HISTORY OF ITALY 
 
 DURING THE CONSULATE AND EMPIRE 
 
 NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE, 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN OF 
 
 CARLO BOTTA. 
 
 BV THE AUTHOR OF "THE LIFE OF JOANNA, QUEEN OF NAPLES. 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 The History of Italy, from 179-1 to 1811, is one of the finest subjects 
 of modern times ; the ideal is there combined with the positive." — 
 
 StendhaCs Sketches of Italy. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR BALDWIN AND CRADOCK. 
 
 1828.
 
 LIBRARY
 
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 CONTENTS. 
 
 Preface, with an account of the Author P. ix 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 State of France after the loss of Italy. — General discontent, 
 and complaints of the people against the government. — 
 Universal desire for the return of Buonaparte. — His arrival 
 from Egypt. — Puts an end to the Directory.— Assumes the 
 supreme authority under the title of First Consul. — Turns 
 his thoughts to the conquest of Italy. — Effects a reconcilia- 
 tion with the Emperor Paul, but cannot procure peace with 
 Austria or England. — His vast designs. — Siege of Genoa — 
 Brave defence of Massena. — That city surrendered to the 
 Austrians P. 1. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Consul passes the Great St. Bernard. — Gains the battle 
 of Marengo ; and becomes master of Upper Italy. — Pro- 
 visionary governments in Piedmont, Genoa, and Milan. — 
 Conclave in Venice. — Cardinal Chiaramonti raised to the 
 Pontificate ; his inauguration at Rome. — Practices of Buo- 
 naparte with him. — Malta taken by the English. — Move- 
 ments in Tuscany. — War renewed between Austria and 
 France Battle of the Mincio between Bellegarde and
 
 VI CONTENTS. 
 
 Brune. — Retreat of the former. — Passage of the Splugcn 
 effected with wonderful courage and skill, by Macdonald. — 
 Fresh successes of the French. — Peace with Naples, Austria, 
 and Spain. — All Europe, except England, in amity with 
 France P. 62. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Consul comes to an agreement with the See of Rome, and 
 restores the Catholic religion in France. — The Concordat. — 
 Discussions in the Papal council on this subject. — Organic 
 articles added by the Consul. — Complaints of the Pope re- 
 specting them. — French ordinances in Piedmont, which 
 pave the way for its definitive union with France. — Menou 
 replaces Jourdan in the government. — Murat in Tuscany. — 
 His mandate against the Neapolitan exiles. — Tuscany given 
 to the young Prince of Parma, with the title of King of 
 Etruria. — The Consul endeavours to secure more ample 
 authority, and a more illustrious title. — Makes his first 
 experiments in Italy, and calls the Italian deputies to 
 Lyons. — He is there declared president of the Italian re- 
 public for ten years, with the capability of being re-elected. — 
 Constitution of the Italian republic. — Change in Genoa. — 
 Her new constitution. — Monument erected at Sarzana in 
 honour of the Buonaparte family, originally of that city. — 
 Piedmont formally united to France. — Charles Louis Infant 
 of Spain becomes King of Etruria by the death of the 
 Prince of Parma. — Yellow fever at Leghorn. — The ten 
 years' arts of Buonaparte attain their completion. — Procures 
 for himself the title of Emperor. — Pius the Seventh goes 
 expressly to Paris to perform the ceremony of his corona- 
 tion P. 178.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Buonaparte, having made himself Emperor of France, resolves 
 to give himself the title of King of Italy. — The Italians 
 present themselves before him, at Paris, and gratify this 
 wish. — Repairs to Milan to be crowned. — Constitution of 
 Genoa changed, and the territory united to France. — Fetes 
 given by the Genoese to the Emperor and King. — Submis- 
 sion of Scipio Ricci, bishop of Pistoja, to the Pope. — His 
 reception by the Pope at Florence. — Artful insinuations of 
 the Jesuits to the princes of Europe ; their restoration in the 
 kingdom of Naples. — War between France on one side, and 
 Russia and Austria on the other. — Its causes.-'-Massena 
 Generalissimo of France. — The Archduke Charles, of Aus- 
 tria, in Italy. — Battle of Caldiera. — Brilliant victories of 
 Napoleon, in Germany. — The Archduke retires from Italy. 
 — Peace of Presburg. — Napoleon deprives Ferdinand of 
 Naples of his kingdom. — Reasons of this step. — Joseph, 
 brother of Napoleon, king of Naples. — Bloodshed in Cala- 
 bria. — Battle of Maida between the French and English. — 
 Affair of the mouths of the Cattaro. — Ferocity of the war 
 in Dalmatia. — Dalmatia and Ragusa united to the kingdom 
 of Italv P. 288.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The translation which is now presented to 
 the public comprises nine only of the twenty- 
 seven books of Botta's History of Italy in our 
 own times. The original work naturally divides 
 itself into two portions ; the first beginning at the 
 period of the beneficent reign of Leopold, in 
 Tuscany, to which the historian so often and so 
 fondly reverts ; and ending in the last days of 
 the corrupt and feeble Directory of France. 
 The second portion, which contains the history 
 of Italy during the consulate and empire of 
 Napoleon, from 1799 to 1814, is here chosen, 
 partly because it consists of but little more than 
 a fourth of the whole work ; the taste of the 
 day being decidedly against voluminous reading ; 
 many entering with pleasure on the contents of 
 
 % 
 
 »
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 two volumes who would turn with disgust from 
 eight ; and partly because the extraordinary- 
 character of " the man of destiny " is no where 
 more fully developed, nor his actions more 
 impartially related. In the pages of the modern 
 Guicciardini facts are related with scrupulous 
 fidelity ; but the bias of his mind is sometimes 
 perceptible in the motives he attributes to the 
 actors in his great tragedy ; and certain it is, 
 that whatever good he may occasionally describe 
 as the result of the actions of Napoleon, he never 
 on any occasion traces their source to an imjiulse 
 of virtue or generosity. It is also remarkable on 
 the other hand, that his eloquent encomiums of 
 the mighty genius of Napoleon are rarely given 
 in the person of the author, but are attributed to 
 the public at large. These, however, are swelled 
 to a pitch of extravagance that seems like 
 hyperbole to those who have lived out of the 
 immediate scene, where every mind was subdued 
 by the force of his genius, or intimidated by a 
 superstitious dread of his fortune.
 
 PREFACE. xi 
 
 The writer seems panic-struck wlien brought 
 back by his historical labours to live over again, 
 in thought, those days when *' the fatal Napoleon '* 
 was " the umpire of fortune^'' Perhaps, in the 
 present state of continental Europe, he dared 
 not pledge his own opinions ; for the vivid 
 picture he has drawn of the powers of his won- 
 derful theme ; and, unwilling as an orator to 
 forego the awe-inspiring effect it produces, he 
 has adopted this mode of conveying it to posterity. 
 An Italian mind could, perhaps, best comprehend 
 and depict the irregular character of Napoleon, 
 where the extremes of sublimity and meanness 
 not unfrequently meet ; for his transports of 
 rage, his fond attachments, his imperious pride, 
 his soft and kindly manner, his craft, his con- 
 temptuous sarcasm, his subtle flattery, his fixed- 
 ness of purpose, and continual change of plan, 
 — breaking, like the Epicurean, as he ascended, 
 every step of the ladder by which he mounted 
 to a dizzing; height over the dark and troubled 
 abvss of anarchv and revolution, are all to be
 
 Xll PT^EFACE. 
 
 found in the character of the country from which 
 he derived his origin. Napoleon was but in 
 fact on a gigantic scale, one of the Condottieri of 
 earlier Italy ; leading on by his personal influence 
 bands gathered from all nations, rushing on 
 without magazines and without pay ; rapid 
 victories cementing their allegiance ; hope their 
 support, and success their guerdon. In Italy 
 were his earliest laurels won ; in Italy he gained 
 the sceptre over his fellow men ; and whilst his 
 own entrance into that gifted land, whose destiny 
 it has been, in every age, to sway or to delight 
 the world, resembles a tale of romance, the 
 road he has made for others to traverse into 
 Italy is one of his most enduring boasts. 
 
 The broad facts of this unequalled period of 
 excitement and of reverses we know and we 
 deplore : the banished men who crowd the 
 shores, yet cannot weary the generosity, of 
 Britain, are here to take up the tale of frustrated 
 hopes and defeated rights. In reading coolly 
 the detail of the times in which they were reared,
 
 PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 oF the wrongs by which their country bled, and 
 of the opinions which moderate men are obliged 
 to form from the facts which history has to 
 recount, we shall see the human mind displayed 
 in all its varieties. 
 
 Botta, like too many of the most accomplished 
 and the most virtuous of his countrymen, is 
 virtually an exile, residing at Paris ; and, like 
 too many of the still noble and once affluent 
 princes of the land which has ever been considered 
 the boast of nature, is said to be indebted to the 
 generosity of his friends for such comforts as an 
 Italian can enjoy out of his own idolized Italy ; 
 where luxuries, such as wealth cannot create 
 elsewhere, are the inheritance of all ; where 
 the wonders of art are the delight of every eye ; 
 the perfection of music is poured forth on every 
 ear, and where many who live but to breathe 
 the air of its balmy clime, find its tranquilizing 
 influence a substitute for happiness, or a neu- 
 tralizer of care. 
 
 Our Italian historian was busily engaged in
 
 XIV TREFACE. 
 
 the scenes he describes during the whole of the 
 momentous period of which his history treats. 
 He was born in 1766, in the town of San 
 Giorgio, in Piedmont, and took his degrees as a 
 physician at the University of Turin. In 1792 
 he was arrested as an advocate of republican 
 principles; but as nothing serious was proved 
 against him, he was liberated after a short imi)ri- 
 , sonment. In 1794 he took refuge in the Cisalpine 
 territory, as the French conquerors then termed 
 Lombardy, and was thence sent with the French 
 forces in his medical capacity to Corfu. He 
 returned to Italy with the Italian army in J 796, 
 and on the forced abdication of the King of 
 Sardinia in 1798 was appointed by Joubert a 
 member of the provisional government. His 
 enemies, on the authority of the Moniteur of 
 the 8th of March, 1799, accuse him of having 
 being one of the three commissioners (Bossi and 
 CoUa were his alleged coadjutors) who proposed 
 the annexation of Piedmont to France, but of this 
 he says nothing in his history, and indirectly
 
 rilEFACE. XV 
 
 apoloj^izes for vvliatever may have been the errors 
 of his political conduct. Thus, if any members 
 of the provisional government were influenced by 
 ambition, they were not long in discovering the 
 bitterness of serving under foreign masters. For 
 in a short time, not by their own misconduct, but 
 from the miserable circumstances of the period, 
 they lost at once the confidence of their own 
 countrymen, and the friendship of the stranger. 
 Fatal times ! in which ancient governments were 
 destroyed from mad rage, and the honoured name 
 of the worthy was vilified in order to reduce all 
 men to the same level. This provisional govern- 
 ment, however, lasted but a few months, and on 
 the return of Suwarrow in 1799, Botta was 
 obliged to seek an asylum in France. When the 
 battle of Marengo had restored the French domi- 
 nion in Italy, Botta, with Carlo Bossi, an advo- 
 cate, and Carlo Giulio, likewise a physician, was 
 appointed to govern Piedmont, under the name 
 of an executive commission. This triumvirate, 
 having all unfortunately the same christian name
 
 XVI PREFACE. 
 
 of the deposed king, were held up to ridicule 
 under the familiar appellation of " / ire Carli^' 
 some malicious wit having made them the sub- 
 ject of the following epigram : 
 
 " Le Piedmont versait des Larmes, 
 Lorsque Charles etait son roi ; 
 Quels pleurs et quels alarmes, 
 A present qu'il en a trois." 
 
 Ranza, the Cobbett of Italy, attacked them 
 unceasingly in prose ; and Calvo, the Fon- 
 taine of the Piedmontese dialect, wrote a bitter 
 satire against them, in revenge for a few 
 days' imprisonment, taking for his motto 
 Ne sutor ultra crejndam ; and from the reiterated 
 complaints he makes of the impossibility of 
 governing Piedmont at this time, perhaps the 
 historical physician was but too well convinced of 
 the picture of the epigraph, and was not sorry to be 
 relieved from his responsibility, when in 1802 the 
 second provisional government of which he had 
 been a member was set aside by the annexation 
 of Piedmont to France. Bossi and Giulio were
 
 PREFACE. XVll 
 
 made prefects ; Botta was appointed a member 
 of the new legislative council, as representative 
 for the department of the Dora, and in 1808 
 became its vice-president. However, as, like other 
 representatives and legislators under Napoleon, 
 his office was a mere sinecure, he employed his 
 leisure in writing his history of the American war, 
 published in 1810, which all parties of his coun- 
 trymen unite in admiring, and which the Ameri- 
 cans cite as the best account that has yet 
 appeared of that contest. During this period he 
 received the order of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 In 1814 Botta, taking advantage of his privi- 
 lege as a French citizen, again retired to France, 
 where he obtained an employment under Louis 
 the Eighteenth. Unfortunately for him, the reign 
 of the hundred days did not pass over without 
 bestowing on him further promotion, and, in con- 
 sequence, on the return of the King of France he 
 was deprived of his office. He has, notwith- 
 standing, been permitted to reside at Paris, where 
 
 he composed and published his recent works, and 
 VOL. I. b
 
 XVm PREFACE. 
 
 is now engaged in writing the History of Italy 
 from the time of Guicciardini to the period 
 when the beautiful work he has completed 
 commences. 
 
 There are few works whose sustained prolixity 
 suggests more comprehensive and intricate views 
 of the march of events than this of Botta : he 
 seems to have written with the skill of an epic 
 poet the rapid varieties of subject which history 
 unfolds. He loves to mingle the minutiae of the 
 midnight fray, the brilliancy of the fete, the 
 horrors of the Lazar house, with the complex 
 detail of state policy : the attention is almost 
 wearied with expanded views and local regu- 
 lations, when some trifling appeal to universal 
 nature, some identifying touch, comes suddenly 
 before us. The sugar plums of famishing Genoa, 
 the hymn of the Tyrolese, the opera of Valetta, 
 the sarcastic turn of his own thought, break 
 into his subject like sunshine on the scene, 
 and reanimate the picture : he is a deep master 
 of irony, which is often suggested rather than
 
 PREFACE. xix 
 
 expressed ; and his covert smile is keenly felt 
 under some unassuming phrase or short expressive 
 comment. He is of that race of men, of warm and 
 vivid fancies, with whom a shrug is of more 
 eloquence than the harangue of other lands ; 
 a gesture, or an intonation, the quintessence 
 of passion, and the revealing of thought. All is 
 rapid, keen, sententious when opinion or senti- 
 ment is in question ; while all is laboured into 
 distinctness where facts are to be related. 
 People more used to affairs would not need such 
 long explanations ; but it is written by a native 
 of the land of idleness and of thought, where 
 to understand things is difficult, but to catch the 
 most hidden turns of mind is the habit of every 
 hour. 
 
 A few words remain to be said for the trans- 
 lation. As the work is chiefly valuable as the 
 record of the opinions of the moderate men of 
 continental Europe as corrected by experience, 
 scrupulous fidelity has chiefly been aimed at by 
 the translator, who on all occasions has endea-
 
 XX PREFACE. 
 
 voured to render the exact shade of praise or 
 censure, and the epithets of the original simply. 
 If this fidelity could compass the tragic effect, 
 the pathos, the terse sarcasm of the original, 
 there would be little more to desire ; but to cope 
 at once with the style of Botta, and the flexible 
 and glowing language of Italy, is no easy task. 
 Should, however, the public favour the present 
 attempt, the translator may probably be induced 
 to offer at, a future period, the previous books 
 to its approbation.
 
 HISTORY OF ITALY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 State of France after the loss of Italy. — General discontent, 
 and complaints of the people against the government. — 
 Universal desire for the return of Buonaparte. — His arrival 
 from Egypt. — Puts an end to the Directory. — Assumes the 
 supreme authority under the title of First Consul. — Turns 
 his thoughts to the conquest of Italy. — Effects a reconcilia- 
 tion with the Emperor Paul, but cannot procure peace with 
 
 Austria or England. — His vast designs. — Siege of Genoa 
 
 Brave defence of Massena. — That city surrendered to the 
 Austrians. 
 
 In the present centuiy, an age of violence, of 
 ambition, and of pride, Europe has been doomed 
 to pass through the two worst extremes that can 
 afflict the human race, with the ultimate result of 
 being left incapable of enjoying mild and liberal 
 institutions. From the commencement of the 
 Fench Revolution to the period of the Egyptian 
 campaign, it had been convulsed by an unbridled 
 
 VOL. I, B 
 
 /
 
 2 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 license assuming the name of liberty, which it 
 was then fated to exchange for an oppressive 
 despotism, under the title of an imperial govern- 
 ment. The situation of the French Directory in 
 the year 1799 was one of extreme difficulty. 
 France was disturbed by the fermentation of 
 various parties, all inimical to the existing go- 
 vernment : the French nation, naturally impa- 
 tient under a reverse of fortune, was at this time 
 rendered still more impatient by the memory of 
 former victories; and, to sooth their own self- 
 love, the people imputed the blame of their recent 
 defeats to the errors of their rulers. Complaints 
 of their conduct were heard on every side, and 
 the best that was said for them was, that they 
 knew not how to govern ; for some accused them 
 of treachery, and others, of having divided the 
 booty with those by whose robberies the soldiery 
 had been reduced to such penury that victory 
 was rendered impossible. That enthusiasm which 
 had at first been felt for the three new directors 
 had been entirely destroyed by the last defeats. 
 In the legislative council there reigned, as usual, 
 the perverse ambition of embarrassing the govern- 

 
 1799.] HISTOUY OF ITALY. 3 
 
 ment, in order to attain to the Directorial seats, 
 and from this motive its members thwarted the 
 Directory in every measure alike, whether good or 
 bad; and thus there was no longer any means 
 or possibility of governing. The new conscripts 
 would not march; the veteran soldiers deserted on 
 account of the shortness of their pay; the taxes 
 could not be collected ; every nerve was wanting. 
 Civil war lacerated the western provinces; party 
 spirit divided the southern : in politics some ad- 
 vocated extreme opinions, others embraced the 
 more moderate ; many who well knew whither 
 these wishes tended, and more yet who knew not 
 what they looked for, further than change, desired 
 an alteration in the government. And this alter- 
 ation was inevitable, for no government in France 
 can resist the effect of military reverses, if at the 
 same time the press be free, and discussion un- 
 restrained. The military faction, who ill brooked 
 to see the nation ruled by the civil robe, and whom 
 none but a martial government could please, looked 
 around to see if any banner inviting to change 
 was unfolded to the restless air, round which they 
 might rally as a common centre, proposing to 
 
 B 2
 
 4 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 subdue, first the government by the name of 
 liberty, and then the people by the name of glory. 
 These things were clearly perceived by the pru- 
 dent, the enemies of license ; nor were they less 
 clearly seen by the factious, the friends of ty- 
 ranny; and both hoped to turn them to their own 
 designs. 
 
 In this conjuncture, the name of Buonaparte, 
 so glorious to France — so fearful to her enemies, 
 arose to the minds of all. He alone, said they, can 
 restore health to the afflicted state, or bring its 
 tempest-driven fortunes into safe harbour. He 
 alone can give fresh verdure to the drooping lau- 
 rels of the desolated republic ; and his arm alone 
 can regain the much-coveted provinces of unhappy 
 Italy. Treachery, or incapacity, has sullied the 
 name of France by unnumbered defeats ; and 
 already Europe, so often vanquished, threatens to 
 attack even the proper soil of her victors. He 
 alone, the conqueror of Italy, ever equal to him- 
 self, has chained victory to the republican banners 
 on distant and barbarous shores. The fame of 
 his triumphs in Egypt affords some consolation 
 for the disasters in Europe. It is now to be seen
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 5 
 
 how much one man may be able to effect for the 
 safety of the state, attacked by such overpowering 
 force ; and since Joubert is dead, and Moreau 
 and Massena are unequal to the task, why should 
 we not call to the aid of the sinking country 
 Buonaparte, the matchless ? In others there is 
 courage — in others talent ; but the mind which 
 subjugates fortune, the commanding intellect 
 which binds every will to one noble and exalted 
 end, dwells only in Buonaparte : he only can mo- 
 derate and restrain discordant opinions, and bane- 
 ful suspicions. Let us prove, therefore, how much 
 may be accomplished by a mind thus powerful, and 
 by fortune thus constant: — with the conqueror 
 of Italy the republic prospered ; deprived of him, 
 she has fallen ; with the hero of Italy and of 
 Egypt she shall rise anew. In this manner there 
 arose in France an intense desire for the presence* 
 of the unconquered captain. The lovers of mili- 
 tary glory turned to him, as capable of restoring 
 its lustre : those corrupted by the appetite of com- 
 mand and of plunder, because they hoped to 
 regain, through him, the opportunities of oppres- 
 sion and peculation : the enemies of licentiousness
 
 6 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799 
 
 desired him, because they knew he was adverse to 
 it himself, and was strong enough to restrain it ; 
 the enemies of civil war believed that he could 
 quell that evil ; the ardent republicans doubted 
 not that he would set aside the Directory ; the 
 moderate republicans believed that he would esta- 
 blish a regulated freedom ; the learned, and men 
 of letters, hoped for his patronage ; the philoso- 
 phers favoured him, because they knew he thought 
 freely on religious subjects, and believed him a 
 friend to civil liberty ; the secret partizans of 
 loyalty, because he had succeeded in persuading 
 them (at least so it was reported, and even some 
 overtures had been made to that effect) that he 
 would consent to the return of the Bourbons, and 
 to the restoration of their ancient authority in 
 France. Every one, therefore, expected to find a 
 saviour in him — every one desired his return, to 
 redeem their afflicted country. This affection to- 
 wards him had arisen, partly from the defeats 
 that had been sustained, partly from the splen- 
 dour of his own victories, partly from the artifices 
 he and his partizans had practised so dexterously, 
 that every man believed that his own peculiar
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 7 
 
 objects were exactly those which Buonaparte 
 would labour to effect. So great is the efficacy of 
 ambiguous language in civil discords, because the 
 differing factions have no communication with 
 each other ; or, if they have, they yield no faith 
 to the representations of their political opponents ; 
 and he who stands above them all may flatter 
 them — may wind them about, and delude them at 
 will. If, among madmen, the cautious can do so 
 much, how much more may not the artful man 
 effect, whose caution has double force ? and Buona- 
 parte was, to a supreme degree, astute. In fine, the 
 material of power was well prepared, and waited 
 but to receive from his hand whatever form he 
 should be pleased to impress it with. As soon, 
 therefore, as the intelligence of the first disasters in 
 Italy had been received, there had arisen amongst 
 the lovers of change the idea of bringing back 
 Buonaparte from Egypt, which gained fresh 
 strength, and instant means were sought for its 
 execution, on the news of the death of Joubert at 
 the battle of Novi. In this design, the director 
 Sieycs concurred, because his penetrating judg- 
 ment enabled him to perceive that the state
 
 8 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 could no longer hold together under the present 
 form of government : Barras, also a director, 
 favoured it, partly from ancient friendship for 
 Buonaparte, partly from the hope of the restora- 
 tion, of the Bourbons. All the surviving generals 
 of the army of Italy, except Massena, who was 
 never well inclined towards Buonaparte ; and, 
 lastly, his two brothers, Joseph and Lucien, who 
 were aspiring to power, sought equally to effect 
 it. The conduct of Lucien Buonaparte was well 
 adapted to promote the desired end : to his friends 
 he represented that as it was impossible to live 
 under the present government, another should be 
 formed ; to the public he depicted in lively 
 colours, first the glories, and then the disasters of 
 the Italian campaiglis ; and bewailed the fate of 
 the Cisalpine republic oppressed by the tyranny 
 of Trouve and Rivaud. He eulogised and patro- 
 nised Italy ; and he preached the restoration of the 
 liberty of France, trampled down, as he said, by 
 an absolute and oppressive Directory. Thus 
 alluring men's minds, he gained to himself, and to 
 the name of his brother, the zealous friends of the 
 liberty and glory of France ; those desirous of
 
 1799-] HISTORY OF ITALV. \ 9 
 
 Italian liberty, and those likewise who Aycted 
 Italian spoils. 
 
 A Greek vessel was therefore employed to b^r 
 the common desires to the Egyptian shores in thfe^ 
 sumaner of the present year. The intelligence it \ 
 conveyed was grateful and opportune. 
 
 The prompt and vast mind of Buonaparte, his 
 great political skill, and his profound knowledge 
 of the human race, made him quite aware how 
 full was the tide of fortune which flowed to 
 meet him, and how propitious the opportunity of 
 realising his immeasurable hopes. The occasion 
 also appeared favourable to withdraw himself 
 from Egypt, where affairs were beginning to 
 take an unfavourable turn. He eagerly, therefore, 
 set forward, to meet his new and extraordinary 
 destiny. Weighing anchor from the Egyptian 
 shore, he brought with him his most faithful 
 companions in arms, whose swords he needed ; 
 and the most celebrated amongst the learned and 
 literary, intending to avail himself of the power- 
 ful aid of the authority of their voices and 
 their writings. He arrived unex23ectedly at Fre- 
 jus ; and, disregarding the quarantine regulations,
 
 10 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799. 
 
 because he wished rapidly to follow up the report 
 of his landing, as suddenly left it, and quickly 
 reached the ever fickle cajiital which eagerly 
 expected him. I will not stop to relate the 
 rejoicings that took place throughout France 
 when the news was spread abroad of his return. 
 Suffice it to say, that the people flocked round 
 him on every side as a conqueror, a saviour, a 
 redeemer; — already, France was his, though he 
 was but a private individual, and a general with- 
 out an army. Lyons above all was dizzy with 
 unwonted joy ; for that city was yet stained with 
 gore from the domination of the murderous jaco- 
 bins so lately extinct, and indignant under the 
 martial law which still afflicted it. Buonaparte, 
 as he passed through, spoke of peace, of com- 
 mercial prosperity, of civil wounds to be healed 
 by a mild and just government. The satisfied 
 Lyonese felt their hopes revive, and loved him. — 
 At Paris, every opinion, every aff'ection turned 
 to him. To all he gave good words ; but, in fine, 
 he inclined to the side of moderation, knowing that 
 . such was the general desire. Men of letters espe- 
 cially, whether poets or not poets, strove to gain
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. H 
 
 his favour in every manner that was most adula- 
 tory, and with measureless praise exalted liis 
 name to the skies. The infection of flattery was 
 widely diffused ; all France resounded with enco- 
 miums ; liberty had already perished, ere brought 
 to the birth. 
 
 Buonaparte drove out the legislative council 
 at the point of the bayonet, and dismissed the 
 Directory. The soldiers paid by the government 
 turned against it. He was at first not without 
 some fear himself, but soon found means to inti- 
 midate others : at this time he termed those 
 lunatics, who could believe that monarchy could 
 prevail over republicanism in Europe ; and yet 
 he afterwards suppressed all the republics, and 
 every where established royalty. Europe knows 
 the result of the 9th of November, which misrht 
 have produced a system of regulated freedom, 
 and which brought forth a severe, over-strained, 
 despotic, and military government. Sieyes soon 
 found that he had got a master, not an associate; 
 Barras, that he had obtained not a colleague, 
 but a man who wished to place him at a 
 distance from himself, not a friend who acknow-
 
 12 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 ledged in liim a benefactor — one, in fine, in whom 
 the desire of absolute power overcame gratitude 
 and friendship. 
 
 Napoleon's trilustral series of artifices now com- 
 menced. Fearing that the French would hardly 
 tolerate the great change he meditated, and per- 
 ceiving that an extraordinary foundation must be 
 laid, on which to sustain his immense cupidity, he 
 prepared with infinite dexterity the most powerful 
 allurements. Marvellous was his skill in winning 
 victory in the field ; but much more marvellous 
 his art in seducing the minds of men. He 
 drew them to a heavy yoke, but he alone knew 
 what were his ends ; and, spurred on by the 
 grateful prospect of a happy futurity — by flat- 
 tering hopes and gratified desires, they ran 
 eagerly and impetuously to that point whither his 
 will would have impelled them ; yet never did so 
 smooth a rind conceal a fruit so bitter. The ter- 
 mination of civil war in the interior, and peace 
 with foreign nations, were deemed by him the 
 necessary foundations of his power. The French 
 were wearied and exhausted by protracted war- 
 fare, and desired peace above all things, provided
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITAT,Y. 13 
 
 it could be procured without dishonour ; and of 
 this they felt no fear, with Buonaparte as their 
 chief. To this end, therefore, he mainly directed 
 his thoughts. A serious impediment to civil con- 
 cord, he rightly judged, existed in those violent 
 spirits who cannot from ambition remain at rest 
 under any government, nor even continue tranquil 
 when they are possessed of authority themselves, 
 their tyranny first decimating the people, then 
 bringing destruction on themselves, and laying the 
 very foundations of the state in ruin. He was 
 aware that the names of such were odious in 
 France ; and therefore believed that, to banish 
 these authors of scandalous disorders, of quarrels, 
 and of blood, would effectually promote the resto- 
 ration of civil harmony. For this reason, there- 
 fore, without standing on judicial forms, or delay- 
 ing to use against them the most severe remedy, 
 he transported them to distant settlements or 
 exiled -them to foreign countries. 
 
 France being purged of these turbulent men, he 
 next sought to recal those who had embraced the 
 part of the king, or who at least had abhorred 
 the excesses committed in the present period of
 
 14 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799* 
 
 the revolution. But few were exempted from 
 this edict of clemency; and those, rather as a 
 means of granting future favours, than from any- 
 other motive. The exiles returned, but not to 
 their own roofs — not to the possession of their 
 confiscated fortunes — yet to see once more the 
 mountains, the streams, the vales of their native 
 land, to breathe again their native air ; and this, 
 even this, has in it something of felicity. 
 
 These measures were exceedingly gratifying to 
 the royalists ; and from them they augured still 
 greater advantages to their party. Their satis- 
 faction was grateful to the Consul, who wished to 
 obtain absolute power by the aid both of royalists 
 and republicans. And these ideas he the more 
 willingly confirmed, knowing that they were 
 highly pleasing to the European powers, and, in 
 conformity with the expectations given by him, at 
 Leoben and Campo Formio, of the restoration of 
 the Bourbons, which was the first wish of the 
 soverefgns, and particularly of the Emperor Paul. 
 In the depth of his dissimulation, he hoped, by 
 these means, to obtain peace in Europe, and 
 such power in France as should enable him
 
 1799] HISTORY OF ITALY. 15 
 
 finally to avow that he had grasjied the crown 
 for himself, and not for others. The authorities 
 established by him in France, consisting princi- 
 pally of the senate and the legislative body, gave 
 him no apprehension ; the senate was secured to 
 him by its wealth, the legislative body by its 
 ambition. The discordant law and administration 
 of the various provinces he reduced to one mo- 
 del ; and the laws being better executed, and the 
 revenue flourishing, every thing tended to mo- 
 narchy. The contributions flowed freely in ; the 
 magistrates were active; the people obedient ; the 
 soldiers willing to follow their standards ; and all 
 blessed the Consul. To believe that abstract prin- 
 ciples will prevail over full purses is the folly of a 
 madman. 
 
 Great effect was given to all these manoeuvres, 
 by men of science and letters, who have always 
 great influence with the people, particularly in 
 France, where they meet in certain assemblies, 
 not by law, but by custom. For this reason, 
 the Consul caressed them, gave them riches, 
 granted them honours. He flattered the Insti- 
 tute, and the Institute flattered him. Some drew
 
 16 HISTOEY OF ITALY. [1799. 
 
 near him from interested motives, others from 
 virtuous intentions only, believing him inclined 
 of his own free will to promote liberty, or hoping 
 to gain him over to her side by persuasion. 
 Amongst these latter, I have pleasure in men- 
 tioning the name of Cabanis, but whether the 
 excellence of his thoughts, his words, his writings, 
 or his actions was greatest, I am unable to deter- 
 mine, for certainly in all these he was truly emi- 
 nent. This array of the scientific and the literary 
 was a powerful support to the Consul ; because 
 every one thought that he to whom the society 
 of those who cultivated the arts of peace was 
 pleasing, must also hold dear the happiness of 
 civil life, and with it liberty, which would be the 
 perfection, and, as it were, the flower of civiliza- 
 tion, if avarice and ambition did not corrupt it. 
 
 The war in La Vendee had from the beginning 
 of the revolution been one of the greatest evils it 
 had brought forth. The furious contests of the 
 royalists and republicans had there exterminated 
 entire communes ; had laid waste districts that 
 were before flourishing ; had occasioned actions to 
 be committed, which men, enraged against each
 
 1799-] HISTOTIY OF ITALY. 17 
 
 other, only commit in civil wars — rarely even in 
 them. Force had not been able to put it down, 
 but served only to irritate it ; negociation, where 
 no confidence in good faith existed, was equally 
 unavailing. Till this period, therefore, it had 
 been called the interminable war. The Consul, 
 foreseeing the great popularity he should acquire 
 by giving peace to a land red with so much 
 French blood, applied his mind to the task, and 
 succeeded in accomplishing it. Between the 
 terror of his name, the formidable army of his 
 soldiers, his protestations of good faith, the hopes 
 recently given of further compliance with their 
 desires, the chiefs of La Vendee were brought to 
 an honourable composition. Concord once more 
 visited the ensanguined banks of the Loire ; 
 Paris wondered to see the Vendean chiefs within 
 her walls ; the nation admired the consular paci- 
 ficator, equally great in acquiring the triumphs 
 of war and restoring the blessings of peace. 
 
 Buonaparte expected to derive from the clergy, 
 so ill-treated by the Directory, powerful support 
 in the prosecution of his ambitious designs ; he 
 sought to gain them, and easily accomplished it % 
 
 VOL. I. c
 
 18 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799. 
 
 he gave a country to the banished priests, liberty 
 to the incarcerated, and security to those who 
 had sought a precarious existence in conceahnent. 
 These things he did openly, many others he pro- 
 mised secretly. All the priests, even those who, 
 with crucifix in hand, had excited the Vendean 
 population against the republicans, became at- 
 tached to him, and promoted his authority. We 
 must here add that, honouring that Pope when 
 dead, whom he had persecuted when living, he 
 celebrated the funeral offices of Pius the Sixth 
 with many august ceremonies. He commanded 
 his solemn exequies to be performed at Valence in 
 Dauphiny ; he called him just, and virtuous, and 
 holy; and affirmed, that force and bad counsels had 
 obliged him to make war against France. These 
 discourses were wonderfully gratifying to those 
 who still retained religious sentiments, and still 
 more so to the clergy, France already called him, 
 not only a conquering hero and a generous re- 
 former of the government, but also the pious 
 restorer of its ancient faith. The pontifical 
 throne having become vacant by the death of Pius
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 19 
 
 the Sixth, a conclave was at this time held at 
 Venice for the election of his successor. The 
 Consul finding that, as the election must take 
 place in a city subject to Austria, a pontiff would 
 be chosen from the adherents of that house, and, 
 therefore, inimical to his own individual interests 
 and those of France, multiplied on every side his 
 demonstrations of affection to the cause of reli- 
 gion and her ministers. It was easy to foresee 
 from these first favours, that he wished in eccle- 
 siastical matters to proceed to legitimate and 
 definitive ordinances. For these reasons the 
 cardinals who were assembled at Venice, not de- 
 spairing of France, would not consent to elevate 
 to the pontificate any of their number who had 
 shown himself indisposed towards her. 
 
 It also happened favourably for France and the 
 Consul, that the cardinals strongly suspected the 
 designs of Austria on the patrimony of the 
 church. The intentions she had shown of send- 
 ing Froelich to Rome, the delay in ratifying the 
 convention between Garnier, the English, and the 
 Neapolitans, and, still more, the evident desire 
 
 c 2
 
 30 HISTORY OF ITAI.Y. [1799. 
 
 she betrayed of keeping to herself the three lega- 
 tions,* had excited their suspicions ; and therefore 
 they desired to strengthen themselves against 
 Austria, by the friendship of France. These 
 dispositions were artfully fomented by the Consul, 
 and facilitated his plans in settling the affairs of 
 R-ome. It was now manifest that, instead of 
 combating against Europe and the Holy See con- 
 jointly, the season had arrived in which he might 
 avail himself of the aid of the church against 
 the temporal powers ; and, as the worst evils had 
 resulted from the cry of liberty without religion, 
 he resolved to proclaim both liberty and religion, 
 until his power should take such firm root, that 
 he might extinguish the one and move the other 
 at his will : — all things tended to his power. 
 
 But the first, and the universal desire of ensan- 
 guined France was peace, and this desire the 
 Consul encouraged ; not that he expected to 
 succeed in procuring it with all the powers, but 
 to offer it to all accorded well with his general 
 plans. He continually declared, that this was the 
 purpose of his return from Egypt ; that he ab- 
 
 '" Romagna, Bologna^ and Fcrrara. — Tr.
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 21 
 
 horred alike war and conquerors, and prayed God 
 to grant him just sufficient life to give peace to 
 France and Europe ; for this only did he desire to 
 live; military glory had become disgusting to 
 him ; peaceful labours alone had now any charms. 
 These sentiments were expressed in such elo- 
 quent words, and with such benignity of counte- 
 nance, that every one gave credit to his sincerity 
 With these views, though scarcely expecting 
 that more than the credit of the offer would 
 result from the overture, he wrote an elaborate 
 letter to George the Third. " ^Vas the war to 
 be eternal ? Were there no means of coming to an 
 honourable adjustment ? ^Vere two great and 
 powerful nations utterly to disregard the pros- 
 perity of the state and the happiness of private 
 families ? Did they not feel that peace was now 
 actually in their hands ; and, as it was the desire 
 of all, was it not therefore of all things the most 
 glorious ? It was evident that France and England 
 were sufficiently strong to continue long to harass 
 each other ; but it was equally evident that the 
 destiny of every nation hung on the termination of 
 a war which had set the world on fire." The
 
 22 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799. 
 
 English monarch coldly replied, through Lord 
 Grenville, that " France had desolated the earth ; 
 that like principles and like causes would in future 
 bring forth like effects. Treaties of peace and al- 
 liance had been used for the destruction of friends 
 and allies. It was yet to be seen whether the 
 new government, produced by a fresh revolution, 
 would adopt different measures and afford greater 
 security to those who should treat with it. No 
 confidence could be placed in general professions 
 of pacific desires. Not empty words, but expe- 
 rience could convince other powers that the 
 designs of France were now different from what 
 they had been. The King desired peace, but it 
 must be one affording security to himself and to 
 his allies. The only certain means of solid peace 
 would be to restore to France that line of princes 
 whose government for so many centuries had 
 given her internal prosperity and external dig- 
 nity. Nevertheless, the King only intimated 
 this to France — he did not demand it. He neither 
 desired nor pretended to jjrescribe a form of 
 government or a head to a great and powerful 
 nation; he sought only security for himself —
 
 1799.] IIISTOllY OF ITALY. 23 
 
 security for his allies ; he was willing to come to 
 an agreement when he thought he could do so 
 with safety ; as yet, it was impossible to know 
 sufficiently the principles of the new government, 
 or to form any probable conjecture as to its 
 duration." In this manner the proposal of peace 
 between France and England was terminated. 
 But this consequence resulted to the Consul from 
 the overture, that the continuation of the war 
 was imputed not to him, but to the English 
 monarch. 
 
 Between France and England there existed a 
 lively hatred, an opposition of interests, the jea- 
 lousies incident on vicinity, and difficulties in 
 the way of negociation, that were almost insupe- 
 rable. Far different were the relative circum- 
 stances of France and Russia. Austria was the 
 natural ally of England ; Russia was only so by 
 chance. This the Consul knew ; nor was he 
 ignorant of the coldness which existed between 
 Francis and Paul. Austria having wished to 
 occupy France ; her refusal to replace the king of 
 Sardinia ; the harsh treatment of her soldiers by 
 Froelich ; the Archduke Charles's having, by
 
 24 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 his hasty march to the Rhine, left Suwarrow in 
 great danger in Switzerland ; the manifesting in 
 every circumstance the desire of universal do- 
 minion in Italy, had altogether conspired to cool 
 the ardour of the Russian emperor, and had 
 indisposed him towards his ally, although he was 
 not himself averse to possessing a secure footing 
 in the kingdom of Naples, to serve as an empo- 
 rium and a starting point, which he had recently 
 endeavoured to procure by negociations with 
 Ferdinand. This dissatisfaction Buonaparte art- 
 fully fomented, representing to Paul the ambition 
 of the emperor Francis, who wished, he said, to 
 possess, besides the estates of Venice, which had 
 been given in compensation for the Netherlands, 
 both Milan and Mantua, and their dependencies, 
 a conquest effected chiefly by the valour and 
 blood of Russian soldiers ; nor even content with 
 this, he further coveted the three legations of 
 the pontificate, and had, besides, a fancy for 
 Piedmont, on which account he had opposed 
 Suwarrow, when he wished to restore Charles 
 Emanuel to his ancient seat. For himself, he 
 had no other designs on Italy, than to bring it
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 25 
 
 back to the conditions of Campo Formio, to se- 
 cure the independence of the pontiff, and the king 
 of Naples ; to give fitting legislation and more 
 monarchical institutions to Lombardy ; and to re- 
 place the King of Sardinia in Piedmont, if no just 
 compensation could be found. As for England, 
 he reminded Paul of her insolent domination of 
 the seas, and of the noble spirit which Catherine 
 had showed in having wished to restrain it ; 
 and, in magnificent words, he advocated the 
 liberty of the Baltic, and the privileges of neutral 
 ships in time of war. To all these insinuations 
 he added certain expressions, which conveyed to 
 Paul the idea that he meant to carry into execu- 
 tion the measures commenced by means of the 
 Count d'Entragues for the restoration of the 
 Bourbons. Paul allowed himself to be moved by 
 all these promises and protestations. The Consul, 
 in hopes of making him wheel round entirely, 
 paid, and provided in every thing, the Russian 
 prisoners in Holland and Switzlerland, and sent 
 them home free to their sovereign. This ap- 
 peared a generous act, and an earnest of future 
 designs. Moved by all these things, the Ejnperor
 
 26 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 of Russia, who was sudden in his resolves, trans- 
 ferred his wrath from France to England ; and 
 not perceiving, from the sincerity of his own 
 mind, all that nestled under the flattering words 
 of the Consul, he took him into his friendship and 
 yielded to his will, declaring that he would no 
 longer participate in the league ; and recalled to 
 Russia all the troops that were quartered in Ger- 
 many. Then, becoming more inflamed by the 
 hopes he received, he renewed, against the mari- 
 time power of England, the articles of the league 
 of the North,* drove out of St. Petersburg the 
 agents of George the Third, blaming the English 
 for the unfortunate result of the expedition to Hol- 
 land ; and, shaking off the friendship of England 
 and Austria, he threw himself prcipitately into the 
 arms of France. This appeared to all, as it was 
 in fact, a change of the greatest importance, and 
 was a powex'ful support to the rising greatness 
 of the Consul. 
 
 Buonaparte having accomplished a reconciliation 
 with the Emperor Paul, next endeavoured to con- 
 firm the alliance with Prussia ; and this cost him 
 
 * Of 1780, called the Armed Neutrality.— jTr.
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 27 
 
 little trouble ; because, (all his actions showing 
 him ever full of incredible simulation and dissi- 
 mvdation) now insinuating that he was not averse 
 to the restoration of the Bourbons — now repre- 
 senting the ambition of Austria, he easily obtained 
 from Frederick William the observation of the 
 treaty of Basle, his consent to the last change in 
 France, and the acknowledgment of himself as 
 head of the French government. 
 
 Austria was now the only continental power 
 at war with France. The Consul endeavoured 
 to win over the mind of the Emperor Francis, by 
 offering to return to the stipulations of Campo 
 Formio, with the further concession that he 
 would negociate for the security of the kingdom 
 of Italy and of the Austrian possessions there. 
 The idea of resigning the entire fruits of his 
 recent victories was repugnant to the Emperor 
 of Austria; and he considered it a monstrous 
 proposition, to deprive him of the State of Milan, 
 his ancient possession, which the valour of his 
 own soldiers chiefly had re-conquered, and to 
 leave him only that of Venice, which had been 
 given in compensation for Brabant ; neither did he
 
 28 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 in the least confide in the promises of Buonaparte ; 
 for, having had with him many and frequent 
 negociations, he knew him well. It did not also 
 escape his observation, that, to restore the 
 Milanese to Buonaparte would render the pos- 
 session of the Venetian territories uncertain ; and 
 that he could not without danger consent to 
 divide the sovereignty of Italy with one so 
 active, so ambitious, and so arrogant. These ideas 
 received additional force from the instigations 
 of England, who was intent on traversing the 
 negociation, seeing her own ruin in the tranquil- 
 lity of the rest of the world. She offered a sub- 
 sidy, and her co-operation on the coast of France. 
 For these reasons, and considering moreover that 
 the veterans of Buonaparte's army had perished, 
 either by the plague in Egypt, or by the sword 
 in Italy, Francis determined to refuse peace, and 
 try what the fortunes of war might bring him. 
 Buonaparte secretly rejoiced in the refusal, as 
 much as he had profited in public opinion by 
 having made the offer of peace ; for he had no 
 real desire to come to an agreement with Austria. 
 Thus, confirming the major part of the world in
 
 1799] HISTORY OF ITALY. 29 
 
 his favour, he also confirmed the affection of the 
 contented in France, and won over the discon- 
 tented ; and, partly from the good he really- 
 executed — partly from the hopes he inspired, it 
 followed that the French universally approved 
 his government, desired his gi'eatness, and wil- 
 lingly disposed themselves to forward his mea- 
 sures. The people eagerly rushed to the fulfil- 
 ment of his will in every thing. France hastened 
 to prove her new fortunes, and all hoped that, if 
 Buonaparte, as her General, had rendered her 
 glorious in the field, as Consul, he would make 
 her both illustrious in war and happy in peace. 
 
 As for the conduct of the war, his measures 
 were skilfully- arranged. He sent fresh batta- 
 lions, consisting chiefly of veterans, to reinforce 
 Moreau, confirming him in his command on the 
 Rhine, where he was to sustain the weight of the 
 Austrians in Germany. On the other side, his 
 mind becoming even more intent on the recovery 
 of Italy, he sent Massena into Liguria in order 
 to keep the enemy from the frontiers of France, 
 and to preserve Genoa, imtil he himself could 
 reach the Italian plains with a powerful force.
 
 so HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799. 
 
 He assembled a large number of veteran and 
 of new troops at Dijon, from whence, according 
 to circumstances, they were to march to Ger- 
 many, if Moreau should require their aid, or to 
 Italy, if he should succeed on the Rhine, of which 
 the Consul had great hopes from the skill of 
 Moreau, and the strength of his army. For this 
 reason, his principal design was to lead the 
 troops assembled at Dijon under the name of an 
 army of reserve, to the plains of Italy still re- 
 sounding with the fame of his many victories. 
 The French army, therefore, was disposed against 
 Austria; Massena commanded on the extreme 
 right, Moreau on the left, the central division 
 was led first by Berth ier, and afterwards by the 
 Consul in person. Certainly, more tried, or 
 more excellent, or more famous captains than 
 these the world had never seen ; and from them 
 their admiring contemporaries expected deeds of 
 surpassing glory. 
 
 The war becoming imminent, Buonaparte, 
 whose words were the voice of victory, sum- 
 moned his soldiers to the field. "Wlien I pro- 
 mised peace, said he, in your name I promised
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 31 
 
 it, for you are the same men who vanquished 
 Holland, Germany, and Italy, the same who, 
 under her very walls, forced peace from terrified 
 Vienna. Soldiers ! you have now a far other task 
 than that of defending your- own frontiers. Go ! 
 invade, conquer the territories of your enemies. 
 You have all served in many campaigns, and know 
 that to conquer it is necessary to suffer. In a few 
 hours it is impossible to impair the injuries com- 
 mitted by a bad government. To me, the first 
 magistrate of the republic, it will be sweet to say 
 to expectant France, these are the bravest, the 
 best disciplined defenders the country could have. 
 I will be with you, soldiers : when the season of 
 action arrives, I will be with you. Europe shall 
 confess that you are the same valiant race that 
 so often have constrained her to admiration." 
 In this manner, adding enthusiasm to courage, 
 he exalted the valour of his followers to the 
 utmost pitch of intrepidity. 
 
 Afflicted by defeat, the army of Italy were 
 beginning to give way, and the soldiers were 
 breaking through all laws of discipline ; but the 
 propitious season approaching, Buonaparte thus
 
 32 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 remonstrated with them' — *' Will the legions no 
 longer hear the voice of their officers ? Do they 
 (and above all the seventeenth) desert their en- 
 signs ? Are then all the heroes of Castiglione, 
 of Rivoli, and Neumark dead? Rather would 
 they have perished than have abandoned their 
 standards. You speak of the scarcity of provi- 
 sions : — what would you then have done if, like 
 the fourth and the twenty-second light, and the 
 eighteenth and thirtieth heavy brigades, in the 
 midst of deserts, without bread, without water, you 
 had been reduced to feed on the flesh of loath- 
 some animals ? ' Victory,' said they, * will give 
 us bread,'- — and will you desert your standards ? 
 Soldiers of the Italian army, a new general com- 
 mands you ; when your glory was most re- 
 splendent, he was ever first amongst the first ; 
 trust yourselves to him, and he will lead you 
 to fresh conquests. I have commanded a faithful 
 account to be kept of the actions of each legion, 
 especially of the seventeenth light, and the sixty- 
 third heavy brigade. They will call to mind the 
 confidence I formerly placed in them." The minds
 
 1799.] insTOKY OF itai.y. 33 
 
 of these brave men were deeply affected by this 
 address. 
 
 The Italian army, consisting of little more 
 than five-and-twenty thousand soldiers, were 
 distributed in the following manner. The 
 right, under Soult, extended from Recco, on the 
 eastern Riviera of Genoa, to Mount Cornua 
 and Torriglio, and from the Bocchetta through 
 Campofreddo, Stella, and Montelegina, on the 
 western Riviera, as far as Cadibuona and Savona ; 
 and commanded Gavi, and also Genoa, where the 
 generalissimo Massena held his head-quarters. 
 The left, under Suchet, guarded the western dis- 
 trict from Vado to the Varo, with garrisons in 
 the principal places : viz. San Giacomo, Sette- 
 pani, Santo Stefano, Madonna della Neve, Monte- 
 calvo, Montegrosso ; and also on the summits of 
 the maritime Alps. This front was certainly too 
 wide to be well defended by such a small body of 
 men ; but Genoa was necessary to the designs of 
 France, because it was of consequence to the 
 ulterior movements of the Consul that it should 
 long hold out, and Massena wished to occupy a 
 
 TOL, I. D
 
 34 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 large tract of country for the supply of pro- 
 visions, of which he was in great want, therefore 
 he was resolved to keep the command of the 
 Riviera until compelled to abandon it. 
 
 On the other side, Melas, though a skilful and 
 experienced general (and, perhaps, chiefly because 
 he was so), could not persuade himself that the 
 troops assembled at Dijon were to descend like 
 a tempest on Italy, deeming it impossible that the 
 republicans could, in so short a time, after so 
 many discomfitures, have collected troops and 
 arms sufficient for a movement of such conse- 
 quence on those very plains where he had 
 defeated, and from whence he had driven, them a 
 few months back ; but he knew not how to esti- 
 mate the promptitude of Buonaparte, nor the 
 readiness with which the French speeded to 
 whatever point his name and voice called them. 
 Hence he remained in too great security as to 
 what might happen on his rear and on his right 
 flank ; and thus, intent only on driving the French 
 from Genoa, he directed his whole force against a 
 distant division of the French army, against 
 difficult passes, against sterile rocks, leaving the
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 35 
 
 field open to his adversary to descend to the rich 
 and level plains of Lombardy with all the weight 
 of his central force. From the occurrences here- 
 after to be related, it will appear evident that 
 Melas in this committed a great error, because he 
 did exactly that which Buonaparte would have 
 chosen him to do. This is so certain that I 
 am inclined to believe that, leaving the Ligurian 
 territory so feebly guarded, garrisoning the capi- 
 tal, and spreading so wide a front, proceeded 
 rather from stratagem on the part of Buonaparte, 
 as a bait to Melas to carry on the war where 
 success promised to be so easily secured, than 
 from error or weakness. In any case, it does not 
 appear what advantage Austria could derive from 
 the reduction of Genoa, which she could not, and 
 probably did not wish to keep, or from the occu- 
 pation of the shores, which she certainly neither 
 felt the desire, nor possessed the means of perma- 
 nently retaining. Then, too, the hope of display- 
 ing the Austrian standards on the frontiers of 
 France, with the idea of exciting the people to 
 rise against Buonaparte, was entirely vain, and 
 undoubtedly was so thought by every one who 
 
 D 2
 
 36 IIISTOKY OF ITAT.Y. [1799- 
 
 had means of knowing the temper of those times. 
 Not in France, not amidst the rocks of Liguria, 
 but in the fertile plains of Piedmont and Lom- 
 bardy, was the contest to be decided, whether 
 Italy should lie at the discretion of France or of 
 Austria. The Austrians, therefore, being masters 
 of the passes, should have guarded them jealously, 
 and should have remained in force in the plain, 
 instead of wandering away to an extreme point 
 of the field of war. Melas, directing his efforts 
 on one side against Genoa, and on the other 
 against Nice, turned his back on Buonaparte, 
 who was marching from Dijon, — an accident of 
 war of peculiar singularity, which denoted in the 
 Austrian General either too much confidence in 
 himself, blameable ignorance of the designs al- 
 ready publicly manifested by the enemy, or a 
 false estimate of how much that enemy could 
 effect in a short time with his devoted Franks, 
 so confident in him, so prone to arms, so impa- 
 tient of defeat, so jealous of military honours. 
 
 The Austrians, who much exceeded Massena 
 in numbers, were so placed as to surround the 
 whole Ligurian territory. From Sestri on the east,
 
 1799.] IH^3TOllY of italy. 37 
 
 on the summits of the Apennines, opposite to 
 those which the French occupied, they extended 
 as far as the Col di Tenda. Otto commanded on 
 the left, Hohenzollern on the right, as far as N^ovi, 
 and opposite Gavi and Bocchetta. The generalis- 
 simo, Melas, was at Cairo, Esnitz at Ceva, against 
 Suchet ; and, finally, on the extreme point to the 
 right, Morzin was between Cuneo and the skirts of 
 the Col di Tenda. Melas, preparing to invade the 
 Genoese territory, prefaced harsh deeds by mild 
 proclamations. "Genoese," said he, "I enter your 
 country, not to conquer nor to subjugate you, but 
 to combat an enemy who, having promised you 
 liberty and equality, reduces you, like so many 
 other unfortunate nations, to poverty and despe- 
 ration. The Emperor, my master, does not 
 desire conquest ; he only seeks to free your necks 
 from the yoke which an intemperate conqueror 
 has imposed on you ; he commands property and 
 religion to be respected ; he desires the safety 
 and happiness of the people. Look to the pro- 
 vinces restored by our arms to liberty : of your 
 country he is not less tender. In his name, I 
 will call to the government the most virtuous.
 
 38 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 the wisest of your citizens. The ports shall be 
 open ; commerce, the true and only source of 
 your prosperity, shall be free ; poverty shall be 
 exchanged for riches ; oppression for liberty. 
 By victory I will procure this, and will secure it 
 to you ! " 
 
 One Azzeretto, a Genoese, first in the pay of 
 France, and then in that of Austria, strove much 
 at this juncture to disturb the affairs of Genoa. In 
 a furious proclamation, filled with over-harsh and 
 immoderate censure of the French, he invited his 
 compatriots to rise against them, and assert their 
 liberty. But, by their own arms, the French and 
 Austrians were to decide the matter ; for not the 
 slightest movement was made by the Genoese in 
 favour of the league, as had been promised by 
 Azzeretto. 
 
 Melas had stationed the greater number of his 
 forces on the Carcare, his design being to push 
 on and drive the enemy from the upper summits, 
 to Savona, in order thus to separate the left wing 
 of the French from the centre, and from the 
 right, who fought on the eastern district. If he 
 should succeed in this, his ulterior object of
 
 1799-] HISTORY OF ITALY. SQ 
 
 shutting up Massena in Genoa, and forcing him 
 to capitulate, would be the more easily accom- 
 plished ; and, as Massena could not quickly send 
 reinforcements from the eastern side of the erulf 
 of Genoa to the western, Melas commanded Otto 
 to attack the French vmder Miollis at Recco, 
 Toriglio, Scafera, Sant' Alberto, and Mounts 
 Cornua, Becco, and Fascia ; he also commanded 
 HohenzoUern to attack the Bochetta, and carry 
 it at any price. On the 7th of April, at the 
 earliest dawn, the Germans, setting out from the 
 Carcare in three columns, proceeded to the 
 execution of these orders. The centre, under 
 Mitruschi, marched by Altare and Torre to 
 Cadibuona, a post which had been strongly forti- 
 fied by the French, and the key, or as it were the 
 pivot, on which the war in this quarter turned. 
 The left, under General St. Julian, marched 
 against Montenotte, and thence to Sassello, 
 where a large body of republicans were stationed. 
 Lastly, the right, under Esnitz and Morzin, 
 passing by Mollare towards the sources of the 
 East Bormida, had the charge of forcing the 
 passes of Mount San Giacomo. These movements.
 
 40 HISTOKV Ol" ITxVLV. [1799. 
 
 skilfully arranged, were intended to give Savona 
 to the Austrians, and thereby to 8eparate Suchet 
 from Massena. The first engagement took place 
 at Torri : the contest was severe, the Austrians 
 having the advantage in numbers, the French in 
 ground ; but in the end, this Gallic van-guard 
 was driven back to the trenches of Cadibuona. 
 Here the encounter was still more desperate, but 
 was at last decided in favour of the Imperialists, 
 by the brave battalion of Reisch, which attacked 
 the trenches in flank, and constrained the repub- 
 licans to retreat in such disorder that, but for the 
 timely aid of a fresh reinforcement under Soult, 
 they would have been entirely routed. But nei- 
 ther the presence nor the exertions of Soult could 
 restore the fortune of the day ; for the Austrians, 
 in the enthusiasm of victory, drove the enemy 
 entirely out of the field ; and the French, climbing 
 with breathless labour up the summits of the 
 mountains, sought shelter on Monte Ajuto, 
 where there are some fortifications. Melas, un- 
 willing to leave them in possession of this 
 asylum, sent Palfi and Lattermann against it, 
 with five battalions of grenadiers, and the regiment
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 41 
 
 of Spleney ; and the one attacking it in front, the 
 other in flank, succeeded in dislodging the French 
 from this strong position. The republicans 
 again made head at Montemoro ; Melas attacked 
 them in front and in the rear, and in the flanks 
 on one side towards Vado, on the other tovvards 
 Arbizzola, and obliged them, from the fear of 
 being cut off, to retire in confusion to Savona. 
 The victors closely following, entered the city 
 with them pellmell. Soult, in the exigency of 
 the moment, threw what provisions he could into 
 the fortress, and, fighting rather as if he were 
 the victor, than vanquished by the Imperialists, 
 who had already descended to Arbizzola, retired 
 to Varaggio. These encounters were attended 
 with great loss on both sides, but the French 
 were most severely injured, as their numbers 
 were less. 
 
 In a similar manner the republicans, though 
 constantly overpowered by superior force, de- 
 fended in turn every village, every mountain 
 pass, or fortress, of the Genoese territory. Mas- 
 sena, Soult, Suchet, and Miollis, were opposed 
 to Melas, Ilohenzollern, Otto, and Esnitz, in a
 
 42 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 succession of severe, though undecisive, actions.* 
 But, in the end, the Austrians having a decided 
 superiority in numbers, were so generally suc- 
 cessful, that Massena was forced to retire within 
 the walls of Genoa ; and Suchet, who had been 
 driven back beyond Nice, defended the ancient 
 frontier of France on the banks of the Varo with 
 a degree of courage, intelligence, and activity, 
 worthy of the highest praise. His services at 
 this period proved of the utmost consequence to 
 the republic, not only preserving her own terri- 
 tory inviolate, but gaining time for the mighty 
 design of the Consul in Italy. 
 
 And now the hoary and victorious Melas began 
 to discover that he had fallen into the snare laid 
 for him by the youthful warrior, and that it was 
 so little the season for the conquest of Provence, 
 that all his efforts must be given to the preserva- 
 tion of Italy, if it were not already too late. He 
 had received the earliest intelligence of the 
 descent of Buonaparte from the Pennine Alps. 
 
 * These are all given by Botta in the fullest detail. The 
 Translator hopes, however, that the reader will not regret the 
 Omission here, as the recital is, on the whole, tedious.
 
 1799.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 43 
 
 At first he thought the matter of little conse- 
 quence ; yet he erred much in supposing that the 
 Consul was likely to appear with a small force on 
 the summits of the Alps ; and he should have been 
 fully aware, that where Buonaparte was, there 
 was the whole fortune of the war — there the 
 coming ruin of Austria. On the first report, he 
 sent a brigade to Piedmont, across the Col di 
 Tenda ; but, when he found that the danger was 
 even greater than rumour had made it, he re- 
 solved instantly to leave the distant field of 
 fruitless contests, to repair to that arena where 
 conqueror must be opposed to conqueror, hand to 
 hand. Esnitz was therefore commanded to desist 
 from the attack on Provence, and either to join 
 Otto in the siege of Genoa, if Genoa still held out, 
 or to follow Melas to the plains of Alexandria, if 
 the capital of Liguria should have yielded to the 
 arms of Austria. Esnitz accordingly retired, and 
 was closely followed by Suchet. Every pass of 
 the Genoese territory being shut against him, 
 the Austrians entered Piedmont by the valley 
 of Ormea ; Mobile Suchet marching on, attacked 
 the castle of Savona.
 
 44 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 At this time the war consisted of two principal 
 circumstances — the siege of Genoa, and the de- 
 scent of Buonaparte into Italy. The one closely 
 depending on the other. Otto used every effort to 
 take the city, in order to join the definitive struggle 
 in the fields of Alexandria. Massena, through the 
 courage and the ingenuity of his own oflScers, or of 
 the patriotic exiles of Piedmont (who came to and 
 fro with intelligence, traversing, at an extreme 
 risk, the quarters of the Austrians), was well in- 
 formed of all that occurred in the Pennine Alps ; , 
 and, for a contrary reason, wished to hold out as 
 long as possible. His determination gave rise to 
 circumstances worthy of record, and such as are 
 rarely to be read in the annals of history. The 
 capital of Liguria rises in a magnificent amphi- 
 theatre on the back of the Appennines, between 
 the rivers Polcevera and Bisagno, and is guarded 
 by an outer and inner circuit of wall.* These 
 two circumvallations are furnished with bastions 
 and curtains, according to the circumstances of 
 the steep, rocky, and broken grounds. The first 
 wall begins on the right bank of the Bisagno, on 
 
 * The one sixj the other thirteen miles in extent. — 2V.
 
 1799.] HISTOKY OF ITALY. 45 
 
 the eastern shore, above the Roman gate and the 
 pier, and rises on the mountain to the utmost 
 steep ; then, turning westward, surrounds the city, 
 and after extending itself into a fort called the 
 Tanaglia, close to the Crocetta, terminates near 
 to the lantern at the new mole. The second, 
 rising also at the eastern shore, joins the other 
 wall half-way to the new mole. The strongest 
 part of the rampart is on the highest part of the 
 steep, but is commanded by two summits rising 
 above and beyond it, on which are, therefore, 
 placed two forts — one on the mountain of the Two 
 Brothers, the other lower down, called, from its 
 form, the Fort of the Diamond : whoever holds 
 these is master of Genoa, as they command all 
 the other fortifications. The weakest part of the 
 circumvallation is lower down, at the mouth 
 of the Bisagno, but is strengthened by forts on 
 the neighbouring eminences ; viz. the fort of 
 Quezzi, on the Mountain of the Winds ; fort Ri- 
 chelieu, on Mount Manego ; and, lastly, that of 
 Santa Tecla, on the height of the same name. 
 These, however, being still insufficient, there are 
 entrenchments formed on the neighbouring
 
 46 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1799- 
 
 mounts of the Ratti, the Fascia, and Becco. 
 Such were the defences when Genoa was inde- 
 pendent : they then sufficed, because they could 
 not be reduced by a short siege, and a long one 
 was improbable, in consequence of the mutual 
 jealousy of other powers. Massena's living defence 
 consisted of 10,000 French soldiers : he had with 
 him Soult, Gazan, Clauzel, MioUis, and Darnaud. 
 To these must be added about 2,000 Italians of 
 diflferent states, formed by Massena into a regular 
 body, and placed under the command of Ros- 
 signoli, a Piedmontese, a man of noble nature, 
 of great courage, and enthusiastically devoted to 
 liberty. They were faithfully aided by the 
 Genoese National Guard, equally from affection 
 to France, hatred of Austria, and the fear of 
 pillage during any internal disturbance. All this 
 force together was, however, certainly not suffi- 
 cient to guard so large a circuit : and scarcity of 
 provisions was also much feared, particularly of 
 grain; for the English, under Keith, prevented the 
 entrance of supplies from Corsica and Marseilles. 
 
 Of the then existing government of Genoa I 
 will say little : it was neither more free nor more
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 47 
 
 submissive than the preceding. A great change, 
 as to its form, had taken place ; for, as the Direc- 
 tory had been set aside in France, an empirical 
 and servile fashion of imitation would have it 
 also set aside in Liguria ; and here it was re- 
 placed by a commission of government. The 
 change was praised with the customary servility. 
 This government seconded Massena with good 
 will, but submissively and humbly, because pre- 
 sent danger and long-sustained misfortune had 
 broken men's spirits. 
 
 The force which invested Genoa was of various 
 • descriptions. Its chief strength lay in the 
 Germans, but to them were added numerous bands 
 of peasantry as well from the Riviera as from the 
 mountains. These were drawn together, not 
 from any good motives, but from those of hatred, 
 revenge, and the desire of pillage, by Azzeretto, 
 a man who had shown himself to be corrupt and 
 dissolute, when fighting with the French ; and was 
 no less so now when fighting with the Germans. 
 The Austrians were also powerfully assisted by 
 the English and Neapolitan ships, which not only 
 cut off supplies, but kept up a constant fire on
 
 48 HISTORY OF ITAI/V. [1800. 
 
 the shores, particularly near the Bisagno, where 
 the coast is less strongly defended than towards 
 the Polcevera. Otto, who conducted the siege, 
 commanded a vigorous assault on the 23d of 
 April, to the left of the Polcevera. The regiment 
 of Nadasti first drove the French from Rivarola, 
 and then took possession also of San Pier d'Arena; 
 but Massena drove them out again with the twenty- 
 fifth regiment. The assailants knew that the weak- 
 est part was towards the east, and therefore resolved 
 on an attack in that quarter, endeavouring to seize 
 the heights. On the 30th, before the dawn of day, 
 Hohenzollern and Palfi, attacked the Mount of tlie 
 Two Brothers ; Colonel Frimont, descending from 
 the Fascia, assaulted the three forts, Ratti, Quezzi, 
 and Richelieu ; General Massena escaladed Santa 
 Tecla ; Azzeretto, with his peasants, stormed 
 around the '"Diamond;" and Gottescheim, passing 
 Starla, approached San Martino dAlbaro and the 
 walls of the city. In aid of all these movements 
 on the eastern side. Otto attacked Rivarolo on the 
 western. The Germans succeeded in almost all 
 these attempts; they gained mount Ratti, the Two 
 Brothers, and fort Tecla. Fort Richelieu and
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 49 
 
 the Diamond were surrounded. Gottesheim had 
 already gained one-half of San Martino, and was 
 occupied in reducing the other. The danger of 
 the French was great ; for, if the Germans could 
 keep the places they had taken, Genoa must in- 
 evitably fall. Massena, therefore, strove to recover 
 his losses : he sent Soult to the ' Two Brothers ; ' 
 Darnaud against Gottesheim ; MioUis against 
 Santa Tecla and Quezzi ; and all were successful. 
 The Italians under Rossignoli were the first who 
 accomplished the task assigned them — retaking 
 the Two Brothers ; Massena, indefatigable, in- 
 vincible, and indignant, animated by success, 
 made a fresh sortie on the 11th of May, his in- 
 tention being to drive the enemy from Mount 
 Fascia, from whence they could destroy the forti- 
 fications nearest to the citadel : Soult he com- 
 manded to wind up the back of the mountain ; 
 Miollis to attack it in front. Miollis was unsuc- 
 cessful ; but Soult, after a fierce contest, carried 
 the Mount. HohenzoUern and Frimont, however, 
 recovered it ere long from the republicans. Mas- 
 sena, in the mean time, collected provisions from 
 the country, though but a scanty and insufficient 
 VOL. I. E
 
 50 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 supply. He next endeavoured to take Mount 
 Creto, important both from its commanding situ- 
 ation, and as a pass from the eastern to the 
 western Riviera.* Two large squadrons were sent 
 against it : the right under Soult, the left under 
 Gazan. The Germans were vigilant and well for^ 
 tified ; and the assault was furious ; the defence 
 valiant. The French, hpwever, were gaining the 
 day, when a terrific storm came on ; the air became 
 quite dark, and the rain fell in extraordinary tor- 
 rents ; and the assailants were forced to retire. 
 When the sky cleared they returned to the attack ; 
 but, in the mean time, Hohenzollern had been able 
 to bring up fresh troops ; he broke the republi- 
 cans, and drove them back within the walls. In 
 this affair the combatants fought with indescri- 
 bable fury — man to man. Soult, whilst zealously 
 urging his men to the charge, was severely 
 wounded in the right leg, and made prisoner. 
 
 This unfortunate expedition was the last sortie 
 attempted by Massena, for he had lost his best 
 soldiers, and was too weak to leave the city, 
 
 * The Genoese territory between the Appennines and the 
 sea, so called. — Tr.
 
 1800]. HISTORY OF ITALY. 51 
 
 However, he was still strong enough to prevent 
 the enemy from carrying it by force of arms ; but 
 famine effected what valour was unequal to accom- 
 plish. Having here to describe the aspect of 
 Genoa in these latter days of the siege, I cannot 
 but deplore the fate of an Italian people reduced to 
 the extremest misery, — not in a struggle decisive 
 of misery or slavery, but to determine whether a 
 city, desolated by rapine, slaughter, famine, and 
 pestilence, should, in the end, be subject to Austria 
 or France ! Keith prevented the entrance of sup- 
 plies by sea. Otto by land. Provisions became 
 scarce — scarcity grew into want. 
 
 When this deficiency was first dreaded, food was 
 dealt out in scanty portions ; it was then adul- 
 terated ; and, finally, every thing most disgusting 
 was devoured — not only horses and dogs, but even 
 cats, mice, bats, and worms ; and happy was he 
 who could obtain these. The Austrians had 
 taken the mills of Bisagno, Voltri, and Pegli, and 
 none were left to prepare the corn. This was 
 remedied, for a time, by using hand-mills, chiefly 
 coffee-mills. The Academy was now employed to 
 devise better ones ; and they invented springs, and 
 
 K 2
 
 52 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 wheels, and mills of novel construction, with 
 some of the largest of which, one man could grind 
 a bushel a-day. In every street, in every shop, 
 these machines were seen continually at work ; in 
 private houses — in familiar parties, every one was 
 grinding : the ladies made it their pastime ; but 
 within a short time there was no more corn left to 
 grind. When grain failed, other seeds were sought 
 to supply its place : flax-seed, millet, cocoa, and 
 almonds, were first put in requisition, for of rice 
 or barley there was none ; and these substitutes 
 were roasted, mixed with honey, and baked, and 
 were considered a delicacy. Parents and friends 
 rejoiced with him who could, for an addi- 
 tional day, support himself and his family with 
 flax-seed, millet, or a few grains of cocoa ; 
 even bran, a substance affording no nourishment, 
 was also ground, and, when baked with honey, was 
 eaten, not to satisfy, but to deaden hunger ; beans 
 were most precious. — Happy were now, not those 
 who lived, but those who died ! The day was sad 
 from hunger and the lamentations of the famish- 
 ing ; the night was sadder still from hunger 
 accompanied by delirious fancies. When every
 
 ♦ 
 m 
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 53 
 
 kind of seed had been exhausted, recourse was 
 next had to herbs ; monk's-rhubarb, sorrel, 
 mallows, wild succory, rampions, were diligently 
 sought for, and as greedily eaten as if they 
 had been pleasing to the palate. Long files of 
 people, men of every rank, ladies of noble birth, 
 as well as plebeians, were seen examining every 
 verdant site, particularly the fertile orchards of 
 Bisagno, and the delightful hills of Albano, to 
 dig out of them those aliments which nature has 
 destined solely for the ruminating beasts. For a 
 time sugar was used : rose, violet, and candied 
 sugar, and every kind of confection were in 
 general use. The retailers, men and women, sold 
 them in public, in elegant little baskets adorned 
 with flowers and garlands — a strange sight in the 
 midst of all these pallid, emaciated, and cadaverous 
 faces ; yet thus powerful is the imagination of 
 man, pleasing itself in embellishing that which, in 
 its own nature, is most lamentable and terrible — a 
 merciful dispensation of Providence, who wills 
 not man's despair. But enough : — women of ple- 
 beian, as well as those of noble birth, who were 
 alike seen to feed on what was most loathsome
 
 54 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800 
 
 in the morning, ate of the most delicate confec- 
 tions in the evening. That the sight of ex- 
 treme misery does not correct iniquity in the 
 evil disposed, Genoa, in her utmost distress, 
 afforded an example but too horrible ; for some, 
 devoid of every feeling of humanity, and actuated 
 only by the vile spirit of gain, used chalk in the 
 eatables they sold, instead of flour, of which 
 not a few of the consumers died, suffering under 
 the agonies caused at once by hunger and by the 
 deleterious compound. 
 
 During the siege, yet before the last extremities 
 arrived, a pound of rice was sold for seven lire ; a 
 pound of veal for four ; a pound of horse-flesh 
 for thirty-two soldi ;* a j^ound of flour for ten or 
 twelve lire ; eggs at fourteen lire the dozen ; 
 bran at thirty soldi the pound. Before all was 
 over, a bean was sold for two soldi, and a biscuit 
 of three ounce weight for twelve francs, and none 
 were at last to be had. Neither Massena, nor 
 the other generals, would allow themselves greater 
 
 * The value of a lira at Genoa, is 8|d ; a soldo is equivalent 
 to ^d. The lira is an imaginary denomination, varying in 
 value in the different states of Italy. — Tr.
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 55 
 
 indulgences than private individuals ; they fared 
 like the plebeians ; — a laudable instance of self- 
 denial, and highly efficacious in enabling others 
 to bear up against their privations. A little 
 cheese and a few vegetables was the only nourish- 
 ment given to the sick and wounded in the hos- 
 pitals. Men and women, in the last agonies of 
 starvation and despair, filled the air with their 
 groans and shrieks. Sometimes, while uttering 
 these dreadful cries, they strove with furious hands 
 to tear out their agonized intestines, and fell dead 
 in the streets. No one relieved them, for no 
 one thought but of himself; no one heeded 
 them, for the frequency of the circumstance had 
 made it cease to seem horrible. Some in spasms 
 and convulsions and contortions groaned out their 
 their last amidst crowds of the populace. Chil- 
 dren, left by the death or the despair of their 
 parents in utter destitution, with mournful ges- 
 tures, and tears, and heart-broken accents, im- 
 plored the pi];y of the passing stranger ; but none 
 either pitied them, or aided them ; the excess 
 of his own sufferings extinguishing in each man's 
 breast compassion for the misery of others.
 
 56 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 These innocent deserted beings eagerly searched 
 in the gutters of the streets, in the common 
 sewers, in the drainings of the washing-houses, 
 for a chance morsel of some dead animal, or any 
 remains of the food of beasts, which, when found, 
 was greedily devoured. Many who lay down 
 alive in the evening were found dead in their 
 beds in the morning, and children more frequently 
 than adults : fathers accused the tardiness of 
 death, and some hastened its approach by the 
 violence of their own hands — citizens and soldiers 
 alike. Some of the French preferring death to 
 the anguish of hunger destroyed themselves ; 
 others disdainfully flung down those arms which 
 they had no longer strength to carry; and 
 others, abandoning a habitation of despair, sought 
 in the camp of the enemy, English or Austrian, 
 that food and that pity which was no longer to 
 be found amidst the French and Genoese. But 
 cruel and horrible beyond all description was the 
 spectacle presented by the German prisoners of war, 
 confined in certain old barges anchored in the port ; 
 for such was the dire necessity at last, that for 
 some days they were left without nutriment of any
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 57 
 
 description. They eat their shoes, they devoured 
 the leather of their pouches, and, scowling darkly 
 at each other, their sinister glances betrayed the 
 horrid fear of being at last reduced to a more 
 fearful resource. In the end, their French guards 
 were removed, under the apprehension that they 
 might be made the sacrifice of ravening hunger : 
 so great at last was their desperation, that they 
 endeavoured to pierce holes in the barges in order 
 to sink them, preferring to perish thus, rather 
 than any longer endure the tortures of hunger. 
 As commonly happens, a mortal pestilence was 
 added to the horrors of famine : the worst kinds 
 of fevers carried off crowds from the public hospi- 
 tals, the lowly hovels of the poor, and the superb 
 palaces of the rich. Under the same roof, death 
 might be seen in different shapes : one died, mad- 
 dened by hunger, another stupified by fever ; some 
 pallid from extenuation, others livid with febrile 
 spots. Every thing brought grief — every thing 
 fear ; for he who was still living awaited either 
 his own death, or that of his nearest friends. Such 
 was the state of the once rich and joyous Genoa ; 
 and the bitterest thought of all was, that her
 
 58 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 present sufferings could conduce nothing to future 
 good, either as to her liberty or her inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 The fortitude of all was exhausted. Massena 
 alone retained his firmness, because his mind was 
 bent on aiding the enterprise of the Consul, and 
 on preserving intact his reputation as an uncon- 
 quered commander ; but, at last, when honour- 
 able conditions were offered by Keith, he brought 
 down his spirit to a composition, since even the 
 loathsome and poisonous food Genoa was reduced 
 to, could not last for more than two days longer. 
 Yet, still, his tone was rather that of a successful 
 than of a defeated General : he insisted on the 
 cession being called a convention, not a capitula- 
 tion; which the allies were forced to grant. 
 Massena and his troops, about eight thousand in 
 number, were to leave Genoa, unrestricted by any 
 conditions, either as to their persons or their 
 allegiance. They were free to return to France 
 by land ; and those who could not accomplish 
 this march, were to be carried by the English 
 ships to Antibes, or the Gulf of Juan. The 
 German prisoners were given up. No inquisition
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 59 
 
 was to be made as to the past, and those who 
 wished to abandon Genoa were at liberty so to 
 do ; the allies were to furnish provisions, and 
 take care of the sick ; and on the 4th of June, the 
 city was to be delivered up to the Austrian and 
 English forces. On the appointed day, accord- 
 ingly, the first took possession of the gate of the 
 lantern ; the second of the mouth of the port. 
 Then Otto entered in triumph with his army, 
 Keith with his fleet ; but the prize thus obtained 
 by a tedious war of detail, was speedily wrested 
 from them by a brief and vigorous campaign. 
 The most ardent democrats went away with the 
 French ; amongst others, Morandi, the Abbate 
 Cuneo, the advocate Lombardi, and the brothers 
 Boccardi. The bells were rung as for a festival, 
 hymns were sung, and if bonfires were lighted by 
 the partizans of the Austrians from affection, more 
 were lighted by their enemies from fear. Every 
 thing seemed to be as usual : — bread, meat, veget- 
 ables, and provisions of all kinds re-appeared in 
 abundance, and those who abandoned themselves 
 without restraint to the first impulse of appetite 
 died in consequence. Thus many, who had not been
 
 60 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 destroyed by long inanition, were killed by satiety. 
 The retailers and venders, excited by the greediness 
 of gain, strove to keep up the prices, but the infu- 
 riate populace fell on them in such a manner, as 
 made them feel that hunger is a fierce coun- 
 sellor. The peasants, under Azzeretto, endea- 
 voured to sack the houses of the democrats, 
 as they said, but, nevertheless, did not spare the 
 aristocrats. But Hohenzollern, who had been left 
 by Otto in command, restrained these excesses by 
 military law. The Austrian commander created 
 an imperial and royal regency, to which he called 
 Pietro Paolo Celesia, Carlo Cambiaso, Agostino 
 Spinola, Gian Bernardo Pallavicini, Girolamo 
 Durazzo, Francisco Spinola di Gian Battista, and 
 Luigi Lambruschini. The regency restrained the 
 re-action of party vengeance ready to burst forth, 
 by a laudable exertion of authority; but then came 
 the opening of purses, an inevitable but cruel 
 command in miserable Genoa. As for the rest, 
 no sign was shown on the part of Hohenzollern, 
 or of Melas, of any inclination, either towards 
 the restoration of her ancient government, or her 
 independence. Notwithstanding this, the aristo-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 61 
 
 crats shouted vivas for the Emperor, from hatred 
 against the democrats, just as the democrats had 
 sent forth vivas for France, from hatred to the 
 aristocrats ; — blind slaves and madmen, both the 
 one and the other ; for they could not see, that 
 from their private animosities sprang the ruin of 
 their country, and the domination of foreigners.
 
 62 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Consul passes the Great St. Bernard. — Gains the battle 
 of Marengo ; and becomes master of Upper Italy. — Pro- 
 visionary governments in Piedmont, Genoa, and Milan 
 
 Conclave in Venice. — Cardinal Chiaramonti raised to the 
 Pontificate ; his inauguration at Rome. — Practices of Buo- 
 naparte with him. — Malta taken by the English. — Move- 
 ments in Tuscany. — War renewed between Austria and 
 France. — Battle of the Mincio between Bellegarde and 
 Brune.— Retreat of the former. — Passage of the Splugen 
 effected with wonderful courage and skill, by Macdonald. — 
 Fresh successes of the French. — Peace with Naples, Austria, 
 and Spain. — AU Europe, except England, in amity with 
 France. 
 
 In the mean time Buonaparte, the umpire of 
 fortune, drew near, and the Austrian power in 
 Italy tottered to its fall, at his approach. The 
 First Consul had, with surprising celerity and 
 skill, assembled his army of reserve at Dijon, 
 from whence he alike menaced Italy and the 
 Rhine ; but by the successes of Moreau, in Ger-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 63 
 
 many, against Kray, he found himself enabled to 
 lead his forces to those fields where the trophies 
 and the renown of his former triumphs were still 
 fresh. Stimulated at once by the love of glory, 
 and the certainty of finding numerous partisans, 
 he was impelled to this scene of action by the 
 highest incitements ; and, therefore, whilst the ill- 
 advised Melas continued to harass himself against 
 the sterile rocks of extreme Liguria, Buonaparte 
 approached the Alps, intent only on the factions 
 of Italy. 
 
 Various, many, and powerful were the means 
 he possessed of conducting his enterprise to a 
 prosperous conclusion, — soldiers eager to will 
 whatever might be his wishes, brave and expert 
 generals, a formidable artillery, and an eflScient 
 body of cavalry. For the food of the soldiery on 
 the desert solitudes of the Alps, he had provided 
 biscuit in great abundance ; and, in order to draw 
 the artillery up and down the broken and narrow 
 paths, choked up with snow and ice, he procured 
 a peculiar kind of cart made in the manner of 
 the sledges which are used in those regions for 
 descending from the snowy heights. Nor was
 
 64. HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 this the only means devised by Buonaparte and 
 Marmont, who superintended the artillery, to 
 facilitate its passage over places till then con- 
 sidered inaccessible. Amongst other expedients, 
 they caused trunks of large trees to be hollowed 
 into troughs, in which they placed the pieces of 
 ordnance, each as in its own proper bed, and 
 being slung on mules, they were thus carried 
 over the steepest heights. The military chest 
 was sufficiently provided for the actual passage of 
 the Alps, and that perilous undertaking once 
 accomplished, Buonaparte trusted to the resources 
 of Italy for further supplies. To gain the good- 
 will of the Italians, he brought with him the 
 Italian legion, commanded by one Lecchi, who, to 
 escape from the fury of the Austrians, had fled 
 into France on the defeat of Scherer, and had 
 there collected a brave and handsome troop. For 
 points of local knowledge, he also brought with 
 him the best-informed Italians, and with the 
 intention of crossing the Great St. Bernard, he 
 consulted more especially with Pavetti of Romano 
 in Canavese, a youth of a generous nature, who 
 exerted himself with zeal in the cause of liberty.
 
 1800.] IIISTOllY OF ITAI,Y. 6*5 
 
 To a supreme degree master of the art of 
 seduction, the first Consul gave out that he 
 returned to Italy, in order to found a well-regu- 
 lated liberty in Lombardy, to give peace to Naples 
 and Tuscany, to restore religion, to protect the 
 clergy, and, finally, to reinstate the Roman PontiiF 
 in his rightful seat. To all he spoke of peace, of 
 humanity, of the termination of existing evils, of 
 an age of prosperity about to commence for the 
 general happiness of the human race. Staying a 
 short time at Geneva, he there appeared so mild, 
 so disposed to re-establish every thing that was 
 just and right, according to the ancient forms, 
 that the Genevese magistrates, deceived by his 
 plausible words, ventured to speak of indepen- 
 dence, and of the restoration of their ancient ter- 
 ritory, which had been united as an integral 
 part to France. But here the matter rested ; and 
 they were taught by his reply that if he loved to 
 take, he loved also to keep. This passed, the 
 suavity of his manner was re-assunied, and he 
 professed himself willing to sacrifice his life if 
 peace could be so obtained. In truth, he appeared 
 so dull, so pale, and so meagre, that every one 
 
 VOL. I. F
 
 66 HIST015Y OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 thought that he must make peace quickly, if he 
 really wished to witness it ; so much did he 
 seem to wear out his mind and body by un- 
 ceasing labour for the benefit of France and of 
 Europe generally. Unwearied in his cajoleries, 
 he talked of Saussure, of Bonnet, of Sennebier ; 
 of Rousseau he said nothing. He expressed him- 
 self desirous of restoring science and literature 
 to the honours they had been deprived of by the 
 war, and the Genevese were astonished to find 
 such love of peaceful studies in a soldier, for they 
 did not penetrate his humour, nor did they per- 
 ceive that, wishing to make the age retrograde, he 
 would, nevertheless, promote its advancement, 
 until he should become its master. 
 
 Buonaparte's plan for the re-conquest of Italy 
 was vast and magnificent. He proposed to cross 
 the Great St. Bernard with the main body of the 
 army, descending thence by the valley of Aosta 
 into the Piedmontese plains. General Thureau, 
 with a squadron of three or four thousand men, 
 was ordered to march from the Maurienne and 
 Upper Dauphiny, over Mount Cenis and Mount 
 Ginevre, as far as Susa, and further, if necessary,
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 67 
 
 for the purposes of encouraging a rising in that 
 district against the Austrians, of alarming the 
 people for the safety of Turin, and of co-operating 
 with the force the Consul intended to assemble 
 on the banks of the Dora. General Moncey was 
 to descend at the same time by the lesser St. Ber- 
 nard, with a chosen body of twelve thousand 
 men, for the purpose of raising the country on 
 the upper part of the plain of Lombardy, between 
 the Tesino and the Adda. To favour a rising in 
 the district between the Tesino and the Sesia, 
 General Bethancourt was ordered to cross the 
 Simplon, and to descend by Domo d'Ossola to the 
 shores of the Lago Maggiore; where, narrowing its 
 expanse, it permits the waters of the Tesino to flow 
 from it. A detachment of five thousand men 
 were to cross the lesser St. Bernard, and meet the 
 main body in the valley of Aosta, as the nature and 
 the amount of the difficulties which a large body 
 of men would encounter in crossing the great St. 
 Bernard were well known to the Consul. Alto- 
 gether the troops amounted to about sixty thou- 
 sand men. Thus the Consul embraced the whole 
 of the Alpine region which extends from St. 
 
 r 2
 
 68 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Gothard to Mount Ginevre, and threatened with 
 invasion the plain of Piedmont and that of 
 Lombardy. On the other hand, he hoped that 
 Massena, keeping his ground in Genoa, and 
 Suchet in the Riviera, would detain Melas till he 
 himself should come up to attack him both on his 
 flank and on his rear. Bold and wonderful, as 
 we have already said, was this undertaking of the 
 Consul, but it might have drawn on him speedy 
 and utter ruin, if Moreau had been defeated on 
 the Rhine, or if Melas had been more prudent, 
 more active, or better informed. 
 
 Having deluded the civilized Genevese, by his 
 flattering discourses of peace, of benevolence, and 
 courtesy, the First Consul set forth on his stu- 
 pendous enterprize, his forces being already 
 assembled at Martigny, in the Valais, a district 
 situated at the foot of the Great St. Bernard. 
 The soldiers gazed on the aerial summits of the 
 lofty mountain with wonder and impatience, 
 while, in the enthusiasm of the moment, the 
 General-in chief, Berthier, thus addressed them : 
 " The army of the Rhine has won gloHous vic- 
 tories, and in Italy our fellow-soldiers have fought
 
 1800.] HISTUKY OF ITALY. ()9 
 
 with undaunted courage against superior num- 
 bers. Be you incited by their example to gain 
 once more the mastery of those lands beyond the 
 Alps, which already bear testimony to Gallic 
 valour : soldiers, as yet untried in fight, behold 
 the standards of battle ! Go ! and aspire to equal 
 the veterans, victors of so many combats ! learn 
 from them to brave — from them to overcome, the 
 hardships inseparable from war; and ever bear 
 in mind that by valour, by discipline alone, can 
 success be obtained. Soldiers, Buonaparte is 
 with you ; he comes to behold the fresh tri- 
 umphs of his former companions. To Buona- 
 parte prove that you are still the same brave 
 men who, under his command, have always 
 gained resplendent glory, and a name of universal 
 renown. France, nay, the whole human race 
 demand peace from your efforts. Give, then, by 
 your noble deeds in arms, peace to France and to 
 mankind." 
 
 These words inflamed to excess the minds of 
 soldiers already so ardent and so brave by 
 nature. 
 
 On the 1 7th of May, the whole body set out
 
 70 HISTORY or ITALY. [1800. 
 
 from Martigny for the conquest of Italy. Extra- 
 ordinary was their ardour, wonderful their gaiety, 
 and astonishing also the activity and the energy 
 of their operations. Chests, coffers, troughs, 
 cannon, wheel-carriages, sledges, barrows, litters, 
 horses, mules, harnesses, saddles, baggage and 
 ammunition, of every decription, piled on pack- 
 saddles, were assembled in one motley mass ; in 
 the midst of which the soldiers laboured to the 
 utmost, while the officers, sparing no bodily 
 exertion, were not less zealous and unremitting 
 in their efforts. Laughter and song lightened 
 their toils, repartees or good-humoured raillery 
 passed from mouth to mouth : as if by common 
 consent, however, they spared each other, and 
 whatever was bitter in sarcasm, or pungent in 
 wit, was directed against the Austrians. Thus 
 proceeding, they seemed to be hastening, not to a 
 fearful war, but to a festival ; not to a dubious 
 hazard, but to certain victory. The multitude 
 of various and mingled sounds were re-echoed 
 from hill to hill, and the silence of these solitary 
 and desert regions, wliich revolving ages had left
 
 1800.] HlSTOllY OF ITALY. 71 
 
 undisturbed, was for a moment broken by the 
 rejoicing voices of the gay and warlike. 
 
 The strange army, thus strangely assembled 
 for the dangerous exj^edition, began the ascent 
 by the steep hill in front of the hamlet of St. 
 Pierre, which leads to the road passable for car- 
 riages. Precipitous heights, strong torrents, 
 sloping vallies, succeeded each other with dis- 
 heartening frequency. The prompt exertions 
 of the soldiers were every instant demanded, to 
 save the various vehicles which conveyed the 
 artillery, from rolling down the precipices ; and 
 now supporting, now heaving and dragging 
 the ordnance, they laboured unceasingly ; while 
 the more they laboured the more did the 
 merriment of their jests and the ingenuity of 
 their repartees increase. The slow-paced Val- 
 lenses collected in crowds from their houses, or 
 more properly speaking, from their huts and 
 caves ; and, seeing a body of men so laboriously 
 employed and yet so gay, they were lost in 
 wonder, and could scarcely believe but that they 
 were beings of another world. Being invited to
 
 72 HISTOKV Oi' ITALY. [1800. 
 
 lend their assistance, and paid for their aid, they 
 rendered it willingly, but not three of their num- 
 ber could eifect as much as the zeal of a single 
 Frenchman. I should be unwilling to repeat all 
 that the soldiers jestingly said to these good 
 people, as to the tardiness of their movements, 
 and the strange fashion of their attire. 
 
 In this manner the republicans reached St. 
 Pierre. Lannes, with his division, arrived first ; 
 for, owing to his incredible boldness and ardour, 
 he was always chosen by the Consul to take the 
 lead in every enterprize of danger — an honourable 
 distinction, which he not only willingly accepted, 
 but anxiously sought. They had now reached 
 an elevation, where skill or courage seemed as 
 nothing against the potency of nature. From St. 
 Pierre to the summit of the Great St. Bernard there 
 is no beaten road whatever, until is reached the 
 monastery of the religious order devoted to the 
 preservation of travellers bewildered in these 
 regions of eternal winter ; narrow and winding 
 paths, over steep and rugged mountains, alone 
 present themselves to the eye. But here the 
 pertinacity of human resolution, the power of
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 73 
 
 human ingenuity shone conspicuous. Every 
 means that could be devised was adopted for 
 transporting the artillery and baggage ; the 
 carriages which had been wheeled, were now 
 dragged, those which had been drawn, were car- 
 ried ; the largest cannon were placed in troughs 
 and sledgee, and the smallest slung on strong 
 and sure-footed mules. And thus this same 
 passage, which Trivulzi accomplished in the 
 severest season of the year, hauling up the ar- 
 tillery of Francis the First, from rock to rock, 
 over the wintry barriers, Buonaparte effected in 
 the service of the republic by means of sledges, 
 carriages, and beasts of burden. 
 
 The ascent to be accomplished was immense : 
 in the windings of the tortuous paths the troops 
 were now lost, and now revealed to sight. Those 
 who first mounted the steeps, seeing their com- 
 panions in the depths below, cheered them on 
 with shouts of triumph ; they answered in turn, 
 and thus excited each other to their perilous and 
 laborious task. The vallies on every side re-echoed 
 to their voices. Amidst the snow, in mists and 
 clouds, the resplendent arms and coloured uni-
 
 74 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 forms of the soldiers appeared in bright and 
 dazzling contrast ; the sublimity of dead nature, 
 and the energy of living action thus united, 
 formed a spectacle of surpassing wonder. The 
 Consul exulting in the success of his plans, was 
 seen every where amongst the soldiery, talking 
 with military familiarity to one, and now to 
 another; and, skilled in the eloquence of camps, 
 he so excited their courage, that, braving every 
 obstacle, they now deemed that easy, which had 
 been judged impossible. They soon approached 
 the highest summit, and discerned in the distance 
 the pass which leads from the opening between 
 two towering mountains, to the loftiest pin- 
 nacle. With shouts of transport the soldiers 
 hailed this extreme point as the termination of 
 their labours, and with renewed ardour prepared 
 to ascend. The Consul proposed their pausing 
 to rest awhile from their fatigues, but rejecting 
 the proffered indulgence, they replied ; " Let not 
 that give you any concern, hut only have a care 
 to ascend yourself, and leave the rest to us.'' 
 When their strength occasionally flogged under 
 excess of fatigue, they beat their drums, and then
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 75 
 
 reanimated by the spirit-stirring sound, proceeded 
 forward with fresh vigour. At last they reached 
 the summit, and there felicitated each other, as if 
 after complete and assured victory. 
 
 Their hilarity was not a little increased by 
 finding a simple repast prepared in front of the 
 monastery, the provident Consul having furnished 
 the monks with money to supply what their own 
 resources could not have afforded for such numbers. 
 Here they were regaled with wine, and bread 
 and cheese, and enjoyed a brief repose, amidst dis- 
 mounted cannon and scattered baggage — amidst 
 ice and conglomerated snow, while the monks 
 passed from troop to troop in turn, the calm of 
 religious cheerfulness depicted on their counte- 
 nances. Thus did goodness and power meet, and 
 hold communion on this extreme summit. Dis- 
 coursing with the pious brethren, Buonaparte 
 dwelt upon their own benevolence — on his wish 
 to re-instate the Pope — to give security and the 
 means of support to the clergy, and due authority 
 to religion. He spoke of himself and of kings 
 modestly — of peace desirously. The good her- 
 mits, unskilled in the art, and without either the
 
 76 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 habit of feigning, or occasion to dissemble, be- 
 lieved him in every thing. As for him, whether 
 affected by the piety of these holy brethren — by 
 the sublimity of this lonely mountain, he suffered 
 his sentiments to change, and bent his mind to 
 desire, with earnest sincerity, that which he had 
 expressed from calculating policy, I know not, 
 nor would I dare to judge ; for if, on the one 
 hand, the moral and physical influence of the 
 scene was persuasive to good ; on the other, his 
 disposition was marked by an incredible degree of 
 pertinacity, and a scornful contempt of human 
 nature. He rested but one hour in this benign 
 asylum, and then commanded the advance of the 
 troops. 
 
 They turned their steps towards the quarter 
 where the Italian sky began to appear ; and if 
 the ascent had been laborious and perilous, the 
 descent was still more fatiguing and hazardous, 
 because the snow, touched by a milder air, began 
 to thaw, and afforded but an uncertain support, 
 and insecure footing ; besides which, the moun- 
 tain was much more precipitous on this than on 
 the northern side ; and it too frequently hap-
 
 1800.] ITTSTOllY OF ITALY. 77 
 
 pened, that both men and horses, by the snow 
 sliding from under them, were precipitated into 
 the deep vallies, and, whehned in the snowy abyss 
 beneath, found burial ere life was yet extinct. 
 The fatigue and danger the soldiers now under- 
 went was incredible, and the progress they made 
 but trifling. At last, growing impatient, they 
 agreed to choose the summit where the snow was 
 most solid, and to slide down from thence to 
 Etrubles. The danger was great, but not less 
 great was the merriment which accompanied the 
 velocity of their grotesque flight, as they glided 
 rapidly through the crumbling snow. In this 
 manner the soldiers and officers of the main body, 
 with the Consul himself, reached the point of 
 their destination in safety, while those charged 
 with the baggage joined them a little later, by a 
 more circuitous route. When they were at 
 length re-united at Etrubles, the expression of 
 one common sentiment of joy at their success 
 and safety spread from rank to rank ; and, look- 
 ing upward, towards the icy and rugged summits, 
 they could scarcely yet believe that an entire 
 army, with all its incumbrances, could have made
 
 78 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 its way over barriers thus horribly deformed by 
 the convulsions of distant ages, and sternly 
 closed by the rigours of perpetual winter; but 
 most of all they admired the constancy and the 
 powerful mind of the Consul ; and, from this 
 prosperous commencement auguring well for the 
 success of all his future enterprises, they could 
 not but think, that to him who had overcome the 
 perils of the Great St. Bernard all other under- 
 takings would prove comparatively easy. And 
 now they began to breathe the soft airs of Italy : 
 the snows were half dissolved — the torrents 
 flowed with increased volume — the dead rocks put 
 on fresh verdure. Recalled to the recollection of 
 their former campaigns by the genial influence of 
 the balmy sky, the veteran soldiers shouted 
 " Italy ! " and, in glowing language, described to 
 the young conscripts all that that name recalled. 
 Speakers and hearers were quickly touched by an 
 equal degree of enthusiasm ; the one longing as 
 much to revisit, as the other to behold, that land 
 of beauty. To the former, memory recalled 
 images already proved true by experience — to 
 the latter, imagination depicted them enlarged and
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 79 
 
 brightened. Their force of purpose became most 
 efficacious ; and, to the enamoured fancy of these 
 intrepid spirits Italy seemed to be already won — 
 they thought not of battle, but of victory. 
 
 Their success, however, depended entirely on 
 celerity. The Alpine regions they had reached 
 were sterile, and the pass of St. Bernard, yet to 
 be accomplished, was hazardous. It was necessary 
 to descend at once to the plain, without affording 
 Melas time to anticipate their arrival. It was 
 also important, to prevent the rumour which had 
 been industriously propagated of the return of 
 the French, from diminishing. The Consul there- 
 fore descended hastily by the banks of the river 
 Dora ; and the van -guard sent on to reconnoitre, 
 under the command of Lannes, reduced some 
 places of small importance, and easily gained pos- 
 session of the town of Aosta and the lands of 
 Chatillon. 
 
 But a rude obstacle presented itself in the for- 
 tress of Bard, which, by its situation, is the key 
 to the pass commanding the road in the narrow 
 gorge which the valley forms at that sjDot. Pa- 
 vetti had represented the reduction of that for-
 
 80 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 tress, to the Consul, as an easy undertaking, so 
 anxiously did he desire that the French should 
 pass through the valley of Aosta, in order that 
 his native district might he the first to be restored, 
 as he believed, to liberty ; but the result proved 
 that an insignificant rock might be a powerful 
 obstacle in the way of mighty designs. The 
 Austrian commander refusing to surrender, the 
 French endeavoured to take it by assault, but in 
 vain; they planted their cannon against it, but 
 without effect. The impetuous generals, chafing 
 and fretting to find their progress arrested by 
 a narrow rock, and a handful of soldiers, the 
 garrison consisting of only 400 men, could 
 not brook the affront of being thus stopped by 
 the insignificant fortress of Bard — they whom 
 neither the strength of Mantua, nor the eternal 
 snows of the enormous St. Bernard could impede. 
 They were aware that their march was already 
 known in the plain, and that Melas, giving up 
 this useless enterprise on the Varo, was hastening 
 to support there the declining fortunes of Austria. 
 Besides, the valley of Aosta was poor and sterile, 
 unequal to the support of such an army, for
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 81 
 
 whom no supplies had been prepared, and which 
 began already to feel the approach of want. In 
 vain they consulted to find a remedy : none pre- 
 sented itself. They battered the rock from the 
 houses of the valley, they battered it from the 
 belfry of the church with no effect, it was so 
 well defended, and the peculiar stone it was built 
 of was so hard that its strength defied all their 
 efforts. 
 
 At length, finding it impossible to take the 
 fortress, they resolved to seek a passage in an- 
 other direction. To the left of Bard rise the 
 irregular summits of Mount Albaredo, the highest 
 part of which commanding the fortress, though 
 the lowest is commanded by it. Berthier suggested 
 the possibility of crossing by the upper range. 
 In less than two days they cut steps in the steep- 
 est and hardest rocks, built parapets on the edge 
 of the precipices, and thre^v bridges over the 
 chasms, so that a path was now open beyond the 
 reach of the guns of the fortress. This work was 
 truly astonishing, and worthy of being comme- 
 morated in history. The men passed with secu- 
 rity ; but the artillery and baggage could not be 
 
 VOL. L G
 
 82 HISTOllY or ITALY. [1800. 
 
 conveyed by so narrow and steep a path ; and 
 Lannes, who had already reached Ivrea, ran the 
 risk of being attacked by the Austrians before the 
 arrival of the cannon, without which no other 
 arms avail in modern warfare. The pertinacity 
 of the Consul had commanded a fresh assault of 
 the fortress, which had had a disastrous result. 
 Great was the danger on every side, for the time 
 admitted of no delay; when, in the critical mo- 
 ment, Marmont devised a new stratagem : — he 
 strewed the road they were to pass with manure 
 and straw, wrapped the axles of the wheels with 
 bands of hay, and, the carriages being drawn 
 quickly along during the night, the ordnance hap- 
 pily cleared the gorge of the defile. When the Aus- 
 trian commander became aware of the stratagem 
 practised by the enemy, he opened a tremendous 
 fire ; but the celerity of their movements, and the 
 darkness of the night, prevented the republicans 
 from suffering any material loss in this extrardi- 
 nary passage ; and now, with all the implements 
 of war at their command, they prepared to invade 
 the Piedmontese territory. A short time after, 
 Chabran, descending by the Lesser St. Bernard,
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. feS 
 
 forced the commandant of Bard to capitulate, but 
 granted the garrison their lives and effects, on 
 condition of their not again bearing arms till an 
 exchange of prisoners should take place. 
 
 Whilst the main body of the French army now 
 debouched by Ivrea, the .other divisions had not 
 been idle ; but, concurring in the execution of the 
 general plan, had reached the stations appointed 
 by the Consul. Bethancourt, descending by the 
 Simplon, had made himself master of Dome 
 d'Ossola ; Moncey, quartered at Bellinzona, ap- 
 proached Lugano, and the banks of the Tesino, and 
 the Adda. Thureau, still nearer at hand, scour- 
 ing the country in the neighbourhood of the ca- 
 pital of Piedmont, had appeared first at Susa, then, 
 marching on, had shown himself at Avigliana, 
 after having captured a considerable number of 
 the Austrians, who had endeavoured to block up 
 his passage by occupying the lofty rocks where, 
 before the war, the impregnable fortress of Bru- 
 netta had been situated : — such was the storm that 
 the unparalleled design of the Consul drew down 
 on every side on that tract of country which is 
 comprised between the Dora and the Adda. The 
 
 G 2
 
 84 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Consul proposed to proceed to Milan by forced 
 marches, justly believing that he should there find 
 partisans, provisions, and money ; and he hoped 
 also, by his unexpected appearance, to surprise 
 and overpower the dispersed bodies of Austrians, 
 who dreamed of any thing rather than of his 
 approach. He had also reason to believe that by 
 occupying the banks of the Adige he should 
 cut off from Melas the possibility of seeking the 
 secure retreat of the Tyrol. Still more ably 
 conceived was the idea of sending Lannes towards 
 Chivasso, in order to persuade Melas that an at- 
 tack on Turin was intended ; and, his plans being 
 thus arranged, the Consul took the necessary 
 means for their execution. 
 
 Fearing an attack on Turin, the Austrians 
 had placed an advanced guard on the bridge over 
 the Chiusella, to the right of which they had 
 planted four batteries, to prevent the enemy gain- 
 ing this passage. This bridge being very long 
 and narrow, it was difficult to gain possession of 
 it. Lannes commanded his bravest troops to ad- 
 vance full speed, in hopes to force it by the 
 impetus of a first attack ; but the German artil-
 
 1800.] HISTOllY OF ITAI.y. 85 
 
 lery swept the bridge ; and the niusketiy, on 
 their flank, showered such a fiery tempest; that 
 the lacerated and bleeding troops were forced to 
 retire. A fresh trial occasioned a fresh repulse. 
 Twice again Lannes renewed the contest ; and 
 the result of each attempt became more and more 
 fatal: still he persisted undismayed, although with- 
 out effecting his purpose. In this emergency, 
 Pavetti, who knew the ground perfectly, because 
 the combat took place almost under the walls of 
 his native Romano, informed the French general 
 that to the left of the bridge there was a spot 
 that might easily be forded, at the same time 
 offering to guide the division himself. They 
 accordingly forded the river with successful 
 daring, and appeared unexpectedly on the right 
 of the enemy, on which a mortal struggle ensued. 
 The Austrian commander, Palfi, received a 
 deadly wound, whilst standing close to the bridge, 
 encoiu'aging his troops — an accident which gave 
 victory to the French ; who now, driving back the 
 Austrians in turn, gained possession of that 
 post. The defeated party effected a junction 
 with their rear-guard on the heights of Romano,
 
 86 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 and there endeavoured to make head against the 
 foe; but, the French attacking them with in- 
 creased courage and animation, they were obliged 
 to abandon their camp. 
 
 No better success attended the charge made by 
 Keim in the plain that lies between Romano and 
 the hills of Montalenghe. The road was thus 
 opened to Lannes as far as Chivasso, where he 
 found considerable stores of provisions, which 
 afforded welcome refreshment to his exhausted 
 troops. Having done thus much to draw Melas 
 to Turin, Lannes suddenly directed his standards 
 to the left, and, marching with accelerated speed, 
 followed the left bank of the Po to Pavia. 
 The whole French force now threatened Milan. 
 Murat, Bondet, and Victor, marched against Ver- 
 celli ; Lannes vms on the same front, but a little 
 lower down ; and, higher up, the Italian Legion, 
 under Lecchi, crossed the country from Chatillon 
 to Aosta, by way of Grassoney : they marched 
 first to Varallo, and then to Orta ; from whence 
 they drove back the Prince of Roano, who was 
 garrisoned there with a handful of Germans. 
 The whole of this warlike front passing on
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 87 
 
 reached Vercelli, and there passed the Sesia. Baf- 
 fling the ineffectual opposition of Laudon, who had 
 hastened to oppose them, they entered Novara, 
 and prepared to cross the Tesino ; the left wing 
 had, in the mean time, been much increased by the 
 junction of Lecchi with Bethancourt, who had de- 
 scended from Domo d'Ossola. Laudon posted him- 
 self at Turbigo, in order to dispute the passage 
 of the river ; but Murat, who led the vanguard, 
 having seized some boats that had been left at 
 Galiate, gained the opjDOsite bank, and drove 
 away the German general from Turbigo, though 
 not without loss. At the same time, the left wing 
 was strongly re-inforced by the junction of the 
 troops under Moncey, who, crossing the lakes of 
 Lugano and Como, had met Lecchi at Varese. By 
 these movements, which were as skilfully executed 
 as they had been planned, the capital of Lombardy 
 had akeady fallen into the hands of the French. 
 Buonaparte, with the elite of his troops, entered 
 Milan triumphantly on the second of June. I 
 know not how to describe the rejoicings which 
 this event occasioned in that capital ; because, 
 in revolutions, the last government is always
 
 88 HISTOIIY OF ITALY. [1800 
 
 esteemed the worst, and the newest the best. 
 In the present instance, however, the domination 
 of the Germans had not been of the mildest kind ; 
 and that, not because in its own nature oppres- 
 sive (with the exception of the affair of the pri- 
 soners at the mouths of the Cattaro), but because, 
 in endeavouring to restore the ancient ord,er of 
 things, they had disturbed property, and offended 
 public opinion. The heads of administration 
 were fully persuaded that the return of the 
 French was impossible: they therefore governed 
 according to that belief ; and their measures 
 paved the way for fresh revolutions. Buona- 
 parte now re-crganised the Cisalpine republic: 
 his ordinances commanded the public celebration 
 of the rites of the Catholic church ; enjoined 
 respect to religion ; and, in some cases of ex- 
 treme culpability, menaced sacrilegious offenders 
 even with the punishment of death. He esta- 
 blished the security of property ; recalled the 
 exiled ; annulled the sentences of confiscation ; 
 and forbade the notes of the bank of Vienna to 
 pass current in future. Having thus planted in 
 Milan the foundations of his power, he applied
 
 1800.] HISTOJRY OF ITALY. 89 
 
 himself anew to military affairs ; for, although 
 the campaign had so far been prosperous, its 
 ultimate success was still undecided. The army 
 of Melas was yet unbroken and entire on the 
 right bank of the Po, while, at Genoa, Massena 
 had been obliged to yield to the fortune of the 
 confederates. Of this latter circumstance, how- 
 ever, the Consul was not then aware ; and, believ- 
 ing his situation to be more secure than it really 
 was, he sent out detachments to secure the dis- 
 tricts of Lodi, Cremona, Bergamo, and Crema, 
 where the French had formerly been seen by the 
 inhabitants with extreme satisfaction. His inten- 
 tion was then to cross the Po suddenly, and to 
 cut off from Melas all possibility of retreat ; 
 Lannes, in the meantime, by a sudden incursion, 
 had made himself master of Pavia, where he 
 found provisions in abundance and a considerable 
 quantity of arms. 
 
 By the loss of Milan, Melas had been made 
 aware of the danger of his own situation and of 
 the strength of the enemy ; and, seeing that there 
 was no means of escape except hy a pitched 
 battle and complete victory, he endeavoured to
 
 90 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 draw the war to the neighbourhood of Alex- 
 andria, on account of the support he should there 
 receive from the citadel and the fort of Tortona. 
 When he reached Alexandria, he commanded Es- 
 nitz, who had recently arrived from the Riviera,* 
 to join him, and sent Otto, who, by the reduction 
 of Genoa, was now left free to act, to Piacenza, 
 in order to defend the passage of the river. But 
 Murat anticipated Otto; and, although vigorously 
 opposed, effected the passage, and possessed him- 
 self of Piacenza. At the same time Laniies 
 crossed at Stradella, and pitched his camp at San 
 Cipriano. Otto retired on Casteggio and Monte- 
 bello. On the 9th of June, an obstinate contest 
 took place at these two towns, which was but the 
 prelude to another and fiercer combat, superior in 
 force, and pregnant with more important results. 
 Otto had posted the main body of his forces at 
 Casteggio ; had planted a strong battery on the 
 right; had stationed his cavalry lower down, 
 towards the plain ; and had left a small body of 
 reserve at Montebello. The French, led by 
 Watrin, bore down on the Germans with tre- 
 
 * Of Genoa.
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 91 
 
 mendous impetus, but were received by them 
 with no less steadiness. The event was doubt- 
 ful for a long time, as the republicans several 
 times gained possession of the steep hills at Cas- 
 teggio, but were as often driven from them. For 
 some hours, the Imperialists kept possession of 
 this point, principally by the co-operation of the 
 cavalry, which, issuing from behind the hedges, 
 where they had remained in shelter, charged the 
 enemy with fury. Watrin, thus broken, re- 
 treated with loss, and the battle would have been 
 decided against the French but for the opportune 
 arrival of Generals Chambarlhac and Rivaud, 
 who, having been dispatched by Lannes, had 
 forced their way to the scene of action through 
 every obstacle. The latter entering into the 
 midst of the fight, checked the progress of the 
 enemy, and, giving fresh courage to the troops 
 of Watrin, incited them to renew the attack : the 
 Germans, however, defended themselves obsti- 
 nately. In this critical moment, a large body of 
 fresh troops, under Lannes, rushing impetuously 
 into the heat of the battle, (as they were ever 
 wont), forced the enemy to yield, and repulsing
 
 92 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 them from Casteggio, drove them back to Mon- 
 tebello : but here, Otto steadily maintaining his 
 ground, the combat raged more fiercely than 
 ever, and the Germans were again beginning to 
 prevail, when Buonaparte, who at this crisis 
 appeared on the field, commanded Victor to 
 charge the main body of the enemy with seven 
 fresh battalions. The fury of the combat was 
 now at its acme, for the Austrians defended the 
 bridge with a strong train of artillery, which 
 swept across it, whilst the French endeavoured 
 to drive them from it at the point of the bayonet. 
 This strife of fire and steel lasted for a time, (for 
 the Austrians bravely supported the onset) till 
 by the march of the divisions of Geney and 
 Rivaud from the further extremity of the field 
 Otto found himself nearly hemmed in on every 
 side, and therefore retired to Voghera, leaving a 
 garrison of about a thousand soldiers in the 
 fortress of Tortona. The loss of the Austrians 
 in this action was great, both in killed and 
 prisoners, yet less by half than the numbers 
 stated in the bulletins of Berthier. The French 
 also lost considerably in killed — scarcely less than
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 93 
 
 their adversaries, but of their number very few 
 were taken. Such was the battle of Casteggio, 
 which lasted from seven in the morning till eight 
 in the evening. 
 
 The difficulties of the passage of the Alps 
 being surmounted by skill and courage, Lombardy 
 suddenly over-run, the name of the Cisal- 
 pine republic revived, and the minds of the 
 people roused to deeds of daring by an extraor- 
 dinary enterprise, it still remained to confirm 
 this auspicious commencement by some decisive 
 battle, and thus secure to Buonaparte both the 
 supreme authority in France and the absolute 
 empire of Italy. If the conquest of this country, 
 made by the conjoined efforts of Kray, Suwarrow, 
 and Melas, had been quickly accomplished, it 
 remained to be seen if the French leader could 
 not effect the re-conquest more speedily still. 
 Melas, as we have already related, had assembled 
 his forces under the walls of Alexandria, in the 
 strong position between the Bormida and the 
 Tanaro. With an army of 40,000 men, strong 
 in artillery, in chosen cavalry, in tried and dis- 
 ciplined infantry, he was in all respects well
 
 94 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 furnished for a combat on which the fortunes of so 
 many nations hung. Nor was he deficient either 
 in ardour or skill, or in the confidence of recent 
 victory; and he was, moreover, well aware of 
 the vast importance of the impending battle. 
 
 On the other hand, the Consul was about to fight 
 on those Italian fields which were already full of his 
 brightest fame : his officers, young, confident, and 
 brave, panted with incredible zeal to confirm the 
 glorious destinies of France ; his soldiers — a few 
 only veterans, the greater number conscripts,- — 
 were not, like the Germans, inured to war ; yet 
 ardour and hope supplied to them what was 
 wanting in experience. In numbers, however, in 
 cavalry, and in artillery, they were inferior to 
 the enemy : the result of the combat therefore 
 seemed sufficiently dubious. Melas, although 
 thus unexpectedly attacked, although defeated at 
 the Chiusella, and at Casteggio, appeared, not- 
 Withstanding, to have the greater probability of 
 victory ; nor can we sufficiently praise the skill 
 and celerity with which, when aware of the Con- 
 sul's design, he had assembled his army in the 
 fields of Alexandria. The Consul ought to have 
 perceived that his adversary's intention was to
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 95 
 
 give battle in this strong position, because he had 
 fortified the banks of the Bormida with trenches 
 and artillery; but, contrary to all probability, 
 imagining that Melas wished to draw back 
 towards Genoa, he had sent Desaix, who had 
 recently arrived from Egypt, to Rivalta, on the 
 road to Arqui ; and he, in obedience to his orders, 
 had already commanded the division of Boudet to 
 move still nearer to the place : — a serious error, 
 because he ought to have concentrated rather 
 than have dispersed his force in presence of 
 so powerful an enemy ; and thus, through him, 
 the whole fortune of France was on the point of 
 perishing in the field of Marengo. Besides this, 
 from a resolution, neither prudent nor rational, 
 he had sent the division of Monnier, which, with 
 that of Boudet, composed the left wing com- 
 manded by Desaix, to Castelnuovo, on the Scrivia, 
 so that in this manner the whole of this wing, at 
 a moment of such importance, was dispersed and 
 disorganised. Melas occupied the village of Ma- 
 rengo, beyond the Bormida, by an advanced 
 guard posted in the neighbourhood of Alexandria; 
 and this village, the Consul commanded Gardanne 
 to attack, who easily carried it, the Germans
 
 96 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 making but a feigned and feeble resistance. This 
 circumstance ought to have made Buonaparte 
 aware that Melas, so far from meditating a distant 
 march to Genoa, thought only of contesting the 
 issue in the neighbourhood of Alexandria. How- 
 ever, being obstinate to an extreme in his ideas, 
 he persisted in the belief that the Austrians 
 intended to withdraw into Liguria, until in the 
 end his scouts brought him intelligence from 
 Rivalta and the banks of the Po, which removed 
 his erroneous impressions, and convinced him 
 that the mighty contest would be decided in the 
 Alexandrian, and not in the Ligurian territory. 
 He therefore commanded Boudet and Monnier to 
 return in haste to the main body ; but they were 
 then so far distant that it was probable they 
 would not arrive till the battle would be de- 
 cided. 
 
 On the 14th of June, at five in the morning, 
 Melas crossed the eventful Bormida. Esnitz, 
 with the light infantry, and the chief strength of 
 the cavalry, moving to the left of the Imperialists, 
 marched towards Castel Ceriolo, by the road 
 which leads to Sale, because the intention of the
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY 97 
 
 Austrian commander was to take the French in 
 the rear on that side, in order to cut them off 
 from Pavia and Tortona, whence they commu- 
 nicated with the detachments on the left bank 
 of the Po. Keim, with the heavy troops, moved 
 towards the village of Marengo, by which the 
 road to Tortona passes : this was the centre. 
 A third division on the right, commanded by 
 Haddick, with a body of Hungarian grenadiers 
 led by Otto, were to ascend the left bank of the 
 Bormida, to draw off at Fragarolo, and to join 
 the centre near Tortona. He foresaw (and this 
 was in fact the intention on both sides) that the 
 principal struggle would be for the possession of 
 Marengo, because all the movements of the 
 French were directed to that point. The Aus- 
 trian infantry was preceded by a formidable train 
 of artillery, its harsh thunder giving fearful 
 warning of the severe and murderous contest 
 that was about to take place. Against this over- 
 powering force the French were not equally 
 matched in the early part of the combat; for, 
 owing to the improvidence of tlie Consul, 
 
 VOL. I. H
 
 98 HISTOBY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Monnier was far off on the right, and Desaix 
 on the left. 
 
 All their hopes, therefore, rested on the 
 division of Victor, which was tolerably strong, 
 at Marengo, and on that of Lannes stationed 
 to the left of the road to Tortona. To these 
 may be added about nine hundred soldiers of the 
 consular guard, the cavalry under the command 
 of the younger Kellermann, the squadron under 
 Champeaux, and lastly, that under Murat. 
 The first covered the infantry of Victor ; the 
 second; that under Lannes ; and the last, posted 
 at the extreme right of the whole front, guarded 
 the road which led to Sale. Thus the French 
 line of battle commencing at the Bormida, and 
 obliquely seceding from it, passed by Marengo, 
 and extended as far as Castel Ceriolo. Keim 
 encountering Gardanne, who had been dispatched 
 by Victor to Pietrabuona, an insignificant place 
 between Marengo and the Bormida, bore him 
 down with an overwhelming force. The re- 
 mains of the routed band retired in disorder 
 towards Marengo, and they would have been 
 entirely surrounded and taken, if Victor had not 
 
 «*
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 99 
 
 quickly sent Cliambarlhac to their rescue. The 
 Austrians came up and engaged in a horrible 
 contest with Victor: here on both sides were 
 performed deeds of stupendous valour; at last 
 fortune inclined towards that (Keim) which had 
 the superiority in numbers and artillery. Keim 
 triumphantly entered Marengo ; but though dis- 
 comfited, Victor's ranks were not disordered, 
 but in unbroken mass they still presented a 
 menacing front to the enemy, and drew up behind 
 Marengo. He was joined by Lannes on the 
 right, and the combat was renewed with greater 
 fierceness than ever. Keim was opposed to 
 Lannes, Haddick to Victor ; and whoever con- 
 siders the temper of these generals, and that of 
 their troops, will easily believe that never was a 
 combat distinguished by greater skill or valour 
 than this. Lannes was ably seconded in his 
 attack on Keim by Champeaux and his cavalry, 
 who in this melee received a mortal wound, of 
 which he died a few days after. Kellermann 
 with his squadron effectually supported Victor, 
 leading on charge after charge in ceaseless suc- 
 cession. Notwithstanding this, Victor, having 
 
 H 2
 
 100 HISTORY OF ITALY, [1800. 
 
 been from the first in action, and Gardanne 
 having suffered much in the affair of Pietra- 
 buona, his troops were so exhausted, and his 
 ranks so thinned, that he yielded the post at last, 
 and retired precipitately, and not without some 
 disorder, to St. Julian. Deprived on his left 
 flank of the support of Victor, Lannes was also 
 constrained to fall back, which allowed Keim to 
 become still more master of the field, and led him 
 to believe himself in secure possession of the vic- 
 tory. During this time, Esnitz had occupied 
 Castel Ceriolo with the light infantry, and, with 
 his horse, had extended his ranks in hopes of 
 falling on the rear of the two bodies of the receding 
 republicans ; and if this design had succeeded, it 
 would without doubt have given the victory to 
 the Imperialists. 
 
 In this perilous situation, the only resource 
 the Consul possessed was in the nine hundred 
 soldiers of his own guard and in Murat's 
 cavalry, which were certainly not able to make 
 head alone against the numerous cavalry of 
 Esnitz : he therefore commanded the advance of 
 the nine hundred guards. I know not whether 
 I ought most to laud their prowess, or condemn
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 101 
 
 the incapacity of Esnitz ; but certain it is, that the 
 German general, although he had hemmed them 
 in on every side, was never able to break them; 
 for, either he did not do all that he ought to 
 have done, or the nine hundred did more than 
 could be deemed possible. So numerous were the 
 light troops under Esnitz, that he might have 
 left a small part to have kept this consular 
 guard in check, and might have made a spirited 
 attack on the rear of the squadrons which were 
 giving way. This, however, he did not do, 
 but persisted in attacking this small body 
 of the enemy with his whole force ; but whether 
 it arose from cowardice or error, this conduct 
 on the part of Esnitz, and the heroism of the 
 consular guard, who had obeyed the summons of 
 the Consul with all possible speed, gave Monnier 
 time to arrive from Castel Nuovo. He first came in 
 contact with the troops of Esnitz ; and, though sur- 
 rounded by their numbers, he cut his way through 
 them, gallantly assisted by the brave guard. St. 
 Cyr, having driven the Tyrolese from Castel 
 Ceriolo, made himself master of the village, and, 
 with stakes and barricades, quickly entrenched 
 himself there. Esnitz endeavoured to drive him
 
 102 HISTOllY Ol' ITALY. [1800. 
 
 out, but in vain : fortune however favoured him 
 at this moment — Monnier and the consular 
 guard were obliged to retreat ; but, instead of 
 following up his advantage, and pursuing the 
 yielding enemy, he obstinately persisted in his 
 attack on Castel Ceriolo. He was, however, con- 
 stantly repulsed by St. Cyr, who kept him so 
 long at bay, that this general was now the salva- 
 tion of the whole French army, as the consular 
 guard had been in the first instance: they, by 
 their persevering resistance, had given time for 
 the arrival of Monnier ; while his skill and cou- 
 rage procured a delay that allowed Desaix to join 
 the action. Melas in the mean time, hoping to 
 profit by the favourable opportunity which for- 
 tune had afforded him, had sent forward his 
 right wing, with the five thousand Hungarian 
 grenadiers, in order to prevent the French from 
 making head at St. Julian, to which place their 
 movements seemed to be directed. It appeared 
 probable, that the troops under Keim, already 
 trium.phant, and those of Esnitz, half victors on 
 the one side, and half conquered on the other, 
 would suffice for this object ; but to ensure suc- 
 cess, and to provide for the emergency which the
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITAI-Y. 103 
 
 arrival of Desaix might occasion, Melas sent on 
 the Hungarians far before the rest, of whom 
 as the body to whom the victory belonged, Zach, 
 the quarter-master of the whole Austrian camp, 
 took the command. 
 
 It was now five in the evening : the combat had 
 already lasted for more than ten hours. The 
 conquering Austrians exulted in success, while 
 slender hope of recovery remained to the French, 
 and that only in Desaix. The inhabitants of 
 Alexandria believed that the arms of Austria had 
 already obtained a decided victory, because the 
 tremendous sounds which had spread terror within 
 their walls in the morning had become more and 
 more distant ; and the sound of the battle-tumult 
 now but faintly reached their ears. The Consul 
 himself despaired ; nor did he show, in this crisis 
 of the battle, the presence of mind, the fortitude, 
 or, in any respect, the temper worthy of him who 
 had formed the admirable plan of this second in- 
 vasion of Italy. As if bereaved of all judgment, 
 he was wholly engrossed by the intense anxiety 
 with which he watched for the arrival of Desaix. 
 Whilst he still hesitated, filled with fears as great 
 as his hopes were feeble, intelligence was brought
 
 104) HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 him that the first ranks of Desaix's squadron 
 were beginning to appear at St. Julian ; and now 
 all his ardour returned. Any other than himself 
 would, in a situation thus desperate, have made 
 use of this reinforrement to secure a retreat ; but 
 the bold and all-powerful Consul employed it to 
 renew the battle, and re-gain the victory. He 
 now changed the order of his line ; so that, 
 diverging obliquely from Castel Ceriolo to St. 
 Julian, St. Cyr was placed at the extreme point 
 on the right, whilst first Monnier, and then 
 Lannes, proceeded on the left towards St. Julian ; 
 and at this last place, across the road to Tortona, 
 was Desaix stationed. The cavalry of Keller- 
 mann was posted in front, and the field was 
 between Desaix and Lannes. Esnitz not having 
 effected with his cavalry and infantry what Melas 
 had expected, against the French right wing, the 
 Austrian commander dispatched the 5000 Hun- 
 garians under Zach against their left, hoping that 
 this compact body of powerful men would be able 
 to break them, and to cut them off from the road 
 towards Tortona. The Hungarian column, on 
 which the fortune of the day depended, confident
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 105 
 
 in its strength, marched boldly against Desaix. 
 The latter allowed them to approach before he 
 fired ; but, when they were within reach of his 
 guns, he thundered on them with the artillery 
 Marmont had assembled in front, and then dis- 
 charged his own. For the first moment, dismayed 
 by this severe reception, the Hungarians made a 
 brief pause, but, quickly recovering from the 
 shock, they marched on as if one solid and invin- 
 cible mass. Nor could the French, being lighter- 
 bodied troops, succeed in arresting their pro- 
 gress, although they surrounded them, and strug- 
 gled against them with their utmost energy. The 
 case here was similar to the battle of Fontenoy. 
 Desaix, wholly undismayed by the danger, placed 
 himself in front, reconnoitring the country to 
 discover whether it afforded any advantage of 
 ground, by which he might profit ; when, struck 
 on the breast by a ball from a musket, he found 
 an almost instantaneous death. His last words 
 to Lebrun (the generous son of a generous father) 
 were these : '* Go and tell the Consul that I die 
 grievi7ig only that I have not done enough to live 
 in the memory of liosteriiyr Boudet succeeded
 
 106 IIISTOJIY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Desaix in the command ; and neither was he him- 
 self disheartened by this grievous disaster, nor 
 did his soldiers lose their courage ; but, on the 
 contrary, the desire of revenge stimulating spirits 
 naturally valiant, they threw themselves on the 
 five thousand with irresistible fury. Nor did the 
 Hungarians succumb. It was a fearful and a 
 mortal strife. The republicans were beginning to 
 lose ground ; their situation seemed desperate. 
 But fortune decreed that the salvation of France 
 should arise on the brink, of utter ruin ; and 
 Kellermann was destined to effect the important 
 rescue. In fact, whilst Boudet, who still endea- 
 voured to maintain his ground in front, began, 
 notwithstanding, to give way, Kellermann, with 
 all the weight of his cavalry, attacked the Hun- 
 garian mass in flank, and, charging in between 
 and across their files, divided the column in hand- 
 fuls, and totally disordered it. Their ranks broken, 
 their lines lost, intermingled with the French, 
 entangled with one another, there remained to 
 them no order, nor any means of defence. And 
 hence, Kellermann continuing to press on them 
 more vigorously, and Boudet returning to the
 
 ISOO.] HISTOllY OF ITALY. 107 
 
 charge with fresh animation derived from this 
 opportune aid, their whole body was constrained 
 to lay down their arms. Thus that which the 
 infantry and the artillery had failed to accom- 
 plish, the cavalry effected, exactly contrary to 
 what had happened at Fontenoy, where the artil- 
 lery effected what the cavalry and infantry had 
 unsuccessfully attempted. Zach seems to have 
 committed an important error in having advanced 
 too far amongst the French troops ; for, when he 
 was so fiercely attacked, the other squadrons were 
 too distant to afford him timely succour. In fact, 
 he was too confident of victory. The disastrous 
 fate of the Hungarian column gave every where the 
 preponderance to the fortune of the French, who 
 now pressing on, closed in the rear of the enemy, 
 thus deprived of their principal support, and 
 forced them to retreat with great loss and confu- 
 sion. Melas gave the signal to collect his shattered 
 forces, and he retired, vanquished, to that spot 
 from whence he had set out in the morning with 
 such well-founded hopes of victory. Ha. but once 
 again made head, and that in considerable num- 
 bers, at Marengo, to give time for the arrival of the
 
 108 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 retreating squadrons, and then sought shelter be- 
 yond the Bormida. The French took up the same 
 quarters they had occupied before the battle. Of 
 the Imperialists there were killed 4,000 able vete- 
 rans who had served in the Italian campaigns, 
 7,000 were wounded, and 8,000 remained prison- 
 ers in the hands of the enemy. The French loss 
 w^as 3,000 killed, and 4,000 wounded, but few were 
 made prisoners, because of the number taken in 
 the early part of the day the major part were 
 liberated by their fellow-soldiers at the moment of 
 their unexpected victory. 
 
 This battle, which changed the lot of Europe 
 for fourteen years, was rather gained by the 
 French than by Buonaparte, the valour of the 
 soldiery having retrieved the mistake of the com- 
 mander. The victory was principally owing, first 
 to Cara St. Cyr, by his having taken and kept 
 Castel Ceriolo ; to Victor, by his obstinate defence 
 of Marengo ; to Boudet by his firm resistance of 
 the Hungarian body ; and finally, and above all, 
 to the able and gallant Kellermann, who, seizing 
 the opportune moment, did not hesitate to charge 
 into the midst of that unbroken and solid mass.
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 109 
 
 which, to all appearance, by its weight alone 
 would prostrate his force the moment he should 
 appear before it. 
 
 His comrades congratulated him on his glorious 
 achievement ; but, when he came into the pre- 
 sence of the Consul, the latter accosted him with 
 his accustomed haughty air of superiority ; and, 
 without questioning him as to the events of the 
 day, merely said : " That was rather a fine charge 
 than not that you mader The youthful soldier 
 indignantly replied : " / rejoice that you appre^ 
 date it, since it places the crown on your head.''' 
 The Consul, who never liked his designs to be 
 discovered before he declared them himself, took 
 umbrage at this, and ever after showed himself 
 unfriendly towards the son of the marshal, to 
 whom he never granted rank or honours in any 
 degree equal to his merits. 
 
 On the other side, Melas had judiciously plan- 
 ned his attack ; and it appears that no fault 
 could be found with his manoeuvres. The chief 
 praise on the side of the Austrians was due to 
 Keim, who routed, first, Victor, then Lannes, and 
 obliged them both to retreat. The courage of
 
 110 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Zach merits encomium ; but his imprudence de- 
 serves censure, in having advanced too far 
 amongst the enemy. As for Esnitz, it does not 
 appear that he accomplished what Melas had 
 charged him to eflfect, or fulfilled the expectations 
 which had been formed of him. He persisted in 
 assaulting small bodies of troops, and insignificant 
 points of attack strongly fortified, — a service for 
 which light-armed squadrons are wholly unfit, 
 instead of scouring the plain, and falling on the 
 enemy in flank and rear, the service best adapted 
 to the troops he commanded, and which would 
 have been acting conformably to the orders he 
 had received from Melas. 
 
 The Austrian Generalissimo had still force 
 sufficient, after the battle, to make an effectual 
 stand in the strong position in which he had 
 entrenched himself ; a resolution he might the 
 more easily have executed, for, being sufficiently 
 well provided in cavalry, he possessed the means 
 of scouring the country to procure provisions : 
 but, whether intimidated by his recent defeat, or 
 deceived by the arts of Buonaparte, who con- 
 stantly asserted his willingness to adhere to the
 
 1800.] HTSTOTIY OF ITALY. Ill 
 
 treaty of Campo Formio, and his desire to bestow 
 on every territory under his command a form of 
 government less oppressive to the people, and 
 fraught with less danger to princes, Melas 
 showed no disposition to make further resistance, 
 and demanded a truce. The terms were glorious 
 to France, humiliating to Austria, and alarming 
 to Europe at large. All offensive operations 
 were discontinued until the arrival of the defini- 
 tive answer of the Court of Vienna. The Impe- 
 rial army took up its station between the Mincio, 
 Fossa Maestra, and the Po ; occupied Peschiera, 
 Mantua, Borgoforte, and the right of the river 
 Ferrara, retaining also possession of Tuscany ; 
 while the republicans occupied the country between 
 the Chiesa, the Oglio, and the Po ; but the tract 
 between the Chiesa and the Mincio was exempt 
 from the soldiers of either party. The fortresses 
 of Tortona, Alexandria, Milan, Turin, Pizzighet- 
 tone, of Arona, and Piacenza, were consigned to 
 the republicans ; Cuneo, the castles of Ceva and 
 Savona, Genoa, and the strong Urbano fell also 
 into their possession. Those who had shown 
 themselves favourable to the Austrians, either by
 
 112 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 expressed opinions, or services rendered to them, 
 were not to be in any way held responsible, nor 
 to be molested ; and such of the Cisalpine repub- 
 licans as had been incarcerated on account of their 
 political opinions were to be set at liberty. 
 Whatever might be the answer from Vienna, hos- 
 tilities were not to be re-commenced till ten days 
 after its arrival ; nor during the truce was either 
 party to send troops into Germany. Such were 
 the terms agreed on at Alexandria ; and thus did 
 one French victory destroy the fruits of twenty 
 German or Russian triumphs. The truce, which 
 was several times renewed by common consent, at 
 an interval of ten days, was finally, by a new and 
 express convention, definitively extended to the 
 twenty-fifth of November. 
 
 The victor of Marengo had the fate of Europe 
 in his hands, — happiness or misery, peace or war, 
 civilization or barbarism, the liberty or slavery 
 of nations. Civil glory, equal to his military 
 renown, now awaited him ; but a passion for war- 
 like fame, and a wild and untameable lust of 
 power, left no scope for pacific virtues, — a cir- 
 cumstance for ever to be deplored. He was
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 113 
 
 received at Milan in triumph : there they called 
 him the unparalleled man, the matchless hero, 
 the incomparable model, with every other praise, 
 that Italian adulation best knows how to in- 
 vent ; while France, on her part, re-echoed these 
 flatteries. The good Milanese boasted that he 
 was come to give new liberty to his beloved 
 Cisalpine people. He himself spoke much of 
 peace, of religion, of literature, and of science. 
 He formed in that capital a legislative council, 
 and a commission of government with executive 
 power, and created a minister-extraordinary of 
 France, giving this office to one Petiet, who had 
 been minister of war in the time of the Direc- 
 tory. To the delight of all the worthy, he 
 re-opened the University of Pavia, that had been 
 closed by the suspicious Germans. To the pro- 
 fessors, whom he selected amongst the most cele- 
 brated, the most learned, and the most virtuous 
 men, he granted liberal stipends, so that the Uni- 
 versity flourished with fresh vigour, and the times 
 of Joseph the Second seemed to have returned ; yet 
 the military domination under which they lived 
 showed the people that the age was far dilTerent. 
 
 VOL. I. I
 
 114 HISTORY OI ITALY. [1800. 
 
 All the while his proceedings differed much from 
 what they had formerly heen : he no longer 
 caressed, but even repulsed the ardent lovers of 
 revolution, whilst he collected round him those 
 who were aristocratical in their sentiments, pro- 
 vided they were moderate in those sentiments, 
 wealthy, and of good reputation. Melzi, Aldini, 
 Birago, Dr. Moscati, Scarpa, the Bishop of Pavia, 
 Gregory Fontana, Marescalchi, and Mascheroni, 
 were distinguished by his favour. These pvo- 
 ceedings did not please the most violent demo- 
 crats, and amongst themselves they called him an 
 aristocrat, and even a tyrant, though in public 
 they never ceased to proclaim him a god. The 
 new heads of the Cisalpine government placed 
 unbounded confidence in all his actions and all 
 his w^ords, and promised themselves the indepen- 
 dence of their country. For the rest, although 
 the mode of acting was more regular, and al- 
 though ajDpearances were better preserved, yet 
 the extortions and peculations were much the 
 same, and Lombardy began to suffer under its 
 former evils. When the newly elected magis-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 115 
 
 trates took tlieir seats, Petiet pronounced an 
 elaborate discourse in praise of France, lauded 
 the Consul, spoke of Beccaria, harangued on 
 liberty, on independence, on their high and mag- 
 nificent destinies, and praised Italy with rhetorical 
 embellishments, calling her the mistress of letters, 
 of philosophy, of politics, and asserting that she 
 was not formed to be the tributary of a foreign 
 prince. To this oration the president of the 
 council replied in a similar strain. 
 
 The Cisalpine republic being thus re-organised, 
 the Consul returned to France. He passed 
 through Turin, where he shut himself up in the 
 citadel, and would not allow himself to be seen, 
 not wishing, out of respect to the Emperor 
 Paul, who favoured the king, to suffer himself to 
 be pledged to any promises. And certain it is, 
 that, although his own mind was strongly averse 
 to the proposition, he had nevertheless offered to 
 restore Charles Emanuel to his ancient throne, on 
 condition of his giving up Savoy and Nice. 
 He returned also to his old idea of giving the 
 Cisalpine territory to that king, provided he 
 
 I 2
 
 116 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800 
 
 would make an effectual renunciation of Pied- 
 mont, which he coveted with the keenest desire. 
 This proposal, however, was not accepted by the 
 monarch, partly from religious motives, partly 
 because he did not wish to conclude any thing 
 without the consent of his allies, and more espe- 
 cially of the Emperor Paul, and of England. 
 Nor did he wish to give an excuse to Austria, in 
 case the fortune of France should again retro- 
 grade, for taking possession of Piedmont ; and 
 though he had no great cause to be satisfied 
 with her, yet he nevertheless abhorred the idea 
 of appropriating to himself the spoils of another. 
 Notwithstanding these proffers and these nego- 
 ciations, the Consul created in Piedmont, as he 
 had done in Lombardy, a commission of govern- 
 ment, not as a final arrangement, but merely to 
 intimidate. To this he promoted many men 
 celebrated for learning and for moderation, — 
 Galli, Bottone of Castellamonte, Braida, Avo- 
 gadro, Cavalli, and Rocci, to the executive com- 
 mission ; and to the council, the Bishop of No- 
 vara, Capriata, the two professors Regis and 
 Pavesio, both learned and pacific priests, Tosi,
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 117 
 
 Botta,* Lombriasco, another Avogadro, Bay, Pac- 
 ciudi, Nizzati, and Chiabrera. As minister ex- 
 traordinary to this government, he appointed first 
 General Dupont, and then, as a recompense to 
 the victor of Fleurus, Jourdan. 
 
 At this time the situation of Piedmont was 
 beyond all description miserable : an extreme 
 scarcity, and the rapine of the soldiery, while it 
 was occupied by the confederates, had reduced 
 the country to great poverty ; nor were the Impe- 
 rial commissioners wanting in fraud and oppres- 
 sion ; the insolence was less, but the rapacity the 
 same. The Piedmontese knew neither what to 
 hope, nor what to fear, nor what to desire, since 
 change of rulers produced to them no change of 
 fortune. They cursed their destiny, which had 
 made them weak amongst the strong ; nor was 
 this the whole of their misfortunes. Bills of 
 credit, long and lamentable, the plague of the 
 country, and which were constantly diminishing 
 in value, had placed every sort of property in 
 confusion and doubt ; every species of trade was 
 at a stand ; the prices of provisions were exces- 
 
 * The author.
 
 118 HISTOllY Ol- ITALY. [1800. 
 
 sive ; the poor, who had no cedules, for the 
 smallest were of the value of twenty lire,* suf- 
 fered immoderately. At length the evil became 
 so great, that all traffic was carried on by barter 
 in kind, and a tariff of relative values was pub- 
 lished : but the mischief had been already done, 
 and there remained all the embarrassments arising 
 from anterior contracts. The council, although 
 abounding in learned and able lawyers, found it a 
 difficult task to adjust these matters, for whatever 
 might be their assessment, no one was pleased 
 with the sentence, however just the law might 
 be. This was the great source of discontent ; 
 nor was it a trivial accession to their misfor- 
 tunes that the heavy burthen was imposed on 
 them of supporting the troops of France, as well 
 those who were stationary, as those who were 
 passing through — an expenditure too great for the 
 finances of Piedmont. Massena, when appointed 
 Generalissimo of Italy by the Consul, demanded 
 a million per month for the support of the troops, 
 and that the Piedmontese should likewise main- 
 
 * A lire in Piedmont is about fifteen pence British money. 
 
 Tr.
 
 1800.] II18T011Y OF ITALY. 119 
 
 tain the garrisons. On succeeding to Massena, 
 Brune agreed that they should pay a million 
 monthly, as a supply to the French military 
 chest ; but, when the million was paid, the sol- 
 diers were still in want, and Piedmont was 
 obliged to provide the deficiency ; for, if what 
 they had need of was not given to them, they 
 took it by force. Jourdan, who was humane and 
 upright, wished to correct all this, but the pecu- 
 lators understood their business better than he 
 did : there was no remedy, there was no peace 
 to be had. In addition, the orders they were 
 expected to fulfil were arbitrary and capricious : 
 now a fortress was ordered to be demolished at 
 the expense of the Piedmontese, and then again 
 the same edifice was commanded to be re-built at 
 their cost also ; now the French demanded the 
 lead of the cupola of the Superga,* which would 
 
 * The Superga is a hill five miles from Turin, commanding 
 
 extiuisite views of that town, the river, &c. It was here that 
 
 Prince Eugene and Victor Amadous met, in 1706, to concert 
 
 the hest measures for driving the French out of the capital of 
 
 Piedmont. The church of the Superga was built to fulfil a 
 
 vow made ou this occasion by Amadeus, in case of success. 
 
 Tu
 
 120 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 in the first place have ruined the edifice by ad- 
 mitting the water ; then they ordered the bastions 
 of the royal gardens to be removed, — a useless 
 labour, because the city was already completely 
 dismantled ; and if it had not been for the steadi- 
 ness of the governor, the Superga and the gardens, 
 
 • the favourite walk of the Turinese, would have 
 been destroyed. One demanded money for the 
 provisions of the soldiers, another for their 
 clothing; these for the hospitals, those for the 
 ordnance, the roads, or the barracks. The de- 
 mands were capricious, the expenditure excessive, 
 the finances wholly exhausted ; and every thing 
 was in turmoil and confusion. 
 
 But another misery, besides those already 
 
 ' related, afflicted Piedmont, and rendered a well- 
 administered government impossible. This was 
 the uncertainty which hung over the future des- 
 tiny of the country. The offers the Consul had 
 made to the king were known, which rendered 
 the royalists sullen, the republicans cautious : 
 ttiose hoped, these feared ; and between timidity 
 in issuing orders and hesitation in obeying 
 them, a state of anarchy ensued. When inter-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 121 
 
 rogated, the Consul would not declare himself 
 openly, but wrapped himself up in ambiguities. 
 Some, from the encouragement he gave the 
 republicans, argued that he would not give up 
 Piedmont to the king, others judged, from that 
 very circumstance, that he would restore Charles 
 Emanuel : the democrats insulted the aristocrats, 
 who in turn laughed at the republicans. The 
 first hoped for a republican form of government, 
 the second thought the restoration of the mo- 
 narchy certain. These last had the upper hand ; 
 for not a few of the principal men who had 
 arrived from France, for the purpose of exa- 
 mining into the administration of military affairs 
 (where their superintendance was much required), 
 lived at the houses of the chief nobility ; and, 
 either from flattery, or from the desire of appear- 
 ing to belong to the old times, they continually 
 ridiculed those who served the new government. 
 One gave himself out for a count of ancient 
 lineage, another for a marquis, and a third for a 
 viscount, or, at the very least, a baron ; not per- 
 ceiving how thoroughly they were themselves, in 
 turn, despised by the Piedmontese nobles, who
 
 122 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 are so peculiarly acute and penetrating. In the 
 mean time, these agitations deprived the govern- 
 ment of its strength ; and those very men who 
 demanded most from its labours rendered those 
 labours useless. This proceeded from levity and 
 ingratitude, not from malice, for they were not 
 capable of feeling either love or hatred. I know 
 not whether in the midst of such grave matters I 
 ought to speak of the folly of the democrats, 
 who did not perceive the trap they had fallen 
 into. I must not, however, omit to mention the 
 return of Ranza* to Piedmont. The things that 
 
 * Ranza was a humanity professor at Vercelli, and was con- 
 sidered to possess both talent and learning. His strange 
 humour afforded his countrymen so much amusement, that he 
 was permitted to indulge his eccentric vein to the utmost. 
 " It is Ranza " was esteemed a sufficient excuse for what 
 would have been not only absurd but mischievous in another. 
 Acknowledged extravagance is seldom dangerous. He wrote, 
 besides diurnal pasquinades, a variety of political tracts; 
 amongst others, " The Catechism of Tyrants." On the 
 creation of the Italian kingdom, he publicly celebrated the 
 funeral of the Cisalpine republic. His own, which took place 
 no long time after this remarkable masquerade, which was 
 attended by the same idle crowd, was one of the most splendid 
 Turin had seen in modern timet;. When the convoy arrived
 
 1800.] HISTGllY OF ITALY. 123 
 
 he said, and those that he printed, it is needless to 
 speak of ; they are akeady sufficiently known : 
 strange to say, his greatest and worst extrava- 
 gances were uttered when he was in prison, at 
 Vigevano, in the power of the Russians, which 
 he would also have printed if he had been able. 
 Sometimes he wrote against the priests, sometimes 
 against the friars, now against the aristocrats, 
 now against the democrats, now against the 
 government, and now against the governed. One 
 day he made a large bonfire in the Castle-square, 
 on which he burned the writings of a friar to 
 whom he was opposed, the populace following him 
 in crowds. Every day the press threw off his 
 marvellous gazettes, and he as regularly stuck up 
 his enormous placards against the walls himself, 
 and as soon as it was reported that Ranza had 
 a2)peared, the populace ran in crowds, trampling 
 
 at the gale of Madama, through which funerals are not 
 allowed to pass, except on occasions of peculiar solemnity, tlie 
 words " It is Ranza " opened wide its jealous portal to bestow 
 an honour on extravagance which would have been denied to 
 wisdom. Ranza's son lives at VerccUi^ and has some eminence 
 as an architect. — Tr.
 
 124f HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 on each other's heels, to the spot. He began to 
 say that there were too many aristocrats in Pied- 
 mont : when reproved, he maintained that they 
 were all aristocrats. The government, who did 
 not understand his character, endeavoured to stop 
 him, but in vain ; he persisted in saying that all 
 were aristocrats, and the governors more so than 
 others ; so, as the least dangerous part to be taken, 
 he was allowed to say what he pleased. But 
 public opinion was perverted, calumny found 
 powerful support in envy, and there was no 
 longer any means of ruling the people. I have 
 wished to speak of this Ranza, and perhaps I 
 have done so more at length than was becoming, 
 but I have been induced to do so by the idea that 
 there are but too many Ranzas in Europe, and 
 most in those countries which are, or believe 
 themselves, free. 
 
 The fate of Piedmont being left uncertain, fac- 
 tion began to revive and to become more veno- 
 mous. Some espoused the French interests, some 
 the Italian, some the Piedmontese ; friends hated 
 each other, and enemies became reconciled : there 
 was no nerve of opinion. An act of the Consul,
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 125 
 
 by which he gave both the Upper and Lower 
 Novarese to the Cisalpine government, increased 
 the uncertainty and discontent. Prina, a Nova- 
 rese, then Minister of Piedmont, had been the 
 first to suggest and advise this dismemberment of 
 his country ; which may show what sincerity and 
 what loyalty there was in those times. This 
 sinister event greatly agitated men's minds in 
 Piedmont, because they thought that Buonaparte 
 wished to restore it to the king. The govern- 
 ment protested against it ; and the Consul, who 
 knew very well what he was about, expressed 
 his wonder at all these hopes, and fears, and pro- 
 testations ; but he did not explain himself, and 
 doubt, and faction, and the difficulties of the 
 government increased. Piedmont was the sport 
 of a tempestuous whirlwind. 
 
 Amidst all these fatal commotions, the govern- 
 ment, which was then called the " Executive 
 Commission," and which consisted of Bossi, Botta, 
 and Giulio, had the consolation of executing one 
 useful design, which was to appropriate a sum of 
 five hundred thousand francs of yearly revenue 
 to the University, and to the colleges, and theu*
 
 126 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 dependencies. This institution was really bene- 
 ficial and magnificent, and can only be compared 
 to that founded in the United States by the 
 liberality of the Congress, and that established 
 in Poland by the munificence of the Emperor 
 Alexander. 
 
 But this was small consolation for such times, 
 when misfortune superabounded, and the Pied- 
 montese continued to live in disorder, in discord, 
 in slavery, in want, till Buonaparte found the 
 opportunity to lead them to a state of greater 
 security. 
 
 The fate of Genoa was not less unhappy, partly 
 from the same, partly from dissimilar causes. 
 By the convention of Alexandria, Hohenzollern 
 had given up Genoa, but not without having 
 first, by the command of Melas, exacted a million 
 from sixty of the richest merchants — a loan, as 
 he phrased it, for the use of the army. The 
 French, under Suchet, entered the desolated city 
 on the 24th of June. Of what nature, and 
 how great, are the miseries and the grievances 
 resulting from this frequent change of masters 
 every man can judge. Tlie Frencli treated
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 127 
 
 Genoa harshly, as if she had come whole and 
 uninjured out of the hands of the Germans ; the 
 Germans had treated her harshly, as if she had 
 come flourishing and rich out of the hands of the 
 French. 
 
 The Consul created here, as in Lombardy and 
 Piedmont, an executive commission, and a legis- 
 lative council, and appointed General Dejean 
 Minister Extraordinary of France. The exe- 
 cutive commission appointed consisted of John 
 Baptista Bossi, Augustine Maglione, Augustine 
 Pareto, Girolamo Serra, Antonio Mongiardini, 
 Louis Carbonara, and Louis Lupi, men illustrious 
 for virtue, and who, amidst the disturbances of 
 the times, conducted themselves with moderation. 
 Nor was there less worth found in those who were 
 selected for the council, — Louis Corvetto, Emanuel 
 Balbi, Girolamo Durazzo, Caesar Solari, Joseph 
 Fravega, Nicholas Littardi, Joseph Deambrosis, 
 with several others, to the number of thirty. 
 At the assembling of these magistrates, the cus- 
 tomary flatteries passed on both sides ; but on 
 this occasion, however, more on the part of the 
 minister of France than on that of the Genoese
 
 128 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 government. Dejean spoke of the good faith and 
 generosity of the Consul, and pledged the fidelity 
 of France to consolidate, at the general peace, the 
 liberty and independence of the Ligurian repub- 
 lic. This was soothing language to Genoese 
 ears, but what followed had a touch of bitter- 
 ness ; and this was, that if the war were renewed, 
 the city was to contribute towards the disburse- 
 ments. Much that was praiseworthy was incul- 
 cated by the minister, — oblivion of offences, and 
 pardon to transgressors : " such was the will of 
 the Consul, such the dictates of humanity, and 
 such was alone the true interest of the state." 
 Rossi, the President, replied, not without pomp of 
 language, but in the corrupt style of true Italian 
 servility, that " this day was the happiest amongst 
 the happy days of the rei3ublic ; that the council 
 would labour to secure the tranquillity and 
 liberty of their country ; that Liguria, as a mari- 
 time state, desired only peace : for the rest, the 
 republic and the citizens were alike poor, yet 
 comfort was derived from the promises which 
 had been made, and from the character of the 
 magistrates who had been elected. The destiny
 
 1800.] HISTORY or ITALY, 12^ 
 
 of Genoa was, doubtless, brighter and more cer- 
 tain than that of Piedmont ; for France had 
 promised her independence ; and, on this account, 
 there was greater strength in the internal govern- 
 ment of Liguria, and less daring in the factious 
 part of the community, than in Piedmont." De- 
 jean earnestly exhorted the members of the new 
 institution to be guided by experience only, and 
 to lay aside those abstract principles and dan- 
 gerous tlieories which had proved the fruitful 
 seed of revolution. From this it ajDpears that 
 Dejean had divined the views of the Consul, and 
 that the Consul judged of human nature with 
 great sagacity and truth. 
 
 There were, as we have said, in the executive 
 commission moderate and upright men ; but not- 
 withstanding, excited by the clamours of the 
 democrats, they prescribed a law of indemnity, of 
 which the least that could be said was, that it 
 was contrary to the capitulation of Alexandria. 
 Compensation for losses from defaulters and ene- 
 mies of the state — for thus were called the parti- 
 sans of Austria, and of the old regime, was to be 
 made ; and, if they did not possess the amount of 
 
 VOL. I. K
 
 130 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800, 
 
 the fine imposed, the commune was taxed to 
 pay it ; a law that would have proved a source 
 of intolerable oppression. Dejean remonstrated 
 seriously with the government on this erroneous 
 proceeding, reminding them of the treaty of Alex- 
 andria, and of the wishes of the Consul. The 
 Genoese no longer persisted in the attempt, and 
 the minister of France increased in reputation, 
 while the Consul rejoiced in an opportunity of 
 openly showing favour and protection towards 
 the partisans of the ancient government. In 
 this state things continued ; the finances, though 
 weak, were obliged to supply the expenses of the 
 state, and to support the foreign soldiery. Keith 
 commanded the sea, and blockaded the port. 
 Genoa, ever doomed to servitude, was ruined now 
 by want, now by the sword. Reduced to these 
 cruel straits by foreign force, the city was yet 
 further afflicted by a pestilential disease, which 
 reached a fearful height ere it could be over- 
 come, not fewer than 2,000 perishing in a single 
 month. In fine, of the three adjoining states, the 
 following was the condition : — in Piedmont there 
 was a dearth of provisions, the plague of a paper
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 131 
 
 circulation, and uncertainty as to the future ; in 
 Lombardy, abundant supplies, a sufficient reve- 
 nue, and stronger hopes of becoming, if not a free 
 state, at least a new one ; in Genoa, famine, pes- 
 tilence, and exhausted finances : while, in all the 
 three, there was slavery, the rulers being the mere 
 agents of France. 
 
 In the mean time fortune was preparing for 
 Buonaparte the most solid foundation he could 
 have desired, on which to build his designs — a 
 foundation stronger than the force of arms, 
 stronger than the voice of fame. Pius the Sixth 
 having died during his captivity in France, Car- 
 dinal Chiaramonti had assumed the pontificate in 
 the conclave of Venice, under the name of Pius 
 the Seventh ; and as he feared Austria, and con- 
 fided in France, the Consul hoped to bring him 
 over to his designs, by caressing the church : 
 consequences of the greatest importance were the 
 result. 
 
 The Romans received the news of the election 
 of the Pope with lively demonstrations of joy ; 
 for they were under the domination of the Neapo- 
 litans, and hoped that a sovereign of their own 
 
 K 2
 
 132 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 would free them from the rule of a foreign lord. 
 On the 9th of June, Pius the Seventh set out 
 from Venice, and, after a toilsome passage, reached 
 the port of Ancona on the 25th, having previously- 
 sent on the Cardinals Albani, Roverella, and So- 
 maglia, with authority to receive the government 
 from the agents of Ferdinand, and to give some 
 arrangement to the disordered administration. 
 On the od of July he entered Rome, and was 
 hailed by the inhabitants with the accustomed 
 demonstrations of joy. He now appointed new 
 pastors for the church, and new magistrates for 
 the state, and restored every thing, as far as was 
 practicable, to the ancient order. The initiative 
 proceedings of his reign were mild, and the same 
 mildness marked his subsequent measures ; nor 
 did the partisans of republicanism suffer any mo- 
 lestation. He commanded that the church pro- 
 perty sold during the time of the French govern- 
 ment should revert to the apostolical chamber, 
 with the reservation of one-fourth of the value to 
 the recent proprietors. Wishing to provide, on 
 one hand, for the wants of the chamber, and, on 
 the other, to favour the interests of the com-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITAl.Y. 133 
 
 mimes and individuals, but a short time elapsed ere 
 he adopted an ameliorated mode of taxation. De- 
 siring to free the communes from the burden of 
 the public debt, he transferred it to the pontifical 
 chamber, excepting however the debts contracted 
 for the provision of the city, and the interest 
 accruing from previous engagements. He relieved 
 the communes from the mounts,* investing them 
 in the state ; but, at the same time, decreed that, 
 till the revenue should be reimbursed, two-fifths 
 of the interest of the mounts should be paid into 
 the treasury. Four-fifths of the interest was to 
 be paid to those who drew from the mounts pro- 
 fits expiring at a given time, and he exempted 
 these establishments of whatever nature, perpe- 
 tual or terminable, from every species of tax or 
 contribution. He abolished all customary fees, 
 such as those arising to sheriffs (bargelli), those 
 on renewed patents, and those on dead horses ; or 
 transferred them for the benefit of the communes. 
 The burthen of contribution he made more equal 
 and uniform, reducing all imports to two denomi- 
 
 * Banks paying annuities on property made over to them, 
 whether capital or the rents of lands or houses, &c.
 
 134 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 nations, and abolishing every privilege and an- 
 cient custom contrary to the impartiality of his 
 system. One class was called Loyalties, and the 
 other Donatives. The first consisted of four di- 
 visions : a land-tax of seven pauls in every hun- 
 dred crowns value on rural property ; an imposi- 
 tion of two pauls in the hundred crowns on 
 palaces and town houses ; five crowns in the 
 hundred on the transfer of interest, or annuities ; 
 a tax on absentees, of the sixth part of the returns 
 of every description of capital, whether in natural 
 products, agriculture, manufactories, or civil pos- 
 sessions. The donatives consisted of a tax on 
 salt, on grain, and oil, and a duty of three pauls 
 on every barrel of wine which entered Rome. 
 The fathers of twelve children and the mendicant 
 orders were exem.pted from the above taxes. These 
 regulations were judicious, and were rendered 
 much more beneficial by the service the republi- 
 cans had done the state in destroying the paper 
 currency. 
 
 The Consul did not omit to give the affairs of 
 the Roman state due consideration. He clearly 
 perceived, that if peace with the kings of Europe
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 135 
 
 were likely to prove an effectual means of power, 
 his ambition would receive still more effectual aid 
 from peace with the church ; and when he heard 
 that Cardinal Chiaramonti had been elevated to 
 the pontificate, he conceived still brighter hopes ; 
 knowing him to be endowed with sincere piety, 
 and therefore the more easy of persuasion. The 
 offers of the Consul were of the last importance, 
 because the re-establishment of the Catholic reli- 
 gion in France not only restored one great realm 
 to the Holy See, but tended to preserve it pure 
 and intact in others ; since there is no doubt that 
 if France had persevered in her wanderings in 
 matters of religion, other countries would sooner 
 or later have been contaminated by her example. 
 For these reasons Pius the Seventh lent a willing 
 -ear to the overtures of the Consul ; and when 
 each party had sounded the intentions of the 
 other, they entered into the detail of the negoci- 
 ation. The progress and the final adjustment of 
 these matters we shall relate in the following 
 book, with our accustomed candour. 
 
 Buonaparte triumphed on shore — Nelson ruled 
 the seas. When intelligence of the victory of
 
 136 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Aboukir was received at Naples, the Maltese 
 conceived hopes, that the preponderance of 
 England in the Mediterranean would prevent the 
 French from sending succours to the island ; and, 
 rising on every side against the conquerors, they 
 obliged them to confine themselves in Valetta, 
 which, being of great strength, both by nature 
 and art, could not easily be forced. Vaubois 
 commanded the garrison ; but the number of de- 
 fenders which, at the commencement of the siege, 
 had amounted to four thousand, were, by sickness, 
 soon reduced to two. The crews of the Guillmime 
 Tell, La Diane, and La Justice, ships which 
 had escaped from the destruction at Aboukir, 
 were landed on the island ; and, under the com- 
 mand of Admiral Dacres, co-operated in the de- 
 fence. Some Portuguese ships, under the com- 
 mand of the Marquis of Nizza, were assembled 
 round the island, and quickly blockaded the port. 
 Nor was Nelson long in arriving with his victo- 
 rious fleet, and all hope was now lost, if any had 
 been entertained, of relieving the besieged. Ferdi- 
 nand assisted in the attack by furnishing two fri- 
 gates, by supplying the inhabitants with arms and
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 137 
 
 ammunition, and by preventing the French from 
 receiving provisions from Sicily ; while a strong 
 body of English, stationed on the island, co-ope- 
 rated with the Maltese, and prevented the besieged 
 from making any sorties. Several times Nelson 
 summoned Vaubois to surrender ; but in vain. The 
 French began to suffer severely from the want of 
 provisions, of clothing, and of money, whilst dis- 
 ease rapidly increased among them. Yet, notwith- 
 standing all these evils, the resolution of Vaubois 
 was not to be shaken, nor his vigilance remitted. 
 To provide for his pecuniary wants, he obliged 
 the principal inhabitants of Valetta to give him 
 promissory notes, to be paid by France at the 
 general peace ; and with these he paid the 
 soldiers ; to clothe them he exacted linen and 
 cloth ; to supply them with food, he demanded 
 supplies of flour; he obliged the inhabitants 
 to take their flour from him ; and he bred 
 rabbits and poultry, so that they supplied him for 
 a long time. The scurvy raged among the men, 
 but he combated it by cultivating green herbs in 
 the most advantageous jjlaces. One Nicholas 
 Isoard, a Maltese professor of music, composed
 
 138 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 operas, which they performed, and sung, and 
 danced : hunger, however, was pressing. The 
 governor endeavoured to send the Guillaume Tell 
 to France for succour, but the watchful and active 
 English captured the vessel ; yet Vaubois was ever 
 vigilant, and provided with admirable prudence 
 against every accident. The Maltese without 
 conspired with those within; yet Vaubois detected 
 their plots, and baffled every assault — astonishing 
 prowess in men dying of hunger and disease. In 
 sight of the besieged, three vessels, from Toulon, 
 loaded with provisions and ammunition, and a 
 reinforcement of three thousand men, fell into the 
 hands of Nelson. Every day, every hour, the 
 famine inci-eased. They sent out the useless 
 mouths. The English, as if there had been any 
 danger of supplies, barbarously drove them back 
 to the town. Many died under the walls ; the 
 others, more dead than alive, were received again 
 by the French. Vaubois foresaw, that the ulti- 
 mate close of all this was fast approaching ; yet, 
 as a last hope, to preserve the fortress, if possible, 
 he sent to sea the two frigates, La Diane and 
 La Justice : the first was taken ; the second 
 reached the ports of France in safety. Hunger
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 139 
 
 at last overcame valour, and he agreed to sur- 
 render, on the 5th of September, but on honour- 
 able terms. The garrison were to remain 
 prisoners till the first exchange, and were then to 
 be sent to France at the expence of England ; 
 nor was any Maltese to be molested for aught done 
 or said in favour of the French. Thus, a brave 
 garrison of veterans, of the army of Italy, was 
 lost to France, a strong island, the bridle and 
 the defence of the Mediterranean, fell into the 
 power of England ; and the fragments that had 
 escaped from the Egyptian ruin, — destroyed or 
 taken, swelled the triumphs of Nelson. Glorious 
 certainly was the conqueror of Malta; but not 
 without glory also was its defender — for neither 
 greater courage, nor greater fortitude, nor greater 
 ingenuity, could have been desired in Vaubois. 
 Deserted by all, he struggled for two years ; 
 and was at last overcome, not by arms, but 
 by that scourge which always takes from 
 man the strength, and often, too, the will to 
 resist. 
 
 Whilst England, who already possessed, in 
 Gibraltar, the key of the Mediterranean, strove, 
 by the attack on Malta, to secui'e a safe station
 
 140 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 there also, Russia and the Ottoman Porte 
 arranged the constitution of the Ionian Isles. 
 It was agreed, that the leading men of the 
 country should form a republican government ; 
 and that this republic, like that of Ragusa, 
 should be a vassal of the Porte, and should 
 acknowledge its superiority by a legation ex- 
 pressly sent to Constantinople, with a yearly 
 tribute of seventy-five thousand piastres, which 
 should free the islands from every impost, or con- 
 tribution to Turkey. The Republic of the seven 
 islands was to have the same privileges as the 
 Ragusans, and to arrange her own internal form 
 of government, which the two powers were to 
 guarantee. If it should prove necessary, Russia 
 and the Porte were to retain the right of sending 
 shi^DS to the islands, and troops as garrisons, dur- 
 ing the present war, and no longer. The repub- 
 licans were to enjoy the free navigation of the 
 Black Sea, — Russia guaranteed the integrity of 
 the islands, and its acknowledgment by her allies. 
 Prevesa, Parga, Vonizza, and Butintro, districts 
 on the terra firma of Epirus, were ceded to the 
 Porte, but under the same restrictions, and en-
 
 1800.] HISTOllY OF ITALY. 141 
 
 joying the same privileges as the Christians of 
 Wallachia and Moldavia. No Mahometans could 
 possess property within their limits ; — the Chris- 
 tians were to be exempt from the payment of any 
 tax for two years, and were licensed to re-build 
 their church ; and a greater tribute than that 
 which they had paid to Venice was never at any 
 period to be demanded by the Porte. The form 
 of government chosen by the islanders was, a 
 council of notables, with legislative power, and 
 a president with executive authority ; — and thus 
 the Venetian islands, surrounded by fearful wars 
 on every side, attained a condition that was not 
 only tolerable, but prosperous, and so remained 
 sufficiently happy for several years. But other 
 wars, and other schemes of ambition, arose once 
 more to disturb them. 
 
 The suspension of hostilities did not slacken 
 the preparations for war on either side. Whilst 
 the war was carried on in Germany and Italy, 
 Buonaparte never ceased to raise fresh levies, 
 which were sent as re-inforcements, as occasion 
 demanded, to the German or Italian array ; and at 
 Dijon he had collected a large body under Murat,
 
 142 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 which menaced Italy and Germany alike. On 
 her side Austria was not negligent : her levies 
 were principally raised in Hungary, whence they 
 were sent to strengthen the divisions on the 
 frontiers. The army defeated at Marengo was 
 still entire, and ready to combat anew ; but no 
 small hopes for the future were formed by the 
 Court of Vienna on the movements in Tuscany, 
 which, placed by the convention of Alexandria 
 out of the French dominion, and consequently 
 under that of Austria, followed the wishes of the 
 Emperor. A violent enmity still nestled in 
 Tuscany against the republicans, a hatred which 
 had become excessively rancorous, and which the 
 clergy did not cease to foment ; whilst the 
 regency appointed in the name of the Grand 
 Duke laboured to excite the populace to the same 
 end. The Marquis of Sommariva, sent by the 
 Emperor to form this disorderly multitude, 
 armed and embodied them, and, with indefati- 
 gable efforts laboured to complete the work 
 committed to his care. As peace or war, how- 
 ever, was still uncertain, it could not be said 
 that this proceeding of the Tuscan government
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 143 
 
 was contrary to the convention. But these 
 Tuscan bands knew neither obedience nor disci- 
 pline, and, urged on by their hatred to the 
 republicans, burst from the confines, and, roam- 
 ing over the mountains which divide Tuscany 
 from the Modenese and Bolognese territories, 
 committed many outrages on the inhabitants. 
 These movements were the cause of some alarm 
 to the republicans, and they profited by the 
 occasion of complaint thus afforded, to demand 
 from Tuscany and Sommariva, not only the 
 punishment of the invaders, but the dissolution 
 of the armed bands of peasantry. Sommariva 
 made no satisfactory reply, but continued to 
 over-run the country at pleasure. This caused 
 the Consul, who was also allured by the desire of 
 possessing Leghorn, to form the resolution of 
 occupying Tuscany by an armed force. To this 
 intent he commanded Dupont instantly to cross 
 the Appenines, and make himself master of 
 Florence ; Monnier was directed to dislodge the 
 troublesome horde of insurgents then assembled ; 
 and Clement, marching lower down, was to effect 
 the seizure of Leghorn. This plan succeeded in
 
 144 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 all its parts. The first found no difficulty in 
 effecting the occupation of the capital of Tuscany; 
 while the second reached Leghorn by the way of 
 Lucca, and seized about fifty English vessels in 
 the port and an immense supply of grain. — 
 Clement, however, found it not so easy to 
 accomplish the task assigned to him on the side 
 of Arezzo ; for the inhabitants would listen to no 
 compromise, but resolved on an obstinate resist- 
 ance. The French battered the town with 
 cannon, and kept up a severe fire on the city and 
 castle with grenades, but those within defended 
 themselves manfully. St. Cyr, the bold occupier 
 and defender of Castel Ceriolo, laboured in vain. 
 The inhabitants of Arezzo kept the assailants at 
 a distance, with case shot, with grenades, and 
 stones. The republican leader commanded a 
 general assault; he had already, by means of 
 rockets, set fire to some of the gates ; but as 
 they were strongly fortified within by raddles 
 formed of thick branches, and covered with 
 kneaded clay, the French were obliged to aban- 
 don the attempt, yet not until after they had 
 suffered severely. On the following day, the
 
 1800.] HISTORY or ITALY. 145 
 
 19th of October, having better arranged the plan 
 of attack, some of the republicans applied their 
 scaling ladders to the walls at a very early hour, 
 and climbing up, possessed themselves of the 
 gates, and opened them to their companions. 
 Then the whole weight of the republican mass 
 forcing into the city, obtained possession of it, 
 but not without fresh struggles and renewed 
 carnage ; for, from the windows, from the roofs, 
 from the loop-holes that had been made in the 
 walls of all the houses for this purpose, the 
 inhabitants, aided by some companies of regular 
 troops, poured on the heads of the assailants 
 every species of offensive missile. But at last 
 disciplined courage prevailed over undisciplined 
 rage, and Arezzo fell into the hands of her 
 enemies. Then ensued the slaughter, pillage, 
 and violence that might be expected from soldiers 
 infuriated by recent sufferings, which revived 
 also the memory of former injuries. A few 
 escaped, and retired to the castle ; shortly after 
 they demanded a conditional surrender and ob- 
 tained it. The turri occasioned by the fate of 
 Arezzo caused the dissolution of the greater part 
 
 VOL. I. L
 
 146 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 of the Tuscan insurgent bands. An apparent 
 calm succeeded; but, under its shelter, fiercer dis- 
 contents were brooding, ready to spring into 
 action at the first opportunity; for the most 
 pacific state in Italy persevered longer than any 
 other in an obstinate desire of war. Sommariva 
 with the Germans retired to Ferrara. 
 
 Every thing tended towards a new war be- 
 tween France and Austria. The Emperor had 
 refused to ratify the preliminaries of peace, stipu- 
 lated at Paris on the 8th of July between the 
 Count St. Julian, his envoy, and Talleyrand, the 
 French minister ; and by which the Consul had 
 to compensate his losses by new acquisitions in 
 Italy. The Emperor not only refused to ratify 
 the treaty, but expressed much displeasure at 
 St. Julian, as having gone beyond his instruc- 
 tions. At this period, too, he was strongly 
 urged by England to continue the contest, be- 
 cause she had refused to make peace herself, and 
 dreaded being left single-handed against France : 
 neither could she be reconciled to the idea 
 of the Netherlands being left in possession of her 
 rival ; she offered, therefore, the aid of subsidies
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 147 
 
 and troops on the side of Naples. On the other 
 hand, the Emperor could not resolve on giving 
 up Mantua, deeming his new acquisitions in Italy 
 insecure, as long as this fortress should remain 
 in possession of a state entirely dependent on 
 France; and, although he was deprived of the 
 powerful co-operation of the Emperor Paul, he 
 trusted that the strength of his own resources 
 were sufficient to wage successful war alone; 
 remembering, also, the recent victories of Verona 
 and Magnano, and reflecting that if the day had 
 been finally lost at Marengo by a single moment, 
 after victory had been his for seven hours, it was 
 not by any want of courage on the part of his 
 army. The hostile armies were at this time 
 posted in the following order: — the Germanic 
 army of France, commanded by Moreau, fronted 
 the Germanic army of Austria, under Kray; — 
 the Italian army of France, under Brune, op- 
 posed the Austro-Italic host, commanded by 
 Bellegarde. Between the two, for the purpose 
 of forming a communication, a French division 
 was posted, under Macdonald ; and in the Tyrol, 
 an Austrian one, with Hiller at its head. Thus, 
 
 I. 2
 
 148 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 Moreau and Kray, ancient rivals, Macdonald and 
 Hiller, Brime and Bellegarde, were opposed to 
 each other. 
 
 The rising in Tuscany, which had obliged 
 Brune to dismember a part of his force, and to 
 send it on beyond his right wing, had weakened 
 the remainder. Desirous, therefore, of strengthen- 
 ing him, the Consul commanded Macdonald to 
 leave strong garrisons in the Grisons, and to 
 descend first from the Grisons to the Valtelline, 
 and then, from the Valtelline, on the banks of the 
 Oglio and the Adige; the first, in order to re- 
 inforce Brune in his assigned station, and the 
 latter to take Bellegarde in the rear, and oblige 
 him to retire from the Mincio, where he had his 
 present quarters. This order of the Consul 
 entailed extreme hardship, and was of difficult 
 execution ; for to attempt to cross at this advanced 
 season, now near the end of October, the moun- 
 tain of the Splugen, which must be done to reach 
 the Valtelline, or to effect, what was no less diffi- 
 cult, a passage over the Priga, which must be ac- 
 complished to reach the vale of Camonca, watered 
 by the Oglio ; and lastly, to surmount the Tonale,
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 149 
 
 which gives access to the Upper Adige, was a 
 supernatural rather than a human undertaking. 
 Nor was the recent example of the passage of the 
 St. Bernard a case in point, for the season was 
 more inclement, and the mountains more pre- 
 cipitous. Posterity, perhaps, will find in this 
 design of Buonaparte more audacity than wis- 
 dom, and greater confidence in his troops than 
 knowledge of the locality. Notwithstanding how- 
 ever all this, Macdonald did not lose courage, the 
 achievement of St. Bernard exciting his emu- 
 lation. The van-guard, under Baraguay d'Hil- 
 liers, being that which was the first ready to set 
 out, and the nearest to the mountains, crossed in 
 two divisions, one by the Splugen, the other by 
 the Monte dell' Ora, and arrived, not without 
 having overcome great difficulties, on the right 
 at Chiavenna, and on the left at Sondrio. By 
 this means, Baraguay gained the command of 
 the Valtelline, and facilitated the descent of Mac- 
 donald. The Valtellines were as much amazed 
 at the sight of these troops as if they had dropped 
 from Heaven, so impossible did it appear to them 
 that they should have made their way over those
 
 J 50 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 heights, especially at such a season ; but the task 
 which remained to Macdonald was still more 
 difficult. When they reached Tusizio, where 
 begins the ascent to the mountain eternally 
 capped with snow, it seemed that the obstacles 
 presented by nature had become insuperable, so 
 deep was the snow, so choked up was the road, so 
 slippery though yet untrodden, so narrow, rough, 
 and precipitous. The artillery, however, was 
 placed on traineaux, and the provisions on mules, 
 as at St. Bernard. They marched on, but with 
 extreme difficulty. The van-guard, under La- 
 boissiere, reached the village of Splugen, whence 
 there yet remained the ascent of the steep emi- 
 nence which leads to the highest ridge. They 
 set out, and proceeding with painful steps and 
 breathless toil, had already approached the wished- 
 for summit, when a furious east wind suddenly 
 arose, and raising an immense cloud of fine 
 powdery snow, drove it in the eyes of the sol- 
 diers, so as to render all farther progress impos- 
 sible.* The force of this vehement whirlwind 
 
 * The peculiar sharpness of this snow blisters and cuts the 
 skin, so as to draw blood. — Tr.
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 151 
 
 blowing furiously on the heaps of snow on the 
 slippery summits, caused a horrible rush of these 
 avalanches, which, falling with indescribable velo- 
 city and a fearful crash, like masses of lead, into 
 the valley beneath, carried down every thing that 
 lay in their course. Thirty soldiers, thus pre- 
 cipitated, perished in the abyss ; the rest were 
 terror-stricken, and their path blocked up. The 
 approach of night rendered their situation still 
 more horrible, and they retraced their steps to 
 Splugen. Laboissiere, who separated from his 
 people, had gone on with the guides with diffi- 
 culty, in almost a lifeless State reached the 
 summit ; but here he found a hospitable asylum 
 with the coenobites, who, like the monks of St. 
 Bernard, devote their heroic piety to the pre- 
 servation of forlorn travellers. 
 
 The undertaking seemed desperate, and so it 
 would have proved but for the arrival of Mac- 
 donald, who, spurred on by the desire of emu- 
 lating the Consul, and perceiving also that certain 
 destruction would arise from famine if they halted 
 here, worked so much on the minds of the soldiers 
 by his earnest entreaties and exhortations, that the
 
 152 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 wearied and terrified troops returned to the 
 attempt. Four strong oxen were sent on to track 
 the snow, forty men followed to clear a path with 
 shovels, after whom came the sappers to make it 
 solid, while two companies of infantry on the 
 right and left laboured to complete their work : 
 they were closely followed by the troops, both 
 infantry and cavalry, the artillery and the 
 beasts of burden closing up the rear. This was 
 the van-guard. When they reached the hospital 
 on the summit, their joy was extreme to find 
 Laboissiere in safety ; then, following the road by 
 the plain of Cardinello, they reached Campo Dol- 
 cino. In the same manner, on the second and 
 third of December, the passage was effected by 
 two other squadrons of infantry, cavalry, and 
 artillery. The weather being calm and cold, the 
 snow was hardened into ice, which facilitated the 
 passage. A few soldiers, only, died of the extreme 
 cold, and some were mutilated by the effect of the 
 frost on their extremities. The hardships of the 
 march were cruel, but there was hope of accom- 
 plishing it happily ; when, on the fourth, as the 
 van-guard, in which was Macdonald, tommcnced
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 153 
 
 their ascent, a tremendous storm arose, which 
 arrested the progress of some, buried others 
 under the drifted snow, and entirely effaced every 
 trace of the path that had been made. Despair 
 now seized every mind ; the terrified guides, who 
 were natives of the country, declared it to be 
 impossible to proceed, and refused to go on. 
 Macdonald was about to perish under hills of 
 snow, as Cambyses had done under hills of sand; 
 but his own resolution, and the exertions of his 
 companions, prevailed over all : their feats were 
 rather the labours of giants than of men. He 
 encouraged the guides ; he animated the soldiers ; 
 he ran to and fro, exclaiming — " Frenchmen ! the 
 army of reserve has overcome St. Bernard ; do 
 you conquer the Splugen ; let your glory van- 
 quish that which nature has wished to make 
 insuperable. Destiny calls you to Italy. Go, 
 and subdue the mountains and the snows, then 
 conquer men and arms." The long line of the 
 disconsolate squadron renewed their march : the 
 storm raged yet more fiercely ; frequently the 
 guides, distracted by terror, turned back ; fre- 
 quently the men were overwhehncd with, snow.
 
 154 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1800. 
 
 «ind not less often were they dispersed. Sometimes 
 the narrow gorge of the profound valley was 
 transformed into a mountain of snow ; a white 
 and solid wall arose where had been the opening ; 
 
 every path was closed. The cold also was 
 
 intense, and became the greater the higher they 
 ascended, dispiriting and subduing the mind, 
 whilst it benumbed the limbs and rendered them 
 useless. The snowy barrier rising before them 
 with momentary speed, was often renewed to op- 
 pose their passage ; inexorable winter wandered 
 at large, and ruled the scene; and the Rhaetian 
 Alps seemed about to swallow up the audacious 
 invaders. In a situation thus forlorn, an illus- 
 trious example is given of the prodigious efforts 
 to which human nature is equal ; for Macdonald 
 and his troops, not yielding to this mortal peril, 
 opened the lately closed paths, levelled the 
 mounds, broke the ice, made the yielding snow 
 solid, roughened that which was slippery, and 
 covered and filled up that which was hollow; 
 and thus, by all these expedients, though stern 
 winter called them to destruction and death, they 
 overcame its chill horrors, and, struggling success-
 
 1800.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 155 
 
 fully with all that is direst in the raging fury of 
 the elements, they reached in safety the vale of 
 the Valtelline. Here they congratulated each 
 other on their rescued lives, for each had deemed 
 death to be inevitable ; and Macdonald ex- 
 ulted at the success of his invincible resolution. 
 Achievements such as these appear impossible, 
 and more so to those who have accomplished 
 them, than even to others ; neither would pos- 
 terity credit them, if our own age (so fruitful in 
 narrative) could not bring a hundred witnesses 
 to verify them ; for neither ancient nor modern 
 history records any exploit more wonderful than 
 this, or so truly Herculean. This may serve to 
 show the energy of the enemy the Austrians had 
 to cope with, for certainly they never would have 
 exposed themselves to such fearful risks. Com'age 
 was equal on both sides, but greater daring was 
 on the part of the French. Some may call it 
 temerity ; but fortune is the friend of the bold, 
 and the world is for him who will seize it. 
 
 Although the first part of the enterprise had 
 been accomplished, the two others were yet to be 
 effected, and they were also attended with consi-
 
 156 HISTORY or ITA1.Y. [1801. 
 
 derable difficulty. These were the passage from 
 the Valtelline to the vale of Camonica, that is, 
 from the banks of the Adda to those of the 
 Oglio ; and then to the Trentino, that is, from 
 the Adda to the Adige ; the first by Monte Priga, 
 the second by Monte Tonale. This last did not 
 succeed; for the Germans were strongly intrenched 
 there ; and, though Macdonald twice attacked 
 them vigorously, he was ultimately repulsed by 
 the valour of the enemy, seconded by the strength 
 of their position, and the rigour of the season. 
 The passage of the Priga, on the other hand, was 
 happily accomplished. "When the republicans had 
 traversed this rugged mountain (although not 
 without serious difficulties and perils), they 
 reached the Oglio, and, passing Breno, assembled 
 at Pisogna, a district on the southern point of 
 the lake of Iseo, which the Oglio forms and 
 nourishes with its waters. Here they found the 
 Italian legion of Lecchi, and fresh provisions 
 which Brune had providently furnished for the 
 refreshment of these exhausted and heroic men. 
 
 Towards the end of November, the truce ex- 
 pired, and hostilities were declared on both sides.
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 157 
 
 Yet the Italian army did not come immediately 
 to action, because Brune sought to delay offensive 
 operations till the junction of Macdonald, who 
 was then occupied in passing the mountains. 
 Besides, he was fearful for the safety of his right 
 wing ; since, after the conquest of Tuscany, 
 Dupont had returned with the greater part of his 
 division to the principal camp, leaving in that 
 state only three or four thousand men under 
 Miollis. The King of Naples also, stimulated by 
 England and wishing to co-operate with Austria, 
 had sent an army into the field under the com- 
 mand of Count Roger de Damas, who, having 
 crossed the pontifical states, already approached 
 the frontiers of Tuscany. For these reasons, 
 therefore, the French general remained inactive 
 whilst awaiting the arrival of Macdonald and of 
 the new levies who had already reached Pied- 
 mont. Bellegarde was on his side not less 
 anxious of delay, awaiting the descent of Laudon 
 and Vukassovich from the Tyrol. His position 
 was, moreover, so strong, both by nature and art, 
 that he preferred being attacked to becoming the 
 assailant. Towards the close of the year, Macdo-
 
 158 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 nald reached the allotted position, from whence 
 he was able to co-operate with Brune ; and the 
 Generalissimo, therefore, desirous of seconding 
 the movements of Moreau in Germany, who had 
 successfully penetrated to the heart of Austria, 
 commenced active hostilities. An impetuous at- 
 tack on the squadrons posted by Bellegarde on 
 the right bank of the Mincio forced them to 
 retire to the opposite side. The passage of the 
 river was now to be effected by the French, — a 
 difficult operation ; for the Austrians, strong in 
 nmnber and position, were determined on an 
 obstinate resistance. The French were divided 
 into three bands : the upper, that is, the one on 
 the left division under Moncey, looked towards 
 Peschiera ; the central, under Suchet, was oppo- 
 site Borghetto; and the right, under Dupont, 
 posted on the Volta, extended as far as Goito. 
 Brune hoped to cross by the pass of Mozambano, 
 where the banks, being less marshy, were easier 
 to ascend, and afforded a firmer footing where it 
 was necessary to occupy them. To accomplish 
 this design with greater ease, he wished to de- 
 ceive the enemy by a feint of passing lower down
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. l^g 
 
 between Volta and Pozzuolo ; and, with this 
 intent, he commanded Dupont to make such 
 strong demonstrations of crossing in this place, 
 that Bellegarde should be persuaded that this 
 was really the passage the French designed to 
 effect, not doubting that the German general 
 would send so great a proportion of his troops in 
 that direction as would leave his right wing un- 
 covered, and thus facilitate his design on Mo- 
 zambano. Brune, however, commanded Dupont 
 to content himself with merely making a show 
 of occupying the left banl<:, and to make no stand 
 there, but avoid a decided engagement. The 
 25th of December, the day appointed by the 
 French general for the passage of the Mincio, 
 arrived, and Dupont in the first instance com- 
 menced the operations necessary to effect the duty 
 imposed on him. The light troops crossed first, in 
 boats which they there met with by chance, and 
 then, the pontoons being placed, the main body fol- 
 lowed, consisting of the two squadrons of Watrin 
 and Monnier. After a short contest, he became 
 master of Pozzuolo, where, without regarding the 
 general plan, he took up his station, — at once a
 
 160 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 fortunate and an unfortunate idea; for, if it was 
 important to occupy Pozzuolo, it might, on the 
 other hand, under the existing circumstances, 
 have entailed the total defeat of the French 
 army ; and this effect it had well nigh produced. 
 It had been more consonant to the instructions of 
 the French commander, and better for the gene- 
 ral security of the army, if Dupont, having 
 secured the means, had delayed the actual pas- 
 sage, till Brune had also crossed at Mozambano. 
 His precipitation M^as the cause of serious risk ; 
 for Brune had been so much impeded by the bad- 
 ness of the roads, that he was unable to concur in 
 the operations on the 25th. Bellegarde, there- 
 fore, who was stationed at Villa Franca, a short 
 distance from Pozzuolo, quickly fell on Dupont 
 with the entire weight of his forces. The French 
 general defended himself valiantly, although Belle- 
 garde appeared with almost the whole of his 
 army in battle array against him, and his soldiers 
 did every thing that brave men could do in a 
 situation of such extreme peril. But, such was 
 the preponderance of the Austrian attacking with 
 his whole force a small division of the enemy.
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. l6l 
 
 that Dupont, unable to resist with his own corps 
 alone, began to yield, and found himself on the 
 point of being driven back across the river, thus 
 paying the penalty of having ventured to disobey 
 the orders of the commander-in-chief, by coming 
 to a pitched battle on the opposite bank. The 
 right wing of the French would, consequently, 
 have been entirely defeated and routed, had not 
 an unexpected succour suddenly arrived in the 
 critical moment. Suchet, who, from the heights 
 of the Volta, saw how closely Dupont was 
 pressed by the enemy, considering rather the 
 circumstances of the case than the orders of 
 Brune, who had commanded his services at the 
 pass of Mozambano, descended in extreme haste 
 to the ill-omened Pozzuolo. 
 
 The arrival of Suchet restored the fortune of 
 the day, which till that moment had been lost. 
 Still the Austrians, strong in number and secure 
 on their right flank, gave fierce and obstinate 
 battle. Thrice did they gain possession of Poz- 
 zuolo, and thrice were they driven out ; but, in 
 the end, Bellegarde was obliged to retire behind 
 Villa Franca, leaving the republicans masters of 
 
 VOL. I. M
 
 162 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 Pozzuolo. He suffered much in this action, 
 leaving five thousand killed and wounded; and 
 three thousand prisoners remained to prove how- 
 little the termination of a battle can be judged of 
 from its commencement. Three standards and 
 eleven cannon adorned the triumph of the con- 
 querors : the victory, however, was not gained 
 without some loss on the part of the French ; for 
 their killed and wounded amounted to two thou- 
 sand, although only a few prisoners remained in 
 the hands of Bellegarde. The following day, as 
 had been originally arranged, Brune crossed the 
 river at Mozambano, and thus the whole French 
 army passed to the left bank of the Mincio. 
 
 Bellegarde, taking into consideration the re- 
 sult of the affair of Pozzuolo, and not wishing 
 to hazard an engagement in the open plains be- 
 tween the Mincio and the Adige, although his 
 force greatly exceeded that of the enemy in ca- 
 valry, resolved to yield to circumstances, and 
 retired to the left of the Adige, leaving only a 
 few battalions on the right, not to occupy the 
 country, but to impede the passage of the river. 
 Emboldened by victory, Brune now purposed to
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 163 
 
 drive back the enemy beyond Verona, and to 
 make the force of the French arms be felt in the 
 Vicentine, Paduan, and Trivigian districts. To 
 this intent, he arranged his movements for cross- 
 ing the river above rather than below Verona, 
 in order to secure the co-operation of Macdonald, 
 and to prevent the junction of Laudon and 
 Vukassovich, who were already descending from 
 the Tyrol : for which reasons, drawing towards 
 the Adige with the main body, he sent Moncey 
 towards Corona and Rivoli, to close the road 
 against Laudon and Vukassovich, with orders 
 to follow in their rear, in case they should deem 
 it expedient to retrace their steps. 
 
 He knew that Macdonald, passing by the 
 upper range of mountains, and, entering from 
 the valley of the Oglio into that of the Mela, and 
 from thence to that of the Chiesa, and following 
 the upper side of the Lago di Garda, proposed to 
 <!ome out by steep and rugged hills above Trent. 
 If this movement had succeeded, Laudon and 
 Vukassovich, attacked above by Macdonald, and 
 below by Moncey, would have had no means of 
 escape. This plan succeeded, as far as regarded 
 
 M 2
 
 164 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 tlie crossing of the river, which was easily 
 effected at Bussoleugo, so famous for successive 
 passages, now of the French, now of the Aus- 
 trians. Being informed of the march of Macdo- 
 nald, Bellegarde made only a feeble show of 
 opposition to the republicans, and retired on the 
 banks of the Brenta, leaving a garrison only in 
 the castle of San Felice, in the Veronese, which 
 shortly after surrendered. At the same time, 
 aware of the danger of Laudon and Vukassovich, 
 he commanded them to ascend the Adige as 
 quickly as possible, and to join him in the 
 vicinity of Bassano by forced marches through 
 the vale of the Brenta. At this moment the 
 intelligence arrived that, after the victory of 
 Hohenlinden, gained by Moreau over the Arch- 
 duke John, a truce had been concluded at Steyer, 
 on the 25th of December, between the French 
 general and the Archduke Charles. Bellegarde 
 proposed to Brune a similar suspension of hosti- 
 lities ; as he exacted, however, in conformity 
 with his instructions, the cession not only of 
 Peschiera, Ferrara, Ancona, and the port of
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 165 
 
 Legnano, but also of Mantua, the French 
 general refused to accede to such conditions, and 
 the contest was continued. 
 
 In the Tyrol, the state of affairs became press- 
 ing ; Moncey and Macdonald endeavouring to 
 shut up and surround Vukassovich and Laudon. 
 Vukassovich, however, who was stationed higher 
 up than Laudon, quickly obeying the summons of 
 Bellegarde, entered the vale of the Brenta by 
 Pergine, escaped the danger, and marched in 
 safety by the bank of this river in front of his 
 general ; Laudon, on the contrary, found himself 
 in a situation of extreme difficulty, as he had 
 already advanced so far that it was not possible 
 for him to return from Roveredo, towards Trent, 
 before the arrival of Macdonald ; besides, being 
 fiercely attacked by Moncey on the lower side, so 
 as to be driven higher up, he was obliged to 
 abandon even Roveredo to the victor. At this 
 moment also Macdonald, having overcome the 
 resistance that Davidovich had made at Trent, 
 with a small body of the rear guard of Vukas- 
 sovich, had possessed himself of this capital of
 
 166 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 the Italian Tyrol. Laudon, therefore, was cut off 
 from the main road, and the only hope of escape 
 which remained was by the narrow, steep, and 
 bad roads from Caldonazzo to Levico. It would 
 have been impossible to have passed by such 
 rugged paths, more especially with the cavalry, 
 baggage, and artillery, if the French had rapidly 
 pursued them. But Laudon sent to inform 
 Moncey that a truce had been concluded (a mere 
 fabrication of his own) between Brune and Belle- 
 garde, and required his observance of it. The 
 French general gave him credence, and abstained 
 from opposing him ; on which, profiting by the 
 opportunity, Laudon accelerated his march to the 
 utmost, and reached Levico in safety, from whence 
 making a successful descent, he effected the 
 desired junction with Bellegarde. Moncey march- 
 ing above Roveredo, and Macdonald below Trent, 
 the two generals met between these towns, both 
 grieving that a fraud had deprived them of a 
 signal occasion of increasing their own glory, and 
 of rendering an essential service to their country. 
 The disappointment was doubly bitter to Mac- 
 donald, as now all the hardships and dangers he
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 167 
 
 had gone through had been to no purpose.* The 
 accomplishment, however, of another part of his 
 plan remained — great and daring enterprises 
 being his highest pleasure : this was to ascend 
 the Adige to Bolzano and Brescia, then to enter 
 the vale of the Drave, and thus come out on the 
 rear of Bellegarde, and cut off his retreat into 
 Austria. In fact, he did proceed as far as Bol- 
 zano, and there briskly attacked general Auffen- 
 berg, who occupied the town with four thousand 
 men ; but peace, not hostile arms, impeded Mac- 
 donald in the execution of his bold design. 
 
 Vukassovich and Laudon having joined Belle- 
 garde, he might for a time have held the balance 
 of fortune ; but he did not desire to incur a 
 dangerous hazard, the news of the armistice of 
 Steyer having deprived him of hope. He there- 
 fore retired from the Brenta to the banks of the 
 Piave, and Brune followed him ; here the war 
 
 * And for this reason, Macdonald's passage of the Splugen is 
 
 little spoken of, though, in itself, so much more astonishing 
 
 than that effected by Buonaparte over the Great St. Bernard ; 
 
 but the latter, having changed the lot of Europe, is familiar to 
 
 every one. The most heroic actions are knovp^n to fame rather 
 
 by their consequences, than by their own intrinsic merit — Tt^ ^ 
 
 / 
 
 i
 
 168 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 terminated. At the request of the Austrian 
 general, a truce was concluded on the l6th of 
 January, at Treviso, with the following con- 
 ditions ; and neither party were to commence 
 offensive operations within fifteen days after it 
 was declared at an end. The fortresses of Pes- 
 chiera and Sermione, the castles of Verona and 
 Legnago, the citadel of Ferrara, the city and the 
 fort of Ancona were to be ceded to the French ; 
 Mantua was still to be blockaded by the repub- 
 licans, at the distance of eight hundred yards 
 from the ground-work, and the garrison were to 
 be allowed to introduce provisions, on every tenth 
 day, sufficient for the consumption of the inter- 
 vening space of time ; the Austrian magistrates 
 were to be respected; the truce was to last for 
 thirty-three days, including the fifteen; and finally, 
 no one was to be molested for political opinions. 
 The Consul was far from being satisfied with the 
 convention of Treviso, because it did not suit his 
 purposes that the Austrians should retain Mantua ; 
 he therefore sent a menace to the Austrian court, 
 (finding himself in a victorious position), declar- 
 ing, that if Mantua were not given up to him, he
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 169 
 
 would break the convention, and neither ratify 
 the armistice of Steyer nor that of Treviso, but 
 recommence hostilities. The Emperor was 
 forced to comply ; and, by a new agreement made 
 at Luneville, this most important fortress was 
 given up into the hands of the French. 
 
 The armistice of Treviso had reduced the King 
 of Naples to great straits, because it set the 
 French at liberty to attempt the recovery of the 
 territory they had lost. Count Roger de Damas, 
 wishing to co-operate with Bellegarde, had ad- 
 vanced with the Neapolitans, and, crossing the 
 Roman states, had entered Tuscany, taking up 
 his quarters at Sienna. On the other side Som- 
 mariva, with some squadrons of Germans and the 
 Aretine exiles, had also advanced, and had caused 
 a rising in the upper part of the Grand Duchy. 
 Encouraged by these movements, the Aretines, 
 who ill-brooked the dominion of the French, rose 
 anew, and placed MioUis in a critical situation, 
 the paucity of his numbers being insufficient for 
 the occupation of Tuscany. Tumult and division 
 thus marking the frontiers, Sommariva on the 
 one side, and Count Roger on the other, marched
 
 170 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 on Florence, where the French general had his 
 head quarters. These occurrences took place in 
 the beginning of the year. Despairing of mak- 
 ing head against both his enemies at once, for his 
 troops were few in number, and even that small 
 body a mixture of French, Cisalpines, and Pied- 
 montese, Miollis prudently resolved to use such 
 celerity as should enable him to attack them sepa- 
 rately. He first marched against the Neapolitans, 
 under the Count ; general Pino led the van- 
 guard of the Cisalpine infantry and Piedmontese 
 cavalry ; and, between Poggibonza and Sienna 
 they fell upon a column of five or six thousand 
 Neapolitan infantry, and, charging them furiously 
 with the bayonet, put them to flight. The Count 
 wished to make head at Sienna, but Pino, incited 
 by his own courage and that of his troops, and 
 animated by the fervour of victory, followed him 
 up instantly, and, shattering the gates with 
 cannon, entered the place triumphantly. The 
 Count withdrew from the town, and tried to 
 assemble his forces on the neighbouring hills ; but 
 being still more closely pressed by the Cisalpines 
 and Piedmontese, he was obliged entirely to
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 171 
 
 abandon the Tuscan territory ; and, favoured by 
 the obscurity of the night, retreated into the 
 Roman states. When informed of his disasters, 
 Sommariva hastily retreated also, and sought 
 shelter at Ancona. In this manner Miollis, by 
 the valour of his troops and his own prudence, 
 restored the supremacy of France in Tuscany, 
 and kept in check the left wing of Bellegarde. 
 Such was the state of Tuscany at the period of 
 the truce of Treviso, in which the King of 
 Naples not being comprehended, his dominions 
 were exposed to serious danger ; for Murat, who 
 was sent by the Count with the new levies to 
 Italy, was marching quietly through Tuscany 
 and Romagna, to invade the kingdom. Murat's 
 troops were also joined by one of the victorious 
 squadrons of Brune, and every thing gave way 
 to the force of their recent successes. It was im- 
 possible for Ferdinand to make any effectual re- 
 sistance ; his ruin seemed certain ; but rescue, 
 when apparently utterly hopeless, arrived to him 
 from the North. Caroline of Naples, although in 
 disposition too revengeful, and although she al- 
 lowed herself to be carried too far by transports
 
 172 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 of anger, yet possessed a strong mind ; and, giv- 
 ing little faith to the insane expectations, and the 
 boasts of their too confident enemies, she placed 
 her whole trust in Russia, and having no hope of 
 any other mode of peace with France, resolved to 
 go in person to St. Petersburg, to beseech the 
 mediation of Paul between the Consul and Fer- 
 dinand. Paul was gratified by the confidence she 
 placed in him ; and, already reconciled to the 
 Consul, sent General Levashev to Italy, to me- 
 diate a peace between the two powers. 
 
 Buonaparte was well-pleased with this proceed- 
 ing, because, in the first place, the contending 
 powers, and especially the Italians, saw that one 
 of the most powerful princes in the world not 
 only acknowledged his government, but, moreover, 
 was on terms of friendship with him ; and, in the 
 second place, he saw the kingdom of Naples with- 
 drawn from the influence of England, and placed 
 anew under his own. Levashev met every where 
 in Italy the most honourable reception, as if the 
 whole greatness of Paul shone forth in his person. 
 The people wondered that Russia, which had 
 been so much the enemy of France, should now
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 173 
 
 have become her friend ; and, comparing the 
 times of Suwarrow and Levashev, they admired 
 the power and the fortune of the Consul. The 
 Chevalier Micheroux met Murat, on the part of 
 the King, at Foligno : — they occupied but a short 
 time in their negociation, both parties eagerly 
 desiring to come to an accord — the one to please 
 the Emperor Paul, the other from fear of Buona- 
 parte. On the 18th of February, therefore, a 
 truce was concluded between France and Naples, 
 under the guarantee of Russia ; the principal 
 articles of which were, that the Neapolitans 
 should retire from the Roman territories ; — that 
 the republicans should occupy Terni, but should 
 not pass beyond the Nera ; — that the ports of both 
 Sicilies should be shut against the English and 
 the Turks ; — that all communication should cease 
 between Porto Ferrajo and Porto Longone, in the 
 island of Elba, until the English should evacuate 
 Porto Ferrajo ; — that Dolomieu should be libe- 
 rated from the dungeons of Messina ; — that the 
 French officers and generals should be given up ; 
 and that the King should be obliged to attend to 
 the recommendations of France in favour of those
 
 174t HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 who were imprisoned or banished for political 
 opinions. 
 
 This treaty was quickly executed. Count Roger 
 evacuated the states of the Church; and, in 
 compliance with the instances of the Consul, 
 abolished all extraordinary tribunals, and re- 
 mitted all penalties for treasonable offences. 
 Excited by the pride of entering Rome as a deli- 
 verer, and desirous of facilitating future designs, 
 Murat made his entry into that city, the populace 
 crowding to meet him, and there paid his rever- 
 ence to the Pontiff. 
 
 Every thing tended towards peace. Terror 
 was more powerful at Vienna than the exhorta- 
 tions of England. Negociations were carried on 
 at Luneville, on the part of Austria, by Count 
 Louis Cobentzel ; and, on that of France, by 
 Joseph Buonaparte ; each being furnished with 
 full powers to conclude them. After some dis- 
 cussion, a definitive treaty was signed, on the 9th 
 of February ; the principal articles of which, as 
 regarded Italv, were the same as those of the 
 Treaty of Campo Formio, differing only as to the 
 respective confines. The Adige, from its source
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 175 
 
 in the Tyrol to its mouth, formed the boun- 
 dary line between the Cisalpine Republic 
 and the Austrian states. The right division 
 of the Verona, and also of that of Porto Legnago 
 was to belong to the Cisalpine Republic, the left 
 to Austria. The Emperor pledged himself to 
 give Brisgovia to the Duke of Modena, in com- 
 pensation for the loss of his duchy. The Grand 
 Duke gave up his pretensions to Tuscany and the 
 Island of Elba, which were both made over to the 
 Infant Duke of Parma; and the former Duke was 
 to be compensated with equivalent states in Ger- 
 many. The Emperor acknowledged and recog- 
 nised the Ligurian and Cisalpine Republics, and 
 resigned all title to sovereignty and right over the 
 Cisalpine territory. He consented also to the 
 union of some of the Imperial fiefs with the Li- 
 gurian republic. With regard to Piedmont, 
 nothing was stipulated, as Buonaparte wished to 
 reserve either the opportunity of keeping it to 
 himself, or the means of gratifying the Emperor 
 Paul. 
 
 The King of Naples also, now reduced to the 
 necessity of yielding to the distant influence of
 
 176 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 Paul, and the immediate power of Buonaparte, 
 made peace with the Consul, acceding, in a treaty- 
 signed at Florence, on the 29th of March, by 
 Micheroux on his part, and by Alquier on that of 
 France, to all the terms of the truce, to which 
 also some further concessions were added ; his 
 Majesty, renouncing entirely, in the first place, 
 Porto Longone and all he possessed in the Isle of 
 Elba ; and, secondly, yielding to France, as her 
 uncontested property, the garrisoned states, and 
 the principality of Piombino. He granted also an 
 amnesty of all political offences committed previ- 
 ously to that date ; restored confiscated property ; 
 liberated those in confinement, and permitted the 
 return of the exiled, who further obtained the 
 restitution of all their rights and property. Obli- 
 vion of all offences was proclaimed on both sides. 
 A new compact was also entered into with 
 Spain, by a treaty signed at Madrid, on the 21st 
 of March, by Lucien Buonaparte and the Prince 
 of Peace, when the two contracting parties agreed 
 that the Duke of Parma should resign his duchy 
 in favour of the French republic, and that Tus- 
 cany should be given to his son, with the title of
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 177 
 
 King; the Duke to be compensated by other 
 states and certain stipends ; that the port of the 
 Isle of Elba, which appertained to Tuscany, 
 should be ceded to France, and that France 
 should compensate the King of Etruria with the 
 State of Piombino ; that Tuscany should be for 
 ever united to the crown of Spain ; that, if the 
 King of Etruria should die without offspring, the 
 sons of the Spanish Monarch should succeed him. 
 Thus, in less than a year, every obstacle yield- 
 ing to the fortunes of Buonaparte, he conquered 
 Italy and Austria; then, as there prevailed in all, 
 from similar or from opposite motives, the same 
 desire of peace, he composed all differences, con- 
 tracted a friendship with the Emperor Paul, pro- 
 mised a reconciliation with the Emperor Francis, 
 and once more raised France anew from the ebb of 
 her fortunes, to a condition of eminent prosperity. 
 
 VOL. I.
 
 178 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Consul comes to an agreement with the See of Rome, and 
 restores the Catholic religion in France. — The Concordat. — 
 Discussions in the Papal council on this subject. — Organic 
 articles added by the Consul. — Complaints of the Pope re- 
 specting them. — French ordinances in Piedmont, which 
 pave the way for its definitive union with France. — Menou 
 replaces Jourdan in the government. — Murat in Tuscany. — 
 His mandate against the Neapolitan exiles. — Tuscany given 
 to the young Prince of Parma, with the title of King of 
 Etruria. — The Consul endeavours to secure more ample 
 authority, and a more illustrious title. — Makes his first 
 experiments in Italy, and calls the Italian deputies to 
 Lyons. — He is there declared president of the Italian re- 
 public for ten years, with the capability of being re-elected.— 
 Constitution of the Italian republic. — Change in Genoa. — 
 Her new constitution. — Monument erected at Sarzana in 
 honour of the Buonaparte family, originally of that city. — 
 Piedmont formally united to France. — Charles Louis Infant 
 of Spain becomes King of Etruria by the death of the 
 Prince of Parraa. — Yellow fever at Leshorn. — The ten
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 179 
 
 years' arts of Buonaparte attain their completion. — Procures 
 for himself the title of Emperor. — Pius the Seventh goes 
 expressly to Paris to perform the ceremony of his corona- 
 tion. 
 
 The affairs of the church in France were in 
 the utmost disorder. The Constituent Assembly 
 had first interrupted the union with the Apostolic 
 See, by denying the right of the Pojdc to nominate 
 to bishoprics, as had been granted by the con- 
 cordat between Leo the Tenth and Francis the 
 First ; and also by appropriating the property of 
 the church to the nation. The succeeding go- 
 vernments, and more especially the National 
 Assembly, not only annulled all the ordinances of 
 the Constituent Assembly, but forbade the practice 
 of every religious rite, persecuted the clergy, and 
 — which was most infamous, even forced some to 
 abjure their calling and their faith. The Direc- 
 tory continued to persecute the priests, now 
 banishing, now imprisoning them, and uniformly 
 interdicting them, more especially the non-jurors, 
 from freely or publicly celebrating the rites of 
 divine worship. Amidst all these sorrows of the 
 pious, they derived some consolation from the 
 
 N 2
 
 180 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 exhortations and advice of the constitutional 
 priests. To them France remained indebted for 
 the preservation of the faith. The Apostolical 
 See also ought to acknowledge this obligation, 
 although it may have cause to complain of the 
 diminution of the authority of the chair of St. 
 Peter introduced by them, and pertinaciously 
 sustained by their discourses, their actions, and 
 their writings. They preserved the faith, the 
 root, without which, not only all ecclesiastical 
 discipline, but all religion, must perish. Yet 
 religion, without legal rites and public worship, 
 protected and acknowledged by authority, cannot 
 long subsist, and, less than any other, the Catholic 
 religion, which captivates the mind by external 
 pomp and solemnities. This was seen by pru- 
 dent men, who had also become convinced that 
 religious belief was an efficacious support to civil 
 laws : of these things also were religious men 
 persuaded, and they lamented that they dared not 
 openly manifest those opinions which their reason 
 and their hearts equally cherished. An universal 
 desire had, therefore, arisen in France for the 
 restoration of the rites of Catholicism, and the
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 181 
 
 very difficulties which seemed to attend it, caused 
 it to be by many the more ardently desired. It 
 appeared certain, too, that the people would 
 eagerly have flocked round the first ensign of 
 Christianity, and have embraced with affection 
 whosoever should have raised it. Buonaparte was 
 not a man to be blind to these things, and still 
 less was he likely to neglect turning them to his 
 own exaltation, and using them as means to 
 accomplish his greater and ulterior ends. For 
 these reasons he had used, on his arrival in 
 France after his return from Egypt, expressions 
 of conciliation — of religious feeling — of respect 
 and friendship toward^ the Pope ; all which he 
 repeated on setting out for the second conquest of 
 Italy, and made still the same protestations, when 
 he returned victorious from the field of Marengo, 
 to resume his consular seat at Paris. Freed 
 from the more immediate and pressing cares of 
 the war, he now applied himself much more 
 closely to the negociation with the Pope, in order 
 to come to an adjustment on spiritual mattersi 
 He offered to restore the Catholic worship, and 
 to bestow both rank and pecuniary provision on
 
 182 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 its ministers. He added his customary flatteries, 
 speaking in well-turned phrases of the benevolence 
 and sanctity of Chiaramonti, Bishop of Imola ; 
 nor did he neglect the usual demonstrations of 
 his regard for religion, and his attachment to the 
 French nation. Some circumstances occurred to 
 assist these machinations, and others also which 
 impeded them. In favour of the Consul was the 
 national council of the bishops who had taken 
 the oaths, which, modelled on one that had been 
 held in the year ninety-seven, was by his express 
 consent to assemble at Paris on St. Peter's day. 
 He not only did not prevent these bishops from 
 speaking freely, but excited them so to do, al- 
 though they had taken the oaths, and were 
 opposed to that plenitude of authority, which the 
 Popes assume to belong to the Apostolical See. 
 Availing themselves largely of this privilege, they 
 sent circulars to the bishops and priests, their 
 companions in the Gallican church, exhorting 
 them to imitate, as they said, that charity of 
 which Jesus Christ had left the precept and ex- 
 ample, by joining the council of Paris on the 
 appointed day, in order to complete the work
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 18S 
 
 beg'uu in ninety-seven, and to give an example 
 and an excitement for the renewal of those na- 
 tional and holy assemblies in every other nation 
 of Christendom — assemblies, which had been so 
 strongly recommended by the venerable ancient 
 Christian church. They expressed also the hope 
 that this meeting might give rise to a general coun- 
 cil, which had not been held for several centuries, 
 although the Council of Constance had prescribed 
 such a convocation once in ten years, as a pious 
 and a necessary re-union. They sent at the same 
 time to beseech the Pope (with whom the Consul 
 already negociated as to the establishment of doc- 
 trines contrary to those they maintained), to send 
 some of his deputies to certify themselves of their 
 zeal and of the purity of their faith. They com- 
 plained of having been condemned unheard by 
 Pius the Sixth, and affirmed, that by their 
 labours alone the course of episcopal jurisdiction 
 had continued uninterrupted. " Perhaps," said 
 they, " it is imputed to us as a crime that we 
 have supplied the comfort and support of religion 
 to so many dioceses and parishes, which had been 
 abandoned by their pastors." They alleged, also,
 
 184 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 that the faculty of theology and canon law of 
 Friburg, in Brisgovia, had pronounced sentence 
 in their favour, although unsought ; they im- 
 plored the opinion of all the Catholic universi- 
 ties of Europe, offering to explain, by words or 
 writing, whatever might be required to elucidate 
 the points in controversy ; and concluded by de- 
 claring themselves obedient sons of the undivided, 
 holy, catholic, apostolic, and Roman church, 
 earnestly expressing their desire to live and die 
 in her bosom. 
 
 The most important part of this controversy 
 related to the election of bishops : first, whether, 
 as to the temporal power, the election was as 
 valid when made by the people, as by kings or 
 other national rulers ; and, as to the spiritual, 
 whether, in order to prevent the interruption of 
 the episcopal functions, the confirmation by an- 
 other bishop would suffice, or if that of the 
 Roman Pontiff was necessary. The next point 
 in debate was, whether ecclesiastics should live 
 solely by the oblations of the faithful, or whether 
 they should possess actual property, and whether 
 it was an heretical doctrine to maintain that the
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 185 
 
 temporal power for the general good of the state 
 might, without the consent of the Roman Pontiff, 
 dispose of the goods of the church. The opinions 
 of the constitutional bishops assembled in Paris 
 as to these questions were no secret, for every 
 one knew that they decided against the doctrines 
 of the See of Rome. Nor were these opinions 
 confined to France, but were embraced by many 
 of the most learned and pious amongst the 
 Italians. Not to mention Ricci, Bishop of Pis- 
 toja, who advocated them more warmly than 
 any other, they were entertained by the pro- 
 fessors Degola, Zola, Tamburini, Palmieri, Gau- 
 tier, a Philippine priest of Turin, Vailua, canon 
 of Asti, with many others, both Tuscans and 
 Neapolitans, who had imbibed the same doctrine 
 from Ricci and the brothers Cestari. Gautier 
 did not hesitate to assert that the election of 
 bishops was of divine right, or, at least, of aposto- 
 lical institution ; that this mode of election had 
 been ordained by the apostles themselves, and 
 served as an example of the discipline uni- 
 versally practised by the church in the succeeding 
 ages in a matter of so much importance. The
 
 186 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 Philippine alleged, in confirmation of his doctrine, 
 that the election of St. Matthias had been made 
 not by St. Peter only, but by all the disciples 
 assembled, to the number of a hundred and 
 twenty; and, finally, he proceeded to say that, if in 
 fact the Roman Pontiff had for many centuries 
 appointed the bishops, it was by a mere usurpa- 
 tion of authority, from which he concluded that 
 the Pope was bound to acknowledge, as true 
 and legitimate bishops, those who had been 
 created in conformity to the ordinances of the 
 Constituent Assembly of France. Gautier ex- 
 horted the bishops to repair to the council of 
 Paris, and to suffer no excuse or pretext to the 
 contrary to be admitted in this great cause, as, 
 according to him, every unprejudiced and well- 
 judging man must pronounce sentence in favour 
 of the clergy, who had been appointed in con- 
 formity to the ecclesiastical constitution of France, 
 and must see that reason and justice were entirely 
 on their side, according to sound canonical prin- 
 ciples ; that they were the true and legitimate 
 pastors, being those who had been elected by the 
 Christian people, and approved and installed in
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 187 
 
 their churches by their respective metropolitans, 
 according to those primitive canons which had 
 been confirmed by the veneration of the universe, 
 and against which no custom ought to prevail. 
 Benedetto Solaro, Bishop of Noli, gave the sanc- 
 tion of his authority and writings to these 
 opinions, and showed a great desire to join the 
 council at Paris. 
 
 On the other side, the Court of Rome vehe- 
 mently opposed these doctrines. Pius the Sixth, 
 in his briefs of the 10th of March and 13th of 
 April, 1791, had solemnly condemned them, and 
 had affirmed that the power of conferring eccle- 
 siastical dignities according to the discipline 
 established for several centuries, by custom, by 
 various councils, and still more by express con- 
 cordats, did not in the least appertain to the 
 metropolitans, but that this power returned to the 
 the source whence it was derived, appertaining 
 only to the Apostolical See. That at present it 
 was the office of the Pope to provide every 
 church with bishops, as declared by the Council 
 of Trent, from which it followed, that no legiti- 
 mate appointment of bishops can take place.
 
 188 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 except that which is received from the Apostolic 
 Chair. Thus the universal church duly assemhled 
 in council had ordained ; thus had been settled 
 by the concordat concluded between Leo the 
 Tenth and Francis the First, by which it was 
 seen that, although it was only from the fifteenth 
 century the successors of St. Peter had installed 
 the bishops, their rights were nevertheless incon- 
 trovertible, because, as vicars of Christ, they had 
 received full power from God to govern the 
 church on earth; and, if the bishops are appointed 
 to govern particular churches, it is only from 
 having received authority from the universal 
 pastor. 
 
 These doctrines of the Roman Consistory, as 
 they called them, were not to be tolerated, nor 
 listened to with patience by the opposite party ; 
 who unceasingly combated them with discourses 
 and writings, citations of texts, and logical 
 arguments ; nor, in doing so, did they always 
 keep within the bounds of moderation ; for, 
 although they expressed themselves in terms of 
 feigned humility towards the Pontiff, they min- 
 gled with them bitter observations, and opinions
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 189 
 
 of still greater acerbity, whenever they spoke of 
 the Papal power; and the discussions, being 
 between theologians, were becoming daily more 
 harsh. In fine, under the civil constitution, the 
 clergy appointed by the Constituent Assembly 
 thought they had gained a point of great im- 
 portance, and strove with every nerve to confirm 
 their victory. 
 
 These theological controversies were highly 
 grateful to the Consul, as a means of forwarding 
 his own plans ; for he did not doubt that the Pope 
 would manifest a greater docility to his wishes, 
 in order to prevent his espousing the part of 
 those who impugned the authority of the Holy 
 See ; and, therefore, he not only favoured but 
 excited these differences. These circumstances 
 were favourable to him ; yet, from disposition, 
 from habit, and from conviction, he liked much 
 better the confined and monarchical govern- 
 ment of the Pope than the open and popular 
 system of his adversaries ; and the Papal ordi- 
 nances, as regarding one undivided, universal 
 power, appeared to him a grand, useful, and won- 
 derful idea. The Jansenists he called men of
 
 190 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 great faith, and narrow minds ; nor did he think 
 that the constitution of the clergy, it being now 
 antiquated, and having been the cause of many- 
 misfortunes, could beneficially be renewed. A new 
 and vigorous system — one more conformable to 
 the wishes of the people, seemed to him to be 
 wanting. 
 
 On the other hand, there existed on this sub- 
 ject many and serious difficulties ; the chief 
 strength of the Consul lay in his soldiers, and 
 there was some reason to fear that all the reli- 
 gious apparatus to which they had been so long 
 unaccustomed, and the re-appearance of the priests 
 whom they had cruelly persecuted and made the 
 constant subject of rancour and raillery, would 
 appear in some degree ridiculous — a fault above 
 all others to be avoided in France. He feared also, 
 in the first instance, the philosophical sect, who 
 were inimical to the Pope, and nmch more power- 
 ful than that which only impugned the plenitude 
 of his Pontifical authority, and from whom he 
 might otherwise expect great favour and great 
 support. But that which most perplexed his 
 mind was the sale of the church property by the
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 191 
 
 preceding government. To obtain the confirma- 
 tion of these sales from the Pope was of the 
 utmost importance, and he knew that Pius the 
 Seventh was very unwilling to make any express 
 declaration on the subject : however, the undis- 
 turbed possession of the purchasers was the 
 indisj)ensable foundation of his power. Not a 
 few of the constitutional clergy were in great 
 reputation and of some weight, and the Consul 
 was anxious to conciliate them ; yet to persuade 
 the Pope not only to absolve them and receive 
 them again into his bosom, but to raise them to 
 the first oflSces of the Galilean church, seemed a 
 difficult and intricate matter to accomplish. Equal 
 difficulties existed on the side of the ecclesiastics 
 of the opposite party, who had refused to resign 
 their benefices, even when in exile, partly from 
 conscientious motives and partly from affisction 
 towards the royal family of France. No small 
 impediment also to the conclusion of the nego- 
 ciation arose on the subject of the celebration of 
 the Catholic rites ; for they had so long fallen into 
 disuse, that great fear was entertained of the 
 scandal that might ensue amidst a population
 
 192 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 infected with contrary opinions, if they were all 
 at once publicly celebrated with the accustomed 
 ceremonies of the church. And it was thought 
 that the religious would receive more offence from 
 the outrages that were apprehended, than they 
 could derive edification from the restored worship. 
 The Pope insisted on the celebration of the rites 
 of the church to the fullest extent ; but the Consul 
 steadily opposed him on this point, awaiting a 
 more propitious season for complying with the 
 demands of the See of Rome. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these difficulties in the 
 way of a negociation of such importance, both 
 parties were sincerely desirous of overcoming 
 them. Pius the Seventh sent to Paris Cardinal 
 Hercules Consalvi, his Secretary of State, Joseph 
 Spina, Archbishop of Corinth, and Father Caselli, 
 theological counsellor of the Holy See. On his 
 side, the Consul invested with full powers to 
 treat and to conclude the negociations, Joseph 
 Buonaparte, Cretet, a counsellor of state, and 
 Bernier, the curate of St. Laud, near Angers. On 
 the 15th of July, a definitive treaty was con- 
 cluded between the Holy See and the French
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 193 
 
 republic ; an act of unique rather than of great 
 importance, since it restored to the Catholic 
 church one of the noblest parts of Europe, and 
 gave peace to so many timid and pious con- 
 sciences. The Pope was actuated by religious, 
 the Consul by worldly motives, which he did not 
 take much trouble to conceal. This did not fail 
 to give offence, for religious men abhorred to see 
 religion treated as a means, and not as the one 
 important end, — an old, a well-founded, and a 
 useless complaint. 
 
 The French government admitted that the 
 Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, was 
 professed by the majority of the French ; the 
 Pope, on his part, confessed that from its re-esta- 
 blishment in France it would receive great benefit 
 and new lustre : it was therefore agreed and 
 stipulated between the two parties, that it should 
 be publicly and freely exercised in France, but 
 according to such regulations as the government 
 should judge necessary for the peace of the state. 
 It was also agreed that a new division of the 
 dioceses should be made. The Pontiff advised that 
 the titular bishops should resign their sees ; and in 
 
 vox,. I. o
 
 194 HISTORY OF ITALY. [iSdl. 
 
 case of refusal, a new election was to take place. 
 Three months after the publication of the Papal 
 bull, the Consul was to name the archbishops 
 and bishops who were to fill the newly divided 
 sees, while the Pope was to grant to those so 
 named canonical confirmation, as had been prac- 
 tised under the ancient government of France. 
 The sees thereafter vacant were to be filled in the 
 same manner ; the bishops and other ecclesiastics 
 were to swear fidelity to the republic before 
 their installation, and to promise to reveal all 
 plots against the state ; prayers were to be offered 
 up in the churches for the republic and the 
 Consul ; the bishops were neither to change the 
 limits of their benefices, nor to fill them without 
 the heneplacito of the government ; and the un- 
 sold churches were to be restored to the diocesans. 
 The Pope renounced both for himself and his 
 successors all right to disturb the possessors of 
 the alienated church property in France, their 
 heirs, or those who might acquire it from them 
 in future by purchase. The French government 
 bound itself to make suitable provision for the 
 prelates and parish priests, and to permit testa-
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 195 
 
 mentary bequests to the churches for religious 
 purposes. In the Consul, the Pope acknow- 
 ledged the same rights and prerogatives under 
 the Holy See that the ancient sovereigns of 
 France had enjoyed ; and if it should happen 
 that an anti-catholic Consul should ever fill the 
 supreme seat in France, his rights, prerogatives, 
 and the manner of the election of bishops, should 
 become the subject of a new arrangement. 
 
 As soon as the concordat was concluded, the 
 Consul dissolved the National Council of Paris, 
 for which he had no longer any occasion. Thus 
 the opposition of the bishops and the constitu- 
 tional priests tended, through the artifices of 
 Buonaparte, to the entire re-establishment of the 
 Papal authority in France. 
 
 When the convention was sent to Rome to be 
 ratified by the Pope, it there gave rise to serious 
 and obstinate disputes. The strict theologians, 
 and those most imbued with the maxims of the 
 Apostolical Chamber, openly condemned the 
 plenipotentiaries for the magnitude of their con- 
 cessions, which were contrary to the rights and 
 privileges of the Catholic church. The Pope 
 
 o 2
 
 196 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 himself, who was extremely scrupulous and filled 
 with zeal for the church, began to hesitate, and 
 could not resolve to sign the concordat. The 
 articles most objected to were : first, that which 
 permitted the temporal power to regulate the 
 forms of public worship, without any interven- 
 tion of the spiritual power ; and, secondly, that 
 by which the Pope declared the property of those 
 who had purchased church-lands to be inviolable. 
 Some were of opinion that it was not only con- 
 trary to the canon law, but to the words of the 
 Apostle, — who declares that bishops are called by 
 the Holy Spirit to govern the church of God, — 
 to maintain that the laity might, without the 
 intervention of the ecclesiastical power, form 
 rules for public worship, which the church 
 should be obliged to confirm, even though the 
 power of the state might be thus secured. 
 They maintained that, without a form of worship, 
 there is no church ; that he who regulates the 
 rites and ceremonies, regulates the church ; and 
 he who regulates, rules. " Either then, they 
 concluded, it is false that the bishops are ap- 
 pointed by the Holy Spirit to govern the church,
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 197 
 
 which is heresy ; or it is indubitable that the 
 bishops only, and not the laity, are to regulate 
 the worship, which is a dogma." These reasonings 
 caused the Pope to doubt still more as to the 
 part he ought to take. To enable him to decide, 
 he consulted the most learned theologians of 
 Rome. When their opinion was demanded. 
 Cardinal Albani and Father Angelo Merenda, a 
 commissioner of the inquisition, agreed in pro- 
 nouncing that the Pope might, with a safe con- 
 science, ratify the concordat. 
 
 Merenda especially reasoned with extreme sub- 
 tlety on this matter. He averred " that it would 
 be an heretical proposition to establish, as a 
 canon or maxim of doctrine, that the laity might 
 regulate the service of the church, without the 
 intervention of the ecclesiastical power ; but not 
 so when, as in the present instance, it was 
 granted by a convention from the desire of re- 
 viving religion and ecclesiastical discipline in a 
 country which had been for so many years de- 
 prived of both ; although for many centuries it 
 had previously been their chief dwelling place, 
 and its inhabitants the true and legitimate elder
 
 198 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 sons of the church. Every man knew the power 
 of the anti-catholic party in France, how entirely 
 religion had there fallen into disuse, and how 
 easily insult might be thrown on it : the circum- 
 stances of the times, therefoi'e, required that 
 the Supreme Pontiff should ratify the concordat 
 in the best manner possible, to avoid the greater 
 evil that would result from the refusal, whereby 
 a great number of innocent men would be de- 
 prived of the religious aids which might arise 
 to them under the present compromise, and thus 
 commence the important measure of restoring 
 the religion of the country ; for it was not the 
 part of a prudent man to throw away the whole, 
 when he might retain a portion ; nor could the 
 Pope in any degree be censured for an act which 
 was a mere concession, and which, proceeding 
 from his sole authority, implied no rights to the 
 temporal power, and entailed no precedent. Our 
 Divine Redeemer had commanded the Apostles, in 
 times of adversity, to unite the prudence of the 
 serpent with the simplicity of the dove ; which 
 precept, as explained by St. Thomas, signifies 
 that, as the serpent, when in danger, twines
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 199 
 
 himself about, and hides his head to save it, in 
 like manner the church should study to secure 
 that faith which is the head and the foundation 
 on which the church herself is built ; like the 
 dove, too, she ought, with gentleness and lenity, 
 to strive to mitigate the ire of her adversaries." 
 Cardinal Albani the more willingly embraced 
 these opinions, because the plenipotentiaries of 
 France had given a written promise that the 
 modifications and restrictions should not affect 
 any essential or interior discipline, but only relate 
 to processions, burials, and other public cere- 
 monies. 
 
 With regard to the article respecting the pur- 
 chasers of church property, Albani and Merenda 
 were both in favour of the concession ; as, accord- 
 ing to the terms in which it was worded, his 
 Holiness considered the purchasers of the alienated 
 property as proprietors only in consequence of 
 his own promise, for himself and his successors, 
 of leaving them in peaceful possession of it ; and 
 thus he acknowledged no rights antecedent to 
 his own concession. If, on the contrary, the 
 inverse order had been taken, and the Pope had
 
 200 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1801. 
 
 declared that the immutable right lay in the 
 present possessors of the alienated church pro- 
 perty, and that, therefore, the Holy See engaged 
 never to seek to disturb it, this would have 
 deserved severe censure, because it would, in 
 some measure, have countenanced the error con- 
 demned by the second I^ateran Council, and the 
 Council of Constance, in Arnold of Brescia, 
 Marsilio of Padua, and Giovanni da Garduno ; 
 and the heresies of the Waldenses, the Wick- 
 liffites, and Hussites. But, as it stood, the article 
 was unexceptionable ; the right of property re- 
 sulting from the remission of the Pope, not the 
 remission from a previous right. 
 
 On receiving these explanations from the Car- 
 dinal and the commissioner, Pius no longer 
 delayed to give his consent, but at once ratified 
 the concordat. He at the same time sent briefs 
 to the titular bishops, commanding them to resign 
 their sees : — some obeyed, but the greater part, 
 especially those who had sought refuge in Eng- 
 land, refused to resign. Of the constitutional 
 bishops, Primat, Le Blanc de Beaulieu, Perrier, 
 Lecoz, and Saurin, on making submission to the
 
 1802. J HISTORY OF ITALY. 201 
 
 Pope, received confirmation in the sees to which 
 the Consul had appointed them. 
 
 All difficulties being thus removed, the Consul 
 published the concordat on the Easter of 1802. 
 He wrote at the same time a circular to the 
 bishops, in which he spoke of the philosophers 
 with great asperity ; and then addressing the 
 French in Buonapartean phrases, he declared 
 " that a revolution, which had arisen from 
 patriotism, had produced religious discords, and 
 from them the miseries of private families, the 
 transports of faction, the hopes of foreign ene- 
 mies. Insensate men had overthrown the altars 
 and prostrated religion: through their means, 
 those devout religious solemnities had been dis- 
 continued, in which all men appear as brothers, 
 and in which, under the hand of a creating God, 
 all were equal. Through their machinations, the 
 dying no longer heard the consoling voice which 
 calls Christians to a better life; and, through them, 
 God himself seemed to be banished from nature. 
 The interior was desolated by religious quarrels ; 
 the stranger was called from without, to the 
 destruction of the state ; passion had no restraint.
 
 202 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 morals no support, misfortune no hope ; society- 
 was agonised to dissolution. These evils religion 
 alone could remedy. In this conviction the con- 
 cordat had been framed — the desires of the Consul, 
 and the dictates of the Pontifical wisdom, had 
 been approved by the legislators of the republic ; 
 and thus the seeds of discord would be destroyed ; 
 thus conscientious scruples ratified, and the impe- 
 diments in the way of internal peace removed. 
 He exhorted the ministers of religion to forget all 
 former dissensions, errors, and misfortunes ; to 
 reconcile the country to the church; to unite 
 themselves once more to the country ; to train up 
 the young to love the laws, and obey the magis- 
 trates ; to inculcate that the God of peace was 
 also the God of armies, and that stretching forth 
 his mighty arm, he gave the victory to those who 
 defended the liberty of France." 
 
 The pious amongst the French were much re- 
 joiced at the restoration of religion. It excited 
 great joy in Rome also ; but the satisfaction of 
 the Pope was not without some alloy, for the 
 Consul had accompanied the publication of the 
 concordat with certain rules of ecclesiastical
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 203 
 
 discipline, in the form of decrees, which, accord- 
 ing to the ideas of Rome, offended the preroga- 
 tives of the Holy See, or restricted the authority 
 of the bishops, and rendered the entrance into the 
 ecclesiastical state more difficult than in former 
 times. He forbade any bull, brief, or rescript 
 whatsoever from the Court of Rome to be pub- 
 lished or executed in France, without the hetie- 
 placito of the government — a prohibition which, 
 as it affected the briefs of the penitentiary court, 
 was contrary to all custom, and little decorous 
 towards the Holy See. Without the heneplacito, 
 no one was to assume the character of nuncio, 
 vicar, legate, or apostolical commissioner ; neither 
 could the decrees of foreign synods, or those of 
 general councils be published, without the pre- 
 vious approbation of government. No council, 
 national or metropolitan — no diocesan synod could 
 be held without its permission. The ecclesias- 
 tical functions were to be performed gratuitously, 
 but the clergy were at liberty to receive the 
 voluntary oblations of the pious. Application 
 was to be made to the Council of State for the 
 remedy of abuses ; that is to ^ay, all abuses con-
 
 204 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 trary to the laws of the Republic, or the canonical 
 law of France — every offence against the liberty, 
 franchises, and customs of the Galilean church — 
 every act committed during the celebration of 
 religious rites, which might either offend the 
 honour of the citizens, arbitrarily disturb their 
 consciences, or tend to oppression, outrage, or 
 scandal. The bishops were, moreover, forbidden 
 to ordain any ecclesiastic who did not possess an 
 annual income of three hundred francs, or who 
 had not attained the age of twenty-five years. 
 Nor was less offence given by the article by 
 which the Consul enjoined all professors of semi- 
 naries to subscribe to the declaration of the clergy 
 of France in 1802, and to teach the doctrine of 
 the Four Articles — an intolerable doctrine to the 
 Court of Rome, at least as regarded the three last 
 of them. 
 
 All these regulations concerning ecclesiastical 
 discipline, although they were just and necessary, 
 as well for the security of the temporal power as 
 for the good order of the state ; and although 
 they had long been customary, not only in France, 
 but in other countries of Europe, more especially
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 205 
 
 in Italy, sounded harsh to Roman ears, yet to 
 these the Consul added another, which really 
 was intolerable, because it affected a point of 
 jurisdiction ; and this was, that the vicars general 
 of a vacant diocese should continue to exercise 
 the episcopal authority after the death of a 
 bishop, until his successor should be appointed. 
 This appeared to be out of all rule, for the vicars 
 general are nothing more than commissioners of 
 the bishop, and, as such, their authority ceases 
 on the death of him who commissioned them. 
 It would have been a better and a more equitable 
 regulation, to vest all authority in the chapter of 
 the cathedral church during a vacancy, which the 
 vicars elected by it ought to exercise. 
 
 The Pope complained of these things, but the 
 Consul did not in the least heed his complaints. 
 In an eloquent address to the Consistory, the 
 former detailed the stipulations of the concordat, 
 and described the state of France : — '' Behold," 
 said he, " the temples of the Most High once 
 more opened, and inscribed with the august name 
 of God and of his saints ; the ministers of the 
 sanctuary assembled round the altar and united
 
 206 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 with the faithful by the sacred ceremonies. 
 Their flocks have again returned to the tutel- 
 age of the legitimate pastors ; the sacraments 
 of the church are again celebrated with decency, 
 and without hindrance ; the standard of the cross 
 is once more unfurled ; the day of the Lord once 
 more kept holy. The head of the church — with 
 whom whosoever does not gather, scatters — is 
 once more acknowledged ; and, finally, a deplor- 
 able schism that, from the great extent of France, 
 the celebrity of its inhabitants, the splendour of 
 its cities, menaced the Catholic religion with great 
 danger and serious injury, is now at an end. 
 Such are the benefits — such the happiness, that 
 the sacred day of redemption on which the con- 
 cordat was published, has produced for France, 
 filling her temples with penitent and pious wor- 
 shippers." After a short pause, the Pontiff thus 
 resumed : — " My venerable brethren, in the 
 midst of all this satisfaction we are, nevertheless, 
 afflicted by some severe wounds. With the con- 
 cordat some articles have been published without 
 our knowledge, of which it is our duty, according 
 to tlie customs of our predecessors, to demand the
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 207 
 
 explanation, and either some modification or 
 change. Tliis we shall seek from the Consul, — 
 this we hope from his wisdom and his piety, and 
 from the piety and wisdom of the French nation, 
 which for so many centuries has merited so much 
 from the church, and which now with such eager- 
 ness and warmth embraces religion once more. 
 The government of France desires the restoration 
 of religion ; it cannot, therefore, but be willing to 
 grant whatever the holy constitution or the salu- 
 tary discipline of the church may require." In 
 fact, the Pope continued to contend for the re- 
 formation of the Four Articles ; but the Consul 
 having obtained the concordat, chose to be master 
 of the church, not that the church should be his ; 
 he, therefore, replied now with subterfuges — now 
 with menaces ; nor could the Pontiff ever succeed 
 in his endeavours. In this state did the affairs of 
 the church continue in France, until fresh conces- 
 sions on the part of the Pontiff, and increasing 
 ambition on that of the Consul, brought every 
 thing to ruin and dissolution ; and in this manner 
 did Rome contend with France. 
 
 In the mean time a remarkable change had.
 
 208 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 before the close of the year, taken place in Pied- 
 mont. The Consul had coveted this country for 
 himself, but he delayed to seize it, and carefully 
 disguised his intentions. He had even willingly 
 received the Marquis of San Marsan at Paris, to 
 negociate for the restitution of Piedmont. The 
 uncertainty and the equivocations of the Consul — 
 his public offers made to the king after the battle 
 of Marengo, and the presence of the Marquis at 
 Paris, kept the people of Piedmont in suspense, 
 and prevented all means of good government. 
 Every one looked towards Florence, Rome, or 
 Naples : the king, Charles Emanuel, resided in 
 turn, as circumstances demanded. About him 
 were many of the richest and most influential of 
 the Piedmontese nobility ; amongst others, Victor 
 Alfieri, a native of Asti in Piedmont, a man of 
 boundless genius, acknowledged by every one to 
 be the father of Italian tragedy, and worthy to be 
 not only venerated, but adored, by all the votaries 
 of the Italian muse. Having hated and satirized 
 kings when they were in power, he now set him- 
 self as busily to hate and satirize republics, since 
 they had become potent ; and this less on account
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 209 
 
 of the evil that actually existed in either the one 
 or the other, than from his natural disposition to 
 struggle against the stream. Thus, then, he 
 remained at Florence, thundering against the 
 state of affairs in Piedmont. The opinion of such 
 a man was of great weight, and tended consider- 
 ably to weaken the provisional government. The 
 fate of Lombardy and Liguria was now in some 
 degree certain, but that of Piedmont was still 
 um-evealed : those, therefore, who entertained 
 hopes of the return of the king had fresh reason 
 to hope ; while those who feared it had still 
 great reason for fear. In the midst of all these 
 perplexities, a circumstance of the utmost import- 
 ance took place in the north. On the night of 
 the 23rd of March, 1801, the Emperor Paul, of 
 Russia, died in a violent manner. The Consul 
 no sooner knew this, than feeling himself relieved 
 from the embarrassment occasioned by his impor- 
 tunities, and wishing to anticipate the remon- 
 strances of his son and successor Alexander, he 
 issued a decree, by which, although the definitive 
 union of Piedmont with France was not yet an- 
 nounced, yet it was sufficiently manifested that 
 VOL. I. p
 
 210 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 such was his intention. This decree assimilated 
 the government of France to that of Piedmont, 
 lest it should seem offensive to the new Emperor 
 that the ruler of France should have acted 
 without consulting him in a matter of so much 
 importance : the decree bore a date anterior to 
 the day in which the news of the Emperor 
 Paul's death had reached him ; for he hoped 
 that Alexander, finding, on his accession, the 
 thing done, would be brought to consent to it 
 without difficulty. The decree dated the 2d of 
 April, 1801, annexed Piedmont to France; as a 
 military division, that was to be in six depart- 
 ments. The laws of the republic, administrative 
 and judicial, were to be executed and published 
 in Piedmont ; the treasury was to be in common ; 
 after the 1st of June an administrator-general, 
 with a council of six, was to govern : — Jourdan 
 "Was appointed to this office. The six departments 
 were as follow : — the Eridanus with Turin ; 
 Marengo with Alexandria ; the Tanaro with 
 Asti ; the Sesia with Vercelli ; the Dora with 
 Ivrea ; the Stura with Cuneo ; but the name of 
 the first was changed by the Consul, who began
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 211 
 
 to dislike classical appellations, from that of the 
 Eridanus to the Po, and in this he thought he had 
 made a fortunate hit. 
 
 Jourdan sent deputies to Paris to promise 
 obedience and proffer thanks. These were Bossi, 
 one of the counsellors, Baudisson, one of the 
 professors of the University, and the nobles 
 d'Harcourt, Alfieri di Sostegno, Rovere, and Serra. 
 They were received there with great good will, 
 especially the nobles, whom the Consul wished 
 to gain. Fouche alone, the minister of general 
 police, broke out in their presence into un- 
 measured terms against priests and aristocrats ; 
 which made the deputies laugh and shrug their 
 shoulders. 
 
 The Consul, in the mean time, strove to con- 
 ciliate the mind of Alexander, and to unite him 
 to himself in friendship ; and, as he was most 
 astute, and profoundly skilled in all the arts that 
 France, Italy, or Egypt could teach, having heard 
 that the young emperor was of a generous na- 
 ture, inclined to govern rather by gentleness than 
 by severity, he endeavoured to sound him on 
 every side. " Pi'ovidence," he said " the arbiter of 
 
 1' 2
 
 212 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 human affairs, had willed that a prince of noble 
 and benevolent mind should succeed to the throne 
 of Russia ; it had also willed that a general of 
 some name should rise to the supreme authority 
 in France. This general delighted both in phi- 
 losophy and religion ; he knew what moderation 
 became the first, what protection was due to the 
 second. The world would become happy if the 
 powerful states of France and Russia should join 
 for the same end. The human race was wounded, 
 bleeding, disconsolate ; the injuries it had received 
 were terminated, but the remedy had not been 
 found. Despotism was arrayed against it on one 
 side, and anarchy on the other. If Alexander 
 and Buonaparte should unite in the same design, 
 limits might be assigned to despotic power, and 
 an invincible bridle placed on licentiousness. 
 The affairs of Italy, Switzerland, and Holland 
 were yet to be arranged, and if Alexander would 
 express his wishes, they should be fulfilled. The 
 new century ought to begin with a new and 
 happy destiny, these were the presages, the 
 pledges given by heaven to Buonaparte and to 
 Alexander. It was their duty to show to the
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 2tl3 
 
 disgrace of so many ages of misery that there are 
 means of leading man to happiness, — to prove that 
 those who calumniate the human race are those 
 who hate it, — to show that philosophy does not 
 deceive, that religion does not persecute, that 
 liberty does not conduct to anarchy. They were 
 bound to show that all three, united could pro- 
 duce supreme happiness : to this joyful end, he 
 was desirous of employing all his will and all his 
 power, if Alexander would direct his wishes and 
 his influence to promote the same purpose ; and 
 thus posterity might be enabled to say, that not in 
 vain had philosophers hoped that happier stars 
 were one day to shine on the afflicted race of 
 man." 
 
 As a benevolent prince, Alexander yielded to 
 this insinuating language, to such flattering mag- 
 nificent ideas, not suspecting the poison that was 
 hidden beneath. In the mean time, the Consul, 
 secure of the friendship of Russia, was urging on 
 his aspiring fortunes ; and, whilst Alexander was 
 feeding himself with delusive hopes, he stretched 
 forth his hand to the regal sceptre, and set for- 
 ward on his course of universal empire. Com-
 
 314 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 mencing by Piedmont, which he thought it was 
 necessary to keep, in order to hold the sovereignty 
 of Italy without any intervening impediment, he 
 commanded the decree of the second of April to 
 be put in execution. Austria powerless from 
 defeat, England from distance, neither gave con- 
 sent, nor offered opposition ; persuaded, more- 
 over, that if some unforeseen circumstance did 
 not arise to aid them, human councils were vain. 
 The Parisian commissioners arrived at Turin to 
 regulate the state : some for the finances, some 
 for the exchequer, some for the lottery, others for 
 the public offices, the seats of learning, and the 
 courts of justice. The antique simplicity of the 
 administrative laws of the country had dege- 
 nerated into complicated forms ; the new ordi- 
 nances, however, cost double as much. The 
 amelioration of the judicial laws, both civil and 
 criminal, was great, and so immense a benefit 
 was derived from their prompt decisions, that it 
 afforded some consolation for the loss of inde- 
 pendence. So much for the things that were 
 written ; as for the secret arts of subornation and 
 circumvention, I know not if they were pre-
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 215 
 
 scribed, but certainly they were extraordinary. 
 The Consul desired to reduce every thing to a 
 monarchical form ; while the republicans of 
 France, with the exception of the most furious, 
 whom he had either incarcerated or banished to 
 distant shores, seconded him, nor had he shown 
 himself niggardly in bestowing on them caresses 
 and riches. As for the Italian republicans, there 
 were two modes of subduing them, — either to 
 reduce them, like those of France, or to destroy 
 them ; not, however, by the destruction of life, 
 for it was not the Borgian age, and deeds of 
 blood were no longer tolerable, but by taking 
 away their authority and reputation. This last 
 mode then was that he fixed upon ; and the 
 riches of their adversaries favoured his designs, 
 for they sent gifts and money to the corrupted 
 Thuilleries, by which means he was also stimu- 
 lated by others to do that to which his own 
 wishes already inclined him. Many were there- 
 fore deprived of their offices ; and, not content 
 with this, he gave favour and encouragement to 
 their enemies, and laboured to destroy and vilify 
 their name and honour — infamous intrigues, for
 
 216 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 he persecuted those who had assisted him, and 
 caressed those who had contemned him. 
 
 As a matter of mere policy, this might have 
 been wise, if the season of adversity could never 
 arrive ; but not otherwise, because thus he lost 
 his friends without gaining his enemies ; but of 
 prosperity only did the Consul ever dream. Jour- 
 dan, who was esteemed a republican, still remained 
 to the Piedmontese ; but he was soon removed, 
 since, although he had but feebly supported them, 
 he was still looked up to as the head of the 
 republican party. The praises of the Consul 
 and the regrets of the Piedmontese accompanied 
 him on his departure. He was replaced at Turin 
 by Menou. It would be a tedious task, and ill 
 becoming the gravity of history, to relate all the 
 follies and whimsical caprices of this man's con- 
 duct ; yet, I cannot but wonder that the Consul 
 should have thought it expedient, in order to 
 restore, as he said, the ordinances of monarchy 
 in Piedmont, to send thither the Menou of 
 France ; and, to re-establish the religion of Christ, 
 as he also said, to despatch thither the Menou 
 of Egypt. It might be, that he hoped to terrify
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 217 
 
 by a certain air of Turkish despotism ; but awe 
 can never be inspired by those who render them- 
 selves ridiculous. It was peculiarly strange to 
 see the caresses which Menou bestowed on the 
 nobility, and the flatteries with which they re- 
 turned his advances ; on his side, humility and 
 fawning, on theirs, cunning and pride ; he enjoy- 
 ing the manner in which he was courted, with 
 unalloyed satisfaction. He affirmed, very truly, 
 that his proceedings were dictated by the govern- 
 ment ; but a government can confer only autho- 
 rity, not discretion; and of this latter quality 
 Menou had none. Thus were matters conducted 
 in the Subalpine territory until the period of the 
 definitive union with France : the partisans of 
 France were persecuted, the partisans of Sar- 
 dinia caressed, the partisans of Italian interests 
 used as instruments of calumny and of vengeance, 
 and the royal gardens were deformed by a licen- 
 tious barrack for the use of a Turk. In this 
 manner commenced the legal government pro- 
 mised to the generous and unfortunate Piedmont. 
 The Consul governed Piedmont by Menou, 
 Tuscany by Murat. To the latter, as his brother-
 
 218 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 ill-law, lie wished to open the way to greatness : 
 nor was Murat of a bad disposition, his judgment 
 :Only was defective, and his vanity overweening ; 
 therefore, although his heart was good, he bent 
 himself willingly to fulfil the wishes of the 
 Consul, let them be whatever they might. The 
 division of the army which he commanded had 
 been originally sent to Italy to reinforce the right 
 wing under Brune, and to occupy Tuscany. On 
 the peace of Luneville it had advanced to the 
 Roman states, to await the moment for attacking 
 the kingdom of Naples ; and, after peace had 
 been concluded with that power, it had entered 
 the kingdom and penetrated even as far as 
 Tarento, nominally, in order to oblige the govern- 
 ment to observe the treaty and its promises of 
 pardon to innovators ; but, in fact, to menace the 
 English, and to live at the expense of the country. 
 .As for the Roman state, as soon as the concordat 
 was concluded, Murat stationed the troops that 
 were still there, in Ancona, which was to serve 
 as a bridle in the mouth of the Pope, although he 
 coloured the fact with the pretext of defending 
 the place against the English. In the same
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 219 
 
 manner the English occupied whatever they 
 could, either in Italy or the Italian isles, to im- 
 pede, as they said, the domination and tyranny 
 of the French, who, on their part, protested they 
 acted similarly only to prevent the tyranny and 
 domination of the English. In the mean time, 
 betAveen them both, Italy had neither rest nor 
 hope : Murat roamed about at will through Tus- 
 cany, visiting in turn Florence, Pisa, Leghorn, 
 and Lucca ; and wherever he went the most 
 honourable reception awaited him, as the brother- 
 in-law of the Consul. This gave him indescrib- 
 able satisfaction. He was courteous and affable 
 to all ; he was no lover of rapine, still less of 
 cruelty, praise only was necessary to his happi- 
 ness ; and yet he was guilty of an action, at the 
 command of the Consul, I believe, in which I 
 know not whether most to condemn its barbarity, 
 ingratitude, or violence. He commanded, by a 
 public proclamation, that all the Italian exiles 
 (the major part were Neapolitans), who were 
 banished for political opinions, should withdraw 
 from Tuscany, and return to their native states, 
 in which, as he affirmed, they might, in virtue of
 
 220 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 the treaties, live in security and tranquillity. 
 Whosoever refused to obey this mandate was 
 conducted by force to the frontiers and expelled. 
 That nothing might be wanting to the brutality 
 of this proceeding, the occasion taken to put it 
 in execution was during a popular tumult, which 
 had arisen at Florence on the execution of a 
 Tuscan soldier convicted of murdering a French 
 soldier, as if the exiles had been guilty of rebel- 
 lion against the laws of a hospitable country, and 
 were in league with assassins. Certain, however, 
 it is, that this alone was wanting to fill up the 
 measure of the malevolence of the age — that 
 those who, at the instigations of France, had 
 made themselves obnoxious to their ancient lords, 
 should now, like malefactors, be driven by a 
 French general from the asylum they had chosen. 
 Thieves and assassins of other countries might 
 take refuge in Tuscany, and there abide in peace ; 
 the lovers only of the name of liberty, — men, if 
 mistaken in their opinions, yet certainly ingenu- 
 ous and worthy, could not be harboured there, 
 nor there find repose or safety, but were driven 
 forth by the very persons through whose influ-
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 221 
 
 ence they had been brought into these miserable 
 straits. Never was there a more intolerable abuse 
 of power than that of imposing bonds on inno- 
 cent men to drive them whither they did not 
 choose to go : but not from Tuscany only were 
 the miserable exiles driven ; for, whilst Murat 
 expelled them from this state, the Cisalpine 
 republic issued a similar order, with the customary 
 addition, that, if they did not yield obedience in 
 ten days, they should be conveyed to the frontiers 
 by force. These were the pledges that the 
 Buonapartists gave to kings. A pitiable circum- 
 stance occurred in consequence ; for the Neapo- 
 litan exiles, driven from their refuge in Tuscany, 
 had not the necessary passports when they arrived 
 at Rome, so that they had neither liberty to stay 
 there, nor power to go on, or to turn back. From 
 these events, those who have a mania for revolu- 
 tions, and who trust to foreigners, may learn 
 prudence. In Piedmont only did the banished 
 find a happy and a secure retreat. 
 
 Gratified with his command in Tuscany, Murat 
 was overjoyed to be employed there in the in- 
 stallation of a king. The Infant, Prince of
 
 222 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 Parma, had arrived in that city, where he awaited 
 the deputies of the new kingdom. Murat, 
 Ippolito Venturi, and Ubaldo Feroni, proceeded 
 thither to salute him, and to acknowledge him 
 as King of Etruria, the title that had been con- 
 ferred on him. He assumed the name of Louis 
 the First, and appointed Caesar Venturi as his 
 lieutenant to the kingdom. 
 
 When he announced the accession of Louis, 
 Murat descanted to the Tuscans on civilization 
 and learning, praised the Medicis and the Leo- 
 polds, and exhorted them to consider the French 
 as a nation of friends, who knew as well how to re- 
 spect monarchical principles in foreign countries, 
 as to cherish republican ones in their native land. 
 Cesar Ventura took possession of the kingdom. 
 During the solemnity, speeches were made by 
 JFrancesco Gonnella, notary of state, Tommaso 
 Maqiiani, royal advocate, and the senator Orlando 
 del Benino, which were flattering in substance, 
 although frank in expression ; and, on this occa- 
 sion, Gian Battista Grisoni complimented two of 
 the female sex, the sister of the Consul and the 
 widow of the minister of Spain. When Louis
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 223 
 
 arrived at Florence, he exercised a gentle rule, 
 treading in the footsteps of Leopold. 
 
 This was the season for temporary constitu- 
 tions, which were made not to last, but merely 
 to serve as stepping-stones to others. The 
 Consul despatched his legate, Saliceti, to reform 
 Lucca, which was oppressed by the dominion of 
 foreigners, and lacerated by civil dissensions. It 
 was thought a clever expedient for bringing back 
 states to their ancient ordinances, for the satis- 
 faction of princes, to introduce in newly-erected 
 governments ancient names at least, as if words 
 could prevail over facts. The Lucchese made 
 the customary fetes for Saliceti. They who had 
 most attacked the state were now the first to sup- 
 port it, — those who had exclaimed most violently 
 against aristocrats now most caressed them ; and 
 to this party it was that the French commissioner 
 chiefly devoted himself. If the democrats took 
 offence, he exhorted them to bear the times pa- 
 tiently, in compliance with the wishes of the 
 Consul, adding, that liberty would be more effec- 
 tually preserved by a mixture of the two parties, 
 than by pure democracy. Aristocracy was now
 
 224 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 Spoken of to prepare the way for monarchy. 
 Saliceti constituted for the republic of Lucca a 
 grand college, or council, consisting of 200 rich 
 proprietors, and 100 of the principal traders, 
 artists, and literati. This council had the privi- 
 lege of electing the chief magistrates. There 
 was also a council of ancients with executive 
 power, over which a Gonfalonier presided, who 
 was elected once in two months from its mem- 
 bers in turn ; and, besides this, there was an 
 administrative council, into which the ancients 
 entered, and four magistracies of three members 
 each exercised the offices of ministers. The an- 
 cients proposed the laws, and executed them ; 
 while an assembly of twenty, elected from the 
 colleges, discussed and confirmed them. The 
 Gonfalonier represented the republic, promul- 
 gated the laws, and signed the acts of the an- 
 cients. The cantons of Serchio with Lucca, of the 
 Littorale with Viareggio, of the Apennines with 
 Borgo as far as Monzano, composed the republic. 
 Saliceti the first time chose the magistrates. 
 These were good institutions, but time corrupted 
 them. The fate of Tuscany was connected with
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY, 225 
 
 that of Parma. On the death of the Duke of 
 Parma, the sovereignty of the state devolved to 
 the ^French republic. The Consul sent Moreau 
 de St. Mery, the councillor of state, to administer 
 the affairs of the Duchy ; and St. Mery, who w^as 
 a man of benevolence and probity, ruled with 
 mildness and justice. If not learned, he was yet 
 not wholly unlettered, and was an admirer, both 
 of literary men and of their works : every exalted 
 idea pleased him. He gave way, however, to 
 some vanity; and, as individual vanity is into- 
 lerable to the spirit of universal ambition, he fell 
 into disgrace with the Consul. Nothing perma- 
 nent could, at this period, be arranged for Parma, 
 because the Consul, who was securing the terri- 
 tory for himself, did not choose even to appear to 
 resign it to others. 
 
 The mind of Buonaparte was capable of exer- 
 cising the most contrary qualities in the prosecu- 
 tion of his designs. Cautious and patient circum- 
 spection, continued for a course of years, was 
 evinced in the preparation of his plans ; but, when 
 the moment of their maturity arrived, impetuous 
 haste and bold rapidity marked their execution. 
 
 VOL. I. Q
 
 226 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 Having reconciled himself to the Pope, defeated 
 Austria, and deluded Alexander, being also confi- 
 dent of peace with England, he applied himself to 
 bring into effect that which he had so long con- 
 ceived in his own mind, and had so pertinaciously 
 pursued. He was anxious that the first impulse 
 should come from Italy, fearing that a certain 
 residuum of republican opinions in France might 
 prove of bad consequence, if the way were not 
 smoothed for his design by some exciting prece- 
 dent. He knew that example has powerful effect 
 on our imitative race, and that men willingly con- 
 form to precedent. Previously, therefore, to de- 
 claring himself in France, he resolved to make his 
 experiments in Italy, believing that the Italians, 
 as a conquered people, would be more submissive 
 to his will. Thus, having conquered Italy by 
 the arms of France, he sought to vanquish France 
 by the obsequious concessions of Italy. Public 
 spectacles of theatrical effect are pleasing to men 
 in general; and Buonaparte especially delighted 
 in them. He knew that scenes of novel eflfect 
 have a charm for all, and are peculiarly fasci- 
 nating to the French, whose imagination . is
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 227 
 
 naturally so powerful. His Italian machinations, 
 therefore, were opened with imposing effect ; and 
 in Lombardy his most devoted adherents were 
 artfully employed in disseminating the idea of the 
 insecurity arising to the Cisalpine republic from 
 the temporary nature of its government. " Now 
 was the time to secure to it the stability becoming 
 an independent state ; a strong government was 
 necessary for internal peace and external respect ; 
 nor was any one more capable of bestowing on it 
 the necessary ordinances than he who had first 
 created and then renewed it. The ordinances it 
 had received from the hero Buonaparte, in ninety- 
 nine, were no longer sufficient, because they had 
 been debased by invasion, were remembrances of 
 discord, and were suspected of democracy by the 
 neighbouring powers. To secure peace in Europe 
 and in Italy, public tranquillity should no longer 
 suffer the risk of disturbance from ill-arranged 
 systems. It was desirable to live under republi- 
 can institutions, but not such as were too widely 
 dissimilar to the ancient governments which had 
 been preserved in Europe. The Cisalpine state, 
 aided by France, was the only power in Italy 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 capable of keeping Austria in check, formidable 
 as she was by the acquisition of the Venetian 
 territory ; but the republic could acquire the ne- 
 cessary strength only by a form of laws conducive 
 to stability. Various were the dispositions, the 
 interests, and the opinions, of the Cisalpine popu- 
 lation ; nor could Venetians, Milanese, Modenese, 
 Novarese, and Bolognese, concur in the same 
 desires, or even wish exactly the same thing. 
 The traces of ancient rivalry were visible : sepa- 
 rate and dissentient parts could never form one 
 strong united body, if a strict government and a 
 vigorous hand did not constrain them to unity of 
 design. A new regimen was become necessary 
 to concord and firm peace with other powers. It 
 was also requisite to the tranquillity of the Cisal- 
 pine republic, and by the happy fortunes to which 
 they were invited." 
 
 Whilst these ideas were disseminated amongst 
 the people, Petiet negociated with the chiefs of 
 the republic, in order that the imperative com- 
 mands of the Consul might appear to be the 
 desires and the spontaneous supplications of the 
 nation. When the consultations were concluded
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 229 
 
 at Paris for the design, and at Milan for its exe- 
 cution, a decree was issued by the legislative 
 council of the Cisalpine republic, commanding an 
 extraordinary consulto to proceed to Lyons, in 
 order there to frame the fundamental laws of the 
 state, and to give information to the Consul as to 
 the persons eligible for admission into the three 
 electoral colleges. This assembly was to consist 
 of the actual members of the legislative council ; 
 of those of the executive commission, with the 
 exception of three, who were to remain behind 
 for the government of the country ; of a deputa- 
 tion of bishops and of curates, and of deputations 
 from the tribunals, the academies, the universi- 
 ties, the national guard, the regular troops, the 
 notables of the departments, and the Chamber of 
 Commerce. The number, in all, amounted to 
 450. There shone a Visconti, archbishop of 
 Milan, a Castiglione, a Monticucoli, an Opizzomi, 
 a Rangoni, a Melzi, a Paradisi, a Caprara, a Ser- 
 belloni, an Aldrovandi, a Giovio, a Pallavicini, 
 a Moscati, a Gambara, a Lecchi, a Borromeo, a 
 Triulzi, a Fantoni, a Belgiojoso, a Mangili, a 
 Cagnoli, an Oriani, a Codronchi, archbishop of
 
 230 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 Ravenna, a Belisomi, bishop of Cesena, and a 
 Dolfino, bishop of Bergamo. Some went to 
 Lyons from good will, some from fear, some from 
 ambition. Great expectations were formed in 
 Lombardy, and in France the public mind was 
 profoundly attentive ; for it seemed something 
 wonderful to see an Italian nation adjourning 
 itself to France, there to regulate its destiny. In 
 a public manifesto, the Cisalpine government ex- 
 horted its deputies to lay the foundation of salu- 
 tary institutions in the midst of the greater 
 nation, in the presence of the author and restorer 
 of the Cisalpine republic. " No one ought to de- 
 cline the task: it was their duty to show, by 
 their exalted personal qualifications, how great 
 was the worth of their nation, — to acquire for her 
 love and respect, and to wrest from calumny 
 every pretext. They were to bear with them to 
 the congress, neither envy, hatred, nor partiality ; 
 but were to display to the world, whilst acting 
 faithfully, honourably, and patriotically, that they 
 were those same Cisalpines who, amidst the in- 
 evitable tumult of conflicting passions, amidst all 
 the perplexities of frequent change, amidst the
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY, 231 
 
 vicissitudes of opposing political events, had never 
 favoured revenge, discord, faction, persecution, or 
 encouraged cruelty. It was theirs to prove that 
 the Cisalpine nation deserved her reputation for 
 loyalty and benevolence ; to prove that, if she 
 was destined to take a high rank amongst na- 
 tions, it was a rank to which she was worthy of 
 being raised. To herself alone was she to be 
 indebted for her institutions ; to herself alone 
 would the failure be attributed, if such joyful 
 auguries, such exalted hopes, should prove to 
 have been in vain." 
 
 These noble sentiments of patriotism, and this 
 renunciation of all partial affection and interest, 
 were inculcated by Sommariva, the president of 
 the government. At Lyons, the deputies found 
 Talleyrand, the minister, who had made himself 
 master of all the Consul's wishes. There also 
 was Marescalchi, recognised by France as the 
 Cisalpine minister for foreign affairs, who care- 
 fully watched the countenance of Talleyrand, and 
 obeyed every sign it gave. The point of impor- 
 tance was, that those things should appear to 
 spring from unbiassed discussion, which the Con-
 
 232 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 Sill had already imperiously commanded. He had 
 already been liberal of phrases, • — saying that " he 
 desired the felicity of Lombardy ; that he wished 
 to win for her the opinions of the wise. For 
 nothing was he more desirous than for her inde- 
 pendence and welfare ; he loved her as a favourite 
 daughter ; he esteemed her as a part of his own 
 glory." These artifices took root, and the busi- 
 ness was well arranged. The deputies set out in 
 five divisions, representing the five nations, that 
 they might examine the constitution given by 
 Petiet, at Milan, on the part of the Consul, and 
 consider how it might be put in execution as a 
 fundamental law. 
 
 Whilst the deputies were debating at Lyons, 
 those who deputed them were tormented by 
 military license : an inexorable government af- 
 flicted them by imposing contributions ; they 
 complained of the loss of property, of innume- 
 rable insults, and of the harshest slavery; but 
 the cries of the afflicted at Milan were smothered 
 in the shouts of the revellers at Lyons. At Lyons 
 they discussed and obeyed : when these discus- 
 sions had been continued long enough for a suffi-
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 233 
 
 cient demonstration of dignity, the Consul arrived 
 at Lyons on the 11th of January. The Lyonese 
 and Cisalpines ran to meet him, in emulation of 
 each other. It was a grand spectacle for him 
 who looked only on the exterior, but a lamentable 
 one for him who looked within ; for there they 
 were plotting to abolish by law that liberty which 
 had before been destroyed by abuse. Every one 
 was astonished by the suavity and simplicity of 
 the Consul, qualities which they thought must 
 be a part of greatness ; and adulation streamed 
 forth. The republicans (if any there were) were 
 devoured by rage, but they dissembled, not so 
 much to avoid being considered factious, as to 
 avoid being considered madmen or fools ; for such 
 were already the names the age was beginning to 
 apply to them. Buonaparte put his hand to the 
 work : he summoned the Presidents of the As- 
 sembly, and discussed with them the subject of the 
 constitution : now he approved, now he amended, 
 now asked for advice. Mildly expressing dissent, 
 patiently hearing opposition, he seemed to receive 
 from others those opinions with which he himself 
 furnished them. The penetrating wondered at
 
 234 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 his art ; the unsuspecting admired his modesty. 
 At the end of the discourses which were permitted 
 they came to the conclusion which had been 
 commanded : the constitution was approved ; the 
 electoral colleges seemed a good and fundamental 
 ordinance. The Consul nominated them, the first 
 time, from a double list presented by the assem- 
 bly; but the principal key had not yet been 
 struck, that for which half Italy had been made 
 to come into France. An example rather than a 
 constitution was expected from the Italians. A 
 president was to be nominated for Lombardy. 
 The choice as to the person was of consequence, 
 as was also the duration of the office ; for Buona- 
 parte did not relish temporary magistracies. It 
 was insinuated to the Cisalpines, that they should 
 . make him the head of their republic — should ap- 
 point him president for ten years, with the 
 capability of being re-elected as often as might 
 be desired. These two points had some difficulties 
 attending them, partly from the Cisalpines them- 
 selves, partly from the offence arising to other 
 powers, from the too evident dependence on 
 France, if the Consul should be the ruler of
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. SlS5 
 
 Lombardy. It implied also the confession, that 
 no Cisalpine was capable of governing. Some 
 inclined to give their votes to Melzi ; the minis- 
 ters of Buonaparte were diligent with his par- 
 tisans ; now praising Melzi — now affirming that 
 great authority would be given to him under the 
 new government. All these artifices produced 
 the desired effect. The Cisalpines presented 
 themselves before the Consul with the declaration 
 of their resolutions ; and this was drawn up with 
 such adulation towards him, and such depre- 
 ciation of themselves, that I do not believe 
 the annals of history can furnish a meaner or 
 a more disgraceful act. They confessed, nay, 
 even laboui'ed to prove by argument, (to such 
 baseness had he reduced them) that there was no 
 Cisalpine who could fitly govern the state. The 
 Consul enjoyed in these humble words the fulfil- 
 ment of his own orders, and promised to take his 
 place on the morrow amidst the public assembly 
 of the Cisalpines. Accompanied by the ministers 
 of France, by the counsellors of state, by the 
 generals, the prefects, and the municipal magis- 
 trates of Lyons, amidst the joyous greetings and
 
 236 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 the festive plaudits of the Cisalpines, he took the 
 elevated seat prepared for him, and thus ad- 
 dressed them: — "I have assembled you around 
 me at Lyons as the principal citizens of the 
 Cisalpine republic. You have furnished me with 
 information sufficient to enable me to fulfil the 
 exalted duty imposed on me, as the first magis- 
 trate of the French people, and as the founder of 
 your republic^ I chose your magistrates without 
 partiality as to place or party. As to the supreme 
 rank of president, I have not found any man 
 amongst you who, for services rendered to his 
 country, for his authority with the people, or his 
 separation from party, has deserved such an office. 
 The reasons you have prudently alleged have 
 convinced me : I consent to your desires, and 
 will support, as long as it may be necessary, the 
 great weight of your affairs. Amidst my nume- 
 rous cares, it will be grateful to me to hear of 
 the stability of your government, and the felicity 
 of your people. You have no general laws, no 
 national customs, no powerful armies ; but God 
 blesses you, since you possess all that can be 
 created to form them, — a numerous population.
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 23T 
 
 fertile plains, and the example of France.'' 
 This arrogant speech was followed by the loudest 
 plaudits, both from French and Cisalpines. To 
 the former, servitude was mitigated by domi- 
 nation over foreigners ; to the latter, it was 
 embittered by contempt. But the slaves of either 
 side applauded as vehemently as if they had been 
 both honoured and free. They expressed a desire 
 that the republic (this was preconcerted amongst 
 the most devoted) should no longer be called 
 Cisalpine, but Italian — a circumstance pregnant 
 with consequences, especially in the hand of 
 Buonaparte. To this, therefore, the Consul wil- 
 lingly consented. A reply was now made, in a 
 strain of adulation, by Prina, who, being of a 
 severe and arbitrary disposition, had thoroughly 
 understood the Consul, and the Consul him, and 
 he sought to push himself into authority. He 
 pleased, and in reward received honours and 
 power. 
 
 The Italians proclaimed the Consul president 
 for ten years, with the capability of being re- 
 elected; Melzi was appointed vice-president. 
 The latter, a man distinguished both by genero-
 
 238 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 sity and wisdom, and much beloved by the Ita- 
 lians, inclined towards absolute power ; yet more 
 from elevation of mind than from vanity. The 
 constitution was yet to be formed. They began 
 by ecclesiastical ordinances : the Catholic, Apos- 
 tolic, and Roman religion, was to be the religion 
 of the state ; notwithstanding which, the rites of 
 other sects might be performed in private, without 
 molestation. The government was to appoint the 
 bishops, the Holy See to confirm them. The 
 bishops were to appoint the parochial clergy, the 
 government was to confirm their appointment ; 
 and each diocese was to have a metropolitan 
 chapter and a seminary. The unsold property 
 was to be restored to the clergy. Within three 
 months, fitting funds were to be granted for the 
 bishojDS, the chapters, the seminaries, and the 
 ecclesiastical buildings. Pensions were to be 
 assigned for the sujipressed religious orders. The 
 limits of the dioceses were not to be changed in 
 future. The approbation of the Holy See was to 
 be obtained for those which had already been 
 altered. Delinquents amongst the clergy were to 
 be punished by the bishops, according to the
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 239 
 
 penalties of the canonical law. If any should 
 prove refractory, the bishops were to have re- 
 course to the secular power. If any ecclesiastic 
 were convicted of crime, his bishop was to be 
 informed of the sentence, that he might proceed 
 according to the regulations of the canons. Every 
 public act offensive to morality, to religion, or 
 its ministers, was to be prohibited. No rector 
 was to be forced by the magistrates to celebrate 
 a marriage against the canonical law. In this 
 manner was the Italian church regulated in the 
 council of Lyons. Some other articles, although 
 laudable and wise, required the consent of the 
 Pope, as they interfered with ecclesiastical juris- 
 diction. Notwithstanding, the Archbishop of 
 Ravenna, in artful discourse, assented to them 
 in the name of all the clergy of Italy, an assent 
 which was unnecessary if the secular power had 
 a right to ordain, and insufficient if the authority 
 of the Pope were indispensable. But the Consul, 
 confiding in the first warmth of his recent friend- 
 ship with the Pope, entertained no fears of oppo- 
 sition on his part, and he knew that daring 
 assumption generally bends and intimidates others.
 
 240 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 As for the civil ordinances, the three colleges — 
 of landed proprietors, of scientific men, and of 
 traders, were the foundation of the government ; 
 in them was vested the sovereign authority. 
 Their office was to nominate the members of the 
 Censorship, of the Council of State, of the Legis- 
 lative Body, of the Tribunals of Revision and 
 Cassation, and of the Chamber of Finance. 
 Further, they were to impeach the magistrates, if 
 guilty of a violation of the constitution, or of pe- 
 culation ; and, finally, they were to decide in cases 
 where the government censorship disagreed on 
 accusations of this nature. The landholders were 
 to hold their sittings at Milan, the learned at 
 Bologna, and the merchants at Brescia ; and they 
 were to meet once in two years. The supreme 
 tribunal was the censorship ; which was to con- 
 sist of nine proprietors, six learned professors, 
 and six merchants. It was to accuse, and to 
 judge the accusations brought before it, for viola- 
 tion of the constitution, and for peculation ; it 
 was to assemble five days after the recess of the 
 colleges ; and its sittings were to last for ten 
 days, and no longer. This was a wise institution ;
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 241 
 
 but the servility of the age rendered it useless. 
 The government of the state was committed to a 
 president, a vice-president, a council of state, 
 executive ministers, and a legislative council. 
 The president possessed the executive power, the 
 vice-president the patronage. The ministers were 
 responsible to the state for all their acts. It was 
 the office of the Council of State to examine and 
 authorize the instructions of the ministers for 
 foreign affairs, and to examine treaties. They 
 might, in extreme cases, suspend the laws 
 guaranteeing personal liberty, and the action of 
 the constitution : they had also a discretionary 
 power to provide in any manner for the safety of 
 the republic. If, after the lapse of three years, 
 any alteration of the constitution should be 
 judged necessary, they were to propose it 
 to the colleges, and those assemblies were to 
 decide. 
 
 The Legislative Council had the privilege of 
 debating on the laws proposed by the president, 
 and of advising him on any subject submitted to 
 their consideration. 
 
 The Legislative Body registered the laws pro- 
 
 VOL. I. R
 
 242 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 posed by the government, yet did not discuss 
 them, but rendered their votes without debate. 
 
 Such were the principal ordinances of the con- 
 stitution of the Italian republic. Perhaps they 
 were the best, especially the three colleges and 
 the tribunal of censorship, that Bvionaparte ever 
 devised. 
 
 When the constitution had been read and ac- 
 cepted, the Consul retired to his Lyonese palace, 
 the populace following at his heels with acclama- 
 tions. Then, after receiving the homage of the 
 Italians, and naming the ministers, he set out, 
 satisfied with his success, and with his Italian 
 experiment, to the wonderful and wondering 
 capital of France. 
 
 Great rejoicings took' place in the Italian re- 
 public, on account of the constitution which 
 had been given, and the president it had ac- 
 quired. Adulation reached its acme, and became 
 tiresome from repetition. The magistrates took 
 their places with much solemnity, according to 
 the new statutes, and in taking his, Melzi spoke 
 of the Consul in exalted terms — of himself, 
 modestly — of his predecessors, severely ; and
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 243 
 
 dwelt much upon the subject of corruption. 
 Luxury was great ; and Melzi lived in a princely- 
 manner, but without any affectation of grandeur. 
 The president being at a distance, independence 
 seemed greater : soldiers were enrolled for the 
 conscription, and good laws were framed. Prina, 
 the Minister of Finance, rendered the revenue of 
 the state so flourishing that, notwithstanding the 
 annual tribute paid to France, the treasury was 
 full, and the taxes light. Letters and science 
 also flourished ; but adulation was more successful 
 than liberality of sentiment ; and whoever was in- 
 clined to speak with any degree of freedom, 
 was placed where no one could hear him more. 
 The Council of State had been expressly created 
 for this purpose ; and, being to the last degree 
 submissive, devised means of constraining men 
 to silence. This was felt by Ceroni, a youth 
 of exalted and vivid genius, who, for some verses 
 which touched on independence, was first impri- 
 soned and then exiled : Teuillet, also, an Italian 
 general, Cicognara, and some others, were im- 
 plicated in the same affair, merely for having 
 praised Ceroni's verses. On hearing these things 
 
 R 2
 
 244 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 the other poets and literati exerted themselves to 
 attain the very climax of adulation. 
 
 Buonaparte said, that it was time to restrain 
 the prevailing license, and in this he had reason 
 entirely on his side ; yet, unhappily, he repressed 
 alike not only what was pernicious, but what was 
 salutary. Much was written at this time, but 
 nothing which had any vigour, except some im- 
 precations against England, for maledictions 
 against that country had become a branch of 
 flattery. Nothing was written that had any dig- 
 nity, crawling adulation debasing every thing; — 
 jiothing had any originality, both the style and 
 matter being squared to the model of the French 
 idiom and French literature. Neither in this re- 
 spect was what was good selected for imitation ; 
 but the very worst productions — the most in- 
 sipid pamphlets, the most crude and wretched 
 journals served as examples. The president 
 Buonaparte had found an effectual method of 
 preventing writers from manufacturing what was 
 contraband ; namely, by enriching them, and rais- 
 ing them to the highest honours. This they consi- 
 dered to be noble on his part ; and, accepting the
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 245 
 
 bright fortune offered them, they were either 
 silent, or spoke only to flatter ; notwithstand- 
 ing which, they were sometimes assailed by ill 
 humour : and, in the intimacy of the festive 
 board it bvu'st forth, and they then amused each 
 other at the expence of the Parisian president. 
 He knew and laughed at their sarcasms, for he 
 did not fear them. In fine, literature was servile, 
 tlie finances prosperous, the soldiery well disci- 
 plined, independence annihilated. A certain sen- 
 timent of an independent existence, however, 
 began to be propagated from mind to mind, 
 which, in time, might have produced fruit. 
 Melzi, whose soul was wholly Italian, and who 
 loved his country, carefully fostered these feel- 
 ings, which, joined to the nobleness of his con- 
 duct, had great effect. These proceedings, how- 
 ever, were not agreeable to the president, and he 
 therefore no longer held Melzi in the same 
 favour as formerly. 
 
 In the meanwhile, works of singular magnifi- 
 cence arose. The Forum of Buonaparte, as it was 
 called, occupied the place where the Castle of 
 Milan had stood ; and the design was admirable.
 
 346 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 and had much of ancient Roman grandeur. The 
 completion of the Cathedral, which had so long 
 remained unfinished, was also undertaken, and the 
 work was so vigorously prosecuted, that more was 
 now done in a few years than had before been 
 accomplished in as many centuries. Liberty had 
 become impossible, but splendour was acquired. 
 All these things, and the name of the Italian 
 republic, singularly delighted the people of the 
 Peninsula. Thus lived the Italians for a time, till 
 new designs of Buonaparte brought on new dan- 
 gers, and a change of fortune. 
 
 This name of the Italian republic, and the cir- 
 cumstance of Buonaparte being made its chief, 
 gave umbrage to other powers, especially to 
 Austria, whose vigilance was excited for her Ita- 
 lian possessions. The Emperor Alexander him- 
 self, who had already conceived some suspicions 
 in consequence of the great authority the Consul 
 had arrogated to himself in Switzerland, was still 
 more alienated by the result of the conference at 
 Lyons ; and thus a rupture between France and 
 Russia seemed imminent. The Consul, who was 
 unwilling to be arrested half-way, endeavoured to
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 247 
 
 mitigate these discontents by publishing a mani- 
 festo, in which he laboured to show that, in 
 retaining the Cisalpine republic, France had not 
 appropriated too much to herself, nor even so 
 much as the other potentates. He compared the 
 present power of France with that she had pos- 
 sessed before the Revolution, affirming, that then 
 she had commanded the states of the King of 
 Sardinia, from the jealousy felt on account of the 
 pretensions of Austria to Monferrat ; — Venice, 
 from the necessity which that state felt of a support 
 against the ambition and near vicinity of the same 
 power ; — Naples, by her family compacts : but 
 now Venice was subject to Austria, and the family 
 compact was at an end. Hence Austria would have 
 been mistress of Italy, had not France acquired 
 fresh strength by the accession of the Italian re- 
 public. On the subject of Piedmont, he was silent, 
 as if silence could conceal the act of possession. 
 With regard to the rest of Europe, Poland was 
 the prey of the greater powers, Turkey had no 
 influence, Sweden was impotent. The acquisi- 
 tion of the four departments of the Rhine did not 
 compensate for the re-partition of Poland. The
 
 248 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 destruction of Tippoo Saib had already given 
 great increase of power to England. The wishes 
 of France were moderate : she had restored by 
 treaty what she had conquered in war ; but she 
 would not, by consenting to weaken herself too 
 much, derogate from her dignity, or diminish her 
 accustomed power. Her only desire was to pre- 
 vent the preponderance of any other power in 
 Germany or Italy : she did not seek to exercise 
 dominion over others, neither would she suffer 
 others to dominate over her. Whoever would 
 calmly consider the matter, must perceive that, 
 by her new acquisitions, she had not gained new 
 force, but had merely kept up her former 
 strength. 
 
 The recent government of Genoa still savoured 
 too strongly of democracy, and the Consul desired 
 to set up there his usual ladder of aristocracy. 
 They supplicated him to give them a constitution, 
 to which he willingly consented. The governors 
 joyfully announced the happy news to their fellow 
 citizens : " They had attained the height of their 
 desires. He who had given peace to Europe was 
 about to give form to the republic. The ground-
 
 1802.] HISTOllY OF ITALY. 249 
 
 work would acquire immortality from a hero. 
 They had been excited to make this demand by 
 patriotic feelings and patriotic examples ; and 
 from it they anticipated the happiest results. It 
 had produced a constitution restoring religion, 
 securing liberty. The government of the state 
 was committed to the rich, the industrious, and 
 the learned ; the rights of the citizens were ren- 
 dered secure ; public wisdom would become the 
 guardian of public prosperity. I'he Ligurians, 
 inferior to no other Italian people in illustrious 
 men, were bound to show that the seeds of their 
 ancient virtue were still vital ; and that, rivalling 
 their ancestors, they were worthy supporters of a 
 name bearing such a weight of honour." As to 
 language and style, this proclamation was much 
 more pure than the corrupted Cisalpine, Tuscan, 
 and Neapolitan writings ; and, as to its matter, 
 was not without dignity. Thus Genoa, which had 
 already given various other noble examples, now 
 offered a model of purity of language. Accord- 
 ing to the new constitution, there was an Executive 
 Senate, presided over by a doge, which consisted 
 of thirty members, and formed five magistracies; —
 
 250 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 the Supreme Council ; the Council of Justice and 
 Legislation ; that of the Interior ; of War and 
 Maritime Affairs ; and that of Finance. Its office 
 was to present to a national council the laws to 
 be enacted, and to execute them when approved. 
 The doge was elected from a triple list presented 
 by the colleges, and continued in office for six 
 years. He presided over the senate and the su- 
 preme magistracy ; represented the republic as to 
 dignity and honours ; held his residence in the 
 national palace ; and commanded the guard of the 
 government. A delegate of the supreme magis- 
 tracy assisted him in all his acts. 
 
 The Supreme Council was composed of the 
 doge, with the presidents of the four other 
 councils, and four other senators. To this tri- 
 bunal, which was elected by the senate, apper- 
 tained the execution of the laws and decrees, and 
 the publication of such ordinances and edicts as it 
 might deem necessary, all the other administrative 
 bodies being held subordinate to it. It regulated 
 foreign affairs ; had the power of suspending, for 
 six months, both the magistrates immediately 
 dependent on it, and others, including the judges
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 251 
 
 of the criminal tribunal ; executed measures of 
 internal and external security ; superintended the 
 impartial distribution of justice ; controuled the 
 finances and ecclesiastical affairs ; guarded the 
 archives ; took charge of the public schools ; 
 and commanded the army. This body repre- 
 sented in the new constitution what in the old 
 government was called the petty council ; and 
 possessed, in fact, all the real power of the 
 government. The office of the doge was, as of 
 old, merely honorary ; and against him was dis- 
 played the jealousy of the ancient aristocratical 
 governments of Italy. 
 
 Such was the government of the Ligurian re- 
 public : how it would be administered remained 
 to be seen. The Consul ordained three colleges — 
 of proprietors, merchants, and scholars ; from 
 whom all power, political, civil, and administra- 
 tive, was to flow as from a common source. 
 Every two years these colleges elected a syndicate 
 of seven members, who had the power of passing 
 censure on two members of the senate, and two 
 of every other council or tribunal ; and whoever 
 was thus censured lost his office. Each district
 
 252 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 named a judicial council ; and these latter elected 
 the members of the National Consulta, which pos- 
 sessed the legislative authority. 
 
 On the 29th of June the new government en- 
 tered on its functions in presence of Saliceti, 
 Minister Plenipotentiary of France, who, as usual, 
 delivered an artful oration, filled with theoretical 
 maxims. 
 
 On being thanked by the senate, the Consul 
 replied with professions of the love borne by 
 France to Liguria, " which in every change of 
 fortune had shown its attachment to that country. 
 The protection of France would therefore shield 
 it from every danger ; past misfortunes and the 
 rancour of civil contentions were to be alike 
 forgotten. The constitution and the laws, and 
 religion, were to be regarded with affection. 
 They were to encourage their naval power, and 
 to restore the ancient glory of the Ligurian name. 
 Ever should he rejoice in the prosperity and grieve 
 for the adversity of Genoa." 
 
 To this the usual spirit of adulation responded. 
 The senate decreed that two statues of marble 
 should be erected in the vestibule of the national
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 253 
 
 palace, one to Christopher Columbus, the dis- 
 coverer of a new world, the other to Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, the pacificator of the old, for having 
 enlarged the confines of Liguria, guarded her 
 interests, and remodelled her laws. The work 
 was recommended to the zeal of the supreme 
 magistracy, to the genius of rival artists, and the 
 patriotism of every Ligurian citizen. Besides 
 this, the inhabitants of Sarzana, acquiring greater 
 warmth in the traffic of flattery, supplicated per- 
 mission from the government to erect in their 
 city a monument to the memory of the Buona- 
 parte family, which, as they said, derived its 
 origin from them. They alleged that " the 
 Buonapartean race, for three centuries before the 
 fifteenth, had been resident citizens of Sarzana. 
 The family had been illustrious alike from its 
 possessions, connexions, and oflSces. A daughter 
 of that house had been the mother of Cardinal 
 Philip, uterine brother of Pope Nicholas the 
 Fifth, of illustrious memory." This petition was 
 graciously heard, and Sarzana was willingly per- 
 mitted to erect the proposed monument. 
 
 Whilst Menou continued his disorderly course
 
 254 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 in Piedmont, the royal family of Sardinia wan- 
 dered about Italy as exiles. The king, Charles 
 Emanuel, devoted to religion, pursued by melan- 
 choly phantasms, and disgusted with the world 
 by the misfortunes he had suffered, determined to 
 abdicate his throne, and renouncing all worldly 
 concerns, occupy himself solely in pious exercises, 
 and the undisturbed care of his soul. This 
 renunciation was performed without pomp or 
 vain glory, and showed that if ambition is its 
 own tormentor, moderation renders man happy 
 in the most exalted, as well as in the most hum- 
 ble rank. The abdication of Charles Emanuel 
 transferred his title to his brother, Victor Ema- 
 nuel, then resident in the kingdom of Naples. 
 The reign of Victor proved much less unquiet 
 than had been expected from his well known love 
 of arms. Notwithstanding this propensity, whilst 
 every part of Europe was hastening on to ruin 
 from the predominance of the military, he peace- 
 ably governed the island of Sardinia with a few 
 soldiers : nor was there in this any mystery or 
 art, as justice and lenity lent him strength, and 
 insured his success.
 
 1802.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 255 
 
 The Consul, who had delayed the formal union 
 of Piedmont with France, came at last to this 
 resolution, not because Alexander granted his 
 consent to it, but because he saw that a rupture 
 with Russia was inevitable. His threats against 
 the Germanic body, the military authority that 
 he continued to arrogate to himself in the Papal 
 states, in Tuscany and in the kingdom of Naples, 
 his domination in Switzerland under the name of 
 mediation, his presidency of the republics of 
 Italy, the non-fulfilment of his promises of com- 
 pensation to the King of Sardinia, — all had con- 
 vinced Alexander that Buonaparte was more 
 ready to take than to give. The latter also was 
 aware that, amidst so many causes of discontent, 
 the union of Piedmont to France would but 
 increase his dissatisfaction, as to refrain in that 
 one instance would not restore his friendship. 
 This Senate therefore decreed, on the 11th of 
 September, that the departments of the Po, the 
 Dora, Marengo, the Sesia, the Stura, and the 
 Tanaro, should be united to the territories of 
 France. This union of Piedmont commenced the 
 succession of similar ai)propriations of Italism
 
 256 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1802. 
 
 territories, which was of real utility to France, 
 but the others were fantastical and capricious. 
 This event gave rise to rejoicings in Piedmont, in 
 which the nobles willingly joined, as they perceived 
 from the court paid to them by the Consul and 
 Menou, that the power which the intemperance 
 of the democrats had for a time wrested from 
 them, would now be restored ; nor was the joy 
 of the people less sincere, because they hoped that 
 a legal government would put an end to the 
 licentious domination of the Egyptian chief. 
 
 With the exception of the states of Venice, 
 all Italy, from Piedmont to Naples, continued for 
 a time under two governments, one real, the 
 other nominal. In Piedmont, reigned Menou, 
 rather than Buonaparte; in Parma, Buonaparte, 
 rather than St. Mery ; at Genoa, the Consul, not 
 the Senate ; in Rome, too, the Consul, rather than 
 the Pope ; in Tuscany, Murat, rather than Louis ; 
 in Naples, Napoleon, rather than Ferdinand. 
 Harsh and arrogant was the style of dictation to 
 all these governments. Menou alone did what- 
 ever he liked, and ruled according to his own 
 pleasure. The Consul acceded to his wishes in
 
 1803.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 257 
 
 every thing ; and if the Egyptian only hinted 
 to him that those who complained of him were 
 democrats, he instantly approved of his acts and 
 praised them. Piedmont paid the wages of the 
 terrible equivocations of Egypt. The rest 
 obeyed ; some from fear, some from ambition. 
 
 At this time Louis, King of Etruria, died of 
 an acute fever, by which event his throne was 
 transferred to the Infant of Spain, Charles Louis ; 
 but he being a minor, the regency devolved on 
 the widowed Queen, Maria Louisa. Yet what 
 power had accrued to the Infant may be seen 
 by the orders published by Murat in Leghorn, 
 at the time of his accession, giving up this city 
 to the French troops he commanded, as if it had 
 been in a state of siege. The Buonapartean 
 general also sent troops to Piombino, and occu- 
 pied the whole Tuscan shore, in order to prevent 
 all communication with the English ; he also ar- 
 rested English visitors, seized such English ships 
 as were in the ports, and impeded their commerce 
 by his corsairs, who were sent against them 
 from Leghorn, These proceedings were occa- 
 sioned by the renewal of hostilities with Great 
 
 VOL. L s
 
 258 HISTOHY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 Britain after a short peace. In the midst of 
 these acts of foreign insolence, Charles Louis 
 commenced his reign, under the tutelage of his 
 mother, in the month of August. The Floren- 
 tine Senate, the magistrates and the deputies of 
 the different cities, took the oaths. There were 
 chariot races, emblematic designs, illuminations, 
 fire-works, and the customary eulogistic poetry: 
 they not only lauded Charles Louis, but also 
 Murat and the Consul, calling them restorers of 
 independence, gentle and just governors of the 
 people. 
 
 Tuscany was much afflicted at this time by an 
 universal and lamentable calamity. Towards the 
 end of Autumn, 1804, a contagious disorder 
 broke out in the fine city of Leghorn, occasioned, 
 as it would seem, by the extreme heat of the 
 summer, which, from the continuance of the 
 south wind, was unusually hot and rainy. This 
 disease was by some called the yellow fever, by 
 others, the black vomit, and either name well 
 described the strange symptoms which accompa- 
 nied it. It began its ravages in the lowest, the 
 dampest, and the dirtiest parts of the city, carry-
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 259 
 
 ing off its victims in seven, five, three, and some- 
 times in even the brief space of one day. It was 
 most generally fatal on the fifth and seventh, and 
 rarely lasted till the thirteenth or fourteenth day. 
 To describe its progress would be difficult, as in 
 different subjects it ai3peared in diflferent forms ; 
 its victims suffering under the most various and 
 intolerable tortures. Two symptoms, however, 
 occurred in all cases : before and after death, the 
 body, and more especially the bust, throat, and 
 face, became yellow, and the stomach copiously 
 threw up a certain black matter, resembling the 
 dregs of coffee. A corrupted bile was diffused 
 through the whole frame, even to the brain ; 
 and in every internal organ there was a greater 
 or less tendency to putrefaction and mortification. 
 The external skin was disfigured by small black 
 points, or by large livid spots, especially wherever 
 the body rested. The corrosive quality of the 
 suffused bile was, in some cases, so great, as to 
 occasion external and internal cancers ; in others, 
 the skin was excoriated, as if burned by fire. In 
 the midst of these acute sufferings, as if he who 
 was doomed to die ought clearly to foresee the 
 
 s 2
 
 260 HISTOEY OV ITALY. [1804. 
 
 approach of death, the mind was preserved entire 
 and unclouded till the moment of the last agony. 
 This cruel disease was as fatal to the strong as to 
 the weak, youths of robust constitutions passing 
 from the most florid state of health to a miserable 
 death in the space even of one day. This dreadful 
 malady was frequently destructive of the vital 
 principle even in those who survived the fever 
 itself, and left behind it deplorable vestiges of its 
 fury. The progress towards convalescence was 
 tedious, sad, and painful. Some long remained 
 in a state of stupefaction ; some in a state of con- 
 tinual tremour ; some, terrified by fearful phan- 
 tasms, passed their days in melancholy, their 
 nights in horror, — miserable signs that death had 
 indeed been pressing closely on them. A strange 
 and horrible corruption of the body often pro- 
 duced, besides the symptoms already related, the 
 most unusual changes : some had a horror of 
 water, as if bitten by a mad dog ; in others, the 
 vision was so perverted that they saw every 
 object twofold, or in increased size ; some were 
 covered with boils full of corrosive humours ; in 
 some, streams of blood poured from the ears ; in
 
 1801.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 261 
 
 others, the parotid glands were swelled to an ex- 
 traordinary degree. The disorder raged most furi- 
 ously in robust young men ; it was most mild in 
 the weak and the old, and in the female sex ; yet, 
 almost every pregnant woman attacked by it 
 died. Very few children were attacked by it. 
 Intemperance of every kind, especially drinking 
 to excess wine and spirituous liquors, gluttony, 
 and riot, rendered the disorder more certain and 
 violent, and death more inevitable. 
 
 Various were the means resorted to by the 
 physicians to subdue this lamentable disorder; 
 but the simplest, as is generally the case, proved 
 the best : calomel, jalap, and sudorifics were 
 found useful ; lemons, with small doses of tar- 
 tar emetic were highly efficacious ; warm fomen- 
 tations of steeped mustard seed were serviceable, 
 and nitrous acid, especially in weak constitutions, 
 proved a powerful remedy. In some cases, too, 
 the purple digitalis was of service. But a free 
 current of fresh air, frequently renewed, proved 
 the most powerful of all remedies, and its efficacy 
 was so great, that by this means the virus even at 
 a short distance was deprived of its baneful power.
 
 262 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 On the other hand, it was seen that, when the air 
 was impregnated with animal exhalations, the 
 disease was quickly communicated, and its worst 
 symptoms aggravated. It follows from this that 
 the streets which were the worst ventilated and 
 the filthiest, and the houses of the poor, were 
 most miserably infected by the pestilence. On 
 the contrary, the open streets and spacious cleanly 
 houses, where the air was pure, were either free 
 from the infection, or it there displayed itself in 
 a milder form. Even in the places where it was 
 most prevalent it seemed rather epidemic than 
 contagious ; attendants, physicians, relations, and 
 priests who visited the sick, escaping the infection. 
 In this particular, it differed much from other 
 infectious fevers, especially the Egyptian plague, 
 which diffused itself on every side, and affected 
 those at a distance. This calamity did not extend 
 itself beyond the city, although a great number of 
 persons and a large quantity of goods were con- 
 tinually passing from street to street, and from 
 the town to the country ; neither did those who 
 were about the sick communicate the disorder to 
 others, unless they had previously taken it them-
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 263 
 
 selves ; nor did the clothes of the healthy, or the 
 furniture of the houses of the sick, transfer the in- 
 fection. And thus money, notes, and merchandise 
 were circulated within and without the city as 
 usual. Habit by a wonderful and unknown pro- 
 perty of the human frame fortified it by degrees 
 against the infection. In fact, while so many of 
 the lower order perished, only one of the minis- 
 ters of religion and three of the physicians who 
 attended them with ceaseless zeal, perished. The 
 effect of pure air was shown in the hospital of St. 
 Jacob, which is built almost on the verge of the 
 sea shore, and which, being admirably constructed 
 within, enjoys the benefit of a continual free 
 current of air. The sick had scarcely crossed its 
 threshold ere they began to revive ; and, although 
 they had before been languid, oppressed, and half 
 subdued by the disorder, they soon passed from 
 anguish to a state of tolerable comfort. The 
 praiseworthy habits of the Tuscans proved the 
 remedy of the malady, because, besides the puri- 
 fying qualities of the air, that neatness in their 
 houses and persons, which is so characteristic of 
 the inhabitants of Tuscany, was favourable to
 
 264 lllSTUllY OJ' ITALV. [1804. 
 
 the sick, and the habits of the population were 
 their best cure : nor in this season of misery- 
 were any guilty of the cruelty of deserting the 
 infected, for the preservation of their own health. 
 All received the necessary succours from the 
 affection of relations, the kindness of friends, the 
 piety of the clergy, or the providence of the 
 government. The citizens of Leghorn were 
 indebted for this either to a superior degree of 
 civilization, or to the inspirations of Divine Grace. 
 From all that has been said, it appears that 
 this fever differed much from those which phy- 
 sicians properly call contagious, as, for example, 
 the Egyptian plague. How it was occasioned at 
 Leghorn it would be impossible to decide ; whe- 
 ther, as was commonly believed, the infection 
 was brought there by a vessel from Vera Cruz, 
 or whether, as seems more probable, it was en- 
 gendered on the spot by the hot and rainy- 
 season, must remain a matter of doubt. The 
 lamentable effects, however, of this loathsome and 
 terrible disorder were but too certain ; and it not 
 only desolated Leghorn, but terrified the neigh- 
 bouring cities, and kept Europe long in anxious
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 265 
 
 fears of being visited by the same calamity which 
 had ravaged the provinces of America. These 
 things I have endeavoured to relate with the 
 greatest simplicity, because the unadorned truth 
 is best adapted to make known the nature and 
 the remedies of a disease which threatens to 
 increase the sum of all those which already but 
 too severely afflict suffering Europe.* 
 
 The ecclesiastical affairs of France had been 
 regulated with the consent of the Pope, and it 
 became necessary for the Consul to obtain his 
 sanction for the recent arrangements in Italy, as 
 Pius had loudly complained of the resolutions 
 which had recently been passed, not only without 
 his consent having been obtained, but without its 
 having even been asked. The Consul had powerful 
 reasons for wishing to gratify the Pope, and there- 
 fore, after some discussions at Paris between Car- 
 
 * The original gives every symptom of the disease in its 
 various stages, but as the detail is somewhat disgusting, the 
 translator has given only the general outlines of the frightful 
 picture. Medical men are not likely to study their profession 
 in history, and to the taste of other readers the " whole una- 
 dorned truth" would be ofiensive. — Tr.
 
 266 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804.. 
 
 dinal Caprara, Legate of the Holy See, and Fer- 
 dinand Marescalchi, Minister for Foreign Affairs 
 to the Italian Republic, a concordat was con- 
 cluded on the I6th of September, in the name of 
 the Pontiff and that of the President ; the sub- 
 stance of which was in all respects similar to the 
 concordat of France. But the Vice-President 
 Melzi, who had imbibed the doctrines of the 
 school of Leopold, amplified the articles in favour 
 of the secular power. He decreed that the privi- 
 lege of bestowing the religious habit and receiving 
 religious vows should be confined to the orders, 
 convents, colleges, and monasteries, which were 
 dedicated to the instruction and education of 
 youth, and to the care of the sick, or other simi- 
 lar offices of peculiar and public utility. Every 
 individual, desirous of taking holy orders, or 
 assuming the monastic habit, must, in the first 
 instance, obtain the permission of the govern- 
 ment. The free communications of the bishops 
 with the Holy See should not extend to the expo- 
 sition of cases to be tried by the tribunals, nor 
 affect any circumstances where the spiritual was 
 connected with the particular jurisdiction of the
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 267 
 
 temporal authority. The bulls, briefs, or re- 
 scripts of the court of Rome were not to be put 
 in practice for any purpose of exterior discipline, 
 nor published without the consent of the govern- 
 ment. Priests, candidates for holy orders, the 
 clergy of the episcopal schools, novices, or those 
 who had taken the vows in the religious orders, 
 were alone to be exempted from military service. 
 The government refused to lend its aid for the 
 infliction of temporal penalties commanded by 
 the ecclesiastical authority, for the correction of 
 clerical delinquents, or to receive appeals from 
 the ecclesiastical courts, except in cases of mani- 
 fest abuse, observing accurately the limits and 
 the modes of their respective jurisdictions ; and, 
 finally, the vigorous discipline of the church in 
 its actual state was to be exercised, saving the 
 rights of guardianship and political jurisdiction. 
 These were wise, salutary, and necessary gua- 
 rantees for the preservation of the secular autho- 
 rity ; for the Catholic religion has, more than 
 any other, the power of influencing through its 
 ministers (who are but men) the resolutions of the 
 rulers of nations ; and, therefore, the latter are
 
 268 HISTORY OF ITALV. [1804. 
 
 bound to take effectual precautions against it, in 
 order to secure liberty and the rights of the 
 temporal power. But the Pontiff resented it 
 seriously, and complained bitterly to the Presi- 
 dent : while the latter temporized in his replies ; 
 and, wrapping himself up in his usual ambiguities, 
 he neither gave nor forbade the expectation of 
 alteration. In the mean time, although the 
 Italian concordat, and, above all, the decree of the 
 Vice-President, was more acceptable to those who 
 favoured the doctrines of the Bishop of Pistoja, 
 and the reform of Leopold, than to the Papists ; 
 they served, notwithstanding, to tranquillize the 
 intimidated consciences of the people, who, 
 having always adhered to the Catholic faith and 
 revered the Pope, beheld with uneasiness the 
 dissensions with Rome, and rejoiced at the 
 restoration of harmony. The magistrates, the 
 priests, the philosophers, the soldiers, and the 
 people, all proclaimed the President matchless. 
 Nothing was spoken of but him ; his name and 
 actions engrossed the minds of men, to the 
 exclusion of all other names and all other sub- 
 jects of interest.
 
 1804.] HISTOKY OF ITALY. 269 
 
 But now the bilustral iii^trig-ues of the Consul 
 approached their fulfilment. Glorious in war, 
 glorious in peace, no other name of ancient or 
 modern times appeared in the eyes of his dazzled 
 contemporaries equal to his. His marvellous 
 exploits in Italy, before and after his Egyptian 
 labours, were still repeated from mouth to 
 mouth, and were fresh in the minds of all. They 
 recollected that he had suddenly raised the hum- 
 bled fortunes of the republic to the highest rank 
 of glory and of power ; without him it had fallen, 
 by him it had been resuscitated. " Monsters had 
 prevailed when he was afar off; but, like a 
 second Flercules, his presence had subdued them. 
 In his absence, war had followed peace — his pre- 
 sence had displaced discord by tranquillity : nor 
 with Austria alone had he procured concord, but 
 also with Russia, England, Turkey, Portugal, 
 with the Duke of Wirtemberg, and with the 
 Prince of Orange. Barbarians themselves had 
 negociated with him for the benefit of France ; 
 Algiers and Tunis had returned to their ancient 
 friendship ; nor were the subjects of France any 
 longer saddened by the sight of African cruelty.
 
 270 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 French ships could freely and securely pursue 
 their traffic in the Mediterranean, and the ensigns 
 of the republic were no longer insulted by lawless 
 robbers. He alone had extinguished civil dis- 
 cord — had given a country to the exiled — had 
 restored honours to Pius the Sixth, and had 
 given repose to his sacred remains. The con- 
 cordat entered into by him with Pius the 
 Seventh had given peace and safety to conscience — 
 protection to morals ; and by him the generosity 
 and fidelity of France towards the Holy See had 
 been enabled once more to display itself; he had 
 averted the thunders of the Vatican from France ; 
 he had reconciled her to herself, and to all 
 Christendom : — so much for religion and politics. 
 To him the finances owed their abundance ; the 
 magistrates and soldiers their exact payments ; 
 while new-made roads, repaired canals, and secu- 
 rity at sea, entitled him to the gratitude of the 
 traveller and the merchant. Every thing had re- 
 turned to its ancient splendour. — Palaces, dilapi- 
 dated by time, or defaced by the rage of man, were 
 repaired, and new edifices erected. France, beau- 
 tiful by nature, was becoming more beautiful bj^
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 271 
 
 art. Ruins, the detestable signs of past discord, 
 had disappeared ; and massive piles, magnificent 
 tokens of a generous government, arose in their 
 stead. 
 
 " Such were the fruits of peace ; such of con- 
 cord. The revolution was at an end, and the 
 storehouse of innumerable miseries was closed. 
 It was true that peace had again been broken by 
 ambitious and faithless Britain : yet avenging 
 hosts were already assembling on the shores of 
 the ocean — the conquering fleets were already 
 preparing. London itself would prove an inse- 
 cure asylum to the corsairs who ruled the seas. 
 It would quickly be seen how much the power 
 of France and the fortune of the Consul could 
 effect for the benefit of humanity against those 
 avaricious and arrogant tyrants. Russia, it 
 was true, induced by the artifices and promises 
 of England, shewed a menacing aspect; but 
 Alexander was far from inclined to yield to 
 their .proffers or their arts : neither anger nor 
 misunderstanding could long subsist between those 
 who were well-intentioned. Thus the Consul 
 had given to France secure peace, and oppor-
 
 27^ HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 tunity of victory. For so many important ser- 
 vices, no reward could be found too great, or 
 even equivalent." 
 
 Such was the language that was spoken ; — 
 what was written was still more forcible. The 
 Consul, not shuddering at the iniquitous project 
 of reducing to servitude a nation which over- 
 flowed with such devoted love for him, thought 
 he had arrived at the time for accomplishing his 
 designs ; having, therefore, gained the royalists 
 by restoring their country to them, the soldiers 
 by gifts, the priests by the concordat, the magis- 
 trates by honours, the people by plenty, he 
 hastened to appropriate to himself the name of 
 that of which he already possessed the substance, 
 adding in this manner supreme title to supreme 
 power. It only remained to gain over the repub- 
 licans to his party : this was done by the murder 
 of the Duke D'Enghien. The first proposal was 
 made by the Tribunate ; the Senate did not delay 
 to follow it up, partly from fear, partly from am- 
 bition. The 18th of May saluted Napoleon Buo- 
 naparte as Emperor of the French. 
 . This act, although not unexpected, filled the
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 273 
 
 world with astonishment. The foolish royalists 
 now perceived that Buonaparte was not, as they 
 had expected, the man to act the part of Monk ; 
 the silly republicans found that he was not one 
 who would become, as they had promised them- 
 selves, a Cincinnatus. The folly of the latter 
 was the most inexcusable, because, without 
 even noticing his other proceedings, his having 
 said in the Council of Five Hundred on the 
 9th of November, 1799, that monarchy could 
 no longer overcome republicanism in Europe, 
 ought to have made them aware that it was his 
 desire to subdue republicanism to royalty. How- 
 ever, as it was an age in which interested motives 
 were all-powerful, and conscience, as Buona- 
 parte well knew, powerless, the royalists quickly 
 forgot the monarchy, republicans the republic, 
 and both the one and the other eagerly caught at 
 the Imperial bribes. Few of either party re- 
 mained ; — those few were termed fools. Of the 
 European powers, England alone, who had never 
 been deceived as to the disposition of Buonaparte, 
 continued to oppose him, but in vain ; the de- 
 ceived but distant Alexander also opposed him ; 
 yoi<. I. T
 
 274 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 Turkey, from fear of Russia, hesitated ; defeated 
 Austria was silent. Prussia, uniformly misled 
 by her rivalship of Austria, not only consented 
 to, but encouraged, his plans. This had been 
 one of the principal incitements to the daring of 
 Napoleon. The first abettor of his schemes had 
 been the Marquis Lucchesini, the Minister of 
 Frederick at Paris. Louis the Eighteenth, who, 
 until this time, perhaps from the hopes he 
 had formed, had written and spoken of Buo- 
 naparte with more moderation than of the 
 other governors of France, on this extreme act 
 of assumption, by which every expectation of 
 ultimate advantage to himself was taken away, 
 resenting it deeply, solemnly protested against 
 the usurpation, from his northern exile. Pied- 
 mont was consoled for the loss of her independ- 
 ence by an union with the power which predomi- 
 nated ; deluded Genoa hoped to preserve at least 
 her ancient name ; the Italian republic, since 
 liberty was lost, promised herself power; Tus- 
 cany, judging, better than the rest, of the circum- 
 stances of the times, knew not what to fear nor 
 what to hope, and bitterly lamented that the age of
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 275 
 
 Leopold had for ever passed away ; while Naples, 
 already enslaved on the main land, remained in 
 doubt of being able to preserve the island kingdom 
 of Sicily. The Pope was terrified by the greatness 
 of Napoleon's power, but the latter soothed his 
 fears by his promises — by flattery, and still more 
 by the services he required of him : because, 
 although he returned to ancient usages, he had no 
 legitimate title ; nor would he, on the other hand, 
 admit the doctrine of the sovereignty of the 
 people, because, if he did admit it, he must con- 
 fess that those who elected could depose ; and he 
 did not choose to run this risk ; with earnest 
 requests, therefore, not unmixed with threats, he 
 besought the Pope to come to Paris to consecrate 
 him. He believed, that consecration by his Holi- 
 ness would give him influence over the opinions 
 of those whom other motives had not already 
 ranged on his side. It was certainly an impor- 
 tant circumstance that the head of the church, in 
 his declining years — in an unfavourable season, 
 should repair to a distant and foreign land, to 
 legitimatize, by his sacred authority, him, whom 
 every prince in Europe, either secretly or openly, 
 
 T 2
 
 S76 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804 
 
 called an usurper. To induce the Pope to take 
 this resolution, Napoleon insinuated to him that, 
 if he had already done much for the Catholic 
 religion, he would do much more if the Pope 
 would consent to consecrate him. This request 
 gave Pius great uneasiness ; because if, on one 
 hand, he was anxious to satisfy Napoleon, hoping 
 to render this act j)rofitable to the church ; he 
 felt, on the other, that to confirm by the efficacy 
 of his office the effects of military power, was 
 both painful and dishonourable. 
 
 His doubts were increased by the remonstrances 
 of Louis the Eighteenth, the Emperors of Ger- 
 many and Russia, and even of the King of 
 England himself, who all, more or less openly, 
 exhorted him not to offend the majesty of the 
 throne, and the principles on which every modern 
 sovereignty was founded, by an act so alarming to 
 the monarchs of Europe. 
 
 " He ought not," they said, " to abandon his 
 aucient friends, and commit himself to the faith of 
 his new ally ; he ought not to authorize military 
 violence, nor give his sanction to the ruin of 
 Europe. He should remember that the reign
 
 . 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 277 
 
 of violence was fugitive, bringing ruin on itself 
 by its excesses ; he should consider that, when 
 this storm should disperse, he would require 
 the aid of his ancient protectors. It was now 
 no longer necessary to treat for the salvation of 
 religion already secure, but to save the ancient 
 thrones. The election was now to be made of 
 legitimacy or usurpation, moderation or tyranny, 
 law or military sway, civilization or barbarism. 
 Finally, they represented to him how unworthy 
 it would be of the Roman Pontiff, the head of 
 the Christian church, to leave his own dominions 
 in order to sanctify the supreme dignity in one 
 who had employed religion as a means of fraud, 
 promises to deceive, force to subvert. Italy was 
 enslaved, Germany paralysed by fear, France 
 subjugated ; and, when he considered their state, 
 he would perceive that it was not lawful for him 
 to contaminate his apostolical dignity by sancti- 
 fying that which every law, divine and human, 
 had condemned." 
 
 The Pope was much affected by these exhorta- 
 tions ; and, as his mind was intent on the pro- 
 motion of religion, it did not escape his notice
 
 278 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 that the adverse party in France was very power- 
 ful in proportion to the short time which had 
 elapsed since the restoration of Catholicism ; and 
 the Emperor Napoleon being so prompt and so 
 arbitrary in all his resolutions, there was more 
 danger to be apprehended in that quarter, if he 
 should refuse Napoleon, than in Austria, or the 
 other Catholic countries of Germany, if he should 
 not conform to the wishes of the Emperor Francis. 
 As for Spain, she was, from the devotion of the 
 Prince of Peace to Buonaparte, rather the subject 
 than the equal of France ; and the Pope knew 
 that a decision in his favour would be highly 
 pleasing to the Spanish Court. 
 
 On the other side, the ruler of France was so 
 affectionate, so flattering in his demeanour to- 
 wards the Holy See, that the Pope hoped, not only 
 to keep him within bounds, but to guide his con- 
 duct as he pleased. Above all things, he hoped 
 to be able to procure some advantageous modifi- 
 cation in the organic articles annexed by Napoleon 
 to the concordat of France, and by Melzi to that 
 of Italy. He desired and hoped, moreover, to be 
 able to induce Napoleon to grant greater latitude
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 279 
 
 in the celebration of the exterior ceremonies of 
 Catholicism ; for Napoleon understood public wor- 
 ship in one way, and Pius in another. He did 
 not in the least doubt that his presence in France 
 would act beneficially in making religion better 
 known and better loved. He also found it difii- 
 cult to persuade himself that an act, accompanied 
 by such long and severe fatigue, marked by such 
 great condescension in an affaii* of so much con- 
 sequence to Napoleon, could fail to inspire in his 
 heart, all soldier as he was, milder dispositions 
 towards, and greater docility to, the See of Rome. 
 
 Having well and maturely considered these 
 things — having several times debated them with 
 the cardinals — having implored also the Divine aid, 
 to which he piously referred every event, prosper- 
 ous or adverse, he determined upon performing an 
 act which had not been witnessed for many cen- 
 turies. Resolving therefore to prefer the advan- 
 tage of religion to every mundane consideration, 
 he convened the cardinals on the 29th of Novem- 
 ber, and addressed them in these solemn and 
 affectionate words : — • 
 
 " From this same seat, venerable brothers, we
 
 280 HlSTOllY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 formerly announced to you, how the concordat with 
 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, then First Con- 
 sul, had been by us concluded. Here also we par- 
 ticipated with you the contentment which filled 
 our hearts on beholding, by means of the said 
 concordat, the return of those vast and populous 
 regions to the Catholic religion. From that time 
 forth, the temples that had been profaned have been 
 re-opened and purified — the altars once more erect- 
 ed — the saving cross exalted — the worship of the 
 true God restored — the august mysteries of reli- 
 gion freely and publicly celebrated — the legitimate 
 pastors restored to feed their famished flock — 
 innumerable souls recalled from the paths of error 
 to the bosom of eternal felicity, and reconciled 
 both to themselves and to the true God. In the 
 midst of a renowned nation, the Catholic religion 
 was raised from the obscurity into which it 
 had been plunged, to the full light of day. At 
 such great benefits we exulted with joy, and, in 
 the inmost recesses of our heart, offered up our 
 thanksgivings to God our Lord. This great and 
 marvellous work not only filled us with gratitude 
 towards that potent prince who had used all his
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 281 
 
 power and all liis authority to accomplish the 
 concordat, but further excited us, by the impulse 
 of grateful remembrance, to use every opportunity 
 which might occur, to prove to him that such 
 were our feelings towards him. Now, this same 
 potent prince, our most beloved son in Christ, 
 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, who by his 
 deeds has so well merited the favour of the 
 Catholic religion, has signified to us his ardent 
 desire to be anointed with the holy oil, and from 
 our hands to receive the Imperial crown; that 
 thus the sacred rights which place him in so 
 exalted a rank, may be marked with the impress 
 of religion, and may more powerfully draw down 
 on him the celestial benediction. A request of 
 this nature not only clearly evinces his religious 
 feeling and his filial reverence towards the Holy 
 See, but, being accompanied by express demon- 
 strations and promises, gives hopes that the holy 
 faith will be promoted, and its grievous injuries 
 repaired — a work which he has already forwarded 
 with such zeal and such labour in those flourish- 
 ing regions. 
 
 " You see, therefore, venerable brethren, how
 
 282 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 just and serious are the considerations which 
 excite us to undertake this journey. We are 
 moved by the interests of our holy religion — we 
 are mpved by gratitude to this potent Emperor — 
 we are moved by love towards him who has pro- 
 cured for the Catholic religion free and public 
 exercise of its rights in France — we are moved 
 by the desire he demonstrates of advancing it to 
 still greater honour and dignity. We hope, 
 moreover, that when we shall have arrived in his 
 presence, and can discourse with him face to face, 
 we shall obtain such things from him in favour of 
 the Catholic church — sole keeper of the ark of 
 salvation, that we shall justly have to congratulate 
 ourselves on having brought to perfection the 
 work of our most holy religion. Nor is it from 
 our own feeble words that we conceive such hopes, 
 but from the grace of Him whose vicar, although 
 unworthily, we are on earth, — by the grace of 
 Him who, being invoked by the force of our 
 sacred rites, descends into the well-disposed 
 hearts of princes, especially when they show 
 themselves to be the fathers of their people — 
 especially when they seek their eternal salvation —
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 283 
 
 especially when they desire to live and to die 
 true and good sons of the Catholic church. For 
 all these reasons, venerable brethren, and follow- 
 ing the example of some of our predecessors, 
 who, leaving their proper seat, visited foreign 
 regions for the promotion of religion, and for the 
 gratification of princes who had merited well of 
 the church, we have resolved to perform the 
 present journey, althoflgh we might have been 
 deterred from such an undertaking by the seve- 
 rity of the season, by our weight of years, and 
 oui* infirm health. But it may not be that such 
 considerations should shake our purpose; and 
 may God graciously favour our desires. Neither 
 have we undertaken this matter without atten- 
 tively considering it on every side. For a time 
 we were in doubt and perplexity ; but the Empe- 
 ror met our wishes with such assurances, that 
 we were by them convinced that our journey 
 would turn to the advantage of religion. You 
 know that on this we have sought your counsel ; 
 but, not neglecting that which excels all else, and 
 well knowing, according to the saying of Divine 
 Wisdom, that the resolutions of mortals, even of
 
 284 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 those most renowned for doctrine and for piety — 
 of those, moreover, whose words mount like 
 incense to the presence of God, are weak, timid, 
 and uncertain, our fervent prayers have been 
 raised to the Father of all Wisdom, earnestly 
 beseeching him that we might be enabled to per- 
 form that only which might be pleasing to him — 
 that alone which might conduce to the prosperity 
 and increase of his church. God ! whom, with 
 humble heart, we have so often supplicated — in 
 whose sacred temples we have raised our sup- 
 pliant hands — from whom in such deep necessity 
 we have implored a gracious hearing and pro- 
 pitious aid, will bear us witness, that no other 
 wishes have we formed — nothing intended, except 
 for the promotion of the glory and the interests 
 of the Catholic religion, the salvation of souls, 
 and the due fulfilment of the apostolic office com- 
 mitted to ourselves, although undeservedly; in 
 which sincerity be ye, venerable brethren, to 
 whom we have declared every thing, our wit- 
 nesses. When, therefore, a matter of such im- 
 portance is pending, with the assistance of Divine 
 Grace, labouring as the Vicar of God our Saviour,
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 285 
 
 we will undertake this journey, to which so many 
 and such cogent reasons excite us. 
 
 " The God of all grace will, we trust, bless our 
 steps, and, in this new epoch of religion, will 
 manifest himself with increased glory. After 
 the example of Pius the Sixth, of venerated 
 memory, when he went to Vienna, in Austria, we 
 have, venerable brethren, ordained that the courts 
 and audiences shall be held as usual. And as the 
 necessity of dying is certain, the day uncertain, 
 we have so ordained, that if, during our journey, 
 God should please to take us to himself, the Pon- 
 tifical Comitiae may be held. In fine, we request 
 from you, with earnest prayers, that you will 
 ever preserve towards us that same love which 
 you have ever till now demonstrated, and that, 
 when we are absent, you will recommend our 
 soul to God, to Jesus Christ our Lord, to his 
 most glorious Virgin Mother, and to the blessed 
 apostle Peter, that this our journey may be 
 happy in its course, and prosperous in its end ; 
 and if, as we hope, we shall obtain this from the 
 Fountain of all good, you, venerable brothers, 
 who have ever been participators in all our coun-
 
 SS6 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1804. 
 
 cils and in all our cares, will also participate in 
 the common joy, and we will rejoice together, 
 exulting in the mercy of the Lord." 
 
 When the Pope reached the territories of 
 France, in consequence of the orders of the 
 Emperor, and still more owing to the piety of the 
 faithful, he was every where received with re- 
 verence. The Parisians, who believed neither in 
 the Pope, nor in religion, flocked in crowds to his 
 presence, partly from fashion, partly from idleness, 
 or flattery, to express to him by words sen- 
 timents of respect. He crowned Napoleon on 
 the second of December ; the Emperor made him 
 wait in the church of Notre Dame an hour before 
 he arrived there. When the Pope turned to meet 
 him, the pious spectators wished to applaud the 
 venerable old man ; but they were prevented by 
 Napoleon with imperious and decided gestures ; 
 and when the crowned and consecrated Napoleon 
 quitted the church, Pius was left like one of 
 the vulgar, unnoticed, and crowded amidst the 
 immense concourse of the assembled people — 
 sad presage of what was yet to come. The 
 newly consecrated Emperor delivered with so-
 
 1804.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 2S7 
 
 lemnity, in the Champ de Mars, the Imperia 
 eagles to his soldiers. The ancient ensigns of 
 the republic, which had seen the Rhenish, the 
 Italian, the Egyptian victories, were left in the 
 mire, which that day was very deep: so com- 
 pletely were the soldiers of all become the sol- 
 diers of one alone ! To despise glory was a sign 
 that liberty would not be respected. 
 
 The magistrates and the chiefs of the army 
 went to pay their homage to their crowned 
 sovereign ; and Ceroni, his ancient comrade, find- 
 ing him no longer so spare of body as he had 
 been, congratulated him on his excellent health. 
 " Yes," replied the new Sire, " now indeed I do 
 find myself very well."
 
 288 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Buonaparte, having made himself Emperor of France, resolves 
 to give himself the title of King of Italy. — The Italians 
 present themselves before him, at Paris, and gratify this 
 wish. — Repairs to Milan to be crowned. — Constitution of 
 Genoa changed, and the territory united to France. — Fetes 
 given by the Genoese to the Emperor and King. — Submis- 
 sion of Scipio Ricci, bishop of Pistoja, to the Pope. — His 
 reception by the Pope at Florence. — Artful insinuations of 
 the Jesuits to the princes of Europe ; their restoration in the 
 kingdom of Naples. — War between France on one side, and 
 Russia and Austria on the other. — Its causes.- -Massena, 
 Generalissimo of France. — The Archduke Charles, of Aus- 
 tria, in Italy. — Battle of Caldiera. — Brilliant victories of 
 Napoleon, in Germany. — The Archduke retires from Italy. 
 — Peace of Presburg. — Napoleon deprives Ferdinand of 
 Naples of his kingdom. — Reasons of this step. — Joseph, 
 brother of Napoleon, king of Naples. — Bloodshed in Cala- 
 bria. — Battle of Maida between the French and English. — 
 Affair of the mouths of the Cattaro. — Ferocity of tlie war 
 in Dalmatia. — Dalmatia and Ragusa united to the kingdom 
 of Italy. 
 
 Napoleon, constant only in ambition, was by- 
 nature restless and inconsistent. He never, there- 
 fore, long adhered to the same plan, but was always
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 289 
 
 changing his ground to gain a greater elevation. 
 The Italian constitution, as it had been decreed 
 at Lyons, bore the appearance of durability, and, 
 according to the magnificent speeches solemnly 
 delivered by him and by Melzi at that time, was 
 then intended to last for ever : yet two years had 
 not elapsed, ere it was stigmatized as ■ defective, 
 insufficient, and incapable of producing any last- 
 ing good. Napoleon had made himself Emperor : 
 he now chose to be King also. It was not with- 
 out design that the representatives of the Italian 
 republic had been invited to Paris to witness the 
 Imperial coronation and consequent festivities. 
 Melzi, the Vice President ; the Counsellors of 
 State, Marescalchi, Caprara, Paradisi, Fenaroli, 
 Costabili, Luosi, Guicciardi ; the deputies of the 
 colleges, and of the magistracies, Guastavillani, 
 Lambertenghi, Carlotti, Dambuschi, Mangone, 
 Galeppi, Litta, Fe, Alessandri, Salimbeni, Ap- 
 piani, Busti, Negri, Sopransi, and Valdrighi, 
 were all present on that occasion. The Emperor 
 made them understand that it behoved them to 
 give him the title of King, and to condemn the 
 constitution of Lyons. This wish they willingly 
 vol.. r. u
 
 '290 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 complied with, for the simplest sign from Napo- 
 leon, much more a command, sufficed to effect the 
 most important events. Melzi, whom certainly 
 nature had never formed for such degradation, 
 presented himself on the 17th of March, with 
 the other deputies, before the throne of Napoleon, 
 in the palace of the Tuilleries, and thus addressed 
 him in a speech servile both in thought and in 
 language. 
 
 " Sire, you have commanded the Council of 
 State and the deputies of the Italian Republic to 
 assemble, in order to consider of that which is of 
 vital importance to its present and its future 
 destinies — the form of its government. I present 
 myself before you. Sire, to exercise the honourable 
 office of informing you what she has done and 
 what she desires. First, the National Assembly, 
 having duly considered existing circumstances, is 
 convinced that our actual form of government is 
 too little accordant to the exigencies of the age to 
 be longer practicable. The constitution of Lyons 
 was marked by all the signs of provisionary 
 arrangements, because, adapted for circumstances 
 that were in themselves but temporary, it had
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 291 
 
 not in itself any strength from which prudent 
 men could anticipate its durability and conserva- 
 tion. Not only reason, but the evidence of facts 
 urgently constrained us to a change. This truth 
 being conceded and acknowledged, for truth it is, 
 the course to be followed becomes simple and 
 plain. The progress of knowledge, the dictates 
 of experience, point out to us a constitutional 
 monarchy, whilst gratitude, love, and confidence, 
 indicate the monarch. You, Sire, twice conquered, 
 you created, you organized, and you to this day 
 have governed the Italian Republic. There every 
 thing recalls to memory your achievements, your 
 genius, your beneficent acts. Only one desire 
 could exist amongst us, only one could animate 
 us. We have not neglected to consider maturely 
 the ulterior objects your profound wisdom before 
 indicated ; but, however your noble and generous 
 intentions may accord with our most cherished 
 hopes as to a distant future, we are thoroughly 
 persuaded that our situation is not as yet ma- 
 tured, so as to reach that elevated point which 
 you design for us — political independence. The 
 Italian Republic must yet — for such is the natural 
 
 u 2
 
 292 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 order of things — for a time display the weakness 
 incident to a newly-created state. The first 
 cloud, however light, which should obscure the 
 air, would to her be the cause of anxiety and 
 fear. But where. Sire, can she find greater 
 security, better founded hopes of happiness, than 
 in you, who are still a necessary part of herself? 
 By your pre-eminent wisdom only does she 
 exist ; that only can prescribe the time when her 
 dependence shall cease, menaced as she is by 
 foreign jealousy and internal dissensions. Being 
 affectionately interrogated, we reply sincerely : 
 this then is the wish we declare to you — this the 
 prayer we prefer to you, that it may please you 
 to give us that constitution in which those prin- 
 ciples may be put in action and confirmed which 
 you have promulgated, which immutable reason 
 demands, and which are necessary to the peace of 
 nations. Be it then. Sire, your good pleasiu'e to 
 fulfil the prayers and desires of the Italian 
 Republic. This request all, by my voice, earnestly 
 beseech and conjure you to grant. If you will 
 graciously hear our petition, we will tell the 
 Italians that you consent to be bound by a still
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITAl.Y. 293 
 
 stronger tie to the defence and prosperity of the 
 nation. Thus, Sire, you willed that the Italian 
 Republic should be, and she was — Decree now 
 that the Italian Monarchy may be blessed, and it 
 will be so." 
 
 The oration being ended, Melzi advanced and 
 read the act of the Italian Council. The govern- 
 ment was to be monarchical and hereditary ; Na- 
 poleon was declared the first King of Italy ; the 
 two crowns of France and Italy were to be united 
 in him alone, and not in his successors and de- 
 scendants. As long as the French armies should 
 occupy Naples, the Russians Corfu, or the Eng- 
 lish Malta, the two crowns were not to be sepa- 
 rated. Napoleon was intreated to visit Milan to 
 receive the crown, and arrange the laws defi- 
 nitively. 
 
 Napoleon's reply was delivered in a loud tone 
 (but with his usual hoarse voice) ; " he had," he 
 said, " always intended to make the Italian nation 
 free and independent. On the banks of the Nile 
 he had heard of the misfortunes of Italy: 
 thanks to the invincible courage of his sol- 
 diers, he had appeared at Milan when his Italian
 
 294 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 people believed him yet on the shores of the Red 
 Sea ; — whilst yet distained with blood, whilst yet 
 covered with dust, his first care had been for Italy. 
 The Italians now called upon him to be their 
 King ; their King he would consent to be : he would 
 consent to keep their crown, but only as long as 
 their own interests should require it : when the 
 expedient time should arrive, he would willingly 
 transfer it to a youthful scion, who should have 
 as much at heart as himself the security and 
 prosperity of the Italian people." Nor was this 
 all he intimated on the subject. 
 
 On the following day the Emperor entered the 
 Senate. Talleyrand, whose ambidexter eloquence 
 was able to prove this and many other things 
 besides, now proved that, for the moment, the 
 union of the kingdom of Italy to that of France 
 was a necessary measure. The act of acceptance 
 was read; and Napoleon then spoke, selecting terms 
 of feigned moderation and forbearance' — "Sena- 
 tors," he said, " we have commanded this assembly 
 that we might declare our whole mind to you 
 on subjects of the greatest importance to the 
 state. The empire of France is strong and 
 potent, but' greater still is our moderation. Hoi- 
 
 dj
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 205 
 
 land, Switzerland, all Italy, and almost all Ger- 
 many, we have conquered ; but, amidst such great 
 prosperity, we have preserved only a just ratio 
 with other Powers. Of so many conquered pro- 
 vinces, we have retained only those which are 
 necessary to maintain us in that relative rank in 
 which France has always been placed. The par- 
 tition of Poland, the provinces wrested from 
 Turkey, the conquest of India, and of almost all 
 the colonies, have caused the opposite scale to 
 preponderate considerably against us. The use- 
 less we have resigned, the necessary retained ; 
 nor have we ever been excited to take up arms 
 by the love of conquest, or by vain projects of 
 greatness. A great increase would have accrued 
 to our resources from the incorporation of the 
 territory of the Italian Repviblic: notwithstanding 
 which, after the second conquest, we confirmed 
 its independence at Lyons, and to-day, proceeding 
 yet further, we have established the fundamental 
 principle of the separation of the two crowns ; 
 which separation we only delay, and have assigned, 
 as its season, the period when it may be effected 
 without danger to our people of Italy. We 
 have accepted, and we have encircled our brows
 
 296 HISTOUY OF ITALY. [180£>. 
 
 with the ancient crown of Lombardy. This we 
 will temper — this we will exalt — this we will 
 defend against every attack, until the Mediter- 
 ranean shall be restored to its wonted condition ; 
 and this primary Italian statute we will maintain 
 whole and intact to the utmost of our power." 
 
 The Emperor created Eugene Beauharnois, 
 the son of the Empress Josephine, a prince, 
 adopted him as his own son, and appointed him 
 Viceroy of Italy, while Melzi was appointed 
 Keeper of the Seals. Sunday, the 26th of May, 
 was fixed for the assumption of the regal crown at 
 Milan. Napoleon set out with an immense suite 
 of courtiers, resolving to make his progress re- 
 markable by a degree of splendour far exceeding 
 regal pomp. Rejoicings and honours awaited 
 him every where through France ; and, on the 
 20th of April he arrived at Stupinigi, a small but 
 delightful villa of the sovereigns of Sardinia, 
 situated at a short distance from Turin : here 
 the magistrates assembled to pay their homage. 
 In his presence, Menou showed the deepest hu- 
 mility. To some Napoleon spoke graciously — to 
 others haughtily, according to the secret whispers
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 297 
 
 of the Egyptianized chief. He harshly re- 
 proved the Archbishop Buronzo, reproaching 
 him with being entirely devoted to the King of 
 Sardinia. He deprived Pico, President of the 
 Tribunal, of his office, and at one moment even 
 threatened his life, accusing him of having be- 
 trayed him in the Venetian affair. In fine, he 
 broke out into violent expressions of rage against 
 the jacobins, calling them scoundrels, especially 
 those who had served him. To this he was chiefly 
 stimulated by Menou, who spoke as if he himself 
 had never been a jacobin. The new sire added, 
 that he would make them act uprightly ; and 
 whoever had not done so, should have to reckon 
 with him. These things he said and did in such 
 a plebeian style, that every one perceived that, if 
 he possessed power, he was devoid of dignity, and 
 still but a novice in his new part of Emperor. 
 The Milanese deputies came also to Stupinigi, to 
 render their homage, calling him their king, 
 their regenerator, their father. To them he re- 
 plied affably ; saying, he considered them as his 
 children, and exhorting them to lead a life of 
 virtue and activity — to love their country, and to
 
 298 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 promote order. As usual, he inveighed against 
 the jacobins, believing that he should thus flatter 
 kings. He concluded with threats, saying, that 
 if any one looked on the kingdom of Italy with a 
 jealous eye, he possessed a good sword to destroy 
 all his enemies ; which was certainly true. The 
 good Milanese were all aghast at these violent 
 expressions, and argued from thence, that their 
 life of ease and abundance drew near to its close. 
 Having visited Moncalieri, he ran over the hill of 
 Turin, and, having examined the Superga, entered 
 the regal city in triumph. He inhabited the royal 
 palace, which Count Salmatoris had with much 
 care and diligence prepared for his reception. The 
 Piedmontese ran in crowds to witness the unusual 
 sight. They wondered not at the fact itself, for 
 they had witnessed many such changes of fortune, 
 but at the pompous pride which was displayed. 
 At this conjuncture, Pius the Seventh arrived 
 at Turin, on his return from France. He was 
 lodged in the palace with Napoleon; they re- 
 mained many hours closetted together. Pius 
 hoped ; Napoleon flattered : — in public, they made 
 a display of strict union. The Emperor exulted
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 299 
 
 in this ; for he knew what effect the friendship of 
 a pope has on popular opinion. He visited the 
 public curiosities, speaking with incredible self- 
 possession, as well of what he did not know, as 
 of what he did ; but, whatever he said, whether 
 it were right or wrong, was uniformly applauded. 
 He spoke fluently of music, of medicine, of legis- 
 lation, of painting. He desired to see the picture 
 of Olympia, painted by Revelli, an artist of note ; 
 and praised the work, but pointed out some 
 faults, on which every one acted astonishment at 
 the extent of his knowledge. The Pope, after 
 having been courted by every one, even by Ab-^ 
 dallah Menou,* departed by the road of Parma. 
 Military shows next succeeded to discourses on 
 the arts of civil life. Napoleon desired to visit 
 the glorious field of Marengo, and to make it the 
 scene of a mock-fight. A triumphal arch, erected 
 aX the gate of Alexandria, leading to Mai'engo, 
 was adorned with emblems of the Italian, Ger- 
 
 * The reader will recollect that Menou embraced the Mos- 
 lem faith virtually in Egypt. Buonaparte called himself a 
 Mahometan ; but Menou went through all the ceremonies of 
 a proselyte.
 
 300 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 manic, and Egyptian victories. On the field of 
 battle the Imperial throne was raised. Napoleon 
 appeared in a splendid carriage, drawn by eight 
 horses. He knew not how much greater he 
 would have been, if, in this same place, he had 
 appeared with the modesty of a simple soldier. 
 But his vanity tarnished his glory. The soldiers, 
 who well remembered the labours of this field of 
 Marengo, were drawn up in troops, — French, 
 Italians, Mamelukes, infantry, and cavalry : they 
 were joined by the national guards, all in uni- 
 form, and in noble order. The Milanese guard 
 of honour, who came to Marengo in compliment 
 to their new lord, made a magnificent appearance. 
 He was attended by the officers of the court — by 
 chamberlains, ladies, pages, and general oflficers, 
 in the richest dresses. The sun, throned in a 
 serene sky, shone resplendently : its dazzling 
 rays, reflected and multiplied a thousandfold by 
 such a profusion of gold, of silver, and of bur- 
 nished steel, formed a spectacle of extraordinary 
 brilliancy. An innumerable multitude of people 
 had assembled. The plain of Alexandria re- 
 sounded with festive shouts, with the neighing of
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 301 
 
 the war horse, with exciting music. The vain- 
 glorious Napoleon, having reached the throne, 
 and placed the Empress on it, descended from the 
 Imperial car, and, mounting on horseback, rode 
 through the ranks of the soldiers. The shouts, 
 the applauses, the sounds of all description, now 
 burst forth more strong and more frequent, and 
 absolutely deafened the air. The review being 
 ended, he also seated himself on the throne, when 
 every eye of the whole multitude was turned 
 towards him, and all, with loud acclamation, 
 hailed him as Emperor, or as conqueror of Ma- 
 rengo. The mock-fight then commenced, con- 
 ducted by Lannes, who, in consequence of the 
 new Imperial ordinances, had been created a Mar- 
 shal. This fete lasted from ten in the morning 
 till six in the evening, and afforded extreme de- 
 light to Napoleon ; who, as soon as it was ended, 
 bestowed the insignia of the Legion of Honour 
 on several soldiers and magistrates — a new allure- 
 ment, which he had recently created for the pro- 
 motion of his designs ; for he was one who 
 thoroughly-well understood the republicans of his 
 times. Then, descending from his throne, he
 
 302 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 laid the first stone of a column, in memory of the 
 battle of Marengo ; and here terminated the vain 
 pageantry. On the 6th of May, Napoleon ar- 
 rived, with all the grandeur of the court, at 
 Mezzana Corte, on the banks of the Po, when he 
 crossed the river, on a vessel fitted up as a 
 kind of temporary bucentaur, and thus entered 
 the territory of his Italian kingdom amidst the 
 acclamations of the populace who stood shouting 
 with joy on the opposite banks of the river. He 
 was received with pompous solemnity, and lauded 
 in turn by the Prefect Olonna, by Melzi, the 
 keeper of the seals, and by Marshal Jourdan, 
 who commanded the French soldiers stationed in 
 the Italian kingdom ; but he replied coldly at a 
 moment in which, above all others, his heart 
 should have opened itself, and have poured forth 
 from all its veins streams of affection. 
 
 Arrived at Pavia, he took up his abode in the 
 palace of the Marquis Botta, designing to con- 
 vert it to the uses of an Imperial residence, whe- 
 ther the Marquis, who in truth little desired to 
 be so honoured, were willing or not. The guards 
 of honour, the processions of students in colle-
 
 1805.] ITISTOr.Y OF ITALY. 303 
 
 giate robes, the crowds of the populace, the ta- 
 pestry hangings, the scattered flowers, the illumi- 
 nations, the incessant plaudits, testified the joy 
 the Pavians felt at the presence of him who had 
 cruelly and avariciously delivered them over to 
 pillage. He willingly received the university, 
 which thus eidogised him through the rector and 
 clerical professors. — " Twice by victor)^, Sire, 
 have you secured the destiny of Italy ; and twice, 
 amidst the labours of war, have you generously 
 put forth your hand in aid of banished and in- 
 jured science. Then it was that this temple, 
 sacred to knowledge, was by you restored to its 
 ancient splendour ; — then were we called, under 
 the shadow of your protecting shield, to the 
 honoured ministry of its sacred rights ; we were 
 then penetrated with profound gratitude. The 
 French people have placed on your head the im- 
 perial crown; and the Italians prepare for you 
 that of their ancient kings. They offered, and 
 you accepted it; and your brow, the seat of 
 exalted thoughts, will be adorned with a double 
 diadem. This is the instant in which a free 
 course is opened to our gratitude and in which
 
 304 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 we are enabled to lay at your feet the solemn 
 homage of our common exultation. We entreat 
 you, whom the pacific not less than the warlike 
 virtues surround, to lend a gracious ear to our 
 respectful expressions, and to deign to be to us a 
 father and a tutelary deity. Posterity shall learn 
 from your example that the genius of arms, 
 united to that of the sciences, secures the happi- 
 ness of nations. Come, then, amongst us, bene- 
 ficent and magnanimous hero. Through your 
 means, the fountains of knowledge shall more 
 abundantly flow. Already, Italy, the illustrious 
 country of the Virgils, the Galileos, the Ra- 
 phaels, feels her hopes expand under your potent 
 auspices. Heaven has formed you for what is 
 great ; and, since it gives you every thing, may 
 it also give you a serene length of days, that you 
 may complete the labours of your beneficence, and 
 the exalted destinies you have prepared for us." 
 I have recorded this eulogistic discourse of the 
 university of Pavia, because, although not entirely 
 correct, nevertheless, in comparison of the corrupt 
 and crude Italian writings of that period, it was
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 305 
 
 pure and clear in language, and the style not ill- 
 adapted to the subject. 
 
 The solemn entry of Napoleon into Milan was 
 magnificent : he entered the city by the gate of 
 Ticino, which had been called the Gate of Ma- 
 rengo. The Municipality presented him with the 
 keys on a basin of gold. " These," they said, 
 " were the keys of the faithful Milan ; the hearts 
 of its people he had long possessed." In reply, he 
 requested them to retain the keys, saying that 
 " he confided in the affection of the Milanese, 
 and that they might confide in the assurance 
 of his." This ceremony over, an immense con- 
 course of people, rending the air with shouts of 
 joy, followed him to the cathedral, where Car- 
 dinal Caprara, the archbishop, met him on the 
 threshold, and there vowed respect, fidelity, obe- 
 dience, and submission ; prayed for the preserva- 
 tion of so great a sovereign, and besought St. 
 Ambrose and St. Charles, the glorious protectors 
 of the superb city, to bestow on him and all his 
 family perfect health and perennial joy. The 
 ceremonies in the cathedral being ended, the 
 
 VOL. I. X
 
 306 HISTORY OF ITAl.Y. [1805. 
 
 Ducal palace, ornamented for a festival, and, 
 proud of the honour bestowed on it, received the 
 new king. 
 
 As it was generally known that Napoleon had 
 gone to Milan to assume the crown, deputations 
 from the Italian cities and from foreign states 
 were sent thither to meet him. Amongst others, 
 Lucchesini, the bearer of Prussian orders and 
 the agent of Prussian intrigues, brought to Napo- 
 leon, on the part of Frederick, the black and the 
 red eagle, with which the new-made Emperor 
 decked himself out, and showfed himself to his 
 soldiers. This was done to wound Austria ; be- 
 cause at this time Frederick, in compliance with 
 the advice of Lucchesini and Haugwitz, had 
 resolved, with what prudence and success the 
 appalled world has seen, to second in every thing, 
 and for every purpose, the designs of Napoleon. 
 Cetto was sent by Bavaria ; Beust, by the arch- 
 chancery of the German empire ; Alberg, by 
 Baden ; Benvenuti Bali, by the order of Malta ; 
 the Landemann Augusturi, by the mountainous 
 Valais ; the Prince of Masserano, by swarthy 
 Spain ; and by Lucca, Cotenna, and Beiluomini ;
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 307 
 
 while Tuscany sent a noble Corsini and a Vittorio 
 Fossombroni. All came to honour and salute a 
 potent and dreaded master. 
 
 The deputies of the Ligurian republic had 
 business of a more serious nature to transact 
 The Genoese senate had sent the Doge, Durazzo, 
 Cardinal Spina, the archbishop, Carbonara, and 
 the senators, Roggieri, Maghella, Fravega, Balbi, 
 Maglione, Delarue, and Scassi, to whom the 
 greatest caresses and the highest honours were 
 paid. The minister, Marescalchi, and Cardinal 
 Caprara, did all they could to entertain them with 
 banquets, and to honour them with audiences and 
 compliments ; nor was less courteousness dis- 
 played by the ministers of France. On every 
 occasion, the Doge was called " His Serene High- 
 ness," and the senators "Their Excellencies." 
 Their master himself always smiled graciously on 
 them, and spoke much at large and in mellifluous 
 words to them : in short, amidst the general fes- 
 tivity, the Ligurian deputies certainly had not 
 the -minor portion. Those who did not under- 
 stand the disposition of Napoleon, arguing from 
 the favour they were in, called the Ligurians 
 
 A /«(
 
 308 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 the happiest of people, and anticipated the bright- 
 est destiny for the little republic ; but those 
 who knew him suspected some hidden design 
 and anticipated some shameful deceit. The Li- 
 gurian deputies themselves, those at least who 
 were not concerned in the intrigue (for some of 
 them were implicated in it), marvelled at being 
 so caressed and honoured, and their minds were, 
 therefore, not entirely free from fear. Admitted 
 to an audience with the sovereign, they saw him 
 serene and cheerful, congratulated him on his 
 imperial dignity, and besought him to restore the 
 commerce of his beloved Liguria, To this he 
 replied, courteously, that he was aware of the 
 affection of the Ligurians, which had always suc- 
 coured the armies of France in times of difficulty ; 
 nor were their distresses unnoticed or unheeded 
 by him. He assured them that he would wield 
 his sword in their defence ; that he was certain 
 of the good will of the Doge ; and that he saw 
 both him and the senators with pleasure. He 
 would go to Genoa ; and proceed thither without 
 guards, as amongst friends. After this audience, 
 they were received and caressed by the Empress
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 309 
 
 and the Princess Eliza, the sister of Napoleon, 
 married to Bacciocchi, who had recently been 
 created a Prince. Every one, in short, showed 
 fair seeming to the Ligurian deputies at the 
 court of Napoleon. 
 
 The iron crown having been brought to Milan 
 with much solemnity and pomp, the preparations 
 for the coronation were commenced ; which cere- 
 mony was performed on Sunday, the 26th of May, 
 a day on which the weather was auspiciously 
 fine, and the sun shone brilliantly, as if in honour 
 of the new sovereign. The Empress Josephine 
 and the Princess Eliza preceded the Emperor, 
 arrayed in gorgeous robes. Both were resplen- 
 dent with diamonds — ornaments which, in Italy, 
 they ought to have displayed less than in any 
 other country. Napoleon followed, wearing the 
 Imperial crown, and carrying the Regal crown, 
 the sceptre, and the hand of justice. He was 
 clad in the regal mantle, the train of which was 
 supported by the two grand equerries ; a pompous 
 train of ushers, heralds, pages, aides-de-camp, 
 masters of the ceremonies, ordinary and extraor- 
 dinary, chamberlains and equerries, accompanied
 
 310 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 him, and seven ladies, splendidly dressed, carried 
 the offerings. Immediately after them followed 
 the great officers of France and Italy, and the 
 presidents of the three electoral colleges of the 
 kingdom, bearing the regalia of Charlemagne, of 
 Italy, and of the empire ; while ministers, coun- 
 cillors, and generals, increased the splendour of 
 the assemblage. And now came Cardinal Ca- 
 prara, accompanied by his clergy, with the 
 canopy of state, who, with a countenance of deep 
 respect, conducted the Sovereign to the sanctuary. 
 I know not if any one remembered at this 
 moment, that it was from this same temple that 
 St. Ambrose had repulsed Theodosius, when 
 stained with the blood of the Thessalonians. But 
 modern prelates were not so particular in their 
 scrutiny of Napoleon's life. The Emperor seated 
 himself on the throne, and the Cardinal blessed 
 the regal ornaments : the former then ascended 
 to the altar, took the crown, and placed it on his 
 head, uttering those words which excited the 
 wonder of his flatterers — that is, of an entire 
 generation : " God has given it to me ; ivoe to
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. till 
 
 him who touches iV'* At this instant the sacred 
 vaults resounded with universal shouts of joy. 
 Thus crowned, he seated himself on a throne at 
 the other end of the nave, while ministers, cour- 
 tiers, magistrates, and generals, stood around him. 
 But the most beautiful spectacle was formed by 
 the ladies who were seated in ornamented gal- 
 leries. On a bench to the right sat Eugene, the 
 Viceroy, Napoleon's adopted son. On him the 
 smiles of the assembly were freely bestowed, 
 knowing that he was to remain with them to 
 exercise the supreme authority. To the Doge 
 and the Genoese senators was assigned a place of 
 peculiar honour in the Imperial gallery, and with 
 them were forty beautiful women, magnificently 
 attired. A splendid gallery too was set apart for 
 Josephine and Eliza : the arches, the walls, the 
 pillars, were covered with the richest hangings, 
 with festoons of silk and draperies, bordered with 
 
 * The legend of the Crown itself. It derives the name of 
 the Iron Crown from a small ring of ii'on, supposed to be made 
 of a nail of the true cross, being placed within the gold 
 circlet, which is narrow and studded with a few dim gems.
 
 3J2 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 fringes of gold. The whole formed a grand, a 
 magnificent, and wonderful scene, truly worthy 
 of the superb Milan : high mass was sung ; Na- 
 poleon took the oaths, and the heralds loudly 
 proclaimed his accession in these words, " Napo- 
 leon the First, Emperor of the French, and King 
 of Italy, is crowned, consecrated and enthroned. 
 Long live the Emperor and King." The last 
 words were repeated three times by the assembly 
 with the most lively acclamations. By these 
 pomps, and those of which Paris had been the 
 scene. Napoleon contaminated all the glory he had 
 won in Italy ; for whoever, whether it be in peace 
 or in war, labours solely for himself and not for 
 his country, and ungenerously purposes to en- 
 slave her and bind her neck to the yoke, by 
 means of the services he renders her, will not fail 
 in the end to experience the retribution both of 
 man and God. Such actions are iniquitous, not 
 glorious ; and if they did please the age, the age 
 itself was vile. When the coronation was over, 
 the magnificent train proceeded to sing the 
 Ambrosian hymn, in the Ambrosian church. In 
 the evening Milan , was the scene of one great
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 313 
 
 festival : immense bonfires were lighted, innume- 
 rable races were contested, and a balloon was 
 sent up to the sky. On every side resounded 
 songs and music ; everywhere were balls and 
 revels. All these pomps seemed to indicate 
 security and durability, and already the autho- 
 rities reposed to their satisfaction in their seats. 
 
 'Whilst the Doge and the Genoese deputies 
 were entertained with honours and flatteries at 
 Milan, through the agency of the devoted ad- 
 herents of France, an iniquitous deed was plot- 
 ting ; and Napoleon was preparing fresh disturb- 
 ances for afflicted Liguria. The necessity of an 
 vmion with France was first insinuated, and after- 
 wards openly spoken of. This then was the first 
 interpretation of the words uttered by Napoleon 
 a few days before to the Parisian Senate, when he 
 declared that no new province was to be added to 
 his empire. By his command mercenary agents 
 were employed to convince the Genoese that their 
 independence had been lost at the period of the 
 revolution : they averred, " that from that time, 
 under various names and pretexts, Genoa had 
 virtually been a slave ; that the state had greater
 
 314 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 burdens than it could support by its own power, 
 but, united to France, it might bear them with 
 ease. It was vain," they said, " to hope that 
 the powerful would not rule the feeble : this had 
 been sufficiently proved by Austria, who had 
 come as an ally, — by France, who had come as a 
 friend ; but the pride of human nature disdained 
 moderation in its desires, nor were the over- 
 powerful ever inclined to be just. The condition 
 of Europe was changed ; France had obtained an 
 overpowering preponderance. By the union of 
 Piedmont, and the allegiance of the kingdom of 
 Italy, the diminutive Liguria was already sur- 
 rounded and hemmed in on every side. Nothing 
 then could be done, except to demand an union 
 with France. Since, therefore, they could not rule 
 alone, would it not," they asked, " be wise to rule 
 in conjunction with another? The humbled 
 Genoese ensigns were insulted by the barbarians 
 who poured forth from the caves of Africa, 
 whilst those of France were respected. The 
 flag of Napoleon," they said, " would give secu- 
 rity to the Ligurian navy; and thus a single 
 political measure would accomplish that which
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 315 
 
 the ancient force of the republic was no longer 
 equal to." To these representations were added 
 flattering descriptions of the felicity that would 
 result from being placed under the guardian hand 
 of the heroic Napoleon. The Supreme Tribunal 
 demanded the union with France, and the Senate 
 supplicated Napoleon to decree it. 
 
 Both the artifices and the commands of the 
 ruler of France and Italy having produced their 
 effect (since the Genoese implored that for which 
 he had commanded them to entreat), on the 4th 
 of June the Ligurian deputies sought his presence 
 at Milan, — when Jerome Durazzo, the Doge, who 
 was destined by Heaven to witness the last hour 
 of his noble country, and from whom the in- 
 trigues that had been carried on during his resi- 
 dence at Milan, had been concealed, all pale and 
 agitated thus addressed the Emperor : — " The 
 Genoese Ambassadors lay at the feet of your Im- 
 perial and Royal Majesty the votes of the Ligu- 
 rian Senate and people. Having undertaken the 
 charge of regenerating this nation, you have also 
 bound yourself to secure its felicity, — a felicity 
 to which your wisdom and valour alone can con-
 
 316 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 duct US. The changes which have taken place in 
 the condition of neighbouring nations, separating 
 us entirely from them, render our own state inse- 
 cure ; and we are impelled by necessity to seek a 
 union with that France on which you bestow 
 such lustre. These are the wishes of the Ligu- 
 rian nation ; and it is to express them that we 
 seek your august presence, and now entreat you 
 to listen to them graciously on our behalf. The 
 motives which incite us to this resolution prove 
 to Europe that it proceeds not from any foreign 
 impulse, but is, on the contrary, the necessary 
 result of our actual situation. Deign then. Sire, 
 graciously to hear the prayer of a people which, 
 in times of the greatest adversity, ever showed 
 affection towards France. Unite to your empire, 
 then, this Liguria, the field of your earliest vic- 
 tories, the first step of that throne on which, for 
 the salvation of all civil society, you are seated. 
 Be then, we implore it of you, so benign as to 
 grant us that happiness which is derived from 
 being your subjects ; your Majesty can never find 
 any more faithful or more devoted." 
 
 The miserable Doge, having pronounced this
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 317 
 
 humble speech, and delivered the suffrages of the 
 Genoese people to their master. Napoleon replied, 
 " that he had for a long time taJien an interest in 
 the affairs of Genoa; he had always promoted 
 their advantage, and perceived that it was impos- 
 sible for them now to perform anything worthy 
 of their ancestors. Avaricious England closed 
 their ports at pleasure, infested the seas, 
 searched the ships ; the pirates of Africa grew 
 bolder every hour ; Ligurian independence was 
 in fact no other than slavery. As it was neces- 
 sary, therefore, that Genoa should unite itself to 
 some powerful state, he would fulfil their desires ; 
 he would willingly unite them to his own great 
 people in recompense for their past services ; they 
 should return to their own country, and he would 
 shortly visit them, and seal the happy union in 
 Genoa itself." 
 
 The act which had been voted was then read ; 
 its preamble and conditions were in substance 
 as follows : — " Since Liguria has not sufficient 
 strength to maintain her independence ; since 
 England does not acknowledge the republic ; 
 since the sea is shut against her by barbarians,
 
 318 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 the land by custom-houses ; the Senate supplicates 
 the Emperor and King to unite Liguria to his 
 own empire." The stipulations were — that *' The 
 creditors of Genoa, like those of France, should 
 be paid by the state ; — the freedom of the port of 
 Genoa should be guaranteed : — in levying the 
 imposts, the sterility of the soil and the high 
 price of labour should be considered ; — the cus- 
 tom-houses and barriers between France and 
 Genoa should be abolished ; — conscripts should 
 be raised only for the sea-service ; — the duties 
 on imposts and licences should be so regulated 
 that the native proprietors and manufacturers 
 should derive a profit ; — causes, both civil and 
 criminal, should be decided either in Genoa or in 
 one of the departments of the empire nearest its 
 frontier ; — lastly, the purchasers of national pro- 
 perty should be secured in their possessions." 
 
 Napoleon dissembled as to these conditions, re- 
 plying ambiguously ; as he chose to observe rather 
 those amongst them which accorded with his own 
 ideas, than those which the Genoese desired. But, 
 for the time, wishing to mitigate the bitterness 
 of the actual fact by the agency of a man of
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 319 
 
 mild and prudent character, he dispatched Prince 
 Lebrun, Archchancellor of the Empire, to Grenoa, 
 to assimilate the laws to those of France. 
 Nothing now remained but to celebrate with fes- 
 tivals the loss of its political existence as a na- 
 tion. Napoleon arrived on the 30th of June at 
 Genoa, attracted by the desire of listening to Ge- 
 noese adulation, and of seeing a nation of slaves. 
 The whole city poured forth to behold him. 
 He arrived on the side of the Polcevera : the 
 cavalry met him at Campo Marone ; the bells 
 rang gay peals ; the batteries discharged salutes 
 of artillery ; the frigates and smaller craft floated 
 round the harbour to display the signals of re- 
 joicing. Whoever was touched by ambition 
 assumed a calm demeanor ; the Genose ladies 
 attentively scrutinized Napoleon, in order to 
 judge what kind of man he might be ; amongst 
 the people, some were lost in wonder, whilst 
 others jested with sailor-like drollery. Then was 
 displayed the obsequiousness of the nobles : — 
 Michael Angelo Cambiaso, who had been created 
 Syndic by Lebrun, presented the keys, saying, 
 that " Genoa, termed the Provid from her local
 
 320 HISTORY or ITALY. [1805. 
 
 magnificence, now obtained a proud destiny in 
 giving herself to a hero. For many centuries she 
 had jealously preserved her liberty, — this had 
 been her boast ; but a prouder boast was now 
 hers, in delivering the keys of the queen of cities 
 into the hands of him who, exceeding all others 
 in wisdom and valour, was puissant enough to 
 preserve her pure and uninjured." Napoleon 
 answered courteously, and returned the keys. 
 Spina, the Cardinal Archbishop, awaiting him 
 on the threshold of the church of St. Theodore, 
 wafted incense to him from the sacred censer ; 
 and Louis Corvetto, the President of the General 
 Council, addressed him as the liberator of the 
 good people of Genoa, whom he had adopted as 
 his children ; — " He was now in the midst of his 
 family, and the Genoese forgot their past calami- 
 ties ; every other sentiment was absorbed in tl^e 
 one engrossing feeling of love for the Emperor 
 and King. Through this were the Genoese the 
 most devoted of subjects ; through this were the 
 most sacred duties fortified by the tenderest 
 affections. He was entreated not to disdain the 
 simplicity of their expressions. The hero, ' the
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 321 
 
 sovereign, the father, would doubtless take in 
 good part their offered tribute of admiration, 
 love, and fidelity." Then, in his own name, and 
 that of Bartholomew Boccardi, a man of no mean 
 intellect, and always a devoted partisan of France, 
 he augured happiness to his country ; and, calling 
 Napoleon greater than Caesar, exhorted him to 
 change the original Caesarean sentence, and say — 
 / came, I saw, I blessed. This exquisite flattery 
 pleased him to whom it was addressed, and Louis 
 Corvetto was made a councillor of state. This 
 was fortunate for the Genoese, who, having lost 
 their ancient name, found in Corvetto one who 
 affectionately loved them, who prudently advised 
 them, who usefully advocated their interests with 
 the master of the world, and who, never obeying 
 the dictates of party spirit or ancient enmity, 
 acted only for the true interests of his country- 
 men. 
 
 Napoleon listened to these immoderate praises 
 with so much composure and hardihood, that I 
 am lost in amazenaent at his effrontery. He was 
 lodged in the Doria palace, which had been 
 sedulously prepared for the purpose. The com- 
 
 VOL. I. Y
 
 322 HISTORY OF ITALY. . [1805. 
 
 plimehtaiy gratulations ended, the fetes began. 
 They were colnmenced on the sea : a structure 
 which they called the Temple of Neptune, or the 
 Ocean Pantheon, afforded a magnificent spectacle. 
 It was erected on a platform of vessels, which 
 did not however appear above the water, for it 
 seemed to stand on a verdant sward, and was 
 moved through the waves by means of concealed 
 machinery. This edifice was crowned by a grand 
 cupola, supported by sixteen columns of the Ionic 
 order, and was adorned by the statues of marine 
 deities. On the external and internal enta- 
 blature was an inscription, composed by the 
 priest Solari, which signified that " the Ligu- 
 rians augured to Napoleon, Emperor and King, 
 the sovereignty of the sea, as he already pos- 
 sessed that of the land." The whole construction 
 was ingenious and beautiful ; and, when it had 
 been brought to the middle of the harbour, 
 Napoleon took his seat, the by-standers delight- 
 edly gazing on the splendid scene. Four floating 
 islets, representing four Chinese gardens, adorned 
 with palms, cedars, lemon, orange, and pome- 
 granate trees, refreshed with gushing fountains of
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 3S3 
 
 the purest water, covered by cupolas, entwined 
 with various colours, and ornamented by a sur- 
 prising quantity of harmonious little bells, which 
 were put in motion by the continual movement of 
 the machinery, kept gliding from one part of the 
 harbour to another. An innumerable fleet of 
 boats, small barges, skiffs, canoes, and gondolets, 
 tastefully ornamented, added the shifting changes 
 of their sails and oars to the changes of the 
 ever varying sea, and at every momei^ presented 
 to the eye of the spectator a thousand various 
 groups and figures. A regatta, or rather a race be- 
 tween six ships, next took place: two issued at once 
 from each of the marine gates, and with astonishing 
 velocity strove for the prize of swiftness, which 
 was gained by that bearing the flag of the bridge 
 of Spinola ; and the plaudits and festive shouts 
 of the multitude mounted to the skies. Night 
 now arrived, but the scene became more beau- 
 tiful, for the crystal lustres that were suspended 
 between the columns of the floating temple were 
 suddenly illuminated, and threw on the moving 
 waters countless rays of brilliant light, which 
 were reflected back from its smooth surface in 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 dazzling scintillations of varying colour. The 
 small cupolas of the islets were also illuminated, 
 to correspond with the lofty dome of th,e pan- 
 theon : stars of fire encircled the temple and 
 the islets, in the manner taught by Vitruvius. 
 The agile barks also hung out their lights, which, 
 as they bounded along the waves, or swiftly 
 turned round, seemed the play of lightning 
 on the water; when beheld from one side of 
 the shores, they were mingled in the full blaze 
 of the temple and islands ; but, from the other, 
 strewed the darkness of night with innumerable 
 wandering stars. Whilst the eye was enrap- 
 tured by sights of such beauty, the ear was 
 enchanted with sounds not less exquisite. The 
 bowers of the Chinese islands were filled with 
 bands of vocal and instrumental musicians, in 
 appropriate costume, who executed the gayest 
 music. At the same time, the walls of the city 
 seemed a rampart of fire ; all the palaces, and 
 almost all the houses were illuminated, and the 
 entire amphitheatre of Genoa the Superb proudly 
 answered by its magnificence to the splendour of 
 the sea. The tower of the Lan thorn bursting
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 325 
 
 forth into instantaneous brilliancy, with lights 
 disposed in a thousand beautiful forms, attracted 
 the eyes of all, and called forth an universal 
 intense shout of apjDlause. The wonder was still 
 increased, when from its top burst forth torrents 
 of flame, as if it had been suddenly transformed 
 into a volcano. Nor were the fireworks the least 
 remarkable part of this magnificent festival : two 
 temples of fire, of exquisite beauty, rose at the 
 same instant from the opposite points of the mole, 
 while other fireworks prepared with astonishing 
 skill now darting into the water, seemed for a 
 moment extinct, and now burst again into the up- 
 ward air with redoubled splendour. Thus did the 
 soft movements on the peopled sea, the resplendent 
 beauty of the illuminations, the mirthful sounds 
 of the exquisite music combine to form a scene 
 unequalled for delight and grandeur. 
 
 These pleasures were enjoyed by Napoleon till 
 ten in the evening : then, leaving the marine 
 temple, he was conducted to the magnificent palace 
 of Jerome Durazzo, where he found new and 
 exquisite honours — new and exquisite flatteries. 
 The Genoese celebrated servitude with greater
 
 326 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 pomp than they had ever clone liberty. The reason 
 of this is evident : liberty pleases every one, and 
 no one seeks to pay court to her ; but despotism 
 is odious to all, and all seek to appease its spirit. 
 A sumptuous banquet was given to Napoleon in 
 that very same national palace where the greatest 
 men of the extinct republic had so often and so 
 wisely consulted on her most important interests. 
 Josephine in the meanwhile had arrived from 
 France, and Eliza from Piombino, in time for 
 this festival. The banquet was gay: — whether 
 any unwelcome recollections of former glories 
 alloyed its pleasures I know not. The Ambro- 
 sian hymn was sung in the cathedral of St. 
 Lorenzo ; here bishops and archbishops took the 
 oaths in the words of the Emperor. He then 
 bestowed the insignia of the Legion of Honour : 
 the highest were given to Durazzo, Cambiaso, 
 Celesia, Corvetto, Serra, Cattaneo, and the Arch- 
 bishop Spina. To Cambiaso, Durazzo, Corvetto, 
 and Gentile, he made presents — jewels set in gold : 
 these were the tokens of an extinct country, these 
 the rewards of her extinction. The Emperor 
 commanded the statue of Andrew Doria, which
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 32? 
 
 the jacobins had thrown clown, to be again set up. 
 This was all that was wanting to fill up the mea- 
 sure of insult to the memory of Doria. Satisfied 
 with having not only made the Genoese his slaves, 
 but having seen them content themselves as such, 
 Napoleon returned through Turin to his Imperial 
 Paris, while Prince Lebrun remained behind, as 
 Governor of Genoa. Acting from the dictates of 
 his own moderate disposition, the latter gradually 
 arranged the state on the model of France. He 
 took particular delight in re-modelling the Uni- 
 versity, and received the professors with pleasure; 
 between the meritoriousness of their labours and 
 the generosity of the rewards bestowed, the zeal 
 both of the masters and of the scholars was 
 much increased, and the Genoese University 
 became flourishing. Some months passed between 
 the introduction of the French laws and the 
 union with France : at length (Regnault St. Jean 
 D'Angely, being the speaker on the occasion) 
 that union was decreed on the 4th of October by 
 a Senate declaring the territories of Genoa to be 
 annexed to those of France ; and thus ended one 
 of the most ancient states, not only of Italy, but
 
 328 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 of Europe. Regnault did not fail to colour and 
 varnish his subject in the usual style ; his hap- 
 piest hit was his finding out that France de- 
 stroyed the independence of Genoa (for such was 
 the signification of his words), only because Eng- 
 land did not respect it. The commencement of 
 the union, however, was a joyful one ; for the 
 powerful hand of Napoleon led back to their 
 native shores those Genoese who had languished 
 in cruel slavery on the coasts of Africa. 
 
 The republic of Lucca also perished : thus was 
 verified the saying of Napoleon, that monarchy 
 was unequal to the task of overcoming repub- 
 licanism. Piombino was first given to Eliza, his 
 sister ; and then Lucca and Piombino to her and 
 Bacciocchi. A senate was granted to Lucca ; 
 conscripts were not enrolled there by law, but 
 all were soldiers ; taxes and imposts could not be 
 raised, except by law. Offices, with the exception 
 of such as were judicial, could be held only by 
 the Lucchese themselves. Bacciocchi and his 
 consort had the title of Prince and Princess of 
 Lucca; and Bacciocchi reigned oyer that noble 
 city.
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 329 
 
 Animated by successful daring, Napoleon be- 
 came still more audacious, and now prepared 
 Parma also for an union with France : he pro- 
 mulgated the French laws there. Already the 
 ambitious amongst her citizens turned to Paris 
 as the fountain of their hopes. Moreau de St. 
 Mery seconded the Emperor, rather, however, to 
 gratify himself, than his master ; for he loved 
 power more than was becoming in a moderate 
 man aheady past the prime of life. But the cli- 
 mate, the people, and the office, had a thousand 
 charms. 
 
 Whilst Napoleon ran over Italy in triumphal 
 pomp, and whilst the Italian states were succes- 
 sively falling in ruins, Pius the Seventh returned 
 to Rome. In an assembly of the Cardinals, he 
 detailed what he had already effected, and what 
 he yet hoped to effect, promising himself im- 
 portant advantages to religion and to the Roman 
 church as the result of his journey to Paris. 
 Having regulated the ecclesiastical affairs of 
 France, those of Italy now engaged his serious 
 attention, where a spirit of opposition to the Holy
 
 330 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 See was widely diffused, the doctrines of Ricci, 
 bishop of Pistoja, having taken deep root in 
 every part of the Peninsula. 
 
 By his bull " Auctorem Fidei, " Pius the Sixth 
 had severely censured the propositions of the synod 
 of Pistoja, especially the eighty-fifth, by which 
 that body declared its adherence to the doctrines 
 of the clergy of France. At a subsequent period, 
 when Tuscany was governed by the Imperial 
 regency of Austria, Ricci had been confined to 
 his villa of Rignano.* The Archbishop of Flo- 
 rence earnestly advised and seriously admonished 
 him to retract. The Bishop, standing on general 
 propositions, affirmed that he had never held the 
 opinions which perverse men had imputed to 
 
 * Ricci had acted on the instructions and with the con- 
 currence of Leopold the Second, in conducting the ecclesias- 
 tical reforms of Tuscany. A part of his duty had been to 
 inquire into the conduct of the richly-endowed religious 
 houses. In consequence of the immorality which was found 
 to reign, all were suppressed, except those devoted to the care 
 of the sick and other works of active charity. In many re- 
 spects, Ricci wished to restore the simplicity of the primitive 
 church, and endeavoured to introduce the liturgy in the vulgar 
 tongue, &c. — Tr.
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 331 
 
 him, but had uniformly been, in heart, and soul, 
 and conscience, a true Catholic. At this time 
 Pius the Sixth died ; and, on the assumption of 
 Pius the Seventh, he wrote, through the medium 
 of the secretary Consalvi, to the new Pontiff, pro- 
 fessing his reverence for the pontifical authority, 
 founded, as he said, on the authority of the sacred 
 writings; his adherence to the whole Catholic 
 verity, and the integrity of his orthodox faith. 
 He wrote thus, partly because (saving some men- 
 tal reservation) such was the fact, and partly 
 because the harsh proceedings of the Tuscan 
 regency terrified him ; for these times were far 
 different from the reign of Leopold. His letters, 
 however, were not found satisfactory; and a formal 
 notice was sent to him from Rome that, if he did 
 not renounce the errors of the synod, the Pope 
 would proceed rigorously against him. He was 
 given to understand, also, from Tuscany that, if 
 he did not, without the smallest delay, accede to 
 the demands of France, he should be carried to 
 the castle of St. Angelo, and never suffered to see 
 the light again : such were the intimations of the 
 regency. In this crisis the French again occupied
 
 332 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 Tuscany. The Bishop then wrote, at length, a 
 fresh defence of his conduct, in which he exa- 
 mined the eighty-five propositions one by one, 
 and pronounced them all orthodox. With respect 
 to the eighty-fifth, and its accordance with the 
 declaration of the French clergy, he expressed his 
 conviction that he had done no injury to that 
 illustrious church in adopting its doctrines. The 
 great Bossuet, to whom the Catholic communion 
 owed such signal obligations, had defended and 
 maintained the four articles ; nor had he adopted 
 them in his synod as points of doctrine, but as an 
 efficacious mode of showing the limits which 
 divide the two powers, ecclesiastical and secular. 
 
 Then, as to the rules of discipline, he had be- 
 lieved himself entitled, as bishop, to reform 
 abuses. This duty had even been established as 
 an express precept by the Council of Trent. 
 When the Pope passed through Florence, on his 
 way to France, for the coronation, the Bishop 
 repeated his professions of obedience and faith, 
 and sent an assurance of them to Pius. The 
 Pontiff, on his return from Paris, passing again 
 through Florence, informed Ricci that he would
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 333 
 
 embrace him with pleasure, if he would first sign 
 a prescribed declaration. He desired that Ricci 
 should in this declare, that he accepted with 
 respect, purely and simply, in heart and spirit, 
 all the apostolical constitutions which had ema- 
 nated from the Holy See against the errors of 
 Bajus, Jansenus, Quesnil, and their disciples, 
 from the time of Pius the Sixth to the present, 
 and especially the doctrinal bull, Auctorem Fidei, 
 which condemned, individually and collectively, 
 the eighty-five propositions enunciated by the 
 synod of Pistoja ; that it was his wish, in order 
 to remedv the scandal that had arisen, that 
 the declaration should be rendered public ; and 
 finally, that he should protest his desire to live 
 and to die in the faith of the Catholic, Apostolic, 
 and Roman church, in perfect and true submission 
 to our Lord Pope Pius the Seventh, and his suc- 
 cessors, vicars of Jesus Christ. Compelled by the 
 emergencies of the times, and fearing that a 
 refusal would draw down on him the penal cen- 
 sures against pe/tinacity, Ricci signed the decla- 
 ration. The Pope and the Queen awaited him in 
 the Pitti palace : the Pope threw himself on his
 
 334 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805- 
 
 neck, embraced him, and seated him at his side, 
 caressed him exceedingly, and praised the reso- 
 lution he had taken in the warmest manner. 
 The first fervour of their greetings being over, 
 the Bishop delivered a writing to the Pope, the 
 import of which was that, to show obedience and 
 submission to the Holy See, he had willingly 
 subscribed the declaration. In examining his 
 conscience, he found that he entertained no other 
 doctrine than that defined by the bull of Pius the 
 Sixth : therefore, he was obliged, by truth and 
 conscience, to declare, as he had declared, that he 
 had never believed nor maintained the enunciated 
 propositions in the heretical sense justly con- 
 demned by the bull, having always intended, if 
 any equivocal expression had escaped, to retract 
 and correct it. He, therefore, prayed the Pope 
 graciously to accept this declaration, as an effusion 
 of his heart. Pius approved of this second decla- 
 ration, affirmed his conviction of the Catholic 
 purity of Ricci, and promised to pledge himself 
 for it to the consistory. This said, he be- 
 stowed fresh caresses on the Bishop. He after- 
 wards wrote to him from Rome long and a flee-
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 335 
 
 tionate letters, declaring that Ricci would 
 descend to posterity with glory for having 
 preferred truth and Christian obedience to the 
 suggestions of self-love ; and that his name would 
 be enrolled with the most illustrious of mankind. 
 In his address to the consistory also, he praised 
 him highly. The Tuscan government, however, 
 would not permit the address to be printed, as 
 they did not wish to rekindle extinguished fires, 
 or to renew the disputes on the subject. Thus 
 Pius, victorious over Napoleon, triumphed also 
 over Ricci, two potent adversaries — one by the 
 force of arms, the other by the force of opinion. 
 Nevertheless, the seeds and roots of adverse doc- 
 trines remained in Italy. The disciples of Ricci 
 not only persevered in their opinions, but main- 
 tained that he had never openly retracted. In 
 fact, certain it is that the Bishop, although co- 
 vertly, spoke in his own justification in such 
 terras, that it was easy to perceive that he che- 
 rished opinions adverse to the infallibility of the 
 Pope, and to that plenitude of authority which 
 the theologians of Rome attribute to the Roman 
 See.
 
 336 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 The concordat had settled the affairs of the 
 church in France, and the Pope now hoped to 
 promote the interests of the Holy See by another 
 expedient. His compact with Napoleon had 
 placed a bridle on the sect of philosophers, and 
 in another mode he hoped to strike at the root 
 of the evil, which he believed to proceed from 
 that sect amongst Catholics which impugned his 
 authority, by alleging the maxims and usages of 
 the primitive church. Their jurisdiction over 
 the general church gives the Roman Pontiffs in 
 foreign countries overt power, while secret infor- 
 mation and insinuations secure to them also a 
 covert influence. For such purposes, the Jesuits 
 are powerful agents ; because, on one side, in 
 virtue of their peculiar rule, every thing that 
 they can spy out is speedily communicated to 
 their general at Rome, and by him to the 
 papal government; and, on the other hand, as 
 counsellors of princes and instructors of youth, 
 they draw the rulers and the ruled to whatever 
 they design, in employing religious means to pro- 
 mote worldly ends. This order was a tremendous 
 engine for commanding both princes and people.
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 337 
 
 and he who devised it must have possessed a 
 powerful mind and a profound knowledge of 
 human affairs. Napoleon himself, with his de- 
 sultory and inconsistent mode of proceeding, 
 never devised such an irresistible scheme of 
 making himself master of the world as that 
 which was framed by an insignificant Spanish 
 friar, and an obscure Roman priest. Although 
 the order of the Jesuits had been suppressed, 
 their spirit still lived. Masters in the art of 
 accommodating their opinions to the circum- 
 stances of the times, they spread abroad with 
 surprising dexterity the idea that, precisely in con- 
 sequence of the suppression of their order all the 
 miseries of the age had arisen : the breaking out 
 of revolutions, the overthrow of thrones, the 
 riots of a licentious liberty, the anarchy which 
 had totally dissolved good order, had all pro- 
 ceeded from this one event, which had enabled 
 the philosophers and the Jansenists to destroy 
 every social tie. Against such powerful and such 
 obstinate enemies, neither Kings without the 
 Pope, nor the Pope without Kings, nor both 
 united, could oppose any effectual resistance, 
 VOL. I. z
 
 338 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 unless assisted by the efficacious aid of the 
 Jesuits. Modern philosophy seduced ardent 
 minds devoted to pleasure, by taking away from 
 the passions their restraints ; Jansenism seduced 
 enthusiasts in morals, by an appearance of sanc- 
 timony and austerity; kings could no longer 
 regulate the instruction of youth ; the Pope was 
 no longer able to control the minds of ill- 
 instructed men. The aid of those who could 
 implant virtue in the mind, and who could be, 
 and were, masters of all that the mind of man 
 can conceive, or his hand execute, was now of 
 imperative necessity. The populace conspired 
 together against the powerful, — the powerful 
 ought to unite against the vulgar ; nor could one 
 mode of resistance alone suffice to baffle the 
 greatness of the danger. That defence which was 
 at once the most coercive, the most persuasive, 
 the most general, should be sought ; and this 
 was to be found in the Jesuits alone ; they 
 should be called to restore social order to the 
 salvation of tottering thrones — to the re-organiza- 
 tion of convulsed Europe. The alternative was, 
 Jesuits, or revolution succeeding revolution : in
 
 1805.] IIISTOIIY OF ITALY. 339 
 
 them alone could safety be found. These ideas 
 they widely diffused, as if the world did not 
 know full well that they only became the 
 defenders of sovereigns, when sovereigns con- 
 sented to become their slaves. 
 
 Terror is a bad counsellor, because it blinds 
 the judgment. Some princes, moved by the 
 artful representation of the Jesuits, desired the 
 restoration of the order ; not considering that, in 
 becoming thus the masters of their people, they 
 would themselves become the servants of others : 
 nor even was there any security in this measure, 
 because Catholic countries alone, in which the 
 principles implanted by the Jesuits had flou- 
 rished, had been the scenes of calamitous revolu- 
 tions ; whilst Protestant states, where their 
 doctrines and their arts were unknown, had been 
 exempt from these disturbances. None, more- 
 over, so openly or so tenaciously advocated 
 the doctrine of the lawfulness of assassinatino: 
 certain kings as the Jesuits. Ferdinand of 
 Naples implored the Pope to restore the Company 
 of Jesus in his realm, as had already been done 
 in Russia; in order, as he said, to instruct the 
 
 z 2
 
 340 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 youth of his dominions in true and saving doc- 
 trines : to this the Pope willingly consented ; 
 and one Gabriel Gruber regulated the establish- 
 ment. Miserable condition of man, who knows 
 no other remedy for one extreme than employing 
 the contrary extreme against it ! Thus com- 
 menced the restoration of the Jesuits, whom one 
 Pope and all his regal contemporaries had unani- 
 mously condemned ! it was commenced, too, by 
 a monarch who had actively co-operated in the 
 suppression or the order, and by a Pope of the 
 order of Benedictines, the bitterest enemies of the 
 Jesuits. Whether this (an event as strange in its 
 beginning as important in its result) be for the 
 benefit of the human race, posterity will prove ; 
 but, if we may judge of the future by the past, 
 melancholy doubts as to its expediency must 
 cloud the minds of those prudent men who desire 
 the tranquillity of states, the independence of 
 princes, and the liberty of the people. 
 
 Whilst the Pontiff endeavoured to confirm his 
 newly-recovered power, fresh wounds were pre- 
 paring for ensanguined Europe. The elevation 
 of Napoleon to the Imperial throne of France
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 341 
 
 had excited the anger of all the other potentates, 
 and had given them reason to dread fresh aggres- 
 sions and stricter control. Prussia alone re- 
 joiced in it, flattering herself that this new empire 
 would be more favourable to her aggrandizement 
 than were the ancient states of England and 
 Russia. Two material circumstances arose out 
 of the coronation of Napoleon ; first, it put an 
 end to all hope of the restoration of the Bourbons; 
 and, secondly, the Imperial authority gave him 
 increased power to employ as he would the re- 
 sources of the French nation. None believed him 
 likely to use this power with moderation, and 
 Austria least of all. Besides, it was deemed 
 imprudent to give him time to consolidate his 
 empire ; and it was generally believed, that this 
 Imperial fancy of Napoleon was deeply resented, 
 both by the partisans of the Bourbons and 
 by the French republicans, and that they 
 would be little inclined to assist him in case of 
 a new war. 
 
 Every one was aware that he was not the man 
 to neglect exerting his new power, so as best 
 to confirm it, and so that, if time were allowed
 
 343 HISTOIIY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 him, it would become difficult, if not impossible, 
 to curb it. His ardent desire of power rendered 
 it impossible for him to dissimulate. His post 
 was already that of the Emperor of the West : 
 this was the interpretation given to his confer- 
 ring, both at his coronation at Paris and at Milan, 
 the same honours as Charlemagne had done : this 
 was the meaning of the iron crown of the Lom^bard 
 kings, and of his assertions already made since 
 that time, that Italy was a vassal fief of his 
 empire. In the mind of Alexander other reasons 
 also concurred to excite dissatisfaction against 
 Napoleon, the chief of which was the murder of 
 the Duke d'Enghien, a youth of his own age, 
 with w^hom he had been intimately acquainted, 
 and whom he had sincerely loved. These feel- 
 ings excited in the principal potentates of Europe 
 the desire of a new league for their common de- 
 fence, and for the preservation of the ancient states 
 of Europe; the object of which was either to treat 
 with Napoleon for the independence of the esta- 
 blished monarchies, if any solid guarantee could 
 be obtained from him, or to try the effect of h 
 new contest in arms, whilst he was yet young on
 
 1805.] HISTORY or ITALY. 343 
 
 his throne. Nor was England wanting to her- 
 self; for, not only was she excited by ancient 
 hatred, but by the danger which seemed to 
 threaten her on her own shores. Napoleon had 
 assembled a numerous army on the coasts of 
 Picardy and Normandy, menacing an invasion 
 of the three kingdoms ; nor were the means of 
 transport wanting, as he had collected a consider- 
 able quantity of small craft, besides the ships of 
 war. The people of France seconded his in- 
 tentions with the greatest zeal, by offers of 
 ships and money. William Pitt, at this time 
 the Prime Minister of George the Third, held 
 this projected invasion in contempt, knowing that 
 the naval superiority of Great Britain would 
 render a landing difficult ; and more difficult still 
 would it be to acquire any firm footing on the 
 island, unless it were totally subjugated. Not- 
 withstanding this, however, the warlike prepara- 
 tions of France perplexed the nation, and inter- 
 rupted her commerce ; the minister, therefore, la- 
 boured with all his power to raise up new enemies, 
 and form a fresh league against France. To this 
 intent, a treaty had been already concluded at
 
 344 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 St. Petersburg, in the month of April, between 
 Russia and England, by which both parties 
 bound themselves to emj)loy the most prompt 
 and efficacious means to form a general league; 
 and five hundred thousand soldiers were to be 
 raised, besides the troops furnished by England. 
 They were to induce or to constrain France to 
 make peace, and agree to such an arrangement of 
 territory in Europe, that no one state should 
 preponderate over the rest. Napoleon was to be 
 compelled to evacuate Hanover and the north of 
 Germany, to restore the independence of Holland 
 and Switzerland, to re-instate the King of Sar- 
 dinia with some increase of territory, to give 
 security to the King of Naples, and to evacuate 
 the whole of Italy, including the Isle of Elba. 
 Sweden and Austria had already joined the 
 league. It was resolved, however, before coming 
 to an open rupture, to try the effect of negocia- 
 tion, not only to avoid, if possible, the risk of the 
 contest, but to allow time for preparation, and 
 for the arrival of the Russian army. The allies 
 therefore resolved to send Baron NovosiltzofT to 
 Paris to bear their offers to the Emperor, and
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 345 
 
 to urge him to come to an agreement conformable 
 to their desires. 
 
 The envoy of the confederates had already- 
 reached Berlin, when intelligence was received 
 of the union of Genoa with France — an event 
 contrary to the declarations of Napoleon, and 
 adverse to the empire of Austria in Italy. On 
 this unexpected intelligence, Novosiltzoff discon- 
 tinued his journey till further orders, and was 
 immediately recalled to St. Petersburg. The 
 annexation of Genoa, and the fate of Lucca, 
 which was soon after known, united Austria 
 more closely to Russia. The language which 
 usually precedes war, was now heard on all 
 sides : Austria informed Napoleon of her resolu- 
 tion to co-operate with Russia and England, in 
 order to effect an honourable and solid pacifica- 
 tion throughout Europe ; this she had desired 
 before the union of Genoa and Lucca, and now 
 still more than then. This declaration excited 
 the indignation of Napoleon. He replied, that 
 he placed little confidence either in Russia or 
 England — that Austria possessed the means of 
 forcing them to pacific measures, as they must
 
 346 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 pass through her territories to invade France. 
 But neither could he confide in Austria herself; 
 she was arming in Poland, strengthening herself 
 beyond measure in Italy ; the Tyrol was filled 
 with soldiers ; yet if she really desired to main- 
 tain peace, she must withdraw from the Italian 
 and German Tyrol the regiments lately sent 
 there, must discontinue the raising of new 
 fortifications, must reduce to the number of 
 the peace establishment the troops posted 
 throughout Stiria, Carinthia, Friuli, and the 
 Venetian territories, and must declare to England 
 her resolution to remain neutral. 
 
 From all this it was easy to perceive that 
 there was little hope of the continuance of peace ; 
 for Napoleon was not a man to be induced by 
 threats to undo any thing he had done ; neither 
 would Austria on her side retreat, knowing that 
 Alexander already approached her frontiers with 
 two armies of fifty thousand men each. In conse- 
 quence of this, she assumed a yet higher tone ; 
 still, however, professing to Napoleon her desire 
 of preserving the friendship of France and the 
 peace of Europe, but affirming that the treaty
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 347 
 
 of Luneville, which had stipulated for the in- 
 dependence of the Italian Republics, had been 
 violated by the recent events in Italy, and that 
 the independent states of that country were 
 agitated by the fear of fresh aggressions. " One 
 sole power ought not to arrogate to itself the 
 right of regulating the interests of foreign states 
 to the exclusion of all other potentates. France 
 was required to observe her treaties ; she was 
 required to respect the dignity and the rights of 
 other nations ; peace was offered to her on the 
 original conditions, — it now was offered ere the 
 contest of arms was commenced, — it would be 
 offered to her when the result was proved. 
 Austria would ever be willing to treat on such 
 terms as should guarantee the observance of 
 former stipulations, and the independence of 
 nations." 
 
 These professions were followed by similar 
 declarations on both sides, each party pretending 
 only a desire for peace, and respect for the rights 
 of others. The French Emperor, who had 
 always overwhelmed his enemies by the rapidity 
 of his movements, seeing the new league that was
 
 348 HISTOHY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 made against him, and that war was inevitable, 
 and being tranquil as to Prussia, who, blinded by 
 the desire of possessing a share in the spoils of 
 others, was deceived in her opinion of Napoleon, 
 instantly ordered the force assembled against 
 England to march into Germany, and to succour 
 Bavaria menaced by Austria, repelling force by 
 force. Then, ordering a fresh levy of conscripts, 
 he soon after repaired in person to the German 
 plains, knowing that his name and his presence 
 were in themselves a host of war. On her side, 
 Austria committed the command of the Germanic 
 army to the Archduke Ferdinand, a youth of 
 energetic mind, and sent with him, as the 
 moderator of his youthful ardour. General Mack, 
 in whom the Emperor Francis placed great con- 
 fidence : this confidence, however, had been ex- 
 cited by fair-sounding words, rather than by any 
 proofs of ability. '■ 
 
 In Italy military affairs stood thus : — Austria, 
 considering the weight of the Archduke Charles's 
 name, had given him the command of the army 
 assembled on the banks of the Adige ; the Arch- 
 duke John was placed with a considerable force
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITAI,Y. 349 
 
 in the Tyrol, for the double purpose of guarding 
 the passes, and of co-operating, as circumstances 
 might require, either with the German or Italian 
 army. It was also designed, that a considerable 
 body of Russians and English, then stationed in 
 Malta and Corfu, should be landed in Italy. Al- 
 though he gave his chief attention to the war in 
 Germany, Napoleon did not, however, neglect the 
 defence of Italy ; but, having learned that the 
 Archduke Charles was to head the enemy, and 
 having more confidence in the fortunes of Massena 
 than of Jourdan, he substituted the Italian general 
 for the German. He sent so many troops to Italy 
 that, between French and natives, Massena com- 
 manded a powerful army, not inferior in number 
 to that of the enemy, which might be about 
 eighty thousand strong. Massena was encamped 
 on the right banks of the Adige, prepared, at the 
 first signal of hostility, to attempt the passage. 
 The Emjjeror of France, whose practice, in all 
 his campaigns, had been to disregard the extre- 
 mities, and who preferred a vigorous and concen- 
 trated attack to a feeble war of detail, struck ever 
 at the main point, aware that the extremities
 
 S50 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 must fail also if the heart be paralyzed. In this 
 view he ordered Gouvion St. Cyr to hasten from 
 the kingdom of Naples to the banks of the Adige. 
 This he might securely do, as his arts had per- 
 suaded Ferdinand, by means of the Marquis del 
 Gallo, his ambassador at Paris, to sign a treaty of 
 neutrality. By this compact the King bound 
 himself, not only to remain neutral during the 
 existing war, but to repel by force every attempt 
 to infringe this neutrality — to prohibit the disem- 
 barkation of any hostile force, or the entrance of 
 the enemy's ships into his ports, and not to give 
 the command of his troops or his fortresses to 
 any officer in the pay of the allies, comprehending 
 also the French exiles : this last condition Vfas 
 particularly directed against Count Roger de 
 Damas. Trusting, as he said, to the promises of 
 Ferdinand, Napoleon, on his part, consented to 
 withdraw all his troops from the kingdom, and to 
 deliver up the places they had occupied to Neapo- 
 litan officers. Besides this, he bound himself to 
 observe, during the present war, the neutrality 
 of both the Sicilies. St. Cyr marched to the 
 Adige.
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. S51 
 
 According to custom, hostilities were preceded 
 by manifestoes : those of the Archduke were 
 moderate — those of Napoleon's general were less 
 temperate ; and when the war had actually com- 
 menced in Germany by the Austrian invasion of 
 Bavaria, the Viceroy of Italy published the decla- 
 ration of war against Austria in terms of bitter 
 reproach. " Vienna," he said " had resolved on 
 war against the French and Italian nations. The 
 house of Austria had taken advantage of the noble 
 confidence of the Emperor Napoleon to invade 
 the territories of a prince of the empire, solely 
 because, faithful to treaties, he had continued to 
 be the friend and ally of the Emperor of the 
 French and the King of Italy; but no doubts of 
 the issue could be entertained. Napoleon com- 
 manded the armies. They were confident in him, 
 he in them. That God who was ever terrible to 
 the perjured, would combat on his side. His 
 glory, his genius, his justice, his valour, would 
 conquer for him ; and, finally, the fidelity and the 
 love of his people would fight on his side. The 
 defeat of the enemy was inevitable." 
 
 All was yet tranquil in Italy, whilst war fiercely
 
 352 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 raged in Germany; for, at the request of the 
 Archduke, who wished to see what turn the cam- 
 paign in Germany would take, an agreement had 
 been made between him and Massena, to defer 
 offensive operations till the 18th of October. 
 This was a great error on the part of the Aus- 
 trians, because it never yet was prudent to await 
 the decision of fortune in a single point, when 
 there are means of trying it in many. This 
 error was still more important, as affording St. 
 Cyr time to join Massena before the comm*ence- 
 ment of active hostilities. No such oversights 
 marked the conduct of Napoleon, who, marching 
 with incredible celerity from the coast of Picardy 
 to the banks of the Danube, came up with, and 
 fought the Austrian army, before the Russians 
 could reach the field of battle to aid them. And 
 thus the Archduke was by the disasters in Ger- 
 many virtually defeated in Italy before any 
 combat had taken place there. The star of 
 Napoleon had prevailed. Already arrived in 
 Germany, he had marched on the Austrians 
 before they had time to issue from the passes of 
 the Black Forest, or to fortify them against him.
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 353 
 
 In these manoeuvres, besides his astonishing cele- 
 rity, he displayed against an enemy, so often de- 
 feated, an extraordinary grandeur of military 
 genius. Within a few days Mack was surrounded 
 on every side, cut off from Vienna, and shut up 
 within the walls of Ulm. 
 
 Napoleon gained first the battle of Wertingen, 
 and next that of Gunzburg. Two circumstances 
 had facilitated these victories : first, the aid of 
 Bavaria ; next, his having, in defiance of the 
 neutrality of Prussia, (preferring success to the 
 observance of treaties,) crossed her territory at 
 Bareith and Anspach. — the first enabling the 
 French to appear on the right at Augsburg and 
 Monaco, and on the left at Neuburg, Ingolstadt, 
 and Ratisbon, taking the Austrians every where 
 in the rear ; and thus not only were they shut 
 up, but Mack was separated from the Ai'chduke 
 John. 
 
 The 18th of October, on which the suspension 
 of arms terminated, had scarcely dawned, when 
 Massena commenced offensive operations, incited 
 to action by the intelligence he had received of 
 the successes of his companions in Germany. At 
 
 VOL. I. 2 a
 
 354 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 four in the morning he attacked the enemy above 
 and below Verona, and strove to force a passage 
 over the river, between these two points. / AXL<^ 
 
 To this intent Duhesme and Gardanne were 
 
 commanded to carry the bridge, which was not only 
 broken, but walled up at the end. But Lacombe 
 St. Michele, a general of artillery, at great per- 
 sonal risk, applied a petard to the wall, whilst 
 the Austrians directed a tremendous fire against 
 him from the left bank, and blew it up ; and 
 General Chasseloup, with courage equally un- 
 daunted, repaired the bridge for the passage. The 
 light-armed troops crossed over, but being closely 
 pressed by the Germans, their danger was ex- 
 treme. Gardanne hastened with his main body 
 to their aid, and renewed the combat. The con- 
 test was carried on with various success, and 
 great courage on both sides. The Archduke, who 
 was encamped at San Martino, quickly reinforced 
 his party, in consequence of which a more general 
 and more animated engagement took place, and 
 Duhesme crossed with his whole brigade. Yet 
 the French, although they had the advantage, 
 were not, on this day, completely victorious, but
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 355 
 
 were obliged to return to their encampment on 
 the right side of the river, retaining, however, 
 possession of the bridge. The Austrians lost 
 some cannon, and three thousand men in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners ; while the loss of the 
 French amounted to one thousand. Massena, 
 whether restrained by considerations as to the 
 strong position of the Archduke, or waiting the 
 arrival of St. Cyr, or desirous of obtaining further 
 intelligence from Germany before he advanced, 
 remained some days without making any move- 
 ment of consequence. At this moment the most 
 welcome intelligence reached him. The whole of 
 Mack's army, with the exception of a small squa- 
 dron, which had fled under the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand, had laid down their arms, and had delivered 
 themselves up, defeated and captive, into the 
 hands of Napoleon — an event which entailed 
 the annihilation of the entire Austrian force in 
 Germany. The Emperor Napoleon had, in this 
 campaign, even surpassed the General and Consul 
 Buonaparte, both in fortune and skill. Thus the 
 aspect of the Italian war was now changed ; the 
 Archduke was obliged to weaken his force by 
 2 A 2
 
 S56 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 sending a part in aid of the perishing empire of 
 his brother. The Germans were intimidated ; the 
 French elated. Massena, on hearing the wonder- 
 ful events of Ulm, resolved, without loss of time, 
 to attack the enemy in his strong encampment at 
 Caldiero. On the 29th he crossed the river. 
 Duhesme and Gardanne were ordered to pass by 
 the bridge ; Seras on the left, at the passage 
 of Ponte Polo ; Verdier on the right, lower 
 down, between Ronco and Albaredo ; places 
 already rendered famous by the battle of Areola. 
 Having passed the bridge, Duhesme and Gar- 
 daune extended their lines towards the right. 
 Seras had crossed higher up for another purpose, 
 and following the skirts of the mountains, and 
 occupying the heights of Val Pontena, which 
 commanded the castle of San Felice, whose artil- 
 lery had much annoyed the French in passing the 
 bridge, obliged the Austrians to evacuate Vero- 
 netta ; and the reduction of Veronetta enabled the 
 remaining squadrons of the French army, parti- 
 cularly the cavalry, to pass; so that the Austrians, 
 driven from all their posts, and finally from San 
 Michele, retreated, with great loss, beyond San
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 357 
 
 Martino, disputing, however, every step. The 
 French remained under arms all night at Vago. 
 The Archduke resolved to make head at Caldiero, 
 rather because he was unwilling to give up Italy 
 without a battle than because he hoped to effect 
 any important change in the state of the war, as 
 the preponderance of Napoleon was already too 
 great to admit of such expectation. 
 
 On the morning of the 30th, the Archduke 
 disposed his line of battle, extending his right 
 beyond the eminences of St. Pietro, opposite the 
 village of Fromegna, and stretching his left to- 
 wards the Adige, as far as Gambione. These 
 points were well furnished with artillery; in case, 
 too, of any sinister accident, he had placed a 
 reserve of cavalry, and twenty-four battalions of 
 grenadiers towards Villanova, where the high 
 road to Verona divides, leading on one side to 
 Lonigo, and on the other to Vicenza. 
 
 The French general had divided his forces in 
 three squadrons : the centre was commanded by 
 Gardanne, the right by Duhesme, the left by 
 Molitor. A large body of reserve, composed of 
 the grenadiers of Portonneaux, and of the cavalry 
 

 
 358 HISTOllY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 under D'Espagne and Monnet, were stationed at 
 a short distance in the rear. Massena having 
 heard that the service committed to Seras and 
 Verdier had been accomplished, resolved to give 
 battle. Molitor was the first to rush on the 
 enemy. His attack was furious, but he was as 
 spiritedly repelled. Gardanne and Duhesme pushed 
 on, and the engagement became quickly general 
 on the whole front of both parties : Gardanne 
 driving on with extreme energy, forced fortune 
 to decide in his favour ; for, chasing the Germans 
 from place to place, although they valiantly re- 
 sisted, he possessed himself of Caldiero by a 
 bayonet charge. The right and left wings seeing 
 this, threw themselves also impetuously on the 
 enemy, and drove them back. But, collecting 
 again on the heights, they there made an obstinate 
 defence ; notwithstanding that the French every 
 where had the advantage. It was now four in 
 the evening: the Archduke commanded the advance 
 of his rear-guard, which, as has been before 
 related, he had reserved to restore the fortune of 
 the day ; and now the balance became so equal, 
 that it could not be said to incline to one side
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 359 
 
 more than to the other. Massena seeing this new 
 support on the enemy's side, commanded the ad- 
 vance of his rear-guard also, and the combat 
 became desperate and mortal ; for the German 
 grenadiers and cavalry, as well as the French 
 troops of the same description, who had recently 
 joined the battle, fulfilled their duty to the utmost. 
 At last the French cavalry prevailed. The 
 Austrian grenadiers still resisted ; but those 
 under Portonneaux resorting to their bayonets, 
 made such a vigorous charge, that they were 
 compelled to give way. Thus the Germans yield- 
 ing the victory to the more powerful, retired 
 from the field to the shelter of the batteries 
 which the Archduke had planted on the emi- 
 nences that tower above Caldiero. This battle 
 was remarkable from the similarity of the dispo- 
 sitions made by the two adverse commanders ; 
 for both presented one general front, and both 
 had kept a body of grenadiers and cavalry in 
 reserve. The Austrians lost thirty cannon, and 
 three thousand five hundred soldiers — the French 
 about fifteen hundred. All the generals imder 
 Massena distinguished themselves in this affair.
 
 360 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 The Archduke was dissatisfied with Vukassovich, 
 who had been encamped at Campagnola, and who, 
 being, as it appeared, off his guard, suffered an 
 unexpected attack in the rear, which defeated the 
 general plan of the Austrian generalissimo. Such 
 is the uncertainty of war ; for this is the same 
 Vukassovich who has merited so many enco- 
 miums in this narration, as an able, a spirited, 
 and a vigilant commander. ^ - ^ - 
 
 During the engagement of Caldiero, the Arch- 
 duke had sent, on his right, towards the moun- 
 tains, a column of 5,000 men under Hillinger, in 
 order to wind round so as to fall on the rear of 
 the French. This movement he had commanded, 
 either because he was not aware that Seras was 
 already marching in force on the same spot, or 
 because he had hoped to be able to maintain his 
 ground at Caldiero for a longer time. The result 
 was unfortunate for the Austrian army. Seras, 
 marching on, got between Hillinger and the 
 Archduke, and cut off the detached squadron, 
 which was reduced to the necessity of surren- 
 dering. 
 
 The battle of Caldiero, the disaster of HilliU'
 
 1805.] HISTOllY OF ITALY. 361 
 
 ger, and the orders of the Emperor, his brother, 
 left the Ai'chduke no alternative. Accordingly, 
 on the night of the 1st of November, he com- 
 menced his retreat by the road of Vicenza. 
 Then, continuing (not without skill) gradually to 
 yield the field, he conducted his army, with less 
 loss than could have been expected from his pre- 
 vious disasters, and the celerity of his retreat, to 
 the banks of the Save, and took vip his station at 
 Lubiana. The French closely pursued him, 
 captiu'ed a few small bodies of stragglers, and 
 possessed themselves of large magazines of pro- 
 visions, particularly at Udine and Palmanova. 
 In this manner the fertile district of the Venetian 
 Terrafirma, a second time conquered by the vic- 
 torious arms of Napoleon, was wrested from 
 Austria. The city of Venice alone was now in 
 the possession of the Germans. 
 
 At this conjuncture St. Cyr arrived from Na- 
 ples. Massena finding himself obliged to follow 
 the Archduke through the mountains of Carniola 
 and Corinthia, deemed it imprudent to leave the 
 Venetian shores defenceless, as he feared a de- 
 barkation of Russians and English. He there-
 
 362 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 fore ordered St. Cyr to extend his line, and guard 
 the shores from the mouth of the Adige to the 
 city of Venice. This precaution was fortunate 
 in its result ; for, though no attempt was made 
 by the enemy to land troops on the shore, it was 
 important, in its consequences, on the Terrafirma 
 itself. Napoleon, anxious to prostrate the whole 
 force of Austria, which still held out on the 
 rocky heights of the Tyrol and the Vorarlberg, 
 had sent Ney from Augsburg against the Archduke 
 John, and Augereau against Jellacheick. Ney 
 quickly gained the pass of Scharnitz, and occu- 
 pied the German Tyrol ; and then, with no less 
 celerity, mastering the pass of Sterzing, possessed 
 himself of the Italian Tyrol, the Archduke re- 
 tiring, or rather flying, with great difficulty, to 
 shelter himself in Carniola. Augereau drove 
 before him the yielding Jellacheick from the Vo- 
 rarlberg; and the German general, finding the 
 passes of the Tyrol shut up by Ney, was forced 
 to surrender. The conquest of the Tyrol pro- 
 duced another effect of the greatest imjjortance. 
 A body of 7,000 infantry and 1,000 horse, under 
 the Prince of Roano, obliged to descend by the
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 363 
 
 banks of the Brenta towards the plains watered 
 by that river, fell in with St. Cyr at Castelfraneo, 
 and after a furious conflict was constrained to 
 surrender. On this, Massena, who was now 
 secure on the rear, accelerated the advance of his 
 front, and established his quarters at Lubiana, 
 the Archduke retiring from that city, first to 
 Croatia, and finally to the principality of Sirmio 
 in Sclavonia, between the Drave and the Save. 
 Seras occupied Trieste. The troops of Massena 
 and Ney met at Villach and Clagenfurth. The 
 two armies of France, the Germanic, and Italian, 
 assembled together for the future enterprises of 
 the banks of the Danube. Grand, bold, and ad- 
 mirably combined were these movements of Na- 
 poleon ; and the result was equal to the masterly 
 conceptions which had produced them. In less 
 than one short month, all the warlike array of 
 Austria was destroyed ; and the Emperor Francis, 
 almost entirely deprived of his own army, had 
 no other resource, save the aid of Russia, which, 
 if it had reached him before his defeat, would 
 have been a powerful adjunct, but was now un- 
 availing to repair his losses. Italy was thus as
 
 364 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 cleared of the Germans as in the days of Napo- 
 leon. 
 
 The all-grasping mind of Napoleon made little 
 difficulty in appropriating the states of others, 
 even when neither cause nor pretext existed, and 
 much more willingly did he seize on them when 
 any plea was afforded him for the aggression : of 
 this the King of Naples had proof, to his utter 
 ruin. Ferdinand had, as we have related, pro- 
 mised neutrality ; but, just as the war was 
 decided in favour of the French in Germany and 
 Upper Italy, the month of November drawing 
 towards its close, there arrived in the Gulf of 
 Naples two English fleets, with much treasure 
 and 15,000 soldiers on board, among whom were 
 12,000 Russians from Corfu, and 3,000 English 
 from Malta. Soldiers, arms, and ammunition, 
 were landed between Naples and Portici ; and 
 the intention was declared, not only of protecting 
 the kingdom of Naples, but of marching to the 
 assistance of the Austrians. The King, not duly 
 considering what the future consequence of this 
 might be to him, made no effort, nor even pro- 
 tested against the debarkation of these enemies of
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 365 
 
 France. The ambassador of Napoleon, highly- 
 incensed at seeing the ensigns of the enemy, took 
 down the Imperial arms from the front of his 
 palace, and, demanding his passports, abandoned, 
 as he said, the faithless land, and pursued his 
 way to Rome. In order to appease him, the 
 government issued an edict, promising to the 
 French, Italians, Ligurians, and the other nations 
 of the French empire, the security of their pro- 
 perty and commerce. This measure was taken 
 in vain, because no protestation was made against 
 the landing of the confederates, nor any displea- 
 sure expressed at a circumstance that France so 
 deeply resented. The effects which resulted from 
 this, and which for many years deprived Ferdi- 
 nand of the kingdom of Naples, shall presently 
 be related. 
 
 Napoleon gained a pitched battle in the field of 
 Austerlitz. The Russian auxiliaries being de- 
 feated, Austria was so entirely prostrated, that 
 she was constrained to accept of the hardest con- 
 ditions. The treaty was ratified at Presburg, 
 in Hungary, on the 26th of December. The 
 Emi)eror of Germany and Austria gave his con-
 
 S66 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1805. 
 
 sent to the union of the Italian territories. He 
 acknowledged the dispositions made by the 
 Emperor of France, with respect to Lucca and 
 Piombino ; he acknowledged the Emperor of 
 France as King of Italy, with this condition, 
 that, on a general peace, according to the pro- 
 mises of Napoleon, the two crowns should be 
 separated, and never at any future period be 
 re-united. To the same Emperor of France he 
 gave up all the states of the ancient republic of 
 Venice, which had been ceded to Austria by the 
 treaty of Campo Formio, and consented to their 
 union with the kingdom of Italy. He acknow- 
 ledged, in the Dukes of Bavaria and Wirtem- 
 burg, the rank and title of King; he ceded to 
 the former, besides several districts on the banks 
 of the Danube, the Tyrol, comprehending the 
 principalities of Briscia, of Bolzano, and the 
 seven lordships of Vorarlberg, and various other 
 fiefs on the shores of the lake of Constance. On 
 his side, the Emperor Napoleon guaranteed the 
 integrity of the empire of Austria ; consented that 
 Saltzburg, already given to the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand of Tuscany, should be united to the same
 
 1805.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 367 
 
 empire ; and pledged himself to employ his 
 influence with the King of Bavaria to yield 
 Witzburg to the Archduke, in compensation for 
 Saltzburg. 
 
 The treaty was put in execution : Venice and 
 her ancient territory, after having been eight 
 years under the domination of Austria, passed 
 under that of France. Law Lauriston took pos- 
 session of it on the part of the king of Italy. 
 He consoled and encouraged the Venetians, pro- 
 mising them prosj)erity, and calling them sons of 
 Napoleon ; admirable consolation for evils of 
 such magnitude ! On the 19th of January, the 
 soldiers of Napoleon arrived at Venice, to esta- 
 blish the third slavery it was to endure. This 
 task was assigned to Miollis, who seemed destined 
 to aggrieve Italy, alike by arbitrary acts and 
 glozing words. On the 3d of February, the 
 Viceroy Eugene, recently married to the Princess 
 Amelia of Bavaria, arrived at Venice. The cus- 
 tomary rejoicings took place, which, whether 
 procured by force, or produced by obsequious- 
 ness, tended to excite compassion rather than 
 mirth.
 
 368 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 At this time, the ruin of Naples became immi- 
 nent. The victorious Napoleon resolved to sa- 
 tisfy at once his ambition and his vengeance. 
 Already his intentions had been made public, in 
 an address to his soldiers issued at the close of 
 the preceding year : — " For ten years I have done 
 every thing that was possible on my part to save 
 the King of Naples; and for ten years he has 
 laboured to the utmost for his own destruction. 
 After the battles of Dego, of Mondovi, and of 
 Lodi, he possessed little power to resist me. The 
 battle of Marengo dissolved the second league : — 
 the King had been the very first to begin the war. 
 Abandoned by his allies at Luneville, he was left 
 alone and defenceless : he implored the pardon 
 which I granted. Already on the confines of 
 Naples, you had the kingdom at your mercy. I 
 suspected treachery ; vengeance was in my 
 power : yet I was again restrained by generosity, 
 and I commanded you to retire from the king- 
 dom. Three times has the royal house of Naples 
 owed to me its salvation. Shall I, a fourth time, 
 pardon a court which knows no faith, no honour, 
 no prudence ? No ; the reign of the Neapolitan
 
 1806.] HISTOIIY OF ITALY. 369 
 
 family ceases ; its possession of the crown is 
 incompatible both with the repose of Europe 
 and with my honour. Go ! march forward, and 
 precipitate into the waves those feeble battalions 
 of the tyrants of the sea, if, indeed, they can 
 summon courage to await your arrival. Go ! and 
 shew to the world how we punish the perjured. 
 Go ! and so act that it shall quickly see that 
 Italy is ours, and that the most beautiful country 
 of the earth has shaken from its neck the yoke of 
 perfidious men. Go ! and show that the sanctity 
 of treaties is avenged, — that the shades of my 
 soldiers, who had survived the perils of ship- 
 wrecks, of deserts, and of a hundred battles, 
 only to be assassinated in the ports of Sicily, on 
 their return from Egypt, are avenged and ap- 
 peased. My brother, the participator of my 
 power — the participator of my councils, will be 
 your leader ; confide in him, as perfectly as 
 I do." 
 
 These harsh and haughty words of the terrible 
 conqueror of Austerlitz were followed by actions 
 in accordance with their spirit. His brother 
 Joseph marched against the kingdom of Naples 
 
 VOL. I. 2 b
 
 370 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 with a powerful army. Napoleon, knowing him 
 to be irresolute, and accustomed to allow himself 
 to be governed by others, had sent Massena with 
 him to share and support his councils. Ferdinand 
 endeavoured to disperse the storm, by sending 
 Cardinal Ruffo to the enraged sovereign to excuse 
 the fact of the debarkation. Commanding him 
 to allege that he had been too weak and the 
 allies too strong for him to have prevented it; 
 he besought peace, promised compensation, and 
 offered security. Nor did the King perceive that 
 Napoleon was more influenced by ambition than 
 by revenge ; for, as to the debarkation, that 
 might have been atoned for by cessions of terri- 
 tory, or payments in money, without striking at 
 the root, and totally upsetting the kingdom ; and, 
 as for the shades of the soldiers, Napoleon had, 
 since their murder, entered into friendship with 
 the King; which showed in what estimation he 
 held their blood, and how much he was affected 
 by their " shades :" nor is it easy to imagine why 
 the King sent Cardinal Ruffo to propitiate Na- 
 poleon, except that perhaps he thought that, 
 from a certain similarity of disposition between
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 371 
 
 them, they were likely to agree. Napoleon 
 showed himself inexorable — Naples pleased him ; 
 he was preparing regal thrones for his brothers : 
 his cupidity excited him to form everywhere 
 states that should be entirely dependant on 
 himself. 
 
 When Ferdinand was informed of the fiat of 
 Napoleon, he shut himself up with his counsellors 
 to deliberate on the exigency of the case. They 
 were unwilling to abandon the kingdom, and 
 wished that the Russians and English should 
 oppose the French in the passes of the Abbruzzi, 
 and thus close the entrance of the kingdom 
 against them. But the Emperor Alexander, 
 anxious for the safety of his own soldiers, the 
 enterprise being also very doubtful, sent an 
 express courier to command their instant em- 
 barkation and return to Corfu. The retreat of 
 the Russians, who formed the major part of the 
 allied squadron, obliged the English also to 
 embark. Both the one and the other accordingly 
 departed — those for Corfu, and these for Sicily, 
 leaving Ferdinand to utter ruin. Seeing that the 
 destruction of the kingdom could not now even 
 2 B 2
 
 372 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 be delayed for the shortest period, the council 
 decided that the King should retire to Sicily, 
 taking with him the royal family, the ministers, 
 and as many soldiers and as much treasure as he 
 could. Already the enemy menaced from Feren- 
 tino — already drew near to invade the provinces. 
 It was further resolved that the King's eldest son 
 should repair to Calabria, to animate that warlike 
 population, always devoted to whomsoever would 
 most fiercely excite them. In this ruined and 
 bleeding province. Count de Damas was stationed 
 with some battalions of regular troops ; and it 
 was hoped that the people would join them, and 
 keep alive the name of the King, until some for- 
 tunate circumstance should permit his restoration. 
 Ferdinand left his regal seat on the 23d of 
 January. Thus ended his reign at that time ; a 
 reign which, owing to the licentiousness of the 
 times, had been full of lamentable events and 
 atrocious deeds. But not with his reign did 
 deeds of cruelty cease, as if it were the decree 
 of fate that the effusion of blood should be 
 eternal in Naples, whether it were a kingdom 
 or a republic — whether foreigners from England,
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 373 
 
 or foreigners from France, exercised dominion 
 over it. 
 
 Ferdinand set out for Sicily on board the 
 Archimedes, and a regency was appointed, con- 
 sisting of General Naselli, the Prince of Canosa, 
 Don Michael Angelo Cianciulli, and Don Dominic 
 Sofia. The city was agitated by fearful appre- 
 hensions ; the populace, the French, and the Cala- 
 brians were equally dreaded. This terror was 
 much increased by a tumult amongst the prison- 
 ers of the seraglio, and if their design had suc- 
 ceeded, the city would have been laid in ruins. 
 In the mean time, the French were marching to 
 take possession of it. Breathing vengeance 
 against the court, but promising kindness to the 
 people, if they submitted, Joseph Buonaparte 
 advanced rapidly to the capital. Regnier, on the 
 right, marched along the shore, meeting with no 
 obstacle in any place, except at Gaieta, a citadel 
 of some strength from its situation, and then in 
 the custody of that valiant soldier, the Prince of 
 Hesse. He disdained the summons to surrender, 
 and the French attacked and took the bastion of 
 St. Andrew, though not without loss. The other
 
 374 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 party defended themselves bravely, but the num- 
 bers of the French being so great, they left a 
 division, to reduce the city, and passed on. Mas- 
 sena marched to the left, and meeting with no 
 impediment whatever, for Capua had already 
 submitted, arrived under the walls of the much 
 coveted city, on the 14th of February: — the four 
 castles. Novo, Dell Uovo, Del Carmine, and St. 
 Elmo, all surrendered. Duhesme entered, in the 
 first instance, with a select body of light troops, 
 both cavalry and infantry ; and, on the following 
 day, Joseph made his entry on horseback, with a 
 large suite of general officers, and with a mag- 
 nificent train of soldiers, in the finest order. He 
 dismounted at the regal palace, which presented 
 but a melancholy spectacle, stripped as it had 
 been by the fugitives. On the 16th, he visited 
 the church of San Januarius, and, after the cele- 
 bration of mass by Cardinal Ruffo, he presented 
 the saint with gifts, the first fruits of his future 
 reign. Returning to the palace, he gave audience 
 to the magistrates, received the regency of 
 Naselli courteously, yet quickly superseded it by 
 creating another, of which he appointed Saliceti
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 375 
 
 president. There were in subjugated Italy cer- 
 tain persons who were always in power — VignoUe, 
 Menou, Miollis, Saliceti ; some from the favour 
 of Napoleon towards them, others from his aver- 
 sion to their presence. To raise money, the old 
 taxes were continued, and others laid on ; to 
 secure tranquillity, the citizens were deprived of 
 arms, and threats of military execution were 
 issued against those who should venture to retain 
 them. Such threats, so often made, and even put 
 in execution by all parties, prove what it must 
 have been to live in Italy at that period. 
 
 In the mean time, Calabria was not quieted. 
 The Duke of Calabria, with a body of soldiers 
 which had accompanied him from Naples, joined 
 Count Roger de Dam as, who, with a squadron 
 composed of Sicilian, German, and Neapolitan 
 soldiers, and a mixture of adventurers, some of 
 good character, and some of the worst description, 
 occupied a fortified camp on the banks of the Silo, 
 in the principality of Salerno ; where he burned 
 the bridge, and stationed his troops on the banks. 
 As the case seemed of consequence, Regnier was 
 sent against him, and attacked the Neapolitans,
 
 376 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 routed and pursued them as far as Sagonero. 
 The royahsts assembled again at Campotenese ; 
 Regnier came upon them on the 9th of March, 
 and by one vigorous attack easily put them to 
 flight. The Count with difficulty effected his 
 escape, with a thousand soldiers, horse and foot. 
 The victorious French penetrated into lower 
 Calabria, occupied Reggio, and garrisoned the for* 
 tress of Scilla, at the point of Italy which is 
 nearest to Sicily, and which thus became a check 
 and a source of alarm to the English, who were 
 assembled in Messina for the defence of the 
 island. 
 
 By the victory of Campotenese, the whole 
 body of Neapolitans under Rosenheim were 
 made prisoners. Rodio, who had witnessed the 
 military feats of Cardinal Ruflfo, and who had 
 fought with him and for him, was strenuously 
 pursued by Lecchi, and taken in the mountains 
 of Pomarico. Regnier hoped also to take Michael 
 Pezzo, called brother Beelzebub * by the populace, 
 an utter reprobate, who had been sent from 
 Palermo to raise the people ; but his own intre- 
 
 * Fra Diavolo.
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 377 
 
 pidity, and his knowledge of the country, deli- 
 vered him out of their haiids, and he escaped to 
 Gaeta. Many of his followers, robbers and cruel 
 murderers like himself, were taken in the moun- 
 tains of Rocca Guglielma, Monticelli, and Sant' 
 Oliva, and were instantly put to death. On the 
 other side, Duhesme penetrating into the Basili- 
 cata, chased the enemy from Bernarda and Torre, 
 and entered Taranto, a city of importance from 
 its position, being equally near to Corfu and 
 Sicily. Some remains of the vanquished had 
 assembled at Castrovillari, but were soon dis- 
 persed by Regnier. Here were taken one Tchudi 
 and Ricci, soldiers of some reputation, and de- 
 voted to the cause of the king. On the disper- 
 sion of the regulars, there sprung up in Calabria, 
 partly from dislike to the change of government, 
 partly from the instigations of the Sicilian court, 
 partly from love of revenge, and desire of plun- 
 der, detached bands of soldiers, and men of infa- 
 mous lives, who desolated the provinces with 
 blood and rapine. In these horrible commotions, 
 the man of property lost all ; he who had nothing 
 acquired wealth ; — the good only suffered, the
 
 378 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 wicked triumphed. The natural ferocity of men 
 living still almost in a savage state, was stimu- 
 lated by men to whom ferocity had become cus- 
 tomary. The mischief was infectious, and raged 
 on every side. Reports prevailed that the 
 Queen fomented these disturbances, which is 
 true, as far as concerns military affairs and 
 the insurrectionary chiefs, but not as to the 
 troops of brigands and the excesses they com- 
 mitted. The French and their partisans encou- 
 raged these rumours, and gave them support, 
 with the idea of thus disseminating rancour and 
 hatred against the government they had driven 
 away. Owing to these circumstances, not only 
 did the desire of Ferdinand's restoration daily 
 diminish in the minds of the peaceable part of 
 the population, and amongst men of property, 
 but also their aversion to the government of the 
 French, being convinced of what was really the 
 truth, that, at once powerful and energetic, they 
 would put an end to this riot of robbers and 
 assassins. Napoleon was not ignorant of these 
 sentiments ; and, believing this to be the pro- 
 pitious moment to execute the design he had long
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 379 
 
 formed, he named Joseph King of the two Sici- 
 lies ; annexing the customary condition that the 
 two crowns of France and of Naples should 
 never be worn by the same head. The nobles 
 consented, the people fawned ; Caroline of Sicily 
 alone was uncontaminated by the general weak- 
 ness, compensating by the boldness of her cha- 
 racter for its fierceness. On this account Napo- 
 leon called her Fredegonda, while she called him 
 the murderer of princes, and the Corsican tyrant. 
 Yet in the end even she submitted to him, not from 
 servility, not from abjectness of soul, but from 
 hatred against the English : because, as we shall 
 relate in its own place, a time arrived in which, 
 disdaining a power which was shackled by the 
 restraints of English dictation, she desired, as 
 more conformable to her nature, the absolute 
 sway approved by Napoleon, and therefore deter- 
 mined to enter into alliance with him. The 
 elevation of Joseph to the throne of Naples ex- 
 cited some joy in the kingdom ; but more among 
 the nobles than the people. There were illumi- 
 nations, salutes of artillery, fetes, theatrical 
 shows, songs, and sonnets as usual ; and, as for
 
 380 HISTORY or ITALY. [1806. 
 
 the sonneteers, those who had written most in 
 favour of Caroline now wrote most in favour of 
 Joseph. There were some things also which, 
 though not unusual, were peculiarly unbecoming : 
 the Marquis of Gallo, Ferdinand's Ambassador at 
 Paris, turning suddenly round to follow the 
 fortune of Napoleon, became the Ambassador of 
 Joseph, and soon after his Minister for Foreign 
 Affairs. So much do men, even the nobly born, 
 prefer ambition to honour ! The Duke of Santa 
 Teodora, Ferdinand's Ambassador in Spain, did 
 not show any more exalted spirit : a short time 
 since he had been sent by him to oppose the 
 victor, and now accepted an office in the court of 
 Joseph. The mind of the Duke had certainly 
 been exasperated by the execution of Caraccioli, 
 his relation ; but it would have been more 
 honourable not to have accepted office under Fer- 
 dinand, than not to have kept faith with him. 
 Cardinal Ruffo exultingly received Joseph under 
 the canopy of state. The age has seen Cardinal 
 Maury betray the Bourbons of France to pros- 
 trate himself before Napoleon ; it has seen Car- 
 dinal Ruffo abandon the Bourbons of Naples to
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 381 
 
 bow before Joseph.* They excused themselves by- 
 saying that they preferred things to persons ; this 
 will be easily conceded to them by every one. All 
 have erred — popes, emperors, kings, cardinals, 
 bishops, priests, nobles, and people. At least, the 
 great may learn not to judge of man by a scale of 
 perfection which does not exist in the world, and 
 to recognise their own v/eakness in that of others. 
 But such is the pride of human nature, that 
 whoever has most power persuades himself that 
 he has also most worth ; and such its per- 
 versity, that some believe that, by punishing the 
 transgressions of others, they consign their own 
 to oblivion. Turkey itself, which Napoleon had 
 
 * To the military talents and personal courage of Cardinal 
 RufFo Ferdinand had been indebted for his restoration in 
 1799' The Cardinal headed the royalists himself, and suffered 
 them to commit the most horrible atrocities : but, though often 
 cruel, and sometimes mean in the vengeance he inflicted on 
 the opposite party (as in the instance of his ordering Cima- 
 rosa's favourite violoncello to be broken to pieces, because the 
 republicans had persuaded him, or forced him, to set a revolu- 
 tionary hymn to music), RufFo was faithful to his engage- 
 ments, and deeply resented the perfidy of the court in violating 
 
 the capitulation he had granted to the insurgents of Naples 
 
 Tr.
 
 382 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 wished to deprive of its Egyptian granary, flat- 
 tered him. On the day of Joseph's accession, the 
 Turkish envoy at Naples displayed on the facade 
 of his palace this motto amidst a blaze of light, 
 in Turkish and French, " the east recognises the 
 hero of the age.'' True it is, that this adulation 
 was rather French and Neapolitan than Turkish. 
 Napoleon laughed at these flatteries, and more 
 than ever despised the human race. 
 
 The victories of Lagonero and of Campotenese 
 having routed the royal forces in Calabria, the 
 whole country, with the exception of a few dis- 
 disturbed districts, had submitted to the French. 
 Gaeta and Civitella di Tronto alone held out. 
 The King had little hopes of success, although he 
 knew that there were not wanting seeds of ill will 
 towards the new monarch, unless he could pro- 
 cure the landing of a strong force of regular 
 English troops in Calabria. But Sir John Stuart, 
 who had succeeded Craig in the command of the 
 British troops in Sicily, was very averse to any ex- 
 pedition on the terra firma, and continued to keep 
 his quarters in Messina. The chief object of the 
 English, he thought, should be the conservation
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 383 
 
 of Sicily, and he was aware, that if any expedi- 
 tion to the main land should prove unsuccessful, 
 it would endanger the island, and even if pros- 
 perous, could not prove of any ultimate advan- 
 tage, in consequence of the excessive preponde- 
 rance of the French. A fortunate commander 
 would gain no praise, while an unfortunate one 
 would meet with great censure. Just at this 
 time there arrived in Sicily a man who delighted 
 in daring enterprises. This was Sir Sidney 
 Smith, who, having arrested the successful 
 career of Buonaparte in the east, had persuaded 
 himself that he should be able to do so in the 
 west also. Stimulated by his own temper, by 
 the entreaties of Ferdinand, and hj the instiga- 
 tions of the Queen, who could not live unless she 
 could recover what had been wrested from her, 
 he continually urged Stuart to hazard the at- 
 tempt ; but the prudence of the one overcame 
 the boldness of the other, and nothing was deter- 
 mined on. Sir Sidney then resolved to try what 
 impression he could make with the maritime 
 forces alone, in order to show Stuart that matters 
 were more favourably disposed than he believed.
 
 384 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 To this intent he left Sicily with some large ships 
 of war, and a number of transports, intending to 
 visit the coasts of Naples. His chief objects 
 were, first, to re-inforce Gaeta ; and, secondly, to 
 supply Calabria with arms and ammunition. 
 The former object he accomplished, and left some 
 small frigates in the port to co-operate in the 
 defence. He took the Island of Capri, the pos- 
 session of which rendered him master of the 
 Gulf of Naples. As occasion offered, he coasted 
 along towards the south ; and, appearing now 
 here, now there, by his presence, by his exhorta- 
 tions, and by the supplies he furnished, kept 
 alive the name of Ferdinand. He found the 
 people in this quarter favourably disposed, but 
 unequal to act without foreign assistance. He 
 then returned to Sicily, and by the earnestness of 
 his exhortations prevailed on the prudent Stuart 
 to hazard an expedition to this harassed and dis- 
 turbed province. In the beginning of July he 
 landed about five thousand soldiers on the coast of 
 the Gulf of St. Eufemia. He called on the people 
 to rise, but with little effect, — and such being the 
 coldness of the inhabitants, he was in, doubt
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. .'3S.5 
 
 whether he should immediately embark, or con- 
 tinue on the terra firma, when he received intel- 
 ligence that Regnier, with a body about four 
 thousand strong, was encamped at Maida, ten 
 miles from the coast : he heard, at the same 
 time, that a reinforcement of three thousand 
 men was hastening to join Regnier, as the 
 debarkation of the English was already known 
 in the neighbourhood. He resolved, therefore, 
 to attack the enemy before the second body of 
 troops should join him. The French general 
 was encamped on the side of a woody hill, above 
 the village of Maida, which commanded the plain 
 of St. Eufemia : thick woods secured his flanks ; 
 in front flowed the river Amato, which, though 
 every where fordable, yet, from the marshes on 
 its banks, it would have been difficult for the 
 English to pass. 
 
 The position of Regnier was, as we see, strong, 
 nay, almost impregnable ; and, if he had there 
 awaited the attack of the enemy, his victory 
 would have been certain. It must be remarked, 
 that it was impossible for the English long to 
 remain where they were, as the country, abound- 
 
 VOL. I. : 2 c
 
 38(5 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 ing in marshes, emitted, more especially in the 
 Slimmer season, pestilential exhalations, pro- 
 ducing mortal disorders. But Regnier, either 
 too confident in himself, or judging too meanly 
 of the enemy, consented to commit to the arbi- 
 tration of fortune an event otherwise certain: 
 he descended, therefore, from the favouring hill, 
 crossed the fatal river, and advanced into the 
 perilous plain. Perhaps, besides his confidence 
 in himself and his troops, who were in fact 
 brave men, he was further tempted by the con- 
 sideration of having some squadrons of cavalry, 
 which the English were destitute of. He was 
 now joined by the three thousand, and this 
 increased the confidence of the French : the 
 English advanced to meet them ; the two rival 
 nations hasted to the struggle. 
 
 On the 6th of July the battle commenced with 
 some irregular skirmishing between the light- 
 armed troops : then began the contest of the 
 heavy troops — they fired a few volleys of mus- 
 ketry ; then, urged by rivalry, and impatient of 
 fighting at a distance, they rushed on each other 
 with fixed bayonets. The melee was terrible ;
 
 1806.] HISTOKY OF ITALY. 387 
 
 the French were impetuous, the English steady. 
 The former, either because they had believed 
 they were advancing to secure an easy victory, 
 and were therefore appalled by the unexpected 
 resistance, or by some other circumstance, began, 
 after a short struggle hand to hand, to give way, 
 especially on the left, and then actually fled. 
 The English, quickly pursuing and fiercely press- 
 ing on them, made no small slaughter of the 
 fugitives. Regnier strove to regain the day by 
 a charge of cavalry on the left of the enemy ; but 
 the English made such an immoveable resistance 
 with their muskets and bayonets, that he was 
 obliged to desist. He then strove, since the 
 attack in the front of the line proved so fruitless, 
 to turn this same wing of the English with the 
 cavalry, and attacking it in flank and rear to 
 put its ranks in disorder. Already had the 
 cavalry circled round the enemy, and the contest 
 became full of peril to the English, when a fresh 
 regiment from Messina, which had just landed at 
 St. Eufemia, arrived on the field, and placing 
 itself behind a slight shelter which the ground 
 aflbrded, made head against the cavalry, and by 
 2c 2
 
 388 HISTORY OF ri'ALY. [I8O6. 
 
 an incessant fire not only arrested their progress, 
 but forced them to retreat in some disorder. 
 On this Regnier's troops fled in confusion, every 
 one seeking safety for himself as he best could, 
 regardless of discipline or order. The victory of 
 the English was complete. Regnier erred in 
 having descended to the plain ; he erred also 
 in having too much extended his line. Seven 
 hundred of the French fell on the field, two 
 thousand fell into the hands of the victors, part 
 on the field of battle, the rest at Monteleone, 
 whither they had retired. The victory was 
 adorned by the capture of General Compere. Of 
 the fugitives, who were in considerable num- 
 bers, many falling into the hands of the Cala- 
 brians were cruelly massacred ; a few, brought 
 captive to General Stuart, were saved. 
 
 The victory of Maida caused a new rising of 
 the Calabrians. They murdered in a barbarous 
 manner all that fell into their hands ; while the 
 French, on their side, irritated against men who 
 violated every usage of civilized society, sacked 
 and burned the districts that rose against them, 
 slaughtering the inhabitants, without respect to
 
 ISOC] IIISTOllY Ol'' ITALY. 389 
 
 age or sex. All Calabria was desolated by fire 
 and sword. The French were obliged to retire : 
 the insurgents, become masters of the coasts, 
 established themselves firmly in the principal 
 places which afforded them communication with 
 Sir Sidney Smith, who, in this affair, proved himself 
 most active ; and being furnished by him with 
 arms and ammunition, they passed them into 
 the interior, and thus continually fed the direful 
 conflagration. Amantea, Scalca, and the Isle of 
 Dina, on the coast of Upper Calabria, were held 
 by the Calabrese ; Maratea, Sapei, Camerota, 
 Palinuro, and other districts of the gulf of Pole- 
 castro, also obeyed them. They were a crowd 
 of cruel reprobates, nor is it possible to praise 
 those who excited them ; both chiefs and fol- 
 lowers were for the most part villains. Pane dl 
 Grano, one of the first, was an infamous priest, 
 condemned for his crimes to the gallies ; F^ra 
 DiavolOi whose fury raged nearer to Naples, was 
 a man convicted of many robberies and murders; 
 and, under these, other thieves and assassins 
 enlisted themselves. The English were unable 
 to restrain their ferocity, although General
 
 390 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 Stuart humanely endeavoured to his utmost to do 
 so. Whenever they could, the French severely 
 revenged themselves, opposing fury to fury, and 
 cruelty to cruelty. 
 
 The triumph of Maida was but of short dura- 
 tion : the Napoleonists were strengthened anew. 
 Assassins are but bad allies. The English com- 
 mander retired to Sicily, leaving only a garrison 
 in the fort of Scilla, of which he had become 
 master. 
 
 The siege of Gaeta become more vigorous. 
 Already for several months the Prince of Hesse 
 had bravely defended the city, before whose walls 
 many worthy Frenchmen fell ; amongst others 
 General Vallelongue, a man in whom benevo- 
 lence and probity, science and military virtue, 
 were all equally conspicuous: the Prince, seriously 
 wounded, was removed to Sicily. The besiegers 
 prevented sorties by a trench cut from the shore 
 of Mola to the other extremity of the isthmus. 
 By means of the batteries they prevented suc- 
 cours by sea ; a large breach was opened in the 
 wall of the citadel almost at the foot of the 
 counterscarp. The terrible grenadiers of France
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 391 
 
 were prepared for the assault, and the fortress 
 was surrendered on the 18th of July. In this 
 affair General Campredon showed great skill in 
 the art of conducting sieges, and to him was 
 Napoleon indebted for the reduction of Gaeta; 
 he only complained, being one who always acted 
 the pedant in military matters, in order to make 
 others try to do better than well, that Campredon, 
 in effecting it, had consumed too much powder. 
 
 The acquisition of Gaeta much improved the 
 situation of the French in the kingdom. The 
 strong body of troops which had been employed 
 in the siege were sent to recover Calabria. The 
 name of Massena was much feared, and therefore 
 the command was given to him. He was intrusted 
 with authority to render the terror his name 
 excited efficient for his purpose. Joseph declared 
 Calabria in a state of insurrection. The autho- 
 rities, civil and military, were to be placed in 
 subordination to Massena : he created a military 
 commission for the dispatch of justice, whose 
 sentences were to be executed without appeal 
 within twenty-four hours. The soldiers lived at 
 the expence of the disturbed districts ; the pro-
 
 392 HISTORY Ol- ITAT-Y. [1806. 
 
 perty of the brigands, and of the heads of the 
 rebels, was confiscated ; the goods of absentees 
 also were held to be forfeited ; those found in 
 arms, unless enrolled in the provincial guards, 
 were put to death ; the convents which did 
 not denounce such of their brotherhood as were 
 offenders, were to be suppressed. Massena set 
 out on his commission. 
 
 On both sides extraordinary cruelties were 
 committed ; Lavria, Sicignano, Abetina, and 
 Strongoli were burned. The Napoleonists slew 
 the Calabrese in battle, in the woods, in the 
 tribunals : the Calabrese massacred the Napo- 
 leonists in the houses, in secret snares, in open 
 combat. Fury produced slaughter — slaughter 
 excited rage anew ; civilized men became barba- 
 rians, the uncivilized became doubly barbarous. 
 The Galore, the principal stream, into which 
 were thrown in heaps the bodies of the slain^ 
 carried to the sea the ensanguined signs of the 
 brutal rage of man. The carnage lasted a long 
 time ; at last, the discipline and the organized 
 plans of the Napoleonists prevailed : fear and 
 executions subdued, but did not quiet the
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 393 
 
 province; similar horrors sometimes broke out 
 in one place, sometimes in another, a manifest 
 proof that the excesses of hatred and rage are 
 not to be prevented by the sword of the execu- 
 tioner. Nor could Joseph ever subdue Calabria, 
 although he tried the severest remedies, and 
 sometimes also the effect of mildness, by pardon- 
 ing. The circumstances I have already related 
 are horrible, but gi'eater horrors still remain 
 for me to relate, if I should be permitted to 
 finish this narration, by which it will be seen, 
 that if severity and mercy alternately failed to 
 procure the pacification of Calabria, unmixed 
 cruelty effected it at last. The Calabrese were 
 a ferocious race, that could not be reduced to 
 peace except by extermination. 
 
 Faithless counsels, treacherous acts, and a 
 barbarous war ensanguined one coast of the 
 Adriatic, and similar circumstances reduced the 
 other to a similar state ; such were the lamentable 
 results of the treachery committed in the states 
 of Venice. The mouths of the Cattaro, the 
 most secure station for ships on the coast of 
 the Adriatic, had been ceded to the French by 
 
 VOL. I. 2d
 
 394 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806. 
 
 the treaty of Campo Formio, in possession of 
 which they were to be put at the expiration of 
 six weeks from that date. At the end of this 
 period, as the French officers did not appear 
 to take possession of it, an agent of Russia 
 excited the people of the Bocchetta, and the 
 Montenegrines, a savage race, inhabiting the 
 neighbouring mountains, who were favourably 
 inclined towards his cause, as being also of th 
 Greek church, to rise in arms, persuading them 
 that as the French had not appeared at the 
 appointed time the treaty was cancelled, and 
 the country in their own hands. The Austrian 
 commandant of Castelnuovo, however, understood 
 the matter differently, and desired to maintain 
 the treaty. At this juncture, the Marquis of 
 Ghislieri, the Austrian commissioner, arrived to 
 make the cession ; but, instead of executing his 
 duty, he consented to withdraw his troops from 
 the country (for the French were already close at 
 hand), leaving it in possession of the natives of 
 the Montenegro and the Russians. The Austrian 
 commandants very unwillingly retired from the 
 country, and indignantly protested against the
 
 1806.] HISTORY OF ITALY. 395 
 
 violation of the treaty, nor was the court of 
 Vienna less indignant on the subject. The 
 Marquis was condemned to perpetual imprison- 
 ment in a fortress of Transylvania. 
 
 This breach of faith at Cattaro occasioned a 
 second at Ragusa, of which the French, not 
 succeeding at Cattaro, took possession ; no 
 excuse for enmity existed against this peaceful 
 and blameless republic, but it was occupied 
 under the pretext of defending it against the 
 inroads of the Montenegrines. And certainly 
 Napoleon's soldiers did defend Ragusa, that is 
 to say, the town, for the Montenegrines committed 
 horrible ravages in the territory. But Napoleon 
 suppressed the republic, and united it to the 
 kingdom of Italy — a strange mode of preserving 
 it. A diversified war took place : Lauriston, 
 besieged in Ragusa by the Montenegrines, was 
 succoured by Molitor, who defeated them, and 
 drove them back to their mountains. Yet here 
 they still presented a menacing aspect, and 
 infested the country by their continual inroads. 
 But Marmont having induced them, by his mili- 
 tary stratagems, to descend to the plain, destroyed
 
 396 HISTORY OF ITALY. [1806 
 
 with dreadful carnage their whole force. This 
 war was horrible ; the Montenegrines massacred 
 their prisoners, and threw their heads in amongst 
 the ranks of their shuddering companions. The 
 Napoleonists followed the Montenegrines to their 
 mountains, and when they could not take them, 
 owing to their concealing themselves in their 
 dens, they drove them out with fire and smoke^ 
 as if they had been wild beasts, and slaughtered 
 them without compassion. 
 
 The vain glorious Dandolo, who had been 
 appointed purveyor-general of Dalmatia by, 
 Napoleon, chaunted these victories in a boastful 
 strain. And truly nothing was wanting to the 
 scandalous inconsistencies of the age, after seeing 
 Pesaro an Austrian commissary at Venice, 
 but to see Dandolo Napoleon's purveyor in 
 Dalmatia. 
 
 END OF VOL. I 
 
 C Baldwin, Printer, 
 New Bridge-street, London.
 
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