet in 1864. Pop. 42,800. 
 
 Shin, Loch. See Sutherland. 
 
 Shingking. See Mukden. 
 
 Shingles, a shoal, 2^ miles long, off the Isle of 
 Wight, between the Needles and Hurst Castle. 
 
 Shipka, a Balkan pass, 50 miles NE. of Philip- 
 popolis, stoutly held by the Russians against the 
 desperate as.saults of Suleyman Pasha, August 
 21-26, and September 9-17, 1877. 
 
 Shiplake, an Oxfordshire village, on the 
 Thames, 3J miles S. by E. of Henley. Tennyson 
 was married here. 
 
 Shipley, a Yorkshire town, on the Aire, 3 miles 
 NNW. of Bradford. It manufactures worsted. 
 Pop. (1851) 3272 ; (1901) 25,573. 
 
 Shipston-on-Stour, a market-town in Worcester- 
 shire (detached), 6 miles E. of Chipping Campden 
 station. Pop. 1546. 
 
 Shiraz (Shee-rdhz'), capital of the Persian prov- 
 ince of Fars, much celebrated in Persian poetry 
 for its climate, its wine, and its rose-gardens, is 
 situated in a broad plain, 115 miles ENE. of 
 Bu.shire and 35 SW. of the ancient Persepolis. 
 Rose-water is prepared ; and inlaid articles in 
 
SHIR6URN CASTLE 
 
 645 
 
 SHREWSBURY 
 
 wood and metal, glass, and woollens are made 
 here. The city was founded in the 8th century, 
 and was a favourite resort of the Persian princes. 
 In 1812 a destructive earthquake laid it partly in 
 ruins, and another in 1824 cost 4000 lives, and 
 destroyed its splendid mosques and bazaars. 
 It was rebuilt and numbered 40,000 people, when 
 a third visitation, in 1853, laid almost the whole 
 town again in ruins, and caused 10,000 deaths. 
 It has since been partially rebuilt, and its pop. is 
 now 40,000. The tombs of the poets Hatiz and 
 Sadi, both natives, are in the vicinity. 
 
 Shirburn Castle, Oxfordshire, 7 miles SSW. of 
 Thame, the seat (1332) of the Earl of Macclesfield. 
 
 Shire (Shee'ray), a river of East Africa, flows 370 
 miles S. out of Lake Nyassa to the Zambesi. The 
 navigation is obstructed by cataracts (Murchison 
 Cataract) for 35 miles, in which the Shire falls 
 1200 feet. The Shire Highlands are included in 
 Nyassaland (q.v.). See John Buchanan, The 
 Shire Highlands (1885). 
 
 Shirwa, a lake of South-east Africa, 45 miles 
 SE. of Lake Nyassa. It is 40 miles long, 15 to 20 
 miles broad, and 1970 feet above sea-level. On 
 the W., between the lake and the river Shire, is 
 Mount Zomba (7000 feet). 
 
 Shisdra, a town of Russia, 80 miles SW. of 
 Kaluga, on a branch of the Oka. Pop. 11,678. 
 
 Sho'a, a mountainous country of Africa, usually 
 accounted one of the three divisions of Abyssinia 
 (q.v.), lying S. of Abyssinia proper, and watered 
 by the Blue Nile and the Hawash. Area, 26,000 
 sq. m. The people, partly Abyssinians and partly 
 Gallas, number about 1^ million. The capital is 
 Addis Abeba (pop. 10,000), under Menelek (from 
 1892) capital of Abyssinia also. 
 
 Shoeburyness, on the coast of Essex, and at 
 the mouth of the Thames, faces the Nore, 3 miles 
 E. of Southend and 45 of London. Its dreary 
 marshland, purchased by government in 1842-55, 
 has since been the seat of a school of gunnery, 
 with artillery barracks, batteries, targets, and 
 other appliances for experinaenting on cannon. 
 
 Sholapur', a town of Bombay presidency, 150 
 miles by rail SE. of Poona, with silk and cotton 
 manufactures. Pop. 75,000. 
 
 Shooter's Hill, an eminence (446 feet) in Kent, 
 near Greenwich and Woolwich, which commands 
 a splendid view of London. 
 
 Shoredltch, a metropolitan and ijarliamentary 
 (two members) borough of London. Pop. met. 
 bor. (1901) 118,637 ; of par. bor. (1901) 117,706. 
 
 Shoreham, New, a seaport of Sussex, at the 
 mouth of the Adur, 6 miles W. of Brighton. It 
 arose when the harbour of Old Shorenam, now 
 a mile inland, became silted up ; and it has some 
 shipbuilding, oyster and other fisheries, and a 
 trade with France from its tidal harbour. 
 Charles II. embarked here after Worcester for 
 Normandy. The suspension bridge (1833), the 
 Norman and Early English parish church, and the 
 'Swiss Gardens,' may be noticed. The parlia- 
 mentary borough of New Shoreham, including the 
 Rape of Bramber (177 sq. m. and 42,442 inhabit- 
 ants in 1881), and returning two members, was 
 merged in the county in 1885. Pop. of parish, 
 about 3900. 
 
 Shomcllflfe, in Kent, 2J miles W. of Folke- 
 stone, the seat of a military camp during the 
 Peninsular war, and since the Crimean war of a 
 permanent one for 5000 men. 
 
 Shoshone Falls (Shoshonee'), on the Snake 
 Biver, in southern Idaho, about 950 feet wide, 
 
 and with a clear leap of 210 feet (that of Niagara 
 is under 170 feet). The river runs in a deep 
 gorge between walls of volcanic rock 1000 feet 
 high. Four miles higher up are the Little 
 Shoshone Falls, a broken cataract of 182 feet. 
 
 Shoshong, once capital of the Bamangwato 
 tribe, and the largest native town in South Africa 
 (20,000), depopulated since it was superseded 
 (1890) by Palapwe (q.v.), now capital of the 
 Bechuanaland protectorate. 
 
 Shotover Hill, an eminence (599 feet) 4 miles 
 E. of Oxford. 
 
 Shottery. See Steatford-on-Avon. 
 
 Shotts, a Lanarkshire mining parish, 16 miles 
 SE. of Glasgow. Pop. (1831) 3220 ; (1901) 15,562. 
 
 Shreveport, the second city of Louisiana, on 
 the west bank of Red River (spanned by an iron 
 bridge of 1200 feet), 328 miles by rail NW. of New 
 Orleans. It ships cotton, hides, wool, and tallow, 
 and has planing and saw mills, foundries, machine- 
 shops, breweries, and manufactories of cotton- 
 seed oil, soap, ice, carriages, &c. Pop. 16,700. 
 
 Shrewsbury (Shrowzbury), the county town of 
 Shropshire, on the Severn, 36 miles SSW. of Crewe, 
 42 W. by N. of Birmingham, and 163 NW. of 
 London. The river here makes a serpentine curve 
 round a hilly peninsula, and is sijanned by the 
 English Bridge (rebuilt 1774) of seven arches, the 
 Welsh Bridge (rebuilt 1795) of five, and the iron 
 Kingsland Bridge (1882), which lead to the suburbs 
 of Abbey-Foregate, Coleham, Frankwell, Castle- 
 Foregate, and Kingsland. With its steep, narrow 
 streets, and its black and white half-timbered 
 houses, Shrewsbury is picturesque as very few 
 English towns. Its Norman castle has been 
 greatly modernised ; Holy Cross or Abbey Church 
 belonged to a Benedictine abbey (1083). St Mary's 
 is Norman to Perpendicular in style, with a Jesse 
 window, the tomb of Admiral Benbow, and a 
 spire 222 feet high (restored in 1894 after partial 
 wreckage). Noteworthy also are the Roman 
 Catholic church (1856), by Pugin ; the council- 
 house (1501-60), where Charles I. stayed in 
 1642, and James II. in 1687 ; the old market- 
 house (1595) ; the new market-hall (1868) ; the 
 shire-hall (rebuilt 1836, and again, after fire, 
 1883); the corn exchange (1869); the post-olfice 
 (1877) ; the county infirmary (1747-1830) ; the eye, 
 ear, and throat hospital (1881) ; the ' Raven ' 
 Hotel, where Farquhar in 1704 wrote the Recruit- 
 ing Officer ; the ' Quarry,' a pretty park of 23 
 acres, with its lime-tree avenue (1719) ; a Doric 
 column (1816) to Lord Hill, 134 feet high ; and a 
 bronze statue (1860) by Marochetti of Clive. The 
 county museum and a free library now occupy 
 the old buildings (1630) of the grammar-school, 
 which was transferred to a fine new site of 26 
 acres (now 50 acres) in 1882, since Avhich time the 
 number of the boys has increased from 170 to 
 over 300. Founded by Edward VI. in 1551, 
 though not actually opened till 1562, and aug- 
 mented by Queen Elizabeth in 1571, this school 
 was recognised as one of the seven great public 
 schools in the Public Schools Act of 1868, and 
 owes its greatness partly to its rich endowment 
 (£3100 per annum), but still more to the exertions 
 of two successive headmasters, Dr Samuel Butler 
 (1798-1836), afterwards Bishop of Lichfield, and 
 Dr Keimedy (1836-66). Among its alumni have 
 been Sir Philip Sidney, Fulke Greville, Wycher- 
 ley. Judge Jefi"reys, the Marquis of Halifax, 
 Charles Darwin (a native). Bishop Fraser of Man- 
 chester, Archbishop Thomson, Viscount Cran- 
 brook, the Right Hon. H. C. Raikes, S. J. Weyman, 
 and such scholars as Professor Kennedy, F. A. 
 
SHROPSHIRE 
 
 646 
 
 SIAM 
 
 Paley, Professor Munro, R. Shilleto, and Pro- 
 fessor Mayor. Glass-painting, malting, iron- 
 founding, and the manufacture of agricultural 
 implements are industries ; ' Shrewsbury cakes ' 
 and the brawn made here have long been famous. 
 Chartered by Richard I., the borough returned 
 two members till 1885, when the representation 
 was reduced to one. Pop. (1851) 19,681 ; (1881) 
 26,481 ; (1901) 28,396. The Cymric Pengwerne 
 (' alder hill '), after its capture in 778 from the 
 king of Powys by Offa of Mercia the place changed 
 its name to Scrobbesbyrig (' town in the wood '), 
 of which the modern name is a corruption. 
 It has been visited by most of the English kings, 
 and repeatedly besieged— e.g. by Llewellyn (1215) 
 and the parliamentarians (1644). In the battle of 
 Shrewsbury, fought at Battlefield, 3 miles NE., 
 on 21st July 1403, Henry IV. routed Hotspur and 
 his confederates. See works by T. Phillips (1779), 
 H. Owen and J. B. Blakeway (1825), H. Pidgeon 
 (1857), and W. Phillips (1878). 
 
 Shropshire, or Salop, a West Midland county 
 of England, on the Welsh border, bounded by the 
 counties of Cheshire, Stafford, Worcester, Here- 
 ford, Radnor, Montgomery, and Denbigh. It 
 measures 50 miles by 41, and has an area of 
 844,565 acres or 1319 sq. m. The Severn, enter- 
 ing from Montgomeryshire, winds 55 miles across 
 the interior, dividing Shropshire into two pretty 
 equal portions, and being joined here by the 
 Tern, whilst a lower tributary, the Teme, traces 
 much of the southern boundary. Ellesmere (116 
 acres) is the largest of several lakes. The northern 
 and eastern portion, to the left of the Severn, is 
 level with the exception of the isolated Wrekin 
 (1320 feet). The south-western portion is rugged 
 and mountainous, and in the Clee Hills attains 
 1805 feet. Coalbrookdale is the chief of five coal- 
 fields, and the mineral wealth also includes iron, 
 lead, limestone, and freestone. The soil is vari- 
 able, but generally fertile and well cultivated, so 
 that only about one-seventh of the whole area is 
 waste, whilst woods and plantations cover 71 sq. 
 m. and orchards 4000 acres. Much attention is 
 paid to live-stock. The county is divided into 
 14 hundreds and 253 civil parishes. It con- 
 tains the parliamentary borough of Shrewsbury, 
 the county town, and the municipal boroughs of 
 Bishop's Castle, Bridgnorth, Ludlow, Oswestry, 
 and Wenlock. It returns four members for the 
 Oswestry, Newport, Wellington, and Ludlow 
 divisions. Clive was a native ; and historic 
 scenes or antiquities, other than those noticed in 
 the articles on the different towns, are Acton- 
 Burnell, Boscobel, Wroxeter, Watling Street, and 
 Offa's Dyke. Pop. (1801) 169,248 ; (1841) 225,820 ; 
 (1871) 248,111 ; (1901) 239,321. See works by C. 
 Hulbert (2 vols. 1837), E. Lloyd (1844), R. W. 
 Eyton (12 vols. 1853-60), J. C. Ander.son (1864), 
 Mrs F. C. Acton (1868), M. E. C. Walcott (1879), 
 Miss G. Jackson (Dialect, 1879-81), and Miss C. 
 Burne (Folklore, 1883-85). 
 
 Shruhland Hall, a Suffolk seat, with splendid 
 gardens, 3 miles SE. of Needham Market. 
 
 Shumla (Shoom'la), a strongly fortified city of 
 Bulgaria, 56 miles by rail W. by N. of Varna and 
 80 SE. of Rustchuk. The roads from the for- 
 tresses (Silistria, Rustchuk) on the Lower Danube 
 and in the Dobrudja on the north, and from the 
 passes of the Eastern Balkan on the south, con- 
 verge upon Shumla, and make it an important 
 strategic place. It manufactures slippers, cloth- 
 ing, copper wares, and silks. Pop. 23,000. 
 - Shuna, an Argyllshire island, 1 mile SW. of 
 
 the entrance to Loch Melfort. Area, If sq. m. ; 
 height, 200 feet ; pop. 8. 
 
 Shusha, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, 65 
 miles SSW. of Elizabethpol. Pop. 32,040, who 
 make celebrated carpets and coarse silk goods. 
 
 ShUSter (Shoos' ter), a city of Persia, on the 
 Karun, 250 miles W. by S. of Ispahan ; pop. 18,000. 
 
 Sialkot (See-al-kote'), a town in the Punjab, near 
 the Chenab's left bank, 72 miles N. by E. of 
 Lahore, with manufactures of paper and cloth. 
 The old fort, gallantly held by a few Europeans 
 in 1857, is now converted into public offices ; 
 there are also Sikh and Mohammedan shrines, 
 the Punjab military prison, a public garden, &c. 
 Population, 60,200, including the cantonment, 
 1 mile N. 
 
 Siam' (native name Muang Thai, ' the Land of 
 the Free ') occupies the central portion of the 
 Indo-China Peninsula, stretching from 4° in the 
 Malay Peninsula to Chiengsen (20° 22' N.), on the 
 river Mekong, or a distance of nearly 1100 miles ; 
 greatest breadth, 750 miles. The main body of 
 it lies between Burma (British), the Shan States 
 (partly Siamese), and French Indo-China (Cam- 
 bodia and Annam). In 1893 the French advanced 
 their Annamese frontier to the Mekong, as far north 
 at least as 18° N. The territory ceded to France 
 was about 50,000 sq. m., with a pop. of 100,000. 
 Tlie area of the kingdom of Siain is now about 
 250,000 sq. m. (60,000 in the Malay peninsula) ; 
 and the pop., which is concentrated principally 
 in Bangkok and the Menani Valley, is estimated 
 at about 12,000,000, of whom possibly 3,000,000 
 are Chinese. The Malay Peninsula excluded, the 
 plain of the Menam Valley, the adjoining eastern 
 coast, and the Korat plateau (from 400 to 1000 
 feet high) occupy the greater portion of the 
 country. These plains are fringed by hills up to 
 5000 feet high, and the north generally is hilly. 
 The Menam, with a course of 600 miles, is the 
 principal river. Two other streams, the Meklong 
 and the Bangpakong, flow into the Gulf of Siam. 
 The Mekong (q.v.) has the main part of its course 
 in or along Siamese territory, but navigation 
 for vessels of any size is impeded by rapids. The 
 rivers form the principal trade-routes, and in and 
 around Bangkok there is an intricate network of 
 canals. Only the land adjoining the rivers is 
 under cultivation, and the greater portion of 
 the country is covered by pathless jungle. The 
 climate is considered healthy for the tropics ; low 
 malarial fever is the most frequent illness amongst 
 the European community. There are two seasons 
 — the wet and the dry, the former lasting from 
 May till November. The average temperature 
 for the year is 81° ; the greatest heat in April 
 should not exceed 94° in a Avell-made house. 
 
 The chief production of Siam is rice. It is the 
 national food, and its export forms the great 
 source of wealth of the country, making two- 
 thirds of the total exports, which amount to 
 between £4,000,000 and £5,000,000. The other 
 principal exports are teak-wood, obtained in the 
 north, pepper, salt, and dried fish, cattle (for 
 consumption in Singapore), and til (sesame) seed. 
 Goods are imported to the value of about 
 £3,500,000, comprising treasure and gold-leaf, 
 cotton manufactures and China goods, jewellery, 
 and opium. The foreign trade is mainly with 
 Singapore, Hong-Kong, and Britain. The prin- 
 cipal commerce of the capital is in the hands 
 of Chinese ; the labour market is supplied by 
 Chinese coolies, and the best tradespeople and 
 artisans are Chinese. The native Siamese confine 
 themselves to agriculture, fishing, boating, and 
 
SUM 
 
 047 
 
 SIBERIA 
 
 )petty hawking, and many are simply idle hangers- 
 on of the nobility. In addition to the exports, 
 the country produces hemp, tobacco, cotton, 
 coffee, cardamoms, and tropical fruits. 
 
 The wild elephant, tiger, bear (in the north), 
 wild pig, deer, monkey, and squirrel abound in 
 the distant jungles. Tame elephants are em- 
 ployed. Specimens of the famous 'white ele- 
 phant' are kept in the courtyard of the royal 
 palace at Bangkok, but are not regarded with 
 any special veneration. Crocodiles are found at 
 the mouths of the rivers. The python, cobra, 
 reptiles of various kinds, mosquitoes, ants, fire- 
 flies, and tropical insects are plentiful. There 
 are many species of birds, and the rivers and 
 coast swarm with excellent fish. Gold has been 
 produced in Siam from time immemorial ; and 
 argentiferous copper also is found. Alluvial tin- 
 mines are worked by Chinese in the Malay penin- 
 sula, and iron is turned out in the north by native 
 smelters. Rubies and sapphires are found in 
 the Chantaboon district (occupied by France in 
 pledge of the fulfilment of the treaty of 1893). 
 The only manufactures are coarse cloth and silk, 
 rough paper made froin bark, water-jars, and 
 coloured tiles for the roofs of temples. 
 
 Pure Siamese are estimated to number only a 
 third of the total population. The north and 
 east are occupied by Laos or Shans, and besides 
 the Chinese there are numbers of immigrant 
 Burmese, Indians, Malays, and Cambodians. 
 The character of the Siamese is essentially peace- 
 ful and indolent ; they are very social, vain, and 
 fond of bright dresses and jewellery. The houses 
 are built of wood or bamboo, thatched with the 
 leaf of the attap pahn, and are raised a few feet 
 from the ground on piles. Both sides of the 
 river at Bangkok (q.v.) are lined for several miles 
 with houses floating on wooden pontoons or on 
 bundles of bamboo. Every Siamese, with certain 
 exceptions, is bound to give the state free labour 
 for about three months in the year, and to supply 
 travelling officials with provisions and means of 
 transport. The religion of the country is Bud- 
 dhism. The sacred books are written in Pali in 
 the Cambodian character. The old system of 
 first and second kings has been abolished. The 
 legislative power is vested in the king, in con- 
 junction with a council of ministers and a coinicil 
 of state. There is a small permanent army, and 
 the navy consists of a few tiny gunboats. The 
 revenue of the country averages about £2,500,000, 
 and includes £870,000 from the farmers of tlie 
 sale of opium and spirits, and the keepers of 
 gambling and pawnbroking houses ; £1,086,000 
 from taxes on forests and mines, posts, tele- 
 graphs, and railways, capitation tax, land-tax, 
 and fisheries, &c. ; and £275,000 from customs. 
 Since 1890 the government has made many re- 
 forms in administration. The civil list has 
 been put on a definite footing ; taxation has been 
 lightened and simplified. Sanitation, education, 
 and the administration of law and justice are all 
 greatly improved. Railways are being extended 
 (330 miles were open in 1905) ; the postal and tele- 
 graph systems have been developed ; Bangkok 
 has a telephone exchange and electric lighting 
 and tramways. Education, carried on by the 
 priests, is svipplemented by schools for the teach- 
 ing of English. Foreigners are subject only to 
 their own laws, administered by consuls. 
 
 Ayuthia (q.v.), founded in 1350, remained the 
 capital till 1768, when it was taken by the Bur- 
 mese, Bangkok next year becoming the capital. 
 Cambodia was conquered in 1532. In 1893 the 
 French dictated a treaty granting themselves a 
 
 large slice of Siamese territory. See books by 
 Pallegoix (1854), Bowring(1857), Colquhoun (1885), 
 Coit (1886), Hallett (1889), J. Anderson (1890), 
 Grindrod (1896), Warrington Smyth (1898), Young 
 (1900), Vincent (1900), and Campbell (1902). 
 
 Slang-tan, a great trading mart of central 
 China, in the province of Hfl-nan, on the Slang 
 River, which flows through the Tung-ting lake 
 into the Yang-tsze. Specially it is the centre of 
 tlie drug trade. Pop. 100,000 or more. 
 
 Sibe'ria (Sibir) was originally heard of as a 
 Tartar stronghold on the Irtish, captured by 
 the Russians in 1580 ; and gradually widening 
 in scope, the name is now applied to the vast 
 territory belonging to Russia in northern Asia, 
 lying between the Arctic Ocean and tlie Chinese 
 empire, and extending from the Urals to the Sea 
 of Japan. It covers an area of 4,833,500 sq. m. — 
 nearly forty times as great as that of the IJnited 
 Kingdom — and has a population of 5,727,000. Its 
 natural divisions, oroadly corresponding to 
 the administrative ones, are : West Siberia, in- 
 cluding the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, 
 as also parts of Perm ; East Siberia (Yeniseisk, 
 Irkutsk, Yakutsk, and Transbaikalia) ; Kam- 
 chatka; and the Amur region, which includes the 
 governments of Amur, Usuri, the inaritune 
 province, and part of the island of Saghalien. 
 The great plateau of eastern Asia enters Siberia 
 to the east of Lake Baikal, where it is 3000-4000 
 feet high and 1300 miles wide, and stretches thence 
 with a gradually decreasing height and width to- 
 wards Behring Strait. It is fringed on the W. 
 by the Altai (q.v.) and Sayan mountains, and 
 on the E. by the Stanovoi Mountains. The 
 border-ridges of the plateau attain heights of from 
 7000 to nearly 11,000 feet, but very few of them 
 penetrate into the region of perpetual snow. A 
 broad alpine belt fringes the plateau to the NW., 
 thickly clothed with forests, and containing 
 several auriferous districts. Another belt of high 
 plains (1700-2500 feet high) spreads all along the 
 base of the alpine belt. The whole of West 
 Siberia, between these high plains and the shores 
 of the Arctic Ocean, is an immense lowland, whose 
 southern part— the prairies of Ishini, Upper 
 Tobol, and Baraba— is extremely fertile, and 
 covered with a luxurious grass- vegetation, with 
 masses of deciduous forest. This is even now the 
 granary of Siberia, and exports grain to the mines 
 of the Urals. Nearly one-third of the popula- 
 tion of Siberia is gathered on those prairies, and 
 is more thoroughly Russian than in many parts 
 of European Russia. Farther north, especially be- 
 tween the Obi and the Irtish, begin the urmans, 
 or immense marshes, which cover nearly 100,000 
 sq. in., clothed with thickets and meagre forests, 
 in which some 30,000 Ostiaks, Voguls, and Samo- 
 yedes find scanty means of existence in hunting 
 and fishing. Farther north still begin the tundras, 
 which extend along the Arctic seaboard as far as 
 Kamchatka, and cover an aggregate area of some 
 450,000 sq. m., with a really terrible climate. 
 Nevertheless some 50,000 human beings wander 
 over these inhospitable tracts with reindeer and 
 dogs. Of the plateau which fills vast tracts in 
 East Siberia, the upper terrace, 3000 to 4000 feet 
 high, is quite unsuitable for agriculture, but its 
 lower terrace (2500 to 3000 feet), especially in 
 Transbaikalia, is good for tillage and cattle- 
 breeding, and is peopled by both Buriats and 
 Russians ; the smaller chains of mountains are 
 rich in gold, copper, iron, and silver. The high 
 plains (1500 to 2000 feet), watered by the Zeyaand 
 its tributaries, and covered with a very fertile soil 
 
SIBERIA 
 
 SICILY 
 
 and excellent oak forests, are the richest part 
 of the Amur territory, and are being rapidly 
 occupied by immigrants, chiefly sectaries, from 
 Russia, who already number about 60,000. 
 Khabarovka, at the junction of the Usuri with 
 the Amur, is the capital of the territory ; the ex- 
 cellent harbour of Vladivostok is the terminus 
 (since the loss of Port Arthur in 1905) of theTrans- 
 Siberian railway (over 6500 miles from St Peters- 
 burg, and costing over 50 millions sterling). See 
 Amur, Maritime Province, Saghalien, Kam- 
 chatka, and New Siberia. The rivers of Siberia 
 are of immense value for navigation. They all 
 rise in the plateau, and each of them receives a 
 tributary only smaller than itself— the Obi, the 
 Irtish ; the Yenisei, the Tunguska ; and the Lena, 
 the Vitim ; whilst the Shilka and Argun unite to 
 form the Amur. ConiTnunication in suTumer by 
 sea has been established between Western Europe 
 and the Obi and Yenisei, on which, as on the 
 Lena, steamers ply, save when they are frozen. 
 On the Amur steamers ply for a distance of 2000 
 miles. Overland communication is maintained 
 by means of post-stations between all the chief 
 towns — the great highway from Russia to the 
 Pacific passing through Tiumen, Omsk, Tomsk, 
 Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Tchita, Blagoveschensk, 
 and Khabarovka. The chief lake is Baikal (q.v.). 
 Siberia fully deserves its reputation of being 
 the coldest country of the world ; but it has a 
 much Avarmer summer than is generally supposed. 
 In moderate latitudes July has an average tem- 
 perature of from 61° to 67°, and 69° on the Middle 
 Amur. The hot summer and a cloudless, bright 
 sky favour vegetation, and melons are grown in 
 the open air in the steppes of Minusinsk and 
 Irkutsk. But the summer is short, as a rule, and 
 cold weather sets in very rapidly. Night frosts 
 are usual in September, and in November all 
 rivers are frozen. In November, even in South 
 Siberia, the mercury of the thermometer is occa- 
 sionally frozen, and in December and January it 
 remains frozen for weeks. In the far north the 
 cold is really terrible ; temperatures as low as 
 — 75° and — 85° F. have been measured at Verk- 
 hoyansk and Yakutsk. The population of Siberia 
 is very unequally distributed ; there are from 20 
 to 40 inhabitants to the square mile in parts of 
 South Tomsk and Tobolsk, while the deserts of 
 the far north are almost uninhabited. The total 
 population, which was less tlian 1,000,000 in 
 1800, has now attained over 5,720,000, and it is 
 yearly increased by some 50,000 Russian immi- 
 grants. The Russians in Siberia proper number 
 over 3,800,000. They occupy the best parts of the 
 territory in the south, as well as the valleys of 
 the chief rivers. The indigenous population 
 hardly numbers now 700,000 ; the Ugrian stock is 
 represented by the Voguls, the Ostiaks, and the 
 Samoyedes on the slopes of the Urals. Various 
 Turkish tribes inhabit the slopes of the Altai and 
 Sayan mountains ; the Yakuts number 200,000. 
 The Mongolian race is represented by the Kal- 
 mucks (about 20,000 in the Altai), the Buriats 
 (250,000) around Lake Baikal, and the nomadic 
 Tunguses (about 50,000) in the mountains of East 
 Siberia and the Amur region. Nearly 15,000 
 Manchurians and Chinese stay on Russian terri- 
 tory of the Amur and Usuri ; and 3000 Coreans 
 are settled around the Gulf of Peter the 
 Great. Finally, in the north-east there are 
 tribes akin to the Eskimos, including the 
 Tchuktchis, the Koryaks, and the Kamchadales. 
 On the Lower Amur we find the Gilyaks, and in 
 the island of Saghalien the Ainos. The Russians 
 belong to the Greek Orthodox faith, or to some 
 
 of its nonconformist sects. Most Turkish tribes 
 are Mohammedans. The Buriats profess Bud- 
 dhism ; and most of the Ugrian and Finnish 
 peoples are Shamanists. The rapid increase of 
 population Avhich has taken place since 1875 is 
 chiefly due to free immigration. The exiles trans- 
 ported to Siberia have contributed but little to 
 tlie settled population. The facilities afforded by 
 the Siberian railway have given an extraordinary 
 iinpetus to dairy-farming in Siberia. From 1898 
 to 1904 the dairies increased from 140 to 2630 
 (250 of them co-operative), and the produce from 
 48,360 cwt. to 681,857 cwt. It is estimated 
 tliat there are 25 million cows, giving milk rich 
 in butter, of wliich about 80 million lb. are ex- 
 ported annually, two special lines of steamers 
 from Reval and Riga carrying it in refrigerators 
 to London. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are 
 extending ; several large districts now produce 
 more corn tlian is wanted for the population, and 
 export some. Hunting continues to be profitable 
 in some parts. Sables, Arctic foxes, and gray 
 foxes have become rare ; squirrels, common foxes, 
 bears, deer, antelopes, some ermines and a few 
 beavers in the north-east, are still obtained. 
 Fishing is extensively carried on in lakes and 
 rivers. Tiumen builds steamers. In 1860-1900 
 from 400 to 600 cwt. of gold was annually 
 obtained in East Siberia, and 50 cwt. in West 
 Siberia, exclusive of Perm. Silver is extracted 
 in the Altai ; lead in the Altai, and in Nertchinsk ; 
 copper in Altai ; and much iron. A university 
 has been opened at Tomsk (1888). The Russians 
 began the conquest of the territory in 1580, when 
 a band of Cossack robbers under Yermak subdued 
 the Tartars on the Tobol River. New bands 
 of Cossacks, traders, and hunters supported by 
 the Moscow government, and followed by dis- 
 senters flying from religious persecution and 
 peasants escaping from serfdom, poured into 
 Siberia during the next two centuries. The 
 estuary of the Amur was discovered in 1849, and 
 a military post established at the mouth of the 
 river in 1851. The left bank of the Amur and the 
 right bank of the Usuri were annexed in 1853-57. 
 Nordenskiold first circumnavigated Asia in 1878- 
 79. See the relevant parts of Reclus, Geographie 
 Universelle (trans, by Keane), and of Picturesque 
 Rtissia; Seebohm, Siberia in Asia (1882); Lans- 
 dell, Throuqh Sibcj-ia (1882); and books by Ken- 
 nan (1891), Wright (1903), and De Windt (1904). 
 
 Sib'l, a pass, town, and district in British Belu- 
 chistan, traversed by the Sind and Pishin Valley 
 Railway. Pop. of district, 14,000. 
 
 Sicily, the largest, most fertile, and most 
 populous island in the Mediterranean, is separ- 
 ated from the mainland of Italy by the deep, 
 but narrow. Strait of Messina (q.v.). Its shape 
 resembles a triangle (whence the Greeks called 
 it Trinacria, the ' Three-cornered '). Area, 9828 
 sq. m. (one-third that of Scotland) ; pop. (1881) 
 2,927,901 ; (1901) 3,529,266. Capo Passaro is only 
 56 miles from Malta ; and Capo Boco only 80 
 from Cape Bon in Africa. Sicily is for the most 
 part a plateau 500 to 1900 feet above sea-level, and 
 traversed throughout its northern half by a chain 
 of mountains reaching 6467 feet, and sending 
 spurs to the south. The north and east coasts 
 are steep and rocky, the south and west generally 
 flat. None of the rivers is navigable. The only 
 extensive plain is that of Catania, out of which 
 Etna (q.v.) rises to 10,850 feet, with a base of 
 400 sq. m. in extent. The climate is warm and 
 equable, especially on the north and east coasts ; 
 the mean temperature ranges from 45° F. in winter 
 
SICILY 
 
 649 
 
 SIENNA 
 
 to 79° in summer. Only for brief periods does 
 the dry parching sirocco drive the thermometer 
 up to over 100°. Relics of the primeval forests of 
 oak and ilex are left ; in some districts beeches 
 clothe the mountains to their very summits, 
 and chestnuts, pines, and enormous holly-trees 
 flourish; but wide tracts have been reduced to 
 absolute sterility by the destruction of the 
 woodlands. Malaria is endemic in many parts. 
 The soil is wonderfully fertile, and vegetation 
 everywhere luxuriant. Dwarf-palms abound, 
 and dates, Indian figs, agaves, prickly pears, 
 oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, pomegranates, 
 mulberries, and grapes are all largely grown. 
 Sicily's wheat still represents a seventh of 
 that of all Italy ; it sends out two-thirds of 
 Italy's wine. Of 'green fruit ' (lemons, oranges, 
 &c.) it yields nearly nine-tenths of all the 
 Italian crop, and sends large quantities to the 
 United States and to Britain ; and sumach, for 
 tanning, is exported to the value of nearly a 
 million sterling. 
 
 After agriculture, the production of sulphur is 
 the great resource of Sicily. There are some 300 
 mines in the island, and 350,000 tons have been 
 exported in a year ; but the export has declined. 
 The rich deposits of rock-salt are scarcely 
 worked. The sardine and tunny fisheries are pro- 
 ductive ; the coral-fishery has greatly declined. 
 Amber is worked in Catania. Manufactures are 
 of little consequence— some machinery, cement, 
 crockery, gloves, macaroni, and soap. Commerce 
 is mainly in the hands of English, Germans, and 
 Swiss. Trade is much hampered in the interior 
 by the scarcity of good roads ; and there are but 
 650 miles of railway. 
 
 As a consequence of the successive foreign 
 settlements on the island, the population is 
 rather a conglomerate one ; in the east the Greek 
 element prevails, and the people are superior to 
 those in the west, where Arab blood is strongest. 
 The general dialect of the island differs markedly 
 from that of the mainland. The country people 
 are miserably poor and discontented ; and the 
 island was put under the state of siege in 1893-94. 
 The results of this measure were not too satisfac- 
 tory, for homicides, robberies, and thefts are very 
 frequent, though brigandage on the grand scale 
 has been put down. The maffia and other secret 
 societies flourish, and the vendetta is popular. 
 This state of things is largely to be traced to the 
 low rate of wages and the excessive taxes, and to 
 the deficient administration of .justice ; the two 
 former causes induced extensive emigration to 
 America. The people are very illiterate, though 
 nominally education is free and compulsory, and 
 there are many schools and academies, and uni- 
 versities at Palermo, Messina, and Catania, the 
 principal towns of the island. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Sicily were the 
 Sicani, amongst whom the Aryan Siculi from 
 the mainland settled in the 11th century B.C. 
 The Phoenicians made many settlements ; but 
 the real civilisers of Sicily were the successive 
 shoals of Greek immigrants from the 8th to the 
 6th century B.C. The ' tyrants ' of Syracuse bore 
 the brunt of the struggle with the Phoenicians, 
 and triumphed (367 B.C.). But the Romans ap- 
 peared in the 3d century, and by 210 B.C. the 
 island was a Roman province. In the 9th century 
 A.D. it was conquered by the Saracens, in the 11th 
 by the Normans, and in the 12th became a part 
 of the empire. Charles, Count of Anjou, acquired 
 it in 1264, but the French domination was put 
 an end to by the rising and massacre known as 
 the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. The island was con- 
 
 nected with the crown of Aragon, and then 
 closely associated with Naples (q.v.) as part of 
 the ' kingdom of the Two Sicilies,' incorporated 
 with Italy in 1860. 
 
 See Mrs Elliott's Diary of an Idle Woman in 
 Sicily (1881) ; and histories of Sicily by Freeman 
 (vols, i.-iv., 1891-94), and the shorter one in 
 ' Story of the Nations Series ' (1892). 
 
 Sicyon (Siss'i-on; Gk. pron. Sik-ee-oan), an 
 important city of ancient Greece, stood 2 miles S. 
 of the Corinthian Gulf and 7 NW. of Corinth. 
 Its scanty remains have been excavated by the 
 American School at Athens since 1887. 
 
 Sidi-bel-Abbes, a town of Algeria, 48 miles by 
 rail S. of Oran. Pop. 25,750. 
 
 Sidlaw Hills. See Forfarshire. 
 
 Sidmouth (Sid'muth), a watering-place of S. 
 Devon, 14 miles by road, but 20| by a branch- 
 line (1874), ESE. of Exeter. It lies in a narrow 
 valley at the mouth of the little Sid between the 
 red sandstone cliffs of High Peak (513 feet) on 
 the west, and Salcombe Hill (497) on the east. 
 Its esplanade is protected by a sea-wall (1838), 
 1700 feet long; and its parish church (1259; al- 
 most rebuilt 1860) has a stained west window 
 inserted by Queen Victoria in memory of her 
 father, the Duke of Kent, who died here in 1820. 
 Sidmouth then was the favourite resort that it 
 has once more become since the opening of the 
 railway ; its prosperity as a port, which in 
 Edward III.'s day sent two ships to the siege of 
 Calais, passed away through the silting up of the 
 harbour. The climate is mild, the rainfall the 
 least in Devon, and the beach yields agates and 
 chalcedonies. Pop, 4200. 
 
 Si'don (Heb. Zidon), anciently a city of Phoe- 
 nicia, situated on the east coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean, half-way between Tyre and Bey rout. The 
 present town of Saida, which was stormed by the 
 allies under Napier in 1840, has 10,000 inhabit- 
 ants, of whom 7000 are Mohaminedans. 
 
 Sidra, Gulf of. See Syrtis. 
 
 Siebenbiirgen (Zeebenbeer'gen, g hard ; ' Seven 
 Castles '), the German name of Transylvania (q.v.). 
 
 Siebengebirge (Zeebengebeer'geh, g's hard ; ' The 
 Seven Mountains'), in Rhenish Prussia, on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, 20 miles above Cologne. 
 The highest is the Olberg (1522 feet); but the 
 most famous is the Drachenfels (q.v.). They are 
 crowned with ruins of castles of the 12th century. 
 
 Siedlce (Seed'l-tsay), a town of Poland^ 57 miles 
 by rail E. by S. of Warsaw. Pop. 25,500.— Area 
 of 2yrovince, 5535 sq. m. ; pop. 775,320. 
 
 Siegen (Zee'gen, g hard), a Prussian town of 
 Westphalia, on the Sieg, 47 miles E. of Cologne. 
 It manufactures leather, paper, linen, soap, iron, 
 copper, lead, zinc, &c., having many mines in 
 the vicinity. Rubens was born here. Pop. 22,111. 
 
 Sienna (Ital. Siena; anc. Sa;na Julia), a walled 
 city of Italy, 60 miles by rail S. of Florence. The 
 streets are narrow, winding, and steep, with many 
 mediajval features. The archiepiscopal cathedral, 
 one of the finest examples of Gothic in Italy, was 
 begun early in the 13th century ; in 1339 it was 
 intended to build a vastly larger church. But 
 after the plague of 1348 the idea was abandoned, 
 and only ruined walls indicate the ambitious 
 design. The magnificent west front (1284-1357) 
 of three arches is partly Pointed, partly Round- 
 arched, and is enriched with red, white, and black 
 marbles, gilding, and many sculptures. A fire 
 did considerable damage to the exterior in 1890. 
 A lofty square campanile stands on the south 
 side. The art treasures of the interior embrace 
 
SiERfiA LEON£ 
 
 650 
 
 BIEKIM 
 
 the wonderful octagonal pulpit by Niccolo Pisano 
 (1268) ; the marble mosaic floor ; the series of 
 frescoes commemorative of the life of Pope Pius 
 II., by Pinturicchio, in the Piccolomini Library ; 
 the celebrated font (1428), with bas-reliefs by 
 Donatello, Delia Querela, and other sculptors, 
 in the church of San Giovanni, situated beneath 
 the cathedral. The churches of Sant' Agostino, 
 the Servites, San Domenico, and some others 
 contain pictures by Sodoma, Matteo di Giovanni, 
 and other Siennese artists. The greatly vener- 
 ated church of St Catharine (a native of this city) 
 stands on the site of her former dwelling. The 
 municipal palace (1288-1309), a magnificent 
 Pointed Gothic edifice of brick, has a lofty 
 tower (1325), and contains paintings by Sien- 
 nese artists. There are noble palaces, as the 
 Piccolomini, Tolomei, Monte de' Paschi, Loggia 
 del Papa, some dating from the 13th century. 
 The more noteworthy of the public institutions 
 are the university (1203), with faculties of medi- 
 cine and law (less than 250 students), the state 
 archives and the town library ; and an Institute 
 of Fine Arts (1816), with many fine pictures by 
 masters of the Siennese school. The city has also 
 given birth to a host of other illustrious men, as 
 iEneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II.), Bernardino Ochino, 
 and the two Socini (founders of Socinianism). 
 In July and August celebrated horse-races are 
 held in the market-place. Pop. 28,700. 
 
 Sierra Leone (See-er'ra Le-o'nay, ' Lion Moun- 
 tain ' ; usu. Le-oann'), a British colony on the west 
 coast of Africa, stretching 180 miles along the 
 coast, from the French colony of Rivieres du Sud 
 in the north to Liberia in the south, with an area 
 of 4000 sq. m, ; pop. 100,000 (many of them de- 
 scendants of liberated slaves). This includes the 
 Los, Sherbro, and other islands. In 1896 a hinter- 
 land extending inland about 180 miles, witli an 
 area of about 30,000 sq. m. and a pop. of about 
 1,000,000, was proclaimed a protectorate. Tlie 
 name Sierra Leone is more strictly confined to a 
 peninsula, 26 miles long by 12 broad, and rising 
 to 3000 feet, that projects NW. just south of the 
 Sierra Leone (the river Rokelle) estuary. Tlie 
 climate is very hot and very 7noist, and the 
 vegetation dense. The thermometer varies be- 
 tween 64"5° and 100"5° F. The low-lying districts 
 are infested with a good deal of fever and 
 malaria ; but the higher parts are comparatively 
 healthy. Sierra Leone has long been notorious 
 as tlie ' Wliite Man's Grave ;' but the title would 
 be just as appropriate to any of the adjacent 
 coast-regions of that part of Africa, Coffee, 
 cocoa, tapioca, ginger, maize, fcassava, and cotton 
 are grown ; but the bulk of the exports (ground- 
 nuts, kola-nuts, benni-seed, ginger, hides, palm- 
 oil and kernals, india-rubber, and gums) come 
 from the interior, and are exported to the annual 
 value of from £330,000 to £400,000. The imports 
 (clothing, provisions, wine and spirits, iron and 
 steel goods, haberdashery, gunpowder, tobacco 
 &c.), mostly from England, range from £350,000 
 to £550,000. The capital is Freetown (q.v.), 
 now a fortified naval depot and coaling station. 
 The colony has a frontier police of 290 men, besides 
 part of the West India regiment (400 men). 
 Fouray Bay College (1828), near Freetown, belongs 
 to the Church Missionary Society, and was affili- 
 ated in 1876 to Durham University. Sierra Leone 
 gives title to an Anglican bishop, and contains 
 many Methodists, besides a large body of Moham- 
 medans. The governor is assisted by an executive 
 council, and a (nominated) legislative council. 
 The revenue is from £168,000 to £230,000, leaving 
 a surplus ; the debt has been paid off. The coast 
 
 was discovered by the Portuguese in 1462. Re- 
 peated efforts to establish here a colony of freed 
 slaves had scant success, and in 1807 the com- 
 pany transferred their rights to the crown. See 
 Silthori)es' History and his Geography of the colony 
 (both in 1881), and Banbury's Sieriri Leone (1888). 
 
 Sierra Madre (See-er'ra Mah'dray, 'Mother 
 Chain'), a general name for the mountains in 
 Mexico that stretch northward from about Guada- 
 lajara to Arizona, forming the western wall of the 
 plateau, and separating Chihuahua frouT the mari- 
 time states of Sinaloa and Sonora.— The name has 
 often been extended to include the central and 
 eastern ranges of the Cordilleras. 
 
 Sierra Morena (See-er'ra Mo-ray'na), a broad 
 mountain-ridge in the south of Spain, forming the 
 southern edge of the great central plain. It separ- 
 ates the basins of the Guadianaand Guadalquivir, 
 and ranges in height from 2000 to 5500 feet. Valu- 
 able mines of lead, silver, quicksilver, sulphur, 
 and lignite, as at Tharsis and Rio Tin to, occur. 
 
 Sierra Nevada (See-er'ra Ne-vdh'da, 'Snowy 
 Range'), a mountain-range of southern Spain, 
 stretches east through the province of Granada 
 to the frontiers of Almeria, is 60 miles in length, 
 20 to 30 in breadth, and 1060 sq. m. in area. The 
 Pic de Velate (11,670 feet) is the highest point 
 of the peninsula. The range receives its name 
 from the perpetual snow which covers the highest 
 summits (down to 11,000 feet). — (2) A range of 
 mountains in California, forming the eastern 
 boundary of its Great Central Valley, and extend- 
 ing from north-west to south-east 450 miles, until 
 in the neighbourhood of 35° N. this and the Coast 
 Range meet. Among the higher peaks are Mount 
 Whitney (14,898 feet high), Mount Shasta (14,440), 
 Mount Tyndall (14,386). The sides of the range 
 are covered with forests, gold is found, and silver- 
 mines have been opened on the east side. The 
 Southern Pacific Railroad crosses the range at an 
 altitude of 7042 feet. — (3) Sierra Nevada deMerida 
 is the principal chain of the Andes in Venezuela, 
 rising to over 15,300 feet. — (4) Sierra Nevada de 
 Santa Marta is a system in Colombia, flanking 
 the sea, the central knot rising to peaks of from 
 16,400 to 17,500 feet. Copper, silver, gold, and 
 coal are found. 
 
 Slgmaringen (ng as in ring), the capital of 
 Hohenzollern (q.v.), on the Danube, 54 miles S, 
 by E. of Tubingen. Its castle suffered much by 
 fire, 18th April 1893. Pop. 4646. 
 
 Sikh States (Seek), in India, are fifteen pro- 
 tected native states of the Punjab (Patiala being 
 the chief), the only existing representatives of 
 the numerous states founded by the warlike and 
 religious sect of the Sikhs, and welded info a 
 powerful confederacy or empire by Ranjit Singh 
 before 1839. The Sikh wars of 1845-46 and 1848- 
 49 led to the annexation of all the Punjab by 
 Britain, except a few small feudatories. The 
 Sikhs amount to 7 per cent, of the population of 
 the Punjab (q.v.), and to 2,200,000 in India. 
 
 Si-kiang (See-ki-ang'). See Canton. 
 
 Sikkim, a protected state in the north-east of 
 India, bounded N. by Tibet, W. by Nepal, and 
 SE. by Bhotan. Area, 2820 sq. m. ; pop. 60,000. 
 Tlie state lies on the soutliern .slopes of the 
 Himalayas, has mountains reaching to 24,000 feet 
 and mountain-passes as high as 16,000. The 
 maharaja, who resides at the village of Tumlong, 
 ceded Darjeeling to the British in 1835, having 
 already acknowledged their ' protection ' in 1816. 
 In 1888 the erection of a fort under Tibetan in- 
 fluence led to a British expedition against Sikkim. 
 —Darjeeling (q.v.) is often called British Sikkim, 
 
SIKROL 
 
 651 
 
 SINAI 
 
 Sikrol, or Secrole, a W. suburb of Benares. 
 
 Silbury Hill. See Avebury. 
 
 Sil'chester, a village in the extreme north of 
 Hampshire, 7 miles N. of Basingstoke, famous for 
 the remains of the ancient Romano-British town 
 of Caer Segeint, called by the Romans Calleva, and 
 by the West Saxons Silceastre. The chief visible 
 remains are the amphitheatre, 50 yards by 40, and 
 the walls, 2760 yards in length ; excavations have 
 shown the foundations of a basilica, the forum, a 
 temple, baths, &c. ; and coins, seals, rings, an 
 ogam inscription, and much broken pottery have 
 been found. See a work by Plummer (1879). 
 
 Sile'sia, a province of SE. Prussia, having 
 Brandenburg and Posen on the N., the Polish 
 provinces of Russia and Austria on the E., and 
 Austrian Silesia, Bohemia, and Saxony on the S. 
 Area, 15,557 sq. m. ; pop. (1875) 3,863,699; (1900) 
 4,668,857, including more than 900,000 Poles, 
 65,000 Bohemians (Czechs), and 35,000 Wends. 
 By religion 2,569,360 are Catholics and 2,042,600 
 Evangelical Protestants. The province is drained 
 almost entirely by the Oder (navigable from Rati- 
 bor), which traverses it from SW. to NW. There 
 are extensive marshy and sandy tracts, on which 
 large forests grow ; but between the Oder and 
 the Sudetic Mountains in the SW. the soil is ex- 
 ceptionally fertile. In the SE. is one of the most 
 productive coal-mining regions of Prussia ; zinc 
 and lead are also extracted. In point of in- 
 dustrial activity Silesia ranks high amongst the 
 provinces of Prussia. Breslau is the capital. 
 Early in the 10th c. Silesia, except the extreme 
 western disti-icts, was under Polish dominion, 
 and in the 14th its dukes became vassals of 
 Bohemia. In 1742 the duchies were divided pretty 
 much as they now are, Prussia getting the lion's 
 share ; and the Seven Years' War (1756-63) con- 
 firmed Frederick the Great in possession. 
 
 Silesia, Austrian, a duchy of the Austrian 
 empire, bounded by Prussian Silesia, Moravia, and 
 Hungary. Area, 1987 sq. m. ; pop. (1880) 565,475 ; 
 (1900) 680,422. Subsidiary chains of the Cai-- 
 pathians and Sudetic Mountains diversify the 
 southern and western frontiers ; the duchy is 
 watered by the systems of the Vistula (in the 
 east) and the Oder (west). Mining (coal, iron, 
 sulphur, &c.) and manufacturing industries 
 flourish. The principal town is Troppau. 
 
 Silistria (anc. Durostorum), a town of Bulgaria, 
 on the right bank of the Danube, here 1^- mile 
 wide, 70 miles N W. of Varna. Long a formidable 
 Turkish fortress, it has been repeatedly besieged 
 by the Russians (as in 1828-29). On the outbreak 
 of the Crimean war the Russians laid siege to it 
 with 60,000 to 80,000 men, but were compelled to 
 retreat after thirty-nine days. In 1877 again it 
 successfully defied the troops of the czar. Pop. 
 12,500. 
 
 Sillery {Sil-Ur-ee'), a village (pop. 400) near 
 Rheinis, famous for its champagne. 
 
 Sil'lotll, a seaport and watering-place of Cum- 
 berland, on the Solway Firth, 20 miles W. of Car- 
 lisle. Prior to the opening of the railway in 1856 
 it was a mere hamlet, but it is now of growing 
 importance, with good docks opened in 1857-85. 
 Silloth, which commands a fine view, is much 
 resorted to for sea-bathing, the climate being 
 mild and salubrious, with a mean annual tempera- 
 ture of 49° 1', the same as Worthing, and only V 
 below Torquay. Pop. 2600. 
 
 Silsden, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 4 miles NNW. of Keighley, with worsted 
 and nail manufactures. Pop. 4800. 
 
 Sil'verton, a mining centre in the extreme west 
 of New South Wales, only 18 miles from the 
 border of South Australia, and 822 W. by S. from 
 Sydney. It is connected with the railway system 
 of South Australia. Silver, copper, tin, and gold 
 are mined. Broken Hill, one of the largest silver 
 mines in the world, is 17 miles SE. 
 
 Siman'cas, a village of Spain, 7 miles SW. of 
 Valladolid, where the national archives have been 
 kept since 1563. There are more than 30 million 
 documents in all. Pop. 1231. 
 
 Simbirsk', a town of Russia, on the Volga's 
 right bank, 350 miles SE. of Nijni-Novgorod. 
 Rebuilt since its destruction by fire in 1864, it 
 has two Greek cathedrals, a large trade, and a 
 famous annual fair. Pop. 43,300. — Area oi govern- 
 ment, 19,100 sq. m. ; pop. 549,400. 
 
 Sim'coe, Lake, in Ontario, between Georgian 
 Bay and Lake Ontario, 30 miles long and 18 broad. 
 
 Simferop'ol, a town of Russia, in the Crimea, 
 50 miles by rail NE. of Sebastopol. From 16,000 
 in 1850 its pop. had by 1905 grown to near 50,000. 
 
 Simla, since 1864 the summer headquarters of 
 the British government in India, stands on the 
 southern slopes of the Himalayas, in a beautiful 
 situation, 170 miles N. of Delhi. Its first house 
 was built in 1819, and it was first visited officially 
 by the Indian government in 1827. There are two 
 viceregal residences (the newer one built in 1886), 
 handsome government buildings (1884), and a fine 
 town-hall (1886). Pop. 14,848 in winter, and 
 considerably more in summer. — The name Simla 
 Hill States is given to twenty- three small native 
 states (area, 6569 sq. m. ; pop. 502,853). 
 
 Simonoseki. See Shimonoseki. 
 
 Simon's Town (pop. 5000), on Simon's Bay. 
 See Cape Colony. 
 
 Simplon (Fr. pron. San^plon^ ; Ital. Sempione), 
 a Swiss mountain-pass (6594 feet high), in the 
 E. of the canton of Valais. The Simplon Road 
 (1800-06; cost, £720,000), one of tlie greatest 
 engineering achievements of modern times, leads 
 over a shoulder of the mountain from Brieg in 
 Valais to Domo d'Ossola (41 miles) in Piedmont. 
 It is caiTied across more than 600 bridges, over 
 numerous galleries cut out of the natural rock or 
 built of solid masonry, and through great tunnels. 
 Close to the highest point is the New Hospice 
 (opened in 1825), one of the twenty edifices on 
 this route for the shelter of travellers. In 1898- 
 1906 a new double tunnel (12J miles in length) 
 was constructed, its Swiss terminus at Brieg and 
 the Italian one at Iselle, costing £2,800,000. 
 
 Sinai (usu. Sl'nay ; properly See'ni), the sacred 
 mountain on which Moses received the tables of 
 the Ten Commandments, is an individual peak in 
 a vast rocky mass that almost fills the peninsula 
 of Sinai. This stern, treeless peninsula is situ- 
 ated on the north-west of Arabia, between the 
 Gulfs of Suez and Akaba, and shut in on the 
 north by the desert. In this mountain-mass 
 there are three separate mountains clearly dis- 
 tinguishable—Mount Serbal (6750 feet); Jebel 
 Katherin or Mount St Catherine (8540 feet), lying 
 south-east of Serbal ; and Umm Shomer (some 
 8000 feet). Jebel Katherin has two well-marked 
 peaks, a northern one called Horeb and a southern 
 called Jebel Musa (Mountain of Moses)— the latter 
 pointed out by tradition as the scene of the 
 Hebrew law-giving. At its foot, in a ravine, 
 stands the fortress-like monastery of St Catherine 
 (founded probably about 527 by the Emperor 
 Justinian). The Sinaitic peninsula and a strip of 
 the Red Sea shore beyond Akaba belong politi- 
 
SINALOA 
 
 659 
 
 SIOUX FALLS 
 
 oally to Egypt. See works by Hull (1885), Palmer 
 (1871), Stanley (1856), and Haynes (1894). 
 
 Slnalo'a, a Pacific state of Mexico, with an 
 area of 36,180 sq. m. and a pop. of 300,000. It 
 contains over 100 mining districts, chiefly pro- 
 ducing silver. The capital is Culiacan (q.v.) ; 100 
 miles NW. is the town of Sinaloa (pop. 2000). 
 
 Slnclalrtovm. See Kirkcaldy. 
 
 Slnd, or Sindh (also Sinde and Scinde), a 
 province of Bombay Presidency, bounded by 
 Beluchistan, the Punjab, Rajputana, the Indian 
 Ocean, and the Runn of Cutch. Area, 47,066 
 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 3,210,910. The sea-coast (150 
 miles) is low and flat, except the small portion 
 beyond Karachi (Kurrachee), and is studded 
 with mud-banks or sandhills. The province is 
 traversed from north to south by the Indus 
 (whence the name), and includes the whole of 
 its delta. Along the river is an alluvial tract 
 of great fertility, 2 to 12 miles wide, and mostly 
 artificially irrigated. The soil contains in the 
 north so much saltpetre, and in the south so 
 much salt, that after the year's crops have been 
 obtained these substances are extracted for home 
 consumption and export. Between the Indus 
 and its most easterly branch, the Nara, is an 
 alluvial ' doab,' which, from want of irrigation, 
 has become almost a desert. East of this is the 
 Thur, a desert of shifting sand. West of the 
 Indus the country is occupied by the desert of 
 Shikarpur on the north, a desert not of sand, 
 but of alluvial clay, the same as that of the 
 delta, which only requires irrigation to render 
 it fertile ; and in the south it is traversed by 
 the Hala Mountains. The climate is remarkably 
 sultry and dry. The population consists of the 
 native Sindis, with a large sprinkling of Beluchis 
 and Afghans ; the greater portion of them are 
 Sunnite Mohammedans, and almost all are wholly 
 engaged in agriculture. Trade is concentrated at 
 Kurrachee (q.v.), the capital. Raw cotton, wool, 
 and grain are the principal exports. Other 
 towns are Hyderabad (57,790), Shikarpur, Lark- 
 hana, and Sukkur. Sind has been a British prov- 
 ince since 1843. See five volumes by Sir R. 
 Burton (1851-77), and A. W. Hughe's Gazetteer of 
 Sind (1876). 
 
 Singanfoo', the capital of the Chinese province 
 of Shen-hsi, on a tributary of the Hoang-ho. 
 Pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 Singapore, a British dependency in Asia, the 
 most important of the Straits Settlements (q.v.), 
 consists of the island of Singapore (27 miles long, 
 14 broad ; area, 206 sq. m.), separated fi'om the 
 southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula by a 
 strait only half a mile wide at its narrowest, and 
 of a great immber of very small islands along its 
 shores. The surface is undulating, the highest 
 point reaching 520 feet only. The climate is hot 
 and moist, but tlie soil is not particularly fertile ; 
 nevertheless the island is perpetually clothed 
 with verdure, and yields good crops of coffee, 
 pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, aloes, and every kind of 
 fruit. This island was purchased in 1824 from 
 the sultan of Johore. Pop. of island (1881) 
 172,993 ; (1901) 228,555, consisting more largely 
 of Chinese than of Malays and Hindus. 
 
 The capital, Singapore (Sansk. Sinhapura, * Lion 
 City '), occupies a fine site on the SB. coast, little 
 more than 1" N. of the equator, on the Strait of 
 Singapore, the principal waterway for vessels 
 trading between eastern Asia and India and 
 Europe. This city was founded by Sir Stamford 
 Raffles in 1819 as an emporium for British trade in 
 the Bast Indies, and it has grown to be the most 
 
 important trading-place in the south-east of Asia. 
 Singapore is a picturesque, well-built town, with 
 fine public buildings. It possesses a governor's 
 residence, St Andrew's Protestant cathedi-al (1861- 
 70), a Roman Catholic cathedral, Mohammedan 
 mosques, Hindu temples, Chinese joss-houses, 
 Raffles' museum (1823), the supreme law-courts, 
 post-office (1883), hospitals, jail, barracks, and fine 
 botanical and zoological gardens. It is defended 
 by numerous batteries and forts, and is a naval 
 coaling station and depot. The docks, stores, 
 and dwelling-houses extend for 6 miles or more 
 along the sea-front. The harbour is spacious 
 and safe, and remarkably easy of access, with two 
 graving-docks and an admiralty dock. The im- 
 ports (£33,500,000) are mainly European manu- 
 factures, the exports (£22,500,000) tlie products 
 of the East. Pop. (1824) 10,603 ; (1850) 50,000 ; 
 (1901) 195,000. 
 
 Si-ngan-fu (also spelt Hsi-an-fu, Se-gan, &c.), 
 a very ancient and famous city of China, capital 
 of Shen-si, and in 1120 B.C. capital of the empire. 
 Standingnear tlieWei, an affluent of the Hoang-ho, 
 it has a large trade and nianyajitiquities, amongst 
 which are a stone with a Syriac inscription re- 
 cording the establishment of Christianity here in 
 the 7th century. Hither in 1900 the emperor 
 and court fled from Peking. 
 
 Singbhum, one of the four districts of the 
 division of Chota Nagpore (q.v.). 
 
 Sing Sing, since 1901 called Ossinino, in New 
 York, on the left bank of the Hudson (here 
 called Tappan Bay), 31 miles by rail N. of New 
 York City. It contains villas, boarding-schools, 
 and manufactories ; but it is best known through 
 its large state-prison (1825). The Croton Aque- 
 duct rests here on an arch of masonry with a 
 span of 88 feet. Pop. 7940. 
 
 Sinigaglla (Seenigal'ya ; anc. Sena-Gallia), a 
 seaport on the Adriatic coast of Italy, 16 miles 
 by rail NW. of Ancona. It was founded by the 
 Senonian Gauls, and colonised by the Romans 
 289 B.C. There are a cathedral (1787) and a ducal 
 palace. Pius IX. was a native. Pop. 9602. 
 
 Sinope (See-no'peh ; Turk. Simih), a town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, stands on a rock projecting into 
 the Black Sea, 220 miles W. by N. of Trebizond. 
 One of its two harbours is the best on the N. 
 coast of Asia Minor ; and it has ancient Byzantine 
 walls and a ruined castle. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Sion (See-on^' ; Ger. Sitten), capital of the Swiss 
 canton of Valais, in the valley of the Rhone, 16 
 miles NE. of Martigny by the Simplon Railway. 
 It has three ruined castles perched on the crags 
 above, and a 6th-century cathedral. Po^). 6447. 
 
 Sion House. See Isleworth. 
 
 Siout, or AsiooT (anc. Lycopolis), the chief 
 city of Upper Egypt, stands near the Nile's west 
 bank, 200 miles by rail south of Cairo. It has 
 several mosques, a government palace, and an 
 American mission school. Pop. 42,000. 
 
 Sioux City {Soo), capital of Woodbury county, 
 Iowa, on the east bank of the Missouri River 
 (here crossed by a bridge 2000 feet long), 128 
 miles (by rail) above Omaha and 512 W. by N. of 
 Cliicago. It has stockyards and packing-houses, 
 railway-shops, planing and spice mills, and manu- 
 factures of linseed-oil, vinegar, flour, doors, &c. 
 Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Sioux Falls (Soo), capital of Minnehaha county. 
 South Dakota, and the largest town in the statej 
 is on the Big Sioux River (which here falls 90 
 feet), 241 miles by rail SW. of St Paul. Its lead- 
 ing industry is the quarrying, shaping, and polish- 
 
SIPONTUM 
 
 653 
 
 SKYE 
 
 Ing of granite. Here are the state penitentiary 
 and school for deaf mutes, and four denoini- 
 national colleges. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Sipontum. See Manfredonia. 
 
 Sirajganj (Seerajgunj), a town in Pabna dis- 
 trict, Bengal, near the main branch of the Brah- 
 maputra, 150 miles NE, of Calcutta. Pop. 23,267. 
 
 Sir-daria. See Jaxartes. 
 
 Sirhind, the north-eastern part of the plain in 
 the Punjab, between the Jumna and the Sutlej, 
 watered by the Sirhind Canal (main branch 
 finished in 1882) and its branches. 
 
 Sir-i-kol, a great lake of the Pamir (q.v.). 
 
 Slr-1-pul (Seer-ee-pool'X a river and a city (75 
 miles NB. of Mahnana ; pop. 15,000) in Afghan 
 Turkestan. 
 
 Sis'tova, a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube's 
 S. bank, 35 miles above Rustchuk. Pop. 12,482. 
 
 Sitapur (Seetapoor), a town and cantonment in 
 Oudli, 52 miles NW. of Lucknow. Pop. 21,380. 
 
 Sitka, the capital of Alaska, is on the west 
 coast of Baranof Island, a deep harbour dotted 
 with islands in front, and snow-clad mountains 
 rising behind. Pop. 1400, of whom about 400 are 
 whites. 
 
 Sittlngbourne, a brick-making market-town of 
 Kent, on Milton Creek, 11 miles BSE. of Chat- 
 ham and 45 of London. In olden days it was a 
 great halting-place for Canterbury pilgrims and 
 for kings and others on their way to the Conti- 
 nent. Pop. 9100. 
 
 Slvas (Seevas ; anc. Sebastcia), a city of Asiatic 
 Turkey, on the Kizil Irmak (anc. Hulys), 170 miles 
 SW. of Trebizond. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Siwalik Hills. See Himalaya. 
 
 Siwash, or Putrid Sea. See Crimea. 
 
 Skagon (Skdh-gen, g hard), Cape, or The Skaw, 
 the most nortlieily poiut of Jutland, Denmark. 
 
 Skager-Rak, an arm of the North Sea, be- 
 tween Denmark and Norway. 
 
 Skagway, a port (settled in 1897) of southern 
 Alaska, at the moutli of a river falling into the 
 Lynn Canal. It is tlie terminus of the White 
 Pass and Yukon railway. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Skaptd. See Iceland. 
 
 Skegness, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, 
 22 miles NE. of Boston by rail. Pop. 2140. 
 
 Skelligs, three rocky islands on the south-west 
 coast of Ireland, 10 miles SW. of Valentia. On 
 one of the rocks is a lighthouse, and on Great 
 Skellig (710 feet high) a ruined monastery. 
 
 Skelmanthorpe, a town of Yorkshire, 6 miles 
 SE. of Hudderstield. Pop. 3332; 
 
 Skelmersdale, a town of Lancashire, 4^ miles 
 from Ormskirk. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Skel'morlie, a watering-place of N. Ayrshire, 
 on the Firth of Clyde, S. of Wemyss Bay, and 31 
 miles W. of Glasgow. Pop. 1100.' 
 
 Skelton, a town in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, 3 miles NE. of Guisborough. Pop. 13,240. 
 
 Skene, Loch. See Dumfriesshire. 
 
 Skerries, a name applied to various groups of 
 rocky islets round the British coasts, especially 
 one 2 miles off the NW. coast of Anglesey, with 
 a lighthouse. See also Pentland Firth. 
 
 Skerries, an Iri.sh seaport, 18 miles N. by E, 
 of Dublin. Pop. 1720. 
 
 Skerrjrvore', the chief rock of a reef which lies 
 10 miles SW. of Tyree and 24 W. of lona. This 
 reef, stretching 8 miles WSW., caused the loss of 
 
 one ship annually in 1804-44. In 1838-44 a light- 
 liouse, 138^ feet high, was built here. 
 
 Skibbereen', a market-town, 54 miles SW. of 
 Cork. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Skid'daw, a mountain (3054 feet) of Cumber- 
 land, flanking Bassenthwaite Water on the E., 5^ 
 miles NNW. of Derwentwater and Keswick, 
 
 Skien, a port of Norway, 62 miles SW. of Chria- 
 tiania, Ibsen's birthplace, with a brisk trade. It 
 was burnt down in 1886. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Skipton, a market-town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, in the broad and fertile valley of the 
 Aire, 26 miles NW. of Leeds. The capital of 
 Craven, it is a gray-looking place, with manu- 
 factures of cotton and woollen goods, and is an 
 important station on the Midland line. The 
 castle, once the chief seat of the Clitfords, is of 
 two periods, the reigns of Edward II, and Henry 
 VIII., and is partly a ruin, partly inhabited. 
 The church has some interesting monuments ; 
 and there are also a public hall (1861), a grammar- 
 school (1548 ; rebuilt 1876-77 at a cost of £12,000), 
 and a saline spring. Bolton Abbey (q.v.) is 6 
 miles distant. Pop. (1851) 4962 ; (1901) 11,986. 
 See Dawson's History of Skipton (1882). 
 
 Skowhe'gan, a town of Maine, capital of 
 Somerset county, on the Kennebec (which here 
 has a fall of 28 feet), 37 miles by rail NNE. of 
 Augusta. It manufactures flour, oil-cloth, axes, 
 paper, woollens, leather, &c. Pop. 5068. 
 
 Skye, an island of Inverness-shire, the second 
 largest of the Hebrides, is separated from the 
 mainland by Kyle Rhea, a channel J mile wide at . 
 the narrowest. Its length is 49 miles, its breadth 
 varies from 7 to 25 miles ; but on account of 
 inlets no point is above 4 miles from the sea. 
 Area, 643 sq, m. ; pop. (1841) 23,082 ; (1901) 
 13,883. Skye is for the most part mountainous 
 and moory, but it contains some arable and 
 pasture land, and one considerable plain, formerly 
 the bed of a lake, in Kilmuir parish. The 
 principal mountains are the serrated Coolin 
 (not CuchuUin) Hills, which stretch irregularly 
 north-eastward, terminating in the sharp peak of 
 Sgurr-nan-Gillean (3167 feet) above Sligachan. 
 Another peak, Sgurr Dearg, is actually higher 
 (3234 feet). The most famous scene in this region 
 is Coruisk (IJ x i mile), the ' stern, dread lake' 
 of Scott's Lord of the Isles. Glen Sligachan 
 ascends 5^ miles from the head of Loch Sliga- 
 chan. The fantastic Quiraing (1779 feet) and 
 the Storr (2360), in the north of the island, 
 are remarkable rocks, and at many points 
 along the coast are columnar basalt formations 
 and cliff's 1000 feet high, whose bases are fre- 
 quently worn into deep caves. One cave, near 
 Portree, afforded a refuge to Prince Charles 
 Edward ; another, on the west coast, was the 
 temporary prison of Lady Grange. The largest 
 arms of the sea are Lochs Bracadale, Dunvegan, 
 and Snizort, The coasts abound in flsh — herring, 
 salmon, cod, and ling, besides oysters. Salmon 
 and sea-trout are got in some of the streams, and 
 trout in most of the fresh-water loclis. Deer are 
 not numerous, nor grouse. West Highland cattle 
 are reared, but sheep-farming predominates, Tlie 
 rainfall averages 65 inches, but the climate is 
 mild and healthy. The inhabitants are for the 
 most part poor and ill-housed, but well-behaved 
 and intelligent. At one time they contributed 
 largely to the British army— not fewer than 10,000 
 privates during the long war with France. The 
 population is chiefly Celtic, with, however, a con- 
 siderable Norse admixture. Gaelic is gradually 
 giving place to English. The chief proprietor* 
 
SKYROS 
 
 654 
 
 SLUYS 
 
 are still, aa of old, Lord Macdonald, whose 
 beautiful seat is Armadale Castle in Sleat, and 
 MacLeod of MacLeod, in whose ancient castle of 
 Dunvegan, perched on a headland, Dr Johnson 
 'tasted lotus' (1773) and Scott slept in the 
 • Fairy Room ' (1814). The principal port of Skye 
 is Portree, a picturesquely situated village of 
 750 inhabitants, at whicli steamers call regularly. 
 Other villages are Broadford, Dunvegan, and 
 KyleakinC Hakon's strait '), the last on Kyleakin 
 strait, J mile broad, opposite the terminus of the 
 Dingwall and Skye Railway, as extended since 
 1895 from Strome Ferry. 'Talisker' whisky is 
 made at Carabost, at the head of Loch Bracadale. 
 The inhabitants are mostly adherents of the Free 
 Church. See Alex. Smith's Summer in Skye (1865), 
 and R. Buchanan's Hebrid Isles (1883). 
 
 Skyros, or Scyro, an island of the Grecian 
 Archipelago, the largest of the northern Sporades, 
 24 miles NE. of Eubcea. It is 17 miles long, and 
 79 sq. m. in area. The south is mountainous 
 and wooded ; the northern part, though hilly, 
 has fertile plains. The only town is Skyro, or 
 St George, on the east coast. Pop. 3550. 
 
 Slaithwaite, a Yorkshire market-town, 4 miles 
 WSW. of Huddersfield, with mineral baths and 
 cotton and woollen manufactures. Pop. 4770. 
 
 Slaney, a river of Leinster, flowing 60 miles 
 SW. and S. to Wexford Harbour. 
 
 Slateford, a village 2 miles SW. of Edinburgh. 
 Pop. 576. 
 
 Slatwoods. See Cowes. 
 
 Slave Coast, a division of the coast of Upper 
 Guinea, Africa, extending eastwards from tlie 
 Gold Coast (q.v.) as far as the river Benin, is 
 divided between Germany, Dahomey, France, and 
 Great Britain. The British portion is treated 
 under Lagos (q.v.), the German under Togo(q.v.), 
 and the P'rench under Senegambia (q.v.). 
 
 Slavonia. See Croatia. 
 
 Sleaford, a town of Lincolnshire, on the right 
 bank of the Slea, a branch of the Witham, 17 
 miles SSE. of Lincoln. It has a fine church 
 (1271), a grammar-school (1624), and a monu- 
 mental cross (1850). King John was struck with 
 his last illness (1216) in the old castle, now almost 
 wholly disappeared. Pop. 5750. 
 
 Sleswlck(Dani.sh Slesvig ; Ger. Schleswig) forms, 
 united with the former duchies of Holstein and 
 Lauenburg, a province of Prussia, just south 
 of Denmark. Area, 7273 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 
 1,387,968, nearly all Low Germans, except in 
 tlie north of Sleswick, where there are 140,000 
 Danes. Sleswick belongs to the alluvial penin- 
 sula of Jutland, its eastern lialf being an undu- 
 lating plain and its western a series of low-lying 
 but very fertile marsh-lands, protected from the 
 ocean by sea- banks. The eastern coast (230 miles) 
 is deeply indented by several long narrow arms 
 of the sea, some of which make excellent har- 
 bours, and alongside it lie the islands of Fehmern 
 and Alsen. The low western coast is protected 
 by a string of low islands and sandbanks from 
 the waves of the North Sea. The Elbe (on the S. 
 border) and the Eider are the great rivers ; and 
 the province is crossed by the Baltic Ship Canal 
 (in Holstein, 61 miles long), the Eider Canal, 
 Stecknitz Canal, &c. Nearly 87 per cent, of the 
 area is cultivated ; fishing is also carried on. 
 Flensburg is the chief seaport. 
 
 At the dawn of history Sleswick was inhabited 
 by the Cimbri, who were succeeded by the 
 Angles, Jutes, and Frisians ; but the greater 
 part of the Angles crossed over into England, 
 
 and their place was taken by the Danes. Suc- 
 cessively Danish and German, or sometimes in- 
 dependent, for more than a thousand years, Sles- 
 wick-Holstein was the scene of an unsuccessful 
 rebellion against Denmark in 1848-50, but in 1864 
 was wrested therefrom by Prussia and Austria. 
 The dissensions between these powers led to the 
 Austro-Prussian war of 1866, and to the ultimate 
 incorporation of the duchies witli Prussia. 
 
 Slieve-Donard. See Ireland, p. 362. 
 
 Sligo, a maritime county of Connaught, is 
 bounded by the Atlantic, tlie Bay of Donegal, 
 Leitrim, Rosconnnon, and Mayo. It is 41 miles 
 E. to W., and 38 N. to S. ; area, 442,205 acres. 
 Pop. (1841) 180,886; (1901)84,083, of whom 76,146 
 were Catholics. The coast-line is indented with 
 Killala Bay, Sligo Bay, &c. The surface rises 
 gradually from the coast as far as the Slieve 
 Gamph and the Ox Mountains (1778 feet). Sligo 
 contains some picturesque lakes. Iron is 
 abundant and copper occurs, but neither is 
 worked. The climate is moist, mild, and healthy. 
 The chief occupation is agriculture, especially 
 the feeding of cattle, nearly one-half of the total 
 area being under grass. Coarse woollens and 
 linens are manufactured ; and fishing is pro- 
 secuted. The county forms two parliamentary 
 divisions. The principal towns are Sligo, Ballina, 
 Ballymote, and Tobercurry. Sligo was anciently 
 the seat of the O'Connors. It contains a group 
 of cromlechs near Sligo, a round tower at Drum- 
 cliff, a ruined abbey at Ballysadare, besides raths, 
 cromlechs, and ancient caverns. 
 
 Sligo, the county town, stands at the mouth 
 of the Garvogue, 137 miles NW. of Dublin by rail. 
 Pop. (1861) 13,361 ; (1901) 10,870. Sligo had its 
 origin in a 13th-century Dominican abbey, now 
 in ruins ; it was walled and defended by a castle 
 (1242), of which no vestiges are left. There are a 
 Roman Catholic cathedral, a modern town-hall, a 
 lunatic asylum, &c. The harbour exports cattle, 
 corn, butter, and provisions. Sligo was disfran- 
 chised in 1870. See county histories by O'Rorke 
 (1889) and Wood-Martin (3 vols. 1890-93). 
 
 Slitrig. See Hawick. 
 
 Slivno, Sliven, or Selimnia, a town of East 
 Roumelia, at the base of the Balkans, 70 miles 
 N. by E. of Adrianople. Pop. 23,210. 
 
 Slonim, a town of Russia, 75 miles SB. of 
 Grodno. Pop. 22,275. 
 
 Sloperton Cottage, Wiltshire, 4 miles SE. of 
 Chippenham, the residence of Thomas Moore. 
 
 Slough {slow, oiu as in noiu), a town of Buck- 
 inghamshire, 18J jniles W. of London and 2^ 
 NNE. of Wind.sor. It has grown from a mere 
 village since the railway epoch, and is a well- 
 built place, the seat since 1863 of the British 
 Orphan Asylum •, but it will always be chiefly 
 remembered as the home of Sir William Herschel 
 from 1786 till his death, and thereafter till 1840 
 of his son. Sir John. Stoke Poges and the Burn- 
 ham Beeclies, both noticed separately, are near. 
 Pop. (1861) 3425; (1901) 11,461. See Pliipps's 
 History of Upton-cum-Chalvey (Slough, 1886), the 
 parish in which Slough is chiefly situated. 
 
 Slutsk, a town or large agricultural village of 
 Russia, 60 miles S. of Minsk. Pop. 19,208. 
 
 Sluys (Slois), a town of Holland, province Zea- 
 land, on a bay of the North Sea, 6 miles NE. of 
 Bruges ; in the middle ages a great seaport. It 
 is celebrated for the naval battle fought off" the 
 shore between the English and the French on 
 24th June 1340, in which Edward III. won a 
 complete victory. Pop. 2631. 
 
SMAILHOLM 
 
 655 
 
 SOFALA 
 
 Smallholm (SmaU'om), a Roxburghshire peel- 
 tower, 6 miles W. by N. of Kelso. Near it, at 
 Sandyknowe farm, Scott passed five years of 
 childhood. 
 
 Smalcald. See Schmalkalden. 
 
 Smeinogorsk. See Zmeinogorsk. 
 
 Smeru, or Semiru, the highest mountain of 
 Java, near the eastern end of tlie island. It is 
 12,240 feet high, and is an active volcano. 
 
 Smerwick, a peninsula and bay in County 
 Kerry, Ireland, wliere in 1579 600 Italian and 
 Spanish soldiers were put to the sword by Lord- 
 deputy Grey and young Walter Raleigh. 
 
 Smethwick, a western suburb of Birmingham. 
 
 Smithfield, a village (pop. 1230) of Virginia, 24 
 miles WNW. of Norfolk. St Luke's Episcopal 
 church (built in 1632 of imported brick) is the 
 oldest Protestant building in America. 
 
 Smith's Sound, one of the northern channels 
 which connect Baffin Bay with the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Smolensk', a town of Russia, is situated on 
 steep declivities overlooking the Dnieper, 244 
 miles by rail W. by S. of Moscow. It was a place 
 of note in the 9th century, is surrounded by 
 ruinous walls, has a cathedral of the 17th and 
 18th centuries, and was from the 14th century a 
 powerful fortress. Hei'e the Russians were re- 
 pulsed by Napoleon in 1812. Pop. 46,950. — Area 
 o( government, 21,632 sq. m. ; poi). 1,551,068. 
 
 Smyrna, the most important seaport of Asia 
 Minor, stands at the head of the Gulf of Smyrna, 
 which penetrates 46 miles inland from the jEgean 
 Sea. The city climbs up the slopes and nestles 
 at the foot of a steep hill at the SE. corner of the 
 gulf. The Prankish quarter, which faces the 
 quays (2 miles long) and harbour, is lighted both 
 with gas and the electric light. The drainage is 
 bad ; the climate uncertain, but intensely hot in 
 summer ; and there were great earthquakes in 
 178 A.D., 1688, 1768, and 1880. Traces of the 
 ancient walls, the stadium, theatre, and some 
 temples can still be discerned. Smyrna is the 
 seat of Roman Catholic, Greek, and Armenian 
 archbishops. Carpets are manufactured, as well 
 as pottery, cottons, and woollens. Two lines of 
 railway run 300 and 170 miles eastwards up the 
 Mseanderand Hermus valleys ; and iron-foundries 
 and machine-sliops have been established. About 
 700 B.C. Smyrna was one of the principal trading- 
 centres for Asia Minor ; and now it has as a sea- 
 port the lion's share of the Asia Minor trade with 
 Europe. The harbour is large, safe, and easily 
 accessible, but is in imminent danger of silting 
 up. The principal exports are raisins, valonia, 
 figs, and opium, besides barley, carpets, sponges, 
 liquorice, wool, olive-oil, tobacco, &c. The 
 imports are textiles, timber, and iron and hard- 
 ware, besides groceries, railway plant, leather, 
 butter, glass, i)etroleum, coal, cheese, matches, 
 paper, &c. Estimated i)opulation, 250,000, of 
 whom 130,000 are Greeks (more than the pop. of 
 Athens), 23,000 Jews, 12,000 Armenians, 12,700 
 Europeans, and the rest Turks. Smyrna was 
 originally a city of Greek JEoUc innnigrants, but 
 before 688 b.c. had become Ionian. It was finally 
 captured by the Turks under Murad II. in 1424. 
 See a work by Rougon (Paris, 1892). 
 
 Snaith, a town of Yorkshire, on the Aire, 7 
 miles W. by S. of Goole. Pop. 1647. 
 
 Snake River, the largest affluent of the 
 Columbia River, rises among the Rocky Moun- 
 tains near the western border of Wyoming, 
 sweeps through southern Idaho, forming here 
 the famous Shoshone Falls (q.v), and, turning 
 
 north, divides Idaho from Oregon and Washing- 
 ton. At Lewiston it turns westward, and in 
 southern Washington, as the Lewis River or 
 Fork, joins the Columbia, after a course of 1050 
 miles. It traverses a mountainous country, in 
 deep, lava-walled canons, and is navigable for 
 steamboats only to Lewiston (160 miles). 
 
 Sneek {Snayk), a town in the Netherlands, 13 
 miles SW. of Leeuwarden. Pop. 12,465. 
 
 Snehaetten. See Dovrefjeld. 
 
 Sniatyn, a town of Austrian Galicia, on the 
 Pruth, 25 miles NW. of Carlowitz. Pop. 10,832. 
 
 Snizort (Snee'zort), Loch, a large inlet in the 
 north-west of Skye, which narrows from 9 to 3J 
 miles, and is 8^ miles long. 
 
 Snowdon, a mountain-range in Carnarvonshire, 
 North Wales, stretches NNE. from a point 5 
 miles N. of Criccieth, near the head of Cardigan 
 Bay, to near Conway, but is broken up into five 
 distinct summits, the chief of which, Moel-y- 
 Wyddfa (' conspicuous peak '), the highest moun- 
 tain in south Britain, was shown by the new 
 Ordnance map of 1889 to rise only 3560 (not 
 3571) feet above sea-level, and is crowned by two 
 huts, the 'Hotel.' Its ascent is effected from 
 Llanberis (on the north), Beddgelert (on the 
 south), Snowdon Ranges station (on the west), 
 and Capel Curig (on the east). ' Snowdonia ' was 
 made a royal forest by Edward I. of England, 
 but was disafforested in 1649. In July 1889 
 Snowdon was purchased for £5750 by Sir Edward 
 Watkin, Bart. See Huson's Round ahout Snowdon 
 (1893). See also Stirling. 
 
 Soar, a midland river, flowing 40 miles to the 
 Trent, 12 miles SE. of Derby. 
 
 Sobat, a tributary of the Nile (q.v.). 
 
 Sobral, a town of Brazil, in the ijrovince of 
 Ceara, on the Aracaty, 78 miles by rail SSW. of 
 the seaport Camossin. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 Sobraon (Sobrah'on), a village of the Punjab, 
 on the Sutlej, opposite which was fought, on 
 10th February 1846, an obstinate battle between 
 the British under Sir Hugh Gough and the Siklis, 
 which put an end to the first Sikh war. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Society Islands. See Tahiti. 
 
 Soc'otra, an island in the Indian Ocean, 150 
 miles E. by N. from Cape Guardafui, and 220 
 from the southern coast of Arabia. It is 70 miles 
 long, 20 broad, and 1380 sq. ni. in area, with a 
 pop. of 10,000. The interior embraces numerous 
 barren plateaus (1500 to 2000 feet), with several 
 well-wooded mountains, rising to 4500 feet ; there 
 are fertile valleys between the ranges and belts 
 of rich soil along the coasts. The climate is 
 moist and warm, but healthy. Aloes and dragon's 
 blood are products. After being occupied by 
 Britain in 1835-39, it was taken under British 
 protection in 1876 and formally annexed in 1886. 
 The chief town is Tamarida on the north coast. 
 
 Sodbury. See Chipping Sodbury. 
 
 Sciderhamn, a Swedish seaport, on the Gulf of 
 Bothnia, 13 miles N. of Gefle. Pop> 11,500. 
 
 Sodom and Gomorrah, two ancient cities, 
 forming with Admah, Zeboiim, and other towns 
 the ' cities of the plain." See Dead Sea. 
 
 Sodor and Man. See Man. 
 
 Soest (nearly Sust), a town of Westphalia, 37 
 miles SE. of MUnster, was once a Hanse town, 
 with a pop. of 30,000 ; now it has only 17,500. 
 The Gothic ' Meadow Church ' was built in 1314 ; 
 and there is also a R. C. cathedral. 
 
 Sofala (Sofah'la), the name given to that portion 
 of the south-east coast of Africa which extends 
 
SOFIA 
 
 656 
 
 SOLWAY FIRTH 
 
 from the Zambesi as far south as Delagoa Bay. 
 Sofala was described by the old geographers as a 
 gold-producing country, the Ophir, perhaps, of 
 Solomon. Manicaland and Mashonaland (q.v.) 
 inland are certainly auriferous. The Portuguese 
 established themselves here in 1505. Their head- 
 quarters, Sofala, once a large commercial town, 
 is now a wretched place of 1000 inhabitants. 
 
 Sofia (Sofee'a), the capital since 1878 of Bul- 
 garia, stands in a broad valley of the Balkans, 
 on the railway from Constantinople to Belgrade 
 and Vienna. The city since 1891 has undergone 
 reconstruction, most of the crooked dirty streets, 
 with their tumble-down houses and ruinous 
 mosques, being demolished to make way for broad 
 tree-planted streets, with paved side-walks and 
 electric-light posts, new French-looking houses, 
 shops and hotels, and large public buildings 
 (baths, national library, banks, post-office, &c.). 
 For centuries the place has been renowned for 
 its hot mineral springs (117° F.). Sofia is the 
 seat of a Greek metropolitan, and of the national 
 university. It trades in hides, spirits, maizQ, 
 and wheat. Pop. (1870) 19,000; (1900) 67,920. 
 Sofia is the Serdica of the Eomans, and was the 
 seat of a famous church council in 343. Attila 
 plundered it ; and it was captured by the Turks 
 in 1382. 
 
 Sogdiana, anciently a province of Persia, corre- 
 sponded to the modern territories of Samarcand 
 and Bokhara and the valley of the Zerafshan. 
 Sognefjord. See Norway. 
 Soham, a small market-town of Cambridge- 
 shire, with a fine church, 5 miles SE. of Ely. 
 Pop. of parish, 4000. 
 
 Sohar, a seaport of Oman in Arabia, stands on 
 
 the Gulf of Oman, 130 miles NW. of Muscat. The 
 
 Portuguese occupied it in 1508-1650. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Soignies (Swan-yee'), a Belgian town. 22 miles 
 
 by rail S. by W. of Brussels. Pop. 9683. 
 
 Soissons (Siuasson^), a fortified town of France, 
 dep. Aisne, on the river Aisne, 65 miles NE. of 
 Paris by rail, the key of Paris for an army 
 invading France from the Netherlands. The 
 cathedral dates from the 12th century ; and there 
 are remains of the great castellated abbey (1076), 
 where Becket found refuge. Near Soissons is a 
 deaf-mute institute, on the site of the famous 
 abbey (560) of St Medard. Pop. 11,352. Augusta 
 Suessionum was long the most important Roman 
 town in northern Gaul. Near it Clovis over- 
 threw Syagrius, the Roman commander, in 486. 
 The same prince made Soissons the seat of the 
 Frankish monarchy of Neustria. It has been 
 repeatedly captured— e.g. six times during the 
 Hundred Years' War, by the Armagnac party in 
 1414, by Charles V. (1544), the Huguenots (1565), 
 three times in 1814, and by the Germans in 1870. 
 Sok'oto, a Central African state, bounded by 
 the Sahara, the rivers Niger and the Benuwe, and 
 Bornu. Since 1900 Sokoto has been included 
 in the northern part of tlie British protectorate 
 of Nigeria; the area is about 200,000 sq. m., and 
 the pop. some 11,000,000. Tliere are large deposits 
 of good liroii. Tlie ruling race are the Moham- 
 medan Fulahs, whose subjects are Haussa and 
 various Negro tribes, mainly pagans. In 1885 
 the sultan of Sokoto granted to the (British) 
 Royal Niger Company a monopoly of the trade. 
 — Tlie town of Sokoto was the old historic capital ; 
 Kano is the trading centre. See the travels of 
 Barth (1853), Rohlfs (1866), Flegel (1880), and J. 
 Thomson (1885), and books on Nigeria by Robin- 
 son (1900) and Lady Lugard (1905). 
 
 Solebay. See Southwold. 
 
 Solent, the western portion of the strait that 
 intervenes between the Isle of Wight and the 
 mainland of England. It is 17 miles long, and 
 about 3 in average breadth, but contracts to | 
 mile at Hurst Castle (1535), built by Henry 
 YIII. ; and here the tide flows very rapidly. 
 
 Solesmes, (1) a great Benedictine abbey (12th 
 century), in the French dep. of Sarthe, 32 miles 
 SW. of Le Mons ; (2) a town in the dep. of Nord, 
 with manufactures of sugar. Pop. 5973. 
 
 Soleure (Solehr ; Ger. Solothurn), a Swiss can- 
 ton, bounded W. and S. by Bern, and N. and E. 
 by Basel and Aargau. Area, 306 -sq. m. ; the popu- 
 lation, 101,000 in number, mostly Catholic and 
 German-speaking. — The capital, Soleure, lies on 
 the Aar, 18 miles NNE. of Bern by rail. The 
 cathedral of St Ursus was built in 1762-63 on the 
 site of an older cliurch (1050); and there are 
 an old clock tower, an arsenal, &c. Cottons, 
 clocks, and cement are manufactured. Pop. 
 10,050. Soleure {Salod%i,rum) was a place of con- 
 sequence in Roman times. Close by are the baths 
 of Weissenstein, with a celebrated ' wliey-cure.' 
 
 Solferi'no (i as ee), a village (pop. 1284) of N. 
 Italy, 19 miles NW. of Mantua, stands on a hill, 
 whence the whole plain of Lombardy may be seen. 
 Here, on June 24, 1859, tlie Austrians were de- 
 feated by the allied French and Piedmontese. 
 
 Solingen (Zo'ling-en), a town of Prussia, 13 
 miles E. of Diisseldorf and not far from the river 
 Wupper. Ever since the 12th or 13th c, it has 
 been famous for its steel and iron ware— sword- 
 blades, helmets, cuirasses, knives, surgical instru- 
 ments, &c. It has also iron-foundries, cigar- 
 factories, &c. Pop. (1875) 14,040 ; (1900) 45,260. 
 
 Solofra, a city of Southern Italy, 31 miles by 
 rail E. of Naples. Pop. 5178. 
 
 Solomon Islands, an archipelago in the western 
 Pacific, since 1899 all British except Bougain- 
 ville and a few smaller islands, which are 
 German. The islands lie 500 miles E. of New 
 Guinea, and stretch 600 miles SE. in two parallel 
 chains. The north-eastern chain embraces Bou- 
 gainville, Choiseul, Ysabel, and Malaita ; the 
 south-western Vella Lavella, Kulambangra, New 
 Georgia, Guadalcanar, and San Cristoval. Besides 
 these, which are 70 to 110 miles long, and 20 to 
 30 wide, there are many smaller ones. They have 
 a total area of 15,000 sq. in. (of which 8357 sq. m. 
 are British), are nearly all volcanic, and are densely 
 wooded to the highest summits (10,000 feet in 
 Bougainville, 8000 in Guadalcanar, 4100 in San 
 Cristoval). There is an extraordinarily heavy 
 annual rainfall, estimated at 500 inches on the 
 mountains, and 150 on the coasts. The tempera- 
 ture ranges from 75° to 95° F. The people, 176,000 
 Papuans or Melanesians, are divided into a great 
 number of tribes, constantly at war with one 
 anotlier, but their head-hunting and other sav- 
 age and cannibal habits are now on the wane. 
 This group was discovered by the Spaniard Men- 
 dana in 1567 ; but was rediscovered (1767-88) by 
 Carteret, Bougainville. Surville, and Shortland. 
 See worlcs by Guppy (2 vols. 1887) and Wood- 
 ford (1890). 
 
 Solor Islands. See Timor. 
 
 Solothurn. See Soleure. 
 
 Solovetsk, a great monastery on an island of 
 the White Sea, bombarded by the British in 1854. 
 
 Solway Firth— in its upper part best regarded 
 as the estuary of the river Esk, in its lower as an 
 inlet of the Irish Sea— separates Cumberland from 
 the south of Scotland. Its entire length, until 
 
SOMALI-LAND 
 
 657 
 
 SOMERVILLE 
 
 lost off Balcarry Point in the Irish Sea, is 36 
 miles ; its breadlh for the upper 13 varies from 
 li to 8^ miles, but afterwards it gradually, al- 
 though irregularly, increases to 22. The princi- 
 pal rivers Mowing into it, besides the Esk, are 
 the Annan, Nith, Dee, and Urr from the Scottish 
 side, and tlie Eden and Derwent from the English. 
 Its most striking feature is the 'bore,' which in 
 spring-tides rushes in from 3 to 6 feet high, and 
 at the rate of 8 to 10 miles an hour, occasionally 
 inflicting serious damage on the shipping ; while 
 after it has retreated great stretches of the bed of 
 the firth are left bare, and in some places one can 
 even cross over from the English to the Scottish 
 shore. The salmon-fisheries are valuable. Near 
 Annan the Solway is spanned by a railway via- 
 duct, 1960 yards long, which, originally con- 
 structed in 1866-69 at a cost of £100,000, was 
 almost destroyed by floating ice in January 1881, 
 but was reopened to traific in 1884. Scott paints 
 the scenery of the Solway Firth in both Guy 
 Mannering and RedgauntleL 
 
 The Solway Moss is a district of Cumberland 
 about 7 miles in circumference, lying west of 
 Longtown, and immediately adjoining Scotland. 
 As its name implies, it was once a bog, but is 
 now drained and cultivated. Here, in November 
 1542, a Scottish host was routed by a handful of 
 English borderers. In 1771 the boggy ground, 
 swelling after heavy rains, burst like a torrent 
 and destroyed some thirty small villages. 
 
 Somali-land (Somdh-lee), an eastern projection 
 of Africa, between the Gulf of Aden and the 
 Indian Ocean. The Juba, its southern frontier, 
 is the chief river. The country is an undulating 
 plateau, in very many places parched and barren ; 
 though in the rainy seasons swampy in parts. 
 Game and wild animals— elephant, hippopotamus, 
 lion, leopard, crocodile, antelopes—abound. The 
 Somal are mostly a warlike and pastoral people 
 of the Hamitic stock, akin to the Gallas (but 
 with Arab and Negro admixture), and Moslems. 
 The western and central portions belong to 
 Abyssinia ; the remainder falls into three sec- 
 tions : British Somali-land, with a coast-line of 
 about 450 miles on the Gulf of Aden, extending 
 south to lat. 8° N., has an area of 68,000 sq. m. 
 and a pop. of 300,000. It was created a British 
 protectorate in 1884 ; the chief towns are Ber- 
 bera, Zeyla, and Bulbar. The French Somali 
 Coast protectorate, including Obock, situated 
 round the Bay of Tajnra, has an area of 46,000 
 sq. m. and a pop. of 200,000. Its railway from 
 Jiboutil to Harar (1902) has absorbed much of 
 the traffic that used to penetrate from Aden into 
 the interior by way of Zeyla. Italian Somali- 
 land, on the coast of the Indian Ocean, extends 
 from Cape Gnardafui to the equator, with an 
 area of 100,000 sq. m. and a population ot 
 400,000. See works by James (1888), and Lord 
 Wolverton (1894). 
 
 Somersby, a pretty Lincolnshire village, on 
 the Wolds, 7 miles E. by N. of Horncastle. 
 Tennyson was born in the rectory. Pop. 40. 
 
 Somersetshire, an important maritime county 
 in the south-west of England, is bounded NW. 
 by the Bristol Channel, and elsewhere by Glou- 
 cestershire, Wiltshire, Dorset, and Devon. In 
 form oblong, with a length of some 80 miles and 
 a breadth of 36, it has an area of 1640 sq. m 
 Pop. (1801) 273,577; (1841) 435,599; (1901) 
 508,104. Tlie surface is exceedingly diversified 
 with every variation from lofty hills and barren 
 moors to rich vales and wide marshy levels, 
 whence the sea is banked out by an elaborate 
 
 system of dykes and sluices. Ranges of hills, 
 running east and west, give the county its leading 
 physical characters. Chief of these is the Mendips 
 (q.v.), which stretch from near Wells to the coast 
 at Brean Down. South of the Mendips lies the 
 great alluvial plain of central Somerset, broken 
 by the line of the Polden Hills, which rise some 
 300 feet from the marshy levels like a long, low 
 island. Still farther south, beyond Taunton, are 
 the Blackdown Hills, about twice as high, and 
 continuing eastward into the broken upland which 
 once formed part of the ancient forest of Selwood, 
 where Somerset, Wilts, and Dorset meet. NW. 
 of Taunton, bordering Bridgwater Bay, are the 
 Quantock Hills, rising at Will's Neck to 1262 
 feet; and W., again, is the wild district of Ex- 
 moor Forest (q.v.), partly in Devon, but mainly 
 in Somerset. The Bristol Avon, which forms the 
 boundary of the county for many miles, rises 
 near Badminton in Wilts, and enters Somerset 
 near Bath. The Parret rises near South Perrot 
 in Dorset, and drains the middle of the county : 
 it is tidal to beyond Bridgwater, and is one of 
 the streams possessing a tidal ' bore.' Other 
 streams are the Axe, Brue, Yeo, Exe, and Devon- 
 shire Axe. Coal, limestone, and Bath building- 
 stone are worked, as well as lead and iron ores. 
 The agriculture is mainly pastoral, the proportion 
 of tillage to grazing and dairy-farming being 
 small, though the low lands generally are exceed- 
 ingly fertile. The orchards of Somerset are 
 second only to those of Devon in area and im- 
 portance, and cider is largely made ; while 
 Cheddar cheese has a national reputation. The 
 bone-caves of the Mendips show traces of neo- 
 lithic if not of palfeolithic man ; and there 
 are important hill fortresses (Hamdon Castle, 
 Neroche, Dolbury, Maesbury, Worlebury, Cad- 
 bury), and megalithic circles and other remains 
 at Stanton Drew. Roman remains are plentiful, 
 and under the Saxons the district became known 
 as the home of the Sumerssetan, and took its 
 present name. Somerset was the last home of 
 Saxon freedom when Alfred took refuge at 
 Athelney. At Wedmore he made his treaty with 
 Guthrum, but the claims of Edington to be the 
 ./Ethandune where he won his most memorable 
 victory are doubtful. In the Wars of the Roses, 
 Somerset was in the main Lancastrian ; in the 
 wars of the Connnonwealth it was chiefly parlia- 
 mentarian, and the stout defence of Taunton first 
 made famous the name of Admiral Blake. The 
 county was also the centre of Monmouth's opera- 
 tions ; and it was chiefly Somerset men who fell 
 at Sedgemoor (1685). The county has two cities- 
 Bath and Wells ; parliamentary boroughs in Bath 
 and Taunton ; an important manufacturing port 
 in Bridgwater ; one of the finest watering-places 
 on the western coast in Weston-super-Mare; 
 manufacturing towns in Frome, Yeovil, Shepton 
 Mallet, and Wellington ; and seven county parlia- 
 mentary divisions. See Worth's Somersetshire 
 (3d ed. 1888), and other works there cited. 
 
 Somersham, a market-town of Hunts, 5* miles 
 NNE. of St Ives. Pop. 1381. 
 
 Somers' Islands. See Bermudas. 
 
 Somersworth, a town of New Hampshire, 48 
 miles SW. of Portland. Pop. 7050. 
 
 Somerton, a town of Somerset, on the Cary, 5 
 miles ENB. of Langport. Pop. of parish, 1962. 
 
 Somerville, a city of Massachusetts, a suburb 
 of Boston, 2 miles from the central station. It 
 contains tube-works, bleach-fields, slaughter- 
 houses, &c. Pop. (1880) 24,933 ; (1900) 61,643. 
 
SOMME 
 
 658 
 
 SOUDAN 
 
 Somme, a river of northern France, rises not 
 far from St Quentin in the dep. of Aisne, and 
 flows 150 miles SW. and NW. to the English 
 Channel near St Valery. It is navigable for 
 vessels of 300 tons up to Abbeville (q.v.), and its 
 upper course is canalised. — The dep. of Somme, 
 formerly part of Picardy, touches the English 
 Channel on the north-west. Area, 2378 sq. m. 
 There are the five arrondissements of Abbeville, 
 Amiens (the capital), DouUens, Montdidier, and 
 Peronne. Pop. (1872) 557,015 ; (1901) 537,848. 
 
 Somnath (Somnaut), a town of Gujarat, India, on 
 the SW. coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar, con- 
 taining many ruins and memorials of Krishna. 
 From the Hindu temple of the idol Somnath, now 
 in ruins, Mahmud of Ghazni (1025) is said to have 
 carried off the wonderful temple gates, which, or 
 some other gates, Lord Ellenborough triumph- 
 antly brought back from Afghanistan in 1842, and 
 deposited in a lumber-room at Agra. Pop. 6644. 
 
 Son, an aflluent of the middle Ganges on the 
 right, flowing 450 miles from Central India. 
 
 Sonderburg. See Alsen. 
 
 Sondershausen {Zon'ders-hovfzen), the chief 
 town of the German principality of Schwarzburg- 
 Sondershausen (q.v.), on the Wipper, 34 miles N. 
 of Erfurt. It has a large castle. Pop. 7200. 
 
 Sondrio, an Italian town, on the Adda, 25 
 miles E. of Lake Como. Pop. 3989. 
 
 Songhay, or Sonrhai, a former kingdom of 
 Africa, on both sides of the Niger below its great 
 bend. The capital was Garo. 
 
 Song-ka, the chief river of Tong-king (q.v.). 
 
 SonmUni (Sonmiah'nee), a port of Beluchistan, 
 82 miles NW. of Kurrachee. Pop. 400. 
 
 Sonnblick, a summit (10,277 feet) of the Salz- 
 burg Mountains, with a meteorological observa- 
 tory and a shelter built in 1886. 
 
 Sonoma, a chief seat of the Californian wine- 
 culture, 50 miles N. of San Francisco. 
 . Sono'ra, a state of NW. Mexico, on the Gulf 
 of California. Area, 77,526 sq. m. ; population, 
 230,000. Capital, Herniosillo ; port, Giiaymas. 
 
 Sonsonate (Sonsonah'tay), a town of Salvador, 
 on the Rio Grande, 15 miles by rail N. of Aca- 
 jutla. It was founded in 1524. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Sooclioo, or SucHAU, formerly one of the 
 largest cities in China, on the Imperial Canal, 50 
 miles WNW. of Shanghai. It stands on numerous 
 islands separated by canals, and has long been a 
 noted centre of the silk manufacture and of the 
 printing of cheap Chinese classics. Captured by 
 the Taipings, but recovered by Gordon (1863), it 
 is now a treaty port. Pop. 500,000. 
 
 Sooloo Islands. See Sulu Islands. 
 
 Sora, a city of Italy, on the Garigliano, 55 
 miles E. by S. of Rome. Pop. 5411. 
 
 Sorata (Sordh'ta), a volcanic peak (21,470 feet) 
 of the Bolivian Andes, E. of Lake Titicaca. 
 
 Sorau (Zo-row), a town of Prussia, 60 miles by 
 rail SSE. of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Pop. 15,950. 
 
 Sorel, a town of Quebec, on the St Lawrence, 
 at the mouth of the Richelieu River, 45 miles 
 (by rail 78) NE. of Montreal. It manufactures 
 machinery, leather, and bricks. Pop. 7060. 
 
 Soresi'na (i as ee), a town of Northern Italy, 16 
 miles by rail NW. of Cremona. Pop. 8765. 
 
 Sorrento (Lat. Surrentum), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, on the SB. side of the Bay of Naples, 7 
 miles SW. of Castellamare. It is celebrated for 
 its mild climate. Tasso was a native, fop. 6089. 
 
 Sottoville-les-Rouen {Sot'veel-leh-Roo-on"), a 
 town of France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 4 miles by 
 rail S. of Rouen. Pop. 13,628. 
 
 Soudan, or Sudan (Soo-danf ; Arabic Beled es- 
 Sudan, ' Land of the Blacks '), a term, which in 
 its widest sense embraces the vast region stretch- 
 ing from the Atlantic to the Red Sea and the 
 Abyssinian highlands, and from the Sahara and 
 Egypt proper in the north to the Gulf of Guinea, 
 the central equatorial regions, and the Albert 
 and Victoria Nyanzas in the south. This is the 
 home of the true Negro race, though there are 
 other elements in the population, mainly Hamitic 
 and Semitic (Arab). The Soudan in this sense 
 falls naturally into three divisions : (1) Western 
 Soudcm, comprising the basins of the Senegal, 
 Niger, Benue, and other rivers draining to the 
 Atlantic ; (2) Central Soudan, including the 
 basins of the rivers draining into Lake Chad, 
 and covering the countries of Bornu, Bagirmi, 
 Kanem, Wadai ; (3) Eastern or Egyptian Soudan, 
 mainly the basin of the Middle and Upper Nile. 
 Except Portuguese Guinea and German Togo 
 and Kamerun, the whole Soudan is now under 
 French or English control. Tlie western portion 
 of what was once called French Soudan has been 
 absorbed by Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory 
 Coast, and Dahomey; the remainder, constitut- 
 ing three military territories, includes Bagirmi 
 and Wadai. Britain controls Gambia, Sierra 
 Leone, tlie Gold Coast, and Nigeria ; Britain and 
 Egypt, the Egyptian Soudan, which has of late 
 largely jnonopolised the name of Soudan. Until 
 1882 the Egyptian Soudan formed one ill-organised 
 province, with its capital at Khartoum. All the 
 regions watered by tlie Nile and its tributaries 
 possess highly fertile soil, capable of yielding 
 immense quantities of cotton, durra, indigo, 
 sugar, rice, maize, tobacco, fruits ; while Kor- 
 dolan and Dar-Fur are bare and waterless, except 
 in tlie rainy season. The Egyptians, established 
 at Khartoum in 1819, gradually extended their 
 power W. and S. Insurrections in Dar-F(ir and 
 in the Bahr-el-Gliazal province (1877-79) were 
 crushed by Gordon and Gessi. But in 1882 the 
 Mahdi anniliilated the Egyptian forces led by 
 Hicks Paslia, isolated Eniin Pasha in the Equa- 
 torial Province, captured Khartoum, and slew 
 Gordon. In 1898 Kitchener re-conquered the 
 Soudan, totally defeating the Khalifa's forces at 
 Omdurman ; and since 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian 
 Soudan extends southwards from tlie frontier of 
 Egypt to Uganda and tlie Belgian Congo, a 
 distance of about 1200 miles, with an area of 
 about 950,000 sq. m. and a pop. estimated at 
 2,000,000. The chief towns are Kliartoum (8000), 
 the capital, Omdurman (48,000), Haifa, Merowe, 
 Berber, El Darner, Suakin, Kassala, and El 
 Obeid. It is divided into twelve provinces, each 
 with a British officer as governor— Khartoum, 
 Blue Nile, Dongola, Berber, Kassala, Sennaar, 
 Kordofan, White Nile, Bahr-el-Ghazal, Haifa, 
 Suakin, and Upper Nile. Dar-Fvir pays tribute, 
 but is managed by its own sultan. Khartoum 
 has railway and telegraph to Cairo, and by Atbara 
 junction, near Berber (whicli is the seat of the 
 Goidon College for the education of natives), to 
 the Red Sea (1906). Prosperity has been steadily 
 advanced, and irrigation promises great results 
 for a large area. 
 
 See works by Schweinfurth (1874), Nachtigal 
 (1879-89), James (1884), Felkin and Wilson (1881), 
 Junker (1890-91), Wingate (1891), H. Russell 
 (1892), Ohrwalder (1893), Robinson (1896), Sidney 
 Peel (1904), and Lady Lugard (1905), and thQ 
 articles on the chief Soudanese states. 
 
SOUL 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 Saul. See Seoul. 
 
 Soulouque. See Haytx, 
 
 Sound (A.S. and Ger. Sund), the strait which 
 leads from the Cattegat into the Baltic Sea, hav- 
 ing Sweden on the east and the Danish island of 
 Zealand on the west. It forms the usual passage 
 to the Baltic, and is 50 miles long and nearly 3 
 wide at the narrowest, between Helsingborg and 
 Elsinore. Its passage, defended by the strong 
 Danish fortress of Kronborg, was forced by 
 Nelson in 1801. From the 15th -c. till 1857 ships 
 using this channel were charged toll. 
 
 South Africa. See Cape Colony. 
 
 Southam, a Warwickshire town, 7^ miles ESE. 
 of Leamington. Pop. 1840. 
 
 South America. See America. 
 
 Southamp'ton, a municipal, parliamentary, 
 and county borough and seaport in the south of 
 Hampshire (which is sometimes called South- 
 amptonshire), 12i miles SSW. of Winchester, 
 23i NW. of Portsmouth, and 79 SW. of London 
 by the London and South-western Railway 
 (1840). It occupies a peninsula at the head of 
 Southampton Water, and between the estuary 
 of the Test on the west and south and the 
 mouth of the Itchen on the east. There are 
 remains of the 14th-century town-walls, and 
 four out of seven gates, the Norman Bargate 
 being much the finest, though shorn of its effigies 
 of Sir Bevis of Hampton and the giant Ascapard. 
 Southampton has the Watts Memorial Hall 
 (1876), a grammar-school (1553 ; rebuilt and re- 
 organised 1872-75), the Hartley Institution 
 (18G2), and the headquarters of the Ordnance 
 Survey (1857). St Mary's Church (1879), by 
 Street, is a memorial to Bishop Wilberforce. St 
 Michael's Church, the oldest in the borough, 
 retains Norman tower arches, and several of the 
 private houses are of Norman architecture. The 
 Domus Dei, or God's House (12th c), is one of the 
 earliest hospitals in England ; in its chapel (now 
 used for French service) are buried the Earl of 
 Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir Thomas Grey, 
 executed by Henry V. for treason in 1415. The 
 docks, first opened in 1842, can float the largest 
 steamers, and have been greatly extended and 
 improved. A new tidal dock, 18 acres in extent, 
 and having a minimum depth of 26 feet at low- 
 water spring-tides, was opened by Queen Victoria 
 on 26th July 1890 ; its cost was £300,000. South- 
 ampton is the place of departure and arrival of 
 the West India and Brazil and the South African 
 mail steam-packets. There is considerable traffic 
 with the Channel Islands and French coast, and 
 also a large cattle-trade with Spain and Portugal. 
 Yacht and shipbuilding and engine-making are 
 actively carried on. Incorporated as a borough 
 by Henry I. , Southampton returns two members. 
 Pop. (1801) 7913 ; (1851) 45,305 ; (1881) 60,051 ; 
 (1901) 104,911. Southampton supplanted the 
 Roman station of Clausentum, 1 mile NE., and 
 its foundation is ascribed to the Anglo-Saxons. 
 It is called Hamtune and Suth-Hamtun in the 
 Saxon Chronicle, and Hantune in the Domesday 
 Book. A great part of it was burned by the 
 combined French, Spanish, and Genoese fleets 
 in 1338, and in the following year its defences 
 were strengthened. Southampton is the birth- 
 place of Isaac Watts (to wliom in 1861 a monu- 
 ment was erected in the West Park), of Thomas 
 Dibdin, and of Sir J. E. Millais. 
 
 Southampton Water is a fine inlet, stretch- 
 ing 11 miles NW. from the point at which the 
 Solent and Spithead unite, and nearly 2 miles 
 Wide. The Isle of Wight forms a raagniflceut 
 
 natural breakwater, and occasions a second high- 
 water two hours after the first. Southampton 
 Water receives the Test or Anton, Itchen, and 
 Hamble. See works by J. Silvester Davies (1883) 
 and F. M'Fadden (1891). 
 
 South Australia, inclusive of its Northern 
 Territory, crosses the continent between 129° and 
 141° E., being 1850 miles in length. The present 
 area is 903,690 sq. m. (of which the Northern 
 Territory contains 523,620), or more than fifteen 
 times the size of England and Wales. Less 
 barren than Western Australia, it has not the 
 fertility of the eastern colonies, from want of 
 sufficient rain. Two dry peninsulas, Yorke and 
 Lincoln, or Eyria, point southward, enclosing 
 two great inlets— Spencer's Gulf and Gulf St 
 Vincent. A chain of mountains runs from the 
 south-east up to the Lake District depression ; 
 ranges, with outliers, are seen right across to, 
 and through, the Northern Territory ; but few 
 points rise to 3000 feet. The Murray River 
 has its mouth in South Australia. The Torrens 
 and a few other short streams reach the sea. 
 The Macarthur, Roper, Victoria, and Liverpool 
 enter the Indian Ocean. Salt lakes, as Torrens, 
 Gairdner, and Eyre, are inland ; Victoria, Albert, 
 and the Coorong are near the Murray outlet. 
 Adelaide, the capital, is in 34° S. lat. The 
 area of settlement is mainly in the south-east 
 corner of the colony. In 1835 a grant of land 
 was made to the South Australian Association ; 
 the first party landed on Kangaroo Island in 
 July 1836 ; and in 1841 South Australia became 
 a Crown colony. Progress was established by 
 the Burra Burra copper-mine in 1845, and the 
 cultivation of large areas of corn. South 
 Australia is geologically more recent than East- 
 ern or Western Australia. Near the Victorian 
 border lies the charming and productive Mount 
 Gambler district, with its extinct craters, sub- 
 terranean rivers, native wells, stalactitic caverns, 
 and luxuriant vegetation. Generally speaking, 
 the climate is both dry and warm, and varies 
 less over its vast area than might have been 
 expected. Travellers in the central desert com- 
 plain of piercing cold, even to ice formation, in 
 the early hours, though followed after sunrise by 
 a temperature of from 80° to 100° in the shade ; 
 175° in the sun and 135° in the shade have been 
 recorded. Adelaide itself, in 34° S., has known 
 120° in the shade ; its winter is superior to the 
 Riviera or Algiers in uniform mildness and 
 absence of frost. The north hot wind is trying 
 to the weak. During the short rainy season the 
 northern shore may have three to four times the 
 rainfall experienced in Adelaide. The Great 
 Austral Plains know but few and slight showers, 
 with excessive evaporation. Yet, though the 
 grass fails under the dryness, abundant shrubs 
 give sustenance to live-stock, and artesian wells 
 can draw a constant supply from subterranean 
 streams. Droughts are often produced by the 
 failure of the monsoon to come far enough south. 
 Many consumptives have gained strength in 
 South Australia. Marsupial animals predomi- 
 nate ; birds are numerous, and so are insects, 
 with 42 genera of fish. The mulberry is culti- 
 vated for silkworms. In spite of frequent 
 droughts, bread-stuff's head the export list. 
 Potatoes are raised in the moister south-eastern 
 quarter, and vines are successful. In favour- 
 able seasons the drier interior can furnish good 
 wheat. The railways are 1880 miles long, and 
 good roads nearly 5000. The Northern Terri- 
 tory, being mostly tropical, could, with coloured 
 labour, produce rice, spice, and sugar. Olives and 
 
SOUTH BEND 
 
 660 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA 
 
 fruits are raised in abundance, and Adelaide now 
 ships apples (as well as raisins and currants) to 
 London. The first lead-mine was opened in 1841 ; 
 the first copper in 1843 ; the first gold in 1846. 
 Tin, bismuth, and precious stones have been 
 obtained. The best gold workings are in the 
 Northern Territory. The Barrier silver-mines are 
 just over the New South Wales border. There 
 are no coal beds. In 1855 the pop. was 163,452 ; 
 In 1881, 279,865; in 1901, 362,604 (4096 in the 
 Northern Territory), including 3890 aborigines 
 and 2570 Chinese. State education is free. Tlie 
 university was established in 1872. The governor 
 is appointed by the crown. The Legislature 
 consists of a Legislative Council (18) and a House 
 of Assembly (42), the former elected on a property 
 qualification, the latter on adult suff"rage, both 
 including>vomen. In 1901 South Australia joined 
 with the other Australian colonies in forming tlie 
 Australian Commonwealth, and sends G members 
 to the Federal Senate and 7 to the House of 
 Representatives. Tlie revenue, about £2,500,000, 
 has generally more than covered the expendi- 
 ture. The public debt, over £29,300,000 in 1905, 
 was mostly incurred for railways and other 
 public works. The total imports (tlie chief item 
 drapery goods) range from £6,000,000 in ajinual 
 value ; the exports (mainly wool, wheat, and 
 copper ore), to about the same amount. Tliere 
 are 1890 miles of railway ; telegraph and telephone 
 lines are 5600 miles in length ; and Port Darwin 
 in the extreme north is connected by telegraph 
 with the southern ports. See works on South 
 Australia by Harcus (1876), Newland (Adelaide, 
 1887), Hodder (2 vols. 1893), Button, Bonwick, 
 &c. ; besides official publications. 
 
 South Bend, capital of St Joseph county, 
 Indiana, on the St Joseph River, 86 miles ESE. 
 of Chicago. It has a R. C. university, and manu- 
 factures wagons^ furniture, woollens, paper, flour, 
 &c. Pop. 42,000. 
 
 Southborough, a town of Kent, 2 miles N. of 
 Tunbridge Wells. Pop. 6977. 
 
 Southbrldge, a town of Massachusetts, on the 
 Quinebaug River, 70 miles SW. of Boston. It 
 manufactures cottons, woollens, &c. Pop. 12,000. 
 South Caroli'na, one of the original states of 
 the American Union, with an area of 30,570 sq. 
 m., including 400 sq. m. of water-surface, is 
 nearly triangular in outline, and is bounded by 
 North Carolina, the Atlantic Ocean, and Georgia. 
 Numerous islands of tlie southern part of the 
 coast are separated from the mainland and from 
 each other by shallow sounds and inlets. For 
 100 miles inland the land is generally low and 
 level, much of it still covered with pine forests. 
 West of this alluvial plain is a range of undulat- 
 ing sandhijls about 60 miles in width. Farther 
 Avest the ' ridge-country ' rises, generally abruptly, 
 from the Savannah to the Broad River on the 
 north, presenting a region of rare beauty and fer- 
 tility ; its average elevation is 2000 feet, and 
 several peaks of the Blue Ridge range, in the 
 N W. , rise to about 4000 feet. Most of the rivers— 
 the largest the Santee— are navigable by steam- 
 boats nearly to the foot-slope of the ridge region, 
 where they supply abundant water-power. The 
 state is rich in mineral products. There are gold- 
 mines in York, Lancaster, Chesterfield, and Spar- 
 tanburg counties. Granite is abundant in several 
 counties ; itacolumite is quarried for grindstones ; 
 and superior kaolin, used for artificial teeth, is 
 obtamed. But the most important mineral pro- 
 duct of South Carolina is its famous deposit of 
 phosphate rock, extending about 70 miles by SO ' 
 
 parallel with the coast N. of Charleston. Gray 
 iron ore (magnetite) is found ; great wealth of 
 phosphates (for fertilisers) ; also copper pyrites, 
 galena, limonite, malachite, pyrolusite, and pyro- 
 morphite, or phosphate of lead. Deer, wild 
 turkeys, racoons, foxes, squirrels, and other 
 small game are still numerous in the forests; 
 and the rivers, sounds, and inlets are stocked 
 with fish. Alligators inhabit the tidal rivers. 
 The most important agricultural products are 
 cotton, of which nearly 900,000 bales are harvested 
 yearly, maize, oats, wheat, peas, hay and forage. 
 
 South Carolina, called the Palmetto State from 
 the growth of the cabbage-tree (Sabal palmetto) 
 near the coast, had in 1880 a pop. of 995,557, in 
 1900 of 1,340,316, comprising 782,321 coloured 
 persons. There are 16 towns of over 4000 in- 
 habitants. Charleston has a pop. of 57,000, and 
 Columbia, the capital, of 25,000. The mild 
 climate is salubrious except in the rice-lands. 
 The low islands along the coast afford summer- 
 resorts, as well as the western mountain -region 
 known as 'the land of the sky.' The average 
 rainfall in the E. is from 42 to 44 inches. On the 
 coast cyclones are often destructive. On the 
 night of August 31, 1886, Charleston was nearly 
 destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 In 1562 a party of French Protestants built a 
 fort on an island in the harbour of Port Royal, 
 and named it Arx Carolina, in honour of Charles 
 IX., but soon returned to France. In 1630 Sir 
 Robert Heath obtained a grant from Charles I. 
 of a vast territory, to be called Carolana, reach- 
 ing to the Gulf of Mexico, but failure to colonise 
 forfeited the title. In 1662 Charles II. granted 
 to Lord Clarendon and seven associates all the 
 territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific lying 
 between 31° and 36° N. (later to 36° 30' N). In 
 
 1670 three ship-loads of English settlers under 
 William Sayle landed near Port Royal, and in 
 1680 settled on the site of Charleston. The pro- 
 prietary government under the ' model Constitu- 
 tion,' drawn up by John Locke (see North 
 Carolina), lasted till 1729, when George II. 
 bought out the proprietors and divided Carolina 
 into two royal provinces. Many French Hugue- 
 nots came to South Carolina, one of the most 
 flourishing of the British colonies, after the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. In 
 
 1671 Sir John Yeamans, the governor, brought 
 from Barbadoes 200 negro slaves ; the blacks in 
 a few years nearly equalled the whites, and since 
 1820 have been more numerous. South Carolina 
 was the first to ratify the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion in 1788, and the first to secede from the 
 Union in 1860, being re-admitted in 1865. 
 
 South Dakota, a north central state of the 
 American Union, surrounded by North Dakota, 
 Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Mon- 
 tana. Tlie area, 77,650 sq. m., is one and a half 
 times that of England without Wales. Most of 
 the surface is undulating plain, which shows 
 evidence of having in Silurian times been covered 
 by a shallow sea or salt lake. In the W. are the 
 Black Hills, a rugged and mountainous region 
 (3200 sq. m.), whose highest point, Harney Peak, 
 reaches 8200 feet. The 'Bad Lands,' or Mau- 
 vaises Terres, between the north fork of the 
 Platte river in Nebraska and Wyoming, and the 
 south fork of the Cheyenne in this state are covered 
 with rocks of the most fantastic shapes, probably 
 due to the spontaneous firing of large beds of 
 lignite. The Black Hills afford much gold and 
 silver, also tin (the only tin of importance worked 
 in the U.S.), antimony, lead, copper, and other 
 useful minerals, with thermal springs. The 
 
South downs 
 
 ^1 
 
 SPA 
 
 winters are cold and dry, with occasional bliz- 
 zards ; in summer the days are hot, the nights 
 usually cool. The rainfall is small, but suffices 
 for the ordinary crops ; and pastures are exten- 
 sive, and even the Bad Lands are found admir- 
 able for cattle-raising. The Missouri, with its 
 tributaries the Cheyenne, White River, and 
 Dakota, is the great river of the country. The 
 population, 98,268 in 1880, was. In 1900, 401,570, 
 including 20,000 Indians on reservations. Sioux 
 Falls is the largest town (10,266). Lead City, 
 Yankton, Aberdeen, and Mitchell have over 5000 
 inhabitants. Pierre is the capital. 
 
 South Downs. See Downs. 
 
 South Easton, a borough of Pennsylvania, at 
 the Lehigli River's mouth, opposite Easton, to 
 which it has been annexed since 1900. 
 
 Southend-on-Sea, an Essex watering-place, at 
 the moutli of the Thames estuary, 42 miles E. of 
 London. Dating from a visit here of Queen 
 Caroline and the Princess Charlotte in 1804, it 
 was in great part built by Sir S. Morton Peto 
 (1809-89), and lias good level sands, a public hall 
 (1872), and a pier, over a mile in length, under- 
 taken in 1888, with electric tramway and concert 
 pavilion. It was made a numicipal borough in 
 1892. Pop. (1851) 2462 ; (1901) 28,857. 
 
 Southgate, a town of Middlesex, 9 miles N. 
 of St Paul's. Pop. (1901) 14,993. 
 
 South Georgia, a group of islands, unin- 
 habited, and almost perpetually ice-bound, in 54° 
 30' S. lat. and 36°— 38° W. long., nearly 800 miles 
 E. by S. of the Falkland Isles, of which they are 
 a dependency. Area, 1000 sq. m. Discovered in 
 1675, they were taken possession of by Captain 
 Cook in 1775; and here in 1882-83 lived the 
 German expedition for observing the transit of 
 Venus. 
 
 South Island, the southern of the two larger 
 islands of New Zealand (q.v.). 
 
 South Kensington. See Kensington. 
 
 South Molton, a nnuiicipal borough (1590) of 
 Devon, on the Mole, 10 miles ESE. of Barnstaple. 
 It has a fine church, a market-house (1864), and 
 some woollen manufactures. Pop. 2850. 
 
 Southowram, a SE. suburb of Halifax, York. 
 
 Southport, a watering-place of Lancashire, at 
 the mouth of the Ribble estuarv, 18 miles N. of 
 Liverpool, 37 WNW. of Manchester, and 19 S. by 
 W. of Preston. The first house was a wooden 
 inn built from a wreck here in 1792, on what then 
 was a sandy waste ; since about 1830 the place 
 has grown more and more popular, enjoying as it 
 does a mild climate, and having broad level 
 sands. The esplanade (3 miles long) commands 
 views of the Welsh and Cumberland mountains, 
 and from it projects a pier (1465 yards) con- 
 structed in 1859-68 at a cost of £25,000, with a 
 steam tramway running along it. Other features 
 of Southport, with date and cost, are the Pavilion 
 and Winter Gardens (18'? 4 ; £140,000), comprising 
 a theatre, concert-hall, aquaria, &c. ; opera-house 
 (1891 ; seating 2000) ; the Cambridge Hall (1874 ; 
 £25,000), with a clock-tower 127 feet high ; the 
 Victoria Baths (1871 ; £45,000) ; the Atkinson 
 Public Library and Art Gallery (1878 ; nearly 
 £15,000); the Grecian town-hall (1853); the 
 market-hall (1881 ; £40,000) ; the Victoria Schools 
 of Science and Art (1887) ; the convalescent hos- 
 pital (founded 1806 ; present building 1854-87) ; 
 the Hesketh Public Park of 30 acres (1868) ; and 
 a marine park and lake (1887 ; £13,000) on the 
 foreshore fronting the town. Nathaniel Haw- 
 
 thorne, ttien United States consul at Liverpool, 
 describes Southport as it was in 1856 in his 
 English Notebooks (1870). It was made a muni- 
 cipal borough in 1867, the boundary being ex- 
 tended in 1875. Pop. (1851) 4765 ; (1871) 18,085 ; 
 (1881)32,206; (1901)48,083. 
 
 Southsea, a south-eastern suburb of Ports- 
 mouth, is a fashionable watering-place of recent 
 growth, with two piers, a fine esplanade 2 miles 
 long, a canoe lake, a common, a modernised castle 
 of 1540, and other fortifications, barracks, &c. 
 
 South Shetlands, a group of islands in the 
 South Atlantic, lying on the lines of 60° S. lat. and 
 60° W. long., and covered ever with ice and snow. 
 
 South Shields. See Shields. 
 
 Southwark (Suth'arlc; th as in this), or 'The 
 Borough,' on the Surrey side of the Thames, was 
 annexed to the City in 1327, and is now a metro- 
 politan borough. Pop. (1901) 206,180. 
 
 Southwell (locally Suth'l; soft th), a city of 
 Nottinghamshire, on the ancient Ermine Street, 
 7 miles W. by S. of Newark and 12 NE. of Not- 
 tingham. A church was founded here by Pauliiuis 
 about 030 ; but the stately cruciform minster, 
 which with its three towers resembles York on a 
 smaller scale, is wholly of post-Conquest date, 
 comprising Norman nave and transepts (1110), 
 Early English choir (1250), and Early Decorated 
 chapter-house (1300). It measures 306 feet by 
 123 across the transepts, and the lantern tower 
 is 105 feet high. A collegiate church until 1841, 
 it became in 1884 the cathedral of a new diocese 
 including the counties of Notts and Derbyshire, 
 and taken from Lincoln and Lichfield ; in 1888 it 
 was reopened after restoration. Its eagle lectern 
 originally belonged to Newstead priory, having 
 been fished out of the lake there about 1750. In 
 the old ' Saracen's Head ' Charles I. surrendered 
 to the Scots commissioners (1646); Byron's 
 mother occupied Burgage Manor House (1804-7) ; 
 and there are picturesque ruins of the palace of 
 the Archbishops of York (c. 1360 ; much altered 
 and enlarged by Wolsey). The collegiate gram- 
 mar-school was refounded in Henry VIII.'s time ; 
 and there are a literary institute and free library. 
 Pop. (1851) 3516 ; (1881) 2866 ; (1901) 3161. See 
 works by Rastall (1787, 1801), Shilton (1818), 
 Dimock (1884), Livett (1883), and Leach (1890). 
 
 Southwick, a NW. suburb of Sunderland. 
 
 Southwold (Sot(th'old), a Suff"olk watering-place, 
 41 miles by a small branch-lina NE. of Ipswich. 
 A municipal borough since 1489, it was almost 
 destroyed by fire in 1659, but retained its fine 
 Perpendicular church (1460), 144 feet long. In 
 Southwold or Sole Bay a bloody but indecisive 
 sea-fight was fought between the English and 
 the Dutch on 28th May 1672. Pop. 2800. 
 
 Soutra (Soo'tra), a hospice (c. 1164) in Mid- 
 lothian, on Soutra Hill (1209 feet), 17 miles SE. 
 of Edinburgh. See a work by J. Hunter (1892). 
 
 Sow, a Staffordshire river, flowing 18 miles to 
 the Trent, near Tixall. 
 
 Sowerby Bridge, a manufacturing town in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, on the Calder, 3 miles 
 SW. of Halifax. It has a town-hall (1857) and 
 manufactures of worsted and cotton, oilcloth, 
 chemicals, iron, &c. Tillotson was a native of 
 the parish. Pop. (1851) 4365 ; (1901) 11,477. 
 
 Spa, a watering-place of Belgium, stands amid 
 wooded and romantic hills, 20 miles by rail SE. 
 of Liege, near the Prussian frontier. The springs, 
 all chalybeate and alkaline, are cold, bright, and 
 sparkling, and efficacious in anaemic complaints, 
 nervous diseases, &c. Fancy wooden lacquered 
 
SPACCAfORNO 
 
 66^ 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 Ware is manufactured. Pop. 8200. The number 
 of visitors during the season (May-October) is 
 about 15,000. The place was particularly famous 
 as a fashionable resort in the 16th and 18th cen- 
 turies, and derived great profit from its public 
 gaming-tables, suppressed in 1872. 
 
 Spaccaforno, a town of SE. Sicily, 30 miles 
 SW. of Syracuse. Near it are ' Troglodyte ' 
 caves, ranged tier upon tier. Pop. 10,620. 
 
 Spain (Span. Espana), occupying the larger 
 part of the south-western peninsula of Europe, 
 lies in 43' 45'— 36° 1' N. lat., and 3- 20' E.— 9° 32' 
 W. long., and is bounded by the Bay of Biscay, 
 the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, 
 and Portugal. From Fuenterrabia in the N. to 
 Cape Tarifa in the S. is 560, from Cape Finisterre 
 in the NW. to Cape Creux in the NE. is 650 miles. 
 Area, 191,367 sq. m. ; pop. (1877) 16,634,345; 
 (1887) 17,565,632; (1900, estimated) 18,618,086. 
 The country, including the Balearic and Canary 
 Isles, was divided in 1834 into forty-nine prov- 
 inces, mostly named after the great towns ; but 
 the names of the fourteen more ancient kingdoms, 
 states, and provinces are still in use (Old Castile, 
 New Castile, La Mancha, Leon, Asturias, Galicia, 
 Estremadura, Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, Ara- 
 gon, Catalonia, and the Basque Provinces). The 
 Balearic Islands and the Canaries are reckoned 
 to the mother country, not to the colonies. Of 
 the remainder of the once great colonies of Spain, 
 Cuba was relinquished, and the Philippines, 
 Porto Rico, and Guam, the largest of the Lad- 
 rones, were ceded to the United States after the 
 war of 1898. The rest of the Ladrones, with the 
 Caroline and Pelew Islands, were ceded to Ger- 
 many in 1899. The colonies were thus reduced 
 to the African holdings : 
 
 sq'Tills. Population. 
 
 Elo de Oro. Adrar 70,000 JSO.OOO 
 
 Eio Muni, Cape San Juan 9,800 140,000 
 
 Fernando Po, Annobon 780 21,950 
 
 ToU1....80,5 
 
 291,950 
 
 Though Spain is almost a peninsula, the uniform 
 character of the coast-line and the great elevation 
 of its central plateau— the greater part of the sur- 
 face being a tableland 2000-3000 feet above sea- 
 level — give Spain a more continental character in 
 its extreme range of temperature than any of the 
 other peninsulas of Europe. Outside the plateau 
 lie the highest summits of the whole country, the 
 Pic de Nethou in the Pyrenees (11,151 feet), and 
 the Pic de Velate in the Sierra Nevada (11,670), 
 while the Picos de Europa in the Cantabrian 
 Range attain over 8000 feet. The plateau itself 
 is traversed by four mountain-ranges, which 
 separate the valley of the Ebro from that of the 
 Douro ; and the whole of it has a general slight 
 inclination from east or north-east to south- 
 west. Hence all the considerable rivers except the 
 Ebro flow westward to the Atlantic. The con- 
 figuration of the country renders the climate very 
 varied. In parts of the north-west the rainfall 
 is among the heaviest in Europe. In the east 
 and south-east occasionally no rain falls in the 
 whole year. The rainfall in the Western Pyrenees 
 is very great, yet on the northern slope of the 
 valley of the Ebro there are districts almost 
 rainless. The western side of the great plateau, 
 speaking generally, is more humid and much 
 colder than the eastern, where irrigation is 
 necessary for successful cultivation. Galicia is 
 almost a cattle country ; Estremadura possesses 
 vast flocks of sheep and herds of swine. The 
 vegetable productions of Galicia and the Asturias 
 
 are almost those of Devonshire and of south-west 
 Ireland, Till the 18th century cider was the 
 great beverage in the north ; but in the basin of 
 the Minho, in the Riojas on the Ebro, in Navarre, 
 Aragon, and Catalonia strong red wines are grown 
 in abundance. The proauctions of Catalonia and 
 Tarragona are almost those of Provence and the 
 Riviera. The plains of Leon and of Old and New 
 Castile are excellent corn-growi)ig regions. From 
 Valencia southwards the products are semi- 
 tropical ; the climate is almost more tropical than 
 that of the opposite coast of Africa. Fruits of 
 all kinds, luscious or fiery wines, oil, rice, e.sparto 
 grass, and sugar are common along the coast. No 
 other part of the soil of Europe is so rich in varied 
 produce. Large tracts of Spain once cultivated 
 in Roman or in Moorish times now lie abandoned 
 and unproductive ; 40 per cent, of the whole is 
 uncultivated. 
 
 For a moment in the 16th century Spain was 
 the most important country in Europe ; but the 
 population was unequal to the drain upon it 
 caused by constant warfare, emigration, and 
 adverse economical and industrial conditions. 
 Thus a pop. of over 10 millions at the end of the 
 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries fell to 
 little more than 6 millions in the 17th ; the 
 numbers then slowly rose: (1768) 9,307,804; 
 (1857) 15,464,340 ; (1897) 18,089,500. In 1905 there 
 were two cities with over 400,000 inhabitants, 
 Madrid and Barcelona; one of 225,000, Valencia; 
 three of between 150,000 and 100,000, Seville, 
 Malaga, and Murcia. The densest population 
 is in Madrid, Barcelona, Pontevedra, and the 
 Basque Provinces. Emigration (to South America, 
 Algeria, and elsewhere) is steadily on the increase. 
 Some 60 or 70 per cent, of the population are 
 engaged in agriculture, and 10 or 11 per cent, in 
 mining or manufacturing and trade. Since the 
 sale of church, crown, and much of the municipal 
 property during the 19th century the land has 
 become much divided ; it is estimated that there 
 are about 3^ millions of holdings, of which J 
 million are occupied by tenants, the rest by 
 proprietors. The seat of the manufacturing 
 industries— mainly cotton— is chiefly Catalonia ; 
 and the manufacture of corks (30,000 tons yearly) 
 employs over 8000 men in that province. The 
 mineral wealth is more widely distributed — iron 
 in Biscay and the province of Huelva ; copper at 
 Huelva, in the Rio Tinto and Tharsis mines ; lead 
 at Linares ; quicksilver at Almaden ; coal chiefly 
 in the Asturias ; salt in Catalonia, and by evapora- 
 tion near Cadiz. The annual produce of iron ore 
 is from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons (seven-eighths 
 of which is exported) ; of copper, 2,700,000 ; of 
 coal, 2,600,000 tons. A considerable proportion 
 of iron, lead, copper, zinc, and quicksilver is 
 smelted or prepared in the country. The total 
 value of metallurgical products in one year may 
 be from £6,000,000 to £7,000,000. Until lately 
 the only religion tolerated was that of the state, 
 the Roman Catholic ; now a certain toleration 
 is allowed to other denominations. In the large 
 towns and in some of tlie provinces a great 
 effort is made to keep the higher and the tech- 
 nical schools on a level with the best in other 
 European countries. In other parts the neglect 
 of education is very great. There are nine uni- 
 versities in Spain — Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, 
 Salamanca, Seville^ Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, 
 and Saragossa : the number of students is about 
 16,000. In the episcopal seminaries and religious 
 schools about 9000 are educated. Many of the 
 primary schools in the provinces are in a 
 wretched condition, the salary of the teachers 
 
SPAIN 
 
 &?ANISli MAm 
 
 being only about £5 per annum. The great fault 
 of the higher Spanish education is in the numbers 
 who press into professional, literary, and political 
 careers in comparison with those who dedicate 
 themselves to commercial, industrial, or agri- 
 cultural pursuits. By reason of this Spain loses 
 great part of the advantages of her natural wealth. 
 All her principal mines are worked, her railways 
 built, schemes of irrigation carried out with 
 foreign capital, and in spite of the excellence of 
 her labourers the higher employees are often 
 foreigners. The imports in 1877 amounted to 
 £16,340,000, and the exports to £18,175,000 ; in 
 1903 they had increased to £25,070,120 and 
 £24,318,865 respectively (taking the peseta at its 
 actual value = 7id.). Tlie recent increase is chiefly 
 due to the export of wine to France and to the 
 imports from that country. The exports to France 
 have a total value of something over £5,780,000, 
 and the imports from France of about £4,434,750. 
 The total exports from Spain to Great Britain are 
 about £9,500,000, and the imports £5,500,000. 
 There are 8520 miles of railway and 21,000 miles 
 of telegraph. 
 
 The government of Spain is a hereditary 
 monarchy. The Cortes consists of two bodies— 
 the Senate (partly hereditary, nominated, and 
 elected) and the Chamber of Deputies, elected by 
 universal suffrage. The public debt of Spain 
 is about £386,713,590, and the annual charge 
 £15,859,470. The revenue and expenditure, nomi- 
 nally nearly balanced, rose from £31,000,000 in 
 1881 to £38,500,000 in 1905. The navy of Spain 
 consists of 7 ships of different ratings, 6 torpedo 
 destroyers and 7 torpedo gunboats, and 2 cruisers 
 building. A large proportion of the navy was lost 
 in the war with the United States in 1898. The 
 army on a peace footing is 95,000, not including 
 the Guardia civil, or gendarmes, the Carabineros, 
 and other active or reserve forces. 
 
 Spain was originally occupied by Iberian 
 tribes (akin to the present Basque inhabitants of 
 the north), who were partially overlaid by invad- 
 ing Celts. The Carthaginians established them- 
 selves in the south of Spain in the 3d century 
 B.C. The Romans appeared in force in the next 
 century, but it was not till after a fierce and pro- 
 longed resistance from Iberians and Celtiberians 
 that, under Augustus, the Roman conquest was 
 complete. Soon Spain, thoroughly Romanised, 
 was contributing largely to Latin literature and 
 Roman culture. The Germanic invaders from 
 the north, Saevi, Vandals, and Visigoths, crushed 
 the Roman power in the 5th century a.d., and 
 Spain became a province of the Visigothic king- 
 dom (573 A.D.). The Moorish conquest was very 
 rapid (714-732) and complete, except in the north 
 and north-west. The several Christian kingdoms 
 of Spain — Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, &c., 
 as well as Portugal — were formed by the gradual 
 depression of the Moors ; but Moorish Granada 
 was not conquered till 1492, and Spain was not 
 united under one rule till 1512. Spain became a 
 European state with the union of Ferdinand of 
 Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469, and the 
 New World was discovered for them ; under their 
 son, the Emperor Charles V., Spain was in the 
 forefront of European history, and Flanders and 
 the two Sicilies Spanish provinces. With Philip 
 II., Charles's son, the decline of Spain set in, 
 though now for sixty years Portugal was under 
 the Spanish crown. The Bourbon dynasty 
 brought complication in the wars of Louis XIV., 
 and little advantage from the recovery of Naples 
 and Sicily. The nadir of Spanish history is in the 
 time of Napoleon, vhen Spain, in spite of some 
 
 national efforts, was nominally a kingdom, but 
 really a mere province of the French empire. In 
 spite of the valiant patriotism shown in resisting 
 the French, and the ultimate recovery of national 
 independence (by English help) through the over- 
 throw of Napoleon, the history of Spain in the 
 19th century was in the main inglorious, the dis- 
 astrous war with the United States at its close 
 leading to the loss of the greater colonies. The 
 language, in various dialects, is atypical Romance 
 tongue, save in the Basque provinces, where the 
 non-Aryan Basque tongue survives. 
 
 See Ford's Handbook, Hare's Wanderings, and 
 books by Mrs Harvey (1875), Rose (1875), Campion 
 (1876), Wentworth.Webster(1881), Gall en ga (1883), 
 H. E. Watts (1893), Ulick Burke (1900), and 
 Martin Hume (1899-1902), with Butler Clarke's 
 Spanish Literature (1893). 
 
 Spa'lato (less correctly Spalatro ; Slav. Split), 
 the busiest town of Dalmatia, stands on a pro- 
 montory on the east side of the Adriatic, 160 
 miles SE. of Fiume, and with a branch-line to the 
 Bosnian railway (1894-1900). Here, in a beauti. 
 fnl situation on the seashore, the Emperor Dio- 
 cletian built for himself a colossal palace (Salonce 
 Palatium, whence, or from its Greek equivalent, 
 comes the name Spalato), to which he retired wlieu 
 he abdicated the throne in 305. The massive 
 walls were from 570 to 700 feet long and 50 to 70 
 feet high, and enclosed an area of 9^ acres. This 
 gigantic palace, square, like a Roman camp, with 
 a gate in the middle of each side, is still standing 
 in a fairly good state of preservation, its temple 
 being the present Christian Cathedral ; but the 
 interior was converted into a town in 639 by the 
 citizens of the adjoining city of Savona who 
 escaped the Avars, and it has been so occupied 
 ever since. The existing city of Spalato, lying 
 more than half of it outside the palace walls, is 
 one of the principal ports for Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina, and manufactures liqueurs (rosolio and 
 maraschino), bricks, ropes, &c. Pop. 26,000. See 
 Freeman's Historical Essays (3d series, 1879) ; and 
 T. G. Jackson's Dalmatia (vol. ii. 1887). 
 
 Spalding, a Dutch-looking town on the 
 Welland in Lincolnshire, 14 miles SW. of Boston, 
 with a fine church (Decorated and Perpendicular), 
 built in 1284 and restored by Sir G. Scott, who 
 also planned two of the other three churches 
 in the town. The grammar-school, of which 
 Bentley was master in 1682, was founded in 1568 ; 
 new school buildings were erected in 1881. This 
 town had, prior to the Conquest, a castle and a 
 monastery ; the latter eventually became a 
 priory (1051), attached as a cell to Crowland. 
 The river is navigable for vessels of 70 tons. 
 Spalding is a railway centre, and trades in agri- 
 cultural produce. Pop. 9500. f 
 
 Spandau (au as ow in now), a town and first- 
 class fortress of Prussia, at the confluence of the 
 Havel and the Spree, 8 miles by rail W. by N. of 
 Berlin. The principal defence of the capital on 
 that side, it has very strong fortifications. In 
 the ' Julius tower ' of the citadel is preserved 
 in gold the Imperial War-fund of £6,000,000 
 (mainly derived from the French war indemnity) 
 that the government, since 1871, keeps in reserve 
 for a great war. Spandau is the seat of an 
 arsenal, large government cannon-foundries, and 
 factories for making gunpowder and other muni- 
 tions of war. Pop. (1875) 27,630 ; (1900) 65,030, 
 including -a garrison of nearly 4000 men. 
 
 Spanish Main (i.e. main-land), a name formerly 
 given to the Spanish provinces on those coasts of 
 South and Central America, which are contiguous 
 
fePANiSH TOWll 
 
 664 
 
 SPITZBER6EN 
 
 to the Caribbean Sea. The name, however, is 
 often applied to that sea itself. 
 
 Spanish Town. See Jamaica. 
 
 Sparta, or Laced^mon, ancient capital of 
 Laconia, and most famous city of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, was situated on the right bank of the 
 Eurotas, 20 miles from the sea, in a plain shut 
 in by mountains, of which that on the west 
 side, Mount Taygetus, rises to 8000 feet. The 
 growth of the town of Misthra, 2 miles SW. of 
 Sparta, in the 14th and 15th centuries a.d., led to 
 the total desertion of the more ancient city ; but 
 the modern town of Sparti (pop. 5000), founded in 
 1836, occupies part of the site of old Sparta, and 
 is again capital of the province of Laconia. 
 
 Spartanburg, a town of South Carolina, 93 
 miles by rail NNW. of Columbia. Here is the 
 Wofford (Methodist ; 1853) College. Pop. 11,400. 
 
 Spean (Spane), a river of Inverness-shire, 
 running 20^ miles W. to the Lochy. 
 
 Speier. See Spires. 
 . Spencer, a town of Massachusetts, 64 miles W. 
 by S. of Boston, with manufactures of boots and 
 woollens. Pop. 7747. 
 
 Spencer Gulf, a deep inlet (180 long by 90 
 wide) on the coast of South Australia, between 
 Eyre's Peninsula and Yorke Peninsula. 
 
 Spennymoor, a town of Durham, 4 miles NE. 
 of Bishop Auckland, with icon-foundries and 
 coal-pits. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 Spey (Spay), a river of Scotland, rising at an 
 altitude of 1500 feet above sea-level and running 
 107 miles NE. through or along the boundary of 
 Inverness, Elgin, and Banff shires, until it falls 
 into the Moray Firth at Kingston between Los- 
 siemouth and Portknockie. The Dulnain and 
 Avon are its principal tributaries. The salmon- 
 fisheries, belonging to the Duke of Richmond, at 
 its mouth, above which comparatively few fish 
 penetrate, have a yearly worth of from £8000 to 
 £10,000 ; else the Spey is almost without value, 
 nor can it generally be called a picturesque 
 stream. It has the swiftest current of all the 
 large rivers in Britain, and is subject to sudden 
 and violent freshets, resulting at times in disas- 
 trous inundations. See Sir Thomas Dick 
 Lauder's Moray Floods (1830) ; and A. E. Knox, 
 Autumns on the Spey (1882). 
 
 Speyer. See Spires. 
 
 Spezzia (Ital. Spezia; pron. Spet'sia), the prin- 
 cipal naval port of Italy, stands near the head 
 of a deep and commodious bay, 56 miles SE. of 
 Genoa by rail. A breakwater (1860), 2400 feet 
 long, covers the entrance ; whilst formidable 
 batteries (supplemented by torpedo appliances) 
 bristle on the hills that overlook the bay and on 
 the island of Palmeria, which guards its entrance. 
 At this great national arsenal the Italians have 
 built their large warships, and have their ship- 
 repairing yards and docks, naval victualling 
 yards, and store-houses (partly also at San Bar- 
 tolomeo, on the opposite shore of the bay). 
 There are also large barracks, a military hospital, 
 schools of navigation, an iron-foundry, and manu- 
 factures of cables, sail-cloth, and white-lead. 
 The beauty of the bay and the lovely climate 
 cause Spezzia to be much frequented as a sea- 
 side-resort. It was on the shores of its bay that 
 Shelley spent his last months, and here Charles 
 Lever was consul for ten years. Pop. 66,620. 
 
 Spezzia (or Spetsai; anc. Pityussa), a Greek 
 island at the entrance to the Gulf of Nauplia. 
 Area, 6^ sq. m. ; pop. 6899—6494 in the town of 
 Spezzia, which has a good harbour. 
 
 Spice Islands. See Moluccas. 
 
 Spicheren (Spihh'er-en), or Speichern, a village 
 on the frontiers of Prussia and Lorraine, 2 miles 
 S. of Saarbrlick. Here on 6th August 1870 the 
 Germans defeated the French. 
 
 Spielberg. See BRiJNN. 
 
 Spilsby, a market-town of Lincolnshire, 19 
 miles by rail NE. of Boston, stands on the edge 
 of the Wolds. The church contains interesting 
 monuments of the Willoughby family (1348-1610), 
 and the market-place has a bronze statue of Sir 
 John Franklin, a native of the town. Pop. 1497. 
 
 Spinazzola {Spinaf sola), a city of Southern 
 Italy, 30 miles SW. of Bari. Pop. 11,353. 
 
 Spires (Ger. Speier), the capital of the Bavarian 
 Palatinate, stands on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 19 miles S. of Mannheim. The red sandstone 
 Romanesque cathedral was begun by Conrad II. 
 in 1030 and finished in 1061 ; it suffered from fire 
 in the 12th, 13th, and 16th centuries, and in 1689 
 was stripped to the bare walls and even set fire 
 to by the French, who also exhumed and scat- 
 tered the bones of eight German emperors. Re- 
 constructed in 1782, it was again desecrated by 
 the French in 1794, but was once more rebuilt in 
 1797-1822. The interior walls are covered with 
 more than thirty large frescoes ; and statues of 
 the eight emperors (1858) adorn the vestibule. 
 The town itself was also demolished by the 
 French in 1689, and having been rebuilt since 
 then, has broad though irregular streets, with 
 very few ancient buildings, except the gateway 
 or clock-tower, dating from before 1246, and a 
 few fragments of the imperial palace, in which 
 several diets were held— one that of 1529, at which 
 the Reformers first became known as Protestants. 
 There is some industry in cloth, paper, tobacco, 
 sugar, &c. Pop. 21,000. The Augusta Nemetum 
 and Noviomagus of the Romans, but renamed 
 Spira from the 7th c, Spires in the 13th became 
 a free imperial city. Between 1801 and 1814 it 
 was the capital of a dep. of France, and in 1815 
 it passed to Bavaria. 
 
 Spitalfields, a poor district of north-east 
 London, in the Tower Hamlets, derives its name 
 from the hospital of St Mary, founded there in 
 1197. The manufacture of silk was established in 
 Spitalfields by emigrants from France after the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). 
 
 Spithead, a celebrated roadstead on the south 
 coast of England, and a favourite rendezvous of 
 the British navy, is the eastern division— the 
 Solent (q.v.) being the western— of the strait that 
 separates the Isle of Wight from the mainland. 
 Protected from all winds except those from the 
 south-east, it receives its name from the ' Spit,' 
 a sandbank stretching south from the Hamp- 
 shire shore for 3 miles ; and it is 14 miles long 
 by 4 miles in average breadth. Here in 1797 
 the sailors of the Channel Fleet mutinied for 
 more liberal pay and allowances, which were 
 granted to them. Spithead has been strongly 
 defended since 1864 by fortifications completing 
 those of Portsmouth (q.v.). 
 
 Splttal. See Berwick-on-Tweed. 
 
 Spitzbergen (g hard), a group of Arctic islands, 
 lying 400 miles N. of Norway, and consisting of 
 West Spitzbergen (15,260 sq. m.), North-east Land 
 (4040 sq. m.), Stans Foreland (2210 sq. m.), the 
 three islands called King Charles Land or Wiche 
 Island (also identified with Gillis Land), Barents 
 Land, Prince Charles Foreland, and several 
 smaller islands and clusters of islets. The whole 
 is icebound, and there are maguiflcent glaciers 
 
Sl>LttG£M 
 
 666 
 
 STAFFORD 
 
 on the eastern shores, especially Dickson's glacier 
 on North-east Land, 150 miles long. A thick ice- 
 sheet covers the interior of the lai'ger islands ; 
 but several sharp peaks— whence the name (mean- 
 ing 'needle-mountains') — project above it and 
 are nearly 2000 feet high ; others on Prince Charles 
 Foreland are almost 5000 feet. The shores of 
 West Spitzbergen are deeply indented with fjords, 
 two of which almost cut the island in two. 
 The north-west shores of North-east Land are 
 also very much broken. The vegetation is very 
 scanty ; except for the polar willow and a couple 
 of berry-bushes, it consists principally of saxi- 
 frages and mosses, on which feed large herds of 
 reindeer. The arctic fox and i>olar bear are the 
 only other land animals, though there are vast 
 swarms of sea-fowl. In the l(5th and 17th cen- 
 turies large fleets of whalers used to come hither 
 in sunnner, but the whales have been almost 
 exterminated, and the seals will soon be. There 
 are no permanent inhabitants. The islands were 
 discovered by Barents in 1596. See works by 
 Lord Dufferin (1857), Lamont (1876), Conway 
 (1897), and, in German, by Hafter (1900). 
 
 SplUgen (nearly Splee-gen, g hard), a pass (6946 
 feet) in the Swiss Orisons, connects the valley of 
 the Farther Rhine with that of a tributary of the 
 Adda. The existing road, 24 miles long, was made 
 by the Austrian government in 1812-22. 
 
 Spokane (Spofcau'), the third city of Washington, 
 on the Spokane River, by the Union Pacific 481 
 miles NE. of Portland, Oregon, with a great 
 lumber trade. A fire in August 1889 did $6,000,000 
 damage. Pop. (1880) 350 ; (1900) 86,850. 
 
 SpoletO (Spolay'to; Lat. Spoletium), an archi- 
 episcopal city of ancient Umbria in the middle 
 of Italy, is situated on a rocky hill, 75 miles by 
 rail N. by E. of Rome. It has a citadel, dating 
 from the days of the Goths, a Victor Emanuel 
 monument (1892), and a fine cathedral, with 
 frescoes by Lippo Lippi. Water is brought in 
 by a 7th-century aqueduct, 270 feet high and 680 
 long. Pop. 7696. 
 
 Spondlnig. See Stelvio. 
 
 Spottsylvania Courthouse, a small village of 
 Virginia, 55 miles N. by W. of Richmond, the 
 scene during May 10-12, 1864, of a desperate but 
 indecisive battle in the civil war. 
 
 Spree (Spray), a sluggish river of Prussia, rises 
 in the east of Saxony, on the Bohemian border, 
 and winds 227 miles N. and W. to the Havel at 
 Spandau, passing Bautzen, Kottbus, and Berlin. 
 
 Springfield. See Gretna. 
 
 Springfield, (1) the capital of Illinois, 185 
 miles by rail SW. of Chicago, at the meeting- 
 point of seven railways. It possesses a handsome 
 federal building, a state arsenal, two colleges, 
 and one of the largest state capitols in the Union 
 (of marble, 385 feet long by 296 wide; cost 
 $5,000,000). It has coal-mines, iron-rolling mills 
 and foundries, a watch-factory, and flour, woollen, 
 
 Eaper, and planing mills. Springfield, which 
 ecame the capital in 1837, was the home of 
 Abraham Lincoln, who is buried in the beautiful 
 Oak Ridge cemetery, in the crypt of a granite 
 obelisk (1874), which cost $264,000. Pop. (1880) 
 19,746 ; (1900) 34,160.— (2) A thriving city of 
 Massachusetts, capital of Hampden county, on 
 the Connecticut River's left bank, 99 miles by rail 
 W. by S. of Boston and 25 N. of Hartford. The 
 river is crossed by five bridges to West Spring- 
 field (pop. 5075), and four railways meet here. 
 The public buildings include a cathedral, city 
 hall, granite court-house, and a railway station 
 
 which cost $700,000. Among the factories are 
 the U. S. Armoury (since 1794), foundries, car- 
 works, and manufactories of cottons and woollens, 
 paper, machinery, furniture, trunks, buttons, 
 needles, spectacles, locks, pistols, skates, picture- 
 frames, organs, and jewellery. The town was 
 settled in 1635. Pop. (1880) 33,340 ; (1900) 62,060. 
 — (3) Capital of Greene county, Missouri, 232 
 miles by rail WSW. of St Louis, with machine- 
 shops, car-works, and large cotton and woollen 
 factories. Here is Drury College (Congregational; 
 1873). Near Springfield was fought the battle of 
 Wilson's Creek, 10th August 1861. Pop (1880) 
 6522 ; (1900) 23,267.— (4) Capital of Clark county, 
 Ohio, on Lagonda Creek and Mad River, 80 miles 
 by rail NE. of Cincinnati. Six railways meet 
 here. The city contains the Wittenberg College 
 (Lutheran ; 1845), and handsome county and 
 municipal buildings. It manufactures farm 
 machinery, bicycles, sewing-machines, iron fences, 
 paper, &c. Pop. (1880) 20,730 ; (1900) 38,253. 
 
 Spurn Head, a promontory stretching 2J miles 
 into the mouth of the Humber (q.v.), and form- 
 ing the south-eastern extremity of Yorkshire. It 
 has two lighthouses. Between 1771, when 
 Smeaton's small lighthouse was built, and 1863 
 the sea gained 280 yards here, but since the 
 erection of groynes in 1864 the land has gained. 
 See Boyle's Lost Towns of the Humber (1889). 
 
 Squillace (Skwillah'tchay), a small cathedral 
 town (pop. 2700) of Calabria, on the site of the 
 anc. Scylacium, 12 miles SW. of Catanzaro by 
 rail, and 3 miles inland from the Gulf of Squillace. 
 
 Srinagar (Sreenagur'), or Cashmere, the capi- 
 tal of the native state of Cashmere (q.v.) in 
 Northern India, stands in a lovely valley of the 
 Himalayas on the Jhelum, at an elevation of 
 5276 feet. Pop. (1901)122,618. 
 
 Srirangam. See Seringham. 
 
 Srlvillipatur, a town in the NW. of Tinnevelli 
 district, in South India. Pop. 26,400. 
 
 Staaten Island. See Staten Island. 
 
 Stade (Shtdh'deh), an ancient town of Hanover, 
 22 miles W. by N. of Hamburg. Pop. 10,580. 
 
 Staflfa (Scand., 'pillar-island'), a celebrated 
 islet on the west of Scotland, lies 4 miles SW. of 
 Ulva, 6 N. by E. of lona, and 54 W. of Oban. It 
 forms an oval uneven tableland, rising at its 
 highest to 144 feet above the water, IJ mile in 
 circumference, and 71 acres in area. In the 
 north-east is a landing-place ; but elsewhere the 
 coast is girt with cliffs 84 to 112 feet high. The 
 most remarkable feature of the island is Fingal's 
 or the Great Cave, the entrance to which is 
 formed by columnar basaltic ranges, supporting 
 a lofty arch. The entrance is 42 feet wide, and 
 66 feet high, and the length of the cave is 227 
 feet. The floor of this marvellous chamber is the 
 sea. First described (in Pennant's Tour) by Sii 
 Joseph Banks, after a visit in 1772, Stafl'a has 
 since been frequently visited — among others by 
 Wordsworth, Keats, Scott, Mendelssohn, Tenny- 
 son, and, on 19th August 1847, Queen Victoria. 
 
 Stafford, the county town of Staff"ordshire, on 
 the left bank of the Sow, 3 miles above its junc- 
 tion with the Trent, and 25 miles SSE. of Crewe, 
 29 NNW. of Birmingham, and 133 NW. of London. 
 St Mary's Church, formerly collegiate, is a good 
 cruciform structure, with an octagonal tower. 
 Transition Norman to Decorated in style, it was 
 restored by Scott in 1844-47 at a cost of £30,000, 
 and in 1878 received a bust of Staff'ord's chief 
 worthy, Izaak Walton, who was baptised in its 
 font. St Chad's, Norman, was very thoroughly 
 
Bl^AFfORDSHIRE 
 
 SfAMPoRD 
 
 restored during 1855-85 ; and there are also King 
 Edward's grainmar-school (1550 ; rebuilt 1862), 
 the town-hall (1798), a free library (1882), the 
 William Salt Library (1874), the Clement Wragge 
 Museum, the infirmary (1766), the county lunatic 
 asylum (1818), &c. Stafford Castle, finely situated 
 on an eminence outside the town, which com- 
 mands a magnificent view, is an unfinished 
 castellated pile. It was built by Sir G. Jerning- 
 ham in 1810-15, successor to a Saxon fortress of 
 the Princess Etlielfleda, and to a later Norman 
 stronghold, whicli was finally taken by the parlia- 
 mentarians in 1643, and demolished. Boot and 
 shoe making is the staple industry, and Stafford 
 is an important railway centre. Chartered by 
 King John, it returned two members from 
 Edward I.'s reign till 1885, when the representa- 
 tion was reduced to one and the parliamentary 
 boundary extended. Pop. (1851) 11,829 ; (1871) 
 14,437 ; (1901) 20,894. See works by Masfen 
 (1852) and Cherry (1890). 
 
 Staffordshire, a west midland county of Eng- 
 land, bounded by the counties of Cheshire, 
 Derby, Leicester, Warwick, Worcester, and Salop. 
 Measuring 54 by 35 miles, it has an area of ] 169 
 sq. m. or 748,433 acres. The only hilly district 
 is in the north, where the wild ' Moorlands,' the 
 southern extremity of the Pennine range, extend 
 from NW. to SE. in long ridges, separated by 
 deeply-cut valleys, and subside as they near the 
 valley of the Trent. Several points exceed 1500 
 feet above sea-lovel, but Axe Edge Hill (1756), 
 falls just within Derbyshire. The rest of tlie 
 county is gently undulating, with the low upland 
 of Cannock Chase in the centre. The Trent, 
 flowing first south-eastward through the interior, 
 and then north-eastward along the Derbyshire 
 border, is the chief river, and receives the Sow, 
 Tame, Blythe, and Dove. In the north and 
 south are the Pottery and Dudley coalfields, 
 which, besides containing nearly 600 collieries, 
 yield also (especially the northern one) vast 
 quantities of ironstone. The climate is cold and 
 humid ; and, though more than four-fifths of the 
 area is arable, much of the soil is cold and clayey, 
 and agriculture is in rather a backward condi- 
 tion. In the ' Potteries ' of North Stafibrdshire, 
 embracing Stoke-upon-Trent, Etruria, Hanley, 
 Burslem, &c., most extensive manufactures of 
 china and earthenware are carried on ; and in the 
 'Black Country' in the south, with Wolver- 
 hampton and Walsall, iron is very largely manu- 
 factured. The Burton breweries are world- 
 famous. There is a perfect network of railways 
 and canals. Staffordshire, which is mainly in 
 the diocese of Lichfield, contains five hundreds 
 and 247 parishes. It has been divided since 1885 
 into seven divisions, each returning one member 
 —Leek, Burton, West, North-west, Lichfield, 
 Kingswinford, and Handsworth. The thirteen 
 municipal boroughs are Burslem, Burton-on- 
 Trent, Hanley, Lichfield, Longton, Newcastle- 
 under-Lyme, Stafford, Stoke-upon-Trent, Tarn- 
 worth, Walsall, Wednesbury, West Bromwich, 
 and Wolverhampton. Pop. (1801) 242,693 ; (1841) 
 509,472; (1881) 981,009; (1901) 1,234,382. Staf- 
 fordshire has no great wealth of antiquities, and 
 has been the scene of no battles more important 
 than Blore Heath (1459) and Hopton Heath 
 (1643). Among its natives have been Lord 
 Anson, Ashmole, Dr Johnson, Thomas Newton, 
 Cardinal Pole, Earl St Vincent, Izaak Walton, 
 and Josiah Wedgwood. 
 
 See county histories by Plot (1686), Erdeswick 
 (1717 ; 4th ed. 1844), Shaw (1798-1801), and Garner 
 (1844-60); the Proceedings of the William Salt 
 
 Archaeological Society (1880 et seq.) ; and other 
 works cited in Simms's Staffordshire Bibliography 
 (Lichfield, 1892). 
 
 Staines, a picturesque town of Middlesex, on 
 the left bank of the Thames, 6 miles SE. of 
 Windsor and 19 WSW. of London (35^ by river). 
 Named from the 'London Stone' (1280) at the 
 county boundary, Staines has vast water-works, 
 and a granite bridge by Rennie (1832) ; and near 
 it are Runnimede, Egham, and Cooper's Hill. 
 Pop. (1851) 2430 ; (1901) 6688. 
 
 Stair, an Ayrshire parish, 6J miles ENE. of 
 Ayr, gives the title of Earl to the Dalrymples. 
 
 Staithes, a Yorkshire coast-village, 10 miles 
 N W. of Whitby. Captain Cook lived here as a boy. 
 
 Stalbridge, a Dorset town, 6 miles E. by N. of 
 Sherborne. Pop. 1705. 
 
 Stalybridge, a cotton town of Cheshire, 
 occupying a hilly site on both banks of the Tame, 
 7i miles B. by N. of Manchester. Dating only 
 from 1776, it has huge factories for the spinning 
 of cotton yarns and calico-weaving, iron- 
 foundries, and machine-shops, a town-hall (1831), 
 market-buildings (1867), a mechanics' institute 
 (1861), an Oddfellows' hall (1878), and, between 
 it and Ashton-under-Lyne to the west, the Stam- 
 ford Park (1873). It was made a municipal 
 borough in 1857, a parliamentary borough (partly 
 in Lancashire) in 1867. Pop. of the former (1851) 
 20,760 ; (1901) 27,674 ; of the latter (1901) 46,558. 
 
 Stamboul (Stombooi'). See Constantinople. 
 
 Stamford, a municipal borough chiefly in 
 Lincolnshire, but partly also in Northampton- 
 shire, on the Welland, 12 miles WNW. of Peter- 
 borough. Hengist is said to have here defeated 
 the Picts and Scots in 449, and Stamford there- 
 after is notable as one of the Danish ' five 
 boroughs,' as having been visited by at least 
 thirteen sovereigns (from Edward the Elder in 
 922 to Queen Victoria in 1844), for the persecu- 
 tion of its Jews (1190), as having between 1266 
 and 1334 only missed becoming a rival to Oxford, 
 for its colony of Flemish Protestants (1572), as 
 the birthplace of the earliest provincial news- 
 paper, the Stamford Mercury (1695), and for its 
 famous bull-running on 13th November from 
 King John's time until 1839. It has lost ten of 
 its sixteen churches, an Eleanor cross, two 
 castles, six religious houses, and two hospitals. 
 Existing edifices are St Mary's, with a fine spire. 
 All Saints, with a fine tower and steeple, St 
 Martin's with Lord Burghley's grave and, in the 
 churchyard, Daniel Lambert's, a town-hall (1777), 
 corn exchange (1859), literary institute (1842), 
 bridge (1849), Browne's Hospital (15th century), 
 and boys' and girls' high schools (1874-76). 
 Burghley House (q.v.) stands close ' by Stamford 
 town.' The trade and industries are mainly agri- 
 cultural. Chartered by Edgar in 972, and after- 
 wards by Edward IV., Stamford was a parlia- 
 mentary borough, but lost one of its two members 
 in 1867 and the other in 1885. For good services 
 rendered by the inhabitants at the battle of 
 Loose-coat-field (1469) the town seal bears the 
 royal arms. Pop. (1851) 8933 ; (1901) 8229. See 
 works by Butcher (1646), Howgrave (1726), Peck 
 (1727 ; new ed. 1785), Drakard (1822), Sharp 
 (1847), Walcott (1867), and Nevinson (1879). 
 
 Stamford, a town of Connecticut, on Long 
 Island Sound, 33 miles by rail NE. of New York. 
 It has a handsome town-hall ; and the hills around 
 are embellished Avith the summer residences of 
 well-to-do New Yorkers. Settled in 1641, it has 
 iron and bronze foundries, and manufactories of 
 
STAMFORD BRIDOB 
 
 667 
 
 STETflN 
 
 hats, drugs, sashes, and Yale locks. Pop. (1880) 
 11,297 ; (1900) 15,997. 
 
 Stamford Bridge, a Yorkshire village, on the 
 Derwent, 9J miles NB. of York. Here Harold 
 routed Harold Haarfager (1066). 
 
 Standerton, capital of a district in the Trans- 
 vaal, 110 miles SB. of Pretoria, with two bridges 
 across the Vaal. Pop. 4500. 
 
 Stanhope, a town on the Wear, 26 miles W. of 
 Durham by rail. Its rectory, once known as the 
 'golden rectory,' was held by Bishop Butler 
 (1725-40). The famous lead-mines are now much 
 less profitable than of old. Pop. 1964. 
 
 Stanislawow (w's as v's), or Stanislau, an 
 Austrian town in Galicia, 87 miles SE. of Lem- 
 berg. Pop. 30,000 (10,000 Jews). 
 
 Stanley, a town 8 miles W. of Durham, pop. 
 13,500; (2) another is partly in Wakefield (q.v.); 
 (3) another is 7 miles NW. of Perth. 
 
 Stanley Pool, a lake-like expansion of the 
 Congo (q.v.), 25 miles long by 16 wide, and 1142 
 feet above sea-level. 
 Stanovoi Mountains. See Siberia. 
 Stanton Drew, a Somerset parish, 7 miles S. 
 of Bristol, with prehistoric stone circles. 
 
 Stanton Harcourt, the ancient seat of the 
 Harcourts, 6 miles W. of Oxford, with a curious 
 kitchen and memories of Pope. 
 
 Stapleford, a market-town of Notts, 6 miles 
 W. of Nottingham. Pop. of parish, 5770. 
 
 Staraya-Russa (StarVa-Roossa), a town of 
 Russia, 62 miles S. of Novgorod by rail round 
 Lake Ilmen, with salt springs. Pop. 13,537. 
 Starbuck. See Manihiki Islands. 
 Starcross, a Devon watering-place, on the Bxe 
 estuary, 8 miles SSB. of Bxeter. Pop. 978. 
 
 Stargard, the chief town of Further Pomer- 
 ania, Prussia, on the Ihna, 22 miles by rail E. by 
 S. of Stettin. Pop. 26,860. 
 
 Starodoub(ow as od), an Ukraine town, Russia, 
 120 miles NB. of Tchernigoff. Pop. 20,388. 
 
 Start Point, a projection of the coast of Devon, 
 8 miles S. of Dartmouth, forming the south-eastern 
 extremity of the county. It is crowned by a light- 
 house (92 feet), visible for 20 miles. 
 
 Stassfurt, a town of Prussian Saxony, 20 
 miles SSW. of Magdeburg, with enormous stores 
 of salt and kainite (whence the main potash 
 supplies of the world are derived). It has also 
 machine-shops, boiler-works, and other industrial 
 enterprises. Pop. 21,500. 
 
 Staten lsla.n6.(Staften), (1) separated from Long 
 Island by the Narrows and from New Jersey by 
 the Kill van KuU and Staten Island Sound, con- 
 stitutes the borough of Richmond, New York 
 city. Area, 55 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 67,021.— (2) 
 An Argentinian island separated from Tierra del 
 Fuego by Le Maire Strait. Long (45 miles) and 
 narrow, it has steep coasts penetrated by deep 
 fiords, and rises to 3000 feet. Snow covers it 
 most of the year. It was named in 1616 after the 
 States-general of Holland. 
 Staubbacb, Fall of. See Lauterbrunnen. 
 Staunton, capital of Augusta county, Vir- 
 ginia, in the Shenandoah valley, 136 miles by 
 rail WNW. of Richmond. Here are the state 
 lunatic, deaf-mute, and blind asylums, large iron- 
 works, and flour and planing mills. Pop. 7300. 
 
 Stavanger (Stah'vang-er), the chief town of 
 SW. Norway, on the S. side of Bukken Fjord, 
 100 miles S. of Bergen. It has two harbours, 
 
 and derives its importance from the fisheries of 
 the adjacent coast. Dating back to the 9th c. at 
 least, it has been often destroyed by fire and is 
 now quite a modern place. The Gothic cathedral 
 was founded by an English bishop (Ileinald) in 
 the 11th century. Of late years Stavanger has 
 become a favourite tourists' rendezvous, 3500 
 stopping here in 1890. Pop. C1900) 30,620. 
 
 Staveley, a Derbyshire township, 4 miles NB- 
 of Chesterfield. Pop. 9363. 
 
 Stavro'pol, a town on the northern slopes of 
 the Caucasus. Pop. 41,621.— Area of government, 
 26,492 sq. m. ; pop. 912,650. 
 
 Stawell, a town of Victoria, Western Aus> 
 tralia, 125 miles WNW. of Melbourne, with gold- 
 mines. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Steelton, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Susquehanna, 4 miles SE. of Harrisburg, with 
 steel-works. Pop. (18S0) 2447 ; (1900) 12,086. 
 
 Steinkerk, or STEENKERKE(&'<t?ie-^"erfcor)Sto2/7i- 
 ker-kch), a Belgian village (pop. 860), 5 miles N. 
 of Soignies. William III. was defeated here by 
 the French on 3d August 1692. 
 
 Stellaland, a short-lived South African repub- 
 lic, formed in 1882 by Boer adventurers. In 
 1885 the British government incorporated it in 
 Bechuanaland (q.v.). 
 
 Stellenbosch, a South African town (pop. 
 6000), in a fertile vine-clad valley, 25 miles E. of 
 Capetown by rail, with an important college 
 afiiliated to Capetown University. 
 
 Stelvio, Pass of the (Ger. Stilfserjoch), the 
 highest carriage-road across the Alps (9042 feet), 
 in the Austrian Tyrol, forming part of the great 
 road (1825) between Milan and Innsbruck. 
 
 Stendal, a town of Prussian Saxony, 36 miles 
 NNB. of Magdeburg, has a Gothic cathedral 
 (1420-24), a statue of Winckelmann (a native), 
 railway workshops, &c. Pop. 22,100. 
 
 Stenhousemuir, a town of Stirlingshire, 3 
 miles NNW. of Falkirk. Pop. 5436. 
 
 StenniS, a parish in Orkney, 4 miles NE. of 
 Stromness, with a sea-loch of that name, and 
 two celebrated stone circles, the larger 340 feet 
 in diameter, with stones 3 to 14^ feet high. 
 
 Stepney, a London metropolitan borough ; pop. 
 (1901) 298,600. It is also one of the parliamentary 
 divisions of Tower Hamlets. 
 
 Sterling, a city of Illinois, on Rock River, 109 
 miles AV. of Chicago. It has factories, which 
 produce iron, farm implements, barbed wire, 
 pumps, windmills, wagons, paper, &c. Pop. 6310. 
 
 Sternberg, a town of Austria, 12 miles by rail 
 N. of Olmiitz. Pop. 15,200. 
 
 Stettin (Stet-teen'), capital of the Prussian prov- 
 ince of Pomerania, and a busy port, stands on 
 the Oder, 30 miles from the Baltic and 60 by 
 rail (120 by river and canal) NE. of Berlin. 
 Among its buildings are the Gothic church of St 
 Peter (founded 1124), the large church of St James 
 (14th century), the royal palace (1575), two orna- 
 mental arches, a hospital, town-house, theatre, 
 &c. The strong fortifications were removed in 
 1874 ; since then the ground on which they stood 
 has been rapidly built over, so that Stettin now 
 forms virtually one large town with Bredow, 
 Grabow, and Ziillchow. The population rose from 
 17,154 in 1871 to 116,139 in 1890, and— with the 
 suburbs— to 215,000 in 1905. Its industries in- 
 clude shipbuilding, oil-refining, and the manu- 
 facture of cement, sugar, paper, spirits, soap 
 and candles, matches, chemicals, flour, sewing- 
 machines, &c. Stettin was the seat of a princely 
 
STEUBENVILLE 
 
 ^m 
 
 STOCKBRIDGE 
 
 dynasty, 1107-1637; was occupied by Sweden, 
 1648-1720; by the French, 1806-13. 
 
 Steubenville (Stew'ben-vil), capital of Jefferson 
 county, Ohio, on the Ohio River, 68 miles below 
 Pittsburgh (by railway 43), with blast-furnaces, 
 rolling-mills, machine and railway shops, and 
 manufactories of white-lead, paper, glass, wool- 
 lens, flour, beer, &c. There are coal-mines near 
 by, and natural gas is plentiful. Fort Steuben 
 was built here in 1787. Pop. 15,250. 
 
 Stevenage, a town of Hertfordshire, 4 miles 
 SE. of Hitchin by rail, with an old parish church 
 and a grammar-school (1558). Straw-plait is 
 manufactured. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Stevenson's Road. See Livingstonia, Tan- 
 ganyika. 
 
 Stevens Point, a town of Wisconsin, on the 
 Wisconsin River, 161 miles by rail NW. of Mil- 
 waukee, with mills and a lumber trade. Pop. 9800. 
 
 Stevenston, a town of Ayrshire, | mile inland, 
 and 28 miles SW. of Glasgow. Cotton and silk 
 weaving used to be the staple industries, but it 
 now depends on the neighbouring collieries, iron- 
 works, chemical works, and Nobel's explosives 
 factory. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Stewart Island. See New Zealand. 
 
 Stewarton, a town of Ayrshire, on Annick 
 Water, 5^ miles N. by W. of Kilmarnock. Its 
 specialty is the Scotch bonnet manufacture ; but 
 it also carries on carpet-weaving, spindle-making, 
 &c. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Stewartstown, a Tyrone market-town, 7 miles 
 NB. of Dungannon. Pop. 670. 
 
 Steyer (StVer), a town of Upper Austria, at the 
 confluence of the Steyer and Enns, 36 miles by 
 rail S. by E. of Linz, is the chief seat of the iron 
 and steel manufactures of Austria, turning out 
 firearms, cutlery, &c. Pop. 17,199. 
 
 Steyning (Stain'ing), a Sussex town, 1 mile W. 
 of the river Adur and 4J miles N. of Shoreham. 
 Till 1832 it returned two members. Pop. 1705. 
 
 Stillorgan, a village, 5 miles SB. of Dublin. 
 
 Stillwater, capital of Washington county, 
 Minnesota, on the navigable St Qroix River 
 (which here expands into a narrow lake), 18 
 miles by rail NE. of St Paul. It has a large 
 lumber trade, and contains sawmills, a foundry, 
 and flour-mills. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Stilton, a parish (pop. 650) of N. Huntingdon- 
 shire, 6 miles SW. of Peterborough. It gives 
 name to the well-known cheese, most of which 
 now is of course manufactured elsewhere. 
 
 Stinchar (Stin'shar), an Ayrshire stream, flow- 
 ing 30 miles to the sea at Ballantrae. 
 
 Stirling, the county town of Stirlingshire, 
 stands on the south bank of the winding Forth, 
 36 miles NW. of Edinburgh and 29 NNE. of 
 Glasgow. Like Edinburgh, to which in its main 
 features it bears a striking resemblance, it no 
 doubt owes its origin to the strong natural 
 fortress of its Castle Hill, which rises gradually 
 from the east to a height of 420 feet above the 
 sea or 340 above the plain, and fronts the west 
 with a steep precipitous wall of basaltic rock. 
 The Castle, which commands magnificent views 
 of the Grampians, the Ochils, and the ' Links of 
 Forth,' dates from immemorial antiquity, though 
 few, if any, of the existing buildings are earlier 
 than the days of the Stewart sovereigns, who 
 often kept court here. These include the Douglas 
 room (where the Earl of Douglas was stabbed by 
 James II., 1452), James III.'s parliament-hall 
 (now a barrack-room), James V.'s palace, and 
 
 James VI. 's chapel (now a store-room). Stirling 
 has many other objects of interest, as Argyll's 
 Lodging (1630, since 1799 a military hospital) ; 
 ruined Mar's Work (c. 1570) ; the parish church 
 (in 1656 divided into two) ; the colossal statue of 
 Bruce (1877); the new cemetery, with half-a- 
 dozen statues of Reformers and Covenanters 
 and a marble group of the Wigtown martyrs ; 
 Cowane's Hospital or the Guildhall (1637); 
 the King's Knot and King's Park ; the Mote or 
 Heading Hill ; the old four-arch bridge (c. 1400 
 —the 'key of the Highlands'); Robert Steven- 
 son's new bridge (1832) ; and the Smith Institute 
 (1874), with picture-gallery, reading-room, library, 
 and museum, where now is preserved the 'Stirling 
 Jug' (1497), the standard of the old Scots pint. 
 Other modern edifices are the Countv Buildings 
 (1875), the public hall (1883), and the High School 
 (1855-89). In the neighbourhood are Bannock- 
 burn (q.v.), the ruins of Cambuskenneth Abbey 
 (q.v.), and the Abbey Craig (q.v.). Stirling 
 manufactures tartans, tweeds, carpets, agricul- 
 tural implements, &c. A royal burgh as early 
 as 1119, it unites with Dunfermline, Culross, 
 Inverkeithing, and Queensferry to return one 
 member. Pop. (1851) 12,837; (1901) 18,403. 
 Stirling (formerly Stryvelyne or Estrivelin, and 
 also Snowdoun) has a wealth of historic memories 
 —the death of Alexander I. and William the 
 Lion ; Wallace's victory of Stirling Bridge (1297) ; 
 the great siege of the castle by Edward I. (1304) ; 
 the birth of James III. ; the coronation of Queen 
 Mary ; the baptism and coronation of James VI. ; 
 the slaughter of the Regent Lennox (1571) ; the 
 birth of Prince Henry (1594) ; the capture of the 
 castle by Monk (1651) ; and its unsuccessful siege 
 by the Jacobites (1746). See History of the Clmpd 
 Royal of Stirling (Grampian Club, 1882), and 
 Charters of Stirling (Glasgow, 1884). 
 
 Stirlingshire, a midland county of Scotland, 
 forming the border-land between Highlands and 
 Lowlands, is bounded by Perth, Clackmannan, 
 Linlithgow, Lanark, and Dumbarton shires. 
 With a maximum length and breadth of 46 and 
 22 miles, it has an area of 467 sq. m., or 298,579 
 acres, of which 3294 are foreshore and 8946 water. 
 Th3 Forth traces much of the northern and all 
 the north-eastern boundary ; on the western lies 
 Loch Lomond ; and other lakes and streams be- 
 longing partly or wholly to Stirlingshire are 
 Lochs Katrine and Arklet, and the Avon, Carron, 
 Bannock, Endrick, and Blane. Ben Lomond, in 
 the north-west, attains 3192 feet ; and lesser 
 elevations are the Gargunnock Hills (1591 feet), 
 Kilsyth Hills (1393), Campsie Fells (1894), and 
 Fintry Hills (1676). A considerable part of 
 Stirlingshire is occupied by the carses of Stirling 
 and Falkirk, which have in great measure been 
 reclaimed from unproductive moss. About 40 
 per cent, of the whole area of the county is in 
 cultivation ; woods cover 14,241 acres. Coal and 
 ironstone are largely mined ; and there are the 
 great ironworks of Carron and Falkirk, besides 
 manufactures of woollens, cotton, chemicals, &c. 
 The chief towns are Stirling, Falkirk, Kilsyth, 
 Denny, and Grangemouth. The county returns 
 one member. Pop. (1801) 50,825 ; (1841) 82,057 ; 
 (1901) 142,291. Battles were fought at Stirling 
 Bridge, Falkirk (1298 and 1745), Bannockburn, 
 Sauchieburn, and Kilsyth. 
 
 Stobs, an estate in Roxburgh, 5 miles S. of 
 Hawick, bought by government in 1900 for a camp. 
 At Stobs Castle Lord Heathfield was born. 
 
 Stockbrldge, a Hampshire market-town, on 
 the Anton or Test, 8 miles W. by S. of Andover. 
 
STOCKHOLM 
 
 STOCKTON-ON-TEES 
 
 Till 1832 it returned two members ; Steele at one 
 time was its representative. It has a well-lcnown 
 racecourse and training stables. Pop. 860. 
 
 Stockholm (I pronounced), the capital of 
 Sweden, stands on several islands and the adjacent 
 mainland, between a bay of the Baltic and Lake 
 Malar, in a situation that is accounted one of the 
 most picturesque in Europe. Its nucleus is an 
 island in mid-channel called 'the Town;' on it 
 stand the imposing royal palace (1697-1754) ; the 
 chief church (St Nicholas), in which the kings 
 are crowned ; the House of the Nobles (1648-70) ; 
 the town-house ; the ministries of the kingdom ; 
 and the principal wharf, a magnificent granite 
 quay, fronting east. Immediately W. of the 
 central island lies the Knights' Island {Riddar- 
 holm) ; it is almost entirely occupied with public 
 buildings, as the Houses of Parliament ; the old 
 Franciscan church, in which all the later sove- 
 reigns of Sweden have been buried ; the royal 
 archives ; and the chief law-courts. N. of these 
 two islands lie the handsomely built districts of 
 Norrmalm, separated from them by a narrow 
 channel, in which is an islet with the royal 
 stables. In Norrmalm are the National Museum 
 (1850-65), with valuable prehistoric collections, 
 coins, paintings, sculptures ; the principal 
 theatres ; the Academy of Fine Arts (1735) ; 
 the barracks; the Hop Garden, with the 
 Royal Library (1870-76), 250,000 vols, and 8000 
 MSS., and with the statue (1885) of Linnaeus ; 
 the Academy of Sciences (1739); the Museum of 
 Northern Antiquities (1873); the Observatory, 
 &c. Ship Island (Skeppslwlm), immediately east 
 of 'the Town ' island, is the headquarters of the 
 Swedish navy, and is connected with a smaller 
 island on the south-east, that is crowned with a 
 citadel. Beyond these again, and farther to the 
 east, lies the beautiful island of the Zoological 
 Gardens. Immediately south of 'the Town' 
 island is the extensive district of Sodermalm, the 
 houses of which climb up the steep slopes that 
 rise from the water's edge. HandsoTue bridges 
 connect the central islands with the northern 
 and southern districts ; quick little steamboats 
 go to the beautiful islands in Lake Malar on the 
 west, and eastward towards the Baltic Sea (40 
 miles distant). Sugar, tobacco, silks and ribbons, 
 candles, linen, cotton, and leather are produced, 
 and there are large iron-foundries and machine- 
 shops. Though the water approaches are frozen 
 up during winter, Stockholm imports wheat and 
 rye, rice, flour, herrings, oils and oilcake, wine 
 and spirits, &c., and exports iron and steel, oats, 
 and tar. Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl 
 in 1255, and grew to be the capital only in modern 
 times. Pop. (1800) 75,500 ; (1850) 93,000 ; (1878) 
 156,677 ; (1900) 300,624. The principal events in 
 the history of the city have been tlie sieges by 
 Queen Margaret of Denmark (1389), battles in the 
 vicinity against the Danes, the capture of the 
 
 Elace by Cliristian II. of Denmark in 1520, and 
 is ' Blood Bath ' of nobles and chief citizens. 
 
 Stockport, a parliamentary, municipal, and 
 county borough of East Cheshire, 6 miles SSE. of 
 Manchester and 37 E. of Liverpool. It is built 
 on the slopes of a narrow gorge, where the Tame 
 and the Goyt unite to form the Mersey, which is 
 spanned by the viaduct (1840) of the London and 
 North-western Railway, 111 feet high, and 625 
 yards long, as well as by several bridges. St 
 Mary's Church was rebuilt in 1817, with the ex- 
 ception of its 14tli-century chancel ; and Stock- 
 port has also a market-hall (1851-61), mechanics' 
 institute (1862), free library (1875), fine technical 
 
 school (1890), huge Union Sunday-school (1806), 
 grammar-school (1487; rebuilt 1832), infirmary 
 (1832), the Vernon Park (1858), containing a 
 museum, and, in St Peter's Square, a statue 
 (1886) of Richard Cobden, who represented the 
 borough from 1841 to 1847. Stockport was the site 
 of a Roman station, and afterwards of a Norman 
 castle, held till 1327 by the Earls of Chester, and 
 taken by Prince Rupert in 1644, soon after which 
 it was demolished by the parliament. In 1745 
 Prince Charles Edward passed through Stock- 
 port, which Bishop Pococke six years later 
 describes as having ' a little manufacture of the 
 Manchester linen, some woollen and ribands, and 
 two silk-mills like those of Derby.' Since then 
 it has grown to be a most important seat of the 
 cotton industry, in spite of the machinery dis- 
 turbances (1810-20), the strike of 1828-29, when 
 the military were called out, and many persons 
 wounded, the 'Plug Riots '(1840), and the cotton- 
 famine (1861-64). Felt hats are also manufac- 
 tured, and there are iron and brass foundries, 
 engine and machine shops, breweries, &c. Stock- 
 port was constituted a parliamentary borough 
 (returning two members) in 1832, a municipal 
 borough in 1835, and a county borough in 1888. 
 Pop. (1851) 53,835 ; (1881) 59,553 ; (1901) 78,871. 
 See works by Butterworth (1827-28), Barwaker 
 (East Cheshire, 1877), and Heginbotham (1877-78). 
 
 Stocksbrldge, a town in tlie West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 7^ miles NW. of Sheffield. Pop. 6570. 
 
 Stockton, capital of San Joaquin county, 
 California, on a creek connected with the San 
 Joaquin River, 103 miles E. by N. of San Fran- 
 cisco. It contains the state lunatic asylum, and 
 manufactures ironware, paper, woollens, flour, 
 soap, &c. Pop. 18,500, 
 
 Stockton-on-Tees, an important municipal and 
 parliamentary borough and seaport in Durham, 
 situate on the north side of the Tees, 4 miles 
 from its mouth and 11 ENE. of Darlington, 4 
 WSW. of Middlesboroiigh, and 236 NNW. of 
 London. The broad and handsome High Street 
 is nearly a mile in length ; and a new town, South 
 Stockton or Thornaby-on-Tees (q.v.), included 
 within the parliamentary boundary, in Yorkshire, 
 has sprung up on the south bank of the river, 
 the two being connected by an iron bridge of 
 three arches (1887), which superseded a five-arch 
 stone bridge of 1771, and cost over £80,000. The 
 town has six churches, a Roman Catholic chapel 
 (1842-70) by the elder Pugin, a town-hall, 
 borough-hall (1852), an exchange, a theatre, large 
 recreation grounds, and a public park opened by 
 the Duke of York in October 1893. The Stockton 
 Races, of some mark in the sporting world, are 
 held annually in August. Shipbuilding, chiefly 
 in iron and steel, is busily carried on ; and blast- 
 furnaces, foundries, engine-works, and extensive 
 potteries and ironworks are in operation. Sail- 
 cloth, ropes, linen, and diapers were at one time 
 the staple industry ; but their manufacture has 
 been discontinued ; and there are breweries, 
 corn-mills, and spinning-mills. The exports are 
 chiefly iron and earthenware ; the imports corn, 
 timber in deals, spars, &c., and bark. At Stock- 
 ton the Tees is navigable for vessels of large ton- 
 nage ; the navigation of the river has been much 
 improved. Pop. of the municipal borough (1891) 
 49,708 ; (1901) 51,476 ; of parliamentary borough, 
 including Thornaby, (1901) 71,815. Stockton 
 suft'ered severely from the incursions of the Scots 
 in the early part of the 14th century. Its 
 moated castle was taken for the Parliament in 
 1644, and 'slighted and dismantled' in 165^ 
 
STOKE-POQES 
 
 6*70 
 
 STONYHURST 
 
 almost the last vestige being removed in 1865. 
 At the Restoration it had only 120 houses, mostly- 
 built of clay. Since 1867 it sends one member to 
 parliament. Ritson was a native. See Dar- 
 lington, and works by J. Brewster (1829), H. 
 Heavisides (1SG5), and T. Richmond (1868). 
 
 Stoke-Poges (Pogis), a village of Buckingham- 
 shire, 2 miles N. of Slough station. Gray's 
 mother settled here in 1742 ; the beautiful church- 
 yard is the scene of his Elegy, and in that church- 
 yard he is buried. Pop. of parish, 1400. 
 
 Stokesley, a Yorkshire town, on the Leven, 9 
 miles SE. of Stockton-on-Tees. Pop. 1650. 
 
 Stoke-upon-Trent, a manufacturing town of 
 Staffordshire, the capital of the ' Potteries,' on 
 the Trent and the Trent-and-Mersey Canal, 15 
 miles SB. of Crewe, 2 E. of Newcastle-under- 
 Lyme, and 16 N. of Stafford. It is a modern 
 place, dating only from the last quarter of the 
 18th century, and has a parish church with 
 Wedgwood's grave, a town-hall (1835), a market- 
 hall (1883), a free library (1878), the Minton 
 memorial building (1858), the Hartshill Infirmary 
 (1868), public baths, and statues of Wedgwood, 
 Minton, and ,Colin Minton Campbell. Its 
 factories of porcelain, earthenware, encaustic 
 tiles, and tesselated pavements are among the 
 largest in the world ; and the industries also in- 
 clude coal-mining, brick-making, and the manu- 
 facture of iron, engines, machinery, &c. Mrs 
 Craik (Miss Mulock) was a native. Tlie parlia- 
 mentary borough, constituted in 1832, was much 
 curtailed in 1885 and lost one of its two members ; 
 the municipal borough was incorporated in 1874. 
 Pop. (1871) 15,144 ; (1881) 19,261 ; (1901) 30,458 ; 
 of parliamentary borough (1901) 89,015. See 
 John Ward's Borough of Stoke-upon-Trent (1843). 
 
 Stolberg, (1) a mining and manufacturing town 
 of Rhenish Prussia, 10 miles by rail E. of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. It manufactures brass, iron, zinc, 
 glass, &c. Pop. 15,250.— (2) A town at the S. 
 base of the Harz Mountains, the centre of an old 
 countship ; pop. 2311. 
 
 Stolp, a Prussian town in Pomerania, on the 
 river Stolp, 85 miles W. by N. of Danzig. It has 
 a castle, iron-foundries, and machinery and amber 
 manufactures. Pop. 28,500. 
 
 Stone, a Staffordshire town, on the Trent's 
 left bank, 7 miles NNW. of Stafford and 7 S. of 
 Stoke-upon-Trent. It has a town-hall (1869), a 
 market-hall (1868), Alleyne's school (1558), remains 
 of an Augustinian monastery, two modern con- 
 vents, and manufactures of earthenware, boots, 
 beer, leather, &c. Peter de Wint was a native. 
 Pop. 5750. 
 
 Stonebyres Linn. See Clyde. 
 
 Stonefield, an industrial town of Lanarkshire, 
 2^ miles NW. of Hamilton and 8 SE. of Glasgow. 
 It was the scene of riots in February 1887. Pop. 
 7500. 
 
 Stoneham, a town of Massachusetts, 9 miles 
 N. of Boston. It has boot-factories. Pop. 6190. 
 
 Stoneha'ven (locally Stanehive'), a seaport and 
 (since 1607) the county town of Kincardineshire, 
 16 miles SSW. of Aberdeen, is situated on a rocky 
 bay at the mouth of Carron Water, which divides 
 it into an Old and New Town. The harbour, 
 formed since 1826, admits only small vessels; 
 but the town (constituted a police-burgh in 1889) 
 has herring and haddock fisheries. Population, 
 4600. See Dunnottar. 
 
 Stcnehenge (Saxon Stanhengist, 'the hanging 
 stones '), in Wiltshire, on Salisbury Plain, 9 miles 
 JJ. of Salisbury and ? W. of Amesbury, is a 
 
 circular group of gigantic standing stones, situated 
 in the midst of a number of prehistoric barrows 
 of the bronze age. The circle, which is 97"7 feet 
 in diameter, occupies the central portion of an 
 area of 360 feet in diameter, enclosed within an 
 earthen rampart and ditch. It consists of two 
 concentric circles enclosing two ellipses. The 
 exterior circle, which is composed of pillar-stones 
 of Tertiary sandstone, locally called 'sarsens,' 
 set up at pretty regular intervals of about 4 feet 
 apart, has been surmounted by a continuous line 
 of imposts closely fitted to each other at the 
 extremities, and having mortise-holes in their 
 under sides, which receive tenons on the tops 
 of the pillar-stones. The pillar-stones show 
 generally about 13 feet of heiglit above the 
 ground, and the imposts are about 10 feet long, 
 3|- feet wide, and 2 feet 8 inches deep. Of this 
 circle seventeen pillar-stones and six imposts 
 retain their original position. About 9 feet 
 within the exterior circle are the remains of a 
 second circle of smaller undressed blocks or 
 boulders of primitive rock, locally known as 
 'blue stones.' Within this inner circle, and 
 separated from it by about the same distance, 
 is an incomplete ellipse, nearly of horse-shoe 
 form, with the open end facing the north-east, 
 formed of five trilithons or groups of two immense 
 pillar-stones supporting an impost. Tlie central 
 trilithon facing the open end of the ellipse is the 
 largest, the pillar-stones being 22J feet in height 
 above ground, and the added height of the impost 
 making the whole height of the trilithon 26J feet. 
 The other four, whicli stood facing each other, 
 two and two on opposite sides of the ellipse, are 
 somewhat smaller, and only two are now perfect. 
 Within this ellipse is a smaller ellipse of the same 
 form, but composed, like the second circle, of 
 irregularly-shaped ' blue stones ' without imposts, 
 varying from 6 to 8 feet in height, and set at 
 intervals of 5 to 6 feet. Though not mentioned 
 by any Roman writer, or noticed by Gildas, 
 Nennius, or Bede, Stonehenge, in the 12th c, 
 is chronicled by Henry of Huntingdon as one 
 of the four wonders of England, the other 
 three being merely natural phenomena. It has 
 been variously attributed to the Phoenicians, the 
 Belgse, the Druids, the Saxons, and the Danes. 
 It has been called a temple of the sun, and of 
 serpent-worship, a shrine of Buddha, a plane- 
 tarium, &c. Avebury assigns it to tlie bronze 
 age, the inner circle of small unwrought 'blue 
 stones' being oldest. One of the uprights was 
 blown down in 1900, and re-erected (in cement) 
 next year. The whole is now fenced in, and 
 looked after, as private property. See Lady 
 Antrobus, Guide to Amesbury and Stonehenge 
 (1901) ; and Lockyer's articles in Nature (1904). 
 
 Stonehouse, a town of Lanarkshire, on Avon 
 Water, 7i miles SSE. of Hamilton. Pop. 2968. 
 
 Stonehouse. See Devonport. 
 
 Stone River. See Murfreesborough. 
 
 Stonington, a port of Connecticut, on the 
 Atlantic, 14 miles E. of New London. It has a 
 foundry, and tin-factories. Pop. 8550. 
 
 Stonyhurst, a great Roman Catholic college, 
 in NB. Lancashire, 4 miles SW. of Clitheroe. 
 The old home of the Shirebunies, it passed by 
 marriage in 1754 to the Welds of Lulworth, 
 and by them was granted in 1794 to the Jesuit 
 seminary founded at St Omer in 1592 by Father 
 Parsons, and thence transferred in 1762 to Bruges, 
 in 1772 to Liege. Tlie fine old house, dating 
 from 1594, was much extended during 1810-78, 
 the chapel being built in 1835. There are ao 
 
STONY STRATFORD 
 
 671 
 
 STRASBURG 
 
 observatory, a library of 40,000 vols., &c. 
 Affiliated in 1840 to the University of London, 
 Stonyhurst has now some 300 boys. See works 
 by Hewitson (2d ed. 1878), an anonymous writer 
 (1881), Rimmer (1884), Halt (1886), Shawcross 
 (1894), and Father Gerard (1894). 
 
 Stony Stratford, a market-town of Bucks, 
 on Watling Street and the Ouse, 8 miles NE. 
 of Buckingham. It had an Eleanor cross till 
 1646, and suffered from fire in 1742. Pop. 2019. 
 Stormont. See Perthshire. 
 Stonnontfield, a Tayside village, 4^ miles N. 
 of Perth, with salmon-breeding ponds (1853). 
 
 Stor'noway, a seaport and important fishery- 
 station in Lewis, the chief town of the Outer 
 Hebrides, near the head of a spacious sea-loch, 
 59 miles N. by W. of Portree in Skye and 180 of 
 Oban. The principal feature is Stornoway Castle, 
 completed in 1870 by Sir James Matheson (1796- 
 1878), at a cost, with the grounds, of £89,000. 
 Pop. 3900. ' 
 
 Stour, (1) a river flowing 47 miles E. along the 
 Suffolk and Essex boundary to the sea at Harwich. 
 —(2) A river of Kent, flowing 40 miles, past Ash- 
 ford and Canterbury to Pegwell Bay.— (3) A river 
 of Oxford and Warwick shires, flowing 20 miles 
 to the Avon, near Stratford-on-Avon.— <4) A 
 river of Somerset, Dorset, and Hants, flowing 55 
 miles to the Avon at Christchurch. 
 
 Stourbridge, a market-town of Worcestershire, 
 on the Stour, at the border of Staffordshire and 
 the Black Country, 4^ miles S. by W. of Dudley 
 and 12 W. by S. of Birmingham. The famous 
 fireclay is said to have been discovered about 
 1555 by wandering glassmakers from Lorraine ; 
 and Stourbridge now has glass, earthenware, and 
 firebrick works, besides manufactures of iron, 
 nails, chains, leather, &c. The grammar-school 
 (1552), at which Samuel Johnson passed a twelve- 
 month, was rebuilt in 1862 ; and there are also 
 a corn exchange (1854), county court (1864), and 
 mechanics' institute. Pop. (1851) 7847; (1881) 
 9737 ; (1901, urban district) 16,302. 
 
 Stourport, a town of Worcestershire, at the 
 Stour's influx to the Severn, and the terminus of 
 the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, 14 
 miles by rail N. by W. of Worcester and 4 SSW. 
 of Kidderminster. Dating from 1770, it is a clean, 
 neat place, with manufactures of carpets, iron, 
 glass, &c. Pop. 4600. 
 
 Stow, a Midlothian village, on the Gala's left 
 bank, 6^ miles N. of Galasliiels. Pop. 560. 
 
 Stowe House, 3 miles NNW. of Buckingham, 
 the seat of the Duke of Buckingham, and resi- 
 dence of the exiled Orleans family. 
 
 Stowey, Nether, a Somerset village, *l\ miles 
 WNW. of Bridgwater, with memories of Thomas 
 Poole and Coleridge. 
 
 Stowmarket, a Suffolk market-town, on the 
 Gipping, 12 miles NW. of Ipswich. It has a fine 
 flint-work church (chiefly Decorated), with a 
 tower and spire 120 feet high, an iron-foundry, 
 malting, stay-making, and chemical and gun- 
 cotton works— a disastrous explosion here in 
 August 1871 cost 23 lives. Pop. (1801) 1761 ; 
 (1901) 4162. For its memories of Milton, Burkitt, 
 Crabbe, and Godwin, see HoUingsworth's History 
 of Stowmarket (1844). 
 
 Stow-on-the-Wold, a Gloucestershire town, 4j 
 
 miles SSW. of Moreton-in-the-Marsh. Pop. 1370. 
 
 Strabane (Stra-hdhn'), a Tyrone market- town, 
 
 on the Mourne, 14 miles by rail S. by W. of 
 
 Londonderry. It has fine R. C. (1892-95), Episco- 
 
 palian, and Presbyterian churches ; a large con« 
 vent on the hill behind, and celebrated flax and 
 grain markets. Pop. 5033. 
 
 Stradbroke, a Suffolk town. Bishop Grosse- 
 teste's birthplace, 5^ miles E. of Eye. Pop. 1069. 
 
 Straits Settlements, a British colony in the 
 East Indies, consists (since 18G7) of settlements 
 on the Straits of Malacca, or rather on the Malay 
 Peninsula— viz. Singapore, Malacca, Penang, Keel- 
 ing Islands (since 1886), and Christmas Island 
 (since 1889). For particulars of these, see the 
 respective articles. The total area is 1542 sq. m. 
 and the total pop. (1881)423,384; (1905) 575,000, 
 of whom 281,000 are Cliinese, and 58,000 natives 
 of India. The principal products are tin, gam- 
 bier, tapioca, rice, sugar, pepper, and other 
 spices. The trade is largely a transit one ; and 
 the exports approximate an annual value of 
 £20,000,000, the imports of £35.000,000. There 
 are a number of native dependent states, the 
 salient particulars regarding which are given here : 
 
 state. 
 
 British Pro- Area, 
 
 tectorate in sq. m. 
 
 Perak 1874 10,000 
 
 Selangor 1874 3.500 
 
 Sungei Ujong 1885 l.&JO 1 
 
 Negri Seiubilan 1889 1,800 J 
 
 Pahang 1888 10,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 The more notable products of these states are 
 tin, rice, coffee, sugar, tea, cinchona. Tin is 
 chiefly mined in Perak by Chinese, and worked at 
 the mines, and at Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Stralsund (Stral-soonf), a seaport of Prussia, 
 on the narrow Strela Sound, which divides the 
 mainland from the island of Riigen, 67 miles by 
 rail NW. from Stettin. It forms an island, con- 
 nected with the mainland by bridges, and down 
 to 1873 it was a fortress of the first-class. Many 
 of the houses are finely gabled ; and the most in- 
 teresting building is the town-house (1306). The 
 manufactures include leather, sugar, starch, oil, 
 and cards. Pop. 32,500. Founded in 1209, Stral- 
 sund became one of the most important members 
 of the Hansa. It withstood a terrible siege (1628) 
 by Wallenstein, but in 1678 capitulated to the 
 Great Elector after a furious bombardment. It 
 again opened its gates to Prussia in 1715, to the 
 French in 1807, and to the Danes in 1809. The 
 town was held by the Swedes from 1628 to 1814 ; 
 in 1815 Denmark gave it up to Prussia. 
 
 Strangford, a Down seaport, on the W. shore 
 of the entrance to Lough Strangford, opposite 
 Portaferry, and 8 miles NE. of Downpatrick. — 
 Lough Strangford measures 16 by 5 miles, and its 
 entrance 6 miles by 1 mile. 
 
 Stranorlar, a Donegal village, on the Finn, 29 
 miles SW. of Londonderry. 
 
 Stranraer (Stran-ralir'), a royal burgh and sea- 
 port of Wigtownshire, beautifully situated at the 
 head of Loch Ryan, 73 miles WSW. of Dumfries 
 by rail. It has a 16th-century castle, with 
 memories of Claverhouse, a town-hall and court- 
 house (1872-73), and a 'short-sea pas.sage ' to 
 Larne in Ireland. Pop. (1841) 4889 ; (1881) 6415 ; 
 (1901) 6036. Till 1885 Stranraer returned one 
 member with Wigtown (q.v.). 
 
 Strasburg (Ger. Strassburg, Fr. Strasbourg), 
 the capital formerly of the French dep. of Bas- 
 Rhin, but since 1871 of the German imperial 
 territory of Alsace-Lorraine, stands on the river 
 111 and the canals connecting the Rhine with the 
 Rhone and Msirne, 2 miles from the Rhine's left 
 
STRATA FLORIDA 
 
 672 
 
 STRATHCLYDE 
 
 bank and 300 B. of Paris. The citadel, originally 
 built by Vauban (1682-84), was demolished by the 
 Germans during the bombardment of 1870, but 
 they have since rebuilt it and erected detached 
 forts on the adjacent heights, so that Strasburg 
 now ranks as a first-class fortress. Its position 
 near the borders of France, Germany, and Switzer- 
 land gives it both commercial and strategic im- 
 portance. The most celebrated building is the 
 cathedral or minster, founded in 1015 or in 1179, 
 but principally built between 1277 and 1439 ; some 
 of the oldest parts are Eomanesque, but the church 
 as a whole is one of tlie subliinest specimens of 
 Gothic architecture. Only one of the two towers 
 was completed, with a spire of open stone-work 
 (1439) ; it is 4G6 feet high. The minster has a 
 remarkable clock (1838-42) ; in it are portions of 
 an older one made in 1571, but there was a re- 
 markable clock here in the 14th century. Here 
 also are a magnificent rose-window (42 feet 
 across), a fine pulpit, and grand stained glass. 
 The damage done to the structure during the 
 siege of 1870 was carefully repaired. Other 
 notable buildings are the Protestant church of 
 St Thomas, with the tomb of Marshal Saxe, the 
 imperial palace, the library (formerly the castle, 
 and then the episcopal palace), the new univer- 
 sity, and the arsenal. Founded in 1621, the 
 university became specially famous in the 
 branches of medicine and jjhilology, but was 
 broken up during the Revolution. The univer- 
 sity was completely reorganised as a German 
 institution in 1872, is equipped with new univer- 
 sity buildings (1884), magnificent laboratories, 
 &c., and has more than 120 teachers and 850 
 students. The famous library, with nearly 
 200,000 volumes and precious Incunabula Avas 
 entirely destroyed by fire during the bombard- 
 ment in 1870, but was replaced by a new collec- 
 tion that has now swelled to 700,000 volumes. 
 The trade, especially the transit trade, is very 
 extensive ; and the manufactures are very various 
 — beer, pates de foie gras, leather, cutlery, engines, 
 musical instruments, jewellery, tobacco, furni- 
 ture, chemicals, &c. Pop. (1880) 104,471 ; (1890) 
 123,500 ; (1900) 151,041. 
 
 Strasburg, the Argentoratum of the Romans, 
 was colonised by them during the reign of 
 Augustus ; the name Stratisburgum first ai)pears 
 in the 6th c. It became a free town of the German 
 empire in the 13th c. ; in 1681 it was seized by 
 Louis XIV. in a time of profound peace, and was 
 confirmed to him by the treaty of Ryswick. On 
 September 28, 1870, after a seven weeks' siege, 
 it surrendered to tlie Germans. 
 
 Strata Florida. See Cardiganshire. 
 
 Stratfieldsaye. See Strathfieldsaye. 
 
 Stratford, a thriving town of Essex, on the 
 Lea, 4 miles ENB. of London. It had a 
 Cistercian abbey (1134) and the Empress Matilda's 
 three-arched, bow-shaped bridge (removed in 
 1839). Now part of the borougli of West Ham, 
 it has a handsome town-hall (1869), and is the 
 seat of extensive manufactures. On the opposite 
 side of the Lea is the parish of Bow, or Stratford- 
 le-Bow, now in the met. borough of Poplar. 
 
 Stratford, a port of entry and capital of Perth 
 county, Ontario, on the Avon, 88 miles by rail 
 W. of Toronto, with railway-shops, woollen-mills, 
 and manufactories of machinery, fanning imple- 
 ments, boots and shoes, &c. Pop. 10,250. 
 
 Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare's birthplace, 
 is a pleasant town of Warwickshire, 8 miles SW. 
 of Warwick, 22 SSE. of Birmingham, and 110 
 J^W. of London. It stands on the right bank of 
 
 the quiet Avon, which here is spanned by the 
 'great and sumptuous bridge' of fourteen 
 pointed arches, 376 yards long, that was built by 
 the Lord Mayor of London, Sir Hugh Clopton, 
 who died in 1496. 'Shakespeare's House,' where 
 the poet was born on 23d April 1564, in Henley 
 Street, is national property, having been bought 
 for £3000 in 1847, and restored in 1858-59 ; here 
 are a Shakespeare museum, the ' Stratford 
 poi'trait,' and the signatures of Byron, Scott, 
 Tennyson, Thackeray, Dickens, &c. King Ed- 
 ward VI. 's grammar-school, where Shakespeare 
 was educated, was founded in the reign of 
 Edward IV. ; it occupies the upper story of the 
 old guildhall, and was restored in 1892. The 
 'New Place,' built by Sir Hugh Clopton, was 
 purchased by Shakespeare in 1597, and here he 
 died on 23d April 1616 ; here, too. Queen Henri- 
 etta Maria stayed in 1643. It (or rather its 
 successor, 1703) was wantonly razed in 1759 by 
 the Rev. F. Gastrell, who also felled the poet's 
 mulberry, beneath which Garrick was regaled in 
 1742 ; but its site has also become national pro- 
 perty since 1861. And lastly, uprearing its spire 
 above the lime-trees, there is the beautiful cruci- 
 form church. Early English to Perpendicular in 
 style, having been gradually rebuilt between 1332 
 and 1500. In the chancel, whose two years' 
 restoration was completed in 1892, is Shake- 
 speare's grave, with the portrait bust (1616) by 
 Gerard Janssen or Johnson, Anne Hathaway's 
 grave, and the American stained-glass window of 
 the ' Seven Ages.' The Shakespeare Fountain 
 (1887) was also erected by an American, Mr 
 George W. Childs ; the red-brick Shakespeare 
 Memorial Theatre, seating 800 spectators, waa 
 built in 1877-79 at a cost of £30,000. In the 
 neighbourhood are Shottery, with Anne Hatha- 
 way's cottage (purchased for the nation in 1892 
 for £3000) ; Luddington, where tradition saya 
 she was married ; Charlecote, the seat of the 
 Lucys ; Clopton, with memories of the Gun- 
 powder Plot ; and Welcombe Hill, crowned by 
 an obelisk (1876), 124 feet high, to a Manchester 
 M.P. In Stratford itself still remain to be 
 noticed the chapel of the Guild of the Holy Cross 
 (13th century ; the chancel rebuilt about 1450, 
 and the rest by Sir Hugh Clopton); the half- 
 timbered house of the Harvards (1596) ; the town- 
 hall (1633 ; rebuilt 1768-1863), with Gains- 
 borough's portrait of Garrick ; the corn exchange 
 (1850) ; the market-house (1821) ; the College 
 school (1872) ; a Roman Catholic church by 
 Pugin (1866) ; and a hospital (1884). Before 691 
 a Saxon monastery stood at Stratford-on-Avon, 
 which was incorporated in 1553. It is an import- 
 ant agricultural centre ; still, its chief prosperity 
 depends on the pilgrims (20,000 or so annually) 
 who visit it.. Pop. (1851) 3372; (1901) 8310, an 
 increase largely due to the extension of the 
 borough boundary in 1879. See works by Wash- 
 ington Irving (1821). Hawthorne (1863), Wheeler 
 (1806), J. O. Halliwell-Phillips (1863-85), S. L. Lee 
 (1884), and C. S. Ribton Turner (1893). 
 
 Strathaven (locally Straven), a town of Lanark- 
 shire, 1 mile W. of Avon Water and 16 miles 
 SSE. of Glasgow. On the north side is the 
 picturesque ruin of Avondale Castle, and 5 to 7 
 miles south-west are the battlefields of Drumclog 
 and Loudoun Hill. Pop. (1851) 4274; (1901) 
 4076. See Gebbie's Sketches of Avondale (1880). 
 
 Strathclyde'. In the 8th c. the ancient con- 
 federacy of the Britons was broken up into Wales 
 and Cumbria. Scottish Cumbria, or Strathclyde, 
 thenceforth formed a little kingdom, comprising 
 
STRATHCONA 
 
 673 
 
 STYRIA 
 
 the conntry between Clyde and Solway, governed 
 by princes of its own, and liaving the fortress- 
 town of Alclyde or Dumbarton for its capital. 
 In 954-1124 it became permanently united to the 
 Scottish kingdom. 
 
 Strathcona, a village of Alberta, Canada, on 
 the Canadian Pacific Railway, named from the 
 Canadian magnate, Lord Strathcona. Pop. 1600. 
 Strathearn. See Earn. 
 Strathfieldsaye, a Hampshire estate, with a 
 Queen Anne mansion, overlooking the Loddon, 7 
 miles NNE. of Basingstoke. Associated ere that 
 with the name of Pitt, it was purchased by 
 parliament in 1817 for £263,000, and presented to 
 the Duke of Wellington. See Silchester, and 
 the Rev. Charles H. Griffith's History of Strath- 
 fieldsaye (1892). 
 
 Strathmore (Gael., 'Great Valley'), the most 
 extensive plain in Scotland, is a low-lying tract 
 extending NE. across the country from Dum- 
 bartonshire to Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, 
 and bounded N. by the inountain-rarapart of the 
 Highlands, and S. by the Lennox, Ochil, and 
 Sidlaw Hills. It is 100 miles long and 5 to 10 
 broad ; but Strathmore proper extends only from 
 Perth to near Brechin (about 40 miles). 
 
 StrathpeflFer, a fashionable Scottish watering- 
 place in Ross and Cromarty, to the south of Ben 
 Wyvis (3429 feet), and 5 miles W. of Dingwall by 
 rail, 215 NNW. of Edinburgh. Its sulphur and 
 chalybeate springs are highly efficacious in diges- 
 tive and rheumatic disorders. Pop. 354. See 
 Dr Fortescue Fox's Strathpeffer Spa (1889). 
 
 Strathspey (Strath-spay'), the valley of the 
 Spey (q.v.). 
 
 Stratton, a Cornish town, 16 miles NNW. of 
 Launceston. Pop. with Bude (1901) 2308. 
 
 Straubing {Strow'bing), an old town of Lower 
 Bavaria, on the Danube's right bank, 25 miles by 
 rail SE. of Ratisbon. Pop. 17,550. 
 Strawberry Hill. See Twickenham. 
 Streatham (Stret'ham), a suburban parish, 6 J 
 miles SSW. of St Paul's. Pop. 88,130. 
 
 Streator, a mining-town of Illinois, 94 miles 
 SW. of Chicago. Pop. 16,100. 
 
 Street, a town of Somersetshire, 2 miles SW. 
 of Glastonbury. Pop. 4100. 
 . Stretford, a town of Lancashire, 3J miles SW. 
 of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 30,436. 
 
 Stretinsk, or Sryetinsk, a town of Siberia, on 
 the navigable Shilka, a tributary of the Amur, 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Strigau (Stree-gow), a town of Prussian Silesia, 
 25 miles SE. of Liegnitz. Pop. 12,860. 
 
 Strokestown, a market-town, 12 miles NE. of 
 Roscojnmon. Pop. 810. 
 
 Strom'boU, one of the Lipari Islands (q.v.), 
 with a volcano almost constantly active. 
 
 Strome Ferry, Ross-shire, on salt-water Loch 
 Carron, 53 miles by rail WSW. of Dingwall. 
 
 Stromness, a seaport in Pomona, Orkney, on 
 a beautiful bay, 15 miles W. by S. of Kirkwall. 
 Gow, Scott's ' Pirate,' was born here. Pop. 2450. 
 Strone, an Argyllshire watering-place, at the 
 headland between Loch Long and Holy Loch, 6i 
 miles WNW. of Greenock. Pop. 573. 
 
 Stronsay, one of the Orkney Islands, 12 miles 
 NE. of Kirkwall. Area, 15 sq. m. ; greatest 
 height, 154 feet ; pop. 1160. 
 
 Strontian (Stron-tee'an), an Argyllshire village, 
 24 miles SW. of Fort William, with former lead- 
 jjiinos, which yielded (1790) the mineral strontian. 
 
 99 
 
 Stroud, a manufacturing and market town of 
 Gloucestershire, 10 miles SSE. of Gloucester, on 
 an eminence in a valley sheltered by the Cotes- 
 wolds, where the Frome and Slade rivulets unite 
 to form the Stroud Water or Frome. The water 
 of this stream being peculiarly adapted for use 
 in dyeing scarlet and other grain colours, cloth- 
 factories and dyeworks have been built along its 
 banks for 20 miles ; and Stroud itself is the centre 
 of the woollen manufactures of Gloucestershire, 
 and contains a number of cloth-mills. The parish 
 church, St Lawrence, was rebuilt, with exception 
 of the tower and spire, in 1806-68 ; tlie town-hall, 
 incorporating an Elizabethan fagade, in 1865 ; and 
 there are also the Subscription-rooms (1830), the 
 Lansdown Hall (1879), a hospital (1876), &c. 
 From 1832 to 1885 Stroud, with twelve other 
 parishes, formed a parliamentary borough, return- 
 ing two members. Pop. (1881) 9535 ; (1901) 9153. 
 
 Stry (Stree), or Stryi, a town of Austrian 
 Galicia, on a tributary of the Dniester, 45 miles 
 by rail S. of Lemberg. It was almost wholly 
 burned down in April 1886. Pop. 24,300. 
 
 Studley Royal. See Ripon. 
 
 Stuhlweissenburg (Shtool-vice'en-boorg' ; Hung. 
 Szekes FeMrvdr; Lat. Alba Regia), a royal free 
 town of Hungary, and seat of a bishop, 39 miles 
 SW. of Budapest. Here the kings of Hungary 
 were crowned and buried (1027-1527). Pop. 30,960. 
 
 Stunninster Newton, a Dorset town, on the 
 Stour, 8^ miles NW. of Blandford. Pop. 1863. 
 
 Stuttgart (Shtootfgart), the capital of Wiirtem- 
 berg, stands in a natural basin (817 feet above 
 sea-level) surrounded by hills, Avhich are studded 
 with villas, vineyards, and gardens, and crowned 
 with woods, 2 miles from the Neckar, and 189 by 
 rail WNW. of Munich, 127 SSE. of Frankfort. 
 Except the churches, most of the public edifices 
 date from the 19th century, and are chiefly built 
 in the Renaissance style. On or near the central 
 Palace Square stand the new royal palace (1746- 
 1807), the old royal castle (16th century), two 
 or three other palaces of the royal family, the 
 Konigsbau (shops, bourse, concert-rooms, &c.), 
 the theatre, the railway station (one of the finest 
 in all Germany), the post-office, the Akademie 
 (formerly the Carl School ; now library and 
 guardhouse), the jubilee column (1841), and statues 
 of Schiller and Duke Eberhard. The Collegiate 
 Church, St Leonard's, and the Hospital Church 
 date from the 15th century. The other chief 
 public institutions of Stuttgart are its famous 
 Polytechnic (with 250 students), the Conserv- 
 atory of Music, the royal library (425,000 vols.), 
 the museum and picture-gallery, &c. Stuttgart 
 is a great centre of the German book-trade, manu- 
 factures textiles, beer, pianofortes, chemicals, 
 chocolate, &c., and has celebrated fairs. NE. of 
 the palace lies the picturesque royal park (with 
 some good statuary), extending almost all the 
 way to Cannstatt (q.v.). There are many royal 
 seats in the vicinity. Hegel and Hauff were 
 natives. Pop. (1875)107,573; (1900)176,699. Stutt- 
 gart owes its name and origin to a stud-farm of 
 the early Counts of Wiirtemberg, and has been 
 the capital since 1482. 
 
 Styrla (Ger. Steiermarlc), a duchy of Austria, 
 is bounded on the N. by Upper and Lower 
 Austria, E. by Hungary, S. and W. by Carniola, 
 Carinthia, and Salzburg. Its area is 8629 sq. m., 
 and pop. (1880) 1,213,197; (1900) 1,356,494, of 
 whom 67 per cent, are of German and 33 per cent, 
 of Slavonic origin. Styria is a mountainous 
 country, traversed by ramifications of the Alps. 
 The Save and Drave water the southern districts ; 
 
SUABIA 
 
 674 
 
 SUFFOLK 
 
 the Mur, going S. to the Drave, flows through 
 the middle of the duchy ; while the Euns skirts 
 the NW. boundary. Forests cover 51^ per cent. 
 of the area ; 25^ per cent, is pastures ; and 22 per 
 cent, is under cultivation. Styria's chief wealth 
 lies in its mineral products, especially iron. It 
 was made a separate margraviate in 1056, and in 
 1192 was joined to the Austrian crown. 
 
 Suabla. See Swabia. 
 
 Suaheli. See Swahili Coast. 
 
 Suakin (Soo-dh'keen), or more correctly Sawa- 
 KIN, a seaport of the Red Sea, stands on a small 
 rocky island in a bay on its west side, and is the 
 principal outlet for the commerce of Nubia and 
 of the countries of the Sudan beyond. The island- 
 town is connected with the settlement of El-Keff 
 on the adjacent mainland by a causeway. Port 
 Soudan, 30 miles to the north, has a better and 
 safer harbour and much less trying climate ; and 
 since the opening, in 1906, of the railway thence 
 to Atbara and Berber (connecting there with the 
 Khartoum and Cairo — ultimately the ' Cape to 
 Cairo' — line), threatens to supersede Suakin. 
 The more important exports of Suakin are 
 silver ornaments, ivory, gums, millet, cattle, 
 hides, and gold ; the imports, durra, cottons, 
 flour, sugar, rice, ghi, dates, and coal. Near it 
 several battles were fought by Egyptians and 
 English against the Mahdi's followers. Pop. 
 21,000. See works by E. G. Parry (1885) and 
 W. Galloway (1888). 
 
 Subiaco {Soobyah'ko ; anc. Sublaqueum), a city 
 of Italy, lies embosomed in hills beside the 
 Teverone, 32 miles B. by N. of Rome. It was the 
 cradle of the Benedictine order and the place 
 where the printing-press was first set up in 
 Italy (1464). Two monasteries date from the Gth 
 century ; one of them (Santa Scolastica) contains 
 a small but valuable library, whilst the other 
 was built near St Benedict's cave. Pop. 8500. 
 
 Suchau. See Boochoo. 
 
 Sucre. See Chuquisaca. 
 
 Sudan. See Soudan. 
 
 Sud'bury, a municipal borough (till 1843 also 
 parliamentary) of Suftblk, on tlie Stour at the 
 Essex boundary, 16 miles S. of Bury St Edmunds 
 and 58 NE. of London. It has three old churches, 
 mainly Perpendicular in style, a town-hall (1828), 
 grammar-school (1491 ; rebuilt 1857), corn ex- 
 change (1841), and manufactures of cocoa-nut 
 matting, silk, bricks, &c.— the famous woollen 
 industry of the Flemings, dating from the 14th 
 century, having died out. Archbishop Theobald, 
 beheaded by Tyler in 1381, and Gainsborough 
 were natives. JPop. (1851) 6043 ; (1901) 7109. 
 
 Sudbury, a village of Ontario (pop. 2000), by 
 rail 443 miles W. by N. of Montreal. Close 
 by are immense deposits of copper and nickel. 
 
 Sudet'ic Mountains, a mountain-system of SE. 
 Germany, dividing Prussian Silesia and Lusatia 
 from Bohemia and Moravia, and connecting the 
 Carpathians with the mountains of Franconia. 
 It forms a continuous chain only in the middle— 
 the Riesengebirge (q.v.) and Isergebirge. 
 
 Sudreys, or Sudoreys. See Man (Isle of). 
 
 Suevi. See Swabia. 
 
 Suez (Soo'ez), a town of Egypt, is situated at 
 the southern extremity of the Suez Canal and on 
 the Gulf of Suez, a northern arm of the Red Sea. 
 Close beside the town the Peninsular and Oriental 
 Steamship Company have extensive store-houses, 
 there is an English hospital, and the sweet- water 
 «anal terminates here. The railway from Ismailia 
 
 runs through the town on to the spacious harbour 
 2 miles beyond. Suez has not a very large trade 
 of its own (£800,000 to £900,000 annually) ; most 
 of the commerce passes through it without making 
 halt. Pop. (1897) 17,460. More than once in the 
 past this place, the Arsinoe of the Ptolemies, the 
 Colzum of the early Moslems, was the seat of 
 a flourishing trade ; from the 16th to the 18th 
 century it formed an important etape in the 
 European trade with India. It revived when the 
 overland mail route to India was opened in 1837, 
 and has prospered more since the completion of 
 the canal. Rameses II. seems to have been the 
 first to excavate a canal between the Nile delta 
 and the Red Sea, which was reopened by Darius I. 
 of Persia, and again by the Moslem conquerors 
 of Egypt. Napoleon commissioned Lep^re in 
 1798 to examine and report upon the plan of 
 a ship-canal between the Mediterranean and the 
 Red Sea. This expert's erroneous opinion, that 
 the surface of the Red Sea was nearly 30 
 feet higher than that of the Mediterranean, 
 put an end to the project. But the mistake 
 having been corrected by English officers in 
 1841, Lesseps set himself (in 1849) to study the 
 isthmus, and in 1854 he managed to enlist the 
 interest of Said Pasha, khedive of Egypt, in his 
 scheme. Two years later the Porte granted its 
 permission and a company was formed. Half the 
 capital was raised in Europe, chiefly in France ; 
 the other half by the khedive. In 1859, 25,000 to 
 30,000 men were at work excavating, and the 
 canal was opened on the 16th November 1869. 
 It had cost altogether about 24 million pounds. 
 The total length is 100 miles ; the width of the 
 water-surface was at first 150 to 300 feet, the 
 width at the bottom 72 feet, and the minimum 
 depth 26 feet. At Port Said two strong break- 
 waters, 6940 and 6020 feet long respectively, were 
 run out into the Mediterranean ; at Suez another 
 substantial mole was constructed. The canal 
 crosses Lake Menzaleh (28 miles long), Lake 
 Ballah, Lake Timsah (5 miles long), and the 
 Bitter Lakes (23 miles). The highest point is but 
 50 feet above sea-level. At intervals of 5 or 6 
 miles side-basins are provided to enable vessels 
 to pass one another. Erelong the traffic had 
 increased .so enormously that a second canal 
 was talked about ; and in 1886-90 the canal had 
 been deepened to 28 feet, and widened in 
 parts to 144 feet, and in some places to 213 
 feet. In 1870, 486 vessels of 654,915 tons passed 
 through the canal ; in 1903, 3761 of 11,907,288 net 
 tons, of which 2278 vessels of 7,403,553 tons were 
 Britisli. The time required for passage has 
 been shortened (by help of electric lights, &c.) 
 from 36 hours to 24 hours. Lord Beaconsfield's 
 government bought the khedive's shares (176,602 
 out of a total of 500,000) in 1875 for Britain. Tlie 
 total receipts exceed £4,000,000 annually. See 
 works by Lesseps (1875 and 1881), his Life by G. 
 B. Smith (1893), and the various periodic returns. 
 Suffolk (Suf'fok), the easternmost county of 
 England, is bounded B. by the German Ocean, 
 and elsewhere by Essex, Cambridgeshire, and 
 Norfolk. Its length from E. to W. is 57 miles ; 
 its mean breadth from N. to S. about 30 miles ; 
 and its area, 1475 sq. m. Pop. (1801) 210,431; 
 (1831) 296,317; (1861) 337,070; (1901) 384,198. 
 Though no hills of any notable character rise 
 within its confines, Suffolk is not by any means 
 flat. The sea-coast is low and skirted by banks 
 of shingle, except near Lowestoft and Southwold, 
 and again at Dunwich and Felixstowe, which all 
 rest on sandstone cliff's ; beyond stretches an 
 almost continuous series of light sandy he?itl^' 
 
 J 
 
8UHL 
 
 676 
 
 SUMATRA 
 
 lands, glorious in summer with gorse and heather ; 
 and inland the country is undulating, well 
 watered, and for the most part well wooded, the 
 scenery in places — e.g. at Yoxford ('the Garden 
 of Suffolk'), and in the vale of the Gipping — 
 being very picturesque. More than two-thirds 
 of tlie county consists of heavy land, a stiff clay 
 prevailing in Mid (or as it is locally termed 
 ' High ') Suffolk, whilst the western part lies upon 
 chalk, terminating at its north-west corner with 
 a tract of peaty fen-land. The Waveney, Aide, 
 Deben, Orwell, and Stour, all flowing eastwards, 
 are the principal rivers. Coprolites are raised in 
 the region between Ipswich and Woodbridge, gun- 
 flints at Brandon. Agriculture, despite the 
 depression of late years, still forms the staple 
 industry, 780,000 acres being under cultivation. 
 The manufactures are noticed under Ipswich (the 
 capital), Beccles, Stowmarket, and Sudbury, 
 these being, with Bury St Edmunds, Lowestoft, 
 and Woodbridge, the chief towns. Containing 
 21 hundreds and 517 civil parishes in the dioceses 
 of Norwich and Ely, its parliamentary divisions 
 are five in number, each returning one member, 
 and it has two county councils, one for the 
 eastern and the other for the western district. 
 In antiquities the county is especially rich, and 
 amongst them may be noted the ruins of the 
 castles of Burgh (Roman), Framlingham, Orford, 
 and AVingfleld ; the gatehouse of Butley Priory 
 (Norman); earthworks at Fornham, Haughley, 
 Nacton, and Snape ; the fine flint-work churches ; 
 and the old halls (many of them moated) of 
 Helmingham, Parham, Hengrave, Rushbrooke, 
 Ickworth, Somerleyton, Giffords, and West Stow. 
 Suffolk worthies (other than those named under 
 Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds) have been Bishops 
 Grosseteste, Aungerville, and Bale ; Archbishop 
 Bancroft ; Chief- justices Glanvill and Cavendish ; 
 George Cavendish (Wolsey's biographer) ; Nash, 
 Crabbe, and Robert Bloomfleld (poets); Sir 
 Simonds D'Ewes ; the Earl of Arlington, Roger 
 North ; Gainsborough, Frost, Constable, and 
 Bright (artists) ; Bunbury (caricaturist), Woolner 
 (the sculptor). Lord Chancellor Thurlow, 
 Arthur Young, Clara Reeve, Mrs Inchbald, Kirby 
 (naturalist), John Hookham Frere, Crabb Robin- 
 son, Sir Philip Broke, John and Charles Austin, 
 Admirals Fitzroy and Rous, Dr Routh, Professors 
 Maurice and Cowell, Edward FitzGerald, Sir 
 Henry Thompson, Agnes Strickland, and Miss 
 Betham Edwards. See works by Kirby (2d ed. 
 1764), Cullum (1813), Gage (1838), Page (1844), 
 Suckling (2 vols. 1846-48), Glyde (1858-66), Baynes 
 (2 vols. 1873), Taylor (new ed. 1892), and White 
 (new ed. 1891) ; also the Quarterly (April 1887). 
 
 Suhl (Soole), a town of Prussia, in a romantic 
 Thuringian valley, 32 miles by rail SW. of Erfurt ; 
 celebrated for its firearms, as formerly for its 
 swords and armour. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Sullven, See Sutherland. 
 
 Sulr (Shure), a river of Ireland, flowing 85 miles 
 SW. and E., chiefly along the boundaries of Tip- 
 perary, Waterford, Kilkenny, and Wexford, past 
 Clonmel, Carrick, and Waterford, till it meets 
 the Barrow, and falls into Waterford Haven. 
 
 Sukhum Kale (Sook'hoom Kah-leh; anc. Dios- 
 curias), a fortified seaport (Russian since 1877) of 
 the Caucasus, on the E. coast of the Black Sea, 
 70 miles N. by W. of Poti. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Sukkur, a town on the Indus' right bank, 28 
 miles by rail SB. of Shikarpur ; it is connected 
 by rail also with Karachi, and is the terminus 
 of the Bolan Pass Railway to Afghanistan. The 
 ^iver is crossed by a magnificent cantilever bridge 
 
 (1889), or rather two bridges (one 820 feet in 
 span), resting on Bukkur Island. New Sukkur 
 grew up after the British occupied (1839) the fort 
 on Bukkur. Pop. (1872) 13,318; (1901) 31,316. 
 Near Old Sukkur, a nnle away, are old tombs. 
 
 Sulgrave, a Northants parish, the Washingtons* 
 ancestral seat, 6 miles NNW. of Brackley. 
 
 Suliman Hills (Soo-lee-mdhn'), a rocky, barren 
 mountain-range running over 350 miles N. and 
 S., between Afghanistan and the Punjab. The 
 highest summit, Takht-i-Sulaiman (Solomon's 
 Throne), 11,295 feet high, Avas first ascended by 
 a European, Major Holdich, in 1883. 
 
 Sulina (Soolee'na), a lower branch of the 
 Danube (q.v.). The Roumanian town of Sulina 
 (pop. 5000) is on its S. bank, near the mouth. 
 
 Sulmo'na, or Solmona, a city of Italy, 80 
 miles by rail E. of Rome. It stands 1575 feet 
 above sea-level, and has a cathedral (1119). Here 
 were born Ovid and Pope Innocent VII. On a 
 mountain close by stood until 1870 the ' mother 
 monastery ' of the Celestines. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 Sultanabad, a Persian town in the west of 
 Irak-Ajeini, and capital of the province, with a 
 famous carpet manufacture. Pop, 20,000. 
 
 Sulu Islands, an archipelago of 188 mountain- 
 ous islands stretching from Borneo NE. to the 
 Philippines, with a total area of 948 sq. m. and 
 a pop. of 25,000. The Malay-Mohammedan in- 
 habitants were, as bold pirates, the terror of the 
 seas, until the Spaniards conquered them in 1876 ; 
 in 1899 the sultan recognised the authority of 
 the United States. 
 
 Sumatra (Soo'Tna^ra, usu.Syoo-may'tra; named 
 from the ancient town of Samudera in the north) 
 is after Borneo the largest island of the East 
 Indian Archipelago or Indonesia, having an area 
 not much less than that of Spain, calculated at 
 165,600 sq. m. Towards the middle it is crossed 
 lengthwise by the equator ; the greatest length is 
 1115 miles, the greatest breadth 275. An impos- 
 ing mountain-system, consisting of several nearly 
 parallel ranges (7000 to 10,000 feet high), with 
 intervening plateaus and valleys — forms the 
 framework of the island, which has a bold and 
 frequently precipitous coast towards the west. 
 Seven or eight volcanoes are still active, in- 
 cluding Indrapura (the culminating peak of the 
 island, 11,800 feet), Merapi (the most restless), 
 Pasaman or Mount Ophir (which broke out iu 
 1891), &c. Towards the west the rivers are of 
 necessity short and rapid, but several of the 
 eastward streams grow to imposing rivers in 
 their passage through the plains. They are fed 
 by an abundant rainfall (83 inches at Deli). The 
 flora is exceptionally rich. Vast but too rapidly 
 diminishing areas of the mountain regions are 
 covered with virgin forest, a striking contrast 
 to the wide alluvial prairies. The Dutch expedi- 
 tion of 1877-79 collected 400 varieties of timber. 
 Rice, sugar, coffee, pepper, cocoa-nuts, sago, 
 maize, sweet potatoes, yams, and of late excel- 
 lent tobacco are cultivated. Gold and coal are 
 worked, the latter especially at Ombilin, united 
 with the west coast by railway in 1891. The 
 petroleum found at Langkat and elsewhere is 
 another source of wealth. Of 112 mammals, 
 45 are common to Borneo and 39 to Java. The 
 birds and snakes are in the main Bomean. The 
 Bornean forms, however, are almost entirely 
 confined to the eastern side of the island. The 
 Orang-outang and the bru, the true tiger, the 
 Malay bear, the rusa deer, the Malay hog, the 
 tapir, the two-horned Sumatran rhinoceros, and 
 the Sumatran elephant are characteristic fornag. 
 
SUMBAWA 
 
 676 
 
 SUNDERLAND 
 
 Among the birds are Argus pheasants, hornbills, 
 goat-suckers, and grakles. Both the python (15 
 to 20 feet long) and the cobra are of frequent 
 occurrence, and the crocodile swarms in many of 
 the rivers. Sumatra is peopled in the main by 
 tribes of the Malay stock, differing very markedly 
 in degree of civilisation, custom, and language. 
 An earlier non-Malay element is represented— 
 the Kubus, a savage forest-dwelling race ; the 
 Battas ; and the Redjangers. Hindu influences, 
 which have left their mark in ruined temples, 
 religious customs, language, alphabets, &c., 
 began to tell on Sumatra prior to the 7th c. In 
 the 13th Mohammedanism was introduced. The 
 island became known in 1508 through Lopez 
 de Figuera. The Portuguese were ousted by the 
 Dutch towards the close of the 16th c. ; though 
 the permanent Dutch occupation was not com- 
 pletely carried out round the coast till 1881, 
 and much of the interior is still semi-independent 
 and unexplored. The Dutch possessions were in 
 the hands of the British between 1811 and 1816, 
 and portions down till 1825. Atjeh, Achin or 
 Atcheen (q.v.), only subdued after a long war 
 (1875-79) and not yet pacified in 1894, was formed 
 into a government in 1881. The total pop. 
 of Sumatra and the adjacent islands is estimated 
 at 3,200,000 (Achin, 110,800 ; West Coast, 1,527,500 ; 
 East Coast, 421,000; Bencoolen, 162,400, &c.). 
 Chief centres of population are Padang (150,000), 
 Achin (10,000), Bencoolen (12,000), and Palem- 
 bang (43,000). See Marsden's History (1783), the 
 memoir of Sir Stamford Raffles ; Wallace's Malay 
 Archipelago and Australasia; and Forbes, A 
 Naturalist's Wanderings (1885). 
 
 Sumba'wa, one of the chain of the Sunda 
 Islands, to the east of Java, lies between Lombok 
 (on the west) and Flores (on the east), which 
 yields rice, tobacco, cotton, sandalwood, &c. 
 Area, 5192 sq. m. ; pop. 150,000, all Malays and 
 Mohammedans. The four native rulers owe 
 allegiance to the Dutch governor of Celebes. 
 In 1815 an eruption of Tambora, the loftiest peak, 
 whereby its altitude was decreased from 14,000 
 to 7670 feet, cost 12,000 lives. Another eruption 
 took place in 1836, and one of another peak, 
 Gunong Api, in 1860. 
 
 Sumburgh Head, a bold headland, with a 
 lighthouse, at the S. extremity of Shetland. 
 
 Summer Isles, a group of twenty rocky islets 
 off the west coast of Scotland, near the entrance 
 of Loch Broom, an inlet (7 miles long, and 12^ 
 miles wide at the entrance) of NW. Ross-shire. 
 The largest, Tanera, measuring IJ by Ij^ mile, 
 rises 406 feet, and has 120 inhabitants. 
 
 Sumy, a town of Russia, 125 miles by rail NW. 
 of Kharkoff. Pop. 26,700. 
 
 Sunart (Soo'nart), Loch, a picturesque sea- 
 iiilet of W. Argyllshire, winding 19^ miles E. 
 
 Sunbury, a Middlesex village, on the Thames, 
 4| miles W. of Kingston. Pop. 4550. 
 
 Sunbury, capital of Northumberland county, 
 Pennsylvania, on the Susquehanna, 53 miles by 
 rail N. of Harrisburg. Pop. 10,200. 
 
 Sunda Islands (Soon'da), a name applied some- 
 times to the long chain of islands stretching SE. 
 from the Malay Peninsula to the north coast of 
 Australia. More properly it means the islands 
 that lie between the E. end of Java and the N. 
 side of Timor--Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, 
 Sandalwood Island, <fec. (see separate articles). 
 Sunda Strait is a passage, 70 to 90 miles broad, 
 lying between Sumatra and Java and connecting 
 the Indian Ocean with the Sunda Sea. Several 
 
 islands stud its waters, as Krakatoa (q.v-X 
 Princes Island, Steers, and Calmeijer. 
 
 Sundarbans (Soon'derbuns), or Sunderbunds, 
 the lower portion of the delta of the Ganges, ex- 
 tending 165 miles eastward from the mouth of the 
 HugU to that of the Meghna, and stretching inland 
 for 83 miles. The total area is estimated at 7550 
 sq. m. The region is entirely alluvial, with vast 
 swamps and a network of streams. Next the 
 sea is a wide belt of dense jungle, the haunt of 
 wild beasts. Behind this belt the land is culti- 
 vated, the fields being enclosed with embank- 
 ments. Rice is the staple crop. 
 
 Sunderland, a seaport, municipal, county, and 
 parliamentary borough of Durham, at the mouth 
 of the Wear, 13 miles NE. of the city of Durham 
 and 12 SE. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The town- 
 ship of Sunderland, on the south side of the 
 river, covers only 219J acres ; the municipal 
 borough comprises also the townships of Bishop- 
 wearmouth, Monkwearmouth, and Monkwear- 
 mouth Shore. Monkwearmouth appears in 
 history in 674 as the site of a monastery erected 
 by Benedict Biscop ; Bishopwearmouth in 930 
 was conferred by Athelstan on the monks of 
 Lindisfarne then settled at Chester-le-Street. 
 The earliest indubitable reference to Sunderland 
 itself does not occur till 1311. Sunderland is a 
 fine, well-built town, with broad, clean streets 
 and pleasant suburbs. Till the beginning of the 
 19th c. it was a very inconsiderable place, but 
 owing to the improvement of the harbour and the 
 growth of the Durham coal trade, it has developed 
 with great rapidity. The principal public build- 
 ings and institutions are the Italian Renaissance 
 town-hall (1887-90) ; tlie Free Library, Museum, 
 Art Gallery, and Winter Garden (1877-79) ; Sun- 
 derland Literary Society and Subscription 
 Library (1878) ; the Theatre Royal (1853) ; the 
 Avenue Theatre ; the Victoria Hall (1872), the 
 scene of the terrible disaster of June 16, 1883, in 
 which 182 children lost their lives ; the Assembly 
 Hall; the Workmen's Hall (1868); the Liberal 
 Club (1839); the County Constitutional Club 
 (1890) ; the Infirmary (1865 ; enlarged 1879-87) ; 
 the Orphan Asylum (1860). St Peter's, Monk- 
 wearmouth, retains in a part of the tower and 
 west wall of the nave a remnant of the 7th- 
 century building. The People's or Mowbray 
 Park is an excellent recreation-ground. The 
 portion south of the railway was purchased in 
 1854, and contains monuments of Havelock and 
 Jack Crawford. The New or Extension Park, 
 north of the railway, was purchased in 1866. 
 Roker, a watering-place close to Monkwear- 
 mouth, has also a park of 17 acres, opened in 
 1880. Two single-arch iron bridges cross the 
 Wear at a distance of 20 yards from each other. 
 The older bridge (1793-96), 236 feet in span, was 
 reconstructed and widened in 1858-59. Tlie rail- 
 way bridge was opened in 1879. The harbour is 
 formed by two piers, the north one 617 yards 
 long, the south 650. A new pier, starting from 
 the south end of the terrace promenade at Roker, 
 is over 2000 feet long. Two other piers protect 
 the entrance to the south docks. There are four 
 docks capable of accommodating the largest 
 vessels — the North Dock (6 acres), the Hudson 
 Dock, North (18 acres), the Hudson Dock, South 
 (14 acres), the Hendon Dock (11 acres). The 
 annual shipments of coal and coke exceed 
 4,000,000 tons. From the commissioners' staiths 
 15,000 tons can be shipped in a day. Other ex- 
 ports are bottles and glass, earthenware, lime, 
 iron, chemicals, patent fuel, and cement. TbQ 
 
StfNDgVALii 
 
 B11 
 
 StJR&EY 
 
 principal imports are timber, props, iron ores, 
 chalk, loam, grain, flour, esparto grass, hay, 
 straw, and tar. Sunderland is famous for its 
 iron shipbuilding yards, of whicli there are 
 thirteen. There are also extensive ironworks, 
 forges, anchor and chain works, glass and bottle 
 works, chemical works, roperies, paper-mills, 
 breweries, and lime-kilns. In Monkwearmouth 
 is the Pemberton coal-pit, 381 fathoms deep, 
 and extending under the sea. Sunderland returns 
 two members. Pop. of pari, borough (1851) 
 67,394; (1881) 124,760; (1901) 159,359", of whom 
 146,5(55 were in the municipal and county borough. 
 Havelock was born at Ford Hall, Bishopwear- 
 mouth (1795) ; Jack Crawford, the hero of Camper- 
 down (1775-1831), at Sunderland; other natives 
 were Clarkson Stanfield, R.A., Tom Taylor, and 
 Swan the electrician. 
 
 Sundsvall (Soonds-val), a Swedish seaport, on 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, 80 miles N. by W. of Stock- 
 holm, and 290 by rail E. by S. of Trondhjem in 
 Norway, has ironworks and sawmills. It was 
 almost destroyed by lire in 1888. Pop. 15,200. 
 
 Simgei Ujong. See Straits Settlements. 
 
 Sunium. See Colonna. 
 
 Sunnyside. See Tabrytown. 
 
 Suona'da, or the Inland Sea of Japan, separates 
 the islands of Kyushu and Shikoku from the 
 main island, Honshu. It is 250 miles in length 
 from the strait of Shimonoseki (q.v.) to Osaka, 
 has a maximum breadth of 50 miles, and is 
 studded with innumerable islets and rocks. 
 
 Superior, capital of Douglas county, Wiscon- 
 sin, at the W. end of Lake Superior, and the 
 mouth of the Nemadji River, 8 miles by rail SE. 
 of Duluth. Grown up since 1880, it has a good 
 harbour and steam sawmills. Pop. 81,600. 
 
 Superior, Lake, the largest body of fresh 
 water on the globe, is the highest and most 
 western of the great lakes lying between Canada 
 and the United States. It is bounded N. and E. 
 by Ontario, 8. by Michigan and Wisconsin, and 
 NW. by Minnesota. Greatest length, 412 miles; 
 greatest breadth, 167 miles ; area, 31,200 sq. m.— 
 nearly that of Ireland. The surface of the lake 
 is 6OI/5 feet above sea-level, and its mean depth 
 475 feet ; its maximum depth is 1008 feet. Its 
 surface has an elevation of 20J feet above that of 
 Lakes Huron and Michigan ; this difference occurs 
 in the rapids of St Mary's River, the only outlet 
 (see Sault Ste Marie). Lake Superior, being 
 situated very near the watershed between Hudson 
 Bay and the Mississippi, receives no rivers of 
 importance, although hundreds of small rivers 
 pour themselves into it, the largest the St Louis 
 and the Nipigon. The bold and rocky northern 
 coast is fringed with numerous islands of basalt 
 and granite, some rising sharply from deep water 
 to 1300 feet above the lake. The largest. Isle 
 Royale, is 44 miles long. The southern shore is 
 generally lower. Keweenaw Point (q.v.) projects 
 far into the lake. At Grand Isle Bay, 100 miles 
 W. of Sault Ste Marie, are the Pictured Rocks, 
 cliffs of sandstone, 50 to 200 feet high, in many 
 
 E laces presenting fantastic forms, and marked 
 y vertical bands and blotches of red and yellow. 
 The water is singularly pure and transparent. 
 The lake never freezes over, but the shore ice 
 prevents navigation in winter. It is subject 
 also to very violent storms, with waves 15 to 18 
 feet high. It has the small tides common to the 
 great lakes, and also the seiches seen in Swiss lakes 
 — a regular series of small waves, or pulsations, 
 at ten minutes' intervals. Towns on the Canadian 
 
 side are Sault Ste Marie and Port Arthur, and on 
 the American side Duluth, Superior, and Mar- 
 quette. The Canadian Pacific Railway passes 
 along the northern shore. 
 
 Surabaya (SoorabVya), a seaport and capital of 
 a province on the N. coast of Java, opposite 
 Madura Island. Here the Dutch have an arsenal, 
 a mint, sugar and furniture factories, shipbuilding 
 yards, and foundries. Sugar, coffee, hides, to- 
 bacco, rice, and cotton are exports ; pop. 147,000. 
 
 Surakarta, a town in the centre of Java, con- 
 nected by rail with Samarang on the N. and 
 Surabaya on the E. ; pop. 124,000. 
 
 Surat', a city of India, on the S. bank of the 
 Tapti (crossed by a hve-girder bridge), 14 miles 
 from its mouth, and 160 by rail N. of Bombay. 
 It stretches in a semicircle for more than a mile 
 along the river, the quondam citadel (1540; 
 government offices since 1862) fonning the central 
 feature. The chief buildings are four handsome 
 mosques, two Parsee fire-temples, three Hindu 
 temples, the old English and Dutch factories, and 
 a clock-tower (80 feet high). The existing city in 
 1512, soon after its foundation, was burned by 
 the Portuguese, as again in 1530 and 1531. In 
 1612 the English established themselves there, 
 and shortly after they were followed by the 
 Dutch. Surat then traded with Europe, Arabia, 
 Persia, Ceylon, the East Indies, &c., and silk, 
 cotton, and indigo were the most valuable ex- 
 ports. Here the Mohammedan pilgrims of India 
 were wont to embark for Mecca. Shortly after 
 1650 the Mahrattas began to harass the city, and 
 towards the end of the 17th century the com- 
 merce of Surat began to decline, Bombay gradu- 
 ally taking its place. The place came under 
 British rule entirely in 1800, and for a time it 
 had a revival of its old prosperity. But in 1837 
 it was almost wholly ruined by a disastrous fire 
 followed by a great flood. It flourished once more 
 during the American civil war, its chief export 
 being cotton. Pop. (1811) 250,000 ; (1847) 80,000 ; 
 (1881) 109,840 ; (1901) 119,306. 
 
 Surbiton. See Kingston-upon-Thames. 
 
 Surinam. See Guiana (Dutch). 
 
 Surrey, an inland county in the south of Eng- 
 land, separated on the N. by the Thames from 
 Middlesex, and bounded elsewhere by Kent, 
 Sussex, Hants, and Berks. Its maximum lengtli 
 from E. to W. is 39 miles ; its greatest breadth, 
 26 miles; and its area, 758 sq. m., or 485,129 
 acres. Pop. (1801) 269,043 ; (1831) 485,700 ; (1861) 
 831,093; (1901) 2,008,923. Far-famed for the 
 beauty of its scenery, Surrey is traversed from 
 east to west by the North Downs (see Downs), 
 which, near Titsey on the Kentish border, rise 
 to 880 feet. On the north side of this range the 
 land slopes gradually to the Thames— though 
 even there plenty of high ground is to be 
 found, as Cooper's Hill, St George's Hill, Rich- 
 mond Park, and Wimbledon Common— but on 
 the south the descent is rugged and broken up 
 before the level of the Weald is reached. South 
 of the main range, and about 5 miles distant 
 from Dorking, is Leith Hill (967 feet), the highest 
 point in the county, whilst in the extreme south- 
 west rises Hind Head (903 feet). From all these 
 places, as also from many others, glorious views 
 are to be obtained, a noticeable feature in the 
 landscapes being the prevalence of commons and 
 heath-lands— the latter chiefly in the west. Of 
 rivers the most important are the Wey and the 
 Mole, both tributaries of the Thames. Surrey is 
 well wooded, box-trees especially growing in great 
 profusion, and around Farnham some 2000 acrda 
 
um 
 
 e?8 
 
 StTl^HERLANl^ 
 
 Me under hops. Croydon, Guildford, Kingston, 
 and Reigate are — not reckoning the suburbs of 
 London — the principal manufacturing centres 
 and most important towns ; near the last named 
 also extensive beds of fuller's earth are found. 
 The county is divided into fourteen hundreds, 
 and since 1885 has returned six members to 
 parliament. Between Kingston and Ockley 
 traces of the old Roman road from London 
 to Chichester are plainly visible, whilst on 
 Wimbledon Common, Hascombe Hill, and 
 near Aldershot are Roman encampments. 
 The castles of Farnham and Guildford and the 
 ruined abbeys of Newark and Waverley call for 
 attention; at Claremont, Oatlands Park, and 
 Sheen (now Richmond), were royal residences ; 
 and quaintly-timbered old houses — many of them 
 moated — abound in the districts around Goms- 
 hall, Godalming, and Haslemere. Of Surrey 
 •worthies the best known are William of Ockham, 
 Thomas Cromwell, Archbishops Abbot and 
 Whately, Bishops Corbet and Wilberforce, 
 Middleton and Oxenford (the dramatists), John 
 Evelyn, Sir W. Temple, Bolingbroke, Rodney, 
 Banks (the sculptor), Gibbon, Home Tooke, 
 Cobbett, Malthus, Herring (the animal painter), 
 Faraday, Rennie, Sydney Herbert, Robert 
 Browning, Hablot K. Browne, Albert Smith, Dr 
 Jowett, Eliza Cook, Sant (the R.A.), Sir George 
 Grove, Professors Cayley and Sidney Colvin, Dr 
 Furnivall, Gilchrist (the biographer), and Miss 
 FaithfulL See works by Manning (3 vols. 1804- 
 14), Allen (2 vols. 1829-30), Brayley (5 vols. 1841- 
 48), Bevan (Stanford's series, new ed. 1891), and 
 Murray's Handbook to Surrey and Hants (new ed. 
 1888) ; also On Surrey Hills (1892), 
 
 Sus, (1) a river and district of Morocco between 
 the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas. — (2) A port of 
 Tunis, 75 miles SE. of the capital. Pop, 8000. 
 
 Susa (the ShusTian of Daniel, Esther, &c.), a 
 town of Persia, the ancient capital of Susiana 
 (the Elam of Scripture, mod. Khusistan), and one 
 of the most important cities of the old world. 
 Its ruins cover 3 sq. m., and include four 
 spacious platforms above 100 feet high. See books 
 by Williams, Loftus, Churchill, and Dieulafoy. 
 
 Susa, a city of Northern Italy, on a tributary 
 of the Po, at the foot of the Cottian Alps, 32 miles 
 by rail W. of Turin. It has a cathedral (1029), 
 and a triumphal arch (8 b.c). Pop. 49(50. 
 
 Susquehanna, an American river, the North 
 Branch (350 miles) of which has its origin in 
 Schuyler Lake, in Central New York, and the 
 West Branch (250 miles) in the Alleghany Moun- 
 tains. These two unite at Northumberland, 
 Pennsylvania, and the river thence flows 150 
 miles S. and SE. to the N. end of Chesapeake 
 Bay. It is a shallow, rapid, mountain river, with 
 varied and romantic scenery, and is of use mainly 
 for floating timber. On its banks Coleridge and 
 Southey proposed to found their ' pantisocracy.' 
 
 Sussex, a maritime county in the south of 
 England, washed on the SE. and S. for 91 miles 
 by the English Channel, and elsewhere bounded 
 by Hampshire, Surrey, and Kent. It has an ex- 
 treme length from E. to W. of 76 miles, an 
 extreme width of 27, and an area of 1464 sq. m., 
 or 936,911 acres. From the Hampshire border, 
 near Petersfleld, to Beachy Head (q.v., 575 feet) 
 the county is traversed by the chalky South 
 Downs, whose highest point is Ditchling Beacon 
 (858 feet), and whose northern escarpment is 
 steep, but leads down to the fertile and richly 
 wooded Weald. Beyond this again, in the north- 
 east, is the Forest Ridge (804 feet). A very pro- 
 
 ductive tract, 2 to 7 miles broad, extends west- 
 ward from Brighton along the coast to the Hamp- 
 shire boundary ; in the south-east are rich marsh- 
 lands, affording excellent pasture. The chief 
 streams, all unimportant, are the Arun, Adur, 
 Ouse, and Rother. Rather more than two-thirds 
 of the entire area is in cultivation; and 177 sq. 
 m. (second only to Yorkshire) are occupied by 
 woods— in the Weald, St Leonards and Ashdown 
 Forests, &c. The Downs (q.v.) are clothed with 
 a short, fine, and delicate turf; and here and 
 elsewhere more than half a million of the well- 
 known Southdown sheep are grazed, the live- 
 stock also including some 25,000 horses and 
 113,000 cattle. Sussex was once the chief seat of 
 the iron trade, when wood was used for smelting, 
 and its last furnace was not blown out till 1809 ; 
 to-day the manufactures are unimportant. The 
 county, which contains six ' rapes,' 68 hundreds, 
 and 317 parishes, has since 1885 returned six 
 members to parliament. Brighton and Hastings 
 are parliamentary and Arundel, Chichester, East- 
 bourne, Lewes, Rye, Worthing, and Bexhill 
 municipal boroughs ; whilst Newhaven, Seaford, 
 Littleliampton, and Bognor also deserve men- 
 tion. Pop. (1841) 300,075 ; (1901) 605,052. 
 Sussex contains the landing-place of Caesar 
 (55 B.C.); of ^lla (477 a.d.), from whose sub- 
 jects, the South Saxons, the county derived its 
 name ; and of William the Conqueror (1066) at 
 Pevensey, as well as the battlefields of Hastings 
 and Lewes. The antiquities include a British 
 camp at Cissbury, Roman remains at Pevensey 
 and Bognor, Chichester cathedral (12tli century), 
 a dozen mediaeval castles (Arundel, Bodiam, 
 Hurstmonceaux, Hastings, Bramber, &c.), and 
 nine or ten religious houses (Lewes, Battle, &c.). 
 Cobden, Collins, Fletcher, Otway, Sackville, 
 Selden, and Shelley have been among the 
 eminent natives ; and Sussex also has memories 
 of Chillingworth, Lyell, Archdeacon Hare, John 
 Sterling, Cardinal Manning, Titus Oates, and 
 Lord Tennyson, 
 
 See works by T. W. Horsfield (1835), Lower 
 (3 vols. 1865-70), Parish (1886), G. F. Cliambers 
 (3d ed. 1891), A. Hare (1894), and E. V. Lucas 
 {Highways and Byways in Sicssex, 1904). 
 
 Sutherland, a maritime county in the extreme 
 north of Scotland, is bounded AV. and N. by the 
 Atlantic, E. by Caithness, SE. by the North Sea, 
 and S. by the Dornoch Firth aiid by Ross and 
 Cromarty. Measuring 63 by 59 miles, it has an 
 area of 2126 sq. m., or 1,360,459 acres, of which 
 47,633 are water and 12,812 foreshore. The 
 Atlantic coasts, deeply indented by sea-lochs, are 
 bold and rock-bound, in Cape Wrath (q.v.) attain- 
 ing 523 feet ; the south-eastern seaboard is com- 
 paratively flat. On the Caithness boundary rise 
 the Hill of Ord (1324 feet) and Cnoc an Eirean- 
 naich (1698) ; but the mountains of Sutherland 
 are all in the west — Benmore Assynt(3273), Coni- 
 veall (3234), Ben Clibrick (3154), Ben Hope (3040), 
 Foinaven (2980), Canisp (2779), and Suilven or the 
 Sugar-loaf (2399). The Oykell, tracing the Ross- 
 shire boundary, and falling into the Dornoch 
 Firth, is the longest stream (35 miles) ; and of 
 over 300 lochs and tarns the largest are Lochs 
 Shin (16 X li miles) and Assynt (q.v., 6| x |). 
 Coal has been mined at Brora off and on since 
 1573 ; and gold at Kildonan (q.v.). The total per- 
 centage of cultivated area is only 2 "9, in spite of 
 costly reclamations carried on by the third Duke 
 of Sutherland (1828-92), by far the largest pro- 
 prietor — so costly indeed that during 1853-82 the 
 expenditure on his estates exceeded the income 
 derived from them by nearly a quarter of a million 
 
 i 
 
Stri!HERLAND FALLS 
 
 6l9 
 
 SWAZILAND 
 
 titerling. The live-stock includes over 10,000 
 cattle and 200,000 sheep ; and the deer-forests, 
 grouse-moors, and fishings (especially good for 
 trout) attract many sportsmen. The climate 
 varies much, like the rainfall, which increases 
 westward from 32 to 60 inches. Sutherland 
 returns one member ; its county town is Dor- 
 noch (q.v.). Pop. (1801) 23,117 ; (1851) 25,793 ; 
 (1881) 23,370 ; (1901) 21,440. The Northmen, who 
 down to the 12th c. often descended on Suther- 
 land and pillaged it, called it the 'Southern 
 land,' as lying to the south of the Orkney and 
 Shetland Islands. The 'Sutherland Clearances," 
 by which many small tenants were removed, took 
 place in 1810-20. See works by Sir Robert Gordon 
 (1813), Bishop Pococke (1888), St John (2 vols. 
 1849 ; new ed. 1884), A. Young (1880), A. Mac- 
 kenzie (1883), and Edwards-Moss (1888). 
 
 Sutherland Falls. See New Zealand. 
 
 Sutlej, or Satlaj (anc. Hyphasis or Hesidrus), 
 the eastmost of the five rivers of the Punjab, 
 rises in the sacred lakes of Manasarowar and 
 Rakas-tal in Tibet, at a height of 15,200 feet, and 
 near the sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra. 
 It flows at first NW., but turns westward to cut 
 its way through the Himalayas, during which 
 passage it drops to 3000 feet. After entering 
 British territory it pursues a SW. direction, 
 and after flowing 900 miles in all joins the Indus 
 at Mithankot, S. of Multan. It is crossed near 
 Jullunder by a magnificent iron railway bridge, 
 2J miles long, and by another near Bhawalpur, 
 just before the influx of the Jhelum-Chenab. 
 
 Sutors of Cromarty. See Cromarty. 
 
 Sutton, a town and urban district in Surrey, 
 11 Jiiiles from London. Pop. (1901) 17,224. 
 
 Sutton Bridge, a town of Lincolnshire, on the 
 Nen, 7 miles N. of Wisbech. Pop. 2100. 
 
 Sutton Coldfield, a municipal borough of 
 Warwickshire, 8 miles NE. of Birmingham, with 
 an Early English church, extended in Henry 
 VIII.'s reign and 1879. Henry VIII. gave a 
 charter in 1529, and a new one was granted in 
 1885. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the 
 neighbourhood ; but the town itself is becoming 
 a residential suburb of Birmingham. The pictur- 
 esque Sutton Park (3500 acres) is a favourite pic- 
 nic resort. Pop. (1851) 4574 ; (1901) 14,264. 
 
 Sutton-in-Ashfield, a town of Nottingham- 
 shire, 3 miles SW. of Mansfield. It has a fine 
 church (1390 ; restored 1868), hosiery manu- 
 factures, and neighbouring coal-pits and lime- 
 works. Pop. (1881) 8523 ; (1901) 14,862. 
 
 Sutton-on-Sea, a Lincolnshire seaside-resort, 
 28 miles NE. of Boston by rail. 
 
 Suvalky, or Ssuwalki, a Polish town, 48 miles 
 NW. of Grodno. Pop. 27,170.— Area of Suvalky 
 government, 4846 sq. m. ; pop. 605,000. 
 
 Suwanee River (Soo-wav/nee), rises in southern 
 Georgia, in the Okefinokee Swamp, and winds 
 SSW. through Florida to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Suzdal (Sooz'dal), a Russian town, 12 miles 
 N. of Vladimir. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Svanetia. See Caucasus. 
 
 Sve^borg (Svay-aw-horg). See Helsingfors. 
 
 Svendborg. See Funen. 
 
 Svenigorodka, a town in the Russian province 
 of Kieff", 100 miles S. of Kieff". Pop, 17,000. 
 
 Swabia (Ger. Schwdben), an ancient duchy of 
 SW. Germany, stretching from Franconia to Hel- 
 vetia (Switzerland) and from Burgundy and Lor- 
 raine to Bavaria, and mostly embraced since 1806 
 
 in Wiirtemberg (q.v.). It was named from the 
 Germanic Suevi, who drove out its Celtic inhab- 
 itants in the 1st century b.c. 
 
 Swadlincote, a town of Derbyshire, 4 miles SE, 
 of Burton-upon-Trent. Pop. of urb. dist. 18,000. 
 
 Swaflfham, a town of Norfolk, 15 miles SE. of 
 Lynn. It has a cruciform church (1474) of great 
 beauty, a corn-hall (1858), and an ugly market- 
 cross (1783). Pop. 3400. 
 
 Swahill Coast, the home of the Swahili race, 
 on the east coast of Africa, opposite Zanzibar 
 and extending northward to Vitu. 
 
 Swale, a river in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, flowing 60 miles ESE., and near Aldborough 
 uniting with the Ure to form the Ouse (q.v.). 
 See also Sheppey. 
 
 Swallow Falls, a waterfall on the Llugwy, 
 Carnarvonshire, 2^ miles NW. of Bettws-y-Coed. 
 
 Swanage, a pleasant little watering-place of 
 Dorsetshire, in the ' Isle ' of Purbeck, nestling in 
 the southern curve of a lovely bay, 9J miles SE. 
 of Wareham, but 11 by a branch-line opened in 
 1885. In Swanage Bay, in 877, King Alfred won 
 England's first naval victory — a defeat of the 
 Danes. Population, 3400. See Purbeck, and 
 J. Braye's Swanage (1890). 
 
 Swanee River. See Suwanee. 
 
 Swanetla. See Caucasus. 
 
 Swan River. See Western Australia. 
 
 Swansea (Welsh Abertaive), a seaport of 
 Glamorganshire, on the banks and at the mouth 
 of the river Tawe, 45 miles WNW. of Cardiff" and 
 216 W. of London. A municipal, parliamentary, 
 and also (since 1888) county borough, it is the 
 most important town in South Wales. Its rapid 
 progress depends on the manufacture of tin-plate 
 here and in the neighbourhood ; on its harbour 
 and docks ; and on its position on a bay afford- 
 ing a spacious, sheltered, and safe anchorage. 
 The Harbour Trust of Swansea, with a capital 
 of £1,500,000 and an income of upwards of 
 £100,000 per annum, possesses docks, con- 
 structed since 1847, covering an area of over 60 
 acres. There is annually manufactured in Swan- 
 sea and the immediate neighbourhood upwards 
 of two-thirds of the tin-plates manufactured 
 in Britain, representing a value of over £5,000,000. 
 The imports include copper, silver, lead, tin-, 
 nickel, iron and steel. The chief exports are tin, 
 terne and black plates, coal and coke, copper, 
 zinc, iron and steel, alkali, superphosphate, 
 arsenic, &c. Pop. of municipal borough (1851) 
 31,461 ; (1881) 65,597 ; (1901) 94,514. Since 1885 
 Swansea, which has now a bishop-suffragan 
 under St Davids, returns two members, one 
 for the town and one for the district divi- 
 sion (Aberavon, Kenfig, Longhor, and Neath). 
 The chai-ter dates from the days of King 
 John and Henry III. The castle, of which a 
 tower still remains, was founded in 1099 by the 
 Earl of Warwick ; in Edward IV. 's reign it passed 
 by marriage from the Herberts to the Somerset 
 family, and is still the property of the Dukes of 
 Beaufort. The grammar-school dates from 1682. 
 
 See works by L. W. Dillwyn (1848), G. G. 
 Francis (1849-67), P. Rogers (1878), L. C. Martin 
 (1879), and F. Grant (1881). 
 
 Swatow, a Chinese seaport, opened to foreign 
 trade since 1869, at the mouth of the Han, 225 
 miles E. of Canton. It is the seat of great 
 sugar-refineries, and of bean-cake and grass- 
 cloth manufactures. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Swaziland (Swdh'm), a South Afjrican nativo 
 
gWEABOEd 61 
 
 state, lying W. of the Libomba Mountains, and 
 intruding into the E. side of the Transvaal. 
 Area, 6536 sq. ni. ; pop. 84,000 Swazis and 900 
 white men. Its trade, valued at £70,000, goes 
 either through Natal or by way of Delagoa Bay. 
 Its independence was recognised by the Trans- 
 vaal and Britain in 1884 ; since 1904 it has been 
 under the control of the British government. 
 The Swazis, a Zulu-Kaffir race, smelt copper and 
 iron, and are noted for their wood-carving. 
 
 Swe&borg. See Helsingfors. 
 
 Sweden (Swedish Sverige), a kingdom of north- 
 ern Europe, occupying the eastern side of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula, with which, from 1814 
 till the amicable but definitive separation in 1905, 
 Norway (q.v.) was associated under one crown. 
 Its greatest length, N. to S., is close on 1000 
 miles ; its greatest breadth 300 ; its area 170,970 
 sq. m. ; and its coast-line 1550 miles. Besides 
 many skerry-islands, Sweden owns Gothland 
 (q.v.') and CEland (q.v.). The country may be 
 generally described as a broad plain sloping 
 south-eastwards from the Kjolen Mountains to 
 the Baltic. The only mountainous districts 
 adjoin Norway ; the peaks sink in altitude from 
 7000 feet in the north to 3800 in 61° 30' N. lat. 
 Immediately south of this point a subsidiary 
 chain strikes off to the SB., and, threading the 
 lake-region of central Sweden, swells out beyond 
 into a tableland with a mean elevation of 850 feet 
 and maxinu;m of 1240 feet. Fully two-thirds of 
 the entire surface lies lower than 800 feet, and 
 one-third lower than 300 feet, above sea-level. 
 Most of Sweden is built up of crystalline 
 gneisses and granite, and of Lower Silurian lime- 
 stones, sandstones, and slates ; and there are 
 extensive glacial deposits. The eastern or Both- 
 nian coast, like the western coast of Norway, is 
 gradually rising ; whilst the coast of Scania, in 
 the extreme south, tends to subside. The 
 climate of Sweden is continental in the north, 
 along the Norwegian frontier, and on the south- 
 ern plateau. The lakes in the colder districts of 
 the north are ice-bound for some 220 days in 
 the year ; in the south for only about 90 days. 
 The rainfall is greatest on the coast of the Catte- 
 gat (30 inches). 
 
 Sweden is separated politically and geograph- 
 ically into three great divisions— Norrland, Svea- 
 land, and Gothland. Norrland in the north is a 
 region of vast and lonely forests and rapid moun- 
 tain-streams, often forming fine cascades and 
 ribbon-like lakes ere they reach the Gulf of 
 Bothnia. Besides the Lapps with their reindeer 
 herds, and the Swedish wood-cutters and miners, 
 the only denizens of these forest tracts are wild 
 animals (reindeer, bears, wolves, lynxes, gluttons, 
 foxes, lemmings), birds of prey, hares, game 
 birds, and aquatic birds. This division is very 
 rich in minerals, but iron is almost the only one 
 extracted. The central division of Svealaud, or 
 Sweden proper, is a region of big lakes, and con- 
 tains most of the mines. Lakes occupy nearly 
 14,000 sq. m., or 8-2 per cent, of the total area ; 
 several of the largest, as Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, 
 Malar, are connected with one another and the 
 sea by rivers and canals. Lake Miliar contains 
 some 1300 islands, many beautifully wooded, 
 with royal palaces or noblemen's castles ; and its 
 shores are studded with prosperous towns, 
 castles, palaces, and factories. There is a pretty 
 large area of forest in Svealaud, which also pos- 
 sesses almost inexhaustible stores of iron and 
 copper, and in less quantities silver, manganese, 
 nickel, zinc, cobalt, &c, Gothland, the southern 
 
 ) SWEDElf 
 
 division, contains a much higher pi-Opoi-tion of 
 cultivated laud, and its wide plains are all under 
 agriculture. Iron occurs ; and some 10,000 tons 
 of coal are extracted annually. 
 
 In 1800 the population of Sweden numbered 
 2,347,303,; in 1850, 3,482,541 ; in 1900, 5,136,441. 
 By nationality the people are all Swedes, except 
 some 19,500 Finns, 6850 Lapps, and 24,500 
 foreigners. Only 23 per cent, are counted as 
 •towns-folk.' In 1900 there were ten towns 
 whose pop. exceeded 20,000— Stockholm (300,624), 
 Gothenburg (130,619), Malmo (60,857), Norrkop- 
 ing, Gefle, Helsingborg, Karlskrona, Upsala, 
 Jonkoping, and Orebro ; and twelve more ex- 
 ceeded 10,000. Between 10,000 and 20,000 persons 
 emigrate every year, mostly to the United States. 
 The state religion, that of the whole population 
 but some 22,000 persons, is the Lutheran Church, 
 with twelve bishops. Primary education is com- 
 pulsory and free, and there are excellent element- 
 ary schools. The highest branches are provided 
 for by the Medical Institution of Stockholm (270 
 pupils) and by the universities of Upsala (1500 
 students) and Lund (670). More than one-half 
 of the population are dependent on agriculture. 
 Between 7 and 8 per cent, only of the entire 
 area is under cultivation, though in addition 4 
 per cent, is laid down as meadows. The prin- 
 cipal crops are potatoes, oats, rye (yielding the 
 ordinary bread of the peasantry), barley, and 
 wheat, beet for sugar, and roots for fodder. 
 Butter is one of the largest exports. The mines 
 employ 31,000 persons, mainly 520 iron-mines 
 (producing over 2,800,000 tons annually), copper, 
 zinc, manganese, cobalt; nickel and silver are 
 also produced. About 40 per cent, of the aggre- 
 gate surface is forest, and of this again 60 per 
 cent, is in Norrland. Only one-twelfth of the 
 timber cut in Sweden is sent abroad, about 
 one-half of it to Britain, chiefly in the form of 
 pit-props. The most important industries are 
 timber industries (1122 establishments, yield- 
 ing an annual value of £4,890,000), flour-mills, 
 ironworks, foundries, &c. (£2,950,000), sugar- 
 refineries, cotton and wool spinning and weaving, 
 margarine-factories, breweries, tobacco-factories, 
 match-factories, tanneries, paper-mills and papier- 
 mache works, distilleries, glass and porcelain 
 works, and chemical works. Tlie fisheries (both 
 off the south and off the east coasts) are worth 
 nearly half a million sterling annually. The 
 foreign trade of the country averages annually 
 from £23,000,000 to £28,000,000 for imports, and 
 from £18,000,000 to £21,000,000 for exports. 
 The imports from Great I3ritain average about 
 £7,000,000, and the exports thither £8,000,000 
 or £9,000,000. The chief imports are textiles, 
 groceries, minerals, machinery, grain and flour, 
 hair, hides, horn, and animals and animal foods. 
 Of the exports timber is by far the most im- 
 portant— £10,500,000 or more. Next come 
 minerals and metals, chiefly iron and steel ; 
 animal foods and animals (mainly butter) ; grain 
 and flour, paper, and textiles. Great Britain 
 takes principally wood, timber, and wood-pulp, 
 butter, paper, pig and bar iron and steel, and 
 matches, and sends back coal, iron, machinery, 
 and textiles. 
 
 The executive power is vested in the king, 
 advised by a council of ten ; and there are two 
 houses of parliament. The members of the first 
 house (150) are elected by the provincial councils 
 and the municipal councils of certain large towns ; 
 they sit for nine years, and receive no salary. The 
 members of the second house (230) are returned 
 by direct or indirect ballot from rural district* 
 
SWEETHEART ABBEY 
 
 681 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 ftnd towns. The revenue averages about 
 £9,850,000, and generally balances the expendi- 
 ture. The debt, £19,179,000, has been contracted 
 solely for railways. The military forces include 
 a standing army and a militia. The regular army 
 numbers about 40,000 men, the militia 400,000. 
 The navy, with 25,000 men in all, is made up 
 of sixteen port-defence vessels, 11 second and 
 third class cruisers, and some 20 torpedo boats. 
 
 Sweden was originally occupied by Lapps and 
 Finns, but probably (1500 b.c.) Teutonic tribes 
 drove them into the forests of the north, and at 
 the dawn of history we find Svealand occupied 
 by Swedes (Svea) and Gothland by the cognate 
 Goths. Some, however, make Sweden or Scandi- 
 navia generally the original lionie of the Aryans, 
 Gothland was christianised and also conquered by 
 the Danes in the 9th c, -while Svealand remained 
 fanatically heatlien till the time of St Eric (12th 
 c), who conquered Finland, henceforth a Swedish 
 possession. For a century Goths and Swedes 
 had different kings, but gradually melted into 
 one people toward the end of the 13th c. Now 
 arose bitter feuds between king, nobility, and 
 peasants, and universal turbulence prevailed ; 
 agriculture, industry, literature and culture pro- 
 gressed not at all or hardly existed. Even after 
 the union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark 
 under one monarch (1397), Sweden was torn by 
 conflicts which lasted down to the expulsion of 
 Danish oppressors, and the restoration of Swedish 
 autonomy by the national rising under Gustavus 
 Vasa (1524), the ablest prince who had yet ruled 
 the Swedes. Under him the Keformation was 
 heartily accepted. Gustavus Adolphus and the 
 Swedes were its bulwark, not merely at home 
 but in Germany in the Thirty Years' War; 
 and by the acquirement of Bremen, Verden, 
 and Pomerania, Sweden became (1048) a mem- 
 ber of the empire. Under Charles XII. and 
 his successor, the enmity of Denmark, Poland, 
 and Russia wrested her new conquests from 
 Sweden, and gave Livonia, Esthonia, Inger- 
 manland, and Karelia (which had long been 
 Swedish) to Russia; thus reducing Sweden from 
 the rank of a first-rate European power. After 
 a bloody struggle, Sweden had to cede Finland 
 (1809) to Russia. Norway was united by a per- 
 sonal union (i.e. by the monarch) with Sweden 
 in 1810 ; and in 1818 the French general Bernadotte 
 was electeil king (as Charles XIV.). Norway's 
 demand for a larger measure of home rule led in 
 1905 to a complete separation. Swedish, a de- 
 scendant of the Old Norse, differs (since the 9th c.) 
 more from the parent tongue than Icelandic, 
 Norwegian, or Danish ; it has had, especially 
 since the 16th c, an extensive literature. 
 
 See W. W. Thomas, Sweden and the Swedes 
 (1892) ; Sweden, its People aiyi Industry, by G. 
 Sundbarg (trans, 1903) ; Scandinavia by Nisbet 
 Bain (Cambridge Histories, 1905), 
 Sweetheart Abbey. See New Abbey. 
 SwlUy, Lough, an inlet of the Atlantic, 25 
 miles long and 3 to 4 wide, on the north coast of 
 Donegal, Ireland, enters between Dunaff Head 
 on the E. and Fanad Point, with a lighthouse, 
 on the W. A second lighthouse is on Dunree 
 Head. The entrance is protected by forts. On 
 the B. shore is the watering-place, Buncrana. In 
 Lough Swilly a French fleet was destroyed in 
 1798; and in 1811 the foundering of H.M.S. 
 Saldanha at the entrance cost 300 lives. 
 
 Swindon, a municipal borough of Wiltshire, 
 77 miles W. of London and 29 ENE. of Bath, 
 consists of Old Swindon, on an eminence 
 
 11 mile S., and New Swindon, which originated 
 in the transference hither in 1841 from Wootton- 
 Bassett of the engineering works of the Great 
 Western Railway. The former is rather a pictur- 
 esque place, with a good Decorated parish church 
 (rebuilt by Sir G. G. Scott in 1851), a town-hall 
 (1852), assembly rooms (1850), and a corn exchange 
 (1867) ; New Swindon has a mechanics' institute 
 (1843), a theatre, &c. Pop. (1861) 6856 ; (1881) 
 22,374 ; (1901) 45,006 (6100 in Old Swindon). See 
 J. B. Jackson's Swindon and its Neighbourhood 
 (1861), and the English III. Mag. for April 1892. 
 
 Swineford, a Mayo market-town, 22 miles SW. 
 of Ballymote. Pop. 1360. 
 
 Swlnemiinde (Sveen-eh-meen'deh), a fortified 
 seaport and watering-place of Prussia, on Usedora 
 Island, 124 miles by rail NNB. of Berlin. Pop. 
 10,500. (See Oder.) 
 
 Swineshead, a town of Lincolnshire, 6 miles 
 WSW. of Boston. At its Cistercian abbey King 
 John surfeited himself with peaches and new 
 beer. Pop. 1760. 
 
 Swinton, (1) a town in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, 5 miles NNE. of Rotherham. It has 
 nianufactures of bottles, iron, pottery, &c. Popu- 
 lation, 12,500.— (2) A town of Lancashire, 4J 
 miles WNW. of Manchester, with cotton-mills 
 and brick-fields. Pop. of Swinton and Pendle- 
 bury, 27,000. 
 
 Switzerland, a confederation or republic of 
 twenty-two cantons, three being divided into 
 half-cantons, situated in the centre of Europe be- 
 tween France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. 
 The greatest length (E. to AV.)is 216 miles, the 
 width being 137 miles ; area, 15,981 sq. m. The 
 pop. in 1850 was 2,392,740 ; in 1900, 3,325,023. 
 In the following table of the census of 1898, the 
 ordinary name is put first, followed by the 
 French name in the German cantons, or by the 
 German in the French ones. F. or G. or F.G, 
 indicates that the majority speak French, or 
 German, or both. When neithej: P. nor R.C. is 
 appended, it is to be understood that the canton 
 is partly Protestant and partly Catholic. 
 
 Date of 
 Admission. 
 
 Aargau (Fr. Argovie), G 1803 
 
 Appeiizell — 
 
 Outer, G., P ) 1513 
 
 Inuer,G.,K.C ^ 
 
 Basel (Fr. Bale)— 
 
 Town, G.,P 
 
 Country, G., P 
 
 Bern (Fr. Berne), 6 .1363 
 
 Fribourg (Ger. Freiburg), F.G., R.C.1481 
 Geneva (Fr. Gen<$ve, Ger. Genf), F. . .1814 
 
 Glarus (Fr. Claris), G., P 1352 
 
 Graubiinden (Fr. Orisons), G.F 1803 
 
 Luzem (Fr. Lucerne), G., R.C 1332 
 
 Neuchatel (Ger. Neuenburg), F 1814 
 
 St Gallen (Fr. St Gall), G 1803 
 
 Schaffhausen(Fr.Schaffhouse),G.,P.1501 
 
 Sehwyz, G., E.C 1291 
 
 Solothurn (Fr. Soleure), G., R.C 1481 
 
 Thurgau (Fr. Thurgovie), 6 1803 
 
 Ticino (Fr. and Ger. Tessiu), Ital. ..1803 
 Unterwalden— 
 
 TJpijer, G., R.C 
 
 Lower, G., R.C 
 
 irri,G 1291 
 
 Valais (Ger. Wallis), F.G 1814 
 
 Vaud (Ger. Waadt), F 1803 
 
 Zug (Fr. Zoug), 6., R.C 1352 
 
 Zurich (Fr. Zurich), 6. , P 1351 
 
 Cantons. 
 
 1501 
 
 1291 
 
 Area in 
 
 Pop. in 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 1898. 
 
 548 
 
 187.858 
 
 163 
 
 (56,696 
 1 12.907 
 
 178 
 
 ( 101,256 
 t 65,257 
 
 2,6.'59 
 
 549,387 
 
 644 
 
 124,138 
 
 108 
 
 122,473 
 
 267 
 
 33.327 
 
 2,754 
 
 95,941 
 
 579 
 
 140,171 
 
 
 121,047 
 
 779 
 
 250,283 
 
 114 
 
 37,237 
 
 361 
 
 50,777 
 
 306 
 
 91,918 
 
 381 
 
 111,204 
 
 1,089 
 
 128,798 
 
 295 
 
 ( 14,698 
 113,209 
 
 416 
 
 17,249 
 
 2,036 
 
 104,132 
 
 1.244 
 
 266.970 
 
 92 
 
 23,267 
 
 666 
 
 399,4a 
 
 Total, 
 
 15,981 3,119,638 
 
 The area of Switzerland (15,981 sq. m., of which 
 11,443 are classed as 'productive' and 4538 as 
 
gWIfZERLAND 
 
 t8& 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 'Unproductive') is distributed over four river- 
 basins— those of the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, 
 and the Ticino, a tributary of the Po. The Con- 
 federation is bounded S. by a part of the main 
 chain of the Eastern Alps, W. and N\V. by the 
 Jura, and N. by the Rhine. The Pennine Alps 
 lie to the south of the valley of the Rhone, on 
 the north of which are the Bernese Alps extend- 
 ing from the Lake of Geneva to the Grimsel. 
 East of the Bernese Alps is the St Gothard group. 
 The Rhsetian Alps are east of the Pennine Chain 
 (see Alps, Jura, &c.). A broad fertile plain ex- 
 tends from the Lake of Geneva to the Lake of 
 Constance. The lowest level on Swiss territory 
 is 646 feet on the banks of Lake Lugano ; the 
 highest is 15,217, the summit of Monte 
 Rosa. Of the 4538 sq. m. of land classed as ' un- 
 productive,' 3229 are covered by rocks, moraine, 
 &c., 711 by glaciers, 535 by lakes, and 63 by 
 towns and villages. Tlie largest lakes are those 
 of Geneva and Constance ; fifteen cover an area 
 of over 3 sq. m. each. Of some 470 glaciers 
 (more in Valais than in any other canton) the 
 largest is the Gross Aletsch, 15 miles long. In 
 the Central Alps the limit of perpetual snow 
 varies from 9250 to 9020 feet. Few metallic 
 deposits are found ; those which exist cannot 
 be worked. Some salt is obtained. In a 
 country where the height above the sea-level 
 is from 646 feet — where the almond, the fig, and 
 the olive ripen in the open air — to the region 
 of perpetual snow, there is inevitably great 
 variety in the climate. There is a variation of 
 about 34^° in the mean temperature — between 
 54^° F. at Bellinzona, and 20° on the Theodule 
 Pass. The population is composed of four dis- 
 tinct ethnical elements. The language of 71*3 
 per cent, of the population is German ; of 21 "8, 
 French; of 5-3, Italian; of 1*6, Romansch or 
 Ladin. There is no federal church, each 
 canton has its own ecclesiastical constitution, 
 and liberty of belief is inviolable. Of the in- 
 habitants, 58*8 per cent, are Protestants, 40-5 
 Catholics, and 0'3 Jews. The republic of Switzer- 
 land became a federal state (Bundestaat) in 1848 : 
 previously it consisted of a league of semi- 
 independent states or cantons. The political 
 structure is built up in three tiers— the Com- 
 mune, the Canton, and the Federal Assembly. 
 In the communes all local matters are adminis- 
 tered by two governing bodies— the Communal 
 Assembly (which is purely legislative), composed 
 of all male citizens who have attained the age of 
 twenty, and the Communal Council, the execu- 
 tive of the former body, by whom it is elected. 
 Each canton has its own constitution and local 
 government. The constitutions of the several 
 cantons vary considerably, but all are based on 
 the sovereignty of the people, and are subject 
 also to the ratification of the Confederation. In 
 Uri, the two half-cantons of Appenzell, and in 
 Glarus there still exists the ancient Lands- 
 gemeinde, an open-air gathering of all those pos- 
 sessing votes, who meet every spring to legislate 
 on cantonal affairs. These cantons possess a re- 
 presentative power in their I/indrath, and an 
 executive power in the Regierungsrath. In other 
 cantons the citizens elect representatives to the 
 cantonal council from electoral districts. The 
 supreme legislative authority of the Confedera- 
 tion is vested in a parliament of two chambers, 
 the Council of the States (Stdttderath) and the 
 National Council (Nationalrath), which represent 
 the supreme government of the country, under 
 reserve of the referendum or vote of the people. 
 The Council of the States consists of forty-four 
 
 members, each canton having two represent*- 
 tives, and each half-canton one. The National 
 Council consists of 147 members, elected in each 
 canton in the proportion of one deputy for every 
 20,000 of the population. These two chambers 
 each elect a president and vice-president, and 
 meet at Bern at least twice a year, in June 
 and December, together forming the Federal 
 Assembly. This body controls the general 
 administration of the Confederation ; they alone 
 can declare war, make peace, or conclude treaties 
 with foreign powers. The executive authority of 
 the Federal Assembly is deputed to the Federal 
 Council composed of seven members, elected for 
 a period of three years. The president of the 
 Federal Council, who is also president of the 
 Confederation, is chosen annually at a united 
 meeting of the Council of the States and the 
 National Council from among the members of the 
 Federal Council. By means of the referendrim all 
 legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal 
 Assemblies may be referred to the people en 
 masse. In the majority of cantons 5000 signa- 
 tures are required in order to obtain a referendum. 
 for cantonal laws. The compulsory refereiidum 
 regarding federal legislation, established in 1848, 
 was then limited to the revision of the constitu- 
 tion. That of 1874 contains an article extending 
 it, when demanded by 30,000 citizens or eight 
 cantons, to all laws and resolutions of a general 
 nature passed by the Federal Assembly. Initia- 
 tive is the exercise of the right granted to voters 
 to initiate proposals for the enactment of new 
 laws or for the alteration or abolition of old ones. 
 Fifty thousand signatures are required to obtain 
 the initiative for federal legislation, and in most 
 cantons 5000 for cantonal matters. 
 
 The revenue for 1905 was £4,629,000, the ex- 
 penditure £4,672,000. The revenue is chiefly 
 derived from customs, postal and telegraph 
 services, the tax for exemption from military 
 service, and from real property. The public 
 debt in 1905 amounted to £4,763,000. The 
 total cantonal debts do not exceed £10,000,000. 
 The French metric system of money, &c. is in 
 use throughout the Confederation. Every Swiss 
 is liable to military service ; and the total strength 
 of the army (essentially a citizen force, designed 
 only for defensive purposes), not including the 
 Landstunn, is : ^Mte, 125,620 ; Landwehr, 80,715 ; 
 total, 206,335. Primary instruction is compul- 
 sory, unsectarian, and provided gratuitously at 
 the cost of each canton. There are five uni- 
 versities on the German model— Basel, Bern, 
 Zurich, Geneva, Lausanne, and (for Catholics 
 only) Freiburg ; there is also an academy at 
 Neuchatel, and a great federal technical college, 
 the Polytechnic, at Zurich, besides several 
 smaller technical colleges elsewhere. 
 
 More than one-half of the arable land is devoted 
 to cereals. Cattle-breeding is an industry of 
 great importance. There are upwards of 5500 
 cheesemaking establishments. Tobacco is grown 
 chiefly in the cantons of Valais, Vaud, Frei- 
 burg, Bern, and Aargau; the quality is by no 
 means good, but the exports (including cigars 
 and cigarettes) amount to £90,000 a year. The 
 average annual production of wine amounts to 
 31,266,400 gallons. Little or no coal is mined, 
 there are no canals or navigable rivers, the country 
 is situated far from the sea-coast, and nearly all 
 the raw material and half-finished goods have to 
 be imported. Yet there is a large general trade. 
 The textile industries are the most important, the 
 chief centres being Zurich, Basel, Glarus. Next 
 comes watchmaking, established at Geneva in 
 
SWORDS € 
 
 1587, which has since spread to the cantons of 
 Neuchatel, Bern, and Vaud. Machinery (weav- 
 ing-looms, &c.) is also largely exported. Em- 
 broidery is carried on chiefly in St Gall and 
 Appenzell. Wood-carving, introduced in the 
 Oberland about 1820, employs some 4000 persons. 
 The exports range from £26,760,000 to £29,000,000 
 in value per annum, the imports from £28,000,000 
 to over £40,000,000. The gross amount of money 
 brought annually by tourists into the 'Play- 
 ground of Europe ' is estimated at £4,000,000. 
 
 The original inhabitants of Switzerland were 
 the Celtic Helvetii, and the Rhsetii of doubtful 
 affinity ; both were conquered by Julius Csesar 
 and the generals of Augustus, and Romanised. 
 Overrun by the Burgundians in the west, and 
 their Germanic kinsmen the Alemannians in the 
 east, Helvetia became subject to the Prankish 
 kings and christianised in the 7th century. 
 Most of the country was subsequently part of the 
 Holy Roman Empire ; and in 1273 a Swiss noble, 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg in Aargau, became German 
 Emperor. Soon after his death (in 1291) the 
 inhabitants of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden 
 formed a league to defend their common interests, 
 and in 1315 crushed an Austrian army at Mor- 
 garten. In 1332 Lucerne joined the alliance, and 
 in 1353, Bern, Zurich, Glarus, and Zug. The 
 Austrians were again routed at Sempach in 1386, 
 and in 1388 at Nafels. The Swiss next had a 
 fierce but triumphant struggle with Charles the 
 Bold of Burgundy, whom they routed at Grand- 
 son and Morat in 1476, and finally at Nancy (where 
 Charles was slain) in 1477. When the Reforma- 
 tion began there were thirteen cantons, and the 
 cantons took opposite sides from the beginning, 
 not without serious turmoil and bloodshed. The 
 treaty of Westphalia in 1648 recognised Switzer- 
 land as an independent state. Some of the 
 cantons were strictly aristocratic and some 
 highly democratic, and there was much dis- 
 content long before the French Revolution, 
 when, in 1798, between civil strife and French 
 armies, the old republic (or rather alliance) came 
 to an end. The Helvetic Republic of nineteen 
 cantons, under French auspices, endured till 1805 ; 
 then a new republican constitution was adopted, 
 the Federal Pact of twenty-two cantons. On 
 Napoleon's downfall Valais, Neuchatel, and 
 Geneva, which had been incorporated with 
 France, were restored, and Swiss neutrality and 
 inviolability were recognised by the treaty of 
 Vienna in 1815. Religious troubles led to a 
 Catholic league in 1844, which was suppressed by 
 the Federal forces in 1847. The present constitu- 
 tion was adopted in 1848, but revised in 1874. 
 
 See, besides Murray, Baedeker, and other 
 guidebooks, works on the constitution by Adams 
 and Cunningham (1889), Moses (Oakland, U.S. 
 1889), Vincent (1891), Winchester (1891) ; or the 
 history by Hug ('Story of the Nations,' 1890), 
 and Swiss life by Symonds (1892). 
 
 Swords, a town, 8 miles N. of Dublin, with a 
 round tower, castle, and abbey. Pop. 945. 
 
 Sydenham (Sid'nam), a district in Lewisham 
 parish, 8 miles S. of London. It has become of 
 world-wide celebrity in connection with the 
 Crystal Palace, which, however, is really in the 
 adjoining parish of Lambeth, and which was 
 erected in 1852-54, chiefly from the materials of 
 the Great Exhibition (1851), and under the super- 
 intendence of Sir Joseph Paxton. The cost 
 amounted to nearly £1,500,000. The building is 
 1608 feet long, 390 wide across the transept, and 
 175 high, the height of the two water-towera 
 
 I SYDNEY 
 
 being 282 feet. The chief arts and sciences illirf* 
 trated by the collections are Sculpture, Architec- 
 ture, Painting and Photography, Mechanics and 
 Manufactures, Botany, Ethnology, Palseontology, 
 Geology, and Hydraulics. There are two concert- 
 rooms, within the larger of which the triennial 
 Handel festivals (since 1859) take place with 
 4000 performers. The park and gardens occupy 
 nearly 200 acres, and are adorned with sculp- 
 tures, stone balustrades, an artificial lake, and 
 magnificent fountains. In 1866 tliere was a fire 
 in the north Aving, doing damage to the amount 
 of £150,000; tlie Crystal Palace had never been 
 a monetary success, and in 1887 tlie company 
 was declared insolvent. Under new and more 
 prosperous auspices, important ' demonstrations ' 
 still take place here, as well as cricket, football, 
 bowling, and tennis matches, not to speak of 
 great firework displays. 
 
 Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, and 
 the oldest city in Australia, is situated on the 
 southern shores of Port Jackson, and was named 
 after Thomas Townshend, first Viscount Sydney 
 (1733-1800), then Secretary of State for the 
 Colonies. The first British settlers that reached 
 New Holland Avere landed at Botany Bay (q.v.) 
 on January 20, 1788. The spot here selected, 
 being found ineligible, was abandoned a few days 
 afterwards, and the infant settlement was trans- 
 ferred to a point 7 miles farther N., where 
 Sydney now stands. The choice of the new 
 locality was chiefly determined by a stream of 
 fresh water flowing into Sydney Cove, one of the 
 numberless bays into which the basin of Port 
 Jackson is divided. This magnificent expanse of 
 water, completely landlocked, and admitting 
 vessels of the largest size, extends 20 miles 
 inland, ramifying in every direction. Its bold 
 and rocky shores, covered with luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion, present a succession of beautiful land- 
 scapes. The surrounding hills often rise to from 
 200 to 250 feet. In other points the coast con- 
 sists of terraces and smooth sandy beaches. The 
 narrow entrance of Port Jackson — through the 
 ' Heads,' which are indicated by the Macquarie 
 lighthouse, its electric light visible 30 miles at 
 sea— is defended by the shore fortifications, tor- 
 pedo boats, and a naval establishment on Garden 
 Island. Sydney stands nearly in the centre of 
 the immense coal formation of East Australia, 
 which extends 500 miles N. and S., with a 
 breadth of from 80 to 100 miles ; and the sand- 
 stone rock on which it is erected affords a 
 valuable building material. 
 
 The older streets are narrow and irregular ; but 
 several of the modern streets are not behind 
 those of the principal towns of Europe. There 
 are excellent lighting and drainage systems ; and 
 an abundant supply of pure water is obtained 
 from the Nepean River, near Penrith. The 
 Botanical Gardens cover 38 acres, and there are 
 also numerous parks. Sydney has one ship- 
 building establishment. The Fitzroy Dry Dock, 
 originallv intended for vessels of the royal navy, 
 can take in ships of the largest size, and has been 
 supplemented by one of the most extensive grav- 
 ing-docks in existence. Steps have been taken to 
 put the city in a state of defence, and forts and 
 batteries armed with powerful Armstrong guns 
 have been erected. Ajnongst public buildings 
 by far the most important edifice is the univer- 
 sity (1852), which stands on a commanding 
 height. The principal fagade is 500 feet in 
 length, and is flanked at its western end by the 
 Great Hall. Affiliated to it are a women's college 
 and three denominational colleges. The metro* 
 
SYDNfiY 
 
 684 
 
 SlrltlA 
 
 fiolitan cathedral of St Andrew is a handsome 
 Perpendicular editice ; the R. C. cathedral of St 
 Mary, burned in 1865, and since rebnilt, is one of 
 the finest churches in Australia. There are 
 also a technical university and technological 
 museum, the museum. Colonial Secretary's office, 
 lands office, post-office, customs office, town-hall 
 (possessing the largest organ in the world), and 
 public grammar-school. The Thomas Walker 
 Convalescent Hospital was built out of a bequest 
 of £100,000. The neighbourhood of Sydney, 
 especially the shores of the bays and the Parra- 
 matta and Lane Cove rivers, is studded with 
 villas, surrounded by park-like grounds, and 
 gardens of orange-trees, bananas, and numberless 
 semi-tropical plants. There are nnmerous in- 
 dustrial establishments, but Sydney is essentially 
 a commercial rather than a manufacturing city. 
 Pop. (1862) 93,596 ; (1881) 220,427 ; (1901) 487,900. 
 
 Sydney, a small town of Cape Breton (q.v.) 
 with a large coalfield. Pop. 3200. 
 
 Syene (Sl-ee'nee). See Assouan. 
 
 Sylhet (Seel'het), or Srihatta, a British dis- 
 trict in the extreme south of Assam (q.v.). Area, 
 5414 sq. m. ; pop. 2,000,000. The chief town, 
 Sylhet, on the Surma River, has a pop. of 15,000. 
 
 Sylt (Seelt), a narrow island, 23 miles long, off 
 the W. coast of Sleswick, with a pop. of 6000. 
 The chief town is Keitum. 
 
 Syra (Gr. Syros), the most important, though 
 not the largest, of the Cyclades. It is 10 miles 
 long by 5 broad, 42J sq. m. in area, and is bare 
 and rocky. Pop. of island, 27,800. The capital, 
 Syra, or Hermoupolis, on a bay on the E. side, is 
 the chief commercial entrepot of the jEgean, 
 importing manufactured wares, hides, grain, 
 flour, yarns, timber, iron, &c., and exporting 
 tobacco, emery-stone, valonia, sponges, &c. 
 
 Syracuse (Sir'a-kyooz), anciently a famous city 
 of Sicily, on the E. coast, 80 miles SSW. of 
 Messina, was founded by Corinthian settlers 
 about 733 B.C. The colonists seem to have 
 occupied the little isle of Ortygia, stretching 
 south-east from the shore ; but later the city 
 extended to the mainland. The seat successively 
 of 'tyranny' and democracy, Syracuse was in- 
 volved in a great struggle with Athens (415-414 
 B.C.), and the celebrated siege in which it came 
 off victorious. Dionysius' fierce war with Car- 
 thage (397 B.C.) raised the renown of Syracuse 
 still higher. In 212 b.c. the city was conquered 
 by the Romans after a two years' siege, it having 
 sided with the Carthaginians. Under the 
 Romans Syracuse slowly declined, though with 
 its handsome public buildings and its artistic and 
 intellectual culture, it always continued to be the 
 first city of Sicily. It was captured and burned 
 by the Saracens in 878 a.d., and after that sunk 
 into complete decay. The modern city (Siracusa) 
 is confined to the original limits, Ortygia, which, 
 however, is no longer an island, but a peninsula. 
 The streets, which are defended by walls and a 
 citadel, are mostly narrow and dirty. Syracuse 
 has a cathedral (the ancient temple of Minerva), 
 a museum of antiquities, a public library, the 
 fountain of Arethusa (its waters mingled with 
 sea-water since the earthquake of 1170), and 
 remains of temples, aqueducts, the citadel 
 Euryalus, a theatre, an amphitheatre, and quarries, 
 besides ancient Christian catacombs. Pop. 32,100. 
 
 Syi'acuse, an important city of central New 
 York, lies in tlie beautiful Onondaga valley, 
 stretching along Onondaga Creek to the head of 
 Onondaga Lake. It is o.: ^e Erie Canal, and is a 
 
 terminus of the Oswego Canal ; by rail it is 1481 
 miles E. of Buffalo and 147^ W. of Albany. Syra- 
 cuse is the seat of a Methodist Episcopal univer- 
 sity (1870). Salt is the chief manufacture, and 
 there are also rolling-mills, Bessemer steel -works, 
 foundries, blast-furnaces, boiler-factories, and 
 manufactories of engines, farming implements, 
 furniture, silver- ware, saddlery, boots, flour, beer, 
 &c. The salt-springs were visited by French 
 missionaries in 1654, and began to be worked by 
 white men in 1789 ; the citv was incorporated in 
 1847. Pop. (1880) 51,792 ; (1900) 108,374. 
 
 Syr-Daria {Seer-Dar'ya). See Jaxartes. 
 
 Syria (Sirria), a country of western Asia, 
 forming part of Turkey in Asia, and embracing 
 the regions that lie between the Levant and the 
 Euphrates from Mount Taurus in the north to 
 the southern border of Palestine, or even to the 
 peninsula of Sinai. A range of mountains, split 
 in the north into two parallel chains— Libanus 
 and Anti-Libanus — fronts the Mediterranean, 
 ranging in height from 6000 feet in the north up 
 to 10,000 feet in the central parts, but falling 
 again in the south to 3500 feet. Behind these 
 mountains lies a tableland, that gradually falls 
 away eastwards to the desert. The separate 
 districts and features of Syria are described 
 under Lebanon, Palestine, Phoinicia, Bashan, 
 Hauran, Dead Sea, Jordan, &c. The prevail- 
 ing winds being westerly, the slopes of the 
 mountains next the Mediterranean, together with 
 the immediate seaboard, get a tolerably plentiful 
 supply of moisture during the rainy half of the 
 year (October to May) ; snow even falls on the 
 highest summits. The climate on the plateau 
 is generally dry. The valley of the Jordan is 
 remarkably hot. The soil is in many parts 
 possessed of good fertility, and in ancient times, 
 when irrigation was naore extensively practised, 
 yielded a much greater return than it does now. 
 Damascus is noted for its gardens and orchards. 
 Hauran produces excellent wheat. Northern 
 Syria is the home of the olive. The vine grows 
 almost everywhere. Fruit (oranges, figs, &c.) is 
 cultivated on the coast plains. Sheep and goats 
 are the chief domestic animals. The principal 
 exports are silk, cereals, wool, olive-oil, lemons 
 and oranges, soap, sponges, sesame, liquorice, 
 cottons, and tobacco. The total value is £1,000,000 
 to £1,250,000. The imports reach pretty nearly 
 the same figure ; Manchester goods (£700,000 to 
 £950,000) the chief item. Besides these there are 
 woollens, rice, copper and iron, sacking, timber, 
 and hides. The chief port is Beyrout, with 
 Acre, Haifa, Tyre, and Tripoli. Railways to 
 connect Damascus with Acre and with Beyrout, 
 and Tripoli with the interior, are projected 
 or in course of construction. The pop. of Syria, 
 including Lebanon and Palestine, is estimated 
 at 3,317,000. The bulk of the inhabitants are 
 Mohammedans, including the Druses, Shiites, 
 &c. The Christians make up one-fifth of the 
 total — Orthodox Greeks, United Greeks, Maro- 
 nites and Nestorians, Roman Catholics, and a few 
 Protestants. The main ethnic elements in the 
 population are descendants of the ancient Syrians 
 (Aranifeans) and Arabs, both settled and nomad; 
 besides there are Jews, Turks, and Europeans. 
 
 Syria was the scene of the Hittite, Phoenician, 
 and Jewish states, and of the Aramaean (Syrian 
 and Semitic) principalities of Damascus, Zobah, 
 Hamath, &c. In the 8th and 9th centuries 
 B.C. Syria was the battle-ground of the Egyptian 
 and Hittite annies, and after that period it 
 was, as a province of Assyria (Babylonia), iu« 
 
SYRTIS 
 
 685 
 
 TAGUS 
 
 volved in the struggle between that great empire 
 and Egypt. (The Greeks first knew this region 
 as a province of Assyria ; hence the contracted 
 name Syria.) Towards the end of the 6th century 
 B.C. Syria fell under the dominion of the Persian 
 empire ; and two centuries later it was conquered 
 by Alexander of Macedon. When his empire 
 broke to pieces the Seleucidse made Antioch 
 the capital of their empire of Syria. From the 
 Seleucidte it passed, through the hands of 
 Tigranes of Armenia, to the Romans, for whom it 
 was won by Pompey in 64 b.c. Under these new 
 masters the country flourished and became cele- 
 brated for its thriving industries, its commercial 
 prosperity, and its architectural magnificence 
 (see Baalbek and Palmyra). On the division of 
 the Roman world Syria became part of the Byzan- 
 tine empire, and remained a province of it until 
 its conquest by the Mohammedan Arabs in 636. 
 It still continued to be prosperous under the 
 Arabs and their successors the Egyptian sove- 
 reigns, in spite of the unsettled period of the 
 Crusades. The first severe blow it suffiered 
 came from the Mongols in 1260, and its ruin was 
 completed when in 1516 it passed from the 
 Egyptians to the Ottoman Turks. See Barton 
 and Drake, Unexplored Syria (2 vols. 1872) ; Lady 
 Burton, Inner Life of Syria (1875) ; Baedeker's 
 Palestine and Syria (by Professor A. Socin) ; 
 Conder, Heth and Moab (1883) ; and books quoted 
 under the various articles cited above. 
 
 Syrtis, the ancient name of two gulfs of tlie 
 Mediterranean Sea, on the north coast of Africa. 
 The Syrtis Major (now Gulf of Sidra) lies between 
 Tripoli and Barca ; the Syrtis Minor (now Gulf 
 of Cabes), between Tunis and Tripoli. 
 
 Syzran (Seez'ran), a town (1685) of Central 
 Russia, 90 miles S. of Simbirsk. Pop. 32,500. 
 
 Szabadka {Saw-hawd'ka), or Maria-Theresio- 
 
 PEL, a royal free town of Hungary, 106 miles S. 
 by E. of Budapest. Pop. 81,500. 
 
 Szarvas (Sawr-vansh), a town of Hungary, 80 
 miles SE. of Budapest. Pop. 24,393, 
 
 Szathmar-Nemethy {Sawt'mar-Nemetee), a 
 cathedral-city of Hungary, on the Szamos, 68 
 miles by rail NE. of Debreczin. Pop. 20,736. 
 
 Sze-chwan, the largest province of China, 
 185,000 sq, ni. in area, is situated in the west, 
 having Tibet on the NW. and Yunnan on the 
 SW. It is traversed by the Yang-tsze-Kiang, is 
 hilly throughout, and rich in coal, iron, and other 
 minerals. The capital is Ching-tu. The chief 
 commercial town, Chung-king, on the Great River, 
 was thrown open to British trade in 1889, as 
 Ichang (q.v.) was to foreign trade in 1877. Pop. 
 71,000,000. See A. Hosie's Three Years in Western 
 China (1890). 
 
 Szegedin (Seg-e-deen'), a royal free town of 
 Hungary, stands at the confluence of the Maros 
 with the Theiss, 118 miles by rail SE. of Buda- 
 pest. In March 1879 a terrible flood over- 
 whelmed 6235 out of 6566 houses. Since then 
 Szegedin has been rebuilt, and now possesses 
 very handsonie public buildings, and is protected 
 against inundations by a double ring of embank- 
 ments. The Theiss is spanned by two railway 
 bridges and a fine suspension bridge (1940 feet 
 long) designed by Eiff'el. Szegedin maTiufactures 
 soap, spirits, matches, soda, tobacco, coarse 
 cloth, &c. From 1526 to 1686 it was occupied by 
 the Turks. Pop. (1880) 73,675 ; (1900) 102,970. 
 
 Szenta. See Zenta. 
 
 Szentes (Sen'tes), a town of Hungary, 30 miles 
 N. of Szegedin, near the Theiss. Pop. 30,791. 
 
 Szolnok (SornoTc), a town of Hungary, on the 
 Theiss, 66 miles E. by S. of Budapest, with a 
 trade in tobacco, timber, and salt. Popi 25,400. 
 
 A6ASG0, a Gulf state of Mexico, named 
 
 from a river running to Campeachy 
 
 Bay. Area, 10,072 sq. m. ; pop. 160,000. 
 
 Table Mountain. See Capetown. 
 
 Taboga. See PanamA. 
 
 TaT)Or, a dome-shaped oak-clad hill, 1000 feet 
 high, of N. Palestine, 7 miles E. of Nazareth. 
 Regarded in the 2d c. as the Mount of Transfigur- 
 ation, it is crowned by a ruined crusading church. 
 
 Tabriz (Tahreez' ; anc. Tauris), a city of Persia, 
 capital of Azerbijan province, 40 miles E. of Lake 
 Urmia. The Kabiid Masjid, or 'blue mosque' 
 (1450), is an interesting ruin ; the citadel is a 
 spacious edifice, its brick walls cracked by earth- 
 quakes. Tabriz manufactures leather, silk, and 
 gold and silversmith's work ; it is also the em- 
 porium of an extensive transit trade. The imports 
 include cotton fabrics, sugar, woollen cloth, and 
 wines, spirits ; the exports, drugs, spices, dried 
 fruits, shawls, carpets, raw silk. The opening of 
 the Russian railway between the Black Sea and 
 the Caspian, and Russian tariff legislation, have 
 injured tlie overland trade by Tabriz. The Anglo- 
 Indian telegraph line passes here. Pop. 170,000. 
 
 Tacna, a southern province of Peru, taken pos- 
 session of by Chili in 1883 avowedly for only ten 
 years. Area, 8685 sq. m. ; population, 25,000. 
 The capital, Tacna, 38 miles by rail N. of Arica 
 (q.v.), has a pop. of 9500. 
 
 Taco'ma, the second city of Washington state, 
 on the E. side of Puget Sound, by rail 145 miles 
 jj. Qf Portland, Oregon, and 18 S. by W. of Seattle. 
 
 In 1880 it was a mere village ; in 1890 a flourish- 
 ing city, with trams, water, gas and the electric 
 light, miles of wide streets, numerous mills and 
 factories, and a busy port. In the district around 
 are coal, iron, precious metals, lumber, farms of 
 wheat, hops, fruit, and vegetables ; it has a tea 
 trade direct with Japan. Pop. (1880) 1098 ; (1900) 
 37,714. Behind the city is beautiful MountTacoma 
 or Rainier (14,444 feet). 
 
 Tacuarem'bo, the largest dep. of Uruguay, 
 bounded S. by the Rio Negro. Area, 8074 sq. 
 m. ; pop. 40,100. 
 
 Tad'caster (Roman CaZcarm), a Yorkshire town, 
 on the Wharfe, 9 miles SW. of York. Towton, 
 2^ miles S., witnessed a great Yorkist victory 
 on Palm Sunday, 29th May 1461. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Tadmor. See Palmyra. 
 
 Taf, a river of Pembroke and Carmarthen 
 shires, flowing 25 miles to Carmarthen Bay. 
 
 TaflF, a river of South Wales, flowing 40 miles 
 to the Bristol Channel at Cardiff. 
 
 Tafilet. See Morocco. 
 
 Taganrog, a Russian seaport, on the N. shore 
 of the Sea of Azov, 15 miles W. of the Don's 
 mouth. It exports wheat, linseed, hempseed, 
 skins, wool, butter, and ta,llow. Founded in 
 1698, it Avas bombarded during the Crimean war 
 by an Anglo-French fleet. Pop. 60,700. 
 
 Taghmon, a market town, 9 miles W. of Wex- 
 ford. Pop. 555. 
 
 Tagus (Span. Tajo), the largest river of tb? 
 
TAHITI 
 
 TAMWORTH 
 
 Spanish Peninsula, rises on the hilly frontier of 
 Guadalajara and Teruel provinces. It first flows 
 NW., then curving SW., flows mainly in that 
 direction past Aranjuez, Toledo, and Alcantara, 
 and, in Portugal, Abrantes, Santarem, and Lis- 
 bon, 10 miles below which it enters the Atlantic. 
 Below Salvaterra it divides into the western 
 Tejo Novo and the eastern Mar de Pedro, which 
 form a delta, and both fall into the noble Bay 
 of Lisbon. It is 566 miles long, and navigable to 
 Abrantes from Santarem for ocean-going steamers. 
 
 Tahiti (Tahee'tee ; formerly spelt Otaheite), an 
 island giving name to a small archipelago, also 
 called Society Islands, in the mid Pacific, more 
 than 2000 miles NE. of New Zealand and some 
 3400 SSW. of San Francisco. The islands consist 
 of Tahiti (which embraces 455 sq. m. out of a total 
 of 637 for the entire archipelago), Raiatea, Moorea 
 or Bimeo (q.v.), and others. The group is divided 
 into the Windward and the Leeward clusters, and 
 stretches for about 200 miles NW. and SE. They 
 are composed of volcanic rocks, are mountainous 
 (Orohena on Tahiti is 7340 feet high), and well 
 wooded, with belts of low fertile soil along the 
 shores, and girt by coral-reefs. The scenery is 
 magnificent, the chief island being often called 
 ' the Garden of the Pacific' The climate is very 
 moist and hot (70° to 84° F.), but equable and 
 healthy. Cocoa-nuts, oranges, vanilla, fruit, 
 cotton, and sugar are grown, and these and 
 mother-of-pearl, cocoa-nut fibre, and trepang are 
 exported. The imports include textiles, flour, 
 wine, live-stock, sugar, coff'ee, coal, timber, and 
 soap. The people cultivate the bread-fruit, taro, 
 yam, sweet potato, &c. The most important 
 harbour is Papeete, tlie capital, in the NE. of 
 Tahiti, which has a R. C. cathedral, an arsenal, 
 and a pop. of 3224. The population in 1905 of 
 all the islands was 16,300 (Taliiti, 10,750 ; Freneli, 
 400). The people, a handsome race of the Poly- 
 nesian stock, are light-hearted and polite, but 
 very immoral and untrustworthy, Tlie group 
 was discovered by the Spanish navigator De 
 Quiros, but first accurately described by Cook 
 (1769-77), who named them in honour of the 
 Royal Society of London ; the pop. then num- 
 bered nearly 250,000. The London Missionary 
 Society commenced work here in 1797 ; but in 
 1812 they had to flee for a while to Australia. 
 In 1842 France forced a protectorate over the 
 eastern cluster ; the treaty of 1847 with Great 
 Britain, recognising the independence of the 
 western cluster, was abrogated in 1888, and the 
 whole archipelago practically became a French 
 possession. See works by Ellis (1829), Williams 
 (1839), Pritchard (1866), and Dora Hort (1891). 
 
 Tahlequah, a small Cherokee town in the U. S. 
 Indian Territory, 1 mile from the Illinois River. 
 
 Taimyr. See Chelyuskin. 
 
 Tain (Scand. Thing, 'a place of assembly '), an 
 ancient royal burgh of Ross-shire, near the south 
 shore of the Dornoch Firth, 44 miles NNE. of 
 Inverness by the Highland Railway (1864). A 
 ruined chapel marks the birthplace of St 
 Duthac (c. 1000-65), whose body was brought 
 back from Armagh in 1253 ; within it Bruce's 
 queen was taken captive for Edward I., and 
 James IV. did yearly penance here. There are 
 also a collegiate church (1471 ; restored 1849-82), 
 a court-house (1849), a public hall (1876), and an 
 academy (1812). Tlie population is over 2000— 
 1650 in the police and pari, burgli (see Wick) 
 See a work by the Rev. W. Taylor (1882). 
 
 Tai-wan. See Formosa. 
 
 yaj MaUai. See ^ofiA. 
 
 Tajurra Bay (Tajoo'ra), an African inlet of the 
 Gulf of Aden, S, of Bab-el-Mandeb, on which lies 
 the French dependency of Obock (q.v.). 
 
 Takamatsu, a seaport on tlie N. coast of 
 Shikoku Island, Japan. Pop. 34,500. 
 
 Takaoka, a manufacturing town of Japan, 
 about 60 miles W. of Nagano. Pop. 31,500. 
 
 Takasaki, an important commercial town of 
 Japan, 60 miles NW. of Tokyo. Pop. 31,000. 
 
 Takata, a town of Japan, 30 miles N. of 
 Nagano. Pop. 20,350. 
 
 Takazzeh. See Atbara. 
 
 Talavera de la Reina (Talavay'ra de la 
 rMij'ua), a Spanish town, on tlie Tagiis, 75 miles 
 SE. of Madrid. Here on July 27-28, 1809, 
 Wellington defeated the French. Pop. 10,600. 
 
 Talca, cai)ital of the province of Talca, Chili, 
 140 miles SW. of Santiago. Pop. 42,800. 
 
 Ta-lien-wan. See Dalny. 
 
 Ta-li-fu, capital of western Yunnan (q.v.). 
 
 Talisker, a Skye distillery at Carbost, 23 miles 
 WNW. ofBroadford. 
 
 Tallahassee, the capital of Florida, 166 miles 
 by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. 2983. 
 
 Talla Water, a tributary of the Tweed, in 
 Tweedsniuir, Peeblesshire, on wliich a reservoir 
 was completed in 1905 for a supply of water to 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Tamanieb. See Teb. 
 
 Tamaqua, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the 
 Taniaqua or Little Schuylkill River, 134 miles by 
 rail W. of New York. Pop. 7270. 
 
 Tamar, a river which through 45 of its 59 
 miles bounds Devon and Cornwall ; its estuary 
 in Plymouth Sound is called the Hamoaze. 
 
 Tamatave (Tamatahv'), the chief port of Mada- 
 gascar, on the E. coast. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Tamaulipas (Tamowlee'pas), the northernmost 
 of the Gulf states of Mexico (area, 29,336 sq, m. ; 
 pop. 218,950). Capital, Victoria (pop. 14,575). 
 
 TambofiF, a Russian town, 300 miles SE. of 
 Moscow. Pop. 48,100.— Area of Tamhoff govern- 
 ment, 25,710 sq. m. ; pop. 2,715,500. 
 
 Tame, a river of Warwick and Stafford shires, 
 flowing 25 miles to the Trent, 
 
 Tammerfors, the chief manufacturing city of 
 Finland, 50 miles NW. of Tavastehus by rail. 
 Pop. 28,730. 
 
 Tampa, capital of Hillsborough county, Florida, 
 at tlie head of Tampa Bay (nearly 40 miles long), 
 240 miles by rail SSW. of Jacksonville. There 
 is a good harbour, and the place is growing in 
 importance. Pop. 15,850. 
 
 Tampi'co (i as ee), a Mexican seaport, on the 
 Panuco, 9 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and 200 
 miles NNE. of Mexico, Pop. 16,000. 
 
 Tamsul, See Formosa. 
 
 Tamworth, a town on the border of Stafford 
 and Warwick shires, at the confluence of the Tame 
 and Anker, 17| miles NNE. of Birmingham, and 
 110 NW. of London. Burned by the Danes in 911, 
 and rebuilt by the Princess Ethelfleda, it was the 
 seat of a castle of the Saxon kings, held afterwards 
 by the Marmions,.Ferrars, &c., and now by the 
 Marquis of Townshend. Tliat castle crowns a 
 knoll 130 feet high ; in its noble round keep Mary, 
 Queen of Scots, was a prisoner. The church of St 
 Edith, restored since 1870 at a cost of £10,000, 
 has interesting monuments and a curious double 
 tower-staircase, There are also ^ bronze statue 
 
TANA 
 
 687 
 
 TARBAGATAI 
 
 of Peel (M.P. 1833-50), the new Jubilee municipal 
 buildings and assembly rooms, a town-hall (1701), 
 a grammar-school (1588 ; rebuilt 1868), almshouses 
 founded by Thomas Guy (the founder of Guy's 
 Hospital, who was brouglit up here), a cottage 
 hospital, recreation grounds, &c. The manufac- 
 tures include elastic, tape, sinallwares, paper, 
 &c. ; and in the vicinity are market-gardens and 
 coal-pits. A municipal borough, chartered by 
 Elizabeth, Taniworth returned two members 
 until 1885. The borough boundary was extended 
 in 1890. Pop. (1851) 4059 ; (1901) 7271. See two 
 works by C. F. R. Palmer (1871-75). 
 
 Tana, a river of British East Africa, rising on 
 Mount Kenia and flowing 450 miles to a bay S. 
 of Witu. See a book by Dundas (1893). 
 
 Tana. See Thana, Tzana. 
 
 Tan'agra, an ancient city in the extreme east 
 of Boeotia, on the Asopus. Here in 457 B.C. the 
 Spartans defeated the Athenians. 
 
 Tanais. See Don. 
 
 Tananari'vo (i as ee). See Antananarivo. 
 
 Tanderagee' (g hard), an Armagh market-town, 
 on the Gusher, 83 miles N. of Dublin. Pop. 1444. 
 
 Tanga, an excellent German port of East Africa. 
 
 Tanganyika (Tajifif-sran-i/ee'/ca), a lake of Eastern 
 Africa, between 3° and 9° S. lat., and on 30° E. 
 long. ; length, 420 miles (nearly a fifth longer 
 than Lake Michigan); breadth, 15 to 80 miles; 
 height above sea, 2700 feet. It was discovered 
 by Speke and Burton in 1858, and explored by 
 Livingstone, Stanley, Cameron, Thomson, Hore, 
 &c. Formerly supposed to belong to the Nile 
 basin, it really sends its surplus waters by the 
 Lukuga outlet westward to the Congo in periods 
 when its level is high. Except when several rainy 
 seasons follow one another, the great evapora- 
 tion keeps the water about the same level. The 
 water is fresh and wholesome, the climate not 
 unhealthy. Mountains, some of them 10,000 feet 
 high, surround the lake, which lies in a trough 
 that seems to indicate a former connection with 
 the Red Sea. Some 600 miles from the coast, it 
 divides the Congo Free State from German East 
 Africa, touches Northern Rhodesia on the south, 
 and is on the line of the Cape-to-Cairo railway. 
 For physical features, see J. E. S. Moore, 2'he 
 Tanganyika Problem. 
 
 Tangier, or Tangiers (Tan-jeer', Tanjeers' ; 
 Arab. Tanja), a seaport and health-resort of 
 Morocco, on a small bay of the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar. 38 miles SW. of Gibraltar. It is a small, 
 ill-built town, situated on two hills, but has an 
 extensive shipping trade, though the harbour is 
 a mere roadstead. Tangier was taken by the 
 Portuguese in 1471, and given to Cliarles II. of 
 England as Catharine of Braganza's dowry, and 
 England retained it till 1683. The notorious 
 Colonel Kirke commanded the garrison, and 
 Bishop Ken was chaplain here. It was subse- 
 quently a nest of pirates. Coal has been found. 
 Pop. 30,000, mostly Moors and Spanish Jews. 
 
 Tan'is (Greek form of Egyptian Tan; Heb. 
 Zoan), an ancient city in the north-east of the 
 Delta, once the chief comuiercial city of Egypt. 
 The ruins, near the S. shore of Lake Menzaleh, 
 were in 1883-84 explored by Flinders Petrie. See 
 his monograph (1885). 
 
 Tanjore (originally Tanjavur), a town of India, 
 180 miles SSW. of Madras, on a branch of the 
 lower Kaveri. Its 14th-century great pagoda is 
 190 feet high. An old Hindu capital, it was a 
 f£^nlous seat of learning and religion. Pop. 59,250, 
 
 Tansa, a small river whose valley has been 
 impounded for the water-supply of Bombay, 65 
 miles to the S. Tlie reservoir (1887-92) is 8 sq. 
 m. in area, and the water-supi)ly is 100,000,000 
 gallons per day. 
 
 Tanta, capital of a province in the delta of the 
 Nile, 60 miles N. of Cairo, noted for its fairs and 
 festivals and its large and costly khedivial palace. 
 Pop. 35,000. 
 
 Tantallon Castle. See North Berwick. 
 
 Taormina(ra7i-or-mee' ?ia; anc. Tauromenium), 
 a coast-town of E. Sicily, on a rock 900 feet high, 
 35 miles SW. of Messina by rail. It has a splendid 
 ruined theatre, aqueduct, &c. Pop. 4388. 
 
 Tapajos (Ta-pah'zhoce), a navigable river of 
 Brazil, formed by the Arinos and Juruena, both 
 rising in the S. of Matto Grosso state. Flowing 
 900 miles northward, it falls into the Amazon, 
 above Santarem. Steamers run 150 miles to the 
 lowest of several waterfalls. 
 
 Taplow, a Thames-side parish of Bucks, IJ 
 mile E. of Maidenhead. Pop. 1029. 
 
 Tappan Bay. See Hudson. 
 
 Tappington Court, a mansion near Woolton, 
 Kent, made famous by the Ingoldsby Legends. 
 
 Taprobane {Tap-roVa-nee). See Ceylon. 
 
 Tapti (Taptee), a river of Bombay, rises in the 
 Central Provinces, and flows 450 miles W. to the 
 Gulf of Cambay, 17 miles below Surat. 
 
 Tara, Hill of (Tah'ra), an eminence (507 feet) 
 in County Meath, 7 miles SSE. of Navan. Here 
 prior to 560 is said to liave stood the hall of the 
 kings of Ireland ; and here O'Connell held a 
 monster meeting on 15th August 1843. 
 
 Taral, or Terai. See Himalaya. 
 
 Taranaki (Tarandh'kee), a provincial district 
 of New Zealand, occupying the SW. corner of the 
 North Island. Area, 3308 sq. m. — three-fourths 
 dense forest. The soil and climate are good for 
 rearing stock. Pop. (1901) 37,855. Capital, New 
 Plymouth ; pop. 4400. 
 
 Taranto (anc. Tarentum), a seaport of S. Italy, 
 on a rocky islet between tlie Gulf of Taranto and 
 the Mare Piccolo, 72 miles SSE. of Bari by rail. 
 The harbour is sheltered by two small islands, 
 San Paolo and San Pietro, the Chcerades of anti- 
 quity. The town is joined to the mainland by a 
 six-arched bridge on the east side, and on the 
 west by an ancient Byzantine aqueduct. There 
 are a modernised cathedral, and a castle erected 
 by Charles V. Pop. 25,246. 
 
 Tarapaca (Tarapakah'), the southernmost dep. 
 of Peru till 1883, but then annexed by Chili. Area, 
 19,300 sq. m. ; pop. 98,000. Capital, Iquique. 
 
 Tarare {Tar-dhr'), a manufacturing town of 
 France, dep. Rhone, at the foot of Mount Tarare, 
 21 miles NW. of Lyons by rail. It manufactures 
 muslins, silks, satins, plush, &c. Pop. 11,738. 
 
 Tarascon {Taraskon^''), a walled town of France, 
 in the Provencal dep. of Bouches-du-Rhone, 14 
 miles SW. of Avignon. It has King Rent's castle 
 (1400) and a Gothic church (1187-14th c); but 
 Tarascon is chiefly famous through Daudet's im- 
 mortal Tartarin. It manufactures woollen and 
 silk fabrics, ' saucissons d'Arles,' &c. Pop. 6597. 
 
 Tarawera. See New Zealand. 
 
 Tarazo'na, an episcopal city of Spain, 20 miles 
 S. of Tudela. Pop. 8412. 
 
 Tarbag'atai (ai as I), mountains, 10,000 feet 
 high, in Russian Central Asia, on the frontier 
 between Qemipalatinsk and Chinese Zungaria. 
 
TAR6ERT 
 
 688 
 
 TASMANIA 
 
 Tarbert, an Argyllshire seaport, 35 miles NNE. 
 of Campbeltown. Pop. 1697. See Kintyre. 
 
 Tarbert, a Kerry seaport, on the Shannon 
 estuary, 35 miles SW. of Limerick. Pop. 410. 
 
 Tarbes (Tdhrh), the capital of the French dep. 
 of Hautes-Pyrenees, on the Adour's left bank, 30 
 miles ESE. of Pau by rail. It has a cathedral 
 and a government cannon-foundry. Pop. (1881) 
 17,744; (1901)21,214. 
 
 Tarentum. See Taranto. 
 
 Targovlca, or Targowicz, a town (pop. 2000) 
 in the Russian government of Kieff. 
 
 Targovlst. See Tergovist. 
 
 Tarifa (Tahredfa), a Spanish seaport, the 
 southernmost town of Europe, 21 miles SW. of 
 Gibraltar. Still quite Moorish in aspect, it 
 is connected by a causeway with a fortified islet, 
 on which is a lighthouse, 135 feet above sea-level. 
 Tarifa, the Julia Joza of Strabo, was occupied in 
 710 A.D. by the Moorish leader Tarif, whence its 
 name. It was taken from the Moors in 1292, 
 and valiantly defended against them by Guzman 
 in 1294. Gough with 1800 British and 700 
 Spaniards held it successfully against 10,000 
 French (Dec. 1811-Jan. 1812). Pop. 11,750. 
 
 Tarik. See Gibraltar. 
 
 Tarim River. See Turkestan (Eastern). 
 
 Tarn, a hilly, well- wooded dep. of S. France, 
 named after the river Tarn, an afHuent of the 
 Garonne. Area, 2217 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 359,223 ; 
 (1901) 332,093. The arrondissements are Albi (the 
 capital), Castres, Gaillac, and Lavaur. 
 
 Tarn-et-Garonne (Tarn-ay-Garonn'), a dep. of 
 S. France. Area, 1436 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 217,056 ; 
 (1901) 195,669. Tlie principal river is the Garonne, 
 with its affluents the Tarn and Aveyron. It is 
 divided into the tliree arrondissements of Mon- 
 tauban (the capital), Castel.sarrasin, and Moissac. 
 
 Tamo'pol, a town of Austrian Galicia, 80 miles 
 ESE. of Lemberg. Pop. 30,420, half Jews. 
 
 Tarnow (tv as v), a cathedral city of Austrian 
 Galicia, 50 miles E. of Cracow. Pop. 31,700. 
 
 Tar'porley, a Cheshire market-town, 10 miles 
 ESE. of Chester. Pop. of urban dist. (1901) 2644. 
 
 Tarrago'na (anc. Tarraco), a Spanish seaport, 
 the capital of a province on the Mediterranean, 
 60 miles AV. of Barcelona by rail. Its Gothic 
 catliedral dates from about 1120 ; and its Roman 
 remains include an amphitlieatre, a magnificent 
 aqueduct, still used, 96 feet high and 700 feet 
 long, and the Tower of the Scipios. Pop. 25,360. 
 
 Tarrasa, an industrial town of Spain, 22 miles 
 NW. of Barcelona. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Tarrytown (rhyming with carry), a village on 
 the Hudson, 21 miles by rail N. of New York 
 City. Close by Major Andre was captured in 
 1780; and at Sunnyside, 2 miles S., Washington 
 Irving died, and is buried. Pop. 4770. 
 
 Tarshish, often referred to in Scripture, has 
 been doubtfully identified with Tarsus, Tartessns 
 in Spain, a place in S. Arabia, and Ophir (q.v.). 
 
 Tarsus, St Paul's birthplace, was capital of 
 Cilicia, and a chief city of Asia Minor, on the 
 Cydnus, 12 miles from the sea. Squalid modern 
 Tarso or Tersus has a pop. of 20,000. 
 
 Tartary, a name once given to the whole 
 central belt of Asia and eastern Europe, was 
 loosely used, and was latterly limited to Turkes- 
 tan (q.v.). 
 
 Tarudant, capital of the Moorish province of 
 Sus, on the Sus River. Pop. 8500, 
 
 Tashkand, or Tashkent, the capital of Russian 
 Turkestan, 300 miles NE. of Samarcand. It 
 consists of an ancient walled city and a new 
 European quarter, with the Russian citadel 
 a little to the S. It is connected with the 
 European system of telegraphs, and the rail- 
 way from Samarcand was opened in 1904; its 
 manufactures include silk, leather, felt goods, 
 and coarse porcelain. Pop. 156,420, comprising 
 120,000 Sarts and 35,000 Russians. Once capital 
 of a separate khanate, Tashkand was in 1810 
 conquered by Khokand, and since 1868 has been 
 Russian. 
 
 Tasmania, an island-state of the Common- 
 wealth of Australia (1901), is bounded N. by Bass 
 Strait, its otlier coasts being swept by the great 
 Southern Ocean. Area, 26,215 sq. m. Although 
 it pos.sesses wide stretches of plains and table- 
 land, it has fifty mountains exceeding 2500 feet, 
 the loftiest being Cradle Mountain (5069 feet) ; the 
 higher tiers are snow-capped through the winter. 
 The lakes of Tasmania (on a plateau more than 
 3000 feet above sea-level and 60 miles long) 
 should become summer-resorts and sanatoriums 
 for all Australasia. The Great Lake is about 90 
 miles in circumference. The Derwent, Tamar, 
 Gordon, Pieman, and Huon are navigable rivers. 
 Hobart (the capital) is a magnificent harbour ; 
 the Launceston port has been improved by 
 dredging. The west coast has Macquarie Har- 
 bour. The soil varies very considerably. In the 
 NW., NE., midland, and SE. divisions, where 
 settlement has mostly taken place, the plains 
 and valleys have been enriched by extensive 
 outbursts of basalt with accompanying tuffs, 
 which have produced a very rich chocolate soil ; 
 towards the extreme W. and S. granites, meta- 
 morphic mica, and quartzose schists, with over- 
 lying slates, grits, and limestone of Cambro- 
 Silurian age, re-appear again and again. The 
 western vegetation as compared with that of the 
 east presents as marked a contra-st. The most 
 remarkable trees are the eucalypts, often over 
 280 feet high, the magnificent tree-ferns, and the 
 fragrant wattle. But the most valuable trees 
 are the blackwood, Huon pine. King William 
 pine, and musk. All Tasmanian trees and shrubs 
 are evergreens. Tlie fauna, like the flora, of Tas- 
 mania is almost identical with that of Australia. 
 Of the forty-six species of mammals the platy- 
 pus is the most remarkable. The twenty-seven 
 marsupials, nine of them peculiar to Tasmania, 
 include the Tasmanian devil or dasyure, and the 
 hysena-like native tiger, or thylacine. Of the 187 
 species of birds few are peculiar to the colony. 
 Snakes are few and, though poisonous, not 
 deadly; but there are many lizards. Sea and 
 fresh-water fishes (including the seven species 
 of salmon, salmon-trout, and trout successfully 
 acclimatised) number 213 species, about one-third 
 good edible fish. 
 
 There are a few half-castes, the descendants of 
 European sealers by native jins ; but the aborig- 
 inal Tasmanian has died out— the last male in 
 1869, the last female in 1876. Probably there 
 were never more than 5000, all of a very inferior 
 race, savage, suspicious, treacherous, and untam- 
 able. The racial war in which large munbera 
 were killed, was perhaps inevitable. The climate 
 is peculiarly temperate and genial. The differ- 
 ence between the mean summer and winter tem- 
 perature is 15°. Hobart has a maximum of 96"3 
 against 92-2 at Greenwich, and a minimum of 32'0 
 against 15-5. It is cooler on the hills, and is more 
 equable at other places in the plains. Snow is 
 very rarely seen except on the niountains. TJ»9 
 
TASMAN SEA 
 
 TAY 
 
 rainfall varies iu different localities— at Hobart 
 about 23 inches ; on the east coast and parts of 
 the midlands probably less ; on the NW. and 
 NB., where timber-clad hills more abound, 
 greater ; and on the west coast, where the pre- 
 vailing wind off the Southern Ocean meets a 
 barrier of forest-clad ranges, greatest of all. The 
 amount of sunshine is much greater than in 
 Britain. The air is drier, the atmosphere clearer, 
 and the extremes of heat and cold less trying. 
 
 Tasmania was discovered in 1642 by Tasman 
 (c. 1602-59), despatched by Van Diemen (1593- 
 1645), Dutch governor-general of Batavia. In 1798 
 Flinders and Dr Bass explored the strait which 
 divides it from the continent. The island was fre- 
 quently visited by French and English explorers 
 between 1772 and 1802 ; in 1803 the first settle- 
 ment was made by Lieutenant Bowen, under 
 instructions from Governor King of New South 
 Wales. For many years sheep-farming was the 
 principal industry. Whaling in the south seas 
 was largely carried on from Hobart for years. 
 Gold, silver, tin, copper, coal, &c. are found. 
 Gold (since 1867), silver, and tin have been largely 
 mined. Tasmania now supplies all her own coal 
 requirements, and since 1882 has a large surplus 
 for export. Sapphires, topazes, cat's-eyes, and 
 zircons are obtained. Orchards have greatly 
 increased, and in 1889 Tasmanian apples were 
 sent in quantity to England. In 1903 the exports 
 (minerals, wool, timber, fruit, jam, grain, hops, 
 skins, bark, &c.)had a value of £2,843,108; the 
 imports (textiles, art and mechanical products, 
 food and drinks) of £2,593,810. Tlie revenue then 
 was £857,668, and the expenditure £879,356 
 (largely for public works). The public debt is 
 £9,318,399. Tasmania (as Van Dienien's Land) 
 was, till 1852, a penal settlement. In 1855 it was 
 the first colony of Australasia to receive repre- 
 sentative government. Pop. (1881) 115,705 ; in 
 1901 it had increased to 172,475. In 1903 there 
 were 620 miles of railway, and 2187 miles of tele- 
 graph line. 
 
 See, besides the official handbook, Bonwick, 
 The Lost Tasvianian Race (1884); Fenton, History 
 of Tasmania (1885) ; May, Tasmania as It Is 
 (1886) ; Johnston, Geology of Tasmania (1888) ; 
 Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania (1890). 
 
 Tasman Sea, the Admiralty name since 1891 
 for the sea between New Zealand, the islands N W. 
 of New Zealand, and Australia and Tasmania. 
 Tassisu'don, the capital of Bhutan (q.v.). 
 Tatar-Bazardjik. See Bazardjik. 
 Tatl. See Matabeleland. 
 Tattershall, a Lincolnshire market-town, on 
 the Bain, 9 miles SSW. of Horncastle. Pop. 474. 
 Taunton (Tahn-ton), a pleasant, well-built 
 town of Somersetshire, in the fair and fertile 
 valley of the Tone (' Taunton Deane ') 45 miles SW. 
 of Bristol. Here about 710 Ine, the West Saxon 
 king, built a fortress, which, passing with the 
 manor to the bishops of Winchester, was rebuilt 
 by Bishop William in the first quarter of the 12th 
 century. Added to in the 13th and 15th cen- 
 turies, this castle received Perkin Warbeck (1497), 
 and was held by Blake during his famous defence 
 of the town (1644-45). In its great hall, fitted 
 up now as a museum. Judge Jeffreys opened the 
 'Bloody Assize,' hanging 134 and transporting 
 400 of the inhabitants of Taunton and the neigh- 
 bourhood who had accorded Monmouth an en- 
 thusiastic welcome (1685) ; and here too Sydney 
 Smith made his ' Mrs Partington ' speech (1831). 
 The church of St Mary Magdalene has a noble 
 2R 
 
 Perpendicular tower 153 feet high (c. 1500; 
 rebuilt 1858-62) ; and other buildings are the 
 Elizabethan shire-hall (1858), the municipal build- 
 ings (formerly the grammar-school founded by 
 Bishop Fox in 1522), King's College school (1880), 
 Independent college (1847-70), Wesleyan Institu- 
 tion (1843), Huish schools (1874), Bishop Fox's 
 girls' school, hospital (1809-73), barracks, &c. 
 Once a great 'clothier town,' Taunton now has 
 shirt, collar, glove, and silk manufactures, with 
 a large agricultural trade. It was thrice chartered 
 (1627, 1677, 1877) as a municipal borough, and 
 lost one of its two members in 1885. Pop. (1851) 
 14,176 ; (1901) 21,078. See works by Toulmin (2d 
 ed. 1822), Cottle (1845), Macmullen (1860-62), 
 Jeboult (1873), and Pring (1880). 
 
 Taunton, capital of Bristol county, Massa- 
 chusetts, at the head of navigation on Taunton 
 River, 34 miles by rail S. of Boston. It contains 
 a fine park, court-house, city hall, state lunatic 
 asylum, and numerous foundries and cotton-mills, 
 locomotive and copper works, shipyards, and 
 manufactories of bricks, nails, jewellery, &c. 
 Taunton was settled from Taunton in England in 
 1637- Pop. (1880) 21,213 ; (1900) 31,036. 
 Taunus Mountains. See Hesse-Nassau. 
 Taupo, Lake. See New Zealand. 
 Tau'rida, a government of South Russia, 
 bounded E., S., and SW. by the Sea of Azov and 
 the Black Sea. The Crimea forms its southern 
 portion. Area, 24,539 sq. m. ; pop. 1,443,570. 
 Taurus, Mount. See Asia Minor. 
 Tavastehus, a town of Finland, on Lake Vana- 
 jiijiirvi, 50 miles N, of Helsingfors. Pop. 6098. 
 
 Tavira, a Portuguese seaport, 20 miles NE. of 
 Faro. It has sulphur-baths. Pop. 12,459. 
 
 Tavistock, a pleasant market-town of Devon, 
 11 miles N. of Plymouth and 31 (by rail 40) SW. 
 of Exeter, lies in a trough of the hills on the 
 Tavy's left bank, with Dartmoor stretching away 
 from it to the eastward. An old stannary town, 
 till 1885 governed by a portreeve, it is the centre 
 of what was a great mining district ; and it sent 
 two members to parliament till 1867, then one 
 till 1885. Two gateways, a porch, and the refec- 
 tory are the chief remains of its once magnificent 
 Benedictine abbey, founded in 961. It was 
 rebuilt between 1285 and 1458, was the seat of a 
 very early printing-press, and at the dissolution 
 in 1539 was conferred on the first Lord Russell, 
 remaining still with the Duke of Bedford. Tavi- 
 stock has a fine parish church (1318) with a west 
 tower (106 feet) resting on arches, a guildhall 
 (1848), corn-market (1839), covered markets 
 (1863), statues of the seventh Duke of Bedford 
 by Stephens (1864) and Drake by Boehm (1883, a 
 very fine one presented by the ninth Duke), and 
 the Kelly College (1877), founded by Admiral 
 Kelly. Drake and William Browne were natives ; 
 Pym and William Lord Russell members ; and 
 the Right Hon. W. H. Smith was educated at the 
 grammar-school. Pop. (1851) 8086 ; (1901) 4728. 
 See works bv Kempe (1830), Rachel Evans (1846), 
 Worth (1888), and Alford (1891). 
 
 Tavoy', the chief town of a district in Tenas- 
 serim, Burma, on the left bank of the Tavoy 
 River, 30 miles froin its mouth. Pop. 22,400. 
 
 Tavy, a Devon river, flowing 20 miles to the 
 Tamar. See a work by Mrs Bray (new ed. 1879). 
 Taw, a Devon river, flowing 50 miles, past 
 Barnstaple, to Bideford Bay. 
 
 Tay, a river of Scotland, draining nearly the 
 whole of Perthshire, and pouring into the German 
 Ocean a greater bulk of water than any other 
 
TAYPORT 
 
 €90 
 
 TEMESVAR 
 
 British river, rises on Benloy, on the Argyllshire 
 border, at an altitude of 2980 feet. Thence it 
 winds 118 miles ENE., SSE., and E.— for the last 
 25 miles as a tidal estuary, ^ mile to 3J miles 
 broad, which separates Perth and Forfar shires 
 from Fife. In the first 25 miles of its course it 
 bears the names of Fillan and Dochart ; it then 
 traverses Loch Tay, and it afterwards passes 
 Aberfeldy, Dunkeld, Stanley, Perth, Dundee, and 
 Broughty-Ferry. Its principal affluents are the 
 Tummel (58 miles long, and sometimes regarded 
 as a northern head-stream), Isla, Almond, and 
 Earn. The Tay, as it is the most beautiful of 
 Scottish rivers, so it is unrivalled for its salmon- 
 fisheries, whose rental in good years exceeds 
 £20,000. Vessels of 100 tons can ascend as high 
 as Perth, but even to Dundee the navigation of 
 the firth is much impeded by shifting sandbanlts. 
 For the Tay Bridge, see Dundee. 
 
 Loch Tay lies 355 feet above sea-level, extends 
 14J miles NE. from Killin to Kenmore, is i to IJ 
 mile broad, 15 to 85 fathoms deep, and covers 
 6550 acres. It is a magnificent Highland lake, 
 flanked on the north-west by Ben Lawers (4004 
 feet), and containing near its foot a wooded islet, 
 with a fragment of an Augustinian priory, founded 
 in 1122 by Alexander I., who here buried his 
 queen, Sibylla. In Sept. 1842 Queen Victoria was 
 rowed up Loch Tay, on wliich a steamer was 
 launched in 1883, and a railway to which, at 
 Killin, was opened in 1886. See the articles Ran- 
 NOCH, Earn, Perthshiee, &c., and J. Geddie's 
 finely illustrated monograph on the Tay (1891). 
 
 Tayport, a watering-place and polico-burgh of 
 Fife, oil the south side of the eiitnuice of the 
 Firtli of Tay, oi)posite Broughty-Ferry, and 3J 
 miles E. by S. of Dundee. Pop. 3825. 
 Tchad, Lake. See Chad. 
 Tchelyabinsk. See Cheliabinsk. 
 Tchelyuskln. See Chelyuskin. 
 Tcherkask, (l) a town of S. Russia, on the 
 Don, 12 miles S. of Novotcherkask (q.v.). Pop. 
 15,000.— (2) A town of Russia, 190 miles SE. of 
 Kieir, on the Dnieper. Pop. 29,620. 
 
 Tchemavo'da, a town of the Dobrud.ja, Ron- 
 mania, 30 miles WNW. of Kustendje, with a rail- 
 way bridge across the Danube (1895). Pop. 5000. 
 Tohernigofif, capital of a Russian government, 
 85 miles NE. of Kieff. Pop. 25,580. 
 
 Teb, El, 50 miles SSE. of Suakin, was the 
 scene, in 1884, of Osnian Digna's defeat. 
 
 Teck, a principality named from a castle on 
 •the Teck,' a limestone peak in tlie Swabian 
 Alb, 20 miles SB. of Stuttgart. Held by various 
 families from the 11th c. on, it passed in 1498 to 
 the Dukes of Wiirtemberg. In 1863 the king of 
 Wiirteinberg conferred it on Duke Albert's son, 
 who in 1866 married the Princess Mary of Cam- 
 bridge. Their daughter, Princess May, was 
 married in 1893 to the Duke of York. 
 
 Teddington, a town of Middlesex, on the left 
 bank of the Thames, 13^ miles (by water 18^) SW. 
 of London. Pop. (1861) 1183 ; (1901) 14,029. 
 
 Tees, a river rising on Cross Fell, Cumberland, 
 and flowing 70 miles eastward, mainly between 
 Durham and Yorkshire, to the North Sea, 4 miles 
 below Stockton. Works carried out since 1853 
 have made it navigable to that town for vessels 
 of large burden. 
 
 Tegern-See (Tai/gem, g hard), a beautiful 
 mountain lake, 3^ miles long, in the extreme 
 south of Bavaria, 30 miles SE. of Munich. 
 Tegu'cigalpa, the capital of Honduras, on the 
 
 Rio Grande, 3400 feet above the sea, with moun- 
 tains rising round about. Pop. 18,000. 
 Tehama. See Arabia. 
 
 Teheran', or Tehran, capital of Persia, 70 
 miles S. of the Caspian Sea. It stands on a 
 wide plain, with Mount Demavend (q.v.) to the N. 
 The old wall and ditch (4 miles long) were 
 levelled in 1868, and the space thus gained made 
 into a circular boulevard. New fortifications, 
 10 miles in circumference, were completed in 
 1873. The town rapidly extended, especial'y 
 on the north side, where many fine streets, 
 gardens, and buildings soon made their appear- 
 ance, among them the British Legation. The 
 Shah's palace, reconstructed since 1866, occupies 
 the Citadel, its large court-yards laid out with 
 gardens and fountains. The Shah has five other 
 palaces in the neighbourhood. The bazaars, 
 some of them very handsome structures, are 
 filled with every kind of merchandise. Lines of 
 telegraph radiate in all directions ; and in 1886 a 
 railway was constructed to Shah Abdul Azim, 
 a place of pilgrimage 6 miles S. Tramways were 
 also laid down, and gas introduced in 1892. Pop. 
 (1860) 70,000 ; (1900) 230,000, the Europeans hav- 
 ing likewise increased from 30 to 1000. Near 
 Teheran are the ruins of Rei, the Bhages of 
 the Book of Tobit, and Ragce of Alexander the 
 Great's time, Harftn-al-Raschid's birtliplace. 
 
 Tehuantepec (Te-wan-te-2^ek'), aiowu of Oaxaca, 
 Mexico, 10 miles above the mouth of the river 
 Tehuantepec ; pop. 25,000. The isthmus here is 
 only 120 miles wide, and an interoceanic canal 
 has been dreamt of since Cortes* day. A railway 
 across it was opened in 1894. 
 
 Telfi, a river of South Wales, flowing 50 miles 
 to Cardigan Bay. 
 
 Teignmouth (Tinmuth), a Devon seaport and 
 watering-place, 12 miles (by rail 15) S. of Exeter, 
 on the N. side of the Teign's pretty estuary, which 
 is spanned by a wooden bridge (1827), 557 yards 
 long. Burned by the Danes in 970, by the French 
 in 1338 and 1690, it has a grassy promenade, the 
 Din or Dune, a pier (1866), a public market (1883), 
 baths (1883), a Benedictine nunnery (1865), &c. 
 Pop. 8700. 
 
 Tekna, the practically independent country 
 S. of Morocco, from the Draa to Cape Bojador. 
 
 Tel-el- Amarna, or Tell-el-AmArina, a mass 
 of ruins representing the capital of the heretic 
 Egyptian king, Ainenhotep IV., a little N. of 
 Assiout, on the Nile's E. bank. Here, in 1887, 
 were found 230 tablets in Babylonian cuneiform. 
 Tel-el-Kebir (Kebeer'), midway on the railway 
 between Isinailia and Cairo, was the scene on the 
 morning of 13th September 1882 of the capture 
 by Sir Garnet Wolseley of Arabi Pasha's en- 
 trenched camp, defended by 26,000 men. 
 
 Tell, a district in NW. Africa, extending from 
 the Mediterranean to the Atlas Mountains, 
 through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis. 
 
 Tellicher'rl, a seaport in Malabar district, 
 Madras Presidency. Pop. 28.000. 
 Tembuland. See Transkei. 
 Teme, a river of South Wales and Worcester- 
 shire, flowing 60 miles east-south-eastward to the 
 Severn, 1^ mile S. of Worcester. 
 
 Temesvar (Tem-es-vahr'), a royal free city of 
 Hungary, on the Bega Canal, .160 miles SE. of 
 Pestli by rail. It has a fine cathedral, an ancient 
 castle, and manufactures of flour, tobacco, cloth, 
 silk, paper, leather, wool, and oil. Temesvar 
 has endured many sieges— the latest in 1849, 
 when it was bombarded for 107 days by the 
 
TEMFE 
 
 691 
 
 TEFLITZ 
 
 Hungarian insurgents, but relieved by Haynau. 
 Pop. (1880) 33,694 ; (1900) 49,625. 
 
 Tempe (Tem'pee), a famous mountain-gorge, 6 
 miles long, in NE. Thessaly, between Olympus 
 and Ossa. The river Pen e us traverses it. 
 
 Templemore, a town of Tipperary, on the 
 Suir, 8 miles N. of Thurles, took its name from a 
 Knights Templars' commandery. Pop. 2774. 
 
 Tenas'serlm, the southernmost division of 
 Burma, is a narrow territory between the sea 
 and the mountains of the Siamese frontier. Area, 
 46,590 sq. m. ; pop. (1881)825,741 ; (1901) 1,137,780. 
 The chief towns are Maulmain, Taung-ngu, and 
 Tavoy. The town of Tenasserim (pop. now under 
 600) stands 33 miles from the sea at the junction 
 of the Great and Little Tenasserim rivers. 
 
 Ten'bury, a town of Worcestershire, on the 
 Teme, 22 miles NW. of Worcester. It has a spa, 
 discovered in 1839, and St Michael's College, 
 founded in 1855 by Sir Gore Ouseley. Pop. 2084. 
 
 Tenby, a thriving watering-place of Pembroke- 
 shire, South Wales, 9^ miles B, of Pembroke and 
 276 W. of London, is finely seated on a rocky 
 headland overlooking Carmarthen Bay. The 
 Cymric Din-bach y Pysgod (' fishy little fortress '), 
 it was one of the Flemish colonies planted by 
 Henry I. in Pembrokeshire, and retains a long 
 stretch of its ancient walls, strengthened by 
 Queen Elizabeth in 1588, and a fragment of a 
 castle, whence in 1471 the future Henry VII. 
 escaped to Brittany. Its mild climate, fine level 
 sands, and capital bathing have been the making 
 of the place, which has an interesting Gothic 
 church (1250) with a spire 152 feet high, a colossal 
 marble statue of the Prince Consort (1865), and a 
 fort (1808) on St Catherine's Island. It is an 
 ancient municipal borough, and with Pembroke 
 (q.v.), &c., returns one member. Pop. (1861) 2982 ; 
 (1901) 4400. See works by P. H. Gosse (1856) 
 and Mrs Hall (2d ed. 1873). 
 
 T6ne, La, near the north end of the Lake of 
 Neuchatel (q.v.), was the seat of a characteristic 
 type of prehistoric culture. 
 
 Ten'edos (Bosdscha Ada), a rocky Turkish island 
 in the iKgean, off the Tread, and 12 miles S. of 
 the entrance to the Dardanelles. It is 8 miles 
 long and 2 to 4 broad. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Teneriffe, Peak op (usu. Ten-er-iff' ; Span. 
 Tenerife, pron. Tay-nay-ree'fay), a famous dormant 
 volcano, the highest summit (12,200 feet) in the 
 Canary Islands (q.v.), stands in the south-west of 
 the island of Teneriffe or Santa Cruz. Its lower 
 slopes are covered with forests, or laid out in 
 meadows ; but the upper ridges are wild and 
 barren. The Peak El Piton and its two inferior 
 neighbours, the Montana Blanco and Chahorra 
 (9880 feet), rise from a rugged circular plain of 
 lava debris and pumice, 7000 feet above sea-level, 
 about 8 miles in diameter, and fenced in by an 
 almost perpendicular wall of rock. From the 
 crevices sulphurous vapours exhale. The wall of 
 the crater at the top is 300 feet in diameter, and 
 70 deep. The colour of the whole is white. 
 There is an ice cave at an altitude of 11,000 feet. 
 The Peak can be seen more than 100 miles off. 
 In 1795 and 1','98 there was volcanic activity here. 
 See works by Piazzi Smyth (1858), Olivia M. Stone 
 (new ed. 1889), and Strettell (1890). 
 
 TengrI Nor. See Tibet. 
 
 Ten'nessee, one of the central southern states 
 of the American Union, is surrounded by Ken- 
 tucky, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, and Mississippi, and separated by the 
 Mississippi River from Arkansas and Missouri. 
 
 Its mean length is 385 miles, its mean width 
 109 miles; area, 42,050 sq. m. East Tennessee 
 extends from the Unaka and Smoky Moun- 
 tains to the crest of the Cumberland Plateau, 
 contains some of the great ridges of the Appa- 
 lachians, and abounds in magnificent scenery. 
 Between the eastern ridges and the plateau 
 stretches a valley region 100 miles wide, sloping 
 from N. to S. Along its western edge the plateau 
 rises in a bold wall 100 to 200 feet high ; and on 
 the plateau are the ridges and peaks of the Cum- 
 berland Mountains. The southern end is divided 
 into two anns by a deep gorge with perpendicular 
 sides (800 to 1000 feet). Between the Tennessee 
 River in its northern course and the Cumberland 
 Mountains is Middle Tennessee, presenting a 
 varied landscape of mountains, plains, hills, and 
 valleys. Between the Tennessee and the Missis- 
 sippi rivers lies the western division. From the 
 ridge bounding the Tennessee valley on the west, 
 slopes a rolling plain, terminating in a steep bluff, 
 beyond which are the alluvial bottom lands of 
 the Mississippi. The coal-measures occupy an 
 area of 5100 sq. m., and the seams are of excep- 
 tional thickness. The deposits of iron ore are 
 practically inexhaustible ; copper and zinc are 
 found, and the marbles are celebrated. Several 
 famous mineral springs are the resorts of invalids. 
 The soil is fertile, and the forests of hard-wood 
 timber constitute a great natural source of 
 wealth. The climate is generally mild. Herbage 
 is often green throughout the year, and cattle 
 graze during the winter months. The rainfall 
 amounts to 54 inches. The drainage of the state 
 is ultimately received by the Mississippi. The 
 Cumberland River, which enters the state from 
 Kentucky, flows about 150 miles through the 
 northern central part and then re-enters Ken- 
 tucky. The Tennessee (800 miles), the largest 
 affluent of the Ohio, formed by the Clinch and tha 
 Holston, flows southward through the depression 
 in East Tennessee into Alabama, and then back 
 northward across the state towards the Ohio. 
 Agriculture is the leading industry. The staple 
 crops are corn, cotton, hemp, tobacco, and pea- 
 nuts. Stock-raising is extensively carried on. 
 The production of pig-iron has greatly increased, 
 and factories for machinery, agricultural imple- 
 )nents, &c., have become numerous. There are 
 also many cotton, woollen, flour, and paper mills, 
 besides tobacco-factories and potteries. The 
 chief towns are Memphis, the largest city 
 (105,000), Nashville, the capital (82,000), Knox- 
 ville (33,000), and Chattanooga (31,000). The 
 first permanent settlement was made in 1756; 
 territorial government was established in 1790; 
 and in 1796 Tennessee became a state. It was 
 the last state to secede in 1861, and the first 
 to re-enter the Union in 1866. Pop. (1800) 
 105,602 ; (1850) 1,002,717 ; (1880) 1,542,359 ; (1900) 
 2,020,616 (480,430 coloured). See Histories by 
 Ramsey (1860), Carpenter (1863), Phelan (1889), 
 and Tliruston's Antiquities of Tennessee (1890). 
 
 Tenos, or TiNO, a Greek island of the Cyclades. 
 Area, 70 sq. m. ; pop. 12,565. The capital, Tenos, 
 is on the S. coast ; pop. 2083. 
 
 Ten'terden, a municipal borough in the Weald 
 of Kent, 13 miles SW. of Ashford and 7^ S. by B. 
 of Headcorn station. The church has a noble 
 Perpendicular tower, built in the 15th c, and 
 associated by legend with the Goodwin Sands 
 (q.v.). Pop. 3250. 
 
 Tepic, a town in the Mexican territory of Tepic, 
 SO miles E. by S. of San Bias. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 1&^ViXz{Tay'iplitz), a watering-place of Bohemia, 
 
TERM 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 in a beautiful valley near the Erzgebirge, 20 
 miles NW. of Leitmeritz by rail. The baths, 
 supplied from a dozeu alkalo-saline springs, are 
 taken very hot, and are good for gout, rheum- 
 atism, &c. One spring is used for drinking. Pop., 
 with Schonau, 24,420. Some 7000 bathers come 
 here yearly, besides many more mere visitors. 
 
 Terai {Te-rl'). See Himalaya. 
 
 Ter'amo (anc. Interamna), an Italian cathedral 
 city, 84 miles S. of Ancona. Pop. 8G50. 
 
 Terceira. See Azores. 
 
 Terek, a stream of the Caucasus, flowing 350 
 miles NB. to the Caspian. 
 
 Tergovlst, the former capital of "Wallachia, at 
 the foot of tlie Carpathians. 52 miles by rail NW. 
 of Bucharest. Pop. 9400. 
 
 Terlizzl {Ter-lit'zee), a town of Italy, 22 miles 
 W. of Bari. Pop. 20,442. 
 
 Termini {Ter' mi-nee ; anc. Thermce Himerenses), 
 a seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 23 miles 
 ESE. of Palermo by rail. Pop. 22,733. 
 
 Temate (Ter-nah'tay). See Moluccas. 
 
 Terneuzen, a small Dutch port, in Zealand, on 
 the S. bank of the Scheldt. Pop. 8750. 
 
 Terni (i as ee), a cathedral city of Central Italy, 
 70 miles NNE. of Rome by rail. About 2 miles 
 off is the cataract of Velino, 500 feet high, cele- 
 brated in Childe Harold. Terni is the ancient 
 Interamna Umbrica, perhaps the birthplace of 
 Tacitus. Pop. 9415. 
 
 Terractna (Terracliee'na), a coast-town of Italy, 
 60 miles SE. of Rome. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Terra del Fuego. See Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 Terrano'va, a seaport on the south coast of 
 Sicily, 60 miles W. of Syracuse. Pop. 16,440. 
 
 Terre Haute (now Ter'reli Hoat), capital of Vigo 
 county, Indiana, on the river Wabash, 72 miles S. 
 of Chicago. Pop. (1870) 16,103 ; (1900) 36,673. 
 
 Territet (Ter-ri-tay'), a village adjoining Mon- 
 treux (q.v.). 
 
 Terror, Mount, an Antarctic volcano (extinct) 
 in South Victoria Land, 30 miles SE. of Mount 
 Erebus. Its height is 10,900 feet. 
 
 Terschelling (Ter-skel'Ung), one of the chain 
 of islands N. of Holland. Area, 45 sq. m. 
 
 Teschen (Tay'shen), a town of Austrian Silesia, 
 35 miles ESE. of Troppau, Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Tessin. See Ticino. 
 
 Tetbury, an old market-town of Gloucester- 
 shire, 5 miles NW. of Malmesbury. Pop. 1950. 
 
 Tetuan' (Arab. Tetawin), a port of Morocco, 
 4'miles from the sea, and 22 S. of Ceuta. Pop. 
 25,000 (one-third Jews). 
 
 Teviot. See Roxburghshire. 
 
 Tewkesbury, a quaint old market-town of 
 Gloucestershire, on the Avon at its confluence 
 with the Severn, 9 miles NNW. of Cheltenham, 
 10 NNE. of Gloucester, and 15 S. by E. of 
 Worcester. On the site of the cell of the 
 hermit Theoc, from whom the place got its 
 name, was founded in 715 a monastery, re- 
 founded in 1102 as a great Benedictine abbey. Its 
 noble church, consecrated in 1123, measures 317 
 feet by 124 across the transepts, and remains 
 essentially Norman, in spite of later additions. 
 It was restored by Scott in 1875-79. Special 
 features are the west front and the massive 
 central tower, 132 feet high. Many of the Clares, 
 Despencers, Beauchamps, and other lords of 
 Tewkesbury are buried here, as also the murdered 
 
 Prince Edward and (possibly) Clarence ; and in 
 1890 a tablet was erected to Mrs Craik, the scene 
 of whose John Halifax is laid in Tewkesbury. 
 The place has also a town-hall (1788), a corn- 
 exchange (1856), Telford's iron bridge over the 
 Severn (1824), with a span of 176 feet, a free 
 grammar-school, &c. The thick mustai'd Falstaff 
 speaks of is a thing of the past, and the trade is 
 chiefly agricultural. Within half a mile was 
 fought (4th May 1471) the famous battle of 
 Tewkesbury, in which the Yorkists under Edward 
 IV. gained a crowning victory. ■ Incorporated by 
 Elizabeth in 1574, Tewkesburv returned two mem- 
 bers from 1609 till 1867, and then one till 1885. 
 Pop. (1851) 5878; (1901) 5419. See works by 
 Dyde (1790), Bennett (1830), Petit (1848), and 
 Blunt (2d ed. 1877). 
 
 Tex'as is the extreme south-western state of 
 the American Union, bordering on Mexico, New 
 Mexico, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, Arkansas, 
 Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico. The largest 
 state in the Union (265,780 sq. m.), it covers 
 nearly 9 per cent, of the total area of the United 
 States, exclusive of Alaska; and is larger than 
 France or Germany, and more than twice as 
 large as the British Isles. Its extreme length is 
 about 900 miles, and its greatest breadth 750; 
 the coast-line is 400 miles long. From the low, 
 flat prairie lands along the coast the land rises 
 till it reaches the plateau and mountains of the 
 distant west, some of whose peaks attain 
 5000 feet. All along the coast is a fringe of 
 low islands (Padre Island is 100 miles long) and 
 peninsulas, separated from the mainland by 
 lagoons. The alluvial coast-belt, extending from 
 25 to 60 miles inland, comprises both fertile low- 
 lands and stretches of barren soil. Beyond lies a 
 terrace of rich rolling land called the 'prairie 
 belt.' In the eastern prairie sections there are 
 extensive timber regions. N. and W. of the 
 prairies the land presents a rough, broken sur- 
 face, with occasional bluff's. On the southern 
 border of the plateau the elevation is about 1000 
 feet, but a height of 2000 feet is reached as the 
 ascent continues toward the arid Llano Estacado 
 and the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 There is every variety of soil, from the fertile 
 lands of the river-bottoms and prairies to the 
 sterile sand of the southern desert. In the S. and 
 SE. the rainfall is ample, in the W. and NW. in- 
 sufficient. Yet even the Llano Estacado, or Staked 
 Plains, once considered utterly uninhabitable, can 
 supply water for irrigation by the use of artesian 
 wells and windmills. The northern winds are 
 usually dry, the rain comes almost entirely from the 
 south-west, and the winter months are generally 
 the driest. The best Avater-supply is found in the 
 timber-lands. Tlie climate on the coast-plains is 
 semi-tropical, tempered by the winds from the 
 Gulf. The north experiences cool winters, with 
 heavy snowstorms at times. The air of western 
 Texas is so dry that meats are perfectly preserved 
 in the open air without salt. The ' norther,' a 
 sudden and extreme change of temperature pro- 
 duced by a rush of cold wind from the north, 
 ordinarily lasts for three days, and the fall in 
 temperature is often as much as 30°. The Red 
 and Arkansas rivers convey the waters of the 
 northern part of the state to the Mississippi. 
 The other streams flow directly into the Gulf. 
 The Red and Sabine rivers and the Rio Grande 
 form parts of the boundary line. Within the 
 state the most important rivers are the Trinity, 
 the Brazos, and the Colorado. The coal- 
 measures occupy about 10,000 .sq. ni., besides ex- 
 tensive beds of brown lignite. There are vast 
 
THANET 
 
 deposits of iron ore, tin and other metals are 
 found, and the supply of lime, gypsum, and salt is 
 inexhaustible. Agriculture and stock-raising are 
 the leading occupations. Rather more than one- 
 half of the entire area is practically uninhabited, 
 but settlements are extending. Texas ranks fore- 
 most in cattle-raising, thanks to its pasturage and 
 climate. It is also a leading cotton state— for 
 some years it was the foremost in produce. Wheat 
 and the other grains are extensively cultivated. 
 Sugar and rice yield abundant harvests along 
 the coast, and fruits are produced in the south. 
 Petroleum has also (since 1897) created a pro- 
 minent industry. Austin, the capital, has a pop. 
 of 24,000, and there are other five cities of over 
 20,000 (San Antonio, with 55,000; Houston, 
 45,000 ; Dallas, 43,000 ; Galveston, 38,000 ; Fort 
 Worth, 28,000). A hurricane and high tide in 
 1900 destroyed 4000 lives and $10,000,000 worth 
 of property at Galveston. Texas formed part 
 of the Spanish province of Mexico, which in 1822 
 became a republic. In 1835 it declared its 
 independence, and in 1836 Houston was made 
 president. In 1845 Texas, with an area of 375,000 
 sq. m., was annexed to the United States, this 
 being the prime cause of the Mexican war. The 
 state seceded from the Union in 1861, and re- 
 entered it in 1870. Pop. (1870) 818,579; (1880) 
 1,591,749 ; (1890) 2,235,523 (492,837 coloured). See 
 Histories by Yoakum (1856), Baker (1873), Theall 
 (1879), and Bancroft (1885). 
 
 Tex'el, an island of North Holland, at the 
 entrance to the Zuider Zee. It is separated from 
 the mainland by a narrow strait, called the Mars- 
 diep. Area, 55 sq. m. ; pop. 6500, who keep some 
 85,000 sheep, famous both for their wool and 
 their cheese. The Marsdiep is also often called 
 the Texel ; and here many important naval battles 
 have been fought. Blake defeated Tromp and 
 De Ruyter in 1653 ; Prince Rupert fought De 
 Ruyter in 1673 ; Duncan blockaded the Texel (for 
 a time with a single ship) in 1797 ; and twelve 
 Dutch ships of war and thirteen Indiamen sur- 
 rendered to Admiral Mitchell in 1799. 
 
 Tezcu'co, a city of Mexico, on the east shore of 
 the salt lake (92 sq. m. ) of the same name, 25 miles 
 by rail ENE. of Mexico city. The ancient Acol- 
 Miacan, once the chief seat of Aztec culture, it 
 retains traces of palaces and of a noble aque- 
 duct, and now has glass-works. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Tliame (Tame), an Oxfordshire town on the 
 river Thame, 13 iniles B. by S. of Oxford. It 
 has remains of an abbey (1138), and at it died 
 John Hampden. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Thames (Temz), the most important river of 
 Great Britain, flows ESE. across the S. portion of 
 the country. Its four head-streams — the Thames 
 or Isis, Churn, Coin, and Leach— rise on the 
 south-east slope of the Cotswold Hills, the upper 
 part of the main stream being often called Isis (a 
 quasi-classical form of Ouse) and not Thames 
 imtil after it receives the Thame near Dorchester. 
 The Thames or Isis flows ENE. for about 35 
 miles, when, curving SE., it passes Oxford, and 
 flows on to Reading. Here, after receiving the 
 Kennet from the west, it again changes its course, 
 and, winding eastward, passes Windsor, Eton, Ted- 
 dington (the lowest of thirty -three locks between 
 here and Oxford, and the highest point to which 
 the tide ascends), Richmond, London, Greenwich, 
 Woolwich, and Gravesend, below which it expands 
 into a wide estuary, and enters the North Sea. 
 On its tidal estuary, and on the fact that like 
 most British rivers it has no delta, depends the 
 river's importance as a navigable waterway ; the 
 
 navigation is, however, somewhat impeded by a 
 ' submarine delta '—banks formed of river sedi- 
 ment. From Lechlade to the Nore the direct 
 length is 120 miles, and with the windings may 
 be 250 miles (112 from Oxford to London Bridge) ; 
 the area of its basin is 6100 sq. m. Its chief 
 affluents are the Windrush, Cherwell, Thame, 
 Colne, Lea, and Roding, on the left ; and the 
 Kennet, Lodden, Darent, Mole, Wandle, and 
 Medway, on the right bank. At London Bridge 
 its Avidth is about 290 yards ; at Woolwich, 490 ; at 
 Gravesend Pier, 800 ; 3 miles below Gravesend, 
 1290 ; and at its mouth, between Whitstable and 
 Foulness Point, about 8 miles below the Nore, it is 
 18 miles across. At the Nore Light, reputed the 
 mouth of the Thames, the breadth is nearly 6 
 miles. The river is navigable for barges to Lech- 
 lade, and it is connected with several important 
 canals. Vessels of 800 tons can reach St Katha- 
 rine's Docks ; much larger ones can ascend to 
 Blackwall, 6 miles below London Bridge ; and the 
 largest sea-going steamers reach Tilbury Docks, 
 26 miles below. The part of the river immed- 
 iately below London Bridge is called the Pool ; 
 and the part between the Bridge and Blackwall 
 is called the Port. Two embanlcments have been 
 formed, one since 1864 on the north shore from 
 Blackfriars Bridge to Westminster, and one since 
 1866 on the south shore from Westminster Bridge 
 to Vauxhall. The river, supplies London with 
 much of its drinking-water, and carries most of 
 its sewage to the sea. Though the lower Thames 
 has been converted into a sewer, in virtue of this 
 same pai't of its course the river ranks as the 
 chief commercial highway of the world. Above 
 London the scenery is rich and beautiful, though 
 not romantic, the numerous eyots or islands 
 lending a peculiar charm. The Thames is the 
 best beloved of English rivers for those who boat 
 for pleasure. For boat-racing, it divides the 
 honours with the Tyne ; the Thames watermen 
 are renowned in song and story. Since Spenser's 
 days ' the silver-streaming Thames ' has been 
 sung by England's poets ; Herrick calls it 
 ' Silver- footed Thamesis;' Denham's apostrophe 
 is famous ; and Pope has word-painted much of 
 the scenery of its banks. It was (now alas ! long 
 since) famous for its salmon, as it still is for other 
 anglers' fish ; below London flounders and eels 
 are still plentiful, while the whitebait is almost 
 peculiar to the lower Thames. 
 
 See works by Mr and Mrs S. C. Hall (1859 ; new 
 ed. 1878), Robertson (1874), Huxley (1877), Farren 
 (1881), Law (1881), George D. Leslie, R.A. (1881 ; 
 new ed. 1888), Church (1885), Herring (1885), 
 Cassell (Royal River, 1886), W. Black (Strange 
 Adventures of a Hovse-boat, 1888), Justin 
 M 'Car thy and Mrs Campbell Praed (1890), 
 Senior (1890), Mr and Mrs Pennell (1891), Wyllie 
 and Allen (1894), Charles Dickens, junior (1880), 
 and Sir Walter Besant (1903). 
 
 Thames (or Grahamstown), New Zealand, a 
 gold-mining town, on an inlet of Hauraki Gulf, 
 40 miles SE. of Auckland. Pop. 4200. 
 
 Thamu'gas, 'the Numidian Pompeii,' near the 
 Aures Mountains, and 22 miles from Batna, which 
 is half-way by rail from Constantine to IBiskra. 
 Here are extensive remains of Roman colonnades 
 and temples, with statues and inscriptions. 
 
 Thana, or North Konkan, a British district of 
 India, consisting of the island of Salsette and a 
 strip of coast. The seaport of Thana (pop. 16,000) 
 is 21 miles NE. of Bombay by rail. 
 
 Than'et, Isle of, forms the NE. corner of 
 Kent, from the mainland of which it is cut off on 
 
I'hanH 
 
 694 
 
 THIERS 
 
 the W. by the river Stour and the Nethergong 
 rivulet — the ancient Wantsonie channel, com- 
 pletely silted up since the beginning of the 16th 
 c. It is bounded N. and E. by the sea, and opens 
 on the S. side into Pegwell Bay. It measures 9 
 miles E. and W., and 5 miles N. and S., and con- 
 tains 26,180 acres. On its shores are the well- 
 known watering-places Ramsgate, Margate, and 
 Broadstairs ; and on the North Foreland, in the 
 NE., is a lighthouse, 85 feet high, visible 19 
 miles. Pop. (1871) 42,129 ; (1881) 50,646 ; (1901) 
 71,631. See Sinison's Historic Thunct (1891). 
 
 Thann (2'aun), a manufacturing town of Alsace- 
 Lorraine, 13 miles NW. of Mlilhausen, has a 
 superb Gothic church. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Tharandt, in Saxony, 20 miles SW. of Dresden, 
 has a forestry school and a pop. of 4000. 
 Tharsis. See Rio Tinto. 
 Tha'sos, the most northerly island in the 
 .Egean, near the coast of Macedonia. Area, 167 
 sq. m. ; pop. 12,000, almost all Greeks. The sur- 
 face is covered with wooded liills (Hypsaria, 3428 
 feet). Its gold-mines were famous of old. 
 
 Thaxted, an Essex town, on the Chelmer, 6 
 miles N. of Dunmow. Samuel Purchas was a 
 native. Pop. of parish, 1667. 
 • Thayet-myo, a town of Lower Burma, on the 
 Irawadi, 40 miles NW. of Prome, Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Thebes (Theebz), a celebrated Egyptian city, 
 formerly capital of Upper Egypt ; called by the 
 Egyptians Tuabu, by the Hebrews No-Amon, by 
 the Greeks Thebse. It lies in the broadest section 
 of the Nile valley, in 26° N. lat. , at a spot where 
 the desert on the W. sheers away to the Libyan 
 mountains, leaving a broad plain, partly culti- 
 vated, on which stand the famous twin statues, 
 one of which is known as the 'vocal Memnon,' 
 and behind them tlie temples grouped about 
 Kurna and Medinet-Habfi. The Nile divides this 
 western part or Necropolis of Thebes from the 
 extensive ruins now known by the names of the 
 villages Luxor (el-Uksur, 'the palaces') and 
 Karnak which stand on the E. bank, with the 
 low Arabian hills for a background. At the 
 Persian conquest (525 b.c.) Cambyses got nearly 
 £2,000,000 from the city, and destroyed many of 
 its noblest monuments. The foundation of 
 Alexandria still further injured it ; and in Strabo's 
 time Thebes was only a cluster of small villages. 
 Its temples, tombs, and ruins were visited by 
 many Greek and Roman travellers, including the 
 Emperor Hadrian. A considerable Christian 
 population lived there under the later empire ; 
 but at the Arab invasion the inhabitants fled to 
 Esne. Thebes is now inhabited only by Fellahin, 
 a few officials, and visitors to the three hotels at 
 Luxor. The Thebaid, the territory of Thebes, was 
 a favourite retreat for Christian hermits. 
 
 Thebes, the principal city of Boeotia in 
 ancient Greece, situated on the slopes of Mount 
 Teumessus, and between two streams, the Dirce 
 and the Ismenus, about 44 miles NW. of Athens. 
 Destroyed by Alexander (336), Thebes was in 
 316 rebuilt by Cassander (whose walls were traced 
 by E. Fabricius in 1888). It was plundered by 
 Sulla, and in Strabo's time was a miserable 
 village. During the 11th and 12th centuries it 
 revived through its silk manufacture, but under 
 the Turks again declined, though its modern 
 representative, Thiva, had a pop. of 4000 at the 
 time of its destruction by earthquake in April 
 1894. See E. Fabricius, Theben (1891). 
 
 Theiss (rice; Hun. Tisza), the chief river of 
 Hungary, rises by two streams, the Black Theiss | 
 
 and the White Theiss, in the Carpathians, and 
 winds 750 miles NW., SW., and S., joining the 
 Danube after running parallel to it for 300 
 miles. The Theiss has several large and navi- 
 gable affluents, as the Maros and Bodrog. The 
 lower part of its course is sluggish, and it has 
 often inundated the plains, flooding the cities on 
 its banks, such as Szegedin (q.v.). Much has 
 lately been done to regulate the course and drain 
 the marshes on its banks. 
 
 Theobalds (Tib'alds), Hertfordshire, near Wal- 
 tham Cross, 13 miles N. of London, a former 
 mansion built by Lord Burghley, and exchanged 
 for Hatfleld in 1607 by his son the Earl of 
 Salisbury with James I., who died here. It was 
 demolished in 1650 and 1762. The present Theo- 
 balds Park, across the New River, is the 18th-c. 
 seat of the Meux family. Here Temple Bar, 
 removed in 1878-79, was re-erected in 1888. 
 
 Theodosla (see Kaffa), the town which super- 
 seded Sebastopol as a commercial port. 
 
 Th^odule. See Zermatt. 
 
 Thera. See Santorin. 
 
 Therap'la, a town of 3000 inhabitants, on the 
 Bosphorus, 15 miles NE. of Constantinople. 
 
 Theresio'pel. See Szabadka. 
 
 Thermop'ylae (lit., ' hot gates '), a pass leading 
 from Thessaly into Locris, and the only road by 
 which an invading army can penetrate from 
 northern into southern Greece. In it are several 
 hot springs, whence the name probably. It has 
 won an eternal celebrity by the heroic death here 
 of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans in their attempt 
 to stem the tide of Persian invasion (480 B.C.). 
 
 Thessaloni'ca. See Salonica. 
 
 Thes'saly, the largest division of ancient 
 Greece, lay S. of Macedonia and E. of Epirus. In 
 1204 a.d. it came under the Venetians, and in 
 1355 was taken by the Turks. In 1881 Turkey 
 ceded to Greece (q.v.), Thessaly S. of mountains 
 forming the watershed of the Salambria (anc. 
 Peneus), by much the largest and most fertile 
 section of the province. The Greek portion con- 
 stitutes the three nomarchies of Larissa, Trikhala, 
 and Phthiotis with Phocis. 
 
 Thetford, a market-town on the border of 
 Norfolk and Suffolk, at the Thet's confluence with 
 the Little Ouse, 31 miles SW. of Norwich and 
 12 N. of Bury St Edmunds. Doubtfully identifled 
 with the Roman Sitomagus, it was the capital 
 of Saxon East Anglia, the seat from 1070 of a 
 bishopric, transferred to Norwich in 1094 (since 
 1894 it again gives title to a suff'ragan bishop). 
 It suffered much from the Danes between 870 and 
 1010 ; in Edward III.'s time it had eight Juonas- 
 teries and twenty churches (now only three). 
 The steep Castle Hill, 100 feet high and 260 yards 
 in circumference, is one of the largest earth- 
 works in the kingdom ; and there are remains of 
 Bigod's Cluniac priory (1104). The grammar- 
 school (1566) was rebuilt in 1879. The industries 
 include brewing, tanning, and farming machinery ; 
 and there is some trade by barges on the Ouse. 
 ' Honest ' Tom Martin, the antiquary, and Tom 
 Paine were natives. Incorporated in 1573, Thet- 
 ford returned two members till 1867 ; it has a 
 suff'ragan bisliop under Norwich (1894). Pop. 
 4700. See works by Martin (1779) and Hunt (1870). 
 
 Thian-shan. See Tian-shan. 
 
 Thibet. See Tibet. 
 
 Thielt (Teelt), a town of Belgium, 18 miles SE. 
 of Bruges by rail. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 TMers (Tee-air'), a manufacturing town in thd 
 
 J 
 
THIONVILLE 
 
 695 
 
 ffflYAtlflA 
 
 tiVench dep. of Puy-de-D6me, on the Durole, 23 
 miles ENB. of Clermont by rail. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 TMonville (Tee-on^ -veel ; Ger. Diedenhofen), a 
 fortified town of Lorraine, 18 miles N. of Metz. 
 Taken by Conde in 1643, it fell with Lorraine to 
 France, but was besieged and taken by the Ger- 
 mans, 9th-25th November 1870. Pop. 10,100. 
 iniirlestane Castle. See Ijauder. 
 Thirlmere, a narrow sheet of water in the 
 heart of the Lake District (q.v.), lying 533 feet 
 above sea-level, between Derwentwater and Gras- 
 mere. It was acquired as a water-supply by 
 Manchester (q.v.), and the work was carried out 
 in 1885-94. Originally 2J miles long and 328 
 acres in area, the embankment (294 yards long) 
 raised the surface by 50 feet, and increased the 
 length to 3f miles, and the area to 793 acres. 
 
 TMrsk, a town in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, in the Vale of Mowbray, on the Cod Beck, 
 an affluent of the Swale, 23 miles NNW. of York. 
 It has a fine church, and manufactures farm 
 implements and saddlery. Thirsk returned two 
 members till 1832, and then one till 1885. Pop. 
 3164. See W. Grainge, The Vale of Mowbray (1859). 
 Tholen (To'len), a Dutcli island, part of Zeeland 
 province, with a town of Tliolen (pop. 3100). 
 
 Thomastovra, a Kilkenny market-town, on the 
 Nore, 19^ miles N. of Waterford. Pop. 900. 
 
 Thomasville, a town of Georgia, 200 miles by 
 rail WSW. of Savannah. Pop. 5514. 
 
 Thompson, a town of Connecticut, 38 miles N. 
 by E. of Norwich. Pop. 6560. 
 
 Thongwa, a town of Burma, administrative 
 capital of a district, 23 miles S\V. of Rangoon. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Thorn (Torn; Pol. Torun), a town of West 
 Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula (here 
 spanned by a viaduct 1100 yards long), 31 miles 
 by rail ESE. of Bromberg. Founded by the 
 Teutonic Order in 1231, and a member of the 
 Hanseatic League, it contains a town-hall and 
 a number of other buildings with beautiful 
 gables and interiors ; became a Polish town in 
 1454 ; and was annexed to Prussia in 1793, and 
 again finally in 1815. An important stronghold 
 in the 17th c, it was five times besieged between 
 1629 and 1813; and since 1878 has been made a 
 fortress of the first rank, the old fortifications 
 being removed, and a series of detached forts 
 built. Copernicus was a native ; and a colossal 
 bronze statue of him was erected in 1853. Pop. 
 31,500. 
 
 Thornaby-on-Tees, the name under which 
 South Stockton (q.v.) was incorporated in 1892. 
 Pop. (1881) 10,605 ; (1901) 16,054. 
 
 Thornbury, a Gloucestershire market-town, 
 12 miles N. of Bristol. Pop. of parish, 2600. 
 
 Thome, a market-town of Yorkshire, on the 
 Don, 10 miles NE. of Doncaster. 
 
 Thorney, a Cainbridgeshire parish, 7 miles 
 ENE. of Peterborough, was the seat of a 
 monastery (662). 
 
 Thornhill, a town of Yorkshire, 1^ mile S. of 
 Dewsbury. Pop. 10,290. 
 
 Thornhill, a Dumfriesshire village, on the 
 Nith, 14 nules NNW. of Dumfries. Pop. 1128. 
 
 Thomliebank, a town of Renfrewshire, 1 J mile 
 SW. of Pollokshaws. Pop. 2452. 
 Thorshavn. See Faroe Islands. 
 Thornton, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, now incorporated with Bradford. 
 
 Thourout (Fr. pron. Too-roo), a Belgian toWn, 
 11 miles SW. of Bruges. Pop. 10,200. 
 Thousand Islands. See St Lawrence. 
 Thrace, a name used by the ancients some- 
 what vaguely for a large region to the west of 
 the Euxine (Black Sea), so as to include the whole 
 country between the Ister (Danube) and the 
 JEge&n, and even part of the Scythian country 
 beyond the Ister. Latterly the northern part of 
 Thrace has become the province of Eastern 
 Roumelia (see Bulgaria), while the remainder is 
 still part of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 Thrapston, a Northamptonshire town, on the 
 Nen, 21 miles NE. of Northampton. Pop. 1570. 
 Thrasimene. See Trasimene. 
 Threave Castle. See Dee. 
 Three Rivers (Trois Rivieres), capital of St 
 Maurice county, Quebec, at the confluence of the 
 St Maurice and St Lawrence, 95 miles NE. of 
 Montreal. It has a large trade in lumber; and 
 manufactures boots, car-wheels, and stoves. 
 Champlain founded it in 1634. Pop. 9996.— 
 Three Rivers, Michigan, on the St Joseph River, 
 128 miles E. of Chicago. Pop. 5550. 
 Throndhjem. See Trondhjem. 
 Thule (Thyoo'lee). See Shetland. 
 Thun (Toone), a picturesque and ancient town 
 of Switzerland, 17 miles SSE. of Bern by rail. It 
 stands on the Aar, hardly a mile from the Lake 
 of Thun (12 miles long, 2 broad ; greatest depth, 
 1844 feet), out of which the crystal river rushes 
 past the town. Pop. 6100. 
 Thunder Bay. See Superior (Lake). 
 ThUTgaM (Toor-gow ; Fr. Thurgovie), a frontier 
 canton of NE. Switzerland. Area, 381 sq. m. ; 
 population, 115,000, of wliom two-thirds are Pro- 
 testants. The surface attains only 3722 feet; 
 the chief river is the Thur, flowing WNW. to the 
 Rhine in Zurich canton. Capital, Frauenfeld. 
 
 Thuringia (Ger. Thuringen—]?ron. nearly Tee'- 
 ring-en), the name still borne by that part of the 
 ancient Saxon area bounded by the Werra, the 
 Saale, and the Harz Mountains ; the Thuringian 
 states being the minor Saxon Duchies (q.v.), the 
 two Schwarzburgs, the two Reuss principalities, 
 and small parts of Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria. 
 The Thuringian Forest (Thiiringer Wald) is a 
 series of wooded mountain-ridges (highest point, 
 3224 feet above sea-level) occupying great part of 
 this area. It is some 70 miles long, and belongs 
 to the Sudetic system. 
 
 Thurles (Tftur'^ess), a town of Tipperary, on the 
 Suir, 87 miles SW. of Dublin by rail. It has the 
 classical R. C. cathedral (cost £45,000) of Cashel 
 archbishopric ; 4 miles off" is the beautiful 14th-c. 
 ruin of Holy Cross Abbey. Pop. 4411. 
 
 Thursday Island, one of the smallest of the 
 group of the Torres Straits islands, north of Cape 
 York, and belonging to Queensland. It has an 
 excellent harbour. Port Kennedy. 
 
 Thurso, a burgh of barony and seaport of 
 Caithness, at the mouth of the Thurso River, by 
 rail (1874) 21 miles NW. of Wick and 154 NNE. of 
 Inverness. It has a town-hall (1870), capital 
 bathing, &c. The harbour had got silted up ; 
 but extensive improvements were carried out in 
 1891-92, when also a good pier at Scrabster was 
 extended, on the west side of the bay. Paving- 
 stones are prepared and exported. The self- 
 taught geologist, Robert Dick (1811-66), was a 
 baker here from 1830. Pop. 3730. 
 Thyati'ra. See Ak-hissar. 
 
TIAN-SHAN 6 
 
 Tian-shan (Tee-an-sUan' ; 'Celestial Moun- 
 tains'), a great mountain-system, consisting of 
 several ridges, mostly parallel, in central Asia, 
 extends from the Pamir (q.v.) to the north of the 
 Tarim depression in Turltestan, and occupies the 
 frontier region between Russian territory on the 
 north and the Chinese dominions to the south. 
 
 Tibbermore. See Tippeemuir. 
 
 Tibbu, a people of the Sahara (q.v.). 
 
 Tiber (Ital. Tevere, Lat. Tiberis), the chief river 
 of Central Italy, and the most famous in the 
 peninsula, rises in a dell of the Tuscan Apennines, 
 11 miles N. of the village of Pieve Santo Stefano, 
 whence it winds 260 miles SSE., S., and SSW., 
 and enters the Mediterranean by two branches, 
 which enclose the Isola Sacra. Of these the 
 northern, the Fiumicino, alone is navigable ; the 
 Fiumara is silted up. Towns on or near its banks 
 are Perugia, Orvieto, Rome, and Ostia. It is 
 navigable for boats of 50 tons to the confluence 
 of the Nera, 100 miles from its mouth. The Tiber 
 is supplied mainly by turbid mountain-torrents, 
 whence its liability to sudden overflowings. Its 
 waters, too, are still discoloured with yellow 
 mud, as when Horace described it. See W. Da vies, 
 The Pilgrimage of the Tiber (2d ed. 18V5). 
 
 Tiberias. See Galilee. 
 
 Tibestl, or Ta, a mountainous country in the 
 Eastern Sahara (where 20° N. lat. and 16° E. long, 
 cross), inhabited by a Tibbu tribe. The Tarso 
 Mountains reach 7500 feet. First explored by 
 Nachtigal in 1809, the country seems liliely to be 
 absorbed into the French Sahara. 
 
 Tibet', or Thibet, a country in central Asia, 
 called by the natives Bod or Bodyul, lying be- 
 tween China and India, and enclosed between tiie 
 Kuen-Lun, Altyn Tagh, and Nanshan Mountains 
 on the N., and the Himalayas on the S. Area, 
 700,000 sq. m., eight times the size of Great 
 Britain. Tibet is the loftiest region of such ex- 
 tent on the globe ; its tablelands, which vary in 
 height from 17,000 to 10,000 feet, are loftiest in 
 the west and north, whence they slope gradually 
 to the south and east. Bonvalot certifies to the 
 existence of volcanoes. Tlie lowest lands in 
 Tibet are the grooves in which the Indus runs 
 westward and the Sanpo eastward to the points 
 where they turn south through the Himalayas. 
 The mountain-girdle which surrounds Tibet has 
 kept it to the present day the country least 
 known to geographers. Tibet is divided into 
 provinces equal in extent to European states. 
 Tsaidam, or Chaidam, in the NE., between the 
 Nanshan and Altyn-tagh chains and the Kuen- 
 Lun, includes the Koko-Nor lake. Katchi in the 
 centre, just S. of the Kuen-Lun, contains the 
 gold-fields of Thok-Jalung, one of the highest 
 inhabited spots on the globe. East Nari, in the 
 SW., includes Khorsum and Dokthol, an elevated 
 Himalayan country in which the Indus and Sanpo 
 take their rise, and contains Lake Manasarowar, 
 15,000 feet high, a sheet of water sacred alike to 
 Tibetans and Hindus. West Nari, or Little Tibet, 
 consists of Ladakh (q.v.) and Balti, now depend- 
 encies of Cashmere (q.v.) and the Indian Empire. 
 Yu-tsang, the provinces of Yu and Tsang, occu- 
 pying the valley of the Sanpo between the 
 meridians of 87° and 92°, constitutes the most 
 populous and important part of Tibet, and con- 
 tains Lhassa, capital of Yu and of tlie whole 
 country, and Shigatze, capital of Tsang. Kham, 
 the province drained by the deep valley of the 
 upper courses of the great rivers of Cliina and 
 Indo-China, is largely under the direct rule of 
 
 ^ tIBSf 
 
 China. Tlie lake Tengri Nor, NW. of Lhassa, is 
 150 miles in circuit. 
 
 Tibet lies in the latitudes of Delhi, Cairo, 
 Algiers, and Naples, but its inland position and 
 elevation give it a cold, dry, and extreme climate. 
 On the tablelands at an elevation of 14,000 feet 
 the thermometer in May sinks to 7° F. below zero, 
 and over the whole country an arctic winter pre- 
 vails for five or six months. There is a very 
 short but excessively liot summer, more especially 
 in the valleys of the Indus and Sanpo. The 
 northern and western tablelands ai-e treeless, 
 with steppes where innumerable herds of yaks, 
 horses, asses, goats, antelopes, &c. pasture un- 
 disturbed by man. The southern tablelands 
 supply food to the flocks and herds of a large 
 nomad population. Agriculture is confined chiefly 
 to the valleys of the Indus and Sanpo ; and the 
 irrigation and terrace cultivation necessary to 
 secure even scanty crops are supposed to have 
 sharpened the intelligence of the peasants and 
 made them strong and laborious. The mineral 
 products of Tibet include gold, silver, iron, 
 copper, zinc, mercury, cobalt, borax, sulphur, 
 &c. The Tibetans are good blacksmiths and 
 cutlers ; their chief industrial occupation, how- 
 ever, is the preparation of woollen cloth. They 
 are active traders ; and large caravans, in which 
 yaks and sheep are the beasts of burden, are 
 constantly traversing the country on their way 
 to tlie great fairs in Tibet, and the entrepots of 
 the surrounding countries. At one time there 
 was a busy commerce with India, but after Tibet 
 became a Cliinese dependency the passes were jeal- 
 ously closed. The pop. is estimated at 6,000,000. 
 
 The Tibetans are a Mongolic race, mucli more 
 closely allied to the Burmese than to the Chinese 
 or Mongols proper, and are broad-shouldered and 
 muscular. A few nomads, Mongol and Turkish 
 tribes, camp on the northern steppes, and Chinese 
 in large numbers have colonised the south-east. 
 Polyandry, the husbands of one wife being gener- 
 ally brothers, is almost universal among the 
 poor Tibetans ; the rich are polygamists. Both 
 systems check population. In Little Tibet, 
 where monogamy has penetrated from the west, 
 population increases rapidly. There exist in 
 Tibet two religions : the Bon or Bon-Fa creed, 
 which is a development of Mongol Shamanism, 
 and is tlie native religion ; and Lamaism, a 
 form of Buddhism introduced from India. The 
 Tibetan clergy are very numerous ; monasteries 
 are everywhere. Since 1720 Tibet has been, 
 nominally at least, a dependency of China. Civil 
 and religious government was retained practically 
 by the Tibetan clergy ; the Dalai Lama delegating 
 the active duties of government to the de-sri or 
 king, with four ministers. The non-observance 
 by the Tibetans of this Anglo-Chinese conven- 
 tion of 1890 (opening a trade ' port '), and their 
 refusal to meet commissioners, led to the mis- 
 sion of 1904 under Sir F. G. Younghusband. 
 The mission soon became an expedition, wliich, 
 after sharp fighting at Gyangtse and elsewhere, 
 forced its way to Lhassa, where, the Dalai Lama 
 having fled, a treaty was concluded in the 
 famous Po-ta-la palace-monastery. The Tesho 
 Lama or Bogdo Lama (of Shigatze) superseded 
 the Dalai Lama (of Lhassa) ; trade facilities with 
 British India were increased (three new marts 
 being established), and Tibet bound itself not to 
 enter into relations with any foreign power save 
 by British assent. Tlie Tibetan language is losing 
 its monosyllabic character ; its literature consists 
 chiefly of translations from the Sanskrit, and of 
 religious works. 
 
*IBtTR 
 
 697 
 
 TlW 
 
 See works by Hue (1852), Hodgson (1874), Mark- 
 ham (1876), Rockhill (1891), Bonvalot (1892), 
 Wellby (1898), Laiidor (1898), and, after the 1904 
 expedition, tliose by Candler, Landon, and 
 Waddell on Lliassa (q.v.). 
 
 Tibur. See Tivoli. 
 
 Tichborne, a Hampshire property, 2 miles 
 SSW. of Alresford station and 6i E. by N. of 
 Winchester. It has from before the Conquest 
 been the seat of the Tichbornes, a Catholic family 
 who received a baronetcy in 1626. 
 
 Ticino (Ti-chee'no), a river of Switzerland and 
 N. Italy, rises on the southern slopes of Mount 
 St Gothard, and flows S. through Lake Maggiore, 
 and then SSE. to its junction with the Po, 4 
 miles below Pavia. 
 
 Ticino (Ger. Tessin), the most southern canton 
 of Switzerland, bounded W. and S. by Italy. 
 Area, 1082 sq. m. ; population, 140,000, mainly 
 Italian-speaking and CaUiolics. The largest town 
 is Lugano ; since 1881 Bellinzona is the capital. 
 
 Tickhill, a town in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 10 miles E. of Rotherham. Pop. 1568. 
 
 Tlcondero'ga, a township of New York, 100 
 miles by rail N. of Albany, on Lake Champlain. 
 Here the French built a fort in 1755, which 
 figured largely in the war of independence. 
 
 Tides-well, a town of Derbyshire, 6^ miles B. of 
 Buxton. Pop. 1985. 
 
 Tiel (Teel), a Dutch town, on the Waal, 60 
 miles E. by S. of Rotterdam. Pop. 10,800. 
 
 Tien-tsin (Teen-tsin), a city of China, on the 
 Pei-ho's right bank, 34 miles from its mouth and 
 80 SE. from Peking, of which it is the port. The 
 river is frozen over from December to March, 
 when the business is taken up by sledges. By 
 the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) the port was declared 
 open ; a British consulate was established in 
 1861 ; in 1881 Tien-tsin Avas connected by tele- 
 graph with Shanghai and Peking ; and there is 
 a railway to the Pei-ho's mouth. Pop. 950,000. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego (Tee-er'ra del Foo-ay'go; 
 'Land of Fire,' so named by Magellan who saw 
 fires on the shore, when he discovered them in 
 1520), a group of several large and many small 
 islands named from the largest one, in 54° S. lat., 
 70° W. long., separated from the south end of 
 South America by the Strait of Magellan. Its 
 farthest south point is Cape Horn (q.v.). Staten 
 Island and the half of the main island belong to 
 Argentina ; all the rest to Chili. The shores of 
 the archipelago are much indented with bays and 
 arms of the sea, with mountains rising abruptly 
 from the water. The Avhole group is mountain- 
 ous, attaining 7000 feet, and the snow-line being 
 4000 feet above sea-level. There are some dreary 
 plains and a few fertile river-valleys, with areas 
 of marshy ground. Towards the north the plains 
 produce good pasturage. Forests of beech, 
 winter's bark, magnolia, and cypress occupy 
 large areas, with dense growths of bushes. 
 Lichens cover much of both high and lowgrounds. 
 The guaiiaco, tucu-tucu (a small rodent), dog, 
 fox, and rat are the only native quadrupeds. 
 Birds are abundant, including owls, falcons, and 
 a great variety of sea-birds. The land of Tierra 
 del Fuego is rapidly rising. The rocks are prin- 
 cipally volcanic. Some poor coal and a little 
 gold have been found. The climate is the most 
 tempestuous in the world. The native inhabi- 
 tants are of a low type, divided into three tribes, 
 the Onas (or Aonas), the Yaghans, and the Ala- 
 kalufs. They numbered about 10,000 in 1870, 
 but are now reduced to about 1000. See Darwin's 
 
 Vogage of a Naturalist (1845 ; new ed. 1889), sur- 
 veys and voyages by King, Fitzroy, Cunningham, 
 Fitzgerald, Conway (1902). 
 
 Tiffin, capital of Seneca county, Ohio, on the 
 Sandusky River, 43 miles by rail SSE. of Toledo. 
 It is the seat of Heidelberg College (Reformed 
 Church ; 1851), and manufactures farming imple- 
 ments, churns, stoves, woollens, &c. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 Tiflis (Tif-leess'), the chief city of a govern- 
 ment and the capital of Russian Caucasia, on 
 the Kur, 165 miles as the crow flies ESE. of the 
 Black Sea. Since 1883 it has been connected by 
 rail with Batoum on the Euxine and Baku on the 
 CasiMan, and is the chief centre of trade between 
 Russia and Persia. The old city, the capital of 
 the Georgian princes by the 5th century, has been 
 greatly metamorphosed since the Russian occupa- 
 tion in 1795 and annexation in 1802. In the middle 
 ages the metal-workers of Tiflis were famous for 
 their skill in engraving, inlaying, and brass-work ; 
 and the silversmiths and gunsmiths still main- 
 tain their character. Otherwise its manufactures 
 (carpets, &c.) are unimportant. Near it are 
 naphtha and thermal springs. Pop. (1897) 160,645. 
 — Area of government, 15,306 sq. m. ; pop. 875,181. 
 
 Tighnabruaicli (Tee-na-hroo'aihh), an Argyll- 
 shire watering-place, on the Kyles of Bute, 9J 
 miles NW. of Rothesay. Pop. 515. 
 
 Tigre, the northern division of Abyssinia (q.v.). 
 
 Tigris (Heb. Hiddekel; Tigrd in Old Persian, 
 'swift as an arrow'), a large river of Asiatic 
 Turkey, rises south of Lake Goljik, in the moun- 
 tains of Kurdistan, within a few miles of the 
 eastern bend of the Euphrates, and flows 1150 
 miles SE., E., and SE. again, till at Kurna it 
 joins the Euphrates (q.v.) 90 miles above its 
 mouth in the Persian Gulf. It receives the Bitlis, 
 Great and Little Zab, and Dyala, all from the left. 
 In its upper course the Tigris is very swift, and 
 it brings down much mud. On its banks are 
 Diarbekir, Mosul, and Bagdad, with the ruins of 
 Nineveh, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon. The river is 
 navigable for small steamers to Bagdad. — For the 
 Bocca Tigris, see Boca Tigre and Canton. 
 
 Tilburg, a town of Holland, 14 miles ESE. of 
 Breda, is an important railway junction, and has 
 300 manufactories of calico, cloth, leather, &c. 
 Pop. (1871) 22,256 ; (1901) 42,334. 
 
 Til'bury Fort, in Essex, on the N. bank of the 
 Thames, opposite Gravesend, and 22 miles E. of 
 London. A block -house of Henry VIII. 's time, 
 it was converted (1667) into a regular fortification 
 after De Ruyter's expedition into the Medway, 
 and has been greatly strengthened since 1861. 
 Here on 8th August 1588, after the dispersal of 
 the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth reviewed her 
 troops. The East and West India Dock Company 
 constructed extensive docks at Tilbury in 1882-86. 
 
 Till, a Northumberland stream, flowing 32 miles 
 to the Tweed, 2f miles NE. of Coldstream. 
 
 Tillicoul'try (oul as oo), a manufacturing town 
 of Clackmannanshire, at the base of tlie Ochils 
 and near the Devon's right bank, 10 miles ENE. 
 of Stirling arid 4 NNE. of Alloa. Woollens have 
 been manufactured here since the 16th c, and 
 later shawls and silks. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Tillietudlem. See Craignethan. 
 
 Til'sit, a town of East Prussia, on the left 
 bank of the Memel or Niemen, 65 miles NE. of 
 Konigsberg by rail. Here was signed, on an 
 island in the river, the treaty of 1807 between 
 Russia and Napoleon. Pop. 34,545. 
 
 Tilt. See Glentilt. 
 
TIMARU 
 
 «d8 
 
 TIRLEBIONT 
 
 Tlmaru (Tintmroo'), a small port in the south 
 island of New Zealand, 100 miles SW. of Christ- 
 church by rail. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Timbo, capital of Futa Jallon (q.v.), in the 
 heart of the country. 
 
 Timbuctoo' (native Tumhutu, Arab. TinbUkhtu), 
 a famous city of the Soudan, on the southern 
 edge of the Sahara (q.v.), 8 miles N. of the main 
 stream of the Upper Niger. It is 3 miles in 
 circumference. The houses are mainly one-storey 
 mud-hovels, but one of the three chief mosques 
 is an imposing building, dating from 1325. The 
 place stands on a trade-route between the interior 
 and the Avest and south ; and its importance 
 increased through the gradual extension of the 
 influence of the French, who in 1894 occupied 
 the city (see Senegambia). Gold-dust, salt, kola- 
 nuts, ivory, gums, ostrich-feathers, dates, and 
 tobacco are exchanged for Manchester goods, 
 mirrors, knives, tea, coral, &c. The town stands 
 on the borders of various tribes and kingdoms — 
 Sonrhai, Berbers, Tuaregs, Fulahs, Mandingoes, 
 &c. ; and amongst its 20,000 inhabitants all these 
 races are represented, with Arabs, Arabised 
 Africans, and Jews. Founded in the 11th c, 
 Timbuctoo first became known to Europeans in 
 the 14th (Ibn Batuta was here about 1350) ; till 
 the French occupation it had been visited by but 
 six or seven Europeans. Timbuctoo has been 
 besung by Tennyson and Thackeray. 
 
 Timor (Tee-mor'), the most important of the 
 chain of islands which stretch eastward from 
 Java, has a length of 300 miles, an area of 12,264 
 sq. m., and a pop. of 500,000. A chain of wooded 
 mountains runs throughout its entire length ; one 
 peak, Alias, near the south coast, being 11,500 
 feet higli. It is less volcanic than its smaller 
 neighbours of the Sunda group. Magnetic iron, 
 porphyry, gold, copper, and sulphur are found. 
 The exports are maize, sandalwood, wax, tortoise- 
 shell, and trepang. The smaller western portion 
 belongs to the Dutch (capital Kupang); the 
 eastern part is Portuguese (capital Deli); but 
 native chiefs really govern the island. 
 
 Tlmor-Laut (Tee-mor' -Lowt), or Tenimber, a 
 group of three Dutch islands, E. of Timor, ex- 
 tending 100 miles, and 2263 sq. m. in area. 
 Unlike Timor, they are mainly coralline and 
 correspondingly low-lying, though one extinct 
 volcano is 2000 feet higli. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Tinchebrai (Tan^sh-bray'), a town (pop. 2429) 
 in the NW. of the Norman dep. of Orne, where 
 Henry I. of England defeated his brother Robert. 
 
 Tlng-hai. See Chusan. 
 
 Tinnevel'li (originally Tiru-nel-veli), a town of 
 S. India, 170 miles by rail SSW. of Trichinopoli, 
 and IJ mile from the river Tambraparni. It is 
 connected with the military station of Pallam- 
 cotta, across the river ; has a Sind temple, Hindu 
 college, and cotton-factory; and is a great 
 Protestant missionary centre. Pop. 40,500. 
 
 Tlno. See Tenos. 
 
 Tintagel Head (Tintafel), a cliff 300 feet high 
 on the western coast of Cornwall, 22 miles W. of 
 Launceston, and but 6 miles from Camel ford— 
 the Camelot of Arthurian legend. Partly on the 
 mainland and partly on the so-called island, 
 almost cut off by a deep chasm, stand the im- 
 posing ruins of the castle where King Arthur 
 held his court. The oldest part, the keep, is 
 apparently of Norman construction. 
 
 Tintern Abbey, Monmouthshire, perhaps the 
 loveliest ruin in England, on the Wye's right 
 bank, 5 miles above Chepstow. The abbey was 
 
 founded in 1131 for Cistercians, but its church 
 dates from the end of the 13th c. The length of 
 the building is 228 feet ; the style a transition 
 from Early English to Decorated ; the window- 
 tracery is especially fine. In Wordsworth's noble 
 Lines composed above Tintern Abbey, the abbey 
 itself is not mentioned. See works by Heath 
 (1793), Cooper (1807), and Thomas (2d ed. 1845). 
 
 Tinto. See Lanarkshire. 
 
 Tippecanoe (Tip'pehkanoo'), a river of Indiana, 
 which rises in the north, flows 200 miles WSW. 
 and S., and empties into the Wabash 10 miles 
 above Lafayette. In a battle near its mouth, in 
 1811, General Harrison defeated the Indians. 
 
 Tip'perah (Tipura), a district of the division 
 of Chittagong (q.v.) ; Hill Tipperah being a small 
 tributary state on its borders. 
 
 Tipperary, an inland county of Munster, touch- 
 ing Galway on the north and King's County, 
 Queen's County, and Kilkenny on the east. Area, 
 1659 sq. m., or 1,061,731 acres, of which 843,837 
 are arable. The county lies mainly in the basin 
 of the Suir (total length 85 miles) ; the Shannon 
 touches the north-west border. The surface is 
 generally level, but is diversified by the Galtees 
 (3008 feet), Knockmeledown (2609), and Slievena- 
 man on the S., Keeper Mountain on the W., and 
 the Slievardagh Hills on the E. To the isolated 
 Devil's Bit many popular legends attach. The 
 soil of the plain is a rich calcareous loam, singu- 
 larly fertile and productive, especially the Golden 
 Vale, in which stands Tipperary town. Anthra- 
 cite coal is worked ; and copper, lead, zinc, slates, 
 and pipe-clay also occur. The chief occupation 
 is agriculture, especially dairy-farming. The 
 county, which since 1885 returns four mem- 
 bers, is divided into two ridings. North and 
 South, each subdivided into six baronies. Pop. 
 (1841) 435,553 ; (1901) 160,232—150,332 Catholics. 
 Anciently Tipperary formed part of the two 
 principalities of Ormond, or North Munster, and 
 Desmond, or South Munster ; after the English 
 invasion it was formed into a county by King 
 John in 1210. Eventually it came to be divided 
 between two Anglo-Norman families, the Butlers 
 holding Ormond, and the Geraldines part of 
 Desmond. The antiquities are numerous, as 
 well Celtic as Anglo-Norman. In the latter the 
 city of Cash el (q.v.) is specially rich ; Holy 
 Cross is a noble monastic ruin ; the castle of 
 Cahir is a fine specimen of baronial architecture. 
 There is a series of caves near the Cork border. 
 
 Tipperary, the county town, is 110 miles SW. 
 of Dublin by rail, with a Catholic and a Protestant 
 church, and a noted butter-market ; pop. 6250. 
 Under the 'Plan of Campaign,' a 'New Tip- 
 perary ' was opened on 12th April 1890 ; but the 
 scheme collapsed in the following year. 
 
 Tippermuir, 5 miles W. of Perth. Here 
 Montrose routed the Covenanters, Sept. 1, 1644. 
 
 Tipton, a town of Staffordshire, 4i miles SSB. 
 of Wolverhampton. It has important iron manu- 
 factures. Pop. (1851) 24,872 ; (1901) 80,543. 
 
 Tiptree Hall, Essex, 3i miles E. of Witham, 
 was (1841-80) the model farm of Mr Mechi. 
 
 Tiree. See Tyree. 
 
 Tirhut (u as oo), formerly a district of Bengal, 
 but in 1875 divided into the districts of Darbhan- 
 gah (q.v.) and Muzaffarpur (q.v.). 
 
 Tirlemont {Teerl-mon^' ; Flem. TUenen), a 
 Belgian town, 30 miles ESE. of Brussels. It 
 manufactures machinery, hosiery, flaiuiel, leather, 
 sugar, &c. Here the French, under Dumouriez, 
 defeated the Austrians in 1793. Pop. 18,000. 
 
TlRllOVA 
 
 t6ky6 
 
 Tir'nova, a town of Bulgaria, on the Jantra, 
 35 miles SSE. of Sistova, became in 1235 the seat 
 of the Bulgarian patriarch, ami has more than 
 once been the capital. Pop. 12,858. 
 
 Tiryns (Tir'rins), an ancient city of Argolis, 
 in the Peloponnesus, 3 miles from the head of 
 the Argolic Gulf. Its Cyclopean walls and those 
 of the neighbouring Mycente are the grandest in 
 Greece. The citadel was built on an oval-shaped 
 rock, 330 yards long by 112 at its widest, fringed 
 by a wall, 30 to 40 feet thick, and about 50 feet 
 high (from the outside base), composed of blocks, 
 10 by 3^ feet. See Schliemann's Tiryns (1883). 
 
 Tlsbury, a Wiltshire town, 12| miles W. of 
 Salisbury. Pop. 1580. 
 
 Tissington, a Derbyshire parish, 4 miles N. of 
 Ashborne, famous for its ' Well-dressing ' on Holy 
 Thursday. 
 Titicaca (Teeteekah'ka), Lake. See Peru. 
 Titusville, a city of Pennsylvania, on Oil 
 Creek, 120 miles by rail SSW. of Buffalo. It 
 has oil wells, sawmills, ironworks, &c. In June 
 1892 it suffered from a flood. Pop. 8250. 
 
 Tiumen (Tyoo'men), a town of W. Siberia, 90 
 miles SE. of Tobolsk, on a feeder of the Tobol. 
 Connected by rail with Perm, it is on several 
 important trade-routes ; and large quantities of 
 leather, carpets, soap, candles, and pottery are 
 manufactured and exported. It has a technical 
 school, a great January fair, and an exile forward- 
 ing prison. Pop. 29,700. 
 
 Tiv'erton, a municipal borough of Devonshire, 
 14^ miles N. by E. of Exeter, stands pleasantly 
 on an eminence between the confluent Exe and 
 Loman, and got the name Twy-ford-ton from two 
 fords upon those two rivers. Little save the gate- 
 way remains of the castle of the Earls of Devon, 
 built in 1106, and dismantled after its capture by 
 Fairfax in 1645. St Peter's, a Perpendicular church 
 of the 15th century, Avas mostly rebuilt in 1855 ; 
 and other edifices are the town-hall (1864), late 
 Venetian in style, with a tower 80 feet high, the 
 market-house (1830), the infirmary (1852), the 
 Greenway almshouses (1517), Waldron's alms- 
 houses (1579), and the grammar-school (1604), 
 which was founded by Peter Blundell (1520- 
 1601), and has an endowment of £1100 a year. 
 Among its scholars have been Bishops Bull, 
 Hayter, Conybeare, and Temple, A. Hayward, 
 ' Jack ' Russell, R. D. Blackmore, and his hero, 
 John Ridd. New school buildings in the Tudor 
 style were erected in 1880 at a cost of £20,000. 
 Tiverton was a great seat of the woollen trade 
 from 1353 till 1700 and afterwards, but lace- 
 making is now its staple industry, the lace- 
 factory, employing 1500 workpeople, having been 
 established in 1816 by Mr John Heathcoat (1783- 
 1861), inventor of the bobbin-net frame. Cosway, 
 the painter, and Mrs Cowley, dramatist, were 
 natives ; whilst Lord Palmerston for thirty years 
 (1835-65) represented Tiverton, which was char- 
 tered by James I., but lost its two members in 
 1885. Pop. (1S51) 11,144; (1871) 10,025; (1901) 
 10,382. See works by M. Dunsford (1790), W. 
 Harding (2 vols. 1844-47), and F. J. Smith (1893). 
 Tiv'oli (anc. Tibur), a town of Italy, 18 miles 
 E. of Rome by rail and steam-tramway, on the 
 slope of the Sabine hills and the river Teverone 
 (anc. Anio, q.v.). Here Avorks for the electric 
 lighting of Rome were inaugurated in 1892. Tibitr 
 was the favourite summer-resort of the wealthy 
 Romans. Above the falls of the Anio rises the 
 so-called Sibyl's temple, in good preservation ; 
 the church of San Giorgio is an ancient temple ; 
 
 there are extensive remains of Hadrian's magnifi- 
 cent villa, the villa of Maecenas, mausoleums, 
 aqueducts, baths, &c. Near Tivoli is the famous 
 Villa d'Este. Pop. 9370. 
 
 Tlaxcala (Tlaskdh'la), the smallest state of 
 Mexico. Area, 1506 sq. m. ; population, 175,000. 
 The capital, Tlaxcala, stands 7300 feet above the 
 sea ; pop. 2850. 
 
 Tlemcen (Tlem-sen'), a town of Algeria, 80 
 miles SW. of Oran. Pop. 35,382. 
 
 Toba'go, the most southerly of the Windward 
 Islands belonging to Britain, lies 18^ miles NB. 
 of Trinidad (of which it is a dependency), is 32 
 miles long by 7 broad, and has an area of 114 
 sq. m. It was discovered by Columbus in 1498, 
 and named by him Assumption ; the name Tobago 
 probably arose from the free use of tobacco by 
 the Carib natives. It was long contested be- 
 tween Dutch, Spaniards, and French, but cama 
 to Britain in 1763. The island is volcanic, 
 mountainous (1800 feet), and picturesque. Scar- 
 borough, its chief town, is on the S. side, and 
 at the base of a conical hill (425 feet), crowned 
 by Fort King George, now without garrison. 
 The exports (rum, molasses, cocoa-nuts, live- 
 stock, &c.) amount to from £20,000 to £40,000 a 
 year ; the imports to from £20,000 to £30,000. 
 Pop. 18,750. 
 
 Tobercurry, a Sligo market-town, 9 miles SW. 
 of Ballyniote. Pop. 870. 
 Tobermo'ry. See Mui-i,. 
 
 Tobolsk, a town of W. Siberia, at the Tobol's 
 influx to the Irtish, nearly 2000 miles E. of St 
 Petersburg. Pop. 20,630. —Area of Tobolsk 
 government, 539,659 sq. ni. ; pop. 1,500,000. 
 
 Tobo'so, El, a town (pop. 1925) in the Spanish 
 district of La Mancha, 60 miles SE. of Toledo, 
 the home of Don Quixote's peerless Dulcinea. 
 
 Tocantlns', an important river of Brazil, rises 
 in the state of Goyaz, flows 15 miles N., and 
 finally widens into the Para (q.v.), 138 miles 
 from the Atlantic. Its afiluent, the Araguay 
 (1600 miles), bears along a greater volume of 
 water than the Tocantins itself. Steamers ascend 
 for 400 miles from the sea ; above the rapids 400 
 miles more is navigable. 
 
 Toddington, a town of Bedfordshire, 5 miles 
 N. of Dunstable. Pop. of parish, 2087. 
 
 Tod'morden, a market-town on the border of 
 Yorkshire and Lancashire, prettily situated among 
 hills on the Calder. 9 miles N. by E. of Rochdale, 
 18^ NNE. of Manchester, and 13 W. of Halifax. 
 The classical town-hall was erected in 1875, and 
 in front of it is a bronze statue by Foley of John 
 Fielden, M.P. (1784-1849), the founder here of 
 an enormous cotton-mill. Coal abounds in the 
 vicinity. Pop. (1871) 21,764 ; (1901) 25,418. 
 
 To'goland, since 1884 a German protectorate 
 on the Slave Coast, east of the British Gold 
 Coast, between 0° 30' E. long, and 1" 41' E., the 
 boundary towards the interior being somewhat 
 indefinite. Area, 33,000 sq. m. ; pop. 2,000,000. 
 It is the most prosperous of Germany's African 
 possessions. Togo, the largest native town 
 (pop. SOOOX is on Lake Togo ; Little Popo is the 
 capital, and Lome the chief port. 
 
 Tokat', a town of Sivas province, Asia Minor, 
 70 miles inland from the Black Sea. Pop. 30,000. 
 Tokay, the centre of a wine-growing district in 
 Hungary, 130 miles NE. of Pesth. Pop. 5500. 
 
 Tokushlma, the largest town of Shikoku, 
 Japan, on the NE. coast. Pop. 65,300. 
 Tokyo, or Tokei ('Eastern Capital'), is the 
 
Toledo 
 
 700 
 
 TOlfQtJIll 
 
 chief city of the Japanese empire. Until 1868, 
 when the emperor removed his court thither from 
 Kyoto, it was known as Yedo (' Estuary Gate '). 
 Its position at the mouth of the rivers which 
 drain the largest plain of Japan, fits it to be a 
 national centre. The lower portion of the city, 
 which is flat and intersected by canals, stretches 
 between the two parks of Ueno (north) and 
 Shiba (south), famous for their shrines. Midway 
 rises the castle or palace (1889), a fine structure 
 in Japanese style, furnished a I'Europeenne and 
 lit with electricity, around it a double ring 
 of high walls and broad moats. In spring-tinie 
 the city is gay with plum and cherry blossoms. 
 The immense enclosures formerly inhabited by 
 the nobles and their retainers, are gradually dis- 
 appearing, and handsome modern buildings in 
 brick for the use of the various government de- 
 partments are taking their place. Of the fifteen 
 city divisions (fcw) the northern, Hongo and 
 Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the 
 buildings of the Imperial University, Law School, 
 &c. The student population is astonishingly 
 large. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi, 
 Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and com- 
 mercial, while the government offices are located 
 in Kojimachi ku. There is an anchorage at Shina- 
 gawa, the southernmost suburb, but Yokohama 
 is the port of entry (17 miles off). The city is 
 subject to disastrous fires ; that of April 1892 
 burned 4000 houses iii one morning. Tokyo has 
 two railway termini. Foreigners are now free to 
 live anywhere in tlie city, and almost every 
 phase of modern civilisation is to be found 
 within its vast area. Pop. (1874) 813,500 ; (1905) 
 1,530,000. 
 
 Toledo (Tolay'do), a famous city of Spain, 
 capital of a province, and long the capital of the 
 whole country, stands on the north bank of the 
 Tagus, 40 miles SSW. of Madrid by rail. It is 
 situated on a number of hills, 2400 feet above 
 sea-level ; and the climate, excessively hot in 
 .summer, is bitterly cold in winter. The Tagus, 
 flowing between high and rocky banks, leaves only 
 one approach on the N., which is defended by an 
 inner and an outer wall, the former built by the 
 Gothic king Wamba in the 7th c, the latter in 
 1109, and both remarkable for their towers and 
 gates. Seen from afar the city is most imposing ; 
 within it is gloomy, silent, inert. In its midst 
 rises the lofty, massive, five-aisled cathedral, 
 built in 1227-1493 on the site of a former mosque. 
 The interior, which is more impressive than the 
 exterior, was plundered in 1621 and 1808, but 
 retains some admirable stained glass, and the 
 choir is a perfect nuiseum of sculpture. It is 
 404 feet long and 204 wide ; tlie tower is 329 feet 
 high. The great square or Zocodover, thoroughly 
 Moorish in character, is a fashionable promenade. 
 The Alcazar or old palace, the fortress commanded 
 by the Cid, rebuilt as a jmlace in Cliarles V.'s time, 
 and subsequently, occupied the highest part of 
 the city, but was burned down in 1887. There 
 are manufactures of church ornaments and vest- 
 ments, and confections. Toledan sword-blades, 
 famous since old Roman times, are still made, 
 but outside the city. Pop. 23,470. Toledo, the 
 Toletum of the Romans, and the capital of the 
 Goths, was held by the Moors from 714 to 1085, 
 when it was annexed to the crown of Castile as 
 capital. In its highest prosperity it had 200,000 
 inhabitants. It was the headquarters of the In- 
 quisition. The university (1498) is long since .ex- 
 tinct.— Area of province, 5586 sq. m.; pop. 376,82a 
 
 Toledo {To-ledo), capital of Lucas county, 
 
 Ohio, on the Maumee River, 8 miles from thd 
 western extremity of Lake Brie(to which a channel 
 17 feet deep has been dredged), and 92 by rail 
 W. of Cleveland. It has a fine harbour, is on the 
 Miami and Erie Canal, and is connected with all 
 parts of the country by thirteen railways. Be- 
 sides an immense union depot, it has huge grain 
 elevators, and does a great trade in flour, grain, 
 lumber, live-stock, tobacco, &c. Tliere are great 
 wagon-works, foundries, manufactories of boilers, 
 pumps, engines, farming implements, and furni- 
 ture, and boat-yards and bridge-works. Toledo 
 was settled in 1832, and incorporated in 1836. 
 Pop. (1880) 50,137 ; (1890) 81,434 ; (1900) 131,222. 
 
 Tolentrno (i as ee), an episcopal city of Central 
 Italy, 10 miles SW. of Macerata. Pop. 4888. 
 
 Tollma (Tolee'vm), a volcano of the Andes of 
 Colombia (18,314 feet), gives name to a province. 
 
 Tolo'sa, a town in the northern Spanish prov- 
 ince of Guipuzcoa, 15 miles S. of the seaport of 
 San Sebastian by rail. Pop. 7239. 
 
 Toluca, a town of Mexico, capital of Mexico 
 state, and 45 miles by rail WSW. of Mexico city, 
 lies in a valley nearly 8800 feet above the sea. It 
 has a fine cathedral. Pop. 26,000. Near the town 
 is the extinct volcano, Nevado de Toluca. 
 
 Tombigbee. See Alabama. 
 
 Tomintoul' (ou as ow), a Banff"shire village, 
 near the Avon, 1100 feet above sea-level, and 14i 
 miles S. of Ballindalloch station. Pop. 516. 
 
 Tomnahu'rlch. See Inverness, 
 
 Tomsk, a town of western Siberia, on the Tom, 
 a tributary of the Obi, 2809 miles B. of St Peters- 
 burg, and on the great trading higliway of Siberia. 
 A university was established in 1888. Great part 
 of the town was burned in 1890. Pop. 52,430.— 
 The government of Tomsk extends to tlie Cliinese 
 frontier. Area, 331,159 sq. m. ; pop. 1,975,000. 
 
 Tonawanda, a town of New York, on the 
 Niagara River and Erie Canal, 8 miles N. of 
 Buffalo by rail. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Tonbridge. See Tunbridge. 
 
 Tong, a Shropshire parish, 3 miles E. of Shif- 
 nal, with a collegiate church (1410), which figures 
 in The Old Curiosity Shop. See a work by G. 
 Griffiths (1894). 
 
 Tong'a. See Friendly Islands.— Tonga Bay 
 is a small inlet of East Africa, bounded N. by 
 Cape Delgado. Tongaland, or Amatongaland, is a 
 state there under British suzerainty, between 
 Zululand and tlie Portuguese frontier, and border- 
 ing on Swaziland ; area, 5300 sq. m. ; pop. 100,000. 
 
 Tongarri'ro (i as ee). See New Zealand. 
 
 Tongking. See Tonquin. 
 
 Tongres (Ton^r), an episcopal city of Belgium, 
 Limburg, 12 miles NW. of Liege. There is a 
 mineral spring in the vicinity, mentioned by 
 Pliny. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Tonk, a native state of Rajputana (area, 1415 
 sq. m. ; pop. 151,000), named from its capital, 60 
 miles south of Jeypore ; pop. 39,000. 
 
 Tonquin, or Tonkin, since 1884 a French pos- 
 session, is the north-east portion of the Indo- 
 Chinese peninsula, bordering on China. The 
 country is naturally a province of Annara (q.v.), 
 which, however, is nominally a protected king- 
 dom, whereas Tonquin is simply a French colony. 
 The main feature is the Song-coi, or Red River 
 (variously spelt Song-koi, Sang-koi, &c.), coming 
 from Yunnan, and traversing the whole of Ton- 
 quin lengthwise. Tlie area is 46,400 sq. m. ; the 
 pop. is estimated at 9,000,000. The capital is 
 
T5NSBERG 
 
 701 
 
 TORRES STRAIT 
 
 Hanoi (q.v.). The chief products are rice, silk, 
 sugar, pepper, oil, cotton, tobacco, and fruits, 
 with some copper and iron ; and companies are 
 now worlving coal and antimony mines near the 
 chief port of Haiphong. The imports have a 
 value of about £1,200,000 (one-third only fioni 
 France), the exports of £600,000 (only a small 
 fraction to France). See works by C. R. Norman 
 (1884) and J. G. Scott (1885). 
 
 Tonsberg, an old Norwegian seaport, 71 miles 
 SW. of Christiania by rail. Pop. 8(550. 
 
 Toombudra (correctly, Tungabhadra) rises in 
 the south-west of Mysore, and flows 400 miles 
 NE. to the Kistnah, 16 miles below Karnul. 
 Tooting, a Surrey district of Wandsworth. 
 Toowoomba, a town of Queensland, on the 
 Darling Downs, 70 nules W. of Brisbane. Foi). 
 10,100. 
 
 Tope'ka, the capital of Kansas, on the Kansas 
 River, 67 miles W. of Kansas City. It is well 
 built, with wide, sliady streets, and possesses a 
 handsome capitol, a Congregational college, a 
 R. C. seminary, an asylum, &c. It is the see 
 of an Anglican bishop. Founded in 1854, it be- 
 came the state capital in 1861, and has now 
 busy miscellaneous manufactures and indus- 
 tries. Pop. (1880) 15,452 ; (1900) 33,608. 
 Tophan^ (Top-haWneh). See Constantinople, 
 Toplitz. See Teplitz. 
 
 Topsham, a Devon market-town, on the Exe, 4 
 miles SSE. of Exeter. Pop. of parish, 2790. 
 Tor Bay. See Torquay. 
 Torgau (au as ow), a town of Prussia, and a 
 fortress of the second rank, stands on the Elbe's 
 left bank, 70 miles SSW. of Berlin by rail. The 
 castle, now barracks, contains a church con- 
 secrated by Luther in 1 544 ; the town-church has 
 pictures by Cranach and the grave of Luther's 
 wife. Here in 1760 Frederick the Great defeated 
 the Austrians. Pop. 11,988. 
 
 Tomea, a town in the Finnish government of 
 Uleaborg, at the mouth of the Tomea River, 
 which, rising in the Tornea lake, forms during 
 great part of its course of 250 miles the boundary 
 between Sweden and Finland. Pop. 1400 ; across 
 the river is the Swedish town of Haparanda. 
 
 Toro, a town of Spain, on the right bank of the 
 Douro, 20 miles E. of Zamora by rail. Pop. 8764. 
 Torontal, the Hungarian county on the Maros 
 and Theiss, with Becskerek (q.v.) for capital. 
 
 Toron'to, the second city of Canada, lies on the 
 N. shore of Lake Ontario, between the Don and 
 the Huinber, 810 miles WSW. of Montreal. As 
 the latter is the metropolis of the east, so 
 Toronto aims to be the metropolis of the west, 
 including the newly-opened regions of the North- 
 west. In 1749 the French established Fort 
 Rouille on the W. side of the present city, which 
 in 1756 was destroyed to prevent its falling into 
 the hands of the English. In 1793 Governor 
 Simcoe finding Niagara or Newark too close to the 
 American side— indeed, right under the guns of 
 an American fort— for the seat of government, 
 crossed Lake Ontario and established his head- 
 quarters in a tent here. In 1812 Toronto, called 
 York by Governor Simcoe, was twice captured 
 and burned by the American army and navy. 
 In 1834 it was incorporated as the city of 
 Toronto (Huron, ' place of meeting '). In 1837 it 
 was the scene of a brief and ineffectual rebellion 
 under Lyon Mackenzie. Pop. (1861) 44,821 ; 
 (1871) 50,092 ; (1881) 86,415 ; (1901) including some 
 annexed suburbs, 208,040. Tlie city is the capi- 
 
 tal of the province of Ontario. It.s chief 
 churches are the cathedral of St James (Angli- 
 can), the Metropolitan Methodist Church, and 
 St Michael's Cathedral (Catholic). The uni- 
 versity of Toronto, which was burned to the 
 ground in 1890, but rebuilt, is a very imposing 
 structure, worthy of its noble site and splendid 
 grounds. Federated with it are Victoria Univer- 
 sity, Trinity College (Anglican), Wycliff College 
 (Protestant), Knox College (Presbyterian), and St 
 Michael's College (Catholic); the teaching staff 
 numbers about 150, and the students 1720. There 
 are also the Normal School, tlie Collegiate Insti- 
 tute, a School of Practical Science, &c. Toronto 
 has a Public Library (1884), the University 
 Library, the Law Library, the library of the 
 Canadian Institute, and the Legislature Library. 
 The total imports average over $31,500,000, and 
 the exports over $9,500,000. The lake commerce 
 is also very large in lumber, fruit, grain, coal, 
 and cattle. 
 
 Torphichen (Tor-pJiihh'en), a Linlithgowshire 
 parish, 2^ miles N. of Bathgate, was the chief Scot- 
 tish seat of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem. 
 Torquay (Tor-kee'), a watering-place of South 
 Devon, occupying a cove on the north side of 
 Tor Bay, 23 miles S. of Exeter and 220 WSW. of 
 London. Tor Abbey was founded here for Pre- 
 monstratensian monks in 1196 ; in Tor Bay in 
 1688 William of Orange landed at Brixham (q.v.), 
 and during the war with France it was a frequent 
 naval rendezvous. But till the beginning of the 
 19th c. Torquay itself was little more than an 
 assemblage of fishermen's huts. About that time 
 the advantages of its climate— sheltered position, 
 equable temperature (mean 44° in winter, 55° in 
 summer), and freedom from fogs— caused it to be 
 resorted to by consumptive patients, and it soon 
 acquired a European celebrity. The romantic 
 hills and valleys of Torquay and its environs 
 have been overspread with terraces, villas, and 
 gardens, the luxuriance of its foliage being a 
 delightful feature of this 'queen of English 
 watering-places.' The scenery is as varied as it 
 is beautiful, the geology of the district most 
 interesting ; and Kent's Cavern (q.v.) is only a 
 mile distant. The remains of the abbey include 
 some crypts and the 13th-century 'Spanish 
 barn' (it housed some survivors from the 
 Armada) ; and St Michael's Chapel, on a hill-top, 
 is thought to have been connected with the 
 abbey. St John's Church, by Street, is a striking 
 edifice ; and other buildings are the town-hall 
 (1852), museum (1875), and theatre (1880). Tor- 
 quay was incorporated as a municipal borough in 
 1892. It is a great yachting station ; its chief 
 industries are the working up of Devonshire 
 marbles and the manufacture of terra-cotta. 
 Pop. (1851) 7903; (1881) 24,767; (1901) 33,625. 
 See J. T. White's History of Torquay (1878). 
 
 Torre dell' Annunziata (Torr-reh del Annoon'- 
 tseeah'ta), a town of Italy, on the S. base of Vesu- 
 vius, 13 miles SE. of Naples by rail. Pop. 20,060. 
 —Torre del Greco, also at the base of Vesuvius, 
 only 7 miles from Naples by rail, has been re- 
 peatedly destroyed by eruptions. Pop. 21,588. 
 
 Torrens, Lake, sometimes a brackish lake (130 
 by 20 nules), at others merely a vast salt-marsh, 
 in South Australia, 90 miles N. of Spencer's Gulf. 
 It is named after Sir R. R. Torrens (1814-84). 
 
 Torre Pellice (Torreh Fellee'cJiay; Fr. La 
 Tour), a Piedmontese village (pop. 2840), 34 
 miles SW. of Turin by rail. It is the head- 
 quarters of the Waldenses. 
 Tor'res Strait, between N. Australia and New 
 
TORRES-VEDRAS 
 
 702 
 
 TOURCOING 
 
 Guinea, is 80 to 90 miles in width ; its navigation 
 Is rendered dangerous by innumerable shoals, 
 reefs, and islands. It was discovered in 160(3 by 
 Torres, a Spanish navigator. 
 
 Torres-Velras (Tor'rez-Vay'dras), a Portuguese 
 town, 2(3 miles N. of Lisbon by rail. Within its 
 famous 'lines' Wellington defended himself the 
 winter of 1810-11 against Mass6na. Pop. 6926. 
 
 Torridge, a Devon stream, flowing 37 miles to 
 the Taw at Bideford Bay. 
 
 Torrington, Great, a market-town of North 
 Devon, on an eminence sloping to the Torridge, 
 10 miles (by rail 14) SSW. of Barnstaple. A 
 castle (1340) has disappeared ; and the churcli, of 
 which Wolsey and John Howe were incumbents, 
 was rebuilt in 1651, its predecessor having been 
 accidentally blown up with 200 prisoners, after 
 Hopton's defeat here by Fairfax, February 16, 
 1646. Torrington was made a municipal borough 
 by Queen Mary. Gloves are manufactured. Pop. 
 8250. 
 
 Torry, a Kincardineshire fishing-village, at the 
 mouth of the Dee, opposite Aberdeen. 
 
 Torshok, a town of Russia, 310 miles SB. of St 
 Petersburg by rail. Pop. 14,574. 
 
 Tor'tola. See Virgin Islands. 
 
 Torto'na, a town of Northern Italy, on a feeder 
 of the Po, 13 miles E. of Alessandria. Pop. 7147. 
 
 Torto'sa, an old Spanish town, on the Ebro, 
 40 miles SW. of Tarragona by rail. Pop. 24,636. 
 
 Tortu'gas (u as oo ; Span. ' turtles '), ten low 
 keys or islets of Florida, at the Gulf of Mexico's 
 entrance, 120 miles WSW. of Cape Sable. 
 
 Tory Island, a small island, 2^ miles long, 9 
 miles off the north-west coast of Donegal, with a 
 lighthouse, and a signal station (1890) connected 
 by telegraph with Londonderry. 
 
 Tot'nes, a municipal borough of Devon, pleas- 
 antly situated on the slope of a steep hill on 
 the Dart's right bank, 29 miles SSW. of Exeter 
 and 24 ENE. of Plymouth. The Dart is navi- 
 gable for vessels of 200 tons, and Brut the Trojan 
 is fabled to have landed here : the ' Brutus 
 Stone,' on which he first set foot, may be seen 
 in the main street. At least, Totnes is a place 
 of great antiquity, and retains two gateways, 
 remains of the Avails, a quaint guildhall, a good 
 many antique houses, and a church (1432), with 
 a noble red sandstone tower and a fine stone 
 screen. The Norman castle of Judhael de Totnes, 
 tliat crowns the hill-top, is represented by the 
 circular shell-keep. There is a grammar-school 
 (1568) ; and on the ' Plains,' near the river, stands 
 a granite obelisk to the Australian explorer 
 Wills, who was a native, as also was the Hebraist 
 Kennicott. Incorporated by King John, Totnes 
 returned two members till 1867. Pop. (1851) 
 4419; (1901) 4034. See works by Colton (1850) 
 and Worthy (2 vols. Exeter, 1889). 
 
 Tottenham, a northern suburb of London. 
 
 Toul (Toole), a town in the French dep. of 
 Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the Moselle, 20 miles W. 
 of Nancy. It has a former cathedral (965-1496), 
 whose W. front, with towers 245 feet high, is 
 one of the finest in France, an 18th-century 
 hotel-de-ville, and manufactures of lace, hats, 
 &c. The Tullum Leucorum of the Romans, Toul 
 maintained a semi-independence till 1545 ; on 
 23d September 1870 surrendered to the Germans 
 after bombardment ; and since has been strongly 
 fortified with a cordon of forts. Pop. (1872) 
 6684 ; (1901) 9030. 
 
 Toulon (Toolon^'), a seaport and naval arsenal 
 
 of France, in the dep. of Var, on the Mediter- 
 ranean, 42 miles ESE. of Marseilles and 564 SSE. 
 of Paris. It lies at the head of a deep double 
 bay, and rises tovvai'ds the north in the form of an 
 amphitheatre. The port is divided into the old 
 and the new — the former, on the east, appropri- 
 ated to inerchant shipping, and the latter, on the 
 west, surrounded by the dockyard, slips, arsenal, 
 cannon-foundry, &c. The dockyard covers 240 
 acres ; and belonging to the arsenal are the sail- 
 yard, armoury, museum, &c. The fortifications 
 were greatly extended after the conquest of 
 Algeria (1830) ; and again since 1880. A cathe- 
 dral, founded in 1096, the hotel-de-ville, and a 
 large theatre are the chief buildings. The climate 
 is dry and bracing, but the older portions of the 
 town are still unsanitary, and were ravaged by 
 cholera in 1884. Pop. (1872) 69,808; (1901) 
 83,142. The Greek Telonion and Roman 2'eio 
 Martins, Toulon suffered much from the Saracens, 
 and first rose into importance as a naval strong- 
 hold about 1600. The English were defeated off" 
 here by the united fleets of France and Spain 
 in 1744 ; and in 1793 Toulon was occupied for 
 four months by the English (under Hood) and 
 the Spaniards, Avho, however, were forced to 
 evacuate the place after a siege that is memor- 
 able as Napoleon's first great achievement. See 
 Lambert's Histoire de Toulon (1886 et seq.). 
 
 Toulouse (Toolooce'), a southern French city, 
 anciently capital of Languedoc, and now of the 
 dep. Haute-Garonne, BO miles SE. of Bordeaux 
 and 466 S. by W. of Paris. With the Canal du 
 Midi on the E. and N., it lies on the right bank 
 of the Garonne, which is crossed here by a 
 beautiful briilge (1543-1626), nearly 300 yards 
 long, leading to the suburb of St Cyprien. The 
 city has few fine public buildings — the archi- 
 episcopal cathedral, containing the tombs of the 
 Counts of Toulouse ; the Capitole, or town-hall 
 (1769) ; the church of St Sernin (11th to 15th c); 
 and the Musee, with interesting antiquities. Toul- 
 ouse has a university academy, an academy of 
 ' floral games, ' claiming to date from a troubadours' 
 contest in 1323, academies of arts, sciences, 
 &c., schools of law, medicine, and artillery, 
 an observatory, botanic garden, and a public 
 library of 60,000 volumes. The place manufac- 
 tures woollens, silks, leather, cannon, steam- 
 engines, tobacco, brandy, &c., and carries on a 
 great trade with Spain. Its liver and truffle 
 pies are celebrated. Pop. (1872) 114,025 ; (1901) 
 140,698. The Tolosa of the Romans, Toulouse in 
 412 A.D. became the Visigoths' capital. After 
 Charlemagne's time it was undec counts, who 
 made themselves independent about 920, but in 
 1271 it was reunited to the crown of France. 
 Its literary celebrity reaches back to the Roman 
 empire; early in the middle ages it became a 
 seat of Provengal poetry, but it suffered terribly 
 in Simon de Montfort's pitiless crusade against 
 the Albigenses. On 10th April 1814 the French 
 were here defeated by Wellington. Cujacius was 
 born, and Fermat died, at Toulouse. The floods 
 of 1855 and 1875 were specially disastrous. 
 
 Toung-ngu (iigr as in ringing), a town of Burma, 
 170 miles NE. of Rangoon by rail. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Touraine (Toorayn'), an old French province, 
 whose capital was Tours (q.v.), and which coin- 
 cided with the dep. Indre-et-Loire and part of 
 Vienne. See T. A. Cook's Old Touraine (1892). 
 
 Tourcoing (Toorkivan^), a frontier town of 
 France, dep. Nord, 10 miles NE. of Lille. It 
 manufactures cotton, wool, linen, and silk goods, 
 beet-sugar, &c. Pop. 78,250. 
 
TOURNAY 
 
 703 
 
 TRANSVAAL 
 
 Tournay {ou as oo ; Flemish Doornik), a Belgian 
 town, on the Sclieldt, 35 miles WSW. of Brussels. 
 Its splendid Romanesque cathedral, 400 feet long, 
 has live towers and pictures by Rubens ; and 
 there are also the churches of St Quentin and 
 St Brice (with the grave of King Childeric), the 
 belfry (1190), and a brouze statue (1863) of the 
 Princess d'Epinoy, who in 1581 valiantly defended 
 Tournay against Parma. An ancient place, but 
 modern in aspect, Tournay juanufactures hosiery, 
 linen, Brussels carpets, and porcelain. Pop. 
 (1880) 32,566; (1900) 35,004. Tournay (anc. 
 TornacMm or Ticrris Kerviorum) was in the 5th 
 c. the seat of the Merovingian kings. In 1526 it 
 was included in the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Tours (Toore), capital of the dep. Indre-et- 
 Loire, as it formerly was of the province of 
 Touraine, stands in the fertile valley of the Loire 
 just above the Cher's influx, 147 miles SAV. of 
 Paris by rail. It is a regularly built and hand- 
 some town, nearly divided in half by the Rue 
 Nationale, The noble cathedral (13th to 15th c.) 
 has very fine glass and two towers 205 feet high. 
 Other buildings are the church of St Julien, the 
 towers and other remains of the famous abbey 
 church of St Martin (destroyed at the Revolu- 
 tion), the archbishop's palace, palais de justice, 
 museum, public library, &c., besides fine statues 
 of Descartes and Rabelais. Near the town are 
 the remains of the monastery of Marmoutier, and 
 of the castle of Plessis les Tours, the favourite 
 residence of Louis XI. There are some well- 
 preserved ancient houses, including that of the 
 executioner Tristan I'Hermite ; and round Tours 
 are many of the fine old chateaux for which 
 Touraine is famous. Tours has a brisk trade, 
 manufactures woollens and silk, does much print- 
 ing, &c., and is famous for its plums and confec- 
 tions. Pop. (1872) 43,368 ; (1901) 58,409. The 
 Roman Ccesarodunnm, Tours was the capital of 
 the Turones (whence the modern name). Near it 
 Charles Martel won the great victory that saved 
 northern Europe from the Saracens (732). The 
 great silk manufactures of Tours, established in 
 the 15th c, were destroyed by the Revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes (1685). During the Franco- 
 Gen uan war Tours was the seat of government 
 from 11th Sept. to 10th Dec. 1870. SS. Martin 
 and Gregory both were bishops of Tours. 
 
 Towcester, a town, on the Tove, 8J miles SSW. 
 of Northampton. Pop. of parish, 2775. 
 
 Tower Hamlets, originally certain parishes, 
 hamlets, and liberties without the City of London, 
 and within the jurisdiction of the lieutenant of 
 the Tower ; now a parliamentary borough, lying 
 E. of the City and Finsbury. Till 1885 it sent 
 two members to parliament ; since then seven 
 for its seven divisions — Whitechapel, St George's- 
 in-the-East, Limehouse, Mile-End, Stepney, Bow 
 and Bromley, and Poplar. Pop. (1901) 467,259. 
 
 Townsend, Mount. See Australia, p. 62. 
 
 Towton. See Tadoaster. 
 
 Towy, a river of South Wales, flowing 64 miles 
 to Carmarthen Bay. 
 
 Toyama, a town near the west coast of the 
 main island of Japan. Pop. (1905) 57,500. 
 
 Tra'cadie, a Canadian fishing-town on the E. 
 coast of New Brunswick, 35 miles E. of Bathurst, 
 with a leper hospital. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Trafalgar, Cape (usu. Trafal'gar; prop. Tra- 
 falgar'), a low Spanish promontory, 29 miles 
 WNW. of Tarifa (q.v.) on the Strait of Gibraltar. 
 Off it, on 21st October 1805, Nelson defeated 
 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain. See 
 Professor Laughton's Story of Trafalgar (1890). 
 
 Trafford, a Manchester suburb at the end of 
 the Ship Canal. 
 
 Tralee', a town of Kerry, on the Lee, a mile 
 above its mouth in Tralee Bay, and 207 miles 
 SW. of Dublin by rail. There is a ship-canal to 
 the sea, but the trade has decayed since larger 
 ships took to discharging at Fenit, 5 miles oft', 
 Tralee returned a member till 1885. Pop. 9867. 
 
 Tramore, a watering-place, 7 miles S. of Water- 
 ford. Pop. 1733. 
 
 Tranent', a police-burgh of Haddingtonshire, 
 7^ miles east of Edinburgh. It has a fine school 
 (1877), water-works (1883), and in the church 
 Colonel Gardiner's grave. Coal has been mined 
 here since 1219. Population, 2600. See P. 
 M'Neil's Tranent (2d ed. 1884). 
 
 Trani (Trah'nee), a seaport of southern Italy, 
 28 miles NW. of Bari by rail, with a 12th-century 
 archiepiscopal cathedral. Pop. 25,173. 
 
 Tranquebar', a Madras seaport, 22 miles N. of 
 Negapatam. Danish 1624-1807, it passed to 
 Britain in 1845 for £20,000. The first Protestant 
 mission was established here in 1706. Pop. 6189. 
 Transbaikalia. See Siberia and Baikal. 
 Transcaspia, the Russian territories E. of the 
 Caspian. The Transcaspian Railway was opened 
 to Merv in 1886, to Sainarcand in 1888. 
 Transcaucasia. See Caucasus. 
 Transkei Territory (Trans-kl) is a part of the 
 Cape Colony, lying between the Great Kei River 
 (the boundary of British Kaff"raria) and Natal. 
 Covering most of the former Kalfraria, it is 
 now divided into Griqualand East, Tembuland, 
 Pondoland, and Transkei Proper (Fingoland, 
 Idntwya, and Galekaland). 
 Transleithania. See Austria. 
 Transvaal (long an independent state, and 
 from 1884 till 1900 officially called tlie 'South 
 African Republic'), a British crown colony in 
 the highlands of South-east Africa, bounded 
 on the N. by Rhodesia, on the E. by Portu- 
 guese East Africa and Zululand, SE. by Natal, 
 S. by the Orange River Colony, and W. by 
 Bechuanaland. Its length from the Vaal River 
 on the S. to the Limpopo River on the N. is over 
 400 miles, while a line between the extreme 
 southern and eastern points (25° to 32° B. long.) 
 reaches 700 miles. Prior to 1830 the land was 
 inhabited by several Bantu tribes under the 
 Zulu chief Umziligase, and was noted for its 
 abundance of game. In 1835 some Cape Colony 
 'boers ' or farmers of Dutch descent, offended by 
 official regulations, 'trekked' into what is now 
 Natal. On its being annexed by Britain in 1856, 
 they trekked into this wild region, and till 1870 
 received accessions from the south. After much 
 bloodshed the natives were mostly subdued or 
 driven out. The Boers were pioneers and 
 pastoral farmers, who tilled but little of the 
 soil, and had none of the trader's instinct. The 
 little commerce was in British hands. In 1877, 
 owing to an exhausted public treasury and 
 accumulated debts brought about by chronic 
 native wars, the republic was on the eve of dis- 
 solution, and the British government assumed 
 the care of it, subjugated the rebellious natives, 
 and put the finances in order. But promises 
 made to the Boers as to self-governing institu- 
 tions were not carried out ; friction Avas created ; 
 and there followed the Transvaal war, the death 
 of General CoUey (see Majuba), and the con- 
 
TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 704 
 
 TREBIZOND 
 
 ventions of 1880 and 1884 between England and 
 the Transvaal. The first gave the Boers repub- 
 lican rights, but retained British control over 
 boundaries, native aflfairs, and foreign relations ; 
 the 1884 convention modified the restrictions 
 considerably. British 'suzerainty' was still 
 recognised, and a diplomatic agent represents 
 Britain at Pretoria. The rapid development of 
 the gold industry greatly increased the financial 
 prosperity, but introduced elements of diffi- 
 culty into public life. The growing number of 
 'Uitlanders,' who brought prosperity to the 
 republic, resented their exclusion from politi- 
 cal privileges ; and their discontent led first 
 to the disastrous 'Jameson Raid' in 1895, and 
 to the war of 1899-1902, in which the Orange 
 Free State sided with the Transvaal. Tliis 
 ended in both states being taken over by 
 Britain as crown colonies, till the resettlement 
 permits the concession of self-government, as 
 in Cape Colony. £3,000,000 was granted by 
 the goveriniient to the Boer farmers, after the 
 "war, to aid in restocking their farms. In 1903 a 
 tract of country of about 7000 sq. m. was trans- 
 ferred to the colony of Natal. The revenue in 
 1903-4 was £5,333,342, and the expenditure 
 £4,598,204. The chief sources of revenue are 
 customs, the mines, and stamps. The i>ublic 
 debt under the South African Loan and War 
 Contribution Act, 1903 (partly shared by the 
 Orange River Colony), is £35,000,000, to be repaid 
 within fifty years. The administration is carried 
 on under the governor and lieutenant-governor 
 by executive and legislative councils. The colony 
 is specially favourable for agriculture and stock- 
 rearing, and about 50,000 acres are under culti- 
 vation. Gold-mining is extensively carried on, 
 principally in Witwatersrand and Barbertoii. In 
 1903, 86,324 persons (12,702 whites) were employed 
 at thegold-mines, and theoutput was 2,972,897 fine 
 ounces. Coal-mining is on the increase ; the out- 
 put in 1901 was 797,144 tons, and in 1903, 2,253,677 
 tons, value £877,976. The diamond-mines output 
 was in 1903, 17,976 carats, value £238,752. There 
 are also deposits of copjjer, iron, tin, and lead. 
 In 1904 Chinese labour was introduced for mining 
 purposes, with restrictive conditions. In 1905 
 there were about 30,000 Chinese in the Trans- 
 vaal. The area of the colony is about 111,200 
 sq. ni., and the population at the census of 
 1904 was 1,268,389, of whom 299,327 were whites 
 and 969,389 native and other coloured races. In 
 1899 only about 30 per cent, of the whites were 
 Boers, the others being mostly British-born or 
 colonial. The Boers belong to the several divi- 
 sions of the Dutch Reformed Church. The 
 natural seaports of the Transvaal are Delagoa 
 Bay and Durban, 348 and 441 miles from Pretoria 
 respectively. Both are connected with Pretoria 
 and Johannesburg by rail. The total length of 
 the railways open in the colony is 1442 miles. 
 Johannesburg is the largest town (pop. 158,580); 
 Pretoria (white pop. 21,161) is the capital. 
 
 See, besides official publications and Jeppe's 
 Almanac, works by Aylward (new ed. 1881), 
 Lady Bellairs (1885), Nixon (1885), Mather (new 
 ed. 1889), Alford (1891), and Distant (1892). 
 
 Transylva'nia, formerly an Austrian princi- 
 pality, since 1868 an integral part of Hungary, is 
 fenced by the Carpathians from Galicia and 
 Roumania. The interior, a plateau crossed by 
 mountam-chains, is drained by the tributaries of 
 the Theiss and the Pruth. The Latin name 
 ( Beyond the Forest ') refers to the woods divid- 
 ing it from Hungary; the Hungarian name 
 Erdely ('Forest Land') is justified by its exten- 
 
 sive forests (37^^ per cent, of the total area of 
 21,512 sq. m.). Nevertheless 49 per cent, of the 
 soil, mostly very fertile, is under cultivation or 
 grass. The mineral wealth is great— salt, gold, 
 silver, copper, quicksilver, iron, and lead. Mineral 
 springs abound. The pop., 2,084,048 in 1880, and 
 2,500,000 in 1900, consists of Roumanians (mem- 
 bers of the Greek Church), Hungarians and 
 Szeklers, and Saxons or Germans. Kronstadt, 
 Klausenburg, and Hermannstadt are the chief 
 towns. Transylvania (Dacia) was subdued by 
 Trajan in 107. King Stephen of Hungary (997- 
 1038) began to reduce it ; King Geisa II. (1141-61) 
 brought in German (Saxon) colonists from the 
 lower Rhineland, who exercised local self-govern- 
 ment ; and from the land being divided into seven 
 principal divisions it acquired the name Sieben- 
 Mrgen—i.e. the Seven Strong Towns. See works 
 by Boner (1865) and Gerard (1888). 
 
 Trapani (Trap'anee; anc. Drepanum), a sea- 
 port of Sicily, stands on a tongue of land 40 
 miles W. of Palermo, but 141 by rail. Since 1860 
 most of its fortifications have been removed to 
 make room for promenades, gardens, and new 
 streets; and the place is plentifully supplied 
 (since 1891) with good water brought 60 miles. 
 Pop. 32,020. Oft' here the Carthaginians defeated 
 the Romans in a great naval battle (249 B.C.). 
 
 Trappe, La, a narrow valley in the Norman 
 dep. of Orne, near Mortagne. Its Cistercian 
 abbey (12th c.) was reformed in 1662 by the Abbe 
 de Ranee into the rigorous Trappist community. 
 
 Traquair, a Peeblesshire parish, IJ mile S. of 
 Innerleithen. 
 
 Trasimene Lake, a shallow Italian lake lying 
 between the towns of Cortona and Perugia. Girt 
 by hills, it is 10 miles long by 8 Avide, and in 
 some parts 20 feet deep. There is no outlet ; 
 the flat and reedy margins have been planted 
 with eucalyptus trees. In 1894 the government 
 sanctioned a scheme for draining the lake, which 
 is memorable for Hannibal's great victory in 21'r 
 B.C. over the Romans. 
 
 Tras-os-Montes. See Traz-os-Montes. 
 
 Traun See. See Gmunden. 
 
 Travancore, a protected state between the 
 sea and the Western Ghats (q.v.) in the extreme 
 south of India, bounded N. by Cochin, and ending 
 in Cape Coniorin. Area, 6730 sq. in. ; pop. (1881) 
 2,401,158 ; (1901) 2,951,038, mainly Hindus, be- 
 longing to 420 castes, from Brahmans to Negroid 
 hill-men. Nairs are over 25 per cent., Moham- 
 medans only 7. There are many native Christians 
 of the Syrian rite, and some black Jews. West- 
 ward of the hill-foots is a level belt, 10 miles 
 wide, covered with cocoa-nut and areca palms. 
 The lagoons or backwaters along the coast 
 Travancore shares with Cochin. Towns are the 
 capital, Trivandram (pop. 57,887), Aulapolai, and 
 Quilon. See a work by Mateer (1883). 
 
 Travemiinde. See Lubeck. 
 
 Travnik, a town of Bosnia, once its capital, 45 
 miles NW. of Sarajevo by rail. Pop. 5933. 
 
 Traz-os-Montes (' Beyond the Mountains '), a 
 province of NE. Portugal. Area, 4291 sq. m. ; 
 pop. 427,360. 
 
 Trebbla (anc. Trebia), a southern tributary of 
 the Po, which rises in the Apennines. Here 
 Hannibal routed the Romans, 218 b.c. 
 
 Trebizond' (Old Gr. Tmpezous; mediseval Lat. 
 Trebisonda; Turk. Tarabztin), the capital of a 
 province of NE. Asia Minor, and a flourishing 
 Black Sea port. It is surrounded by walls, 
 
TREDEGAR 
 
 705 
 
 TREVES 
 
 outside which are Christian suburbs. The har- 
 bour is only a roadstead, but there is regular 
 communication with Constantinople, the mouth 
 of the Danube, and the Mediterranean. The 
 city's silk manufactures are decaying. On the 
 capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 
 1204 one of the imperial Byzantine family, 
 Alexis, founded the Empire of Trebizond—v/hich 
 stretched from the Phasis to the Halys — and 
 repelled the Turks till 1462. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Trede'gar, a town of Monmouthshire, 12 miles 
 WSW. of Abergavenny and 7 ENE. of Merthyr- 
 Tydvil. Grown from a mere village since 1800, 
 it stands in a district rich in coal and ironstone, 
 and is the seat of huge iron and steel works. 
 Pop. (1851) 8305 ; (1881) 18,771 ; (1901) 18,574. 
 
 Tregar'on, a Cardiganshire town, 10 miles NE. 
 of Lampeter. Pop. 1575. 
 
 Tr6guier (Tray-ghee-yay'), a small port in the 
 dep. of C6tes-du-Nord, Brittany, the birthplace 
 of Renan. Pop. 2615. 
 
 Treig (Traig), Loch, a loch of SW. Inverness- 
 shire, 5J miles long, | mile wide, and 784 feet 
 above sea-level. Mountains, 2000 to 3658 feet 
 high, overhang it, and it is skirted by the West 
 Highland Railway. 
 
 Treinta y Tres (Tray-in-ta ee Trays), an east- 
 ern dep. of Uruguay (area, 3686 sq. m. ; pop. 
 27,773). Its name commemorates the thirty-three 
 patriots who revolted against Brazil in 1825. 
 
 Tremad'oc, a Carnarvonshire village, IJ mile 
 WNW. of Portmadoc. 
 
 Trent, a river of central England, the third in 
 length, rising on Biddulph Moor, NW. Stafford- 
 shire, and flowing 150 miles SE. and NE. through 
 the counties of Stafford, Derby, Leicester, Notting- 
 ham, and Lincoln, till it unites with the Ouse to 
 form the Humber, 15 miles W, of Hull. It receives 
 on the right the Sow, Tame, Soar, and Devon, 
 and on the left the Blythe, Dove, and Derwent ; 
 passes Burton, Nottingham, Newark, and Gains- 
 borough ; and is navigable for barges to Burton 
 (117 miles), for vessels of 200 tons to Gainsborough 
 (25). Canals connect it with many great Midland 
 towns. See Cassell's Rivers of England (1889). 
 
 Trent, a small lake flowing by the Trent River 
 into Lake Ontario. By this valley it has been 
 proposed to connect the Georgian Bay of Lake 
 Huron with Lake Ontario (197 miles). 
 
 Trent (Ital. Trento ; Ger. Trient; Lat. Triden- 
 turn), a town of Austria, in the S. Tyrol, on the 
 Adige's left bank, 145 miles by rail SSW. of Inns- 
 bruck and 59 N. of Verona. The cathedral, begun 
 in 1212, is a beautiful specimen of Lombard 
 Romanesque. The church of Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore (15th c.) was the meeting-place (1545-63) 
 of the famous Council. Other buildings are the 
 former Jesuits' church, ornamented with the 
 richest marbles ; the theatre ; the town-hall ; 
 some noble private mansions ; and the feudal 
 Palazzo Buonconsiglio adjoining the town, now 
 a barrack. Trent manufactures silks, wine, 
 pottery, confections, and sugar, and has a brisk 
 transit trade. Tlie population is now about 25,000. 
 Italian from 1809 to 1813, Trent is still quite 
 Italian in aspect, language, and habits ; and the 
 restoration to Italy of it and the Treniino (district 
 of Trent), with Trieste, is the chief aim of the 
 ' Italia Irredenta ' agitation in Italy. 
 
 Trentham Hall, the Duke of Sutherland's 
 Staffordshire seat, 3 miles S. of Stoke-upon-Trent. 
 
 Trenton, (1) the capital of New Jersey, is on 
 the Delaware River, at the head of tide-water 
 
 8 S 
 
 and of steam-navigation, 57 miles by rail SW. of 
 New York. The city, divided into Trenton and 
 South Trenton by Assanpink Creek, has wide, 
 straight streets, in the residence portions delight- 
 fully shaded. The public buildings include a 
 state-house, federal buildings, a county court- 
 house, city hall, and state lunatic asylum, 
 arsenal, penitentiary, reform school, and normal 
 school. The Delaware, which is crossed by two 
 fine bridges, is utilised for water-power. Trenton 
 is the chief centre in the United States of the 
 production of crockery and pottery, but also 
 manufactures iron, steel, zinc, rubber goods, 
 fire-bricks, &re. On December 26, 1776, Washing- 
 ton here surprised 1500 Hessians, and captured 
 nearly 1000, after crossing the Delaware during 
 the night, amid blocks of floating ice and in the 
 face of a fierce snow-storm. Pop. (1880) 29,910 ; 
 (1900) 73,307.— (2) Capital of Grundy county, 
 Missouri, on the Crooked Fork of Grand River, 
 102 miles NE. of Leavenworth. Pop. 5400. 
 
 Trenton Falls, a village of New York, on West 
 Canada Creek, 17 miles by rail NW. of Utica, 
 celebrated for five beautiful cascades, with a fall 
 of nearly 400 feet in 2 miles. 
 
 Tresco. See Scilly Islands, 
 
 Tresilian, a Cornish village, 3i miles ENE. of 
 Truro. Here Sir Ralph Hopton surrendered to 
 Fairfax (1646). 
 
 Treves (Treevz ; Fr. Treves; Ger. Trier), a 
 city of Rhenish Prussia, on the Moselle's right 
 bank, between low vine-covered hills of ruddy 
 sandstone, 69 miles by rail SW. of Coblenz and 
 111 SSW. of Cologne. The river is crossed here 
 by an eight-arch bridge, 623 feet long, whose 
 Roman piers date from 25 B.C. 'A quiet, old- 
 fashioned town, Treves,' Freeman says, 'has a 
 body of Roman remains far more numerous and 
 varied than any other place north of the Alps 
 can show.' These include the 'Porta Nigra,' 118 
 feet long and 95 high ; the so-called Roman baths 
 (more probably part of an imperial palace) ; and 
 a basilica built of Roman brick by Constantino, 
 but partly demolished to make room for an 
 electoral palace in 1614. This, however, was 
 removed, and the basilica fitted up for a Pro- 
 testant church in 1856. Beyond the walls are the 
 ruins of an amphitheatre that could seat 30,000 
 spectators ; and 6 miles off is the ' Igelsaule ' or 
 ' Heidenthurm,' a monumental column, 71 feet 
 high, sculptured with bas-reliefs of the 2d c. 
 The cathedral is an interesting structure, chiefly 
 of the 11th c. Its ' Holy Coat,' which consists 
 of ' connected fragmentary particles of material,' 
 is said to have been brought to Treves by the 
 Empress Helena, but is first referred to in 1106, 
 and was not a source of revenue till 1512. It 
 was visited by nearly two million pilgrims in 
 1891, the first time of exhibition since 1844. Con- 
 nected with the cathedral by a cloister is the 
 beautiful Liebfrauenkirche (1243) ; and there is a 
 library of over 150,000 volumes and many MSS. 
 A university (1472) was suppressed in 1798. The 
 manufactures comprise woollens, cottons, and 
 linens. Pop. (1871) 21,442 ; (1900) 43,506. 
 
 Treves, Avhich claims to be 1300 years older 
 than Rome, derives its name from the Treviri, 
 who in Cfesar's time dwelt between the Meuse 
 and the Rhine. Their capital, Augvsta Trevirortim, 
 seems to have become a Roman colony under 
 Augustus, and ultimately was a frequent resi- 
 dence of the emperors, especially Constantine. 
 Sacked by Attila in 451, it passed to the Franks 
 in 463, to Lorraine in 843, to Germany in 870, 
 and back to Lorraine in 895, and was finally 
 
TREVISO 
 
 706 
 
 TRIPOLI 
 
 united to Germany by the Emperor Henry I. 
 Its archbishop was an Elector of the Empire. 
 The last elector removed to Coblenz in 1786 ; and 
 Treves was the capital of the French dep. of Sarre 
 from 1794 till 1814, since then belonging to 
 Prussia. See Freeman's Historical Sketches (1876) 
 and Clarke's Pilgr linage to Treves (1892). 
 
 Trevlso (Tray-vee'zo), a town of Italy, 17 miles 
 N. of Venice. It has a Duomo dating from the 
 15th c, with pictures by Titian, the older Gothic 
 church of San Nicolo, a public library (50,000 
 vols.), and a line theatre. Pop. 34,000. 
 
 Tricbinop'oll, a town of Madras Presidency, on 
 the right bank of the Kaveri, 56 miles from the 
 sea. The fort, which includes the old town, is 
 dominated by gneiss rock 273 feet high, on 
 which are two temples. The moat has been 
 laid out as a boulevard, and the Nawab's palace, 
 which was restored in 1873, has been utilised for 
 offices. St John's Church contains the tomb of 
 Bishop Heber. The troops are stationed 1| mile 
 south of the fort. There are a market (1868), 
 military and town hospitals, and an observatory. 
 Cheroots are largely manufactured, also hard- 
 ware and Jewellery. A railway to Madras was 
 opened in 1875. Pop. 106,000. 
 
 Trient (Tree-enf). See Trent. 
 
 Trier (Treer). See Treves. 
 
 Triermain, a fragment of an old castle, near 
 Bewcastle, Cumberland. 
 
 Trieste (Tree-est-ay or Tree-est' ; Slav. Terst), 
 the most important seaport of Austro-Hungary, 
 and the chief trading town on the Adriatic, stands 
 at the head of the Gulf of Trieste, an arm of the 
 Gulf of Venice, 370 miles by rail SSW. of Vienna. 
 In 1849 it was constituted an imperial free city, 
 and attached and belonging to it is a territory 36 
 sq. m. in extent. The old town, built on the 
 slope of a steep hill, crowned by a castle (1508- 
 1680), is distinguished by its narrow streets and 
 black walls. It contains the cathedral, a Byzan- 
 tine edifice (5th-14th c), into whose walls stones 
 bearing Roman inscriptions have been built, and 
 whose tower rests on the foundation of a temple 
 of Jupiter. The new town or Theresienstadt, 
 with broad rectangular streets and handsome 
 houses, occupies the plain that fronts the sea. 
 Between these two divisions runs the Corso, the 
 chief thoroughfare. The splendid Tergesteo (I8i0), 
 in the new town, contains an exchange and read- 
 ing-rooms, and the offices of the Austrian Lloyd's. 
 Trieste, which from 1719 till 1st July 1891 was a 
 free port, has a very fine new harbour (1868-83). 
 The extensive industries include shipbuilding, 
 rope-making, and the manufacture of .soap, 
 rosoglio, white-lead, leather, &c. Pop. (1810) 
 29,908 ; (1880) 144,844 ; (1900) 134,143, nearly all 
 Catholics, and mostly Italian-speaking. Trieste 
 (anc. Tergeste or Tergestitm) was of importance 
 under the Romans. In 1382 it passed finally to 
 Austria. Charles Lever and Sir Richard Burton 
 were consuls here. 
 
 Trik'hala, a town of Greece, in Thessaly, 40 
 miles W. of Larissa, manufactures cottons and 
 woollens. Pop. 25,000. Trikhala, the Trikka of 
 Homer with a temple of .^sculapius, was ceded 
 to Greece in 1881. 
 
 Trim, the county town of Heath, on the Boyne, 
 80 miles NW. of Dublin bv rail, with imposing 
 ruins of a 12th-century castle, the Yellow Steeple 
 (125 feet) on the site of an ancient abbey founded 
 by St Patrick, and a column to Wellington, who 
 had his first schooling here. Close by are the 
 ruins of Newtown Abbey and the Priory of St 
 
 John the Baptist, and 5 miles down the river are 
 the noble ruins of Bective Abbey. Pop. 1511. 
 
 Trinacria. See Sicily. 
 
 Trincomalee (usu. Trin'comalee' ; really Trin- 
 comah'lee), a seaport, naval station, and magnifi- 
 cent harbour of Ceylon, 110 miles NE. of Kandy. 
 Here the Malabar invaders of Ceylon built the 
 'Temple of a Thousand Columns,' to which 
 pilgrims flocked from all parts of India, but which 
 was demolished in 1622 by the Portuguese. The 
 place was next held by Dutch and French alter- 
 nately, until it became British in 1795. It has 
 lately been very strongly fortified. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Tring, a market-town of Hertfordshire, on a 
 spur of the Chilterns, 2 miles W. of Tring station, 
 and 31 NW. of London. Situated near the 
 Icknield Way and the Grand Junction Canal, it 
 has a good church, and manufactures of silk, 
 canvas, and straw-plait. Tring Park, built by 
 Wren for Henry Guy (c. 1670), is the seat of Lord 
 Rothschild, whose son has here established an 
 important Natural History museum (1892). Pop. 
 4500. 
 
 Trinidad' is the most southerly of the British 
 West India Islands, only 7 miles from the coast 
 of Venezuela, the Gulf of Paria (an extremely 
 safe anchorage) lying between. It is 50 miles 
 long, 30 to 35 miles broad, and 1755 sq. m. in 
 area. Three mountain-ridges run east and west, 
 one fringing the north coast and reaching 3000 
 feet. The Pitch Lake, near the village of La 
 Brea, is composed of bituminous matter floating 
 on the surface of fresh water, about 3 miles in cir- 
 cumference, and 80 feet above the sea ; over 100,000 
 tons of asphalt are obtained hence in a year. 
 The soil is very rich and productive. The 
 climate is hot and moist, but not unhealthy. 
 The chief town. Port of Spain, is one of the finest 
 towns in the West Indies (pop. 55,000). There ia 
 anotlier town called San Fernando (pop. 7640). 
 The cliief products are cocoa, sugar, rum, molas- 
 ses, coffee, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, hitters, asphalt, 
 and fruit (exported since 1889). Pop. (1871) 
 109,638; (1881) 155,128; (1901) 255,148, mainly 
 French (speaking a patoi.s), with Spanish and 
 English colonies, and many East Indian coolies. 
 There are 54 miles of railway in the island, which 
 with Tobago forms a crown colony. Trinidad 
 was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and settled 
 in 1532. It suffered at the hands of the English 
 (Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595), the Dutch (1640), 
 and the French (1677 and 1690). In 1797 it first 
 fell to the British, who were confirmed in it in 
 1802. See works by Hort (1865), Wickham (1872), 
 De Verteuil (new ed. 1884), J. H. Collins (2d ed. 
 1888), and L. M. Fraser (1894). 
 
 Trinidad, a small Brazilian island in the 
 Atlantic, in 20° 30' S. lat., and 700 miles E. of the 
 coast of Brazil, reported to contain pirates' buried 
 treasure. See Knight's Cruise of the Alert (1890). 
 
 Trinidad, capital of Las Animas county, 
 Colorado, on the Purgatory River, 210 miles S. 
 by E. of Denver. Coal is found here. Pop. 5523. 
 
 Trinity, a northern suburb of Edinburgh. 
 
 Trinity, a river of Texas, formed by two forks 
 near Dallas, runs 500 miles SSE. to Galveston Baj'. 
 It is navigable for steamboats for over 300 miles, 
 except in the dry season. 
 
 Trip'oli (Tardhiilus), a province of the Otto- 
 man empire, and the easternmost of the Barbary 
 States of North Africa, stretching along the 
 greater and lesser Syrtes (the gulfs of Cabes and 
 Sidra), is bounded W. by Tunis, S. (very vaguely) 
 by the Libyan Desert and Fezzan, E. — if we irh 
 
TRIPOLI 
 
 707 
 
 TROWBRIDGE 
 
 elude the plateau of Barca (q.v.)— by Egypt, and 
 N. by the Mediterranean. The area is roughly 
 estimated at 399,000 sq. m. ; the pop. at over 
 J ,300,000— Libyan Berbers, Moors, and a few 
 Arabs — with 3000 Europeans, chiefly Maltese, 
 and 24,000 Jews. The Atlas range terminates 
 here in two chains (4000 feet). Rain seldom falls 
 during the long hot summers, but the heavy dew 
 supports vegetation in favoured spots. The 
 coast-region (about 1100 miles long) is very fertile 
 about Tripoli and Mesurata, where tropical fruits, 
 grain, wine, cotton, madder, &c. are produced ; 
 but further east, along the Gulf of Sidra, reigns 
 sandy desolation. The interior yields senna, 
 dates, and galls, and the carob and lotus are 
 indigenous. Sheep and cattle, small horses, and 
 strong mules are reared. The commerce consists 
 in exporting the products of the country and of 
 the interior of Africa (gold-dust, ivory, natron, 
 and ostrich feathers). Tlie imports (chiefly Euro- 
 pean manufactures) have been declining. Tripoli 
 is subdivided into four livas or provinces — Tripoli, 
 Benghazi or Barca (q.v.), Mesurata, and Gadames. 
 Fezzan is but nominally attached to Tripoli. 
 From the Phoenicians Tripoli passed to the rulers 
 of Cyrenaica (Barca), from whom it was wrested 
 by the Carthaginians. It afterwards belonged to 
 the Romans, the Arabs, Spain, and the Knights 
 of St John, and after 1551, to the Turks. Of late 
 Italy has sought to extend her interests here. — 
 The capital, Tripoli (anc. CEa), lies on the edge of 
 the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting 
 into the Mediterranean. It is a typical Moorish 
 city, with high walls, beautiful gardens, many 
 mosques, and several large churches. Pop. 20,000. 
 Trip' oil (Tardbulus, or Atrdbulus), a seaport of 
 Syria, 40 miles NNE. of Beyrout. In and around 
 the town are many remains of antiquity and 
 traces of Saracenic architecture. Originally an 
 important maritime city of Phoenicia, the ancient 
 TripoUs was taken by the Crusaders in 1104, and 
 retaken by the Mamelukes in 1289. The old 
 town being in ruins, a new one was built about 
 5 miles inland on a spur of the Lebanon range. 
 The harbour is small and shallow, and the trade 
 has mostly shifted to Beyrout. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Tripolit'za (officially Tripolis, ' three cities '), a 
 town of Greece, under the Turkish rule capital of 
 the Morea, 40 miles SW. of Corinth, in a plain 
 3000 feet above the sea. It derives its name from 
 being near the sites of the three ancient cities 
 Tegea, Mantinea, and Pallantium. Pop. 10,698. 
 
 Tristan Da Cunha (Coon'ya; wrongly spelt 
 Tristan d'Acunha), an island in the South 
 Atlantic, with two smaller ones adjoining, lies 
 midway between South America and the Cape of 
 Good Hope, in 37° 6' S. lat. It is 21 miles in cir- 
 cumference, rugged and precipitous, rising in a 
 central conical mountain to 7640 feet. Dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese in 1506, and named 
 after the commander of the expedition, it was 
 occupied by American sealers in 1790-lSll. 
 Possession was taken of it in 1817 by Britain to 
 keep watch on Napoleon, then a prisoner in St 
 Helena. On liis death in 1821 the soldiers were 
 withdrawn, all but a Corporal Glass and two com- 
 panions, who, with some whalers founded the 
 present settlement. The colony flourished, and in 
 1829 numbered 27 souls ; in 1873, 80 ; and in 1905, 
 75. The settlement is iu a fertile tract to tlie 
 north-west, and is called Edinburgh. Property 
 (including some 600 cattle and as many sheep) is 
 practically held in common ; there is no strong 
 drink and no crime ; and the natives are healtliy 
 ?vud long-lived, the oldest acting as governor. 
 
 Nearly all the able-bodied men were drowned in 
 December 1885 while attempting to board a vessel. 
 During the American war the Shenandoah landed 
 forty Federal prisoners here without providing 
 for them. Inaccessible Island, 20 miles distant, 
 harboured two Germans, who underwent a kind 
 of Robinson Crusoe experience there (1871-73). 
 Nightingale Island lies 10 miles farther. 
 
 Trivandram. See Travancore. 
 
 Troitsk, a town of Russia, 400 miles NE. of 
 Orenburg. Pop. 23,500. 
 
 Tromso, a town of Norway, on the eastern 
 shore of the low, fertile island of Tromso, which 
 is nearly 5 miles long, and 1^ mile broad. Pop. 
 of island, 75,000; of town, 7000. 
 
 Trondhjem {Trond'yem ; Ger. Drontheim), 
 the third town of Norway, on the south side 
 of the long and narrow Trondhjem Fjord, 250 
 miles N. of Christiania by rail. It is built on 
 undulating slopes, and has regular and broad 
 streets, the houses being mostly of wood, though 
 the building of new wooden houses is now for- 
 bidden by law. The (fortified) harbour is 
 capacious, deep, and safe, but difficult of entry. 
 The cruciform cathedral, dating partly from the 
 13th c, is of English-Norman architecture, and 
 unquestionably the most interesting church in 
 Norway. A great fire in 1530 destroyed most of 
 it except the richly adorned octagonal choir (late 
 Gothic). From 1818 the place of coronation of 
 Norwegian kings, it has been carefully restored 
 since 1880. Portions of an old archiepiscopa] 
 palace (Kongsgaard) also survive. The main 
 emporium of a wide district, Trondhjem has a 
 large trade by sea and land, exporting copper 
 ore, herrings, train-oil, timber, &c. It was the 
 ancient capital of Norway, originally called 
 Nidaros, founded in 996, and became in 1152 the 
 seat of an archbishop. Its decline dates from 
 the Reformation. Pop. 38,780. 
 
 Troon, a seaport and watering-place of Ayr- 
 .shire, 6 miles N. by W. of Ayr and 31 SW. of 
 Glasgow. The harbour, undertaken by the Duke 
 of Portland in 1808, and completed at a cost ol 
 more than half a million, is protected by a break- 
 water 1000 yards long. Golf-links Avere laid out 
 in 1878 ; and Troon also has splendid sands and 
 good sea-bathing. Pop. 4850. See Kirkwood's 
 Troon and Dundonald (2d ed. Kilmarnock, 1881). 
 
 Troppau (Trop-poiv), the capital of Austrian 
 Silesia, on the Oppa, a tributary of the Oder, 184 
 miles by rail NE. of Vienna. It has mamifac- 
 tures of cloth, beet-root sugar, &c. Pop. 26,860.' 
 
 Tros'sachs, a wooded defile of Perthshire, 8 
 miles W. by S. of Callander, which Scott's Lady 
 of the Lake has made one of the places of pilgrim- 
 age of the world. It extends 1 mile eastward 
 between Lochs Katrine and Achray, and to the 
 north has Ben A'an (1851 feet), to the south-west 
 Benvenue (2393 feet). 
 
 Trouville (Troo'veel), a popular French water- 
 ing-place, dep. Calvados, at the mouth of the 
 Tongues, 10 miles SW. of Honfleur. It has 
 famous oyster beds and fine sands, and was dis- 
 covered by Alexandre Dumas. Pop. 5627. 
 
 Trow'bridge, a market-town of Wiltshire, on a 
 rocky hill above the small river Biss, 12^ miles 
 by rail SE. of Bath and 12 SSW. of Chippenham. 
 A Norman castle at Court Hill has vanished. 
 The fine Perpendicular church of St James (1475) 
 has a spire 159 feet high ; Crabbe the poet was 
 rector from 1814 to 1832, and is buried in the 
 chancel. A new town-hall was opened by the 
 Duchess of Albany in 1889 ; and there are also ^ 
 
TROY 
 
 708 
 
 TULARE LAKE 
 
 taatlcet-house, public gardens (1884), cottage 
 hospital (1886), waterworks (1873), &c. Trow- 
 bridge has been a seat of tlie woollen manufac- 
 ture since Henry VIII.'s reign ; and superfine 
 broadcloth and kerseymere are largely manufac- 
 tured. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Troy, the city of Priam, whose ten years* siege 
 by the Greeks forms the theme of Homer's Iliad, 
 has through Dr Schliemann's excavations (1870- 
 82) been successfully identified with the mound 
 of Hissarlik, in the Troad (Asia Minor), 2 miles 
 from tlie Hellespont. See Schuchhardt's Schlie- 
 viann's Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891). 
 
 Troy, capital of Rensselaer county. New York, 
 on the east bank of the Hudson River, at the 
 head of steamboat navigation, and 5 miles by rail 
 above Albany, is built upon an alluvial plain 3 
 miles long and on the liills to the east (the 
 southernmost known as Mount Ida), It has a 
 marble court-house, the Troy Savings Bank 
 building, including a fine music-hall, a high 
 school, the Rensselaer polytechnic, and a R. C. 
 seminary. Cotton, hosiery, paper, stoves, car- 
 wheels, bells, engines, machinery, stoneware, 
 &c. are manufactured, and there are foundries, 
 breweries, distilleries, flour-mills, and a niunber 
 of shirt and collar factories employing 8000 girls. 
 Two bridges cross the Hudson to Watervliet 
 (pop. 12,967). Troy was settled by the Dutch in 
 1659, and incorporated in 1816. Pop. (1850) 
 28,785 ; (1880) 56,747 ; (1900) 60,651. 
 
 Troyes (Trvmh), a town of France, the capital 
 formerly of the province of Cliampagne, and now 
 of tiie dep. of Aube, on the Seine's left bank, 104 
 miles ESB. of Paris by rail. In spite of modern- 
 isations it is still an old-fashioned place, with 
 many quaint timbered houses. The principal 
 buildings are the cathedral, a splendid specimen 
 of Flamboyant Gothic, founded in 872, and rebuilt 
 between the 13th and 16th centuries ; the 
 churches of St Urban, the Madeleine, St Pan- 
 taleon, and St Remi ; the Hotel de Ville (1624- 
 70) ; and a public library with 110,000 vols, and 
 5000 MSS. Troyes carries on cotton, linen, and 
 woollen manufactures. Pop. (1872) 38,113; 
 (1901) 51,200. The capital of the Celtic Tricassii, 
 Troyes was called by the Romans Augtistohona, 
 later Civitas Tricassium, and then Trecce, whence 
 the modern name. Under the Counts of Cham- 
 pagne it rose in the 12th c. to great importance, 
 and so late as 1600 had over 60,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Trujillo (Troo-heel'yo), a town of Spain, the 
 birthplace of Pizarro, in Caceres province, 60 
 miles NE. of Badajoz. It manufactures linen, 
 leather, and lottery. Pop. 12,500.— (2) An epis- 
 copal city of Peru, capital of the dep. of Libertad, 
 on a fertile plain near the sea-coast. Pizarro 
 founded it in 1535. Pop. 8000.— (3) A port of 
 Honduras, on the north coast. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Truro, a city of Cornwall, of which it is con- 
 sidered the metropolis, though Bodmin is the 
 county town, stands 12 miles NNE. of Falmouth 
 and 54 W. of Plymouth, at the junction of the 
 Allen and the Kenwyn, here met by a tidal inlet, 
 the Truro River. The ancient Cornish bishopric 
 of Truro was revived in 1876 ; the cathedral, a 
 granite Early English structure (1880-87), incor- 
 porates a portion of the old parisli church of St 
 Mary's (1518). A very ancient municipal borough, 
 Truro rettu-ned two members from 1239 till 1885. 
 Pop. 11,750. 
 
 Truro, a Nova Scotian manufacturing town of 
 6000 inhabitants, at the head of Cobequid Bay, 
 and 62 miles NNE. of Halifax by rail. 
 
 Tsad, Lake. See Chap, 
 
 Tsaldam. See Tibet. 
 
 Tsaritzin, or Tsaryzin, a great port on the 
 lower Volga, in the province of SaratofiF. Pop. 
 58,000. 
 
 Tsarskoye Selo (Tsars-Jco-yny Say-lo; 'Czar's 
 Town '), 18 miles S. of St Petersburg, is a favourite 
 resort of the imperial family. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Tsl-nan, a city of China, on the left bank of 
 the Ta-tsin River, 100 miles from the Gulf of Pe- 
 chi-li, witli large manufactures of silk and glass. 
 Pop. 250,000. 
 
 Tsltsihar, a town of Manchuria, on the Vladi- 
 vostok branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway, 250 
 miles SW. of Aigun. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Tsu, a maritime town of Japan, 50 miles ESB. 
 of Tokyo, with many fine temples. Pop. 36,000. 
 
 Tsuruoka, a town of the main island of Japan, 
 70 miles NE. of Niigata. Pop. 20,500, 
 
 Tsu-shima, a Japanese island (two islands at 
 liigh water), 40 miles in length, half-way between 
 the southern end of Japan and Corea, and divid- 
 ing the Corean Strait into two channels. In the 
 main channel was fought, on 27th and 28th May 
 1905, the great naval battle in which the Russian 
 Baltic fleet under Rozhdestvensky was anni- 
 hilated by Togo's fleet. 
 
 Tuam (roo'am), a town of County Galway, 130 
 miles NW. of Dublin by rail, on a branch of the 
 Clare. It is the seat of a R. C. archbishop and 
 of an Anglican bishop. Pop. 2S90. 
 
 Tablngen (Tii'bing-en, nearly Tee'bing-e7i), an 
 important town of Wiirtemberg, 20 miles SW. of 
 Stuttgart (35 by rail), on a ridge between the 
 Neckar and the Amnier. It is an old place, 
 steep and irregular ; but the suburbs, especially 
 round the new university and the railway station, 
 have wide and spacious streets. Book-printing, 
 bookselling, milling, dyeing, &c. are carried on. 
 The university, founded in 1477, had Reuchlin 
 and Melanchthon amongst its teachers. The 
 Tliirty Years' War fatally checked its prosperity ; 
 and it was not till early in tlie 19th o. that it 
 began to renew its old standing. Under the theo- 
 logian Baur (1826-60) it became celebrated as 
 headquarters of the ' Tiibingen School,' and both 
 medical and philosophical faculties are distin- 
 guished. It has 94 professors and teachers, a 
 library of 200,000 volumes (located in Duke 
 Ulrich's Schloss, on the liill above the town, dating 
 from 1535), and nearly 1200 students. Uhlaud 
 was horn and long lived here. Pop. 15,340. 
 
 Tucson (Tew'son), capital of Pima county, 
 Arizona, on the Santa Cruz River, 978 miles by 
 rail SE. of San Francisco, with some trade in 
 wool, hides, stock, and gold-dust. Founded by 
 the Jesuits in 1560, it was the capital of Arizona 
 from 1867 to 1877. Pop. 7530. 
 
 Tucuman', a north-central province of the 
 Argentine Republic, with an area of 8926 sq. m. 
 and a pop. of 257,427. The capital, Tncnnian, 
 on the Rio Sil, 723 miles by rail NW. of Buenos 
 Ayres, was founded in 1564. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Tudela (Too-day'la), a cathedral city in the 
 Spanish province of Navarre, on the left bank of 
 the Ebro, here crossed by a seventeen-arch 
 bridge, 46 miles NW. of Saragossa. Pop. 9220. 
 
 Tuge'la, a river of Natal (q.v.) and Zululand. 
 
 Tula (Too'la), a town of Russia, 110 miles S. of 
 Moscow by rail. It manufactures iron and steel 
 goods, especially firearms. Pop. 111,000.— Area of 
 Tula government, 11,954 sq. m. ; pop. 1,432,750. 
 
 Tulare Lake (rH-?«ir; Span. pron. Too-lah-ray}i 
 
TULfiJA 
 
 709 
 
 HJRm 
 
 in Central California, is 33 x 22 miles, and has no 
 visible outlet. 
 
 Tuldja (Tool'ja ; Roum. Tulcea), a Roumanian 
 I)ort in the Dobrudja, just where tlie Danube 
 divides into its three main branches. Pop. 21,82(5. 
 
 Tuli, a tributary of the Limpopo (q.v.), flowing 
 from Matabeleland. At Fort Tuli the trade-route 
 and telegraph from Bechuanaland cross the river. 
 
 Tulla, a Clare market- town, 10 miles E. of 
 Ennis. Pop, 590. 
 
 Tullamore', the chief town of King's County, 
 Ireland, is situated on the Grand Canal, 59 miles 
 WSW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 4522. 
 
 Tulle (Tiill, nearly Teel), capital of the French 
 dep. of Correze, at the confluence of the Solane and 
 the Correze, 61 miles ENE. of Perigueux. Its 
 12th-century cathedral was partly demolished in 
 1793 ; the chief industry now is the manufacture 
 of small-arms. Pop. 15,250. 
 
 Tullow, a market-town, 9 miles SE. of Carlow. 
 Pop. 1723. 
 
 Tummel. See Rannoch. 
 
 Tunbridge, or Tonbridge, a market-town of 
 Kent, 29^ miles SE. of London, stands on the 
 Medway, which here divides into six streams, 
 one of them called the Tun. A castle, originally 
 Nonnan, but largely rebuilt in 1280-1300, and 
 held successively by Fitz-Gilberts, De Clares, 
 Audleys, and Staflfords, retains a fine Decorated 
 gatehouse. The parish church, also Decorated, 
 was almost rebuilt in 1878 ; and the grammar- 
 school, founded in 1553 by Lord Mayor Sir 
 Andrew Judd, occupies handsome new buildings 
 of 1865. Remodelled in 1880, it has £5500 a 
 year, and over 300 boys ; Sir Sidney Smith was 
 an alumnus. The manufacture of toys, boxes, 
 &c., in 'Tunbridgo ware ' (wood mosaic in veneer) 
 is a specialty. Pop. (1861) 5919; (1901) 12,736. 
 See works by Fleming (1865) and, on the school, 
 by Rivington (1869) and Hughes-Hughes (1893). 
 
 Tunbridge Wells, a charming inland water- 
 ing-place, on the border of Kent and Sussex, 5 
 miles S. of Tunbridge, and 34^ SSE. of London. 
 It occupies the head and slopes of one of the 
 valleys of the Weald, and has in general a south- 
 west aspect, commanding very fine views. The 
 chalybeate waters, at the end of the ' Pantiles ' 
 I)arade, were discovered by Lord North in 1606, 
 and have been patronised by Henrietta Maria, 
 Catharine of Braganza, Evelyn, Queen Anne, 
 'Beau' Nash, Richard Cumberland, Dr Johnson, 
 Richardson, Garrick, Chatham, and Queen 
 Victoria. There are a breezy common of 170 
 acres, a church (16S5) in two counties and three 
 parishes, a public hall (1870), a new pump-room 
 (1877), a friendly societies' hall (1878), and a con- 
 siderable trade in 'Tunbridge ware.' The se-ason 
 lasts from July to September. Tunbridge Wells 
 was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1889. 
 Pop. (1851) 10,587 ; (1901) 33,388. See Thackeray's 
 Virginians, and Martin and Row's guide (1906). 
 
 Timdras. See Siberia. 
 
 Tunguska, a tributary of the Yenisei (q.v,). 
 
 Ttt'nis, a French protectorate of North Africa, 
 extending 550 miles along the Mediterranean, 
 between Algeria and Tripoli. Area, 45,000 sq. 
 m. ; pop,, mostly Bedouin Arabs and Kabvles, 
 1,900,000, including (1906) 40,000 Frenclimen, 
 14,600 of them troops. Much of tlie surface is 
 occupied by hills and, towards the south, desert 
 steppes ; in the east the land is low and sandy. 
 None of the rivers are navigable, most of them 
 disappearing iu the sand before reaching the 
 
 coast. There is one considerable lake in the 
 north. The soil is largely fertile, producing fine 
 grain-crops ; and oranges, dates, figs, olives, 
 grapes, pomegranates, and almonds are raised. 
 The pasturage is good and abundant, except in 
 the height of the dry season, supporting numerous 
 flocks of cattle and sheep. Tunis is rich in all 
 minerals except gold, and very beautiful marble 
 is worked. The annual rainfall varies from 10 to 
 50 inclies. The heaviest rains occur in December 
 and January. Snow falls on the higher altitudes, 
 and the greater mountain-peaks are always snow- 
 clad. Although often trjing for Europeans, the 
 climate is not exceptionally unhealthy. The 
 trade of Tunis, mainly with France, Algeria, and 
 Italy, is gradually increasing ; the value of the 
 imports (about £2,580,000 per annum) is consider- 
 ably above that of the exports. The chief imports 
 are cottons and textile goods, flour, cereals, 
 colonial wares, and wines ; the exports, olive-oil, 
 wheat, tan, esparto, barley, fruits, wool, sponges, 
 and tunny-fish. There are 460 miles of railways, 
 with over 2000 miles of telegraphs. 
 
 Long identified with the fortunes of Carthage, 
 Tunis was in 1270 invaded by Louis IX. of 
 France, and in 1575 brought thoroughly under the 
 Ottoman power. The Turkish pasha, however, 
 was after 1631 superseded by a native Bey, practi- 
 cally independent, whose successors prospered by 
 piracy, directed against the Christian powers. 
 In the 18th c. Tunis became tributary to Algeria ; 
 but in the 19th was again virtually independent. 
 In 1881 a French invasion resulted in a treaty 
 placing Tunis under French protection. This 
 occupation has benefited Tunis and greatly in- 
 creased the power of France in the Mediterranean, 
 securing many safe harbours, and lessening the 
 strategic importance of Gibraltar and Malta, See 
 works by Broadlev (1SS2), Graham and Aslibee 
 (1887), and Sir H. Vivian (1899), and French works 
 by Lanessan (18S7) and Poire (1S92). 
 
 Tunis, the capital, is situated on a small 
 lagoon (El Bahira), near the south-west extremity 
 of the Lake of Tunis, and about 3 miles from the 
 ruins of Carthage (q.v.). Several of the mosques 
 are magnificently decorated, as is the bey's 
 palace. The citadel contains a fine collection of 
 antiquities. A channel 81 feet broad and llj 
 deep has been dredged in the lagoon from Goletta 
 to Tunis, which in 1893 became a seaport. Good 
 modern barracks are occupied by the French 
 troops. Pop. 170.000, See Lallemand, Tunis et 
 ses Environs (1889), 
 
 Tunstall, a market-town of Staffordshire, 4j 
 miles NNE. (and since 1885 within the parlia- 
 mentai-y borough) of Newcastle-under-Lyme, It 
 has a town-hall (1884), manufactures of earthen- 
 ware and iron, and neighbouring collieries. Pop. 
 (1811) 1677 ; (1851) 9666 ; (1901) 19,492. 
 
 Turfan {Toor'fan), a city in the east of Eastern 
 Turkestan (part of which is sometimes named 
 after it), on the S, slope of the Tian-shan Moun- 
 tains and on a tributary of the Tarim. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Turin' (anc. Augusta Taurinonim; Ital. 
 Torino), a city of Northern Italy, formerly capital 
 of Piedmont, and for a time of the kingdom of 
 Italy, is situated in a beautiful plain bounded by 
 mountains, near the confluence of the Po and the 
 Dora Riparia, 54 miles from the Cenis tunnel by 
 rail, and 80 NW. of Genoa. It stands at the 
 meeting-point of several great roads through 
 the Alps, and strategically has been of great 
 importance. Really a very ancient city, it has a 
 very modern appearance. Among its numerous 
 churches are the cathedral, originally built in 
 
TURKESTAN 
 
 710 
 
 TtJRKEY 
 
 the 7th c, and reconstructed in 1498 ; San 
 Filippo, the finest in Turin ; La Consolata, con- 
 taining a wonder-working Madonna ; and a Wal- 
 densian temple. On a hill near the town is La 
 Superga, a splendid basilica, raised by Victor 
 Amadeus to fulfil a vow, and now the mausoleum 
 of the House of Savoy ; its terrace, reached by a 
 cable-railway, commands a glorious view. Other 
 edifices are the royal palace ; the Carignano 
 Palace ; the town-hall ; the university, with 210 
 teachers and over 2800 students, a library of 
 250,000 volumes and 4000 MSS. ; and the 
 Accademia delle Scienze (once the Jesuit college). 
 Among famous natives were Gioberti, Cesare 
 Balbo, Cavour, Marochetti, D'Azeglio, and the 
 French mathematician Lagrange. The manufac- 
 tures include cotton, woollen, and silk fabrics, 
 carpets, velvet hats, paper, iron, pottery, &c. 
 Pop. (1700) 40,000 ; (1800) 42,000 ; (1881) 233,134 ; 
 (1901) 335,656.- Tijrin, originally inhabited by 
 the Taurini, was sacked by Hannibal, and became 
 a Roman colony under Augustus. The capital 
 afterwards of a Lombard duchy, it fell in 1060 to 
 the House of Savoy. It was held by the French 
 (1536-62), and again taken in 1640 ; and in 1796 
 it was dismantled, in 1800 united to the French 
 Republic. In 1815 restored to the House of 
 Savoy, it was the capital of Sardinia till 1860, and 
 from then to 1865, of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Turkestan' (properly Toor-ke-stdhn' ; 'the 
 country of the Turks '), a great region of central 
 Asia, stretching E. from the Caspian to beyond 
 Lob-nor (110° E. long.), and S. fro7n Siberia and 
 Dzungaria to Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. A 
 lofty tableland, the Pamir (q.v.), separates the 
 rivers runiung E. to the desert of Gobi from 
 those which run to the Sea of Aral, and divides 
 Turkestan into a western and an eastern portion. 
 
 Western Turkestan, or simply Turkestan, 
 consists of the great hollow plain of the Caspian 
 and Aral Seas, which occupies its west and 
 centre, and of the hilly and well- watered districts 
 formed by the ramifications of the Tian-shan 
 Mountains and Hindu Kush. The plain is com- 
 posed of deserts of shifting sand, interspersed 
 Avith oases, strips of fertile land along the banks 
 of rivers, and occasional tracts clad with coarse 
 thin grass ; the eastern districts abound in valleys 
 of remarkable fertility. The climate varies on 
 the plains from extreme cold to burning heat ; 
 in the ea.stern highlands the cold is intense in 
 ■winter, and the summer is comparatively cool. 
 The rivers are the Syr-Daria or Jaxartes (q.v.), 
 Amu-Daria or Oxus (q.v.), Zarafshan, and Murg- 
 hab, both of which terminate in marshes. Chief 
 products are fruits, grain, cotton, flax, hemp, 
 tobacco, silk, coal, salt, and sal-ammoniac. Agri- 
 culture and the breeding of the domestic animals 
 are the main occupations ; but cotton, silk, linen, 
 and woollen goods, shagreen, paper made of raw 
 silk, carpets, &c., are manufactured. Western 
 Turkestan is divided into Russian Turkestan, in- 
 cluding Khokand, now Ferghana, in the north 
 and north-east, and the Tekke Turkoman 
 country, with Merv, in the south-west ; Khiva, 
 under Russian influence, in the west ; Bokhara, 
 in the east and centre ; and Afghan Turkestan, 
 including Badakshan and Kunduz, Balkh, 
 Maimaneh, Andkhui, and Sir-i-pul. The popula- 
 tion comprises Uzbegs, the dominant race, 
 Turkomans (who, like the Uzbegs, belong to the 
 same Ural-Altaic stock from which the Osmanli 
 Turks of Turkey are descended), Karakalpaks, 
 Kirghiz, Sarts, Tajiks, Persians, Kiptchaks, and 
 a few Arabs, Hindus, and Jews. Of these the 
 Sarts and Tajiks, the original inhabitants of the 
 
 cities, are of ancient Persian stock, and along 
 ■with the Uzbegs, Hindus, and Jews form the 
 settled population ; the Persians are mostly 
 descendants of slaves ; the other races are largely 
 nomad. The prevalent religion is Moham- 
 medanism, and most of the tribes are Sunnites ; 
 a few Shiites, Sufis, and Buddhists are also 
 found. Pop. of Russian Turkestan, 4,888,200 ; of 
 Khiva, 800,000 ; of Bokhara, 1,250,000. Tlie area 
 of Russian Turkestan is 410,000 aq. m. ; of 
 Khiva, 25,000; and of Bokhara, 90,000. Turke- 
 stan, with Persia, jjassed to the Macedonians, 
 who made Bactria a Greek kingdom, while the 
 rest was Parthian. Under the Sassanides the 
 Persian boundary was again advanced to the 
 Jaxartes ; but invading Turkish tribes from 
 the north-east established themselves between 
 the Oxus and Jaxartes. In the 8th c. the 
 Arabs possessed themselves of Turkestan, which 
 was overrun by Mongol hordes under Genghis 
 Khan. Tamerlane made it the centre of an im- 
 mense empire, which stretched from the Helles- 
 pont to the frontiers of China, and from Moscow 
 to the Ganges. This period was the golden age 
 of Turkestan. But after the death of his young- 
 est son, the empire was split up. The Persians, 
 provoked by the slave-raiding expeditions of the 
 Turkomans, made war on them in 1860 and 1865 ; 
 the Afghans took possession of several southern 
 districts in 1849-59. In 1864 the Russians an- 
 nexed Tashkend ; in 1864, Sainarcand ; in 1873, 
 great part of Khiva ; in 1876, Khokand ; in 1881, 
 Merv. Russian Turkestan contains the provinces 
 of Zarafshan, Semiretchinsk, Syr-Daria, Russian 
 Kukija, Amu-Daria, Ferghana. A railway 1000 
 miles long, from Krasnovodsk on the Caspian 
 Sea by Samarcand to Tashkand, has wrouglit a 
 great change in the economical condition of Tur- 
 kestan. See Schuyler's Turkestan (1877), Vam- 
 bery's works, Kraff"t's superb book (Paris, 1902), 
 and other books named at Bokhara, Merv, &c. 
 
 Eastern Turkestan, known formerly as 
 Chinese Tartary, is bounded N. by the Tian-shan 
 Mountains, W. by the Pamir tableland, and S. by 
 the highlands of Tibet or Cashmere. Eastward it 
 sinks to the desert plain of the Gobi, round whose 
 western bay it forms a vast crescent-shaped oasis 
 4000 to 5000 feet in elevation, drained by the 
 tributaries of the Tarim, a river which flows 1500 
 miles E. into the desert to the Lob-nor lake. 
 Canals ramify the country, but large areas are 
 very unproductive ; and though there are numer- 
 ous villages and towns, some of them large, the 
 total pop.— some 600,000— is but thin, The 
 country produces gold and abundance of silk ; 
 and the inhabitants are skilful in making gold 
 and silver stuffs, carpets, and linen, cotton, and 
 silk goods. The political capital is Kashgar ; the 
 commercial capital, Yarkand. Kulja (q.v.), 
 taken by the Russians in 1871, was reoccupied 
 by China in 1881. The language is Turkish, 
 but there are also Tajiks of Persian descent. 
 Tlie country was part of the empire of Genghis 
 Khan, broke up into many petty states (Yarkand, 
 Kashgar, Aksu, Khoten, &c.), and became a prov- 
 ince of China in 1758. A rising of the Moham- 
 medan inhabitants took place in 1864, and under 
 Yakoob Beg the country was independent of 
 China till 1877, when the Chinese resumed posses- 
 sion. See Boulger's Life of Yakoob Beg (1878), 
 Lansdell's Chinese Central Asia (1894), and the 
 reports by Forsyth, Ney Elias, Carey, and 
 Younghusband. 
 
 Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, comprises 
 the wide but heterogeneous territories really or 
 nominally subject to the Osmanli sultan, in 
 
^ttftKEY 
 
 7U 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa. These territories, 
 which once extended from the Danube to the 
 Cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates 
 to the borders of Morocco, have been greatly 
 reduced in the 19th century. Algiers has be- 
 longed to France since 1830 ; Tunis has been 
 French since 1881 ; Egypt, though still tributary 
 to 'the Porte' or Turkish government, is since 
 1882 unlikely to be again a Turkish prov- 
 ince ; whilst by the decisions of the Berlin 
 Congress of 1878 the tributary states of Kou- 
 mania and Servia became independent king- 
 doms, and obtained increase of territory ; Mon- 
 tenegro, also independent, secured Dulcigno and 
 Antivari ; Austria-Hungary took Bosnia and Her- 
 zegovina under its protection ; Greece absorbed 
 Thessaly, and Bulgaria was created a tributary 
 principality, to which Eastern Roumelia was 
 addect in 1885. The result of these limitations 
 is that Turkey in Europe consists merely of a 
 strip of territory south of the Balkans, stretch- 
 ing across from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, 
 and including ancient Thrace, Macedon, Epirus, 
 and Illyria ; Turkey in Africa is practically re- 
 duced to the regency of Tripoli ; while Turkey in 
 Asia still spreads from the Euxine to the Red 
 Sea and Persian Gulf, intact, save for the cession 
 of Kars and Batouni to Russia after the war in 
 1877, and the transference of the administration 
 of Cyprus to England. The area and population 
 of the Turkish empire is as follows (according to 
 the most recent estimates) : 
 Immediate Possessions— Sq. Miles. Pop. 
 
 In Europe 65,350 6,130,200 
 
 InAsia 693,610 16,898,700 
 
 In Africa (Tripoli) 398,900 1,000,000 
 
 1,157,860 24,028,900 
 Teibutary States— 
 
 Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia 37,200 3,744,300 
 
 Bosnia & Herzegovina (under Austria) 19,800 1,591,100 
 
 Crete and Cyprus 7,040 547,400 
 
 Bamos 180 .'54,840 
 
 Egypt 400,000 9,821,100 
 
 464,220 15,758,740 
 
 Total 1,622,080 29,787,640 
 
 By vilayets or provinces, the population of 
 European Turkey is estimated as follows : Con- 
 stantinople, 1,203,000 ; Salonica, 1,130,800; Kos- 
 soro, 1,038,100 ; Adrianople, 1,028,200 ; Monastir, 
 848,900; Yanina, 527,100; Scutari (Albania), 
 294,100; Chatalja (Mutessarifat), 60,000. The 
 most populous vilayets of Asiatic Turkey are 
 Bronssa, Smyrna, Konia, and Sivas, each with over 
 a million inhabitants. Of cities in European 
 Turkey, Constantinople has 1,125,000 inhabitants, 
 Salonica 105,000, and Adrianople 81,000 ; in Asia, 
 Damascus has 225,000, Smyrna 201,000, Bagdad 
 145,000, Aleppo 127,150, Beirut 118,800. In 
 European provinces under immediate Turkish 
 rule, Turks, Albanians, and Greeks, nearly equal 
 in numbers, are 70 per cent, of the population ; 
 besides Serbs, Bulgars, Roumans, Armenians, 
 Magyars, Gypsies, Jews, and Circassians. In 
 Asiatic Turkey the Turks come first, with four 
 million Arabs, besides Greeks, Syrians, Kurds, 
 Circassians, Armenians, Jews. 
 
 Turkey in Europe, generally undulating, is 
 traversed by a mountain-system which has its 
 origin in the Alps, enters Turkey at the north- 
 west corner, and runs nearly parallel to the 
 coast, under the names of the Dinaric Alps and 
 Mount Pindus, as far as the Greek frontier. 
 This range sends numerous offshoots east and 
 west ; the great eastern offshoot being the Balkan 
 (q. V.) range. The Balkans are no longer included 
 
 in Turkey proper, and the highest peaks of moderii 
 European Turkey are now in the Despoto Dagh 
 or Rliodope range (7474 feet) and the Skar Dagh 
 (10,000 feet) on the Albanian frontier. The rivers 
 of Turkey are chiefly, to the nortli of the Balkans, 
 the Morava and numerous other tributaries of the 
 Danube ; and to the south, the Maritza, Karasu, 
 Struma, and Vardar, which flow into the Mgean, 
 and drain Roumelia (Macedon and Thrace) : the 
 Narenta, Drin, and Voyutza fall into the Adriatic. 
 On the high lands the cold is excessive in winter, 
 and the heat of summer is almost insupportable 
 in the western valleys. Violent climatic change 
 is, on the whole, the rule in European Turkey ; 
 but those districts which are sheltered from the 
 cold winds, as the Albanian valleys and parts of 
 Roumelia, enjoy a comparatively equable tem- 
 perature. The soil is for the most part Aery 
 fertile; but owing to oppressive taxation little 
 progress has been made in agriculture. The 
 cultivated products include maize, rice, rye, 
 barley, millet, besides tobacco, madder, and 
 cotton. The mineral products are iron in abund- 
 ance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, 
 salt, alum, and a little gold ; coal has been 
 found, but is not worked. 
 
 Turkey in Asia is still more mountainous. Tha 
 two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti- 
 Taurus cover almost the whole of the peninsula 
 of Asia Minor (q.v.) or Anatolia with their rami- 
 fications and offshoots. From the Taurus chain 
 the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel 
 to the coast of Syria, diminishing in elevation in 
 Palestine. The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and 
 Kizil-Ermak are the chief rivers. Turkey in 
 Asia ts ill supplied with water ; and though the 
 mountain-slopes afford excellent pasture, the 
 plains, and many of the valleys, especially those 
 of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan (in ancient 
 times kept very fertile by artificial irrigation), are 
 reduced by the parching droughts of summer to 
 the condition of sandy deserts. The fertile por- 
 tions produce abundance of wheat, barley, rice, 
 maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton; the 
 cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak flourish on the 
 mountain-slopes, the sycamore and mulberry on 
 the lower lulls, and the olive, fig, citron, orange, 
 pomegranate, and vine on the low lands. The 
 mineral products are iron, copper, lead, alum, 
 silver, rock-salt, coal (in Syria), and limestone. 
 Turkey in Africa is described at Tripoli ; see 
 also Egypt. 
 
 The exports of Turkey include cereals, tobacco, 
 raisins, dried figs, olive-oil, silk, wool, mohair, 
 red cloth, dressed goat-skins, excellent morocco, 
 saddlery, swords of superior quality, shawls, 
 carpets, dyestuffs, embroidery, essential oils, 
 attar of roses, opium, plum-brandy, meerschaum 
 clay, honey, sponges, drugs, madder, gall-nuts, 
 various gums and resins, and excellent wines. 
 The imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, 
 glass, pottery, arms, paper, cutlery, steel, amber, 
 and especially cotton goods. The total annual 
 value of exports is about £14,000,000, and of im- 
 ports £23,000,000 ; Great Britain imports to a 
 value of £5,800,000, and exports to Turkey about 
 £(5,000,000. The principal ports are Constanti- 
 nople, Trebizontl, and Smyrna. There are over 
 12G9 miles of railway open in European Turkey, 
 and in Asiatic Turkey 1820 (Anatolian, 640; 
 Smyrna-Cassaba, 321; Bagdad line, 125, &c.). 
 
 The government of Turkey has always been a 
 pure despotism ; for the constitution promulgated 
 in 1876 and revoked in 1878 was merely nominal. 
 The sultan is represented in all matters spiritual 
 by the Grand Mufti or Sheykh-el-Islain, who 
 
*urkeV 
 
 n^ 
 
 tfWfiEB 
 
 6n,joys considerable influence as head of the 
 Uleina, and in temporal affairs by the Grand 
 Vezir (or Sadr-A'zain), under whom are the mem- 
 bers of the cabinet or divan. Governmental 
 crises are frequent; and palace intrigues have 
 always been a powerful factor in Turkish politics. 
 The governors of the vilayets or provinces are 
 styled vdlis; each vilayet is divided into sanjaks, 
 or livas, ruled by inferior officers. The estab- 
 lished religion is Islam or Mohammedanism, but 
 most other creeds are tolerated. Since 1847 
 schools have been established, and colleges for 
 the teaching of medicine, agriculture, naval and 
 military science, &c. 
 
 Long before tlie Russo-Turkish war of 1877 the 
 Turkish exchequer was evidently on the brink of 
 insolvency. The enormous expenditure of the 
 war, and the loss of valuable provinces, added 
 to the utter disorganisation of Turkish finances. 
 The revenue is about £17,000,000, the expenditure 
 £18,000,000, the deficit being an unfailing feature. 
 Tlie external debt in 1904 was £123,730,000, 
 besides tlie balance of the war indemnity to 
 Russia (£23,000,000). The navy consists of 6 
 armoured cruisers, about 30 torpedo vessels 
 (various), and 2 submarines. The empire has an 
 army of 700,000 men, well armed and fairly 
 equipped. In case of war the total force of all 
 arms could be raised to 1,500,000. 
 
 A small tribe of Turks forced their way into 
 Armenia in the 13th c, and helped the Seljuks 
 against the Mongols ; in the 14th c. the Turks 
 under Osman or Othman conquered the Seljftk 
 kingdom, and became known as Osmanlis or 
 Ottomans. By 1336 they pushed their way to 
 the Hellespont ; under Murad I. (Amurath) they 
 occupied Adrianople and Philippopolis, received 
 homage from the kings of Servia and Bulgaria, 
 and practically held all the Balkan peninsula 
 except Constantinople, which, after much fight- 
 ing, fell before Mohammed II. in 1453. In tlie 
 same century they conquered Albania, Greece, 
 the Crimea, &c. ; and in the 16th Syria, 
 Egypt, Tunis, Hungary, and south Russia, and 
 had wars with the Russians, Persians, and 
 Venetians. Their star began to decline in the 
 17th century ; in 1682 they were driven back 
 from Vienna, and lost Hungary, Transylvania, 
 and Podolia. In the 18th century the Russians 
 were their most successful enemies, wresting 
 from them the territories from the Dniester to 
 tlie Caspian. Greece attained independence in 
 1828, though Egypt failed to throw off" its 
 allegiance. The Crimean war (1854-57) was 
 fought in aid of the Turks against tlie Russians. 
 Tlie next great crisis, after risings in Herzegovina, 
 Bulgaria, and Servia, was the Russian war of 
 1877-78. The worst Armenian massacree Avere in 
 1895-96. Turkey held her own against Greece in 
 1897 ; Crete was put under an autonomous govern- 
 ment in 1898. But the Macedonian question was 
 acute in 1903-6. 
 
 See works by Tozer (2 vols. 1869), Baker (1877), 
 ' A Consul's Daughter ' (1878), E. L. Clark (New 
 York, 1883), Sutherland Menzies (3d ed. 1883), 
 Riidler and Cliisholm (1885), Laveleye (1887), 
 and 'Odysseus' (Sir Charles Elliot, 1900); also, 
 for Asiatic Turkey, by Geary (1878), Davis (1879), 
 W. M. Ramsay (1890), and Cuinet (Paris, 1891) : 
 see also other works cited at Syria, Bulgaria, 
 &c. For the history, see Creasy (1854) and S. 
 Lane-Poole (1888). For the literature of the 
 Osmanli, written in Turkish, in which the original 
 Ural-Altaic dialect has been modified by Persian 
 influence, see works on Turkish poetry by Red- 
 house (1878) and Gibb (1882). 
 
 Turkmanshai {Toorli'man-sU), a village of 
 Azerbijan, 65 miles ESE. of Tabriz. Here Persia 
 concluded a treaty with Russia (1828). 
 
 Tuj-k's Islands. See Caicos. 
 
 Turnau (Toor-now), a town of Bohemia, on the 
 Iser, 64 miles by rail NE. of Prague. Its 
 specialty is jewellery. Here on 26th June 1866 
 the Prussians defeated the Austrians. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Turnberry, a shattered castle on the Ayrshire 
 coast, 6 miles N. of Girvan. Either it or Loch- 
 maben was Robert Bruce's birthplace. A light- 
 house (1874) stands within the ruined walls. 
 
 Toirnhout {Tym-Tioiot'), a town of Belgium, 26 
 miles ENE. of Antwerp. It has a palais de 
 justice (1371), and manufactures of cotton, linen, 
 lace, paper, &c. Pop, 21,000. 
 
 Turriflf, a police-burgh of Aberdeenshire, 38* 
 miles NNW. of Aberdeen. Pop. 2270. 
 
 Turton, a town of Lancashire, 4 miles N. of 
 Bolton. Pop. 12,355. 
 
 Tuscaloo'sa, once the capital of Alabama, 55 
 miles by rail SW. of Birmingham, with the state 
 university and insane asylum. Pop. 5100. 
 
 Tus'cany, formerly a sovereign grand-duchy in 
 the west of Italy, lying for the most part, but not 
 wholly, south and west of the Apennines, with 
 an area of 9291 sq. m. Pop. (1860) 1,800,000; 
 (1901) 2,548,154. The north and north-east of the 
 country is filled with mountains, whence numer- 
 ous rivers flow down to the sea, the most im- 
 portant the Arno. This district is also the 
 source of the Tiber (q.v.). The rest of Tuscany 
 is an undulating region of hill and dale, except 
 the coasts, which are flat and marshy (see 
 Maremma). Tuscany was first constituted in its 
 present dimensions in 1569, when Cosimo de' 
 Medici became Grand-duke, On August 16, 1860, 
 its national assembly pronounced the deposition 
 of the reigning dynasty, and declared for annexa- 
 tion to Sardinia ; and in February 1861 it was 
 declared part of the new kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Tus'culum, anciently a city of Latium, whose 
 ruins lie 15 miles S. of Rome. 
 
 Tuskar Rock, 7 miles NE, of Carnsore Point, 
 Wexford, has a lighthouse 110 feet high. 
 
 Tuske'gee, 38 miles E. of Montgomery in 
 Alabama, has a Normal and Industrial Institute 
 for coloured persons (1881) under Booker T. 
 Washington, a coloured man. Pop. 3000. 
 
 Tutbury, a town of Stafl'ordshire, on the Dove, 
 6 miles NW. of Burton-on-Trent, with the ruins 
 of the pre-Norman castle where Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, was twice imprisoned. Pop. 1970. 
 
 Tuticorin', a port at the SE. corner of India, 
 35 miles E. of Tiiinevelli by rail, with pearl- 
 fisheries and R. C. missions. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 Tuttlingen (Toot'ling-en), a town of Wiirtem- 
 berg, on the Danube, 20 miles WSW. of Sig- 
 niaringen. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 Tuxford, a town of Notts, llj miles N. of 
 Newark-upon-Trent. Pop. of parish, 1283. 
 
 Tver, capital of a Russian government at the 
 confluence of the Volga and Tvertsa, 100 miles 
 NW. of Moscow by rail. It manufactures cottons, 
 hosiery, and nails. Pop. (1897) 53,477.— Area of 
 government, 25,225 sq. m. ; pop. 1,815,000. 
 
 Twat, or Tuat, an oasis in the western Sahara, 
 1000 miles SW. of Tripoli. Chief town, Ain Salah. 
 
 Tweed, the noblest of Scottish rivers, rises far 
 up in Peeblesshire at Tweed's Well, 1600 feet 
 above sea-level, and flows 97 miles NE., E., and 
 again NE. through or along the boundariei 
 
^WfefifiMdUTg 
 
 713 
 
 ¥VR6L 
 
 6f Peeblesshire, Selkirkshire, Roxburghshire, 
 Berwickshire, and Northumberland, till it falls 
 into the German Ocean at Berwick-on-Tweed. 
 It receives the Gala, Ettrick (itself fed by Yarrow), 
 l.eader, Teviot, Till, and Whitadder ; is tidal for 
 10 miles, but almost quite unnavigable ; and 
 traces the English border for only 18^ miles, so 
 that ' North of the Tweed ' is a none too accurate 
 phrase. It is famous for its salmon-fisheries, but 
 more famous far for its memories : ' Which of the 
 world's streams,' asks George Borrow, 'can 
 Tweed envy, with its beauty and renown?' For 
 it flows by Neidpath, Peebles, Traquair, Ashie- 
 stiel, Abbotsford, Melrose, the Eildons, Benaer- 
 syde, Dryburgh, Kelso, Coldstream, and Norham 
 Castle. Merlin, Thomas of Ercildoune, and 
 Michael Scott — the Tweed has dim legends of 
 these ; and its ripple was the last sound heard by 
 a fourth and a mightier wizard than them all. 
 Sir Walter. See Lauder's Scottish Rivers (new 
 ed. 1890) ; and Veitch's River Tweed (1S84). 
 Tweedmouth. See Berwick-on-Tweed. 
 Twickenham, a town of Middlesex, on the 
 north bank of the Thames, 11^ miles SW. of 
 London. It is a place of many villas, and has 
 been the residence of many notabilities — Catha- 
 rine of Aragon, Lord Bacon, Lord Clarendon, 
 Pope (who is buried in the church), Horace 
 Walpole (Strawberry Hill still remains, although 
 a good deal altered), Kitty Clive, several of the 
 Orleans family, J. M. W. Turner, Lord Tennyson, 
 &c. Pop. (1851) 6254 ; (1901) 20,991. See R. S. 
 Cobbett's Memorials of Twickenham (1872). 
 
 Tyldesley, a town of Lancashire, 10 miles NW. 
 of Manchester, with cotton-mills and collieries. 
 Pop., with Shakerley, 14,891. 
 
 Tyndrum (Tine-drum'), a Perthshire village, 
 36i miles by rail E. by N. of Oban. 
 
 Tyne, a northern English river, formed by the 
 confluence of the North and South Tynes, a mile 
 NW. of Hexham, and flowing 30 miles E. to the 
 sea between Tynemouth and South Shields. 
 The North Tyne, some of whose head-streams 
 rise in Scotland, 11 miles SE. of Hawick, flows 
 32 miles S. and SE., and receives on the left the 
 Reed Water. The South Tyne rises on Cross 
 Fell, and flows 33 miles N. and E., receiving 
 the Allen. The scenery of the two head- 
 streams is beautiful, with a wealth of romantic 
 and historical associations. The Tyne itself flows 
 through the richest coal-mining region of Britain, 
 and on its banks stand Corbridge, Ovingham, 
 Newburn, Ryton, Blaydon, Newcastle and Gates- 
 head, Walker, Jarrow, North and South Shields. 
 Its chief afiluents are the Derwent and Team. 
 Navigable from Blaydon, 8 miles above New- 
 castle, from that city to the sea it is one con- 
 tinuous harbour. The salmon-fisheries have 
 declined, but the shipbuilding maintains its 
 importance. The multifarious manufactures 
 carried on on Tyneside (which sadly defile the 
 lower course) are indicated at Newcastle. It 
 and North and South Shields are grouped together 
 as the 'Tyne ports.' The Tyne is also famous 
 among English rivers for its boat-racing. See 
 works by Guthrie (1880) and Palmer (1881). 
 
 Tynemouth (Tin'muth), the chief watering- 
 place of Northumberland, 9 miles E. of New- 
 castle, occupies the angle formed by the line of 
 the coast and the Tyne. The municipal and 
 parliamentary borough coTnprises the townships 
 of Tynemouth, North Shields (q.v.), Chirton, 
 CuUercoats, and Preston. Edwin, King of 
 Northumbria, founded here, about 627, a church 
 ©f wood ; King Oswald rebuilt it of stone about 
 
 640, and probably established the monastery, 
 which suftered much from the Danes. It was 
 refounded in 1090 by Mowbray, Earl of North- 
 umberland. Tlie remains of the priory are 
 chiefly those of the church, which was built 
 about 1100 and enlarged about 1220. The chancel, 
 whose eastern and southern walls are still stand- 
 ing, is one of the most exquisite specimens of 
 Early English. The Lady Chapel, a chantry of 
 the Percies, was founded towards the close of 
 the 14th c. Tynemouth castle was built about 
 1296. All that remains of it now is the great 
 14th-century gateway. A wide road extends to 
 CuUercoats called the Grand Parade. The sands 
 are nearly a mile long, and the cliff's are very 
 picturesque. The aquarium (1877-78) is now used 
 for promenade concerts. The pier, over ^ mile 
 long, was built in 1854-92. On the cliff" above it 
 is the lighthouse, 62 feet high. A monument to 
 Lord Collingwood, by Lough, was erected in 1845 
 on Galley Hill. The borough returns one member. 
 Pop. of township (1881) 22,548; of municipal 
 borough (1891) 46,588 ; (1901) 51,514. See Gibson's 
 Monastery of Tynemouth (2 vols. 1846). 
 
 Tyningham House {Tin'ing-am), Haddington- 
 shire, 2| miles NE. of East Linton, the seat of 
 the Earl of Haddington. 
 Tynwald Hill. See Man, Isle of. 
 Tyre (Phoen. Siir or Sor, 'rock'), a city of 
 ancient Phoenicia, situated in 33° 12' N. lat. 
 There were two towns— one on the mainland, the 
 other on the island opposite. Tyre was a city on 
 an island in the 14th century B.C., when it is 
 described in an Egyptian papyrus. Explora- 
 tions were made here in 1874, 1877, and 1881. 
 Alexander the Great made a causeway from the 
 shore, which has increased in breadth to a quarter 
 of a mile by drifting sand. Tyre was enlarged 
 and beautified by Hiram, and sustained sieges by 
 Shalmaneser, Nebuchadnezzar, Alexander (332 
 B.C.), and Antigonus. Cleopatra received Tyre as 
 a present from Antony ; but the last trace of 
 independence was taken from it by Augustus. 
 In St Jerome's time it was again the noblest and 
 most beautiful city of Phoenicia, nay, almost of 
 the whole East. In the 7th c. it came under the 
 Saracens, and so remained until taken and held 
 by the Crusaders (1124-1291). Soon after it was 
 destroyed by the Moslems ; a visitor in 1355 
 found it a mass of ruins. About 1766 the town 
 began to be rebuilt. About 5000 inhabitants 
 now dwell among the ruins. Here Origen and 
 Frederick Barbarossa are buried. 
 
 Tyree', an Argyllshire island, 19 miles NW. of 
 lona. Having a maximum length and breadth of 
 14 and 6 miles, and an area of 34 sq. m., it is tree- 
 less and flat, with a mean elevation of only 20 
 feet, except in the south, where three hills attain 
 400 feet. There are a score of fresh-water lakes. 
 Nearly forty Scandinavian forts dot the shores, 
 and there are also a ruined castle, nine standing 
 stones, &c. Pop. (1831) 4453 ; (1901) 2192. 
 
 Tyrnau (Teer-novf ; Magyar Nagy-Szombat), a 
 town of Hungary, on the picturesque Waag valley 
 railway, 30 miles NE. of Presburg. ' Little Rome ' 
 it used to be called, as residence of the Hungarian 
 primates ; its university (1635-1774) was trans- 
 ferred to Pesth. Pop. 13,830. 
 
 Tyrol (Tee-roW ; in England usually called the 
 Tyrol' ; Ger. Tirol), a crown-land of the Austrian 
 empire, lying between Bavaria, Switzerland, 
 Italy, Salzburg, and Carinthia, and embracing 
 an area of 10,302 sq. m., to which is adminis- 
 tratively added Vorarlberg (q.v.), 1005 sq. m., 
 ou the western frontier. The province is tra- 
 
Tyrone 
 
 m 
 
 tJGBROOKE PAVit 
 
 Versed from east to west by the three chains of 
 the Alps ; the central chain (11,000 to 12,500 feet), 
 which is crossed by the road over the Brenner 
 Pass (4588 feet), separates the German from the 
 Italian side. The population consists of Germans 
 ((30 per cent.) and Italians (40 per cent.), and 
 numbered 812,696 in 1890 (with the crownluud of 
 Vorarlberg), and 981,947 in 1900. The people are 
 noted for their fidelity to the Catholic faith and 
 their devotion to their country, but are some- 
 what backward in education. The more im- 
 portant valleys are formed by the Inn (flowing N. 
 to the Danube) and the Adige (S. to the Adriatic). 
 Pastoral pursuits furnish the chief occupations, 
 though some grain is grown, and considerable 
 attention is paid to the cultivation of the 
 forests (46 per cent, of the area), of fruit, wine 
 (5,720,000 gallons annually), and silkworms. 
 The mines were formerly of great value ; but 
 little is now extracted, except salt (at Hall), 
 anthracite, and a little iron. Metal industries 
 flourish in German Tyrol, cotton manufactures 
 in Vorarlberg, and silk in Italian Tyrol. The 
 chief towns are Innsbruck, Trent, Roveredo, 
 Brixen, and Bozen. Tyrol, the ancient Rhsetia, 
 was conquered by the Romans under Augustus, 
 and occupied afterwards by the Boiardi (Bavar- 
 ians) and Langobardi. In 1363 its count be- 
 queathed it to the Duke of Austria, and it has 
 formed an appanage of the House of Hapsburg 
 ever since, except during 1806-14, a period made 
 memorable by the patriotic resistance of Andreas 
 Hofer to French and Bavarians. See Miss Busk's 
 Valleys of the Tyrol (1874). 
 
 Tyrone (Ti-roan' ; Tir-Eogain, 'Owen's coun- 
 try'), an inland county of Ulster, 48 miles 
 long, with an average breadth of 28. Area, 
 
 including part of Lough Neagh, 1260 sq. ni. 
 or 806,658 acres, of wliich 110,000 acres are 
 barren mountain, 72,000 bog, 32,000 water, roads, 
 &c. The surface in general is hilly, and often 
 extremely picturesque ; the highest point is 
 Sawell (2236) in the NB. Except Lough Neagh, 
 the numerous lakes are small. The rivers are 
 the Foyle, Mounie, Blackwater, and Ballinderry. 
 Between Dungannon and Stewartstown there is a 
 small but rich coal-Held ; marble is quarried ; 
 and there are traces of iron, copper, and lead. 
 The climate is moist, and the low lands are often 
 flooded. The soil of the plain is a well-tilled 
 fertile loam ; that of the hilly districts, sandy 
 or gravelly ; and there is much bog. There are 
 manufactures of linens, coarse woollens, earthen- 
 ware, whisky, and soap. The chief towns are 
 Omagh (the capital), Strabane, Dungannon, 
 Cookstown, and Aughnacloy ; Clogher gives name 
 to both R. C. and Protestant sees. The county 
 has four parliamentary districts. Pop. (1841) 
 313,011; (1S81) 197,719; (1901) 150,567—84,401 
 Catholics, 33,896 Episcopalians, and 29,656 Pres- 
 byterians. 
 
 Tyrrhenian Sea (anc. Tyrrhennm Mare), the 
 part of the Mediterranean between Corsica, 
 Sardinia, and Sicily on the W. and the Italian 
 peninsula on the E. 
 
 Tzana, Tana, or Dembea, a great fresh-water 
 lake on the high plateau of Abyssinia, south of 
 Gondar. The greatest length is 60 miles ; the 
 breadth varies from 30 to 40. It is the main 
 reservoir of the Blue Nile (see p. 508). The water 
 is clear and full of flsh ; there are many small 
 basaltic islands. 
 
 Tzarskoye. See Tsarskoye Selo. 
 
 BEDA (Oo-hay'da), a town of Spain, 26 
 miles NB. of Jaen. It contains a large 
 castle, and manufactures cloth, soap, 
 and leather. Pop. 20,000. 
 Ucayali (Oo-kl-ah'lee), a river of Peru, 
 one of the head-waters of the Amazon, is formed 
 by the Apurimac and Urubamba, and winds more 
 than 1200 miles N. to the Maranon. 
 
 Uckfield, a Sussex market-town, on the Ouse, 
 8 miles NB. of Lewes. Pop. of parish, 2800. 
 
 Udaiptir (Oodipore), or Meywar, a native state 
 of Rajputana ; area, 12,861 sq. m. ; population, 
 1,050,000. The capital, Udaipur (or Oodeypore), 
 on a ridge overlooking a romantic lake, is 140 
 miles SAV. of Ajmere; pop. 46,000. 
 
 Uddingston, a town of Lanarkshire, near the 
 right bank of the Clyde, 7^ miles ESE. of Glasgow. 
 It manuractures ploughs, &c. Pop. (1861) 1256 ; 
 (1901)7463. 
 
 Udine (Oodee'nay), a walled town of Italy, 85 
 miles by rail NE. of Venice. It has a Romanesque 
 cathedral, a beautiful campo santo, and, on a hill 
 in its midst, a castle, formerly the residence of 
 the patriarchs of Aquileia. Udine manufactures 
 silk, leather, gloves, &c. Pop. 23,254. 
 
 Ufa (Oo'/a), a Russian town, 280 miles ESE. 
 of Kazan. Pop. 49,300.— Ufa government was 
 formed in 1865 out of part of Orenburg. Area, 
 47,112 sq. m. ; pop. 2,196,650. 
 
 UfifCUlme, a Devon village, on the Culm, 2| 
 miles NE. of Tiverton Junction. Pop. 1806. 
 
 Uganda {Oogan'da), a British protectorate in 
 East Africa extending along the north-west shore 
 of the Victoria Nyanza, first visited (1862) by 
 
 Speke and Grant, and by Stanley called the 
 ' Pearl of Africa.' It is partly mountainous, 
 partly undulating, partly a plain, and very 
 fertile on the whole and well wooded. The 
 climate is mild (50° to 90° F.). The Waganda, 
 about 8,000,000, are a brave and warlike people, 
 speaking a Bantu language. At the request of 
 King Mtesa, English Protestant missionaries 
 settled here in 1877, and French Catholics fol- 
 lowed in 1879. The Christians had much to 
 suffer at the hands of Mtesa's son. King Mwanga, 
 by whose orders Bishop Hannington was mur- 
 dered in 1885. The presence of Arabs and 
 Mohammedanism further complicated matters, 
 and intestine struggles were not long in breaking 
 out. Meanwhile the French priests obtained 
 ascendency over the king, and in 1892 a war 
 broke out between sections of the people calling 
 themselves respectively Protestants and Catholics 
 (the latter greatly in the majority). By the 
 Anglo-German agreement of 1887 Uganda was 
 recognised as witliin the British sphere. In 1894 
 a British protectorate was proclaimed; and since 
 the treaties in 1899-1900 the protectorate includes 
 all the countries between British East Africa, 
 Congo Free State, Victoria and Albert Nyanzas. 
 Its area is 120,000 sq. m., and the pop. is esti- 
 mated at 4,000,000. Trade is being developed by 
 the railway from Mombasa, which was opened to 
 Victoria Nyanza in 1901. See, besides the travels 
 of Stanley, <fec., works by Felkin and Wilson 
 (1881), A. M. Mackay (1890), Casati (1891), Lugard 
 (1893), Portal (1894), Gregory (1901), and John- 
 stone (1902). 
 
 Ugbrooke Park, Devon, the seat of Lord 
 Clifford of Chudleigh, 1^ mile SSB. of Chudleigh. 
 
tfGLlfCtt 
 
 ^15 
 
 tJNlOH 
 
 tJglitch (m as 00), a town of Russia, on the 
 Volga, 58 miles W. by S. of Jaroslav. Pop. 11,183. 
 
 Ugogo (Oogo'go), an inland province of German 
 East Africa, between Tanganyika and the coast. 
 
 Uintah (Yoo-in'ta). See Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Uist, North (Oo'ist), an island of the Outer 
 Hebrides, 65 miles SSW. of Stornoway. It is 18 
 miles long from W. to E., and 3 to 13 wide. The 
 eastern half of it is so cut up by lochs and water- 
 courses as to have the appearance of an archi- 
 pelago—a brown, peaty, dreary bog, i)artly 
 relieved, however, by a line of coast hills (1133 
 feet). The west part as a rule is hilly (1500 feet). 
 Pop. 2936.— South Uist, 36 miles SW. of Loch- 
 maddy in North Uist, Benbecula lying between 
 them, has a maximum length and breadth of 22 
 and 7f miles. Its east coast is much indented 
 by Lochs Skiport, Eynort, and Boisdale. The 
 eastern district is hill or mountainous (2035 
 feet) ; the western alluvial and productive. Pop. 
 3541 crofters, almost all Catholics. 
 
 TJitenhage (now called Yoofenhaig), capital of 
 a district in Cape Colony, 25 miles NW. of Port 
 Elizabeth by rail. Pop 5331. 
 
 Ujiji (Oojee'jee), a town and district (German) 
 on the E. sliore of Lake Tanganyika. The chief 
 town is the terminus of the great caravan route 
 from Zanzibar. See Hore's Tanganyika (1892). 
 
 Ujjain (Oojine'), a walled town of Central 
 India, in Sindia's Dominions, anciently the capi- 
 tal of Malwa, and one of the seven sacred cities 
 of the Hindus, stands on the Sipra's right bank, 
 30 miles N. of Indore. Pop. 41,000. 
 
 Ukerewe. See Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 Ukraine (usually Yoo'krayn ; Polish, ' frontier 
 country '), long contended for by Poland and 
 Russia, is now Little Russia (see p. 604). 
 
 Dleaborg, a seaport of Russian Finland, stands 
 on the Ulea's S. bank, on the B. shore and near 
 the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. It was founded 
 in 1605, and nearly all burned down in 1822. It 
 has dockyards. Pop. 15,860.— Area of Uleaborg 
 government, 68,971 sq. m. ; pop. 283,500. 
 
 Ullapool, a Ross-shire village, on Loch Broom, 
 44 miles NW. of Dingwall. Pop. 700. 
 
 Ulls'water, after Windermere the largest of 
 the English 'Lakes,' between the counties of 
 Cumberland and Westmorland, 5h miles SW. of 
 Penrith and 11 ESE. of Keswick. Lying 477 
 feet above sea-level, it is 7^ miles long, i to § 
 mile broad, and 205 feet in maximum depth. It 
 is divided into three reaches, which increase in 
 beauty and grandeur as one goes up it from 
 Pooley Bridge to Patterdale, a chief feature, 
 lofty Helvellyn (q.v., 3118 feet). 
 
 Ulm (Oolm), the second city of Wlirtemberg, 58 
 miles SE. of Stuttgart and 91 WNW. of Munich, 
 on the left bank of the Danube, which here 
 receives the Blau and the Uler and becomes 
 navigable. On the Bavarian side of the river is 
 New Ulm (pop. 7593). Ulm till the war of 1866 
 was a fortress of the Germanic Confederation ; its 
 fortifications (1842-66) have since been greatly 
 extended. The beautiful Protestant cathedral, 
 next to that of Cologne the largest church in 
 Germany, was built mainly in 1377-1494. It is 
 455 feet long, 186 broad, and 134 high ; the tower 
 and open-work spire (530 feet, the highest in the 
 world) was only completed in 1890. The splendid 
 organ (1856-88) has 6286 pipes. Other edifices 
 are the 15th-century town-hall, the 'New Build- 
 ing' (1603) on the site of a palace of Charle- 
 and the Teutonic Knights' Commandery 
 
 (rebuilt 1718). Leading industries are the manU« 
 facture of cotton, woollen, and other textiles, of 
 paper, leather, beer, kc.j and Ulm is famed for 
 pipe-bowls and pastry. Pop. (1871) 26,290 ; (1900) 
 42,982, of wliom one-fourth were Catholics. The 
 Romans had a settlement here. Ulm was in 
 October 1805 the scene of the defeat by Ney of 
 General Mack, and of his surrender with 28,000 
 Austrians. In 1802 it was attaclied to Bavaria, 
 and in 1810 became part of Wiirtemberg. 
 
 Ulster, the most northern of the four prov- 
 inces of Ireland, is divided into nine counties — 
 Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fer- 
 managh, Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone. 
 The north-eastern portion, now Down, was over- 
 run in 1177 by John de Courci, and was the most 
 permanent seat of English power in the north ; 
 but the ' plantation of Ulster ' was not effected 
 until the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Of 
 this gigantic scheme of colonisation the chief 
 seat was the county of Londonderry (q.v.). 
 The Scottish element ifias long been dominant in 
 some parts of Ulster, especially the north-east, 
 but is very unequally distributed. The origin- 
 ally English and Scottish element varies from 75 
 per cent, in Antrim to about 20 in Cavan. In 
 1861 the whole pop. of Ulster was 1,914,236 
 (966,613 Roman Catholics); in 1871, owing to 
 emigration, the numbers were 1,833,228 (897,230); 
 in 1881, 1,730,542 (833,566); and in 1901, 1,582,826, 
 of whom 699,202 were Catholics, 425,526 Presby- 
 terians, 360,373 Protestant Episcopalians. The 
 distribution of confessions varies in different 
 parts — the Protestants numbering 75 per cent, 
 in Antrim, but only 20 per cent, in Cavan. The 
 preponderance of Protestants in parts of Ulster 
 has led to diversity of feeling and aiins between 
 Ulster and more thoroughly Catholic parts of 
 Ireland ; Ulstermen have offered resolute resist- 
 ance to Irish Home Rule. Belfast (q.v.) is the 
 most enterprising town of Ulster and of Ireland ; 
 flax-spinningis the chief industry after agriculture 
 
 Ulundi. See Zululand. 
 
 Ulva (u as oo), an Argyllshire island, on the 
 W. coast of Mull, adjoining Gonietra. Area, 7i 
 sq. m. ; altitude, 1400 feet ; pop. 71. 
 
 Ul'verston Gocally Ooston), a Lancashire mar- 
 ket-town, in Furness (q.v,), near the influx of 
 the Leven estuary to Morecambe Bay, S^ miles 
 NE. of Barrow-in-Furness and 22 NW. of Lan- 
 caster. It stands in a mining and agricultural 
 district, has a ship-canal 1 mile long, and manu- 
 factures iron, paper, boots, &c. Pop. (1851) 
 6433 ; (1881) 10,008 ; (1901) 10,064. 
 
 Ulwar. See Alwar. 
 
 Uman (Oo-man), a town of Russia, 120 miles S. 
 of Kieff, on the Umaiika. Pop. 28,630. 
 
 Umbal'la, or AmbXla, a city of the Punjab, 
 150 miles N. by W. of Delhi. Tlie new part of 
 the town has straiglit, wide roads, and a hand- 
 some church, club-liouse, and hotels. It is an 
 important railway junction. The cantonment is 
 4 miles SE. Pop. (1901) 78,638. 
 
 Umbrla, an ancient division of Italy, W. of 
 Etruiia, and N. of the country of the Sabines. 
 
 Umrit'sir. See Amritsar. 
 
 Unalash'ka. See Alkutian Islands. 
 
 Ungava, tlie Canadian district that includes 
 most of Labrador (q.v.) peninsula. 
 
 Ungvdr, a town of Hungary, on the Ungli, 325 
 miles NE. of Budapest. Pop. 14,730. 
 
 Union, a town of New Jersev, on the Hudson, 
 opposite New York. Pop. 15,190. 
 
UNION dANAL 
 
 ?16 
 
 UNIfED STATES OF AME&ICJA 
 
 Union Canal, constructed in 1818-22, extends 
 31J- miles W. from Edinburgli to the Forth and 
 Clyde Canal, near Falkirk. 
 
 United Provinces. See Holland. 
 
 United States of America, the largest (next 
 to Brazil) and most important republic of the 
 world, embracing nearly one-half of the habitable 
 area of the North American continent, and about 
 seven-eighths of its inhabitants. Its area is more 
 than three-fourths that of all Europe ; including 
 Alaska, it is abnost equal to it ; but its j)opula- 
 tion is less than one-fifth of that of Europe. 
 Alaska (q.v.) is rather a dependency than an 
 integral part of the country, which, without it, 
 occupies the central part of the continent from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and from 
 Canada on the north to Mexico on the south. It 
 lies between the jiarallels 24° 30' and 49° N. lat., 
 and between the meridians 67° and 124° W. long. 
 Its greatest length, E. to W., is about 2700 miles, 
 and its greatest width, N. to S., about 1600 miles. 
 Its total area is, without Alaska, somewhat more 
 than 2,900,000 sq. m. As compared with Europe 
 the coast of the United States has few indenting 
 bays or projecting peninsulas, though the Gulf 
 of Mexico is of special climatic and commercial 
 importance. Long Island Sound, Delaware and 
 Chesapeake bays, Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, 
 the harbours of Charleston and Savannah, though 
 not great geographical features, are of commercial 
 importance. On the Pacific, Puget Sound, the 
 Bay of San Francisco, and the harbour of San 
 Diego, are almost the only noticeable breaks. 
 Long Island is the largest of the islands. 
 
 The two great mountain-systems of North 
 America, one along the western, the other near 
 the eastern border, form the framework or 
 skeleton of the physical structure. In the east 
 are the Appalachian (q.v.), from whose eastern 
 base a coast-plain extends to the sea. Narrow in 
 Maine, the system grows gradually wider, nntil 
 in North Carolina it attains a width of 200 miles. 
 The southern coast-region seldom exceeds 100 
 feet above the sea. It has a sandy soil, and 
 many large swamps near the coast. The middle 
 elevated region is diversified by hills and valleys, 
 and has a productive soil. West of the Appa- 
 lachian system and lying between it and the 
 western highland is the Central Valley, form- 
 ing part of the great continental depression 
 which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the 
 Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, 
 rising gradually from the Gulf toward the chain 
 of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the 
 mountains on the east and west. The only 
 important departure from the level is the ridge 
 of the Ozark Mountains (500 to 2000 feet), 
 running from S. Missouri through NW. Arkansas. 
 This great valley occupies about one-half the 
 entire area of the United States, and the fertile 
 prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and 
 central portions make it the most important 
 agricultural basin of the globe. From an irregular 
 line west of the Mississippi River the land rises 
 in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches 
 the base of the western plateau. Much of this 
 region, known as the Great Plains, has a light 
 rainfall, but atfords admirable pasturage. 
 
 The western or Pacific system of mountains 
 (see America) is a great plateau of 4000 to 10,000 
 feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, 
 in its widest part more than 1000 miles broad. 
 Of this Cordilleran region the Rocky Moun- 
 tains (q.v.) form the eastern and the Sierra 
 Nevada (q.v.) and Cascade Mountains (q.v.) and 
 
 the Coast Ranges the western border. In the 
 ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of 
 the summits have an altitude of more than 14,000 
 feet. In the Wind River Mountains, in Wyoming, 
 are the head-waters of the Colorado, the Colum- 
 bia, and the Mississipx)i, the three great river- 
 systems of the United States. Between the 
 Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of moun- 
 tains in Colorado is a region furrowed by canons 
 or gorges, whose sides are nearly vertical ; and 
 the bed of the Colorado (q.v.) is in some places 
 more than a mile and a quarter below the surface 
 of the plateau. Between the Wahsatch Range 
 and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin (see 
 Great Salt Lake), much of it an absolute 
 desert. The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade 
 Range (q.v.) are topographically continuous. 
 Most of the peaks of the Sierras are, however, 
 of granite and metamorjjhic rock, while those of 
 the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest 
 altitude is attained in Whitney (14,898 feet) ; the 
 sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated (see 
 Yosemite). From 40° there extends northward 
 one of the most remarkable groups of extinct or 
 faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in 
 the world ; the lava overflows in this region cover 
 an area of npwards of 200,000 sq. m. The 
 passage of the Columbia River is a grand canon 
 more than 3000 feet in depth. North of the 
 Great Basin, between the Cascade Range and the 
 Rocky Mountains, is the Northern or Columbian 
 Plateau. The Shoshone Falls (q.v.) of the 
 Snake River probably rank next to Niagara in 
 grandeur. Between the Coast Ranges and the 
 Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series 
 of broad valleys, in Oregon that of the Willa- 
 mette, and in California those of the Sacramento 
 and the San Joaquin. 
 
 Besides the chain of Great Lakes which forms 
 a part of the northern boundary, there are thou- 
 sands of lakes in the New England states and in 
 New York, nearly ten thousand in Minnesota, and 
 numerous mountain-lakes among the Cordilleras. 
 The peculiar lacustrine character of the northern 
 portion of the United States is undoubtedly a 
 legacy of the glacial period. The drainage areas 
 may be broadly classified as the Great Lake or 
 St Lawrence, the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the 
 Great Basin or interior systems of drainage. 
 The Atlantic system might be subdivided into 
 two classes, one comprising the streams flowing 
 directly to the sea, the other comprehending 
 those of the Central Valley, which discharge 
 their waters into the Gulf of Mexico. Among the 
 rivers of the Atlantic slope are the Penobscot, 
 Kennebec, Merrimac, Thames, and Connecticut 
 in New England, the Hudson, Delaware, Su.sque- 
 hanna, Potomac, James, Roanoke, Neuse, Cape 
 Fear, Great Pedee, Santee, Savannah, Altamaha, 
 and St John's. The Mississippi-Missouri, with 
 its tributaries the Ohio, Platte, Arkansas, and 
 Red rivers, is the chief stream of the Central 
 Valley, and in length and extent of navigable 
 water it surpasses all other rivers of the world. 
 East of the Mississippi are the Mobile and Appa- 
 lachicola, and to the west the Sabine, Brazos, 
 and Rio Grande. The Colorado, the Sacramento 
 and San Joaquin, the Willamette, and the Col- 
 umbia are the chief rivers emptying into the 
 Pacific. With its great extent and its diversified 
 topography of the United States, there is every 
 variety of climate characteristic of the temperate 
 zone. The annual isothermal lines, except where 
 they are influenced by the two great monntain- 
 systems, pursue a fairly uniform east and west 
 course across the country. A marked diflfereuc© 
 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 717 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 is, however, observable in the disposition of these 
 lines on maps representing respectively the 
 summer and the winter temperatures. The in- 
 fluence of the oceans and of the Great Lakes is at 
 once apparent, modifying both the heat of summer 
 and the cold of winter, whereas in the interior 
 and in the region of the Cordilleras the extremes 
 of heat and cold are both abnormal. The warm 
 ocean current of the Pacific, which bathes the 
 western coast, produces a more uniform tempera- 
 ture than that of the Atlantic seaboard, along 
 which flows a cold polar current. The annual 
 range of temperature is very great. In winter 
 there sometimes exists at the same instant be- 
 tween the northern and the southern borders a 
 difl'erence of 120°. In summer the diurnal varia- 
 tion of a single locality is in some instances from 
 40° to 50°. A narrow strip in the south, includ- 
 ing the southern portions of Florida, New Mexico, 
 and Arizona, has what may be called a tropical 
 climate. Northern Florida, southern Louisiana, 
 southern Texas, and portions of New Mexico, 
 Arizona, and southern California have a sub- 
 tropical climate. The sugar and rice regions 
 have a mean annual temperature above 70°. The 
 tobacco region lies between the isotherms of 50° 
 and 60°. The annual temperature of the great 
 cotton region ranges from 60° to 68°, and the 
 prairie regions devoted to the raising of wheat 
 and other hardy cereals seldom have an average 
 temperature above 55°. The rainfall of the 
 United States varies greatly in different sections, 
 not only as to quantity, but as to distribution 
 throughout the year. The eastern part of the 
 country is well watered. The western portion, 
 excepting the strip between the Sierras and the 
 Cascade Range and the Pacific Ocean, and a few 
 limited areas favoured by some peculiar features 
 of topography, has an insufficient supply, and 
 agriculture is dependent for success upon irriga- 
 tion. Between the two regions is a belt, approxi- 
 mately following the meridian of longitude 100°, 
 in which agriculture may sometimes be carried 
 on without recourse to irrigation, but which in 
 any season is liable to sufter from drought. For 
 the rainfall of the Pacific Coast, see California. 
 The eastern portion of the United States is in 
 the main well wooded. Forests also occur in 
 northern California, Oregon, Washington, Wis- 
 consin, and Minnesota (the scene of great forest 
 fires in 1894), and in northern Idaho and Mon- 
 tana. The Cordilleran region and the Great Plains 
 are treeless, except upon high plateaus and moun- 
 tains. The distribution of forests very closely 
 follows the distribution of rainfall. 
 
 Besides Alaska, there are fifty political divisions. 
 Of these forty-five are states enjoying the full 
 privileges afforded by the federal constitution ; 
 three are organised territories not yet admitted 
 to statehood ; one is an unorganised territory 
 set apart as a home for Indian tribes, and one is 
 a special district containing the capital of the 
 nation. Of the total population, 96 per cent, of 
 the inhabitants live in that part of the country 
 which is drained to the Atlantic Ocean, and more 
 than one-half live in that drained by the Gulf of 
 Mexico. The greatest density of population is in 
 the region having a mean annual temperature 
 of from 50° to 55°. From this maximum the den- 
 sity rapidly diminishes with the increase or 
 decrease of temperature. There are three cities. 
 New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia, with over 
 1,000,000 inhabitants. Three, St Louis, Boston, 
 and Baltimore, have each more than 500,000. 
 There are thirty-two cities having between 
 &00,000 ana 100,000; forty between 100,000 
 
 1850 
 1876 
 
 1787 
 
 and 50,000 ; and eighty-one between 50,000 and 
 25,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Political Date of 
 
 Divisions. Admission. 
 
 Alabama 1319 
 
 Alaslca Territory.. 
 Arizona Territory. 
 
 Arkansas 1836 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware.. 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 
 Florida 1845 
 
 Georgia 1788 
 
 Idaho 1890 
 
 Illinois 1818 
 
 Indiana 1816 
 
 Indian Territory.. 
 
 Iowa 1845 
 
 Kansas 1861 
 
 Kentucky 1792 
 
 Louisiana 1812 
 
 Maine 1820 
 
 Maryland 1788 
 
 Massachusetts .... 1788 
 
 Michigan 1SS7 
 
 Minnesota 1858 
 
 Mississippi 1817 
 
 Missouri 1821 
 
 Montana 1889 
 
 Nebraska 1867 
 
 Nevada 1864 
 
 New Hampshire .. 1788 
 
 New Jersey 1787 
 
 New Mexico Ter. . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina... 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma Ter. . . . 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania .... 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina . . . 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 UUh 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 1788 
 
 1796 
 1845 
 
 1791 
 
 1788 
 1889 
 
 1848 
 
 Total . 
 
 Pop. in 
 
 1900. 
 1,828,697 
 63,592 
 
 122,931 
 1,311, .564 
 1,485,053 
 
 539,700 
 
 908,420 
 
 184,735 
 
 278,718 
 
 .528,542 
 2,216,331 
 
 161,772 
 4,821,5.50 
 2,516,462 
 
 392,060 
 2,231,853 
 1,470,495 
 2.147,174 
 1.381,625 
 
 694,466 
 1,188,044 
 2,805,346 
 2,420,982 
 1,751,394 
 1,551,270 
 3,106,665 
 
 243,329 
 
 1.066,.300 
 
 42,335 
 
 411,588 
 1,883,669 
 
 195,310 
 7,268,894 
 1,893,810 
 
 319,146 
 4,157,545 
 
 398,331 
 
 413,536 
 6,302,115 
 
 428,. 556 
 1,340,-316 
 
 401,570 
 2,020,616 
 3,048,710 
 
 276,749 
 
 343,641 
 1,854.184 
 
 518,103 
 
 958,800 
 
 2,069,042 
 
 92,531 
 
 ,,595,500 76,149,386 ^ 
 
 Area in 
 sq. m. 
 52,250 
 
 .570,000 
 
 113,020 
 53,850 
 
 158,980 
 
 103,925 
 4,H90 
 2,050 
 70 
 58,680 
 59,475 
 84,800 
 56,060 
 36,350 
 31,400 
 56,025 
 82,080 
 40,400 
 48,720 
 33,040 
 12,210 
 8,315 
 58,915 
 88,365 
 46,810 
 69,415 
 
 146,080 
 77,510 
 
 110,700 
 9,305 
 7,815 
 
 122,580 
 49,170 
 52,250 
 70,795 
 41,060 
 39,030 
 96,030 
 45,215 
 1,2.50 
 30,570 
 77,6.50 
 42,050 
 
 265,780 
 84,970 
 9,565 
 42,450 
 69,180 
 24,780 
 56,040 
 
 Pop. per 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 .S5-5 
 
 01 
 
 11 
 
 24-7 
 
 9-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 187-5 
 
 94 3 
 
 4645-3 
 
 9-7 
 
 37-6 
 
 1-9 
 
 861 
 
 701 
 
 12-6 
 
 40-2 
 
 18-0 
 
 53-7 
 
 30-4 
 
 23-2 
 
 120-6 
 
 22-1 
 33-5 
 45-2 
 
 1-7 
 13-9 
 
 0-4 
 45-7 
 250-3 
 
 1-6 
 152-6 
 39-0 
 
 4-5 
 102-0 
 10-3 
 
 4-4 
 140-1 
 407-0 
 44-4 
 
 5-2 
 48-4 
 11-6 
 
 3-4 
 37-6 
 46-2 
 
 7-7 
 38-9 
 380 
 
 5-15 
 
 * Including 129,518 Indians on Reservations outside of 
 the Indian Territory, and 91,219 persons abi-oad in the 
 service of the United States. The Hawaiian Islands Terri- 
 tory (154,001), Porto Rico (953,243), the Philippine Islands 
 (8,.500,000), Guam and Samoa (13,000), are also, more or less 
 intimately, parts or dependencies of the United States. 
 The census of 1900 does not, of course, recognise the incor- 
 poration of Indian Territory with Oklahoma (1905), or the 
 (for a time debated) incorporation of New Mexico with 
 Arizona, promoted to be a state (1905). 
 
 Coal, petroleum, and the burnable rock gases 
 exist in remarkable quantities in the United 
 States, particularly in the region to the east of 
 the Mississippi River. The most important 
 metallic resources of the United States are found 
 in its iron ores, which exist in great quantities in 
 various parts of its territory. Copper is also 
 widely distributed, and so are lead ores, mainly 
 in the form of galena. Oxide of manganese is 
 found, and iron pyrites ; ores of tin show at many 
 points, but so far not of commercial value. 
 Nickel has been mined in Pennsylvania and in 
 Oregon. Platinum occurs, though it is not yet 
 economically valuable. From the eastern face 
 of the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific 
 coast deposits of varied character containing 
 silver and gold are extremely abundant. In fact 
 this portion of the Cordilleran region appears to 
 be tlie richest in precious metals of any equal 
 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 718 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 area in the world. The silver of this district 
 generally occurs in combination with galena, and 
 has thus been won so cheaply and in sucli quan- 
 tities as greatly to lower the price of the inetal 
 in the world's markets. The Comstock lode of 
 Nevada is remarkable for its great width and the 
 surprisingly rich though widely separated pockets 
 of ores of gold and silver which it afforded. Tlie 
 building stones of the United States are abundant, 
 and include granites, slates, marbles, limestone, 
 sandstone ; also clays, cements, and rich phos- 
 phatic rocks (for manures). No valuable precious 
 stones have been found in quantity. The mineral 
 springs of the eastern States exhibit no great 
 variety. Hot springs of much medicinal value 
 occur at Little Rock, Arkansas. In the Cordil- 
 leran district the number of mineral springs and 
 hot springs is exceedingly great. The country at 
 large has no national system of education. By 
 the constitution of the United States only such 
 powers are vested in the federal government as 
 concern the whole people. Education is left to 
 the states, though the central government has 
 contributed greatly to the encouragement of 
 schools and the integration of systems. The 
 public school system now is practically co-exten- 
 sive with the nation ; elementary denominational 
 schools are neither numerous nor largely attended. 
 But of 506 colleges entitled to grant degrees 382 
 are avowedly denominational. There are also 
 (approximately) 200 superior institutions, inde- 
 pendent of both church and state, varying greatly 
 as to quality of work, empowered to grant degrees. 
 Of the eight colleges of the first class for women 
 seven are private foundations, and enrol more 
 than 2000 students. Of the 132 degree-giving 
 institutions for women included in the second 
 class 59 are private organisations, and have an 
 attendance of about 9000 students. Of the 12 
 university foundations live are independent cor- 
 porations having COOO students. Sixty-one of 
 the 384 colleges for men alone or for both sexes 
 are private, and enrol 10,000 students. In 
 addition to these still, there are 32 independent 
 schools of science with 8000 students. The 
 schools of all grades enrol approximately 18,000,000 
 pupils. Of tliis number nearly 16,500,000, or 90 
 per cent., belong to public institutions ; the 
 remaining 10 per cent, to denominational and 
 private schools. Among tlie professions medi- 
 cine ranks first in number of schools (281), 
 theology second (150), and law last (100). The 
 schools of tlieology have nearly 7600 students, 
 of whom over 180 are women. In the schools 
 of law are 13,600 students, and in medicine 
 (including surgery, dentistry, pharmacy, and 
 veterinary science) tliere are as many as 40,000 
 students. There are also 48 schools of technology, 
 with 15,000 students ; 132 colleges for women, 
 with 23,750 students ; and 448 schools for nurses, 
 with 11,600 students. Tliere are besides schools 
 for deaf-mutes, the blind, the feeble-minded, and 
 reform scliool's for the wayward. The total 
 amount expended on elementary and secondary 
 public schools, from all sources (from permanent 
 endowments, property-tax, local or general, &c.), 
 is over $187,320,000; on the 472 universities 
 and colleges, about $19,000,000; and on the 
 48 technical schools, $3,550,000. Tlie number 
 of teachers in common schools increased from 
 200,515 in 1S70 to 430,000 in the first years of 
 the twentieth century. 
 
 The first census of the Union was taken in 1790, 
 when it comprised thirteen states ; in 1820 there 
 were twenty-three states and three territories ; 
 ii) 18G0 thirtj^-three states and five territories ; in 
 
 1880 thirty-eight states and nine territories; In 
 1900 forty-five states and five territories, not 
 including Alaska and island dependencies. Tlie 
 table sliows the population of the republic till 
 1900 (see p. 717). 
 
 Year. White. Free Coloured. Slave. Total 
 
 1790 3,172,006 59,.'527 697,681 3,929,214 
 
 1820 7.862,166 233,634 ].!5.38,022 9.633 822 
 
 1860 26,922,537 488,070 3,953,760 31,443 321 
 
 1880 43,402,970 6,580,793 .. .50 155 783 
 
 1890 54,983,890 7.470,040 .. 62 622*250 
 
 1900 67,308,998 8,840,388 .. 7G;149,'386 
 
 In 1900, 13-7 per cent, of the population was 
 foreign-born, 26-9 per cent, of these being from 
 the United Kingdom, and two-thirds of these 
 again from Ireland. Tliere is no state church in 
 the United States. In 1890 the Roman Catliolics 
 claimed to have over 6,250,000 of the popula- 
 tion ; the Methodists, nearly 5,000,000; Baptists, 
 4,300,000 ; Presbyterians, 1,230,000 ; Lutherans, 
 1,086,000 ; Congregationalists, 492,000 ; and the 
 Episcopal Church, 480,000. In 1900 there were 
 5,739,657 farms, whicli had a total acreage of 
 841,201,546. Over 165,000,000 acres were under 
 maize, wheat, and oats in 1904, and the total 
 production was 3,914,477,000 bushels. Potatoes, 
 rye, barley, buckwheat, rice, sugar, cotton, 
 tobacco, liemp, flax, hops, are other crops. In 
 1905 there were — cattle, 61,241,907; slieep, 
 45,170,423 ; swine, 47,320,511 ; hoises, 17,057,702 • 
 mules, 2,888,710. The total value of farm animals 
 exceeds 3000 million dollars. The total area 
 under cotton exceeds 27,000,000 acres, and the 
 value of the crop amounts to nearly $419,000,000. 
 Tliere are over 1,037,000 acres under tobacco, and 
 the value of the crop is over $55,500,000. The 
 census for 1900 .shows an increase in the textile 
 industries over that of 1890 amounting to 
 neaily $200,000,000, the total value of the pro- 
 duct being $931,494,566. Tlie pig-iron industry, 
 which in 1885 produced 4,044,526 tons, pro- 
 duced in 1903 18,009,252 tons; .steel in the 
 form of ingots and direct castings aggregated 
 14,947,250 tons in 1902, against 1,711,920 in 
 1885. The total value of the manufactured pro- 
 ducts of the United States in 1900 was over 
 $13,000,000,000. Tlie minerals (chiefly pig-iron and 
 coal, followed by silver, anthracite, and building 
 stone) have a value of $1,260,500,000. In 1903 
 there were in the United States over 2500 miles 
 of canals ; of railways, 207,977 miles ; of tele- 
 graphs, 250,000 miles ; and of telephones, 3,500,000 
 miles of wire. The value of lumber is about 
 $600,000,000 a year ; of the fislieries, $50,000,000. 
 The imports in 1904-5 were of the value of 
 $1,117,512,629, and on the.se duty to the amount 
 of $262,060,528 was paid. The exports for the 
 same years amounted to $1,518,561,720. The chief 
 trade is with Great Britain, wliich receives more 
 than one-third of all the exports, and supplies 
 nearly a fourth of the imports. The leading ex- 
 ports are bread-stuffs, cotton, meat and dairy 
 produce, mineral oils, animals, iron and steel 
 and manufactures, wood and manufactures, to- 
 bacco, &c. ; the principal imports, sugar, coffee, 
 iron and steel manufactures, flax, hemp, .jute, 
 and their manufactures, chemicals, and woollen 
 and cotton goods. Foreign commerce of recent 
 years has been carried on largely in foreign 
 bottoms, but efforts are now behig made to in- 
 crease the United States mercantile marine. In 
 1903 there were registered 12,836 sailing-vessels 
 of 1,965,924 tons, and 8054 steam-vessels of 
 3,408,088 tons; 888,776 tons was the burthen 
 of all ships engaged in the foreign trade, 
 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 719 
 
 UPPINGHAM 
 
 The navy has been to a great extent reorganised, 
 and in 1905 comprised, besides old vessels, &c., 
 13 battle-ships, 22 cruisers of all kinds, Avitli tor- 
 pedo boats and destroyers and submarines, and 
 So vessels of all classes building, with 1254 officers 
 and 41,532 men, including marines. The standing 
 army limit was raised in 1901 to 100,000 men. 
 The militia is supposed to comprise all men in 
 each state, from eighteen to forty-five, capable 
 of bearing arms ; tlie returns show only 9376 
 officers and 115,627 men. The federal revenue 
 in 1904-5 was $697,101,270 (an increase ot 
 $12,886,896 on the previous year). In the same 
 year the expenditure was $720,105,498, The gold, 
 including reserve and trust funds, amounted to 
 $739,898,600, and the outstanding principal of the 
 public debt was $895,158,340. 
 
 The head of the executive of the United States 
 is a president, who is commander-in-chief of 
 the army, navy, and militia, and exercises a 
 veto on the decisions of Congress. President 
 and vice-president are chosen, for four years, 
 by electors appointed by the several states 
 of the Union. The president chooses a cabinet 
 of eight members, each having charge of an 
 administrative department, but none of them 
 having a seat in Congress ; the senate must 
 approve the president's choice. The legislative 
 power belongs to the Congress, which comprises 
 a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
 Senators are chosen, two from each state, by the 
 several state legislatures, and hold office for six 
 years. The Senate has the power of confirming 
 or rejecting treaties with foreign i)0wers. The 
 House of Representatives is composed of members 
 elected biennially by the several states, the fran- 
 chise not beingprecisely similar in all the states. 
 Usually the electors are all male citizens of 21 
 years of age. Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, and 
 Utah give women the i)rivilege. The num- 
 ber of representatives for each state is propor- 
 tional to population (after tlie census of 1900, in 
 the proportion of one for 194,000 inhabitants). 
 The territories send delegates who may speak but 
 do not vote. Senators and representatives have a 
 salary of $5000, with travelling expenses. Each 
 state in the IFnion has its own constitution, 
 which provides for a governor, legislature of two 
 houses, and distinct judicial system. The details 
 vary considerably in the various states, but are 
 analogous to the constitution of the Union. The 
 state legislature is supreme in all matters except 
 those reserved for the Federal government. 
 
 The first settlements in North America north 
 of Mexico were made by the Spaniards in Florida 
 and the French on the banks of the St Lawrence. 
 In 1607 the Virginia Company settled the first 
 permanent English colony at Jamestown in Vir- 
 ginia. The Pilgrim Fathers arrived at New Ply- 
 mouth in 1620 ; ten years later the colony of Massa- 
 chusetts was established; and in 1643 Massa- 
 chusetts, New Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
 Haven constituted the United Colonies of New 
 England. Maryland, Carolina, New York, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania were formed ; and when in 
 1732 Georgia was founded, the coast was pretty 
 well occupied by English colonies. The English 
 area was enormously increased after the great 
 struggle with France (1690-1763), when in 1763, 
 by the peace of Paris, France gave uj) all her 
 claims to Canada and all lands east of the Missis- 
 sippi and north of Florida. Spain also ceded 
 most of her holdings. In the great revolutionary 
 struggle which followed on the Declaration of 
 Independence (1776) there were thirteen states, 
 the western boundary of the colonies being practi- 
 
 cally the Alleghanies ; by the peace of 1783 the 
 United States acquired all the land westwards to 
 the Mississippi. In 1803, by the ' Louisiana Pur- 
 chase,' the western part of the basin of the Mis- 
 sissippi passed to the republic. In 1819 Florida 
 became part of the national territory. Texas was 
 annexed in 1845 ; New Mexico, part of Arizona, 
 and California were added in 1848. In 1787 it 
 had been fixed that no states north of the Ohio 
 should be slave-holding states. At all extensions 
 of area there had arisen fierce struggles between 
 those favourable and those hostile to the increase 
 of the slave-holding area. The great question was 
 finally settled by the civil war of 1861-65, when 
 the southern states of Virginia, North and South 
 Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, 
 Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, were overcome 
 by the Union. In 1867 the United States pur- 
 chased Alaska from Russia, and the boundary 
 dispute with Britain was settled in 1903. The 
 war with Spain in 1888-89 resulted in the loss to 
 Spain of Cuba, and in the Philippine Islands, 
 Porto Rico, and Guam (Caroline Islands) being 
 made dependencies of the States ; the Hawaiian 
 Islands (1889) and Samoa (1900) have also been 
 added. 
 
 See America and the articles on the several 
 states ; the U.S. census reports ; A^orth America 
 in 'Stanford's Compendium,' by Hayden and Sel- 
 wyn ; Shaler's Geography of North Ainerica ; 
 works on the resources and industries of the U.S., 
 by Bishop (1864), Bolles (1881), Patton (1888) ; 
 works on the constitution, by Story, Kent, 
 Wharton, Curtis, Cooley, De Tocqueville, and 
 Bryce ; histories of the literature, by Tyler (1878), 
 Nichol (1882), Richardson (1888); and general 
 histories by Gay, Bryant, Macmaster, Hildreth, 
 Doyle, Payne, Goldwin Smith (1894), and others. 
 Unna (Oon'na), a Prussian town of Westphalia, 
 15 nules E. of Dortnuuid. Near by are the famous 
 Konigsborn salt-works. Pop. 14,950. 
 
 Unst, an island in the extreme north of Shet- 
 land, 38 miles N. by E. of Lerwick, It is 12^ 
 miles long, 2 to 6 miles wide, 934 feet high, and 
 46J sq. m. in area. Pop. 1940, 
 
 Unterwalden (Ooiiterval'den), one of the four 
 ' Forest Cantons ' of Switzerland, forms i)art of 
 the hill country round the Lake of Lucerne ; 
 area, 295 sq. m. ; population, 30,000. It is divided 
 into two parts, Upper and Lower ; the capital of 
 the Obwald is Sarnen, and of the Nidwald Stanz. 
 See Sowerby's Forest Cantons (1892). 
 
 Unyanyem'be (u as oo), a district of German 
 East Africa, between Tanganyika and the coast. 
 
 Unyo'ro (u as oo), a state of Central Africa 
 
 between Uganda and the Albert Nyanza, with a 
 
 pop. of 1,500,000, who are more uncultured than 
 
 their neighbours and kinsmen of Uganda, 
 
 Uper'nivik, See Greenland, 
 
 Uphall, the parish containing Broxburn (q.v,). 
 
 Upholland, a Lancashire town, 4 miles W. of 
 
 Wigan. Pop. 4773. 
 
 Upolu (Oo'poloo). See Samoa, 
 
 Uppingham, a market town of Rutland, 2^ 
 
 miles WNW. of Seaton by a branch-line (1894), 
 
 12 SW. of Stamford, and 83 NNW. of London. 
 
 The parish church, of which Jeremy Taylor was 
 
 rector, was mainly rebuilt in 1861 ; but the feature 
 
 of Uppingham is its public school, founded in 
 
 1584 by Archdeacon Robert Johnson (1540-1625). 
 
 With an endowment of only £1000 a year, it owes 
 
 its development from a mere grammar-school to 
 
 Edward Thring, its headmaster from 1853 to 
 
 1887. He found it with only 25 boarders, an4 
 
UPS ALA 
 
 720 
 
 URUMTSI 
 
 left it with 330; and to him was due the build- 
 ing of the great schoolroom, chapel, gymnasium, 
 swimming-bath, &c. Pop. 2559, See the Century 
 Magazine for September 1888. 
 
 Upsala (Oopsdh'la), the historic centre of 
 ancient Sweden, stands on a little stream that 
 runs down to Lake Malar, 41 miles by rail N. by 
 W. of Stockholm. Its existing importance is due 
 to its being the seat of Sweden's only archbishop, 
 and of the principal university. The Gotliic 
 brick cathedral was founded in 1289, completed 
 in 1435, partly burned down in 1702, and only 
 partly restored. It contains the tombs of 
 Linnfeus and Gustavus Vasa and some other 
 Swedish kings. The university, founded in 1477, 
 though new buildings were erected in 1877, is 
 attended by 1400 students, and possesses a library 
 (1620) of 300,000 volumes and 10,000 MSS , an 
 observatory, botanical garden, &c. In the older 
 town, around which on E. and N. new suburbs 
 have been built, there stands the castle of 
 Gustavus Vasa (1548). Pop. 23,800. About 3 
 miles NE. lies Old Upsala, where are three vast 
 tumuli of the ancient legendary kings ; and 4 
 miles SE. are the Mora stones, on which the old 
 kings used to take the oaths of good governance. 
 
 Upton-on-Severn, a Worcestershire town, 5^ 
 miles NNW. of Tewkesbury. Pop. 2220. 
 
 Ural (Ooral), 'a river of Russia, rises on the E. 
 side of the Urals in Orenburg government, and 
 runs 1450 miles SSW. to the Caspian, being 
 practically the boundary between Europe and 
 Asia. For the Ural Mountains, see Russia, p. (303. 
 
 Uralsk (Ooralsk), a Russian town, on the Ural's 
 right bank, 280 miles N. of its mouth in the 
 Caspian Sea. Pop. 40,000. — Area of Uralsk govern- 
 ment, 139,168 sq. m. ; pop. 692,500. 
 
 Urban'a, capital of Champaign county, Ohio, 
 95 miles NNE. of Cincinnati. It manufactures 
 woollens, carriages, glue, &c. Pop. 6810. 
 
 Urblno (Oorbee'no; anc. Urbinum Hortense), a 
 city of Central Italy, nestling among wooded hills, 
 between the rivers Foglia and Metauro, 29 miles 
 from Faro station (97 miles by rail SE, of 
 Bologna). It is a town of narrow, tortuous 
 streets, with an archbishop's cathedral ; a magnifi- 
 cent ducal palace (1447 ; restored, and now hous- 
 ing the line art institution); a free university 
 (1564) with some 90 students ; and the house in 
 which Raphael was born, now the town museum. 
 Urbino was the seat of a line of independent 
 dukes from 1474 to 1631. Pop. (commune) 18,300. 
 
 Ure, a river in the North Riding of Yorkshire, 
 flowing 50 miles E. and SB. till at Myton it joins 
 the Swale to form the Ouse, 
 
 Urfa, a modern name for Edessa (q.v.). 
 
 Urga (Oorga), the religious capital of Mongolia, 
 on the river Tola, 180 miles SE. of Kiachta, on 
 the trade-route to Peking. Its college of Mon- 
 golian priests is the seat of the Bogdan or Lama 
 of the Mongols. Pop. (partly living in tents out- 
 side the city proper) 30,000, of whom 6000 or 
 7000 are Chinese. 
 
 Urgel (or Seo de Urgel ; Oor-hel), a town in the 
 Catalonian province of Lerida, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees. Pop. 2835. See Andorra. 
 
 Urgenj, See Khiva, 
 
 Uri (Ooree), one of the 'Forest Cantons' of 
 Switzerland, forms part of the hill country which 
 surrounds the Lake of Lucerne ; area, 416 sq. m, ; 
 population, 20,000. It consists of the Reuss's 
 valley, traversed by the great road and the rail- 
 ■yvay into {taly over the St Gothard Pass, AltQrf 
 
 (q.v.) is the capital. See Sowerby, The Forest 
 Cantons of Switzerland (1892). 
 
 Uriconium. See Wroxeter. 
 
 Urie. See Inverurie. 
 
 Urmia {Oor'meea), a town of the Persian prov- 
 ince of Azerbijan, 10 miles W. of the Lake of 
 Urmia ; pop. 32,000. It was said to be Zoro- 
 aster's birthplace. The Lake (4500 feet above 
 the sea) measures 90 miles by 25 ; contains 
 numerous islands ; has no outlet, but many 
 feeders, some 80 to 150 miles long ; is intensely 
 salt ; and is only 12 to 40 feet deep. 
 
 Urr Water, a Kirkcudbrightshire stream, flow- 
 ing 27 miles S. by E. to the Solway Firth, 
 
 Uruguay (OoroogwV ; formerly known as the 
 Banda Oriental or 'Eastern Bank' — i.e. of the 
 Uruguay) is the smallest of the South American 
 republics, although its area— 72,110 sq. m.— is 
 three-fifths that of the United Kingdom. The 
 Atlantic washes its shores for 120 miles, the 
 Plate and Uruguay rivers for nearly 600 miles ; 
 the Rio Negro flows across the central portion. 
 The country is full of low hills or ranges, the 
 highest reaching only 1650 feet. Gold and copper 
 mines are worked, but little has been done to 
 exploit the varied mineral wealtli of the country. 
 The normal temperature is between 35° and 90° F, 
 The pop., estimated at 684,000 in 1889, and at 
 964,600 in 1901, is made up mainly of half-breeds, 
 including Gauchos ; but the foreign element, 
 largely Basques and Italians, is rapidly in- 
 creasing. The leading industry is the raising 
 of cattle and sheep ; six-sevenths of all the ex- 
 ports is pastoral and saladero produce. Liebig's 
 factory is at Fray Bentos (q.v.). Uruguay 
 possesses some 17,000,000 head of sheep and 
 6,500,000 of cattle ; tiie chief crops are wheat 
 and maize. The imports have a value varying 
 from $23,700,000 to $32,360,000 per annum ; the 
 exports from $27,700,000 to $29,000,000. Uruguay 
 is divided into nineteen departments. The presi- 
 dent is elected for four years, and with a strong 
 military force (3500 men) he is practically master 
 of tlie country. The navy has only 185 men and 
 officers, manning three gimboats, seven steamers, 
 &c. Tlie revenue varies from $16,200,000 to 
 $17,900,000 ; the e.\-penditnre statistics are not so 
 reliable, but the accounts are supposed to balance, 
 and the debt is $123,000,000 (largely for raihvaysX 
 The state religion is Roman Catholic, but all 
 are tolerated. About 1000 miles of railway are 
 open ; and there axe 4000 miles of telegraph lines. 
 The chief towns Live Montevideo (the capital), 
 Paysandu, Colonia, and Minas. Uruguay was 
 long a bone of contention between the Portugue.se 
 and Spaniards, and, after it became independent 
 (1814), between Brazil and Argentina. In 1828 
 13razil and Argentina guaranteed its independ- 
 ence ; but a new series of wars began in 1839, 
 and Montevideo sustained an eight years' siege. 
 Uruguay, which has been shamefully misgoverned 
 and plundered, joined Brazil and Argentina 
 against Paraguay in 1868. See books on the Plate 
 region by Mulhall and by Levey, and a work by 
 W, H, Hudson (1885), 
 
 Uruguay River rises in Brazil, and flows 
 nearly 1000 miles W, and S. to form with the 
 Parand, the La Plata (q.v.) estuary. It separates 
 Brazil and Uruguay from Argentina ; is much 
 encumbered by rapids ; but is navigable to Salto 
 (200 miles). 
 
 Urumiah. See Urmia. 
 
 Urumtsi (Ooroomtsee), the chief city in Chinese 
 Zungaria, at the N. base of the Tian-shan Mqui^' 
 
USAGARA 
 
 721 
 
 UXMAL 
 
 tains. It commands the main route from Mon- 
 golia into Eastern Turkestan. Pop. 20,000-30,000. 
 
 Usagara (Oosagah'ra), a territory in German 
 East Africa, between Tanganyika and the coast. 
 
 Usedom (Oo'zeh-dom), a Prussian island at the 
 mouth of the Oder, shutting off the Stettiner Haff 
 from the Baltic. Area, 157 sq. m. ; pop. 35,000. 
 On its E. side is Swinemiinde (q.v.), on the SW. 
 the town of Usedom (pop. 1786). 
 
 nshant (Fr. form Ouessant), an island off the 
 W. coast of France, in the dep. of Finisterre, 
 with an area of 20 sq. m. and a pop. (1891) of 
 2720. Off Ushant on ' the glorious first of June ' 
 1794 Howe gained a great naval victory. 
 
 Ushaw, 4 miles WNW. of Durham, the seat of 
 St Cutlibert's R. 0. College, transferred hither in 
 1808 from Crook Hall, having fifteen years before 
 been expelled from Douay. 
 
 Usk, a beautiful river of South Wales and 
 Monmouthshire, rising at Talsarn, one of the 
 Black Mountains, and winding 57 miles SE. to 
 the Bristol Channel. The town of Usk, 12 miles 
 SW. of Monmouth, has a ruined castle, and with 
 Monmouth and Newport returns a member. 
 Pop. 1477. 
 
 Uskub (u as oo), or Skoplie, a town of Turkey 
 130 miles NW. of Salonica by rail. Pop. 30,000. ' 
 
 Uspallata. See Chili. 
 
 Ussuri. See Amur. 
 
 Ust Urt {u as oo), the desert plateau between 
 the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. 
 
 Utah (Yoota), since 1894 a state of the Ameri- 
 can Union, in the Rocky Mountain region, 350 
 miles from N. to S., and 280 from B. to W. , with an 
 area of 84,970 sq. m. Idaho and Wyoming bound 
 it N. ; Colorado, E. ; Arizona, S. ; and Nevada, 
 W. Utah lies in a great plateau region, having an 
 average elevation of 5000 feet above the level of 
 the sea. The Wahsatch Mountains (12,000 feet), 
 running N. and S., and the Uintah Mountains 
 (14,000 feet), an eastern spur, divide it into two 
 portions differing widely in topography and 
 climate. The division lying N. and W. of these 
 vanges belongs to the great interior basin of the 
 continent, from which no water escapes except by 
 evaporation. The streams which flow from the 
 mountains find their way toward the west, ulti- 
 mately discharging their waters into Great Salt 
 Lake (q.v.), or into some of the smaller saline lakes 
 or sinks of the desert. In the valleys lying among 
 the western spurs irrigation is practicable, if pre- 
 carious, depending as it does on the melting snow 
 of the mountains. The prevailing westerly winds 
 are robbed of their moisture by the lofty peaks 
 of the Wahsatch range ; and to the E., in the basin 
 of the Colorado River, the towering plateaus 
 which ' overhang stupendous canons have but a 
 slight and irregular rainfall, and except in a few 
 favoured valleys agriculture is almost an impos- 
 sibility. The annual product of copper, lead, 
 silver, and gold is valued at $11,000,000. Tliere is 
 also coal. Besides Salt Lake City, the import- 
 ant towns are Ogden, Provo, and Logan. Pop. 
 (1870) 86,786; (1880) 143,963; (1900) 276,749. 
 Utah formed a part of the territory acquired by 
 the United States from Mexico in 1848, was 
 developed by the Mormons, organised as a terri- 
 tory in 1850, and reduced to its present area in 
 1868. The polygamy of the Mormons formed the 
 main difficulty in the way of the territory being 
 admitted to the privileges of a state, and this did 
 not take place till 1894, when Mormon supremacy 
 had been abolished and after the Mormons had 
 2t 
 
 renounced plural marriages. See books by H. H, 
 Bancroft (1888) and Lambourne (1891). 
 
 Utakamand'. See Ootacamund. 
 
 Utioa (Yoo'tica), an ancient city of North 
 Africa, 20 miles NW. of Carthage, originally 
 a Phoenician colony on the coast (now 10 miles 
 distant). Its ruins include an amphitheatre, an 
 aqueduct, and the remains of quays. Here the 
 younger Cato killed himself. 
 
 Utica (Yoo'tica), a city of New York, 232 miles 
 by rail NNW. of New York City. Rising in a 
 gentle slope from the south bank of the Mohawk 
 River, and traversed by the Erie Canal, it contains 
 a fine United States building, a city hall, state 
 lunatic asylum, and a Masonic Home and School 
 (begun in 1891), is a noted market for cheese, and 
 manufactures boots and shoes, cottons and wool- 
 lens, organs and pianos, machinery, starch, &c. 
 Pop. (1880) 33,914 ; (1900) 56,383. 
 
 Utrecht (Dutch pron. nearly Ee'trehht ; Oude 
 trecht, ' old ford ; ' Lat. Trajectum ad Rhenum), 
 the capital of a province of the Netherlands, on 
 the ' Old ' Rhine (q.v.), 23 miles SSE. of Am- 
 sterdam and 38 ENE. of Rotterdam. The 
 walls were levelled in 1830, and formed into 
 shady promenades, the present fortifications 
 consisting of strong forts. St Martin's Cathe- 
 dral, founded by St Willibrord about 720, and 
 rebuilt in 1251-67, had its nave destroyed by 
 a hurricane in 1674, so that the choir and the 
 tower (321 feet high) now stand separate. The 
 famous university, founded in 1634, numbers 
 over 1000 students, and has a library of 260,000 
 volumes. Otiier edifices are tlie 14th-century 
 Roman Catholic Cathedral, the town-hall (1830), 
 the 'Pope's House' (built by Adrian VI., who 
 was born here in 1459), the palace (in 1807) of 
 Louis Bonaparte, &c. Utrecht since 1723 has 
 been the headquarters of the Jansenists. The 
 manufactures include tobacco and cigars, woollen 
 fabrics and carpets, salt, furniture, chemicals, 
 machinery, &c. Pop. of the town (1869) 59,299 ; 
 (1901)106,800. Here was formed the famed union 
 of the northern provinces for the defence of 
 political and religious freedom in 1579 ; and at 
 Utrecht nine distinct treaties were concluded in 
 1713, which brought to a close the war of the 
 Spanish succession. 
 
 Utrecht, capital of a district in Natal, trans- 
 ferred in 1902 from the Transvaal, 30 miles NE. 
 of Newcastle. Pop. 4000. 
 
 Utrera (Ootray'ra), an old town of Spain, 19 
 miles by rail SE. of Seville. Pop. 14,600. 
 
 Uttoxeter (Jlx'eter; A.S. Uttocceaster), a mar- 
 ket-town of Staffordshire, on an eminence above 
 the Dove, 14 miles ENE. of Staflbrd. In its 
 market-place Dr Johnson did penance bare- 
 headed ; and it has a modern church with an 
 old tower and lofty spire, a town-hall (]855), 
 a mechanics' institute, a free grammar-school 
 (rebuilt 1859), and manufactures of iron, nails, 
 ropes, beer, &c. Pop. 5130. 
 
 Uxbridge, a market-town of Middlesex, on the 
 Colne, 16 miles W. of London. It has one 
 church, St Margaret's, restored 1872 ; another, St 
 Andrew's (1865), with a spire of 170 feet ; a town- 
 hall (1836) ; and a spacious corn exchange (1861). 
 Pop. 8585. Commissioners met here fruitlessly 
 in January 1645 to discuss terms of peace between 
 Charles I. and the parliament. See Bedford's 
 History of Uxbridge (1818). 
 
 Uxmal (u as oo), a ruined city in the NW. of 
 Yucatan, 40 miles SW. of Merida, with vast 
 remains of ancient grandeur, temple-terraces, &c. 
 
VAAL 
 
 722 
 
 VALLOMBROSA 
 
 TAAL (Vdhl), a river of South Africa, 
 rises in the Drakenberg, and flows 500 
 iles between the Transvaal and the 
 Orange River Colony to the Orange. 
 Valais {Valay; Ger. Wallis), a moun- 
 tainous Swiss canton, bounded S. by Italy. Area, 
 2036 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 114,438, Towns are Sion 
 and Martigny. 
 
 Valdai Hills. See Volga. 
 
 Valdepeiias (Val-de-payn'yas), a town of Spain, 
 140 miles S. by E, of Madrid. Pop. 20,700. 
 
 Val de Travers (French pron. Travayr'), a 
 valley in the Swiss canton of Neuchatel, with 
 great asphalt-mines. 
 
 Valdivia {Val-dee-via), capital of a southern 
 province of Chili, on the Callecalle, 15 miles 
 above its mouth in Valdivia Bay. Pop. 9850. 
 
 Valence {Valon'ss), capital of the French dep. 
 Drome, is on the left banlc of the Rhone (crossed 
 by an iron bridge), below the Isere's mouth, and 
 66 miles S. of Lyons. It has several interesting 
 Renaissance buildings, an 11th-century cathedral, 
 an 18th-century Protestant temple, and manu- 
 factures of silk, glass, iron, &c. Pop. 24,200. 
 
 Valencia (Span. pron. c as tli), a seaport of 
 Spain, .on the Mediterranean, 200 miles SW. of 
 Barcelona by rail. The picturesque walls, erected 
 by Pedro IV. in 1356, were removed in 1871 ; and 
 the recent houses are a striking contrast to those 
 in the gloomy old town. The archiepiscopal 
 cathedral, commenced in 1262, and 330 feet long, 
 is classical within, and Gothic without. The 
 university has a library of 42,000 vols., and there 
 is a good picture-gallery. Silk-spinning and 
 weaving are carried on, with manufactures of 
 cloths, hats, glass, linen, leather, cigars, and 
 Valencia tiles. Pop. (1877) 143,856; (1905)215,000. 
 — Valentia, or Valencia del Cid, dating from the 
 2d century b.c., was destroyed by Poiripey, 
 taken by the Goths in 413, by the Moors in 
 715, and by the Cid in 1094. Suchet captured 
 it in 1812. — The old kingdom of Valencia is 
 subdivided into the three provinces of Valencia 
 (area, 4152 sq. m. ; pop. 806,556), Alicante, and 
 Castellon de la Plana.— (2) Valencia de Alcantara, 
 a town, 250 miles WSW. of Madrid ; pop. 9250. 
 
 Valencia, capital of Carabobo state in Vene- 
 zuela, close to the beautiful Lake of Tacarigua, 
 34 miles by rail S. of Puerto Cabello. Pop. 38,654. 
 
 Valenciennes (Va-lonFss-yenn'), a dark, ill- 
 built manufacturing town and flrst-class fortress 
 of France, in the dep. of Nord, stands at the 
 entrance of the Rhonelle into the Scheldt (which 
 flows through the town in several arms), by rail 
 155 miles NNE. of Paris and 58 SW. of Brussels. 
 It possesses a citadel constructed by Vauban, a fine 
 hotel-de-ville, and a modern Gothic church, with 
 tower 272 feet high. The famous lace is no longer 
 made here, only a coarse sort. Other manufac- 
 tures are cambric, cotton yarn, hosiery, linseed- 
 oil, beet-root sugar, and there are great iron- 
 Avorks. The country round about is a great 
 coal-basin. Valenciennes (the Valentiniance or 
 Valentiana of the Romans) was ceded to France 
 in 1678, and was taken by the Allies in 1793, after 
 a siege of 84 days, but restored next year. It is 
 the birthplace of Watteau and Froissart (statue, 
 1856). Pop. (1872) 22,118 ; (1901)28,786. 
 
 Valentia, or Valencia, a rocky island (5x2 
 mUes) off" County Kerry, 42 miles by rail WSW. 
 of Killarney, with cliff's nearly 900 feet high at 
 
 the north end. It is the terminus since 1857- 
 Q6 of more than one Atlantic telegraph. The 
 name is most likely corrupted ft-om the Irish 
 Fail-inis. 
 
 Valenza (Valent'za; anc. Valentia), a town of 
 N. Italy, on the Po, 9 miles by rail N. of Ales- 
 sandria. Pop. 7466. 
 
 Valetta, since 1570 the chief town of Malta, on 
 the NB. side of the island. It occupies a rocky 
 tongue of land over 3000 yards long, on either 
 side of which are two noble harbours, and is 
 defended by fortifications of great strength, 
 many of them hewn out of the solid rock. Note- 
 worthy are the governor's palace — formerly that 
 of the Grand-masters of the order of St John — 
 plain without, but magnificent within ; the 
 superb cathedral ; and the church of San Pubblio, 
 with its famed sotteraneo (' vault ') of embalmed 
 monks and skeletons ; the public library of 
 60,000 vols. ; the university ; the aqueduct, which 
 brings water 8J miles from the far side of the 
 island ; and many of the palazzi of the Maltese 
 nobles. There is a railway to Rabat in the in- 
 terior. Valetta, though much earlier than his 
 date, was named after the Grand-master La 
 Valette. Pop. of .Valetta with Floriaiia and 
 Slienia suburbs, about 40,000; of the other, 
 'three cities' or suburbs of Senglea, Cospicua, 
 and Vittoriosa, 26,700 ; total, 66,700. 
 
 Valguarnera (Val-gwar-nay'ra), a town of 
 Sicily, 16 miles E. of Caltanisetta. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Valladolid (Span, pron. Val-ya-do-leeth'), a 
 fortified city of Spain, sometime capital of the 
 whole country, and still capital of a province of 
 Old Castile, stands on the Pisuerga's left bank, 
 150 miles NW. of Madrid by rail, and 2200 feet 
 above sea-level. The Classical cathedral (1585) 
 was never finished ; the Dominican monastery, 
 of which Torquemada was prior, is now a house 
 of correction, and that of the Benedictines is a 
 barrack. The vmiversity dates from 1346. The 
 Scots College here was long the only seminary 
 for the education of Scottish Catholics. There 
 are some manufactures of silk, cotton, and 
 woollen stuff's, iron, jewellery, hats, paper, per- 
 fumery, chemicals, gloves, &c. Pop. (1877) 
 52,206 ; (1905) 69,500. Valladolid, the Pincia of 
 Ptolemy, appears as Vallisoletum in 1072. Charles 
 V. erected many splendid edifices here, Valladolid 
 being then the most prosperous city in Spain, 
 with 100,000 inhabitants. Formerly capital of 
 Castile and Leon, it was still the usual residence 
 of the kings of Spain. In 1560, under Philip II. 
 (who was born here), Madrid was declared the 
 only court ; and Valladolid thenceforth declined. 
 In 1808 it was sacked by the French. — Area of 
 province, 2930 sq. m. ; pop. 278,560. 
 
 Valladolid, a town of Yucatan, 90 miles ESB. 
 of Merida. Pop. 5000. See also Mokelia. 
 
 Valle Crucis Abbey. See Llangollen. 
 
 Vallejo (Val-yay'ho), a port of California, on 
 San Pablo Bay, 31 miles NB. of San Francisco. 
 On Mare Island is a navy-yard. Pop. 7970. 
 
 Valleyfield, a manufacturing town of Quebec, 
 on tlie St Lawrence, 54 miles by rail SW. of 
 Montreal. Pop. 11,060. 
 
 Vallombro'sa ('Shady Valley'), a celebrated 
 abbey among the Apennines, 15 miles E. of 
 Florence, in a valley surrounded with forests of 
 fir, beech, and chestnut trees. Here an order of 
 Benedictine njonks was founded about 1038 ; the 
 
VALLS 
 
 723 
 
 VELDES 
 
 present magnificent buildings were erected in 
 1673. In 1869 the monastery was suppressed ; 
 but the place is still much visited by tourists. 
 Milton was here in 1639, Wordsworth in 1837. 
 
 Valls, a manufacturing town of Spain, 12 miles 
 N. of Tarragona. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 Valmy (Val-mee'), a French village in the dep. 
 of Marne, 20 miles NE. of Chalons. At the 
 famous 'cannonade of Valmy,' 20th Sept. 1792, 
 Dumouriez forced the Prussians to retreat. 
 
 Valparai'so (ai as i; ' Vale of Paradise '), the 
 second city of Chili, and next to San Francisco 
 the principal American port on the Pacific, is 
 situated on the bay of the same name, 115 miles 
 by rail WNW. of Santiago, and 881 W. of Buenos 
 Ayres by the Trans-Andean Railway. Tlie city 
 is built chiefly upon a sloping plain, cut up by 
 ridges terminating in steep bluffs. Its long 
 streets, with imposing churches, trams, gas, 
 and electric light, suggest a European city. The 
 old town. El Puerto, contains the vast customs 
 warehouses, huge elevators, the mole and har- 
 bour, wharves, the exchange, post-office, and 
 municipal palace, with a bronze statue of Lord 
 Cochrane ; above it rises the Cerro Alegre. 
 Batteries crown the heights. Valparaiso's im- 
 ports exceed £6,000,000 and its Exports £1,000,000. 
 It suffered from earthquakes in 1822, 1851, and 
 .1906, when 5000 persons perished ; was bombarded 
 by a Spanish fleet in 1866 ; and after a tliree 
 days' battle in the civil war of 1891, fell to the 
 nisurgents. Pop. (1905) 145,000. 
 
 Valparaiso, the capital of Porter county, 
 Indiana, 44 miles SE. of Cliicago. Pop. 6280. 
 
 Yailtelline (Val'tel-leen), the upper Adda's rich 
 valley down to its influx into the Lake of Como. 
 
 Valtos, a crofter coast-village of Skye, ISJ 
 miles N. by E. of Portree. Pop. 323. 
 
 Van, a walled town of Turkey in Asia, the 
 capital once of an Armenian kingdom, near the 
 SE. shore of Lake Van, 145 miles SE. of Erzeruni. 
 Pop. 35,000.— Brackish Lake Van (80 X 30 miles) 
 has no visible outlet. 
 
 Vancouver, a town of British Columbia, the 
 terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1887), 
 stands on Burrard Inlet (at its head is Port 
 Moody, the former terminus ; pop. 3000), 2906 
 miles by rail W. by N. of Montreal. Its site a 
 dense forest till 1885, it now possesses Tuiles of 
 well-made streets, lit by gas and electricity, 
 electric trams, a fine Anglican cathedral, a hand- 
 some opera-house, three parks, wharves and 
 warehouses, smelting- works, &c., and has steam- 
 ship connection with San Francisco, China, Japan, 
 and the Australasian colonies. Pop. 26,250. 
 
 Vancouver Island, belonging to British 
 Columbia, and separated from the mainland 
 by Queen Charlotte Sound, Johnstone Strait, 
 and Strait of Georgia, is 278 miles long, and 50 
 to 65 miles broad. Area, 12,760 sq. m. ; pop. 
 40,000. Tlie sliores are marked by rocky promon- 
 tories, sheltered coves, fine harbours, and on the 
 W. deep fiord-like arms of the sea. The country 
 is well wooded, the streams, which are nearly 
 dry in summer, supplying power for mills. The 
 climate resembles that of southern Britain, the 
 warm Pacific Gulf Stream maintaining a mild 
 temperature. Barely a tenth of the surface is 
 suited for agriculture. Fruit-culture is profitably 
 carried on. The island is very rich in minerals. 
 Besides gold, silver, copper, iron, &c., it possesses 
 great fields of excellent coal, at Nanaimo in par- 
 ticular. Another source of wealth is in the 
 fisheries. The island was discovered in 1592 by 
 
 Juan de Fuca, and visited in 1792 by Captain 
 George Vancouver, R.N. (1758-98); but the first 
 permanent settlement was made in 1843, when 
 the Hudson Bay Company built a fort where 
 Victoria, the capital, now stands. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land. See Tasmania. 
 
 Vannes (Vanyi), a French seaport, capital of 
 the Breton dep. Morbihan, stands at the mouth 
 of a tributary of the Gulf of Morbihan, 10 miles 
 from the sea. It has a cathedral (13th to 15th 
 centuries), an old Maison du Parlement, many 
 carved houses, a rich museum of Celtic antiqui- 
 ties, and manufactures of woollens and ropes and 
 some shipbuilding. Pop. 19,625. 
 
 Van Wert, the capital of Van Wert county, 
 Ohio, 27 miles WNW. of Lima. Pop. 6430. 
 
 Var, a dep. of SE. France, with the three 
 arrondissements of Draguignan (the capital), 
 Brignoles, and Toulon. Area, 2349 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1872) 293,757 ; (1901) 326,384. 
 
 Varal'lo, an Italian town, 35 miles NW. of 
 Novara by rail. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Varanger Fiord (VaJi-rang'er), a deep inlet of 
 the Arctic Ocean into Finmark, the northernmost 
 province of Norway. 
 
 Varasdin. See Warasdin. 
 
 Vardo, a Norwegian fishing-town on Vardo 
 island, at the E. end of Finmark (pop. 2630). 
 
 Varennes (Varenn'), a town in the French dep. 
 of Meuse, 18 miles NW. of Verdun. Here Louis 
 XVI. and his family were captured making for the 
 frontier, 22d June 1791. Pop. 1200. 
 
 Varese (Varay'zay), a town of N. Italy, at the 
 end of Lake Varese (7 sq. m.), 18 miles by rail 
 W. of Como. Pop. 5872. 
 
 Varlnas (Vareenas), a town of Venezuela, 100 
 miles SB, of Lake Maracaybo. Pop. 7000. 
 
 Varna, a Bulgarian Black Sea port, 115 miles 
 SE. of Rustchuk by rail. The French and British 
 encamped here in 1854. Pop. 35,450. 
 
 Varzin (Var-tzeen'), a Pomeranian village of 
 1200 inhabitants, 25 miles SE. of Koslin. Near 
 it is a seat of the Bismarcks. 
 
 Vasa (Vdh-sa), a county or Ian of Finland, on 
 the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 
 Vasarhely (Vasarhay'lee). See Maros-Vasar- 
 HELY. — Hodmezo Vasarhely, a Hungarian town. 
 20 miles NE. of Szegedin by rail. Pop. 60,830. 
 
 Vassilkov, a town of Little Russia, 18 miles 
 SW. of Kieff. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 VatnajokuU (Vatnayo'keel). See Iceland. 
 
 Vaucluse (Vo-cliis'), a dep. of SE. France. 
 Area, 1370 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 263,451 ; (1901) 
 236,949.— At the village of Vaucluse (FaZZis dausa), 
 19 miles E. of Avignon, lived Petrarch. 
 
 Vaud (Fo ; Ger. Waadt), a W. canton of Switzer- 
 land, between the Jura and the Bernese Alps. 
 Area, 1244 sq. m. ; pop. 283,000, French-speaking 
 and Protestant. 
 
 Veglia, an Austrian island in the Adriatic, 
 SE. of Trieste. Area, 165 square miles ; pop. 
 21,140. 
 
 Vejle, a port of Denmark, at the head of a fiord 
 on the east coast of Jutland. Pop. 14,600. 
 
 Velbert, a town in the Rhine province of 
 Prussia, 15 miles NE. of Diisseldorf. Pop. 17,500. 
 
 Vel'des, a summer- resort on a lake in the 
 Austrian province of Carniola, 80 miles NW. 
 of Laibach. It is famous for its sun-baths. 
 Pop. 500. 
 
VELEIA 
 
 724 
 
 VENICE 
 
 Velei'a, an ancient Ligurian city, overwhelmed 
 by a landslip (c. 280 a.d.). Its ruins, 20 miles S, 
 of Piacenza, were uncovered in 1760-65. 
 
 V^lez-M&laga (Vay'layth-Malt'laga), a Spanish 
 town 16 miles E. of Malaga. Pop. 23,479. 
 
 Velletri(FeZ-Zai/'<ree), a cathedral city, 25 miles 
 SE. of Rome by rail. Pop. 19,532. 
 
 Vellore, a town of British India, 80 miles W. 
 of Madras by rail. Pop. 43,540. 
 
 Venaissin {Venayssan^'), an ancient county of 
 France, between tlie Rhone and the Durance, 
 now included in Vaucluse. 
 
 Vendde(Fo?iS'(Za2/), La, a French dep., bounded 
 W. by the Bay of Biscay. Area, 2588 sq. m. ; 
 pop. (1886) 434,808; (1901) 441,311. Its three 
 arrondissements are La Roche -sur- Yon (the 
 capital), Fontenay-le-Comte, and Sables-d'Olonne. 
 The Vendeans stoutly resisted the Revolution. 
 
 Vendome (VonMdm), a town of the dep. Loir- 
 et-Cher, on the Loir, 42 miles NNE. of Tours and 
 111 SW. of Paris. Pop. 8450. 
 
 Vener. See Wener. 
 
 Venetia, the large ' compartimento * or division 
 of NE. Italy, between the Alps and Adriatic, of 
 which Venice (q.v.) is the historical centre. 
 
 Venezuela, United States of (Span. pron. 
 Venaythooay'la), a northern tropical republic of 
 South America, on the Caribbean Sea. The total 
 area is slightly over 417,000 sq. m. ; the official 
 returns (extending the area at the expense of 
 Colombia and British Guiana) make it 594,000 sq. 
 m. Trinidad and Tobago islands belong to 
 Britain. Venezuela is a land of mountains and 
 valleys in the west and north, of lower moun- 
 tains and wooded hills in the south, of llanos 
 between the Orinoco and the northern ranges, 
 and of lake and swamp and forest (much of it 
 pestiferous and uninhabitable) in the north-west. 
 The Andes enter the country south of Lake 
 Maracaybo, and push north-eastward as the 
 Cordillera de Merida (15,500 feet). In Mount 
 Roraima (q.v.) the frontiers of Guiana, Brazil, 
 and Venezuela meet. Innumerable streams find 
 a way over waterfalls and rapids to the Orinoco 
 (q.v.), chief of the eight river systems of the 
 country. The climate is moist ; the tempera- 
 ture varies from freezing-point above the snow- 
 line to great heat in the coast-towns, valleys, and 
 llanos. There are no active volcanoes, but earth- 
 quakes have done great damage— as in 1893 at 
 Merida. Almost everywhere the country is abund- 
 antly watered. Vegetation in the hotter region 
 is luxuriant beyond description. In the temper- 
 ate region coffee is produced. The people are 
 mostly half-breeds— mulattoes or mestizoes (i.e. 
 of crossed white and Indian blood). Pure negroes 
 (mainly on the coast) or whites are few : the 
 latter form perhaps 1 per cent, of the pop. 
 
 Venezuela contains rich mineral deposits, as 
 yet scarcely tapped, except for the Yuruari gold- 
 mines, the Aroa copper-mine, the government 
 salt-mines, and coal near Barcelona. Near Lake 
 Maracaybo there are great supplies of petroleum 
 and coal. Gold to the value of £349,234 was pro- 
 duced in 1890, but in 1900 the total was only 
 £63,904. In 1902 there were about 530 miles of 
 railway, besides 3900 miles of telegraph lines and 
 several telephone systems. Most of the over-sea 
 trade is in the hands of foreigners, Gerinan and 
 other. The chief export (over two-thirds of the 
 total exports) is coffee ; next follow cocoa, gold, 
 hides, cattle, sugar, cotton, copper, dye-woods, 
 &c. The imports (over a fourth from Britain) 
 are flour, cotton, linen, woollen, and jute goods, 
 
 iron, machinery, &c. The exports have an annual 
 value of about £5,000,000, the imports over 
 £3,000,000. In 1881 Venezuela— formerly com- 
 prising twenty-one states and their territories- 
 was redivided into eight large states, eight terri- 
 tories, and the federal district of Caracas (the 
 capital). The pop. in 1881 numbered 2,075,245 ; 
 in 1891, 2,323,527 ; of these 326,000 are Indians, 
 and 35,000 foreigners. The revenue (mostly 
 from customs duties) and the expenditure 
 nearly balance each other at from £1,500,000 
 to £1,800,000. The national debt is £4,572,000. 
 The army numbers 7280, and there is a militia. 
 The principal cities are Caracas, Valencia, 
 Maracaybo, Barquisimeto, Tocuyo, Maturin, 
 and La Guayra. The coast was visited by 
 Columbus in 1498, and next year the name 
 Venezuela (' Little Venice ') was given to an 
 Indian village built on piles seen by Ojeda and 
 Amerigo Vespucci. Settlements were made in 
 the 16th and I7th centuries, and the country 
 was plundered by Spanish governors till 1810, 
 when the revolt began which under Bolivar's 
 guidance ended in 1821 in independence of 
 Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. The only 
 tolerably good government was in 1870-77 under 
 Blanco, president and dictator. See a German 
 work by Sievers (1888) and a French work by 
 Cazeneuve and Harani (1888). 
 
 Venice (Ital. Venezia—Ven-etz'ya), the 'Pearl' 
 or 'Queen' of the Adriatic. In the 5th c. the 
 Veneti, expelled from the mainland by Lombards 
 and Goths, found refuge in the islands of the 
 lagoons. Tradition places the nucleus of Venice 
 on the site of the Basilica of St Mark ; now it 
 covers more than seventy-two islets, or rather 
 mud-banks, its foundations being piles (' time- 
 petrified ') and stone. Through its two unequal 
 portions winds for over two miles the Grand 
 Canal, spanned by the Rialto Bridge (of stone) 
 and two others (of iron), and into it flow 146 lesser 
 canals, all bridged at frequent intervals. This 
 vast network of waterway is patrolled by count- 
 less gondolas, while the pedestrian has his choice 
 of innumerable lanes (calli). A railway viaduct 
 (1845) 2jt miles long coiniects Venice with the 
 mainland, it being 165 miles E. of Milan and 181 
 NNE. of Florence. Its population, from well- 
 nigh 200,000 in the 15th c, dwindled to 100,000 
 in the 18th, but has since increased to (1905) 
 153,500. Its industries are its famous glass 
 manufacture ; jewellery and embroidery in gold 
 and silver ; lace, velvets, and silks ; candles, soap, 
 sugar, and confectionery. Printing is reviving; 
 while the shipbuilding now includes ironclads. 
 Venice imports from Great Britain coal, iron, 
 fish, and manufactured goods. The shallow- 
 ing lagoon, which at low ebb looks like so many 
 acres of mud, is connected with the sea by the 
 Lido, Malamocco, and two other entrances. With 
 the drinking-water now supplied from the main- 
 land the health of the city is improving. The 
 Piazza to the W. of St Mark's church is still the 
 centre of civic and social life. Its north side is 
 formed by the Procuratie Vecchie (1517), sur- 
 mounting an arcade of fifty arches. The Pro- 
 curatie Nnove, on the south side of the Piazza, 
 now constitute a portion of the Palazzo Reale. 
 Of this the library hall is a masterpiece of 
 Sansovino, its ceiling decorated by the seven best 
 Venetian artists of the time (1582), while Titian, 
 Paul Veronese, Bassano, and Tintoretto con- 
 tributed splendid work to other parts of the 
 interior. The Campanile, begun 902, and com- 
 pleted by the belfry 1510, collapsed in July 
 1902, but was rebuilt in 1903-8. The clock-tower 
 
VENICS 
 
 725 
 
 VERDtJN 
 
 gives entrance to the Merceria or main business 
 quarter. In front of St Mark's itself rise three 
 red flagstaffs, from which once floated the silk 
 and gold banners typifying Candia, Cyprus, and 
 the Morea, the three possessions of the republic. 
 The Doge's Palace, dating from the 10th and 11th 
 centuries, has been extended, modified, and re- 
 stored. It comprises the Sala del Maggior 
 Consiglio, with paintings by Titian, Bassano, Tin- 
 toretto, Paolo Veronese, and Palma Giovane ; 
 the celebrated library, transferred (1817) from the 
 Palazzo Reale, with 120,000 volumes and 10,000 
 MSS. ; the Museo Archeologico ; the Sotto Piombi 
 (' under the leads ') where Casanova and Silvio 
 Pellico languished ; the Pozzi (' wells ') which 
 shadow many a page of Venetian history ; and 
 the Bridge of Sighs, leading to the Carceri or 
 public prisons. The Zecca or Mint (now the 
 Bourse) and the granite columns, one bearing the 
 Lion of St Mark, the other St Theodore, have 
 infinitely less to detain us than the Basilica di 
 S. Marco itself, placed by Canova above the 
 cathedrals of Pisa and Sienna as, on the whole, 
 the first of the three finest churches in Italy, 
 whose external mosaics, bronze horses, interior 
 (also ennobled by its mosaics), choir, sacristy, 
 north transept, baptistery, treasury, and pave- 
 ment have each their special votaries. Dwarfed 
 by comparison, the remaining churches of Venice 
 need be noticed only in groups, of which 
 there are four— the first, Gothic in style, exem- 
 plified in the plain, massive, and solemn church 
 of the Frari ; the second, the so-called Lombard 
 (really a revival of Romanesque), of which the 
 church of the Miracoli is the type ; the third, 
 seen at its best in the Palladian Redentore ; and 
 the fourth, or modern Italian, ornate to excess, 
 represented by the church of the Salute. Near 
 SS. Giovanni e Paolo is the statue of Barto- 
 lommeo CoUeoni, general of the republic (1475), 
 which, designed by Verocchio and cast by 
 Leopardi, is reckoned the finest art-product of 
 its kind in the world. The Scuola of the church 
 of San Rocco is rich in magnificent Tintorettos. 
 The Accadeinia delle Belle Arti has a wealth of 
 Bellinis (Gentile and Giovanni), Carpaccios, 
 Giorgiones, Palmas (Vecchio and Giovane), Paolo 
 Veroneses, Tintorettos, and Titians ; while the 
 Museo Civico attracts the lover of majolicas, 
 gems, carvings, autographs, and miniatures. 
 Interest of a sterner kind clings to the arsenal, 
 founded in 1104, now employing 2000 workmen 
 as the third dockyard of Italy. Its museum 
 forms a running commentary on Venetian history, 
 containing the model of the Bucentaur from 
 which the doge every Ascension Day solemnly 
 espoused the Adriatic. On the Grand Canal, 
 down to the Rialto, are the Palazzo Manzoni 
 (15th c), Palazzo Corner (16th c), Palazzo Rez- 
 zonico, Palazzo Foscari, Palazzo Pisani a S. Polo, 
 Palazzo Contarini, three Mocenigo palaces, Palazzo 
 Corner Spinelli, and Palazzo Grimani. The.Palazzo 
 Moro is the traditional abode of Shakespeare's 
 Othello. In theatres Venice is comparatively 
 poor. La Fenice being the principal one ; but in 
 public gardens and islets adapted for holiday 
 purposes it abounds. The Littorale di Mala- 
 mocco, facing the city across the lagoon (the so- 
 called ' Lido '), is an immensely popular resort. 
 This and the islets Murano (renowned for its 
 glass), Torcello, and Burano (employing 300 girls 
 m the celebrated lace-industry) are easily acces- 
 sible by steamers and steam-launches. 
 
 Venice rises to historic importance in 697 a.d., 
 when the tribunes were superseded by a duke or 
 doge, and gradually obtained a foothold on the 
 
 mainland and increasing political influence. In 
 the 9th c. Istria and Dalmatia were conquered, 
 and Venice became a dominant power in the 
 Levant, taking an active share in the Crusades ; 
 in the 12th it conquered Tyre, Rhodes, and 
 many of the Cyclades, Sporades, and Ionian 
 islands. The Doge Enrico Dandolo (1192-1205) 
 brought about the partition of the empire, and 
 secured for Venice a large slice of Greece and 
 the Greek islands, part of the Balkan countries, 
 and districts on the Hellespont and in Constanti- 
 nople. Worsted and weakened by Genoa in the 
 13th c, in the 14th Venice crushed its rival for 
 ever, and became supreme at sea in war and 
 merchandise, commanding the bulk of trade with 
 the East. Next Venice was triumphant on the 
 Italian mainland, and in the 15th c. waged war 
 with Turkey and with France. The Cape route 
 to India and the discovery of America told in- 
 juriously on Venetian commerce, and constant 
 wars exhausted the treasury. In the 17th c, 
 however, the republic crushed the Turks in 
 Candia (Crete) and the Morea, but lost both in 
 the 18th. Its policy becajne utterly feeble, its 
 commerce irretrievably decayed, and when in 
 1796 Napoleon invaded the republic, it was but 
 the shadow of its former self. In 1798 Austria 
 secured possession, confirmed in 1815. The revolt 
 in 1848 led up to its final cession (1866) to 
 Napoleon III., who handed it over to Victor 
 Emmanuel to become a part of the kingdom of 
 Italy. See books by Yriarte (1879), Daru (Paris, 
 1853), Horatio Brown (1887-1905), A. J. C. Hare 
 (1884), Mrs Oliphant (1887), Wiel (1894), Mol- 
 menti (Florence, 1897), Okey (1903), and Menpes 
 (1904). 
 
 Venlo, a Dutch frontier town on the Meuse, 
 20 miles W. of Crefeld. Pop. 14,400, 
 
 Vennachar. See Katrine, Loch. 
 
 Veno'sa (anc. Venusia), Horace's birthplace, 
 S. Italy, 25 miles N. of Potenza. Pop. 8414. 
 
 Ventimlglia (Ventytneel'yd), a fortified town of 
 the Italian Riviera, near the French frontier, and 
 3 miles E. of Mentone by rail. It has a cathedral 
 and a small harbour. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 Vent'nor, the principal town on the south 
 shore of the Isle of Wight, 11 miles by rail S. by 
 W. of Ryde. Situated amid the finest of the fine 
 scenery of the Undercliff, it has a southern ex- 
 posure, well sheltered from the north, and so 
 possesses a mild climate, suitable for invalids. 
 Hence from a small fishing-hamlet it has grown 
 since 1830 to a favourite watering-place, with an 
 esplanade (1848), numerous hotels and lodging- 
 houses, and the National Consumption Hospital 
 (1872). The beach is composed of beautiful yellow 
 shingle ; and fossils abound in the vicinity. Pop. 
 (1861) 3208 ; (1901) 5866. 
 
 Vera Cruz (Vayra Crooz or Crooth), the princi- 
 pal port of Mexico, on the E. coast, 263 miles by 
 rail E. of the capital. A moist, hot, unhealthy 
 place, with a cathedral, it was founded as Villa 
 Nueva de la Vera Cruz (' New City of the True 
 Cross ') by Cortes in 1520. Pop. 29,000. 
 
 Vercelli (Ver-chel'lee), a town of N. Italy, 40 
 miles SW. of Milan, with a modern cathedral, 
 and manufactures of machinery, candles, matches, 
 soap, and musical instruments. Pop. 20,165. 
 
 Verd, Cape. See Cape Verd. 
 
 Ver'den, a town of Hanover, on the AUer near 
 the Weser, 20 miles SE. of Bremen. Pop. 9850. 
 
 Verdun (Ver-dun^'), a fortified French town in 
 dep. Meuse, 35 miles W. of Metz by rail. It has 
 a cathedral, and manufactures iron, liqueurs, 
 
VERfi 
 
 726 
 
 VEVAY 
 
 sweetmeats, leather, and beer. Pop. 13,100. 
 The fortress has been often beseiged— in IS'ZO by 
 the Germans for six weeks, when it capitulated. 
 
 Vere. See Campveke. 
 
 Verkhoy'ansk, a small town (pop. 300) of 
 Siberia, 400 miles NE. of Yakutsk. 
 
 Vermejo (Ver-may'ho). See Paraguay (river). 
 
 Vermont', the only entirely inland state of 
 New England, lies west of New Hampshire, 
 with Canada on the N., and Lake Champlain on 
 the W. Its length from north to south is 
 140 miles, its width 40 to 90 miles ; and its area 
 10,200 sq. m. . The Green Mountains (Verd 
 Mont— whence the name of the state) extend its 
 entire length, and in four peaks exceed 4000 
 feet. The mountains are mostly clothed with 
 trees to their summits. The hills furnish the best 
 of pasturage, and, for the most part, can be culti- 
 vated to their tops. Vermont is rich in quarries 
 of granite, marble, and slate, which are exten- 
 sively worked. Steatite, verd-antique, sulphuret 
 of iron, manganese, kaolin, and iron exist. A 
 larger area is devoted to cereals than in any 
 other New England state. The annual pro- 
 duction of maple sugar is nearly one-third 
 of the total production of the country. The 
 butter and cheese are of superior quality. The 
 state is divided into fourteen counties, and re- 
 turns two representatives to congress. MontpelieY 
 is the capital. Samuel Champlain, in 1609, was the 
 first white man who looked upon Vermont. The 
 first permanent settlement was made at Brattle- 
 boro in 1724. Vermont was received into the 
 Union, March 4, 1791, as the fourteenth state. 
 In the civil war it furnished 35,242 soldiers, or 
 one-half of all its able-bodied men. Pop. (1800) 
 154,465 ; (1880) 332,286 ; (1900) 343,641. 
 
 Vernon (Vayr-non^'), a French town, on the 
 Seine, 15 miles NW. of Mantes. Pop. 7960. 
 
 Vernon, a town of Connecticut, 12 miles ENE. 
 of Hartford. Pop. 8607. 
 
 Vero'na, a city of Italy, on the Adige, at the 
 base of the foot-hills of the Alps, 72 miles W. of 
 Venice by rail, is a fortress of the first class, a 
 member of the famous Quadrilateral. Its 
 strength now depends on outlying forts. The 
 amphitheatre (2d or 3d c. a.d.) has a lesser 
 diameter of 404 feet. Other Roman remains are 
 gateways, part of a theatre, and some mosaics. 
 The streets are wide, especially the Corso ; 
 there are four principal squares, of which the 
 Piazza dei Signori contains the palace of the 
 Delia Scala (1370) and the superb Palazzo del 
 Consiglio. The cathedral dates from 1187, and 
 has an altarpiece by Titian ; the Romanesque 
 basilica of St Zeno is larger and more interesting. 
 The palaces are numerous and fine. The ancient 
 castle of Theodoric is a barrack ; the Castle of 
 the Scalas (1355) is a barrack and arsenal. The 
 picture-gallery is especially rich in pictures of 
 the Paduan, Venetian, and Veronese (Pisauo, 
 Morone, &c.) schools. Paul Veronese, though a 
 native, belonged to the Venetian school. Among 
 the glories of the place are the tombs of the 
 Scala family, with their wondrous wrought-iron 
 railing (1350-80). There is a large transit trade 
 with Germany by the Brenner railway, and manu- 
 factures of silk, woollens and cottons, furniture, 
 musical instruments, &c. Pop. 75,300. Verona, 
 long the Lombard capital, was afterwards torn 
 by the struggles of Ghibellines and Guelphs, 
 being the home of Shakespeare's Capulets and 
 Montagues. From 1260 to 1387 the Scala or 
 Bcaliger family exercised a brilliant tyranny 
 
 over the city. It fell then to Milan, in 1405 to 
 Venice, and with Venice passed under Austrian 
 domination till 1866. 
 
 Versailles (French pron. nearly Ver-sV), a city 
 of France, capital of the dep. Seine-et-Oise, 11 
 miles SW. of Paris by rail. A city more of 
 pleasure than of industry, it covers a large area 
 in proportion to its population, and is remark- 
 ably regular. It is the see of a bishop, and con- 
 tains a public library of 50,000 volumes, many 
 palatial edifices, public fountains, -spacious 
 squares, and elm-planted avenues. Louis XIII. 
 built here on the site of an old priory a hunting- 
 lodge, afterwards extended into a chateau. Louis 
 XIV. devoted enormous sums to its embellish- 
 ment, or rather reconstruction, under the care of 
 Mansard. Here was signed in 1783 the peace of 
 Versailles between England and the United 
 States. Versailles continued a court-residence 
 down to the Revolution, which great event had 
 its beginning here in the meeting of the States- 
 general in May 1789. At this date the pop. was 
 100,000; the palace, its park, the perfection of 
 formal landscape gardening, and its fountains 
 have been the model of many capitals. Louis- 
 Philippe transformed the palace of Louis XIV. 
 into a museum. The most interesting pictures 
 are those by David (illustrating Napoleon's 
 career), Horace Vernet, Ary Scheft'er, and Dela- 
 croix. From September 1870 till the conclusion 
 of peace in 1871 Versailles was the German head- 
 quarters ; there King William was proclaimed 
 Emperor of Germany, and there the capitulation 
 of Paris was signed. After the peace it was the 
 seat of the government till 1879, and head- 
 quarters of the army during the Commune. 
 Pop. (1876) 49,522 ; (1881) 48,324 ; (1901) 44,563. 
 
 Versecz (Ver-shetz'), a Hungarian town, 45 miles 
 S. of Temesvar by rail. Pop. 25,200. 
 
 Ver'ulam. See St Albans. 
 
 Vervick. See Werwioque. 
 
 Vervlers (Verv-yay'), a Belgian town, on the 
 Vesdre, 15 miles ESE. of Li^ge. It is of recent 
 growth, and depends almost Avholly on its cloth 
 manufactures. Pop. (1876) 37,828 ; (1900) 49,067. 
 
 Vervins (Ver-van^'), a town (pop. 3150) in the 
 French dep. of Aisne, 25 miles NE. of Laon. 
 
 Vesoul {Vezool'), capital of the French dep. 
 Haute-Saone, 40 miles W. of Belfort. Pop. 8460. 
 
 Vesu'vius, the most striking object seen from 
 the Bay of Naples, a mountain (4206 feet) of 
 dense tufa. The higher Apennine-ofi"shoot, Monte 
 Somma (anc. Mons Summanus), surrounds it on 
 the N. and E. Vesuvius first (63 a.d.) became 
 convulsed by earthquakes, repeated at intervals 
 till 79, when its earliest known eruption occurred 
 (see Pompeii). This was followed by others, as 
 in 472, when its ashes alighted in Constantinople ; 
 in 512, when they were wafted to Tripoli ; in 1036 ; 
 in 1500 ; in 1631 ; in 1793 ; in 1822 ; in 1855 ; in 
 1861 ; in 1871-72 ; and in April 1906, when lava 
 streams issued and ashes covered a large area, 
 destroying two villages, and breaking down roofs 
 in Naples. The fertility of the slopes of Vesuvius 
 is proverbial, especially in wine. Its observatory 
 (1844) is famous. The first funicular railway to 
 near the sunimit was opened in 1880. See works 
 by Prof. Phillips (1869) and Lobley (1889). 
 
 Veszprim {Vess-preem), a Hungarian city, 25 
 miles SW. of Stuhlweisseuburg. Pop. 14,584. 
 
 Vev'ay, or Vevey (Ger. Vivis), a Swiss town in 
 the canton of Vaud, a lovely health-resort, on the 
 N. shore of the Lake of Geneva, 11 miles E. of 
 
VEZELAY 
 
 W 
 
 VICTORIA 
 
 Lausanne. In St Martin's church (date 1498) 
 Ludlow and Broughton, the regicides, are buried. 
 Cigars are made and exported. Pop. 11,790. 
 
 Vdzelay {Vay'ze-lay'), a small town (pop. 800) 
 in the French dep. of Yonne, 5 miles SB. of 
 Auxerra Its abbey church was restored in 1868. 
 Hither Becket retired in 1168 ; here St Bernard 
 in 1145 i)reached the Crusade ; and here Coeur de 
 Lion and Philip Augustus united their forces in 
 1190 for the third crusade. Beza was a native. 
 
 Via-Mala (Veea-Mah'la), a remarkable gorge in 
 the Swiss canton of Grisons, on the course of the 
 Farther Rhine. The roadway (1823) runs for 2 
 miles in half-open galleries or in a tunnel ; the 
 rock-walls on either hand rising to 1600 feet. 
 
 Vian'na, a seaport of Portugal, at the Lima's 
 
 mouth, 45 miles N. of Oporto by rail. Pop. 9816. 
 
 Vlareggio {Veeared'jo), an Italian health-resort 
 
 on the Mediterranean, 15 miles NW. of Pisa by 
 
 rail. Pop. 17,190. 
 
 Viat'ka. See Vyatka. 
 
 Viborg (i as ee), capital of a division of Finland, 
 at the head nf an inlet from the Gulf of Finland, 
 75 miles NW. of St Petersburg, with Transuiid, 
 8 miles distant, for its port. Pop. 33,000.— The 
 Danish Viborg, 45 miles NW. of Aarhuus, has but 
 9100. 
 
 YicenzA {Vee-chenlfza; anc. Ficerefia), an Italian 
 city surrounded by a moat and half-ruined walls, 
 42 miles W. of Venice by rail. In the Piazza dei 
 Signori, a remarkably fine square, is a slender 
 campanile, 270 feet high. Palladio was a native ; 
 and Vicenza owes to him many fine buildings, as 
 the prefect's palace. The Gothic Duomo was 
 built in the 13th c. Silk, linen, earthenware, 
 paper, and velvet are manufactured. Pop. 44,800. 
 Vich, or ViQUE (Veetch or Veekay), a Spanish 
 city, 40 miles N. of Barcelona. Pop. 12,600. 
 
 Vichy (Vee-sheef), a town in the heart of France, 
 dep. AUier, on the river Allier, 30 miles SSE. of 
 Moulins by rail. It is the most frequented 
 bathing-resort in France. The alkaline, acidulous 
 springs (54''-113° F.) which rise at the foot of the 
 volcanic mountains of Auvergne, are used both 
 for drinking and bathing. Millions of bottles of 
 Vichy water are exported annually. Its virtues 
 were known in Roman times, as is testified by 
 the remains of marble baths ; its modern repute 
 it owes to Napoleon IIL Now this town of (1901) 
 14,050 inhabitants is visited yearly by 20,000 to 
 30,000 persons. See a work by Cor mack (1887). 
 
 Vickshurg, the largest city of Mississippi, 
 stands on a high, uneven bluff above the Missis- 
 sippi River, 235 miles NNW. of New Orleans. 
 Cotton is shipped, and railroad cars and iron are 
 manufactured. The place was strongly fortified 
 by the Confederates, but after a nine weeks' 
 siege by land and water, surrendered on 4th July 
 1864, with nearly 30,000 men. Pop. 14,840. 
 
 Victoria, the smallest state, after Tasmania, in 
 the Australian Commonwealth. It was sighted by 
 Captain Cook in 1770, and the harbour of Port 
 Phillip was discovered in 1801 ; but it was not 
 permanently colonised till 1835. Port Phillip was 
 administered from Sydney from 1836 till 1851, when 
 it was constituted the colony of Victoria. Victoria 
 occupies the south-east of Australia (separated 
 from New South Wales by the Murray River), 
 and has an extreme length from E. to W. of 420 
 miles, while its greatest breadth is only 250 ; its 
 coast-line is 600 miles, and its area 87,884 sq. m. 
 (almost exactly the same as England, Wales, and 
 Scotland). Glold was discovered in 1851, and 
 
 attracted many immigrants ; the first railway was 
 opened in 1854 ; and responsible government was 
 introduced in 1857. A chain of varying height, 
 the Dividing Range, traverses the greater portion 
 of the colony from E. to W. 60 to 80 miles from 
 the coast ; the eastern portion, termed the 
 Australian Alps (with peaks touching 6500 feet), 
 divides the watershed of the Murray from Gipps- 
 land. Most of the rivers rise here ; those on the 
 north find their way into the Murray, which has 
 a total length, including bends, of 1300 miles, 980 
 of which form the northern boundary of the 
 colony. The principal streams flowing north 
 are the Mitta Mitta, 175 miles long ; Ovens, 140 ; 
 Goulburn, 345; Loddon, 225; Avoca, 163; and 
 Wimmera, 228 ; the last mentioned losing itself 
 in Lake Hindmarsh. The chief of the southern 
 streams are the Snowy, Glenelg, Yarra, and 
 Latrobe. Many of these rivers are in the summer 
 season mere chains of water-holes, and only the 
 Murray and Yarra are navigable. The principal 
 lakes are Victoria (45 sq. m.) and Wellington (54) 
 in Gippsland, Corangamite (90 ; salt), in the West- 
 ern District, and Hindmarsh (47 ; brackish) and 
 Tyrrell (66 ; salt), in the Wimmera or NW. District. 
 The greater portion of Victoria was in its 
 natural state an open forest, but in the W. there 
 were large plains, and a portion of the extreme 
 NW. is covered with a dense scrub of dwarf 
 eucalyptus (mallee). At Melbourne the maximum 
 temperature is 105°, minimum 30°, mean 57° 3', 
 and the average annual rainfall is 2526 inches. 
 North of the Dividing Range the tempera- 
 ture is rather higher and the rainfall rather 
 less. Most of the gold-fields are in the central 
 districts. Gold was first worked at Clunes, 
 Ballarat, Forest Creek, and Bendigo. Originally 
 the workings were shallow and alluvial, but moob 
 of the gold is now obtained from quartz reefs 
 (.some being 2500 feet deep). The total yield of 
 gold up to 1904 was over 67,557,353 oz. (value 
 £269,970,746), more than half the produce of all 
 Australasia. Copper, silver, tin, coal, and anti- 
 mony have been found, and brown coal is abun- 
 dant. There are niore than 11,000,000 sbeep, and 
 1,600,000 cattle. The chief crop is wheat; the 
 other cereals are grown, with potatoes, hops, and 
 tobacco ; and of late much wine, brandy, grapes, 
 and raisins are produced. All the English fruits 
 grow in Victoria, besides those of southern 
 Europe. There are over 3000 miles of railway, 
 in five systems, which connect with Adelaide and 
 Sydney. The fiscal policy is protective. The 
 value of total imports in 1898-1903 fluctuated 
 between £16,770,000 and £18,927,340 ; tliat of ex- 
 ports fluctuated from £15,872,246 to £19,707,070 
 (including in order gold, wool, live-stock, cereals, 
 butter, hides, and meat). The exports to Britain 
 average above £6,000,000 annually ; the imports 
 thence range from £4,700,000 to near £8,000,000. 
 The revenue, over S millions in 1891, had de- 
 creased, owing to a commercial crisis, to about 
 6 millions during 1893-98, but in 1901-4 had 
 recovered to over 8 millions ; the expenditure 
 being a little less. The debt, incurred for public 
 works, was upwards of £51,500,000 in 1904. 
 
 The executive government is in the hands of a 
 governor chosen by the sovereign, assisted by a 
 ministry appointed by the governor, but respons- 
 ible to the legislature. The legislative council 
 consists ofthirty-five members, who must possess, 
 and are elected by persons who enjoy, a property 
 qualification ; and alegislativeassembly of sixty- 
 eight members, who have no qualification, and 
 are elected practically by universal suff"rage of 
 all male adult residents of British nationality. 
 
VICTORIA 
 
 728 
 
 ViENME 
 
 Members of the legislative assembly receive a 
 salary of £300 per annum. The state is divided 
 into thirty-seven counties, but for purposes of 
 administration it consists of sixty urban muni- 
 cipalities, called cities, towns, or boroughs, and 
 148 rural municipalities or shires. Tlie defence 
 force includes 5000 officers and men of all arms ; 
 the naval flotilla comprises one ironclad, six gun- 
 boats, and some torpedo boats. The fleet con- 
 sists of fourteen vessels. Educational establish- 
 ments are of four kinds : the Melbourne Uni- 
 versity, with affiliated Anglican, Presbyterian, 
 and Wesleyan colleges ; technical schools and 
 colleges, including five schools of mines ; an agri- 
 cultural college, and working-men's college ; and 
 private and primary state schools. Primary 
 education is free, secular, and coinpulsory. 
 There is no state church. Melbourne and 
 Ballarat are the sees of Anglican bishops, and 
 the R. C. Church has an archbishop of Melbourne 
 and bishops of Ballarat, Sandhurst, and Sale. 
 Episcopalians number 432,704, and Catholics 
 263,710. The pop. at the census of 1901 was 
 1,200,914—98 per cent. British subjects by birth. 
 Aborigines and Chinese had much decreased 
 since last census. In 1903 there were 52,756 im- 
 migrants and the exceptionally large number of 
 66,159 emigrants. Three-fifths of the pop. live in 
 towns — Melbourne, the capital (with two-fifths 
 of the total pop.), Ballarat, Sandhurst, Geelong, 
 &c. See Australia and books there cited, and 
 works on Victoria by Hayter, Thomson, Walch, 
 Brough Smith, M'Coy, Jenks, Bon wick, Labil- 
 liere, Shillinglaw, Westgarth, and Turner. 
 
 Victoria. See Hong-kono ; also Cameroons, 
 
 Victoria, capital of British Columbia, near the 
 SB. extremity of Vancouver's Island. Bsquimalt 
 (q.v.) is 2 miles distant. Victoria possesses 
 government buildings, a cathedral, public library, 
 hospitals, electric trains and lighting, and fac- 
 tories. Pop. (1881) 5925 ; (1901) 20,816. 
 
 Victoria, (1) a seaport of Brazil, on an island 
 in Espirito Santo Bay ; pop. 10,000.— (2) Capital 
 of Tamaulipas state in Mexico ; jjop. 14,575.— 
 (3) A town of Guzman Blanco state in Vene- 
 zuela ; pop. 12,000. 
 
 Victoria, or Fort Victoria, a British station 
 in Mashonaland (founded 1890), 150 miles N. of 
 the Limpopo, on the trade-route to Salisbury. 
 
 Victoria Falls. See Zambesi. 
 
 Victoria Lake, or Alexandrine Lake, a 
 shallow lake of South Australia. See Murray. 
 
 Victoria Nyanza (y consonantal), a great fresh- 
 water lake in East Central Africa, situated on 
 the Equator, and on the meridian of 33° B., lies 
 3820 feet above sea-level, and has an area of over 
 30,000 sq. m., or about the size of Ireland. The 
 water is good and fresh, although somewhat in- 
 sipid, and often dirty white. The lake is drained 
 by the Nile, and its chief feeders are the Kajera, 
 the Nzoia, the Shimiyu, and the Katonga. Tides 
 have been noticed, the rise lasting from 30 to 
 60 minutes. The lake, whose native name is 
 Ukerewe, was discovered by Speke in 1858, visited 
 by him and Grant in 1861-62, and subsequently 
 explored by Stanley (1875), Mackay, Thomson, &c. 
 
 Vidin. See Widdin. 
 
 Vien'na(Ger. Wien ; pron. Veen), the capital 
 of the Austrian empire, is situated in Lower 
 Austria, on the Danube Canal, a south branch of 
 the Danube, here joined by the small river Wien. 
 Vienna proper (pop. in 1880, 726,000 ; in 1890, 
 831,472) consists of the Inner City and eight 
 suburban districts surrounding it, almost wholly 
 
 encircled by fortifications known as the Lines ; 
 beyond which again are nine populous suburbs in- 
 cluded (since 1890) within the Vienna police- 
 district, which has a total area of 51 sq. m. , and 
 pop. (1900) of 1,674,957. The irregular hexagon 
 formed by the Inner City was until 1858 enclosed 
 by an inner line of fortifications, the site of which 
 is now occupied by the Ringstrasse, a series of 
 handsome boulevards. Though Vienna contains 
 buildings of the 14th and even of the 13th cen- 
 tury, it is, in its present form, essentially a 
 modern city. The Inner City and the Ring- 
 strasse are the handsomest and most fashionable 
 quarters. In the former are the cathedral of St 
 Stephen (1300-1510), with a steeple 450 feet high ; 
 the Hofburg or imperial palace, a large and 
 irregular pile of very various dates ; and many 
 palaces of the nobility. On one side or other of 
 the Ringstrasse rise the Exchange ; the Uni- 
 versity (1874-84); the huge Gothic Rathhaus 
 (1873-83) ; the Parliament House ; the Supreme 
 Law Courts ; the Imperial Museums of Natural 
 History and of Art (1872-86), twin buildings on 
 either side of the imposing monument of the 
 Empress Maria Theresa (unveiled 1888); the 
 imperial Opera-house ; the Academy of Art ; the 
 Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, &c. In 
 other parts of the city are the Arsenal ; the 
 Josephinum, a medical college founded in 1784 ; 
 and the Votive Church, an admirable specimen of 
 modern Gothic, built in 1856-79 to commemorate 
 the emperor's escape from assassination in 1853. 
 Vienna is well provided with public parks, the 
 largest being the Prater (7 sq. m.), one of the 
 finest parks in Europe, opened in 1766. The uni- 
 versity, founded in 1365 and renowned through- 
 out the world as a medical school, has a teaching- 
 staff" of 350 and over 6000 students. The mag- 
 nificent public picture-gallery, now in the Museum 
 of Art, is specially famous for its unrivalled 
 examples of the Venetian school, Rubens, and 
 Diirer. The Public Hospital, with 2000 beds, is 
 perhaps the largest hospital in Europe. Vienna 
 is the chief industrial city in the empire. 
 Machinery, scientific and musical instruments, 
 artistic goods in bronze, leather, terra-cotta, 
 porcelain, &c., furniture, meerschaum-pipes, &c. 
 are among the noted manufactures. As a centre 
 of trade and finance Vienna is no less important. 
 Over 2i million pounds were spent in 1868-81 in 
 regulating the channel of the Danube. 
 
 The Roman Vindobona was establi.shed in 14 
 A.r). as the successor of the Celtic Vindomina. 
 Its present importance dates only from the 
 Crusades. In 1276 it became the capital of the 
 Hapsburg dynasty. The Turks besieged Vienna 
 from July 14 to September 12, 1683, when John 
 Sobieski of Poland relieved it. Treaties have 
 been concluded here in 1738, 1864, and 1866. 
 The Congress of Vienna (1814-15) re-arranged the 
 map of Europe, disturbed by the French Revolu- 
 tion and Napoleon, somewhat on the old lines. 
 
 Vienne, a dep. of W. France, formed mainly 
 out of Poitou. Area, 2691 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 
 340,295 ; (1901) 333,896. The Vienne, an affluent 
 of the Loire, is the chief river. The arrondisse- 
 ments are Poitiers (the capital), Chatellerault, 
 Civray, Loudun, Montmorillon. 
 
 Vienne {Vee-enn'), a town in the French dep. of 
 Isere (far away from that of Vienne), on the 
 Rhone's left bank, 19 miles S. of Lyons by rail, 
 where the Gere joins the Rhone. Vienne was 
 the chief town of the Allobroges, and in the 
 time of the Roman empire the rival of Lyons. 
 Besides water-conduits, &c., of Roman construe- 
 
VIENNE 71 
 
 tion, there are a Corinthian temple, remains of 
 a theatre, and an obelisk, called L' Aiguille, 72 
 feet high. The archiepiscopal cathedral was 
 built in 1107-1251 ; St Peter's dates from the 6th 
 c. In a council held here (1312) Pope Clement 
 V. suppressed the Templars. Yienne manufac- 
 tures woollens, silk, paper, leather, and iron 
 goods. Pop. (1872) 21,430 ; (1901) 22,770, 
 
 Vienna, Haute, a French dep. SE. of Vienne. 
 Area, 2130 sq. m. ; pop. (1872) 322,447 ; (1901) 
 874,212. The arrondissements are Limoges (the 
 capital), Bellac, Rochechouart, and Saint- Yrieix. 
 
 Vlersen (Feer'sen), a town of Rhenish Prussia, 
 20 miles NW. of Diisseldorf. It manufactures 
 plush, silk, cotton, and flax. Pop. 24,800. 
 
 Vierzon-Ville {Vee-er-zo7i^'), a French manu- 
 facturing town in dep. Cher, 20 miles NW. of 
 Bourges. Pop. 11,559. 
 
 Vigan, Le \Vee-gon^'), a town of France, dep. 
 Card, 45 miles WNW. of Nimes. Pop. 4050. 
 
 Vigevano (Veejay'vano), a cathedral city of 
 Italy, 20 miles NW, of Pavia. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 Vigo (Vee'go), a seaport and health-resort of 
 NW. Spain, on a deep bay (20 miles), 20 miles 
 SW. of Pontevedra by rail ; pop. 23,000. Vigo 
 was taken by Drake in 1585 and 1589, by Lord 
 Cobham in 1719 ; and in 1702 the Spanish gal- 
 leons, defended by a Frencli fleet, were captured 
 or destroyed here by the British and Dutch. 
 
 Vijayanagar (Vee-ji'a-nug'gar), a ruined city 
 in Madras province, 40 miles NW. of Bellary. 
 
 Villafranca, a town of Italy, 9 miles SW. of 
 Verona by rail, where in 1859 peace was con- 
 cluded between Austria and France. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Villareal (Span. pron. Veel-ya-ray-al'), a Span- 
 ish town 40 miles NE. of Valencia. Pop. 16,500. 
 
 Villa Rica, second town of Paraguay, is 70 
 miles SE. of Asuncion, with 25,000 inhabitants 
 and a large trade in tobacco and mate. 
 
 Villefranche (Veel-fron^sh'), or Villafranca, a 
 French fortified port in the dep. Alpes Mari- 
 times, 3 miles E. of Nice. Pop. 3860.— (2) Ville- 
 franche de Rouergue, in Aveyron, 70 miles NE. 
 of Toulouse by rail ; pop. 7588.— (3) Villefranclie- 
 sur-Saone, in the dep. Rhone, 20 miles NW. of 
 Lyons, has cotton manufactures ; pop. 14,030. 
 
 Villena {Veel-yay'na), a town of Spain, 25 miles 
 NW. of Alicante by rail. Pop. 14,100. 
 
 Villeneuve (nearly Veel-nehv'), the name of 
 numerous French towns, the largest Villeneuve- 
 sur-Lot, or d'Agen, in Lot-et-Garonne, 15 miles 
 N. of Agen by rail ; pop. 12,890. 
 
 Vil'na, capital of a government of W. Russia, 
 on the Vilia, 430 miles SW. of St Petersburg by 
 rail, with a trade in timber and corn ; population, 
 158,000. It was tlie Lithuanian capital. 
 
 Vimelro (Vee-may-eefro), also spelt Vimiera, a 
 Portuguese town (pop. 1800), 30 miles N. of 
 Lisbon, where in 1808 Wellington defeated Junot. 
 
 Vinaroz {Veenawth'), a port of Spain, 45 miles 
 NE. of Castellon by rail. Pop. 9920. 
 
 Vincennes (Vayi^senn'), an eastern suburb of 
 Paris, just outside the fortifications, whose park, 
 the Bois de Vincennes, is the pleasure-ground of 
 eastern Paris. Tlie ancient castle (14th c.) was 
 long a slate-prison, and in 1834 was made a fort. 
 In its moat the Due d'Enghien was shot. 
 
 Vincennes {Vinsenns'), the oldest town (1735) 
 in Indiana, on the navigable Wabash, 52 miles 
 by rail N. of Evansville. It contains a R. C. 
 cathedral, steam flour-mills, &c. Pop. 10,250. 
 
 Vindhj^a Mountains. See India. 
 
 ) VIRGINIA 
 
 Vin'egar Hill (389 feet high), close to Bnnis- 
 corthy. County Wexford, scene of the rout of the 
 Irish rebels by General Lake, June 21, 1798. 
 
 Vinnit'za, a Russian town, in Podolia, stands 
 on the Bug, 120 miles SW, of Kieff. Pop. 28,733. 
 
 Vionville (Veeon^veel), a village of Lorraine 
 (pop. 450), 20 miles W. of Metz. In the great 
 cavalry battle named from it or the next village 
 of Mars-la-Tour, the French were driven back on 
 Metz, August 16, 1870. 
 
 Viramgam, a town of Bombay Presidency, 27 
 miles W. of Ahmedabad by rail. Pop. 23,209. 
 
 Vire (Veer),a.town in the Norman dep. Calvados, 
 on the Vire, 35 miles SW. of Caen. Pop. 6635. 
 
 Virgin'ia, a middle Atlantic state of the 
 American Union, separated from Maryland by the 
 Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay, and bounded 
 S. by North Carolina and Tennessee, W. and NW. 
 by Kentucky and West Virginia. Its greatest 
 length from E. to W. is 475 miles ; its greatest 
 width 190 miles ; and its land area 40,125 sq. m., 
 with a water area of 2325. The surface consists 
 of a series of belts parallel to the coast on the 
 E. and the Appalachian Mountains on the W. 
 The fifth and highest of Jihese belts, styled 
 'Appalachia,' is a series of long narrow valleys 
 2000 feet or more above the sea, enclosed be- 
 tween the ranges of the Alleghany Mountains. 
 The chief rivers are the Potomac, Rappahannock, 
 York, James, Blackwater, and Roanoke. A 
 seventh of the state is drained by the Kanawha 
 or New River, Holston, and Clinch, which feed 
 the Ohio. Virginia is famous for its mineral 
 springs, and has its Natural Bridge, in Rock- 
 bridge county, and many caverns. Except on 
 the swampy coast the climate is pleasant and 
 healthful. The soils are mostly fertile, and the 
 state contains extensive forests. Waterfowl, 
 partridges or quails, pigeons, grouse, wild 
 turkeys, and deer are plentiful. The fisheries 
 supply large quantities of fish ; oyster-culture is 
 important. Indian corn, oats, and barley are 
 extensively grown. Tobacco has always been a 
 staple crop, and the 'Virginia leaf is noted 
 throughout the world. Among the mineral pro- 
 ducts are building stones, iron, lead, and zinc ores, 
 gold (once largely worked), and bituminous and 
 anthracite coal. Virginia has 100 counties and 
 eighteen cities independent of county govern^ 
 ment. Tlie chief cities are Richmond (the 
 capital), Norfolk, Petersburg, Roanoke, Newport 
 News, Lynchburg, Portsmouth, Danville, and 
 Alexandr'ia. The history of Virginia is specially 
 romantic and heroic. It was here that the first 
 lasting colony was established in 1607 by the 
 English. At Jamestown was held the first repre- 
 sentative assembly in America. With its early 
 period are associated the names of Captain John 
 Smith and Pocahontas. Such was the prosperity 
 of the colony that at the end of the colonial 
 period Virginia was the most populous and 
 wealthy of the thirteen colonies. In the protest 
 against the Stamp Act and the encroachments 
 of Great Britain Virginia took the lead, and in 
 the revolutionary struggle furnished such noted 
 sons as Washington, Jeflerson, Patrick Henry, 
 the Lees, and Madison. At Yorktown Com- 
 wallis's surrender put an end to the contest. 
 In the civil war Virginia furnished the Confederate 
 commander, Robert E. Lee, and on its soil the 
 last battle was fought and the final surrender 
 made. Of the first twenty-one presidents seven 
 were Virginians. Pop. (1800) 880,200; (1860) 
 1,596,318; (1870, after the separation of West 
 Virginia) 1,225,168; (1880) 1,512,565; (1900) 
 
VIRaiNIA 
 
 730 
 
 VOLTA 
 
 1,854,180 (660,722 coloured). See The New Vir- 
 ginians (2 vols. Edin. 1881) ; and other works by 
 Bruce (Richmond, 1891) and Drake (1894). 
 
 Virginia, West. See West Virginia. 
 
 Virginia City, capital of Storey county, 
 Nevada, is built, 6200 feet above the sea, on the 
 eastern side of Mount Davidson, 21 miles by rail 
 NNE. of Carson. It owes its existence to its 
 silver-mines— the Comstock Lode, the Big Bon- 
 anza, &c. Pop. (1880) 10,917 ; (1900) 2695. 
 
 Virginia Water, an artificial lake, nearly 2 
 miles long, formed in 1746 by the Duke of Cum- 
 berland in the Great Park at Windsor, is 5 miles 
 S. of the castle. 
 
 Virgin Islands, a group of fifty West Indian 
 islands. The total area is 261 sq. m., and the 
 pop. is nearly 45,000. Three, St Tlioinas, Santa 
 Cruz, and St John, belong to Denmark (area, 130 
 sq. m. ; pop. 31,000). Bieque, or Crab Island 
 (pop. 3000), and Culebra were ceded by Spain 
 to the United States in 1898. The otliers are 
 British ; total area, 58 sq. m. ; pop. (1881) 5287 ; 
 (1891)4639, of whom only about 150 are whites. 
 The chief of the British Islands are Tortola, 
 Virgin-Gorda, and Anegada. 
 
 Vishni-Volotcliok (-ni as -nee), a town of Russia 
 in the government of Tver, 230 miles SB. of St 
 Petersburg by rail. Pop. 16,590. 
 
 Visnagar, a town of NB. Baroda. Pop. 21,376. 
 
 Visp (Feesp; Fr. Viege), a Swiss village (pop. 
 900) in Vaud, at the opening of the Visp valley 
 to the Rhine, 42 miles E. of Martigny. 
 
 Vis'tula (Lat. ; Polish Vistla; Ger. Weichsel), 
 the great river of Poland, rises in Austrian Silesia, 
 3600 feet above sea-level, amongst the outliers of 
 the Carpathians. Formed by three head-waters, 
 the White, Little, and Black Vistulas, it flows 
 650 miles northward, but with many bends, and 
 receiving the Bug and other tributaries, past 
 Cracow, Warsaw, Plock, Lipno, Thorn, Kulm, 
 Graudenz, and Danzig, till it enters the Baltic 
 Sea by several mouths. 
 
 Vitebsk', capital of a government of W. Russia, 
 on the Western Dwina, 380 miles S. of St Peters- 
 burg by rail. Pop. 65,880 (many Jews). — Area 
 oi governnient, 17,440 sq. m. ; pop. 1,489,250. 
 
 Viter'bo, a city in a volcanic region on the 
 slopes of Monte Cimino, 50 miles NW. of Rome 
 by rail, with an ancient cathedral, fine palazzi, 
 beautiful fountains, &c. Pop. 15,279. 
 
 Viti Islands. See Fiji. 
 
 Vitre (Veetray), a walled Breton town, dep. 
 Ille-et-Vilaine, on the Vilaine, 24 miles E. of 
 Rennes by rail. Rochers, the residence of 
 Madame de Sevign6, is 3J miles S. Pop. 9207. 
 
 Vitry-le-FranQOis {Veetree-leh-FronPswali), a 
 fortified town, in the French dep. Marne, on the 
 Marne, 127 miles E. by S. of Paris. Pop. 7984. 
 
 Vitto'ria, capital of the Basque province of 
 Alava, 120 miles NE. of Valladolid. The cathe- 
 dral dates from the 12th c. Pop. 83,650. Wel- 
 lington here defeated the French, June 21, 1813. 
 
 Vitu. See Witu. 
 
 Vizagapatam' (' city of Visakha,' the Hindu 
 Mars), a seaport in the Northern Circars, Madras, 
 on the Bay of Bengal, 100 miles NE. of the 
 mouthof the Godavery. Pop. 43,000. 
 
 Vizeu (Veezay'oo), a city of Portugal, 50 miles 
 NE. of Coimbra, with a fine cathedral and Roman 
 and Moorish remains. Pop. 8956. 
 
 Vizianagram', a town of Madras, 35 miles NB. 
 of Vizagapatam. Pop. 38,500. 
 
 Vlaardingen {Vlahr'ding-en), a town of Hol- 
 land, 5 miles W. of Rotterdam, near the New 
 Maas, with a large herring-fleet. Pop. 16,670. 
 
 Vladikavkaz, capital of the Terek province 
 of Cis-caucasia, and a railway terminus, at the 
 foot of the main Caucasus chain. The pop. has 
 rapidly increased from 8000 to 43,850. 
 
 Vladimir {Vladivieer'), a town of Russia, on 
 the Kliasma's left bank, 120 miles NE. of Moscow 
 by rail. Founded in the 12th c, it was in the 
 14th c. practically capital of Russia. It contains 
 many historical remains, as the Kreml and the 
 'Golden Gate' (1158). Pop. 19,305.— Area of 
 government, 18,864 sq. m. ; pop. 1,570,730. 
 
 Vladivostok, a town of E. Asiatic Russia, near 
 the north limit of Corea, on Peter the Great Bay. 
 It has one of the finest harbours in the world, 
 is a naval station, with an arsenal, and the ter- 
 minus of the overland telegraph by Irkutsk and 
 Kiachta ; here, too, in 1891 the Czarevitch cut 
 the first sod of the great Trans-Siberian railway. 
 Founded in 1861, it had at the outbreak of the 
 Russo-Japanese war (1904-5) a pop. of 30,000. 
 
 Vliessingen (Vleess'ing-en). See Flushing. 
 
 Vode'na, a town of Turkey, on a mountain- 
 slope, 46 miles WNW. of Saloniki. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Vogesen. See Vosges. 
 
 Voghera (Vo-gay'ra; anc. Iria Augusta), a town 
 of Northern Italy, on the Staff"ora, 16 miles by 
 rail SW. of Pavia. Pop. 12,794. 
 
 Veil, Loch, in Balquhidder parish, Perthshire, 
 3J miles W. by S. of Lochearnhead station. An 
 expansion of the Balvag, it lies 414 feet above 
 sea-level, and measures 3^ miles by 3 furlongs. 
 
 Voiron (Vwah-ron^'), a town of the French dep. 
 Isere, 15 miles NW. of Grenoble. Pop. 8287. 
 
 Volga (Slav 'river'), the greatest river in 
 Russia and the longest in Europe, having a 
 course of over 900 miles as the crow flies, or, 
 following its principal sinuosities, of 2400 from 
 its source among the Valdai Hills in Novgorod 
 to its seventy mouths in the Caspian. Over a 
 mile broad about the middle of its course, it is 
 navigable from near its source, and a system of 
 canals and its numerous tributaries make it one 
 of the most important waterways in the world, 
 communicating with the White Sea, Euxine, 
 Baltic, and Gulf of Finland, as well as with the 
 Don, Dniester, Dnieper, Dwina, and other rivers. 
 Some 15,000 vessels, including 500 steamers, navi- 
 gate the Volga. Traffic ceases in winter, when 
 the waters are frozen. The fisheries (sturgeon, 
 carp, and pike) are of great importance. The 
 navigation is impeded by shoals and banks. The 
 principal tributaries are the Oka, Kama, Mologa, 
 and Viatka. The chief towns on the Volga are 
 Jaroslav, Kostroma, Nijni Novgorod, Kazan, 
 Simbirsk, Stavropol, and Samara. 
 
 Volhynia (Volhee'nia), a government of W. 
 Russia ; area, 27,743 sq. m., or larger than Greece ; 
 pop. 3,000,000. Tlie capital is Zhitomir. 
 
 Volo, a port of Thessaly, on the Gulf of Volo, 
 37 miles by rail SE. of Larissa. Pop. 16,230. 
 
 Volog'da, capital of a NE. province of Russia 
 (stretching to tlie Urals), on the river Vologda, 
 260 miles NE. of Moscow by rail. Pop. 27,391.— 
 Area of government, 155,498 sq. m. ; pop. 1,420,000. 
 
 Volsk, a town of Russia, on the Volga's right 
 bank, 70 miles NE. of SaratofT. Pop. 37,832. 
 
 Volta, a river of Upper Guinea which, rising 
 in the Kong highlands, runs S. between Ashantee 
 and Dahomey to the Bight of Benin. 
 
VOLTERRA 
 
 •?31 
 
 WAKEFlELli 
 
 Volterra (anc. Volaterrce), a town 35 miles 
 SW. of Pisa, with Etruscan remains. Pop. 7500. 
 
 Voltri (i ai5 ee), a coast-town of Italy, 9 miles 
 W. of Genoa by rail. Pop. 7358. 
 
 Vorarlberg (Foar'arl-berg). See Tyrol. 
 
 Voronej, or Voronkzh, capital of a Russian 
 government (area, 25,443 sq. m. ; pop. 2,546,260), 
 on the right bank of the Voronej, 300 miles SE. 
 of Moscow by rail. Pop. 81,150. 
 
 Vosges {Voazh; Ger. Vogesen), a range of moun- 
 tains separating Alsace from the French deps. of 
 Vosges and Meurthe and the German Lorraine, 
 and lying partly in NE. France and W. Ger- 
 many ; highest summits, 4100-4677 feet. 
 
 Vosges, a mountainous dep. of NE. France, 
 formed out of the south part of the old province 
 of Lorraine, and bounded E. by German Alsace. 
 Area, 2266 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 419,784. 
 
 Vostlt'za, a Greek town on the Gulf of Corinth, 
 25 miles by rail E. of Patras. Pop. 5311. 
 
 Vranja (Vrahn'ya), a town of Servia, ceded 
 by Turkey in 1878, 60 miles S. of Nisch by rail. 
 Pop. 11,930. 
 
 Vratza, capital of a district in Bulgaria, 60 
 miles NW. of Sofia, with a bishop, a scliool of 
 sericulture, and a growing trade. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 Yry\)VLrg (Vrlhurg ; meaning in Dutch 'Free 
 town '), capital of British Bechuanaland, near a 
 head-stream of the Vaal River, 145 miles N. of . 
 Kimberley by rail (1890). It has government 
 buildings, churches, schools, hospitals, hotels, 
 &c. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Vryheid, capital of a coal-bearing district now 
 in the extreme north-east of Natal, transferred 
 in 1902 from the Transvaal. Pop. 5000. 
 Vulcano (Vool-kah'no). See Lipari Islands. 
 Vultur'nus (mod. VoUurno), a river of Cam- 
 pania, on which stood Vulhirnum city. 
 
 Vyas'ma (y consonantal), a town of Russia, 110 
 miles ENE. of Smolensk by rail. Pop. 15,148. 
 
 Vyat'ka (y consonantal), capital of a Russian 
 government (area, 59,117 sq. m. ; pop. 3,005,795), 
 on the river Vyatka, 280 miles NE. of Nijni- 
 Novgorod. Pop. 24,998. 
 Vyernyl. See Semiretchinsk. 
 Vyrn'wy, a river which rises on the borders of 
 Merioneth and Montgomery and joins the Severn 
 sl miles above Welshpool. In 1881-92 its upper 
 waters were impounded for the water-supply of 
 Liverpool, 68 miles off ; creating an artificial lake 
 of 1121 acres, 4| miles long by 1^ broad, and 
 containing 2103 million cubic feet of water. 
 
 i^AAL (Waul). See Rhine. 
 
 Wabash (Waw'iash), capital of 
 Wabash county, Indiana, on the 
 Wabash River, 89 miles by rail NNE. 
 of Indianapolis. Pop. 8620.— The 
 Wabash River rises in western Ohio, and flows 
 550 miles to the Ohio River. The Wabash and 
 Erie Canal, which passes the toAvn, is the longest 
 (476 miles) in the States. 
 
 Waco (IVai/ko), 'the geyser city' of Texas, 
 capital of McLennan county, on the Brazos River, 
 crossed by a suspension bridge, 186 miles NW. of 
 Houston. It has Baylor University, sixteen 
 artesian wells (104° F.), and manufactures of 
 woollens, mattresses, and saddlery. Pop. 20,686. 
 
 Wadai (IVah-dl), a state of the central Soudan 
 (q.v.), in the French sphere between Bagirmi 
 and Dar-Fur. Pop. 1^ million ; capital, Abesher. 
 
 Wadebridge, a small Cornish seaport, on the 
 Camel, 7 miles NW. of Bodmin.— Pop. 2186. 
 
 Wadelai (IVah-de-ll), a British post on the 
 Upper Nile, 40 miles below its exit from the 
 Albert Nyanza.— Old Wadelai, on the west bank, 
 a Belgian-Congo station. 
 
 Wady {Wall' dee), an Arabic word signifying a 
 river, a river-course, a ravine, or valley.— Wady 
 Halfa is a place (pop. 3500) on the Nile's right 
 bank, just below the second or great cataract. 
 After the Soudanese rebellion this was taken as 
 Egypt's southward limit.— Wady Musa is the 
 modern name of Petra. 
 
 Wagga Wagga, a pastoral and agricultural 
 town of New South Wales, 309 miles SW. of 
 Sydney by rail, with a great railway bridge over 
 the Murrumbidgee River. Pop. 5100. 
 
 Wagram (Vah'gram), a village 10 miles NE. of 
 Vienna, where, on 5-6th July 1809, the Austrians 
 were defeated by Napoleon. 
 
 Wahsatch' Mountains. See Utah. 
 
 Waigatz (Vl'gats). See Nova Zembla. 
 
 'Wa.ika.toiWl-kah'to), the principal river of the 
 North Island of New Zealand, flows first into 
 Lake Taupo, and then out of it northward to 
 
 Port Waikato, 25 miles S. of Manakau Harbour, 
 
 with a total course of 170 miles. 
 Wainad. See Wynaad. 
 
 Wainfleet, a Lincolnshire town, on the Steep- 
 ing, 19 miles NE. of Boston. Pop. 1246. 
 Waitomo Caves, New Zealand, on the Waitomo 
 
 River, running to the Wailcato (q.v.). 
 Waitzen {Vlte'zen; Magyar Vdcz), a town on 
 
 the Danube, 20 miles N. of Pestli. Pop. 16,800. 
 Wakamatsu, a town of the main island of 
 
 Japan, 55 miles SE. of Niigata, with manufac- 
 
 tures of lacquer-ware. Pop. 31,500. 
 Wakayama, a town of the main island of 
 
 Japan, 35 miles SW. of Osaka, with important 
 
 cotton trade. Pop. 70,700. 
 
 Wakefield, the capital of the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, stands on the Calder at a convergence 
 of railways, 9 miles SSE. of Leeds, 27 SSW. of 
 York, and 19 NW. of Doncaster. In 1888 it was 
 constituted the seat of a bishopric — its cathedral 
 the fine Perpendicular parish church, which, en- 
 larged and reconsecrated in 1329, and again en- 
 larged about 1470, was restored in 1857-86 from 
 designs by Sir G. G. Scott at a cost of £30,000, 
 and has a tower and spire 247 feet high. On the 
 nine-arch bridge over the Calder is a beautiful 
 Decorated chapel (1357) ; it also was restored in 
 1847. At the grammar-school, chartered in 1591, 
 and removed to new buildings in 1855, were 
 educated Dr Radclifie, Archbishop Potter, the 
 Benedictine Cressy, and Bentley, the first two 
 natives. The town-hall, French Renaissance in 
 style, was erected in 1880 at a cost of £72,000 ; 
 and other buildings are the corn exchange, fine 
 art institute, Clayton hospital, and lunatic 
 asylum. Though not the great ' clothing town ' 
 it was formerly, Wakefield still manufactures 
 woollens, worsteds, and hosiery, as also agri- 
 cultural implements, machinery, &c. It was in- 
 corporated in 1848, and made a parliamentary 
 borough in 1832. Pop. (1851) 22,065; (1881) 
 33,240 ; (1901) 41,544. Here the Yorkists were 
 defeated in 1460. 
 
WAKEFIELD 
 
 n^ 
 
 WALSALL 
 
 Wakefield, a manufacturing town of Massa- 
 chusetts, 10 miles N. of Boston, Pop. 9970. 
 
 Wakhan. See Badakhshan, Afghanistan. 
 
 Wakkerstroom, capital of a district in the 
 north of Natal, 150 miles N. of Pietermaritzburg, 
 mostly transferred from the Transvaal in 1902. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 Walcheren (WaU'liher-en ; usu. Wcml'sher-en), 
 a Dutch island at the Scheldt's mouth, with 
 50,000 inhabitants. Tlie disastrous British Wal- 
 cheren Expedition was undertaken in 1809. 
 
 Wald, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 7 miles SW. 
 of Elberfeld, with ironworks. Pop. 19,600. 
 
 Waldeck {to as v), or WALDECK-PyRMONT, a 
 small German principality controlled since 1867 
 by Prussia, consists of two parts, Waldeck, 
 between Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and Pyr- 
 mont, a patch between Lippe, Westphalia, Bruns- 
 wick, and Hanover. The country is high-lying 
 and poor. Total area, 438 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 
 57,918—8686 in Pyrmont. The capital is Arolsen 
 (q.v.). Pyrmont, 15 miles B. of Detmold (pop. 
 1410), has famous mineral springs. 
 
 Waldenburg, a town of Silesia, 43 miles SW. 
 of Breslau. Pop. 16,300. 
 
 Wales, a great peninsula in the west of the 
 island of Britain, bounded by the Irish Sea, St 
 George's Channel, and the Bristol Channel, and 
 touching the (now English) counties of Cheshire, 
 Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth (q.v.). The 
 area is 7363 sq. m., about a fifth larger than York- 
 shire. The principality of Wales, administra- 
 tively a part of England, though differing more 
 or less widely in blootl, language, national 
 character, and religious temper, is a mountainous 
 land, and contains Snowdon (q.v.), the highest 
 point in South Britain ; North Wales is especially 
 picturesque. The minerals are extremely valu- 
 able, and South Wales contains some of the most 
 important coal and iron industries in the United 
 Kingdom. Copper, zinc, lead, tin, and gold are 
 also found. The physical geography, geology, 
 climate, &c. are dealt with at Great Britain. 
 The established church is a part of the Church 
 of England, with four episcopal sees ; Noncon- 
 formists, especially Calvinistic Methodists, Con- 
 gregationalists, Baptists, and Wesleyans, are very 
 numerous, and claim to be a large majority of 
 the total population (many of them eager for dis- 
 establishment) ; but the proportions are much dis- 
 puted. There are university colleges at Aberyst- 
 with, Bangor, and Cardiff, and theological 
 colleges at Lampeter, &c. A Welsh university 
 for the affiliation of the colleges was created in 
 1894. See the articles on the several Welsh 
 counties, and on the towns, Cardiff, Swansea, ifcc. 
 The following table shows the area and popula- 
 tion of the twelve Welsh counties : 
 
 County. Acres. ^\^^ ^^^^ 
 
 Anglesey 193,5U 51,416 50,590 
 
 Brecknockshire 460,158 57,746 59,906 
 
 Cardiganshire 443,387 70,270 60,273 
 
 Carmarthenshire.... .'594,405 124,864 135,325 
 
 Carnarvonshire 369,477 119,349 126,8;}5 
 
 Denbighshire 425,038 111,957 129,935 
 
 Flintshire 161,807 80,441 81,725 
 
 Glamorganshire 510,959 511,433 860,022 
 
 Merionethshire 384,717 51,967 49,130 
 
 Montgomeryshire.... 495,089 65,710 54,892 
 
 Pembrokeshire 391,181 91,824 88,749 
 
 Radnorshire 276,552 23,528 23,263 
 
 Total 4,712,281 1,360.505 1,760,609 
 
 Of the total, 278,892 persons were set down as 
 
 speaking Welsh only, 615,242 as speaking both 
 Welsh and English; so that 894,134 (50-8 per 
 cent. — as against 70 per cent, in 1881) did or 
 could speak Welsh. 
 
 Walfish. See Walvisch. 
 
 Walham Green, a district of Middlesex, 6 miles 
 WSW. of St Paul's. 
 
 Walker, a town of Northumberland, on the 
 Tyne, 3 miles E. of Newcastle. Pop. 14,500. 
 
 Walkerburn, a Peeblesshire village, with 
 woollen factories, on the Tweed, 1| mile E. by 
 N. of Innerleithen. Pop. 1160. 
 
 Walla'chia. See Roumania. 
 
 Wallasey, a Cheshire township, 3^ miles NNW. 
 of Birkenhead. 
 
 Walla Walla, capital of a county in Washing, 
 ton, on the Walla Walla River, 204 miles SSW. 
 of Spokane Falls. Pop. 11,000.' 
 
 WalUngford, a town of Berkshire, 15 miles 
 NAV. of Reading and 13 SSB. of Oxford, on the 
 right bank of the Thames, which is crossed here 
 by a bridge 300 yards long, built in 1809 at a 
 cost of £14,000. It has Roman earthworks, a 
 fragment of a Norman castle, which figured 
 prominently in King Stephen's wars, and was 
 taken by Fairfax and dismantled (1646) ; three — 
 formerly thirteen— churches, in one of which 
 Blackstone is buried ; a grammar-school ; a short 
 branch-line; and a great July wool sale. A 
 borough since Edward the Confessor's time, it 
 returned two members till 1832, and then one 
 till 1885. Pop. 2800. See works by Crofts (1870) 
 and Hedges (2 vols. 1882). 
 
 WalUngford, a borough of Connecticut, on 
 the Quinepiac River, 13 miles by rail NNE. of 
 New Haven, with manufactories of buttons and 
 Britannia and silver ware. Pop. 6738. 
 
 Wallsend', a town of Northumberland noted 
 for its collieries, 4 miles NE. of Newcastle. It is 
 named from its being at the end of Hadrian's 
 Wall (q.v.); and many Roman relics have been 
 found here. Pop. (1901) 20,918. 
 
 Walmer Castle, in Kent, 2 miles S. of Deal, 
 is the official residence of the Lord Warden of the 
 Cinque Ports (q.v.), and is a round-towered castle, 
 built by Henry VIII. It was the favourite resi- 
 dence and the deatli-place of the Duke of Welling- 
 ton ; and its relics of him, of Pitt, and of other 
 Lord Wardens were in 1892 secured to the nation 
 by the son of the late Right Hon. W. H. Smith. 
 The adjoining town of Walmer is a favourite 
 watering-place, has barracks, and is a member of 
 the Cinque Port of Sandwich. Pop. 5650. See 
 Elvin's Records of Walmer (1894). 
 
 Walsall (Waul'savl), a municipal, parlia- 
 mentary, and county borough of Staffordshire, 
 is situated on an eminence above a small feeder 
 of the Tame, 8 miles NNW. of Birmingham, 6 E. 
 of Wolverhampton, and 123 NW. of I^ondon. An 
 ancient place, but of modern development, it 
 stands on the edge of the South Staffordshire coal- 
 field, and manufactures saddlers' ironmongery 
 and all kinds of saddlery, carriages, iron and 
 brass, leather, &c., whilst in the vicinity are 
 coal-pits, limestone-quarries, and brickyards. 
 The public buildings include an Italian Renais.s- 
 ance guildhall (1867), county court-house (1869), 
 post-office (1879), public library (1859), grammar- 
 school (1554 ; rebuilt 1850), and cottage hospital 
 (1878) ; and in 1886 a statue was erected of ' Sister 
 Dora ' (Miss Pattison). Walsall was the scene in 
 1891-92 of an Anarchist conspiracy, for which 
 four dynamiters were convicted. It became a 
 
WALSHAM 
 
 733 
 
 WARREN 
 
 municipal borough in Henry IV. 's reign ; a parlia- 
 mentary borough, returning one member, in 
 1832 ; and a county borough in 1888. Pop. (1851) 
 25,680; (1881) 54,402; (1901) 86,44a See Will- 
 more's History of Walsall (1887). 
 
 Wal'sham, North, a market-town of Norfolk, 
 14 miles N. by E. of Norwich. It has a large 
 Perpendicular church with a ruined tower, and a 
 market-cross (rebuilt 1600). Pop. 4000. 
 
 Wal'singham, a small town of one long street 
 and 1000 inhabitants in the north of Norfolk, 5 
 miles N. by B. of Fakenham. The ruined Augus- 
 tinian priory (1016) contained a famous image of 
 'Our Lady of Walsingham.' Henry VIII. made 
 the pilgrimage to it barefoot, and Erasmus' Pere- 
 grinatio religionis ergo records his own visit. 
 
 Walsoken, a NE. suburb of Wisbeach. 
 
 Wal'tham, a market-town of Essex, on the 
 Lea, 13 miles N. by E. of London. Called also 
 Waltham Abbey and Waltham Holy Cross, it 
 retains the nave of a stately Norman church, 
 which, rebuilt by Harold in 1060 for a collegiate 
 chapter, served from 1177 for an Augustinian 
 abbey. A miraculous cross had been brought 
 here from Montacute in Somerset ; and here 
 probably Harold was buried. Both the nave and 
 a Decorated lady chapel have been restored ; 
 they serve for the parish church, of which Bishop 
 Hall and Thomas Fuller were incumbents. Wal- 
 tham has memories also of Cranmer and Henry 
 VIII. Waltham Cross, erected by Edward I. in 
 1290 in memory of Queen Eleanor, and restored 
 in 1890, is IJ mile W., in Hertfordshire; and 1 
 mile farther W. is Theobalds (q.v.). The Lea's 
 many channels form a network of islands, on 
 which are vast government powder-mills. En- 
 field (q.v.), in Middlesex, is also near, and market- 
 gardening is largely carried on. Pop. (1851) 2329 ; 
 (1901) 6547. See works by Fuller (1655 ; ed. by 
 Nichols, 1837) and Bishop Stubbs (1860). 
 
 Waltham, a town of Massachusetts, on the 
 Charles River, 10 miles by rail WNW. of Boston, 
 with manufactories of watches. Pop. (1880) 
 11,712 ; (1900) 23,481. 
 
 Wal'thamstow, an Essex parish, 6 miles NE. 
 of St Paul's. William Morris, the poet, was born 
 here. Pop. (1S51) 4959 ; (1901) 95,125. 
 
 Walton-on-Thames, a Surrey village, 17 miles 
 (by water 28) SW. of London. Its church has 
 some interesting monuments, and Lilly, the 
 astrologer, is buried here. Pop. 10,329. 
 
 Walton-on-the-Naze, an Essex watering-place, 
 7 miles S. of Harwich. Pop. 2014. 
 
 Walviscll Bay (Dutch, 'Bay of Whales'), 
 anglicised as Walfish or Walwich Bay, a terri- 
 tory of 480 sq. m. on the W. coast of Africa, 420 
 miles N. of the Orange River's mouth. Declared 
 British in 1878, and annexed to Cape Colony in 
 1884, it is surrounded by German Damaraland. 
 The bay affords a safe anchorage. Pop. 1020. 
 
 Wandsbeck (IVaundsfbeck), a NE. suburb of 
 Hamburg. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 Wandsworth, a metropolitan borough of the 
 city of London. Pop. (1901) 232,034. 
 
 Wanganui (Wang-ga-noo'ee), a port of New 
 Zealand, 135 miles N W. of Wellington. Pop. 7330. 
 Wanks. See Honduras. 
 Wanlockhead, a mining village of Dumfries- 
 shire, 8J miles ENB. of Sanquhar. Pop. 624. 
 Wansbeck. See Morpeth. 
 Wanstead, an Essex urban district, 7 miles 
 NE. of London. Pop. (1901) 9179. 
 
 Wan'tage, a market-town of Berkshire, in the 
 Vale of the White Horse, 26 miles W. of Reading. 
 A steam tramway (1875), the first in England, 
 and 2^ miles long, connects it with Wantage 
 Road station ; and it has a good 14th-century 
 church, a corn exchange (1865), a grammar-school 
 (1597 ; rebuilt 1850), an Anglican home for peni- 
 tents, and a marble statue (1877) of King Alfred, 
 who was born here, by Count Gleichen. Bishop 
 Butler was also a native. Wantage manufactures 
 farm implements. Pop. 3850. 
 
 Wantsome. See Thanet. 
 
 Wapping, a Thames-side parish of E. London, 
 
 Warasdin (Varasdeen'), an Austrian cathedral 
 city in Croatia, on the Drave's right bank, 35 
 miles NE. of Agram. Pop. 13,700. Warasdin- 
 Toplitza warm sulphurous spring is 7 miles SW. 
 
 Wardour Castle (a as o\ Wiltshire, 15 miles 
 W. of Salisbury, the Grecian mansion (1789) of 
 Lord Arundell of Wardour. 
 
 Ware, a market-town of Herts, on the Lea, 2J 
 miles ENE. of Hertford. It has a fine cruciform 
 church, remains of a priory (1233), great malting 
 establishments, and memories of Godwin and 
 'John Gilpin.' St Edmund's Catholic College 
 (1769), with a chapel of 1850 by Pugin, is at Old 
 Hall Green, 5 miles NNE. ; and the Great Bed 
 of Ware was in 1869 removed to Rye House. 
 Pop. (1851) 4882; (1901) 5573. See, for the 
 college, a work by the Very Rev. B. Ward (1893). 
 
 Ware, a town of Massachusetts, on Ware 
 River, 74 miles by rail W. of Boston, with cotton 
 and woollen factories. Pop. 8329. 
 
 Wareham, a small but very ancient market- 
 town of Dorsetshire, stands between the rivers 
 Piddle and Frome, 15 miles E. of Dorchester. It 
 was a British town, and afterwards a Roman 
 station, and is surrounded by a grassy vallum, 
 still 30 feet high and perfect on three sides. A 
 fire destroyed two-thirds of Wareham in 1762, 
 and a Norman castle and a priory have dis- 
 appeared ; but St Mary's church retains an in- 
 teresting chapel, that marks the resting-place 
 for two years of Edward the Martyr. Superseded 
 by Poole as a port, Wareham now depends chiefly 
 on extensive clay-works. It is a municipal 
 borough (incorporated 1886), and till 1832 returned 
 two members, then till 1885 one (with Corfe 
 Castle, Arne, &c,). Horace Walpole is claimed 
 falsely as a native. Pop. 2000. 
 
 Wark Castle, a Northumberland ruin, on the 
 Tweed, 2^ miles VV. by S. of Cornhill. 
 
 Warkworth (Waurk'worth), a small seaport 
 (l)op. 700) in Northumberland, near the mouth 
 of the Coquet, 7 miles SE. of Alnwick by rail. 
 The Percies' castle, mostly ruinous, dates from 
 the 12th c. The Norman church has been re- 
 stored. The Benedictine priory was founded in 
 1256, and the hermitage, 'deep hewn within a 
 craggy cliflf,' of Bishop Percy's ballad, is 1 mile 
 above the castle. The trade, exporting coal, is 
 carried on at Amble, 1 mile SE. on the coast. 
 
 Warminster (a as o), an ancient Wiltshire 
 market-town, 19^ miles NVV. of Salisbury. It has 
 a free school (1707) and a tlieological college 
 (1860). Pop. 5600. 
 
 Wamsdorf, a town in the north of Bohemia, 60 
 miles N. of Prague, with great textile and other 
 manufactures. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 Warren, (1) capital of Trumbull county, Ohio, 
 52 miles SE. of Cleveland, with rolling and flour 
 mills, and manufactories of linseed-oil, cottons, 
 &c. Pop. 8973.— (2) Capital of Warren county, 
 Pennsylvania, on the Alleghany River, 66 miles 
 
WARRENPOINT 
 
 734 
 
 WARWICKSHIRE 
 
 SB. of Erie. It manufactures engines, boilers, 
 wooden wares, and leather. Pop. 8050. 
 
 Warrenpoint, a Down port, at the head of Car- 
 lingford Lough, 83 miles N. of Dublin. Pop. 1817. 
 
 Warrington (a as o), a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough and manufacturing town of 
 Lancashire, on the Mersey's right bank, 18 miles 
 B. of Liverpool, 16 WSW. of Manchester, and 182 
 NW. of London. Though of recent development, 
 it is an ancient place, the Wallintun of Domes- 
 day ; and, acquiring strategic importance through 
 its bridge (1496) over the Mersey, it was the 
 scene of defeats of the Scots (1648), the royalists 
 (1651), and a portion of Prince Charles Edward's 
 forces (1745). To a dissenting academy, founded 
 in 1757, it owes its memories of Drs Aikin, 
 Priestley, Taylor, &c. ; and Lucy Aikin was a 
 native. There are still some old timbered 
 houses ; and the parish church, St Elphin's, 
 with a spire 300 feet high, is a fine cruciform 
 Decorated structure, restored in 1859-67 at a 
 cost of over £15,000. The town-hall was the 
 former seat (1750) of Col. Wilson Patten, pur- 
 chased in 1872 for £20,000 ; and other buildings 
 are the Royal Court Theatre (1862), post-office 
 (1876), hospital (1876), museum and library (1857), 
 school of art (1882), public baths (1866), grammar- 
 school (1526 ; rebuilt 1857), &c. There are also 
 public gardens and a park. The manufactures 
 include iron, wire, pins, files, cottons, glass, 
 leather, and soap. Warrington was constituted 
 a parliamentary borough, returning one member, 
 in 1832, a jnunicipal borough in 1847, and became 
 a county borough under the Act of 1888. Pop. 
 (1851) 22,894 ; (1881) 45,253 ; (1901) 64,242. 
 
 Warrnambool, a seaport of Victoria 166 miles 
 SW. of Melbourne. Pop. 6482. 
 
 Warsaw (Polish Warszawa), long the capital 
 of Poland and now capital of a government of 
 Russian Poland, stands on the Vistula's left 
 bank, 330 miles E. of Berlin by rail and 700 SW, 
 of St Petersburg. Two iron bridges lead to the 
 suburb of Praga, on the opposite bank. Standing 
 on a navigable river, with great railway lines to 
 Moscow, St Petersburg, Vienna, Danzig, and 
 Berlin, Warsaw is one of the most inifiortant 
 cities of eastern Europe, being sinaller only than 
 St Petersburg and Moscow. Corn and flax are 
 largely exported, and coal and manufactured 
 goods imported. Warsaw itself manufactures 
 electroplate, machinery, boots, woollens, pianos, 
 carriages, tobacco, sugar, chemicals, beer, and 
 spirits. Of over one hundred Catholic churches 
 the cathedral of St John is the most notable ; 
 there are also six Greek churches, two Lutheran 
 ones, and many synagogues. The castle is an im- 
 posing building, and there are many fine private 
 palaces. The university, suppressed in 1832, was 
 reopened in 1864, and has seventy-five professors 
 (who teach in Russian) and over 1100 students. 
 Pop. (1872) 276,000; (1905) 641,500.— Area of 
 government, 5623 sq. m. ; pop. 1,945,000. 
 
 Warsop, a town of Notts, 5 miles NNE. of 
 Mansfield. Pop. 2132. 
 
 Wartburg (Vahrt'hoorg). See Eisenach. 
 
 Warthe {Var'teK), the Oder's chief affluent, 
 rises on the SW. frontier of Poland, flows N. and 
 W. into Prussia, then N. (past Posen) and W. 
 again, and enters the Oder at Kustrin. Length, 
 445 miles (230 in Prussia, and 265 navigable). 
 
 Warwick {Wor'rick), the county town of War- 
 wickshire, on the Avon, 21 miles SE. of Birming- 
 ham, 45NNW. of Oxford, and 107 NW. of London. 
 In spite of a great fire in 1694, it has preserved 
 
 much of its mediaeval character, and, besides a 
 good deal of antique domestic architecture, 
 retains two of the old gates with chapels above 
 their archways. St Mary's church is a large 
 cruciform structure, largely rebuilt after that 
 great fire, with a Norman crypt, the superb 
 Beauchamp chapel (1464), and a wealth of in- 
 teresting monuments. But Warwick's chief glory 
 is its stately castle, on a rocky elevation, 40 feet 
 high, overhanging the river. Ethelfleda, King 
 Alfred's daughter, built a fortress here about 
 915 ; but the present edifice, which extends over 
 3 acres, is all of post-Conquest erection, its oldest 
 portion the huge Caesar's Tower (147 feet high), 
 whilst Guy's Tower (128 feet) was built in 1394. 
 Having passed ere then, with the earldom of 
 Warwick, to the Beauchamps, Nevilles, Planta- 
 genets, Dudleys, and Riches, it had long been 
 ruinous when in 1605 it was granted to Sir Fulke 
 Greville, whose descendant, Lord Brooke, was in 
 1759 created Earl of Warwick, and who spent at 
 least £20,000 in repairing and beautifying it. It 
 stood a memorable siege by the royalists during 
 the Great Rebellion, aTid its great hall was gutted 
 by fire on 3d December 1871 ; but by 1876 the 
 damage had been repaired at a cost of £18,000, 
 and Warwick Castle is one of the few feudal resi- 
 dences still tenanted. Besides relics of Guy of 
 Warwick, the 'King-maker,' and Cromwell, it 
 has paintings by Van Dyck, Rubens, Holbein, 
 and other masters, the 'Grimani table,' valued 
 at £10,000, and the Greek ' Warwick vase,' 7 feet 
 in diameter, from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. It 
 has welcomed many royal visitors, as Queen 
 Elizabeth, James I., William III., and (in 1892) 
 the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York. 
 The Leycester Hospital was founded in 1571 by 
 Robert Dudley, Queen Elizabeth's favourite, for 
 twelve poor brethren ; the king's school (1546) 
 occupies fine modern buildings erected at a cost 
 of over £13,000. The manufactures include art 
 furniture, gelatine, and agricultural implements. 
 Landor was born liere. Warwick, which was 
 chartered by Henry VIII. as a municipal borough, 
 lost one of its two members in 1885, when the 
 parliamentary boundary was extended so as to 
 take in Leamington (q.v.), the borough being 
 called that of Warwick and Leamington. Pop. 
 of num. borough (1851) 10,973; (1901) 11,889; of 
 pari, borough (1901) 39,075. 
 
 Warwick, a township of Rhode Island, on 
 Narragansett Bay, 10 miles SW. of Providence. 
 Pop. 23,350. 
 
 Warwickshire, a west midland county of 
 England, bounded by the counties of Stafford, 
 Derby, Leicester, Northampton, Oxford, Glouces- 
 ter, and Worcester. It has an extreme length 
 from N. to S. of 52 miles, an extreme breadth of 
 33 miles, and an area of 881 sq. m., or 563,946 
 acres. In the south are spurs of the Coteswolds, 
 as the Edge Hills (826 feet) ; but elsewhere the 
 surface is varied only by gentle undulations, 
 formerly covered by the Forest of Arden. The 
 Avon, flowing south-westward towards the 
 Severn, is the principal river ; but in the north 
 is the Tame, a tributary of the Trent. A coal- 
 field, 16 miles by 3, extends from near Coventry 
 to the Staffordshire boundary east of Tamworth ; 
 and Warwickshire also produces some fireclay, 
 ironstone, limestone, &c. About seven-eighths 
 of the total area is in crops and permanent pas- 
 ture ; woods and plantations occupy nearly 21,000 
 acres. The great industries are noticed under 
 Birmingham and Coventry ; other towns are War- 
 wick, Rugby, Leamington, Stratford-on-Avon, 
 
WASH 
 
 736 
 
 WASHINGTON CITY 
 
 and Nuneaton. The county, which comprises 
 four hundreds, 256 parishes with parts of seven 
 others, and four parliamentary divisions, is 
 mainly in the diocese of Worcester. Tlie an- 
 tiquities include a stone circle (the ' Rollright 
 Stones'), Roman stations and roads, and a 
 wealth of mediaeval remains, as Warwick and 
 Kenilworth castles. The battletield of Edgehill 
 must also be noticed ; whilst of Warwickshire 
 worthies may be mentioned Shakespeare, Basker- 
 ville, Samuel Butler, David Cox, Drayton, Dug- 
 dale, ' George Eliot,' Landor, Dr Parr, and Priest- 
 ley. Pop. (180D 206,798; (1841) 401,703; (1881) 
 737,339 ; (1901) 897,678. See Dugdale's Antiquities 
 of Warwickshire (1656 ; new ed. 2 vols. 1730), and 
 histories by W. Smith (1830), West (1830), Burgess 
 (1870 and 1893), and Timmins (1889). 
 
 "Wash, a wide estuary on the east coast of 
 England, between the counties of Lincoln and 
 Norfolk, is 22 miles in length and 15 in average 
 breadth. With low and marshy shores, it is 
 largely occupied by sandbanks, dry at low 
 water, and receives the rivers Witham, Welland, 
 Ouse, Nen, and Nar. On both sides of the 
 Ouse's channel much land has been reclaimed ; 
 and a proposal of Rennie's to drain the Wash, 
 and so reclaim 150,000 acres, was revived in 1893. 
 Wasli'lngton, the most north-western state 
 of the American Union, is bounded by British 
 Columbia, Idaho, Oregon, and the Pacific. It is 
 350 miles long (E. to W.), 200 miles wide, and 
 69,180 sq. m. in area. The Cascade Range (q.v.) 
 traverses the state from N. to S. The summits 
 of several of the volcanic cones are covered with 
 perpetual snow, and their glaciers rival in beauty 
 those of Switzerland. Western Washington is 
 mountainous, interspersed with fertile valleys. 
 The Coast Range to the west of the Cascades 
 extends in broken masses from the S. to the 
 Strait of Juan de Fuca. This strait and the 
 great inland sea of Puget Sound afford some of the 
 best harbours in the world. Central Wasliington, 
 between the Cascade Range and the Columbia 
 River, is a lofty plateau region, its surface, like 
 that of Eastern Washington, largely covered with 
 lava, and carved into deep and picturesque 
 caftons by the tributaries of the Columbia. East 
 of the Columbia the plateaus and plains are cut 
 by the valleys of Clark's Fork and the Spokane 
 and Snake rivers. The whole of Eastern and a 
 portion of Western Washington are drained by 
 the Columbia River, which for nearly 300 miles 
 forms the boundary with Oregon. In Western 
 Washington the winters are very mild, and the 
 rainfall is the heaviest in the United States. 
 Western Washington is heavily wooded, and 
 lumbering a leading pursuit. Portions of Central 
 and Eastern Washington are well adapted for 
 wheat-growing and grazing. There are exten- 
 sive coalfields around Puget Sound. The coast 
 fisheries and the salmon-canneries on the 
 Columbia are valuable. Washington was or- 
 ganised as a territory in 1853, reduced to its 
 present limits in 1863, and admitted as a state 
 in 1889. Towns are Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, 
 Walla Walla, and Olympia (the capital). Pop. 
 (1870) 23,955 ; (1880) 75,116 ; (1900) 518,103. 
 
 Washington, name of over 200 cities, towns, 
 townships, villages, and hamlets in the United 
 States : (1) the capital of Daviess county, 
 Indiana, 173 miles W. of Cincinnati, with coal- 
 mines near by; pop. 8550.— (2) the capital of 
 Fayette county, Ohio, 77 miles BNE. of Cin- 
 cinnati ; pop. 5742.— (3) the capital of Washing- 
 ton county, Pennsylvania, 31 miles SW. of Pitts- 
 
 burgh, with many mills and cigar-factories, coal- 
 mines, and the Washington and Jefferson College 
 (Presbyterian ; founded 1802). Pop. 7663. 
 
 Washington City, the capital of the United 
 States, in the District of Columbia (q.v.), on the 
 Potomac River, in 38° 53' lat., 77° 2' long., 226 
 miles SSW. of New York, 136 of Philadelphia, and 
 40 of Baltimore. More than half the area of the 
 city proper is permanently free from the en- 
 croachment of buildings ; and besides the numer- 
 ous small parks, Washington has a zoological 
 park of 140 acres, and the Rock Creek Park of 
 over 1500 (purchased in 1892 for $1,200,000). 
 Streets and avenues are thickly planted with 
 shade-trees. The architecture of tlie older city 
 is commonplace, but in the newer Washington 
 is of striking variety and attractiveness. The 
 government buildings are mostly fine and impos- 
 ing structures. Conspicuous on an eminence is 
 the Capitol, built in 1818-59 at a cost of 
 $14,000,000, and 751 feet long; its iron dome, 
 crowned by a bronze figure of Liberty, is 285 feet 
 high. The hall of the House of Representa- 
 tives has desks for 356 members, and the 
 galleries seat 1500 spectators. The Senate Cham- 
 ber accommodates 1000 spectators. The National 
 Memorial Hall in the Capitol is to receive 
 statues contributed by each state to commemor- 
 ate two of its distinguished citizens. The 
 Treasury Department at Pennsylvania Avenue 
 and Fifteenth Street (of freestone and granite) 
 cost $7,000,000. The Interior Department occu- 
 pies an entire square in the lieart of the city, and 
 is constructed of white marble, in pure Doric, 
 costing $3,000,000. The Post-ofllce Department 
 opposite is a Corinthian marble edifice. Tlie 
 granite building for the departments of state, 
 war, and navy, in Renaissance style, is the 
 largest public edifice in Washington, covers 4^ 
 acres, has 560 rooms, and cost $11,000,000. The 
 Congressional Library building, on Capitol Hill, 
 cost $6,000,000. The president's house and 
 executive mansion is a plain edifice of freestone, 
 in classic style, painted white (whence called 'the 
 White House'). The Smithsonian Institution is 
 built of red sandstone, in the Byzantine style, 
 with picturesque towers. The national monu- 
 ment to Washington (1885) is an obelisk of white 
 marble, 555 feet high, beside the Potomac, erected 
 at a cost of $1,230,000. The National Soldiers" 
 Home, 2 miles above the city, founded in 1851, 
 has 600 acres of park and forest, which serve as 
 a public driving park and rural resort. The 
 Columbian University (1814), Georgetown College 
 (R. C. ; 1789), the National University, and 
 Howard University (for coloured students) have 
 each departments of law and medicine. The 
 Catholic University of America (1887) has fine 
 stone buildings just outside the city limits. The 
 Methodist American University has its grounds 
 above Georgetown. Other buildings are the 
 Naval Observatory, the National Deaf-mute Col- 
 lege, and the Gonzaga (Catholic) College. The 
 National Museum, originally established to ex- 
 hibit the rich contributions given to the govern- 
 ment by various countries from the World's Fair 
 at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most 
 extensive and instructive collection of antiq- 
 uities, ethnology, geology, and natural history 
 generally ; and there are many museums, libraries, 
 art galleries, &c. Few of the 200 churches are 
 remarkable. Hardly a public square or circle is 
 without its monument. The city is abundantly 
 supplied with pure water, by a conduit 15 
 miles long, from the Great Falls of the Potomac. 
 The various bureaus employ between 6000 and 
 
WASHITA 
 
 736 
 
 WAVENEY 
 
 7000 persons. The number of hotels and boarding- 
 houses is very great ; and a steadily increasing 
 number of people of wealth and taste are build- 
 ing residences at the national capital. The 
 absence of smoky manufactories, the genial and 
 salubrious climate, the pleasant situation and 
 attractive suburbs, with the wide and smooth 
 streets, contribute to render a residence in 
 Washington agreeable during all but the torrid 
 heats of summer. The original plan of ' the city 
 of magnificent distances,' as it has been called, 
 was drawn out by a resident French engineer, 
 L'Enfant, and largely copied from Versailles. 
 Its characteristic features are the crossing of the 
 rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse 
 avenues, 160 to 120 feet wide, and the numerous 
 circles and triangular reservations interspersed 
 as little parks throughout the city. Originally 
 called Federal City, it was named after Washing- 
 ton in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 
 1814 the Capitol was burned by the British. After 
 the civil war of 1861-65 Washington began to 
 move forward in a new career of prosperity, and 
 was transformed in a few years to a beautiful and 
 attractive city. Pop. (1800) 3210 ; (1830) 23,364 ; 
 (1860)61,122; (1880)147,293; (1900)218,196. 
 
 Washita (Wosh-e-taw'), a tributary of the Red 
 River (q.v.), noted for its whetstones. 
 
 Wast Water, Cumberland, 14 miles SSW. of 
 Keswick, is a lake 3 miles long, ^ mile wide, 204 
 feet above sea-level, and 258 feet deep. 
 
 Watchet, a small Somerset seaport, on the 
 Bristol Channel, 16j miles NW. of Taunton. 
 
 Waterbury, a city of Connecticut, 33 miles by 
 rail SW. of Hartford, on the Naugatuck River. 
 It maimfactures brass wares, and its cheap 
 watches that have carried its name round the 
 world. Pop. (1880) 17,806 ; (1900) 45,859. 
 
 Waterford, an Irish county of Munster, E. of 
 Cork. Its greatest length from E. to W. is 52 
 miles ; its breadth 28 ; and its area 721 sq. m., or 
 461,552 acres. The surface is mountainous, the 
 chief ranges, Knockmeledown (2609 feet) and 
 Cummeragh (2478). The Suir and Blackwater are 
 the chief rivers. The climate is moist, and the 
 soil much of it marshy ; but the uplands are well 
 suited for tillage, and the lower pasture-lands pro- 
 duce excellent butter. Lead, iron, copper, marble, 
 and potter's clay are found. There are some 
 cotton manufactures, and the fisheries are of 
 some importance. The chief towns are Water- 
 ford, Dun gar van, Tramore, Portia w, and Lismore. 
 Before 1885 the county and the boroughs returned 
 five members ; now the county sends two and 
 Waterford city one. Pop. (1841) 196,187 ; (1901) 
 87,187—82,576 Catholics. The county is rich in 
 Celtic, Danish, and Anglo-Norman antiquities. 
 
 Waterford, the county town, itself a county 
 of a city and a municipal and parliamentary 
 borough, is on the river Suir, at the head of the 
 tidal estuary, Waterford Harbour, 97 miles SSW. 
 of Dublin by rail. The city, on the Suir's right 
 bank, is connected with its suburb of Ferry- 
 bank by a wooden bridge of thirty-nine arches. 
 The quay admits vessels of 2000 tons ; there 
 is a shipbuilding yard and dock on the Kil- 
 kenny bank ; but the i^lace has not a thriving 
 look. The chief public buildings are the Pro- 
 testant and R. C. cathedrals, the Protestant 
 episcopal palace, the (Catholic) college of St 
 John, the city and county court-houses, besides 
 hospitals, &c. The chief trade is with England 
 m the export of agricultural produce. Waterford 
 18 originally of Danish foundation, but in 1171 
 Wfts taken by assault by Strongbow. It received 
 
 a charter from John. Pop. (1881) 22,457 ; (1891) 
 21,693 ; and (1901) on extended area, 26,769 (of 
 whom 24,571 were Catholics). See Ryland's 
 History of Waterford (1824). 
 
 Waterloo (Flemish pron. Wah-ter-lo'), a Belgian 
 town (pop. 3600), 11 miles S. of Brussels, which 
 gives name to Wellington's decisive victory over 
 Napoleon, fought near it on Sunday the 18th June 
 1815. The French numbered 72,247 ; the allies 
 69,894 (25,389 British) ; and the loss of the former 
 was 32,000 (including prisoners), of the latter 
 22,500. By Frenchmen the battle is named after 
 the village of Mont St Jean ; by Prussians, after 
 the farm of La Belle Alliance. See Ropes's The 
 Campaign of Waterloo (1893). 
 
 Waterloo, a town of Iowa, on the Cedar River, 
 93 miles W. of Dubuque. Pop. 12,580. 
 
 Waterloo-wlth-Seaforth, a Lancashire water- 
 ing-place, 4 miles N. by W. of Liverpool. Pop. 
 (1851) 9118 ; (1901) 23,102. 
 
 Watertown, (1) a town of Massachusetts, on 
 the Charles River, 8 miles W. of Boston, with a 
 national arsenal. Pop. 9706.— (2) Capital of 
 Jefferson county. New York, on Black River, 12 
 miles by rail E. of Sackett's Harbour, on Lake 
 Ontario. The rapids supply power for factories 
 of spring-wagons, sewing-machines, paper, wool- 
 lens, &c. Pop. 21,696.— (3) A city of Wisconsin, 
 on Rock River, 44 miles W. by N. of Milwaukee, 
 with manufactories of flour, beer, chairs, blinds, 
 &c., and a Lutheran university (1864). Pop. 8455. 
 
 Waterville, a village of Maine, on the Kenne- 
 bec, 19 miles N. by E. of Augusta. Pop. 9480. 
 
 Watervllet (formerly West Troy), a city of New 
 York, ou the left bank of the Hudson River, 
 opposite Troy. It has a U.S. arsenal. Pop. 
 15,500. 
 
 Watford (a as o), a market-town of Hertford- 
 shire, on the Colne, 15 miles (by rail 18) NW. of 
 London. The Perpendicular church, restored in 
 1871, contains some interesting monuments of 
 the Morrisons and Cassells, Earls of Essex, whose 
 seat, Cassiobury, is close to the town ; and there 
 are also the London Orphan Asylum (inst. 1813 ; 
 transferred hither, 1871), the Salters' Company's 
 almshouses (1873), the endowed schools (1874), 
 the public library and school of art (1874), &c., 
 besides manufactures of silk and paper. Pop. 
 (1851) 6546 ; (1881) 12,162 ; (1901) 29,327. 
 
 Wath-upon-Deame, a Yorkshire town, 6 miles 
 N. of Rotherham. It has collieries, ironworks, 
 &c. Pop. (1851) 1495 ; (1901) 8515, 
 
 Watling's Island, one of the Bahamas (q.v.), 
 the probable landfall of Columbus. 
 
 Watling Street, one of the great Roman high- 
 ways of Britain, ran from Dover to Canterbury, 
 Rochester, London, Chester, and York, thence 
 branching to Carlisle and Newcastle. 
 
 Watlington, a market-town of Oxfordshire, 8 
 miles NE. of Wallingford. Pop. of parish, 1734. 
 
 Watton, a Norfolk market-town, 12 miles N. of 
 Thetford. Near it is Wayland Wood, the scene 
 of the ' Children of the Wood.' Pop. 1365. 
 
 Wauke'gan, capital of Lake county, Illinois, 
 on the west shore of Lake Michigan, 36 miles by 
 rail N. by W. of Chicago. Pop. 9345i. 
 
 Wau'kesha, capital of a county, Wisconsin, on 
 Fox River, 19 miles W. of Milwaukee. Pop. 7321. 
 
 Wausau (Wav/saw), a town of Wisconsin, 210 
 miles NW. of Milwaukee. It sends much lumber 
 down the Wisconsin River. Pop. 12,360. 
 
 Wave'ney, a river of Norfolk and Suffolk, 
 
WAVERLEY 
 
 V37 
 
 WELLINGTON COLLEGE 
 
 flowing 50 miles ENE. to the Yare, 4^ miles 
 WSW. of Yarmouth. 
 
 Waverley. See Farnham. 
 
 Wavertree, a SE. suburb of Liverpool. 
 
 Wavre (Vahvr), a Belgian town, 15 miles SE. 
 of Brussels ; pop. 8432. Here on 18th June 1815 
 the Prussians prevented Grouchy from joining 
 Napoleon at Waterloo. 
 
 Wayland Wood. See Watton. 
 
 Wazan', a town of Morocco, 90 miles SE. of 
 Tangier ; pop. 20,000, It is a sacred city, the 
 headquarters of the Grand Shereef. 
 
 Wazlrabad', a town of the Punjab, 21 miles 
 N. of Gujranwala by rail. Pop. 15,462. 
 
 Waziristan', a highland country between the 
 Kurram and Gomul passes. Formerly Afghan, it 
 was transferred to British India in 1894 ; but a 
 military expedition had to be despatched thither 
 in Jan. 1895. 
 
 Weald. See Kent, Sussex. 
 
 Wear, a river of Durham (q.v.), 65 miles long. 
 See also Sunderland. 
 
 Weaver, a Cheshire river flowing 45 miles to 
 the Mersey, ^ miles below Runcorn. 
 
 Webb City, a town of Missouri, 9 miles SW. 
 of Carthage. Pop. 9200. 
 
 Wedmore, a Somerset parish (pop. 3060), 8 
 miles WNW. of Wells. Here peace was signed in 
 878 between King Alfred and Guthrum the Dane. 
 
 Wed'nesbury (locally Wedgehury), a town of 
 S. Staffordshire, 8 miles NW. of Binningham. 
 Crowning a hill at the north end of the town is 
 the cruciform Perpendicular church of St Bar- 
 tholomew, supposed to occupy the site of a temple 
 of Woden — whence the Anglo-Saxon name, Wod- 
 oiesbeorh. It seems to have been built in the 11th, 
 and rebuilt in the 15th c, and was much altered 
 and restored between 1766 and 1885. Here, too, in 
 916 the Princess Ethelfleda, Edward the Elder's 
 sister, founded a castle. Modern buildings are 
 the town-hall (1872), public baths and free library 
 (1878), and art gallery and museum (1891). One 
 of the great iron towns of the Black Country, 
 in a district abounding in coalpits, ironworlis, 
 railways, and canals, Wednesbury has manufac- 
 tures of boiler-plates, bar-iron, steel, gas and 
 steam tubes, edge tools, &c. In 1886 it was incor- 
 porated as a municipal borough, and in 1867 was 
 made a parliamentary borough, returning one 
 member, and till 1885 including West Bromwich 
 (q.v.). Pop. (1851) 11,914 ; (1901) 26,544. 
 
 Wednesfield, a NE. suburb of Wolverhampton. 
 
 Wei-hai-wel, a harbour in the Chinese penin- 
 sula of Shantung, 40 miles E. of Che-foo, secured 
 by Britain on a lease of twenty-five years, as 
 Port Arthur (q.v.) had been by Russia. Pop. of 
 ceded strip round the bay, 200,000. 
 
 Weimar (Vl-mar), the capital of the German 
 grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, on the 
 Urn's left bank, 31 miles E. of Gotha and 155 SW. 
 of Berlin. Tlie lustre conferred on it by the resi- 
 dence of Goethe, Schiller, Herder, and Wieland, at 
 the court of Karl- August, has faded, and the in- 
 terest of the place (Thackeray's ' Pumpernickel ') 
 is almost wholly derived from its monuments, 
 traditions, and associations. The town church 
 {Stadtkirche), dating from 1400, contains the tombs 
 of Bernhard of Weimar, Herder, &c. Other build- 
 ings are the handsome ducal palace, rebuilt in 
 1790-1803 after the fire of 1774 ; the Rothes Schloss 
 (1574); the Grlines Schloss, with a library of 
 180,000 volumes, and relics of Luther and Gus- 
 
 tavus Adolphus ; the court theatre (rebuilt 1825), 
 where Liszt produced Wagner's Lohengrin; and 
 the houses of Cranach, Goethe, Schiller, and 
 Herder. Pop. (1871) 15,998 ; (1900) 28,330, 
 Weissenburg (Vice' en-boor g). See Wissem- 
 
 BOURG. 
 
 Weissenfels (Vlce'en-fels), a town of Prussian 
 Saxony, 35 miles SW. of Leipzig. Pop. 28,200. 
 
 Welbeck Abbey, the seat of the Duke of Port- 
 land, in Notts, 3 miles S. of Worksop. Occupying 
 the site of an old Premonstratensian abbey, it 
 stands in a park 10 miles in circumference, and 
 is a stately Palladian edilice of the 17th and 18th 
 centuries, greatly enlarged about 1864 by the 
 fifth duke, to whom it owes its semi-underground 
 picture-gallery, ball-room, and riding-school, the 
 last 385 feet long, 104 wide, and 51 high. 
 
 Welland, a river flowing 70 miles to the Wash. 
 
 Welland Canal. See Erie. 
 
 Welle (Wel'leh), a great river of Equatorial 
 Africa, rising in the Monbuttu country and 
 flowing westward to 19° W., then south-west- 
 ward, and as the Mobangi or U-banghi entering 
 the Congo. Schweinfurth, Stanley, and Grenfell 
 have explored it. 
 
 Wellesley. See Penang. 
 
 Wellingborough, a market-town of North- 
 amptonshire, on a declivity near the confluence of 
 the Ise with the Nen, lOj miles ENE. of North- 
 ampton. Almost destroyed by fire in 1738, it has 
 a chalybeate spring (the 'Red Well'), said to 
 have been resorted to by Charles I. ; a large parish 
 church (restored 1861-74) ; a corn exchange (1861) ; 
 a grammar-school (1595 ; new buildings, 1880) ; 
 and boot-making, iron-smelting, &c. Pop. (1851) 
 5061 ; (1901) 18,412. 
 
 Wellington, (l) a market-town of Shropshire, 
 2 miles NE. of the conspicuous Wrekin (1320 feet) 
 and 10 E. of Shrewsbury. It stood near the 
 ancient Watling Street, hence its name ' Watling 
 Town.' Situated in a populous mining and 
 agricultural district, it has manufactures of 
 farm implements, &c., an Italian town-hall built 
 in 1867 at a cost of £10,000, and a corn exchange 
 (1868). Pop. (1851) 3926; (1901) 6283. -(2) A 
 market- town of Somerset, 7 miles SW. of Taunton, 
 near the Tone and the foot of the Black Downs 
 (900 feet), which were crowned in 1817 by a 
 Wellington obelisk. The ' Great Duke ' took for 
 some unknown motive his titles from this place ; 
 and its manor (lield formerly by King Alfred, 
 Asser, Aldhelm, the Protector Somerset, the 
 Pophams, &c.) was purchased for him in 1813. 
 Serges and other woollen goods are manufactured. 
 Pop. (1851) 4601 ; (1901) 7282. See Humphrey's 
 History of Wellington (1890). 
 
 Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, on 
 Port Nicholson, an inlet of Cook Strait, on the 
 southern coast of the North Island, 150 miles by 
 sea ENE. of Nelson. The fine harbour is 6 miles 
 long and 5 broad. Wellington was settled in 1840, 
 and after the removal of the seat of government 
 hither in 1865 made rapid progress ; it has good 
 public buildings, including Government House, 
 the Hou.ses of Legislature, Anglican and R. C. 
 cathedrals, a college, mu.seum, &c. Amongst the 
 industries are tanning, brewing, candle and soap 
 works, boot-factories, meat-preserving, and ship- 
 building. There is a public park, and the 
 botanical gardens have an area of 100 acres. The 
 suburb of Newton or South Wellington is con- 
 nected by tramway. Pop. (1871) 13,488 ; (1901) 
 43,638, or with suburbs, 49,344. 
 
 Wellington College, Berkshire, 4 miles SSB. 
 
WELLS 
 
 738 
 
 WEST AUSTRALIA 
 
 of "Wokingham, a public school, founded in 1853 
 in memory of the Duke of Wellington. Queen 
 Victoria laid the foundation stone in 1856, and 
 opened it in 1859. It has 90 scholarships for sons 
 of deceased army officers and over 400 boys. 
 
 Wells, the city of Somerset, pleasantly situated 
 at the foot of the Mendip Hills, 20 miles SW. of 
 Bath and 20 (30 by rail) S. of Bristol. Here, near 
 St Andrew's Well, from which and other springs 
 the place took its name, King Ina in 704 estab- 
 lished a house of secular canons ; but the see was 
 first founded in 909 by Edward the Elder. It 
 was translated to Bath during the first half of 
 the 12th c, and still is styled Bath and Wells, 
 though Bath's connection has been purely titular 
 since the Reformation. Among its seventy 
 bishops have been Jocelin (1206-42), the ' second 
 founder ' of the cathedral. Fox, Wolsey, Barlow, 
 Laud, and Ken. That cathedral, though one of 
 the "smallest yet perhaps the most beautiful of 
 English cathedrals, is mainly Early English in 
 style, and is 371 feet long, by 123 across the 
 transept, while the height of the central tower is 
 160 feet, of the two western towers 130. Its 
 principal glory is the west front, with its match- 
 less sculptures (600 figures in all, of which 151 
 are life-size or colossal); but other features are 
 the north porch, the inverted tower arches, the 
 east Jesse window with its splendid old glass, 
 the exquisite lady chapel, and the octagonal 
 chapter-house. Other buildings, all of extreme 
 interest, are the moated episcopal palace, with 
 an undercrypt of about 1220; the deanery {temp. 
 Edward IV.) ; the archdeaconry, now a theological 
 college ; the gateways ; and St Cutlibert's church, 
 with a noble west tower. Chartered by King 
 John in 1202, Wells lost one of its members in 
 1867, and the second in 1868. Pop. (1851) 4736 ; 
 (1901) 4849. See works by Britton (1821), 
 Cockerell (1851), Parker (1860), Freeman (1870), 
 Reynolds (^881), and Jewers (1892). 
 
 Wells-next-the-Sea, or Wells, a Norfolk sea- 
 port, 31 miles NE, of Lynn. Pop, 2555. 
 
 Wellsville, a town of Ohio, on the Ohio River, 
 48 miles by rail WNW. of Pittsburgh, with steel 
 and terra-cotta works. Pop. 6500. 
 
 Welshpool, a town of Montgomeryshire, North 
 Wales, near the Severn's left bank, 20 miles W. 
 by S. of Shrewsbury. It has a parish church 
 (restored by Street), a town-hall and market (1873) 
 with a clock-tower 90 feet high, and the Powys- 
 land Museum (1874) ; whilst 1 mile south is Powis 
 Castle, dating from the 12th c, with a fine picture- 
 gallery and park— the seat from Elizabeth's time 
 of the Herberts, as now of their and Clive's 
 descendant, the Earl of Powis. The flannel manu- 
 facture has migrated to Newtown. Incorporated 
 by James I. in 1615, Welshpool is one of the six 
 Montgomeryshire (q.v.) boroughs. Pop. (1851) 
 6564 ; (1901) 6121. 
 
 Welwyn, a parish of Herts, 5 miles N. of 
 Hatfield. Young thought his Night Thoughts 
 here, and here lies buried. 
 
 Wem, a market-town of Shropshire, on the 
 Ellesmere Canal, 11 miles N. by E. of Shrews- 
 bury. Here Hazlitt passed his boyhood, and 
 here met Colei-idge. Pop. 2150. 
 
 Wembly, Middlesex, 2^ miles ESE. of Harrow, 
 has been constituted an urban district, and has a 
 pop. of 5000.— Wembly Park, a Londoners' plea- 
 sure-resort, was opened in 1894 with a great 
 revolving wheel, &c. 
 
 Wemyss {Weemz; Gael. Uaimh, 'a cave'), a 
 S. coast parish of Fife, 2 miles NE. of Dysart, 
 
 containing the villages of East and West Weraysa, 
 with pops, of 2550 and 1260. 
 
 Wemyss Bay, a small Renfrewshire watering- 
 place, on the Firth of Clyde, just N. of Skelmorlie. 
 and 30^ W, of Glasgow. 
 
 Wen-chow (Wan-chau), a Chinese treaty port 
 in Cheh-kiang province. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 Wen'dover, a parish of Bucks, under the 
 Chiltern Hills, 5 miles SE. of Aylesbury. It 
 sent members to parliament till 1832. Pop. 2036. 
 
 Wener, Lake (Vayner), a lake of SW. Sweden, 
 after Ladoga and Onega the largest in Europe. 
 It is 93 miles long, 50 miles in greatest breadth, 
 300 feet in greatest depth, and 150 feet above sea- 
 level ; area, 2408 sq. m. From the NW. and S. 
 shores, peninsulas project to within 15 miles of 
 one another ; the part SW. of this is called Dalbo 
 Lake. There are inany islands. 
 
 Wenham Lake, Massachusetts, 22 miles NNE. 
 of Boston, yields large quantities of ice, as does 
 another Wenham Lake (named after the American 
 one) in Norway, at Drobak, near Christiania. 
 
 Wenlock, a municipal borough of Shropshire, 
 extending over more than 50 sq. m., and compris- 
 ing Much Wenlock, Broseley, Coalport, Madeley, 
 Ironbridge, and Coalbrookdale. It was incor- 
 porated by Edward IV. in 1448, and till 1885 
 returned two members. Much Wenlock, under 
 the NE. end of Wenlock Edge, 12 miles SE. of 
 Shrewsbury, has a quaint guildhall (restored 
 1848), a market-hall (1879), a corn exchange 
 (1852), a museum, and interesting remains of a 
 Cluniac abbey. Pop. of borough (1861) 19,699; 
 (1901) 15,866—2210 in Much Wenlock district. 
 
 Wensum, a Norfolk stream flowing 80 miles 
 SE. to the Yare at Norwich. 
 
 Wentwood Forest, Monmouthshire, 4i miles 
 SSE. of Usk. 
 
 Wentworth Castle, Yorkshire, the Went- 
 worths' seat (1730-68), 3 miles SSW. of Barnsley. 
 
 Wentworth-Woodhouse, in the West Riding 
 of Yorkshire, 4| miles NW. of llotherham, the 
 seat of Earl Fitzwilliam, as its predecessor was 
 of his great ancestor, the Earl of Strafford. 
 
 Weobly (Web'ly), a town, till 1832 a pari. 
 borough, 12\ miles NW. of Hereford. Pop. 804. 
 
 Werdau (Vayr-dow), a Saxon cloth-making 
 town, 45 miles S. of Leipzig. Pop. 19,665. 
 
 Werden, a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the 
 Ruhr, 10 miles NE. of Diisseldorf. Pop, 9970, 
 
 Wernlgerode (Vayr-neli-ge-ro'dch), a town of 
 Prussia, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains, 
 50 miles SW. of Magdeburg. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Werwicque (Ver'veek), a Belgian town on the 
 French frontier, with a 14th-c. church, and great 
 tobacco manufacture. Pop. 9000. 
 
 Wesel (Vay'zel), a strongly fortified town of 
 Prussia, at tlie Lippe's confluence witli the Rhine, 
 85 miles NW. of Diisseldorf. Cloth, pottery, 
 machinery, &c. are manufactured. Pop. 24,550. 
 
 Weser (Fai/zer), a river of Germany, formed at 
 Miinden by the Werra and Fulda, and flowing N. 
 through Prussia, till, passing Bremen, it forms 
 for 40 miles the boundary between Oldenburg 
 and Prussia, and enters the North Sea by a wide 
 but shallow estuary, after a course of 280 miles. 
 
 Wessex, the ancient kingdom of the West 
 Saxons, comprising Berks, Hants, Wilts, Dorset, 
 Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. Mr Thomas 
 Hardy, whose native county is Dorsetshire, has 
 made the name once more familiar. 
 
 West Australia. See Western Australia. 
 
WEST BAY CITY 
 
 739 
 
 WESTGATE-ON-SEA 
 
 West Bay City, a town of Michigan, on the 
 Saginaw River, opposite Bay City, with a very 
 large trade in lumber, &c. Pop. 13,120. 
 
 Wesfborough, a manufacturing town of 
 Massachusetts, 32 miles by rail W. by S. of 
 Boston, with a state reform school. Pop. 6429. 
 
 West Brom'wich, a Staffordshire town, one of 
 the most important in the 'Black Country,' 
 5J miles NW. of Birmingham, 90 SSB. of Liver- 
 pool, 93 NNE. of Bristol, and 113 NW. of 
 London. The Bromwic of Domesday, and the 
 seat in the 12th c. of a Benedictine priory, it 
 yet is of modern growth, having risen within 
 the last hundred years from a mere village on a 
 barren heath, in consequence of the rich coal and 
 iron mines near, of the industries to which these 
 give rise, and of the transport facilities by rail 
 and canal. The public buildings, erected in 1875 
 at a cost of £30,000, comprise a town-hall with a 
 fine organ, a tower 130 feet high, a market-hall, 
 free library, public baths, &c. There are also 
 the institute (1886), All Saints Church (rebuilt 
 1872), Christ Church (1829), with a tower 114 
 feet high and twelve bells, the West Bromwich 
 district hospital (1867-82), and a public park of 
 65J acres, with a boating and bathing pool, and 
 commanding a beautiful view. The last was pre- 
 sented to the town in 1878-87 by the Earl of 
 Dartmouth, whose ancestor purchased the manor 
 in 1823. The manufactures comprise all depart- 
 ments of Birmingham hardware, as gun-barrels, 
 axle-boxes, locks, swords, bayonets, fire-irons, 
 fenders, saucepans, safes, cooking-ranges, gas- 
 stoves, &c. Puddling and sheet-iron rolling, 
 sheet-glass making, coal-mining, and brick-making 
 are also carried on. In 1867 West Bromwich was 
 included within the parliamentary borough of 
 Wednesbury, but since 1885 itself has returned a 
 member. It was made a municipal borough in 
 1882, a county borough in 1888. Pop. (1801) 5687 ; 
 (1841) 26,121 ; (1881) 56,295 ; (1901) 65,172. See 
 a work by Joseph Reeves (1836). 
 
 West'bury, a market-town of Wiltshire, 16^ 
 miles SSE. of Bath and 25 NW. of Salisbury. 
 Returning till 1832 two members, and then till 
 1885 one, it has lost its clothing industry, but 
 has iron-smelting Avorks. The fine church has 
 memories of Walter Map and Mackonochie. 
 Westbury White Horse, on the S. slope of West- 
 bury Down (775 feet), is 175 feet long, and was 
 restored in 1778 and 1853. It probably com- 
 memorates Alfred the Great'svictoryof Ebhandiin 
 (Edington) in 878. Pop. of urban district, 8305. 
 
 West Gaidar. See Calder. 
 
 West Chester, a town of Pennsylvania, 27 
 miles W. of Philadelphia. Pop. 9530. 
 
 West Derby, a NW. suburb of Liverpool. 
 
 West Drayton. See Drayton. 
 
 Westerham, a market-town of Kent, 5 miles 
 W. of Sevenoaks. General Wolfe was a native. 
 Pop. of parish, 2900. 
 
 Westerklrk, a Dumfriesshire pari-sh, 6 miles 
 NW. of Langholm. Telford was a native. 
 
 Westerly, a village of Rhode Island, 44 miles 
 SSW. of Providence. Pop. 7550. 
 
 Western Australia embraces the western 
 third of Australia, to the W. of South Australia 
 and its Northern Territory. It extends from 
 13° to 35° S. lat. and 113° to 129" E. long., being 
 1500 miles long by 1000 broad. The area is 
 1,060,000 sq. m., or 678,400,000 acres— i.e. nearly 
 twenty times the size of England. WTiile the 
 central portions are stony or sandy, with the 
 north and south coasts poor in soil, there is good 
 
 land at the west and in the north-east. Lesg 
 hilly than eastern Australia, it is not so well 
 watered. The Darling Range, 300 miles in length, 
 has few peaks of 3000 feet ; Koikyeunerup, north 
 of King George's Sound, is 3500 feet; and the 
 King Leopold Mountains are north-east. Few 
 rivers run in the dry season. There are .shallow 
 salt lakes inland, and a number of islands off the 
 coast. Perth, the capital (pop. 36,274), has Fre- 
 mantle (pop. 20,450) for its port. Albany (3600), 
 the port on King George's Sound, is 261 miles 
 SE. of Perth by rail. The climate is dry, bright, 
 and free from miasjna, though the N. and NW. 
 are uncomfortably hot. Perth varies from 38° 
 to 106° in the shade ; its average annual rainfall 
 is 33 inches. Pop. (1870) 25,353, including 1790 
 convicts; (1881) 29,708; (1901) 194,890, besides 
 about 5260 aborigines. 
 
 The natural history is not unlike that of the 
 rest of Australia (q.v.). Trepang or beche-de- 
 iner furnishes an export. Timber of excellent 
 quality (mainly eucalyptus, including the jarrah, 
 wandoo, &c.) abounds to the SW. There are 150 
 acacias, and sandalwood grows. There are six 
 pastoral districts in the colony. The desert has 
 some good oases. Of 130,000 acres in crop, wheat 
 and other cereals do well. The gardens have 
 twenty-five sorts of fruits, grapes being fine and 
 abundant. But the western portion only has 
 moisture enough for ordinary husbandry. Granite 
 and recent limestone are the great geological 
 features. There are many workable seams of 
 good coal and lignite. Gerald ine, in the Victoria 
 district, had lead and copper mines in 1842. The 
 Greenbushes yield tin. Magnetite and hematite 
 iron occur in immense lodes ; manganese and 
 antimony are found. A little gold was found in 
 1868 and succeeding years, in larger quantities 
 since 1885 in tlie districts of Kimberley, Yilgarn, 
 Southern Cross, Pilbarra, Ashburton, Roebourne, 
 and Murchison, and in 1892-93 at Coolgardie 
 (q.v.), where the finds have surpassed all previous 
 Australian experience. Lack of water hampers 
 mining progress, and the sinking of artesian wells 
 and making of tanks is being carried out. The 
 imports for 1892 were £1,391,000; the exports 
 (gold, silver, copper, wool, skins, jarrah, pearls, 
 tin, and karri), £882,148. In 1903 these had in- 
 creased to£6,769,922and £10,324,732 respectively. 
 Revenue (1880), £180,050 ; (1892) £543,889 ; (1903) 
 £3,996,499. Expenditure (1880), £204,337 ; (1892) 
 £550,616; (1903) £3,886,802. The debt in 1903 
 was £15,627,298. Tlie railways extend to up- 
 wards of 2100 miles (1520 government property, 
 about 600 in private hands). Spaniards and 
 Portuguese had the western and northern coasts 
 in their maps about 1530. Tlie Dutch (Dirk 
 Hartog, Edel, De Witt, &c.) rediscovered tliese 
 parts in 1616-27. A temporary settlement 
 was made from Sydney, at the Sound, in 
 1825. A private association in 1828 obtained 
 land from the government, and in 1829 founded 
 tlie Swan River Settlement at Fremantle, Perth 
 also dating from the same year. Transportation 
 hitlier began in 1850, and ceased in 1867. Respon- 
 sible government was granted in 1890; and the 
 former colony is now one of tlie federated states 
 of the Australian Commonwealth (1901). See 
 books by Giles (1889), Bonwick (1890), Hart (1893), 
 Calvert (1894), J. M. Price (1896), and the annual 
 handbooks and bluebooks. 
 
 Westfield, a town of Massachusetts, 9 miles by 
 rail W. of Springfield. Pop. 12,310. 
 
 Westgate-on-Sea, a western extension of Mar» 
 gate (q.v.), witli an asylum for inebri^ites, 
 
WEST HAM 
 
 740 
 
 WESTMORLAND 
 
 West Ham. See Ham, West. 
 
 West Hartlepool. See Hartlepool. 
 
 Westhoughton, a town of Lancashire, 5 miles 
 E. of Wigan, with manufactures of silk, cotton, 
 and nails, and neighbouring collieries. Pop. 
 (1851) 4547 ; (1901) 14,377. 
 
 West Indies, the great archipelago which ex- 
 tends in a vast curve from Florida in North 
 America to the north coast of South America, 
 separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Mexican 
 Gulf and the Caribbean Sea. The name still 
 bears testimony to the belief cherished by Colum- 
 bus that when he reached in the Bahamas (q.v.) 
 the outlying portion of the New World he was 
 actually on or close to that old-world India he 
 was seelcing. The name Antilles (q.v.), which is 
 applied to the whole of the islands save the 
 Bahamas, retains a trace of the belief in the old 
 submerged continent of Antiglia. The table 
 gives their area, population, and political con- 
 nection (see also the several articles thereon) : 
 
 West Indian Islands. Area. 
 
 Hayti 10,204 
 
 Dominican Kepublic 18,045 
 
 Cuba 40,000 
 
 Porto Rico (United States) 3,606 
 
 Jamaica (British) 4,373 
 
 Trinidad (British) 1,754 
 
 Barbadoes (British) 166 
 
 Windward Islands (British)— 
 
 Grenada 133 
 
 St Vincent 133 
 
 Tobago 114 
 
 St Lucia 233 
 
 Leeward isles (British)— 
 
 Antigua and Barbuda 170 
 
 Montserrat 32 
 
 St Kitt's (and Anguilla) 100 
 
 Nevis 50 
 
 Dominica 291 
 
 Part of Virgin Islands 57 
 
 Bahamas 4,404 
 
 Guadeloupe, &c. (Frencli) 503 
 
 Martinique, &c. (French) 38X 
 
 St Bartholomew (French) 8 
 
 Cur£i9ao, Saba, &c. (Dutch) 403 
 
 Danish Islands (in Virgin group)— 
 
 St Thomas 23 > 
 
 St Croix 73 ' 
 
 St John 20 J 
 
 1,347.150 
 610,000 
 
 1,572,845 
 953.243 
 795,398 
 281,120 
 197,792 
 
 66,762 
 
 48,424 
 18,880 
 51,881 
 
 34,904 
 12,894 
 34,271 
 13,306 
 29,924 
 5,115 
 53,735 
 179,243 
 203,781 
 2,700 
 53,046 
 
 35,156 
 
 Total 85,276 6,601,570 
 
 Calcareous rocks predominate, in some cases 
 overlying granite and other igneous rocks ; some 
 of the minor Antilles are wholly volcanic ; coral- 
 reefs are found on many of tliem. All the islands 
 except the northern Bahamas are tropical, and 
 are liable to severe hurricanes. The productions 
 are luxuriant and varied. Great events were the 
 discovery (1492) ; tlie Spanish occupation ; the 
 introduction of negro slaves (1525) to take the 
 place of the native Carib Indians, decimated by 
 forced labour on the plantations ; the develop- 
 ment of the sugar industry ; the gradual intrusion 
 in the 17th century of French, English, and 
 Dutch. Between 1635 and 1719 France secured 
 Guadeloupe, Martinique, Grenada, and St Vin- 
 cent ; in 1632 Tobago and Curagao became Dutch ; 
 in 1623-1763 England obtained possession of St 
 Cliristopher, Barbadoes, Antigua, Dominica, and 
 the Grenadines. England's growing power at sea 
 forced France to cede St Lucia, Grenada, and St 
 Vincent ; and there was fierce fighting in these 
 regions, Rodney's defeat of the French fleet off 
 Dominica in 1782 being one of the great naval 
 battles of the world. The West Indies were long 
 haunted by the Buccaneers, and some were used 
 by Britain as penal settlements. The abolition 
 of slavery in the English islands (1834-38), liow- 
 ever creditable to the public conscience, was 
 
 regarded by the planters and their friends as the 
 main reason for the great decline in prosperity, 
 from which the islands have but partially re- 
 covered. See works by M. G. Lewis (1834), 
 Champlain (1859), Trollope (1859 ; new ed. 1869), 
 Bates (1878), Kingsley (1869), Acosta (Hakluyt 
 Soc. 1880), Eden (1881), Eves (new ed. 1891), 
 Fronde (1888), Paton (1888), Bulkeley (1890). 
 
 Westland, a provincial district (capital, Hokit- 
 ika) of New Zealand, occupies the W. portion of 
 South Island. Area, 4041 sq. m. ; pop. 15,887. 
 
 Westmeath, an inland county of Leinster, 
 Ireland, between Meath and Roscommon. Great- 
 est length NE. and SW., 45 miles ; greatest 
 breadth, 25 miles ; area, 453,468 acres. The sur- 
 face is for tlie most part level, the hilly district 
 in tlie north not exceeding 710 feet. Of the 
 numerous lakes, one cliain belongs to the basin of 
 the Shannon, wliich river forms with them the 
 western boundary ; the other, towards the east, 
 flows into the basin of the Boyne. The Royal 
 Canal traverses the county. The soil is a deep 
 loam, producing good pasture for cattle. There 
 is little tillage. The chief towns are the capital, 
 Mullingar, and Athlone, which is partly in Ros- 
 common. The county returns two members. 
 Westmeath anciently formed a portion of the 
 kingdom of Meath (q.v.), but in Henry VIII.'s 
 reign was erected into a separate county, and at 
 first included Longford and part of King's County. 
 Many Anglo-Norman and some Celtic antiquities 
 are found in this picturesque county. Pop. (1841) 
 141,578; (1861) 90,879; (1881) 71,798; (1901) 
 61,629—56,673 Catholics. 
 
 Westminster. See London, p. 424. 
 
 West'morland, a northern county of England, 
 bounded by Cumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, 
 and Lancashire. With a very irregular outline, 
 it has an extreme length from N. to S. of 32 miles, 
 an extreme breadth from E. to W. of 40 miles, 
 and an area of 505,864 acres or 790 sq. m. Tlie 
 surface is mountainous, the highest summits 
 being Helvellyn (q.v., 3118 feet) on the Cumber- 
 land boundary. Bow Fell (2959), Fairfield (2950), 
 Dufton Fell (2803), and Dun Fell (2780). The 
 western portion of the county belongs to the 
 Lake District (q.v.), its lakes including Winder- 
 mere (q.v.) on tlie Lancashire boundary, and 
 Ullswater (q.v.), on that with Cumberland, be- 
 sides Grasmere, Howes Water, Rydal Water, &c. 
 The moorlands— to which Westmorland owes its 
 name— are numerous and extensive ; but along 
 the courses of the Kent in the S. and the Eden in 
 tlie N. (the principal streams) there are tracts of 
 fertile land. Of the 400,000 acres in cultivation 
 less than 90,000 are under corn ; woods and planta- 
 tions cover 17,000 acres. The climate is moist 
 and mild, but with often much snow in winter. 
 Coal, lead, copper, slate, and graphite are the 
 chief mineral productions. Westmorland, which 
 is in the diocese of Carlisle, comprises four wards, 
 109 parishes, and the towns of Appleby, Amble- 
 side, and Kendal. It returns one member apiece 
 for the Northern or Appleby and the Southern or 
 Kendal division. Worthies have been Bernard 
 Gilpin, Catharine Parr, Ann Clifford, Countess of 
 Pembroke, Bishop Watson, Wordsworth, Prof. 
 Wilson, Hartley Coleridge, Dr Arnold, Miss 
 Martineau, and Sir J. G. Wilkinson ; and Clifton 
 Moor was the scene of a Jacobite skirmish (1745). 
 Pop. (1801) 40,805 ; (1841) 56,454 ; (1881) 64,191 ; 
 (1901) 64,805. See the Qtiarterly Review for Janu- 
 ary 1867 ; works cited there and at Lake Dis- 
 trict ; and others by E. Bellasis (2 vols. Kendal, 
 1892), and B. S. Ferguson (1894). 
 
WESTON-SUPER-MARE 
 
 741 
 
 WEYBOURNE 
 
 Weston-super-Mare (May'reh), a fashionable 
 wateriug-place of Souierset, on the Bristol 
 Channel, 20 miles SW. of Bristol. Grown from a 
 dshing-village since 1805, it is sheltered by rocky, 
 fir-clad Worle Hill (306 feet); commands a 
 splendid view over to Wales ; and has an esplan- 
 ade (begun 1825) 3 miles long, a promenade pier 
 (1867) 1040 feet long, the Prince Consort gardens, 
 potteries, &c. Pop. (1901) 19,847. 
 
 Westphalia, a former duchy and kingdom, a 
 Prussian province, named from the Wesf/alen, p. 
 western tribe of Saxons, as distinguished from 
 the Ostfalen, nearer the Elbe. About 1180 it came 
 under the Archbishops of Cologne, as Dukes of 
 Westphalia. It was the headquarters of the 
 Vehmgerichte. In 1807 Westphalia, with parts 
 of Hesse, Hanover, Brunswick, and Saxony, was 
 made into a kingdom for Jerome Bonaparte ; in 
 1813 the kingdom came to an end, and the Congress 
 of Vienna assigned the present province to Prussia. 
 It has an area of 7892 sq. m. (larger than Wales) 
 and a pop. (1900) of 3,187,777, of whom 1,616,377 
 were Catholics. The northern portion belongs to 
 the great North German plain, and is not fertile ; 
 the south is hilly, with fertile valleys. West- 
 phalian hams are still in high repute ; but West- 
 phalia's peculiar wealth lies in its mineral treas- 
 ures — iron, zinc, copper, sulphur, with lead, 
 antimony, &c. Iron-working is largely carried 
 on, and linen-weaving has been an important 
 industry since the 14th century— Bielefeld being 
 the great centre. Mtinster has cotton- works. 
 
 West Point, the U.S. Military Academy, on 
 the Hudson's right bank, 48 miles by rail N. of 
 New York. Established in 1802, on the site of an 
 older fort, it occupies a i)lateau 188 feet above the 
 river, surrounded by the bold scenery of one of 
 the finest river-passes in the world. 
 
 Westport, a Mayo seaport, at the head of Clew 
 Bay, 13 miles SW. of Castlebar. Pop. 3890. 
 West Prussia. See Prussia. 
 Westray, an Orkney Island, 10^ miles NNE. 
 of Pomona. Area, 24^ sq. m. ; greatest height, 
 556 feet ; pop. 1956. 
 West Troy. See Troy, U.S. 
 West Virginia is the most irregular in form 
 of all the states of the American Union ; nearly 
 all the boundary lines follow the courses of rivers 
 or the crests of mountain-ranges. It borders on 
 Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and 
 Maryland. Area, 24,780 sq. m. In the NE. a 
 small portion of the state belongs to the Shenan- 
 doah valley. The 'mountain region' is formed 
 by the western ridges of the Appalachian system. 
 In the north the streams are tributary to the 
 Potomac ; but toward the south they frequently 
 cut through the mountain-ridges in deep gorges, 
 flowing W. or NW. to the Ohio Kiver. The ' hilly 
 region ' is a portion of the Appalachian or Cum- 
 berland plateau. Much of the state is well 
 wooded. The climate is equable, the rainfall 
 abundant. The soil is mostly fertile. In 
 the mountain region there is an abundance of 
 fine pasturage, and the annual product of butter 
 and cheese is very large. The great Appalachian 
 coalfield covers almost the entire .state. West 
 Virginia i;anks fourth among the states in its 
 coal output, and second in the production of 
 coke ; the pig-iron and steel products are increas- 
 ing. Salt and petroleum-oil are also products. 
 Of the mineral springs the White Sulphur Springs 
 are the most widely known. The chief cities are 
 Wheeling, Charleston (the capital), Huntington, 
 and Parkeraburg. At Morgantown is the state 
 
 imiversity. Until the Secession, this state was 
 included in Virginia ; but tlie inhabitants of the 
 northern and western counties remained loyal 
 to the federal government, and in 1863 West 
 Virginia was admitted to the Union as a separate 
 state. Pop. (1870) 442,014 ; (1900) 958,800. 
 
 Westward Ho, on the coast of North Devon, 
 2^ miles W. of Bideford, owes its name and its 
 existence to Charles Kingsley's Elizabethan 
 romance (1855) ; this pretty cluster of villas and 
 lodging-houses, with its church, hotel, club- 
 house, and college, having sprung up since 1867. 
 The bathing facilities are excellent, and it is a 
 great resort of golfers. The village is in the 
 urban district of Northam (pop. 5355). 
 
 Wetherby, a Yorkshire town, on the Wharfe, 
 12 miles NNE. of Leeds. Pop. of parish, 2050. 
 
 Wetter, Lake (Vetter), after Lake Wener (q.v.) 
 the largest lake in Sweden, lies in Gothland, 25 
 miles SB. of Lake Wener. Surrounded by lofty 
 shores, it is 70 miles long, 13 miles broad, 850 
 sq. m. in area, 370 feet deep, and 270 feet above 
 sea-level. It receives about ninety small tribu- 
 taries, and sends off the Motala River eastward 
 to the Baltic. Its waters are of a beautiful clear 
 green. It is remarkable for an irregular alterna- 
 tion of risings and fallings, and for an occasional 
 violent undulation in perfectly still weather. 
 
 Wetterhorn (w as v ; ' Peak of Tempests '), a 
 mountain of the Bernese Oberland, E. of the 
 Grindelwald, 10 miles SB. of the Lake of Brienz. 
 Its three peaks are 12,149, 12,165, and 12,110 feet 
 high, and were first ascended in 1844 and 1845. 
 
 Wetzlar (w as v), a cathedral city of Rhenish 
 Prussia, 40 miles N. of Frankfort. Here is laid 
 Goethe's Sorrows of Werther. Pop. 9050. 
 
 Wexford, a maritime county of Leinster, 
 bordering on Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, and 
 Waterford. Greatest length, 55 miles ; greatest 
 breadth, 30 miles ; area, 573,200 acres. The 
 coast-line is irregular and dangerous ; Carnsore 
 Point is the SE. extremity of Ireland. The 
 greater part of the surface is level, but Mount 
 Leinster, on the border, is 2610 feet high. The 
 chief river, the Slaney, enters the sea through 
 Wexford Harbour; the Barrow is part of the 
 boundary. The soil varies from light and sandy 
 to stiff clay, but the county has a verdant lux- 
 uriance. The fisheries are valuable. The principal 
 towns are Wexford, Enniscorthy, New Ross, and 
 Gorey. The maritime position of Wexford laid 
 it open early to the incursions of the Danes, and 
 it was the first landing-place of the English. 
 In the insurrection of 1798 it formed the theatre 
 of the only serious conflicts. There are many 
 old castles, and the monasteries of Dunbrody, 
 Tintern, and Ross. Wexford returns two mem- 
 bers. Pop. (1841) 202,196 ; (1861) 143,594 ; (1901) 
 104,104—95,435 Catholics, 
 
 Wexford, the capital, a seaport and muni- 
 cipal borough, is situated at the Slaney's mouth, 
 93 miles S. of Dublin by rail. The estuary of the 
 Slaney forms Wexford Harbour, which, though 
 spacious, is shallow and impeded by a bar. Parts 
 of the old fortifications and of St Selsker's priory 
 remain. The town was taken by Cromwell in 
 1644. Till 1885 it returned a member. Pop. 
 (1881) 12,163 ; (1901) 11,168. See works by R. 
 Eraser (1807) and M. Doyle (1868). 
 
 Wey (Way), a river of Hants and Surrey, flow- 
 ing 35 miles NE. to the Thames at Weybridge. 
 
 Weyboume, a Norfolk coast parish, 13 miles 
 ENE. of Walsinghara. England, according to a 
 rhymed prophecy, is to be conquered hence. 
 
WEYBRIDGE 
 
 742 
 
 WHITE HORSfi 
 
 Weybridge, a Surrey Thames-side parish, 3^ 
 miles SE. of Chertsey. Pop. 5330. 
 Weyhill. See Andover. 
 Weymouth, a fashionable watering-place of 
 Dorset, 7^ miles S. of Dorchester, 77 S. of 
 Bristol, and 145 WSW. of London (128 by road). 
 It lies at the mouth of the little Wey, on a 
 beautiful bay, bounded E. by St Albans Head 
 and W. by the 'Isle ' of Portland (q.v.), and here 
 divided by the projecting Nothe into Weymouth 
 Bay and Portland Roads. The Wey, after widen- 
 ing into the tidal 'Backwater,' enters the sea, 
 and separates the two quarters of the town — 
 old Weymouth proper on the south, and modern 
 Melcombe-Regis, facing the bay, on the north. 
 Both were separate boroughs till 1571, and they 
 still returned two members apiece till 1832, then 
 two conjointly till 18S5. A bridge, reconstructed 
 in 1881, connects them; and Melcombe-Regis, 
 which rose into repute through George III.'s 
 frequent visits from 1789, has capital sands, an 
 esplanade over a mile long, statues of King 
 George (1809) and Sir H. Edwards (1885), numer- 
 ous hotels, and a pile pier 1050 feet long, con- 
 structed in 1859 at a cost of £12,000. The Nothe 
 has been strongly fortified since the Crimean 
 war. Steamers run to the Channel Islands, and 
 there is an export trade in Portland stone and 
 Roman cement. Thomas Love Peacock was born 
 here, and here South ey first saw the sea. Pop. 
 (1821) 6(322 ; (1851) 9458 ; (1901) 19,831. See works 
 by G. A. Ellis (1829) and Robert Damon (1860). 
 
 Weymouth, a township of Massachusetts, on 
 Massachusetts Bay, 12 miles SSE. of Boston, 
 with the four villages of Weymouth, and East, 
 North, and South Weymouth. Pop. 11,350. 
 
 Whalley, a Lancashire village, on the Calder, 
 3| miles S. by W. of Clitheroe, with a ruined 
 Cistercian abbey (1296). 
 
 Whalsay, a Shetland island, 13^ miles NNE. 
 of Lerwick. Area, 7| sq. m. ; greatest height, 
 393 feet ; pop. 977. 
 
 Whang-hal. See Yellow Sea. 
 
 Wharfe, a Yorkshire river, flowing 60 miles 
 ESE. to the Ouse near Cawood. 
 
 Whamcliffe, a Yorkshire village, 6k 
 NNW. of Sheffield. 
 
 miles 
 
 Wharncliflfe Viaduct, on the Great Western, 
 at Han well (q.v.), is 896 feet long and 70 high. 
 
 Wheeling, the principal city of West Virginia, 
 on the left bank of the Ohio River, and at the 
 mouth of Wheeling Creek, at the foot of steep 
 hills, 67 miles by rail and 92 by river SW. of 
 Pittsburgh. The National Road here crosses the 
 Ohio, by a wire suspension bridge, 1010 feet 
 in span ; and a fine railway bridge connects the 
 city with Bellaire, Ohio. For ten years (1875- 
 85) Wheeling was the state capital. The hills 
 around are full of bituminous coal ; and there are 
 blast-furnaces, foundries and forges, nail-factories, 
 glass-works, Avoollen, flour, and paper mills, &c. 
 Pop. (1880) 30,737 ; (1900) 38,878. 
 
 Whickham, a manufacturing town of Durham, 
 3J miles SW. of Gateshead. Pop. 12,852. 
 
 Whidah. See Dahomey. 
 
 Whit' adder, a Berwickshire stream, flowing 34 
 miles to the Tweed, 2^ miles above Berwick. 
 
 Whitby, a seaport and Avatering-place in the 
 North Riding of Yorkshire, 54^ miles by rail (by 
 road 45) NNE. of York and 22 NNW. of Scar- 
 borough. It stands, looking northward over the 
 German Ocean, at the mouth of the Esk, Avhich 
 here emerges from its wooded dells and forms a 
 
 wide tidal pool, walled in by jet-veined cliffs of 
 alum shale. A stone bridge (rebuilt 1835), 172 feet 
 long, with a swivel by which vessels are admitted 
 to the inner harbour, connects the two halves of 
 the town. Its older portions on the east side, 
 with steep narrow streets and red-tiled houses, 
 climb tier upon tier up the clilf, where stand 
 the ruined abbey of St Hilda and the ancient 
 parish church of St Mary. St Hilda (614-680) 
 founded in 657 the monastery of Streanshalh, 
 which has memories of Csedmon and St John 
 of Beverley, and where in 664 was held the 
 great 'Council of Whitby.' It was burned in 
 867 by the Danes (who changed the name of the 
 place to Prestehy or Whyteby, ' priests' or white 
 town'), but in 1078 was refounded as a Bene- 
 dictine abbey for monks. The stately ruins 
 of the church, which was 300 feet long, com- 
 prise choir, north transept, and part of the nave, 
 the great central tower having fallen in 1830. Be- 
 tween the abbey and the cliff is the parish church, 
 originally Norman, gained from the town by 
 nearly 200 steps ; and on the south side is Whitby 
 Hall (c. 1580). Of modern buildings may be 
 mentioned the town-hall (1788), the museum (1823) 
 on the west pier, and the Saloon (1878), in Queen 
 Anne style, with concert-room, promenade, &c., 
 on the side of the West Cliff, which is surmounted 
 by the fashionable terraces of Hudson, the ' Rail- 
 way King ' (1845). The west and east piers, 300 
 and 800 yards long, protect the outer harbour ; 
 and at the extremity of the former is a lighthouse 
 (1831), 83 feet high, like a Doric column. The 
 whale-fishery (1733-1837) belongs to the past, but 
 the shipping is still considerable. Iron ship- 
 building is carried on by one firm, though Cap- 
 tain Cook, who was a 'prentice here, might no 
 longer choose Whitby-built ships as ' the stoutest 
 bottoms' in England. The herring and other 
 fisheries are actively prosecuted ; but Whitby's 
 specialty is the (decayed) manufacture of jet. It 
 returned one member from 1832 till 1885. Pop. 
 (1851) 10,989 ; (1901) 11,748. See works by Charl- 
 ton (1779), Young (1817), F. K. Robinson (1876), 
 and Canon Atkinson (1894). 
 
 Whitchurch, (1) a Hampshire town, 12 miles 
 N. of Winchester. Till 1832 a pari, borough, it 
 manufactures silk, serges, and shalloons. Pop. 
 2230.— (2) A Shropshire town, 19 miles N. by E. 
 of Shrewsbury. Malting and brewing are carried 
 on. Pop. (1851) 3519 ; (1901) 5220. 
 
 Whitechapel. See London, p. 423. 
 
 Whitefield, or Stand, a town of Lancashire, 
 5| miles N. of Manchester. Dating from 1826, it 
 has many fine residences, cotton manufactures, 
 and neighbouring collieries. Pop. 6588. 
 
 Whitehall, a town of New York, at the head of 
 Lake Champlain, and the end of the Champlaiii 
 Canal, 78 miles N.*by E. of Albany. Pop. 4346. 
 
 Whiteha'ven, a municipal borough and sea- 
 port of Cumberland, SO miles NW. of Lancastei'. 
 Dating from 1633, it has owed its well-being to 
 great collieries and hsematite iron mines. There 
 are blast-furnaces, iron-shipbuilding yards, iron 
 and brass foundries, and manufactures of coarse 
 linen, sail-cloth, ropes, soap, and earthenware. 
 The harbour has a wet-dock of five acres, two 
 piers constructed in 1824-41, and a lighthouse ; 
 and steamers ply to Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast, 
 and Ramsey. Whitehaven was attacked by Paul 
 Jones in 1778, and suffered from a mining sub- 
 sidence in 1791. It has returned one member 
 since 1832. Pop. (1851) 18,916 ; (1901) 19,325. 
 
 White Horse, the name applied to a figure of 
 a horse on a hillside, formed by removing the 
 
^mfEKIRk 
 
 f43 
 
 WiesbadeH 
 
 tiorf, so as to show the underlying chalk. The 
 most famous is that at Ufflngton, Berkshire, 4 
 miles SB. of Shrivenham. It measures 355 feet 
 from nose to tail and 120 from ear to heel ; is 
 traditionally supposed to commemorate Alfred 
 the Great's victory of Ashdown (871) ; is men- 
 tioned about Henry II. 's time as existing prior 
 to 1084; and has been periodically 'scoured'— 
 fourteen times during 1755-1857, then not till 
 1884. Other White Horses are at Bratton Hill, 
 Westbury (175x107 feet), Cherhill (129x142 feet), 
 Marlborough (62 X 47 feet), Pewsey (180 X 167 feet), 
 &c. See a work by Plenderleath (new ed, 1892). 
 
 Whiteklrk, a Haddingtonshire coast parish, 
 4i miles SE. of North BerAvick, with a church 
 that was a great resort of pilgrims. 
 
 White Mountains, an Appalachian (q.v.) 
 group, in New Hampshire (q.v.). Mount Wash- 
 ington has a carriage-road and an hotel on its 
 summit, with a powerful electric light. 
 
 White River rises in Arkansas, and flows 800 
 miles (300 navigable) through it or Missouri, NE., 
 E., SB., and S., to the Mississippi near the mouth 
 of the Arkansas. 
 
 White Sea (Eussian Bjeloje More), a branch of 
 the Arctic Ocean penetrating 350 miles into 
 Archangel province, N. Russia. It narrows to 
 less than 50 miles, widens again, and forms the 
 Kandalak Gulf, that of Archangel, into which the 
 Dwina falls, and that into which the Onega falls. 
 The sea-route hither was discovered by Chancellor 
 in 1553 ; Archangel (q.v.) is the chief emporium 
 on its shores. Usually frozen from the beginning 
 of September till the end of May, it has direct 
 water communication with the Dnieper and 
 Volga, and so witli the Black Sea and Caspian. 
 
 White Sulphur Springs, a watering-place of 
 West Virginia, 227 miles by rail W. of Richmond. 
 
 Whithorn, a royal burgh in Wigtownshire, 3J 
 miles NW. of the Isle of Whithorn, and 12^ S. of 
 Wigtown by rail. The Leukopibm of the Novaiitse, 
 Latin Candida Casa, and Old English Hwitaern, 
 it was here that St Ninian founded a church (397), 
 and here he was buried in 432. An Anglic 
 bishopric (727-96) Avas re-established as the see 
 of Galloway, the church of a Premonstratensian 
 priory becoming the cathedral. It was a great 
 place of pilgrimage. There remains now only a 
 roofless, ivy-grown ruin. Pop. 1188. 
 
 Whiting Bay. See Arban. 
 
 Whitney, Mount, the highest mountain (14,898 
 feet) of the United States outside of Alaska, is in 
 the Sierra Nevada in southern California. 
 
 Whit'stable, a long, straggling village in Kent, 
 on the south shore of the Thames estuary, at the 
 Swale's mouth, 6 miles NNW. of Canterbury. Its 
 oysters are famous, the large artificial beds being 
 regularly farmed. Pop. 7086. 
 
 Whittinghame (Whit'in-jame), a Haddington- 
 shire parish, 3 miles SSE. of East Linton, with 
 the seat of the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour. 
 
 Whittlesey, a Cambridgeshire town, 5^ miles 
 E. by S. of Peterborough. Whittlesey Mere, a 
 former shallow lake (2 by 1 mile) in Hunts, 4 
 miles SW. of Whittlesey, is drained. Pop. (1851) 
 4972 ; (1901) 3909. 
 
 Whitwick, a Leicestershire town, 5| miles E. 
 by S. of Ashby-de-la-Zouch. Hosiery is manu- 
 factured. Pop. of parish, 4564. 
 
 Whitworth, a town of Lancashire, 8 miles N. 
 by W. of Rochdale, with cotton mills. Pop. 9566. 
 
 Whydah, or Whidah. See Dahomey. 
 
 Wiborg. See Viboro. 
 
 Wichita (Wish'e-taw or Wi-shee'taw), a city o^ 
 southern Kansas, capital of Sedgwick county, on 
 the Arkansas River's left bank, 505 miles W. by 
 S. of St Louis and 228 SW. of Kansas City. It 
 is the meeting-point of four great railway systems, 
 and contains many other mills, &c. It was 
 founded in 1870. Pop. (1880) 4911 ; (1900) 24,671. 
 
 Wick, the county town of Caithness, on the 
 Wick River, at its entrance to Wick Bay, 161 
 miles by rail (1874) NNB. of Inverness. The 
 royal burgh, with its suburbs Louisburgh and 
 Boathaven, lies N. of the river, and Pultney- 
 town (1808) on the S. bank. The harbour is tidal. 
 Wick is a great centre of the herring-fishery. 
 Pop. (1841) 5522 ; (1901) 7911. 
 
 Wickham Market, a Suffolk town, 5 miles 
 NNB. of Woodbridge. Pop. of parish, 1537. 
 
 Wicklow, a maritime county of Leinster, 
 borders on Dublin, Carlow, Kildare, and Wex- 
 ford. Its greatest length is 40 miles, and greatest 
 breadth 33 ; the area being 781 sq. m., or 500,178 
 acres, of which 118,000 are under tillage. The 
 coast-line, in many parts precipitous, is obstructed 
 by sandbanks. The Wicklow Mountains cul- 
 minate in Lugnaquilla (3039 feet), and the glens 
 are exceedingly picturesque, especially Glen- 
 dalough, Glendalure, Imail, the Glen of the 
 Downs, and Avoca. Some plains lie on the 
 eastern and southern shores. The lakes, although 
 strikingly beautiful, are few and small ; and the 
 rivers are mountain-streams, except the Lifl'ey 
 and the Slaney, which rise in Wicklow. Lead, 
 copper, sulphur, and iron are raised, with some 
 silver ; a little gold has been found. Slates, lime- 
 stone, and marl are likewise wrought. The 
 fisheries are neglected ; and the manufacture of 
 flannels is nearly extinct. The county is divided 
 into eight baronies. The principal towns are 
 Wicklow, the capital, part of Bray, and Arklow. 
 The county returns two members. Pop. (1841) 
 126,162 ; (1881) 70,386 ; (1901) 60,824, of whom 
 48,083 were Catholics. Wicklow was in 1605 
 erected into a separate county. It has many 
 Celtic and ecclesiastical remains, at Glendalough 
 (q.v.), &c. — The county town, Wicklow, at the 
 Vartry's mouth, 28 miles ESB. of Dublin, attracts 
 many visitors for sea-bathing. Pop. 3283. 
 
 Wickwar, a Gloucestershire town, 4 miles N. 
 of Chipping-Sodbury. Pop. 933. • 
 
 Widdin, a town of NW. Bulgaria, on the 
 Danube's right bank, 20 miles from the Servian 
 frontier. For centuries tlie ' Virgin Fortress ' was 
 a strong Turkish post, famous in the Russo- 
 Turkish war of 1877-78. Pop. 15,400. 
 
 Wid'nes, a borough of Lancashire, on the 
 Mersey, 13 miles BSE. of Liverpool by rail, with 
 manufactures of iron, copper, soda, soap, candles, 
 manures, &c. Widnes, incorporated in 1892, is 
 opposite Runcorn (q.v.). Pop. (1861) 4803 ; (1891) 
 30,011 ; (1901) 28,580. 
 
 Wieliczka (Vyay-litch'ka), a town of Austrian 
 Galicia, 10 miles SB. of Cracow by rail, with re- 
 markable salt-mines. Pop. 6289. 
 
 Wiener-Neustadt, a manufacturing town of 
 Lower Austria, 70 miles S. of Vienna. Pop. 
 29,300. 
 
 Wiesbaden {Vees-bdh'den), chief town of a 
 Prussian district in the province of Hesse-Nassau, 
 was formerly capital of the independent duchy of 
 Nassau. One of the oldest and most famous of 
 the German watering-places, it is delightfully 
 situated on the south slopes of Mount Taunus, 5 
 miles NW. of Mainz. It has been called ' a city 
 of lodging-houses ;' the principal buildings are the 
 
744 
 
 WildbAO 
 
 palace (1840) ; the Kursaal (1810), with delightful 
 park aud gardens ; the new town-hall (1888) ; 
 Uie museum, picture-galleries, and library ; tlie 
 handsome Protestant church (1853-62); the 
 superb Greek chapel (1855), built by the Duke of 
 Nassau as a mausoleum for his duchess; the 
 Catholic church; the synagogue, &c. Of its 
 twenty hot-springs, which were known to the 
 Romans, the principal is the Kochbrunnen 
 ('Boiling-spring:' 156° F.). The saline hot- 
 springs, containing silica and iron, are efficacious 
 in gout, rheumatism, scrofula, and other skin 
 diseases and nervous aflfectious. Though the 
 public gaming-tables were abolished in 1872, the 
 number of visitors annually is about 60,000 ; some 
 5000 or 6000 strangers winter here annually. 
 Pop. (1871) 35,463 ; (1900) 86,111. 
 
 Wlesen (Vee'zen), an alpine liealth-resort for 
 the weak-chested, is 4771 feet above the sea-level, 
 and 12^ miles SW. of Davos. 
 
 Wig' an, a town of Lancashire, on the Douglas (a 
 feeder of the Kibble's estuary), 15i miles S. by E. 
 of Preston, 18^ NE. of Liverpool," and 18 WNW. 
 of Manchester. Situated in the heart of a rich 
 coalfield, and commanding easy communication 
 by both rail and water, it is an ancient place, on 
 the site, it is thought, of a Roman station, but 
 owes its present development to the growth of 
 the cotton industry. The manufactures include 
 calicoes, ginghams, table-cloths, fustians, linen, 
 iron, paper, &c., some of its cotton-mills and 
 ironworks being among the largest in England. 
 All Saints parish church, a stately edifice dating 
 from the 14th c, was in great measure rebuilt in 
 1856 ; and there are also the county buildings 
 (1888), public hall (1853), market-hall (1877), free 
 public library (1878), infirmary (opened by the 
 Prince of Wales, June 4, 1873 ; enlarged 1884), baths 
 (1882), grammar-school (1619; rebuilt 1876), and 
 a public park (1878) of 27 acres, laid out at a cost 
 of £20,000. A prescriptive borough, Wigan re- 
 turned two members from Edward VI. 's reign till 
 1885, now only one ; it became a county borough 
 in 1888. Pop (1831) 20,774 ; (1881) 48,194 ; (1901) 
 60,770. In 1642 Wigan was occupied by the 
 royalist Earl of Derby, but it was twice taken by 
 the parliamentarians ; and in 1651 the earl was 
 defeated here by Lilburne. Prince Charles 
 Edward passed through. Leland was a native. 
 See Sinclair's History of Wigan (2 vols. 1882). 
 
 Wight, The Isle of, is separated from Hamp- 
 shire by the Solent (q.v.) and Spithead (q.v.). 
 Its extreme length, E. to W., is 23 miles, and its 
 extreme breadth, 13 miles. The area is 145 sq. 
 m. , or 92,931 acres. A bold range of chalk downs 
 runs somewhat irregularly the entire length of 
 the island, terminating on the west in the 
 Needles (q.v.), and breaking off on the east at 
 Culver and Bembridge. These downs at several 
 points reach from 500 to 700 feet ; but they are 
 excelled in altitude by the high land on the ex- 
 treme south or ' back ' of the island, where St 
 Boniface Down above Ventnor attains 787 feet. 
 This is the highest point of the isle, though St 
 Catharine's Beacon to the westward is only 6 feet 
 less. The more elevated ground being thus on 
 the south, the chief streams flow to tlie north, 
 and three of them traverse nearly the whole 
 breadth— the eastern Yar, tiie Medina, and the 
 western Yar. The streams which flow southward 
 are short, but they play an important part in the 
 formation of 'chines,' narrow ravines worn 
 through the soft rocks. Wight has long been in 
 repute for the mildness of its climate, its fertility, 
 and its picturesqueness, which have rendered 'it 
 
 a most favourite resort. There are yet traces ott . 
 the downs, in barrows and cairns, of the earlier in- 
 habitants of the island, but its history really begins 
 with its conquest by Vespasian as Insula Vectis. 
 There is ample evidence that the island was well 
 appreciated by the Romans, whose chief stations 
 were probably at Carisbrooke (q.v.) and Brading 
 (q.v.). Cerdic is said to have reduced the island 
 in 530 ; but it did not fall definitely under Saxon 
 rule until later. After the Norman Conquest it 
 was given to William Fitzosborne, but was for- 
 feited by his son, and passed to the Redvers 
 family, who thence took the title of ' lords of the 
 isle,' and held it till 1292, when it passed to the 
 crown. There are several government establish- 
 ments, as at Parkhurst, and sundry forts con- 
 nected with the defences of Portsmouth and Spit- 
 head. Before 1832 Wight returned six members, 
 two apiece for Newport, Yarmouth, aud un- 
 inhabited Newtown. Now it has no parliament- 
 ary borough, and one member for the island 
 only ; but it has become an administrative county 
 luider the County Councils Act, 1888. Pop. 
 (1851) 50,324 ; (1881) 73,633 ; (1901) 82,387. The 
 towns are Ryde, Newport, East and West Cowes, 
 Ventnor, St Helens, Sandown, and Shanklin. 
 See works by Worsley (1781), Englefield (1816), 
 Adams (1856), Stone (1891), and Shore (1892> 
 
 Wigton, a market-town of Cumberland, llj 
 miles by rail SW. of Carlisle. It manufactures 
 ginghams and winceys. Pop. 8690. 
 
 Wigtown, a county forming the SW. corner of 
 Scotland, the western half of Galloway, bounded 
 by the Irish Channel, Ayrshire, the Stewartry of 
 Kirkcudbright, the Solway Firth, and tlie Irish 
 Sea. Its length from E. to W. is 30 miles, its 
 breadth from N. to S. 28 miles. Area, 327,906 
 acres ; pop. (1851) 43,389 ; (1901) 32,685. Wig- 
 townshire is deeply intersected by Loch Ryan 
 (q.v.) and Luce Bay. The western peninsula 
 thus formed, known as the Rhinns of Galloway, is 
 28 miles long from Corsewall Point to the Mull 
 of Galloway. The south-eastern portion of the 
 county forms a blunt triangular peninsula — the 
 Machers — ending in Borough Head. The rest 
 of the county bears the general name of the 
 Moors, great part being occupied by bleak fells 
 and high mosses. The surface is diversified, but 
 the only hills of 1000 feet are on the northern 
 borders : one solitary peak in the Rhinns, Cairn 
 Plot, reaches 593 feet. The chief streams are the 
 Cree, Bladenoch, Luce, and Piltanton. The lakes 
 are very numerous, but small. The climate is 
 mild, but moist. The entire industry is agri- 
 cultural, 46 per cent, of the surface being arable, 
 and the dairy farms having a high reputation. 
 ToAvns are Stranraer, Wigtown, Newton-Stewart, 
 Whithorn, Portpatrick, and Glenluce. See W. 
 M'llwraith's Giiide to Wigtownshire (1876) ; also 
 books cited at Galloway. 
 
 Wigtown, a royal and municipal (and till 1885 
 parliamentary) burgh and seaport, on the W. 
 side of Wigtown Bay, 129 miles SSW. of Edin- 
 burgh. It has a Tudor town-hall (1863), a parish 
 church (1853), and in the churchyard the graves 
 of the ' Wigtown martyrs,' an old woman and 
 a young girl who, refusing the Abjuration Oath, 
 were tied to stakes and drowned by the incoming 
 tide, 11th May 1685. Pop. 1330. 
 
 WI-ju (Wee-joo), the last considerable Corean 
 town (pop. 30,000) towards the Chinese frontier^ 
 to the south of the Yalu estuary. It was opened 
 to foreign trade in 1904. 
 
 VfilA\>3i.a (Vild'had), a town of Wiirtemberg, in 
 the Black Forest, on the Enz, 33 miles SSE. of 
 
WILDERNESS 
 
 ■745 
 
 WILTSHIRE 
 
 Carlsruhe. Its salt baths (90° to 9S° F.) are bene- 
 ficial for rheumatism, gout, paralysis, &c. The 
 visitors exceed 7000 annually. Pop. 3534. 
 
 Wilderness, a region in Virginia, 2 miles S. of 
 the Rapidan, covered with thicket, and memor- 
 able for the indecisive two days' battle fought here 
 by Grant and Lee, May 5-6, 1864. The Union 
 loss was 18,000, the Confederate 11,000. 
 
 Wilhelmshaven {Vilhelmshah'fen), the chief 
 naval port of Germany, on the W. side of the 
 entrance of the Bay of Jahde, 45 miles NW. of 
 Bremen. Inaugurated by King William in 1869, 
 it is now a fortress of the first rank, defended by 
 out-lying forts and torpedoes, and, with its moles, 
 basins, dry-docks, vast navy stores and work- 
 shops, has been a very costly creation— the mass- 
 ive buildings being erected on swampy ground. 
 Water is furnished by artesian wells. A com- 
 mercial harbour has been made to the south of 
 and connected with the naval one. Pop. 23,800. 
 Wilhelmsliohe {Vilhelmshay'eh). See Cassel. 
 Wilkesbarre QVilks'bar-rey), capital of Luz- 
 erne county, Pennsylvania, on the left bank of 
 the N. branch of the Susquehanna, 18 miles SW. 
 of Scranton. Lying in the picturesque Wyoming 
 Valley (q.v.), it is famous for its mines of anthra- 
 cite coal, and manufactures locomotives, railroad- 
 cars, mining machinery, ropes, pottery, &c. 
 Pop. (1870) 10,174 ; (1890) 37,718 ; (1900) 51,721. 
 Willamette. See Oregon. 
 Willemstad, capital of Curagao (q.v.). 
 Willenhall, a town of Staffordshire, 3 miles E. 
 of Wolverhampton. Pop. 18,520. 
 
 Willesden, a Middlesex parish, 7 miles WNW. 
 of St Paul's. Pop. (1901) 114,811. 
 
 Williamsburg, capital of James City county, 
 Virginia, near the James River, 48 miles ESE. of 
 Richmond. Here are William and Mary College 
 (1693) and the Eastern State Lunatic Asylum. 
 Founded in 1632, it was the colonial and state 
 capital till 1779. McClellan took it after severe 
 fighting, May 5-6, 1862. Pop. 2050. 
 
 Williamsport, capital of Lycoming county, 
 Pennsylvania, on the west bank of the Susque- 
 hanna (here crossed by a suspension bridge), 93 
 miles N. of Harrisburg. Lying in the midst of 
 attractive scenery, it is a popular summer-resort, 
 but is chiefly notable as a great lumber mart. 
 Pop. (1880) 18,934 ; (1900) 28,757. 
 
 Willimantic, a borough of Connecticut, 31 
 miles by rail E. by S. of Hartford, with large 
 cotton, silk, woollen, and tin factories, &c., 
 driven by the Willimantic River, which here falls 
 100 feet in 1 mile. Pop. 8948. 
 
 Willington Quay, a Northumberland port, on 
 the Tyne, 2 miles SW. of North Shields. Robert 
 Stephenson was a native. Pop. 7950. 
 
 Williton, a small town of Somerset, 14 miles 
 NW. of Taunton, with an Early English church. 
 Pop. of parish, 1202. 
 
 Willoughby, a Lancashire parish, 3 miles 
 SSE. of Alford. Captain John Smith was a native. 
 Wilmington, (1) a city and port of Delaware, 
 on the Delaware River and Brandywine and 
 Christiana Creeks, 25 miles SW. of Philadelphia. 
 It is a regular town built on the slopes of a hill 
 (240 feet), and contains a granite custom-house, 
 town-hall, opera-house, the Wilmington Insti- 
 tute, Old Swedes' Church (1698), &c. Its manu- 
 factures include iron steamships, railway cars, 
 engines, machinery, cottons, woollens, powder, 
 leather, flour, matches, &c Pop. (1880) 42,478 ; 
 
 (1900) 76,508.— (2) Capital of New Hanover county. 
 North Carolina, on the left bank of Cape Fear 
 River, 30 miles from its mouth and 207 SSE. of 
 Raleigh. It manufactures turpentine, rice, flour, 
 and cottons. During the civil war it was a 
 chief Confederate port, frequented by blockade- 
 runners. Pop. (1880) 17,350 ; (1900) 20,976. 
 
 Wilmslow, a Cheshire town, on the BoUin, 5 
 miles SSW. of Stockport. Pop. 7450. 
 Wilna. See Vilno. 
 
 Wilton, a market-town of Wiltshire (q.v.) at 
 the confluence of the Nadder and Wyly, feeders 
 of the Avon, 3i miles WNW. of Salisbury. It 
 was the capital of Wessex, and the seat of a 
 bishopric (909-1050), but after 1244, when it had 
 twelve churches, declined through the diversion 
 of the great Avestern road. The present church, 
 erected in 1844 by Lord Herbert of Lea at a cost 
 of £20,000, is an ornate Lombardic structure, 
 with a campanile 108 feet high. On the site of a 
 Saxon nunnery is Wilton House, the Herberts' 
 seat, where Sidney wrote part of the Arcadia. It 
 is famous for its Van Dycks and for the beauty 
 of its grounds. Since Elizabeth's reign carpets 
 have been manufactured at Wilton, which is a 
 municipal borough, first chartered by Henry I., 
 and reformed in 1885. It returned two members 
 till 1832, then one till 1885. Pop. 2220. See 
 James Smith's Wilton (Sal. 1851). 
 
 Wiltshire, an English county, bounded by 
 Gloucestershire, Berks, Hants, Dorset, and 
 Somerset. Its greatest length, N. to S., is 
 54 miles ; its greatest breadth, 37 ; and the 
 area, 1354 sq. m., or 866,677 acres. Pop. (1801) 
 183,820 ; (1841) 256,280 ; (1901) 273,845. This un- 
 usually small proportion of inhabitants is due to 
 the presence of extensive tracts of open pasture- 
 land in the centre and north of the county — 
 Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. 
 The river systems divide near Devizes, whence the 
 Somerset Avon, entering Wilts from Gloucester, 
 flows to the Severn below Bristol ; the Hamp- 
 shire Avon flows by Salisbury to the Eng- 
 lish Channel at Christchurch ; and the Kennet 
 flows to join the Thames at Reading. Chalk 
 occupies far the larger portion of the county, 
 which culminates on the Berkshire border in 
 Inkpen or Hackpen Beacon (972 feet). Iron ore 
 was worked and smelted in remote antiquity, but 
 of late only in the vicinity of Seend, and since 
 of Westbury. The industries are chiefly agri- 
 cultural—dairy-farming in the N., and grazing in 
 the S. Large flocks of sheep feed on Salisbury 
 Plain. Calne sends out much Wiltshire bacon. 
 There is also an important manufacturing 
 element— broadcloth at Bradford and Trow- 
 bridge, and Wilton carpets. Though the rolling 
 open country is as a rule monotonous, there is 
 much charming scenery in the valleys and broken 
 hill districts ; Savernake Forest and Cranbourne 
 Chace have hardly changed for centuries. 
 
 Wiltshire was settled by the Romans, and the 
 defeat of the British at Old Sarum in 552 was 
 the first important Saxon success. The victory 
 at Barbury (556) included the shire in Wessex, 
 of which kingdom Wilton became the capital. 
 At Wilton Alfred suffered his first defeat from 
 the Danes ; at Edington (Ethandune), near West- 
 bury, he defeated Guthrum. Wilton — itself 
 named from the river Wyly — gave name to the 
 county as Wiltonscire. Waller's defeat at Round- 
 way Hill, Devizes, and the gallant defence of 
 Wardour Castle by Lady Arundell were the chief 
 local episodes of the Great Rebellion. Till 1832 
 Wiltshire returned thirty-four members, till 
 
WiMBLBDdH COMMON 
 
 746 
 
 WiNCHESTEia 
 
 1867 eighteen, then till 1885 fifteen, and now 
 six only— five for county divisions and one for 
 Salisbury. The municipalities are Calne, Chippen- 
 ham, Devizes, Malmesbury, Marlborough, Salis- 
 bury, and Wilton. For the arch<eologist Wilts 
 excels every county in England, containing as 
 it does Stonehenge, Avebury, Silbury Hill, in- 
 numerable barrows and earthworks, the most 
 perfect Anglo-Saxon church in existence at Brad- 
 ford-on-Avon, Salisbury Cathedral, Malmesbury 
 Abbey, Longleat, &c. See works by Aubrey (ed. 
 by Jackson, 1862), Hoare (8 vols. 1812-44), Britton 
 (3 vols. 1801-25), Moody (1851), J. B. Jackson (2 
 vols. 1867-72), W, H. Jones (3 vols. 1865-80), Kite 
 (1880), Stratford (1882), R. Jefferies (Life in a 
 Southern County, 1882), A. C. Smith (1884-85), 
 and Worth (1887), besides the Wilts Archceological 
 Magazine (since 1853). 
 
 WimlDledon Common, an open, breezy heath 
 of 628 acres, 7 miles SW. of London. Here from 
 1860 till 1889 in July was held the annual meeting 
 of the National Rifle Association, since trans- 
 ferred to Bisley (q.v.). Linuseus here first saw 
 the gorse in bloom ; and here many duels were 
 fought. Wimbledon now is practically a suburb 
 of London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 41,652. 
 
 Wimborne, a town of Dorset, at the confluence 
 of the Allen and Stour, 7 miles N. of Poole and 
 25| E. of Dorchester. Here, about 705, was 
 founded a nunnery, which Edward the Confessor 
 refounded as a collegiate church — the noble 
 cruciform minster, Norman to Perpendicular in 
 style, with a central and a west tower, and the 
 tomb of Ethelred I. There is a grammar-school 
 (1496 ; refounded 1563). Coach-building and the 
 manufacture of buttons and woollen hose give 
 employment. Pop. of urban district, 3690. See 
 works by Hall (1853) and Yeatman (1878). 
 
 Wim'mera. See Victoria. 
 
 Wincanton, a Somerset town, on the Cale, 5 
 miles SSE. of Bruton. Pop. of parish, 2109. 
 
 Winceby. See Horncastle. 
 
 Winchcomb, a Gloucestershire market-town, 
 on the Isborne, under the Cotswolds, 7 miles NE. 
 of Cheltenham. Pop. of parish, 2864. 
 
 Win'ohelsea, a decayed Cinque Port of Sussex, 
 affiliated to Hastings, is 2 miles SW. of Rye by 
 rail, and from 1832 to 1885 was included in the 
 parliamentary borough of Rye. The present 
 ancient city (pop. 1000) is New Winchelsea. Old 
 Winchelsea stood 3 miles SB., but was finally 
 submerged by the sea in 1287. New Winchelsea 
 was built on a quadrangular plan by Edward I. 
 Parts of a Franciscan monastery and three of the 
 gateways remain. See Inderwick's Story of New 
 Winchelsea (1892). 
 
 Win'ohester, the city of Hampshire, on the 
 Itchen, 60 miles WSW. of London. It originated 
 in a tribal settlement on the summit of a hill. 
 As the settlers became more numerous they de- 
 scended the slope (St Catherine's) to the plain, 
 which they named 'Gwent,'or the hollow. The 
 Romans took possession of the town, and formed 
 its future rectangular plan. Alongside of the 
 wattled huts of the ' Belgae ' soon grew up city 
 Avails, temples, a head college for flamens, &c. ; 
 and, if the record be true, the first Christian 
 church in Britain was built here, 169 a.d. Tessel- 
 ated pavements, &c. are preserved in the museum 
 of the new guildhall, while the walls of Wolvesey 
 are studded with Roman bricks and drums of 
 columns. The Romans spelt the name Venta, the 
 Saxons Wintanceastre. From the 8th till the 
 13th c. Winchester was a rival of London. In 635 
 
 an Italian monk, Birinus, here converted King 
 Cynegils, whose son Cenwalk here built St Peter's 
 basilica. Alfred the Great, educated here, resided 
 during his long reign at Winchester, of which his 
 tutor St Swithin was a native and afterwards 
 bishop. Alfred also founded the ' New Monastery,' 
 afterwards called from his favourite master, ' St 
 Grimbalds.' After the king's death the monks 
 by trickery obtained his body, and became also 
 possessed of the bones of St Josse. But in Edgar's 
 reign Bishop .^thelwold erected a magnificent 
 cathedral, its chief attraction the body of St 
 Swithin and the miracles it worked. William 
 the Conqueror built a palace at Winchester, 
 which so circumscribed the monks that they 
 moved across to Hyde Mead, on the north-west 
 of the city. This took place in 1110 ; in 1141 the 
 abbey was destroyed by fire-balls from Wolvesey, 
 when the fight raged for seven weeks in the heart 
 of the city. The monastery was soon afterwards 
 rebuilt, and in 1390 its abbot was mitred. In 
 1788 a bridewell was constructed out of the 
 ruins. Beneath the east window lie the bones 
 of five persons found here in 1867, and sup- 
 posed to be those of King Alfred, his queen, 
 two sons, and St Grimbald. Henry III. ('of 
 Winchester ') Avas born in the castle, which had 
 a Mappa Mundi and Wheel of Fortune — the 
 latter perhaps 'Arthur's Round Table,' which 
 now hangs in the hall. The castle had become 
 much dilapidated before the Cavaliers took refuge 
 here — soon to surrender to Waller, The city and 
 castle were retaken by the royalists, but finally 
 yielded to Cromwell in 1645. One tower of 
 the castle remains, with the fine hall 110 
 feet long. For 400 years parliaments occasionally 
 sat in it, and now it is a law-court. Hard by is 
 Charles II. 's red brick palace, now a barrack 
 (largely destroyed by fire in December 1894). 
 The Saxon cathedral was rebuilt in 1079-93. Its 
 central tower fell in 1107, but was soon re- 
 built ; and it still forms the substantial part 
 of the present cathedral, which owes its 
 existing form to Bishops de Lucy, Edington, 
 Wykeham, Cardinal Beaufort, and Wayne- 
 flete. Specially interesting are the monuments 
 and unrivalled chantries. In the centre of the 
 choir stands an ancient tomb, said to be that of 
 Rufus; here too are buried Bishops de Lucy, 
 Dela Roche, Edington, Wykeham, Cardinal Beau- 
 fort, Wayneflete, Langton, Fox, and Gardiner, as 
 also Jane Austen and Izaak Walton. The resting- 
 places of the Saxon kings and bishops are unique 
 — coffers perched on the choir partition walls. 
 This cathedral is the longest in England (520 
 feet) except Canterbury (525). 
 
 In 1369-93 Winchester College was founded by 
 William of Wykeham. His edifice is that now 
 existing, except the chantry chapel, schoolroom, 
 and tower. At the entrance of the kitchen 
 stands the picture of the Trusty Servant. The 
 hall is magnificent, 53 feet long. In the school- 
 room, built by Warden Nicholas (1687), stands 
 the celebrated signboard painting (c. 1450), in- 
 forming the schoolboy that he must learn, leave, 
 or be flogged. There were always some boys who 
 were not on the foundation, and as they increased 
 ' Old Commoners ' was built in 1730. The num- 
 ber of boys is now about 450. Among former 
 Wykamists have been Archbishops Warham and 
 Howley, Sir Thomas Browne, Bishop Ken, the 
 poets Collins, Warton, Young, Otway, and 
 Bowles, Lowth, Lempriere, Dr Arnold of Rugby, 
 Sydney Smith, and Lord Sherbrooke. There are 
 two hospitals dedicated to St John, and said 
 to have been founded by Birinus; one ha« 
 
WINCHESTER 
 
 Y47 
 
 WINNIPEG 
 
 been rebuilt, the other has a fine hall belong- 
 ing to the corporation. Portions of the city 
 wall, mostly built in the reigns of John and 
 Henry III., remain, and two of the gates. 
 Several of the town houses are ancient ; the 
 Butter Cross dates from Henry VI. ; and close to 
 it an old clock projects over the High Street in 
 front of the former guildhall. The city once ex- 
 tended to St Cross, Wyke, Worthy, and Magdalen 
 Hill, and in the reign of Henry I. had 20,000 
 inhabitants, but declined so much after being 
 sacked in 1265 that it has but now regained 
 that amount, the pop. being 13,704 in 1851, and 
 20,919 in 1901. A free library was established in 
 1877. A mile distant stands the interesting 
 hospital of St Cross, founded in 1132 by De Blois, 
 but almost wholly rebuilt by Cardinal Beaufort. 
 
 See works by Dean Kitchin (' Historic Towns,' 
 1890), L'Estrange (1889), Misses Bramston and 
 Leroy (1882 ; new ed. 1884), Benham (' Diocesan 
 Histories,' 1884); and on the College, Adams 
 (1878), Kirby (1888 and 1892), Holroyd (1891), 
 Leach (1899), and Towiisend Warner (1901). 
 
 Winchester, capital of Frederick county, Vir- 
 ginia, in tho» valley of the Shenandoah, 87 miles 
 WNW. of Washington. Pop. 5166. 
 
 Windau (Vin-dow), a Russian seaport in Cour- 
 land, 120 miles NE. of Meinel. Pop. 7094. 
 
 Wln'dermere, or Winandermeke, the largest 
 lake in England, called from its beauty ' Queen of 
 the Lakes,' is partly in Lancashire, and partly 
 divides it from Westmorland. It is 10^ miles 
 long, not quite 1 mile in extreme breadth ; and, 
 lying 134 feet above sea-level, discharges its sur- 
 plus waters southward into Morecambe Bay by 
 the Leven. Next to Wast Water, Windermere is 
 the deepest of all the English lakes, its greatest 
 depth being 219 feet, while Wast Water is 258 
 feet deep. It contains a number of islands, the 
 largest being 28 acres in ai'ea. Soft rich beauty 
 is the main feature of the lake ; there being a 
 total absence of that sublimity which charac- 
 terises some of the other lakes, except at the 
 north end, where Langdale Pikes, Harrison 
 Stickle, Sea Fell, and Bow Fell stand forward 
 prominently. Windermere village (pop. 2400), 
 nearly a mile from the E. shore, and 300 feet 
 above its level, has a railway station. 
 
 Wlndlesham, a Surrey parish, 8 miles WSW. 
 of Chertsey. Pop. 3420. 
 
 Wlndrush, a river of Gloucester and Oxford 
 shires, flowing 30 miles to the Thames. 
 
 Windsor, a town of Berkshire, on the right bank 
 of the Thames, opposite Eton, 21 J miles W. by S. 
 of London by rail, 43 by river. The kings before 
 the Conquest appear to have had a hunting-lodge 
 here ; but the present stately royal castle is all 
 of post-Conquest erection, owing much to Henry 
 XL, Henry III., Edward III. (the Round Tower), 
 Edward IV.,andHenry VII. (St George's Chapel), 
 Charles IL, and George IV., under whom Wyat- 
 ville transformed the building. It was the birth- 
 place of Edward III. and Henry VI., the death- 
 place of George III., George IV., William IV., 
 and Prince Albert ; and the burial-place of Henry 
 VI., Edward IV., Henry VIII., Charles I., the 
 Duke of Clarence, &c. John was at Windsor after 
 the granting of Magna Charta ; and Edward III. 
 established the Order of the Garter here. As we 
 see it now Windsor Castle consists of an Upper 
 and a Lower Ward, between which is the Mound 
 and the Round Tower. In the Upper or eastern 
 Ward are the Library, state apartments. Long 
 Corridor, and private apartments. Wyatville 
 ingeniously connected all the isolated towers 
 
 and the curtain wall between by means of this 
 corridor, which is 520 feet in length. The state 
 apartments contain many good pictures and 
 other works of art. In the Lower Ward is St 
 George's Chapel, with its cloisters, the Deanery, 
 and tlie Canons' Houses. Tlie last named con- 
 tain remains of the palace of Henry III. Ad- 
 joining to the westward are the Horseshoe 
 Cloisters. Next to them are the barracks, 
 including the Curfew Tower, built by Salvin. 
 On the south side is the principal gate, called 
 after Henry VIII. In a line with it are the 
 houses of the Military Knights, a band of pen- 
 sioners. The Round Tower is the residence of 
 the constable, and from it floats the royal 
 standard. Wyatville lived, till his death in 1840, 
 in the Winchester Tower, called after William of 
 Wykeham. Wyatville made Windsor what it is, 
 and, tliough we may find fault with his details, 
 his proportions and his eye for a grand scenic 
 effect place him far ahead of any other architect 
 of the so-called Gothic revival. 
 
 The town of New Windsor was chartered by 
 Edward I. It contains some interesting old 
 houses, but nothing that can with certainty be 
 assigned to the days of Shakespeare's Merry 
 Wives. Sir C. Wren, who was M.P. for the 
 borougli in 1688, built the town-hall in the 
 market-place. The town is pleasantly situated 
 close to the Home Park and the famous Long 
 Walk, an avenue of elms 3 miles long, which 
 leads to the Great Park. East of the Long 
 Walk are tlie tombs of the Duchess of Kent 
 and of the Prince Consort, in domed chapels ; 
 also Frogmore, the royal gardens, the farm and 
 the dairy. The Great Park contains a church, 
 Cumberland Lodge, and Virginia Water (q.v.). 
 Since 1867 Windsor has returned only one mem- 
 ber. Pop. (1851) 9596 ; (1901) 14,130. 
 
 Windsor, a port of Nova Scotia, 45 miles NW. 
 of Halifax, with King's College (1788). Pop. 3500." 
 
 Windsor, a town and port of Ontario, Canada, 
 on the Detroit River, opposite Detroit. Pop. 
 (1881) 4253 ; (1901) 12,153. 
 
 Windward Islands. See West Indies. 
 
 Winestead, a Yorksliire parish, 12^ miles ESE. 
 of Hull. Andrew Marvell was a native. 
 
 Winfield, a town of Kansas, on Wliitewater 
 Creek, 247 miles S\V. of Kansas City. Pop. 5584. 
 
 Wingfield, a Suff"olk parish, 4^ miles S. by W. 
 of Harleston, witii the old castle of the De la Poles. 
 
 Wingfield, South, a Derbyshire parish, 2 miles 
 W. of Alfreton, with the ruins of Wingfield Manor 
 House, where Mary Stuart was a captive. 
 
 Winneba'go. See Wisconsin. 
 
 Win'nipeg, capital of the Canadian province 
 of Manitoba, stands at the confluence of the 
 Assiniboine with the Red River, 1424 miles by 
 rail WNW. of Montreal and 512 NNW. of Minne- 
 apolis. Formerly known as Fort Garry, from 
 a post of the Hudson Bay Company, it was 
 incorporated as Winnipeg in 1873. It is sub- 
 stantially built, with wide streets traversed by 
 tramways and lit with the electric light, and 
 with the government offices, city hall, a fine 
 hospital, the university of Manitoba, great flour- 
 mills and grain-elevators, the shops of the Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railway, &c. Pop. (1871) 241 ; (1881) 
 7985 ; (1901) 42,340. 
 
 Winnipeg, Lake, in Manitoba, 40 miles N. of 
 Winnipeg city, and 650 feet above sea-level, is 
 280 miles long, 57 miles broad, and 8500 sq. in. 
 in area. Its largest tributaries are the Saskat- 
 
WINONA 
 
 •748 
 
 WitNEV 
 
 chewan, the Winnipeg, and the Red River of the 
 North ; Its outlet is the Nelson River. 
 
 Wmo'na, capital of Winona county, Minne- 
 sota, on the right bank of the Mississippi, 103 
 miles by rail SE. of St Paul. It has flour and 
 saw mills, foundries, carriage, barrel, and sash 
 factories, &c. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Winslow, a market-town of Bucks, 6^ miles 
 SE. of Buckingham. Pop. 1704. 
 
 Wlnster, a Derbyshire village, 4 miles W. by 
 N. of Matlock. Pop. 790. 
 
 Winston, a town of North Carolina, 218 miles 
 SW. of Richmond, Virginia, with tobacco-fac- 
 tories. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 Winterslow, a Wiltshire parish, 6 miles ENB. 
 of Salisbury, with many memories of Hazlitt. 
 
 Wlnterthlir (Vin-ter-toor ; anc. Vitodurum), a 
 Swiss town, on the Eulach, 17 miles by rail NE. 
 of Zurich. It manufactures locomotives, cotton, 
 silk, and woollen goods, &c. Pop. 22,650. 
 
 Winterton, a Lincolnshire town, 9 miles NNE. 
 of Brigg. Pop. 1360. 
 
 Wlrksworth, a market-town, 13J miles NNW. 
 of Derby. Tliere are neighbouring lead-mines, 
 and manufactures of cotton, ginghams, hosiery, 
 &c. Pop. 3800. 
 
 Wirral. See Cheshire. 
 
 Wis'bech, a market-town of Cambridgeshire, in 
 the Isle of Ely, on the Nene, 21 miles ENE. of 
 Peterborough, 13 SW. of Lynn, and 40 N. of Cam- 
 bridge. The parish church, Norman to Perpen- 
 dicular in style, has a tine tower ; and there are 
 a corn exchange (1811), a cattle-market (1869), a 
 town-hall (1873), the Cambridgeshire hospital 
 (1873), a museum and literary institute, and a 
 public park of 18 acres. A castle, founded by 
 the Conqueror in 1071, was rebuilt by Bishop 
 Morton in 1483, restored by Bishop Andrewes in 
 1617, and again rebuilt from Inigo Jones's designs 
 by Thurloe, Cromwell's secretary, but was de- 
 molished in 1816. Visited by King John and 
 Edward IV., it was the prison under Elizabeth 
 of many Catholic recusants. Godwin was a 
 native, and Clarkson, to whose memory a Gothic 
 cross by Sir G. G. Scott was erected in 1881. 
 Vessels of nearly 500 tons can now ascend the 
 Nene from the Wash, a distance of 7 miles ; and 
 Wisbech has a considerable export of cereals and 
 import of timber, with some manufactures of 
 iron, oil, ropes, «&c. It was made a municipal 
 borough in Edward VI. 's reign. Pop. (1851) 
 10,089 ; (1901) 9831. See works by W. Watson 
 (1827), S. H. Miller (1878), and T. G. Law (1890). 
 
 Wisby (Viz-by), a once famous seaport on the 
 west coast of the Swedish island of Gothland, 
 130 miles S. of Stockholm. One of the chief com- 
 mercial cities in Europe during the 10th and 
 11th centuries, and then a principal factory of the 
 Hanseatic League, in 1361 it was stormed by 
 Valdemar III. of Denmark, who obtained an 
 immense booty. This was a fatal blow to its 
 prosperity. The ancient walls and towers, almost 
 as entire as in the 13th c, render its appearance 
 from the sea most striking. Pop. 8400. 
 
 Wiscon'sin, one of the United States, lies 
 between Lakes Michigan and Superior and the 
 Mississippi River, with its tributary the St 
 Croix; the surrounding states are Michigan, 
 Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois. Its length is 
 about 300 miles and its breadth 250, with an 
 area of 56,040 sq. m. The surface is a rolling 
 plain with an elevation of 600 feet, rising to 
 1800 feet at the divide, about 30 miles south of 
 
 Lake Superior. The general slope is south-west- 
 ward towards the Mississippi, to which flow four- 
 fifths of the streams— the Wisconsin (600 miles), 
 Chippewa, Black, &c. There are two thousand 
 small lakes, the largest, Winnebago (28 X 10 
 miles). Dense forests once covered most of the 
 state, though the southern part is prairie land. 
 The chief industry is agriculture, employing 
 400,000 persons. Dairying is rapidly progress- 
 ing, and lumbering, the manufacture of leather, 
 foundry and machine-shop products, flour, malt 
 liquors, and slaughtering and meat-packing are 
 great industries. The state suffered from de- 
 structive forest lires in 1871 and 1894; in the 
 former 1000 lives were lost. The University 
 of Wisconsin is in Madison, the state capital ; 
 the chief commercial city is Milwaukee (285,315). 
 Artificial earth-mounds are the earliest human 
 traces. In 1665 a Jesuit mission was founded on 
 Green Bay, and French fur- traders soon estab- 
 lished trading-posts. Upon the conquest of 
 Canada in 1763 Wisconsin passed under British 
 control, which lasted practically till 1815. Wis- 
 consin Territory, when formed in 1836, extended 
 to the Dakotas ; but in 1838 the Mississippi was 
 made its western boundary. In 1848 it was 
 admitted as a state. Pop. (1850) 305,391 ; (1880) 
 1,315,477 ; (1900) 2,069,042 (largely of German and 
 Scandinavian descent), besides 7649 tribal Indians. 
 
 Wish'aw, a thriving town of Lanarkshire, 3^ 
 miles ESE. of Motherwell and 15 of Glasgow. 
 Founded in 1794, it was constituted a police-burgh 
 in 1855, and since 1874 has comprised also the 
 villages of Cambusnethan (Lockhart's birthplace) 
 and Craigneuk. Coal-mining is the staple in- 
 dustry, and there are also ironworks. Pop. 
 (1841) 2149 ; (1881) 13,112 ; (1901) 20,873. 
 
 Wiske, a river in the North Riding of York- 
 shire, flowing 24 miles to the Swale. 
 
 Wismar (w as v), a Baltic seaport of Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin, 20 miles by rail N. of Schwerin. 
 Of the walls only four gates remain ; but its quaint 
 houses are a feature of the place, and several of 
 the brick churches, as well as the Fiirstenhof, 
 once a ducal residence, date from the 14th or 15th 
 century. Pop. 20,530. 
 
 Wissembourg {Veessavfhoorg ; Ger. Weissen- 
 hurg), till 1871 a French fortified town, close to 
 the frontier of the Bavarian Palatinate, now a 
 manufacturing town in German Lower Alsace, is 
 on the Lauter 42 miles NNE. of Strasburg ; pop. 
 7000. It grew up round a 7th-century Benedic- 
 tine abbey, and in 1677-97 was ceded to France. 
 Here, on 4th August 1870, the Germans won their 
 first great victory over the French. 
 
 Wiston, one of the Pembroke (q.v.) boroughs, 
 5^ miles NE. of Haverfordwest. Pop. 623. 
 
 Witham, (1) an Essex town, 8 miles NE. of 
 Chelmsford. Pop. of parish, 8454.— (2) A river 
 of Rutland and Lincolnshire, flowing 80 miles to 
 the Wash, past Grantham, Lincoln, and Boston. 
 
 Withemsea, a watering-place in the East Rid- 
 ing of Yorkshire, 4 miles NE. of Patrington. 
 
 Withington, a S. suburb of Manchester. 
 
 Witney, a town of Oxfordshire, on the Wind- 
 rush, 11 miles W. by N. of Oxford (14 by a 
 branch-line, 1861). It has a three-arch bridge 
 (1822), a fine cruciform 13th-century church, a 
 staple or blanket hall (1721), a market-cross (1683), 
 a town-hall (1863), a corn exchange (1862), and a 
 county court-house (1859). Its blankets enjoy a 
 great reputation ; and glove-making is also carried 
 on. Pop. (1851) 3099 ; (1901) 3574. See J. A. 
 Giles's History of Witney (1852). 
 
WITTEN 
 
 749 
 
 WOLVERHAMPTON 
 
 Wltten, a Prussian town of Westphalia, on the 
 Ruhr, 7 miles SE. of Bochum. Pop. 33,520. 
 
 Wittenberg (w as v), in Prussian Saxony, 
 capital of the old electorate of Saxony, and 
 cradle of the Reformation, on the Elbe, 59 miles 
 SW. of Berlin. The famous university (1502), 
 where Luther was professor and Hamlet studied, 
 was in 1815 incorporated with that of Halle. In 
 the Stadt-Kirclie are two remarkable pictures by 
 Cranach, of Melanchthon baptising, and Luther 
 preaching. In the Schloss-Kirche (1499) are the 
 tombs of Luther and Melanchthon, as well as 
 those of Frederick the Wise (with a noble bronze 
 statue by Vischer) and John the Steadfast, 
 electors of Saxony. Luther nailed his theses to 
 its wooden door, which, burned by the Austrian 
 besiegers in 1760 during the Seven Years' War, 
 was in 1858 replaced by one of bronze. The 
 Schloss-Kirche was restored and reopened by the 
 German emperor on 31st October 1892. The 
 Augustinian monastery, with Luther's cell, was 
 converted in 1817 into a theological seminary ; 
 the house of the great Reformer, containing his 
 chair, table, &c., and two portraits of him by 
 Cranach, remains almost unaltered. In the 
 market-place is Schadow's bronze statue of 
 Luther (1822), not far from it Drake's of 
 Melanchthon (1865). Occupied by the French in 
 1813, it was stormed by the Prussians in 1814, 
 and next year became Prussian. There are manu- 
 factures of woollen and linen goods, hosiery, 
 leather, brandy, and beer. Pop. 18,350. 
 
 Wittenberge, a Prussian town on tlie Elbe, 
 65 miles NW. of Potsdam. Pop. 17,800. 
 
 Witu (Veetoo), a small territory on the east 
 coast of Africa, German in 1886-90, and since in- 
 cluded in British East Africa. 
 
 Witwat'ersrand. See Johannesburg. 
 
 Wiveliscombe (locally Wilscombe). a Somerset 
 town, 9J miles W. of Taunton. Pop.' 1418. 
 
 Wivenhoe, an Essex town, on the Colne, 4 
 miles SE. of Colchester. Pop. of parish, 2560. 
 
 Woburn, a market-town (pop. 1300), 13 miles 
 SW. of Bedford, noted chiefly for Woburn Abbey, 
 seat of the Dukes of Bedford, which stands in a 
 park 12 miles in circumference. The Cistercian 
 abbey, a daughter house of Fountains, was 
 founded in 1145, and in 1547 granted to John, 
 Earl Russell, afterwards Duke of Bedford. Of 
 the abbey nothing now remains; the mansion, 
 built mainly in the 18th c, occupies four sides of 
 a quadrangle, and contains a magnificent collec- 
 tion of portraits. See also Wooburn. 
 
 Woburn, a town of Massachusetts, 10 miles by 
 rail NNW. of Boston, with manufactures of 
 pianos, shoes, leather, &c. Pop. 14,260. 
 
 Woking, a Surrey town, 24 miles SW. of 
 London by rail. Nearly 3 miles W. are the 
 'London Necropolis Cemetery' (1864), 2000 acres 
 in extent, and the first public crematory in Eng- 
 land (1878). Pop. of urb.dist. 16,250. SeeBiSLEY. 
 
 Wo'kingbam, or Oakingham, a municipal bor. 
 of Berkshire (till 1832 Wiltshire, detached), in 
 Windsor Forest, 7 miles SE. of Reading by rail. 
 Incorporated in 1885, it has a Gothic town-hall 
 (1860), neighbouring paper, saw, and flour nulls, 
 and the ' Rose ' inn, where Gay, Swift, Pope, and 
 Arbuthnot celebrated the host's pretty daughter 
 in the ballad of ' Molly Mog.' It was famous for 
 its bull-baitings till 1821. Bearwood, 1 mile W., 
 is the seat of J. Walter, Esq., of the Times. 
 Pop. (1851) 2272 ; (1901) 3551. 
 
 Wol43- See Lincolnshire, Yorkshire. 
 
 Wolfenbiittel (VolfenbeeU'el), a town of Bruns- 
 wick, founded in 1046, on the Oker, 7 miles S. of 
 Brunswick by rail. One of the old churches eon- 
 tains many of the tombs of the princes of Bruns- 
 wick. The old castle accommodates a seminary 
 for teachers and a theatre. The library opposite 
 (1723), of which Lessing was librarian, had to be 
 taken down and rebuilt in 1887 ; it houses 300,000 
 volumes (including 800 Bibles and many incuna- 
 bula) and 10,000 MSS. There are inanufactures 
 of machines, copper goods, flax, cloth, corks, 
 leather, preserves, tobacco, &c. Pop. 17,873. 
 
 Wolf Rock, 8 miles SSW. of Land's End, has 
 a lighthouse (1862-69) 116J feet high. 
 
 Wolgast (w as v), a Pomeranian seaport, on 
 the Peene, 10 miles from its mouth in the Baltic, 
 and 36 SE. of Stralsund by rail. Pop. 8485. 
 
 WoUongong, a seaport of New South Wales, 49 
 miles S. of Sydney by rail. Pop. 5000. 
 
 Wolsingham, a Durham town, on the Wear, 
 10 miles N W. of Bishop Auckland. Pop. 3500. 
 
 Wolstanton, a busy manufacturing NW. suburb 
 of Stoke-upon-Trent, Staffordshire. 
 
 Wolverhampton [Wol- as Wool'-), a municipal, 
 parliamentary, and county borough, the ' meti'o- 
 polis of the Black Country,' stands on a gentle 
 eminence amid a network of railways and canals, 
 13 miles NW. of Birmingham, 15 S. of Staff^ord, 
 and 126 NW. of London. It was first called 
 ' Hamton,' and then ' Wulfrunishamton,' after 
 Wulfruna, King Edgar's sister, had founded in 
 996 St Peter's Church, which continued collegi- 
 ate till 1846. Rebuilt during the 18th, 14th, and 
 15th centuries, and enlarged and elaborately re- 
 stored in 1859-65 at a cost of £10,000, that 
 church is a fine cruciform Gothic edifice, with a 
 rude stone cross in the churchyard, a carved 
 stone pulpit of 1480, and monuments to Admiral 
 Sir Richard Leveson (1570-1605) and Colonel 
 Lane (d. 1667), who assisted Charles II. in his 
 escape from Worcester. Otherwise the public 
 buildings are all modern — the town-hall (1868), in 
 the Italian style, corn exchange (1853), market- 
 hall (1853), agricultural hall (1863), hospital 
 (1849), post-office (1873), art gallery (1885), drill- 
 hall (1886), &c. A bronze equestrian statue of 
 the Prince Consort was inaugurated by Queen 
 Victoria in 1806 ; and there is also a statue (1879) 
 of the Right Hon. C. P. Villiers of Corn-law 
 fame, first returned as M.P. for Wolverhampton 
 in 1835, and re-elected in 1892. The public park 
 (1881) was laid out at a cost of £16,000. The 
 free grammar-school, which was founded in 1512 
 by Sir Stephen Jenyns, Lord Mayor of London, 
 and at which Abernethy and Sir W. Congreve 
 were educated, occupies handsome new buildings 
 of 1876 ; and there are also a blue-coat school 
 (1710) and an orphanage (1850). Sir Stephen was 
 a native ; so too was the great Mr Jonathan 
 Wild. Bishop Pococke described Wolverhampton 
 in 1757 as 'a great manufacturing town in all 
 sorts of toys, and particularly of locks in the 
 greatest perfection ; ' and locks— some two million 
 yearly— are still its specialty, the Messrs 
 Chubb's works being here. The other manufac- 
 tures include tinplate, japanned goods, enam- 
 elled hollow wares, edge tools, gas and water 
 tubes, electro-plate, papier-mache, chemicals, 
 &c. The town stands on the western edge of the 
 great coal and iron mining district of South 
 Staffordshire, so that the vicinity on the south 
 and east is all covered with collieries, ironstone 
 mines, blast-furnaces, forges, iron-foundries, and 
 rolling-mills, whilst on the north and west there 
 is pleasant green country — Boscobel (q.v.) is only 
 
WOLVERTON 
 
 750 
 
 WORCESTER 
 
 8 miles distant. Wolverhampton was enfran- 
 chised in 1832, returning two members to parlia- 
 ment (three since 1885), and it was made a muni- 
 cipal borough in 1848, a county borough in 1888. 
 The Wednesday market is held under a charter of 
 1258. Pop. of parliamentary borough (1851) 
 119,748 ; (1881) 164,334 ; (1901) 174,365, of whom 
 94,187 were Avithin the municipal and county 
 borough. See works by G. Oliver (1836), F. Hall 
 (1865), Steen (1871), and J. Fullwood (1880). 
 
 Wolverton, a town of Bucks, 2 miles ENE. of 
 Stony Stratford. It has the London and North- 
 western railway shops. Pop. of parish, 4147. 
 
 Wombwell, a town of Yorkshire, 4^ miles SE. 
 of Barnsley. Pop. 14,250. 
 
 Woobum, a town of Bucks, 2| miles SW. of 
 Beaconsfteld. Pop. of parish, 2727. 
 
 Wood'bridge, a Suffolk town, on the right 
 bank of the Deben, which expands into an 
 estuary, 12 miles from the sea and 8 ENE. 
 of Ipswich. The Udebryge of Domesday, it 
 has a fine Perpendicular church with a flint- 
 work tower 108 feet high, a Flemish-looking 
 town-hall, and the richly endowed Seckford alms- 
 houses and grammar-school — the former dating 
 from 1587, and rebuilt in 1840 at a cost of 
 £28,000. Bernard Barton and Edward Fitz- 
 Gerald were residents. Vessels of 140 tons can 
 reach the town, which exports corn, malt, and 
 bricks. Pop. 4640. 
 
 Woodford, an Essex parish, 4J miles N. by E. 
 of Stratford. Pop. 14,100. 
 
 Woodhall Spa. See Horncastle. 
 
 Woodside, a NW. suburb of Aberdeen. 
 
 Wood'stock, a market- town of Oxfordshire, on 
 the Glyine, 8 miles NNW. of Oxford. It was a 
 royal manor from Saxon times until 1705, when 
 it was granted to the Duke of Marlborough, whose 
 seat, Blenheim Park (q.v.), is close by. Hence it 
 has many memories, as the birthplace of the 
 Black Prince (though not of Chaucer), as the 
 scene of Becket's first quarrel with Henry (if not 
 of Fair Rosamond's murder), as the fdace of cap- 
 tivity where Elizabeth wished herself a milkmaid, 
 and for the pranks of its ' merry devil ' on the 
 pai'liamentary commissioners in the old inanor 
 house, which was pulled down in 1723. A muni- 
 cipal borough, chartered first by Henry VI. , and 
 last in 1886, Woodstock till 1832 returned two 
 members, and then till 1885 one. It still carries 
 on leather glove-making. Pop. 1684. See a 
 work by E. Marshall (2 vols. 1873-74). 
 
 Woodstock, a town of Ontario, on the Thames, 
 88 miles by rail SW. of Toronto. Pop. 8850. 
 
 Wooler, a town of Northumberland, under the 
 Cheviots, 9 miles SW. of Belford. Pop. 1331. 
 
 Woolmer Forest, a heathy tract on the borders 
 of Hants and Sussex. 
 
 Woolstliorpe, a Lincolnshire hamlet, 8 miles 
 S. of Grantham, with the birthplace (almost un- 
 altered) of Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 Woolton. See Much Woolton. 
 
 Woolwicli (Wool'litch), a parish in Kent (county 
 of London), and part of Eltham royal manor, on 
 the Thames, 9 miles below London Bridge, was 
 in 1885 constituted a parliamentary borough re- 
 turning one member. It includes the three 
 parishes of Woolwich, Phunstead, and Eltham, 
 and is now one of the municipal boroughs of the 
 county of London. Pop. (1901) 117,178. The 
 chief part of the town lies south of the river, 
 but North Woolwich is in Essex. The Royal 
 Arsenal (employing over 14,000 men) dates from 
 
 1585, when Queen Elizabeth had a store of arms 
 and armour at the Tower House, a mansion in 
 Woolwich Warren adjoining the then boggy and 
 unhealthy marshes of Plumstead. Prince Rupert 
 protected the King's Warren with batteries in 
 Charles II. 's reign, and other fortifications were 
 added by James II. In 1716 the proof of ordnance 
 was transferred from Moorfields to Woolwich, 
 guns began to be cast there, carriages con- 
 structed, and powder stored. From these works 
 grew the three great departments of the Royal 
 Arsenal — the Royal Gun Factories, Royal Car- 
 riage Department, and Royal Laboratory. After 
 1805 the ground covered by these works quickly 
 extended to some 300 acres. Guns of all sizes, 
 every form of military wagon, shot, shell, torpe- 
 does, cartridges, bullets, rockets, tubes, and fuses, 
 have since always been produced there, small- 
 arms being made at Birmingham and Enfield, and 
 powder, gun-cotton, and other explosives at 
 Waltham. The barracks are very imposing build- 
 ings. The Herbert Hospital, built soon after the 
 Crimean war at the south end of Woolwich Com- 
 mon, is one of the largest military hospitals in 
 Britain. The common itself, nearly half a square 
 mile in extent, forms an excellent drill-ground. 
 At its south-west corner there is a hut camp for 
 two field batteries, and opposite to it the hand- 
 some buildings of the Royal Military Academy. 
 This, the oldest military school in the kingdom, 
 dates from 1741. The Royal Military Academy 
 was built in 1801. In 1869 the Royal Dockyard 
 at Woolwich, long the chief one in the kingdom, 
 was closed ; but it continues to be used as a 
 military store depot. The Great Harry was built 
 there in 1562, the Royal George in 1751, the 
 Galatea in 1859, and more than 200 other ships. 
 At the north-west end of the common are the 
 Repository and the Rotunda Museum of mili- 
 tary antiquities. St George's Garrison Church 
 (1863) is one of the few conspicuous buildings in 
 the town. Woolwich, among whose sons have 
 been Lovelace and General Gordon, has gradu- 
 ally become a suburb of London. Plumstead on 
 the east and Charlton on the west merge into 
 Woolwich. Like it they are densely populated. 
 
 Woonsock'et, a town of Rhode Island, on the 
 Blackstone River, 38 miles SW. of Boston, with 
 manufactures of cottons, woollens, iron, and 
 rubber. Pop. 29,250. 
 
 Wooster, a town of Ohio, on Killbuck Creek, 
 135 miles W. by N. of Pittsburgh, with a Presby- 
 terian university (1866). Pop. 6060. 
 
 Wootton Bassett, a market-tOAvn of Wilts, 6 
 miles W. of Swindon. It returned two members 
 till 1832. Pop. of parish, 2200. 
 
 Worcester (Woos'ter), the county town of Wor- 
 cestershire, 27^ miles by rail SW. of Birmingham, 
 65^ NNE. of Bristol, and 121 (by road 111) WNW. 
 of London. It stands on the left bank of the 
 Severn, here crossed by a five-arch stone bridge 
 (1781-1841), 270 feet long. Previously perhaps a 
 station of the Romans, Wigornaceaster became in 
 679 the seat of a Mercian bishopric, whose cathe- 
 dral is Worcester's chief glory. It is a double 
 cross in plan, 410 feet long, 126 wide across the 
 west transept, and 60 to 67 high, with a central 
 tower of 196 feet. Rebuilt from 1084 onwards, 
 and restored since 1857 at a cost of £100,000, it is 
 mainly Early English and Decorated in style, but 
 retains a very interesting Norman crypt. The 
 simplicity, if not plainness, of the exterior is 
 amply compensated by the fine perspective of the 
 lofty groined roof, and the general noble effect 
 of the interior, One may specially notice the 
 
WORCESTER 
 
 751 
 
 WORKINGTON 
 
 columns of Purbeck marble, the 14th-century 
 choir-stalls and misereres, the elaborate modern 
 reredos, the circular chapter-house, the splendid 
 peal of twelve bells, and the tombs of King John, 
 Prince Arthur, Lord Lyttelton, the Earl of 
 Dudley, and (in the cloisters) ' Miserrimus,' a not 
 very wretched Nonjuror. At Worcester, alter- 
 nately with Hereford and Gloucester, are held 
 the festivals of the 'Three Choirs.' The old 
 episcopal palace is now the deanery, the present 
 palace since 1842 being Hartlebury Castle, 11 
 miles N. ; and the cathedral school (1541) occu- 
 pies the superb 13th-century refectory of a Bene- 
 dictine priory. There is also Queen Elizabeth's 
 school (1561). Nothing remains of the castle, and 
 the Guesten Hall was ruthlessly pulled down in 
 1860 ; but there are a line liall called the Com- 
 mandery, a gatehouse (' Edgar's Tower '), and a 
 good many old timbered houses, while of public 
 buildings may be noticed the guildhall (1723), the 
 shire-hall (1835), and the museum and free library 
 (1836-79). Worcester is the seat of the Royal 
 Porcelain Works, dating from 1751, and covering 
 5 acres, the glove-manufactory of Messrs Dent (a 
 Glovers' Company was incorporated in 1497), and 
 the ' Worcester Sauce ' factory of Lea & Perrins ; 
 besides huge vinegar-works, great nurseries, and 
 manufactories of railway signals, chemicals, &c. 
 In the neighbourhood are hop-yards. Worcester 
 is a municipal borough, chartered by Richard I. 
 in 1189 ; a parliamentary borough, returning only 
 one member since 1885 ; and also, since 1888, a 
 county borough. Pop. (1851) 27,528 ; (1881) 38,270 ; 
 (1901) 46,624. Worcester Avas the scene of num- 
 berless sieges from the time of the Danes down 
 to the 'crowning mercy' of Cromwell, when, on 
 Sd September 1651, he routed Charles XL, killing 
 4000 and making 7000 prisoners. Charles after- 
 wards commemorated Worcester's loyalty by 
 granting it the motto of ' Civitas fldelis.' Natives 
 have been the alchemist Kelly, Lord Somers, 
 and Mrs Henry Wood ; whilst among the eighty 
 and more bishops have been St Dunstan, St Os- 
 wald, St Wulfstan, Cantilupe, Latimer, Whitgift, 
 Gauden, Stillingfleet, Hough, Hurd, and Perowne. 
 See Avorks by Abingdon (1717), Thomas (1737), 
 Wild (1823), Britton (1835), Prof. Willis (Journal 
 Archceol. Inst., vol. xx.), Walcott (1866), Noake 
 (1866), and J. G. Smith and Onslow (1883). 
 
 Worcester (Wooster or Woorster), the second 
 city of Massachusetts, on Blackstone River, 
 44 miles WSW. of Boston. Several subnrban 
 villages are included within the 36 sq. m. of the 
 nmnicipality. 'The Academic City' contains 
 the state normal school, two state lunatic asy- 
 lums, a military institute, high school, Jesuit 
 college. Baptist academy, a large women's school, 
 &c. Its churches include many handsome build- 
 ings, and from the porch of the Old South Church 
 the Declaration of Independence was first read 
 in Massachusetts. It manufactures wire, boots 
 and shoes, iron prodiicts, and woollens. Pop. 
 (1S80) 58,291 ; (1900) 118,421. 
 
 Worcester, capital of a wine-growing district 
 in Cape Colony, 60 miles ENE. of Capetown. 
 Pop. 8300. 
 
 Worcestershire (Woo' ster shir), an inland Eng- 
 lish county of very irregular outline, bounded by 
 the counties of Salop, Stafford, Warwick, Oxford, 
 Gloucester, and Hereford. Its extreme length 
 N. to S. is 50 miles, its greatest breadth 26 miles, 
 and its area 738 sq. m., or 472,453 acres. Pop. 
 C1801) 146,445; (1851) 276,926; (1881) 380,283; 
 (1901) 488,401. The Severn is the chief river, 
 (jiid is navigable throughout the county fron; 
 
 Bewdley to Tewkesbury, passing by the city of 
 Worcester. The Avon, which enters Worcester- 
 shire near Cleeve, and passes by Evesham and 
 Pershore, falling into the Severn at Tewkesbury, 
 is also navigable. The other rivers are mostly 
 feeders of these two— the Stour, Salwarp, and 
 Teme of the Severn, and the Arrow of the Avon. 
 A small portion of the north-east corner of the 
 shire lies in the basin of the Trent. The canals 
 were of great importance before the development 
 of the railway system. The surface of the shire 
 is diversified and picturesque. The chief hill 
 range is that of the Malverns (1440 feet), on the 
 border next Hereford ; the Coteswolds stretch be- 
 tween Worcester and Gloucester ; the Clents 
 connnand part of the Warwick and Stafford 
 frontier, chiefly of the 'Black Country;' th&- 
 Lickey range is more central. The Clee Hills lie 
 well to the north-west in Shropshire, but high 
 broken ground stretches thence to the verge of 
 Worcestershire in the romantic forest of Wyre. 
 As a whole Worcestershire is a highly fertile 
 agricultural region, with upland sheep-walks, 
 productive tillage ground, and a very extensive 
 fruit-growing area. Plums, pears, and apples 
 are grown in enormous quantities, the neighbour- 
 hood of Pershore being the chief plum-growing 
 centre in the kingdom. The more northern dis- 
 tricts are, however, chiefly engaged in manufac- 
 ture. Salt has been raised from the brine-springs 
 at Droitwich (fed by immense beds of rock-salt) 
 certainly for more than 1000 years. The manu- 
 facture of iron, carried on by the Romans, has 
 developed into the busy industries of the un- 
 lovely 'Black Country,' of which Dudley is the 
 chief centre. Other industries are the fireclay 
 goods of Stourbridge, the glass wares produced 
 there and at Stourport, the famous porcelain- 
 works and the gloving of Worcester, and the 
 carpet-weaving of Kidderminster. 
 
 Worcestershire contains the battlefields of 
 Evesham, Tewkesbury, and Worcester ; some of 
 the most active participators in the Gunpowder 
 Plot were associated with it. Before 1832 the 
 shire had nine members ; Dudley and Kidder- 
 minster were then enfranchised, and the total in- 
 creased to twelve ; at present there are eight, one 
 each for five county divisions, and for Worcester, 
 Dudley, and Kidderminster. Worcester and 
 Dudley are county boroughs, and the other 
 municipalities are Bewdley, Droitwich, Evesham, 
 and Kidderminster. Of Worcestershire worthies 
 may be mentioned Sir Thomas Littleton, Bishop 
 Bonner, Samuel Butler, Thojnas Blount, Arch- 
 bishop Sheldon, Baskerville, Lord Lyttelton, 
 Foote, Warren Hastings, Huskisson, and Sir Row- 
 land Hill. See works by Nash (2 vols. 1781-99), 
 J. Chambers (worthies, 1820), Sir C. Hastings (nat. 
 hist. 1834), Roberts (geology, 1860), Lees (botany, 
 1867), Noake (1868 and 1877), Niven (old houses, 
 1878), and Worth (1889). 
 
 Work'ington, a municipal borough and seaport 
 of Cumberland, at the mouth of the Derwent, 7 
 miles N. of Whitehaven by rail. Its harbour, 
 sheltered by a breakwater (1873), is safe and com- 
 modious. To neighbouring coal-mines the town 
 chiefly owes its prosperity ; and there are iron- 
 works, &c., a large Sheffield steel foundry having 
 been transferred hither in 1883. The salmon- 
 fishery near is important. Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 landed here, on her flight from Langside, 16th 
 May 1568, and was entertained at Workington 
 Hall (the seat of the Curwens from about 1160 till 
 the present day). Workington was incorporated 
 as a municipal borough in 1888. Pop. (1831) 
 14,109 ; (1901) 26,143, 
 
WORKSOP 
 
 752 
 
 WURTEMBERG 
 
 Work'sop, a town of Nottinghamshire, on the 
 river Ryton and the Chesterfield Canal, 16 miles 
 ESE. of Sheffield and 23 N. of Nottingham. It 
 lies near the northern extremity of Sherwood 
 Forest (q.v.), in a district known as the ' Dukery,' 
 from the number of ducal seats. There is Work- 
 sop Manor, in whose predecessor (destroyed by 
 fire in 1761) Mary, Queen of Scots, was a prisoner 
 under the Earl of Shrewsbury, and which, 
 formerly a seat of the Duke of Norfolk, was pur- 
 chased in 1840 for £350,000 by the Duke of New- 
 castle. His, too, is Clumber Park (q.v.), and 
 there are also Welbeck Abbey (q.v., Duke of 
 Portland) and Thoresby Park (till 1773 Duke of 
 Kingston, now Earl Manvers). Worksop church 
 was that of an Augustinian priory (1103), of which 
 there is also a Decorated gateway ; but a Norman 
 keep has vanished. Modern buildings are the 
 corn exchange (1854) and the Mechanics' Insti- 
 tute (1852). Malting is the chief industry, with 
 brass and iron founding, and manufactures of 
 chemicals, agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 
 (1851) 7058 ; (1901) 16,112. See works by J. Hol- 
 land (1726), R. White (1875), and Sissons (1888). 
 
 Worms {Wurmz ; Ger. pron. Forms), an ancient 
 and interesting town of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the 
 Rhine's left bank, 25 miles SW. of Darmstadt. 
 The massive Romanesque cathedral, with two 
 cupolas and four towers, was founded in the 8th, 
 rebuilt in the 11th and 12th centuries, and care- 
 fully restored in the last quarter of the 19th cen- 
 tury. On a hill near the church called the Lieb- 
 frauenkirche a highly esteemed wine, Liebfrauen- 
 milch, is grown. The synagogue (11th c.) is one 
 of the oldest in Germany. The town-house was 
 restored in 1885. There are manufactures of 
 poli.shed leather, tobacco, soap, &c. Pop. (1875) 
 16,597 ; (1900) 40,705. Worms is one of the oldest 
 cities of Germany ; in it is laid the scene of the 
 Nibelungenlied. It was occupied by the Romans, 
 destroyed by Attila, and afterwards rebuilt by 
 Clovis. It was frequently the residence of Charle- 
 magne and his Carlovingian succes.sors, and was 
 erected into a free imperial city by the Emperor 
 Henry V. The most famous diet held here was 
 that in 1521, at which Luther defended himself 
 before Charles V., commemorated by an imposing 
 Luther monument erected in 1868. The industry 
 of Worms was great during the middle ages, and 
 its population in the days of the Hohenstaufens 
 averaged 60,000, and amounted to 30,000 even at 
 the close of the Thirty Years' War ; but it was 
 almost wholly destroyed by the French in 1689. 
 
 Wormwood Scrubs, a di.strict with a common, 
 a railway station, and a prison, on the western 
 outskirts of London, nearly 3 miles NW. of the 
 Marble Arch in Hyde Park. 
 
 Worsborough, a town in the West Riding, 2^ 
 miles S. of Barnsley, with manufactures of iron, 
 glass, paper, gunpowder, &c. Pop. 10,336. 
 
 Worstead, a Norfolk parish, 3 miles SSE. of 
 North Walsham. Worsted stufis are said to 
 derive their name hence. 
 
 Worth (nearly Virt or Vairt), a village (pop. 
 1064) of Alsace, 10 miles SW. of Wissembourg 
 (Weissenburg). The great German victory over 
 the French (6th August 1870) is by the latter 
 usually called Reichshofen. 
 
 Worthing {th soft), a fashionable Sussex water- 
 ing-place, 10^ miles W. by S. of Brighton and 56 
 SSW. of London. It has risen from a small 
 fishing-village since 1760, its growth being rapid 
 after visits of the Princess Amelia (1797) and the 
 Princess Charlotte (1807). The climate is much 
 roUder than that of Brighton, the place being 
 
 encircled on the north and north-east by the 
 Downs, which shelter it from cold Avinds, and 
 render it one of the best winter-resorts on the 
 south coast. There are capital sands, a parade 
 1^ mile long, a public park of 18 acres (1881), and 
 an iron pier (1862) 320 yards long. Fruit and 
 tomato growing is largely carried on, many acres 
 being covered with glass. Worthing was con- 
 stituted a municipal borough in 1890. Pop. (1851) 
 5370 ; (1881) 11,821 ; (1901) 20,015. 
 
 Wotton-under-Edge, a Gloucestershire town, 4 
 miles S. of Dursley. Pop. of parish, 2950. 
 
 Wrangel Land (Vrang'el), an island in the 
 Arctic Ocean, lying N. of the eastern extremity of 
 Asia, and intersected by the meridian of 180° E. 
 long. It was sighted by Sir Henry Kellett in 
 1849, re-discovered by the American De Long in 
 1867, who named it after Baron Ferdinand von 
 Wrangel (Russian arctic explorer, 1821-23), and 
 explored by the American expedition of 1881. 
 
 Wrath, Cape. See Cape Wrath. 
 
 Wratza (Vratz'a), a town of Bulgaria, 43 miles 
 NE. of Sofia. Pop. 10,924. 
 
 Wrekin (Ree'Un). See Shropshire. 
 
 Wrexha.m (Rex'am), a town of Denbighshire, 
 called sometimes the 'metropolis of North Wales,' 
 on an affluent of the Dee, 12 miles SSW. of 
 Chester. Its church, destroyed by fire in 1457, 
 and rebuilt in 1472-1520, is a fine Perpendicular 
 structure, whose tower, 135 feet high, contains 
 ten bells of singular sweetness, and is one of the 
 'Seven Wonders of Wales.' Judge Jeff"reys was 
 born close by, at Acton ; and Bi.shop Heber 
 wrote ' From Greenland's Icy Mountains ' in the 
 vicarage. Wrexham is situated in the heart of 
 a mining district, and has far-famed breweries, 
 tanneries, &c. It was incorporated in 1857, and 
 with Denbigh (q.v.), &c. returns one member. 
 Pop. (1851) 6717; (1901) 14,966. See Palmer's 
 History of Wrexham (4 vols. 1893). 
 
 Wrington, a Somerset parish, 10 miles SSW. of 
 Bristol. The church has one of the finest towers 
 in England. John Locke was born here. 
 
 Wrotham, a town of Kent, 6 miles ENE. of 
 Sevenoaks. Pop. 3575. 
 
 Wroxeter (Rox^eter), a village of Shropshire (pop. 
 535), on the Severn, 6 miles SE. of Shrewsbury. 
 It occupies the site of the Roman station of Uri- 
 conium, an important place on Watling Street. 
 See T. W. Wright, Uricoiiium (1872). 
 
 Wu-chang. See Hankow. 
 
 Wu-chow, a Chinese treaty port on the Si-kiang, 
 in Kwang-si, 180 miles W. of Canton. 
 
 Wudwan, or WadhwXn, a native state of 
 Kathiawar, W. India. Area, 237 sq. m. ; pop. 
 50,000, mostly Mohammedans. Wudwan town 
 (pop. 27,000) is 110 miles NW. of Baroda by rail. 
 
 Wu-hu, a Chinese treaty port, near the Yang- 
 tsze, 50 miles above Nanking. Pop. 122,000. 
 
 Wupper (Voop'per), or Wipper, a right-hand 
 tributary (40 miles long) of the Rhine, between 
 Cologne and Diisseldorf. It has a strong current, 
 and drives hundreds of mills, so that the Wupper- 
 thal, especially round Barmen (q.v.) and Elber- 
 feld (q.v.), is one of the most populous and 
 industrial in Germany. The interest of the 
 inhabitants in missions is conspicuous. 
 
 Wiirtemberg (nearly Veer'tem'berg), a German 
 kingdom, lying between Baden and Bavaria, and 
 touching Switzei'land (Lake of Constance) on the 
 south. It entirely surrounds Hohenzollern, in 
 which state, as well as in Baden, it owns several 
 enclaves. Area, 7529 sq. m. (a little larger than 
 
WtJRZBURG 
 
 753 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 Wales); pop, (1875) 1,881,505; (1900) 2,169,480. 
 Chief town, Stuttgart (q.v.); Ulm, Heilbronii, 
 Esslingen, Canstatt, Reutlingen, have over 20,000 
 inhabitants. The Black Forest (3776 feet) 
 lies along its W. boundary ; whilst the Swabian 
 Alb (3327 feet) stretches right across the country, 
 forming the watershed between the Neckar and 
 the Danube, the principal rivers ; the northern 
 portions belong to the Bavarian plateau. Mineral 
 springs are plentiful. The numerous fertile 
 valleys produce wine and fruit in abundance. 
 Forests occupy some 31 per cent, of the total area. 
 Iron and salt are mined. The industries employ 
 41 per cent, of the population, the more notable 
 branches being gold and silver work, hardware, 
 iron-casting, machinery, watches, &c. Of the 
 total population 69 per cent, are Protestants. 
 The hereditary sovereign is assisted by two 
 houses of parliament. The national income and 
 expenditure balance at about £3,500,000 per 
 annum ; the national debt amounts to £22,000,000, 
 nearly all incurred for building railways. Famous 
 Wurtembergers were Baur, Dannecker, Hauff, 
 Hegel, Kepler, Kerner, GEcolampadius, Schelling, 
 Schiller, Strauss, Uhland, Wieland, &c. 
 
 Wlirtemberg, then occupied by the Suevi, was 
 conquered in the 1st c. a.d. by the Romans. In 
 the 3d it was overrun by the Alemanni, who in 
 their turn were subdued by the Franks. In or 
 before the 13th c. it was created a couutship, and 
 in 1495 a duchy of the empire. Duke Frederick 
 II. (1797-1816) on going over to the French was 
 rewarded with 850 sq. m. of new territory and an 
 addition of 125,000 subjects, as well as the dignity 
 of Elector (1802). In Napoleon's war against 
 Austria (1805) he sided with the French, and 
 his troops fought with them down to 1813 ; in 
 return for which he acquired the kingly title and 
 an increase of territory that more than doubled 
 the number of his subjects. Throwing in her lot 
 with Austria in 1866, Wlirtemberg was beaten at 
 Koniggriitz and Tauberbischofsheim, and her 
 king (Charles, 1864-91) compelled to purchase 
 peace from Prussia at the cost of an indemnity 
 of £800,000. 
 
 Wiirzburg (Veertz'boorg), capital of the Bavar- 
 ian province of Lower Franconia, on the Main, 
 70 miles SB. of Frankfort by rail. Among the 
 public buildings are the Episcopal Palace (1720- 
 44), one of the most magnificent royal residences 
 in Germany, the Julius Hospital (1576), the uni- 
 versity buildings, the town-hall, &c. The for- 
 tress of Marienberg, on whose site Drusus 
 founded a castle, crowns a hill 400 feet high, on 
 the Main's left bank, and was till 1720 the epis- 
 copal residence. Besides the richly decorated 
 cathedral, which was rebuilt in the 11th and 
 following centuries, there are the exquisite 
 Marienkapelle ; the university church ; and the 
 Neumunster Church, containing the bones of 
 Wiirzburg's patron, St Kilian, and of Walther 
 von der Vogelweide. In front of the Julius 
 Hospital there is a bronze statue of Bishop 
 Julius ; he also in 1582 founded the university, 
 which has 75 professors, 1400 students— more 
 than half of them medical— and a library of over 
 850,000 vols. There are manufactures of tobacco, 
 furniture, machinery, surgical instruments, rail- 
 way carriages, lamps, vinegar, wine, beer, and 
 iron. Pop. (1880) 51,014; (1900) 75,497. Wiirz- 
 burg (Lat. Wirceburgum) was long the capital of 
 a sovereign bishopric, conferred in 1803 mostly 
 on the Elector of Bavaria. 
 
 Wiirzen(Feer<2'e7i), a Saxon town, on the Mulde, 
 
 18 miles E. of Leipzig, with a 12th-century cathe- 
 
 2V 
 
 dral, an old castle, and manufactures of biscuits, 
 carpets, felt, wire, cigars, &c. Pop. 16,620. 
 
 Wyborg. See Viborg. 
 
 Wycombe (Wick'om), a town of Buckingham- 
 shire, stands, surrounded by beech-clad hills, on 
 the Wye, a small feeder of the Thames, 25 miles 
 ESE. of Oxford and 29 (by rail 34^) WNW. of 
 London. Called variously Chipping (or Chepping) 
 Wycombe and High Wycombe, it was the seat of 
 a Saxon fortress, Desborough Castle, some remains 
 of which may be seen, and has a tine cruciform 
 parish church (1273-1522 ; restored 1874-88) with 
 a tower 96 feet high, a guildhall (1757-1859), a 
 literary institute (1854), a free library, a hospital 
 (1875), a grammar-school (1555 ; new buildings, 
 1883), and an auction-mart (1887). Lace is made, 
 but the staple manufacture is that of beech-wood 
 and other chairs— between one and two millions 
 annually— with latterly whole furniture suites of 
 a very high character. There are also some large 
 paper-mills in the town and district. Hughenden 
 and Chalfont, both noticed separately, are near. 
 Wycombe, which returned two members till 
 1867, and then one till 18S5, was governed by a 
 mayor in Henry III.'s time, but first incor- 
 porated by Henry VI. ; the municipal boundary 
 was extemied in 1880. Pop. (1881) 10,618 ; (1901) 
 15,542. See works by Thomas Langley (1797), 
 H. Kingston (1848), and John Parker (181-8). 
 
 Wye, a beautiful river of Wales and England, 
 rises in two copious springs on the SE. side of 
 Plinlimmon, not 2 miles from the head-water of 
 the Severn (q.v.). It thence flows 150 miles in a 
 generally south-east direction through or along 
 the borders of the counties of Montgomery, 
 Radnor, Brecknock, Hereford, Monmouth, and 
 Gloucester, till it enters the Severn's estuary 
 below Chepstow. At Chepstow the tide has 
 been known to rise 47 feet above low-water 
 mark. The chief affluents are the Lug and Ithon 
 on the left, and the Monnow, Caerwen, and 
 Irfron on the right. Salmon-fishing has greatly 
 improved again. The Wye is not much of a 
 boating river, though a pair-oar has been rowed 
 down it from Boughrood, above Hereford. The 
 part of it separating Monmouth from Gloucester 
 is that chiefly visited for its singular beauty. 
 See Chepstow, Tintkrn, Ross, &c., and works 
 by Gilpin (1782), Heath (1800), Ritchie (1841), 
 Howitt (1863), and Bevan (1887). 
 
 Wyke Regis, a Dorset village, 2 miles WSW. 
 of Weymouth. 
 
 Wylam, a Northumbrian village, 8J miles W. of 
 Newcastle. George Stephenson was a native. 
 
 Wymondham (Wind'ham), a Norfolk market- 
 town, 9^ miles WSW. of Norwich. It has a curi- 
 ous market-cross and the church of a priory (1130). 
 Kett was a native. Pop. of parish, 4734. 
 
 Wy'naad, or Vayanad, a highland district in 
 the Western Ghats, about 3000 feet above sea- 
 level. Its auriferous quartz began to be worked 
 as a gold-field about 1865, and absorbed in 1876-86 
 millions of British capital. 
 
 Wynberg (WineHerg), a town on the SB. 
 slopes of Table Mountain, 8 miles SE. of Cape- 
 town (of which it is a suburb) by rail, in a rich 
 wine-growing country. Pop. 18,500. 
 
 Wynyard(irm'i/ard), the Grecian mansion of 
 the Marquis of Londonderry, in Durham county, 
 5 miles NNW. of Stockton-upon-Tees. 
 
 Wyo'ming, a NW. state of the American 
 Union, lies mainly on the E. slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and is bounded by Montana, South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and 
 
WYOMING VALLEY 
 
 754 
 
 YARKAND 
 
 Montana. The length, E. to W., is 860 miles, 
 and the width is 275 miles ; area, 97,890 sq. m. 
 The state is traversed by the main axis of the 
 Rocky Mountains, with Fremont's Peak (13,790 
 feet) and Mount Hayden (13,091). The Yellow- 
 stone (q.v.) National Park is mainly within its 
 limits. Interspersed between the ranges are 
 broad plateaus with arable soils, which with 
 proper irrigation yield prolific crops ; but less 
 than one-sixth of the state is capable of culti- 
 vation ; Wyoming is essentially a grazing country. 
 The mean elevation of the plateau regions is from 
 7000 to 8000 feet. Yellowstone Lake has an 
 altitude of 7778, Lewis Lake 7750, and Shoshone 
 Lake 7670 feet above the sea. The state drains 
 directly to the Pacific, to the Missouri, to the 
 Columbia, and to the Colorado. In the mountain 
 regions are deposits of gold and silver and ores 
 of copper and iron. Coal is worked ; and there 
 are supplies of soda, some tin, abundance of lime- 
 stone, and oil-wells. The climate is dry, although 
 the country is well watered by streams. The 
 summers are mild and delightful, but in exposed 
 
 regions the winters are severe. Tlie chief towns 
 are Cheyenne, the capital, Laramie, Rock Springs, 
 Rawlins, and Evanston. Wyoming comprises 
 portions of the territories acquired by the Louis- 
 iana Purchase of 1S03, and by the treaty with 
 Mexico in 1848. It was organised as a territory 
 in 1868, and admitted a state in 1890. Pop. 
 (1870) 9118 ; (1880) 20,789 ; (1900) 92,531. 
 
 Wyoming Valley, a beautiful, fertile valley on 
 the Susquehanna River, in north-eastern Pennsyl- 
 vania, about 30 miles long by 5 wide. From 1754 
 on, its possession was disputed by Pennsylvanian 
 and Connecticut settlers ; Campbell's Gertrude 
 of Wyoming recounts, not without mistakes, the 
 bloody struggle on June 30-July 5, 1778, during 
 the revolutionary war, against an invading force 
 of 'Tories' and Seneca Indians. The valley is 
 very rich in anthracite coal. 
 
 Wyre, a river of Lancashire, flowing 28 miles 
 south-westward to the Irish Sea at Fleetwood. 
 
 Wyre Forest, in NW. Worcestershire, near 
 Bewdley, is the S. part of the Severn coalfield. 
 
 ALAPA. See Jalapa. 
 
 Xanthus (x as z), the capital of 
 
 ancient Lycia, on the river Xanthus, 
 
 8 miles from its mouth. In 1838 Sir 
 
 C. Fellows explored its remains. 
 
 Xenia (Zen'ia), a town of Ohio, on the Little 
 
 Miami River, 65 miles NNE. of Cincinnati. It 
 
 has a Methodist college, the state Soldiers' and 
 
 Sailors' Orphan Home, &c. Pop. 8700. 
 
 Xeres, or (1) Jerez de la Frontera (Hai/reth 
 de la Frontay'ra), the centre of the sherry trade of 
 Spain, 14 (by rail 80) miles NE. of Cadiz, with a 
 
 Moorish castle (Alcazar), and many large bodegas 
 or wine-stores. The Asta Regia of the Romans, 
 it owes its modern name to the Moors, who near 
 by in a seven daj^s' battle defeated Roderic, the 
 last of the Goths, in 711. Pop. (1900) 60,850.— 
 (2) Xerez de LOS Caballeros (Hayreth de los 
 Cavalyay'ros), 40 miles S. of Badajoz, is a pictur- 
 esque old town, once a seat of the Templars 
 (hence the name). Pop. 10,100. 
 
 Xesibeland (Zes'ibey-land), between Griqua- 
 land East and Pondoland, was annexed to Cape 
 Colony in 1886. 
 
 The. See Amsterdam, Zuider Zee. 
 
 Yablon'ovoi, or Yablonoi, a ridge of 
 mountains in NE. Asia, dividing the 
 Amur basin from that of the Lena. 
 Some peaks are 7000 feet high. 
 
 Yalr, the ancient seat of the Pringles, on the 
 Tweed, 5 miles NNAV. of Selkirk. 
 
 Yakutsk (u as oo), a town of Eastern Siberia, 
 on a branch of the Lena, 4 miles from the main 
 stream. Pop. 6800. — Area of Yakutsk govern- 
 ment, 1,533,397 sq. m. (equal to four-fifths of 
 European Russia) ; pop. 270,000. 
 
 Yalta, a Crimean seaport, 8 miles E. of Livadia 
 (q.v.). Pop. 13,300. 
 
 Yalu, the frontier-river between Corea and 
 Manchuria, flowing 300 miles SW. to the Bay of 
 Corea. Tlie pas.sage was forced by the Japanese, 
 and the Russians driven back in May 1904 ; and 
 in the estuary a Japanese fleet had defeated a 
 Chinese one in 1894. 
 
 Yamagata, an important commercial town on 
 the main island of Japan, 30 miles W. by S. of 
 Sendai. Pop. 40,248. 
 
 Yan4on, a small patch of Indian soil belonging 
 to France, and under the governer of Pondi- 
 cherry, forming a small enclave surrounded by 
 British territory (Madras), with 3J sq. m. of area 
 and 4870 inhabitants. It lies near the mouth of 
 the Godavari. 
 
 Yanbu', or Yembo. See Medina. 
 
 Yandun, a town of Tliongwa, Burma, in the 
 delta of the Irawadi. Pop. 20,235. 
 
 Yang-tsze-kiang (better simply Kiang or 
 Chiang), the longest and most important of 
 Chinese rivers, affording a waterway, not un- 
 broken by rocks and rapids, across the breadth 
 of China, rises in the mountains of Tibet, where 
 its sources were explored by Prejevalsky in 1884- 
 85, and after a course of 3200 miles (SE., NE., 
 and E.), reaches the sea by a Avide estuary which 
 begins 50 miles below Nanking, and may "be held 
 to terminate near Shanghai. On its banks are 
 also Chin-kiang, Ngan-king, Hankow, Wu-chang, 
 Ichang, and Chung-king (opened to European 
 commerce by treaty in 1890). Some of its many 
 tributaries are over 1000 miles long ; its basin is 
 estimated at 689,000 sq. m. Its importance for 
 connnerce is enormous, though the navigation is 
 in places difficult even for the native boats, which 
 have to be shoved and poled through the narrow 
 gorges against a strong current. Steamers run 
 in the lower parts. See Little's Through the 
 Yang-tse Gorges (1888). 
 
 Yanina. See Janina. 
 
 Yank'ton, capital of a county in South Dakota, 
 and prior to 1883 capital of the territory of 
 Dakota, stands on the Mis.souri's N. bank, nearly 
 200 miles above Omaha, and 569 by rail W. by 
 N. of Chicago. It contains mills and breweries, 
 railway-shops, and grain elevators. Pop. 4150. 
 
 Yare, a Norfolk river, flowing 50 miles E. past 
 Norwich, to the sea at Yarmouth. 
 
 Yarkand', the commercial capital of Eastern 
 Turkestan, on the Yarkand or Zerafshan River, 
 100 miles SE. of Ka.shgar. It was visited by 
 Jklarco Polo, but was hardly known till R. Sliaw 
 
YARM 
 
 755 
 
 YELLOWSTONE 
 
 in 1871 published an account of his residence 
 there three years before. Pop. 90,000. 
 
 Yarm, a market-town in the North Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the Tees, 4 miles SSW. of Stock- 
 ton. Pop. 1600. 
 
 Yarmouth (Yar'muth), a municipal, parlia- 
 mentary, and county borough, seaport, watering- 
 place, and fishing-town of Norfolk, 20^ miles B. 
 of Norwich and 122 NNE. of London. It stands 
 2J miles from the mouth of the river Tare, on a 
 Blip of land IJ mile broad, which is washed on 
 the west by the Yare, expanding here into Brey- 
 don Water, and on the east by the German Ocean. 
 A bridge connects the town with its Suflolk 
 suburbs of Southtown, or Little Yarmouth, and 
 Gorleston. The main streets of Yarmouth run 
 parallel to the river, and are intersected by 145 
 narrow 'rows,' resembling the 'wynds' of Edin- 
 burgh. The sea frontage has a fine marine 
 parade, with the Wellington and Britannia Piers 
 (1854-58) and the Old Jetty (1808). St Nicholas' 
 Church, founded by Bishop Herbert de Losinga, 
 and restored between 1847 and 1884, is one of the 
 largest parish churches in the kingdom, measur- 
 ing 230 feet in length, 110 in breadth, and 148 
 across the transept, with a modern spire 168 feet 
 high ; a feature of its churchyard is the number 
 of gravestones to drowned mariners. The Nelson 
 Monument (1818) is a Doric column 144 feet high ; 
 and one may also notice the new municipal build- 
 ings. Queen Anne in style (18^2), the covered 
 fish-market (1867), the sailors' home (1860), the 
 aquarium (1876), the royal military hospital (1809), 
 militia barracks, spacious market-place, some 
 remains of the old walls, &c. Yarmouth is the 
 principal seat of the English herring-fishery ; and 
 its ' bloaters ' are widely esteemed. Deep-sea 
 fishing is also carried on, and there is consider- 
 able shipping, the present harbour-channel of the 
 Yare having been formed in 1559-67, whilst in 
 Yarmouth Roads, inside a line of sandbanks, 
 there is safe anchorage. The exports include 
 fish 'and agricultural produce ; shipbuilding is 
 carried on, and iron, ropes, sails, silk, &c. are 
 manufactured. The town, too, owes much of its 
 well-being to its attractions as a lively watering- 
 place. None of its worthies is more famous than 
 'Peggotty;' in its history may be noticed its 
 feuds with the Cinque Ports, the plague of 1338- 
 89, which cost 7000 lives, and the fall of a sus- 
 pension bridge (1845), when seventy-nine persons 
 were drowned. Chartered by King John, it re- 
 turned two members to parliament from Edward 
 II. 's time till 1867, and regained one of them in 
 1885 ; in 1888 it was created a county borough. 
 Pop. (1881) 46,767 ; (1901) 51,816. See works by 
 C. J. Palmer (1856), J. G. Nail (1860-66). W. P. 
 Crisp (1871), and others cited at Norfolk. 
 
 Yarmouth, a small seaport in the north-west 
 of the Isle of Wight, 10 miles W. of Newport. It 
 was once an important fortified place, and till 
 1832 returned two members. Pop. 800. 
 Yaroslav. See Jaroslav, 
 Yarrow, a Scottish stream famous in song and 
 ballad, that rises at the meeting-point of Peebles, 
 Dumfries, and Selkirk shires, and flows 25 miles 
 north-eastward till it joins the Ettrick, 2 miles 
 above Selkirk town. About 5 miles from its source 
 it expands into first the Loch of the Lowes (1 by 
 i mile) and then St Mary's Loch (3 by i mile ; 814 
 feet above sea-level), the two being separated only 
 by a neck of land on which stands Tibbie Shiels's 
 hostelry. Under Selkirkshire have been noticed 
 a few of the many memories of that hill-girt lake 
 aad the deep swirling stream ; and reference may 
 
 be also made to Angus's Ettrick and Yarrow 
 (1894) and Borland's Yarrow, its Poets and Poetry 
 (1890), the poets including Hamilton of Bangour, 
 Logan, Hogg, Scott, and Wordsworth. 
 
 Yassy. See Jassy. 
 
 Yazoo' City, a town of Mississippi, on the 
 Yazoo River (a tributary of the Mississippi), 45 
 miles by rail N. by W. of Jackson. Pop. 4950, 
 
 Yeadon, a town of Yorkshire, England, on the 
 Aire, 6 miles NW. of Leeds by rail, with woollen 
 manufactures. Pop. 7060, 
 
 Yedo. See Tokyo. 
 
 Yeisk (Ylsk), or Eisk, a seaport of the Cau- 
 casian province of Kuban. Pop. 85,500. 
 
 Yekaterinburg. See Ekaterinburg. 
 
 Yelisavetgrad. See Elizabetgrad. 
 
 Yell, one of the Shetland Islands, 25 miles N. 
 of Lerwick. Area, 81J sq. m. ; greatest height, 
 672 feet ; pop. 2511. 
 
 Yellala Falls (Yel-lah'la), the lowest of a series 
 of falls or rapids which interrupt the navigation 
 of the Congo (q.v.) near Vivi, 110 miles from the 
 mouth of the river. 
 
 Yellow River. See Hoang-ho. 
 
 Yellow Sea, or Whang-hai, an important 
 inlet of the Pacific Ocean, washes the Corea and 
 the north part of the east coast of China ; it 
 terminates on the NW. in the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. 
 It is becoming shallower from the quantity of 
 alluvium borne down into it by the rivers Hoang- 
 ho and Yang-tsze. 
 
 Yellowstone, the largest affluent of the Mis- 
 souri, rises high up in the Rocky Mountains in 
 Wyoming, flows 25 miles NW. to the mountain- 
 girt Yellowstone Lake (22 miles long, 7788 feet 
 above sea-level), thence N. through the National 
 Park into Montana, partly through stupendous 
 canons, and then ENE. and NE. to the Missouri, 
 on the western border of North Dakota. It is 
 some 1300 miles long, and is navigable for steam- 
 boats 300 miles, to the mouth of the Big Horn, 
 its largest affluent. 
 
 The Yelloiustone National Park occupies the 
 extreme north-western corner of Wyoming, and 
 forms a square about 75 miles in diameter, almost 
 all of it more than 6000 feet above sea-level, and 
 rising in the snow-covered mountains to 10,000 
 and 14,000 feet. Situated on the ' Great Divide,' 
 ' its pine-clad mountains form the gathering- 
 ground for the head-waters of large rivers flow- 
 ing away to the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.' 
 The region is remarkable as well for its scenery 
 as for its famous hot springs and geysers. The 
 river has two falls about 15 miles below the lake, 
 the lower one a magnificent cataract 330 feet in 
 height ; then it passes through the Grand Carion 
 (20 miles), and receives Tower Creek, which itself 
 has leapt out of a deep and gloomy canon known 
 as Devil's Den over a beautiful fall of 156 feet. 
 Near the river are many of the hot springs, those 
 of White Mountain, near the northern boundary 
 of the Park, extending for 1000 feet up the slop- 
 ing side, and their snow-white calcareous deposits 
 standing like a series of great frozen cascades. 
 A few miles from Sulphur Mountain, with its 
 vapours rising from fissures and craters, is the 
 active Mud Volcano, with a crater 25 feet in 
 diameter. All the hot springs of the Park number 
 nearly 10,000. But the most singular feature of 
 the region is its geysers, with columns of hot 
 water 50 to 200 feet high, the most magnificent 
 in the world. These are found principally on the 
 Firehole River, a fork of the Madison, at the 
 
YEMEN 
 
 756 
 
 YORK 
 
 western end of Shoshone Lake, and in the Norris 
 basin, to the north of that on the Firehole. The 
 region was visited and described by surveyors in 
 1869, and explored and mapped in 1871. In 1872 
 Congress dedicated and set it apart ' as a public 
 park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and 
 enjoyment of the people ;' and increased the area 
 in 1891. Two troops of cavalry are quartered in 
 the Park to preserve the forests and wild animals 
 (bisons, elks, antelopes, &c.), and to act as police. 
 A branch of the Northern Pacific Railway extends 
 to the northern boundary of the Park. See works 
 by G. M. Synge (1892) and Wiley (1893). 
 
 Yemen. See Arabia. 
 
 Yenlkale (Yen-i-kah'ley). See Kertch. 
 
 Yenisei (Yen-i-zay'ee), one of the largest riveiss 
 of Siberia, formed by the junction of the Shishkit 
 and Beikhem, which rise in the mountains on 
 the southern border of Siberia. It flows north 
 through the centre of Siberia into the Arctic 
 Ocean, forming at its mouth a long estuary, and 
 has a total course of 3200 miles. It is navigable 
 1850 miles to Minusinsk. Its chief tributaries 
 are the Angara or Upper Tunguska from Lake 
 Baikal and the Lower Tunguska. See Seebohm's 
 Siberia in Asia: a Visit to the Valley of the 
 Yenesay (1882). 
 
 Yeniseisk (Yen-i-zay'eesk), a town of Eastern 
 Siberia, on the Yenisei River. Pop. 11,550.— Area 
 of Yeniseisk government, 987,186 sq. m. ; pop. 
 558,572. Its capital is Krasnoyarsk. 
 
 Yeo, a river of Dorset and Somerset, flowing 
 24 miles to the Parret at Langport. 
 
 Yeovil (Yo'vil), a municipal borough of Somer- 
 set, 40 miles S. of Bristol and 123 WSW. of 
 London, is a busy, handsome place, built of red 
 brick and yellow stone, and situated on a hillside 
 sloping to the Yeo. St John's Church, 'the 
 Lantern of the West,' is a fine Perpendicular 
 structure of the 15th c, restored in 1864, with a 
 tower 90 feet high. A Grecian town-hall was 
 built in 1849. The woollen industry belongs to 
 the past ; but the manufacture of kid and other 
 gloves is largely carried on. Yeovil, which lost 
 117 houses by fire in 1449, is a borough by pre- 
 scription, since 1853 under the Municipal Act. 
 Pop. (1861) 7957 ; (1901) 9861. 
 
 Yesso. See Japan. 
 
 Yet'holm, a Border village of Roxburghshire, 
 at the foot of the Cheviots, 7^ miles SE. of Kelso. 
 Bowmont Water divides it into Town-Yetholm 
 and Kirk-Yetholm, the latter long the head- 
 quarters of the Scottish Gypsies, who seem to 
 have settled here as early at least as the 17th 
 century. Pop. 570. See works by Baird (1862), 
 Lucas (1882), and Brockie (1884). 
 
 Yezd, or Yazd, a city near the centre of Persia, 
 on a small oasis, and on the route between Ispa- 
 han and Kerman. Pop. 45,000—3000 Parsees. 
 
 Yez'o. See Japan. 
 
 Yilgarn. See Western Australia. 
 
 Ynyscynhaiarn, the parish in which is Port- 
 madoc (q.v.). 
 
 Yokolia'ma (a as ah), the chief port of entry in 
 Japan. Until the opening of the country in 1854 
 it was an insignificant fishing-village, contiguous 
 to the important town of Kanagawa, originally 
 granted as a treaty settlement. The Bluff, con- 
 ceded for residence in 1867, is a beautiful spot 
 commanding fine views of Fuji-san and of Yoko- 
 hama Bay. The modern town is well laid out, 
 and contains many fine stone buildings, public 
 and private, churches, hospitals, recreation 
 
 grounds, newspapers in English, French, and 
 Japanese, &c. The bay is very beautiful, and 
 the anchorage is protected by two breakwaters 
 12,000 feet in length. Ships are loaded at an iron 
 pier 2000 feet long, and there are two large graving- 
 docks. There is direct steamship communication 
 with the principal ports of the world. Silk repre- 
 sents three-fifths of the exports, the rest being 
 other tissues, tea, copper, &c. ; the imports are 
 cottons and woollens, raw sugar, oils, metals, 
 clionlcals, arms and ammunition, watches, &c. 
 Pop. (1872) 61,553 ; (1903) 326,000. 
 
 Yokosuka, an important shipbuilding town 
 and naval station of Japan, 13 miles S. by W. 
 of Yokohama. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Yonkers, a city of New York State, on the 
 Hudson River, opposite the Palisades, and 15 
 miles by rail N. by E. of the centre of New York, 
 of which it is a suburb, the boundaries touching. 
 Pop. 50,000. 
 
 Yonne (Yon), a dep. of NE. France. Area, 
 2868 sq. m. ; pop. (1886) 355,364 ; (1901) 321,062. 
 Its arrondissements are Auxerre (the capital), 
 Avallon, Joigny, Sens, Tonnen'e. 
 
 York, the county town of Yorkshire, is situated 
 at the confluence of the river Foss with the Ouse, 
 188 miles N. of London by rail. It is the seat of 
 an archbishopric, the centre of the northern mili- 
 tary district, and returns two members to parlia- 
 ment. The population of the municipal borough 
 in 1881 was 61,789, and in 1901 (now a 'county 
 borough') 77,793. The city, together with the 
 surrounding district called the Ainsty, is under 
 the jurisdiction of a lord mayor, twelve aldermen, 
 and thirty-six councillors. York was known as 
 EborScum under the Romans, of whom many 
 relics still remain, chief among them being the 
 building known as the Multangular Tower. The 
 numerous sepulchral monuments, pavements, and 
 other relics now preserved in the museum were 
 mainly found in the extensive Roman cemetery 
 discovered in digging the foundations of the rail- 
 way station. From the time of Henry II. for 
 five hundred years parliaments occasionally sat 
 at York, as the name of Parliament Street still 
 bears witness, while under Henry III. the courts 
 of King's Bench and Exchequer were held here. 
 The Minster is among the most magnificent of 
 English cathedrals. Early in the 7th century 
 Edwin, the first Christian king of Northumbria, 
 founded here a church which perished by fire in 
 741. The church was rebuilt, but, during the 
 conflagration of the city at the time of the Nor- 
 man invasion, was again destroyed, with the ex- 
 ception of the central wall of the existing crypt, 
 which also contains portions of the Norman 
 church erected by Archbishop Rodger (1154-81). 
 Early in the following century the beautiful 
 Early English transepts were added by Arch- 
 bishop Gray. The present nave was built be- 
 tween 1291 and 1345 ; the graceful Decorated 
 chapter-house between 1300 and 1330 ; and the 
 Norman choir was superseded by a Perpendicular 
 one, 1373-1400. The central lantern tower belongs 
 to the beginning of the 15th c, and the two 
 western towers were added between 1430 and 
 1470. In 1829 the roof and carved choir-stalls 
 perished in an incendiary fire, and in 1840 another 
 fire destroyed the roof of the nave and the 
 splendid peal of bells, reducing the south-western 
 tower to a mere shell. Especially worthy of 
 notice is the Decorated stained glass, the great 
 east window being almost unrivalled. The ex- 
 treme length of the Minster is 524 feet, of the 
 transepts 250, and the breadth of the nave is 140 
 
VORK 
 
 757 
 
 YORKSHIRE 
 
 feet ; the height of the central tower is 216, and 
 of the western ones 201 feet. 
 
 The Benedictine Abbey of St Mary possessed 
 great wealth and importance. It was founded in 
 the reign of Rufus, but was largely rebuilt to- 
 wards the end of the 13th c. The existing ruins 
 are principally those of the beautiful abbey 
 church, while the old Guest-house has now been 
 appropriated as a storehouse for Roman and 
 other antiquities. There is a fine R. C. pro- 
 cathedral (1864). The present walls, 2| miles in 
 circuit, are mainly of the time of Edward III., 
 though in many parts they follow the line of the 
 Roman earthwork. Tliey are pierced by pictur- j 
 esque gates, locally called Bars, of which Bootham | 
 Bar and Micklegate Bar are especially well pre- 1 
 served. The castle, with its picturesque Clifford's 
 Tower, is situated close to the river, and is be- 
 lieved to date from the time of Edward I. , though 
 older portions may be included in the structure, 
 which suffered severely during the siege of 1644. 
 The Assize Courts are now held here. The fine 
 Gothic structure of the Guildhall belongs to 
 the 15th c. There are several endowed schools : 
 St Peter's School under the government of the 
 Chapter, founded in 1557 ; Archbishop Holgate's 
 Free School, dating from the time of Henry VIII. ; 
 the Blue-coat School for boys, the Grey-coat for 
 girls, and the Yorkshire School for the Blind. 
 Among other institutions may be enumerated the 
 County Hospital, the Dispensary, the Lunatic 
 Asylum, and the Free Library, opened by the 
 Duke of York in 1893. York is an important 
 railway centre, and its station (1873-77) is one of 
 the largest in England. The British Association 
 was organised at York in 1831, and its jubilee 
 meeting was fappropriately held there in 1881. 
 Alcuin, Guy Fawlces, Flaxman, and Etty were 
 natives. See Canon Raine's York ('Historic 
 Towns ' series, 1893). 
 
 York, the capital of York county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, on Codorus Creek, 28 miles by rail SSE. of 
 Harrisburg. It has a large granite court-house, 
 a handsome collegiate institute, foundries, car- 
 factories, railway-shops, planing-mills, and manu- 
 factories of shoes, condensed milk, &c. York 
 dates from 1741, and was the seat of the Conti- 
 nental congress for a time in 1777. Pop. (1880) 
 13,940; (1900)33,708. 
 
 York, a river of Virginia, formed by the union 
 of the Pamunkey and Mattapony, and floAving 
 south-eastward to Chesapeake Bay, nearly oppo- 
 site Cape Charles. It is 40 miles long, and from 
 1 to 3 miles wide. 
 
 York Peninsula (Cape), the northernmost part 
 of Queensland (q.v.). For Yorke Peninsula, see 
 South Australia. 
 
 YorksMre, by far the largest of the English 
 counties, is divided for administrative purposes 
 into three Ridings (thridings, or 'thirds'), each 
 of which has its own lord-lieutenant, magistracy, 
 and constabulary. There are twenty-six wapen- 
 takes in the county ; and sundry subdivisions 
 go by the name of sliires, as Hallamshire, Rich- 
 mondshire, AUertonshire, Howdenshire, Craven - 
 shire or Craven, Holderness, and Cleveland. The 
 county contains seven cities, York, Bradford, 
 Hull, Leeds, Ripon, Sheffield, and Wakefield, 
 other 22 municipal boroughs, 169 town and urban 
 district councils, and 524 parish councils. The 
 total area is 3,882,851 statute acres, or nearly 
 6067 sq. m., all, with the exception of the catch- 
 ment basins of the Esk and parts of those of the 
 Tees and Ribble, being drained by the Ouse and 
 its great tributaries, the Swale, Ure, Nidd, 
 
 Wharfe, Aire, Don, and Derwent. Since 1885 
 the county divisions have returned twenty-six 
 members, and the cities and boroughs the same 
 number. Pop. (1801) 859,133; (1841) 1,592,059; 
 (1881) 2,886,564 ; (1901) 3,585,122, of whom 445,112 
 were in the East Riding, 393,143 in the North, 
 2,746,867 in the West Riding. The city of York 
 has 77,793. The Pennine chain rises to its 
 liighest point in Mickle Fell, 2581 feet, while 
 Ingleborough and Whernside touch respectively 
 2361 and 2384 feet. On the eastern side of the 
 chain are the famous 'Yorkshire dales,' Wensley- 
 dale, Wharfedale, Swaledale, &c., in many of 
 which are picturesque waterfalls, or ' forces ' as 
 they are locally called — such as Caldron Snout 
 and High Force in Teesdale, or Aysgarth Force 
 and Hardraw Force on the Ure. The Yorkshire 
 coal-measures, on which are situated the manu- 
 facturing towns of Leeds, Bradford, Sheffield, 
 Rotherham, Huddersfield, and Halifax, are con- 
 fined to the southern portion of the county, and 
 are continuous with those of Derbyshire and 
 Notts. In the North Riding the Cleveland moors 
 rise to heights of 1400 feet. The prosperity of 
 Middlesborough is due to the celebrated hematite 
 iron ores of Cleveland. In the East Riding is the 
 high tableland of the Wolds. Since the begin- 
 ning of the 19th century the manufactures of 
 Yorkshire have enormously developed. Leeds 
 and Bradford are the centres of the woollen and 
 worsted trades, while the cutlery of Sheffield 
 is unrivalled. Of the numerous smelting and 
 puddling furnaces, the chief are those at Rother- 
 ham and Middlesborough. The agricultural por- 
 tions of the county are well served by railways, 
 while the manufacturing districts are covered 
 with a network of lines ; the chief towns being 
 also connected by a system of canals, extending 
 from sea to sea, and piercing the Pennine chain, 
 at the height of 656 feet above the sea, by a 
 tunnel three miles in length. Beyond the mining 
 and manufacturing districts the population is 
 agricultural, one of the principal industries being 
 horse-breeding, for which Yorkshire is famous. 
 Among the inland health-resorts Harrogate and 
 Ilkley rank first, while the coast southward from 
 Redcar and Saltburn is fringed with small watering- 
 places, besides the larger towns of Whitby, Scar- 
 borough, Filey, Bridlington, Withernsea, and 
 Hornsea. 
 
 The sepulchral barrows on the Wolds, and 
 the caves of Craven and Kirkdale have yielded 
 results that form the basis of our know- 
 ledge of Yorkshire prehistoric times. At the 
 Roman conquest (50-79 a.d.) the country was in- 
 habited by the Celtic Brigantes, or ' hillmen, ' whose 
 capital was at Isurium or Boroughbridge (q.v.). 
 York (Eboramm) for 300 years was the chief city 
 of Northern Britain. Several of the emperors 
 visited York, and here in 211 died Severus, and 
 in 306 Constantius Chlorus. And from York his 
 son Constantino the Great, having been pro- 
 claimed by the soldiery, set forth to assume the 
 purple. By 547 the heathen Angles had estab- 
 lished their rule, although the little British 
 kingdoms of Leeds (Loidis) and Elmet held out 
 till 616, when they were conquered by King 
 Edwin of Northumbria, the Yorkshire portion of 
 whose realm was known as Deira. Edwin, who 
 had been baptised by Paulinus on Easter Day, 
 627, was defeated and slain at Hatfield Chase near 
 Doncaster in 633, by Penda, the heathen king of 
 Mercia. Toward the end of the 8th century the 
 Northmen began to appear in the Humber, ravag- 
 ing and finally settling in the country. York- 
 shire contains the battlefields of Stamford Bridge, 
 
YORKTOWN 
 
 758 
 
 YUNNAN 
 
 the Standard (Northallerton), Myton, Bramham 
 Moor, Wakefield, Towton, and Marston Moor; 
 and in 1536 it was the scene of the Pilgrimage of 
 Grace, as in 15(39 of another rising on behalf of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. During the Civil War the 
 county was mainly royalist. No part of England 
 is richer in the remains of monastic houses, 
 eighty-one in all — Rievaulx, Jervaulx, Fountains, 
 Kirkstall, and Bylands (Cistercian), Whitby, 
 Selby, and St Mary's, York (Benedictine), New- 
 burgh, Nostel, Bridlington, Guisborough, Bolton, 
 and Kirkham (Augustinian), &c. Among the 
 castles may be named those of Knaresborough, 
 Pontefract, Conisborough, Richmond, Middle- 
 ham, and Bolton. 
 
 See histories of Yorkshire by Allen (3 vols. 
 1828-31) and Baines (2 vols. 1871-77), besides 
 Poulson's Holderness, Hunter's Hallamshire and 
 South Yorkshire, Drake's Eboracum, Ormsby's 
 Diocesan History, Lawton's Collections, Dixon's 
 Fasti Eboracences, and Phillip's Geology of York- 
 shire, Morris's Yorkshire Folk-talk (1892), and 
 Leadman's Prcelia Eboracensia (1892). 
 
 Yorktown, capital of York county, Virginia, 
 on the York River, 10 miles from its mouth. 
 Pop. 150. Here Lord Cornwallis surrendered to 
 Washington in 1781. 
 
 Yor'uba, or Yarriba, once a West African 
 kingdom, east of Dahomey, now mostly included 
 in tlie British colony of Southern Nigeria. Its 
 pop., some 2,000,000, are Soudanese Negroes, 
 partly Mohammedanised. 
 
 Yosemite Valley (Yo-sem'i-tey) is a cleft in 
 the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, about the 
 middle of California, and 140 miles E. of San 
 Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian 
 word which signifies 'large grizzly bear.' This 
 celebrated valley, shut in by sheer granite walls 
 3000 to 6000 feet high, noted for the sublimity 
 and beauty of its scenery, is 6 miles long and 
 from J to nearly 2 miles broad. It is traversed 
 by the Merced River, and its waterfalls are in 
 some respects the most remarkable in the world. 
 In the grand Yosemite Falls the stream, 25 feet 
 wide at the crest, takes a first leap of 1500 feet, 
 then rushes 626 feet down in a series of cascades, 
 and finally plunges 400 feet to the bottom. 
 Above the falls are the North Dome (3568) and 
 the vast Half Dome (4737). The valley was dis- 
 covered in 1851 by soldiers who pursued some 
 predatory Indians to their fastness here ; its 
 fame quickly spread, and Congress wisely took 
 steps to preserve its beauties, and in 1864 handed 
 it over to the state, along with the Mariposa 
 grove of sequoias. There are several hotels, a 
 post-ofiice, and a chapel in the valley, besides the 
 houses of the guardian and the guides and others 
 under him. See a work by Wiley (1893). 
 
 Youghal (pron. nearly Yawl), a seaport of 
 County Cork, on the Blackwater estuary, 27 
 miles E. of Cork by rail. It has the parish 
 church (1464), a handsome R. C. church, the 
 'water-gate' and 'clock-gate,' and Sir Walter 
 Raleigh's house. Myrtle Grove, which remains 
 nearly in its original state. Parts of the old 
 walls are standing. According to local tradition, 
 the potato was first planted at Yonghal by 
 Raleigh, who was mayor in 1588. The town 
 returned one member till 1885. Pop. (1851) 
 7410 ; (1901) 5393. 
 
 Youngstown, a manufacturing town of Ohio, 
 on the Mahoning River, 67 miles by rail SE. of 
 Cleveland, and 66 NW. of Pittsburgh, with 
 blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, manufactories of 
 machinery, &c. Iron, coal, and limestone 
 
 abound near by. Pop. (1880) 15,435; (18©0) 
 33,220 ; (1900) 44,885. 
 
 Ypres (Eepr ; Flemish Y'peren), a Belgian town, 
 30 miles SSW. of Bruges by rail, and 8 from the 
 French frontier. It once was one of the most im- 
 portant manufacturing towns in Flanders, with 
 200,000 inhabitants in the 14th c, and 4000 looms. 
 The only remnant of its once flourishing manu- 
 facture is the Gothic Cloth-hall {Les Holies), with 
 a stately square belfry. It was built 1230-1342, 
 and restored in 1860 ; a part was added in 1730. 
 One of the wings is now used as the hotel-de-ville. 
 The cathedral of St Martin is a fine Gothic edifice 
 (1221-1350). The chief modern manufactures are 
 thread and lace. Poj). 17,137. Ypres is a very 
 old town, dating from the 9th and lOtli centuries. 
 In 1688 it was strongly fortified by Louis XIV. 
 Jansen was bishop of Ypres. 
 
 Ypsilanti (i/ as i), a city of Michigan, on the 
 Huron River, 30 miles by rail W. by S. of Detroit. 
 It contains the state normal school. Pop. 7400. 
 
 Ystad (Ee'stad), a seaport in the extreme south 
 of Sweden, 30 miles SB. of Malmo by rail, 
 with manufactures of sugar, matches, &c. Pop. 
 8500. 
 
 Ystradyfodwg (Istradifo'doog ; since 1894, 
 Rhondda), an urban district of Glamorgan, 
 occupying the mining district of the Rhondda 
 valley, 20 miles NW. of Cardiff. Pop. (1891) 
 88,350 ; (1901) 113,735. 
 
 Yucatan', a Central American peninsula, divid- 
 ing the Gulf of Mexico from the Caribbean Sea, 
 and bordering on British Honduras and Guate- 
 mala. It is a flat expanse, ridged only towards 
 the east by a low chain of hills. The interior is 
 overspread with forests of mahogany, rosewood, 
 and other valuable timber, while the south and 
 east teem with maize, pulse, rice, tobacco, &c. 
 Ruins of Uxmal, Chichen, Izamal, Mayapan, and 
 other temples and vast edifices, richly carved 
 and coloured, and of unknown history, testify to 
 an ancient civilisation. Made known to Europe 
 in 1517, and completely conquered in 1541, this 
 part of New Spain (granted in 1783 to English 
 logwood-cutters for a time) continiied under 
 Spanish domination till 1821. After repeated 
 short periods of independence it has since 1852 
 belonged to Mexico—from 1858 as two states, 
 Campeachy (area, 18,087 sq. m. ; pop. 86,000) 
 and Yucatan (area, 35,203 sq. m. ; pop. 
 314,087). ' *- *' 
 
 Yu'kon, the great river of Alaska, is formed by 
 the junction of the Lewis and Pelly at Fort 
 Selkirk, in British territory (62° 45' N. lat.), and 
 flows 2000 miles W. across Alaska into Behring 
 Sea. Its upper reaches are navigable for steamers, 
 but its vast delta is so silted up that it is not 
 open to sea-going vessels. During three months 
 of the year its waters swarm with salmon. Since 
 1895 the river gives name to a territory of Canada 
 north of British Columbia. There are gold- 
 mines at Klondike, for which Dawson is the 
 central town. 
 
 Yunnan (Yoon-nan), a province of SW. China, 
 bounded on the S. by Annam, Siam, and Burma, 
 with an area estimated at 122,000 sq. m., and 
 a pop. estimated at 11,500,000, having sunk 
 from 15,000,000 through plague and the war of 
 the Mohammedan Panthays (1855-72). The sur- 
 face is mainly an extensive uneven highland 
 plateau, between whose ranges, which vary in 
 height from 12,000 to 17,000 feet in the north to 
 7000 or 8000 in the south, are deep defiles through 
 which run the Mekong, Sal ween, Shweli, and 
 
YtJRUARI 
 
 15^ 
 
 ZANTia 
 
 other rivers of Indo-China. Fertile plains and 
 valleys are numerous. In the northern part the 
 surface is wild, broken, and barren, wrapped in 
 mist and fog, and the population sparse. But 
 the soutlv and south-west are populous and richly 
 cultivated. The first important exploration was 
 by the French in 18G7-68. Yunnan, the capital, 
 stands on a great plain in the eastern half of the 
 province, over 6400 feet above sea-level, and near 
 the shore of Lake Tien-chih. It has a flourishing 
 trade and a pop. of 100,000. 
 
 Yuruari. See Venezuela. 
 
 Yverdon (Eeverdon" ; also spelt Yverdun), a 
 pleasant Swiss town in the Canton de Vaud, at 
 
 the S. end of the Lake of Neuchatel, 20 miles i^. 
 of Lausanne by rail. The old castle, built in 
 1135, was used by Pestalozzi as an educational 
 institute ; and is now occupied by municipal 
 schools, a library, and museum. There is a sul- 
 phur-bath near the town. Pop. 8000. 
 
 Yvetot (Eev'toh), an old town of France, in the 
 dep. of Seine-Inferieure, 24 miles NW. of Rouen 
 by rail, with manufactures of linen, cotton, 
 calico. Pop. 7000. The town and territory of 
 Yvetot was long a semi-sovereign principality, 
 and the Lord of Yvetot was till 1681 popularly 
 styled 'Roi d' Yvetot.' Beranger's song of that 
 title was a satire on Napoleon. 
 
 AANDAM (Zahn'davi), a Dutch town, 
 on the Zaan, at its entrance to the Y, 
 5 miles NW. of Amsterdam by rail. It 
 has many corn, oil, and saw mills, and 
 active manufactures of paper, dyes, 
 starch, tobacco, and glue, and still a little ship- 
 building. Most of the sixty wharves it had in 
 the 17th century have disappeared, and its 
 famous whale-fishery is also a thing of the past. 
 Here in 1697 Peter the Great worked in a ship- 
 building yard as a carpenter ; the hut in which 
 he lived was visited in 1814 by the Czar Alex- 
 ander. Pop. 21,650. 
 
 Zabern {Tzah'hern; Fr. Saverne), a town of 
 Lower Alsace, 22 miles NW. of Strasburg by rail. 
 Pop. 8605. 
 
 Zacatecas {Za-ka-tay'kas), capital of a Mexican 
 state (area, 24,757 sq. m. ; pop. 462,190), is situated 
 in a deep ravine, 440 miles by rail NW. of Mexico 
 city. It has a cathedral, and 3 miles E. the Fran- 
 ciscan college where the fathers of the old Cali- 
 fornian missions were trained. Zacatecas is the 
 great silver-producing state of Mexico, and around 
 the city 15,000 men are employed in the mines, 
 which since 1540 have yielded over $1,000,000,000. 
 Gold has also been discovered. Pop. (1900) 
 39,912. 
 
 Zadonsk', a Russian town on the Don, 70 
 miles N. of Voronej, is the seat of a celebrated 
 monastery. Pop. 8800. 
 
 Zafarani Islands (d as &h), three islets off 
 the north coast of Morocco, occupied by Spain. 
 Pop. 650. 
 
 Zagazig (Zagazeeg'), a town of the Egyptian 
 delta, an important railway centre, 50 miles NE. 
 of Cairo, on a branch of the Sweet-water Canal 
 connecting Ismailia with the Nile. Pop. 35,500. 
 ' Zahringen (^Tzay'ring-en), a small village a mile 
 N. of Freiburg in Breisgau, historically note- 
 worthy for the ruined castle of the Dukes of 
 Zahringen, the ancestors of the reigning House 
 of Baden. 
 
 Zaire. See Congo. 
 
 Za'ma, a city and fortress in Numidia, about 
 100 miles SW. of Carthage, near which Hannibal 
 was defeated by the Younger Scipio, 201 b.c. 
 
 Zamhe'si, Vasco da Gama's 'River of Good 
 Signs,' ranking with the Congo and the Nile as a 
 means of communication with the interior of 
 Africa, is between 1550 and 1600 miles long, and 
 drains more than half a million miles of territory. 
 Soon after its rise in the marshy country to the 
 west of Bangweolo it passes through Lake Dilolo 
 at the SW. corner of the Congo Free State ; and 
 on its way to the Indian Ocean it receives many 
 tributaries, notably the Loaraba, Kafue, Loangwa, 
 
 and Shir6. For about two-thirds of its length it 
 flows through British protected territory, enter- 
 ing the Portuguese possessions near Zumbo (550 
 miles from the sea). The river is navigable, with 
 occasional interruptions, to the Victoria Falls, 
 900 miles from the sea. At these falls, dis- 
 covered in 1855 by Dr Livingstone, the river, 
 here 1000 yards broad, drops sheer into a huge 
 fissure in the earth's surface nearly 400 feet deep. 
 The great girder bridge to carry the Cape-to- 
 Cairo railway across the Zambesi (400 yards 
 below the falls) was finished in 1905. Beyond 
 this for 700 miles the river forms a frequently 
 interrupted waterway to the interior. The delta 
 of the Zambesi comprises an area of 2500 sq. m., 
 and it has a number of months all more or less 
 blocked with sand (Cliinde, Kongoni, &c.). 
 
 Zambesla, a name for that portion of the 
 territory watered by the river Zambesi which is 
 now under British protection, sometimes loosely 
 used for most of the country under the British 
 South African Company (chartered in 1889). 
 South Zambesia (southwards of the river) em- 
 braces Mashonaland (q.v.), Matabeleland (q.v.), 
 a part of Manicaland, and Khama's Country in 
 tlie Bechuanaland protectorate. North Zambesia 
 extends to Lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa (q.v,). 
 The railway from Beira to Salisbury, from Vry- 
 burg to Bulawayo, and the Cape-to-Cairo rail- 
 way to the Victoria Falls (1904) are open. Zam- 
 besia, except the British South Africa Protecto- 
 rate, is now part of Rhodesia (q.v.). 
 
 Zambesia, one of the administrative districts 
 of Portuguese East Africa, in the lower valley of 
 the Zambesi River, 
 
 Zamora (Span. pron. Tha-mo'ra), a very ancient 
 town of Spain, on the Douro, 150 miles NW. of 
 Madrid by rail. It has a late Romanesque cathe- 
 dral, and some linen and woollen manufactures. 
 Pop. 16,577. — Area of province, 4135 sq. m. ; pop, 
 (1900) 275,545. 
 
 Zamosc', a fortified town of Russian Poland, 
 154 miles SE. of Warsaw. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 Zanesville, a town of Ohio, on the Muskingum 
 River, 67 miles by rail E. of Columbus, The 
 river is crossed by an iron railway bridge 538 
 feet long (and by others) to its suburbs, Putnam 
 and West Zanesville. It has rich coal-mines 
 close by, and manufactures engines, boilers, flour, 
 iron, cottons and woollens, glass, paper, tiles, 
 &c. Pop. (1880) 18,113 ; (1900) 23,540. 
 
 Zanguebar', See Zanzibar, 
 
 Zan'te (anc, Zacynthos), one of the Ionian 
 Islands, 9 miles from the NW. coast of the Morea, 
 and 8 S. of Cephalonia, is 24 miles long and 12 
 broad; pop. 45,522, In the west it attains a 
 maximum altitude of 2486 feet: the centre is 
 
ZANZIBAR 
 
 760 
 
 ZIMBABYB 
 
 fertile, and mainly devoted to growing the cur- 
 rant vine. Earthquakes are not infrequent, one 
 of the worst in the beginning of 1893.— Zante, 
 the capital, the largest town in the Ionian 
 Islands, is at the head of a small bay on the east 
 coast; pop. 14,650. 
 
 Zanzibar', since 1890 a British protectorate, 
 consisting of the islands of Zanzibar (625 sq. ni. ; 
 pop. 150,000) and Pemba (360 sq. m. ; pop. 
 50,000). Some 500 Englishmen, as many Ger- 
 mans, and a few other Europeans live in the 
 town of Zanzibar, on the west coast of the island 
 (pop. 30,000), the chief trading town on the E. 
 coast of Africa. Its imports and exports each 
 average over £1,300,000 a year. Zanzibar (' Land 
 of the Zery,' a Swahili dynasty) formerly exercised 
 authority over a large part of the mainland, with 
 indefinite extensions inland, which was called 
 Zanguebar as distinguished from the island. It 
 was under Arab influence in the 10th c, Portu- 
 guese in the 15th-17th c. In 1856 a son of the 
 imam of Muscat became sultan. Since 1870-90 
 the territories on the mainland have been 
 absorbed by Britain (see Ibea) and Germany (see 
 Africa), and the sultan is practically a British 
 pensioner, all authority resting ultimately with 
 the British agent and consul-general. See the 
 travels of Stanley, J. Thomson, &c. ; Zanzibar by 
 Burton (1872) ; and works on the partition of 
 Africa by Silva White (1890) and Keltie (1893). 
 
 Zara (Zah-ra; Slav. Zadar), capital of Dal- 
 matia, on a promontory into the Adriatic, 130 
 miles SE. of Trieste, with a well-protected har- 
 bour. Its archiepiscopal cathedral (1205) was 
 founded by Henry Dandolo, Doge of Venice. A 
 marble column is all that is left of an ancient 
 Roman temple ; there are also the remains of a 
 Roman aqueduct. The chief manufactures are 
 the making of glass and of maraschino and 
 rosoglio. Pop. 32,500, mainly Italians. 
 
 Zarafshan. See Bokhara. 
 
 Zaragoza (Tharago'tha). See Saragossa. 
 
 Zarskoe. See Tsarskoye Selo. 
 
 Zaru'ma, a town of Ecuador, on the west slope 
 of the Andes, 95 miles S. of Guayaquil. It has 
 gold and quicksilver mines. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Zea. See Ceos. 
 
 Zealand (Dutch Zeeland), a province of the 
 Netherlands, consists of portions of Flanders 
 (East and West) and of the islands Walcheren, 
 North Beveland, South Beveland, Schouwen, 
 Duiveland, and Tholen, with an area of 690 sq. ra. 
 and a pop. of 220,000. 
 
 Zea'land (Dan. Sjdlland), a level island, the 
 largest and most important of Denmark, lies be- 
 tween the Cattegat and the Baltic, and is sepa- 
 rated by the Sound from Sweden and by the Great 
 Belt from Fiinen. Length, 81 miles ; breadth, 
 67 miles ; area, 2670 sq. ni. ; pop. (including tlie 
 small islands of Moen, Samso, &c.) 960,250. In 
 it are Copenhagen, Elsinore, and Korsor. 
 
 Zebu, one of the Philippine Islands (q.v.). 
 
 Zeebrugge, the port of Bruges (q.v.), with 
 which it is connected by a ship-canal made in 
 1895-1903. 
 
 Zee'han (Dutch Zeehaan, 'sea-hen'), a mining 
 township on the west coast of Tasmania, 29 miles 
 by rail from the port of Strahan or Macquarie 
 Harbour. The name is taken from a prominent 
 mountain, 3 miles south-west, which Tasman, in 
 1642, named after one of his two ships. The 
 township (population, 5000) owes its existence to 
 the discovery in 1884 of rich silver-lead ores in 
 great abundance. 
 
 Zeeland. See Zealand. 
 
 Zeila, or Zeyla. See Somali-land. 
 
 Zeitun (Zl-too7i'), a town 25 miles NW. of 
 Marash in the highlands of the Aleppo province, 
 with iron-mines. Pop. 20,000, mainly Armenian 
 Christians. 
 
 Zeist. See Zeyst. 
 
 Zeitz (Tzltz), a walled town of Prussian Saxony, 
 on the right bank of the White Elster, 23 miles 
 SW. of Leipzig by rail. It manufactures wool- 
 lens, cottons, calicoes, sugar, wax-cloth, piano- 
 fortes, cycles, &c. Pop. 27,400. 
 
 Zelle (Tzel'leh), or Cell, a manufacturing town 
 of Prussia, on the navigable Aller, 28 miles by 
 rail NE. of Hanover. From the 14th c. till 1705 
 it was the residence of the Dukes of Brunswick- 
 Liineburg ; and in the old castle (1485) George 
 III.'s unfortunate sister, Caroline Matilda of Den- 
 mark, lived from 1772 to 1775, and here she is 
 buried. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 Zengg (Zeng), an Austrian port on the Croatian 
 coast, 75 miles SE. of Trieste, with an old cathe- 
 dral. Pop. 3039. 
 
 Zenjan', a town of Persia, half-way between 
 Tabriz and Teheran. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 Zen'ta, a town of Hungary, on the Theiss, 33 
 miles S. of Szegedin by rail. Pop, 28,600. 
 
 Zerafshan'. See Bokhara. 
 
 Zerbst (Tzerhst), a town in the duchy of An- 
 halt, on a tributary of the Elbe, 26J miles SE. of 
 Magdeburg by rail. Pop. 17,069. 
 
 Zermatt (Tzer-maW), a Swiss tourist centre 
 (pop. 725) near the upper end of the Visp valley 
 in Valais, 25 miles SSW. of Visp by the railway 
 opened in 1891. It stands 5315 feet above the 
 sea, having to the S. the great Theodule glacier, 
 surrounded by the Breithorn, Monte Rosa, and 
 Matterhorn. The Theodule Pass or Matterjoch 
 (10,899 feet) leads to Aosta in Italy. 
 
 Zetland. See Shetland. 
 
 Zettin'ye. See Cetinje. 
 
 Zeulenroda (Tzoilenro'da), a town of Reuss- 
 Greiz, 51 miles SSW. of Leipzig. Pop. 8970. 
 
 Zeyla. See Somali-land. 
 
 Zeyst, or Zeist (Zist), a large Dutch village, 6 
 miles E. of Utrecht, with manufactures of soap, 
 candles, porcelain-stoves, &c. Here was estab- 
 lished in 1746 a still thriving society of Moravian 
 Brethren. Pop. 8800. 
 
 Zhitomir', or Jitomir, the chief town of the 
 Russian government of Volhynia, on a tributary 
 of the Dnieper, 80 miles W. of Kieff. Pop. 
 66,782. 
 
 Zhob, a river of S. Afghanistan (or N. Beluchi- 
 stan) which joins the Gomul NW. of the Suliman 
 Mountains, and with it flows into the Indus near 
 Dera Ismael Khan. There are valuable passes 
 into Afghanistan both by the Gomul and the 
 Zhob valleys— the latter of which was annexed 
 by Britain in 1889. 
 
 Zidon. See Sidon. 
 
 Zierikzee {Zee-rik-zayT), chief town of the Dutch 
 island of Schouwen (q.v.) ; pop. 7043. 
 
 Zillerthal (JziVlertahl), a Tyrolese valley 
 watered by the Ziller, a tributary of the Inn, 
 whose inhabitants are noted for their handsome 
 figures and their admirable singing. 
 
 Zimbab'ye, or Zimbabwi, a notable ruin in 
 Mashonaland, 15 miles SE. of Salisbury by road, 
 and 3300 feet above sea-level, consists of a large 
 elliptical building of unmortared masonry (280 
 
ZIMME 
 
 761 
 
 ZUTPHEN 
 
 feet long, with walls 35 feet high and 16 feet 
 thick), believed by Bent and Hall to be the 
 work of pre-Mohanmiedan Arabians, but by 
 M'lver held to be native masonry not older than 
 the 16th century. See works by Bent (1892), 
 Hall (1902), and M'lver (1906). 
 
 Zimme. See Shan States. 
 
 Zirknitz, Lake (Tzeer'knitz ; Slovenic Cirknica), 
 in Carniola, is 20 miles SW. of Laibach and 1860 
 feet above sea-level. Its area and depth depend 
 much on the rainfall, being sometimes 5 miles 
 and 18 feet ; but in some years it is dried up. 
 
 Zittau (Tzit'tow), a town of Saxony, on the 
 Mandau, near its junction with the Neisse, 21 
 miles SSE. of Libau and 21 SSW. of Gorlitz. It 
 stands in a district rich in lignite, and is also 
 the centre of the linen and damask industry of 
 Saxony, with manufactures of woollens, besides 
 bleachfields, dye-works, and iron-foundries. Pop. 
 (1875) 20,417 ; (1900) 30,930. 
 
 Zlatoust' (ow as oo), a town of Russia, on the 
 navigable Ai, 198 miles NE. of Ufa by the great 
 Siberian railway (1890). It has iron-foundries, 
 and manufactures small-arms. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 Zmeinogorsk' (ei as i), a town of Siberia, 350 
 miles SW. of Tomsk, and near most productive 
 silver-mines. Pop. 6000. 
 
 Znaim (Tzrmne), a town of Moravia, on the 
 Thaya, 63 jniles by rail N. by W. of Vienna, with 
 earthenware manufactures. Pop. 16,254. 
 
 Zo'ar, one of the Biblical 'cities of the plain,' 
 spared to shelter Lot when Sodom and the others 
 were destroyed. Conder believes he can fix its 
 site to the NB. of the Dead Sea. 
 
 Zo'ar, a village of Ohio, on the Tuscarawas 
 River and Ohio Canal, 91 miles by rail S. of 
 Clevelan<l. Here in 1853 was founded a German 
 socialistic community. Pop. 300. 
 
 Zo'la, a town on the upper Benue (q.v.). 
 
 Zomba. See Nyassa. 
 
 Zombor (z as tz), a royal free town of Hungary, 
 capital of the district of Bacs, 42 miles NE. of 
 Essek by rail. Pop. 29,435, 
 
 Zorndorf (z as tz), a Brandenburg village, 5 
 miles N. of Kiistrin, where, on 25th August 
 1758, Frederick the Great defeated the Russians. 
 
 Zoutpansberg (' Salt-pan Mountain '), a ridge 
 of mountains (3000-4000 feet) in the north-east of 
 the Transvaal, which is a continuation of the 
 Drakenierge (q.v.). 
 
 Zschopau (TcJio'pow), a town of Saxony, 15 
 miles SE. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. 9869. 
 
 Zug (Tzoogh), the smallest of the Swiss cantons, 
 with an area of 92 sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 
 25,045— German-speaking and Catholic— Zug, the 
 picturesque mediseval capital, lies at the NE. end 
 of the Lake of Zug(8| x 2^ miles ; 1308 feet above 
 the sea ; 1320 deep), 24J miles S. of Zurich by 
 rail. Eleven persons were killed here in July 
 1887 by the fall of thirty houses into the lake. 
 Pop. 6470. 
 
 Zuider Zee (Zoi'der Zay; 'Southern Sea,' as 
 opposed to the North Sea), a large gulf pene- 
 trating 60 miles into the Netherlands, and 210 
 miles in circumference. The islands Texel, 
 Vlieland, Terschelling, Ameland, and Schiermon- 
 nikoog, reaching in a chain across its entrance, 
 are the i-emains of the former coast-line, which 
 in 1282 was broken by the sea, the waters over- 
 flowing the low lands between Friesland and 
 North Holland, uniting with the small inland 
 lake Flevo, and forming the present Zuider Zee. 
 
 In it lie the islands Wieringen, Urk, Schok- 
 iand, and Marken. From the south-west of the 
 Zuider Zee a long narrow arm, called the Y 
 (pronounced /), formerly ran nearly due west, 
 through the peninsula of Holland. A strong sea- 
 dyke and locks have been constructed to cut off 
 the Zuider Zee from the Y, through which a 
 broad ship-canal has been made between Amster- 
 dam and the North Sea. On both sides of the 
 new canal the Y has been drained and turned 
 into about 12,000 acres of rich land. The new 
 waterway was formally opened by the king in 
 1876. In 1892-94 a royal commission drew up a 
 scheme to drain the Zee and reclaim some 750 
 sq. m. at a cost of £26,000,000. See Havard, 
 Dead Cities of the Znyder Zee (trans. 1876). 
 
 Zululand, a British protectorate of 8900 sq. m. 
 north of Natal, from which it is separated by the 
 Tugela River, and extending to the coast at 
 St Lucia Bay. It is well suited for agriculture 
 and cattle raising ; gold is worked ; and silver, 
 lead, copper, tin, asbestos, and coal are found. 
 The protectorate is but a small part of the 
 country (now largely absorbed in the Transvaal) 
 ruled over by the warlike Zulus, a Kaffir tribe. 
 War was declared between Britain and their 
 chief Cetewayo in 1878, the chief features of 
 which were the British disaster of Isandula (22d 
 January 1879), the heroic defence of Rorke's 
 Drift, and the British victory of Ulundi (4th July 
 1880). After difficulties with the Boers, what 
 remained of Zululand was declared a British pro- 
 tectorate in 1887, and in 1898 it was made an 
 integral part of Natal. See books by Jenkinson 
 (1882), Miss Colenso (1885), Tyler (1892), and 
 Gibson (1904). 
 
 Zumbo. See Zambesi. 
 
 Zunga'ria, or Dzungaria, a high mountain 
 region of Chinese Tartary, between the Tianshan 
 and the western Altai Mountains. Originally the 
 country of the Zungars, a Kalmuck people, it is 
 now inhabited by Dungans, Kalmucks, Chinese, 
 and Kirghiz. It contains the sources of the Black 
 Irtish and the Hi. See Kulja. 
 
 Zurich (Zoo'rik; Ger. Zurich, pron. nearly 
 Tsee'rihh), a northern Swiss canton, drained by 
 the Rhine, and traversed from NW. to SE. by 
 lofty hills, between which lie the three valleys of 
 the Toss, Glatt, and Limmat. The last drains 
 the beautiful Lake of Zurich, which, lying 1341 
 feet above sea-level, is 25 miles long and 2^ miles 
 broad at the v,-idest. Area, 666 sq. m. ; pop., 
 German-speaking and Protestant, (1870) 284,786 ; 
 (1900) 430,336. 
 
 Zurich, the capital, 41 miles by rail NNE. of 
 Lucerne and 43 NW. of Glarus, is situated at the 
 point where the Limmat issues from the Lake of 
 Zurich. It is one of the most prosperous manu- 
 facturing and commercial towns of Switzerland, 
 yet with narrow streets and lofty houses in its 
 older quarters. Of the Romanesque cathedral, 
 erected in the 11th and 13th centuries, Zwingli 
 was pastor, as Lavater Avas of the Peterskirche. 
 The university, founded in 1832, has nearly 100 
 teachers and more than 900 students ; the famous 
 Polytechnic has 1500 students, and has served as 
 model for many such institutions ; and one may 
 also notice the town-hall (1699), the botanic 
 gardens, the six bridges, and the town library 
 with over 100,000 volumes and 3000 MSS. Fuseli 
 was a native. Pop. (1870) 56,695 ; (1901) 152,942. 
 
 Zut'phen, a town in the Dutch province of 
 Guelderland, on the Yssel, here joined by the 
 Berkel, 18 miles NNE. of Arnhem by rail. Of 
 buildings the chief are the Great Church (1103 ; 
 
ZUYDER Z£E 
 
 762 
 
 ZYRIANOVSK 
 
 restored 1857) and the ' Wijn Huis tower. At 
 Rysselt, 3 miles N., is a boys' reformatory (1851). 
 Zutphen has manufactures of paper, oil, leather, 
 &c. It has been several times besieged ; and in 
 a skirmish on the field of Warnsfeld, to tlie E., 
 Sir Philip Sidney received his death-wound, 2d 
 October 1586. Pop. 18,400. 
 
 Zuyder Zee. See Zuider Zee. 
 
 Zvenigorod'ka, a Russian town 100 miles S. of 
 Kieflf; pop. 16,350. 
 
 Zvornik, a fortified town of Bosnia, on the 
 Drina, 60 miles NE. of Sarajevo ; pop. 4500. 
 
 Zweibriicken {Tzvl'hreclc-en ; Fr. Deux-ponts), 
 an ancient duchy, now in the Bavarian Palatin- 
 ate. Its old capital, Zweibrticken (Lat. Bipon- 
 tinum), 45 miles by rail W. of Landau, has a 
 large castle (now a court-house) and many busy 
 manufactories. Pop. 13,534. 
 
 Zwellendam, or Swellendam, capital of a 
 southern division of Cape Colony, 125 miles 
 ESE. of Capetown ; pop. 3200. 
 
 Zvrlckau (Tzvik'ow), a picturesque manufac- 
 turing city of Saxony, near a rich coalfield, on 
 
 the left bank of the Mulde, 82 miles by rail SW. 
 of Dresden. The Gothic Marienkirche dates 
 from 1451, and has a tower 285 feet high. The 
 old castle has been converted into a prison. 
 Pop. (1875) 31,491 ; (1905, with suburbs) 63,870. 
 
 Zwittau {Tzvit'tow), a town in the extreme 
 north of Moravia, 40 miles N. of Brunu by rail. 
 Pop. 6351. 
 
 ZwoUe {Zwol'ley), capital of the Dutch prov- 
 ince of Overyssel, on the Zwarte Water, 50 miles 
 E. by N. of Amsterdam. Besides a busy transit 
 trade it has foundries, shipyards, &c. Close by 
 is Agnetenberg, in whose monastery Thomas a 
 Kempis lived and died. Pop. (1905) 32,380. 
 
 Zwyndrecht (Zwine-drehht), a small town of 
 South Holland, on a branch of the Maas, opposite 
 Dort ; pop. 5500. 
 
 Zwyndrecht, a western suburb of Antwerp, 
 with a strong fort. 
 
 Zyrlanovsk', a town in a rich silver district, 
 near the S. frontier of Siberia, lies among the 
 slopes of the Altai Mountains, on a head-stream 
 of the Irtish ; pop. 4500. 
 
763 
 
 ETYMOLOGY OF PLACE-NAMES. 
 
 The following are the more important significant syllables or words that enter 
 into the composition of the names (especially British) of rivers, mountains, 
 towns, &c. : 
 
 A (A.S. ed, Ice. -aa), 'a stream;' as Greta, Thurso 
 
 (' Thor's stream '). 
 Abad (Pars, and Sans.), ' a dwelling ; ' as Hyder- 
 abad, A\\a.]\abad. 
 Aber (Celt.), 'a confluence,' 'an embouchure;' 
 
 as Aberfeldy, Aberdeen, ^beT-ystwith. [Practi- 
 cally synonymous with Inver.] 
 Achadh. See Auch. 
 Ain (Heb.), ' a fountain ; ' as Engedi. 
 Ak (Turk.), ' white ; ' as Jfc-serai, ' white palace.' 
 All (Gael.), ' white ; ' Al-ian, ' white water,' so the 
 
 rivers Allen, Ellen, Aln, Lune, Allwen, Elwin. 
 Alt (Gael.), ' a stream ; ' as ^ZZi-an-Thearna. 
 Ar, found in many river-names; as Aire, Ayr, 
 
 Aar, Arro, Arrow, Arve. [Ety. dub., perh. 
 
 conn, with Sans, ara, ' swift,' ' flowing ; ' perh. 
 
 with Celt, garw, 'violent.'] 
 Ard (Celt.), 'high;' as Ardoch, Airdrie, Ard- 
 
 rossan, Ardg\&ss, Arden, Ardennes. 
 Ath (Ir. and Gael.), ' a ford ; ' as Atliione, Ath- 
 
 truim (now Trim). 
 Auch (Gael.), Agh (Ir,), ' a field ; ' as Aiichinleck, 
 
 Aghinver, Agha,doe. 
 Auchter (Gael.), ' summit ; ' as Auchteravder. 
 Avon (Celt.), ' a river ; ' as Avo7i, Aven, Aisne, 
 
 Inn, Ain, Vienne. 
 ii.Y. See Ey. 
 
 Bab (Ar.), ' a gate ;' as 5a6-el-mandeb, Bah-e\. 
 Bach. See Beck. 
 
 Bad (Teut.), 'a bath ; ' as Bath, Baden, Carls&ad. 
 Bahia (Port.), 'a bay.' 
 
 Bahr (Ar.), ' a sea, lake, or river ; ' as Bahrem. 
 Bally (Ir. and Gael.), 'a village' or 'town;' as 
 
 Ballymove, BaZbriggan, jBatooral. 
 Ban (Celt.), ' white ; ' as Banna,, Banon ; the 
 
 rivers Ben, Bann, Bandon, Banney, &c. 
 Beck (Scand.), Bach (Teut.), 'a brook;' as 
 
 Hol&ecfc, Lauter&ac/i. 
 Bedd(W.), 'a grave ;' as Beddgelert. 
 Beg, Bihan (Celt.), ' little ; ' as BaUybeg, Mor 
 
 bihan. 
 Ben (Gael.), 'mountain,' Pen (Welsh), 'head 
 
 land,' 'hilltop;' as Beri Nevis, Ben Lomond, 
 
 The Twelve Pins, Bangor; Pen, Pe?inigant, 
 
 Pe?izance, PeTinine Alps, ApeTinines, Pindus. 
 Berg, Borough (A.S. beorh), 'a hill;' as Ingle 
 
 borough, F\a,mborough Head, Queens6erri/, 
 
 Brow5er-gr Hill, Konigsfierg', Bergen. [From the 
 
 same root as Burgh (below).] 
 Beth (Heb.), ' a house ; ' as Bethel (house of God). 
 Blair (Gael.), 'a plain,' orig. 'a battlefield ;' as 
 
 Blair Athole. 
 Boca (Span.), ' a mouth.' 
 Bottle or Battle, Biittel (Teut.), ' a dwelling ; ' 
 
 as 'Newbattle, WoUenbiittel. 
 Broad (E.), as ^raddon, Bradsh&yv, Bradford. 
 Brod(Slav.), 'a ford.' 
 Brunn (Ger.), 'a spring;' as Salzbrunn, Pader- 
 
 born. 
 Bryn (W.), ' a hill-ridge ;' as Brown- Willy. 
 Burgh, Borough, Bury (Teut.),' a fortified place,' 
 
 ' a town ; ' as Edinburgh, Feterborough, Shrews- 
 bury, Hamburg, Cherbourfir, CarisbrooA:, Burgos. 
 [A.S. byrig, Ger. burg.] 
 
 Burn (N. Eng. and Scot.), 'a brook;' as Burn- 
 foot, Blackbwj'U, Tyburn, Eastbowrne. 
 
 By (Scand.), 'a dwelling," ' a town ;' as Derby, 
 Rugby, Whitby, Elbceuf. 
 
 Caer, Cader (W.), Caher (Ir.), 'fortified in- 
 closure ; ' as Coerleon, Caernarvon, Cardigan, 
 Carlisle, CacZer-Idris, Sanqtihar, Carlingford. 
 
 Cam (Celt.), 'crooked;' as Cam, Ca7/ibeck, 
 Ca??ibuskenneth, Moreca^nbe Bay, Cambrai. 
 
 Cam (Celt.), ' a heap of stones.' 
 
 Caster, Chester, Cester (— L. castra), ' a camp ; ' 
 as Doncaster, Chester, Yfinchester, Leicester, 
 
 Geann (Gael.), ' a head or promontory ; ' as Kin- 
 tyre, Kinghorn, iTenmare. 
 
 Cefn (Celt.), ' a ridge ; ' as Ce/ncoed, Chevin, 
 Keynton, Chevington, Cheviot, Cevennes. 
 
 Cheap and Chipping (A.S. ceap), 'price,' 'a 
 market ; ' as Chipping-Norton, Chepstoyr, 
 Cheapside, Copenhagen (Dan. Kjoben-havn, 
 ' merchants' haven '). 
 
 Civita (It.), Ciudad (Sp.), ' a city ; ' as Civita 
 Vecchia (' old city ') ; Ciudad Rodrigo ('city of 
 Roderick '). [Froni L. civitas.] 
 
 Clach, Cloch (Gael.), 'a stone;' as Clogher. 
 
 Clyd (Celt.), ' warm,' ) as Clyde, Cluden, Clwyd, 
 
 Cl3rth (Celt.), ' strong,' f Cloyd, &c. 
 
 Cnoc (Gael.), ' a knoll, hill ; ' as iiTnocfcmeledown. 
 
 Coed (Celt.), ' a wood ; ' Cotewold Hills, Chatmoss. 
 
 Coin (from L. colonia), ' a colony ; ' as Lincoln, 
 Colne, Cologne (Koln). 
 
 Combe (A.S.), Cwm or Cum (Celt.), 'a hollow 
 between hills ; ' as Wycombe, Compton, The 
 Coombs, Coma. 
 
 Craig, Carrick, Crag (Celt.), ' a rock ;' as Craigie, 
 Crathie, Carrick, Carrickfergus, Crick, Crick- 
 lade, Croagr/i-Patrick. 
 
 Dagh (Turk.), ' a mountain ; ' as Karadagh. 
 
 Dal (Scand.), Thai (Ger.), Dail and Dol (Celt.), 
 ' a dale,' ' a field ; ' as LiddesdaZe, Ryda^, 
 Kendal, Arundel, Rlieinthal ; (in Celtic names 
 prefixed) Dairy, DaZkeith, DoZgelly. 
 
 Dar (Ar.), ' a dwelling district ; ' as Darfur, 
 Diarbekr. 
 
 Den or Dean (Teut.), ' a deep wooded valley ; ' as 
 Tenterdeji, Southdean, Hazeldean, Denholm. 
 
 Don or Dan (derivation not ascertained), ' water ; ' 
 as the Don, Bandon, Dun, Tyne, Tone; so in 
 the Dniester. Dnieper, Tanais, Done tz, Dwinst. 
 
 Dorf. See Thorpe. 
 
 Dour (Celt.), 'water;' as the Dour, Adour, 
 Douro, Dore, Thur, Doro, Adder, Dej-went, 
 Darwin, Darent, Dart, Dorchester, Dordogne. 
 
 Drum and Drom (Celt.), ' a backbone,' ' a ridge ;' 
 as Dromore, Drnwimond, Aughrim, Leitrtm. 
 
 Du (Celt.), ' black ; ' as the Douglas ; the rivers 
 Didas, Doitlas, and prob. Dee; Dublin ('dark 
 pool '). 
 
 Dun (Gael.), Dinas, Din (Welsh), ' a hill fortress ;' 
 
764 
 
 as Dunnwre, Dwnblane, Diuikeld, Dit?n,barton, 
 
 Dumfries, Dunsta,h\e, Dumnow, I)own-Patrick, 
 
 Do>iegal, liondoii, \erdun, Leyden, Dbmnt. 
 Dysart (Celt.— L. desertum), 'a hermitage ;' as 
 
 Dysart, Dysertmore. 
 Ea, Ey (A.S. ig, Ice. ey, Norw. and Dan. 6), 'an 
 
 island ; ' as Swansea, Eton, Jersey, Rothesai/, 
 
 Staffa, Faroe. 
 Eccles, Egles (like Fr. eglise, through L., from 
 
 Gr. ekldesia), ' a church ; ' as Ecclesion, Eccle- 
 
 fechan, Ter regies. 
 Elf, Elv (Goth.), ' a river,' as Elbe. 
 Ermak (Turk.), ' a river ; ' as Kizil-ermak. 
 Esk (Gael, and Ir. easg [obs.] or uisge, W. wysg), 
 
 'water ;' as the Esk, Vsk, Esky, Ise, Easehvmi, 
 
 Ashhonrne, Iz, Zsis, Exe, Ux, Ouse, Wisk, Wis, 
 
 Ischia, Jsere, Aisne-, Anxonne, Oise. 
 Egki(Turk.), 'old.' 
 Fell (Scand. fjeld), ' a mountain ; ' as Carter/eZZ, 
 
 Goatfell, Sna/eZ, Fitful Head (corr. of Hvit- 
 
 Fell, ' white mountain '). 
 Fiord or Fjord (Scand.), 'a creek or firth;' as 
 
 Water/ord, h&xjirih, 'Lymfiord. 
 Fleet (Scand. fleot, E. flood), ' a small river ' or 
 
 ' channel ; ' as Twrfieet ; found in Normandy as 
 
 fl^ur, as Har/cwr (anciently 'R&rvojlete). 
 Folk (A.S. ), ' people ; ' as Norfolk (' north people '), 
 
 Suffolk (' south people '). 
 Ford (A.S.), 'a shallow passage over a river;' as 
 
 Chelmsford. See also Fiord. 
 Fors, Foss (Scand.), 'a waterfall ; ' as Wilber/orce. 
 Garth (Scand.), ' yard ; ' Gorod, Grod, Grade, 
 
 Griitz (Slav.), ' inclosure,' ' town ;' as Stuttgrar^, 
 
 'Novgorod (= Newton), Belgrade (= Whitton), 
 
 Koniggrrai^ (= Kingston). 
 Garw (Celt.), ' rough ; * hence Garonne, Garioch, 
 
 Farrow, Yair, possibly Garry. 
 Gate(Teut.), 'a passage' or ' road ; ' as Ganongate, 
 
 Harrowgate, Reigate ( =Ridgegate), C&ttegat. 
 Gebel, Jebel (Ar.), 'a mountain;' as Gibraltar, 
 
 JefteZ-Mukattam. 
 Glen (Gael.), Glyn (W.), 'a narrow valley;' as 
 • Glencoe, Glenga,rry, Glyne&th, Glamorgan. 
 Gorm (Gael.), ' blue ; ' as Cairngrorm, kingorn 
 
 ('blue point'), corrupted to Kinghorn. 
 Gorod, Grod (Slav.). See Garth. 
 G'went(Celt.), 'a plain ;' Latinised into venta, as 
 
 Venta Belgarum (now lFi?ichester), Caerwent. 
 Gwy. See Wy. 
 
 HAlen (Celt), 'salt;' as Hallein, Haling. 
 Hall (Teut.), ' a stone house ;' as Eccles/iaZZ, Wal- 
 
 sall ; (in Germany) a sai!<-work, as Halle. 
 Ham (A.S., Ger. heim), 'a home;' as Bucking- 
 
 ham, Hocli^eim. 
 Hay, Haigh (Teut.), 'a place surrounded by a 
 
 hedge ; ' as Roth well Haigh, the Hague. 
 Hissar (Turk.), 'a castle." 
 Hlthe (A.S.), 'haven;' as Hythe, Lambeth = 
 
 Loam-hithe (' the clayey haven '). 
 Ho (Chin.), 'river ;' as Fe'iho. 
 Hoang, Whang (Chin.), 'yellow;' as HoangYio, 
 
 Whang-'H.ai. 
 Holm (Scand., &c.), 'an island in a lake or 
 
 river;' 'a plain near a river;' as lAngholm, 
 
 Stockholm, Flatholm. 
 Holt (Teut,), 'a wood;' as Bagshot, AldersAo*, 
 
 Holstein. 
 Horn (Teut.), 'a peak;' as SchreckTiorw ('the 
 
 peak of terror '), Matter/ioru ('meadow-peak'). 
 Hurst (A.S. hyrst), 'a wood ; ' as Lyndhurst. 
 Ing (A.S.), a suffix denoting son, in pi. 'a family' 
 
 or 'tribe;' as Warrinr/ton ('the town of the 
 
 Warrings '), Hadding'ton. 
 Innis or Ennlg (Celt.), inch in Scotland, an island ; 
 
 as 7ftc7icolm (' the island of St Columba ') ; En- 
 
 wiskillen, Ennismove, in Ireland. 
 
 Inver (Gael.), 'the mouth of a river;' as Inver- 
 ness, Inveraray, Innerleithen. 
 
 Kalat (Ar.), 'a castle ; as CaZtagirone. 
 
 Kara (Turk.), 'black;' as Karakum ('black 
 sand '), ira7'a Hissar (' black castle '). 
 
 Kenn (Gael.), Kin (Ir.), 'a head;' as iCe^imore, 
 Cantire, Kinnaird, Kinross, ifinsale, Kent. 
 
 Kil (Celt.), L. cella, 'a cell,' 'a chapel,' or 
 ' church ; ' as ICiZconquhar in Fife, ' the chapel 
 at the head (cean) of the fresh-water lake 
 (iuchair) ; ' Icolmkill, ' the island (I) of Columba 
 of the church.' 
 
 Kin. See Ceann. 
 
 Kirk (North E. and Scand.), KIrche (Ger.), Kerk 
 (Dutch) ; as Selfcirfc, Zirfcwall, ifirfccudbright, 
 iCirc/iheim, Fiinf&ircAe?i, Nijfcerfc, Dnnkerque 
 (Dunfcirfc). 
 
 Kizil (Turk.), 'red.' 
 
 Knock. See Cnoc. 
 
 Koi (Turk.), ' a village.' 
 
 Lax (Scand. ; Ger. lacks), ' a salmon ; ' as Loch 
 Laxiord in Sutherland ; the Z,aa;ay in the Heb- 
 rides and in Man ; iyoccweir on the Shannon. 
 
 Leamhan (Ir. and Gael. ; pron. lavawn), ' the 
 elm-tree ; ' as in I^even, Lennox, Laune. 
 
 Ley(A.S. leah), 'a meadow;' Fladleigh, Waterloo. 
 
 Linn (Celt.), ' a waterfall ;' as Lynn Regis in Nor- 
 folk ; Boslin, ' the promontory (ross) at the fall.' 
 
 Lis (Celt.), 'an inclosure,' 'a fort,' 'a garden ;' as 
 Lismore (* the great inclosure ' or ' garden '). 
 
 Llan (W.), 'an inclosure,' 'a church;' as Llan- 
 daflf (' the church on the Taff'). 
 
 Llano (Span.), 'a plain.' 
 
 Loch, Lough (Gael.), 'a lake.' 
 
 Low and Law (A.S. Maw), 'a rising ground;' 
 as HounsZow, hudlow, and numerous laws in 
 Scotland. [Cog. Avith Goth, hlaiw, and allied 
 to L. clivus, a slope, and E. Lean, v.] 
 
 Magh (Celt.), 'a plain ;' as Armagh, Afaynooth. 
 
 Mark (Teut.), 'a boundary;' Denmarfc, JVfercia, 
 Ahircia. 
 
 Markt (Ger.), 'a market;' as Bibertmarfci. 
 
 Medina (Arab.), 'a city.' 
 
 Mere, Moor (A. S.), 'a lake' or 'marsh ;' as Mer- 
 sey, Blackmore. 
 
 Minster (A. S.), MUnster (Ger.), ' a monastic found- 
 ation ; ' as WestmiJisier, Neumilnster. 
 
 Mor(Celt.), 'great;' Benmore(' great mountain'). 
 
 Mor (Celt.), 'the sea;' as Moray, Armorica, 
 Morlaix, Gla?)iorgan, Aforbihan. 
 
 Mull (Gael), 'a headland ;' as Mull of Galloway. 
 
 Nagy (Hung.), 'great.' 
 
 Nant (Celt.), 'a brook or valley ; ' as Nantwich. 
 
 Negro (Span.), 'black.' 
 
 Ness or Naze (Scand.), ' a nose ' or ' promontory ; ' 
 as Caithjiess, Sheer?i,ess, Cape Grisriez ; the Naae, 
 
 Ochter. See Auchter. 
 
 Oe. See Ea. 
 
 Old, Eld, Alt (Teut.), 'old;' as Althorp, Elton, 
 Elttiam, ^Wbury, .4 bury. 
 
 Patam (Sans.), ' a city ; ' Seringapatam, Patna. 
 
 Peak, Pike (conn, with Gei'. spitz, Fr. pic and 
 puy), ' point ; ' as the Peak, the Pikes in Cumber- 
 land, /Spitebergen, Pic du Midi, Puy de Dome. 
 
 Peel (Celt.), 'a stronghold ;' as Peel in Man, and 
 numerous peeZs on the Border of Scotland. 
 
 Pen. See Ben. 
 
 Polls (Gr.), ' a city ;' as GrenoWe, Nablous, Naples, 
 SebastopoZ, Constantinople. 
 
 Pont (L.), 'a bridge ;' as Pon^efract, Negropon*. 
 
 Poor, Pore, Pur (Sans, pura), 'a town ;' as Nag- 
 pur, Cawnpore, Singapore. 
 
 Port (L. Portus), ' a harbour ; ' as Southport. 
 
 Ras (Ar.), 'a cape ;' as jRas-al-had. 
 
 Rath (Ir.), ' a round earthen fort ; ' as Rathmore. 
 
 Rhe, a root found in many languages, meaning 
 
765 
 
 'to flow;' as Rhine, Rhone, Rha, Reno, Rye, 
 Ray, Rhee, Wrey, Roe, Roe. 
 
 Ridge, in Scotland Rigg(A.S. hrycg, Ger. riicken), 
 ' a back ; ' as Reigate, Rugeley, Jjongridge. 
 
 Rin (Celt.), 'a point of land ;' Rhinns of Gallo- 
 way ; Fenrhyn in Wales, Ringsend near Dublin. 
 
 Ross (Celt.), 'a promontory;' Kinross, Mel- 
 rose, iJosneath ; in S. Ireland, a wood, as Ros- 
 common. 
 
 Salz (Ger.), ' salt.' 
 
 Scale (Scand.), ' a hut ' (Scot, shieling; Ice. skali) ; 
 PortinscaZe, and possibly Shields, GalasTiiete, 
 Selkirk, 
 
 Scar (Scand.), ' a cliff;' Scarborough, the Skerries. 
 
 Schloss (Ger.), ' a castle.' 
 
 Serai (Turk.), 'a palace.' 
 
 Set (A.S.), ' a seat,' ' a settlement ; ' Dorset, Somer- 
 set, Amblesuie, Serflitz. 
 
 Sex, 'Saxons;' as Essex ('Ea.st Saxons'), Sussex 
 (' South Saxons '). 
 
 Sierra (Sp.— L. serra), 'a saw;' or from Ar. 
 sehrah, ' an uncultivated tract.' 
 
 Slievh (Ir. ; allied to L. clivus, a slope), ' a moun- 
 tain ; ' as Slievh Beg. 
 
 Soutli is found in Suffolk, Sussex, SouthamT^iton, 
 SutherlsLud, Sutton, Sudbury, Sifdley. 
 
 Stadt. See Stead. 
 
 Stan (Pers.), ' a land ;' Hinduston, Afghanistan. 
 
 Staple (A. S.), 'a store;' Dunstable, Barnstaple. 
 
 Stead (A.S.), Stadt (Ger.), Sted (Dan.), ' a town ; ' 
 as Hampsteaci, Neustadt, Nysted. 
 
 Ster (Scand. stadhr), ' a place ; ' as Ulste?'. 
 
 Stoc, Stow (A.S.), ' a stockaded place ;' as Bristow 
 or Bristol, Elstoio, Tavistocfc, Stocfcholm, 
 
 Stone (Ger. stein), 'a stone,' 'a rock;' as Stan- 
 ton, Staines, Eddystone, Stennis, Franken- 
 stein. 
 
 Stow. See Stoc. 
 
 Strath (Gael.), 'a broad valley ;* as Strat^more. 
 
 Street (L. stratum), ' a Roman road ; ' Stratford, 
 Stratton, Sfreatham. 
 
 Su (Turk.), ' water ;' as Karasw. 
 
 Tain (Gael.), 'a river ; ' as the Tyne, prob. a form 
 
 of Don. 
 Tarn (Celt.), 'still,' 'smooth;' as the Ttamesis 
 
 (' smooth Isis '), the Tema, Tame, Tamar, Tay. 
 Thorpe (Norse), Dorf (Ger.), Dorp (Dut.) 'a vil- 
 lage;' as Burnhara-!Z'/iorpe, Keythorpe, Diissel- 
 
 dorf, Middeldorp. 
 Thwaite (Scand.), ' a clearing ;' as Crosst?iwaite. 
 Tobar (Gael.), 'a fountain ;' as 2'o6ermory. 
 Toft (Dan.), 'an inclosure;' as Lowesto/t, Ivetot. 
 Tom (Celt.), 'a knoll ;' as ro??iintonl. 
 Ton, Town, Tun (A.S.), 'inclosure,' 'town;' the 
 
 most common of English local suffixes. 
 Tor (Celt. ; found in L. turris), ' a tower-like 
 
 rock ;' as the Tors in England ; Mount Tawrus. 
 Tre (W.), 'a dwelling;' as Tretown, Coventry/ 
 
 ('convent-dwelling'), Oswestry, Uchiltre. 
 Uchel(W.), 'high;' Uachter (Gael.), 'a height;' 
 
 as the OcTiit Hills, OcAittree, ^wcTiterarder. 
 Var, Varad(Hung.), 'a fortress;' as Nagy -varad. 
 Varos (Hung.), 'a town ;' as Ujwtros. 
 Ville(Fr.— L. villa). Villa (It., Span., Port.), Well 
 
 (Eng.), 'an abode;' as TankermiZe, Yeovil, 
 
 PottsviZZe, KetWewzU, Bradwett, MaxweWton. 
 Wady (Ar.), 'a river-course or ravine;' as 
 
 Gnadalquivir. 
 Wall, found in many names of places on the 
 
 Roman wall from Newcastle to Carlisle ; as 
 
 Wallsend, IFaZHiead. 
 Weald, Wold (Ger, wald), 'a wood;' Walt\\am, 
 
 Walden, the Cots-woWs; SchwarzwaW (' Black 
 
 Forest '). 
 Whang. See Hoang. 
 Wick, Wich (A.S. wie, 'a village;' Scand. vig, 
 
 'a bay' or 'creek;' Dutch, wijk); as Alnwicfc, 
 
 SandwicTi, Noordwijfc. 
 Worth (A.S. weorthig), 'a fann' or 'estate;' as 
 
 Tam wort?i, KenilwortA, Bos wortft, Worthing. 
 Wy or Gwy (W.), ' water ;' as the Wye; used as 
 
 affix to many streams, as Conway/, Medway, 
 
 Sdlway. 
 Yeni(Turk.), 'new.' 
 
 CONVERSION OF KILOMETRES AND MILES. 
 
 KILOMETRES INTO MILES. 
 
 Kilom. 
 
 Miles. Yds. 
 
 i 273 
 
 i 547 
 
 i 830 
 
 1 1094 
 
 2 1 427 
 
 8 1 1521 
 
 4 2 855 
 
 5 3 188 
 
 6 3 1282 
 
 7 4 615 
 
 8 4 1709 
 
 9 5 1043 
 
 10 6 376 
 
 20 12 753 
 
 30 18 1129 
 
 40 24 1505 
 
 50 31 122 
 
 60 37 498 
 
 70 43 874 
 
 80 49 1251 
 
 90 55 1627 
 
 100 62 243 
 
 200 124 487 
 
 800 186 730 
 
 400 248 973 
 
 500 310 1217 
 
 MILES INTO KILOMETRES. 
 
 Miles. Kiloin. Metres. 
 
 i 402 
 
 i^ 805 
 
 f 1 207 
 
 1 1 609 
 
 2 3 219 
 
 3 4 828 
 
 4 6 437 
 
 5 8 47 
 
 6 9 656 
 
 7 11 265 
 
 8 12 875 
 
 9 14 484 
 
 10 16 93 
 
 20 32 186 
 
 30 48 279 
 
 40 64 373 
 
 50 80 466 
 
 60 96 559 
 
 70 112 652 
 
 80 128 745 
 
 90 144 838 
 
 100 160 931 
 
 200 321 863 
 
 300 482 794 
 
 400 643 726 
 
 500 804 657 
 
766 
 
 DIFFERENCES OF TIME 
 
 BETWEEN LONDON (GREENWICH) AND VARIOUS 
 IMPORTANT PLACES ON THE GLOBE. 
 
 When it is twelve o'clock noon, in Greenwich 
 mean time, the hour (local time) is as follows at : 
 
 Amsterdam 12 
 
 Auckland, New Zealand 11 
 
 Berlin 1 
 
 Bombay 4 
 
 Calcutta 5 
 
 Capetown 1 
 
 Constantinople 1 
 
 Dublin 11 
 
 Edinburgh 11 
 
 Lisbon 11 
 
 Madrid 11 
 
 Melbourne 9 
 
 Naples 12 
 
 New York 7 
 
 Paris 12 
 
 Peking 7 
 
 Quebec 7 
 
 Rome 12 
 
 St Petersburg 2 
 
 San Francisco 4 
 
 Sydney 10 
 
 Trieste 12 
 
 Venice 12 
 
 Vienna 1 
 
 Hours. Min. 
 20 
 39 
 53 
 51 
 53 
 14 
 56 
 35 
 47 
 24 
 45 
 40 
 57 
 
 P.M. 
 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 A.M. 
 A.M. 
 A.M. 
 A.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 A.M. 
 P.M. 
 P.M. 
 A.M. 
 PM. 
 P.M. 
 A.M. 
 P.M. 
 PM. 
 PJH. 
 P.M. 
 
 The difference is at the rate of 4 minutes for one 
 degree of longitude, or one hour for 15°. Time is 
 earlier or later than Greenwich according as the 
 locality is east or west of Greenwich. Places 
 lying close together, but on different sides of the 
 longitude line of 180°, differ nominally by a whole 
 day in time. 
 
 Following the example of the United States, 
 all countries are gradually adopting Standard 
 Time. By this is meant time which differs from 
 Greenwich mean time by whole hours. The 
 globe is divided into zones of 15° or one hour 
 breadth, the Greenwich meridian being in the 
 centre of the zero zone. Thus Belgium and 
 Holland keep Greenwich time ; Denmark, Sweden, 
 Switzerland, Austria, and Germany (Prussia 
 temporarily excepted) keep the time of Mid- 
 Europe, or of longitude 15° E.— i.e. one hour 
 earlier than Greenwich. In North America again 
 five zones are distinguished. Halifax falls within 
 the time zone of 60° W. long, or four hours later 
 than Greenwich ; Montreal and New York fall 
 within the zone of 75° or five hours west of 
 
 Greenwich ; and so on across the entire con- 
 tinent. New York, Chicago, Denver, and San 
 Francisco may be mentioned as places whose 
 times change by one hour as we pass from one to 
 the next succeeding. The corresponding times 
 are distinguished as Eastern (67^ — 82^°), Central 
 (82|— 97F), Mountain (97.^—112^, and Pacific 
 (112^ — 127^°) times. Standard time in Japan is 
 nine hours earlier than Greenwich time. 
 
 THE EARTH, 
 
 ITS DIMENSIONS, MASS, DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE 
 DISTANCE FROM THE SUN, &C. 
 
 Meridional circumference 24,856 miles. 
 
 Equatorial circumference 24,899 h 
 
 Equatorial mean diameter 7926*6 n 
 
 Polar (or shortest) diameter 7899*6 ir 
 
 Area of the earth 197,000,000 sq. miles. 
 
 Water surface of earth 141,000,000 u 
 
 Land surface of earth 56,000,000 n 
 
 Volume of earth 260,000,000,000 cubic miles. 
 
 Mass of earth. .6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. 
 Mean distance from the sun 92,800,000 miles. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE EARTH 
 
 ACCORDING TO WaGNER AND SUPAN : 
 
 Europe (without Iceland, Atlantic 
 islands, &c.) 357,379,000 
 
 Asia (without the Polar Islands). . 
 Africa (without Madagascar, &c.). 
 America (without Polar regions) . . 
 
 Australia and Tasmania 
 
 Oceanic Islands 
 
 Polar Regions 
 
 825,954,000 
 163,953,000 
 121,713,000 
 3,230,000 
 7,420,000 
 80,000 
 Total 1,479,729,000 
 
 NUMBERS PROFESSING THE CHIEF 
 FAITHS OF THE WORLD: 
 
 Buddhists 500,000,000 
 
 Hindus 160,000,000 
 
 Mohammedans 155,000,000 
 
 Confucians 80,000,000 
 
 Adherents of Shintoism (in Japan). . 14,000,000 
 
 Jews 7,000,000 
 
 Christians- 
 Roman Catholics 152,000,000 
 
 Greek Catholics 75,000,000 
 
 Other Christians 100,000,000 
 
 Various Heathens 237,000,000 
 
 Total. 1,480,000,000 
 
767 
 
 DISTANCES FROM LONDON BY RAIL, 
 
 WITH THE APPROXIMATE 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 339 
 
 Basel 610J 
 
 Belgrade 1382 
 
 Berlin 744| 
 
 Birmingham 112J 
 
 Brindisi 1460 
 
 Bristol 118 
 
 Brussels 242 
 
 Budapest 1165 
 
 Cologne 382i 
 
 Constantinople 2032 
 
 Copenhagen 879^ 
 
 Dover 77^ 
 
 Dresden 822^ 
 
 Dublin 328 
 
 Edinburgh 393 
 
 Florence 1083| 
 
 Frankfort 519i 
 
 Glasgow 405 j 
 
 Hanover 585^ 
 
 Harwich 71 
 
 Hull 173 
 
 Leipzig 751 
 
 Liverpool 201 
 
 DURATION OF THE JOURNEY BY EXPRESS. 
 
 Days. Hrs. 
 
 . m 
 
 2 2J 
 
 . 221 
 
 . n 
 
 2 11 
 
 . n 
 
 . 8 
 
 1 17i 
 
 . 13 
 
 3 4 
 1 lOf 
 • If 
 1 If 
 . 10^ 
 . 8^ 
 1 19i 
 
 . m 
 
 . 8| 
 
 . ISi 
 
 • ^ 
 
 . 23i 
 
 . 4i 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Lyons 608| 
 
 Madrid 1168 
 
 Manchester 187 
 
 Marseilles 826i 
 
 Milan 846^ 
 
 Moscow 2131 
 
 Munich 771 
 
 Naples. 1353J 
 
 Newcastle 275 
 
 Paris 288 
 
 Penzance 328 
 
 Pesth 1165 
 
 Plymouth 246 
 
 Portsmouth 74 
 
 Rome 1192i 
 
 St Petersburg 1728 
 
 Stockholm 1283| 
 
 Strasburg 523 
 
 Thurso 737 
 
 Venice 1036^ 
 
 Vienna 99l| 
 
 "Warsaw 1142^ 
 
 Yarmouth 122 
 
 York 188 
 
 Days. Hrs. 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 
 4i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6i 
 
 3 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 If 
 
 
 5i 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 .. 
 
 6 
 
 ,. 
 
 2? 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 19f 
 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 .. 
 
 m 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 171 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 m 
 
 .. 
 
 3A 
 
 
 H 
 
 DISTANCES BY SEA IN NAUTICAL MILES. 
 
 (1 nautical mile = 1*151 statute mile.) 
 
 Brindisi to Alexandria 836 
 
 II II Athens 482 
 
 II II Constantinople 845 
 
 II I, Malta 360 
 
 II II Smyrna 692 
 
 Dover to Calais 23 
 
 II II Ostend 60 
 
 Gibraltar to Malta 981 
 
 II It Marseilles 694 
 
 II II Port Said 2,271 
 
 Harwich to Antwerp 122 
 
 II II Hamburg 300 
 
 II II Rotterdam 104 
 
 to Antwerp 240 
 
 II Christiania 582 
 
 II Hamburg 380 
 
 II Rotterdam 217 
 
 to Antwerp 440 
 
 II II Hamburg 480 
 
 II I, Rotterdam 393 
 
 Liverpool to Dublin 120 
 
 I, New York 2,980 
 
 II II Quebec 2,708 
 
 London to Adelaide 11,455 
 
 II 11 Aden 4,965 
 
 II 11 Alexandria 3,465 
 
 II II Antwerp 184 
 
 II n Bombay 6,629 
 
 II II Calcutta 8,438 
 
 II II Capetown 6,291 
 
 II II Gibraltar 1,299 
 
 II II Hamburg 433 
 
 HuU 
 
 Leith 
 
 London to Hong-kong 10,154 
 
 II II Madras 7,668 
 
 II II Melbourne (via Brindisi 
 
 and Suez Canal) 11,940 
 
 II II Port Said 3,570 
 
 II II Rotterdam 192 
 
 II II Shanghai 11,024 
 
 11 II Singapore 8,717 
 
 II II Sydney 12,500 
 
 II II Wellington 13,345 
 
 II II Yokohama 11,956 
 
 Marseilles to Algiers 417 
 
 II II Naples 468 
 
 II I. Port Said 1,508 
 
 Newcastle to Antwerp 343 
 
 II II Hamburg 415 
 
 II II Rotterdam 303 
 
 Newhaven to Dieppe 65 
 
 New York to Liverpool 2,980 
 
 II II Queenstown 2,744 
 
 II II Southampton 3,100 
 
 San Francisco to Auckland 5,900 
 
 II II Honolulu 2,100 
 
 II II Sydney 7,191 
 
 II II Yokohama 4,750 
 
 Southampton to Capetown 5,979 
 
 II II Gibraltar 1,008 
 
 II II Havre 106 
 
 II II Lisbon 862 
 
 II II Madeira 1,212 
 
 II II Natal 6,789 
 
 II II New York 3,100 
 
 II II Teneriffe 1,517 
 
 It II Hobart (vid Cape) 11,951 
 
 Jn 1895-1906 the passage from Sandy Hook to Queenstown and to Plymouth was repeatedly made in from 
 40 miwut^s Qver 5 days 7 hours, an average speed of over 2350 knots. 
 
768 
 
 DATES OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENTERPRISE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 Hanno the Carthaginian off Sierra Leone 
 
 Alexander the Great in the Punjab 
 
 Nearchus in the Indian Ocean 
 
 Pytheas of Marseilles in British Seas 
 
 Megasthenes at Patna on the Ganges 
 
 Julius Caesar in Britain 
 
 Agricola in Britain 
 
 Cosmas Indicopleustes in India 
 
 Sulaiman (Arab) in India and China 
 
 Sindbad the Sailor on Indian Coast 
 
 Iceland colonised from Norway 
 
 Norsemen in Vinland (America) 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela in India, &c 
 
 John of Carpini at Karakorum 
 
 Marco Polo at the Court of Kubla Khan 
 
 Ibn Batuta in Bokhara, India, China 
 
 II II in Timbuctoo 
 
 Madeira Islands discovered 
 
 Cape Bojador doubled by Gil Eannes 
 
 Diaz discovers Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Columbus discovers Watling's Island 
 
 II II Cuba and Hayti .... 
 
 ir II Jamaica and Wind- 
 ward Islands 
 
 Cabot discovers N. American Coast 
 
 Da Gama discovers Cape Passage 
 
 Columbus discovers S. American Coast... 
 
 Pinzon at the Amazon 
 
 Cortez in Mexico 
 
 Magellan in the Pacific 
 
 His lieutenant circumnavigates world. . . 
 
 The Portuguese in Abyssinia 
 
 Western Australia sighted by Portuguese 
 
 Pizarro in Peru 
 
 Cartier at Montreal 
 
 Portuguese trade with Japan 
 
 Chancellor in the White Sea 
 
 Frobisher in Frobisher Bay 
 
 Drake circumnavigates the world 
 
 Davis in Davis Strait 
 
 Hawkins in the Pacific 
 
 Barentz at Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen 
 Benedict Goes in India and Central Asia. 
 
 Champlaln at Quebec 
 
 Hudson in Hudson Bay 
 
 B.C. 470 
 
 327 
 
 325 
 
 320 
 
 300 
 
 55 
 
 A.D. 84 
 
 550 
 
 9tbc. 
 
 9th c. 
 
 9th c. 
 
 10th c. 
 
 1160-73 
 
 1254 
 
 1270 
 
 1325-49 
 
 1353 
 
 1418 
 
 1433 
 
 1486 
 
 1492 
 
 1492 
 
 1494 
 1497 
 1497 
 1498 
 1499 
 1519 
 1520 
 
 1519-22 
 1520 
 1522 
 1532 
 1535 
 1542 
 1552 
 1576 
 
 1577-80 
 1587 
 1593 
 1594 
 1603 
 1608 
 1610 
 
 Baffin in Baffin Bay 1616 
 
 Dirk Hartog on the Australian Coast — 1616 
 
 Russians in Siberia 1698 
 
 Dampier on New Guinea Coast 1700 
 
 Behring in Behring Strait 1728 
 
 Bruce explores Nile and Abyssinia 1768-73 
 
 Cook on the East Coast of Australia 1770 
 
 Kerguelen at Kerguelen Land. . . , 1771 
 
 La Perouse in Polynesia 1787 
 
 Mungo Park on the Gambia 1795 
 
 Humboldt in South America 1799 
 
 Mungo Park on the Niger 1805 
 
 Steamship first crosses the Atlantic 1819 
 
 Parry at Melville Island 1820 
 
 Bellinghausen in the Antarctic 1821 
 
 Ross in Boothia Felix 1831 
 
 Biscoe in the Antarctic 1831 
 
 Darwin on Beagle Expedition 1831-36 
 
 Ross in the Antarctic 1841 
 
 Franklin in Franklin Strait 1846 
 
 Livingstone at Lake Ngami 1849 
 
 M'Clure in Prince of Wales Strait 1850 
 
 Barth on the Benue , 1851 
 
 Kane at Grinnell Land 1853 
 
 Burton and Speke on Lake Tanganyika. . 1856 
 
 Livingstone on the Zambesi 1858 
 
 Livingstone at Lake Nyassa 1859 
 
 Burke and Wills traverse Australia 1860 
 
 Speke on the Victoria Nyanza 1862 
 
 Baker on the Albert Nyanza 1864 
 
 De Long at Wrangel Land 1867 
 
 Schweinfurth on the Welle 1870 
 
 Challenger Expedition 1872-76 
 
 Payer & Weyprecht in Franz- Josef Land 1874 
 
 Stanley on the Upper Congo 1876 
 
 Nordenskiold in the North-east Passage.. 1878 
 
 Emin Pasha in Equatoria 1878-89 
 
 Greely in Smith Sound 1882-83 
 
 Lock wood reaches 83° 23' N 1882 
 
 Prejevalski in Gobi Desert 1883-84 
 
 Junker in Central Africa 1885-86 
 
 Stanley at Albert-Edward Nyanza 1889 
 
 Peary in North Greenland 1892-1906 
 
 Nansen in the Polar Ice 1893-96 
 
 Scott in Antarctic 1902-4 
 
 THE END. 
 
 Edinburgh : 
 Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited. 
 
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