GIFT OF Dean Frank H. Probert Mining Dept THE FAMOUS LAKEVIEW GUSHER, KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA OIL PRODUCTION METHODS BY PAUL M. PAINE Assistant Superintendent Honolulu Cons. Oil Co. AND B. K. STROUD Petroleum Engineer, formerly Supt. Monte Cristo Oil & Dev. Co. Field Supt. Universal Oil Co. With a Chapter on ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS BY W. F. and W. B. SAMPSON Expert Accountants with Klink, Bean & Co. PUBLISHED BY THE WESTERN ENGINEERING PUBLISHING CO. SAN FRANCISCO 1913 TN$7o DPT. 3IFT OF FRANK MIMING DEPT. COPYRIGHT BY WESTERN ENGINEERING PUBLISHING Co. 1913 PREFACE The 'problems associated with the production of petroleum lie in that middle ground where the geologist, engineer and driller meet. It is anticipated that the latter class, the men who have come up 'from the derrick floor/ will find little that is new in this book. It has been prepared in response to the demand for a work describing, in a man- ner that may be understood by the layman, how wells are drilled and oil produced. The subject is too exhaustive to be covered fully in a single volume of this size, and if the authors have described more particularly the methods of the Pacific Coast fields they feel warranted in so doing from the statements of travelers that California practice embodies the most advanced methods in the industry. The authors are indebted to various associates for prompt responses to demands for assistance and wish to express their thanks to all of these, especially to Mr. H. H. Hillman, of the California National Supply Company, Mr. W. O. Todd and Mr. T. S. Kingston, to whom is due much of whatever value this book may have. M127125 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE THE DISTRIBUTION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF PETROLEUM 15 CHAPTER II. GEOLOGY 28 Classes of Sedimentary Rocks 29 Origin of Oil 33 Relation of Rock Structure to the Occurrence of Petroleum 34 Surface Indications of Oil 46 Location and Spacing of Wells 49 Logs 50 CHAPTER III. RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 55 Standard Drilling Rig 56 Lumber Lists for Derricks 59 Rig Iron Lists 67 Engines and Boilers 67 Cordage 74 Wire Rope 75 Casing 78 CHAPTER IV. DRILLING METHODS 87 Standard Method 87 Rotary Method 113 Circulating System 127 Combined Rotary and Standard Drilling 128 CHAPTER V. THE EXCLUSION OF WATER FROM OIL-SANDS 130 Importance of Exclusion of Water 130 Exclusion of Water by Landing String of Casing 132 Cementing Water off by Bailer Methods 133 Cementing Water off by Pumping Methods 135 Exclusion of Water Below the Oil-sand 141 CHAPTER VI. PRODUCTION 143 Flowing Wells 143 Intermittent Flowing Wells 146 PAGE Artificial Flowing of Oil Wells 146 Pumping 148 Multiple Pumping 158 Compressed-Air Pumping 158 Perforations 160 Shooting Wells 163 Dehydrating Oil 163 Handling Oil 169 Gas Traps 171 CHAPTER VII. FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 175 Fishing for Lost Tools 175 Fishing for Casing 189 Accidents to Producing Wells 199 Rotary Fishing Tools 203 CHAPTER VIII. ACCOUNTING SYSTEM s 209 Development (Drilling) 209 Production ( Pumping) 210 Pay-Roil System 211 Purchasing and Stores System 219 Machine Shop 223 Reports 225 Financial Statements . 234 CHAPTER I. THE DISTRIBUTION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF PETROLEUM. MONG the first historic records of petroleum is that of its use on the walls of Babylon and Ninevah about 2000 B. C. Pliny describes the burning of oil in lamps in the time of Nero, and for ages the seepages of crude oil have been drawn on and used by the people of Persia, Arabia, China and India. """"n 1 * In the United States, crude oil was first secured early in the Nineteenth Century as a by-product in connection with brine wells, but it was not until 1859 that Colonel Drake drilled the first well put down expressly for oil, near Titusville, Pennsylvania. This led to the develop- ment of the Appalachian field and since then the search for petroleum and the development of new fields has spread over the continent, under the stimulus of the growth in variety and extent of internal combustion engines, until now the oil and gas production of the United States is greater than that of any other country, and has become one of its most valuable mineral re- sources. The more important fields are those of the Appalachian district; western Ohio, Indiana and Illinois; southern Kansas and Oklahoma; the Gulf fields of Texas; and the California fields along the coast range. Alaska, Colorado, Michigan, Utah and Wyo- ming produce small quantities ; and Utah and Wyoming especially give promise of a large prospective production. In the United States the customary unit of volume for measuring petroleum is the barrel of 42 gallons, each gallon containing 231 cubic inches. Other countries measure it more commonly by weight, the English expressing it in tons and the Russians in poods, of approxi- mately 36 pounds. The following conversion table gives the approxi- mate relative values : e -J ^ OIL PRODUCTION METHODS ^ 61,0$ i>oods == I metric ton crude = 7.1905 barrels '*8*33^ " crude = 1 U. S. barrel of 42 gallons 8 " illuminating oil = 1 U. S. 8.18 " lubricating oil = 1 U. S. " " " " 9 " residuum = 1 U. S. " " " 1 pood = 36.112 pounds The simplest method of boring a well has been that of turning an auger into the ground and this has, no doubt, been extensively used Production of Petroleum in the United States from Year. Pennsyl- vania and New York. Ohio. West Virginia. California. Kentucky and Tennessee. Colorado. Indiana. Illinois. 1859 2 000 1860 500 000 1861 2 113 609 1802 3 056 62/ / 7. 878 7825- 7773 7.722 333. / 330. 8T 32LS.67 279.83 278. 26 27^.68 275- I / 273.5-7 272 o-T- 2 "7O - v?6 26906 -4A2QO -1-8.726 5*3 6-37/ 6.337 64. 322. 10 320.06 ^7385 5*7 TST/ 75*27 74- 87 74-47 74-0 T 6. 6 202 6 25-5.0 4-7.-405- 4-7 149 4-6. Q9^ 4-6.644 -*6. /4-G .9032 897^ 89/7 5-6.270 3 /. 29 30 31 32 33 34/ 35" 36 37 38 3S> 88oS 87<5-o 8642 85^89 8537 84-85- 8*34 83836 8333 7 73B3 Z287 7-24-2 7/97 7 /IO 5-^:205 7330 72^2 725*4^ 6.073 6 .00^ 3o. ulS 293.23 2S/-4-S 5*2. 5*4 S 5T2. 22,7 8234 6, l. I 4/3 8235 8/87 S/4^0 8o92 8 046 6-.S t 58 6.8 t8 6.779 a 88 05^ 28^.38 284.73 / 2,7" 70 71 72 73 7S 77 78 72> TIT 9 7/4-3 T/07 TOT I TOSS 7OOO 5" 949 2 4-9 256.4-0 255". 25374 12 8(5 24734 246-oS 4-5". I 9 3 -4-4.726 -44.502 44.277 4-4.053 43.829 5^829 6343 ST7/G 5T687 242.4^ 241. 2S 24o.o or 7 ft. grooved wood tug-pulley circles, on which run the bull-ropes that drive the bull-wheels. The sand-reel is a drum on which is wound the sand-line that carries the sand-pump, or bailer, in and out of the hole. It is 64 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS turned by means of a friction pulley (44) pressed against the band-wheel by pulling the reach-rod (32) and the swing-lever (33) ; its speed is retarded by swinging the friction-pulley back and forcing it to bear against the back-brake (35). The reels are made with either single or double drums. For deep-hole work the latter are now almost universally used, one drum serving to hold that portion of the line not being used. It passes from the sand- Fig. 39. RELATIVE POSITION OF CALF-WHEEL, BAND-WHEEL AND SAND-REEL reel up on the outside of the derrick, over the sand-line sheave (1) and down inside the derrick. The bull-wheels (Fig. 40) are built on a 16-in. bull-wheel shaft (48) supported at each end by the bull-wheel posts (23). The line car- rying the tools used for drilling is wound on this shaft and passes up inside the derrick and over the crown-pulley (3). The wheels are of wood, 8 ft. diameter, and the one in line with the grooved circle on the band-wheel (Fig. 36) is similarly grooved in order to carry the bull-rope for power transmission. This wheel is known as the bull-wheel tug-pulley and has two such circles when two bull-ropes are used. The rim of the wheel at the other end of the shaft is surrounded with an iron brake-band, to retard the speed of the tools when being lowered into the hole and at other times to prevent the wheels from moving. RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 65 Fig. 40. BULL WHEELS The calf-wheel (Fig. 41) is a comparatively recent innovation for handling casing without having to disengage the drilling-line from the tools for that purpose. It has a single wheel, placed at one end of a shaft that is supported by two posts (29), and, like the Fig. 41. CALF WHEEL bull-wheel, is controlled by a brake-band. When first used it was driven from the band-wheel by ropes, as is still done with the bull- wheels, but this has now been almost entirely discarded in favor of the more positive chain drive, the chain running from the clutch 66 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS sprocket on the band^wheel shaft to an iron sprocket rim attached to the calf-wheel (Fig. 42). The calf-line passes from the calf- wheel shaft over one of the casing-pulleys (2), and thence back and forth between these and a snatch-block. Ordinarily there are seven lines between the latter and the casing-pulleys, but when the weight to be sustained in taking heavy pulls on casing demands nine lines instead of seven, a fifth casing-pulley is inserted between Fig. 42. ELEVATION AND PLAN OF IDEAL RIG IRONS WITH CLUTCH \ SPROCKET ATTACHMENT the usual crown-block 'and an additional parallel piece of timber placed on the bumpers. The crank shown at the left end of the main shaft in Fig. 37 turns with the band-wheel and by its off-set imparts the up-and- down motion to the walking-beam by means of a wrist-pin passed through one of the holes and the opening in the pitman (26). The length of the movement or sweep of the beam depends upon which of these holes is used, within limits of about 2 to 5 feet. The one RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 67 nearest the shaft is known as the first hole, the next succeeding as the second hole, and so on. The first hole is rarely used in drilling but is the principal one employed in pumping. All the metal parts used in the construction 6,f a derrick with the exception of the nails, bolts, sand-reel, and* guy wire, are known collectively as the 'rig irons,' and designate^ by the size of the crank-shaft that carries the band-wheel: Rig irons of the 4-in. and 5-in. sizes are used only for ; fairly light work and the 6-in. commonly employed for heavier duty. Recently 7^-in. irons have been tried with marked success where the conditions are such as to require unusually heavy tools and equipment. Rig .Iron List. 1, 7 l / 2 -h. Shaft with crank, wrist pin, set of 36-in. band wheel flanges and bolts, collars and keys, and clutch sprocket. 1, Sprocket tug-rim for calf-wheel. 1, Jack-post box and cap. 1, Calf-wheel box and cap. 4, Turnbuckle rods. 2, Jack-post rods. 1, Jack-post plate. 4, Eye-bolts. 4, Double-end bolts. 1, Set center irons and bolts, for walking-beam. 1, Set bull-wheel-gudgeon, and brake-band. 1, Set calf-wheel gudgeons. 1, Brake-band for calf-wheel. 1, Walking-beam stirrup. 1, Crown pulley. 1, Sand-line sheave. 4, Casing-line pulleys. 55, feet of sprocket chain, for calf-wheel drive. With the increase in the size and weight of equipment has come the introduction of iron and steel for many parts formerly made exclusively of wood. The wood pitman, bu : U^wheel shaft, calf-wheel, and crown-block may all be replaced with metal forms of greater strength and durability. Usually when the severe duty of drilling a well is over, and it has been 'put to pumping, the metal parts are replaced with the cheaper wood construction and moved to a new drilling-well. Engines and Boilers. The well-drilling engine is a remarkably efficient piece of machinery when its low cost, the service required of it and the treatment it receives are taken into account. The 68 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 43. IRON CROWN BLOCK Fig. 44. R. & S. CALF-WHEEL SHAFT Fig. 45. METAL BOX FOR SUPPORTED ENDS OF IRON BULL-WHEEL SHAFT Fig. 46. BULL WHEELS BUILT ON R. & S. IRON SHAFT RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 69 construction is simple. It has a single cylinder, a simple slide valve, and link reversing gear of the locomotive type. The length of stroke is almost invariably 12 in., the cylinder diameters ranging from 8 to 12 inches. In the eastern United States 9 by 12 and in the west 10^/2 by 12 where the duty is heavier, are the sizes most commonly used for cable-tool work. The 12 by 12 size is frequently required Fig. 47. IDEAL DRILLING ENGINE WITH OUTBOARD BEARING for rotary equipments. The engine is installed so that the pulley- wheel lines with the band-wheel, and while the crank-shaft carries a fly-wheel at the other end, yet the constant pull on the belt pulley tending to work the shaft out of alignment has led to the introduction of an outboard-bearing (Fig. 47) that provides an outside supporting- box for the shaft. The weight of the flywheel may be varied by the use of removable rings or balances fastened to it with bolts to suit 70 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the duty on the engine. Balances are usually added to steady the motion as the depth of a drilling-well increases. Pumping wells run at a low speed and the balances tend to maintain it at a uniform rate and prevent the engine from stalling on centre. Fig. 48. IDEAL DRILLING ENGINE WITH OUTBOARD BEARING The engine is operated from the derrick by pulling back and forth the 'telegraph cord' (42, Fig. 34), which runs from a wheel attached to the headache-post to the throttle-wheel (40). The reverse-lever is handled in a like manner by moving a % or ^2-in. pipe (34) connecting it with a handle at the derrick. Usually a RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 71 simple heater is attached to the pulley side of the engine for utilizing the exhaust steam to raise the temperature of the boiler feed water. A barrel-pump, directly connected to the engine crosshead, pumps the water into the boiler. Engines are bought either stripped or complete, the former being without crosshead-pump, heater or extra flywheel balances. As might be expected where fuel is cheap, little attention is given in the oil fields to steam economy or highly efficient boiler installations, except at the pipe-line pump-stations and the larger central station plants. These frequently have large water-tube boilers, feed water heaters, superheaters, etc., but the boilers scattered about at drilling and pumping wells are more often of simple design and installation. Fig. 49. BOILER MOUNTED BY HANGING FROM PIPE AND ENCASING IN OIL-SAND For shallow drilling in some fields, light portable boilers on wheels are used. With deeper work the common horizontal fire-tube boilers of rated capacities from 30 to 45 horsepower are employed in the West for standard-tool drilling. Wells using the rotary system require larger boilers, of 70 or 80 horsepower. A simple and efficient method for setting up such a boiler is that shown in Fig. 49. This is rated at 40 horsepower, has 42 3-in. by 12-ft. tubes and is hung from two overhead stands of old 6-in. pipe and enclosed with 3000 common red brick. Corrugated iron sheets are then placed so that a space of 18 in. is left between these and the brick work. This space is filled and the top covered with heavy oil-sand that soon cakes when the boiler has been heated and assists materially in reducing the loss by radiation. 72 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS The locomotive type of firebox boilers is used extensively in the eastern part of the United States, where good boiler-water may usually be obtained. They possess the advantage that they may be quickly installed and fired, and, for this reason, find occasional use in the West, when gushers or breakdowns of regular plants bring about an urgent need for quick service; but aside from such conditions their cost and the difficulty encountered in cleaning them have pre- vented a more extensive use in the West, where alkaline waters cause scaling and render it necessary that boilers be frequently cleaned. Of course the fuels used are nearly always either oil or gas, except with wildcat wells remote from a field. In burning oil, efficiency is largely a matter of proper atomization, accomplished by the use of live steam. Fig. 50 illustrates a form of burner in common use that Fig. OIL BURNER FOR STEAM BOILERS may be made of ordinary materials. The live steam coming from the pointed end of the j/2-in. steam-line inside the 1-in. oil-line atomizes the oil and the two together pass out of the burner through a long, narrow slot, deflected downwards in order to keep the direct flame from impinging on the boiler sheet. The exact position of the pointed end of the steam-line inside that carrying the oil is found experimentally, and so adjusted that it serves to regulate the fire automatically. As the pressure in the boiler increases a greater volume of steam is forced from the end of this pipe, retarding the flow of oil and decreasing the heat applied under the boiler. When the pressure has fallen off, as a result of the lessened heat, more oil finds its way to the burner and the heat increases. When gas is used instead of oil its maximum fuel value is obtained only by securing the proper mixture of gas and air, so that RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 73 the flame is a clear blue in color with as little yellow as possible. Several types of burners are manufactured that may be regulated so as to obtain a perfect mixture. A simple burner may be made by placing the gas-line inside of a larger pipe, as is done with the steam pipe in the oil burner. The larger pipe has a number of holes drilled in it through which the air for mixing with the gas is admitted. Still another burner is that shown in Fig. 51, by which the gas and air before igniting mix in the larger pipe, set in brick work. Fig. 51. GAS BURNER FOR STEAM BOILERS For carrying steam from the boiler to the engine a 2-in. line usually suffices for standard tool work, but where the drilling is being carried on by the rotary or circulating methods, this is increased to 3 inches. Lubrication of steam cylinders is accomplished by the use of some of the various forms of pressure-lubricators, either directly at the rig or, when a central plant supplies steam for a number of wells, from a lubricator at the plant. The latter method is unquestionably the more economical and efficient as it insures com- plete atomization of the heavy cylinder oil. When smaller lubricators at each well are used, a considerably smaller amount of oil is required if the small pipe carrying the oil from the lubri- cator into the steam-line is not merely tapped into the steam-line but is carried half the dis- tance across the inside, and then turned up, as in Fig. 52, so that it becomes heated and atomizes more readilv before passing 1 into the Fig. 52. METHOD OF STEAM LINE LUBRICATION steam cylinder. .3 1" -i fc ' t i Of/ feed pipe ^ : < 1 74 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Cordage. Two classes of lines find use in drilling operations, ordinary rope made from either sisal or manila hemp, and wire rope which is built up of many small steel wires about a hemp core or centre. In the former class, which passes under the general term of 'cordage,' the cheaper rope made from sisal is employed only for general purposes about the well, while the drilling-cables and bull- ropes are of good qualities of manila hemp. Hemp rope deteriorates rapidly in very dry districts due to the fact that the hemp fibre grows only in warm and exceedingly moist climates and the moist cellular structure soon loses this moisture when brought into an arid district. It then becomes dry and brittle, loses its strength and pliability, and for this reason when not in use should be stored in as cool and moist a spot as can be found. The individual fibers of hemp are from 6 to 10 ft. long. When manufactured into rope they are first oiled and woven into threads with a left lay, those of a lighter color and more silky texture going into the drilling cables and the more brittle, coarse and red varieties into bull-ropes. With a 2^ -in. drilling cable, 31 of such threads, each composed of many fibers, make a strand ; three strands are wound with a right lay to make a rope, and three ropes, also with a right lay, compose the cable. The left lay of the fibers and the right lay of the strands and ropes, known as 'hawser' or 'cable' lay, are so made for the purpose of preventing the cable from kinking. The sizes usually employed for drilling are from 2 to 2]/ 2 -in. diameter, with lengths from 1000 to 2500feet. Weights and Lengths of Manila Cable. Diameter. Weight per Foot. Breaking Strain in Pounds. 2 in. 1.58 35,430 2Y 8 " 1.65 41,088 2Y 4 " 1.79 47,170 2*/ 2 " 2.33 53,665 Manila cables for drilling are used chiefly in so-called 'dry' holes, where the nature of the ground is such that it does not cave readily and the only water in the well is that which is placed there to assist the bit in cutting the hole, and the bailer in bringing out the cuttings. 'Wet' holes, which are filled with water to prevent the sides from crumbling, interfere with the motion of the cable and are usually drilled more advantageously with wire drilling-lines. The chief merits of the Manila line arise from its great stretch, or spring, through which, by giving the walking-beam the proper motion, a RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 75 much heavier blow may be delivered by the drilling-tools on the end of the line. The same quality in the line causes the tools to spring back quickly when the blow has been struck, thus dislodging the bit from the cuttings that tend to stick and hold it fast. Manila lines are used almost exclusively where drilling is carried on by means of spudding, as spudding with a wire line places too severe a strain on the derrick. Bull ropes are made with a diameter of 2^ in. and length of 90 ft. They are known as soft lay rope and consist of three strands, each strand built up of many fibers. Wire Rope. The wire ropes in general use for drilling wells are (1) the drilling-line, wound on the bull- wheel shaft, to carry the drilling tools; (2) the casing line, wound on the calf-wheel, and used for handling casing; (3) the sand-line, which runs on the sand- reel and carries the bailer in and out of the hole. The introduction of wire rope for drilling purposes is comparatively recent but its use has spread rapidly and it is now generally employed for work at Fig. 53. SAND AND LIGHT DRILL- ING LINES. 6 STRAND 7 WIRE Fig. 54. DRILLING AND CASING LINES. 6 STRAND 19 WIRE depths greater than 1200 feet. Unlike much of the material employed for well drilling, these lines have practically no salvage value when they have become unfitted for further service at the well. The line used for carrying the drilling tools encounters the most severe service of the three classes, and its cost is no small factor in drilling a deep well. These are in nearly all cases made of extra strong cast steel wire, of a grade intermediate in strength, hardness, and other characteristics between the regular cast steel ordinarily used in hoisting-ropes and the plow steel used where great abrasion is met. The construction of the line varies with the drilling conditions. In the eastern fields, where the duty is light, the ropes are com- posed of six strands of seven wires each, with a hemp centre (Fig. 53). In other fields various combinations of six strands of 12 wires, 4 strands of 5 wires, 6 by 25, 6 by 15, etc., have been .tried with varying results, mostly unfavorable, and for heavy work, the general construction has apparently settled down to the use of the standard hoisting-rope construction of 6 strands of 19 wires each, with a hemp 76 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS centre of approximately the same diameter as each of the strands, or increased only enough over this to afford a proper cushion to the wire strands and prevent them from bruising or abrading each other (Fig. 54). They are put up almost invariably with a left lay, although there appears no particular reason for this, and some operators use right lay with good success. Sizes and Strengths of Drilling Lines. 3/4 in 20.2 tons 7/8 " 26.0 " 1 " 34.0 " 1 1/8 " 43.0 " 1 1/4 " ..53.0 " In standard engineering practice a factor of safety of 5 to 1 is used to obtain the working load of a wire rope, but in drilling service the tensile strength of a line means little, for every drilling line is almost certain to be subjected at more or less frequent intervals to a load closely approximating its ultimate strength ; and since the elastic limit of steel is about 60% of its total strength the application of loads beyond this critical point, even though infrequent and of short duration, will tend to change the character of the steel and shorten its life, which would otherwise be determined by the normal condi- tions of abrasion, etc. No set rule obtains for deciding the proper size of line for any particular well or drilling conditions and operators follow individ- ual tastes as to the one best suited to their needs. For fairly light work the 24 m - an d % in. are in common use. Deeper drilling and heavier tools require a 1-in. line, and recently considerable atten- tion has been given to a study of the economic advantage of using extremely heavy tools and a 1^-in. line, under drilling conditions of such a nature that the time-factor and saving in labor-cost war- rant the added expense of these heavier materials. Neither is it possible to state, except within very broad limits, the amount of drilling that may be expected of a line. Under favorable condi- tions a light line may serve for the drilling of several 1000-ft. holes, while a heavier line in ground that is more severe on it may be- come worn out in a few hundred feet of drilling. Fishing for lost tools and jarring on casing with a spear are especially trying, and a line deteriorates rapidly in such work. Lines are shipped from the mills on heavy reels and when re- ceived at the well are prepared for unwinding by placing a pipe through a centre opening in the reel and blocking up the end of RIGS AND EQUIPMENT this pipe so that the reel may turn on it. One end of the line is pulled up over its pulley in the crown block, then down and fas- tened to the bull-wheel shaft and the line wound on the shaft by engine power. A space about 30 in. long at the centre of the shaft, with a frame built up at each end, is used to spool that part of the line in immediate use, the remainder being carried at one end of the shaft, with left-lay lines preferably at the end opposite the brake-band. The practice of uncoiling a line from the shipping reel by plac- ing the latter on its side and driving a stake in the ground to hold it in place while being turned places an undue strain on the line by reason of the tendency to kink, and should not be permitted. Particular care should be taken when handling lines to prevent kinks by using as large snatch blocks as possible. Frequently lines are moved from one rig to another, not by coiling on reels and hauling them, but by pulling one end of the line to the new rig and coiling it directly from one shaft to the other. Unless pains are taken to prevent it the line may not kink but will 'dog-leg/ that is, suffer a small sharp bend. In such a case the line at this point never becomes absolutely straight ; and it soon weakens from wearing on the side of the casing or hole and must be cut and spliced. The splice usually employed with drilling lines is that known as the 'blind' splice, in which the strands of each end of the line are opened for about 15 ft., the hemp core extracted and the strands woven together again, with one of the strands taking the place of the core. In some fields a unique combination of wire and manila lines has been found very successful for drilling. It is known as the 'cracker' line and consists of about 100 ft. of manila rope spliced on the end of a wire line nearest the drilling tools. In this way the benefit of the spring and stretch in the manila rope is obtained without the expense of running a line composed wholly of such rope, with the further advantage that it may be used in a 'wet' hole. Casing-lines in almost all cases are standard hoisting ropes of cast steel wire, composed of 6 strands of 19 wires, right lay, with a hemp centre. Tensile Strengths of Casing Lines. 5/8 in 12.5 tons 3/4 " 17.5 " 7/8 " 23.0 " 1 ' " ..30.0 " 78 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS All the above sizes find use in different districts and it is probable that the factor of safety of 5 to 1 is rarely exceeded. The 7/% and 1-in. sizes of this type are also used as hoisting ropes at rotary wells. After they have become worn so that they are unsafe for pulling casing they are used for tubing lines, for handling tubing and sucker-rods in producing wells. Sand lines are identical with the standard coarse laid, transmis- sion, or haulage rope. Like casing lines they are of cast steel wire, right lay, but differ from them in being composed of 6 strands of 7 wires each. They differ in construction because they are not sub- jected to short bends, but do meet considerable abrasion while trav- eling in and out of the hole, and the smaller number of coarser wires gives a longer life to the line and a lower first cost. Tensile Strengths of Sand Lines. 3/ 8 in : 4.6 tons I/ 2 " 7.7 " 9/16 " : 10.0 " 5/ 8 " 13.0 " Casing. In drilling where the ground is rocky and firm or where the materials in the series of strata are bound together so that fragments do not cave in from the walls of the hole, the drill- ing may frequently be carried for hundreds of feet in 'open hole/ More often, however, the beds of clay, shale and sands, with some of them containing water, are so fragile and loose that they crumble and fall in to such an extent that drilling operations must be discon- tinued unless they can be held back. In such ground there is al- ways the further danger of the cavings burying the drilling tools. These conditions have led to the adoption of various forms of tubes for lining the hole. A second and very important feature of the value of such linings is their use for excluding from the oil-sands the water held in strata nearer the surface and which, if not pre- vented from entering the oil sand, will displace the oil by reason of its greater specific gravity and eventually ruin the well. Casing as now used in the oil fields is made of either iron or steel and the kinds and sizes differ considerably with the conditions obtaining in different parts of the world. The complete column of pipe as placed in the well is known as the 'string' of casing and in some fields one string suffices to finish the well. More often, if any considerable depth is attained, the pressure (commonly known as the 'friction') of the crumbling materials against the pipe becomes RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 79 so great that the pipe is bound tight and cannot be moved farther either up or down. A second string, small enough to go inside the first, must then be put in before drilling is continued ; and fre- quently four or five, or even more, may be necessary in reaching depths of over 2000 ft. in difficult ground. For the first well drilled in unproved ground, the number of strings of pipe that will be required in reaching a certain depth is unknown ; but in a field that has been drilled and the drilling condi- tions learned, the starting-size becomes merely a question of the size with which it is desired to finish the well. Strings of 10-in. and 8j4-in. pipe are sufficient in some American fields, while with others the well will be begun with 18-in. casing. In Russia, where the sands cave badly, holes are started with a diameter of 36 in. in order to finish them 16 inches.* Fig. 55. RIVETED STEEL DOUBLE WELL CASING '., Two general classes of casing are in common use for oil-well service riveted steel pipe and screw casing. Riveted, or Stove- pipe,' casing is made of steel or iron sheets, riveted at the seams, and is used especially for the first string to be inserted in a well. It is made by cutting the sheets into the proper size, punching and countersinking the rivet-holes, then rolling to shape and fastening with rivets. The pipe most commonly used in the United States has two thicknesses of sheets, so placed with respect to each other that the end of one sheet is set opposite the centre of the other, so that at the end of a joint the inside sheet projects for half its length beyond the outside sheet, leaving a corresponding recess at the other end (Fig. 55). This double-riveted casing is made in joints 2 or 3 ft. in length, and, for ease in handling, several of these joints are riveted together into sections of from 10 to 21 ft. before placing in the well. *.\. Beeby Thompson, Petroleum Mining, p. 238. 80 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Sizes and Gauges of Double-Riveted Pipe. Thickness in Gauge No. Inches. Diameter 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 8 0.172 Wt. Ibs. per foot 54 57 62 70 76 10 0.141 " 41 44 46 48 51 57 60 12 0.109 30 32 34 36 39 43 47 Frequently the pipe is 'picked' before inserting it in the well. This consists in denting the outside with a heavy sharp-pointed pick, and is done to take up any slack between the outside and in- side sheets and assist the rivets to prevent it from pulling apart. Since nearly all casing is driven from the surface before reaching its final depth, it is advisable to place on the bottom of the first, or 'starter' joint, a steel shoe of slightly greater diameter than the outside of the pipe itself (Fig. 56). This cuts away any irregu- larities projecting from the side of the hole and clears a passage Fig. 56. RIVETED STARTER-JOINT WITH DRIVE-SHOE for the casing. Stovepipe casing shoes are made from 3 to 14 in. in length and are riveted directly to the starter joint. The latter is usually made of three thicknesses for the first 18 ft., and when a steel shoe is not used, the innermost sheet is lapped back over the outside for 6 or 8 in. and riveted there. This is known as the 'turn- back' starter and while it is not as rigid as the solid steel shoe and does not contribute as well to the strength of the starter-joint it has the advantage of a smaller outside diameter, thus reducing the size of hole to be drilled by the cutting tools. The merits of riveted pipe are mainly that its smooth, uniform outside surface is a great aid in carrying the casing down through loose and sandy materials which tend to fall in and bind against the couplings on screw casing. Screw casing, however is more easily handled and may be raised and lowered at will, while the riveted pipe, when once started in the hole, is not raised and can be lifted out only by the use of a spear. RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 81 Screw casing is made of either iron or steel plates, welded at the seam, and takes its name from the threads that are cut at each end of the joint. With the exception of a few types, a threaded sleeve, or coupling, connects two joints by screwing over the threads at the ends. Couplings are invariably made of iron, but the pipe itself may be obtained of either iron or steel and individual tastes or ideas of operators rather than any specific drilling condi- Fig. 57. DRIVING STOVE-PIPE, SHOWING DRIVE-CLAMPS FASTENED TO THE STEM tions usually govern which is used. Steel has the advantage of a slightly lower cost and is said to be stronger than iron. It is, how- ever, more subject to weakness with age from the chemical and electrolytic action of alkaline and sulphur waters. Screwed pipe is manufactured by rolling the ingots of metal into slabs and rolling the slabs again into plates of the proper length, thickness and width according to the size of pipe desired. The plates, known as 'skelp/ are then bent to circular form and welded. 82 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS In the latter stage, two different processes are followed by which are made either the lap-weld or. the butt-weld pipe. The butt-weld is made by placing the two edges together as shown in Fig. 58 ; in the lap weld, before the skelp is bent the edges are scarfed so that when they are overlapped a much larger welding surface is obtained than with the butt-weld and a stronger bond insured at the weld. For this reason little butt-weld pipe is used for casing, although all ordinary low-pressure line-pipe for surface lines is made by this process. Each size of pipe has an accepted standard weight, and when stronger and thicker pipe of this size is made for heavier duty, the additional metal is placed on the inside, reducing the actual inside diameter but retaining the same outside measurements. Thus the so-called 6%-in. casings weighing 20, 24, 26 and 28 Ib. per ft. all have the same outside diameter of 6.625 in., but internal diameters Fig. 58. BUTT WELD LAP WELD of 6.049, 5.921, 5.855 and 5.79.1 respectively. Permissible variations are 5% above and below the rated dimensions. The casing comes from the mills in random lengths ranging around 20 ft., and one make may also be obtained in lengths of 35 and 40 feet. These long joints are thought to be an advantage in reducing the friction of cavings against the collars, but the inconvenience in handling them has rather retarded their adoption. Since it is desired, when more than one string of casing is neces- sary to finish a well, to reduce the bore of the hole as little as pos- sible, a sequence of sizes is used so that one string will barely pass inside the next larger without unnecessary friction. The usual practice with both riveted pipe and screw casing is to use sizes that result in a'loss of approximately 2 in. with each succeeding string. Wells using the larger sizes of riveted pipe may contain strings of 24, 22, 20 in., etc., and those with screw casing may have 10, 8^4, 6 l /\. in., etc. In many cases a combination of the two may be em- ployed so that a casing record shows 18 and 16-in. stovepipe, with 12^, 10 and S^-in. screw casing; or 15^2-in. screw casing; 13-in. stovepipe, and 10 and 8j4~ m - screw-pipe, all depending on the drill- ing conditions and personal preferences of the operators. RIGS AND EQUIPMENT 83 An idea of the range of sizes and weights of screw casing made may be obtained from the following table showing those manufac- tured by one firm.* Dimensions of Screw Casing. Size Diameters Thickness Weight per foot Couplings External Internal Plain ends Threads and Couplings Diameter Length Weight 674 674 6.000 6.625 6.625 6.625 5.352 6.049 5.921 5.855 .324 .288 .352 .385 19.641 19.491 23.582 25.658 20.000 20.000 24 . 000 26.000 6.765 7.390 7.390 7.390 7^8 15.748 18.559 18.559 18.559 1 6.625 7.000 7 :ooo 7.000 5.791 6.456 6.276 6.214 .417 .272 .362 .393 27.648 19.544 25.663 27.731 28 . 000 20.000 26.000 28.000 7.390 7.698 7.698 7.698 1 18.559 17.943 17.943 17.943 8M 7.000 8.000 8.625 8.625 6.154 7.386 8.017 7.921 .423 .307 .304 .352 29.712 25.223 27.016 31.101 30.000 26.000 28 . 000 32.000 7.698 8.888 9.627 9.627 1 17.943 27.410 33.096 33.096 8M 95! 8.625 8.625 8.625 10.000 7.825 7.775 7.651 9.384 .400 .425 .487 .308 35.137 37.220 42.327 31.881 36.000 38.000 43 . 000 33.000 9.627 9.627 9.627 11.002 1 33.096 33.096 33.096 38.162 10 10 10 10 10.750 10.750 10.750 10.750 10.054 9.960 9.902 9.784 .348 .395 .424 .483 38.661 43 . 684 46.760 52.962 40.000 45 . 000 48.000 54.000 11.866 11.866 11.866 11.866 1 45.365 45.365 45 . 365 45.365 1 12.000 13.000 13.000 13.00.0 11.384 12.438 12.360 12.282 .308 .281 .320 .359 38.460 38.171 43.335 48.467 40.000 40.000 45.000 50.000 13.116 14.116 14.116 14.116 1 50.445 54.508 54.508 54.508 is* 14.000 16.000 13.344 15.198 .328 .401 47.894 66.806 50.000 70.000 15.151 17.477 9^8 9/ / J3 67.912 98.140 Several different kinds of screw casing are made for well work and the various forms differ somewhat in the sizes of collars, num- ber of threads to the inch, etc. While the threads on ordinary line- pipe in the sizes over 2 l /2 in. nearly always number eight to the inch, this number has been found to take too much stock from the pipe at the threads to sustain the enormous weights of long strings of heavy casing, and 9, 10, \\ l / 2 and 14 threads have all been tried. The 11^2 and 14 thread cuts have been found to be so small that they permit the pipe to pull apart quite easily and present practice *Book of Standards, National Tube Company, page 29. S4 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS seems to have dropped back to the 10 thread for the greater portion of casing now made. As a rule, the collar thread does not start at the end of the col- lar, but begins from the end of a recess cut so that when the pipe has been screwed together the end of the collar fits snugly over the pipe and increases the rigidity of the completed string. The length of thread is usually from 3 to 3^2 in., with sufficient taper to insure a tight bond with the collar. The space inside the collar between the two ends is customarily from J4 to J^ in. after the joints have been screwed together. Pipe that is to be subjected to exception- ally heavy driving is made so that the ends of the joints meet, and is known as 'drive pipe' (Fig. 59). Usually these threads have no taper and are cut coarser than the 10 thread of ordinary casing since butting the ends relieves the couplings of much of the strain. Drive pipe has small value for use where the ground caves into the hole to any extent, as after it has been driven severely it becomes Fig. 59. DRIVE-PIPE Fig. 60. INSERTED-JOINT CASING weakened at the threads and pulls apart readily when a strong pull is applied. Inserted-joint casing (Fig. 60) is sometimes placed in a hole where a small reduction of bore is desired rather than the greater strength of coupled pipe. It is made by swelling out one end of the joint and cutting this with an inside thread so that it screws over the outside thread end. The threads are usually l\ l /2 to the inch. As with riveted pipe, a steel shoe is placed on the lower end of the first joint in a string of casing (Fig. 61), and having an outside diameter slightly greater than that of the couplings so that the beveled cutting-edge insures a path large enough for the passage of the pipe and couplings (Fig. 62). The Baker shoe (Fig. 63) is made with a number of open spaces in the cutting end, and is a material improvement where conditions are such that the pipe is to be worked down through hard ground. When strings of casing are to be inserted in holes already drilled by the rotary method, a type of shoe having a saw-toothed end is frequently used. Any RIGS AM) KOUIl'MENT 85 slight projections from the side of the hole encountered while low- ering it are cut away by turning the pipe and milling off the irregu- larities with the shoe. All casing is presumably tested at the mill before shipping and is supposed to stand the internal test-pressure marked on the pipe. It is rarely, however, that pressure from the inside is at all im- portant in well drilling operations, although the external or col- lapsing pressure is often of vital importance. The most severe strain of this nature comes, after the water has been excluded by cementing or otherwise, when the well is bailed dry on the inside Fig. 61. PLAIN CASING-SHOE Fig. 63. BAKER SHOE Fig. 62. SCREW CASING WITH CASING-SHOE for the purpose of learning whether or not the attempt to shut off the superficial water was successful. The collapsing pressure ex- erted against the pipe at this time is represented by the difference between the heights at which the fluids stand on the outside and the inside. The following table* has been computed, from data determined by a great number of artificial tests on the collapsing pressure of casing, for the purpose of supplying an approximate idea as to the limit of depths to which casing may safely be carried under a factor of safety of 2, which while small yet seems to be warranted by the results of actual experience in the fields. *Collapsing Pressure of Steel Tubes, R. S. Ha/ehine, Western Engineering, July, 1912. 86 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS TABLE SHOWING COLLAPSING PRESSURES OF LAP-WELDED STEEL CASING FOR SIZES COMMONLY USED IN CALIFORNIA. Size, inches Weight per Foot, pounds Inside Diameter, Inches Outside Diameter, inches Thickness, inches Collapsing Pressure, pounds per square inch Equiva- lent Water Column, feet Water Column Factor of Safety 2, feet Yi 15.0 4.500 5.000 0.250 2944 6790 3395 5 5 /8 20.0 5.370 6.000 0.315 3160 7280 3640 6% 20.0 6.000 6.625 0.312 2704 6230 3115 26.0 5.845 6.625 0.390 3717 8560 4280 28.0 5.775 6.625 0.425 4167 9600 4800 6 5 /8 20.0 6.437 7.000 0.281 2096 4830 2415 26.0 6.312 7.000 0.344 2867 6600 3300 28.0 6.220 7.000 0.390 3440 7930 3965 7 5 /8 26.0 7.390 8.000 0.305 1914 4410 2205 VA 28.0 8.015 8.625 0.305 1680 3870 1935 32.0 7.935 8.625 0.345 2080 4790 2395 36.0 7.875 8.625 0.375 2383 5490 2745 38.0 7.765 8.625 0.430 2928 6750 3375 43.0 7.625 8.625 0.500 3638 8380 4190 A 33.0 9.500 10.000 0.250 780 1800 900 10 40.0 10.000 10.750 0.375 1638 3770 1885 48.0 9.850 10.750 0.450 2234 5150 2575 54.0 9.750 10.750 0.500 2643 6090 3045 n% 40.0 11.437 12.000 0.281 641 1475 737 im 40.0 12.500 13.000 0.250 402 927 463 45.0 12.360 13.000 0.320 745 1717 858 50.0 . 12.250 13.000 0.375 1109 2560 1280 uy 2 50.0 13.250 14.000 0.375 936 2160 1080 15H 51.3 15.416 16.000 0.292 314 724 362 Fig. 64. A GUSHER CHAPTER IV. DRILLING METHODS. The two principal modern methods of drilling oil wells are (1) by the standard or percussion method, and (2) by the rotary flush system. There are several modifications and combinations of the two, but nearly all drilling is done by one or the others .The prin- ciple of the percussion system is that of raising and dropping a heavy stem and bit on bottom, afterwards removing the drill- ings, which have been mixed with water by a bailer. The rotary has been described as an auger with water connections which wash the debris from bottom by the action of a pump. The rotary cannot be successfully used in hard strata of lime- stone, sandstone or slate, and for this reason its use is confined to those localities in which the principal formation includes shales, clays and sand interspersed with occasional shells of Harder ma- terial. On the other hand, the standard rig does not wafk satisfac- torily in running or heaving sand, or in heavy gas pressures, and is therefore used in such formation only in connection with the rotary. For any particular locality, however, one or the other systems or their combination will be found to perform the drilling in a capable manner. Standard Method. When the derrick has been erected by the rig builders, the drilling crew of four men (two .drillers and their tool-dressers) take possession and prepare to start drilling or 'rig up' as it is called. It is usual to excavate a cellar 8 by 10 by 20 ft. directly under the derrick floor in order to facilitate the handling of the casing as well as to give freedom of action to the temper-screw. The cellar can be sunk by hand or, when desired, a hole from 100 to 200 ft. deep is drilled and the earth thrown into it and there re- drilled and bailed out, thus providing a means of its removal. A sump is excavated by scrapers near the derrick and a dump-box in- stalled under the floor for conveying the drillings from bailer to sump. The sump is often used for an oil reservoir later on when the well is producing quantities of oil and sand. A forge is placH OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 65. BALL-BEARING DERRICK CRANE WITH T IRON ARM on the right side of the derrick floor for heating the bits to draw them out to guage, while a crane (Fig. 65) with a chain hoist is so placed as to swing a bit into the forge or to suspend the bit or Fig. 66. TRIPLE SNATCH BLOCK FOR CASING-LINE Fig. 67. TUBING AND CASING HOOK WITH CLEVIS DRILLING METHODS 89 other equipment for connection to the drilling-tools. A lagging of manila cable is wound tightly around the band-wheel and spiked every 8 or 10 in. to prevent its being torn off. The band-wheel has been previously machined on the face, if necessary, with a turning- bar. A 12-in. 6-ply stitched belt transmits power to the band-wheel Fig. 68. LIFTING CASING, SHOWING ELEVATOR, CASING-HOOK AND BLOCK from the drilling-engine, and provision is made to align the two by shifting the engine upon its foundation. The shaft of the calf-wheel is also lagged to prevent its being cut by the wire-line as well as to provide a larger diameter for the casing-line to wind upon. The sprocket chain which turns the calf-wheel from the band- wheel is put on and a clutch fitted for convenient manipulation by the driller when standing near the throttle at the headache-post. The casing-line is passed over the four casing-sheaves on top of the derrick and threaded through the 32-in. triple casing-block (Fig. 66), from which hangs a heavy casing-hook (Fig. 67), 5 to 7^ in. OIL PRODUCTION METHODS diameter. In moving casing, the links of the elevator are placed over the casing-hook, the body of the ele- vator taking hold under the top coupling of the pipe. The clutch is thrown in and the pipe raised or lowered by the calf-wheel. The sand-reel lever is placed near enough to the throttle-wheel on the headache-post to permit of the driller handling both at the same time, while powerful brakes are placed on the calf and bull- wheels. The sand-line is drawn on the double-drum sand-reel, the manila cable is wound on the bull- wheel, after which the drilling tools are pulled into the derrick and coupled together. ' A complete string of drilling tools consists (Fig. 69) of a rope-socket, jars, stem, and bit, in the order Fig. 70. BARRETT JACK AND CIRCLE named. They are screwed together by means of a powerful jack operated on a circular track (Fig. 70), and two men are required to tighten the larger joints. The latter, which are tapered to make coupling easier and to protect threads, are made of soft annealed steel and have a shoulder about 1 in. wide which prevents, them from unscrewing when in the well. When the joints are new, they come within Y 10 -in. shouldering by hand, and should be set up by the jack and un- screwed several times before put to actual use, to prevent any danger of unscrewing. They should at all times be thoroughly cleaned to remove grease or rust, and the shoulders should be free from rough or broken places. The threads often become cupped DRILLING METHODS 91 r. 71. TIGHTENING A ROPE-SOCKET ON A STRING OF STANDARD CABLE DRILLING TOOLS from faulty joints or excessive tightening, in which case they should be sent to the shop for re-threading. In the larger sizes of tools, the joints are 4 in. at the base, 3 in. at the top, with 7 threads to the inch, and are called 3 by 4-7 joints. They are 6 in. outside diameter, and the wrench-squares for tightening are placed close to them. Similarly 4 by 5-7, 2% by 3^4-7, 2 by 3-7, 1% by 2^-8, are the sizes used, depending upon the diameter of the casing and the formation being drilled. Care should be exercised in setting up the smaller joints, as the pins are sometimes twisted off. The rope-socket for manila cable has a 2}^ -in. hole bored through the top and tapering at the side about 12 in. below (Fig. 72) ; the end of the cable is pulled through the bore and interlaid with short pieces of manila rope. When pulled tightly into place, by weight of the tools, a wedge is formed making an effective connection. The wire-line socket (Fig.73) has a 1^-in. hole bored through to the box, with a recess above the latter; the line is thrust through this hole from the top, the ends are turned back and pulled into the recess and hot babbitt poured in, preventing the line from pulling out of the socket. 92 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS The drilling-jars (Fig. 74) are generally not used until the hole is 150 ft. deep or more. They resemble two great links of a chain with about 16-in. stroke for ordinary drilling. When the tools be- come fast from cavings or any other cause, the jars, by lowering the temper-screw, are' slacked sufficiently to deliver a sharp upward blow, eliminating the strain on the drilling-line, which would occur Fig. 72. ROPE-SOCKETS Babcock for New Era or Babcock Sub Wire Cable 'Wood-pecker' for Wire for Manila Cable Cable Fig. 73. UNION RATCHET ROPE-SOCKET FOR WIRE-LINE if pulling were resorted to. In ordinary drilling, the jars are not brought into action, but remain extended to their full stroke. The stem (Fig. 76) with 3 by 4-7 joints is usually 4j^ in. by 28 ft. long, and a complete string of tools of this size weighs about 4000 pounds. In districts where the formation is slate, limestone or sandstone, it is usual to dress the cutting-edge of the bit more or less to a chisel point in order to make faster headway in the hard rock, while in soft formations of clay, shale or sand, the centre of the bit is cut out, making a concave surface with the outer edges from 1 to 3 in. longer than the centre. In either case, all four corners are drawn out to gauge and the cutting-edges properly rounded off to conform to the size of the casing used. In California, the shank DRILLING METHODS of a drilling bit should be smaller than the cutting edge by 1 or 2 in., thus affording an offset by which a larger hole can be cut than with a straight bit. In soft formations, a chisel-bottom bit will dig faster than the drillings can be mixed with the water, making it necessary to re-drill the debris in order entirely to re- 93 Fig. 74. Fig. 75. DRILLING WITH WIRE-LINE DRILLING SHOWING TEMPER-SCREW JAR move it from the hole, while a concave bit is totally unsuited to hard formation, as a sharp, cutting edge is desired. Bits are dressed, therefore, to suit the forma- tion. Large water-courses are provided in the Cali- fornia style of bit (Fig. 77), which mixes the water Fig. 76 more freely with the drillings ; some operators prefer STEM 94 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the 'Mother Hubbard' pattern (Fig. 78), as the square shoulders help in mixing the mud, and when this bit unscrews or is lost, usually stands straighter in the hole than those with a rounded shoulder, making its withdrawal much easier. The occasion often arises where the use of the tinder-reamer is impossible for reaming Fit?. 77 DRILLING BIT Ordinary California Pattern Fig. 78 DRILLING BIT 'Mother Hubbard' Pattern DOUBLE UNDER REAMER Showing Cutters Con- tracted to Enter Casing Fig. 79. DOUBLE UNDER-REAMER Expanded as in Operation a hard formation or shell, in which case a bit can be dressed 'sidehill/ that is, with one lug or cutting edge drawn out 1 to 2 in. larger than gauge, while the other edge is beaten in somewhat, making a one-sided tool which cuts a larger hole than would the ordinary bit. Sidehill bits are often used when drilling in stove- pipe casing where the tinder-reamer cannot be used. DRILLING METHODS 95 The tinder-reamer (Figs. 79, 80, 81, 82) is a specially designed tool which, as its name implies, is used to ream or enlarge the hole below the casing and is employed constantly in wells where it is desired to carry the strings of pipe for long distances. The Cali- fornia tinder-reamers are reliable in construction and action ; they have two lugs or cutters, which, when fully expanded, will cut a larger hole than would the casing- shoe, giving the casing ample room between the walls. A 10- in. tinder-reamer, for instance, will cut a 13^-in. hole, while the 10-in. shoe is 12 in. diameter, leaving a space of \ l / 2 in. These cutters are held in place by a power- Fig. 81. LOWER END OF WILSON UNDER-REAMER Fig. 82. WILSON UNDER-REAMER ful spring and can be pulled down to a smaller diameter than the inside of the pipe. When its use is required, the bit is removed and the tinder-reamer attached to the stem, the cutters are pulled to- gether on the derrick floor by the driller, and the string of tools lowered in the well. Upon emerging from the shoe, the spring ex- 96 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS pands the cutters back to a shoulder on the body of the under- reamer. Then they are ready for work. Upon being withdrawn, the cutters strike the shoe and are pulled together, after which the Fig. 83. PARTS FOR WILSON UNDER-REAMER tools can be raised to the surface. The wrenches (Fig. 84) for set- ting up the joints are massive, weighing from 250 to 450 Ibs. each, and are usually counterbalanced by weights suspended outside of the derrick. The swivel wrench (Fig. 85), which hangs from the traveling hoist running on the crane, is used for holding the tools in place when being screwed together. N.S.Co. Fig. 84. TOOL WRENCH DRILLING METHODS Fig. 85. BARRETT SWIVEL WRENCH For removing drillings from the hole different designs of bailers are used, the working principle being the same in -all, that is, a valve is placed at the bottom of a smaller size of pipe than the casing being drilled and a bail is riveted at the top. The valve opens when it strikes the mud or water and closes when the bailer is lifted from the well. In the flat-bottom bailer, a hinged valve upon a flat seat Fig. 86. BAILER ENTERING HOLE OIL PRODUCTION METHODS is used, while in the dart-bailer (Fig. 87), a ball with a dart for a guide and a seat answers the purpose. In the Morahan (Fig. 88), or other special forms, suction is provided by means of a long plunger with a valve at the bottom to remove sand or broken particles of iron from the hole. When the drilling-tools have been 'strung up,' the crown-block is moved if necessary to allow the bit to strike bottom in the same vertical line as the slot in the walking-beam for the reason that the latter supports the tools later on. As the stem and bit are over Fip. 87. DART-BOT- TOM BAILER Fig. 89. SPUDDING-SHOE 30 ft. long and extend above the beam, it will be seen that other means must be provided to deepen the well to a point where the temper- screw can be used. This method is called 'spud- ding-in' and is carried out as follows: The bull-rope is placed on the bull-wheel, the tools lowered to the cellar-bottom and enough slack run out from the bull-wheel to permit connection to the crank-shaft by a nlanila jerk-line. A spudding-shoe (Fig. 89), which is anchored by a bridle fastened to the back derrick-sill, is placed over the drilling-cable and a clevis passed through an eye in the jerk-line to Fig . 88 . MORAHAN the lugs of the spudding-shoe. The BOTTOM^OWING spudding ring is put on over the wrist- EN c L HEcf- VALVE F DRILLING METHODS 99 pin, which has been previously placed in the second hole of the crank-shaft and the outside eye of the jerk-line over the spudding- ring. All slack in the cable is then taken up by the engine until the tools are lifted from the bottom, when the bull-rope is thrown off and the engine allowed to run, raising and lowering the tools by the off-set in the crank-shaft. As the bit digs away, it can be kept striking at bottom by raising the bull-wheel brake and slacking the cable from time to time. Enough water should be used to thor- oughly mix with the cavings, but too much water should be avoided as caving of the walls might result. Guides of wood are usually nailed around the stem at the floor to keep the stem dropping in a vertical line while the helper, or tool-dresser, turns it to avoid dig- ging a flat hole. Turning the tools by hand usually continues until a depth of from 75 to 100 ft. has been attained, when the spring in the line will turn them without further aid. When the hole becomes so muddy that the bit no longer drops freely, the bull-rope is put on, the spudding-shoe disconnected from the cable and the tools withdrawn above the hole and swung aside ; the bailer is pulled from its resting place and lowered to bottom, where it is 'spudded,' that is, raised and lowered to bottom several times to pick up as much mud as possible. The bailer is then raised and its contents discharged into the dump-box. The opera- tion is repeated until the drillings have been removed, when the tools are again run to bottom and spudding resumed. In drilling at any depth, it is always important to keep the hole as clean of drillings as possible to allow a free drop to the tools. In this way, 5 to 8 feet is made at a time. Should the walls begin caving at the surface, it is usual to place a wooden conductor in a well to a suffi- cient depth to exclude all cavings. When the stem is deep enough to be covered by the walls, the wrist-pin^ is placed in the third hole of the crank-shaft to permit of a longer stroke and a harder blow, and when a depth of from 130 to 150 ft. has been attained it is cus- tomary to substitute the walking-beam for the jerk-line. This is called 'hitching on'. The temper-screw is placed in the slot on the beam and a counterweight rigged back of the sampson-post to aid in pulling back the screw after it has been let out. The temper- screw (Fig. 91) consists of a 2-in. by 5 or 6-ft. screw with coarse, square threads which run through a box having wings at the lower end, where a split clamp held together by a set screw, is placed. A tee rests upon the nose of the beam, and two guides or reins run the length of the screw to the box. Attached to the 100 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS latter in notches at the top edge are the 1-in. links, by which the wire or manila line is suspended. The manila clamps (Fig. 92) are larger at the top than the bottom to permit of a wrapper oi soft rope, usually about 5 ft. long, being applied to the cable on the line just above the clamps. When the bull-wheel brake is raised, the line pulls the wrapper tightly into the clamp, forming a Fig. 90. DRILLING CREW 'AT WORK' WITH ELECTRICALLY OPERATED STANDARD DRILLING TOOLS tight wedge with the latter. The wire-line clamps (Fig. 93) are composed of two straight pieces of steel with grooves running through the centres to fit the size of the line being used. In each case a heavy iron 'C' having a set screw is used to tighten the clamps. When lowering the tools into the well, the driller does not run them to bottom at once but applies the bull-wheel brake at inter- DRILLING METHODS vals of a few feet when nearing the bottom in order to get the full stretch of the cable. In other words, the tools strike bottom on the spring of the line when drilling and the rebound is probably Fig. 92. MANILA-LINE CLAMPS Fig. 91. LONG-FRAME TEMPER- SCREW WITH MANILA DRILLING CLAMPS ATTACHED Fig. 93. SHRYOCK CLAMPS FOR WIRE ROPE several feet. This action materially aids in mixing the cuttings with the water. In ordinary drilling, due to the spring in the line, the beam is returning on the up-stroke when the tools are striking, 'l L .OIL PRODUCTION METHODS creating a distinct jar on the rig, which grows more pronounced in a hard formation, especially when the wire-line is in use. Drilling usually proceeds in the open hole until the walls begin caving or until a sufficient depth has been obtained to insert the casing. Where stove-pipe is used, from 200 to 500 ft. is the ordinary depth, depending upon the method of lowering it. The stove-pipe used for casing in California is held together by dents made by picking, and care should be taken to avoid pulling the column apart. A depth of 200 ft. is ample when the string is being lowered without support, but some operators prefer putting it in on a smaller string of casing, in which case it rests upon a casing-spear or upon a cast- iron bushing attached to the bottom of the screw-pipe. The bush- ing has a left-hand thread and can be detached from the screw casing and left in the well where it is easily drilled up. Five hun- dred feet or more of stove-pipe can be lowered in the well in this way without injury. For lifting and handling this class of casing, wooden friction blocks 16 by 16 in. by 5 ft. are securely bolted around the pipe by four 1-in. bolts ; a wire-line sling is placed on the casing hook and under each side of the friction blocks, so that the column can be moved by the calf- wheel.' The stove-pipe in lengths of 10 or 20 ft. is coupled together by placing a drive-head on the top joint and dropping the tools on the column, by 'bull-roping; 1 that is, raising and lowering the tools on the drive-head (Fig. 94) by the bull-wheel. Should the coupling be too tight for bull-roping, the jerk-line and spudding-shoe are used as in spudding-in, and the casing driven together. The latter method is also used in driv- ing or forcing the whole column of pipe when it does not follow or sink by its own weight. By placing the wrist-pin in the fifth hole of the crank-shaft to lengthen the stroke or drop of the stem, an unusually hard blow can be delivered. Hydraulic jacks are sometimes used to force the column down but are not as effective as driving with the stem. For this work, two 6 by 6 by 16-in. pieces of iron are securely bolted by 2 l / 2 by 14 in. bolts to the upper tool- wrench square shank of the stem. These are called drive-clamps (Fig. 95), and strike upon the drive-head, which sets inside of the casing upon the main column, at the same time projecting over and resting upon the top coupling or section. These heads, which are bored to admit passing over the stem, are used for all sizes of screw casing to protect the threads of the top coupling as well as for driving to loosen the casing should the latter become fast from cavings. MR1I LING Ml-' I'll OPS The cellar, \\hen StOVe-pipe ts being used, demonstrates HS \alnc. for a 20-ft length can he inserted and dulled over \\ithont intending \\itli the operations oi the temper-screy \c.ni\ all Casing is inserted in the da\ h\ the combined CfCW, ami \\hcn h >l toin has been reached, each driller ami helpci inns his slnli 01 ' i o\\ ef' of t \\ el ve hours. In some localities, whore ilu- t'onnation is solid, the StOVC-pipe is held suspended on a friction hlock. the \\alU of tho \\ell creating resistance to ho1 CaUSC the joints to Open, the pipe shnnld he set on hi'ttoin. The reason for holding the casing np is to enahle the hit to swing freely Mow the shor, ihrn-lu cntlins; a larger hole than if the String Kitf. o.|. DROP DRIVE-HEAD were following. In drilling through any casing, it is always well, wherever possible, to keep the bit working lioin 15 to M ft. ahead of the shoe for this reason. Should it be found necessary to drive the stove-pipe, because of th" caving nind or 'friction' hohind it. clamping at the surface is not necessary. Stove pipe is designed, primarily, to C&S ont running sands, which would fall aronnd the projecting couplings of a screv casing and freeze or stick the string. but to reach the sands, beds of clay, shale, shells and honldei an nearly always encountered. As the clav is nsn.ilK i,.ngb and n the bit bores a small hole, leaving the stove pipe shoe to cut its way through the walls, necessitating hard driving with the stem to I'mce the string down. I -'or tin pea* n, many operators prefer the turnback joint \\luch has no shoe, as it follows the bit more readily by 104 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS reason of its smaller clearance. For drilling through blue clay, a short stem 8 to 10 ft. long, called a sinker-bar, is used above the jars to knock the tools loose when they stick or become fast, as often happens. The jars in such cases are loosened sufficiently to deliver a short, upward blow keeping the tools loose and saving considerable time which would otherwise be spent in 'switching.' This term is used to designate the high rate of speed at which the engine is run to jar the bit loose when no sinker-bar is carried. Short pieces of wire-line, when thrown into the well, are helpful in holding up the tools and enlarging the hole. Gray or blue shale is usually easily drilled and ordinarily gives no trouble to stove-pipe, while hard strata of limestone, sandstone, etc., if carefully reamed with a sidehill bit and enlarged with small pieces of cast iron or short lengths of wire-line, should not interfere with the passage of the casing. Boulders are often troublesome, both to stove-pipe and screw-casing, particularly when small enough to roll behind the pipe and dent or mash it. Running sands are best handled by letting the stove-pipe follow through, or driving it ahead and bailing as little as possible. It will be found that the shoe of the stove-pipe is often several feet ahead of actual bottom until the sand stratum has been penetrated. Aside from any fishing jobs that might occur from the use of stove-pipe, the principal troubles encountered are parting, collapsing, or freezing. Parting is caused by drilling out a sand plug or bridge near the bottom when the upper portion is frozen, suspending the whole column from the surface when the pipe may part from excessive weight, neglect of the driller to properly join the sections, tearing out an inside section with the bit when drilling, starting the walls to caving to such an extent that the in-rushing material forces the string apart, and driving the column together at some point. If the part comes near the surface, the hole can be continued by hand from the cellar down outside the column and the pipe properly connected. Should the part be deep, however, a swage can be run to bottom on a string of 6 or 8-in. screw-casing and slips or wedges lowered by the sand-line over the top of the swage when the smaller casing can be pulled, with the result that the swage pulls up against the slips and engages with the stove-pipe. A stem and fishing-jars are used above the swage and are coupled to the casing by a substitute con- nection, the latter having a mandrel at the top. When the stove- pipe cannot be loosened by an ordinary pull, a string of tools with a socket attached can bejowered inside the screw-casing and a hold taken on the mandrel. Jarring then proceeds, a strain being kept DRILLING METHODS 105 on the inside string. Instead of using a second string of tools, the dead-line is often taken from the casing-block and attached to the back-sill of the derrick, the spudding-shoe and jerk-line are put on and an upward blow delivered by the inside column of casing to the stove-pipe. The latter, when freed, is withdrawn to the point where it parted and lowered again after repairs. A swage can be used to remove dents made by boulders or to drive out collapsed portions. This work may be only of a temporary nature and should the pipe collapse a second time, as often happens, the swage again may be called into use and the pipe kept in fairly good condition until landed. In driving the shoe through a tight hole or tough stratum of clay, the shoe often becomes pinched or oblongated. In such a case the bit may be used to detach the lower portion and drive it to bottom where it can be drilled up in fact 8 or 10 ft. is sometimes drilled off the bottom of a string a section or two at a time and disposed of in this way. When a string of stove-pipe cannot be forced by hard driving, it is usually aban- doned and the next smaller size of casing run to bottom, for stove- pipe is much more difficult to handle than screw casing for the reason that it cannot be readily pulled back. One string is generally used in California, the average depth of landing in the deeper territory being about 750 ft. There are single 16-in. columns, however, over 1000 ft. long, the object being to shut out all sand-strata. The pipe is cut off flush after landing with the casing-sills in the cellar, in order not to interfere later on with the screw-pipe. For convenience in handling all screw casing, a large iron ring called a 'spider' is placed at the cellar bottom. The spider has two projecting lugs for its support. The casing is run through a beveled hole and can be suspended at any depth by inserting four curved steel slips (Figs. 96 and 97) having serrated edges which act as wedges between the body of the spider and casing. The advantage of being able to lower the latter only a few inches at a time is often helpful in shutting out a caving formation, allowing the tools to work on bottom without interruption. Several makes of elevators are used, the Wilson (Fig. 100), Fair-Mannington (Fig. 98), Scott (Fig. 99) , and Fisher being generally employed. The Wilson is easily manipu- lated, a door on the side opening wide enough to admit the casing instead of being hinged at the back as in the Fair, while the Fisher is especially reliable for extreme tension. With one exception elevators are made upon practically the same principle, that of two links by which the casing is raised, the body having a hinge at the side or back, to allow of its being placed around the casing. A 106 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 96. SPIDER AND SLIPS Fig. 97. LINER AND SLIPS FOR SPIDER USED FOR HANDLING SMALL SIZES OF PIPE Fig. 98. FAIR ELEVATOR Fig. 99. SCOTT ELEVATOR Fig. 100. WILSON ELEVATOR DRILLING METHODS 107 device known as the latch holds the body together when in use. The Union single-link elevator (Fig. 101) possesses advantages in handling the larger sizes of casing. It has no hinge, but grasps the pipe by the insertion of two bushings (Fig. 102), after the body of the elevator has been lowered below the coupling. The casing-shoe is placed upon a joint and tightened until it butts with the latter upon the shoulder, after which, hot babbitt is poured into the recess between the sleeve of the shoe and the pipe. This is done to prevent the shoe from unscrewing as well as to strengthen it. Casing is inserted one length after the other until Fig. 102. BUSHING FOR SINGLE-LINK ELEVATOR Fig. 101. SINGLE-LINK ELEVATOR bottom is reached, care being taken to see that the threads are properly lubricated and the joints screwed straight. Each is started and screwed by hand after which a jerk-line is run to the crank- shaft, and the engine used to securely tighten the coupling', both at the 'mill' end and the 'well' end of the latter. Heavy pipe tongs are required for this work and are counterweighted at the swinging end so that no help is required to pull them back for a fresh hold. Casing \2 l / 2 -m. diameter is generally used inside a string of 16-in. stove-pipe and is carried as far as possible, the average string in California being about 1500 ft. in deep-well drilling. After being landed, the \2 l / 2 -m. casing can be cut off 50 or 60 ft. up inside the 108 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS ' Casing SO <5aaino Head 16-in. stove-pipe, effecting a saving in pipe. An adapter (Fig. 103), which acts as a guide for the 10-in. is placed upon the top of the cut portion of the 12^2-in. to permit the smaller size pipe being lowered without dan- jrwe p/pe ger of hanging up. If the 10-in., when landed, has not been used to shut out water, it can also be cut a few feet from the shoe of the \2 l /2-\n. The water-string, however, should extend to the surface, where it is sus- pended on landing-clamps which are placed under the top collar. A short string called a 'liner' can be used to run into the oil-sand, thus effecting a saving in pipe. The blue shale in one locality may be firm and cause no trouble, while the blue shale in an adjoining district may cause considerable trouble because of its caving and unstable character. It is therefore impossible to fore- see or to judge conditions until they are actually met, and for this reason no set rule obtains for the handling of pipe or the drilling of wells. As before stated, the tools work more satisfactorily when 10 to 25 ft. below the shoe, the bit having more latitude for cutting a maximum hole. The casing should be kept low enough, however, to prevent the rope- socket from going below it, for should the drilling-line part, a difficult fishing job may be caused when the tools have a chance to lean against the wall of the hole instead of stand- ing upright in the casing. When under-reaming, casing should be at least 5 or 6 ft. above where the under-reamer is working, to pre- vent its striking the shoe. It is not always necessary to under-ream shale, but the hole through clay and all hard formations should be enlarged to permit free passage of all 103. RECOVERY OF debris which might otherwise wedge in be- PORTIONS OF THE 12% tween the collar and the wall and stick the AND 10-IN. STRINGS ,, M ... OF CASING casing. Where boulders occur, the use of the ~ S 141 this occupies about a half hour. Since what is desired is a tight bond, rather than strength, no sand is mixed with the cement. It sometimes happens, particularly with the early wells drilled in a new field, that after the productive sands have been drilled and the well is carried still deeper the so-called 'bottom' water is encountered, in water-bearing strata situated below the oil-sands (Fig. 132). The exclusion of such water is liable to be more difficult than that of the top water because of the presence of gas and oil in the hole, especially when the lower water occurs o* f^fy Fig. 132. LOG SHOWING WATER-SAND 2 FT. BELOW OIL-SAND Fig. 133. LOG OF WELL IN WHICH WATER WAS FOUND BELOW A 71-FT. OIL-SAND only a few feet below the oil-sand. Particular care must be exercised, under such conditions, in gauging the amount of cement injected, so that its level does not rise to the oil-sand and inter- fere with the production from the latter. If a streak of hard ground is between the two measures it may be possible to drive pieces of stone and brick, with a few sacks of cement, into this space and form a plug that will prevent the water from rising. If a distance of 2 ft. or more intervene between the oil-sand and the water-bearing strata (Fig. 133) a 'bridge' may be formed in the hole above the water measure by driving down tightly bricks, stones, etc. These tend to hold back the water temporarily and provide a landing place for a body of cement, which is 142 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS pumped in through a string of tubing, run in until it is a few feet above the bridge. A similar bridge is also used when after the oil-sand has been penetrated and the well is finished, it is found that the water has broken in around the casing-shoe of the water-string. In such a case it is necessary, if the water- string can be loosened, to pull it a short distance up the hole and build a bridge a few feet below its old landing place, thus providing an artificial bottom for the hole while cementing the water-string by some of the methods described. In this way the bridge prevents the entrance of the cement into the productive measure. In other instances, however, it is found to be impossible to loosen or move the entire water-string and either the next smaller size pipe must be inserted and cemented where the bridge is formed, or else the original string is cut off at a point where it can be moved and the hole re-drilled from this point off at the side of the original hole. Should the latter alternative be fol- lowed, the bottom of the old water-string should be filled with cement above the bridge prior to cutting it so that there will be no subsequent infiltration of water to the oil-sand through this old hole. CHAPTER VI. PRODUCTION. Flowing Wells. Flowing wells are encountered in nearly every oil field of importance and are often of such violence as completely to destroy the rig* and damage the casing in the well. The gas pressure throws the sand out with a force so great that it often cuts through heavy steel plates in a few hours, while the rig timbers fall rapidly before the blast. Such wells as the Dos Bocas in Mexico, the Lucas at Spindle Top, the Lake View in California, and the great Baku gusher in Russia produced thousands of tons of oil and sand before they ceased flowing, the first tearing a great hole in the surface of the ground before it subsided. Where -a heavy flow is unexpected, and no prepara- tions for capping have been made, to gain control is exceedingly difficult, often impossible. When a stream of oil is shooting into the air, there is naturally a heavy loss, especially of the lighter oils. To prevent this, boiler shells placed upon skids, or heavy timbers reinforced with steel plates on exposed surfaces are drawn over the hole at the derrick floor and prevented from being thrown off by wire slings anchored to the derrick sills. The oil is caught in earthen sumps excavated near the derrick, and, when the flow has abated somewhat, efforts are usually made to get the well under control. The Lake View gusher was controlled by placing a levee around the derrick 12 to 15 ft. higher than the mouth of the well. The oil, accumulating inside the embankment, acted as a cushion and prevented the flow from shooting into the air (Fig. 134). Most operators do not believe in checking the flow entirely, for this might result in choking the underground oil-channels, thus ruining the well, the idea being, rather, to attach a heavy gate or blow-out preventer to the top column of the oil-string with a tee above the gate, if one be used, and the oil conveyed through a lead-line to proper storage. Extensions of all turns in the lead-line should be made with a nipple and cap to allow the oil to cushion, thus saving the fittings from cutting out by sand. 144 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Should the flow be expected, the gate or other safety appliance may be installed in advance of the time of bringing in the well, when considerable loss of oil can be avoided. The pressure is Fig. 134. LAKE VIEW GUSHER AT THE LAST STAGES OF ITS ACTIVITY often so great, however, that the heaviest fittings do not stand (Fig. 135). In this case the well is temporarily capped with timbers or a steel shell until such time as' it can be properly controlled. It is usual, in high-pressure districts, to fill in around the outer casing with concrete to a depth .f 15 or 20 ft. and Fig. 135. DAMAGE DUE TO HEAVY FLOW OF GAS, OIL AND SAND securely anchor the strings of casing to the concrete block and to each other by means of casing-clamps and bolts, thus prevent- ing any damage to the casing. Wells maintaining pressure as PRODUCTION 145 high as 1000 Ibs. are safely handled in this way. Although running the oil into earthen sumps causes considerable loss through seepage and evaporation, it is not always possible to do otherwise until the flow has abated. A large percentage of the oil from gushers is generally lost in this way, particularly so if the oil is of a high gravity. When the flow is going above the derrick, it is often possible to place heavy timbers across the second or third girts from the floor, which act as buffers and prevent loss. Occasionally a flowing well takes fire, and when Fig. 136. BURNING TANK OF OIL AFTER BURNING TWO HOURS AFTER BURNING EIGHT HOURS Upper Courses of Tank White-Hot the well is not capped it is often a difficult matter to extinguish the blaze. If a sufficient number of boilers is available nearby, the use of steam is often successful in snuffing out the fire. Chemicals such as sodium bicarbonate and sulphuric acid are also successful at times if used in large quantities. Another method is to tunnel 8 or 10 ft. under the surface to the casing at which point it can be dynamited or squeezed together with jacks. The oil in this case runs out through the tunnel, lessening the flow on top, so that the flame can be extinguished by an application of steam. Danger from fire cannot be overestimated, for fire means 146 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS loss of property and often of life before being extinguished. Every precaution should be taken to guard against fire around oil-well derricks and tanks (Fig.- 136). When a well is flowing and not under control, the neighboring boilers should be shut down and spectators kept at a safe distance. It is a good idea to com- pletely fence the gusher and to install the boilers at a safe distance and at a point where the wind does not usually pass the derrick first. Intermittent Flowing Wells. Where the oil and gas-pressure has diminished on steadily-flowing wells, they often flow for some time at intervals, maintaining a steady production. Many wells in the older fields start their initial production in this way. Enough oil accumulates in the column of casing to hold down the gas temporarily, causing the pressure to rise, and the con- tents to discharge through the lead line. The gas continues blowing after the oil has been expelled, until such time as the oil Fig. 137. CASING AND PIPE-HEAD rises high enough in the casing. Then, after a period of quiet, the flow is repeated. Eventually the gas pressure becomes so low that other means must be resorted to for inducing the flow. Artificial Flowing of Oil Wells. In some localities, particularly where the gravity of the oil is low, the oil-string is pulled back to the top of the sand and the next smaller size inserted to the bottom. The latter, called the 'agitating-string,' is moved up and down by the calf wheels through a space of 50 or 75 ft. in order to enliven the gas, thus making a flow by capillary attraction in the small annular space between the strings. A tee is placed on the oil-string with a stand-pipe sufficiently high to prevent the oil running over, thus forcing it through the lead-line to storage. Where the gravity is light, the oil-string can be pulled back to the top of the sand and set on packing clamps, upon the next larger string, the latter having a collar (Fig. 137) with two 2-in. holes tapped and threaded, into which the lead-lines are screwed. PRODUCTION 147 It is not unusual to see a well flowing between the strings at the same time that pumping is being carried on inside the oil string. A packing-clamp is also made similar to a stuffing box; it is screwed into the collar of the next larger size of pipe and the oil-string raised or lowered through it for 'agitation' purposes. The swab is often used to start the flow by being run into the Fig. 141. LARKIN HOOK WALL- Fig. 138. COMMON Fig. 139. STEM Fig. 140. LARKIN PACKER PUMPING SWAB SWAB WITH HOOK WALL- TYPE, WITH GAS PLUNGER VALVE PACKER ESCAPE well and rapidly withdrawn. With two bull' ropes, a column of from 1600 to 1800 ft. of fluid can be lifted, but only in screw- casing, as the inside lap of stove-pipe casing would cause ex- cessive leakage. The swab (Figs. 138 and 139), which is run on the stem, has a rubber ring placed over 3-in. pipe, the latter threaded at the lower end to permit tightening to expand the 148 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS CROSS HE AD WALKING BEAM POLISHED ffOD LEAD L/NE Fig. 142. OIL-WELL PUMP- ING OUTFIT rubber to the bore of the casing. Holes are drilled through the body to communicate with the 3-in. pipe in order to permit pas- sage of the oil when the swab is being run in. A vertical check-valve is attached to the bottom to prevent leakage when lifting the column. Swabs are also used to clear the perforations by drawing the sand or shale into the casing where it can be bailed or drilled out. Bailing is often successful in inducing a well to flow, the bailer being run to bottom and rapidly withdrawn. This agitates the gas and causes the oil to flow. Again, a 2 or 3-in tubing with a packer (Figs. 140 and 141) is placed at a safe distance from the bottom to prevent its becoming sanded. The oil will then rise in the smaller column and often flow steadily. Care should be taken in placing the packer that no leakage occurs around it or that no passages are cut through the rubber later on, for once sand gets above it, considerable risk is at- tached to its withdrawal from the well. In fact, many operators prefer running on the tubing a swage-nipple of nearly the same diameter as the oil-string instead of the packer, for this reason. Pumping. When a well has ceased STAND/NG VALVE flowing, or cannot be made to flow by reason of a low gas-pressure when the sand is first struck, it is usually put to pumping. This is the common method of extracting oil from the wells through- out nearly all fields. Pumping is ac- complished by means of a deep-well pump, which is lowered on tubing to a sufficient depth to insure ample submer- sion, but in wells where the production is light the walking beam need only be run at intervals as the oil accumulates. The UPPER CAGE GAR BUTT #OD WORKING BARREL CAS ANCHOR PRODUCTION 149 size of the tubing is generally 3-in. with llj/2-thread couplings, although 2 to 4 in. is used, the latter having 8-thread couplings. All tubing is heavier than the same sizes of line-pipe, and wells 4000-ft. deep may be pumped with profit. The actual lift of fluid, however, should not exceed 3000 ft., for at deeper levels the strain on the equipment is excess- ive, and parting of rods or tubing might result. The pump or working-bar- rel is from 3 to 20 ft. long, 6 ft. being the common length (Fig. 143). For a 3-in. work- ing-barrel, the inside bore is 2^4 in., some manufacturers using a liner of this size rather than to bore the bar- rel itself. A hollow steel plunger, which closely fits the barrel, is equipped with a valve at the top, while a nut is screwed into the lower end, which supports the gar- butt-rod when pulling the sucker rods. The garbutt- rod, y% in. by 3 ft., has a (three-winged nut at its up- ( per end which rests upon the Valve rod Shoe Sprint? ( iarhult nut Spring nut Spring Bushing Spring Valve cage Standing valve Shoe Fig. 145. 1'AUKKR PLUNGER PUMP OR WORKING BARREL Fig. 146. VALVES IN PARKER PUMP Fig. 147. FUTHIE IITVELEY PLUNGER PUMP 152 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS set upon the standing valve and the two deflectors raise the valves, allowing the fluid to flow back, thus washing out the sand. In this way the pump can be cleared of sand without removing it from the well. A string of sucker-rods, either wooden with iron connections or solid iron or steel, is used to work the plunger. The wooden rods (Fig. 148) which are used in the Canadian and some of the eastern oil fields of the United States are made of ash or oak from 1^ to 3*/2-in., Fig. 148. WOOD SUCKER Fig. 149. STEEL SUCKER Fig. 150. POLISHED ROD OR PUMP RODS RODS with iron couplings from ^ to \y 2 in. The iron or steel rods (Fig. 149) are 20 ft. long, from 9 / ie to 1 in. diameter, with % to 1*4 -in. couplings, and are extensively used in all oil fields, being far superior to the wooden rods for pumping heavy-gravity oil or pumping through PRODUCTION 153 small tubing at depths of over 1500 ft. The sucker rods are connected by a substitute to the upper valve cage and extend the entire length of the tubing to the polished rod (Fig. 150). The latter is l l /% in. by 10 or 20 ft. and works through a stuffing-box placed in the tee at the top of the tubing (Fig. 151). It is held in place by a 2-in. adjuster-grip (Fig. 152) which can be loosened to raise or lower the string of sucker-rods as desired. The grip is screwed into 2-in. by 10-ft. pipe, the latter being coupled to a crosshead- Fig. 151. Fig. 152. STUFFING BOX AND GLANDS SINGLE ADJUST- DOUBLE ADJUST- ER GRIP ER GRIP tee which rests on top of the walking-beam. For deep-well pump- ing, temper screws are often left at the well and used in place of the 2-in. pipe and grip, while special pumping devices can also be purchased which are stronger and more reliable than the ordinary 2-in. pipe. The polished rod may extend into the 2-in. grip-pipe, thus making allowance for shortening or lengthening a string of rods, the stroke of the pump being from 18 to 36 inches. A Fig. 153. TWO-WAY CASING-HEAD Fig. 154. TWO-WAY CASING-HEAD WITH TWO-HOLE TOP OUTLET casing-head (Figs. 153 and 154) is attached to a nipple screwed into the top coupling of the oil-string and a recess in the top in which a plate sets. The plate has an opening large enough to admit the tubing-collar. When the last joint of tubing has been placed in the well, a tubing-ring large enough to cover the opening in the plate and having a hole small enough to engage the 154 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS tubing-collar is slipped over the joint and the tubing set upon the casing-head, gaskets having been previously placed under the plate and rings. The casing-head is a casting, having 2 or 3-in. outlets on the sides for oil or gas, the weight of the tubing upon the plate preventing their escape, forcing them into the line attached to the opening. Enough gas is usually collected in this way to fire the boiler or run the gas engines. A lead-line connected to the tee on the tubing conveys the oil to storage. After the tubing has been set upon the casing-head, the plunger, with a standing-valve attached by the garbutt-rod, is lowered to the shoe of the working-barrel by the sucker rods. These are raised and lowered several times upon the standing-valve through a space of 1 to 2 ft. to insure that it is properly seated. The rods are pulled back sufficiently to prevent the plunger striking the 'stand- ing valve when the full stroke of the beam is used. The wrist-pin is usually placed in the first hole of the crankshaft, making a pump- stroke of about 24 inches. On the upward stroke, the valve is closed and the plunger sucks in the oil, the standing valve being open. On the downward stroke, the upper valve opens, the lower valve closes and the plunger descends for another load. Gas-anchors placed on the bottom of the working-barrel often relieve the pressure on the valves; a joint of tubing is perforated with ^J to y 2 -'m. holes for 3 or 4 ft. near the barrel, and a plug screwed into the coupling at the lower end. A piece of 1^-in. pipe 5 to 10 ft. long is attached to the lower end of the standing-valve and extends below the perfora- tions in the tubing. When the oil is drawn into the working barrel, it must travel through the perforations and thence downward to the lower end of the l*/2-in. pipe before it can enter the pump. The gas, instead of following a downward course, rises outside the tubing to the casing-head. When the plunger becomes worn, production gradually lowers to a point where a renewal of the pump is necessary. Nearly all oil carries with it more or less sand, which cuts and wears the plungers rapidly. Many wells, particularly in the fields of the Eastern and Southern United States, may be pumped for long intervals before renewals are required, while in some of the Western fields, it is not uncommon for the pump to last only a few days. A pulling-gang of three or four men is kept by every oil company to perform this work. When 'pulling' a well, the beam is 'taken down' by disengaging the pitman from the crank and lowering the end of the beam which points towards the engine house, so that the end inside the derrick PRODUCTION 155 swings up and is out of the way. The rods are pulled, including both valves, three joints at a time. The tubing is pulled in stands of three joints and stood back in the derrick. This work requires the better part of a day where the well is being pumped at a depth of 2000 ft. Should the pump 'sand up,' the plunger is held fast so the rods and tubing are pulled together. This is a disagreeable task, as the tubing is always full of fluid and when a stand is unscrewed, the oil spurts over the floor. The bull-wheels are used for this character of work, except in deep holes, where the calf-wheels are sometimes employed. Many pumping-wells do not throw oil out of the lead-line at every Fig. 155. UNSCREWING TUBING WHILE PULLING A 'WET' HOLE stroke of the beam, for the gas usually expels the contents of the tubing at intervals when the weight of the column of oil has been reduced sufficiently by the gas to cause a flow. The sucker-rods by their movement, keep the gas agitated and cause the flow to be re- peated, the valves often working intermittently to raise the oil. Again some wells will make a small production through the tubing without aid from the pump, while others require a constant agitation of the gas to cause the well to flow. Only by experimenting with each individual well can the right method be determined for obtaining the 156 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS maximum production. One well may produce satisfactorily with a packer or swaged nipple, another by compressed air, while a neigh- boring well may use pumps to the best advantage. There is no set rule as to the depth to tube a well for pumping, but in most instances the tubing should be lowered as near to bottom as possible without Fig. 156. MODEL SAND PUMP OR BAILER Fig. 157. LARKIN BAILER danger of 'sanding up' the pump. Many wells, however, make more oil when pumped a hundred feet or so from the sand, while a few may require tubing several hundred feet up to obtain any production whatever. Sand-plugs or 'bridges' make their appearance in produc- ing-wells and are removed from the casing by bailing or drilling. The PRODUCTION 157 forms of bailers shown in Figs. 156 and 157 are successful for getting out the sand. The presence of water in the well is always a source of expense and annoyance, for it aids in bridging the sand and plugging the pump. Gas pockets often form in the pump-chamber, interfering with the action of the valves by being alternately ex- Fig. 158. BAND-WHEEL PUMPING POWER panded and compressed. This condition is hard to overcome, the gas-anchor not always preventing admission of gas to the working barrel. Constant improvements, however, are being made and it is to be hoped that this trouble will finally be eliminated. 158 Oil, PRODUCTION METHODS Multiple Pumping. For pumping deep wells and wells which give considerable trouble from sanding, the walking-beam is used with steam, gas engines or electric motors, for power. Where the wells are grouped, particularly in shallow territory, it is customary to install multiple pumping-powers. The ordinary power (Fig. 158) consists of a horizontal shaft which, through bevel gearing, drives a vertical shaft upon which is placed one or more eccentrics. Holes are bored in the outer flanges of the latter, to which the jerker, or transmis- sion-line leading to the well is attached. The jerker-line is pulled a distance corresponding to the throw of the eccentric at each revolution, producing a horizontal stroke of from 18 to 30 inches. The power is furnished by steam, gas engine, or motors and can be arranged to pump as many as 25 1600-ft. wells or 18 2500-ft. wells. The jack, made of iron or wood (Fig. 159), is placed over the well at the der- rick-floor and securely fastened to the casing head or floor. The horizontal motion imparted by the jerker-line is changed to a recipro- cating vertical motion (Fig. 160). Multiple pumping, wherever prac- ticable, reduces the cost of producing oil very materially. Compressed Air. The use of compressed air as a medium of lifting the oil has found favor in many oil fields, especially where the encroachment by water has rendered it impossible to obtain production by plunger-pumping or other means. The air-lift, however, is not sat- isfactory for raising oil of heavy gravity. The oil is so viscous that the air collects in large globules and finally 'blows through' the fluid without carrying the oil with it. On light-gravity wells, or on wells where the percentage of water is high, it works successfully, main- taining a large production at low cost. A slight drop in gravity gen- erally results when a compressor is 1 ised. The ordinary compressor for blowing wells is of the compound type, capable of a maximum pressure of at least 500 Ibs. and with a working of 350 Ibs., while the output of air is about 300 cubic ft. of free air per minute under nor- mal conditions. Mr. Edward A. Rix* says: "In a test of air-lift systems in the Kern River field made by the Peerless company, pumping a mixture of water with 20% oil at an average lift of 470 ft., with an average submergence of 40% and an average length of discharge pipe of 800 ft., they found as the average of many tests, air-pressure, 152 Ib. ; free air per minute, 140 cu. ft.; gallons of fluid per minute, 93 ; cubic feet of free air per gallon of fluid, 1.5; ratio of free air to fluid pumped, 11. Ninety-three gallons of fluid per minute is equivalent to 3400 bbl. per day. The above ^Western Engineering, August, 1912. PRODUCTION 159 pumping was done through 3-in. tubing with 1*4 -in. air pipes, and both the straight air systems and also two other so-called patented systems, with the result that no gain was shown by the patented sys- Fig. 159. JONES AND HAMMOND PUMPING-JACK terns ; and while on this subject it might be well to say that one well was piped as many as thirteen times, using the straight air system and after each piping better results were shown ; in fact, the variation Fig. 160. PUMPING WITH SIMPLE JACK 160 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS in pipe sizes and ratio of submergence, all within reasonable limits, show a marked variation in economy. The results show conclusively that not only the ratio of submergence, but also the relative amounts of air and water being pumped influence the economy; the gravity of oil also offers its troubles, and there is, over and above all these, the question of the size of the discharge pipe for the fluid, and it is a vital question. Too large a pipe is fatal, because the air slips by; too small a pipe is equally bad, because the air escapes and the expansion is checked. The proper size is a matter of experience based on an average velocity of from 6 to 8 ft. per second in the pipe or about 12 to 18 gal. per square inch of area of discharge pipe." Various forms of air-lifts have been tried out, A. Beeby Thompson having successfully used an apparatus (Fig. 161) in which 4-in. tubing is placed to bottom with 10 ft. of J^-in. perforations in the lower joints and 2 to 2^ -in. column inserted inside the 4-in. "to a depth in the fluid equal to at least twice the distance from the level of the liquid to the surface." An air-head is placed at the surface and the air is forced down the 4-in. tubing outside the smaller tubing and returns inside the 2 or 2^2 -in. tubing, forcing out the dead oil and later carrying up the aerated fluid. This form of air-lift has also been successfully used in the United States. The Associated Oil Co. in California used an air-lift as shown in Fig. 162. An ordinary plunger pump is often used in conjunction with compressed air when the well is making water, the pump being placed at a point above the water level where the oil contains little water. The air- lift raises the water with a small percentage of oil while the pump raises oil with a small percentage of water. Where water from one well is flooding the territory the air-lift is installed to protect the neighboring wells and the latter kept pumping, the reduced water- level making it possible to obtain more oil. In the Kern River fields, it was found by continuous blowing of the key well that production in neighboring wells was materially increased. In many cases, how- ever, where there is no water present, the air-lift has not met with such pronounced success, but this can be attributed largely to lack of sufficient oil in the well to furnish a continuous stream. When the latter condition obtains, plunger-pumping is usually the only alternative. Perforations. The question of perforations to be used in the oil- string is an important one. There is no rule governing the size or quantity in any particular oil field and in many cases only by re- peated trial is a perforation found which gives a maximum produc- PRODUCTION 161 Oil /?// In fare Fig. 162. STANDARD SURFACE CONNECTIONS FOR AIR-LIFT PUMPING Fig. 161. THOMPSON'S HEAD-GEAR COMPRESSED-AIR PUMPING FOR 162 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS tion. The gravity of the oil, the amount of sand the well makes, the quality of sand, that is, whether fine or coarse, the presence of shale or mud and the percentage, if any, of water, all have to be con- sidered. In light gravity oils it often happens that the perforations become clogged with shale or mud. This prevents the oil from entering the pipe, thus reducing production. This condition sometimes may be remedied by repeated swabbing, by moving the casing to remove the shale from the perforations, by washing the oil or, in extreme cases, by withdrawing the oil-string from the sand until the shoe is just above the latter, the light oil working its way through the cavings and up into the casing. In washing, the oil is pumped cold or hot down the tubing for a period of a half-hour or more, a 3-in. tee having been previously attached to the bottom of the tubing to force the flow directly against the perforations. Some operators pull the standing-valve out of the barrel and simply pump the oil down the tubing without lowering the latter. The well will show an appreciable gain until the perforations again become clogged, when washing is again repeated. Some wells require washing every few days, while others will pump satisfactorily for several weeks. A low gravity oil usually carries a large percentage of sand, and when first put to pumping often occasions considerable expense and trouble until the percentage of sand is reduced by reason of a cavity formed in the sand around the oil-string. If the sand is fine, with a small percentage of water present, repeated sanding of the pump occurs and there is no perforation which will help this condition, continued bailing being the only means of removing the sand. In some of the Russian fields the wells cannot be pumped because of an excessive quantity of sand, and production is obtained only by steady bailing. Should the sand be coarse, however, different makes of screens or screen-pipe have been devised whereby the sand is excluded from the casing, allowing the oil to come freely through the interstices. In one form, the pipe is wound with a tapered wire over ^-in. or j^-in. round holes, the wire preventing large particles from entering the pipe, while in another, the holes are plugged with 'buttons' having small slots, which answer about the same purpose as the wire. Wells in California producing from 20 to 40 barrels a day have been increased in production to 100 to 250 barrels -a day, while in the southern fields of the United States the use of this pipe is almost universal. For ordinary producing wells in California, where the gravity of oil is light, % to ^-in. round perforations are used, J^-in. being the common size. The holes are bored with a drill, each joint having PRODUCTION 163 three to six rows, from 4 to 12 in. apart. Many operators prefer perforating the casing with slotted holes, in the well after it has been landed (Fig. 201), the holes being y^ by \V 2 -m. for heavy oil and ^ by y% for light oil with three or four rows to the joint. Should an oil-string become frozen while drilling into the oil-sand, it can al- ways be perforated in the well. Shooting Wells. Where the formation containing the oil is hard, such as the limestone and sandstone found in the fields of the eastern and central United States, a better production is often obtained by blasting the oil-bearing rock. A high explosive, such as nitro- glycerine, is carefully poured into long cylindrical cans made for the purpose. The depth of the well to the oil-bearing strata is first carefully ascertained and the charge lowered to the desired position. A firing-head is placed at the top of the upper can and a 'go devil/ a piece of .cast iron with wings for a guide, is dropped upon the firing-head. After the blast, the hole is thoroughly cleaned out, leaving a cavity in the oil-formation where the oil may gather. The production in a well with hard formation is usually increased ap- preciably by shooting, but care should be exercised in the quantity of explosive used, for an excessive charge may result in breaking the formation to such an extent as to ruin the well. The usual shot is from 10 to 300 quarts of nitro-glycerine, depending upon the forma- tion. A shale or soft stratum may be so compacted by a blast that the oil cannot penetrate it. Shooting has been tried in the 'tight' oil-sands in California but with indifferent success. Dehydrating Oil. When water is present in a free state in oil, it is easily separated by heating with steam. The latter is piped into a storage tank in 1 or 2-in. coils, the coils being placed horizontally from 4 to 6 in. from bottom. They should be kept covered with water in order to prevent the hot oil from adhering to them. A temperature of 100 to 150 F. is usually sufficient to cause the water to settle to the bottom, where it is drawn from the tank by a valve placed for the purpose. Should the oil be emulsified, the problem of separating the water is not so simple, additional equipment being necessary for the purpose. An emulsified oil is one in which the water portion carries a mineral salt in solution, the latter acting as a saponifying agent and surrounding the globule with a membrane or skin which sometimes cannot be broken by steaming, even at the boiling point. The emulsion is reddish brown in color, has a jelly-like appearance and is extremely viscous. The belief that it contains shale or other foreign matter 164 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS is erroneous, although its appearance as a mass is deceiving. It often runs as high as 75% in oils, although the latter percentage undoubtedly contains a great deal of free water. A 35% emulsion, however, is common and quite as difficult to separate as are the higher percentages. The problem that confronts the operator is not only one of breaking up the globules by rupturing the encasing membrane, but in saving the volatile portions of the oil, which naturally tend to evaporate under the extreme heat conditions necessary. Four systems which have been successfully and economically used will be described. I. Dehydrating by Electricity. This method, known as the Cottrell process,* has been successfully used on emulsions of vary- ing proportions. The oil is first allowed to flow through the wetted septum water trap A (Fig. 163), and during its passage through this trap the free water is deposited on the wetted septum 2 and passes down it to the bottom of the trap and so away through outlet 3, which is so adjusted as to height as to make it self-regulating. The desired oil level in the trap is maintained by means of float valve 1, which controls the supply. From this trap the oil and water emulsion is discharged through outlet 4, whence it is taken by the rotary pump 5 and delivered to the treaters B. In cases where the contour of the ground permits, the wetted septum water trap may be placed at an elevation above the treaters, thus securing gravity feed and making rotary pump 5 unnecessary. The wetted septum 2 is merely a pervious canvas bag which has been thoroughly wetted with water, and is long enough to reach below the permanent water-level in the lower element of the trap. Under these conditions the canvas has an affinity for water, but not for oil. When the mixture of emulsion and free water, in its passage through the trap, reaches the canvas, the emulsion passes through, while the water, for which the canvas has an affinity, is deposited on and drawn down the canvas to join the main body of water. The treaters B consist of a sheet-metal tank 6, cylindrical for the major part of its height, but having an inverted conical top portion 7. The object of this increase in diameter near the top is to lengthen the distance between the electrodes along the surface of the oil, and thus prevent surface leakage. An outer electrode is formed by tightly stretching a number of wires 8 from a ring 9 at the base of the inverted cone to a * Western Engineering, April. 1912. PRODUCTION 165 circular plate 10 fastened to the bottom of the tank. Outside this electrode is a wetted septum 11. An inner electrode is formed by tightly stretching wires 12 between two circular plates 13 suspended in the tank by vertical shaft 14. The wires of the inner electrode are parallel to, and exactly concentric with, the wires of the outer electrode. The inner electrode is supported by a clamp 15 on the shaft 14, riding on a bearing saddle 16, which in turn is supported by the channel-iron frame 17 on insulators 18. 166 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS The vertical shaft 14 is rotated through insulating shaft 19, and universal joint 20 by the shaft and gearing 21, the latter being operated by a small electric motor. The treater has a cover 22 with a large circular opening in the centre through which the inner electrode passes. The top ring of the treater is made of pipe which is perforated with a large number of holes pointing horizontally, and which is connected through valve 24 to a steam supply; this valve is normally held closed by wire 25 and fusible link 26, but in the event of the oil in the treater catching fire, the fusible link will melt, releasing valve 24, and so filling the space below the cover with steam and choking the fire out. The oil enters the treater at inlet 27 (the flow being regulated by the size of the inlet orifice), and is maintained at a suitable temperature, depending on the viscosity, by means of a steam coil 28. After treatment the oil and water are discharged through outlet 29 and proceed to the separator C. The inner electrode is connected through the saddle and frame with a source of electricity at a voltage between 10,000 and 15,000. The action of the electricity is to create a strong electrostatic field between the electrodes. As the emulsion under treatment comes between these electrodes the infinitely small particles of water, being conductors of electricity, will be formed into chains from electrode to electrode along the electrostatic lines of force, and, if the voltage be sufficiently high, the fine films of non- conducting oil between the water particles will be punctured, bringing the entire chain together in the form of one comparatively large drop. This drop is now free water and is deposited on the septum 11 and conveyed to the bottom of the treater. It may happen, however, that so many chains of water particles are formed at the same instant, that they constitute a short circuit between the electrodes, thus lowering the voltage below that point at which it can puncture the oil films. In order to prevent such short-circuiting, the inner electrode is rotated, which gives the desired result, probably owing to the lengthening of the chain between corresponding wires in the outer and inner electrodes as the latter is revolved. The separator C is merely a device for quickly and auto- matically separating the oil and water. The mixture enters at inlet 30, and the clean oil rises and flows away to the delivery tanks through outlet 31, while the water drops and is discharged through pipe 32 in a clear stream. As in the case of the wetted septum trap, the height of outlet 32 is so adjusted as to make the PRODUCTION 167 flow self-regulating, the controlling factor being the water-level in the lower element of the trap. 2. Dehydrating by Direct Heat. There are many variations of this method in use, but the principal objection to most of them is the lack of provision for preventing loss by evaporation. A system which has been patented, however, overcomes this objection and can be used at a cost of 3 to 4 c. per barrel including a royalty of 1 c. per barrel, the cost of installing the separator being about $1500. The oil to be treated enters a series of four or six 12-in. pipes connected by return bends and placed in sets of two about 30 in. above the furnace floor. The back ends of the inside walls have a flue space 12 in. wide and the heat runs the entire length of the furnace through the flue space and up around the evaporator which is bricked in, leaving an open space of about 6 inches. The evaporator is a cylinder 4 by 20 ft. of 5 / 16 - in. steel having a conical bottom and resting upon a foundation of brick. The oil is heated in the retort to a temperature of from 375 to 425 F. and passes through a 4-in. line into the top of the evaporator. Inside the latter are five baffle plates made of gal- vanized iron, having deeply serrated edges and projecting within 1 in. of the side of the evaporator. The baffle plates are held in the centres by lock nuts on a 6-in. pipe which has four large open- ings immediately below each plate. The latter are perforated with %-in. holes except the top one, which is solid. The oil, upon being introduced into the evaporator, strikes the top plate, spreads to the sides and runs down the evaporator in a thin film, the perforated plates preventing the oil from entering the openings in the 6-in. pipe. At such temperatures as 400 F. the volatile parts of the oil and the water are in the form of vapors, and enter the openings in the 6-in. pipe as such, while the non- volatile parts, including the mineral salts, continue their downward course and are drawn off at the bottom of the evaporator. The 6-in. column has three take-offs which convey the vapors out the side of the evaporator and into the discharge-lines. Both the outgoing oil and the vapors are run through pipes which are enveloped with larger-sized lines which convey the oil entering the retorts. Thus the heat of the outgoing fluid is absorbed largely by the incoming fluid, effecting a considerable saving in heat units, at the same time effectually cooling the treated product. The vapors are further condensed by being gravitated through a water jacket and enter a tank separate from the residuum, where the 168 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS water and emulsion can readily be drawn off. The 'tops' or lighter portions, can then be mixed with the residuum and the whole shipped to the purchaser. A unit plant will readily clean 1500 or 2000 bbls. of oil a day, leaving no traces of emulsion, and it will be found that the gravity has been raised from y 2 to 1 due to the fact that the emulsions have been eliminated. The temperature should not exceed 450 F., the latter heat being more than sufficient to break up the emulsions and vaporize the water. The treated oil should be gravitated after entering the evaporator, as the latter should never have a pressure exceeding 25 Ibs. per square inch. The retorts and larger lines can be made up from discarded casing to reduce cost, and tees should be used in place of elbows when the percentage of mineral salt is large, as the latter is apt to clog the lines at the turns after being liberated from the water. A steam connection at each tee will keep the bends clear. This system can be used successfully on any emulsified oil with an oc- casional replacement of the retorts which burn out in time. j. Dehydrating by Compressed Air. The Milliff dehydrating system has met with success in treating emulsion by the use of com- pressed air. An air pressure sufficient to overcome the weight of the oil is maintained by an air compressor through a 3-in. line which passes under a boiler furnace at which it is heated to a temperature of 1000 F. The heated air is conveyed through an insulated line to a tank 8 ft. diameter and 20 ft. high at which it enters at the bottom. A fire screen is used in the line to prevent hot cinders or sparks from coming in contact with the oil, and a thermometer is placed near the tank for temperature readings. The air enters the tank at the bottom through a spider with four 3-in. wings having x / 16 -in. holes and intermingles with the oil in the form of globules of varying size. The heat from the air attacks the water, turning it into steam, at the same time liberating the oil from the emulsion globule and carry- ing the steam upward to the surface, where it is dissipated into the atmosphere, at the same time dropping the excess water to the bottom in a free state where it can be drawn off. One set of heater pipes in the boiler-furnace cleaned 140,000 barrels of oil at the Port Costa pumping station of the Associated pipe line. The oil contained an emulsion of 30 to 60% and tested less than 1% after treating by this process. 4. Dehydrating by Indirect Heat. In cases where the emul- sion is not too refractory, the oil may be pumped into the bottom of a tank 8 by 20 ft. through a spider with from PRODUCTION 169 y% to V ic -in. holes. About 500 ft. of 2-in. pipe for a steam coil should be used, and the tank should contain at least 10 ft. of water, which should be heated and maintained at a temperature of from 150 to 200 F. As oil and water have different coefficients of expansion, they will separate upon going through the heated water, the oil rising to the top while the water mingles with that below. The latter can- be drawn off whenever necessary, to keep a level of about 10 feet. These methods are all continuous, and can be installed in units large enough to dehydrate 500 to 20,000 barrels of oil a day. Handling Oil. In pumping-wells, or wells flowing at a moderate rate, the oil can be pumped to storage without appreciable loss if the proper precautions are taken. All pipe lines of the gather- ing-system should be laid in trenches and buried sufficiently deep for protection from heat or cold. As it is usually the custom to gauge each well separately for its production, tanks are installed at each well and the oil measured there before being pumped to storage. These tanks are usually from 25 to 100 barrels capacity, one or more being placed at each well, depending upon the amount of production. If the well is making sand, a box with baffle boards is placed upon a scaffold so that it discharges into the tank and the lead-line from the pump runs into it. The sand can be shoveled out of the box, to prevent it from entering the tank. If the well makes water, it can be partially drained at this point. By the use of tanks and sand boxes, the running of oil into earthen sumps can be avoided and a great deal of oil saved from loss by seepage and evaporation. Tanks should have close-fitting covers made of boards and roofing paper to prevent loss of the more volatile con- stituents. The use of tail pumps is to be recommended where the 011 cannot be gravitated from the well. They are made of worn- out working-barrels with a standing valve below and a leather cup-valve above and are bolted to the main sill in line with the outside end of the walking-beam. A polished rod extends to the beam, as in the case of the oil-well pump; the tail pump has a 3-in. suction running to the well tank and discharges into the gathering-system, a check-valve having been placed in the latter to eliminate back-pressure. Instead of removing the tail pump when the tank has been emptied, a by-pass may be installed so that by closing the discharge gate and opening the by-pass gate the remaining oil circulates with each stroke of the beam and keeps the pump from becoming dry. The tail pump can be used only 170 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS upon wells making a production up to 350 barrels. A steam pump becomes necessary on a larger production. Some operators use a water-covered storage-tank with the sides protected by a wooden cover to prevent evaporation in light gravity oils, while others paint the outside of the tanks white to reduce the intensity of the sun's rays. The large shipping tanks in any case should be well protected and the oil discharged from the gathering- system into the tank through an overshot which should run within a few feet of the bottom. For a production of 1000 barrels per clay two 2000-barrel tanks are sufficient for storage, while for a produc- tion of from 5000 to 6000 barrels 5000 to 10,000-barrel tanks are used. In cases where it becomes necessary to store oil or where a gusher may be expected, 55,000-barrel tanks are built, but where the oil is kept moving daily in small shipments, they are hardly necessary. All shipping tanks are equipped with three or more sampling cocks placed at proper intervals on the side, and the suction line to the pump is usually 16 in. or more from bottom to prevent the sludge and water from being delivered to the pur- chaser. A swing-pipe is generally used on the inside end of the suction so that oil can be drawn from any level. The area of the heater-coil and all dead-wood is subtracted from the tank at the time that it is measured or 'strapped.' The latter is done by taking the mean of three measurements of the outside diameter and a corresponding number of the height, and reducing the result to barrels of 42 gallons. This is the basis upon which the purchaser buys the oil; a gauge sheet is made for every ^-in. and a copy given to the seller. Upon obtaining a full tank of oil, the gauger of the purchasing company Chiefs' or samples it at three or four levels, the samples be- ing placed in different receptacles. The 'thief is a specially made bucket which can be lowered to a certain point and a sample of oil taken from that particular level. Samples are usually obtained at the bottom of the discharge, at the top of the oil and two inter- mediate samples at equal distances. These are taken to the test- house, where, after, shaking, 50 cc. of oil from each is poured into a 100-cc. burette and 50 cc. of gasoline added. After being thor- oughly mixed by shaking, the burettes are placed in a 'centrifuge' capable of making 1000 to 3000 revolutions per minute and re- volved for 20 minutes. The centrifugal motion throws the base sediment and moisture to the outside or bottom point of the burette ; the readings are taken and multiplied by two, there being 50 cc. PRODUCTION 171 of oil to 100 cc. of fluid. The limit of water and base sediment is usually 3% and anything in excess of that figure is rejected. The temperature and gravity are taken by pouring parts of each of the samples into a hydrometer- jar and a reading taken. In heavy oils, some purchasers use one-third each of carbon-bisulphide, which 'cuts' the asphaltine oil and gasoline. Shipping is usually done by a steam pump large enough to overcome the line-pressure ; electric pumps are also used for this purpose. Whenever possible, it is always desirable to have ship- ping tanks at the lowest point of the property, in order to take advantage of a gravity flow, thus effecting a saving in pumping power. The use of concrete reservoirs for oil storage is not always satisfactory, as it is difficult to build a large reservoir through which the oil does not seep to some extent. It is often necessary to run water into concrete reservoirs to save the oil, the seepage sometimes amounting to hundreds of barrels per day. Oil should be shipped as soon as possible after being produced, as the evapora- tion, especially in warm weather, is excessive. Oil standing in open earthen reservoirs has been known to shrink as much as 40% in the course of from 15 to 20 days. Oil, between 33 and 34 gravity, standing in tanks and exposed to the open air for 24 hours, has been known to lose 4% of its original volume by evaporation. Gas Traps. The gas coming from the casing-head is usually caught and used under boilers or in gas engines, but the gas coming through the lead-line with the oil is often allowed to go to waste. To prevent this, a gas trap as shown in Fig. 164 can be installed near the derrick. This trap consists of a sealed tank of about 25- barrel capacity. The oil enters the tank through a check-valve and is drawn off through a 3-in. outlet which has a float pressure- valve to regulate the discharge. At the top, a relief-valve is placed to protect the tank from excess pressure, while the gas is drawn off below through a 2-in. line. This trap works satisfactorily on wells of moderate pressure working no sand. The McLaughlin automatic gas trap (Fig. 165) is designed to recover the gas from a well under more difficult conditions, especially where there are quantities of sand and water present. The oil, sand and gas enter the device through the lead-line 'H' which leads directly from the well. The end of this lead-line is fitted with a tee into which is screwed a nipple 'M* about 4 ft. long. On the upper end of this nipple is fitted a cast-iron valve 'A! The 172 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS faces of this valve are segments of a sphere. This valve engages a cast-iron valve 'B! The valve seat is riveted to a movable tank 'C! The movable tank 'C is suspended from a beam 'D' and is counter- balanced by the weight box 'E' filled with scrap iron. The beam 'D' is supported by a frame 'F! When in operation, the oil, sand and gas flow from the well through the lead-line 'H' into the trap at the point marked '4-in. oil inlet/ Before oil flows into the trap, the valve seat f B' is held firmly against the valve ( A' by the action of the counterweight 'E! REL/EF l/ALVE Fig. 164. STANDARD GAS TRAP As soon as a sufficient amount of oil has entered the trap to over- balance the counterweight, the tank 'C carrying the valve seat ( B' moves downward and allows the excess of oil and sand to flow out between 'A' and 'B! In the meanwhile all gas has been disengaged from the oil and flows out through the gas line connection 'G! On a steadily flowing or pumping-well, the trap reaches an equilibrium so that the oil flows out continuously at the bottom and PRODUCTION 173 the gas at the top. On a head well the trap valve opens and closes rhythmically, maintaining at all times a perfect seal. The unbalanced upward pressure of the gas is sufficient to maintain, at all times, an oil seal of from 1 to 2 ft. in the bottom of the trap. Other gas traps, similar in design, are made of three or four joints of casing, which is held in a nearly vertical position by guying to the derrick. The oil and gas enter the trap below, the gas rises to the top of the trap where it passes into a 2-in. line, while the oil is drawn off below. In some of the Russian fields, where production is obtained only by bailing, the use of the above-described gas trap MoKh Posfforl'fln. , Counter Weight ' Box of Scrap Imn 2'6as Outlet to Main Fig. 165. THE MCLAUGHLIN AUTOMATIC GAS TRAP is impossible, by reason of the casing being open at the surface. The gas is then caught by perforating the inside string 100 or 200 ft. below the surface and sealing the annular space between the two inside strings. A gas pump (Fig. 166) creates a suction, drawing the gas through this space and into the receiving line. The gas may also be obtained by tapping a hole through all the casing to the inside string 15 to 25 ft. below the surface and pump- ing out with a gas pump. As the bailer is being constantly raised and lowered, more or 174 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS less air is also caught, but considerable quantities of gas are saved. 'Bleeders' or traps should be installed in the gas line to drain off any water or gasoline that accumulates, thus keeping the gas flow open. The amount of gas varies from a few feet per day in old pumping wells to several million feet in gas wells, and where several wells are connected, check-valves should always be placed 166. GAS PUMP in the line to prevent a high-pressure well from "forcing its gas into a low-pressure one. Gas lines and traps should be installed with as much care and foresight as the steam lines or water lines, for a great saving in fuel is effected by conservation of the gas, as far as is possible. CHAPTER VII. FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS. Unlike many branches of engineering in which the time oc- cupied in the various stages of the work can be closely estimated beforehand, the drilling of wells may be delayed by many condi- tions that could not have been foreseen. The most vexatious, as well as hazardous of these are occurrences that lead to 'fishing jobs' for the recovery of tools or casing lost in the hole. Such problems may meet with prompt success or may drag along over a long period, for the units of time necessary for many drilling and fishing operations are often days instead of hours, and in this work, as with the original nimrod, Isaak Walton, patience never ceases to be a virtue. While the loss of tools is accepted as a logical hazard that is bound to occur with greater or less frequency in such work, yet the care and attention to details that finds its reward in all en- gineering enterprises are especially valuable traits in this occupa- tion, and frequent examination of equipment is unquestionably the greatest single factor in lessening the number of these diffi- culties. To this end the drilling and sand-lines should be watched carefully for signs of weakness or unusual wear, drilling tools should be scrutinized for incipient cracks, especially at welds, and no tools or equipment run into the hole unless, as far as can be detected, they are in perfect condition. Equally important are the steps that may be taken in anticipa- tion of the inevitable fishing job, such as calipering the diameters of the different parts of each tool, the internal and external diameters of bailers, etc. Such information may be readily ob- tained and noted in the casing tally-book, and when needed at all, is likely to be of the greatest importance and assistance. Fishing for Lost Tools. It would be impossible to describe all the fishing tools that find use in drilling operations. Many are made for some particular purpose or use in a well where peculiar conditions exist, and when that work is finished they are discarded 176 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS or remodeled into something else, and heard of no more. Others find a wider application and more general use and so new types of tools and adaptations of old ones are being constantly intro- duced. For this reason this chapter will attempt, not to give a complete summary of all fishing tools, but rather a review of the more common accidents, with the principles of remedial measures and their applications. Tools for fishing are run in and out of the hole either on the drilling-line or on tubing. In either case they are attached, as is the bit when drilling, to a string of tools that differs from the ordinary drill- ing string only in the fact that the stem is placed above the jars instead of below, and the jars (Fig. 167) used have a longer stroke than have the com- mon drilling jars. Both changes are made for the purpose of being able to deliver a more powerful blow on the up-stroke of the walking-beam, known as 'jarring,' when an ordinary pull with the drilling- line will not dislodge and loosen whatever has been caught with the fishing tool. A useful accessory, when there is some doubt as to the position or size of the material lost in the hole, and a question as to the proper tool to run for it, is the 'impression-block.' This is a round piece of wood, about 2 ft. long, of such diameter that it travels easily inside the casing or hole, and is made concave at the lower end. A few nails pro- ject from the concavity, serving to hold in place a mass of fairly soft soap, so that when the block is lowered in the hole, either on the bottom of a bailer or attached by a pin to the bottom of the jars, until it is stopped by an obstruction and then pulled out, the indentations in the soap supply a fairly intelligi- ble record of what must be grasped by the fishing tool. The fundamental principle on which is based the majority of tools for fishing is that of running down, either on the outside or the inside of what is to be recovered, a device containing one or more obliquely-sliding plates with milled or tooth edges, so placed that when the fishing tool is situated beside the lost tool and then pulled up, these edged plates, known as 'slips,' en- Fig. 167. LONG-STROKE JAR FOR FISHING FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 177 gage with the lost tool and cling to it while being pulled out (Fig. 168). This principle is applied widely in a great variety of fishing tools for re- covering lost tools, rotary drill-stems and for dislodging frozen casing. Probably the most common mishap that occurs in drilling a well is that due to a break in the drilling or sand-lines. If this has not happened directly where the line is attached to the tools or bailer, it is recovered by either the common rope-spear (Fig. 169), in which the wickers or spurs for the line point out from Fig. 168. PRINCIPLE OF FISHING TOOLS a single bar, or the rope-grab (Fig. 170) with the wickers pointing in from two or three bars that spring sufficiently to press against the casing or the sides of the hole. The grab is also used where pieces of loose rope or wire are to be caught and withdrawn. In some cases the lost tools become lodged at the bottom of the hole so tightly that they cannot be freed by pulling with the rope- spear, and it becomes necessary to break the drilling-line at the point where it enters the rope-socket before the tools may be loosened by some other method. This is done, after the rope has become entangled in the rope-spear, by lowering the fishing-tools until just sufficient slack is in the lost line so that when the 178 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS fishing-tools are given the walking-beam motion, the lost line becomes taut at the high point in the swing of the beam. They are then jarred, sometimes for several days before the slight jar applied to the lost line at each stroke of the beam eventually breaks the lost line at the socket. Fig. 169. Fig. 170. Fig. 171. Fig. 172. Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 169 CENTRE ROPE-SPEAR. Fig. 170 THREE-PRONG ROPE-GRAB. Fig. 171 LATCH-JACK. Fig. 172 BULLDOG-SPEAR. Fig. 173 CASING-BOWL GRASPING TOP OF BAILER. Fig. 174 BELL OR MANDREL-SOCKET. In cases where the sand-line has broken and the bailer is held too tightly to be pulled out by the rope-spear, the line is jarred as described above, until it is pulled away from the bailer, either alone or bringing with it the bail which not infrequently pulls away from the body of the bailer. If the bail remains intact a latch or boot-jack (Fig. 171) is run. This is a fork-shaped tool, FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 179 often made from the upper half of an old set of jars, with a small bar or latch at the lower end, swinging on a pin set in one of the forks. When horizontal it rests at the other end in a recess in the second fork. When this is run for a bailer and the lower ends of the forks are passing the bail, one on each side of it, it pushes up the latch and goes by it. The latch then falls back to a horizontal position and holds the bail when the fishing-tools are pulled up. The latch-jack is also often used for the work customarily done by the rope-spear, when the latter is not avail- able, by running it in and driving the rope down until the coils have become tangled in the forks and latch so that they hang to it while being withdrawn. Occasionally the bail may be pulled away in the course of trying to jar 'the bailer free, leaving the body of the bailer still in the hole. In such a case an ordinary bulldog-spear (Fig. 172) may be run into the bailer and jarred, although this step is seldom suc- cessful, as the spear is more liable to split the pipe of which the bailer is made than it is to dislodge it. When conditions permit, a casing-bowl (Fig. 173) large enough to run over the bailer may be tried and if this fails a bell, or mandrel-socket (Fig. 174) may catch the bailer. The bell-socket is essentially a bar or mandrel with an enlarged end, and a hood or bell-shaped piece that is free to move up and down on the mandrel. When used for fishing a bailer, the ball on the end of the mandrel enters the body of the bailer and the fishing tools are jarred down, forcing the bell down over the top of the bailer so that it takes the sha'pe of the inside of the bell. When the tools are pulled up the mandrel passes up through the opening in the bell until the ball at the end of the mandrel reaches the inside of the bent portion of the bailer (Fig. 175), which is then grasped between the ball and the bell and is pulled out. This socket is also of considerable value when fishing for broken and odd-shaped pieces of tubing or loose pieces of casing. Should all the methods outlined for recovering the lost bailer fail, then about the only move remaining is to run in the drilling tools and drill it up. Those unacquainted with the details of drilling practice frequently express surprise on learning that when iron or steel tools cannot be recovered, it does not necessarily mean the abandonment of the hole. While such is more apt to be the case with rotary wells than not, the cable tools find com- paratively little difficulty in either drilling through metal pieces 180 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS 1 i Fig. 175. BELL-SOCKET GRASPING TOP OF BAILER of quite fair size or in side-track- ing- these, i.e., pushing- them off into the side of the hole, where the ground is soft and permits it. In such work the bit is dressed with a chisel-point or other suit- able edge and a suction-bailer of the type shown in Figs. 88, 156 and 157 used to withdraw the pieces of iron as they become small enough to be drawn up into the bailer. The work is often tedious, especially if the piece to be drilled is an under- reamer lug or some other such tool made from extra hard steel, but it is far from impracticable and few cable-tool wells are given up by reason of their being plugged by tools, although this does happen occasionally. When a line has been pulled from the rope-socket, leaving the entire string of drilling tools in the hole, they may be recov- ered by one of several types of fishing-tools, the most effective of which is the slip-socket (Fig. 176). This consists of a strong body with a lower opening suffi- ciently large to admit the top of the lost tool. If necessary a bowl of suitable size for guiding the lost tool up to the opening is attached to the lower outer edge. Two slips, usually made part of a U-shaped rein, are placed in it as shown in Fig. 177, with a small piece of wood pressing them against the tapering in- side-face of the socket. A wood FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 181 block is also driven between the top of the rein and the top of the two outside openings, in order to prevent the slips from rising when the top of the lost tool passes up between them. When it does so, it pushes away the light piece of wood that holds the slips apart, and when the fishing tools are then lifted the slips bind on the lost tool and hold it while it is being withdrawn. The merit of the slip-socket lies in its simplicity, as well as in the fact that as the pull necessary to dislodge the lost tools becomes greater, the hold of the slips on it increases. I n 7 r Fig. 177. 178. Fig. 179 180. Fig. 176 SLIP-SOCKET WITH BOWL. Fig. 177 SLIP-SOCKET READY FOR USE. Fig. 178 COMBINATION-SOCKET WITH SIDE OPENING. Fig. 179 COMBINATION- SOCKET SHOWN IN SECTION. Fig. 180 TONGUE-SOCKET. The combination-socket (Figs. 178 and 179) accomplishes the same class of work as the slip-socket, and has even greater strength. It differs in construction from it in having either three or four slips, rilling a complete circle on the inside and held down by a coil spring instead of being part of a rein. The larger number of slips permits the lost tool to be grasped more fully, and, as in the slip-socket, the hold of the slips increases with the strength of the pull applied. When using the combination-socket, however, 182 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the exact size of the body to be caught must be known, -because of the close fit of the slips, while a considerable range of sizes may be caught with the same slips in a slip-socket. For this reason, when doubt exists as to the size of the tool to be caught it is preferable to use the latter. A further advantage of the slip- socket is that when the lost tools have been pulled from the hole, the rein-slips are much more easily disengaged from their hold than are the slips of the combination-socket. These sockets are both of the bulldog type, i.e., when they have once taken hold of the lost tool they are not easily released. However, in many cases this may be done, when it has been found impossible to move the lost tool and it is desired to release the fishing-string, by what is known as 'jarring both ways.' The walking-beam is given such a stroke that a jar is applied at the contact of the slips with the lost tool on both the up and down- strokes of the fishing-string, eventually either pulling the socket free from the lost tool or smashing one of the slips, thereby loosening the hold. When this does not succeed in loosening the fishing-tools and it is considered advisable to withdraw the drilling line, leaving the tools in the hole, the line may be cut by one of the several forms of rope-knives. These are run into the hole on the end of the sand-line, and are simple affairs that consist essentially of a frame, surrounding the line to be cut, and a strong chopping- blade. When the frame has been lowered until the tool rests on the rope-socket of the fishing-string the blade is driven into the line by raising and lowering the sand-line, which drops a metal block on the blade, forcing it diagonally across the drilling-line. A tool used especially when the drilling-line has pulled com- pletely out of the rope-socket, instead of having broken off at the top of it, is the tongue-socket (Fig. 180), containing a mandrel with slip to run into the opening from which the wire-line has escaped, and a slip inside the main body of the tool for grasping the neck of the socket. Occasionally one of the joints between the tools in a drilling- string may become unscrewed, leaving the pin of a stem, sinker or set of jars pointing up. In such a case either the combination or slip-socket may be run, unless the body of the tools occupies so much of the space inside the casing that no room remains for the socket to pass over and grasp it. 'Pin-slips' to be used in a combina- tion-socket are made for such a condition, with an inside thread FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 183 fl Fig. 181. MILLING TOOL 13 i m 1 Ha Fig. 182. MILLING TOOL Fig. 183. TOP OF LOST BIT BURIED IN SIDE OF HOLE 184 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS conforming exactly to the threads on the pin of the lost tools. When the socket is lowered, the slips fall around the threads on the pin, meshing with these, and hold it while the tools are pulled out. This method is not applicable when the tools are lodged so tightly that they must be jarred before theybecome free to move. When the pin-slips will not pull the tools, or the latter have broken at a point where they occupy the entire inside of the casing, it is necessary to cut away an outside portion of the top of the lost tools with a milling tool (Fig. 181). This is run in on tubing, which is suspended from the surface on a specially-constructed jack that holds it as casing is held by a spider and slips, and at the same time permits it to turn readily on a set of rollers. The tubing is turned by a large wheel driven by power, and is gradually lowered by means of the jack as fast as the exterior of the lost tool becomes milled, until a sufficiently long pin has been cut to permit an ordinary socket to grasp it (Fig. 182). The points that become weakened and break most frequently in a string of drilling-tools are at the joint of the drilling-bit with the stem and directly above this a few inches, where the box of the stem is welded to the stem proper. Breaks of this kind are liable to cause considerable difficulty when the top of the lost tool has become burred and damaged by the subsequent blows delivered before the accident is detected, and also because the bit, or box-end of the stem if the break occurred at that point, is below the bottom of the casing and tends to fall off to one side of the hole (Fig. 183). For this reason it is preferable to use as long bits as possible, many operators never running them when they are worn down to a length of 4 ft. If the bit fortunately remains erect it may be recovered with a slip or combination-socket, provided the top has not been deformed by the pounding to such an extent that it will not pass up inside the slips. If this has happened, a side-rasp (Fig. 184), or two-wing rasp (Fig. 185) must be swung up and down on the end of the fishing-string until the irregularities have been milled away. When the top of the bit leans to one side of the hole so that the fishing-tools cannot be passed over it, the task becomes more difficult, as it must be brought to a vertical position by drilling around it either with a spud (Fig. 186) or with a hollow reamer (Fig. 187). These bring it to the centre of the hole and at the same time they scrape in cavings from the side which hold it in place. Of the two tools, the hollow reamer, which is really a double-spud, is much the more effective, as its two prongs spring out to a wide sweep FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 185 when they have passed below the casing shoe, and if the top of the lost tool has not become too deeply imbedded in the formation alongside it they work it back to the centre of the hole. If these attempts fail, it may be found possible to drill a hole with the drilling-tools off to the side and below the lost tool, into Fig. 184 Fig. 185. Fig. 186. Fig. 187. Fig. 188. Fig. 189. Fig. 184 SIDE RASP. Fig. 185 TWO WING RASP. Fig. 186 SPUD. Fig. 187 HOLLOW REAMER. Fig. 188 BALL-BEARING JAR KNOCKER. . Fig. 189 KESSEL- MAN CASING-BOWL WITH SLIPS TO RUN ON CASING. 186 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS which with a little maneuvering it may be made to fall and then be in a position to be grasped. Another tool used for bringing a lost bit to the centre is the wall-hook, consisting of a long bar bent to a semicircle at the bottom and given a wide sweep so that when run in on tubing or a manila cable it swings the top of the lost tool back to the centre. When all the attempts outlined above have failed, the plan of shooting the bit off into the neighboring formation is tried. Either liquid nitro-glycerine or 60% dynamite in sticks is inserted in the hole in a sheet-metal tube run into the hole on the end of the sand-line. The tube is made the same length as the bit in order that the force of the shot will apply equally at all points and pot drive one end into the formation and leave the other end protruding into the hole. Instead of one electric detonating-cap several are used, to insure an explosion, and the sand-line, with an insulated wire fastened to it at intervals of 50 or 75 ft., completes the electric circuit. Before the shot is fired the casing is pulled up to from 50 to 100 ft. from bottom. A simple, but more dangerous, method is that of firing with a fuse. The dynamite is inserted in the hole in a water-tight tube on the end of the sand-line. The fuse is lit at the surface and the charge promptly lowered ; and while this method is usually suc- cessful, especially with shallow holes that allow ample time for the charge to reach the bottom, yet occasionally a premature explosion occurs. The inevitable result is a wreck of the casing opposite the point of explosion, and the hazard is not warranted if the electrical appliances for the first method can be obtained. Among other fishing-tools employed for recovering lost tools is the 'jar-knocker' (Fig. 188), devised for loosening drilling- tools that are being run without jars, usually with a manila cable, and have become imbedded at the bottom of the hole so that a pull with the drilling-cable does not release them. It is from 8 to 24 ft. long and is run into the hole on the end of the sand- line, with its lower portion around the drilling-cable. As heavy a pull is taken on the cable as it will safely stand and the jar- knocker is dropped onto the rope-socket of the tools a number of times from a distance of 20 or 30 ft., by raising and lowering the sand-line. The jar of this contact, in conjunction with the strain on the cable, soon loosens the tools. The jar-knocker is also used for loosening the two ends of a set of jars that have become locked and do not move freely. FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 187 Fig. 190. ;NING LOOSENING TIGHTLY LODGED TOOLS BY MEANS OF BOWL AND SLIPS ON CASING A feature in connection with the prob- lems of loosening either tools or casing that are lodged tightly in the hole is the fact that the jar applied through the mo- tion of the walking-beam is not as great as might be imagined from observing the sweep of the beam. This is due to the stretch in the line between it and the fish- ing-tools. For this reason, any method by which a strain may be placed on the tools or casing to be loosened, as the one just illustrated of pulling the drilling-line taut and then jarring with a separate tool, is more likely to be productive of results than is the simple jarring alone. This principle, of the application of both a pull and a jar, is employed in the casing-bowl method for dislodging tools, wherein the tools are grasped first by a bowl and set of inside slips (Fig. 189), run into the hole on the end of a string of casing (Fig. 190). The casing is held at the surface by a spider and slips, sup- ported by either hydraulic or screw-jacks, and the spider and pipe are raised by the jacks (Fig. 191) until the strain on the casing is as great as may safely be ap- plied without danger of parting the pipe. A socket and string of fishing-tools is then run down inside the pipe until the neck of the rope-socket on the lost tools is grasped, and jarring is then com- menced. As the tools gradually become loosened by the upward jarring, the pipe and bowl are raised by the jacks so as to maintain a pulling strain on the lost tools, thus gaining the full effective value of the jarring until the tools are entirely free and may be pulled out. An adapta- tion of this method is shown in Fig. 192. A shoe or bowl with a beveled inside 188 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS surface, is first run % in on the end of the casing. A slip-socket is then lowered until it grasps the lost tool, and the casing raised until the beveled surface meets the bottom of the socket, thus applying both the pull of the casing and the jar of the walking-beam to the socket. The horn-spcket (Fig. 193) is a tool with a taper opening for going over a lost tool and taking a friction-hold by which it is held while being pulled out. It is used chiefly for small tools Fig. 191. DUFF-BETHLEHEM HYDRAULIC JACK BOWL PULLING UP ON SLIP- SOCKET Fig. 193. HORN-SOCKET that are quite loose in the hole, such as bits, working-barrels in pumping-wells, and under-reamer lugs that have broken or become lost from the reamer. The latter are particularly elusive pieces of metal, their shape and small size rendering their capture diffi- cult and their hardness making it almost impossible to drill them up. At times they may be pushed off into the side of the hole, but the movement of casing usually dislodges them and they l-ISIIIXi; TOOLS AND MKTIIODS 189 drop back to the bottom again. .V basket similar to that shown in Fig. 194 may occasionally be made to catch a lost lug, by running it in on the drilling-tools and churning until the wickers have closed in about it. A great variety of special tools of one kind and another has been devised for recovering these lugs, but as yet nothing that may be considered thoroughly satisfactory has been developed. In connection with the problem of recovering lugs, as well as many other of the small tools that resist capture, the possible application of some form of a magnet appears to offer a wide and inviting field. Considerable experimental work along this line has been carried on, but the technical difficulties seem to have been too great for successful results, although the principle is sound a'nd would be of great value if it could be applied under the peculiar conditions of pressure at the bottom of a deep hole filled with water and in the presence of bodies of casing, which have themselves in nearly all cases become highly magnetized. Fishing for Casing. Among the accidents that may hinder the progress of drilling a well, and involve no small expense as well as loss of time, are the mishaps that occur to the casing, especially in those fields where the sides of the holes cave badly and give rise to the constant danger of cavings falling in and binding the pipe. The extent to which conditions of this nature may endanger the casing depends entirely upon the ground. Some formations 'stand up' and are so compact and closely cemented that no dirt falls in, while others disintegrate rapidly and unless the pipe is moved up and down at frequent intervals, so that the materials fall to the bottom of the hole, it soon becomes bound with so much loosened dirt that it resists all efforts to move it. Frequently, when casing has become 'frozen' in this way and cannot be pulled up, it may be driven down for a few feet and then pulled back to its original position, driven again and so worked up and down until it is loosened. The driving is accom- plished by inserting a drive-head (Fig. 94) in the coupling at the top of the string of casing and striking this with heavy clamps attached to the drilling-tools, raising and lowering the tools either by direct drive .from the bull-wheel shaft or with the jerk-line and spudding-shoe. Another resource that may be tried is that of bailing the water from the inside of the pipe, causing the pressure of the water on the outside, between the pipe and the wall of the hole, to tend to force the sands that are binding the pipe down to 190 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 194. BASKET-TOOL FOR CAP- TURING UNDER-REAMER LUG Fig. 195. FOX TWO-SLIP TRIP CASING-SPEAR I -I SUING TOOLS AND METHODS 191 the bottom of the hole. In either of these methods, precautions must be taken to prevent the sudden descent of the pipe for any considerable distance after it has become free, because of the danger of its bending or telescoping. The usual device is a wire sling suspended from the casing-hook and attached either to the ends of the spider or to each of the two links of an ordinary elevator. Frequently it is necessary to apply more forcible measures be- fore the casing may be dislodged, and for this work spears that take hold of the pipe, and by means of which it may be jarred, are universally used. Usually they are run into the hole, on a drilling-line and string of tools, until the desired depth is reached ; they are then pulled up till the slips engage with the inside of the pipe and jarred until the pipe is moved. The most simple form of spear for this purpose is the common bulldog-spear (Fig. 172), which is rarely used, however, because it may not be pulled up in the pipe after the slips have once taken hold. Many improved patterns, such as those shown in Figs. 195 and 196, are so constructed that when it is desired to free the spear and withdraw it from the pipe, a downward jar of the tools causes the slips to become disengaged and fall into a recess in the body of the spear, where they remain while it is being pulled out. A dozen or more styles of 'trip' spears, as these are known, are made for service of this kind, some with two and others with four slips, and all work along the same lines of being lowered to the desired point and then raised, at which time the slips engage with the pipe. When lowered a second time, the slips trip back into a recess and remain there, and the spear must be pulled from the hole and the slips 'set' again before they can be made to grasp the pipe. The most common type is made so that the slips grasp the pipe for an upward pull, and is known as the 'jar-up' spear. For jarring down on pipe the oblique plane holding the slips is reversed. Often the point at which the pipe is bound will be found to be at the casing-shoe, which, by reason of its slightly greater diameter, is holding back cavings that would otherwise pass to the bottom of the hole. Or it may be that the shoe has been lowered into an opening just small enough to bind it. In such cases a few taps with a casing spear usually succeed in knocking it loose. At other times the friction may be so great that jarring must be continued for several hours, or days, before the pipe starts to move. 192 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 196. FOX FOUR-SLIP TRIP CASING-SPEAR Fig. 197. CASING-SUB AND AUXILI- ARY STRING FOR DISLODGING FROZEN CASING FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 193 When the casing resists the usual attempts with a spear to free it, the plan illustrated in Fig. 197 is often found successful. As in the casing-bowl method of loosening tools by the aid of an auxiliary string of pipe, the casing-spear is run into the hole on the end of a second string of casing, that will pass readily inside of the frozen string. The spear is attached to the pipe by a 'casing- sub,' which has an outside thread for screwing into a coupling of the pipe on which it is run ; its lower portion is a box for fastening it to the casing-spear and the upper end is a mandrel, similar in shape to the neck of a rope-socket. When the spear has been lowered to the point where the cavings are binding the casing, it is made to take hold of the casing and as great a pull is taken on the auxiliary string of pipe, with a set of jacks, as is safe. A socket and string of fishing-tools are then run down on the drilling-line, inside the second string of pipe, the mandrel of the casing-sub is seized and jarring is commenced. A second set of jacks may be used to pull directly on the frozen string of casing, and this with the pull of the pipe on the spear and the jarring applied with the tools and socket combine to place a terrific force on the frozen casing. If this fails, either to loosen the pipe or to part it, some new line of attack must be followed. At this point several methods of procedure may be followed, depending largely on local conditions. The simplest is the abandonment of the frozen casing and the insertion of a smaller sized string. But circumstances may be such that it is con- sidered imperative that the pipe of the size frozen be carried to a greater depth than it had attained at the time it was lost. It then becomes necessary to part the frozen casing at a point above the zone where it is bound tightly, pull out the recovered portion and run it back with a new casing-shoe on the bottom, and drill a new hole off to the side of the portion left remaining in the hole. In the course of the attempts to loosen it the pipe may have parted, but if it has not done so it may be divided at any point by cutting or dynamiting. Before doing this it is cus- tomary to ascertain the point nearest the surface where the binding effect of the caved material ceases. This is learned through the fact that when the spear is jarred at a point op- posite where the pipe is bound, the top of the casing at the surface will not move or exhibit any 'vibration' when the hand is placed on it. But when the jarring is applied at a point in the 194 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS pipe above the cavings, a noticeable movement of the casing is apparent at each stroke of the walking-beam. Casing is cut by means of a tool (Fig. 198) holding four small sharp-edged wheels similar to those used in an ordinary hand pipe-cutter. The cutting wheels are each held in a sliding block, all the blocks pointing towards the centre of the body of Fig. 198. CASING CUTTER Fig. 199. CASING CUT- TER WHEELS ENTER- ING CASING Fig. 200. JONES CASING CUTTER the tool. It is run into the hole on tubing and when the desired depth is reached, a long taper mandrel is lowered inside the tubing on the sand-line. This mandrel enters an opening in the body of the cutting-tool and pushes out the blocks holding the cutter wheels (Fig. 199). The tubing is then turned and the mandrel gradually forces the cutter wheels out into the body of the casing. Another type of cutter (Fig. 200) is so constructed FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 195 that the taper mandrel is part of the tool and when it has been lowered on tubing to the point at which the casing is to be cut, a short reverse turn of the tubing releases the mandrel, which then pushes out the cutter-wheel blocks as it is raised by a pull on the tubing. When this cutter is used, the tubing is sus- pended from the temper-screw by which it is pulled up at the same time that it is being turned. Sometimes considerable difficulty is encountered in endeavor- ing to cut casing, and, to expedite matters, it may be decided to shoot it. The general methods outlined in the discussion of side- tracking lost bits are employed for tearing the casing apart, or the shell containing the dynamite may be lowered on the end of a string of tubing, screwed up tightly so that it allows no water leakages, and exploded by dropping down on it, through the tubing, a short piece of pipe containing two or three sticks of dynamite with caps and fuses. Whenever possible, however, it is advisable not to use any but the electric method for detonat- ing, as the liability of a premature explosion with other methods involves risks of injury to the men and damage to the casing. A third method of parting pipe is that of ripping it until it is so weakened that it may be pulled apart. The chief use of the tool shown in Fig. 201 is for perforating casing to admit oil, as shown by the series of sketches, but it serves equally well as a ripper when used with a suitable knife. The body contains a slotted opening for the passage of a bar up and down beneath a knife, which swings on a pin. Screwed into the lower end of the bar is a long rod or plunger, serving as a guide for a frame with two or more expanding wings of spring-steel that bear against the inside of the casing. When lowered in the hole, on tubing with a set of jars between the tubing and the perforator, this frame is placed above a small spring-key, situated near the lower end of the plunger, and the frame is pushed ahead of the body of the perforator while it is being lowered. When the proper depth has been reached and the tools and perforator are pulled up a few feet, the bar and plunger are drawn up by the body of the perforator, leaving the expanding wings motionless until the frame has slipped down over the spring-key. The key and nut at the end of the plunger now prevent the frame from further movement on the plunger, and when the tubing and perforator are again lowered, the springs bearing against the side of the casing hold the frame quiet and the bar at the upper end of the plunger pushes up the Joose end of the knife. The point first pierces 196 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Fig. 201. CYCLE OF OPERATIONS WITH SINGLE-KNIFE PERFORATOR FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 197 the pipe and as the body of the perforator is lowered further, the knife comes to a horizontal position, punching a rectangular hole and holding the tools and tubing from further movement down- ward by the square shoulder on its lower side which will not cut down through the pipe. The tools are then raised to the point at which another hole is to be cut and the operation repeated. Knives for punching a number of apertures, through which oil may gain admittance to the inside of the casing, are so made that they cut a rectangular hole of the desired size. Those for ripping the pipe or a coupling have a cutting edge similar to the rounded blade of an ordinary knife (b Fig. 202) so that when the knife has once made an incision it continues to rip the pipe as long as forced down by the weight of the tubing, or the jarring of the tools. It is not uncommon for casing to part of its own accord at some point in the hole. This may result from the great strain of the weight of a long string, from the pull applied when trying to loosen a frozen string, or because of defective threads. Pipe rarely Fig. 202. (a) PERFORATING KNIFE (b) RIPPING KNIFE parts at the middle of a joint, the threaded portion directly where it enters the coupling appearing to be the most liable to break. Some styles of elevators, particularly when they have become worn, tend to pinch the casing directly below the coupling and weaken the bond between the pipe and the coupling at the thread. Such an injury to the pipe may not be noticeable at the time it is inserted and the weakened joint may be several hundred feet from the surface before an especially great strain is placed on the casing, causing it to part at this point. The remedy in these cases is to withdraw the upper portion of the string and place on the bottom of it a steel die-nipple (Fig. 203) by means of which a thread may be cut on the top of the lost portion. The threaded parts of a die-nipple are usually 5 or 6 in. in length, with a slight taper and are grooved or fluted transversely to the direction of the thread in order to permit the steel cuttings to escape. When the break occurs at the lower end of a coupling, all that is necessary is to run in the die-nipple and turn the casing until a 198 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS sufficient thread has been cut on the outside of the lost pipe to insure a bond with the threads of the die-nipple. If the break is at the top of a coupling, leaving it in the hole, it may be that the outside threaded end of the die-nipple can be screwed into it ; but unless .the coupling is unusually long, enough threads cannot be cut to secure a tight hold and it is a more common practice to cut the pipe with a casing-cutter a short distance below the coupling and bring the loose piece holding the coupling out with the cutter when it is withdrawn. This leaves a cleaned end of the pipe ex- posed, over which the inside threaded end of the die-nipple may be screwed. Some operators prefer to use, instead of a die-nipple, a casing- bowl. The bowl, especially when equipped with two sets of slips (Fig. 173), supplies a much stronger hold on the lost pipe, and effects a saving in time, since the pipe need not be withdrawn for the removal of the bowl unless it is the string that is to exclude water from the oil-sand. When a die-nipple has been used to join the two ends, it is safer to pull the pipe and remove the nipple and defective joint. Another accident to which casing is subject is that of collapsing, either because of the pressure exerted against it by the column of water on the outside when it has been bailed dry, or through a rock or boulder falling in and grinding against the side. In the latter case, as the well is deepened and the pipe lowered the boulder becomes wedged between the wall of the hole and the pipe, directly below a coupling, forcing a portion of the pipe inward so that the tools or bailer are prevented from passing through at this point. Under ordinary circumstances the pipe may be pulled from the well and the damaged joint removed from the string. But when the string of casing has been landed and cannot be withdrawn, or the depression is only a slight one, a swage (Fig. 204) is run in on the drilling-tools and worked up and down until it has forced back the pipe to its original position. Water-courses are provided by fluted channels diagonally along the side. Another form of swage contains a hole bored diagonally from the bottom to a point on the side near the pin. Such a tool is necessary when the drilling-tools have become imprisoned by a collapse in the pipe that has occurred while the tools were in the hole. If it is deemed inadvisable to cut the drilling-line above the weak place in the pipe, a new line is strung and the swage and a second string of tools are lowered in the hole, the swage passing down around the first line by sliding it through the opening. In FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 199 this way the lost line does not interfere with the action of the swage. A third form of swage contains a series of rollers at the circle of its widest diameter, for rendering the swaging action more effective. In the fields where the strata are steeply inclined, the direction of the holes is frequently thrown off from the vertical by reason of the constant deflection of the drilling-tools in the direction of the dip. Such a condition may result in one or two joints of pipe being broken off when the casing is lowered to where the hole swerves. The pieces are usually quite loose in the Fig. 203. DIE-NIPPLE Fig. 204. SWAGE WITH FLUTED WATER-COURSE Fig. 205. BULLDOG TUBING-SPEAR hole and may be recovered with a spear or a bell-socket. In fact, it is said that the latter was first used for jobs of this kind before its wider application for fishing bailers and broken tubing was developed. Accidents to Producing Wells. The accidents that befall pro- ducing-wells, while of rather frequent occurrence, are not liable to be of a serious nature, and the remedies are usually simple. Aside from the unscrewing of sucker-rods, parting of the. tubing is probably the most common mishap. This may result from carelessness while withdrawing or inserting it, from defective 200 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS threads weakened by long wear, or from what is known as the 'back lash' of sucker-rods, caused by the rods parting at the time a strain has been placed on them when trying to loosen a plunger that is 'sanded up' in the working barrel. If the tubing drops only a short distance, it will usually remain intact and may be recovered with a bulldog tubing-spear (Fig. 205). In producing-wells, the fishing-tools are customarily run on tubing, instead of a drilling-line and string of fishing-tools, since the latter has usually been removed for use elsewhere. However, a precaution that should always be followed is that of inserting a set of jars between the tubing and the spear. The need for this arises from the fact that the lost tubing may be wedged so that in applying a direct pull on it sufficiently strong to pull up the lost material, there will be considerable danger of parting the tubing at a new point above the spear. With the jars placed between the tubing and the spear, a few upward bumps may be applied and the lost pipe dislodged. When the size of the casing is enough greater than that of the lost tubing inside of it so that difficulty may be experienced in getting the spear to enter the tubing, a hood or bowl is attached to the spear for the purpose of guiding the tubing up over the latter, as in Fig. 206. This figure illustrates also another type of the same style of spear, found to be more convenient where several different sizes of tubing are in use on the same property. Instead of a solid body throughout, it is so constructed that any one of the different bars or mandrels with slips for grasping the various sizes of tubing may be screwed into the body. When the lost tubing cannot be pulled readily but must be jarred before it becomes free, the jarring of the spear often splits the tubing until the slips reach the end of the joint at which, if a collar has remained at the top of the lost pipe, the slips become lodged and take hold while it is pulled out. If no collar is at the top of the uppermost joint in a lost string that is being split, a spear-mandrel about 25 ft. in length is used, permitting the slips to pass through the top joint and grasp the second joint below the collar that connects it with the first joint. The behavior of tubing when dropped seems to be very erratic. At times it falls for a considerable distance without suffering any material injury, and in other cases, when dropped possibly only a few feet, assumes a spiral shape or breaks at a number of points. In such instances the upper portions become wedged with the lower, two or more pieces will be flattened against each other, and FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 201 Fig. 206. TUBING-SPEAR WITH BOWL Fig. 207. TUBING OVERSHOT 202 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the difficulty of its recovery is greatly increased because the pipe is no longer in a single string and the flattened openings prevent the ready admission of the ordinary spears. When such an accident has occurred, it is advisable to expedite the fishing by installing a drilling-line and string of tools, which may be run in and out of the hole faster than can be done with tubing and permit more effective jarring in the endeavor to loosen pieces of pipe that resist an ordinary pull. Deformation of the lost tubing renders it imperative in nearly all such cases that the attempts to fish it out be made with forms of overshot-tools, that grasp and hold the exterior of the pipe. The impression-block is also a very necessary help, as it must be run after each piece of pipe has been pulled in order to show the shape of the next piece that is to be caught. Much ingenuity is shown in designing special tools with which to recover such material, the bell-socket (Figs. 174 and 175), rotary over-shots (Figs. 212, 213 and 214) and casing-bowls all being called into requisition and adapted at one time or another for work of this class. Fig. 207 illustrates a simple but remarkably useful tool for grasping the outside of crooked and odd-shaped pieces of pipe. It is made from the body of an ordi- nary combination-socket, with the spring and slips removed, and slotted near the 'bottom so that a 'dog' of any desired size or shape may swing on a pin-hinge placed in a recess on the outside Fig. 208. DOGS FOR TUBING-SOCKET edge. The 'dog,' or 'dogs/ if provision is made for two to swing opposite each other, is free to move exactly as does the flapper-bottom of a flat-bottom bailer, and when in a horizontal position it rests on a shoulder turned near the bottom. When the impression-block has indicated the size and shape of the projection to be grasped, a suitable dog is made (Fig. 208), so shaped that when the socket is lowered over the lost pipe the dog swings upward. Then when the socket is raised, the dog grips the pipe with a friction-hold while it is being withdrawn. Another tool occasionally used is a bowl with a long, tapered, inside thread, similar to that in a die-nipple, by which it is made to screw over and cling to the lost tubing. The cutting-thread,' and thread of the pipe on which the tool is run, are made left-hand, FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 203 so that if the lost string is wedged tightly the bowl not only grasps the top piece but also unscrews such a portion of the tubing as will turn. The most common accident to sucker-rods, in pumping-wells, is that of unscrewing at the joint of a pin and box. They usually may be screwed together again without having to pull them from the well. When the string is parted by a rod breaking, the lost portion is recovered either with 'a sucker-rod socket or with a 'mouse- trap.' Both tools are run inside the tubing on the rods ; the former (Fig. 209) is constructed like the combination-socket used for fishing lost tools, and is the more effective of the two unless the top of the rods has become burred so that the slips will not pass over it. The mouse-trap (Fig. 210) is made from a piece of heavy pipe, small enough in di- ameter to go inside the tubing. In its simplest form it has a fork- shaped hinge near the bottom, which falls in around the pipe underneath the sucker-rod box and holds it while the rods are pulled out. Another form contains a slip by which a friction-hold may be secured at any point on a rod. Rotary Fishing Tools. When drilling is being carried on by the rotary method the variety of accidents that may happen is smaller than when cable tools are used, since the drill-stem and bit are the only equipment run into the hole. Such difficulties as occur with these are generally of minor consequence, but when troubles do develop they appear to lead, more often than with cable-tool wells, to the abandonment of the hole. If the job reaches such a stage that the fishing-tools are run in and out of the hole frequently, the work progresses much more slowly than with cable-tool wells, where the tools are run on a line. The most common difficulty results from the twisting and separating of the drill-stem, usually near the bottom where the Fig. 209. COMBINATION SUCKER- ROD SOCKET 204 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS / \ ^~ > .*^^-~. \ ; \ i i i i\ ' ' Fig. 211. WASH- DOWN SPEAR Fig. 212. SPRING OVERSHOT Fig. 210. MOUSE-TRAPS With check-valve With slips FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 205 torsional strain is greatest. 'Twist-offs' are recovered either by spears that grasp the inside of the pipe with slips, or with various styles of overshots that run over it and grip it on the outside, usually directly underneath a collar. The usual type of spear (Fig. 211) has openings through which the circulating fluid is Fig. 213. ROTARY OVERSHOT WITH SWINGING DOGS Fig. 214. SNOW-KIDD ROTARY OVERSHOT pumped as with the rotary bit, and has a single circular slip that grasps the full body of the drill-pipe on the inside. A short diamond-shaped guide is inserted in the bottom for steering the spear into the pipe, but if the top of the pipe has fallen off to the side of the hole, considerable patience is often required before the spear may be made to go into it. In such a case an off-set joint is usually placed in the drill-pipe on which the spear is run, directly above the spear, so that it is swung off to the side of the hole and passes more readily into the lost pipe. The overshot most commonly used is made with a set of springs on the inside (Fig. 212) which permit the tool to pass down over 206 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the lost pipe, but which, when pulled up, clasp it underneath a collar. Another form is that shown in Fig. 213. This contains three or four 'dogs' on a pin-hinge, which swing up when going down over the couplings of the lost pipe and fall back to a horizontal position when beneath a coupling so that, when lifted, they pull it up. A third style (Fig. 214) is shown recovering lost pipe in Fig. 215. In this the two slips are heavy solid pieces, t Fig. 215. CYCLE OF OPERATIONS OF SNOW-KIDD ROTARY OVERSHOT supported on a shoulder in the body of the overshot. They are so made that when placed together their lower edge is a complete circle, while the top edge is not circular but has the inside diam- eter of the bowl for one axis and the outside diameter of the lost pipe for the other. As the bowl is lowered over a collar of the lost pipe, the tops of the slips are pushed back, but fall in against the pipe as soon as the collar is passed, and when the bowl is FISHING TOOLS AND METHODS 207 Fig. 216. ROTARY WASH- DOWN SPEAR for Un- Screwing Frozen Drill-Pipe raised, the portions represented by the small axis lodge against the pipe beneath the col- lar and bear up against it while it is being pulled up. A shoe with an opening cut in one side, as shown, is usually run ahead of the bowl for guiding the lost pipe up inside of it. A form of accident liable to occur when drilling with the rotary tools and which may develop into serious difficulties, is that which arises from dirt binding the drill- stem, either through the unexpected heav- ing of sand when a gas-stratum is encountered, or through the sides of the hole caving in. The simplest way out of trouble of this kind is to run an overshot on a string of pipe that is large enough to pass over the lost drill-pipe. The overshot is preceded by a rotary casing-shoe and the circulating fluid is pumped down inside' the larger string, removing the caved material as fast as it is loosened by slowly turning the shoe. In this way the caved ground is cleaned out and when the larger string is withdrawn the overshot pulls the drill-pipe with it. But in many such cases the small space betwee i the lost pipe and the fishing-string, and be- tween the latter and the side of the hole, hinders the free circulation of mud and not infrequently causes the fishing-string itself to become frozen, thus complicating matters still further. For this reason it is generally considered preferable, although requiring more time, to recover the lost pipe in single joints, by un- screwing them. The fishing string is left- hand-thread pipe and the tool run on the bottom of it is a wash-down spear (Fig. 216), with a circular slip or with two ordi- nary bulldog tubing-slips. In addition to these, and the opening for the passage of 238 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS the circulating fluid, it is equipped with another slip, which is moved horizontally by a spring", the duty of which is to grip the inside of the lost pipe when the fishing-string is turned to the left. When the body of the spear has entered the top of the lost pipe, the fishing-string is turned to the left until one or more joints of the lost pipe have been unscrewed. The fishing-string is then with- drawn, pulling with it, by means of the vertical slips, the un- screwed sections. If the well is remote from where left-hand pipe may be ob- tained, the ordinary pipe may be used by boring a hole through the coupling and pipe at each point where the two come together and inserting pins in these openings when the pipe is being run into the hole. The pins thus prevent the pipe from unscrewing when the left-hand turn is given it in unscrewing the lost pipe. CHAPTER VIII. ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS. The oil industry on the Pacific coast is young, consequently much experimenting has been done in the way of accounting systems for oil companies. It is only during the last few years that operators have realized the importance of efficient accounting systems whereby a check can be kept upon operations, and monthly exhibits obtained showing operating results in concise form. Many companies at present have systems burdened with detail, and either a proper answer is not obtained or else the results do not justify the effort. Too often there is a duplication 'of work at the field and main office. With a properly arranged system the entire details should be handled at the base of opera- tions, which is the field, and information transmitted to the main office in consolidated form so that results are easily obtained and no duplication of work is necessary. This can all be done with- out effecting control by the main office upon the operations at the field and at the same time it provides for a complete check on the detailed accounting. The chart of accounts (see folding plate) is a graphic represen- tation of the entire classification of accounts, showing 'the relation that one account bears to another and of all accounts to the bal- ance sheet. The operations of an oil accounting system may be classified as follows : (a) Development (b) Production (c) Pay Roll (d) Purchasing and Stores (e) Teaming (f) Miscellaneous Departments (g) Reports (h) Financial Statements Development (Drilling). At the end of every twenty-four hours a Drillers Tower Report (Form No. 1) is 'sent to the field 210 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS office with time cards. From the information contained on this report the Daily Drilling Report (Form No. 2) is made out in duplicate, original to main office and duplicate, after being recorded on the Well Log (Form No. 4), is sent to the superintendent of development. It is filed by well number and date. The well foreman each day makes out the Well Pullers Report (Form No. 3) giving a detailed description of the well-pulling operation of each well. It is sent to the superintendent of develop- ment and is filed by well number and date. WESTEffN OIL CO. DfflUZflS TOWER ffFPOffT. Date, 19 . We/1 Mo Property. LOSt Timt. Came on Tbiverat. Findinq Cause Deptfi formation, Formation cnanojed during, my 7brer Material Usea At, Ft To. At-, ff To, Atcrrenat fatten out. At, Ft 7b. Samples taken at. Ft Total Material in Hole, M> Ft macte durmglbtrtr Oil found at, fr Went ofTTbiver Gas found at. Ft Water four* at. Ft Dn/Irr Mote Rarticular/y eacn cnang^f in f~arm& tion and Oeptti atenanae rYf//l*>. Propert, LOStTime.. Came on Tower finding. Cause, Oepffi. Formation, format/on changed during my Tower as follows Material Usea. /). ft To Af. Ft Tt Material taken out. At, Ft & Samples fatten at. ft Total Material m Hol Mo Ft made durrnq Tower O/l found of. ft H&if offTtiver 6os found at, Ft Htottr found ft. Ft 0-nllrr Form 1. DRILLERS' TOWER REPORT Production (Pumping). At the end of every twenty-four hours the Daily Report of Wells Pumped (Form No. 5) is made out in duplicate by the pumpers and shows details and conditions re- garding pumping. The original is sent to the main office and a duplicate is given to the superintendent of production. After re- cording on the Recapitulation of Oil Production (Form No. 6) they are filed according to pumping plant and by date. When oil is delivered to the consumer, Run Ticket (Form No. 7) is made out in triplicate. The original is given to the consumer, a duplicate sent to the main office and a triplicate held in a numeral binder at the field office. Run Tickets are posted to Recapitulation of Oil Production (Form No. 6). The main office upon receipt of duplicate, checks extensions and then posts same to Consumer Statement in duplicate, entering thereon ticket number, quantity and amount. ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 211 WESTERN OIL Co DA/LY DRILLING REPORT vo M/f//M) nn ig DepM a/ Last Report rr. Casing ariasf Report. Ft Drilled too/ay Ff Putinfoaay f Ft Present Depth Ff To fa/ new in , Ft {(/not 'of 'Casing i/sea. Weight per Foot. Descr/pt/on of Formation found from To Ft From 7~o Ft From ro Ft From 7c Ft From fo Ft Wafer- struck at. Ft /r> format/on of ffises in ho/e to yvrfh/n Ft from top Xmd of Water Strut off Water art . ft /n format/on Wfh Casing Weighing. Los per Ft Cemented at Wo ofSacJfs usea Sranct Or/- struck at. Ft /rr format/on of Went through oi/ stratum at. /nfo, Of/ Sand known as, \ Dr/f/er - Morrt/ng Afternoon. Tool Dresser- Morning. dffernoon. S/qrtarfure, Mai/ Or/q/na./ Report Dotty to Ma/n Office, San franc /sco WESTERN OIL COMFHNY WELL PULLERS REPORT (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Property Roofs Put leaf Length of Tube Putted Form 2. DAILY DRILLING REPORT The record of oil in each tank is kept on the Recapitulation of Oil Production (Form No. 6). Postings are made to this form from Daily Report of Wells Pumped (Form No. 5) and Run Tick- ets (Form No. 7). Pay-Roil System. The princi- pal divisions of the pay-roll sys- tem are: Hiring. Time Keeping 1 . Time Recording. Discharging. Paying. The original record of employ- ment is the Hiring Card (Form No. 8). This form is filled out by foremen for each employee starting to work, and is sent to the pay-roll clerk who makes no- tation of same on Pay-Roll Record (Form No. 9). It is then placed in a vertical file in numerical or- der by employee number. Length of Tube Rep/aceot Or/gmaJ Depth of We/I Number Feet Fit/ed //> Depth Jffer Bai/mq No fe Maty or on back, ^//repa/rs frrcra/e ancf frrattr/a/ustc/. Foreman Form. 3. WELL PULLERS' REPORT 212 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS Drillers and toolers record their time each day on a Drilling Time Card (Form No. 10) showing their name and number, well lrSTE/W OIL COMPANY Record ofWfH f/3 Section Nt. Genera/ /nformafiorr Total Oil formations. F/erafon began Date Began Pumping. Rating After 30 da.) '_fMs6asL Gravity (After Per Cent Water Tool Ore. From I To. I Ft. ffgfnarffS. ffesa/ts Cement Amount. Method. Time- ffesutts. /ng r n/iKxt Purpose f/fachi'rre Useef. 1 ferforarfiori Form 4. WELL LOG (Front) number, time and duty engaged in. These cards are dropped in a box kept at boarding houses for that purpose and, after approval by the foremen, are collected each day by the timekeeper. The LogofWt/iN' Property. Section N9 Graphic I- og from TO ft Formation rrom. !. Ft. Formation . _~ - ^^_ __ ^ Form 4. WELL LOG (Back) ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 213 timekeeper figures extensions and checks the time cards to see that each man has accounted for a full day. He then enters the time on the Pay Roll (Form No. 9) opposite name of employee and under proper day and enters total amount to Record of Time Cards (Form No. 11) under the corresponding day; then posts to column sheet for distribution of pay roll. The cards are then filed numerically by number of employee. All time other than drillers, toolers and teamster is recorded WESTERN O/L COMPANY. DJ/LY REPORT Of WELLS PUMPED. From /2 Moon. & Jb /2 Noon, w Property We// W0. Hours Cause ffafeu Secanab Hours fct/e Cause. ffate fa Seconds '| :' / ^ 3. 7 9 // This Report must be refrterea/da/'/y, Signed; Pumper from 12 M to /2PM. When We// /s pLfmp/rrgr mark / ' " /c//e O Pumper fro/77 /2PM- to /2M. Show cofTtf/r/o/j every two hours. Form 5. DAILY REPORT OF WELLS PUMPED on the General Time Card (Form No. 12). The same explanation holds good for operation as Drillers Time Card above. Each teamster records his time on Teamster Time Card (Form No. 13) and enters thereon a description of the work done. Same explanation obtains for operation as Drillers Time Card above. The items are then posted to various accounts on distribution sheet and credited to Teaming Revenue, account No. 72. These charges are based on the prevailing teaming charges of the district. Record of Pay Roll (Form No. 9) and Record of Time Cards (Form No. 11) are placed opposite each other in a loose-leaf binder. 214 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 215 /?l/W TtCKT. WESTERN OIL COMPANY. /O A/a So/a' to. from Tank No Run S/o. Descnpf/orr Mo. feet XV<7 //jcftes Quantity Tota/j QuanMy \\ Gauge be fore /fun Gauge after Run Gross A/o Barrets Temperature Spec Gravity % Water ana- Sana 1 ToW Deductions Tota/ Net Barre/s Crude O/'/ Total Charge per 8b/ Amount- Def/^ereaf by ffece/pted for Purchaser by Form 7. RUN TICKET The time cards are posted each day to Record of Pay Roll for time of employee and Record of Time Cards (Form No. 11) for value of each employee's time. The total amount entered on this sheet for the day must agree with the Distribution of Pay Roll according . '-'-. ' i ttftourCmp/oy Form 8. HIRING CARD to accounts affected and should balance at the end of the month. At the end of the month, this total must equal the total amount as shown on Record of Pay Roll (Form No. 9) in column headed Amount Earned. At the end of the month, totals as shown on Distribution of Pay Roll according to accounts affected and totals shown on Record of Pay Roll for amount earned, as well as details regarding deduc- tions are entered on Pay-Roll Report (Form No. 26) which is sent to the main office. 216 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS -., ">* f^H, Boani^f H.sc, . Time, ftate, Amount. Work Done Well Mo Time Amount Rigging Up Dri/Jmq F/shinq Puffing in Casing When roustabouts tvorJt or? new iff// /X*y must use ffta caret Wrrrf expfonafron of wor/r a/one on back Form 10. DRILLING TIME CARD ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 217 Upon receipt of copy of Pay-Roll Record (Form No. 9) at main office the Voucher Check is drawn for net amount of pay roll and charged to accrued pay-roll account No. 43. Pay checks (Form IVHSTfHN Oil. COMPANY > MM r/r ^ r ./fc. ? jy L1JJJJ Form 11. RECORD OF TIME CARDS No. 14) are then drawn for amount due each employee as shown on the Pay-Roil Record on which the number of pay check is noted. Pay checks are then sent to the field for distribution to employees. When an employee is discharged the foreman or superintended makes out a Discharge Card (Form No. 15) showing employee's name, number, time discharged, hours worked and day discharged. The TM/C&D Wrsrfff* OIL Co M*me, M> T/me ffarfe. Amott/rf, .Mrrcf of Work We//Mumber T/rrte 4mouni frva/ucinq Wel/s Pt/mp/ng ffe/t Pul/mq ' Clean/nq - Repairing Done On State Ptoce Wortfeet Bui/atir/gs Tanfa, O//& Gas lines Wafer System Bo'/frA Sfeam /ints a/<*We//ff/qs A/etv Work 5 fate PtoceWortect Bui/af/rxys Tanks. O/7& Gas tines IVaferSysffm Batters a&fam/tnes 6rna//rrg General Work Write fftpianofion of War* Done on Back Form 12. GENERAL TIME CARD employee takes the discharge card to the timekeeper, who records thereon detailed information regarding time, deduction and balance due. The discharge card is signed by the employee and payment 218 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS TFAMSTEffS 77M CARD. WfSTrffM OIL Co. \ A/arme Afo. ti t| N ! TEJMSTEPS REPORT. A/umber of Jn/mcr/s Used . Chargeab/e forte. Load of. From To. Time Storte^ T/me Ftn/sha Hours onJob jtffs Chanfa Amount /f6racf/rr(/ orffoaaf Wort, Sfarfe fully work ctortff crrro/wfiere- The above /$ correct: / Ifaraf 'feff/nsfer. Form 13. TEAMSTER TIME CARD Sfortcmenf No PAY CHECK from: To. Tots/Oars; WESTERN OIL COMPANY / / ' Pay to the Order of, / Board. Store. /n fu/l for alf Service to : dctranceSi Tofa/, FIRST NATIONAL BANK WESTERN O/i. (&MPANY Balance due. San franc/sco. Ca/t forma. ( Bv 1 } * Form 14. PAY CHECK DISCHJftOf CARD WCSTERN OIL COMPANY Form IS. DISCHARGE CARD ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 219 made from Revolving Fund at Oil Fields, account No. 2. The cards are then filed alphabetically by employee's name. Purchasing and Stores System. The main divisions of this sys- tem are as follows : (a) Requisitions (b) Purchasing (c) Receiving (d) Storing (e) Issuing (f) Transfers All purchases, whether for oil-well material and supplies or com- missary, are purchased by the purchasing agent who is at the main office. The only exception to the above is in case of a rush order, then the purchase order is sent direct from the field office. Requisitions (Form No. 16) are made out in duplicate at the field for all purchases. The original is sent to the purchasing agent and a duplicate is retained for field record. Purchase Order (Form No.. 17) is made out in triplicate. Original is sent to the individual or company from whom the purchase is made, duplicate is retained as a main-office record and the triplicate is mailed to the field for field record. All invoices are received at the field in duplicate, and after goods have been received and invoices checked for quantity, prices, etc., the originals are forwarded to the purchasing agent. Duplicates are re- tained at the field and filed for reference. A properly arranged store- room is essential, and it should be laid out to insure a place for every- thing and everything in its place. All stores, whether taken from oil-well materials and supplies or from commissary, are issued on a requisition (Form No. 18), and it must be shown on these requisitions whether materials given out are old or new. Stores transferred between wells or accounts, or coming from the field to the store-room are handled on Transfer Slips (Form No. 19). A Stock Ledger (Form No. 20) is kept for oil-well materials and supplies and also commissary. In the commissary only the por- tion designated as 'New Material' is used. Invoices as received at the field are checked for prices, quantities, extension, etc., and the dis- tribution to the account affected is also shown thereon. When all invoices have been properly checked they are posted to the Stock Ledger (Form No. 20), being entered as a charge to the article affected under the caption of New Material. Charges to Old Material are entered from the Transfer Slips (Form No. 19). 220 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS PURCHASE REQU Purchasing Depart ismoN. WESTERN OIL COMMNY. -trrrerrf- Date. 19 P/ease ora/er supp/ies, as fb/Jows Onr/arraf Wanted. Mafer/a/. Purpose Approved f/'e/d Manaarer- Stores- -Gommisarv Manager. Form 16. PURCHASE REQUISITION PUf?C> WESTERN OIL Co. 7/7. WSf ORDER Date ,/Q PL, Mo On trtis Ybur/nvoiee. Gentlemen: Quantity Ptease fui Mac/ling or FbrtMJfnfa -nisft fh/s Camp a nyfhe fol/ow/ng grooafs. Description. $trtf> fc l//'a Price. Amount. Send all Invoices to FieH Office in Dupl Also ty. showmy nto'gftt and ffcrfv . WepayrToctMrretevfbrpack/rHferDrayinat Terms WesTERN OIL COMPANY. By; Form 17. PURCHASE ORDER ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 221 STORE ROOM REQUISITION. Dn-r* WESTER^ OIL /Q COMPANY. A/a /ssuect for /tec * Mo Charge Entered. Quantity Description Pr/ce. OUMrfer/al NewMtxfena/ Delivered by: Received by Signed by. Form 18. STORE-ROOM REQUISITION A store-room requisition (Form No. 18) is made out for all ma- terials and supplies desired, and these requisitions must be signed by proper authority before being honored by the storekeeper. Each day the requisitions, together with all transfer slips, are sent to the account- ing department at the field, and, after being checked, priced and ex- tended are re-capped on sheets headed Re-cap of Stores Issued and Re-cap of Transfers respectively. They are then entered in the Stock Ledger (Form No. 20) as credits to the articles affected, and after 7VWSFCRSUP Cfnryt Greet/ WESTERN OIL COMPANY. JQ| r Js oA/o Make M> Transfers Without Trans fir S/ip. Girt fu// /nforrrxrhon 'ou/ff M> t- JceounjA/o. Quantify. Description Pr/ce O/WAfarfrxr/ Wf#Mb/eria/ De// versa/ by- "*****' ****"' Form 19. TRANSFER SLIPS 222 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS STOCK LEDGER. Wesrf/fN OIL COMPANY. Article. . Sheet No. Maximum. Minimum. Uni+, New Material- ~5/a; Materiat- Suanfi i Quart ^jp Balance Quanfttie*. In Bator ce x d=UJ JJLJ_ Form 20. STOCK LEDGER having been proved with the daily total of distribution as shown on the two re-cap sheets are filed under date of issue. After invoices have been properly recorded at the field they are sent to the main office and entered in the Purchase Ledger (Form No. 21) and also in the Distribution Ledger (Form No. 22). In- voices are first posted in the Purchase Ledger (Form No. 21) to the PURCHASE LEDGER WESTERN OIL COMPANY Cofjfro/ Sritet No. Name, /v<> Terms. Ae/dress. ftGfn&rks, Date of Entry Description Check No Dff-fe of Invo/ce No Charges y Credits // rrf. . ^J _J - -J s ~ J_i JX> J * P **! Form 21. PURCHASE LEDGER account of the creditor and as they are posted, the control number and invoice number are entered thereon. They are next posted to the Distribution Ledger (Form No. 22) as a charge against the account affected. The 'reverse proof posting system is used so that the total of all credits to the Purchase Ledger must agree with the total of all charges to Distribution Ledger. jDtSTff/BUTON LEDGER WESTERN O/L COMPANY. Account Account No. Sheet No Date No ' NO. Am ount Date invoicr dmou/rf- ^ 1 ' ^\ ^ . ^ L- ' ~j ^ ~^<4 UJ L ^ Form 22. DISTRIBUTION LEDGER ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 223 Machine Shop. All work performed by the machine shop must originate from a Work Order in duplicate (Form No. 23), original to accounting department, and duplicate to machine shop. Each Work Order is entered on a register showing the work order, date of work Form 23. WORK ORDER (Front) order, made for, and date to be completed. The time of each em- ployee in the machine shop is recorded daily on Machine Shop Time Card (Form 24). At the close of each day all time cards are sent to the timekeeper, who enters the employees' rate and extends the amount. Materials for jobs are recorded on Machine Shop Material Requi- sition (Form No. 25), and each day they are sent to the stores de- partment, where the prices are entered and amounts extended. After being priced and extended they are sent to the accounting department and with the time cards are re-capped daily, showing the charges to Form 23. WORK ORDER (Back) work orders affected. At the close of the month, from the recapitula- tion of time cards, and material requisitions, Work-in-Process (Ac- count No. 16) is charged and Accrued Pay Roll (Account No. 43) and Oil- Well Material and Supplies (Account No. 11) respectively, are credited. 224 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS MUCMWf SHOP TIMC CARD tVeSTfm O>L Ct Name *?*''* Off,: Work Dont "M^SH? !K* H^H tmounr Signed rorrm*" Form 24. MACHINE-SHOP TIME CARD MACHINE SHOP MATERIAL REQUISITION. WESTERN OIL Co. Charge to ftequis/f/bn Date, WorfOra/erMo No. Descript/on. Quenfity. for Off/ce Use. Pr/ce. d/nouni-. ___^- J ~~~ t. Form 25. MACHINE-SHOP MATERIAL REQUISITION WESTERN OIL COMPANY PAY ROLL REPORT. Report of Ftoy f?o/l & Dea/uctions for Men ffr of , /9 . ActfA Distribution of Pay Roll Oescrtp rion dmounf. */m Deafuc-fions /Iceounr 1 ;, f g Wells Drilling^ Set /ff/0# 10 Wells Comp/eted,- * II Oil tVeil Marr'l fr Supplies. 13 Bu//dirrg$ A Srrttc/isres 19 Oil Sys fern ?0 Got ' Zl Wafer . Z2 Steam 24 f/eefr A Teteph Sji srem 25 'roti K/S 32 Advartfed Cxpfrri n no PL/rrjpjnq in Pu/linq nz Cleaning />3 KT&pvr, Blrt* HA " " - -?, S f. *?.... 120 . - -fire ,/.-,, Vfiba 7 121 * * -a 07^, tsS-Orats I?F Commisary I4A 7eamn% 763 Dnl/ing a- field Tools Expense. -JH Water System expense Steam f 6as ' " I6A \ ^,'< r>ine S/TOP " 91 Offl ce - 92 Supertnfena/encf n a,'i i:~n/* ** Anal. ' W JF ;r:/>T>//\ 4/7JOU 7/ We/lN? SecftonN Amount Remarks h=t [ ~~- S* ~ J ~-~ L' '~ < *~-~, Form 26. PAY-ROLL REPORT ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 225 OH WELL MATCH,*.** SUPPLY KPOVT. "*V <* COMPANY, ffeport of Supplies /ssuef* * Transfers Ma/ate for Month of. *9 <% Description B 1C C#A> ?6ff Cfffl )/7S 9 We//s Dril//ng^_S.f ^na/ysis 6ete>v. /O * Comp/etfcf.-~ * * // a/ We//Mafer/a/ & Supp/fs. /fl gui/tf//Vf * Structures J3 Oi/ System. fO Gas " 2/ Wafer 2? Steam ZJ Fir* " 24 f/ecfrtc & Telephone System Z5 6raa/fot ffoaats & Orounds 32 AJvarrcM fjrpenffs. /O Pumping. // Pu///nq. >z G fea n ing. /3 fJepair/ng /7 Maintenance A- ffepairs - Bvf/rffrrqs (9 Srri/ctvrts . >ft ., Q;/ System. /9 > * " -Meefru: 6 Te/ephorrr Astern- 20 ,. ., - Fire System. Z> -Graraed #000"$ SGrovfjffs- /4 TeartniffQ fxperrse. 764 Dri/fig & r/e/a Tbo/ expense 79D Wafer Sysfe/n expense. 82D Steam " " 16ft Mac/r/ne Snap * 88B Gas Sysfe/n * Credit Oi/Wel/Mafert'a/&Supp/ies Jcc*t A/t //. A to/ysis of 'et/sDrij/mg -/recount A/f^. fw*4 TVMsreHS. Jno/ys is ofWe/h Comp/effcf. &* murm$ins. Form 27. OIL-WELL MATERIAL AND SUPPLIES REPORT After the time cards and material requisitions have been re-capped they are posted to each work order showing date, requisition number and amount for material used, and date, employee number and amount for labor charges. This information is not shown on the duplicate sent to the machine shop, as the copy sent to machine shop is for in- structions only. Completed work orders are re-capped at the close of the month and charged to accounts affected, as shown on the work orders, and machine shop (Account No. 84) is credited. From the total of cost of completed orders a charge is made to Cost of Machine Shop Revenue (Account No. 85). Work in Process (Account No. 16) is credited. This latter account will then show at the close of each month the value of uncompleted orders. Reports. The following reports are received from the field at the close of each month, and from these reports postings are mad* to the general records: 226 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS TEAMtNG REPORT WESTERN O/L COMPANY ftecor& of Teamirta Charges for M&ytti of. , /9 . 4. ' A- Jccourrts Amount Analysis of We/Is Orttt/ng. Jcc'f- No 9 Amount I Wells Drilling - See Ana/ysis We// ffffion _ _ to Completed- H // '-Pp/it>S .,- 3:,'J/r'jS ,f Sfr-ucf Lire's. It tftstem W SpeeLi 1 fftcfr ATe/epn. System. ?.< Gradea 1 Roods S Grounds jg Adraftcffd Expenses //i i Pumping /// Pul/inqi //? C/eammj. 1/3 ffepair/ng Mainffnancf S /frpairs -8/dq'iaStrucfrs " -Oi/ Svsfem ua -e/ee&Te/ 1 M " -6rttdeaf/?offa/s ffc AV Commissary /? Board/rig Houses 31 T&awrrq we Dnl/tng & Fiefd Toa/s'fxpense Ana/ysis oftVeUs Comp/ttret. Jccf. No/O Amo jnf ^ : Steam . Machine Strop We// Section 880 AJS Sys-frm ,gj Operations. 92 Super m tendence. Crectif rooming Revenue dcc't 72 ffemarfa. ~Z> I =^-^-~ -- ' \ ^^LL> 3t^ Form 28. TEAMING REPORT WrSTSrW O/L COMPANY 1 . MACHIUf SHOP REPORT ffepori- of Machine Shop Operations for Month of '9 Arc? No. Description. Amount Ana/ys/S ^ Wach Frpen fnop TotatC, Cost {abo Mate ?st ftemarScs dfc Welk Drilling- SteArta/ysis below We//s Completed- " " , " '"\ 19 20 Buildings * Sfructures. Oil System Gas - . 23 f4 Wafer' Steam dec trie & Te/epnoneSysfem. Fire S^sfem 3 (jrec/ec* 1 /foacfs & (sroun&s Alrencfcf fxpemes no Pumping. 5 C/eomnq. Repairing //g & f)e/f Toots Revenues, Month of, /9 . Ace* Report of Wafer &s fern Revenues. Acc'f- Report of Gas System Revenues tfr Description. Amot inf. f/f. Description . Amount. 6 Accounts Receivable. 6 Iccounfs ffrceirab/e wr B M D oarcfing Mouses. /3 9oare/ing Mouses 165 achine Shop . 95 Senerat Expenses. 76E n'/lina & Fte/tt Tool 'fxpense. fBt Oeerat/orrs. 5 Gentra) fxpenses . /2/ Main*. & fftpairs,-6n,aeaRoaefsA6fais. Zg Operations. O-fct/f Htoter System ffrrenue 4ctf7g. Creifit fas System Revenue. -Afcfg7. Mime. Name . Tbto/. Tbtff/ Report of Drilling & fie/a Too/ Revenues Report of Steam System Revenues. We//No Sect/on* Amount We//f/f SectronNf Amount. >Ve//f/i Section/* Amount Wf////t. nxf/o/7/V? Amount. Cnarafe We//s DriJ/i'nqf Acrf 9 , Tota/ Cfiarqte Operations * J26. Cftarqe IVe//s DriH nqrf cf9-CrditDn /atF/fMTt. JM v. 1 ' 7 5 Gnea/ttSff&m , #> of. f Me B Humfirrof Stir ivri&t *jJZ c?"n ' ffcmarts Tofv/ ffscord ofCastng Returned, Month of. 'f IVr/t o'frret s,zr Weight ^r ratal Charyfj ^ /remarks JH- TMa/ Summary feet Amou Casuxr m IVrl/S:- first of Month Casing used 'duruiq Mont/! nr Cffsmg Rstvrrvct durmg Morrt-h Casmf m IHtJj at DcrteJ J Form 31. CASING REPORT Pffooucr/oN REPORT WESTERN O/L COMPANY ffecom/ of O// Proa/ucf/on for Monfh of /nfft Less Sh/pmenfs atur/ng Morrffi In Sfvr&Qff 0f Ocrfe ( Form 32. PRODUCTION REPORT ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 22Q OIL SALES REPORT WESTERN OlL COMPANY Record of 0/1 So/a/ & Used for Ft/el - Month of 19 f/o Account Bom /S perBbl Amount IF -.". \ Sftr ^ /*w t/SDri t/na vunt 'yy gj| lount 6 Accounts ffeceirable-fsee Analysis) 9 Welts Dnllinq- (. ) 760 On/ling * fieU Tool Expense 79C Water System 828 Sfeer/rr , ISC Machine Shop. IZ/ Matnt&./?epairsrGraettdfloadS;6rt>unt Credit OiJ Sa/fr /tcct M> 6O. AtKT/ys/s ofOr/S&/e : 5~Accout 7fs ffeceivabterMonffr of. /$ /fame. 00rr r/s. otrBtx dm*. VJnt f/ame Barn t/S. perSU Jmc lunf Gamed Forward, ratal Form 33. OIL-SALES REPORT in handling this report. The accounts affected in the classification are charged and Oil- Well Materials and Supplies (Account No. 11) is credited with the total issues for the month as shown by the material requisitions. From the recapitulation of Transfer Slips (Form No. 19) accounts are charged with the total received through transfers and credited with the total issued through transfers. Account No. 11 will show charges for all materials going back into stock from the field. Wells drilling and completed wells show by individual wells a complete analysis of charges from Account No. 11 as well as charges and credits through transfer to or from other accounts. Teaming Report (Form No. 28). This report shows the total monthly earnings from team operations and from the report the re- spective accounts are charged and Teaming Revenue (Account No. 72) is credited. The revenue arises from charges for the use of teams at going rates. All expenses of operating the teams are charged to team- 230 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS W&TERN OIL COMPANY. Comparative S+atement of Assets- Liabilities & Capital Worth for Period ending ~ 19 T,tle of Accounts. This year I Last Year ^ ^ _^_ ASSCTS. De tei/ Total. Detail n tal C1SH ASSETS. / fferolwnaFund- San Francisco. * Of/ Fie/ds J first National Bank- San Francisco. 4 ' - Bakers field * Traveling Funds CURRENT ASSETS. 6 Accounts /receivable 7 Loans- a- Motes Receivable. 8 Personal Accounts. WELL DEVELOPMENT ASSETS- 9 Wells Dri/lmq - (See Analyst sj /O * Comp/ettd-CSeednotfS'S) INVENTORY ASSETS. /I Oil We/lMaftaal <* Supp/,es . 12 Commissary. '? Boara-mg Houses . /4 Hay . cirai/T 8e fffeaf- /f Macfune S/roff- tVerk/n Progress PLANT ASSETS. Lands. , /*. Leases. t Bui/d/nas 3r Structures. HO Oil System ^/ Gas n Wat er . ' JjL Steam,' f/re . Z5 f/ectr. A re/ep*. System. 9U/PMENT ASSETS. 5k Horses, Wagons & Harness. *9 Off,ce rwiprnent. 30 Dn///f7g & f/e/ft Too/s. 3t Shop Machinery and Too/s. J* Commissary Equipment- DEFERRED ASSET'S. 33 /la/danced Expenses- 34 Un expired /n sura nee. to " Taxes. 36: 5tar/bnerjt & Office Supp/i'es- Tata/ Assets LMBIL/T/ES. CURRENT LIABILITIES. 40 Accounts Payable. 4/ Loans A Notes fbvat>/e. 43 - Pavffo//. RESERVE LIABILITIES- ffeserve for Qepreciation-Exhaustw of Oil Lands. 45 " -We/to.- 46 -P/ant. ^ r " -Eauipment Total L idbi/i ties CAPITAL WORTH. 49 Authorized Capita/ Stock Wet Capita/ SfocSr/ssued JL Surplus Ad/us tmenf S2 ' At Date- Form 34. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF ASSETS, LIABILITIES AND CAPITAL WORTH ing under the proper classification and by crediting teaming revenue with the use of teams at going rates it enables the company to determine whether it is better to operate their own teams or hire outside teaming. As provided in the previous reports, the individual drilling wells and completed wells share the respective charges for teaming service. Machine Shop Report (Form No. 29). This report is made up from the recapitulation of completed orders. The respective accounts ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 231 Wt-sre.ffl/ OIL COMPANY ^^"^f . ^"^^^^^^ ..^ ^^^^_ _ iasf '9 Kfar ,V Description \CurrtntHitonth Mo loOett CaertntMmfh Mo foOffte. -f- Oil Sa/es Gross Gam 7 Oil Well Materials & Supplies Sales 64 Cost ofOi/ Well Ma ferial f SSvpp/res So/dS- Issued dross Gam t,6 Commissary Sales 67 Cost of Commissary Safes & Issues Gross ffain es. Boarc/mcr House ffevenue. "0 Cost of Operating Bearding houses Grvss Gam 72 Teaming Revenue 2 Cost o'f Operating Teams Gross Gain. 7-7 Onll ma S FieM Tool Revenue ' -^ Drilling & field Too/ Expense Gross Gain TV Water System Revenue 7-) Cost of Operating tVarer System Cross Gain HI >"V,-.~7 ^y^/;V^7 ,^V> ,^7^'<- Cost of Operatic, Steam System Gross ffain S4 Machine Shop Revenue 85 \ Cost of Machine Snop Revenue Gross Gain 87 6as System Revenue. 86 Cost of Operating <5as' System Gross ffam Total Gross Ga/n GENERAL EXPENSES 91 Adm/m'sfrative & Office Salaries 97 Sufer/n fenofencf a j Office Expenses 94 Sfaf/onery & Off if e 5upp/tS 'Jf Ofher General Expenses "6 Insurance. 97 Taxes 9S Rents .99 Telephone A Telegraph .'00 Traveling Expenses 1 01 Commissions IQ2 Legal Expenses To fa/ General Expenses Less % Charged to Production L ess % Charged to Operating. ' Tofal Deductions. Nef General Expenses Mpt Operat/nq. Gam . MISCELLANEOUS GAINS & LOSSES 104 Miscellaneous (jams lOi Discount Received ' CC' Interest Received ro-ta/ '07 Miscellaneous Lasses fffg Discount /Wowed. IO3 Inferest- Paid To-tal. Wet Miscellaneous Gain- Loss IS Net Gain for Period- *>/ Surp/uf first of Period 52 Surplus /It- Oate Form 35. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF REVENUES AND EXPENSES affected are charged and Machine Shop Revenue (Account No. 84) is credited with the total. There is also shown on this report an analysis of labor, material and expense on completed orders. The total of this represents the cost of completed orders and from this information Cost of Machine Shop Revenue (Account No. 85) is charged and Machine Shop- Work in Process (Account No. 16) is credited. Report of Water System Revenues. Report of Gas System Revenues. . T-, >Form No. 30. Report of Steam System Revenues. Report of Drilling and Field Tool Revenues. 232 OIL PRODUCTION METHODS WfSTCRN OIL COMFMNY Analysis of Production a Opervrtinar Costs for Month of r9 Acct This Year Last Y"eor fV. Description Current Montt, M ofoDate Current Month MotoDate PRODUCTION COST DIRECT I/O Pumping III Pulling II? Cleaning 113 Repairing //4 General Expenses % Total Direct Cost. IND/ffEC J 115 Oeprei "/arion- Ex ha ust ion o f Oil Lands 116 - ofWetls Total Indirect Cost To fa/ Production Cost OPfi ATING 1ST. 17 Mainteno nee A Repair s-Buildir qs 8 Structures 18 , Oi/Sys tern 19 , , - tlecfr