This book
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 DIRECTIONS AND EXERCISES FOR PLANNING 
 AND DELIVERING THE COMMON KINDS 
 OF TALKS, TOGETHER WITH GUID- 
 ANCE FOR DEBATING AND PAR- 
 LIAMENTARY PRACTICE 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN M. BREWER 
 
 INSTRUCTOR IN" EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 FORMERLY TEACHER IN HIGH AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 
 
 I.OS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 
 ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY JOHN M. BREWER 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 3'7-2 
 
 tElje gtftengum JPregg 
 
 CINN AND COMPANY- PRO- 
 PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
 
 TO 
 
 E. G. B. 
 
 4 ?_ 3 (o
 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Oral English is taking its place in schools and colleges as a 
 subject independent both of literature and of written composition. 
 Moreover, the study itself is changing, passing from practice in 
 imitation of lofty masterpieces, with the elocutionary style, to 
 direct, effective speaking without unnecessar)^ adornment. Many 
 authors still make oral work subsidiary to written composition, 
 whereas speaking should be primary. Others plan to drill stu- 
 dents chiefly in vocal exercises, giving most of the time to prepa- 
 ration for talking and little to the talking itself. Many emphasize 
 reproduction and neglect production. Some ground their exercises 
 on the theory' of general discipline, and neglect considerations of 
 immediate utility and vocational needs. Few give the students the 
 point of view of the modern, active man or woman of the world, 
 who must talk a great deal and wishes to do it with businesslike 
 simplicity and brevity. 
 
 To meet these needs this textbook has been prepared. It aims 
 to furnish the student brief directions, detailed exercises, and sug- 
 gestive topics of everyday interest and utility — the best that have 
 arisen during several years of fortunate experience in a school which 
 pioneered in developing courses in Oral English. The student is 
 assigned a series of problems, each of which he must think out 
 and then solve by giving a talk before the class. There is little 
 provision for talking al'ouf talking, but there is omnipresent pro- 
 vision for doing- in a thought-directed way the things that students 
 are already trying — explaining, telling, and arguing. 
 
 The table of contents will show that the classification and 
 arrangement are based on pragmatic and educational rather than 
 on philological grounds. Part I — the first twelve chapters — ■
 
 VI PREFACE 
 
 includes most if not all of the common kinds of talks, together 
 with four chapters specifically devoted to the manner of speaking. 
 Part II takes up two special subjects : debating and parliamen- 
 tary law ; and the appendixes contain reference tables, lists of 
 topics, and some miscellaneous exercises valuable to students 
 of all ages. 
 
 The text may be followed consecutively, or the work may be 
 varied at any time by allowing free choice and experimentation, by 
 using the parliamentary organization, or by performing the exercises 
 of Chapter XII. 
 
 Oral English is the only study which is used in the pursuit 
 of every study, and the one study useful in every vocation and 
 avocation of life. Hence its importance. 
 
 Acknowledgment is made to each of the persons who helped in 
 making the book. G. A. Rice, Belle Parsons Clewe, C. P. Fonda, 
 and Alice E. Craig, of the Los Angeles high schools, Martha Gaddis 
 Todd, and Professor A. J. Todd of the University of Minnesota, 
 read and criticized the manuscript or certain portions of it. Many 
 students and fellow teachers helped in the preparation of the various 
 revisions. Arthur Babcock assisted in the directions for improving 
 the voice, and Hon. H. Stanley Benedict reviewed the chapter on 
 parliamentary law, Grace A. Turkington improved the arrange- 
 ment and the rhetoric of the entire manuscript by her searching 
 criticisms and painstaking corrections. Edith Gaddis Brewer pre- 
 pared the index and has given indispensable assistance throughout 
 
 the four years of labor on the book. 
 
 JOHN M. BREWER 
 Cambridge, Massachusetts
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. PLANNING AND DELIVERING THE COMMON KINDS 
 
 OF TALKS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. How TO Make axd how to Do 3 
 
 II. Argument for Beginners 25 
 
 III. The Speaker's Appearance "before the Audience 44 
 
 IV. Improving the Vocabulary 57 
 
 V. Narrations 77 
 
 VI. Descriptions ' 91 
 
 VII. Simple Business Talks 102 
 
 VIII. Style in Oral Composition 114 
 
 IX. Explanations : Additional Considerations . . . 136 
 
 X. Good Use of the Voice 163 
 
 XI. Speeches for Special Occasions 176 
 
 The Announcement, i 76 — The Nominating Speech, i 79 
 — The Introduction of a Speaker, 182 - — ^The Presentation 
 and Response, 184 — The Toast or After-Dinner Speech, 
 186 — The Oration, 189 — Other Talks, igi. 
 
 XII. Additional Talks and Exercises 195 
 
 Reading, 195 — Current Topics, 201 — The Discussion, 
 203 — Impromptu Talks, 207> — Humorous Stories and 
 Jokes, 209 — Interviews, 212 — Conversations, 216 — 
 Extempore Plays, 220. 
 
 PART II. ARGUMENTATION AND PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 XIII. Argument and Debate 225 
 
 XIV. Parliamentary Law 289 
 
 vii
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 APPENDIXES PAGE 
 
 I. Arranging and Conducting Debates 339 
 
 II. Propositions for Debate 357 
 
 III. Plan for a Mock Trial 369 
 
 IV. Plan for a National Political Convention . . . 373 
 V. Lists of Topics for Reference 375 
 
 VI. Reference Tables 3^3 
 
 INDEX 389
 
 ORAL ENGLISH
 
 There can be no fairer ambition than to excel in talk ; to be affable, 
 gay, ready, clear, and welcome ; to have a fact, a thought, or an illustration, 
 pat to every subject ; and not only to cheer the flight of time among our 
 intimates, but bear our part in that great international congress, always 
 sitting, where public wrongs are first declared, public errors first corrected, 
 and the course of public opinion shaped, day by day, a little nearer to the 
 right. — Robert Louis Stevenson
 
 PART I. PLANNING AND DELIVERING 
 THE COMMON KINDS OF TALKS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 Everyday Explanations. Suppose that a number of 
 students are decorating their schoolroom. From time to time 
 parts of the work will have to be explained to individuals 
 or to groups of students, and many questions will be asked 
 about points that are not clear. Either the teacher or one 
 of the older students will have to answer such questions. 
 Some of these directions or explanations may be put into two 
 or three sentences, others will be much longer. Whether 
 an explanation is given to only one student, or to several, 
 its subject matter is essentially the same. 
 
 Again, suppose some boys are learning to play volley ball. 
 A difficulty may arise, the game may stop, and one of the 
 players who knows the game thoroughly may begin to 
 explain the rules to the others. He will continue his ex- 
 planations until the obscure points are made clear, and will 
 address his remarks to one person, or to several persons, or 
 to the whole group of players, as the occasion demands. 
 
 We might cite many other cases to show that the student 
 who gives a talk in school is doing nothing essentially differ- 
 ent from that which is done every day at play, at school, 
 and at home. Of course the talk before a class should be 
 
 3
 
 4 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 more carefully planned ; but any student who can tell an- 
 other how to decorate a room, or who can tell his friends on 
 the playground how to take part in a game, should have no 
 difficulty in facing a class and giving an interesting talk. 
 
 There are innumerable situations in school and in every- 
 day life where one person finds himself explaining some- 
 thing to others. If several workmen are about to lift a 
 plate of glass into place in a store front, one of them will 
 direct the movements of the others. If a group of girls is 
 planning a picnic or a party, probably not one of them will 
 fail to express her ideas about the event. The quarter back 
 on the football team gives directions for each play, using 
 the technical language of signals. The foreman in a shop 
 makes oral explanations to his men, and the men in turn 
 explain details of their work to each other. The member 
 of a committee explains his views to his fellow members. 
 The boy on the street tells the stranger how to reach the 
 railway station. And so we might continue indefinitely. 
 
 The Talk in Class. In spite of the fact that every 
 person, young and old, every day explains, describes, and 
 argues, many students have the idea that giving a talk be- 
 fore the class or in the school auditorium is a difficult pro- 
 ceeding. As strange as this, is the idea that those who can 
 talk well cannot work well and that those who can do 
 things cannot talk well. The athlete, when called upon to 
 speak, will sometimes say, "Talking isn't in my line; it's 
 my business to play baseball." Or the successful business 
 man will say, as he begins his talk, " I realize that I'm not 
 much of a speech maker." Yet these same persons, on the 
 playground and in the business house, every day give talks 
 which are clear, interesting, and enthusiastic. In order to
 
 SIMPLE EXPLANATIONS 5 
 
 succeed in a more formal effort, all that anybody needs is 
 to consider in advance the purpose of the talk, to plan an 
 outline of the facts and ideas to be presented, to practice 
 it alone, and to summon the aid of a little confidence born 
 of the desire to succeed. 
 
 Every young person should have an earnest desire to be 
 able to speak well before others. If any student has no such 
 desire, he need only observe the life of street, store, home, 
 playground, farm, school, and office to have it aroused in 
 him. Without the ability to express himself well, no person 
 can reach his highest usefulness. 
 
 What Explanations are. In the illustrations considered 
 above we have spoken of the situation in which one person 
 tells others how to perform some act or how to carry out 
 a process. Such talks are called explanations. The kind 
 of explanation most often heard is that in which a process 
 or series of operations is traced through several steps to 
 the accomplishment of a purpose. We have this kind of 
 oral explanation when one person tells another how to 
 solve a problem in arithmetic, how to play tennis, how 
 to make a dress, or how to build a boat. It is with such 
 explanations that we shall deal in this chapter, and we 
 shall leave to a later chapter other and less simple forms. 
 This book is itself an explanation, for it shows how to 
 prepare and give talks ; this chapter also is an explanation, 
 for it explains how to explain. 
 
 We shall now consider two phases of our subject : first, 
 how to prepare for the explanation ; second, how to give 
 the talk. 
 
 Studying for the Talk. It is obvious that to explain any- 
 thing, the speaker must first understand it himself, and
 
 6 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 this requires study. We shall therefore consider the study 
 necessary for a successful explanation : ( i ) the extent of 
 the study, (2) the sources of information, (3) recording the 
 facts, and (4) making the outline. 
 
 The Extent of the Study. We shall discuss here the 
 material actually needed for the talk itself. This may be 
 summarized as follows : 
 
 1. The equipment (or the preliminary conditions) for the 
 successful carrying out of the process to be explained. 
 
 2. The steps or parts of the process itself. 
 
 3. The result to be achieved or the uses to which the 
 finished object is to be put. 
 
 Suppose, for example, we are to explain how to make and 
 adjust a paper cover for a book. Our study must extend 
 far enough to make us familiar with the following details : 
 
 COVERING A BOOK 
 
 1. Equipment and preliminary conditions. 
 
 a. Materials : suitable paper ; paste or mucilage. 
 
 b. Tools : scissors ; paste brush. 
 
 c. Other conditions : sufficient time ; care to prevent the 
 
 formation of wrinkles. 
 
 2. Process. 
 
 a. Cutting the paper the right size. 
 
 b. Making the cuts for the binding of the book. 
 
 c. Folding. 
 
 d. Pasting. 
 
 e. Pressing. 
 f. Labeling. 
 
 3. Resuk. 
 
 a. Saving the wear of hard use. 
 
 I). Preserving the book for one's library.
 
 PREPARING THE TALK 7 
 
 As indicated by this outline, the preparatory study for an 
 explanation includes more than the familiarizing of one's 
 self with the mere process or operation. Thus, if a person 
 is to explain how to wax or paint a floor, he must inform 
 himself about the kind of material to use, in what quantity 
 and where to purchase it, and the like. He must also 
 know the results to be obtained from the use of various 
 kinds of materials. Further, it is important for him to 
 remember that in certain cases special preliminary condi- 
 tions are necessary for the carrying out of the process. 
 For example, to varnish a floor requires skill ; to raise 
 oranges requires special knowledge of soil and climate ; to 
 cook or clean house presupposes proper dress ; to pitch in 
 a game of baseball demands calmness and deliberation. All 
 such qualities and conditions, as necessary parts of the 
 equipment, must be taken into consideration in the study 
 for the explanation. 
 
 We shall now turn to a group of exercises for practice 
 in applying these principles. It will be best for the student, 
 at least at first, to select subjects with which he is somewhat 
 familiar. He should try to find interesting ones, however, 
 and should avoid a subject which is an old story to the other 
 members of the class. Unless it is otherwise understood, 
 the students need not be confined to the subjects listed 
 in the exercises, but may make a selection from the topics at 
 the end of this chapter, or they may choose one suggested 
 by their own experiences. Students should put interest and 
 enthusiasm into the presentation of every exercise.^ 
 
 ^ In Table E, in Appendix VI, will be found a summary of the steps 
 necessary to the preparation of a talk to be given in class. All the talks 
 should be given at the front of the room.
 
 8 
 
 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. What materials are necessary for making one of the 
 articles listed below ? Plan an accurate, complete statement to 
 give to the class. 
 
 b. Prepare a brief oral explanation of the making of one of 
 the articles. Give the talk in class. 
 
 1. 
 
 An apron. 
 
 11. 
 
 A drop curtain. 
 
 2. 
 
 An electric battery. 
 
 12. 
 
 A flytrap. 
 
 3. 
 
 A cement walk. 
 
 -^13. 
 
 Fudge. 
 
 4. 
 
 Plaster. 
 
 14. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 5. 
 
 A fireless cooker. 
 
 15. 
 
 A kite. 
 
 6. 
 
 Griddlecakes. 
 
 16. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 7. 
 
 Popcorn balls. 
 
 - 17. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 8. 
 
 Paste. 
 
 18. 
 
 An electric bell. 
 
 9. 
 
 A sled. 
 
 19. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 10. 
 
 A tent. 
 
 20. 
 
 An incandescent light, 
 
 2. a. What tools or equipment are necessary for carrying out 
 one of the processes named below ? Prepare a statement to give 
 to the class. 
 
 b. Give the complete talk, explaining the equipment, the proc- 
 ess, and the result. 
 
 1. Sharpening a knife. 
 
 2. Canning fruit. 
 
 3. Cleaning and pressing a suit. 
 
 4. Painting a picture. 
 
 5. Fishing. 
 
 6. Laying a water pipe. 
 
 7. Polishing silver. 
 
 8. Making cookies. 
 
 9. Washing clothes. 
 10. Painting a roof. 
 
 11. Cleaning a sewing machine. 
 
 12. Clearing up a back yard. 
 
 13. Planting a tree. 
 
 14. Washing dishes. 
 
 15. Mending shoes. 
 
 16. Making an excavation. 
 
 17. Harvesting a crop of hay. 
 
 18. Playing ball. 
 
 19. Cutting hair. 
 
 20. Cleaning a cistern. 
 
 3. a. Tell the complete equipment necessary for making one 
 of the articles or for carrying out one of the processes given
 
 PREPARING THE TALK 9 
 
 below. Include not only the materials and tools but also the 
 conditions of environment and the personal qualifications. 
 &. Give the complete talk of explanation. 
 
 1. Studying a lesson. 6. Entertaining a guest. 
 
 2. Planning a party. 7. Handling gasoline. 
 
 3. Camping out. 8. Stopping a runaway horse. 
 
 4. Stealing a base. 9. Raising hens. 
 
 5. Skating. 10. Making a speech. 
 
 4. a. Make a list of the steps in the actual performance of 
 one of the tasks mentioned below. Be prepared to give an attrac- 
 tive statement of these steps to the class. If necessary, you may 
 use notes, but do not read your statements. Look into the faces 
 of your hearers. 
 
 b. Give the complete explanation, including equipment, process, 
 and result. 
 
 1. Making a cloth bag. 7. Making artificial snow. 
 
 2. Making a stool. 8. Sharpening a saw. 
 
 — 3. Finishing the surface of a desk. 9. Putting chains on automobile 
 
 4. Weaning a calf. wheels. 
 
 5. Making glass. 10. Preparing mashed potatoes. 
 
 6. Planting a lawn. 
 
 5. a. What would be the advantages (results) of learning to 
 perform one of the following processes .'' 
 b. Give the complete explanation. 
 
 _ 1. Making bread at home. 7. Using the forward pass in 
 
 2. Using the barometer. football. 
 
 3. Making a cold frame. 8. Making a muff. 
 
 4. Connecting batteries in series. 9. Learning to sing or to play. 
 
 5. Playing center in basket ball. 10. Taking gymnasium work. 
 
 6. Testing a water meter. 
 
 The Sources of Information. We have seen that in the 
 study preparatory to the explanation we must include the 
 equipment, the process, and the result. We have now to
 
 10 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO ^ 
 
 consider the sources of information upon which we may 
 draw. Briefly, these are two : our own store of experiences 
 and thoughts, and the experiences possessed by others, to 
 which we have access througli books, magazines, and per- 
 sonal interviews. 
 
 If a person is to draw upon his own knowledge for ma- 
 terial, he should make sure that this knowledge is reliable, 
 complete, and fresh in his mind. For example, if he is to 
 explain a process in domestic chemistry, such as how to test 
 soap, it would be well for him to go through the actual proc- 
 ess in preparing for the talk. When this is not practicable 
 he should observe the process or operation as performed cor- 
 rectly and intelligently by someone else. In the case of such 
 operations as the building of a table, for which it may not be 
 feasible either to perform or to observe the actual work, the 
 student should mentally review the equipment, the steps of 
 the process, and the result, so that the necessary facts may 
 be as accurate and complete as study can make them. 
 
 If the information is to be obtained by interviewing indi- 
 viduals, the student should select those persons who are well 
 informed on the subject, and should put his questions in 
 such a way as to bring out all the points desired. In every 
 community will be found men and women of experience 
 who are glad to explain to earnest students what they know 
 about the making of useful objects and the doing of inter- 
 esting things. The knowledge gained from such interviews 
 always makes good material for class talks, and will prove 
 a valuable addition to the class's stock of usable facts and 
 ideas. Notes may be taken by the interviewer, and some- 
 times pictures or drawings may be obtained to use in giving 
 the talks to the class.
 
 PREPARING THE TALK il 
 
 If books and other printed matter are to furnish the 
 needed information, ordinarily the study should extend to 
 several accounts. Care should be taken to see that only 
 trustworthy sources are consulted, for much that appears in 
 print is far from reliable. Often the explanations given in 
 newspapers are mere space fillers, and have not been care- 
 fully tested. In all his reading, the student should test the 
 facts presented by asking if they seem reasonable or pos- 
 sible. Often an encyclopedia will be the first book to con- 
 sult. Several references may need to be looked up before 
 all the desired data are found ; for example, in trying to find 
 out about bread, one may need also to look up flour, baking, 
 bakery, wheat, and oven. Books of receipts, textbooks, 
 household magazines, scientific and technical periodicals, 
 nature books, and business journals contain excellent mate- 
 rial for explanations. The student should frequently consult 
 his teacher, a librarian, or some other well-informed person 
 about possible sources of reliable information. 
 
 In gathering information from printed matter, notes, 
 drawings, and diagrams may be made, and the dictionary 
 should be consulted for the meaning of unfamiliar terms. 
 Such helps as pictures and diagrams may be used in class 
 if they will make the explanation clearer. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Which of the explanations suggested below could you 
 make without obtaining outside help ? Which could you study 
 by performing the process or by observing it? Come to class 
 prepared to make an attractive report, telling how you would 
 prepare a talk on one of these subjects or on another subject 
 selected by yourself.
 
 12 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 6. Follow the suggestions given above in preparing the talk ; 
 give the talk in class. 
 
 1. Running an elevator. 6. Breaking a horse. 
 
 2. Testing cloth for pure wool. 7. Operating an aeroplane. 
 
 3. Making paste. 8. Cleaning spots from a sink board. 
 
 4. Cleaning a bicycle. 9. Darning stockings. 
 
 ^ 6. Hemming a handkerchief. xO. Making a toy windmill. 
 
 2. a. In preparing one of the following explanations, what 
 person or persons in your community would you interview for 
 the purpose of obtaining information ? Be prepared to state in 
 class the reasons for your selections, and the plan you would use 
 in the interview. 
 
 b. Carry out your plan, and come to class prepared to give 
 the complete talk. 
 
 1. How to grow corn. 5. How to make salt-rising bread. 
 
 2. How to make jelly. 6. How to care for a pet rabbit. 
 
 3. How to determine if a soil 7. How to mix paint. 
 
 is fertile. 8. How to cover an ironing board. 
 
 4. How to make an extension 9. How to pack china for shipment. 
 
 ladder. 10. How to crate a sewing machine. 
 
 3. a. What printed matter would you consult in preparing for 
 one of the explanations listed below ? State in class how you 
 would go about finding information in books and magazines. 
 
 b. Follow out your plan, and give the complete talk in class. 
 
 "1. How to play lacrosse. 6. Growing alfalfa. 
 
 2, Cheese making. 7. How to use sour milk. 
 
 V3. Diamond cutting. 8. Transportation of fresh fruit. 
 
 4. How bricks are made. ^^. How to make artificial flowers. 
 
 5. How to make curtains. 10. How to build a beehive. 
 
 Recording the Facts. Notes should be made throughout 
 the study, whether the information be gathered from books
 
 PREPARING THE TALK 13 
 
 or persons or from one's personal experience. The memo- 
 randa should be recorded on slips of paper or in notebooks, 
 in such a way that they will be available for use in the 
 speech itself. They may then be filed away for possible 
 reference later. Statistics, measurements, diagrams, and 
 pictures illustrating the subject should be carefully recorded 
 and saved, even if all of them are not likely to be used in 
 the talk. The purpose of the study is to know the subject, 
 and if the student masters it he will have no difficulty with 
 the talk, or with possible questions afterwards. The student 
 who reads only enough for the talk itself will, nine times 
 out of ten, if the subject is at all complicated, have diffi- 
 culty in the presentation. We need an extensive back- 
 ground of knowledge ; otherwise we have little right to 
 speak. Time spent in exhaustive study of a subject will 
 add to a person's experience and education that which may 
 prove of value many times in his life. 
 
 Making the Outline. During the process of collecting 
 and recording information, topics for an outline will begin 
 to show themselves. As these topics present themselves, 
 they should be used to classify the material collected. Then 
 they should be arranged in a logical order. No doubt for 
 most explanations the topics should follow the order sug- 
 gested on page 6, namely, the equipment, the process, and 
 the result. For the talk before the class, however, there 
 should also be a sentence or two of introduction, which 
 should make clear to the hearers exactly what the subject 
 is, and a brief summary or conclusion at the end. 
 
 The following plan may be used in arranging the material 
 for a talk on the construction of an ornamental lamp shade :
 
 14 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 MAKING A LAMP SHADE 
 (The Main Points of a Typical Outline) 
 
 1. Introduction : the reason for making the lamp shade. 
 
 2. Equipment. 
 
 a. Materials. 
 
 b. Tools. 
 
 c. Other conditions : time, skill. 
 
 3. Process. 
 
 a. Cutting out the parts. 
 
 b. Fitting the parts together. 
 
 c. Putting in the glass. 
 
 d. Attaching the shade to the lamp. 
 
 4. Conclusion : the result. 
 
 a. Use. 
 
 b. Beauty. 
 
 c. Cost. 
 
 It will be noted that we have omitted from the above 
 outline many details, such as the exact list of materials and 
 tools necessary, the different operations in cutting out the 
 parts, and the detailed account of cost. These should be 
 added to the growing outline as we study the subject, so 
 that every needed fact will be included. When the explana- 
 tion is given, however, a brief outline like the one above is 
 all that the student will need to have at hand. If the subject 
 is simple and the facts well fixed in mind, notes may be 
 dispensed with altogether when talking. But in the prepa- 
 ration for the talk, no matter how' simple and well known 
 the subject, time spent in making a complete outline is 
 not wasted.
 
 PREPARING THE TALK 
 
 15 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Study one of the subjects below, or another of your own 
 selection. Exercise special care in recording the facts. Bring to 
 class all notes, drawings, figures, etc., which you have assembled. 
 Be prepared to show these to the class, and to give an attractive 
 talk about your methods of gathering and recording material. 
 
 b. Give the explanation in class. 
 
 1. 
 
 How to make a canvas ham- 
 
 —6. 
 
 How to press and mount flowers. 
 
 
 mock. 
 
 7. 
 
 How to make a stairway. 
 
 2. 
 
 How to shoe a horse. 
 
 -~8. 
 
 How to make a toboggan. 
 
 ^. 
 
 How to set a dinner table. 
 
 9. 
 
 Felling a big tree. 
 
 "M. 
 
 How to make a toy boat. 
 
 10. 
 
 Loading a pack animal. (See 
 
 —5. 
 
 How to show magnetism 
 
 
 Stevenson's " Travels with a 
 
 
 with iron filings. 
 
 
 Donkey.") 
 
 2. a. Prepare outlines for five of the subjects below, making 
 each outline at least as extensive as that on the lamp shade. Be 
 prepared to read them, or to put them on the board, or to pass 
 them around the class for criticism. 
 
 6. Prepare to give one of the explanations in class. 
 
 1. Repairing a leaky faucet. 6. 
 
 2. Using a vacuum cleaner. 7. 
 
 3. Staining a piece of furniture. 8. 
 
 4. Using a washing machine. ~9. 
 
 5. Preparing cbffee. 10. 
 
 Tempering iron. 
 
 Binding books. 
 
 Making an electric push button. 
 
 Making a toy wagon. 
 
 Making a salad. 
 
 3. a. Prepare and bring to class a complete outline for one of 
 these topics, including all the details which will be touched upon 
 in the talk. 
 
 h. Give the explanation in class. 
 
 1. Transplanting a rosebush. 6. 
 
 2. Making a camp fireplace. 7. 
 
 3. Making a handball backstop. 8. 
 
 4. Making grape juice. 9. 
 
 5. Making a box. "~10. 
 
 Hanging a screen door. 
 Diving for pearls. 
 Cooking a breakfast. 
 Making a henhouse. 
 How to play checkers.
 
 1 6 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 Oral Practice. Having gathered and recorded the neces- 
 sary information, and having prepared a satisfactory outhne, 
 the student should next practice giving the talk. For this 
 the full outline should be used, together with whatever notes, 
 drawings, and other aids will be of assistance. The practice 
 should be as nearly like the actual talk as possible ; the 
 student should learn not to rely too much on his memo- 
 randa, and should rehearse the talk in a standing position. 
 
 Introducing the Subject. The introduction, as we have 
 suggested above, may announce the subject and state briefly 
 why it is of interest. It may also connect an unfamiliar 
 subject with ideas or facts already in the minds of the 
 hearers. For example, in an explanation of how to make 
 a stool, one might begin by saying : "I am going to ex- 
 plain how anybody who can use carpenter's tools can make 
 a stool. This is one of the articles of kitchen furniture 
 that is often more serviceable than a chair." 
 
 Developing the Explanation. Having introduced the 
 subject, the student must proceed to develop it, using a plan 
 similar to that suggested above. He must keep his hearers 
 constantly in mind, making all the points clear to them, 
 and proceeding from one point to another so carefully that 
 no one can fail to follow him. At the same time he must 
 not become tiresome by going too slowly. Experience and 
 a thoughtful regard for others will teach him the golden 
 mean between too few words and too many. In some 
 explanations the subjects are so common or so simple 
 that many points may be omitted because they are obvious. 
 Thus, it would be a waste of time to tell much about the 
 tools necessary to make a box, or to discuss the usefulness 
 of a screen door.
 
 PREPARING THE TALK 17 
 
 Ending the Talk. Our discussion of the outline has in- 
 dicated how the talk should be concluded. Any interesting 
 bit of information about the object or process as a whole, 
 but not about any part or detail, will serve to round out 
 the talk and give it a good ending. In the outline of the 
 lamp shade we suggested Use, Beauty, and Cost as topics 
 of general interest. Other considerations sometimes appro- 
 priate for conclusions are : importance ; comparison with 
 other objects or methods ; improvements that may be ex- 
 pected. For example, our explanation of a new type of 
 aeroplane might end thus : " This is the latest and most 
 efficient machine yet designed, but the experiences gained 
 in the war may result in the invention of new types very 
 different from any now in use." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Select one of the subjects below, and plan your opening 
 sentences for the explanation. Then practice this introduction 
 until it goes smoothly and sounds well, but do not memorize or 
 write down actual sentences. Give the introduction in class. 
 
 h. Practice the complete talk of explanation, and give it in class, 
 
 1. How to make lemonade. ""^T. How to make a rag dolL 
 
 2. How to magnetize a needle. 8. How to build a brick wall. 
 
 3. How to hang a hammock. 9. How to make a meat loaf. 
 
 4. How to play volley ball. 10. How to make a folding ironing 
 
 5. How to care for a cow. board. 
 
 6. How to preserve insects. 
 
 2. a. Prepare concluding sentences for a talk of explanation 
 on one of the subjects given below. Give the conclusion in class 
 in such a way as to show that you understand the whole process. 
 
 h. Prepare the complete talk — introduction, body, and con- 
 clusion — and give it in class.
 
 1 8 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 1. How to sharpen a plane. 6. How to blacken russet shoes. 
 
 2. How to cook beets. 7. How to use a fish net. 
 
 3. How to make a swing. 8. How to make a giant stride. 
 "~-4. How to blow an egg. '^. How to mend gloves. 
 
 5. How to read a meter. 10. How to put on a gas mantle. 
 
 3. Study the following explanation and be prepared to discuss 
 its merits or its defects in class. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE A BUNNIE OUT OF A COOKED EGG 
 
 Did you ever try to make a bunnie out of a cooked egg .'' When your 
 egg is cooked, take some heavy white paper and cut from it two long 
 white ears that fit the size of the egg. Cut also four little rounding legs. 
 They need not be shaped carefully, but each must be the same in shape 
 as the other. Take some good glue and paste bunnie's legs to the egg. 
 Let them dry well. Do not touch them or lift the egg till all is thor- 
 oughly dry. Then add bunnie's ears near the point of the egg. Make 
 a crayon eye with a pink crayon on each side of the point of the egg. 
 Cut a soft round of white cotton and stick this where bunnie's tail 
 should go. Then stand your bunnie on his feet. He will be a 
 pretty toy — one that you can play with, and one that you may eat. — 
 New York Tribune. 
 
 The Use of Helps. If the students have taken an interest 
 in their work, many of them, before this point has been 
 reached, have used some of the common aids in explaining. 
 Perhaps the most important helps are gestures, drawings, 
 and the exhibition of actual objects. 
 
 Using the Hands. Gestures are so useful that we can 
 hardly do without them. In many of the talks we find our- 
 selves using simple hand movements to aid in the explana- 
 tion. It is useless, however, to try to force the hands into 
 the talk, for this would make for awkwardness and self- 
 consciousness. Only remember that they need not be held 
 back if they come naturally into play. And perhaps the
 
 AIDS IN EXPLAINING 19 
 
 best way to accustom them to helping is to put them to 
 work drawing and handhng objects. 
 
 Drawing Diagrams. Drawings are a necessity in some 
 explanations, and every student should do his best, even if 
 he has not had definite training for this. If we look for 
 a moment at Exercise i on page 17, we shall see that 
 subjects 4 and 10 could not be adequately treated without 
 blackboard diagrams. Doubtless, also, the talks on subjects 
 2, 3, 7, and 8 would be greatly helped by the use of simple 
 sketches. However, many explanations are of course better 
 without drawings ; for instance, it would be a waste of time, 
 or an exhibition of poor judgment, to attempt drawings for 
 subjects I, 5, or 9, unless perhaps one were to sketch a 
 cow's stall. The student, then, must in each case decide 
 whether or not a drawing will be a real help, and act 
 accordingly. In most cases the speaker should draw as he 
 talks, taking care to make his diagram clear but not spend- 
 ing too much time on it. He should always talk toward 
 the audience and not toward the blackboard. The sample 
 drawings on page 21 are sketches actually used in classes 
 in Oral English. 
 
 # 
 
 Using Actual Objects. In some explanations the exhibi- 
 tion of the objects themselves is much more effective than 
 the use of drawings alone. Thus in Exercise 2 above, the 
 explanations of i and 9 would be improved by the display 
 of the blade of the plane and of the glove which needs 
 mending. Probably 4 and 10 would also be greatly im- 
 proved if the speaker could handle, as he speaks, an egg 
 in the one case and a gas mantle in the other. If it is 
 practicable the speaker should perform the operation itself 
 before the class, talking as he works, just as would a
 
 20 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 domestic-science teacher in explaining how to prepare beets 
 for cooking. Sometimes effective use may be made of 
 simple devices, such as a strip of paper to represent a fish 
 net in explaining how the net is used, or a pencil to repre- 
 sent the post for the giant stride. We must in every case 
 study the subject to see what helps will be most effective. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Plan an illustration to use in one of the explanations 
 suggested below. Talking as you draw, give that portion of the 
 explanation which should accompany the illustration. 
 
 b. Give the complete explanation in class, drawing the illustra- 
 tion at the board. 
 
 r-. How to lay a brick wall. 6. How to make a pattern for a 
 
 ^. How to lay out a tennis court. kimono waist. 
 
 3. How to stake a young tree. 7. How to connect two electric 
 
 4. How to trim a rosebush. bells to one button. 
 
 5. How to raise into place a tall 8. How to use a springboard. 
 
 flagpole. 9. How to make a child's bib. 
 
 10. How to make a picture frame. 
 
 2. Decide upon the proper objects, models, or other helps to 
 use in giving a talk on one of the subjects below. Practice the 
 explanation, and give the talk in class. 
 
 1. How to splice wire. 7. How to tie various knots. 
 
 2. How to load a camera. 8. How to make paper flowers. 
 
 3. How. to do a trick. 9. How to sew a baseball cover. 
 
 4. How to mend torn books. 10. How to make a folding lunch 
 
 5. How to use a pencil sharpener. box. 
 
 6. How to make a rosette. 
 
 * 
 
 Selecting New Subjects. We have now had opportunity 
 to study and give many explanations, in turn concentrating 
 attention upon each part of the talk, and learning to use
 
 (ST 
 
 z:^ 
 
 A 
 
 b. 
 
 Turbine Tombler'Tric^ niverTormotTon HQuDerricl\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 p f 
 
 
 ToLun-ba.!! Higqing OTDoaf DetroiT 
 
 SJ 
 
 Oujiss Onoiju-shecl Japanese God \A/< nd-cuaaon 
 
 (t 
 
 > 1 
 
 («) 
 
 Gas Metcil-ctjtieir TelepJione DistiHo^on 
 
 n 
 
 SAMPLE BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS 
 From students' sketches in Oral English classes 
 
 21
 
 22 
 
 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 various helps to clearness. We shall assume that we are 
 prepared to select subjects of our own, to study these sub- 
 jects thoroughly, to practice by ourselves, and to give 
 successful talks. The possible subjects are as numerous 
 as the activities of life itself. The list at the end of this 
 chapter, which is made up of subjects already used in 
 classes in Oral English, will furnish suggestions. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Select a subject which has not yet been discussed in your class. 
 It need not be a difficult or a complex one, but it should be inter- 
 esting to the class. Prepare a complete talk of explanation, using 
 all the experience you have thus far gained. 
 
 SPECIMEN SUBJECTS 
 
 1. Outdoor Crafts 
 
 How to make 
 
 a summerhouse. 
 
 a canoe 
 
 a canvas boat. 
 
 an ice boat. 
 
 a model of an aeroplane. 
 
 a galley. 
 
 a coaster, entirely of 
 wood. 
 
 a fish trap. 
 
 a log house. 
 
 a sod house. 
 
 a summer camp. 
 
 a mud house. 
 
 a figure-four trap. 
 
 a top. 
 
 a homemade merry-go- 
 round. 
 
 How to make 
 a rat trap. 
 a quail trap. 
 
 a steering gear for a coaster. 
 a kite reel. 
 
 a camp stove, of rocks, 
 a camp bedstead, of limbs 
 
 of trees. 
 a sundial. 
 a sling. 
 a lobster trap, 
 a toy balloon. 
 a toy sucker, 
 a skate sail. 
 a rustic gate, 
 a rustic fence, 
 a rustic arch, 
 a shelter tent.
 
 SUBJECTS FOR TALKS 
 
 23 
 
 2. Games and Sports 
 
 How to play How to play How to 
 
 tennis. association football. put the shot, 
 
 rounders. marbles. 
 
 two old cat. cricket. 
 
 quoits. tag. 
 
 golf. spin-the-plate. 
 
 geography. hare and hounds. 
 
 handball. hockey. 
 
 basket ball. Rugby football. 
 
 bat. 
 
 stand when bunting. 
 
 pitch curves. 
 
 run 100 yards. 
 
 swim. 
 
 dive. 
 
 do the high jump. 
 
 3. Miscellaneous Useful Articles and Processes 
 
 How to make 
 a hatstand. 
 
 a handkerchief holder, 
 an emery bag. 
 a reed basket, 
 a letter case, 
 a sleeve, 
 a clay bowl. 
 a food cooler, 
 a needlebook. 
 a rustic stool. 
 a distillate burner, 
 a letter scale. 
 a sleeve board, 
 a copper jewel box. 
 
 4. Household Processes 
 
 How to make 
 cake, 
 soap, 
 butter. 
 
 Mulligan stew. 
 Dutch cheese, 
 bread, 
 muffins, 
 candy. 
 
 How to 
 
 remove ink stains. 
 
 rebind old books. 
 
 brush the teeth correctly. 
 
 decorate a room economi- 
 cally. 
 
 color artificial flowers. 
 
 use a stencil. 
 
 sharpen scissors. 
 
 put up a picture. 
 
 repair a bicycle puncture. 
 
 half-sole a shoe without 
 cobbler's tools. 
 
 cut stovepipe. 
 
 hang a gate. 
 
 How to 
 
 wash windows, 
 clean a sink, 
 sweep and dust a room, 
 put up peaches, 
 cook mush, 
 buy meat, 
 test eggs, 
 wash lace.
 
 24 
 
 HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO DO 
 
 5. Garden and Farm 
 
 How to make 
 
 a fireless brooder. 
 
 berry boxes. 
 
 a colony coop. 
 
 a hayrack. 
 
 a brace for a fence. 
 
 a chicken fence. 
 
 an automatic chicken 
 
 feeder, 
 a gate. 
 
 a water tank. 
 a feed box. 
 a barn, 
 an arbor. 
 a rake. 
 a seed box. 
 a harrow, 
 a grain bin. 
 
 How to 
 
 care for a lawn. 
 
 dry prunes. 
 
 plant a vegetable garden. 
 
 get rid of insects. 
 
 irrigate trees. 
 
 anchor a fence post. 
 
 grow cranberries. 
 
 grow sugar. 
 
 plant rose slips. 
 
 repair a wagon. 
 
 care for a horse. 
 
 care for hogs. 
 
 graft a tree. 
 
 repair harness. 
 
 hang a barn door. 
 
 care for a calf. 
 
 raise corn.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 Arguing is almost as common as explaining. We are 
 constantly tr)dng to prove to another person that a certain 
 opinion, act, or object is the better one. And arguing is 
 not confined to older persons. Play life, home life, and 
 school life are filled with earnest arguments, in which even 
 young children do not hesitate to take a part. 
 
 Argument in Conversation. Most of our arguments are 
 not in the form of talks before an audience, but occur in 
 conversation with one or more companions. We argue as 
 to whether we should have a picnic or a party ; whether 
 the summer vacation should be longer or shorter ; whether 
 or not Henry should be the pitcher for the next game ; 
 whether this automobile or that is the better ; whether a 
 business or a profession offers the greater opportunity ; 
 whether or not government ownership of railroads would 
 be advantageous. In these conversations the different per- 
 sons are really arguing in much the same way that debaters 
 do, only the remarks in conversation are much shorter than 
 in a debate. 
 
 In such conversational arguments it is important that 
 all persons concerned understand exactly what the question 
 is. It will hardly do to talk "about" a thing, for some 
 persons would surely be confused as to the real issue. The 
 question should always be stated definitely ; for example, 
 
 25
 
 26 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 '" If school closes the middle of June, should it begin again 
 the first or the last part of September ? " 
 
 The more definitely the question can be stated by one of 
 the speakers, the better. Thus, early in the conversation, one 
 of the group may say, " The question is. Can a boy who has 
 to work in a store after school hours do his best in school ? " 
 or, " What we have to decide is. Should Henr)^ pitch in 
 the next game ? " During the course of the conversation, 
 if a person wanders from the subject, it may be necessary 
 to remind him of the exact question. This may be done in 
 some such way as this : "' You may be right about the value 
 of business experience, but we are talking of the effect of 
 extra work on the boy's scholarship." Or, in the case of the 
 game : "Are you speaking about a regular game or a prac- 
 tice game } " Such a question will bring the discussion back 
 to the point, and will give the conversation a definite aim. 
 
 Many conversational arguments are carried on by means 
 of questions and answers. Suppose, for example, that we 
 are talking with a person who believes that all city schools 
 should be built in the suburbs, the children being carried 
 to and from school on the electric cars. We should ask 
 him : " How could the car companies handle the children .? 
 What is the matter with the schools as they are ? How 
 would the schoolhouses be planned ?" In this way we 
 should learn his ideas, and then could raise objections for 
 him to answer. He would do most of the arguing until we 
 began to understand his scheme. Then, if we disagreed 
 with him, we should express ourselves more and more 
 freely, until the talk became a real argument. 
 
 It is in arguments that we are most often tempted to 
 monopolize the conversation, to exaggerate, and to be a
 
 CONVERSATIONAL ARGUMENTS 27 
 
 little sharp toward those who do not agree with us. We 
 need, therefore, to set a guard upon our tongues, and upon 
 our manners. If anybody finds that he is allowing himself 
 to be discourteous in his arguments, he had better stop 
 until he can exhibit perfect self-control. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose a partner for an argumentative conversation, on one 
 of the subjects listed below, to be given before the class. Study 
 the question and come to class prepared to hold the conversation 
 with your partner at the front of the room, one of you taking the 
 affirmative side and the other the negative. Remember (i) to^ 
 sdck to the point, (2) to do your share of the arguing, (3) not 
 to monopolize the time, (4) to be fair in your statements and in 
 your manner. Tr}' to convince your partner that your side is the 
 right one. 
 
 After the argument the class may vote on two points : (i) Which 
 side of the question is the right one .? (2) Which speaker was the 
 more effective ? 
 
 1. The school committee (or board) should vote sufficient money 
 to equip this school building with a vacuum-cleaning system. 
 
 2. The phonograph is better than the . 
 
 3. In all ordinary cases a man should give his seat in a street car 
 to a woman. 
 
 4. If any nation violates an international agreement, it is the duty 
 of the United States to demand an accounting. 
 
 5. Housekeepers should learn to use butterine instead of butter. 
 
 6. Plumbing should be taught in this school. 
 
 7. It is better for a city to build subways than elevated railways. 
 
 8. The domestic-science department should organize classes in 
 laundering. 
 
 9. Sawdust is better than sand for the jumping pits on the 
 athletic field. 
 
 10. The school playground should be open on Saturdays.
 
 28 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 2. Choose as a partner for a conversational argument some 
 person who is more familiar than you are with one of the subjects 
 below. You are to question him before the class, as to what are 
 his ideas on the subject. The conversation may proceed as sug- 
 gested in Exercise i . If none of the questions below prove suitable, 
 those in Appendix II may be suggestive. 
 
 1. High schools should teach Esperanto. 
 
 2. Manual-training classes should be organized in this school to 
 do the janitor work of the building. 
 
 3. The pupils of the school should be allowed to pass rules for 
 a standard of student behavior. 
 
 4. The indirect-lighting system is better than any direct system. 
 
 5. Schools should be in session from nine until four. 
 
 6. This city should start a municipal dairy. 
 
 7. The typewriter (or sewing machine) is the best. 
 
 8. The horse will sometime be entirely supplanted by the motor. 
 
 9. Princeton University is wise in requiring every student to learn 
 to swim before graduation. 
 
 10. A daily newspaper should be issued by our city (or town) 
 government. 
 
 3. The class may be divided into groups of three or more for 
 argumentative conversations. Each group may meet and select a 
 question for discussion, and determine which members of the group 
 shall take the affirmative and which the negative side. The aim 
 of each group should be to see (i) that ever}'body sticks to the 
 question, (2) that each side of the question has a fair amount of 
 time, and (3) that each person has an opportunity to share in the 
 talk. The following questions are suggested : 
 
 1. Athletics help school spirit. 
 
 2. The study of is harder than that of . 
 
 3. It is not worth while for a person to read the comic pages of 
 the newspapers. 
 
 4. Hurdy-gurdies should be prohibited.
 
 CONVERSATIONAL ARGUMENTS 29 
 
 5. This city should establish a zoological park. 
 
 6. The United States should substantially increase its army. 
 
 7. Woman suffrage should be adopted by all the states (or by the 
 federal government). 
 
 8. The characters in " Ivanhoe " are truer to life than those in 
 " David Copperfield." 
 
 9. A high-school student should earn his own spending money. 
 10. -Prohibition should be adopted in this city (or state or nation). 
 
 The Talk before the Class. Success in conversational ar- 
 gument is important, but a person does not become efficient 
 until he has had practice in making connected arguments. 
 Such arguments are not different from those given in daily 
 life ; for example, . probably many students have already 
 had the experience of presenting at some length to the 
 principal or a teacher an argument for some privilege in 
 connection with his school studies, or of making to his 
 father or mother an argumentative request for permission 
 to carry out a certain plan. But even if the longer argu- 
 mentative talk seems new and difficult, the work we have 
 already done in making simple explanations is sufficient 
 preparation. Explanation is much like argument ; in the 
 latter, however, we not only explain but compare two ideas, 
 and show^ that one of them is better than the other, or one 
 true and the other false. 
 
 What we shall try to do in this chapter is to find out 
 how to prepare and deliver a systematic argument. To 
 make a complete, effective argument which proves an im- 
 portant statement is a complicated task, and to try to cover 
 the points fully by dividing the work between two or more 
 debaters is more complex still. Therefore, we shall here 
 attempt a simpler task — to see how a student may obtain 
 a good start in systematic argument.
 
 30 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 Using a Clear Plan. When a person begins a new task, 
 he often follows closely the method or pattern successfully 
 used by somebody else. Thus the boy who is learning 
 stenography follows with painstaking care a system already 
 worked out. In this chapter we shall confine ourselves to 
 one good pattern of an oral argument, and shall ask the 
 learner to follow the plan closely. After he has mastered 
 this plan he will be in a position to decide whether he can 
 succeed better by making changes in the method. More- 
 over, we shall not here concern ourselves with detailed 
 reasons for the directions we follow, but shall reserve such 
 considerations for treatment in Chapter XIII. 
 
 In argument as in explanation the outline is of first im- 
 portance. As a matter of fact the shortest speech should 
 and does have an outline. Yet few persons who argue will 
 take the trouble to prepare one, and many students seem to 
 believe that such a help is unnecessary. But every talk has 
 a plan, either good or bad ; even if the speaker neglects to 
 prepare a good outline, he is nevertheless following some 
 plan when he talks, and it is probably a poor one. Advance 
 account, therefore, must be taken of one's points, and the 
 best outline must be selected. It is an unusually gifted and 
 well-trained person who can mentally arrange the topics as he 
 is speaking. Nearly everybody, whether beginner or expert, 
 needs to write down and study his topics before he can work 
 out the proper order of points and be sure that his argument 
 
 is complete. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Let us study the plan used by an experienced speaker. Listen 
 to the arguments made in one or two of the following cases, and 
 take notes, jotting down the topics in the order given. Study
 
 PLANNING THE TALK 31 
 
 these topics to see if they are arranged effectively. Read the 
 topics to the class and give your opinions and criticisms. 
 
 1. A lecture. 4. A business man's talk. 
 
 2. A sermon. 5. A political speech. 
 
 3. A talk by the principal. 
 
 Choosing and Stating a Subject. For practice in our 
 arguing it is important that only those subjects which are of 
 genuine interest to us be chosen. We cannot be earnest and 
 convincing if we are arguing about a matter just because it 
 is assigned to us. Whenever we have an argument to pre- 
 pare, we should think over carefully the hundreds of events 
 and facts in which we have a deep interest, and from these 
 make a list of subjects which we can use. We must remem- 
 ber, however, that for purposes of argument the subject 
 chosen should be one on which the opinions of people differ. 
 
 When a subject has been chosen, it may be stated in 
 the form of what is called a rcsohition, thus : " Resolved, 
 that this city (or town) should establish a branch library," 
 The statement should be so carefully expressed that its 
 meaning will be perfectly clear. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Write resolutions for five of the topics below. Make the 
 /Statements brief and clear, and choose the words carefully, so 
 that there will be two sides to each question. 
 
 h. Read your resolutions in class, for comparison and criticism. 
 
 1. A new school building. 6. School lunch rooms. 
 
 2. Requiring girls to take mathe- 7. Overcrowded schoolrooms. 
 
 matics. 8. Overcrowded street cars. 
 
 I 3. Frequent holidays. 9. Minimum age for drivers of 
 
 I 4. Uniforms for school pupils. automobiles. 
 
 5. Military drill in schools. 10. Newspapers.
 
 32 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 2. Choose the subject which you wish to use in the exercises 
 to follow. Choose also the side of the question you wish to de- 
 fend. It will be simpler, for beginners, to choose a resolution 
 which proposes to carry out some plan. Perhaps it will be well 
 if no two students take the same subject ; therefore each should 
 bring to class three or more subjects from which to choose. 
 
 In class, as each student reads his subject the others may 
 criticize it according to the principles we have noted above. 
 
 Gathering the Material. Having chosen the subject, our 
 next task is to collect the material for the argument. If 
 the subject is a familiar one, much of the material may be 
 found within our own minds, or within our daily observa- 
 tion. But if the subject requires some investigation, as 
 will almost always be the case, then the sources of infor- 
 mation mentioned in Chapter I will be sufficient for our 
 purposes : talks with well-informed persons, and material 
 in magazines and books. 
 
 Let us first write on slips of paper, just as they occur to 
 us, all facts, opinions, and questions that seem to have a 
 bearing on the subject. Suppose, for example, that we are 
 studying the question, '" Resolved, that the school board 
 (committee) should enlarge our school grounds," and that 
 we have decided to support the affirmative side. Probably 
 some such thoughts as the following will occur to us : 
 
 POINTS GAINED FROM FIRST KNOWLEDGE 
 
 1. The grounds are too small. 
 
 2. Small boys are often hurt. 
 
 3. There is no room to play baseball. 
 
 4. The trees are in the way. 
 
 5. With more room we could have a garden.
 
 COLLECTING MATERLAL 33 
 
 6. We could also have tennis courts. 
 
 7. The ground is now too rough for games. 
 
 8. The gymnasium classes ought to use the grounds. 
 
 9. Windows are sometimes broken. 
 
 10. The adjoining lot is not in use. 
 
 11. The boys often play in the street. 
 
 After talking with teachers and parents about the sub- 
 ject, we shall be able to add to our notes. Perhaps we 
 may obtain some such additional data as the following : 
 
 POINTS GAINED FROM FURTHER STUDY 
 
 12. The school has three times as many pupils as it had at first. 
 
 13. The manual-training shops have taken some of the play 
 space. 
 
 14. The adjoining land would cost about six thousand dollars. 
 
 15. The expense could be provided for by the next bond issue. 
 
 16. The pupils will ask their parents to vote for the bonds. 
 
 17. The principal says that elementary agriculture could be 
 taught. 
 
 18. It is against the law to play baseball in the street. 
 
 It is evident that some of these points need further 
 investigation to determine if they are true, and that others 
 need the addition of statistics or definite instances to make 
 them effective. We shall therefore wish to add to our 
 material by reading. For the present, however, we may 
 use the points already collected, as they are, and proceed 
 in the next section to the problem of arranging them. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Gather as many points as you can in the time at your disposal 
 on the particular subject which you selected in the preceding exer- 
 cise. First write out those points which you already have in mind.
 
 34 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 Next talk with others, make further investigations, read on the 
 subject, and add to your stock of notes. Try to cover as many 
 ideas about the subject as possible. Bring the notes to class so 
 that they may be read and criticized. 
 
 Finding the Main Topics. Now we shall study the list 
 of opinions and suggestions thus far collected, for the pur- 
 pose of thinking out the main arguments to which our 
 points naturally belong. For example, in our list of topics 
 on the School Grounds, it will readily be seen that num- 
 bers I, 2, 3, 4, 9, II, 12, and 13 help to show that the 
 present grounds are not satisfactory; 5, 6, 8, and 17 deal 
 with the benefits that would result from larger grounds ; 
 10, 14, 15, and 16 refer to plans for acquiring the 
 grounds; 7 has no bearing on our question; and 18 tells 
 an interesting fact about number 1 1 . According to this 
 grouping, the main arguments may be expressed as follows : 
 
 THE MAIN POINTS OF THE ARGUMENT 
 
 I. The present yard is entirely too small. 
 II. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the school. 
 III. The needed land can be easily obtained. 
 
 We should always remember to state these main points 
 in complete sentences. Further, we should see that they 
 are arranged in the best order. For example, in the case 
 of our three main points above, it would probably be better 
 to transpose II and III, for the ways of obtaining the land 
 should ordinarily be discussed before the benefits. 
 
 The main points must now be tested to see if the argu- 
 ment is complete. The test is as follows : Will these three 
 points, if proved, convince people that the school board
 
 MAKING THE OUTLINE 35 
 
 should enlarge the grounds ? Are any other points neces- 
 sary to the proof ? Can any of these three be omitted ? 
 It will be seen that our whole argument will fall if any 
 one of the three points above is unproved. It is plain, 
 too, that no other points are necessary to the proof. It 
 might be stronger if we could show that other schools have 
 larger grounds, and we may add such a main point if we 
 wish, but it is not a necessary argument. Our three points 
 are sufficient. 
 
 It will usually be found that all the details of the argu- 
 ment can be gathered under from three to six main topics. 
 
 Let us now write out the outline, giving the main topics 
 in their natural order, and putting the subtopics in their 
 proper places. 
 
 PROVISIONAL OUTLINE 
 
 Resolved, that the school board should enlarge our school 
 grounds ; because 
 
 I. The present yard is entirely too small, y^-r 
 
 1. Small boys are often hurt. 
 
 2. There is no room to play baseball. 
 
 3. The trees are in the way. 
 
 4. Windows are sometimes broken. 
 
 5. The boys often play in the street. 
 
 6. The school has three times as many pupils as it had 
 
 at first. 
 
 7. The manual-training shops have taken away some of 
 
 the play space. 
 II. The needed land can be easily obtained, y^r 
 
 1. The adjoining lot is not in use. 
 
 2. The land would cost about six thousand dollars. 
 
 3. This could be provided for by the next bond issue. 
 
 4. The pupils will ask their parents to vote for the bonds.
 
 36 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 111. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the school, yL'/- 
 
 1. With more room we could have a garden. 
 
 2. We could also have tennis courts. 
 
 3. The gymnasium classes could use the grounds. 
 
 4. Elementary agriculture could be taught. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Find the main points of your argument, using the method 
 explained in the text above. Arrange these main points in a 
 logical order. Then copy the complete provisional outline, put- 
 ting the subtopics in their proper places. If it is possible to 
 improve the wording, do so. Bring the outline to class, to be 
 read and criticized. 
 
 Making the Final Outline. While we are working out 
 the main topics and making the provisional outline, we are 
 sure to think of new points which could be used in the 
 argument. For example, it may occur to us that the land 
 adjoining the school can be rented if it cannot be bought. 
 Moreover, before we make the final outline, we shall need 
 to investigate further certain points as suggested above, to 
 find out exact figures and definite facts. For example, we 
 should tell how many accidents due to overcrowding there 
 have been ; how many windows were broken in a given time ; 
 the exact number of pupils now in the building, and when 
 the school was opened ; the actual cost of the additional 
 land. Further, we shall need to enlarge certain arguments 
 by adding subtopics which will illustrate or explain them. 
 
 Having done all that seems necessary in the way of 
 completing our investigation, we may then prepare the 
 final outline. Our main points, of course, will remain 
 unchanged. The topics must be arranged in a sensible.
 
 MAKING THE OUTLINE 37 
 
 clear order under each niain point. Let us suppose that 
 we have enough material for our argument on the question 
 of school grounds, and that we have arranged the sub- 
 topics in a good order. We may now prepare our final 
 outline, as follows : 
 
 FINAL OUTLINE 
 
 Resolved, that the school board should enlarge our school 
 grounds ; because 
 
 I. The present yard is entirely too small, _/^r 
 
 1 . The yard is used now by three times as many pupils as 
 
 it was six years ago, although some space has been 
 recently taken for a new building : 
 
 a. Enrollment December, 1908, 225 ; December, 19 14, 
 
 692. 
 
 b. Shops erected March, 19 12, on former basket-ball 
 
 court. 
 
 2. There is now no room to play baseball. 
 
 3. Boys frequently play in the street, in spite of the law 
 
 against it. 
 
 4. Accidents sometimes occur because of the crowded 
 
 conditions : 
 
 a. Three boys were knocked down last Thursday. 
 
 b. Two windows were broken by balls last week. 
 II. The needed land can be easily obtained, for 
 
 1. There is an adjoining vacant lot, 200' by 300'. 
 
 2. The owner will sell for $6100. 
 
 3. It can at least be rented ; the rent is $30 per month. 
 
 4. Bonds can be voted to furnish the money ; pupils would 
 
 ask parents to vote for the bonds. 
 III. Larger grounds would be very beneficial to the S(^\.OQ\for 
 I . There would be more room for play : 
 
 a. Tennis courts could be added. 
 
 b. A baseball field could be provided. 
 
 4 2-03 6
 
 38 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 2. The gymnasium classes could use the grounds: 
 
 a. Open-air work is desirable. 
 
 b. This would not disturb other classes. 
 
 3. Elementary agriculture could and should be taught : 
 
 a. Such courses are practical and interesting. 
 
 b. According to the Report for 19 14 of the U. S. Com- 
 
 missioner of Education, 1677 schools already teach 
 agriculture. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Follow the directions suggested above, and prepare the final 
 outline for your argument. Wherever possible improve it by 
 changing the form of the sentences or the order of the sub- 
 topics. Bring the outline to class to be read and criticized. 
 
 Practicing the Argument. The final outline should now 
 be copied on slips of paper or on cards which will be con- 
 venient to use before the class. On these should be in- 
 cluded all the subtopics, and all the facts and figures that 
 will be needed in giving the talk. The argument may 
 then be practiced from these notes, the practice being 
 made as nearly as possible like the actual talk before an 
 audience. Here we shall give directions for the method to 
 be followed in the talk, the outline being used as sug- 
 gested above : 
 
 1. In opening your argument, state the resolution and follow 
 this with the word ' because ' and the main reasons, naming them 
 ' first,' ' second,' etc. For example, " I maintain that the school 
 board should enlarge our school grounds ; because, first, the 
 present yard is entirely too small ; second, the needed land can 
 be easily obtained ; and third, larger grounds would be very bene- 
 ficial to the school." This is a brief prospective summary, serving 
 as an introduction to open the way for the real argument.
 
 GIVING THE TALK 39 
 
 2. Now go back to the first main reason, and after restating 
 it, proceed to prove it by means of the subtopics, ahvays remem- 
 bering to back up these subtopics with the facts and arguments 
 at your command. We may begin the proof of the first main 
 point as follows : " First, then, the present yard is entirely too 
 small. Sbc years ago, when the school was opened, there were 
 but 225 pupils in attendance. Now there are 692. This means 
 that the playground is used by over three times as many children 
 as at first. Yet during this time there has been no corresponding 
 addition to the play space. On the contrary, the grounds have 
 actually been diminished in size, for in, March of 19 12 the basket- 
 ball court was taken for the new manual-training shops. More- 
 over, there is now no place for the boys to play baseball. Indeed, 
 the present grounds are so crowded that some of the boys play 
 ball in the street in front of the school, in spite of the fact that 
 the law forbids street games." Continue the argument, covering 
 all the points under I. Then conclude this main point with some 
 such statement as this : " All these conditions show conclusively 
 that the present yard is entirely too small." 
 
 3. State and prove the second main point in the same manner. 
 For example, " Second, the needed land can be easily obtained. 
 Adjoining the school is a vacant lot which can be purchased for 
 $6100; or the owner stands ready to rent it for $30 per month. 
 The size of this lot is — ," etc. After covering all the arguments 
 under II, conclude somewhat as follows : " Thus, it is clear that 
 the needed land may be easily added to the present grounds." 
 
 4. State and prove each of the other main points in a simi- 
 lar way. 
 
 5. Finally, summarize the main points, and conclude with the 
 word ' therefore ' and the statement of the proposition which has 
 been proved. This conclusion might be expressed as follows : " We 
 have seen, first, that the present yard is entirely too small ; second, 
 that the needed land can be easily obtained ; and third, that larger 
 grounds would be a great benefit to the school. Therefore, it is 
 clear that the school board should enlarge our school grounds."
 
 40 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Copy the final outline on slips of paper or cards. Use 
 marks in the outline, at the proper places, to remind you of the 
 fact that at the beginning and at the end of the talk the main 
 points are to be summarized, and that at the end of the proof for 
 each main point a sentence restating that point is to be given. 
 Practice the talk according to the directions in the text. Perhaps 
 you can get some friend to listen and give you criticism. Be seri- 
 ous, businesslike, and forceful. Practice looking directly into the 
 faces of your hearers, and try to convince each one that your 
 arguments are sound. Give the talk in class. 
 
 b. After your argument has been given, perhaps the other 
 members of the class will have questions to ask or arguments to 
 make on the other side of the question. Listen to these points, 
 and take notes as they are given. After all the pupils who wish 
 to speak on the subject have taken part, choose several of the 
 strongest points which have been made and reply to them. Try 
 to make every answer complete and conclusive. 
 
 2. You have now prepared and given in class a complete argu- 
 ment, and thus you have learned a method which can be applied 
 to any argument. Choose another subject, prepare the material 
 and the outline, practice the talk, and deliver it in class. 
 
 A Debate. Grammar-school pupils have frequently given 
 excellent debates, and there is no reason why any class can- 
 not arrange such a contest. We shall therefore state here, 
 briefly, some general directions for a simple debate. 
 
 There should be two speakers on each side, and the 
 points should be divided judiciously between them. For 
 example, to take the question already used in the preced- 
 ing section, the first afflrmative speaker may prove the first 
 main point, " that the present yard is too small " ; and the 
 other affirmative speaker may take the other two points,
 
 DEBATING 41 
 
 "that the land can be easily obtained," and " that the larger 
 grounds would be beneficial to the school." Let us suppose 
 that after studying the negative side of the question we 
 should find four main points, as follows: "first, the con- 
 gestion is not serious ; second, the pupils can use the city 
 playgrounds ; third, it W'ould be unfair to other schools 
 which have small grounds ; and fourth, the money could 
 be spent in better ways." Each of the two speakers on 
 the negative side may take two points. 
 
 For beginners, each talk may be limited to five minutes, 
 and the final talk by the affirmative speaker to two minutes. 
 The speakers on each side alternate, and the first affirmative 
 speaker opens and closes the debate. But a better plan will 
 be to allow each debater two talks, the first one for a pre- 
 pared argument, and the second for answering the argu- 
 ments of the other side. The order of speaking should be 
 the same for both rounds of talks, and the first affirmative 
 speaker will have three appearances. The time allowed for 
 each of the first speeches may be six minutes, for each of 
 the second speeches three minutes, and for the final speech 
 two minutes. 
 
 When each speaker appears for the first time, he should 
 state the main points of his side, including both what he 
 has proved or will prove, and those assigned to his partner ; 
 that is, the hearers should be given a summary of the argu- 
 ments of each side. It would be well to give this summary 
 both at the beginning and at the end of each speech in the 
 first round. The last speech for each side should conclude 
 with a summary of the whole argument. 
 
 The debater should always listen to the points of his 
 opponents, take n^tes, and try to give answers.
 
 42 ARGUMENT FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 Judges may be chosen as follows : Each side selects one 
 student to act as judge, and the two judges thus chosen 
 select the third. At the end of the debate each judge 
 should write the word ' affirmative ' or ' negative ' on a slip 
 of paper, without consulting the other judges. Two votes 
 decide. Judges should remember that they are not to vote 
 which side of the question they believe is right, but which 
 two debaters gave the better argument. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Choose a partner for a debate, and find two other students to 
 oppose you. Then together select a question. Decide and write 
 down on paper, so that there can be no misunderstanding, all 
 such details as the exact wording of the question, the sides, the 
 time for each talk, the number of talks, and the date for the 
 debate. The teacher will plan a schedule for the contests. 
 
 Next, each side should study the question, gather material, 
 find the main points, make the outline, divide the points, and 
 study the arguments of the other side. Then each speaker should 
 practice his part of the argument. 
 
 Below are some sample questions ; others will be found in 
 Appendix II. 
 
 1. Resolved, that this school should adopt some form of student 
 self-government. 
 
 2. Resolved, that smoking on street cars should be prohibited. 
 
 3. Resolved, that all girls should be required to learn dressmaking 
 and cooking. 
 
 4. Resolved, that boys should learn how to cook. 
 
 5. Resolved, that the schools should give moving-picture enter- 
 tainments. 
 
 6. Resolved, that football is a better game than baseball. 
 
 7. Resolved, that this city should own and operate an electric- 
 lighting system.
 
 DEBATING 43 
 
 8. Resolved, that the school year should be divided into four 
 quarters of twelve weeks each. 
 
 9. Resolved, that the Monroe Doctrine has been a benefit to the 
 United States. 
 
 10. Resolved, that the United States should operate a line of steam- 
 ships between eastern and western seaports, through the Panama Canal. 
 
 11. Resolved, that students should decide on their occupations be- 
 fore they leave high school. 
 
 12. Resolved, that the President of the United States should call a 
 world convention for the establishment of a plan for universal peace. 
 
 13. Resolved, that every girl should study for an occupation other 
 than that of a housewife. 
 
 14. Resolved, that the milk supply should be delivered by one central 
 agency, rather than by several wagons with overlapping routes. 
 
 15. Resolved, that the Gary school plan should be adopted in our 
 city. (See The Independent ioi December 13, 191 5.)
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE SPEAKER'S APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 Thus far we have considered the preparation and the 
 presentation of explanations and arguments, but in these 
 discussions Httle has been said about the speaker's appear- 
 ance before the audience, the use of his voice, his use of 
 words, and the other factors which help to produce a pleas- 
 ing effect. We shall consider some of these matters in this 
 chapter. That the manner of our speaking is important we 
 know, for it is common knowledge that many an unworthy 
 business proposition and many a mistaken idea in political 
 life have won recognition because of clever presentation, 
 while many a worthy cause has failed for lack of effective 
 speakers. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Listen carefully to some speaker, preferably to one whom you 
 have not heard before. Take notes if necessary, and come to 
 class prepared to answer the following questions, and to give the 
 reasons for your answers : 
 
 1. Was the speaker's subject matter well arranged.'' 
 
 2. Was his manner pleasing? 
 
 3. Which was the better, his subject matter or his style of delivery ? 
 
 4. Would you have been interested in the subject matter of the 
 speech if the speaker's manner had been poor? 
 
 5. If you knew the speaker well enough, what suggestions for im- 
 provement could you give him? 
 
 44
 
 THE STANDING POSITION 45 
 
 Repose before Speaking. All the recitations in Oral 
 English classes should be given at the front of the room. 
 When the student is about to speak, he should walk quietly 
 and naturally to that part of the room, turn toward his 
 hearers, and look into their faces an instant before be- 
 ginning. If there is a chairman, the student should turn 
 toward him when giving his opening words. Many a talk 
 has been spoiled by the speaker's standing so far back from 
 his audience that all could not hear him. Therefore, if the 
 student is to speak on a stage, he s-hould come well forward. 
 
 If the speaker is to be introduced to the audience, he 
 should sit at ease while waiting. Judgment is often passed 
 upon a person before he begins to talk, and- even before he 
 rises. Awkwardness in the chair, nervousness, and stiffness 
 are quickly noted and remembered against him. Poise, ease, 
 and naturalness all influence the audience favorably. This 
 kind of prejudging is not fair to the speaker, but is 
 common, and he must make the best of it by trying to 
 win the good will of the audience from the first moment 
 that he appears before it. 
 
 Standing Positions. Keep a natural standing position 
 during the speech. A successful singer has said that while 
 singing he has the feeling that his chest is extended for- 
 ward and upward. This position gives erectness and free- 
 dom. If the speaker is much in earnest, his body will tend 
 to incline toward his hearers rather than to shrink from 
 them. In a short speech, unless he is talking quite infor- 
 mally to a small group, he will stand with the weight upon 
 both feet. In a long talk he will use a variety of positions, 
 all easily assumed and easily held. He will make the 
 changes from one position to another as he goes from one
 
 46 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 division of his speech to another, or as he gives special 
 emphasis to certain ideas. And finally, he will do all these 
 things unconsciously, either because they come to him natu- 
 rally or because he has practiced them so faithfully that they 
 have become fixed habits. 
 
 Avoiding a Support. Certain bad habits common to 
 careless speakers should be guarded against ; for example, 
 leaning over a table or chair or pulpit as one talks. There 
 is no objection to such an attitude sometimes ; and there 
 may be occasions where such a position can be maintained 
 naturally throughout a talk. These occasions are rare, how- 
 ever, and a student should not deliberately grow to need 
 such a support. In his practice, therefore, he should learn 
 to* be completely self-sustaining. It is good training for one 
 to have to come into full-length view of an audience, with 
 no object within reach. 
 
 Controlling the Feet and Hands. Poor control of the feet 
 spoils many speeches. Listeners cannot follow ideas, no 
 matter how attractively expressed, if they are made conscious 
 of the nervous movement of the speaker's feet. Nervous- 
 ness may show itself in a quick, jerky twitching of the feet, 
 a repeated rising to the toes for no reason, a pendulum-like 
 swinging of the body as the weight changes from one foot 
 to the other, or a settling down on one foot with the other 
 awkwardly placed in front. To recover from these habits 
 one must remember that there is no sense or reason in 
 such awkwardness ; the feet behave at other times, and 
 there is no need for misplaced activities now. 
 
 The speaker must not finger the clothing, nor the knife 
 and fork if he is conversing at the table. He must not 
 look at the notes in his hand at times when it is not
 
 THE STANDING POSITION 47 
 
 necessary. Let the body's activity be confined to the voice, 
 face, and arms, and let motions that interfere with the 
 object in view be ruled out. The speaker may practice 
 at home alone or with friends ; then he may extend the 
 confidence and control there gained to talks before larger 
 groups, until success is won. 
 
 After the Talk. When the talk is finished, the speaker 
 must not let his self-possession and ease fail him. He must 
 close the talk with assurance, and without a suggestion of 
 retiring to his seat. With the speech ended, the withdrawal 
 comes — a step or two backward, an easy turn, and a 
 dignified walk to the seat. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give a short talk, perhaps on a spbject which you have 
 discussed before, and pay particular attention to the following 
 matters : 
 
 1. Select the best place to stand. 
 
 2. Stand erect. 
 
 3. Lean forward slightly. 
 
 4. Keep the weight upon both feet. 
 
 5. Pause a moment before beginning to speak. 
 
 2. Let several students prepare a talk on any topic that inter- 
 ests them, and let four or five others sit in chairs at the front 
 of the room. One student may act as chairman, and briefly intro- 
 duce each speaker. Give attention to the following : 
 
 1. Sit at ease. 
 
 2. Walk to the position for speaking with promptness and ease. 
 
 3. Pause, facing the audience, before speaking. 
 
 4. Address the chairman. 
 
 5. Change your position once or twice during the speech. 
 
 6. After the speech, return easily to your seat.
 
 48 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 How Gestures Aid. The hands are very expressive. In 
 many cases, as for example in making a diagram, in pre- 
 senting a gift, in demonstrating the appHcation of a furni- 
 ture polish, the speaker naturally and inevitably uses his 
 hands. In fact in almost every kind of speech the hands 
 take some part, either in actually doing things or in mak- 
 ing gestures which help to emphasize the spoken words. 
 For example, such talks as the following would certainly be 
 better with the hands in use than with them passive : a 
 description of a wireless station, the story of a boat race, 
 the explanation of the process by which coal is mined, the 
 introduction of a speaker. Almost never is a speech as 
 effective as possible if the speaker makes no use of his 
 hands. 
 
 In the speeches we have mentioned above, probably no 
 student would find it difficult to use appropriate gestures. 
 The hand movements would be almost spontaneous. In the 
 case of some other speeches, however, particularly those 
 which deal with opinions rather than with facts, the begin- 
 ner may find difficulty. This is especially true of argument ; 
 yet gestures should usually be used in arguing. Imagine a 
 man speaking very earnestly, with his hands quietly at his 
 side ! Because the student also must be enthusiastic in his 
 arguments, he should use his hands ; and if he succeeds 
 in argumentative gestures, he will have little difficulty with 
 simple gestures in explanations, narrations, and descriptions. 
 We shall therefore put the emphasis upon gesture as used 
 in argument. 
 
 Practicing Gestures. How shall you begin ? Prepare a 
 talk on a subject about which you hold a decided opinion. 
 Find some room where you will not be disturbed, and there
 
 USING GESTURES " 49 
 
 give your argument. Talk to an imaginar}^ opponent, har- 
 angtringTiimin over-enthusiastic style, and as you speak, 
 use your hands. Such a proceeding may seem ridiculous 
 at first, but if you persist \ou will find that you are gradu- 
 ally acquiring the spontaneous use of your hands as you 
 talk, and that some of the gestures are good. More impor- 
 tant still, you will obtain a new confidence in yourself and 
 in your ability to appear well before an audience. 
 
 Helpful Criticism. Next, get criticism. The looking- 
 glass — ■ the larger the better — will show certain faults in 
 your movements. Some gestures will seem awkward, and 
 must either be improved or discarded. Some will be ill- 
 timed, like a false alarm, and must not be used unless they 
 accompany a more appropriate idea. Since gestures are 
 used to enforce ideas, if a commonplace statement is accom- 
 panied by an extraordinary gesture the effect is the reverse 
 of what is desired. Again, good gestures may be repeated 
 too often. The frequent use of the same gesture is espe- 
 cially objectionable if that gesture is an emphatic one. A 
 powerful movement could seldom be used appropriately 
 more than once or twice in a speech, while a simple one 
 may recur many times. The looking-glass or a critical 
 friend will be the judge. 
 
 After a little home practice the student should make use 
 of gestures in his class talks, so that he may be helped by 
 the criticisms of his classmates. 
 
 Good Judgment in the Use of Gestures. The practice just 
 outlined will start the student in using his hands in speak- 
 ing, and as a result he will know how to make at least 
 three or four good gestures. Good judgment, however, 
 needs to be exercised constantly. The student should never
 
 50 - APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 use gestures merely for the sake of gesturing, at least not 
 in a dignified speech in public. He must remember, too, 
 that gesticulation, however appropriate, can never make up 
 for deficiencies in subject matter : at best it can only add to 
 the attractiveness of the presentation. He must not allow 
 the swing of his arms and the appeal of his hands to hyp- 
 notize him into thinking that a poor speech is a good one 
 because it is adorned with gestures. 
 
 Further, gesticulation in any speech must be begun with 
 moderation. No speech, however earnestly given, should be- 
 gin with extraordinary action. Simple and restricted move- 
 ments of the hands and arms should be used at first ; the 
 hearers must be interested and made ready for enthusiastic 
 speaking before the appearance of the sweeping gestures. 
 
 As between too much and too little gesturing, we should 
 always choose the latter. Nothing, perhaps, makes a speaker 
 more tiresome than a continual use of the hands. No speech 
 requires constant gesturing. Another tiresome habit is that 
 of representing ideas by gestures ; for example, a rainbow 
 by a sweep through the air, generosity by the open hand, 
 or an expression like " His schooling was cut off " by a 
 chopping-like motion. Such gesturing should be entirely 
 avoided. 
 
 We have already spoken of the control of the hands when 
 they are not used in gesturing. There are times when even 
 a slight movement would weaken the effect of a serious 
 statement or a touching sentiment. The gestures of a rest- 
 less person annoy the audience. Study the use of the hands 
 made by successful speakers, and learn what to avoid and 
 what to cultivate.
 
 THE FACE AND EYES 51 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Look over the list of topics at the end of Chapter I, and 
 select one which seems to have possibilities for gesturing. For 
 this exercise gesturing means more than making drawings and 
 handling objects ; it means free use of the hands. Practice the 
 speech at home, and come prepared to give it in class. Do not 
 be discouraged if gesturing is difficult for you : at least you can 
 practice faithfully at home, and make an effort in class, even if 
 you are but moderately successful. Try to make a definite gain 
 over your previous ability. 
 
 2. Select an argumentative subject about which you can be- 
 come enthusiastic : an athletic question, perhaps, or a question of 
 school policy, an argument for a city improvement, or a political 
 question. Practice at home, using the hands, until the gestures 
 seem good. Ask one of your classmates to listen to your speech 
 and criticize your use of gestures. Then give the speech in class. 
 
 3. Give a brief argument in class — one into which you can put 
 some enthusiasm. Begin the speech with gestures which involve 
 only one hand, and gradually increase the force of your argument 
 and the scope of your gestures, until both arms come into free use. 
 
 The Facial Expression. If the speaker presents a dignified 
 and natural appearance to the audience, his speech receives 
 a more favorable hearing than it would otherwise. A sincere, 
 pleasant countenance and a direct look also help to make a 
 talk more attractive. The student must therefore study the 
 management of face and eyes, so that both as he walks up 
 to take his place before the audience and as he begins his 
 speech, he may help to create an atmosphere of good will. 
 
 Manifesting Self-Control. The speaker's mental poise 
 should be manifest in his expression. His face may show 
 confidence, pleasure, and earnestness, for all these qualities
 
 52 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 will appeal to an audience. The feelings must be under 
 such control, however, that confidence does not become 
 conceit, nor pleasure silliness, nor earnestness vehemence. 
 Any sign of self-esteem, self-consciousness, carelessness, 
 foolishness, disappointment, peevishness, disrespect, ridi- 
 cule, scorn, or anger is sure to interfere with what the 
 speaker is tr)dng to say, and with the meaning he wishes 
 to convey to the hearers. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that a student is speaking in favor 
 of adopting a system of self-government in his school, and 
 an opponent has intimated that the only persons who ad- 
 vocate the proposed plan are those who have had difficul- 
 ties with their teachers. What shall be the expression on 
 the speaker's face as he rises to answer ? It is evident 
 that a careless laugh, a sneer, or a scowl might lead the 
 audience to think that the statement were true of the 
 speaker himself. The reply would better be accompanied 
 by a pleasant smile, if it is intended to show that the 
 accusations are not true, or by a look of serious deter- 
 mination if it is to be admitted that there is dissatisfaction 
 with some of the rules of the school but that such dissatis- 
 faction may be avoided by the plan advocated. Thus the 
 debater would have his thoughts under good control, and 
 would inspire confidence in his hearers. 
 
 The student must not let bashfulness or nervousness or 
 fear that the hearers will laugh keep him from earnestness of 
 manner when the occasion demands it. His hearers will usu- 
 ally meet him with the kind of thoughts he brings to them. 
 
 The speaker must restrain himself from emphasizing 
 points by bobbing the head, a habit which easily becomes 
 ridiculous. He must also guard against a stiff-necked habit.
 
 THE FACE AND EYES 53 
 
 Looking at Persons in the Audience. It is a fact that if 
 a speaker seems to talk first to one individual and then to 
 another in the audience, all the listeners feel that they are 
 being addressed. But if the speaker is looking at no one 
 in particular, then everybody feels himself left out. The 
 student should not deceive himself into thinking that he 
 can get good results in speaking if he avoids looking 
 directly into the faces of persons before him. 
 
 No speaker can expect his points to reach their mark 
 unless he aims them. Imagine a "person trying to collect 
 a bill from another without looking at him. This ability 
 to look directly and steadily into a person's face is needed 
 both for speaking and for listening. In classes in Oral 
 English persistent attention should be given to the culti- 
 vation of this habit. There is little opportunity for this 
 in recitations where students recite at their seats, and as a 
 result, young people often talk exclusively to the teacher, 
 or let their eyes wander about carelessly. As listeners, 
 they have no practice in looking at a speaker, except when 
 the teacher is talking. It is for this reason that talks in Oral 
 English classes should be given facing the audience. 
 
 A speaker has much to gain by using his eyes wisely. 
 All experienced speakers testify to the stimulation which 
 comes from the faces of attentive listeners. By looking 
 at his hearers, the speaker may tell how his speech is 
 being received : what points puzzle or antagonize, and 
 therefore need more explanation ; what effect is being 
 made by his gestures ; and whether or not he is talking 
 too fast. What can a speaker possibly gain by looking at 
 the floor, or at the wall, or at the ceiling, or at the desk, 
 or out of the window .?
 
 54 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 How can a speaker make his listeners feel that he is 
 looking at each one ? Probably the best way with a large 
 audience is to direct the eyes toward the center of the 
 house, and then to look successively from one person to 
 another. He should not talk exclusively to one or two, 
 neither should he change too rapidly from one person to 
 another. He should direct his talk for a few moments to 
 each of as many different persons as possible. Some good 
 speakers make it a practice to speak successively to each 
 section of the audience ; others, in order to be heard well, 
 talk to persons in the extreme rear. In a small group one 
 may easily look at individuals in all parts of the audience. 
 
 The Use of Notes. Few persons object to the use of 
 brief notes in the ordinary talk. Notes show careful prepa- 
 ration and a desire to avoid, on the one hand, a senseless 
 memorization, and on the other, a wandering from the 
 subject. Care must always be taken, however, to see that 
 neither the size of the papers nor the manner of using 
 them attracts attention. 
 
 Large sheets of paper should never be brought before 
 an audience unless they are original copies of letters or 
 other documents. The paper or cards used for the outline 
 of a talk should not be larger than four inches by six 
 inches, and for most occasions three by four inches would 
 be better. 
 
 The notes need never be concealed, but they should be 
 used as sparingly as possible. To this end they must be 
 written plainly. Typewritten or printed notes are best. 
 Those made in pencil or red ink are hard to read by 
 artificial light. If the cards are well made and well studied, 
 a glance now and then will give all the help needed. The
 
 THE FACE AND EYES 55 
 
 notes should be raised slightly each time, so that the face 
 need not be lowered, and should be held in one hand natu- 
 rally when not in use. In most cases the glance at the 
 notes may be taken in one of the natural pauses of the 
 speech. The student must not try to drive home an im- 
 portant point and at the same time study the notes for 
 the next point. The audience needs the speaker's eyes, 
 and the important point needs the speaker's full attention. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Come to class prepared to give a short talk upon a subject 
 of your own choosing. In giving the speech, pay particular atten- 
 tion to making your facial expression pleasing. 
 
 2. Come to class prepared to give a short argument, express- 
 ing great earnestness, with strong disapproval of opposing ideas. 
 Make the facial expression earnest, but do not scowl or frown. 
 
 3. Select an argumentative subject about which untrue and 
 perhaps unfair statements might be made. Select one such state- 
 ment to answer. Tell the audience what it is, and proceed to 
 reply to it. Assume no vindictiveness of manner or of visage, 
 but calmly and pleasantly show that the opinion is based upon 
 a misapprehension of the facts. 
 
 4. Select one statement which seems to be in conflict with an 
 opinion you hold, but which is true. Give the statement to the 
 audience, and then proceed to make a dignified, serious answer, 
 in which you admit the truth of the statement, but show that 
 other considerations make it inconclusive. 
 
 5. Prepare to give a talk on a current topic or other subject. 
 iJu not use notes. As you speak, look frankly and squarely into 
 the faces of as many persons, one after another, as possible. Do 
 not let your eyes move too rapidly, however. After your talk ask 
 all those who are certain that you looked at them to hold up 
 their hands. Note whether your attention was well distributed.
 
 56 APPEARANCE BEFORE THE AUDIENCE 
 
 Repeat this exercise until the eyes are trained to look at indi- 
 viduals in the audience. 
 
 6. Arrange a conversation between yourself and a classmate 
 and give it in class. Look each other in the face except when 
 consulting papers or other objects necessary to the conversation. 
 
 7. Give in class a speech which requires the use of notes. 
 Have the notes on slips of paper or cards not larger than three 
 inches by four. Pay attention to the following considerations : 
 
 1. Hold the notes in view when you walk to your place. 
 
 2. When they are about to be used, raise them high enough to 
 avoid bending the head to look at them. 
 
 3. Hold them with one hand most of the time. 
 
 4. Look at them only when necessary, and make each glance as 
 brief as possible. 
 
 5. In most cases look at them only during pauses, giving your eyes 
 to your hearers while you are speaking.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 W^ords are the elements which we put together to express 
 ideas. The longer we study and the more we read and 
 think, the more we shall need significant and precise words 
 to express our thoughts. With a limited vocabulary we 
 shall often be embarrassed because of the lack of the 
 right word in our conversation. Uninteresting talkers 
 usually belong to one of three groups: (i) those who are 
 careless in pronunciation or articulation or both ; (2) those 
 who have only a small stock of words at their command ; 
 (3) those who have few ideas. Since the aim of our school 
 work is to expand and develop our ideas and to help us 
 express these clearly and attractively, we shall here con- 
 sider how we may improve our speech and increase our 
 vocabulary. 
 
 Pronunciation. No word is a part of a person's speaking 
 vocabulary unless it can be correctly pronounced, clearly 
 enunciated, and correctly used in sentences. Slovenly pro- 
 nunciation must be avoided, and may be corrected by culti- 
 vating the habit of accuracy. We must first know what is 
 the correct pronunciation of a word before we can speak 
 it properly, and we can acquire distinctness of enunciation 
 only by a proper use of the lips and tongue. ' Singin' ' for 
 'singing,' 'feller' for 'fellow,' ' sor ' for 'saw,' are often 
 due to lip and tongue laziness. Accuracy of pronunciation 
 
 57
 
 58 
 
 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 comes from an interest in taking care, an interest which it 
 is hoped may be aroused by the considerations which follow. 
 
 The pupil should familiarize himself with the marks com- 
 monly used by the dictionaries to show the sounds of the 
 letters of the alphabet. For convenience in use they have 
 been put into Table D in Appendix VI. These marks 
 should be used in making a memorandum of words the 
 pronunciation of which has for any reason proved trouble- 
 some. When making note of new or mispronounced words, 
 the pupil should respell each one, separating it into its 
 proper syllables, marking the sounds of the letters when 
 necessary, and indicating the accent. 
 
 The only guide to pronunciation that is always reliable is 
 a recognized unabridged dictionary. Every person should 
 speedily make intimate acquaintance with one such diction- 
 ary and consult it about all words that present problems 
 of any kind. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Practice pronouncing correctly the following words, and 
 come to class prepared to use any or all of them in sentences : 
 
 accept 
 
 several 
 
 library 
 
 chimney 
 
 except 
 
 sword 
 
 isolated 
 
 again 
 
 instead 
 
 partner 
 
 regular 
 
 geography 
 
 advise 
 
 laboratory 
 
 often 
 
 history 
 
 advice 
 
 interesting 
 
 government 
 
 aeroplane 
 
 catch 
 
 apparatus 
 
 generally 
 
 aviator 
 
 kept 
 
 presentation 
 
 horizon 
 
 oasis 
 
 influence 
 
 statistics 
 
 idea 
 
 financier 
 
 address 
 
 theater 
 
 athletic 
 
 cucumber 
 
 across 
 
 toward 
 
 Italian 
 
 furniture 
 
 get 
 
 February 
 
 literature 
 
 inquiry 
 
 genuine 
 
 forehead 
 
 probably 
 
 blacking 
 
 since 
 
 perhaps 
 
 maybe 
 
 whether
 
 PRONUNCIATION 
 
 59 
 
 2. Practice carefully the pronunciation of the words listed be- 
 low. Then practice reading" a short article of your own selection. 
 Read it in class, making every syllable stand out clearly. 
 
 coming 
 
 saying 
 
 borrow 
 
 burrow 
 
 going 
 
 playing 
 
 window 
 
 mellow 
 
 doing 
 
 nothing 
 
 sorrow 
 
 follow 
 
 being 
 
 jumping 
 
 to-morrow 
 
 hollow 
 
 ringing 
 
 something 
 
 yellow 
 
 wallow 
 
 3. The words listed below may be pronounced in more than 
 one way. If time and opportunity permit, study the pronunciations 
 as given in the unabridged editions of three dictionaries. In any 
 case consult one dictionary, and make memoranda of the author- 
 ized pronunciations. Use the words in sentences, giving the pro- 
 nunciation which you prefer. 
 
 access 
 
 cruse 
 
 juvenile 
 
 reptile 
 
 acoustic 
 
 depot 
 
 mamma 
 
 sardine 
 
 advertisement 
 
 detail 
 
 mistletoe 
 
 scenic 
 
 amateur 
 
 either 
 
 mobilization 
 
 series 
 
 apricot 
 
 epoch 
 
 neither 
 
 servile 
 
 banana 
 
 every 
 
 oasis 
 
 simultaneous 
 
 blouse 
 
 franchise 
 
 organization 
 
 solder 
 
 clarinet 
 
 gooseberry 
 
 patent 
 
 survey 
 
 combat 
 
 hover 
 
 pianist 
 
 tomato 
 
 comrade 
 
 humor 
 
 prelude 
 
 virile 
 
 Adding New Words. Not only must a student study to 
 make the pronunciation of the words already in his vocabulary 
 correct and distinct, but he must also appropriate new words. 
 One who is standing still mentally may get along with only 
 a few hundred words, but a person of widening experience 
 and deep human interests will need several thousand. 
 
 The average person acquires new words only by having 
 them forced into his consciousness. Perhaps he is reading
 
 6o IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 an article which he wishes to understand, and finds a strange 
 word. He must either go to the dictionary or ask some 
 friend to help him out. Again, perhaps he is listening to 
 a political speech, and not knowing the meaning of some 
 expression used by the speaker, asks his neighbor to explain 
 it to him. Later, in telling about the article, or in arguing 
 the political question with a friend, he may find it neces- 
 sary to use the unfamiliar term, and thus the word becomes 
 a part of his vocabulary. 
 
 Such a person increases his vocabulary only under com- 
 pulsion, and thus the permanent acquisition of each new 
 word is dependent upon the repeated occurrence of the 
 need for it. In contrast with this method, or lack of 
 method, is the systematic manner in which an earnest stu- 
 dent deliberately tries to increase his stock of words. As 
 he reads letters, newspapers, magazines, or books, he writes 
 down usable new words on slips of paper or in a notebook. 
 He also makes a memorandum of spoken words that are 
 new to him. By the aid of these he studies the meanings 
 and uses of new words. And finally, he makes it a point 
 in writing and in speaking to use each word often enough 
 to make it completely his own. 
 
 If the student will follow some such plan as this, he will 
 acquire great power in effective expression. If he will only 
 appropriate some words that are new to him in each day's 
 lessons, he will be sure to make great strides forward. He 
 will be surprised to find how soon a word so recorded and 
 practiced becomes his own. As he makes each of the new 
 words a part of his speaking vocabulary, it may be canceled 
 from his list.
 
 NEW WORDS 
 
 6i 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Listen carefully to a speech in the school auditorium, or to 
 some other talk by an experienced speaker, and note the words 
 that you do not have in your speaking vocabulary. Select from 
 these ten good words which you think are new to most of your 
 classmates, and come to class prepared to pronounce, define, and 
 use all of them in sentences. 
 
 2. The lists of words given below are worth knowing. Study 
 them to see which you already use commonly. Then note those 
 with which you are not thoroughly acquainted, and prepare to 
 pronounce, define, and use in sentences all these words or as 
 many of them as the teacher may think best. If any of the 
 terms have more than one meaning, try to use them so as to 
 show all the meanings. 
 
 1. abnormally 2. 
 
 affability 
 
 3. apologetic 4. 
 
 authentic 
 
 abrogate 
 
 agitated 
 
 apparatus 
 
 authoritative 
 
 absolutely 
 
 alibi 
 
 appearance 
 
 ban 
 
 accurately 
 
 alien 
 
 applicable 
 
 benevolent 
 
 acquaint 
 
 allegation 
 
 appropriate 
 
 Biblical 
 
 acquiescence 
 
 allegorical 
 
 aptitude 
 
 blarney 
 
 adequately 
 
 allied 
 
 aqueous 
 
 cataclysm 
 
 admirable 
 
 alternate 
 
 aristocratic 
 
 chronological 
 
 admittance 
 
 annihilate 
 
 astronomical 
 
 circumlocution 
 
 adult 
 
 antipathy 
 
 atmospheric 
 
 coercion 
 
 5. commend 6. 
 
 defection 
 
 7. duplicity 8. 
 
 extirpate 
 
 competence 
 
 deficit 
 
 draught 
 
 extricate 
 
 competitive 
 
 deprecatory 
 
 ebullition 
 
 fabulous 
 
 compunction 
 
 destined 
 
 engrossed 
 
 fallacious 
 
 conflagration 
 
 deterioration 
 
 enormous 
 
 farcical 
 
 congratulatory 
 
 dexterous 
 
 era 
 
 fictitious 
 
 contestants 
 
 discrepancy 
 
 erring 
 
 financier 
 
 contour 
 
 discretion 
 
 expunge 
 
 fortitude 
 
 crux 
 
 dishonorable 
 
 exquisite 
 
 fortuitous 
 
 culinary 
 
 disquietude 
 
 extraordinary 
 
 frank
 
 62 
 
 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 9. gentility 
 gigantic 
 grandiose 
 grievously 
 heed 
 
 Herculean 
 hospitable 
 humility 
 hypocrisy 
 hypothesis 
 
 13. monsieur 
 multiplicity 
 mystery 
 necessarily 
 negotiate 
 numerical 
 obliquity 
 ominous 
 ordeal 
 ordinance 
 
 17. sovereignty 
 spontaneity 
 stirring 
 strenuous 
 structure 
 sublime 
 subsequent 
 substantiate 
 subvert 
 succinct 
 
 10. ignition 
 
 immediately 
 
 inaugurated 
 
 incalculable 
 
 incomparable 
 
 indefatigable 
 
 indisputably 
 
 indissoluble 
 
 indubitable 
 
 inevitable 
 
 14. palatable 
 participant 
 patent 
 patriot 
 peremptorily 
 perpetuity 
 precedence 
 precipitate 
 prestige 
 preventative 
 
 18. sufferance 
 suitable 
 sumptuous 
 sundry 
 
 superabundant 
 superfluous 
 superintend 
 supersede 
 supreme 
 sustained 
 
 11. inexplicable 12. jurisdiction 
 
 infamous 
 
 innocuous 
 
 innovation 
 
 innumerable 
 
 inquiiy 
 
 institution 
 
 interminable 
 
 intolerable 
 
 involuntary 
 
 15. prodigy 
 puissant 
 qualm 
 quandary 
 quietus 
 remedial 
 remit 
 
 remonstrate 
 residual 
 revery 
 
 19. symmetry 
 taboo 
 taciturn 
 temporarily 
 tenacious 
 travesty 
 tremendous 
 ubiquitous 
 uniformity 
 uproar 
 
 kernel 
 
 lamentable 
 
 latitude 
 
 longevity 
 
 longing 
 
 magnanimity 
 
 metropolis 
 
 mischievous 
 
 momentarily 
 
 16. ruinous 
 rustic 
 sagacious 
 salvage 
 satisfaction 
 schedule 
 secondary 
 serviceable 
 severity 
 simulate 
 
 20. utility 
 vagary 
 veracious 
 versus 
 vituperation 
 vociferous 
 warrant 
 withstand 
 wrangle 
 
 wry 
 
 3. In some good essay or article find ten words new to your 
 speaking vocabulary and that of your classmates. Be prepared to 
 pronounce, define, and use them. 
 
 Developing Fluency. Clear, accurate, and rapid thinking 
 is the first requisite for fluency of speaking. A large vo- 
 cabulary is also indispensable, but the fluent speaker must
 
 ACQUIRING FLUENCY 63 
 
 have more than a mere knowledge of words ; he must have 
 the famiharity which comes from continued use. Patient 
 practice in speal^ing will enable the student to command 
 the right words at the instant they are needed. 
 
 The Use of Synonyms and Equivalent Expressions. 
 When about to use an important word in expressing an 
 idea, the practiced speaker has perhaps five other words at 
 his tongue's end, each ready to leap into place to supply 
 the need : consequently there is no hesitation. With public 
 speakers few of the instances of hesitation are due to slow- 
 ness of thought ; the cause is usually the hunting for the 
 right word. A help to the attainment of fluency, and to 
 an avoidance of awkward breaks in delivery, is the study 
 of synonyms and actual practice in using them. 
 
 Every good dictionary gives lists of synonyms, or words 
 which have related meanings. When a person is in doubt 
 as to the exact meaning of a word, or is perplexed about 
 the appropriateness of its use in a particular connection, or 
 is anxious to avoid an awkward repetition, he will profit 
 by a study of the synonyms of the word. Suppose one is 
 tempted to say, '" The parade was fine." Is it not obvious 
 that if this were spoken to one who did not see the parade, 
 the descriptive word would mean very little ? But if the 
 speaker had used his dictionary in building up his vocabu- 
 lary he would have at command many synonyms which 
 would express his meaning more accurately. 
 
 If hesitation is due to lack of words, then the study of 
 synonyms and practice with them should help to cure the 
 habit which some speakers have of pausing and filling in 
 the pauses with such sounds as cr, ah, etc. Ask a friend 
 to keep account of these sounds in the course of some talk
 
 64 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 that you give, and you will rouse yourself to the need of 
 careful thinking, a full vocabulary, and distinct, incisive 
 speaking. 
 
 A class in argumentation once felt the need of greater 
 variety in opening, closing, and connecting words in debate. 
 As a result, they prepared the following list : 
 
 SYNONYMS FOR DEBATING 
 
 Agai?i, moreover, further, furthermore, also, besides, in addi- 
 tion to, likewise, once more, then too, more than this. 
 
 Because, for, since, as, inasmuch as, for the reason that, by 
 reason of. 
 
 Therefore, hence, consequently, so, then, accordingly, wherefore, 
 thence, on that account, for this reason, it follows that. 
 
 Hcnvever, yet, nevertheless, on the other hand, still, notwith- 
 standing, in spite of. 
 
 Prove, establish, show, substantiate, verify, see. 
 
 Maintain, assert, claim, allege, declare. 
 
 Finally, last, in conclusion. 
 
 Since our language has a wealth of synonyms, it should 
 be possible for us to avoid repetitions which attract atten- 
 tion to sounds rather than to the thought. Thus, instead 
 of saying, " Our house is just large enough to hold the 
 whole household," we should find it easy to say, " Our 
 home is just large enough for all the members of the 
 household." 
 
 Extempore Practice. The student should avoid in his 
 practice all tendency to memorization. Memorizing crystal- 
 lizes the vocabulary into a set form of words and thereby 
 deadens the talk. What the speaker needs in almost 
 every situation is a live, active vocabulary, one so varied
 
 ACQUIRING FLUENCY 65 
 
 and so sensitive to external conditions that it can meet 
 the needs of the moment and the temper of the audience. 
 Such a hve vocabulary is to be acquired by practicing 
 speeches in which a variety of expressions is used. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that you were to appear before 
 a group of people to talk about a wave motor, that is, a 
 machine designed to use the energy of the waves. You 
 would need first, of course, to prepare a detailed outline. 
 Then you would practice the talk, expressing the same 
 ideas each time, but avoiding any attempt .to use exactly 
 the same words. Suppose you should first express one of 
 the ideas as follows : " No matter how bad the weather be- 
 comes the machine will work." It would be foolish to use 
 this rather commonplace expression each time, when any 
 of the following would probably be better : 
 
 Even if it storms the motor will work satisfactorily. 
 
 This invention has been tested in all kinds of weather. 
 
 No matter what the disturbance, its effectiveness is unimpaired. 
 
 No heavy sea can put it out of order. 
 
 The construction is so good that it resists any wave force. 
 
 The waves will buffet it in vain ; its efficiency will not be 
 diminished. 
 
 This appliance will be found intact after the hardest test which 
 the elements can offer. 
 
 The result of having a wealth of words from which to 
 choose in expressing an idea is that when you actually give 
 a talk, the stimulus of the occasion will lead you to just the 
 right expressions. You will not have to search for them. 
 Perhaps a student thinks he would do well to select before- 
 hand the best expressions to use in all cases, and then to 
 practice the speech, using only these particular words and
 
 66 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 phrases. If he is led into doing this he fails to take into 
 consideration the fact that several unforeseen conditions 
 may arise. He may find himself confronted by an audi- 
 ence of well-informed people and have to use language 
 of a technical nature ; or by an audience of uneducated 
 people and need to use simple words. He may find his 
 hearers intensely interested and thus be able to give de- 
 tailed explanations ; or he may find them restive and be 
 forced to hurry over certain portions of the speech. He 
 may be faced by critical strangers and wish to use a care- 
 ful, dignified manner of speaking ; or he may be met by 
 sympathetic friends and be able to employ a familiar style. 
 He may be interrupted, or questions may be raised before- 
 hand ; in either case he will need to change his speech to 
 meet new conditions. AH this shows that the speaker must 
 have at his command the resources of a varied vocabulary, 
 and that memorizing will not do. 
 
 Reading and Writing as Aids. It is a debatable question 
 whether a person's speaking vocabulary is larger than his 
 writing vocabulary. On the one hand, it is possible for us 
 to write any word that we can speak, for we can verify its 
 spelling by the use of the dictionary. On the other hand, 
 it is possible for us to speak any word that we can write, 
 for we may look up its pronunciation. In actual practice, 
 however, we frequently avoid the oral use of a word be- 
 cause we are not sure of its pronunciation ; and likewise, 
 in our haste, we avoid the writing of certain words because 
 we are not sure of the spelling. In most of these cases 
 we are not entirely satisfied with the substitutions. To 
 avoid such unsatisfactory expressions the student should 
 form the dictionary habit as early as possible.
 
 ACQUIRING FLUENCY 6^ 
 
 Even if the student were to neglect other aids, however, 
 writing would be a great help to the fluency of his speak- 
 ing. When he is putting thoughts on paper, he has to 
 search for the best words to express his meaning, and this 
 is sure to have a good effect on his speaking vocabulary. 
 In the case of any person, serious practice in speaking de- 
 velops, tests, and clarifies the thought, and is thus good 
 preparation for writing ; and practice in writing is good 
 preparation for speaking. Many speakers make it a habit 
 to write out carefully an entire sp'eech, and after revising 
 and correcting it to lay it aside. They have thus thought 
 out at least one rendering of the speech in dignified, 
 appropriate language. 
 
 The student must remember, however, that the mere 
 writing of words will not insure their becoming a part of 
 his speaking vocabulary : it is necessary to use them re- 
 peatedly in oral sentences before they really become his. 
 
 After all else is said, reading good books gives one the 
 surest foundation for the development of fluency in speak- 
 ing. Here we come under the sway of masters of diction, 
 who give us the riches of the kingdom of thought and 
 make us rulers over many kinds of expression. Uncon- 
 sciously we appropriate words and phrases and tricks of 
 speech. And to make the gain most rapid, we have only 
 to read such writers aloud. 
 
 Most of us are particularly poor in words of description, 
 but wide reading will help supply the deficiency. A student 
 who is fortunate in having a large and discriminating 
 vocabulary of adjectives says that he gained the use of 
 these words by reading Cooper's "The Spy," "The Last 
 of the Mohicans," etc.
 
 68 
 
 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Find as many synonyms as possible for each of the words 
 below. Study the various meanings, and practice the words in 
 sentences. Be prepared to use each word and each correct 
 synonym in a sentence. Remember that synonyms do not often 
 have exactly the same meaning ; therefore be ready to show the 
 differences. The exercise may be divided as seems best. 
 
 1. boy 
 
 2. dare 
 
 3. angry 
 
 4. happy 
 
 duty 
 
 discharge 
 
 big 
 
 hard 
 
 fun 
 
 earn 
 
 brave 
 
 jolly 
 
 mercy 
 
 examine 
 
 careless 
 
 nice 
 
 might 
 
 hurry 
 
 clean 
 
 quick 
 
 mistakes 
 
 live 
 
 cordial 
 
 sharp 
 
 neatness 
 
 surprise 
 
 cute 
 
 smart 
 
 scholar 
 
 work 
 
 dark 
 
 strong 
 
 tact 
 
 yell 
 
 far 
 
 tall 
 
 villain 
 
 yield 
 
 friendly 
 
 tiny 
 
 2. Study the use of the italicized words in the sentences 
 below. Find synonyms, and then revise the sentences so that 
 the ideas are better expressed. Be ready to give these improved 
 sentences in class. 
 
 1. He is very much in earnest. 
 
 2. His clothes are a// rigJit. 
 
 3. What a p)xtty tree ! 
 
 4. Is n't this a ^Viff^?/ morning? 
 
 5. Hovfjzne you look ! 
 
 6. Willie has a/res/i, bright smile. 
 
 7. He is a strict captain. 
 
 8. We had a very good meal. 
 
 9. This is my busy day. 
 
 10. She has an open countenance. 
 
 3. Express each of the following ideas in five other ways, and 
 decide which is the best suited for classroom use : 
 
 1. I am very glad you came to see me. 
 
 2. I 'm pleased to meet you. 
 
 3. Allow me to introduce Mr. Williams. 
 
 4. It gives me great pleasure to present the name of Mr. Thomas. 
 
 5. How are you ?
 
 SLANG 69 
 
 6. I am sorry to say I have n"t time. 
 
 7. I hope you will get along all right. 
 
 8. We have had a heavy rain. 
 
 9. Keep yourself busy. 
 
 10. Isn't it beautiful weather.'' 
 
 4. Select a subject for an oral description, and practice the 
 speech, paying particular attention to the choice of adjectives. 
 Make the words fit the ideas perfectly, so that the hearers will 
 get a complete, definite, exact, and attractive picture. Let the 
 class criticize your descriptive words, and be prepared to defend 
 your choice of words, or to accept the suggestions given. 
 
 5. Write a short (about 200 words) description of a person 
 known to the members of the class, or of a building known to 
 all. Be very careful in the use of adjectives. Read the description 
 in class, and let it receive criticism as suggested in Exercise 4. 
 
 6. Select a paragraph or article of about 200 words, and study 
 it to see how' it may be expressed in different words. Perhaps 
 you may be able to improve it, particularly if it is a newspaper 
 article. After reading the piece aloud many times, practice ex- 
 pressing the same ideas without using any of the printed words 
 except prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and the like. Do not 
 write anything, but go over the thought many times with the 
 printed paper before you, gradually developing the power to 
 paraphrase more and more rapidly. 
 
 Read the article in class, and follow it at once with the render- 
 ing in your own words. 
 
 The Use of Slang : What Slang Does. One day a student 
 Qt college chanced to meet a member of the Board of Edu- 
 cation of his home town. The greeting was cordial, and 
 conversation was free and pleasant. But the student was 
 more and more ashamed, as the talk proceeded, to find that 
 try as he would to think of the right words to use, his college
 
 yo IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 slang constantly came into the conversation. This, then, is 
 the trouble with slang ; it crowds out other words ; it nar- 
 rows the vocabulary. For example, the slang phrase in, ' No 
 storm can put this wave motor out of commission,' casts its 
 spell over us, and we do not exert ourselves to use diction- 
 ary English. Perhaps we excuse ourselves by saying that 
 " out of commission ' should be, and in time will be, in the 
 dictionary, just as hundreds of such expressions already 
 have entered the language. But you, a student, cannot put 
 it into the language. Only use by recognized authors can 
 do that, and meanwhile you, who should be learning to 
 express solid ideas in reputable words, are squandering 
 your chances to build up a good vocabulary, just for the 
 humor of the slang. 
 
 Moderation and Good Judgment. However, we should not, 
 and cannot, object to all slang, even if it does sometimes 
 crowd out good words. Perhaps the safest course to pursue 
 is to agree to the following policies ; first, not to spoil with 
 slang the expression of an idea which is worthy of a dignified 
 statement ; second, not to confine all our talking to ideas 
 which seem to lead to slang ; third, to try to avoid associating 
 constantly with persons who use slang to excess ; and fourth, 
 whenever we use slang to try to use it appropriately. 
 
 The fourth aim, appropriate use, needs explanation. Have 
 you not heard a speaker, in the course of a dignified and 
 serious speech, without warning use a slang expression } 
 The fact that his use of the slang surprised the audienc^ 
 showed that it was not appropriate. It would have been 
 possible for the speaker to lead up to the expression by a 
 smile and a more informal manner of speaking. Some- 
 times* slang may be introduced in the words of another
 
 SLANG 71 
 
 person ; as, for example, " This machine is so strong that 
 an auctioneer might say about it, ' Gentlemen, no matter 
 what the weather, you will find this wave motor on the 
 job.' " Writers of fiction often put slang into the mouths of 
 their characters, but they so describe these persons that we 
 should naturally expect such language from them. Appro- 
 priate use, therefore, depends upon the subject, the time, 
 the place, the audience, and the manner of the speaker. It 
 is rare that any but a speaker of wide experience and of 
 large knowledge of human nature can succeed in using 
 slang fittingly in a public speech. 
 
 There are on record cases of boys in business who have 
 failed of promotion because of their habitual use of slang 
 and bad grammar. An errand boy in a bank perhaps fails 
 to be promoted to one of the positions where he must meet 
 customers because of his " swell " and " I seen." In business, 
 slang habits are as unfortunate as untidiness of dress. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Listen to the talk of persons on the athletic field, or in 
 business, or on the street, or watch carefully your own conversa- 
 tion. Select five instances of the use of slang. Study the words 
 in question, and see if there is any justification for their use. Then 
 prepare a list of synonyms, or of other expressions of the ideas 
 involved. Come to class prepared to answer the following questions 
 about each slang word or phrase : 
 
 1. Under what circumstances was the expression used? 
 
 2. Did the circumstances justify the use of slang.? 
 
 3. Was the slang picturesque, or expressive, or stronger than ordi- 
 nary words? 
 
 4. What other expressions might have been used? Give at least 
 five.
 
 72 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 5. Is there any indication that the slang expression will ever become 
 good English ? Do any of the dictionaries list it as " slang " ? Do any 
 Hst it as " colloquial " ? Do any list it as authorized English, without 
 comment ? 
 
 2. Come to class prepared to give a talk, or to take part in a 
 discussion, upon the following subject : How can a pupil counter- 
 act the bad influence on his vocabulary of the playground, the 
 street, and his companions ? 
 
 Correcting Grammatical Errors : What Bad Grammar 
 Does. No person who makes bad mistakes in grammar 
 is likely to succeed as a public speaker. In fact he is 
 not likely to be effective in any kind of talking. And since 
 there is hardly an occupation at the present time which 
 does not require intelligent speaking, the efficiency of a 
 person's work in life depends largely upon his ability to use 
 language correctly. Those who speak incorrectly are con- 
 stantly suspected of ignorance, carelessness, eccentricity, or 
 lack of ability. All these suspicions may be unfounded, but 
 the fact remains that in both business and social relations 
 human beings judge each other by the neatness of their 
 dress and the correctness of their speech. Without this 
 correctness of speech as a fixed habit, a person is likely to 
 go through life underestimated and misjudged. 
 
 The Need for Oral Practice. Correcting mistakes by re- 
 writing the sentences correctly will help but little ; it is the 
 speech which must be changed. The ear must be trained 
 to the correct words. To get this training there is no better 
 way than by oral practice with the correct forms until the 
 error is effectively driven out and the right form established. 
 First try to see the absurdity of the wrong forms, and learn 
 to avoid them as you would any other untidiness.
 
 ERRORS OF GRAMMAR 73 
 
 Suppose, for example, that one is suffering from the 
 habit of using 'ain't.' Let him consider the following 
 facts : No such word exists in literature ; no person ever 
 purposely uses it in a public speech ; no person who is at 
 all careful of his speech ever uses it ; the word is univer- 
 sally a sign of carelessness, hurry, or boorishness ; the dic- 
 tionary calls it illiterate. Such considerations should show 
 anyone the danger of accustoming the mind and lips and 
 ears to 'ain't,' or any other grammatical error. In addition 
 to such a study, practice of the right forms in sentences, 
 which show as many different uses as possible, will be 
 invaluable. For example : 
 
 SENTENCES FOR AVOIDING 'AIN'T' 
 
 I'm not going to the picnic. 
 
 You aren't as old as I am. 
 
 The other players say they 're not going to play because they 
 are n't in condition. 
 
 We are n't in very good trim either, but we 're not afraid to 
 play them. 
 
 Tom says he is n't going to play after this game. 
 
 Is n't that too bad ! 
 
 Are n't they going to play us at all 1 
 
 Is n't every other date taken ? 
 
 Am I not on the team ? I am, am I not ? 
 
 If the student is in earnest he will soon find that the 
 first step has been taken : he has arrived at the place 
 where the use of the wrong form by himself or by others 
 immediately arouses him. Thus he is on the road to recov- 
 ery. His case would be more discouraging if he made 
 errors in grammar without knowing it. He will find as he
 
 74 
 
 IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 continues his practice that the correct sounds come natu- 
 rally to the mind and lips, and do not seem so strange 
 when they are used. In the end he will use the right 
 forms without conscious effort. 
 
 Common Errors. Below is a list of fifty sentences which 
 often show errors. If the student frees himself from any 
 temptation to misuse the underscored words, he will have 
 made progress in his speaking. Other common stumbling 
 blocks are irregular verbs. To cure mistakes in the use of 
 these, it is a good plan to compose sentences containing 
 common expressions of time ; for example, "' Every day I 
 ride to school"; "Yesterday I rode to school"; "I have 
 already lidden to school." Stress of voice may be put on 
 the correct forms to be learned, 
 
 GRAMMATICAL FORMS 
 
 
 Correct Form 
 
 
 Incorrect For]\ 
 
 1. 
 
 I saw three rabbits. 
 
 
 seen 
 
 2. 
 
 He has n't gone to school for a 
 
 week. 
 
 went 
 
 3. 
 
 Those fellows took it. 
 
 
 Thetn 
 
 4. 
 
 Fni not going. He is fi't going. 
 
 
 I ain't. He ain^t 
 
 
 We are n^t going. We V(? not going. 
 
 We aiivt 
 
 6. 
 
 I would n't have done it. 
 
 
 of did 
 
 6. 
 
 I threw it away. 
 
 
 throw ed 
 
 7. 
 
 He came here a year ago. 
 
 
 come 
 
 8. 
 
 It was he. It was she. 
 
 
 him, her ' 
 
 9. 
 
 It is I. It is we. 
 
 
 me, us 
 
 10. 
 
 This lever is to start it. 
 
 
 This here 
 
 
 That lever is to start it. 
 
 
 That there 
 
 11. 
 
 He ought not to have done it. 
 
 
 hadn't ought 
 
 12. 
 
 I lay down on the grass. 
 
 
 laid 
 
 13. 
 
 We were lying on the grass. 
 
 
 laying
 
 ERRORS OF GRAMMAR 
 
 75 
 
 14. He can talk better than /. 
 
 15. He does n^t know me. 
 
 16. Each of the boats is ready. 
 
 17. I have n 't brought any pencil. 
 
 18. Where are you ^^m^ ? 
 
 19. I havenH any paper. 
 
 20. I have to do my lesson. 
 
 21. I said to him, " Come here ! " 
 
 22. I should like to go. 
 
 23. My school is different //w;; yours. 
 
 24. He can play as ivell as Tom. 
 
 25. Neither Jim nor John has come. 
 
 26. It looks as (fit would rain. 
 
 27. He rose up in bed. 
 
 28. I did it this morning. 
 
 29. If anybody wants an apple, 
 
 let h/m come here. 
 
 30. Since I am here, I '11 speak. 
 
 31. The harness is badly broken. 
 
 32. They can't explain the things 
 
 that are going on. 
 
 33. He was taken to jail. 
 
 34. This is strictly between you and me. 
 
 35. Where are they ? 
 
 36. They were all on time. 
 
 37. The boy sat on a chair. 
 
 38. May we go home ? 
 
 39. Whom did you call ? 
 
 40. I began it yesterday. 
 
 41. He behaved very badly. 
 
 42. Let me go. 
 
 43. When I heard the bell I ran all the way. 
 
 44. If I were you, I should come. 
 
 45. I don't know anything about it. 
 
 46. I don't understand your being here. 
 
 me 
 
 don^t 
 
 are 
 
 no 
 
 going to ? 
 
 have tiH got 
 
 I^ve got 
 
 says 
 
 would 
 
 than 
 
 good 
 
 have 
 
 like ; like as if 
 
 raised 
 
 done 
 
 them 
 
 Being that 
 broke 
 
 that 's 
 took 
 I 
 
 are they at ? 
 was 
 set 
 Can 
 Who 
 begun 
 bad 
 Leave 
 run 
 2vas 
 not hi tig 
 you
 
 'je IMPROVING THE VOCABULARY 
 
 47. Having a long time to wait, 
 
 / 7vas very glad to sit. the seat zvas very welcome 
 
 48. I could see but a few feet in couldn't see only 
 
 front of me. 
 
 49. This will teach you to speak learn . . . correct 
 
 correctly 
 
 50. Have you eaten your lunch ? et 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Take the first ten correct forms of grammatical usage given in 
 the above list. Practice the correct wording in as many sentences 
 as are necessary to make the sounds perfectly familiar to you. Be 
 prepared to use any of the forms in ten or more sentences in 
 class. When other students give their sentences in class, listen 
 carefully and do not let any error escape you. 
 
 Other groups of sentences may be used for additional exercises.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 NARRATIONS 
 
 The Four Forms of Discourse. If somebody tells us that 
 a century ago people had to depend on candles and oil for 
 lights, that later the value of gas .for illuminating was dis- 
 covered, and that in 1880 the Edison incandescent light 
 was invented, we are listening to a narrative. If we say 
 that the incandescent light is a pear-shaped glass bulb with 
 a brass support, inside of which is a looped wire, we have 
 given a description. If we say that the illumination is 
 caused by the electric current, which heats the wire to a 
 white heat, we are making an explanation. And, finally, 
 if we try to persuade another person that the incandescent 
 light is better than the gas light to use in studying, we 
 are making an argnment. Thus, in the case of the electric 
 light, narration tells its story, description gives its appear- 
 ance, explanation shows how it works, and argument passes 
 judgment on it. 
 
 Combining the Four Forms of Discourse. Combinations 
 of two or more of these four forms of discourse are com- 
 mon. It is rare to hear a talk of any length which confines 
 irself throughout to one form. At the least, some descrip- 
 tive words will creep into the narration or explanation ; into 
 the description will enter a sentence or two of explanation 
 or argument ; and into the argument must necessarily come 
 the other forms. The various conditions under which we 
 
 77
 
 78 NARRATIONS 
 
 speak make these combinations inevitable. For example, 
 the history of a country is incomplete without a brief de- 
 scription of its physical features, an explanation of its form 
 of government, and some argument as to the worth of its 
 national ideals. The description of a city can often be 
 better understood in the setting of a brief narrative of its 
 past, an explanation of the forces of nature which have 
 influenced its growth, and an argument as to its beauty or 
 advantages. An explanation of the method by which we 
 elect our presidents may be made more effective by a nar- 
 ration of some of the complications in the past, a descrip- 
 tion of the ballot sheets, and an argument on the worth of 
 our method. An argument on the question of factory child 
 labor should include a brief history of the entrance of 
 children into factories, perhaps a description of a cannery 
 or a cotton mill, and an explanation of the effects of child 
 labor on both the children themselves and the community 
 in general. 
 
 Often the narration, description, or explanation is the 
 most effective part of an argimient, A well-told story of an 
 accident given before a board of directors may save a man 
 his position ; a vivid description of a room and its furniture 
 may win a lawsuit ; a clear explanation of the workings of 
 the commission form of government may win a debate. 
 
 Although combinations of the four forms of discourse 
 are necessary and desirable, yet we must always keep clearly 
 in mind what our main purpose is, — narration, description, 
 explanation, or argument, — and every form used must be 
 made to serve that particular purpose. In our school prac- 
 tice it will be wise at first to confine each talk largely to 
 one form.
 
 THE FORMS OF DISCOURSE 79 
 
 In Chapters I and II we have already considered ex- 
 planation and argument ; in the present chapter we shall 
 discuss how to prepare an oral narration. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1 . a. Any one of the topics listed below may be made the basis 
 of a talk in each of the four forms of discourse. Choose one of 
 the topics, and decide how to make it form the subject of a narra- 
 tive, a description, an explanation, and an argument. Come to 
 class prepared to tell what ideas you would develop for each talk. 
 
 b. Prepare and deliver one of the talks. 
 
 1. An automobile. 6. A game. 
 
 2. A sewing machine. 7. A telephone. 
 
 3. A fountain pen. 8. Postage stamps. 
 
 4. A horse. 9. An aeroplane. 
 
 5. Writing paper. 10. A certain man. 
 
 2. a. Choose one of the following topics for a talk in which 
 the four forms of discourse are used. Come to class prepared to 
 explain to the others how you would plan such a talk. 
 
 b. Prepare and give the talk in class. 
 
 1. How education will improve citizenship. 
 
 2. The small college is better than the large college. 
 
 3. Will the aeroplane be of use in carrying mail ? 
 
 4. The advantages or disadvantages of the prepayment cars. 
 
 5. The tramp problem. 
 
 6. The European war. 
 
 7. How war interrupts business. 
 
 8. The cotton industry in the United States. 
 
 9. Laws about oil drippings from automobiles. 
 10. The " Camp Fire Girls " movement. 
 
 Choosing Subjects for Narrations. We never let a day 
 pass without telling somebody about its happenings, or 
 about events and incidents of other days. Yet many of
 
 8o NARRATIONS 
 
 us use little discrimination in the choice of what we tell. 
 Only significant events are worth recalling — events sig- 
 nificant both to the tellers and to the listeners. It will be, 
 worth while to remember this in the Oral English recitation, 
 and to choose narrations which have meaning : those from 
 which interest, entertainment, or profitable conclusions may 
 be drawn. For this purpose there are many sources of 
 good stories. All about us interesting things are happening 
 which will be news to most of the members of the class. 
 Magazines and newspapers are stocked with the records of 
 events many of which are suitable for the classroom. One 
 may also tell the stories of plays and books, provided they 
 are not made long and tiresome. 
 
 Careful Planning. We should never attempt to tell a 
 story without thinking over the whole narration first. If 
 reading or study is necessary in preparing for the talk, this 
 should be done painstakingly, memoranda being made of 
 the essential points. If we are going to tell about a real 
 happening, we may try to find out what event led up to 
 the incidents with which we are concerned, and what the 
 sequel or after-effects were. Then we should plan the out- 
 line for the telling. The outline should be complete, in- 
 cluding the introduction, the events to be narrated, and 
 the conclusion. But all points not significant for the main 
 purpose of the story must be excluded. 
 
 Opening Words. The introductory words should usually 
 give the setting for the story ; that is, they should tell 
 where, when, and under what circumstances the events took 
 place. Ordinarily they should also introduce one or more 
 of the characters of the story. Thus, if we were telling 
 about a football game, we should preface the actual story
 
 PLANNING THE STORY 8 1 
 
 with a statement of the schools playing, the place, and the 
 date, and should explain, perhaps, whether or not the game 
 was of any importance. The story of a summer vacation 
 might begin with such a statement as the following : 
 '" Three years ago last summer I was offered the oppor- 
 tunity of spending the month of July with my uncle's 
 family in a house boat on the Mississippi, I was to meet 
 my uncle at St. Paul, and the trip was to cost me only 
 my fare back from St. Louis." 
 
 Introducing New Persons or Scenes. As the story pro- 
 ceeds new characters may be brought in, each being intro- 
 duced by words which will make clear his identity and his 
 relation to the other persons. Similarly, if the setting 
 changes during the story, a few preliminary words of ex- 
 planation will be needed at that point. The following 
 expressions will indicate what we mean : ' A month later ' ; 
 ' We must see what has been happening in Pittsburg ' ; 
 ' When we came back to camp we found that all our 
 blankets were wet.' 
 
 Indicating the Point of View. Sometimes the point of 
 view used in the story is an unusual one, and must be indi- 
 cated in the opening words. If you are one of the characters 
 in the story, and are telling it as your personal experiences, 
 the events of the narration should be given in the order in 
 which they affected you. If you had no part in the story, 
 then the order of narration should ordinarily be that in 
 which you learned of the events. Or, if as an outside third 
 person you are supposed to see into the minds of the actors 
 and to tell about their motives and feelings, then you may 
 arrange the events in whatever order will best serve the 
 point or aim of the story.
 
 82 NARRATIONS 
 
 Emphasizing Significant Details. In the stories which 
 have plots, often something in the setting or the early 
 happenings has prime significance for the climax. Thus, 
 in the story of a mountain trip, the time of year might be 
 the fact of most importance in the exciting part of the 
 story. Or the point of the story might hinge on the fact 
 that on the night preceding the events related one of the 
 boys left his hat hanging in the schoolroom ; or that a tree 
 had blown down ; or that a high fence prevented one from 
 seeing beyond it. Whenever such points determine what is 
 to happen later in the story, they must be so clearly given 
 that no listener will miss them. 
 
 The introduction is frequently not a part of the narration 
 itself, but consists of explanation or description, or both. 
 
 The Series of Events. After the introductory sentence or 
 sentences, we begin the recital of the actual happenings. 
 We must decide whether to have the action slow or rapid. 
 Our recital must show the hearers the rate of this action. 
 We accomplish this by expressions which show the passage 
 of time, such as ' After a few minutes ' ; ' The next day ' ; 
 ' In May ' ; ' At the end of vacation ' ; etc., and by the con- 
 creteness with which we tell about actual events. Thus we 
 give a better idea of the time involved by saying, "They 
 dug a trench as large as the door and a mile and a half 
 long," than by, "They dug a long trench." 
 
 We have hinted above that the point of view may deter- 
 mine the order in telling the several events of the story. 
 Some stories have for their climax the discovery of an 
 event which has occurred earlier. Some books of fiction 
 "begin in the middle," and do not tell about prior happen- 
 ings until later chapters. As a rule, however, most of the
 
 STORIES WITHOUT PLOTS 83 
 
 stories told in the Oral English class should follow the ex- 
 act order of time in which the events themselves occurred. 
 For this reason it is not difficult to prepare an outline 
 for narration. 
 
 Two Kinds of Narrations. There are two kinds of narra- 
 tives : those in which the events lead up to a crisis and 
 then down to an adjustment or solution, and those in which 
 a mere series of events without a crisis is chronicled. The 
 story of a flood presents a crisis ; the story of a journey 
 ordinarily does not. The presence of a crisis in a story 
 makes a plot ; there is a complication which develops as 
 the story proceeds and is solved before the end. 
 
 Stories without Plots. Stories with good plots are uni- 
 versally interesting and entertaining, but those without plots 
 are often attractive only to persons who already know some- 
 thing of the characters and the circumstances involved. In 
 any case the narration should be studied so thoroughly, and 
 the telling practiced so well, that the story will be presented 
 attractively. In arranging the outline for a narration with- 
 out a plot, the events may be set down in their time order. 
 An examination of this list of events will then show that 
 they may be grouped under a few general topics. For ex- 
 ample, the events of a trip or picnic might be grouped 
 under the following heading : 
 
 THE EVENTS OF A PICNIC 
 
 1. 
 
 The trip down the river. 
 
 2. 
 
 The swim. 
 
 3. 
 
 The lunch. 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 The old fort. (Description) 
 The games on the beach. 
 The return.
 
 84 NARRATIONS 
 
 It is in stories without plots that so many speakers grow 
 tiresome because they tell too much. Every story should 
 have an aim or central thought, and if this central thought 
 is kept in mind it will be easier to hold to the main thread 
 of the story. In using the outline above, the narrator's pur- 
 pose may be to tell what a good time he had, or to show 
 what a splendid place for a picnic was found, or merely to 
 share with a friend the renewal of the good times. In the 
 case of any of these aims, he need not describe the boat 
 they rode in, nor what they had for lunch, nor the exact 
 order of the games, nor the detailed history of the fort ; in 
 short, he should not exasperate his hearers with all the tire- 
 some details which so often make listening to stories a bore. 
 
 Ask yourself why you are telling a story at all, and do 
 not tell it unless you can find a good reason. With your 
 purpose in mind, exclude everything from the narrative 
 which does not bear on that aim. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study the story below, in the light of what we have discussed 
 thus far. Come to class prepared to point out its merits as a narra- 
 tion without a plot, and its defects, if you think there are any. In 
 any case, discuss possible changes or improvements in the telling. 
 
 DAVID COPPERFIELD'S LESSON 
 
 I come into the second best pador after breakfast, with my books 
 and an exercise book and a slate. My mother is ready for me at her 
 writing desk, but not half so ready as Mr. Murdstone, in his easy-chair 
 by the window (though he pretends to be reading a book), or as Miss 
 Murdstone, sitting near my mother stringing steel beads. . . . 
 
 I hand the first book to my mother. Perhaps it is a grammar, per- 
 haps a history or a geography. I take a last drowning look at the page
 
 STORIES WITHOUT PLOTS 85 
 
 as I give it into my mother's hand, and start off aloud at a racing pace 
 while I have got it fresh. I trip over a word. Mr. Murdstone looks up. 
 I trip over another word. Miss Murdstone looks up. I redden, tumble 
 over a half-dozen words, and stop. I think my mother would show me 
 the book if she dared, but she does not dare, and she says softly : 
 
 " Oh, Davy, Davy ! " 
 
 " Now, Clara," says Mr. Murdstone, " be firm with the boy. Don't 
 say, ' Oh, Davy, Davy ! ' That 's childish. He knows his lesson or he 
 does not know it." 
 
 " He does not know it," Miss Murdstone interposes awfully. 
 
 " I am really afraid he does not," says my mother. 
 
 " Then, you see, Clara," returns Miss JVIurdstone, " you should just 
 give him the book back and make him know it." 
 
 " Yes, certainly," says my mother : " that is what I intend to do, 
 my dear Jane. Now, Davy, try once more, and don't be stupid." 
 
 I obey the first clause of the injunction by trying once more, but I 
 am not so successful with the second, for I am very stupid. 1 tumble 
 down before I get to the old place, at a point where I was all right be- 
 fore, and stop to think. . . . Mr. Murdstone makes a movement of im- 
 patience which I have been expecting for a long time. Miss Murdstone 
 does the same. My mother glances submissively at them, shuts the 
 book, and lays it by as an arrear to be worked out when my other tasks 
 are done. . . . 
 
 But the greatest effect in these miserable lessons is when my mother 
 (thinking nobody is observing her) tries to give me the cue by the motion 
 of her lips. At that instant Miss Murdstone, who has been lying in wait 
 for nothing else all along, says in a deep, warning voice : 
 
 " Clara ! " 
 
 My mother starts, colors, and smiles faintly. Mr. Murdstone 
 comes out of his chair, takes the book, throws it at me or boxes my ears 
 with it, and turns me out of the room by the shoulders. — Dickens, 
 " David Copperfield " 
 
 2. Choose a subject for a narration without a plot, prepare the 
 outline, practice the telling, and give the story before the class. 
 Pay particular attention to the opening and the closing words. 
 The following subjects are suggested :
 
 86 
 
 • 
 
 
 NARRATIONS 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 A picnic. 
 A banquet. 
 A visit. 
 A game. 
 A celebration. 
 
 6. An incident in class. 
 
 7. A trip. 
 
 8. An entertainment. 
 
 9. A current event. 
 
 10. An incident in business life. 
 
 Stories with Plots. -When the narration has a plot, the 
 incidents of the story must all be grouped about that com- 
 plication, for the sole purpose of the story is to show the 
 existence of the problem and the series of events which 
 led to its solution or consequences. 
 
 The very first sentences of the story, the sentences of 
 the introduction, should show the existence of a plot or the 
 approach of a crisis. This may be done in some such gen- 
 eral expression as the following : " One of the most excit- 
 ing incidents of the year occurred yesterday at the public 
 market." 
 
 Next should come the necessary information as to the 
 setting, as we have suggested above. 
 
 Then will follow the series of events of the narration 
 proper. The first events should deal, either directly or sug- 
 gestively, with the plot ; for example, " Cassius decided that 
 he would try to stir the Romans against Cassar " shows 
 exactly what the complication or plot of the story is to be. 
 " The engineer knew there might be danger ahead " sug- 
 gests a complication but does not define it. 
 
 In planning the events of the story, it is necessary to 
 work toward the climax in such a way as gradually to in- 
 crease the interest and zest of the hearers. Each single 
 event follows the hint given at first, until the actual crisis 
 is reached. Each event is more absorbing than the one 
 before it. The attention is gripped and held ; the hearers
 
 STORIES WITH PLOTS 8/ 
 
 begin to wonder how the solution can be made, how the com- 
 pHcation can be resolved, "what will happen next." Sus- 
 pense and expectancy come in to add to the interest and 
 excitement. It is not difficult to see that just here great 
 care is needed to hold the hearers in suspense just the right 
 amount of time. This is where story-telling becomes an art. 
 
 Next comes the event or events which form the climax. 
 These are the most exciting or interesting of all ; they are 
 at the height of the complication, and at the very point 
 where it is solved. 
 
 From this point the events which follow are concerned 
 with the details of the solution and with the immediate con- 
 sequences of the events in the climax. This part of the 
 story should be brief but convincing. Brevity is important 
 because the interest of the hearers cannot be maintained 
 at the highest point very far beyond the climax. But the 
 hearers will usually wish to know something of the after- 
 effects or consequences of the exciting events of the story ; 
 the narration would often be incomplete if it ended with 
 the climax, even if this included the solution. 
 
 I'lots are often concerned with a struggle between two 
 forces or sets of forces, or between two personalities. In- 
 terest is aroused by showing the supremacy now of one 
 force and now of the other. The story of the persons or 
 forces which operate against the solution of the plot is 
 called the counterplot. 
 
 In preparing stories for classroom telling, the pupil should 
 remember that the best stories as well as the best plays 
 often have unexpected solutions, an element of the unusual 
 or of surprise, either in the manner of the solution or in 
 the solution itself.
 
 88 NARRATIONS 
 
 Conclusions. The story without a plot should usually have 
 a sentence or two of conclusion. This ending should not be 
 a part of the narration itself, but should rather concern itself 
 with a general remark about the story, such as its value, its 
 general interest, or its consequences. 
 
 The story with a plot may have a conclusion of the same 
 kind, though sometimes a good statement following the 
 climax, as explained above, will serve as the conclusion. 
 Fables and some other stories end with morals which the 
 stories have taught, but it is now thought best to let the 
 listeners draw their own conclusions and to learn their own 
 lessons from the stories. 
 
 Interesting the Listeners. In telling stories, more perhaps 
 than in any other kind of oral exercise, the speaker needs 
 to study the faces of his hearers, to see when the interest 
 is keen, when to give more details, when to proceed more 
 rapidly, and when to bring the story to an end. We give 
 narrations for the benefit of our listeners and for no other 
 reason. Sometimes we are tempted to give the chief con- 
 sideration to the story, and to give the audience secondary 
 attention. Rather we should know our story so well, through 
 study and practice by ourselves, that we can put almost our 
 whole thought on interesting and entertaining our hearers, 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study the story below, and come to class prepared to dis- 
 cuss its merits, and its defects if there are any. What changes do 
 you think might be made with advantage ? Be prepared to point 
 out (a) the features of the story which result in the rise of interest, 
 (b) the climax of the story, and (c) the series of events which give 
 the after-effects or consequences.
 
 STORIES WITH PLOTS 89 
 
 HOW JOHN BINNS, FIREMAN, SAVED A BOYi 
 
 Thirteen years have passed since, but it is all to me as if it had 
 happened yesterday — the clanging of the fire bells, the hoarse shouts 
 of the firemen, the wild rush and terror of the streets ; then the great 
 hush that fell upon the crowd ; the sea of upturned faces with the fire 
 glow upon it ; and up there, against the background of black smoke 
 that poured from roof and attic, the boy clinging to the narrow ledge, 
 so far up that it seemed humanly impossible that help could ever come. 
 
 But even then it was coming. Up from the street, while the crew 
 of the truck company were laboring with the heavy extension ladder 
 that at its longest stretch was many feet top short, crept four men upon 
 long, slender poles with crossbars, iron-hooked at the end. Standing in 
 one window, they reached up and thrust the hook through the next 
 one above, then mounted a story higher. Again the crash of glass, and 
 again the dizzy ascent. Straight up the wall they crept, looking like 
 human flies on the ceiling, and clinging as close, never resting, reaching 
 one recess only to set out for the next ; nearer and nearer in the race 
 for life, until but a single span separated the foremost from the boy. 
 And now the iron hook fell at his feet, and the fireman stood upon 
 the step with the rescued lad in his arms, just as the pent-up flame 
 burst lurid from the attic window, reaching with impotent fury for its 
 prey. The next moment they were safe upon the great ladder waiting 
 to receive them below. 
 
 Then such a shout went up ! Men fell on each other's necks, and 
 cried and laughed at once. Strangers slapped one another on the back, 
 with glistening faces, shook hands, and behaved generally like men 
 gone suddenly mad. Women wept in the street. The driver of a car 
 stalled in the crowd, who had stood through it all speechless, clutching 
 the reins, whipped his horses into a gallop and drove away, yelling like a 
 Comanche, to relieve his feelings. The boy and his rescuer were carried 
 across the street without anyone knowing how. Policemen forgot their 
 dignity and shouted with the rest. Fire, peril, terror, and loss were alike 
 forgotten in the one touch of nature that makes the whole world kin. 
 
 Fireman John Binns was made captain of his crew, and the Bennett 
 medal was pinned on his coat on the next parade day. —Jacob A. Riis 
 
 1 From " Heroes who Fight Fire," 'Jltc Century, Vol. LV, p. 483 (Febru- 
 ary, 1898). Copyright by The Century Company; printed by permission.
 
 90 NARRATIONS 
 
 2. Choose a story with a plot, prepare the outline, and be 
 ready to give the narration in class, paying particular attention 
 to the development and solution of the plot. The basis for your 
 story may be found in a paper, magazine, book, or play, or 
 you may create the story yourself. The following topics may be 
 suggestive : 
 
 1. The lost boy. 6. Timely help. 
 
 2. The trick that failed. 7. The capture. 
 
 3. A young hero. 8. Turning defeat into victory. 
 
 4. How the runaway was stopped. 9. Caught in a storm. 
 
 5. The race. 10. The escape.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 Purpose of Description. We have said that description 
 aims to give the characteristics or distinguishing features of 
 an object or a person. Descriptions in hterature are often 
 elaborate and suggestive ; Scott's picture of the Dead Sea 
 in the first pages of the "Tahsman" is an example of the 
 wonderful power of carefully chosen words to affect the 
 sensitive plate of the mental eye. The pupil in oral work 
 may, after long practice, acquire the ability to make descrip- 
 tions of real literary merit. He must begin, however, with 
 the everyday descriptions such as he gives when telling a 
 friend about a town he has visited, or about the appearance 
 of a ship, or a scene at a celebration. 
 
 How the Senses aid Description. How does a person 
 gather his material for the description of a town, a ship, or 
 the scene at a celebration .'' Obviously, through his senses, 
 for the ideas which he works into a description are based 
 on sense impressions. Let us consider for a moment the 
 gathering of information about a celebration. The sense of 
 sight shows us forms, colors, and movements. The general 
 shape of the whole place is perhaps revealed first, then the 
 different details and the relative sizes and distances. The 
 color of the sky, of the foliage, of the decorations, and of 
 the costumes is impressed upon us, and the movements 
 of the trees, conveyances, and people. Tlirough the other 
 
 9'
 
 92 DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 senses we get the impressions of the stirring of the wind, 
 and of the josthng of the merrymakers ; the sound of talk- 
 ing and laughing, the cries of venders, and the noise of 
 automobiles ; the smell of smoke, of gasoline, of grass, and 
 of flowers. 
 
 Besides recounting the impressions which our senses 
 have given us, we also weave into the description ideas 
 which grow out of these sense impressions : beauty, curios- 
 ity, friendship, patriotism, haste, pleasure. All these furnish 
 the material for the essential parts of the description. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Study one of the following subjects, drawing on the imagi- 
 nation as much as may be necessary, to determine what descriptive 
 material might be furnished by each of the five senses, or by the 
 thoughts and feelings resulting from sense impressions. Be pre- 
 pared to tell the class what impressions a person might gather 
 as material for a talk. 
 
 b. Give the description in class. 
 
 1. A park. 6. A harbor. 
 
 2. A ship. 7. A pure-foods, exposition. 
 
 3. A farm. 8. A snowstorm. 
 
 4. An automobile race. 9. A kitchen. 
 
 5. A meat market. 10. A skating party. 
 
 The Outline for the Description. What order should a 
 talk of description follow ? Description cannot follow the 
 time order, for the mind receives many different impres- 
 sions and feelings simultaneously, and neither in writing 
 nor in speaking can we convey in an instant any such 
 composite thought. In giving a description, therefore, as 
 in all other talks, it is necessary to plan the order of topics.
 
 THE OUTLINE 93 
 
 This list of topics, or outline, will usually include an intro- 
 duction, a statement of the point of view, the statement of 
 a central idea, the details of the description grouped under 
 this central idea, and a conclusion. 
 
 The Introduction. The beginning of the talk should 
 give the broader and more general ideas which lead up 
 to the subject. These ideas may include the brief narration 
 of the experience upon which the description is based, the 
 reason for its interest, or its relation to objects with which 
 the hearers are already familiar. ■ This may be done in 
 some such way as the following : " Three years ago this 
 winter, in a trip across the continent, I saw from the car 
 window a blizzard on the prairie." Or again, " You have 
 all heard of the dikes of Holland ; I am going to tell you 
 of an island in a California river where a similar device 
 
 has been used." * 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Give the introduction to a description based upon one of 
 the topics below. 
 
 6. Give the complete description. 
 
 1. The city -plan of Venice. 6. A view from a mountain. 
 
 2. A landscape. 7. An ocean steamship. 
 
 3. An iceberg. 8. Scenes at a field day. 
 
 4. Washington monument. 9. A picture. 
 
 5. A sunset. 10. A playground. 
 
 The Point of View. The sentence used above to intro- 
 duce the description of a blizzard tells the point of view 
 from which the blizzard is observed. The point of view of 
 a person who happened to be outside the car would have 
 been quite different. A traveler's impressions of the city 
 of Venice depend upon whether he views it first from the
 
 94 DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 land or from the sea, whether he observes it as he walks 
 through the streets, or as he rides upon the canals, or as he 
 looks down upon it from a height. It is therefore necessary 
 for the speaker, in most cases, to indicate early in his talk 
 his point of view. 
 
 Occasionally the point of view, changes during the talk. 
 Such a change must be clearly indicated ; as, for example, 
 ' Let us now get a closer view ' ; ' Passing inside the build- 
 ing, we find ' ; ' Quite different is the view to the north.' 
 The point of view, as we shall see later, also helps determine 
 the order of details in the description. 
 
 The student must not think, however, that every descrip- 
 tion should include a statement of the point of view. It 
 is not always necessary in the case of a small object, such 
 as a hat, a lace collar, a table ; nor in such cases as a 
 description of the stars, of the facade of a building, or 
 
 of a picture. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Give the introduction and enough of the description of one 
 of the subjects below to show the speaker's point of view. 
 
 b. Give the complete talk of description. 
 
 1. A church. 6. A battleship. 
 
 2. A football game. 7. The Panama Canal. 
 
 &^ 
 
 3. A mountain. 8. The city of San Francisco. 
 
 4. A railway station, inside. 9. The house you live in. 
 
 5. A railway station, outside. 10. A shop or store. 
 
 The Central Idea of the Description. As the description 
 proceeds, one object, or one part of an object, or one idea, 
 will probably stand out as the most important point in the 
 talk. This must be brought out clearly, and if possible all 
 the other parts of the description should be related to it.
 
 THE ORDER OF THE DETAILS 95 
 
 In describing Venice the Grand Canal may be selected as 
 the leading feature, in which case the railroads, stations, 
 small canals, streets, squares, bridges, and buildings may 
 be spoken of in their relation to it. Again, St. Mark's 
 Square or the Rialto Bridge may be chosen ; or the talk 
 may have running through it, as the central idea, the 
 unique character of the city due to the absence of street 
 cars, horses, and automobiles. The central idea in the 
 description of a celebration may be the grand stand, or 
 the entrance of the parade, or the sense of confusion, or 
 the gayety of the people. 
 
 The Order of the Parts. Suppose we are standing in 
 the torch of the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, 
 looking northward. What do we see ? At first, water and 
 ships, and land and high buildings. That is to say, the 
 first impressions are of the larger or closer objects. The 
 oral description must follow the same plan, giving the broad, 
 general ideas first, and the details later. Soon after the 
 eye first sweeps the scene, some one part of the view 
 holds the attention and becomes the central idea. Perhaps 
 it is the tall buildings or the busy harbor. Let us assume 
 that it is the former, but our talk need not announce this 
 central idea, for it will appear and reappear as we proceed. 
 
 Next come the details of the description : the separate 
 buildings ; the Battery ; Brooklyn Bridge ; the many ferry- 
 boats going to and from the city ; the ships entering and 
 leaving the harbor ; the docks fringing the group of build- 
 ings ; the two rivers and the two other cities, one on either 
 side ; the big liner just passing on her way to the city. So 
 the picture is completed, with whatever order of sights and 
 sounds best suits the occasion and the purpose.
 
 96 DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 If a person is moving through a building, the order of 
 details is determined by the plan of the building. It is 
 particularly helpful to the hearers for the speaker to show 
 the connection between the parts of the description. For 
 example, we might show that in a certain schoolhouse the 
 main hall leads to the auditorium, that from the auditorium 
 one may go to the gymnasium just below it, and from the 
 gymnasium to the playground, then across the grounds to 
 the new building opposite, etc. There should be no jumps 
 between the parts of the talk : all should be bridged over. 
 
 Careful study of any subject selected will reveal an 
 arrangement of the parts which might be called a natural 
 order, an order which brings out clearly the central idea, 
 and which makes it easy to connect the various parts, thus 
 developing the clearest picture. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Prepare a descriptive talk on one of these subjects, introduc- 
 ing it briefly, stating the point of view, and grouping the elements 
 of the description around a central feature or idea. 
 
 1. The city of Amsterdam. 6. A fruit orchard. 
 
 2. A college. 7. A factory. 
 
 3. A man, to be recognized at a station. 8. A storm. 
 
 4. An old-fashioned parlor. 9. A theater. 
 
 5. A library. 10. A harvest scene. 
 
 2. Prepare and give in class a description, making one of the 
 following the central thought or feature : 
 
 1. A camp fire. 6. A man swimming. 
 
 2. Cold. 7. Hilarity. 
 
 3. Heat. 8. Activity. 
 
 4. A bareheaded man. 9. A tree. 
 
 5. A dog. 10. A bright light.
 
 THE CONCLUSION 97 
 
 3. a. Prepare a complete outline for one of the following de- 
 scriptions, taking particular care to arrange the parts in a sensible 
 order. Bring the outline to class for criticism. 
 
 b. Give the complete description in class. 
 
 1. A new type of street car. 6. An aeroplane. 
 
 2. A bedroom. 7. A farmyard. 
 
 3. A certain animal. 8. A certain man or woman. 
 
 4. A playground. 9. A house. 
 
 5. A locomotive. 10. A city. 
 
 The Conclusion. The conclusion, may give in brief form 
 a general impression of the object described. It may ex- 
 press the thought we have as we look back for a final view 
 in leaving. It may strikingly summarize the description, 
 touching again the interest of the subject, the point of 
 view, the central idea, and the important parts or charac- 
 teristics. It may express the purpose or significance of 
 the object, or the pleasure we have had in seeing it. 
 Always it should be concerned with large features and not 
 with insignificant details. For example, we might conclude 
 a description of the Tower of London as follows : 
 
 My place on the bridge gave me the whole picture at once : the 
 semicircle of buildings, the moat, the central building, the river in 
 the foreground, and the city beyond. It was an impressive and 
 satisfying picture, in spite of the horrible associations of the place. 
 I shall always be glad that I saw it. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Give the concluding sentence or sentences of descriptions 
 based upon three of the following topics. If necessary, find out 
 from friends or books what arc the disUnctive features or leading 
 impressions.
 
 98 DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 b. Prepare a complete talk of description on one of the subjects. 
 
 1. 
 
 A lighthpuse. 
 
 6. 
 
 A parade. 
 
 2. 
 
 The boulevards of Paris. 
 
 7. 
 
 An auction. 
 
 3. 
 
 A monument. 
 
 8. 
 
 A wireless station. 
 
 4. 
 
 A Dutch windmill. 
 
 9. 
 
 A telephone stadon 
 
 5. 
 
 Antwerp. 
 
 10. 
 
 London Bridge. 
 
 Helps in Description. Good description requires an appro- 
 priate use of words. 'Fine,' 'nice,' and 'pretty' will not 
 paint distinct pictures. (See Chapter IV, in which we have 
 discussed how to increase one's vocabulary.) Another im- 
 portant help in effective description is the use of draw- 
 ings and pictures. Books of description are usually well 
 supplied with these aids. Bring to class anything that will 
 make the description more vivid : maps, blue prints, plans, 
 charts, pictures, photographs, models, samples, or actual 
 objects. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study the following description in the light of what you 
 have learned. Be prepared to criticize it, pointing out its strong 
 points, and its defects if there are any. 
 
 On my way to the Colosseum I crossed the Capitoline Hill, and de- 
 scended into the Roman Forum by the broad staircase that leads to the 
 triumphal arch of Septimius Severus. Close upon my right hand stood 
 the three remaining columns of the Temple of the Thunderer, and the 
 beautiful Ionic portico of the Temple of Concord — their base in 
 shadow and the bright moonbeam striking aslant upon the broken 
 entablature above. Before me rose the Phocian Column, an isolated 
 shaft, like a thin vapor hanging in the air, scarce visible ; and far to 
 the left, the ruins of the Temple of Antonio and Faustina, and the 
 three colossal arches of the Temple of Peace — dim, shadowy, indis- 
 tinct — seemed to melt away and mingle with the sky. I crossed the 
 Forum at the foot of the Palatine, and ascending the Via Sacra, passed 
 beneath the Arch of Titus. From this point I saw below me the gigan- 
 tic outline of the Colosseum, like a cloud resting upon the earth. As I
 
 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS 99 
 
 descended the hillside, it grew more broad and high, — more definite 
 in its form, and yet more grand in its dimensions, — till, from the vale 
 in which it stands encompassed by three of the Seven Hills of Rome, 
 — the Palatine, the Caelian. and the Esquiline, — the majestic ruin in 
 all its solitar)^ grandeur " swelled vast to heaven." — Longfellow, 
 " Outre-Mer " 
 
 2. Prepare complete descriptions on one of the following sub- 
 jects, and use in the presentation some of the helps to efficient 
 description : 
 
 1. The Eiffel tower. 6. San Diego harbor. 
 
 2. Los Angeles harbor. -7. New York bridges. 
 
 t>^ 
 
 3. The Boston subway system. 8. A collie. 
 
 4. The Chicago elevated loop. 9. The Dipper. 
 
 5. A park. 10. Mahogany. 
 
 Technical Descriptions. Some oral descriptions may be 
 simplified and made more accurate by taking the technical 
 point of view. For instance, if an architect is describing a 
 schoolhouse to a contractor, he can use very different words 
 from those which would be suitable for a school principal 
 to employ in describing the same building. The differ- 
 ence between a technical and a general description is not 
 merely in the choice of terms ; it lies also in the purpose 
 of the description : the architect desires to be exact, while 
 the school principal aims to bring out general characteristics 
 and impressions. 
 
 Technical descriptions can often be effective only with 
 the help of written or printed records of some kind. The 
 " description of the property " in a deed to real estate 
 gives the lot, block, and tract number, and the name of 
 the city, county, and state. It may include dimensions 
 and references to bench marks and surveys. The specifica- 
 tions which accompany the plans for a building contain an
 
 lOO DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 interpretation of the plans, and show what is required in the 
 quality of lumber, glass, hardware, brick, cement, electric 
 and gas fixtures, plumbing, painting, finish, etc. The de- 
 scription of a man, as kept by the register of voters, includes 
 his age, color, dimensions, residence, occupation, and any 
 peculiar marks of identification. 
 
 In most cases, to be useful, the technical description 
 must be written, but the technical point of viezv is often 
 serviceable in oral descriptions. Two questions must be 
 considered in deciding whether or not to make the descrip- 
 tion technical : Is it the purpose of the talk to give an 
 exact description } Will the audience understand the terms 
 
 used } 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study the following technical description, and come to class 
 prepared to discuss its merits and defects. 
 
 A CALIFORNIA BUNGALOW 
 
 The location of the house under consideration is on Lot Four, 
 Block Three, 243 Grove St., City of Marvin, County of Los Angeles, 
 State of California. The lot is 50' by 160', sloping to the front. Street 
 work is completed and paid for. Connections are provided for water, 
 gas, electricity, and sewer. The soil is sandy loam. The place has ten 
 fruit trees of standard varieties, four years old and bearing. There are 
 also the usual vines and flowers. 
 
 The house is a California bungalow, cedar shingle roof. It is 24' 
 by 28' in size, and has four rooms, bath, front porch, and screened 
 sleeping porch. The living room is 14' by iS'. The dining room is 
 partially separated from the living room by a fireplace set diagonally 
 in the corner of the living room, and by a bookcase. The dining room 
 is 12' by 14'. Back of the living room is the bedroom, 10' by 12', with 
 a clothes closet 4' by 4'. The bathroom is 6' by &. Back of the dining 
 room is the kitchen, i o' by 1 2'. 
 
 The house has several built-in features : window seats, bookcase, 
 china closet, cooling shaft, folding bed, chiffonier, and cupboards.
 
 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS loi 
 
 The plumbing is first-class, with a 30-gallon tank and gas heater. 
 The house is well lighted with incandescent electric lights. 
 
 The interior finish is natural redwood, unpainted. The kitchen and 
 bath are finished in pine, varnished in natural color. 
 
 The house is one of the most convenient of its kind. 
 
 2. a. Discuss the circumstances under which a description of 
 each of the following subjects should be technical. 
 
 b. Prepare and give a general description. 
 
 c. Prepare and give a technical description. 
 
 1. An oak tree. 6. A dress. 
 
 2. A gas stove. 7. A rneal. 
 
 3. An automobile. 8. The interior finish of a house. 
 
 4. A watch. 9. A piece of furniture. 
 
 5. A trunk. 10. A street. 
 
 3 . Give a technical description of one of the f ollow^ing : 
 
 1. 
 
 An overcoat. 
 
 6. 
 
 A bellflower apple 
 
 2. 
 
 A typewriter. 
 
 7. 
 
 A camel. 
 
 3. 
 
 A garage. 
 
 8. 
 
 A cedar chest. 
 
 4. 
 
 A mountain range. 
 
 9. 
 
 A watch. 
 
 5. 
 
 A cornet. 
 
 10. 
 
 A book. 
 
 4. Prepare a talk — narration or description, or both — to give 
 in class, selecting the subject yourself. Try to find a topic that 
 will be interesting to your hearers. If you select a travelogue, 
 interesting combinations of narration and description may be 
 made. The following may be suggestive : 
 
 1. Buildings. 6. Picnics, parties, and social events. 
 
 2. Parks. 7. Celebrations. 
 
 3. Ocean scenes. 8. Personal experiences. 
 
 4. Towns and cities. 9. Excidng events. 
 
 5. Streets, squares, and 10. Historical events. 
 
 crossings.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 The Need for Business Talks. More and more in busi- 
 ness affairs a salesman or an agent or a manager has to 
 appear before several persons, often a committee, to present 
 a definite proposition. Thus an agent for books or maps 
 may address a committee of teachers ; the . bidders on a 
 fire engine may talk to the city council ; an automobile 
 salesman may have to speak before the directors of a 
 business corporation ; an architect may talk to the school 
 committee in favor of a certain type of schoolhouse. 
 
 No matter what our occupation is to be, we shall some- 
 times need to persuade others just as the business man 
 does, even though the conditions may be somewhat different. 
 Therefore in our school practice we should include the busi- 
 ness talk. In a later chapter we shall discuss ther interview, 
 but here we shall restrict our attention to well-arranged, 
 complete talks. Imagine yourselves, therefore, each a repre- 
 sentative of a certain business firm, or each an exponent 
 of a business idea, and let the Oral English class act as the 
 committee to which you are addressing your proposition. 
 
 The Appeal to Interest and Service. The speech pre- 
 senting a business proposition should begin with an intro- 
 duction which aims to interest the listener in what is to 
 follow. Although the element of interest is very necessary, 
 it should not be aroused by the cheap tricks of the street 
 
 I02
 
 THE OPENING WORDS 103 
 
 seller, nor by any kind of exaggerated statement. What 
 should we think of a man who began his talk, "' I come 
 before you to offer you the opportunity of your lives," or, 
 "This is the best piece of land on the face of the globe"? 
 Even if doubtful methods are sometimes used by successful 
 business men, the student must remember that he is build- 
 ing for the future, and that questionable methods of adver- 
 tising are rapidly passing. The man who uses such means 
 has to meet suspicion instead of open-minded attention. 
 There is left, then, only the same method for arousing 
 interest which we have discussed in a previous chapter : 
 connecting the proposition with thoughts already in the 
 minds of the hearers. This connection may be made by 
 showing the hearers that they have a need which you can 
 satisfy. For example, if you were giving a talk in favor of 
 a particular book on music, you might begin : " Almost all 
 of you would like to become better acquainted with good 
 music. Even if you are not interested in music, at least 
 you have friends who are, and you would be doing them 
 a kindness to call their attention to this book." 
 
 Good business is founded upon service rendered and 
 mutual benefits, and the introduction may well take that 
 idea as its basis. Thus the introduction to the business 
 talk should call attention to the need that exists, and 
 should then suggest that the proposition to be presented 
 will satisfy that need. 
 
 Any attempt to sell goods when they clearly are not 
 wanted should be avoided. People are less and less de- 
 ceived by such methods, and more and more the salesman's 
 aim must be to try to win a satisfied customer rather than 
 merely to make a sale.
 
 I04 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Criticize each of these opening sentences either favorably 
 or unfavorably : 
 
 1. We intend to show you something new under the sun. 
 
 2. In presenting this plan for your approval, we guarantee that all 
 who accept it will be satisfied. 
 
 3. Every person in this magnificent audience ought to interest 
 himself in this splendid opportunity. 
 
 4. No person can afford to be without a pistol in the house. 
 
 5. Everyone wants to know about aeroplanes, and we think we 
 have here the best book yet published on that subject. 
 
 6. Our stock of seeds and plants is so large and complete that we 
 can meet all requirements. 
 
 7. Probably all of you believe in the saying, " See America first." 
 I am here to tell you how you may accomplish this. 
 
 8. I am indeed pleased to have this opportunity to appear be- 
 fore you. 
 
 9. No one can afford to be indifferent to the great political prob- 
 lems confronting this nation to-day. This lecture has for its subject 
 what has been called the problem of the hour. 
 
 10. We are here this evening representing three thousand citizens 
 who are interested in having a high school built in our section of 
 the city. 
 
 2. Give opening sentences for three talks the object of each 
 of which is the selling of one of the following articles : 
 
 1. A map of the United States. 6. A book of puzzles. 
 
 2. Tickets to a football game. 7. An automobile. 
 
 3. An electric battery. 8. A bicycle. 
 
 4. An office desk. 9. A dictionary. 
 
 5. A dog or other pet. 10. Tickets for an entertainment. 
 
 The Description or Explanation. After the introductory 
 words comes the presentation of the details of the propo- 
 sition itself. These details will concern two main topics : 
 first, a description or explanation ; and second, the terms.
 
 THE DETAILS 105 
 
 Telling the Advantages. If a person is giving a talk 
 for the purpose of interesting someone in gas stoves, he 
 must, as soon as his introduction is finished, give a careful 
 description of the particular stove for which he is agent. 
 If he is selling a new kind of cement, he must tell how 
 it is used. Thus, in presenting a business proposition, he 
 must both describe and explain. To do this well the stu- 
 dent should study the principles of good description and 
 explanation. 
 
 Showing the Goods. Above all, for a business talk, he 
 should make use of the aids to presentation already dis- 
 cussed (Chapters I and VI) : diagrams, models, etc. No 
 business man would think of tr)ung to sell books, rings, 
 horses, or automobiles without showing the goods. The 
 architect in selling plans for a house has something tan- 
 gible to aid him. The seed merchant shows pictures of the 
 grown plants ; the inventor, diagrams and printed circulars ; 
 and the manufacturer, tables of figures. So the student 
 should, when possible, show the actual article, pointing out 
 its characteristics and demonstrating its operation, even 
 offering it to the audience for their personal inspection. 
 
 Emphasizing Special Details. Attractive details should 
 receive special attention. Many an automobile purchaser 
 has selected his car largely because of some detail of con- 
 struction which caught his attention and held it. Such 
 details often seem insignificant to one familiar with the 
 subject, yet companies learn to make them special features 
 of their advertisements because they attract attention, and 
 because they offer a means of contrast with a Competing 
 proposition. Business talks constantly use the idea of con- 
 trast. An agent can be more than fair to opponents, and
 
 Io6 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 yet show how his plan avoids the disadvantages of other 
 plans, and how it is better than any other. Thus a speaker 
 who advocates a special kind of roofing paper may point 
 out the defects of roofing papers in the past, and the efforts 
 made by his company to obviate these difficulties. 
 
 References. Actual instances of success should be enu- 
 merated. The speaker may tell about the tests the article 
 has already had, and the results. Testimonials, names, 
 and addresses may be offered, so that anybody may obtain 
 disinterested information. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give a business talk on one of the topics below. Make use 
 of concrete helps in your presentation. 
 
 1. A clothes tree. 6. A painting. 
 
 2. A particular kind of gloves. 7. An encyclopedia. 
 
 3. Tickets for an excursion. 8. Accommodations at a hotel. 
 
 4. Subscription to a magazine. 9. A special kind of paper, 
 
 5. A house and lot. 10. Seed for hay or grain. 
 
 2. Demonstrate one of the following as a business proposition, 
 making your talk as convincing as possible : 
 
 1. A camera. 6. A hinge. 
 
 2. A cultivator. 7. A cornet or other instrument. 
 
 3. A letter file. 8. An electric alarm. 
 
 4. A glove cleaner. 9. An egg beater. 
 
 5. A music stand. 10. A printing frame. 
 
 3. Make inquiry among the stores of your town about articles 
 which you might describe and demonstrate. Ask permission to 
 borrow samples to use in class. Find out all you can about char- 
 acteristics, processes, distinctive qualities, successes, etc. Select 
 one article and prepare yourself to describe and explain it. The 
 following are suggested :
 
 THE TERMS OR AGREEMENT 107 
 
 1. 
 
 A typewriter. 
 
 11. 
 
 An ice-cream freezer, 
 
 2. 
 
 A typewriter desk. 
 
 12. 
 
 An electric iron. 
 
 3. 
 
 Furniture polish. 
 
 13. 
 
 An alarm clock. 
 
 4. 
 
 A window fastener. 
 
 14. 
 
 Shoes. 
 
 5. 
 
 A motor cycle. 
 
 15. 
 
 A folding umbrella. 
 
 6. 
 
 A baseball (show the inside). 
 
 16. 
 
 A raincoat. 
 
 7. 
 
 A washing machine. 
 
 17. 
 
 A lock. 
 
 8. 
 
 An ice chest. 
 
 18. 
 
 A sewing machine. 
 
 9. 
 
 A phonograph. 
 
 19. 
 
 A trunk or valise. 
 
 .0. 
 
 A gas range. 
 
 20. 
 
 A rug. 
 
 The Terms of the Proposition. -After the listeners thor- 
 oughly understand what the article is and how it works, 
 they must be told the terms of sale. Often, however, there 
 are times when it might be an advantage to give some 
 hint as to the price at the beginning of the talk. Suppose, 
 for example, that a speaker is advertising a set of thirty 
 books of the world's best literature for ten dollars. He 
 should hint in his introduction, as an added reason for 
 interest, that the books are offered at a greatly reduced 
 price. On the other hand, there is justification for exactly 
 the opposite procedure. The low price of the books may 
 be kept as a pleasant surprise for the end of the talk ; or 
 in the case of some expensive article, the price, which 
 might seem a disadvantage, may be held in reserve until 
 the description and explanation have shown that it is not 
 excessive. Tact and judgment must therefore be used. 
 The speaker must present the conditions and terms at the 
 moment that they will be most favorably received by the 
 hearers. He must especially avoid giving the impression 
 that the terms are purposely withheld until the last possi- 
 ble moment; this would be fatal to the confidence upon 
 which good business is built.
 
 I08 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 Being Definite. The terms of agreement are always to 
 be made definite, so that the prospective buyer will know 
 exactly what he may expect, and what is expected of him. 
 In the case of machinery, real estate, and, indeed, of many 
 things purchased, exact descriptions are furnished by the 
 salesman. These descriptions are called specifications, and 
 cover every detail of construction and appearance. The 
 statement of the terms may include the price, the time 
 of payment or payments, the time and manner of delivery, 
 and the rate of interest. In the case of real estate, the 
 speaker should follow the example of the best dealers by 
 telling what assessments will fall due for improvements 
 made or planned. In the case of a piano or other large 
 article, the time of delivery should be specified, and by 
 whom the freight is to be paid. In the case of a piece 
 of work, the time for beginning and for completing it must 
 be included. Sometimes it may be stated that an article 
 can be returned if it proves unsatisfactory. When the offer 
 to sell holds good for only a limited time, this should be 
 definitely understood. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that a man has been demonstrating 
 a vacuum cleaner. He may state the terms as follows : 
 
 We agree to lend this machine and all these parts for a week's 
 trial, with no expense to you. If you decide to keep them, you 
 are to pay us one dollar a week, without interest, for thirty-five 
 weeks. If for any reason you wish to return the machine within 
 one year from the time you make your first payment, we will 
 allow you seventy-five per cent of the total payments you have 
 made on it. We agree to keep it in working order for two years.
 
 THE TERMS OR AGREEMENT 109 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Frame sentences for use in the early part of talks on 
 three of the following propositions, and hint that the price 
 charged is not a low one. 
 
 6. Give one of the talks, complete. 
 
 1. A bookcase. 6. Orange trees. 
 
 2. A Bible. 7. A fountain pen. 
 
 3. A piano. 8. An automobile tire. 
 
 4. A piece of velvet. 9. Gasoline. 
 
 5. Butter. 10. A trip to South America. 
 
 2. a. A contractor nearly lost a street contract because his bid 
 was so much lower than the others that the city council thought 
 he could not be a " responsible bidder." He explained that his 
 company was in the habit of rushing work and could therefore 
 save time and money. He got the contract and made good 
 his word. In a similar way be prepared to state before the class 
 good reasons for low prices in three of the following cases. 
 
 b. Give one of the talks, complete. 
 
 1. A secondhand violin. 6. Furs. 
 
 2. A diamond ring. 7. Breakfast food. 
 
 3. Point lace. 8. Tickets to a concert. 
 
 4. A cow. 9. Eggs. 
 
 5. Paint. 10. A baseball glove. 
 
 3. a. Decide, in three of the following cases, whether or not 
 any hint about the price should be given at first ; be prepared to 
 give your reasons. 
 
 b. (Vive the complete business proposition for one topic. 
 
 1. A low-priced suit. 6. A high-priced building site. 
 
 2. A low-priced set of carpenter's 7. A high-priced blanket. 
 
 tools. 8. A high-priced ostrich feather. 
 
 3. -V low-priced table. 9. A high-priced chair. 
 
 4. Low-priced pencils. 10. High-priced music lessons. 
 
 5. Low-priced tea.
 
 no SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 4. a. Prepare and state before the class the terms of some 
 proposition suggested by one of the following. 
 b. Give one complete talk. 
 
 1. 
 
 A dozen photographs. 
 
 11. 
 
 Wall paper. 
 
 2. 
 
 A fruit orchard. 
 
 12. 
 
 A turning lathe, 
 
 3. 
 
 Shares in a mine. 
 
 13. 
 
 Digging a well. 
 
 4. 
 
 A ship. 
 
 14. 
 
 A windmill. 
 
 5. 
 
 A correspondence course. 
 
 15. 
 
 Making a dress. 
 
 6. 
 
 Renting a house. 
 
 16. 
 
 An excursion. 
 
 7. Painting a house. 17. Life insurance. 
 
 8. A set of literature. 18. A motor boat. 
 
 9. A motor cultivator. 19. Floor space in an exposition. 
 10. Subscription to a telephone. 20. Service as a chauffeur. 
 
 Concluding the Talk. We have so far considered three 
 parts of the business proposition : the introduction, the 
 description or explanation, and the terms. The talk may 
 now be ended with a sentence summarizing the attractions 
 of the proposition, followed perhaps by directions for ob- 
 taining further information. The summary should be clear 
 and crisp like the following : 
 
 These trees are evergreen ; they have a rapid growth ; they 
 require little attention ; they withstand the wind and weather ; 
 and, on account of fortunate circumstances, we are able to offer 
 five hundred of them for immediate delivery at twenty-five per 
 cent below the usual price. 
 
 The directions for obtaining further information must 
 depend on circumstances. The speaker may arrange for 
 a trip to see the property, or he may obtain the names and 
 addresses of those who wish literature on the subject, or 
 he may announce opportunity for immediate personal inter- 
 view. Telephone numbers, addresses, hours, etc, must be 
 given with great distinctness. To the sentence of summary
 
 ANSWERING QUESTIONS III 
 
 given above, something like the following may therefore 
 
 be added : 
 
 We should be glad to have any or all of you call at our nursery, 
 3327 Broadway. Or if you will let us know in advance, we shall 
 be glad to call for you. We can also show you some of the streets 
 which were planted with these trees two years ago. Our telephone 
 number is North 229. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Give conclusions for two of the following propositions : 
 
 1. Selling a pair of skates. 6. Renting tents for a camp. 
 
 2. Installing gymnasium apparatus. 7." Installing speaking tubes. 
 
 3. Furnishing a hotel with ice. 8. Selling a motor truck. 
 
 4. Wiring a house for lights. 9. Selling a set of Shakespeare. 
 
 5. Selling a gas heater. 10. Selling a set of knives and 
 
 forks. 
 
 Answering Questions. Always before the speaker with- 
 draws, he should say that he would be glad to answer any 
 questions about the proposition. The talk should be so well 
 planned, of course, that most questions will have been 
 anticipated. If a great many questions about the proposi- 
 tion itself are asked, it shows that the speaker has failed 
 in his presentation. For example, a fire-hose contractor 
 should have anticipated the question : " How soon can your 
 company deliver the hose ? " 
 
 But there are other questions which indicate a great 
 interest aroused, an interest which demands wider infor- 
 mation. A tree expert, who was once presenting a park 
 proposition to a city council, was asked to explain why it 
 is that tree trunks sometimes grow out in knotty bunches 
 ju.st where they meet the ground. Such questions show 
 a speaker's success, because they prove that real interest 
 has been awakened.
 
 112 SIMPLE BUSINESS TALKS 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 In each of the following propositions should the speaker have 
 anticipated the question ? Talk them over with older people, if 
 you wish. Give reasons for your opinion. 
 
 1. (Building a boat) " What metal do you intend to use for the 
 fittings?" 
 
 2. (Repairing an automobile engine) " What kind of lubricating oil 
 do you use ? " 
 
 3. (Building a barn) " What color shall you use for the priming 
 coat?" 
 
 4. (Furnishing transportation for a picnic) " Will the car be kept at 
 the picnic grounds all day ? " 
 
 5. (Putting a handle in a shovel blade) "What kind of wood is most 
 often used for shovel handles?" 
 
 Choosing Subjects. Business propositions vary in com- 
 plexity from the oral advertisement of the newsboy shouting, 
 " Papers, one cent ! Full account of the election ! " to the 
 speech and demonstration made by an agent selling a fire 
 engine to a city board of trustees. In the school work 
 begin with something simple, such, for instance, as an offer 
 to sell a secondhand book. Later, try a more ambitious 
 proposition. Select the subject carefully ; study the article 
 or process ; practice the parts of the speech — introduction, 
 description and explanation, terms, and conclusion — and 
 theri be prepared to give the complete proposition. Refuse 
 to present a proposition which you cannot wholly indorse. 
 
 Many subjects will suggest themselves to you in your 
 daily observation. You should also try others entirely out- 
 side your experience for the purpose of widening your 
 vision. If you are studying the various occupations so as to 
 decide which you shall take up, you will find it helpful to 
 select for a talk some proposition suggested by this study.
 
 CHOOSING SUBJECTS 
 
 113 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Prepare and deliver a business talk on one of these subjects, 
 or on another of your own choice. 
 
 1. 
 
 An emblem watch fob. 
 
 21. 
 
 A jewelry business. 
 
 2. 
 
 A wireless receiver. 
 
 22. 
 
 A furniture store. 
 
 3. 
 
 A chest of drawers. 
 
 23. 
 
 A hardware business. 
 
 4. 
 
 Poultr>\ 
 
 24. 
 
 A restaurant business. 
 
 5. 
 
 A baking pan. 
 
 25. 
 
 A barber shop. 
 
 6. 
 
 A gas engine. 
 
 26. 
 
 A candy store. 
 
 7. 
 
 A bell. 
 
 27. 
 
 An option on a lot. 
 
 8. 
 
 Wire fencing. 
 
 28. 
 
 A bathhouse business. 
 
 9. 
 
 A potted plant. 
 
 29. 
 
 A business building. 
 
 10. 
 
 An oven. 
 
 30. 
 
 A lease 'for an apartment house. 
 
 11. 
 
 An aquarium. 
 
 31. 
 
 A truck garden. 
 
 12. 
 
 Hoisdng apparatus. 
 
 32. 
 
 A wheat crop. 
 
 13. 
 
 Weighing scales. 
 
 33. 
 
 Plowing a field. 
 
 14. 
 
 Field glasses. 
 
 34. 
 
 Cutting hay. 
 
 15. 
 
 An induction coil. 
 
 35. 
 
 Installing an elevator. 
 
 16. 
 
 A load of firewood. 
 
 36. 
 
 Building a garage. 
 
 17. 
 
 Subscription to a magazine. 
 
 37. 
 
 Stock in a shoe factory. 
 
 18. 
 
 An adas. 
 
 38. 
 
 Stock in a real-estate company. 
 
 19. 
 
 An advertisement in the 
 
 39. 
 
 Stock in a bank. 
 
 
 school paper. 
 
 40. 
 
 Municipal bonds. 
 
 20. 
 
 Planting a lawn. 
 

 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 Style is as important a consideration in oral as in written 
 composition. Many of the principles of good expression are 
 common to both spoken and written English, Only the 
 mechanics differ, and even these, as we shall see, are closely 
 related. The treatment in this chapter will emphasize some 
 of the principles which are of special significance in making 
 the style of a speech attractive, forceful, and clear. How 
 the voice can help will be reserved for Chapter X. 
 
 How to avoid Awkwardness. The speaker must think 
 ahead as he talks even more carefully than does the writer 
 as he writes. If an error is made on paper, it is possible 
 to correct it easily. But an oral error, even if it is at 
 once corrected, is noticed by the hearers. An earnest effort 
 must therefore be made to avoid errors of speech, and to 
 this end the student must cultivate a ready mind which 
 will grasp the whole sentence before the opening words are 
 spoken. The speaker who stumbles through his sentences, 
 making his way only by means of awkward expressions and 
 errors of construction, is often one who starts his sentences 
 without thinking how he will finish them. 
 
 The student must develop this power to think ahead. 
 He may begin on short sentences. He may think that he 
 can easily hold in mind the thought expressed by six or 
 
 114
 
 CLEARNESS 1 1 5 
 
 eight words, but language plays queer tricks even in short 
 sentences. For instance, consider the following sentences : 
 
 1. Only Jane fried eggs to-day. 
 
 2. Jane only fried eggs to-day. 
 
 3. Jane fried only eggs to-day. 
 
 4. Jane fried eggs only to-day. 
 
 5. Jane fried eggs to-day only. 
 
 6. Jane fried eggs to-day. 
 
 It is obvious that although stress, pitch, and pause may help 
 to determine the meaning, the speaker must also arrange 
 the order of his words beforehand if he is to avoid being 
 misunderstood. Into the sentence which has not been 
 planned ambiguities slip. ' Send us both books ' may seem 
 clear to the speaker, but his hearers may interpret it in 
 two ways : ' Send both of us books, ' or ' Send us both of 
 the books.' Each of the following sentences is somewhat 
 awkward because the speaker has not thought out the 
 best order of words : 
 
 1. He, followed by his dog, climbed the hill. 
 
 2. He is one of the men we may well always be proud of. 
 
 3. The only way is to everlastingly keep at it. 
 
 4. It is, barring accidents, certain that we shall be done in 
 a month. 
 
 5. We probably shall in a few days plant a hundred acres. 
 
 6. In order to cook dried peaches, they should be soaked 
 beforehand overnight. 
 
 7. When he once decides to do the work, he can be depended 
 upon after he begins. 
 
 In each of these cases the speaker probably had a clear 
 idea in mind, but he failed to plan the best way to express 
 that idea.
 
 Ii6 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Decide what meaning was intended to be expressed in the 
 sentences quoted above and in those given below, and revise them 
 so that there can be no misunderstanding. Give them in class. 
 
 1. I have written neither to mother nor father. 
 
 2. We are going to hardly be able to get there on time. 
 
 3. The umpire threw Will and Fred both baseballs. 
 
 4. We will only come once more. 
 
 5. He is a man who, whenever he had a chance, has, so far as 
 possible, helped the poor always. 
 
 6. I like to swim very much. 
 
 7. This is a bad law ; we have too many of them already. 
 
 8. Our subscription list contains more than any paper. 
 
 9. I wish to talk to you about the football situation in my room. 
 10. We not only saw London, but Paris also. 
 
 Variety in the Sentence Structure. Variety in length and 
 form of sentences must be the aim of the student speaker 
 in his practice. If he will experiment along this line in his 
 schoolroom talks, he will find that his speaking becomes 
 more pleasing. 
 
 Varying the Length of the Sentences. Short sentences 
 are suited to the expression of vivid ideas. Excited con- 
 versation and rapid narration will illustrate : 
 
 " Now is our chance," I shouted. " They can't make it," said 
 a boy at my elbow. " Can't they ? " said I. " Watch them do it." 
 Then we began. First Jack stole second. Then Ed bunted. The 
 ball rolled toward third. The pitcher got it. He glanced at Jack 
 on third. He threw to first, and Ed was out. Then the catcher 
 made a wild jump for a high throw and landed in a cloud of dust. 
 Jack had scored ! 
 
 Long sentences are suited to more involved thoughts ; 
 they are necessary for the explanation of complex matters.
 
 EFFECTIVE SENTENCES 117 
 
 Simple facts may be expressed in short sentences ; the 
 explanation of these facts may require longer ones. Too 
 many short sentences give the impression of abruptness of 
 speech ; too many long ones strain the attention and easily 
 make a talk tiresome. Variety is the spice of composition. 
 
 For the person who, child fashion, strings his statements 
 into long sentences by the use of 'and,' there is no surer 
 cure than to give talks in which he forces himself to use 
 short sentences, emphasizing the sentence endings with the 
 decisive down stroke of the voice. • 
 
 Varying the Form of the Sentence. Consideration must 
 be given also to the form of the sentence. Let us illustrate 
 the emphasis given to the various ideas by the use of the 
 periodic, the loose, and the balanced sentence, and by 
 parallel structure. Sometimes a speaker wishes to hold 
 the attention of his hearers in suspense — to emphasize the 
 thought by holding it until the completion of the sentence : 
 
 For wear, for looks, for price, for cheapness of operation, for 
 general road work, in fact for all the desirable qualities which any 
 man may ask, this car is the best. 
 
 This is the so-called periodic sentence. 
 At other times the loose construction is better. It often 
 gives the effect of piling up and strengthening the evidence : 
 
 This car is easily the best for the money, because it is strongly 
 built, it has a good appearance, its price is reasonable, and its cost 
 of operation is small. 
 
 In some cases the balanced sentence is more effective 
 than any other : 
 
 The proposal of the Liberal Party involves a new expense ; the 
 proposal of the Conservative Party guarantees an added income.
 
 Ii8 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 In other cases, merely to give parallel structure to similar 
 parts of a sentence is effective. Note that this sentence is 
 also an example of climax : 
 
 This man has been industrious in his business ; he has been 
 faithful to his family ; he has been loyal to his country ; he has 
 . been true to his God. 
 
 It will be helpful to use all these forms in practice work. 
 But do not try them in public until they become your own. In 
 your listening and reading notice the variations in structure, 
 and study to see in what ways they make the style attractive. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Prepare yourself to give two short talks, one made up chiefly 
 of short sentences, and the other of long ones. Select your subjects 
 carefully, and practice faithfully. Do not strain after effect, but let 
 the style be decided by the necessities of the subject. Give the 
 talks in class. 
 
 2. Practice composing periodic sentences, but do not write them 
 out ; give them orally without notes. Try to get in mind the peri- 
 odic idea, which is to hold the thought uncompleted till the end of 
 the sentence. Then prepare a short talk which consists of several 
 periodic sentences. The preparation should be made by going over 
 the talk orally, using only an outline. Practice until the talk goes 
 smoothly. Give it in class. 
 
 3. Select a subject which deals with contrast, such, for example, 
 as the difference between two schools, colleges, persons, cities, 
 parks, or countries. Make an outline of topics, and practice with 
 it. Then give the speech in class, using some balanced sentences, 
 but avoiding the monotony of a long series of such sentences. 
 
 Concrete Examples and Illustrations. Examples and illus- 
 trations serve to connect abstract or theoretical ideas with 
 matters of common experience. Suppose we are trying
 
 EXAMPLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 1 19 
 
 to convince a baseball captain that his team needs more 
 practice. We point out case after case of fumbles, wild 
 pitches, awkwardness, slowness, and errors of judgment. 
 Or again, suppose a statesman is explaining the direct 
 primary law. Somewhere in his address he will take 
 an actual case ; he will show in detail just what a certain 
 man would have to do in order to become a candidate 
 for governor. 
 
 Both explanation and argument are chiefly concerned 
 with ideas, whereas narration and description deal largely 
 with actual evejits, objects, and facts. And when explana- 
 tion and argument have to do with abstractions, there is 
 special need of examples. The mind grasps concrete 
 thoughts about places, persons, sizes, numbers, times, move- 
 ments, and happenings much more easily than it does 
 abstractions. 
 
 To establish the fact that it pays to buy good material, 
 we argue not only from a theoretical standpoint but from 
 a practical one as well. We tell what would happen to a 
 dress put together with cheap thread ; or we cite an actual 
 case, such as one man's experiment with lumber of poor 
 grade and another man's success with a better grade. 
 
 Sometimes the example is so well chosen and clearly 
 put that the abstract truth does not need to be formulated 
 in words : the idea intended to be conveyed is at once 
 apparent. For example, suppose the speaker is relating 
 some of the problems of a housewife. If he says, " Even 
 when a person must pay sixty cents a dozen for eggs, 
 almost all those on sale arc more than three months old," 
 he will not need to state the more general truth that the 
 reason eggs are high is that fresh ones are scarce. Similarly,
 
 120 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 if a person is giving a talk on tliouglitfulness and considera- 
 tion for others, and wislies to bring out the idea that most 
 boys are apt to be kind when they think about it, he need 
 only say, " When John is not absorbed in his paper or 
 book he can be depended on to give his seat in the car 
 to a woman." 
 
 Figures of Speech. We use figures of speech when we 
 employ striking or imaginative comparisons, or unusual 
 constructions, or, in general, whenever we depart in a radi- 
 cal manner from ordinary matter-of-fact methods of talking. 
 Thus we use figurative language in such sentences as the 
 following : 
 
 This ship is plowing across the ocean. 
 That clock is a faithful friend. 
 His face was a puzzle. 
 
 The room was so full of old paper that it looked like a huge 
 wastebasket. 
 
 The shot fired at Sarajevo was heard throughout the world. 
 
 If we are explaining that the man who starts an orange 
 grove must have money enough to keep up the place until 
 the trees begin to bear, we may illustrate this by means of 
 some such comparison as, '" The person who crosses the 
 desert must take plenty of water," Or again, we may show 
 the need for keeping the mind alert, fresh, and clear by 
 instancing the value of proper adjustment, lubrication, and 
 cleanliness in the case of a delicate piece of machinery. 
 
 Many of our proverbs are concrete statements of abstract 
 truths, and most of them are used as striking comparisons 
 to explain or prove a general proposition. We have grown 
 so accustomed to these common figures of speech, however, 
 that they have lost most of their original vividness. When
 
 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 121 
 
 the proverb, " A rolling stone gathers no moss," was first 
 formulated to illustrate the truth that a roving, aimless man 
 cannot acquire friends or worldly goods, it was undoubtedly 
 very effective ; but it has now become so trite that we never 
 think of the actual stone, any more than we think of hay 
 when " Make hay while the sun shines " is spoken. So if 
 we wish to make effective the rolling-stone thought we may 
 perhaps succeed better by the use of a concrete instance : 
 " The salesman who changes his position every month can 
 hardly acquire the good will of any of his employers." Or 
 we may use an analogy : " The ship which merely drifts 
 •with the tide and wind will never reach any port." 
 
 Other proverbs furnish good examples of the contrast 
 between the abstract and the concrete. " The unexpected 
 always happens " is so broad a statement of the abstract 
 thought that it covers hundreds of instances. The effective- 
 ness of the larger truth involved might be made more appar- 
 ent by selecting one of the concrete instances for statement ; 
 for example, " When you expect a laugh you may meet 
 with a frown." 
 
 On the other hand, the proverb, '" One swallow does not 
 make a summer," is a concrete instance of a general truth. 
 If we seek for the abstract statement which includes this 
 instance, we might find it in the following expression : 
 "A sweeping conclusion should not be drawn from but 
 one fact." 
 
 The best public speakers make liberal use of figures of 
 speech, tor they know that these add vividness and strength 
 to their thoughts. They try to develop a keen imagination, 
 so that pictures, comparisons, and analogies will occur to 
 them at the right moments. The ability to dream dreams
 
 122 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 is a prime necessity to one who would make bright, inter- 
 esting speeches. And the dreams must be more than ordi- 
 nary day dreams. Can you imagine yourself walking down 
 a street of Petrograd ? Can you experience the sensations 
 of riding across the Atlantic in an airship ? Can you put 
 yourself at Gettysburg and hear President Lincoln deliver 
 his address ? Can you think out how you will look and 
 what you will be doing when you are sixty years old ? Can 
 you find yourself in the future when the trusts may be 
 owned by the government, and think what the conditions 
 will be ? Can you imagine yourself speaking in Congress ? 
 We Americans would become not only better speakers, but 
 better citizens, if we should occasionally become as little 
 children in the matter of the imagination, dreaming some- 
 times of flying with the birds, of living in the clouds, of 
 talking with the animals, and of doing the deeds of heroes. 
 
 The student will profit by referring to books on written 
 composition for examples of the uses of figures of speech, 
 particularly of similes and metaphors in description. 
 
 Finally, a person who wishes to improve his style of 
 speaking by the use of imagery must delve into literature. 
 A page of Dickens or Scott will show how common in fic- 
 tion is the use of figures of speech. Poetry is packed with 
 comparisons, witness "" Snowbound " or " Hiawatha." The 
 Bible is rich in proverbs, parables, metaphors, and other 
 figures of speech. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1 . Bring to class at least five examples of each of these genera} 
 statements : 
 
 1. This school has good school spirit. 
 
 2. The athletic activities of the school might be improved.
 
 USING EXAMPLES AND FIGURES 123 
 
 3. The school building is in need of repairs. 
 
 4. There will be many things for future citizens of this city to attend 
 to before it will be an ideal place in which to live. 
 
 6. We can learn several things from foreign countries. 
 
 2. Tell an incident (either an actual event or a story of your 
 own construction) to illustrate the satisfaction which comes from 
 the possession or exercise of one of the following good qualities. 
 Do not have the story concerned with mere material rewards. 
 
 1. Education. 6. Tact. 
 
 2. Quickness. 7. Honesty. 
 
 3. Persistence. -8. Loyalty. 
 
 4. Ability to debate. 9. Endurance. 
 
 5. Kindness. 10. Good reputation. 
 
 3. Bring to class instances of five of the general statements 
 below-. Let the example in each case be of such a nature that the 
 general statement need not be given. Let the class decide which 
 concrete instance best brings out the meaning. 
 
 1. When the agricultural interests prosper everyone is benefited. 
 
 2. When the times are hard, crime increases. 
 
 3. If the nations would only put more friendliness into their rela- 
 
 tions, the cause of universal peace would be aided. 
 
 4. Liars use figures (statistics). 
 
 5. One needs to be ready when opportunity knocks. 
 
 6. There is a world of wealth in unexpected places. 
 
 7. Small things decide great issues. 
 
 8. There are times when a person must use his authority. 
 
 9. If everybody should do as he pleases anarchy would result. 
 10. " Early to bed, and early to rise, 
 
 Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." 
 
 4. Frame analogies to illustrate the truth of five of these 
 statements : 
 
 1. Every school needs a head. 
 
 2. Horses should be treated kindly. 
 
 3. Boys will be boys.
 
 124 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSmON 
 
 4. A person should not have to work so hard or so long that he 
 
 loses his efficiency. 
 
 5. No one can enjoy a home that is not kept clean. 
 
 6. Manufacturing concerns cannot expect to succeed with out-of 
 
 date machinery. 
 
 7. Women should not be made slaves to the welfare of their chil- 
 
 dren ; they should have their share in life's activities. 
 
 8. Those who use the roads should pay for them. 
 
 9. Young people need frequent advice and admonition. 
 10. Voters should find out more about their candidates. 
 
 5. Below is a list of proverbs and familiar expressions, which 
 have been used so frequently that much of their original vividness 
 is gone. Select ten of them for special study. Decide what is the 
 abstract truth which each is supposed to illustrate, and think out 
 other instances of this general truth. Then select for each of the 
 ten statements a concrete instance so typical that it suggests the 
 general truth, and so vivid that it is more effective, if possible, 
 than the original proverb itself. 
 
 This exercise may be turned into a competition to find the 
 best statements. 
 
 1. Make hay while the sun shines. 
 
 2. A stitch in time saves nine. 
 
 3. Spare the rod and spoil the child. 
 
 4. Horse sense. 
 
 5. Letting the cat out of the bag. 
 
 6. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 
 
 7. Killing two birds with one stone. 
 
 8. The early bird catches the worm. 
 
 9. A penny saved is a penny earned. 
 
 10. Feathering one's nest. 
 
 11. Sour grapes. 
 
 12. In a nutshell. 
 
 13. Look before you leap. 
 
 14. An ax to grind. 
 
 15. Burning his bridges behind him. 
 
 16. Every cloud has a silver lining.
 
 USING EXAMPLES AND FIGURES 125 
 
 17. The worm will turn. 
 
 18. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. 
 
 19. Covering one's tracks. 
 
 20. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. 
 
 6. The following proverbs are abstract in greater or less degree. 
 Each of them is a broad statement which includes many instances. 
 Select ten of these for study, and consider carefully several of the 
 instances of the truth of each. Then find for each the best pos- 
 sible illustration. Try to find examples so good, and to make the 
 statements so vivid, that your expressions are as effective as the 
 original proverbs. 
 
 1. Seeing is believing. 
 
 2. Circumstances alter cases. 
 
 3. Discretion is the better part of valor. 
 
 4. Easy come, easy go. 
 
 5. All things come to him who waits. 
 
 6. A place for everything, and everything in its place. 
 
 7. Coming events cast their shadows before. 
 
 8. A word to the wise is sufficient. 
 
 9. Make haste slowly. 
 
 10. \'ariety is the spice of life. 
 
 11. There is nothing new under the sun. 
 
 12. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 
 
 13. Least said, soonest mended. 
 
 14. All is fair in love and war. 
 
 15. Figures never lie. 
 
 16. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 
 
 17. One thing at a time. 
 
 18. What is worth doing is worth doing well. 
 
 19. Opportunity knocks but once. 
 
 20. Honesty is the best policy. 
 
 7. The following proverbs are concrete in greater or less de- 
 gree. Select ten of them for study. Decide for each what general 
 statement will best express the abstract thought involved. Make 
 the statements as broad as possible.
 
 126 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 1. Birds of a feather flock together. 
 
 2. What is fun for the boys is death for the frogs. 
 
 3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise, 
 
 4. As the twig is bent the tree is inclined. 
 
 5. The longest way 'round is the shortest way home. 
 
 6. A chain is no stronger than its weakest link. 
 
 7. The mill will never grind with the water that has passed. 
 
 8. All is not gold that glitters. 
 
 9. Penny wise and pound foolish. 
 
 10. Time and tide wait for no man. 
 
 11. You cannot get blood out of a turnip. 
 
 12. Showing the white feather. 
 
 13. Locking the stable door after the horse is stolen. 
 
 14. Never cross a bridge before you reach it. 
 
 15. Lightning never strikes twice in the same place. 
 
 16. It is a long lane that has no turning. 
 
 17. It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good. 
 
 18. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 
 
 19. He reckoned without his host. 
 
 20. Barking dogs do not always bite. 
 
 Arrangement of Parts — Outlines. Many directions for 
 the preparation of an outline have already been given, so 
 that we shall here consider the further matters which apply 
 to all outlines, especially the need of unity and coherence. 
 As the student studies his subject in preparation for a talk 
 he may write out every topic on which he intends to touch, 
 and perhaps the best plan will be to use a separate card or 
 slip of paper for each topic. This method is useful in the 
 case of all speeches, long or short ; it may be used when 
 one is familiar with the subject and needs only main topics, 
 or when one must use full and extensive notes, or even 
 when the whole material of the speech is on slips or cards. 
 
 Classifying the Topics. With all the topics recorded, the 
 student is ready to classify them. It will at once be noticed
 
 MAKING OUTLINES 127 
 
 that some of the topics belong with certain others, and that 
 the speech has several main divisions. Further inspection 
 will make these groupings stand out more clearly. If the 
 speech is to be the story of a vacation experience, some 
 slips will be concerned with the preparatory plans for the 
 vacation, others with the return home, etc. If a city is to 
 be described, some topics will be concerned with the busi- 
 ness streets, others with the recreation centers. If a law 
 raising the maximum height for buildings is to be advo- 
 cated, some slips may bear topics dealing with the evils 
 of the present restrictions, some may quote laws of other 
 cities, and others may note the benefits to come from the 
 change proposed. In most speeches there will be from 
 three to six of these groups, corresponding to the different 
 parts of the talk. 
 
 Stating the Main Points. Each of the main points may 
 be expressed in brief statements. A word or two will be 
 satisfactory for labeling the main divisions of most kinds of 
 talks, but there is distinct gain in definiteness and clearness 
 of thought if each main point is expressed in a complete 
 sentence. Note the difference between topic and sentence 
 in the following : 
 
 1. The party. Our party consisted of twenty-five members of 
 the senior class. 
 
 2. The view. We were able to see the lights of twenty cities. 
 
 3. The terms. The terms are very reasonable and liberal. 
 
 4. The benefits. This law will make possible several improve- 
 ments. 
 
 Arranging the Order of Points. Having formulated the 
 three main topics, the next task is to arrange these in the 
 order in which they are to be delivered. In most cases this
 
 128 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 order is determined by the nature of the subject, and the 
 topics will fall into their proper order as the study proceeds. 
 Thus in narration the time sequence of events is usually 
 followed. In description the guide to follow is the relative 
 position in space of the various parts of the object being 
 described. In explanation the topics may follow the time 
 order of the process, or the order of the operation of cause 
 and effect, or that of the appearance of various problems 
 and their solutions. In argument the way must sometimes 
 be prepared for new proposals, and sometimes the order of 
 parts depends upon the occasion and the audience. This 
 we shall discuss in Chapter XIII. 
 
 Coherence in the Outline. The best way of determining 
 whether topics are arranged in a proper order is to look 
 through the points to see if they can be easily developed, 
 as they stand, into a connected speech. This connection 
 between topics we call coherence, or transition from one 
 topic to the next. If each thought prepares the way for 
 the succeeding one, then the outline is well arranged. Thus 
 if a person were advocating that a city purchase a triple 
 combination piece of motor-driven fire apparatus, he must 
 first show that the present apparatus is inadequate. Having 
 convinced his hearers that some change is necessary, he 
 may next state and discuss the possible solutions, showing 
 that none of them is so satisfactory as the one under 
 consideration. He may then come back to and discuss his 
 proposal. He first asks, Is it practicable .■' And under this 
 topic he considers the method of appropriating the money 
 to pay for the apparatus, and the superiority of such parts 
 as hose carrier, chemical engine, and water pump. Having 
 thus shown how it may be bought and how it works, he
 
 MAKING OUTLINES 129 
 
 may cite instances of the successful operation of these 
 engines in other cities. He may close by summarizing the 
 benefits which the city will derive from the possession of 
 this .apparatus. In such a talk each topic seems to grow 
 out of the one before it, and to lead naturally to the next. 
 
 Arranging the Subtopics. Now to go back to the slips. 
 We have arranged them in several piles, each pile repre- 
 senting one main division of the talk, and we have just 
 seen how to determine the order of these divisions. We 
 have now to arrange the slips or topics within each division. 
 This we do in exactly the same way as we arranged the 
 main parts. Taking each group separately, we study all the 
 cards to find the divisions into which they fall, arranging 
 them in a natural, logical order. The same process may be 
 repeated again if necessary, making two sets of subtopics. 
 In the end the complete speech will be outlined consecu- 
 tively, with subtopics properly indented on the paper. The 
 student is now ready for oral practice, according to the 
 plan suggested in Chapter IV. 
 
 Coherence of Details. The principle of coherence must 
 be applied in passing from sentence to sentence, and from 
 paragraph to paragraph, and from subdivision to subdivision, 
 as well as from one main topic to the next. There must 
 be no sudden breaks of thought. All the way through the 
 speech there must be fitting use of the means of connec- 
 tion : repetition of significant words, use of pronouns or 
 other words referring to terms already named, repetition of 
 the thought in different words, connection by a thought 
 which is related to an idea which has gone before, and 
 connection by adverbial expressions — words used for the 
 purpose of forming links. On page 64 is a list of words
 
 I30 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 useful in making connections. Here are some others : ' in 
 spite of this,' ' as a result,' " as might be expected,' ' indeed,' 
 'in fact,' 'of course,' 'now,' 'but,' 'on the contrary.' 
 
 Unity. The principle of unity dictates that the thoughts 
 expressed under each head shall all relate to that head, 
 that there shall be no outside ideas introduced. Each sen- 
 tence, each paragraph, each subdivision, each main division, 
 and each whole speech must possess unity, that is, each 
 must deal with but one thought. The greatest danger is 
 the temptation to wander from the subject with an idea 
 that seems interesting and worth while. The speaker must 
 not yield to this temptation. Careful outlining and rigid 
 following of the outline will prevent this. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose as your subject for a possible speech a description 
 of your school or your city. Write on the blackboard the main 
 topics for the description, in the order you think best. Compare 
 your topics and your order with those of other students, and decide 
 which is best. The class may recite in two sections, one for the 
 school outline, and one for the city outline. 
 
 2. Prepare a detailed outline for a speech on an interesting 
 and complex subject. Avoid narration. Take successively the 
 following steps : 
 
 1. Write down, on slips of paper of uniform size, the topics and 
 thoughts which occur to you, using one slip for each item. 
 
 2. Study the subject thoroughly, and add to the collection of slips. 
 
 3. When enough material is collected, spread the slips on a large 
 table or desk. Then study them to determine the main groups. When 
 this has been done, gather the slips of each group into a pile. Next 
 write on a slip for each pile the sentence which expresses the general 
 thought of the slips in that pile.
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 131 
 
 4. Take these topic sentences as the main divisions of the speech 
 and arrange them in correct order. 
 
 5. In a similar way sort the slips in each pile. 
 
 6. See that all the slips are in proper order. 
 
 7. Copy the outline on paper, supplying main headings, if needed, 
 and making the appropriate indentations. 
 
 8. Copy the outline on cards. 
 
 3. Practice the speech outlined above. Follow the outline 
 rigidly. Whenever a new topic appears make the connecting 
 links as strong as possible. Tr}' to make good connections, 
 also, between the smaller units of- the speech. Deliver the 
 speech in class. 
 
 Introductions. We have already indicated many of the 
 principles to be observed in the making of introductions 
 and conclusions. Here we shall briefly restate them and 
 call attention to a few other considerations. 
 
 The introduction gives an opportunity to the speaker to 
 make his subject attractive to the audience. He may em- 
 phasize the value and importance of the topic, and wherein 
 it will be valuable to the audience to hear it discussed. 
 He may try to connect a new or strange subject with facts 
 already in the minds of the hearers. The subject of the 
 talk must be announced unless it has already been intro- 
 duced, and it will be helpful if the speaker will give a 
 broad, general idea of the scope of the talk. Let us illus- 
 trate by means of a few introductory sentences from a 
 description of the University of California : 
 
 Every citizen of California should be informed about his state 
 university. It is an institution which has attained a world-wide 
 reputation. You, as citizens of the state, support it with your 
 money, and it exists to serve you and your children. It has de- 
 partments which stand ready to advise any resident of the state
 
 132 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 about his affairs, whether he be laborer, banker, merchant, miner, 
 or farmer. The value of the common schools and of the high 
 schools to the children is well appreciated. The university is but 
 a continuation of the free educational system of the state : the 
 state offers its children a training which extends from the kinder- 
 garten through the university. My object in this talk is to make 
 you acquainted with the university at Berkeley. I shall describe 
 its location, its grounds, and its buildings. 
 
 Then would follow the description itself: "The city of 
 Berkeley, the home of the University of California, is 
 situated," etc. 
 
 Introductions must be brief without being abrupt. Unless 
 the speaker wishes to shock or surprise his hearers he must 
 not begin too suddenly. The listeners must have time to 
 get their attention adjusted to the subject and to the in- 
 dividual style of the speaker. When you are sure of two 
 things, — that your hearers know definitely what you are 
 going to talk about, and that they are interested, — then 
 you may begin with the main part of the speech. 
 
 Conclusions. For the concluding sentence or sentences 
 a summary is necessary in the case of an argument, and 
 is very effective in most other kinds of speeches. The 
 summary is valuable because it quickly reviews the entire 
 subject : it carries the listener back and illumines the whole 
 picture at the same time. For example : 
 
 The university furnishes an ideal place for intellectual endeavor. 
 Built at the foot of a row of hills, on the slope facing the Golden 
 Gate, with grounds of rare variety and beauty, and with a group 
 of buildings arranged according to an impressive and convenient 
 plan, it is faithfully preparing for useful citizenship thousands of 
 the sons and daughters of the state.
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 133 
 
 The conclusion may thus repeat or suggest an idea 
 which was mentioned in the introduction, and so help to 
 make the speech a unified whole. 
 
 Whether or not a summaiy is used, and whether or not 
 an introductory thought is suggested by the closing words, 
 the last words spoken must deal with a broad, compre- 
 hensive idea rather than with a detail of the subject. This 
 is a prime necessity if the speech is to be ended well, with 
 the hearers satisfied. One of the worst faults of beginners 
 is the mistake of thinking that a speech is finished when 
 the last detail is given. Notice these closing sentences of 
 four different speeches : 
 
 1. We reached home at nine o'clock. 
 
 2. The workbenches are always kept clean. 
 
 3. This house plan provides for wide eaves. 
 
 4. The machine is easily stopped by means of this lever. 
 
 JS'o matter how good the talk is, if it ends with such a 
 sentence, it is like a picture without a frame. The subject 
 itself may be complete — that is not the point. The last 
 sentence is the one most prominent in the minds of the 
 hearers, and therefore they carry away the memory of an un- 
 important detail rather than a large impression of the whole 
 subject. The frame is not a part of a picture ; it encircles 
 it and sets it off. Just so the conclusion is not a part of the 
 subject matter of the speech ; it includes the whole subject, 
 and sets it forth again more clearly. Such a frame is neces- 
 sary, if only to hide the ragged edges, to push back the 
 details into their proper places. To the foregoing false 
 concluding sentences should be added, then, some such 
 sentences as these, the numbers corresponding :
 
 134 STYLE IN ORAL COMPOSITION 
 
 1. Everybody was glad to welcome us, and to hear about our 
 fine trip. 
 
 2. I could not help thinking what good carpenters this school 
 would turn out. 
 
 3. No house in the whole city could be more attractive. 
 
 4. Ever}' detail is arranged for convenience and safety. 
 
 But perhaps a frame wider still would be best of all. 
 If the student will now read consecutively the sentences 
 numbered alike above, and add to them the corresponding 
 ones below, he will see the value of a final summary : 
 
 1. We never tire of thinking and talking about our excursion — 
 the preparations for the journey, the difficulties on the way, the camp 
 on the mountain top, the view, the hurried descent, and, best of all, 
 the welcome home. This trip was one of the big events of my life. 
 
 2. Grant School has a beautiful location, fine buildings, and a 
 good course of study, and is well equipped to teach boys trades. 
 It is worth a visit. 
 
 3. It provides for a substantial construction, for a convenient 
 interior arrangement, for all the modem space-saving and labor- 
 saving devices, and for an attractive exterior appearance. 
 
 4. You have seen that the machine is easily connected, that the 
 expense is surprisingly small, that the clothes are thoroughly 
 washed without any handling, and that anyone can learn to 
 operate it. Why not try it ? 
 
 Even for a speech of ten sentences think out beforehand 
 how to begin and how to end. This forethought will save 
 some awkward stumbling at the start, and some ungraceful 
 ■ and ineffective endings. It has frequently been said that 
 the most important words in an entire speech, so far as the 
 effect upon the audience is concerned, are the concluding 
 ones ; and that the next most important words are those 
 with which the speech begins.
 
 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 135 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose one of the subjects below, make yourself familiar 
 with the general ideas, prepare an introduction to a speech on the 
 subject, and deliver the introduction in class. 
 
 1. The city of Honolulu. 
 
 2. Niagara Falls. 
 
 3. Ancient Athens. 
 
 4. The sinking of the Lusttani'a. 
 
 5. Crossing the Atlantic by air. 
 
 6. How eggs are stored. 
 
 7. Coal in Alaska. 
 
 8. Washington's success in war. 
 
 9. Would socialism fail ? 
 10. Athletics for everybody. 
 
 2. Plan, practice, and deliver an appropriate conclusion for a 
 speech on one of the following subjects : 
 
 1. The United States Depart- 6. How rubber is produced. 
 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
 2. The causes of the European 
 
 war. 
 
 3. The city of Hongkong. 
 
 4. The Roman Colosseum. 
 
 5. The discovery of America. 
 
 7. Buying an automobile. 
 
 8. How mines are ventilated. 
 
 9. Should all boys learn a trade.'' 
 10. How phonographic records 
 
 are made.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 EXPLANATIONS: ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 In Chapter I we considered the most common kinds of 
 explanation : those in whicli we tell how to make an object 
 or how to perform an act or series of acts. In the present 
 chapter we shall discuss three other kinds of explanations : 
 first, that in which the definition of something is given, as 
 when we tell the meaning of the word ' neutrality ' or the 
 difference between a band and an orchestra ; second, that 
 in which the purpose of something is given, as when we tell 
 the reason why the name of St. Petersburg was changed ; 
 and third, that in which a complex process is made clear, 
 as when we tell how a law operates or how sea currents 
 affect climate. 
 
 Defining. To define any term is to show its meaning in 
 words and ideas already familiar to our hearers. The short- 
 est definitions are mere synonyms, as when we say that 
 ' unsightly ' means ' ugly.' Often definition by means of a 
 synonym is adequate to our needs. In other cases, however, 
 a synonymous expression will not be satisfactory. The defi- 
 nition should do two things : it should tell on the one hand 
 how the term is like other terms, and on the other hand 
 how it has a special meaning of its own. For example, an 
 ostrich may be defined as a very large, two-toed bird of 
 Africa and Arabia ; or a street-railway franchise as a privi- 
 lege given by a city to a company, permitting it to use the 
 
 136
 
 DEFINING 137 
 
 streets for huing tracks and operating cars ; or calcium 
 carbide as a lumpy, cinderlike substance which generates 
 an illuminating gas when brought in contact with water. 
 
 Interpreting. Sometimes we are required to explain the 
 meaning of a sentence or whole passage, such as a selection 
 from the Declaration of Independence. In a case of this 
 kind the best plan is usually to give the complete sense of 
 the passage in simpler words. To do this it may be neces- 
 sary first to explain briefly the meanings of certain words 
 and expressions, and then to weav-e these into a connected 
 explanation. The chief task of the speaker is to decide 
 what ideas in the passage need explanation, and to give 
 .emphasis to these. For example, if we are to explain the 
 sentence, " It would be puerile to ignore defects and imper- 
 fections still existent in the national and municipal life of 
 the United States," the word 'puerile' may be defined by 
 using the synonym ' childish,' and the sentence as a whole 
 may be made clear by some such paraphrase as this : "It 
 would be childish to say that there are no faults in the 
 national and city governments of the United States." 
 
 Distinguishing Differences. Frequently we are asked to 
 explain the difference between two expressions or between 
 two objects. Tw^o synonyms will sometimes make the differ- 
 ence clear, but often we shall need to give more. For ex- 
 ample, in explaining the difference between an automobile 
 and a cycle car it might be necessary first to define one or 
 both, next to point out some important points of likeness, 
 ♦■hen to tell the differences, and finally to give the essential 
 difference — that of size and weight. 
 
 Analyzing. Again, ■ we sometimes explain an idea by 
 analyzing it. To do this we show what the expression
 
 138 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 includes, as when we explain the term " government ' by 
 naming the kinds of governments. Or we show the parts 
 and the relations between parts, as when we explain a merry- 
 go-round. Or we expand and illustrate, as when we explain 
 the meaning of the sentence, ' The beginning of the history 
 of the United States must be looked for in Europe.' This 
 last method often goes beyond mere definition, for it ex- 
 plains reasons and processes also. It is the method used by 
 most of our textbooks in explaining the principles of their 
 subjects. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Define five of the terms below. Make use of the dictionary 
 and such other helps as you wish. Ask yourself the following 
 questions : What is the best way to explain the meaning of each 
 expression .-* Is a drawing needed ? Is a complete explanation of a 
 process necessary ? Is any analysis or illustration needed ? Then 
 use what seems to you the best method and come to class prepared 
 to give interesting explanations. Be brief. 
 
 1. By-product. 17. Speculation. 
 
 2. Fagade. 18. Palmetto. 
 
 3. Hydroplane. 19. Siphon. 
 
 4. Felling (the seams of a dress). 20. Pilaster. 
 
 5. Hydrographic charts. 21. Prize court. 
 
 6. Before the mast. 22. Glacier. 
 
 7. Ultimatum. 23. Pigment. 
 
 8. Firebreak. 24. Crescendo. 
 
 9. Nihilism. 25. Denouement. 
 10. Overproduction. 26. Escapement. 
 
 II. Inundate. 27. Ballot. 
 
 12. Proclivity. 28. Middleman. 
 
 13. Ovation. 29. Armistice. 
 
 14. Inventory. 30. Caucus. 
 
 15. Legerdemain. 31. Unconditional. 
 
 16. Misappropriate. 32. Unifiable.
 
 DEFINING 139 
 
 33. Longshoreman. 37. Wholesale. 
 
 34. Irreconcilable. 38. Sedentary. 
 
 35. Legendary. 39. Utilitarian. 
 
 36. Profuse. 40. Involuntary. 
 
 2. Explain the meaning of three of the following sentences : 
 
 1. Conservation of natural resources will be the subject under 
 discussion. 
 
 2. The forecasts given in the meteorological bulletins arc of tre- 
 mendous service to the farmers. 
 
 3. Reduction works arc not always near the mines. 
 
 4. The nonsuccess of our proposals compelled us to extend our 
 military precautions. 
 
 5. I have the honor of applying for your kind intervention in order 
 that the boats in question may be allowed to leave for Germany. 
 
 6. The industrial and commercial progress of the South in the last 
 generation is one of the most remarkable facts in our history. 
 
 7. We are alive to-day to the dangers of unrestricted immigration. 
 
 8. The constant criticism directed against us by foreign nations 
 is that America is the land of dollars, and that we care little for the 
 encouragement of letters, art, science, and scholarship. 
 
 9. The motor car has taken its place in the complex scheme of life, 
 widening the scope of that scheme and at the same time becoming 
 necessary to its successful working. 
 
 10. Nothing contained in this convention shall be construed as 
 requiring the United States of America to depart from its traditional 
 policy of not intruding upon, interfering with, or entangling itself in, 
 the political questions or policy or international administration of any 
 foreign State. 
 
 Note. Other passages for explanation may be selected from school 
 textbooks. 
 
 3. Explain the difference between the two terms in three of 
 the following pairs : 
 
 1. Socialism, anarchy. 5. Book, pamphlet. 
 
 2. Brain, mind. 6. Town, village. 
 
 3. Bolt, lag screw. 7. Flag, pennant. 
 
 4. Chair, stool. 8. Hatchet, ax.
 
 I40 
 
 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 9. Cornet, trumpet. 
 
 10. Violin, viola. 
 
 11. Civilized, barbarous.. 
 
 12. Dignified, serious. 
 
 13. Barbarous, savage. 
 
 14. Defective, abnormal. 
 
 15. Administrative, executive. 
 
 16. Politician, statesman. 
 
 17. Real property, personal property. 
 
 18. Butter, oleomargarine. 
 
 19. Fear, cowardice. 
 
 20. Courage, daring. 
 
 4. Explain the meaning of three of the terms below by telling 
 the kinds of things included by each, or the parts and their rela- 
 tions ; that is, explain by analyzing. 
 
 13. Play. 
 
 14. Cooperation. 
 
 15. Lighthouse. 
 
 16. Skill is necessary in the trades. 
 
 17. War is harder on women than 
 on men. 
 
 18. The negro has made great prog- 
 ress. 
 
 19. Modern improvements lighten 
 the work of housekeeping. 
 
 20. Necessity is the mother of in- 
 vention. 
 
 1. Bank. 
 
 2. Kitchen. 
 
 3. Public-service corporation. 
 
 4. Patriotism. 
 
 5. Fuel. 
 
 6. The professions. 
 
 7. Trade. 
 
 8. Dressmaking. 
 
 9. Vocation. 
 
 10. Vegetarianism. 
 
 11. Work. 
 
 12. Religion. 
 
 Explaining Reasons and Purposes. When we come to 
 deal with the reasons and purposes of things we are forced 
 to study causes and their effects. Thus, if we ask why 
 the name of St. Petersburg was changed, we must recognize 
 that the change of name was the effect of a cause, and 
 must proceed to find that cause or group of causes. Often 
 causes are universal and sweeping laws. For example, the 
 outbreak of a war leads to hatred between the opposing 
 nations. We know that this is an almost universal law of 
 human nature, and have now only to show that this cause 
 was operating in the case of the change in the name of 
 St. Petersburg to understand the reason for that change.
 
 GIVING REASONS 141 
 
 Thus our explanation consists of two parts : ( i ) an expo- 
 sition of the cause ; and {2) the concrete appHcation of 
 this cause to the case to be explained. 
 
 Similarly, suppose that we are asked to explain the 
 importance of the occupation of the teacher. We should 
 discuss the necessity of giving children a careful prepara- 
 tion for life, and then should show that the teacher helps 
 to provide these opportunities. 
 
 In making an apology, or explaining why we did a 
 certain thing, we are explaining purposes and causes. All 
 explanations of behavior are of this kind. 
 
 In dealing with causes, the explanation closely approaches 
 
 argument. This requires a high order of thinking, but it 
 
 gives good returns. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Study the causes involved in two of the cases given below. 
 Then plan a brief talk to explain each. Practice the talks and 
 give them in class. 
 
 1. Why is it important for every high-school pupil to know how to 
 t}'pewrite at least as fast as he can write.'* 
 
 2. Why is aluminum used for kitchen utensils? 
 
 3. Why is baseball so popular? 
 
 4. Why do not -Americans like cricket more than they do ? 
 
 5. W^hy do not the English object to the idea of a monarchy ? 
 
 6. Why is gingham better than calico for work aprons? 
 
 7. Why is it better to have a definite time each day for study than 
 to study only when in the mood for it? 
 
 8. Why was a good president ? 
 
 9. Why is best for shortening? 
 
 10. Why did Germany declare war before the other nations ? 
 
 11. Why is the occupation of the street cleaner an important one? 
 
 12. Why arc dictophones useful? 
 
 13. Why did Brutus decide to help in the conspiracy against Caesar? 
 
 14. Why did Rebecca help Ivanhoe?
 
 142 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 15. Why do we have cement sidewalks ? 
 
 16. Why do we allow street cars to become overcrowded? 
 
 17. What are the conveniences of having electricity in the house? 
 
 18. Why are laws necessary.? 
 
 19. Why should every pupil take manual training ? 
 
 20. Why is it important to study occupations ? 
 
 Explaining Processes and Operations. We now come to 
 the explanations which make clear processes and operations, 
 such as the laws -of nature, mechanics, politics, business, and 
 society. The same general principles are involved in the 
 explanation of all processes, and these principles we have 
 already considered in an elementary way in Chapter I. 
 We shall here briefly review these principles, and consider 
 some of the more complicated explanations. 
 
 Collecting the Material. As pointed out in Chapter I, 
 all material collected should be carefully tested, and should 
 not be accepted as true upon insufficient evidence. Thus, 
 if we are to explain why Germany invaded Belgium, we 
 should not accept any statement as final until we have 
 examined all accessible material on the subject. So, in 
 explaining a process such as that involved in making dyes, 
 we should be likely to fall into error if we based our talk 
 on information contained in one article of a popular maga- 
 zine. The means of testing the accuracy of any information 
 are as follows : ( i ) Extend the study to include information 
 from several different sources. (2) Compare the groups of 
 facts so obtained, and ascertain the points of agreement, 
 or the agreement of those from the most reliable sources. 
 (3) Depend for the most part on printed matter approved 
 by acknowledged experts, or accepted by persons known to 
 be well informed on the subject in question. (4) Talk with 
 experts. (5) Observe or perform the process.
 
 MAKING THE OUTLINE 143 
 
 Having collected, recorded, and tested the material, we 
 shall have data upon which to build our talk. All memo- 
 randa should be preserved and brought to class for use if 
 facts are questioned. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. By way of review, collect material for one of the explana- 
 tions suggested below. Pay special attention to testing the mate- 
 rial. Use none which is not above question. Bring all notes to 
 class, and be prepared to give an attractive talk describing how 
 you collected your data. 
 
 1. How a diving bell works. 6. How taxes are fixed. 
 
 2. How to make an attractive 7. How to knit. 
 
 bouquet. 8. How milk bottles are cleaned. 
 
 3. How rubber is made. 9. How salt is mined. 
 
 4. How canal locks work. 10. How flour is made. 
 
 5. How linen is made. 
 
 2. Prepare, practice, and give the talk of explanation. 
 
 The Introduction. The first words of the talk should in- 
 troduce the subject clearly. A listener often gets a wrong 
 impression from the opening remarks of a speaker, and so 
 fails to understand the explanation. It is therefore impor- 
 tant to tell directly and clearly at the start the nature of the 
 subject. If it is new or strange, we must try to introduce 
 the subject through ideas that are already familiar to our 
 hearers. For example, suppose we wish to explain the 
 installation in a house of an apparatus for the production 
 of acetylene gas for illuminating purposes. The name 
 "acetylene" may mystify many of the hearers, and perhaps 
 even lead them to think that a chemical experiment is to 
 be explained. Misunderstanding may be prevented by speak- 
 ing of a problem that all will appreciate : that of furnishing
 
 144 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 lights to a house which cannot be suppHed with electricity 
 or ordinary gas. 
 
 Another valuable aid in introducing a difficult subject 
 effectively is a brief statement in outline form of the points 
 to be treated. Such an outline, like the table of contents 
 of a book, gives an advance view of the subject. This out- 
 line may be presented in some such way as the following : 
 "In explaining how to make a sleigh, I shall speak first 
 of the materials needed ; second, of the shaping of the 
 parts ; third, of the actual construction ; and fourth, of the 
 finishing." Or again, " In explaining how the law provides 
 for the recall of city officers, I shall speak first of the 
 present methods by which the people remove their public 
 servants ; next, of the methods of the recall ; and last, of 
 the results which may be expected." The student will notice 
 that only the most important divisions of the talk are 
 given in the prospective outline, and that they are so brief 
 and clear that the listener can easily keep them in mind 
 during the talk. 
 
 Every introduction should arouse interest. Often the state- 
 ment of the prospective outline or a sentence connecting 
 the subject with familiar ideas will be sufficient to arouse 
 interest. In other cases a statement of the use, purpose, or 
 helpfulness of the process may form part of the introduction. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Come to class prepared to give the opening sentences for 
 one of the explanations below. Make the nature of the subject 
 clear by relating the explanation to familiar things ; give a brief 
 prospective outline, and add whatever else is needed for an at- 
 tractive introduction.
 
 MAKING THE OUTLINE 145 
 
 6. Give the complete explanation. 
 
 1. How city life differs from 6. The working of the party 
 
 country life. caucus in Congress. 
 
 2. How to print pictures. 7. How Oliver Twist was re- 
 
 3. How- to make ice. . captured by the thieves. 
 
 4. How to set a pane of glass. 8. How to play a game. 
 
 5. How to mend a tear in 9. The laws of the pendulum. 
 
 clotlyng. 10. Why some birds hop and 
 
 some walk. 
 
 The Body of the Talk. What we have called the equip- 
 ment in Chapter I is the setting in some explanations. 
 For example, if we examine the topics in the exercise 
 above, we shall see that there is no equipment for 6 or 7- 
 In explaining .the party caucus we shall need to tell of the 
 situations in Congress which lead to the caucus. In talking 
 about Oliver Twist we shall have to state the condition of 
 affairs which ltd to the desire of the thieves to recapture him. 
 In some such explanations, however, as for example, that of 
 the operation of a bread-mixing machine, we should do well 
 to give a brief description of the machine and its setting. 
 
 In all explanations of processes the statement of the 
 actual process is the vital part, and we shall need to ar- 
 . range with special care the topics covering this part of 
 the talk. 
 
 Arranging the. Topics by the Time Order. In most expla- 
 nations the topics will follow the time order. Thus, in tell- 
 ing how to cover a book with paper, or how to develop a 
 film, our explanation of the process may follow the steps of 
 the actual process in the same order that- they take place. 
 -Again, in explaining the method of dry farming in the 
 Southwest, • the .natural order, for both the process and the 
 . talk, would be : the long, dry summer and the consequent
 
 146 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 baking of the soil ; the breaking of the crust with the disk- 
 plow in the autumn ; the pulverizing of the topsoil after 
 each rain ; the deeper plowing ; the sowing of the grain ; 
 the smoothing of the surface. 
 
 Outlining by Causes and Effects. Often, however, there is 
 no such obvious plan to follow, and the sequence must be 
 determined by cause and effect, or by problem and sohttion. 
 
 Thus, an explanation of the relation between poverty and 
 drunkenness requires a discussion of the causes which are 
 operating at the same time. We must therefore arrange our 
 material according to a cause-and-effect plan. 
 
 MAIN TOPICS FOR A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT OUTLINE 
 
 Poverty and Drunkenness 
 
 [The outline should be read horizontally, each effect following the 
 cause bearing the corresponding number.] 
 
 Causes Effects 
 
 1. The sordidness of the home 1. Desire for change and excite- 
 ■ life of the very poor. ment, to escape sordidness. 
 
 2. Long hours of monotonous 2. Fatigue. 
 
 work. 
 
 3. Fatigue. 3. Breaking down of the power 
 
 to resist temptation. 
 
 4. Desire for excitement ; and 4. Drinking ; and drunkenness. 
 
 lack of power to resist 
 temptation. 
 
 In giving the talk we should do well to follow the topics 
 as numbered here. 
 
 Outlining by Problems and Solutions. If we wish to ex- 
 plain how motion pictures are taken under water, we may 
 arrange our topics according to the problem-and-solution 
 method.
 
 MAKING THE OUTLINE 147 
 
 MAIN TOPICS FOR A PROBLEM-AND-SOLUTION OUTLINE 
 
 Motion Pictures under Water 
 Problem : 
 
 1. How to protect the operator and the camera. 
 
 2. How to provide an outlook. 
 
 3. How to illuminate the water. 
 
 Solution : 
 
 1. Making an extensible, pliant tube strong enough to resist the 
 
 water pressure when lowered from a boat. 
 
 2. Providing a closed room at the bottom of the tube, with a plate- 
 
 glass window. 
 
 3. Providing a ventilating and a signaling system. 
 
 4. Arranging for a cluster of electric lights to illuminate the water. 
 
 5. Operating the machine. 
 
 Let US remember that these outhnes concern the actual 
 process only. For the complete talk we shall need intro- 
 duction and conclusion, and often a statement of the equip- 
 ment, setting, or preliminary conditions. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Choose one of the subjects below, and determine what 
 should be said about equipment, preliminary conditions, setting, or 
 problem. What would be necessary before the actual process is 
 explained ? Prepare that particular portion of the talk. 
 
 b. Give the whole explanation in class. 
 
 1. Cleaning the streets. 6. How trees are cared for. 
 
 2. How David Copperfield's aunt 7. What baking does to food. 
 
 helped him. 8. How a volcano acts. 
 
 3. How an eclipse takes place. 9. How a telegraph instrument 
 
 4. How to harmonize the colors works. 
 
 in a room. 10. How the use of submarines 
 
 5. How factories are being im- raised new questions in 
 
 proved. international law.
 
 148 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 2. a. Examine the subjects below to determine the best methods 
 for outlining the actual processes. Select one subject for each of 
 the three methods of outlining which we; have discussed : the time 
 order of topics, the cause-and-effect order, ' arid the problem-and- 
 solution order. Prepare the three outlines, and bring them to 
 class. • • ■ ' , 
 
 h. Use the subject outlined by the time-order plan, and prepare, 
 the complete talk of explanation. Give the-talk,-in class. 
 
 1. How the schoolyard "should 11. How to clean windows. . 
 
 be improved. 12. Kydraulic mining. 
 
 2. Why the mail-order business 13. Operation of a gas engine. 
 
 is successful. 14. Manufacture of gasoline. 
 
 3. How a faucet works. 15. How an electric bell works. 
 
 4. How the direct primary is 16. What causes summer and 
 
 carried out. winter. • 
 
 5. How an election takes place. 17. How styles in dress change. 
 
 6. How to simplify housekeep- 18. "How bonds are issued and 
 
 ing. '. sold. 
 
 7. How the pyramids were built. 19. How Chinese education is 
 
 8. Why imitation fur is being carried on. 
 
 used. ' ■ 2G, How a store takes an in 
 
 9. The operation of a time lock. ' ventory. 
 
 10. A'entilating a mine. . . 
 
 3. Prepare and give in class the complete talk of explanation 
 on the subject in Exercise 2 which you have outlined according to 
 the cause-and-effect plan. 
 
 4. Prepare and give in class the complete talk on the subject 
 in Exercise 2 outlined according to the problem-and-solution plan. 
 
 The Conclusion. Little needs to be added to what has 
 already been said on pages 17 and 132 about conclusions. 
 Just as the introduction arouses interest, the conclusion 
 points out the justification of that interest.' This is done by 
 a brief general st?tement of • summar}' ■ or emphasis. No 
 talk of explanation should be concluded with any detail of
 
 GIVING THE TALK 149 
 
 the explanation itself; the subject should be completely ex- 
 plained before the conclusion begins. For example, suppose 
 we have just explained the operation of the hydroplane by 
 showing how' the dri\er climbs out of his seat. We may 
 conclude the talk in two sentences, as follows: "This 
 invention makes the aeroplane a veritable sea bird, able to 
 alight on land or water. -It is an indispensable step in man's 
 
 conquest of the air.'' 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 a. Give the concluding ^vords for .a talk of explanation on one 
 of the subjects suggested below. 
 
 b. Give the complete talk. 
 
 _1. How a suspension bridge is built. 
 
 2. How salmon are caught. 
 
 3. How the big corporations water their stock. 
 
 4. How to build a teriiporary dressing room for swimmers. 
 
 5. How apartments are changing family life. 
 
 6. Why Russia wants Constantinople. 
 
 7. How a street-sweeping machine works. 
 
 8. How a pump works. 
 
 9. How. real-estate speculators get an unearned profit. 
 10. How to make a quill. 
 
 Giving the Explanation. In practicing an oral explana- 
 tion, we must make it as much as possible like an actual 
 talk before the class. If we find that we need to use 
 copious notes in the first practice, we must continue our 
 practice until the memoranda are reduced to a few cards or 
 slips of paper appropriate for use in class. At all times the 
 prepared outline should be rigidly followed. 
 
 Making the Outline Clear. Not only must the outline be 
 followed, but it must be made clear to the hearers. This 
 does not mean that we need to tell them when each new
 
 150 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 topic appears. If our outline is a good one the steps will 
 show themselves, although occasionally a new step may be 
 indicated by such a statement as, " Let us next see how to 
 put on the cover," or, " The body of the boat is now finished 
 and we have next to put in the centerboard and the rudder." 
 
 Giving Larger Ideas First. Again, it is important to re- 
 member to give larger ideas before the details, so that the 
 hearers may see where the details belong. Just as the whole 
 talk itself must begin with an introduction and end with a 
 conclusion, so each main topic should begin with the sim- 
 pler, more obvious facts, then proceed to the intricacies of 
 the explanation, and finally end with a larger statement. 
 For example, in explaining how to build a boat, the general 
 size and shape should be mentioned before telling how to 
 cut out the pieces of wood for the various parts. The details, 
 then, will naturally fall into their places. 
 
 The listener should never be left in doubt as to when one 
 topic is finished and another begun. If there might be any 
 doubt, the speaker may indicate the completion of a topic 
 in many different ways. Such remarks as the following are 
 sometimes used : " Now that the framework is completed " ; 
 "When the framework is in place"; "After giving the 
 finishing touches to the framework." 
 
 Showing Connections. In most explanations the later 
 topics have important bearing on the topics already given, 
 and such relationships should be made clear either by care- 
 ful references or by definite statements. For example, in 
 explaining how to lay out a baseball field, suppose the size 
 and position of the diamond has been shown and the home 
 plate described. The speaker may then show that the 
 pointed side of the plate is toward the catcher's position
 
 GIVING THE TALK 15 I 
 
 because the plate itself fits inside the corner of the dia- 
 mond. Thus he establishes a connection between the shape 
 of the plate and the base lines of the diamond. Again, 
 after stating that the pitcher's box is sixty feet six inches 
 away from the point of the home plate, he may state that 
 this position is about three feet (one pace) in front of a 
 line joining first base with third. The relation between two 
 parts of an explanation should always be brought out in 
 such a way as to make the talk a consistent whole. 
 
 Finally, it should be clear to the hearers how each step 
 helps in the completion of the process. Thus, in telling 
 about the coloring of potter}^, one may refer frequently to 
 the process of baking which is to follow, pointing out what 
 effect this will have on the tints w^hich are being used. 
 Thus the parts of the explanation are connected with the 
 whole result to be attained, and the speech is made a unit. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Each of the topics below is supposed to be one step or 
 part of a process. Choose one topic, prepare the talk explaining 
 that particular step, and give the talk in class. Make the opening 
 and the closing statement as broad and simple as seems appropriate. 
 
 h. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation. 
 
 1. How the current is supplied, in explaining how an electric car works. 
 
 2. How the machine is oiled, in telling how to care for a sewing 
 machine. 
 
 3. How to prune trees, in explaining the care of trees. 
 
 4. The stacking of the hay, in explaining how hay is harvested. 
 
 5. How to make a drop kick, in explaining how the ball is kicked 
 in football. 
 
 2. a. Each of the topics below gives two steps in the explana- 
 tion of a process. Choose one of the subjects, or another that you
 
 152 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 like better, and give the sentence or sentences which will connect 
 the two steps. 
 
 b. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation. 
 
 1. Making a screen door (connect the step of tacking the wire onto 
 the frame with that of nailing on the molding). 
 
 2. The influence of the saloon (connect the cashing of pay checks 
 for the workingman with the treating habit). 
 
 3. Making a rag rug (connect cutting the rags with the thickness 
 of the rug). 
 
 4. Making muffins (connect the use of* soiir milk with the use 
 of soda). ■ .» • ' 
 
 5. Using a. plow (show tjie connection betwee¥),tbe'way tq hold the 
 handles and the proper depth of plowing). 
 
 3. a. Each of the subjects given below indicates one of the 
 steps of a process. Choose one subject, and -give the sentence 
 or sentences which will show how the proper performance of this ' 
 step will help to bring about the result desired. \ i 
 
 b. Prepare and deliver the complete explanation- of the largei '• 
 subject. 
 
 1. Saddling a horse (how the tightening of the girth affects the 
 safety and comfort of the rider and the horse). 
 
 2. Preserving fruit (how the thorough cookiiig of .thd fruit affects 
 the keeping quality). 
 
 3. Planting potatoes (how deep plowing affects the crop). 
 
 4. Making a cotton dress (how the preliminary shrinking of the 
 goods affects the fit of the completed dress). 
 
 5. Making bricks (how the drying of the clay bricks affects the final 
 quality of the product). 
 
 Aids in Explanation : the Use of Drawings. The ability 
 to make diagrams and rough sketches while talking has so 
 great a practical value that every student should stnve to 
 acquire"" it. Both in school and in life, situations in whicfi 
 the use of the ohalk or pe:acil is almost- indispen-sable are of 
 frequent occurrence? Even without special training or ability ^
 
 DRAWINGS AND DEMONSTRATIONS 153 
 
 we should make the attempt and do our best. We shall be 
 surprised to find how rapidly skill is gained with practice. 
 
 Of the explanations given in class a large part require 
 diagrams. We could hardly explain the making of a dress, 
 the laying out of a baseball field, the building of a boat, 
 the making of an electric bell, or the installation of a hot- 
 water system, without drawings of some kind. And draw- 
 ings would certainly help us in explaining how to make a 
 lamp shade, the cause of earthquakes, how to carry on dry 
 farming, the setting of a dining table, and so forth. 
 
 How to make the Diagrams. In a rough freehand sketch, 
 such as we make while speaking, it is best to use few lines 
 and as little detail as possible. We should make the draw- 
 ing as large as will be appropriate, and should be sure that 
 the lines are heavy enough to be seen by all. Before turn- 
 ing to the blackboard, we should state the reason for the 
 drawing. The first few lines should show the general shape 
 of the article, and its position in relation to the ground or 
 other objects. Thus, in sketching an aeroplane, we must 
 not fill in the details of motor, seat, and rudder until we 
 have shown the general size of the planes and the direction 
 in which the machine flies. In drawing a reflectoscope, 
 we should indicate at the start the direction of the screen. 
 Again, it is advisable, if the subject is a new one to the 
 audience, to give some hint as to the real size of the 
 object. A boy once gave an explanation of a drill for an 
 oil well. Some of the members of the class gathered from 
 his first remarks that the drill was about the size of a 
 clothespin, whereas it was really thirty feet long — twice 
 as high as the schoolroom. What the boy might have done 
 first was to sketch a derrick, remarking as he did so that
 
 1 54 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 it was a big frame for hoisting machinery, about as high 
 as a four-story building. 
 
 Using Objects. Demonstrations and the exhibition of 
 pictures, maps, or other objects are frequently even more 
 important than the making of drawings. Would it not 
 be foolish for a person to confine himself to words or to 
 drawings in attempting to explain a potato peeler, when he 
 might easily bring to class the object itself, or even show 
 it in actual operation ? When demonstrations are made, it 
 is important that everyone have a good view of the speaker. 
 Sometimes an explanation outside the classroom can be 
 arranged, as in the case of an exercise in surveying, the 
 workings of a spray pump, or the use of a machine in 
 the shops. Often, when it is impossible to show the actual 
 process, the finished product may be brought to class and 
 used in the talk. Thus, we might show a violin w^hile 
 telling how the instrument is made. Or, as suggested in 
 Chapters I and VII, we may bring models, pictures, or 
 prepared diagrams. 
 
 We may profit by observing the methods of business 
 people, and of the teachers of mathematics, science, cook- 
 ing, sewing, and shop work ; and by trying to acquire the 
 ability which they have to work and explain simultaneously. 
 
 Cautions in using Aids. It frequently happens that one 
 needs to make an explanation when it is inconvenient to 
 draw or to demonstrate. We should therefore cultivate the 
 use of vivid language so that we can make clear word pic- 
 tures, and should give ourselves much practice in explaining 
 without any other helps. 
 
 Both in making drawings and in using articles before 
 the class we must not overdo these helps, nor rely on them
 
 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE 155 
 
 to take the place of careful preparation and good speaking. 
 And we must remember to talk to the audience, and not 
 allow the helps to interfere with our proper attitude toward 
 our hearers. 
 
 Using Technical Expressions. Technical terms are often 
 a great help in explanation, but they must be used with 
 discretion. Their value lies in the fact that they have 
 meanings much more definite than ordinary words, as well 
 as in the fact that they save time. The musical term 
 ' etude ' is much more definite, than the more common 
 terms ' study ' or ' musical exercise.' The term ' peristyle ' 
 is shorter and more definite- than the expression ' system 
 of columns around a building.' 
 
 Technical terms can be used effectively only when they 
 will be understood by our hearers. Our language must 
 always be adapted to the audience. Thus, an explanation 
 of an electric engine to men familiar with electrical appa- 
 ratus will be expressed in quite different terms from those 
 that would be appropriate in explaining the machine to a 
 group of school children. If we are talking about athletics, 
 and know that our hearers will understand us, wc may use 
 the technical terms 'punt,' 'off side,' 'foul,' 'error,' 
 'puck,' 'tape,' 'shot,' 'guard,' etc. But if tlie majority of 
 our hearers might not follow us if we used such terms, we 
 should discard them all for simple language that could not 
 fail to be within the experience of the average person. 
 
 There is no objection, however, to the use of a moderate 
 number of technical terms in a talk to an average audience, 
 provided the unfamiliar words are carefully and clearly ex- 
 plained. For example, in telling how a telegraphic key 
 works, we might use the word ' contact,' defining it when
 
 1 56 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 first brought into the talk somewhat as follows : " The pur- 
 pose of the key is to make contacts for very short periods 
 of time ; that is, to bring two pieces of metal together for 
 an instant in such a way as to allow the electricity to flow 
 through the wires." After such a definition the word may 
 be safely used. 
 
 If the speaker is thoroughly versed in his subject, he 
 may be misled into using, without explanation, many terms 
 which need defining, thereby confusing his hearers and 
 spoiling his speech. For instance, a person could not suc- 
 ceed in explaining a cake receipt to an average audience 
 of boys and girls if he let the expression " cream the 
 
 butter" go undefined, 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Choose one of the subjects below, or another equally good. 
 Prepare a complete talk of explanation, and in the talk use a dia- 
 gram which you draw while you are speaking. 
 
 1. The cause of the earth's rotation. 
 
 2. How to make a collar. 
 
 3. The principle of the vacuum cleaner. 
 
 4. How a car controller works. 
 
 5. How a water wheel works. 
 
 6. The internal structure of the pyramids. 
 
 7. The convenient arrangement of a kitchen. 
 
 8. The principle of the silo. 
 
 9. The principle of the electric motor. 
 10. How to make a clothes bag. 
 
 II. How an oil cup works. 
 
 12. How to make a sofa pillow. 
 
 13. How the block system works. 
 
 14. How an electric-light switch works. 
 
 15. How to brace a fence post. 
 
 16. How to make a hand bag. 
 
 17. How an electric stove works.
 
 TECHNICAL LANGUAGE 157 
 
 18. How to show that a fire needs oxygen. 
 
 19. How a street is paved. 
 
 20. The different kinds of aeroplanes. 
 
 21. A convenient arrangement of kitchen utensils. 
 
 22. The structure of a flower, nut, or seed. 
 
 23. The meaning of some Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 24. How the blade of a mowing machine works. 
 
 25. How to run a mowing machine. 
 
 26. How to make a clotheshorse. 
 
 27. How a snowplow works. 
 
 28. How to make a wall pocket. 
 
 29. How a valve works. 
 
 30. How a furnace works. 
 
 2. Prepare a complete talk of explanation on one of the sub- 
 jects listed below. Use the best helps available. If possible, per- 
 form the actual process in class, speaking as you work. If this 
 is not feasible, use models or pictures, or bring and use com- 
 pleted articles. 
 
 1. How to mix colors to produce certain shades or tints. 
 
 2. The principle of the lever. 
 
 3. How the earth acts as a magnet. 
 
 4. The different strokes used in fencing or swimming. 
 
 5. How to crochet. 
 
 6. How to spin the diabolo. 
 
 7. How to correct the reading of a compass. 
 
 8. How to take a time-exposure picture. 
 
 9. How the gyroscope works. 
 
 10. How to feather oars. 
 
 11. How to make the notes on a cornet (zither, clarinet, violin, etc.). 
 
 12. How to tie a string onto a kite. 
 
 13. How piano keys produce sounds. 
 
 14. How to make the strokes in tennis. 
 
 15. The plan of a cathedral. 
 
 16. How the stereoscope works. 
 
 17. The half-nelson hold in wrestling. 
 
 18. What Millet means by his picture " The Man with the Hoe."
 
 158 
 
 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 19. How to make a cloth bag for a broom. 
 
 20. How to show the composition of light. 
 
 21. How to splice a rope. 
 
 22. How to do a trick. 
 
 23. Plaster of Paris. 
 
 24. The various kinds of arches. 
 
 25. The difference between the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade 
 thermometers. 
 
 26. How books are bound. 
 
 27. How to make a cloth cap. 
 
 28. How the siphon works. 
 
 29. The principle of the microscope. 
 
 30. How to carve wood. 
 
 3. Prepare an explanation suggested by one of the technical 
 terms given below. In some cases an explanation of the meaning 
 may be sufficient, but in others a statement of a process will be 
 required. When the expression is first used in the talk, give 
 its meaning. It may then be used repeatedly, without further 
 definition. 
 
 1. 
 
 Semaphore. 
 
 11. 
 
 Conservation. 
 
 21. 
 
 Apperception. 
 
 2. 
 
 French knot. 
 
 12. 
 
 Depreciation. 
 
 22. 
 
 Binding post. 
 
 3. 
 
 Reenforced concrete. 
 
 13. 
 
 Mayonnaise. 
 
 23. 
 
 Reduction works, 
 
 4. 
 
 Initiative. 
 
 14. 
 
 Nave. 
 
 24. 
 
 Gore. 
 
 5. 
 
 Separator. 
 
 15. 
 
 Sinking fund. 
 
 25. 
 
 Credit. 
 
 6. 
 
 Induction. 
 
 16. 
 
 Cupola. 
 
 ' 26. 
 
 Electromagnet. 
 
 7. 
 
 Bias. 
 
 17. 
 
 Totem pole. 
 
 27. 
 
 Baste (a fowl). 
 
 8. 
 
 Zodiac. 
 
 18. 
 
 Psyche knot. 
 
 28. 
 
 Frill. 
 
 9. 
 
 Hemstitch. 
 
 19. 
 
 Armature. 
 
 29. 
 
 Broil (meat). 
 
 10. 
 
 Water glass. 
 
 20. 
 
 Stew. 
 
 30. 
 
 Gears. 
 
 Subjects for Explanations. It is desirable that every sub- 
 ject on which we talk shall be of interest to our hearers. 
 With this end in view we shall now practice thinking out 
 new subjects for explanations. In making" up these lists 
 there should ordinarily be no objection to the use of such
 
 SUBJECTS FOR PRACTICE 159 
 
 helps and suggestions as can be obtained from dictionaries, 
 encyclopedias, textbooks, and other printed matter. Per- 
 sonal observations of the daily life around us will also 
 furnish topics. Lists of subjects will be found on pages 
 22-24 ^iid ii^ Appendix V. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. Think out the possible subjects on which you could talk, 
 suggested by six of the topics below. Write down five topics for 
 explanations from each of the six fields — f/ii/iy topics in all. 
 Bring the list to class, to exchange with another student. 
 
 h. Choose one of the topics in your list, and prepare a talk 
 of explanation. 
 
 1. School affairs. 6. Amusements. 
 
 2. Business. 7. Science. 
 
 3. Household schemes. 8. Work with tools. 
 
 4. Land transportation. 9. Government. 
 
 5. Water transportation. 10. Business meetings. 
 
 2. a. Write down and bring to class five topics for explana- 
 tions in each of six of the fields listed below. Let the subjects 
 be those which you can, if given time, prepare for explanation to 
 the class. Further, let them be subjects more difficult than are 
 usually selected, so that the members of the class would make a 
 real gain by hearing them. Bring the list for comparison. 
 
 h. Prepare one of the subjects for an explanation in class. 
 
 1. Farming. 6. Army and navy. 
 
 2. Manufacturing. 7. Architecture. 
 
 3. Caring for animals. 8. Traveling. 
 
 4. Library affairs. 9. Sports. 
 
 5. Art. 10. Camping. 
 
 3. a. Think out five possible subjects in six of the fields listed 
 below — subjects which you know little about, but which you
 
 i6o 
 
 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 would like to have explained in class by other students. Bring 
 the list to class. When the lists of other members of your class 
 are read, note how many of their topics are those on which you 
 might, with a moderate amount of preparation, give explanations. 
 b. Exchange papers with another student and choose a topic 
 from his list. Prepare and give the explanation in class. 
 
 1. Mining. 
 
 2. Electricity. 
 
 3. Chemistry. 
 
 4. Sciences of the household. 
 
 5. Etiquette. 
 
 6. Astronomy. 
 
 7. Post-office affairs. 
 
 8. Vocations. 
 
 9. Politics. 
 10. Inventions. 
 
 4. Prepare a talk of explanation, using all the experience you 
 have thus far gained. 
 
 SPECIMEN SUBJECTS! 
 
 1. Government 
 
 Electoral college. 
 Preferential shop. 
 Preferential voting. 
 Ward system. 
 Nomination by petition. 
 Nominating convention. 
 Proportional representation. 
 
 2. Classroom and Shops 
 
 How to 
 
 prove addition, 
 study history, 
 measure curved distances, 
 run a planer, 
 run a band saw. 
 turn wood, 
 sterilize dishes, 
 center a machinist's 
 hammer. 
 
 Habeas corpus. 
 Direct primaries. 
 Bonds. 
 
 Assessment district. 
 Naturalization. 
 Pairing votes. 
 Referendum vote. 
 
 How to make 
 a trial balance, 
 a hatpin. 
 
 a hammer handle, 
 a chisel handle. 
 a bookcase, 
 iron bars, 
 a chair. 
 
 a rocking chair, 
 a large bolt. 
 
 1 This list has been largely taken from actual Oral English lessons.
 
 SUBJECTS FOR PRACTICE 
 
 i6i 
 
 3. jSIanufacturing 
 
 
 Macaroni. 
 
 Maple sirup. 
 
 Concrete piling. 
 
 Glass. 
 
 Rifle barrels. 
 
 Hydraulic elevator. 
 
 Electric signs. 
 
 Pencils. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Wooden shoes. 
 
 Rugs. 
 
 Cloth. 
 
 Shingles. 
 
 4. Technical 
 
 
 How to 
 
 How to make 
 
 test milk for water. 
 
 • a time alarm. 
 
 enlarge kodak pictures. 
 
 a fire alarm. 
 
 prepare canvas for 
 
 raised doughnuts. 
 
 painting. 
 
 electric alarms. 
 
 take freak pictures. 
 
 a transformer. 
 
 find one's way without a 
 
 an ariel. 
 
 compass. 
 
 a solar heater. 
 
 find the North Star. 
 
 a fire extinguisher. 
 
 find the poles of a 
 
 a weather vane. 
 
 magnet. 
 
 The working of 
 
 show air pressure. 
 
 a brick kiln. 
 
 collect spilled mercury. 
 
 an arc light. 
 
 splice a cable. 
 
 a floating dry dock. 
 
 paint china. 
 
 a swimming machine. 
 
 How to make 
 
 a dredger. 
 
 blue prints. 
 
 a steam shovel. 
 
 electric batteries. 
 
 a carburetor. 
 
 a hair hydrometer. 
 
 a water-power washing 
 
 an electric motor. 
 
 machine. 
 
 a thermometer. 
 
 a geyser. 
 
 hydrogen. 
 
 a lumber chute. 
 
 a weather indicator. 
 
 an automobile brake. 
 
 a simple searchlight. 
 
 a mimeograph. 
 
 a telegraph instrument. 
 
 a steam engine. 
 
 an enlarging frame for 
 
 a typewriter. 
 
 drawing. 
 
 a lightning rod. 
 
 a camera. 
 
 an adding machine.
 
 l62 
 
 EXPLANATIONS 
 
 5. Camp Fire Girls (The handbook gives over 700 topics.) 
 
 How to 
 
 care for birds. 
 
 dye cloth. 
 
 prepare a well-balanced 
 
 diet, 
 use a chafing dish, 
 organize a card system, 
 manage a canoe, 
 prepare a fowl for the 
 
 table, 
 detect adulterations, 
 buy meat economically, 
 put away clothing for 
 
 the summer, 
 clean aluminum, 
 care for an ice chest, 
 prepare milk for a baby. 
 
 How to make 
 
 sandals. 
 
 a headband. 
 
 a camp bed. 
 
 a hat. 
 
 lace. 
 
 an expense account. 
 
 a flag. 
 
 a weather record. 
 
 a stencil. 
 How to 
 
 tell the weather signs. 
 
 do china painting. 
 
 tell the different kinds of 
 cloth. 
 
 care for a setting hen. 
 
 organize a celebration. 
 
 do camp cooking. 
 
 
 ride a horse. 
 
 protect food in a camp. 
 
 
 decorate a float. 
 
 Boy Scouts (The handbook 
 
 gives over 350 topics.) 
 
 How to 
 
 H 
 
 ow 
 
 test seed. 
 
 
 plants use soil. 
 
 get rid of weeds. 
 
 
 the governor is elected, 
 
 read a weather map. 
 
 
 a planer works. 
 
 find important 
 
 H 
 
 ow to make 
 
 constellations. 
 
 
 flies for fishing. 
 
 handle bees. 
 
 
 a bow and arrow. 
 
 dispose of camp garbage. 
 
 
 a target. 
 
 lay shingles. 
 
 
 an iron hook. 
 
 use the steel square. 
 
 
 a raft. 
 
 sterilize milk. 
 
 
 a cement flowerpot. 
 
 splice and tape wire. 
 
 
 a boat. 
 
 help up a fallen horse. 
 

 
 CHAPTER X 
 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 The speaker's mind should be so full of his subject and 
 of his belief in its importance to the audience that there 
 will be no thought about the process by which the voice is 
 produced. Yet in our school practice we need to give the 
 voice some intelligent training, so that it will be ready to 
 respond to all reasonable demands. There are few voices 
 that cannot be made more responsive by care and drill. 
 
 Ease in Speaking. In the use of the voice, exercises can 
 be of secondary importance only ; a right attitude of mind is 
 primary. Experienced speakers tell us that no organs reflect 
 nervousness more quickly and obviously than do the organs 
 of speech. We must banish, therefore, all the wandering 
 thoughts that suggest fear and failure. We must summon 
 to our aid all the qualities of mind that produce quietness, 
 confidence, alertness, enthusiasm. A favorable state of mind 
 is essential to the successful use of the voice. 
 
 In training the voice, every speaker will aim to attain 
 ease, distinctness of enunciation, and variety of tone, and 
 so to combine these qualities that the voice will be an 
 efficient medium of forceful expression. 
 
 Control of the Breath. Let the throat and the breath do 
 their work naturally. The speaking tubes must not be made 
 tense, for a hard, harsh sound would be the result. The 
 voice should be round and open in shape — if one can 
 
 163
 
 1 64 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 imagine it having shape — rather than flat or small. This 
 applies to all tones, high or low. 
 
 To breathe correctly while speaking, the student must 
 assume an active standing position ; that is, he should feel 
 the same strength and readiness of body that he would feel 
 if preparing to lift a heavy weight, or to strike a heavy 
 blow. The lungs should be filled by an outward, lateral 
 expansion of the trunk in all directions. 
 
 Talking is easiest and most satisfactory when there is a 
 
 large reservoir of air back of the tones ; one cannot do 
 
 heavy physical work or extensive speaking with exhausted 
 
 lungs. Two common causes of loss of breath are the failure 
 
 to fill the lungs in the first place, and incorrect phrasing, that 
 
 is, wrong grouping of words, which leads to breathing at the 
 
 wrong time. It is not difficult to learn to group words between 
 
 the natural punctuation marks so that the lungs can be kept 
 
 well filled. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Practice reading a short selection at home, striving for calm- 
 ness of mind and ease in using the throat. Try to make the tones 
 as smooth as possible, eliminating all nasal quality and harshness. 
 Read the selection in class, and show the effect of the practice. 
 
 2. Assume the standing position described above, and practice 
 deep breathing. As the air is inhaled and exhaled, the body immedi- 
 ately above the waist line should expand and contract. After practic- 
 ing faithfully, read a selection, using the same position and manner 
 of breathing. Study the selection so that you can make groupings 
 of words which will allow you to use natural pauses for inhaling. 
 It may be well to mark these places. Read the selecdon in class. 
 
 Note. The object of this exercise is not to require any student to change 
 a good style of speaking which is natural to him, or to make him conscious 
 of what he ought to forget. It is solely to help those who need help.
 
 DISTINCTNESS 165 
 
 Use of Tongue and Lips. If the student will read a few 
 sentences aloud, letting the tongue lie inactive in the mouth 
 and making the lips do most of the work, he will see how 
 important for distinct speaking is the use of the tongue. 
 Then by reversing the process, keeping the lips still and 
 using only the tongue, the assistance rendered by the lips 
 will be clear. Foreigners, especially the French, make large 
 use of the muscles of the face and lips in speaking. Many 
 of us do not open the mouth enough to make it possible 
 for the lips to do any work. The difference between tire- 
 some, indistinct talking and bright, clear speaking is fre- 
 quently the same as that between unresponsive lips and 
 active, expressive ones. Some speakers who have very little 
 strength of voice have become successful on account of the 
 distinctness of their enunciation. 
 
 A little practice each day with the tongue and lips will 
 result in great improvement. Observation in a mirror will 
 be found helpful. The object of the following exercises is 
 to make the muscles of expression of the face, the tongue, 
 and the lips so responsive to the mind of the speaker that 
 his talking will be more effective. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Read a short selection aloud at home, keeping first the lips 
 and then the tongue as inactive as possible. Next practice using 
 both tongue and lips as much as possible. Do you notice a differ- 
 ence in distinctness ? Which helps more, tongue or lips ? Read the 
 piece in class, making distinctness your special aim. 
 
 2. Practice at home the following sounds, for the purpose of 
 bringing into greater use tlie lips and other facial muscles of 
 
 expression : 
 
 00-ee-oo-ee-oo-ee
 
 l66 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 Practice a short selection, paying particular attention to the greater 
 use of the lips. Read it in class. 
 
 3. Practice at home the following sounds, for the purpose of 
 using the tongue more effectively. Let the jaw and lips be left 
 inactive. 
 
 kla-khx-kla 
 
 kala-kala-kala (Sound a as in ' father.') 
 
 Practice a short selection, paying particular attention to the sharp, 
 accurate sounds made by the tongue. Read the selection in class. 
 
 4. Practice these lip sounds, allowing the lips to relax as much 
 
 as possible : 
 
 btib-biib-bub 
 
 Prepare a talk to give in class, emphasizing the lip sounds. 
 
 5. Practice these sounds, keeping the lips and the jaw as inactive 
 as possible : 
 
 Gay little daJidelion 
 
 Prepare another talk for class, emphasizing the tongue sounds. 
 
 6. Practice these sounds for the simultaneous use of lips and 
 
 tongue 
 
 blub-bhcb-blub 
 
 7. Prepare another reading to give in class, using the lips and 
 tongue effectively. Make no special effort to exaggerate. Let 
 teacher and classmates judge whether or not your enunciation is 
 distinct and otherwise satisfactory. 
 
 Variety and Emphasis. A voice without variety would 
 have no attractiveness, and could not show the relative im- 
 portance of the ideas expressed. The speaker who would 
 make his spoken thoughts effective, therefore, must vary 
 the quantity and quality of his voice. This he may do in at 
 least three ways : he may change the rate of speaking, or 
 the loudness of tone, or the pitch of the voice.
 
 RATE OF SPEAKING 167 
 
 The Rate of Speaking : Variety in Speed. A change in 
 the rate of speaking naturally emphasizes a thought. Thus, 
 we may call attention to certain thoughts by clearly separat- 
 ing one word from another and enunciating each with ex- 
 treme distinctness. We can show the approach to the end 
 of a paragraph or to the end of a speech by the same 
 method. By the opposite method, that of changing to a 
 faster rate, we can indicate the plunge into a new thought 
 or a new line of argument. 
 
 Most of us should learn to speak faster : there is too 
 much slow, tiresome talking. Of course a person who 
 speaks fast must speak very distinctly. He must also watch 
 the faces of his hearers to see that they can follow him. In 
 general, intricate or very important parts of the talk must be 
 spoken slowly, while sections which are simple or uniform in 
 thought — narrative, for example — may be given more rap- 
 idly. In any case, one should begin the talk slowly and dis- 
 tinctly. The first words of a speech are too often missed. 
 
 Punctuation in Speaking. Almost every punctuation mark 
 in written composition has its counterpart in oral composi- 
 tion. Short pauses show commas ; and successively longer 
 ones show semicolons, colons, and periods. Paragraph end- 
 ings are indicated by much longer pauses, and perhaps by 
 changes in the position of the speaker's body. Quotation 
 marks may be shown by an abrupt pause before the quota- 
 tion and another at the end, as well as by a change in the 
 pitch of the voice. The dash may be shown by an abrupt 
 stop, and the exclamation point by increased speed or force 
 toward the end. 
 
 The Judicious Use of Pauses. Most inexperienced speakers 
 are afraid to use pauses ; they feel that the talking must be
 
 i68 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 kept going else they will lose either the attention of the 
 hearers or confidence in themselves. These fears are usu- 
 ally groundless. 
 
 The proper use of pauses accomplishes two things : it 
 breaks up monotony, and it allows time for the hearers to 
 get the meaning. Too many speeches, even by experienced 
 talkers, have a machinelike monotony. Such a style of 
 speaking distracts the attention. Again, on a serious sub- 
 ject listeners need time to grasp an important or novel 
 idea. Often we like to turn away from a book to think 
 out what we have just read, but in the case of a speech 
 the hearer has no opportunity to do this. For these reasons, 
 the speech which is characterized by haste is usually void 
 of results. By making no pause after a question, or after 
 a challenge, or after an important statement or summary, 
 the succeeding ideas crowd into the consciousness before the 
 first have had time to make the proper impression. The 
 student need never think that his hearers will suppose that 
 he is hesitating ; hesitation produces a different effect. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Select a short paragraph to read in class. Practice it at 
 home, reading it, first, very slowly, then, as fast as you can. In 
 class read it once each way. Which is more effective ? 
 
 2. On a subject about which you know a great deal, prepare a 
 short talk ; give it in class, speaking as rapidly as possible. This 
 exercise is to cultivate the power of rapid thinking and talking. 
 
 3. Prepare and give in class another talk, speaking very slowly. 
 
 4. Prepare to read a selection in class, giving the opening and 
 closing sentences slowly, and the other sentences as rapidly as you 
 think the audience can follow. In the reading, make pauses where 
 necessary to show the sense.
 
 DIFFERENCE IN STRESS 169 
 
 Loudness of Tone. Theoretically, no words in a sentence 
 are spoken with exactly the same stress. Practically, we use 
 perhaps three degrees of loudness. In the preceding sen- 
 tence the words 'practically,' 'three,' and 'degrees' have 
 chief stress ; ' use,' ' perhaps,' and ' loudness ' have only mod- 
 erate stress ; while ' we ' and ' of ' have the least. We must 
 be careful not to emphasize unimportant words. Debaters 
 sometimes wrongly emphasize such words as ' resolved,' 
 ' and,' and ' should.' 
 
 Above the level of being heard by all, there is a wide 
 range of stress from which to choose. Important statements 
 may be given with full strength ; difficult analysis may need 
 a serious, quiet presentation. Words which would be printed 
 in italics can be made to stand out in speaking. Words 
 may be put into parenthesis by dropping the voice and by 
 pauses before and after the parenthesis. 
 
 Making Everybody Hear. The worst of all faults in pub- 
 lic speaking is failure to make every listener hear, and hear 
 comfortably. No other combination of virtues and graces 
 will make up for this fault. Failure to be heard is in rare 
 instances due to circumstances which cannot be controlled, 
 but oftener it is due to lack of consideration or effort on 
 the part of the speaker ; he does not put himself in the 
 hearer's place. If a speaker talks too loudly or too softly 
 he is not thinking of his audience. A good plan is to 
 select some person in the rear of the hall, and see that 
 he hears. Sometimes even the most experienced public 
 speakers talk only to a portion of the house near the front, 
 utterly ignoring the others. Sympathetic regard for others 
 is the best cure for this difficulty. Do not allow yourself 
 the excuse that yon cannot make yourself heard, lliere is
 
 I/O GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 hardly a girl who cannot learn to make an audience of 
 fifteen hundred people hear her. It is all a matter of the 
 right use of the voice, together with a belief that you can. 
 Never allow the last few words of a speech to be lost ; 
 make the finish a strong one. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. a. What words should receive the strongest, the medium, 
 and the weakest stress in the following sentences ? 
 
 1. Aren't you ready to do your duty? 
 
 2. Make hay while the sun shines. 
 
 3. Ignorance of the law is no excuse. 
 
 4. Jesus said, " Father, forgive them ; for they know not what 
 they do." 
 
 5. There is no possible reason why we should n't succeed. 
 
 h. Compose or select five other sentences, and read them in 
 class. Exaggerate the stresses slightly, so that the differences will 
 be evident. 
 
 2. Read a short selection of poetry, bringing out clearly the 
 appropriate differences in stress. Careful practice will be neces- 
 sary. (Try to apply, also, what you have learned about variations 
 in the speed of reading.) Selections from Shakespeare's "Julius 
 Caesar," Act III, are suggested, particularly Antony's speech in 
 Scene i, beginning, " O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth," 
 and those in Scene ii, beginning, '^ If you have tears, prepare to 
 shed them now," and " Good friends, sweet friends, let me not 
 stir you up." 
 
 3. Prepare a prose reading to give in class. Study it thoroughly, 
 noting the sentences which should be read more loudly than others. 
 Pay attention also to differences of stress within each sentence, 
 and to differences in the rate of reading. Practice faithfully, and 
 read the selection in class.
 
 VARIETY OF PITCH 171 
 
 4. Prepare a speech to give in class, preferably a brief argu- 
 ment on a business proposition. Practice it repeatedly, making it 
 show striking and appropriate differences in loudness. There is 
 no objection to a little exaggeration. Remember to make the 
 conclusion strong. 
 
 5. Prepare an announcement. If possible, the class should meet 
 in a room which will seat 200 people, then in one seating 1000 or 
 1500, and again in the open air. Let the members of the class 
 station themselves at some distance from the platform and in 
 various directions from the speaker. Make the announcement so 
 clearly that no word can possibly be "missed. Perhaps you may be 
 able to practice with a friend beforehand. After your speech ask 
 how many missed even a word of the announcement. 
 
 This exercise should be repeated until satisfactory results are 
 obtained. At each trial the speaker should look over the place and 
 the audience before he speaks, deciding how to adjust his voice to 
 fiU the space. 
 
 The Pitch of the Voice. A third element of variety in 
 the use of the voice is that of pitch. Though no one can 
 be expected to use in speaking the range of tone that a 
 singer uses in singing, yet the instrument employed in 
 both cases is the same. If the sentence, "You are a hero," 
 be spoken, one could determine with a delicate musical in- 
 strument the pitch of each sound. Every sound one makes 
 has its place in the musical scale. Since the voice has a 
 wide range of tone, just as any other musical instrument 
 has, why should not every person learn to use a greater 
 range in his speaking? Some speeches are tiresome be- 
 cause all the tones are between two notes of the scale. On 
 the other hand, a lawyer pleading for a life will use a full 
 octave of tones, low tones for solemn warning and pleading, 
 and high tones for questioning and denouncing.
 
 1/2 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 Learning to use a Greater Range of Tone. How may the 
 beginner learn to use a greater range of tone in his speak- 
 ing ? Let him choose a sentence, perhaps one expressing 
 excitement, and practice varying the pitch of the different 
 syllables. In this way he will find out which are his best 
 tones for ordinary speaking. There are many persons whose 
 speaking would be greatly improved by lowering the ordi- 
 nary voice a tone or two. Again, the student who practices 
 faithfully will develop the power to use high and low tones 
 when either are needed in his speaking. Repeated trials 
 will show how far up or down the scale he can safely go 
 in expressing various shades of meaning. 
 
 Change of pitch is used also to help mark parentheses, 
 new paragraphs, quotations, and different speakers in dia- 
 logue. We use the sudden high pitch at the end of a 
 question expecting a ' yes ' or a ' no ' answer. A common 
 error is the use of this up stroke at the end of declarative 
 sentences or even at the end of a speech. Hesitation or 
 lack of confidence is usually at the bottom of this fault. If 
 one has this habit, he should learn the down stroke of the 
 voice by cultivating a positive and emphatic style of talking. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Poetry approaches singing, and difference in pitch is obvious. 
 Practice a selection, and rfead it in class, using as great a range of 
 voice as possible. Thus, you, may get an insight into the wonder- 
 ful power of the voice. The selections mentioned in the previous 
 exercises would be acceptable ; also the following from the same 
 play: Act III, scene ii, Antony's speeches beginning, "Friends, 
 Romans, countrymen," and " But yesterday the word of Cassar" ; 
 and those of Cassius, Act I, scene ii, beginning, " I know that
 
 FORCEFUL SPEAKING 173 
 
 virtue to be in you, Brutus," and " Why, man, he doth bestride 
 the narrow world." 
 
 2. a. Practice the following sentences, speaking them with the 
 voice pitched as high as is natural to you. Try each sentence 
 in a low voice also, and then in what you think should be its 
 correct pitch. 
 
 1. Aren't you coming.? 
 
 2. How dare you say so ? 
 
 3. It is impossible to do what you ask. 
 
 4. We shall be there as soon as you will. 
 
 5. I will not have anything to do with your schemes. 
 
 6. We will not submit. 
 
 7. How can a man be unkind to his mother.? 
 
 8. This is a sad and solemn occasion. 
 
 9. This cave is as dark as night. 
 10. How dare you speak to me.? 
 
 b. Prepare five other sentences to read in class, using the 
 higher pitch. 
 
 c. Prepare five other sentences to read in class, using the 
 lower tones. 
 
 3. Select an ordinary piece of prose, such as a paragraph from 
 a periodical, and practice reading it with as great a range of tone 
 as possible. Study it thoroughly to determine what words and sen- 
 tences need the higher tones, and what the lower. Read the selec- 
 tion in class. Pay attention to differences in speed and in loudness. 
 
 4. Prepare a talk upon a subject of your own choosing. Make 
 a special effort to pitch the voice slightly lower than you usually 
 do. At the same time use a variety of different tones. Oive the 
 speech in class. 
 
 Enthusiasm and Force. It is of little use to speak at 
 all unless it can be done with .some vigor. It is desirable 
 to speak with ease, to talk distinctly, and to have variety 
 of speed, stress, and pitch. But the proper combination of
 
 174 GOOD USE OF THE VOICE 
 
 these good qualities should lead to forceful use of the voice. 
 Just how and when to be in earnest with the voice is a 
 matter for judgment and good taste to determine. The 
 student must learn that sometimes he is most forceful when 
 talking slowly, that there are times when subdued tones are 
 more forceful than loud ones, and that frequently notes 
 in a low pitch express more force than high-pitched ones. 
 Adapt the emphasis to the subject, to the thought being 
 expressed, and to the time, place, and particular audience 
 addressed. 
 
 Be careful that enthusiasm is not overdone ; that you 
 do not make an exhibition of force run to waste. Over- 
 emphasis is bad because the audience will pay attention to 
 your manner of speaking and little to what you say, and 
 because they may suspect you of insincerity. Never give 
 the impression of spending yourself to the utmost ; always 
 have a reserve of force. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study a piece of literature expressing serious, quiet thoughts ; 
 such, for example, as Lincoln's " Speech at Gettysburg," Wash- 
 ington's " Farewell Address," Portia's speech on mercy in " The 
 Merchant of Venice," the Twenty-third Psalm. Try to get into 
 the spirit of the thoughts of the author. Then practice the selec- 
 tion, putting into the reading all the quiet earnestness which will 
 make it effective. Read it before the class. 
 
 2. Find a selection which may be appropriately rendered with 
 vigorous emotion, such as an extract from Patrick Henry, Wendell 
 Phillips, or William Lloyd Garrison. Practice the selection, and 
 read it in class with great enthusiasm. 
 
 3. Select a partner for a conversation. Choose for argument 
 a question upon which you disagree. Hold the conversation before
 
 FORCEFUL SPEAKING 175 
 
 the class. Speak with great enthusiasm, but with the quiet manner 
 appropriate to a friendly conversation. 
 
 4. Prepare an argument upon an interesting, stirring subject. 
 Practice it carefully, paying attention to posture, gesture, and 
 good management of the voice. Deliver the speech in class with 
 as much vigorous force as is appropriate. 
 
 5. For the purpose of exercise in emphatic gesturing, facial 
 expression, and voice, arrange an extempore play with some ex- 
 citing conversation in it. It may be an attempt to collect rent, with 
 an eviction following. Such a scene might have four characters: 
 landlord, tenant, lawyer, and policeman. Put all the force possible 
 into the play. 
 
 6. Prepare a talk requiring a quiet, earnest manner, such as 
 the principal of the school would assume in telling the students 
 about the value of thinking about their life-careers. Give the talk 
 in class.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Occasions requiring talks to fit particular needs frequentty 
 arise in student life, as, for example, when a member of the 
 graduating class, in a speech at assembly, presents to the 
 school a picture or other gift. Furthermore, announce- 
 ments are often to be made, nominations for school offices 
 are common in many schools, and in some schools student 
 officers preside at auditorium calls and introduce speakers. 
 This chapter is devoted to the discussion of the needs aris- 
 ing out of such occasions. It may be that years will pass 
 before the student will be asked to give a toast or an oration 
 in real life ; nevertheless, the practice in such talks is of 
 such value that all the talks outlined below should be tried. 
 If the real occasions do not arise in school life, possible 
 situations may be dramatized by the members of the class. 
 
 I. THE ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 When a person appears before an audience to give a 
 notice or to speak of a coming event, he is making an 
 announcement. Since announcements are frequently given 
 in school as well as in public meetings, we shall here study 
 how they may be made most effectively. 
 
 Preparation for the Announcement. The first require- 
 ment is that the speaker should thoroughly understand 
 what he is going to announce. Nothing essential must 
 
 176
 
 THE ANNOUNCEMENT 177 
 
 be allowed to escape him. Thus, if the event is a game or 
 an entertainment, the following items must be included : 
 the occasion and the purpose of the event, the participants, 
 the date, the hour, the place, the terms of admission. If 
 any other information might be needed by the audience, 
 as, for example, how a place is to be reached, or how the 
 money received is to be used, the announcement must 
 include these items also. 
 
 Next, a WTitten outline should be prepared, so that the 
 details will be presented in the. best order. The speaker 
 must first arouse the interest of the audience, and therefore 
 he must select for his first item one of great interest. Thus, 
 in announcing the laying of a corner stone, one might begin, 
 ""This city is at last to have a new high-school building." 
 Other details may follow in the order which the speaker 
 thinks will serve best to hold the interest of the audience, 
 and to impress upon it the leading points. 
 
 Notes to use while speaking must next be prepared. It 
 is not safe to trust to the memory in the case of a compli- 
 cated announcement, for it is fatal to success to misstate 
 the time, the date, or the place. It may not be necessary 
 to include all the items in the notes used before the au- 
 dience, but dates and other figures should invariably be 
 set down. 
 
 The Speech. In presenting the announcement, accuracy 
 of information and distinctness of speech arc of first im- 
 portance. In the case of a printed notice, if the reader 
 overlooks or forgets any detail, he can turn back to it later. 
 But since with the oral announcement there is no oppor- 
 tunity to do this, the speaker must see that nothing essen- 
 tial is neglected. To this end he sliould repeat important
 
 178 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 facts at a suitable opportunity, perhaps by a summarizing 
 sentence at the close of the talk. He must also emphasize 
 the important points. To show emphasis printed notices 
 frequently make use of several different kinds of type, but 
 the speaker must accomplish the same result by the voice. 
 The following announcement may serve as an illustration : 
 
 The second annual junior exposition^ for the exhibition of the 
 products and interests of the children of this city, will be held on next 
 Friday afternooft and evening. Last year's success is to be repeated 
 on a larger and more comprehensive scale. The section devoted to 
 children's pets has been greatly enlarged, and sections for kites and 
 for home decoration have been added. 
 
 The exposition is to be held in Conventiott Hall, on Williamson 
 Street, and will be open from three to ten p.m. The admission to 
 everyone is ten cetifs. 
 
 Reinember : Friday next; Convent io7i Hallj three to ten P.M.j 
 the jim ior exposition . 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Prepare and deliver an announcement for one of the 
 
 following events : 
 
 1. A football game. 6. An election. 
 
 2. An exhibit of farm products. 7. A business meeting. 
 
 3. An entertainment. 8. A candy sale. 
 
 4. A concert. 9. A band concert. 
 
 5. An excursion. 10. A mass meeting. 
 
 2. Announce one of the following as an approaching event, 
 and give directions for those who wish to sign, buy tickets, enter, 
 or take part : 
 
 1. A debate. 6. A new club. 
 
 2. A petition to the faculty. 7. A school play. 
 
 3. A track meet. 8. A subscription or collection. 
 
 4. A tennis tournament. 9. A try-out for the orchestra, 
 
 5. An initiative petition. 10. A picnic.
 
 THE NOMINATING SPEECH 1 79 
 
 II. THE NOMINATING SPEECH 
 
 Most of the world's work is done by means of organized 
 endeavor, and the officers in the organizations have usually 
 been chosen by nomination and election. It is therefore 
 important that anybody who is to take an active part in 
 life should know how to make a good nomination speech. 
 
 The public naming or recommending of some person to 
 fill an office is- called a nomination. If such an indorse- 
 ment is to accomplish its object, .it must be both intelligent 
 and enthusiastic. 
 
 The Outline. For the speech of nomination the speaker 
 must use some such outline as this : 
 
 OUTLINE FOR A NOMINATION SPEECH 
 
 1. The requirements of the ofifice. (If not already stated.) 
 
 2. The name of the candidate. 
 
 3. The candidate's qualifications for the office. 
 
 4. What he may be expected to do if elected. 
 
 5. The appeal for votes. 
 
 Although an outline should be prepared and carefully 
 mastered, notes should not be used during the speech, 
 however long or complicated it may be. Written notes 
 would give the impression that the speaker was not suffi- 
 ciently acquainted with the qualifications of the person 
 nominated. 
 
 Announcing the Name. Should the name of the candi- 
 date be announced at the beginning, in the middle, or at 
 the end of the speech.? There are reasons for each posi- 
 tion. A common place is at the close ; we have all heard 
 a speech end, "Therefore it gives me great pleasure to
 
 l8o SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 nominate Mr. Blank." There are good reasons, however, 
 for giving the name of the candidate at least as early as 
 the middle of the speech. Suppose the speaker withholds 
 the name during the first part of the speech, but tells the 
 audience that one of the candidate's qualifications is prac- 
 tical business experience. At once many in the audience 
 begin to guess who the candidate is, and may be so dis- 
 tracted that they fail to hqar some of the important details. 
 If the name comes early in the speech, the hearers are able 
 to follow each point intelligently, and to test the accuracy 
 of the statements by their own knowledge. 
 
 From a parliamentary standpoint, when the name is given 
 it should be addressed to the chairman of the meeting, so 
 that the secretary will record it. Thus, at whatever point 
 in the speech the speaker desires, he may turn to the chair- 
 man and say, " Mr. Chairman, I nominate Mr. Blank for 
 the office of president." 
 
 Appeal for Votes. The other topics of the outline above 
 should need no explanation, except perhaps the last. The 
 appeal for votes should be based on the evidence presented 
 under the other topics ; for example : 
 
 We see that this office is a responsible one, and it is therefore 
 our duty to vote for the best candidate. The young man that I 
 have nominated has the necessar}' ability, and I have shown you 
 what we may expect him to do for the club, if he is elected. I 
 am sure he is the best person for the office, and I hope you will 
 vote for him. 
 
 The appeal should not be too long, for to bore one's 
 hearers means failure. Neither should the appeal be based 
 on minor considerations ; for example, that because William 
 is popular, or jolly, or an athlete, he should be elected
 
 THE NOMINATING SPEECH i8i 
 
 treasurer of the club. The opponents are hkely to seize 
 upon these statements and to claim that such arguments 
 show how hard it is to find good reasons for recommend- 
 ing the candidate. In any case, the candidate's principles 
 are far more important than his personal qualities. 
 
 It should not be necessar)' to remind anybody that par- 
 liamentary rules prevent adverse comments about candidates. 
 
 Originality. Nomination speeches must be attractive. 
 Therefore avoid tiresome, worn-out expressions. There are 
 many good ways of saying, "It gives me great pleasure." 
 
 Humor has no place in a nominating speech unless it 
 applies to the argument. The joke that is told "just for 
 fun " or "to get the ear of the audience " merely clouds the 
 real issue. Such methods do not deceive intelligent voters. 
 
 Win votes by nominating the right candidate, by giving 
 clear reasons for his election, by sincere enthusiasm, and 
 by making the appeal for the good of the society. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Prepare a nomination speech, choosing from the list below or 
 selecting your own subject. For duties of officers, see Chap. XIV. 
 
 1. Baseball captain. 11. Treasurer of a union. 
 
 2. Track manager. 12. Librarian of an orchestra. 
 
 3. Treasurer of the school. 13. (irand marshal of a parade. 
 
 4. Yell leader. 14. Master of ceremonies at a 
 
 5. Manager of the lunch room. celebration. 
 
 6. Secretary of a literary club. 15. Chairman of a convention. 
 
 7. President of a social club. 16. Chairman of a mass meeting. 
 
 8. President of a business or- 17. Manager of your city. 
 
 ganization. 18. Mayor of your city. 
 
 9. Sergeant at arms. 19. Governor of your state. 
 
 10. Secretary of a chamber of 20. President of the United 
 commerce. States.
 
 1 82 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 III. THE INTRODUCTION OF A SPEAKER 
 
 In public meetings the necessity of introducing a speaker 
 to the audience is very common, and we shall find it worth 
 while to learn how to do it. 
 
 The Outline. To make a speech of introduction it is 
 necessary to have a definite plan in mind. First, perhaps, 
 the occasion and its meaning may be noted ; and next, the 
 name of the guest, and for what he is known. Then may 
 be mentioned the speaker's subject ; and finally should 
 come an expression of the pleasure of the audience in the 
 opportunity of listening to their guest. Then the chairman 
 may turn to the speaker, who steps forward, and formally 
 introduce him to the audience : " Ladies and gentlemen, 
 Mr. Blank." 
 
 Announcing the Name. The chairman must be careful 
 in announcing the name. Not one person in the audience 
 should be allowed to miss it. The speaker will respond, 
 "Mr. Chairman," either as he rises or as he reaches the 
 front of the platform. The person presiding remains 
 standing for this response, and bows in reply. Then he 
 takes his seat on the platform, or perhaps with the audi- 
 ence, if the meeting is in a small room. 
 
 Naturalness. The chairman must not embarrass the 
 speaker by flattery, or by a flourish of oratory. The 
 introduction should be brief. Let the chairman remember 
 that the audience did not come to hear him. 
 
 No notes should be used in an introduction speech. 
 
 Thanking the Speaker. Usually the speaker should be 
 thanked when he has finished. If there is prolonged 
 applause, the chairman should not come to the front until
 
 INTRODUCTION OF A SPEAKER 183 
 
 it begins to subside. It is a good plan to rise as the 
 speaker returns to his seat, perhaps shaking hands with 
 him and bowing him to his seat. The chairman may stand 
 a moment at his seat, and then come forward to express, 
 on behalf of the audience, the pleasure which the speaker 
 has given them. He will be talking in two directions, 
 and should look from the audience to the speaker. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 The best practice in giving introductions will be gained if each 
 member of the class will choose a partner. Suppose, for example, 
 that some member of the class is to give an explanation on a sub- 
 ject in electricit}^ Let him play the part of an expert from another 
 city. As his partner, you may consult him beforehand to find out 
 his name, position, honors, etc., and to get his exact subject. Then 
 introduce him to the class, and thank him after his speech is 
 finished. Make the occasion as nearly like a real situation as 
 possible. The following introductions are suggested : 
 
 1. A returned soldier. 11. A labor-union leader, 
 
 2. An expert in agriculture. 12. A manufacturer. 
 
 3. A noted traveler. 13. An army officer. 
 
 4. An agent for plows. 14. An inventor. 
 
 5. A candidate for office. 15. A noted chemist. 
 
 6. A celebrated athlete. 16. A noted architect. 
 
 7. A hero. 17. A statesman. 
 
 8. A mayor from another city. 18. A foreign diplomat. 
 
 9. A visiting teacher. 19. A king. 
 
 10. A clergyman. 20. An explorer. 
 
 In case the person introduced is presented for the pur- 
 pose of honoring him rather than for the purpose of having 
 him give a set speech, the situation is similar to that in 
 which a gift is presented. This we shall consider next.
 
 1 84 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 IV. THE PRESENTATION AND RESPONSE 
 
 Many situations arise in which it is necessary for some 
 one to make a presentation speech, and for the recipient 
 to respond. No kind of speech requires -greater poise, 
 and there is none in which awkwardness is more noticeable. 
 Faithful practice will help to make one at ease in such 
 situations, if this is reenforced with the sincerity and kind- 
 liness which should go with the gift and the giving. 
 
 The Presentation. The outline for the speech is simple. 
 It may include four topics: (i) the good qualities of the 
 person honored ; (2) the reason for presenting the gift ; 
 (3) the good wishes of the givers ; and (4) the words 
 of presentation. The recipient will be standing with the 
 speaker in the case of the presentation of an emblem or 
 a medal, since such an occasion involves no surprise. But 
 when the person who is to receive the gift has not 
 been informed of the event, he will probably be seated in 
 the audience. 
 
 Tr)^ to avoid causing the recipient embarrassment. You 
 may, of course, take him by surprise, but put him as much 
 at ease as possible. Talk directly to him, as naturally as 
 you can, and hint at what is to follow. Do not overdo the 
 compliments. Allow time for him to collect his thoughts 
 before vou finish. 
 
 The Response. In accepting a gift or an honor pre- 
 sented in public, make your speech sincere and short. By 
 no means refer to your own qualities or to past accom- 
 plishments, even indirectly by means of an apolog}' or by 
 a show of humilit}\ Such remarks spoil the gladness of 
 the giving, because they cannot be sincere.
 
 PRESENTATION AND RESPONSE 185 
 
 An outline like the one following may be used, in such 
 cases as when a gavel is to be presented to a retiring 
 president of an organization : (i) sincerely thank the givers; 
 (2) tell how deeply the honor is appreciated ; (3) thank the 
 members for their cooperation and friendship ; (4) ask their 
 support for the new officers ; (5) say that the gift will 
 always call to your mind your loyal friends and your help- 
 ful experiences in the society. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Below is a list of gifts, some of them with suggested recipi- 
 ents. Select one of these and prepare a speech of presentation, 
 first requesting somebody to stand with you and accept the gift, 
 either for himself or on behalf of an organization, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 1. A medal to an athlete. 6. A flagstaff to the school. 
 
 2. A school emblem to a debater. 7. A tree to a city park. 
 
 3. A gavel to a retiring officer. 8. Diplomas to a class. 
 
 4. A prize to the winner of a 9. A picture to a club. 
 
 contest. 10. A piano to a society. 
 
 5. A scholarship. 
 
 2. Select a gift to present to some person in the class who 
 does not know of the honor until your talk begins. Let it be 
 •understood that the recipient is to respond. The following are 
 suggested : 
 
 1. A clock. 6. A sewing machine. 
 
 2. A fountain pen. 7. A set of dishes. 
 
 3. A watch. 8. A pet dog. 
 
 4. A pocketknife. 9. A sum of money. 
 
 5. A book. 10. A deed to a house and lot
 
 1 86 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 V. THE TOAST OR AFTER-DINNER SPEECH 
 
 The Occasion and Purpose. A toast is a dinner speech 
 designed to honor or express appreciation of an organiza- 
 tion, individual, or sentiment. The dinner and the program 
 which follows are arranged by a committee, who choose the 
 toastmaster, the speakers, and the subjects. Thus if a com- 
 pany of former Panama Canal workers should hold a ban- 
 quet, there might well be toasts on these subjects : The 
 Republic of Panama ; The Chief Engineer ; The P^ific 
 Coast ; The Suez Canal ; Sanitation ; Uncle Sam. 
 
 Toasts are usually a mixture of serious and witty thoughts. 
 Some of the topics are assigned by the committee with the 
 idea of humorous treatment throughout, while others neces- 
 sarily require a serious style. A toast which is wholly seri- 
 ous, however, is rare. Every speaker must present his 
 subject attractively, and it is probably for this reason that 
 appropriate, bright sayings and funny stories are introduced. 
 
 Plan. No fixed outline for a toast can very well be sug- 
 gested here. If a story or a humorous incident is to be 
 used to begin the toast, it should be one that clearly applies 
 to the subject. The hearers may gradually be led from the 
 lighter thoughts to the serious consideration of the subject. 
 If the speech is a eulogy of a person, the treatment must 
 be candid, sincere, and unaffected. The ending may be 
 a summary, or possibly a happy look into the future. 
 Originally the speech ended with a cup held aloft and some 
 such words as, "I pledge you, friends, our country, the 
 fairest," etc., that is, a well-worded descriptive sentence or 
 a quotation of poetry. The banqueters then drank the toast. 
 The actual drinking is now often omitted.
 
 THE TOAST 187 
 
 There is no need to memorize a toast ; a little practice 
 with an outline, either alone or before a helpful critic, will 
 be preparation enough. A small card at the place, with a 
 few words to aid the memory, will not be objectionable. 
 A memorized wording will almost always spoil the pleasure 
 of the hearers. 
 
 The Toastmaster. The person chosen toastmaster of the 
 banquet has an entirely different task to perform. The 
 president of the society, or the chairman of the committee 
 of arrangements, will turn the program over to him and he 
 becomes master of ceremonies ; that is, he gives an opening 
 talk about the occasion and its meaning, which is somewhat 
 like a toast itself, and also introduces each of the speakers 
 and announces his subject. 
 
 The good toastmaster has a fund of apt stories. He leads 
 from one toast to another by appropriate comments on the 
 subject just finished, and by remarks or a story introducing 
 the next. The more closely the remarks apply to the 
 speaker or the subject the better. 
 
 The Guest of Honor. If the banquet is in honor of a 
 person, he should be the last speaker. Let us suppose that 
 the Chamber of Commerce is banqueting the Secretary of 
 State. The guest may be introduced by the toastmaster, 
 though often the preceding speaker, who may be the presi- 
 dent of the society or the mayor of the city, is asked to do 
 it. The Secretary's speech is of his own choosing. He may 
 express appreciation for the good words and the honors, 
 happiness in the occasion, and good wishes for the organi- 
 zation. He may then talk about the affairs of the country,' 
 or the policies of the administration, or our trade with other 
 countries, or on any other topic of general interest.
 
 i88 
 
 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Suggestions for Practice. The occasion may be a simple 
 banquet of the class, or a dinner of "notables" in which 
 each student takes the part of some personage. The follow- 
 ing are suggestions : Chamber of Commerce ; Republican 
 Central Committee ; Society for Prevention of Cruelty 
 to Animals ; Civic League ; Improvement Club ; Athletic 
 Club ; Football Team ; the workers of a store ; the heads 
 of departments of a business house ; the annual banquet of 
 any other of the innumerable societies which help to carry 
 on the world's work and play. For other examples, see the 
 suggested events on page 191. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make arrangements with other members of the class, and 
 jointly prepare a program of toasts. Use the sample programs 
 below as suggestions. If cooperation seems impracticable, let 
 each student choose one topic and prepare an appropriate speech. 
 
 I. A School Banquet 
 
 II. A Civic Organization 
 
 1. Student activities. 
 
 
 1. Our schools. 
 
 2. After school, what.? 
 
 
 2. The ladies. 
 
 3. The fun we have. 
 
 
 3. The churches. 
 
 4. The faculty. 
 
 
 4. Our neighbors. 
 
 5. Music. 
 
 
 5. Prosperity. 
 
 6. The taxpayer's standpoint. 
 
 6. The look ahead. 
 
 III. A Merchants' 
 
 Asso- 
 
 IV. A Political Organi- 
 
 CIATION 
 
 
 zation 
 
 1. The advertiser. 
 
 
 1. The glorious past. 
 
 2. The salesman. 
 
 
 2. The classes and the masses, 
 
 3. The show window. 
 
 
 3. Graft. 
 
 4. The public. 
 
 
 4. Hard times. 
 
 5. The future. 
 
 
 5. Progress.
 
 THE ORATION 189 
 
 2. Arrange with tlie required number of your classmates for a 
 
 program similar to the following, and let each prepare to give one 
 of the toasts : 
 
 I. A Dinner to a Professor 11. A Banquet to a Labor 
 
 OF Agriculture Leader 
 
 1. Welcome to our guest. 1. The movement. 
 
 2. The old-fashioned farmer. 2. What we are trying to do in 
 
 3. The price of hogs. this city. 
 
 4. Modern methods. 3. The ballot. 
 
 5. Politics. 4. The larger patriotism. 
 
 6. Introduction of the guest. 5. Our guest. 
 
 7. Address : Scientific farming. 6. Address : The outlook. 
 
 '&• 
 
 VI. THE ORATION 
 
 The Real Use of the Oration. Graduation speeches are 
 often called orations, although they are usually nothing 
 more than explanations or arguments, or simple combina- 
 tions of the two. The typical speech of the so-called ora- 
 torical contest also is not a real oration, at least in the 
 proper sense of the term. It is usually a series of argu- 
 ments or an explanation of events, with perhaps an appeal 
 at the end. Often these speeches are given in an artificial, 
 strained style which may do a young speaker harm ; they 
 are a bad mixture of dramatics and debating. The student 
 would do better to confine his attention either to dramatics 
 or to debating, and not to mix the two. 
 
 Strictly speaking, an oration is the chief speech of the 
 program of exercises held to celebrate an important event, 
 such as the founding of a college or the birthday of a 
 statesman. When the exercises are planned, some person 
 conspicuous for good citizenship and for his experience and 
 ability in speaking is selected as tlie chief orator.
 
 I90 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Although the student may not be called upon to deliver 
 an oration until many years after his graduation, the train- 
 ing involved in planning, studying, and delivering a simple 
 oration will prove of value to him now. No other kind of 
 speech offers so good an opportunity for effective speaking, 
 except perhaps the debate. Its use is so restricted, however, 
 that we shall consider it only briefly. 
 
 Preparation. Material for the oration may be obtained 
 only by a thorough study of the subject, which may include 
 research into both history and biography. The scope of the 
 speech must be indicated by the topics of the outline. The 
 following is a typical plan : 
 
 OUTLINE FOR AN ORATION 
 Celebration of Independence Day 
 
 1. Introduction: The reason for to-day's celebration. 
 
 2. History : The events leading up to the Declaration of 
 Independence. 
 
 3. Eulogy : Praise of the men concerned in that event. 
 
 4. Explanation : The historical importance of America's free- 
 dom ; and the probable effect on the future. 
 
 5. Conclusion : An appeal to the audience to aid in carrying 
 forward the ideals of the nation. 
 
 In the oration greatest emphasis should be put on such 
 topics as the third and the fourth in the outline above. 
 The first two should be restricted to a brief treatment. 
 
 The outline should be memorized, for the orator usually 
 should hold no notes. The old-time orations were often 
 written out and memorized, but the modern way seems to 
 be to avoid learning the actual words. The movements and 
 the manner of an orator should be deliberate and dignified.
 
 OTHER TALKS 
 
 191 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Prepare an oration. Choose any subject you wish ; the topics 
 below may suggest an acceptable occasion. Arrange to have 
 somebody act as chairman and introduce you. (Perhaps a whole 
 program may be arranged and carried out, including vocal and 
 instrumental music, reading, the introduction, and the oration.) 
 
 1. Independence Day. 
 
 2. Labor Day. 
 
 3. Birthday of Washington or 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 4. Thanksgiving. 
 
 5. Columbus Day. 
 
 6. Memorial Day. 
 
 7. Christmas. 
 
 8. Fifdeth anniversary of the 
 
 opening of the Panama 
 Canal. 
 
 9. Opening of a park or play- 
 
 ground. 
 
 10. Completion of a harbor. 
 
 11. Laying the corner stone of a 
 
 museum. 
 
 12. Launching an ocean liner. 
 
 13. Opening a canal. 
 
 14. Opening an irrigating system. 
 
 15. Signing a treaty. 
 
 16. Establishment of world peace. 
 
 17. 
 
 The invention of printing or 
 of the telephone. 
 
 The discovery of electricity 
 or of aviation. 
 
 The anniversary of the found- 
 ing of Boston. 
 
 The state of Illinois. 
 
 Dedication of a library. 
 
 The Pilgrim Fathers. 
 
 The discovery of the north 
 pole. 
 
 The Knickerbockers. 
 
 The pioneers of California. 
 
 Unveiling a monument. 
 
 Unveiling a fountain. 
 
 Signing an old-age pension 
 bill. 
 
 29. Breaking ground for an ex- 
 
 position. 
 
 30. Breaking ground for a na- 
 
 tional university. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 28. 
 
 VII. OTHER TALKS 
 
 The Commemoration or Celebration or Dedication Speech 
 will usually be an oration, as indicated in the exercises above. 
 
 The Eulogy is a speech in praise of some individual. It 
 is like an oration, though the outline must be somewhat 
 changed — perhaps as follows : the occasion ; what the man
 
 192 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 has done ; his value to his fellows ; the influence he will 
 exert on the future ; the appeal. The praise should not be 
 exaggerated. 
 
 The Farewell Speech, addressed to one who is leaving, 
 may touch upon the occasion, the appreciation of friends for 
 the person and his accomplishments, and the good wishes 
 for the future. The response to such a speech resembles 
 a valedictory (see below). 
 
 The Speech of Gratitude is similar to the speech of 
 acceptance (see page 184). 
 
 The Inauguration Speech, or Speech of Installation, is 
 made when one assumes an office. It resembles the speech 
 of acceptance, but includes, in addition, an appreciation of 
 the good efforts of the retiring officers and a statement of 
 the policies and plans of the new administration. 
 
 The Invitation Speech expresses good fellowship or 
 mutual interest ; it states accurately the event to which the 
 invitation is given, tells how the invitation may be accepted, 
 and expresses cordial hope that the response will be 
 favorable. 
 
 The Rally Speech purposes to arouse enthusiasm for a 
 good cause or a coming contest, and must express optimism. 
 In form it may follow the outline of the oration, especially 
 emphasizing the importance of the cause and the appeal 
 for support. It must be spontaneous and informal. 
 
 The Valedictory is a speech of farewell by a person who 
 is taking leave of some place, organization, or the like. It 
 is made use of chiefly by a representative of a graduat- 
 ing class of a school. It may include words of apprecia- 
 tion for friendships, regret at parting, and good wishes for 
 the future.
 
 OTHER TALKS 
 
 193 
 
 The Speech of Welcome is in honor of visitors or return- 
 ing friends. If a visiting committee of citizens from an- 
 other city is welcomed in our city hall by the mayor, the 
 speech might include these topics : the occasion, our regard 
 for the visitors and their city, the plans for the visit, pleasure 
 in the welcoming, hope for the success of the visit. The 
 response to such a speech is like an acceptance. It may 
 express thanks for the greeting, pleasure in having come, 
 anticipation of good fellowship, and the friendship between 
 
 the two cities. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Prepare and deliver a speech on one of the subjects in each 
 group given below. When possible, cooperate with other students 
 who will give introductions or responses. 
 
 I. Eulogy 
 
 1. Washington. 
 
 2. Lincoln. 
 
 3. Lee. 
 
 4. Longfellow. 
 
 5. Gladstone. 
 
 6. John Harvard. 
 
 7. Henry Clay. 
 
 IL Farewell 
 
 IV. 
 
 14. President of a college. 
 
 15. Mayor. 
 
 16. Governor. 
 
 17. President. 
 
 Invitation 
 
 18. To a celebration. 
 
 19. To a banquet. 
 
 20. To a school or college. 
 
 III. 
 
 8. To a teacher. 
 
 V. Rally Speech 
 
 9. To a friend about to leave. 
 
 21. 
 
 A game. 
 
 10. To an explorer. 
 
 22. 
 
 A debate. 
 
 Inauguration 
 
 23. 
 24. 
 
 Interest in athletics. 
 Interest in debating. 
 
 11. President of the student 
 
 25. 
 
 Interest in the school 
 
 body. 
 
 
 paper. 
 
 12. President of tlic debating 
 
 26. 
 
 Interest in the orchestra. 
 
 club. 
 
 27. 
 
 Contributions to charity. 
 
 13. Athletic manager. 
 
 28. 
 
 A political campaign.
 
 194 
 
 SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 VI. Valedictory 
 
 29. Leaving school. 
 
 30. Leaving a social club. 
 
 31. Graduating from college. 
 
 32. Leaving a business firm. 
 
 VII. Welcome 
 
 33. A visiting teachier. 
 
 34. A new principal. 
 
 35. A peace delegate from a 
 
 foreign country. 
 
 36. A mayor. 
 
 37. A labor convention. 
 
 38. A convention of scientists. 
 
 39. A committee of investiga- 
 
 tors. 
 
 40. A committee of business 
 
 men.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 We have now discussed in detail the most important 
 kinds of talks. There are still to be considered, however, 
 some special talks and exercises, which, for convenience, 
 we have grouped together in this chapter : Reading ; Cur- 
 rent Topics ; The Discussion ; Impromptu Talks ; Humorous 
 Stories and Jokes ; Interviews ; Conversations ; Extempore 
 Plays. Several of these are closely related to those already 
 studied, but we shall here briefly concentrate our attention 
 on each of these special topics. 
 
 I. READING 
 
 Whether the subject matter be an exciting bit of news, 
 an interesting description, a serious speech, a poem, or an 
 essay, the power of multiplying thought in the printed page 
 by means of the spoken word is a fascinating process. 
 
 What to read in Class. To get the best results we must 
 make a careful selection of the material to be read. If all 
 the selections brought to class were interesting and new 
 to the hearers, there would be little difficulty in learning 
 to read successfully. There is not much incentive to a 
 student to read well when he knows that few of the others 
 care about hearing him. 
 
 In our consideration of reading, therefore, we shall not 
 discuss drill in expression, repeated reading, or dramatic 
 
 195
 
 196 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 reading ; these may be reserved for special classes. We 
 shall assume at the outset that each student makes his own 
 selections and that every item read in class will, under 
 ordinary circumstances, attract and hold the listeners. Selec- 
 tions should be made with this end in view, and books, 
 magazines, and papers should be searched for appropriate 
 reading material. Incidents, current events, and other short 
 articles will usually be most interesting. Occasionally a 
 piece of business English, such as a circular or an adver- 
 tisement, will be useful. When a long selection is chosen, 
 it should be divided among several readers. 
 
 Preparation. The selection given below, clipped from 
 the magazine section of a newspaper, is the kind fre- 
 quently used in class. 
 
 A ROCK-SALT RAILWAY STATION 
 
 Writing of the wonderful Wieliczka salt mines near Cracow in 
 Austrian Poland the Alanchester (England) Guardian gives an inter- 
 esting description of a railway station in the mine. There are 65 miles 
 of pony tramways, says the Guardian, and 22 miles of railway. All these 
 lines and the principal passages or " streets " meet in a sort of central 
 cavern. Here is a central railway station, with spacious waiting rooms, 
 offices, and an excellent refreshment room all complete, all hewn out 
 of rock salt, and looking, according to one description, " more like a 
 summer pavilion than a railway station, with its latticed galleries and 
 stately pillars gleaming white and iridescent." This is comparatively 
 modern, of course. The oldest " building " in the mine is the chapel 
 of St. Anthony, dating from 1691. It contains three altars, a pulpit, 
 and much statuary, all elaborately carved out of rock salt. But services 
 are now held only in the more modern but equally elaborate chapel of 
 St. Cunigund, which is entered down 46 salt steps. The ballroom is a 
 huge room, where miners' festivals are often held. A miners' orchestra 
 plays regularly in this hall not only for the dances, but for the enter- 
 tainment of visitors, for the mine is one of the wonders of the world 
 and is much visited by tourists.
 
 READING 197 
 
 In preparing to read such an article, we need first to 
 make the thought our own. Repeated reading, with what- 
 ever study is necessary, will give us the sense of the 
 article. The dictionary should be used for meanings and 
 pronunciations. Failure to make proper preparation may 
 lead to awkwardness and to the recital of mere words. The 
 class may well protest if its time is wasted by such reading. 
 Oral practice is the best preparation, and we shall discuss 
 below some principles to be observed in this practice. 
 
 Reading at Sight. Sometimes, however, we may find it 
 necessary to read an article without any preparation. Since 
 it is important for us to have practice in such an exercise, 
 we shall make our directions apply to both kinds of reading, 
 but we may here consider a word or two of warning for the 
 sight-reading exercise. Do the best you can, and then do 
 not worry if your reading is imperfect. If you are asked 
 to read an article similar to that given above, you should 
 make a sincere attempt to pronounce the difficult names 
 without hesitation and without asking anybody else. Do 
 not spell words to your hearers or to the teacher. A guess 
 at the pronunciation is better than that, unless a possible 
 mispronunciation would destroy the sense of the article. 
 
 The Beginning. When about to read a prepared article, 
 do not make a long statement before you begin. If the 
 selection is complete, it will usually have its own introduc- 
 tion. At most, if some remark seems necessary, tell the 
 source of the article and its general purpose. For example, 
 a selection without a definite title might be prefaced by 
 such a remark as, " This is the description of an English 
 school in the early part of the last century. It is from 
 Dickens's ' Nicholas Nickleby.' "
 
 198 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 Announcing the Subject. Be exceedingly careful to make 
 the subject perfectly clear to your hearers. Many times it 
 happens that because the speaker himself is familiar with 
 the printed subject, he assumes that it will be sufficient for 
 him to talk in his usual tone of voice. He forgets that the 
 thoughts of his hearers may be far from his topic, and 
 must be brought to it definitely. For example, unless you 
 announce the topic, ""A Rock-Salt Railway Station," slowly 
 and distinctly, probably nine out of ten of your listeners 
 will imagine that the word before ' railway ' is the name of 
 a place. It is good practice to select a newspaper item, 
 with its brief, condensed headlines, and to read these topics 
 so carefully that nobody can miss them. The title is printed 
 large ; make it sound large. It is separated from the body 
 of the article ; separate it in the reading by means of a 
 definite pause after the title. This pause is essential for a 
 clear beginning. 
 
 The First Words. The opening words of the selection 
 itself must also be read slowly and very distinctly. The 
 reason for this is the psychological fact that it takes time 
 for the minds of the hearers to put aside present thoughts 
 and fall into the spirit of the new ideas. As you go to 
 the front, for example, some of your classmates may expect 
 from you an article on the temperance cause. They hear, 
 however, something about Mars, and at once think of 
 classic myths and ancient Greece and Rome. Instead of 
 that, they begin to hear of millions of miles and of canals, 
 and finally realize that you are trying to tell them about 
 the great planet. Because of the danger of being mis- 
 understood at first, every word must be made to reach the 
 thought of the hearer.
 
 READING 199 
 
 Some Fundamentals. It is fundamental to success to 
 learn to give more attention to the listeners than to the 
 paper. Hold the book or paper fairly high. This will help 
 you to look up without having to raise your head ; more- 
 over, it will give a full view of your face and better direc- 
 tion to your voice. Develop the ability to look ahead and 
 grasp the sense of words yet to be spoken. 
 
 In the body of the article where the thought is well 
 connected the reading may proceed much faster than at the 
 beginning or at the end. The Jast few sentences should 
 be given slowly, but the reading must not be allowed to 
 diminish in force. Make the finish a strong one. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. There is hardly a limit to the variety of topics possible for 
 reading. Any of those suggested below will be interesting if care 
 in the selection is used. Choose a short article, make the proper 
 preparation, and read the selection to the class. Be on the alert 
 to hold the attention of every person present. 
 
 1. Political news. 8. Newspaper interviews. 
 
 2. Business news. 9. Scientific articles. 
 
 3. Doings of Congress, state 10. School news. 
 
 legislature, or city council. 11. Editorials. 
 
 4. Foreign events. 12. Business circulars. 
 
 5. Notes on plays. 13. Selections from textbooks. 
 
 6. City affairs. 14. Political circulars. 
 
 7. News of clubs, lodges, or 15. A poem. 
 
 societies. 
 
 2. Make a selection which requires exact reading, one that does 
 not proceed smoothly from beginning to end. An article containing 
 figures would be best. Make the appropriate preparation, arid read 
 the selection in class. The following are suggested :
 
 200 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. A daily weather report. 6. A bill. 
 
 2. A business letter containing 7. A cooking receipt. 
 
 an order. 8. A stock-exchange report. 
 
 3. News of ships and shipping. 9. A notice of a meeting. 
 
 4. A market report. 10. A treasurer's report. 
 
 5. A table of current prices. 
 
 3. Select an advertisement, preferably a large display adver- 
 tisement with few details, but one using several different kinds 
 of type. Study it for the purpose of determining just how the 
 emphasis shall be placed. Practice for proper emphasis, and for 
 clearness throughout. Read it in class. 
 
 4. Select a short poem to be read in class. Be sure of the 
 meaning of every phrase. Practice faithfully. Remember that 
 you do not need to force rhythm : if you read naturally to bring 
 out the sense, the rhythm will take care of itself. Try to make a 
 definite gain in your ability to read poetry. 
 
 5. a. Select such an article as has been suggested in the 
 first exercise of this group. Bring it to class, cutting it from the 
 periodical if convenient, so that it may be easily handled. Let 
 one of the pupils collect all the selections, and place them face 
 downward on the desk or table. As your turn comes, choose 
 one of the articles and read it, doing the best you can at sight. 
 (If you draw your own piece, return it and draw again.) 
 
 h. Carry out the same exercise for such a selection as is sug- 
 gested in Exercise 2 above. 
 
 c. Carry out the exercise with an advertisement. 
 
 d. Carry out the exercise with a poem. 
 
 6. Let the teacher select a story of some length to be read 
 in class, at sight. Here every student is a link in a chain, and 
 the whole chain — the story — ■ breaks if one student fails to 
 read successfully. Begin at the first new paragraph on the 
 page shown you, and read to the beginning of a new para- 
 graph on the next page.
 
 CURRENT TOPICS 20I 
 
 II. CURRENT TOPICS 
 
 Conversations are full of discussions on current topics, 
 and our thoughts deal largely with them because they have 
 a vital relation to the things we are doing. To acquire the 
 ability to talk intelligently and interestingly on the happen- 
 ings of the day, we must learn to read accurately and 
 broadly, to listen attentively, and, above all, to practice 
 faithfully by ourselves and to talk with our friends. 
 
 The Choice of Topics. In selecting current topics to 
 present as Oral English recitations, avoid subjects so tech- 
 nical that your listeners cannot readily understand them, 
 and also those so simple or obvious that your audience will 
 be bored. This does not mean that common subjects must 
 be shunned if you have something fresh and interesting to 
 say on them. Select topics which are concerned with the 
 world's progress. Do not waste the time of the class with 
 the recital of events which never should have happened, 
 unless you have a cure to propose. 
 
 Preparation. Make yourself thoroughly familiar with your 
 topic by reading and conversation. In this study, as in the 
 case of other recitations in Oral English, the student might 
 well use for his preparation the time so often wasted in 
 idle thinking or careless talking — on the street car, or 
 when eating, dressing, walking, etc. 
 
 In order to give the talk well, its outline must be planned 
 in advance. This plan should include a sentence of intro- 
 duction and one of conclusion. The introduction should 
 aim to arouse interest in the subject, and the conclusion 
 may touch upon the significance, the effect, or the probable 
 outcome of the event. Thus, a talk about Belgium might
 
 202 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 begin as follows : " Americans are intensely interested in 
 watching the attempts of the Belgians to restore normal con- 
 ditions in their country. Yesterday I read an article," etc. 
 Then would follow the gist of the topic. Be careful to in- 
 clude every necessary detail, such as time, place, and names 
 of persons. Perhaps a picture or a map would help the 
 talk. The conclusion might be worded somewhat as fol- 
 lows : "This article indicates that the Belgian people are 
 making valiant efforts to hold together, and that within the 
 near future- great changes for the better may be expected." 
 
 In the preparation, unless the subject follows a simple 
 and obvious order of topics, the outline should be written 
 out in detail. Such a written outline may not be needed 
 when the talk is given, but it should be used in preparation. 
 
 After each talk has been given, other members of the 
 class may want to ask questions or tell something further 
 about the topic. Such informal discussion will be con- 
 sidered in the next section. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Come to class prepared to give a current topic — an item of 
 present interest to the members of the class. Perhaps you had 
 better come prepared on several topics, so that if somebody 
 speaks on one of them you can use another. If, however, you 
 find it necessary to speak on a topic already given, try to add 
 something new to what has been said. Make the topic vital and 
 the treatment attractive. The fields of interest suggested below, 
 and those given in the exercises on reading, above, may be searched 
 for good subjects. Newspapers and magazines will be found rich in 
 good topics, but your own experiences and observations will often 
 be the best source.
 
 THE DISCUSSION •-.• ' 203 
 
 1. Science. 6. New books.,' 
 
 2. Invention. 7. National and international affairs. 
 
 3. Politics. 8. School happenings. 
 
 4. Labor questions. 9. Celebrations and conventions. 
 
 5. Business changes. 10. Recreations. 
 
 III. THE DISCUSSION 
 
 We are constantly discussing topics of interest. Every 
 group of children talking on the street, in the halls, or on 
 the playground is having a discussion. In order to give 
 directions here for all such discussions we should have to 
 consider many of the things already treated and some that 
 will appear in later sections. We shall therefore limit our 
 present treatment to informal discussions which arise in 
 the course of a recitation in the Oral English class, and to 
 formal discussions which are planned in advance for the 
 express purpose of considering all sides of a question. 
 
 The Informal Discussion. Whenever an interesting talk 
 has been given in class, there should be an opportunity for 
 questions, remarks, and the giving of additional information, 
 unless lack of time makes such discussion impracticable. 
 In this discussion every member should have complete 
 freedom to speak, but should limit himself to the subject 
 and be brief. 
 
 What shall decide, or who shall decide, when each person 
 who desires to speak shall have the privilege ? Of course, 
 if the teacher is in charge of the class, anybody who wishes 
 to take part in the discussion will apply for permission in 
 the usual manner. But if the class has a chairman, then 
 the requests for the privilege of the floor may be made
 
 204 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 by the method used in hterary or business meetings. In 
 the early part of Chapter XIV is outhned a simple plan 
 for the organization of an Oral English class into a parlia- 
 mentary society. Such an organization is of great advantage 
 in conducting a discussion. Even if it seems impracticable 
 to carry out that plan, however, one of the students may be 
 elected or appointed chairman of the meeting, and may sit 
 at the front for the purpose of recognizing those who rise 
 to ask permission to speak. A person so chosen should 
 give the privilege of speaking according to the rules set 
 forth on page 322. If the class has a time limit for each 
 talk or discussion, the chairman should enforce that rule. 
 
 The Formal Discussion. Sometimes a set speech or a 
 whole meeting for the consideration of a question is called 
 a discussion. Suppose the superintendent of schools dis- 
 cusses the question of a junior high school for the city. 
 Or suppose a meeting is held for the discussion of the 
 question of a new high-school building. In either case the 
 use of the word ' discussion ' means that both sides of 
 the question are to be presented. Thus the superintendent 
 would summarize all the facts and arguments. The meet- 
 ing would listen to persons holding varying opinions. The 
 difference between a discussion and a debate is that the 
 debate is still more formal, with prearranged sides and with 
 a decision of a committee of judges afterward. 
 
 How the Discussion is Conducted. A meeting for a dis- 
 cussion may be conducted according to a definite plan. 
 Thus, some literary societies use a plan which would be an 
 excellent one for a class in Oral English to follow. The 
 teacher, or a committee of students, or the vote of the class 
 may choose a subject to be discussed at a future meeting.
 
 THE DISCUSSION 205 
 
 The subject should be one about which there is a differ- 
 ence of opinion, and its treatment by the class will be 
 largely argumentative. The principles we have studied in 
 Chapter II will therefore apply to the discussion. The 
 subject selected may be stated in the form of a topic, a 
 resolution, or a question. 
 
 It is a good plan to appoint one member to open the 
 discussion with a talk of from five to ten minutes in length, 
 depending on the total time for the meeting. Several short 
 talks may then follow, the speakers being appointed in 
 advance or volunteering and being recognized by the chair- 
 man. These should each be limited to from two to five 
 minutes. Finally, the person who opened the discussion 
 should be allowed to close it with a talk of from four to 
 six minutes. 
 
 The Opening Talk. The opening speech, if one has 
 been planned, should be a general survey of the subject. 
 It should first state the problem to be solved, or the ques- 
 tion to be setded, and should then touch upon the various 
 solutions proposed. If there are two" or more clearly defined 
 opinions, every side should be presented carefully and fairly. 
 Finally, the speaker's own conclusions may be presented, 
 with his reasons. For example, suppose the question of a 
 building for the high school is under discussion, and the 
 superintendent of schools has the opening talk. He first 
 presents the problem, perhaps the overcrowding of the 
 school. He next discusses the solutions proposed : putting 
 the ninth gi'ade into a junior higli school ; changing the 
 time program of the high school so that some pupils will 
 come early in the day and others late ; getting along with 
 conditions as they are ; and building a new building. In
 
 2o6 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 discussing these proposals he should give them the best 
 statement he can. Finally, he should make a strong, brief 
 argument in favor of the plan he believes best, showing 
 how each of the others is an inadequate solution compared 
 with the true one, the construction of the new building. 
 
 The other talks would of course present other opinions, 
 and the final speech by the leader of the discussion would 
 answer the other arguments and make a summary. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Let each student select a current topic to present in class. 
 After each person gives his talk, let the teacher or a student 
 chairman conduct a discussion on the subject. 
 
 2. Six or seven students should be selected to conduct a formal 
 discussion during a recitation period. One should be asked to give 
 the opening talk, and the others to present other opinions. The 
 subject selected should be one about which the members of the 
 group differ. A list of subjects is given below ; others are given 
 in Appendix II. 
 
 1. What is the cure for war.? 
 
 2. Is municipal ownership a good thing? 
 
 3. Sliould we indorse the general principle of labor unions ? 
 
 4. How can poverty be prevented.'' 
 
 5. Would the junior high school be a success? 
 
 6. How may athletics be improved ? 
 
 7. Does the Monroe Doctrine help this nation ? 
 
 8. Should capital punishment be abolished ? 
 
 9. Have modern inventions made people happier? 
 10. Is student self-government a good idea?
 
 IMPROMPTU TALKS 207 
 
 IV. IMPROMPTU TALKS 
 
 Extempore and Impromptu Speaking. Suppose that in 
 preparing his lesson in the exercise above, a student 
 selects the question of the cure for war, studies his subject, 
 outlines it, and practices it faithfully but without memorizing 
 it word for word, and then gives the speech in class. He is 
 making an extempore speech. If, on the other hand, he ex- 
 presses himself on the question of the cure, without opportun- 
 ity for preparation, his speech is impromptu. For the purposes 
 of this book, then, the impromptu speech will be taken to 
 mean that for which there has been no definite preparation. 
 
 Practically all the directions in this book are for extem- 
 pore speeches, yet some excellent practice in quick thinking 
 and ready talking may be obtained in impromptu work. 
 
 Thinking Rapidly. In impromptu speaking the student 
 will be assigned a topic upon which perhaps he has never 
 talked with anybody, and will be called on without time for 
 study. When placed in this situation the speaker must do 
 his best. He must not apologize or talk about himself. He 
 should be decisive, clear, and explicit in stating what he 
 docs know and does believe about the subject. No harm 
 will come from tr^'ing. Unless he tries to say too much 
 there is little danger that he will be led into insincerity, 
 conceit, or false opinion. 
 
 The speaker should start making the outline before he 
 says a word ; at least he ought to decide what will be his 
 first and his second topic. Then as he begins speaking he 
 should think ahead to the other topics, and before he nears 
 the end he should plan a strong conclusion. Practice will 
 show that it is possible to do this successfully.
 
 2o8 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Topics can hardly be listed here, for they would provoke 
 thought and preparation, and this would make the talks extempore 
 instead of impromptu. The topics following, therefore, are rather 
 to suggest the kind of work that may be undertaken. How may 
 the topics be selected ? An excellent way is to have a committee 
 or the teacher select a number of subjects, writing each upon a 
 slip of paper. Each student, as he is called upon, draws a topic and 
 makes his speech. Topics may be selected from the exercises 
 of Chapter II, and from the debate questions and the lists in 
 Appendix II. Better still, they may be chosen from the daily 
 experiences and problems of the students and of the world. The 
 following have been used : 
 
 1. Are white lies ever justifiable.'' 
 
 2. Should churches adopt entertainment features ? 
 
 3. Do you think that the United States will ever have complete 
 prohibition ? 
 
 4. What kind of tree is best for streets ? 
 
 5. When should men take their hats off in an elevator? 
 
 6. Have you any objection to eating cold-storage eggs ? 
 
 7. What is the cure for the large number of automobile accidents.'' 
 
 8. Do you approve of fashionable weddings .'' 
 
 9. How can insanity in the United States be lessened? 
 
 10. If you had the necessary time and money, what trips would 
 you take? 
 
 11. How can schoolrooms be made more attractive? 
 
 12. Should a father watch a son to prevent his smoking? 
 
 13. Should " strap-hangers "' pay less fare? 
 
 14. In what ways can a person learn to save time? 
 
 15. Is coeducation beneficial to the student ? 
 
 16. Why do people wear hats ? 
 
 17. W^ill Mexico ever be a real republic? 
 
 18. Do you think the scientists will ever learn to control the weather? 
 
 19. Would Southern California be more prosperous if it raised alfalfa 
 instead of oranges ?
 
 HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES 209 
 
 20. Should a person who is going into business have a college 
 education ? 
 
 21. Will there always be a great number of poorly educated people 
 to do the manual labor of the world .'' 
 
 22. Will electricity ever replace steam ? 
 
 23. Tell the uses of petroleum. 
 
 24. Tell something about the natural resources of Russia. 
 
 25. Tell the advantages of the occupation of farming. 
 
 V. HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES 
 
 Any person can become a reasonably good story-teller. 
 All that is required is a little courage ; practice will do the 
 rest. It is true that some persons need more practice than 
 others, and many good story-tellers have become successful 
 only after arduous practice. Here, as in the other exercises 
 in oral work, the student is to be judged not so much by the 
 talent he has as by the gains he makes. Nobody who is 
 gaining in his ability to tell stories need be discouraged. 
 Progress, as we have said, requires courage and practice. 
 Courage is needed because the story-teller has to face the 
 close attention of his hearers, and has to make good their 
 expectations. Practice enables him to see his mistakes and 
 his successes, and to make each attempt a little better than 
 the preceding one. 
 
 The Beginning. Narrations have already been discussed 
 in Chapter V. Since what has been said there applies 
 also to the funny story we shall here add only some 
 special directions. 
 
 In beginning the story or joke, one must bring out 
 clearly the attending circumstances which arc necessary to 
 the point. These may include, as suggested on page So, 
 the persons, the time, and the place. In the case of some
 
 2IO ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 humorous stories, facts mentioned at the first are neces- 
 sary to the understanding of the points involved. For ex- 
 ample, the story told of the boy who wrote " have went " 
 for " have gone " depends for its success upon the hearers' 
 knowing that the boy was being punished for that mistake. 
 Include all necessary preliminaries. 
 
 Details which are not essential to the point of the story 
 should by all means be omitted ; it is these which make so 
 many story-tellings tiresome. 
 
 The Point. The point in a funny story usually lies in 
 three or four words. The speaker must not let his listen- 
 ers miss even one of these. The story-teller has failed if it 
 is necessary for any person in the audience to ask his neigh- 
 bor the point of a joke. Score the point roundly, but do 
 not repeat it ; repeating a joke or attempting to explain it 
 puts one in a hopeless position as a story-teller. 
 
 The Kind of Jokes to Tell. A recent writer remarks that 
 the greater part of the humor of certain European countries 
 is based on brutality or vulgarity. It seems true, unfortu- 
 nately, that many people take pleasure in repeating stories 
 that ought to die out — stories that lower one's self-respect 
 in the telling. On the other hand, the world is full of 
 good jokes and wholesome fun. Why not, therefore, leave 
 out of our lives and conversations the stories not altogether 
 decent .'' The habit of appreciating and transmitting the 
 best kind of fun, with kindness and healthiness of mind, 
 is an asset to one's self and to others. Cultivate it in your 
 reading, conversation, and public speaking. 
 
 Application of the Joke. Many stories are given as a 
 part of another talk, told for the purpose of illustrating an 
 argument. Thus, a political speaker used this story to show
 
 HUMOROUS STORIES AND JOKES 21 1 
 
 the position of the Southern sugar planters on the Under- 
 wood tariff. 
 
 The Louisiana Democrats had voted for \\'ilson. But after he 
 took office and began to advocate free sugar, they began to do a 
 great deal of worrying and complaining. The speaker said that 
 the situation reminded him of how Willie got the wasp. A mother, 
 her small son, and nurse were traveling in a train ; the boy and the 
 nurse together, and the mother comfortably reading a novel across 
 the aisle. The boy had noticed a wasp flying along the window, 
 and was reaching up a hand to it. Suddenly the mother heard a 
 cry. Looking up from her book, she said, " Nurse, let Willie have 
 what he wants." The nurse replied, " Please, ma'am, he 's got it." 
 
 Using Stories in Arguments. Three special cautions are 
 necessary in applying stories to arguments. First, do not 
 tell stories which have nothing to do with the argument. 
 Many a debater or lawyer wins applause by a rapid fire 
 of fun, but the stories do not appeal to the judges and 
 juries when it comes to the decision. Second, so tell the 
 story that its application will be perfectly clear. Third, do 
 not attempt to point out the application of the story ; the 
 audience will apply it themselves with much better effect. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. There are certain weekly and monthly magazines and a few 
 newspapers which make a business of collecting and publishing the 
 best humorous stories and jokes. Find one or two good stories, 
 study them well, practice them, and come to class prepared to 
 give them successfully. 
 
 2. Every person has had many funny experiences — funny at 
 the time or funny as he looks back at them. The writer will 
 always remember with a smile the day when he was learning to 
 ride a bicycle and met his teacher and proudly tried to raise his
 
 212 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 hat. Think over some experiences which are funny and which will 
 be worth telling. Come prepared to tell one or two in class. 
 Some of the following situations may be suggestive : 
 
 1. The street car. 6. In stores. 
 
 2. 
 
 At church. 
 
 7. 
 
 On the street. 
 
 3. 
 
 On the school grounds. 
 
 8. 
 
 Tricks. 
 
 4. 
 
 In the schoolroom. 
 
 9. 
 
 Trips or camping, 
 
 5. 
 
 Games and sports. 
 
 10. 
 
 Work. 
 
 3. Think of an argumentative point to which a story might 
 apply. Find a story which helps to prove it. Then prepare to 
 give very briefly the statement or argument and the story which 
 helps to enforce it. You must think over very carefully just what 
 should be said. The following topics may suggest arguments : 
 
 1. School discipline. 6. Social affairs. 
 
 2. School studies. 7. Politics. 
 
 3. City affairs. 8. Scientific questions. 
 
 4. National affairs. 9. Newspapers. 
 
 5. Foreign affairs. 10. Work and methods of work. 
 
 VI. INTERVIEWS 
 
 An interview is a conversation for a definite purpose ; 
 for example, seeking information, or persuading a person 
 to agree to a business proposition. Over and over again 
 men and women, young and old, must go through the 
 give-and-take involved in such conversations, no matter 
 what their callings or life interests. 
 
 Courtesy and Directness. The chief requisites of a suc- 
 cessful interviewer are courtesy and directness. The Golden 
 Rule is the best possible rule, for interviews. Anything else 
 is short-sighted and must eventually fail. If you wish suc- 
 cess, therefore, you must invite it. You must not intrude 
 into a person's home or office unannounced, hurriedly, or
 
 INTERVIEWS 213 
 
 disrespectfully. You may send in your card to the person 
 you wish to see, or present it to him as you come face to 
 face. Otherwise, you must tell your name at the beginning. 
 You must wait to be asked to sit, and must care for your 
 own hat. A carelessness about one of these little things 
 may easily create a prejudice against you that will make 
 your interview absolutely fruitless. The person you approach 
 may judge you by the first little impressions of manner 
 and dress. Be open in your manner, but reserved at the 
 same time. If there is to be joking or an informal style of 
 conversation let the person being interviewed begin it. 
 
 State your business as soon as you conveniently can. If 
 you have a complicated proposition to present, preface it 
 with a hint as to its general nature ; for example, " I called 
 to try to interest you in a new device for starting auto- 
 mobiles," or "The high school sent me here to ask you to 
 act as a judge in the debate next month." Unfortunately, 
 it is true that some people seem to try to hold back the 
 true nature of their business, intending, evidently, to attract 
 the listener by means of irrelevant matter, and to mention 
 the disagreeable points at a more favorable time. Such 
 evasions are always less effective than straightforwardness. 
 
 The chapter on Business Talks gives suggestions that 
 will be helpful in preparing the outline to follow in the 
 interview. 
 
 Following the Lead of Interest. Having presented your 
 request or proposition, wait the pleasure of your hearer. 
 Do not keep up a steady flow of words. Be as ready to 
 listen as to talk. If your companion has interrupted with 
 questions, these will show you the direction of his interest. 
 Put aside your outline for the moment, and follow where
 
 214 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 he leads. Be ready to meet all questions, admitting disad- 
 vantages and answering objections. Do not allow anything 
 said to rufifle your good humor. Constant courtesy is your 
 part, regardless of the other person's behavior. Preserve 
 the best of good feeling, even if you disagree with him. 
 Sometimes the objections your companion urges give the 
 best possible clue to the interest he has in the subject. 
 Then you must try to see the proposition from his point 
 of view, and show him by tactfully appealing to these inter- 
 ests that he should agree to do what is best for himself. 
 
 Care in making Agreements. If the interview leads to 
 an understanding or agreement, make this as definite as 
 possible. If you have documents to present, have them 
 well labeled and arranged, and state their nature or purpose 
 as you show them. Many interviews lead, of course, to the 
 signing of papers, others to the paying of money, others to 
 the transfer of goods. Let whatever is done be done with 
 no hurry, but with complete understanding and agreement. 
 Perhaps you should make out and give to the person you 
 are interviewing a memorandum of some sort. For example, 
 the man who is to be a debating judge should be handed 
 a card stating the date, time, and place of the contest. 
 Your interview may then end with some conversation of a 
 social or general nature, or at least with the usual expression 
 of thanks and good day. 
 
 A Plan for Schoolroom Practice. It will be excellent 
 practice for the students to group themselves into pairs for 
 interviews. Each pair should talk over the details before- 
 hand : how the interview shall begin, how it shall proceed, 
 how it shall end, etc. The interview should not be re- 
 hearsed, for the chief value of the exercise comes from the
 
 INTERVIEWS 215 
 
 impromptu and somewhat unexpected nature of the ques- 
 tions and replies. For each interview the students concerned 
 may appropriately arrange the chairs and table at the front, 
 and may tell the audience what the place is supposed to be. 
 The speakers must talk to each other a little louder than 
 they would naturally, for now there is an audience present 
 to listen. 
 
 Some interviews need three or more persons. It will 
 afford excellent training for students to arrange scenes with 
 persons entering and leaving, as -in a real office. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I . Choose a partner, decide with him what interview to arrange, 
 talk over how the conversation is to proceed, and then give it in 
 class. Arrange your positions so that both of you will face the 
 audience, and speak at all times loud enough for everyone to 
 hear. The following may afford good suggestions: 
 
 1. Giving a grocery order. 12. Offering an apology. 
 
 2. Asking information about 13. Asking for an explanation. 
 
 colleges. 14. Arranging for repairs. 
 
 3. Securing a speaker for a 15. Buying concert or theater 
 
 meeting. tickets. 
 
 4. Renting a house. 16. Buying a motor cycle. 
 
 5. Insuring a building. 17. Asking for a recommenda- 
 
 6. Telephoning an order. tion. 
 
 7. Asking advice about going 18. Securing an umpire for a 
 
 into business. baseball game. 
 
 8. Asking for a higher position. 19. Department-store manager 
 
 9. Asking an increase in salary. instructing one of his 
 10. Serving a notice to vacate buyers. 
 
 a store. 20. Joining a club or association. 
 
 II. Selling an adas. 
 
 See the exercises for Chapter VII.
 
 2l6 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 2. Choose a partner for an interview in which one person has 
 objections to acceding to the other's wishes. Do not talk over 
 together what the objections or arguments may be, but let each 
 person separately think very clearly about his own course of 
 thought and action ; the one, what objections he has to the pro- 
 posed request, and the other, what objections may possibly be 
 urged and how they may be answered. Do not, however, tr}^ any 
 false salesmanship, attempting to make a person do what he does 
 not wish to do. Rather have so good a proposition that he will 
 gladly change his mind. The following are only suggestions : 
 
 1. Collecting a bill. 6. Securing a singer for an 
 
 2. Selling a knife sharpener. entertainment. 
 
 (Demonstrate its action.) 7. Soliciting an advertisement. 
 
 3. Applying for a position. 8. Asking a person to be a busi- 
 
 4. Asking for credit. ness partner. 
 
 5. Arranging for a football game. 9. Asking a loan. 
 
 10. Interviewing for a newspaper. 
 
 See the exercises for Chapter VII. 
 
 VII. CONVERSATIONS 
 
 We are always practicing conversations, yet we rarely try 
 consciously to improve our abilities as conversationalists. If 
 we can talk with others helpfully and attractively, we shall 
 find valuable friends and add to the store of mutual under- 
 standing and happiness. 
 
 This book cannot attempt to explain the complete eti- 
 quette of the subject ; it can only indicate some important 
 common principles. 
 
 The Need for Good Topics. If you choose a partner from 
 the class and take the floor for a social conversation, you 
 will soon learn the need for the ability to '" keep the con- 
 versation going." It is decidedly helpful to have in mind
 
 CONVERSATIONS 217 
 
 three or four topics which will be interesting to your partner. 
 A person can have an enjoyable and profitable talk with 
 almost anybody if he deliberately tries to lead the conversa- 
 tion to the interests and activities of the person with whom 
 he is talking. Once get good topics of conversation and 
 the rest is not difficult. Try to avoid depending on school 
 affairs, or on ""What have you been doing.?" or "'Where 
 have you been keeping yourself.?" even for opening a talk. 
 Carlyle laughs at trite and tiresome topics of conversation, 
 and calls the weather ""that great boon to society." 
 
 Listening. A common fault in conversation is the failure 
 to listen. Have you ever had the experience of saying 
 something to another, and finding by his reply that he was 
 only using that time to think up a remark of his own ? 
 There can be no good conversation without willingness on 
 the part of each participant to listen to what the other says. 
 
 Ending. Ending a conversation is often as hard for some 
 talkers as coming to the point in an interview. Perhaps the 
 best way is frankly to rise at a convenient pause and then 
 to make your adieus. '" I must be going," or '" It's getting 
 late," or "" I have another engagement," are not much more 
 sensible than is, ""I thought I would write to you " for 
 opening a letter. Your rising will indicate that you must 
 go, and your parting remarks might better indicate the 
 pleasure you have had in the conversation: ""Well, I've 
 enjoyed this talk " ; ""I hope to talk with you again soon " ; 
 "We haven't exhausted these questions; I hope we shall 
 soon have another chance to talk " ; ""I wish you would 
 come and see me." 
 
 Introducing Persons to Each Other. It is excellent prac- 
 tice to introduce two persons to each other. In doing this
 
 21 8 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 be sure to speak both names distinctly. Remember, if you 
 are introducing a man and a woman, that you should address 
 your introduction to the woman : " Miss Thomas, this is 
 Mr. Williams." When one of the persons has some interest 
 which may appeal to the other, it is a great aid to their 
 conversation to mention it just after the introduction : 
 "Mr. W'illiams is a violinist" or "Mr. Williams studied 
 the violin in Vienna ; Miss Thomas has been studying 
 music in the East." 
 
 Large and varied interests, wide information, judicious 
 reading, worth-while experiences, broad sympathy with those 
 one meets, and a readiness in the expression of one's 
 ideas — all these are necessary to the making of a good 
 conversationalist. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of twenty topics about which you are sufficiently 
 informed to hold conversations. Then write another list of twenty 
 topics about which you are not informed, but about which you 
 would like to talk for the purposes of friendly conversation and 
 general information. In class compare notes with other students, 
 and in this way find partners for two conversations, one in which 
 you lead and one in which you question. Give the conversations 
 in class. Face the audience and try to make everyone hear. 
 
 2. Below is a list of topics. First we have a general subject, 
 and next one of the specific questions of interest in that field. 
 Choose a partner, and hold a conversation on one of these topics, 
 or on another suggested by one of them. 
 
 1. Art. What kind of pictures do you like? 
 
 2. Music. What is the advantage to be gained by studying good 
 music? 
 
 3. Architecture. Is a street more attractive with buildings of 
 uniform design.''
 
 CONVERSATIONS 219 
 
 4. Books. Do we read enough works of fiction, or too many? 
 
 5. Magazines. Which have the best short stories.'' 
 
 6. Plays. What kind should the school give? 
 
 7. Science. What gains have been made by soil analysis? 
 
 8. Travel. Should you like to see South America? 
 
 9. Aviation. Will aeroplanes ever carry passengers and make 
 regular trips? 
 
 10. Athletics. Is " indoor baseball " better than basket ball ? 
 
 11. City parks, streets, or schools. Which is our most attractive park? 
 
 12. Peace and war. Does a war indirecdy help to make a lasting 
 peace possible ? 
 
 13. Poverty. What can the city do to help the poorer people of 
 this city? 
 
 14. Political prospects. Who should win in the next election ? 
 
 15. American cities. Which would be the most interesting to see? 
 
 16. Financial affairs. Are the banks as safe as they can be made? 
 
 17. Business affairs. Is this city a good place for a young man or 
 woman to start business ? 
 
 18. Newspapers. Should the papers be controlled by the city 
 government to see that they do not print anything objectionable? 
 
 19. Mexico. What can be done to help improve the conditions of 
 living in Mexico ? 
 
 20. Colleges. Which college should you prefer to attend ? 
 
 3. Choose a partner to act the part, and hold a dignified, 
 friendly conversation with one of the following persons : 
 
 12. A locomotive engineer. 
 
 1. 
 
 An elderly man. 
 
 2. 
 
 An elderly woman. 
 
 3. 
 
 A small boy. 
 
 4. 
 
 A little girl. 
 
 5. 
 
 A labor-union member. 
 
 6. 
 
 A capitalist. 
 
 7. 
 
 A statesman. 
 
 8. 
 
 A politician. 
 
 9. 
 
 A teacher. 
 
 10. 
 
 A preacher. 
 
 11. 
 
 A farmer. 
 
 13. 
 
 A ditch digger. 
 
 14. 
 
 A member of the Industrial 
 
 
 Workers of the World. 
 
 15. 
 
 A tennis champion. 
 
 16. 
 
 An Englishman. 
 
 17. 
 
 A German. 
 
 18. 
 
 A housing expert. 
 
 19. 
 
 An artist. 
 
 20. 
 
 A policeman.
 
 220 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 4. Choose one or more of the situations named below. Select 
 a partner or partners, decide what part each will take, and give 
 the conversation. 
 
 1. Inviting somebody to a party or game or entertainment. 
 
 2. Friends waiting for an entertainment to begin. 
 
 3. Friends meeting on the street after twenty years. 
 
 4. Waiting in line at the box office. 
 
 5. At a dinner or a banquet. 
 
 6. Strangers conversing on the street car. 
 
 7. Christmas shopping, or Christmas presents. 
 
 8. At a celebration. 
 
 9. In a train ; on an aeroplane ; on a steamer. 
 10. Guests arriving for a dinner. 
 
 5. Introduce the following persons to each other, and hold a 
 conversation with them : 
 
 1. A newspaper man and a musician. 
 
 2. A schoolboy and a business man. 
 
 3. A mayor and a Civil-War veteran. 
 
 4. A blacksmith and a teacher. 
 
 5. A personal friend to your partner. 
 
 6. A stenographer to an office boy. 
 
 7. Two speakers at a lecture, just before the lecture. 
 
 8. A Democrat and a Republican. 
 
 9. Your school principal and yourself. 
 
 10. The guests arriving at your house for a dinner. 
 
 VIII. EXTEMPORE PLAYS 
 
 The purpose of this section is to give directions for 
 simple one-act plays, the plots of which may be readily 
 planned by the students, and the words made up as the play 
 proceeds. We shall not deal with memorized dramatics. 
 
 How to Begin. It will be possible for any students to give 
 an extempore play if they have had some practice in the 
 work of previous sections. Since an interview, as proposed
 
 EXTEMPORE PLAYS 221 
 
 above, • involves assuming and carrying out the role of an- 
 other person, the extempore play may well begin with inter- 
 views. Suppose, for example, that three instead of two 
 persons take part in a conversation, one of them entering 
 the room after the other two, a motor-cycle agent and the 
 manager of a newspaper, have started a discussion on the 
 purchase of a new machine. The newcomer recognizes 
 the agent as an old friend whom he has not seen for a long 
 time. It develops that the newcomer also wishes to sell the 
 manager a motor cycle. The manager insists on hearing 
 about the latter's machine, and decides to order one at once. 
 The first agent is naturally disappointed, but is made happy 
 by the invitation of his rival to become a partner in the 
 agency for the better machine. 
 
 It does not require "dramatic ability" to begin in this 
 way. The purpose in this section is to present a plan which 
 may be followed by anybody determined to succeed, and not 
 merely by the few who may have exceptional talent. 
 
 The extempore plays should grow out of the other work. 
 The plot is the new element added to the ordinary inter- 
 view ; and the plot may be defined as a centering of the 
 interest around a problem which appears as the story pro- 
 ceeds — a problem which is solved near the end. 
 
 Selecting the Plot : Some Examples. In selecting the 
 plot, students must have in mind interest, simplicity, and 
 good taste. Usable plots are as numerous and as varied as 
 are the problems of life itself. We give here a few examples, 
 to encourage students to think out plots of their own. 
 
 1. Real-Estate Office. A man who wishes to rent a six-room house 
 in a certain locality enters a real-estate office. Details are discussed 
 and several houses proposed, but none suits. The agent asks the man to
 
 222 ADDITIONAL TALKS AND EXERCISES 
 
 copy down addresses and look at the houses. While he writes, another 
 man enters. He wishes to list just such a house as the first man wants. 
 The agent steps out to consult his partner in another room, and the first 
 man asks the second about the house and agrees to take it. The agent 
 is surprised and disappointed, but is offered and accepts half the 
 usual fee. 
 
 2. Hotel. During a rush of business the hotel clerk and a bell boy 
 assign rooms until the house is filled to its capacity. Various guests 
 come to the office and complain of the noise and poor accommodations, 
 but there is no relief. Finally, the manager is sent for ; he listens to the 
 complaints, then asks the clerk for his resignation, and sends some of 
 the guests to another hotel. 
 
 3. School of Dramatics in a Crowded Tenement. Various persons 
 are receiving lessons. Neighbors of several nationalities complain with- 
 out results. A policeman is sent for and ejects the actors. 
 
 4. Impossible Policeman. The police sergeant drills a new policeman 
 and instructs him in his duties. When sent out to enforce the laws, he 
 makes all sorts of errors and foolish arrests. The sergeant scolds, and 
 gives him copies of the laws to read. Continued failures lead to his 
 resignation. 
 
 5 . Too much Automobile. A man has no sooner bought an automobile 
 than he is interviewed by agents for speedometers, self-starters, tires, 
 rugs, pumps, etc. An insurance agent proposes various kinds of insurance, 
 and the tax collector and an auto-club agent call. In great disgust the 
 man decides to sell his car. 
 
 6. Millinery Store. Two women enter a store and tire the clerk by 
 trying on all the hats without making a decision. Since they interfere 
 with other customers, the clerk finally tells the floorwalker, who instructs 
 the head saleswoman to ask the two customers to leave. She comes and 
 asks the women if they cannot find what they want. They try all the 
 hats again, the head saleswoman growing more and more impatient. 
 Finally she tells them the store has nothing which will suit them. As 
 they start to leave, the floorwalker recognizes one as a friend whom he 
 has not seen for a long time. 
 
 7. Collecting the Rent. A woman's caUing day is disturbed by a rent 
 collector. The hostess tells the collector the rent has been paid ; he tells 
 her that eviction is imminent, the rent being sixty days overdue. He 
 threatens to call an officer and remove the furniture. She telephones to
 
 EXTEMPORE PLAYS 223 
 
 her husband, who says he will bring a lawyer. Some guests leave; 
 others arrive. Husband and lawyer arrive. The lawyer demands that 
 the agent show his papers, and finds that the latter has made an error 
 in the house number. The agent apologizes ; the husband threatens 
 arrest. The lawyer charges ten dollars. 
 
 A beginning may sometimes be made with impromptu 
 dramatizations of stories or parts of works of fiction. 
 
 Assigning the Parts. Perhaps the best way to prepare a 
 play is to have a group of from three to eight students 
 think out a plot, such as a scene in a railway station. The 
 teacher may help with suggestions at first. The assignment 
 of parts may begin at once, even before the story is worked 
 out. Let the group decide who will act as ticket agent, 
 who as traveler, and who as gatekeeper. Then, as the 
 many suggestions for the story are considered, the plot is 
 gradually developed, and all the parts assigned. 
 
 Preparation. The amount of preparation for a play varies 
 with its purpose. If the group is to give it for practice in 
 speaking merely, or for amusement, then carefully discuss- 
 ing the plot beforehand should be sufficient. Every par- 
 ticipant should understand how the play is to begin and 
 end, when he is to enter, approximately what he is to do 
 and say, and when he is to leave. 
 
 If the aim is a careful presentation, then it may well be 
 rehearsed. The repeated practices will lead to the use of 
 more appropriate words, just as does such repetition for a 
 debater's speech, or for any other speech. After a little 
 practice, any group can plan out a story, talk over the plot, 
 and give the play successfully. 
 
 Properties. The costumes and the properties should be 
 simple. I'^laborate costumes are not at all necessary ; the
 
 224 ADDITIONAL STORIES AND EXERCISES 
 
 ordinary clothes are best in most cases, but the simple change 
 of a coat or a different hat will often help a person to assume 
 a different personality. Facial decorations should be omitted, 
 since these plays are not so much for an audience as for the 
 players themselves. The front of the room may have a table 
 or desk and a few chairs. A few additional stage properties 
 may be useful : broom, duster, books, bench, and other mis- 
 cellaneous articles. Signs posted on the wall or door to act 
 as hints to the audience are particularly useful. Members of 
 the group can easily bring the small properties needed. 
 
 The Presentation. Little more need be said about the 
 presentation. Players must remember that as much of the 
 talking as is possible should be directed toward the audi- 
 ence. When two players are supposed to be talking to- 
 gether they must glance occasionally at each other, but 
 most of their sentences should be spoken towards the 
 audience. Better still, the speakers should arrange them- 
 selves in such a way that they can easily face the audience 
 when they are speaking. In a small room, of course, these 
 considerations are not so important. 
 
 Success is attained by forgetting one's self and by acting 
 the part to the best of one's ability. The greatest tempta- 
 tion for new players is to laugh at the wrong time. The 
 student should leave the laughing for the audience unless 
 it comes in the part he is playing. Care and interest in 
 the work in extempore plays will result in a great deal of 
 fun, and in good practice in speaking. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Divide the class into several small groups, and let each group 
 plan and give an extempore play. 
 
 V
 
 PART II. ARGUMENTATION AND 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 Chapter II gives condensed directions for preparing an 
 argument ; this chapter aims to amplify those directions 
 for older students and to offer suggestions for debating. 
 No attempt is here made to help students analyze classic 
 orations and arguments ; the purpose is rather to prepare 
 them to discuss in reasonably good style the subjects upon 
 which the opinions of men and women of to-day differ. 
 
 Many students seem afraid to try argument and debate ; 
 yet in their classes in history, English, mathematics, science, 
 and the languages they are constantly dealing with evidence, 
 and presenting more or less complete arguments. What 
 these students need is to learn how to make a brief : to 
 learn to group items of evidence under the several heads 
 which prove the proposition, and to express these heads in 
 simple sentences instead of in topics. These things we shall 
 discuss at the proper time, but first we must consider some 
 fundamental principles. 
 
 The Nature of Argument. Argument convinces, — it 
 shows truth and error, — and to accomplish this, narrative, 
 descriptive, and explanatory material must be used as evi- 
 dence. With this material reasons are developed to prove 
 
 22 C
 
 226 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 some one position in regard to the question. Thus, if we 
 were discussing the question of giving the PhiHppine Islands 
 their independence, we should study their history, resources, 
 customs, opinions, activities, and the forces at work among 
 them ; and from these facts we should reason as to their 
 rights, desires, abilities, and the probable effect of independ- 
 ence on them. Narration, description, and explanation fur- 
 nish facts which give evidence ; argument attempts to prove 
 that one of two contrary opinions is true. 
 
 The Correct Spirit in Argument. The reason for carry- 
 ing on an argument is the desire to find the truth. In 
 most arguments the truth lies somewhere between two opin- 
 ions, and for this reason no speaker should be too sure of 
 his position or too insistent in his enthusiasn. Let him 
 always give the other opinion a full and patient considera- 
 tion, and assume the other speaker's sincerity. 
 
 Should a person ever argue on the side of a question 
 which is against his own beliefs ? Yes, and no. Yes, if it 
 can be done with no moral hurt to himself or to others. 
 There are many questions about which sincere and good 
 men disagree. At the school age one has and should have 
 opinions on these questions ; yet what student knows 
 whether or not these will be his final opinions ? Should 
 the Philippines be free .? Would complete free trade be a 
 good thing.? Do athletics injure scholarship.? Should 
 American cities own their street railways ? It would be 
 of real value to a person in the case of such questions to 
 study and speak on the side in which he does not believe. 
 By so doing he will learn much, and in the end will be- 
 come a better advocate of the side which he finally takes.
 
 PRELIMINARIES 227 
 
 In many cases, however, injury might be done the 
 speaker's character and the opinion of his hearers if he 
 argues against his honest convictions. Suppose, for exam- 
 ple, the question has to do with "preparedness," and the 
 student strongly believes that it would be a positive wrong 
 for our government to increase its standing army and its 
 navy. In such a case, it would be unwise for the student 
 to uphold the affirmative, because of the effect on him of 
 practicing what would be insincerity, false enthusiasm, and 
 wrong argument. 
 
 I. PRELIMINARIES 
 
 If the student could see the amount of planning a lawyer 
 makes for each case, he would realize that skillful debaters 
 attach great importance to definite preparation for each 
 effort. The debater, like the lawyer, usually speaks but 
 once on any given question. Accordingly, he must prepare 
 for the argument in a manner worthy of his subject, him- 
 self, and his audience. We shall deal in this section with 
 the preliminaries to the argument, and in the following 
 section with the building up of the argument itself. 
 
 Selecting, Stating, and Testing the Subject. If the 
 speaker is a beginner in systematic argument, he should by 
 all means select some topic about which he is already in- 
 formed. In any case let the topic be an interesting and 
 important one. Few would care to debate about the justice 
 of a revolution in Portugal, or about the relative abilities of 
 Alexander and Napoleon. When the argument is to be 
 made in public, it will be a distinct advantage if the hearers 
 also are somewhat familiar with the subject.
 
 228 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 After the general topic is selected, great care should be 
 exercised to frame a concise, clear statement, called the prop- 
 osition. In most cases the proposition for debate should 
 be affirmatively stated. It should be definite, and should 
 be restricted fo~a single question which has two sides. 
 The following question seems to satisfy all these tests : 
 " Postage on letters sent within the United States should 
 be reduced to one cent." 
 
 The following statements of questions have faults as in- 
 dicated : " The commission form of government is not 
 adapted to the requirements of large cities." Among other 
 faults, a negative statement like this is apt to cause con- 
 fusion if, for instance, the affirmative should win. (There 
 seems to be no objection to the negative statement of the 
 question, " Children under twelve years of age should not 
 be allowed in moving-picture theaters unless accompanied 
 by adults," though the use of the word ' not ' may easily 
 be avoided by using 'prohibited.') "The West is more 
 progressive than the East," is indefinite in its three im- 
 portant words, and thus no sensible debate could result, at 
 least not until both sides agreed as to the meaning of the 
 words. "The term of the president of the United States 
 should be restricted to a single period of six years," raises 
 two questions : that of the single term as against the reelec- 
 tion, and that of six years as against any other number of 
 years. "American cities should own their water supply," 
 is hardly a debatable question ; it would be too difficult to 
 maintain the negative. 
 
 There are other dangers to be avoided. Such a question 
 as " Every American city should own its own water sup- 
 ply," should be avoided, since the negative need only find
 
 PRELIMINARIES 229 
 
 one city which has better reasons for a privately owned 
 supply. " The size of the United States army should be 
 increased," is a dangerous statement in that technically the 
 affirmative side wins if it be proved that ever so slight an 
 increase is necessary. 
 
 It is usually understood, in the case of such a question 
 as " American cities should acquire their own street-car 
 systems," that the affirmative must prove the resolution 
 true of most American cities (or of American cities as a 
 class), and that the steps involved in the acquisition would 
 , j begin at once and be completed as soon as practicable. 
 
 Before deciding^on- a proposed question then, the debater 
 should see_-.that it is interesting, important, affirmative 
 (usually), definite, single, and debatable. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Applying the above tests, criticize the topic and the wordingW 
 of each of the following propositions as subjects for debates, and ' 
 put each into acceptable form : 
 
 1. Swimming is a better sport than rowing or skating. (/^., 
 
 2. A business man does not need a college education. 
 
 3. Strikes are detrimental to the workingman. 
 
 4. Good roads are a necessity. 
 
 5. The way President Roosevelt acquired the canal zone. 
 
 6. Vivisection. 
 
 7. The extension of commerce will end wars. 
 
 8. The profession of the teacher is nobler than that of the lawyer. 
 
 9. The policy of the United States toward Cuba is justifiable. 
 
 10. The Philippines should be promised their independence within 
 ten years. 
 
 II. Every student should choose his occupation before reaching the 
 age of sixteen. 
 
 12. Coasting on the streets should be more carefully regulated than 
 it is at the present time.
 
 230 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 2. Frame a debatable proposition on each of the following 
 topics : 
 
 — 1. Child labor. 6. Playgrounds. - " 
 
 2. The street-car system 7. Athletics. 
 
 3. The tariff. 8. The war. 
 
 4. The trusts. "^^9. Aviation. ^_ 
 
 5. The railroads. 10. Automobiles. 
 
 The Introduction : Analyzing the Subject. Before the 
 argument can begin, the real significance of the question 
 must be understood. The debater must therefore analyze 
 the proposition ; that is, he must carefully examine the 
 wording, and must study to find out the full meaning of 
 the question. This study will make clear to him what is 
 meant by the question and what is involved in it. And if 
 he is to be the first speaker, he must give the audience the 
 benefit of the analysis, so that they too will know exactly 
 what the proposition means. 
 
 Let us now note the steps in analyzing a question, and 
 let us assume that in the ordinary speech each of these 
 steps will correspond to one of the topics of the introduction. 
 
 1 . The Opening. The introduction may open with one or more sen- 
 tences to win the interest of the hearers. The speaker may call atten- 
 tion to the timeliness or importance of the question, or to the great 
 effect a decision will have. Suppose the question is, " The Monroe 
 Doctrine should be continued." Unless the question has been pre- 
 viously stated, the speaker must announce it. This may be done at the 
 outset or after the first step has been stated. The speaker may word 
 the first step as follows : 
 
 The purpose of this debate is to examine the Monroe Doctrine, the 
 policy of almost a century of our national diplomacy. No subject can 
 command a more serious consideration, for, upon the decision of the 
 United States to maintain or discard this policy depends the good of our 
 country, the welfare of the southern republics, and the peace of the world.
 
 PRELIMINARIES 231 
 
 2. The History. It will often be necessary to tell briefly the main 
 historical facts of the subject. Thus one might tell of the revolts against 
 Spain in the southern countries, of the formation of the Holy Alliance 
 to help Spain, of the origin of the Doctrine, and of the various occasions 
 upon which it has been used. 
 
 3. Definitions. Some of the words or phrases in the proposition may 
 need defining. Dictionary definitions are not always helpful, for they 
 define disconnected words, while the words in the proposition have a 
 special context. Thus the dictionary would be useless for the words ' small ' 
 and ' large ' in the question, " The small high school is better for the pupil 
 than the large high school." The best definiuons are (a) those derived 
 from the writings of experts on the subject, {l>) those which give exam- 
 ples of the idea, and {c) those which show the parts, characteristics, 
 or mode of operation. For example, the terms ' small ' and ' large,' in 
 referring to high schools, may be explained by giving examples of small 
 and large high schools in one's neighborhood or city. The Monroe 
 Doctrine may be defined by reading passages from the original docu- 
 ment, and by quoting from the four or five statements officially given 
 by subsequent presidents and their secretaries. The term ' irrigating 
 system ' may be defined by telling of its various parts : the water sources, 
 the reservoir, the dam, the aqueduct, the distributing system. ' Indus- 
 trial school ' may be defined by describing the equipment and the 
 activities of such an institution. 
 
 4. The Real Question. The exact meaning of the question may now 
 be restated in simpler words and the real difference of opinion be made 
 plain. Thus, " The real question is. Shall we continue our objections 
 to interference by European powers in the affairs of the western hemi- 
 sphere? The affirmative maintains " that we should continue this 
 objection ; the negative, that we should discontinue it." 
 
 To show just what the exact issue is, it is often necessary to state 
 the points which should be Ic/i out of the discussion, for example : 
 (a) all questions which are irrelevant to the main question ; (b) all ques- 
 tions agreed upon or waived by both sides. Thus : 
 
 We are not concerned in this debate with our relations with the United 
 States of Colombia, nor with Mexican affairs except as they involve Euro- 
 pean powers. It is apjreed by both sides that our interest in the Philippine 
 Islands has violated the original intent of the Monroe Doctrine; but it 
 has been agreed to waive any question of the bearing of this fact upon
 
 232 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 the present status of the Doctrine. Thus the question is narrowed down 
 to this : Shall European nations be allowed to interfere in the affairs of 
 the western hemisphere ? 
 
 5 . The Issues Involved. Finally and most important — and this 
 must be a part of the introduction even if nothing else seems necessary 
 — the speaker must point out clearly the different phases of the dis- 
 cussion. These phases are called the issues, and the step in the 
 analysis is called finding the issues. As a matter of fact, finding 
 the issues of an argument is practically the same as making an outline. 
 We have discussed outhning in Chapter VIII, and in Chapter II we 
 have shown how the material for a simple argument may be arranged 
 under several heads. Here we shall illustrate the process of finding the 
 issues in the case of other arguments. 
 
 If two boys from different cities were talking about their schools, 
 each arguing that his was the better, with what facts would their con- 
 versation be concerned? If a third person were listening, would he not 
 hear them speak of grounds, buildings, equipment, courses, students, 
 teachers, athletics.? These topics, then, would show at once that the 
 issues were as follows : Which school has the better grounds ? which 
 the better buildings? which the better equipment? etc. Again, one who 
 proposes the erection of a new school building must discuss some such 
 questions as these: Is the present building satisfactory? Is it practi- 
 cable at this time to provide the money? Is there any other solution 
 to the problem? Will the new building be of great benefit? And, to 
 recur to the question of the Monroe Doctrine, the issues might be 
 stated : Is the Monroe Doctrine in accord with sound international 
 relations? Is there danger connected with it? Has it benefited the 
 United States and other countries? Will the benefits continue? 
 
 To find the issues, therefore, the student tries to determine what 
 are the questions which must be answered in order to prove or dis- 
 prove the question. These he presents to his audience in the intro- 
 duction. The sequence of the issues will be discussed below, under 
 the topic, " The Brief of the Argument." 
 
 6. The Points to be Proved. The issues having been stated, the 
 speaker must next indicate the answers which he intends to make to 
 these issues. For example, the statement, " We maintain first, that the 
 Monroe Doctrine is in accord with sound international relations ; second, 
 that there is no danger connected with it ; " etc., marks the end of the
 
 PRELIMINARIES 233 
 
 introduction, and the speaker then proceeds to argue the first point. 
 That is, he tries to prove that the Monroe Doctrine is in accord with 
 sound international relations. 
 
 Up to this point in the speech there should be no 
 argument given ; the introduction should contain only 
 explanation, with possibly a little narration and description. 
 In fact, the introduction to an argument should be so fair 
 that those who uphold the opposite opinion will agree that 
 everything said is true. In other words, there should be no 
 dispute as to the importance or the history of the question, 
 the meaning of the words, the real issue in the debate, or 
 the statement of the issues that the question raises. The 
 difference of opinion comes in the answer to these issues. 
 
 In assembling material for an argument or debate, the 
 data for the introduction will be collected at the same time 
 as the argumentative ammunition. It is not necessary to 
 complete the introduction before the argument is studied. 
 
 The above six steps should be followed in the prelimi- 
 nary preparation for any argument. It will not always be 
 necessary, however, to show every step in the introduction 
 as it is delivered to the audience. For example, in the 
 case of the question, " The use of toy cap pistols should 
 be prohibited by city ordinance," it might be best to omit 
 any mention of the importance or history of the question, 
 because these are already sufficiently known ; to omit defi- 
 nitions, as being unnecessary ; and to omit the restatement 
 of the issue because it is already so clear. The introduction, 
 then, wcjuld consist of the steps numbered 5 and 6 above. 
 
 All introductions must be greatly condensed. In a ten- 
 minute debating speech not more than three or four minutes 
 should be devoted to the whole introduction.
 
 234 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. This exercise is based on the step numbered i above. If 
 a debate were to be given on one of the subjects listed below, 
 decide what should be said to arouse interest. Prepare a memo- 
 randum of notes and practice this part of the introduction. 
 
 1. Goods made by child labor should be denied interstate commerce. 
 
 2. The president should be elected by direct vote. 
 
 3. The unanimous verdict in jury trials should not be required. 
 
 4. Student cooperation in school government should be greatly 
 extended. 
 
 5. Fourth of July should be celebrated without fireworks. 
 
 2. Choose one of the topics listed below, and decide what 
 should be said on the history of the subject. Look up the subject 
 in the library, and take notes. Practice your talk aloud, and come 
 to class prepared to give this part of the introduction. Be brief. 
 
 1. The recall of judges. 6. The condition of the roads. 
 
 2. Capital punishment. 7. Conservation. 
 
 3. Income tax in the United States. 8. Fireproof buildings. 
 
 4. Immigration. 9. The Senate. 
 
 5. The building of a playground. 10. The Democratic party. 
 
 3. Write an exact definition of three of the terms below. Make 
 a careful search for the proper definition, using the reference 
 books in the Hbrary, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, reports, 
 etc. Decide carefully what form of definition to use. 
 
 1. Local option. 11. Labor unions. 
 
 2. The small college. 12. Skilled labor. 
 
 3. Protective tariff. 13. Tenements. 
 
 4. Neutrality. 14. Sabotage. 
 
 5. Arbitration. 15. Freedom of the seas. 
 
 6. Crime. 16. Progressive. 
 
 7. The alien. 17. Reactionary. 
 
 8. The yellow race. 18. Newspapers. 
 
 9. Aviation. 19. Socialism. 
 
 10. Education. 20. International law.
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 235 
 
 4. Turn to the list of debating questions in Appendix II. 
 Read propositions 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 32, and 37 in 
 section A. Choose one for careful consideration. Decide what 
 the real issue is, and practice saying it aloud, using your own 
 words and restating the question in simple, forcible language. 
 Decide also what irrelevant or waived issues might be wrongly 
 brought into the discussion, and practice the sentences which 
 would show that they are not to be considered. Give the state- 
 ments in class. 
 
 5. Turn to the propositions for debate, and read 3, 8, 12, 15, 
 25, 33, 35, 36, 39, and 42 in section A. Select one of them for 
 special study. Try to find the issues involved in proving or dis- 
 proving this proposition. Comparisons and criticisms, and votes 
 to find out the preference of the whole class, should bring out a 
 satisfactor}^ set of questions for each proposition. 
 
 6. Suggestions for an introduction to an argument on the 
 Monroe Doctrine have been given throughout the steps explained 
 above. Write on cards an outline of a complete introduction for 
 an argument on that question. Practice this introduction, and 
 give it in class. 
 
 7. Prepare and deliver an introduction to an argument, choosing 
 your own subject. 
 
 II. BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT > 
 
 Collecting the Evidence. Material gathered for the argu- 
 ment is called evidence. Evidence consists of the facts on 
 which the proof of a proposition is based. Thus a student 
 who wishes to prove that the city should build a subway 
 cites as evidence certain facts, such as that the street cars 
 and streets are overcrowded, that necessary funds can be 
 provided, and that other cities have reaped great benefits 
 from subways. These facts make up the evidence.
 
 236 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 We have to consider three things in reference to evi- 
 dence : (i) where to look for material; (2) how to know 
 which items are of value ; (3) how to record them. We 
 shall now proceed to answer these questions. 
 
 The Sources of Evidence. The most common source of 
 argumentative evidence is printed material, and the debater 
 will chiefly depend on such books, magazines, and reports 
 as the following : 
 
 REFERENCES FOR ARGUMENTATIVE MATERIAL 
 
 Bliss. New Encyclopedia of Social Reform. 
 
 Lalor. Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and 
 United States History. 
 
 Earned. History for Ready Reference. 
 
 New International Encyclopedia. 
 
 Annuals : Statistical Abstract ; World Almanac ; Statesman's Year- 
 book ; American Yearbook. 
 
 Magazines, indexed in Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. 
 
 Handbooks for Debaters. 
 
 Reports : Senate, House of Representatives, Congressional Record, 
 Departments, Census, State or City, Associations and Societies. 
 
 Many state universities and other colleges have officers 
 who prepare bibliographies on important questions, copies 
 of which may be obtained on application. Students should 
 learn the essentials of the system used for classifying 
 library books. 
 
 How to read for a Debate. The first reading for a debate 
 should be chiefly for the purpose of acquiring a wide knowl- 
 edge of the subject. Such a broad outlook is obtained 
 primarily from histories, textbooks, and encyclopedias. In 
 looking up a subject, try all the likely headings in order to 
 be sure to find complete information. For example, in seek- 
 ing material about the tariff one should look also under the
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 237 
 
 words 'free trade,' 'protection,' 'customs,' 'duties,' and 
 ' taxation.' After getting general information on the ques- 
 tion, the student may commence his special reading. Sta- 
 tistics and reports may be studied, and exact, minute details 
 mastered. Care should be taken to learn the latest thought 
 on the subject as given in the magazines. 
 
 Suppose we are discussing the question, Resolved, that the 
 United States is justified in the manner in which it acquired the 
 canal zone. One might go first to the histories to familiarize 
 himself with the treaties, the activities of other countries, the in- 
 vestigation of the two routes, the negotiations with Colombia, the 
 Panama revolution, and the agreement with Panama. He will 
 then have the broad facts on which to base the argument. Let 
 him next read reports of the State Department, together with 
 reports of congressional committees and of debates in Congress. 
 These will give him accurate information as to the point of view 
 of this country. If he could obtain reports from Colombia, 
 he might get the opposite opinions. Finally, he may turn to 
 magazines. The Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, under 
 ' Colombia,' ' canal,' ' Panama,' ' United States,' or ' treaties,' will 
 list the magazine articles on these subjects, and the debater must 
 judge from the titles, or by glancing through the articles them- 
 selves, which he will select for reading. For the subject under dis- 
 cussion, he should certainly read Colonel Roosevelt's articles in 
 justification of his acts and also articles giving the case for 
 Colombia. 
 
 Should debaters use the handbooks in which material is 
 carefully collected, arranged, recorded, judged, and outlined.? 
 Yes. A woman would be foolish to make a pattern for a 
 dress if she could find a satisfactory pattern already jDre- 
 pared. No debater should grow to depend upon prepared 
 debating material, for in life he will have to put together
 
 238 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 arguments in which he must do the whole work himself ; 
 but in his practice there can be no harm in occasionally 
 using another's work on which to build. By so doing the 
 student will find himself well on his way, and may there- 
 fore spend more time on the advanced preparation of 
 the speech. 
 
 Interviewing. Another source of evidence is conversation 
 with persons who are intelligently interested in the subject. 
 Interviews may be arranged by letter or by telephone. 
 Persons who represent both opinions should be visited. 
 It is best to have a list of definite questions to ask. Besides 
 such formal conversations, the student should have as many 
 talks as convenient with parents, teachers, companions, and 
 other friends, asking questions which trouble him, and test- 
 ing on others the items of evidence which occur to him. 
 
 Personal Observation. In all his study the debater must 
 not underestimate the value of his own observations. In the 
 case of subjects concerned with school or city or country, 
 and many others, the student will be able to study conditions 
 at first hand, and to bring the result of his investigations 
 into the argument. 
 
 Thus, if a speaker is to argue that his city should purchase 
 a strip of land along the river or seacoast for purposes of rec- 
 reation, he might collect valuable evidence by making an investi- 
 gation of present facilities for boating, bathing, and the like. 
 He might then determine, from his own experiences and from 
 observation, how people substitute other and less wholesome 
 amusements for recreation that would become possible if water 
 were accessible. Finally, he might look over the situation for the 
 purpose of finding a suitable location for the proposed recreation 
 grounds. Thus his own observations would have furnished him 
 valuable evidence. ^
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 239 
 
 We have seen thus far that the material out of which 
 an argument is to be built is called evidence, and that the 
 sources of evidence are three : reading, conversation, and 
 personal observation. 
 
 Testing the Evidence. In collecting the material for the 
 argument the student must constantly use his judgment in 
 deciding which of the items that he reads, hears, or observes 
 are good evidence, and which are of little or no value. 
 
 In the first place, he must select and use only such evidence 
 as applies directly and definitely to the issue. All other material, 
 no matter how interesting, must be ruled out. Thus evidence 
 about canal slides would have little bearing on the question of 
 our treatment of Colombia in acquiring the canal, and it should 
 therefore be discarded. 
 
 We have already seen that trustworthy definidons may be ob- 
 tained from the writings of experts. The first five references on 
 the list above are generally recognized as giving reliable informa- 
 tion, though it is always well to judge the standing of the author 
 of any particular article. Reports must be critically examined, 
 as they may be biased. The student must know who made the 
 report, how the information was gathered, and whether the pur- 
 pose of the report was to furnish information or to prove a case. 
 A congressional committee, for example, a majority of whom are 
 Democrats, may issue a report on the cost of producing a certain 
 article in this country and in Europe ; but this report may be 
 biased by the desire to help the Democratic argument on the 
 tariff question, this argument being that the difference in cost is 
 small. Similarly, the value of reports of various societies must be 
 considered in the light of the membership, the purpose of the 
 society, and the manner of compiling the report. 
 
 Magazine articles, although they furnish splendid evidence, must 
 be critically reviewed. It is worse than useless to rely on the 
 mere fact that a certain opinion is found in a magazine, no matter
 
 240 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 how reputable it may be. Some magazines make it a point to 
 have articles on both sides of an important question. In case a 
 particular article is written by a recognized authority on the sub- 
 ject, it may be referred to as having the weight of expert opinion. 
 In all other cases the opinions in magazines have no more weight 
 than those in newspapers. However, they all show the debater 
 possible lines of argument which he may follow if he can secure 
 adequate evidence. 
 
 The most effective evidence is that which the opponents recog- 
 nize as true. If the student can succeed in finding enough of 
 such evidence, actual argument may be dispensed with. Suppose 
 a speaker were trying to induce a city council to purchase land 
 and erect houses for workingmen. He might present as evidence 
 the experience of the German city of Ulm, and then show clearly 
 how the land and the funds could be obtained in his own city. 
 He would not then need to draw any conclusions, for the listeners 
 themselves would be led to ask, " Why don't we do that ? " The 
 best kind of argumentative speech contains little real argument, 
 but a great many indisputable experiences. The value of facts 
 and examples is shown in this statement recently made: "The 
 modern man does not argue ; he illustrates." The accurate state- 
 ment of known facts and of well-selected illustrations of the truth 
 to be established inevitably lead the hearers to the conclusion 
 desired. 
 
 To sum up the tests, good evidence must be applicable 
 to the issue, and must come from sources which are well 
 qualified to give facts or opinions, which are not prejudiced 
 toward either side, and which are recognized as trustworthy. 
 
 The fact that no evidence to prove a particular contention can be 
 found, sometimes is good evidence that the proposition is not true. 
 Suppose it is contended that the abolition of capital punishment would 
 increase murder. If this proposition is true, the statistics of crime in 
 the states and nations which have abolished capital punishment should 
 exhibit a noticeable increase in the number of homicides directly after
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 241 
 
 the abolition of the death penalty. If no such increase is shown, the 
 contention that the number of murders would increase can hardly be 
 maintained. 
 
 ^ Recording the Evidence. Evidence from all sources, — 
 reading, conversation, and observation, — if it promises to 
 satisfy the tests, should be recorded in convenient form. 
 Proper recording from the start will save a great amount 
 of labor when one comes to arrange the material for the 
 speech. The first requisite is a supply of paper of con- 
 venient size : the quarter sheet of foolscap or of typewriter 
 paper is satisfactory. A space should be left blank at the 
 top of each sheet, so that the paper may receive its proper 
 label and numbering after the complete outline is prepared. 
 (When the first evidence is being collected, it may not be 
 possible to tell in advance under which head each item 
 will come.) The second line should bear the title of the 
 particular article which contains the evidence. Next should 
 come the author's name and the name of the book or maga- 
 zine or other source of information, with the exact reference. 
 Finally, comes the evidence itself, either written out as an 
 exact quotation, or condensed to give the substance of the 
 thought. The papers should be written on one side, in ink, 
 and no sheet should bear more than one item of evidence. 
 
 The " Form for Recording Evidence, with Examples," 
 shows how the cards may be filled out. 
 
 Arranging the Evidence. With the evidence collected and 
 properly recorded, the slips of paper may be arranged in 
 order. This is done as explained on pages 126-129. 
 
 Using Graphic Methods. We have spoken in previous 
 chapters of tlic use of diagrams and drawings in speak- 
 ing, and we have seen how effective they are. Debating
 
 242 
 
 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 evidence may often be put into a similarly graphic form. In 
 a debate on the independence of the Philippines, a student 
 used a colored map of the Islands for the purpose of 
 showing that there are eighty or more different tribes and 
 three different religions among the people. Another stu- 
 dent used a chart with six or more heavy black lines of 
 different lengths, to represent the proportion of the popu- 
 lation attending school in the Philippines as compared 
 with similar figures for the republics of South and Central 
 America. Whenever a bit of evidence can be recorded in 
 graphic form, the thought will be made more effective. 
 
 FORM FOR RECORDING EVIDENCE, WITH EXAMPLES 
 
 American Cities should main- 
 Form TAIN Employment Agencies 
 
 Outline numbers. 
 
 
 Debate topic the item 
 
 concerns. 
 
 Title of article, chapter 
 
 or book. 
 
 Author. 
 
 
 Source. 
 
 
 The quotation or 
 
 thought 
 
 forming the evidence. 
 
 
 Individuals cannot solve the 
 problem. 
 
 " Unemployment, a World Prob- 
 lem, and the Congress at 
 Ghent." 
 
 Katharine Coman. 
 
 T/te Snr%>ey, Vol. XXXI, No. 
 22; Feb. 28, 1914; p. 667. 
 
 " The causes of unemploy- 
 ment are not merely individual, 
 — physical incapacity, lack of 
 training, inefficiency, and un- 
 willingness to work, — ■ they are 
 usually general and quite be- 
 yond the control of the indi- 
 vidual workman."
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 
 
 243 
 
 Los Angeles Harbor should 
 BE Fortified 
 
 \'-2 
 
 Useless to fortify. 
 
 Answer to our questicfh, Would 
 such fortification protect the 
 city adequately? 
 
 Colonel , of the U.S. Army. 
 
 Letter to us. 
 
 Substance — 
 
 Not unless a chain of forts 
 were placed along the coast; 
 otherwise an enemy could land 
 and approach the city from the 
 rear. 
 
 Athletics furnish as Valua- 
 ble Mental Exercise as do 
 THE Usual Studies 
 
 I^'-3 
 Self-control. 
 
 Introduction to " Practical Track 
 and Field Athletics," p. 1 2. 
 
 Graham (Harvard instructor) 
 and Clark (Boston School 
 Dept.) 
 
 Substance — 
 
 Track and field athletics are 
 thoroughly democratic in char- 
 acter, and teach a man how to 
 control himself and how to con- 
 duct himself toward his fellows. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Turn to the questions in Appendix II and read the following 
 in B : i, 2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 23, and 26. Select one of them 
 for study. Decide first what are the best sources of evidence for 
 your proposition : what reading to do, what people to interview, 
 what personal investigations to make. Go to the library and make 
 out a list of references for reading. Then, using the complete list, 
 prepare yourself to explain to the class how you would go about 
 studying for the argument. Let them criticize your plans, compare 
 their lists with yours, and discuss which plans are best. Those 
 who select the same subject may meet in committee and draft 
 a composite set of directions. 
 
 (This exercise may be repeated, each student choosing a subject of 
 his own. Or it may first be broken up into its several parts to make
 
 244 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 four different exercises: (i) plans for general reading, (2) plans for 
 special reading, (3) plans for obtaining evidence from persons by inter- 
 views or letters, and (4) plans for personal observations.) 
 
 2. Test the items of possible evidence listed below, for the 
 purpose of finding out whether each satisfies the requirements. 
 Be able to give good reasons for your opinions, and come to class 
 prepared to tell the result of your study. • 
 
 (The exercise may be divided, if the class or the teacher so decides, 
 each student handling one or more of the statements.) 
 
 1. From personal observation I know that there are but three good 
 grocery stores on this street. 
 
 2. Robert Evans, the late admiral, was in favor of fortifying the 
 Panama Canal. 
 
 3. Four thousand citizens of San Francisco have petitioned Con- 
 gress to have San Francisco bay dredged. 
 
 4. Carnegie states that a tariff on steel is no longer necessary. 
 
 5. Colonel Roosevelt says that practice in shooting will be a 
 benefit to schoolboys. 
 
 6. Judge Lindsey says that economic conditions are largely respon- 
 sible for the crimes of children. 
 
 7. Victor Berger says that the protective tariff does not help the 
 workingman. 
 
 8. Secretary Redfield says that if the American nianufaccurer will 
 keep up to date he will not need a protective tariff. 
 
 9. Arnold Bennett, the English author, says that New York City 
 is attractive. 
 
 10. The county assessor says that the single tax would be unfair. 
 
 3. Study the statements given below, for the purpose of decid- 
 ing whether they offer any real evidence. Do they make state- 
 ments which appeal to most persons as true, or do they make 
 unsupported statements which need further evidence ? Come to 
 class prepared to give your criticisms. 
 
 1. A person who intends to choose a business career should begin 
 at the bottom. 
 
 2. It is safe to assume that the world is getting better. 
 
 3. A house divided against itself cannot stand.
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 245 
 
 4. The important part of roofing is its waterproofing. 
 
 5. Our advertisers tell the truth. 
 
 6. A healthy baby is a good baby every time. 
 
 7. Soap is a universal necessity. 
 
 8. A good lock is your best protection. 
 
 9. Advertising talks. 
 10. Holding public ofiice is a thankless job. 
 
 4. Choose your own proposition for an argument, decide on 
 the possible sources of evidence, and bring to class five slips con- 
 taining items of evidence. In preparing the five slips, get a reliable 
 item from each of the following sources: (i) a book of general 
 reference, (2) a report, (3) a magazine, (4) a conversation or letter, 
 (5) a personal investigation. 
 
 5. Study the following facts and figures. Then select one of 
 the items for graphic representation. Consider all the possible 
 ways — map, chart, curve, lines, blocks, picture, or diagram. 
 Make the representation large enough to be seen by all. Make 
 use of this in a short talk. 
 
 1. Japan's commerce in 1 900 : 2. Sugar per capita used : 
 
 United States 24 per cent 1875 . . . 43 pounds 
 
 Great Britain 
 China . 
 All others 
 
 3. Approximate area of certain states : 
 
 Massachusetts 8000 square miles 
 
 New York 49,000 square miles 
 
 Virginia 43.0°° square miles 
 
 Pennsylvania 45'000 square miles 
 
 Rhode Island 1000 square miles 
 
 Oregon 97,000 square miles 
 
 4. The result of the Mexican War, 1 846-1 847, was that the United 
 States acquired over half of Mexico. 
 
 5. Street cars can easily be built so that only one step for entering 
 will be necessary. 
 
 I 7 per cent 
 
 1885 . 
 
 48 pounds 
 
 1 3 per cent 
 
 1895 . 
 
 63 pounds 
 
 46 per cent 
 
 1905 . 
 
 72 pounds 
 
 
 1910 
 
 . 80 pounds
 
 246 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE ^ 
 
 d 
 
 Reasoning. We have spoken of the collection of signifi- 
 cant facts and experiences as being the gathering of evi- 
 dence, and we have shown that the most effective evidence 
 is found by obtaining facts that are so convincing that they 
 cannot be denied, and so pertinent and clear that the hearers 
 themselves will be forced to draw the conclusion desired by 
 the speaker. We have tried to distinguish between /<a:^/j and 
 reasons, calling the former evidence, and the latter reasoning. 
 In actual practice, however, much of the material we gather 
 for evidence contains also a great many conclusions and 
 opinions which can hardly be called facts in the strict sense 
 of the word. Thus evidence and reasoning are apt to be 
 bound together in much of the material gathered for an 
 argument or debate. 
 
 Even if the cards of evidence were full of reasons, it 
 would still be necessary to bind together the several minor 
 conclusions. We need, therefore, to know something of the 
 processes of reasoning. 
 
 While any person may reason, and reason well, without 
 knowing very much about the process by which he draws 
 conclusions, the few explanations which follow will prove 
 helpful in systematizing our practice. They will show also 
 how to make an argument clearer to the audience, and how 
 to go about the proof of a proposition from several different 
 points of view. 
 
 We shall first put into the briefest possible space an 
 explanation of each kind of reasoning ; next, we shall give 
 illustrations of each ; then we shall discuss how each may 
 be tested ; and finally, we shall see how each method of 
 reasoning may be applied to an actual debate. 
 
 There are five chief kinds of reasoning :
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 247 
 
 . THE KINDS OF REASONING 
 
 1. From known facts to the general law about, or the cause of, 
 these facts. Induction. 
 
 2. From a general law or cause to a resulting fact or effect. 
 Deduction. 
 
 3. From an example either of the operation of a law, or the 
 effect of a cause, to the law or cause itself. Example. 
 
 4. From an effect of some cause to another effect of the same 
 cause. &gn. 
 
 5. From a resemblance one thing bears to another to the 
 operation of a similar law upon them both. Analogy. 
 
 These modes of reasoning are not wholly separate ; we 
 shall see that the first two are primary, and the others 
 secondar}\ Let us now examine and illustrate each. 
 
 r 1. Induction is the method of reasoning common to natural 
 ^ science. For example, we have seen that when objects are lying 
 in the sun those that are black seem to get more heated than 
 those which are lighter in color. And if we have examined enough 
 of such objects, we finally come to formulate the law that black 
 objects absorb the heat of the sun more than do objects of a 
 lighter color. 
 
 We use induction also when we make a series of observations 
 about the school building and then conclude that the present build- 
 ing is inadequate. Or we collect wage statistics from many boys 
 who have gone to work at the end of the eighth grade, and from 
 many others who have continued their education through the high 
 school, and from a study of these we conclude that the higher 
 education is the cause of greater earning power. Thus induction 
 leads to general laws. 
 ^y 2. Deduction is used when we call to mind such a general law 
 as that the French are leaders in science and invention, and from 
 this law conclude that it will pay a scientist to learn to read
 
 248 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 French. We use deduction when we assume that poverty exists 
 in all large American cities, and conclude that if our city grows big, 
 it too will have problems of poverty to face. Again, we use the 
 same method when we try to show that if a new school building 
 is built, certain benefits will result. Thus deduction leads to specific 
 truths, while induction leads to general laws. 
 
 3. Argument from example is a kind of induction in which a 
 striking instance or illustration is used to prove a general law or 
 cause. Thus a person might show a beautiful picture painted by 
 a Japanese artist, and use this to prove the artistic abilities of the 
 Japanese. Again, one might instance the success of Dayton with 
 the city-manager form of government as a reason for concluding 
 that the plan is a success. Example leads from an important fact 
 to a general law or cause. 
 
 4. Argument from' sign is a combination of the two processes of 
 induction and deduction ; or, in other words, it is the successive 
 use of example and deduction. We say that the falling of the 
 barometer is a sign of rain. We mean that the falling of the 
 barometer is an example of the operation of the law that low pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere causes a falling of the barometer; and that 
 this same condition of the air also makes it probable that rain will 
 fall. Thus we reason from one effect of a law to another ; that 
 is, we use an example (induction) to find the law, and then we 
 use deduction to find the other effect. Let us examine one more 
 instance of argument by sign. If Dayton succeeds with the city- 
 manager plan, Duluth ought to adopt it. This is reasoning by sign, 
 for Dayton's success is taken as a sign that the plan is good for 
 other cities, and then Duluth is reached by deduction. 
 
 5. Argument from analogy is like argument from sign because 
 we reason from one effect to another ; but in the case of reason- 
 ing by analogy there are two similar general laws, instead of one 
 law back of both effects. Thus, if we say that every army has its 
 commander and therefore a road-building gang must have a fore- 
 man, we are reasoning that there is a resemblance between the 
 characteristics of an army and those of the road builders, and that
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 249 
 
 the need for mastery and obedience which exists in the one exists 
 also in the other. Again, we may reason that since weeds spring 
 up on idle land, useless thoughts will spring up in idle minds. 
 The argument for the city-manager government is reasoning by 
 analogy — the comparison of the business of a city with that of 
 a corporation. Thus reasoning by analogy leads from a result of 
 the operation of one law to a result of the operation of a similar 
 law in another field of thought. 
 
 The Tests of Reasoning. Tests should be applied to all 
 reasoning, for only by careful thought can the right reasons 
 be found and expressed. The reasoning of our opponents 
 in argument must also be analyzed and tested, so that error 
 may be pointed out and truth be found. The following is 
 a brief statement of the tests for the five kinds of reasoning : 
 
 TESTS FOR REASONING 
 
 1. Induction. Are the facts cited sufficient in number and in 
 force to prove the general law ? Could there be any other inter- 
 pretation of the facts ? Are there enough other facts to prove 
 the opposite ? 
 
 2. Deduction. Is the supposed cause strong enough to bring 
 about the effect said to follow ? Is there any other cause or law 
 which might prevent the operation of the law ? 
 
 3. Example. Is the example so clearly typical that it may be 
 used to prove the existence of the general law ? 
 
 4. Sign, Does the fact said to be a sign lead inevitably to the 
 cause, and does this cause in turn lead to the alleged result ? 
 
 5. Analogy, Is the comparison a fair one and the resemblance 
 close enough ? Are the statements in the argument all true ones .' 
 
 We shall later have more to say about tests for reason- 
 ing (see under Refutation).
 
 250 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 Applying Reasoning to the Debate. The chief value of 
 the study of reasoning is that it teaches the student to 
 decide how to go about proving a proposition. He may try 
 first to find out if there are facts which will aid in proving it 
 by induction ; second, to see if it is itself a result of a larger 
 law ; third, to see if there are good examples which might 
 help to prove it ; fourth, to seek out any signs that indicate 
 the truth of the contention ; and fifth, to think out one or 
 two good analogies which might add force to the argument. 
 
 Let us conclude our discussion of reasoning by noting the 
 five ways in which one might attempt to reason that the 
 Philippine Islands should be given their freedom : 
 
 First, by induction seek out the facts of education, loyalty, interest, 
 desire, participation, success, and reliability, and from these facts, con- 
 clude that the people should be free. Second, by deduction show that 
 this question is but a part of the larger one of justice to the oppressed, 
 of the consent of the governed, and of the right of any people to be 
 free from the domination of an alien race. If these causes operate, we 
 may conclude that these reasons should apply to the Philippines. Third, 
 as an example cite the success of Cuba. Fourth, cite the celebration 
 held in Manila when President Wilson was elected, as a sign that the 
 people want freedom, and their earnest debates in the assembly, as a 
 sign that they will use their independence wisely. Fifth, study the 
 resemblances between the Philippines and the man whose house was 
 captured by robbers and who was assisted in driving them out by a 
 strange man who then took possession of the house. 
 
 Finally, let us suggest some possible tests for the above 
 lines of argument : 
 
 First, are the facts on education, loyalty, etc., of themselves sufficient 
 to prove that independence is desirable.? Do not these facts prove that 
 we should continue our present plans.'' Do not other facts, such as the 
 variety of races and religions, justify the conclusion that these people 
 should not be independent, at least for the present .'' Second, do the
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 251 
 
 laws of abstract justice apply to this practical problem? Does not the 
 law of the "big brother" and his duty take precedence? Third, is 
 small and unified Cuba a fair example to use in proving fhat we should 
 give freedom to the Philippines? Fourth, do these signs lead us to any 
 solid conviction that independence would be well used? Fifth, is the 
 resemblance between the Philippines and a robbed house sufficiently 
 close? Who owned the house in the first place? Did the so-called 
 owner claim all the house? Is the so-called owner capable of using the 
 house in the right way ? Did not the " strange man " have an additional 
 duty to perform ? 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine the statements below, and decide what method or 
 methods of reasoning are used in the case of each. Be prepared 
 to give accurate and correct answers to each of the statements, and 
 to explain your reasons for deciding as you do. Are the statements 
 true? 
 
 1. If I find the strawberry bed scratched up, I look to see if the 
 berries have been eaten. 
 
 2. If the moon has a ring around it, there is likely to be rain soon. 
 
 3. The United .States should have control of the city of Panama, for 
 a person cannot have a pleasant home with a strange man hanging 
 around the front door. 
 
 4. Small countries are very patriotic ; look at Switzerland. 
 
 5. Princeton beat Yale, and Yale beat Harvard; therefore Princeton 
 can beat Harvard. 
 
 6. The man had been drinking ; I could smell his breath. 
 
 7. Pepper trees are good shade trees because they spread well and 
 keep green. 
 
 8. One who is successful in his own business ought to be a good 
 manager of the city's business. 
 
 9. Drivers are frequently overworked ; we should remember this 
 when the milkman is late. 
 
 10. A storm drain ought to be built ; at the time of the last rain we 
 could n't get across the street. 
 
 2. By which of the five methods of reasoning would you at- 
 tempt to prove the statements below ? In each case be ready to
 
 252 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 tell which method would be best, and which other methods might 
 also be used. Give reasons, and be able to show how the reasoning 
 might be done. 
 
 1. All the presidents of the United States have come from Eastern 
 states. 
 
 2. Street-car rails make pavements rough. 
 
 3. The pay-as-you-enter cars delay the traffic. 
 
 4. The income tax will be a success. 
 
 5. The form of government of the United States has been copied 
 by other countries. 
 
 6. Revolutions in Mexico are hard to prevent. 
 
 7. Impeachment proceedings against judges usually fail. 
 
 8. Recall of judges will have bad effects. 
 
 9. The world is speed-mad. 
 
 10. You will enjoy your play more if you do your work first. 
 
 3. Study the reasons for the association of the ideas put to- 
 gether in each of the items below. Is one the cause of the other ? 
 Are they both effects of the same cause ? Is there a common 
 cause back of them ? Is there the connection of a supposed cause 
 which does not exist ? Have they no real connection ? Be ready 
 to make a complete explanation of each. 
 
 1. Shortage of money and a financial panic. 
 
 2. Woman suffrage and prohibition. 
 
 3. Preparedness and war. 
 
 4. A dry season and high prices. 
 
 5. Labor unions and high wages. 
 
 6. Did you hear that snap? It was a mouse. 
 
 7. I hear the bell ; we shall be late. 
 
 8. Here is a marble ; let 's look for another. 
 
 9. The weather man says rain ; no picnic to-day. 
 10. There goes the whistle ; Happy New Year ! 
 
 4. Make a collection of significant facts which you observe about 
 some one feature of your school — its grounds, buildings, students, 
 teachers, or studies. From these facts try to draw up a general 
 statement which will include all of them, or find a law which will
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 253 
 
 account for all. Using simple notes, practice giving a large num- 
 ber of these facts, ending the talk with the conclusion to which 
 they lead by induction. 
 
 5. Think out a general statement which is true of all towns 
 the size of yours, or a law, rule, or condition which is true of all. 
 Then think out and write down as many results of the existence 
 of this law as you can. Practice giving the talk, beginning with 
 the statement which is recognized as true, and following this with 
 an interesting list or series of consequences which are deduced 
 from the law. 
 
 6. Compose a statement advocating a change or improvement, 
 such as the following : " The United States should cease building 
 battleships." What results would follow if this should be put into 
 actual operation ? Decide what can be deducted from the proposal, 
 and come prepared to give the statement and its applications. 
 
 7. Prepare a bright, attractive argument by example to give 
 in class. You are to choose a fact which shows the existence of a 
 general truth or the operation of a law ; and the example given 
 should be so strong and so evident that it will point at once to the 
 truth of the general statement. 
 
 8. Prepare an argument from sign. Practice the reasoning by 
 which you show that one fact is the sign that another is true. Be 
 prepared to explain the causes which lie back of the sign, and the 
 result to which your reasoning leads. 
 
 9. Think over the points of resemblance in the cases men- 
 tioned below. Then prepare an argument based on the analogy 
 between the members of each. Be ready to indicate to the class 
 the line of reasoning you would use in the comparisons. Then 
 practice the oral argument for two of these analogies. Liken : 
 
 1. War to a nightmare. 6. Business to a race. 
 
 2. A school to a family. 7. A country to an individual. 
 
 3. A child to a plant. 8. Life to a fight. 
 
 4. A thought to a seed. 9. City government to housekeeping. 
 
 5. A writer to a carpenter. 10. The tariff question to a puzzle.
 
 254 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 10. Test these statements from the standpoint of correct reason- 
 ing and truth, and be prepared to give oral criticisms : 
 
 1. The schools are the cause of the superior morality of the 
 American people. 
 
 2. Saloons have helped us ; see how fast the city has grown. 
 
 3. In the last ten years divorces have greatly increased in number; 
 this is no doubt due to the spread of suffrage. 
 
 4. My cake is n't good, for I forgot to use the eggs. 
 6. Pupils, like soldiers, should obey without question. 
 
 6. Rockefeller was a success because he started as a poor boy. 
 
 7. The ticking of that clock keeps me awake. 
 
 8. All wages should be equalized, for there is no reason why one 
 man should spend more than another. 
 
 9. People would n't be so poor if they would stop drinking. 
 
 The Brief of the Argument. The outline of an argu- 
 ment is called a biief. The brief is made up of complete 
 sentences, and its points may be read downward consecu- 
 tively. All the main topics serve to prove the truth of the 
 proposition for debate ; and, in turn, all the subtopics under 
 each main topic serve to prove the truth of that main topic. 
 
 A Short Example. Following is an example of a brief, 
 with the evidence omitted : 
 
 THE UNITED STATES SHOULD INTERVENE IN MEXICO 
 
 Negative Brief 
 A. Intrflditdion 
 
 1 . A right solution is of supreme importance. 
 
 2. Intervention means temporary armed control to establish peace. 
 
 3. The issues are: Would intervention be just.? and, Would it be 
 
 expedient ? 
 
 4. The negative maintains that the United States should not inter- 
 
 vene in Mexico, because 
 First, Intervention would be unjust, and 
 Second, Intervention would be inexpedient.
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 255 
 
 B. Argument 
 
 I. Intervention in Mexico would be unjust, y2;/" 
 
 1 . It would \'iolate Mexico's right to independence. 
 
 2. It would violate the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine. 
 (Summary : i and 2, therefore I.) 
 
 II. Intervention in Mexico would be inexpedient, y^r 
 
 1 . No satisfactory method has been proposed. 
 
 2. Mexico would resist. 
 
 3. We are not in a position to improve Mexico. 
 
 4. Intervention would have bad effects. 
 (Summary: i, 2, 3, and 4, therefore II.) 
 
 C. Conclusion 
 
 1 . Summary : We have proved 
 
 First, Intervention would be unjust, and 
 
 Second, Intervention would be inexpedient. 
 
 Therefore, The United States should not intervene in Mexico. 
 
 2. We appeal to all loyal Americans to uphold the honor of 
 
 our country and to let Mexico work out its own problem. 
 
 How the Points are Read and Summarized. The above 
 brief would do for the speaker to hold in his hand if the 
 speech were to be very short, and if he were very familiar 
 with his subject. But it is much too short for the use of 
 one who is to give a detailed argument. It does show, how- 
 ever, how the brief may be read, with the subpoints prov- 
 ing the main points. It shows also that when one has finished 
 with his main points, he must summarize ; and that the 
 summaries are given with the subpoints first, and that they 
 lead through the word ' therefore ' to the main point in 
 each case. Let us note the two forms for the first main 
 point of the brief above. The brief reads, " Intervention 
 in Mexico would be unjust, for it would violate Mexico's 
 right to independence, and it would violate the spirit of the
 
 256 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 Monroe Doctrine," The summary may be read, " Interven- 
 tion would violate Mexico's right to independence, and it 
 would violate the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine ; therefore 
 intervention would be unjust." We shall speak further of 
 these summaries under the section below on practicing the 
 argument. 
 
 How the Brief is Expanded. It was remarked above that 
 the brief here given is very short. Let us see how it is 
 expanded for the purpose of an extended argument. Some 
 lawyers' briefs are as long as this book. Such briefs in- 
 clude full reasons for every statement made, and incorporate 
 under each reason a memorandum of the facts — evidence 
 — upon which each statement depends. The debater must 
 do these two things so far as it is feasible. 
 
 Take our unsupported statement at the beginning of the 
 argument, that intervention would violate Mexico's right to 
 independence. This in itself might become the subject of 
 a whole debate. If it were debated it might read, " Re- 
 solved, that intervention in Mexico would violate Mexico's 
 right to independence." And the brief on this question 
 might include such main points as the following: "Inter- 
 national law recognizes no right of a nation to interfere in 
 an internal quarrel ; intervention would weaken Mexico in 
 the eyes of the world ; Mexico would be permanently de- 
 pendent upon the United States." These three points are 
 the supports of the statement in the brief, and may be 
 written therein. In the same way the other statements of 
 the brief may be expanded almost without limit. But if we 
 go far enough in expanding the point upon international 
 law, we shall soon come to the place where we shall write 
 down actual facts in history which show concrete instances
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 257 
 
 of the application of international law. We should then 
 begin to \mte down actual evidence — facts which are 
 backed by history and by indisputable authority. Like the 
 lawyers, we may write into the brief these actual facts 
 and their references. We shall accordingly have done 
 the two things suggested above : we shall have included 
 full reasons for every statement, and we shall have incor- 
 porated actual evidence. 
 
 In studying for an argument or a debate it will be found 
 advisable to make a rather full brief ; but in the delivery 
 of the speech before the audience, much detail may be so 
 familiar that it may be omitted. All exact quotations and 
 all statistics used must be included ; they should be read 
 and not recited from memory. 
 
 Analysis, as used in making the Brief. The finding of 
 the issues and the making of briefs is called analysis, and 
 the process of analyzing is one of the highest activities 
 of the mind. The student need not be discouraged, there- 
 fore, if he becomes expert only by slow degrees. Most 
 writers and speakers find it necessary to make outline after 
 outline, changing the points and the order of the points as 
 growth in understanding comes. So the student must work 
 out his briefs, writing down every plan that suggests itself 
 and then trying to better it. No brief will spring from the 
 mind full grown. It must be the product of hard labor. It 
 must expand internally. 
 
 Let us note some further suggestions which will make the 
 work of analysis more intelligent. In the section about the intro- 
 duction we have seen that the issues are found by studying the 
 proposition to find out what questions arise and must be answered. 
 Thus, whenever a proposition advocates a change of policy, four
 
 258 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 questions usually arise : Are the present conditions satisfactory ? 
 Is the proposed change feasible ? Will the change bring good 
 results ? Will any other plan serve as well ? The affirmative, 
 accordingly, must prove that present conditions are unsatisfac- 
 tory, that the proposed change is workable, that it will be bene- 
 ficial, and that no other plan will do as well. These points may 
 be the main sections of the affirmative brief, and the negative side 
 may shape the brief to deny these four points. 
 
 It will be noticed that the affirmative speakers in the debate 
 have more to prove than the negative ; for it is certain that we 
 should need to know that all four affirmative points are true 
 before we finally decide to make the proposed change, while we 
 should refuse to change if any one were not true. Hence the 
 negative would win the argument if it could be shown that any 
 one point is untrue — that present conditions are not unsatis- 
 factory, or that the proposed change is not workable, or that the 
 results will not or would not be good, or that there is another 
 way fully as good as the one proposed. This explains why the 
 affirmative in a debate has the opening and closing speeches. 
 
 In outlining such a question as, " A new school building should 
 be erected," the debaters should avoid the word ' needed ' or 
 ' necessary ' in their briefs. If we say that a new school building 
 is necessary, we mean that the present building is inadequate, 
 that the new building would relieve conditions, and that no 
 other plan will solve the difficulty. The word ' necessary,' there- 
 fore, covers almost the whole proposition. As a single point this 
 issue is too large for use in the outline of the argument. 
 
 The Order of the Points. Careful thought must be given 
 to the order of the points. We have discussed the prin- 
 ciples of outlining in Chapter VIII, and those principles 
 apply in the main to the drawing up of the brief. There 
 are two or three other considerations worthy of note. The 
 first point undertaken in the brief should be a telling point,
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT " 259 
 
 one that will go a long way in winning the good will and 
 confidence of the audience. 
 
 It often happens that one audience requires a different order 
 of points from another audience. If a peace society were listening 
 to a speaker who was advocating intervention, for example, thfe 
 members would wish first to hear about the ethical aspect of the 
 question; and they would be antagonistic toward a person who 
 began his speech with trying to show the expediency of inter- 
 vention. On the other hand, to an audience of congressmen one 
 might reverse the order, discussing expediency first and justice 
 second. In the argument for a new" school building a women's 
 club might receive most favorably the point that present condi- 
 tions are bad ; and an audience of children, the argument that 
 benefits will come from the new building. An audience of school 
 committeemen, however, might be impatient with either of these 
 arguments until they were shown that the plan to build was feasible 
 both as to place and as to money. 
 
 As a general rule it may be said that when there seems 
 to be no apparent reason for any special order of the points 
 in the brief, these points may be arranged just as are the 
 runners in a relay race — the strongest point last, the next 
 strongest first, and the others between the two. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose a proposition, — about your school or town, perhaps, 
 — and think out the issues of the question. Write the statements 
 of the main points as complete sentences, each of which helps to 
 prove or deny the proposition. Next decide upon the best order 
 of the points. In class several students at a time may go to the 
 board, each writing his proposition, and following it with the main 
 points. (Do not forget the word ' because.') The class should 
 look over each of these short briefs, criticizing the wording of the
 
 26o ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 proposition, the choice of issues, the statement of the points, and 
 the order of the points. The board work should then be revised. 
 This revision may go on while other briefs are being considered. 
 
 2. Examine the items below for the purpose of using them in 
 a brief to prove, " A state university should be established in the 
 
 city of ." Add any other points which you think necessary 
 
 to construct a brief of the argument (without the introduction and 
 conclusion), including the main points and subpoints. Bring the 
 brief, and compare it with those of the other students. As a class 
 exercise, a composite brief on the question may be made. 
 
 Colleges are too far away. 
 
 There would be students enough. 
 
 Teachers may easily be found. 
 
 Parents wish sons and daughters near home. 
 
 Present facilities are inadequate. 
 
 A location has been found. 
 
 Colleges are too large. 
 
 More persons would have an education. 
 
 It would relieve the other colleges. 
 
 High-school work would be improved. 
 
 Money can be raised. 
 
 3. Assuming that all the points below are true (some of them 
 are not), draw up a brief on the proposition, " The United States 
 should continue its Chinese exclusion laws." 
 
 Other nations restrict immigration. 
 
 The Chinese take money back to China. 
 
 Exclusion is a just policy. 
 
 Exclusion has had good effects. 
 
 The Chinese are undesirable. 
 
 We have the right to say who may enter. 
 
 The Chinese are unsanitary. 
 
 They take away American jobs. 
 
 Exclusion has prevented race riots. 
 
 The Chinese cannot understand American customs. 
 
 They have a different religion.
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 261 
 
 4. Consider the proposition, " Military drill should be required 
 of high-school boys," or some other proposition selected by the 
 class as a whole or assigned by the teacher. Construct a brief, 
 including the introduction, argument, and conclusion. Make it at 
 least as full as the brief upon the Mexican question given in the 
 text above. Choose either side of the question you wish. Students 
 who have briefs on opposite sides of the question may compare 
 their papers. Criticisms and corrections may be made, and the 
 briefs then handed to the teacher for further suggestions. 
 
 If there is time, the class may discuss this question : What 
 should be the opening point, on the affirmative and the negative, 
 for each of the following groups of hearers : school trustees ; high- 
 school boys ; teachers of athletics or physical training ; teachers 
 of the common subjects ; army officers ; congressmen ; mothers ; 
 fathers ; high-school girls ; taxpayers ; business men ? 
 
 5. Consider such a question as, " This city should build a 
 municipal street railroad," or, " This town should use all reason- 
 able efforts to secure another railroad." Suppose one of the main 
 points reads, " Our transportation facilities are inadequate." Ex- 
 pand this point, writing under it the subpoints, and under each 
 subpoint the further reasons or items of evidence which support 
 that statement. Get down to concrete facts. If any fact is not 
 well known, write into the brief the authority. Be ready to read 
 it and to defend the proposition. 
 
 6. In the brief on intervention, the last subpoint reads, " Inter- 
 vention would have bad effects." Using this statement, or its 
 opposite, expand this point to include several statements which 
 will support it. Make the support strong and complete ; include 
 actual concrete conditions which you think would become facts 
 in case of intervention. Use instances in history if possible, and 
 in any case have the foundation details so carefully selected that 
 their truth is as nearly obvious as may be possible. 
 
 7. a. Draw up a brief on a proposition of your own selection. 
 Make it include the supporting reasons and facts for the subpoints
 
 262 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 under the main statements, with authorities. Include the introduc 
 tion and conclusion. Write and rewrite the brief, and endeavor to 
 make it faultless as to both form and matter. In class exchange 
 papers, and take them home for examination and criticism. Write 
 out a short criticism of the brief handed to you, and bring both 
 the brief and the criticism to the next meeting of the class. 
 
 b. In class, or for an additional outside exercise, each student 
 may rewrite his brief in the light of the corrections and suggestions. 
 Revised briefs may then be examined by the teacher. Save them 
 for later use. 
 
 The Conclusion. As indicated in the brief above, the 
 conclusion may embrace a summary of the argument and 
 an appeal to the hearers. The summing up may include 
 two parts — a review of the case of the opposite side, and 
 a restatement of the main points which have served to 
 prove the proposition under discussion. 
 
 Reviewing the Opposing Case. The review of the case 
 of the opposition may or may not deal with refutation. 
 If there are important opposing arguments which have been 
 advanced and not yet answered, they may be briefly handled 
 here. In most cases, however, these detailed points will 
 have been covered already, and the conclusion will deal 
 with the main points which have been advanced by the 
 opposition, or with the main objections which are commonly 
 urged. In order to do this, the issues of the question may 
 again be stated, following which the speaker may tell what 
 must be proved before the opposite case can be established. 
 
 Let us illustrate. Suppose one has come to his conclusion in 
 the Intervention question. He may begin as follows : " The issues 
 in this discussion, as we have already seen, are. Would interven- 
 tion be just ? and, Would intervention be expedient ? In order to
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 263 
 
 establish their case, those who advocate intervention must prove that 
 it w^ould be both just and expedient." Next, the speaker may call 
 the attention of the audience to the weakness of the opposition. He 
 may show that one of the necessar)^ issues has been ignored ; that 
 a vital support for one or more indispensable points is missing ; 
 that the attempt to prove one or more points has been weak and 
 ineffective ; that one or more of the alleged points have been dis- 
 proved and that therefore the argument falls. Successes may safely 
 be admitted or allowed to go unanswered ; failures should be made 
 clear. Then may follow a challenge to those who oppose, calling 
 upon them for adequate proof, demanding that they discuss certain 
 points, asking why certain arguments "have been left unanswered, 
 and pointing out that these errors are evidence that the opposite 
 of their position is true. 
 
 Reviewing One's Own Case. The summary of the propo- 
 sition itself, as has been indicated above, involves merely a 
 recital of the main points, followed by the words, ^^ therefore 
 it must be resolved," or words to that effect, and then by 
 the proposition itself. The theory is that the most inclusive 
 idea must come last, for the last ideas given to the audience 
 have most effect. 
 
 The Use of an Appeal. The appeal is often called per- 
 suasion. It is not at all necessary that every argument end 
 with an appeal ; many talks may profitably be finished with 
 the summary of the main points. But an appeal often adds 
 to the argument because it rouses the feelings of the hearers 
 and makes them want to take an active part in the further- 
 ance of the idea under discussion. The sermon, the busi- 
 ness argument, the oration, and the political address are 
 incomplete without such an appeal. So the student should 
 practice using persuasion in his arguments. It forces him to 
 think about the feelings of his hearers, to put himself in
 
 264 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 their place, and it arouses enthusiasm for his cause. The 
 speaker may base his appeal on any of the emotions which 
 are uplifting. Do not use the appeals to greed, fear, or 
 hatred. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. You have saved fhe briefs drawn up in connection with pre- 
 vious exercises. Examine one of them now for the purpose of 
 making the conclusion as good as possible. Draw up a complete 
 outline. Bring it to class for comparison and correction. Be ready 
 to give the conclusion of the argument. 
 
 2. Choose partners and opposite sides of propositions for argu- 
 ment. Independently of your partner, prepare a complete brief, 
 including introduction and conclusion. Exchange briefs, and com- 
 pare. After careful study of the other brief, rewrite your conclu- 
 sion, paying particular attention to the review of the case of the 
 other side. Together compare the reviews and criticisms. The 
 original briefs may then be revised, if the alleged weaknesses can 
 be strengthened or circumvented. The two briefs may be folded 
 together and handed in for the teacher's suggestions. 
 
 3. Study the following propositions of Appendix II, section B: 
 9, 10, 12, 17, 18, ig, 22, 29; section C: i, 7, 8, 9. Think out 
 for each of them a few sentences of persuasion. Prepare to give 
 this appeal for one of the propositions. Make the appeal strong 
 and worthy. 
 
 Refutation. Up to this point we have barely mentioned 
 refutation, for it seemed best first to gain a systematic and 
 complete idea of the argument as it is given constructively, 
 and to leave the destructive features for later consideration. 
 We have thus far seen how to handle evidence, how to rea- 
 son, how to draw the brief, and how to conclude. It must 
 now be understood that refutation (rebuttal) should go along
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 265 
 
 with, and be a part of, the actual argument, and should 
 therefore be put into the brief. 
 
 Using Rebuttal in the Brief. Thus, in the Intervention 
 brief, under the point that no satisfactory method has been 
 proposed, this entry might be written : 
 
 Refute : Blockade the coast to cut off supplies. Internal resources 
 are abundant. 
 
 The above entry indicates to the speaker that opponents 
 may claim that a blockade would be a satisfactory plan, and 
 that in answer it will be sufficient to call attention to the 
 well-known fact that Mexico's internal resources are varied 
 and abundant. Such answers may be fully outlined in the 
 brief, with subpoints supporting them, together with facts 
 and authorities. Refutation in the brief should always be 
 labeled as such. 
 
 The above example will show that one who is to give an 
 argument must try to anticipate the objections that may be 
 urged. Many a well-constructed argument has failed because 
 the hearers were allowed to go away with a few objections 
 in their minds — objections which might easily have been 
 answered. Therefore, a feature of the study of any question 
 must be the consideration of opposing points. 
 
 Collecting New Points to Answer. But even when the 
 debater has done his best to anticipate arguments, many 
 new thoughts will occur to him as he listens to an oppos- 
 ing speech. The arguments given by an opponent should 
 be noted down, as we shall see in a later section. These 
 points should then be tested, according to the plans out- 
 lined in the section on reasoning., One must be alert every 
 moment that an opposing speech is being given. Are there
 
 266 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 any false or incorrect definitions, mistaken causes, mis- 
 taken effects, c|uestionable authorities, mere statements with 
 no evidence, false or misleading illustrations or analogies ? 
 Such matters should be pointed out when the speech is 
 answered. If one's opponents avoid the main issue, or 
 descend to ridicule, or use personal remarks, or state points 
 unfairly, or refute what never has been claimed, or resort to 
 cheap humor, the speaker should not reply in kind. Let him 
 point out what has been done, state that such methods prove 
 nothing about the point at issue, and demand actual proof. 
 Special Methods of Refutation. The one thing to do is 
 to lay bare the error, to let it destroy itself, and then to 
 state the true position. Besides the methods suggested 
 above, there are two or three special helps. 
 
 Frequently the opponent may be involved in a dilemma ; for 
 instance, he may have taken a position which leads to conclusions 
 that are bad for his case. Thus, the man who assumes that woman 
 suffrage would take women from the home, involves himself in 
 this dilemma : he must hold either that some activities outside the 
 home are good for women, or else that theater, shopping, visiting, 
 social work, club, and church are also bad. Again, sometimes 
 an argument may be shown to contradict itself. Thus, one who 
 objects to voting bonds for a new library building, on the ground 
 that the city cannot afford it, and later advocates renting rooms 
 in a building, involves himself in a contradiction of points, for the 
 rent would ordinarily cost more than the bonds. Again, sometimes 
 an argument proves more than the speaker intends to prove, and 
 thus hurts his case. The speaker who advocates a blockade of the 
 Mexican coast comes very near admitting that a land movement 
 against Mexico would be difficult and costly. 
 
 Attacking in More than One Way. Often it is good policy 
 to attack a point from several angles. Thus the truth of the
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 267 
 
 point may be denied, and proof may be offered to show its 
 falsity. Then it may be shown that even if the alleged 
 statement were tme, it would not lead to the conclusion 
 claimed for it. 
 
 Outlining an Item of Rebuttal. In order to accomplish 
 its full effect, refutation must be carefully outlined. The 
 following is a suggested form : 
 
 OUTLINE FOR REFUTATION 
 
 1. What our opponents claim. 
 
 2. Our reply. 
 
 3. Proof that our position is correct. 
 
 4. How the issue stands now, and its application to the main 
 
 question. 
 
 What Points to Answer. Many debaters, pressed for 
 time in a speech, try to handle too many points in refuta- 
 tion ; by actual count sixteen points were mentioned once 
 in a five-minute rebuttal. When less than a minute is given 
 to a point it is impossible to do it justice, except in rare 
 instances. 
 
 Only the most important considerations should be refuted. 
 It is a waste of good time to give any attention to little 
 points which have only a remote bearing on the main point 
 at issue. The attack should be centered on the most im- 
 portant statements of the opponents ; the others may safely 
 be ignored. 
 
 Preparing and using Refutation Cards. Refutation cards 
 may be prepared for a debate, l^^ach opposing argument 
 that promises to be formidable may be written on the top 
 of a card, and the card may then be filled out according to
 
 268 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 the above outline, ready for use should that particular point 
 be raised by the opponents. If cards referring to similar 
 phases of the subject are kept together, one may be selected 
 as needed and slipped into its proper place among the cards 
 containing the notes for the debate. An X in the margin of 
 a regular card will show the place to introduce the refutation 
 into the speech. 
 
 Where in the speech shall refutation be introduced ? 
 Wherever it most nearly touches on points in one's own 
 speech. In the case of other refutation, however (upon 
 subjects not referred to in the speech), probably the very 
 first part of the speech is the best place. Here we at once 
 accept the issue raised by our opponents, and clear the way 
 for our own constructive material. 
 
 Summary of Rebuttal Methods. Below we give a brief 
 summary of the possible methods of refutation : 
 
 METHODS OF REFUTATION 
 
 1. Show that the statement has nothing to do with the issue. 
 
 2. Admit the truth of the statement, but draw a different conclusion. 
 
 3. Show that the authority quoted is unreliable. 
 
 4. Show that no real proof has been advanced for the statement. 
 
 5. Offer evidence to prove the contrary. 
 
 6. Show that the argument involves a mistake in reasoning. 
 
 7. Show that it leads into a dilemma. 
 
 8. Show that it involves a self-contradiction. 
 
 9. Show that it contradicts another point. 
 
 10. Show that it proves too much. 
 
 11. Show that the statement is unlikely or absurd.
 
 BUILDING UP THE ARGUMENT 269 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine a brief which you have drawn up in connection 
 with a previous exercise, and see if it can be improved by intro- 
 ducing into it some memoranda for refutation. Rewrite the brief, 
 putting into it four or more such points for refutation. Label 
 them properly, make the notes sentences, and make them so full 
 that anybody would understand them. Bring the brief to class 
 for criticism. 
 
 Practice one or two of the refutations orally, and come pre- 
 pared to give one before the class. Keep the briefs for use again. 
 
 2. Consider the statements given below. Choose two of them 
 for refutation. Write each statement at the top of a card or slip 
 of paper. Follow it with the reply, the proof, and the conclusion. 
 If two replies might be made, prepare the notes for both lines of 
 attack. Practice the refutations and give them orally. If there is 
 time, get criticisms and answers from the other students. 
 
 1. The reason that people drink intoxicating liquors is that they 
 seem to have a craving for strong drink. 
 
 2. The Mexican peons are hopelessly ignorant, therefore it is 
 useless to try to improve their political condition. 
 
 3. Since the tramps won't work, they ought to be put in jail. 
 
 4. My opponent has worked himself into a rage on this question, 
 which proves that he is wrong. 
 
 5. The library building will be of untold benefit ; this reason alone 
 is sufficient to make us decide to build it. 
 
 6. It is a good thing for children to work, for then they can 
 help support their parents. 
 
 7. Little chicks do not scratch for the mother hen ; why therefore 
 should children work for parents "^ 
 
 8. There is Sr 0,000 left in the treasury; therefore we may as well 
 build the fire house. 
 
 9. Prohibition has increased ; this must be due to the progress of 
 education. 
 
 10. This alarm clock is cheap and good ; everybody here should 
 buy one.
 
 2/0 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 3. Let the class choose a question for general debate, half 
 taking the affirmative and half the negative. A familiar subject 
 should be chosen, such as prohibition, smoking on cars, govern- 
 ment ownership, two rival candidates for an office ; and time for 
 study should be allowed. At the appointed meeting the students 
 may take opposite sides of the room, and alternate in speaking 
 on the proposition; The order of speaking may be decided before- 
 hand, or the seating may determine it. Each speaker may be 
 limited to two minutes. 
 
 The purpose of this exercise is refutation. When your turn 
 comes, take up one point and attempt to cover it according to 
 the suggestions in the text. 
 
 III. PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 
 
 A person who wishes to become successful in debate 
 should carefully practice the exercises of the earlier chap- 
 ters which have to do with posture, gesture, the use of the 
 eyes, the use of the voice, the improvement of the vocabu- 
 lary, fluency in speaking, and good style in composition. 
 Much of the material there given has been related directly 
 or chiefly to argument ; we shall here add only a few 
 special considerations. 
 
 Preparing Notes to use in Speaking. When the brief is 
 complete it may be put on cards for use before the audience. A 
 careful plan of indentation is indispensable, for this will show 
 the relative importance of the points. These cards should con- 
 tain not only the actual brief, but also the necessary summa- 
 ries. As we have seen above, all the main points are stated 
 at the end of the introduction and repeated in the conclusion. 
 
 Each main point, in turn, should have its prospective 
 and retrospective summary ; and the cards should have
 
 PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 271 
 
 these subpoints written at both the beginning and the end- 
 ing of the notes on each main point, so that the speaker 
 will not have to look at other cards for them. It may be 
 objected that the speaker who knows his subject will not 
 need these helps. In a way this is true, but having the 
 topics at the right place is a convenient reminder, and it 
 is therefore best to include them. The prospective sum- 
 maries are given with the becmise or for reading, and those 
 at the end of each main point with the therefore reading, 
 as explained on page 255. 
 
 Extempore Repetition of the Speech. With the cards fully 
 prepared, the student may practice the speech, choosing his 
 words as he proceeds. He must avoid such awkward, ob- 
 vious expressions as, "I think," "We believe," "We feel 
 sure," "I shall now take up the next main point," "We 
 now come to our conclusion." Repetition of the main 
 points in the same words or in equivalent language is nec- 
 essary for clearness.^ In spite of the repetitions, however, 
 the transitions from one idea to another must be skillfully 
 made. Practice will develop smoothness. Summaries should 
 be given slowly, so that the full meaning of what is to be 
 proved and what has been proved may be appreciated. The 
 speaker must remember that sincere enthusiasm is much 
 needed in debate ; he should therefore make himself familiar 
 with his brief, so that the references to the notes will not 
 interfere with the attractiveness of his presentation. Eight 
 or ten practice speeches will accomplish wonders toward 
 ease of speaking. The words will come easily, the eyes will 
 be free for the audience at critical points in the argument, 
 and natural gestures will be used. 
 
 1 For example, see Lincoln's " Cooper Union Speech."
 
 2/2 
 
 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 HOW CARDS ARE FOLLOWED IN SPEAKING 
 
 (Resolved, that the Monroe 
 Doctrine . . .) 
 
 Colleague : 
 
 I. The Monroe Doctrine 
 is not in accord with 
 sound international 
 relations. 
 
 II. It has dangers con- 
 nected with it. 
 
 My Part : 
 
 III. It has ceased to be a 
 benefit to the Amer- 
 ican republics. 
 
 World? Self-respect? United 
 States ? 
 
 III. The Monroe Doctrine 
 has ceased to be a benefit to 
 the American republics, for 
 
 1. It belittles them in the 
 eyes of other nations. 
 
 2. It lowers their self- 
 respect. 
 
 3. It hinders their normal 
 relation with the United States. 
 
 I. // belittles them in the 
 eyes of other natio)is. 
 
 Shall the Monroe Doctrine be 
 continued? My colleague, the first 
 speaker on the negative, has already 
 shown that the Monroe Doctrine is 
 not in accord with sound interna- 
 tional relations ; and, second, that 
 grave dangers are connected with 
 it. It will be my part in this debate 
 to prove, third, that this Doctrine 
 has ceased to be a benefit to the 
 American republics. 
 
 Let us look at the question of 
 possible benefits from three points 
 of view: (i) Has the policy of the 
 United States dignified the Amer- 
 ican republics in the eyes of the 
 world? (2) Has it increased their 
 self-respect? (3) Has it helped the 
 friendly relationship of these coun- 
 tries with the United States? We 
 shall maintain that the Monroe Doc- 
 trine has ceased to be a benefit to 
 the American republics, in three 
 particulars : first, it belittles them in 
 the eyes of other nations ; second, 
 it lowers their self-respect; and third, 
 it hinders their normal relations with 
 the United States. 
 
 The continuance of this policy on 
 the part of the LTnited States, then, 
 is a detriment to the southern re- 
 publics of the western hemisphere 
 in that it belittles them in the eyes 
 of other nations. Promulgated nearly 
 a century ago, when these republics
 
 PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 
 
 273 
 
 They are spoken of as wards 
 of this counti'y. 
 
 We are called their guard- 
 ians. 
 
 They are compared to Cuba 
 and the Philippines. 
 
 They are not treated as real 
 nations. 
 
 Quotations to prove these 
 statements : 
 
 were in their infancy, and when 
 greed for conquest was rife in the 
 world, this Doctrine still stands, a 
 brand of continued infancy upon 
 these prosperous and growing 
 nations. They are still spoken of 
 as our wards, and we as their guard- 
 ian. We have here evidence to 
 prove that in European magazines 
 and newspapers they are frequently 
 compared, in their relationship with 
 this country, to Cuba and the Phil- 
 ippines, and that in many diplomatic 
 affairs they are not treated as real 
 nations. I shall now turn to some 
 quotations to prove these statements. 
 
 Following the Notes. The graphic scheme will show at 
 a glance the manner in which the speech grows out of the 
 cards held in the hand. We have supposed that a debater 
 is beginning the constructive part of the second negative 
 speech on the question, Resolved, that the Monroe Doc- 
 trine should be continued. 
 
 Attending to the Time Limit. The matter of time limit 
 must be attended to in practice. A debater need never be 
 discouraged if he has to cut down his speech, for this means 
 that the strongest arguments will be left. Ordinarily it is 
 better policy to cut out whole points or subpoints than to 
 cut down the time for each argument. Two subtopics well 
 proved are worth more than four that are hurriedly and in- 
 conclusively handled. At all events, the speech should be 
 brought safely within the limit, with time to spare for the 
 introduction of refutation material. Nothing spoils the effect
 
 274 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 of a good speech more than being called to time before 
 finishing the most important part — the conclusion. 
 
 Using References and Quotations. The notes should bear 
 exact references to evidence which might be called into 
 question, and these references should be stated. Short quo- 
 tations should be read verbatim from the cards ; longer ones 
 may be read from larger papers or from books. In case 
 maps or charts are to be used, the student should practice 
 handling them as they will be used before the audience. 
 
 Avoiding Changes of Plan. Having practiced the argu- 
 ment faithfully, the student should not allow himself to 
 make the mistake of changing radically either the plan or 
 the notes. Changes to new and untried cards may mean 
 lack of confidence, and may result in confusion. 
 
 Good Will in the Contest. The debater must remember 
 what has been said about the spirit of fairness to oppo- 
 nents. He should direct no charges against his opponents, 
 but should concede that they are sincere in what they advance 
 as argument. Arguments, not persons, should be attacked. 
 
 Fill your mind with the thought that your speech ex- 
 presses a point of view which is an attempt to reach the 
 truth. Remember that the truth can hardly be found with- 
 out the presentation of the two sides and the testing of 
 opinion. If you are in a debate with the idea of winning, 
 remember that the contest is for the purpose of seeing 
 which side can best express its points of view. The debate 
 is legitimate only when there is truth on both sides, and 
 when the speakers on each side try to bring out the most 
 truth. Rightly used, one may make his skill in argument 
 serve all his better qualities — patience, sympathy, kindness, 
 and helpfulness.
 
 PRACTICE FOR THE SPEECH 275 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Use a brief made in the work of former exercises. Copy 
 the brief, with all the details — introductions, conclusions, refuta- 
 tion, summaries, references, etc. — on slips of paper or cards. 
 Number the cards, and head the first with the statement of the 
 proposition. Be sure that the subtopics are properly indented. 
 
 In class look over the cards of other students. 
 
 2. Using the cards prepared for the exercise above, practice 
 giving the speech. Say it over at least four times before giving it 
 in class. Make the speech come within reasonable time — say 
 within from eight to sixteen minutes. It would be a good exercise 
 to cut down the speech if that seems advisable. 
 
 3. Select a point which can best be proved by reference to a 
 wall map, chart, or blackboard drawing ; for example, the best 
 route for a railway, the best location for a building, a necessary 
 improvement, an advantageous place for a fortification, a harbor, or 
 a dock. Practice at home. Give the argument to the class, mak- 
 ing your use of the help as natural, clear, and effective as possible. 
 
 4. Select a point which can best be shown by reading quota- 
 tions from books and other sources ; for example, the foreign 
 trade of the South American countries, the causes of the Revolu- 
 tionary War, the benefit of labor unions to the worker, the unre- 
 liability of newspapers, the growth of the peace movement, the 
 purpose of the boy-scout movement. Choose three or more books 
 containing good quotations to read, and mark the places with slips 
 of paper. Decide on the order of the quotations, giving the best 
 one last. Practice the talk and reading several times, first stating 
 the proposition to be established, then picking up successively the 
 books from which the selections are to be read. Give the titles, 
 names of authors, and page references before reading the 
 selections. 
 
 5. C'hoose a classmate who will debate against you. Decide on 
 the proposition, the side each will defend, and the amount of time
 
 2/6 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 to be allotted for each speaker. The following are suggested : 
 affirmative, six minutes for opening argument ; negative, eight 
 minutes ; affirmative rebuttal, four minutes ; negative rebuttal, 
 four minutes; affirmative closing, two minutes. Classmates may 
 be selected as judges if desired. Arrange the debate a few days 
 ahead, so that you may make proper preparation. 
 
 IV, TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 
 
 Preliminaries. Up to this point we have had exercises in 
 w^hich one person gives the entire argument. We shall now 
 discuss the ordinary debate, in which the work is divided 
 between two or more speakers on each side. For con- 
 venience in giving these directions we shall assume that 
 there are two speakers on each side, and that there are 
 two rounds of speeches — a second appearance for each 
 speaker. This would mean a constructive argument of from 
 five to fourteen minutes for each of the four debaters, 
 then a rebuttal speech of from three to eight minutes for 
 each, and finally a closing rebuttal of from two to five 
 minutes for the first affirmative speaker. 
 
 Dividing the Points, The division of the points between 
 the two speakers of a debating team will be determined by 
 the order of the points and the relative abilities of the 
 speakers. For the affirmative side, the better speaker usu- 
 ally comes first, for he then opens and closes the debate. 
 For the negative, the better speaker is usually placed so that 
 he will have the last negative speech ; he begins just as the 
 case for the affirmative has been completely presented. 
 Other considerations may change this plan, however ; for 
 example, it may happen that one speaker is particularly 
 strong on the practical aspect of the question, and it therefore
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 277 
 
 seems best that he lead off in the debate, even if his col- 
 league is the more experienced. 
 
 Ordinarily the complete brief is drawn up by the two 
 speakers, and is then divided into two parts of about equal 
 length. If the question has three issues requiring arguments 
 of about equal length, the affirmative speakers may divide 
 the work so that the first speaker will handle the introduc- 
 tion and the first point, and the second speaker the other 
 two points. The first negative speaker may deal with the 
 first two issues, or the two which seem to require least time, 
 and the second speaker may take the third point, with extra 
 time for rebuttal and conclusion. Often, however, one issue 
 may require eight minutes and another but three ; hence the 
 relative importance of the issues, as well as their number 
 and logical order, must be taken into account in apportion- 
 ing the part of the debate each speaker should cover. 
 
 Preparing the Debate Together. Both speakers on each 
 side must have a good grasp of the whole case. Both must 
 study the other side of the question. Any one of the four 
 speakers, if he is properly prepared, should be able to give 
 the reasons for any main point in the debate, affirmative or 
 negative. When the debate is first planned, the two stu- 
 dents on the same side should begin the general reading 
 for the debate together, both reading the articles which give 
 the larger ideas about the question. When this reading has 
 reached the point where the issues become apparent, the 
 two colleagues may make out their brief. They may then 
 make a provisional division of the points. As the study 
 proceeds, the brief may be enlarged and amended, and the 
 division of work may thus become more definite. The read- 
 ing of each student may now be confined to the part he is
 
 2/8 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 to handle, although he must constantly be on the lookout 
 for good material for his -colleague, and for points to use 
 in refutation. 
 
 We have already discussed how the debater should record 
 his evidence. He may carry with him a number of cards 
 or slips of paper of convenient size, and may take down 
 evidence for his colleague, or may make brief memoranda 
 which will tell his colleague where the material may be 
 found. Each point for refutation should be written at the 
 top of a blank card, and handled as explained in the section 
 on refutation. 
 
 The two students may profitably go together for inter- 
 views ; they should also do a great deal of informal talking 
 together about the points of the debate. As the time for 
 the debate draws near, they may cooperate in drawing up 
 the final briefs, in deciding where to enlarge and where to 
 omit, in working out the introduction and conclusion, in pre- 
 paring the refutation cards, and in practicing the speeches. 
 
 When the time for the debate arrives, the two speakers on 
 each side sit together, having at hand all their notes and 
 necessary references. The rebuttal notes should be spread 
 out at the farther side of the table, so that they may easily 
 be found when needed. Books, maps, letters, etc., may be 
 placed at one side where they can be consulted easily. 
 There should be a number of blank cards and a few sheets 
 of paper, and each speaker should be provided with pen 
 and pencil. 
 
 First Affirmative. The first speaker must of course 
 begin with the introduction. We have already seen that 
 this introduction should contain no statements which will 
 be disputed by either side. It is supposed that the ideas
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 279 
 
 advanced about the importance of the question, the history, 
 the definitions of terms used, and the statement of the issues 
 will be so fair that on them both the affirmative and the 
 negative may build up their arguments. Unless disputed 
 by the negative, this interpretation of the proposition will 
 stand throughout the debate. 
 
 After the statement of the issues the speaker outlines 
 what the affirmative side intends to prove ; he indicates at 
 once, also, which of these points he will undertake to 
 prove, and which will be handled by his colleague. He is 
 then ready to proceed to the proof of his first point. 
 
 The first speaker will have no refutation except what he has 
 incorporated into his speech, unless he chooses to anticipate some 
 of his opponents' arguments. This is sometimes called " taking 
 the wind out of the opponents' sails," for the speaker tells the 
 audience what the chief claims of the negative speakers will be, 
 and attempts to show the fallacy or weakness of these claims. 
 It seems best to anticipate in this way only when the opposing 
 arguments have to do with the issues raised in the first speech. 
 
 Sometimes it is a good plan to draw up and submit to the 
 opponents a question on some definite phase of the proposition. 
 The question may be read to the audience and handed to the 
 opponents at any convenient place, provided the opponents are 
 given time for a careful answer. The speaker's colleague must 
 be ready to refute any possible answer. If no answer is made, 
 attention should be called to that fact later in the debate. 
 
 After the speaker has finished the last point assigned 
 him, he should make the summary of the case of the 
 afifirmative so far as it has been given. He should then 
 state again the points to be proved by the second affirma- 
 tive speaker, and should end by leading, by means of the 
 word therefore^ to the proposition for debate.
 
 28o ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 First Negative. A large sheet of paper should be used 
 by one of the negative speakers to outline the case of the 
 affirmative. As soon as the first speaker begins, his intro- 
 ductory material should be examined to see if it is perfectly 
 fair. If he seems to give inaccurate or misleading defini- 
 tions, or. to state the issues wrongly, careful notes on what 
 he says should be taken. His main points should then be 
 noted as they are first given, with a space after each in 
 which to write the subtopics. If the prospective summary 
 is omitted, or is given so poorly that the points cannot be 
 recorded, this will probably mean that the hearers will not 
 •get a clear idea of what the speaker is trying to prove. 
 The negative speakers, in any case, should do their best to 
 analyze the affirmative argument and to make the recorded 
 notes as full as convenient. Whenever a strong point is 
 made, it should be noted at the top of a blank card ; or 
 a card already prepared for refutation should be used if 
 it contains an appropriate answer. Answers to matters of 
 interpretation should be prepared first, if any are needed. 
 Points written on cards may be followed by brief answers, 
 by references or notes indicating the proof of these answers, 
 and by memoranda on the meaning of, or the conclusion to 
 be drawn from, these answers. All such cards as are to be 
 used may be put among the cards which coniain the brief 
 of the speech. 
 
 Matters of interpretation must be cleared up first ; the very 
 first sentence should deal with errors in definition and mis- 
 statements of the issues, if there are any. It is useless for the 
 argument to proceed if the subject is not agreed upon, for it is 
 impossible to argue upon an indefinite or changing subject. Sup- 
 pose the subject for debate is, " Resolved, that the protective
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 281 
 
 tariff is a benefit to the nation," and that the first affirmative has 
 taken the term ' protective tariff ' to mean the schedule of rates 
 in force at the present time. If the negative side understands 
 ' protective tariff ' to mean the principle of the protective tariff, 
 regardless of the present detailed set of rates, then it will be 
 useless to proceed with the debate until meanings are agreed 
 upon. The first negative speaker, then, before he refutes any 
 argument or proceeds with his own points, must show that ' pro- 
 tective tariff' does not mean the present rates, but the general 
 principle of protection. 
 
 In most debates no such misunderstandings will occur, 
 and no mention of the introductory matter should be made 
 by the negative speakers unless serious correction is needed. 
 ]f the issues are misstated, the negative speaker may state 
 them correctly, and show the audience what points the 
 aflfirmative side must prove in order to establish its case. 
 
 These matters being disposed of, the first duty of the 
 negative speaker is to attempt partially or wholly to break 
 the force or the strong points of the afhrmative. He must 
 not fail to say something in reply to those two or three 
 points which seem to have made an impression on the 
 audience. If he does so fail, many of the hearers are sure 
 to think that no answer can be given, and will score a large 
 burden of proof against the negative, no matter how strong 
 the subsequent argument may be. 
 
 The best way to break the force of an opposing point is 
 to accept the issue at once. If the point raised will be 
 answered either in the present speech or in the second 
 negative speech, this should be stated, so that when the 
 point comes up again the hearers will be prepared for it. 
 If the point will be handled in one of the rebuttal speeches,
 
 282 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 that fact should be stated. If the point can profitably be 
 disposed of at once, it should be refuted before the regularly 
 planned portion of the speech is begun. 
 
 If the first speaker for the affirmative has tried to do any 
 advance refutation, point out to the hearers that this shows 
 that he recognizes these points as formidable arguments. 
 
 Having cleared up questions of interpretation, if there 
 are any, and having refuted, or shown how they will be 
 refuted, the leading contentions of the affirmative, then, 
 and not until then, the prepared outline of points for the 
 first negative speech may be followed. The full case for 
 the negative should be outlined to the audience at the out- 
 set, and the hearers must be told which parts of the case 
 each speaker will try to establish. The debater must remem- 
 ber, when he comes to that part of the speech in which he 
 covers a point that he is refuting, to call attention to the 
 exact point the argument answers. The speech should end 
 with a summary of what has been proved, and of that which 
 will be proved by the other speaker. 
 
 Second Speakers. While the first negative speaker has 
 the floor, an outline of his argument should be recorded by 
 the affirmative debaters. Matters of interpretation, notes 
 for answers, and refutation cards may be handled in the 
 manner already explained. The constructive argument of 
 the second affirmative speaker should open with a statement- 
 of the points which were proved by the first affirmative 
 speaker, following which the prospective summary for the 
 present speech is given. The conclusion may include a 
 review of the contentions of the negative, so far as given or 
 indicated ; a complete summary of the case of the affirma- 
 tive ; and an appeal for adherence to the principles advocated.
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 283 
 
 The second negative speaker should be guided by the 
 same general plan. He should call attention to the faults 
 in the argument of the affirmative speakers, particularly 
 where important issues have been omitted or otherwise 
 avoided ; and the consequences of these faults should be 
 pointed out. His review of the opposite case, and the sum- 
 ming up of the case for the negative, should be clear and 
 conclusive. Both should deal with large issues, and not 
 with details of the argument. Then may come the appeal 
 for the principles advocated by the negative. 
 
 The second negative speaker may propose other solutions of the 
 question, in place of the one for debate. This the negative has a 
 right to do, and the affirmative is obliged to show that its own 
 proposition, as stated in the debate, is better than any and all put 
 up for consideration by the negative. Where should this proposal 
 of alternate plans be made .-' Some debaters seem to think that the 
 right place to introduce this is at the end of the speech, " so that 
 the afiirmative will not have time to think up an answer." Such 
 a trick is both stupid and unfair. One may be sure that the audi- 
 ence and the judges will not sympathize with such a scheme. It is 
 best to put forth the alternatives early, so that they may have the 
 test of refutation and the advantage of later repetition and 
 fortification. 
 
 Rebuttal Speeches. Four speeches will now have been 
 given, and the debate might end with the affirmative re- 
 buttal. But it is far better that each speaker should have 
 another chance to appear, especially to discuss disputed 
 points which have arisen during the debate. In common 
 fairness it is understood that rebuttal speeches shall not 
 contain new evidence or new lines of argument unless these 
 are used for purposes of refutation.
 
 284 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 Debaters on each side should cooperate in the selection of the 
 disputed points to be refuted. This selection is the most impor- 
 tant task the debaters have. They should note down all the points 
 which might be answered, and then select as many of the impor- 
 tant ones as there will be time to consider. In many debates there 
 will develop, as the argument proceeds, one leading issue which 
 overshadows in importance all the others, and the argument must 
 be concentrated on this point. Two such issues which often out- 
 weigh the others are the practicability of the affirmative contention, 
 and the value of an alternative plan presented by the negative. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, each debater will handle in his 
 rebuttal speech those points which relate to the issues he handles 
 in his first speech. 
 
 Communication between team mates should be limited, for four 
 reasons: (i) the debaters are likely to disturb others; (2) they 
 are likely to appear discourteous to the other side ; (3) by even a 
 moment's conference they may miss a remark made by the oppo- 
 nents, which, if unanswered, might mean the loss of the debate; 
 (4) by talking to his colleague at a critical moment there is 
 danger of confusing him. A briefly worded suggestion written at 
 the top of one of the cards can be given to one's colleague at 
 any time without interfering with his thoughts, and this same card 
 may be used in the talk before the audience. 
 
 When the debater steps before the audience for his rebuttal 
 speech, the order of the cards held in his hand will indicate the 
 outline he is to follow. Generally stated, the first point handled 
 should be the one most in the minds of the hearers. It is unneces- 
 sary' to give a prospective outline for a rebuttal speech. As the 
 speech draws to an end, there may be given a review of the whole 
 case of the opposition, as it then stands in the light of the refuta- 
 tion. The last negative speaker should again sum up the case for 
 the negative, and may finish with a sentence of appeal. The last 
 speech of all will be the third speech for the first affirmative 
 speaker, who may spend most of his time in refutation, but should 
 also end with a review and a summary, and perhaps an appeal.
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 285 
 
 Rebuttal speeches should of course proceed at once to the 
 answering of opposing argument. In this answering, two duties 
 will be found necessary : direct refutation of arguments advanced 
 by the opponents, and the fortification of one's own arguments 
 which have been attacked. The negative speakers will spend most 
 of the time of their rebuttal speeches in ordinary refutation ; the 
 affirmative will spend most of theirs in strengthening positions which 
 have been disputed. This strengthening may be accomplished by 
 stating carefully the point that has been attacked, by stating the 
 attempted answer, by reviewing and amplifying the evidence in 
 support of the point, and, if possible, by offering new evidence in 
 its support. In any case, the speaker may attempt to show that 
 although the opposing arguments have weight, they are of less 
 importance than those offered on his side. 
 
 Debaters must use their combined efforts to break down the 
 force of such striking arguments as are made by means of analo- 
 gies, other figures of speech, illustrations, jokes which apply to 
 the issue, charts, or maps. A clever use of one of these devices, 
 unless it is answered, may easily win the debate. 
 
 Cooperation. Both in practice and in the debate the two 
 speakers may help each other plan their talks so that they 
 will not run over the time allotted. One's partner can be of 
 most help in looking over the cards to be used in a rebuttal 
 speech, for he can judge how long the various refutations 
 will take, and can urge that not too much be attempted. 
 
 If the debaters have had an opportunity to practice giving 
 their refutation from the cards they have prepared in ad- 
 vance, these cards may each be marked with the approxi- 
 mate time it will take. Each debater may arrange with the 
 timekeepers to give him a signal two minutes before his 
 time is up. He may mark on his cards where he should 
 be when the two-minute signal is given. If the debater is
 
 286 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 pressed for time, he had better be sure of his conclusion, 
 even if he has to slight the proof of his final argument. 
 A speaker should never be guilty of running past his time, 
 except to finish a sentence. One who steals time in a 
 debate makes an error similar to that of a hundred-yard 
 runner who purposely "breaks" and has only 99 yards 
 to run. 
 
 In Appendix I are plans for simultaneous debates. If four per- 
 sons work together in the preparation of a debate, there can be 
 added to the teamwork the following items : striking pieces of 
 evidence and argument on one side of the question may be written 
 in duplicate, and one copy handed to the team which is to take the 
 other side of the argument at the opposing school ; the four de- 
 baters may do a large amount of discussing and arguing with each 
 other ; the two sides may practice against each other ; and the 
 four debaters may work together in preparing for the refutation, 
 the arguments of one side forming the points to be refuted by 
 the other side. 
 
 Teamwork means helpfulness. Let the cooperation of 
 the debaters be a competition of service. Let the one make 
 it a practice to keep the other's needs in mind as he searches 
 for his own material ; let him patiently aid in the planning 
 and the practicing of his colleague's speech ; and during 
 the debate let him be an inspiration in calmness, good 
 judgment, and confidence. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose a partner, and with him find two other students who 
 will agree to debate against you. Decide on the question and the 
 sides. Study the proposition with your colleague, and decide on 
 the division of points. Be ready to tell what plans have been made 
 for the teamwork in the division of the argument, and in the study
 
 TEAMWORK IN DEBATE 287 
 
 for the debate. Let the first affirmative speaker tell his plans, then 
 the second affirmative, and finally the two negative speakers. 
 
 2. Plan to give the debate for which you have just made prepa- 
 ration. So far as possible try to keep in mind the main principles 
 which this chapter has set forth. Use the following time schedule : 
 first speeches, eight minutes ; rebuttal speeches, four minutes ; final 
 speech, two minutes. Judges may be selected if desired. 
 
 3. Let four students meet and agree on a question, the sides, 
 the length of speeches, and the date. Then let the two sides study 
 without consultation, and hold the debate before the class. 
 
 4. Let eight students meet and agree on a question. Let four 
 of them take the affirmative, and four the negative. Two from 
 each side should constitute themselves a team for a simultaneous 
 debate against the other four. The date, the length of speeches, 
 and the two places for the separate contests should be decided. 
 The four team mates should then prepare for the debates. The 
 debates may be held at the same time. 
 
 5. Draw up an agreement for a debate witli another school. 
 Make it as definite as possible, yet at the same time do not 
 make it longer than necessar}\ Bring it to class for criticism and 
 comparison. (See Appendix L) 
 
 Two or more students may each represent a different school, 
 and, comparing their plans, may come to a joint agreement. These 
 joint agreements should be read and criticized. 
 
 6. Draw up a notice for a try-out, and bring it to class for 
 comparison and criticism. If this exercise is based on an actual 
 debate, so much the better. 
 
 7. Prepare a judge's blank for a debate. See that it is neatly 
 done and attractively arranged. Bring it to class for criticism. 
 
 8. Serve as chairman, or timekeeper, or member of a com- 
 mittee of arrangements, or judge, and prepare a short talk about 
 the experience gained. If it is impossible to get the actual expe- 
 rience, make close observation of the work of someone else, and 
 then base the report on that observation.
 
 288 ARGUMENT AND DEBATE 
 
 9. Come to class prepared to contribute something vital to a 
 discussion on this topic : " The best plan for a debating league." 
 
 10. Draw up a notice which may be posted to announce an 
 interclass tournament. Make it such that it will attract pupils to 
 enter the contest. Bring the notice to class for criticism. 
 
 11. Prepare a speech to be given before students not yet inter- 
 ested in debating, telling of the value of debating, and how one may 
 begin. Arrange to give the talk in one of the other classes. If any 
 of the students have shown interest, they should be seen personally 
 and invited to visit the debating society and to take part in a 
 try-out. 
 
 12. Prepare a speech to give in class on the following topic: 
 " How debating in the school may be improved."
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 The books on parliamentary law are necessarily so com- 
 plete and technical that the subject is uninteresting to the 
 beginner, whereas it ought to be attractive to students of all 
 ages. The purpose of this chapter is to give the necessary 
 first information in condensed form. We shall deal here 
 with the general directions for practice in business meet- 
 ings, and later with necessary tables and forms, together 
 with suggestions for their use. 
 
 The Origin of Parliamentary Law. For many centuries 
 the rules of public speaking have been gradually developed. 
 They reached a high plane during the eighteenth century 
 in the English House of Commons, whence the name par- 
 liamentary. The rules of our American House of Repre- 
 sentatives were borrowed from England, but have been 
 changed to meet our needs. Jefferson's Manual is the 
 basis of all American practice. Books of rules used in or- 
 dinary societies are simplifications of these rules of govern- 
 mental bodies. 
 
 Why Parliamentary Law is Needed. Parliamentary law is 
 important in Oral English because it formulates the rules 
 that are used to manage public speaking. It is needed 
 in school and college meetings, in social clubs, in athletic 
 
 289
 
 290 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 leagues, in literary societies, in religious organizations, in 
 educational associations, in political clubs, in labor unions, 
 in the meetings of boards of directors, in city councils, in 
 state legislatures, in national congresses, in international 
 conferences — in almost all organizations in which people 
 work together. 
 
 When rightly pursued, practice in business meetings gives 
 valuable training in (i) readiness in speaking, for many 
 questions must be debated without time for preparation ; 
 (2) efficiency iii speaking, for one must summon to his aid 
 all the powers of persuasion at his command ; (3) a sense 
 of order in a public assembly, for each speech and motion 
 and act must have its proper place if it is not to be ruled 
 out of order ; (4) control of temper, for heat and anger lead 
 one into rule-breaking, with its consequent loss of respect ; 
 (5) fairness to opponents, for the rules of order require it, 
 and the freedom of debate exposes misstatement and makes 
 it react upon the speaker. Again, if the motions are well 
 chosen, parliamentary practice will help to make the stu- 
 dent acquainted with city, county, state, and national affairs, 
 and to increase his interest in economics, politics, and soci- 
 ology. Moreover, it gives him practice in serving as chair- 
 man, as secretary, and as committee member. He will be 
 a valuable help to any society if he can preside well, or 
 write the minutes correctly, or work up a good committee 
 report. And best of all, the business meetings should help 
 to develop true democracy of spirit ; for parliamentary law is 
 based on equality of members, officers as servants, and the 
 rule of the majority. It trains not solely in leading but 
 in following also, and it has the great advantage that the 
 person who at one meeting is leading and may rule, at
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 291 
 
 another is following and must obey. This ability both to lead 
 and to follow will make for the best American citizenship. 
 
 When Parliamentary Law is Used. Parliamentary law is 
 employed whenever it will give system and good order to a 
 gathering. So small a group of people as four or five may 
 need rules of procedure in order to carry on debate. Ram- 
 bling discussion, disputing, and interminable talk are likely 
 to characterize a meeting held without rules. With rules 
 two things will be at once accomplished : only one topic 
 will be under consideration at any one time, and only one 
 person at a time will be speaking. 
 
 Probabh' in most meetings the will of the majority is 
 found only after earnest debate and definite vote. In other 
 meetings, however, the members of even a large audience 
 may be in such harmony of thought that neither debating 
 nor the passing of motions is needed. Here the strict rules 
 ot parliamentary law may be dispensed with. The rules should 
 be avoided when they interfere with quick action desired 
 by all. See Robert's "Rules of Order," pp. 161, 188, 194 
 (rev. ed. pp. 198, 202, 241); and Gregg's "Parliamentary 
 Law," pp. 10, 50, 63, 90. The will of the society is legal 
 regardless of parliamentary law, so long as any informal 
 action is not protested at the time it is taken. The rules 
 form the best guide for finding out and expressing the will 
 of the meeting when there is a conflict of opinion, and they 
 may be set aside for any act about which there is complete 
 agreement. 
 
 Courtesy in Business Meetings. Occasionally there is a 
 person who is discourteous in business meetings, on account 
 of his habit of correcting the chairman or others whenever 
 a possible chance offers itself. Such a person has studied
 
 292 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 up a few points, and is anxious to display his knowledge. 
 He may not always mean to be rude, but he makes the 
 mistake of placing the rules and his knowledge of them 
 above the good of the society. It is possible that in our 
 parliamentary classes in Oral English it will be an advan- 
 tage to see that no actual error escapes us. But no student 
 should obtain from his school study the idea that parlia- 
 mentary law is a set of hard-and-fast rules. It must guide 
 and serve the purposes of a meeting, but not interfere with 
 these purposes. And even when corrections are to be made 
 in the classroom, they should be made with all the defer- 
 ence and politeness of the Golden Rule. '" Mr. Chairman, 
 you made a mistake," is both impolite and unparliamentary. 
 " Mr. Chairman, I think we are not following the correct 
 rule about closing nominations," or " Mr. Chairman, my 
 point is that the rule about closing nominations is being 
 violated," is satisfactory. 
 
 The members of a business meeting need to exercise 
 care to control their feelings and their " tone of voice." 
 An angry or anxious sound in the speaker's voice may 
 unintentionally breed discourtesy and misunderstanding. 
 Modesty, coolness of temper, and a pleasant countenance, 
 together with a proper regard for the feelings of others 
 and a willingness to ignore little errors which do no harm, 
 are important assets for members of any society. 
 
 How to use Parliamentary Law.^ It is the purpose here 
 merely to make some suggestions for the use of parlia- 
 mentary law in school and college classes, and to outline a 
 
 1 To THE Teacher. The teacher is responsible to the school and to 
 the citizens for the good conduct of the class and for the good use of time. 
 He cannot, therefore, unreservedly give over all supervision. He will need,
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 293 
 
 method which has repeatedly succeeded in furnishing the 
 right situations for studying the rules and for learning the 
 lessons of good speaking, fairness, and democracy. 
 
 How to organize the Class. When it is decided that the 
 class may organize, the steps outlined on page 296 must be 
 taken. Perhaps the name and purpose of the society are of 
 such importance that the whole class will wish to decide 
 on them and to instruct the constitution committee to write 
 them into the report. The name given the society should 
 indicate the subjects about which motions are to be made 
 in the business meetings. For example, if " The Speakers' 
 Club " is selected, the range of motions would be unlimited : 
 politics, education, business, civics, etc. " The West Side 
 Improvement Association," however, would be concerned 
 almost solely with the civic affairs of one section of the 
 city. Civic affairs usually form the best-known field of inter- 
 est, and the organization selected for beginners may well be 
 one supposed to legislate for the city. Other good names 
 may be suggested by the following, which have been used 
 in Oral English classes : Senate, House of Representatives, 
 State Assembly, President's Cabinet, Republican Central 
 Committee, City Council, City Board of Commissioners, 
 Civics League, Panama Literary Society, American Scientific 
 Society, Hague Peace Conference. It is profitless, however, 
 in choosing the offices and rules, to pattern closely the 
 constitution and rules of a real organization. The maze of 
 
 first, to prescribe somewhat the form of the constitution and rules ; second, 
 to see that officers and members use these rules; third, to give helpful 
 guidance to the class and to individuals ; fourth, to interfere if serious 
 errors are made ; fifth, to take complete charge if the students fail to make 
 a success of the society. The teacher may act as a member of the society, 
 debating and voting with the others.
 
 294 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 technical forms in city, state, and national organizations offers 
 hard and unprofitable traveling. 
 
 The Programs. For the program of the business meet- 
 ings it is recommended that only a brief time be given each 
 day to practice with motions. Ten or fifteen minutes of 
 parliamentary law each recitation day accomplishes more in 
 a semester than the same amount of time taken in longer 
 periods. It is well, therefore, to have a program of five to 
 ten talks, covering perhaps half the period, and to follow 
 the program with the motions. These programs may be 
 made up by the teacher, who may each day list the names 
 of students expected to take part in the next meeting, and 
 hand them to the secretary. Or a committee on program 
 may select those who are to take part, and assign a topic 
 or topics for the meeting. Or the chairman may arbitrarily 
 call upon members to come forward and take part. The 
 topics may be chosen from the various exercises suggested 
 in this or any other book. Some of them may consist of 
 explanations of points in this chapter. By having the pro- 
 gram occupy the first part of the recitation period, the 
 members get practice both in making definitely prepared 
 speeches and in parliamentary law, and thus follow the 
 example of many organizations which combine program 
 and business in the same meeting. 
 
 Studying the Precedence of Motions. ^ The student should 
 study thoroughly Table B (the table of seven motions) in 
 Appendix VI. When he has mastered these he may use 
 
 1 No formal exercises have been provided for this chapter. Perhaps the 
 best plan to follow will be to assign to individual students points which 
 need illustration, and then for each student to study the item assigned him, 
 to explain its principles in class, and finally to apply the point in the midst 
 of a business meeting.
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 295 
 
 the larger list, Table C. He should next study the brief 
 explanation of each motion, pages 306-320 below, asking 
 questions of classmates and teacher, and referring to other 
 books on parliamentary law if there are any disputed points. 
 Students should try to apply all they read, regardless of 
 mistakes that may be made. Fortunately, mistakes in par- 
 liamentary law are easily corrected and do not injure any- 
 body, and we often learn more from our mistakes than 
 from our study. 
 
 The Kind of Motions to Make, Occasionally, perhaps 
 twice a year, it is interesting to have a burlesque meeting ; 
 but meetings of this character will not teach parliamentary 
 law as it should be taught. Nothing is learned from the 
 motion that each member be required to sing a song, or 
 from raising a question of privilege to have a window 
 closed. Such motions have no purpose, and needlessly 
 complicate the society's business without arriving anywhere. 
 Every motion placed before a meeting should be introduced 
 because the mover feels that it ought to be passed. If he 
 moves to lay on the table the question before the house, he 
 should have a definite reason for this motion. If he does 
 this merely "for practice," he is not learning the real pur- 
 pose and use of the motion. Every motion should be the 
 result of a definite need. If the meeting seems to lack 
 good subjects for the main motions, turn to the debate sub- 
 jects. Appendix II, or to the lists of topics in Appendix V. 
 Almost any of these should start some good discussion 
 from coming American citizens. 
 
 Fair Play. The use of a sergeant at arms or the exer- 
 cise of the authority of the teacher should not be necessary 
 in an Oral English society, and will not be needed if
 
 296 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 evetybody will try to live up to the rules. If a player enters 
 a baseball game he submits to a complicated system of rules ; 
 so a person in a business meeting must submit to the con- 
 stitution, by-laws, and other rules of the society. The will 
 of the majority must rule. There is no need for shouting 
 "Aye" or "No," for if the chairman mistakes the volume 
 of sound, any member may call for a division, which the 
 chairman must grant. If he rules wrongly, anyone may 
 raise a point of order, and m.ay appeal if opposed. 
 
 The most unfortunate thing that can happen is that the 
 person who refuses to do his part fairly occupies the chair. 
 In such a case perhaps a revolution is necessary, but it may 
 be without force or noise, by withdrawing to another room or 
 another part of the hall. Anything short of this catastrophe 
 can be settled by ordinary, quiet debate and majority rule. 
 
 " All things in good order " is the first and last word in 
 parliamentary law — government by appropriate and reason- 
 able rules backed by a spirit of fairness, cooperation, and 
 mutual respect, and expressed by the rule of the majority. 
 
 II. STEPS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF A SOCIETY 
 
 First Meeting 
 
 1. Any interested person takes charge and moves (or someone 
 
 else may move) that Mr. be made temporary chairman, and 
 
 then a vote is taken. 
 
 2. The temporary secretary is appointed or elected. 
 
 3. Speeches about organizing may be made. 
 
 4. A motion to form an organization may be moved, made, 
 and voted. 
 
 5. A motion to appoint or elect an organization committee is 
 made and carried.
 
 CONSTITUTION AND RULES 297 
 
 6. The committee to draw up a constitution and by-laws is 
 selected. 
 
 7. Instructions for the committee may be voted: name, object, 
 dues, etc. 
 
 8. The meeting adjourns. 
 
 Second Meeting 
 
 1. The temporary chairman calls the meeting to order. 
 
 2. The minutes are read and accepted. 
 
 3. The organization committee reports, proposing a constitution 
 and by-laws. 
 
 4. The chairman of the committee, or any other person, moves 
 the adoption of the constitution. 
 
 5. The chairman of the meeting, or the secretary, reads the 
 first section. Amendments may be proposed and voted on. The 
 other sections may be amended in the same way. 
 
 6. The motion to adopt the proposed constitution, as amended, 
 is voted on and carried. 
 
 7. The members may take a recess to sign the constitution. 
 (This is not usually required.) 
 
 8. The proposed by-laws are adopted, following the process in 
 Nos. 4, 5, and 6. 
 
 9. The permanent officers are elected, and take their places. 
 The organization is then complete, and may proceed to business. 
 
 III. CONSTITUTION, BY-LAWS, RULES OF ORDER, 
 AND STANDING RULES 
 
 The constitution of an organization consists of the rules 
 which determine its very existence. The constitution con- 
 tains those permanent rules which are intended to stand 
 substantially unchanged during the life of the society. The 
 by-lazvs are the next most important rules. They are not 
 important enough to be put into the constitution, yet they
 
 298 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 are usually permanent. The rules of order are the guide 
 for carrying on the meetings of the society. Some par- 
 ticular published rules should be adopted. Standing ndes 
 are the petty understandings made for the comfort and 
 convenience of the members ; they are usually matters of 
 agreement which may easily be changed or set aside by vote. 
 The sample sets of laws which follow are intended for 
 the organizations formed in Oral English classes. Their 
 general form, however, will suggest the plan by which the 
 rules of all organizations are constructed. 
 
 The Constitution for a Class Organization 
 
 constitution of the lincoln club 
 
 Article I. Name 
 The name of this organization shall be The Lincoln Club. 
 
 Article IL Object 
 
 The object of the club shall be to practice public speaking and 
 parliamentary law. 
 
 Article IIL Membership 
 
 All students who are enrolled in class No. 47 shall be considered 
 members of the club. 
 
 Article IV. Officers 
 
 Sec I. The officers of this club shall be a president, secretary, 
 and critic. 
 
 Sec. 2. The president shall be elected at the beginning of each 
 meeting. The president of the previous meeting shall conduct the 
 election, which shall be without ballot. 
 
 Sec. 3. The secretary and the critic shall be appointed by the 
 president. 
 
 Sec. 4. The duties of the officers shall be those indicated by their 
 titles and prescribed by the by-laws.
 
 CONSTITUTION AND RULES 299 
 
 Article V. Meetings 
 
 Meetings shall be held every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at 
 1.45 P.Ji., in Room 63. 
 
 Article VI. Amendments 
 
 This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote, provided 
 written notice has been given at a previous meeting. 
 
 Article VII. Authority 
 
 It is understood that the acts of this organization are subject to 
 the approval of the teacher, who may at any time take charge of 
 the meeting. 
 
 '&• 
 
 The constitutions of other organizations may vary from the 
 above form in several particulars : 
 
 The name and object may be written into a preamble (see the 
 Constitution of the United States). 
 
 The article on members may be divided into sections, defining 
 active, associate, and honorary members. 
 
 The article on the officers may designate many other officers 
 which will be necessary to a real society. Other sections will fix 
 the manner of nomination and election, and the term of service of 
 the officers. 
 
 Article V may provide for regular meetings and special meetings, 
 the latter to be called by the president, or at the request of five or 
 more members. 
 
 Other matters should be left to the by-laws and the standing 
 rules.
 
 300 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 By-Laws for a Class Organization 
 
 BY-LAWS OF THE LINCOLN CLUB 
 
 Article L Officers 
 
 Sec. I. No person shall serve in any one office for more than 
 one meeting. 
 
 Sec. 2. A majority of the votes cast shall be necessary to elect the 
 president. If the first vote does not yield a majority, the second vote 
 shall be taken on the two candidates who have received the highest 
 number of votes. 
 
 Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the president or the chairman to 
 uphold the constitution, laws, and rules of this organization. He shall 
 declare out of order and suppress any acts and motions not in harmony 
 with the purposes of the organization. He shall have the right to 
 appoint a member to act as sergeant at arms whenever he deems such 
 an officer necessary. 
 
 Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to assist the chairman 
 by keeping a record of all business proposed, and to write the minutes 
 of the meeting. He shall see that the records of the organization are 
 properly kept on file. 
 
 Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the critic to criticize the meeting. 
 He shall commend the good talks, and offer suggestions to individuals 
 and to the organization as a whole. 
 
 Article IL Meetings 
 
 Sec. I . The order of business shall be as follows : choice of officers, 
 roll call, minutes, critic's report, program, reports of committees, old 
 business, new business. This order may be changed for any meeting 
 by a two-thirds vote. 
 
 Sec. 2. The programs presented by the members may be deter- 
 mined by vote of the organization, by an authorized committee, or by 
 the teacher. In all other cases each member taking part shall be allowed 
 to select his own topic. 
 
 Sec. 3. The rules contained in shall govern this organization 
 
 and its meetings in all points not provided for by the constitution, by- 
 laws, or standing rules.
 
 CONSTITUTION AND RULES 301 
 
 Article III. Miscellaneous 
 
 Sec. I . Standing rules of this organization may be passed, amended, 
 suspended, or abolished by a majority vote at any meeting. 
 
 Sec. 2. One half the number of regular members shall constitute 
 a quorum. 
 
 Sec. 3. The by-laws of this organization may be amended by a 
 majority vote at any meeting, provided written notice has been given 
 at a previous meeting. 
 
 Two other matters will appear in the by-laws of most organiza- 
 tions : the amount and manner of collection of dues, and the 
 names of the standing committees. ■ 
 
 Standing Rules for a Class Organization 
 
 STANDING RULES OF THE LINCOLN CLUB 
 
 1. It shall be the duty of each member to come to each meeting 
 prepared to speak before the organization. 
 
 2. Unless otherwise provided for, reports and old and new business 
 shall become the order of the day at ten minutes before the time for 
 adjournment. 
 
 3. The business considered by this organization shall involve useful 
 questions only. 
 
 4. Motions of over twenty words in length must be written and 
 handed to the secretary. 
 
 5. At the request of the chairman any member debating a question 
 shall come to the front of the room. 
 
 6. The chairman of the meeting may adjourn the meeting without 
 a motion at the end of the recitation period. 
 
 7. No member shall be allowed to decline an office. 
 
 8. The critic's report shall be in writing. 
 
 Other standing rules may deal with such matters as the follow- 
 ing : the time for receiving reports of officers and committees, the 
 regulations for vouchers and payment of bills, rules for speaking, 
 rules for attendance and tardiness, and any rules of order in which 
 the society deviates from the authority adopted by the by-laws.
 
 302 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 IV. THE ORDER OF BUSINESS 
 
 The Usual Plan 
 the usual order of business 
 
 1. Minutes. 
 
 2. Reports : officers and committees. 
 
 3. Old business. 
 
 4. New business. 
 
 This is the basic program for the meetings of all organizations. 
 The student should make this information his own, and should 
 note that the other forms which follow preserve the same order 
 but include other items. On pages 321-326 are explained the 
 duties of the officers in calling the meeting to order, presenting 
 the minutes, and making reports. Committee reports are treated 
 on page 327. Old business includes questions brought up but not 
 voted on or disposed of at the previous meeting, and questions 
 postponed to the meeting under consideration. New business con- 
 sists of principal motions proposed at the present meeting. 
 
 An Order of Business for a Literary Society 
 
 SPECIAL ORDER OF BUSINESS 
 
 1. Roll call. 
 
 2. Minutes. 
 
 3. Critic's report.^ 
 
 4. Reports of other officers, and of committees. 
 
 5. Old business. 
 
 6. New business. 
 
 7. Program. 
 
 ^b'- 
 
 1 This arrangement provides for a careful review of each program, by 
 the critic, at the folhnving meeting. Nevertheless, there are advantages 
 in the plan of reserving two or three minutes just before adjournment, 
 and having the critic's report at this time, directly after the program 
 which is to be criticized.
 
 THE ORDER OF BUSINESS 303 
 
 This order of business is useful when the parliamentar}^ law is 
 of minimum importance and the society wishes to give most of 
 the time to the program of speeches, lecture, plays, or discussion. 
 By common custom the business of the society is transacted as 
 rapidly as possible, so that the speakers will not be kept waiting. 
 This order, minus the roll call and the critic's report, is used by 
 city clubs which meet at dinner and listen to speeches afterward. 
 Such societies usually have an executive committee to transact 
 most of their business, and when a large amount of business 
 is planned for any meeting, such as an election of officers, the 
 program is omitted. 
 
 It is possible to use the above order for school classes, the 
 parliamentary practice being cut short at the expiration of an 
 agreed time limit. 
 
 A Suggested Order for School Classes 
 
 ORDER OF BUSINESS FOR AN ORAL ENGLISH CLASS 1 
 
 1. Choice of officers. 
 
 2. Roll call. 
 
 3. Minutes. 
 
 4. Critic's report. 
 
 5. Program. 
 
 6. Reports of committees. 
 
 7. Old business. 
 
 8. New business. 
 
 The officers may be chosen as indicated in the plan proposed 
 on page 298. During the program the chairman may keep time, 
 announcing the program completed when about ten or fifteen 
 minutes is left for parliamentary practice. As has been indicated 
 in the first paragraph of page 294, the program may be made up 
 
 1 The teacher's report, whether actually in the posted order of 
 business or not, may come directly after the program. It may include 
 general criticisms, proposals for future work, instructions, and the list of 
 students for the next program.
 
 304 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 of any and all kinds of Oral English recitations. It may be used 
 for the explanation and discussion of parliamentary principles. 
 
 Some societies have an order of business called " Good of 
 the Order," or " Good of the Society," which comes at the very 
 end of the meeting, just before adjournment. This consists of 
 informal suggestions for the improvement of the organization. 
 
 V. PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 
 
 Classification of Motions. Table C, Appendix VI, includes 
 all the motions commonly used in business meetings, except 
 the motion to reconsider, which is explained on page 330, 
 The motions of Table C are classified as follows : 
 
 1. Privileged Questions. These concern the welfare and pro- 
 gram of the meeting, and do not relate to other motions before 
 the house. Time for next meeting, adjournment, recess, question 
 of privilege, and orders of the day are privileged questions. 
 
 2. Incidental Questions. These arise out of other motions. 
 Appeal, point of order, objection, reading papers, withdrawal 
 of a motion, and suspension of a rule are incidental questions. 
 
 3. Subsidiary Questions. These change, dispose of, or bring 
 to vote some motion previously made. Lay on the table, previous 
 question, postpone definitely, refer, amend, and postpone indefi- 
 nitely are subsidiary questions. 
 
 4. Principal Questions. These introduce business before the 
 assembly. Ordinary motions considered in old and new business 
 are main or principal questions. 
 
 Illustrations in the Use of the Tables. The three rules 
 under Table B, in Appendix VI, will govern the chairman 
 and the members in using the various motions. When we 
 say that a question or motion has precedence or priority 
 over another motion, we mean simply that the question
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 305 
 
 which has precedence must be settled first. Then the one 
 of lower order is decided, if at all, only after the vote on 
 the higher motion has been taken. The combinations are 
 countless in number. A very simple one is given in the 
 secretary's minutes, page 337. The following is an illus- 
 tration of the correct use of six of the motions of Table B : 
 
 If it has been tnoved and seconded to purchase an automobile, and 
 if no vote has yet been taken, somebody may move to refer the matter 
 to a committee. While this too is undecided, the motion to postpone 
 the whole question one week may be moved. This, in turn, may be 
 supplanted by the motion to lay the whole matter on the table, and 
 this last motion again by a motion for adjournment. The chairman 
 then secures a vote on adjournment. Let us suppose that adjournment 
 is voted down, that lay on the table is then lost, that postpone one 
 week is also lost, that previous question (previous question stands 
 above refer in the table, and therefore takes precedence over it) is then 
 moved and carried, and finally that refer to a committee is carried. 
 The automobile question then goes to the committee, and is not further 
 considered until the committee reports. The house is now open for 
 further new business — for a principal motion on another subject. 
 
 It will be seen from this illustration that a member may 
 at any time propose a motion of higher position than the 
 one at that time pending (before the house and about to 
 be voted upon), and that the chairman must endeavor to 
 secure a vote first on the highest motion of those pro- 
 posed, and proceed downward until all are disposed of or 
 until the meeting adjourns. Thus the members may go 
 upivard in proposing motions in Table B or Table C, 
 while the chairman proceeds dozvnward in securing votes 
 on the pending questions. 
 
 The motions in the larger table obey the same general 
 rules as do those of Table B, and are used in the same 
 manner. Some special rules and exceptions are noted in
 
 3o6 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 the directions for Table C, and in the directions which are 
 to follow. 
 
 Brief Directions for the Use of Each Motion. We shall 
 now repeat the motions of the larger table, inserting under 
 each the necessary information for its use in a business 
 meeting. The student should recall that in the case of all 
 motions other than those inclosed in quotation marks it is 
 necessary for the mover of the motion to rise, address the 
 chairman, and be recognized before he may speak further. 
 For those inclosed in quotation marks, no recognition is 
 required. 
 
 
 KEY 
 
 D = 
 
 A = 
 
 = debatable NS = no second is required 
 = amendable Quotation marks (" ") = in order when 
 
 another person has the floor 
 
 
 2/3 = two-thirds vote necessary to carry 
 
 A— Time for Next Meeting 
 
 " I move that the next meeting of the club be held at 
 TO A.M., Wednesday, May 13." 
 
 " I move that when this meeting shall adjourn, it adjourn 
 to meet again at 10 a.m., Wednesday, May 13." 
 
 " I move that the time to which this meeting shall ad- 
 journ shall be fixed at ... " 
 
 This motion is in order at any time during the meeting. It does 
 not adjourn the meeting, nor decide when the meeting shall adjourn ; 
 it merely determines in advance when the next meeting of the 
 society shall take place. Its principal use is that the members 
 may all know when to assemble again. In protracted meetings or 
 sessions of conventions and the like, it is useful in preventing an
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 307 
 
 adjournment which might end the entire session, and in providing 
 for another meeting to which business may be deferred. 
 
 The motion to determine the place for the next meeting has the 
 same rank as that to fix the time. 
 
 Adjourn 
 
 " I move we adjourn." 
 
 " I move that the meeting do now adjourn." 
 
 " I move that the meeting stand adjourned." 
 
 Note that the motion to adjourn cannot interrupt a speaker, 
 and that recognition is required. 
 
 This motion is entirely unlike the motion, " I move that we 
 adjourn at 1 1 p.m." The latter motion is a principal motion (see 
 below), and cannot be moved when any other question is pending. 
 
 If the motion to adjourn is carried, the chairman at once de- 
 clares that the motion is carried, and that the meeting is adjourned. 
 Between these two statements there should be opportunity for the 
 call of a division. 
 
 A— Recess 
 
 " I move that a recess of ten minutes be declared." 
 '" I move that the society take a recess of ten minutes." 
 " I move a recess of ten minutes or less, for the purpose 
 of signing the constitution." 
 
 Amendments to the motion may apply only to the length of 
 the recess. After the recess, business proceeds as if there had 
 been no interruption. 
 
 D— A— " Question of Privilege " 
 
 (treated as a main motion) 
 
 " Mr. Chairman, I rise to a question of privilege," 
 '" I rise to a question of privilege, Mr. Chairman." 
 " A question of privilege, Mr. Chairman."
 
 3o8 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 The mere address " Mr. Chairman " may fail of recognition, 
 because it contains no hint that the member has a right to inter- 
 rupt the speaker. If, however, the chairman hears the words, 
 " question of privilege," he is forced to interrupt the speaker if 
 somebody happens to be engaged in debate on a pending question, 
 and to ask the one who has risen to state his question. Questions, 
 requests for information, parliamentary inquiries, and motions for 
 the comfort or rights of members are considered of such great 
 importance that they must be settled before any other business 
 can be considered, except the three motions above. 
 
 The chairman responds, " State your question of privilege," and 
 the member then briefly states his request or motion. If the request 
 is a matter easily and rightly granted, the chairman should grant it 
 at once, or should put it to a vote if he thinks best. If the chair- 
 man believes that the request is not a proper question of privilege, 
 he so rules and the member may appeal (see below). If the mem- 
 bers or the chairman decide that the request is a proper question 
 of privilege, but that a vote is necessary before it can be granted, 
 the question goes before the house. When it thus becomes the 
 question before the house, it becomes for the time being like a 
 main motion, and as such may be amended, referred, postponed, 
 tabled, etc., like any other main motion. When disposed of, the 
 business goes back to that which was pending before the question 
 of privilege was raised. 
 
 Following are a few illustrations of proper questions of privilege : 
 to have the question before the house stated ; to suppress disturb- 
 ances in the meeting ; to stop noises outside ; to move the meeting 
 to another room ; to improve ventilation ; to ask for more chairs. 
 A question relating to a few of the members of a society must 
 give way to one involving the rights of all the members. 
 
 Note that this is the first of the five motions inclosed in quota- 
 tion marks. Any of these must be recognized at once by the 
 chairman, even if another member is talking.
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 309 
 
 " Orders of the Day " NS 
 
 " Mr. Chairman, I call for the orders of the day." 
 " I call for the orders of the day, Mr. Chairman." 
 The chairman states the call : " Shall the meeting now 
 proceed to the orders of the day .'' " 
 
 The purpose of this motion is to call for the regular program 
 for the meeting or for the special business which has been planned ; 
 its aim is to set aside the matters which bid fair to delay the more 
 important proceedings and to call up .these proceedings at once. 
 The motion is in order as soon as the meeting begins, and it may 
 interrupt the usual order of business. Frequently the members 
 have voted at a previous meeting to consider a certain matter at 
 a designated time (see Suspension of Rules, below). In this case 
 the call is in order when the designated time has arrived. 
 
 If the call for the order of the day is voted down, the inter- 
 rupted business proceeds ; the call may be renewed, however, 
 when any business has been transacted. If the call is carried, the 
 matters designated come up for consideration ; after which the 
 business which was interrupted proceeds. 
 
 "Appeal" 
 
 " I appeal from the decision of the chair," 
 The chairman puts the question : "" Shall the ruling of the 
 chair stand as the decision of the society } Those in favor 
 say, 'Aye' . . . ," etc. Or, "Those who sustain the chair 
 say, * Aye '...," etc. 
 
 An appeal comes before the house when the chairman has made 
 a ruling with which a member takes issue, as, for example, when 
 the chairman has ruled against a ]ooint of order (see below). Any 
 member who is not satisfied with the chairman's interpretation of 
 the rules may appeal to the society, and the matter is then decided
 
 3IO PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 by a majority vote. Before the vote brief reasons may be stated 
 by the member and by the chairman, and, in certain rare cases, 
 unlikely to occur outside a legal organization, others may debate 
 the appeal. 
 
 A motion to lay the appeal on the table is in order, and if it is 
 carried the chairman's ruling stands. 
 
 "Point of Order" NS 
 
 " I rise to a point of order." 
 
 The chairman responds : " State your point of order." 
 
 The member : " My point of order is that the constitu- 
 tion is being violated in that . . . ," etc. 
 
 The chairman : "Your point of order is well taken " (or, 
 " not well taken "). 
 
 If the chairman holds that the point of order is well taken 
 he proceeds at once to correct the error. In case he does not so 
 agree, the one who raised the point, or any other member, may 
 appeal from the decision of the chair. 
 
 Points of order may be raised whenever a member thinks that 
 a rule is being broken, an unfairness being done, or a wrong pro- 
 cedure being followed. These are some examples : wrong motion 
 stated, motion stated wrongly, speaker off the subject, personal 
 remarks being made, wrong person recognized, order of business 
 not being followed, undebatable question being debated, rules of 
 precedence violated, by-laws disregarded. 
 
 It should be specially noted that while the point of order and 
 appeal may be superseded by the questions above them in the 
 table, yet points of order and appeals may be raised in connection 
 with any of these higher motions, and in such cases supersede 
 these higher questions themselves.
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 31 1 
 
 " Objection to Consideration " NS— 2/3 
 
 " Mr. Chairman, I object to the consideration of this 
 question." 
 
 The chairman responds : " Those who sustain the objec- 
 tion say, 'Aye,' " etc. 
 
 An objection is in order only when it is raised before the ques- 
 tion has been debated, and it can apply to principal questions only. 
 The one who objects may briefly state his reason. A two-to-one 
 vote is needed to rule the motion out, as otherwise a bare majority 
 might prevent free speech. 
 
 Objections may be raised on the grounds, among others, that 
 the question proposed is improper for the assembly to vote upon 
 in that it involves personal, religious, or political issues ; or that 
 it has no value to the meeting; or that it is not related to the 
 purposes of the organization. 
 
 If the objection is sustained, the motion is ruled out, without 
 debate or vote. 
 
 Reading Papers 
 
 '" I move that I be allowed to read this article." 
 
 " I move that the member be allowed to read the article 
 
 in question." 
 
 " I move that the by-law in question be read by the 
 
 secretary." 
 
 " I move that the visitor be asked to address us." 
 
 " I move that the gentleman be allowed ten minutes to 
 
 address the meeting." 
 
 If a member wishes to read or have read any written or printed 
 matter bearing on the question in hand, to have a section of the 
 rules read, or to have a non-member address the meeting, he 
 moves that permission be given for such act.
 
 312 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 Withdrawal of a Motion 
 
 " I move that the motion be withdrawn." 
 " I move that the maker of the motion be allowed to 
 withdraw it." 
 
 Before a motion has been stated by the chairman, either the 
 maker or the seconder may withdraw his indorsement. After it 
 has been stated, however, it becomes the property of the meeting, 
 and cannot be withdrawn by the maker of the motion if any 
 member objects. In such a case the mover or somebody else 
 may move that the motion be withdrawn. 
 
 Suspension of Rules 2/3 
 
 " I move that the rules be suspended in order to hear 
 the report of the committee." 
 
 Neither constitution nor by-laws may be suspended.^ Rules of 
 order and standing rules may be set aside temporarily when they 
 stand in the way of a desired action. Suppose, as in the above 
 quotation, the chairman of a committee has entered the meeting 
 late, and the members wish to turn back the order of business to 
 reports of committees in order to hear his report. In such a case 
 the society may decide by a two-to-one vote to suspend the rules. 
 The motion must state the purpose of the proposed suspension. 
 
 1 Even legal organizations sometimes find it necessary to suspend 
 specific sections of their constitutions. For example, a state legislature 
 may, in case of grave public need, waive constitutional formalities in ref- 
 erence to voting appropriations. Again, a governor may declare martial 
 law. Such a suspension of the fundamental law, however, is legal only 
 when provided for by a specific article of the constitution itself. School 
 societies will probably never have need of such a provision in their 
 constitutions. 
 
 If a society deliberately ignores or violates its constitution, it thereby, 
 in effect, temporarily suspends its own existence as a society. Such a 
 proceeding is possible, but indiscreet. It opens the way for indiscriminate 
 irregularities.
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 313 
 
 Other illustrations will make the object of this motion clear: to 
 allow a member to continue speaking when his time has expired •, 
 to allow a member to speak for a third time upon the question ; to 
 abandon the regular program ; to set aside for a special occasion 
 the restrictive rules of the regular meetings. 
 
 To set a particular topic as a special order for a future time sus- 
 pends the rules in that it changes the regular order of business for 
 that future meeting ; it therefore has the same rank as suspension 
 of the rules and requires a two-thirds vote. 
 
 Lay on the Table 
 
 "' I move the matter be laid on the table." 
 " I move that the whole question be laid on the table." 
 " I move the motion (amendment, appeal, question of 
 privilege) be laid on the table." 
 
 " I move that the motion be tabled." 
 
 This motion was originally devised to put a motion aside tem- 
 porarily, but in recent times it is often used to rid the meeting 
 permanently of a motion. If the latter is the intent, however, the 
 maker of the main motion should have the right to speak briefly 
 in favor of his motion before lay on the table is put to vote. 
 
 A motion laid upon the table is disposed of until it is renewed 
 (see p. zzi)^ o^ ^"^^^ ^ motion is made to take from the table the 
 motion in question. Take from the table has the same character- 
 istics and place in Table C as lay on the table. 
 
 When a motion is tabled, all other motions attached to it — 
 such as amend, postpone, refer, and previous question — are car- 
 ried to the table with it. The motion to take from the table, if 
 carried, brings these back before the house in the exact condition 
 they were in at the time the motion was tabled. 
 
 Technically, an amendment to a motion may be laid on the 
 table, but as this carries the motion to the table with the amend- 
 ment, the effect is the same as tabling the motion itself.
 
 314 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 There is no such motion as " to lay the matter on the table till 
 next meeting." This should be either '" to lay the matter on the 
 table," or " to postpone the matter till next meeting." 
 
 Previous Question = Stop Debate 2/3 
 
 " I move the previous question." 
 
 " I move debate be stopped." 
 
 " I move we proceed to the vote." 
 
 " I move the previous question on the motion to postpone." 
 
 " I move we stop debate on the amendment." 
 
 This motion does not refer to any previously mentioned ques- 
 tion, as its name would seem to indicate ; it refers only to the 
 question or questions now pending, and it seeks to cut off debate 
 and bring to vote one or more motions. If the motion for the pre- 
 vious question specifies the motion concerned, and is carried, then 
 the debate on only that motion is closed. If, however, the motion 
 for closing debate is unrestricted, it is usual to proceed to vote on 
 all the pending questions, without further debate. 
 
 It should be noted that at any time in the process of voting, 
 a motion of higher precedence may intervene. 
 
 The motion for the previous question should not be confused 
 with the expression, " I call for the question," spoken by a mem- 
 ber from his seat. This call indicates merely that one or more of 
 the members is ready and anxious to vote ; it is a signal to the 
 chairman, if no one has the floor, to ask, "Are you ready for the 
 question ? " and to take the vote if everybody is ready. 
 
 The motion to limit each speech to a certain tirne, or to limit 
 the debate as a whole, has the same precedence as the previous 
 question. 
 
 The motion for the previous question may be applied to any 
 debatable question. If carried, the debatable question is simply 
 changed into the undebatable class.
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 315 
 
 D— A— Postpone to a Definite Time 
 
 " I move that this question be postponed for one week." 
 '" I move to postpone the motion till next meeting." 
 
 This motion is useful when more time is needed. Debate on 
 the advantage of delay is in order, and the time of postponement 
 may be amended. When the time of postponement has elapsed, 
 the matter again appears, under old business, in exactly the form 
 it was left. It may, however, be called up as the order of the day 
 for the meeting to which it was postponed ; or it may, by a two- 
 thirds vote, be taken up at any intervening meeting. 
 
 Postponement may be applied to principal motions only ; not 
 to the motion to amend or refer. 
 
 D— A— Refer to a Committee 
 
 " I move that this matter be referred to a committee." 
 
 " I move that the motion be referred to the finance 
 committee." 
 
 " I move that the question of a banquet be referred to a 
 committee of three, to be appointed by the chair, and to 
 report at the next meeting," 
 
 "' I move that the motion to join the town of Blank in 
 an Independence Day celebration be referred to an elected 
 committee of three persons, with power to act." 
 
 This motion is useful when more investigation is needed, or 
 when a matter proposed in a motion can best be handled by a 
 smaller body. The motion must not be confused with the main 
 motion to appoint a committee, which will be considered below ; 
 the present motion aims to give to a committee a main motion 
 which has already been placed before the house. 
 
 Debate on the motion may concern the advantage of referring 
 the motion, and the pros and cons of the main motion itself, so
 
 3i6 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 that the committee, if one is appointed, may be informed as to the 
 views and wishes of the society. By amendments the size of the 
 committee, the manner of its selection, and the time for its report 
 may be determined or changed. If no specification is made, it is 
 usually understood that a committee of three will be appointed by 
 the president or chairman, and that the committee will report 
 as soon as convenient. 
 
 Committee reports and how they are handled are discussed 
 on page 327. 
 
 D— A— Amend 
 
 Let us assume as the main motion : " White Street shall 
 be paved and sidewalked, from First Street to Twentieth 
 Street." 
 
 1. "I move to amend the motion by striking out the 
 word ' Twentieth ' and inserting in its place * Twelfth.' " 
 
 2. "I move to amend the motion by substituting for it 
 the following : ' The property owners on White Street shall 
 be asked to be present at a hearing on the question of the 
 improvement of that street.' " 
 
 3. "I move to amend by dividing the question into two 
 questions : paving and sidewalking." 
 
 It will be seen that amending a motion may change its wording, 
 or substitute a different motion in its place, or divide it into two 
 distinct motions. 
 
 I . The usual purpose of an amendment is to change the word- 
 ing of the motion so that it will be more nearly acceptable. If an 
 amendment which the maker of the original motion believes in is 
 proposed, he and the person who seconds it can accept it, and, 
 if there is no objection, it is then incorporated into the motion 
 itself without the need of a vote. Otherwise the proposed change 
 of wording is put to vote. These changes may include adding, 
 inserting, striking out, or striking out and inserting. While the
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 31/ 
 
 proposed amendment is before the house, the debate must be 
 confined to the advantage of the change in wording; the main 
 motion itself cannot be debated. If the proposed change is carried, 
 the chairman then reads the main motion as it has been changed, 
 and the debate proceeds on this main motion as amended, which 
 must finally be voted on in order to carry- it. Carr^'ing an amend- 
 ment never carries the motion it amends. 
 
 \\'hile an amendment is pending, it in turn may be amended. 
 Be sure, however, that the proposed new amendment applies 
 directly to the first amendment and not to the main motion itself, 
 for of course it would not be possible to have two amendments to 
 a motion pending at the same time, any more than there could be 
 two main motions before the house at once. The process of amend- 
 ing an amendment is the same as that of amending a motion as 
 explained above. 
 
 An example will make the whole process clear. It is moved 
 and seconded, and stated by the chair, " that a new librar}^ build- 
 ing, at a cost of not more than $500,000, be erected by the city at 
 the corner of High and Green streets." During the debate an 
 amendment is moved, seconded, and stated that the words, " at 
 the corner of High and Green streets," be struck out and 
 " in Liberty Square " be inserted. Then comes discussion about 
 the question of location. At this point if somebody should propose 
 to amend by changing $500,000 to $750,000, his amendment would 
 be declared out of order. But if a member wishes to add to the 
 amendment the words, " facing Hill Street," it would be in order 
 for him to " move to amend the amendment " to that effect. 
 Debate now occurs on the way the building shall face if put in 
 Liberty Square. Let us say the amendment to the amendment 
 is carried. The amendment as amended now reads, " to strike out 
 ' at the comer of High and Green streets,' and insert ' in Liberty 
 Square, facing Hill Street.' " After further debate, suppose this 
 amendment to the motion is carried. This means simply that if 
 the librar)' is built, its location will be as voted. The main motion, 
 as amended, now reads, " that a new library building, at a cost of
 
 3i8 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 not more than $500,000, be erected by the city in Liberty Square, 
 facing Hill Street," and this motion is of course now open for 
 debate. It is also open for further amendment just as if it had 
 been stated this way in the beginning. Nothing conclusive is 
 decided until the final vote on the main motion. 
 This process may be clearly shown as follows : 
 
 1. Proposed inotion : A new library building, to cost not more than 
 
 $500,000, shall be erected by the city at the corner of High 
 and Green streets. 
 
 Proposed atnendment : Strike out the words, " at the corner 
 of High and Green streets," and insert "in Liberty Square." 
 Proposed amendment to the amendment : Add the 
 words, " facing Hill Street." 
 
 If the proposed amendment to the amendment is carried, we 
 have pending the following : 
 
 2. Proposed motion : A new library building, to cost not more than 
 
 $500,000, shall be erected by the city at the corner of High 
 and Green streets. 
 
 P7'oposed atnendment as amended : Strike out the words, 
 
 " at the corner of High and Green streets," and insert 
 
 " in Liberty Square, facing Hill Street." 
 
 If the amendment as amended is carried, we have pending : 
 
 3. Proposed motion, as amended : A new library building, to cost 
 
 not more than $500,000, shall be erected by the city in Liberty 
 Square, facing Hill Street. 
 
 2. The substitute motion, another form of amendment, proposes 
 to strike out all the words of a motion or amendment, and to put 
 in their place a new motion to cover the same need. For example, 
 " I move to amend the motion by substituting for it the following : 
 ' that the city enter into a ten-year lease, for library purposes, of 
 the second, third, and fourth floors of the First National Bank 
 Building.' " The process is the same as explained above ; the vote 
 on the amendment can only change the wording of the question 
 before the house.
 
 PRECEDENCE OF QUESTIONS 319 
 
 3. Amending to divide the question cuts a motion which covers 
 two topics into two separate main motions. For example, in the 
 case of the question, " I move that the Secretary of State enter 
 into negotiations for treaties with Cuba and Panama," if the 
 amendment to divide is carried, the first main motion would be, 
 "that the Secretar)^ of State enter into negotiations for a treaty 
 with Cuba " ; and after this question is disposed of, the next main 
 motion would be, " that the Secretary of State enter into negotia- 
 tions for a treaty with Panama." 
 
 4. Blanks may be left by the mover of any motion : " I move 
 that we appropriate blank dollars for the relief of the war suf- 
 ferers." Members nominate various sums and they are all voted 
 upon, arranged with the smallest first, until one gets a majority. If 
 the blank concerns a period of time, the longest time is arranged 
 to have first vote. 
 
 5. Bear in mind that anywhere in the above processes, any 
 motion of higher precedence — above ' Amend ' in Table C — 
 may be moved, and may temporarily or permanently set aside 
 the whole question. 
 
 D— Postpone Indefinitely 
 
 " I move that the motion be postponed indefinitely." 
 " I move that the matter be postponed." 
 
 This motion is bracketed with ' Amend ' in Table C because each 
 motion has the same precedence : neither may supplant the other. 
 
 When the motion to postpone indefinitely is before the house, 
 debate may concern itself with both the question of postponement 
 and the main question itself. If the motion to postpone indefinitely 
 is carried, it usually disposes permanently of the motion to which 
 it is applied.
 
 320 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 D— A— Principal Motion 
 
 " I move that this society hold a debate." 
 
 " I move that the city build a swimming pool." 
 
 " I move that this society adopt the following resolution : 
 
 ' Resolved, that foreign immigration should be restricted.' " 
 " I move to amend the constitution as follows : . . ." 
 " I move that this society rescind its action in voting to 
 
 have a banquet." 
 
 The ordinary motions which introduce topics for consideration 
 are called principal motions. Usually they concern new proposals 
 and are called 7nain motions. They also include motions to take 
 back former acts (revoke, repeal, rescind), and motions to cancel 
 (expunge) objectionable statements from the minutes. 
 
 The following, among others, are treated as main motions : an 
 amendment to the constitution, by-laws, or rules ; a motion to 
 appoint a committee to carry out a stated action or to investigate 
 a stated matter ; a motion to discharge a committee or to accept 
 or reject a committee's report ; a motion to adjourn at a specified 
 time ; a question of privilege. 
 
 The main or principal motion is subject to the application of 
 any of the other motions in Table C, and cannot be finally voted 
 until all other pending questions are settled. 
 
 Pages 330-333 deal with miscellaneous motions and 
 special processes. The niotioti to reconsider will be found 
 there.
 
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES 321 
 
 VI. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF MEMBERS AND OF 
 
 OFFICERS 
 
 The Introduction of Business 
 
 1. The member who desires to introduce a motion rises and 
 addresses the chairman. " Mr. Chairman " or " Madam Chairman " 
 should be the address, unless the person in the chair holds the 
 office of president or has some other executive title, in which case 
 that title may be used. 
 
 2. The chairman responds with the name of the speaker. 
 
 3. The member states his motion, and resumes his seat. 
 
 4. The chairman calls for a second ; a fair chance for a second 
 should be given ever)' motion. 
 
 5. If no second is offered, the chairman announces : " The 
 motion is lost for want of a second." Even then a second may 
 be offered. 
 
 6. If a second is made, the chairman states the motion and 
 calls for debate : " It has been moved and seconded that, etc. 
 Are there any remarks on the motion?" (See p. 335.) 
 
 7. One who seconds a motion or calls for a division need not 
 rise or ask for recognition. 
 
 8. One who moves any of the following need not wait for 
 recognition ; it must be given, even if the motion interrupts 
 another speaker (note the quotation marks around these motions, 
 in section Y, above) : 
 
 a. Question of privilege. 
 
 i. Call for the orders of the day. 
 
 c. Appeal. 
 
 d. Point of order. 
 
 e. Objection to the consideration of a question. 
 /. Notice of a reconsideration. 
 
 9. At the request of the chairman, the maker of a motion or 
 an amendment must hand the text of the motion or amendment 
 to the secretary in writing.
 
 322 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 The Rules of Debate 
 
 1. If two or more persons ask for recognition at the same 
 time, preference should be given in the following order: 
 
 a. The maker of the motion. 
 
 b. One who has not spoken on the motion. 
 
 c. One who seldom speaks. 
 
 d. One opposed to the last speaker. 
 
 e. In other cases, the one who addresses the chair first. 
 
 2. Recognition should not be given to one who remains stand- 
 ing while another is speaking, or who rises before the speaker has 
 finished, or who approaches the chairman, or who otherwise disturbs 
 the meeting. 
 
 3. A speaker must restrict his remarks to the question before 
 the house ; he must not discuss personalities or motives. 
 
 4. In referring to an officer or member the speaker should 
 avoid using his name. 
 
 5. A member may speak only twice on any motion, not longer 
 than ten minutes each time. 
 
 6. The speaker is entitled to a fair hearing. 
 
 7. All parliamentary law is based on equality of members, and 
 on the principles of courtesy and gentlemanly behavior. 
 
 The Chairman 
 
 Whoever is in charge of the meeting is the chairman. 
 The next paragraph deals with suggestions for a president. 
 See the forms on page 335. 
 
 1. See that all is in readiness for the meeting, and call it to 
 order at the appointed time : " The meeting will now come to order." 
 
 2. Have at hand for reference : the constitution, by-laws, rules 
 of order, standing rules, and the program for the meeting. 
 
 3. Know parliamentary law ; know also how to avoid compli- 
 cations ; any short cut is possible by common consent.
 
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES 323 
 
 4. Stand when calling for a second, stating a question, taking 
 a vote, announcing a vote, and answering questions. Remain 
 seated during debate. 
 
 5. Talk loud enough for every word to be heard. 
 
 6. Be decisive, and do not mind being overruled. 
 
 7. Keep the question clearly before the assembly until it is 
 finally disposed of. After each vote announce the next question 
 pending, and restate the motion immediately before the vote is taken. 
 
 8. If while chairman you wish to discuss a question, yield the 
 chair temporarily to another member. Never leave the chair for 
 any other purpose. 
 
 9. Request the secretary or another member to state and put 
 a motion which refers to the chairman. 
 
 10. As chairman you may vote with the other members when 
 the vote is by ballot or by roll call. You may vote after the others 
 in an Aye and No vote or in a division, provided your vote will 
 change the result (carry the motion by breaking a tie, or defeat it 
 by creating a tie). 
 
 11. Adjourn a meeting you cannot control. 
 
 12. Be absolutely fair and impartial. If a question divides the 
 meeting into two sides, do not favor either. 
 
 The President 
 
 1. Study the suggestions for the chairman, above. 
 
 2. Study the constitution, by-laws, and rules, and see that they 
 are enforced. 
 
 3. When appointing a committee, select persons who are inter- 
 ested, who will work, and who represent various points of view. 
 The maker of the motion to refer should usually be appointed 
 chairman of the committee. 
 
 4. Keep posted on the work of other officers, and of committees, 
 and help them when possible. 
 
 5. Represent the society to the outside world : attend to the 
 affairs of the society between meetings, and report such trans- 
 actions at the following meeting.
 
 324 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 6. Plan the meetings : 
 
 a. See that notices are sent out in good time. 
 
 b. Make reports, with suggestions for action. 
 
 c. Keep a memorandum of topics for business. 
 
 7. Carry out the good suggestions of officers, committees, and 
 members. 
 
 8. Be a leader as well as a servant. 
 
 The Vice President 
 
 1. Be ready to fill the president's place. 
 
 2. Help the president and other officers, particularly in regard 
 to arrangements for the meetings and planning the programs. 
 
 3. Make the office of vice president amount to something. 
 
 The Secretary 
 
 1. In the absence of the chairman, president, and vice president, 
 call the meeting to order and hold an election for chairman pro tem. 
 
 2. Notify members about special meetings, appointment on 
 committees, etc. 
 
 3. Call the roll when necessary, and keep a record of the 
 attendance (see Roll Call, p. 338). 
 
 4. If necessary, keep a record of the recitations in the class. 
 
 5. Be ready to read aloud all communications, reports, laws, 
 etc. whenever required. 
 
 6. Assist the chairman in counting the vote in divisions. 
 
 7. Report to the society in regard to all correspondence and 
 other activities of your office. 
 
 8. Be ready to tell the chairman about postponed and unfinished 
 
 business. 
 
 9. Keep a memorandum of the exact wording of all motions 
 proposed. Make the notes so clear that the chairman can refer 
 
 to them. 
 
 10. Know what is the question before the meeting at any 
 
 moment, and what comes next.
 
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES 325 
 
 11. Write the minutes (see the forms on page 336) 
 
 a. Include name of organization, place, date, time, and name of 
 chairman. 
 
 b. Make a separate paragraph for each order of business, and for 
 each general subject considered under the old and new business. 
 
 c. Include a list of those who took part in the program. 
 
 d. Sign the minutes ; when reading the minutes read the signature. 
 
 e. If they are corrected, make the necessary changes at once. 
 When they are approved, indorse them " Approved," with the date 
 and your initials. 
 
 12. If the constitution, by-laws, or rules are amended, or if 
 additions are made, see that the proper changes are made in the 
 original copies. 
 
 13. Keep carefully all the records of the organization: minutes, 
 constitution, laws, reports, communications. 
 
 14. The secretary is free to take part in the meeting, just the 
 same as any other member. 
 
 The Critic 
 
 Below are some of the things in a meeting that a critic 
 may watch and report upon. He must not fail to commend 
 the good points. 
 
 1. The president: his manner of presiding and his ability. 
 
 2. The minutes and other work of the secretary. 
 
 3. The critic's report. 
 
 4. The program : members taking part, with criticisms on : look- 
 ing at the audience ; opening sentence ; announcement of topic ; 
 arrangement of talk ; use of hands ; voice ; clearness of diagram, 
 if any ; closing sentence ; answering questions, if any ; correct- 
 ness of speech ; enthusiasm ; interest ; the program as a whole. 
 
 5. The work of the committees. 
 
 6. The transaction of bu.siness : knowledge of the rules of 
 order; attitude of members toward the officers and toward each 
 other ; value of the business carried out. 
 
 7. The meeting as a whole ; and general suggestions.
 
 326 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 The Other Officers 
 
 Treasurer. This officer keeps safe the funds of the society, and 
 pays them out only by vote of the society and on a written order 
 signed by the president or secretary or both. If the work of the 
 society is at all complicated, he had best consult a bookkeeping 
 teacher about the best way to keep the accounts. His books 
 should show the record of each member in payment of his dues, 
 and the amount of money received on any given date. Record of 
 dues may be kept in columns, with names of members at the left, 
 and dates at the top of the columns. It is desirable that the totals 
 and balances in each of the various funds should be easily figured at 
 any time. At any meeting he should be able to tell the approximate 
 amount in the treasury. He should make frequent written reports 
 to the society. School classes will of course need no treasurer. 
 If a small assessment is voted, the secretary or any other member 
 may be instructed to collect and handle the money. The treasurer 
 of a society, for the protection of his own reputation, should insist 
 that his accounts be audited by a committee representing the 
 society. Accounts may be audited quarterly, and in every case 
 when the books and money pass into the hands of a new treasurer. 
 
 Sergeant at Arms. A school class should not need a sergeant at 
 arms. One is needed when arrangements are necessary as to furni- 
 ture, ventilation, errands, care of spectators, etc., or where the 
 meeting is large and apt to be disorderly. The sergeant at arms is 
 under the direction of the chairman or president, whose orders he 
 carries out. 
 
 Historian. This officer keeps a book containing the story of the 
 progress of the society, together with press notices, programs, pub- 
 lications, photographs, and other documents of historical interest. 
 
 Various combinations and divisions of offices and duties are 
 made : financial secretary, to collect the dues and turn the money 
 over to the treasurer ; recording secretary, to keep papers and 
 minutes ; corresponding secretary, to attend to communications ; 
 secretary-treasurer, to cover the duties of both offices.
 
 COMMITTEES 327 
 
 Special duties are sometimes given to persons with special titles : 
 curator, who has charge of clubrooms and library ; superintendent 
 or manager ; librarian ; doorkeeper ; timekeeper ; marshal ; cash- 
 ier; inspector; engineer; attorney. Many of these are paid, and 
 often are not members of the organization. A paid clerk often 
 takes the heavier work of the secretary, and sometimes altogether 
 takes the place of a secretary. 
 
 VII. COMMITTEE WORK AND REPORTS 
 
 Need for and Kinds of Committees. Committees are appointed 
 either iyi} to carry out some action, as, for instance, to arrange for 
 and manage a lecture ; or (2) to carry on some ifwestigatio?i, such 
 as, for example, to see if conditions at the city jail need improving. 
 In either case the organization as a whole is too big and too busy 
 to handle the problem, and therefore a smaller group is chosen. 
 Selection is usually made by the president, though upon motion 
 the society may nominate and elect the members of a committee. 
 
 Some of the duties which must be performed by committees 
 need continuous attention, and for such duties standing committees 
 are chosen, which have regular meetings and a more or less fixed 
 membership. If the officers are elected annually or semiannually, 
 each incoming president makes up the list of names for these 
 committees. The names of the committees should be listed in 
 the l)y-laws, or, if they are of great importance, in the constitution. 
 Common standing committees are these : membership, program, 
 legislation, clubhouse, finance. Large organizations often have 
 an " executive committee " or " board of managers " or " board 
 of control " which is made up of the officers of the society and 
 a few other members elected by the society. Such a committee 
 acts for the society itself, and the society then votes only on 
 matters of great importance. 
 
 Temporary duties are handled by special or select committees, 
 which go out of office as soon as their reports are made to the 
 society. A select committee may be created by a principal motion,
 
 328 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 or by a motion to refer to a committee a matter already before 
 the house. 
 
 How Committees Work. If no one is designated as chairman of 
 a committee, the first person named or the one receiving the high- 
 est number of votes acts as chairman, though the committee itself 
 in such a case may choose its own permanent chairman. The 
 meetings of the committee may be exactly like the meetings of a 
 small assembly except that they usually avoid the more complex 
 motions. Indeed, in most of the committees to which young peo- 
 ple will belong, no motions should be needed. Informal discussion 
 and agreement should be enough. The chairman may delegate to 
 each member of the committee some special section of the work 
 to be done or a part of the investigation to be made. Such indi- 
 vidual or subcommittee work should be under the direction of the 
 chairman of the committee, and reports should be made to him. 
 Then the committee prepares its report. If the committee is ap- 
 pointed to carry out some action, the report will give merely the 
 statement of what has been done, together with a financial account 
 if any money has been handled. If an investigation has been 
 carried on, a more complicated process will be necessary. The 
 committee numbers will need to agree on a statement of the prob- 
 lem and on the recommendations they intend to make. The chair- 
 man, or an elected secretary, or a subcommittee, may be directed to 
 prepare and bring to a meeting a proposed report, and the various 
 ideas suggested may be debated and voted on. Reports should be 
 carefully and clearly arranged, according to some such plan as this : 
 
 SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR A COMMITTEE REPORT 
 
 1. The reasons for the appointment of the committee. 
 
 2. The manner of investigation. 
 
 3. The results of the investigation. 
 
 4. The recommendations of the committee. 
 
 What is voted by a majority of the members of the committee 
 constitutes the report of the committee. Any member or group of
 
 COMMITTEES 329 
 
 members of the committee may, however, write out a different 
 report, and may propose it as a minority report. 
 
 What is done with the Reports. The report of the committee 
 is usually read at the meeting by its chairman. When the time 
 comes for reports in the order of business, he may rise and an- 
 nounce that his committee has a report to make. If any objection 
 is made, a motion to receive the report will be necessary. When 
 the report has been read, it is handed to the secretary, and if no 
 further action is necessary, the chairman of the meeting may direct 
 that it be " placed on file," which means that it be kept among the 
 records. But if it is a financial report which needs to be approved, 
 or if it contains definite recommendations, then the chairman of 
 the committee or somebody else may move that the report be 
 approved, accepted, or adopted, all of which terms mean the same 
 thing — • that the accounts are satisfactory and shall be paid, or that 
 the recommendations shall be carried into effect. Before this 
 motion is voted upon, the minority report or reports may be pre- 
 sented, and an amendment may be moved to substitute for the 
 motion before the house the motion to adopt the minority report. 
 In either case, any member of the society may move to amend the 
 recommendations of the committee, and of course the amendment 
 may be amended, or the whole matter may be referred back to the 
 same committee or to another committee, or it may be postponed, 
 or laid on the table, etc. 
 
 Sometimes a motion to accept a report includes a clause that 
 the committee be discharged, but it is usually taken for granted 
 that with its final report a committee is automatically dissolved. 
 When a committee report is called for but is not ready, the chair- 
 man may report " progress," or he may tell informally what has 
 been done so far and what is planned. When there is dissatisfac- 
 tion with the work or the report of a committee, a motion may be 
 made to discharge the committee, or to reject its report, or to con- 
 tinue the committee for a further investigation, or to require a 
 report upon a certain date. 
 
 For committee of the whole, see below.
 
 330 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 VIIL SPECIAL POINTS IN PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 Some Special Motions 
 
 1. Closing Nominations. This motion is neither debatable nor 
 amendable, and requires only a majority vote. 
 
 2. Limiting Debate. See Previous Question, above. 
 
 3. Making a Special Order. See Suspension of Rules, above, 
 
 4. Reconsider. Suppose that in a society which holds weekly meet- 
 ings, a motion is voted on, July i. Any person who voted on the 
 winning side may on the same day move a reconsideration of the ques- 
 tion, provided no other business is before the house. Or he may make 
 this motion at the next meeting, July 8, but not at any later meeting. 
 The motion to reconsider is debatable if the original motion was de- 
 batable, and may have the motion to stop debate and lay on the table 
 applied to it. If reconsideration is carried, the former vote on the 
 motion is canceled, and the question is before the house in exactly 
 the shape it was before the vote was taken. 
 
 If the person who wishes a reconsideration finds other business 
 before the house, or if he does not wish the new vote at once, he may 
 give notice of a moiion to reconsider. This notice is in order at any 
 time, even when another speaker has the floor, and the secretary must 
 make record in the minutes that the notice was given. Such a notice 
 might be given, in the case we were supposing above, on July i or 
 July 8, but not at any later meeting. The person giving the notice 
 may call up the motion to reconsider, to be debated and voted on, 
 the same day he gave notice, provided the way is open for a main 
 motion. Another person than the one giving the notice may not call 
 the reconsideration till the next meeting after the notice. 
 
 To sum up for a motion decided July i : Notice of a motion to 
 reconsider, or the motion to reconsider, are in order July i and July 8. 
 The motion is in order July 1 5, provided notice was given on the 8th. 
 
 Reconsideration cannot be applied to the motion to adjourn, suspend 
 the rules, reconsider, lay on the table, and stop debate. If applied to 
 motions which hold up the reconsideration of the main question, such 
 as postpone, refer, reading papers, etc., it must be voted upon and 
 settled at once, and no notice or other delay is possible. Reconsidera- 
 tion cannot be amended. Other rules on reconsideration — the most
 
 SPECIAL PROCESSES 331 
 
 technical of all motions and processes — will be found in Robert, 
 pp. 73, 184 (rev. ed. p. 156), and in Gregg, pp. 35, 84. The above is a 
 mere outline of its use. The student is advised to try simple problems 
 in reconsideration first. 
 
 5. Rescind. This is a principal motion (see above). 
 
 6. Rise. This motion is used in committee meetings, and is exactly 
 the same as adjourn. 
 
 7. Take from the Table. See Lay on the Table, above. 
 
 Some Special Processes 
 
 1. Committee of the Whole. Whenever the motion to refer to a 
 committee or to appoint a committee is in order, it is allowable to 
 make the motion to go into the comtnittce of the whole. This means 
 that the whole society changes itself temporarily into a committee for 
 the consideration of the matter specified by the motion. If the motion 
 carries, the chairman usually appoints somebody as chairman of the 
 committee of the whole. The meeting then proceeds to talk over the 
 subject in an informal way, just as would any other committee. Only 
 the motions to recommend to the society, to amend, to postpone in- 
 definitely, and to rise (adjourn) are used. Upon the rising of the com- 
 mittee the meeting of the society is called to order by its president or 
 chairman, and the chairman of the committee of the whole gives its 
 report, which is then acted on as explained on page 329. 
 
 2. Executive Session. A secret session of a society, or a short 
 secret consultation, may be voted for by a majority of the members. 
 All visitors must then retire. Executive sessions should rarely be neces- 
 sary. This motion should be in order whenever the motion for the 
 pre\aous question is in order. 
 
 3. Filling Blanks. See Amend, above. 
 
 4. Informal Action. The need for and value of informal action 
 have been explained at the beginning of this chapter. 
 
 5. Methods of Voting. The usual way is by saying " aye " or " no " 
 as the affirmative and negative votes are called for. This is called 
 viva-voce voting. 
 
 When there is doubt a division may be called for : " Mr. Chairman, 
 I call for a division." This means a counted vote, usually accomplished 
 by standing or by raising the hands. Anybody may call for a division 
 (discussion may be renewed), and the chairman must take the vote.
 
 332 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 Voting by ballot gives secrecy. The ballots are small, uniform pieces 
 of paper on which the members write " yes," " no," or the name of one 
 or more of the candidates. The papers are folded once and handed to 
 the tellers, who count the vote and report to the chairman. Scoring 
 should always be done by means of four marks and the tally. Just 
 before any vote is to be taken, the motion to vote by ballot is in order, 
 and the majority decides, without debate. 
 
 Elections for office should be held by ballot unless there is a law 
 or rule to the contrary. When there is but one candidate the chairman 
 may declare the person elected, or, if the rules require a ballot, the 
 motion may be made that the secretary be instructed to cast one bal- 
 lot for the one candidate. This the secretary does by writing the name 
 of the candidate upon a slip of paper and handing it to the chairman. 
 The chairman then declares the member elected. 
 
 The roll-call vote gives a permanent record of each person's vote. 
 He answers " aye " or " no " as his name is called ; the secretary keeps 
 the record, and counts and announces the result. This is called voting 
 by yeas and nays. A majority may order a roll-call vote upon any 
 question ; in some societies one fifth of the members or even one 
 member may demand the yeas and nays. 
 
 Whenever any vote is by division or by yeas and nays, any member 
 has the right to change his vote before the final result is announced. 
 
 A straw vote is an unoflficial test vote to show what the members 
 believe ; it cannot decide anything. 
 
 6. Nomination and Election. On the day for an election it is cus- 
 tomary to announce the election in order as the first thing under new 
 business. One who makes a nomination has a right at that time to 
 make a speech (see Chapter XI). Nominations do not need seconding. 
 The secretary should record the names in order of nomination. A 
 member who makes a nomination must not neglect voting for that 
 person, at least on the first vote. Some societies have a committee 
 to propose nominations, but their report should not prevent other 
 indorsements. Some organizations nominate by secret ballot — the 
 two or three persons receiving the highest number of votes are placed 
 in nomination. Again, other societies have nominations by petition ; 
 a person may be placed in nomination if a certain fraction, perhaps 
 ten per cent, of the members sign a request that he be a candidate. 
 Names should be put on the blackboard or published in some other
 
 SPECIAL TERMS 333 
 
 way. When voting by ballot, the vote for all offices should be on the 
 same ballot, as is customaiy in governmental elections. In case a 
 majority vote for any office is lacking, a new vote must be taken. The 
 society may rule to drop out all but the two highest candidates for the 
 second election, as many cities now do, otherwise all the names stand 
 for the second vote. The constitution may specify when the terms of 
 office begin, otherwise the new officers take their places at the con- 
 clusion of the election. 
 
 7. Renewal of a Motion. A defeated main motion or amendment 
 cannot be again moved at the same session. Other questions may 
 usually be renewed whenever debating or voting has taken place in such 
 a way as to make the situation different.. That is to say, it is not in 
 order to renew a motion just after it has been lost and before condi- 
 tions have changed. 
 
 Technical Terms 
 
 1. At Large. One is said to be " member at large," or to be elected 
 at large, when he is chosen from among all the members, instead of 
 from any one group, or locality, or on account of his holding any office. 
 
 2. Call of the House. An attempt to find absent members and to 
 compel them to attend. It is used to obtain a quorum, or to get a full 
 vote on a measure before the hoase. 
 
 3. Commit. Same as 7-efer. 
 
 4. Credentials. A written document, signed by at least two officers, 
 stating that the person mentioned has a certain office or authority, as, 
 for example, that he is a duly elected delegate or representative of 
 the society. 
 
 5. Division. A counted vote (see p. 331). 
 
 6. Ex-of&cio. On account of the office; for example, the president 
 of a society may be ex-officio a member of the finance committee. 
 
 7. Majority and Plurality. A candidate is said to have a majority 
 when he has over half the total number of votes cast ; he has a 
 plurality if he has more votes than any other candidate. 
 
 8. Meeting and Session. In ordinary societies these two terms have 
 the same meaning — a gathering of members for the consideration of 
 reports and the transaction of old and new business. In Congress, 
 however, in conventions, and in many other societies, a gathering is 
 often adjourned in the midst of the order of business, and the next
 
 334 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 gathering goes on with the same business just as if a recess had 
 taken place. Each assembly is called a meeting ; while a completed, 
 rounded-out convention or a series of meetings is called a session. 
 Thus a session may last all day, three days, or three months ; while 
 a meeting will hardly last more than three hours, unless perhaps the 
 lunch or supper time is called a recess. If a new meeting hears the 
 minutes, reports, and old business, it is a new session also. 
 
 9. Pending. A motion is said to be pending when it has been 
 moved, seconded, and stated, and has not yet been voted on, post- 
 poned, referred to a committee, or otherwise disposed of. Again, a 
 motion is pending if it has become due after a postponement or is 
 reported on by a committee. A motion is said to be itntnediately 
 pendifig when it is the motion then before the house for vote. 
 
 10. Plurality. See Majority and Plurality, above. 
 
 11. Priority. Same as precedence. A motion is said to have 
 priority over another motion when it can supplant it, that is, when 
 it takes precedence over the other motion. 
 
 12. Pro tem. When an officer is absent, some other person is put 
 in his place temporarily. For example, in the temporary absence of the 
 regular secretary, a member may act as secretary pro tem : he serves 
 " for the time " only. 
 
 13. Proxy. A written statement, -signed by a member, by which he 
 gives his right to vote at a certain meeting to another member. Proxies 
 are usually voted only in the case of very important matters, such as 
 elections and constitutional amendments. 
 
 14. Quorum. Enough members to hold a meeting. Half the mem- 
 bership is the usual rule, although each society may have its own rule. 
 
 15. Session. See Meeting and Session, above. 
 
 16. Sine die. At the end of its session a convention adjourns sine 
 die; that is, it adjourns " without a day" set for meeting again. Ordi- 
 nary societies simply adjourn till the next regular meeting. 
 
 17. Teller. A person appointed by the chairman to distribute the 
 blank ballots and to collect and count them. The chairman must see 
 that the tellers are not actively interested in the election, and that they 
 represent different opinions in the society. Tellers must not electioneer. 
 
 18. Two-thirds Vote. A two-to-one vote; for example, lo to 5, or 
 25 to 1 2. But I 2 to 8 is not a two-thirds vote, because i 2 is not at least 
 two thirds of 20, the total number of votes cast.
 
 SPECIAL FORMS 335 
 
 19. Viva-voce Vote. The vote taken by answering in unison first 
 " aye " and then " no." 
 
 20. Warrant. A document authorizing a person to perform some 
 act. such as a paper allowing him to collect a sum of money from 
 the treasurer of a society. Such a paper is also called an " order on 
 the treasurer." 
 
 Special Forms 
 
 1. Calling for Business. "What is your (further) pleasure?"' "Is 
 there any further business to come before the meeting.?" "Are there 
 any other motions ? " " The house is now open for new business." 
 
 2. Calling for a Second. " Is there a second to the motion? " " Do 
 I hear a second? " " Is the motion seconded? " 
 
 3. Calling for Debate. "Are you ready for the question?" "Is 
 there any debate?" "Is there any discussion?" "Are there any 
 remarks ? " 
 
 4. Taking a Vote. "Those in favor say 'aye.' Those opposed, 
 ' no.' " " Those favoring the motion respond by the usual sign," etc. 
 " As many as are in favor of the motion please signify the same by say- 
 ing ' aye,' " etc. " Those who favor the motion will give their assent by 
 responding ' aye,' " etc. In calling for the vote on every motion, the 
 chairman should always state briefly but exactly just what the question is. 
 
 5. Committee Reports. See page 327. 
 
 6. Communications. These are read under reports of officers, by the 
 secretary ; he reports having received the communications. They should 
 be brief and businesslike, else they may not be read at all, on account of 
 lack of time. If a communication to a society is to contain a statement 
 and a request, see page 102. If it is to contain an announcement, 
 see page 176. Communications may be "placed on file," referred to 
 committees, or agreed to by means of an ordinary main motion. 
 
 7. Critic's Report. See page 325. The following is an actual report 
 of an Oral English class, with initials for the names : 
 
 Critic's Report, Sixth Period Oral English Society, 
 
 May 29, 19 — 
 
 At the beginning of the period a great deal of trouble was caused by 
 the negligence of Mr. K. in not writing his critic's report, but this was 
 soon straightened out by Mr. S., the president.
 
 336 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 Mr. B. was the first to begin the program, and he gave a very interest- 
 ing account of his visit to a gold mine. 
 
 Mr. D.'s talk on the necessity of city ownership of city railways was 
 well given but short. 
 
 Next Mr. F. told us how hay is baled. His account was not very clear, 
 and if he had more nearly faced the class instead of the blackboard, we 
 should have understood him a little better. 
 
 Miss G. gave us some good reasons why girls should take a little manual 
 training, and why boys should know a little about domestic science. 
 
 A joke was given by Mr. H., but no one laughed. 
 
 Mr. J.'s announcement regarding the Marathon race was not very clear, 
 and he did not emphasize the time and place of the race. 
 
 Mr. G. talked about the formation of coal from a college professor's 
 theory. His account was good. 
 
 Mr. M. gave us a few reasons why he thought that girls should be taught 
 fencing, but he was not very enthusiastic in his argument. 
 
 A description of the Sierra Madre Mountains was given us by Mr. K. 
 His description was good, but short. 
 
 Mr. S. and Mr. M. had a small battle of words on the ability of Mr. M. 
 to handle a meeting, but our honorable president quelled the uprising and 
 continued with the meeting. 
 
 I do not think that the recall bill, that was passed at the last meeting, 
 is fair to the members of the class who cannot handle a meeting as well as 
 some others. They will never learn how to conduct a meeting unless they 
 are given a chance. 
 
 Mr. S. conducted the meeting very well. 
 
 (Signed) R B 
 
 Critic 
 
 The critic's report need not be accepted or amended, as it is but the 
 
 opinion of one individual. 
 
 8. Minutes. See page 325. The following is an actual report of a 
 
 secretary of an Oral English class : 
 
 Minutes of the Intermediate Parliamentary Club, 
 
 May 28, 19 — 
 
 The meeting was called to order by Miss A., and Mr. V. was elected 
 chairman. Mr. V. chose Mr. A. for secretary and Miss N. for critic. 
 
 The minutes of May 27 were read and approved ; then the critic gave 
 his report.
 
 SPECIAL FORMS 337 
 
 The chair then called for committee reports. The following reports 
 were given : 
 
 Mr. P., Dangers to school children from reckless drivers. 
 
 Miss I., Having wires put underground. 
 
 Miss M., Having more factories in Los Angeles. 
 
 Mr. B., The school study-hall system. 
 
 Miss K., A proper lighting system. 
 
 Miss W., Student government. 
 
 Miss S., Whether or not Los Angeles should own its own street railways. 
 
 Old business was called for, and the motion was that there should 
 be a sidewalk from the auditorium to the main walk. It was moved and 
 seconded to amend it to read " to the study hall." The amendment was 
 lost. Then it was moved and seconded to lay the matter on the table ; the 
 motion was carried. 
 
 Under new business it was moved and seconded that we have a boys' 
 handball court. It was moved and seconded that the motion be amended 
 to read " a court for the girls and a court for the boys." The amendment 
 was lost. It was moved and seconded that the motion be amended to 
 read " a large gymnasium for the girls." The amendment was carried. The 
 motion, which now read " a large gymnasium for the girls," was voted upon 
 and carried. 
 
 It was moved and seconded that the boys and girls of the school should 
 be allowed to leave the yard at noon. It was moved and seconded that 
 the motion be amended to include the boys and girls of all schools. The 
 amendment was carried. The motion as amended was now voted upon 
 and lost. 
 
 It was moved and seconded that when a pupil is tardy he should make 
 up the exact time that he misses. The motion was voted and carried. 
 
 It was moved and seconded that a big cafeteria be built in the yard. It 
 was moved, seconded, and carried to lay the matter on the table. 
 
 It was moved and seconded that no teacher should be allowed to leave 
 the yard at noon. 
 
 The meeting was adjourned by the chairman at the end of the period. 
 
 (Signed) R. V. A 
 
 Secretary 
 
 After the minutes have been read, the chairman says. "Are there 
 any omissions or corrections?" If none are offered, the chairman de- 
 clares, " The minutes are approved as read." (A motion is not neces- 
 sary, except in very important organizations.) When a correction is
 
 338 PARLIAMENTARY LAW 
 
 proposed, if it seems obviously just and no objection is raised, the 
 chairman says, "The secretary will please make the change." If the 
 propriety of the correction is in doubt, a motion to amend the minutes 
 may be made. This is treated as a main motion. Finally, when the 
 necessary charges are completed, the chairman announces, " The minutes 
 stand approved as corrected." 
 
 The motion " to dispense with the reading of the minutes " in effect 
 suspends the order of business, and should therefore require a two- 
 thirds vote. 
 
 9. Notices. See Communications, and Reconsider, above. 
 
 10. Resolutions. These usually include two parts, the reasons and 
 the conclusions. The following is the common form : 
 
 Resolutions 
 
 Whereas, our friend Mr. W. O. .Smith has been a member of this organ- 
 ization from its beginning, and has served the society in several important 
 offices ; and 
 
 Whereas, Mr. Smith has now signified his intention to withdraw from 
 the society on account of his removal to another city ; 
 
 Now, therefore, be it 
 
 Resolved, that we hereby signify our sincere appreciation of the per- 
 sonal character and high abilities of Mr. Smith, and that we heartily wish 
 him well in his new field of work ; and, be it further 
 
 Resolved, that we recommend Mr. Smith to the fellowship of similar 
 organizations in other cities ; and, be it finally 
 
 Resolved, that these resolutions be spread upon the minutes, and that 
 copies be sent to Mr. Smith and to the press. 
 
 11. Roll Call. The secretary should list the members' names at the 
 left of a page in the front or back of the minute book, ruling columns 
 for the dates. Marks should be made for the absentees. If the rules 
 allow excuses, the secretary must indicate which absences have been 
 excused. Care must be taken to cancel the marks opposite the names 
 of those who come late. 
 
 12. Treasurer's Records. See page 326.
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 
 
 1. AN INTERSCHOOL DEBATE 
 
 THE AGREEMENT 
 
 1. A double or simultaneous contest shall be held, each school 
 upholding the affirmative of the proposition in the debate at its 
 own school and- the negative in the debate at the school of its 
 opponents. 
 
 2. The proposition for debate shall be, " Resolved, that . . ." 
 When the two schools have agreed to have a debate, the school 
 which proposed the contest submits two propositions to the other 
 school. The school receiving the proposition selects one of these 
 for the debate, and notifies the first school within one week from 
 the time the two propositions were received. 
 
 3. The date shall be on . . ., at . . . p.m. In most cases there 
 should be from six to ten weeks allowed for preparation, though 
 debates may often be prepared in much shorter time. 
 
 4. The number of speakers on each side shall be two. 
 
 5. The time allowed each speaker shall be as follows : 
 
 Constructive Speeches 
 
 1. First affirmative lo minutes 
 
 2. P'irst negative 12 minutes 
 
 3. Second affirmative 12 minutes 
 
 4. Second negative 12 minutes 
 
 339
 
 340 APPENDIX I 
 
 Refutation Speeches 
 
 5. First affirmative 6 minutes 
 
 6. First negative 6 minutes 
 
 7. Second affirmative 6 minutes 
 
 8. Second negative 6 minutes 
 
 Final Rebuttal 
 
 9. First affirmative 4 minutes 
 
 If it seems best to have shorter speeches, the opening speech may be 
 six minutes, each of the next three may be eight minutes, the refu- 
 tation speeches each four minutes, and the final speech two minutes. 
 
 6. Judges shall be selected by the principals of the tv^o schools. 
 Each principal may send to the other the names of ten persons 
 who would be acceptable as judges at his own school. The other 
 principal indicates his preferences, and from the returned list the 
 first principal chooses the judges for the debate at his school, and 
 communicates with them. Requests should be sent at least two 
 weeks in advance. In case a person asked cannot serve, another 
 on the list is tried. Judges should be reminded a day or two 
 before the contest. 
 
 Teachers are the best judges for school debates. Lawyers pay 
 too much attention to technicalities. If the judges are men who sel- 
 dom hear girls debate, there may be some unfair favor shown. 
 Ministers may show favor in questions based on moral issues. 
 
 7. Other officers of the debate should be as follows: At each 
 debate the president of the debating society of the home school 
 may be the chairman. Two students, one from each school, may 
 act as timekeepers for the debaters. 
 
 8. Expenses of the judges are met by the school at which they 
 serve. Debaters' expenses are met by themselves, or by the school 
 to which they belong. 
 
 9. The decision in each debate is found by the independent 
 votes of the three judges. (If scoring is desired, see section 2.
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 341 
 
 below.) Judges should be instructed as follows : Favor those who 
 use the extempore style of speaking. Subject matter is to be con- 
 sidered two or three times as important as delivery and diction 
 together. Teamwork should be considered — cooperation in argu- 
 ment between the two speakers, as shown by the division of the 
 points, summaries, absence of overlapping, etc. The award should 
 be made only upon arguments presented and arguments met, and 
 not upon the merits of the proposition as believed by the judges. 
 10. General rules : 
 
 a. No school shall submit a proposition for debate which it has 
 debated with another school within the two previous years. 
 
 b. Undergraduate students, who have not completed the work required 
 for graduation, who are each doing the full amount of work as regular 
 students, and who are each satisfactory at the time of the debate in three 
 fourths of their work, shall be allowed to take part in a debate. Princi- 
 pals shall exchange credentials. 
 
 c. No applause shall be allowed during a speech. 
 
 d. Nothing shall be done or said to the judges, outside the actual 
 debate, which might in any way influence their decision. 
 
 e. No prompting shall be allowed. No signaling of any kind shall 
 be allowed, except the rapping of the timekeepers, of the chairman, or 
 of a colleague. 
 
 f. In case any map, chart, diagram, or other graphic aid is used by any 
 debater, such aid shall be on display only during the time allotted to the 
 school using it, and in such a manner that it is distinctly visible to the 
 opposing team. (By mutual agreement, either or both of these provisions 
 may be waived.) Such map or other aid shall, after the speech in which 
 it is first displayed, pass into the keeping of the chairman during the 
 remainder of the debate, and may be used thereafter by any debater. 
 
 TREPARATION OF THE DEBATERS AT EACH SCHOOL 
 
 1. Announce the contest and appoint a time for the trials. This 
 time should be from seven to fourteen days after the announce- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Post the conditions for the trials :
 
 342 APPENDIX I 
 
 a. Each contestant prepares a speech not to exceed six minutes in 
 length, on either side of the proposition to be used in the debate. 
 
 b. The teacher will prepare from five to ten questions or statements, 
 a copy of which will be handed each speaker six minutes before his 
 speech is to begin. Two of these questions or statements must be 
 answered or refuted by the speaker. 
 
 c. The contestants draw lots for the order of speaking, and each 
 remains outside the room until called to speak. 
 
 d. Three teachers act as judges. They should have before them the 
 topics for refutation, and should watch for the answers. The four best 
 debaters should be selected, regardless of the side taken. If the judges 
 wish it, candidates may be recalled to undergo further tests or questioning. 
 
 e. Places on the two debating teams are assigned by the debating 
 teacher, or may be chosen by the debaters, beginning with the speaker 
 who is awarded first place in the trials. 
 
 3. The four debaters compare notes, prepare briefs, and con- 
 sult with the teacher about briefs, division of points, study, practice, 
 etc. Debaters must expect only criticism and general suggestions 
 from the teachers ; the debate is between students, not teachers. 
 The following policies for teachers are worthy of consideration : 
 Debaters may interview teachers or other persons for opinions and 
 arguments. Teachers may suggest sources, and may give debaters 
 books or other printed matter containing material on the question. 
 Teachers may criticize briefs which have been prepared by students, 
 but such criticism should not involve the teacher's doing work for 
 the student. No teacher, or other person, should write or make an 
 abstract or brief of any argument for a debater. Short written 
 answers to specific questions may be obtained from authorities who 
 are to be quoted in the debate. Teachers may argue with students, 
 and give them oral arguments to refute. Teachers may hear prac- 
 tice speeches, and criticize the work of the debaters. They may 
 work with, but noty^r, the debaters ; no teacher should in any way 
 allow himself to substitute his own activity for that of his students. 
 In order that the debate may be fair, and the issues squarely met. 
 and that all tricks, quibbling, and mere cleverness may be avoided,
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 343 
 
 the teachers in the two schools, in case any doubt arises as the 
 study proceeds, should correspond in regard to the interpretation 
 which should be put upon the proposition. 
 
 IMMEDIATE PREPARATION FOR EACH DEBATE 
 
 1. Advertise the debate, and arrange for handling the audience. 
 
 2. Prepare blanks for the judges. These should contain the 
 statement of the proposition, the names of the speakers and their 
 order, and the necessars^ directions for judging. 
 
 3. Arrange for music after the debate, if desired. 
 
 4. Arrange the room : 
 
 a. Tables and chairs at each side of the stage, for the debaters. 
 
 b. Table and three chairs at back of stage, for chairman and time- 
 keepers. 
 
 c. Stand or small table at front of stage, for speaker. 
 
 d. Water for the debaters ; paper for the timekeepers. 
 
 5. Receive visiting debaters and judges. Pay each judge's 
 expenses ; give the judges their blanks and sheets of blank paper. 
 Have a quiet place ready for visiting debaters if they wish to 
 consult. Introduce all debaters to the judges. Show the judges 
 to their seats. 
 
 THE DEBATE 
 
 1. The chairman announces the proposition, the schools, the 
 sides, the debaters' names, and the judges. He may speak of the 
 debate which is going on at the other school. It is the duty of 
 the chairman to keep the meeting in order, to introduce the 
 speakers, and to aid in enforcing the rules and conditions of the 
 debate. If a debater fails to observe the signal of the timekeepers, 
 the chairman should use the gavel until he stops. I'he chairman 
 announces the decision of the judges. 
 
 2. Any debater or any other person officially connected with 
 either school may " rise to a point of order " if there is a misst£u;;e- 
 m'ent of the proposition or a gross breach of the rules.
 
 344 * APPENDIX I 
 
 3. Timekeepers keep time for every speech. They should keep 
 independent record of the times, and these records should be so 
 clearly labeled and recorded that any person can understand 
 them. To avoid any mistake they should compare notes as the 
 time for a signal approaches. The signals for each team may be 
 given by the timekeeper from that school or by the chairman. In 
 case of disagreement the matter should at once be referred to 
 the chairman for decision. The debaters should be consulted in 
 reference to the kind of signal desired. Generally two taps given 
 two minutes before time is up will serve as a warning, and three 
 or four taps will signal the expiration of the time allotted. The 
 taps should be loud enough so that they cannot possibly be 
 missed. 
 
 4. Judges should each write " Affirmative " or " Negative " on 
 a slip of paper. 
 
 5. A teacher should collect the ballots of the judges, open them 
 with a representative of the other school, and send the result to 
 the chairman. If word has come from the other school, that too 
 should be announced. 
 
 2. DEBATING LEAGUES 
 
 The Advantages to be Gained. The benefit of a debating league 
 is that it offers a regular time and a known method for holding 
 the debates, as well as a goal for consistent effort and an incentive 
 for careful preparation. The league debaters, in the eyes of the 
 students interested in debating, will stand at the top of the ladder, 
 and if they are patriotic, will help many others to climb upward. 
 
 The championship incentive may be made a helpful one, though 
 no doubt its importance will dwindle as our debating comes to 
 have a better basis. If the winning school must be found, how- 
 ever, scoring becomes necessary, and winners must be matched 
 with winners. The plans outlined below will serve for these pur- 
 poses, although other schemes are treated in section 4, below.
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 345 
 
 Organization and Features of a League. Anybody may send out 
 letters calling a meeting of representatives of schools or societies 
 interested in forming a league. Each school may have one teacher 
 and one student representative. A meeting may be held soon 
 after school begins, to arrange the first series of debates, and 
 other meetings may be held just after each series, and an annual 
 meeting a few weeks before the close of the year. Three series 
 each year are recommended. The by-laws should provide for annual 
 dues, duties of officers, and auditing, and may deal with a method 
 of securing a post-card vote, a plan for paying transportation of 
 delegates, and other details of policy. The rules of debate may 
 or may not be a part of the by-laws ; they should deal with the 
 plans for arranging and conducting the debates. 
 
 Below are given some further suggestions for league regula- 
 tions : Schools matched may draw lots to determine which school 
 is to submit propositions. These propositions should be submitted 
 within one week from the meeting at which the schools are paired. 
 Schools which are very small may be permitted to use the debaters 
 of the first series in the second contests ; medium-sized schools 
 may be allowed to use only two of the four debaters ; while large 
 schools should use no debaters of the first debates in the second 
 series. (The figures for this rule may be taken as follows : small, 
 less than 500 ; medium, 500 to 1000 ; large, over 1000.) In case 
 the number of schools in the league is an odd number, the last 
 three schools may conduct a triangular debate. The rules should 
 provide for hearing and acting on protests. Half the proceeds of 
 each of the debates of the championship contest should go to the 
 league treasury. If it is feasible, a pamphlet should be printed each 
 fall, giving the constitution, by-laws, rules, names of schools belong- 
 ing, names of delegates and officers, and a report of the league's 
 activities and the standing of the schools for the previous year. 
 
 Scoring. Let us suppose that we have a debating league of 
 eleven schools, and that these schools are matched in pairs for
 
 346 APPENDIX I 
 
 simultaneous debates, except that three of them will hold a tri- 
 angular debate in order that all the schools may be included. 
 
 The debate at each school is complete in itself, without refer- 
 ence to the debate at any other school. Each of the three judges 
 marks each debater, considering all his speeches throughout the 
 debate, on a basis of loo per cent — 75 per cent for argument, and 
 25 per cent for delivery and diction. Each judge then adds the 
 marks of the two debaters on each side, and divides between the 
 two sides a total of five points for teamwork, making any division 
 of the points he thinks best; as, for example, four points to one 
 side and one point to the other. He then adds these points to the 
 previously obtained sums, and the resulting figures stand as the 
 final marks of that judge for the two schools. He may finally sub- 
 tract the smaller score from the larger, and fill in a blank stating : 
 
 " The debate is awarded to the side, by a difference of 
 
 points." 
 
 Teachers, acting as tellers, should collect the reports of the 
 judges and send the result (the number of decisions for each side) 
 to the chairman of the meeting to be announced. 
 
 Various methods of determining the standing of schools in a 
 league are discussed in section 4, below. The plan here proposed is 
 based on the number of judges who award the debate to each school. 
 Let us tabulate a possible outcome of a debating series, based on 
 eleven debates, one at each school, all occurring at the same time. 
 
 In the tabulation opposite the scores are obtained as follows : 
 School A won the decisions of four judges in all, winning one 
 debate. We shall therefore credit School A with the number of 
 judges' decisions won in its two debates, plus the number of 
 debates won. Its score is therefore five points. School B has 
 two judges and one debate ; its score is therefore three points. 
 School C has four judges and two debates ; therefore its score is 
 six points. The other scores are easily determined. The purpose of 
 arbitrarily adding one point for each debate won is to avoid unfair
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 347 
 
 tie scores ; for example, schools A and C would be tied in the 
 number of judges, but C has won two debates to but one by A. 
 
 In case any judge calls a debate a tie, half a point should go to 
 each school. If the points for judges' decisions in any debate are tied 
 (i^ for each school), the one point for winning the debate should 
 likewise be divided, making the score two points for either school. 
 
 In case a debate is defaulted, the school defaulting receives no 
 points, the other school eight points. 
 
 A PLAN FOR SCORING 
 Number of Judges' Decisions won by Each School 
 
 At School A — A, 3 
 
 udges. 
 
 At School B — B, 2 judges. 
 
 B, 0; 
 
 udges. 
 
 A, I judge. 
 
 At School C— C, 2 
 
 udges. 
 
 At School D — D, I judge. 
 
 D, I. 
 
 udge. 
 
 C, 2 judges. 
 
 At School E E, 2 j 
 
 udges. 
 
 At School F — F, li judges. 
 
 F, I J 
 
 udge. 
 
 E, 4 judges. 
 
 At School G — G, 3 
 
 udges. 
 
 At School H — H, I judge. 
 
 H, judges. 
 
 G, 2 judges. 
 
 At I — I, 3 judges. At J - 
 
 — J, judges. At K — K, judges 
 
 J, judges. 
 
 K, 3 judges. I, 3 judges. 
 
 Scores 
 
 Standing 
 
 School A — 5 points. 
 
 I. School I — 8 points. 
 
 School B — 3 points. 
 
 2. School G — 7 points. 
 
 School C — 6 points. 
 
 3. School C — 6 points. 
 
 School D — 2 points. 
 
 f School A — 5 points. 
 \ School E — 5 points. 
 
 School E — 5 points. 
 
 School F — 3 points. 
 
 6. School K — 4 points. 
 
 School G — 7 points. 
 
 ^ J School F — 3 points. 
 \ School _B — 3 points. 
 
 School H — I point. 
 
 School I — 8 points. 
 
 9. School D — 2 points. 
 
 School J — points. 
 
 10. School H — I point. 
 
 School K — 4 pc 
 
 )ints. 
 
 1 1 . School J — points.
 
 348 APPENDIX I 
 
 The purpose of asking each judge to use per cents in his rating 
 of the speakers is that this method gives a better basis for detailed 
 comparison of the four debaters. The judges are likely to do more 
 careful work than if they are required merely to write the name of 
 the winning side on a slip of paper. Furthermore, in case of a tie 
 score, it is a satisfaction to examine the reports to ascertain the 
 margins by which the different judges decided. But the fact that 
 one judge awards the debate by a difference of twenty-five points 
 while another sets the difference at five has little significance, and 
 should not be used in determining the official standings. It is 
 almost useless to compare the scores of two judges, because of the 
 fact that there is no lower standard from which to proceed. It is 
 impossible to say what kind of speech is worth o per cent, lo per 
 cent, or 50 per cent. (It is difficult enough to estimate what is 
 worth 100 per cent!) As a consequence of this difficulty, one 
 judge will separate the best and the worst speakers by forty 
 points, and another by ten. 
 
 Matching the Schools. The schools in the league may be 
 matched by lot for the first series of debates each year. For 
 the second series those schools which have the nearest scores 
 are matched, beginning with the highest two. In the case of the 
 eleven schools ranked above, schools A and E will draw lots, one 
 of them debating with C and the other with K ; and schools D, H, 
 and J may hold a triangular contest. Matching for a third series 
 is accomplished by a similar plan, the scores of the year to date 
 being added. If a championship debate is held, the highest two 
 (or three) schools should be the contestants. 
 
 3. DEBATING WITHIN THE SCHOOL 
 
 A School Debating Society. Every school should have a debating 
 society. It can become a great help in making students realize the 
 importance and value of debating, and its members can constantly 
 be on the lookout for new students to join the club. If it seems
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 349 
 
 best, active membership may be secured by participation in liie 
 debating activities of the school. The society may vote on propo- 
 sitions to be submitted or to be accepted, select the judges for the 
 trials, select the student delegate to the debating league, appoint 
 committees of arrangement and of entertainment for the debates, 
 hold social meetings, and act in such other matters as shall be 
 acceptable to the teacher of debating. Its president acts as chair- 
 man at the debates at the home school. He appoints the time- 
 keepers, one to act at each school. The secretary may help with 
 the correspondence. 
 
 Unless the w^ork of the school furnishes enough debating activity 
 for all the members of the society, debates should be arranged to 
 give the members training and development. For this purpose a 
 committee may be given power to arrange so that every member 
 shall take part in at least one debate each semester. 
 
 An Interclass Tournament. An interclass series of debates may 
 be held during a short space of time if all the debates are on the 
 same proposition. The proposition should be carefully selected ; 
 it should be one of great interest, and if possible, one of large 
 meaning, so that the hearers of the last debate will still be inter- 
 ested in the subject. 
 
 The first duty is to select four representatives from each class. 
 Let us suppose that all four classes are to compete. Trials may 
 be held for each year separately. In arranging the dates, the 
 lower classes may be given the benefit of coming last, so that they 
 may hear the talks of the upper-class students. There is no need 
 of excluding from the room where a trial is being held any except 
 those students who are yet to speak at that particular meeting. 
 
 Let us consider a hypothetical arrangement for the trials. Sup- 
 pose the tournament and the proposition are announced on Mon- 
 day, October i. The senior speeches may be set for Monday, 
 October 8, after school. Each senior student who wishes to try 
 may prepare a four-minute talk on either side of the question.
 
 350 APPENDIX I 
 
 Refutation statements may be required, as suggested earlier. The 
 junior trial may be held on the next day, Tuesday, the 9th, that 
 for the sophomores on Wednesday, and that for the freshmen on 
 Thursday. Sides are arranged as explained in connection with the 
 interschool debate. 
 
 The first debate may be held on or about Monday, October 29, 
 between the senior affirmative team and the junior negative. Se- 
 lection of judges is to be made by the debaters ; the scoring should 
 be done as directed above under the heading, Scoring; and the 
 time limit for the speeches should be determined by the average 
 ability of the school's speakers and the amount of time available. 
 On Tuesday, the 30th, may be held the debate between the junior 
 affirmative team and the senior negative. On Thursday, the 31st, 
 the sophomore affirmative team meets the freshman negative ; and 
 on Friday, November i, the freshman affirmative team meets the 
 sophomore negative. 
 
 The four preliminary debates have now been provided for, and 
 the addition of the scores will show that one of the two lower 
 classes has won over the other, and that one of the upper classes 
 has likewise won over the opposing class. Tet us say that the fresh- 
 man and junior years are the winners. Next, then, two final debates 
 must be held. On Tuesday, November 5, the junior affirmative 
 team may debate the freshman negative ; and on Thursday, the 
 7th, the freshman affirmative team may meet the junior negative. 
 Perhaps these final debates may be held before the whole school, 
 or before the interested classes. The winning class may hold an 
 exhibition debate, its affirmative team against its negative team. 
 
 If there are three, five, six, or eight classes entered in the tour- 
 nament, instead of four, it will be necessary merely to eliminate 
 one class after another to find the best class. 
 
 If the losing teams will only continue their interest, they can 
 hold some excellent debates against other classes, or among them- 
 selves, and so obtain a large amount of practice.
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 351 
 
 A Class in Debating. A school which hopes to develop good 
 debaters should have a class in argumentation meeting three, four, 
 or five times a week, for at least a semester. Almost any school 
 will organize such a class if enough students ask for it. 
 
 During half or two thirds of the course, three days a week (per- 
 haps Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays) should be devoted to 
 study, recitations, and explanations on the principles of argument 
 and debating, and to exercises on particular phases of the subject. 
 During the latter part of the term these three days may be used in 
 practicing and delivering arguments and in holding debates. 
 
 On Fridays the class may hold a debate on a proposition previ- 
 ously selected. The class may divide into two sides, and the debate 
 may be conducted according to the plan proposed on page 270. 
 If any students find difficulty in deciding which side of the proposi- 
 tion to uphold, let them hear the first few talks on the subject be- 
 fore deciding. If it seems desirable, the students on each side may 
 choose a leader to determine the order of speaking. The teacher 
 may act as chairman, and may note down on slips of paper 
 suggestions for improvement to give to individual students. The 
 teacher may leave till Mondays his general criticisms of the debates. 
 
 Mondays may be used in holding informal discussions on topics 
 of current interest. The subject should be known at least a few 
 days ahead, and everybody should come prepared to speak on it. 
 
 If a second semester of argumentation is given, the principles 
 of argumentation may be reviewed in the light of experience 
 gained, and formal discussions and debates may be held. 
 
 4. OTHER PLANS FOR DEBATING 
 
 Following the order of topics used above, we shall now consider 
 some variations in the arranging and conducting of debates. 
 
 Triangular Debate, 'i'hree schools, instead of two, may hold 
 simultaneous debates. Each school keeps its affirmative team at 
 home. School A sends its negative team to School B ; School B's
 
 352 APPENDIX I 
 
 goes to School C ; and School C's goes to School A. The direc- 
 tion of traveling of the negative teams, unless there is a different 
 agreement, may be from left to right. 
 
 The proposition may be selected at a conference of representa- 
 tives of the three schools. If such a conference is impracticable, 
 either of two other plans may be used. Schools A and B may 
 each send a proposition to School C, and School C may select 
 one of them, and notify the other tv^^o schools. Or each of the 
 three schools may mail to the other two schools two propositions ; 
 and each school, using the six different propositions so collected, 
 may vote its first, second, and third preferences, and send this 
 vote to the other schools. Counting five points for a first choice 
 by any school, three points for a second choice, and one point for 
 a third choice, the proposition receiving the highest score is chosen 
 for the triangular debate. 
 
 All other arrangements may be the same as those outlined 
 above for a double debate. 
 
 Single Debate. The proposition for a single debate must be 
 selected by one school and the sides chosen by the other. The 
 proposition must be so evenly balanced that neither school will be 
 at a disadvantage. This is difficult in view of the fact that events 
 may happen to upset the balance. Arrangements, scoring, etc. 
 may be the same as for a simultaneous debate. 
 
 Sides chosen before the Audience. The two schools concerned 
 may agree on the proposition, and all debaters prepare to speak 
 on either side of the question. Ten minutes before the debate 
 is to begin (this time may be longer if desired), lots are drawn to 
 determine the sides. This plan may be used for a simultaneous 
 debate, by having the drawing at one of the schools and telephon- 
 ing the result to the other, at which the debate is conducted with 
 the sides of the two schools reversed. 
 
 Proposition selected shortly before the Debate. The general 
 topic of the debate, such as Mexico, Tariff, Poverty, etc., is
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 353 
 
 selected from sLx to ten weeks before the time of the debate. 
 Some person connected with neither school is asked to formulate 
 a proposition, and to send it in one, two, or three sealed enve- 
 lopes, according as the debate is single, double, or triangular. The 
 envelope is opened at each school at the agreed time, all debaters 
 having the same amount of time to prepare outlines and otherwise 
 make ready for the debate. The sides may be drawn, or the home 
 teams may take the affirmative if the debate is simultaneous. 
 
 Three Speakers on Each Side. The strongest debater of a three- 
 man team should come first on the affirmative side, and the next 
 best last. The best negative should be last, and the next best first. 
 If each debater appears twice, the plan may be as follows. The 
 first six speeches are limited to ten minutes each. After the third 
 negative speech in the first round of speeches, the rebuttal speeches 
 begin with the first negative, followed by the second affirmative 
 speaker, then the others in this order — second negative, third 
 affirmative, third negative, first affirmative. This arrangement 
 brings two negative speeches together, but it brings the affirm- 
 ative side last, and it cuts down the whole number of speeches 
 from thirteen to twelve. The rebuttal speeches may be limited 
 to five minutes each. 
 
 No Special Rebuttal Speeches. The first speaker may be given 
 fifteen minutes, each of the others eighteen, and the first affirmative 
 five minutes for rebuttal. 
 
 Time Division Optional. Each speaker may be allowed a total 
 of eighteen minutes for his two speeches. Not more than ten 
 minutes should be allowed for the rebuttal speech. Regardless 
 of the time used in the first two speeches, the first affirmative 
 should be allowed four minutes for final rebuttal. 
 
 No Decision. The interesting debates held in classes, in which 
 no decisions are rendered, show that judges are not a necessary 
 part of the equipment of a debate. The best of debates can be 
 held without any decision, the debate being over when the debaters
 
 354 APPENDIX I 
 
 have finished. If it is desired, persons in the audience may be 
 allowed to speak on the question after the debate is over, or to 
 ask questions of the debaters. 
 
 Trials to select Debaters. Ability to think quickly and to adapt 
 the argument to the exigencies of the occasion may be developed 
 by requiring the candidates for the debate to study a general 
 topic, and by giving them a definite proposition just before their 
 speeches. This proposition should be closely related to the propo- 
 sition for the debate. Each speaker should be allowed to choose 
 either the affirmative or the negative side. Another method is 
 to put the candidates into actual contests on the subject for the 
 debate. In groups of four, they may be required to carry out 
 complete debates, with the speeches half as long as they are to 
 be in the interschool debate. 
 
 Other Methods of Scoring. Some leagues allow 60 per cent for 
 argument, and 40 per cent for delivery and diction ; others make 
 the division 90 per cent and 10 per cent. Even if judges are told 
 to mark on argument entirely, fluent speaking would make the 
 argument seem better. It is difficult to separate the matter from 
 the style. Perhaps the only good way is for each judge to take 
 notes on the argument of each side, and to compare these notes 
 before making his decision. 
 
 The following is a different method for tallying the judges' reports. 
 Beginning with the method of scoring explained above, follow that plan 
 through the rule where each judge adds the points for teamwork and 
 thus obtains the final marks for the affirmative and for the negative. 
 Let the teller take each report in this form. He then compares the 
 four marks given the individual speakers, and adds enough points to 
 the highest of these marks to make the record of that debater read 
 100 per cent. The marks of the other three debaters are then raised 
 by the same amount. (This raises the marks given by the three judges 
 to a common standard.) The teller next adds these revised marks on 
 each judge's report for the affirmative and for the negative, and adds 
 the credits for teamwork as indicated by the judge. Next these scores 
 given by the three judges are added together for the affirmative and
 
 ARRANGING AND CONDUCTING DEBATES 355 
 
 for the negative. Each score is now divided by three, to obtain the 
 average. This may stand as the final score of the debate. In case the 
 marks of one judge outweigh those of the other two, enough points 
 should be added to the score of the side winning the decision of two 
 judges to cause that side to win by one point. 
 
 Sometimes ten points are added to the side winning the decision 
 of two judges ; this insures matching of winning teams for the next 
 series of debates. In case of defaults the scores may be awarded by 
 a system of averages. Some leagues disregard the report of a judge 
 whose marks outweigh those of the other two judges, and make up 
 the final scores from the reports of the two " good " judges. 
 
 The Debating League of California .has a plan of scoring which 
 avoids marking individual debaters. The judges are each instructed 
 to distribute between the two teams sixty points on argument, twenty 
 points on delivery, ten points on teamwork, and ten points on composi- 
 tion. The tellers add together the points given to the affirmative and 
 negative respectively, and divide by three. A judge's report which 
 outbalances the other two reports is thrown out. Five points are added 
 to the score of the winning team. 
 
 In all the cases considered above the standings of the two 
 schools for both of the simultaneous debates are obtained by 
 adding the scores of the two teams belonging to each school. 
 
 Selecting Judges by Lot. The league members from each 
 school may bring to the meeting before a debating series the 
 names of five persons who are willing to serve as judges. All 
 the names are put on slips and drawn by lot, five names by each 
 school. If a school draws a name it proposed, that name is put 
 back, as are those of persons who for any reason are not satis- 
 factory to either of the two schools concerned. Objection may be 
 raised on the ground of residence near one school, or of connec- 
 tion with one of the schools in a way which might influence the 
 judge. The first three persons whose names are so drawn and 
 approved shall be asked to serve as judges at the school by which 
 the names are drawn, and the other two shall be asked in case 
 of refusals.
 
 356 APPENDIX I 
 
 The Same Resolution for all the Schools. A system of prefer- 
 ential voting, as explained above under Triangular Debate, may 
 be used to select a proposition for all the schools of the league. 
 
 The Same Proposition for Successive Debates. If a league is 
 composed of several schools situated near each other, a tourna- 
 ment may be held on the same question. Simultaneous debates 
 in eight schools, for example, may be held on one Friday ; on 
 the following Friday the four winning schools may hold debates ; 
 and on the third Friday final simultaneous debates may be held. 
 The matching may be made by lot, and the propositions selected 
 by preferential vote. 
 
 Individual Competitions. A debate is sometimes held for the 
 sole purpose of finding the best speaker. The places may be 
 assigned by lot. Each speaker should appear twice. Each judge 
 should mark his first, second, and third choices, and the five-, 
 three-, and one-point system may be used. 
 
 No Special Help by Teachers. The Debating League of Cali- 
 fornia has a plan by which all the propositions to be used in each 
 series of debates are selected some time ahead, and from this list 
 a committee assigns the resolutions by lot to the various pairs of 
 schools. This assignment is made not more than six weeks before 
 the date of the series. The principals exchange the following 
 statement : " After the schools were paired the contestants re- 
 ceived no assistance in organization, correction of manuscript, or 
 rehearsal from any paid coach, the faculty, or any member thereof." 
 It is understood that this statement is not to prevent the holding 
 of a practice debate not more than five days prior to the contest 
 in the presence of the students and faculty of their own school, 
 on which debate public criticism may be offered.
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 
 
 Many of the resolutions in this list will be found suitable for 
 debate at almost any time and place. Many others will need 
 rewording. A few will soon be out of date ; a few others are 
 ahead of their time. Some are debatable propositions in one 
 section of the country, but are one-sided in other sections. The 
 " Recall of Judges," as a debatable question, traveled from West 
 to East ; it is now hardly debatable in the West, and may before 
 long cease to be debatable anywhere. 
 
 Some such propositions as the building of a new schoolhouse 
 and public purchase of street-car lines may seem to be easier for 
 the affirmative than for the negative until it is seen that the 
 financial argument favors the negative. 
 
 Almost any topic may be narrowed if desired ; for example, 
 " The private ownership of the street-car lines is detrimental to 
 the interests of the people of this city." 
 
 To test whether or not any given proposition is really debatable, 
 try to find the issues involved in the proposition and see if they 
 are evenly balanced. 
 
 The propositions are divided into the following groups : 
 A. Educational; B. National affairs; C. Local interests; D. Civics, 
 economics, and sociology ; E. Science; F. Athletics; G. Humorous; 
 H. Miscellaneous. 
 
 A. EDUCATIONAL 
 
 1. Algebra should be taught in the grammar school. 
 
 2. English grammar should be required in the high school. 
 
 3. Arithmetic should be required of all high-school pupils. 
 
 357
 
 358 APPENDIX II 
 
 4. Studies in secondary schools should be completely elective. 
 
 5. The principles and progress of international brotherhood should 
 be taught in all schools. 
 
 6. Esperanto should be taught in the public schools. 
 
 7. Public schools should teach trades. 
 
 8. Economics should be taught in the high schools. 
 
 9. Lessons in the fundamental principles of economics should be 
 given in the grammar school. 
 
 10. The vaccination of pupils in the public schools should be 
 compulsory. 
 
 11. The honor system of conducting examinations is practicable 
 only in small schools. 
 
 12. The training of American boys in military tactics is against the 
 best interests of the nation. 
 
 13. Self-government in school is a success. 
 
 14. Coeducation in the ■ grades should be abolished. 
 
 15. The giving of prizes for scholarship promotes the best interests 
 of the students. 
 
 16. Home study should be required of pupils in the grade. 
 
 17. A college education is of greater advantage to a business man 
 than the same amount of time spent in business experience. 
 
 18. A state university should be established in this part of the state. 
 
 19. The commercial course of school should be four years in 
 
 length. 
 
 20. school should have a swimming tank. 
 
 21. school should have a printing press. 
 
 22. Printing should be taught in the high schools. 
 
 23. Tennis courts should be provided by the Board of Education. 
 
 24. Athletic materials should be paid for by pupils using them. 
 
 25. High-school pupils should be furnished with free textbooks. 
 . 26. Lunch rooms should be provided for schools. 
 
 27. Athletics are beneficial to a school's scholarship. 
 
 28. The Boy Scout movement should be managed by the schools. 
 
 29. Physiology, with special attention to the effects of intoxicants 
 and narcotics on the system, should be taught in all the schools. 
 
 30. Military drill should be a part of every high-school course. 
 
 31. School savings banks should be established. 
 
 32. Dances on school premises should be prohibited.
 
 PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 359 
 
 33. A broad course of study in the high school is preferable to 
 vocational training. 
 
 34. Colleges should offer courses to fit men and women for public 
 positions. 
 
 35. Vacation schools should be established. 
 
 36. Gymnasium work should be required of all students. 
 
 37. This school should have a band. 
 
 38. French [German, Italian, Spanish] is the most useful foreign 
 language. 
 
 39. The study of Greek in the high school should be discontinued. 
 
 40. Student self-government is a better means by which to prepare 
 pupils for citizenship than are the studies of history and civics. 
 
 41. Shakespeare's " Merchant of Venice " condemns the Christians 
 more than it does the Jews. 
 
 42. Pupils who steal in school should be dealt with by the citj 
 authorities. 
 
 43. Final examinations should be abolished. 
 
 44. Music lessons are as important as school studies. 
 
 45. The study of algebra is a waste of time for most girls. 
 
 46. A training in blind obedience is beneficial. 
 
 47. Schoolhouses in the city of should be built of fireproof 
 
 materials. 
 
 48. Secret societies in high schools should be prohibited. 
 
 49. Small high schools are preferable to large schools. 
 
 50. Small colleges are preferable to large colleges. 
 
 51. The work of students on the school paper should count toward 
 their graduation. 
 
 52. The lists of the Simplified Spelling Board should be generally 
 adopted in the United States. 
 
 63. Married women should be allowed to teach in the public schools. 
 
 54. Secret societies in the high school should be regulated rather, 
 than prohibited. 
 
 55. One large building for a high school is preferable to several 
 smaller ones. 
 
 56. Jim Hawkins, in " Treasure Island," was foolhardy rather than 
 brave. 
 
 (Write propositions based on other books.)
 
 36o APPENDIX II 
 
 B. NATIONAL AFFAIRS 
 
 1. The United States is justified in excluding Chinese laborers. 
 
 2. The United States government should own and operate all rail- 
 roads doing an interstate business. 
 
 3. The United States government should own the telegraph lines 
 within its boundaries. 
 
 4. The United States should gradually abandon the protective tariff. 
 
 5. Trade between the United States and Canada should be free. 
 
 6. Raw materials should be on the free list. 
 
 7. Sugar imported into the United States should be on the free list. 
 
 8. A high protective tariff helps to keep wages high. 
 
 9. The Philippine Islands should be given their independence within 
 ten years. 
 
 10. Postage on letters should be reduced to one cent. 
 
 11. The president should be elected for a term of six years, and 
 should not be eligible for reelection. 
 
 12. The national government should force the Southern states to 
 allow the negro to vote. 
 
 13. Woman suffrage should be adopted by an amendment to the 
 federal constitution. 
 
 14. The president should be elected by direct popular vote. 
 
 15. The judges of the Supreme Court should be subject to the recall. 
 
 16. To own territory in the tropics is disadvantageous to the United 
 States. 
 
 17. The system of pensions fostered by the Republican party is wise 
 and just. 
 
 18. The Democratic party is more worthy of support than the 
 Republican party. 
 
 19. The interests of laboring classes require their allegiance to one 
 national party. 
 
 20. The present policy of the government toward the American 
 Indians is justifiable. 
 
 21 . The old battleships should be used for fortifications. 
 
 22. The Pacific coast should be better protected against attack. 
 
 23. The Panama Canal should be more strongly fortified. 
 
 24. It is for the best interests of the United States to maintain a 
 large navy [army].
 
 PROPOSITIONS "^FOR DEBATE 361 
 
 25. The United States should maintain fewer navy yards than at 
 the present time. 
 
 26. The Progressives were justified in forming a new political party. 
 
 27. An easier method of amending the United States Constitution 
 should be adopted. 
 
 28. Cuba should be annexed to the United States. 
 
 29. The United States should establish an old-age pension system. 
 
 30. The white citizens of the Southern states are justified in passing 
 laws to maintain control of state governments. 
 
 31. Corporations should not be allowed to contribute to campaign 
 funds. 
 
 32. The United States acted with justice in acquiring the canal zone. 
 
 C. LOCAL INTERESTS 
 
 1. The city should erect a new library building [city hall, fire house, 
 schoolhouse, public baths, bridge, jail, power plant]. 
 
 2. The land at the comer of and streets should be used 
 
 for a new playground [park]. 
 
 3. The city should have a union station. 
 
 4. The river should be improved by . 
 
 5. The railway should be compelled to erect a new 
 
 station. 
 
 6. The railway should be compelled to pave its right of way. 
 
 7. Theaters in the city should be closed on Sunday. 
 
 8. Billboards should be abolished. 
 
 9. The city speed limit should be fixed at ten [fifteen] miles an hour. 
 
 10. No automobiles should be allowed to stand on the main streets 
 (name them) more than half an hour at a time. 
 
 11. Vehicles should be required to pass the center of the cross street 
 before making a turn to the left. 
 
 12. Owners of vacant lots should be required to keep them clear 
 of weeds. 
 
 13. The height of buildings for this city should be fixed at 200 feet. 
 
 14. Five-cent theaters should be closed. 
 
 15. Saloons should be closed on Sundays. 
 
 16. City firemen should not be on duty more than twelve hours per 
 day. 
 
 17. City employees should have a weekly half-holiday.
 
 362 APPENDIX II 
 
 18. Bonds for city improvements should be written in small denomi- 
 nations and sold directly to the public. 
 
 19. The city streets should be sprinkled every other day. 
 
 20. Smoking on street cars should be prohibited. 
 
 21. All trolley wires should be put underground. 
 
 22. Laws should be made to suppress unnecessary noises. 
 
 23. This city should provide better fire protection. (For example?) 
 
 24. Garbage should be collected more often. (How often ?) 
 
 25. Laws should be passed to abate the smoke nuisance. 
 
 26. Citizens should not be allowed to keep pigs inside the city limits. 
 
 27. Laws restricting the keeping of chickens [horses, cows, pigeons, 
 dogs, etc.] should be passed. 
 
 28. No billiard halls should be allowed in this city. 
 
 29. The number of policemen should be increased. (By how many ?) 
 
 30. Slaughterhouses should not be allowed inside the city limits. 
 
 31. All brickyards should be removed from the city. 
 
 32. Buildings should be forced to provide more fire escapes than 
 are at present required. 
 
 33. street should be paved. 
 
 34. Improving streets by means of oil and rock is the best method. 
 
 35. The city should adopt motor-driven fire apparatus. 
 
 36. The electricity [gas, water] generated by the city's plant should 
 be sold to surrounding towns. 
 
 37. The present rate for electricity [gas, water, street-car fare] should 
 be lowered. 
 
 38. Bonds should be voted by the state for the construction of an 
 extensive system of good roads. 
 
 39. The city should annex the town of . 
 
 40. Baseball should be prohibited [allowed] on Sunday in the play- 
 grounds of the city. 
 
 41. The Board of Education should have offices in the city hall. 
 
 42. The city should build and maintain a public swimming place 
 [theater, dance hall]. 
 
 43. The city should maintain public markets [ice plant, laundry]. 
 
 44. The city should buy out the gas [water, electric, street-railway] 
 company. 
 
 45. The city should own and operate a municipal ferry [docks, 
 warehouses].
 
 PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 363 
 
 46. The city should build a paved boulevard along the harbor [river, 
 lake] front. 
 
 47. The city should build a subway [elevated railway]. 
 
 48. A canal should be built from the river [lake, harbor] to 
 street. 
 
 49. The pay-as-you-leave street cars should be adopted. 
 
 50. The street-car companies should be required to give every 
 passenger a seat. 
 
 51. Street-car fares should be reduced to three cents [three cents for 
 those required to stand]. 
 
 52. Street-car companies should not be allowed to have the terminus 
 of any route in the business district. 
 
 53. More cars should be placed on the line. 
 
 54. The street-railway company should extend the time [age] limit 
 on all car books for students. 
 
 55. A cross-town street-car line should be built. 
 
 56. The city should receive a percentage of the profits of the street- 
 railway [gas, water, electric, etc.] company. 
 
 57. A curfew ordinance should be passed. 
 
 58. The city should build and rent model tenements. 
 
 59. Boxing contests should be prohibited. 
 
 60. All franchises for public utilities should be limited to 21 years. 
 
 61. The indeterminate franchise plan should be adopted by the city. 
 
 62. This city should be fortified. 
 
 63. The street-car fare to should be reduced. 
 
 64. The rotary system of street traffic should be adopted at the 
 corner of . 
 
 65. The city should establish a municipal newspaper. 
 
 66. Jitney lines are a benefit to the city. 
 
 D. CIVICS, ECONOMICS, SOCIOLOGY 
 
 1. Labor organizations promote the best interests of the workingman. 
 
 2. Labor organizations are a menace to industrial peace. 
 
 3. Government employees should be allowed to organize and strike. 
 
 4. Strikes are a benefit to the workingman. 
 
 5. A state board should be created to arbitrate labor disputes. 
 
 6. The city government should provide work for the unemployed.
 
 364 APPENDIX II 
 
 7. The English system of government is more democratic than the 
 American system. 
 
 8. Postmasters should be elected by the people. 
 
 9. A small property qualification for the exercise of suffrage would 
 be desirable. 
 
 10. States should provide a penalty for persons who continually fail 
 to vote. 
 
 11. Organized labor should take no part in politics. 
 
 12. Capital punishment should be abolished in this state. 
 
 13. The open shop is more desirable than the closed shop. 
 
 14. The poll tax should be abolished. 
 
 15. The right of suffrage should be granted only after an educational 
 test. 
 
 16. The federal government should regulate marriage and divorce. 
 
 17. Organized labor should form a political party for municipal 
 elections. 
 
 18. Nomination by petition has been a success in state [city] elections. 
 
 19. Provision should be made for voting by mail. 
 
 20. All lobbyists at the state legislature should be required to regis- 
 ter their purpose and source of support. 
 
 21. Socialism offers the only practicable solution of our economic 
 difficulties. 
 
 22. Newspapers should not be allowed to print details of crime. 
 
 23. A representative should vote as his conscience dictates, rather 
 than as his constituents desire. 
 
 24. The commission form of government is adapted to the needs 
 of the smaller American cities. 
 
 25. War has caused more harm to the world than drink. • 
 
 26. High license is preferable to prohibition as a means of control- 
 ling the liquor traffic. 
 
 27. The eight-hour working day should be adopted throughout the 
 United States. 
 
 28. The principle of excess condemnation should be adopted by the 
 state. 
 
 29. Proportional representation should be adopted by American cities. 
 
 30. Preferential voting is better than the double-election system. 
 
 31. A higher rate of taxation should be put on land than on other 
 property.
 
 PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 365 
 
 32. Church property should be exempt from taxation. 
 
 33. The amount of property that may be inherited should be limited 
 by law. 
 
 34. Pensions for mothers should be adopted by the state legislature. 
 
 35. Drink is the cause of poverty. 
 
 36. Poverty is the cause of drink. 
 
 37. The fundamental interests of capital and of labor are the same. 
 
 38. The publicity of the juvenile court destroys its good effect. 
 
 39. The city-manager plan is preferable to the commission form of 
 government. 
 
 40. The purpose of prisons is best served by making the inmates 
 comfortable rather than uncomfortable. 
 
 41. This city should have the right to use vacant lots for the pur- 
 pose of giving work to the unemployed. 
 
 42. The laboring class would gain more by united industrial action 
 than by united political action. 
 
 43. The organization known as the Industrial Workers of the World 
 is a benefit to American workingmen. 
 
 44. The right to vote is of more value to the American workingman 
 
 than the right to strike. 
 
 E. SCIENCE 
 
 1. Polar expeditions are a useless waste of lives and money. 
 
 2. The United States government should adopt the metric system. 
 
 3. The use of tobacco by minors should be prohibited by law. 
 
 4. The government is justified in restricting amateur wireless 
 operators. 
 
 5. The dirigible is more practicable than the aeroplane. 
 
 6. All cities should be required to dispose of their sewage within 
 their own city limits. 
 
 7. A vegetarian diet is better than one containing meat. 
 
 8. Mars is inhabited. 
 
 9. Niagara Falls should be used for commercial purposes. 
 
 10. The locomotive with the cab in the front is better than the 
 present pattern. 
 
 11. The monorail system is practicable. 
 
 12. Cooking by electricity is preferable to cooking by gas. 
 
 13. Oleomargarine is a good substitute for butter. 
 
 14. American railways should be operated by electricity.
 
 366 APPENDIX II 
 
 F. ATHLETICS 
 
 1. Interscholastic athletics promote the best interests of schools. 
 
 2. Playing for money should debar an athlete from school games. 
 
 3. Rugby football is a better game than American intercollegiate 
 football. 
 
 4. Boxing should be introduced as a high-school sport. 
 
 5. College football is detrimental to the best interests of the insti- 
 tution. 
 
 6. The competition afforded in athletic contests is a good prepara- 
 tion for life. 
 
 7. Adequate facilities for the teaching of athletics in high schools 
 should be provided by public funds. 
 
 8. Field events are better for the contestants than races. 
 
 9. The hammer throw should be abolished. 
 
 10. The mental training furnished by baseball is superior to that 
 given by any of the regular studies. 
 
 11. The two-mile race should have no place in high-school athletics. 
 
 12. The high jump is the most scientific of the field events. 
 
 G. HUMOROUS 
 
 1. The pin is more useful than the match. 
 
 2. The horse is of more benefit to humanity than the cow. 
 
 3. The earth is flat. 
 
 4. Tipping should be abolished. 
 
 5. All squashes growing on a vine belong to the owner of the vine, 
 even if parts of the vine grow through a fence onto a neighbor's land. 
 
 6. Success in life is measured by financial standing. 
 
 7. The moon is made of green cheese. 
 
 8. Buttermilk rather than grape juice should be adopted as the 
 national drink. 
 
 9. An irresistible force would be stopped by an immovable body. 
 
 10. The world is getting laetter. 
 
 11. School pupils should be required to wear uniforms. 
 
 12. The city should be torn down and rebuilt. 
 
 13. Bricks are more useful than nails. 
 
 14. A perpetual-motion machine is a scientific reality. 
 
 15. Housewives should be limited to an eight-hour day.
 
 PROPOSITIONS FOR DEBATE 367 
 
 16. The discovery of the peanut has been more beneficial to 
 humanity than the discovery of America. 
 
 17. Pawnbrokers should be abolished. 
 
 18. Mistakes in spelling should be punishable by fine and 
 imprisonment. 
 
 19. The potato is more ornamental than the tomato. 
 
 20. A has-been is more useful to society than a never-will-be. 
 
 21. The necktie is a useless ornament. 
 
 22. Brutus was justified in killing Caesar. 
 
 23. The ladybug is more useful than the spider. 
 
 24. The seniors of the school should control the other classes. 
 
 25. Newsboys should be granted pensions. 
 
 26. It takes more braver)' to be bad than to be good. 
 
 27. Practical ideals are better than daydreams. 
 
 28. Christmas giving should be discouraged. 
 
 29. The United States should annex Europe. 
 
 H. MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 1. The Russian revolutionists are entitled to the help of Americans. 
 
 2. The ■ automobile is the best for the price. 
 
 3. The aeroplane is more important in war than the submarine. 
 
 4. A boulevard should be built from this city to . 
 
 5. Country boys should stay in the country. 
 
 6. Stone curbs are better than those of cement. 
 
 7. Raffles should be prohibited by law. 
 
 8. The use of dice should be prohibited. 
 
 9. Courtesy is necessary for success in business. 
 
 10. Preparation for war is a guaranty of peace. 
 
 11. Julius Caesar was one of Rome's greatest men. 
 
 12. The location of the city of is a favorable one. 
 
 13. The Athenians were justified in putting Socrates to death. 
 
 14. The use of cards leads to gambling. 
 
 15. The United States should dominate the Pacific. 
 
 16. Internal enemies are more dangerous to the welfare of our 
 country than external enemies. 
 
 17. The United States will in time control all of North America. 
 
 18. The harbors of the state should be under state control.
 
 368 APPENDIX II 
 
 19. The use of fireworks should be prohibited. 
 
 20. American newspapers are unreliable. 
 
 21. Loyalty to one's friends is of greater importance than loyalty 
 to one's school. 
 
 22. Loyalty to one's country is of greater importance than loyalty 
 to humanity at large. 
 
 23. Hard work is necessary for the proper development of 
 character.
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 PLAN FOR A MOCK TRIAL 
 
 Court procedure should not be followed too closely. The direc- 
 tions given here apply to criminal cases ; if a civil case is chosen, 
 change " district attorney " to " attorney for the plaintiff," and let 
 one of the witnesses be the plaintiff." Avoid murder trials, divorce 
 suits, etc., as being too serious to mock. A humorous charge is 
 better. Since the testimony in a mock trial is often invented, it is 
 better to alternate the witnesses, one for the prosecution and then 
 one for the defense. If the defense begins after the prosecution 
 has finished, it is too easy for the defense to win. If the trial can 
 be finished at one sitting, or if it is based on a real event, the usual 
 order may be followed. The total time needed for a simple mock 
 trial is from two to five hours. It may be shortened by leaving 
 out some of the steps. 
 
 CHOICE OF OFFICERS 
 
 A district attorney and a defendant must be chosen by the class, but 
 the latter chooses his own attorney. Each attorney selects an assistant, 
 or counselor. The class elects the judge, a clerk, and if desired, a 
 bailiff. 
 
 PRELIMINARY PLANS 
 
 1 . Charge and Answer. The district attorney writes the charge and 
 gives it to the clerk. The attorney for the defense then prepares 
 and gives to the clerk an answer to the charge. See examples below. 
 
 2. Witnesses. The lawyers may select witnesses, four or five for 
 each side, choosing alternately. Lawyers of each side then meet with 
 
 369
 
 370 APPENDIX III 
 
 their respective witnesses, and discuss with them the parts they are to 
 take and the testimony they are to offer.^ 
 
 3. Jury. The judge may decide the case if the lawyers agree to have 
 it so, or the lawyers or judge may select any convenient number of 
 persons for a jury. Or, if time permits, a jury may be chosen by panel 
 and examinations. 
 
 4. Lawyers and Judge. The teacher may instruct the lawyers how 
 to ask questions, and the judge how to rule on objections. Two classes 
 of questions are barred : those having nothing to do with the case, and 
 those which lead to an answer obviously suggested by the question. 
 Hearsay evidence is not admitted. A lav\7er may rise and object to the 
 question of an opposing lawyer, and the judge sustains or overrules the 
 objection. The judge may hear reasons for and against the question 
 before he decides. 
 
 5. Arrangement. The judge sits at a desk in front, facing the audi- 
 ence, the lawyers are at tables at sides of the room, the prosecution and 
 the defense facing each other. The witness stand is next to the judge. 
 The clerk and jury occupy front seats. The defendant is with his 
 lawyers. If there are plenty of chairs and space enough at the front, 
 the jury may be placed in one of the front corners of the room. If only 
 one desk or table is available, let the judge sit at it, and the lawyers 
 occupy front seats at either side of the room, with the jury in the 
 middle seats. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE TRIAL 
 
 1. Opening. The bailiff or the clerk calls the court to order. The 
 judge reads the charge and calls upon the defendant to plead. The 
 defendant pleads not guilty. 
 
 2. Evidence. The first witness for the prosecution is called and 
 sworn in by the clerk. The prosecution examines the witness, bringing 
 out by a series of questions the facts proving the guilt of the defendant, 
 together with his motive in the act. Defense cross-examines the witness 
 
 1 As an observant student puts it : " In order to be a good witness a 
 person must listen to what is being said by the other witnesses and make 
 the story hang together, telling only what will agree with what the others 
 on his side have^told. He must take time in thinking what he is going 
 to say."
 
 MOCK TRIAL 37 1 
 
 to see if he tells a consistent storjf. Next, the first witness for the de- 
 fense is called and sworn. The defense examines him and the prose- 
 cution cross-examines. The lawyers ask questions enough to make all 
 necessary facts perfectly clear. The judge may question witnesses ; and 
 so may the jurors, with the judge's permission. The lawyers protect 
 their witnesses from unfair or irrelevant questions. Witnesses are called 
 alternately by the two sides, until all have given their testimony ; they 
 may be recalled by either side with the consent of the judge. The 
 clerk or reporters keep a memorandum of the evidence presented. 
 The clerk keeps all papers and exhibits. 
 
 3 . Argument. The lawyers argue or " plead " the case, each trying 
 to show the jury or the judge how the evidence presented proves his 
 side of the case. Speakers alternate, as in a debate, the prosecution 
 opening and closing. The time for each speech is as agreed upon. 
 There may be two rounds of speeches if desired. 
 
 4, Closing. The judge charges the jury. They stand while he tells 
 them about the law involved and charges them to do their duty and 
 decide the case according to the law and the evidence. The jury retires, 
 elects a foreman, and decides the case. A two-thirds vote may decide. 
 The jury returns and the foreman gives the verdict. The jury may 
 make a recommendation to the judge. If the defendant is found guilty, 
 he is sentenced by the judge ; if he is found not guilty, he is discharged. 
 
 EXAMPLES AND FORMS 
 
 1. Criminal Cases. Stealing, assault, resisting an officer, smuggling, 
 kidnapping, disturbing the peace, vagrancy, careless driving (see also 
 Appendix II, section G, nos. 5, 15, 17, 18, 22). 
 
 2. Civil Cases. Damages for injuries, libel, breach of contract, 
 injury to or by cattle, damaged fences. 
 
 3. Charge. "The people of the State of California hereby charge 
 one John J. Wills with cruelty to animals, in that he did on the 24th day 
 of February, 1914, at about 3.15 p.m., willfully and cruelly injure a 
 dog, said dog being at the time in the front yard of its owner, Mrs. L. A. 
 Derby, residing at 2453 West Rowland St. in the city of Los Angeles, 
 State of California." 
 
 4. Answer. " Defendant John J. Wills herewith respectfully answers 
 the charge of the people of the State of California, and admits having
 
 372 APPENDIX III 
 
 injured the dog at the time and place named ; but claims that said dog 
 was a vicious and dangerous dog, that defendant had a legitimate reason 
 for being upon the said premises, that the said dog made an attack upon 
 the defendant, and that the defendant acted in self-defense." 
 
 5. Outline of Case for Prosecution. "The defendant has a violent 
 temper ; the defendant had no right upon Mrs. Derby's premises ; the 
 defendant attacked the dog without provocation; the dog is harmless." 
 
 6. Outline for Defense. " The dog is unsafe ; defendant was attempt- 
 ing to read the gas meter ; defendant tried to escape ; the injury was 
 necessary and unavoidable ; the injury was not cruel or serious." 
 
 7. Possible Answers for Defense. No motive for the crime; charac- 
 ter and reputation good ; legitimate explanation of the alleged circum- 
 stances. (Alibi and mistaken identity should not be used in a mock 
 trial, because the two sides merely present two totally different cases, 
 and the trial loses interest.) 
 
 8. Illegal Questions to a Witness. "Are you a church member?" 
 " The dog bit you, did he not ? " 
 
 9. Objection. "Your honor, we object to the question on the ground 
 that it is incompetent, irrevelant, and immaterial," or " that it is a lead- 
 ing question," or " that it has nothing to do with this case." 
 
 10. Answer to Objection. "Your honor, we ask this question in order 
 to find out if this witness has a good character and reputation." 
 
 11. Motions. "Your honor, we move [or "we ask"] that the case 
 be continued [postponed] two days," "that the testimony of this witness 
 be ruled out," " that a recess of ten minutes be granted." The judge 
 decides. 
 
 12. Judge's Rulings. " The court sustains the objection," " The ob- 
 jection is overruled," " The motion is granted [allowed]," " The motion 
 is denied." 
 
 13. Clerk's Oaths. " Do you solemnly swear to tell the truth, the 
 whole truth, and nothing but the truth ? " " that you will tell a consist- 
 ent story .'^" "that you will act your part to the best of your ability.^" 
 " that you will do your best.? " or, if fun is appropriate, " that you will 
 tell the truth, the whole truth, and everything but the truth ? " that you 
 have never been late to school 1 " " that you have never told a lie ? " etc. 
 
 14. Discipline by Judge. " I hereby judge you guilty of contempt of 
 
 court, and suspend you from taking part in the trial for minutes." 
 
 Lawyers may be disbarred from the case for repeated offenses.
 
 APPENDIX IV 
 
 PLAN FOR A NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTION 
 
 Each student represents a state, and should have papers showing 
 him to be the legal delegate for that state. Disputes are settled by the 
 committee on credentials. 
 
 A state or local convention may be planned with the help of teachers 
 or parents. Each student should represent a particular city, district, 
 county, or society. 
 
 THE OPENING 
 
 1. Registration of delegates. 
 
 2. Call to order by chairman of national committee. 
 
 3. Report of chairman, with temporary roll call. 
 
 4. Election of temporary chairman. 
 
 5. Appointment of temporary clerk. 
 
 6. Appointment of preliminary committees : credentials, organi- 
 zation, rules. 
 
 7. Recess; committee meetings. 
 
 8. Reports of preliminary committees : permanent roll call, offices, 
 rules. 
 
 MAIN BUSINESS 
 
 1. Election of chairman and clerk. 
 
 2. Appointment of committees : platform, notification (two). 
 
 3. Nomination for nominee for president of the United States. 
 
 4. Balloting for and election of nominee for president. 
 
 5. Nominations for nominee for vice president of the United States. 
 
 6. Balloting for and election of nominee for vice president. 
 
 7. Report of committee on platform. 
 
 8. Debate upon and amendment of the planks of the platform ; 
 adoption of platform. 
 
 373
 
 374 APPENDIX IV 
 
 CLOSING 
 
 1. Election of campaign committee. 
 
 2. Election of chairman national committee. 
 
 3. Adjournment. 
 
 4. Notification of nominee for president ; address of acceptance. 
 
 5. Notification of nominee for vice president; address of acceptance.
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 LISTS OF TOPICS FOR REFERENCE 
 
 The following are suggestions for explanations, arguments, 
 investigations, committee reports, and parliamentary motions: 
 
 Advertising 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Algebra 
 
 American history' 
 
 Amusements 
 
 Analytic geometry 
 
 Architecture 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Art 
 
 Athletics 
 
 Auditorium 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Baseball 
 
 Basement 
 
 Batting cage 
 
 Bells 
 
 Bicycles 
 
 Blackboards 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Books 
 
 Botany 
 
 Boundaries 
 
 Boxing 
 
 Cafeteria 
 
 Calculus 
 
 SCHOOL AFFAIRS 
 
 Candy 
 
 Ceilings 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Civics 
 
 Civil engineering 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Closets 
 
 Clothes 
 
 College recommendations 
 
 Colleges 
 
 Commercial geography 
 
 Commercial law 
 
 Commercial work 
 
 Composition 
 
 Costume design 
 
 Costumes 
 
 Curtains 
 
 Dancing 
 
 Debating 
 
 Deportment 
 
 Desks 
 
 Detention 
 
 Detention room 
 
 Dogs 
 
 375 
 
 Domestic art 
 
 Domestic chemistry 
 
 Domestic science 
 
 Doors 
 
 Dramatics 
 
 Drawings 
 
 Dress 
 
 Dressmaking 
 
 Dues 
 
 Dust 
 
 Economics 
 
 Electricity 
 
 Elevator 
 
 English 
 
 Entertainments 
 
 Entrance requirements 
 
 Erasers 
 
 Ethics 
 
 Expression 
 
 Fence 
 
 Fencing 
 
 Fire department 
 
 Fire drill 
 
 Flies 
 
 Floor
 
 376 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 Flowers 
 
 Football 
 
 Forge 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Fraternities 
 
 Freehand drawing 
 
 French 
 
 Furnace 
 
 Games 
 
 Gas 
 
 Gas engines 
 
 Geography 
 
 Geometry 
 
 German 
 
 Globes 
 
 Graduation 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Graphics 
 
 Grass 
 
 Greek 
 
 Grounds 
 
 Gymnasium 
 
 Halls 
 
 Handball 
 
 Harmony 
 
 Hatracks 
 
 Hats 
 
 Heating 
 
 High jump 
 
 High school 
 
 History 
 
 Home decoration 
 
 Home furnishing 
 
 Ice 
 
 Ice cream 
 
 Ink 
 
 Ink stains 
 
 Italian 
 
 Janitors 
 
 Journalism 
 
 Latin 
 
 Lawn 
 
 Lectures 
 
 Library 
 
 Locker rooms 
 
 Lockers 
 
 Lunches 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Machine shop 
 
 Manners 
 
 Manual training 
 
 Maps 
 
 Mechanical drawing 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Millinery 
 
 Morals 
 
 Motor cycles 
 
 Moving pictures 
 
 Mud 
 
 Music 
 
 Neighbors 
 
 Night school 
 
 Noon hour 
 
 Notices 
 
 Office 
 
 Office practice 
 
 Oral English 
 
 Orchestra 
 
 Paint 
 
 Paper 
 
 Parliamentary law 
 
 Pattern making 
 
 Pencils 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 Physical training 
 
 Physics 
 
 Physiography 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Pictures 
 
 Plastering 
 
 Plumbing 
 
 Pottery 
 
 Principal 
 
 Promotions 
 
 Punishment 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Rainy days 
 
 Reading 
 
 Refuse 
 
 Roof 
 
 School limits 
 
 School paper 
 
 Science 
 
 Shop mathematics 
 
 Shops 
 
 Shot-put 
 
 Sidewalks 
 
 Skating 
 
 Smoking 
 
 Snow 
 
 Sn(.)wballing 
 
 Social affairs 
 
 Soils 
 
 Solid geometry 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Sports 
 
 Stage 
 
 Stairs 
 
 Stenography 
 
 Stereopticon 
 
 Storm signals 
 
 Stoves 
 
 Strength of materials 
 
 Street cars 
 
 Streets 
 
 Student government 
 
 Studies 
 
 Study hour 
 
 Surveying
 
 TOPICS FOR REFERENCE 
 
 377 
 
 Swimming 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Textbooks 
 
 Track 
 Trash 
 
 Trees 
 
 I'rigonometry 
 
 Turning 
 
 I'ypewriters 
 
 Typewriting 
 
 Vacuum cleaning 
 
 Varnish 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 Vines 
 
 Volley ball 
 
 Walls 
 
 Waste paper 
 
 Wastebaskets 
 
 Water 
 
 Water polo 
 
 Windows 
 
 Wiring 
 
 Wood turning 
 
 Woodworking 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing on desks 
 
 Writing on walls 
 
 Yard 
 
 Yard rules 
 
 Zoology 
 
 Amusements 
 
 Animals kept in city 
 
 Annexations 
 
 Aqueduct 
 
 Art gallery 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Bathing beach 
 
 Baths 
 
 Bicycle riding 
 
 Billboards 
 
 Bonds 
 
 Boulevards 
 
 Boxing contests 
 
 Bridges 
 
 Building restrictions 
 
 Canals 
 
 Celebrations 
 
 Chamber of Commerce 
 
 Charities 
 
 City hall 
 
 City ownership 
 
 Coal yards 
 
 Curfew law 
 
 Dairy ranches 
 
 Dance halls 
 
 Defense of harbor 
 
 Dog licenses 
 
 CITY AFFAIRS 
 
 Drinking fountains 
 
 Elections 
 
 Electric lights 
 
 Electric power 
 
 Electric wires 
 
 Elevated railway 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Factory regulation 
 
 Fares 
 
 Ferries 
 
 Finances 
 
 Fire escapes 
 
 Fire limits 
 
 Fire prevention 
 
 Fire protection 
 
 Fireproof buildings 
 
 Flood waters 
 
 Fountains 
 
 Franchises 
 
 Gambling 
 
 Garages 
 
 Gas company 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 Good roads 
 
 Harbors 
 
 Ilay stores 
 
 High schools 
 
 Home for orphans 
 
 Homes for aged 
 
 Hospitals 
 
 Hours of labor 
 
 Ice 
 
 Lakes 
 
 Laws 
 
 Levees 
 
 Library 
 
 Licenses 
 
 Lighting 
 
 Lights for vehicles 
 
 Livery stables 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 Markets 
 
 Milk 
 
 Motor cycles 
 
 Motor fire apparatus 
 
 Motor trucks 
 
 Moving pictures 
 
 Music 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 Noise 
 
 Parking automobiles 
 
 Parks 
 
 Peddlers 
 
 Penny arcades
 
 378 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 Playgrounds 
 
 Police 
 
 Police court 
 
 Poultry 
 
 Prison farm 
 
 Prisons 
 
 Public markets 
 
 Races 
 
 Railway crossings 
 
 Railway signals 
 
 Railway to harbor 
 
 Railway tracks 
 
 Recreation 
 
 River 
 
 River bed 
 
 River front 
 
 Safety devices 
 
 Saloons 
 
 Sanitation 
 
 School bonds 
 
 Schools 
 
 Sewers 
 
 Sidewalks 
 
 Signboards 
 
 Signs 
 
 Single tax 
 
 Slaughterhouses 
 
 Smoke 
 
 Smoking on cars 
 
 Snow 
 
 Speed laws 
 
 Stables 
 
 Storm drains 
 
 Street cars 
 
 Street cleaning 
 
 Street improvements 
 
 Street lights 
 
 Street sprinkling 
 
 Street trees 
 
 Street-car extension 
 
 Street-car tracks 
 
 Subways 
 
 Summer camps 
 
 Surveys 
 
 Swimming 
 
 Tax on vehicles 
 
 Taxation 
 
 Taxes on business 
 
 Telephone rates 
 
 Telephone wires 
 
 Tenements 
 
 Theaters 
 
 Three-cent fares 
 
 Traffic rules 
 
 Transfers 
 
 Trees 
 
 Trolley wires 
 
 Tunnels 
 
 Union station 
 
 Vacant lots 
 
 Wages 
 
 Water supply 
 
 Weeds 
 
 Weights and measures 
 
 Wharves 
 
 Zoological gardens 
 
 Assessments 
 
 Bridges 
 
 Charities 
 
 Constables 
 
 Courthouse 
 
 Detention home 
 
 Elections 
 
 Engineering 
 
 Finances 
 
 COUNTY AFFAIRS 
 
 Franchises 
 Grand jury 
 Hospital 
 Jails 
 
 Juvenile court 
 Libraries 
 Lighting 
 Poor farm 
 Prison farm 
 
 Recording 
 
 Roads 
 
 School tax 
 
 Schools 
 
 Sheriff 
 
 Speeding 
 
 Storm waters 
 
 Surveys 
 
 Taxes 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Asylums 
 
 Capital punishment 
 
 Child labor 
 
 STATE AFFAIRS 
 
 Cigarettes 
 Courts 
 Divorce 
 Dredging 
 
 Education 
 Eggs 
 Elections 
 Engineering
 
 TOPICS FOR REFERENCE 
 
 379 
 
 Finances 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Forests 
 
 Gambling 
 
 Game 
 
 Harbors 
 
 Highways 
 
 HoHdays 
 
 Industrial accidents 
 
 Irrigation 
 
 Labor laws 
 
 Library 
 
 Liquor 
 
 Militia 
 
 Mothers' pensions 
 
 Prize fights 
 
 Racing 
 
 Railways 
 
 Recall 
 
 Reform schools 
 
 Rivers 
 Schools 
 Single tax 
 Speed laws 
 Suffrage 
 Surveys 
 Sweat shops 
 Taxes 
 Voting 
 Women's wages 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Anarchists 
 
 Arbitration 
 
 Army 
 
 Banking 
 
 Battleships 
 
 Cabinet 
 
 Canada 
 
 Capitol 
 
 Census 
 
 Child labor 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Coastwise trade 
 
 Coinage 
 
 Congress 
 
 Conservation 
 
 Constitution 
 
 Consuls 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Courts 
 
 Crop reports 
 
 Crops 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Currency 
 
 Customs 
 
 Debt 
 
 NATIONAL AFFAIRS 
 
 Diplomatic relations 
 
 Direct elections 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Education 
 
 Federal steamships 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Floods 
 
 Food laws 
 
 Forest fires 
 
 Forestry 
 
 Fortifications 
 
 Freight rates 
 
 Highways 
 
 Homestead laws 
 
 House of Representatives 
 
 Illiteracy 
 
 Immigration 
 
 Income tax 
 
 Indian affairs 
 
 Industrial accidents 
 
 Inheritance tax 
 
 Internal revenue 
 
 Interstate commerce 
 
 Inventions 
 
 Japanese 
 
 Labor 
 
 Lands 
 
 Lighthouses 
 
 Lumbering 
 
 Manufacturing 
 
 Merchant marine 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Mining laws 
 
 Mints 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Money panics 
 
 Monroe Doctrine 
 
 National highway 
 
 Natural resources 
 
 Naturalization laws 
 
 Navy 
 
 Negro 
 
 Neutrality 
 
 Panama Canal 
 
 Parcel post 
 
 Parks 
 
 Patent medicines 
 
 Patents 
 
 Patronage 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Philippines 
 
 Political parties 
 
 Post offices 
 
 Postage rates
 
 38o 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
 Prohibition 
 
 Race question 
 
 Railway mail service 
 
 Railway regulation 
 
 Reclamation 
 
 Rivers 
 
 Seals 
 
 Senate 
 
 Shipping 
 
 Ship subsidies 
 Socialism 
 Soldiers' homes 
 South America 
 States' rights 
 Strikes 
 Sugar 
 
 Supreme Court 
 Tariff 
 
 Telegraphs 
 
 Treasury 
 
 Treaties 
 
 Trusts 
 
 Unions 
 
 Wages 
 
 War 
 
 Weather Bureau 
 
 Wireless 
 
 Air craft 
 
 Armaments 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 Boy Scouts 
 
 Canals 
 
 China 
 
 Colonization 
 
 Derelicts 
 
 Epidemics 
 
 Esperanto 
 
 Expositions 
 
 Extradition laws 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Hague Conference 
 
 Icebergs 
 
 WORLD AFFAIRS 
 
 Industrial relations 
 
 Japan 
 
 Longitude and time 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Military service 
 
 Modern ships 
 
 Monroe Doctrine 
 
 Navigation laws 
 
 Neutralization 
 
 North pole 
 
 Old-age pensions 
 
 Olympic games 
 
 Peace 
 
 Pirates 
 
 Quarantines 
 
 Radium 
 Red Cross 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sabotage 
 
 Sailors' rights 
 
 Sanitation 
 
 Seals 
 
 Shipping laws 
 
 Standards 
 
 Submarine cables 
 
 Syndicalism 
 
 Trade routes 
 
 Turkey 
 
 War 
 
 Wireless 
 
 Abstract of title 
 Act of God 
 Amazon River 
 Amortization 
 Ant eater 
 Arson 
 Banks 
 Barometer 
 Black list 
 Blotter 
 
 OTHER TOPICS 
 
 Booker T. Washington 
 
 Boycott 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Building materials 
 
 Burglary 
 
 Butter 
 
 Camera 
 
 Celluloid 
 
 Cement 
 
 Child welfare 
 
 Citizenship 
 
 Clearing house 
 
 Common carrier 
 
 Consumers' League 
 
 Contract 
 
 Copyright 
 
 Corporation 
 
 Cremation 
 
 Dartmouth College Case 
 
 Deed
 
 TOPICS FOR REFERENCE 
 
 381 
 
 Diving bell 
 
 Divorce 
 
 Dred Scott 
 
 Eminent domain 
 
 Excess condemnation 
 
 Fly 
 
 Game of cricket 
 
 German Empire 
 
 Grafting trees 
 
 Grand opera 
 
 Habeas corpus 
 
 Habit 
 
 Helen Keller 
 
 High seas 
 
 Horticulture 
 
 Hull House 
 
 Hyde Park 
 
 Income tax 
 
 Ink 
 
 Insurance 
 
 Karl Marx 
 
 Ladybug 
 
 Lard 
 
 Laws 
 
 Log of a ship 
 Luther 
 
 Mariner's compass 
 Masons 
 
 Minimum wage 
 Moonshiners 
 Mormonism 
 Mortgage 
 Naturalization 
 Newspapers 
 Night riders 
 Nile River 
 Obsolescence 
 Oleomargarine 
 Original package 
 Partnership 
 Poverty 
 
 Preferential voting 
 Printing press 
 Proportional repre- 
 sentation 
 Pump 
 
 Pyramids 
 
 Railway systems 
 
 Real estate 
 
 Religious liberty 
 
 Rubber 
 
 Salvation Army 
 
 Scientific management 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Shoes 
 
 Short ballot 
 
 Socrates 
 
 Soils 
 
 Spectrum 
 
 Spider 
 
 Sports 
 
 SubpcEna 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Trade-marks 
 
 Vocational guidance 
 
 Volcanoes 
 
 Weather forecasting 
 
 Windmill 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 
 
 1. Cities of the state. 
 
 2. Cities of the United States. 
 
 3. Foreign cities. 
 
 4. Countries. 
 
 5. Vocations. 
 
 6. Famous people. 
 
 7. Famous books. 
 
 8. Famous inventions. 
 
 9. Important events. 
 
 10. Great industries : their development ; their present status. 
 
 11. The best magazines or newspapers. 
 
 12. Some interesting books of to-day. 
 
 13. Needed reforms in social or political life. 
 
 14. How the city may be beautified.
 
 382 APPENDIX V " 
 
 15. How our school or college may be improved. 
 
 16. How the school may prepare for life. 
 
 17. Inventions that should be made. 
 
 18. The customs of foreign peoples. 
 
 19. Significant topics in art, architecture, music, painting, commerce, 
 agriculture, manufacture, travel, recreation. 
 
 20. Opinions and discussions upon ethical questions.
 
 APPENDIX VI 
 
 REFERENCE TABLES 
 
 A. SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL ENGLISH RECITATIONS 
 
 This summary will aid the student in finding interesting topics : 
 Narration : current events, stories, jokes, fables, experiences. 
 Description : cities, parks, landscapes, natural wonders, pictures, 
 animals, costumes, people, technical descriptions. 
 Explanation : 
 
 1. How to make and how to do useful things : furniture, decora- 
 tions, clothing, cooking, household helps, building, gardening, care 
 of animals, farming. 
 
 2. Technical operations and articles : commercial methods and 
 customs, scientific processes, electricity, automobiles, transportation, 
 chemistr)^, photography, manufacture, shop work. 
 
 3. Civic affairs : laws, plans for improvement, reforms, politics. 
 
 4. Others : value of specific occupations, art, music, education, 
 games, tricks, puzzles. 
 
 Argument : 
 
 1. Business: selling, advertising, soliciting, collecting bills. 
 
 2. Politics : parties, candidates, foreign relations, railroads, labor 
 unions, socialism, suffrage, liquor, poverty. 
 
 3. Other arguments : school affairs, social questions, vocations. 
 Special Talks : introduction, welcome, farewell, presentation, 
 
 acceptance, gratitude, toast, oration, eulogy, nomination, inaugura- 
 tion, announcement, committee report. 
 
 Conversation : interviews, social conversations. 
 
 Dramatics : memorized or extempore plays, mock trials. 
 
 Reading : clippings, advertisements, poems, stories, speeches. 
 
 5^3
 
 384 APPENDIX VI 
 
 B. PRECEDENCE OF PARLIAMENTARY MOTIONS 
 
 BRIEF LIST FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 Not Debatable f Adjourn. 
 
 and < Lay on the Table. 
 
 Not Amendable |^Stop Debate = Previous Question. 2/3 
 
 Debatable 
 
 and 
 Amendable 
 
 Postpone to a Definite Time. 
 Refer to a Committee. 
 Amend. 
 Main Motion. 
 
 Directions for Table B 
 
 1. When any motion in Table B is before the house (moved 
 and stated but not yet voted upon), any other motion which is 
 above it in the table may be regularly moved, and will tempo- 
 rarily supplant the first motion. 
 
 2. Any motion which is below the motion before the house 
 is out of order and may not be moved. 
 
 3. When the motion of higher rank is decided, the meeting 
 proceeds to the consideration of the motion which was sup- 
 planted, unless the vote already taken disposes of both. 
 
 Directions for Table C 
 
 1. Amend and Postpone Indefinitely are bracketed ; neither 
 may supplant the other. 
 
 2. The six incidental motions are bracketed : 
 
 a. Any motion of the group may supersede any motion 
 below the group. 
 
 b. The Objection to the Consideration of a Question may 
 be applied only to a principal motion. 
 
 c. Any motion within the group, except the objection, may 
 be applied to any other motion within the group. 
 
 d. Any incidental motion, except the objection, may be ap- 
 plied to any other motion outside the group, whether such motion 
 be above or below the group in the table. 
 
 3. In all other points Table C is used as is Table B.
 
 REFERENCE TAl'.LES 
 
 3^5 
 
 C. PRECEDENCE OF PARLIAMENTARY MOTIONS 
 
 A— Time for Next Meeting. 
 
 Adjourn. 
 A — Recess. 
 D— A— "Question of Privilege" (treat as a principal 
 motion). 
 " Orders of the Day." NS 
 f" Appeal." 
 " Point of Order." NS 
 
 "Objection to the Consideration of a Ques- 
 tion." NS — 2/3 
 Reading Papers. 
 Withdrawal of a Motion. 
 Suspension of Rules. 2/3 
 Lay on the Table. 
 
 Previous Question = Stop Debate. 2/3 
 D— A— Postpone to a Definite Time. 
 D— A— Refer to a Committee. 
 
 D — A — [" Amend (change wording, substitute motion, divide ques- 
 \ tion). 
 D — [^ Postpone Indefinitely. 
 D — A — Principal Motion (main motion, rescind, expunge, 
 etc.). 
 
 
 KEY 
 
 D = 
 
 = debatable NS = no second is required 
 
 A = 
 
 = amendable Quotation marks (" ") = in order when 
 
 
 another person has the floor 
 
 
 2/3 = two-thirds vote necessary to carry 
 
 
 See directions under Table B 
 
 Chapter XIV deals with parliamentary law. Pages 304- 
 320 give the general classification of motions, illustrations in 
 the use of Tables B and C, and brief directions for the use of 
 each motion. Reconsider may be found dh ixi<;c 330.
 
 386 
 
 APPENDIX VI 
 
 D. PRONUNCIATION KEY 
 
 • [This table is to be 
 does not know how to 
 
 used by the student in marking words which he 
 pronounce, as suggested on page 58.] 
 
 a bake (bak) 
 
 1 
 
 time (tim) 
 
 ou, ow 
 
 town 
 
 they (tha) 
 
 
 ply (plT) 
 
 
 out 
 
 fail (fal) 
 
 
 eye (!) 
 life (llf) 
 
 
 mount 
 
 a cat 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 go 
 
 sad 
 
 i 
 
 It 
 
 
 get 
 
 hat 
 
 
 tin 
 lid 
 
 
 game (gam) 
 
 a care (car) 
 
 
 busy (bisi) 
 
 J. g 
 
 jet 
 
 bear (bar) 
 
 
 
 
 gern^ 
 
 there (thar) 
 
 
 
 old 
 
 
 angel 
 
 their (thar) 
 
 
 no 
 
 
 
 air (ar) 
 
 
 blow (bio) 
 
 k, € 
 
 king 
 cat 
 
 a arm 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 not 
 
 
 cost 
 
 far 
 
 
 what (wh6t) 
 
 
 
 father 
 
 
 was (wos) 
 top 
 
 s, 9 
 
 site (sit) 
 city (9iti) 
 
 a ask 
 
 
 
 
 9ent 
 
 dance (dan9) 
 
 u 
 
 mule (mul) 
 
 
 
 last (last) 
 
 
 few (fu) 
 tube (tub) 
 
 z, s 
 
 zinc 
 his 
 
 J. 
 
 a all 
 
 
 
 
 was (w6§) 
 
 walk (wak) 
 
 u 
 
 but 
 
 
 
 nor (nar) 
 
 
 tub 
 
 sh 
 
 shiit 
 
 jaw 
 
 
 son (siin) 
 
 
 nation (nashiin) 
 machine (mashen) 
 
 e be 
 
 U, 00 
 
 full 
 
 
 sure (shoor) 
 
 meat (met) 
 
 
 foot (fut) 
 
 
 
 machine (mashen) 
 
 
 put 
 
 book (buk) 
 
 th 
 
 thin 
 think 
 
 e net 
 
 
 
 
 pith 
 
 end 
 
 00 
 
 food 
 
 
 
 beg 
 
 
 rule (rool) 
 boot 
 
 th 
 
 they (tha) 
 thine (thin) 
 
 e term 
 
 
 
 
 then 
 
 firm (ferm) 
 
 oi 
 
 oil 
 
 
 smooth 
 
 fern 
 
 
 boy (boi) 
 
 
 
 urn (ern) 
 
 
 toil 
 
 
 
 worm (werm) 
 
 
 

 
 REFERENCE TABLES 387 
 
 E. STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARING AN EXERCISE IN 
 
 ORAL ENGLISH 
 
 1. Study the exercise to discover exactly what is required. 
 
 2. Select the particular subject which is to be used for the talk. 
 
 3. Review the text for the purpose of gaining a thorough 
 understanding of the principles involved in the exercise. 
 
 4. Obtain the necessary experiences : thinking, observing, read- 
 ing, experimenting, interviewing, discussing. 
 
 5. Study and classify the material which is to be used. 
 
 6. Prepare the outline : find the main topics ; complete the out- 
 line ; prepare the cards which are to be used in giving the talk. 
 
 7. Practice the talk : repeat the talk just as it is to be given in 
 class. Do not memorize. 
 
 8. Face the class with the desire to contribute something useful 
 and interesting.
 
 388 
 
 APPENDIX VI 
 
 F. A SCALE FOR MARKING ORAL ENGLISH RECITATIONS 
 
 DIRECTIONS 
 
 Mark an X in the appropriate column after each item which apphes to the 
 particular speech being examined. Thus, if the talk is obviously a descrip- 
 tion, and its treatment of details is fairly good, put an X in the column labeled 
 " Fair," after the topic, "Details well handled." The marks maybe connected 
 down the page, to show graphically the general quality of the talk. Scoring 
 by percentages is not very reliable. If it is desired, however, the following 
 plan may be used : Call excellent 9 points (or 90 per cent), good 8 points, 
 fair 7 points, poor 6 points. Suppose a student gains three 9's, four 8's, six 
 7's, and two 6's, he would then have 27 + 32 + 42 + 12, or 1 13 points in all. 
 Since he has been marked on 15 items, his average would be 75 per cent. 
 
 For all talks : 
 
 1. Value and interest of the subject selected . . 
 
 2. Value of the details selected for the talk . 
 
 3. Outline of the talk 
 
 4. Outline made clear to the hearers .... 
 
 5. Use of illustrations and other helps .... 
 
 6. Opening words — introduction 
 
 7. Closing words 
 
 8. Vocabulary — appropriate, correct, and varied 
 
 9. Fluency 
 
 10. Variety and emphasis in tone, pitch, and speed 
 
 11. Enthusiasm 
 
 1 2. Control of body, and gestures 
 
 13. Use of face and eyes 
 
 For unclassified talks : 
 
 14. Naturalness and adaptation to purpose . 
 
 15. General effectiveness 
 
 For explanations : 
 14. 
 15. Clearness 
 
 For arguments : 
 
 14. Evidence well handled 
 
 I 5. Effectiveness of reasoning .... 
 
 For narrations : 
 
 14. Details made interesting throughout 
 
 15. Plot or point well brought out . . 
 
 For descriptions : 
 
 14. Details well handled . ..... 
 
 15. Vividness of effect 
 
 Knowledge of material 
 
 E G F P 
 
 X 
 
 X_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 x^ 
 
 x^ ~ 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X ~ 
 
 X 
 
 X
 
 INDEX 
 
 Accepting a report, 329 
 
 Additional talks and exercises, 195- 
 224; reading, 195; current topics, 
 201 ; discussions, 203; impromptu 
 talks, 207 ; humorous stories and 
 jokes, 209; interviews, 212; con- 
 versations, 216; extempore plays, 
 220. Exercises: 199, 202, 206, 
 208, 211, 215, 218, 224 
 
 Adjourn, motion to, 307, 3S4, 3S5 
 
 Adopting a report, 329 
 
 Affirmative, first speaker of, 278; 
 second speaker of, 282 
 
 After-dinner speech, 186 
 
 Aids, in explanations, reference 
 books as, 11, 236; drawings as, 
 II, 19, 21, 152; diagrams as, 11, 
 153, 241 ; gestures as, 18; use of 
 objects as, 18, 19, 154; simple 
 devices as, 20 ; in acquiring a 
 vocabulary, 66 ; in description, 
 98; technical terms as, 155; maps 
 as, 202 ; in collecting evidence, 237 
 
 Amend, motion to, 306, 316, 331, 
 
 384, 385 
 Analogy, 121 ; reasoning by, 247, 
 
 248 ; tests of, 249 
 
 Announcement speech, 176 ; prepa- 
 ration for, 176; importance of 
 detail in, 177 
 
 Appeal, in debate, 263 ; uses of, 
 264; by second negative, 283, 
 284; parliamentary, 309, 321, 385 
 
 Appearance of speaker, 44-56 ; be- 
 fore speaking, 45 ; as to standing 
 position, 45 ; as to hands and feet, 
 46 ; after speaking, 47 ; as to facial 
 expression, 51; as to head, 52; 
 as to use of eyes, 53. Exercises : 
 
 44, 47, 5'' 55 
 Argument, for beginners, 25-43 ; 
 everyday, 25, 225; preliminaries 
 
 to, 25; definiteness in, 26; con- 
 sideration in, 26 ; subjects for, 
 27, 31, 32; and explanation, 29; 
 outline for, 30, 35-38 ; preparing 
 for, 32-3S; practicing, 38, 39; 
 gestures in, 48; abstract, 119; 
 summary for, 132; use of stories 
 in, 211. Exercises: 27,30,31,33, 
 ■36, 38, 40, 42 
 
 Argument and debate, 225-288; 
 nature of, 225 ; correct spirit in, 
 226; preliminaries for, 227; in- 
 troduction and analysis of, 230, 
 257 ; building up of, 235; reason- 
 ing in, 246; brief of, 254, 270; 
 rebuttal in, 265 ; practice for 
 speech of, 270; good will in, 
 274 ; teamwork in, 276-286. Ex- 
 ercises : 229, 234, 243, 251, 259, 
 264, 269, 275, 286. See specific 
 topics in Index 
 
 Arranging and conducting debates, 
 339-356; interschool, 339; in 
 debating leagues, 344; within 
 the school, 348; triangular, 351 ; 
 single, 352 ; with sides chosen 
 before the audience, 352 ; with 
 proposition selected shortly be- 
 fore the debate, 352 ; with three 
 speakers on each side, 353 ; with- 
 out special rebuttal, 353; with time 
 division optional, 353 ; with no 
 decision, 353 ; with same resolu- 
 tion for all schools and for suc- 
 cessive debates, 356 
 
 At large, 333 
 
 Body of explanatory talk, 145 
 
 Hrief, example of, 254 ; expansion 
 
 of, 256; analysis for, 257; order 
 
 of points in, 258; concliLsion of, 
 
 262 ; rebuttal in, 265 ; use of, in 
 
 389
 
 390 
 
 INDEX 
 
 making speech, 270 ; teamwork 
 in preparing, 277 
 
 Business, meetings, 291 ; order of, 
 302 ; introduction of, 321 
 
 Business talks, 102-113; need for, 
 102 ; appeal to interest and serv- 
 ice in, 102; description or expla- 
 nation in, 104 ; telling the advan- 
 tages in, 105; showing the goods in, 
 105 ; emphasizing details in, 105; 
 giving references in, 106; giving 
 terms in, 107 ; definiteness in, 
 108; conclusion of, no; answer- 
 ing questions in, in; choosing 
 subjects for, n 2. Exercises: 104, 
 106, 109, III, 112, 113 
 
 By-laws, 297 ; sample, 300 ; amend- 
 ing, 301 
 
 Call, for the orders of the day, 309, 
 321, 385; of the house, 333 
 
 Calling, for business, 335 ; for a 
 second, 335 ; for debate, 335 
 
 Cards, sample note, 242 ; refuta- 
 tion, 267 ; use in speech, 270 ; 
 sample, 272; placing, for debate, 
 278 ; order of, for rebuttal, 284 
 
 Chairman, importance of, 296 ; tem- 
 porary, 297 ; duties of, 322 
 
 Charts, use of, in debate, 242 
 
 Class, debating, 351 
 
 Climax, in narration, 86; in sen- 
 tence, 118 
 
 Coherence, in outline, 126, 128, 149; 
 in details, 129; in speech, 150 
 
 Commit, 333 
 
 Committees, need for and kinds of, 
 327; standing, 327; special, 327 ; 
 report of, 328; of the whole, 331 
 
 Communications, 335 
 
 Conclusion, of explanation, 14, 17; 
 of argument, 39 ; of narration, 88 ; 
 of description, 97; of business 
 talk, no; in form of summary, 
 132 ; broad and comprehensive, 
 133; illustrative sentences for, 
 133, 134; importance of, 134; 
 of explanation, 148; distinctness 
 in, 170; of current topics, 201; 
 make sure of, 28C ; of brief, 262 
 
 Consideration, objection to, 31 1 , 32 1, 
 385. See Courtesy 
 
 Constitution, of an organization, 
 297 ; sample, 298 ; amending, 299 
 
 Control, of hands, 46, 50; of facial 
 expression, 51, 52; of thoughts 
 and feelings, 52 ; of tone of 
 voice, 292 
 
 Conversations, 216; in argument, 25 
 
 Courtesy, in interviews, 212 ; in 
 argument, 26, 274; during debate, 
 284 ; in using time, 2S6 ; in use 
 of parliamentary law, 290 ; in 
 business meetings, 291 ; as fair 
 play, 295 
 
 Credentials, 333 
 
 Critic, report of, 302, 303, 325 ; 
 sample report of, 335 
 
 Criticism, of gestures, 49 ; teacher's, 
 303 ; of talks, 388 
 
 Debatable motions, 306, 384, 385 
 Debate, and simple argument, 25, 
 29; simple, 40; exercises on, 42; 
 synonyms used in, 64; and formal 
 discussion, 204; steps in prepara- 
 tion for, 230; brief of, 254; team- 
 work in, 276 ; motion to stop, 
 314, 384, 385; rules of, 322; 
 interschool, 339. ^1?,? Argument 
 Debating, leagues, 344 ; class, 351 
 Deduction, 247 ; tests of, 249 
 Definition, 136; by interpretation, 
 137 ; by distinguishing differ- 
 ences, 137; of technical terms, 
 155; of oration, 189; in debating, 
 231, 239 ; in rebuttal, 266 ; of par- 
 liamentary terms, 333 
 Democracy in parliamentary prac- 
 tice, 290-296 
 Demonstrations, 18, 19, 154 
 Description, gi-ioi ; purpose of, 
 91 ; aid of senses in, 91 ; outline 
 for, 92 ; point of view in, 93 ; 
 central idea of, 94 ; order of parts 
 of, 95 ; conclusion of, 97 ; helps 
 in, 98 ; technical, 99 ; concrete 
 character of, 119; as evidence, 
 226. Exercises : 92, 93, 94, 96, 
 97, 98, 100
 
 INDEX 
 
 391 
 
 Diacritical marks, 5S. 386 
 
 Dictionar)-, use of, for pronunciation, 
 58 ; for spelling. 66 ; in prepara- 
 tion for reading, 197 
 
 Dilemma. 266 
 
 Discussion, of current topics, 202 ; 
 informal, 203 ; how conducted, 
 204; in parliamentary society, 295 
 
 Divide the question, 319, 385 
 
 Division, vote of, 331, 333 
 
 Drawing diagrams, 11, 19, 21, 152, 
 
 153' 241 
 Duties of officers, 321-327 
 
 Elections, 332 
 
 Equipment for doing and making, 6 
 
 Eulogy, 191 
 
 Evidence, 225; collecting, 235; 
 sources of, 236-239 ; testing, 239 ; 
 recording, 241, 242 ; arranging, 
 241 ; distinguished from reasoning, 
 246. Exercise: 243 
 
 Example, reasoning by, 247, 248 ; 
 tests of, 249 
 
 Examples and illustrations, 118 
 
 Executive committee, 327 
 
 Executive session, 331 
 
 Ex-officio, 333 
 
 Explanation, 3-24, 136-162; every- 
 day, 3 ; defined, 5 ; preparation 
 for, 5-17; outline of, 6, 13; of 
 process, 6; helps in, 11, 13, 18- 
 20; logical order of, 13 ; subjects 
 for, 20, 22-24, i5<*^-i62, 375-382; 
 abstract, 119; additional consider- 
 ations in, 136-162 ; kinds of, 136; 
 defining in, 136; analyzing in, 
 137; of reasons and purposes, 140; 
 of processes and operations, 142 ; 
 collecting the material for, 142; 
 introduction of talk in, 143; out- 
 line of, 145-149; as evidence, 
 226; in debate, 233. Exercises: 
 8, II, 15, 17. 20, 22, 138, 141, 143, 
 144, 147, 149, 151, 156-162 
 
 Expunge, 320, 385 
 
 Extempore plays, 220; evolved 
 from interviews, 220; plot of, 
 221; preparation for, 223; pres- 
 entation of, 224 
 
 Extempore practice, 64 ; of debate 
 speech, 271 
 
 Extempore and impromptu speak- 
 ing, 207 
 
 Eyes, use of, in speaking, 53 
 
 Farewell speech, 192 
 
 Filling blanks, 319, 331 
 
 Fix time for next meeting, 306, 385 
 
 Floor, obtaining the, 321, 322, 385 
 
 Fluency, 62-68 
 
 Forms, for evidence, 242 ; for de- 
 bater's cards, 272 ; parliamentary, 
 335; for mock trial, 371 
 
 Forms of discourse, "]"] 
 
 Gestures, 48 ; in debate, 270 
 
 Grading talks, 388 
 
 Grammar, correction of, errors in, 
 
 72-76 
 Gregg's "Parliamentary Law," 291, 
 
 Helps. See Aids 
 
 Historian, 326 
 
 History in debate, 231, 279 
 
 How to make and how to do. See 
 
 Explanation 
 Humor, in nomination speech, iSi ; 
 
 in toast, 186; in argument, 211 
 Humorous propositions for debate, 
 
 366 
 Humorous stories and jokes, 209 
 
 Imagination, use of, 122 
 Impromptu speech, 207 ; rapid 
 thinking in, 207; in interviews, 2 1 5 
 Inauguration speech, 192 
 Indefinite postponement, 319, 385 
 Individual competition in debate, 
 
 356 _ 
 Induction, reasoning by, 247, 250; 
 
 tests of, 249 
 Informal action, 291, 322, 331 
 Interclass debating tournament, 349 
 Interpretation, of passages, 137 ; of 
 
 questions in debate, 231, 279, 280, 
 
 343 
 Interschool debate, 339 ; the agree- 
 ment, 339 ; preparation at each
 
 392 
 
 INDEX 
 
 school, 341 ; immediate prepara- 
 tion, 343 ; the contest, 343 
 
 Interviews, courtesy and directness 
 in, 212 ; agreements made in, 214 ; 
 teamwork in, 278 
 
 Introduction, of explanation, 14, 16, 
 143; of narration, 80 ; importance 
 of, 131 ; of a speaker, 182 ; of cur- 
 rent topics, 201 ; of one person 
 to another, 217; of debate, 230, 
 233 ; given by first affirmative, 
 278; of business, 321 
 
 Introductory outline, 144 
 
 Issues, of debate question, 232, 257 ; 
 restated, 262 ; divided between 
 members of a team, 277 ; fair 
 statement of, 279 ; acceptance 
 of, 281 
 
 Jefferson's Manual, 289 
 
 Jokes, 209; point of, 210; kind to 
 tell, 210; application of, 211 
 
 Judgment, of helps in explanations, 
 19 ; of speaker by appearance, 
 45 ; in use of gestures, 49 ; in use 
 of slang, 70 ; of person careless 
 in speech, 72 ; in giving terms in 
 business talks, 107 ; in the use of 
 pauses, 167 ; in forceful speaking, 
 174; in choice of current topics, 
 201 ; in debate refutation, 267, 284 
 
 Key, for use of motions, 306, 385; 
 for pronunciation, 386 
 
 Lay on the table, 313, 384, 385 
 
 Leagues, debating, 344 
 
 Limit, of time in debate, 273 ; 
 marked on cards, 285 ; fairness 
 in observing, 286 ; of parliamen- 
 tary debate, 330 
 
 Lists of topics for reference : school 
 affairs, 375; city affairs, 377; 
 county affairs, 378 ; state affairs, 
 378 ; national affairs, 379 ; world 
 affairs, 380 ; other topics, 380 ; 
 general suggestions, 381 
 
 Main motion, 320, 384, 385 
 Majority and plurality, 333 
 
 Marking talks, 388 
 
 Meeting and session, 333 
 
 Memoranda, of new words, 60 ; of 
 material preserved, 143 ; of facts 
 in brief, 256; for team mates, 278 
 
 Memorization to be avoided, 64, 66, 
 187, 190, 271, 387 
 
 Minority report, 329 
 
 Minutes, 302, 303, 325, 336; dis- 
 pensing with, 338 
 
 Mock trial, 369-372 ; choice of offi- 
 cers for, 369 ; preliminary plans 
 for, 369 ; progress of, 370 ; ex- 
 amples and forms of, 371 
 
 Motions, precedence of, 294, 384, 
 385 ; kind to make, 295 ; classi- 
 fication of, 304 ; illustrations in 
 use of, 304; pending, 305; direc- 
 tions for use of, 306 ; withdrawal 
 of, 312; tabled, 313; substitute, 
 318 ; principal or main, 320; spe- 
 cial, 330; to reconsider, 330; re- 
 newal of, 333 
 
 Narration, 77-90; subjects for, 79; 
 planning, 80 ; introduction for, 
 80; point of view in, 81 ; details 
 in, 82 ; kinds of, 83 ; without plot, 
 83 ; with plot, 86 ; climax in, 86 ; 
 conclusion of, 88 ; concrete, 1 19 ; 
 in humorous stories, 209 ; as evi- 
 dence, 226. Exercises : 79, 84, 88 
 
 National political convention, 373 
 
 Negative, first speaker of, 280 ; 
 second speaker of, 282 
 
 Nominating speech, 179, 332; ap- 
 peal for votes in, 180; originality 
 in, 181 
 
 Nominations, closing, 330, 332 
 
 Notes, taking, 13 ; may be dispensed 
 with, 14, 16; use in a speech, 54, 
 55 ; in announcement speech, 
 177 ; in argument, 242, 270, 272 ; 
 on opponent's speech, 280, 282 ; 
 secretary's, 324 
 
 Notice for reconsideration, 321, 330 
 
 Objection to consideration, 31 1, 321, 
 
 385 
 Obtaining the floor, 321, 322
 
 INDEX 
 
 393 
 
 Officers, rights and duties of, 321 ; 
 chairman, 322 ; president, 323 ; 
 vice president, 324 ; secretary, 
 324; critic, 325; treasurer, 326; 
 sergeant at arms, 326 ; historian, 
 326 ; combinations of duties of, 
 326; special duties of, 327; re- 
 ports of, 335-338 ; for mock trial, 
 
 369 
 Old business, 302, 303, 315 
 Opening words, of narration. So ; 
 of business talks, 103. See Intro- 
 duction 
 Oration, 189; appeal in, 263 
 Order, of points, in description, 92, 
 128; in narration, 128; in expla- 
 nation, 13, 128, 145 ; in argument, 
 34, 128, 258 ; rules of, 298, 300 ; of 
 business, 300, 302, 303 ; point 
 of, 310, 321,385; special, 313, 330 
 "Order, Rules of," Robert's, 291, 
 
 Orders of the day, 309, 31 5, 321. 3^5 
 Outline, for explanation, 6, 14; for 
 simple argument, 30, 35, 36; for 
 description. 92 ; unity and coher- 
 ence in, 126, 128; introduction 
 of, 131; conclusion of, 132; by 
 cause and effect, 146; by prob- 
 lem and solution, 146; making a 
 clear, 149; for announcement 
 speech, 177; for nominating 
 speech, 179; for speech of in- 
 troduction, 182; for presentation 
 and response speech, 185; for 
 oration, 190; for current topics, 
 201 ; for impromptu speech, 207; 
 equivalent to finding issues, 232 ; 
 equivalent to brief, 254, 2 58; for 
 refutation, 267 ; of opponent's 
 speech, 280 ; for committee re- 
 port, 328. See Brief 
 
 Parliamentary law, 289-338 ; gen- 
 eral considerations of, 289-296; 
 origin of, 289 ; need of in Oral 
 English study, 289; value of, 290; 
 when used, 291 ; how used, 292; 
 precedence of motions in, 294 ; 
 society for use of, 296; order of 
 
 business in, 302 ; precedence of 
 questions in, 304 ; rights and 
 duties of officers and members 
 under, 32 1 ; committee work and 
 reports under, 327 ; special points 
 of, 330; special processes in, 331 ; 
 technical terms in, 333 ; special 
 forms of, 335. Exercises : 294. 
 See specific topics in Index 
 
 Parliamentary society, 204 ; organi- 
 zation of, 293, 296; name of, 293; 
 programs of, 294 ; constitution 
 and rules of, 297 ; order of busi- 
 ness in, 302 ; rights and duties of 
 members and officers in, 321 ; 
 m'inutes of, 336 
 
 Pending, 305, 334 
 
 Place for next meeting, 307 
 
 Plays, extempore. See Extempore 
 plays 
 
 Plot, in narration, 83, 86 ; climax in, 
 86; in extempore plays, 221 
 
 Plurality, 334 
 
 Point of order, 310, 321, 385 
 
 Point of view, in narration, 81 ; in 
 description, 93 
 
 Position, of body, when speaking, 
 45; unsupported, 46; after the 
 talk, 47 ; of head, 52 ; active in 
 standing, 164 
 
 Postpone, to a definite time, 315, 
 384, 385; indefinitely, 319, 385 
 
 Practice, in explanations, 16; in 
 arguments, 38 ; in control of feet 
 and hands, 47; of gestures, 48; 
 of extempore speaking, 64 ; for 
 correcting grammar, 72; of ex- 
 planatory talk, 149; of tongue 
 and lips, 165; for range of tone, 
 172; of toasts, 1S8; for reading, 
 197 ; in impromptu speaking, 
 207; of interviews, 214; of de- 
 bate speech, 270; for refutation, 
 285 ; of parliamentary motions, 
 294 ; parliamentary, 303 
 
 Precedence, of motions, 294; moan- 
 ing of, 304 ; tables for, 384, 385 
 
 Presentation speech, 184 
 
 President, 323 
 
 Previous question, 314, 384, 385
 
 394 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Principal or main motion, 320, 384, 
 
 385 
 
 Priority, 294, 334, 384, 385 
 
 Privilege, question of, 307, 321, 385 
 
 Privileged questions, 304 
 
 Program of meeting, 294, 302, 303 
 
 Pronunciation, of new words, 57 ; 
 exercises in, 58, 59 ; key for, 386 
 
 Proposition, statement of, 227 ; 
 analysis of, 230 ; issues of, 232 ; 
 proof of, 235 
 
 Propositions for debate, 357 ; edu- 
 cational, 357 ; national affairs, 
 360; local interests, 361; civics, 
 economics, sociology, 363 ; sci- 
 ence, 365 ; athletics, 366; humor- 
 ous, 366; miscellaneous, 367 
 
 Prospective outline, 144, 270, 279,280 
 
 Pro tem, 334 
 
 Proverbs, concrete, 120; abstract, 
 121; exercises with, 124-126 
 
 I'roxy, 334 
 
 Punctuation in speaking, 167, 169, 
 172 
 
 Putting the motion, 321, 335 
 
 Question, the real, 231 ; issues of, 
 232; of privilege, 307, 321, 385; 
 objection to the, 311, 321, 385; 
 previous, 314, 384. 385 
 
 Questions, in argument, 26 ; in busi- 
 ness talks. III; in interviews, 
 213; to be avoided, 228; inter- 
 pretation of, 280 ; precedence of, 
 304, 384, 385; privileged, 304; 
 incidental, 304 ; subsidiary, 304 ; 
 principal, 304, 384, 385. See 
 Motions, Propositions for debate 
 
 Quorum, 301, 334 
 
 Rally speech, 192 
 
 Reading, as aid to fluency, 66 ; in 
 class, subjects for, 195 ; prepara- 
 tion for, 196; at sight, 197; for 
 a debate, 236 ; quotations, 274 ; 
 teamwork in, 278; papers, 311, 
 385. Exercises: 199 
 
 Reasoning and evidence, 246; kinds 
 of, 247 ; tests of, 249, 250 ; apply- 
 ing, 250 
 
 Rebuttal, 265 ; notes for, 265 ; sum- 
 mary of methods for, 268 ; placing 
 of notes for, 278. See Refutation 
 
 Recess, motion for, 307, 385 
 
 Recitations, See Subjects, Program 
 of meeting. Marking talks 
 
 Recognition by chairman, obtaining, 
 and immediate, 306, 321, 322, 385 
 
 Reconsider, motion to, 330 
 
 Refer to a committee, 315, 384, 385 
 
 Reference, books, 11, 58, 66, 197, 
 236, 239 ; tables, 383 ; suggestions 
 for Oral English recitations, 383 ; 
 precedence of parliamentary mo- 
 tions, 384, 385 ; pronunciation 
 key, 386; steps in preparing an 
 exercise, 387 ; scale for marking 
 talks, 388 
 
 References, and quotations, use in 
 debate, 274; topics for, 375; 
 tables, 383 
 
 Refutation, 264 ; special methods, 
 266 ; outline for, 267 ; centering 
 attack in, 267 ; cards for, 267 ; by 
 first affirmative, 279; by first nega- 
 tive, 281; speeches, 2S3. See Re- 
 buttal 
 
 Renewal of a motion, 333 
 
 Report, committee, 328 ; minority, 
 329; disposal of, 329; critics, 302, 
 
 303.325' 335 
 Reports of officers, 302, 303. 325, 
 
 326, 335, 336 
 Repose, before speaking, 45 ; of 
 
 facial expression, 51 
 Rescind, motion to, 320, 331, 385 
 Resolutions, sample, 338 
 Response, 184 
 Reviewing, opposing case in debate, 
 
 262 ; one's own case, 263 
 Rights of members and officers, 
 
 321-327 
 
 Rise, motion to, 331 
 
 Robert's " Rules of Order," 291, 331 
 
 Roll call. 302, 303, 338 
 
 Rules, parliamentary, use of, 291 ; 
 when dispensed with, 291 ; of 
 parliamentarv society, 293 ; sub- 
 mission to. 296; permanent, 297; 
 of order, 298, 300 ; standing, 298,
 
 INDEX 
 
 395 
 
 301 ; amendments to, 301 ; sus- 
 pension of, 301, 312, 338, 385 ; of 
 debate, 322 ; for debating, 339 
 
 Scale for marking recitations, 388 
 
 Scoring in debates, 345, 347, 354 
 
 Second speakers in debate, 282 
 
 Seconding a motion, 306. 321, 385 
 
 Secret meeting, 331 
 
 Secretary, 324, 336 
 
 Selection of debaters, 354 ; of judges, 
 42, 340, 355 
 
 Senses, aid of, in description, 91 
 
 Sentences, variety in, 116 
 
 Sergeant at arms, 295, 326 
 
 Session, executive, 331 ; and meet- 
 ing- 333 
 
 Setting, for story, 80 ; in explana- 
 tion, 145 
 
 Sign, argument by, 247, 24S; tests 
 of, 249 
 
 Sine die, 334 
 
 Slang, 69-72 
 
 Speeches, forspecial occasions, 176- 
 194; announcement, 176; nom- 
 ination, 179; introduction of a 
 speaker, 182 ; presentation and 
 response, 184; toast, 186; ora- 
 tion, 189; eulogy, 191; farewell, 
 192; inauguration, 192; invitation, 
 192; rally, 192; valedictory, 192; 
 welcome, 193. Exercises: 178, 
 181, 183, 1S5, 188, 191, 193 
 
 Standing committees, 327 
 
 Standing position, 45 
 
 Standing rules, 298 ; amending, 301 ; 
 sample of, 301 
 
 Statement of question, 227 
 
 Stating motions, 306-320 
 
 Style in oral composition, 1 14-135 ; 
 importance of, 114; awkward- 
 ness in, 114; variety in sentence 
 structure, 116; in length of sen- 
 tence, 116; in form of sentence, 
 117; concrete examples and illus- 
 trations, 118; figures of speech, 
 120; outline for unity and cohe- 
 rence in, 126, 128, 130; used in 
 debate, 270. Exercises: 116, 118, 
 122. 130, 135 
 
 Subjects, for explanations, 22, 15S; 
 for narration, 79 ; for business 
 talks, 112; for reading, 195; an- 
 nouncing, 198; for discussions, 
 205; for debate, 227; analyzing, 
 230 ; for parliamentary class, 293, 
 295; for debates, 357-3^8; for 
 recitations and motions, 375-382, 
 383. See Propositions for debate, 
 Questions, Topics 
 
 Summary, in debate, 39, 262, 270, 
 279, 282, 283 ; in description, 97 ; 
 in business talks, iio; in most 
 talks, 132 ; and appeal, 263 ; of 
 rebuttal methods, 268 ; on cards, 
 
 ■ 270 ; prospective and retrospec- 
 tive, 270 
 
 Suspension of rules, 301, 312, t^t^, 
 
 385 
 Synonyms, 63 ; for debating, 64 ; 
 
 exercises for, 68 
 
 Tables, use of, 294, 304 ; reference, 
 383-3^^8 
 
 Take from the table, 313 
 
 Teacher, place in parliamentary 
 class, 292, 294 ; report of, 303 ; 
 as judge for debates, 340, 342 ; 
 as teller, 346; help of, in debate, 
 342, 356 
 
 Teamwork, in debate, 276; in read- 
 ing, 278 ; in judging points to be 
 refuted, 284; cooperation for, 
 285 ; benefits of, 286 
 
 Technical descriptions, 99 
 
 Technical parlimentary terms, 333 
 
 Technical terms defined, 136, 155 
 
 Tellers, 334, 346 
 
 Time for next meeting, 306, 385 
 
 Time limit for debate speeches, 41, 
 273, 276, 285, 286, 314, 330, 339, 
 
 353 
 
 'I'oast, 186 
 
 'I'oastmaster, 187 
 
 'I'ongue and lips, exercises for, 165, 
 166 
 
 Tfjpics, classifying, 126; expressed 
 in sentences, 127; arrangement 
 of, 129, 150; announcing, in 
 reading, 198; current, 201; for
 
 396 
 
 INDEX 
 
 conversations, 216 ; in briefs, 254. 
 See Propositions for debate, Ques- 
 tions, Subjects 
 Treasurer, 326 
 
 Undebatable motions, 306, 384, 385 
 Unfinished business. See Old busi- 
 ness 
 Unity in outline, 126, 130 
 
 Valedictory speech, 192 
 
 Variety, of speaking, 64, 116, 117, 
 166; through speed, 167 ; through 
 loudness, 169; through pitch of 
 voice, 171; in reading, 199; in 
 methods of refutation, 266 
 
 Vice president, 324 
 
 Vocabulary, improving, 57-76; in- 
 creasing, 59 ; use for fluency, 62 ; 
 synonyms for, 63 ; suited to audi- 
 ence, 66 ; reading and writing as 
 aids in acquiring, 66 ; use of books 
 for, 67 ; slang, 69 ; correctness of 
 grammar, 72 ; used in debate, 270. 
 Exercises: 58, 61, 68, 71, 76 
 
 Voice, good use of, 163-175; ease 
 in using, 163; importance of 
 mental attitude, 163 ; control of 
 breath in, 163; tongue and lips 
 as aids to, 165; variety and em- 
 phasis, 166; stress, 169; pitch, 
 171; enthusiasm and force, 173; 
 in debate speech, 270. Exercises : 
 164, 165, 168, 170, 172, 174 
 
 Vote, two-thirds, 334; viva-voce, 335; 
 taking a, 335 
 
 Voting, methods of, 331 
 
 Warrant, 33 5 
 Welcome, speech of, 193 
 Withdrawal of a motion, 312, 385 
 Words, defined, 57 ; pronunciation 
 of, 57 ; adding new, 59 ; appro- 
 priated, 60 ; for fluency, 63 ; 
 expressive, 65 ; descriptive, 67 ; 
 opening. So, 103, 131; appropri- 
 ate, gS 
 
 Yeas and nays, voting by, 332
 
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