UC-NRLF 
 
 B M S2E ISO 
 
GIFT OF 
 
With the Compliments 
 
 of the 
 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 
 
 2 Jackson Place 
 
 Washington, D. C, U. S. A. 
 
 An acknowledgment of the receipt of this publication will be appreciated 
 
Publications of the 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 
 
 Division of Economics and History 
 John Bates Clark, Director 
 
JAPANESE MONOGRAPHS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 BARON Y: SAKATANI, D.C.L. 
 
 Formerly Minister of Finance of Japan 
 
 ^ f ?-^/ "^xinscriptlon System in Japan, by Gotaro Ogawa. »^ 5 t* S ^^r'i- 
 
 ^ /yj ^- ^Expenditures of the Russo-Japanese War, by Gotaro Ogawa. H" ^ /^2 ^ ■ O ^ 
 *? ''^3 ^.'^ilitary Industries of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayashi. ^, 'fit^S . /Y)3 
 
 X^/? i2-"(VVar and Armament Loans of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayashi. /^Jg^oiT v p\ ^ 
 <V ^^•2^".>^ar and Armament Taxes of Japan, by Ushisaburo Kobayashi. ff T'^fS 7. yf ? 
 J^ Z/'^- -"Expenditures of the Sino-Japanese War, by Giichi Ono. ^ Q, V"6.2-./? t 
 ^ /^ I. 2- War and Armament Expenditures of Japan, by Giichi Ono. \\ c, y-6 "2 < ^S 
 
iMILITARY INDUSTRIES 
 OF JAPAN 
 
 BY 
 
 USHISABURO KOBAYASHI, D. C. L. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 AMERICAN BRANCH: 35 West 32nd Street 
 LONDON, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY 
 
 1922 
 

 r 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1922 
 
 BY THE 
 
 CARNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE 
 
 r 
 
 THE RUMFORD PRESS, CONCORD, N. H. 
 
NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 The plans of the Division of Economics and History of the 
 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace have been 
 transformed by the World War. Problems now calling for 
 study transcend in importance those with which this Division 
 has been dealing and material for research and record so far 
 transcends any that was formerly available that it will demand 
 almost exclusive attention for some years to come. A new 
 world has evolved suddenly out of the world which we knew 
 and the transformation extends to the foundations of gov- 
 ernment and of economic life. 
 
 The process of warfare itself is now so unlike that of former 
 days that many military rules of the past have gone into the 
 scrap basket. The late war ended when its deadliest tools 
 had ^barely been brought into action. The peoples have 
 fought as they had worked, by machinery, mechanical and 
 chemical engines of destruction have decided the result and 
 will decide in like manner the result of all wars of the future. 
 Machine shops and chemical laboratories will so largely 
 determine what armies shall win that fighting strength will 
 be as much a matter of available capital and of science in 
 applying it as of numbers of troops and strategy in directing 
 them. It is safe to say that the death dealing arts and instru- 
 ments will far surpass in destructiveness those which made 
 the late war so deadly, and to a soldier of the future the order 
 to march into a cloud of poisonous gas and a whirlwind of 
 missiles will resemble an order to plunge into the rapids of 
 Niagara. This is one central and obvious fact which the 
 war has taught us and it has many corollaries, some of which 
 have to do with the increased costs of war and the importance 
 of the particular resources that make a nation powerful for 
 offense and defense; but there are less conspicuous economic 
 facts which are more fundamental, since they may determine 
 where and when, if at all, wars shall hereafter occur. 
 
 Causes of warfare are always partly economic and those 
 which incited the recent one were mainly so. The business 
 plans of a powerful state reached to the ends of the earth 
 
VI NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 and so crossed and interlaced the claims of other states that 
 some writers, then and afterwards, pronounced the war inevi- 
 table. If we assume a settled purpose on the part of such a 
 state to encroach on the rights of others, we may say that it 
 doubtless was inevitable. The victory of the defending 
 countries has saved them from an immediate and intolerable 
 domination, but it can not be taken as an assured fact that 
 similar attempts will never again be made. The economic 
 inducement continues and the means may at some time be 
 forthcoming. 
 
 Within the several states war has democratized industry, 
 giving to labor an increase of control — a change that if con- 
 tinued will entail momentous consequences; but still greater 
 effects have been produced on the relations of states to each 
 other. The world as a whole has changed more than its 
 component parts and the new relation of the parts to one 
 another is the critical element in the situation. The great 
 increase in the economic functions of governments is one 
 cause of this condition. Within the great international com- 
 munity in which the several states are units extensive eco- 
 nomic functions have gravitated into the hands of govern- 
 ments and caused them to face each other as business rivals 
 and to deal with each other in a multitude of ways in which 
 the merely self-seeking policy of private business is intoler- 
 able. Power to invoke principles of justice and international 
 law as interpreted by a competent court has become an in- 
 dispensable means of allaying strife and this fact exalts to 
 supreme importance the high court of nations which has just 
 been established. It magnifies also the importance of the 
 economic facts and principles with which the law itself will 
 have to deal. It is not merely individual men or private 
 corporations who now meet each other in the rough and 
 tumble of a world-wide mart but states themselves, each 
 representing its own population and seeking to foster its 
 interests as a zealous and faithful agent. The chances of 
 friction that are inherent in ordinary commerce inhere today 
 in vast international transactions and will increase in the 
 measure in which the intercourse grows. All this means a 
 
NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR Vll 
 
 great increase in incentives to warfare, on the one hand, and 
 in the motives for preventing it, on the other. Private com- 
 merce unites more than it separates those who participate in 
 it, and it remains to be seen whether international commerce 
 will act in the same way; but, in view of what modern war 
 means, the human race will deserve to perish, and much of 
 it will probably do so, if the forces of strife are allowed to get 
 the upper hand. Whether they will or not — whether the 
 recent economic changes will tend to reduce warfare or to 
 increase it — depends on the ability of nations to create and 
 maintain the instrumentalities that in the new state of the 
 world are necessary. 
 
 Certain it is that the feeling which prevails today, the 
 world over, is not one of security. The dread of further war 
 is greater than it was before 1914. In some areas war still 
 prevails, in others peace is held by a precarious tenure and 
 in all it can be firmly established only by conscious and intel- 
 ligent action by the states themselves. Mere exhaustion 
 holds war dogs temporarily in leash, but it will take more 
 than that to tame them as they must be tamed if peace is 
 to endure. 
 
 We here confront a wide difference between the several 
 states in comparative desire for peace and disposition to 
 maintain it. One portentous fact is the grim determination 
 of Russian communists to extend their system by crude force 
 from state to state. Bolshevism is government by the few and 
 largely the bad masquerading as government for and by the 
 people. In its mother country, Russia, the economic meas- 
 ure by which it began its career was confiscation of private 
 wealth — in itself an ultra-democratic measure. If this had 
 brought in a true communism, it would have been a ruthless 
 and unjust measure for creating a peace-loving state. A 
 just and orderly democratizing of industry in the several 
 states would give new strength to the forces of peace, and it 
 would be highly improbable that any state so influenced would 
 try to extend its system over foreign countries by military 
 invasion. Democracy, socialism, communism and bolshe- 
 vism all appear in the aftermath of the war. The first of 
 
Vlll NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR 
 
 them makes for future peace and so does even the conserva- 
 tive element in the second, while all else in the series means 
 certainty of civil strife and danger of international war. 
 
 The fact that during the war governments had to take on 
 innumerable functions that were formerly in private hands 
 has lent an impetus to socialism and to the perverted growths 
 that have accompanied it, and it has created a new inter- 
 national system the meaning of which is profoundly signif- 
 icant, though he who runs can not so easily read it. There 
 are dangerous features in the system which the war evoked 
 and, happily for mankind, there are available safeguards 
 which were evoked with them and need to be retained if 
 human effort can do it. 
 
 By a compulsion that there was no resisting, the war forced 
 the nations of the Entente into economic cooperation with 
 each other. Commissions centering finally in the Supreme 
 Economic Council adjusted in a harmonious way questions 
 that would otherwise have led to rivalry and conflicting 
 action in purchasing war materials, securing ships, appor- 
 tioning food, controlling railroads, financing the war and 
 doing a multitude of other things with the one common pur- 
 pose of victory. The special compulsion of the struggle is 
 over, but it has left an aftermath of issues grave enough to 
 make peace insecure unless something equivalent to the 
 Supreme Economic Council survives in full efficiency. The 
 agency that did so much to win the war can do so much to 
 prevent another one, but to that end it will have to be guided 
 by economic principles and it is a saving fact that these still 
 survive. The war has not abolished the law of demand and 
 supply, though governments may forget it. In the coming 
 era they must build better than they now know. Economic 
 knowledge must either go in advance of action and prevent 
 disaster or follow action and be learned from disaster. Be- 
 yond computation is the importance of attaining the knowl- 
 edge and using it when evil impends and prevention is possible. 
 
 John Bates Clark, 
 New York, Director, 
 
 September 27, IQ20. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The present investigation has been accomplished chiefly 
 by Mr. Norimoto Masuda, Bachelor of Law and captain. 
 For the purpose of collecting special materials, he personally 
 visited government and public offices and private companies, 
 and, traveling to many distant localities, inspected factories 
 and cities, to secure the utmost accuracy of detail in the work. 
 
 The main subject of this investigation is the military 
 industry, in relation to which historical statistics and eco- 
 nomical influences are discussed. The author, utilizing his 
 experience gained during his long military service and his 
 complete knowledge of military affairs and political economy, 
 has succeeded in introducing minutely the history of armor 
 and the development of the mechanical industry of Japan to 
 European and American countries, and for this purpose almost 
 all the statistics of military and general industries are in- 
 serted in his work. 
 
 It is true that the armament and military industry of Japan 
 has often encouraged an excessively rapid progress not parallel 
 with the development of finance and economy and has seriously 
 aff^ected the latter. At the same time, however, it must be 
 admitted that the military industry has not only accom- 
 plished the purpose of the country in every war, but has given 
 strong protection and encouragement to general industries 
 and means of communication relating thereto, and by con- 
 stantly instructing private industry has been an everlasting 
 fountain for diffusing technical art, by all of which it has 
 brought Japanese industries at large to the conditions that are 
 in existence at the present time. Secondly, as to foreign trade, 
 the rapid enlargement of armament, accompanied by increas- 
 ing imports of armor and ships, formed the most powerful 
 cause of the excess of imports of the country for a long time, 
 and this led to a great difficulty in keeping specie at home. 
 In recent times, however, owing to the gradual development 
 of industries, both military and general, a remarkable decrease 
 of imports took place in armor and ships, as well as in all 
 
 ix 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 military commodities, almost everything being manufactured 
 at home. Finally, as to social affairs, the conditions of labor 
 in the military industry, which is more advanced than general 
 industry, raised the latter in no small degree. Especially the 
 habits and sanitary precautions of the laborer in the former 
 are no doubt by far better than those of the latter, for in the 
 military circles there prevail strict order, thorough carefulness 
 and continuous encouragement. After all, even though the 
 military industry has sometimes had a bad influence upon 
 finance and foreign trade, yet it has had a very good effect upon 
 general industry, means of communication and society. 
 
 In conclusion, let me add a word. Most of the matters 
 relating to the military industry are not open to investigation 
 like those of general industry, but are kept secret in many 
 cases, and even if not so kept, neither statistics nor other ma- 
 terial are well furnished. I have great respect for the author's 
 work, because, in spite of all those obstacles, his earnest and 
 exhaustive labor has succeeded, and I recommend it as the 
 only one of its kind in the publication world of Japan. 
 
 USHISABURO KOBAYASHI. 
 
 Tokyo, Japan, 
 March, igi6. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Books 
 Department of Agriculture and Commerce: 
 
 Annual Reports of Foreign Trade (Gaikoku Boeki Nenpo), 1912. 
 Development of Mining in Japan {Honpo Kogyo no Siisei), 1913. 
 
 Army Department: 
 
 History of Ordnance in Japan {Nihon Reiki Enkaku Shi), 1880. 
 Military Annual Statistics {Rikugim Tokei Nenpo), 191 2. 
 
 Cabinet Statistics Bureau: 
 
 Statistical Yearbook of the Japanese Empire (Nihon Teikoku 
 
 Tokei Nenkan), 1882-19 13. 
 Materials for Statistics of the Movement of Population (Jinko 
 Dotai oyobi Seitai ni kansuru Tokei Zairyo), 19 13. 
 
 General Staff of Japan: 
 
 History of the Sino-Japanese War {Nisshin Senshi), 1904-1907. 
 History of the Russo-Japanese War (Nichiro Senshi), 1912. 
 
 Navy Department: 
 
 Naval Department Annual Reports {Kaigunsho Nenpo), 1875-1913. 
 
 Naval General Staff Office: 
 
 History of the Naval Warfare of 27-28 Meiji {Meiji NijUshichi 
 
 Hachi Nen Kaisen shi), 1905. 
 History of the Naval Warfare of 37-38 Meiji {Meiji Sanjushichi 
 
 Hachi Nen Kaisen Shi), 1909. 
 
 Tokyo Mining Supervision Station: 
 
 History of Mining in Japan {Nihon Kogyo Shi), 191 1. 
 
 Treasury Department: 
 
 Treasury Department Annual Reports {Okurasho Nenpo), 
 1875-1912. 
 
 Unyu Nippo sha (Office of Transportation Journal, Tokyo) : 
 History of Transportation during the Meiji Era {Meiji Unyu Shi), 
 
 1913- 
 
 Manuscripts 
 
 Materials for investigation especially collected by the government, 
 public offices and companies at the request of the commission, and 
 manuscripts written by the compiler from his inspection of the 
 following offices and factories: 
 
 xi 
 
Xll 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Amarube Town Office, 
 Atsuta Weapon Manufactory, 
 Edamitsu Iron Works, 
 Hiroshima Branch of Military 
 
 Clothing Department, 
 Hiroshima Branch of Military 
 
 Provision Department, 
 Japan Steel Works, 
 Kawasaki Dockyard, 
 Kure Municipal Office, 
 Kure Naval Arsenal, 
 Maizuru Naval Arsenal, 
 Maizuru Town Office, 
 Military Clothing Department, 
 Military Provision Department, 
 Mitsubishi Dockyard, 
 Moji Weapon Manufactory, 
 Naval Arsenal, 
 
 Navy Department, 
 
 Osaka Arsenal, 
 
 Osaka Branch of Military Cloth- 
 ing Department, 
 
 Osaka Branch of Military Provi- 
 sion Department, 
 
 Osaka Iron Works, 
 
 Sasebo Municipal Office, 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal, 
 
 Senju Woolen Cloth Factory, 
 
 Tokuyama Briquette Manufac- 
 tory, 
 
 Uji Powder Mill, 
 
 Uraga Dock Company, 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal, 
 
 War Department, 
 
 Yokosuka Municipal Office, 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. 
 
EXPLANATORY TABLES 
 
 Value of Japanese Currencies 
 
 Japan adopted the gold standard system in 1871, but the inconvertible paper 
 money became principal currency a few years later. In 1886 the paper money 
 became convertible into silver and after that date the Japanese currency system 
 was the silver standard de facto, until on October I, 1897, the gold standard system 
 was legally adopted. The figures necessary to ascertain the value of Japanese 
 currencies are given below: 
 (1)1 gold yen (according to Coinage Law of 1871) contains 1.5 gramme pure gold. 
 
 (2) I gold yen (according to Coinage Law of 1897) contains 0.75 gramme pure gold. 
 
 (3) I silver yen contains 24.261 gramme pure silver. 
 
 (4) The value of i silver yen in the English currency (according to the demand 
 
 rate of exchange on London in the average of the year) is as follows: 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875- 
 1876. 
 
 1877- 
 1878. 
 1879. 
 1880. 
 1881. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4.02.0 
 
 4.00.8 
 
 3. II. 2 
 
 3II-7 
 
 309-4 
 
 3.08.0 
 
 3.08.9 
 
 308. 4 
 
 s. d. 
 1882 3.08.8 
 
 1883. 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886. 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 1889. 
 
 307-9 
 307-9 
 3.06.0 
 3 03.2 
 3.02.0 
 3.01.0 
 3. 01. I 
 
 1890 
 
 1891 
 
 1892 
 
 1893 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 2.02.0 
 
 1897 2.00.4 
 
 d. 
 
 04-5 
 02.6 
 
 10.5 
 06.7 
 01 .2 
 01.3 
 
 (5) The value of I yen of paper money in the English currency (calculated on the 
 
 basis of the above mentioned exchange rate and the quotations of the silver 
 price in the Tokyo Exchange in the average of the year) is as follows: 
 
 s. d. s. d. s. d. 
 
 1877 3-IO.I 1880 2.06.4 1883 2.10.7 
 
 1878 3.05.6 1881 2.02.1 1884 304.3 
 
 1879 300.3 1882 2-04.5 1885 303.7 
 
 (6) I ryo (unit of value of the old currency system) was declared in the Coinage 
 
 Law of 1 87 1 to be equal to i yen. 
 
 Chronological Table 
 
 Meiji I St 
 
 1868 A. 
 
 D. 
 
 Meiji 15th 
 
 1882 A. 
 
 2d 
 
 1869 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 1 6th 
 
 1883 " 
 
 " 3d 
 
 1870 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 17th 
 
 1884 " 
 
 " 4th 
 
 1871 ' 
 
 
 
 • 1 8th 
 
 1885 " 
 
 " 5th 
 
 1872 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 19th 
 
 1886 " 
 
 " 6th 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 20th 
 
 1887 " 
 
 " 7th 
 
 1874 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 2 1st 
 
 1888 " 
 
 8th 
 
 1875 * 
 
 
 
 ' 22d 
 
 1889 " 
 
 " 9th 
 
 1876 ' 
 
 
 
 23d 
 
 1890 " 
 
 " loth 
 
 1877 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 24th 
 
 1891 " 
 
 " nth 
 
 1878 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 25th 
 
 1892 " 
 
 " I2th 
 
 1879 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 26th 
 
 1893 " 
 
 " 13th 
 
 1880 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 27th 
 
 1894- " 
 
 " 14th 
 
 1881 ' 
 
 
 
 ' 28th 
 
 1895 " 
 
 D. 
 
 xiu 
 
XIV 
 
 EXPLANATORY TABLES 
 
 Chronological Table — (Continued) 
 
 Meijiagth 
 
 1896 A. 
 
 D. 
 
 Meiii 41st 
 
 1908 A. D 
 
 " 30th 
 
 1897 
 
 
 (1 
 
 42d 
 
 1909 '• 
 
 " 31st 
 
 1898 
 
 
 <i 
 
 43d 
 
 1910 
 
 " 32d 
 
 1899 
 
 
 " 
 
 44th 
 
 191 1 " 
 
 " 33d 
 
 1900 
 
 
 i< 
 
 45th \ 
 
 „ 
 
 " 34th 
 
 1901 
 
 
 Taisho ist / 
 
 1912 
 
 " 35th 
 
 1902 
 
 
 " 
 
 2d 
 
 1913 " 
 
 " 36th 
 
 1903 
 
 
 (1 
 
 3d 
 
 1914 " 
 
 " 37th 
 
 1904 
 
 
 <( 
 
 4th 
 
 1915 " 
 
 " 38th 
 
 1905 
 
 
 << 
 
 5th 
 
 1916 " 
 
 " 39th 
 
 1906 
 
 
 <( 
 
 6th 
 
 1917 •• 
 
 " 40th 
 
 1907 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weights, Measures and Money 
 
 With English, American, French and German Equivalents 
 
 Great U. S. of 
 
 Japan Britain America France Germany 
 
 ^^-I^iSkpu / 2.44030 2.44029 392727 392727 
 
 = 12.9^ ^Taifeu. ... 1 Miles Miles Kiloms. Kiloms. 
 
 7?i('Marine^ / I 15152 I 15151 1.85318 I.85318 
 
 Ki (.JVlarme; j j^jjj^g ^jj^^ Kiloms. Kiloms. 
 
 Sniiarf-7?i /5-95505 5-95501 15-42347 15-42347 
 
 bquare Kt <j^ g^ jyjjjgg gq jyjjl^g ^^ ^^^^.^.^g Quadrat Km, 
 
 ^"""-l^Jse {2.45064 2.45062 99-17355 99-17355 
 
 -loooe 1 Acres Acres Ares Ar. 
 
 = 3,000 5tt [ 
 
 Tsubo=ioGd / 3-95369 3-95367 330579 3-30579 
 
 = 100 5Aa^z<.. .. \ Sq. Yards Sq. Yards Centiares. Quadratm. 
 
 Koku- 10 To ( [47.65389 1. 80391 1. 80391 
 
 = 100 Sho J 4.96005 J Gallons (Liq.) Hectolitres Hectolitres 
 
 = 1,000 Go i Bushels 1 5.1 1902 
 
 = 10,000 5/fafeM. . [ [ Bushels (Dry) 
 
 Koku (Capacity offi/ioof i/io of i/io i/io 
 
 ship) \ one Ton one Ton de Tonne Tonne 
 
 Kinn*,-! (M^n Mnmmp f 8-26733 8.26733 3 75000 375000 
 
 - ]'^Fun Ib^- (A^^^""-) Ib^- (A^"^''-) Kilogs. KilogS. 
 
 ~ ^^^»^ I 10.0471 1 10. 0471 1 
 
 t 1.32277 1.32277 0.60000 0.60000 
 
 lbs. (Avoir.) lbs. (Avoir.) Kilogs. Kilogs. 
 1.60754 1-60754 
 lbs. (Troy) lbs. (Troy) 
 
 ^"''-I'^'Rin ^•°-582 0.4984 2.583 2.0924 
 
 Z\'^% l«d. Dollar Francs Marks 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Part I — Historical Survey of the 
 Military Industries 
 
 CHAPTER page 
 
 I Introduction 3 
 
 II From the Restoration to the Sino- Japanese War 2"] 
 
 III From the Sino- Japanese War to the Russo-Japa- 
 nese War 63 
 
 W From the Russo-Japanese War to the Present 
 
 Time 85 
 
 Part II — Economic Effects of the 
 Military Industries 
 
 I Introduction 161 
 
 II Effects on Industrial PoHcy 163 
 
 III Effects on Manufacturing Industry 180 
 
 IV Effects on Primitive Industry 203 
 
 V Effects on Commerce 212 
 
 VI Effects on Communication 223 
 
 VII Social Effects 241 
 
 VIII Conclusion 259 
 
 Index 263 
 
 XV 
 
PART I 
 
 HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The source of the present development of the military in- 
 dustry in Japan owes its origin mainly to her intercourse with 
 Europe and America, opened in the latter part of the Tokugawa 
 Shogunate, when Japan felt the necessity of making military 
 implements and building warships with all the latest improve- 
 ments known in civilized countries; when she set about im- 
 porting various kinds of machinery, at the same time engaged 
 -competent engineers from those countries, and began for the 
 first time to make war implements and build warships on a 
 large scale with up-to-date machinery. 
 
 As to our native military implements, the art and skill of 
 making such implements had reached their highest degree in a 
 way special to the nation, as, for instance, in such things as 
 our native swords, " Katana, " and suits of armor, of which we 
 can safely boast as being the finest specimens of craftsman- 
 ship in the world. Although firearms were introduced 
 into Japan about three hundred years before the era of Meiji, 
 they were scarcely used in war and not looked upon as indis- 
 pensable military implements until the days of the revolu- 
 tionary war which followed immediately upon the resignation 
 -of the last Shogun of the House of Tokugawa. Fighting in 
 the olden times for the most part consisted of hand to hand 
 combat, and bows and arrows were used instead of firearms. 
 The principal military implements in those days were suits of 
 armor, "horo" (textile shields), bows and arrows, swords, 
 lances, "naginata" (long handled falchions), "konbo" (long 
 sticks made of iron or hard wood), saddles and harness, ban- 
 ners, bells and drums, "umajirushi" (banners or signs, of 
 the general or commander of the force), shields, tent and 
 curtains. 
 
 These military implements were mostly made by hand, and 
 
 3 
 
.- Sir ;-,. 
 
 4 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 each of them required special art and skill on the part of the 
 artisans employed in the work, so that it was almost impossible 
 for them to be made by machinery; this is the reason why the 
 military implement industry in Japan was very limited until 
 the recent era, and it was the more so, as there was then no 
 kind of mechanical industry known in Japan. Not only was 
 there no factory equipped with any machinery ; there was not 
 even a factory worth mentioning with any number of hands 
 engaged at work at any one place. In addition to the above, 
 it must be borne in mind that those days were not like the 
 present time in Japan, where the conscription system has now 
 been enforced and certain standard uniforms and implements 
 are given to each and every soldier; while with a few exceptions 
 the men in the old days had their costumes or implements made 
 according to their own fancies and ideas and according to their 
 ranks and positions. Therefore there was absolutely no 
 necessity for large factories, as there never was any occasion for 
 having an order to manufacture any one thing in any quantity 
 within a given time. 
 
 In the history of the military industry in Japan before the 
 era of Meiji, the art and skill of individual artisans are the 
 only subjects that are worthy of notice, and from the economic 
 point of view the old system of the industry does not teach us 
 anything special for the present essay, and, even if there were 
 anything, it is almost impossible to treat it here, owing to the 
 lack of available statistics. This is the reason why we treat 
 principally the development of the industry after the Restora- 
 tion of Meiji. But even though inconspicuous in industry, 
 we must, nevertheless, refer to some of our old military im- 
 plements which might have some connection with the present 
 manufacture, so as to facilitate clear insight and enable the 
 reader to grasp fully the present development of the industry 
 in Japan, and for this purpose, we shall narrate briefly here- 
 under the history of the development of some of the principal 
 old military implements which we consider to have some rela- 
 tion to the present industry. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Small Arms 
 
 There are differing opinions among historians as to when 
 hand guns, known generally by the ancient Japanese under the 
 name "teppo," were first imported into Japan, and the exact 
 time is not known at present. But according to the opinion 
 most popularly believed among the natives, the first instance 
 of the importation of firearms into this country was on the 25th 
 day of August in the 8th year (some say the 12th year) of the 
 Temmon Era (1539 or 1543). More than one hundred 
 Dutch merchants (also said to be Portuguese) led by Francisco 
 and Christo vao da Mota arrived at Tanegashima, a small 
 island belonging to the province of Osumi, Kyushu, their ship 
 being blown off its due course by a storm, and landed at Kokura, 
 a small harbor in the village of Nishimura on that island, where, 
 with the aid of a Chinese scholar named Goho, who came 
 on the same ship with them, they asked the governor of the 
 island Tanegashima, Hyobunosuke Tokitaka, to allow them to 
 enter into commercial intercourse with the natives, and at the 
 request of the governor sold him a number of hand guns they 
 had brought with them. On the same occasion, it is said, the 
 Governor of Tanegashima entertained those foreign guests very 
 cordially, and asked them to teach him the mode of shooting 
 and handling a gun and also the method of making gunpowder. 
 The hand gun imported then was a muzzle-loader, measuring 
 3 feet and 7.2 inches in its whole length and 0.72 inch in 
 caliber, and it was perhaps one of those match-locks wWch 
 were produced in Spain during the fourteenth century. It 
 was not long before Tokitaka and his men became quite skil- 
 ful in shooting and moreover they tried, as is natural, to make 
 firearms with their own hands, but failed in making perfect 
 ones because they could not understand some points of the 
 weapon. In the next year Dutch merchants came again to the 
 island accompanied by a smith skilled in the work of gun 
 making. After some time Tokitaka got several of his men 
 thoroughly instructed in the work of a gunsmith, and at last 
 he succeeded in making hundreds of perfect hand guns solely 
 by the work of the natives, hence " Tanegashima- tsutsu " 
 
6 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 ("tsutsu" meaning a barrel or "teppo") became another 
 name common in this country for small arms. The example 
 given by Tanegashima was followed by Ashikaga, the Shogun 
 of the time, and many feudal lords, so that the work of gun- 
 smiths soon became common in all parts of the country. 
 Among others a certain citizen of Sakai, a harbor and town in 
 the province of Izumi, who went early to Tanegashima and 
 studied gun making, began a prosperous business in his native 
 town, and his abundant products were widely distributed 
 throughout the whole country. Guns made in those times 
 were not uniform in size and shape, some improvements 
 having been made after they were first imported. The barrel 
 was made of steel and fixed in a stock made of oak; a lock 
 made of brass was so devised that on pulling the trigger the 
 cock dropped and struck against the lock and produced the 
 discharge. 
 
 Soon after the first importation of firearms, Japan reached 
 the epoch called by historians "Sengoku Jidai" (civil war 
 period), when incessant hostilities between feudal lords caused 
 the manufacture of weapons of all kinds known at that time 
 to be very active, and gun making was even attempted in 
 every part of the country. Notwithstanding the needs of 
 the time, the use of firearms was comparatively limited, for 
 it was considered by all people that to shoot an enemy with 
 a gun from a distance was a cowardly deed, because it was con- 
 trary to the doctrine of "Bushido" that the right and most 
 honorable way to fight consisted in meeting the enemy face 
 to face and with cold steel. 
 
 At last in the time of Toyotomi, which immediately fol- 
 lowed the "Sengoku Jidai," regiments armed with "teppo" 
 were formed besides those armed with bows and arrows; and 
 thus the use of hand guns was gradually extended. After 
 that, and especially after the Tokugawa Shogunate was 
 established, skill in the practice of shooting grew more and 
 more advanced ; yet as to the industry of firearms no sign of 
 progress was visible during the course of about two hundred 
 years, until the era of Kokwa (i 844-1847). The reason for 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 this may be explained as follows: Although Japan entered in 
 the 14th year of the Keicho Era (1609) into a treaty of com- 
 merce with Holland, her government remained still attached 
 to the policy of closing her country and people against all 
 foreigners, and allowed no person without authority or a 
 license for the purpose to have intercourse with any of them, 
 even though he was a Dutchman, or to study any work or 
 product of Occidental civilization. The interdict was carried 
 out strictly when the matter concerned military affairs, for ex- 
 ample, military instruments or military science. In addition 
 to the policy adopted by the government, tjie undisturbed 
 peace which continued through those two hundred years may 
 also account for the dullness in the industry of gun making. 
 
 In and after the era of Tempo (i 830-1 843), foreign ships 
 frequently visited this country and gradually aroused the 
 nation, who at last grew anxious to understand foreigners 
 better and began to study both their persons and their pro- 
 ductions. Many of the natives, especially men of the learned 
 class, went to Nagasaki, which was the only port then open to 
 foreigners, and endeavored secretly to learn the sciences and 
 arts of Europe from Dutchmen, who were then the only 
 foreigners permitted to land in this country. Among other 
 things, even gunnery was studied by some of those private 
 students, who in turn taught the art to their countrymen. 
 At last the government of the Shogun, and all clans, urged by 
 the demand of the time, determined to have soldiers trained 
 in gunnery, and instructed their people to follow their own 
 example. Thus all the people of the country began to pay 
 more attention to the importation of weapons as well as to the 
 domestic manufacture of the same. 
 
 The first importation of firing mechanism guns took place 
 just at that time and placed the gun making of this country in 
 a position ready for an advance. Above all, the visit of Com- 
 modore Perry of the United States of America in the 6th 
 year of Kaei (1853) caused violent agitation, and all persons 
 who recognized the crisis of their country insisted upon the 
 pressing necessity of national defense. The government, 
 
8 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 by the aid of Takashima Shirodayu, a renowned master of 
 gunnery, and some others, purchased abroad warships and 
 weapons through the medium of Dutch merchants. At the 
 same time the making of firearms was encouraged everywhere 
 in the country, and many contrivances were attempted for 
 their improvement. Even a quick-firing gun was invented 
 by a feudal lord,Sanada Shinano-no-kami, who presented some 
 specimens of the same to the Shogun of the time. At last, 
 the government, being eager to encourage domestic industry, 
 announced in the 6th year of Ansei (1859) that liberty was 
 given to private individuals (who had hitherto been forbidden) 
 to transfer firearms by purchase and sale. 
 
 Notwithstanding these remarkable effects on both the gov- 
 ernment and the people, firearms of domestic manufacture 
 were by no means perfect and their efficiency and accuracy 
 were not to be compared with those of the guns imported from 
 Europe. Therefore, the Shogun and other feudal lords pur- 
 chased most of their arms abroad through the medium of 
 Dutchmen; and a considerable number of weapons was thus 
 imported yearly, the largest of imports being those recorded 
 in the era of Bunkyu (i 861-1863). All the small arms im- 
 ported in these years were such as had been made in Holland 
 after the type of the years 1 830-1 845 and called in this coun- 
 try the Gewehr musket. A musket of this sort consists of a 
 smooth bored barrel of forged iron and is provided with a 
 sight and a double springed lock. A stud for a bayonet, 
 though it was annexed to the margin of the muzzle of the 
 musket, was utterly useless in those days, when a Japanese 
 warrior carried always a "Katana" (sword) about his waist 
 but never a bayonet. Besides the Gewehr rifle, some kinds 
 of carbines and pistols were also imported during the same 
 period. Soon after the first importation of the Gewehr 
 musket, many of the feudal lords ordered their smiths to make 
 imitations, and finally succeeded in their efforts; so that it was 
 not long before the army of every feudal lord in the country 
 was amply furnished with muskets of the same type. But 
 soon after, the government of the Shogun in the Keio Era 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 ( 1 865-1 867) engaged officers and non-commissioned officers of 
 the French Army as teachers of a military school to train the 
 native soldiers, and according to the opinion of those French 
 officers determined to adopt the rifles of the Minie type. All 
 the feudal lords who had hitherto used the Gewehr and other 
 muskets indiscriminately recognized the simplicity of hand- 
 ling and the superior effect of discharge in the new rifles, and 
 many of them displaced the former guns with the latter. 
 About this time the government ordered Egawa Tarozaemon, 
 who was quite a master of both gun making and gunnery of the 
 time, to teach the men sent from all clans for the purpose. 
 These facts were the cause of the notable advancement which 
 we find before the dawn of the Meiji Era in military tactics as 
 well as in the industry of gun making in this country. The 
 progress was so remarkable that the match-lock muskets, the 
 only firearms known by the natives until thirty years ago, 
 became now very rare objects, difficult to find anywhere in this 
 country, and the clans were not slow in trying to get ahead of 
 one another in using the rifle with firing mechanism. 
 
 Machine Guns 
 
 The machine gun produced first in this country was in- 
 vented by a certain Inatomi Ichimu in the era of Kwan-ei 
 ( 1 824-1 843) and was one capable of discharging twenty shots 
 in succession. About the same time another one, consisting 
 of twenty barrels, each with a match-lock, was invented by 
 Inouye Geki, and some specimens of the same which had been 
 made under the guidance of a renowned mechanic named 
 Kunitomo Jindayu were presented to Tokugawa lyemitsu, the 
 Shogun of the time. All those machine guns were, of course, 
 very immature in both design and work compared with those 
 of the present day. They were so heavy and bulky that they 
 were rather fit for a stationary gun than to be carried by a 
 man. After this, machine guns of the type of either a native 
 invention or a foreign one were produced here and there in the 
 country, but they are hardly worth mentioning in the line of 
 industry. 
 
10 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Guns 
 
 Smooth-Bored Guns 
 
 The importation of guns took place about the same time as 
 that of small arms, and the first instance of their practical use 
 in war occurred when they were used in the armies of the lords 
 Oda and Otomo during the period from the era of Temmon 
 to that of Tensho (1532-1591). But, owing to the topographi- 
 cal features of the country and the imperfect state of the roads 
 and means of transportation in those times, instances of the 
 practical use of guns in the field were very rare, the use having 
 been limited to bombarding a castle or a sea fight. The guns 
 first imported into Japan were those made in France, and 
 hence guns of the same type were called "Fransu." Pre- 
 viously, guns of this sort had been imported into China under 
 the reign of the Ming dynasty from Spain and Portugal; and 
 they were imported into Japan either directly from these 
 European countries or indirectly through the medium of the 
 Chinese. The first gun made by the hand of a domestic 
 artisan was that forged after the "Fransu" type by the order 
 of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the ist year of the era of Bunroku 
 (1592). In the i6th year of Keicho (161 1) Shibatsuji Riza- 
 yemon Michinari of Sakai, a famous port town in Izumi 
 Province, produced a muzzle-loading gun which was made of 
 white cast iron and whose caliber measured i foot and 10 feet 
 in the length of gun barrel and was capable of emitting a 
 charge weighing 12^ pounds. A so-called " Wariu-dsutsu " 
 (the term meaning a gun of Japanese type) in those times had 
 a screw to close the breech, and was provided with a notch 
 of the back sight placed in front of, and at the distance of 
 four times of the caliber from the touch-hole, and foresight 
 fixed at the upper edge of the muzzle, but mostly with no 
 trunnion. 
 
 In the early times of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the use of 
 guns was still very limited, more limited than that of small 
 arms; so that there was no trace of advancement in the indus- 
 try of gun making. But in the 6th year of Keicho (1601) 
 
INTRODUCTION II 
 
 Tokugawa lyeyasu instructed his men to practice gunnery, 
 and then Inouye Geki and Nakamura Wakasanokami jointly 
 devised a rest for a gun turnable in every direction and named 
 it "Sempudai." It produced a remarkable effect afterward in 
 the war called "Osaka-jin," when it was employed to destroy 
 the castle of Osaka. 
 
 In the era of Kwan-ei (i 624-1 643) some Dutchmen came 
 to this country and held under their guidance an examination 
 in gun firing on the field of Meguro. The gun was a mortar 
 of ancient type, 4 feet and 0.4 inch in length and i foot 
 and 3 feet 1 1 inches in caliber; its bullet weighed 7i6| pounds 
 in lead or 541 f pounds in copper. The examination was for 
 the purpose of acquiring a more accurate knowledge of both 
 gunnery and gun making, and preparing for the manufacture 
 of guns in the future. 
 
 In the 3d year of Shoho (1643- 1647) Inouye Geki presented 
 a treatise on firearms, in which he urged vehemently the press- 
 ing necessity of improving weapons. In the 3d year of Kei- 
 an (1650) Hojo Masafusa investigated the siege tactics of the 
 Dutch and the art of shooting and handling guns and small 
 arms; and, presenting an essay on the result of his investiga- 
 tion, together with plans and specimens of machines and in- 
 struments, he persuaded the Shogun, his master, to start the 
 work of manufacturing firearms. Thus the art of gun making 
 began to be treated' with due attention. 
 
 Although in the time above stated there were many persons 
 who cared for gun making, it was not long before they began 
 to lay aside their guns and to leave them to rust, when people 
 were thoroughly accustomed to peace and cared to employ 
 only such weapons as bows and arrows, hand guns, swords or 
 spears, etc. But in the era of Kyoho (171 6-1 735) the Shogun 
 Yoshimune, who was awake to the urgency of the times, 
 ordered Aoki Kon-yo, Ogiu Sorai and some others to study 
 Dutch books and to make a plan for the improvement of 
 weapons, and engaged at the same time a Dutchman named 
 Kaiser, who by the order of the Shogun made several guns 
 which were called "Koppi-ho," "Ten-ho" (mortar) and 
 
12 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 "Kanon-ho" respectively. After the death of that Shogun, 
 his scheme for improving weapons was abandoned ; and most 
 of the men who had some particular knowledge of gunnery, 
 even those who were in permanent homage to the Shogun as 
 a teacher of gunnery, endeavored to keep their knowledge 
 from the public, though such knowledge was nothing more 
 than the ancient idea neither improved nor increased since it 
 was first imported by Dutchmen, and they never intended 
 to learn or discover any new thing. This state of things 
 lasted for some time after the death of Yoshimune, and both 
 gunnery and gun making diminished rather than advanced 
 during the same period. 
 
 Since from the middle of the eighteenth century warships of 
 Great Britain, France and Russia came frequently to visit this 
 country, people who felt uneasy as to the fate of their coun- 
 try began to pay much attention to the means of defense and 
 many of them sought eagerly to learn the military affairs of 
 Western nations from Dutchmen who were then dwelling in 
 this country, notwithstanding the fact that the government of 
 the Shogun would hardly grant them license to have inter- 
 course with foreigners. In the era of Temmei (i 781-1788) a 
 retainer of the Sendai clan, named Hayashi Shihei, published 
 a book entitled Kaikoku-Heidan,^ in which he argued strongly 
 the urgency of the defense of the country and proposed a 
 design for the purpose, extending the treatise to the topic of 
 firearms manufacture and also to that of tactics. Moreover, 
 in the same work the author exposed the fault of the policy 
 adopted theretofore by the government in seeking a false peace 
 for a time only, and advised the latter to take steps to correct 
 the error. During the era of Anei (i 772-1 780) the author, 
 being enlightened previous to the publication of his elaborate 
 work upon the necessity of guns for the national defense, con- 
 trived to make a wooden gun, and he was compelled to use in 
 the firing practice the old gunpowder produced in the era of 
 Genna about one hundred and fifty years before, for it was the 
 only kind he could find in the country. This fact, evidencing 
 the utter neglect during this period of the most effectual 
 
 * A Treatise on the Military Affairs of the Insular Country. 
 
INTRODtrCTION I3 
 
 weapon for the national defense, proves most clearly the wis- 
 dom of the author's opinion. Soon after the vehement argu- 
 ment of Hayashi Shihei was made public, difficulties frequently 
 occurred in the international relations with foreign countries, 
 as had been prophesied by him. In the 4th year of Bunkwa 
 (1807) a Russian war vessel came to Etorop Island, Yezo, and 
 landed her men forcibly on the island, and in the next year a 
 British ship threatened the citizens of Nagasaki. The peace- 
 ful nation began to feel gradually the peril of foreign warships. 
 Every clan was ordered to prepare for the defense of the coun- 
 try, and the arms making industry was stimulated to make a 
 considerable advance. Almost all the guns made during this 
 era (1804-18 17) were of small (i 830-1 843) muzzle and forged 
 with bronze. In the era of Tempo, Takashima Shirodayu, 
 who made himself quite a master of gunnery, studied also the 
 art of gun making, examining several different guns which he 
 purchased from a Dutchman. From this time the art made 
 constant progress, and the rate of progress was much celebrated 
 after the era of Kaei (i 848-1 853), when the government 
 bought many guns of Dutch form and encouraged the manu- 
 facture of firearms ; and then all "Han" (or clans) commenced 
 the work of gun making, using as a model those Dutch guns 
 of the government, especially the two "Han," Hizen and 
 Satsuma, embracing more advanced ideas than the rest, 
 effected a most conspicuous development of the work. The 
 number of guns made in the factories of both the government 
 and the "Han" in about a year's time, from the first day of 
 June of the 6th year of Kaei to the end of the following June, 
 was 1,374. The progress of domestic gun making was so 
 remarkable that even in the years of Bunkyu and Gwanji 
 ( 1 861-1864) a considerable number of large guns made in the 
 country was to be found mixed with foreign ones in their 
 batteries. The large guns of those days included such as the 
 following: a cannon, the shell of which weighed 12 pounds, 
 18 pounds, or 24 pounds; a short cannon, the shell of which 
 weighed 30 pounds, 80 pounds, or 1 50 pounds ; and a mortar 
 which measured 2 feet and 10.74 inches, or i foot and 11.96 
 inches. 
 
14 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Rifled Guns 
 
 (a) Muzzle-Loading Guns. — The first time a rifled gun came 
 into use in Japan was the ist year of the era of Gwanji (1864). 
 Prompted by the necessity of national defense, the Shogunate 
 Government issued orders for the manufacture of 40 4- 
 pound mountain guns and the purchase of a number of 12- 
 pound hexagonal guns of wrought iron ; and later, on discover- 
 ing the powerfulness of rifled guns, it urged the manufacture 
 of 16 4^-pound French rifled guns (field guns). Among the 
 guns made in those times, there was a 150-pound bronze 
 rifled cannon as large as 15 feet 0.5 inch long in gun barrel 
 and 10.7 inches in caliber, cast by the Mito clan. The gun 
 had eight riflings and was to be loaded with studded shells. 
 In that way the first rifled guns were produced in this country. 
 
 In the 1st year of Keio (1865), work was started on some 
 30-pound French short cannon and 12-pound cannon; also 
 the work of economically supplying improved guns by remodel- 
 ling and rifling the old 24-pound guns was begun. Next year 
 (1866), some ten or more French officers, commissioned and 
 non-commissioned, were engaged, and under their guidance 
 troops were newly organized and the system of military educa- 
 tion was reformed ; also a reform was made in the arms manu- 
 facturing, and the French methods were adopted where the 
 Dutch had been in use. 
 
 (b) Breech-Loading Guns. — For a long time after the old 
 breech-loading guns from France came to Japan, no attention 
 was paid to the study of a breech-loading gun, and it was not 
 until the eras of Gwanji and Keio (i 864-1 867), when some 
 breech-loading guns of nineteenth century invention were for 
 the first time imported, followed by a further importation of 
 some 20-pound Armstrong guns (i Keio or 1865), that people 
 began to pay attention to the study of its manufacture. 
 
 Ammunition 
 
 The manufacture of ammunition made gradual develop- 
 ment side by side with the manufacture of small arms and 
 guns. For small arms lead balls were used in the case of those 
 
INTRODUCTION 1 5 
 
 early small arms like the " Tanegashima " tsutsu, but for later 
 small arms cylindrical lead bullets with a conical head were 
 used exclusively. As for guns, solid lead shells were in use in 
 those earlier days after the introduction of guns into this coun- 
 try, but afterward in addition to the lead ones cast iron shells 
 were made and used. The use ol cast iron shells in those days 
 was for the purpose of making up the shortage in the supply of 
 shells caused by the high price of lead. Besides these shells, 
 stone and earthen ones were used where shooting was done 
 with wooden or paper guns, which once existed. 
 
 The manufacture of shells began suddenly to develop, when 
 during the era of Tempo (1830-1843) investigations were 
 made in the art and method of shell making, and some of the 
 first shells were produced by the hand of Egawa Tarozaemon. 
 Shells made at that time were spherical and commonly of cast 
 iron, and they were already classified into two distinctive 
 kinds, the solid shell and the explosive shell. These shells 
 were widely manufactured up to the beginning of the era of 
 Meiji. 
 
 Gunpowder is another thing that came into use with the 
 introduction of small arms. Since this article could be manu- 
 factured more simply than other arms or ammunition and its 
 materials were obtainable anywhere in the country, its manu- 
 facture soon spread among the people, until afterward it 
 was produced at every point of the Empire. Thus before 
 the Restoration every feudal clan engaged in its manufacture, 
 and the amount so produced, together with that produced by 
 private manufacture, reached an enormous figure. 
 
 Warships 
 
 The first foreign warship that came to Japan was a British 
 one which called at her ports in August of the 5th year of 
 Bunkwa ( 1 808) . Down to the eras of Kokwa and Kaei ( 1 844- 
 1853) Japan's shores were yearly visited by Dutch warships 
 and other European and American ships and war vessels, until 
 in the 6th year of Kaei (1853) a fleet of American warships 
 entered Uraga and presented its credentials. This last event 
 
1 6 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 threw the country into heated discussions, and people agitated 
 the question of coast defense. In September the Shogunate 
 Government, which had become aware of the impracticability 
 of the old law and had already been busily engaged in the 
 construction of batteries and the improvement of arms, at 
 last released the nation from the interdict which had been 
 strictly observed for many years past against building large 
 ships. The release once ordered, talk of warship building 
 became very prevalent and people became deeply interested in 
 that business. The next year (i Ansei or 1854), ^^ May, a 
 two masted ship of 132 feet in length and 30 feet in breadth 
 was built at the port of Uraga after the model of an English 
 ship. About the same time three three-masted sailing ships 
 were built in the province of Satsuma, and another ship of 
 European style at Etchujima, Yedo, the latter under the 
 command and supervision of the family of the Lord of Mito. 
 These were the first ships built in imitation of European 
 models. Previous to this, in June of the 9th year of Tempo 
 (1838), an attempt had been made by Lord Rekko of Mito to 
 build a warship, named Hitachi Maru (144 feet in length 
 and more than 38 feet in breadth) of European design, and a 
 plan was prepared by his near attendants, but, the idea not 
 being approved by the Shogunate Government, it had to be 
 abandoned. 
 
 These new ships, however, were European only in external 
 ornamentation, and were either frail in build or low in speed, 
 or both, and therefore not fit for practical service. Moreover, 
 they were not perfect in the adjustment of draught and in the 
 position of the center of gravity, and therefore liable to be 
 overturned in case of stormy weather. But, on the other 
 hand, very great benefits were derived from the building of 
 these ships. Many faults likely to occur in shipbuilding were 
 learned, together with the truth that shipbuilding is never an 
 easy work, all of which went to awaken the people to the 
 necessity of study of the art and open the way for future 
 improvements of ships. 
 
 On the fourth of November, i Ansei (1854), tidal waves 
 
INTRODUCTION 17 
 
 occurred near the port of Shimoda, which damaged the 
 bottom of a Russian warship, the frigate Diana, just then 
 anchoring at the port. At that time there was war in Crimea, 
 and British warships were patroUing the Oriental ports, 
 threatening to attack Russian warships. This obliged the 
 damaged Russian warship to ask the Japanese Government 
 for permission to enter Heta, another good anchorage in the 
 neighborhood, for repairs, which she did, in order speedily to 
 quit these seas for the north. The pei mission was granted, 
 but on her way to Heta water entered the break, and she 
 sank off the coast of Misaki in Izu Province. Then the Rus- 
 sians decided to build a new warship and asked the government 
 to collect for them the necessary materials and forces of black- 
 smiths and shipbuilders, which the latter agreed to do. The 
 Russians, captain and all, engaged in the work, while teaching 
 the Japanese workmen how to build ships. They urged the 
 men on day and night, and, making quick progress, at last 
 succeeded in finishing two schooners, and sailed away with 
 these ships to the north. A misfortune as it was to the Rus- 
 sians, it brought on the contrary a good deal of fortune to 
 Japan. During the progress of the shipbuilding the various 
 artisans and mechanics engaged in the work studied much of 
 the European methods from the work they actually did, 
 though not without experiencing some hardships, and thus 
 gained an opportunity of developing the building of ships of 
 European style in this country, to their great advantage. 
 After this time ships built by this method were styled " Kimi- 
 zawa," the Kimizawa No. i. No. 2 and No. 3 being built 
 gradually. A short time afterward, Russia, in acknowledg- 
 ment of her gratitude, sent back to Japan those ships which 
 her sailors had built in this country, at the same time present- 
 ing her with those fifty- two guns that the Russian warship had 
 taken ashore when shipwrecked at Shimoda. This, facilitat- 
 ing the study of the manufacture of guns and war vessels, was 
 a great addition to the benefits already gained from the mis^ 
 adventure of the Russian warship. 
 
 In speaking of the development of the Japanese Navy, we 
 
1 8 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 must refer to the fact that it owed much to the friendly advice 
 that the King of Holland tendered to the Japanese Govern- 
 ment to requite the favor he had received from this country 
 by his many years' friendship with her. 
 
 On the second of July, 7 Kaei (or i Ansei, as the name of the 
 year was changed, 1854), the Dutch Consul Donker Curtius, 
 who was resident in Nagasaki, sent a letter to the Japanese 
 Government, minutely explaining the state of foreign coun- 
 tries and warning them of the pressing need of the defense of 
 the country. This, aided by repeated arguments made upon 
 a similar problem by Captain G. Favius of the Dutch warship 
 Soembing, finally moved the government and led to its future 
 decision of organizing a new navy. That matter also gave 
 rise to the following events. About the same time, the gov- 
 ernment had placed an order with Holland for a certain num- 
 ber of ships, but it was found that, owing to a war (the Cri- 
 mean War) having broken out just then in Europe, ships were 
 to be treated as contraband of war and were not allowed to be 
 exported. Under the circumstances, Holland proposed that 
 she would rather help this country build the ships herself. 
 So she sent twenty or more of her officers and other subjects 
 over to this country to take up residence and stay as teachers, 
 and even went so far as to present this country with the ship 
 Soembing. Thereupon the government decided to appoint 
 Yatabori Age and Katsu Rintaro to receive instrut tion. 
 
 In October, 2 Ansei (1855), the Nagasaki Naval Training 
 School was established, in which a Dutch naval officer Per- 
 slecken and twenty-one others under him were instructors, 
 and the soldiers of the Tokugawa Shogunate and clans, Yata- 
 bori Kagezo and others of lower rank, were the scholars, 
 among whom were most of those who later proved themselves 
 to be important Japanese naval men (officers and the like) 
 at the time of the Restoration of Meiji. 
 
 In 3 Ansei (1856), for the purpose of practice in naval con- 
 struction (warship-building), a cutter was laid, which is said 
 to have been completed for more than 2,000 ryo (the unit of 
 the old money in Japan, i ryo at about $3-$5), in one year's 
 time. 
 
INTRODUCTION I9 
 
 In April, 4 Ansei (1857), the Warship Training School was 
 founded in the military school at Tsukiji, Yedo. In August of 
 the same year the Yappan (afterwards called the Kanrinkan) , 
 a three masted steamship that had been ordered from Holland, 
 arrived at port. As to new instructors for naval training, 
 thirty-seven persons, a number of Dutch officers and other 
 men under them were on board, and in September the old 
 instructors started home from Nagasaki by a merchantman. 
 
 In October, 4 Ansei (1857), for the purpose of repairing 
 ships and making and repairing naval arms, iron works were 
 established at Aginoura, in the port of Nagasaki. The charge 
 of the construction of the plan was put principally in the hands 
 of Hardes, a Dutch naval engineer, who completed it in April, 
 I Bunkyu (1861). Steam engines, cupolas for iron and other 
 implements and machinery provided in the iron works were 
 wholly purchased of Holland. The expenses for all these 
 amounted to about 50,000 ryo. The establishment of these 
 works was not only for domestic purposes, but also for taking 
 foreign orders, at the same time using them as an organ for 
 selling coal, and, by so doing, enabling them to pay off the 
 past fixed capital and meet the future expenditures with the 
 profits to be obtained. Thus a very economical plan was 
 adopted. 
 
 In May, 5 Ansei (1858), the Yedo arrived at Nagasaki, a 
 three masted steam war vessel of the same type as the Kanrin- 
 kan, and afterwards named the Cho-yo-kan, the order for which 
 had been given to Holland in the previous year. ; 
 
 In July of this year, four English war vessels entered Shina- 
 gawa Bay, Yedo, among which the steam yacht Emperor, 
 afterwards named the Ban-ryu-kan, was presented as a gift 
 to the Shogunate. Immediately after the receipt of this ship 
 by the Shogunate, the other ships left for Nagasaki. In 
 February, 6 Ansei (1859), an order for a temporary closing of 
 the Naval Training Institute having been issued by the Sho- 
 gunate, the Dutch teachers left Nagasaki for home, and so the 
 naval training at Nagasaki came to an end. 
 
 In January, 7 Ansei (i860), Japan dispatched the Kanrinkan 
 ito the United States of America, so it was the pioneer among 
 
20 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 ships dispatched to Europe or America by Japan in the name 
 of the government. The purpose of the dispatch was to 
 inspect the foreign (Western) conditions in general and to 
 study the arts of navigation and shipbuilding. In November, 
 3 Bunkyu (1863), an English ship Shunly (built in Glasgow, 
 463'35 tons) was purchased for 1,000,000 silver pieces. In 
 April, 3 Bunkyu (1863), the construction of the Naval Fac- 
 tory and Dockyard at the village of Kobe (the present City of 
 Kobe) in Settsu Province was started, but the scheme was 
 abandoned in November of the following year, owing to the 
 recall to Yedo of Katsu Rintaro, the specially appointed officer 
 for the work. 
 
 In November, i Gwanji (1864), the, government devised a 
 plan to give to the French ambassador, Leon Roches, the 
 charge of the design of the works, and according to it to estab- 
 lish a naval dockyard at Yokosuka and also a naval workshop 
 at Yokohama to do preparatory work for the dockyard. This 
 was the beginning of the present Yokosuka Naval Dockyard. 
 The details of the construction of these plans as announced in 
 January of the following year, i Keio (1865), were in brief as 
 follows : 
 
 First, to set up a workshop at Yokohama that should make 
 it its aim to repair ships and to give training in mechanical 
 work. The estimate of the expenses of the construction was 
 $2,400,000; the term of completion, four years; the 
 workshop to consist of the iron tempering mill, casting mill, 
 pattern-making mill, lathe-making mill, fittings shop and tim- 
 ber works. The factory was to be set up entirely according 
 to European industrial style; the instructors to be French 
 naval engineers and men under them; and as pupils for the 
 first term 1 00 persons, the most efficient in Japanese indus- 
 trial works, were to be selected. Implements and machinery 
 needed by the workshops were to be purchased of France, the 
 estimated total cost of which was 2,200,000 francs; however, 
 materials needed in the works were to be adopted from as 
 many of the domestic products as served the purpose, provided 
 the prices did not exceed those for foreign products. The 
 
INTRODUCTION 21 
 
 buildings to be constructed and attached to the factory were 
 an iron foundry, two docks (large and small) , three shipyards, 
 armories, offices, waiting rooms for the workmen, etc. In Feb- 
 ruary, I Keio (1865), the construction of the Yokohama Iron 
 Works was commenced. In May of this year, the Shogunate 
 sent Shibata Hyuga-no-kami to France on a mission to buy 
 various kinds of machinery. In September the construction 
 of the Yokosuka Iron Works was begun. In December 
 Shibata Hyuga-no-kami returned from Europe, ha\'ing per- 
 formed his mission to England and France, with his suite 
 and some French employes who had been engaged. 
 
 Work on the construction of the iron works of Yokohama 
 and Yokosuka was pushed day and night and made very rapid 
 progress. According to investigations in October, 2 Keio 
 (1866), the foreign employes in service in the construction 
 works numbered as many as forty-six. The two works were 
 named the Japanese Naval Iron Works of Yokohama and the 
 Japanese Naval Iron Works of Yokosuka. 
 
 In January, 2 Keio (1866), four officers and men were en- 
 gaged out of the crew of the French war vessel Guerriere, and 
 were put in charge of naval training on board the Fuji, of the 
 Japanese Navy. Next year, in October, 3 Keio (1867), a 
 change was made from French teachers to English, and some 
 English naval officers and warrant officers were engaged to 
 give instruction in naval training. In this year the govern- 
 ment made some foreign shipwrights living in Yokohama 
 manufacture boats and ship tackles as models for similar 
 manufactures in Japan. 
 
 In October, 3 Keio (1867), the Shogunate restored to the 
 Emperor the administration of the national government, 
 which was followed by a civil war; consequently, the naval 
 training was closed in February of the next year, and this 
 caused Katsu Rintaro to request the French and English in- 
 structors to cancel their contracts by announcing to them the 
 internal situation ; and it finally came about that those foreign- 
 ers left this country for home and the work of training was 
 entirely abandoned. As hitherto mentioned, since her with- 
 
22 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 drawal of the restriction on shipbuilding (September, 6 Kaei, 
 1853), Japan had seen the time gradually become ripe for 
 her own warships to be built by herself, and consequently in 
 May, 5 Ansei (1854), the Shogunate built the ship Hoo-maru, 
 in imitation of the European style, in the port of Uraga, 
 Sagami ; also a second one, the Shohei-maru, in the clan of 
 Kagoshima, Satsuma. To the second, was added in June, 2 
 Ansei (1855), ^ war vessel Kwanko-kan, presented by Holland 
 as a gift; and people, having for the first time been eye wit- 
 nesses of the skilfulness and exquisiteness of the steam engine, 
 were now so enthusiastic about the work that they sought 
 eagerly for new knowledge of the art and practice in the ways 
 of management. Besides, things were moving toward such a 
 state of conditions that coast defense should not be neglected 
 even a moment, that is to say, as the occasional opening of 
 ports to foreigners threatened to result in a succession of do- 
 mestic troubles and external disasters one after another, the 
 Shogunate gave orders to the clans to prepare ships against 
 any emergency. Upon this, the clans strove with one an- 
 other in building or importing large ships. Of the great 
 number of war vessels and ships for military service of Euro- 
 pean style thus gathered by the Shogunate and clans in the 
 fifteen years from i Ansei (1854) to 4 Keio (or i Meiji, 1868), 
 only the part that can be found in the records reached a large 
 total as follows : 
 
 (i) Nine war vessels owned by the government : 2 presented 
 by the Dutch King and British Queen, i each; 7 bought for 
 $1,350,000; 4 were built in Holland, lin England, 3 in the 
 United States, and i in Germany. 
 
 Thirty-six military ships: 11 built in Japan (i at Uraga, 3 
 at Kagoshima, 2 at Ishikawa-Jima, i at Shimoda, 2at Nagasaki, 
 2 at Hakodate) ; 14 built in England, 10 in the United States, 
 and I in Germany. The cost of the 1 1 built in Japan and i 
 built in England is not known. The 24 others cost $1 ,806,000. 
 
 The total is 45 ships. The cost of the 33 mentioned above 
 is $3,336,000. 
 
INTRODUCTION 23 
 
 (2) Ninety-three military ships owned by the clans: 14 
 built in Japan, 57 in England, 17 in the United States, i in 
 France, 2 in Holland, and 2 others, the place of building un- 
 known. The cost of the 14 built in Japan and 12 built in other 
 countries is not known; the remaining 67 cost $4,494,000 and 
 8,100 ryo. (The last price is for one ship bought by the 
 Uwajima clan.) 
 
 The grand total is 138 ships. 
 
 Of these ships the first steamer built entirely by the Japa- 
 nese was the Chiyodagata: work begun in May, 2 Bunkyu (1862), 
 at Ishikawa-Jima, Yedo, launched in July, 3 Bunkyu (1863), 
 and completed in May, 2 Keio (1866). Thus it took four 
 years from the start to the completion of work. The reason 
 was that in the course of the work the man in charge often 
 left on a journey and each time the work had to be suspended. 
 It is said that the expenses for the warship amounted to about 
 70,000 yen. It may be remarked again that the ship was the 
 first one that was completed by Japanese by their own design 
 and labor. 
 
 The following table shows some particulars of the ships 
 built after European style at domestic yards previous to the 
 Restoration : 
 
24 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Ships of Domestic Manufacture Owned by the Shogunate 
 
 Name of 
 Ship 
 
 Style 
 
 Breadth and 
 Length 
 
 Koku 
 
 (Japanese 
 
 Tonnage) 
 
 or h. p. 
 
 Date of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Place of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Ho-o-maru. . 
 
 Bark 
 
 
 
 May, 
 I Ansei 
 (1854) 
 
 Uraga, 
 Sagami 
 Province 
 
 ^hohei-maru 
 
 " 
 
 Length lo ken 
 
 
 I Ansei 
 
 Kago- 
 
 maru 
 
 
 (60 ft.) 
 
 
 (1854) 
 
 shima, 
 
 
 
 Breadth 4 ken 
 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 Depth 3 ken 
 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Satsuma 
 Province 
 
 Hozui-maru 
 
 (1 
 
 
 
 
 (1 
 
 Taigen-maru 
 
 ,, 
 
 Length 23 ken, 
 
 
 3 Ansei 
 
 " 
 
 Kyokujitsu- 
 
 Ishikawa- 
 
 maru 
 
 
 1 shaku 
 
 (139 ft.) 
 Breadth 5 ken, 
 
 2 shaku 
 (32 ft.) 
 
 Depth 4 ken 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 
 (1856) 
 
 Jima, 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 City 
 
 Kimizawa- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 
 
 
 Shimoda, 
 
 gata 
 
 
 
 
 
 Idzu 
 Province 
 
 Nagasaki- 
 
 Cutter 
 
 Length 12 ken 
 
 
 4 Ansei 
 
 Nagasaki 
 
 gata 
 
 
 (72 ft.) 
 Breadth 3 ken 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 (1857) 
 
 
 Hakodate- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length 18 ken 
 
 
 
 Hakodate 
 
 maru 
 
 
 (108 ft.) 
 Breadth 4 ken 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 Kameda- 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 (1 
 
 maru . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sento-maru . 
 
 Steam- 
 power, 
 screw 
 propel- 
 ler 
 
 
 
 
 Nagasaki 
 
 Chiyoda- 
 
 " 
 
 Length 17 ken. 
 
 60 h. p. 
 
 Launched 
 
 Ishikawa- 
 
 gata 
 
 
 2 shaku 
 
 
 in I 
 
 Jima, 
 
 
 
 (104 ft.) 
 
 
 Gwanji 
 
 Yedo 
 
 
 
 Brealdth 2^ ken 
 
 
 (1864) 
 
 City 
 
 
 
 (15 ft.) 
 
 
 Completed 
 in Dec, 2 
 Keio 
 (1866) 
 
 
INTRODUCTION - 25 
 
 Ships of Domestic Manufacture Owned by the Clans 
 
 Name of 
 Ship 
 
 Style 
 
 and 
 
 Material 
 
 Breadth and 
 Length 
 
 Koku 
 
 (Japanese 
 
 Tonnage) 
 
 or h. p. 
 
 Date of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Place of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Kaisei-maru 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length i8 ken, 
 
 
 January, 
 
 Sendai 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 2 shaku 
 
 
 6 Ansei 
 
 Clan, 
 
 
 
 (no ft.) 
 
 
 (1859) 
 
 Samuk- 
 
 
 
 Breadth 4 ken, 
 
 
 
 azezawa. 
 
 
 
 2 shaku 
 
 
 
 Oshu 
 
 
 
 (25 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Province 
 
 Shimpu- 
 
 Cutter 
 
 Length 12 ken 
 
 50 h. p. 
 
 April, 
 
 Nagasaki, 
 
 maru 
 
 Wooden 
 
 (72 ft.) 
 
 
 5 Ansei 
 
 Hizen 
 
 
 
 Breadth J ken 
 
 
 (1858) 
 
 Clan 
 
 
 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depth 2 ken 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (12 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 Ryofu-maru 
 
 Steam- 
 
 
 10 h. p. 
 
 October, 
 
 Saga, 
 
 
 power, 
 
 
 
 I Keio 
 
 Hizen 
 
 
 paddle- 
 
 
 
 (1865) 
 
 Clan 
 
 
 wheeled 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tsusai-maru 
 
 Schooner 
 Wooden 
 
 
 
 
 Awa Clan 
 
 Jimpu- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length 18 ken 
 
 
 5 Ansei 
 
 Tsu, Tsu 
 
 maru 
 
 Wooden 
 
 (108 ft.) 
 Breadth 5 ken 
 
 (30 ft.) 
 Depth 3 ken, 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 (22 ft.) 
 
 
 (1858) 
 
 Clan 
 
 Fukkai- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 
 
 
 Akita Clan 
 
 maru ..... 
 
 Wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kosai-maru . 
 
 Bark 
 
 Length 17^ ken 
 
 
 
 Matsuyama 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 (103 ft. 6 in.) 
 Breadth 3 ken, 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 (22 ft.) 
 Depth 3 ken 
 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Clan, 
 Shingu, 
 Kii 
 Province 
 
 Himeji, 
 
 Hayatori- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length 15 ken 
 
 450 koku 
 
 June, 
 
 Himeji 
 
 maru 
 
 Wooden 
 
 (90 ft.) 
 Breadth 3 ken 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 5 Ansei 
 (1858) 
 
 Clan 
 Himeji, 
 
 Kinkwa- 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length 8 ken 
 
 100 koku 
 
 June, 
 
 Himeji 
 
 maru 
 
 Wooden 
 
 (48 ft.) 
 Breadth i ken 
 4 shaku 
 (10 ft.) 
 
 
 6 Ansei 
 (1859) 
 
 Clan 
 
26 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Ships of Domestic Manufacture Owned by the Clans — Continued 
 
 Name of 
 Ship 
 
 Style 
 
 and 
 
 Material 
 
 Breadth and 
 Length 
 
 Koku 
 
 (Japanese 
 
 Tonnage) 
 
 or h. p. 
 
 Date of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Place of 
 Construc- 
 tion 
 
 Ryujin-maru 
 
 <( 
 
 Length i6ken, 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 (lOO ft.) 
 Breadth 3 ken, 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 (22 ft.) 
 Depth 3 ken, 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 (22 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Shonai, 
 Shonai 
 Clan 
 
 Jingo-maru . . 
 
 i< 
 
 Length 1 8 ken 
 
 1200 koku 
 
 June, 
 
 Himeji, 
 
 
 
 (108 ft.) 
 
 
 3 Bunkyu 
 
 Himeji 
 
 
 
 Breadth 4 ken 
 
 
 (1863) 
 
 Clan 
 
 
 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 Ansai-maru. . 
 
 Bark 
 
 Length 21 ken, 
 
 660 koku 
 
 January, 
 
 Aomori, 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 4 shaku 
 
 
 2 Keio 
 
 Oshu 
 
 
 
 (130 ft.) 
 
 
 (1866) 
 
 Province, 
 
 
 
 Breadth 5 ken. 
 
 
 
 Tsugaru 
 
 
 
 2 shaku 
 
 
 
 Clan 
 
 
 
 (32 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 Jimpu-maru. . 
 
 Schooner 
 
 Length 18 ken. 
 
 800 koku 
 
 January, 
 
 Tomonot- 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 5 shaku 
 
 
 3 Bunkyu 
 (1863) 
 
 su, Bingo 
 
 
 
 (113 ft.) 
 
 
 Province, 
 
 
 
 Breadth 4 ken. 
 
 
 
 Fuku- 
 
 '.. 
 
 
 I shaku 
 
 
 
 yama 
 
 
 
 (25 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Clan 
 
 
 
 Depth 4 ken 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 
 
 
 Ono-maru . . . 
 
 (1 
 
 Length 18 ken 
 
 (108 ft.) 
 Breadth 4 ken 
 
 (24 ft.) 
 
 Depth 3 ken 
 
 (18 ft.) 
 
 
 
 Doi, Ono, 
 Echizen 
 Province 
 
 Total 25 ships 
 
CHAPTER II 
 FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR 
 
 The Restoration of the Imperial Government of Meiji was 
 the greatest undertaking ever accomplished by the Japanese 
 nation. On the one hand, it overturned the despotic military 
 government that had existed for seven hundred years and 
 brought back everything to the former conditions of the old 
 days of the Imperial Government; while, on the other hand, it 
 led to the abandonment of the national isolation policy adhered 
 to for two hundred years by the Tokugawa Government, fol- 
 lowed by friendly intercourse with Western countries, however 
 far distant. Thus all branches of Western learning were 
 introduced and the ways and manners of those countries 
 widely adopted. So enthusiastically were these changes ef- 
 fected that in course of time a complete revolution took place 
 here in Japan in the dominions of matter and mind. Among 
 other things, the change in the institutions relating to the 
 military system was so remarkable that arms and warships 
 were entirely altered and there remained scarcely any vestige 
 of them as they were in their old days. 'It is quite natural 
 that all those changes should be made, in view of the condition 
 of the Empire about the time of the Restoration, when arms 
 and warships had an important bearing upon strategy, and 
 any improvement or progress made therein was a very keen 
 problem in the national defense of those days. 
 
 Although it was not merely a single reason but divers others 
 that brought about the great Restoration of Meiji, the princi- 
 pal one was, as is evident from records of that time, that, when 
 this country began intercourse with Western nations sometime 
 before the Restoration, the people who actually observed the 
 powerful and excellent arms and warships imported, recog- 
 nized their wonderful power and felt alarm over the marvelous 
 development, beyond their imagination, of Western countries, 
 
 87 
 
28 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 and at last being awakened from a long sleep, their minds took 
 a new turn which led to the Restoration. 
 
 Thus the country was necessarily obliged to make improved 
 arms and warships. But as the enormous amount of expense 
 involved was an important problem for Japan in the economic 
 conditions of that time, it was very difficult to fill the whole of 
 the demands all at once. Much more so, as the gold and silver 
 that had flowed out to foreign countries for twenty or thirty 
 years before the Restoration, owing to the purchase of arms 
 and ships, was now rising to such an enormous amount that the 
 national Treasury was drying up by degrees and the finances 
 after the Restoration gave more difficulty. In addition to 
 this, the machine-making industry in Japan in those days was in 
 a very primitive state, and there were found only two or three 
 military factories established under the Shogunate that could 
 be reckoned under the name of machine-making industry. 
 As the leaders, engineers and workmen were all without much 
 experience in the industry, there was no likelihood of the work 
 being mastered and advanced. And, though fortunately 
 some European countries had enough good will to send expe- 
 rienced officers and engineers and give every assistance in de- 
 veloping the military industry, and all of these efforts doubt- 
 less brought about ultimate advancement in the industries of 
 this country at large, yet the difficulty was that, owing to the 
 secrecy observed by every country in matters relating to 
 military industry, it was almost impossible for the mechanical 
 learner to get at the secret of the thing desired, as in the case 
 of other industries. These facts retarded the industry very 
 much. 
 
 This condition continued for rather a long time after the 
 Restoration, and the development in military industry was all 
 the slower. Under those circumstances, most of the goods re- 
 quired in the Japanese military system, especially arms and 
 warships, which occupy the important places, for the period 
 from the Restoration to the Sino-Japanese War, had to be 
 bought from foreign markets. 
 
 A few years before the Sino-Japanese War, about the time 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 29 
 
 that the Japanese constitution was promulgated, an advance 
 in miUtary industry gradually became noticeable, due to the 
 tendency of the time, in which general progress in industry was 
 being made, and also due to the improvement of the Imperial 
 finances. In the following paragraphs will be found military 
 industry and naval industry separately treated. 
 
 Industries of the Army 
 
 The factories under the military administration in existence 
 during the period between the Restoration of Meiji and the 
 Sino- Japanese War were arsenals in Tokyo and Osaka, prede- 
 cessors of the present ones, and the woolen cloth factory at 
 Senju, Tokyo. The former was to manufacture and repair 
 arms, ammunitions, ignition tools, implements, materials, etc., 
 and the latter to manufacture woolen cloth used for military 
 uniforms and other woolen goods also a part of the military 
 outfit. 
 
 Of this latter factory enough will be written under the head- 
 ing of "The Clothing Industry" in a subsequent chapter, and 
 therefore we will not go further into this, but will give some 
 account of the former ones here as our chief subject. 
 
 As was shown in the introduction, the manufacturing of 
 arms, ammunition, ignition tools, etc., in Western style had 
 its beginning before the Restoration, so that the predecessor 
 of both the arsenals of Tokyo and Osaka succeeded the factory 
 and the work performed by the Tokugawa Shogunate. After 
 a good many alterations, abolitions, combinations and separa- 
 tions gone through in that transitional period at the beginning 
 of the Meiji Era which extends from the old age over to the new, 
 in October, 12 Meiji (1879), the Tokyo Arsenal and the Osaka 
 Arsenal appeared, which had their business and working sys- 
 tems well arranged ; and thenceforth to the time of the Sino- 
 Japanese War, some other reforms having been made, they 
 saw their work gradually developing. 
 
 Before the development of the manufacturing of arms, am- 
 munition and ignition tools is further mentioned, an outline of 
 the history of each of the two arsenals running over the above 
 
 \ 
 
30 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 period will now be presented under two subheadings, the 
 Tokyo Arsenal and the Osaka Arsenal, each divided into three 
 periods of time according to the changes undergone from the 
 beginning of the work. 
 
 Weapon Factories 
 
 (I) The Tokyo Arsenal and Its Predecessor. Period of the 
 Arms Office and the Arsenal. — In January, i Meiji (1868), 
 naval and military sections were established which were 
 changed in February to the Bureau of Military Affairs. In 
 the intercalary April ^ the bureau was closed, and an official of 
 military affairs was appointed who took charge of the two bu- 
 reaus of the army and navy and four offices of Fortification, 
 Arms, Warships and Horses. The Arms Office was to admin- 
 ister the business relating to military arms and the navy, and 
 to unify them. In order to collect arms it undertook the 
 buying up of the factories for manufacturing or repairing arms 
 that had hitherto been established by clans. 
 
 For this purpose, first of all, it bought up the Sekiguchi fac- 
 tory in Koishikawa, Tokyo, worked by the Tokugawa Shogun- 
 ate, and set it to manufacturing arms as a government organ. 
 This was the pioneer in manufacturing arms after the Restora- 
 tion and at the same time the origin of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In November, 2 Meiji (1869), the Arms Office was closed, 
 and in place of it the arsenal was established in February, 3 
 Meiji (1870). In October of the same year, some of thework- 
 shops of the Sekiguchi factory were moved partly to the site of 
 the former high explosives mill inside of Takebashi Gate, and 
 partly to that old place of Imperial inspection at Fukiage, and 
 a part of the arms were manufactured in them. 
 
 In July, 4 Meiji (1871), the business office of the arsenal and 
 the workshops inside of Takebashi Gate were moved to the 
 grounds of the old mansion of the Mito clan on the outside of 
 Koishikawa Gate, and the old buildings in the enclosure were 
 used as working places and warehouses. 
 
 * According to the old calendar in Japan, where 30 days were given to every 
 month, there was a sort of leap year which contained a month more than the 
 common year. The month as such was called an intercalary month. 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 3 1 
 
 In November of the same year, the training institute for 
 small arms, which was the commencement of the education of 
 the artillery artificers and the origin of the Artillery Artificer 
 Training School was set up. 
 
 In July, 5 Meiji (1872), a sum of over 34,500 ryo was appro- 
 priated for building the small arms factory, and construction 
 was immediately started. 
 
 After April, 4 Meiji (1871), the manufacture of arms in the 
 whole country was carried on under the sole management of 
 the arsenal. 
 
 In August, 7 Meiji (1874), the ground of the Itabashi pow- 
 der mill was settled upon. 
 
 In January, 8 Meiji (1875), a machine house for small arms 
 and the heat tinting works were built. 
 
 Period 0} the Head Arsenal. — In February, 8 Meiji (1875), 
 the regime of the arsenal was revised and regulations for 
 the Ordnance Committee and the head and branch arsenal 
 were enacted ; thereby the head arsenal of the First Ordnance 
 Committee, chiefly in charge of the manufacturing and repair- 
 ing of ignition tools, ammunition, other arms and materials 
 was established in Tokyo. 
 
 The organization of the head arsenal was as follows: 
 
 Head Arsenal 
 
 Head Office 
 
 Head Bureau 
 Bureau of Examination 
 , Bureau of Inspection of Material 
 
 Small arms works 
 High explosive mill 
 ir-,^+^...Vo J Saddle works 
 ^^'^t*'"^^-- Timber works 
 
 I Tempering works 
 [ Iron works 
 
 ^ Itabashi Factory Powder Mill 
 
 In March, 8 Meiji (1875), the powder mill in the Itabashi 
 works was established. 
 
 In December of the same year, the drying place of mercuric 
 fulminate was built in the head arsenal. 
 
 In June, 9 Meiji (1876), the small arms forge, the ammuni- 
 tion factory and the fire arrow factory were built in the head 
 arsenal. 
 
32 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In December of the same year, the equipment of the Itabashi 
 powder mill was completed. 
 
 As the work in the high explosive mill increased owing to the 
 Satsuma Rebellion in February, lo Meiji (1877), the machines 
 for manufacturing in the high explosive mill were multiplied 
 in the head arsenal. But as those were yet insufficient to fill 
 the demand, a temporary high explosive mill was established 
 on the Koishikawa parade ground (the site of the present 
 Misakicho, Kanda). 
 
 The workmen employed in the head arsenal during the war 
 exceeded five hundred a day, so that some extra female hands 
 were engaged for the work, which marked the beginning of the 
 employment of girls in military works in Japan. In June, the 
 enlargement of all the mills in the arsenal was completed. In 
 the same month, on account of the war, the quantity of the 
 ammunition manufactured was so great that the magazines 
 were feared to be too small to take it all in, and special powder 
 magazines were built at Aoyama and Izumishinden. The 
 number of powder mills was also increased in the Itabashi 
 Branch Arsenal and some newly set up on the ground reserved 
 for military use at Takinogawa. 
 
 In March, 11 Meiji (1878), the Takinogawa Branch Bureau 
 of the powder mill was established in the village of Takinogawa. 
 
 In 12 Meiji (1879), the finance law was revised, in which the 
 arsenal expenses that had been treated under the General 
 Account were removed to the Special Account as "Payment 
 for Works." In September of the same year the work of 
 manufacturing at the Takinogawa Branch Works was com- 
 menced. 
 
 Period of the Tokyo Arsenal. — In October, 12 Meiji (1879), 
 arsenal regulations were enacted by which the head arsenal 
 was closed and the Tokyo Arsenal was settled on that site, 
 and the business of the old arsenal was divided into two parts, 
 of which one was put under the charge of the Tokyo Arsenal, 
 consisting principally of the manufacturing and repairing of 
 arms and ammunition, and the other was put in charge of 
 the headquarters of the first Ordnance Committee, consisting 
 of the storing and distribution of arms. 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 33 
 
 The organization of the Tokyo Arsenal at that time was as 
 follows : 
 
 Office of general management 
 Small arms mill 
 Ammunition factory 
 Tokyo Arsenal \ "^gh explosive mill 
 Gun repainng mill 
 , Powder mill 
 
 Department in charge of apprentices 
 [ Accountant's office 
 
 In the same month the preparatory work of the establish- 
 ment of the Iwabana powder mill was started. 
 
 In March, 13 Meiji (1880), ground for the same powder mill 
 was purchased, and in May construction was commenced. 
 
 In August, 14 Meiji (1881), the construction of the ammuni- 
 tion factory and the installation of the machinery were com- 
 pleted. 
 
 In October, 15 Meiji (1882), manufacturing at the Iwabana 
 powder mill was commenced. 
 
 In January, 16 Meiji (1883), the name of the powder mill 
 attached to the Tokyo Arsenal was changed to the Itabashi 
 powder mill. 
 
 In March, 17 Meiji (1884), the arsenal regulations were re- 
 vised and a part of the system of the organization of the arsenal 
 was changed. The special change made was that the educa- 
 tion of the apprentices that had hitherto been given in the 
 arsenal was set apart from the system, afterwards to be given 
 at a schoolhouse built separately. 
 
 In 18 Meiji (1885), the scale of the small arms mill, high 
 explosive mill, etc., was enlarged. 
 
 In 19 Meiji (1886), the ammunition factory was enlarged 
 and some newly designed machines were installed. 
 
 In April, 20 Meiji (1887), the payment for the expenses of 
 the arsenal, which, according to the method previously pur- 
 sued, had in all cases been taken out of the expense account 
 for works was discontinued, and thereafter all except the ex- 
 penses needed directly for the works were defrayed out of the 
 general expense account. 
 
 In November, the Itabashi powder mill was enlarged and 
 adopted steam as its motive power by installing steam engines 
 and boilers. 
 
34 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In March, 22 Meiji (1889), the use in the army of the rifle 
 of the old Murata type was discontinued and the magazine 
 rifle of the Murata type was adopted, in consequence of which 
 the system of the small arms mill of the Tokyo Arsenal was 
 altered. 
 
 In March, 23 Meiji (1890), the finance law of military works 
 was enacted, in which it was arranged that all fixed and work- 
 ing capital was to be given over to the arsenal and the expenses 
 for the works were to be paid out of the income from the work 
 account and miscellaneous income account thereof, that is to 
 say, the law adopted a special account system. 
 
 In April of the same year, for financial reasons, a part of 
 the gun repairing factory was closed and leased to the public. 
 
 In August of the same year, the arsenal regulations were 
 revised, by which the name of the high explosive factory was 
 changed to the ignition tools manufactory and the gun repair- 
 ing factory to the factory for gun accessories. 
 
 In November, 24 Meiji (1891), a part of the arsenal regula- 
 tions was revised, in which the Meguro powder mill that had 
 hitherto been under the jurisdiction of the Navy Department 
 was removed to that of the War Department and attached to 
 the Tokyo Arsenal; but, owing to the failure of the budget for 
 the fiscal year of 25 Meiji (1892), it was not put under the new 
 control until April of 26 Meiji (1893). 
 
 In May of 26 Meiji (1893), the factories for manufacturing 
 gun cotton and smokeless powder were built in the Itabashi 
 powder mill. 
 
 In December of the same year, the ignition tools manufac- 
 tory in the arsenal was closed and its works were combined 
 with the ammunition factory. 
 
 In the same month, in the manufactory for gun accessories 
 a delicate instrument factory for manufacturing range finders, 
 training gears and other field glasses was built under the guid- 
 ance of an Italian major of artillery, Bracialini. 
 
 In April of 27 Meiji (1894), the gun cotton factory and the 
 smokeless powder factory of the Itabashi powder mill were 
 combined under the name of the third factory, and the 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 35 
 
 Taklnogawa branch was changed to the name of the Takino- 
 gawa powder mill. 
 
 (II) The Osaka Arsenal and Its Predecessor. The Period 
 of the Arsenal and the Ordnance Factory. — In February of 3 
 Meiji (1870), the arsenal was established under the jurisdic- 
 tion of the Military (Army and Navy) Department on the 
 site of the rice granary in the inner citadel of the Osaka castle ; 
 machinery fitted up in the Nagasaki iron foundry that had 
 been directed by the Tokugawa Shogunate, together with 
 some of the workmen of the same foundry, were brought into 
 service there, and in April business was begun, for which the 
 old guard house within the Gate of Aoyaguchi of the Osaka 
 castle was put to use as the provisional office; in June the 
 arsenal was removed to the factory just built in the Osaka 
 castle ground, and there the work was commenced. This was 
 the origin of the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In February of 5 Meiji (1872), the name of the Osaka 
 Arsenal was changed to the Ordnance Factory, its organization 
 Jbeing as follows: 
 
 Accountant's office 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Forge 
 
 Lathing works 
 
 Leather ware works 
 
 Timber works 
 
 Ordnance Factory 
 
 The Period of the Branch Arsenal. — In February, 8 Meiji 
 '(1890), the regulations of the Ordnance Committee and the 
 head and branch arsenal were enacted, by which the ordnance 
 factory was given the new name of the branch arsenal, being 
 organized as follows: 
 
 (First Section (General Administration) 
 Second Section (Accounting) 
 Section of Construction 
 
 'Branch Arsenal 
 
 Second Bureau ( |f^!!°" «J Inspection 
 \ Section of Storage 
 
 Copper gun foundry 
 High explosive mill 
 Saddle works 
 Timber works 
 Forge 
 
 Kagoshima Branch Factory ( High explosive mill 
 
 * ^ \ Ignition tools manufactory 
 
 Wakayama Branch Factory — high explosive mill 
 
36 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 / At that time, the area of the grounds of these works and the 
 connected grounds which were administered by the branch 
 arsenal was above 276,000 tsuho (about 230 acres) in all, and 
 above 12,900 tsuho (about 11 acres) of it was the lot for the 
 buildings. 
 
 In October of the same year, for a certain administrative rea- 
 son, the Wakayama branch factory was closed. 
 
 In November, 9 Meiji (1876), the management of accounts 
 of the branch arsenal that had hitherto been under the charge 
 of the paymasters of the Osaka garrison was changed, and an 
 independent official was appointed in the branch arsenal. 
 
 As in February of 10 Meiji (1877) the Satsuma Rebellion 
 took place, the Hagi small arms factory was moved to the 
 jurisdiction of the branch arsenal, where in addition to this 
 more high explosive mills were built to make quickly small 
 arms and ammunition. 
 
 The Period of the Osaka Arsenal. — In October, 12 Meiji 
 (1879), the arsenal regulations were enacted, by which the 
 Osaka Branch Arsenal was closed and the Osaka Arsenal was 
 established, which was organized as follows: 
 
 Section of general management 
 Gun works 
 Shot works 
 Osaka Arsenal 1 Vehicle works 
 
 High explosive mill 
 Small arms repairing works 
 , Department of accounts 
 
 The business relating to the storing and supply of arms 
 which up to that time was that of the Osaka Branch Arsenal 
 and the ordnance and powder magazines belonging to this 
 business, together with the arms, ammunition, etc., stored in 
 them, were then put under the jurisdiction of the head office of 
 the second Ordnance Committee. 
 
 In January, 15 Meiji (1884), the gun manufactory building, 
 the construction of which was begun in 8 Meiji (1875), was 
 completed, and in February the work of gun making was 
 commenced. 
 
 In April of the same year, an institute for the examination of 
 guns was established on the coast of Otsugawa in the Izumi 
 
RESTORATION TO SIN O- JAPANESE WAR 37 
 
 Province and was named the Otsugawa Gun Examination 
 Institute. 
 
 In June, 17 Meiji (1884), the small arms repairing factory 
 was closed and its works were combined with the vehicle works. 
 
 In September, work was started on an enlargement of the 
 buildings of the gun works and the vehicle works. 
 
 In January, 18 Meiji (1885), for the purpose of manufactur- 
 ing shells for coast guns the shot works were enlarged. ; : 
 
 In September, a railway was laid in the arsenal for the first 
 time to facilitate the transportation of materials and manu- 
 factures. 
 
 In February, 19 Meiji (1886), the construction of the works 
 for making the gun carriage for coast guns was completed, and 
 manufacture was at once begun. 
 
 In March, the Department of Accounts was closed, and the 
 vice superintendent had charge of the accounting thereafter. 
 
 In January, 20 Meiji (1884), the shell lathing works were 
 completed, and lathing work thereafter made great progress. 
 
 In January, 21 Meiji (1888), a laboratory was established 
 which was perfectly equipped for all chemical experiments on 
 materials, as qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, etc. 
 
 In 22 Meiji (1889), a railway was laid connecting every 
 factory and magazine in the enclosure to facilitate the storage 
 of materials and manufactures and thereafter transportation 
 became very easy. 
 
 In April, 23 Meiji (1890), the finance law for the military 
 works took effect, and all incomes and expenditures of the ar- 
 senal were to be treated as special accounts. 
 
 In August, the arsenal regulations were revised, by which 
 inspectors of manufactures were appointed and branch offices 
 of the arsenal were established at the cities of Nagoia, Hiro- 
 shima and Kumamoto. 
 
 In November, 24 Meiji (1891), another gun examination 
 institute was established on the coast of Haruki, Izumi Prov- 
 ince. 
 
 In December, 26 Meiji (1893), the arsenal regulations were 
 revised by transferring the charge of inspection to the Depart- 
 
38 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 partment of Inspection, and the delicate instrument factory 
 newly established was attached thereto. 
 
 The above is a rough account of the history of the Japanese 
 military factories (excepting the Senju woolen cloth factory) 
 for the period running from the Restoration of Meiji to the 
 Sino-Japanese War. We shall next see how the manufacture 
 of arms, ammunition and ignition tools was developed during 
 the same period. 
 
 A rms 
 
 The history of the military factories in the early part of 
 the era of Meiji is as stated above. As to the arms industry 
 carried on in these factories during that time, the new govern- 
 ment of Meiji established the Arms Office and worked on the 
 plan of making the arms uniform by collecting under its con- 
 trol those arms-making and repairing establishments begun by 
 the clans, and also devoting itself to the concentration of arms 
 and machines. It was only the repairing and remodeling of 
 small arms, and the manufacturing of harnesses, accessories 
 to arms and simple cleaning implements that the military 
 factories found to do during that time, and consequently the 
 work done by these factories made little advance. Among 
 the small arms that were in those years collected at the Sekigu- 
 chi manufactory administered by the arsenal, the arms which 
 were of comparatively new types and preferred by clans much 
 more than any others were the Gewehr, the Minie and the 
 Enfield. The match-lock was not used much, as its ineffective- 
 ness was known early in the latter days of the Shogunate, and, 
 in using the rifle with firing mechanism, the clans were not 
 slow in trying to get ahead of one another. Though the above 
 three varieties of the rifle were muzzle-loading, they were 
 furnished with firing mechanism. As these muskets mostly 
 prevailed before the Restoration, not a few clans had their 
 workmen imitate them; but, the art not being yet in an ad- 
 vanced state, there were only a few who had a thorough knowl- 
 edge of manufacturing these muskets of new types, and it was 
 especially difficult to find workmen skilled in it in those days 
 of the Arms Office at the beginning of Meiji. In addition to 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 39 
 
 this, the government of that time was devoting itself to the 
 concentration and arrangement of the arms and factories in 
 clans and could not engage in any other work. These are the 
 reasons why the manufacture of these muskets could not yet 
 find opportunity to develop. This is true not only for the 
 infantry rifle, but also with the cavalry pistol and the carbine 
 that were then already introduced, and also with the guns. 
 As to the guns, most of them that were owned by clans toward 
 the end of the Shogunate were smooth barreled and of do- 
 mestic manufacture of dates before the era of Kyoho. But 
 among those that were collected from clans by the Meiji 
 Government there were also not a few guns of European 
 manufacture purchased after the era of Tempo. Besides 
 these, some guns of new types were also manufactured by the 
 Shogunate and some powerful clans about the end of the Sho- 
 gunate ; and also some rifled guns were made at those domestic 
 manufactories after their importation into Japan in the era 
 of Gwanji. However, the guns manufactured in Japan were 
 very imperfect; therefore it was necessary to look to foreign 
 teachers for help, if any powerful gun serv^iceable for actual 
 warfare was to be prepared. And here again as the Restora- 
 tion of Meiji came, then the government's inability to divide 
 its time with any business other than the one that was pressing 
 it in those years made the matter the more difficult. Thus 
 in the age of the Arms Office gun making in this country was 
 left almost at a standstill and naturally guns in military use 
 then, such as field, mountain, siege and fortress guns, were far 
 from being uniform. 
 
 When in. 3 Meiji (1870), the arsenal was established, the 
 Enfield was adopted as the infantry musket, and next the 
 4-pound rifled gun of French type was adopted in the follow- 
 ing year to organize some field artillery and mountain artillery 
 battalions, and then the make of the guns was made uniform. 
 Thus the preparations for arms manufacture by the military 
 authorities was begun, the Tokyo Arsenal to make chiefly 
 small arms, and the Osaka Arsenal chiefly guns. 
 
 In 3 Meiji (1870), Colonel Margritte and others were en- 
 
40 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 gaged as military teachers from France and were put in charge 
 of the reformation of the military regime and also in charge of 
 the training in arms making. 
 
 In June of the same year, work in forging, casting, lathing 
 and pattern making was started at the arsenal in Osaka, which 
 was at first chiefly engaged in the repairing of the existing 
 arms and in preparation for making guns, vehicles, shots, 
 ignition tools, etc. The expenditures of the arsenal in Osaka 
 were then only 10,000 yen per month; coal for fuel was pur- 
 chased of the navy; and for most of the other important ma- 
 terials they had to rely upon foreign countries. How defec- 
 tive the arrangement was at the time may be easily 
 conjectured from these facts. 
 
 In October, 4 Meiji (1871), Philippe Jauly, a Belgian fore- 
 man of small arms-making artificers, was engaged as a teacher 
 of small arms making at the Tokyo Arsenal, and his services 
 were continued until April, 8 Meiji (1875). 
 
 In February, 5 Meiji (1872), at the Osaka ordnance factory, 
 for the first time a 4-pound mountain gun of French style was 
 made, the copper used for it being wholly of domestic product. 
 
 In April, 5 Meiji (1872), an artillery captain by the name 
 of Lebon and four noncommissioned officers were engaged from 
 France as teachers of industrial education, and in September 
 Pironnet, a Belgian mechanical engineer, was engaged. 
 
 In April, 6 Meiji (1873), a set of machines needed for re- 
 modeling Enfield into Allumette was purchased for $20,000. 
 
 In June of the same year, 4-pound field guns of French 
 style were for the first time forged at the Osaka ordnance 
 factory. 
 
 In July, 8 Meiji (1875), the wood working mill of the Tokyo 
 Head Arsenal was furnished with hydraulic sawing and lath- 
 ing machines, and also steam power was introduced for the 
 big saws and planes, by which the cutting and planing works 
 were started. 
 
 In September, Lemoine, a French caster, was engaged, who 
 remained in charge until April, 10 Meiji (1877). 
 
 In October, the casting mill of the Tokyo Head Arsenal was 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 4I, 
 
 furnished with smelting furnaces, fitted up with machine fans, 
 and steam grinding machines, which were used for breaking up 
 earth and sand for molds, were fitted up. All of which were a 
 great saving of labor in comparison with the method in use up 
 to that time, and made quite a new phase in the industry. 
 
 In December, a French foreman of smiths by the name of 
 Bacquet was engaged, who was in service until April, 10 Meiji 
 
 (1877). 
 
 In April, 9 Meiji (1876), the Itabashi powder mill began 
 its work of powder making (for small arms). In July the 
 small arms works in the Tokyo Head Arsenal manufactured 
 rifles for the first time. In September, a riot arose in the 
 Yamaguchi and Kumamoto prefectures, and the repairing of 
 Snyders and Allumettes was hastily made. 
 . In February, 10 Meiji (1877), the Satsuma Rebellion broke 
 out, and the Tokyo Head Arsenal made an extraordinary in- 
 crease in workmen for making and repairing arms, and pushed 
 the work day and night. As to the small arms, it was so ar- 
 ranged that the Enfields that were hitherto remodeled into 
 Allumettes were made into Snyders during the war. The 
 Osaka Branch Arsenal was also kept very busy in arms making 
 for eight months until the rebellion was quelled in September, 
 the workmen in all the factories continuing night w^ork and 
 devoting themselves to their duty with all their might and 
 main. During this disturbance the Hagi small arms factory 
 was put under the jurisdiction of the Osaka Branch Arsenal 
 and the Allumettes were made there. All this work for the 
 war, in which enormous quantities of arms were made and 
 repaired, was accomplished so remarkably well that it con- 
 tributed a great deal of study and experience to the military in- 
 dustry, putting it on a new path of progress and development. 
 
 In December, machinery for making coast and siege guns 
 was purchased from Europe. 
 
 In January, 11 Meiji (1878), drop hammer works were 
 started in the musket works. In this year, the Satsuma 
 Rebellion came to an end, and the damaged arms were repaired 
 and the hand guns used in the w^ar were changed to others. 
 
42 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In October of the same year, selected pieces from among a 
 lot of the old Enfields were remodeled into Snyders, The 
 wood for the stock of the military rifle, of which there had been 
 no particular kind fixed, was, as the consequence of study, 
 decided for the future to be beech, walnut also being used. 
 Also the lance for the cavalry was up to this time of no fixed 
 make ; therefore a system was arranged by which the old style 
 lances were gradually changed to new style ones. In a word, 
 in that year new arms were made or the old ones repaired ac- 
 cording to the various improvements resulting from the ex- 
 perience obtained in the Satsuma Rebellion. 
 
 In March, 13 Meiji (1880), the Murata rifle made by In- 
 fantry Major Murata Tsuneyoshi from his own design was 
 adopted as the military rifle of Japan. The Murata rifle, 
 \ which was a great invention in the Japanese military industry, 
 \ was not only the first small arms made in the new style from a 
 Vjapanese design, but it was also the origin of all the domestic 
 ri^es made thereafter. In the same month work was started 
 on remodeling Chassepot rifles into Muratas. 
 
 In February, 15 Meiji (1882), the manufacturing work of 
 the ordnance factory in the Osaka Arsenal was started. In 
 the same month, a bronze howitzer of 15 cm., the first breech- 
 loading gun ever made in Japan, was cast. 
 
 In September, in the Osaka Arsenal the building of a duodec- 
 agonal reverberatory furnace was started, after the comple- 
 tion of which work was commenced in the making of the steel 
 bronze gun by Japanese students who had studied abroad and 
 had experience in making it with the furnace. Thus great 
 progress in gun making took place in Japan. 
 
 In January, 16 Meiji (1883), the pattern of the cavalry 
 rifle was fixed. Thanks to the well arranged system of works 
 in every one of its factories and the great progress made in the 
 skill of its engineers and workmen since July of the previous 
 year, the Tokyo Arsenal succeeded in that year in remodeling 
 over 8,000 Chassepots, and making over 7,000 Murata rifles. 
 
 In January of the same year, in the Osaka Arsenal, barrels 
 for the 7 cm. steel bronze mountain guns were made and in 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 43 
 
 February carriage for the same; in April, the manufacture of 
 steel bronze field guns and 12 cm. steel bronze cannons was 
 started, also in the same arsenal. 
 
 The manufacture of small arms in the Tokyo Arsenal in 1 7 
 Meiji (1884) increased in comparison with the former year, the 
 producing power of rifles having now reached 30,000 per year. 
 That was due to the new arrangement of rifling the barrel 
 in the arsenal and to its various machines being put in good 
 order. 
 
 In April, 17 Meiji (1884), Italian Artillery Major Pompeio 
 Grillo was engaged as a teacher in gun making. 
 
 In June, in the Osaka Arsenal the trial making of 19 cm. 
 and 24 cm. long cannons and 28 cm. howitzers was started. 
 
 In September, Antonio Fornelis, an Italian engineer and 
 Giacomo Hisso, an assistant engineer, were engaged. 
 
 In October, a steel bronze gun press, newly arrived from 
 Europe, was fixed in its place. 
 
 In 18 Meiji (1885), some improvements were made in the tail 
 body, bayonet, etc., of the Murata rifle, and the new rifle was 
 named the Murata rifle of the i8th year style. The amount 
 of arms made in tha t financial year was larger than in the year 
 )revious''onaccount""bf the annually expanding armament,"^ 
 and the Murata rifles niade in the Tokyo Arsenal exceeded 
 28,700. In addition to tfiis, the gradual improvement of the 
 method of making arn>» and the skill of the officers, engineers 
 atrd- workm errTnaHe the progress of the work remarkably 
 rapid, and consequently increased the amount of work done 
 in a fixed number of hours in the day, while the defects and 
 wastes in manufacture were lessened and naturally the rate 
 of expenditure was reduced, resulting in the diminished cost 
 of manufacture. 
 
 In January 19 cm. frame gun-carriage cannons, in August 
 28 cm. frame gun-carriage howitzers and in December 24 cm. 
 frame gun-carriage mortars, all of cast iron, were cast for the 
 first time in the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In the same arsenal, in February, 19 Meiji (1886), 24 cm. 
 frame gun-carriage cannons of cast iron, in May 15 cm. steel 
 
44 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 bronze cannons and mortars, and in July 24 cm. steel bronze 
 mortars were cast, all for the first time. 
 
 In October, magazine rifles were manufactured and their 
 testing was done in the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In January, 20 Meiji (1887), 19 cm. and 24 cm. cannons, 
 and the carriages and stocks of the 28 cm. howitzers were 
 made in the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 .In 21 Meiji (1888), the magazine rifle which had been in 
 course of study was tested with satisfactory results, giving op- 
 portunity to the military rifle to make further advance, and 
 thereupon the manufacture of the Murata simple rifle for 
 military use was discontinued. 
 
 In April, Italian Artillery Major Pompeio GrlUo, an instruc- 
 tor in the employment of Japan, and Antonio Fornelis, an 
 engineer from the same country, were released from their 
 offices owing to the termination of their contracts, and 
 Alexandro Quaratezy, an artillery major of the same country, 
 came as their successor. 
 
 In that year the Osaka Arsenal devoted itself to the making 
 of coast guns and their accessories, and arranged the machin- 
 ery for making more coast gun carriages, so that remarkable 
 progress was effected in these works. 
 
 In March, 22 Meiji (1887), the magazine rifle which was in 
 the course of trial making was adopted as the military rifle 
 and called the Murata magazine rifle, and from that time the 
 rifle factory of the Tokyo Arsenal discontinued making the 
 Murata simple rifle and was exclusively engaged in making the 
 Murata magazine rifle. In the same year, the gun repairing 
 works of the Tokyo Arsenal were engaged in manufacturing 
 machinery for powder making and a large quantity of harness, 
 and were kept very busy at that work. 
 
 In May, in the Osaka Arsenal the 12 cm. steel bronze can- 
 non gun carriage was made for the first time. In the same 
 year, this arsenal manufactured a large number of coast guns 
 for use in the coast batteries which had been constructed one 
 after another; this brought on a great development in gun 
 making work. The most remarkable development made was 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 45 
 
 the manufacture of the center pivots gun carriage for 24 cm. 
 cannon entirely of cast iron, when up to that time only frame 
 gun carriages were made. In March, 23 Meiji (1890), the 
 Osaka Arsenal cast a 19 cm. short firing gun for the first time. 
 In May, by altering the main part of the 24 cm. cannon, a 
 more powerful one was manufactured at the same arsenal. 
 
 According to the investigations made in November of the 
 same year, the guns of new models completed since the be- 
 ginning of manufacturing were as follows, from which we can 
 readily see what progress was then being made in this work: 
 
 Coast guns of every kind 114 
 
 Gun carriages for the above 76 
 
 Siege guns and garrison guns, together with their gun carriages . . 2 
 
 7 cm. mountain guns 251 
 
 Gun carriages for the above 277 
 
 7 cm. field guns 255 
 
 Gun carriages for the above 278 
 
 In July, 24 Meiji (1891), in the Osaka Arsenal 24 cm. and 
 28 cm. short firing guns were cast for the first time. 
 
 In January, 25 Meiji (1892), the Tokyo Arsenal made 1,000 
 small arms and 100 sabers for the Military Department of the 
 City of Melbourne, Australia, at its request, which was the 
 beginning in Japan of the manufacture of articles made on 
 commission for a foreign government. 
 
 In March, the Osaka Arsenal cast 9 cm. cannons and quick 
 firing guns of the same caliber, actually showing rapid progress 
 in gun making in Japan'. 
 
 In August, the arsenal engaged an Italian artillery major by 
 the name of Scipione Bracialini, under whom it made designs 
 for the coast range finder, laying gear, field glass and models, 
 and manufactured said articles. 
 
 In July, 26 Meiji (1893), the Osaka Arsenal, in compliance 
 with the request of the governor of Manila, a Portuguese 
 colony, made some 7 cm. mountain guns, which were the first 
 guns made to order for any foreign country. 
 
 In the same year, the Tokyo Arsenal made a revolver called 
 the revolver of the 26th year model, on which much study and 
 trial making had been expended. 
 
 As in 27 Meiji (1894) matters between China and Japan had 
 
46 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 been approaching a crisis, the business of the arsenal grew 
 active, with an increase of materials and workmen, and of 
 factories and machinery ; and when at last the war commenced 
 in June there ensued a great expansion of the military in- 
 dustry. 
 
 Ammunition and Ignition Tools 
 
 The beginning of the era of Meiji, in which the Arms Office 
 was in control, was, as has been said in the section under 
 "Arms," an age of construction in the history of the military 
 industry; and the works carried on by the Arms Office in the 
 making of ammunition and ignition tools in that period were 
 only those of the old powder mills or high explosive mills 
 which were passed over from the Shogunate and clans; the 
 manufacture of supplies was mainly of ammunition used for 
 the old rifle and was done on a small scale, as all the arrange- 
 ments were defective. But the industry began to develop 
 gradually when in 3 Meiji (1870) an arsenal was established 
 and next the pattern of the arms for military use was fixed. 
 In the following pages will be described the development of 
 the industry after the establishment of the arsenal. At the 
 time of the establishment of the arsenal in Tokyo in February, 
 3 Meiji (1870), the bullets for the various kinds of rifle were 
 made only as needed, but after the adoption of the Enfield 
 in the same year as the regulation military rifle, bullets for 
 the same rifle were chiefly made and those for others were 
 made only as supplementary. The bullet adopted at that 
 time was the cast oval bullet of lead. 
 
 In the same month the arsenal in Osaka was established. 
 It commenced its work in June, and in the intercalary tenth 
 month started its stuffing of gun powder and made frictional 
 percussion caps, cartridges for the Chassepot, cartridges for 
 maneuvers, fire arrows, etc., which was the first stuffing of 
 gun powder done in the arsenal. 
 
 In November, 5 Meiji (1872), the ordnance factory in 
 Osaka made for the first time the common shell and shrapnel 
 for the four-pound mountain gun of French type. The pig 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 47 
 
 iron and zinc plate used for them were entirely foreign. Shells 
 used for guns of those days were generally those that were 
 studded. 
 
 In February, 7 Meiji (1874), the ordnance factory made the 
 common shell for the 12 cm. mortar, in x^ugust the same for 
 the 13 cm. mortar and in December the Desmarets fuse for 
 the four-pound mountain gun of French type, all for the first 
 time. 
 
 In September, 8 Meiji (1875), the machine for making the 
 Snyder shell arrived at the Tokyo Head Arsenal from England, 
 so that the arsenal made about 50,000 of the same shell daily. 
 
 In October, the same arsenal engaged Partray, a French 
 foreman, as teacher in stuffing gun powder. 
 
 In April, 9 Meiji (1876), the manufacture of the rifle powder 
 was commenced at the Itabashi powder mill. 
 
 In September, on account of the riots in the prefectures of 
 Yamaguchi and Kumamoto, every powder mill was hastily put 
 to the making of ammunition for the Snyder and Allumette, 
 and in a few days' time a large amount was manufactured. 
 
 In February, 10 Meiji (1877), as the Satsuma Rebellion 
 broke out and the demand for ammunition for the Snyder had 
 greatly increased, the powder mills of both the Tokyo Head 
 Arsenal and Osaka Branch Arsenal increased their machinery; 
 and besides, in Tokyo, a temporary high explosive mill was set 
 up, by which a large amount of bullets and fire arrows for mili- 
 tary use was made ; while in the Osaka Branch Arsenal many 
 a shell for the field and mountain guns was manufactured. 
 As the manufacture of ammunition in this war needed to be 
 done in great haste, it was carried on day and night, with the 
 result that it amounted to a great quantity and consequent 
 gave great advantage to the industry. 
 
 In April, 10 Meiji (1877), the Itabashi powder mill made for 
 the first time the big grain powder (for the gun), the powder 
 No. I (for the gun), No. 2 (for the rifle), No. 3 (for the rifle) 
 and the powder for the fuses. 
 
 In October, 11 Meiji (1878), the method was fixed by which 
 paper was to be pasted over with gum-lac within and without 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
48 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 the small arms cartridge case; the shrapnel shell for the four- 
 pound gun, which was previously made partly of wrought 
 iron, was to be made in future of cast iron only. Besides, 
 many improvements were made in the manufacture of am- 
 munition and ignition tools, based upon the experience ob- 
 tained from the Satsuma Rebellion. 
 
 In March, 13 Meiji (1880), a German by the name of Heer 
 was engaged to give instruction in the manufacture of the 
 cartridge case of the rifle. 
 
 In July, 14 Meiji (1881), in the ammunition factory of the 
 Tokyo Arsenal cartridges of the Murata magazine rifle were 
 made on trial ; in October the rolling work of bronze was begun 
 by which the manufactures of the cartridge case and bronze 
 for material (for making guns, etc.) was commenced, and in 
 December, the brass plate was cast for the first time. 
 
 In January, 15 Meiji (1882), the pattern was fixed for the 
 cartridge of the Murata rifle ^nd in April its manufacture was 
 begun in the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In February of the same year, the Osaka Arsenal manufac- 
 tured the common shell and shrapnel shell, both of a new pat- 
 tern, for the 7 cm. steel bronze field and mountain gun. At 
 that time the muzzle-loading rifle was changed to the breech- 
 loading, and pressed shot was adopted as the pattern, which 
 was a mantled shot made after the Krupp's, the mantle being 
 of an alloy of lead and zinc. 
 
 In 16 Meiji (1883), considerable rearrangement in the work 
 of cartridge making was made, and this, together with the 
 fact that the employes were experienced in the work, brought 
 up the amount of cartridges and blank cartridges of the 
 Murata rifle manufactured to an enormous quantity. 
 
 In February, 16 Meiji (1883), in the Osaka Arsenal the 
 time fuse and percussion for the 7 cm. steel bronze mountain 
 guns were made; the former had a combustion range of 13 
 seconds and were the first compound fuses ever made in Japan. 
 In April, the common shell and shrapnel for the 12 cm. 
 cannon were made for the first time. 
 
 In October, 17 Meiji (1884), ^^ annealing furnace for the 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 49 
 
 cartridge case to be used In the ammunition factory was 
 devised, which introduced the use of gas instead of the old 
 charcoal. 
 
 In March, 18 Meiji (1885), the black powder for mines was 
 made for the first time at the Iwabana powder mill. This 
 year, owing to the ever-progressing skill in the work in the 
 ammunition factory, the experience in the casting and rolling 
 of bronze as material for the cartridge case, and various im- 
 provements gradually made in all connections, the waste of 
 the cartridge case in the manufacture greatly diminished, and 
 the production was so rapidly increased that it amounted in 
 the case of the cartridge case for the Murata rifle to-above 
 4,400,000, and in the case of the stuffing of cartridges ana\^ 
 blank cartridges for the same rifle to aboV^e 4,040,000; also 
 the percussion cap was hastily made on accbuiit_of the lar^ 
 demand of the garrisons. Further, an increase was made 
 over the previous year in the manufacture of the thin cartridge 
 case, friction tube, cartridge bag of various guns, and the 
 fuses of every kind, at the high explosive factory and in that 
 of powder of every kind, the refining of niter and sulphur, and 
 the making of charcoal, at the Itabashi powder mill. In the 
 same year, the gun repairing mill of the Tokyo Arsenal made 
 a satisfactory trial in casting the metal for the shrapnel for 
 the 7^ cm. Krupp gun by a combination of pig iron of domestic 
 production. Besides, in the Itabashi powder mill, a powder 
 adapted to the new 7 cm. field and mountain guns was made. 
 
 In August, 18 Meiji (1885), in the Osaka Arsenal the chilled- 
 iron shell for the 28 cm. cast-iron howitzer with band, and 
 common shell and chilled -iron shell for 29 cm. cast-iron cannon 
 with band were made for the first time. 
 
 In this year, the use of the old mantled shells was discon- 
 tinued, for they were imperfectly pressed and liable to explode, 
 and the copper driving band was adopted in their place. 
 
 In October, 19 Meiji (1886), in the Iwabana powder mill 
 the black powder for field and mountain guns was made for the 
 first time. 
 
 In January, 20 Meiji (1887), a shell-lathing shop was started 
 
50 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 in the Osaka Arsenal and the work in shell lathing therein was 
 done much more speedily. In July, in the same arsenal, base 
 fuses for the 19 cm., 24 cm. and 28 cm. guns were made for 
 the first time. 
 
 In 21 Meiji (1888), in the Osaka Arsenal, the machines for 
 making shells for the coast guns and especially those for mak- 
 ing fuses and driving bands were increased and so arranged 
 that great progress was made in this work. 
 
 In 22 Meiji (1889), in the ammunition factory and the high 
 explosive factory of the Tokyo Arsenal, the making of the 
 ammunition for the Murata magazine rifle and ignition tools 
 was begun. This year the high explosive factory began to try 
 the making of smokeless powder. 
 
 In March, 23 Meiji (1890), four Korean students were sent 
 to this country to study the art of the firing ordnance maker 
 and entered the Tokyo Arsenal. They were the first foreign 
 students sent there for such a purpose. 
 
 In August, at the Osaka Arsenal, a comparative test was 
 made of the shells made of the Italian Gregorini cast iron and 
 the Japanese cast iron of Kamaishi. The result clearly 
 showed no difference in all qualities between the two shells, 
 the Kamaishi iron having been proved to be good enough as a 
 material for the shells. 
 
 According to the investigations made in November of the 
 same year, the number of shells made in the Osaka Arsenal 
 since the beginning of the manufacture of shells for the guns of 
 the new pattern was as follows : 
 
 Shells for the various coast guns 2,248 
 
 Shells for siege guns and garrison guns 875 
 
 Shells of all kinds for 7 cm. field and mountain guns 370i756 
 
 Fuses of all kinds 300,238 
 
 In September, 25 Meiji (1892), in the Tokyo Arsenal, the 
 cartridges and blank cartridges for the Smith & Wesson re- 
 volver were made for the first time. 
 
 In November, in the Osaka Arsenal, the 30-second com- 
 pound fuse for the 12 cm. cannon was made for the first time. 
 The first compound fuse made in Japan was that for the 7 c-.m. 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 5 1 
 
 gun, having a combustion range of 13 seconds; the second 
 that of 30 Seconds, which followed the Italian system, 
 with some amendments, and adopted as the fuse for guns of 
 medium caliber; and the third that of 50 seconds, which was 
 made by taking the 30-second fuse as its base and increasing 
 the length of the fire channel to 50 seconds and weakening the 
 resistance of the suspender of the detonator in time fuse so as 
 to be acted upon by using even less powder than ever for the 
 cartridge of the mortar. 
 
 In January, 26 Meiji (1893), in the Osaka Arsenal, the 
 shrapnels for the 24 cm. cannon and for mortar were made for 
 the first time. 
 
 In April of the same year, the Meguro powder mill attached 
 to the Navy Department was put under the jurisdiction of the 
 Tokyo Arsenal, and thereafter the charge of making a part of 
 the powder used by the navy was taken by the arsenal. In 
 that month the making of cartridges for the Murata magazine 
 rifle was started. In July of the same year the making of am- 
 munition for the 7 cm. mountain gun was started in compli- 
 ance with the request of the governor of Manila, a Portuguese 
 colony. 
 
 In May, 27 Meiji (1894), the Osaka Arsenal cast the chilled- 
 iron shell for the 27 cm. cannon. Just then the Sino-Japanese 
 War was about to commence, and both the Tokyo and Osaka 
 Arsenals were becoming busy, the making of ammunition and 
 ignition tools especially showing the highest activity. 
 
 In May of the same year, the Itabashi powder mill started 
 the making of niter and gun cotton. 
 
 In August of the same year, the use of common powder for 
 the shell burster was discontinued, and in its place the yellow 
 powder made with improvement after study since 20 Meiji 
 (1887) was adopted. 
 
 Industries of the Navy 
 
 The Japanese naval industry before the Restoration of 
 Meiji was, as roughly described in the introduction, only in its 
 initial stage. All necessary arrangements were far from being 
 
52 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 perfect In those days, when domestic troubles and external 
 annoyances followed one another and threw obstacles in the 
 way of the unification and progress of the industry, making the 
 doings of the Shogunate and clans toward It very diverse. 
 The factories administered by the Shogunate at the time of 
 the Restoration were the Nagasaki Iron Works, the Yokosuka 
 Naval Arsenal, the, Uraga Dockyard, the Yokohama Factory, 
 etc.; and the principal factories run by clans were the Ishika- 
 wa-JIma Dockyard, the Hyogo Iron Works, the Kagoshlma 
 Dockyard, etc. All these were started to build and repair 
 warships and make guns for them. But of all the ships owned 
 by the Shogunate and clans since the new establishment of the 
 Japanese Navy (which were 20 warships and 95 ships for 
 military use, 115 in all), the greater part was purchased from 
 foreign countries and only ten or so were built at domestic 
 yards. Thus, though the naval Industry before the Restora- 
 tion served for laying the foundation for Its future work and 
 progress. It did no remarkable work In any direct manner. 
 And when the war of the Restoration came, people were 
 absorbed in warlike preparations, and such an afifalr as ship- 
 building was entirely forgotten, so that the Industry was 
 brought to a sudden standstill. Consequently the work done 
 In the four years between the Restoration and the establish- 
 ment of the Navy Department, that is, in the four years under 
 the administration of the Office of Military Affairs (from I 
 Meiji, or 1868, to July of the next year) and the administra- 
 tion of the Military and Navy Department (from July of 2 
 Meiji, or 1869, to February of 5 Meiji, or 1872) were Insignifi- 
 cant. The only things done in the interval were that the 
 name of the Ishlkawa-Jima Dockyard was altered In July of 4 
 Meiji (1871) to Factory of the Shipbuilding Bureau, and later 
 to Ship Administrative Bureau (Shusenryo) ; Hida-Hamagoro, 
 who had just returned from abroad, where he went to Inspect 
 the condition of the shipbuilding Industry some years before, 
 was appointed chief of the bureau; In the yard some petty 
 repairs (not fundamental repairing) of ships and the making 
 of some small ships and tools were done; and further In the 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 53 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, the Uraga Dockyard, etc., work 
 was continued as before. Thus in those periods there were 
 no industrial achievements that should be specially reported. 
 Therefore here will be mentioned only those after the estab- 
 lishment of the Navy Department in 5 Meiji (1872). To 
 make the development of the naval industry clearly under- 
 stood, it would be proper to treat the history of the expansion 
 and construction of the factories separately from that of the 
 development of the art of making ships and arms. For this 
 reason an outline of that part of the history of the Japanese 
 naval factories which runs from the establishment of the Navy 
 Department to the Sino-Japanese War will be given before 
 going on to describe the development of the shipbuilding 
 industry. 
 
 History of the Shipbuilding Factories 
 
 (I) The Ishikawa-Jima Ship Administrative Bureau. — In 
 5 Meiji (1872) the Military and Navy Department was closed 
 and the Navy Department was established, and as a conse- 
 quence the Ishikawa-Jima Ship Administrative Bureau was 
 brought under the jurisdiction of the Navy Department; but 
 as afterwards, when the plan of the naval enlargement was 
 completed, it was found that the working capacity of the bu- 
 reau was insufficient for the required service, its work was trans- 
 ferred to the charge of the new yard in Yokosuka, and there 
 being no longer any necessity for its existence as an independ- 
 ent establishment, in 9 Meiji (1876) it was combined with the 
 Tsukiji Arms Bureau with its machinery and buildings, and 
 then the work of the government in Ishikawa-Jima entirely 
 ceased. 
 
 (II) The Yokohama Factory. — It was established by the 
 Shogunate in i Keio (1865), was afterwards put under the 
 jurisdiction of the Industrial Department of the Meiji Govern- 
 ment, and in October of 5 Meiji (1872) was brought under that 
 of the Navy Department together with the Yokosuka Dock- 
 yard and attached to the Ship Administrative Bureau; but 
 soon the jurisdiction was once more changed, and in December 
 
5^ MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 of the next year the factory was attached to the Finance 
 Department. 
 
 (III) The Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. — In October, 5 Meiji 
 (1872), the Yokosuka Dockyard, as the arsenal was called orig- 
 inally, was brought under the jurisdiction of the Navy De- 
 partment from that of the Industrial Department and attached 
 to the Ship Administrative Bureau. Dai jo (a civil officer in 
 the Navy, corresponding to captain in rank) Akamatsu- 
 Noriyoshi was the chief of the same dockyard, and the chief 
 architect. Veiny, took, as before, charge of all business re- 
 lating to naval architecture at the 'head of the French em- 
 ployes. The Frenchmen employed were gradually superseded 
 by Japanese until in 10 Meiji (1877), the last of them having 
 been dismissed, there were no foreigners remaining in the 
 service. 
 
 In May, 22 Meiji (1889), the jurisdiction of the dockyard 
 was changed, and it was newly named the Shipbuilding Divi- 
 sion as a part of the Yokosuka Naval Station, consisting of the 
 Designing Section and the Working Section. 
 
 (IV) The Onohama Dockyard (Branch of the Shipbuild- 
 ing Division of the Kure Naval Station). — This was begun as a 
 private yard by an Englishman named Kirby. In 16 Meiji 
 (1883) the Navy Department ordered from it the warship 
 Yamato to encourage domestic shipbuilding. Upon the lay- 
 ing of her keel, the department paid a part of the contract 
 price in advance, on the security of the factory buildings and 
 machinery therein contained. But as unfortunately Kirby 
 died before he finished the work, the government doubted the 
 possibility of the completion of the Yamato and bought up 
 the yard according to the conditions of the contract. In 
 January of 17 Meiji (1884) the yard was named the Onohama 
 Dockyard and put under the direct control of the Ship Admin- 
 istrative Bureau. The Kure Naval Station having been 
 opened in July, 22 Meiji (1889), the name of the dockyard was 
 altered in March of the next year to the Onohama Branch Yard 
 
 f the Shipbuilding Division of the Kure Naval Station, and 
 further in May, 26 Meiji (1893), to Branch of the Shipbuild- 
 
- RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR 55 
 
 ing Division of the Kure Naval Station. In June, 28 Meiji 
 (1895), all the buildings, machinery, tools and other properties 
 of the branch were transferred to the Kure Shipbuilding 
 Division; which ended the naval shipbuilding work at 
 Onohama. 
 
 Six warships and twelve torpedo boats were built at the 
 yard after it was placed under the control of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 (V) The Kure Naval Arsenal. — The construction of the 
 Kure Naval Arsenal was one of the works of the first expan- 
 sion of the navy. In 22 Meiji (1889) the Kure Naval Station 
 was opened and in the same year the construction of the Ship- 
 building Division was started. In 24 Meiji (1891) the main 
 factories were almost finished and in 28 Meiji (1895) the con- 
 struction was completed. While the construction work was 
 going on, ships were built by the factories as rapidly as they 
 w^ere completed and ready for business. 
 
 (VI) The Sasebo Naval Arsenal. — Like the Kure Arsenal 
 it was constructed as a work of the first expansion of the navy. 
 In July, 22 Meiji (1889), the Sasebo Naval Station was opened. 
 The construction of the Shipbuilding Division was started in 
 23 Meiji (1890) and completed in 30 Meiji (1897). While the 
 construction was in progress, some shipbuilding was done at 
 the factories as rapidly as they were completed. The general 
 structure of the arsenal was not large, as it was mainly for re- 
 pairing ships. 
 
 The above is an outline of the history of the naval factories 
 that existed between the establishment of the Naval Depart- 
 ment and the Sino-Japanese War. In the following article the 
 development of warship building will be roughly described. 
 
 Warships 
 
 When, in February, 5 Meiji (1872), the Navy Department 
 was established, Japan had thirteen warships and luui ■ I t 
 ports, seventeen in all, with a total tonnage of oni^i3,832; 
 these only one, viz., the Ryujo exceeded 2,000 tonsTaTT^nve, 
 viz., the Azuma, the Tsukuba, the Fujiyama, the Kasuga and 
 
56 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 the Nisshin exceeded i,ooo tons. They were made of wood, 
 except the armored Ryujo and Azuma, and the Mo shun, a 
 composite ship. Both the Seiki, a second-class gunboat of a 
 displacement of 897 tons, and the Ishikawa, a training sailing 
 vessel of 253 tons, were wooden. The keel of the former boat 
 •was laid in November, 6 Meiji (1873), at the Yokosuka Arsenal, 
 :and she was completed on June 21, 9 Meiji (1876), and the 
 latter had her keel laid in August, 7 Meiji (1874), ^t the Ishi- 
 kawa-Jima Dockyard, and was completed on July 2, 9 Meiji 
 ( 1 876) . But as Japan is entirely surrounded by sea and knew 
 that she could not rely on such ships in the defense of her 
 coast, as early as the establishment of the Navy Department 
 she made a plan to build warships of new models. According 
 to the plan, in October, 5 Meiji (1872), the Yokosuka Dock- 
 yard that had belonged to the Department of Industry was 
 attached to the Ship Administration Bureau under the juris- 
 diction of the Navy Department, and thereby being enlarged 
 was put to the service of building some new warships. There 
 the Jingei, a wooden Imperial yacht of a displacement of 
 1,464 tons was started in September, 6 Meiji (1873) ; then the 
 above mentioned Seiki and Ishikawa, th.^ Amagi, the Iwaki, 
 the Kaimon and the Tenryu were built. The Amagi was a 
 second-class gunboat of a displacement of 926 tons, the Iwaki 
 a second-class gunboat of 656 tons, the Kaimon a coast de- 
 fense ship of 1 ,358 tons, and the Tenryu a coast defense ship of 
 1 ,547 tons. All of them were wooden three masted barks with 
 single screw propellers and run by steam power. In 13 Meiji 
 (1880), the Tateyama, a sailing vessel for training, wooden, 
 two masted and of the brig type, and of a displacement of 544 
 tons, was built in the Kawasaki Dockyard at Kobe, v 
 
 After the establishment of the Navy Department eight 
 years or more elapsed, and during this time the condition of 
 things was completely changed. Wars and complications 
 arose one after another, such as the expedition to Formosa, the 
 Satsuma Rebellion, and the controversy between Japan and 
 China, and in recent times rapid progress was made in the art 
 of making arms and ships. In spite of these developments, 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR .57 
 
 the preparations of the navy were too slow to make any prog- 
 ress in the work of shipbuilding. Consequently the govei 
 ment decided upon a policy of naval construction which con- 
 sisted in completing the work on a twenty years' plan. The 
 plan was changed next year to one of eight years, and upon it 
 an annual expenditure for naval construction of 3,330,000 yen 
 was paid from 16 Meiji (1883), thus bringing about a new 
 epoch in Japanese naval expansion. The following are the 
 warships built in the five years from 16 Meiji (1883) to 21 
 Meiji (1888): 
 
 Cruisers: the Naniwa, the Takachtho, the Matsushima, the' 
 Itsukushima, the Chiyoda, the Hashidate. 
 
 Coast defense ships: the Katsuragi, the Takao, the Yamato, 
 the Musashi. 
 
 Gunboats: the Chokai, the Tsujiushi, the Atagp, the Akagi, 
 the Maya. 
 
 Dispatch boats: the Yaeyama, the Chi^hima. 
 
 Training ships: the Manju, the Kanju. 
 
 Total: 19 warships. 
 
 Of these, twelve were built at domestic yards, the Hashidate, 
 the Katsuragi, the Takao, the Musashi, the Atago and the 
 Yaeyama, at the Shipbuilding Division of the Yokosuka Naval 
 Station; the Yamato, the Akagi, the Maya, the Manju, and the 
 Kanju, at the Onohama Dockyard; and another one at the 
 Ishikawa-Jima Dockyard. The type, displacement, horse 
 power, speed, etc., of these ships are as shown above. The 
 progress in the art of naval construction in Japan owes much 
 to the building of these ships, which paved the way for the 
 future building of a number of large ships. The above was 
 the first naval expansion of the Empire. 
 
 The second naval expansion was begun in the fiscal year of ^"^ 
 22 Meiji (1889), and the construction of the cruiser A kit- N. 
 sushima was started at the Yokosuka Shipbuilding Division, / 
 and that of the gunboat Oshima at the Onohama Dockyard, / 
 their displacement being 3,159 tons and 640 tons respectively. ^ 
 In March of the same year the gunboat Atago was completed, 
 and in November the coast defense ship Takao. 
 
58 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In March, 23 Meiji (1890), the despatch boat Yaeyama, and 
 in August the gunboat Akagi were completed. 
 
 In 24 Meiji (1891) a plan was devised by which the second- 
 class cruiser Yoshino, the third-class cruiser Suma, and the 
 despatch boat Tatsuta were to be built. Of these the Suma 
 was to be built at a domestic yard, and in 25 Meiji (1892) 
 work was started at the Yokosuka Shipbuilding Division. 
 
 In March of the same year the gunboat Oshima was 
 completed. 
 
 In 26 Meiji (1893) a plan was made to build the battleships 
 Fuji and Y oshima and the despatch boat Miyako. The naval 
 construction expenditure for those three ships, having been re- 
 jected in the second session of the Imperial Diet, was to be 
 paid partly by the Imperial household at the rate of 300,000 yen 
 each year, partly out of thq government officials' salaries, one- 
 tenth of which was set apart for the purpose ; but in fact the 
 building had been started already in 25 Meiji (1892). In the 
 third session of the Diet the expenditure was approved and 
 decided to be paid out of the national Treasury. One of the 
 ships was built at a domestic yard ; it wa.s the Miyako . Her 
 keel was laid in May, 27 Meiji (1894), ^ month before the 
 Sino- Japanese War commenced, at the Kure Naval Shipbuild- 
 ing Division, and it was the first warship constructed there. 
 
 The three warships in the plan of the 26th fiscal year, the 
 third cruiser Suma and the dispatch boat Tatsuta in that of the 
 24th fiscal year were not completed before the Sino-Japanese 
 War began in 27 Meiji (1894). Those of the ships in course of 
 construction in this country that had been finished by that 
 time were the second-class cruiser Hashidate and the third- 
 class cruiser Akitsushima. Also the dispatch boat Tatsuta 
 was brought out from England and took part in the war. The 
 warships of the Japanese Navy that took part in this war were 
 as follows: 
 /^"^econd- class battleship: the Fuso. 
 
 / Second-class cruisers: the Hashidate, the Itsukushima, the 
 Matsushima, the Yoshino, the Naniwa, the Takachiho. 
 
 Third-class cruisers: the Akitsushima, the Izumi, the 
 Chiyoda. 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO-JAPANESE WAR - 59 
 
 Third-class coast defense ships: the Tsukuba, the Takao, the 
 Musashi, the Hiei, the Kongo, the Yamato, the Katsuragi, the 
 Kaimon, the Tenryu. 
 
 First-class gunboat: the Tsukushi. 
 
 Second-class gunboats: the Amagi, the Oshima, the i4^ag^", 
 the Chokai, the Maya, the ^/ago, the Iwaki. 
 
 Dispatch boats : the Yaeyama, the Tatsuta. 
 
 Total : 29 warships, 55,805 tons. 
 
 Torpedo Boats ^ 
 
 The first adoption of the torpedo boat by the Japanese Navy 
 was in 13 Meiji (1880). She was the torpedo boat No. i, the 
 parts of which were made by the Yarrow Company of England 
 and put together at the Yokosuka Shipbuilding Division, and 
 was of only 40 tons displacement, 430 actual horse power and 
 14.38 knots speed. 
 
 In 17 Meiji (1884) the torpedo boats No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4, 
 also made by the Yarrow Company, were put together at the 
 Yokosuka Shipbuilding Division. 
 
 Each of these boats was furnished with a locomotive boiler, 
 and had no torpedo tube, but was provided at her stern with a 
 cylindrical timber loaded with an explosive compound at its 
 end, a contrivance to sink the enemy's ship by running the 
 boat against her. 
 
 In 21 Meiji (1888), at the Yokosuka Shipbuilding Division 
 the building of the first-class armored torpedo boat Kotaka was 
 finished. Her parts were made by the Yarrow Company of 
 England. She had four torpedo tubes and two locomotive 
 boilers. 
 
 In 23 Meiji (1890), there were begun, at the Onohama 
 Branch Yard (the name was changed owing to reorganization) 
 of the Shipbuilding Division of the Kure Naval Station, the 
 building of boat No. 5 (hull and engine bought from the 
 Creusot Company of France) and of boats Nos. 6 to 9 (hulls 
 only bought from the same company) ; also the making of the 
 engines for the boats Nos. 6 to 9, which was the beginning in 
 Japan of engine making for torpedo boats. The design of the 
 
 * No submarine boats were in use in this period. 
 
60 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 main-engines was: revolution, 335; horse power, 525; speed, 20 
 knots; single screwed, surface condensing and double expan- 
 sion; the air pump and water pump workable by the main en- 
 gine. Of the five boats, Nos. 5 and 6 were finished in March, 
 25 Meiji (1892), and Nos. 7, 8 and 9 in April of the same year. 
 They gave satisfactory results in their trial run, especially the 
 engines of boat No. 6 showed, even though it was made first of 
 all, as fair a speed as 19.236 knots. All of them were third- 
 class torpedo boats. 
 
 In 25 Meiji (1892) torpedo boat No. 10 was completed at the 
 Onohama Branch Yard. She was the first torpedo boat 
 built wholly by the Japanese Navy. In type she was the 
 same as boat No. 5 built by the Creusot Company of France. 
 She was launched in September, 24 Meiji (1891), and com- 
 pleted in April, 25 Meiji (1892). Her construction was as 
 follows : 
 
 Length: no feet 8f inches. 
 
 Breadth (in the broadest part) : 1 1 feet f inches. 
 
 Depth: 7 feet 11 A inches. 
 
 Draught (average) : 2 feet i ItV inches. 
 
 Displacement: 52.9 tons. 
 
 Number of revolutions : 335. 
 
 Actual horse power: 525. 
 
 Speed : 20 knots. 
 
 Engine: single screwed, surface condensing, double expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Boiler: a locomotive boiler made of bronze. 
 
 Rudder: I. 
 
 Armament: one 47 m.m. light quick-firing gun, 2 torpedo 
 tubes. 
 
 In 26 Meiji (1893), at the Onohama Branch Yard of the 
 Shipbuilding Division (name changed for the second time) of 
 the Kure Naval Station, the building of boats No. 12, No. 13, 
 No. 14, No. 16, No. J7, No. 18 and No. 20, whose hulls and 
 engines were, except No. 20, the same as No. 10, was 
 completed. 
 
 In the same year, the building of boats No. 15, No. 22 and 
 
RESTORATION TO SINO- JAPANESE WAR 6l 
 
 No. 23 was completed at the same yard. Boat No. 15, made 
 by the Normand Company, France, and launched in May, 25 
 Meiji (1892), was purchased as a model boat for those to be 
 built in future. Boat No. 20 was built in imitation of No. 15. 
 Her construction was as follows : 
 
 Length : 1 1 1 feet 6il inches. 
 
 Breadth (broadest part): 11 feet 6fj inches. 
 
 Depth: 6 feet 6f inches. 
 
 Draught (average): 2 feet ii| inches. 
 
 Displacement: 52.8 tons. 
 
 Actual horse power: 657. 
 
 Speed: 20 knots. 
 
 Rudders: 2. 
 
 Armament: one 47 m.m. light quick-firing gun, 2 torpedo 
 tubes. 
 
 Boats No. 22 and No. 23 were made by the Schichan 
 Company of Germany and purchased also as model boats. 
 They were designed to have a displacement of 82 tons, i ,200 
 horse power and a speed of 24 knots, but in their steam trial a 
 result of only 926 horse power and 18.84 knots in speed was 
 obtained. 
 
 All of the above torpedo boats are third class. 
 
 In February, 27 Meiji (1894), construction work on boat 
 No. 19 was completed, and in March that on boat No. 11. 
 These two boats were both of the same type as boat No. 10 and 
 third class, and built at the Onohama Branch Yard of the 
 Shipbuilding Division of the Kure Naval Station. 
 
 Supplement 
 
 In closing this section we present some chronological tables 
 of the building of the warships, torpedo-boat destroyers, and 
 torpedo boats built at domestic yards from the Restoration to 
 the Sino-Japanese War, as herein stated. 
 
62 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Chronological Table Showing Building of Warships and Torpedo- 
 Bo at Destroyers 
 
 Name 
 
 Kind and Class 
 
 Place Where Built 
 
 Material 
 
 Displace- 
 ment (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Construction 
 
 Seiki 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 Wood 
 
 897 
 
 June, 1876 
 
 Jingei 
 
 Imperial yacht 
 
 '* 
 
 " 
 
 1,464 
 
 Aug., 1 88 1 
 
 Amagi 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 926 
 
 Apr., 1878 
 
 Iwaki 
 
 Coast defense 
 
 
 " 
 
 656 
 
 July, 1880 
 
 Kaimon .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 ship 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 1.358 
 
 Mar., 1884 
 
 Tenryu 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 i,S47 
 
 Mar., 188s 
 
 Katsuragi. . 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 Composite 
 
 1,502 
 
 Nov., 1887 
 
 Musashi . . . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 1,502 
 
 Feb., 1888 
 
 Atago 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 614 
 
 Mar., 1889 
 
 Takao 
 
 Coast defense 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ship 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 1,778 
 
 Nov., 1889 
 
 Yaeyama. . . 
 
 Dispatch boat 
 
 " 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,609 
 
 Mar., 1890 
 
 Hashidate. . 
 
 2d class coast 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 defense ship 
 
 " 
 
 *' 
 
 4,278 
 
 June, 1894 
 
 Akitsushima 
 
 3d class cruiser 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 3,159 
 
 Mar., 1894 
 
 Yamato 
 
 Coast defense 
 ship 
 
 Onohama Dockyard 
 
 Composite 
 
 1,502 
 
 Nov., 1887 
 
 Maya 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 " 
 
 Iron 
 
 614 
 
 Jan., 1888 
 
 Kanju 
 
 Training sailing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vessel 
 
 " 
 
 Wood 
 
 877 
 
 June, 1888 
 
 Manju 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 *• 
 
 877 
 
 Sept., 1888 
 
 Akagi 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 " 
 
 Steel 
 
 622 
 
 Aug., 1890 
 
 Oshima 
 
 *' 
 
 ** 
 
 ** 
 
 640 
 
 Mar., 1892 
 
 Chokai 
 
 
 Ishikawa-Jima Dockyard 
 
 Iron 
 
 614 
 
 Dec, 1888 
 
 Chronological Table of the Making of Torpedo Boats 
 (From the Restoration to the Sino-Japanese War) 
 
 Name 
 
 No. 10 
 II 
 
 Kind and Class 
 
 Torpedo boat 
 
 Place Where Built 
 
 Onohama Dockyard 
 
 Material 
 
 Steel 
 
 Displacement 
 (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Construction 
 
 Apr., 1893 
 Mar., 1894 
 Oct., 1893 
 
 Nov., 1893 
 
 Feb., 1894 
 Oct., 1893 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 ; FROM THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE RUSSO- 
 JAPANESE WAR 
 
 The Sino-Japanese War of the years 27 and 28 Meiji 
 ( 1 894-1 895) was in itself a new standard and plan for the ex- 
 pansion of the army and the navy of the Japanese Empire. 
 As the war was fought by two powers on an equal footing in 
 the Far East — one, the Island Empire, with all the civilized 
 methods which it had indefatigably for the thirty years since 
 its opening taken in from the West, in addition to the nation's 
 own characteristic military arts and tactics; the other, that 
 vast old country of the Orient, who, by her early friendship 
 with Europe, was also well fitted with modem arms and war- 
 ships, and was casting a look of supremacy over other nations 
 of Eastern Asia — it was watched by the nations concerned with 
 special interest as an opportunity for them to determine the 
 relative strength. It also attracted the attention of European 
 specialists who were equally interested in the event as proving 
 to them the actual powers of arms and war vessels made by 
 the application of the latest fast developing science and arts. 
 
 The war resulted in victory for Japan ; and this, having put 
 her in a new and heavily responsible position, made her. feel 
 the necessity of speedily increasing her military preparations. 
 At the same time, the war gave her much useful experience in 
 the remodeling and improvement of military weapons and 
 war vessels. On account of this necessity and with those ex- 
 periences, the Island Empire, after the war, began to increase 
 the number of divisions in its army and to organize some new 
 special companies of troops ; and in the navy, to enlarge naval 
 stations and establish new ones, increase the number of war 
 vessels, build large warships, and so forth. So the army and 
 the navy worked on industriously, competing with each other, 
 to complete their task, and in the ten years which followed the 
 
 63 
 
64 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 war until the next war (with Russia) commenced, they carried 
 out the expansion of their forces, enlarging them in a leap to 
 more than double their old size. The development of the 
 military industry in this interval of time was particularly re- 
 markable, and the achievements made were great not only in 
 quantity, but also in the fact that many new plans in the arts 
 of manufacture, that had never been seen even in Europe or 
 America, were designed and worked out during this time. 
 Indeed, those select weapons and instruments of war which 
 were used later on in the Russo-Japanese War were mostly 
 the product of this period. 
 
 Industries of the Army 
 
 The factories that were newly established for the army in 
 the period under consideration were the Military Clothing De- 
 partment, the Provision Department and the Department of 
 Railway Materials. The Clothing and Provision Depart- 
 ments were established with the object of economizing military 
 expenses and facilitating the selection of the supplies manu- 
 factured in the military factories. This was done as a con- 
 sequence of the general enlargement of military preparations 
 made after the war which increased the army's demand for 
 clothing and provisions in both peace and war times. The 
 Department of Railway Materials was established to repair 
 railway materials and for the manufacture of various supplies. 
 As for the factories already in existence, both the Tokyo and 
 Osaka Arsenals were enlarged and their producing capacities 
 were doubled. The greatest work done in this period was the 
 improvement of arms, principally the infantry and cavalry 
 rifles of the 30th year pattern, the quick-firing field and moun- 
 tain artillery guns of the 31st year pattern, all kinds of garrison 
 artillery guns and the ammunition for all these guns and 
 rifles. 
 
 Before going further in showing the development of the 
 manufacturing industry of arms and ammunition, we will re- 
 view in a general manner the changes undergone by the fac- 
 tories for those manufactures during this period. 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 65 
 
 Weapon Factories 
 
 (I) The Tokyo Arsenal. — At the commencement of the 
 Sino-Japanese War in June, 27 Meiji (1894), ^.ll the factories 
 of the Tokyo Arsenal enlarged their workshops at the same 
 time, increased their machinery, built temporary factory rooms 
 and made various other preparations to meet the require- 
 ments of the moment. 
 
 In October of the same year, the manufacture of mercuricN 
 fulminate, which had been carried on in the ammunition ■ 
 factory up to that time, was transferred to the Itabashi powder 
 mill. 
 
 In April, 28 Meiji (1895), the Meguro powder mill was en- 
 larged for the manufacture of brown powder. 
 
 In December of the same year, the sulphuric acid factory, 
 which belonged to the Bureau of Imperial Estates of the De- 
 partment of the Imperial Household, was put under the ad- 
 ministration of the Tokyo Arsenal, as an annex to the Itabashi 
 powder mill, and was named the Oji Chemical Works. 
 
 In March, 29 Meiji (1896), the factory for gun accessories 
 and three other factories, viz., the woodwork, the forging and 
 the casting, which had been leased to private parties since 23 
 Meiji (1890), were taken back, and work was immediately 
 started in them. 
 
 In October of the same year, the extension of the third 
 chemical works of the Itabashi powder mill was completed and 
 chemical work by new machinery was started. 
 
 In January, 30 Meiji (1897), water supply pipes were laid, 
 and a telephone was put up in the main factories of the arsenal 
 in Koishikawa. This greatly facilitated the work of those 
 factories. 
 
 In March of the same year, an ether and alcohol factory was 
 set up in the Itabashi powder mill. 
 
 In April of the same year, the mercuric fulminate factory of 
 the ammunition factory was closed and its work was united 
 with that of the high explosive mill. 
 
 In April, 33 Meiji (1900), the regulations of the Arms In- 
 
 J 
 
66 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 spection Bureau were enacted. These placed the arsenals 
 under the control of an inspector general, and thereafter all 
 articles issuing from the arsenal factories were to be inspected 
 by a certain number of inspectors who were to be stationed at 
 the arsenals and act under the command of the inspector 
 general. 
 
 In 34 Meiji (1902) articles were drawn for the Gijo-Kwai 
 (a relief society) to promote the mutual relief of the workmen. 
 
 In April, 35 Meiji (1903), a part of the finance law for mili- 
 tary works was revised, by which those buildings and other 
 structures and ships hitherto in use in the arsenals as govern- 
 ment property, and those to be added to them in the future, 
 were put into the list of the fixed capital of the arsenals, and 
 the expenses for their maintenance, repairing and replacing, 
 ^ere to be charged up to the work expense account. 
 
 In July of the same year, a wire-rope transmitter and eleva- 
 tors were set up in the Meguro powder mill, and proved to be a 
 great saving of labor in the transmission of raw materials and 
 
 mufactured goods. 
 
 In August of the same year, the number of workmen to be 
 employed at ordinary times in the arsenals was fixed at 5,000, 
 of whom 3,250 were for the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 (II) The Osaka Arsenal. — With the beginning of the Sino- 
 Japanese War in June, 27 Meiji (1894), some enlargement of 
 working rooms, and increases in machinery, number of work- 
 men, etc., were effected in the factories of this arsenal, as was 
 the case with those of Tokyo. 
 
 In November of the same year, it was decided that a powder 
 mill should be set up in the village of Uji in Uji District, Kyoto 
 Prefecture, and the work of construction was started. This 
 was afterward named the Uji powder mill. 
 
 In June, 29 Meiji (1896), the construction of the enlarge- 
 ment of the arsenal was commenced, and the work of the ex- 
 tension and rebuilding of the. factories for guns, gun carriages, 
 shot and ignition tools was started. This enlargement was 
 originally attempted at the time when, during the war of 27 
 and 28 Meiji (1894 and 1895), owing to the insufficiency of 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 67 
 
 the producing capacity, it was found necessary to enlarge the 
 arsenal. Then a plan for it was made in November 27 Meiji 
 (1894), and was about to be carried out when, however, the 
 war ended and the scheme was abandoned. After peace was 
 established, an enlargement became necessary to conform with 
 the plan of general increase of military preparations, and the^ 
 approval of the Diet having b§eii_Qbtamed on the original 
 plan for an expense of above (^40,000 3^ for the two fiscal 
 years of 29 and 30 Meiji (i89^"~3n3'^97), the work was^ 
 finally brought to completion. 
 
 In August, 29 Meiji (1896), the construction of the Uji 
 powder mill was completed; also the fixing of the machinery 
 on the premises. 
 
 In March, 30 Meiji (1897), the Moji Arms Repairing Works 
 were attached to the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In February, 31 Meiji (1898), a lunch box factory was set 
 up in the ordnance factory for the first time. 
 
 In May of the same year, for the first time an electric 
 transverse crane was built in the ordnance factory. 
 
 In July of the same year, a telephone service was put up in 
 the arsenal connecting all the offices and factories. 
 
 In August of the same year, the factory building for the 27 
 -c.m. cannon were completed. 
 
 In September of the same year, a gas furnace for tempering 
 edged tools was built. In the same month the hydropressing 
 house for the case factory was set up. 
 
 In April, 33 Meiji (1900), the implement factory was es- 
 tablished. 
 
 In August, 34 Meiji (1901), electricity was introduced as\ 
 the motive power for the casting work of the shell factory. \ 
 From this initiative other factories, one after another, used / 
 electric power, and steam, which was up to that time the onlv^ 
 power used, now came gradually into disuse, N. 
 
 In December of the same year, the arsenal was furnished y 
 with a 1,200 ton hydraulic forging machine. / 
 
 In June, 36 Meiji (1902), a shell-making machine for the 
 quick-firing field and mountain artillery guns was installed, 
 
68 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 and the work hitherto done by the screw press was discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 In December of the same year, women were employed for 
 the first time in this arsenal in the work of casting lead bullets. 
 
 Arms 
 
 Early in the summer of 27 Meiji (1894) the relations be- 
 tween Japan and China were becoming more and more 
 threatening, and work in the two arsenals of Tokyo and 
 Osaka became heavier. Great efforts were made to supply 
 and increase their machinery, work hands, materials, etc. 
 In June diplomatic relations were broken off and war was de- 
 clared. Thereupon, great quantities of arms and ammuni- 
 tion being urgently needed, the work of the arsenals became 
 still more pressing; so the force of workmen in the Tokyo 
 Arsenal, of whom there was at that time not more than 2,800, 
 was gradually increased until, on August i, it amounted to 
 more than 3,300, and on December i to about 5,100. 
 
 In July of the same year, a 9 cm. mortar was cast in the 
 Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In December of the same year, two workmen were sent 
 from the Tokyo Arsenal to the Galileo manufactory in Italy, 
 for a period of three years, to make a practical study of range 
 finders and apparatus for communication. This was the first 
 dme that ordinary workmen were dispatched abroad. 
 X In December, 28 Meiji (1895), work by steam hammer was 
 / started in the small arms factory of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 \^ In July, 29 Meiji (1896), Artillery Colonel Nariaki Arisaka, 
 Chief Superintendent of the Tokyo Arsenal, started the trial 
 manufacture of the rifle of the 30th year pattern. 
 
 In August of the same year, a 12 cm. quick-firing gun was 
 cast in the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 The Maxim machine gun had up to this time been used by 
 all machine gun companies of gunners. However, the Hotch- 
 kiss machine gun was now invented and this latter gun was 
 purchased, and tested by the Ordnance Committee. These 
 tests proving satisfactory, it was remodeled, its caliber be- 
 ing made the same (6.5 m.m.) as the 30th year infantry rifle. 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 69 
 
 In April, 30 Meiji (1897), the trial manufacture of the 30th ^ 
 year infantry rifle was finished. . /^ 
 
 In November of the same year, a canteen making machine 
 was installed in the Tokyo Arsenal, and for the first time a 
 canteen was manufactured. 
 
 In February, 31 Meiji (1899), the official pattern of the 
 30th year rifle was fixed. 
 
 In the same month a lunch box was manufactured for the 
 first time at the ordnance factory of the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In August of the same year, the manufacture of the 3isr\. 
 year quick-firing field and mountain artillery guns was begun. \ 
 Previous to the adoption of these quick-firing guns as regula- \ 
 tion arms, there were three different kinds of regulation quick- / 
 firing guns which were the products of studies carried on since / 
 25 Meiji (1892) and called respectively patterns No. i. No. 2 / 
 and No. 3. Pattern No. i was made from a design by Colonel / 
 Arisaka; No. 2 was made by the Osaka Arsenal, and No. 3/ 
 was designed by the Ordnance Committee. Again, pattern' 
 No. I was of a recoil brake n>echanism, had a recuperator 
 spring and no spade on the trial ; No. 2 had an elastic spade on 
 the trial ; No. 3 was of the hydraulic buffer system, had a re- 
 cuperator spring and had a spade fixed on the trial. The 
 barrels of the No. i and No. 3 guns were steel mantled, and 
 that of No. 2 was made of steel bronze. All of their gun car- 
 riages were made of steel. The 31st year quick-firing gun 
 was a further improved form of the above pattern No. i, 
 and was this year decided upon by the Ordnance Committee 
 as the regulation gun and called the quick-firing field artillery 
 gun of the 31st year pattern. It was also decided that the 
 same pattern be followed in the manufacture of mountain 
 artillery guns. 
 
 In October of the same year, the first manufacture of the 
 30th year infantry rifle and bayonet was made in the small 
 arms factory of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In January, 32 Meiji (1899), the manufacture of a 2"] cm. 
 cannon of 30 caliber was started at the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In March of the same year, the manufacture of the 31st 
 
70 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 year quick-firing field and mountain artillery gun, which had 
 been started in August of the previous year, was finished. 
 
 In August of the same year, a cavalry rifle of the 30th 
 year pattern was for the first time manufactured at the small 
 arms factory of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In April, 33 Meiji (1900), the manufacture of edge tools was 
 started at the implements factory newly set up in the Osaka 
 Arsenal. 
 
 In June of the same year, the manufacture of crucible steel 
 at the Osaka Arsenal, which had been discontinued for some 
 time, was resumed, and steel ingot and castings were produced. 
 
 In December, 33 Meiji (1900), the manufacture of a 27 cm. 
 cannon of 30 caliber at the Osaka Arsenal was finished. 
 
 In the year of 34 Meiji (1901), at the Osaka Arsenal, nickel 
 steel ingot was cast for the first time by the acid furnace. In 
 this arsenal this was the first instance when any special steel 
 was manufactured by a Martin furnace. 
 
 / In the 35th year of Meiji (1902), the manufacture of the 
 / 31st year quick-firing field and mountain artillery guns, the 
 work of which had been in progress since the beginning, ad- 
 vanced so far that all the field forces of the army were now 
 completely equipped with the new guns. But, although it 
 was evident from the result of a comparative test that the 31st 
 year quick-firing field artillery gun excelled all the other guns 
 made in Japan, the similar study then being made in Europe 
 was a further step in advance, and many new quick-firing guns 
 better than any of those in this country were being produced 
 and distributed among all the troops on that continent. In 
 view of this fact, it was thought necessary to make a further 
 improvement in the quick-firing guns of Japan, and the study 
 was again taken up. Soon after this, however, the war be- 
 tween Japan and Russia began, and it had to be fought with 
 the 31st year quick-firing guns. 
 
 Ammunition and Ignition Tools 
 
 In June, 27 Meiji (1894), the manufacture of No. i and 2 
 plain powder and the smokeless powder for the rifle was be- 
 gun at the Itabashi powder mill. 
 
SINO- JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 7 1 
 
 In November of the same year, a suitable arrangement was 
 made in the ammunition factory of the Tokyo Arsenal to turnV 
 out the cartridges of the Murata magazine rifle at the rate of ^ 
 400,000 every twe nty-four hou rsj_also, machines for stuffing X 
 "the po\vder and hllmg the bullet were devised, and the old 
 handwork gave way to machine work. 
 
 In the same month, gun powder and shell for the 15 cm. 
 steel-bronze cannon, those for the 12 cm. cannon, and a fuse 
 for the latter cannon were manufactured for the first time 
 at the Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the Sino-Japanese War started in 
 this year, the demand for ammunition and ignition tools in- 
 creased so rapidly that the force of workmen was at once rein- 
 forced, new factories and machinery were added, and the work 
 was pushed by day and night. 
 
 In March, 28 Meiji (1895), the manufacture of smokeless 
 powder for field and mountain artillery guns was started at the 
 Itabashi powder mill, and in May the manufacture of No. 2 
 square powder was also started at the same mill. \ 
 
 In December of the same year, a study of the cartridge for \ 
 the 30th year rifle was commenced at the ammunition factory / 
 of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In June, 29 Meiji (1896), the ammunition and ignition tool 
 factories of the Osaka Arsenal were enlarged, and their produc- 
 ing capacity was greatly increased, enabling them to produce 
 such things as the cartridge case for guns of medium caliber. 
 
 In October of the same year, the blank cartridge of the 26th 
 year revolver, the study of which had been continued since 25 
 Meiji (1892), was completed at the ammunition factory of the 
 Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In November of the same year, the study of yellow burster 
 manufacturing was taken up at the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In March, 30 Meiji (1897), the study of the 30th year rifle 
 cartridge was completed. 
 
 In April of the same year, the manufacture of ether and 
 alcohol was started at the Itabashi powder mill. 
 
 In April, 31 Meiji (1898), the manufacture of yellow powder 
 was started at the Oji Chemical Works. 
 
72 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In May of the same year, the temporary compound fuse for 
 the 31st year quick-firing mountain gun was manufactured at 
 the Osaka Arsenal; this was the forerunner of the i8-second 
 compound fuse, the manufacture of which was perfected 
 later on. 
 
 In June of the same year, the blank cartridge for the 30th 
 year rifle was manufactured at the ammunition factory of the 
 Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In December of the same year, for the first time shrapnel 
 shell for 12 cm. quick-firing cannons and common shell for the 
 31st year quick-firing mountain gun were manufactured at the 
 Osaka Arsenal. In the same month a cartridge case for 12 
 cm. cannons was also manufactured there for the first time. 
 In February, 32 Meiji (1899), a cartridge for the 30th year 
 /rifle was manufactured for the first time at the ammunition 
 / factory of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 ^^ In the same month, by melting the yellow powder, the man- 
 ufacturing of various kinds of bursters for common shells was 
 started at the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 In the same month shrapnel for the 31st year quick-firing 
 field and mountain artillery guns, in May a base fuse for the 
 same guns, in June a cartridge detonator for the same, in 
 August a cartridge case for 9 cm. cannons, in September high 
 explosive shell for the Krupp 10 cm. cannons, the Krupp 12 
 and 15 cm. howitzer, and in December a cartridge case for 
 12 cm. howitzer were manufactured at the Osaka Arsenal, all 
 for the first time. In February, 33 Meiji (1900), shrapnel 
 shell for 27 cm. cannons was made for the first time at the 
 \^ Osaka Arsenal. 
 
 In April of the same year, the manufacture of the Nos. 2, 3 
 
 i^cind 4 smokeless powder of belt form was started at the 
 
 / Itabashi powder mill. 
 
 / In October of the same year, for the first time at the Osaka 
 
 j Arsenal, a steel shell for the quick-firing field and mountain 
 
 \ guns was made. By the same method various other steel 
 
 \ shells were manufactured after that time. In the same month 
 
 ^a_training shell for the 31st year quick-firing mountain gun 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 73 
 
 was manufactured for the first time; also, a 32-second com- 
 pound fuse. 
 
 In May, 34 Meiji (1901), the Osaka Arsenal cast by its acid 
 furnace chrome-steel of ferro-chrome compound, of which it 
 made some 24 cm. cannon breach shells on trial. This was 
 the beginning of the manufacture of nickel-chrome steel. In^ 
 July, shrapnel for the quick-firing field and mountain guns 
 was made for the first time, with the use of steel made in the 
 arsenal. In August, breach shells for the 12 and 15 cm. guns 
 were made for the first time. ^ 
 
 In July, 35 Meiji (1902), tests of nitro-glycerine and dyna/ 
 mite were made at the Itabashi powder mill. 
 
 In the same month, at the Osaka Arsenal the casting of 
 the cartridge-case material was started, using electro-refined 
 copper. 
 
 In November of the same year, shrapnel for the 31st year 
 quick-firing field gun was manufactured for the first time at 
 the gun accessories factory of the Tokyo Arsenal. 
 
 The Osaka Arsenal, in the same year, made a 24-second 
 compound fuse. This fuse was made by remodeling the 32- 
 second fuse by changing the fire-channel powder to one nearly 
 of the same kind; and it could be used for cannon above 9 cm. 
 Next to this fuse, an i8-second compound fuse was also made 
 at the arsenal for the first time. It was a fact that the official 
 adoption of the 31st year quick-firing guns had brought about 
 a great change in the make of the fuse. Made like the 
 compound fuse for 7 cm. cannons, the fuse ignited well enough 
 in its fire channel if used with a mountain gun, but not with a 
 field gun. Therefore, in making the fuse for the 31st year 
 quick-firing guns, the fire channel was formed of a plate with 
 a ring of gun powder, for which no powder compounded with 
 niter and sulphur was used as was usual with the fuses made 
 up to that time, but a granular black powder was used and 
 stuffed directly into the plate. This alteration not only re- 
 moved the causes of the nonignition of the fire channel, but 
 greatly promoted the accuracy of its combustion, and the fuse 
 so improved was the i8-second compound fuse. 
 
74 military industries: historical survey 
 
 Industries of the Navy 
 
 The responsibility of Japan to maintain the peace of the Far 
 East was as much heavier as her prestige was raised after the 
 Sipo-Japanese War. The perfection of mlHtary preparations 
 due to her new position was therefore necessary, and to attain 
 this end it was decided that a second enlargement be made of 
 the navy. The general plan was to Increase in a compara- 
 tively short time the force of naval vessels of Japan to a num- 
 ber four times as large as it was at the time. Furthermore, It 
 was decided to open a naval port at Malzuru and establish a 
 naval station there, also to establish a secondary naval station 
 'at Ominato. The time In which the work of enlargement was 
 to be~completed was fixed at ten years from the 29th year of 
 MeijI (1896), and the total expense was estimated at 250,900,- 
 000 yen: But the capacity of the naval and private dockyafds 
 oi^Ehe country not being sufficient to do the work even with 
 their full force, a greater part of the work had to be appor- 
 tioned to four foreign countries, — England, the United States 
 of America, France and G.ermany, — to ensure its completion 
 within the prescribed time. The war vessels to be built upon 
 the present plan of enlargement were 4 first-class battleships, 
 6 first-class cruisers, 3 second-class cruisers, 3 third-class 
 cruisers, 3 second-class gunboats, i dispatch boat and 23 
 torpedo-boat destroyers, 43 in all; besides, 14 first-class tor- 
 pedo boats, 37 second-class torpedo boats and 10 third-class 
 torpedo boats, 63 in all. This was no doubt a very rapid In- 
 crease in the old Japanese naval force; and, in addition, the 
 highly finished work accomplished from the experiences ob- 
 tained from the SIno-Japanese War, coupled with the latest 
 advanced arts and science, completely changed the condition 
 of the Japanese Navy. The principal improvements made 
 in the above war vessels as based on the instruction gained 
 from the late war were reconstruction of the protective deck, 
 the equipment of battleships with big guns, increase of speed, 
 structural reform of the torpedo,- provision against fire on 
 board, etc. We will state in chronological order how these 
 improvements were made in each of the vessels built. 
 
• SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 75 
 
 The factories and workshops established in the present 
 period are as follows: 
 
 The Maizuru Naval Dockyard. — Business was commenced 
 in October of 34 Meiji (1901) at the same time as the opening 
 of the Maizuru Naval Station, the construction of which had 
 been going on since May, 29 Meiji (1896). The name of the 
 dockyard was altered to the Maizuru Naval Arsenal in No- 
 vember, 36 Meiji (1903). The object of the dockyard was 
 mainly to repair war vessels, and the accommodations for 
 building new ships were only secondary, the same as those of 
 the Sasebo Dockyard. 
 
 The Naval Factory for Shimrose Gun Powder. — Established 
 in Tokyo in April, 32 Meiji (1899). 
 
 The Workshops of the Takeshiki Naval Station (a second- 
 ary station). — Established in May, 33 Meiji (1900). 
 
 The Workshops of the Bako Naval Station (a secondary 
 station). — Established at the same time as the station, July, 
 34 Meiji (1901). 
 
 The Naval Workshops for Repairs. — Established in Omi- 
 nato as an annex to the Torpedo Department begun there in 
 July, 35 Meiji (1902). 
 
 Besides the above, some new factories and workshops were 
 established, or the old ones enlarged, in the naval stations of 
 Yokosuka, Kure and Sasebo, in consequence of their re- 
 organization. 
 
 In September, 30 Meiji (1897), "Shipbuilding Division," 
 the name by which the dockyards of the above mentioned 
 naval stations had been called, was altered to "Dockyard," 
 and further in November of 36 Meiji (1903) to "Naval Arse- 
 nal," at the same time the dockyards being given the power 
 to control all the other factories or workshops in the stations. 
 The Naval Arsenal in Tokyo was reorganized twice — May, 30 
 Meiji (1897), and November, 36 Meiji (1903). 
 
 Warships and Torpedo-boat Destroyers 
 
 (I) Warships. — In December, 29 Meiji (1896), the war- 
 ship Suma was built at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She 
 
76 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY - 
 
 wa,s laid down in August, 25 Meiji (1892). She is a sister ship 
 to the Akashi, and is a third-class cruiser, being in general like 
 the Akitsushima in her plan and construction and having 
 double bottoms, a protective deck, and twin screw, surface- 
 condensing, vertical, triple-expansion engines. Her dis- 
 placement is 2,657 tons, horse power, 850, and speed, 20 knots. 
 She has mounted on her two 15 cm. main guns, six 12 cm. side 
 guns, ten 47 m.m. heavy guns and two light guns as auxiliary 
 guns; and has two 14-inch torpedo tubes, and 3 searchlights. 
 
 In March, 32 Meiji (1899), the warship Akashi was com- 
 pleted at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She was laid down in 
 August, 27 Meiji (1894). She is a sister ship to the Suma and 
 is of about the same construction as the latter, but as she was 
 built two years later than the other, she is somewhat better. 
 Her displacement is 2,920 tons, horse power, 7,396, and speed, 
 19.52 knots. She has two 6-inch quick-firing guns as main 
 guns, seven 4-inch guns and six quick-firing guns as side guns, 
 and twelve 3-pound quick-firing guns and two 2| -pound 
 quick-firing guns as auxiliary guns, and has 3 searchlights. 
 
 In March, 32 Meiji (1899), the coast defense ship Miyako 
 was completed. She was laid down in May, 27 Meiji (1894), 
 at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Engines, twin screw, surface 
 condensing, and triple expansion. Displacement, 1,772 tons; 
 horse power, 6,000; speed, 20 knots. Guns, etc, two 12 cm. 
 main guns; six 47 m.m. heavy guns and four 47 m.m. light 
 guns (auxiliary) ; 2 torpedo tubes ; 2 searchlights. 
 
 In May, 33 Meiji (1900), the warship Chihaya was com- 
 pleted at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She was laid down for 
 a dispatch boat in May, 31 Meiji (1898). Displacement, 1,238 
 tons; horse power, 6,000; speed, 21 knots. Her protective 
 deck is over only one part of her stern and is made to protect 
 merely her steering engine and rudder head. This ship is 
 called by another name of "torpedo gunboat," being peculiar 
 in her plurality of torpedo tubes, of which there are five in all, 
 one in the bow and the rest in the bulwarks (two in each), set 
 in couples on the upper deck. 
 
 In August, 36 Meiji (1903), the second-class gunboat Uji 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 77 
 
 was completed. The ship was built at the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal, having been laid down in September, 35 Meiji (1902). 
 Her displacement is 610 tons, horse power, 100, speed, 13 
 knots, and engines, twin screw and surface condenser. She 
 was designed for a light draught river gunboat, being of about 
 seven feet draught. Though she has about the same dis- 
 placement as the gunboat Akagi, her draught is less by two 
 feet, eight inches, and therefore it may be said that she is a 
 comparatively light draught boat. She has four 12-pound 
 quick-firing guns as main guns, 3 Maxim guns as side guns, 
 and I searchlight, but no torpedo tube. 
 
 In January, 37 Meiji (1904), the third-class cruiser Niitaka 
 was completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Her dis- 
 placement is 3,366 tons, horse power, 9,400, and speed, 20 
 knots, and she has six 6-inch quick-firing guns as main guns, ten 
 12-pound quick-firing guns as side guns, four 47 m.m. guns as 
 auxiliary guns, and 3 searchlights. In spite of the customary 
 equipment of a warship of this kind with torpedo tubes, she 
 and her sister ship Tsushima are not equipped with any, for 
 the reason that an unprotected torpedo tube is apt to expose 
 its own ship to danger instead of injuring the enemy. It may 
 be added that the third-class cruiser Tsushima was laid down 
 in October, 34 Meiji (1901), at the Kure Naval Arsenal, also 
 the Otowa, another third-class cruiser, in January, 36 Meiji 
 (1903), at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, but neither was com- 
 pleted before the Russo-Japanese War. 
 
 (II) Torpedo-boat Destroyers. — The building of torpedo- 
 boat destroyers in the Japanese Navy commenced in the 30th 
 year of Meiji (1897), when certain destroyers were built by 
 England, to whom the government had entrusted the memo- 
 rable work. Afterward the navy tried and finally learned to 
 build its destroyers at its own dockyards by modeling them 
 after the English ships already possessed by it and adding 
 some improvements from the study and experiments made of 
 their predecessors. The following is a history of the construc- 
 tion of torpedo-boat destroyers in Japan after it was begun at 
 the domestic yards. 
 
78 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In March, 35 Meiji (1902), four torpedo-boat destroyers, 
 the Harusame, Murasame, Hayatori and Asagiri, were laid 
 down. This was the first time torpedo-boat destroyers were 
 built at home. 
 
 In June, 36 Meiji (1903), the torpedo-boat destroyer Haru- 
 same was completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Dis- 
 placement, 375 tons ; horse power, 600 ; speed, 29 knots. Guns, 
 etc., two 12-pound quick-firing guns ; four 57 m.m. quick-firing 
 guns ; 2 torpedo tubes ; i searchlight. 
 
 In July of the same year the Murasame was completed, in 
 August, the Hayatori, in September, the Asagiri. They were 
 all built at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal ; their displacement, 
 horse power, speed, guns, etc., are all the same as those of the 
 Harusame. 
 
 These four ships were designed and built to be sister ships. 
 Their engines were made exclusively after the Yarrow type, 
 being arranged and constructed in strict conformity to the 
 type of the same company. They are of a twin screw, surface 
 condensing, vertical, and triple expansion system. The cyl- 
 inders are of cast iron and have no lining. The slide valves 
 are cylindrical and made of manganese bronze. Each engine 
 is furnished with a condenser. According to the Yarrow sys- 
 tem, the water circulation of the condenser was arranged so 
 that water flows into the condenser pipe by itself as the ship 
 navigates at full speed. But experience having proved that 
 this was not desirable, a different system was adopted in the 
 case of the ships of the Harusame class, in which a circulating 
 pump is placed in the ship especially for the purpose of draw- 
 ing sea water through a Kingston valve at the lowest bottom 
 of the ship. Materials for the different parts of the engine are 
 of the best and choicest kind obtainable. All the connecting 
 rods, crosshead guides, etc., in the slide valve connection are 
 case hardened, and for other parts manganese bronze was 
 mostly used. The high speed trials of the four destroyers 
 mentioned were not satisfactory, owing to the total lack of 
 skill on the part of the engineers and firemen employed in the 
 handling of such high speed vessels. Yet the average results 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 79 
 
 showed a working pressure of 190 against the maximum of 257, 
 a revolution of 379 against 400, a horse power of 5,600 against 
 6,000, with a speed of 29 knots in all cases. 
 
 All the destroyers were fitted with four water tube boilers of 
 the Kansei Honbu type (the type adopted by the Ship Ad- 
 ministration Office of the Imperial Navy). This kind of 
 boiler was first placed in the warship Otowa with good results, 
 and that led to its use in the destroyers. v 
 
 On account of the unusual pains taken by shipbuilders in\ 
 the construction of torpedo-boat destroyers, the work on the \ 
 above four ships, the Harusame and others, progressed with- \ 
 out the slightest interruption and was even crowned with ) 
 a successful official trial, all of which facts, it may be said, / 
 added much to the fame already won by the progress of the/ 
 shipbuilding industry in Japan. 
 
 Torpedo Boats 
 
 In January, 28 Meiji (1895), torpedo boat No. 24 was built 
 at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Her displacement is 78 tons, 
 horse power, 1,150, and speed, 21 knots. This boat is of the 
 same type as boat No. 21 built by the Normand Company. 
 
 In February of the same year, torpedo boat No. 25 was built 
 at the branch of the Kure Naval Arsenal. This boat was 
 built after the designs of No. 22 and No. 23, the Schichau 80- 
 ton boats purchased from the Schichau Company of Germany 
 and put together at the same branch yard. She was launched 
 in November, 27 Meiji (1894). Displacement, 82 tons; actual 
 horse power, 1,200; speed, 24 knots. Guns, etc., two 47 m.m. 
 quick-firing guns ; 3 torpedo tubes. Loading capacity of coal, 
 87! tons; 2 rudders, fore and aft; the fore rudder measuring 
 above 6 square feet, and the aft rudder 14 square feet. 
 
 The first-class torpedo boats Hayabusa, Kasasagi, Manazuru 
 and Chidori, which had been bought from the Normand Com- 
 pany of France, were framed during the 32d year (1899) ^^^ 
 33d year (1900) of Meiji and completed sometime between 
 April of the 33d year (1900) and April of the 34th year (1901), 
 Meiji. The work of building these torpedo boats from pur- 
 
80 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 chased parts gave a great deal of valuable experience for the 
 future building of many ships of this kind. 
 
 In November, 33 Meiji (1900), torpedo boat No. 50 was 
 completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. It was laid down 
 in April, 32 Meiji (1899). Displacement, 52 tons; horse power, 
 657; speed, 20 knots. She is a slightly improved form of the 
 53-ton boat No. 15 of the Normand type. 
 
 In the same month torpedo boat No. 51 was completed 
 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. The boat was built the 
 same as No. 50 in all respects. 
 
 In February, 34 Meiji (1901), torpedo boat No. 52 was built 
 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She was laid down in May, 
 32 Meiji (1899), and was built the same as the two preceding 
 boats in all respects. 
 
 In April, 34 Meiji (i 901), torpedo boat No. 53 was completed 
 at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in April, 33 
 Meiji (1900). Displacement, 52 tons; horse power, 657; 
 speed, 20 knots. 
 
 In the same year torpedo boat No. 54 was built at the Kure 
 Naval Arsenal. She was built the same in all particulars as 
 No. 53. 
 
 In May, 34 Meiji (1901), torpedo boat No. 55 was built at 
 the Kure Naval Arsenal. This boat was also built the same as 
 the two previous ones in all respects. 
 
 In August, 35 Meiji (1902), torpedo boat No. 56 was com- 
 pleted at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in 
 April, 35 Meiji (1902). Displacement, 52 tons; horse power, 
 657 ; speed, 20 knots. 
 
 In November, 34 Meiji (1901), torpedo boat No. 57 was 
 completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in 
 March, 34 Meiji (1901). Displacement, 53 tons; horse power, 
 660; speed, 20 knots. 
 
 In January, 35 Meiji (1902), torpedo boat No. 58 was com- 
 pleted at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in April, 
 34 Meiji (1901). She is the same as the last mentioned boat 
 in displacement, horse power, speed, etc. 
 
 In April, 35 Meiji (1902), torpedo boat No. 59 was com- 
 pleted at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 8 1 
 
 August, 34 Meiji (1901). She is the same as No. 58 in con- 
 struction and otherwise. 
 
 Of the above ten boats (beginning with No. 50) , those built^ 
 at the dockyard of the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal had metal 
 aluminum used for their furniture, fixtures, utensils, etc. This 
 fact, together with the careful saving of weight in other 
 materials used in the side manufacture, enabled the builders to 
 bring down the tonnage of the boats to 52 tons. Another new 
 trial very successfully made by this dockyard in connection 
 with these boats is the use of the abacus system of launchingy 
 for torpedo boats. This method of launching was in those 
 years in practice at the dockyard for all the auxiliaries built 
 there, and now it was adopted for every torpedo boat built at 
 the yard. 
 
 The displacement of the other boats built at the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal is 53.4 tons. 
 
 In June, 36 Meiji (1903), torpedo boat No. 67 was com- 
 pleted at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She was laid down in 
 May, 35 Meiji (1902). Displacement, 94 tons; horse power, 
 1,200; speed, 23.5 knots. 
 
 In the same month torpedo boat No. 68 was completed at 
 the same arsenal. Her displacement, horse power, speed, etc., 
 are all the same as No. 67. The average cost of these two 
 boats is 114,451 yen. 
 
 In September, 36 Meiji (1903), torpedo boat No. 72 was 
 completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. She was laid 
 down in February of the same year. Displacement, 94 tons ; 
 horse power, 1,200; speed, 23.5 knots. 
 
 In the same month, torpedo boat No. 73 was completed at 
 the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. The time she was laid down, 
 her displacement, horse power, speed, etc., are all the same as 
 No. 72. These two boats cost on the average 89,632 yen. 
 
 In September, 36 Meiji (1903), torpedo boat No. 69 was 
 built at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. She was laid down in 
 May, 35 Meiji (1902). Displacement, 94 tons; horse power, 
 1,200; speed, 23.5 knots. She is the first torpedo boat built 
 at the Sasebo Dockyard. 
 
 In November, 36 Meiji (1903), torpedo boat No. 70 was 
 
82 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 completed at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in 
 May, 35 Meiji (1902). Displacement, horse power, speed, 
 etc., the same as the last-mentioned boat. 
 
 In December, 36 Meiji (1903), torpedo boat No. 71 was 
 built at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. It was laid down in Au- 
 gust, 35 Meiji (1902). She is the same as the last two boats in 
 displacement, horse power, speed, etc. 
 
 In June, 37 Meiji (1904), torpedo boat No. 74 was completed. 
 The boat was built at the Kawasaki Dockyard, having been 
 laid down in June, 36 Meiji (1903). Her displacement is 89 
 tons, horse power, 1,200, and speed, 23.5 knots. 
 
 In the same month torpedo boat No. 75 was completed at 
 the same dockyard. She was laid down in the same month as 
 the last-mentioned boat. Her displacement, horse power, 
 speed, etc., are also the same as No. 74. The nine boats which 
 have just been mentioned, beginning with No. 67, are an im- 
 proved form of boat No. 25 of the Schichau 80-ton type. 
 Compared with No. 25, they are somewhat larger in size, less 
 in draught, but increased by 13I tons or more in displacement, 
 the same in horse power and less by ^ knot in speed. Each 
 has two 57 m.m. guns and three torpedo tubes. 
 
 There is a disparity of 24,819 yen between the cost of boats 
 Nos. 67 and 68 and that of Nos. 72 and 73, all of which were 
 built at Yokosuka. The reason is that, in the case of the 
 building of the latter boats, economizing was possible in the 
 working expense, as there was a certain quantity left over of 
 the materials appropriated for the building of the former, that 
 could be used for the latter. The completeness of working ac- 
 commodations by the time of the construction of the latter 
 boats is another powerful reason for the difference. • 
 
 In July, 36 Meiji (1903), the first-class torpedo boat Kari 
 was built at the Kure Naval Arsenal. She was laid down in 
 April of 35 Meiji (1902). Her displacement, horse power and 
 speed are 150, 4,200 and 29, respectively. 
 
 In August, 36 Meiji (1903), the first-class torpedo boat 
 Aotaka was completed. She was built at the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal, having been laid down in April, 35 Meiji (1902). 
 
SINO-JAPANESE WAR TO RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 83 
 
 Displacement, horse power, speed, etc., are the same as those 
 of the Kari. 
 
 In October, 36 Meiji (1903), the first-class torpedo boat 
 Hato was completed. She was built at the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal, having been laid down in May, 35 Meiji (1902). Her 
 displacement, horse power, speed, etc., are all the same as 
 those of the last-mentioned boat. 
 
 In November, 36 Meiji (1903), the first-class torpedo boat 
 Tsubame was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was 
 laid down in June, 35 Meiji (1902). Her construction is the 
 same as that of the Kari in all details. 
 
 In January, 37 Meiji (1904), the first-class torpedo boat 
 Hibari was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. It was laid 
 down in July, 35 Meiji (1902). Displacement, horse power, 
 speed, etc., the same as those of the Kari. 
 
 In January, 37 Meiji (1904), the first-class torpedo boat 
 Kiji was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. She was laid 
 down in September, 35 Meiji (1902). Construction, the same 
 as the Kari. 
 
 The above are all first-class torpedo boats of the Normand 
 type. They invariably passed the official trial with good re- 
 sults. Their speed was fully 29 knots. They were the high- 
 est speed torpedo boats ever built, and the success which at- 
 tended their building is enough to show the great advancement 
 then made by the art of torpedo-boat construction. Besides 
 these torpedo boats, there were five of the same kind, the Sagi 
 and others, in course of construction when the war between 
 Japan and Russia commenced. 
 
 In this period some submarine boats were in use in the 
 Japanese Navy, but they were all purchased from foreign 
 dockyards, and none had been built in this country before the 
 Russo-Japanese War. 
 
 Supplement 
 
 The following chronological tables show the construction of 
 warships, torpedo-boat destroyers and torpedo boats, of which 
 record has just been made. 
 
84 
 
 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Chronological Table of Construction of Warships and Torpedo-Boat 
 
 Destroyers 
 
 (From the Sino-Japanese War to the Russo-Japanese War) 
 
 Name 
 
 Kind and Class 
 
 Where Built 
 
 Make' 
 
 Displace- 
 ment (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 Suma. 
 
 Akashi . . 
 Chi hay a 
 Niitaka . 
 Otowa. . 
 Miyako . 
 
 Uji 
 
 Tsushima . 
 Harusame 
 Murasame, 
 Hayatori . 
 Asagiri . . . 
 
 3d class cruiser 
 
 Dispatch boat 
 3d class cruiser 
 
 Dispatch boat 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 3d class cruiser 
 
 3d class destroyer 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 Steel, twin, 
 steam 
 
 2,6S7 
 
 2,7SS 
 
 1,238 
 
 3,366 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,772 
 
 610 
 
 3.366 
 
 375 
 
 375 
 
 375 
 
 375 
 
 Dec, 1896 
 
 Mar., 1899 
 
 May, 1900 
 
 Jan., 1904 
 
 Sept., 1904 
 
 Mar., 1899 
 
 Aug., 1903 
 
 Feb., 1904 
 
 June, 1903 
 
 July, 1903 
 
 Aug., 1903 
 
 Sept., 1903 
 
 Total: 8 warships; 4 torpedo-boat destroyers 
 
 •"Steel" denotes material used for the ship's hull; "twin" means twin screw; "steam," steam 
 power. 
 
 Chronological Table of Construction of Torpedo Boats 
 
 (From the Sino-Japanese War to the Russo-Japanese War) 
 
 Name 
 
 Class 
 
 Where Built 
 
 Material 
 
 Displacement 
 (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 No. 24 
 
 
 Onohama Dockyard 
 
 Steel 
 
 78 
 
 Jan., 189s 
 
 " 25 
 
 2d class 
 
 " 
 
 
 82 
 
 Feb., 1895 
 
 " so 
 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 52 
 
 Nov., 1900 
 
 " 51 
 
 
 ** 
 
 
 52 
 
 Nov., 1900 
 
 " 52 
 
 
 ** 
 
 
 52 
 
 Feb., 1901 
 
 " 53 
 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 52 
 
 Apr., 1901 
 
 " 54 
 
 3d class 
 
 ** 
 
 
 52 
 
 Apr., 1 90 1 
 
 " 55 
 
 *' 
 
 *' 
 
 
 52 
 
 May, 1901 
 
 " 58 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 
 53 
 
 Jan., 1902 
 
 " 59 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 53 
 
 Apr., 1902 
 
 " 67 
 
 2d class 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 94 
 
 June, 1903 
 
 " 68 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 94 
 
 June, 1903 
 
 " 69 
 
 " 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 94 
 
 Sept., 1903 
 
 " 70 
 
 ** 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 Nov., 1903 
 
 " 71 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 94 
 
 Dec, 1903 
 
 Kan 
 
 I St class 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 July, 1903 
 
 Aotaka 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 150 
 
 Aug., 1903 
 
 Hato 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 Oct., 1903 
 
 Tsubame .... 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 Nov., 1903 
 
 Hibari 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 Jan., 1904 
 
 Kiji 
 
 •* 
 
 *• 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 Jan., 1904 
 
 No. 72 
 
 2d class 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 94 
 
 Sept., 1903 
 
 " 73 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 
 94 
 
 Sept., 1903 
 
 " 74 
 
 " 
 
 Kawasaki Dockyard 
 
 
 94 
 
 Jan., 1904 
 
 " 75 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 
 94 
 
 Jan., 1904 
 
 " 56 
 
 3d class 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 52 
 
 Aug., 1902 
 
 " 57 
 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 52 
 
 Nov., 1901 
 
 Total: 27 torpedo boats 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 FROM THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT 
 
 TIME 
 
 The Russo-Japanese War was one of the world's greatest 
 wars. On land the two engaging armies exceeded one million, 
 the fighting line extended over nearly a hundred miles, the 
 battlefields were stretched hundreds of miles, and the distance 
 over which troops and provisions were transported from the 
 two countries to the front reached in all some thousands of 
 miles. On sea the tonnage of the modem and efficient fleets 
 of the two countries totaled hundreds of thousands. The 
 latest improved arms and ships used In this war were manip- 
 ulated by the application of the newest arts, and conse- 
 quently the experience obtained In the war in tactics and 
 strategy was very great, which called forth the necessity of 
 making many Improvements in the manufacture of arms, am- 
 munitions, ships, etc., and finally brought about a remarkable 
 progress in military industries. Moreover, during and after 
 this war, some increase In the number of military divisions and 
 of special corps of the army was made, and in the navy in the 
 number of Its war vessels, so that after the war large quanti- 
 ties of arms and ships had to be manufactured, and besides not 
 a few arms and ships needed repairing owing to the damages 
 sustained in the war. All these requirements put the military 
 factories of the army and navy In such an extremely busy con- 
 dition for some years after the Russo-Japanese War that they 
 were not able to complete the work, even by working at top 
 speed; and they had to have private factories do a part on 
 contract. The quantity and cost of the manufactures thus 
 made reached unparalleled large amounts, and in fact the 
 military industry has now become the center of the industry 
 of this country, and the large sum of expenditures annually 
 needed for the same is forming the great bulk of Japanese 
 finance. 
 
 85 
 
86 MILITARY industries: historical survey 
 
 Industries of the Army 
 
 Arms 
 
 In the space of only the ten years that have elapsed since 
 the Russo-Japanese War, there is a wide gulf in power be- 
 tween the arms made now by the experience obtained in the 
 war and those used at that time. The following is a brief 
 description of the principal arms: 
 
 (I) Magazine Rifles. — The infantry and cavalry rifles of 
 the 30th year type used in the Russo-Japanese War were, as 
 the result of the experience obtained in the war, improved 
 in the mechanical parts of their tail body and bolt, and 
 by the addition of a cover sheltering from the dust. These 
 new rifles, which are still in use at the present time, were in 
 May of the 39th year of Meiji (1906) adopted as military rifles 
 and named the infantry rifle of the 38th year type and the 
 cavalry rifle of the 38th year type. 
 
 (II) Machine Guns. — Two different types of Hotchkiss 
 machine guns were in use before the Russo-Japanese War ; one 
 with a traveling gun carriage and the other with a tripod ; but 
 in February of 40 Meiji (1907), only the latter type was adopt- 
 ed, with some alterations made in the gun, for the reason that 
 it was the one most used in actual war and proved the most 
 convenient to transport, as its carriage could be carried on 
 horseback as readily as other portable materials. In June of 
 the same year the adoption of the gun was offlcially confirmed, 
 and it was named the machine gun of the 38th year type, and 
 is still in use. 
 
 (III) Quick-firing Guns. — In the quick-firing guns, both 
 field and mountain, of the 31st year type which had been used 
 by the Japanese Army in the Russo-Japanese War, the ex- 
 perience of the war showed many points needing improvement, 
 and consequently a new model was decided upon at the time 
 when the adjustment of arms was being effected after the war, 
 and manufacture was immediately begun. These guns were 
 of a hydraulic buffer type, provided with the spring of recuper- 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 87 
 
 ator, and the type was officially confirmed as a military gun in 
 the 40th year of Meiji (1907), being named the field gun of the 
 38th year type, which is still in use. 
 
 The- most important points of progress made in the guns 
 were the increase of velocity of firing and the improvement of 
 sight. The increase of the firing velocity produced more 
 shooting power and made any frontal attack in the day time 
 and in the open field very difficult. But as, on the contrary, 
 it would limit activity of the army and especially would prove 
 very disadvantageous in pursuit, if the activity of the supply- 
 ing organ be not proportioned to the quick consumption of 
 ammunition, a more careful consideration for the rear troops 
 became necessary from the strategic point of view after the 
 present discovery of the new firing method. 
 
 Improvement in sight made the artilleries of both the of- 
 fensive and defensive armies take shielded positions in most 
 cases, with the result that the suppression at the right time of 
 the enemy's firing, to help the infantry's attack upon the 
 enemy, became more difficult than before, and made coopera- 
 tion of the infantry and artillery more necessary. 
 
 (IV) Transport Vehicles. — In the Russo-Japanese War 
 every transport corps experienced many difficulties arising out 
 of the defective construction of the transport vehicles of the 
 36th year type, especially the delicateness of those wagons of 
 the same year's type, which was very often the cause for the 
 difficulty in their movement on bad roads. To overcome such 
 difficulties, a two-wheeled vehicle for the pontoon was made on 
 trial, and at the same time the two-wheeled vehicle of the 38th 
 year type already in use was improved by broadening as well 
 as shortening its carriage and increasing the diameter of its 
 wheels, and upon examination proved satisfactory. The 
 regulation type of military vehicles was accordingly altered in 
 January, 41 Meiji (1908), and the former of the above de- 
 scribed new vehicles was called the second transport vehicle of 
 the 39th year type and the latter the first transport vehicle of 
 the 39th year type. 
 
88 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Implements and Materials 
 
 The term implements and materials used here is intended to 
 mean the implements and materials for communication, rail- 
 way, bridge building, and sanitary purposes ; and we shall de- 
 scribe here all those except railway materials, of which mention 
 will be made in a separate article under the heading of " Means 
 of Communication on Land." 
 
 (I) Implements and Materials for Communication, Tele- 
 graph and Telephone. — The first military use of the telegraph 
 in Japan was made in the Satsuma Rebellion of the loth year 
 of Meiji (1877). When on February 19 of the same year the 
 order to punish the Satsuma rebels was issued, a number of 
 temporary bands were formed to take charge of the military 
 telegraph, and were sent out with telegraphic instruments, 
 and at the same time some of the officials of the Industrial 
 Department were sent out to take charge of the military com- 
 munications between the various bodies. The distance over 
 which the telegraph was used aggregated 204 ri and 10 cho 
 (or about 500 miles) in length, and 53 stations were used. 
 Although in Japan in those days there was an army of six 
 garrisons, arranged into many classes, as infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery and transport, there was no telegraph corps organized, 
 and the instruments and wires used for the military telegraph 
 id to be imported. The civil war, in which the advantage 
 of using the telegraph was decidedly proved, brought a change 
 in the military arrangements, and on February 10, 13 Meiji 
 (1880), a military telegraphic corps was organized, and all im- 
 plements, materials and carriages for the military telegraph 
 ^ere stored in its magazine. On May 7, 19 Meiji (1886), the 
 telegraph instruments were attached to the jurisdiction of the 
 battalion of engineers, and in the next year the military tele- 
 graph corps having been disorganized, the battalion of engi- 
 neers of every division were made to study matters of the field 
 telegraph corps. Although the telegraph corps engaging in 
 the field operations in the Sino-Japanese War assisted strategy 
 in no small degree by the use of its instruments and materials, 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 89 
 
 many defects were found. Therefore, after the war the task of 
 improving those instruments and materials was undertaken 
 and in March, 33 Meiji (1900), all of the drawbacks were re- 
 paired. The principal one of the improvements was the trans- 
 portation of telegraphic instruments and materials by carriage 
 instead of on horseback, as was the case up to that time. The 
 newly repaired instruments and materials found opportunity 
 for actual use in the North China affair that took place in 
 June of the same year, when the field telegraph corps joined 
 the line of battle. With the advance of the Fifth Division, a 
 military line of 200 kilometers was installed, from West Taku 
 to Peking, affording opportunity for the newly repaired in- 
 struments and materials to be put to practical use. In Oc- 
 tober, 35 Meiji (1902), the telegraph educational battalion 
 was created to educate clerks and study the improvement 
 of instruments and materials. 
 
 In January, 37 Meiji (1903), the means of communication 
 for cavalry were regulated, by which the use of the telephone 
 by the cavalry as a military implement was first introduced. 
 
 In February of the same year the Russo-Japanese War 
 opened, and the cavalry was sent out with telegraphic 
 apparatus and the engineering corps fitted out with the 
 telephones used for training in peace time. Later on in the 
 war telephones were used by the infantry, also telephone 
 companies were organized by the headquarters of the divisions 
 for communication with subordinate commanders out on the 
 field; further, in October, a temporary telephone corps was 
 organized, when, with the extension of the fighting line of the 
 army out in Manchuria, it was necessary to bring the head- 
 quarters of the different armies into direct connection with the 
 general headquarters. 
 
 In the Russo-Japanese War, in which the fighting line ex- 
 tending over some hundred miles made communication be- 
 tween the troops in the front and the rear very important, the 
 telegraph corps in the field service always acted quite in har- 
 mony with the movement of the army and the requirement of 
 the strategy with fair success. The length of the lines put up 
 
90 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 / by the telegraph corps during the war reached_5 2,832 ki lo- 
 / meters, and the number of communications exchanged during 
 ( the same tim e, 4,694,319, w hich shows how indispensable the 
 ^"- — telegraph and telephone services are for military purposes. 
 However, the instruments and materials used at the time were 
 by no means perfect, hence the repeated regulations and im- 
 provement even after the war. 
 
 Wireless Telegraph and Telephone. — Although the neces- 
 sity of the wireless telegraph for military purposes was rec- 
 ognized shortly after its invention, it was not until 42 Meiji 
 (1909) that any special organ for its study and investigation 
 was formed by the Japanese Army. The work of study and 
 investigation was then commenced by the committee for the 
 same under supervision of the war minister, and is still in 
 progress, at a yearly expense of 70,000 yen. The wireless 
 telephone is being studied chiefly by the navy, but is yet being 
 used in the army. 
 
 As to the manufacture of instruments and materials of 
 communication, about one-third are made in the military 
 arsenals and the rest by private manufacturers, the cost of the 
 same for each of the last three years being as follows : 
 
 Yen 
 44 Meiji (191 1) (fiscal) 659,240 
 
 1 Taisho (1912) " 633,927 
 
 2 " (1913) " 690,256 
 
 (II) Materials for Bridging. — When at the beginning of 
 Meiji Western learning was adopted, the French system was 
 followed in the organization of the army, by which in the 6th 
 year of Meiji (1873) six garrisons were established, arranged in 
 infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineer and transport corps, and 
 to the engineer corps the Pirago trestle bridges were assigned 
 as materials for military bridging, but no materials of portable 
 pontoon bridges for field troops had yet come into regular use. 
 When on account of the Korean affair in 17 Meiji (1884) the 
 fixing of regular engineering implements and materials to be 
 assigned to the outgoing troops was found necessary, the en- 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 9 1 
 
 gineers' and sappers' implements were roughly selected for the 
 Engineer Division, and thereby the necessary implements and 
 materials to be shipped to the front were fixed. But as the 
 materials for bridging were in those days of too great a size to 
 admit of transportation to a foreign country or even inside the 
 country, these materials were made at the seat of war when- 
 ever the need arose. This work was certainly a hard task for 
 the men of the Engineer Division, and consequently improve- 
 ment of the materials was deemed quite urgent. In the next 
 year, after hard toil and application, a design of an iron boat 
 was made, and a number of model boats was ordered from the 
 Tsukiji Dockyard, which completed the work in two months. 
 These iron boats were built of iron plates of the thickness of 5 
 rin (about 1.5 15 m.m.), each measuring 6 meters in length, 
 1.50 meters in breadth, and 0.80 meters in depth, and weighing 
 140 kan (525 kilograms). 
 
 In March, 19 Meiji (1886), the new iron boat was adopted 
 after due trial, and later, selection having been made of the 
 various materials to suit the boat, the official set of materials 
 for the military-bridge column was fixed. These materials 
 were in those days carried as a rule by pack horses ; and it was 
 they that were used for the crossing of Yalu River and on other 
 occasions in the Sino-Japanese War, and facilitated the move- 
 ment of the field forces. After the war, the power of resistance 
 of these materials was not quite equal to the increased weight 
 of materials used by the field armies, and they were kept barely 
 serviceable by the addition of a number of cross beams and 
 other means of strengthening. In 33 Meiji (1900) they were 
 altered to a carriage transportation system, but before any 
 actual improvement was effected, the Russo-Japanese War 
 arose, and though hopelessly unable to meet the requirements 
 of the moment, they were again put to service in the crossing 
 of the Yalu and the like, and fortunately enough, with the aid 
 of the practice of "bridging with applied materials," succeeded 
 in getting the field armies over without interruption. 
 
 Such being the state of bridging materials, work was begun 
 
92 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 immediately after the war, to improve them, with the result 
 that a new set of bridging implements and materials was of- 
 ficially fixed in August, 42 Meiji (1909). 
 
 All bridging materials are made at the arsenals, and at 
 present the greater part of them are being made at the Atsuta 
 arms factory. The expense of their manufacture in three re- 
 cent years is as follows : 
 
 Yen 
 44 Meiji (191 1) (fiscal) 321,773 
 
 1 Taisho (1912) " 239,814 
 
 2 " (1913) " 324,436 
 
 ( 
 
 (III) Medical Materials.— In 29 Meiji (1896) the Central 
 Medical Material Depot of the army was established in Tokyo. 
 Its duty is the custody, purchase, manufacture, exchange, re- 
 pairing, etc., of reserve medical materials and model articles; 
 it also carries on the testing of medical materials. 
 
 In 31 Meiji (1898) the Central Medical Material Depot 
 of the army was closed and the Medical Material Depot of the 
 army was set up in Tokyo, the business of which consists in 
 the manufacture, purchase, storing, supply and qualitative 
 examination of model medical and .veterinary materials, 
 special medical articles, and articles for use in war, as well as in 
 purchases and supply materials for troops stationed abroad. 
 
 In 42 Meiji (1909) the trial manufacture of tablets, extracts, 
 ointments, plasters, powders, compounds of soap, fluid dis- 
 infectants, disinfected bandages, was commenced. 
 
 In 44 Meiji (191 1) a trial making of surgical knives was 
 commenced. At present, the factory contains one tablet 
 making room, one plaster room, one powder medical room, 
 one disinfected bandage room, one forging room and one 
 finishing house; the hands engaging in the work are thirty- 
 five for the making of the special preparations and fourteen 
 for knife making; the principal implements in use are four 
 tablet makers, six desiccators, six double pans, two rollers, four 
 pulverizing machines, one lathe, one milling machine, one 
 wheel grinder, one plating machine, two bellows, etc. 
 
 By the following tables comparison by the year may be 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 93 
 
 made, of different years' productions of the manufactures, and 
 of manufacturing expenditures: 
 
 Comparative Table of Amounts of Manufactures Produced in 
 Three Successive Years 
 
 Fiscal Year 
 
 Special Preparation 
 of Medicines 
 
 Consumable Articles 
 
 Knives 
 
 
 Sort 
 
 Number 
 
 Sort 
 
 Number 
 
 Sort 
 
 Number 
 
 iqii 
 
 59 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 13,798,541 
 12,650,320 
 17,705,100 
 
 5 
 7 
 5 
 
 102,896 
 
 134,498 
 
 93,250 
 
 11 
 83 
 51 
 
 3,543 
 5,998 
 3,181 
 
 I0I2 
 
 IQI-J 
 
 
 Comparative Table of Manufacturing Expenditures in Three 
 Successive Years 
 
 Fiscal 
 Year 
 
 Wages of 
 Workmen 
 
 Coal 
 
 Electric 
 Motive 
 Power 
 
 Gas 
 
 Water 
 Rate 
 
 Implements 
 
 and 
 Miscellaneous 
 Expenditure 
 
 Total 
 
 1911 
 
 1912. . . . 
 I9I3--- 
 
 Yen 
 5,748.76 
 7,041.32 
 8,248.15 
 
 Yen 
 836 
 836 
 843 
 
 Yen 
 410.88 
 
 31537 
 35112 
 
 Yen 
 7-37 
 43-45 
 47-79 
 
 Yen 
 
 99.84 
 
 128.16 
 
 150.06 
 
 Yen 
 5,439-81 
 
 4,285.79 
 14,009.68 
 
 Yen 
 12,542.66 
 12,650.09 
 23,649.80 
 
 Ammunition and Ignition Tools 
 
 During the war of 37 and 38 of Meiji (1904, 1905), many 
 cases of nonignition were found among the base fuses for coast 
 guns, and therefore a partial alteration of the fuse was made. 
 
 During the same war a base fuse of the common siege gun 
 shells, in which yellow powder burster was used, was adopted 
 for regular use. The same is called the Krupp base fuse. 
 
 After the Russo-Japanese War, in 38 Meiji (1905), the com- 
 pound fuse of the 38th year system was fixed as regular. It 
 was generally called the 35-second compound fuse, because of 
 its consuming time of 36 seconds and more. 
 
 In 38 Meiji the percussion fuse of the 38th year system was 
 fixed as regular, and at the same time the percussing apparatus 
 
94 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 of all base fuses was altered to the same make as that of the 
 38th year. 
 
 As the advance in ammunition and ignition implements 
 has greatly increased their efficiency, more defense works and 
 utilization of ground objects (i.e., a building, tree, mound, 
 etc.) in the battlefield has become necessary, and especially 
 the increase of their destructive and penetrative powers has 
 made the improvement of the defensive quality of all defense 
 works on land and of that of warships more necessary. 
 
 Means of Communication on Land 
 
 ' Among means of communication on land are to be reckoned 
 the telegraph, telephone, railway, bicycle, automobile, etc., 
 but of the telegraph and the telephone record has already been 
 made under " Implements and Materials" for communication, 
 and therefore nothing will be said of them here. Of bicycles, 
 mention will be omitted, as no cyclist corps has yet been 
 organized, and its use is comparatively small, although the 
 use of the bicycle had been recognized as necessary in war 
 time and is at present under study, including the use of 
 the bicycle in the Sino-Japanese War. 
 
 (I) Railway Materials. — At the end of 29 Meiji (1896) a 
 railway battalion was organized for the first time, and the 
 appliances and materials for the use of the battalion were of- 
 ficially fixed. In the North China affair in 33 Meiji (1900), 
 the temporary railway battalion had an opportunity of putting 
 to practical use the above regulation appliances and materials 
 by engaging in the repairing and running of a broad gauge rail- 
 way between Tangyu and Peking (about 61 kilometers). 
 After that affair the opinion of the urgency of improving rail- 
 way appliances and materials became prevalent among the 
 authorities, and finally in May, 36 Meiji (1903), an alteration 
 was effected. 
 
 During the war that occurred in the following year (37 to 
 38 Meiji), the temporary railway battalion was engaged, by 
 using the new regulation appliances and materials supple- 
 mented with some other necessary ones, in the construction of 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 95 
 
 under parts of a broad gauge railway of about 65 kilometers 
 between Seoul and Gishu, the construction and running of a 
 2^ feet light railway of the Ampo line (mainly a line of about 
 170 kilometers in the line built in the first period, from Antung- 
 hsien to Hsiamatang) , the railway construction in the vicinity 
 of Mukden and Hunhopas, and the construction and running 
 of a light railway of about 62 kilometers between Mukden 
 and Sinminting, and this served the purpose of the field armies. 
 But in this war, from various circumstances, it was unavoid- 
 able for the battalion to use oddly-mixed appliances and 
 materials ; and though of materials used by the Hand Truck 
 Railway Division, which was temporarily organized during the 
 war, the most were 12 -pound rails and hand trucks which were 
 good; the other miscellaneous things that were carried with 
 the party were not free from defects, as they had not been 
 studied beforehand. After the Russo-Japanese War the 
 Railway Material Department was attached to the railway 
 regiments, and at the samp time the latter was put under the 
 jurisdiction of the Bridge Headquarters of the Communication 
 Corps. While changes stated above have been undergone, no 
 alteration has on the whole been made in the essential part of 
 materials like rails and railway points since the organization 
 of the railway battalion. 
 
 The making and repairing of these railway materials have 
 been carried on at the Railway Material Department in the 
 railway regiment. But at the present time, repairing is 
 mainly being done, no new materials being made except small 
 appliances, and whatever is wanted being usually purchased of 
 private manufacturers. 
 
 The statistics of motive power, workmen and expenditure of 
 
 the factories of the Railway Material Department are as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Motive Power 
 
 Number Horse Power 
 
 Steam engines 8 209 
 
 Electric motors 5 93 
 
 ► . Gas engines. . . I 70 
 
 Petroleum motors 2 44 
 
 Total 16 416 
 
96 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Workmen 
 
 44 Meiji (191 1) (fiscal) 60,760 
 
 45 " (1912) and I Taisho (fiscal) 83,390 
 
 2 Taisho (1913) (fiscal) 83,080 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 Yen 
 
 44 Meiji (191 1) (fiscal) 27,919 
 
 45 " (1912) and I Taisho (fiscal) 44,919 
 
 2 Taisho (1913) (fiscal) 63,319 
 
 As may be seen from the large increase of the expenditure 
 shown above, the department is enlarging its plan of work 
 every year. 
 
 (II) Automobiles. — It was 39 Meiji (1906) when the 
 Japanese Army began the study of automobiles. 
 
 In 40 Meiji (1907) a freight automobile of the four-ton class 
 was purchased of an automobile company in France, and in 41 
 ,-J^eiji (1908), two more purchased of theSnaidel Canay Com- 
 pany, also of France. After several experiments with these, 
 in 43 Meiji (1910), two automobiles for military transporta- 
 tion service were made on trial at the Osaka Arsenal, which 
 was the beginning of automobile making in the Japanese Army. 
 
 In 43 Meiji, a pack automobile was bought from the Thorny- 
 croft Company in England and one from the Gaggenau Com- 
 pany in Germany, and a study was made of the construction, 
 design, use, handling, etc., of automobiles. In 44 Meiji 
 (1911) four "b" trial freight automobiles were made at the 
 Osaka Arsenal, entirely after designs of the Japanese Army. 
 
 In June, 2 Taisho (191 3), four "c" trial freight automobiles 
 (four- ton class) and two "d" trial freight automobiles (three- 
 ton class) were made at the arsenals of Tokyo and Osaka. 
 Although no figures relating to workshops, workmen, etc., for 
 the manufacture of the automobiles can be given in any sepa- 
 rate form, owing to the fact that automobiles are made in the 
 arsenals together with other arms, their manufacture is at any 
 rate annually increasing, as the necessity is increasing more 
 with the progress of other war implements. At present a 
 yearly sum of about 300,000 yen is being expended for study, 
 manufacture and repairing. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 97 
 
 Implements for Horses 
 
 By the expression "implements for horses" we mean the 
 harness for riding horses of commissioned officers and of 
 cavalry, artillery and transportation soldiers, that for draught 
 and pack horses of artillery, the furniture for draught and 
 pack horses of the transport corps, horseshoeing implements, 
 cleaning instruments for horses, etc. Of these articles the 
 harness for riding horses of commissioned officers is to be sup- 
 plied by the officers themselves, so the arsenal makes only a 
 little that is needed for mobilization. The manufacture of the 
 harness for other riding, draught and pack horses is not small 
 either in quantity or value, but as the cost is not great com- 
 pared with the manufacture of either small arms, guns, am- 
 munition or the like, it is not important as a military industry. 
 Above all, these things form a part of " arms " and may well be 
 considered under that head, and any particular account given 
 of them independently would only be superfluous. Therefore, 
 description will be made here of only the changes and develop- 
 ment of the furniture for draught and pack horses for trans- 
 portation services and matters relating to horseshoes, which 
 are comparatively not akin to regular arms. The whole 
 interval from the Restoration to the present time has been 
 included. 
 
 (I) Harness for Draught and Pack Horses of the Military 
 Train. — The draught-horse saddle used for the provision 
 wagon of the Arisaka style, which was an improved form of 
 horse-drawing provision carriage made on trial in i8 Meiji 
 (1885) and was in use until 23 Meiji (1890), was a saddle of a 
 small size like that for the off-horse of the artillery, and was 
 the regulation draught-horse harness at the same time as the 
 fixing of the official forms of the provision wagon and the 
 wagon of the ammunition battalion. 
 
 The harness for the pack horses of the transportation corps 
 in use in the early part of Meiji when the transportation corps 
 was first organized, was one that was made by altering the 
 common pack-horse saddle on advice given by Tersan, a 
 
98 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 French cavalry captain in the employment of Japan, and was 
 therefore called the Tersan transportation pack-horse saddle, 
 and was of no fixed form. The Ordnance Committee of that 
 time made a comparative study between a saddle designed by 
 the Osaka Branch Arsenal and the Tersan saddle, and as the 
 result obtained a form which in its general outline followed the 
 Osaka Arsenal's design, but was better, and was in 13 Meiji 
 (1880) fixed as official. This was called the pack-horse harness 
 of the transportation corps of the 13th year form. 
 
 This harness of the 13th year form was found from practical 
 use, to be not only imperfect in some respects but useless for 
 loading with unaccustomed articles, such as the heavy and the 
 light baggage of infantry and the engineer corps, and medical 
 materials. Therefore, in 19 Meiji (1886), a form of a pack 
 saddle was made on trial, using as basis a common pack saddle 
 in use among the people; but, though it was tried with satis- 
 factory results in an expedition made for the purpose in 21 
 Meiji (1888), some defective points were found in its construc- 
 tion after practical use by different companies of soldiers, and 
 therefore, instead of this saddle, one that was tried in a previ- 
 ous year by the first battalion of the transportation service was 
 adopted in 21 Meiji (1888), being light in weight and easy 
 of manufacture. This was called harness No. i for the trans- 
 portation pack horse. 
 
 Taught by experience in the Sino-Japanese War and by the 
 use of the provision wagon since that time, an alteration was 
 made in the regulation form of the harness for the transporta- 
 tion pack horse in 33 Meiji (1900), the same having been based 
 upon advice given in 31 Meiji (1898) by the chief of the Tokyo 
 Head Ordnance Department and made after due study and 
 trial by the Ordnance Committee. The new harness was 
 called the harness for the transportation pack horse of the 33d 
 year form. 
 
 As the result of the experience in the North China affair in 
 33 Meiji (1900), the work of improving wagons and draught- . 
 horse equipments was taken up, and a committee of investiga- 
 tion for the improvement of the same was appointed in 35 
 Meiji (1902). After some trial makings and testings, the of- 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 99 
 
 ficial forms of provision wagons and draught-horse equip- 
 ments were fixed, the latter being called for the harness the 
 transportation draught horse of the 36th year form. 
 
 It was found in the war with Russia in the 37th and 38th 
 years of Meiji (1904, 1905) that the above 36th year draught- 
 horse saddle was defective, in that it could not be used as a 
 pack saddle where difficulty should arise for the wagon to pass 
 and the horse be required to carry the load on its back. 
 Studies were made to obviate this drawback in the saddle, 
 and in 41 Meiji (1908) the form was altered into a new one 
 called the harness for the transportation draught horse of the 
 38th year form. 
 
 All of the above-mentioned horse harness is made at the 
 gun accessories factory of the Tokyo Arsenal, the factory for 
 implements and materials of the Osaka Arsenal, the Moji 
 weapon manufactory, etc. Its manufacturing will be in- 
 cluded in the expenses for arms manufacture hereafter shown. 
 
 (II) Horseshoes. — With the organization of the Japanese 
 Army after the Restoration, in which European systems were 
 followed, the European method of shoeing war horses with a 
 horseshoe was also adopted. Men were educated for horse- 
 shoeing foremen in the Military Veterinary School, and they 
 in turn educated the farrier soldiers in the cavalry, field artil- 
 lery and transportation corps, so that ordinary horseshoeing of 
 war horses was done by them, while the horseshoes for use in 
 ordinary times that could not be made by the different troops 
 and those for use in mobilization in war time are made at the 
 gun accessories factory in the Tokyo Arsenal, and if necessary 
 a part of the work is given to private farriers by contract. 
 
 The amount of horseshoes required in the fiscal year of 2 
 Taisho (191 3) and the amounts manufactured at different 
 places are as follows : N. 
 
 Amount required, 435,600 sets, value 200,300 yen (includ- J 
 ing the value of nails) . / 
 
 Made at the Tokyo Arsenal 128,400 sets 
 
 Made by different troops 178,800 " 
 
 Made by private manufacturer 128,400 " 
 
 Ordered from abroad 15,456,000 nails 
 
 Purchased from abroad 2,000,000 " 
 
lOO 
 
 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 The horseshoeing implements are made at the gun accesso- 
 ries factory of the Tokyo Arsenal and the factory for imple- 
 ments and materials of the Osaka Arsenal. The value of the 
 horseshoeing and clipping machine with which the different 
 corps were furnished the first time is 122,841 yen, and their 
 annual upkeep expense, 68,415 yen. 
 
 We have now finished our description of the general out- 
 line of the different branches of the manufacturing industry 
 performed by the Tokyo and the Osaka Military Arsenals; 
 to this we add, with the object of giving an idea of the develop- 
 ment made by the industries in those arsenals since the Russo- 
 Japanese War and of their present plan and condition of work, 
 a statement containing the working expenses, itemized, rev- 
 enue and fixed capital about the time of the Russo-Japanese 
 War, also the cost of raw materials purchased, number of 
 workmen, and their wages in the first fiscal year of Taisho 
 (191 2) of the same arsenals. 
 
 Expenses and Revenue of Operation 
 
 Fiscal Years 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal 
 
 Osaka Arsenal 
 
 Total 
 
 Expenses: 
 
 1903 
 
 IQ04. 
 
 Yen 
 6,996,681 
 20,509,501 
 41,949,520 
 16,275,360 
 14,277,314 
 12,138,806 
 10,465,911 
 10,161,935 
 11,277,923 
 
 Yen 
 
 3,902,427 
 
 13,116,324 
 
 22,331,672 
 
 10,082,726 
 
 8,403,083 
 
 8,314,348 
 
 7,514,183 
 
 7,814,564 
 8,276,121 
 
 Yen 
 10,899,109 
 33,625,826 
 
 IQO^ 
 
 64,281,192 
 
 IQO6 
 
 26,358,086 
 
 1907 
 
 22,680,398 
 2o.4=;'?,iS'> 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 17,980,094 
 
 1910 
 
 17,976,500 
 
 IQII 
 
 19,554,044 
 
 
 Revenue: 
 
 lOO'l 
 
 7.362,579 
 20,209,979 
 41,091,780 
 17,544.358 
 13,766,449 
 13,165,292 
 12,381,949 
 10,372,866 
 11,284,812 
 11,837,581 
 
 4,286,415 
 14,383,827 
 22,405,876 
 9,412,435 
 8,041,194 
 8,249,420 
 8,311,421 
 7,897,530 
 8,597,674 
 8,835,494 
 
 11,648,99s 
 
 1904. 
 
 34,593,807 
 
 iqos 
 
 63,497,658 
 
 1906 
 
 26,956,794 
 
 1907 
 
 iqo8 
 
 21,807,644 
 21,414,712 
 
 1909 
 
 20,693,370 
 
 1910 
 
 18,270,396 
 
 iqn 
 
 19,882,489 
 
 1912 
 
 20,673,075 
 
 
 
 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME lOI 
 
 Expenses for Raw Materials 
 
 Material 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal 
 
 Osaka Arsenal 
 
 Total 
 
 Metal 
 
 Yen 
 1.365,118 
 1,233,566 
 
 967,707 
 1,067,196 
 
 875,808 
 
 Yen 
 1,962,648 
 1,183,840 
 812,057 
 570,815 
 670,056 
 
 Yen 
 3,327,767 
 
 Leather 
 
 2,417,406 
 
 Timber 
 
 Powder material 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 1,779,765 
 1,638,011 
 1,545,865 
 
 Total 
 
 5,509,395 
 
 5. 199.416 
 
 10,708,814 
 
 Details of Revenue from Operation of Arsenals 
 
 Fiscal Years 
 
 Ordered by Imperial 
 Army and Navy 
 
 Ordered by 
 the People 
 
 Total 
 
 1906 
 1907 
 1908 
 1909 
 1910 
 1911 
 1912 
 
 Yen 
 23,683,812 
 20,671,928 
 20,472,132 
 19,735,706 
 16,756,823 
 14,441,781 
 16,982,109 
 
 Yen 
 3,272,981 
 1,135,716 
 1,404,693 
 1,376,556 
 1,456,499 
 5,440,707 
 3,690,966 
 
 Yen 
 
 26,956,793 
 21,807,644 
 21,876,825 
 21,112,262 
 18,213,322 
 19,882,488 
 20,673,075 
 
 Workmen Engaged in Arsenals and Wages at End of Fiscal Year 1912 
 
 Workmen 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Working Number for a Year 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Total 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Total 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 Osaka 
 
 14,398 
 9,688 
 
 2,969 
 792 
 
 17,367 
 10,480 
 
 4,075.582 
 3.123,499 
 
 804,753 
 204,370 
 
 4,880,335 
 3,327,869 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 24,086 
 
 3,761 
 
 27,847 
 
 7,199,081 
 
 1,009,123 
 
 8,208,204 
 
 
 Wages for a Year 
 
 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Total 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 3,569,139 
 2,367,520 
 
 329,593 
 68,229 
 
 3,898,732 
 2,435,749 
 
 Osaka 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5.936,659 
 
 397,822 
 
 6,334.481 
 
 
102 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 103 
 
 The principal articles being made at the factories In the 
 Tokyo and Osaka Arsenals at present are as follows : 
 
 Armament Manufactures, Tokyo and Osaka 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Factories 
 
 Locations 
 
 Principal Articles 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 Small arms factory 
 Gun accessories factory 
 
 Delicate instrument 
 
 factory 
 Ammunition factory 
 High explosive factory 
 Itabashi powder mill 
 Meguro powder mill 
 Iwabana powder mill 
 Atsuta arms manu- 
 factory 
 
 Tokyo 
 
 Oj 
 
 Itabashi 
 Meguro 
 Iwabana 
 Nagoya 
 
 Small arms, pistols, bayonets, machine rifles 
 
 Sabres, harnesses, ammunition pouches, arms 
 of leather or hemp, various castings, shells, 
 tools for artificers, tools for firing, ordnance 
 maker, horseshoes, canteen, implements for 
 horseshoe making, etc. 
 
 Field glasses, range finders, training gears, 
 communication instruments, electric arms 
 
 Substantial and empty cartridges for rifles 
 
 Detonators, fuses, ignition tools 
 
 Powder, explosive compounds 
 
 Powder 
 
 Powder, explosive compounds 
 
 Carriages, implements, materials, etc. 
 
 Osaka 
 
 Ordnance factory 
 Shell manufactory 
 High explosive factory 
 Ironworks 
 
 Factory for implements 
 aad their materials 
 
 Cartridge factory 
 
 Uji powder mill 
 Moji weapons manu- 
 factory 
 
 Osaka 
 Osaka 
 
 Uji 
 Moji 
 
 Guns 
 
 Shells 
 
 Detonators, fuses, powder 
 
 Castings, forged articles, steel as material 
 
 Carriages, harnesses, ammunition pouches, 
 arms of leather or hemp, tools for artificers, 
 tools for firing, ordnance maker, materials 
 for implements, implements for making 
 horseshoes 
 
 Cartridges for guns, castings of alloys, lunch 
 boxes, etc. 
 
 Powder, explosive compounds 
 
 Carriages, leather implements, etc. 
 
 Clothing and Equipment 
 
 In this article, on the same ground as stated above, a sum- 
 mary of the history from the starting of the Industries up to 
 the present Is given. 
 
 (I) Clothing. — The manufacture of military clothing was 
 begun In July, 21 Meljl (1888), when the Senju woolen cloth 
 factory, making woolen cloth as the material for clothing as Its 
 principal work, was removed from the jurisdiction of the De- 
 partment of Agriculture and Commerce to that of the War 
 Department. But the labor In this line was not so confused 
 as In the case of the arms Industry, and at the beginning of the 
 work the amount of products was too small to be given 
 separately for several periods. The military clothing de- 
 partment, In charge of shoemaking, tailoring, etc., as its 
 principal occupations, was established in 35 Meiji (1902), only 
 
104 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 a little more than a year before the Russo-Japanese War, and 
 therefore there was no particular work performed in the same 
 department which is worth mentioning under the separate 
 heads of "before" and "after" the same war. For the sake, 
 therefore, of economizing space in this subdivision is given the 
 outline of the history since the starting of work of these two 
 factories and a general view of the manufacture performed 
 there last year. 
 
 (a) Woolen Cloth Manufacture. — The site of the Senju 
 woolen cloth factory was placed at Minami-gumi, Senju, 
 Kitatoshima District, Tokyo Prefecture, in June, lo Meiji 
 (1877) ; in July construction was begun, and in September, 12 
 Meiji (1879), work was started therein. The factory, which 
 had been at first under the jurisdiction of the Department of 
 Civil Affairs, was removed to that of the Department of 
 Agriculture and Commerce when the latter was established, 
 and since July, 21 Meiji (1888), has been administered by the 
 War Department. 
 
 The factory, as the leader and an instructor of the same in- 
 dustry carried on by the people, encouraged the development 
 of the manufacture, because in the days when that factory was 
 established Japan in order to meet all her demands for woolen 
 cloth relied entirely upon imports, and had no such enterprise. 
 When in 19 Meiji (1886) the style of military clothing was 
 altered and it was decided that the clothing for non-commis- 
 sioned officers and soldiers should be made of woolen cloth, the 
 demand was suddenly increased and the manufacture thereof 
 was committed to the chief user of woolen cloth, the mili- 
 tary, which has mainly engaged in manufacturing for itself. 
 Thereafter the work was enlarged as woolen cloth was increas- 
 ingly demanded for the military service, and as a result, the old 
 factories were extended and new ones, artificial woolen facto- 
 ries for utilizing waste products, were established, all of which 
 perfected the arrangement of the work. The manufacture of 
 the cloth of dressed wool for the summer uniforms of officers 
 was commenced, which was followed by felt making under- 
 taken for the first time for the purpose of utilizing waste 
 products. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TI\rE IO5 
 
 This factory is, to be sure, the pioneer of the mechanical in- 
 dustry in Japan which, at that early time when the industry 
 of Japan was yet in its infancy, was provided with motive 
 engines, spinning machines, power looms, etc. The factory 
 warmly received visitors who came to obtain a view of the only 
 factory of its kind in those days, and, aiming at kindness in 
 guidance and explanation, and endeavoring to instill the 
 knowledge of the work, it contributed not a little to the diffu- 
 sion of the industrial idea in both a direct and an indirect 
 manner. As stated above, the factory was established at a 
 time when, although the demand for woolen cloth had gradually 
 increased since the Restoration of Meiji, the country had no 
 woolen industry, and necessarily imported all such articles. 
 In those days things were in such a condition that no work de- 
 manding capital and knowledge could be developed without 
 the help and encouragement of the government. This is the 
 reason why the manufactory as the leader in the work at the 
 time of its establishment, by showing a model to the people, 
 was devoting itself to the development of the same work. As 
 the perfect development of the woolen cloth manufacture 
 necessitates a home supply of wool, sheep farming was widely 
 encouraged among the people. But the result of the enter- 
 prise was very unfortunate. While thereafter the demand of 
 the military for woolen cloth increased more and more, there 
 was no popular enterprise in existence, and so the factory, 
 upon its removal to the jurisdiction of the War Department, 
 diligently endeavored to advance the work by manufacturing 
 military woolen cloth as its principal service. Afterwards the ^ 
 woolen industry sprung into existence among the people, and 
 so the factory left not only the woolen cloth needed by the 
 people which had been supplied by the same factory as its sub- 
 sidiary work, but also a part of the military woolen cloth, to 
 private manufacture, and thus encouraged the development of 
 the work among the people. On the other hand, the equip- J 
 ment of the factory, the selection of the machines, the training 
 and distribution of the workmen, and instruction in the art 
 were perfected as much as possible. Since the factory 
 
I06 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 was established, thirty-four years have elapsed, and the 
 number of workmen employed in this period has amounted 
 to some ten thousand, although it is difficult to give the exact 
 number of those who have been employed or dismissed. And 
 how frequently the workmen were changed is inferred from the 
 fact that about half of the present workmen are those who 
 have entered the service during the last three years. Of those 
 who leave their positions, there are not a few who are old, dis- 
 abled or sick and too weak to work, while there are many who 
 have obtained employment in factories among the people be- 
 cause of the skill gained at the government factory. This is 
 proved by the fact that the _ withdrawal frnm <^prvir p of the 
 worknien on thejmotive engine has amounted to the largest 
 number because of their being available'tof any part needing 
 mecHanicalart. Those who engage in spinning, webbing, etc., 
 mayT)e hired for the spinning of cotton muslin, to say nothing 
 of woolen cloth manufacture. It is also a matter of course 
 that the workmen engaged in the woolen cloth manufacture 
 were welcomed, because of their experience in the art, by 
 factories engaging in the same manufacture. In these several 
 ways the factory, from its establishment up to the present time, 
 has benefited in no small degree the industry at large. 
 
 General View of the Manufacture at Present 
 
 ixed capital 1,901,521 yen 
 
 Working capital i ,000,000 " 
 
 Number of factories 9 principal ones 
 
 Motive powers (16): 
 
 Steam engines (7) 554 h. p. 
 
 Dynamos driven by steam power (5) 805 " 
 
 Gas engines (i ) 5 
 
 Electric motors (3) 140 " 
 
 1504 h. p. 
 
 Forty-eight officers and clerks, 57 employes for miscellane- 
 ous affairs, 474 males, 459 females ^33 w orkmen in all. 
 
 Coal consumed during a year, 18,967 tons. 
 
 The following table shows the amount of the manufactures, 
 expenses of and revenue from the work and the value of the 
 products : 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
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I08 MILITARY INDUSTRIEIS: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Expenditures and Receipts for and from Work in the Senju Woolen 
 
 Cloth Factory 
 
 Expense of Revenue from 
 
 Fiscal Year Operation Operation 
 
 Yen Yen 
 
 1903 1,658,280 13,228,867 
 
 1904 4,502,915 39,141,899 
 
 1905 3,595,082 67,035,290 
 
 1906 3,661,015 30,766,399 
 
 1907 3,415,713 25,173,997 
 
 1908 2,687,144 24,133,867 
 
 1909. . . . ; 2,248,182 23,040,116 
 
 1910 2,1 16,934 20,526,263 
 
 1911 2,167,217 22,111,491 
 
 Value of Products of the Senju Woolen Cloth Factory 
 
 
 Woolen 
 Cloth 
 
 Artificial 
 Wool 
 
 Blankets 
 
 Total 
 
 For Sale 
 
 Fiscal Year 
 
 Used in 
 Military 
 Service 
 
 Others 
 
 loio 
 
 Yen 
 2,221,362 
 
 2,439,135 
 2,610,670 
 
 Yen 
 
 3,483 
 3,105 
 
 734 
 
 Yen 
 
 64,750 
 
 81,434 
 
 123,076 
 
 Yen 
 2,289,595 
 
 2,523,674 
 2,734,480 
 
 Yen 
 1,888,062 
 2,082,441 
 2,249,69^ 
 
 Yen 
 145,540 
 213,991 
 168,275 
 
 IQII 
 
 IQI2 
 
 
 Note: Articles excepting those denoted by "for sale " are not yet sold but stored. 
 
 Materials needed for the industry in question are classified 
 according to places of supply as follows: 
 
 (I) Kind of Articles, (i) Manufactures, (a) Domestic 
 Products. — Thistle nuts, ammonia, sulphuric acid, leather 
 manufactures (belts, ox-hide belts), manufactures of cotton 
 yam (spindle bands, spindle cotton), brick, cocoanut, palm 
 oil, cotton belt, hemp manufactures (spun yam, selvage yarn, 
 hemp, rope), cement, camphor oil, machine oil, refined oil, 
 valve oil, engine oil, coal, machines, machine accessories, tim- 
 ber, warming belts. 
 
 (b) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Hemp cloth (broad), 
 mompa (a kind of cotton flannel) (broad), card clothings, 
 oleine oil, leather manufactures (belts, rubbers), olive oil, ma- 
 chines, machine accessories, machine oil. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME IO9 
 
 (2) Semi-manufactured Articles, (a) Domestic Products. — 
 Tops with roll. 
 
 (b) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Tops for woolen cloth 
 manufacture, nails for the same object. 
 
 (3) Raw Materials, (a) Domestic Products. — ^Wool, mate- 
 rials for artificial wool (for socks, hand shoes), dyestuffs 
 (acetic acid, indigo ball, acetic ammonia, sulphate of soda). 
 
 (b) Imports from Colonies. — Wool, coal. 
 
 (c) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Wool, dyestuff. 
 Clothing Manufacture, — The principal items of clothing," 
 
 caps, uniforms, summer coats, and trousers, overcoats, puttees 
 and military shoes are to be made in this factory, and the 
 others, many of them being accessories to clothing, are pur 
 chased from the manufacturers at large. As the organs for cloth 
 ing manufacture, the head department of military clothing is lo- 
 cated in Tokyo, with branches in Osaka and Hiroshima, which 
 locations were selected in consideration of convenience in the 
 delivery of manufactures to every military division and in the 
 supply of raw materials and workmen. In the following para- 
 graphs is shown an outline of the history of these offices. 
 
 In 35 Meiji (1902), the shoemaking factory was set up in 
 Tokyo, and military shoes were made there for the first time; 
 next the cutting factory for cutting materials was established 
 in the same city; and in the next year a branch of the latter 
 factory was established in Osaka. 
 
 In 37 Meiji (1904), the head department in Tokyo and the 
 branch in Osaka started the sewing of the principal clothing 
 articles. 
 
 In 38 Meiji (1905), in the Osaka branch the shoemaking 
 factory was set up and work started. 
 
 In 40 Meiji (1907), a branch was located in Hiroshima, and 
 sewing was started there. After that, the service being grad- 
 ually enlarged, in 43 Meiji (1910), the shoemaking factory was 
 set up, which resulted in a great expansion of the work. 
 
no 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 
 
 
 
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RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 III 
 
 A General View of the Manufacture at Present 
 
 The work of this manufactory is the manufacture, mainly 
 by the use of mechanical power, of clothing (military clothing 
 and shoes) for noncommissioned officers and soldiers. The 
 number of factories, men engaged, and articles made in this 
 manufactory at present are approximately as follows : 
 
 NUMBER OF FACTORIES, MEN ENGAGED AND MOTIVE ENGINES 
 (I) Number of Factories 
 
 Factories 
 
 Head 
 Arsenal 
 
 Osaka 
 Branch 
 
 Hiroshima 
 Branch 
 
 Total 
 
 Sewing factories 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 Shoemaking factories 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 l6 
 
 
 
 (II) Number of Workmen 
 
 Factories 
 
 Head Arsenal 
 
 Osaka Branch 
 
 Hiroshima 
 Branch 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Sewing 
 Shoemak- 
 ing fac- 
 tories .... 
 
 133 
 157 
 
 506 
 16 
 
 56 
 103 
 
 377 
 10 
 
 81 
 79 
 
 409 
 20 
 
 270 
 339 
 
 1,292 
 46 
 
 Total 
 
 290 
 
 522 
 
 159 
 
 387 
 
 160 
 
 429 
 
 609 
 
 1,338 
 
 (III) Motive Power Engines 
 
 (7) Number 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Steam 
 Engines 
 
 Dynamos 
 
 Electro- 
 motors 
 
 Gas 
 Motors 
 
 Petroleum 
 Motors 
 
 Head Arse- 
 nal 
 
 Osaka 
 
 Branch . . . 
 
 Hiroshima 
 Branch . . . 
 
 2 
 I 
 I 
 
 4 
 2 
 I 
 
 24 
 3 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 Total . . 
 
 -^ 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
112 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 (III) Motive Power Engines — Continued 
 (2) Horse Power 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Steam 
 Engines 
 
 Dynamos 
 
 Electro- 
 motors 
 
 Gas 
 Motors 
 
 Petroleum 
 Motors 
 
 Head Arse- 
 nal 
 
 Osaka 
 
 Branch . . . 
 
 Hiroshima 
 Branch . . . 
 
 220 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 149 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 13 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 II 
 
 35 
 
 Total . . 
 
 375 
 
 171 
 
 209 
 
 32 
 
 46 
 
 (j) Fuel and Electric Power Consumed During a Fiscal Year 
 
 Arsenals 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gas 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 Electric 
 Power 
 
 Head Arsenal 
 
 Osaka Branch 
 
 Hiroshima Branch .... 
 
 Tons 
 885 
 607 
 618 
 
 J, 000 eft. 
 82 
 
 Koku 
 
 3 
 20 
 
 K.W.H. 
 6,996 
 
 12,647 
 
 Total 
 
 2,110 
 
 82 
 
 23 
 
 19,643 
 
 The following is a table comparing the expenditures for 
 manufacture during three fiscal years: 
 
 Articles 1910 191 1 1912 
 
 Yen Yen Yen 
 
 Caps 51,802 111,372 129,204 
 
 Winter coats 860,448 874,201 351,230 
 
 Winter trousers 678,346 874,565 666,422 
 
 Summer coats 126,725 302,790 357,444 
 
 Summer trousers 1 17,403 292,243 266,484 
 
 Overcoats 1,711,052 968,853 754,475 
 
 Puttees 165,955 147,000 211,733 
 
 Laced boots 588,732 670,590 547,894 
 
 Boots 42,940 33,544 547,894 
 
 Long boots 16,109 27,898 112,603 y 
 
 Total 4,359,512 4,303,056 3,945.383 / 
 
 The principal materials for manufactures according to the 
 places of supply are classified as follows: 
 
 (I) Kind of Articles, (i) Manufactures, (a) Domestic 
 Products. — Yellowish-brown cloth, cloth for gaiters, cloth for 
 badges, woolen yam for hosiery, drillings, leather cotton cloth, 
 cotton flannel, cotton yarn, mompa (a kind of cotton flannel), 
 
 Of^ 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME II3 
 
 calico, heavy hemp cloth, hemp cloth for padding, hemp cloth 
 for cap lining, hemp cloth for tent, upper shoe leather, sole 
 shoe leather (surface), sole shoe leather (middle), visors, brim 
 leather, jowl pieces, metal ceiling, paddings, zinc eyelets, braids, 
 cotton yarn, upper leather sewing yarn, spikes. 
 
 (b) Foreign Products. — Woolen yam for hosiery, fur, spikes, 
 sole, sewing yarn, wooden nails. 
 
 (2) Raw Materials, (a) Domestic Products. — ^Wool grease, 
 leather oil. 
 
 (b) Foreign Products. — Wool grease, leather oil, gelatine 
 orange. 
 
 (II) Value of Articles 
 
 Fiscal 
 
 Materials 
 
 Raw Materials 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand 
 
 Year 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 .... 
 
 Yen 
 4,475,820 
 4,147,128 
 
 Yen 
 12,239 
 13,041 
 
 Yen 
 
 11,731 
 
 32,404 
 
 Yen 
 2,116 
 
 4,OCK) 
 
 Yen 
 4,487,551 
 4,179,532 
 
 Yen 
 
 14,355 
 17,041 
 
 Yen 
 4,501,906 
 4,196,573 
 
 >p 
 
 (III) Equipment. — The principal items in military equip- 
 ment are knapsacks, haversacks, lunch boxes, water bottles 
 and portable tents; of which the knapsacks and the haver- 
 sacks are made in private factories to which a part of the 
 materials for making is delivered, while the making of the 
 lunch boxes, the water bottles and the portable tents is com- 
 mitted to the arsenal. 
 
 Outline of the History of Equipment. — The haversack was 
 patterned in September, 25 Meiji (1892), the knapsack, in 
 July, 37 Meiji (1904) for the first time, and parts improved 
 thereafter. 
 
 The knapsack which had been divided into several kinds 
 (for infantry, artillery, engineer, etc.) was made uniform and 
 the color of the thong, etc., was changed to the natural color of 
 the skin, yellowish brown. The material of lunch box and 
 the water bottle was changed to aluminum, in November, 31 
 Meiji (1898), heretofore the lunch box being of black lac- 
 
114 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 quered iron plate, and the water bottle being of glass with a 
 cover of black leather. 
 
 In January, 38 Meiji (1905), the color of the lunch box and 
 the water bottle was changed to yellowish brown. 
 
 The field tent was patterned in March, 36 Meiji (1903), and 
 in October, 39 Meiji (1906), its color was changed to yellowish 
 brown. 
 Table Comparing Value of Articles Made in Successive Fiscal Years 
 
 Articles" 
 
 Knapsacks . 
 Haversacks . 
 Lunch box. 
 Canteens. . . 
 
 43 Meiji (1910) 
 
 44 Meiji (191 1) 
 
 I Taisho (1912) 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 Yen 
 
 5,709 
 
 73,690 
 
 248,233 
 
 14,784 
 
 2,035 
 
 1,212 
 
 11,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 28,358 
 
 111,941 
 
 111,941 
 
 . * Field tents were not made during this period. 
 
 The expenses of manufacture during the last three fiscal 
 years are as follows : 
 
 Yen 
 
 43 Meiji (1910) 59,851 
 
 44 " (1911) 190,666 
 
 I Taisho (1912) 249,445 
 
 Principal Material for Manufacture According to the Places 
 
 of Supply 
 Domestic Products : 
 
 Buckles for hemp haversacks, yellowish-brown heavy 
 hemp cloth, hemp cloth for knapsack, buckles and 
 boxes for knapsack, posts and props for portable tents. 
 Foreign Products: 
 
 Aluminium, goat skins. 
 Imports from Colonies: 
 
 Fur for knapsack. 
 The number of the principal articles of equipment bought or 
 manufactured per year are, in round numbers, as follows : 
 
 Number 
 Articles for a Year 
 
 Knapsacks 20,000 
 
 Haversacks 33,ooo 
 
 Lunch boxes 10,000 
 
 Canteens 9,000 
 
 Portable tents 17,000 
 
 Remarks 
 Bought from leather manufacturers. 
 Made by tailors from material delivered. 
 Manufacture committed to the Osaka 
 
 Arsenal. 
 Manufacture committed to the Tokyo 
 
 Arsenal. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME II5 
 
 Provisions 
 
 The experience gained in the Sino-Japanese War demon- 
 strated the necessity of the manufacture of provisions by the 
 government, and it was after this war that the industry was 
 started. Before the Russo-Japanese War, there was nothing 
 worth mentioning, and so the history from the Sino-Japanese 
 War to the present time is here given as a whole. 
 
 In March, 30 Meiji (1897), the Mihtary Central Provision 
 Department was established in Tokyo, with a branch at Ujina, 
 to manufacture, supply, store, supplement and examine the 
 provisions needed for military service. 
 
 In January, 31 Meiji (1898), the canning of beef was started. 
 
 In December, 36 Meiji (1903), corn cleaning was started at 
 the Ujina branch. 
 
 In August, 37 Meiji (1904), the making of soy extract was 
 started. 
 
 In September of the same year, a slaughter house was built 
 at the Central Department, and slaughter for the purpose of 
 canning was started. 
 
 In March of the same year, the Osaka branch of the Mili- 
 tary Provision Department was opened. 
 
 In August of the same year, biscuit making was started in 
 the Central Department. 
 
 In September, 44 Meiji (191 1), beef canning was started in 
 the Ujina branch. 
 
 In January, 2 Taisho (191 3), biscuit making was started in 
 the Osaka branch. 
 
 In February of the same year, pickle making was started in 
 the Central Department. 
 
 Articles made in the department, and factories at the pres- 
 ent time are as follows: 
 
 Number of 
 
 Articles or Work Factories Places 
 
 Biscuits 2 Tokyo, Osaka 
 
 Canned beef 2 Tokyo, Hiroshima 
 
 Soy extract i Tokyo 
 
 Pickle I Tokyo 
 
 Rice and barley cleaning I Hiroshinxa 
 
Ii6 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 The amounts of manufacture, rate of increasing manufactur- 
 ing capacity and expenses of manufacture for several years are 
 compared as follows: 
 
 Table Comparing 
 
 Value of Manufactures, 
 
 1908-1912 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Biscuits 
 
 Canned 
 Beef 
 
 Salt 
 
 Soy 
 Extract 
 
 Fukujin- 
 zuke " 
 
 Cleaned 
 Rice 
 
 Cleaned 
 Barley 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 Yen 
 268,532 
 268,136 
 268,036 
 307,500 
 352,137 
 
 Yen 
 444,565 
 456,341 
 458,919 
 236,500 
 525,016 
 
 Yen 
 3,675 
 3,675 
 3,675 
 20,925 
 
 12,425 
 
 Yen 
 60,311 
 60,458 
 60,411 
 34,450 
 56,898 
 
 Yen 
 2,243 
 
 Yen 
 363,099 
 385,949 
 304,797 
 442,155 
 365,385 
 
 Yen 
 
 199,551 
 90,277 
 81,493 
 
 144,606 
 
 154,152 
 
 » A kind of pickle. 
 
 Rate of Increase in Manufacturing Capacity, 1908-1912 
 
 Year 
 
 Biscuits 
 
 Canned 
 Beef 
 
 Salt 
 
 Soy 
 Extract 
 
 Fukujin- 
 zuke* 
 
 Cleaned 
 Rice 
 
 Cleaned 
 Barley 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 100 
 99 
 99 
 
 114 
 
 131 
 
 TOO 
 102 
 103 
 
 53 
 118 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 569 
 337 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 57 
 94 
 
 TOO 
 
 100 
 106 
 
 83 
 121 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 45 
 40 
 72 
 
 77 
 
 ' A kind of pickle. 
 
 Expenses of Manufacture, 1908-1912 
 Year Cost of Manufacture 
 
 Yen 
 
 41 Meiji (1908) 777,083 
 
 42 " (1909) 788,610 
 
 43 " (1910) 791,041 
 
 44 ;; (1911) 599,375 
 
 "^i Taisho } (^912) 948,719 
 
 Number of Workmen Engaged in the Provision Industry, 1908-1912 
 
 Year Males Females Total 
 
 41 Meiji (1908) 31-727 31,245 62,972 
 
 42 " (1909) 47,090 47,504 94,594 
 
 43 " (1910) 53,428 49,101 102,529 
 
 44 II (1911) 63,412 60,103 123,515 
 
 "^iTaishol^^^^^^ 68,820 65,619 134,439 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 117 
 
 Average number per day of the workmen at the present 
 time is 264 males, 202 females, 466 in alL 
 
 The work of manufacture is simpler than that of any other 
 industry, and does not need various kinds of materials as in 
 other cases. 
 
 Materials needed in this manufacture according to places of 
 supply are shown as follows : 
 
 (1) Kind of Articles, (i) Manufactures, (a) Domestic 
 Products. — Solid salt, powdered salt, paper pouches, wooden 
 boxes, ropes, cotton yarn, straw bags. 
 
 (b) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Nails. 
 
 (2) Semi-manufactures, (a) Domestic Products. — Plates of 
 abies firma (for wooden boxes) . 
 
 (b) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Iron plates. 
 
 (3) Raw Materials, (a) Domestic Products. — Beef, wheat 
 flour, sugar, soy, sweet ''sake,'" rice flour, salt, sesame, pota- 
 toes, vegetables for pickling. 
 
 (b) Imports from Foreign Countries. — Hops, tin, lead, 
 Indian rubber, varnish for painting, shellac for painting, 
 ammonia. 
 
 (II) Value of Articles 
 
 Year 
 (fiscal) 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 Semi- 
 manufactures 
 
 Raw Materials 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand 
 Total 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 1912 . . 
 
 1913 • • 
 
 Yen 
 103,635 
 133,418 
 
 Yen 
 229 
 599 
 
 Yen 
 2.51S 
 24,021 
 
 Yen 
 109,884 
 111,358 
 
 Yen 
 756,205 
 861,576 
 
 Yen 
 13.231 
 16,922 
 
 Yen 
 
 862,355 
 
 1,019,01s 
 
 Yen 
 123,344 
 128,879 
 
 Yen 
 
 985.699 
 
 1,147,894 
 
 Supplement 
 A general view of the military industry has been given above 
 and in conclusion tables are given below explaining the mili- 
 tary industrial engines and the number of employes in military 
 factories. 
 
Ii8 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 
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RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
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russo-japanese war to the present time 121 
 
 Industries of the Navy 
 
 Because of t he fact that all the European countries were 
 keeping strict neutrality during the Russo-Japanese War, the 
 two warships, the Katoh and the Kashima, which were almost 
 completed in England, could not be sent round to Japan, and 
 under su ch circ umstances it was of course impossible to import 
 Jresh war vessels from foreign c ountries. Meanwhile, Japan 
 lost ten warships and torpedo-boat destroyers in the war and 
 was deprived of much of her naval power. Prompted by the 
 need of making up these losses and also to make a new increase 
 of her power, she then began to build warships with her own 
 materials at her own government and private shipbuilding 
 yards. 
 
 In Japan, even before this time, the construction of a first- 
 class battleship was never an impossibility as far as equipment 
 and skill are concerned. On account of lack of materials and 
 other reasons, however, it was absolutely impossible to do it at 
 the same cost as if built in England ; and moreover in rapidity 
 of work, Japan could not but be unequal to such countries as 
 England, France, Germany or America; hence there was a 
 tendency to order warships from foreign builders. But as, 
 under the circumstances, there was no time to consider any 
 such difficulties, necessary arrangements were made to con- 
 struct first-class battleships and cruisers at the Yokosuka and 
 Kure arsenals, and cruisers, dispatch boats, or torpedo-boat 
 destroyers at the Sasebo and Maizuru arsenals and seve;ral 
 other large private dockyards, and the work started at once. 
 
 yh i£ may b e called the third extension of the Japane se 
 Nayy, and for this purpose a large amount of naval expendi- 
 ture waslncurred, but thanks to the zeal of all classes~of~the 
 people, the task was at last finished, and the long-sought-for 
 ambition of procuring war implements independently of 
 foreign countries was realized. It ought to be said with 
 exactness that the 38th year of Meiji made a new epoch in 
 warship building in the Empire of Japan. The new plan was 
 to build two first-class battleships and four first-class battle 
 cruisers, one second-class cruiser, two dispatch boats, and 
 
122 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 thirty-three torpedo-boat destroyers, making a total of forty- 
 two ships; and the estimated cost for the above was 212,261,- 
 055 yen. These vessels were all completed soon after the war 
 between Japan and Russia was over. From the experiences 
 of actual warfare gained in the war, considerable improvement 
 was made in the building of these vessels. The principal im- 
 provements were to increase the displacement as much as 
 possible, to increase the number of the ordnance and the 
 calibre of the same, and the thickness and size of the armor 
 plates, all in proportion to the increase of the displacement, to 
 increase the power of the fish torpedo according to the increase 
 of displacement, at the same time decrease it in inverse pro- 
 portion to the increased power of the ordnance, to increase the 
 speed as much as possible, to dispense with the ram, to perfect 
 the means of protection against the mechanical mine, to con- 
 struct a powder magazine free from explosion by meteorologi- 
 cal changes, and in the case of ships built capable of being 
 fitted up as auxiliary cruisers, to place important parts of the 
 steering system under the waterline, and to provide the same 
 with necessary protective devices, etc. 
 
 After the Russo-Japanese War, this plan of shipbuilding 
 was carried out in one ship after another, and all were finished 
 with success, especially, in the case of the first-class battleships 
 and armored cruisers, both of which, the former of about 20,- 
 000 tons and the latter of about 14,000 tons, were of such great 
 size that there were hardly any to compare with them in the 
 world, and still they showed unexpectedly good results. It 
 may be remarked that this was a very rapid advance, a matter 
 truly worthy of congratulations to the shipbuilding industry 
 of Japan. Since the completion of these warships, the navy, 
 seeing the necessity of further enlargement in due accordance 
 with the extension of the power of the country, has continued 
 to build new large ships, and already launched battleships 
 of 30,000 tons. The estimated expenditure for building 
 these new vessels, so far approved by the Imperial Diet, has 
 amounted to 84,644,124 yen. 
 
 Following is a summary of the development of the naval 
 industry in this period: 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 23 
 
 Warships and Torpedo-boat Destroyers 
 
 (I) Warships. — In February, 37 Meiji (1904), the third- 
 class cruiser Tsushima was completed at the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal. Keel laid October, 34 Meiji (1901); displacement, 
 3,366 tons; horse power, 9,400; speed, 20 knots; equipped with 
 6 6" quick-firing main guns, 10 12 pounder quick-firing side 
 guns, 4 47 mm. auxiliary guns; 3 searchlights, but with no 
 torpedo tube, like the sister ship Niitaka. 
 
 In September, 37 Meiji (1904), the third-class cruiser 
 Otowa was completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Keel 
 laid January, 36 Meiji (1903); displacement, 3,000 tons; horse 
 power, 10,000; speed, 21 knots. Main guns, 2 6" quick- 
 firing guns; side guns, 6 4.7" quick-firing guns; auxiliary, 4 
 quick-firing 12 pounders and 2 Maxim guns; 3 searchlights. 
 This ship was 336 tons less in displacement compared with 
 the Niitaka or the Tsushima. In arms and protective deck 
 she was also somewhat lighter than those two ships, but the 
 weight so saved was added to the engines to increase her horse 
 power, which raised her speed to 21 knots. Like her sister 
 ships she was built without a torpedo tube. She had in some 
 respects a slight resemblance to a despatch boat, though 
 built for a protected cruiser. It took only twenty months 
 to build this ship, the quickest record ever made in this 
 country. Of course, being in war-time, it owed much to the 
 industrious efforts of all of those engaged in the work, from 
 the overseeing officers to the workmen, but at the same time 
 it is enough to show what a rapid development was being made 
 in the shipbuilding industry of Japan. 
 
 In January, 40 Meiji (1907), the armored cruiser Tsukuba 
 was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Keel laid Janu- 
 ary, 38 Meiji (1905); displacement, 13,750; horse power, 
 23,260; speed, 21.5 knots. Guns carried: 4 12" quick-firing 
 main guns; 12 6" and 3 4.7" side guns; 2 quick-firing 12 
 pounders, and 4 Maxim guns as auxiliaries. The ship has also 
 3 18" torpedo tubes and 3 searchlights. The engine is of the 
 twin-screw, surface-condensing, four-cylinder, triple-expan- 
 sion type, and has a forced lubricating arrangement. This 
 
124 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 ship was intended to be a sister ship to the armored cruiser 
 Ikoma, and was not only the first armored cruiser built in 
 Japan, but was also the first ship for which an engine of 20,000 
 hcH;g e^ power was ever made in this countr y^ 
 
 It was about forty-five years since warship building had 
 "commenced in Japan, and in this time more than thirty ships 
 were built; but then the largest ship ever built was the Ha- 
 shidate of 4,200 tons, and no armored battleship or large-size 
 cruiser had yet been built. Now the Tsukuba, a large-size 
 armored warship, was completed in but two years after her 
 keel laying; and, except England, no country in Europe or 
 America, who was Japan's elder in these matters, had ever 
 before completed such a large ship in such a short time. It 
 is a fact that the construction of the ship took place during 
 the war, and the work had to be pushed for early comple- 
 tion ; but, still, to have built such a big ship without experience, 
 and her trial made with every success, shows well enough the 
 wonderful development in the shipbuilding industry of the 
 Empire. 
 
 In March, 40 Meiji (1907), the armored cruiser Ikoma was 
 completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Keel laid in March, 38 
 Meiji (1905); displacement, 13,750 tons; horse power, 20,- 
 500; speed, 21.75 knots; engines and boilers, the same as the 
 Tsukuba; guns about the same, the only difference being that 
 while the Tsukuba has 2 quick-firing 12 pounders among her 
 auxiliary guns the Ikoma has 2 3" guns. 
 
 Heretofore it was customary to construct warships with 
 ram heads, which could be used as weapon in time of battle, 
 but of late, owing to the improvement in guns, it became al- 
 most useless, and moreover, in practice it was proved to have 
 no advantage whatever, and was only apt to injure a friendly 
 ship. 
 
 Therefore, in building the Tsukuba and the Ikoma, for the 
 first time the ram head was done away with, and the bow was 
 made like that of an ordinary sailing ship. The example was 
 followed for all subsequent Japanese warships. 
 ^ The protective deck of the above two ships is i|" thick at 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 25 
 
 the flat central parts, and 2" at the sloping sides, which is 
 diminished to \\" at the two ends, fore and aft; the water- 
 line armor belt is 7" at the center and 4'' at the fore and aft 
 ends ; so the method of the protection is absolute. 
 
 As a rule an armored cruiser aims at high speed, and its 
 fighting capacity is therefore far inferior to that of a battle- 
 ship. It is the same the world over, and usually the main 
 guns carried by such a ship are 8" to 10", but the above two 
 ships took 12" guns as their main guns and were besides 
 equipped with many 6" guns as auxiliaries, so that their fight- 
 ing capacity was quite equal to that of battleships of 15,000 to 
 16,000 tons. 
 
 In March, 43 Meiji (1910), the first-class battleship Satsuma 
 was completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Keel for the 
 same was laid in May, 38 Meiji (1905); displacement, 19,150 
 tons; horse power, 17,500; speed, 18.25 knots. Main guns 
 are 4 12" and 12 10", and side guns 12 4.7". She has 5 tor- 
 pedo tubes. The engines are vertical, four-cylinder, triple-ex- 
 pansion, and the boilers are of the Miyabara water tube - 
 system. 
 
 Com pared to the well-known British warship! Dreadnought, j 
 t he Satsuma was far behind in speed, but in size she was lar ger 
 by 1 ,2O0^ona>_andiiad-^tb€fe forc the honor of being the largest 
 Warship in the world. That such a large ship was launched in 
 but one year and seven months, at a dockyard where they had 
 never had experience in a big work like this, was another re- 
 markable instance of the advance made in warship building in 
 Japan. 
 
 In March, 43 Meiji (1910), the first-class battleship Aki 
 was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Laid down in 
 March, 39 Meiji (1906); displacement, 19,800 tons; horse 
 power, 25,000; speed, 2o| knots. Guns carried: 4 12" main 
 guns, 12 10" side guns, 8 6", 8 3", 4 3" short guns, as auxiliary 
 guns; 5 18" torpedo tubes. 
 
 Owing to her construction having begun later than that of 
 the Satsuma, some improvements were made in this ship after 
 the latest example of the advanced shipbuilding of other coun- 
 
126 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 tries. The principal of these are the adoption of the turbine of 
 the Curtis patent, and increase in horse power, speed, guns, 
 etc. This having added to the weight of the ship naturally in- 
 creased the displacement, making it 600 tons more than the 
 Satsuma. 
 
 The Aki was even more powerful than the Satsuma. At the 
 time of the beginning of construction she was looked upon as 
 one of the largest ships in the world, and at that, she was 
 launched in only one year from her keel laying and therefore 
 broke the record that had been made hy the Satsuma some time 
 back. This owed much to the perfect and efficient ship- 
 building organization, but experience also had a great deal to 
 do with it. 
 
 In November, 42 Meiji (1909), the armored cruiser i^wrama 
 was completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. The ship 
 was laid down in August, 38 Meiji (1905); displacement, 
 14,500 tons; horse power, 22,500; speed, 20 knots. Main 
 guns, 4 12" quick-firing; side guns, 8 8" quick-firing; auxiliary 
 guns, 14 4.7" quick-firing; she also has 3 18" torpedo tubes. 
 This vessel was built as a sister ship to the Ibuki. 
 
 In November, 42 Meiji (1909), the armored cruiser Ibuki 
 was completed at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Keel laid May, 40 
 Meiji (1907); displacement, 14,636 tons; horse power, 24,- 
 000; speed, 21 knots; main guns, 4 12" quick-firing; side guns, 
 8 8" quick-firing ; 14 4.7" quick-firing auxiliary guns and 4 3" 
 short guns; 3 18" torpedo tubes. 
 
 These two sister ships were a great improvement over the 
 Tsukuba or the Ikoma, but, if compared to the Mikasa or 
 the Shikishima, their protective quality is somewhat lower, 
 but their speed and offensive quality are much superior. 
 
 The Kurama was launched in twelve months after her keel 
 laying, and the Ibuki in only six months. This is due to noth- 
 ing but the full and free use of the shipbuilding cranes, and the 
 experience gained from the construction of the Tsukuba and 
 the Ikoma, a fact that may be remarked as having broken the 
 world's record in that industry. 
 
 In May, 43 Meiji (1910), the second-class protected 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 12/ 
 
 cruiser Tone was completed at Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Her 
 keel was laid in January, 38 Meiji (1905). The design was to 
 build her of the Yoshino type, with some improvements added 
 thereto. Displacement, 14,100 tons; horse power, 15,000; 
 speed, 23 knots. The engines are of a twin screw, surface 
 condenser, vertical, four cylinder and triple expansion system; 
 16 Miyabara boilers used. Main guns, 4 6" quick-firing; side 
 guns, 12 4.7" quick-firing; auxiliary guns, 2 quick-firing 
 12 pounders; 3 18" torpedo tubes. This is the very first 
 warship built at the Sasebo Dockyard. The difference in this 
 ship from the Yoshino is an increase of speed and the reduction 
 of two 6" guns. Since the building of the warship Niitaka, 
 torpedo tubes had been done away with in protected cruisers, 
 but in the Tone their use was revived, and she was equipped 
 with three. 
 
 In July, 41 Meiji (1908), the dispatch boat Yodo was com- 
 pleted at the Kawasaki Dockyard. Keel laid October, 39 
 Meiji (1906); displacement, 1,250 tons; horse power, 6,500; 
 speed, 22 knots. Engine and boiler, same as the Tone. Main 
 guns, 4 4.7" quick-firing; side guns, 4 quick-firing 12 pounders; 
 2 18" torpedo tubes. This ship is single masted and looks like 
 a large size torpedo-boat destroyer. Being intended for a 
 dispatch boat, she was built with more consideration for her 
 speed than for her arms. 
 
 In September, 41 Meiji (1908), the despatch boat Mogami 
 was completed at the Mitsubishi Dockyard. Keel laid March, 
 35 Meiji (1902); displacement, 1,350 tons; horse power, 
 8,000; speed, 23 knots. Guns carried: 2 4.7" quick-firing 
 main guns; 4 3" side guns; 2 18" torpedo tubes. This dis- 
 patch boat may be spoken of as a sister ship of the Yodo, but 
 she is a foot wider, 120 tons more in displacement, 1,500 tons 
 more in actual horse power, and a knot more in speed, than 
 the Yodo. The greatest difference between the two is in their 
 engines. While ordinary engines are used in the Yodo, Par- 
 son's turbine was adopted for the Mogami, which is the first 
 warship in the Japanese Navy furnished with the new engine. 
 
 In November, 44 Meiji (191 1), the gunboat Toha was built 
 
128 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Laid down July, 44 Meiji; 
 displacement, 250 tons; horse power, 1,400; engine, triple- 
 screw, vertical, and double-expansion; boiler, Miyabara's 
 system. 
 
 In March, 45 Meiji (1912), the battleship Kawachi was 
 completed at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Laid down April, 
 42 Meiji (1909); displacement, 20,800 tons; horse power, 
 25,000; engine adopted, twin screw Curtis's turbine; boiler, 
 Miyabara type, 16 in number. 
 
 In July, 45 Meiji (.1912), the battleship Settsuwas completed 
 at the Kure Naval Arsenal. Keel laid January, 42 Meiji 
 (1909); displacement, 21,295 tons; horse power, 25,000; 
 engine adopted, twin-screw Curtis's turbine; boiler, Miya- 
 bara's system , same number as the Kawachi. 
 
 In April, 45 Meiji (1912), the. second-class cruiser Chikuma 
 was completed at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Keel laid May, 
 43, Meiji (1910); displacement, 4,950 tons; horse power, 
 22,500; engine, Curtis's turbine type; boiler, navy system. 
 
 In June, 45 Meiji (1912), the cruiser Hirado was completed 
 at the Kawasaki Dockyard. Keel laid in August, 43 Meiji 
 (1910); displacement, 5,200 tons; horse power, 22,500; 
 engine adopted, Curtis's turbine; boiler, navy system, newly 
 adopted instead of Miyabara's, which had been in exclusive 
 use for some time, 16 in number. 
 
 In July, 45 Meiji (191 2), the cruiser Yahagi was completed 
 at the Mitsubishi Dockyard. Keel laid in June, 43 Meiji 
 (1910) ; displacement, 4,950 tons; horse power, 22,500; engine, 
 Curtis's turbine type; boiler, navy system. 
 
 In November, i Taisho (191 2), the gunboat Saga was built 
 at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Her keel was laid in January, 
 45 Meiji (1912); displacement, 785 tons; horsepower, 1,600; 
 engine, twin-screw, vertical, triple-expansion; boiler, navy 
 system. 
 
 The armored cruiser Hiyei is now under equipment at the 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Laid down in November, 44 Meiji 
 
 (191 1 ). Launched November, i Taisho (191 2). She has a 
 
 displacement of 27,500 tons, and 64,000 horse power; engines 
 
 jised are of Parson's turbine system, which has never been used 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 29 
 
 before except for the Mo garni; boilers, of the navy system. 
 5oth in displacement and armament she is the largest ship 
 ever buiTtT^iKl when compleLed will be the leadmg power~or 
 the armored criirsefs'm the Japanese Na vy. The resurt^wTtlT^ 
 which the work on this ship may be finished, therefore, will be 
 the touchstone of development in the warship building of 
 Japan. 
 
 The armored cruiser Haruna is under equipment at the 
 Kawasaki Dockyard. Keel laid in March, 45 Meiji (1912). 
 Launched in December, 2 Taisho (191 3). Her displacement 
 is to be 27,500 tons; horse power, 64,000 ; engines to be of Cur- 
 tis's turbine, and boilers of Miyabara type. This cruiser 
 is expected to be completed by April, 4 Taisho (191 5). 
 
 The armored cruiser Kirishima is now under equipment at 
 the Mitsubishi Dockyard. Keel laid in March, 45 Meiji 
 (191 2). Launched in November, 2 Taisho (191 3). Displace- 
 ment to be 27,500 tons, and horse power, 64,000; engines to be 
 Parson's turbine, and boilers of navy system. This cruiser is 
 a sister ship to the Haruna, and is expected to be completed by 
 April, 4 Taisho (191 5). 
 
 The battleship Fuso is under equipment at the Kure Na- 
 val Arsenal. Keel laid March, 45 Meiji (1912). Launching 
 March, 3 Taisho (1914). Her displacement is to be 30,600 tons, 
 and horse power 40,000. The engines are to be of quadruple- 
 screw Curtis's turbine, and the boilers of Miyabara type. 
 
 The above three ships are at present under equipment, and 
 therefore of their guns and other equipments no definite men- 
 tion is as yet possible, but in their displacement and horse 
 power, they are the largest ships ever attempted since the 
 beginning of the Japanese Navy, and considering the fact th< 
 such giants of bat tleships have been launched with succe ss, it" 
 -4s~Tro1re evident that an extraordinary development has been 
 made in the industry of warship building in Japan both i] 
 the government and the private dockyards. 
 
 Besides the ships already mentioned, it has been planned to" 
 build battleship "No. 4" at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, 
 "No. 5" at the Kawasaki Dockyard, and "No. 6" at the Mit- 
 subishi Dockyard ; and they are expected to be laid down very'' 
 10 
 
130 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 soon. According to their designs, these ships are to displace 
 30,800 tons; engines for " No. 4" and " No. 5 " to be of Curtis's 
 turbine, and those for "No. 6," Parson's turbine; and boilers 
 for " N0.4" to be of Miyabara type,and for " No. 5 " and " No. 
 6," the Yarrow type. 
 
 (II) Torpedo-boat Destroyers. — The torpedo-boat de- 
 stroyers built in this period are 39 in number, from the third- 
 class torpedo-boat destroyer Fubuki, completed in February, 
 38 Meiji (1905), at the Kure Naval Arsenal, to the second-class 
 destroyer Tac/^iftawa, completed in June, 45 Meiji (191 2), at the 
 Maizuru Naval Arsenal. The building of these torpedo-boat 
 destroyers will be presented here only in a brief manner ; as for 
 the chronological particulars, they will be found in the table 
 appearing on subsequent pages. 
 
 Generally speaking, these torpedo-boat destroyers were 
 built in five periods, from the second construction to the sixth, 
 but we do not call the first of the five periods or constructions 
 the first, but serially call it the "second," as there was already 
 a first lot of torpedo-boat destroyers built before this in 36 
 Meiji (1903). 
 
 The torpedo-boat destroyers built in the second construc- 
 tion are the Ariake, the Fubuki and the Arare; both their keel 
 laying and completion took place during the Russo-Japanese 
 War, 37 Meiji (1904). All of them were built at the Kure 
 Naval Arsenal and are third-class torpedo-boat destroyers of 
 370 tons. The time spent in their construction varied from 
 five months to eight. They were built after the manner of the 
 Harusame, and all showed excellent results in their trials. 
 
 At the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in the 37th year 
 of Meiji (1904) a plan was decided upon in which twenty- 
 five torpedo-boat destroyers, the third-class destroyer Kami- 
 kaze and others, were to be built; and the work having been 
 apportioned among the Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, and Maizuru 
 Arsenals, and three private dockyards, it was forthwith started. 
 The engines of these destroyers are, like those of the destroyers 
 built in the second construction, of the same kind as used in 
 ships of the Harusame class, but in some particulars they are 
 differently made, i.e., instead of the oil filter of the forced sys- 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME I3I 
 
 tern, one that can be worked by gravity was used ; the main 
 feed pipe in the boiler room was removed to the engine room ; 
 the number of fire engines increased ; bilge pumps furnished in- 
 dependently, the number of blowers increased, etc. The ar- 
 mament was also altered in these ships by placing short 12 
 pounders instead of 57 m.m. quick-firing guns with which ships 
 of the Harusame class are equipped. The boilers too are of 
 the navy system, like those of the Harusame, but the height of 
 the same was lessened, so that they will not project above the 
 deck and will thus be protected from discovery by the enemy's 
 searchlight thrown upon the jutting. 
 
 The building of these twenty-five destroyers were distrib- 
 uted as follows: 
 
 The Kamikaze, Hatsushimo, Yayoi, Kisaragi, Hibiki, Wak- 
 aba and Hatsuyuki (7 boats) to Yokosuka Arsenal. 
 
 The Ushio and Nenohi (2 boats) to Kure Arsenal. 
 
 The Yugure, Yudachi, Mikazuki and Nowaki (4 boats) to 
 Sasebo Arsenal. 
 
 The Oikaze and Yunagi (2 boats) to Maizuru Arsenal. 
 
 The Shiratsuyu, Shirayuki, Matsukaze and Shirotae (4 
 boats) to Mitsubishi Dockyar d. 
 
 The Asakaze, Harukaze, Shigiire and Hatsuharu (4 boats) 
 to Kawasaki Dockyard . v^ 
 
 The Asatsuyu and Hay ate (2 boats) to Osak a Iron Work s •^ 
 
 Owing to the war the building of these destroyers was 
 finished with expedition. It was not quite two years since 
 any torpedo-boat destroyers had been built in Japan, and the 
 experience in the work being therefore limited, great difficul- 
 ties were encountered in the present work, but nevertheless 
 most of the boats were completed in about one year from the 
 keel laying, and all of them gave quite satisfactory results 
 in their trials. An exceptional success was the Ushio, which 
 was built at the Kure Naval Arsenal ; her keel was laid on the 
 1 2th of April, 38 Meiji (1905), and she was completed on the 
 15th of July of the same year, three months later. The pri- 
 vate dockyard, the Osaka Iron Works, took about twenty 
 months to complete its order, but considering the fact that it 
 Jiad no experience in the work, it may be said that the time 
 
132 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 made by it was rather a success. The time at which all of 
 these ships were completed varies from July, 38 Meiji (1905), 
 to March, 40 Meiji (1907). At all events, the building of these 
 torpedo-boat destroyers would well deserve special mention 
 as an advance made in the warship building of Japan. 
 
 The destroyers Shigure and Asatsuyu showed a speed of over 
 29.7 knots, the best shown of all the torpedo-boat destroyers. 
 
 The following are the results of the official trial of the de- 
 stroyer Shigure: Displacement, 376.5 tons; boiler pressure, 216 
 pounds; engine pressure, 203 pounds; revolution, 390; horse 
 power, 6,416; speed, 29.73 knots. 
 
 In May, 38 Meiji (1905), while the war with Russia was go- 
 ing on, the fourth construction of torpedo-boat destroyers was 
 decided upon, and orders were given to private companies 
 to build four destroyers, as follows: 
 
 The Uzuki, to the Kawasaki Dockyard. 
 
 The Minazuki, to the Mitsubishi Dockyard. 
 
 The Nagatsuki and Kikuzuki, to the Uraga Doc k Company . 
 
 Although the engines of these four ships were on the whole 
 the same as those of the ships made in the third construction,, 
 some further improvements were made. For instance, the 
 main feed pipes which had been removed to the engine room 
 (from the boiler room) in the case of the twenty-five ships al- 
 ready mentioned were in this case again placed in the boiler 
 room as in ships of the Harusame class; also the double bar 
 hollow link hitherto used for the apparatus for starting the 
 engine was changed to a double bar solid link, as in practice it 
 was found that the former was inconvenient for regulation and 
 not in good working order. 
 
 As to the boilers, they were fitted up with water tubes of 
 the navy system, and compared with those of the ships 
 of the Harusame class, were somewhat improved, like 
 those of the ships made in the third construction. 
 
 All of the four ships gave satisfactory results in their of- 
 ficial trials ; especially in the cases of the Uzuki and the 
 Minatsuki the speed reached above 29.8 knots. They were 
 completed between October, 39 Meiji (1906) and September,. 
 40 Meiji (1907). 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 33 
 
 In December, 39 Meiji (1906), three ships named Uranami, 
 Isonami and Ayanami were decided upon to be built as the 
 fifth construction of torpedo-boat destroyers of domestic 
 building at the Maizuru Naval Arsenal, and work was begun in 
 
 40 Meiji (1907). The construction, arms, engines and boilers 
 of these three ships had many novel features of improvement 
 learned from the experience of actual warfare in the Russo- 
 Japanese War. The ships were launched in 40 Meiji (1907), 
 
 41 Meiji (1908) and 42 Meiji (1909). 
 
 The sixth construction of torpedo-boat destroyers at the 
 domestic yards was carried on from 42 Meiji (1909) to 45 
 Meiji (1912). 
 
 The Umikaze, a first-class torpedo-boat destroyer of 1,224 
 tons displacement and 20,500 horse power was completed in 
 September, 44 Meiji (191 1), at the Maizuru Naval Arsenal. 
 Her keel was laid in November, 42 Meiji (1909). 
 
 The Yamakaze, a first-class torpedo-boat destroyer, was 
 completed in October, 44 Meiji (191 1), at the Mitsubishi 
 Dockyard. She has a displacement of 1,150 tons, and 20,500 
 horse power, and was, like the Umikaze, one of the largest de- 
 stroyers ever made in Japan. 
 
 The Sakura, a second-class destroyer was completed in 
 May, 45 Meiji (1912), at the Maizuru Naval Arsenal. She 
 was laid down in March, 44 Meiji (191 1), and has a displace- 
 ment of 678 tons and 9,500 horse power. 
 
 The Tachibana, a second-class destroyer, was completed in 
 June, 45 Meiji (1912), at the Maizuru Naval Arsenal. Her 
 keel was laid down in April, 44 Meiji (191 1). Displacement, 
 680 tons; horse power, 9,500. 
 
 These four destroyers were the largest of the kind ever built 
 in Japan. They had displacement and horse power two or 
 three times as big as those built before them, and were fur- 
 nished with up-to-date arms, engines and boilers. They gave 
 unexpectedly satisfactory results in their official trial; es- 
 pecially in their speed a general advancement was manifest. 
 
 Although warship building in Japan had made phenomenal 
 progress after the Russo-Japanese War, the building of such 
 large destroyers as these was unknown in this country before 
 
134 
 
 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 this time; and it is worth commending as another striking ad- 
 vancement achieved in naval construction in Japan, that the 
 navy, finding from its latest experience the necessity of pre- 
 paring itself with large destroyers as well as with large battle- 
 ships, built at a leap, and with good success, destroyers well 
 above a thousand tons. 
 
 (Ill) Supplement. — The following is a chronological table 
 of warships and torpedo-boat destroyers built at domestic 
 dockyards in this period: 
 
 Chronological Table of Construction of Warships and Torpedo-boat 
 
 Destroyers 
 
 (From the Russo-Japanese War to the Present Time) 
 
 Name 
 
 Kind and Class 
 
 Where Built 
 
 Construction » 
 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 Satsuma . . . 
 
 Battleship 
 
 Yokosuka Nav. Arsnl 
 
 Steel, dble, steam 
 
 I9,IS0 
 
 Mar., 1910 
 
 Kurama . . . 
 
 Battle cruiser 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 14,600 
 
 Feb., 191 1 
 
 Kawachi. . . 
 
 Battleship 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 20,800 
 
 Mar., 1912 
 
 Hiei 
 
 Battle cruiser 
 
 " 
 
 Steel, quad, steam 
 
 27,000 
 
 Nov., 1912 
 
 No. 4 
 
 Battleship 
 
 ** 
 
 Steel, dble, steam 
 
 30,800 
 
 
 Tsukuba. . . 
 
 Battle cruiser 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 " 
 
 13,750 
 
 Jan., 1907 
 
 Ikoma 
 
 '* 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 13,750 
 
 Feb., 1907 
 
 Ibuki 
 
 '* 
 
 *• 
 
 " 
 
 14,600 
 
 Nov., 1909 
 
 Aki 
 
 Battleship 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 19,800 
 
 Mar., 191 1 
 
 Settsu 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 21,295 
 
 July, 191a 
 
 Fuso 
 
 *' 
 
 " 
 
 Steel, quad, steam 
 
 30,600 
 
 Mar., 1914 
 
 Tone 
 
 2d class cruiser 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal 
 
 " 
 
 4,100 
 
 May, 1910 
 
 Chikuma . . 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 4.950 
 
 Apr., 1912 
 
 Toba 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 " 
 
 Steel, triple, steam 
 
 250 
 
 Nov., 191 1 
 
 Saga 
 
 " .. 
 
 " 
 
 Steel, dble, steam 
 
 785 
 
 Nov., 191a 
 
 Yodo 
 
 Dispatch boat 
 
 Kawasaki Dockyard 
 
 " 
 
 1,250 
 
 July, 1908 
 
 Hirato 
 
 2d class cruiser 
 
 '• 
 
 " 
 
 4.950 
 
 June, 191a 
 
 Haruna. . . . 
 
 Battle cruiser 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 27.500 
 
 Apr., 1915 
 
 No. 5 
 
 Battleship 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 30,800 
 
 Building 
 
 Mogami . . . 
 
 Dispatch boat 
 
 Mitsubishi Dockyard 
 
 " 
 
 1,350 
 
 Sept., 1908 
 
 Yahagi .... 
 
 2d class cruiser 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 4.950 
 
 July, 1912 
 
 Kirishima. . 
 
 Battle cruiser 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 27.500 
 
 Apr., 191S 
 
 No. 6 
 
 Battleship 
 
 '* 
 
 " 
 
 30,800 
 
 Building 
 
 Ariake 
 
 3d class destroyer 
 
 Yokosuka Nav. Arsnl 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Mar., 1 90s 
 
 Kamikaze. . 
 
 " 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Aug., 190S 
 
 Hatsushimo 
 
 '* 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Aug., 190S 
 
 Yayoi 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 375 
 
 Sept., 1905 
 
 Kisaragi . . . 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 375 
 
 Oct., 190S 
 
 Wakaba . . . 
 
 *• 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Feb., 1906 
 
 Hatsuyuki . 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 May, 1906 
 
 Hibiki 
 
 
 " 
 
 ** 
 
 375 
 
 Sept., 1906 
 
 Fubuki 
 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 
 375 
 
 Feb., 1 90s 
 
 •"Steel" denotes material used for the ship's hull; "double," "triple" and "quad" refer to the 
 number of propellers; "steam," steam power. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 135 
 
 Chronological Table of Construction of Warships and Torpedo-boat 
 Destroyers — Continued 
 
 (From the Russo-Japanese War to the Present Time) 
 
 Name 
 
 Kind a 
 
 nd Class Where Built 
 
 Construction* 
 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 (Tons) 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 Arare 
 
 3d clasf 
 
 cruiser Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 Steel, dble steam 
 
 375 
 
 May. 190S 
 
 Ushiwo. . . . 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 July. 1905 
 
 Nenohi 
 
 
 . it 
 
 *' 
 
 375 
 
 Oct., 1 90s 
 
 Yudachi. .. 
 
 
 ' Sasebo Naval Arsenal 
 
 ** 
 
 375 
 
 July, 1906 
 
 Mikazuki . . 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Sept., 1906 
 
 Yugure 
 
 
 * '* 
 
 ** 
 
 375 
 
 May, 1906 
 
 Nowaki .... 
 
 
 • " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Nov., 1906 
 
 Oikaze .... 
 
 
 Maizuru Nav. Arsenal 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Aug., 1906 
 
 Yunagi. . . . 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Dec, 1906 
 
 Uranami. . . 
 
 
 ' '• 
 
 '• 
 
 375 
 
 Nov., 1908 
 
 Isonami . . . 
 
 
 ' " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Feb., 1909 
 
 Ayanami . . . 
 
 3d class 
 
 destroyer 
 
 •* 
 
 375 
 
 June, 1909 
 
 Umikaze. . . 
 
 1st clas 
 
 s " 
 
 Steel, triple, steam 
 
 1,224 
 
 Sept.. 191 1 
 
 Sakura. . . . 
 
 2d class 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 678 
 
 May, 1912 
 
 Tachibana . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 680 
 
 June, 1912 
 
 Asakaze. . . 
 
 3d class 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Feb., 1906 
 
 Hatsuhana. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Kawasaki Dockyard 
 
 Steel, dble, steam 
 
 375 
 
 Mar., 1907 
 
 Uzuki 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 Mar., 1907 
 
 Harukaze. . 
 
 
 
 *• 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 May, 1906 
 
 Shigure. . . . 
 
 ' 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 375 
 
 July, 1906 
 
 Shiratsuyu. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 381 
 
 June, 1906 
 
 Shirayuki . . 
 
 * 
 
 
 Mitsubishi Dockyard 
 
 ** 
 
 381 
 
 Aug., 1906 
 
 Shirotae . . . 
 
 * 
 
 
 ** 
 
 '* 
 
 381 
 
 Nov., 1906 
 
 Minatsuki . 
 
 ' 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 381 
 
 Oct., 1906 
 
 Matsukaze. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 381 
 
 Launched 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec., 1906 
 
 Yamakaze . 
 
 1st clas 
 
 3 
 
 
 1,150 
 
 Launched 
 Jan., 1911 
 
 Nagatsuki . 
 
 3d class 
 
 Uraga Dockyard Co. 
 
 '• 
 
 375 
 
 July, 1907 
 
 Kikuzuki . . 
 
 ** 
 
 " 
 
 *• 
 
 375 
 
 Sept.. 1907 
 
 Asatsuyu . . 
 
 " 
 
 Osaka Iron Works 
 
 
 375 
 
 Oct.. 1906 
 
 Hayakaze. . 
 
 
 
 
 375 
 
 Mar.. 1907 
 
 Total: 23 warships: 39 torpedo-boat destroyers. 
 
 » " Steel " denotes material used for the ship's hull; " double," " triple, " and " quad " refer to the 
 number of propellers; " steam," steam power. 
 
 Torpedo Boats and Submarine Boats 
 
 (I) Torpedo Boats. — The torpedo boat Sagi and four others 
 were built during the Russo-Japanese War, but after the war 
 not one torpedo boat was built, while the building of torpedo- 
 boat destroyers was continued as before. The reason is that 
 as a result of experience in that war, the necessity of submarine 
 boats was recognized and in that period this boat was built 
 instead of the torpedo boat, a matter worthy of notice in the 
 
136 
 
 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 warship building interests. The torpedo boats completed 
 during the Russo-Japanese War were as follows : 
 
 Chronological Table of Construction of Torpedo Boats 
 (From the Russo-Japanese War to the Present Time) 
 
 Name 
 
 Kind and 
 Class 
 
 Where Built 
 
 Material 
 
 Displacement 
 Tons 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 Sagi 
 
 1st class 
 
 torpedo 
 
 boat 
 
 Kure Naval 
 Arsenal 
 
 Steel 
 
 150 
 
 Mar., 1904 
 
 Uzura 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 Apr., 1904 
 
 Kamome . . . 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 i< 
 
 June, 1904 
 
 Hayabusa. . 
 
 
 Kawasaki 
 Dockyard 
 
 
 
 Apr., 1904 
 
 Otori 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 " 
 
 June, 1904 
 
 All of the five were first-class boats of the same type; they 
 were entirely the same in displacement, horse power, construc- 
 tion of engine, etc. Their construction was modeled after the 
 1 50- ton boat Hayabusa, made by the Normand Company of 
 France, with some improvements added. They were designed 
 as follows: Displacement, 152 tons; horse power, 3,600; speed, 
 29 knots. Engine used, double screw, surface condensing, 
 vertical, and triple expansion, the cylinder being 16.14 inches, 
 highest pressure, 23.23 inches, mean, and 35 inches, lowest, 
 with stroke of 19.7 inches. Boiler, 2 water-tube boilers of the 
 Normand type, of 803 square feet in grate area and 5,060 
 square feet in heating surface. Armament, i 57 m.m. quick- 
 firing gun; 2 47 m. m. quick-firing guns; i 14.3 in. torpedo tube. 
 The official trial after their completion gave very satisfactory 
 results, especially the speed which showed above the expected 
 29 knots. 
 
 (II) Submarine Boats. — The building of submarine boats 
 was developed after the Russo-Japanese War, before which 
 Japan had not been advanced enough to build them by herself, 
 and only purchased some from foreign countries. The first 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 137 
 
 submarine boat built in Japan was the boat No. 6, completed 
 in April, 39 Meiji (1906), at the Kawasaki Dockyard. 
 
 The following are the submarine boats built in Japan, from 
 the beginning: 
 
 Chronological Table of the Construction of Submarine Boats 
 
 Name 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Where Built 
 
 Date of 
 Completion 
 
 No. 6 
 
 62 
 87 
 314 
 314 
 314 
 332 
 
 Kawasaki Dockyard 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 Kawasaki Dockyard 
 
 Apr., 1906 
 
 " 7 
 
 
 " 10 
 
 Aug., 191 1 
 
 " II 
 
 
 " 12 
 
 " 
 
 " IT. 
 
 Sept., 1912 
 
 
 
 Besides the above mentioned war vessels, there are others 
 in the service of the navy. All but warships and torpedo 
 boats belong to the class which includes steamers, boats, and 
 all other kinds of vessels. As most of them were purchased of "^ 
 foreign countries or built at domestic private yards, and only a 
 very few were built at military factories, they are scarcely 
 worth mentioning as products of military industry, and there- / 
 fore any description of them will be omitted here, except the 
 number and cost of those vessels, as follows : 
 
 Number 
 
 Steamers (all sizes) 348 
 
 Boats 214 
 
 Miscellaneous vessels i ,408 
 
 Cost 
 
 Yen 
 
 10,444,668 
 
 123,539 
 8,176,629 
 
 Total 1 ,970 18,744,836 
 
 Repairing of War Vessels and Its Cost 
 Before we finish our description of the development of ship- 
 building, it must be added that within the sphere of "Naval 
 Industry in War Vessels" comes not only the building of 
 warships, torpedo-boat destroyers and torpedo boats, which 
 we have described, but the repairing of those vessels, as their 
 hulls and engines need repairs from time to time. War 
 
138 
 
 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 vessels must enter the dock usually every six months for re- 
 pairs or repainting, the annual expense for such work amount- 
 ing to so much that, if all the vessels, from the largest warship 
 to the smallest torpedo boat or service boat are taken Jtwould 
 _ec [ual about 30 per cent of the cost of the building^f war ves- 
 se ls. T herefore the item of "repairing" of war vessels should 
 never be overlooked when naval industry is under considera- 
 tion. Naval dockyards such as at Sasebo and Maizuru, 
 though fully equipped for any work, have to do repairing as 
 their main object rather than building new ships, simply 
 because they are crowded with repairs. Furthermore, such 
 naval factories as the Ryojun Dockyard, the Ominato Re- 
 pairing Yard and the Bako Repairing Yard were set up for the 
 special purpose of doing repairing and are all possessed of per- 
 fect equipments, yet they are in such a busy state with re- 
 pairs that "there was never a day long enough for them." 
 From these facts it may be seen how important the repairing 
 industry is. It must be understood, however, that just as 
 repairing is subject to fluctuation in its demand, so its annual 
 showing is mutable. To show how important a place the re- 
 pairing of war vessels is occupying in naval industry, a table 
 comparing the annual sums of the repairing expense of hulls 
 and engines of ships for five years since 41 Meiji (1908) will be 
 given in the following pages. 
 
 Comparison of Annual Expenditures for Repairing of Hulls and 
 Engines of Ships 
 
 Warships 
 
 41 Meiji 
 (1908) 
 
 42 Meiji 
 (1909) 
 
 43 Meiji 
 (1910) 
 
 44 Meiji 
 (1911) 
 
 I Taisho » 
 (1912) 
 
 Fuji 
 
 Shikishima 
 
 Yen 
 
 96,507-334 
 
 198,747.622 
 
 26,951.908 
 
 25,192.546 
 
 108,047.654 
 
 935,908.903 
 
 106,474.462 
 
 359,604.182 
 
 930,628.002 
 
 45,662.937 
 
 50,325.870 
 
 74,092.108 
 
 20,872.422 
 
 Yen 
 
 419,792.690 
 
 116,883.609 
 
 211,276.757 
 
 32,938.389 
 
 30,036.756 
 
 103,885.134 
 
 297,478.009 
 
 52,236.290 
 
 226,582.792 
 
 33.400.384 
 
 193.1SI-127 
 
 164,507-319 
 
 31,855-748 
 
 Yen 
 37,596.872 
 
 179,818.533 
 
 105,847-365 
 58,362.945 
 21,838.845 
 42,112.139 
 
 433,030.894 
 65,824.286 
 25,019.656 
 59,968.446 
 
 216,620.761 
 32,270.928 
 
 304,276.023 
 
 Yen 
 22,727.495 
 
 251. 741-741 
 31,320.244 
 
 225,950.549 
 35,742.834 
 34.226.415 
 15.945.953 
 46,569-276 
 31,027.635 
 
 134,428.643 
 42,919.882 
 47,799.295 
 
 118,208.001 
 
 Yen 
 
 14,748.333 
 
 27,699-840 
 
 20,287.924 
 
 57,365.352 
 
 289,424.66s 
 
 13,967.931 
 
 8,764.870 
 
 312,286.843 
 
 125,184.231 
 
 546,518.062 
 
 36,878.675 
 
 215.600.561 
 
 29,449-753 
 
 Asahi 
 
 Mikasa 
 
 Iwami 
 
 Sagatni 
 
 Tango 
 
 Hizen 
 
 Suo 
 
 
 Tokiwa 
 
 Yakumo 
 
 Azuma 
 
 
 • The repairing expenditure for the ist year of Taisho, including that for torpedo boats and mis- 
 cellaneous ships besides what has been given in the above table, was 5,086,600 yen, which is equal 
 to 28.79 per cent of the building expenditure for the same year, 17,667,110 yen. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 139 
 
 Comparison of Annual Expenditures for Repairing of Hulls and 
 Engines of Ships — Continued 
 
 Warships 
 
 Iwate 
 
 Izumo 
 
 Kasuga . . . . . 
 Nisshiii .... 
 
 Aso 
 
 Naniwa .... 
 Takachio . . . 
 Itsukushima . 
 Matsushima 
 Hashidate . . . 
 
 Aki 
 
 Kurama .... 
 
 Kasagi 
 
 Chitose 
 
 Tsugaru .... 
 
 Soya 
 
 Izuml 
 
 Chiyoda 
 
 Akitsushima . 
 
 Suma 
 
 Akashi 
 
 Niitaka 
 
 Tsushima . . . 
 
 Otowa 
 
 Chin-en . . . . , 
 
 Iki 
 
 Okishlma. . . 
 Mishima. . . . 
 
 Kongo , 
 
 Hiei 
 
 Katsuragi. . . 
 
 Yamato 
 
 Musashi .... 
 
 Takao 
 
 Chikuma .... 
 
 Matsue 
 
 Maya 
 
 Akagi 
 
 Uji 
 
 Yaeyama . . . 
 
 Tatsuta 
 
 Chihaya. . . . 
 
 Manshu 
 
 Toyohashi . . . 
 Karasaki . . . . 
 
 Katori 
 
 Sumida 
 
 Anegawa . . . . 
 
 Suzuya 
 
 Kashima . . . . 
 Tsukuba. . . . 
 
 Fushimi 
 
 Ikoma 
 
 Yodo 
 
 Mogami 
 
 Ibuki 
 
 Tone 
 
 Satsuma .... 
 Kawachi .... 
 
 Settsu 
 
 Hirato 
 
 Yahagi 
 
 Toba 
 
 41 Meiji 
 (1908) 
 
 Yen 
 
 36,264.716 
 
 45,911-828 
 
 22,227.827 
 
 22,128.175 
 
 226,980.059 
 
 20,939 ■ 692 
 
 5.053.506 
 
 30,036.332 
 
 761.600 
 
 24,982.033 
 
 83,491-914 
 63,091-697 
 
 219,785-132 
 
 190,622.497 
 6,725-548 
 13,746-053 
 
 116,401 .283 
 85,110.874 
 15,263.433 
 41,424.359 
 44,832.304 
 14,764.468 
 14,940 . 260 
 
 154,103 032 
 
 35,340-371 
 
 16,755-358 
 
 6,810.214 
 
 14,275-751 
 
 8,54f^476 
 
 3,510.455 
 
 21,282.156 
 
 11,197.576 
 
 6,533-978 
 
 1,285-130 
 
 3,096.764 
 
 12,632.643 
 
 18,279.443 
 
 7,402.703 
 
 14,497-796 
 
 22,134.018 
 
 6,461.235 
 
 17,765.466 
 
 38,292.013 
 
 2,624.037 
 
 24,656.990 
 
 111,911-747 
 
 121,232 .008 
 
 191,865-865 
 
 4,844-735 
 
 19,793-035 
 
 5,316.769 
 
 3,532.013 
 
 42 Meiji 
 (1909) 
 
 Yen 
 
 8,138.582 
 41,006. 161 
 14,040.139 
 29,139-905 
 31,991 .262 
 
 6,566.791 
 34,460.818 
 34,833-867 
 
 12,147-573 
 
 243,994-034 
 
 121,351-811 
 
 413,529.464 
 
 55,185-033 
 
 6,445-616 
 
 91,929-576 
 
 8,371-038 
 
 11,864.239 
 
 13,466.568 
 
 32,575-807 
 
 40,621.338 
 
 10,563-855 
 
 13,338-526 
 
 83,853-834 
 
 25,284.583 
 
 12,334-773 
 
 3,911-927 
 5,800.282 
 
 18,442.459 
 4,994-760 
 
 11,921 .676 
 
 8,342.968 
 
 2,486.529 
 5,102.280 
 9,211 .562 
 2,610. no 
 6,471 .660 
 
 13,974-924 
 
 10,173-152 
 7,254.222 
 
 80,669.706 
 
 3,972-708 
 
 8,307-783 
 
 416,706.869 
 
 28,433.046 
 
 134,099.501 
 
 2,478-860 
 
 15,730-302 
 4,810.317 
 4,028.686 
 
 20,772.477 
 
 Total 5. 230,479-317 4.141.768.963 2,938,523.343 2,699,594-638 3,512,854-230 
 
 43 Meiji 
 (1910) 
 
 Yen 
 275,349-984 
 32,902.951 
 48,270.383 
 78,571-893 
 53,831-240 
 13,321-356 
 40,248. 100 
 26,439.479 
 
 28,885.289 
 
 45,563-821 
 
 25, 574-002 
 
 72,121-332 
 
 116,849.886 
 
 8,918.341 
 
 6,009.600 
 
 12,890.817 
 
 12,227.846 
 
 104,302.580 
 
 8,267.556 
 
 18,481 .144 
 
 9,072.793 
 
 1,787-696 
 
 12,222.797 
 
 16,290.614 
 
 4,642 . 804 
 
 '36.685 
 2,148. 191 
 6,301.714 
 4,392-992 
 1,149.069 
 
 4,533-136 
 
 2,810.280 
 
 737-230 
 
 7,315-695 
 
 9,661.676 
 
 11,361.498 
 
 5,581.648 
 
 6,398.832 
 
 5,181.780 
 
 40,486.100 
 
 4,012.035 
 
 12,076.144 
 
 6,895.265 
 
 40,300.506 
 
 63,170.041 
 
 4,525-594 
 
 45,180.192 
 
 11,815.780 
 
 13,074-103 
 
 39,873-546 
 
 23,652.143 
 
 10,219.471 
 
 44 Meiji 
 (1911) 
 
 Yen 
 21,493.453 
 86,506.300 
 16,783.926 
 17,635.759 
 82,751.442 
 16,627.958 
 
 9,702.419 
 25,149-837 
 
 14,147-973 
 
 42,980.926 
 
 44,671.050 
 
 37,850.905 
 
 465,141 .966 
 
 12,417.906 
 
 23,025.359 
 
 7,995-530 
 
 9,802.751 
 
 16,294-447 
 
 20,174-845 
 
 182,066.114 
 
 19,181.320 
 
 12,814.813 
 
 16,662.326 
 
 2-777 
 
 1,179.426 
 
 8,831.357 
 
 11,232.582 
 
 6,948.181 
 27,379.150 
 
 3,787-549 
 2.778 
 
 2,637-820 
 29,781-430 
 
 1-490 
 894- 162 
 
 2,754-134 
 
 10,648-762 
 
 9,746-197 
 
 5,593-320 
 
 4,167.960 
 
 31,791-746 
 
 208.207 
 
 13,546.782 
 
 21,708.692 
 
 34,040.271 
 
 50,435-869 
 
 152.193 
 
 60,295.220 
 
 26,613.087 
 
 9,422.464 
 
 32,451.901 
 
 16,102.931 
 
 36,748-912 
 
 I Taisho' 
 (1912) 
 
 Yen 
 
 15,841.824 
 
 263,231.056 
 
 75,490.767 
 
 95,232.487 
 
 119,715.906 
 
 15,938.570 
 
 7,886.304 
 
 27,390.882 
 
 9,868!82i 
 28,448.894 
 103,096.314 
 48,888.730 
 26,920.550 
 32,808.669 
 28,163.718 
 169-S19 
 17,605-338 
 13,053-742 
 
 9,725-578 
 10,712.754 
 
 9,404-724 
 16,432.530 
 
 6,777 -045 
 
 4,360.995 
 3.619.963 
 4,379-044 
 
 658.893 
 
 5,732.050 
 
 13,081 .961 
 
 27,504.670 
 8,220.476 
 
 46,907.960 
 
 23,688.099 
 76,844.416 
 16,628.685 
 
 2,729.23s 
 15,100.504 
 19,469.730 
 
 3,434-756 
 
 11,791-978 
 48,060.247 
 159,764.768 
 
 1,527.883 
 24,199328 
 10,302.376 
 
 5,116.298 
 
 47,006.003 
 
 18,413-242 
 
 157,537-319 
 
 52,19s 037 
 
 6,287-785 
 12,155-596 
 
 3,257-194 
 
 1,996.977 
 
 »The repairing expenditure for the ist year of Taisho, including that for torpedo boats and mis- 
 cellaneous ships besides what has been given in the above table, was 5,086,600 yen, which is equaJ 
 to 28.79 per cent of the building expenditure for the same year, 17,667,1 10 yen. 
 
140 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Comparison of Annual Expenditures for Repairing of Hulls and 
 Engines of Ships — Continued 
 
 Torpedo- Boat 
 Destroyers 
 
 Shinonome 
 
 Murakumo. . . . 
 
 Yugiri 
 
 Shiranui 
 
 Kagero 
 
 Usugumo 
 
 Inazutna 
 
 Ikazuchi 
 
 Akebono 
 
 Sazanami 
 
 Oboro 
 
 Shirakumo 
 
 Asajio 
 
 Kasumi 
 
 Harusame 
 
 Murasame 
 
 Asagiri , 
 
 Ariake 
 
 Fubuki 
 
 Arare , 
 
 Satsuki 
 
 Ushio 
 
 Hatsushimo 
 
 Kamikaze 
 
 Yayoi 
 
 Nenohi 
 
 Fuzuki 
 
 Kisaragi 
 
 Yamabiko 
 
 Shikinami 
 
 Makigumo . . . . , 
 
 Asakaze 
 
 Yugure 
 
 Wakaba 
 
 Harukaze 
 
 Oikaze 
 
 Hatsuyuki 
 
 Shiratsuyu .... 
 
 Yudachi 
 
 Shigure 
 
 Asatsuyu 
 
 Nowaki 
 
 Minatsuki 
 
 Matsukaze 
 
 Hibiki 
 
 Mikazuki 
 
 Shirayuki 
 
 Hatsuharu 
 
 Umikaze 
 
 Yamakaze 
 
 Hayakaze 
 
 Shirotae 
 
 Yunagi , 
 
 Uzuki 
 
 Nagatuski 
 
 Kikuzuki 
 
 Uranami 
 
 Ayanarai 
 
 Isonami 
 
 Sakura 
 
 Tachibana 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand total 
 
 41 Meiji 
 (1908) 
 
 Yen 
 
 20,088.753 
 1,899.630 
 
 18,149.158 
 2,536.336 
 1,877.918 
 4,869.081 
 
 16,093.473 
 
 21,835.765 
 5,472.106 
 1,120.754 
 6,398.192 
 4,596.285 
 4,738.106 
 
 20,720.763 
 8,346.059 
 4,601.377 
 3,977.098 
 5.955-592 
 5.424.924 
 6,264.367 
 6,919384 
 6,366.003 
 6,006.674 
 6,145-557 
 6,213.809 
 5.599-557 
 
 73.153-031 
 5,244.394 
 
 41.515-1 
 
 25,186.390 
 
 49.906.759 
 6.569 303 
 5,140. lOI 
 
 4,209.493 
 4,284.795 
 
 44.497 - : 
 3,972.672 
 4,892.890 
 5,129.809 
 6,240.742 
 2,774-936 
 4.395-209 
 2,280.771 
 3,421 . 106 
 4,855-268 
 2,680.268 
 3.835-225 
 
 3.797-588 
 2.709 -225 
 5,497-167 
 5. 276. 940 
 4,167. 117 
 5,582.673 
 1,066.661 
 
 534.510.228 
 5,764,989.545 
 
 42 Meiji 
 (1909) 
 
 Yen 
 
 21,731-761 
 
 7,076.517 
 
 3.701.32s 
 
 32,727.026 
 
 36,652.588 
 
 27.903.097 
 
 10.231.579 
 
 7.668.031 
 
 27.969.300 
 
 2,469 . 642 
 
 5,052.796 
 
 46,103.630 
 
 46,583-967 
 
 7,095-878 
 
 9,911-883 
 
 7,946.372 
 
 7.053-791 
 
 4,556.214 
 
 5,214.916 
 
 6,808.605 
 
 11,790.223 
 
 4.032.739 
 
 5,624.622 
 
 6,450.510 
 
 6,204.221 
 
 2,964.995 
 
 5,449.278 
 
 5,499-251 
 
 3.568.193 
 
 25,508.167 
 
 5,570.283 
 
 2,775-995 
 
 1,868.646 
 
 3,326.741 
 
 3,901.824 
 
 17,543-783 
 
 3.578.693 
 
 3,260.708 
 
 2,770.135 
 
 4,487.525 
 
 4,180.733 
 
 2,254.828 
 
 3,201.905 
 
 3,239-107 
 
 5,171.540 
 
 3,068.013 
 
 7,983.520 
 
 4,642.542 
 
 3.523-312 
 3,418.437 
 2,463.902 
 1. 559-956 
 2,334-830 
 1,761 .522 
 2,863 576 
 893.028 
 2,214.614 
 
 505,411.81s 
 4,647,180.778 
 
 43 Meiji 
 (1910) 
 
 Yen 
 
 3,104.538 
 39,970.683 
 3.955-477 
 1,787-944 
 1,441 .298 
 10,957.161 
 3.551-697 
 6.542-543 
 4,791.089 
 2,775-328 
 38,994-513 
 4,430.872 
 4,320.80) 
 5.148.751 
 5,186.926 
 4.930.892 
 5,199-124 
 22,143.105 
 23,191-923 
 26,566.355 
 3,761.069 
 8,566.859 
 2,679.752 
 3,041 .220 
 3,991.606 
 8,174-455 
 4,580.818 
 2,966.713 
 3,740.788 
 33.798.130 
 29.957-55^ 
 8,755-271 
 6,384.098 
 9,814.581 
 4,988.932 
 3,651.254 
 3,631 -170 
 3,202.847 
 4,342.011 
 3,946.307 
 8,057-575 
 5,319.074 
 5,612. 161 
 6,859-142 
 4,258.131 
 3,682.940 
 4,766.454 
 3.731-653 
 
 5,983-632 
 8,076.362 
 5.777.. 
 6.499-492 
 6,735-678 
 7. 713-918 
 1.510.637 
 911-852 
 1,442.346 
 
 44 Meiji 
 (1911) 
 
 459.905 -083 
 3,398,428.426 
 
 Yen 
 
 4,161.117 
 
 4,370.162 
 
 9.363-523 
 
 S-S90.771 
 
 3,404.685 
 
 3.199.509 
 
 6,803.061 
 
 6,248.500 
 
 5,664.294 
 
 3.737.172 
 
 5,709.479 
 
 5,252.348 
 
 3,026.823 
 
 7,249.094 
 
 6,025.413 
 
 7,878.664 
 
 3,601.947 
 
 3,846.29s 
 
 5,263.548 
 
 4,738.477 
 
 41,608.687 
 
 20,402.609 
 
 4,618.864 
 
 33.949-811 
 
 2,319. no 
 
 4.230.950 
 
 3,127-245 
 
 5,902.184 
 
 3,025.027 
 
 5.695.729 
 
 40,524.064 
 
 12,169.217 
 
 3,072.070 
 
 54,507.981 
 
 3.638.725 
 
 4,114.750 
 
 13,004.447 
 
 14,531.786 
 
 4,654.112 
 
 3.363.439 
 
 5,288.413 
 
 6,417-071 
 
 5,163.628 
 
 3,169. 116 
 
 11,629.356 
 
 5,024.338 
 
 4.317.63s 
 
 2,971.956 
 
 1,008. 116 
 3,281.235 
 6,246.022 
 
 3,463.961 
 10,340.960 
 6,880.234 
 4,867.418 
 6,643.041 
 4,477.674 
 5,880.009 
 
 I Taisho ' 
 (1912)) 
 
 480,665.872 
 3,180,260.510 
 
 Yen 
 
 6,437. 354 
 
 2,474.113 
 3,605.047 
 9,285.837 
 4,558.004 
 4.065.43s 
 
 42,274.961 
 4,730.427 
 7,066.79s 
 S.363.787 
 3,440.14s 
 4,142.550 
 9,563.611 
 
 36,917.131 
 
 44,821.369 
 
 6,238.740 
 
 42,847.98s 
 
 5,924-207 
 
 8,533.417 
 
 5.556.799 
 
 25.057-082 
 
 36,898.733 
 
 5.366.589 
 
 46,014.200 
 
 13,106.700 
 
 32,733.11s 
 
 3,469.939 
 
 8,521.956 
 
 560.569 
 
 5,114.801 
 
 23,240.30s 
 
 41.576.954 
 
 3,544-950 
 
 6,283.553 
 
 43.556.77s 
 
 25.657.69a 
 
 23.371-998 
 
 42.957-259 
 
 36,331-233 
 
 7,784-656 
 
 4,137.287 
 
 8,891-855 
 
 32,886.779 
 
 25.441-037 
 
 9,863.650 
 
 42,610.913 
 
 18,497.518 
 
 11,165.830 
 
 4,742.138 
 
 9,918. 120 
 
 5,610.779 
 
 8,942.089 
 
 10,580.221 
 
 4,407 . 860 
 
 3,886.677 
 
 5,285.940 
 
 3,790.887 
 
 2,955-371 
 
 47.419-396 
 
 950,031 .117 
 4,462,885.347 
 
 » The repairing expenditure for the ist year of Taisho, including that for torpedo boats and mis- 
 cellaneous ships besides what has been given in the above table, was 5,086,600 yen, which is equal 
 to 28.79 per cent of the building expenditure for the same year, 17,667,110 yen. 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 141 
 
 Cost of Naval Vessels' 
 
 (Investigated May 31, 191 3) 
 
 Jmisdiction 
 
 Yokosuka Na- 
 val Station 
 
 Kure Naval 
 Station 
 
 Sasebo Naval 
 Station 
 
 Maizuni Naval 
 Station 
 
 Kind of Vessels 
 
 Warships 
 
 Torpedo-boat 
 
 destroyers. . 
 Torpedo boats. 
 
 Steamers 
 
 Boats 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Total 
 
 Warships 
 
 Torpedo-boat 
 
 destroyers 
 Torpedo boats 
 Submarine 
 
 boats 
 
 Steamers 
 
 Boats 
 
 Miscellaneous . 
 
 Total.,... 
 
 Warships 
 
 Torpedo-boat 
 
 destroyers . 
 
 Torpedo boats 
 
 Steamers 
 
 Previous Year 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 Miscellaneous . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Warships 
 
 Torpedo-boat 
 
 destroyers . , 
 Torpedo boats. 
 
 Steamers 
 
 Boats 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total. 
 
 Steamers. . . . 
 
 Boats 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total . . 
 Grand total 
 
 18 
 11 
 
 105 
 65 
 360 
 
 576 
 17 
 
 69 
 387 
 
 593 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 92 
 
 45 
 
 400 
 
 602 
 11 
 
 264 
 
 124 
 2,159 
 
 Cost Yen 
 
 51,593,081.645 
 
 5,641,107.742 
 2,070,874.095 
 
 3,079,565.642 
 
 33,558.852 
 
 2,415,985.775 
 
 64,834,173.751 
 
 54,125,959.860 
 
 4,302,776.214 
 780,106.763 
 
 3,797,712.339 
 
 4,043,094.462 
 
 43,317.269 
 
 1,277,519.275 
 
 68,370,486.182 
 
 53,986,086.163 
 
 8,572,985.410 
 5,662,556.346 
 
 2,109,797.272 
 
 33,290.320 
 
 2,324,189.457 
 
 Increase or Decrease 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 2 
 
 -2 
 
 1 
 
 -3 
 
 15 
 
 -17 
 
 -5 
 3 
 
 '-2 
 
 1 
 ' 2 
 -10 
 • -3 
 
 4 
 
 72,688,904.968 
 
 44,648,929.139 
 
 3,282,683.318 
 
 1.273,200.630 
 
 930,777.408 
 
 12,922.867 
 
 1,901,056.768 
 
 52,049,570.130 
 
 281,433.226 
 450.000 
 
 257,877.785 
 
 539,761.011 
 258,482,896.042 
 
 / 2 
 
 I -1 
 
 -4 
 
 f 12 
 
 1-23 
 
 Cost Yen 
 
 -1,281,678.964 
 
 13,431.148 
 
 -64,287.000 
 
 200.000 
 
 -1,505.541 
 
 1,392,925.481 
 
 -394,827.703 
 
 -335,742.579 
 
 -121,021 594 
 
 144,855.000 
 
 29,383.920 
 
 -2,111,733.838 
 
 -145,000.000 
 
 146,624.754 
 
 -204,778.948 
 
 -12 
 2 
 
 — 1 
 — 1 
 — 1 
 4 
 —18 
 
 —15 
 
 1 
 
 —2 
 
 — 1 
 
 ^4 
 
 -2,261,670.706 
 
 -2,543,261.889 
 
 390.000 
 
 -1,400.000 
 
 -670.000 
 
 2,674,968.332 
 
 -2,641,791.977 
 
 Present Year 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 18 
 11 
 
 105 
 
 63 
 
 358 
 
 571 
 20 
 12 
 
 385 
 
 582 
 
 -2,511,765.534 
 
 -129,750.302 
 
 -480.000 
 
 -621.620 
 
 154,876.308 
 
 -133,776.059 
 
 -109,751.673 
 47,215.088 
 -600.000 
 
 46,615.088 
 -5,172,315.404 
 
 590 
 12 
 
 7 
 41 
 31 
 
 150 
 
 123 
 2,115 
 
 Cost Yen 
 
 50.311,402.681 
 
 5,641,107.742 
 2,070,874.095 
 
 3.028.709.790 
 
 32,253.311 
 
 3,414,083.553 
 
 64,498,431.172 
 
 54,125,959.860 
 
 4,302,776.214 
 659,085.169 
 
 3,797,712.339 
 
 1,960,744.544 
 43,172.269 
 
 1,219,365.081 
 
 66,108,815.476 
 
 51,442,424.274 
 
 8,572,985.410 
 5,662,956.346, 
 
 2,108,787.272 
 32,620.320 
 
 2,357,365.812 
 
 70,177,139.434 
 
 44,648,929.139 
 
 3,282,683.318 
 
 1,143,450.328 
 
 930,297.408 
 
 12,301.247 
 
 1,922,157.017 
 
 51,939,818.457 
 
 328,648.314 
 
 450.000 
 
 257,277.785 
 
 586,376.099 
 253,310,580.633 
 
 ^ The values of ships given in this table comprise the values of ships purchased 
 from foreign countries, besides those of the Japanese-built vessels. 
 
 In the "increase or decrease" column of the table, the figures marked by the 
 symbol " — " are decreases, and others, not marked, increases. 
 
142 MILITARY industries: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 In the preceding table is stated the number and cost of all 
 vessels belonging to the Imperial Japanese Navy, in order to 
 show Japan as a naval power, and thereby enable the reader 
 to form an idea of what the construction and repairing of such 
 ships mean to the economy of a country. 
 
 Shipbuilding and the Manufacture of Engines 
 
 We will conclude our description of industries relating to 
 warships by summarizing in the following pages the plans of 
 the engine-making industry. 
 
 (I) Plans of the Dockyards at the Present Time, (a) The 
 Shipbuilding Department of the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. — 
 
 I . Principal structures are as follows : 
 Docks : 
 
 No. I. Length, 364 feet — opened in October, 5 Meiji 
 
 (1872). 
 No. 2. Length, 472 feet — opened in June, 17 Meiji 
 
 (1884). 
 No. 3. Length, 282 feet — opened in January, 7 Meiji 
 
 (1874)- 
 No. 4. Length, 574 feet — opened in January, 39 Meiji 
 (1906). 
 Keel block: 5. 
 
 Factories: small attached structures and structures not directly 
 concerned in the work are omitted. 
 Drawing Office (2 parts): the main workroom, drawing 
 
 office store. 
 Shipbuilding Shed (7 parts) : the main factory, the first 
 machine shop, the second machine shop, a bending slab, 
 a forge, two material yards. 
 Equipment Shop (10 parts): a mold loft and a machine 
 shop, two iron-working shops, a zinc plating shop, a 
 woodwork mill, a nickel and silver plating shop, a tube- 
 work mill, a sawing and planing shop, an erecting shop, 
 a hydraulic testing room. 
 Ship Repair Shop (10 parts) : a machine shop, a painter's 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 143 
 
 shop, a boat building shop, a boat shed, the fourth dock- 
 master's office, a pitch shed, two woodwork mills, a 
 calker's shop, a forge shop. (The pump houses and 
 the like attached to the docks are not enumerated. It 
 will be the same with those under the other arsenals 
 which follow.) 
 Rigger's Shop (3 parts) : the main factory, an anchor fac- 
 tory, two anchor chain tester sheds. 
 2. A general classification and the number of the machines 
 
 provided and in use in the above-mentioned factories are as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Engines and Machines 
 
 Hull Con- 
 struction 
 Yard 
 
 Equipment 
 Shop 
 
 Ship 
 Repair 
 Shop 
 
 Rigger's 
 Shop 
 
 Total 
 
 Boilers and driving en- 
 gines . . . .• 
 
 I 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 
 57 
 16 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 128 
 
 II 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 5 
 
 43 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 7- 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 2 
 
 3 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 255 
 
 25 
 
 91 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 Dynamos and motors . . . 
 
 Pumps and hydraulic 
 
 machinery 
 
 Air compressing engines 
 Workshop machines .... 
 Grinders 
 
 Smith hearths and blow- 
 ers 
 
 Cranes and travelers. ... 
 Testing machines 
 
 Total 
 
 185 
 
 193 
 
 77 
 
 21 
 
 476 
 
 3. Number of workmen engaged in the Yokosuka Naval 
 Shipbuilding Department, on March 20, 3 Taisho (1914) : 
 
 Factories 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Writers 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous 
 
 Appren- 
 tices 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 Manager's office . . . 
 
 Drawing office. . . . 
 
 Hull construction 
 
 yard 
 
 "83 
 
 1,292 
 805 
 
 781 
 255 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 7 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 29 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 132 
 
 1.335 
 889 
 801 
 
 258 
 
 Equipment shop . . 
 Ship repair shop . . . 
 Rigger's shop 
 
 Total 
 
 3,216 
 
 41 
 
 27 
 
 137 
 
 35 
 
 3.456 
 
144 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 (b) The Shipbuilding Department of the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal. — 
 
 1 . Principal structures are as follows : 
 Docks : 
 
 No. I. Length, 408 feet — opened in March, 21 Meiji 
 
 (1888). 
 No. 2. Length, 478 feet — opened in March, 31 Meiji 
 
 (1898). 
 No. 3. Length, 744 feet — opened in March, 45 Meiji 
 
 (1912). 
 No. 4. (For building ships.) Length, 717 feet — opened 
 
 in March, 45 Meiji (1912). 
 
 Keel block: 3. 
 
 Factories: small attached structures and structures not 
 directly concerned in the work are omitted. 
 
 Drawing Office (2 parts) : the main workroom, a drawing 
 office store. 
 
 Shipbuilding Shed (17 parts): a plater's yard and mold 
 loft (2 parts), a joiner's shop and a store, a galvanizing 
 shop, an angle smith shop, a fitter's shop, a rivet forge, 
 a sawmill, electric sub-station and shed (2 parts), a 
 bending slab and a tool repairing shop, an equipment 
 shop, a plumber's shop and an angle smith shop, a 
 blacksmith shop, a plate shed and a machine shop and 
 a plumber's shop for constructor's department. 
 
 Ship Repair Shop (5 parts) : the main workshop, a pitch 
 shed, a paint store, a painting oil boiling shed, a dock 
 master's store. 
 
 Rigger's Shop (3 parts) : the main workshop, an anchor 
 tester shed, a tar shed. 
 
 2. A general classification and the number of the machines 
 provided and in use in the above-mentioned factories are as 
 follows : 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 145 
 
 Engines 
 
 Boilers and driving en- 
 gines 
 
 Dynamos and motors . . . 
 
 Pump and hydraulic 
 machinery 
 
 Air compressing engines 
 
 Workshop machines .... 
 
 Grinders 
 
 Smith hearths and blow- 
 ers 
 
 Cranes and travellers . . . 
 
 Testing machines 
 
 Total 
 
 Hull Con- 
 struction 
 Yard 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 291 
 
 35 
 
 92 
 22 
 
 496 
 
 Ship 
 
 Repair 
 
 Shop 
 
 ID 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 Rigger's 
 Shop 
 
 Manager's 
 Office 
 
 44 
 I 
 
 51 
 
 Total 
 
 15 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 301 
 
 35 
 
 92 
 
 66 
 
 I 
 
 568 
 
 3. Number of workmen employed in the Shipbuilding De- 
 partment of the Kure Naval Arsenal, March 20, 3 Taisho 
 (1914): 
 
 Factories 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Writers 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous 
 
 Appren- 
 tices 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 Manager's office . . . 
 
 Drawing office. . . . 
 
 Hull construction 
 
 yard 
 
 "87 
 
 2,112 
 
 228 
 66 
 
 28 
 
 I 
 
 27 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 216 
 
 49 
 
 94 
 
 I 
 
 
 36 
 141 
 
 2,265 
 
 234 
 284 
 
 Ship repair shop . . . 
 Rigger's shop 
 
 Total 
 
 2,493 
 
 59 
 
 264 
 
 144 
 
 
 2,960 
 
 (c) The Shipbuilding Department of the Sasebo Naval 
 Arsenal. — 
 
 I . Principal structures are as follows : 
 Docks : 
 
 No. I. Length, 430 feet — opened in October, 28 Meiji 
 
 (1895). 
 No. 3. Length, 571 feet — opened in June, 38 Meiji 
 (1905). 
 
 11 
 
146 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 No. 4. Length, 767 feet — opened in April, 38 Meiji 
 
 (1905)- 
 No. 5. Length, 610 feet — opened in April, 38 Meiji 
 
 (1905). 
 No. 6. Length, 486 feet — opened in April, 38 Meiji 
 
 (1905). 
 Keel block : 4. 
 Factories : 
 
 Drawing Office (2 parts) : the main workroom, a drawing 
 
 office store. 
 Shipbuilding Shed (8 parts) : the main factory, a wood- 
 work shop, and mold loft works, three shipbuilding 
 machine shops, two forges, a galvanizing shop. 
 Ship Repair Shop (8 parts) : the main workshop, a saw- 
 mill, a boat building shop, a boat shed, a pitch shed, 
 painter's shop, a ship repair shop, two working shops. 
 Rigger's Shop (2 parts) : the main factory, rigger's shop 
 store. . 
 
 2. A general classification and the number of the machines 
 provided and in use in the above-mentioned factories are as 
 follows : 
 
 Machines 
 
 Shipbuilding 
 Shed 
 
 Ship Repair 
 Shop 
 
 Rigger's 
 Shop 
 
 Total 
 
 Boilers and driving en- 
 aines 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 10 
 4 
 143 
 20 
 56 
 12 
 
 9 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 I 
 
 12 
 
 Dynamos and motors .... 
 Pumps and hydrauHc ma- 
 chines 
 
 5 
 28 
 
 Air compressing machines 
 
 Workshop machines 
 
 Grinders 
 
 4 
 
 161 
 
 'K2 
 
 Smith hearths and blowers 
 
 Cranes and travelers 
 
 Testing machines 
 
 64 
 
 33 
 
 I 
 
 Total 
 
 251 
 
 82 
 
 7 
 
 340 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 147 
 
 3. The number of workmen at work in the Shipbuilding 
 Department of the Sasebo Naval Arsenal, on March 20, 3 
 Taisho (1914), is as follows: 
 
 Factories 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Writers 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous 
 
 Appren- 
 tices 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 Manager's office . . . 
 Drawing office .... 
 Shipbuilding shed . 
 Ship repair shop . . . 
 Rigger's shop 
 
 29 
 
 828 
 
 239 
 98 
 
 13 
 I 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 69 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 26- 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 58 
 954 
 277 
 143 
 
 Total 
 
 1,194 
 
 25 
 
 147 
 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 1.447 
 
 (d) The Shipbuilding Department of the Maizuru Naval 
 Arsenal. — 
 
 I . The principal structures are as follows : 
 Docks : 
 
 No. I for torpedo boat. Length, 249 feet — opened in 
 
 October, 35 Meiji (1902). 
 No. 2 for torpedo boat. Length, 190 feet — opened in 
 
 October, 35 Meiji (1902). 
 No. 3. Length, 528 feet — opened in March, 37 Meiji 
 (1904). 
 Keel block: 3. 
 Factories : 
 
 Drawing Office (2 parts) : the main workroom, and draw- 
 ing office store. 
 Shipbuilding Shed (6 parts) : (a) a woodwork shop and a 
 sawmill, an angle iron shop, a galvanizing shop, a 
 bending slab, a blacksmith shop and a copper shed, an 
 iron works, (b) A woodwork shop and a mold loft. 
 Ship Repair Shop (6 parts) : a pitch shed, a painter's shop 
 and calker's shop (2 parts), a paint store, a shore shed, 
 a boat shed. 
 Rigger's Shop (3 parts): the main factory, a rigger's 
 store, an anchor tester shed. 
 
148 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 2. A general classification and the number of machines 
 provided and in use in the above-mentioned factories are as 
 follows : 
 
 Machines 
 
 Shipbuilding 
 Shed 
 
 Ship Repair 
 Shop 
 
 Rigger's 
 Shop 
 
 Total 
 
 Boilers and driving en- 
 gines 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 141 
 
 24 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 ID 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 ID 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 EVynamos and motors .... 
 Pumps and hydraulic ma- 
 chines 
 
 Air compressing machines 
 
 Workshop machines 
 
 Grinders 
 
 3 
 
 141 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 Smith hearths and blowers 
 
 Cranes and travelers 
 
 Testing machines 
 
 Total 
 
 222 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 257 
 
 3. The number of workmen at work in the Shipbuilding De- 
 partment of the Maizuru Naval Arsenal, on March 20, 3 
 Taisho (1914): 
 
 Factories 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Writers 
 
 Miscel- 
 laneous 
 
 Appren- 
 tices 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 Manager's office . . . 
 Drawing office .... 
 
 (a) Shipbuilding 
 
 shed 
 
 (b) Shipbuilding 
 
 shed 
 
 Ship repair shop . . . 
 Rigger's shop 
 
 33 
 130 
 
 571 
 108 
 
 115 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 I 
 ;2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 73 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 57 
 
 144 
 
 674 
 119 
 147 
 
 Total 
 
 957 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 lOI 
 
 41 
 
 1,150 
 
 (II) The Engine-making Industry. — The first launching of 
 a warship of the Western type in the navy of Japan was per- 
 formed in 3 Bunkyu (1863), five years before the era of Meiji, 
 when the warship Chiyoda was launched. To give some main 
 points, for example, the warship Chiyoda was 140 tons in dis- 
 placement, 96 feet in length, with 60 horse power in engine. 
 She could hardly be called a warship, but was rather akin to an 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 49 
 
 auxiliary ship, in the sense in which those terms are applied 
 nowadays. 
 
 The progress of engine making from the beginning of Meiji 
 to the Sino-Japanese War was very slow. Of all the engines 
 built in this period, one for the warship Akitsushima was 
 the largest, and yet its actual horse power was only 5,000 or 
 more. The industry as carried on by the navy after that time 
 remained almost unchanged until the Russo-Japanese War, 
 and the perfection of the equipment for future work was the 
 chief object of effort. 
 
 Whereas all the engines built before the Sino-Japanese War 
 were longitudinal, vertical engines were adopted for all ships 
 built after the war; and whereas formerly only cylindrical 
 boilers had been used, Normand boilers were placed in the 
 warship Chihaya, Niclausse boilers in the warships Niitaka 
 and Tsushima y and water-tube boilers of the "Navy" type in 
 the warship Otowa. 
 
 The invention of the Miyabara water- tube boiler is, with its 
 adoption by the navy, a notable event. The details of its 
 construction can not be described here, but at any rate it is a 
 matter of some encouragement to the Japanese that an inven- 
 tion was made in this country by which they can make their 
 boilers at home, when all of the many water-tube boilers used 
 in the Japanese Navy were of foreign invention, most being 
 made in England, France and other countries. 
 
 The first adoption of that boiler was at the time when in 34 
 Meiji (191 1 ) the boilers of the warship Hashidate were re- 
 placed. The result of this adoption was very satisfactory, 
 and the boiler has been used for most of the battleships and 
 cruisers built since that time. While the development of the 
 engine-making industry up to the Russo-Japanese War is as 
 briefly stated above, the results of the war, with the comple- 
 tion of the equipment of the factories, opened an epoch in the 
 history of said industry, and put Japan in a position to make at 
 one bound engines for armored cruisers and further those for 
 dreadnoughts and super-dreadnoughts, as will be shown in the 
 table given on pages 150 and 151. 
 
I50 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
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RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
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152 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Horse 
 Number Power 
 
 Total of Warships 50 708,117 
 
 Total of torpedo-boat destroyers 43 294,000 
 
 Total of torpedo boats 42 71,250 
 
 Total of submarine boats 6 3,400 
 
 Grand total 141 i ,076,767 
 
 At present, factories owned by the navy for engine making 
 
 are four (at Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo and Maizuru), and three 
 
 at the secondary naval stations at Ominato, Bako and Ryojun. 
 
 /^ he working arrangement of these factories is, briefly, as fol- 
 
 / lows: Building area of all structures: 32,550 tsuho (about 
 
 V 26.6 acres); number of machines: 2,620; workmen (round 
 
 X^umber) : 8,400. 
 
 As the amount of work of engine making in the naval ar- 
 senals is generally determined by that of the work of ship- 
 building, which is necessarily unsteady, advancement in the 
 same industry can not well be shown by figures ; but advance 
 or increase of manufacturing capacity may be observed from 
 the table on the preceding pages, in which the engine power is 
 given for each ship. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 (I) The Naval Colliery. — The Naval Colliery has under its 
 jurisdiction the Shimbara Coal Mine and the Omine Coal 
 Mine. From the days before the Restoration, domestic coal 
 was mostly used by the Japanese Navy as fuel both for its 
 factories and war vessels. But there was also no small amount 
 of foreign coal imported, especially English coal, the supply of 
 which was depended upon for warships every year. It was 
 thought not only necessary for the sake of independence of 
 fueling in war time, but also advantageous from the economi- 
 cal point of view in time of peace, to have under the control of 
 the navy some coal mines in this country rich in good coal. 
 In January, 21 Meiji (1888), the coal mine at Shimbara, Sue 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 53 
 
 Mura, Kasuya District, Fukuoka Prefecture, was appointed 
 as a reserve mine of the navy, for the mining of which a 
 committee was appointed in November, 22 Meiji (1889), and 
 operations were then started. In March, 23 Meiji (1890), 
 the Shimbara Colliery was established, and, its work being 
 carried on directly by the Navy Department, it was assigned 
 to the Special Accounts. In August, 33 Meiji (1900), the 
 name of the mining office was changed to the present one, the 
 Naval Colliery. The government has another coal mine ex- 
 tending over the Village of Katsuno and two other villages in 
 Kurate District, Chikuzen Province, but the mining there is 
 done by contract. 
 
 The mine lots in the above two places are four in all, contain- 
 ing an area of 2,622,560 tsubo (about 2,143 acres), and the out- 
 put of coal in the fiscal year of i Taisho (19 12) amounted to 
 402,414,519 kgs. 
 
 The yields of the Shimbara Coal Mine directly carried on 
 by the Navy Department are of five sorts, the Shimbara lump, 
 the Shimbara dust, the Shimbara mixed, the Shimbara lump 
 for miscellaneous use, and the Shimbara bad coal, the total 
 output of which in the last five years is as follows : 
 
 Tons 
 
 41 (fiscal year) Meiji (1908) ioi.747 
 
 42 " "(1909) 113,499 
 
 43 " "(1910) 153,361 
 
 44 " " (191 1) 202,'876 
 
 I " Taisho (1912) 237,895 
 
 The expense for operation of the same colliery in i Taisho 
 (1912) was something over 2,624,946 yen, and the income, 
 over 2,700,910 yen, and the difference of more than 75,963 yen, 
 being net profit, was transferred to the General Income Ac- 
 count. The net profitwasover 5.2 percent on the total capital 
 of 1,444,500 yen invested in the same year, consisting of 1,344,- 
 500 yen fixed capital and 100,000 yen working capital. 
 
 The first table on the following page shows the profit and 
 loss in the work of the Naval Colliery in the last five years. 
 
154 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Years 
 (fiscal) 
 
 Profit 
 
 Fixed Capital 
 
 Working 
 Capital 
 
 Total Capital 
 
 Profit 
 
 Pro 
 
 Rata to 
 
 Total Capital 
 
 1908 . . 
 1909.. 
 1910. . 
 1911 . . 
 1912. . 
 
 Yen 
 43,686.000 
 83,874.624 
 103,039.160 
 78,618.292 
 75,963-394 
 
 Yen 
 560,632 . 1 10 
 585,676.563 
 589,224.739 
 585,806.661 
 1,344,500.041 
 
 Yen 
 100,000.000 
 100,000.000 
 100,000.000 
 100,000.000 
 100,000.000 
 
 Yen 
 660,632.110 
 685,676.563 
 689,224.739 
 685,806.661 
 1,444,500.041 
 
 6.61 
 12.22 
 
 1495 
 
 II .46 
 
 5.20 
 
 In addition to the above-mentioned mines, the government 
 owns a coal mine at Omine Village, Mine District, Nagato Prov- 
 ince. It was bought up by the navy from a private company 
 in April, 37 Meiji (1904), and when in April of the next year 
 the Temporary Naval Briquette Manufactory was established, 
 a mining branch of the same factory was started at this place, 
 and the old company's name was consequently changed to the 
 Mining Branch of the Briquette Manufactory; but in April, 
 45 Meiji (1912), the mine was taken out of the jurisdiction of 
 the Briquette Manufactory and combined with the Naval 
 Colliery. At the present time the work is not performed di- 
 rectly by the Colliery, but by private individuals on contract. 
 
 This mine has for its object the mining of smokeless coal for 
 the use of the Naval Briquette Manufactory. It is covered 
 by one mine lot which has an area of 6,683,920 tsubo (about 
 5,477 acres). Yearly outputs of the same mine from 41 Meiji 
 (1908) to I Taisho (1912) are as follows: 
 
 Tons 
 
 41 (fiscal year) Meiji (1908) 104,898 
 
 42 " " (1909) 70,000 
 
 43 " " (1910) 61,200 
 
 44 " " (1911) 53,738 
 
 1 " Taisho (1912) 47,026 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 1 55 
 
 (II) The Naval Briquette Manufactory. — The work in the 
 Naval Briquette Manufactory aims mainly at making bri- 
 quette for war vessels, to be used mostly in war time and only 
 in practice or trials in time of peace. As Japan is well supplied 
 with smokeless coal, the navy was not slow in making a study of 
 briquette making, and in fact had finished it, when, on account 
 of the Russo-Japanese War in 37 Meiji (1904), it was con- 
 fronted with the necessity of smokeless fuel, and in July of 
 the same year an office for naval briquette making was set up 
 atTokuyama, Yamaguchi Prefecture. The establishment was, 
 in April of the next year, named the Temporary Naval Bri- 
 quette Manufactory, and placing its Briquette Making De- 
 partment at Tokuyama and Mining Branch at Omine, started 
 its briquette-making work in May of the same year. In 
 January, 39 Meiji (1906), its name was changed to the Na- 
 val Briquette Manufactory. In April, 45 Meiji (1912), the 
 Omine Mining Branch was transferred to the jurisdiction of 
 the Naval Colliery. 
 
 The general condition of the work in the same manufactory 
 is as follows (ist fiscal year, Taisho — 1912): Fixed capital, 
 1,200,000 yen; factories, 6; motors, 8,766 horse power; coal 
 consumed (in a year), 11,626 tons; workmen, actual number, 
 212 (at the end of i (fiscal) Taisho — 191 2). Working number, 
 82,579; coal carriers, average, about 500; expenses for material, 
 2,613,563.54 yen; expenses for making briquette, 147,167.18 
 yen. 
 
 We have completed our description of the outline of the 
 naval industry in Japan, and shall now give a view of the plan 
 of the factories by adding hereto a table containing a summary 
 of the engines used in the naval industries and a table showing 
 the number of persons employed in the naval factories, accord- 
 ing to latest investigations: 
 
156 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: HISTORICAL SURVEY 
 
 Summary of Engines Used in Naval Industry 
 (Taken at the end of March, 2 Taisho — 1913) 
 
 _ 
 
 Engines 
 
 Coal Consumed 
 
 Factories 
 
 Number 
 
 Horse 
 Power 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal : 
 
 Construction Branch 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 9 
 
 2,865 
 
 144 
 
 1,360 
 
 Tons 
 5,386,900 
 4,773,000 
 5,537,900 
 
 Yen 
 
 40,134 
 26 066 
 
 Dockyard 
 
 Engineering Branch 
 
 38,895 
 
 
 Total 
 
 25 
 
 4,369 
 
 15,697,800 
 
 105,095 
 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal : 
 
 Ordnance Branch 
 
 158 
 28 
 
 145 
 135 
 317 
 
 2 
 
 5,948 
 7,760 ■ 
 6,179 
 3,666 
 29,811 
 37 
 
 8,458,601 
 
 21,543,980 
 
 4,595,000 
 
 49,768 
 
 116,084 
 
 27,230 
 
 Torpedo Branch 
 
 Dockyard 
 
 Engineering Branch 
 
 Steel Works 
 
 72,267,375 
 825,512 
 
 389,775 
 5,060 
 
 Gunpowder Research Laboratory 
 
 Total 
 
 785 
 
 53,401 
 
 107,690,468 
 
 587,917 
 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal: 
 
 Construction Branch 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5,530 
 
 155 
 
 28 
 
 4,962,600 
 3,074,500 
 4,156,614 
 
 22,597 
 14,680 
 
 19,214 
 
 Dockyard 
 
 Engineering Branch 
 
 
 Total 
 
 12 
 
 5,713 
 
 12,193,714 
 
 56,491 
 
 
 Maizuru Naval Arsenal: 
 
 Construction Branch 
 
 48 
 104 
 102 
 
 2,684 
 
 2,314 
 1,602 
 
 13,623,418 
 376,570 
 533,928 
 
 86,876 
 4,089 
 5,695 
 
 Dockyard 
 
 Engineering Branch 
 
 
 Total 
 
 254 
 
 6,600 
 
 14,533,916 
 
 96,660 
 
 
 Ryoj un Dockyard 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 507 
 
 535 
 
 62 
 
 140 
 
 50 
 766 
 
 1,875,250 
 3,481,491 
 2,065,670 
 
 971,030 
 
 299,200 
 11,815,960 
 
 11,730 
 21,410 
 14,372 
 
 7,089 
 1,809 
 
 Naval Arsenal 
 
 Shimose Powder Mill 
 
 Repairing Yard, Ominato Second- 
 ary Naval Station 
 
 Repairing Yard, Bako Secondary 
 Naval Station 
 
 Briquette Manufactory 
 
 55,953 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 28 
 
 2,060 
 
 20,508,601 
 
 112,363 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 1,104 
 
 73,853 
 
 170,624,499 
 
 958,526 
 
 
 
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
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PART II 
 
 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The military' industries consist of the manufacture of mate- 
 rials essential to the organization of bodies of military forces. 
 The materials include all varieties of articles from arms, war 
 vessels, tools, and machinery, to supplies, such as clothing, 
 food, fuel, etc. As military or naval powers, which would 
 maintain independence in war, must spend a greater part of 
 their war funds for these materials, this industry has much to 
 do with their finance. Of late years, Japan has spent in this 
 line above 40 per cent of her war funds. The industry thus 
 supported and carried on can not but produce some marked 
 eflfects upon general economy. Such is especially the case 
 with Japan, because, as will be fully mentioned afterward, in 
 th is country nearlv all of the mechanical industries whic h 
 app ly mnrlem science and arts found their origin in military 
 i ndustry, or else developed under its influence . In other 
 words, industries in Japan are mostly either the direct or the 
 indirect product of this industry, and even those which had an 
 independent origin could develop only through its help. 
 Hence in Japan, this kind of industry has the greatest influence! 
 upon the general industry of the country. Her economy i^ 
 directly affected by every ebb or flow of such industry .j Not 
 only her manufacturing industry, but also her commerce, 
 agriculture, mining, transportation, etc., go hand in hand with 
 it, affecting in no small degree money circulation, prices, 
 wages, and such other conditions of the everyday life of the in- 
 habitants of the country. But that is not all. T he advance- 
 ment of science and arts, the diffusion of education, th e 
 protection of laborers — in these matters also, the military 
 industry of Japan has been an important factor. In short, ' 
 the degree of development of a nation's military industry not 
 only tells the strength of its military preparations, but also 
 12 161 
 
1 62 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 serves as the Indicator of the progress of its general industry 
 and its economic status, as well as the grade of its civilization. 
 So in Japan, the degree of development of this industry is the 
 sign post which shows the degree of her military strength, 
 her wealth, her civilization, and the development of her 
 national economy. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 
 
 Agriculture had been the principal occupation of the Japa- 
 nese before the Restoration of Meiji, Next to it came fishery, 
 which was the occupation of the inhabitants of the coasts, 
 while the people of towns and cities were engaged in trade. 
 As for the manufacturing industry, only a few handiworkers 
 were engaged in such work, scattered here and there in the 
 country ; and while some home work was found in urban dis- 
 tricts, there hardly existed any factories, unless it were small 
 manufactories of certain kinds which were sometimes found 
 necessary to be set up by either the central government or the 
 feudal lords in the construction of castles and forts, the making 
 of weapons and the building of warships, or else in connection 
 with civil engineering, such as building roads, river channels, 
 harbors and canals. Thus, except the handiwork of fine arts, 
 the manufacturing industry in Japan was very much behind 
 other kinds of industries. As already mentioned in the in- 
 troduction to Part I, the Japanese began to realize the great 
 need for manufacturing modern arms and war vessel s at the 
 e nd of the Tokugawa Shogunate, as the nation came m touc h 
 with European nations. This led to the import of foreign 
 machinery as well as the engagement of foreign experts and 
 teachers. Then, factories for military manufactures were 
 started by the use of the new machinery. At that time, there 
 were not more than ten factories of modem style in the Em- 
 pire, including both the works of the Shogunate Government 
 and those of clans, and as they were all small and insignificant, 
 their influence was hardly felt in general industry. Although, 
 at the beginning of the Aieiji Era, these military factories were 
 put upon an entirely new basis for development, the economic 
 state of the country yet allowed them no large operation. 
 But Japan had many civil wars and foreign expeditions. 
 
 163 
 
1 64 MILITARY industries: economic effects 
 
 After the Restoration, the Internal Saga Rebellion occurred, 
 followed by those of Hagi, Jumamoto, and Kagoshlma, while 
 externally the Formosan Expedition took place and then the 
 SIno-Japanese War, the North China affair and the Russo- 
 Japanese War followed, each after some Interval of time. 
 These wars caused the position of the Empire more and more 
 to be elevated and Its responsibility to be increased correspond- 
 ingly, at the same time augmenting the wealth and resources 
 of the country, all of which led to the extension of military 
 preparations, and with it the development of the war material 
 industry, until It reached the present stage of prosperity. 
 And t he influence of this growing military industry which has 
 been felt throughout the Industrial world of Japan at this time , 
 i s verv g^rea t. It is true that this industry and Industry In 
 general are not the same In the articles which they produce and 
 in point of perfection and finish of those articles, and therefore 
 are not always common In their economical features. But 
 such things as the raw materials and machinery used In the 
 one industry do not differ much from those used In the other. 
 In foreign countries, army and navy stores, such as clothing, 
 bedding and other small articles, and provisions are not dif- 
 ferent from what people use in their everyday life, except in 
 form ; but in Japan, they are very widely different. After the 
 ^ Restoration, Japan adopted the foreign system of military 
 organization and everything connected with It was, at the 
 time, a startling novelty to everybody. Even Its name and 
 use were incomprehensible to the mass of the people, so that 
 .it was utterly impossible to imitate or manufacture some 
 y kinds of war materials. This was owing chiefly to the fact 
 , that Japan then had few experts and workmen skilled in 
 mechanical work; besides, most of the machinery and raw 
 ^materials needed had to be Imported from foreign countries. 
 These technical and economical disadvantages obliged her to 
 buy foreign stuffs, beginning with arms and war vessels, and 
 including ordinary army and navy stores, such as clothing and 
 other wearing apparel. But upon reflection. It was seen that 
 all of the materials required could be produced In the country, 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 65 
 
 except a few things such as wool, iron and some other minerals, 
 certain kinds of fat, and chemicals. Scarcity of iron ores was 
 no doubt a great hindrance to the development of the military 
 industry, but even this defect could be met with to some ex- 
 tent ; if money and skill were turned toward iron mining, there 
 were mines enough in the country that would produce the 
 metal, even if not of the best quality. Under such circum- 
 stances, the collection of such raw materials and the manu- 
 facture thereof must at once be begun at home, if Japan 
 aspired for independence in weapons and economic benefit. 
 At the same time, laborers as well as engineers must be trained 
 in order to diffuse technical knowledge throughout the nation. 
 Fortunately, the government realized this situation and spent 
 as freely as finances allowed for buying up-to-date tools, 
 machinery and manufactured articles which might serve as 
 models, and engaging skilled engineers and workmen from 
 abroad. At the same time, the authorities encouraged private 
 persons in the line of this class of raw materials to start new 
 works or extend old ones, while the latter contended with all 
 difficulties, hoping to obtain products equal to those produced 
 in foreign countries. The result was that, despite the lateness^ 
 of the founding of those factories, their organization was 
 completed and talent in the art improved, so that their prod- 
 ucts were gradually superseding foreign goods in the home 
 market, when there came the wars with China and Russia 
 and completed what had been started. During these wars, 
 neutral powers refused to sell the Japanese certain war ma- 
 terials because they were contraband of war. So those 
 things had to be obtained in the country. This necessity . 
 compelled the nation to produce them at any cost, because u\/ 
 bplligprpnt sfpitpg the orH inary law of economics is not con- 
 sidered. Both the government and people worked hard for th^ 
 s ame end and succeeded in producing articles which had nev er 
 been produced in the country or else had been produced only 
 in insufficient quantiti es. After the restoration of peace, 
 people continued to work in their particular lines of industry, 
 extending their means and factories, until today iron and nearly 
 
1 66 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 all the materials used In the military industry have become 
 producible in the country. As to manufactured articles, 
 their quality has been gradually improving, since the materials 
 for military manufactures must be of far better quality than 
 those used for general purposes, and this prevents the shame- 
 ful inclination to careless and bad production. Moreover, 
 most of the raw materials of the military industry are also use- 
 ful in general industry, so that the popular demand for similar 
 articles has increased. Besides, while the manufactured 
 alrticles made as war materials are seldom fit for general use, 
 the tools and machines that manufacture them may for the 
 most part be used for making other kinds of articles wanted by 
 the people at large. Hence the rise of many factories in 
 connection with the manufacture of these latter articles. 
 
 Fnrthprmnrp, r>np indiic;tria1 work k apf tn rau^f^ anntVipr r>f a 
 
 similar kind and so on, and t he result was the evolution of all 
 sorts of new industries" But that is not all. Workmen who 
 
 had been employed and trained in the military industry went 
 to work elsewhere In private factories, or started little works of 
 their own. This has also contributed greatly to the develop- 
 ment of popular industries . From what has been stated 
 above, it may be inferred that the Influence of the military 
 industry upon the national policy of industry in Japan Is great, 
 or greater than what it would have been in other countries, 
 because the peculiar condition of this country since the Res- 
 toration has been such as to bring that industry into special 
 relation with general or private Industry. 
 
 Protection and Encouragement of Industry 
 
 As a means to the protection and encouragement of in- 
 d ustry, local governments or self-governing bodies have often 
 gr anted subsidies to producers of war materials.. On the 
 other hand, the central government or military authorities 
 have seldom given subsidies, and yet they have directly and 
 indirectly helped and protected them in many Instances. To 
 secure military and economic independence in war, it is Im- 
 portant to have at command the necessary raw materials no 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 
 
 167 
 
 -n. 
 
 less than the manufactured articles. Since the Restoration, 
 the Japanese Government has pursued the scheme of gaining 
 such independence rapidly, both in point of art and of econ- 
 omy. As the first step to this end, p rotection and encour age- 
 ment were extended to industry in order to prepare _ raw 
 m aterials for military manufactures . As soon as the system 
 of military industry was put in order after the Restoration, 
 the government issued instructions to the military and naval 
 authorities to the following effect : The authorities should notr 
 refuse to use home products for materials required in military 1 
 and naval industries merely on account of inconvenience or 
 poor appearance even though they be inferior in quality tOj 
 foreign products, provided it did not lessen the accuracy and 
 strength of the manufactured articles. Home products should 
 be used except when the prices of domestic and foreign articles 
 differ so much that it incurs a great loss to the national finance 
 when they are used in large quantities. - In order to direct or 
 educate the producers toward the improvement of industry, 
 the merit and fault of the produced articles should be pointed 
 out, specimens supplied, engineers and workmen dispatched, 
 and advice given kindly. On the other hand, local govern- 
 ments were instructed to encourage new industries and also to 
 protect old ones. But at that time economic conditions not 
 being advanced, very many materials for military manufac- 
 tures were left unproduced, in spite of the existence of such 
 raw materials in the country. Moreover, the output of iron, 
 which is the most needed material, was but scanty, and iron 
 foundries of modern style were wanting. All this was the 
 ever-present cause of the importing of the greater part of the 
 raw materials used in military industry. Such materials as 
 had been used or known from olden times or such of them as 
 could be utilized with a little improvement were employed as 
 much as possible. They were copper, brass, lead, pig iron, 
 saltpetre, sulphur, coal, petroleum oil, lime, timber, iron and 
 steel wares, hemp, leather, vegetable and animal oils, wax, 
 charcoal, alcohol, paper, etc. Among these articles, many 
 were inferior in quality to, and others cost more than the 
 
l68 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 foreign ones, but gradually these points were improved, and 
 the kinds of products were increased, so that imports were 
 gradually decreasing. However, when later the Satsuma 
 Rebellion broke out, what the authorities could obtain in the 
 country was only raw materials, or else crude articles; there 
 were no real manufactured articles produced, except those 
 from private dockyards, and some small hand-made articles. 
 This was no doubt due to the fact that most of the articles 
 made for military purposes were of such special kinds that 
 people in general could not use them, or else their high quality 
 and consequent high prices made them of little demand in the 
 economic condition of that time, and were therefore unmarket- 
 able. It was evident, however, that if the general condition of 
 industry and of society improved, there were many articles 
 used in military industry that could be used for general pur- 
 poses as well, such as tools and instruments, machines, steam, 
 electric and gas apparatus and engines, rivets, nails, electric 
 wire and cable, certain kinds of paints and varnishes, dyestuffs, 
 woolen stuffs, pumps and fire engines, crucibles, cast metal 
 wares, leather goods, wooden wares, etc. These articles, 
 with the exception of certain kinds of machinery, were those 
 that could be made in Japan ; but the fact was that they were 
 not made, and were imported to a large amount. So it was 
 time now to protect and encourage the production of manu- 
 factured articles, as the case had been with raw materials some 
 ^ars before. To accomplish this, crude or finished materials 
 for arms, ammunition, clothing, etc., used in the said war were 
 mostly ordered from specially appointed individuals or com- 
 panies at standard fixed prices profitable to them. This 
 amounted to an indirect subsidy, and factories were estab- 
 lished in localities where army divisions were garrisoned, for 
 the purpose of manufacturing war materials, and soon became 
 suppliers also for the general market. The factories thus 
 established and remaining to this day laid then the founda- 
 tions of their present well-to-do positions by selling their 
 products largely to military factories. Industries in such 
 materials as timber specially and largely used in military and 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 69 
 
 naval factories and wool for the government woolen cloth 
 factories were started as the result of the earnest encourage- 
 ment given by the military authorities at that time. Along 
 with the extension of military preparations after the Satsuma 
 Rebellion, industries in this line made some noticeable develop- 
 ment. A good many things made remarkable advancement in 
 this period. Among them may be mentioned certain kinds of 
 mineral, vegetable and animal oils, leather goods, chemicals, 
 building materials, thistle nut for bristling woolen fabrics, 
 which had hitherto been large or entirely imported. 
 
 At the opening of the Sino-Japanese War, war materials 
 of greai ^ variety and amoun t Jhad to be hastily provided, and 
 tho se which could not be prod uced a t once in the military fac- 
 tories, o r other s whirh rmilH nrTt hp rmpnrtpd irf f ~W7irPf7^ume 
 
 or on accoun t of the rules of contraband of war, all had to be 
 'made m pri vate factories, the work of which was consequentl y 
 increasedvery suddenly. T herefore, the authorities gave 
 every convenience they could to those factories, and, by joint 
 effort with the latter, worked in the direction of the develop- 
 ment of these industries, so that all the articles necessary for 
 the war were fully supplied without hindrance. As a result of 
 this, the production of raw materials and manufactured goods 
 in private factories, which had been thus started or enlarged 
 during the war, was not only continued, but extended more 
 and more after the war, keeping pace with the post-bellum res- 
 toration and expansion works of the army and the navy and 
 the general improvement of economic conditions. The princl\ 
 pal industries newly started during this war were as follows: 
 copper, iron , electricity, gas, castings, crucibles, machinery, 
 ships, cloth ing, boota-an d shoe s, leather wares, canned goods. 
 Together with the industries in these articles, industries in 
 raw, crude and refined materials connected with them made 
 also remarkable development. All this was due to the fact 
 that during the war efforts were made by the authorities to 
 draw great quantities of supplies from private producers by 
 offering them liberal prices; especially, for those articles which 
 required special encouragement, purchase was made by free 
 
1 70 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 ntract or limited tender ; fa ctory houses and land were lea sed 
 or sold to accommodate the producers ; engineers and workmen 
 were adviseH and taught; and other adequate measures were 
 t aken by the government in order to encourage and protect in - 
 dustries . After that, up to the time of the Russo-Japanese 
 War, such big industries as iron manufacturing, shipbuilding, 
 and iron works, which stand in close relation to military in- 
 dustry, together with other industries such as stock farming, 
 timber manufacture, mining, weaving, woolen fabric manufac- 
 ture, cotton spinning and weaving, tanning, etc., were speedily 
 Y^dvanced, and flourished. 
 
 As the Russo-Japanese War was fought on a scale many 
 times larger than the war with China, it was natural that arms 
 and ammunition, ships, implements and other war materials 
 were required in immense quantities in that war; and they were 
 made in military and private factories to an unprecedentedly 
 large amount, as there was, just as in the previous war, the 
 necessity of speedy supply and the suspension of importation 
 of contraband of war. This exercised a remarkable influence 
 upon domestic industry. Not onlv in manufacturing j a^ 
 dustry, but in ag-riculture. forestry, mining, and every other 
 ]ine. a verv great advancement was made . In fact, the war 
 was a turning point in the history of Japanese industry. After 
 the war, the newly started or developed industries were ex- 
 tended more than ever, owing, as in the case of the Sino-Japa- 
 nese War, to the post-bellum restoration, the expansion of mili- 
 tary preparations, etc. Moreover, the government, availing 
 itself of this opportunity to secure independence in war, en- 
 couraged the use of domestic articles, which gave them another 
 impetus, and has now resulted in the establishment of Japanese 
 industries on an equal footing with their foreign rivals. 
 
 It is difficult to enumerate the diverse industrial works which 
 arose after the war. To these the military and naval authori- 
 ties extended protection in various ways. The most effective 
 means of protection was to buy their products by free con- 
 tract, or by limited tender, which allows only those persons 
 who are appointed to bid for sale. This latter method, seem- 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY I7I 
 
 ingly not so effective, worked in practice as well as a subsidy, 
 because war materials are sold in great quantities, and com- 
 paratively high prices are commanded by them, as there are 
 not ^o many competitors in this case as there would be other- 
 wise, and, moreover, the amount of demand is constant and 
 the price seldom undergoes any sudden changes. The pro- 
 ducers thus stand on a very solid basis. This system may 
 have the evils attached to monopoly ; but it was unavoidable 
 as a means of protection for domestic industry, when the eco- 
 nomic condition of the country was not advanced. It is still 
 more excusable considering that war materials must be of 
 sound quality and require prompt delivery, and, for that rea- 
 son, contracts of purchase with inexperienced and less skilled 
 producers who may send coarse articles or make unpardonable 
 delays must be absolutely avoided. Instances may be men- 
 tioned here in which protection is being given to industries by 
 the army and navy as begun after the Russo-Japanese War. 
 We may mention the industrial unions of Miyazaki Prefecture, 
 under special agreement with which the army is buying all of 
 what is produced in that district of the wood used for gun 
 stock. Besides, the purchase of rice, barley, vegetables, oxen, 
 etc., as materials for manufacture of provisions is made di- 
 rectly from local industrial unions that they may have as their 
 profit what otherwise would have enriched the brokers, and 
 have also better chances of improving their products. As for 
 the navy, it assisted in establishing the Japan Steel Foundry 
 at Muroran, and extended protection to canning and briquette 
 factories; and, with the cooperation of the army, to zinc re- 
 fining, manufacture of sheet copper, electric wire and cable 
 in dustry, iron-pipe industry, etc. All these industries were 
 given advantages of some kind or other — their products were 
 bought, machines lent, experts dispatched, and materials 
 sold to them by the authorities. Some of them had their 
 businesses greatly facilitated by it. Others would never have 
 seen their establishment in Japan as new industries but for 
 this protection. These facts show how effective and benefi- 
 cent the protective policy of the government has been upon , 
 industries. 
 
172 military industries: economic effects 
 
 Technical Education 
 
 The foregoing section shows how greatly military industry 
 contributed to enhance technical education in Japan. Here 
 we give some concrete instances thereof. 
 
 Before the Restoration, when the new light of reform 
 dawned upon the Japanese Army and Navy, foreign teachers 
 'were engaged to teach the Japanese in technical arts. The 
 men thus educated, together with those who had been abroad 
 and returned with modern technical knowledge and training, 
 wpj-p all intpndpH for the Hevploprripnt of mih'fary industry. 
 
 After the Restoration, the army and the navy were reorgan- 
 ized upon modefn systems, and then they both endeavored to 
 further their industries bv engaging foreign teachers and send- 
 i ng; pupils abroad. At that time, the economic condition 
 and education at large were not yet advanced enough to estab- 
 lish technical schools where the modern mechanical engineer- 
 ing, naval architecture, etc., might be taught. S o the military 
 an d naval factories were the only sources of industrial knowl - 
 ed ge, whence those officers, engineers and workmen who had , 
 b een educated abroad were despatched or transferred to othep - 
 fac tories, government, public and private, as teachers in 
 industrial arts ^ After the Satsuma Rebellion, with the per- 
 fection of the military and naval technical schools, many 
 industrial schools, government, public and private, of grades 
 high and common, were established, and technical education, 
 which had been monopolized by the military departments 
 now came, as a rule, to be given by independent organs of the 
 national education. 
 
 Since that time ed ucation for technological engineers has 
 been generally given in schools. But the work done by those 
 who had been specially trained at army and navy factories as 
 teachers in the general technical education of the country is 
 not small, though this system of education is going out of prac- 
 tice, as school education is becoming more and more universal. 
 / And nevertheless, in t he matter of the training of workmen , 
 / army and navy fac tories are still recognized as authorities in 
 / i ndustrial circles . We will therefore consider this subject on 
 N. the following pages: 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 73 
 
 There are two special means of training workmen of the 
 factories of the army and the navy. One is the giving of 
 special training at specially provided places of instruction ; the 
 other, that of practical training during the men's daily work. 
 In some points, however, the army and the navy factories 
 have each their own features, and it would be more convenient 
 to treat them separately. 
 
 In the Army 
 
 The systems of special education given to apprentice or 
 pupil workmen and of supplementary instruction for general 
 workmen were abolished a few years ago, owing to the fact 
 that skilled laborers could easily be obtained, while inex- 
 perienced hands could be trained at work with certain precau- 
 tions, and that, as the factories are mostly situated in large 
 cities, there are not wanting night schools good enough to 
 supply the workmen with necessary knowledge. Today, there 
 are but a few small factories in the more remote parts of the 
 country provided with night schools of their own on a small 
 scale as organs for supplementary training; and so, for the 
 most part, the workmen in military employment are trained in 
 the factories in their working hours. 
 
 Since the Restoration, th e armv factories have produced ^ 
 a startling number of trained workmen . The great majority 
 of them who left with sufficient skill have served in various 
 other factories, or have been engaged in their own works ; and 
 thus the good done by the army factories to the industry of 
 Japan is great. At present, as in the past, trained workmen 
 are being continually sent out to g^eneral industry, while thev 
 a re always recruited with new men, who go through the same 
 process of training . A brief statement of the after-careers of 
 those trained workmen is as follows: 
 
 Those who have been trained in the manufacture of arms are, 
 according to their special acquirements, employed at a pre- 
 mium in iron and steel foundries, iron works, dockyard build- 
 ing companies, electric companies, and other small industrial 
 works, besides a few who run small factories on their owir 
 account. 
 
174 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Workmen trained in the clothing manufacture in the army 
 can apply their skill in making caps, uniforms, overcoats, 
 underwear, drawers, etc., in similar tailoring works outside. 
 So, if they leave the service by discharge or of their own ac- 
 cord, they readily enough enter other factories or independently 
 become tailors. Besides, as the use of sewing machines has 
 become general of late, some workmen find a way to use them 
 at home in private occupation. 
 
 Workmen skilled in leather work usually start for them- 
 selves a business of shoemaking, harness- making, etc., or are 
 employed by companies or individuals manufacturing those 
 articles. They are very welcome in the trade. 
 
 Those who have been trained in the woolen cloth manufac- 
 ture are in great demand by woolen cloth factories, spinning 
 companies, etc. 
 
 Men who have been trained in the provision department are 
 engaged by cahning or baking factories, while some who have 
 skill enough start their own canning works on a small scale, or 
 engage in making cans. 
 
 Besides, workmen who have acquired the knowledge of 
 handling engines, boilers, dynamos, motors, etc., can be em- 
 ployed in any factory worked by machinery, and therefore 
 have a larger sphere of employment. 
 
 In the Navy 
 
 / The system of special training is still pursued. Instruction 
 is given in and out of the factories. The instruction in the 
 factory is given principally within the government factories. 
 The instruction out of the factory is under the control of the 
 cities or towns where the factories are located, the authorities, 
 of course, cooperating with these cities or towns. Both sorts 
 of instruction are showing salutary results. 
 
 Instruction in the Factory. — In all naval arsenals, the same 
 system prevails with regard to the instruction of workmen ; so 
 the example of the Kure Naval Arsenal, which is the largest of 
 all, will suffice to explain the system. 
 
 In the Kure Naval Arsenal, boys numbering three hundred 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 75 
 
 who have been graduated from higher elementary schools orl 
 been equallv gducated~and are more than tou rteen years old 
 are, after anexamination. taken on every vearas^ppre nticgsr 
 After being trained in practice for one year or more, they re- 
 ceive technological education as "sedentary study "^ pupils for 
 a period of four years. They are obliged to serve for threcj^ 
 years after their graduation. 
 
 Those workmen who are not apprentice workmen, but are 
 of superior attainments and good demeanor, are picked out and 
 taught in technology, as "sedentary study" pupils. 
 
 The "sedentary pupils" who have completed their term of 
 technological study with success or those workmen who have 
 equal attainment may be admitted to the postgraduate course, 
 if they desire it. The period of study is one year. 
 
 Private regulations relating to the training of workmen are 
 very minute and thorough for work of this class. They differ 
 but slightly in each of the departments, such as arms manufac- 
 ture, shipbuilding, etc., as the nature of work is not the same. 
 However worthy they may be, we shall omit enumerating them 
 here for the sake of brevity. 
 
 Instruction Out of the Factory. — To give workmen supple- ~1 
 mentary knowledge, there are i ndustrial supplementary 
 sc hools or technical supplementary schools, as they are called 
 by either name, established in the offices of the cities or towns 
 where naval arsenals are located. These institutions must 
 necessarily have naval workmen as their pupils, if their origi- 
 nal aim is considered, and in fact they have such chiefly; but at 
 the same time they are admitting ordinary pupils from families 
 residing in the place. The school has for its object to put the^ 
 leisure hours of the workmen to good purposes. It is, on the 
 one hand, to give them industrial knowledge and cultivate their 
 moral character, and, on the other, to deprive them of opportu- 
 nities of giving themselves up to dissipation and thereby viti- 
 ating the local good manners, and actually it is obtaining good 
 results in every such city. The teaching staff of the school con- 
 
 * By sedentary study is meant lessons in technology given along with the practical 
 training. 
 
176 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 sists of teachers of public schools and engineers and inferior 
 officials of the navy. The regulations of these schools being 
 determined in accordance with local customs and conditions of 
 the workmen, the educational work is being thereby conducted 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 The above two methods of special training are undoubtedly 
 very effective in producing able workmen . But there are a 
 great many workmen in naval service who, like those in the 
 army, are educated gradually in practice while engaged in their 
 work and become in course of time excellent artisans. 
 They are in great demand in the industrial world, and are con- 
 tributing much to the enhancement of national industries. 
 Besides, it is customary with the navy, taking advantage of 
 the orders for warships or machines it gives abroad, to send its 
 ablest workmen with the orders to the foreign dockyards or 
 factories and there to let them train themselves in those works. 
 After a few years these men return home with the knowledge 
 gained and in no small degree impart benefit to national 
 L. industries. 
 
 The advantage of all this training of workmen is evident in 
 discipline as well as in skill of work. They are subjected to 
 strict discipline at the factory, and this unconsciously fosters 
 in them the spirit of order and regular habits. Thus they be- 
 come examples for workmen of other factories. 
 
 Of factories of the army, clothing factories and provision 
 factories employ many female hands. Those who are employed 
 in the former generally start private tailoring, when they 
 leave the factories after two or three years of service. Re- 
 cently these tailoresses are increasing in number, much to the 
 advantage of the community. 
 
 Discovery and Invention 
 
 As the direct object of military industry is the manufacture 
 of arms, ammunition, ships, and other war materials, inven- 
 tion and discovery in the same industry are limited to such 
 military articles, and therefore but comparatively few of them 
 have influence upon the general economic world. Especially 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 77 
 
 is this true of inventions in arms. And as the manufactured 
 products of miHtary industry can only be used by the army or 
 navy, it is natural that inventions in this realm should have 
 little concern with general industry. But it is different with 
 raw materials. In this field many inventions and discoveries 
 have been made, caused by the presence of the ever-imperative 
 demand of the military industry. Military industry aims at 
 excellence of products without considering gain as in private 
 factories, and time and expense are not spared to accomplish 
 its end. So it makes very rapid progress in the improvement 
 of its manufactures, excelling other manufacturing industries. 
 Improvement in raw materials must keep up with it. Experi- 
 ^nents and investigations are necessary, and the resu l t is ofte n 
 an inventi on or a discovery. Ihus, in the number of inv en- 
 tions and discoveries, too, the military industry is greater than 
 otlier industries, but as has already been said, the mtluence 
 of these inventions and discoveries upon economic interests in 
 general is limited, and though it is difficult to show this with 
 mathematical precision, as it depends on kinds, time, etc., it 
 is certain that they have smaller range of application than 
 ordinary inventions and discoveries. The following is a sum- 
 mary of inventions which, having been made by military fac- 
 tories or else assisted by them in their completion, are con- 
 sidered to be usable for general economic purposes. 
 
 As finished articles in the manufacture of arms and machines, 
 we can enumerate only wireless telegraphs and other appara- 
 tus of communication, Miyabara and Kansei-Honbu (Ship 
 Administration Office) boilers, etc. ; but in regard to raw mate- 
 rials we find very many important inventions and discoveries 
 peculiar to Japan, for instance, in the manufacture of steel, 
 sheet copper, zinc, pipes, electric wire and cable. These in- 
 ventions are, after all, the result of secrecy in foreign factories 
 in the same lines of work, or the fruit of effort to produce ma- 
 terials of the best quality. 
 
 In the manufacture of ammunition, safe explosives for 
 mines and powder for sporting or hunting guns are products 
 prepared by special Japanese processes and are in great de- 
 mand by the public. 
 
178 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 In fuel manufacture, there are many devices peculiar to 
 Japan in the making of smokeless coal, coal breakers, etc., and 
 all these can also be used in private enterprises. 
 
 Inventions and discoveries in the line of clothing and provi- 
 sion manufacture require little secrecy, unlike those relating 
 to arms, and can be made public in full. But the nature of 
 those works is capable of producing only such inventions as are 
 comparatively trifling, some of them being of too little value to 
 be enumerated. Only those inventions that are applied to 
 manufactures of large quantities, therefore, will be mentioned 
 here. 
 
 Clothing Manufacture 
 
 (a) Leather- Preserving Oil. — Formerly several kinds of oil 
 extracted from fat were used to prevent the cracking and 
 hardening of leather and leather articles, but they were not ef- 
 fective, and moreover the articles so oiled had a tendency to 
 mold. To remedy these defects a certain compound of fat oil 
 and mineral and vegetable oils was invented. It proved to be 
 absolutely effective after a few years of experiment. 
 
 (b) Steam Pressing Device. — This was devised to smooth 
 out the creases of woolen cloth and generally to effect even 
 smoothing. 
 
 (c) Shaping Machine for Upper Shoe Leather. — This is a 
 machine made to quickly give the upper shoe leather a curva- 
 ture in the shape of the foot. 
 
 (d) Shaping Machine for the Hind Part of Shoes. — This is 
 a device to give the hind part of shoes quickly the roundness 
 of the heel. 
 
 The above have all been tried with good results. 
 
 Provision Manufacture 
 
 Biscuits baked by fermentation system, air-system canned 
 meat, can strapping, and asphalt varnish for cans are special 
 products or processes of the Provision Department. Espe- 
 cially "cakes of soy extract" are quite a new invention. Of 
 these inventions, the method of can strapping has been adopt- 
 ed by some private factories. 
 
EFFECTS ON INDUSTRIAL POLICY 1 79 
 
 Woolen Cloth Manufacture ^ 
 
 (a) An invention for extracting the grease of wool from the 
 water in which wool has been washed for utilization in other 
 warp. 
 
 (b) As the suds which are used for washing woolen fabrics 
 catch olein oil used in preparing wool, besides containing what 
 had been compounded in the soap, a process was invented to 
 get the oil out of the foul water. 
 
 These are from what are known as the inventions of the 
 factories. Besides, there are many inventions made by en- 
 gineers or workmen of military factories through the experi- 
 ence they had acquired during their long factory life, which 
 have proved of great benefit to the Japanese military industry 
 as well as to the economic interest of the country. Un- 
 fortunately there are no statistics with regard to these engi- 
 neers and workmen who have their patent or other rights 
 registered, but it is a fact that they apply for patents in large 
 numbers. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 The business of military factories and that of private fac- 
 tories must be conducted differently, as their products differ 
 in kind and quality and the military work generally requires 
 secrecy. Yet the industry of the army and the general in- 
 dustries of a nation can not be completely separated when the 
 needs in time of war and in the development of general in- 
 dustry are taken into consideration. On the contrary, they 
 are ever approaching nearer to each other as the civilization 
 of the world advances. If they be completely separated or 
 their progress unequal, imports will increase, resulting in the 
 outflow of specie. In time of peace, and in time of belliger- 
 ency, war will be unfavorably affected by the lack of materials 
 in consequence of the stoppage of imports because the com- 
 munication is more or less interrupted and of the international 
 relations which impose some check upon trade. But if they 
 go on hand in hand, the materials wanting will be found in 
 private factories and, moreover, skilled workmen of one can 
 meet the urgent demand of the other. For these reasons, the 
 development of general industry must_be_encouragedJf_Dlili^ 
 Tary mduriLry it, Lo bo made cfficientT The kinds and the prog- 
 "ress of the manufacturing industries of a country depend on 
 its natural condition, the wealth and purchasing power of its . 
 people, its trade, politics, etc. ; and so it is diffic ult to procur e 
 " from the piivaLe iudusLiieb j Usftor military" industry raw 
 materials, tools, machines, workmen that are suited to its re- 
 quirement. For instance, when the economic condition of a 
 country is yet in its infancy, the supplying of the tools, in- 
 struments, machines, etc., necessary for military industry is 
 out of the question, for we can not expect the mechanical in- 
 dustry of the country to be so developed and ready, owing 
 to the fact that the demand for these articles is scarce in gen- 
 
 180 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY l8l 
 
 eral, and that there is little occasion to export them. As re- 
 gards iron, which is the most essential material for military in- 
 dustry, it is a matter of course that iron foundries are not to be 
 found when the general demand for iron is but small. But the 
 national industry must be developed, and to do this it must be 
 led to adapt itself to the circumstances of the country. At the 
 same time that the economic condition of the nation is im- 
 proved, a definite industrial policy must be established to suit 
 the state of the country and the needs of the age. This has 
 been the course taken by the Japanese Government since the 
 Restoration, and the advancement of the national manufac- 
 turing industry is the result. Japan from the military stand-" 
 point had in the past felt the necessity of rapidly promoting 
 private industries, and therefore the progress of these in- 
 dustries is in a great measure identical with that of military 
 affairs. In Japan, military progress was more rapid t han '^ 
 economic progress. If her manufacturing industry had been 
 left to itself to advance, its progress would not have been so 
 rapid as it was . But the circumstances did not admit of its 
 gradual progress, but forced it to advance by leaps and bounds. 
 It is not to be doubted that a quicker time even by decades has 
 been made by industrial progress in Japan through the constant 
 g uidance and support of the military indust ry, which has 
 always been comparatively more advanced. T he wars and the . 
 ex tension of military preparations were practically the most 
 ti mely industrial policy to stimulate the manufacturing in - 
 du stry of Japan to its present day achievemen t. "■^ 
 
 The influence of military industry upon private industries 
 has already been stated in the preceding chapter. But its 
 range was limited to factory industries, and did not touch the 
 spheres of domestic industries and manual industries, and 
 even in the former no precise details of the influence were 
 given. Hence the presentation in this chapter, beginning with 
 the second section, of the influence of military industry upon 
 industries in general, divided into three parts, factory industry, 
 domestic industry and manual industry, to each of which a 
 section will be given. 
 
 <^ 
 
1 82 military industries: economic effects 
 
 Factory Industry 
 
 Advantages Derived by General Factory Industry 
 
 We can not exaggerate too much the past influence of mili- 
 tary industry upon the economic world of Japan. It was wide 
 and far reaching. But it was especially remarkable in the 
 ^manufacturing industry. This influence had the positive 
 tendency of promoting the industry and little impeded its 
 conduct or development. Advantages given to general in^ 
 dustry by military authorities lay chiefly in the encourage-j 
 ment of enterprise, convenience given to management, advice 
 in industrial arts, ordering and purchasing products, etc.,/ 
 which, as already seen in the foregoing chapter, was effectual\ 
 in bringing on the general development of private industries. 
 We shall now state in a more concrete manner the influence of 
 military industry exerted upon more important branches of 
 industry, such as arms manufacture, shipbuilding, the manu- 
 facture of iron and other materials, etc. 
 
 Arms Manufacture. — The private industry most open to the 
 influence of arms manufacture is the manufacture of materials 
 necessary to the production of arms. As arms must be most 
 carefully and strongly made, the greatest attention is paid to 
 the selection of materials. Domestic materials essential to 
 /the manufacture of arms are replaced by materials imported 
 j/ from foreign countries if found to be of inferior quality in 
 ( even the slightest degree. Imports, therefore, form a prom i- 
 v^ ncnt part in arms manufacture. This is one great d rawback 
 t othe independence of national arms and also causes an out- 
 flow of specie, which is a most deplorable condition for a 
 country . liowever skilful mav be the accomplishment ^ 
 military and naval factories, the military, financial and 
 economic objects of a country are unattainable with regard to 
 the management of the factories, unless the private industries 
 are developed which produce for them the materials to work 
 with. The Japanese Government saw this need and gave as- 
 sistance in establishing and developing private factories which 
 had for their chief object the supplying of the necessary mate- 
 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 83 
 
 rials to the government factories. As has often been stated, 
 the government took various measures to this end, and 
 especially laid stress upon the manufacture of metallic mate- 
 rials. But as the management of steel founding by priva te 
 co mpanies is somewhat difficult, the military authorities ini- 
 tiated the w ork in the Osa ka Arsen al, while the na\^' starte d 
 one in the Kure Naval Arsenal, an d ^et a livp pvamplp hpfnrp 
 th e peopl e. 
 
 After the Russo-Japanese War, the demand for materials 
 for arms greatly increased in consequence of the expansion of 
 military forces as a post-bellum measure. Finished arms, too, 
 became of such great demand that the arsenal often found it 
 difficult to keep up with it. In the face of these circumstances, 
 there was not even one private iron foundry or arms manu- 
 factory in the whole empire. In Europe and America, war 
 implements, whether arms or not, are manufactured at private 
 factories at the same time as they are manufactured at govern- 
 ment factories; these factories, governmental and private, work 
 together, and acting in common, not only sustain independence 
 in war implements, but try to get what profit would accrue to 
 their national wealth by manufacturing foreign orders. These 
 private factories are showing even better results than govern- 
 mental ones, contributing greatly to the improvem.ent of arms 
 and other war implements. The establishment in this country 
 of a large private company, as in other manufacturing indus- 
 tries and shipbuilding, where at the same time steel and arms 
 manufacture could be conducted, was felt necessary from the 
 military point of view and from the interest of national econ- 
 omy. Thus, following the example of foreign countries, the 
 J apan Steel Works was established in the 40th year of Meiji 
 (1 Q07) through the assistance of the army and v ^yy r^f-pc^rt^ 
 men ts; and it began its work in Januar^^ 44 ^leiii (lOii). It is 
 capitalized at 15,000,000 yen, and has ten workshops, viz., 
 finishing, rough finishing, tempering, forging, casting, pattern 
 and mold making, blacksmithy, laboratory, electric power 
 house and boiler room, and gas generating furnace. The J 
 articles made by the company are as follows : Gun barrels up to 
 
184 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 14-inch calibre and gun carriages for army and navy, ammuni- 
 tion hoists, torpedo tubes, steel castings up to 100 tons, steel 
 forgings up to 80 tons, iron castings up to 100 tons, cast-iron 
 projectiles, articles of gun metal and brass up to 30 tons, 
 submerged torpedo tubes, phosphorus for fish torpedoes, 
 bronze wares, materials for gun carriages, materials for fuses, 
 metal fittings for ships, propeller cocks and valves, condensers, 
 hangers and bearings, cast steel, cast iron, gun metal, machines 
 of all kinds for factories, etc. At present, the company not 
 only furnishes the Japanese Army and Navy with necessaries, 
 but also exports war materials to neighboring and other 
 countries. It is the only private establishment in the cou n- 
 try which manufactures arms, and it owes its origin and ex- 
 ktpnrp pntirply tr> the milit arv industry . 
 
 Moreover, the following are the somewhat large factories 
 which, either as their sole business or as a part but main ob- 
 ject, produce materials and tools and machines for the manu- 
 facture of arms: 
 
 The Sumitomo Sh eet Coooer Manufactory (Osaka), The 
 T okyo Balance Manufactory (Tokyo), The Tokyo Rope Co ., 
 Lt d. (Tokyo), The Tokyo Spring Manufactory (Tokyo), The ^ 
 To bata Castmg Co., Ltd. (Fukuoka), The Osaka Zinc Co..^.: 
 Ltd. (Osaka). The Shinagawa White Brick Co.. Ltd. (Tok yo)/;! 
 The Nippon Ceramic Co., Ltd. (Tokyo), The Osaka Electrd- 
 copper Refining Co., Ltd. (Osaka), The Yamanaka Copper 
 Works (Osaka), The Yokkaichi Oil Factory (Ise), The Settsiu 
 Oil Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (Osaka), The Yokohama Wi^e 
 Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (Kanagawa), The Sumitomo Wiife 
 Manufactory (Osaka), The Fujikura Wire Co., Ltd. (Tokyo), 
 The United Electric and Wire Co., Ltd. (Tokyo), The Nippo^ 
 Wire Co., Ltd. (Tokyo), The Oriental File Co. (Osaka), Th^ 
 Tanaka File Manufactory (Osaka), The Seike File Manufac- 
 tory (Hiroshima), The Meiji Rubber Factory (Tokyo), The 
 Mitado Rubber Manufacturing Co. (Partnership) (Tokyo), 
 The Nippon Rubber Co., Ltd. (Tokyo), The Kawasaki Dock- 
 yard, Ltd. (Hyogo),The Nishimura Machine Factory (Tokyo) , 
 the Kanezaka Factory (Tokyo), the Nagase Iron Works 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 85 
 
 (Saitama), The Nitta Belt Manufactory (Osaka), The Bando 
 Cotton-belt Co. (Hyogo), The Izumi Lead Pipe Manufactory 
 (Osaka) , The Okumura Electric Co. (Kyoto) , the Kanda Rivet 
 Manufactory (Tokyo), The Yamamoto Screw Rivet Manu- 
 factory (Tokyo), The Ota Casting Mill (Tokyo), the Nagoya 
 Factory (Saitama), The Sekiguchi Manufactory (Saitama). 
 
 We can almost say that t he above-mentioned companies were 
 e stablished and supported solely by military industrv^ if we 
 examine into the motive of their foundation, their history, theiry 
 market and the amount of their manufacture. They stand 
 as leading powers in the industrial world of Japan, having 
 handsome capitals and numerous workmen; but, if once the' 
 relation between these companies and military factories comes 
 t o an end, most of them must be dissolved, or else cut down 
 t heir plans and exist under adverse conditions, so great is the 
 inf luence of the military industry of arms upon industries in / 
 genera l. 
 
 Shipbuilding. — The number of shipbuilding yards built 
 after the Restoration of Meiji totals over two hundred, and 
 the eldest of those which are run on a large scale are the 
 Mitsubishi Dockvard at Nagasaki and the Kawasaki Dockyard 
 at Kobe . These two yards were established in the days of the 
 Tokugawa Shogunate, the former then being the navy yard 
 of the feudal government and the latter the iron works of the 
 feudal clan of Kanagawa. It is thus obvious that these dock- 
 yards owe t heir origin to military manufactories. Among 
 the rest which were under the control of the feudal government 
 were the Ishikawa-Jima, the Uraga, and the Yokosuka Dock- 
 yards, and the Yokohama Iro n Works. All of these establish- 
 ments were transferred to~~the charge of the Heibusho 
 (Department of Military Affairs) and the Kobusho (De- 
 partment of Industry) after the Restoration. For more thanA 
 ten yea rs dating from the Restoration, the shipbuilding in- 
 dustrywas entif elv lef L to the Impaial G oveinilien i; this~ls^, 
 attributable to the fact that the knowledge of maritirrie~af- 
 fairs at that time was very limited among the people and that 
 this kind of industry could not sufficiently arouse their interest 
 
A^ 
 
 1 86 MILITARY industries: economic effects 
 
 a^ it actually does now. In about the i6th or the 17th year of 
 
 /Meiji (1883 or 1884), with the progress of marine transporta- 
 
 / tion, the ships requiring repairs increased so greatly that many 
 
 / persons gradually decided to launch forth in this under- 
 
 C,,^^^aking. Thereupon the government saw no further necessity 
 
 of monopolizing the business, and with a view to promoting 
 
 A/ the shipbuilding industry among the people, it turned over 
 / the two yards at Hyogo (or Kobe) and Nagasaki to bidders in 
 }^ b^ \ 17 Meiji (1884), and again the Department of the Navy dis- 
 ,)^ Nposed of the shipbuilding yards at Uraga and Ishikawa-Jima 
 
 with the same purpose in view. This marked a new epoch in 
 shipbuilding in this country, which was no longer the monopoly 
 of the government. Yet shipbuilding of these days was only 
 in its transitional stage, and the government had to give un- 
 stinted support to the shipbuilders, and in fact no efforts were 
 spared on the part of the government in enhancing the prog- 
 ress of the new national enterprise. In this way the people 
 were able to build in the 20th year of Meiji (1887) at the Ishi- 
 kawa-Jima yard the warship Chokai with a displacement ton- 
 nage of 614. This was the beginning of the construction of an 
 iron vessel by the same company and of building a warship by 
 the people. 
 
 Since then, year after year, shipbuilding companies and 
 ship-repairing works have increased, and the progress in the 
 shipbuilding industry of the country has become more and 
 more apparent. As to the art of ship construction, no re- 
 markable strides were made by private companies outside of 
 those already mentioned, except a very few decidedly inde- 
 pendent of government support. The majority of the ship 
 building companies were able to keep on their work only 
 by the help of the navy yards or private first-rate companies in 
 the country. 
 
 As a result of the Sino-Japanese War, which raised the 
 prestige of the nation, there came a boom to the shipbuilding 
 industry of the country, and a number of shipbuilding and dock 
 companies sprang up simultaneously, presenting a unique 
 spectacle in the history of Japanese ship construction. This 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 87 
 
 noteworthy increase of shipbuilding companies was due in a 
 large measure to promulgation of the Shipbuilding and Naviga- 
 tion Encouragement Law, which the government passed in 
 consideration of the experiences undergone in the Sino- Japa- 
 nese War and the subsequent economic development. 
 
 Striking developments had also been made in the construc- 
 tion of warships and mercantile vessels during and after the 
 Russo-Japanese War, and the number of dockyards and ship- 
 repairing works in the country reaches now over two hundred. 
 With exception of only a few, these shipbuilding companies 
 have not attained their present prosperity by the direct in- 
 fluence of military industry; yet this much is certain, that the 
 shipbuilding industry in general has run on the same course of 
 progress with that of the na\-y, and that the two recent wars 
 fmig-ht with China and Rim^ia have arrelerated its progress. 
 The relation between the general shipbuilding industry am 
 the naval construction works after these wars was very close, 
 and it goes without saying that the majority of the shipbuilding 
 companies have been indirectly influenced by the military 
 industry. Space does not permit an attempt at a detailed ac- 
 count of all the influences that are directly related with the 
 naval industry, and only a brief account of some of the striking 
 instances of the latest occurrence will be ventured. 
 
 It has been previously stated that remarkable progress was 
 attained by the navy in the construction of warships, with the 
 Russo-Japanese War marking a new epoch. But it must be 
 also understood that equal progress favored the national in- 
 dustry of shipbuilding. Especially shipbuilding companies 
 like Mitsubishi and Kawasaki were splendidly equipped al- 
 most to the point of perfection, and even the smaller ones, 
 such as the Osaka Iron Works and the Uraga Dock Company, 
 gained more or less experience and have become capable of 
 constructing cruisers or torpedo-boat destroyers or ships of 
 similar importance. Then the Russo-Japanese War took place 
 and made busier the work of warship construction, and the 
 power of the navy alone could not meet all the greater demand. 
 The above-mentioned four private companies were then 
 
188 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 formed to assist the navy. They were entrusted with the task 
 of building torpedo-boat destroyers, which numbered in all 
 fourteen. This was the beginning of the navy ordering the 
 construction of modern warships from private companies. 
 
 These warships were successfully completed, and then the 
 Kawasaki Dockyard accepted an order to construct the dis- 
 patch boat Yodo and the second-class cruiser Hirado, which 
 were launched in due course of time. The Mitsubishi then 
 built the large torpedo-boat destroyer Yamakaze, the dispatch 
 boat Mogami, and the second-class cruiser Yahagi. Meantime 
 the Kawasaki Dockyard supplied the chief machines to be 
 fixed in the second-class cruiser Chikuma and the battleship 
 Kawachi, which were built at the Sasebo and the Yokosuka 
 Arsenals, respectively, while the Mitsubishi took up the work 
 of providing the large torpedo-boat destroyer Umikaze, built 
 at the Maizuru Arsenal, with the chief machines to be used in 
 its construction. In this way the private industry of construc- 
 tive warships has made rapid development side by side with 
 that of constructing merchantmen. 
 
 The completion of the productive facilities of the private 
 companies has of late enabled the Mitsubishi and the Kawasaki 
 to each build a battle cruiser of the type of the Kongo recently 
 built in England, the launching of each warship having taken 
 place toward the end of 3 Taicho (1914). 
 
 The experiences acquired in building such dreadnoughts and 
 irmored warships of gigantic size can easily be applied to the 
 'construction of merchantmen ; needless to say, the shipbuilders 
 of this country have in this way utilized their experience ob- 
 tained in one for the perfection of the other branch of the 
 shipbuilding industry. 
 
 Keeping pace with the progress of the warship-building in- 
 dustry, the manufacturing of various materials for the use of 
 warship-building has made great advancement; the steel 
 plates which are chiefly required, steel pipes, copper pipes, 
 brass pipes, and all sorts of copper and brass materials for 
 warships have come to be largely supplied by domestic manu- 
 facturers. 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 89 
 
 The materials for the making of the ship engines also are 
 produced largely by the Japanese now that the general private 
 industry of the country has advanced, and only patented 
 articles and special machines for the making of engines, that 
 can not be procured at home, have to be imported. As to the 
 rest, all that are employed in shipbuilding are produced in 
 this country as much as possible. The following enumerates 
 the chief materials, indicating their places of production : 
 
 Manufacturers Materials 
 
 Steel plates Japanese Partly foreign 
 
 Steel pipes . 
 Copper plates. . 
 Copper pipes . . . 
 Condenser pipes . 
 
 Castings 
 
 Forged metals. . 
 
 Foreign 
 Japanese 
 
 Partly foreign 
 
 The articles listed above were formerly all imported, but the 
 recent development of the domestic industry has greatly 
 diminished their importation, with the consequence that 
 Japan has saved an enormous amount of outflowing expendi- 
 tures. These instances show conclusively how great the in- 
 fluence of military industry has been upon general industry. 
 
 Iron Manufacture. — Iron has been produced in Japan from 
 olden times, and the producing area extends over one-third 
 of the entire area of the Empire. The iron ores produced 
 include magnetite, hematite, limonite, xanthosiderite and 
 magnetic sand, but only the last named has been chiefly used 
 from early days, and from it they made swords and iron wares. 
 After the Meiji Restoration mechanical engineering made 
 steady progress, and iron has come to be in great demand. 
 But the mining industry and iron manufacturing and refining 
 work were yet very inactive, and only at the Kamaishi mine 
 and the Sennin mine of Iwate Prefecture a limited amount of 
 iron ores were dug out and refined about the time of the Resto- 
 ration. But the lack of skill in the work, together with the 
 small demand for iron at that time, forced the immediate clos- 
 ing of operations, the one at Kamaishi having been closed in 
 the 1 6th year of Meiji (1883) and the other at Sennin not long 
 
1 90 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 after Its inauguration. The old mode of iron manufacturing 
 was no more than the refining of magnetic sand by the use of 
 charcoal. In about the 20th year of Meiji (1887), however, 
 with the gradual progress of military and naval industry, 
 Japan had to import various kinds of iron and steel materials 
 to meet the increasing demand. The government, consider- 
 ing, on the other hand, the military importance as well as the 
 importance of preventing foreign imports, reopened the iron 
 manufacturing work at the Kamaishi mine sometime about 30 
 Meiji (1887) by leasing the property to private enterprise. 
 
 Upon the close of the Sino-Japanese War the government 
 felt the importance of iron manufacturing even more keenly, 
 and in the 28th year of Meiji (1895) it prompted some capital- 
 ists among the people to reopen the old works at Sennin, and in 
 >the 34th year of Meiji (1901) iron refining was started at this 
 / place. Almost at the same time a pig-iron refinery was built 
 / at Kuriki, Iwate Prefecture, and from these sources the govern- 
 ( ment was able to obtain some amount of iron for the military 
 X^and naval factories. 
 
 Before this time, as a result of the Sino-Japanese War, the 
 government was awakened to the necessity of independence 
 in arms, and, together with the object of consolidating the 
 foundation of the general manufacturing industry, it was in- 
 duced to establish a model factory for iron manufacturing at 
 v/its own expense. In March, 29 Meiji (1896), the government 
 / promulgated a law pertaining to the iron foundry, which it 
 / declared under the direct control of the Department of Agri- 
 ^' — . culture and Commerce; and in February of the next year it 
 was notified that an iron foundry would be built at Hachiman- 
 mure, Fukuoka Prefecture, where, upon its nearing comple- 
 tion, it began the manufacture of pig iron in February, 34 
 Meiji (1901). As the work of construction further advanced, 
 other works in iron manufacturing were put into operation; 
 then the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War prompted sev- 
 eral more new undertakings to be added. But with all the 
 accommodations introduced, the amount of steel produced at 
 the foundry was not more thai^90,ooo tons a year. Compar- 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IQI 
 
 ing this with the average amount of steel imported yearly dur- 
 ing the thre ^ years preceding the late war ( some 230,000 tons, 
 v ah]ed at over 20 ,000,000 yen), Japan could never be satisfied 
 with the result — the production falling far short of the demand 
 of the country. Moreover, the demand for iron after the late 
 war tended to increase with the development of the industry, 
 and it now became necessary that the foundry be enlarged to 
 meet this demand, so that a new plan was devised to bring out 
 annually 180,000 tons of steel, or twice the original amount. 
 This plan was put into execution in the 39th year of Meiji 
 (1906) and was completed in the 42d year of Meiji (1909). 
 But when this extension was completed, it was found that the 
 public demand for iron had increased considerably, and that 
 without another expansion it would become totally impossible 
 to meet the general requirements. Consequently in the 44th 
 year of Meiji (191 1) th e government set about to further en- 
 large iron manufacturing on a scheme of six years' standing, 
 by which Japan can obtain fully 300,000 tons of steel a year. ^ 
 
 As seen by the facts mentioned above, the estatrttshment of 
 the iron foundry at Hachiman was in the main necessitated by 
 war preparations. Not long after the opening of the foundry, 
 the Russo-Japanese War broke out, and with the increased 
 manufacture of arms it was necessary to enlarge the foundry to 
 meet the demand for iron, which as a matter of course in- 
 creased greatly. Then came a third expansion. It had to be 
 effected in order to make up the loss of arms by the war and to 
 
 meet the greater requirement for munitions consequent upon 
 
 the military expansion. Such being the case, it will be easily j 
 understood that the iron foundry at Hachiman has been J 
 closely related to the manufacturing of arms from its very 
 beginning. 
 
 Again, no one can doubt that military industry has been in- 
 strumental in the promotion of the technical ability of the 
 foundry. It affords the foundry opportunities to add to its 
 skill in producing special steel by taking orders from the army 
 to manufacture barrels of small arms and steel projectiles. In 
 like manner the demand for thick steel plates by the navy 
 
192 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS '' 
 
 has prompted the acquisition by the foundry engineers and 
 workmen of greater efficiency in turning them out. 
 
 The iron foundry at Hachiman has now the following ac- 
 commodations: 
 
 Two coal washing shops, 150 solvay coke ovens, 120 copper 
 coke ovens, i sulphuric acid factory, i ammonium sulphate 
 factory, i pitch factory, i fire brick factory, i lime factory, 
 I slag brick factory, 4 cupolas, i blower building, i pig-iron 
 mixing oven, 12 Siemens Martin converters, 2 Bessemer con- 
 verters, I crucible steel factory, i copper refining factory, 2 
 roller mills (for billet of broom), i rail factory, i large size 
 roller mill (for various sections of bar) , i iron refining factory, 
 I medium size roller mill (for various sections of bar), 2 
 small size roller mills, i wire manufacturing factory, i thick 
 plate factory, i thin plate factory, i open hearth steel factory, 
 I corrugated sheet iron factory, i tire rolling factory, i factory 
 for manufacturing steel projectiles, i bolt factory, i lathing 
 shop, I factory for repairing electric work, i workshop for 
 repairs, i boiler making factory, i smithy, i casting mill, i 
 laboratory, i house for the examination of manufactures. 
 The motive power by which the above factories and appa- 
 ratus are put into operation is generated by steam, electric- 
 ity, or hydraulic pressure. The steam boilers in the premises 
 number 207, and the engines and motors number 122, the 
 entire motive power produced by these means amounting to 
 48,900 horse power. Of the entire motive power some 4,700 
 horse power is produced by hydraulic pressure and about 
 3,015 by electricity. Lastly, the workmen engaged number 
 nearly 9,000 in all. 
 
 The chief manufactures are materials or half-made articles 
 for military and naval industry, some being disposed of for the 
 benefit of the people. Formerly the foundry accepted orders 
 from foreign countries to make military weapons, but now the 
 demand for iron at home exceeding by far the whole amount 
 produced has become too great to accept foreign orders. 
 
 In short , the military industry has been instrumental in the 
 establishment of the iron foundry and in the birth of new min- 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 93 
 
 i ng and refining works in this country, thus initiating effprtive 
 methods for utilizing national wealth to the best advarv ^ag^^ 
 and promoting the interests of those undertakings . 
 
 Clothing and Provision Industry. — The work of the Senju 
 Woolen Cloth Factory is comparatively the oldest in its origin 
 of the industrial factory in Japan. The factory was established 
 when the country was yet in its infantile stage as regards 
 national industry. It early installed motors, spinning ma- 
 chines and weaving machines, and acted as a pioneer in the 
 mechanical industry of the country. Besides, as it had no 
 need of secrecy like an arms manufactory, it was open to public 
 inspection ; the factories for manufacturing woolen cloths, for 
 cotton spinning and manufacturing, and for general weaving 
 industry, as well as any other factories run by power generating 
 machines, sought for hints and suggestions in this factory 
 as to technical points, the purchase of goods, the employment 
 of artisans, the keeping of orders in a factory, the storage 
 of goods, the packing and spinning of these manufactured 
 articles, etc. The woolen cloth factory was itself confident 
 of its model organization and willingly offered various facili- 
 ties to private companies, trying assiduously to diffuse the 
 knowledge of factory industry among the people. The com- 
 panies built in Tokyo and the neighborhood some years later 
 for the manufacture of woolen or cotton cloth largely followed 
 the system of the Senju factory. This is especially true of 
 the woolen manufacturing companies, which, including even 
 those of the latest establishment, have chiefly adopted its 
 managerial and technical methods. Among such companies 
 are the Tokyo Woolen Cloth Manufacturing Company, the 
 Tokyo Woolen Textile Company, the Kakogawa Japan 
 Woolen Textile Company, and the Goto Woolen Textile Com- 
 pany. Moreover, the Senju factory has contributed a great 
 deal toward the advancement of the manufacturing industry 
 of those materials that are used at the factory. Palm oil, 
 camphor oil and machine oil (gasoline, valve oil and engine 
 oil, inclusive) which are used in large quantities at the factory, 
 are among those things the production of which has been im- 
 
194 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 mensely influenced by the existence of the factory. The pres- 
 ence of the factory has equally influenced the industry of 
 bringing forth worked wool, artificial wool and dyestuffs. 
 
 T he clothing industry under the supervision of the Clothing 
 Department and its branches (governmental), however, has 
 produced little effect upon the same line of industry pursued in 
 factories carried on by the people ;, the reason is that the work 
 of clothes and shoe making has been mostly conducted at home 
 and not at factories. Only the work of such companies as 
 essentially aim at the making of military clothing, including 
 the clothing factory of the Okura-gumi and its shoe depart- 
 ment, the Sakura-gumi Shoe Manufactory, and the Tokyo 
 Shoe Manufacturing Company, has been affected since the 
 establishment of factories by the government, which have 
 come to manufacture the bulk of similar articles. As regards 
 the materials of the clothing manufacturing industry, the in- 
 fluence of the governmental works has been manifest ; besides 
 being supplied by the Senju Woolen Cloth Factory (govern- 
 mental) , the government has had to purchase the most impor- 
 tant woolen materials largely from private companies. Hemp 
 cloths have been purchased from private hemp manufacturing 
 companies, and cotton cloths from cotton textile companies. 
 Leather used for shoe manufacturing and other purposes was 
 formerly imported from abroad, but in recent years the bulk 
 has been provided by domestic manufacturers. And the 
 dyeing of cotton and hemp cloths is entirely in the hands of 
 private factories. Altogether, the greatness of demand and 
 the skill of work required in these materials have made this 
 line of factory industry develop considerably. 
 /^ Speaking of the provision industry, we must add that its 
 / materials are more largely obtained from agricultural or stock- 
 CT farming sources than supplied by industrial companies ; conse- 
 ^v quently this line of government industry would have but 
 slight effect upon factory undertakings. Only the govern- 
 ment's canning factory, the equipment of which is well-nigh 
 perfect and which is looked upon as the model factory of the 
 kind in Japan, is frequented by manufacturers in the same 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 95 
 
 line, who are greatly benefited by their examination of the man- 
 ufacture. The manufacture of bread is largely carried on by 
 both the army and the navy, but the specialty of their products 
 is not conforming to the general taste, so that their bakery 
 work produces little or no effect upon the national industry of 
 bread making. The production of wheat flour, which forms 
 the chief material in bread making, produces more or less 
 effect upon the flour industry among the people. Rice milling, 
 which is conducted on a large scale by the government, sets a 
 good example to the people, who are introducing many innova- 
 tions in their methods of -cleaning rice. 
 
 Loss Suffered by General Factory Industry 
 
 In the preceding pages a general statement has been made 
 as to the influences caused by military industry upon factory 
 undertakings. But the influences referred to were of such a 
 nature that their presence and power are constantly desirable, 
 and what unfavorable effects military industry has given to 
 factory industry in general remains to be explained. The use 
 and users of military manufactures differ from those of gen- 
 eral industrial products/ and very seldom, if ever, do the mili- 
 tary manufactures appear in the market; con sequentlv these 
 manufactures would not compete with other market" goods^ 
 or impair or destroy the undertakings of the people. The 
 trouble is that, inasmuch as the amount of materials used and 
 the number of workmen engaged in military industry are 
 enormous, possibly some materials which are also used in gen- 
 eral industry will rise in their market prices and the wages of 
 the workmen will be raised at the same time. These will, 
 it is feared, culminate in the depression of general industrial 
 undertakings. But those industrial companies which aim at 
 the production of articles used in military industry suffer very 
 little from the rise of market prices and of the wages of work- 
 men, because their manufactures will be readily purchased 
 by the government and the loss to be otherwise incurred will 
 be fully compensated. On the contrary, the industrial com- 
 panies which are in no way connected with military industry 
 
r 
 
 196 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 must take the natural consequences resultant from the above 
 circumstances. Especially, the extent of damages suffered by 
 such companies at the places where there are large military 
 factories is amazingly great, though exception is made in 
 those in large cities like Tokyo and Osaka. The fact is best 
 illustrated by like companies built near the naval ports. 
 
 There are, of course, some articles and materials which were 
 or are manufactured for military purposes and which have 
 been also disposed of for the benefit of the people. For conven- 
 ience, the manufacture of such articles has been undertaken by 
 the government as a by-work; the articles thus manufactured 
 have been distributed to government departments and public 
 bodies, or widely among the people. Those that come under 
 the former category are bronze statues, iron water pipes, parts 
 for heavy machines, horseshoes, etc., and among the latter are 
 included short guns, gunpowder for shooting, mining explosives, 
 dynamite, sodas, weak acids, artificial wool, felt, etc. These 
 articles mainly include those that are not manufactured by the 
 people, owing to the lack of necessary accommodations, those 
 which as explosives are prohibited from manufacture by the 
 people by the national law, and by-products of military in- 
 dustry. Of these things which are used by the people, the de- 
 mand for explosives is exceedingly great, and not a small 
 amount is annually imported. And there is every prospect of 
 development in this line of industry, if it is only transferred to 
 the hands of the people. To monopolize this kind of industry 
 on the mere ground of preserving public peace is indisputably 
 disadvantageous to the progress of national industry and to 
 the economic policy of a nation. 
 
 At the time of initiation the manufacture of woolen cloth 
 was taken up by the army, in consideration of its military im- 
 portance and the limited extent of progress made by national 
 industry. The services of the woolen cloth factory (Senju) 
 rendered to our industrial world ever since must not be ignored ; 
 yet it remains a question deserving careful study whether such 
 an industry should ever be conducted under government man- 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 1 97 
 
 agement, especially when industrial conditions at large have 
 so much improved as today. In fact we can not say today 
 that the existence of the factory may not become an impedi- 
 ment to the progress of the national industry of manufacturing 
 woolen cloth. 
 
 Since the industry of manufacturing clothing and provisions 
 was assumed by the army, a loss has been suffered by the cloth- 
 ing factories, canning factories, and bread-making establish- 
 ments, which had hitherto aimed at the production of such 
 things, some of the factories having been compelled to close 
 their business. This can be regarded as one phase of the bane- 
 ful influences exercised over the national enterprises by the ( 
 
 domination of military industry. 
 
 Domestic Industry 
 
 In order that military industry may have its influence upon 
 domestic industry, it is essential that its work be suitable to 
 the latter. The making of arms, ammunition, mechanical 
 implements and war vessels can never adapt itself to domes- 
 tic industry, and naturally it will produce little eff^ect upon the 
 work at home. On the contrary, the clothing industry has 
 close relations with domestic industry. From ancient times 
 the clothing industry in Japan has mainly relied upon handi- 
 craft and domestic labor. After the Meiji Restoration, when 
 the army and the navy adopted the European system of or- 
 ganization, a change took place in the clothing of soldiers and 
 sailors, who have come to wear European uniforms and mili- 
 tary shoes. Hence, these uniforms and shoes were made by 
 the army and the navy, each of which, among its divisions, 
 had a certain number of foremen and artisans for the purpose. 
 But the uniforms and shoes thus made were very small in num- 
 ber, and the bulk of the supply was prepared by professional 
 tailors, shoemakers, and leather dealers among the people. 
 And this work was done at home. At various places where 
 garrisons and naval stations were located, many clothing 
 makers lived here and there and carried on their work. Conse- 
 quently, in the early years of Meiji, when few people wore 
 
198 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 European clothes and shoes, the number of tailors and shoe- 
 makers for the army and the navy was far greater than that of 
 ordinary tailors and shoemakers. Upon the expansion of the 
 army and navy later on, soldiers and sailors greatly increased 
 numerically and military tailors and shoemakers as well. 
 By that time some of the uniforms and shoes for military 
 purposes were made at the factories of private companies, but 
 they were not many. The greater part was still made at 
 home ; and for these reasons domestic industry exerted a great 
 influence over the localities where military or naval stations 
 were situated. As a result of the Sino- Japanese and the 
 Russo-Japanese Wars, especially, the number of tailors and 
 shoemakers increased wonderfully, adding more to the pros- 
 perity of this kind of domestic industry and causing it to take 
 an important position in the economy of the country. But 
 in the 35th year of Meiji (1902) a factory for manufacturing 
 shoes was built in Tokyo, and here military shoes were manu- 
 factured. Shortly afterward the cutting of cloth for military 
 uniforms was started by the government and contracts were 
 given for making up the cut cloths to tailors among the people. 
 Again in the 37th year of Meiji (1904) the government initi- 
 ated the sewing of the important parts of military clothing, 
 and this government work threatened to deal a serious blow 
 to tailors and shoemakers among the people, when about this 
 time the Russo-Japanese War broke out and these traders re- 
 ceived large orders from the government to make military 
 clothing, so that they could continue their work, though with 
 much difficulty. Th e war end(;^d, the work of the Clothing 
 Department (governmental) was enlarged, and the making of^ 
 clothing has come to be conducted on a greater scale. This 
 brought abo ut a decline in the domestic indust ry, which hac 
 been most successful in making clothes and shoes. Many 
 tailors and shoemakers closed their business for other profita- 
 ble callings and some became workmen of the Clothing De- 
 partment. In this way the progress of the clothing industry 
 carried on by the army has exercised a deadly influence over 
 domestic industry. But even today the less important articles 
 
EFFECTS ON MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 199 
 
 of military clothing, as shown in the following table of classifi- 
 cation, are made by the people, from their own materials or 
 from materials furnished by the government. The articles of 
 clothing for the use of the navy are numerically far inferior to 
 those of the army, but the manufacture is altogether in the 
 hands of the people, and not a few are engaged in this line of 
 work as their principal occupation or a subsidiary one. 
 
 The provision industry of the government has had little 
 to do with domestic industry. It only gives some assistance 
 to the domestic industry in such kinds of products as paper 
 bags, wrappers and packing materials used for manufactured 
 goods, as the making of these things are entrusted to the 
 people. The manufacture of military clothing and that of pro- 
 visions was formerly conducted by people at various places 
 throughout the country where garrisons are located. But since 
 the transference of these industries to the army, the works have 
 been concentrated in Tokyo, Osaka and Hiroshima, under the 
 factory system, and as the result of their absorption of a large 
 working population, damage has been done to some of the dif- 
 ferent kinds of domestic industry carried on in these localities. 
 
 Table Showing Military Clothing as Supplied by Government or 
 
 People 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Government 
 
 People 
 
 Government 
 
 People 
 
 Caps (a greater 
 
 Caps (part) 
 
 
 Summer under- 
 
 part) 
 
 
 
 shirts and 
 drawers 
 
 Winter uniforms 
 
 
 
 Lace boots (part) 
 
 Summer uniforms 
 
 
 Lace boots (a 
 greater part) 
 
 
 Overcoats 
 
 
 
 
 Rain coats 
 
 
 Puttees 
 
 Leather gaiters 
 
 Shoulder straps 
 
 Shoulder straps (a 
 
 
 Socks 
 
 (part) 
 
 greater part) 
 
 
 
 Collar patches 
 
 Collar patches (a 
 
 
 Spurs 
 
 (part) 
 
 greater part) 
 
 
 
 
 Rain coats 
 
 
 Gloves 
 
 
 Winter working 
 
 
 Chest protectors 
 
 
 suits 
 
 
 
 
 Working caps 
 
 
 Aprons 
 
 
 Working suits 
 
 
 Leather aprons 
 
 
 Winter undershirts 
 
 
 Pantaloons 
 
 
 and drawers 
 
 
 
200 
 
 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Table Showing Military Clothing as Supplied by Government or 
 People — Continued 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Supplied by the 
 
 Government 
 
 People 
 
 Government 
 
 People 
 
 
 Gymnastic caps 
 
 
 Sets for caring for 
 clothes: 
 Cloth brushes 
 
 
 Gymnastic jackets 
 
 
 Shoe brushes 
 
 
 Gymnastic trousers 
 
 
 Washing brushes 
 
 
 Gymnastic waist- 
 
 
 Oil pots 
 
 
 bands 
 
 
 
 
 Fencing jackets 
 
 
 Scissors 
 
 
 Fencing trousers 
 
 
 Spools 
 
 
 Fencing waistbands 
 
 
 Knives; sacks 
 
 
 Pocket ledgers 
 
 
 Hempen bags 
 
 
 Officers' knapsacks 
 
 
 
 
 Knapsacks 
 
 Lunch boxes 
 
 
 
 Bags 
 
 Canteens 
 
 
 
 Haversacks 
 
 
 Wrapping cloth 
 
 
 Leather haver- 
 
 
 Quilts and mat- 
 
 
 sacks 
 
 
 tresses 
 
 
 Quilts and mat- 
 
 Slippers 
 
 
 
 tresses, large 
 
 
 
 
 Bed sheets 
 
 
 Special badges 
 
 
 Pillows and pil- 
 
 
 Distinguishing 
 
 
 low slips 
 
 
 badges 
 
 
 Pillows and their 
 
 Portable tents 
 
 
 
 covers, large 
 
 
 
 
 Mosquito nets 
 
 
 Puggarees 
 
 
 Mosquito nets, 
 
 
 Flannel under- 
 
 
 large 
 
 
 wear 
 
 
 Unlined garments 
 
 
 Flannel belly 
 
 
 for patients 
 
 
 bands 
 
 
 Lined garments 
 
 
 Woolen knit un- 
 
 
 for patients 
 
 
 derwear 
 
 
 Wadded garments 
 
 • .... 
 
 Woolen knit 
 
 
 for patients 
 
 
 drawers 
 
 
 Shirts 
 
 
 Woolen knit 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 gloves 
 
 
 Belts 
 
 
 Fur undergar- 
 ments 
 
 
 Garments for luna- 
 
 
 Collars 
 
 
 tic patients 
 
 
 
 
 Caps for patients 
 
 
 Woolen socks 
 
 
 Mufflers 
 
 
 Wadded gloves 
 
 
 Woolen shoes 
 
 
 Wadded drawers 
 
 
 Wadded livery 
 
 
 Japanese socks 
 
 
 coats 
 
 
 
 
 Wadded caps 
 
 
 
 Besides the above, there are about 23,000 extra haver- 
 sacks made annually by outside tailors to whom an order 
 may be given together with the necessary cloth. 
 
effects on manufacturing industry 201 
 
 Manual Industry 
 
 The influence exerted upon hard work by miUtary industry 
 is also not small. In the army and the navy factories, work- 
 men for each particular branch of work are taken as far as cir- 
 cumstances permit from among the people in the same or 
 similar trades. And as these men with special experience are, 
 of course, paid better rates of wages than plain workers, hosts 
 of artisans come from all parts of the country, to serve in the 
 army and the navy. This is especially the case with the naval 
 factories; in all the navy yards and arsenals the majority of 
 men are possessed of more or less manual skill. In both the 
 factories of the army and the navy% those manual workers are 
 generally fitted into different works according to their special 
 attainments, in order to enable them to work to the best of 
 their capacity; for instance, carpenters, sawyers, coopers, 
 joiners, etc., are made to work in the woodwork shop; black- 
 smiths, goldsmiths, etc., in the forge; casters in the foundry; 
 lacquerers and painters in the lacquerering shop; plasterers, 
 stone masons, roofers and bricklayers, etc., in the building de- 
 partment; tailors, shoemakers, etc., in the clothing factory; 
 saddlers or harness makers in the harness factory; wheel- 
 wrights in the wagon factory ; weavers in the woolen cloth fac- 
 tory; ship carpenters in the shipbuilding yard. This system 
 is practiced with great advantage to the factories as well as to 
 the workmen. It is therefore to the interest of all military 
 factories to receive artisans in a respectful manner. These 
 men have to observe some disciplinary rules in the factories, 
 but, on the other hand, they can get security of position, with 
 an income of more than what they would be able to realize in 
 private work; besides, they are entitled to an allowance in case 
 they are injured or sick, and to other relief, and moreover to 
 pensions after a term of service. In the face of these possibilf^A 
 ties, men who are endowed with manual skill suitable for mili- ] 
 tary industry, and are free from family obligations, and within 
 the prescribed limit of age, are naturally induced to go into the 
 service of military factories. They are thus taken away in 
 large numbers every year from general industry, and cause the 
 
202 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 / wages of artisans to rise. The phenomenon is most noticeable 
 
 I in the factories of naval stations, where artisans of certain 
 
 \ kinds readily find work among the people and get a compara- 
 
 \ tively nice living. 
 
 ^^^ As regards the technical progress of the artisans employed 
 
 / in military factories, we find that its influence is inconsider- 
 
 ( able. Most of the work in the factories is done by the division 
 
 ^^u)f labor, so that a workman gets only partial skill in the process 
 
 of manufacture; moreover, many of the manufactures are 
 
 articles peculiar to the army and the navy, and mainly products 
 
 of mechanical work. For these reasons the manual arts of the 
 
 people in general are affected but little by the work in military 
 
 industries. Only the workmen who make small but complete 
 
 articles in the iron or the woodwork line, or those employed in 
 
 the clothing or the leather industry, find in their work great 
 
 opportunities to develop their abilities. 
 
 The artisans residing in a place where military factories are 
 located are benefited by the ample work and good pay caused 
 by the scarcity of manual labor in that locality. But that is 
 not all. They continually find work in the making of those 
 innumerable small hand-made articles which are used in the 
 factories but are purchased from the people instead of being 
 made there, or in the making of that class of articles used every 
 day in the homes of the officials and workmen of the factories. 
 The work is so plentiful that many of them find their whole 
 employment in the making of those articles for the factories 
 alone. In this case it is not only the artisans in the same line 
 of work as those employed in the factories who get the benefit, 
 but also those in other lines of manual work, such as those 
 who produce the miscellaneous articles which are wanted in 
 the factories not only for the industry but for other uses and 
 are used every day in the homes of the officials and workmen 
 of the factories, are equally the recipients of the advantage. 
 Excepting only clothing, leather articles and small miscel- 
 laneous articles of iron or wood, the manufactures of military 
 industry are made very little by manual work, so that there is 
 almost no instance to speak of in which the former industry 
 has proved a pressure or impediment to the latter. 
 
^ 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 EFFECTS ON PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 
 
 The influence of military industry upon primitive industry 
 is also evident in Japan, although it is not so large as that upon 
 manufactures or commerce, and in some instances it obstructed 
 t he progress of the industrv rather than aided it. Japan was 
 called an agricultural country from antiquity, and even now 
 agricultural products are its staple. Manufacturing industry 
 made very slow progress, so that the influence it had upon 
 agriculture was not remarkable until very recently. The in- 
 dustry of the army and the navy has made comparatively 
 rapid development, but the great majority of its manufactures 
 take but a little of its materials from the agricultural king- 
 dom, and in this respect it can not be said to exert influence 
 upon agriculture. The rise of the price of commodities and 
 wages in general, consequent upon its absorption of raw mate- 
 rials and workmen, must have had comparatively serious ef- 
 fects upon the interests of agriculture. However, such an in- 
 direct influence is out of the reach of statistics and can not be 
 made out with preciseness. In the following section, therefore, 
 full space will be given to the statement of the direct advan- 
 tages derived from military industry, with but a rough refer- 
 ence made to the indirect influences. 
 
 Besides agriculture, we are to write about the influences 
 upon forestry and mining; but while there is not so much 
 to be said of mining, forestry has received only slight influ- 
 ences, of which very few are worth mentioning. 
 
 Although the influence of military industry is noticeable on 
 the different primitive industries other than these three, the 
 comparison is too insignificant to be described and it will there- 
 fore be omitted. 
 
 203 
 
204 military industries: economic effects 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Among agricultural products, the principal materials used 
 in the army and the navy industries are, for provision manu- 
 facture, rice, barley, wheat flour, rice flour, sugar, sesame, 
 potatoes, greens, pickles, hops, straw ropes, straw bags, etc. ; 
 for clothing manufacture, hemp, hemp threads, hemp cloth, 
 cotton threads, cotton cloth, paper,vegetable oils, thistle seed, 
 vegetable dyestuffs, etc. ; and, for the manufacture of arms and 
 ammunition and shipbuilding, hemp, hemp cloth, cotton, cot- 
 ton cloth, vegetable oils, paper, lacquer, starch, etc. To these 
 may be added the materials from stock farms, which are, beef 
 for the provision industry ; wool, hides and leather, animal oils, 
 etc., for the clothing industry; hides and leather, animal oils, 
 etc., for the other industries. With the exception of hops, all 
 the above materials are produced by domestic farmers. Ma- 
 terials partly manufactured, as rice flour, wheat flour, sugar, 
 hemp thread, hemp cloth, cotton thread, cotton cloth, paper, 
 lacquer, dyestuffs, hides and leather, fat and oil, etc., are made 
 by farmers, but, being by-work, it is carried on in onlya limited 
 degree, and such of these materials as are required by the 
 army and the navy in large quantities are generally made by 
 private factories, so that the farmers would only have to supply 
 these factories with their raw products and have no large and 
 direct advantage in respect of these materials. Soy used in 
 provision factories and alcohol used extensively in various 
 factories have some influence upon agriculture, as their raw 
 materials are taken from farms. Common salt used in the 
 factories is not without some interest to farmers, who produce 
 this material as a side occupation. 
 
 Military industry has brought considerable advance upon 
 some of the above-mentioned productions of agriculture. In- 
 stances of it may be given as follows: 
 
 In purchasing cattle for canning, the military provision fac- 
 tories pay a higher price than is paid in the general market and 
 take particular care in selection. This has the effect of en- 
 couraging stock farmers to improve their cattle year after 
 year. Rice, wheat and their flours are purchased by special 
 
EFFECTS ON PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 205 
 
 contract with industrial associations. The government en- 
 courages and leads the association to better the grade of the 
 produce, and so a steady progress is being made in that direc- 
 tion. In this way, also, is the organization of those industrial 
 associations in the farming districts of Japan helped in no small 
 degree to develop. 
 
 The careful discrimination by the authorities in the quality 
 of the upper leather and the sole leather used for shoe making 
 in the clothing industry of the government has encouraged the 
 improvement of those materials, and its effects have of late 
 come to the surface. The production of cowhide leather in 
 the country has made remarkable advance, being now able to 
 bring forth good sound material. The use of vegetable oils as 
 material for leather preservators has also brought benefit to 
 the industrial world. 
 
 Wool, the principal material for woolen industry, was for- 
 merly wholly imported from foreign countries, but since the 
 Senju Woolen Cloth Factory, desirous to get a domestic supply 
 of wool, set the example of shepherding and encouraged private 
 enterprises, there has developed some wool growing in the 
 country. The thistle seed for raising the wool of the cloth by 
 combing, which was also imported before, is now entirely pro- 
 duced at home as the result of the encouragement extended to 
 farmers to cultivate the seed by the above government factory 
 in about the 25th year of Meiji (1892). These facts have 
 added a good deal to the promotion of Japanese agricultural 
 interests. 
 
 Besides what has been mentioned above, military factories 
 have some influence upon such farm products as greens and 
 fruits grown in their neighborhood. These agricultural prod- 
 ucts must of necessity be grown not far from the market, and 
 as they are consumed by a large population of the factory offi- 
 cials and workmen and their family clustered in one local- 
 ity, it is usual that their market prices keep higher than in 
 other localities, which must, of course, make some difference 
 in the income of the farmers who supply the products. 
 
 We shall now explain some of the disadvantages inflicted 
 
206 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS ^ 
 
 Upon farm villages by military industry. The presence of a 
 military factory at anv place induces the voung- m en in tha± 
 locality to leaye their farms for facto ry work. Farms become 
 desolate, in consequence of the annual absorption of a large 
 number of these men by the factory, labor becomes scarce, 
 wages rise and the cost of production increases ; often it goes to 
 such an extreme that a farmer of small means is unable to hire 
 help and has to barely keep his farm by the scant labor of the 
 aged, the young and women. The military factory has also the 
 unavoidable tendency of enhancing the price of all commodities 
 in its locality above that in other places. That it is driving 
 farmers to hard living is obvious from actual examples; the 
 fact is best revealed in those newly-developed localities where 
 naval stations have been planted, above all, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Kure, Sasebo and Yokosuka. It is said that farm 
 villages under such an influence often lose in the end from 
 military industry. 
 
 Forestry 
 
 Timber is one of the principal materials employed in the 
 military industry. It is required in large quantities by the 
 industry, and the amount of money paid for it is also large. 
 That military industry should have some influence upon 
 forestry is clear. Up to this time, however, the influence has, 
 unlike other cases, been destructive rather than promotive to 
 the forestry of Japan. The forests have been laid waste, in- 
 stead of being made productive. Besides common woods 
 like cedar, pine, fir, chestnut and larch, the army and the navy 
 use a great deal of the costly woods, such as chamaecyparis 
 obstusa, selkova acuminata, querens serrata and chamae- 
 cyparis pisifera. These latter trees, especially, take a great 
 many years to grow, and even if they are replaced with young 
 trees immediately after being cut down, it is not an easy 
 matter to restore the forest in any short space of time. The 
 difficulty was made even greater in Japan by the following 
 conditions: Prior to the Restoration, when yet without the 
 means of communication and the great construction works as 
 
EFFECTS ON PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 207 
 
 today, Japan was, except in the vicinity of towns, thickly for- 
 ested with tall trees and possessed an abundance of good 
 timber. After the Restoration, however, the initiation of the 
 military industry caused large quantities of timber to be used 
 for the construction of its factory buildings and as materials 
 for its manufacturing works; at the same time the demand for 
 timber was increased by the construction of barracks, govern- 
 ment offices, and school houses, by the laying of railways 
 (sleepers) , the development of private shipbuilding, the open- 
 ing of the telegraph and the rise of electric light enterprises 
 (electric poles), etc. Added to the increased demand for tim- 
 ber, the improved facilities of communication in the interior 
 made reckless disafforestation go on universally, so that it was 
 feared, should it be suffered to continue, no wooded lands 
 would be left in the country. In spite of that, the work of re- 
 planting in Japan long remained in neglect, and it was only in 
 recent years that anything was begun in that direction. So 
 the desolation of forests knew no limit. This state of things 
 is attributable to the coaction of several causes and not to one, 
 but it is not to be denied that military industry was a principal 
 factor in the affair. Even now this industry is consuming the 
 ■domestic timber in large amounts ever at an increasing rate, 
 which, however, as forest planting is now well under way with 
 hopes of development, would not cause any more ruining of 
 the forest than at the present time. Be that as it may, it is 
 largely the influence of military industry that has brought this 
 rueful condition upon the forests in Japan, especially upon 
 those of the good hard-wood trees, to which reference has 
 already been made. 
 
 One of the advantages given to foresters by military indus 
 try is the application of machinery in their timber making, 
 for the army and the navy factories were the first that adopted 
 timber machines in this country, and, serving as model works, 
 have induced private timber makers to use machinery. An- 
 other advantage to the interests of forestry is the opening up 
 of ways to new forest regions, thus : military industry demands 
 timber of larger sizes and higher qualities than are usual 
 
208 MILITARY INDUSTRIES I ECONOMIC EFFECTS ,' 
 
 among the people, and pays even liberally for it; this finds mar- 
 ket for the productions of retired parts of the country hitherto 
 valueless owing to the difficulty of communication; and it 
 acts as an incentive to, or hastens the execution of such works 
 as making new roads, building bridges, opening new shipping 
 routes and constructing railways, in order to facilitate lumber- 
 ing. Instances are found in many places where circumstances 
 of similar nature have much assisted the development of local 
 forestry enterprises, and such should no doubt be recognized 
 as a beneficial effect of military industry. Further, mention 
 may also be made of advantages derived by timber producers 
 relating to the purchase of timber by military industry. For 
 example, such wood as may be used for the stock of small arms 
 for the army (formerly beech was used ; now walnut is in use 
 instead) is not always produced where it is desired, though it 
 is used in large quantities; so the purchase of the material had 
 to be made through many merchants; but in recent years ac- 
 cess was made to the industrial associations of the producing 
 localities for a direct deal, with the result that the profit of the 
 foresters has been increased considerably. It may be added 
 as belonging to the same category that the government saw- 
 mills are of late seeing better profits from the direct purchase 
 of large amounts of timber made by military factories. 
 
 Mining 
 
 The influence exerted upon mining by military industry is 
 greater than that upon agriculture and forestry. C oal is an. 
 indispensable material as fuel in all the factories of military 
 industry. Its use in Japan dates back to the Genroku Era 
 (about 1700), when it was used among the people only in cook- 
 ing or as fuel for salt pans, and it was not until 2 Ansei (1855), 
 the year of the establishment of the Naval Training Hall at 
 Nagasaki, that it was used for factories in general and for steam- 
 ships. From that time up to the Restoration of Meiji, coal 
 was used as fuel in the military factories established under the 
 Tokugawa Shogunate. With the reorganization and enlarge- 
 ment of the factories after the Restoration, the amount of coal 
 
EFFECTS ON PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 209 
 
 consumption grew larger every year, so that the supply had 
 to be partly obtained from foreign countries. But at the same 
 time, coal mining In this country made steady progress, and 
 while the demand for coal has rapidly Increased with the ex- 
 pansion of the army and the navy factories, the establishment 
 of private factories, the Increase of public and private vessels, 
 etc., its production became so large that it amply covered the 
 whole domestic demand and a quantity was even exported 
 which to this day has always kept above the amount of the Im- 
 ports. Now that the consumption of coal by the people as 
 well as by the ships of the navy has enormously increased, the 
 amount for the army and the na\"y factories is not so large 
 when compared with the whole consumption of the country; 
 still, if all the factories related to military Industry, i.e., the 
 iron foundry, the steel works, the dockyards, and the other 
 private companies, are taken together with the military fac- 
 tories, it would make a great consuming power of coal in this 
 country. Even though their consumption of coal Is insignifi- 
 cant in the coal Industry nowadays, the names of the military 
 factories should ever remain connected with the coal mining of 
 Japan for the service they did to the development of the in- 
 dustry when yet in Its infancy, about the time of the Restora- 
 tion of Meiji. ^ 
 
 The coal mining In the 44th year of Meiji (191 1) shows a 
 total output of 17,632,710 French tons of the value of 55,006,- 
 501 yen. Of this, 10,774,358 French tons were consumed at 
 home, and while the amount of the Imports in the same year 
 was 181,363 tons (1,546,794 yen), the exports reached 3,041,- 
 347 tons (17,898,613 yen). By these figures will be seen wha^ 
 progress the coal mining industry in Japan has made. 
 
 As regards iron, the government, as has been stated in the 
 previous chapter, encouraged from both the military and the 
 economic standpoints the domestic industries of mining and re- 
 fining iron, and went so far In the effort as to take to itself the 
 work at the Iron mines at Kamaishi and Naka Kozaka, and re- 
 cently built an iron foundry, and started steel manufacturing In 
 the arsenals of the army and the navy. In consequence of all 
 
 15 
 
2IO MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 these the production of iron has made a gradual increase. At the 
 present time, the principal iron mines in Japan are the Kamai- 
 shi and Sennin mines. These mines are under private man- 
 "agement, and have each a refinery. The amount of the home- 
 produced iron used by the iron foundry as part of its ore 
 supply is 30,000 tons, worth about 600,000 yen, and the total 
 production in the whole country is according to the returns 
 for 44 Meiji (191 1) only 17,032,591 kwamme (about 82,750 
 tons), worth 2,575,514 yen. Iron mining in Japan has yet 
 much room in which to develop; nevertheless, it may be said 
 that the progress so far achieved is due wholly to the industries 
 of the army and the navy. 
 
 Zinc is very largely used in the manufacture of articles for 
 the army and the navy and is therefore an important material 
 in military industry. Especially in Japan its chief consumer 
 is the army and the navy factories. From ancient times zinc 
 ore has been commonly found in combination with copper and 
 lead ores, but it was not much sought after for the sole reason 
 that its presence was detrimental to the refining of copper and 
 lead. When, as a result of the Russo-Japanese War, there 
 came about a large demand in Japan for zinc, no way was avail- 
 able to get this stufif in consequence of the disregard of the 
 metal in the past. In the 38th year of Meiji (1905), recourse 
 was had to the exporting of zinc ore to foreign countries in or- 
 der to import it after being refined there; and since then a 
 large amount of the ore has been exported annually, mostly to 
 ^ Belgium and the rest to Hongkong, Germany and England, 
 and though it was done as an "export," it was in truth entrust- 
 ing those countries with the refining of such ore. However, 
 for military or other reasons, the government has for several 
 years past encouraged the home industry of refining zinc and - 
 succeeded in getting it done in this country, so that the im- 
 portation of zinc is now showing a considerable decrease, and 
 will, it is expected, totally stop before long. Thus we have 
 another example of a mining industry developing through the 
 progress of military industry. 
 
 Among other minerals used in military industry those that 
 
EFFECTS ON PRIMITIVE INDUSTRY 211 
 
 have rfiade Industrial development under the influence of the 
 same industry, directly or indirectly, are copper, lead, salt- 
 petre, etc. The contribution made by military industry to the 
 mining of these minerals, both in management and in skill, is 
 as noteworthy in these cases as in any other. 
 
 The following table shows the coal consumption of the fac- 
 tories of the army and the navy in the ist year of Taisho 
 (1912): 
 
 Coal Consumption of Army and Navy Factories, i Taisho (1912) 
 
 Army 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal 76,517 
 
 Osaka Arsenal 71 ,977 
 
 Clothing Department 2,110 
 
 Provision Department 5,638 
 
 Senju Woolen Cloth Factory 18,967 
 
 Railway Material Department 689 
 
 Navy 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 15,446 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal ., . 105,147 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal 11 ,998 
 
 Maizuru Naval Arsenal 14,300 
 
 Ryoj un Dockyard 1 ,845 
 
 Naval Arsenal 3»426 
 
 Shimose Powder Mill 2,032 
 
 Repairing Yard of Ominato Secondary Naval Station 955 
 
 Repairing Yard of Bako Secondary Naval Station 294 
 
 briquette Manufactory 11, 626 
 
 Total 342,967 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 EFFECTS ON COMMERCE 
 
 r 
 
 The amounts paid out of the national Treasury for the mili- 
 ary industry differ each year. According to the statistics for 
 the last few years, the total expenditure for military and naval 
 factories varies from 70,000,000 yen to 80,000,000 yen. The 
 budget for the first year of Taisho (1912) shows it at about 
 75,000,000 yen, including the Ordinary Annual Expenditures, 
 the Incidental Expenditure, and the Special Accounts. Of 
 this amount, 52,000,000 yen is for the purchase of materials, 
 18,400,000 yen for workmen's wages, and the balance for sala- 
 ries, etc., and of the above purchases over 16,300,000 yen 
 worth is imported. The materials purchased for the industry 
 are several hundred varieties of articles from the heaviest 
 machinery to the most diminutive thing, and if things of daily 
 need of the officials and workmen are included, they will cover 
 a very wide scope of articles sold in the market. The most of 
 these purchases are made through native and foreign merchants 
 and it is very seldom that any of the supplies are purchased 
 direct from manufacturers. No doubt such a large sum ex- 
 pended for such numerous varieties of merchandise greatly 
 influences commerce both domestic and foreign. It is particu- 
 larly the case with machinery, or materials for arms and war- 
 ships. These things come in large amounts when ordered, and 
 require experience on the part of the dealers who receive the 
 order; therefore, the purchases are made only among certain 
 tjualified parties, either by free contract or by limited tender. 
 Such people are called "goyo shonin," that class of merchants 
 who do government service as a specialty, as is also the case 
 with the army and navy of any other country. They have a 
 very close interest in the military industry, and every change 
 in the activity of the industry is directly a change in the activ- 
 ity of their business movements. Their activity is best ex- 
 212 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMERCE 213 
 
 hibited in times of war, and the profits they so derive are enor- 
 mous, a fact that can easily be seen from many instances in 
 which they have suddenly become great merchants, through 
 the Civil War of the loth year (1877), the wars with China 
 and Russia, etc. Most of the wealthy firms now prospering 
 in this country are "goyo shonin" who are connected with 
 military factories. All this is enough to explain what an in- 
 fluence the military industry has on the great central commerce. 
 But its influence is not confined to this. It has also much to 
 do with the commerce in the localities of military factories, 
 where those merchants who deal in supplies outside of mate- 
 rials for manufacturing purposes, others who keep shops for 
 articles of daily need for the officials and workmen of the fac- 
 tories, and even such small traders as keep eating houses, find 
 benefit as much as their money invested will bring. However, 
 people who have no interest in the military industry or in the 
 district in which military factories are located may not feel 
 any such influence at all. Often the influence of the military 
 industry is felt badly in the general economy of the country 
 when perchance an excessive outlay made on account of mili- 
 tary works has brought about a general depression and dull 
 trade. Such an experience is being had in Japan at the present 
 time. 
 
 In brief, the military industry has as great an influence upon 
 commerce as it has upon other industries, — sometimes even 
 a greater influence. The center of industry or commerce of a 
 country being as it is, it often becomes the ruling power of the 
 money market and foreign trade, as is clear from instances 
 which show well enough how great its influence could be. 
 
 Home Trade 
 
 The materials required in the military industry are taken 
 as much as possible from domestic products for the purpose of 
 attaining "independence in military equipment" and of con- 
 forming to the industrial policy of this country to encourage 
 the development of home production. This has greatly in- 
 creased the demand for the native materials in recent years. 
 
214 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Moreover, also for the same purpose, the manufacture of war- 
 ships and other finished articles of war is as a rule carried on at 
 home, no foreign goods being imported except those foreign 
 patents and other objects of special workmanship impossible 
 to make in Japan. This, tending to increase the manufacture 
 of arms and warships, and other works of military industry 
 in general, has, together with the increase of the demand for the 
 home-produced materials, had the effect of promoting the 
 home trade, increasing its business transactions very greatly. 
 It is to be especially noted that, as the result of careful selec- 
 tion made in the purchase of military supplies by the authori- 
 ties, the custom has been established among traders to refrain 
 from dealing in poorly-made articles, much to the mainte- 
 nance and elevation of business morality. 
 
 The following are some of the articles used as materials at 
 military factories, which are of domestic production and are 
 in considerable demand at the present time, to show to what 
 extent the home trade may be influenced by the military 
 industry: 
 
 Files, crucibles, copper bars, copper plates, brass bars, brass 
 plates, brass pipes, copper pipes (part), ^ electric wire and cable, 
 copper, lead, steel plates, tool steel and common steel (part), 
 tools, instruments, machines and their accessories, carbon bars 
 and carbon plates (part) , hemp, hemp cloth, cotton, gum, paper, 
 ebonite, thick hemp cloth, hemp cloth for padding, hemp cloth 
 for lining of caps, hemp cloth for tents, cotton manufactures 
 (spindle band, spun yarn), visors, thick cotton cloth, hempen 
 manufactures (spun yarn, selvage yarn, hempen ropes), spun 
 cotton cloth, calico, khaki woolen cloth, woolen cloth for gai- 
 ters, mompa (a kind of cotton flannel), brick, timber, glass 
 plates, glass tubes, paper bags, straw bags, wooden boxes, 
 ropes, tops with roll, chemicals (pharmaceutical) (part), al- 
 cohol, starch, vegetable oil, animal oil, sulphuric acid, other 
 acids, wax, solid salt, powder salt, thistle nuts, sole shoe leather 
 (surface), upper shoe leather, sole shoe leather (middle), 
 
 *The articles followed by the word "part" are only partly purchased at home, 
 the rest being imported. 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMERCE 21$ 
 
 spikes, brim leather, jowl piece, hide manufactures, (belting, 
 oxhide, strap leather, leather belt), unsai (thick cotton stuff), 
 cotton threads, upper leather sewing yarn, Berlin wool for 
 hosiery, cotton belts, eyelet strings, badge paper, paddings, 
 warming belts, hides and leather (for arms), ammonia, zinc 
 (part), saltpetre, pig iron (part), alloys of iron (part), cement, 
 coal, coke, hematite (part) , clay for crucibles (part) , lead (part) , 
 copper, barley flour, potatoes, salt, wheat flour, sugar, soy, 
 mirin (sweet sake), vegetables for pickles, rice flour, sesame, 
 materials for artificial wool (for socks and gloves), wool, wool 
 grease (leather oil), sulphate of soda, dyestuffs (acetic indigo 
 ball, acetic ammonia). 
 
 The influence that the military industry has upon home 
 trade is not confined to the business in the industrial mate- 
 rials mentioned above. In fact the benefits are equally shared 
 by all trades. At any place where factories are planted, busi- 
 ness is enlivened and bustling leading to the development of 
 the cities and towns, and directly or indirectly, of all kinds of 
 trades in the whole extent of the district. 
 
 It may be added that some of the articles made in the by- 
 work of the military industry for sale in the general market or 
 on application often have considerable effect upon domestic 
 and foreign trades. The Tokyo and Osaka Arsenals are using 
 their spare power out of the regular work in the manufacture 
 of articles such as can not be made by any private factory on 
 account of the legal restriction or of deficiency in its equipment 
 for the work, as well as in the manufacture of such articles as 
 are being largely imported. These articles, together with the 
 by-products of the arsenals' works, are sold through the mar- 
 ket or made for renting, all of the receipts so aggregated each 
 year being as shown in the following table. Besides this work 
 of the two arsenals, similar work is being done by other military 
 factories; for instance, the Senju Woolen Cloth Factory makes 
 blankets, artificial felt and other woolen goods for the general 
 use of the people, while the Naval Powder Mill offers its by- 
 product, sulphate of soda, to the open market. All these are 
 affecting directly or indirectly the interests of domestic and 
 foreign trade. 
 
2l6 
 
 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 
 
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effects on commerce 21 7 
 
 Foreign Trade 
 
 The arms, war vessels and materials for military industry 
 imported since the Restoration of Meiji up to the present time 
 amount to an enormous sum. It is evident from an examina- 
 tion of the history of the Japanese foreign trade that the excess 
 of imports during most of this time is mainly due to the large 
 amount of imported war materials. From the 26. year of 
 Meiji (1869), in which the military system of Japan was re- 
 formed, and improved arms and war vessels were decided to be 
 adopted, to the time of the Satsuma Rebellion, the continual 
 enlargement of military preparations kept the foreign trade 
 always with an excess of imports. The same condition con- 
 tinued until 13 or 14 Meiji (1880 or 1881). Then the trade 
 began to increase on the side of exports, and this with the 
 slackening in the work of the military preparations went to 
 keep the balance on the favorable sideuntil 27 Meiji (1894), the 
 year the Sino- Japanese War commenced, with the exception 
 of the years 21 and 23 Meiji (1888 and 1890), in which the im- 
 ports exceeded the exports as a result of the Itsukushima and 
 three other warships being ordered from abroad. But again 
 there came an expansion of military preparations during and 
 after the Sino-Japanese War, and all at once the amount of 
 imports rose to a point three times as much as the amount of 
 exports; next came the new rule over Formosa and then the 
 North China affair of 33 Meiji (1900), necessitating the ex- 
 pansion of military preparations, which continued until 37 
 Meiji (1904), the year of the Russo-Japanese War, and kept 
 the imports in excess all that while, in spite of the development 
 and a very good showing of exports. The requirements of the 
 Russo-Japanese War and of the post-bellum expansion of 
 military preparations caused the excess of imports to grow, as 
 the purchase of arms and war vessels from abroad grew larger. 
 It is clear from these facts that in Japan the enlargement of 
 military preparations is the most powerful agent that deter- 
 mines the balance of imports and exports. Most recently, 
 however, the government, in pursuance of the policy of in- 
 dependence of war, adopted protectionism for all articles con- 
 
2l8 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 nected with military industry, be it arms, ships, or any other 
 war materials, and as a result the amount of imports has not a 
 ittle decreased. This is most remarkably the case with the 
 iavy. Before the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese Navy 
 built by its own hand only small warships of about 3,000 tons, 
 such as the Hashidate, Akitsushima, Tsushima, Niitaka and 
 Otowa, the materials having all been imported even for those, 
 while all the battleships and armored cruisers taking part in 
 the same war were built in foreign dockyards. However, the 
 war made Japan discover the necessity of building all large 
 ships at home and caused a revolution in the shipbuilding in- 
 dustry of the country. 
 
 r To be fitted for the new work, machinery was purchased 
 from foreign countries for several years subsequent to the war. 
 At first all materials of steel were imported, but later they 
 were manufactured at home, as the dockyard factories were 
 equipped to the full, only the ore and pig iron having to be im- 
 ported as their raw material. Side by side with this, there 
 developed iron foundries and the industry of munition manu- 
 facture at large, and as those advances were made, the de- 
 mand for foreign goods gradually receded. Today such de- 
 mand is limited merely to patented and other special articles, 
 
 v^and certain kinds of machinery, and therefore the amount of 
 imports is greatly falling off. 
 
 ' Thus imports are gradually decreasing as the home produc- 
 tion of the military requirements increases; yet, at present 
 these materials occupy a principal place in imports and are as 
 important a factor in the Japanese foreign trade as they ever 
 were. To enable the reader to gain an idea of what influence 
 the military industry has upon the foreign trade, we shall add 
 in the following pages a list of the foreign articles in demand at 
 present by the army and navy, a table giving a comparison of 
 annual importations (in value) of munitions made in the past 
 years, and tables showing the imports of the principal materi- 
 als for military industry — iron and other metals, coal, and 
 
 "" materials for woolen cloth manufacture. 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMERCE 2I9 
 
 Articles imported at present: 
 
 Hemp cloth, mompa (a kind of cotton flannel), threads for 
 sole sewing, Berlin wool for hosiery, threads for leather sewing 
 machine, spikes, glass for eyeglasses, machine oil, olive oil, 
 olein, alcohol (to make up the domestic shortage), corrosive 
 sublimate, fuchsine, diphenul amine, card clothing, leather 
 manufactures (belts, rubbers), emery polishers, paper for 
 blueprinting, nitrate of soda, chemicals (pharmaceutical), 
 machinery, machine accessories, steel pipes, tin plates, tool 
 steel, platinum wires, iron plates for electricity, steel wires, 
 steel plates, carbon bars, carbon plates, special steel, nickel, 
 antimony, semi-manufactured steel for machines, files, nails, 
 tin, aluminum, nickel, alloys of iron, zinc, lead, pig iron, tops 
 for woolen cloth manufacture, noils for woolen cloth manu- 
 facture, tin, lead, saltpetre, hematite, clays for crucibles, hops, 
 wool grease (leather oil), gelatin orange (pigment) materials 
 for leather, fur, wool, dyestuflFs, belts and materials, India 
 rubber, varnishes, shellacs, ammonia for refrigerating. 
 
 Comparison of Annual Imports of Munitions, in Cost Value 
 
 Years Arms, Ammunition Ships and Shipbuilding 
 
 and Explosives Materials for Navy 
 
 Yen Yen 
 
 32 Meiji (1899) 8,290,546 305-245 
 
 33 " (1900) . : 9,220,367 16,759,023 
 
 34 " (1901) 9,294,025 16,491,917 
 
 35 " (1902) 4,818,275 13.995.149 
 
 36 " (1903) 3.450,590 592,060 
 
 37 " (1904) 
 
 38 " (1905) ■ 
 
 39 " (1906) 5,798,699 27,616,800 
 
 40 " (1907) 5,595,072 293,640 
 
 41 " (1908) 4,924,428 679,122 
 
 42 " (1909) 2,014,041 683,145 
 
 43 " (1910) 2,769,224 33,325 
 
 44 " (1911) 6,586,538 1,371,114 
 
 45 " and I Taisho (1912) 16,375,762 10,609 
 
 Besides what is shown in the above table, there are to be 
 considered the imports of materials for woolen cloth manu- 
 facture tabulated hereafter, ^ and imports of the materials for 
 the clothing and provision industries of the army, amounting 
 to about 300,000 yen annually. 
 
 ^ Post, p. 222. 
 
220 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
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EFFECTS ON COMMERCE 
 
 221 
 
 Iron Wires, Iron Bars and Iron Plates Imported 
 
 
 43 Meij 
 
 i (1910) 
 
 44 Meij 
 
 i (1911) 
 
 45 Meiji 
 
 (I9I2)» 
 
 Countries 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 England . . . 
 
 161,954,676 
 
 12,176,198 
 
 199,140,547 
 
 14.5s6.076 
 
 255.806,275 
 
 17,742,316 
 
 France .... 
 
 1,200,798 
 
 70,625 
 
 1,469,629 
 
 150,190 
 
 248,100 ' 
 
 23,014 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 130,327.041 
 
 4.933.755 
 
 147,227,759 
 
 5,439,732 
 
 205,722,497 
 
 8,120,706 
 
 Belgium . . . 
 
 73.856.131 
 
 2,862,076 
 
 54.570,657 
 
 2,027,830 
 
 80,052,280 
 
 3,028,842 
 
 Austria .... 
 
 1,138,004 
 
 389.430 
 
 3,634.18s 
 
 583,747 
 
 1,085.534 
 
 241,824 
 
 Sweden .... 
 
 2.062,213 
 
 244,017 
 
 4,836.772 
 
 361,498 
 
 3.095,084 
 
 252,108 
 
 U. S. A. . . . 
 
 11,755.710 
 
 993,332 
 
 37.661,028 
 
 2,803,606 
 
 140,230,399 
 
 8,020,268 
 
 Others .... 
 
 12.532 
 
 688 
 
 556.238 
 
 20,462 
 
 4.655.789 
 
 223,298 
 
 Total.. 
 
 382,307,10s 
 
 21,670,121 
 
 449.096.815 
 
 25,943,141 
 
 690,895,958 
 
 37.652,376 
 
 Iron Tubes and Iron Pipes Imported 
 
 Countries 
 
 43 Meij 
 
 I (1910) 
 
 44 Meiji (191 1) 
 
 45 Meiji 
 
 (I9I2)» 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 England . . . 
 Germany . . 
 Belgium . . . 
 
 U.S. A 
 
 Others .... 
 
 Kin 
 13,448,903 
 5,515.382 
 
 185,863 
 2s.351.075 
 
 267.528 
 
 Yen 
 
 1,191,624 
 
 441,961 
 
 12,604 
 
 1,557,618 
 
 36,997 
 
 Kin 
 16,390,967 
 
 12,782,874 
 
 27,076 
 
 25,924,245 
 
 330,055 
 
 Yen 
 
 1,594,526 
 
 1,036,912 
 
 2,717 
 
 1,581,804 
 
 52,417 
 
 Kin 
 
 1,337,408 
 
 1,237,462 
 
 33.235 
 
 2,352,266 
 
 2,351 
 
 Yen 
 13,278,192 
 12,772,161 
 
 332,674 
 
 33,577,368 
 
 26,855 
 
 Total.. 
 
 44.768,751 
 
 3,240,804 
 
 55,455,217 
 
 4,268,376 
 
 4,962,722 
 
 59,987,250 
 
 Iron Ingots Imported 
 
 Countries 
 
 43 Meij 
 
 (1910) 
 
 44Mei] 
 
 i (1911) 
 
 45 Meiji 
 
 (I9I2)'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 Kin 
 
 Yen 
 
 China 
 
 52,821,391 
 
 965.136 
 
 94,806,368 
 
 1,817,606 
 
 17,791,219 
 
 451.862 
 
 Kantoshu . . 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 England . . . 
 
 128,291,499 
 
 2,601,992 
 
 214,029,897 
 
 4,705,229 
 
 267,612,231 
 
 S.970,985 
 
 Germany. . 
 
 2,272,653 
 
 138,190 
 
 3,838,009 
 
 121,588 
 
 17,440,205 
 
 501,880 
 
 Sweden .... 
 
 3,882,269 
 
 263,740 
 
 10,618,126 
 
 500,747 
 
 10,673,723 
 
 480,669 
 
 U. S. A 
 
 136,301 
 
 2,455 
 
 45,360 
 
 I, III 
 
 1,051,688 
 
 27,209 
 
 Others 
 
 481 
 
 680 
 
 248,501 
 
 19,984 
 
 85,953,80s 
 
 1,962,110 
 
 Total.. 
 
 187,404.594 
 
 3,972,193 
 
 323,586,326 
 
 7,166,270 
 
 400,522,871 
 
 9,394,71s 
 
 • 45 Meiji is the same as i Taisho. 
 
222 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 Materials Imported for Woolen Cloth Manufacture 
 
 Articles 
 
 Wool 
 
 Dyestuffs. . . . 
 
 Oil 
 
 Tops . 
 
 Card Clothing 
 Machinery. . .< 
 Others 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 43 Meiji (1910) 
 
 Yen 
 1,455,520 
 13,510 
 54,263 
 1,116 
 13,956 
 25,535 
 29,947 
 
 1,593,847 
 
 44 Meiji (1911) 
 
 Yen 
 
 1,389,262 
 
 22,283 
 
 29.399 
 
 2,411 
 
 7,342 
 
 46,20s 
 
 30,750 
 
 1,527.652 
 
 45 Meiji (1912) ' 
 
 Yen 
 1,559,056 
 28,909 
 35,947 
 
 2,140 
 
 105,660 
 
 27,570 
 
 1,759,282 
 
 '45 Meiji is the same as i Taisho. 
 
 Annual Imports of Coal 
 
 Years 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1872 
 1873 
 1874 
 187s 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1883 
 1884 
 188s 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 
 1889 
 1890 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Tons 
 3.967 
 7,112 
 5,674 
 9,070 
 
 10,733 
 
 10,522 
 
 8,934 
 12,752 
 19,166 
 19,035 
 36.444 
 25.711 
 22.207 
 33.227 
 22,076 
 17.242 
 
 4.246 
 10,785 
 
 7.529 
 11.734 
 
 4.341 
 
 4.520 
 1 1 .494 
 
 Value 
 
 Yen 
 
 33,754 
 
 96,739 
 
 24,963 
 
 145.237 
 
 179,758 
 
 236,711 
 
 99,960 
 
 147,513 
 
 193,661 
 
 159.073 
 
 257.122 
 
 164,636 
 
 156,227 
 
 256,625 
 
 149,716 
 
 103,322 
 
 21,68s 
 
 85,038 
 
 65,383 
 
 56,275 
 
 29,880 
 
 40,01s 
 
 110,497 
 
 Years 
 
 1891. 
 1892 
 1893 
 1894 
 1895 
 1896 
 1897. 
 1898, 
 1899. 
 1900. 
 
 1901 . 
 
 1902 . 
 1903. 
 1904. 
 1905. 
 1906. 
 1907. 
 1908. 
 1909. 
 1910. 
 1911 . 
 1912, 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Tons 
 
 14,990 
 
 12,725 
 
 7,505 
 
 37,545 
 
 69,482 
 
 49,919 
 
 69,676 
 
 42.635 
 
 51.563 
 
 99.449 
 
 113.536 
 
 73.727 
 
 121,317 
 
 622,831 
 
 298,320 
 
 21,855 
 
 18,609 
 
 30,88s 
 
 115,028 
 
 173,22s 
 
 181,363 
 
 305,882 
 
 Value 
 
 Yen 
 
 142,918 
 
 105,380 
 
 81,707 
 
 472,757 
 
 853,080 
 
 519.380 
 
 578,570 
 
 399,189 
 
 937,094 
 
 2,100,054 
 
 2,542,133 
 
 1,298,374 
 
 1,972,923 
 
 12,199,884 
 
 5,464,722 
 
 259,990 
 
 333,957 
 
 629,867 
 
 1,090,73s 
 
 1,496,916 
 
 1,546,794 
 
 2,408,867 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 
 
 The movement to places where military factories are located 
 from other places in the country, and from colonies and foreign 
 ports; the movement of great quantities of implements, 
 machinery, and materials relating to military industry, out of 
 the localities of factories to various points; or the increased 
 movement of commodities into and out of the cities and towns 
 newly formed or expanded by the presence of military indus- 
 try — these have naturally had a great effect on the develop- 
 ment of the means of communication between those factory 
 localities and others as, for instance, traffic newly created or 
 facilitated by the opening of a building, or repairing, or extend- 
 ing of railways, roads, bridges, shipping routes, vessels, tele- 
 graph and telephone lines, etc. Although no doubt can be en- 
 tertained regarding the influence of military industry upon 
 communication — upon all such means of communication and all 
 those cases of the movements of goods — it is a difficult matter 
 to distinguish this influence from other influences or causes 
 and set it forth in concrete form, in connection with all and 
 every one of the localities of military factories. In fact, in 
 many cases this is true. The hardest cases are when it is 
 attempted with large cities like Tokyo and Osaka, where the 
 military factories have existed from earlier times than in other 
 places and have made gradual development along with the 
 development of the cities which commenced with the Restora- 
 tion of Meiji. There are some truck roads, river facilities, 
 roads, bridges, telegraphs, telephones for the special use of the 
 military factories, but they are not worth describing as viewed 
 from the side of general traffic. 
 
 In other places, where there are military factories and which 
 have existed as cities from early days, traffic has developed 
 almost under the same conditions as in those large cities, and 
 
 223 
 
224 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 there is nothing that can be mentioned as a special influence of 
 the miUtary factories. The influence of military industry is 
 discernible with comparative clearness only in some of the 
 means of communication for those newly opened regions where 
 some of the naval ports have been located, and in ship lines 
 connecting this country with these foreign lands where there 
 are produced such articles as are imported in large quantities 
 for the military industry. 
 
 While, in general, military industry has had the effect of de- 
 veloping communication — not only inland, but also with the 
 colonies or with foreign countries — it often has proved the 
 contrary. It is seriously hindering the sea traffic in those re- 
 gions coming within the territories of the naval ports wherein 
 the grounds of military factories are included by prohibiting 
 the entrance of ships or else restricting it under certain tonnage 
 limits. ' 
 
 We shall now explain those influences of military industry 
 upon communication that are discernible by dividing them 
 into the two classes of land carriage and water carriage. 
 
 Land Carriage 
 
 It is quite difficult to state the military influence upon the 
 development of land carriage apart from other influences which 
 might have acted upon it at the same time; but as we have 
 stated in the previous section, such of the means of communi- 
 cation in the districts of the naval ports as railways which con- 
 nect the ports with the main lines can be considered as having 
 been born distinctly under the influences of military industry. 
 So in the following pages we shall briefly describe some of the 
 land communications around those naval ports, giving a sep- 
 arate account for each of the localities. 
 
 Yokosuka and Its Connections 
 
 The construction of the main line of the Tokkaido Railway, 
 which was started in January, 19 Meiji (1886), was followed by 
 the construction of a branch line of ten miles and five and one 
 half chains connecting Yokosuka with the main line at Ofuna, 
 the work being started in April, 20 Meiji (1887). This branch 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 225 
 
 line was inaugurated in June, 22 Meiji (1889), ^^^ upon the 
 completion of the main line (Tokyo-Kobe) in the following 
 month, quite revolutionized the land communication with 
 Yokosuka and points in its neighborhood, where thencefor- 
 ward the passengers and commodities were more and more 
 collected and dispersed. When in 37 Meiji (1904) there was a 
 general enlargement of military factories on account of the 
 Russian War, a station called Taura was added on this line to 
 facilitate communication with Uranogo Village, the place where 
 the arms manufactory of the Yokosuka Arsenal is situated. 
 Now in thinking of this extension of railway to Yokosuka, it 
 will be easy to see that, if that place, then an out-of-the-way 
 village of farmers and fishermen to which access was had only 
 by water, as by land access was next to impossible, had been 
 left to itself and were without the establishment of a naval 
 station, especially of an arsenal or dockyard, things would 
 have been quite contrary. There would never have been a 
 branch line extended there, nor would it ever have been even 
 dreamed of that such quickworkshould be made of railway con- 
 struction as was witnessed in the extension of the line, com- 
 pleting it at the time when the main line itself was not yet 
 through, and that therefore such ready construction of a line 
 to Yokosuka is wholly ascribable to the position of the locality 
 as a place of naval industries where traffic steadily grew heavy 
 and both military and economic requirements demanded rail- 
 way connection of that place with the outside world. 
 
 As to other means of communication in special connection 
 with the naval town, there are the Uraga Stage (between 
 Uraga and Yokosuka), the Nagai Stage (between Yokosuka 
 and Nagai), the Uraga Motor Car (Between Yokosuka and 
 Uraga). Each has a fairly good number of passengers, mostly 
 of the arsenal officers and workmen, who take daily passage in 
 them from their country dwellings. 
 
 Kure and Its Connections 
 
 Kure is a naval port lying at a point over ten miles off of the 
 Sanyo Railway Line. Between the Sanyo Line and Kure, out 
 to the coast line, it is hill after hill and allows of no easy pas- 
 
 16 
 
226 MILITARY INDUSTRIES". ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 sage, which naturally made the early-time communication be- 
 tween this place and neighboring localities, especially Hiro- 
 shima, accomplished generally by sea. In the years 24 and 25 
 Meiji (1891 and 1892) the work on the main line of the Sanyo 
 Railway gradually made headway and the line was extended 
 through the section near Kure. There the distance between 
 the line and Kure was only a short one, but on the other hand 
 the formation of the country was such that to construct a 
 railway required tunneling work of so difficult a nature and at 
 so many places that it would involve heavy outlay of ex- 
 pense. This in the condition of the traffic, etc., in those days 
 was by no means a remunerative work for a private company to 
 undertake and therefore no intention of immediately building 
 a branch line over that district was had by the people of the 
 Sanyo Railway Co. But then Kure was the site of a naval 
 port which had the prospect of being greatly enlarged and be- 
 coming important, so that both from military requirements 
 and for the future development of the economic conditions of 
 those localities the government took the responsibility of set- 
 ting apart under the Railway Law* a railway of twelve miles 
 and thirty-five chains between Kure and Kaidaichi for the 
 government's First Period Railway Construction, to be com- 
 pleted in twelve years from the time it was laid down. The 
 War of 27 and 28 Meiji (1894- 1895) ^^^ the consequent ex- 
 pansion of national expenditures, however, hindered the reali- 
 zation of the work, but at last the railway was begun in 33 
 Meiji (1900). The work progressed with due success, and 
 when the Russo-Japanese War came it was pushed with 
 redoubled force, and in November, 37 Meiji (1904), the whole 
 line of the railway was completed. For the sake of con- 
 venience, the government leased the railway to the Sanyo 
 Railway Co. and made it open the line for traffic on December 
 I of the same year. However, as in 39 Meiji (1906) the Sanyo 
 Railway was bought up by the government by the enforce- 
 ment of the law of railway nationalization, the whole system 
 of the railway, including the Kure Branch Line, came under 
 
 ' Law No. 4, issued June 20, 25 Meiji (1892). 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 227 
 
 official management. This facilitated the traffic or connec- 
 tion of the main and the branch lines very much. Especially 
 improved was the communication between Hiroshima and 
 Kure, where more than ten trains were run every day. Now, 
 how has this railway to Kure come to exist? Just as the city 
 of Kure itself has developed to its present state through the 
 establishment of the naval depot, especially of the arsenal, 
 so has the railway come to find its existence. If Kure had 
 been without the naval arsenal, it would never have expected 
 to see any railway built to it. 
 
 An electric car service is facilitating local traffic in Kure. 
 The company was started as the Kure Tramway Co. in 39 
 Meiji (19.06). Afterward it introduced the electric system and 
 altered its name to the Kure Electric Railway Co. Later it 
 was again altered to the present Hiroshima-Kure Electric 
 Power Co. 
 
 Saseho and Its Connections 
 
 In 19 Meiji (1886) a proposition for constructing a Kyushu 
 railway gained influence among officials and business men of 
 Fukuoka, Kumamoto and Saga Prefectures. After many 
 meetings had been held, the matter was at last decided, and a 
 committee was elected to organize the company. Just at that 
 time the government started the construction of a naval sta- 
 tion at Sasebo in Nagasaki Prefecture, and considerable traffic 
 of business people and laborers was being established to and 
 from the newly-appointed place. Reference was made to this 
 place in the application filed in January, 20 Meiji (1887), by 
 the organizing committee of the Kyushu Railway Co., which 
 in one passage reads as follows: "Sogi (a terminus of the pro- 
 jected Kyushu railway line) is but 3 ri (7I miles) from Sasebo, 
 a distance that can be covered in a few moments' time. One 
 the railway connection between Sogi and Kumamoto (site of a^ 
 garrison) is completed, it should not require quite half a day 
 to send the garrison troops, arms and supplies from Kuma- 
 moto out to the naval station; and thus in an emergency the 
 forces of both the army and the navy can be concentrated in 
 
228 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 readiness to start overseas at a moment's notice, to the great 
 facilitation of our military movements." In February of the 
 same year a petition was filed by a party in Nagasaki Prefec- 
 ture for constructing a railway between Nagasaki and Sasebo, 
 connecting with the Kyushu Railway at Sogi. This petition 
 also laid stress upon the naval port of Sasebo and gave it as 
 the principal object for their project. After the filing of this 
 )etition, the government saw the advisability of uniting the 
 two railway enterprises and so notified the governors of the 
 interested prefectures. Thereupon the two schemes were 
 united into one and came under the cooperation of the people 
 of the four prefectures, of Fukuoka, Saga, Kumamoto and 
 Nagasaki. The railway construction was started, but it had 
 hardly made any progress when the government, enforcing 
 the Railway Law,^ ordered part of the Kyushu Railway line, 
 which begins at Saga and ends at Sasebo and Nagasaki, set 
 apart for the government construction (ist Period), to be 
 completed in twelve years after starting the work. Later, 
 however, the work again came to be conducted by the railway 
 company, and rapid progress was made after the war with 
 China, the line from Sogi to Sasebo being finished in 31 Meiji 
 (1898). Soon the line to Nagasaki (from Sogi) was also 
 opened, and then railway facilities from Sasebo as a center 
 to Moji, Kumamoto and Nagasaki were at last obtained, a 
 remarkable development of communication. Thus the Sasebo 
 Line of the Kyushu Railway owes its origin and speedy com- 
 pletion to the naval port of Sasebo, the existence of which gave 
 rise to strong military and economic reasons for this railway 
 construction. In other words, the naval station of Sasebo and 
 especially its essential part, the arsenal, have had a very large 
 influence on the land communication of that place and its 
 neighboring localities. 
 
 Maizuru and Its Connections 
 
 The government decided to start construction of railways 
 from Kyoto, and Himeji in Hyogo Prefecture, or Tsuchiyama, 
 
 1 Law No. 4, issued in June, 25 Meiji (1892). 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 229 
 
 to Maizuru, under the Railway Act,^ making either the line from 
 Kyoto or from Tsuchiyama the first division; but it was stipu- 
 lated that, if any parties desired to organize a company for con- 
 structing any such railway not yet under construction, they 
 should be allowed to do so by the sanction of the Diet. When 
 the Sino-Japanese War broke out and the government for pecu- 
 niary reasons was unable to start such work promptly, in 28 
 Meiji (1895), after the same war, the establishment of the Maiz- 
 uru Naval Station in the program of the second extension of 
 Japanese naval power was decided upon in the Diet, and in the 
 following year, in the month of May, the Naval Special Con- 
 struction Branch was set up at Maizuru. And at just this 
 time, from about the end of 28 to 29 Meiji (1895 to 1896), as 
 an effect of the Sino-Japanese War, all enterprising persons 
 were eager to start some kind of undertaking. So these par- 
 ties, seeing the future prospects of starting a government rail- 
 way to Maizuru before long and of the economical develop- 
 ment of the neighborhood of the same port, decided to con- 
 struct a railway to Maizuru. One party applied for the 
 construction between Kyoto and Sonobe, a part of the line 
 from Kyoto to Maizuru, organizing the Kyoto Railway Co., 
 and another party, the Hankaku Railway Co., to construct a 
 railway between Kanzaki and Fukuchiyama, a part of the line 
 from Osaka to Maizuru passing through Hyogo Prefecture. 
 These companies were licensed, and the former was organized 
 in November, 28 Meiji (1895) and the latter in September, 29 
 Meiji (1896) and bpth companies completed construction by 
 February, 30 Meiji (1897) and started to run, but as the rail- 
 way for both companies did not pay and they were in very 
 difficult circumstances, it was out of the question to extend the 
 line to Maizuru. At the same time the extension was pro- 
 jected by the government for the first period, so in 35 Meiji 
 (1902) the government started to construct a new railway be- 
 tween Fukuchiyama and Shin- Maizuru (which is a new town 
 coming into existence as a result of the establishment of the 
 naval station), where the naval arsenal works are located, a 
 
 ^Law No. 5, issued in June, 25 Meiji (1892). 
 
230 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 distance of twenty-four miles and eight chains. The work 
 was especially hastened during the Russo-Japanese War, and 
 was completed in October, 37 Meiji (1904), and the road 
 leased to the Hankaku Railway Co. on November 3 of the 
 same year, and thus the railway was run to Maizuru by the 
 company. In 40 Meiji (1907), on August i, both the Han- 
 kaku and the Kyoto Railway Companies were bought by the 
 government, and soon after the line from Kyoto to Shin- 
 Maizuru was completed by the connection of a newly-extended 
 line with the old one (connecting Fukuchiyama and Maizuru) 
 at Ayabe. The completion of this railway, at least its rapid 
 completion, also owes its development mainly to the military 
 as well as economic condition with regard to the Maizuru 
 Naval Port and the Naval Arsenal there, causing increase of 
 population, especially of officials and workmen taking charge 
 in the arsenal, the gathering of industrial goods needed by the 
 arsenal from all quarters, the development of means of convey- 
 ance and the prosperity of the newly erected towns, Shin- 
 Maizuru and Amarube. 
 
 Water Carriage 
 
 The goods required for the factories of the army and the 
 navy are mostly large, heavy and bulky, and are numerous in 
 quantity. The establishment of these factories has therefore 
 caused an increase of the number of ship lines and voyages 
 both at home and abroad. This is especially true of ocean 
 lines. The European, North American and Australian lines, 
 for instance, have ever since the beginning of Meiji been kept 
 busy importing the large amount of goods needed in military 
 industry, and as a result shipping and communication over 
 those routes have been developed, perhaps in no small degree. 
 As the shipping of the goods of military industry is not carried 
 on by any special steamship service, it is not easy to point out 
 all of the individual cases of such development. This diffi- 
 culty is met not only with regard to the shipping over foreign 
 lines, but also in the case of domestic shipping where a line has 
 so many relations that it does not admit of a trip being kept 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 23 1 
 
 for the shipping of military goods separately from others. 
 Therefore, in examining the influence which military industry 
 has had upon water carriage, we shall be satisfied with stating 
 only such facts as are easily distinguishable from general ship- 
 ping, as was the case with land carriage in the previous section. 
 
 Among army industries, the wool and the olein oil used in 
 the Senju Woolen Cloth Factory are needed in great quantitiesV 
 and were mostly imported from Australia. It is this that 
 opened a line to that country some twenty or thirty years ago 
 when no Japanese ship had yet traversed those waters. The 
 progress now seen of the shipping and communication betweei 
 the two countries is largely attributable to the woolen industl 
 of the Senju factory. ^ 
 
 Besides, the transportation of the great variety of materials 
 for munition manufacture in the Tokyo and Osaka Arsenals 
 which was purchased in the past from various countries (Eng- 
 land, the United States, Germany, France, Holland and 
 others) in enormous quantities every year, caused ships to ply 
 between those countries and Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki, 
 and thus served, probably as much as the Senju Woolen Cloth 
 Factory served for the Australian line, to develop the com- 
 munication between Japan and those Western countries. 
 
 The two cases above refer to the foreign lines of water 
 carriage. The domestic lines at the same time owe much of 
 their development to the army industries. Heavy and bulky 
 home-produced materials, such as metals, ores, timber, provi- 
 sions, coal, hides, leather, fur, cotton cloth, hemp and hemp 
 cloth are carried in great abundance to the places where the 
 factories are located, or goods manufactured thereof are dis- 
 tributed to garrisons from there. It helped to develop water 
 carriage in many cases between the places producing those raw 
 materials and the places where the army factories are, between 
 the sites of the various factories themselves, or between the 
 sites of the factories and the places where garrisons are located. 
 And it helped the progress of shipping between the ports or 
 harbors near those places. This is explained by the relation 
 the port of Yokohama has with the Tokyo Arsenal, or the ports 
 
232 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 of Osaka and Kobe with the Osaka Arsenal. The Formosan, 
 Korean and Kantoshu steamship Hnes are also largely Indebted 
 for their development to the shipping of the Industrial goods of 
 the army. 
 
 The naval Industries are not behind the army Industries In the 
 importation of foreign articles. No small number of foreign 
 and Japanese ships have In the past found service In bring- 
 ing naval goods here from foreign countries. To these impor- 
 tations of military Industrial goods Is largely due the establish- 
 ment and development of the new foreign lines In the early 
 years of Meiji. Especially is It indebted to the bringing over 
 of the war vessels built in foreign countries and Importation of 
 machinery, tools, materials, etc., bought in connection with the 
 building and repairing of warships. Such Importation of for- 
 eign materials is still made, and Is benefiting Japan's shipping 
 Interest not a little. 
 
 The Influence exerted upon the domestic shipping by the 
 naval industries can be shown more precisely than In the case 
 of the army industries. The following states this briefly for 
 each of the different naval ports and ports concerned : 
 
 Po rt of Yokosuka. — Yok osuka. situated as It is on the Bay 
 of Tokyo and with Its fishing population, had from olden times 
 its fishing boats plying between it and Edo (formerly Tokyo). 
 It also early entered into communication by water with several 
 places on the coast of the peninsula of Miura and with Awa 
 and Kazusa Provinces by the passage of fishing boats and 
 fuel-carrying vessels. Beyond this, however, there were no 
 vessels of any kind of passenger or general freight services, 
 regular or Irregular, existing in connection with this place; a 
 thing quite natural with the then poor hamlets of thin popula- 
 tion where farming and fishing were the principal living and al- 
 most no commerce or industry existed. On the contrary, the 
 Port of Uraga, which was a neighbor of Yokosuka, was in 
 those days considered a good harborage on the Pacific, and It 
 was customary for many of the ships en route to and from Edo 
 to call there for water and fuel or to take refuge there from the 
 heavy seas; In addition to this, the place was flourishing with 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 233 
 
 commerce, being one of the accepted centers in Tokaido (a 
 section along the eastern coast of Japan, consisting of several 
 provinces), and was always thronged by merchant vessels, 
 which advanced its shipping superiority. There was a regular 
 service of Japanese boats running once a day between there 
 and Edo, which was largely patronized by the people living 
 near Yokosuka. However, dawn came upon that fishing vil- 
 lage when during the Keio Era (i 865-1 867) the Shogunate 
 established iron works there, and the place began to be alive 
 with the coming and going of the officers and workmen and 
 their families. 
 
 After the Restoration of Meiji, there took place in Yoko- 
 suka, one after another, an enlargement of the iron works, the 
 change of the same iron works into the Yokosuka Dockyard, 
 and the establishment of a naval station, and with it the 
 place, which was now developing into a town, enjoyed re- 
 markable expansion, and its means of water communication 
 became gradually perfected. The development of the water 
 communication of Yokosuka during those times may be briefly 
 stated as follows: When in i Keio (1865) the Tokugawa 
 Government established iron works in Yokosuka and a work- 
 shop in Yokohama, the iron works commenced navigation 
 by a small steamer three times a week between Yokosuka and 
 Yokohama, and this was the pioneer in the regular steamship 
 service in Japan. This ship was a boat chartered from the 
 government and allowed none but officers of the iron works 
 and their attendants to go on board. Since i Meiji (1868), 
 however, anyone has been permitted to do so. This service 
 was, in 8 Meiji (1875), suspended for a time, but in 13 Meiji 
 (1880) four small ships were loaned to the people by the Yoko- 
 suka Dockyard, and were made to carry on a private service, 
 which was doubtless the first steamship service at Yokosuka 
 ever planned by private individuals. The landing place for 
 those steamers, owing to the strict limitations on the coming 
 and going of ships to and from the naval port because of the 
 necessity of keeping military secrets, was compelled to change 
 its location in the i8th year of Meiji (1885), and at the same 
 
234 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 time the manager of the steamship service returned the ves- 
 sels loaned by the governm.ent and continued his service with 
 two newly-built ships of his own. When in June, 22 Meiji 
 (1889) the Yokosuka Branch of the Tokaido Railway Line 
 was opened, the passengers by steamer so diminished that it 
 was necessary to discontinue that steamship service for a time 
 and to use ships of Japanese type in their place. 
 
 In the next year the steamship service was revived again, 
 and in the same year a new rival steamship service was begun 
 on the same line, and this competition was continued until the 
 Sino-Japanese War ; but since that war navigation on this line 
 has been monopolized by the Teikimaru Steamship Company. 
 This voyage was a direct one, running fourteen miles from 
 Yokohama to Yokosuka, calling at no port on the way. Be- 
 sides this, there are the Tokyo Line, the Awa Line, the Uraga 
 Line, the Misaki Line, etc., all of which were, like the Yoko- 
 suka Line, newly opened after the naval factory had been 
 erected at Yokosuka, and took similar courses as the Yokosuka 
 Line in their commencement as well as development. Among 
 them the line to Tokyo was navigated by the regular liners of 
 the Tokyo Bay Steamship Company and the Miura Cooper- 
 ative Steamship Company; the line to Tateyama in Awa Prov- 
 ince, by the Tokyo Bay Steamship Company; the line to 
 Uraga, by the same company and the Miura Cooperative 
 Steamship Company ; the line to Misaki, by the Miura Cooper- 
 ative Steamship Company. Although there were many 
 changes during the history of these services from their starting 
 to the present, all the services have one common feature in the 
 fact that their development to the present prosperity is a fruit 
 of the naval industry planted in Yokosuka. And on the other 
 hand, the appropriation of the coast of the port to the naval 
 use, as a result of the expansion of the naval station, and the 
 increasing strictness of the restriction against ships entering 
 or leaving the port, although it caused some inconvenience in 
 the use of harbors, etc., never prevented the progress of navi- 
 gation. In addition to this, to be sure, the busy running of 
 privately-owned vessels shipping cargo relating to the naval 
 industry benefited navigation a great deal. 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 235 
 
 Port of Kure. — The predecessors of the city of Kure were 
 Shoyamada, Washo and MIyabara villages, including partly 
 farmers and partly fishermen, and facing the Inland Sea. 
 They were merely common farming and fishing villages, hav- 
 ing neither historic site nor natural beauty of landscape worthy 
 of consideration, especially no remarkable commerce or in- 
 dustry; therefore in those days before the establishment of the 
 naval station navigation between several places on the coast in 
 the vicinity of the villages, especially the communication with 
 the city of Hiroshima, was entirely done with fishing boats. 
 Two or three years before the establishment of the naval sta- 
 tion in 22 Meiji (1889), ^ great number of laborers, merchants 
 and manufacturers assembled, and construction materials, 
 implements, instruments and other goods used in the naval 
 station were brought there chiefly by sea; and as in those 
 days the Sanyo Railway Line had not yet been opened, a 
 number of ships always assembled at the port. The ships 
 were running from Yokohama, Yokosuka, Osaka, Kobe,. 
 Onomichi, Hiroshima, Shimonoseki and ports in Sanyodo, 
 Shikoku, Kyushu, etc., to Kure, regularly or irregularly, while 
 sometimes foreign ships entered the port, all of which not only 
 facilitated the transportation to Kure, but greatly benefited 
 the communication to the ports lying on every steamship line. 
 But these were only temporary affairs. The goods trans- 
 ported there and laborers diminished as the construction of 
 the naval station was nearing completion. And especially 
 after the opening of the naval station in 22 Meiji (1889), owing 
 to the limitation on ships going and coming, and to the grow- 
 ing tendency among the merchants, manufacturers and 
 laborers to reside there permanently, which decreased the 
 number of those who left there, as well as owing to the gradual 
 extension of the Sanyo Railway Line, the number of the steam- 
 ship lines and the times of navigation, the number of ships 
 entering and leaving the port were decreased. But the muni- 
 tions needed by the naval arsenal in those days were very 
 numerous, while on the other hand, as a result of the expansion 
 of the navy, the scale of the arsenal was enlarged and the town 
 of Kure developed in a remarkable manner, and after all the 
 
236 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 result was that the ships in Kure were not much lessened. 
 Especially, for instance, between Ujina (near Hiroshima) and 
 Kure there was a regular service, several times a day; and 
 other regular services were opened to several ports in the 
 Province of Aki and Bizen and in Shikoku ; and in addition to 
 these, Kure became a regular port of call for ships of the In- 
 land Sea service starting from Osaka and Kobe ; in short, the 
 water-carriage service was very convenient. Meanwhile, in 
 27 Meiji (1894), the Sanyo Railway Line was extended to 
 Hiroshima, and some years after that it was opened to Shimon- 
 oseki; in 37 Meiji (1904), the railway from Hiroshima to Kure 
 was completed, all of which resulted in a large decrease of 
 passengers and freight by sea. Moreover, when, afterwards, 
 as a result of the enlargement of the naval port carried out 
 since January, 43 Meiji (1910), the Port of Kawaraishi, the 
 only port in Kure, was prohibited from allowing free entrance 
 of general ships excepting steamers of less than ten registered 
 tons and Japanese ships of less than 100 koku, the water- 
 carriage service of Kure was dealt such a heavy blow that at 
 the present time there is no regular steamship line to that 
 port. Nowadays the port of Yoshiura, near Kure, as it has 
 an available railway, is used in place of Kure, and the Ujina 
 Line, Shikoku Line, Inland Sea Line and voyages to the neigh- 
 boring islands are continuing their regular services. 
 
 Port of Sasebo. — The Port of Sasebo before the establish- 
 ment of the naval station was a mere fishing hamlet. It had 
 no means of water carriage except the fishing boats for trans- 
 porting game to seaside markets nearby, nor was there any 
 port of call by any regular steamship running along the coast 
 of Kyushu. When it was made a naval station in 19 Meiji 
 (1886), many laborers, merchants and manufacturers gathered 
 there from all quarters, while goods needed by the military 
 authorities and the people in general were shipped there in 
 great abundance. Moreover, as in those days the Kyushu 
 Railway Line was not yet opened and transportation was made 
 by sea, there was a large number of newly opened lines to the 
 same port and a great number of ships was to be found there, 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 237 
 
 as was stated about the Port of Kure. And similarly to 
 Kure, the establishment of the Sasebo Naval Station in 22 
 Meiji (1889), and the railway connecting Sogi with Sasebo^ 
 which was completed immediately after the opening of the 
 railway between Moji and Sogi on the K^iishu Line in 31 
 Meiji (1898), had an effect upon the traffic between Sasebo 
 and other ports ; and the port was under the restrictions of the 
 Law of Protection of Military Secrets, as it was a naval port as 
 well as in a strategic zone. But the tract of land for the naval 
 station of Sasebo being different from that of Kure, Sasebo was 
 not under as much restriction as Kure, and there were and are 
 many ships entering and leaving. According to the statistics 
 for recent years there were more than 3,000 steamers, more 
 than 1,000 European sailors and about 3,000 Japanese ships, 
 all of which shows what fine progress the port made. 
 
 Port of Maizuru. — The Port of Maizuru, known as a good 
 port in Tango Province,, and near the Port of Miyazu, which, 
 enclosing Amano-Hashidate, one of the three most beautiful 
 spots in Japan, has enchanting views, was not neglected and 
 was called at by almost all the ships that voyaged through the 
 Japan Sea. Trade there was always as prosperous as at 
 Miyazu, so that it was from olden times regarded as one of the 
 most prominent commercial districts in Sanindo, all of which 
 led the port to a marked advancement in water carriage. It 
 enjoyed convenient means of communication, having many 
 lines, not only to famous ports in the Japan Sea, but to 
 several of those as remote as in Kyushu, coasts of the Inland 
 Sea and the neighborhood of Osaka. Although it must, there- 
 fore, be certain that, during the period in which arrangements 
 for the naval station were made, that is to say, from the setting 
 up there of the Temporary Naval Branch in Architecture for 
 the establishment of the naval station in 29 Meiji (1896) to the 
 opening in 34 Meiji (1901), as well as since then up to the pres- 
 ent time, the naval industry which multiplied both the travel 
 of passengers and the traffic of cargoes caused a sudden in- 
 crease of ships in number, yet there was scarcely a regular ship 
 line newly opened, and in comparison with other naval ports 
 
238 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 the observable effects of the military industry upon this port 
 were very small. 
 
 Port of Tokuyama. — In the Port of Tokuyama, Yamaguchi 
 Prefecture, where the Naval Briquette Manufactory is located, 
 since the establishment of the same manufactory in 37 Meiji 
 (1904), there have been always at anchor a number of steamers 
 and Japanese ships gathering Kyushu coal for making bri- 
 quette from Moji and Wakamatsu, and distributing briquette 
 to all naval ports. Although the scale of the same factory is 
 smaller than that of any other military factory, it needs and 
 produces such heavy substances as coal and briquette, natu- 
 rally causing a great need of a number of ships as means of 
 transport. 
 
 Port of Wakamatsu. — The iron works located in Yawata 
 town, Fukuoka Prefecture, has had the closest connection 
 with the Japanese military industry since its starting, and 
 now is supplying 60 per cent of its manufactures to military 
 factories. Here will be given, therefore, a short description. 
 
 Since the factory was set up in 34 Meiji (1901), iron ore and 
 pig iron for raw material and coal for fuel were annually con- 
 sumed there in great abundance. Iron ore and pig iron used 
 in the same factory for raw materials during 2 Taisho (191 3), 
 excepting what was produced from Japan herself, amounted to 
 200,000 tons of Chinese ore, about 150,000 tons of Korean ore 
 and about 130,000 tons of pig iron produced in foreign coun- 
 tries except China, while about 80,000 tons of coal produced in 
 Kaiping, China, besides Japanese coal was consumed here. 
 For bringing Chinese iron ore, between the Port of Yawata 
 (generally together with the original Port of Wakamatsu 
 called "the Port of Wakamatsu," because both are situated in 
 the same bay) and Shihhuiyao, China (near Daiya, and there- 
 fore generally called also Daiya) , a new steamship service was 
 opened, and during eight months yearly, from April to Novem- 
 ber, about one hundred voyages are made with six or seven 
 steamers of the class of 3,000 tons; while for bringing Korean 
 iron ore there was opened from the coast of the Daidoko 
 River in the vicinity of iron producing places, Inzoku, Sainei 
 
EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION 239 
 
 and Angaku to the Port of Wakamatsu, a service on which 
 three or four steamers of the class from 1,500 to 2,000 tons are 
 running every year except during the period of the freezing of 
 the same river, that is to say, for eight months, from April 
 to November, and on the other hand, on a new line between 
 Shinkoto and the Port of Wakamatsu are running three or 
 four steamers of the class of 3,000 tons in the service of bring- 
 ing coal produced from Kaiping, China. 
 
 The principal consumers of the manufactured iron are the 
 military arsenals of Tokyo and Osaka, and the Tokyo Naval 
 Arsenal as well as the other naval arsenals, etc. They are 
 followed by the factories which are connected with the Mit- 
 subishi Dockyard at Nagasaki, the Kawasaki Dockyard at 
 Kobe, factories connected with the military industry, in the 
 neighborhood of Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka and Kobe, etc. 
 Of course, on the lines between these ports, there is a continual 
 service of steamers ; especially between those ports lying on the 
 Inland Sea Line, as Osaka, Kure, Kobe, Tokuyama (from 
 where pitch, a by-product of the Iron Works, is transported to 
 the Tokuyama Briquette Manufactory), etc., are running not 
 a few tugboats. 
 
 The service on the above-mentioned lines is performed by 
 steamers of the Japan Mail Steamship Company and of some 
 individuals. Also two steamers owned by the same factory 
 are in service and make several voyages for the factory. Be- 
 sides, steamers on foreign lines (except the China line) bring- 
 ing foreign pig iron and other foreign materials needed in the 
 same factory visit the port every month. 
 
 Port of Muroran. — About the Nippon Steel Manufactory 
 at Muroran, Hokkaido, as it is the only private concern having 
 the special service of making arms, a short statement will be 
 made. 
 
 The steamship line between Muroran where the Nippon 
 Steel Manufactory is located and Aomori was, up to 40 Meiji 
 (1907), carried on by regular steamers of the Japan Mail 
 Steamship Company, and irregular steamers of the Kuribay- 
 ashi and the Funkawan Steamship Company. In the same 
 
240 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 year, the Nippon Steel Manufactory was established, and 
 since then passengers and cargoes have gradually increased, 
 which has naturally resulted in the increase of the number of 
 voyages and has greatly benefited communication between 
 Honshu (Main Island) and Hokkaido. 
 
 For the purpose of transporting the raw materials used and 
 the goods manufactured in the steel manufactory, a steamship 
 line of four steamers from 500 to 1,000 tons, owned by private 
 individuals and hired for transport by contract between them 
 and the steel manufactory, has been opened, running between 
 Muroran and Yokohama, Yokosuka, Osaka, Kobe, Kure, 
 Maizuru, Sasebo, Nagasaki, etc., calling at these ports twice a 
 month. 
 
 There are two foreign steamship lines, one of them served 
 by the Japan Mail Steamship Company via Yokohama, and 
 the other direct from foreign countries. The times of voyage 
 are usually twice a month in the former case, and irregular in 
 the latter. 
 
 It is to be judged from the outline of the development of 
 
 'navigation as stated above that the military industry not only 
 
 has affected navigation in Japan so much as to be worthy of 
 
 special mention in the history of transportation during the era 
 
 of Meiji, but is still affecting navigation. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
 i\s has already been seen, the military and navy industries, 
 by greatly affecting all industries within the country, hold an 
 important relation to the national economy. It is easily con- 
 ceivable, therefore, that it may have important effects upon 
 the national life, i. e,, upon production, consumption, labor, 
 prices, income, population, public peace, sanitation, etc. It is 
 a very important matter from the standpoint of economic in- 
 vestigation of the military and naval industries exactly to 
 examine and study what and to what extent is the influence 
 of the same upon the problems of life at the present time. 
 However, it is very hard to give a correct and impartial 
 estimate by actual observation of those effects universally and 
 exactly, because not only has the military and naval industry' 
 an extensive relation to many things, but there are a number of 
 complicated questions relating thereto. Of course, it is dif- 
 ficult to examine all those relations in any private investiga- 
 tion, and even public investigations relating to the statistics 
 are so deficient that it leads the writer nearly to despair. 
 And if we, for the sake of simplicity, merely try local observa- 
 tions, we can not form any analogy of the whole, but can be 
 easily carried into error. This is the reason why in this work 
 every factory in every place was adopted as the object of 
 study. The result of the investigation is that the influences of 
 the military and naval industries upon society, though there 
 are some special points in each place, are in general not so dif- 
 ferent but have many common points, the same or similar, 
 which therefore are described in general in the following sec- 
 tions (under the headings of Revenue, Labor, Relief Service, 
 Population, and Public Peace and Sanitation), while only 
 those which it is impossible to put together are mentioned 
 separately. 
 
 17 241 
 
242 military industries: economic effects 
 
 Revenue 
 
 We can say decidedly that the military and naval industries 
 have a certain effect upon the income of the people at large. 
 How far its effect extends is a question, and if we trace all re- 
 sults, even the indirect and remote ones, there is no visible 
 limit. Hence, our investigation is to be confined to such per- 
 sons as are directly related to the industry itself and industrial 
 localities; officers taking service in the factories, workmen, 
 merchants in the employ of factories and the owners of land or 
 houses in the places where factories are located, as well as the 
 merchants and manufacturers in the same places. Among 
 these, the income of the officers, as fixed by the organiza- 
 tions, the government, and the ordinance of salary, needs no 
 particular statement. Concerning that of the merchants in 
 the employ of factories and others except the workmen, it is 
 very difficult to make a statement in detail, and even if it 
 were possible regarding certain ones there are no accurate 
 figures to enable us to infer all the circumstances of income. 
 It is necessary, therefore, that, in the following pages, in addi- 
 tion to the outline of the subject, there be given general remarks 
 on the income of workmen employed in those factories only. 
 
 The wages of the workmen in military and naval factories 
 vary, for several reasons. For instance, the average income 
 of a hand for a day in the Tokyo Arsenal is 88 sen (44 cents), 
 Osaka Arsenal 76 sen (38 cents). Military Clothing Depart- 
 ment 60 sen (30 cents). Military Provision Department 78 sen 
 (39 cents), Senju Woolen Cloth Factory 52 sen (26 cents). 
 Drawing Section of the Land Survey Department 71 sen (35.5 
 cents). Railway Material Department 49 sen (23.5 cents), 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal 82 sen (41 cents), Kure Naval 
 Arsenal 76 sen (38 cents), Sasebo Naval Arsenal 66 sen (33 
 cents), Maizuru Naval Arsenal 66 sen (33 cents), Ryojun 
 Dockyard 74 sen (37 cents), Naval Arsenal 67 sen (33.5 cents), 
 Shimose Powder Mill 84 sen (42 cents), Repairing Yard of 
 Ominato Secondary Naval Station 61 sen (30.5 cents). Re- 
 pairing Yard of Bako Secondary Naval Station 60 sen (30 
 cents), Briquette Manufactory 63 sen (31.5 cents). 
 
 In comparing the various amounts of wages in these factories 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 243 
 
 with those of the ordinary workmen living in the place where 
 such factories are located, there is on the average not much 
 difference between them, although in the case of a certain kind 
 of workmen there may be found some differences. But it may 
 be said that the income of ordinary workmen for a month 
 is less than that of those engaged in a military or naval factory; 
 for the latter, who seldom rest from work except on the 
 holidays, get a monthly income for almost a whole month, 
 while the former, who work less days, gain a smaller amount in 
 a month, because they can not always be at work, on account 
 of the weather or the condition of the market. The workmen 
 in the military and naval factories are classified into two kinds, 
 the contract laborers and the ordinary laborers, the former 
 being in service for a fixed term by contract and the latter 
 contracting for no term of service. Of those, the contract 
 laborer is better situated than the ordinary laborer by receiv- 
 ing an allowance of a reasonable sum after the expiration 
 of the term. Besides, there is an ordinance regulating the 
 special allowance for the government workmen and laborers, 
 whereby those who have been injured or have become sick in 
 the public service are cured, or may receive an allowance for 
 retirement. In addition to these, in the case of the naval fac- 
 tories, there is the Workmen's Mutual Relief Association organ- 
 ized for the same purpose. All these favors increase the in- 
 come of the workmen directly or indirectly by giving extra gain 
 added to the nominal wages and benefit the military and naval 
 workmen more than those in service in any private factory. 
 
 The wage of the female hand, who is employed by some mili- 
 tary or naval factories in no small numbers, is 36 sen (18 cents) 
 per day on an average, which shows an unusually good gain for 
 a woman who is neither well educated nor specially skilled. 
 Moreover, most of these women are of the family of the work- 
 men and so they are enabled by the increased income to 
 cooperate and to live well without anxiety. 
 
 In short, the circumstances of the workmen in the military 
 and naval industries, owing to their safe situation, continual 
 service and various special favors, are a little better than those 
 of the ordinary ones. 
 
244 
 
 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 To show the income, in the following tables are given the 
 total sums of wages and average amount per capita of wages 
 obtained by the workmen in service in each of the military and 
 naval factories. 
 
 Wages of Workmen in Military Arsenals 
 
 Factories 
 
 Total 
 Sum of 
 Wages 
 
 Working 
 Number of 
 Workmen 
 
 Average Daily Wages 
 per Workman 
 
 Number of 
 Workmen 
 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal 
 
 Osaka Arsenal 
 
 Military Clothing De- 
 partment 
 
 Military Provision 
 Department 
 
 Senju Woolen Cloth 
 Factory 
 
 Yen 
 3,898,732 
 2,435,749 
 
 371,023 
 
 69,800 
 
 148,364 
 
 909 
 16,473 
 
 4,880,335 
 3,327,869 
 
 865,553 
 157,926 
 361,176 
 
 1,278 
 33,608 
 
 Yen 
 
 0.88 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.78 
 
 0.52 
 
 0.71 
 0.49 
 
 Yen 
 0.41 
 0.33 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.30 
 
 17,367 
 10,480 
 
 2,531 
 
 575 
 
 1,078 
 
 Drawing Section of 
 the Land Survey 
 Department 
 
 Railway Material De- 
 partment 
 
 4 
 108 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 6,941,050 
 
 9,627,745 
 
 0.80 
 
 0.36 
 
 32,143 
 
 
 
 Wages of Workmen in Naval Arsenals ^ 
 
 Factories 
 
 Total 
 Sum of 
 Wages 
 
 Working 
 Number of 
 Workmen 
 
 Average 
 Daily 
 
 Wages 
 
 of a 
 
 Hand 
 
 Average 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Income 
 
 of a 
 
 Hand 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Workmen 
 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . 
 
 Kure Naval Arsenal 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal . . . 
 Maizuru Naval Arsenal . . 
 
 Ryojun Dockyard 
 
 Shimose Powder Mill ... . 
 Naval Arsenal 
 
 Yen 
 
 2,567,398 
 
 6,114,865 
 
 1,242,251 
 
 987,225 
 
 368,015 
 
 78,824 
 
 46,862 
 
 39,740 
 
 37,340 
 45,912 
 
 3,379,087 
 
 8,139,672 
 
 1,794,492 
 
 1,331,861 
 
 514,769 
 
 83,807 
 
 76,567 
 
 60,991 
 
 49.454 
 82,579 
 
 Yen 
 0.76 
 
 0.751 
 0.692 
 0.741 
 
 0.715 
 
 0.94 
 
 0.612 
 
 0.651 
 
 0.755 
 0.556 
 
 Yen 
 24.632 
 22.907 
 19.185 
 19.662 
 21.179 
 25.071 
 19.924 
 
 18.297 
 
 17.986 
 18.880 
 
 8,686 
 22,245 
 5,396 
 4,184 
 1,448 
 262 
 . 196 
 
 Repairing Yard of Ominaot 
 Secondary Naval Station 
 
 Repairing Yard of Bako 
 Secondary N aval Station 
 
 Briquette Manufactory . . 
 
 181 
 
 173 
 212 
 
 Total 
 
 11,528,432 
 
 15,513,279 
 
 0.743 
 
 22.351 
 
 42,983 
 
 
 
 1 First financial year of Taisho. 
 
social effects 245 
 
 Labor 
 
 The labor question will be treated by dividing it into two 
 parts — "employment" and "condition of life." 
 
 Employment by the military as well as the naval factory is 
 obtained on the basis of fixed, but, speaking generally, lenient 
 qualifications. The way of collecting the workmen is as fol- 
 lows: At first, an invitation is given, and anyone qualified may 
 apply; then the applicants are subjected to a physical examina- 
 tion, and those who have passed it are divided into two classes. 
 One class consisting of a certain number needed by the factory 
 and recognized to be competent after an examination of their 
 social position, are adopted as apprentices, and after training 
 for a fixed term and an examination are promoted to the posi- 
 tion of ordinary workmen. The other class consists of a cer- 
 tain number from the beginning adopted after a technical 
 examination as proper workmen supplied with reasonable daily 
 wages. The policy in adopting the workmen is to prefer such 
 as live in the same place or in the vicinity of the place where 
 the factory is built, or in the family of a workman already in 
 employ, and so there are but few "journeymen," who are 
 found in abundance among the coal miners and the like. 
 Although such a method as stated above with regard to selec- 
 tion sometimes makes entrance into the service more difficult, 
 in comparison with the general laborers, the military and naval 
 factory, by its great receiving capacity, prevents a surplus of 
 general labor in localities, by giving them suitable work. 
 Especially, some factories employ numerous girls, and giving 
 them work suitable to their strength and health enable them 
 to escape from the adversity which women living in the city 
 and having small jobs or no work meet, with a result which is 
 to be seen in any factory in any place. 
 
 As to the condition of life of workmen, common to most of 
 the places having military and naval factories, some of them 
 live in the town where the factories are located, and some of 
 them are dwelling in the villages in the suburb of the city. 
 Those who reside about the boundary line between the town 
 and the suburb do not pay much less rent compared with those 
 
246 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 dwelling in the town for land and house, etc., but their dis^ 
 bursements for those purposes diminish in proportion as their 
 residences are far from the town. Why do they not live in the 
 suburb where rents as well as food and all commodities are so 
 much cheaper that they can live in comfort, but deliberately 
 prefer the town? Perhaps the answer may be that, besides 
 some reasons with regard to their family, the pressure upon 
 their life is not so heavy that they can not endure the city life. 
 According to statistics, 32 per cent of all the workmen are 
 living in the same house with their protector, more than 12 per 
 cent are lodging, and those who have their own houses are 
 only a little over 55 per cent, which shows how hard it is to 
 live independently by means of the income from labor. How- 
 ever, such conditions can not be said for certain to be due to 
 adversity, if we note the fact that most of those living in 
 another's house are female hands. On the other hand, of the 
 more than 76 per cent of male hands, more than 66 per cent are 
 house owners, and less than 10 per cent are living in another's 
 house, though the conditions vary according to age, the num- 
 ber in the family, etc. Speaking generally, they have income 
 enough to live independently, or are living in comfort in de- 
 pendence upon the home where they live; in short, they are 
 scarcely suffering adversity in life. Of those who are lodging 
 and number more than 23 per cent of the whole, about 70 per 
 cent have incomes over 12 yen ($6) per month, while about 30 
 per cent have incomes under 12 yen. And as most of them, 
 young and unmarried, may be supposed to need 8-8.50 yen 
 ($4-14.25) monthly for the charge of lodging, those who have 
 incomes over 12 yen ($6) may be said not to be suffering from 
 poverty, while only the others seem to be poor. As to the 
 female hands, most of those keeping no home are perhaps liv- 
 ing in the same house with their husbands, fathers, brothers, 
 etc., and so must not be suffering much. According to the 
 latest examinations, even the female hands listed as "keeping 
 house," who have an income of only 8.70-15 yen ($4.35- 
 $7.50), in fact rarely rent a room, so that the expense for living 
 is not much more than that of those who are lodging. The 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 
 
 247 
 
 female hands who have small incomes and are living in lodg- 
 ing houses, to be sure, must be suffering from adversity, 
 because the expense for lodging is from 6.50-7 yen ($3.25- 
 $3-50) on the average. 
 
 The maximum, minimum and average of the amounts of 
 wages for a month gained by the workmen are shown as follows: 
 
 Classification by Age of Workmen 
 
 Workmen 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Average 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Average 
 
 Minor hands 
 Major hands 
 
 Yen 
 II .400 
 75.000 
 
 Yen 
 
 8.100 
 
 9.600 
 
 Yen 
 
 8.750 
 
 18.200 
 
 Yen 
 6.300 
 15.100 
 
 Yen 
 
 4.800 
 
 6.600 
 
 Yen 
 5.700 
 II. 410 
 
 Relief Service - 
 
 In the following pages the relief service of both the army and 
 the navy is described. 
 
 The Army 
 
 As the relief services of every military factory are not very 
 different from each other, the services of only the two arsenals, 
 Tokyo and Osaka, are mentioned. 
 
 For injured and sick workmen, the following officers are 
 provided : 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal: One colonel or major, eight captains or 
 lieutenants, and seven noncommissioned officers of the army 
 medical corps. 
 
 Osaka Arsenal: One colonel or major, six captains or lieu- 
 tenants, and five noncommissioned officers of the army medi- 
 cal corps. 
 
 These officers are to treat the injured and diseased of the 
 officials and workmen in the arsenals, the expenditure for 
 treatment being paid out of the working expense, if the injury 
 or disease be caused by any official business, or if caused in 
 any other way, consultation and prescription only are given 
 
248 
 
 MILITARY industries: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 and the charge for medicines paid by themselves. The statis- 
 tics for the former are as follows: 
 
 Medical Treatment of Employees of Arsenals 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Persons at 
 
 End of Year 
 
 Expense for Treatment 
 
 Fiscal Years 
 
 Amount 
 (Actual) 
 
 Average 
 Per Capita 
 
 42 Meiii f IQOO) 
 
 0.426 
 0.405 
 0.484 
 0.460 
 
 Yen 
 10,916 
 
 9,764 
 12,389 
 13,330 
 
 Yen 
 25,588 
 24,058 
 25,578 
 28,937 
 
 A% " (iQio) 
 
 AA " (iQIl) .' 
 
 I Taisho (1912) 
 
 
 But the small number of health officers stated above being 
 insufficient for satisfactory results, the workmen established 
 hospitals by their private means, where the treatment of them- 
 selves and their families fs performed under the supervision of 
 the chief superintendent of the arsenal and at their own ex- 
 pense for the actual charge for medicines. 
 
 As for the relief of workmen in the arsenal, determined bv 
 Imperial Ordinance No. 86,^ enacted in 40 Meiji (1Q07). the 
 t reatment charge, relief allowance, allowance for the crippled 
 or disabled, special allowance, funeral expenses, etc., are ^iven. 
 [ while besides the workmen who have served for a certain 
 I t erm mav receive, bv the Ordinance of Help for the Work - 
 men in the Arsenal, a life annuity or the grant of a lump 
 ^^iim. if they retire. 
 
 Besides, private corporations are organized by the public 
 contributions of the officials and workmen, and under the super- 
 vision of the chief superintendent, for mutual relief. But as 
 there are found some unsatisfactory points in this system, 
 there is in course of organization a mutual relief association, 
 to unite all of the military workmen. 
 
 The Navy 
 
 From the establishment of the naval factories to 35 Meiji 
 (1902), only relief as follows, by the Ordinance of Help for the 
 
 •Ordinance of Special Allowance for the Government Workmen and Laborers. 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 249 
 
 Government Workmen and Laborers, has been made for the 
 dead or injured : 
 
 (a) To the survivors of those who die from injury are given 
 funeral expense from 10 yen to 15 yen and the special allow- 
 ance from 80 days' to 150 days' wages. 
 
 (b) To the injured are given Allowances for the Crippled or 
 Disabled, according to the following classification: 
 
 1. To those entirely disabled for life: from 120 to 170 days' 
 wages. 
 
 2. To those disabled from their work or service for life: 
 from 60 to 140 days' wages. 
 
 3. To others, crippled or disabled: from 50 to 100 days' 
 wages. 
 
 (c) To the injured, but not crippled or disabled, are given 
 allowances according to the following classification: 
 
 1. To those retiring from work, whose treatment is esti- 
 mated to need some months: from 30 to 50 days' wages. 
 
 2. To those retiring from work for treatment: from one- 
 third to one-half day's wages, 
 
 (d) To those not injured enough to receive either the 
 Allowance for the Crippled or Disabled, or the allowance shouii 
 in the preceding clause, yet needing treatment (limited only to 
 those not being treated at the government expense), are given 
 the actual expense for treatment. 
 
 What is stated above shows the relief practiced by the 
 government for the injured or diseased workmen and laborers 
 employed. But the ordinance provides several strict limita- 
 tions, and so the aid seems too deficient to help the poor labor- 
 ers, who have no money capital but merely the physical one. 
 This is the reason why, in 35 Meiji (1902), the Workmen's 
 Mutual Relief Association was organized, by which a hospital 
 was prepared and a new service was opened in addition to the 
 Ordinance of Help for the Government Workmen and Laborers. 
 Although there are some differences of terms of agreements 
 relating to the organization and the manner of relief in associa- 
 tions within the circle of every factory, (i) the admission of 
 the injured workmen into the hospital and (2) the allowance 
 to be given to survivors of the injured are common to all. 
 
250 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 The Workmen's Mutual Relief Associations, which have 
 been established in every arsenal for the purpose of perfecting 
 the relief of the workmen, together with the Ordinance of 
 Allowance for the Government Workmen and Laborers, are 
 different in their organization and operation; accordingly, the 
 fee and the means of relief are diverse, because the resources of 
 the same association are entirely obtainable from the contribu- 
 tions of the workmen themselves and their friends. But as a 
 uniform means of relief service common to the circle of the one 
 and same office was recognized to be an urgent necessity, the 
 Naval Mutual Relief Association, still in existence, was or- 
 ganized by Imperial Ordinance No. i8, issued on March 22, 
 45 Meiji (1912). 
 
 Of several services of the Naval Mutual Relief Associations, 
 those given to the injured, to the survivors of those who have 
 died from injury, and to those who are ill from injury, are as 
 follows : 
 
 All these cases are divided into five classes according to the 
 degree of the injury and the sickness, with varying allowances 
 as follows: 
 
 - First Class, to the survivors of those who have died from in- 
 jury: from 2 years and 3 months' to 2 years and 6 months' 
 wages. 
 
 Second Class, to those who have lost their sight or have been 
 crippled in 2 or more than 2 limbs and disabled from active 
 work during life, or other cases corresponding to the above: 
 from 2 years' to 2 years and 6 months' wages. 
 
 Third Class, to those crippled in one limb and, though able 
 to do their own business, disabled from service for life, or 
 other cases corresponding to the above: from i year and 2 
 months' to i year and 6 months' wages. 
 
 Fourth Class, to those who, though able to do their own 
 business or the service, are incurably injured and thereby dis- 
 charged : from 6 months' to i year's wages. 
 
 Fifth Class, to those who, though incurably injured, are able 
 to continue their service: from i month's to 6 months' wages. 
 
 In the case of the first class, besides the above-stated allow- 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 25I 
 
 ance for the injured and diseased, allowances in the case of 
 death, as shown in the following, are given in accordance with 
 the time they have been in service. 
 
 To those who have served less than i year: 90 days' wages. 
 
 To those who have served 1-2 years: 105 days' wages. 
 
 To those who have served 2-3 years: 120 days' wages. 
 
 To those who have served more than 3 years, the allowance 
 is increased by 15 days' wages per each additional year of 
 service. 
 
 The injured or sick, except those of the first class, are treated 
 at government expense in certain hospitals, and during such 
 periods, or those periods in which they are resting from work 
 on account of treatment (excepting public holidays) are, it is 
 ordained, to be supplied with half of the daily wages. 
 
 It goes without saying that the Ordinance of Allowance for 
 the Government Workmen and Laborers is not applied to those 
 granted the above-mentioned allowance for the injured or sick. 
 
 There were 369 injured (29 of whom died) who were assisted 
 by naval offices during the first year of Taisho (1912), while 
 the number of men relieved by the Mutual Relief Association, 
 and the expense therefor, from 42 Meiji (1909) to i Taisho 
 (191 2), were as follows: 
 
 Tv/r Expense 
 Year M^" Yen 
 
 1909 27,926 16,066 
 
 1910 29,931 60,310 
 
 191 1 32,072 90,195 
 
 1912 33,441 132,500 
 
 Population 
 
 It is evident that the existence of any military factory af- 
 fects the increase or decrease of population in the neighbor- 
 hood of the place where it is situated. But the rate of increase 
 or decrease may not be exactly inferred from the condition of 
 such great cities as Tokyo or Osaka, where the considerations 
 involved are not absolute, but relative, because in those cities 
 there may be many factories causing the change of population. 
 This is the reason why, to make a more significant investiga- 
 
252 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 tion, towns having relation only to the military industry and 
 no other complicated circumstances, such as the newly opened 
 naval ports of Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo and Maizuru, are to be 
 preferred for the same purpose. This is the method that is 
 adopted in the following pages in showing the fluctuation of 
 population in each town separately. 
 
 (I) Yokosuka, formerly consisting of Yokosuka Village, 
 a half farming and half fishing community, and six other ham- 
 lets, gradually became prosperous after the repairing yard had 
 been set up there by the Shogunate in i Gwanji (1864) ; about 
 2 Meiji (1869), the damp marshes covered by thick bushes 
 were filled in; about 4 Meiji (1871), further reclamation was 
 accomplished on part of the coast, and thereby, at last, it 
 showed a resemblance to a small town. 
 
 After the establishment of the Yokosuka Dockyard in 5 
 Meiji (1872) its population was gradually increased, and yet, 
 according to the investigations in March, 12 Meiji (1879), there 
 were only 1,407 houses and 3,422 men. In 17 Meiji (1884), 
 the naval station was removed there from Yokohama; then, 
 in May, 22 Meiji (1889), the Yokosuka Dockyard was renamed 
 the Shipbuilding Branch of the Yokosuka Naval Station, 
 when, in accordance with the expansion of shipbuilding work, 
 workmen, merchants and manufacturers and whoever was 
 connected therewith moved there. This naturally resulted 
 in expansion and the increase of houses and population.- When 
 the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 27 Meiji (1894), workmen 
 were in great demand, owing to sudden increase of work in 
 building and repairing ships ; and when that war came to a con- 
 clusion and, as a result of the completed expansion of armament 
 after the war, the officials and workmen were more and more 
 multiplied, the circumstances of the town were completely 
 changed. The war with Russia during 37-38 Meiji (1904- 
 1905) necessitated building big battleships, and caused a fur- 
 ther enlargement of the scale of the dockyard and the multipli- 
 cation of officials, workmen, merchants, manufacturers, so 
 that the town was brought at last to a municipal organization 
 in 40 Meiji (1907). Since then the houses and population of 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 253 
 
 the city have annually increased until it reached, according to 
 the investigation made at the end of i Taisho (191 2), 12,695 ; 
 
 houses and 70,210 inhabitants, and at the present time it. is / 
 said to have a round 80,000. 
 
 It is easy to understand how much importance the military 
 industry has had in causing the progress of any city or town 
 from the fact that even such an insignificant village as Yoko- 
 suka, half fishing and half farming, having no factor to make 
 the town prosperous, has developed up to its present condi- 
 tion because of being selected as the site for the naval factory. 
 
 (II) On the site where the city of Kure now stands there 
 held been three fishing and farming villages before the naval 
 port was founded there. The establishment of the naval sta- 
 tion in 22 Meiji (1889) must be said to be the origin of the city 
 of Kure, for, upon the opening of the naval office, a large num- 
 ber of merchants, manufacturers and laborers suddenly 
 moved there, so that at the end of the same year, a small poor 
 village was changed to a splendid town having more than 
 2,000 houses and over 10,000 inhabitants. When the Sino- 
 Japanese War broke out in 27 Meiji (1894), the entrance of 
 'ships into the port as well as building and repairing being 
 increased, workmen assembled there in large numbers, 
 and the circumstances of the town were completely altered. 
 In the next year the war was over and as a result of the 
 enlargement of naval construction the scale of the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal was still more extended, making the trade and manu- 
 facture of the town more and more thriving, until at last it was 
 organized as a municipality having more than 13,000 houses 
 and more than 72,000 inhabitants. Thereafter, following the 
 advancement of the military industry, there was a continuous 
 increase of the population, and when the war in 37 Meiji (1904) 
 broke out, the arsenal was very busy both day and night by 
 multiplying the workmen, which naturally resulted in the 
 prosperity and the Constant development of the city. Peace 
 was restored in 38 Meiji (1905), and the necessity of building 
 large warships having been demonstrated by the war, 
 the naval arsenal was again enlarged, and the largest dock, 
 
254 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 able to make with ease a ship of 30,000 tons, to reaHze the sig- 
 nificance of the phrase "head' of the naval industrial place in 
 the Orient," was constructed. Accordingly, the city quite 
 changed its appearance, and merchants, manufacturers and 
 workmen crowded there in haste, so that the number of houses 
 and inhabitants, according to the investigation made at the 
 end of 41 Meiji (1908) were 21,676 and 98,701, respectively. 
 The annual development of the city and the increase of its 
 population in accordance with the advancement of the mili- 
 tary industry was so marked that it had 25,030 houses and 
 115,697 inhabitants at the end of 44 Meiji (191 1), and at the 
 present time it stands at the head of all the Japanese ports, 
 having 125,000 inhabitants, about 90 per cent of whom con- 
 sist of officials and workmen connected with the naval arsenal, 
 and small manufacturers, merchants dealing in the goods de- 
 manded by the arsenal, aswell as their families. It must be the 
 result of the military industry that Kure became such a large 
 city before thirty years had elapsed since the opening of the 
 port; in a word, the development of the military industry has, 
 to be sure, greatly affected that of the city itself. 
 
 (Ill) The present city of Sasebo had been, before the 
 naval port was founded there, merely a desolate fishing ham- 
 let situated in an obscure spot of Kyushu, and having only 
 800 houses about 12 Meiji (1879). When it was decided to 
 set up a naval station in 19 Meiji (1886), and construction was 
 begun, a great many merchants, manufacturers and laborers 
 assembled from all quarters, with the result that many lots of 
 land were cleared and a number of houses were built, until 
 there was formed a small town. In 22 Meiji (1889), the con- 
 struction of the naval station was entirely completed, and it 
 was opened in June. Even at the end of the same year the 
 town had more than 1,500 houses and more than 9,800 in- 
 habitants. When the Sino- Japanese War broke out in 27 
 Meiji (1894), vessels of all kinds entered and left the port in 
 large numbers, while travelers, public and private, passed by 
 in uninterrupted succession, so that there was wonderful 
 activity and prosperity beyond the power of language to 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 255 
 
 describe. The result was that trade grew very brisk and the 
 condition of the city was quite changed. 
 
 After the war, the amount of goods demanded by the arsenal 
 kept parallel with the enlargement of its scale, which led the 
 town into such a prosperous condition that, after 32 Meiji 
 (1899), 800 to 1,000 houses were built annually; and yet 
 the demand was not sufficiently met. Thus the expansion of 
 the town continued until it grew into a large city, and in April, 
 35 Meiji (1902), was organized as a municipality, having then 
 more than 8,300 houses and about 50,900 inhabitants. 
 
 Then the Russo-Japanese War began, and the naval indus- 
 try was at the acme of its busiest condition on account of the 
 construction, repairing, etc., of warships. There was a won- 
 derful crowd of merchants, manufacturers and laborers; and 
 the figures of the investigation made at the end of 38 Meiji 
 (1905), of 13,606 houses and 70,703 inhabitants, tell us how 
 the town made a sudden increase in population. 
 
 The multiplication of the workmen employed there, keeping 
 pace with the enlargement of the scale of the arsenal after - 
 the Russo-Japanese War, made the trade and industry more 
 prosperous. It was found at the end of 44 Meiji (191 1) to 
 have had 12,755 houses and 86,409 inhabitants, and even now 
 such an increase is continuing. In short, the advancement of 
 this town is, no doubt, as in the case of Yokosuka and Kure, 
 mainly due to the fact that it was made a site of the naval 
 industry. 
 
 (IV) The naval port Maizuru consists of two towns, Shin- 
 Maizuru and Amarube, both of which, before the establish- 
 ment of the naval port, were humble hamlets facing the north- 
 ern sea, and inhabited by farmers and fishermen. Upon the 
 opening of the Maizuru Naval Station in October, 34 Meiji 
 ( 1 901), the population suddenly increased ; and after the Russo- 
 Japanese War, owing to the busy work of the military industry, 
 which resulted in an increase of workmen and consequently 
 the development of trade and industry, the city grew more and 
 more flourishing, so that even in 39 Meiji (1906) it had more 
 than 4,000 houses and over 14,000 inhabitants. The perfect 
 
256 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 arrangement of the same port afterward caused a greater 
 activity of the naval industry and a gradual increase of houses 
 and population, so that, finally, last year, the houses and in- 
 habitants numbered over 5,800 and 23,500, respectively. 
 
 Although this town, because of its youth and smaller scale, 
 compared with other naval ports, had no population, suddenly 
 increased like the above stated ports, yet a greater develop- 
 ment for the future is to be expected, judging from the increase 
 of population which is still going as before. The answer to 
 the question, why the town has such a good condition in the 
 present and future is, "the development of the naval industry," 
 which testifies, in fact, how the military industry is able to 
 encourage the expansion of any place. 
 
 Many instances are given above, showing the fluctuation 
 of population at any place where a naval factory is set up. 
 The same instances are found at the places where the military 
 industry is carried on. They are in the neighborhood of 
 Tokyo, the woolen cloth factory in Minami Senju, the ammu- 
 nition factory in the neighborhood of Oji and Itabashi, in the 
 country, the influence of the arms factory at Atsuta (Aichi 
 prefecture) , etc., upon the vicinity whereby it was changed to a 
 flourishing town; all these are actual instances manifestly 
 showing the fact that every military factory has contributed to 
 the development of the locality where it is situated. 
 
 Public Peace and Sanitation 
 
 The workmen engaged in the military or naval factories are 
 being selected from the natives, mostly those who were honest 
 and good being educated in their homes under the control of 
 father or brother. Moreover, when they are adopted, their 
 social positions are minutely examined by ordering them to 
 present a certificate from a public officer, or by direct inquiry 
 regarding the same matter at the public office. Anyone who 
 is of bad character, or has been condemned for a crime, is re- 
 jected, while those who conduct themselves irregularly after 
 they have been taken in are dismissed without hesitation, and 
 thus the public morality is maintained. Because, in addition 
 
SOCIAL EFFECTS 257 
 
 to this, the fostering of morality at large, as well as the idea 
 of public duty, regularity, and cooperation, indispensable to 
 workmen engaging in the military industry, is diligently devel- 
 oped, there is reason to believe that all workmen in the military 
 service, even when they are outside of the factory, have a bet- 
 ter effect upon the public peace and popular morals, compared 
 with the ordinary workmen not trained and not self-restrained. 
 Moreover, owing to the fact that there is no perfect trade 
 union like those of European countries to be found in Japan, 
 and that it is rather a characteristic of the Japanese w;orkman 
 not to have the spirit of insubordination to his employer, any 
 riot such as a strike has never been carried out, and so the con- 
 trol of the public peace is very easy. Again, no real strike has 
 been carried out by the military or naval factory since the 
 Restoration of Meiji, although some time ago, in the Tokyo 
 Arsenal, in the case of the army, and in the Kure Naval 
 Arsenal, in the case of the navy, a part of the workmen, pre- 
 senting a certain request, acted as if preparing for a strike, but 
 this move was immediately checked. From this fact it is to be 
 inferred in what satisfactory circumstances, not likely to dis- 
 turb the public peace, are the Japanese mihtary factories. 
 
 As to sanitation, all the military and naval factories have 
 military surgeons under their exclusive control ; and they are in 
 charge of the maintenance of the daily health of the workmen, 
 consultation and treatment of the patients, and several other 
 services. Medical examination and lectures on hygiene are 
 given regularly or irregularly, while at the time of the preva- 
 lence of infectious diseases, methods of prevention are devised ; 
 especially when there is an epidemic of smallpox, vaccination 
 is strictly enforced upon all the workmen — all of which con- 
 tributes successfully to diffusing the idea of sanitation in 
 private as well as in public. In short, the workmen engaged 
 in the military service are, as they are put under the strictest 
 care for sanitation and protection against infectious diseases 
 while they live in the factory, far different, in their care of 
 sanitation, from other workmen, who, being in want of sani- 
 tary ideas, cause disturbance to sanitation within and without 
 
 18 
 
258 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 the factory ; and thus even when miHtary workmen are outside 
 of the factory, in their home or native places, they will have a 
 good influence upon the public. All these effects influencing 
 sanitation at large must be said to be a valuable contribution 
 of the military industry. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 The view of the influences of the military industry upon 
 the national economy of Japan is substantially as stated above. 
 At the present time, there are 28 factories, both military and 
 naval, employing 75,000 workmen and spending an enormous 
 sum of money — about 80 to 90 million yen during the latesjtj 
 fiscal year. It is a matter of course that such a great industry 
 should have an important effect upon all the industries in 
 Japan and consequently is producing marked results upon the 
 national life. The policy and administration of the military 
 industry in any state is actually a great problem upon which 
 depends the fate of the state; that is to say, in case it should 
 happen that the policy is mistaken or the administration is not 
 proper, the country might hardly maintain its position not 
 only from the military, but also from the financial and the 
 economic points of view. Although the policy which the Jap- 
 anese Empire has adopted for military industry since the 
 Restoration of Meiji is, like the program of the general national 
 defense, not free from the criticism that it has had a tendency 
 toward too rapid progress, compared with the financial and , ^^ 
 economic condition of Japan, the military industry, being V 
 rather opportunely administered, and the whole nation's effort 
 being added, has met satisfactorily the demands in war and ■; > J 
 has made her an honorable victor in every conflict. D^re^^ \ 
 Ter,~as already stated, leading, protecting or encouraging( \ 
 /continuously the related industries and means of communicaA I 
 tion, especially several industries of the people, it has injio-r 
 small decree promoted their advancement . Most of the 
 achievements which raised the Japanese industries, especially 
 t he manufacturing industry , as high as their present position 
 a.t one bound within fifty years after the Restoration, a re due to 
 no other than the military industry . It is a fact that, observed 
 
 259 
 
260 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 from past results, it occupies an important part of the expendi- 
 tures for national defense, and a large amount has been paid in 
 its administration which disturbed the financial and economic 
 equilibrium of the country, so that it seemed as if she made 
 partial development in the military line only. At the same 
 time, however, it is an indisputable fact that other government 
 and private industries, being led and guided by military indus- 
 try, continuously advancing by rushes, shortened the term 
 needed for their development. These are not all of the effects 
 of the military industry, because its extraordinary advance- 
 ment added a powerful weight to the victory in both the Sino- 
 Japanese and the Russo-Japanese Wars, with the result that^ 
 without doubt, the nation was greatly advanced materially 
 nd immaterially, and not only the industries, but the general 
 conomic world was benefited directly and indirectly. These 
 events in the past economic world in Japan, the existence of 
 which no one denies, prove that the military industry, which 
 advanced on account of armament expansion often undertaken 
 since the beginning of Meiji and the wars that took place dur- 
 
 in(y thn^f- ypart;, Qpprrm to havp bp pn a ronHiirtor of thp most 
 
 roper industrial policy . 
 Now will those events as seen above, the economic effects of 
 the military industry in the past, continue also for the future 
 in the same condition? Or should they be made to do so? In 
 other words, is it possible that the military industry stands in 
 such a position as to lead or protect the general industries,, 
 especially the manufacturing industry, for the present and 
 ture as before? Or isit necessary for it to do so? The man- 
 ufacturing industry among the people of Japan at the present 
 time, having developed in a marked degree, is far different in 
 its condition from that of some years ago. It is no longer 
 necessary, when the popular industry has made such rapid 
 progress as nowadays, that it follow behind the military 
 industry and be led by the latter. Especially, some industries 
 are running parallel to the latter — no, are even one step in 
 advance — so that the latter can not longer be the leader. 
 Not only with the manufacturing industry, but with any 
 
CONCLUSION 261 
 
 industry is this the case. It is, therefore, no difficult thing to 
 foresee that, for the future, the miUtary industry will not pro- 
 duce the same effects as before in the economic line, if we judge 
 from the economic advancement at the present time in Japan. 
 Although it will benefit the economic circle at large in future, 
 its effect must gradually diminish, compared with the past. 
 Moreover, in the case of that industry, such a large sum of ex-"--, 
 penditure is yearly paid that, according to the budget for 2 \ 
 Taisho (191 3), succeeded by that for the following year, it 
 amounted to over 97,936,000 yen, ordinary and extraordinary / 
 together, for the military, and over 97,082,000 yen for the 
 navy, or over 195,018,000 yen in all, which sum corresponds to 
 33 per cent and a fraction of the whole budget of expenditures, 
 Ordinary' and extraordinary, for the same year. Of these 
 expenditures, those for the military industry are divided into 
 the following items: those belonging to Special Accounts, in^ 
 eluding the expenses for the work of the Tokyo and Osaka 
 Arsenals and the Senju Woolen Cloth Factory, funds of the 
 Naval Arsenals, and the expenditure for the Naval Colliery, 
 as well as the ordinary and extraordinary expenses belonging 
 to General Accounts. In all they reached about ninety mil- 
 lion yen, which c orresponds to i S per cent and a fraction of the 
 total sum of the annual expenditure in the budget for the same 
 year. These expenditures, according to the figures of the latesf^ 
 years, are not merely making a marked increase, but the rate 
 of increase, too, is being raised step by step, owing to the 
 constant expansion of the armament and the invention of new 
 weapons necessitated by the competition in armament among 
 the countries of the world. As a result of the excessive expan- 
 sion of Japanese finance caused by this fact, the capital among 
 the ppople. which otherwise would have served for industries 
 at largp wact ah^ nrhed into the circle of the military, and thus 
 occurred the gradual decrease of the capacity of the nation in 
 e conomy and general Industrie . The profit which the mili- 
 tary industry will bring to the national economy hereafter by 
 its expansion perha ps amounts to nothin g, if the loss caused by J 
 the same be set off — no, rather the latter might be greater-:^ 
 
262 MILITARY INDUSTRIES: ECONOMIC EFFECTS 
 
 It is the natural conclusion that any person who, inferring the 
 future benefits of the military industry by induction from the 
 past events, will consider its expansion as more and more nec- 
 essary for the development of the national economy of Japan, 
 must be pronounced to be under a deep illusion. 
 
 We are now concluding our essay and have a few words to 
 add. At present, the powerful states in the world are devot- 
 ing themselves to armament expansion without limit, and 
 Japan is year after year expanding her armament by making 
 big guns and large warships with the utmost haste. If all 
 countries compete with each other on such conditions, it can 
 not hil t result jn l^he exhaustion of natio ng,] inrf.altVj But even 
 these world evils, from which no state can escape, may be 
 modified and turned to advantage by the policy and the 
 method of administration. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accounting, in arsenals, 32, 34 et seg. 
 
 Age, Yatabori, 18. 
 
 Aginoura, establishment of iron works 
 at, 19. 
 
 Agriculture, effect of military industries, 
 203 et seg. 
 
 Akamatsu-Noriyoski, Daijo (chief of 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal), 54. 
 
 Alcohol: manufacture of, 65; at Itabashi 
 powder mill, 71. 
 
 Aluminum: use of, in shipbuilding, 81; 
 in manufacture of lunch box and 
 water bottle, 113. 
 
 Ammunition: development of manu- 
 facture of, 14-15, 46 et seg.; factory 
 for manufacture of, at Tokyo, 31; 
 enlargement of factory at Tokyo, 33; 
 manufacture of, at Osaka Arsenal, 46; 
 demand for, during Satsuma rebel- 
 lion, 47; making of, for Murata rifle, 
 50-51, 71; for mountain guns, 51; 
 demand for, at time of Sino-Japanese 
 War, 71. See also Powder. 
 
 Aomori (Oshu Province), shipbuilding 
 at, 26. 
 
 Aoyama, special powder magazine at, 
 
 32- 
 
 Arisaka, Colonel Nariaka (chief super- 
 intendent of Tokyo Arsenal), 68-69. 
 
 Arms ("Teppo"): early use of, 3-4; first 
 importation of, 5; manufacture of, 
 6-7; invention of quick-firing, 8; im- 
 portation of "Geweh'r" rifle, 8, 38; 
 importation of "Minie" type, 9, 38; 
 introduction of machine, 9; importa- 
 tion of "Fransu" type, 10; invention 
 of turnable ("Sempudai"), 11; prog- 
 ress in manufacture of, 13; manu- 
 facture of mountain, field and breech- 
 loading, 14, 40; use of magazine rifle 
 in army, 33; institute for examina- 
 tion of, 36-37; manufacture of gun 
 carriages, 37; Enfield rifles, 38; im- 
 perfections in domestic, 39; rifles 
 manufactured at Tokyo Arsenal, 41 ; 
 purchase of machinery for coast and 
 siege, 41 ; remodeling of Enfields, 41- 
 42; Murata rifle as standard, 42-43; 
 remodeling of Chassepot, 42; manu- 
 facture of howitzers, 42; pattern for 
 cavalry rifle, 42; rifles manufactured 
 at Tokyo Arsenal, 43; progress in 
 making of, 43; magazine rifles manu- 
 
 factured at Tokyo Arsenal, 44; man- 
 ufacture of coast, 44; manufacture 
 of short fire, at Osaka Arsenal, 45; 
 Krupp gun, 48-49, 72; improvement 
 in, after Sino-Japanese War, 64; rifle 
 of 30th year patterns and quick firing, 
 68 et seg.; Maxim machine and Hotch- 
 kiss machine, 68; increased need for, 
 during and after Russo-Japanese 
 War, 85; improvements in principal, 
 86-87. 
 
 Arms Office, work of, 30, 38, 46. 
 
 Arsenals: at Tokyo and Osaka, 29; 
 head, 31 ; organization and regulations 
 of, 31 et seg.; accounting in, 32, 34 et 
 seg.; area of Osaka, 36; branches es- 
 tablished, 37; revision of regulations 
 of, 37-38; manufacture of small arms 
 at Tokyo, 39; manufacture of guns 
 at Osaka, 39; forging, casting and 
 pattern making at Osaka, 40; expend- 
 itures of Osaka, 40; use of steam 
 power in, 40; labor-saving devices 
 used at Tokyo, 40-41; manufacture 
 of rifles at Tokyo, 41 ; increase of 
 . workmen in Tokyo, 41 ; gun carriage, 
 cannon and mortar manufacture at 
 Osaka, 43-44; harness manufacturing 
 at Tokyo, 44, 99; shell manufacturing 
 at, 46-47; increase of machinery in, 
 47; manufacture of ammunition in 
 Tokyo, 50; number of shells made at 
 Osaka, 50; manufacture of shrapnel 
 at Osaka, 51; naval, at Yokosuka, 
 52, 75-76, 142 et seg.; enlargement of, 
 after Sino-Japanese War, 64; inspec- 
 tion of, by Arms Inspection Bureau, 
 65-66; workmen's relief, 66; number 
 of workmen in, 66; employment of 
 women in, 68; naval, at Maizuru, 75; 
 121, 138; naval, at Tokyo, 75; tor- 
 pedo-boat building at naval, 80 et seg.; 
 manufacture of telephone and tele- 
 graph in, 90; manufacture of bridging 
 materials in, 92; manufacture of 
 automobiles in, 96; manufacture of 
 horseshoes at, 100; present plan of, 
 loo-ioi; revenue, number of work- 
 men and wages in, 102; principal 
 articles manufactured in, 103; battle- 
 ship, cruiser, destroyer and torpedo- 
 boat construction in, 121 et seg.; 
 instruction of workmen in, 1 74 et seg.; 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 INDEX 
 
 steel founding in, 183; by-products 
 manufactured in, 216; wages of work- 
 men, 242 et seq.; medical treatment 
 for employes, 248. 
 
 Artillery Artificer Training School, 31. 
 
 Artisans: skill of, before Meiji Restora- 
 tion, 4; advance of, in shipbuilding, 
 
 Australia, imports from, 231. 
 Automobiles, 96. 
 
 Bacquet (French smith), as teacher, 41. 
 
 Balsing, 174; fermentation system, 178. 
 
 Bayonet, manufacture of, 69. 
 
 Beef, canning of, 115. 
 
 Bicycles, use of, in Sino-Japanese War, 
 
 94-. 
 
 Biscuit, making of, in arsenals, 115. 
 
 Bracialini, Scipione (Major), artillery 
 teacher, 34, 45. 
 
 Bridges: military, 90-91; manufacture 
 of materials for, at arsenals, 92. 
 
 Briquette, manufacture of , 154-155. 
 
 Bureau of Military Affairs, establish- 
 ment of, 30. 
 
 Canning, 173-174, 194; of beef, 115. 
 
 Cannon, 14; manufacture of, in Osaka 
 Arsenal, 42 et seq., 69 et seq.; manu- 
 facture of gun carriage, 43 et seq. 
 
 Canteen: machine for making, 69; num- 
 ber made (1910-1912), 114. 
 
 Cartridges: manufacture of, in Osaka 
 Arsenal, 46; for Murata rifle, 48, 51; 
 in Tokyo Arsenal, 50, 71-72. 
 
 Casting, 65; introduction of, in Osaka 
 Arsenal, 40; labor saving methods 
 used in, 40-41 ; of bronze for cartridge 
 cases, 49. 
 
 Central Medical Material Depot (later. 
 Medical Material Department), ob- 
 ject, 92. 
 
 Charcoal, manufacture of, 49. 
 
 "Closed Door" Policy, 7. 
 
 Clothing: manufacture of military, 103 
 et seq., 109 et seq., 174; improvements 
 in manufacture of, 178, 193 et seq., 
 197 et seq. 
 
 Coal: used in woolen factories, 106; 
 naval colliery, 153; importation of, 
 153; profit and loss in operation of 
 naval colliery, 154; smokeless, 178; 
 influence of military industries on 
 v use of, 208-209; consumption of, in 
 army and navy factories, 211; annual 
 imports of (1868-1890), 222. 
 
 Conscription system, beginning of, 4. 
 
 Corn, cleaning of, 115. 
 
 Crane: electric, use of, 67; in shipbuild- 
 ing, 126. 
 
 Creusot Company (France), torpedo- 
 boat parts imported from, 59-60. 
 
 Crimean War, 17-18. 
 
 Cruisers: built (1883-1888), 57-58; pro- 
 gram for building, after Sino-Japa- 
 nese War, 74; new program for, 121 
 et seq. 
 
 Curtius, Donker (Dutch Consul), 18. 
 
 Department of Railway Materials, 
 creation and object of, 64. 
 
 Dispatch Boats, 121-122, 127; built 
 (1883-1888), 57. 
 
 Destroyers (Torpedo-Boat), 77 et seq.; 
 domestic construction of, 121-122; 
 new program for, 130 et seq.; 188; 
 improvements in construction, 130 
 et seq.; details of construction of 
 (from Russo-Japanese War to present 
 time), 134-135- 
 
 Dockyards: at Uraga, 52 ; at Kagoshima, 
 52; at Yokosuka, 54, 57; at Onohama, 
 54, 57; at Ishikawa-Jima, 56-57; at 
 Kawasaki, 56, 127; at Tsukiji, 91; at 
 Mitsubishi, 127; at Ryojun, 138. 
 
 Dynamite, tests of, at Itabashi powder 
 mill, 73. 
 
 Electricity, used in shell factory, 67. 
 
 Engineers, from foreign countries, 3. 
 
 Engines and Motors: in clothing and 
 shoemaking factories, 111-112; sum- 
 mary of military industrial, I18-119; 
 in shipbuilding, 143 et seq.; progress 
 in manufacture of ship, 149, 189; 
 factories for manufacture of, 150; for 
 warships, 151-152. 
 
 England: warships built by, 22, 74, 88; 
 machines imported from, 47; des- 
 troyers built by, 77; imports from, 
 231. 
 
 Etchujima (Yedo), shipbuilding at, 16. 
 
 Ether: manufacture of, 65; at Itabashi 
 powder mill, 71. 
 
 Etorop Island, 13. 
 
 Exports, increase of, 217. 
 
 Factory of the Shipbuilding Bureau, 52. 
 
 Factories, 29 et seq., 64 et seq.; lack of, 
 4, 28; naval, 75; private, in manu- 
 facture of munitions after Russo- 
 Japanese War, 85, 183 et seq.; statis- 
 tics of motive power, workmen and 
 expenditures of Railway Material 
 Department, 95-96; in manufacture 
 of woolen cloth, 104 et seq., 11 1; im- 
 portance of, 105; shoemaking, 109, 
 III; for haversacks and knapsacks, 
 113; for engine making, 150; govern- 
 ment protection of, 171; training of 
 
INDEX 
 
 265 
 
 men in, 173; influence of military, on 
 private, 201; coal consumption in 
 army and navy, 211; efi'ect of mili- 
 tary, on trade, 215; effect of military, 
 on population, 251 et seq.; sanitation 
 in, 257. 
 
 Favius, Captain G., 18. 
 
 Field Glasses, manufacture of, 34, 45. 
 
 Forestry, influence of military indus- 
 tries on, 206 et seq. 
 
 Forging, 65; beginning of, at Osaka 
 Arsenal, 40. 
 
 Formosa, expedition to, 56, 217. 
 
 Fornelis, Antonio, Italian engineer as 
 teacher, 43-44. 
 
 France: officers from, as military in- 
 structors, 9, 21; guns imported from, 
 10; visit of warships of, 12; imports 
 from, 231. 
 
 Fukiage, 30. 
 
 Fulminate, mercuric, manufacture of. 
 
 Furnace: introduction of duodecagonal 
 reverberatory, 42; annealing, for 
 cartridge case, 48-49; use of gas, 67; 
 acid, at Osaka, 70, 73. 
 
 Fuse, desmarets, 47; compound, 48, 
 50-51, 72-73, 93; base, 50; alteration 
 of base, 93; Krupp base, 93; percus- 
 sion, 93-94. 
 
 Gaggenau Company (Germany), auto- 
 mobiles imported from, 96. 
 
 Gas, use of, in factories, 49. 
 
 Geki, Inouye, inventor, 9, 11. 
 
 Germany: warship built by, 22; im- 
 ports from, 231. 
 
 Gishu, 95. 
 
 Glasgow, 20. 
 
 Goho (Chinese scholar), 5. 
 
 Great Britain: visit of fleet, 12; naval 
 officers as instructors, 21; warships 
 built by, 22. 
 
 Grillo, Major Pompeio, Italian artillery 
 instructor, 43, 44. 
 
 Gunboats, 56; built (1883-1888), 57. 
 
 Gun cotton, manufacture of, 34, 51. 
 
 Gunpowder, 5; manufacture of, 15, 75. 
 
 Guns {See Arms). 
 
 Hachiman-mure, iron foundry at, 190 
 et seq. 
 
 Hagi, small arms factory at, 36, 41. 
 
 Hakodate, shipbuilding at, 22, 24. 
 
 Hardes (Dutch naval engineer), 19. 
 
 Harness: manufacture of, 38, 44, 174; 
 kinds of, 97 et seq. 
 
 Haruki (Izumi Province), gun examina- 
 tion institute at, 37. 
 
 Haversacks, manufacture of, 113, 200. 
 
 Heer, German instructor in cartridge 
 case manufacture, 48. 
 
 Heta, 17. 
 
 Hida-Hamagoro, chief of Factory of 
 Shipbuilding Bureau, 52. 
 
 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 10. 
 
 Himeji, shipbuilding at, 25; railway 
 facilities at, 228. 
 
 Hiroshima, 235; branch arsenal at, 37; 
 manufacture of clothing at, 109; rail- 
 way facilities at, 227. 
 
 Hisso, Giacomo (Italian engineer), as 
 instructor, 43. 
 
 Holland: instructions in gun making, 5; 
 treaty of commerce with, 7; purchase 
 of guns from, 13; advice on develop- 
 ment of navy, 17-18; help of instruc- 
 tors in naval training, 18-19; gift of 
 battleship by, 22; imports from, 231. 
 
 Horses, equipment for, 97 et seq. 
 
 Hotchkiss, machine gun, 68. 
 
 Horseshoes, manufacture of, 99-100. 
 
 Hunhopas, 95. 
 
 Hyogo, iron works at, 52. 
 
 Hyuga-no-kami, Shibata, mission to 
 France, 21. 
 
 Ichimu, Inatomi, 9. 
 
 Imports: of materials for military in- 
 dustries, 108-109, 114. 117. 182, 217, 
 219, 231; comparison of annual, of 
 principal metals (1868-1912), 220- 
 221; of coal (1868-1890), 222. 
 
 Industries; rise of new, 167 et seq.; effect 
 of Russo-Japanese War on, 170; pro- 
 tection of, 170-171 ; effect of military, 
 on national enterprises, 196-197. 
 
 Instructors: French officers as military 
 and naval, 9, 14, 20-21, 40, 47, 54; 
 Dutch, II, 18-19; English, 21; Bel- 
 gian, 40; Italian, 43 et seq.; German, 
 48. 
 
 Inventions, 176 et seq. 
 
 Iron: establishment of, works at Agin- 
 oura, 19; at Nagasaki, 52; at Hyogo, 
 52; importance of, 181, 189 et seq., 
 209; imports of, 221. 
 
 Ishikawa-Jima (Yedo): shipbuilding at, 
 22 et seq., 56; Administrative Bureau 
 at, under Navy Department, 53; 
 dockyard at, 185. 
 
 Itabashi: powder mill, at, 31 et seq.; 
 enlargement of powder mill at, 33; 
 powder making for small arms at, 41 ; 
 for rifles, 47; for field and mountain 
 guns, 49; making of niter and gun 
 cotton at, 51; manufacture of mer- 
 curic fulminate, ether and alcohol at, 
 65- 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Iwabana, 33; black powder manufac- 
 tured at, 49. 
 
 Izumi, 6, 10, 17, 36-37. 
 
 Izumishinden, special powder magazine 
 at, 32. 
 
 Jauly, Philippe, Belgian instructor in 
 small arms making, 40. 
 
 Jindayu, Kunitomo, machine gun me- 
 chanic, 9. 
 
 Kagezo, Ya tabor i, 18. 
 
 Kagoshima: shipbuilding at, 22, 24; 
 branch factory at, 35; dockyard at, 
 52. 
 
 Kaiser, Dutch mstructor m gun manu- 
 facture, II. 
 
 Kawasaki: dockyard at, 185; dispatch 
 boat construction at, 127; submarine 
 construction at, 137; equipment of 
 dockyard at, 1 87 ; building of torpedo- 
 boat destroyers at, 188. 
 
 Kirby, owner of Onohama Dockyard, 
 
 54. 
 Knapsacks, manufacture of, 113. 
 Kobe: naval factory and dockyard at, 
 
 20; Kawasaki Dockyard at, 56, 185. 
 Koishikawa: manufacture of arms in 
 
 factory at, 30; high explosives mill at, 
 
 . 32. 
 
 Kokura, 5. 
 
 Krupp Gun, 48-49, 72. 
 
 Kumamoto: branch arsenal at, 37; riot- 
 ing at, 41, 47; railway facilities, 228. 
 
 Kure: naval station, at 54-55, 75; ship- 
 building at, 58, 77, 79; torpedo-boat 
 building at, 80-81; battleship con- 
 struction at, 121, 123 e/ seq.; plan and 
 structures of naval arsenal at, 144; 
 number of workmen at, 145; engine 
 making at, 150; education plan of 
 factory at, 174 et seq.; steel founding 
 at, 183; railway facilities, 225-226; 
 harbor facilities, 235-236; effect of 
 shipbuilding on population of, 253. 
 
 Labor-saving Devices, 37 et seq., 43, 48, 
 
 65 et seq. 
 Lathing: shell, 37, 49-50; hydraulic, at 
 
 Tokyo Arsenal, 40. 
 Launching, abacus system of, 81. 
 Lebon, Captain, French artillery ofificer 
 
 as instructor, 40. 
 Lemoine, French caster, 40. 
 Lunch Boxes, manufacture of, 67, 69, 
 
 113-114- 
 
 Machinery: lack of, 4; purchase of, in 
 France, 21; primitive state of, 28; 
 purchase of, to manufacture coast 
 
 and siege guns, 41 ; for powder mak- 
 ing, 44; increase of, in arsenals, 47; in 
 Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, 143. 
 
 Machine Guns, introduction of, 9; 
 Maxim and Hotchkiss, 68; improve- 
 ments in, 86. 
 
 Maizuru Dockyard: construction of 
 destroyers, cruisers and torpedo 
 boats at, 121, 188; repairing at, 138; 
 plan and structures of, 147; number 
 of workmen at, 148; engine making 
 at, 150, railway facilities at, 228-229; 
 harbor facilities, 237-238; eflfect of 
 shipbuilding, 255. 
 
 Manchuria, 89. 
 
 Manila, mountain guns manufactured 
 for, 45. 
 
 Manufacturing, iii; expenditures for 
 clothing and shoe (1910-1912), 112 
 et seq.; amount, rate of increase, ex- 
 penses, and number of workmen in 
 provision, 116; condition of, before 
 Restoration, 163; effect of military 
 industries on, 182 et seq. 
 
 Margritte, Colonel, French military 
 instructor, 40. 
 
 Masafusa, Hojo,ii. 
 
 Maxim, machine gun, 68. 
 
 Medical Material Depot, object of, 92. 
 
 Meguro, 11; enlargement of powder 
 mill at, 65; labor-saving devices in 
 powder mill, 66. 
 
 Melbourne (Australia), firearms manu- 
 factured for, 45. 
 
 Military Central Provision Depart- 
 ment, work of, 115. 
 
 Military Clothing Department, object 
 of, 64. 
 
 Military Veterinary School, 99. 
 
 Milling, of rice, 195. 
 
 Mining, influence of military industries 
 on, 208 et seq. 
 
 Mito, Lord, 16. 
 
 Mitsubishi Dockyard, 185; dispatch 
 boat construction at, 127; equipment 
 of, 187; torpedo-boat destroyer con- 
 struction, 188. 
 
 Moji Arms Repairing Works, 67. 
 
 Mukden, 95. 
 
 Muroran: steel foundry at, 171; harbor 
 facilities, 239-240. 
 
 Nagasaki, 13, 18-19, 185; open to 
 foreigners, 7; naval training school 
 at, 18; warships built at, 22, 24-25; 
 iron works, at 52; railway facilities, 
 228. 
 
 Nagasaki Naval Training School, es- 
 tablishment of, 18. 
 
 Nagoia, branch arsenal at, 37. 
 
INDEX 
 
 267 
 
 Naval factories and dockyards: con- 
 struction of, 20; for Shimrose gun 
 powder, 75; men employed in, 157; 
 wages of workmen, 242 et seq.; effect 
 of, on population of towns, 252. 
 
 Naval Stations: at Kure, 54 et seq.; ex- 
 pansion of Kure, 55, 75 et seq.; at 
 Sasebo, 55, 75, 81-82; at Yokosuka, 
 57. 75 ^t ^^2-. 142 et seq.; at Maizuru 
 and Ominato, 74-75; at Takeshiki, 
 75; at Bako, 75; engine-making at, 
 150; men employed in, 157; wages of 
 workmen, 242 et seq.; effect of, on 
 population of cities, 252. 
 
 Navy Department: establishment of, 
 52-53, 55; 20-year plan of, 57; second 
 naval expansion plan of, 57-58; pro- 
 gram for enlargement of navy, 74; 
 new naval plan, 121-122; engines 
 used in naval industries, 156. 
 
 Nishimura, 5 
 
 Niter, refining of, 49 et seq. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine, tests of, 73. 
 
 Normand Company (France), 79; con- 
 struction of torpedo boat by, 61. 
 
 Oda, Lord, 10. 
 
 Oji Chemical WorKS, 65; manufacture 
 of yellow powder, 71. 
 
 Onohama Dockyard: number of ships 
 built at, 54 et seq.; torpedo-boat 
 building at, 59-60. 
 
 Osaka, 1 1 ; arsenal at, 29; regulations of 
 arsenal at, 35-36, 39; activity of ar- 
 senal during Satsuma rebellion, 41; 
 use of reverberatory furnace at 
 arsenal at, 42 ; manufacture of cannon 
 at, 42-43; of gun carriage cannon and 
 mortars at, 43-44; of coast guns at, 
 44; of cartridges and shells at, 46, 49; 
 shell-lathing at, 49-50; number of 
 shells manufactured at, 50; manu- 
 facture of shrapnel at, 51 ; enlarge- 
 ment of arsenal, 64 et seq.; manu- 
 facture of tools at, 70; of automobiles 
 at, 96; of harness and other equip- 
 ment, 99; plan of work and effect of 
 factories on population of, 25 1 ; con- 
 dition of work in arsenal at, 1 00-101 ; 
 manufacture of military clothing at, 
 109; shoe manufacturing at, 109; 
 torpedo boat construction at, 131, 
 187; steel founding, 183. 
 
 Otomo, Lord, 10. 
 
 Otsugawa (Izumi Province), institute 
 for gun examination at, 36. 
 
 Partray, French gun powder expert, 47. 
 Pattern-making, at Osaka arsenal, 40. 
 Peking, 94. 
 
 Pensions, of arsenal employes, 248. 
 Percussion caps, manufacture of, 46 
 
 et seq. 
 Perry, Commodore, visit of, 7. 
 Perslecken, Dutch naval officer in 
 
 charge of naval training school, 18. 
 Pickles, making of, 115. 
 Pontoons, 87, 90; iron boats used for. 
 
 Population, effect of military factories 
 
 on, 251 etseq. 
 Portugal, importation of guns from, 10 
 Powder: manufacture of, 31 et seq., 
 
 smokeless, 34, 50, 70; for small arms, 
 
 41; for rifles, 47; manufacture of 
 
 black, 49; of yellow, 71. See also 
 
 Ammunition 
 Powder mills: at Itabashi, 31 et seq., 
 
 41, 47, 51, 65, 70; at Iwabana, 49; 
 
 at Meguro, 51, 65; at Uji, 66-67. 
 Protection, of military industries, 170- 
 
 171,217-218. 
 Provision Department, creation and 
 
 object of, 64, 194-195. 
 
 Quaratezy, Major Alexandro, Italian 
 instructor, 44. 
 
 Railways: in arsenals, 37; battalions, 
 94-95; development of, 224 et seq. 
 
 Ram heads, disadvantages of, 124. 
 
 Range finders: manufacture of, 34, 45; 
 study of foreign manufacture of, 68. 
 
 Repairing: of warships, 137-138; cost 
 of warship, 138 et seq; yards, 138. 
 
 Restoration (Meiji): causes of, 27-28; 
 manufacturing before, 163. 
 
 Revenue, from operation of arsenals, 
 102. 
 
 Revolvers: 26th-year model, manu- 
 factured in Tokyo Arsenal, 45; Smith 
 and Wesson, 50. See also Arms. 
 
 Rice, cleaning of, 195. 
 
 Rifles. See Arms. 
 
 Rintaro, Katsu, 18, 20-21. 
 
 Riots, at Yamaguchi and Kumamoto, 
 
 41, 47- 
 
 Roches, Leon, French ambassador, 20. 
 
 Russia: visit of warships of, 12-13; 
 building of battleship for, 17. 
 
 Russo-Japanese War, 91, 155, 164, 171; 
 development of war implements dur- 
 ing, 64; importance of, 85; effect on 
 industry, 170, 183, 187, 191; increase 
 of imports during, 217; effect on rail- 
 way development, 226. 
 
 Saga, shipbuilding at, 25. 
 Samukaze-Zawa (Oshu Province), ship- 
 building at, 25. 
 
268 
 
 INDEX* 
 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal: construction of 
 destroyers, cruisers, and torpedo 
 boats at, 121, 127 et seq., 188; repair- 
 ing at, 138; plan and structures of, 
 145; number of workmen at, 147; 
 engine making at, 150; railway con- 
 nections, 227-228; harbor facilities, 
 236-237 ; effect of shipbuilding on pop- 
 ulation of, 254. 
 
 Satsuma Rebellion, 32, 36, 48, 169; out- 
 break of, 41, 56, 168; effect on arms 
 manufacture, 41, 47, 217. 
 
 Schichan Company (Germany), 79, 82; 
 manufacture of torpedo boats by, 61. 
 
 Schools, military and naval technical, 
 172, 174. et seg.; night, 173. 
 
 Senju (Tokyo) : woolen cloth factory at, 
 29, 103, 193 et seq.; manufactures of 
 woolen factory at, 107; expenditures 
 and receipts of woolen cloth factory 
 at, 108; value of products of factory 
 at, 108. 
 
 Seoul, 95. 
 
 Sheep, raising of, 105. 
 
 Shells: manufacture of (1830-1843), 15; 
 at Osaka Arsenal, 46 et seq.; at Tokyo 
 Arsenal, 47; progress in manufacture 
 of, 50; use of electricity for casting of, 
 67; machine for making, for quick- 
 firing field and mountain artillery 
 guns, 67; manufacture of shrapnel, 72. 
 
 Shimoda, 17; shipbuilding at, 22, 24. 
 
 Shingu, shipbuilding at, 25. 
 
 Shipbuilding: early, 16 et seq., 22 et seq.; 
 at time of Restoration, 52; develop- 
 ment of, 22 et seq., 53 et seq., 122, 124, 
 185' et seq.; private ownership in, 
 186; effect of, on population of towns, 
 252 et seq. 
 
 Shipping, development of, due to mili- 
 tary and naval industries, 230 et seq. 
 
 Ships. See Warships. 
 
 Ships, repairs to. See Repairing. 
 
 Shoes, factory for manufacture of 
 military, 109, 174. 
 
 Shonai, shipbuilding at, 25. 
 
 Shrapnel, manufacture of, 51, 73. 
 
 Sick relief, in military factories, 247 
 et seq. 
 
 Sinminting, 95. 
 
 Sino-Japanese War, 38, 98, 164, 169-170; 
 advance in military industry previ- 
 ous to, 29, 51 ; use of warships during, 
 58-59; expansion of army and navy 
 after, 63, 186; enlargement of arse- 
 nals after, 64 et seq.; increased de- 
 mand for ammunition during, 71; 
 government manufacture of provi- 
 sions after, 115; increase of exports 
 during, 217. 
 
 Slaughter houses, establishment of, 115. 
 
 Snaidel Canay Company (France), 
 automobiles purchased from, 96. 
 
 Soy Extract, making of, 115, 204. 
 
 Spain, 5; importation of guns from, 10. 
 
 Steam hammers, introduction of, 68. 
 
 Steamers, domestic construction of, 23. 
 
 Steam power, use of, in arsenals, 40. 
 
 Steamship lines, 230 et seq. 
 
 Steel : manufacture of, in Osaka Arsenal 
 70; of nickel-chrome, 73; Japan Steel 
 Foundry, 171, 183; inventions in 
 manufacture of , 177. 
 
 Submarine boats, 83; domestic con- 
 struction of, 136-137. 
 
 Subsidies, to war material producers, 
 166. 
 
 Takinogawa, powder mill at, 32. 
 
 Tanegashima, 5-6. 
 
 Tarozaemon, Egawa, shell manufac- 
 turer, 9, 15. 
 
 Telegraph: introduction of, 88; corps, 
 88; improvements in, 89; lines con- 
 structed during Russo-Japanese War, 
 90; wireless, 90. 
 
 Telephone: in arsenals, 65, 67; wireless, 
 90. 
 
 Tents, portable, 1 14. 
 
 Thornycraft Company (England), auto- 
 mobiles imported from, 96. 
 
 Tokitaka, 5. 
 
 Tokuyama, harbor facilities, 238. 
 
 Tokyo: arsenal at, 29; work of arsenal, 
 30-31, 39 et seq., labor saving devices 
 in arsenal at, 40-41 ; increase of work- 
 men in arsenal at, 41; in 1894, 68; 
 rifles manufactured in arsenal, 43-44; 
 harness manufacture at, 44, 99; shell 
 manufacture at, 47; ammunition 
 manufacture at, 50; enlargement of 
 arsenal at, 64-65; naval arsenal at, 75; 
 Central Medical Material Depot in, 
 92; manufacture of automobiles at, 
 96; plan of work and condition of 
 arsenal at, loo-ioi; military Central 
 Provision Department at, 115; woolen 
 cloth manufacture at, 193; influence 
 of military factories on population of, 
 
 251. 
 
 Tomonotsu, shipbuildmg at, 26. 
 
 Tools, manufacture of edge, 70. 
 
 Torpedo boats: introduction of, 59 
 et seq.; particulars of construction of, 
 60; building of (1892- 1894), 62; pro- 
 gram for building after Sino-Japanese 
 War, 74, 79 et seq.; cost of construc- 
 tion, 81 ; built during Russo-Japanese 
 War, 135 et seq. 
 
 Training ships, built (1883-1888), 57. 
 
INDEX 
 
 269 
 
 Tsu, shipbuilding at, 25. 
 Tsukiji: military school at, 19; Arms 
 Bureau at, 53. 
 
 Uji, powder mill at, 66. 
 
 Ujina, branch of Military Central 
 
 Provision Department at, 115. 
 Unions, industrial, 171. 
 United States, 19-20; warships built by, 
 
 22. 
 Uraga, 15; shipbuilding at, 16, 22, 24; 
 
 dockyard at, 52-53, 132, 185, 187. 
 
 Wages: in arsenals, 102, 242 et seq.; in 
 army and navy factories, 212; 242 
 et seq. 
 
 Wakamatsu, harbor facilities, 238. 
 
 Wakayama, branch factory, 35-36. 
 
 Warships: need of, 3; purchase of, 
 abroad, 8; visits of foreign, 12," 15; 
 growing interest in, 16; building of 
 domestic, 22. 121 et seq.; size and 
 cost of navy (1868), 22-23; improve- 
 ment in construction of, 27-28, 74, 
 187; constructed (1872), 55-56; (1883 
 1885), 57; (1876-1894), 62; used dur- 
 ing Sino- Japanese War, 58; increased 
 demand for, 63; details of construc- 
 tion of (from Russo-Japanese War 
 to present time), 134-135; details of 
 engines for, 1 51-152; use of bri- 
 quettes, 155. 
 
 Warship Training School, foundation 
 of, 19. 
 
 Water bottle, manufacture of, 113-114. 
 
 Water supply, 65. 
 
 Wireless telegraph, 177. 
 
 Women: employment of, in arsenals, 
 32, 68; in factories, 11 1; wages of, 
 
 243- 
 Workmen: increase of, in arsenals, 41; 
 
 mutual relief of, 66, 243; numbers of; 
 in arsenals, 66; in 1912, 102, 212, 
 wages of, in arsenals, 102, 212, 242 
 et seq.; numbers of, in woolen fac- 
 tories, 106, III; in shoemaking fac- 
 tories, 1 1 1 ; in military factories, 120, 
 212; number of, in Yokosuka Naval 
 Arsenal, 143; number of, in Kure 
 Naval Arsenal, 145; number of, at 
 Sasebo Naval Arsenal, 147; number 
 of, at Maizuru Naval Arsenal, 148; 
 employed in naval factories, 157; 
 training of, 173 et seq.; in Hachiman- 
 mure iron foundry, 192; Workmen's 
 Mutual Relief Association, 243. 
 
 Workmen's Mutual Relief Association, 
 work of, 243, 249 et seq. 
 
 Workshops, 20-2 1 . 
 
 Yamaguchi, rioting at, 41. 
 
 Yarrow Company (England), 59, 78. 
 
 Yedo: shipbuilding at, 16; military 
 school at, 19. 
 
 Yokohama: naval workshop at, 20; 
 iron works at, 21, 185; factory at, 52 
 et seq. 
 
 Yokosuka: naval dockyard at, 20, 185; 
 naval arsenal, 52-53; 75; shipbuilding 
 at, 56 et seq., 76 et seq., 121 et seq.; 
 torpedo-boat construction at, 80-81; 
 plans and structures of naval arsenal 
 at, 142 et seq.; number of workmen 
 at, 143; engine making at, 150; rail- 
 way facilities at, 224-225; improve- 
 ment of harbor facilities, 233 et seq.; 
 effect of shipbuilding on population 
 of, 252. 
 
 Zinc plate: importation of, 47, 220; in- 
 ventions in manufacture of, 177; 
 importance of, 210. 
 
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