GIFT OF 
 
'[RE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH 
 
 ILLUSTRATED CHIEFLY FROM SILVER LATIN 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER HOBART PALMER, Pn.D. 
 
 A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE 
 
 SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR 
 
 THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 OM 
 
 P EESIDENT , 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY 
 LANCASTER, PA. 
 
 I9IS 
 
THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH 
 
 ILLUSTRATED CHIEFLY FROM SILVER LATIN 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER HOBART PALMER, PH.D. 
 
 A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE 
 
 SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR 
 
 THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PRESS OF 
 
 THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY 
 LANCASTER, PA. 
 
 IQI5 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This dissertation has been somewhat revised and slightly 
 abridged since it was presented in candidacy for the doctorate 
 in April, 1914. The original suggestion which led to the study 
 was made by Professor G. L. Hendrickson of Yale University, 
 and to him, and to Professors E. P. Morris and C. W. Mendell 
 of the same university, the author is indebted for much helpful 
 criticism. It is with pleasure that he acknowledges this obligation 
 and expresses his gratitude. An abstract of a portion of the 
 introduction is to be published in the Proceedings of the American 
 Philological Association for 1914. 
 
 The numerous examples referred to in this work are all cited 
 from the latest Teubner text editions of the various authors, 
 except that the Oxford text has been followed for Catullus and 
 Aeschylus. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA, 
 January, 1915. 
 
 iii 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. INTRODUCTION i 
 
 I . The inadequacy of previous treatments of ana- 
 phora I 
 
 2. The aim of the present study 5 
 
 3. The material on which this investigation is based. 6 
 
 B. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF ANAPHORA 8 
 
 I . Definition of the scope of anaphora 8 
 
 t 2. Two kinds of anaphora are distinguished: ana- 
 phora in the amplification of a general truth, 
 
 and anaphora in a contrast 8 
 
 3. Limitations of the field of anaphora for the pur- 
 pose of this investigation 10 
 
 4. The classification of cases of anaphora in the 
 
 amplification of a general truth 1 1 
 
 5. Further explanation of the scheme of classifica- 
 tion used 20 
 
 C. PARTICULAR DISCUSSION OF ANAPHORA 25 
 
 i. Negatives 25 
 
 2. Pronouns 34 
 
 3. Adverbs 52 
 
 4. Adjectives 59 
 
 5- Verbs 64 
 
 6. Nouns 66 
 
 7. Conjunctions '. 68 
 
 8. Prepositions 75 
 
 D. EXCURSUS ON THE RHETORICAL CHARACTER OF ANA- 
 
 PHORA IN SILVER LATIN 78 
 
 E. CONCLUSION . .81 
 
A. INTRODUCTION. 
 i . THE INADEQUACY OF PREVIOUS TREATMENTS OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 This study grew out of a consideration of the numerous cases 
 of anaphora 1 in the Minor Works of Tacitus, the object of many 
 of which was not clearly understood by the present writer, and 
 it is based upon a belief that a more exact understanding of the 
 real purpose and effect of the figure than now exists would in 
 many specific cases be highly advantageous for purposes of 
 interpretation, and furthermore that such a comprehension can 
 to a degree be approximated. For, although the subject has 
 already been treated by other authors, previous explanations of 
 anaphora seem to have been content with vague and general 
 terms for their expression, without recognizing certain important 
 features of its use. 
 
 That emphasis is thereby secured is a very common explanation 
 of anaphora. For example, Volkmann says in his Rhetorik der 
 Griechen und Romer: 2 "Die Wiederholung desselben Wortes am 
 Anfang mehrerer aufeinander folgenden Satzglieder . . . giebt 
 der Rede den Charakter nachdriicklicher, ja hef tiger Lebendig- 
 keit." Numerous similar observations might be adduced from 
 the 'writings of Norden, 3 R. B. Steele, 4 Furneaux, 5 and others, 6 
 but this one will suffice. 
 
 1 For the present let it suffice that anaphora is here understood in the 
 ordinarily accepted sense of the term. Cf. Wackernagel, Poetik, Rhetorik, 
 und Stilistik, ed. 3, p. 561: "Anaphora . . . nennt man die Wiederkehr 
 desselben Wortes, derselben Wendung am Anfange mehrerer aufeinander 
 folgender Satze oder Satzglieder." A further discussion of the limitations of 
 this figure and a definition of the exact scope of this investigation will follow 
 later. 
 
 2 In Miiller's Handbuch, II, 3, p. 44. 
 
 J Norden, Aeneis VI, p. 149: "Durch die Anapher erhalten diese Verse 
 besonderes Gewicht." 
 
 4 R. B. Steele, Anaphora and Chiasmus in Livy, Trans. Am. Phil. Assoc., 
 32 (1901), 155 and 164: "Emphasis is the end sought in the repetition of 
 independent elements . . . ," and again, "Emphasis was sought by the 
 repetition of some one verbal element, the recurrence indicating its importance 
 as viewed by the writer or supposed speaker." 
 
 I 
 
2 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 Then too Norden explains the occurrences of anaphora in 
 Vergil by such terms as "Zur Steigerung des Ethos," 1 "Zur 
 Hebung des Ethos," 2 "Die Furchtbarkeit wird durch starke 
 Sprachmalerei " (i. e., alliteration, anaphora, rhythm, etc.) 
 "dem Horer sinnlich naher gebracht." 3 
 
 Now all of these statements are quite true as far as they go, 
 but a clear comprehension of anaphora demands a fuller analysis 
 of the workings of the figure than has as yet been undertaken, 
 in order to determine the means by which its use imparts to the 
 sentence this emphasis, or Steigerung des Ethos, or whatever it 
 may be. Call the effect emphasis if you please, but to go beyond 
 that and to determine in what way the employment of anaphora 
 in a sentence results in such emphasis, that is our present purpose. 
 
 Furthermore, ancient testimony concerning anaphora is hardly 
 any more helpful than the judgment of modern writers, and in 
 fact the present-day phraseology which is applied to this figure 
 seems to be a heritage from the Greek and Roman rhetoricians. 
 The various observations made by ancient writers regarding 
 anaphora have been collected by Otto in a recent Marburg 
 dissertation, 4 and a brief summary of their views will suffice here. 
 
 The earliest testimony which Otto cites is from the Auctor 
 ad Herennium. 5 In discussing repetitio this writer says: "Haec 
 exornatio cum multum venustatis habet, turn gravitatis et 
 acrimoniae plurimum." Cicero observes in the De Oratore, 
 "Geminatio verborum habet interdum vim, leporem alias." 6 
 
 6 Furneaux, Germania, introd., p. 10: "The emphasis which in (Tacitus') 
 later writings would rather be studied by skilful arrangement of words is 
 (in the Germania) often given by the sort of expansion used by an orator 
 to drive home his point to his listeners." 
 
 6 B. O. Foster, Trans. Am. Phil. Assoc., 40 (1909), 51, and O. M. Johnston, 
 Publ. Mod. Lang. Assoc., 29 (1914), 541, recognize emphasis and euphony as 
 two purposes for which anaphora may be used. Cf . also Abbott, The Use of 
 Repetition in Latin to Secure Emphasis, Intensity, and Distinctness of 
 Impression, Chicago Stud. Class. Phil., 3 (1900), 67-86, and Poteat, Repeti- 
 tion in Latin Poetry, p. 10. 
 
 1 Norden, Aeneis VI, p. 241. 
 
 2 Ditto pp. 181, 200, and 303. 
 
 3 Ditto p. 266. 
 
 4 Ludwig Otto, De Anaphora. Diss. Marburg, 1907. 
 
 5 Auct. ad Her., 4, 19. For Otto's discussion see p. 7 ff. 
 Cic. de Or., 3, 206. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 3 
 
 The Greek rhetorician Demetrius says of anaphora that 
 " Seivdrepov Troieiv TOV \6yov" 1 and again " x a P iVT % Ta <' $* trove 
 Kal e' am<o/3a9." 2 Quintilian says of the effect which the figure 
 has, "Et ab iisdem verbis plura acriter et instanter incipiunt." 3 
 Tiberius wrote in the fourth century A. D., "'Evepyeiav TO o^/ua 
 /cal \afjL7r pdrrjra e^a^erat." 4 
 
 From these statements of the ancient rhetoricians it will be 
 observed that their various explanations are concerned for the 
 most part with the effect which the figure has, rather than with 
 the means by which it imparts such vis or Seti/or??? to the sentence. 
 Thus, in undertaking an investigation of this latter point, the 
 present study has in no way been anticipated by either ancient 
 or modern discussions. 
 
 There is a rather extensive recent treatment of anaphora, 
 discussion of which has intentionally been reserved for this 
 point. In the Marburg dissertation already referred to, 5 Ludwig 
 Otto has elaborated a theory of Theodor Birt's 6 that the true 
 nature of anaphora lies in the fact that it serves as a substitute 
 for a conjunction, and that in this respect it differs from all other 
 figures. One often wearies, he says, of constantly employing 
 the same conjunction, and so by the use of anaphora the speaker 
 avoids such monotony. Of all the cases of this figure which 
 Otto has examined he does not find one in which a conjunction 
 might not equally well be substituted ' salvo sensu.' 7 
 
 That a conjunction might conceivably have been used in any 
 case where anaphora occurs, had the speaker so inclined, it is not 
 
 1 Demetrius in Spengel: Rhet. Graec., Ill, 319, 14 and 25. 
 
 2 Spengel, III, 294, 7. Demetrius here uses the term ava<f>opd although 
 irava(f>op<i occurs more frequently. 
 
 3 Quint. Inst., 9, 3, 30. 
 
 4 Spengel, III, 73, I. 
 
 5 Cf. page 2, note 4. 
 
 Birt, De Halieuticis, p. 59. Quoted by Otto, p. 37. 
 
 7 Otto, p. 83: Vera anaphorae natura non in ilia ab omnibus fere compro- 
 bata exornandi et amplificandi orationem virtute est quaerenda, quae vis 
 omnibus tropis et figuris est communis, sed ut recte Birtius vidit, in eo, quod 
 in locum coniunctionum succedit et scriptori harum particularum gratiam 
 facit, and p. 56: Vides uno eodemque munere particulas et anaphoram in 
 carminibus fungi. Accedit, ut nulla, quatenus exempla apud Vergilium et 
 Ovidium inspexi atque ponderavi, anaphora recuset, quominus in locum eius 
 salvo sensu versus particula respondens succedat. 
 
4 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 necessary to dispute. But the claim that " Anaphorae summum 
 est munus, ut particularum gratiam scriptori faciat" 1 is entirely 
 inadequate as an explanation of the effect which anaphora has 
 in a sentence. From the listener's standpoint it does make a 
 difference, for instance, whether the same introductory word is 
 repeated one or more times, or other means of connection are 
 employed, in the following example from Seneca: 2 . . . mors ut 
 optimum inventum naturae laudatur expectaturque . . . om- 
 nibus finis, multis remedium, quibusdam votum, de nullis melius 
 merita quam de iis, ad quos venit antequam invocaretur! Haec 
 servitutem invito domino remittit; haec captivorum catenas 
 levat ; haec e carcere educit quos exire imperium inpotens vetuerat ; 
 haec exulibus . . . ostendit nihil interesse, infra quod quis 
 iaceat; haec, ubi res communis fortuna male divisit . . . , 
 exaequat omnia; haec . . .; haec . . .; haec . . .; haec . . .; 
 haec. . . . The repeated haec represents mors, and aside from 
 its service as a connective it causes the thought to recur in con- 
 nection with each specific clause to the general statement asserted 
 of mors. The thought developed by each one of these specific 
 statements with haec is that Mors bonum inventum naturae est- 
 By a reiteration of this thought in a succession of specific in- 
 stances, each marked by the same introductory word, the 
 general truth is gradually established, namely, that Mors optimum 
 inventum . . . est. Had Seneca varied the connectives, the 
 clauses would not stand out before the listener with individual 
 clearness in a succession of specific illustrations of the general 
 truth, to which Seneca intended thereby to give expression. 
 
 To consider another case and one of Otto's own examples 
 from Vergil, 3 the effect of the repeated hie ... hie . . . hoc in 
 the following lines, is not equivalent to that of ordinary con- 
 nectives : 
 
 Quam luno fertur terris magis omnibus unam 
 Posthabita coluisse Samo: hie illius arma, 
 Hie currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse 
 . . . iam turn tenditque fovetque. 
 
 1 Otto, p. 37. 
 
 2 Sen. D M VI, 20, i. 
 Verg. A., i, 15. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 5 
 
 The anaphoric use of hie, which represents Carthage at the be- 
 ginning of each phrase, keeps the attention centered on Carthage 
 with reference to a succession of specific illustrations of Juno's 
 especial love for that city, as asserted in the general statement. 
 Such a consideration of each case individually results in estab- 
 lishing the general truth terris magis omnibus unam . . . coluisse. 
 Granting metrical possibilities, Hie arma currusque fuerunt 
 would not be productive of the same effect. 
 
 2. THE AIM OF THE PRESENT STUDY. 
 
 The thesis, then, which this dissertation seeks to maintain, is 
 that the amplification of a general truth forms one of the principal 
 purposes for which anaphora is used. The bare utterance of 
 such a truth stated in general terms is felt by the speaker to be 
 insufficient to properly impress the thought upon his listeners. 
 An analysis of this general thought is therefore made, and to call 
 attention to each of these phrases individually, the same intro- 
 ductory word is employed in each case. Through such an am- 
 plification marked by anaphora, the general truth becomes clearer 
 and more apparent to the listeners. 1 
 
 This amplification normally takes the form of an analysis into 
 specific details, that is, into a number of partitive representations 
 of the general truth, as has been already seen in the preceding 
 example from Seneca. But the underlying purpose of the am- 
 plification is to hold the attention of the listener on a certain 
 thought for some length of time. Thus, the desired effect is 
 equally well produced, whether the individual members of the 
 amplification are specific details of the general thought, as is 
 usually the case, or if the various phrases in which anaphora 
 occurs are, on the other hand, practically synonymous, and 
 reiterate the general thought by expressing it in several different 
 ways. The effect is in either case identical: the reiteration, 
 marked by a repetition of the same introductory word, impresses 
 the general thought on the mind of the listener by a hammering- 
 in, as it were. 
 
 1 Though this is an important use of anaphora the writer does not claim 
 that it is by any means the exclusive use of the figure. For a further discus- 
 sion of this matter see page 8, 2. 
 
THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 An example of this reiterative anaphora follows. Cic. Caecil., 
 6, 21 : Cur nolint, etiamsi taceant, satis dicunt; verum non tacent; 
 tamen iis invitissimis te offeres? tamen in aliena causa loquere? 
 tamen eos defendes, qui se ab omnibus desertos potius quam abs 
 te defenses esse malunt? tamen iis operam tuam pollicebere, qui 
 te neque velle sua causa nee, si cupias, posse arbitrantur? Cur 
 eorum spem exiguam reliquarum fortunarum . . . vi extorquere 
 conaris? cur . . .? cur . . .? cur . . .? In this case the at- 
 tention is held on the general thought by repeating it in a variety 
 of different forms, all being practically synonymous, and by 
 introducing each member of the amplification by the same word, 
 first by the repeated tamen, and then by the repeated cur. 
 
 3. THE MATERIAL ON WHICH THIS INVESTIGATION is BASED. 
 
 The examples on which this study is based were collected for 
 the most part from Tacitus and his contemporaries. Writers 
 of this period employed anaphora with an especial frequency, 
 not only in speeches, where it is found to a marked degree in all 
 periods, but in narrative portions also, and obviously with rhe- 
 torical intent. A collection of cases of anaphora has been made 
 from selected portions of the writings of the following authors : 
 Tacitus (complete works), the younger Pliny, Seneca's Dia- 
 logues, the so-called Declamations of Quintilian, Seneca Rhetor, 
 Martial, Florus, Valerius Maximus. The occurrences in Vergil 
 and Ovid which are cited in Otto's dissertation 1 have also been 
 examined, and a few examples are included from other Latin as 
 well as Greek authors, as they have chanced to come to the 
 writer's notice. 2 
 
 1 Otto's dissertation is based on a collection of material from Vergil and 
 Ovid. 
 
 2 The following tabulation shows what forms are most frequently used in 
 anaphora by Tacitus, Pliny, and Seneca. About 400 cases are included from 
 each author. 
 
 
 Tacitus. 
 
 Pliny. 
 
 Seneca. 
 
 
 Tacitus. 
 
 Pliny. 
 
 Seneca. 
 
 Negatives 
 
 I -2 -2 
 
 7C 
 
 72 
 
 Nouns 
 
 IO 
 
 II 
 
 7 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 11^ 
 
 IAO 
 
 1 2O 
 
 Conjunctions. . 
 
 C7 
 
 2C 
 
 7 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 IQ 
 
 7O 
 
 2Q 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 27 
 
 
 I"! 
 
 Adi ectives 
 
 2Q 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verbs 
 
 V 
 
 8 
 
 45 
 
 O L 
 
 28 
 
 Total 
 
 416 
 
 445 
 
 387 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 7 
 
 These three authors vary in the relative frequency with which anaphora occurs : 
 
 Cases of Anaphora. Number of Teubner Pages. 
 
 Tacitus: Ann. and Hist 297 592 
 
 Tacitus: Minor works 1 19 97 
 
 Tacitus: Complete works 416 689 
 
 Pliny: Selected portion 445 232 
 
 Seneca: Selected portion 387 287 
 
B. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF ANAPHORA. 
 i. DEFINITION OF THE SCOPE OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 Since anaphora represents but a limited area of the field of 
 repetition, it seems necessary to distinguish at the outset the 
 types of repetition which are included in this discussion and 
 those which are considered to lie outside the limits of the figure. 
 
 By the term anaphora one is generally understood to mean 
 the repetition of the same word at the beginning of a number of 
 successive phrases or clauses. In the words of the Auctor ad 
 Herennium, 1 "Repetitio est, cum continenter ab uno atque 
 eodem verbo in rebus similibus et diversis principia sumuntur." 
 But although this study confines itself to a consideration of 
 anaphora in this limited sense, it is nevertheless recognized that 
 such a restriction of the figure to a repetition of the same word is 
 in reality a too narrow use of the term, and that anaphora should 
 be made to include also repetition of the same thought, repetition 
 of the same word order, and morphological repetition, occurring 
 at the beginning of a number of successive clauses. 2 Such an 
 investigation, although it is not undertaken here, would doubtless 
 yield results which are similar to those of the present study. 3 
 
 2. Two KINDS OF ANAPHORA ARE DISTINGUISHED. 
 
 The theory held by the present writer, and which is borne out 
 by the evidence about to be examined, is that anaphora has two 
 principal uses: it either occurs in the amplification of a general 
 
 1 Auct. ad Her., 4, 19. 
 
 2 This has been already noted in the work Lateinische Stilistik by Nagels- 
 bach-Miiller, ed. 8, p. 634: "Freilich muss ... die Anaphora . . . nicht 
 bios als Wiederholung desselben Wortes am Anfang eines neuen Satzes, 
 sondern als Wiederkehr der namlichen Wortfolge gefasst werden." 
 
 3 A few examples of such anaphora are cited. E. g., Tac. G., 20, 7: Nee 
 virgines festinantur; eadem iuventa, similis proceritas: pares validaeque 
 miscentur. Tac. G., 43, 20: Nigra scuta, tincta corpora; atras ad proelia 
 noctes legunt. Tac. Agr., 5, 8: Non sane alias exercitatior magisque in 
 ambiguo Britannia fuit: trucida/i veterani, incensae coloniae, intercept 
 exercitus. 
 
 8 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 9 
 
 truth, or else it introduces two members of a contrast. The 
 mode of operation is the same in either case: the effect of the 
 repeated words is to call attention to the specific phrases which 
 they introduce, thereby rendering them prominent in the mind 
 of the listener. It is dependent upon the nature of these specific 
 phrases as to which of the two uses anaphora has : when they are 
 homogeneous in character (res similes) , they form specific illus- 
 trations of an underlying general truth ; when they are of opposite 
 meaning (res diversae), they stand in contrast to each other. 1 
 
 In the former case, there is a general idea prominent in 
 the speaker's mind behind these individual impressions; this 
 may be definitely formulated or perhaps be only slightly implied. 
 That the listener also may be impressed with this same general 
 idea, the speaker further develops the thought in analysis, 
 and repeats the same word at the beginning of each member 
 of the analysis in order to attract the listener's attention 
 and to cause a recurrence of thought to the general idea. 
 Whether or not the general truth is definitely formulated, the 
 repeated utterance of particular illustrations of it, each marked 
 by the repetition, establishes a feeling of this general truth in 
 the mind of the listener. 
 
 But when the individual members, which are rendered prominent 
 by the introductory repeated words, are heterogeneous in character, 
 they do not form part of an analysis of a general truth, but rather 
 constitute members of a contrast. The use of anaphora in a con- 
 trast is, by the nature of things, restricted to a single repetition ; 
 that is, the repeated word occurs in two, and only two, members of 
 a contrast : whereas in the preceding type of anaphora the ampli- 
 fication may consist of only two members, or it may on the other 
 hand be extended to an analysis of any extent. 2 
 
 J The Auctor ad Herennium (4, 19) evidently had some such two-fold 
 distinction in mind when he thus described anaphora as occurring "cum 
 continenter ab uno atque eodem verbo in rebus similibus et diversis principia 
 sumuntur." 
 
 2 Examples of anaphora in members of a contrast follow: Tac. Agr., 30, 18: 
 Si locuples hostis est, avari, si pauper, ambitiosi. Tac. G., 1 1, I : De minoribus 
 rebus principes consultant, de maioribus omnes. Tac. Agr., 41 , 1 8 : Sic Agricola 
 simul suis virtutibus, simul vitiis aliorum in ipsam gloriam praeceps agebatur. 
 Verg. A., 6, 32: Bis conatus erat casus efnngere in auro, Bis patriae cecidere 
 manus. 
 
10 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 Furthermore, examples occur which involve a seemingly para- 
 doxical combination of these two types. But in such cases the 
 contrast is in reality only apparent, and a general truth underlies, 
 as in the first type. The amplification then takes the form of an 
 analysis into specific cases which are at the two extremes of 
 possibility and are thus of such a sort as to exhaust all existing 
 contingencies. E. g., Tac. Ann., 2, 14, 17: ... non divini, non 
 humani iuris memores. Tac. Ann., 13, 43, 21 :. . . non in ipso 
 discrimine, non post damnationem fractus animo. Although a 
 contrast is present in these examples, the contrasted members 
 exhaust all possible cases, and are thus representative of a general 
 idea nihil or nullo tempore, which underlies the analysis. 1 
 
 3. LIMITATIONS OF THE FIELD OF ANAPHORA FOR THE PURPOSE 
 OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 
 
 This dissertation will restrict itself to a consideration of only 
 one important type of anaphora, that is, of those cases occurring 
 in the amplification of a general truth. Even if a large mass of 
 the examples from Silver Latin at least, actually do fall into this 
 category, it is nevertheless to be noted that the writer does not 
 claim this to be the exclusive use of the figure, nor that by any 
 means all cases of anaphora can be made to conform to this single 
 type. For this reason he has thus briefly indicated another kind 
 of anaphora, although leaving a complete investigation of it for 
 future study. 
 
 Another limitation must be made in the case of the so-called 
 correlatives: the repetition of such words as et . . . et, sive . . . 
 sive, nee . . . nee, modo . . . modo, simul . . . simul, partim 
 . . . partim, alius . . . alius, etc., in introducing two or more 
 successive phrases, is generally regarded as correlation and is 
 therefore not included in most discussions of anaphora. 2 But 
 such cases of correlation undoubtedly had exactly the same origin 
 as real anaphora, and their sole difference from ordinary examples 
 of the figure is that they may be regarded as stereotyped cases, 
 which have already become fixed and familiar in their correlative 
 
 1 In the particular discussion of anaphora which follows, such cases are 
 naturally included in type I. 
 
 2 Cf. Otto, p. 45, and Steele, p. 154. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 1 1 
 
 use, so that the first term indicates that a corresponding term is 
 to follow. 1 Therefore, when these correlatives are used to 
 introduce specific members of an analysis, their occurrence is so 
 common that they do not attract any special notice on the part of 
 the listener unless the analysis is a somewhat extended one. It 
 is the less ordinary cases of anaphora which are treated in this 
 dissertation, in an attempt to arrive at a clearer comprehension 
 of their use by writers who employed them largely with rhetorical 
 intent, and therefore obvious cases of correlation have been 
 excluded from the discussion, even though they may frequently 
 be exact parallels to well-authenticated cases of anaphora. 2 
 
 4. THE CLASSIFICATION OF CASES OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 
 
 A classification of the various cases of anaphora in the ampli- 
 fication of a general truth has been made on the basis of the 
 degree of clearness with which this general truth is suggested to 
 the listener. However, it should be borne in mind at the start 
 that the groups outlined below are not mutually exclusive, and 
 that examples cannot always be assigned with absolute precision 
 to any particular group. 
 
 1 Cf. Mendell, Sentence Connection in Tacitus, p. 51, and Steele, p. 154. 
 
 2 A few examples are cited by way of illustrating this use of correlatives 
 parallel to real anaphora. They are grouped according to the classification 
 of anaphora which will be explained later in this introduction. Cf. p. 12 ff. 
 
 I. A. Sen. Clem., I, 6, 3: Peccavimus omnes: alii gravia, alii leviora, 
 alii ex destinato, alii forte inpulsi . . . , alii in bonis consiliis parum fortiter 
 stetimus. 
 
 B. Romans, 8, 38: n&rei<r/u yap 8n otfre Odvaros oflre fonj, otfre #776X01 
 otfre apxal, otfre tveffrwra afire fj.tXXovra, otfre dvvdfj^is otfre {/^wyua otfre 
 |3d#o5 ofire TIS K T l<r is frtpa dw^fferai ^uas xuplffai airb TTJS aydirrjs TOV deov 
 TTJS iv Xpt<rT< 'Ir/a-oO .... Cic. Acad., I, 42: Erroremautem et temeritatem 
 et ignorantiam et opinationem et suspicionem et uno nomine omnia, .... 
 
 III. Tac. D., 31, 16: In his artibus exercitationibusque versatus orator, 
 sive apud infestos sive apud cupidos sive apud invidentes sive apud tristes sive 
 apud timentes dicendum habuerit, tenebit venas animorum. Catull., 43, I : 
 
 Salve, nee minimo puella naso, 
 Nee bello pede nee nigris ocellis, 
 Nee longis digitis nee ore sicco, 
 Nee sane nimis elegante lingua, 
 Decoctoris arnica Formiani. 
 
12 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. 
 
 B. It follows the analysis. 
 
 II. The general truth is only implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 1. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. 
 
 2. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. 
 
 3. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. An extended narration or description precedes. 
 
 B. An extended narration or description follows. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 This general truth, which the analysis amplifies into a number 
 of specific details, may either precede or follow the analysis. 
 
 A. The general truth precedes the analysis. Each specific 
 member of the analysis is, as it is uttered, associated in the mind 
 of the listener with the general statement which has already been 
 definitely formulated, and the general truth of which the analysis 
 develops. An example of this is the case from Seneca already 
 cited, 1 ' Mors optimum inventum naturae est,' where the specific 
 illustrations of mors as a bonum inventum result by their accumu- 
 lation in the establishment of the general truth optimum inventum 
 est. Catull., 23, 8: ... nihil timetis, 
 
 Non incendia, non graves ruinas, 
 Non facta impia, non dolos veneni, 
 Non casus alios periculorum. 
 Cf. page 4. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 13 
 
 The enumeration incendia, graves ruinas, etc., to which the 
 attention is directed in each specific case by the repeated non, 
 tends as it proceeds to establish the general truth nihil. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. The speaker has 
 the general idea prominent in his mind, and paves the way for 
 its definite formulation at the close by means of a specific analysis 
 marked by anaphora. The members of this analysis considered 
 individually as a part of this general idea thus fix such a general 
 notion in the listener's mind even before it is actually expressed. 
 E. g., Tac. D., 30, 21 : . . . non geometriae, non musicae, non 
 grammaticae, non denique ullius ingenuae artis scientiam ei 
 defuisse. Here, the specific members of the analysis, geometriae, 
 musicae, grammaticae, each introduced by the repeated non, are 
 followed by the general formulation non denique ullius ingenuae 
 artis scientiam. Sen. D., XII, 9, 8: Nunc ecce trahit ilium ad se 
 Africa resurgentis belli minis plena, trahit Hispania . . ., trahit 
 Aegyptus infida, lotus denique orbis, .... 
 
 II. The general truth is only implied. 
 
 The general truth is not always definitely expressed, but may 
 be implied from the preceding sentence or paragraph. The 
 speaker has such a general idea prominent in his mind, but owing 
 to the fact that it is expressed only by general implication, the 
 listener would in all probability not be impressed with a feeling 
 of this general truth unless his attention was attracted to it by a 
 specific analysis with each member marked by a repetition of 
 the same word. This group differs from the first only in the 
 degree of clearness with which the general truth is suggested. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. E. g., Sen. Brev. 
 Vit., 7,7: Omnes illi, qui te sibi advocant, tibi abducunt. I lie reus 
 quot dies abstulit? quot ille candidatus? quot ilia anus efferendis 
 heredibus lassa? quot ille ad irritandam avaritiam captantium 
 simulatus aeger? quot ille potentior amicus . . .? The extent to 
 which the interest is alienated is the general thought which is 
 developed in this analysis. This is implied in the preceding state- 
 ment ' Omnes illi . . . tibi abducunt, 1 although it is there not defi- 
 nitely expressed, and it is the analysis which renders this thought 
 clear and distinct. Tac. D., 36, 4: Nam etsi horum quoque 
 
14 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 temporum oratores ea consecuti sunt quae composita ... re 
 publica tribui fas erat, tamen ilia perturbatione ac licentia plura 
 sibi adsequi videbantur, cum mixtis omnibus et moderators uno 
 carentibus tantum quisque orator saperet, quantum erranti 
 populo persuadere poterat. Hinc leges assiduae et populare 
 nomen, hinc contiones magistratuum paene pernoctantium in 
 rostris, hinc accusationes potentium reorum . . ., hinc procerum 
 factiones et assidua senatus adversus plebem certamina. The 
 analysis amplifies a general idea of disorder, which is not defi- 
 nitely expressed otherwise, although it is suggested to the 
 listener by such expressions in the preceding sentence as per- 
 turbatione ac licentia, mixtis omnibus . . ., erranti populo. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. E. g., Tac. D., 23, 1 1 : 
 Quos more prisco apud iudices fabulantes non auditores sequuntur, 
 non populus audit, vix denique litigator perpetitur. The expres- 
 sion vix denique litigator at the close of this enumeration imparts 
 a general implication that no one pays heed to the speaker (' even 
 the client can scarcely endure his speech'). 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 This is a still further reduction of the degree of clearness with 
 which the general truth is suggested. The speaker of course 
 has the general idea present in his mind, but he depends upon the 
 analysis, each member of which is marked by the repetition 
 of the same introductory word, to establish this general truth in 
 the mind of the listener. From the standpoint of the latter the 
 process here is to a certain extent equivalent to that of I B and 
 II B, in both of which cases the analysis precedes any suggestion 
 of the general truth and fixes a general notion in the listener's 
 mind before it is actually expressed in general terms. But here, 
 the idea which is formed in the mind of the listener by means of 
 the analysis must suffice, for no definite formulation follows. 
 E. g., PI. Ep., 2, 9, 4: Habet avunculum C. Septicium, quo nihil 
 verius, nihil simplicius, nihil candidius, nihil fidelius novi. The 
 analysis is of some such general truth as that C. Septicius is 
 surpassed in no point whatsoever. This idea is unexpressed ex- 
 cepting that the mere mention of Septicius' name must suggest it 
 to Pliny, and it is to this thought that he directs the listener's 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 15 
 
 attention by a heaping up of superlative characterizations marked 
 by the same introductory negative. This analysis is extended to 
 an extent sufficient to establish the general truth that there is 
 no point in which Septicius is surpassed. Florus, 3, 16, I : . . . 
 C. Gracchum, hominem sine tribu, sine notore, sine nomine. 
 The repetition of sine with each member of the analysis keeps 
 the thought centered on a general idea of humility in every 
 respect, and it is this thought which the analysis amplifies. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive of anaphora. 
 
 When a speaker conceives a well-defined contrast to exist 
 between two general ideas and he wishes to establish a similar 
 feeling in the mind of the listener also, he may do this by develop- 
 ing the thought of one or both of these contrasted members in 
 specific analysis, and by marking each term of the analysis by 
 the repetition of the same particle. By this means he establishes 
 a clear notion of the general thought in contradistinction to the 
 opposite and contrasted thought. 
 
 The purpose of the anaphora, then, is not to mark the presence 
 of the contrast, but rather to add clarity to a general thought, 
 which by other means is shown to stand in contrast to some other 
 general thought. Each case of anaphora classified under this 
 group, when considered with relation to its own clause, without 
 regarding the contrasted element, might equally well be placed 
 in one of the three preceding groups, as occurring in the ampli- 
 fication of a general truth, and it is only because of the additional 
 contrasted element that this separate class is formed. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. E. g., Tac. Ann., 4, 
 25, 8: Ab Romanis confertus pedes, dispositae turmae, cuncta 
 proelio proviso,: hostibus contra omnium nesciis non arma, non 
 ordo, non consilium, sed pecorum modo trahi, occidi, capi. The 
 analysis non arma, non ordo, non consilium develops a general 
 thought which is definitely expressed in omnium nesciis. Thus, 
 this case of anaphora is exactly parallel to those already con- 
 sidered under class I. But the real purpose of the analysis is 
 to clarify this general truth hostibus omnium nesciis by ampli- 
 fying it, in order that the listener may have a clear notion of it 
 
1 6 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 in contrast to the general thought ab Romanis . . . cuncta 
 proelio provisa. It is to be noted that it is not the anaphora 
 which here marks the contrast, but the balanced use of Romanis 
 . . . hostibus, and the particle contra. Tac. Ann., 3, 58, 12: 
 Privatis olim simultatibus effectum, ut a pontificibus maximis 
 ire in provincias prohiberentur: nunc deum munere summum 
 pontificum etiam summum hominum esse, non aemulationi, non 
 odio aut privatis adfectionibus obnoxium. The analysis non 
 aemulationi, non odio is a negative amplification of the general 
 thought which the repeated summum 1 expresses in opposite form. 
 The object of thus clarifying the general thought lies in the 
 contrast which exists between this thought and that in the sen- 
 tence preceding. Nunc, as opposed to olim in the contrasted 
 member, indicates the contrast. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. E. g., Cic. Cat., 4, n, 23: 
 Quae cum ita sint, pro imperio, pro exercitu, pro provincia . . ., 
 pro triumpho ceterisque laudis insignibus . , ., pro clientelis 
 hospitiisque provincialibus . . ., pro his igitur omnibus rebus, pro 
 meis in vos singularibus studiis, proque hac ... ad conservan- 
 dam rem publicam diligentia, nihil a vobis nisi huius temporis 
 . . . memoriam postulo. The general thought which is devel- 
 oped in analysis and which is partially summed up in the ex- 
 pression his omnibus rebus, is contrasted with Cicero's trivial 
 request nihil, etc., which follows. 
 
 2. The general truth is only implied. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. E. g., Tac. Ann., 2, 80, 
 13: Contra veterani ordinibus ac subsidiis instructi: hinc militum, 
 inde locorum asperitas, sed non animus, non spes, ne tela quidem 
 nisi agrestia aut subitum in usum properata. Piso's men had the 
 advantage of position ('hide locorum asperitas'), but that was 
 all ; in other respects they were in every way deficient. Ne tela 
 quidem at the close of the analysis is suggestive of such a general 
 lack, and this general thought is here amplified for contrast with 
 their seasoned opponents, as described in what precedes. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. E. g., PI. Ep., 2, 7, i: 
 . . . statua decreta est, non ita ut multis, qui numquam in acie 
 
 1 The repetition of summum is not anaphora. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 17 
 
 steterunt, numquam castra viderunt, numquam denique tubarum 
 sonum nisi in spectaculis audierunt, verum ut illis, qui decus istud 
 sudore et sanguine et factis adsequebantur. The analysis adds 
 clarity to the general thought suggested by ita ut multis, for the 
 purpose of contrast with the thought verum ut illis, etc., which 
 follows. 
 
 3. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. E. g., Tac. Ann., I, 42, 
 19: Hunc ego nuntium patri, laeta omnia aliis e provinciis audienti, 
 feram? Ipsius tirones, ipsius veteranos non missione, non 
 pecunia satiates. The general thought which is amplified here 
 is that his own men (both tirones and veteranos) were entirely dis- 
 satisfied ('non missione, non pecunia satiatos'). This general 
 idea is contrasted with the thought laeta omnia aliis e provinciis. 
 Tac. H., 3, 72, 6: Arserat et ante Capitolium civili bello, sed 
 fraude privata: nunc palam obsessum, palam incensum, quibus 
 armorum causis, quo tantae cladis pretio? 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. E. g., Hor. C., I, 37, i: 
 
 Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero 
 Pulsanda tellus; nunc Saliaribus 
 Ornare pulvinar deorum 
 
 Tempus erat dapibus, sodales. 
 Antehac nefas depromere Caecubum 
 Cellis avitis, dum. . . . 
 
 The analysis marked by the repeated nunc develops the general 
 thought ' Now we can have a good time ' into the specific members 
 est bibendum, pede libero pulsanda tellus t etc. By means of the 
 amplification with anaphora, clarity is added to this general idea, 
 for the purpose of contrast with the following clause introduced 
 by antehac. Tac. Agr., 32, 22 : Hie dux, hie exercitus: ibi tributa 
 et metalla et ceterae servientium poenae, quas in aeternum per- 
 ferre aut statim ulcisci in hoc campo est. By means of the re- 
 peated hie attention is directed to dux and exercitus as individually 
 representing the general idea of national independence. This 
 thought is contrasted with the opposite notion of bondage, which 
 is developed by an enumeration of details without the employ- 
 ment of anaphora. 
 
1 8 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 C. Sometimes the general truths in both members of the con- 
 trast are each analyzed into specific phrases marked by anaphora. 
 E. g., Val. Max., 6, 9, 14: Ex illo Mario tarn humili Arpini, tarn 
 ignobili Romae, tarn fastidiendo candidate ille Marius evasit, 
 qui Africam subegit, qui lugurtham regem ante currum egit, qui 
 Teutonorum Cimbrorumque exercitus delevit, cuius bina tropaea 
 in urbe spectantur, cuius septem in fastis consulatus leguntur, 
 cui post exilium consulem creari . . . contigit. Tac. Ann., 
 I, 59, 16: (Tributa) Quae quoniam exuerint inritusque disces- 
 serit ille inter numina dicatus Augustus, ille delectus Tiberius, ne 
 inperitum adulescentulum, ne seditiosum exercitum pavescerent. 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 A secondary motive of anaphora may be to add clarity to a 
 general truth otherwise unexpressed, which in this expanded 
 form serves as a summary of a narration or description which 
 precedes or follows. By analyzing the general truth into spe- 
 cific members, each marked by the same introductory word, a 
 clearer notion of this general summarizing idea is secured than 
 by means of a simple statement not so amplified. Since the 
 general truth is usually unexpressed, these cases of anaphora 
 might equally well be grouped in class III, were it not for the 
 additional summarizing function which the analyses perform. 
 
 A. The narration or description precedes the summary. At 
 the close of a narration or a description which has extended over 
 several paragraphs or even chapters, there is often stated a sum- 
 mary of the general thought which has been already expressed. 
 Sometimes an analysis with anaphora takes the place of a defi- 
 nite statement in general form, and this results in forming a 
 clearer notion of the general truth expressed in the preceding 
 paragraphs than would be imparted by a general summarizing 
 statement which is not so amplified. E. g., Mela, I, 4, 24: Haec 
 summa nostri orbis, hae maximae partes, hae formae gentesque 
 partium. The general thought developed in this analysis is that 
 'these are the principal geographical features.' Instead of ex- 
 pressing this thought in general form, an analysis is substituted, 
 thereby calling attention more clearly to the general truth which 
 the preceding chapters have developed. Tac. Agr., 18, i: Hunc 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 1 9 
 
 Britanniae statum, has bellorum vices media iam aestate trans- 
 gressus Agricola invenit. PI. Ep., 5, 6, 28: Haec fades, hie 
 visus a fronte. Mela, 3, I, i: Dicta est ora nostri maris, dictae 
 insulae quas amplectitur. 
 
 B. The narration or description follows the summary. An 
 analysis with anaphora may take the place of a general state- 
 ment at the beginning of a narration or a description, thereby 
 securing at once a clearer notion of the general truth about to be 
 developed than would be imparted by a general summarizing 
 statement which is not so amplified. Mendell 1 notes the use of 
 "expressions to excite anticipation " as being a point of Tacitus' 
 style, and notes that "there are gradations in the clearness of 
 such connections." 2 The use of anaphora referred to here 
 seems to be of the sort of connection noted by Mendell. E. g. ; 
 Tac. H., I, 45, i: Alium crederes senatum, alium populum: 
 ruere cuncti in castra, anteire proximos, certare cum praecur- 
 rentibus, increpare Galbam, laudare militum iudicium, exoscu- 
 lari Othonis manum. The general anticipatory idea which 
 Tacitus here intends to impart by the substitution of an analysis 
 with anaphora for the general truth is that cuncti alii erant. 
 The repeated alium suggests this thought, while senatum and 
 populum are regarded as indicative of a sufficient extent to justify 
 the general term cuncti. By means of this analysis Tacitus estab- 
 lishes at once a clearer notion of the truth about to be developed 
 in greater detail, but without anaphora, than a general statement 
 would impart. Tac. Ann., 2, 82, 14: Forte negotiatores . . . 
 laetiora de valetudine eius attulere. Statim credita, statim vul- 
 gata sunt: ut quisque obvius, quamvis leviter audita in alios 
 atque illi in plures cumulata gaudio transferunt. Cursant per 
 urbem, moliuntur templorum fores; iuvat credulitatem nox et 
 promptior inter tenebras adfirmatio. The analysis expresses 
 the general thought in the manner of an anticipatory summary 
 with greater clarity than would result from a simple expression 
 of rapidity. Tac. H., 4, 52, 4: Non legiones, non classes perinde 
 firma imperii munimenta quam numerum liberorum; nam amicos 
 tempore, fortuna, cupidinibus aliquando aut erroribus imminui, 
 
 1 Mendell, Sentence Connection in Tacitus, p. 36 ff. 
 
 2 Ditto p. 38. 
 
2O THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 transferri, desinere: suum cuique sanguinem indiscretum, sed 
 maxime principibus, quorum prosperis et alii fruantur, adversa 
 ad iunctissimos pertineant. An analysis with anaphora is 
 substituted for a general summarizing statement at the beginning 
 of the more extended expression of the general thought. 
 
 5. FURTHER EXPLANATION OF THE SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION 
 
 USED. 
 
 The preceding groups may be further subdivided according 
 to the content of the general truth, which may be 
 
 a. A general idea of number. 
 
 1. Positive number (as omnes). 
 
 2. Negative number (as nihil). 
 
 b. A general idea of degree. 
 
 c. General truths of miscellaneous character. 
 
 Again, there may be a direct analysis of the general truth, that 
 is, one which is expressed in the same form as the general truth ; 
 or there may be an indirect analysis, that is, one which is expressed 
 in opposite form. For example, the general statement 'ut 
 omnem omnium artium varietatem complecteretur ' might be 
 analyzed (i) in direct form, 'Hie geometriam, hie musicam, 
 hie grammaticam complectebat ' ; or else (ii) in opposite form, 
 1 non geometriae, non musicae, non grammaticae . . . scientiam 
 ei defuisse,' as Tacitus actually expresses it. 1 On the other hand, 
 a general negative statement ' ne suis quidem laborant occupa- 
 tionibus ' might be analyzed (i) into specific negative illustrations 
 of the general truth, that is, in direct form; or (ii) it might be 
 amplified in an opposite analysis, 'ad alienum dormiunt som- 
 num, ad alienum ambulant gradum,' which is the form employed 
 by Seneca. 2 
 
 Furthermore, in the consideration of the above categories, we 
 must distinguish between the cases in which (i) the repeated word 
 as well as the analysis following, reflects the content of the general 
 truth ; and those in which (ii) the analysis following the word 
 used in anaphora, but not the repeated word itself, reflects this. 
 
 1 Tac. D., 30, 21. 
 
 2 Sen. Brev. Vit., 19, 3. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 21 
 
 I. Let us first consider those cases in which the repeated word, 
 as well as the analysis following, reflects the content of the gen- 
 eral truth. 
 
 a. A general idea of number. 
 
 1. Positive number. Such a general idea is reflected by the 
 use of one of the following words in anaphora: tot, omnis, multus, 
 etc. E. g., Sen. D., VI, 26, 5 : Tot saecula, tot aetatium contextum, 
 seriem, quicquid annorum est, licet visere. The accumulation 
 of specific expressions of number marked by a repetition of tot, 
 quam multi, etc., if carried to a sufficient extent, results in 
 establishing a general numerical truth, such as omnes, quicquid 
 annorum est, etc. 
 
 2. Negative number. Such a general idea as nihil, etc., is 
 reflected by the repetition of one of the following words in each 
 member of the analysis: 
 
 a. A negative, as non, nullus, nihil, etc. E. g., Tac. G., 19, 7: 
 Publicatae enim pudicitiae nulla venia: non forma, non aetate, non 
 opibus maritum invenerit. The analysis consists of a rejection 
 of successive possibilities, such as forma, aetate, opibus, each 
 elimination being marked by a repetition of the same negative. 
 This enumeration of various contingencies is carried to an extent 
 sufficient to establish the general truth that there is nothing 
 which is not thus included, i. e., nulla venia. 
 
 0. A word of negative content, as sine or quis? (Interroga- 
 tive). The repeated use of quiz? interrogatively, introducing 
 questions involving negative answers, results in establishing a 
 general negative idea, which may itself be definitely expressed, 
 although more often this is not the case. E. g., Sen. Brev. Vit., 
 13, 9: Tamen cuius ista errores minuent? cuius cupiditates pre- 
 ment? quern fortiorem, quern iustiorem, quern liberaliorem facient? 
 
 b. A general idea of degree. Such a general truth as maxima, 
 optimum, quam peritus, tanti laboris, etc., is reflected by one of 
 the following in anaphora: tarn, quam, sic, ita, quantum, totiens, 
 is (used as an adjective and meaning 'such a'). E. g., Tac. D., 
 23, 21 : . . . et vos, Materne ac Secunde, ita gravitati sensuum 
 nitorem et cultum verborum miscetis, ea electio inventionis, is 
 ordo rerum, ea . . . ubertas, ea . . . brevitas, is . . . decor, 
 
22 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 ea sententiarum planitas est, sic exprimitis adfectus, sic liber- 
 tatem temperatis, ut. . . . Such an accumulation of specific 
 expressions of degree tends to establish a general idea of degree, 
 which includes each individual impression. 
 
 c. Other general truths of miscellaneous character may be 
 reflected in words of definite content, such as nouns, adjectives, 
 adverbs, etc., used in anaphora to introduce analyses of the 
 general thought whose content they reproduce. E. g., PI. Ep., 
 I, 20, 12: Adiciam, quod me docuit usus, magister egregius. 
 Frequenter egi, frequenter iudicavi, frequenter in consilio fui. It 
 often happens that the general idea is expressed in vague terms, 
 as in PI. Ep., 2, I, 12: ... sed totus animus in hac una contem- 
 plations defixus est. Verginium cogito, Verginium video, 
 Verginium iam vanis imaginibus, recentibus tamen, audio, ad- 
 loquor, teneo. In this case the analysis adds meaning to the 
 statement in hac una contemplatione by increased definiteness, 
 although an additional purpose of Pliny's in this analysis seems 
 to be a development of the thought totus animus. 
 
 II. The members of the analysis which follow the repeated 
 word but not the repeated word itself, reflect the content of the 
 general truth. A large number of the forms used in anaphora fall 
 into this category. The repeated word connects the analysis 
 with some member of the general statement, but the actual 
 reflection of the general content is to be found in the analysis 
 following and not in the repeated word. For example, words 
 like hie, ille, qui, hinc, cum, dum, ubi, and numerous others are 
 so used in anaphora, none of which when taken alone yields any 
 suggestion of number, degree, or any other definite content. 
 But by means of the anaphora there occurs a separation into 
 distinct, individual phrases, each suggestive of the general truth ; 
 the attention of the listener is centered on each in turn, which 
 results in establishing the truth of the general statement even 
 though the repeated words themselves convey no impression of 
 its internal meaning. 1 
 
 Not only are pronouns, particles, and other words which in 
 
 1 Steele, T. A. P. A., 32, 164, says of such cases that "the attention of the 
 listener is fixed by setting forth similar details of the topic under consideration, 
 and by striking the same verbal key from three to six times, or even more." 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 23 
 
 themselves yield no suggestion of the general content used in 
 this way, but sometimes words of definite content are similarly 
 employed. E. g., Sen. D., VI, 12, 4: Circumfer per omnem 
 notorum, ignotorum frequentiam oculos, occurrent tibi passi 
 ubigue maiora. Senserunt ista magni duces, senserunt principes. 
 Here the repeated senserunt represents passi in the general state- 
 ment, and the purpose of the anaphora seems to be to call at- 
 tention to magni duces and principes as specific illustrations of 
 the general term ubique. The repeated word has a demonstrative 
 force and it is the analysis following which reflects the content of 
 the general truth. 
 
 The analysis develops general truths as follows: 
 
 a. Analysis of a general idea of number or completeness. A 
 general expression of number is followed by a succession of 
 specific instances, each of which is marked by the repetition of 
 the same word, and this enumeration is extended to an extent 
 sufficient to establish the feeling in the listener's mind that all 
 contingencies are so included. E. g., Trogus, 41, 3, 4: Equis 
 omni tempore vectantur; illis bella, ittis convivia, illis publica ac 
 privata officia obeunt; super illos ire, consistere, mercari, colloqui. 
 The enumeration bella, convivia, publica ac privata officia, etc., 
 to which the attention is directed by the repeated illis, tends, as 
 it proceeds, to establish the general truth omni tempore. 
 
 b. Analysis of a general idea of degree. E. g., Sen. Brev. Vit., 
 9, I : Maxima porro vitae iactura dilatio est: ilia primum quemque 
 extrahit diem, ilia eripit praesentia, dum ulteriora promittit. 
 When the general thought is one of degree, as 'Mors optimum 
 inventum naturae est,' 1 or 'Maxima vitae iactura dilatio est,' 
 the thought developed by each of the specific phrases of the 
 analysis is that 'Mors bonum inventum est' or ' Magna iactura 
 dilatio est.' Through an accumulation of specific instances of 
 the thought bonum inventum or magna iactura, the general truth 
 in superlative form is gradually established, namely that 'Mors 
 optimum inventum ... est ' or ' Maxima . . . iactura dilatio 
 est.' 
 
 c. Analysis of general truths of miscellaneous character. Just 
 1 Cf. p. 4 above. 
 
24 THE USE OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 as a succession of specific instances of number or degree, marked 
 by anaphora, tends to establish such a general idea, in like manner 
 any general truth may be established by means of an analysis 
 into specific cases, the accumulation of which results in the 
 general formulation. E. g., Quint. D., 249, p. 24, 9: Matrimoniis 
 . . . scitis contineri civitatem: his populos, his liberos et succes- 
 sionem patrimoniorum et gradum hereditatum, his securitatem 
 domesticam. Here, an enumeration of several cases in which 
 matrimoniis contineri civitatem is true, results in establishing 
 the truth of this general statement. 
 
C. PARTICULAR DISCUSSION OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 An individual examination of the different forms that are used 
 in anaphora will now be made, with a view towards illustrating 
 in detail the conclusions which have been formulated in the 
 general discussion. These various elements will be considered as 
 follows: (i) Negatives, (2) Pronouns, (3) Adverbs, (4) Ad- 
 jectives, (5) Verbs, (6) Nouns, (7) Conjunctions, (8) Prepositions. 
 
 i. ANAPHORA OF NEGATIVES. 
 
 When the repeated word is a negative, it reflects in all cases the 
 negative content of the general truth. 1 The writer or speaker 
 has this general negative idea prominent in his mind as he utters 
 each particular member of the analysis, and by repeating the 
 same negative at the beginning of each phrase, he at length 
 impresses the mind of the listener also with this general truth. 2 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. 
 
 I. The general statement is expressed in negative form. 3 
 
 a. The general statement contains an actual negative. Tac. 
 G., 19, 7: Publicatae enim pudicitiae nulla venia: non forma, non 
 aetate, non opibus maritum invenerit. Various possibilities, 
 such as forma, aetate, opibus are here enumerated to an extent 
 sufficient to establish the general truth nulla venia. Sen. Brev- 
 Vit., 7, 3: Denique inter omnes convenit nullam rem bene exerceri 
 posse ab homine occupato, non eloquentiam, non liberates dis- 
 ciplinas, . . . sed omnia velut inculcata respuit. Tac. Ann., 
 3, 5, 8: At Germanico ne solitos guidem . . . honores contigisse. 
 . . . Non fratrem, nisi unius diei via, non patruum saltern porta 
 tenus obvium. Sen. D., XI, 9, 4: . . . cogita plura esse, quae 
 non timet: non ira eum torquebit, non morbus affliget, non suspicio 
 
 1 It is to be noted that there are no examples of negatives used in anaphora 
 without reflecting the content of the general truth, although most forms 
 present this alternative possibility. 
 
 2 Besides actual negatives the preposition sine is in meaning the equivalent 
 of a negative, and is included in the present treatment. 
 
 3 For a general discussion of this type see page 21. 
 
 25 
 
26 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 lacesset, non edax . . . invidia consectabitur, non metus solli- 
 citabit, non levitas fortunae . . . inquietabit. This is an 
 analysis of the general thought plura non timet, which differs 
 from such general truths as nihil only in degree. 
 
 ft. The general statement contains the equivalent of a negative. 
 Tac. G., 46, ii : Fennis mira feritas, foeda paupertas: non arma, 
 non equi, non penates; victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubili humus: 
 solae in sagittis opes, .... Paupertas does not have a negative 
 content exclusively, but a notion of lack is prominent in con- 
 nection with the word, and this is developed in a negative analysis. 
 This analysis, introduced by the repeated non, is followed by a 
 positive analysis, but without anaphora, although the succession 
 of datives, victui, vestitui, cubili, calls attention to herba, pelles, 
 humus, specific illustrations of paupertas, and thus to a certain 
 degree approaches the effect of anaphora. Sen. Tranq. An., 1,5: 
 Tenet me summus amor parsimoniae, fateor: placet non in am- 
 bitionem cubile compositum, non ex arcula prolata vestis, non 
 ponderibus ac mille tormentis splendere cogentibus expressa, 
 sed domes tica et vilis, .... This is an analysis of the negative 
 idea in parsimoniae. 
 
 The examples which immediately follow contain analyses of 
 a general idea of difference. Such general expressions as longe 
 alia, nee ut alii, etc., imply the absence of usual qualities as well 
 as the presence of unusual qualities, and the analysis of the 
 general thought may take a double course of development in 
 accordance with these two implications. When characterizing 
 a thing as being longe alia or diversa omnium, it is the former 
 thought of qualities lacking which frequently predominates, 
 and this is expressed by a negative analysis. An example of an 
 analysis from both points of view follows: Tac. Agr. 5, 3: Nee 
 Agricola licenter, more iuvenum, . . . neque segniter ad voluptates 
 et commeatus titulum tribunatus et inscitiam rettulit: sed 
 noscere provinciam, nosci exercitui, discere a peritis, sequi optimos, 
 nihil adpetere in iactationem, nihil ob formidinem recusare 
 simulque et anxius et intentus agere. The general truth 'nee 
 Agricola licenter . . . neque segniter . . . titulum . . . rettulit' 
 is itself really expressed more or less in negative analysis, but 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 27 
 
 without anaphora, even before the double analysis with anaphora, 
 which follows. The thought is first analyzed positively, ' sed 
 noscere etc.'; the succession of infinitives commencing each 
 clause, with anaphora in the first two, centers the attention on 
 each phrase individually and thus keeps prominent the funda- 
 mental idea which they illustrate. Following this is a negative 
 analysis with nihil repeated. Tac. H., 2, 99, 4: Longe alia pro- 
 ficiscentis ex urbe Germanici exercitus species: non vigor cor- 
 poribus, non ardor animis. Tac. H., 3, 76, 5: . . . lascivia 
 socordiaque gladiatorum magis quam ducum similes. Non 
 vigilias agere, non intuta moenium firmare. The analysis 
 consists of specific illustrations of the general thought of the 
 leaders' unlikeness to real duces. 
 
 2. The general statement is expressed in the opposite affirma- 
 tive form. A general statement is followed by a negative an- 
 alysis which is made up of specific phrases in denial of the reverse 
 of this general truth. By means of such an accumulation of 
 cases, marked by the same introductory negative, there is estab- 
 lished the general idea that there is nothing which is inconsistent 
 with the general truth. A general affirmative statement is 
 itself suggestive to the listener of a specific affirmative analysis. 
 But, when in addition to this the speaker places before him the 
 opposite negative analysis, he imparts a clearer impression of 
 the general truth by means of this double presentation than would 
 result from the mere affirmative expression. 
 
 a. The general statement which is expressed is one of number 
 or completeness, such as omnes or complebantur, but the analysis 
 is in opposite negative form. Tac. D., 30, 19: . . . ut omnem 
 omnium artium varietatem complecteretur. Itaque hercle in 
 libris Ciceronis deprehendere licet, non geometriae, non musicae, 
 non denique ullius ingenuae artis scientiam ei defuisse. The 
 general truth is first stated positively ' ut omnem omnium artium 
 varietatem complecteretur,' followed by an analysis in opposite 
 negative form. This general thought might have been formu- 
 lated negatively 'ut nihil deesset,' and the negative analysis is 
 formed by separating such a general truth into specific details. 
 At the close of the analysis a general negative expression actually 
 
28 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 occurs. Tac. Ann., 16, 13, 6: Sed domus corporibus exanimis, 
 itinera funeribus complebantur ; non sexus, non aetas periculo 
 vacua. Tac. Ann., I, 51, 2: Quinquaginta milium spatium ferro 
 flammisque pervastat. Non sexus, non aetas miserationem 
 attulit. This is an opposite negative analysis of the general idea 
 of completeness expressed by the prefix per. 
 
 ft. But the truth of any general statement may be established 
 by means of such an analysis in opposite negative form. Sen. 
 Brev. Vit., 8, 5: Sicut missa est a primo die, curret, nusquam 
 devertetur, nusquam remorabitur. The general truth 'Sicut 
 missa est ... curret' ('his course will be a consistent one') is 
 established by an analysis into specific contrary possibilities, the 
 exclusion of which is marked by the repeated negative (' there will 
 be no deviations'). Sen. D., XI, 4, I : Stant dura et inexorabilia; 
 nemo ilia convicio, nemo fletu, nemo causa movet; nihil umquam 
 ulli parcunt nee remittunt. Tac. G., 19, I : Ergo saepta pudicitia 
 agunt, nullis spectaculorum inlecebris, nullis conviviorum irri- 
 tationibus corruptae. PL Ep., 2, 17, 22: lunctum est cubiculum 
 noctis et somni. Non illud voces servulorum, non maris murmur, 
 non tempestatum motus, non fulgurum lumen ac ne diem quidem 
 sentit nisi fenestris apertis. 
 
 7. In many cases a general expression of degree, such as to turn, 
 continua discordia, etc., accompanies the general statement, and 
 a desire on the part of the speaker to give the listener a clear 
 impression of this general idea may influence him to the use of 
 this double form of statement. Sen. D., VI, 5, 4: Nunc incu- 
 buisti tota in alteram partem et oblita meliorum fortunam tuam 
 qua deterior est aspicis: non convertis te ad convictus filii tui 
 occursusque iucundos, non ad pueriles dulcesque blanditias, non 
 ad incrementa studiorum. The general truth 'Incubuisti tota 
 in alteram partem etc.,' is established by means of a denial of 
 specific contrary possibilities, each case being marked by the 
 repeated non. Tac. Ann., 3, 28, 4: Exim continua per viginti 
 annos discordia, non mos, non ius. Sen. D., VI, 19, 6: Excessit 
 filius tuus terminos, intra quos servitur, excepit ilium magna et 
 aeterna pax: non pauper tatis metu, non divitiarum cura, non 
 libidinis per voluptatem animos carpentis stimulis incessitur, 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 29 
 
 non invidia felicitatis alienae tangitur, non suae premitur, ne 
 conviciis quidem ullis verecundae aures verberantur; nulla 
 publica clades prospicitur, nulla privata. Through the extended 
 analysis of magna et aeterna pax in negative form introduced by 
 the repeated non and nulla, a clear notion of this general thought 
 in its opposite positive aspect is developed in the mind of the 
 listener. Tac. G. 35, 6: ... populus inter Germanos nobilis- 
 simuSj quique magnitudinem suam malit iustitia tueri. Sine 
 cupiditate, sine impotentia, quieti secretique nulla provocant 
 bella, nullis raptibus aut latrociniis populantur. 
 B. The general statement follows the analysis. 
 
 1. It is expressed in negative form. 
 
 a. It contains an actual negative. Tac. D., 30, 21. See 
 page 13. Sen. Brev. Vit., 20, 5: . . . vita est sine fructu, sine 
 voluptate, sine ullo profectu animi. Tac. H., 4, 77, 14: Incensus 
 ira, "Non Flaccum," inquit, "non Voculam deseritis: nulla hie 
 proditio; neque aliud excusandum habeo, quam. . . ." 
 
 . The general statement contains the equivalent of a negative, 
 Tac. Ann., i, 70, 16: Pernoctavere sine utensilibus, sine igni r 
 magna pars nudo aut mulcato corpore, haud minus miserabiles'- 
 quam quos hostis circumsidet. A general idea of lack as expressed 
 by miserabiles is developed negatively in the preceding analysis, 
 
 2. The general statement is expressed in opposite positive form. 
 a. Negative analysis of a general idea of number. Diod. Sic., 
 
 3 I3> 3 : v V"P Tvyxdvei W^VUM? ovS' ai/eVeo* aTrXw? ovtc 
 a/>/>G>o-T09, o v TreTnj/aoyteVo?, o v yeyrjpa/coK, o v yvvaucbs curOe'veia, 
 TT a i> T e 9 8 e TrXrjyais ava^/Ka^ovraLirpoa-icaprepelv rofc 6/37045, .... 
 By an enumeration of a number of specific cases which are not 
 excluded from the sufferings mentioned, the general truth 
 7rai/T9 is established. Tac. G., 40, 13: Non bella ineunt, non 
 arma sumunt; clausum omne ferrum. 
 
 P. Negative analysis of any general statement. Tac. D., 6, 6: 
 Idque scire non pecuniae, non orbitati, non officii alicuius admin- 
 istration!, sed sibi ipsi dari. The general truth expressed in 
 sibi ipsi dari is established by means of an elimination of other 
 possibilities. Tac. H., 3, 70, 17: Si conventionis paeniteat, 
 non se . . . ferro peteret, non filium Vespasiani vix puberem 
 
3O THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 . . .: iret obviam legionibus et de summa rerum illic certaret. 
 The general truth iret obviam legionibus is established through 
 the elimination of opposite possibilities. Sen. Brev. Vit., 8, 5: 
 Nihil tumultuabitur, nihil admonebit velocitatis suae: tacita 
 labetur. 
 
 7. Negative analysis of a general statement in which an ex- 
 pression of degree is prominent. PI. Ep., I, 9, 5: Nihil audio, 
 quod audisse, nihil dico, quod dixisse paeniteat; nemo apud me 
 quemquem sinistris sermonibus carpi t, neminem ipse reprehendo, 
 nisi tamen me, cum parum commode scribo; nulla spe, nullo 
 timore sollicitor, nullis rumoribus inquietor: mecum tantum et 
 cum libellis loquor. O rectam sinceramque vitam, o dulce otium 
 honestumque ac paene omni negotio pulchrius! The degree of 
 satisfaction with which Pliny regards his life at his Laurentian 
 villa is developed by means of a negative analysis of circumstances 
 lacking. This accumulation results in establishing an opposite 
 general idea of its positive nature, and this is definitely expressed 
 at the close of the negative analysis by the positive statement 
 'O rectam sinceramque vitam,' followed by a further positive 
 amplification. Sen. D., VI, 26, 3: ... nil aput vos . . . 
 optabile, nil excelsum, nil splendidum, sed humilia cuncta et 
 gravia et anxia et quotam partem luminis nostri cernentia ! Tac. 
 H., 4, 76, 9: Nam Germanos . . . non iuberi, non regi, sed 
 cuncta ex libidine agere. 
 
 II. The general truth is only implied. A general negative 
 idea is prominent in the mind of the speaker, but it is only implied 
 without being definitely expressed. The analysis amplifies this 
 thought and gives the listener a clearer impression of it than he 
 would derive from the mere implication. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Sen. Const. Sap., 
 6, 8 : Bona eius solidis et inexuperabilibus munimentis praecincta 
 sunt. Non Babylonios illis muros contuleris . . ., non Car- 
 thaginis aut Numantiae moenia . . ., non Capitolium arcemve, 
 habent ista hostile vestigium. The general thought which the 
 analysis amplifies is that the strongest cities of history are not 
 to be compared with the impregnability of sapientia. This 
 general thought is implied in the sentence preceding. PL Ep., 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 31 
 
 9, 6, I : Circenses erant, quo genere spectaculi ne lemssime quidem 
 teneor. Nihil novum, nihil varium, nihil quod non semel spec- 
 tasse sufficiat. This is an analysis of a general idea that the 
 games are entirely lacking in attracting qualities, which thought is 
 suggested by the preceding statement 'ne levissime quidem 
 teneor.' Tac. G., 43, 14: Praesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu, 
 sed deos interpretatione Romana Castorem Pollucemque me- 
 morant. Ea vis numini, nomen Alcis. Nulla simulcra, nullum 
 peregrinae superstitionis vestigium. The fundamental idea 
 underlying is 'In what way is this tribe like the Romans? In 
 what way unlike them? ' The latter negative thought is analyzed 
 into the specific phrases introduced by nulla. Tac. Ann., 13, 35, 
 I : Sed Corbuloni plus molis adversus ignaviam militum quam 
 contra perfidiam hostium erat: . . . munia castrorum aegerrime 
 tolerabant. Satis constitit fuisse in eo exercitu veteranos, qui 
 non stationem, non vigilias inissent, vallum fossamque quasi nova 
 et mira viserent, sine galeis, sine loricis, nitidi et quaestuosi, 
 militia per oppida expleta. The general idea of the soldiers' 
 absolute deficiency, as implied in what precedes, is analyzed with 
 special reference, first, to their inexperience, non stationem, etc., 
 and secondly, to their equipment, sine galeis, etc. Tac. D., 40, 
 17: Rhodii quidam, plurimi Athenienses oratores extiterunt, apud 
 quos omnia populus, omnia imperiti, omnia . . . omnes poterant. 
 Nostra quoque civitas, donee erravit, donee se partibus et dissen- 
 sionibus et discordiis confecit, donee nulla fuit in foro pax, nulla 
 in senatu concordia, nulla in iudiciis moderatio, nulla superiorum 
 reverentia, nullus magistratuum modus, tulit sine dubio valen- 
 tiorem eloquentiam. . . . Just as the orators were numerous in 
 the Rhodian and Athenian states, so our state too (' nostra quoque 
 civitas') was more conducive to oratory while similar conditions 
 existed. The general idea of disorder which is developed by the 
 analysis introduced by nulla, is derived from the similar state- 
 ment made of the Rhodian and Athenian states, but which is 
 there expressed in the opposite form, 'omnia . . . omnes poter- 
 ant.' Tac. Ann., 16, I, i: Inlusit dehinc Neroni fortuna per 
 vanitatemipsius. . . . (Ann., 16, 2, i) Igitur Nero, non auctoris, 
 non ipsius negotii fide satis spectata nee missis, per quos nosceret 
 
32 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 an vera adferrentur, auget ultro rumorem, .... The analysis 
 'non auctoris, non ipsius negotii fide satis spectata' develops a 
 general thought that Nero 'did not make sufficient investigation,' 
 as implied in the phrase 'Inlusit . . . per vanitatem ipsius' at 
 the commencement of Chapter I. The analysis thus recalls 
 this general thought to the listener's attention at the beginning 
 of Chapter 2. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Tac. H., 3, 82, 3: 
 Ratio cunctandi, ne asperatus proelio miles non populo, non 
 senatui, ne templis quidem ac delubris deorum consuleret. The 
 general idea behind the analysis is a fear that no one will be 
 respected, suggestion of which is contained in the expression 
 'ne templis quidem ac delubris deorum' ('not even the gods'). 
 Tac. Ann., 2, 14, 10: Non loricam Germano, non galeam, ne scuta 
 quidem ferro nervove firmata, sed. . . . The general thought 
 nihil underlies the analysis. Tac. D., 23, n. See page 14. 
 Tac. Ann., 6, 22, 5: ... non initia nostri, non finem, non denique 
 homines dis curae. The analysis is of a general negative idea, 
 'nothing of human affairs.' This is suggested by the phrase 
 non denique homines, and the balance initia . . . finem, repre- 
 senting the two extremes of possibility, aids in establishing this 
 general truth. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. A general negative 
 idea is prominent in the speaker's mind, even though he gives it 
 no definite expression either before or after the analysis, and its 
 content can be ascertained only by evidence within the analysis. 
 Florus, 3, 16, i: . . . C. Gracchum, hominem sine tribu, sine 
 notore, sine nomine. The repetition of sine with each member 
 of the analysis keeps the thought centered on a general idea of 
 humility in every respect, which the analysis develops. Tac. 
 Ann., 2, 14, 17: ... non divini, non humani iuris memores. 
 The repetition of non with both members of the analysis, especi- 
 ally in this example where the cases cited exhaust existing possi- 
 bilities, tends to establish a general truth nulli-iuris, even though 
 this is itself not definitely expressed. Tac. Ann., 13, 43, 21: . . . 
 in insulas Baleares pellitur, non in ipso discrimine, non post 
 damnationem fractus animo. ' At no time ' is the general thought 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 33 
 
 which is here established by an analysis into cases which exhaust 
 existing possibilities. Tac. Ann., 15, 44, 7: Sed non ope humana, 
 non largitionibus principis aut deum placamentis decedebat 
 infamia, quin iussum incendium crederetur. Tac. H., I, 44, i: 
 Nullam caedem Otho maiore laetitia excepisse, nullum caput tarn 
 insatiabilibus oculis perlustrasse dicitur. ' Otho had seen nothing 
 with greater delight.' PL Ep., 2, 9, 4. See page 14. 
 
 In swearing to an oath there is a fundamental idea present, 
 and this may be amplified either positively or negatively, either 
 (i) that one will perform something, or (ii) that one will not 
 perform the opposite thing. In this second case, the repetition 
 of a negative before each detail of the analysis centers the atten- 
 tion both of the person taking the oath and of the listener on the 
 fundamental idea, namely (in the cases immediately following), 
 that the person swearing 'will surely refrain from using violence,' 
 that he 'will surely refrain from yielding.' Tac. Ann., 12, 47, 2: 
 Adicit ius iurandum, non ferro, non veneno vim adlaturum. Tac. 
 Ann., 12, 34, 9: . . . religione obstringi, non telis, non vulneribus 
 cessuros. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 1. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., 4, 25, 8 and 
 Ann., 3, 58, 12. See page 15 f. 
 
 2. The general truth is imp ied. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. H., 3, 66, 9: Nunc 
 pecuniam et familiam et beatos Campaniae sinus promitti: set 
 ubi imperium Vespasianus invaserit, non ipsi, non amicis eius, 
 non denique exercitibus securitatem nisi exstincto aemulatore, 
 redituram. 'Vespasian's promises are generous, but, on the 
 other hand, his rival must be put out of the way, or his position 
 will be in no way secure.' The analysis adds clarity to the 
 second member of the contrast. Tac. D., 32, 19: . . . ut quae 
 olim omnium artium domino, pulcherrimo comitatu pectora im- 
 plebat, nunc circumcisa et amputate,, sine apparatu, sine honore, 
 paene dixerim sine ingenuitate, quasi una ex sordidissimis arti- 
 ficiis discatur. The general thought which is amplified in this 
 second member of the contrast, is implied in the phrase ' circum- 
 cisa et amputata.' 
 
34 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. PL Ep., 2, 7, i. See 
 page 1 6. 
 
 3. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. PL Ep., 3, 9, 30: Est 
 lege cautum, ut reus ante peragatur, tune de praevaricatore 
 quaeratur, videlicet quia optime ex accusatione ipsa accusatoris 
 fides aestimatur. Norbano tamen non ordo legis, non legati nomen , 
 non inquisitionis officium praesidio fuit; tanta conflagravit invidia 
 homo alioqui flagitiosus, ... ut .... Norbanus' case is con- 
 trasted with the usual procedure as expressed in the foregoing. 
 Sen. Provid., 2, 5: Non vides quanto aliter patres, aliter matres 
 indulgeant? Illi excitari iubent liberos ad studia obeunda 
 mature, feriatis quoque diebus non patiuntur esse otiosos et 
 sudorem illis et interdum lacrimas excutiunt; at matres fovere in 
 sinu, continere in umbra volunt, numquam contristari, numquam 
 flere, numquam laborare. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Sen. Clem., I, 8, 2: 
 Quam multa tibi non licent, quae nobis beneficio tuo licent! 
 Possum in qualibet parte urbis solus incedere sine timore, quamvis 
 nullus sequatur comes, nullus sit domi, nullus ad latus gladius: 
 tibi in tua pace armato vivendum est. The general thought which 
 is expressed in analysis, is contrasted with 'tibi . . . armato/ 
 which follows. 
 
 C. Analysis occurs in both members of the contrast. Cic. 
 SulL, 14 : Multa, cum essem consul, de summis rei publicae pe- 
 riculis audivi, multa quaesivi, multa cognovi ; nullus umquam de 
 Sulla nuntius ad me, nullum indicium, nullae litterae pervenerunt, 
 nulla suspicio. Sen. D., VI, 12, 2: Licet itaque nil tibi industria 
 eius contulerit, nihil diligentia custodierit, nihil prudentia sua- 
 serit, ipsum quod habuisti, quod amasti, fructus est. 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 B. An extended narration or description follows. Tac. H. 4, 
 52, 4. See page 19. 
 
 2. ANAPHORA OF PRONOUNS. 
 i. Hie, ille, is. 
 
 I. The general truth is sometimes reflected in the content of 
 the repeated word. For example, is, when it is used as an 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 35 
 
 adjective, can often be translated such, and is then suggestive of a 
 general truth with content of degree. 
 
 1. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Tac. D., 23, 21. See page 21. 
 Tac. H., i, 15, 16: Est tibi frater pari nobilitate, natu maiore 
 dignus hac fortuna, nisi tu potior esses. Ea aetas tua, quae 
 cupiditates adulescentiae iam effugerit, ea vita, in qua nihil 
 praeteritum excusandum habeas. This is an analysis of the 
 general idea expressed in potior. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Tac. H., I, 62, 15: 
 . . . longumque per spatium is gaudentium militum clamor, ea 
 quies interritae alitis fuit, ut haud dubium magnae et prosperae 
 rei omen acciperetur. The purpose of the repeated demonstrative 
 is to call attention to these specific illustrations of a general idea 
 of degree as expressed in magnae et prosperae rei omen. 
 
 II. The general truth is only implied. Tac. H., 4, 42, 34: 
 Non timemus Vespasianum; ea principis aetas, ea moderatio. 
 An implication of the general thought which is analyzed here, is 
 contained in the expression Non timemus Vespasianum. 
 
 2. But in most cases of the demonstrative in anaphora, the 
 repeated word gives no hint of the general truth. A general 
 idea is, however, prominent in the speaker's mind and is analyzed 
 into specific details, the logical subject being repeated through 
 the demonstrative with each particular impression. The 
 listener's attention is thus repeatedly fixed upon the general 
 truth which the analysis amplifies. This may be a general ex- 
 pression of number, as omnes, totum, etc.; it may be a general 
 expression of degree, as maxima, optimum, etc.; or it may have 
 other meaning, frequently involving the entire sentence. In any 
 case the process is the same : the truth of the general statement is 
 established by means of an analysis into a number of specific 
 instances. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. 
 
 a. Analysis of a general idea of number or completeness. 
 Trogus, 41, 3, 4: Equis omni tempore vectantur; illis bella, illis 
 convivia, illis publica ac privata officia obeunt; super illos ire, 
 
36 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 consistere, mercari, colloqui. See page 23 for a discussion. Tac. 
 D., 30, 19: . . . ut omnem omnium artium varietatem complec- 
 teretur. Itaque hercle in libris Ciceronis deprehendere licet, 
 . . . non . . . ullius artis ingenuae scientiam ei defuisse. Ille 
 dialecticae subtilitatem, ille moralis partis utilitatem, ille rerum 
 motus causasque cognoverat. The repeated ille introduces an 
 analysis of a general idea of number, which is expressed positively, 
 'omnem omnium artium varietatem complecteretur,' and also 
 negatively, 'non ullius artis ingenuae scientiam ei defuisse/ 
 Tac. H., 3, 13, 12: ... mox cuncta simul erumpunt. ". . ." 
 (3, 14, i). Haec singuli, haec universi, ut quemque dolor in- 
 pulerat, vociferantes, .... The analysis develops the general 
 thought cuncta already expressed twelve lines earlier at the be- 
 ginning of the preceding speech. The analysis with anaphora 
 causes the listener's thought to recur to this general idea. Sen. 
 D., VI, 23, 2: Sapientis animum totum in mortem prominere, 
 hoc velle, hoc meditari; hac semper cupidine ferri in exteriora 
 tendentem. Through this reiteration of the thought 'animum 
 ... in mortem prominere' the general truth totum is established. 
 Tac. Ann., 3, 33, 15: . . . plum uxoribus obiectari: his statim 
 adhaerescere deterrimum quemque provincialium, ab his negotia 
 suscipi, transigi. 
 
 b. Analysis of a general idea of degree. Sen. D., VI, 20, I 
 and Brev. Vit., 9, I. See pages 4 and 23. PI. Ep., 2, 14, 6: 
 Tanti constat, ut sis disertissimus. Hoc pretio quamlibet nu- 
 merosa subsellia implentur, hoc ingens corona colligitur, hoc 
 infiniti clamores commoventur, .... The cheapness of elo- 
 quence, as expressed by tanti constat, is the general truth which 
 the specific illustrations amplify. PI. Ep., 2, 13, 5: Hunc ego 
 . . . arte familiariterque dilexi : ille meus in urbe, ille in secessu 
 contubernalis, cum hoc seria, cum hoc iocos miscui. The repeti- 
 tion of the almost synonymous adverbs arte familiariterque has 
 the effect of a modification of the degree of comparison, and this 
 general idea is developed by the analysis. Tac. G., 7, 8 : Quodque 
 praecipuum fortitudinis incitamentum est, non casus nee fortuita 
 conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propin- 
 quitates; et in proximo pignora, unde feminarum ululatus audiri, 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 37 
 
 unde vagitus infantium. Hi cuique sanctissimi testes, hi maximi 
 laudatores. The general thought which underlies the analysis 
 introduced by the repeated hi is that the presence of the familiae 
 et propinguitates (represented by hi) is a praecipuum fortitudinis 
 incitamentum. Cic. N. D., 2, 148: lam vero . . . eloquendi vis, 
 guam est praeclara quamque divina! . . . hac cohortamur, hac 
 persuademus, hac consolamur afflictos, hac deducimus perterritos 
 a timore, hac gestientes conprimimus, hac cupiditates iracundias- 
 que restinguimus, haec nos iuris, legum, urbium societate devinxit, 
 haec a vita inmani et fera segregavit. Tac. D., 36, 16: . . . 
 quanto quisque plus dicendo poterat, tanto facilius honores ad- 
 sequebatur, tanto magis in ipsis honoribus collegas suos anteibat, 
 tanto plus apud principes gratiae, plus auctoritatis apud patres, 
 plus notitiae ac nominis apud plebem parabat. Hi clientelis 
 etiam exterarum nationum redundabant, hos ituri in provincias 
 magistratus reverebantur, hos reversi colebant, hos et praeturae 
 et consulatus vocare ultro videbantur, hi ne privati quidem sine 
 potestate erant, .... The general thought analyzed here is 
 that of a high degree of power and importance on the part of 
 the orators, an idea which has already been expressed in analysis 
 in the preceding sentence. 
 
 c. Analysis of other general truths. Quint. D., 249, p. 24, 
 9. See page 24. Val Max., 6, 3, 10: Lex enim . . . tibi meos 
 tantum praefinit oculos, quibus formam tuam adprobes. His 
 decoris instrumenta conpara, his esto speciosa, horum te certiori 
 crede notitiae. PL Ep., i, 3, 3: Quin tu . . . humiles et sordidas 
 curas aliis mandas et ipse te in alto isto pinguigue secessu studiis 
 adseris. Hoc sit negotium tuum, hoc otium, hie labor, haec 
 quies, in his vigilia, in his etiam somnus reponatur. 'Give up 
 all other pursuits and devote yourself to study; let this be your 
 every care.' This is the general thought which the analysis 
 amplifies. Tac. H., 3, 84, 8 : Proprium esse militis decus in castris 
 illam patriam, illos penates. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. 
 
 a. General idea of number. Tac. D., 34, 3: . . . deducebatur 
 ... ad eum oratorem, qui principem in civitate locum obtinebat. 
 Hunc sectari, hunc prosequi, huius omnibus dictionibus inter esse 
 
38 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 sive in iudiciis sive in contionibus adsuescebat, .... The 
 analysis directs the attention to the general idea which is ex- 
 pressed in omnibus dictionibus. By preparing the way for such 
 a general statement, it causes this to stand out more prominently 
 in the listener's mind when it is finally uttered than would be the 
 case otherwise. PI. Ep., 9, 33, 6: Hoc altero die, hoc tertio, hoc 
 pluribus, donee homines innutritos mari subiret timendi pudor. 
 Sen. Brev. Vit., 2, 4: Omnis denique istos ab infimis usque ad 
 summos pererra: hie advocat, hie adest, ille periclitatur, ille 
 defendit, ille iudicat, nemo se sibi vindicat, alius in alium con- 
 sumitur. 1 
 
 II. The general truth is only implied. A general thought 
 which is at first merely suggested to the listener, if in fact it 
 occurs to his mind at all, is through an analysis made clear and 
 apparent by the speaker. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. 
 
 c. General truths of miscellaneous character. Tac. Ann., 4, 
 38, 3: ... et vos testor et meminisse posteros volo; qui satis 
 super que memoriae meae tribuent, ut maioribus meis dignum, 
 rerum vestrarum providum, constantem in periculis, offensionum 
 pro utilitate publica non pavidum credant. Haec mihi in animis 
 vestris templa, hae pulcherrimae effigies et mansurae. Templa 
 and effigies are mentioned as representing specific honors in 
 analysis of a general idea 'these are the honors which I desire.' 
 Such an analysis expresses the general thought more clearly than 
 the mere suggestion of this in the clause preceding, 'qui satis 
 superque memoriae meae tribuent.' Tac. Agr., 46, 5: Admira- 
 tione te potius et immortalibus laudibus et . . . similitudine 
 colamus: is verus honos, ea coniunctissimi cuiusque pietas. Id 
 filiae quoque uxorique praeceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam 
 
 1 Otto does not call such cases real anaphora, but correlation. For he says 
 (p. 47): "Si ilia secunda vox idem significat ac prior, anaphora est, si minus, 
 correlatio." But even if the repeated demonstratives hie and ille do not 
 refer to the same antecedent, except that they represent omnes partitively, 
 nevertheless this repetition directs the attention to each phrase individually 
 in the same way as in the various cases already discussed. These phrases 
 form specific representations of a general truth which is definitely formulated 
 at the close of the analysis, 'alius in alium (= omnes) consumitur,' and 
 negatively, 'nemo se sibi vindicat.' 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 39 
 
 venerari,ut .... The general thought underlying the analysis, 
 4 this is the honor which should be shown Agricola by each near 
 relative,' is suggested by the preceding sentence. 
 
 Tac. G., 17, 13 r 1 Quamquam severa illic matrimonia, nee ullam 
 morum partem magis laudaveris. ... In haec munera uxor 
 accipitur, atque in vicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro adfert: 
 hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos coniugales deos 
 arbitrantur. Ne se mulier extra virtutum cogitationes extraque 
 bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii auspiciis 
 admonetur venire se laborum periculorumque sociam, idem in 
 pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque: hoc iuncti boves, 
 hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denuntiant. Sic vivendum, 
 sic pereundum : accipere se guae liberis inviolata ac digna reddat, 
 guae nurus accipiant rursusque ad nepotes referantur. The 
 opening sentence of Chapter 18 'nee ullam morum partem magis 
 laudaveris' gives an implication of the general thought which is 
 underlying in Tacitus' mind, and which it is his purpose to recall 
 to the listener by means of specific analyses marked by anaphora. 
 From that sentence one derives the notion of a high standard of 
 the marriage state among the Germans. The general thought 
 in his mind might be formulated thus: "The munera serve the 
 Germans as the outward sign of the deep inner importance of the 
 marriage rite as instituting a lasting union." It is this idea which 
 lies at the basis of each specific analysis throughout the entire 
 chapter, and it is this which Tacitus seeks to convey to the listener. 
 
 Anaphora is found in several analyses of this general thought. 
 Analysis i: "Hoc maximum vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos 
 coniugales deos arbitrantur." Hoc . . . haec . . . hos represent 
 munera, and it is Tacitus' intention that with each member of 
 the analysis the thought of the listener shall recur to munera 
 and thus to the general truth, namely, that these munera are 
 regarded by the Germans ('arbitrantur') as signifying a bond of 
 solemnity and importance. The specific expressions which 
 represent this idea in the analysis, maximum vinculum, arcana 
 sacra, coniugales deos, being themselves suggestive of solemnity, 
 
 1 There is no logical reason, except a lack of uniformity for reference, 
 why chapter 18 should not be made to begin at this point. Cf. the editions 
 by Schweizer-Sidler, Gudeman, and Allen. 
 
4O THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 keep the listener's thought fixed on this general idea. Analysis 2 : 
 " Idem in pace, idem in proelio passuram ausuramque." Analysis 
 4: "Sic vivendum, sic pereundum." These analyses develop 
 the idea of lasting companionship, 'at all times, in peace and 
 war, through life and till death,' which thought is suggested by 
 the double mode of expression preceding, 'ne se mulier extra 
 virtutum cogitationes extraque bellorum casus putet' (nega- 
 tively), and 'admonetur venire se laborum periculorumque 
 sociam' (positively). 1 Analysis 3: "Hoc iuncti boves, hoc 
 paratus equus, hoc data arma denuntiant." The repeated hoc 
 represents the thought 'laborum periculorumque sociam,' and 
 the demonstratives are followed by specific illustrations of 
 munera, iuncti boves, paratus equus , data arma. "The wedding 
 dower signifies to the Germans a lasting companionship." 
 Analysis 5: "accipere se guae liberis inviolata ac digna reddat, 
 quae nurus accipiant rursusque ad nepotes referantur." Here 
 again there is analyzed the general idea of the inviolability of 
 the marriage dower as symbolic of the marriage state. 
 
 Tac. G., 13, II : Magnaque et comitum aemulatio, quibus 
 primus apud principem suum locus, et principum, cui plurimi et 
 acerrimi comites. Haec dignitas, hae vires, magno semper elec- 
 torum iuvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus, in bello prae- 
 sidium. Nee solum in sua gente cuique, sed apud finitimas 
 quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria est, si numero ac virtute 
 comitatus emineat. The general idea of advantage enjoyed by 
 the principes is developed in these two analyses haec dignitas, 
 hae vires and id nomen, ea gloria. An implication of this general 
 thought is contained in the expression ' magna . . . aemulatio 
 . . . principum,' etc. Tac. G., 13, 2: Sed arma sumere non ante 
 cuiquam moris, quam civitas suffecturum probaverit. Turn in 
 ipso concilio vel principum aliquis vel pater, vel propinqui scuto 
 frameaque iuvenem ornant: haec apud illos toga, hie primus 
 iuventae honos; ante hoc domus pars videntur, mox rei publicae. 
 The high importance which is felt concerning the investiture of 
 arms as significant of the youth's entry into public life is only 
 
 1 These two cases really belong under class II A in the discussion of idem 
 and sic in anaphora, but are included here for a clearer comprehension of the 
 effect which anaphora has in this entire chapter. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 41 
 
 hinted at in the sentences preceding, but the analysis develops 
 a clear notion of this general idea, of which the individual 
 members toga, iuventae honos, pars . . . rei publicae are sug- 
 gestive. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 a. General idea of number. Tac. Ann., 2, 46, 2: ... sed 
 Inguiomerum tenens, illo in corpore decus omne Cheruscorum, 
 illius consiliis gesta quae prospere ceciderint testabatur. The 
 repeated word centers the attention on Inguiomerus in analysis 
 of the general idea that to him is due all success. 
 
 c. General truths of miscellaneous character. Tac. Ann., 12, 
 34, 3: Enimvero Caratacus hue illuc volitans ilium diem, illam 
 aciem testabatur aut reciperandae libertatis aut servitutis 
 aeternae initium fore. The general idea underlying is 'now' 
 and this is analyzed into the specific expressions ilium diem, illam 
 aciem. Florus, 2, 2, 4: Igitur specie quidem socios iuvandi, re 
 autem sollicitante praeda, quamquam territaret novitas rei, 
 tamen tanta in virtute fiducia est ille rudis, ille pastorius popu- 
 lus vereque terrester ostendit nihil interesse virtutis, .... The 
 simplicity of this people is the general thought which is here 
 developed in analysis. Tac. H., 3, 10, 23: Mox conversus ad 
 signa et bellorum deos, hostium potius exercitibus ilium furorem, 
 illam discordiam inicerent orabat, .... Almost synonymous 
 terms reiterate the general thought, which is by this means 
 rendered more apparent than would be the case otherwise. 
 Quint. D., 260, p. 68, 16: Satis poenarum dederunt: ego illud 
 praesto, illud promitto. Quint. D., 257, p. 51, 21: Hoc scio, 
 hoc ipsius epistolis cognovi; hinc redimi potest. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. G., 20, i: In 
 omni domo nudi ac sordidi in hos artus, in haec corpora, quae 
 miramur, excrescunt. The analysis in hos artus, in haec corpora, 
 with in hos, in haec repeated in anaphora, develops a contrast 
 to what would naturally be expected from the rearing of the 
 children, namely, to the idea expressed in nudi ac sordidi. Hos 
 and haec are sometimes construed as meaning 'those seen here 
 
42 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 in Rome/ 1 but it seems to the present writer that the underlying 
 idea in the analysis is rather 'these remarkable limbs, these 
 remarkable bodies, which we behold with wonder,' the general 
 thought being derived by contrast with nudi ac sordidi, and 
 being definitely formulated in quae miramur, which follows. 2 
 3. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Quint. D., 252, p. 33, 
 30 : Attamen in ceteris . . . possitis tribus emere, dispersa pecunia 
 parare gratiam : ubi vero de sacerdotio guaeritur, et iudicium religio 
 agit, illam populus spectat, illam intuetur, guae semper futura 
 sit virgo, guae a cultu templorum, a sacris non recessura. A 
 contrast to possitis tribus emere is developed in this analysis 
 marked by anaphora, in order to express more clearly the opposite 
 procedure in the case de sacerdotio from that pursued in ceteris. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Aesch. Fr., 350, 5: 
 
 TO <&ot/3ov Oelov ai^euS 
 elvai, pavnicr) (Spvov 
 6 8* a v r o 9 vpv&v, a v r o 9 ev 60 ivy nrap&v, 
 a v T b 9 raS* et7ra>z/, a v T o 9 eo-nv 6 Kravwv 
 TOV TratSa TOV efJLov. 
 
 The general truth which is analyzed in the first three phrases 
 introduced by auro9 is contrasted with the thought introduced 
 by the last au-nfe. 
 
 C. Analysis occurs in both members of the contrast. Quint. 
 D., 257, p. 52, 6: Itaque intellego mihi, iudices, non in hoc tan turn 
 laborandum, ut iram patris mitigem, ut leniam: illud est partium 
 mearum, illud vobis adhibitis rogo, in gratiam velit redire iam 
 cum propinquo meo, cum redemptore suo. Cic. Milo, 72 and 73. 
 Cicero here employs an elaborate anaphora of both eum and qui 
 in order to present a clear characterization of Clodius in contrast 
 to Sp. Manlius and Ti. Gracchus, mention of whom in the 
 preceding clause is accompanied by anaphora of non. 
 
 1 Cf . Gerber-Greef, Lexicon Taciteum, p. 524: "quae hie (Romae) vide- 
 mus," and Schweizer-Sidler, Germania, ed. 5, p. 49, note: "zu diesen wie wir 
 sie taglich hier in Rom sehen." 
 
 2 Cf. Furneaux, Germania, p. 74, note: "hos . . . haec, explained by quae 
 miramur." 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 43 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. An extended narration or description precedes. See page 
 i8f for a discussion of the following cases: Mela, i, 4, 24, PL Ep., 
 5, 6, 28, and Tac. Agr., 18, i. 
 
 ii. Qui. 1 
 
 The repeated relative does not reflect the content of the general 
 truth. The antecedent of this repeated pronoun is thought of 
 by the speaker in a certain connection, and with this relation 
 prominent in his mind as a general truth, he analyzes it into spe- 
 cific parts. By repeating the same relative with each member of 
 the analysis, he makes the listener also repeatedly recall this same 
 relation, in this way establishing the general truth. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Sen. Brev. Vit. 12, 2: Quorum 
 non otiosa vita dicenda est, sed desidiosa occupatio. Ilium tu 
 otiosum vocas, qui Corinthia . . . anxia suptilitate concinnat et 
 maiorem dierum partem in aeruginosis lamellis consumit? Qui 
 in ceromate . . . spectator puerorum rixantium sedet? Qui iu- 
 mentorum suorum greges in aetatium et colorum paria diducit? 
 Qui athletas novissimos pascit? These various clauses intro- 
 duced by qui amplify the general thought ' Non otiosa vita dicenda 
 est.' Cic. Arch., 12, 31: Quae cum ita sint, petimus a vobis, 
 iudices, si qua non modo humana, verum etiam divina in tantis 
 ingeniis commendatio debet esse, ut eum, qui vos, qui vestros 
 imperatores, qui populi Romani res gestas semper ornavit, qui 
 etiam his recentibus . . . periculis aeternum se testimonium 
 laudis daturum esse profitetur . . . , sic in vestram accipiatis 
 fidem, ut . . . . The analysis amplifies the general thought 
 tantis ingeniis. Tac. Agr., 15, 19: lam Britannorum etiam deos 
 misereri, qui Romanum ducem absentem, qui relegatum in alia 
 insula exercitum detinerent. Tac. Ann., 12, 5, 14: Quod porro 
 honestius censoriae mentis levamentum quam adsumere coniugem, 
 
 1 A somewhat detailed consideration of negatives and of demonstratives in 
 anaphora has been made intentionally, in order to illustrate in full the general 
 manner in which the author regards cases of the figure. From this point, 
 however, the treatment will be somewhat briefer, and the classification into 
 general ideas of number, of degree, or of miscellaneous sort will not be con- 
 tinued, although such a division might equally well be made throughout. 
 
44 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 prosperis dubiisque sociam, cui cogitationes intimas, cui parvos 
 liberos tradat, non luxui aut voluptatibus adsuefactus, sed .... 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Sen. Vit. Beat., 
 2, 4: Vides istos qui eloquentiam laudant, qui opes sequuntur, 
 qui gratiae adulantur, qui potentiam extollunt? Omnes aut 
 sunt hostes aut . . . esse possunt : quam magnus mirantium tarn 
 magnus invidentium populus est. The effect of the repeated 
 qui is to call attention to each member of this analysis in develop- 
 ment of a general notion of number which is expressed by quam 
 magnus . . . populus at the close. 1 PI. Ep., 3, 16, 8: Nempe 
 enim . . . daturi estis consulari viro servulos aliquos, quorum 
 e manu cibum capiat, a quibus vestiatur, a quibus calcietur; omnia 
 sola praestabo. This analysis imparts more definite content to 
 omnia than would otherwise be the case. Sen. Brev. Vit., 4, 4: 
 Qui omnia videbat ex se uno pendentia, qui hominibus gentibus- 
 que fortunam dabat, ilium diem laetissimus cogitabat, quo 
 magnitudinem suam exueret. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Tac. Agr., 18, 20: 
 Depositis omnibus sarcinis lectissimos auxiliarium, quibus nota 
 vada et patrius nandi usus, quo simul seque et arma et equos 
 regunt, ita repente inmisit, ut obstupefacti hostes, qui classem, 
 qui navis, qui mare expectabant. Obstupefacti suggests that the 
 enemy had opposite expectations, and this implication is amplified 
 by the enumeration of specific illustrations of their contrary 
 expectations, classem, navis, mare, each introduced by qui. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Tac. Ann., 13, 21, 17: 
 Aut exsistat qui cohortes in urbe temptatas, qui provinciarum 
 fidem labefactatam, denique servos vel libertos ad scelus corruptos 
 arguat. The general thought which is here analyzed into a suc- 
 cession of possibilities is 'Let someone charge me, if he can, with 
 bribery in any connection whatsoever.' A suggestion of this 
 general idea is contained in the expression 'denique servos vel 
 libertos,' which follows at the close of this enumeration. 
 
 1 Otto would call such examples correlation rather than anaphora. But 
 the anaphoric use of these relatives in introducing specific illustrations of a 
 general truth is not affected in the least by the fact that they refer to different 
 persons. Cf. p. 38, note. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 45 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Verg., I, 234: 
 
 Certe hinc Romanes olim volventibus annis, 
 Hinc fore ductores revocato a sanguine Teucri, 
 Qui mare, qui terras omni dicione tenerent. 
 
 The repeated qui calls attention to mare and terras, which exhaust 
 existing possibilities and establish the general truth everything. 
 Tac. Ann., 13, 41, 17: Ob haec consalutatus imperator Nero, et 
 senatus consul to supplicationes habitae, statuaeque et arcus 
 et continui consulatus principi, utque inter festos referretur 
 dies, quo patrata victoria, quo nuntiata, quo relatum de ea esset, 
 .... The repeated relatives represent the antecedent dies and 
 each refers to a different day. It is from an individual con- 
 sideration of each detail of the analysis, to which the repeated 
 quo calls attention, that the general truth is established that there 
 is not one festival, but three; for the expression 'ut inter festos 
 referretur dies' does not necessarily imply the existence of more 
 than a single festival day. Tac. H., I, 44, 7: Praefixa contis 
 capita gestabantur inter signa cohortium iuxta aquilam legionis, 
 certatim ostentantibus cruentas manus qui occiderant, qui inter- 
 fuerant, qui vere qui falso ut pulchrum et memorabile facinus 
 iactabant. The accumulation of a number of specific cases 
 marked by the repetition of the relative, establishes a general 
 feeling that there was a considerable number of these persons 
 ostentantibus cruentas manus. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 3. A. The contrasted member precedes. Sen. Brev. Vit., 14, 
 2: Quidni ab hoc exiguo et caduco temporis transitu in ilia toto 
 nos demus animo, quae immensa, quae aeterna sunt, quae cum 
 melioribus communia? The effect of the analysis with anaphora 
 is to add clarity to the underlying general thought, which is 
 contrasted with the preceding expression ' hoc exiguo et caduco 
 temporis transitu.' Sen. Tranq. An., 3, 3: Nee enim is solus rei 
 publicae prodest, qui candidates extrahit et tuetur reos et de pace 
 belloque censet, sed qui iuventutem exhortatur, qui . . . virtutem 
 instillat animis, qui ad pecuniam luxuriamque cursu ruentis 
 prensat .... 
 
46 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. PI. Ep. I, 23, 2: . . . 
 abstinui causis agendis, primum quod deforme arbitrabar, cui 
 adsurgere, cui loco cedere omnes oporteret, hunc omnibus 
 sedentibus stare, .... Definite meaning is imparted to deforme 
 by means of a contrast between the thought expressed in the 
 analysis introduced by the repeated cui and the expression hunc 
 omnibus sedentibus stare. Sen. D., VI, 26, i: Puta itaque . . . 
 patrem tuum, Marcia, . . . non illo ingenio, quo civilia bella 
 deflevit, quo proscribentis in aeternum ipse proscripsit, sed tanto 
 elatiore, quanto est ipse sublimior, dicere: .... 
 
 C. Analysis occurs in both members of the contrast. Sen. D., 
 XII, 14, 2. For Val. Max., 6, 9, 14 see page 18. 
 
 iii. Quis? 
 
 I. The repeated interrogative sometimes reflects the content 
 of the general truth. 
 
 . Where it has a negative content. The piling up of inter- 
 rogatives introducing questions which involve negative answers 
 (i. e., so-called rhetorical questions) imparts a general negative 
 idea. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. No clear cases 
 were noted. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. Cic. Cat. 2, 7: Uno mehercule Catilina exhausto levata mihi 
 et recreata res publica videtur. Quid enim mali aut sceleris 
 fingi aut cogitari potest, quod non ille conceperit? Quis tota 
 Italia veneficus, quis gladiator, quis latro, quis sicarius, quis 
 parricida, quis testamentorum subiector, quis circumscriptor, quis 
 ganeo, quis nepos, quis adulter, quae mulier infamis, quis corruptor 
 iuventutis, quis corruptus, quis perditus inveniri potest, qui se 
 cum Catilina non familiarissime vixisse fateatur? The general 
 thought underlying the analysis is that there is no one of the 
 type which the various members of this enumeration exemplify, 
 who has not been with Catiline. This general thought is implied 
 in the sentences immediately preceding. Sen. Brev. Vit., 9, i: 
 Quod in manu fortunae positum est, disponis, quod in tua, 
 dimittis. Quo spectas, quo te extendis? This is an analysis of 
 the general negative idea 'You do not bestir yourself at all,' 
 which is implied in disponis and dimittis. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 47 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. A succession of specific 
 questions involving negative answers and each introduced by 
 quis tends to establish a general negative truth. Sen. Brev. Vit., 
 13, 9: Nam ut concedas omnia eos fide bona dicere, ut ad prae- 
 stationem scribant: tamen cuius ista errores minuent? Cuius 
 cupiditates prement? Quern fortiorem, quern iustiorem, quern 
 liberaliorem f acient ? The general idea underlying all these specific 
 questions is no one. Tac. D., 40, 13: Quern enim oratorem Lace- 
 daemonium, quern Cretensem accepimus? Tac. H., 3, 24, n: 
 Vos . . . nisi vincitis, pagani, quis alius imperator, quae castra 
 alia excipient? Florus, 3, 18, 5: Quid hac clade tristius? quid 
 calami tosius? 
 
 P. Where the repeated pronoun has a content of degree. In 
 such a case the pronouns can be translated 'what a,' and introduce 
 analyses of a general feeling of charm or delight, which the 
 repeated qui expresses with each member of the analysis. 
 
 I and II. No clear cases were noted. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. D., 6, 14: lam 
 vero qui togatorum comitatus et egressus! quae in publico 
 species! quae in iudiciis veneratio! quod illud gaudium con- 
 surgendi adsistendique inter tacentes et in unum converses! 
 PI. Ep., 2, 10, 7: Imaginor enim, qui concursus, quae admiratio 
 te, qui clamor, quod etiam silentium maneat. PI. Ep., I, 12, n: 
 Cogito, quo amico, quo viro caream. Tac. D., 24, 2 : Quo torrente, 
 quo impetu saeculum nostrum defendit! 
 
 2. The repeated interrogative does not always reflect the 
 content of the general truth, but is often used solely to call 
 attention to the specific members of the analysis following. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A . It precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., 1,3, I : Quid agit Comum, 
 tuae meaeque deliciae? quid suburbanum amoenissimum? 
 Quid ilia porticus verna semper? Quid platanon opacissimus? 
 Quid euripus viridis et gemmeus? Quid subiectus et serviens 
 lacus? Quid ilia mollis et tamen solida gestatio? Quid balineum 
 illud . . .? Quid triclinia ilia popularia, ilia paucorum? Quid 
 cubicula diurna, nocturna? These specific questions amplify 
 the general question, 'Quid agit Comum. . . ?' This analysis 
 
48 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 clearly illustrates the rhetorical character of anaphora as used 
 by Pliny, for what follows the general truth quoted above is 
 solely a rhetorical amplification of this single question, and rep- 
 resents the substance of one half the entire letter. Sen. D., VI, 
 22, 2 : Aut in popinam ventremque procubuerunt toil summaque illis 
 curarum fuit, quid essent, quid biberent. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Tac. Ann., 13, 
 56, 2 : Id dis . . . placitum, ut arbitrium penes Romanos maneret, 
 quid darent, quid adimerent, neque olios indices quam se ipsos 
 paterentur. The balanced use of two specific cases as exhausting 
 all possibilities develops a general idea that ' omne arbitrium penes 
 Romanos maneret,' which thought is definitely expressed at the 
 close of the analysis in the opposite general form ' neque olios 
 iudices quam se ipsos paterentur.' 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., 2, II, 25: 
 Habes res urbanas : invicem rusticos scribe. Quid arbusculae tuae, 
 quid vineae, quid segetes agunt, quid oves delicatissimae? 
 Rusticos expresses the general nature of the subject matter in 
 which Pliny is interested, and the questions following form an 
 analysis of this. He is interested in each detail, and the succes- 
 sion of specific cases marked by the repeated quid establishes such 
 a general thought of omnes rusticos. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. PL Ep., I, 22, 12: 
 Habes quid timeam, quid optem, quid etiam in posterum destinem: 
 tu quid egeris, quid agas, quid velis agere . . . scribe. A general 
 numerical idea is developed by these enumerations of details 
 marked in each case by anaphora. Sen. D., VI, 17, 5: Audisti 
 quid te invitare possit, quid absterrere: proinde aut naviga aut 
 resiste. The use in the analysis of the two extremes of possibility 
 'quid invitare possit, quid absterrere' as representative of all 
 cases, establishes a general idea of completeness. Pindar OL, 2, I : 
 
 T Lv a Oedv, T C v ' ijpcoa, r iv a S' avSpa 
 
 The analysis with repeated TiW centers the attention on the 
 general thought rlva /ceXa^o-o/iez/ ; Tac. Ann., 2, 70, 2: Si 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 49 
 
 limen obsideretur, si effundendus spiritus sub oculis inimicorum 
 foret, quid deinde miserrimae coniugi, quid infantibus liberis 
 eventurum? 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Sen. Brev. Vit., 19, i: 
 Simile tu putas esse, utrum cures, ut incorruptum et a fraude 
 advehentium . . . frumentum transfundatur in horrea, ne . . . 
 vitietur et concalescat, . . . an ad haec sacra et sublimia accedas 
 sciturus, quae materia sit dei, quae voluptas, quae condicio, quae 
 forma. The analysis adds clarity to the general thought 'haec 
 sacra et sublimia,' which is contrasted with the preceding 
 statement. 
 
 3. The general truth is unexpressed. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Sen. Tranq. An., 3, 4: 
 An ille plus praestat, qui inter peregrinos et cives aut urbanus 
 praetor adeuntibus adsessoris verba pronuntiat, quam qui quid 
 sit iustitia, quid pietas, quid patientia, quid fortitude, quid mortis 
 contemptus, quid deorum intellectus, . . .? 
 
 iv. Personal pronouns and possessives (including possessive ad- 
 jectives) . 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Val. Max., 6, i, praef. Unde te 
 virorum pariter ac feminarum praecipuum firm-amentum, Pudi- 
 citia, invocem? Tu enim prisca religione consecrates Vestae 
 focos incolis, tu Capitolinae lunonis pulvinaribus incubas, tu 
 Palatii columen . . . adsidua statione celebras, tuo praesidio 
 puerilis aetatis insignia munita sunt, tui numinis respectu sincerus 
 iuventae flos permanet, te custode matronalis stola censetur. 
 Each repeated tu directs the attention to the general truth 
 praecipuum firmamentum, which term is applied to the object of 
 address, Pudicitia. Verg. A., i, 78: 
 
 Tu mihi quodcumque hoc regni, tu sceptra lovemque 
 
 Concilias, tu das epulis accumbere divom, 
 
 Nimborumque facis tempestatumque potentem. 
 
 The analysis amplifies the general thought quodcumque hoc 
 regni. Tu stands at the beginning of the general expression and 
 
5O THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 is also repeated with each member of the analysis. Tac. Ann., 
 I, 31, 20: . . . multa seditionis ora vocesque: sua in manu sitam 
 rem Romanam, . suis victoriis augeri rem publicam, in suum 
 cognomentum adscisci imperatores. Tac. G., 25, I : Ceteris 
 servis non in nostrum morem, discriptis per familiam minis teriis, 
 utuntur: suam quisque sedem, suos penates regit. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Cic. Acad., I, 9: 
 Tu aetatem patriae, tu discriptiones temporum, tu sacrorum iura, 
 tu sacerdotum, tu domesticam, tu bellicam disciplinam, tu sedem 
 regionum, locorum, tu omnium divinarum humanarumque rerum 
 nomina, genera, officia, causas aperuisti, .... The general 
 truth 'omnium divinarum humanarumque rerum' is expressed 
 at the close of the analysis. Cic. Rab., 4, 13: Tu mihi etiam legis 
 Porciae, tu C. Gracchi, tu horum libertatis, tu cuiusquam denique 
 hominis popularis mentionem facis. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. Catull., 55, I : 
 
 Oramus, si forte non molestum est, 
 Demonstres ubi sint tuae tenebrae. 
 Te campo quaesivimus minore, 
 Te in Circo, te in omnibus libellis, 
 Te in templo summi lovis sacrato. 
 
 The general thought underlying the analysis is, 'We have searched 
 for you everywhere. 1 An implication of this is contained in the 
 expression 'Oramus . . . demonstres ubi sint tuae tenebrae.' 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. Agr., 45, 20: 
 Noster hie dolor, nostrum vulnus, nobis tam longae absentiae 
 condicione ante quadriennium amissus est. This is an analysis 
 of the thought of Tacitus' personal grief. The repeated noster, 
 etc., as well as the phrases which follow, reflect this general idea. 
 
 It is a common device, and one frequently employed by the 
 lyric poets when singing the praises of god or mortal, to repeat 
 some form of the pronoun tu many times in the course of a poem, 
 often at the beginning of a stanza or of a line, or again, though 
 less frequently, even in the middle of a line, thereby repeatedly 
 fixing the attention on the individual addressed. The various 
 clauses introduced by the repeated pronoun frequently enumerate 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 51 
 
 the different achievements of the hero whose praises are sung, 
 or the different attributes of some divinity and the benefits 
 conferred by him. Now it will doubtless be urged that these 
 cases militate against the theory rather than support it: but it 
 should be borne in mind that behind these numerous impressions 
 what is prominent in the speaker's mind is the thought of the 
 individual addressed, be it god or mortal or even a wine jar, and 
 the anaphora serves to thus concentrate the attention. The 
 proper point of view may perhaps be best obtained by the con- 
 sideration of an example from Martial 1 discussed hereafter on 
 page 67, in which fourteen lines each commencing with the same 
 word Hermes are followed by the definite formulation of the 
 general thought which lies behind all these various impressions, 
 'Hermes omnia solus et ter unus.' A few illustrations of this 
 usage are the following: Hor. C., 4, 14, 33 (Ode to Augustus); 
 I, 10, 5 (Ode to Mercury); I, 35, 5 (Ode to Fortuna); 3, 21, 13 
 (Ode to a wine jar); Catull., 34, 13 (Ode to Diana); the Latin 
 version of the Christian hymn, Te Deum Laudamus. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. PI. Pan., 24, 5: Ante te 
 principes fastidio nostri et quodem aequalitatis metu usum pedum 
 amiserant. Illos ergo umeri cervicesque servorum super ora 
 nostra, te fama, te gloria, te civium pietas, te libertas super ipsos 
 principes vehunt; te ad sidera tollit humus ista communis et 
 confusa principis vestigia. Trajan is contrasted with his prede- 
 cessors, who are represented by the expressions ante te principes 
 and illos. Tac. Agr., 34, i : Si novae gentes atque ignota acies 
 constitisset, aliorum exercituum exemplis vos hortarer: nunc 
 vestra decora recensete, vestros oculos interrogate. Tacitus 
 contrasts present conditions with the hypothetical case which 
 precedes. Tac. H., i, 16, n: Sit ante oculos Nero, quern longa 
 Caesarum serie tumentem non Vindex cum inermi provincia aut 
 ego cum una legione, sed sua immanitas, sua luxuria cervicibus 
 publicis depulerunt. 
 
 v. Miscellaneous pronouns. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 1 Mart., 5, 24, i. 
 
52 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PL Ep., I, 16, 7: Est ergo mecum 
 per diem totum; eundem, antequam scribam, eundem, cum scrips!, 
 eundem, etiam cum remitter, non tamquam eundem lego. The 
 repeated eundem introduces specific phrases in analysis of the 
 general thought per diem totum. Pliny is here amplifying the 
 idea of his universal companionship with Saturninus through the 
 medium of books. Tac. H., 4, 74, 5: Cetera in communi sita 
 sunt. Ipsi plerumque legionibus nostris praesidetis, ipsi has 
 aliasque provincias regitis; nihil separatum clausumve. The 
 general truth which is here amplified is expressed in positive 
 form preceding the analysis, and in negative form at the close. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Tac. H., I, 38, 3: 
 Vidistis, commilitones, notabili tempestate etiam deos infaustam 
 adoptionem aversantes. Idem senatus, idem populi Romani 
 animus est. The general thought of unanimity of opinion is 
 implied in the expression etiam deos, and is further amplified in 
 the analysis into the specific cases senatus and populi Romani. 
 Tac. Ann., 3, 12, 23: Si quos propinquus sanguis aut fides sua 
 patronos dedit, quantum quisque eloquentia et cura valet, 
 iuvate pericli tan tern : ad eundem laborem, eandem constantiam 
 accusatores hortor. The analysis amplifies a general thought, 
 which is implied in the expression ' Quantum quisque . . . valet, 
 iuvate pericli tan tern.' 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Tac. Agr., 46, 15: 
 Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, qiiidquid mirati sumus, manet 
 mansurumgue est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum, 
 .... The high worth of the quality which is represented in the 
 analysis by guidguid is implied in the expression of continuance 
 'manet mansurumque est, etc.,' which follows. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., I, 42, 19: 
 Hunc ego nuntium patri, laeta omnia aliis e provinciis audienti, 
 feram? Ipsius tirones, ipsius veteranos non missione, non pe- 
 cunia satiates. 
 
 3. ANAPHORA OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs used in anaphora may or may not reflect the content 
 of the general truth. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 53 
 
 i. Quam, tarn. 
 
 Quam, tarn, and in some cases sic, reflect a content of degree in 
 the general thought. 1 The adjective is may also have a con- 
 tent of degree, but this use of the word is discussed with the other 
 cases of is. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Tac. Ann., I, n, 2: Solam divi 
 Augusti men tern tantae molis capacem: se in partem curarum ab 
 illo vocatum experiendo didicisse quam arduum, quam subiectum 
 fortunae regendi cuncta onus. The analysis amplifies the gen- 
 eral truth tantae molis. PI. Ep., 3, 7, 10: Quod me recordantem 
 fragilitatis humanae miseratio subit. Quid enim tarn circum- 
 cisum, tarn breve quam hominis vita longissima? Tac. D., 
 23, 21. See page 21. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Tac. Ann., 3, 40, 
 12: Egregium resumendae libertati tempus, si ipsi florentes, 
 quam inops Italia, quam inbellis urbana plebes, nihil validum 
 in exercitibus nisi quod externum, cogitarent. The analysis 
 develops a general truth which follows expressed in the opposite 
 form nihil validum. The fact that this general thought is also 
 felt to stand in contrast to florentes forms a secondary motive for 
 the analysis. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., I, 16, i: 
 Amabam Pompeium Saturninum . . . laudabamque eius in- 
 genium, etiam antequam scirem, quam varium, quam flexibile, 
 quam multiplex esset; nunc vero totum me tenet, habet, possidet. 
 The phrase 'laudabam eius ingenium' contains a slight implica- 
 tion of the degree to which Pliny regards Pompeius' ingenium. 
 Tac. Ann., i, 69, 14: Potiorem iam apud exercitus Agrippinam 
 quam legates, quam duces. The analysis imparts a feeling of a 
 higher degree of power than would result otherwise. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Sen. D., VI, I, i : . . . 
 nee spem concepissem tarn iniquo tempore, tarn inimico iudice, 
 tarn invidioso crimine posse me efficere, ut fortunam tuam ab- 
 
 1 Though sic sometimes has a content of degree, it is more often used 
 demonstratively, and the general content is reflected in the analysis which 
 it introduces rather than by the repeated sic. 
 
54 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 solveres. A general idea of unfavorability is amplified in this 
 analysis. Tac. H., 2, 76, 8: Ego te, Vespasiane, ad imperium 
 voco, quam salutare rei publicae, guam tibi magnificum, iuxta 
 deos in tua manu positum est. The degree of satisfaction felt 
 at Vespasian's accession is here expressed in analysis, but the 
 general idea is otherwise unexpressed. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. Tac. Ann., 3, 40, 12. 
 See class I, B, above. Val. Max., 6, 9, 14. See page 18. 
 
 ii. Hie, hinc. 
 
 Hie and hinc center the attention on an antecedent with a 
 content of place, and the clauses which they introduce develop 
 in specific detail the general idea which the speaker feels in con- 
 nection with this antecedent, although the repeated words do 
 not themselves reflect this general thought. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Verg. A., 8, 472: 
 
 Nobis ad belli auxilium pro nomine tanto 
 Exiguae vires: hinc Tusco claudimur amni, 
 Hinc Rutulus premit et murum circumsonat armis. 
 
 This is an analysis of the general thought exiguae vires. Verg. A., 
 n, 213: 
 
 lam vero in tectis, . . . 
 
 Praecipuus fragor et longi pars maxima luctus. 
 Hie matres miseraeque nurus, hie cara sororum 
 Pectora maerentum puerique parentibus orbi 
 Dirum execrantur bellum Turnique hymenaeos. 
 
 This is an analysis of the general thought longi pars maxima 
 luctus. Verg. A., I, 15. See page 4. Tac. H., 2, 70, 10: 
 Aderant Valens et Caecina, monstrabantque pugnae locos: hinc 
 inrupisse legionum agmen, hinc equites coortos, inde circumfusas 
 auxiliorum manus. The repeated hinc centers the attention on 
 details of the general thought pugnae. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. Tac. D., 36, 4. See page 13. 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., I, 17, 12: 
 Enimvero militiam ipsam gravem, inf ructuosam : denis in diem 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 55 
 
 assibus animam et corpus aestimari : hinc vestem arma tentoria, 
 hinc saevitiam centurionum et vacationes munerum redimi. This 
 analysis with the repeated hinc adds clarity to the general thought 
 of the extent of the obligations and difficulties which military 
 service involves, for the purpose of contrast with the idea of 
 paucity of pay as expressed in 'denis in diem assibus.' Verg. E., 
 9, 39: 
 
 Hue ades, o Galatea! guis est nam Indus in undist 
 Hie ver purpureum, varies hie flumina circum 
 Fundit humus flores, hie Candida populus antro 
 Imminet, en lentae texunt umbracula vites: 
 Hue ades; insani feriant sine litora fluctus. 
 
 Hue ades suggests to Vergil a general feeling of charm, which 
 he develops in analysis for the purpose of contrast with the oppo- 
 site feeling which undis and fluctus suggest to him. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Tac. Agr., 32, 22: Hie 
 dux, hie exercitus: ibi tributa et metalla et ceterae servientium 
 poenae, .... 
 
 iii. lam, nunc, turn, etc. 
 
 The repeated word does not reflect the content of the general 
 truth, but it represents to the listener an expression of time found 
 in the general statement, and so with each member of the analysis 
 it carries the thought back to what is there asserted in general 
 form. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Ovid M., 12, 70: 
 Nee Phryges exiguo, quid Achaica dextera posset, 
 Sanguine senserunt. Et iam Sigea rubebant 
 Litora, iam leto proles Neptunia, Cygnus 
 Mille viros dederat, iam curru instabat Achilles, 
 Totaque Peliacae sternebat cuspidis ictu 
 Agmina. 
 
 The repeated iam centers the attention on specific illustrations 
 of the general truth ' nee Phryges exiguo . . . sanguine senserunt/ 
 Quint. D., 256, p. 48, 13: Quanta miserabilior fui ex die meae 
 sanitatis ! Furiosum me non sic cecidi ; turn lacerare vestes, turn 
 
56 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 verberare vultus meos coepi. Tac. Ann., 12, 10, 4: . . . set 
 nlium Vononis . . . accersere adversus dominationem Gotarzis 
 nobilitati plebique iuxta intolerandam. lam fratres, iam pro- 
 pinquos, iam longius sitos caedibus exhaustos; adici coniuges 
 gravidas, liberos parvos, dum socors domi, bellis infaustus ig- 
 naviam saevitia tegat. The analysis amplifies the general 
 thought dominationem . . . intolerandam. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Verg. E., 3, 56: 
 
 Et nunc omnis ager, nunc omnis parturit arbos, 
 Nunc frondent silvae, nunc formonsissimus annus. 
 
 The general thought ' Nunc formonsissimus annus ' is analyzed 
 here. Verg. A., 8, 440: 
 
 Aetnaei Cyclopes, et hue advertite mentem: 
 Arma acri facienda viro. Nunc viribus usus, 
 Nunc manibus rapidis, omni nunc arte magistra. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Verg. A., 9, 12: 
 
 Quid dubitast Nunc tempus equos, nunc poscere currus. 
 Rumpe moras omnis et turbata arripe castra. 
 
 The general truth analyzed here is implied in the expression 
 Quid dubitas? preceding the analysis, and in Rumpe moras at 
 the close. Verg. A., 6, 260: 
 
 Tuque invade viam vaginaque eripe ferrum: 
 Nunc animis opus, Aenea, nunc pectore firmo. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Catull., 62, 3: 
 
 Surgere iam tempus, iam pinguis linquere mensas, 
 Iam veniet virgo, iam dicetur hymenaeus. 
 
 The repetition of iam centers the attention on the general thought 
 'now is the time for the wedding to begin/ Sen. D., VI, 17, i: 
 Grave est tamen, quern educaveris iuvenem, iam matri, iam patri 
 praesidium ac decus, amittere. The extent of the praesidium 
 ac decus iuvenis is developed by means of the analysis. PL Ep., 
 6, 16, ii : Iam navibus cinis incidebat, quo propius accederent, 
 calidior et densior, iam pumices etiam nigrique et ambusti et 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 57 
 
 fracti igne lapides, iam vadum subitum ruinaque mentis litora 
 obstantia. The effect of the repeated iam is to center the at- 
 tention on the impending perils which confronted Pliny at every 
 turn. Such a general thought is thus established more clearly 
 than would be the case without the anaphora. 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. PL Ep., 3, 3, 3: Adhuc 
 ilium pueritiae ratio intra contubernium tuum tenuit, praecep- 
 tores domi habuit, ubi est erroribus modica vel etiam nulla 
 materia. Iam studia eius extra limen proferenda sunt, iam 
 circumspiciendus rhetor Latinus, cuius scholae severitas, pudor, 
 in primis castitas constet. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Hor. C., i, 37, I. See 
 page 17. 
 
 iv. Sic. 
 
 1. When sic has a content of degree, it reflects such an internal 
 meaning of the general truth. These cases have already been 
 discussed. 1 
 
 2. But more frequently sic simply directs the attention to the 
 general statement, and introduces particular illustrations of this 
 without itself reflecting the general thought. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PL Ep., 2, i, 8: ... praeterea 
 quod ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis exhibuit. Sic 
 candidatum me suffragio ornavit, sic ad omnes honores meos ex 
 secessibus accucurrit . . . , sic illo die, quo sacerdotess olent 
 nominare . . . , me semper nominabat. Sic introduces specific 
 illustrations of the general truth expressed in adfectum parentis 
 exhibuit. Tac. G., 38, 4: Insigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque 
 substringere : sic Suebi a ceteris Germanis, sic Sueborum ingenui 
 a servis separantur. The analysis amplifies the general thought 
 insigne gentis. Tac. G., n, 6: Nee dierum numerum, ut nos, sed 
 noctium computant. Sic constituunt, sic condicunt: nox ducere 
 diem videtur. Tac. Ann., 2, 26, 10: Se noviens a divo Augusto 
 in Germaniam missum plura consilio quam vi perfecisse. Sic 
 Sugambros in deditionem acceptos, sic Suebos regemque Maro- 
 boduum pace obstrictum. 
 
 i Cf. page 53. 
 
5 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Mart., I, praef. 10: 
 . . . excusarem, si meum esset exemplum : sic scribit Catullus, sic 
 Marsus, sic Pedo, sic Gaetulicus, sic quicunque perlegitur. Sic 
 introduces an analysis of a general idea of number which is 
 definitely expressed in quicunque. An implication of number 
 also precedes the analysis in the expression ' excusarem, si meus 
 esset exemplum' (that is, there had been others before). 
 
 v. Miscellaneous adverbs. 
 
 1. The repeated word reflects the content of the general truth. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., i, 20, 12: Adiciam, quod 
 me docuit usus, magister egregius. Frequenter egi, frequenter 
 iudicavi, frequenter in consilio fui. The general thought usus 
 is reflected in the repeated frequenter, which introduces specific 
 illustrations of the general truth. Tac. Agr., 9, 15: Ne famam 
 quidem . . . ostentanda virtute aut per artem quaesivit: procul ab 
 aemulatione adversus collegas, procul a contentione adversus pro- 
 curatores, et. . . . Tac. Ann., I, 32, 16: . . . quod neque disiecti 
 aut paucorum instinctu, set pariter ardescerent, pariter silerent, 
 tanta aequalitate et constantia ut regi crederes. This is a positive 
 analysis of the general thought which is expressed negatively, 
 neque disiecti aut paucorum instinctu, as well as positively by the 
 expression tanta aequalitate at the close of the analysis. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Sen. D., VI, 12, 3: 
 luvenis cito prudens, cito pius, cito maritus, cito pater, cito omnis 
 officii curiosus, cito sacerdos, omnia tamquam properans. This 
 is an analysis of the general thought omnia tamquam properans. 
 Tac. G., 30, 15: Equestrium sane virium id proprium, cito parare 
 victoriam, cito cedere: velocitas iuxta formidinem, cunctatio 
 propior constantiae est. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. Tac. H., 3, 72, 6: 
 Arserat et ante Capitolium civili bello, sed fraude privata: nunc 
 palam obsessum, palam incensum, quibus armorum causis, quo 
 tantae cladis pretio? The analysis adds clarity to the general 
 thought of the conditions which exist nunc, and this idea is 
 contrasted with previous occurrences ('ante . . . fraude pri- 
 vata'). Tac. Agr., 31, 7: Nata servituti mancipia semel veneunt, 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 59 
 
 atque ultro a dominis aluntur : Britannia servitutem suam cotidie 
 emit, cotidie pascit. 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 B. An extended narration or description follows. Tac. Ann., 
 2, 82, 14. See page 19. 
 
 2. Sometimes the repeated word does not reflect the content 
 of the general truth, but serves to call attention to the specific 
 members of the analysis, which follow. 
 
 I. A. Tac. Agr., 15, 3: Nihil profici patientia nisi ut graviora 
 . . . imperentur. . . . Aeque discordiam praepositorum, aeque 
 concordiam subiectis exitiosam. The analysis develops an idea 
 of the completeness of injuries, as expressed in graviora, but the 
 repeated aeque serves merely as a device to call attention to the 
 members of the analysis which follow, rather than itself reflecting 
 the general content. 
 
 4. ANAPHORA OF ADJECTIVES.! 
 
 i. Adjectives and other words with numerical content. (Tot v 
 omnis, totiens, quantum, satis, etc.) 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. 
 
 I. The general statement is expressed in the same form as 
 the analysis. Homer II., I, 287: 
 
 a\V oS' avrjp efle'Xe* Trepl IT dvrwv eppevai a\\a)v, 
 
 7T d V T CO V fJLV KpaTiV e04\l, IT d V T (T (T t ' aVCLGGtlV, 
 
 TT a (T i 5e o-rjjjiaiveiv, a nv ov Treicrea-dcu, bio). 
 
 The amplification of the general thought irep\ Trdvr&v epnevai 
 a\\a>v takes the form of a number of almost synonymous 
 phrases, each introduced by some form of irdvTO)v. PL Ep., i, 
 
 1 Generally the adjective repeated in anaphora, as well as the analysis it 
 introduces, reflects the content of the general truth. Tot, omnis, multus, etc., 
 adjectives with numerical content, are used in anaphora with greater fre- 
 quency than other adjectives, and these words naturally reflect a general idea 
 of number or of degree. 
 
 Adjectives of number. Other adjectives. 
 
 Tacitus 23 6 
 
 Seneca 22 9 
 
 Pliny 33 27 
 
60 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 22, 2 : Quam peritus ille et privati iuris et publici ! Quantum rerum, 
 quantum exemplorum, quantum antiquitatis tenet! The analysis 
 is of the general thought quam peritus. PI. Ep., 3, 9, 23: . . . 
 solumque par pretium tanti laboris. Concipere animo potes, 
 quam simus fatigati, quibus totiens agendum, totiens altercandum, 
 tarn multi testes interrogandi, sublevandi, refutandi. This is an 
 analysis of tanti laboris. 
 
 2. The general statement is in opposite form. Sen. Brev. Vit., 
 14, 3 : Isti . . . cum per diversissimas domos meritoriam saluta- 
 tionem circumtulerint, quotum quemque ex tarn immensa et variis 
 cupiditatibus districta urbe poterunt videre? Quam multi 
 erunt, quorum illos aut somnus aut luxuria aut inhumanitas 
 submoveat! Quam multi qui illos, cum diu torserint, simulata 
 festinatione transcurrant ! Quam multi . . . profugient . . .! 
 Quam multi . . . vix adlevatis labris insusurratum miliens 
 nomen oscitatione superbissima reddent ! The analysis introduced 
 by the repeated quam multi develops a general thought 'How 
 many have avoided their greeting!' This general truth is de- 
 finitely expressed, but in opposite form, 'Quotum quemque . . . 
 poterunt videre?' ('How few they have been able to see!') 
 Sen. Brev. Vit., 7, 9: Quid enim est, quod iam ulla hora novae 
 voluptatis possit adferre? Omnia nota, omnia ad satietatem 
 percepta sunt. The specific phrases introduced by omnia form 
 a positive analysis of the opposite negative statement ' Quid enim 
 est . . . novae voluptatis,' in which Quid est is the equivalent of 
 nihil. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Sen. D., VI, 26, 5: 
 'Tot saecula, tot aetatium contextum, seriem, quicquid annorum 
 test, licet visere. PL Ep., I, 20, 15: At ego . . . omnia pertempto, 
 omnia experior, irdvra denique \(0ov KIVO) . Tac. D., 40, 17: 
 Rhodii quidam, plurimi Athenienses oratores extiterunt, apud 
 quos omnia populus, omnia imperiti, omnia, ut sic dixerim, omnes 
 poterant. The general thought is 'omnia omnes poterant.' 
 Sen. Brev. Vit., 3, 2: Due, quantum ex isto tempore creditor, 
 quantum arnica, quantum rex, quantum cliens abstulerit, quantum 
 lis uxoria, quantum servorum coercitio, quantum officiosa per 
 urbem discursatio. . . . Videbis te pauciores annos habere quam 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 6 1 
 
 numeras. The general truth 'pauciores annos habes quam nu- 
 meras' is analyzed by an amplification of the opposite thought of 
 the vast amount of time which the person addressed cannot really 
 claim. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Tac. Agr., 41, 5: 
 Et ea insecuta sunt rei publicae tempora, quae sileri Agricolam non 
 sinerent: tot exercitus in Moesia Daciaque et Germania et Pan- 
 nonia . . . amissi, tot mili tares viri cum tot cohortibus expugnati 
 et capti. The analysis develops the general thought of the extent 
 of the disaster, an idea which is implied in what precedes. Tac. 
 D., 36, 14: Quae singula etsi distrahebant rem publicam, exerce- 
 bant tamen illorum temporum eloquentiam et magnis cumulare 
 praemiis videbantur, quia quanto quisque plus dicendo poterat, 
 tanto facilius honores adsequebatur, tanto magis in ipsis honoribus 
 collegas suos anteibat, tanto plus apud principes gratiae, plus 
 auctoritatis apud patres, plus notitiae ac nominis apud plebem 
 parabat. This is an extended analysis of the extent of the 
 benefits accruing from eloquence, a general thought which is 
 implied in the expression 'magnis cumulare praemiis.' Sen. 
 Brev. Vit., 7, 7. See page 13. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Mart., 6, 4, I : 
 
 Censor rnaxime principumque princeps, 
 Cum tot iam tibi debeat triumphos, 
 Tot nascentia templa, tot renata, 
 Tot spectacula, tot deos, tot urbes: 
 Plus debet tibi Roma, quod pudica est. 
 
 This elegy is a praise of the Emperor Domitian for his legal 
 enactments regarding morality, and the point of the entire poem 
 lies in the last line. The purpose of the anaphora is to develop 
 the general thought of Domitian's numerous services to the state 
 by means of an elaborate analysis into specific illustrations, tot 
 triumphos, tot templa, etc. This general idea is implied in the 
 expression which follows, 'Plus debet tibi Roma, quod pudica 
 est,' that is, Rome has a greater debt than ' all that has been re- 
 lated in the preceding.' By means of the analysis, more definite 
 meaning is given to plus than would otherwise be the case. 
 
62 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. The reiteration of 
 omnis or tot, etc. at the beginning of each member of an analysis 
 tends to establish a general idea of number even if this is otherwise 
 unexpressed. Verg. A., 8, 705: 
 
 . . . omnis eo terrore Aegyptus et Indi, 
 Omnis Arabs, omnes vertebant terga Sabaei. 
 
 The effect of this analysis is the establishment of the general 
 thought that all were so affected. Sen. D., VI, 17, 2: Omnia 
 incommoda, omnes voluptates futurae peregrinationis tuae ante 
 cognosce. Everything is the general thought amplified here. 
 Sen. Brev. Vit., 2,1: Alium mercandi praeceps cupiditas circa 
 omnis terras, omnia maria spe lucri ducit. Everywhere is the 
 general thought amplified. In the last two examples the balanced 
 use of cases which exhaust existing possibilities assists the ana- 
 phora in establishing a general numerical idea. PI. Ep., 3, 7, 8: 
 Multum ubique librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, 
 quas non habebat modo, verum etiam venerabatur. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., 2, 37, 16: 
 En stirps et progenies tot consulum, tot dictatorum. The general 
 thought of splendid ancestry, which is developed in the analysis, 
 is contrasted with the idea of present humility, suggested by the 
 expression 'En stirps et progenies.' 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Tac. Ann., I, 42, 18: 
 . . . tu tot proeliorum socia, tot praemiis aucta, egregiam duel 
 vestro gratiam refertis? The analysis develops a general thought 
 of previous merit and reward, an idea which is contrasted with 
 the present ungrateful demeanor. Quint. D., 259, p. 57, 21: 
 Unusamicus . . . accepta humeris suis puella per tot difficultates, 
 per tot pericula, nihil pro se ipso sollicitus, tulit. The analysis 
 develops the general thought of the magnitude of the dangers 
 undergone for another in contrast to the slight consideration of 
 self. 
 
 C. Analysis occurs in both members of the contrast. Cic. 
 Sull., 14. See page 34. 
 
 ii. Adjectives with other than numerical content. 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 63 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., i, 20, 12: Aliud olios 
 movet, ac plerumque parvae res maxime trahuntur. Varia 
 sunt hominum iudicia, variae voluntates. The analysis is of the 
 general thought 'Aliud alios movet/ which is reflected in the 
 repeated word varia. PL Ep., 2, 13, 6: Quid enim illo aut fidelius 
 amico aut sodale iucundius? Mir a in sermone, mira etiam in ore 
 ipso vultuque suavitas. The general thought quid . . . iucun- 
 dius? is equivalent to nihil iucundius. Plaut. Amph., 622: 
 
 Non soleo ego somniculose eri imperia persequi. 
 Vigilans vidi, vigilans fnunc video, vigilans fabulor, 
 Vigilantem ille me iam dudum vigilans pugnis contudit. 
 
 The repeated vigilans introduces a positive analysis of a general 
 truth, which is expressed in the opposite negative form ' Non soleo 
 ego somniculose etc.' Sen. Brev. Vit., 19, 3: Omnium quidem 
 occupatorum condicio misera est, eorum tamen miserrima, qui 
 ne suis quidem laborant occupationibus, ad alienum dormiunt 
 somnum, ad alienum ambulant gradum, amare et odisse, res om- 
 nium liberrimas, iubentur. The analysis introduced by the 
 repeated ad alienum forms a positive amplification of the general 
 negative statement 'ne suis quidem laborant occupationibus/ 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. PI. Ep., 3, 6, 4: Emi autem, 
 non ut haberem domi . . . , verum ut in patria nostra celebri 
 loco ponerem, ac potissimum in lovis templo; videtur dignum 
 templo, dignum deo donum. The general thought which is 
 expressed by the analysis introduced by the repeated dignum^ is 
 implied in the expression 'potissimum in lovis templo.' 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. PI. Pan., i, 6: Quo 
 magis aptum piumque est te, luppiter . . . , precari, ut mini 
 digna consule, digna senatu, digna principe contingat oratio, 
 utque. . . . Pliny here develops in analysis the thought of the 
 high degree of merit which it is his earnest prayer may character- 
 ize his oration. The content of the general idea is reflected not 
 only in the repeated digna but in the phrases following the 
 repeated word. PI. Ep., 2, i, 7: Et ille quidem plenus annis 
 abiit, plenus honoribus, illis etiam, quos recusavit. The analysis 
 with repeated plenus results in a higher degree of praise than would 
 
64 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 be expressed otherwise. PL Ep., 6, 16, 10: Properat illuc, imde 
 alii fugiunt, rectumque cursum, recta gubernacula in periculum 
 tenet. ' Pliny proceeded direct to the point of danger.' 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 B. An extended narration or description follows. Tac. H., I,, 
 45, I. See page 19. 
 
 5. ANAPHORA OF VERBS. 
 
 Of the verbs repeated in anaphora, those with colorless mean- 
 ing, such as forms of sum, licet, etc., predominate in the writers 
 studied, rather than those with a more pronounced meaning. 
 The former are not suggestive of the general statement, but serve 
 as a mere device to call attention to the specific phrases which 
 follow, in amplification of a general truth which the speaker aims 
 to establish in the mind of the listener. Even where the re- 
 peated verb is one with marked content, it is often in the phrases 
 which it introduces rather than in the verb itself that the reflec- 
 tion of the general idea is to be found. E. g., Sen. Brev. Vit., 7, I : 
 Ceteri etiam si vana gloriae imagine teneantur, speciose tamen 
 errant. Licet avaros mihi, licet iracundos enu meres vel odia 
 exercentes iniusta vel bella, omnes isti virilius peccant. It is on 
 the phrases following licet, and not on the repeated word, that the 
 attention is directed in establishing the general numerical idea 
 expressed in ceteri and in omnes. Sen. D., VI, 12, 4: Circumfer 
 per omnem notorum, ignotorum freguentiam oculos, occurrent 
 tibi passi ubigue maiora. Senserunt ista magni duces, senserunt 
 principes. See page 23 for a discussion. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Demetrius in Spengel, III, 
 294, 8 : "Ea-Trepe, TT a v T a <j> ep e 1 5, (frepeis ow, <f) e p e 1 5 alya, 
 (f> ep e 1 5 fjLdTept TralSa. The repeated $epet9 represents $e/3et? 
 of the general statement in each member of the analysis, but the 
 general truth which is developed is the thought Trdwra. Sen. 
 D., VI, 26, 5: Tot saecula, tot aetatium contextum, seriem, quic- 
 quid annorum est, licet visere; licet surrectura, licet ruitura regna 
 prospicere. The general truth which this analysis develops is 
 'quicquid annorum est,' the repeated licet representing licet of the 
 general statement. Mart., 8, 15, i : 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 65 
 
 Dum nova Pannonici numeratur gloria belli, 
 
 Omnis et ad Reducem dum litat ara lovem, 
 Dat populus, dat gratus eques, dat tura senatus, 
 
 Et ditant Latias tertia dona tribus. 
 
 Tac. H., 3, 66, 21 : . . . denique nihil atrocius eventurum, quam 
 in quod sponte ruant. Moriendum victis, moriendum deditis. 
 The analysis imparts clarity to the statement which precedes. 
 Sen. D., VI, 12, 4, and Brev. Vit., 7, I. See page 64. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Sen. D., XII, 9, 8: 
 Nunc ecce trahit ilium ad se Africa resurgentis belli minis plena, 
 trahit Hispania . . ., trahit Aegyptus infida, totus denique 
 orbis, .... 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. PI. Ep., i, 18, 3: Et eram 
 acturus adulescentulus adhuc, eram in quadruplici iudicio, eram 
 contra potentissimos civitatis atque etiam Caesaris amicos; 
 quae singula excutere mentem mihi . . . poterant. The anaphora 
 centers the attention on each of these difficulties and disadvan- 
 tages, in analysis of a general thought which is implied in the 
 statement following. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. PI. Ep., I, 14, 8: Est 
 illi facies liberalis multo sanguine, multo rubore suffusa, est 
 ingenua totius corporis pulchritudo et quidam senatorius decor. 
 The general thought underlying in Pliny's mind is the favorable 
 characteristics of this prospective son-in-law, and it is to center 
 the attention on details of such a central idea that the anaphora 
 is due. PI. Ep., 2, 17, n: Adiacet unctorium, hypocauston, 
 adiacet propnigeon balinei, mox duae cellae magis elegantes quam 
 sumptuosae. In both this letter and in 5, 6, in which his other 
 villa is described, Pliny depicts the charm which the villas had 
 for him, and though no characterizing adjectives are used with 
 unctorium, hypocauston, etc., in the analysis, the repeated adiacet 
 centers the attention on the individual details as a part of such 
 an unexpressed general idea. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Sen. Contr., I, 6, 5: 
 Misereri illius oportet quia orba est. Attamen habet propinquos, 
 habet amicos paternos, habet te imbecillitatis suae tutorem fortis- 
 
66 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 simum. The general thought which is developed in analysis is 
 contrasted with orba est. Tac. H., I, 50, 13: Prope ever sum 
 orbem, etiam cum de principatu inter bonos certaretur, sed 
 mansisse Gaio lulio, mansisse Caesare Augusto victore imperium; 
 mansuram fuisse sub Pompeio Brutoque rem publicam. The 
 general thought developed in analysis is contrasted with the 
 idea prope ever sum orbem. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Val. Max., 9, I, ext. 2: 
 Erat opulenta, erat moribus et legibus ordinata, Etruriae caput 
 habebatur: sed postguam luxuria prolapsa est, in profundum 
 iniuriarum et turpitudinis decidit, ut servorum se insolentissimae 
 dominationi subiceret. 
 
 V. Summary as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. An extended narration or description precedes. Mela, 3, I, 
 I. See page 19. 
 
 6. ANAPHORA OF NOUNS. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., 2, I, 12: Volui tibi multa 
 alia scribere, sed totus animus in hac una contemplatione defixus 
 est. Verginium cogito, Verginium video, Verginium iam vanis 
 imaginibus, recentibus tamen, audio, adloquor, teneo. The 
 repeated Verginium imparts definiteness to the vague expression 
 in hac una contemplatione, and introduces an analysis of the 
 general truth totus animus . . . defixus est. Plaut. Capt., 159: 
 
 Multis et multigeneribus opus est tibi 
 Militibus: primumdum opus est Pistorensibus, 
 
 Opus Paniceis est, opus Placentinis quoque, 
 Opus Turdetanis, opust Ficedulensibus, 
 Iam maritumi omnes milites opus sunt tibi. 
 
 The general numerical truth is expressed both at the beginning 
 and at the close of the analysis, 'Multis et multigeneribus opus 
 est ... militibus,' and 'omnes milites opus sunt.' The re- 
 peated opus represents opus of the general truth. Livy, I, 28, 
 6: Nee ea culpa . . . omnium Albanorum est: ducem secuti sunt, 
 ut et vos . . fecissetis. Mettius ille est ductor itineris huius 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 67 
 
 Mettius idem huius machinator belli, Mettius foederis Romani 
 Albanique ruptor. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Mart., 5, 24, i: 
 
 Hermes Martia saeculi voluptas, 
 Hermes omnibus eruditus armis, 
 Hermes et gladiator et magister, 
 
 Hermes . . . (Hermes is repeated at the beginning of all fifteen 
 lines of this poem) .... 
 
 Hermes gloria Martis universi, 
 Hermes omnia solus et ter unus. 
 
 The effect of so introducing all fifteen verses of the poem with the 
 same word Hermes is to center the attention on these various 
 members of the analysis individually, in development of the 
 general thought, which is expressed in the last line. Aesch. 
 Fr., 70, i: 
 
 Z e v 9 ecTTiv aWtjp, Z e v 9 e 777, Z e v 9 B 1 ovpavos, 
 
 TOI TO, Trdvra X&TL T<wi>8' vTreprepov. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A . The implication precedes the analysis. Hebrews, 1 1 , i : 
 E0T> 5e TT L a" T i 9 eX7Tib/<teVa>z> vTro(7Ta(7L<; TrpayfjiaTcov e\7^o9 ov 
 
 .... Tll(TTl VOOVfJLV KaT^pTiaOai, TOW dlG)VCtS 
 
 6eov, et9 TO fjLrj etc (frcuvofjievcov TO j3\7rdfJivov yeyovevai. 
 II i<TTt, ir\iova 6v(Tiav"A/3e\ irapa Ka> 
 
 . . . . Hl<TTi 'El/0)% /JLTT6rj TOV fJLT} 
 
 n L(TTi xprujLaTiaOeis Nwe Trepl T&V /JLrjSeTra) /3\7TOfjLvci>v, .... 
 II iffrtL is eighteen times repeated at the beginning of various 
 verses, in amplification of the general thought implied in verse I, 
 that ' by faith all the servants of God from the first have been 
 upheld and stimulated and carried through their glorious course.' 1 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. Ann., I, 59, 4: 
 . . . volitabatque per Cheruscos, arma in Segestem, arma in 
 Caesarem poscens. Arma, the key-note of Arminius' demand, is 
 repeated with each member of the analysis. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 1 Alford, Greek Testament, IV, p. 206, note. 
 
68 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Sen. Brev. Vit., 17, 6: 
 Ibit in Poenos nondum tantae maturus rei Scipio; victor Hannibalis, 
 victor Antiochi, sui consulatus decus, fraterni sponsor, ni per 
 ipsum mora essent, cum love reponeretur. The general thought 
 which is analyzed here is contrasted with the preceding ex- 
 pression, ' nondum tantae maturus rei/ 
 
 7. ANAPHORA OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 a. Subordinate conjunctions. 
 
 i. Cum, dum, quando, ubi, unde, etc. 1 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Sen. Brev. Vit., 12, 3: . . . 
 quibus aput tonsorem multae home transmittuntur, dum decer- 
 pitur . . . , dum de singulis capillis in consilium itur, dum aut 
 disiecta coma restituitur aut deficiens hinc atque illinc in frontem 
 compellitur. The general statement of time multae horae is 
 amplified by a separation into specific expressions of time, each 
 introduced by dum. Sen. Brev. Vit., 3, 2: Videbis te pauciores 
 annos habere quam numeras. Repete memoria tecum, quando 
 certus consilii fueris, quotus quisque dies ut destinaveras proces- 
 serit, quando tibi usus tui fuerit, quando in statu suo voltus, 
 quando animus intrepidus, quid tibi in tarn longo aevo facti 
 operis sit, .... This analysis amplifies the general idea of 
 negative number expressed in 'pauciores annos etc.' Sen. Brev. 
 Vit., 20, 4: Difficilius homines a se otium impetrant quam a lege. 
 Interim dum rapiuntur et rapiunt, dum alter alterius quietem 
 rumpit, dum mutuo miseri sunt, vita est sine fructu, sine volup- 
 tate, sine ullo profectu animi. This is a positive analysis of the 
 general negative statement which precedes. Tac. Ann., 15, 59, 
 13: Quanto laudabilius periturum, dum amplectitur rem publicam, 
 dum auxilia libertati invocat. Tac. Agr., 45, 9: Praecipua sub 
 Domitiano miseriarum pars erat videre et aspici, cum suspiria 
 nostra subscriberentur, cum denotandis tot hominum palloribus 
 sufficeret saevus ille vultus et rubor, .... 
 
 1 These conjunctions introduce clauses of time, place, cause, etc., in analysis 
 of an underlying general idea, but nothing would be gained from a separate 
 consideration of each conjunction individually. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 69 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Quint. D., 249, 
 p. 21, 23: Cum album descripsi, cum iudices reieci, per illas omnes 
 moms iudiciorum . . . quid aliud feci, quam ut agerem? A 
 general expression of time, 'per illas omnes moras,' follows the 
 analysis into specific expressions of time. Tac. Ann., I, 35, i: 
 Ut seditionem attigit, ubi modestia militaris, ubi veteris dis- 
 ciplinae decus, quonam tribunos, quo centuriones exegissent, 
 rogitans, nudant universi corpora, .... The analyses intro- 
 duced by the repeated ubi and quo develop the frequentative 
 idea expressed in rogitans. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Sen. D., VI, I, 3: 
 . . . cuius viget vigebitque memoria, quamdiu in pretio fuerit 
 Romana cognosci, quamdiu quisquis erit, qui reverti velit ad acta 
 maiorum, quamdiu quisquam, qui velit scire quid sit vir Romanus, 
 .... The expression viget vigebitque is suggestive of the general 
 idea of continuance which the analysis amplifies. Tac. D., 40, 
 17. See page 31. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Sen. Brev. Vit., 12, 6: 
 Quos quando lavari debeant, quando natare, quando cenare, alius 
 admonet: et usque eo nimio delicati animi languore solvuntur, 
 ut per se scire non possint, an esuriant. The general thought 
 developed by the analysis is that a slave gives a signal for 
 everything. Instead of stating this truth generally, Seneca gives 
 a similar implication by the mention of an extreme case 'an 
 esuriant,' as being representative of the general truth. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. Ann., 3, 36, 4: 
 Libertique etiam ac servi patrono vel domino, cum voces, cum 
 manus intentarent, ultro metuebantur. 'Their slightest move- 
 ment was a cause for terror.' Tac. Ann., i, 22, 10: Cum osculis, 
 cum lacrimis dolorem meum implevero, me quoque trucidari 
 iube. The repetition of cum centers the attention on osculis and 
 lacrimis. The speaker requests that he be killed when he has 
 in this manner sated his grief. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. D., 39, 13: Unus 
 inter haec dicenti aut alter adsistit, et res velut in solitudine 
 
70 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 agitur. Oratori autem clamore plausuque opus est et velut 
 quodam theatre; qualia cotidie antiquis oratoribus contingebant, 
 cum tot pariter ac tarn nobiles forum coartarent, cum clientelae 
 quoque ac tribus ac municipiorum etiam legationes ac pars 
 Italiae periclitantibus adsisteret, cum in plerisque iudiciis crederet 
 populus Romanus sua interesse quid iudicaretur. The analysis 
 with repeated cum fixes the attention on the general thought of 
 previous conditions of oratory (' qualia cotidie antiquis oratoribus 
 contingebant'), which is contrasted with the unfavorable present 
 state, as expressed earlier in the chapter. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Mart., 5, 17, i: 
 
 Dum proavos atavosque refers et nomina magna, 
 
 Dum tibi noster eques sordida condicio est, 
 Dum te posse negas nisi lato, Gellia, clavo 
 
 Nubere, nupsisti, Gellia, cistifero. 
 
 The general thought which the analysis amplifies is contrasted 
 with the idea contained in the last line. 
 
 ii. Si. 
 
 The repetition of si at the beginning of a number of successive 
 clauses holds the attention on the general thought expressed by 
 these various protases, and gives a clear impression of it to the 
 listener. The apodosis also is by this means rendered prominent, 
 when it is accompanied by a protasis which is so amplified at 
 considerable length. 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Quint. D., 262, p. 73, 12: 
 Pessimus maritus videreris, si amorem in aliquam meretricem 
 deflexisses, si ancillarum cupiditas a geniali te toro avocaret. 
 The repeated si introduces specific illustrations of the general 
 truth pessimus maritus. Tac. G., 7, 2: Et duces exemplo potius 
 quam imperio, si prompti, si conspicui, si ante aciem agant, 
 admiratione praesunt. This analysis amplifies and adds clarity 
 to the general thought exemplo. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Quint. D., 253, 
 p. 36 24: lam si exercitus hostium intra fines nostros fuerit, si 
 ardere villas, si frugifera succidi, si fugam rusticorum in urbem, 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 71 
 
 si compulsa intra muros pecora viderimus, si moenia oppugna- 
 buntur, si turres quatientur, si ad dilectum ab amplexu matrum 
 invenes rapientur: quant sero paenitebit tarn caro uni pepercisse. 
 The analysis amplifies the general thought ' quam sero paenitebit/ 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Quint. D., 260, 
 p. 68, 3 : An vos in hoc demum creditis expletam paternam animad- 
 versionem, si esuriant, si inopia omnium deficiant atque tabe- 
 scant? The analysis is of a general thought which is merely 
 suggested by in hoc. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Cic. Balb., 28, 64: 
 Quod ius si Cn. Pompeius ignoravit, si M. Crassus, si Q. Metellus, 
 si Cn. Pompeius pater, si L. Sulla, si P. Crassus, si C. Marius, 
 si senatus, si populus Romanus, si, qui de re simili iudicarunt, 
 si foederati populi, si socii, si illi antiqui Latini, videte, ne utilius 
 vobis et honestius sit illis ducibus errare quam hoc magistro 
 erudiri. Behind this extended analysis is the general thought 
 'all these famous leaders,' as is implied in the expression illis 
 ducibus at the close. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. Ann., 2, 70, 2: 
 Si limen obsideretur, si effundendus spiritus sub oculis inimicorum 
 foret, quid deinde miserrimae coniugi, quid infantibus liberis 
 eventurum? Frequently, as here, the amplification consists of 
 practically synonymous reiterations of the general thought, to 
 which clarity is thereby imparted. Verg. A., I, 546: 
 
 Quem si fata virum servant, si vescitur aura 
 Aetheria neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris, 
 Non metus. 
 
 Tac. Agr., 46, I : Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus 
 placet, non cum corpore extinguuntur magnae animae, placide 
 quiescas. Sen. Tranq. An., 1 , 16 : Puto multos potuisse ad sapien- 
 tiam pervenire, nisi putassent se pervenisse, nisi quaedam in se 
 dissimulassent, quaedam opertis oculis transiluissent. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., 2, 73, 7: Sed 
 hunc . . . neque* minus proeliatorem, etiam si temeritas afuerit 
 praepeditusque sit perculsas tot victoriis Germanias servitio 
 
72 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 premere. Quod si solus arbiter rerum, si iure et nomine regio 
 fuisset, tanto promptius adsecuturum gloriam militiae, quantum 
 dementia, temperantia, ceteris bonis artibus praestitisset. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Val. Max., I, praef., p. I, 
 17: Nam si prisci oratores ab love Optimo maximo bene orsi 
 sunt, si excellentissimi vates a numine aliquo principia traxerunt, 
 mea parvitas eo iustius ad favorem tuum decucurrerit, quo cetera 
 divinitas opinione colligitur, .... 
 
 iii. Ut, an, ne. 1 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Flor. praef., 4: Siquis ergo popu- 
 lum Romanum quasi unum hominem consideret totamgue eius 
 aetatem percenseat, ut coeperit, utque adoleverit, ut quasi ad 
 quandam iuventae frugem pervenerit, ut postea velut consenuerit, 
 quattuor gradus processusque eius inveniet. The general idea 
 to tarn eius aetatem is amplified by the enumeration of specific 
 cases each marked by the repeated ut. Tac. G., 16, 2: Colunt 
 discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. The 
 analysis amplifies the general thought discreti ac diversi. Cic. 
 Rep., 3, 15: Quammulti, ut Tauri in Axino, ut rex Aegypti Busiris, 
 ut Galli, ut Poeni, homines immolare et pium et dis immortalibus 
 gratissumum esse duxerunt! 2 PI. Ep., I, 22, 7: Mirareris . . . qua 
 patientia hanc ipsam valetudinem toleret, ut dolori resistat, ut 
 sitim differat, ut incredibilem febrium ardorem inmotus oper- 
 tusque transmittat. Tac. Ann. n, 31, 5: Satis constat eo pavore 
 offusum Claudium, ut identidem interrogaret, an ipse imperii 
 potens, an Silius privatus esset. The frequentative idea is 
 developed by the analysis. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Cic. Fin., 5, 67: 
 
 1 Most cases of ne in anaphora are included with the other negatives above, 
 and there are included here only such cases as do not reflect the negative 
 content of the general truth, but are used like the repeated ut, simply to 
 direct attention to the specific phrases which follow. See class II, A, for a 
 discussion of PI. Ep., 3, 9, 8, where a general idea of complete insufficiency is so 
 amplified. 
 
 2 Similar examples could be cited where et replaces the repeated ut. The 
 effect of repeating ut with each member of a long enumeration is to center 
 the attention on each individually. The same effect would not be imparted 
 by the ordinary conjunction. 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 73 
 
 Quando igitur inest in omni virtute cura quaedam quasi foras 
 spectans aliosque appetens atque complectens, exsistit illud, ut 
 amici, ut fratres, ut propinqui, ut affines, ut cives, ut omnes 
 denique . . . propter se expetendi sint. Tac. D., 32, 6: Idque 
 non doctus modo et prudens auditor, sed etiam populus intellegit 
 ac statim ita laude prosequitur, ut legitime studuisse, ut per omnes 
 eloquentiae numeros isse, ut denique oratorem esse fateatur. The 
 purpose of the analysis is to direct the thought to the general 
 truth, 'ut denique oratorem esse fateatur.' 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., 3, 9, 8: ... 
 sed pro causa niteretur; cuius et magnitude et utilitas visa est 
 postulare, ne tantum oneris singulis actionibus subiremus. Vere- 
 bamur, ne nos dies, ne vox, ne latera deficerent . . . , deinde ne 
 iudicum intentio multis nominibus multisque causis . . . con- 
 funderetur; .... The analysis consists of an enumeration of 
 specific circumstances whose lack was feared, in amplification 
 of the general thought of the completeness of the insufficiency. 
 This thought is implied in the preceding expressions magnitude 
 and tantum oneris, which characterize the case as one of consider- 
 able difficulty. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. Ann., I, 62, i: 
 Igitur Romanus qui aderat exercitus sextum post cladis annum 
 trium legionum ossa . . . omnes ut coniunctos, ut consanguineos 
 . . . maesti . . . condebant. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Tac. G., n, n: Mox rex 
 vel princeps, prout aetas cuique, prout nobilitas, prout decus 
 bellorum, prout facundia est, audiuntur, auctoritate suadendi 
 magis guam iubendi potestate. This sentence offers some diffi- 
 culties of interpretation; but whether the analysis. is construed 
 with both rex and princeps, or is referred to princeps alone as 
 being the equivalent of principum aliquis, or however one may 
 interpret it, 1 the repeated prout centers the attention on these 
 specific phrases, which are suggestive of the influence which the 
 speakers have. 'In order to be heard they must possess some 
 
 1 Cf. the current interpretations in the various editions. 
 
74 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 special distinguishing quality/ either aetas, or nobilitas, or some- 
 thing else. 1 By thus centering the attention, clarity is added to 
 the thought auctoritate suadendi in contrast to iubendi potestate, 
 which follows it. Tac. Ann., 2, 15, 7: Classem quippe et avia 
 Oceani quaesita, ne quis venientibus occurreret, ne pulsos pre- 
 meret: sed ubi miscuerint manus, inane victis ventorum remo- 
 rumve subsidium. The thought of the expectant preparations of 
 the Romans, as expressed in the analysis, is contrasted with 
 the disappointing results. 
 
 C. Analysis occurs in both members of the contrast. Tac. 
 Ann., i, 59, 16. See page 18. Tac. G., 43, 16: Nulla simulacra, 
 nullum peregrinae superstitionis vestigium: ut fratres tamen, ut 
 iuvenes venerantur. 
 
 /?. Coordinate conjunctions. (Sed, tamen, etc.) 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. Sen. D., VI, 26, 6: ... nihil 
 quo stat loco stabit, omnia sternet abducetque secum vetustas. 
 Nee hominibus solum . . . sed locis, sed regionibus, sed mundi 
 partibus ludet. The general thought omnia is developed in 
 analysis, and a general negative formulation nihil . . . stabit 
 also precedes. Quint. D., 251, p. 28, 29: Haec vero non tantum 
 marito, sed etiam rei publicae reddere plenam potest rationem. 
 Nam etiamsi non habet filium, asservavit tamen iuvenem, tamen 
 hominem, tamen civem. 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Cic. Caecil., 6, 21. 
 See page 5. Sen. Const. Sap., 13, 4: Habes sub te Parthos et 
 Medos et Bactrianos, sed quos metu contines, sed propter quos 
 remittere arcum tibi non contigit, sed hostes teterrimos, sed 
 venales, sed novum aucupantes dominium. The general thought 
 behind these various impressions is the despicable nature of 
 these subjects. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. Ann., I, 10, 12: 
 Sane Cassii et Brutorum exitus paternis inimicitiis datos . . .: 
 sed Pompeium imagine pacis, sed Lepidum specie amicitiae de- 
 
 *Cf. Schweizer-Sidler, ed. 5, p. 31, note: "(Der rex und der princeps) 
 sollen, um mit lebendiger Teilnahme angehort zu werden, sich durch bestimmte 
 von den Germanen hochgeschatzte Eigenschaften auszeichnen." 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 75 
 
 ceptos. Tac. Ann., i, 38, 7: Non praefectum ab iis, sed Germani- 
 cum ducem, sed Tiberium imperatorem violari. 
 
 8. ANAPHORA OF PREPOSITIONS. 1 
 
 I. The general truth is definitely expressed. 
 
 A. It precedes the analysis. PI. Ep., I, 4, i: Quantum 
 copiarum in Ocriculano, in Narniensi, in Carsulano, in Perusino 
 tuo! The individual phrases introduced by the repeated in are 
 specific illustrations of the general numerical idea expressed in 
 quantum copiarum. Florus, 3, 21, 21: Quantum funerum in 
 foro, in circo, in penitis templis! Tac. Agr., 46, 15: Quidquid 
 ex Agricola amavimus, quidquid mirati sumus, manet mansurum- 
 gue est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum, (in) 2 fama 
 rerum. This is an analysis of the general idea of continuance 
 expressed in manet mansurumgue est. Tac. Ann., 16, 26, 9: 
 Multo magis timendum, ne in coniugem, in filiam, in cetera pig- 
 nora eius saeviret. The accumulation of specific phrases intro- 
 duced by in imparts an impression of a high degree of fear, as- 
 expressed in 'multo magis timendum.' Tac. Ann., I, n, 12: At 
 patres ... in questus lacrimas vota effundi ; ad deos, ad effigiem 
 Augusti, ad genua ipsius manus tendere. Vota is the general 
 thought which is analyzed here. By itself it stands in no special 
 prominence, but when followed by an amplification into specific 
 details, the general idea gains clearness in the mind of the listener. 
 Sen. Contr., 1,2, n : Ambitiosa lex est . . . ; inquirit in maiores, 
 in corpus, in vitam. 
 
 B. The general truth follows the analysis. Cic. Cat., 4, n, 24: 
 Quapropter de summa salute vestra populique Romani, de vestris 
 coniugibus ac liberis, de aris ac focis, de fanis atque templis, de 
 totius urbis tectis ac sedibus, de imperio ac libertate, de salute 
 Italiae, de universa re publica decernite diligenter . . . ac fortiter. 
 
 II. The general truth is implied. 
 
 A. The implication precedes the analysis. Sen. D., VI, I, 4: 
 Legitur, floret, in manus hominum, in pectora receptus vetustatem 
 
 1 A discussion of the preposition sine, which is virtually a negative in 
 content, is to be found in the treatment of negatives in anaphora. 
 
 2 Suggested reading, Halm. 
 
76 THE USE OF ANAPHORA IN THE 
 
 nullam timet. The same general thought of continuance which 
 is suggested by the succession, legitur, floret, is further amplified 
 by this analysis with anaphora. 
 
 B. The implication follows the analysis. Quint. D., 253, p. 37, 
 6: Ego pro civitate tarn grata, pro populo tali, non subibo quale- 
 cumque periculuml The high degree of regard which the tyran- 
 nicide feels towards his state is amplified in this analysis, and an 
 implication of this is contained in the clause which follows, that 
 he 'stands willing to undergo any danger whatever in its behalf/ 
 
 III. The general truth is unexpressed. Tac. H., I, 10, 8: 
 Palam laudares, secreta male audiebant: sed apud subiectos, 
 apud proximos, apud collegas variis inlecebris potens. The 
 analysis develops the thought of the versatility of Mucianus' 
 power. Florus, 2, 6, 28 : Itaque per Samnium totum, per Falernos 
 Gauranosque saltus sic maceravit Hannibalem ut . . . . The 
 repetition of per helps to develop a general idea of extent. 
 
 The preposition per is often repeated in appeals or in oaths. 
 Its repetition before each of a series of sacred or solemn objects 
 through which a demand is made, centers the attention on each 
 individually, and tends to impress upon the mind of the listener 
 a general feeling of solemnity, which underlies the entreaty. 
 Examples of anaphora in an appeal follow: Verg. A., 6, 363: 
 
 Quod te per caeli iucundum lumen et auras, 
 Per genitorem oro, per spes surgentis luli, 
 Eripe me his, invicte, malis. 
 
 Tac. Ann., 2, 72, i: Turn ad uxorem versus per memoriam sui, 
 -per communes liberos oravit, exueret ferociam, .... Tac. Ann., 
 .3, 16, 23: Per quinque et quadraginta annorum obsequium, per 
 collegium consulatus . . . salutem infelicis filii rogo. Anaphora 
 iin an oath: Verg. A., 6, 458: 
 
 . . . Per sidera iuro, 
 
 Per superos et siqua fides tellure sub ima est, 
 
 Invitus, regina, tuo de litore cessi. 
 
 Verg. A., 9, 300: Per caput hoc iuro, per quod pater ante solebat. 
 
 IV. Contrast as a secondary motive. 
 
 A. The contrasted member precedes. Tac. D., 31, 2: . . . 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 77 
 
 non ut in rhetorum scholis declamarent, nee ut fictis . . . con- 
 troversiis linguam modo et vocem exercerent, sed ut iis artibus 
 pectus implerent, in quibus de bonis ac malis, de honesto et turpi 
 de iusto et iniusto disputatur. 
 
 B. The contrasted member follows. Cic. Cat., 4, n, 23. See 
 page 16. Sen. Vit. Beat., 7, 3: Virtutem in templo convenies, 
 in foro, in curia, pro muris stantem, pulverulentam, coloratam, 
 callosas habentem manus: voluptatem latitantem saepius ac 
 tenebras captantem circa balinea ac sudatoria. . . . The an- 
 alysis with anaphora aids in forming a clear concept of virtus in 
 contrast with voluptas. 
 
D. EXCURSUS ON THE RHETORICAL CHARACTER OF 
 ANAPHORA IN SILVER LATIN. 
 
 Generally speaking, the period of Silver Latin was characterized 
 from a literary standpoint by a superiority of form over substance. 
 In his Antike Kunstprosa Norden speaks of the 'neue Stil' of the 
 writers of this age as being marked by "eine geschmiickte, durch 
 alle Mittel des Raffinements gehobene (Diktion)," 1 and as sig- 
 nificant of this stylistic embellishment he mentions "deklama- 
 torisches Pathos, pointierte Sentenzen, zerhackten Satzbau, 
 vollige Rhythmisierung . . ., Aufgehen der Prosa in die Poesie, 
 (eine) Abwendung vom Natiirlichen. . . ." 2 The use of figures 
 played an important role here, and the abundance of anaphora is 
 only one exemplification of this general process. In many of 
 the examples already examined the general thought which is an- 
 alyzed is relatively unimportant, and the elaborate amplification 
 with extended anaphora has little justification other than the 
 desire so characteristic of the writers of that age to enrich their 
 compositions in a striking and unusual manner. 
 
 In this period, anaphora had indeed assumed a rhetorical 
 character largely; but aside from its serving as a mere stylistic 
 embellishment, it was also abundantly employed as an arbitrary 
 device to assist in the amplification of a general truth to which 
 a speaker really desired to impart additional clarity. This type 
 of anaphora occurs, to be sure, to a certain extent in all periods, 
 but more especially in speeches, both direct and indirect ; 3 in Silver 
 Latin, however, it may be found to an equal degree in a narra- 
 tion or a description which an author wishes to make clear and 
 distinct. 
 
 1 Norden, Antike Kunstprosa, I, 256. 
 
 2 Ditto, p. 299. 
 
 3 The frequent use of anaphora in speeches is too generally recognized to 
 demand further comment. Cf. Steele, T. A. P. A., 32, 155, and I. Nye, 
 Sentence Connection, p. 92. For its especial occurrence in perorations, note 
 the following orations of Cicero: Pro Balbo, Pro Caelio, Pro Archia, Pro 
 Sestio, In Pisonem, etc., and the Agricola of Tacitus, where the epilogue is 
 virtually a speech. 
 
 78 
 
AMPLIFICATION OF A GENERAL TRUTH. 79 
 
 The abundant use of anaphora may doubtless be ascribed as 
 one of the effects which the custom of recitationes had upon the 
 style of the period. For, since most compositions were intended 
 to be read publicly, there naturally resulted an extensive use of 
 various artificial aids to clarity, such, for instance, as the analysis 
 with anaphora. Devices of this sort are the more necessary in 
 the case of spoken compositions, in which a phrase is uttered only 
 once without affording the listener any further opportunity for 
 recurrence, as is possible for a reader, who has a printed page 
 before him. That the recitationes were largely responsible for 
 the stylistic tendency toward a breaking down of the periodic 
 sentence has been noted by Norden, who says, 1 "Man war ge- 
 wohnt, nach jeder Sentenz eine Pause zu machen, wahrend welcher 
 die Zuhorer das Bedurfnis, ihren Beifall kund zu geben, befrie- 
 digen konnten; wie notig es war, unter diesen Umstanden in 
 kleinen Satzchen zu sprechen, kann man . . . aus der Klage des 
 Libanios (Or. I, 179 R) ersehen: wenn Platon und Demosthenes 
 vorgelesen wurden, larmten die Zuhorer bei einzelnen Teilen der 
 langen Satze so, dass man das dazwischen Liegende gar nicht zu 
 horen bekam." In such a case, if for the sake of additional 
 clarity a general truth is amplified by means of an analysis con- 
 sisting of several individual members, the repetition of the same 
 word at the beginning of each specific phrase not only serves as 
 as a connective, but also centers the attention on the members 
 following, in order to keep before the listener the general truth 
 of which they form specific illustrations. 
 
 Not all cases of anaphora, however, are the result of intent on 
 the part of the speaker, and originally the figure was doubtless 
 an entirely unconscious phenomenon and represented a natural 
 means of expression. For if a speaker has a clear concept of a 
 general truth present in his mind and he imparts this to the lis- 
 tener with some approach to an equal degree of clearness, it is 
 only natural that in analyzing this thought his mind should recur 
 automatically to the general statement with each specific member 
 of the analysis, and that in so doing he should sometimes uncon- 
 sciously repeat the same word at the beginning of each of these 
 
 1 Antike Kunstprosa, I, 295. 
 
80 THE USE OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 various phrases. Especially is this true in the case of the shorter, 
 less elaborate analyses, although an element of artificiality is 
 introduced when the analysis is extended to include any consider- 
 able number of members. 
 
 To attain a more exact knowledge of the origin of anaphora 
 requires further study than has been attempted here ; for to arrive 
 at any conclusion would necessitate an investigation of the other 
 type of anaphora in a contrast, and also a careful examination of a 
 colloquial writer like Plautus, in order to detect signs of the be- 
 ginnings of the figure. 
 
E. CONCLUSION. 
 
 What has been proved in this dissertation? It has been shown 
 that one important use, though not the exclusive use, of anaphora, 
 is to introduce a number of specific phrases in amplification of a 
 general truth. This general truth may be itself expressed, 
 though with varying degrees of clarity, or again it may be entirely 
 unexpressed, though in such cases some underlying general 
 thought none the less forms the basis of the amplification in 
 which the anaphora occurs. This may be a general idea of 
 number or completeness ; again it may be a general idea of degree ; 
 or it may, in fact, be a general idea of any sort whatsoever. 
 Furthermore, anaphora is not restricted to a few recognized forms, 
 nor to words which reflect the content of the general thought, but 
 practically any word which a writer sees fit to repeat at the be- 
 ginning of a number of successive phrases, serves equally well to 
 call attention to these specific illustrations of a general truth. 
 While the amplification normally takes the form of an analysis 
 into a number of partitive representations of the general truth, 
 nevertheless the same effect still obtains when these various 
 phrases are practically synonymous, and reiterate the general 
 thought by expressing it in several different ways. 
 
 The various forms in which anaphora occurs in the ampli- 
 fication of a general truth have been illustrated above at consider- 
 able length, in order to make it clear that the figure was exten- 
 sively used in this way by the writers of Silver Latin, and indeed 
 with considerable variety, though still conforming in some 
 manner to the type outlined. As has been already stated, the 
 present study might have been extended to a consideration of 
 other kinds of anaphora, but its purpose will be served, if it 
 shall result in a clearer comprehension of this one type of the 
 figure, as it is elaborately used by the rhetorical writers of the 
 empire. 
 
 However, the anaphora which is studied here is not a phe- 
 nomenon of Silver Latin solely, and the results obtained may be 
 
 81 
 
82 THfi USE OF ANAPHORA. 
 
 made general in their application, and may be shown to hold true 
 for other Latin writers besides those of this limited period, as 
 well as for writers of other languages. 1 One has only to observe 
 the practice of nearly any extemporaneous speaker, who, when he 
 wishes to drive home a particular point to his listeners, frequently 
 does so by amplifying this thought into specific details, to which 
 the listener's attention is drawn by the repetition in each case 
 of the same introductory word. 
 
 1 It is this consideration which has led to the inclusion in this dissertation 
 of scattered examples of anaphora from other Latin and a few Greek writers 
 aside from those covered by a systematic collection of material, but which 
 are equally illustrative of the general thesis. While it is recognized that 
 anaphora occurs in Greek, especially in the orations of Demosthenes and in 
 similar compositions, it is, however, the impression of the present writer 
 that the figure is less extensive than in Latin, and doubtless for the following 
 reason. As has been already noted in the general discussion of anaphora, 
 many cases of correlation no doubt originally had the same effect as anaphora, 
 but lost part of their force through becoming stereotyped and familiar. The 
 correlative use of plv . . . $ in Greek seems to usurp a part of the 
 field which in Latin at least might be occupied by anaphora. This point may 
 perhaps be best illustrated by two parallel passages from Diodorus Siculus 
 and Pompeius Trogus. Diod., 3, 45, 4: OCroi 3 Ka^XoTpotpovvTes irpbs 
 
 P& VTai T & V^yurra. TU>V KO.T&. rbv fitov ry TOV ^ov rofoov 
 y&p robs iro\efj.iovs a IT 6 ro^rtav /idxoJTCu, T&S 5 Ko/xificts r&v 
 TOIJT <t) v vb)TO<popovvTS pq.dLws HiravTa ffwreXovvt) rb S "ydXa irlvovres d tr 6 
 diarptyovrai. Trog., 41, 3, 4: Equis omni tempore vectantur; illis 
 bella, illis convivia, illis publica ac privata officia obeunt; super illos ire, 
 consistere, mercari, colloqui. In the former example the repeated use of d*-i 
 Totfrwi', M rojJrwi', d?rd TOIJTWV at the beginning of successive clauses, instead 
 of fjv . . . 8* . . . S, would have presented a parallel to the repetition of illis 
 in the example from Trogus. 
 
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