H^HHraSral mBmffl ^^^HBG j^HHBH^BMEj University of California Berkeley Gift of Dr. & Mrs. John C. Craig . A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES OR The Complete Practical Bottler FULL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY WORK WITH ORIGINAL PRACTICAL RECIPES FOR ALL KINDS OF CARBONATED DRINKS MINERAL WATERS FLAVORINGS EXTRACTS SYRUPS ETC. profusely frilustratefc BY CHARLES HERMAN SULZ Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler NEW YORK DICK & FITZGERALD PUBLISHERS COPYRIGHT, 1888. BY C. H. SULZ & OO. INTRODUCTION. 'TTHREE centuries ago the manufacture of artificial mineral waters was 1 a thing but little known to the public; and scientific men of all nations have since made efforts to imitate the healing effects of various natural mineral waters, distinguished for their beneficial action on the human system. These waters are now partly imitations of natural ones, prepared ac- cording to the results of the most accurate chemical analysis, and partly certain saline solutions prepared according to an empirical formula for medicinal purpose. The historical data bearing upon this point are interesting, and at the risk of repeating facts, presumably familiar to the trade, a few of the leading events are briefly referred to here. The first attempt was made by Thurneisser, in 1560, which was fol- lowed by those of Hoffmann in 1685, and Geoffroy, in 1724, but without success. Van Helmont, in the early part of the Seventeenth Century, first discerned carbonic acid gas as a gas entirely distinct from common air. Dr. Black, in 1757, distinguished carbonic acid from all other gases under the name of " fixed air; " and Lavoisier identified it and gave it its true name, as a compound of carbon and oxygen. It was only, however, on suggestion of Venel, in 1750, to employ a solution of carbonate of soda in muriatic acid in a closed vessel, that the production of carbonic acid gas can be fairly said to have taken a step in the right direction. In 1772 Priestley first suggested the employment of water impregnated with carbonic acid gas. In 1787 Meyer had already commenced the manufac- ture of Selters waters in Stettin, Germany, on a large scale. Paul erected a similar factory in 1799 in Paris, and introduced the use of a pump. Somewhat later the business began to spread in Great Britain, in 1807 the first patent for impregnating water with gas having been IV INTRODUCTION. granted. About the same time the subject commenced to attract atten- tion in the United States, and a patent to Simmons & Rundell of Charles- ton, S. C., was granted for saturating water with " fixed air " in 1810. Struve 1 first commenced their manufacture in 1815, in Dresden, where he introduced numerous improvements, and was the author of several important observations on the constitution of mineral waters; and to him belongs the credit of having produced the first artificial mineral water, exactly identical with the natural, and to him also we owe the in- troduction of artificial mineral waters into medical use. However, it was reserved for the progress of Chemistry of the Nineteenth Century to ascertain by most careful analyses the ingredients contained in the natural mineral waters, and to enable us to imitate such waters, which are re- freshing for the sick as well as for the healthy, and to combine those substances which are of medicinal importance and refreshing, and to omit those without use or advantage to the consumer. The present use of artificial mineral waters is very large and con- stantly increasing, and, in the course of time, the manufacture has become a formidable industry, which requires a great deal of skill, intelligence, and knowledge to successfully conduct the business. Nearly all branches of industry have their separate literature, from which the trained manu- facturer gathers his references and refreshes his memory, and from which the beginner is enabled to obtain directions and suggestions for the start. The mineral-water trade, at its present development, has not yet found the proper consideration in literature it is deservedly entitled to. In regard to natural and artificial mineral water, the German literature comprises valuable works, such as those of Hager and Hirsh, but with their con- tents (the former being written in Latin) the average bottler is probably unfamiliar. . < The modern mineral- water manufacturer differs from those of former times. The latter knew but one class of mineral water, viz.: the real min- eral or medicinal waters or their imitations. The present time comprises also under mineral waters those kind of carbonated waters which we know under the collective name of " carbonated saccharine beverages," the number or variety of which has reached considerable prominence. The compounding of these beverages, the scientific comprehension or 1 Frederick Adolf Struve, medical doctor and proprietor of the "Salomoni's Apotheke," in the City of Dresden, Germany. INTRODUCTION. V understanding of the principles governing their composition, the acquaintance with the various apparatus and appliances necessary for their manufacture, and the knowledge of their ingredients, and directions for a systematic process, have hitherto not found the ap- preciation they are entitled to. Faint efforts have been made, by some writers, it is true, to cast some light on the subject, but they have rather muddled the question. The author, having travelled in various parts of the globe, has handled all kinds of machinery and manufactured all sorts of beverages, and hav- ing acquired a great deal of practical information and experience, he has concluded to take upon himself the task of gathering together all the practical hints, suggestions and points, pertaining to the subject. He has borrowed from various scientific and technical publications their most practical ideas, added his own technical and chemical knowledge and personal practical experience, and united and combined them to a systematic whole, thus making a work most valuable as a reference for the trade, and a book of information and instruction to those who are anxious for and desire it. The purely scientific matter or parts, which are to be found in works of Chemistry, have been either omitted altogether or shaped for practical purposes; and all practical hints or directions have been either furnished by standard authorities, or are original with him. The vast amount of knowledge required for the successful manufacture of carbonated saccharine beverages, as well as the imitation of natural mineral waters, made it necessary to cover all that pertains to their manu- facture in an explicit and thorough manner, thus making the work really a bottlers' encyclopedia. He has, also, endeavored in every Part and in every Chapter, to give, as completely as possible, a valuable practical and instructive treatise on the various ingredients, processes and phases of their manufacture. In laying this work before the trade and public in general, the author begs to state expressly that it has been made up and written for the practical manufacturer, and not for the theoretical student of the trade; and he submits it to the careful perusal of the former, hoping the time and labor he has spent on it will be appreciated, and the work, with its carefully arranged contents, will find cordial acceptance. CHARLES HERMANN SULZ. NEW YORK, March 20, 1888. '* CONTENTS. PART FIRST. WATER, ITS PROPERTIES. EXAMINATION. IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. Source and Quality of Water. Rain-Water. Pond- Water. Spring- Water. Well-Water. River- Water. Sea- Water. Croton-Water. Snow-Water. Ice-Water. Soft and Hard Waters. Distilled Water. Preparation of Distilled Water. Properties and Tests of Distilled Water. Chemically Pure Water 1 CHAPTER II. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. Analysis of Water. Color, Taste and Smell of Water. Hirsch's Test for Sew- age Contamination. Tests for Carbonate and Sulphate of Lime and Magnesia. Test for Alkalies and Alkaline* Earth. Tests for Air, Oxy- gen and Acid. Tests for Sulphuric Acid. Test for Phosphoric Acid or Phosphates. Test for Urine. Tests for Iron. ^ests for Lead. Test for Zinc. Tests for Copper. Test for Sulphur. Test for Hydrogen Sul- phide. Test for Iodine and Bromine. Residue by Evaporation. Tests for Organic Impurities by Permanganate of Potash. Tests for Am- monia. Tests for Chlorine or Chlorides. Tests for Nitrates and Nitrites. Tests for Living Germs. General Results 19 CHAPTER III. THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. Water as a Solvent. Sources of Pollution Manifold. Oxygen in Water. Metallic Impurities. Galvanized Iron Tanks Injurious. Humine, Geine nd Ulmine. Iodine and Bromine. Phosphoric Acid, Arsenic Acid and Vlll CONTENTS. Boric Acid ; Fluorides, and the newly discovered metals : Rubidium, Caesium, Thallium, etc. Color and Characteristics of Pure Water. Microbe and Bacteria. Minimum of Safety in Water. Water should be Purified. Aeration of Water. Other Methods of Aeration. The Vitality of Microbia is abated under the Pressure of Atmospheric Air ; Carbona- ting of Water a Radical Agent to destroy Organisms. Filtering Mediums. Sand, Charcoal, Sponges, etc. Washing and Regenerating Animal Charcoal. Asbestos, Filter Paper. Cleaning Filters; Limited Actions of Charcoal and Sand Filters. Systems of Filtration. Effectiveness of Up- ward Filtrations Questioned. Methods of Purifying Water. The Alum Process. By Lime Water. By Soda. To Free Water from Magnesian Salts and Sulphite of Lime (Gypsum). Removal of Iron. Removal of Manganese. Removal of Organic Impurities. Citric Acid to Render Water Potable. Boiling Water 41 CHAPTER IV. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. A Specific Knowledge Desired. Mechanical Filters. Chemical Filters. Various Patent Filters. The National Filter. The Hyatt Filter. Bige- low-Curtis Filter. The Tank Filter. Billich Filter. The Wagner Charcoal Filter. De Lisser's Power Filter. Jewett Filter. Baker's Filter and Compound. Johnson Pressure Filter. Puffer's Sponge Fil- ter. Globe Pressure Filters. Derham's Filter Bag. Derham's Pressure Filter. English High Pressure Filter. English Hydrant High Pressure Filter. Gaber's Sandstone Filters. Natural Stone Filters. Asbestos Fil- ters. Cistern Filter. Double Cistern Filter. Low Pressure Cistern Filter. Rawling's Patent Filter. Settling Tank with Sediment Separa- tor. Self-acting Cistern Filter. Slate Cistern. Domestic Filter. Rain- Water Filter. Clapp's Home-made Filter. Bowker's Charcoal Filter. Other Home-made Filters. Plastic Coal Filter 90 PART SECOND. CARBONIC ACID GAS. CHARACTERISTICS. PURIFICATION. CARBONATES. ACIDS AND ACID DISPENSERS. LIQUIFIED CARBONIC ACID. CHAPTER V. CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. Its Composition. How Produced. Its Absorption by Water. An Interest- ing Table. Atmospheric Air should be Removed. Weight of Carbonic Acid Gas. Influence of TCL perature and Pressure. Its Effects 117 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER VI. PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OP CARBONIC ACID GAS. How Obtained. Quantity and Kind of Acid Used. Its Purification Neces- sary. The Purifiers and How Used. Chemical Purification. Filtration. Filtration and Chemical Purification. Chemical Impurities and Reme- dies. Application of Remedies. Examination of Carbonic Acid Gas. .126 CHAPTER VII. THE CARBONATES THEIR PROPERTIES AND PURITY. The Choice of Material. Marble. Whiting (Chalk), Purification and Pro- cess of Manufacture. Marble vs. Whiting. Limestone. Magnesite. Dolomite. Bicarbonate of Soda 138 CHAPTER VIII. ACIDS AND ACID DISPENSERS. Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). Its Discovery. How Adulterated. How to Test it. In Solid Form. Muriatic Acid. When it can be used with Profit. How to Handle Acid. The Trunnion. Acid Dispenser. The Tilting Stand. Carboy Tilt. Acid Syphon. Lead-lined Acid Cistern. Sulphuric Acid Tap. By-Products : The Residue from the Generator. .147 CHAPTER IX. LIQUEFIED CARBONIC ACID. When First Made. How it is Made. No Danger of Explosion. A Simple Process. It can be Used for Various Things 156 PART THIRD. CARBONATING APPARATUS. THE MACHINERY AND SYSTEMS OF ALL NATIONS DESCRIBED. CHAPTER X. INTRODUCTION TO ALL SYSTEMS OF APPARATUS. Remarks. Dr. Priestley's Apparatus. Dr. Nooth's Apparatus. The Geneva System. The Continuous System. The Bramah System. The Mondol- lot System. The Intermittent System Liquid Carbonic Acid Sys- tem. . ..162 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. THE SEMI-CONTINUOUS SYSTEM. An English Machine. Old Style German Apparatus. Another German Apparatus 169 CHAPTER XII. THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (ENGLISH PLAN). English Continuous System. English Apparatus. French Continuous Apparatus. German Continuous Apparatus. American Continuous Plan. Matthews' Apparatus. Puffer's Apparatus. Tuft's Apparatus. The Automatic Carbonator. The Mondollot System. Economizing Gas in Continuous Apparatus 172 CHAPTER XIII. THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM. AMERICAN PLAN. American Continuous System. Matthews' Apparatus. Puffer's Apparatus. Tuft's Apparatus. Lippincott's Apparatus. (With Specialities at- tached to and belonging to the different sets shown) 249 CHAPTER XIV. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. Its General Use in the United States. Hafner and Will's Apparatus. Oster- berg's Apparatus. Madlener's Apparatus. Zwietusch's Apparatus. Lippincott's Apparatus. Safety Valve, Alarm and Pressure Gauge Com- bined. Matthews' Apparatus. Tuft's Apparatus. Puffer's Apparatus. English Intermittent Apparatus. German Intermittent Apparatus. French Intermittent Apparatus. Russian Intermittent Apparatus. Arrangements if Liquid Carbonic Acid is Used. German Carbonating and Bottling Machine 276 CHAPTER XV. ACID AND SALT SOLUTION FEEDING DEVICES. A Neglected Branch of the Business. The Waldo Self-Acting Acid Feeder. The Swinging Acid Bottle. English Acid Feeder. Illner's Patent Acid Feeder. German Acid and Salt Solution Feeder 308 CHAPTER XVI. NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. A Few Pertinent Remarks. How Generators should be Lined. How other parts of the Apparatus should be Made and Finished. Tin-washed Fountains should not be Used. Silver, Porcelain, or Glass-lined Foun- tains. Apparatus should be Tested. Tin, its Properties and Purity. CONTENTS. XI Test for Lead in Tin. Silver Linings. Maintaining the Apparatus. Re-lining of Fountains. Cementing Joints. Appearance of Apparatus. Formulas for Painting and Cleansing. To Silver Metallic Parts. Re- pairs , on the Apparatus. Untight Lining in Generator ; Danger of Explosion. Apparatus for Oxygenating, instead of Carbonating, Water 314 CHAPTER XVII. THE PROCESS OF GENERATING GAS. One of Vital Importance. General Rules for Generating Carbonic Acid Gas. Marble Dust. Whiting. Marble Dust and Bi-Carbonate of Soda. Ex- plicit Directions 323 PART FOURTH. BOTTLING. APPARATUS. BOTTLES. BOTTLE WASHING. LABELING AND FOILING. PATENT STOPPERS. SYPHONS. CHAPTER XVIII. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. The Operation. Filling Machines. Syruping Apparatus. Syrup Recep- tacles. Practical Bottling. Bottling Pressure. Testing Carbonated Beverages. Expelling of Air in Bottling. Sanitary Condition of Bottling Establishment. Suggestions. Storage and Shipment of Carbonated Beverages. Boxes and Crates 331 CHAPTER XIX. BOTTLES AND BOTTLE-WARE. Good Bottles Necessary. Glass and its Components. Etching on Glass. Writing on Glass. Action of Water, Acids and Alkalies ; Poor Bottles Easily Attacked. Colored Bottleware ; Deleterious Effect of Light upon Beverages ; Desirable Colors for Bottles. Testing Bottles. Size of Bot- tles. Protection for Marked Bottles 359 CHAPTER XX. BOTTLE WASHING AND APPARATUS. Dirty Bottles Abominable. The Use of Hot Water in Washing Bottles. Various Methods and Machines. Bottle Washing with Leaden Shot or Emery. To Clean Obstinately Dirty Bottles. Drainers 366 Xll . CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXI. CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. Metallic Caps. Liquid Composition for Foiling Bottles. Tin Foil. Paraffin- ing Corks. Labeling Bottles. Formulas for Label Paste. Label Var- nish. Branding Corks. Sealing Bottles. Sealing Wax 375 CHAPTER XXII. CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. The Value of a Good Cork. Preparing Corks for Bottling. Impervious Corks. Properties of Cork. Second-hand Corks. Securing the Cork in the Bottle. Rubber Stoppers. Properties and Manipulations of India Rubber. Patent Stoppers 385 CHAPTER XXIII. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. The Usefulness of the Syphon. Syphon for Dispensing Saccharine Bever- ages, Wine and Cider. Testing Syphons. Breakage and Accidents. Lead in Syphon Heads. Syphon Filling Machines. Directions for Oper- ating Syphon Fillers. Syphon Syrup Injector. Repairing and Clean- ing Syphon Heads. Syphon Boxes 397 PART FIFTH. DISPENSING CARBONATED BEVERAGES. THE APPARATUS AND How USED, AND NECESSARY ACCESSORIES. CHAPTER XXIV. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. General Remarks. Portable Fountains. Directions for Charging Portable Fountains. Cleansing of Portable Fountains. Filling and* Gauging Portable Fountains. Care of Portable Fountains. Re-lining of Por- table Fountains. Escape of Gas from Fountains. The Dispensing Ap- paratus. Care of Dispensing Apparatus. Solution for Cleaning Silver or Silver-plated Ware. Storage of Apparatus. The Care of Marble. Ce- ment for Marble. General Rules for Dispensing Carbonated Beverages. Drink Halls. Portable Soda-water Carts. Gasogene or Seltzogene. Special Directions. Hot Soda-water Apparatus 410 CONTENTS. Xlll PART SIXTH. THE L.ABOBATOKY. NECESSARY KEQUIREMENTS. FILTRATION AND CLARIFICATION. PERCOLATION AND MACERATION. CHAPTER XXV. UTENSILS REQUIRED, WITH VALUABLE COMPARATIVE TABLES. General Requisites. The Carbonator's Analytical Laboratory. Tables of Weights and Measures. British Weights and Measures. Metric Weights and Measures. Measures of Length. Measures of Surface. Relative Value of Apothecary's or Wine Measure, U. S., and Imperial Measure. Value of Avoirdupois to Metric Weight. Value of Metric to Avoirdupois Weight. Value of United States to Metric Fluid Measure. Value of Metric to United States Fluid Measure. Approximate Measures. At- mospheric and Water Pressure. Explanation of Chemical Terms. Stand- ard Solutions. Hydrometers. Using a Hydrometer. Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of Beaum6's Hydrometer to Specific Gravity as Adopted in the United States. Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of BaumS's, Beck's and Cartier's Hydrometers to Specific Grav- ity, as employed in Germany and France . Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of Twaddel's Hydrometer to Specific Gravity, as Adopted in England. Thermometers. Comparative Table of Degrees of the Cel- sius, Reaumur and Fahrenheit Thermometers 438 CHAPTER XXVI. FILTRATION AND CLARIFICATION OF EXTRACTS, ESSENCES, ETC. Remarks. Filtration. Filters and Strainers. Form of Filters. Filtering Medium. How to Make Paper Filters. Funnels. Filtering Paper and How to Purify It. Adulterated Filtering Paper. Filtering Paper Pulp. To Filter Larger Quantities. A Simple Method. Filtering Vessels. Liquids that are Submitted to Filtration. Filtration of Aqueous Solu- tions on a Small Scale. Filtering Aqueous Solutions on a Large Scale. Filtering Oils. Filtering Syrups. Filtering Tinctures and Dilute Spirits. Clarification and Filtration of Vegetable Juices. Clarifying Vegetable Infusion and Decoctions. Filtering Corrosive Liquids. Gaining Pre cipitates. First Runnings from a Filter. Application of Filtering o\ Clarifying Powders. Preparation of Filtering or Clarifying Powders or Compounds. Formulas for Clarifying Powders or Compounds. Self- acting Filters. Pressure Filters. Upward Filtration and Filter. A Quick Filter. Practical Filtering Apparatus 455 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVII. PERCOLATION, EVAPORATION, DISTILLATION, DIGESTION AND MACERATION. Introduction. Process of Percolation or Displacement. Shape of Percola- tors. Danger of Tin Percolators. Powdering Drugs. Fineness of Pow- ders. Preservation of Powders. Packing of Percolator. Commencement of Percolation. Percolating Dregs of Tincture. Experiments and Sug- gestions on Percolation. Recovery of Menstruum. The Process of Reper- colation. Sectional Percolation. Percolation Under Pressure. Hot and Cold Percolating Process. Evaporation. Changes by Evaporation. Consistence of Extracts. Preservation of Extracts. Modification of the Pharmaceutical Process of Percolation for Bottlers' Purposes. Distilla- tion. Digestion and Maceration. Alcoholic Menstruums. Strength of Tinctures. Infusions. Decoctions. Hints for Laboratory Work. Re- moving Odors from Bottles Cleansing Essential Oil Bottles. Cleaning New Rubber Corks and Tubing. Preserving Rubber Tubing. Soften- ing Rubber Stoppers. Perforating or Cutting Rubber Stoppers. Adhe- sion of Glass Stoppers 476 PART SEVENTH. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL, MINERAL WATERS. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS. ANALYSES AND IMITATIONS. CHAPTER XXVIII. MINERAL WATER AND THEIR CHEMICAL COMPONENTS. Definition and Commercial Aspects of Mineral Waters. Natural vs. Arti- ficial Mineral Waters Classification of Mineral Waters. Imitations of Mineral Waters. How to Produce an Imitation. Methods for Prepar- ing Ferruginous Waters. Chemical Components Divided into Groups. General Directions for Compounding Artificial Mineral Waters. Pumping Salt Solutions from Slate Tanks Defective. Preservatives. The Chemical Components and their Properties 506 CHAPTER XXIX. ANALYSES AND IMITATIONS OF NATURAL MINERAL WATER. The Different Springs. Explanation of Arrangement. Analysis of, and Re- cipe for Making Artificially, Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle (Kaiserquelle), 1. Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle (Kaiserquelle), 2. Apollinaris, 1. Apollin- aris, 2. Apollinaris, 3. Bareges. Bilin ( Josef squelle). Blue Lick (Lower), 1, 2. Bethesda. Booklet (Stahlquelle). Carlsbad. Chelten- ham (Montpelier, Royal Old Wells, Cambray Chalybeate). Carlsbad CONTENTS. XV Sprudel. Cudowa, 1. Cudowa, 2. Deep Rock. Eger (Kaiser-Franz- ensbad, Franzensbrunnen). Eger (Kaiser-Franzensbad, Louisenquelle). Eger (Kaiser-Franzensbad, Salzbrunnen). Eger (Kaiser-Franzensbad, Wiesenquelle). Ems (Kesselbrimnen), 1. Ems (Kesselbrunneri), 2. Ems (Kraehnchen), 1. Ems (Kraehnchen), 2. Ems (Victoria-Felsen- quelle). Fachingen, 1. Fachingeri, 2. Friedrich shall (Bitter- water), 1. Friedrichshall (Bitterwater), 2. Clysrnic Spring. Harrowgate (Old Sulphur, Montpelier Sulphur, Montpelier Chalybeate, Cheltenham Chaly- beate). Hartford Cold Springs. Homburg-vor-der-H6he (Elizabeth- quelle), 1. Homburg-vor-der-H6he (Elizabethquelle), 2. Hunyadi Janos, 1. Hunyadi Janos, 2. Hunyadi Janos, 3. Kissingen (Racoczy, Pandur), 1. Kissingen (Racoczy, Pandur), 2. Kissingen (Soolsprudel). Kreuz- nach (Elisenquelle), 1. Kreuznach (Elisenquelle), 2. Leamington. Marienbad (Ferdinandsbrunnen). Marienbad (Kreuzbrunnen). Napa Soda Spring. Natrokrene, by Dr. Vetter. Piillna. Pyrmont (Trink- quelle), 1. Pyrmont (Trinkquelle), 2. Pyrmont (Soolquelle). Saratoga Springs. Champion . Geyser. Congress. Hathorn. High Rock. Kis- singen or Triton. Star. Vichy. Sedlitz-Saidschiitz (Kose's-Brunnen). Sedlitz-Saidschutz (Hauptbrunnen). Selters, 1. Selters, 2. Sheboy- gan. Soden (Milchbrunnen), 1. Soden (Milchbrunnen), 2. Soden (Sool- quelle). Soden (Wilhelrnsquelle). Ballston Spa (Artesian Lithia Well). - Ballston Spa (Franklin Artesian Well). Ballston Spa (Washington Lithia Well, Old Conde Dentonian). Spaa. Teplitz-Schonau (Steinbad). Vichy (Source de la Grand Grille), 1. Vichy (Source de la Grand Grille,. 2, and Source des Celestins). White Rock. Wiesbaden (Kochbrunnen). Plain Mineral Waters. Artificial Medicinal Waters. Artificially Pre- pared Mineral Water Salts 537 PART EIGHTH. CARBONATED AND SACCHARINE BEVERAGES. INGREDIENTS, AND PREPARATION OF SAME, FOR SACCHARINE BEVERAGES. CHAPTER XXX. SUGAR, AND ITS SUBSTITUTES. Cane-Sugar and its Preparation. Properties of Sugar. Tests of Sugar. Other Sugars: Glucose, Grape -Sugar, Dextrose or Starch-Sugar. Vari- eties of Glucose. Use and Adulterations of Glucose. Test for Starch in Glucose. Test for Sulphuric Acid in Glucose. Fruit-Sugar or Levulose. Inosit or Phaseo-Mannit. Saccharine and its Properties. Examination of Saccharine. Testing Sugars for Saccharine. Use of Saccharine. Ef- fects of Saccharine. Saccharine a Preservative. Application in the Trades. Employing Saccharine in the Manufacture of Carbonated Bev- erages. Practical Directions. How to Prepare a Saccharine Solution. xvi CONTENT'S. Saccharine Powders. Saccharine Essence. Normal Saccharine Essence. Solution of Saccharine in Glycerine. Preservation of Saccharine Solu- tions, Powders and Essences. Saccharine Solution as a Substitute for Syrup in Manufacturing Carbonated Saccharine Beverages. Preparing Saccharine Solutions in Advance. Opinion. Maple Sugar. Glycyrrhi- zine or Extract Liquorice. Glycerine as a Sugar Substitute. Honey. Origin of Honey. Preparation of Honey. Clarification of Honey. Properties of Honey. Constituents of Honey. Adulterations and Tests of Honey 587 CHAPTER XXXI. PLAIN SYRUPS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. Definition of Plain, Fruit, and Compound Syrups. Preparation of Plain Syrups. Syrups made with Infusions, Inferior Sugar or with Fruit-Juices (Fruit Syrups). Erroneous Syrup Preparation. Process of Syrup Mak- ingaccording to the U.S. P. and N.D. Cold vs. Hot Syrup Process. Con- ditions and Strength of Syrups. Tables of Specific Gravity. The Sac- charometer. The Cold Syrup Process. Various other practices for Cold Process. Hot Syrup Process. Refining Sugar. Syrup-Making Plants. Cleansing Syrup-Making Apparatus. Clarification of Syrups. The Chemical Means; Charcoal and Albumen. The Mechanical means ; Car- bonate of and Calcined Magnesia. Paper Pulp. Pure Quartz Sand. Silica or Glass Sand. Asbestos. Pulverized Artificial .Pumice Stone. Kaolin, Alumina, Alum Earth, Pipe Clay, Potter's and Brick Clay. Analysis of Kaolin. Aluminates Deleterious to Aroma. Talcum or Talc. Purifying Talcum from Iron. Economizing the Clarifying Mediums. The Best Clarifying Material. Clarifying Apparatus. Rectification. Rapid Clarification. Regaining Retained Syrup. Separation of Coloring Mat- ter. Syrup Vessels. Preservation of Syrups. Restoration of Syrups. 607 CHAPTER XXXII. FRUIT-SYRUPS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. Preparation of Fruit-Syrups. Clarification of Fruit-Syrups. Preservation of Fruit-Syrups. Restoration of Fruit-Syrups. True and Artificial Fruit-Syrups and Adulterations. Tests for Fruit-Syrups. Formulae for Natural and Artificial Fruit-Syrups 628 CHAPTER XXXIII. ESSENTIAL OILS, AND THEIR MANIPULATION. Character and Origin. Preparation. Simple and Compound Oils. Ex- pressed Oils. Quantity of Essential Oil Obtainable. Composition. Or- dering Essential Oils. A Pint is not a Pound. Preparation of Essential Oils by the Carbonator. Preservation. Restoration. Adulterations. Fixed Oils and Tests. Alcohol and Tests. Chloroform and Tests. Cheap Volatile Oils and Tests. Detection of Oil of Turpentine. Admixture of Water. Detection of Adulterations by the Boiling Point. Concentrated CONTENTS. XV11 Essential Oils. Patent or Artificial Essential Oils. Cutting Essential Oils; what Cutting of Oil Means. Magnesia Should not be Used. Va- rious Materials Recommended. Purified Talcum, Artificial Pumice Stone and Asbestos Recommended. The Best Method of Cutting Essential Oils. Another Method of Cutting Oils. Economizing Oil 631 CHAPTER XXXIV. ALCOHOL: ITS USE AND STRENGTH. Production of Alcohol. Absolute Alcohol. Detecting Water in Absolute Alcohol. Purification of Alcohol. Deodorized Alcohol. Cologne Spirits. rDiluted Alcohol or Proof Spirit. American Proof Spirit. British Proof Spirit. Mixing Alcohol with Water. Wine Gallons and Proof Gallons. Application of Alcohol. Detecting Adulterations. Strength of Alcohol. Temperature Corrections. Wood Alcohol. Methylated Spirit 650 CHAPTER XXXV. EXTRACTS, ESSENCES, TINCTURES: HOW TO MAKE THE^. Definition of Various Extracts. Strength of Extracts for Carbonated Bever- ages. Preservation of Extracts. Deterioration of Extracts. Defini- tion of Extracts, Essences and Tinctures. Water-soluble Extracts, Essences and Tinctures. How to Examine Commercial Extracts, Es- sences and Tinctures for their Strength and Solubility. How to Clarify a Turbid Extract, Essence or Tincture. Harmonious Flavor- ings. Adulterations and Imitations. Ambergris. Tincture of Am- bergris. Angostura Extract. Oil of Anise. Tincture of Anise. Oil of Birch. Essence of Birch. Oil of Bitter Almonds. Extracts of Beef. Beef Tea (Bouillon). Oil of Peach and Apricot * Seed. Nitro-benzol (Oil of Mirbane) and Artificial Oil of Bitter Almond. Essence of Bit- ter Almond. Extract or Essences of Bitters. Tonic Beer Essence. Beef, Iron and Wine. Capsicum. Capsicine. Adulteration of Capsicum and its Detection. Physiological Action of Capsicum. Extract of Cap- sicum. Tincture of Capsicum. Soluble Extract of Capsicum. Curacoa, or Bitter Orange Peel. Extract of Curacoa, or Bitter Orange Peel. Essence of Curacoa. Tincture of Curacoa, or Bitter Orange Peel. Im- proved Curacoa Essence and Tincture. Compound Tincture of Curacoa. Oil of Caraway and its Application. Plain Tincture of Caraway. Compound Tincture of Caraway. Compound Coffee Extracts. Tincture of Coffee. Plain Coffee Extracts. Oil of Cinnamon and Cassia. Ex- tract of Cinnamon or Cassia. Essence of Cinnamon or Cassia. Tincture of Cinnamon or Cassia. Extract of Cinchona or Peruvian Bark. Extract or Essence of Peruvian Beer. Oil of Celery. Essence of Celery. Tinct- ure of Celery. Oil of Cardamom. Essence of Cardamom. Tincture of Cardamom. Oil of Cloves. Essence of Cloves. Tincture of Cloves. Cocoa Plant. Cocaine or Hygrine. Physiological Action of Cocaine. Extract of Coca. Tincture of Cocaine. Essence of Coca. Cacao, Cocoa and Chocolate. Extract of Cocoa or Chocolate. Tincture of Cocoa or Chocolate. Oil of Coriander. Dandelion Extract. Fancy Ex- XV111 CONTENTS. tracts and Essences. Oil of Fennel. Oil of Geranium. Extract of Guava and Rose-apple. Ginger Root and its Adulterants. Ginger Oil. Gin- gerol. Extract of Ginger. Tincture of Ginger. Strength of Alcohol for Preparing Ginger Extract or Tinctures of Ginger. Solid Extract of Ginger. Soluble Extract of Ginger. Ginger Ale Extract. Distilled Ginger Ale Extract, and How to Make it. Rectified Ginger Ale Extract and How to Make it. Essence of Ginger Oil. Concentrated Essence of Ginger Oil. Soluble Essence of Ginger Oil. Hot Ginger or Adulterated Ginger. Fraudulent Commercial Extracts and Essences of Ginger. How to Prepare and Preserve Ginger Ale. Belfast Ginger Ale. Grass Oils and their Application. Extract of Hops. Beer Extract. Extract of Horehound. Oil of Juniper. Oil of Lavender. Oil of Lemon. Selec- tion of Oil of Lemon. Preservation of Oil of Lemon. Chemical Com- position of Oil of Lemon. Characteristics of Oil of Lemon. Adultera- tion of Oil of Lemon. Restoration of Oil of Lemon. Artificial Oil of Lemon. Concentrated Essence of Lemon. Soluble Essence of Lemon. Tincture of Lemon Peel. Restoration of Essence of Lemon. Lemon Water. Oil of Limes. Essence of Lime Oil. Lacto-Pepsin Extract. Milk Extract or Lactofcn. Excelsior Lemonade Extract. Extract of Champagne Cider. Egg Lemonade. Tokay Lemonade Extract. Grape Lemonade Extract. Champagne Lemonade Extract. Liquorice Root and its Adulterations. Fluid Extract of Liquorice. Extract of Malt. Fluid Extract of Malt. Extract of Malt, Phosphate and Iron. Hop and Malt Extract. Malt Extract and Pepsin. Dispensing Malt Extract. Extract of Meat. Oil of Melissa and its Application. Musk; its Sub- titutes and Adulterants. Tincture of Musk. Nerve Food Extracts. Oil of Nutmeg. Essence of Nutmeg. The Various Oils of the Orange Tree. Oil of Orange Flowers or Oil of Neroli. Essence of OrangeFlowers or Essence of Neroli. Orange-Flower Water. Oil of Orange Peel (Oil of Portugal). Concentrated Essence of Orange. Soluble Essence of Orange. Tincture of Orange Peel. Restoration of Essence of Orange. Com- pound Orange Flavoring Essence. Compound Orange Flavoring Tinct- ure. Extract of Pistachio. Oil of Peppermint. Oil of Spearmint. Concentrated Essence of Peppermint. Soluble Essence of Peppermint. Tincture of Peppermint. Peppermint Water. Punch Essences. Eng- lish Punch Essence. Milk Punch. Pineapple Punch Essence. Grog Essence of Rum. Grog Essence of Cognac. Grog Essence of Arrac. Tea Punch Essence. Whiskey Punch Essence. Gin Punch Essence. Various other Punch Essences. Oil of Pimento (Allspice). Essence of Pimento. Tincture of Pimento. Rose Oil. Characteristics and Adul- terants of Rose Oil. Tests of Rose Oil. Essence of Rose Oil. Rose Water. Root Beer Essence. Raisin Extract. Sarine Extract. Sarsa- parilla Root. Commercial Varieties of Sarsaparilla Root. Chemical Na- ture of Sarsaparilla. Commercial Sarsaparilla Beverages. Extract of Sarsaparilla. Essences of Sarsaparilla. Oil of Sassafras. Oil of Spruce. Essence of Spruce. Compound Tea Extract. Plain Tea Extract. Tonka Beans and Coumarin and their Effect. Artificial Coumarin. Pro- portions of Coumarin. Tincture of Tonka Bean. Tincture of Coumarin. Vanilla Bean. Alleged Poisonous Effects of Vanilla Flavor. Vanillin of Vanilla Beans. Artificial Vanillin. Inferior and Adulterated Vanillin and its Detection. Extract or Tincture of Vanilla Beans. Tincture of Vanilla arid Tonka Beans. Compound Vanilla Bean Extract. Soluble CONTENTS. XIX Essence of Vanilla. Vanillin Tincture or Artificial Tincture of Vanilla. Strength of Tinctures of Vanilla. Oil of Verbena and its Application. Wild Cherry Bark. Extract of Wild Cherry Bark. Oil of Wintergreen. --Artificial Oil of Wintergreen. Essence of Wintergreen. May Wine Essence. Wine Essences. Wine or Cognac Oil. Artificial Wine or Cog- nac Oil. Preparation of Artificial Wine or Cognac Oil 657 CHAPTER XXXVI. FRUIT JUICES, FRUIT ESSENCES, AND ARTIFICIAL FLAVOR- INGS. The Juicy and Non-juicy Fruits. How to Prepare Fruit Juices. Preserva- tion and Clarification of Fruit Juices. Lime and Lemon Juice. Preser- vation of Lime and Lemon Juice. Artificial Lime Juice. Test for Sul- phuric Acid in Lime Juice. Use of Lime Juic. Fermented Fruit Juices. Fuchsine in Fruit Juices and Tests. Fruit Essences. How to Improve Fruit Juices and Fruit Essences. Utilizing the Fruit Pulp. Artificial Flavorings. Definition of Compound Ethers, Fruit Ethers, Fruit Oils, Artificial Fruit Essences. Use of Artificial Fruit Essences. The Compo- nent parts of Artificial Fruit Essences. Formulae or Recipes for Arti- ficial Fruit Essences. Essence of Oenanthic Ether. Cognac Essence. How to Prepare Cognac. Rum Essence and How to Make Artificial Rum. Rye and Whiskey Essences. Nordhausen Korn Essence. Arrac Es- sence. Gin Essence 739 CHAPTER XXXVH. FRUIT AND MINERAL ACIDS. Definition of Fruit Acids. Citric Acid. Impurities and Adulterations. So- lution of Citric Acid. Preservation of Citric Acid Solution. Tartaric Acid. Impurities and Adulterations. Solution of Tartaric Acid. Mixed Solution of Citric and Tartaric Acids. Where Tartaric Acid should not be Used. Acetic Acid. Impurities and Tests. Its Employment for Acidifying Carbonated Beverages. Mineral Acids. Phosphoric Acid. Phospho-Citric Acid. Citrochloric Acid. Various other Acids 755 CHAPTER XXXVIII. COLORINGS. GUM FOAM. PRESERVATIVES. Specification of the Various Colors Required. The Manufacture and Use of Sugar Coloring in General. Method of Preparing Liquid Sugar Color- ing. Clarifying Liquid Sugar Coloring. Crystalized Sugar Color. Car- amel vs. Burnt Sugar. Apparatus for Preparing Sugar Color. Con- ditions Required of Sugar or its Substitutes, and Water for the manu- facture of Sugar Coloring. Storage of Liquid Sugar Color. Various Grades of Sugar Colors and their Commercial Value. Test for Commer- cial Sugar Color. Disappearance of Sugar Coloring in Carbonated Bev- ages. Red Colorings. Cochineal or Cochineal Color. Carmine Coloring. Cudbear. Aniline Colors. Aniline Solutions. Yellow or Lemon Color- XX CONTENTS. ing. Tincture of Turmeric. Tincture of Saffron, Examination of Com- mercial Colorings. Foam Ingredients. Soap Bark, Soap Root and Senega. Foam Extract of Soap Bark. Tincture of Soap Bark. Aqueous Foam Extract of Soap Bark (Quillaia). Gum Acacia or Gum Arabic for Gum Foam. Solution of Gum Arabic. Foam of Whites -of Eggs. Suggestions. Preservatives. Salicylic Acid. Solution of Salicylic Acid. Benzoic Acid. Peroxide of Hydrogen. Glycerine 762 CHAPTER XXXIX. COMPOUND SYRUPS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. Flavoring and Compounding Syrups. General Directions. Formulae for Compounding Syrups. Fruit Champagnes. Clarification and Filtration of Compound Syrups 780 CHAPTER XL. ROPINESS: ITS CAUSE AND REMEDIES. What is Ropiness ? How to Prevent Ropiness. Contamination of Bev- ages. Metallic Contamination and Tests. Sediment in Beverages and the Remedies Loss of Flavor in certain Beverages 792 CHAPTER XLI. FERMENTED (SMALL) BEERS. Definition of Small Beers. Fermentation. Definition of Ferment and its Essential Condition. Condition of Yeast. Preservation of Yeast. Ex- amination of Yeast. Preparing Various Kinds of Yeast. Sugar ; Its Substitutes and Proportions Employed. Kind of Water to be Used. The Extracts for Small Beers. A Proper Temperature Important. The Quantity of Yeast Required. Time to Ferment. Killing of Yeast. Ar- resting Fermentation. Clarifying Small Beers. Preservation of Small Beers. Employing Herbs, Barks, Roots, etc. Coloring and Foaming Matter. Preparing and Bottling Small Beers. Preservation of Barrels or Tanks. Alcoholic Strength of Small Beers. Birch Beer. Corn Beer. Cottage Beer. Ginger Beer (four formulae). Ginger Beer and Ginger Wine. Hop Beer. Horehound Beer. Koumiss. Lemon Beer. Mead. Scotch Mead. Methegelin. Molasses Beer. Nettle Beer. Persimmon Beer. Root Beer. Sarsaparilla Beer. Sarsaparilla Mead. Spruce Beer. Tonic Beer... ...801 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 1 . Organisms in Croton Water 9 2. Home-made Condenser 14 3. Water Distilling Apparatus 16 4. Condenser and Filter 17 5. Plan, Condenser and Filter 17 6. Aeration in Open Tank 63 7. Aeration in Closed Tank 63 8. Aeration Combined with Filtration 63 9. Higgins' Alum Solution Float 83 10. Steam Vat and Coil 88 11. Weathered's Quick Heating Apparatus. 89 12. The National Filter 91 18. The Hytvtt Filter 93 14. The Bigelow-Curtis Filter 96 15. The Tank Filter 97 16. The Biliich Filter 98 17. The Wagner Charcoal Filter 99 18. De Lisser's Power Filter 99 19. Jewett Filter ; Sectional View 100 20. Baker's Pressure Filter 101 21. The Johnson Patent Pressure Filter .... 102 22. Puffer's Sponge Filter 103 23. The Globe Pressure Filter 103 24. Globe Pressure Filter with Thumb Screws 103 25. Derham's Patent Filter Bag 104 26. Derham's Patent Pressure Filter 104 27. English High Pressure Filter 105 28. Hydrant High Pressure Filter 105 29. Gaber's Sandstone Filter 105 30. Sectional View of Natural Stone Pres- sure Filter 106 31. Cistern Filter 109 32. Double Cistern Filter 109 33. Low-Pressure Water-Filter for Cisterns . 109 34. Rawling's Patent Filter 110 35. Settling-Tank with Sediment Separator .110 36. Self-acting Cistern Filter 110 37. Slate-Cistern Ill 38. Domestic Filter Ill 39. Clapp's Home-made Filter 112 40. Bowker's Charcoal Filter 113 41. Home-made Filter 114 42. Plastic Coal Filter 115 43. Plastic Coal Filter Tank 115 44. Sectional View of Stone- ware Filters 116 45. The Trunnion 152 46. Acid Dispenser 153 FIGURE PAGE 47. Tilting Stand 153 48. Carboy Tilt 153 49. Acid Syphon 154 50. Lead-lined Acid Cistern 154 51. Sulphuric Acid Tap .155 52. Dr. Priestley's Apparatus 162 53. Dr. Noolt's Apparatus 163 54. Bramah's First Continuous Machine 166 55. Old Style Wooden Carbonating Cylinder. 169 56. Carbonating Machine with Two Copper Cylinders : 170 57. Old Style German Apparatus 171 58. Another German Apparatus 171 59. English Carbonating Apparatus 173 60. Generator and Purifier 174 61. Carbonating Apparatus with Vertical Cylinder ...177 62. Separate Carbonating Cylinder 178 63. Section of Fig. 62, showing Mode of Working 178 64. Carbonating Cylinders with Double Pumps 179 65. Single Horizontal Carbonating Cylinder . 181 66. Separate Double Pumps 182 67. Carbonating Machine with Single Cylin- der 183 68. Carbonating Machine with Two Cylin- ders and Two Pumps 184 69. Vertical Generator with Horizontal Agi- tator 185 70. Dial Pressure Gauge 186 71. Water Guage 186 72. Foster's Patent Arrangement for Gener- ating Carbonic Acid Gas 187 73. Arrangement for Measuring Sulphuric Acid 188 74. Continuous (Beam- Action) Apparatus.. 189 75. Carbonating Machine with Double. Beam Action , . .192 76. Carbonating Machine with Two Cylin- ders 193 77. Horizontal Carbonating Cylinder with Double Pumps 194 78. Carbonating Machine with One Cylinder.194 79. Wooden Generator 195 80. Double Pumps in Frames 195 81. Whiting Mixer 196 82. Gas Washer or Purifier 196 XXII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 83. Sectional View of Fig. 82 196 84. Gas Indicator and Washer 197 85. Tinned Copper Supersaturator 19? 86. Supersaturator in Cooling Tank 198 87. Slate Supersaturator 198 88. General Arrangement of Carbonating Machinery 199 89. General Plan of Complete Machine 201 90. Carbonating Machine with Elevated Gasometer 302 91 . Another View of Fig. 90, with Automatic Acid Feed Valve 202 92. Double Pumps and Saturators 203 93. Another Full Set English Apparatus .... 204 94. Double Action Carbonating Machine. . . .205 95. Double Carbonating Pumps 206 96. Separate Copper Cylinder 206 97. Separate Vertical Generator 206 98. Separate Horizontal Generator 206 99. Agitator Shaft 207 100. Gas Washer or Purifier 207 101. Sectional View of Fig. 100 207 102. Complete French Apparatus with One Saturator 207 103. French Apparatus with Two Saturators. 208 104. Sectional View of Generator with Puri- fier 209 105. Sectional View of Generator 210 106. The Gasometer 211 107. The Saturator 212 108. Sectional View of Saturator 213 109. Suction and Pressure Pump 213 110. Index Cock 214 111. Another Sectional View of Saturator . . .214 112. Sectional View of Pressure Gauge 215 113. Another Plan of French Apparatus 217 114. Sectional View of German Continuous Apparatus 219 115. Safety Valve 220 116. Mixer for Salt Solutions 220 117. Repurgator 221 118. Repurgator or Wash Cylinder 222 119. German Plan of Continuous Appar- atus, I 223 120. Purifying Cylinder 224 121. Another Purifying Cylinder 224 122. Sectional View of German Pump 225 123. Indicator Cock 225 124. German Plan of Continuous Appar- atus, II 226 125. German Plan of Continuous Appar- atus, III 226 126. Horizontal Glass Cylinder 227 127. Russian Continuous Apparatus 228 128. Matthews' Compressor with Generator and Gasometer 230 129. Sectional View of Compressor 231 130. Cross Sectional View of Fig. 129 232 131. Puffer's Saturator with Generator and Gasometer 233 132. Tuft's Saturator with Generator and Gasometer . . .234 FIGURE 133. Robertson's Automatic Carbonator with Generator and Gasometer 237 134. Sectional View of the Spray Impregna- tors, as shown in Fig. 133 237 135. Wittemann's Patent Pneumatic Car- bonator 239 186. Mondollot Machine No. 242 137. Sectional View of Generator in Fig. 136.242 138. Double Generators of the Mondollot System, III 244 139. Mondollot Saturator 246 140. Separate Mondollot Generator with Purifier 247 141. Separate Generator with Double Puri- fier 247 142. Mondollot Double Pumps 248 143. Mondollot Upright Cylinder 248 144. Matthews' Apparatus with Pump 250 145. Recessed Bung Seat 251 146. Lead-lined Gas Washer 251 147. Straits Metal Agitator 251 148. Oblique Valve 251 149. Atmospheric Cap 252 150. Safety Cap 252 151. Sectional View of Fig. 150 252 152. Acid Valve 252 153. Water Gauge 252 154. Pressure Gauge 253 155. Discharge Valve for Generator 253 156. Carbonate-Feeding Generator 254 157. Absolute Pressure Governor 255 158. Cross Section of Stationary Fountain . . 256 1 59. Sectional Elevation of Fig. 158 256 160. Puffer's Apparatus with Pump 258 161. Puffer's Apparatus without Pump 260 162. Detached Gas Washer 261 163. Puffer's Anti-Clogging Valve 261 164. Sectional View of Generator with Gas Dome 262 165. Safety Valve 263 166. Agitator and Water Gauge 264 167. Sentinel Valve 265 168. Tuft's Apparatus with Pump 266 169. Safety Valve 269 170. Sectional View of Tuft's Iron Generator.270 171. Tuft's Low -Pressure Blow-off Cock 271 172. Tuft's Automatic Equalizing or Regu- lating Valve 272 173. Sectional View of Fig. 172 272 174. Lippincott's Con tinuous Apparatus... 274 175. Safety Valve 275 176. Blow-off Cock 275 177. Pressure Gauge 275 178. Hafner and Will's Apparatus 277 179. Osterberg's Apparatus 278 180. Madlener's Intermittent Apparatus 279 181. Zwietusch's Apparatus 28U 182. Zwietusch's Old Purifier 281 183. Sectional View of Zwietusch's Im- proved Purifier 281 184. Zwietusch's Small Intermittent Appar- atus... 281 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxm FIGURE PAGE 185. Zwietusch's Upright Generator 282 186. Lippincott's Intermittent Apparatus . . 283 187. Lippincott's Horizontal Generator 284 188. Lippincott's Upright Generator 285 189. Safety Valve, Alarm and Pressure Gauge combined 286 190. Matthews' Intermittent Apparatus 286 191. Matthews 1 Horizontal Acid-Feeding Generator with Purifier 287 192. Sectional View of Matthews 1 Vertical Carbonate-Feeding 'Generator with Portable Fountain 288 193. Matthews 1 Detached Gas Washer 289 194. Tuffs Intermittent Apparatus with In- jecting Pump 290 195. Tuft's Large Generator with Two Gas Washers Attached 291 196. Puffer's Intermittent Apparatus 296 197. Puffer's Upright Generator 297 198. English Intermittent Apparatus 297 199. German Intermittent Apparatus, I .... 298 200. German (Hamburg) Apparatus, II 299 201 . German Intermittent Apparatus, III ... 300 202. German Intermittent Apparatus, IV ... 301 203. German Intermittent Apparatus, V 301 204. German Intermittent Apparatus, VI. . .301 205. German Intermittent Apparatus, VII . . 301 206. German Intermittent Apparatus, VIII .302 207. German Detached Swinging Generator.302 208. French (Ozonf) Apparatus , 302 209. Russian Intermittent Apparatus 303 210. Liquid Carbonic Acid Cylinder At- tached to Stationary Fountains 304 211. Liquid Carbonic Acid Cylinder At- tached to Portable Fountain 305 212. Automatic Pressure Governor Attached to Liquid Carbonic Acid Cylinder 306 213. German Carbonating Machine with Liquid Carbonic Acid Cylinder 307 214. The Waldo Acid Feeder as Applied to New Generator 308 215. The Waldo Acid Feeder as Applied to Old Generator, with Sectional View of Same 309 216. Swinging Acid Bottle to be Attached to Top of Generator 311 217. Sectional View of Another Swinging Bottle 311 218. English Acid Feeder 311 219. Acid Syphon 312 220. Registering Glass Acid Feeder 312 221. Illner's Acid Feeder 312 222. German Acid and Salt Solution Feeder Attached to Apparatus 312 223. Adjustable Salt Solution Feeder 313 224. Matthews' Bottling Table 332 225. Hutchinson Bottling Table and Attach ment 333 226. Tuft's Plain Bottling Machine 333 227. English Filling Machine 334 228. French Filling Machine 335 229. 230. Monarch Turnover Filling Machine.336 FIGURE PAGE 231. English Power Filling and Corking Ap- paratus 337 232. English Automatic Syruping and Fill- ing Machine 333 233. English Steam Bottle-Corking Machine.338 234. Engl ish Rapid Power Bottling Machine.339 235. Bottling and Sealing Machine 340 236. Matthews' Plunger Syrup Gauge 340 237. Putnam's Syrup Gauge 341 238. Slocum Syrup Pump 341 239. Tuft's Syrup Pump 342 240. English Syrup Gauge 343 241. Another English Syrup Gauge 343 242. American Detached Syrup Pump 345 243. French Syruping Apparatus. . : 345 244. English Syruping Arrangement 346 245. Syrup Can 347 246. Slate Syrup Tank 348 247. Syrup Junction 349 248. Syrup Connector 349 249. Elastic Packing 350 250. Automatic Rod 350 251. Guide Hook 350 252. Distributing Cylinder 351 253. Multiplier 351 254. Wire Bottle Screen 352 255. Wire Mask 353 256. Wire Eye Protector 352 257. Testing Gauge for Corked Bottles 353 258. Testing Gauge for Patent Stopper Bot- tles 353 259. Elastic Wood Fibre Packing 356 260. Straw Covers for Bottles 357 261. Shipping Crate 357 262. Delivery Box 358 263. Quick Heating Apparatus and Bottle Washing Arrangement 367 264. Lightning Bottle Washer 368 265. Bottle Washing Trough with Brush Water 368 266. Goulding Bottle Washer 369 267. Continuous Steeping and Soaking Wheel 370 268. Brush Washer 370 269. Rinser and Washer 371 270. Self -Closing Rinsing Spout 371 271. Reservoir Rinser 371 272. Foot Power Bottle Washer 372 273. Portable Drainer and Rack 374 274. Metallic Cap 375 275. Hydraulic Capping Machine 375 276. Hand and Foot Power Capping Machine 376 277. Improved Capping Machine 377 278. Specimens of Tin-foiled and Labelled Bottles 378 279. Labelling Machine 379 280. Label Gummer 380 281. Cork Brander 382 282. Combined Cork Brander and Counter. .383 283. Wire Cork Fastener 389 284. Cork Wire 389 285. Twisted Wire without Loop 389 XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 286. Specimen of Wired Bottle, Fig. 285 ... .389 287. Style of Cap. 1 389 288. Style of Cap.-II 389 289. Tyer or Wiring Stand 389 290. Cork Holding Tongs 389 291. English Tyer or Wiring Stand 390 292. Champagne Knots 390 293. Tying Lever 390 294. Patent Wire and Cap, with Specimen of Finished Bottle 391 295. American Wiring Machine 391 296. The Hutchinson Patent Stopper 394 297. Stewart Floating Ball Stopper 395 298. Codd's Patent Stopper 396 299. Sectional View of Bottle Seal 396 300. Sectional View of French Syphon Heads 397 301. Sectional View of Improved English Syphon 398 302. New Syphon Spout 399 303. Syphon for Dispensing Saccharine Beverages 399 304. French Syphon Filler 403 305. Sectional View of Fig. 304 403 306. American Syphon Filler 404 307. Syphon Filler for all Sizes of Syphons . . 404 308. Syphon Filler and Syrup Injector 405 309. SyrupSyringe 405 310. Syrup Injector 405 811. Syphon Tongs 406 312. Syphon Vise 406 313. Syphon Press 407 814. Syphon Cleaning Box 407 315. Syphon Case 407 316. Syphon Box 1 408 317. Syphon Box II 408 318. Syphon Box III 409 319. American Portable Fountain 412 320. Sectional View of English Portable Fountain 412 321. French Portable Fountain 1 412 322. French Portable Fountain II 412 323. Connections for Cylinders 414 324. Multiply Cock 415 325. Hand Fountain Rocker 416 326. Fountain Rocker 1 416 327. Fountain Rocker II 417 328. Relief Valve for Overcharged Foun- tains 418 329. Fountain Rinser 419 330. Measuring Cistern 420 331. Sectional View of American Dispensing Apparatus 422 332. Coil Cooler 423 333. Cylinder Cooler 428 334. Matthews 1 Foam Condenser 425 335. Ridgeway's Patent Beer Fountain 425 336. Portable Glass Syrup Tank and Rod . . .426 337. Sectional View of Portable Tank 426 338. Glass Lined Syrup Tank with Faucet. .427 339. Syrup Faucet 427 340. Continuous Syphon 428 FIGURE PAGE 341. Syrup Bottle 428 342. Ice Plane 428 343. German Drink Hall 431 344. Ground Plan of Fig. 343 431 845. French Soda Counter 432 346. Russian Soda-Water Saloon 433 347. Bulgarian Soda-Water Cart 434 348. American Soda-Water Cart 434 349. French Gasogene 435 850. English Gasogene 436 351. Graduate 439 352. Mortar 439 353. Minim Glass 43 354. The Carbonator's Analytical Labora- tory 440 355. Baume^s Hydrometer 447 356. Hydrometer Jar 447 357. Thermometer 453 358. Glass Funnel 457 359. Paper Filters 457 360. Plaited Paper Filter 458 361. Filtering Paper 458 362. Filtering without a Funnel 459 363. Felt Filtering Bag 460 364. Flannel Filtering Bag 460 365. Filtering Rack , 460 866. Double Filtering Rack 461 367. Suction Filter 461 368. Barrel Filter 462 369. Diaphragm Filter 462 370. Oft Filter 463 371. A, Filtering Bag of Cotton Cloth; B, Cotton Filtering Bag, "Creased 11 or Enclosed in its Canvas Envelope, Ready for fixing 463 372. Mode of Fastening Filtering Bags to Cistern 464 373. Cased Syrup Filter 465 374. Metal Case Syrup Pressure Filter 466 375. Sectional View of 374 466 376. Frame Strainer 467 377. Globe Filter 467 378. Self -Acting Filter 471 379. Pressure Filter 471 380. Ascending Filtration Arrangement 473 381 . Warners Filter for Upward Filtration . 473 882. Closed Funnel with Equalizing Device.474 383. Plantamour's Water Bath Funnel 474 384. Glass Percolator 478 385. Percolator with Graduated Receiver ... 478 386. Cylindrical Percolator 47,9 387. Tin Percolator Arranged for Volatile Liquids 479 388. Mortar 480 389. Drug Mill 48fl 390. Glass Percolators with Supply and Re- ceiving Bottles 487 391. Real's Solution or Filter Press 487 392. Water Bath 489 393. Steam Boiler with Still 489 394. Remington's Pharmaceutical Still 490 395. Separating Cylinder 495 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXV FIGURE PAGE 396. Separating Bottle) 495 397. Separating Tube 495 398. Separating Funnel 495 399. Frames with Inodorous Fat for Extract- ing Flowers 495 400. Sectional View of Frames at Fig. 399. .496 401. Extraction of Volatile Oils with Ben- zine, etc 496 402. Distilling Apparatus 496 403. Bulb Pipette 496 404. Laboratory Still 497 405. Condenser to Still, Fig. 404 498 406. Digesting Apparatus 498 407. Digesting and Distilling Apparatus .... 499 408. Tincture Press 500 409. Squire's Infusion Pot 500 410. Stone-Ware Syrup Mixer 614 411. Skimmer 615 412. Syrup Making Arrangement 617 413. Syrup Boiler and Filter 418 414. Syrup Mixer and Filter 618 415. Steam Jacket Syrup Kettle 619 416. Bottler's Stove 619 417. Drug Mill 634 418. Graduated Tube 639 419. Apparatus for Determining the Boiling Point of Oils 644 420. Pipette 649 421. Separatory Funnel 649 422. Alcoholometer and Jar with Thermom- 423. Glass Retort on a Sand Bath 663 424. Fruit Press 740 425. Juice Filter 741 426. Sectional View of Fig. 425 741 427. Sugar Color Kettle and Oven 766 428. Sugar Color Spatula 766 PART FIRST. WATER.* ITS PROPERTIES EXAMINATION IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION FILTRATION AND FILTERS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. Source and Quality of Water. Rain- Water. Pond- Water. Spring- Water. Well- Water. River- Water. Sea-Water. Croton-Water. Snow- Water. Ice- Water. Soft and Hard Waters. Distilled Water. Preparation of Distilled Water. Properties and Tests of Distilled Water. Chemically Pure Water. Source and Quality of Water. The manufacturer of any bev- erage or compound which has water for its base, cannot be too well in- formed as to the article he is handling and manipulating; especially is this true of the maker of refreshment and other drinks. Of the thous- ands engaged in this line of business, how many are thoroughly familiar with the subject of water, or with the article itself as a base for a bever- age. The source and quality of the liquid which is to be carbonated are points which require and repay attentive consideration. It is not enough that the gas be carefully generated and thoroughly purified ; the water must be selected with equal care and purified with equal thoroughness. The presence of organic impurities, such as frequently defile the Croton, and lake or river-water generally, must necessarily deteriorate the quality of the carbonated product. Even common air may be so mixed with the water that flows through pipes, as to hinder charging it with a proper amount of gas, except the air is most carefully removed. Water freshly drawn from a deep, cool, sparkling well, situated in * We are indebted to the National Bottlers' 1 Gazette, New York, for several valuable papers re- produced in this chapter. 1 ^ A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. a good locality, healthy surroundings and well kept, is the best that can be obtained. The sparkling appearance often noticed in deep well- water is due to natural carbonic acid, and this, of course, is a point in its favor. Its coolness, also, materially increases the facility with which it can be impregnated. Next to the water from a good well, cool spring- water is to be preferred, while that from an ordinary lake, river or cis- tern is to be avoided, if possible. When used, it should be always filtered with the utmost care. It is advisable, also, to filter spring-water, and even that from wells, lest accidental impurities should have fallen into it. In New York there seems to be no alternative but to use Oroton. The use of impure water has often led to epidemics, and, therefore, its use should not be countenanced by any mineral-water manufacturer. When one embarks in the business of manufacturing carbonated waters, it should be his principal and foremost aim to select a place where pure and healthy water can be had abundantly from a good well or a flowing spring. Those of the numerous bottlers who are fortunate enough to strike such a place, are of course relieved of considerable care, etc., while to those who must be content with impure waters, we desire to give relief by fur- nishing them with practical hints, or a final and successful remedy; but before coming to the remedy it will be well to speak a few words as to the cause. The worst impurities in water that we have to contend with are those soluble minerals, gases, vegetable and animal substances called organic matter, that are held in solution. The water at the same time may be as bright, clear and sparkling as crystal, and yet contain a large amount of foreign matter and appear perfectly transparent and apparently pure. The error, until lately universal, of esteeming clear water synonymous with pure water, has been exploded by science and experience, and cor- rected in the popular mind, to a very wide extent, by the incessant incul- cations of sanitarians, chiefly during the past few years. There has followed a conviction, or, at least, a suspicion everywhere gaining ground, that water, however fair in appearance and pleasant to the senses, must be of doubtful wholesomeness unless in some way effectively purified for drinking. The most dangerous properties in water are its soluble im- purities, and the highest medical and chemical authorities fully attest to this fact. These impurities vary, and act variously; so, for instance, if the water contains much iron and the beverage which is to be made from it contain tannin, such as is found in birch extract (genuine), it would turn the whole mixture dark and inky. If much sulphur is present in the water, the mixture, after standing a while, will have a disagreeable odor or a bad taste. If the water contains much lime and is used for a beverage con- taining resin, like ginger ale (provided no acid is used), it will form a t GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 3 sort of a lime-soap, stringy, slimy and of a cloudy appearance. If citric or tartaric acid is used with the ginger ale or any other beverage, it will unite with the lime and throw down a precipitate of citrate or tartrate of lime, making the product in either of the above cases look unpleasant and disagreeable and often become unpalatable. Magnesia acts like lime if present in water. These results are more common with well-water, and are what could be termed mineral impurities. With water derived from a different source than from a well or spring, the greatest trouble comes from decomposed vegetable and animal substances. Carbonated water made from the latter generally precipitates and becomes turbid, on account of the excessive amount of soluble impurities contained in the water. Such waters are usually tributary and entirely under the influence of the temperature or the fluctuations of the barometer; and even so much so that very excep- tionally favorable results are obtained. The changes in temperature will often make mixtures look cloudy, thick and ropy, and will always look badly unless the water is free from soluble impurities, or well filtered and purified, and skillfully combined with good material. To produce successfully a good article, all water should be purified, and how to do this we shall explain in this chapter, but let us first get more closely acquainted with our natural waters and their impurities. The so-called natural waters may be conveniently divided into four classes, viz.: rain, spring, river and sea, which differ in the chemical constituents to be found present in them. The source of water in a well may be rain or a spring. K/ain-water. This is the purest kind of natural water, although it is by no means free from foreign ingredients, as an analysis of a sample collected in a clean vessel, upon which it is incapable of acting, shows. The gases to be foun$ are mainly oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid, as well as, occasionally, traces of certain sulphur compounds, such as sul- phurous anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen, the former derived prin- cipally from the combustion of coal, and the latter from the decomposition of organic bodies. In addition to these, sometimes there is present animal and vegetable matter, as well as definite inorganic compounds that may chance to be floating in the atmosphere. Carbonators are not wanting who favor rain-water as the best and purest water obtainable, and its gas-taking quality recommends it at all times, but the difficulty of obtaining it in sufficient quantity is a draw- back to its universal use. Of all natural waters rain-water contains the smallest proportion by weight of dissolved substances, averaging from two to three grains per gallon. The first portions of rain which fall after dry weather contain, in districts remote from towns, the dust of the district raised by wind, or dust and saline matter brought from a distance by wind. The first collections of rain near a town may contain particles of 4 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. * soot or ashes. Collected from the roofs of houses rain may contain also twigs, moss, leaves, and products of the woody tissues, as well as the dust of mortar and all kinds of impurities. Most of these substances will be in suspension in the rain-water; but in true solution, besides the saline matters from the lighter ashes discharged from chimneys, traces of hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid may be present, products of chemi- cal decompositions in factories, or, in the case of sulphuric acid, products of the combustion of sulphur, etc., in coals. After a thunder-storm minute amounts of nitric acid may be found in rain, a product, probably, of the combination of the nitrogen and oxygen of the air under the in- fluence of the electric current. Ammonia appears to be a constant con- stituent of the air, and therefore is a constant constituent of rain-water; usually in chemical union with one of the acids mentioned. Besides these solid matters rain-water contains the gases of the air, ten gallons holding in solution usually about a pint and a quarter of nitrogen, less than a pint of oxygen and little more than an eighth of a pint of carbonic acid gas. When rain is to be used for drinking and carbonating purposes great care should be observed in its collection, storage, etc. Usually it will be collected from roofs. Trees should not overhang the roofs. The pres- ence of birds should be discouraged. The roofs should be kept free from collections of moss, etc. Gutters should be periodically brushed out. Means should be provided for preventing the collection of the first run- nings after dry weather. If arrangements can be adopted for filtering the supply through a cubic yard or two of clean gravel, and afterwards through a cubic foot or two of charcoal, good well-carbonated water may be obtained. Other filters may be used. Tanks should be above ground and covered, or, if below, be of brickwork set in cement and plas- tered over with cement. The use of lead-lined tanks and leaden pumps should be avoided, for soft water is liable to attack lead and dissolve enough to render the water harmful; an iron pump may be employed. In some sections of the country the bottlers are largely dependent on stored rain for their supplies of water, and when the reservoirs are small, crude, and underground tanks, the water often becomes impure to a re- volting degree. Pond-water. These are shallow collections of rain-water. Such pools abound in vegetable growths of all kinds. From their shallowness they are soon warmed by the heat of the sun, and then ensue decompo- sition, fermentation, and decay of dead matter, overtaxing altogether the purifying power of the dissolved oxygen. The result is a fluid more or less charged with badly-smelling gases and dissolved vegetable matter, which, though small in amount, not exceeding sometimes more than five or ten grains per gallon, is in a state of change and liable to set up disease in those who incautiously drink or are more or less compelled GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATEK 5 occasionally to drink beverages prepared from such waters. The dark- colored peaty pools on mountains are less liable to do harm, especially if the water is merely peaty and not much concentrated by evaporation. Pond-water may be sometimes little else than rain-water with five or ten grains per gallon of dissolved solids, and occasionally fit for drinking. Pond- water of this character is not often met with. On the other hand, it may be mere diluted sewage, disgusting alike to eyes and nose. In all cases avoid this kind of water and keep on the side of safety. Spring- water. When the rain-water strikes the earth's surface it at once commences to take up the soluble bodies to be found therein, and gradually becomes more and more impure. As it percolates through the different strata of which the earth's crust is composed, it dissolves out special objects, the nature of which will obviously depend upon the nature of the compounds to be found in those strata. Usually, however, in addition to oxygen and nitrogen, a large proportion of free carbonic acid is present, which adds considerably to its palatable taste and pleasing appearance. These desirable acquisitions are destroyed, or at any rate materially modified, on boiling the water, owing to the expulsion of the gas. The presence of the carbonic anhydride in the water is probably due to the decomposition of the organic matter in the ground through which it permeates, and to its evolution from certain subterranean, sources, such as caverns, mines, etc. , and where the water is frequently- charged under considerable pressure. The dissolved solids chiefly found in spring-water are calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and manganese carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, sulphides and silicates. In some springs these substances are present in very trifling quantities, but in others to such a great extent as to unfit them for ordinary potable purposes. When such is the case they are spoken of as " natural mineral waters." These are divided, according to the constituents that are char- acteristic of them, into sulphurous, saline, carbonated, silicious, etc. See Chapter on Mineral Waters. Not only do different springs exhibit wide differences in the amount of their chemical constituents, but also their temperatures vary considerably; thus, whilst some are but little removed from the freezing point of water, others are as hot as 97 C. three degrees below its boiling point. In sinking wells one must expect to dig until it reaches the plane of saturation, that is, the surface of the stock of water underlying the whole neighborhood, just as rain falling on a large vat or other vessel filled with sand or gravel would sink, by soakage, until it reached the plane of satura- tion, that is, the level of water that had previously fallen on the surface and collected in the bottom of the vessel. The plane of saturation is not itself level in the sense in which the water of an ordinary lake is level, for the water is held in the whole mass of the hill as in a sponge, by capillary attraction or adhesion. The plane is in fact an inclined plane as regards o A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. any few yards of its surface, and, as regards its whole mass, a sort of low cone, or hill within the hill, its sides on a much less sharp incline than the incline of the hill, whatever that may be. Then, too, the surface of the cone of water will scarcely be a perfectly regular surface, inasmuch as the material forming the hill will probably vary in porosity, and water is sucked up into narrow pores to a greater height than into wide pores; hence the height of water in contiguous wells may not be absolutely regular. The stream of water yielding a spring will pass more readily through loose than through close ground; hence in sinking wells into spring-laden strata one may have to go much deeper for water in some places than in others. Well-water, whether drawn from the underground stock of water common to the district, or from a true spring supplied from a distance, will, as already explained, be aerated by reason of the presence of the oxygen and nitrogen gases naturally dissolved from the air, and the car- bonic acid gas partly dissolved -from the air, but more especially produced within the water itself by the true burning of dissolved vegetable or other -carbonaceous matter by the contained and always renewed oxygen. The water will also contain the usual small amounts of various saline and cal- careous substances dissolved from the soil through which the water has percolated. Unfortunately, well-water is also liable to contain a certain propor- tion, sometimes more, sometimes less, of the incompletely purified drain- age waters of the surrounding country. The use of the well-water in the City of New York has been prohibited by the Board of Health. Situated in the vicinity of a place of interment, a well may contain the decaying animal matter of the dead; situated near a dwelling having old-fashioned sanitary arrangements, or one having modern but faulty pipe-sewerage systems, it may contain the decaying animal matter of the living. Even highly manured meadows or gardens may contribute impurities to water unless rain falling on the area has to percolate through some feet of porous air-laden subsoil before reaching the well. Shallow wells are most likely thus to be badly fouled. First, because their nearness to the source of contamination favors the minimum of dilution of the contaminating matter by the rainfall of the immediate vicinity. Secondly, because the oxidation, or true burning out of animal and vegetable matter in the water by the air in that water, depends on the extent of exposure of the water to the air in the pores of the soil through which the water per- colates, and that exposure is clearly less if the reservoir or well, or rather stock of. water therein, is only a few feet than if it is many feet below the surface. Indeed, the only ordinary source of contamination of deep well- water by surface impurities is the running of impure surface water down the sides of the well. The exposure of such impure water to the air whilst it trickles down the well will certainly be quite insufficient to burn GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 7 out the impurities; whereas the thorough admixture of the impure water with the air, that is with the concentrated oxygen of the air, in the pores of the soil, during the percolation of the water through the soil to the level of the water in the deep well, will sometimes suffice to burn out the impurities and convert the water into pure water convert it by the method always adopted by nature the method which transforms harmful car- bonaceous matter into the useful carbonic acid gas, and harmful nitro- genous matter into useful nitre the method by which nature enables us to use over and over and over again the constant stock of the water of the world. The best means of preventing the pollution of deep well-water by impure surface water is to line the sides of the well with something im< pervious to water, extending the lining a foot above the ground, and to such a distance down as may be deemed desirable. If the sides be iron tubes the joints will of course be flanged and be properly bolted together. If the sides be formed of brickwork the bricks should be set in cemenl and the front face be " floated/' that is, plastered over with the cement, If the well is already constructed and the bricks have been set with mor< tar, or, as more usual, without mortar, the inner face should be covered with at least an inch of good cement well prepared and well applied. Deep well-waters are among the best varieties of water for carbonatin^ purposes. Not only are they, usually, free from contamination, but art. not excessively cold in winter and are deliciously cool in summer two requisites of great advantage in improving the gaseous nature of the drink. River- water. Although springs form some of the main feeders of rivers, there is almost invariably found in the latter a less weight of solids in the same volume, owing to dilution with rain-water, etc., and to the diffusion into the atmosphere of the free carbonic anhydride, and conse- quently the precipitation of such bodies as the carbonates of lime and magnesium which the water is only capable of retaining in solution in presence of that gas. The quality of the gaseous bodies present is very similar to those contained in spring-water; but the dissolved organic matter is generally very much greater, owing to contact with decaying leaves, plants, etc., and to the influx of land drainage. The nature of this organic matter is a subject of the greatest moment, as upon it principally depends its suitability for drinking purposes. Animal organic matter is far more objectionable than vegetable organic matter, as its products of decomposition not unfrequently give rise to typhoid fever and other epidemic diseases. The oxygen dissolved in the water serves to a great extent as a purifying agent, acting upon the putres- cent matter, and forming as final compounds carbonic anhydride, water, ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. Hence it follows that, as the free oxygen in the water is being constantly utilized in destroying the organic matter, 8 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. the ratio of the dissolved oxygen to the nitrogen will vary; and so by ascertaining these ratios we have an indication of the water's purity. The amount of mechanically-suspended particles in river- waters is also usually much greater than in spring- waters. Sea- water. This kind of water, besides generally containing those inorganic saline bodies found in river-water, holds in solution certain other compounds, such as iodides, fluorides, etc. The nature of these substances will be seen at a glance from the subjoined analysis of a sample of sea- water: Water ....... 966.14054 Sodium chloride . . 26.43918 Potassium chloride . . 0.74619 Magnesium bromide . 0.07052 Magnesium chloride . . 3.15083 Magnesium sulphate . 2.06608 Magnesium carbonate . . traces Calcium sulphate . . 1.33158 Calcium carbonate . . 0.04754 Lithium chloride . . traces Ammonium chloride . . 0.00044 Magnesium nitrate . 0.00207 Silica .... traces Ferrous carbonate . . 0.00503 33.85946 1000.00000 Croton-water. The suspicious organisms in Croton-water, as pub- lished in the Medical Record, may well be described here in order to make the manufacturer of carbonated drinks acquainted with the impurities of hydrant waters and demonstrate the absolute necessity of their thorough purification before use. The suspicious organisms are figured in the cut from life by Dr. Cuzner, of Peekskill. He selected and made the mounts whence they were drawn, 450 diameters. Understand they are referred to as suspicious, and as possibly nocent. "What is said must be taken in a suggestive, rather than in a didactic manner, with such practical remarks as may occur in passing. A. Epithelia. These are very common in all hydrant drinking- waters, but not so abundant in well-waters. Those in the cut were thought to be human, though they might have come from some other animal. Note the- little oblong dots by the side of the place of nucleus: these dots constitute a parasitic vegetation, such as are seen in the epi- thelium of consumptives (0,, Fig. 1), cases of typhoid fever, scarlatina, GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. diphtheria (vide the elegant drawings of Salisbury's monograph on diph- theria). Bacteria. The group marked B, Fig. 1, and dots inside A, are micro- scopical objects of minutest form and simplicity of structure. They are protoplasmic, or bioplasmic, automobile, capable of arranging themselves into varied forms and shapes, and reproducing themselves by division into countless hosts. D, K, saprolegnias, are two figures of saprolegnia found in Croton- water. Similar ones are also found growing parasitically on the bodies of dead flies lying in water, fish, frogs, and in some cases, on decaying plants. To the naked eye they appear like colorless, minutely filamentous tufts adherent to such objects, forming a kind of gelatinous cloud, more or less enveloping them. Under the microscope the tufts are seen to con- sist of long, colorless, tubular filaments, spreading out in all directions, with or without branches. Sponges. G, Fig. 1, is a spicule of fresh-water sponge, spongilla fluviatilis. Sponges belong to the animal king- dom. Group 1. Ceratosa, with horny fibres. In this group come the common sponges of commerce, marine. 2. Calcispongia, with calca- reous spicules. 3. Silicea, aquatic, with spicules of silica like our cut. The office of these spicules is not settled, though thought to be what answers to the skeleton of the animal. They are, however, character- istic of sponges when found. Pelomyxas (I, I, I). Pelos (mud), and myxa (mucus). These are protoplasmic animals classed with rhizopods rhizos (root), and poda (foot) root-footed animals. They are fresh-water organisms, forming large amoeboid masses of brown or yellowish color. They gorge themselves with mud, and, perhaps, might well be called by the English signification, mud mucuses. These are common in Croton and hydrant waters. For a long time the writer was accustomed to call them masses of humus, as they appeared in broken, irregular, shapeless masses, but having found quite a number of perfect forms in greater abundance when the water tasted badly, and since they are closely allied to the sponges, he thought they should be FIG. 1. ORGANISMS IN CROTON -WATER. 10 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. included in the estimation of animal impurities, like the sponge. Dr. Cuzner thought that the peculiar, dry bitterness of the water might be due to the pelomyxas, as he found them specially abundant at that time. Other rhizopods are difflugia (J. Fig. 1; C, Fig. 1), nebla (F, Fig. 1), plagiopJirys (L, Fig. 1), E, amoeba. He thinks when killed, like sponges, by the drought and excessive waste of water, by the mud being laid bare, that they must pollute the water; how much, in our present state of knowledge, cannot be told exactly. Here is a wide field of effort opened for exploration, and it is fervently hoped, for the sake of the State, medi- cine and public health, it will be thoroughly occupied. These all are found in the hydrant water, showing that they have the power to locomote away from the mud supposed to be their only habitat, through the upper and marginal portions of the lakes. Indeed some of them are obtained by dipping water with a tumbler from the cen- tral surfaces of lakes ! When alive and healthy, they are not supposed suspicious only when dead and decaying. Gemiasma verdans (II, Fig. 1). This is interesting as being one of the so-called ague plants, found in great abundance in ague tracts inland near New York in low, marshy or boggy soils, in the morning before the sun is up growing up in the night and killed by sunlight. Found on soil above-named, in August, September and October, but quite common in Croton water flowing from the watershed. Studies into the mode in which they cause ague prove their introduction into the system by inhalation, so that when taken into the stomach it is not probable that they induce the disease, though in old cases they are found in the blood, urine, sweat, and sputa of patients. It would bear studying. M, Fig. 1, is a collection of common yeast-plant found in Croton more at some times than others, and more likely to be injurious the longer the water is kept standing in vessels. Reinsch regards yeast as a poison when present in quantities, and says that were it not killed by baking, bread would be a poison to man. This should be studied carefully. N, Fig. 1, Leptothrix. Most abundant sometimes on letting Croton water stand twenty-four hours. While the leptotrix buccalfs of every one's mouth is innocent, it is .a subject of inquiry to know whether the one whose delicacy cannot be represented here in a cut is innocent or not. 0, Fig. 1, is an epithelium from the skin of a consumptive, with a col- lection of yeast-plants within. By way of suggestion, in closing, for protection of any who desire it, the best mode is to filter through cotton cloth, often changed and re- moved, and then boil the water, and let it cool. If desired to be drank cold, it may be put into clean bottles, and set into a refrigerator. Snow-water. Experiments have shown that the condition of atmosphere at the time of the falling of the snow influences the purity of snow-water. When the atmosphere has been washed by rain, just GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 11 preceding the snow, the water from that snow shows a minimum of im- purities, whereas that obtained from snow not preceded by rain shows an increase and should be treated like rain-water. Ice- water. Scientists assert that even the ice with which water is cooled for drinking swarms with disagreeable worms. At a meeting of the French Academy of Natural Sciences, the President, Dr. Joseph Leidy, stated that a member had recently given to him for examination a vial of water obtained by melting ice used for cooling drinking water. The member who submitted the vial had noticed living worms in the sedi- ment of a water cooler, but had supposed that they were contained in the water. Upon melting some of the ice, however, the worms were still observed. These worms, which are the sixteenth of an inch long, and colorless, belong to the same family as the common earth worms. Their bodies have 30 segments bearing spines. Besides this cheerful discovery, Prof. Leidy found in the vial several dead worms, vegetable hairs, and other debris. This state of affairs is not calculated to cause much re- joicing among beverage manufacturers. A filter would have all it could handle to keep even with this water, and no mistake. The idea that water purifies itself by freezing is very prevalent and very deeply rooted. It has led to the use of ice from ponds the water from which no one would think of drinking. Nothing can be more erroneous than this idea. It is true that a few of the solid containants may settle and be eliminated in freezing, but that water once polluted is thus rendered safe is a theory long since exploded. Degrees of cold sufficient to kill disease germs are never experienced in temperate zones. Insects and worms are not infre- quently found imbedded in ice. The ice supply of a great city should be subject to as close a scrutiny as the water. Soft and Hard waters. Waters are frequently spoken of as " soft " and " hard " ; those which readily give a lather with soap being classed under the former category, and those which do not, under the latter. This difference is accounted for by the fact that hard water contains lime and magnesia salts, which destroy the detergent action of the soap, thereby themselves undergoing decomposition and preventing any lathering effect until a sufficient quantity has been added to completely decompose them. Should a hard water contain only calcium and magnesium carbonates^ it can be softened either by boiling or adding lime or alum, arid is conse- quently known as being "temporarily" hard; if sulphates of those elements are present it cannot be softened by either of these means, and is then styled " permanently " hard. These compounds are often a great annoyance to users of steam, as they form that familiar and objectionable deposit known as " boiler incrustration " on the interior of boilers. Distilled Water. " This is the proper kind of water to use in the reduction of spirits, but it is claimed that it will not do for the manu- facture of carbonated and fermented drinks, and that experiment has 12 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. proved that distilled water used in the manufacture of such drinks makes them flat and insipid/' This is stated advisedly, though its use is recommended by high au- thorities. Distilling the water is without doubt the most perfect plan for getting rid of organic matter, but it unfortunately separates the water from other bodies that are better left in it. In a paper read at a recent pharmaceutical meeting, several chemists were of the opinion " that distilled water is frequently of a musty, un- pleasant odor, vapid and disagreeable taste, and as likely may contain metallic impurities, from the uncertain, careless methods of commercial manufacture; further, its efficiency is called into question from the physiological fact that distilled water is difficult of digestion and not as acceptable to irritable stomachs." These statements, however, may be regarded as extreme. Another chemist says, " There is a decided differ- ence in favor of distilled water, as to color, brightness, and freedom from fungoid growth, in preparations made with it." Certain it is that distilled water is invariable in its composition, while all rain, spring, river and reservoir waters vary; that by reason of dis- tillation it cannot convey the germs of disease, and makes no dangerous calcareous or earthy deposits of any kind in the human body, nor does it cause any trouble in the manufacture of carbonated beverages such as precipitates from contents of lime or magnesia, or ropiness, bad odors, etc., as impure water does; that distilled water is free from organic matter and sewage contamination, also free from all mineral substances; and if properly prepared, free from metallic impurities. But distilled water is not fit for drinking; it is flat and insipid. To be potable, water should contain a certain amount of carbonic acid gas and air, and also an in- finitesimal proportion of chemical salts, but distilling separates it from those necessaiy ingredients. When distilled water is aerated with pure atmospheric air, it will answer for most purposes, drinking included. If distilled water should be exposed to the atmospheric air it would take up oxygen again, but at the same time be contaminated by the germs and minute inorganic particles the air is invariably loaded with. It has not been determined yet how large the proportion of salts should be in potable water. However, it has been recommended to make distilled water potable by the addition of 4 to 5 per cent, of phosphate of soda and 2| to 4 per cent, of sulphate of soda. . Artificial mineral waters always contain a large amount of mineral salts, and for the manufacture of these, therefore, distilled water is to be highly recommended, especially when those artificial mineral waters are bot- tled and stored away for an indefinite time. The use of distilled water pro- tects against precipitates so frequently found where undistilled water has been employed. Where distilled water for the manufacture of artificial min- GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 13 eral waters is not available, a pure spring or well-water, carefully filtered and entirely free of organic substances and oxide of iron, will answer. No doubt, by the addition of extracts, essences and some fruit acid and syrup, the distilled water used for manufacturing saccharine bever- ages receives some substances which render it palatable. Then by suc- ceeding carbonation the distilled water becomes, as a carbonated sac- charine beverage, if the ingredients are unadulterated, in a state not flat and insipid as before, but a refreshing beverage of great purity. We leave it to the intelligent and enterprising bottler to try for himself and find out whether it suits his trade or not. Preparation of Distilled Water. For this purpose we append the following directions: The quality or condition and purity of distilled water depends partly on the water and partly on the apparatus used for distillation and the method employed. Its proper manipulations have hitherto not been fully understood, and that is the simple reason why it has not come into general use among carbonators. The main difficulty in carrying out the operation of distilling the water on an extensive scale is the subsequent cooling and the cost of condensing. The distillation of some water would be a mistake, as in the case where sj^ific mineral and medicinal properties contained in the water are the cause of their reputation. A pure well or spring-water, filtered, is the best to prepare distilled water from. Rain-water, being generally well loaded with organic matter and ammonia, would interfere with the purity of the distillate. Where possible, boiled water should be used for distillation, especially where boiling tanks are employed, as described later on. Boiling would drive off almost the last trace of ammonia. Odorous, colored or turbid water furnishes an impure distillate, that might even get a charred taste if distilled over a free fire. Ammonia is found especially in the first parts of the distillate. Condensed steam from an ordinary steam-boiler will never furnish a sufficiently pure distilled water, as the water put in the steam-boiler has very seldom undergone a process of purification previous to its use, and contains manifold impurities which we would find afterwards in the dis- tillate again. The condensed steam from an ordinary steam-boiler frequently contains ammonia, has a bad odor and is inclined to ropiness, and is therefore not fit for our purpose. If, however, the steam-boiler is fed with carefully filtered water, a simple and cheap apparatus for condensing steam can be made by obtain- ing a block tin coil or worm (connected with steam-pipe), patting it in an ordinary whisky or wine barrel continuously supplied with cold water. Where a steady current of water is available, such as from a hydrant, etc., or a pump can be employed to furnish a steady supply of cool water, we suggest the condenser as shown on the following page. 14 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. A strainer of muslin over the outlet at the bottom of the barrel will prevent the passage of any foreign substance that may arise from dirty steam. The injection of the steam should not be too rapid, otherwise it will not condense fast enough. The empty space in the neck of the car- boy, around the inlet tube, is filled out with a layer of cotton, by which the air can pass, but its spores are retained. If a still or boiler has hitherto been used for other work, not for dis- tilling water, a perceptible odor may be recognized. To cleanse a boiler, in order to fit it for distilled water after using odorous materials, pro- longed distillation of water will rid the apparatus of much of its odor, but this distillate cannot be used for the manu- facture of carbonated bever- After this has been done for some time, put a piece of car- bonate of ammonia in the boiler; this being volatile and alkaline, will aid in removing any odor- ous and fatty matters, and should be followed by pure water distilled through it. The use of alkaline solution to rinse out the boiler, followed by clean water, and distilling water through it until free from odor, will accomplish the pur- pose. FIG. 2. HOME-MADE CONDENSER. T a, Block-tin coil; 6, Steam supply-pipe ; c. Stop-cock; I the water Contains amniO- d, Water supply-pipe ;e,e, Air-holes to check back-flow ^j,, ( ommnnin fpf Intprnn^ when main is shut off in winter to prevent water from * 119) t6St ' 18 freezing in pipe; /, Regulating-cock; g, Overflow; ft, add per gallon about 2 to 4 Waste-pipe; i, Stop-cock; fc, Charcoal filter; Z, Outlet; m, Discharge-cock. grains of alum in diluted so- lution. When a sample taken from the distillate does not become turbid upon the addition of some acetate of lead, then the distillate is pure and ought to be collected sep- arately and carefully to prevent impurities from falling in. Collect it until about two-thirds of the quantity of water is condensed. If chlorines are present, an excess of alum would set free hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid), and traces of it could be found by testing with a solution of nitrate of silver. On the other hand, the ammonia can be set free by the addition of some unslacked lime, which unites with carbonic acid present, setting free the volatile ammonia, which is always found in the first parts of the distillate and should be rejected. The National Dis- GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 15 pensatory of 1887 gives the following directions on distilled water (Aqua Distillata). Composition H 2 0. Preparation. Water 1000 parts; to make 800 parts. Distill the water from a suitable apparatus provided with a block-tin or glass condenser. Collect the first 50 parts and throw them away. Then collect 800 parts, and keep the distilled water in glass-stoppered bottles. U. S. Take of water 10 gallons. Distill from a copper-still connected with a block-tin worm; reject the first half gallon and preserve the next 8 gallons. Br. When ordinary water is heated to ebullition the gases and volatile compounds dissolved therein are also vaporized and carried off with the vapors of the water, which, if condensed, would then be more highly charged with these volatile compounds; hence the necessity of rejecting the first portion of the distillate, as directed by the pharmacopoeias. On the other hand, if the distillation is continued until all the water is vaporized from the still, the last portions are apt to be contaminated with volatile products, resulting from the decomposition of ammonia compounds and organic matter. The pharmacopoeias avoid this . possibility by dis- continuing the distillation when 15 per cent, of the water is left in the still. The material of which the distillatory apparatus used for this purpose is constructed is of considerable importance, but more particularly in relation to the condenser. Iron, copper and lead condensers must not be used, since the water corrodes these metals, traces and sometimes larger quantities of which will always be found in the distillate. Where a glass condenser is available it may be regarded as the most desirable, apparatus made of metals (silver and platinum), which are not in the least corroded during distillation, being too costly for general use. The material best adapted for practical purposes is block-tin, of which the condenser and all those portions of the apparatus should be made from which the vapors are made to descend. A minute quantity of tin is nearly always dissolved, but separates again on standing for a few days in contact with the air. The occasional appearance of confervse in dis- tilled water depends upon its direct contact with the air, and may be prevented by keeping it in vessels arranged in such a manner that the air can enter only after having passed through a layer of cotton, by which the spores are retained. Properties and Tests of Distilled Water. Distilled water is a colorless, limpid liquid, without odor or taste, and of neutral reaction. On evaporating one liter of distilled water no fixed residue should remain. The transparency or color of distilled water should not be affected by hydrosulphuric acid or sulphide of ammonium (absence of metals), by test solutions of chloride of barium (sulphate), nitrate of silver (chloride), oxalate of ammonium (calcium), or mercuric chloride, with or without 16 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. the subsequent addition of carbonate of potassium (ammonia and ammo- nium salts). On heating 100 com. of distilled water acidulated with 10 ccm. of diluted sulphuric acid to boiling, add enough of a dilute solu- tion of permanganate of potassium (1 in 1000) to impart to the liquid a decided rose -red tint; this tint should not be entirely destroyed by boiling for five minutes (absence of organic or other oxidizable matters). U. S. Distilled water should not be affected by solution of lime (ab- sence of carbonic acid) Br. On continued exposure to the air distilled FIG. 3. WATER DISTILLING APPARATUS. A, Copper still, tin-lined; B, Condenser; C, Charcoal filter; Z, Receiver or carboy; a, Steam inlet; 6, Steam coil; c, Steam outlet; d, Discharge cock; e, Iron support; /, Water guage; g, Water inlet; 7i, Water supply pipe; t, Condensing-pipe, with block tin coil; fc, Water-main; I, Stop-cock; m, Sup- ply valve; ?i, Water inlet for condenser; o, Water outlet; p, Waste pipe; r, W 7 ater supply-pipe for condenser water will dissolve carbonic acid gas, and then become cloudy with clear lime-water. To this valuable information we may add, that the distilled water ought to be stored in clean carboys or carefully rinsed barrels, both closed air-tight, and disinfecting or cleansing should be resorted to between suc- cessive supplies. The particular smell which distilled water is almost in- variably possessed of can be got rid of by filtering it through animal charcoal, and this should always be done, as it tends to its preservation. The above illustration shows the arrangement of a distilling ap- paratus with an extra tin-lined copper still, and condenser and filter attached. GENERAL SOURCE AND KIND OF WATER. 17 The inlet of the distilled water in filter C is practically closed by a per- forated cork, also the outlet of condensing pipe, and both are connected with a glass tube fitted in the corks. The outlet-tube leading to carboy and the mouth of the latter are protected by a layer of cotton, which allows the air free access and acts as a vent but retains its spores. An ingenious condensing apparatus and filter for distilled water we find illustrated in Barnett & Foster's catalogue, and reproduce here for the benefit of the trade. The steam is caused to pass along narrow grooves having very small capacity but large surface; the steam is thus very rapidly condensed to water, which has great effect on the main body of steam in the tube. The steam is moreover caused to rub continually against edges or angles, which are most easily cooled by the circulating water. The steam inlet is fitted with a dirt arrester a special contri- vance to prevent dirt or scale passing into coils. This condenser and filter combined is indeed an efficient and practical arrangement in water-distilling appa- ratus. Instead of charcoal, it was recommended to filter distilled water through paper or paper pulp; but when filtered through paper, distilled water soon exhibits a fatty sedi- ment, which is never found when filtered through sponge. The latter therefore would be preferable to paper; however, animal charcoal is the proper filter material for distilled wa- ter. It is, of course, frequently to be renewed or regenerated. Chemically Pure Water. Absolutely or chemically pure water is never found in nature. Absolutely pure water consists of a chemical combination of two volumes of hydrogen with one of oxygen gas, containing absolutely nothing else. The words pure water are used in two distinct senses. The scientific chemist uses them to describe water which is nothing but water; the public and the scientific chemists, too, use them to describe water which is not impure, but which may contain small quantities of many harmless, nay useful, dissolved solid and gaseous substances. It is probable that no person has ever drunk a single half pint of pure water; that is, chemically- pure water. Probably not one person in ten thousand has ever seen chemically-pure water, and not one in a 2 FIG. 4. CONDENSER AND FILTER. FIG. 5. PLAN, CONDENSER AND FILTER. A, Steam inlet; B, Outlet to filter; C, Circulating water inlet; D, Circulating overflow; E, Distilled and filtered water outlet; F, Relief pipe- G, Animal charcoal filter. 18 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. million seen more than a few drops bedewing the inner sides of a closed bottle. When a scientist closed up the two elements of water, namely, pure hydrogen gas and pure oxygen gas in a bottle, and ignited the mix- ture, a film of moisture was seen inside the glass; and if the operation was several times repeated, a few drops were perhaps collected within the vessel. This was pure water, though, indeed, we should make no mere trivial assertion if we said that even this apparently chemically pure water would contain traces of alkali dissolved from the glass, or would contain in solution traces of either free hydrogen, free oxygen, or even air, the presence of which is unavoidable by human manipulators. For all practical purposes, however, even for those of exact chemical analysis, when water is thus produced from its pure elements, out of contact of air, it is pure water. CHAPTER II. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. Analysis of Water. Color, Taste arid Smell of Water. Hirsch's Test for Sewage Contamination. Tests for Carbonate and Sulphate of Lime and Magnesia. Test for Alkalies and Alkaline Earths. Tests for Air, Oxy- gen and Acid. Tests for Sulphuric Acid. Test for Phosphoric Acid or Phosphates. Test for Urine. Tests for Iron. Tests for Lead. Test for Zinc. Tests for Copper. Test for Sulphur. Test for Hydrogen Sulphide. Test for Iodine and Bromine. Residue by Evaporation. Tests for Organic Impurities by Permanganate of Potash. Tests for Am- monia. Tests for Chlorine or Chlorides. Tests for Nitrates and Nitrites. Tests for Living Germs. General Results. Analysis of Water. The analysis of water, or, rather, of the sub- stances which may be present in the water, involves a series of operations of so special and technical a character that no useful purpose would be served by describing them in a necessarily brief article intended solely for the general bottling trade. To ascertain the nature and amount of each of the dissolved solids will occupy the whole time of an expert chemist for several days. Such a complete analysis is sometimes required by beverage manufacturers and owners of mineral springs. The ordinary mineral substances in drinking waters not being impurities, the chemist analyzing water for drinking purposes does not take notice of them unless they are present in abnormal proportions. It is to the organic, that is, animal or vegetable matter present, that he devotes his attention. Even an analysis from this point of view occupies several hours. He ascertains the total amount of "dissolved solids" present; tests for the substances termed "nitrites," finds out how much nitre is in the water, or "ni- trates;" "chlorides" also; detects the character and amount of "hard- ness," and, either by the " combustion " mode, " ammonia " method, or ' ' oxygen ' ' process, familiar to chemists, makes an estimate of the harm- fulness or harmlessness of the organic matter in the water. All this is done on the assumption that the sample of water is a fair sample, care- fully collected in a cleansed and well-rinsed bottle closed by a clean and well-rinsed cork or stopper. With the instructions to analyze should be sent a statement as to whether the water is from a well, river, etc. ; if a well, whether it is known to be a shallow or a deep well; and what is the general nature, if known, of the soil, sub-soil, and general surroundings of the well, etc. From all these chemical and general data the analytical 20 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. chemist will be able to form an opinion respecting the quality of the water for manufacturing either fermented or carbonated beverages an opinion that will be among the most trustworthy, and one enabling a bottler to treat his water intelligently. Great care should be taken that water samples be placed in the hands of the analyst and their examination begun with the least possible delay after they have been collected. The changes which take place, sometimes rapidly, on keeping, may affect the results, especially in the case of waters much polluted by foul organic matter. It is, however, often desirable that water should be speedily tested as to its fitness for use in the manufacture of carbonated beverages. The skilled analyst, with his well-appointed laboratory, is usually found only in the larger cities. The apparatus required for a complete scientific in- vestigation, consisting of fine scales, burettes, retorts, condensers, gradu- ated pipettes, etc., is somewhat expensive, and is not generally found in a country drug store, not to mention the slim resources of the bottling factory. The trouble incurred in preparing and preserving a compara- tively large stock of reagents for volumetric analysis is almost sufficient to discourage the attempt at anything but the most rudimentary work, yet we think it is possible to obtain very useful and fairly exact results with much lessened labor and expense. Borrowing from such authori- ties as we could obtain access to, we have tried to devise a plan which, for the examination of drinking water, will give much satisfaction. Al- though it is not an easy matter to reduce the operations of water analysis to such simplicity that they may be readily used, and give accurate results, it is believed that the methods brought forward in these pages, if carefully and patiently applied, will give in most cases reliable informa- tion concerning the sanitary condition of water. Color, Taste and Smell of Water. If the outward appearance of water, clearness, brightness, and tastelessness, were a reliable criterion of the purity of the water, nothing would be easier than to form a fair esti- mate of its value; but this is by no means the case. Brightness is only a proof of a perfect absence of suspended impurities, but it gives uo evi- dence of matters not being present in solution. One-quarter of a grain of chalk in suspension in a gallon of pure water will suffice to give the whole a dull and turbid appearance; while a hundred times the quantity in solution leaves the water limpid and perfectly transparent. So it is with innumerable other substances that may be contained in water, with- out in any way manifesting their presence, except by the agency of chemical re-agents. Generally, polluted waters have various shades of a yellowish or brownish tint, which vary according to the amount of filth which they contain; but to this there are so many exceptions, that the color is by no means a safe guide. Some peaty waters, and those that contain iron. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 21 may have a yellowi?h or brownish tint, and yet be perfectly healthy. On the other hand, some very badly polluted waters are perfectly clear, and frequently present a better appearance than many pure waters. Good water should have practically no color, though a slight tinge may be present in an otherwise excellent water. If turbidity arises from sand or clay the water will rapidly become clear on standing; but if it arises from organic matter, this is not gener- ally the case and is an unfavorable sign. The character of a water can seldom be determined from any one in- dication or test. The accumulated evidence of a number of tests is nec- essary for the formation of a correct opinion of its quality. Occasionally, from the most accurate and numerous tests that can be made in a fully equipped laboratory, it is impossible to pronounce on some waters, while others are so marked in character that a few tests declare at once what they are. The smell of a water often gives some indication of its character. But it frequently happens that wholesome waters have an unpleasant odor: this is the case with some mineral waters. In clayey districts, especially, water which is organically pure may have an objectionable odor, which is imparted by the clay. The waters of some lakes and rivers which supply some of our large cities, as Boston, New York, and Balti- more, have at times a peculiar " fish-like " odor. It generally begins in summer, but sometimes not until autumn. It is due, probably, to some condition of water plants whether to a state of growth, or decay, is un- certain. Growing plants emit odors peculiar to themselves: so it is not necessary to suppose that the odor mentioned arises from decay. How- ever it may be, there is yet no evidence that such water is injurious to the health of those who drink it. If the odor is very marked, of course there is no difficulty in perceiv- ing it; when this is not the case, partly fill a clean bottle with the water to be tested, and after shaking it violently, so as to communicate the odor to the air within the bottle, place it in a kettle of cold water, and heat the whole together, or, after strong agitation, inhale the air of the bottle through the nostrils. Heat expels the gases dissolved in the water, so that they may be detected on removing the stopper. Finally, the odor may be made more apparent by adding a little caustic potash to the water. Pure water has no odor whatever, and should be tasteless; but water may even be tasteless and yet be very bad. It is ver,y desirable that, besides examining a water in its perfectly fresh condition, samples of it should be set aside, in half -filled but close glass-stoppered bottles, for some time say 10 or 12 days and one of these examined every day or two, so as to trace the character and extent of the changes undergone. Not only may conclusions be drawn from such a series of observations as to the general stability or decomposability 22 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. of the organic matter present, but light will be thrown upon the changes which may be expected to occur under ordinary conditions when the water is stored for use, as in cisterns, wells during periods of drought, or care- lessly allowed to remain stagnant in pitchers, water coolers, etc. The following few simple tests are suggestive: Color. Fill a bottle made of colorless glass; look through the water at some black and, following, at some white object; the water should appear perfectly colorless. A muddy or turbid appearance indicates the presence of soluble organic matter, or of solid matter in suspension. Turbidity. This may arise from sand, clay, or from organic matter. If from either of the former two, the water will rapidly become clear on standing; but if the turbidity arise from organic matter this is not gener- ally the case and is an unfavorable sign. If a microscope is accessible and living organisms can be seen, the water should be decidedly rejected. The quantity of suspended matter is ascertained by filtering through a filter previously weighed. After filtration dry filter, and filtrate and weigh again. The difference in weight indicates the quantity of suspended matter. Odor. Fill and cork a bottle with some of the suspected water, and place it for a few hours in a warm place; shake it, remove the cork, and if the odor is in the least repulsive, the water should be rejected. By heat- ing the water to boiling, an odor is evolved that otherwise does not appear. Taste. Water fresh from a well is usually tasteless, even though it may contain a large amount of putrescible organic matter, thus rendering this test no criterion as to the quality of a water. Water for use should be perfectly tasteless, and remain so even after it has been warmed. Hirsch's Test for Sewage Contamination. Fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full of water to be tested, dissolve a teaspoonful of loaf or granulated sugar, cork the bottle and place it in a warm place for two days. If the water becomes cloudy or milky it is unfit for use. If it remains perfectly clear it is probably safe to use. Bottlers cannot exercise too much care in preparing water for beverage making, and all known tests should be employed to ascertain its purity. Tests for Carbonate and Sulphate of Lime and Magnesia. All natural waters are more or less charged with solid mineral matter, and, indeed, a certain proportion of it seems to be necessary to health. On the other hand, if the amount of solid matter dissolved be excessive, the water is unpalatable and unwholesome. A water that contains an excess of calcium salts is said .to be hard, while one not so rich is said to be soft. If the hardness be due to the presence of the carbonates of the alkaline earths held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid, and hence existing in solution as bicarbonates, it is temporary, for upon the application of heat the carbon dioxide gas is driven off, and the carbonates being no longer soluble, are precipitated. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 23 A permanently hard water owes its hardness to the presence of the sul- phates of the alkaline earths, and these remain in solution (simple aqueous solution). An easy method of determining the hardness of a water is with a soap solution. Dissolve a little good, white and dry castile soap in some alcohol and add a few drops of the solution to the water to be tested. If it assumes a milky appearance the water is hard, if it is not changed or changes but slightly, it is soft. Testing for Bicarbonate or Carbonate of Lime. 1. A sufficiently ap- proximate idea as to the hardness of a water by carbonate of lime may be obtained by half filling a test tube with the water and gradually heating to boiling over the spirit-lamp. If the water is very hard a turbidity will be perceptible on looking through the tube. This turbidity shows the presence of lime in considerable quantity. As lime, however, may also be present without being discerned by this test, proceed to apply another. 2. The addition of a small quantity of slacked lime dissolved in water, containing bicarbonate of lime, produces a white precipitate. 3. Add a few drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia to water in test-tube. If carbonate of lime be present, the water will show after a little while a clouded or milky appearance, and in a few hours a white precipitate will be found at the bottom of the tubes. If this appearance takes place before, and not after a short boiling of the water, it is a proof of the presence of free carbonic acid; but if it takes place also after the boiling, then it must be carbonate of lime. 4. Pure lime in solution may be discovered by adding one or two crystals of oxalic acid to the water to be tested. A milky deposit shows lime. For Magnesia. To test water for magnesia, heat it to the boiling point and add, on the point of a knife, a little carbonate of ammonia and some phosphate of soda. If magnesia be present, it will be deposited on the bottom of the vessel. For Sulphate of Lime. 1. After adding a few drops of a solution of nitrate of baryta to the test-tube the presence of sulphate of lime is in- dicated by a milky appearance, and by the formation of a white precipi- tate. If the cloud remains at the top, it indicates the presence of sul- phuric acid. 2. Sulphate of lime is deposited from water in the form of a white precipitate by the addition of chloride of barium. The precipi- tate is not soluble in nitric acid. Test for Alkalies and Alkaline Earths. Alkalies and alkaline earths are discovered in the following manner: Blue litmus paper should be colored pale red by diluted vinegar and dipped into the water; if the former blue color is restored, the water has alkaline properties. In some mineral waters they occur in relatively large quantities, and give to the waters some of their medicinal properties. In waters used for pota- 24 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. ble or industrial purposes, the presence of potash or soda has no undesira- ble effect. Tests for Air, Oxygen and Acid. Whether water contains dissolved gases or air may be found by raising the temperature of the water slowly, until globules of air appear on the sides of the vessel and the bulb of the thermometer. They are generally distinct at about 70 Fahrenheit. A ready mode of testing the aeration of water for oxygen is by the use of sulphate of iron. This salt oxidises very rapidly, and leaves a deposit of protoxide of iron in a yellow state. If the water is boiled previously, it remains perfectly clear. If a milky appearance follows the addition of lime-water before, but not after the water under test has been boiled, it contains carbonic acid. The addition of muriatic acid removes the cloudiness. Another test is as follows: Add from five to ten drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia to water in test-tube. If the water will show after a little while a clouded or milky appearance before, and not after a short boiling of the water, it is a proof of the presence of free carbonic acid: but if it takes place also after the boiling, then it must be carbonate of lime. Tests for Sulphuric Acid. 1. Sulphuric acid is found by adding a few drops of solution of nitrate of baryta. If sulphuric acid be present the water will show a milky appearance and the clouds remain at the top, or are uniformly diffused. If the clouds sink to the bottom it indicates sulphate of lime. 2. On addition of chlorbaryum a precipitate of sul- phate of baryta occurs, if sulphuric acid be present. In testing for acids generally, dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the water. If it turns red the presence of free acids may be accepted. Test for Phosphoric Acid or Phosphates. In well-water are very frequently traces of phosphoric acid or phosphates. Small traces are with- out any disadvantage; however, mineral waters containing iron cannot "be made with it, and if the phosphoric acid or its phosphates come in contact with lime or magnesia salts, which mineral waters most invariably contain, it causes turbidity. To detect phosphoric acid acidify a sample of water Strongly with nitric acid, add some molybdate of ammonia and bring to a boil in a porcelain vessel. If phosphoric acid be present the water \ssumes first a yellow color and then forms a yellow precipitate. If the yellowish color of the water looks pale, not distinct yellow, the phos- phoric acid is present in but trifling traces. Test for Urine. To make a test for urine in potable water, add a solution of nitrate of silver. A brown color indicates pollution with urine (Leffmann). Tests for Iron. 1. A few drops of tincture or infusion of nut galls turns water containing iron, black; when this takes place, both before and after the water has been boiled, the metal is present under the form of sulphate of iron. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 25 2. A few drops of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (solution of prussiate of potash) gives a blue precipitate in water containing sesqui salts of iron; and a white precipitate turning blue by exposure to the air, in water containing a proto salt of iron. From the intensity of the color the quantity present may be inferred. Water is readily impregnated with iron by throwing into it a few rusty nails, hoops, or other similar objects, or if it comes in contact with such substances by connection through iron pipes. The amount of iron dissolved by water in passing through iron pipes is exceedingly small. It has been shown that water containing organic matter is purified to a large extent of the contamina- tion by a passage through iron pipes, but even the presence of a substance such as iron, known to produce beneficial effects when administered medicinally, is much to be deprecated in water for every-day use, and is undesirable in water used for the manufacture of mineral waters, as it has a deleterious action upon flavors used in the preparation of the beverage and in some cases entirely destroys it. It is not often that a water is found which contains enough iron to be prejudicial to health. Some authorities say that there ought not to be more than two-tenths grain per gallon, and others think that water con- taining one-half grain per gallon is not injurious. Iron is detected by means of sulphide of soda and hydrochloric acid. If no lead is present, the color produced by the sulphide must dissolve completely on the addi- tion of two or three drops of acid. " If it be desirable to learn whether there is more than half a grain of iron in a gallon of any water, dissolve one ounce avoirdupois of sulphate of iron (copperas) in eleven ounces of water. Each drop of this solution contains about one sixty-fourth grain of iron. Add one drop of the solu- tion to four ounces of pure water, which will then contain iron at the rate of about one-half grain per gallon. Add to this a drop of sulphide of soda, and compare the color with that of the water in question. Tests for Lead. 1. If, by adding a few drops of a solution of ace- tate of lead, a milky or cloudy appearance presents itself, it shows that the water is not capable of holding any lead in solution; but, on the con- trary, if, upon the addition of five drops of a solution of bichromate of potash to another test-tube a dull or clouded appearance ensues, then it is certain that lead is present. The quantity in solution will be indicated by the degree of opaqueness produced; but, however small this may be, it may be taken for certain that such water is dangerous for use. 2. A solution of bichromate of potash, or iodide of potassium, added to water containing lead, will cause a precipitate if the lead is present in sufficient quantity. If the quantity of lead be too small to be detected by this means, the most certain way to detect its presence is, first, to ex- amine what separates by exposure to the air, by dissolving it in warm acetic acid, and testing the solution with sulphuretted hydrogen; if this 26 A TKEATISE ON BEVERAGES. process fails to show the lead, the water should he concentrated to an eighth part and again tested. So says the National Bottlers' Gazette. All these tests are dependent upon the appearance presented by the water after the addition of one or other of the test fluids. The best method of observing this appearance is by looking from above clown into the tube, or, as in the tests for lead, carbonate, and sulphate of lime, looking sideways at the tube; not, however, holding it against the light, but against some dark object, when the cloudy appearance caused by the presence of the object sought for will, if it be present, be readily ob- served. In all cases, the test tubes should be nearly filled with the water to be tried. 3. Add a drop of alcoholic tincture of cochineal. When lead is pres- ent a precipitate occurs. (Blyth.) 4. If it cannot readily be bought, prepare a solution of sulphide of soda as follows: Thoroughly mix a small quantity of sulphur (about a teaspoonful) with twice its quantity of cooking soda; put the mixture in an iron spoon or ladle, and heat it over the coals until it is well melted and the flame of the sulphur has gone out. Scrape the black residue from the spoon, and add to it, in a small bottle, an ounce of water. Let the solution stand for several hours, until the insoluble parts have settled; then pour off the clear yellowish green liquid into another bottle. Have at hand a little hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid). Fill a|tumbleror clear glass with the water to be tested; place it on a white surface in good light; add one drop of the sulphide of soda solution; stir the liquid, and if lead is present it will assume a brownish black color the depth of color depending on the amount of lead. To ascertain whether the color is due to lead and not to iron (for the sulphide of iron is also black), add to the solution a single drop of hydrochloric acid, and stir it Do not add the acid until after the sulphide has been added. If the color disappears it is due to iron; if it grows paler, but does not disappear wholly, it is partly due to iron and partly to lead; and if the color does not change, lead is the cause of it. After the acid is added the liquid is apt to assume a slightly milky appearance from the separation of sul- phur. Care must be exercised not to confuse this with an actual fading of the color. Good water should contain less than one-tenth grain of lead per gallon (1 grain in 6,000,000 grains). The test gives a distinct reaction with less than this amount. But the exact quantity cannot be determined outside of the laboratory. Unless one is so particular to know the amount as to have the work done, it is best to reject a water that gives any coloration with the test, since it is safer to drink no lead at all. The most serious as well as the most common metallic contamination of water is with lead. Although a water may contain but a very small quantity of lead salts, there is no doubt that its continued use will pro- THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 27 duce well-marked cases of chronic lead poisoning, and numerous instances are recorded in which disorders have been traced directly to their cause; and have ceased with their removal. Test for Zinc. Dr. Stevenson recommends as a convenient test for the presence of zinc in potable waters, the addition of potassium ferro- cyanide to the filtered and acidulated water. Zinc gives a faint white cloud, or a heavier precipitate when more is present. Tests for Copper. 1. Yellow prussiate of potash is a test for ascertain- ing the presence of copper in water. Draw a small quantity of the sus- pected water; then drop into it a small piece of the potash; should copper be present, the water assumes a reddish-brown color. Should iron be present, the water will become black. Prussiate of potash is a deadly poison. 2. To detect a copper percentage, add a little filing dust of soft iron to the water, leave them in for a few minutes, and add a few drops of sal- ammonia. A blue coloration betrays the presence of copper. (Industrial Record.) The use of water containing copper, even in so small a quantity as one-tenth of a grain per gallon (1 in 6,000,000), is very dangerous and should be rejected. Test for Sulphur. The presence of sulphur may be discovered by introducing into*a bottle containing the water to be tested a small quan- tity of quicksilver, corking it and allowing it to stand a few hours. If the mercury assumes a dull appearance, and is resolved into dusty frag- ments on being shaken, sulphur is combined with the water. Test for Hydrogen Sulphide. Shake some of the water in a clean bottle, and observe the odor, which is the same as that emitted by the solution of sulphide of soda (a smell like rotten eggs). Test for Iodine and Bromine. Precipitate the water with an acid solution of nitrate of silver, mix the precipitate with cyanide of silver, and pass a current of dry chlorine over it, when it forms iodide or bromine of cyanogen. (Henry and Humbert.) Residue by Evaporation. On evaporation of the water to dry- ness and heating of the residue, not more than 0.20g of one gallon of water should remain. The residue should be white or have a yellowish tint, a proof that but little organic matter is present in water, and not appear dark gray, brown or black. The more coloration the residue shows, the more organic matter the water contains. In the first case, a filtration through sand and charcoal may be sufficiently thorough; in the latter case a chemical purification with permanganate of potash should be carried out in a cistern before filtration. Besides a trace of iron it should contain no metal, especially no lead or copper. The solution of the residue in diluted nitric acid should on addition of sulphureted hydrogen not become dark colored or be precipitated. 28 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Lime and magnesia together ought not to exceed 0.8g in one gallon of water. Evaporation of water should be carefully done in a porcelain dish, with- out bringing the water to a boil, simply by heating, otherwise the residue would get charred. Heating on a waterbath is the best method. If the residue is weighed at this stage, then heated on a platina dish to red heat, the fireproof substances remain. Weigh again and the differences in both weights give an approximate idea of the quantity of organic sub- stances that were present. It is difficult to ascertain the quantity of or- ganic matter; the depth of coloration of the residue indicates it approxi- mately but qualitatively. Tests for Organic Impurities by Permanganate of Potash. 1. A ready means of testing a water for organic matter is to add a few drops of solution of permanganate of potash to the water, and allow it to stand for a short time. The color which the water receives from the test will remain if it be entirely free from organic matter, but will gradually disappear if organic matter be present. The more organic im- purity present, the sooner the pink color will change. This solution of permanganate of potash communicates a bright violet- rose color to the water when first added. If, however, decomposed or- ganic matter be present in a degree hurtful to health, this color is changed to a dull yellow ; or, if a still larger quantity exists in the water, the color will in time entirely disappear. Where the color is rendered paler, but still retains a decided reddish tinge, then we may infer that, although putrefying organic matter is present, it is so in such minute quantities as are not likely to be immediately hurtful. The smaller the quantity of this test applied, the sooner will the result be shown. It is also essen- tial to test the water previously for iron, as, if present, it will mislead, as the indications will be the same as if organic matter were present. One drop or two to the test glass is the quantity to be added to the water. It should be allowed to stand for two hours; if, however, the change in color takes place before the expiration of this time, it is a stronger in- dication of the impurity of the water the rule being that the quicker and more perfect the discoloring of the water tested, the greater is the quantity of decomposing organic matter present; if, also, upon the addi- tion of a few more drops, a change in color is manifested, it is a sign that a very large and dangerous quantity of putrefying organic matter is present. The solution of permanganate of potash is made by dissolving 1 grain of permanganate potassium crystals in 90 grains (1 drachm and a half) of distilled water. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle. It will keep a year if properly protected from light and air. 2. Prepare the following solution: THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 29 Permanganate of potassium .... 1 grain. Distilled water 90 grains. Commercial solution of potassa ... 70 grains. Keep in a glass-stoppered bottle in a dark place. Fill one of the test-tubes nearly full with the water to be tested, and the other to exactly the same height with distilled water, and to each of these must be added with a dropping tube exactly the same number of drops of the permanganate solution. About two drops will be required. The solution taken up in the dropping tube and not used must not be returned to the stock bottle, but must be thrown away, and the tube im- mediately washed out. The test tubes are now agitated to mix their contents and then set in the rack, with a piece of cotton wool stopping the mouth of each. A sheet of white paper is set at the back, and the tubes are left for at least 24 hours and the changes of color noted from time to time. The distilled water, if good, will retain its beautiful pink color with very little precipitate for two or three days, and, being placed in close proximity to the water to be tested, will make manifest, by con- trast, any change of color this last may undergo. The first change will be from pink to scarlet, then dull scarlet, then muddy scarlet, and finally color is lost altogether. If these changes take place quickly, the drink- ing water is bad; if slowly, the case is more hopeful; if not until after 24 hours, decidedly good. 3. An authority has the following about Permanganate of Potash and Organic Matter: The union of oxygen with dead organic matter always occurs when the two are brought together under favorable circumstances, and the disappearance of the one may be made to reveal the presence of the other. The solution of permanganate of potash has an intensely deep purple color, which is owing to the oxygen it contains. Whenever this solution is brought in contact with easily oxidizable substances, it loses its oxygen and consequently its color. If, therefore, enough of the solu- tion be added to a suspected water to impart a distinct tint, and the color disappears, it is certain that something is present which is capable of taking the oxygen from the permanganate. Whether this is organic matter or something else is uncertain without the application of other tests. The only other substances which are apt to occur in water, and are capable of effecting the change, are ferrous salts, nitrites and hydro- gen sulphide. If these are known to be absent, and the color of the per- manganate disappears, it may be decided that organic matter is present. But if either of these occurs, the test has no value. The methods for detecting nitrites and iron, which is most always, when present, in the form of a ferrous salt, are appended; also the method of detecting hydrogen sulphide. Sometimes, however, iron occurs in 30 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. water as a ferric salt. This does not affect the permanganate; but the method given for detecting iron makes no distinction between its two classes of salts. To distinguish them is too difficult, except for the chemist. It is another drawback to the permanganate test that it does not act on albuminous substances, urea, kreatin, sugar, gelatine or fatty matters. So that a water might be very badly polluted and yet give no indication of it with this test. Cases are recorded where sickness resulted from the use of water supposed to be good, because it did not affect the perman- ganate. Other instances are recorded where good water was condemned from the application of this test. From what has been said, it will be seen that this test alone is reliable only when iron, nitrites and hydrogen sulphide are known to be absent, and at the same time the color of the solution disappears. It is often valuable as a confirmatory test, and for that purpose it is described heife. The solution is easily prepared by dissolving the crystals of perman- ganate of potash in pure water. To apply the test, take two tumblers, of clear glass; fill one with water of known purity, and the other with the water to be tested; then add a drop of the solution to each, and com- pare the change in color. Those who have been accustomed to work by this method are guided by the following rules: If decomposing organic matter be present in a degree hurtful to health, the pink color is changed to a dull yellow; or, if a stil] larger quantity exists in the water, the color will in time entirely disappear. Where the color is rendered paler, but still retains a decided reddish tinge, then, although putrefying organic matter is present, it is so in such minute quantities as are not likely to be immediately hurtful. The quicker and more perfect the decoloration of the water tested, the greater is the quantity of decomposing organic matter. The following preparation of permanganate is a more delicate and perhaps a more reliable test than the simple solution: Caustic potash .... 4 parts by weight. Permanganate of potash . . .1 part Distilled water . . . .160 parts " If it is found inconvenient to weigh the very deliquescent caustic potash, the liquor potassae of commerce may be substituted. Then the formula is: Liq. potassaB 70 parts. Distilled water 90 " Permanganate of potash .... 1 part. If the solution is kept in a glass- stoppered bottle in a dark place, it will remain good for a year or more. This test is applied in the same THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 31 manner as the simple solution. It is claimed that water of average good quality, with this test, will keep its color well for forty-eight hours. If it becomes decidedly paler in twenty-four hours, it is hardly fit -to use. Those who employ this method do not claim for it scientific accuracy, but think, in the absence of opportunity for more careful analysis, a ready and reliable conclusion may be reached. We think the claim for reliability is too strong, on account of the same reasons that were given under the description of the simple solution. It would be interesting and profitable for any one purposing to use the permanganate test in either form, to collect samples of water from several sources wells, springs, brooks and stagnant pools and to apply the test to them, comparing the results. It would be well to do the fol- lowing also: Add a little sulphate of iron to water distinctly colored with permanganate. The color will quickly disappear. Repeat the experi- ment, using nitrite of potash, having prepared some by boiling a solu- tion of saltpetre with zinc. The effects of hydrogen sulphide may be seen by doing the experiment with sulphide of soda. Tests for Ammonia. Prof. Angel gives the following directions for testing water for Ammonia, which is well known to be the most sensitive test. He says: "A minute and variable quantity of ammonia exists in the atmosphere. From this source rain-water receives it, which contains less than 0. 5 part per million. The earth, in turn, absorbs it from rain- water, while some of it is destroyed by oxidation, so that rivers seldom contain more than 0.1 part per million, and perfectly pure spring or well- water contains only a mere trace. " The ammonia process in water analysis is an indirect method of measuring the amount of organic matter which a water contains. Of course, all the ammonia, as such, that any natural water might ever con- tain, is perfectly harmless. The decay of organic matter produces am- monia, and importance is attached to the latter only as it indicates the existence of the former. " In the laboratory two kinds of ammonia are recognized, ' free ' and 'albuminoid/ Free ammonia is that which has resulted naturally from the decay of organic matter contained in the water, and, other things being equal, shows how extensively such decomposition is going on. It is easily collected by distillation. "Albuminoid ammonia is that which results from hastening decom- position artificially. It measures the amount of organic matter present which may decay, and is simply what would be produced naturally in the course of time. ' ' The ammonia process, when fully carried out, is the most reliable method known for determining the organic condition of water. To arrive at a correct conclusion in every case, it is necessary to estimate accurately both kinds of ammonia. The determination of albuminoid ammonia re- 32 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. quires special apparatus, and is too complicated for general application; but the test for free ammonia is quite easily made, and, from a series of experiments and observations, it lias been found that, generally, when- ever a certain amount of free ammonia occurs in well-water, an excess of albuminoid ammonia is also sure to exist. So it is pretty safe to conclude that such water is polluted. Says an authority: ' When the free am- monia exceeds 0.08 part per million, it almost invariably proceeds from the fermentation of urea into carbonate of ammonia, and is a sign that the water in question consists of diluted urine in a very recent condition. In these instances the water will likewise be found to be loaded with chlorides/ Our experience places the amount a little higher than 0.08. We believe if a water contains 0.1 part per million of free ammonia, it should be regarded organically impure, especially if other indications point the same way. Of course there are exceptions. Some waters, or- ganically pure, naturally contain much free ammonia, while others, that are badly polluted with vegetable matter, may contain sometimes much less than 0.1 part per million. In such cases the determination of albu- minoid ammonia is indispensable to the detection of pollution. It is to be regretted that there is no simple and reliable method for doing this. But the cases are rare where water polluted with vegetable matter con- tains less than 0.1 part of free ammonia per million/' 1 . The following process for detecting and estimating free or carbonate of ammonia is sufficiently simple and accurate for general application: Dissolve some mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate, a poison) in a little water, making the solution quite strong. Also prepare a strong solution of carbonate of soda (common cooking soda will do, or caustic soda, or potash) by dissolving it in water. Place a tumbler, or clear glass, on a black surface in good light; fill it with the water to be tested, and then add a single drop of the solution of mercuric chloride, followed by a drop of the soda solution in the same place. Let the liquid stand without stirring. Look down through it, and if ammonia is present, even a minute quantity, a white cloud or opalescence, resembling white smoke, will be observed toward the bottom of the glass where the drops passed, which in the course of some hours will settle and cover the whole or part of the bottom of the glass with a white coating. If much ammonia is present, the reaction will be very marked, and almost instantaneous. Less ammonia requires more time, and the reaction is less marked. The delicacy of the test is sufficient to give, within five minutes, a distinct reaction in water containing yo-o O-OTO" P ar * * ^s weight of am- monia. Any one can satisfy himself of the delicacy of the test by the following: Add a spoonful of water, free from ammonia (water that has been boiled for some time), a single drop of ordinary ammonia; then add a drop of this to a tumbler of water that has been well boiled, and apply the test in the manner described above. THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 33 If water shows the reaction, it is far from the sanitary standard for purity, which, as has been said, is not more than 0.1 part per million, and this number is ten times less than TO"OOOOOJ the limit of the test. Consequently, a water may contain too much ammonia and not show the reaction. To obviate this difficulty, a simple process of distillation must be employed. 2. Another test for detecting ammonia is to prepare what is called " Nessler's solution." Take 35 grains iodide of potassium, 13 grains of corrosive sublimate and about 800 grains of distilled water. Heat to boiling in a glass vessel, and stir until the salts dissolve. Add cau- tiously aqueous saturated solution of corrosive sublimate until the red iodide of mercury, which is produced as each drop of the solution falls into the liquid, just begins to be permanent. Then add 160 grains of caustic potash or 120 grains of caustic soda. When this is dis- solved make the whole weigh 1000 grains by the addition of distilled water, add a little more cold saturated solution of corrosive sublimate and allow it to settle. When properly prepared it has a slightly yellow tint. If perfectly white it requires a little more corrosive sublimate. It should be tested before using by dropping a portion in a very weak solution of chloride of ammonium. If good it will at once strike a yellowish brown tint. Keep the solution in a well-stoppered bottle and carefully protect from the air. Then proceed to test whether there is free ammonia present, and for this purpose a test tube is filled with the water and held over a sheet of white paper, while a few drops of the Nessler solution are dropped into it. If then a yellowish brown color is produced -ammonia is present, and, according to the depth of this tint, is the amount. 3. Ammonia may be detected also by slightly acidifying the water with muriatic acid, evaporating to dryness and adding to residue some caustic potash or soda solution. On holding the glass rod, previously dipped in acetic acid or diluted nitric acid, in close proximity to the residue, a thick white fog will be visible. (Hager.) Tests for Chlorine or Chlorides. 1. Prof. Angel gives the follow- ing directions for its detection : ' ' Chlorine is a constituent of common salt, and is very widely distributed in nature. Good water on an average contains perhaps from 0.4 to 1.0 grain of chlorine per gallon. If a water contains more than this amount, it is a strong indication that it has re- ceived pollution from cesspools, sink-drains, or the excreta of animals, all of which are highly charged with salt. But some localities, especially those near the sea, contain more salt than others; so that a good water in those districts may contain five, or even ten, grains of chlorine per gallon, for that is the natural amount. Before one could pronounce with some confidence on the sanitary condition of a water from the determina- tion of chlorine alone, it would be necessary to know the average amount 3 34 A TREATISE ON BEVEEAGES. of it in the natural waters of the region; hence, if in a single instance a water contains more than the general average, and there are no other in- dications of impurity, it would be unwise to condemn it. On the other hand, it would be equally unwise to pronounce a water safe if it contains less than the average amount of chlorine; because waters very badly pol- luted with vegetable matter alone are deficient in chlorine. However, when chlorine is deficient, it is certain that there is no contamination from animal matter." It is possible for waters to contain salt that has come from filth, with- out containing the filth itself. When this is the case, one of two condi- tions exists: it may be indicative of a past pollution, or a warning of coming danger. Filth that had previously found access to the well may have undergone complete decomposition, while the salt remains; or filth may be so far from the well that nothing but its salt is washed through the intervening earth into it. Both conditions render the well unsafe, for in the one case another inflow of filth is liable to occur; in the other, the soil may soon become too fully charged with it to retain it all. To determine the approximate amount of chlorine, it is necessary to prepare a standard solution of salt. One ounce avoirdupois, 437.5 grains, of pure salt contains 265.5 grains of chlorine. If this be dissolved in 17.7 fluid-ounces of water, each drop of the solution, reckoning 480 drops to the ounce, ought to contain -fa grain of chlorine, since (265. 5 X 32) -H- 480=17.7. Weigh, as carefully as possible, one ounce avoirdupois of best table salt; dissolve it in eighteen ounces of clean rain-water. This solution will contain very nearly ^ grain of chlorine per drop. The greatest care should be exercised in dropping the fluid, since the size of a drop varies so much. It should be dropped from an ounce bottle, and the drop allowed to form slowly. Prepare a very weak solution of nitrate of silver, by dissolving a crys- tal, not larger than half a pea, in about one ounce of pure rain-water. There will be hardly any risk of making this solution too weak. Also prepare a solution of chromate of potash; bichromate of potash will an- swer the purpose, if the chromate cannot be obtained. The solution should be made in rain-water. The strength of it is not important. Pour four ounces of the water to be tested into a saucer, and add enough chromate of potash solution to impart a distinct yellow color; then add a drop of the silver solution : a red color is produced where the drop strikes, from the formation of chromate of silver, which is quickly destroyed if the water contains much salt; continue to add the solution drop by drop, counting the drops, and stirring the water after each addi- tional drop, until it assumes a faint reddish tint, which will occur as soon as all the chlorine has been precipitated. Then pour four ounces of clean rain-water into another saucer, add one drop of the solution of THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 35 salt, observing the precaution already given about the size of the drop, and proceed as before. If it takes a larger number of drops of the silver solution to produce a reddish tint in this than were required to produce it in the other case, the water tested contains less than one grain of chlorine per gallon, since ^ grain in four ounces of water is at the rate of one grain in 128 fluid ounces, or one gallon. If more drops of the silver solution were added to the water than to the fluid used for com- parison, it is easy, from the number of drops added to the latter, to esti- mate the chlorine in the former. For example, suppose ten drops of sil- ver solution represent one grain of chlorine per gallon, and the water in question requires thirteen drops, then it contains 1.3 grain of chlo- rine per gallon. From this it will be seen that if the solution of nitrate of silver is sufficiently weak, it is possible to estimate very small quanti- ties of chlorine, providing the quantity of salt in the fluid used for comparison be known. But on account of the difficulties in the way of weighing, measuring, and dropping, nothing but an approximation can be expected from the process. We think that by careful working, the approximation may be made to exceed half a grain. 2. Another authority recommends the following volumetrical deter- mination of chlorides: " Chlorine as chlorides may be readily deter- mined volumetrically by means of a standard solution of silver nitrate. This solution is prepared by dissolving a quarter of an ounce of dry silver nitrate in a quart of distilled water. Each drachm of this solu- tion will precipitate one grain of chlorine. " A half pint of the water to be tested is placed in a beaker resting on a white plate, and a few drops of a solution of chromate of potash are added. The chromate acts as an indicator, the silver combining first with the chlorine until it has all been precipitated, and then forming red silver chromate. The red color develops the instant the silver nitrate is in the slightest excess. The silver solution is allowed to flow in drop by drop, the fluid in the beaker being constantly stirred, until the white precipitate assumes a faint reddish tinge, j^t this point each drachm of silver solution added represents one grain of chlorine in a quart of the water, and the corresponding number of grains per gallon. A white precipitate produced by silver nitrate in drinking water is indicative of the presence of chlorine, and suggests contamination with sewage/' The solution of nitrate of silver must be kept in a glass vial and must be stopped with a rubber or glass stopper. It must be carefully preserved from light and air, and must be renewed when much dark precipitate is visible. The solution of chromate or bichromate of potash need not be made very exact, one ounce in nine fluid ounces of distilled water answering nicely. If the yellow chromate cannot be readily purchased, bichromate of potash will answer, or it may be prepared by neutralizing a solution of bichromate of potash with carbonate of potash and crystallizing. 36 A TKEATISE ON BEVERAGES. Tests for Nitrates and Nitrites. 1. Prof. Angel says: " The pres- ence of these salts is a bad indication only so far as they have resulted from the oxidation of nitrogeneous organic, matter. Nitrates contain more oxygen than nitrites, and have required more time for their for- mation. Their occurrence, taken alone, teaches nothing positive; taken in connection with other evidence, it gives valuable information. But, as a rule, the presence of more than a trace of either salt is a strong indication of pollution from animal matter. However, some pure waters contain nitrates which they have dissolved from the earth and rocks of the locality. . On the other hand, some very bad waters, especially those contaminated with vegetable matter, do not contain a trace. "A little nitric acid exists in the atmosphere, coming probably from the oxidation of ammonia. Hence rain-water contains it, and surface- water receives an additional supply from the oxidation of nitrogenous matter on the ground. It is then absorbed largely by the rootlets of plants. Hence, shallow wells may receive it from surface-water. Other things being equal, they would naturally contain more of it when vege- tation does not flourish. " The importance that is to be attached to distinguishing whether the nitrogen compound is a nitrate or nitrite, is this generally: If nitrites occur, it would seem to show that the pollution is recent, or its source very near. If nitrates alone exist, it would be inferred that there has been time enough for complete oxidation, and hence the pollution is of longer standing, or its source far away. It sometimes happens that the occurrence of nitrates indicates the approach of pollution instead of showing actual or past pollution. This is especially the case when there is no other evidence of impurity, unless it is that of chlorine, for the soil about a well acts as a filter to retain deleterious matter, letting pass through it only the ultimate products of decomposition, which are in themselves harmless, until it becomes so saturated with filth that it can no longer accomplish this/' The following method for detecting nitrates and nitrites is delicate and easily applied: Melt some zinc in a ladle, or iron spoon,; stand in a chair and pour the melted metal in a fine stream into a pail of water standing on the floor. This granulates the- zinc so it presents the greatest extent of bright surface. Prepare a little thin starch paste in the ordinary manner, dissolve a few grains of iodide of potash in water and mix it thoroughly with the paste. Have at hand a little sulphuric acid. To test for nitrites, add half a teaspoonful of the iodide of starch solu- tion to a tumbler of water, and allow it to mix. Then add a single drop of sulphuric acid. If any more than a trace of nitrous acid is present, a distinct blue color will result almost immediately. The test is so delicate that it gives, within a few seconds, a distinct reaction in water contain- TUB EXAMINATION OF WATER. 37 ing only the one hundred thousandth part of its weight of nitrous acid. And within a few minutes it will reveal less than one millionth part of it. If color does not appear at the end of a few minutes, it may be de- cided that no nitrous acid resulting from filth is present. After standing several hours the liquid usually assumes a blue color, from the infinites^ mal amount of the acid that may naturally exist in the water. If no nitrous acid, or but very little, is present, test for nitric acid as follows: Pour a pint of the water into a small nappy, add a spoonful of granulated zinc, and boil until about half of the .water is driven off. This process reduces the nitric acid to nitrous acid. Let it cool and settle. Boiling is not absolutely necessary. Add the iodide of starch, acidify with sulphuric acid and add some zinc dust. Shake well in a bottle; this is sufficient to reduce the nitric acid to nitrous acid. Blue coloration in- dicates nitric acid. If boiled, carefully pour off the clear liquid, and test by the method given above. If nitrous acid has been found previously, it will be necessary to notice whether the reaction in this case is more prompt and marked. It is well to have two glasses in readiness at the same time one containing the water as it came from the well, the other that which has been boiled with zinc add a little of the iodide of starch solution, and then a drop of sulphuric acid to each, as nearly at the same time as possible, and notice whether the reaction occurs in one sooner than in the other, as well as whether the color varies in intensity. If much nitrous occurs, it will be impossible to detect nitric acid by this process. When this is the case the detection of nitric acid is not important. If a quite prompt and marked reaction for either nitrous or nitric acid takes place, the quantity is sufficient to render the water suspicious, and their presence forms a very valuable confirmatory indication of pollution in cases where a doubtful quantity of chlorine or ammonia occurs. Any one desiring to do so can easily perform interesting and instruc- tive experiments by operating on water in which a little nitrate of potash (saltpetre) has been dissolved. 2. Another sharp reaction on nitric acid is made in this way: a. Evaporate some water carefully and dissolve the residue in sulphuric acid. b. Make a concentrated solution of sulphate of iron (green vitriol), add some sulphuric acid and let this solution cool. Pour solution a care- fully on solution b. Where both liquids meet, a yellow to dark brown zone will be visible when nitric acid is present. 3. Hager recommends to evaporate the water to be tested to the twentieth part of its volume, then to acidify strongly with sulphuric acid and add some brucine. When nitrates are present a purple red will occur. 4. Reichardt and Bcettger recommend: Mix 3 drops of water, 2 drops solution of brucia, and 3 to 4 drops sulphuric acid. If nitric acid is present, a red to brownish color occurs. (Wilder's test book.) 38 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. 5. Mashke (nitrous acid in potable water). Add 6 to 10 drops diluted acetic acid, and then 1 to 2 drops of blue molybdic acid solution. If nitrous acid be present the bluish color disappears within one hour (Wil T der's test book). 6. Schcenbein (nitrous acid in potable water). 1. Add a solution of pyrogallic acid and a little dilute sulphuric acid. Brown color by pres- ence of nitrous acid. 2. Add to water sufficient indigo solution to color it a deep blue; add a little muriatic acid, and while stirring, sufficient potassium pentasulphide till the blue color just disappears; filter, and add the suspected water; blue color if nitrous acid be present. ( Wilder 's test book). 7. Howard (nitrous acid in water). Into a test glass place some of the water (not more than 50 com.), and add a drop of hydrochloric acid, then a drop of sulphuric acid, and one of a solution of naphthylamine hydrochloride. If the water does not contain more than one in 100,000,- 000, after standing for ten minutes, it should not show more than the faintest tint of pink color. (Chemist and Druggist.) Tests for Living Germs. 1. An easy and quite reliable test for or- ganic matter in water is this: Add about ten grains of pure granulated sugar to about five ounces of the water to be tested; the bottle should be completely filled, and the stopper tightly fitted, so as to exclude the air. Expose the water to daylight and a temperature of about seventy degrees Fahrenheit. If it contains much organic matter, an abundance of whitish specks will appear within a day or two, floating around in the liquid. Of course the more organic matter there is, the more marked the appearance. These little bodies are best observed by holding the bottle against something black, or by partly shading the farther side of it with the hand. After a while they *will group themselves together in bunches, and partly settle to the bottom of the bottle; at length, if the water is very bad, the odor of butyric acid (the smell of rancid butter) becomes perceptible. A chemist of repute says: If germs of any living organism are pres- ent, the water containing some sugar in solution will, after being kept in a warm place for about twenty-four hours, become cloudy, and some- times quite milky or opaque, owing to the rapid development of fungoid organisms, resulting from the growth of the germs in a suitable nutritiva medium. The test is a valuable one, but requires to be used with cau- tion. It is well to remark, however, that some chemists believe that the growth of the fungoid organisms is dependent upon the presence of phos- phates, rather than upon any organic impurities, and that it is possible the germs may be derived from the air, and not from the water itself. Those who have experimented on the subject cannot have failed to ob- serve how very varied is the behavior of different waters when treated with sugar. -THE EXAMINATION OF WATER. 39 2. Recently Dr. Smith, of Manchester, has pointed out that gelatine is most valuable in detecting organic vitality in waters. About 2 per .cent, of gelatine, well heated in a little water, is mixed with the water to be tested, and the mixture forms a transparent mass, which is not mov- able like the water itself. When soluble or unobserved matter develops from the organic matter of the waters, and makes itself visible in a solid and insoluble form, it does not fall to the bottom, but each active point shows around it the sphere of its activity, and that sphere is observed and remains long. The gelatine preserves the whole action, so far as the more striking results are concerned, and keeps a record, for a time, both of the quality and intensity of life in the liquid. Dr. Smith speaks of the more striking effects, which are clear and abundant, every little centre of life making itself apparent to the eye, and sometimes expanding its influence to reach both sides of the tube. It seems to him now essential that all chemical examination of water should be supplemented by an in- quiry into the comparative activity of the living organisms. If the water is pure, the gelatine cylinder remains long unaltered; but if it is impure from the presence of organisms, the gelatine round these becomes lique- fied and globular, the organisms remaining solid at the bottom of the spheres. Dr. Angus Smith has prepared photographs of test-tubes of water which had been thickened by a solution of the purest fish-gelatine, and then exposed to the action of light. When the water was pure it remained translucent, but when bad, bubbles were rapidly formed, and the bacteria which appeared to be in the water began to act on the gela- tine, breaking it up and rendering it soluble. A rapid movement of gas was observable. When the bubbles or balls appeared to be spherical, they indicated aggregations of bacteria. This change took place quickly, almost in twenty-four hours. But the test was only applicable where in- fusoria or fungi were present. For instance, peaty water in which there were no animalculae or bacteria would stand without breaking up the gelatine. To change the gelatine, organisms must be present. Organic matter that is not putrescent or infective will not do it. The microscopic examination of water is of greatest importance and should always be combined witli the chemical analysis. [General Results. Having obtained the results of the several tests, it remains to interpret them. If the water examined is found to lose color rapidly under the permanganate test to contain an undue amount of chloride and also free ammonia, it must be pronounced hopelessly bad, and, in most cases, the source of supply had better be abandoned. If, on the other hand, the color changes but slowly, the amount of chlo- rides is but little more than 5 in 100,000, and no free ammonia, or only a very slight trace, is discovered, the effect of cleaning out the well, and a careful protection of the surroundings, may be tried, after which an- other test should be made. If the color remains a good pink for 24 40 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. hours, only a small amount of chlorides is present, and no ammonia, the water may be pronounced good. At the same time it must be remembered that no chemical tests can make it quite certain that a drinking water is entirely free from disease germs. Nearly enough has been said, under the several divisions, to direct one to fair conclusions. It must not be inferred that the methods pre- sented here are infallible guides to the quality of a water. All that can be claimed for them is, that in most cases they will reveal the character of waters which are so polluted as to be immediately injurious to health. Some that are polluted with vegetable matter alone may escape detection. Other tests, which cannot be used by people generally, must be made before all that can be known of a water will be revealed. It is seldom that a bad water will show all the indications that have been described. If an excess of both chlorine and ammonia occurs, the water is polluted with animal matter or with drains. If considerable chlorine is present, together with a strong reaction for nitrates or nitrites, while ammonia is not found by means of the test described, a past or future pollution is indicated. If an excess of ammonia alone occurs, contamination from vegetable matter is suggested, which becomes quite certain if the sugar test and the permanganate of potash have given a re- action. But there are more conditions and variations than can be specified for every case. The application of the tests, and an examination of the surroundings of a well, together with thought and judgment, will usually lead to the right conclusion. A good natural water for manufacturing carbonated beverages should be free from organic impurities as near as can be, for very few waters, in a natural condition, are absolutely pure in this respect; it should not contain more than twenty or thirty grains of solid matter per gallon, and if it contains over this, it should be capable of being removed by a soften- ing process. It should not contain much air, and the quantity of chlorine per gallon must not exceed one to two grains for ordinary water, although this quantity is considerably exceeded by deep well-water. A little ex- perience is required in order to decide on the merits of a water from the results of analysis. An impure water would unhesitatingly be con- demned, but a very pure water may involve us in trouble almost as serious; so that, without going into this part of the subject fully, it would be impossible to give much information which would be generally ap- plicable. As may readily be perceived, the above methods are valuable only for a superficial qualitative investigation. If an exact qualitative or quanti- tative analysis of the nature of the water is required, it is best to send a liberal sample to a professional chemist. CHAPTER III. THE IMPUKITIES AND PURIFICATION" OF WATER.* Water as a Solvent. Sources of Pollution manifold. Oxygen in Water. Metallic Impurities. Galvanized Iron Tanks Injurious. Humine, Geine and Ulmine. Iodine and Bromine. Phosphoric Acid, Arsenic Acid and Boric Acid; Fluorides, and the newly discovered metals: Rubidium, Caesium, Thallium, etc. Color and Characteristics of Pure Water. Microbe and Bacteria. Minimum, of Safety in Water. Water should be Purified. Aeration of Water. Other Methods of Aeration. The Vitality of Microbia is abated under the Pressure of Atmospheric Air; Carbonating of Water a Radical Agent to Destroy Organisms. Fil- tering Mediums. Sand, Charcoal, Sponges, etc. Washing arid Regener- ating Animal Charcoal. Asbestos, Filter Paper. Cleaning Filters; Limited Actions of Charcoal and Sand Filters. Systems of Filtration. Effectiveness of Upward Filtrations Questioned. Methods of Purifying Water. The Alum Process. By Lime Water. By Soda. To Free Water from Magnesian Salts and Sulphite of Lime (Gypsum). Removal of Iron. Removal of Manganese. Removal of Organic Impurities. Citric Acid to render Water Potable. Boiling Water. Water as a Solvent. As water is a solvent of nearly all saline matter, in a larger or smaller degree, and of liquid and elastic fluids, with but few exceptions, and necessarily comes in contact with some or others of them, it is evident that water must be expected to retain some, however small a proportion, of one or more of them. The affinity of many chemi- cal elements and compounds to water is so intense and difficult to over- come, that it remains indeed doubtful if, by the most careful distillation or whatever other methods employed, water can be successfully freed from a last trace of extraneous matter, not to be discernible by methods more perfect than those yet employed. It will, however, be a comfort to know that few industries not to mention domestic uses require water even as pure as distilled; and that for many of our largest industrial operations a considerable proportion of foreign admixture of some kind in the water is quite harmless, though a much smaller proportion of another kind may unfit it for the same purpose, while for another purpose the reverse may be the case. For instance, potable water may contain a comparatively large pro- * On this subject and the Aeration of Water we are indebted to Mr. d'Heureuse, New York, 42 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. portion of some saline matter without injury, and should contain oxygen or carbonic acid, or both, while less than one-hundredth part as much of organic ammonia entirely disqualifies it. Or, to mention one other case, the water used by the great Burton (English) brewers, and superior to almost any other known for the purpose, contains over sixty-five grains of mineral matter in the gallon, principally carbonate and sulphate of lime, with considerable (10.12) of chloride of sodium or common salt, 9.95 of sulphate of magnesia, and 7.65 sulphate of potassa, with some other salts, while the, same water is quite unfit for various other purposes. This shows the importance of ascertaining the quantities as well as the qualities of extraneous matter in the water to determine its suitability for any intended purpose, besides various mineral or organic substances which natural water may, and invariably does hold in solution. It gene- rally carries in suspension particles of insoluble matter by which its trans- parency or brilliancy is impaired in proportion to the quantity and kind of the admixture. This floating or sedimentary matter is frequently of a mineral character, like clay or earthy matter carried by turbid streams at times of freshets, or may consist of organic substance, partly decom- posed animal or vegetable matter, living or dead organisms of microscopic or larger size, and other fragmentary substances. If the purity of the water depended solely upon the absence of this insoluble matter suspended in it, the problem of obtaining pure water would be reduced to the simple mechanical operation of filtering the water, as suitable filters of various designs are plentiful to retain the sus- pended or sedimentary matter and yield brilliantly clear from a turbid or muddy water. But, unfortunately, water thus rendered bright and brilliant, is by no means certain to be pure in its true meaning and pur- pose; in fact, it is generally but little purer than before. The tangible gross admixtures, visible to the eye, but possibly harmless for the pur- pose intended, have been removed by the filter, while the more intangi- ble, but in a 'much smaller proportion, deleterious impurity can remain unchanged; and the popular error, confounding brilliancy with purity of water, sacrifices many valuable lives annually. From the foregoing it will be evident that, where water plays as prominent a part as in the line of the mineral water trade, and business success largely depends upon the proper quality of the water employed, it is essential to ascertain the composition of the water and its possible defects, with the view of changing the supply or correct what we have. As the proportions of extraneous matter in the natural fresh-water supply are always comparatively small, the determination of the kinds and quantities of components is obviously not in everybody's reach, and to obtain anything like reliable results such determination must be left to those qualified to the task by knowledge of chemistry and the use of the delicate instruments employed. THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 43 Of course it is easy enough, though somewhat slow and tedious work, to carefully evaporate from one -half to two gallons of water down to dry- ness in a large, clean platina dish, the weight of which has been previ- ously carefully determined, and which is weighed again after the complete evaporation, the increase in weight indicating that of the total solid sub- stances contained in the quantity of water so treated. But the fact that, for instance, 2% to 53 or 107 grains of solid matter are in the gallon of water conveys but a very imperfect idea as to the suitability of the water for many purposes, and though the only direct result generally obtained hardly permits per se many correct conclusions. All other tests employed to ascertain if and how much of a certain substance or compound is con- tained in the water are indirect, and the result of conclusions after the following fashion: that, if a stated amount of a certain re-agent added to the liquid precipitates an ascertained weight of a compound formed by addition of the re-agent, a calculable amount of another compound (say of lime or magnesia) is proved to have been contained in a known quan- tity of the water. Or again, by the addition of some re-agent to a known quantity of the water, possibly previously subjected to distillation or some other operation, a more or less intense color appears, the degree of intensity of which is positive proof to the expert that a certain proportion of, say ammonia, is in a gallon of the water, though only a fraction of the gallon was submitted to the test. The degree of hardness of water is easily established by the proportion of soap required to overcome it; but even this requires some care to allow approximately correct conclusions. The fact of extreme variations in the composition of water from the same source, points to the necessity of frequent examinations at various seasons, and under different conditions, to determine its true value for the intended purpose. As, however, changes of the water supply in manufactories are practically impossible, daily repeated water analysis impracticable, the application of methods become imminent by which the water is under all circumstances kept in the desired state of purity. With few notable exceptions, soluble solid substances dissolve in a larger proportion at a higher than at a low temperature; the invariable rule for the solubility of gaseous substances in water is the reverse that is to say, the lower the temperature of the water the more of a gas it is able to hold in solution under the same pressure. For instance, under ordinary atmospheric pressure the co-efficient of solution of gases at differ- ent temperatures an interesting study is as follows, to wit: At 32 Fahrenheit. At 68. For oxygen .... 0.04114 0.02838 For carbonic acid . . . 1.7967 . 0.9014 For ammonia . . . 1049.6 654. As tables of this kind are not fully comprehended by many not accus- 44 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. tomed to them, it should be explained that while water at 32 can dissolve 411 parts of oxygen, or 1,796 parts of carbonic acid, or 10,496 parts of ammonia, it can dissolve but 284 parts of oxygen, or 901 parts of carbonic acid, or 6,540 parts of ammonia respectively, at a temperature of 68 Fahrenheit. Showing that a rise in temperature of only 36 Fahrenheit reduces the amount of gas which can be dissolved by water to nearly one half in the case of carbonic acid, and not much less in the case of the other gases. It should be mentioned that, while the atmospheric air is composed of 20.96 parts by volume of oxygen, and 79.04 of nitrogen, the air held in solution by water through which air has been forced is found to con- sist of 34.91 parts by volume of oxygen, and 65.09 of nitrogen. Or, in other words, while in atmospheric air the oxygen forms but little over \ y that represented in the air dissolved by water is over , showing that the affinity of the water for oxygen is much greater than for nitrogen. The great importance of this circumstance for the purification of water becomes evident from the fact, that to the oxidizing action of oxygen upon soluble albumenoid organic pollution in the water is mainly due the self-purification of the water of running streams, and indeed also the purifying action of charcoal. The pores of charcoal, especially animal or bone charcoal, hold oxygen in a highly condensed state, ready to be given off to other substances that come in intimate contact with it and have greater affinity for the oxygen. Many organic coloring and soluble albumenoid matters possess this affinity in a high degree, and are readily acted upon by fresh charcoal that is to say, as long as its store of oxygen lasts. For it should be distinctly understood that the action of charcoal is by no means infinite, and too much is popularly expected of charcoal : to be a perfect purifier and also perfect percolator, acting simultaneously in both capacities. The mineral suspended impurities are considered, physiologically, of no serious moment, except that the public naturally prefer a clear, bright water to a thick and turbid one. A careful filtration will remove sus- pended matter. The dissolved mineral impurities must be displaced or precipitated by chemical purification of the water or by boiling; the sug- gested remedies we will find later on. The dissolved organic impurities in water are of two kinds animal and vegetable. Of the latter we need say very little. They are for the most part, very difficult of removal, and, fortunately, are perfectly harmless. The, presence of the dissolved animal organic impurities are undoubt- edly very objectionable, and of most serious import. These animal im- purities are formed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. When in solution in the water, these impurities undergo perpetual change and constant chemical re-arrangements, and the danger of drinking the water charged with them is specially great when these changes are taking THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 45 place. The great chemical difference between animal and vegetable or- ganic matter is the relatively large amount of nitrogen present in animal organic matter. In vegetable organic matters this element only occurs in comparatively small quantity. Substances containing nitrogen the element of all others prone to change its relationship, and so to induce changes in the bodies containing it constitute a class of chemical com- pounds called "ferments" that is, bodies allied to yeast. And jast as yeast sets the wort at work, resolving the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, so the nitrogenized organic matter of water in a state of perpetual alteration and movement, effects changes in the human body which result in disease. Of the serious results of drinking water contaminated thus with ani- mal organic impurity, numerous illustrations might be given. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the use of water containing animal or- ganic impurities, which, as we have said, are themselves so liable to undergo change, and, when in this condition, to induce changes in other bodies with which they come into contact, is most dangerous to health, and may prove fatal to life. But, it may be remarked, that when the surface wells, receiving, as they do, enormous quantities of animal contamination (sewage), and perhaps, as is often the case in a city, the drainage of churchyards, are tested by chemical analysis, they are very frequently found to contain very little actual organic matter. This is no doubt true, but, fortunately, the organic matter leaves behind it indisputable records of its previous existence, and, if we read these records aright, they warn us of the dan- gerous consequences that may any day arise from using such water. For when in surf ace- wells the chemist discovers alkaline and earthy nitrates, and a large quantity of common salt, these constituents, although they may be in themselves harmless, suggest to him the previous existence in the water of the filthiest impurities such, for example, as the fluid fctters discharged from the human body, and the percolations from spools and sewers. The decomposing matter in solution, by its slow passage through a considerable bed of earth, the soil exerting, as it is capable, its wonderful power of effecting the oxidation of the organic matter, becomes burnt up, its carbon being converted into carbonic acid, and its nitrogen into nitric acid. These constituents, it is to be specially noted, impart to the water an agreeable taste and a sparkling appearance, and so people like the water, and, because they like it, think it must be good. But things are not always what they seem. The agreeably de- ceptive properties of pleasant taste and good looks, tell how these wells are the gathering-place for surface-springs loaded with foul animal re- in:iins. and the washings from many fat churchyards. If, however, the continuance of this oxidation of the organic matter by the soil could be guaranteed, no harm, it is true, would come of it, but experience proves 46 A TREATISE OK BEVERAGES. such guarantee is impossible. The salutary influence of the soil may fail by being worn out or overtaxed, so that, at any time, the putrid animal contamination may find its way into the well unchanged, thereby charg- ing the water with the active agents of disease. Thousands of these wells still abound about the country, where health questions have not received the amount of attention they deserve; and notwithstanding that years may have passed, and no harm have come from them, a day may come and every year the increase of the popula- tion renders its advent more likely when the soil, which has done its work so long and so well, refuses to do it any longer, and the water will become a drink of death, and a carrier of disease. These receptacles, for the most part, favor the increase of animalcules and fungoid growths and the generation of impure gases, and this contamination is further helped, in many places, by the unaccountable practice of placing the cistern for drinking and other purposes directly over the water-closet. The capacity of water, exposed to an impure and noxious atmosphere, for absorbing impure matter, has been forcibly illustrated by Dr. Lyon Playfair, who mentions an instance in point: " One of my assistants," he says, ' ' was making experiments with an oil which had the smell of the concentrated urine of the male cat. The smell was insufferably offen- sive, and was so readily absorbed that it was impossible to drink 'the water placed in the room. Every vessel containing a liquid in the room soon became contaminated with this horrible smell." The exposure of the water stored in cisterns and water-butts to the atmosphere is another source of impurity, by the absorption of impure gases from the air. The atmosphere of any large place is the receptacle for the exhalations of many inhabitants, and of thousands of animals, dead and living, of stable- yards, privies, dung-heaps, slaughter-houses, and of the vapors from dust- bins and gas-works, and like establishments. Even when water is taken into the close, heated, and offensive rooms of the poor, it rapidly absorbs the offensive gases with which the air of the rooms is loaded, and becomes tainted. "When water/' says Dr. Hector Gavin, "has been preserved in butts or tubs outside, exposed to the foetid atmosphere of a privy, it taints rapidly, and it is almost impossible in calling for a tumbler of water in the houses of the poor to find it free from a mawkish taste." We see now, how, at every turn, there are impurities in the water supplied to us by companies, and more especially the water we ourselves derive from wells, to be got rid of. First of all, there are impurities of a harmless although objectionable nature, such as living organisms and certain inorganic suspended impurities, which render the water turbid and of a disagreeable appearance. And, secondly, there are organic im- purities of a most harmful nature, which may be the cause of serious danger to health and life. Although these latter may not be present in the actual source of supply, they may find entrance through dirty vessels THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 47 and careless storage. The question, therefore, is an important one: What means can be adopted to reduce to a minimum the chances of accident arising from drinking impure water ? And to this question there is but one answer, viz. : The adoption of a system of purification. Dr. Charles Smart, in his paper on "Water Supply of Cities," read before the Sanitary Congress, very justly declared that chemical tests alone are not conclusive evidence of the wholesomeness of a public water supply, in the face of an excessive mortality from disease like typhoid fevers, which are largely traceable to a polluted drinking water. Furthermore, to quote the last annual report of the New York State Board of Health: " It is a thing of common experience that water highly contaminated, even with excremental matter, may be drunk for a long time with apparent impunity by many people; but that at some unex- pected moment, either from an as yet unknown change in the fermenta- tion process, or, as is often probable, from the introduction of an almost inappreciable quantity of specific infective excreta, an outbreak of typhoid may devastate the community thus supplied." A distinguished sani- tarian tells us, that the effect of impure water is not always sudden, violent or general. On the contrary, its results are more usually so gradual as to often elude ordinary observation, but are not the less real on that account. The extent and manner in which a public supply is liable, under the best conditions, to be contaminated, is aptly illustrated in the case of New York city. In purity, color and wholesomeness, the Croton ranks second to no other potable water; yet a recent official report by the New York health authorities states that the Croton- water shed embraces 239 square miles, and has a population of 20,000, with 1,879 dwellings, besides barns, pig-pens, cesspools, cemeteries, slaughter-houses and other sources of contamination, and with no drainage, excepting on the surface. Yet, in comparison to the water supply of many other American cities, the Croton is purity itself. Philadelphia draws its chief supply from the Schuylkill, a sewer and factory-polluted stream. The 300,000 inhabitants of Newark and Jersey City pump into their reservoirs the waters of the Passaic river, filled with the sewage of Paterson. Prof. Leeds says: " The river immediately below the town is black with dye- stuffs, the fish carried over the great falls are immediately poisoned, and analysis reveals that the water has acquired an enormous percentage of nitrogenous matter." Boston's supply is threatened, while Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Providence, Baltimore, and a score of other cities are drinking water contaminated in the same way by sewage, factory or surface drainage, or by cesspool seepage, into wells. The large majority of rural and village residents depend upon shallow wells dug in porous soil close to leaching cesspools, and the cool draught from the ' ' Old Oaken Bucket" too often contains concentrated poison. 48 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Sources of Pollution Manifold. The introduction of a public waterworks almost invariably leads to a diminished death-rate from zymo- tic disease, and could the purity of the supply be maintained by filtration the health of the community would be permanently benefited. But, as has been shown, the sources of pollution are manifold and increasing. With the increase of population, the growth of manufactories, and the crowding of houses in the vicinity of storage reservoirs and their feeders, filtration and aeration become indispensable. Again, it is becoming more and more recognized that streams receiv- ing sewage are not purified, no matter how ample their volume or how rapid their flow. Chemical tests alone cannot be taken as a proof of purification. The poison of typhoid has been conveyed twenty-five miles by a river, and communicated to forty hospital patients who drank its waters. To quote from a high authority (Mass. State Board of Health, 1876): " If sewage contains the germs of disease, whatever they may be, no agency at present known, except a sufficiently high temperature, will effectually destroy them." Hence it is desirable, as Parry, one of the best English authorities, says, that filtration should be performed whole- sale by the public authorities, rather than to leave it to individuals. Thus rich and poor alike are benefited, and it will not be necessary to trust to cheap and worthless appliances left in charge of careless domestics. Many towns and water companies filter their water by passing it through beds of broken stone, gravel, sand, charcoal or other material. These are often very extensive and costly, notably those of the London water com- pany and at Berlin. The filter beds at Poughkeepsie cost over $75,000 for the plant alone. Oxygen in Water. The presence of oxygen in spring- water, though not always a guarantee of purity, is very good indication of such, as the organic matter most injurious in drinking water is that most readily oxidized, and the presence of free oxygen indicates an excess above the quantity necessary to effect such oxidation. However, the presence of oxygen in water is objectionable in the case of waters flavored with es- sential oil or other principles liable to change by oxidation. Waters containing ferrous compounds can only be prepared success- fully by the careful exclusion of oxygen in every stage of the manufacture. Mr. B. Bruce Warren, at a meeting of the Society of Arts, road an in- teresting lecture on the preparation and manufacture of carbonated waters. One of the principal points we herewith present: " From certain experiments which I have made and am still carrying out, it would appear as if this oxygen contained in the water acquires an enhanced chemical activity under certain circumstances, and although I am not able to prove that it becomes ozonized, I am certainly of opinion that the oxidation of oil of lemon in lemonade is in a great measure the cause of the deterioration where sound and genuine ingredients have been w " THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 49 .sed. Other substances liable to change by oxidation may, of course, alter in the same way. In the ordinary manufacture of carbonated waters belonging to the saline class, oxygen gas is not likely to do any harm, but it is impossible to regard its presence with indifference where essential oils or other easily oxidized materials are employed. The seriousness of air- impregnated water has not escaped the attention of manufacturers, and a system of bottling water free from atmospheric air has been recently perfected. " For a remedy for removing the atmospheric air from water we refer to the article on the " Kemoval of Atmospheric Air 7 ' in another chapter, which explains its injurious effects on carbonic acid and carbonated verages. Metallic Impurities. The contamination of the water by contact with metals has been a source of considerable anxiety to the manufac- turers of carbonated waters. Contact with lead or any other easily oxidized metal must be avoided. There is no difficulty in securing this object by a coating of tin or silver, but when particles of metal are introduced by attrition it is not so easy to suggest a remedy. We occasionally hear of metallic impregnations in water, especially those containing citric or tartaric acid, and we would just suggest that before we attribute this to defects in the mechanical appliances, it will be better to see if the materials are free from fault. These acids are usually crystallized in lead-lined vessels, and are more frequently impregnated with this metal than most people are aware of. Injury to lead by contact with lime is well worthy of consideration. It is extraordinary that this effect should have been so entirely ignored, as it has long been known that water, impregnated with lime, when passed through leaden pipes, becomes extremely injurious, simply from its taking up by some chemical process a certain amount of the lead, whereas the limewater itself would not be dangerous. Prof. Angel, in the National Bottlers' Gazette, says on this subject: " It is of the utmost importance to know whether water used for drinking purposes contains lead. A little gradually taken into the system does not pass off, but accumulates until the quantity is sufficient to result in bad if not fatal consequences. Since the poison is so insidious in its tion, one does not receive warning until it is too late. If a piece of bright lead is exposed to moist air, it soon becomes tarnished from the formation of a thin film of protoxide of lead, pro- duced by the action of atmospheric oxygen. If this piece of lead should be now placed in water perfectly pure and free from air, the oxide would dissolve, leaving the metal bright, after which there would be no further action, since no more oxide could form. But if air had access to the water, the twofold action of oxidation and solution would continue to- gether, and the surface of the metal would remain more or less bright, 4 50 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. according as the oxide is formed faster or slower than it can dissolve. If some sulphate or carbonate be now added to the water, these salts im- mediately react with the oxide to form on the metal an insoluble coating of carbonate or sulphate of lead, which, being insoluble in water, pre- vents further action. These facts explain the behavior of natural waters towards lead. In the first place the protoxide of lead is always formed, which dissolves if the water does not contain the necessary saline constit- uents to prevent it. Water that contains any salt of lime or magnesia in excess is called hard water. Generally these bases are present in the form of carbonates or sulphates; hence the commonly accepted view, that hard water does not act on lead. But here is an error that must be guarded against. The water fails to act on lead, not because it is hard, but because it contains sulphates or carbonates. A soft water containing sulphates or carbonates of the alkalies has no action on lead. On the other hand, a water hard from the presence of carbonate of lime or magnesia frequently acts on lead freely, because the same acid that dis- solves them and explains their presence, also dissolves carbonate of lead. Hence it is plain that some very hard waters, highly charged with car- bonic acid, readily act on lead. The decomposition of organic matter produces carbonic acid; consequently the presence of organic matter facilitates the action of water on lead. Nitrates dissolve lead freely. The metal should not be used in waters containing them. Sulphates in water protect lead most, since the sulphate of lead is insoluble in water and acids. Carbonates are next in order. The carbonate of lead is insoluble in water, but soluble in acids even the weak carbonic acid. " Water that is hard is so, generally, from the presence of sulphates or carbonates of lime and magnesia, so that ordinarily it might be con- sidered safe to use lead in hard water. But since there are exceptions both against hard water and in favor of soft water, the only safe way is to test every water in which lead is used. "Another rough method is, to observe whether the surface of lead which has been in water for some time is bright and shining, like newly cut metal, or is dull in color, very gray, or brownish. Too much reliance should not be placed upon the color, for the oxide may not dissolve fast enough to keep the metal bright, and yet not much may dissolve. How- ever, if the surface is bright and clear the evidence is decisive; for it would not be if the oxide did not dissolve." It is best to have the pipes through which the water runs, of iron or of pure solid tin lead should be entirely dispensed with. The storage cisterns should be of wood, or, best of all, of slate. If T V of a grain of lead per gallon is present in water, it ib dangerous for drinking and should be rejected. Galvanized Iron-tanks injurious. Dr. Venable, in Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.y says: " The increase in the use of galvanized iron, especially in THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 51 the form of water- tanks and pipes, has led to a reopening of the question as to the possible injurious effects from the use of such water. It is a mat- ter of importance, then, to us, how far our knowledge extends on this subject, and I will collect here all of the known facts, so far as I have been able to get at them. " The so-called galvanized iron is, of course, nothing more than iron .dipped in a bath of zinc, and superficially coated with it, and, to a cer- tain extent, alloyed with it. The character of the protection aiforded the iron is galvanic (hence the name), the two metals forming a galvanic couple, so that under the action of any exciting liquid the zinc, and not the iron, is attacked. That zinc dissolves in potable waters has long since been shown by the experiments of Boutigny, Schaueffele and Lan- gonne. Distilled water and rain-water dissolve it more readily than hard water. Especially is water containing carbonic acid capable of this solvent action. So much may be taken up that the water becomes opalescent and acquires a distinctly metallic taste. It seems that by the action of water, hydrate and carbonate of zinc are gradually formed, and that this action is more rapid in the presence of certain saline matters, but is weakened by calcium salts. " As to the injurious effects of such waters, authorities differ. Fons- sagrives, has investigated the question, consulting the statistics of the French navy, and the recorded experiments of others, adding, however, none of his own. The French Government had, before this, appointed a committee to make a special report on the subject, and the investigations of Roux, in 1865 and 1866, furnished evidence enough of possible injury to health, from waters stored in galvanized iron tanks, to lead to an order from the Minister of Marine prohibiting the use of such tanks on board ships of war. Boutigny attributed grave effects to the use of these zinc- containing' waters, looking upon it as probably resulting in epilepsy. Fonssagrives, however, maintains that the zinc is not cumulative, and produces no bad effects unless taken in large doses. Doubt is thrown on this position, however, by the fact that his assertions as to the limited solubility of zinc in ordinary drinking-water are not sustained by experi- ments. Without doubt such waters have been used for considerable length of time, and no injurious effects have been noticed. This may have been due, however, to the hardness of the water, and hence the small amount of zinc dissolved . Pappenheim states in contradiction to the assertion of Fonssagrives, that zinc vessels are dangerous, and must be carefully avoided. Dr. Osborne, of Bitterne, has frequently observed injurious -effects from the use of waters impregnated with zinc. Dr. Stevenson has noticed the solvent action of rain-water on galvanized iron, and states that probably its continued use would cause injury to health. He recommends as a convenient test for the presence of zinc in potable waters the addition of potassium ferrocyanide to the filtered and acidu- 52 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. lated water. Zinc gives a faint white cloud, or a heavier precipitate when more is present. Dr. Frankland mentions a case of zinc poisoning where well-water containing much dissolved oxygen, and but little carbonic acid, was used after passing through galvanized iron pipes. Professor Heaton has recorded the analysis of spring- water in Wales, and a second analysis of the same water after passing through half a mile of galvanized iron pipe, showing that the water had taken up 6.41 grains of zinc car- bonate per gallon. "A similar instance of zinc- impregnated water has come under my own observation. The water from a spring two "hundred yards distant was brought by galvanized iron pipes to a dwelling-house, and there stored in a zinc-lined tank, which was painted with white lead. The water became somewhat turbid and metallic-tasting, and its use for drinking purposes was discontinued. Analyses were made after the pipes had been in use for about one year. " The tank contained 4.48 grains of zinc carbonate per gallon, with a trace of iron, and no lead. Water from the pipe gave 4. 29 grains of zinc carbonate per gallon, and a trace of iron. "It is evident, then, when the dangerous nature of zinc as a poison is taken into consideration, that the use of zinc-coated vessels in connec- tion with water, or any food-liquid, should be avoided." Humine, Oeine, and Ulmine. We do not care to go into a scien- tific explanation of all the minute constituents or impurities of water, but it is deemed necessary to explain what is meant by the above nomenclature, as the manufacturer in the course of time might run across this term and search for information in this work. Huminic, Geinic or Ulminic Acid are, if not identical, certainly nearly related, and by analysts only differently termed; they consist of or are found in the sediments of springs, are of a humous nature, but are not at all definite in composition. There are organic substances free of nitro- gen, while there are others with nitrogen, and therein is the difference in their organic nature. All these substances have been found or proved in spring water, and it may be certain that many other substances partake in the combination of water, but have hitherto not been found, not been searched for, or not been definitely explained. Iodine and Bromine. Chatin asserts that all spring-waters contain iodine, and this assertion is supported by the fact that iodine is found in many vegetables and plants that live in sweet water, also in many plants of the earth. The quantity of iodine differs in the various sources of water; mountain water is said to contain the least. Also Marchand proves iodine in all spring waters and in bromine. Phosphoric Acid, Arsenic Acid, Boric Acid; Fluorides, and the newly discovered metals: Rubidium, Cesium, Thallium, etc. , THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 53 All these substances have been found by careful analysis in the real min- eral waters, besides the regular saline or mineral constituents. It is under- stood that they got into the water by the rain flowing through or pene- trating the different stratas of the earth, dissolving or absorbing them, and there is in all probability more or less in all our springs or wells may be but traces. Color and Characteristics of Pure Water. Two theories are ad- vanced o explain the blue color of water when seen in large masses one, held by Pr-of. Tyndall, being that small solid particles suspended in the water do not reflect the lower or red rays of the spectrum. According to the other theory, the color is due to the absorbent action of the water itself on the white light before and after reflection by these particles. The results of experiments made by Mr. John Aitken, and presented to the Royal Society, England, show that the latter theory is probably the more correct one. The greater number of white reflecting particles the greener the water appears to be, and hence the gradual deepening of the green to blue as the shore is left. The waters of Lake Como owe their darkness to the absence of reflecting particles, as Mr. Aiken ingeniously proved by scattering finely-divided chalk in the centre of that lake, thereby producing a very brilliant blue. The brilliancy depends on the color of the particles, and is greatest with white particles. Among coral reefs, which are generally strewn with white sand, the water also takes a very brilliant blue or green. The dull tinge of some river- waters is due to the dingy character of the suspended silt; but springs have often a bright blue color, owing to the whiteness of the chalk suspended in them. We often talk of or read about the blue Danube and the green Rhine, but the latter at Cologne and the former at Vienna hardly justify the designation, and might more literally be described as of a muddy brown. Victor Meyer has, however, been occupying himself with an inquiry into the actual color of perfectly pure water, and he finds that it should be described as neither blue nor green, but a shade between the two. To demonstrate this he takes five wide but thin glass tubes, 40 mm. in diame- ter and about 1| metre in length; these are connected by means of caout- chouc tubing forming a tube about 7-J metres long. Both ends of this tube are closed with even glass plates fitted in metal sockets. The latter are furnished with brass nozzles for filling the tube. The tube itself is placed in an exactly horizontal position and covered with a black cloth. Upon looking through the empty tube the field of vision appears perfectly colorless, the cloth and the metal sockets preventing the color of the glass from exerting any influence; directly, however, the tube is filled with distilled water, an intense bluish-green color is observed. The characteristics of good water may be summed up as follows: It should be at all seasons clear, transparent, bright, and when seen in large bulk, pure blue, the natural color of uncontaminated water; it should be 54 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. well aerated, holding in solution from seven to eight cubic inches of air per gallon, consisting of two or more cubic inches of oxygen and six of nitrogen; it should be free from living organisms, vegetable and animal, and from all dead, decomposing organic matter, and should not dissolve lead; it should hold only a moderate quantity of mineral matter in solu- tion, and not deposit a coating of lime or magnesia when boiled. Microbe and Bacteria. Microbe and Bacteria being frequently found in polluted water, an explanation of the terms is necessary. By the term microbe is understood a microscopic organized germ, which exists in diseased animal bodies, and which, when transferred to other animal bodies, under proper conditions, is capable of reproducing a specific disease, the same as that existing in the body from which it was taken. The cholera microbe thrives in the alkaline contents of the in- testines, and when by any means it is transferred to another living body, it is capable of infecting that body with cholera. On the other hand, when any vegetable or animal infusion, or other liquid containing nitrogenous substances with comparatively little starchy or saccharine matter, is left exposed to the air for some time, putrefac- tive changes take place, and the liquid becomes filled with minute or- ganized bodies termed bacteria. Various beverages undergo changes of this sort. While these bacteria, together with the substances in which they thrive, may cause sickness if taken into the body, as would any de- composing or putrefactive substance, it is believed these bacteria are not regarded as the cause of any specific disease. Doubtless these two terms have been wrongly used by some writers as if synonymous. With respect to " fermentation " and " bacterial influences," of which we now read so much in connection with diseases and epidemics, the following query occurs: Wine, beer and other beverages go through a fermentation, and they become palatable and desirable. They do not decompose, decay, or create unhealthy or unpleasant exhalations. On the contrary, a carcass of a dead animal is also said to go through a fermentative process, the result of which is the poisoning of the surrounding atmosphere. The " bacterial influences " in these cases are not the same. In one case they act as a preservative and in the other as a destroying agent. Bacteria or microbe are classified. The phenomenon of fermentation is due to a specific germ, or microbe, which always produces the same effects, the microbes being named and classified according to these specific results. The microbe which causes the fermentation of yeast or beer, when put into a proper medium (one containing sugar in some form), decomposes the sugar, and alcohol is one of the results. This microbe is called the torula cerevisice, or saccliarromyces cerevisia, and invariably produces the identical result. The microbe which causes putrefaction is of a dif- ferent kind, a bacterium known as bacterium termo, or the bacterium of putrefaction. THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 55 Interesting experiments as to the rapidity of growth and the means of destruction of microbia, by Dr. T. Leone, a European chemist, are com- mented on on another page, to which we expressly refer, being exceedingly interesting. Minimum of Safety in Water. The constituent parts of water when pure are, in volumes, two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxy- gen, and, by weight, one part of hydrogen and eight parts of oxygen. When pure, water is also transparent, odorless, tasteless, and colorless, except when seen in considerable depths. Now, while it appears to be an established fact that chemically pure waters are not best for drinking purposes, still there is a limit in the condition of impurity beyond which it is not safe to imbibe. Kain-water is almost always affected by atmos- pheric influences; spring and well-water very often become charged with mineral properties, and, finally, the waters of rivers, lakes, and ponds, as a rule, contain more or less vegetable and animal organisms. But what is the minimum of safety? Dr. Frankland furnishes the following conclusions as to what must be considered polluted water: 1. Every liquid that contains in suspension more than one part, by weight, of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts of the liquid; or one part by weight, of dry mineral matter in 100,000 parts of the liquid. 2. Every liquid containing in solution more than two parts, by weight, of organic carbon, or three parts of organic nitrogen, in 100,000 parts of the liquid. 3. Every liquid which, when placed in a porcelain dish to the depth of one inch, exhibits during daylight distinct color. 4. Every liquid which contains in solution more than two parts, by weight, of any metal, except lime, magnesia, potash and soda, in 100,000 parts of the liquid. 5. Every liquid which contains in suspension more than -f$ parts metallic arsenic, by weight, in every 100,000 parts. 6. Every liquid which, after the addition of sulphuric acid, contains more than one part, by weight, of free chlorine in every 100,000 parts. 7. Every liquid which contains, by weight, more than one part of sulphur, in the state of sulphuretted hydrogen or of a soluble sulphuret, in every 100,000 parts. 8. Every liquid possessing an acidity greater than that produced by adding two parts, by weight, of hydrochloric acid to 1,000 parts of dis- tilled water. 9. Every liquid possessing an alkalinity greater than that produced by adding one part, by weight, of caustic soda to 1,000 parts of distilled water. 10. Every liquid exhibiting on its surface any film of petroleum, or containing in suspension more than -^ parts, by weight, of such oil in every 100,000 parts. 56 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. It is most important, says Dr. Austin, that we should seek to avoid all waters tainted by organic matter, especially sewage. The presence of ammonia in any water offers valuable evidence of such contamination; since it is the measure of that portion of organic matter not decomposed, but in a state of or undergoing putrefaction. More than ^ of a grain of free ammonia per 1,000 gallons of water, or more than ft of a grain of albuminoid ammonia per 1,000 gallons of water, forbodes danger to persons drinking the liquid, or beverages manufactured from it. Water should be Purified. The purification of water for the pur. pose of manufacturing beverages, whether carbonated or otherwise, is a fruitful subject of discussion, and one which should always engage the attention of the trades interested. The modes of purifying water are either mechanical or cliemical, according as the impurities are in suspen- sion or in solution. From suspended impurities, causing more or less turbidity, water is purified by subsidence and by filtration. On the large scale subsidence is carried on in reservoirs, on the small scale in water- butts, tanks, and cisterns. The process is necessarily slow. The de- posited matter should periodically be removed. In semi-barbarous coun- tries muddy water is sometimes fined or cleared by the addition of the mucilaginous pulp of certain fruits, after the manner in which wine, cider and beer are clarified, by the addition of white of egg or of isin- glass. The glairy matter slowly coagulates, inclosing the suspended matters as in a net, leaving the fluid clear. Filtration is conducted on the largest scale through gravel and sand, through spongy iron also; on the small scale through spongy iron, carbide of iron, charcoal, sponge, cloth, paper, stone and some other materials being occasionally employed. The chief objection to filtration is the liability of a portion of the impuri- ties to decompose, and to increase instead of decrease the impurity of water subsequently passed through the, filters. To, prevent such an unfortunate result the filters must be duly cleansed. Impurities in solution are of a mineral nature or they are organic; that is, of an animal or vegetable character. From the point of view of bottlers, dissolved carbonate of calcium in undue quantities (chalk, or less correctly " the lime") in water is an impurity. They are removed by chemicals, or by distillation and boiling. To remove organic matter from solution in water oxidation by the oxy- gen of the air is the only practicable process. This action- goes on directly but slowly in lakes or other sheets of water exposed to air. It goes on more rapidly when air and water are well mixed, as in the tumbling of water down weirs, cataracts and waterfalls, and in the rushing of rivers along rocky beds. It goes on most satisfactorily when water percolates through porous and therefore air-laden soil on its way to springs, wells, etc.; hence, by the way, the value of deep wells, the water of which is fifty to a hundred feet below the surface Of the ground, for the rain-water THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 57 supplying such wells, even if fouled at the surface, usually becomes con- verted into pure water before it reaches or becomes part of the water in the well. Filters, fortunately, act chemically as well as mechanically, in so far as they bring the organic impurities in the water and the oxygen of the air into closer contact, and, therefore, under good conditions for that chemical attack on each other which results in the entire alteration of both into a minute quantity of harmless nitre added to the water and a small quantity of carbonic acid, which gives desired aeration to the water. To make this chemical action of the filter continuous it is necessary to constantly supply the requisite oxygen. For it must be distinctly understood, that the chemical action of the filter lasts only as long as its store of oxygen lasts. A constant supply of oxygen is kept up by the free access or the continuous circulation of air, and every filter should be so constructed as to allow such a free circulation the aeration of the water. If this aeration is carried on by mechanical appliances and under pressure it is the more effective. On this subject the National Bottlers' Gazette published a series of valuable and instructive articles which are very beneficial to the trade, and are in the main part reproduced here. To Mr. R. d'Heureuse, New York, an expert in the matter, we are indebted for practical information. He is the patentee of several practical inventions on " Air- Treatment," and so also is Prof. Albert R. Leeds, of Hoboken. The latter 's system of aeration and filtration is very much similar to that of the former. We understand also that both systems are now under the operation of a Company. Aeration of Water. Within the past few years another process has been successfully introduced, by which water, ordinarily unfit for drink- ing or beverage-manufacturing purposes, has been rendered sweet and wholesome. The system is styled aeration. By this is meant, not the impregnation of water with carbonic acid .gas, as it is understood in England and elsewhere, where all mineral waters are erroneously known as "aerated waters," but submitting it, under favorable conditions, to atmospheric pressure, whereby the deficiency in oxygen is supplied, the absence of which leads to the rapid development of organisms fatal to its purity. Air, as is well known, consists of twenty-one parts by volume of oxygen arfd seventy-nine parts of nitrogen, but the oxygen is more soluble in water than the nitrogen. This new departure, it may safely be said, is of vast importance to manufacturers of carbonated beverages, and the latest information and more recent experiments will serve to ac- quaint them with a matter which is just at present receiving special study and investigation at the hands of leading scientists. Oxygen, as the researches of Tyndal, Pasteur and other students of the germ theory and the effects of different gases on the purity of water 58 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and other fluids have established, exercises a powerful purifying effect on water, as indeed on any other fluid containing organic matter. Just as it encourages combustion and promotes life, so, when brought in contact with organic matter in water, it causes its natural destruction and de- composition, effecting its resolution into harmless elements, among which carbonic acid is one of the most prominent, and purifying the water of its presence. Tumbling cascades, rapid currents and rolling waves are all factors in the natural oxidization of water; and in nature no moving body of water becomes foul of itself, while even such impurities as may be communicated to it in the shape of land drainage, town sewerage, etc., are neutralized and rendered innocuous with the greatest facility. The surfaces of such waters are constantly changing, and each fresh surface is so disposed that it can readily absorb from the atmosphere the oxygen needed for its purification. Contrast this with a stagnant water, in which the upper strata alone can absorb a limited amount of oxygen, and with the rapidity with which it becomes foul, impregnated with organic matter, alive and dead, and with disease germs which it freely distributes throughout its vicinity. Science and experiment have even more defi- nitely established the truth of these theories. The oxygen has a destructive as well as a preserving effect upon or- ganism and organic matter, according to the conditions under which the action takes place. The amount of material on the face of our earth, available for nature to construct and sustain all organism of, is not infinite but strictly con- fined; and all of it is in constant use. A portion of the existing organ- ism must die and decompose to furnish the material for the construction of newly rising organisms. It is the function of the atmospheric oxygen to do the destructive work and also to build up anew and preserve. An article upon "Air-Treatment," in the American Chemist for August, 1871, in explanation of this living principle, opens as follows: " The problem, the solution of which is involved in the subject of Air- Treatment, has been fitly expressed by Professor A. W. Williamson, F. K. S., in a lecture at London, last November, upon Fermentation, in the following words (Chem. News, Nov. 11, '70, page 235): ' If all the good has to come from the oxygen and all the worst evil come from the oxygen, it must be of the greatest importance to ascertain what are the conditions under which the beneficial action can be exercised, and what are those under which its detrimental influence occurs/ ' Fresh meats, fruits and vegetables, confined in close boxes or rooms, are quickly tainted and putrefy; the same articles exposed to brisk drafts of air keep for an indefinite length of time. The water of streams, es- pecially of lively currents, is sweet; where some of it fills a stagnant pool, it is soon nauseous with putrefying elements; still it is rendered sweet again by frequent violent agitation with air. Wine men cause wine, THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 59 slightly diseased, to pass in spray through the air to restore it. Fungoid growth covers the plants and the earth in damp, close and warm weather; damp and close vaults and rooms are filled with rank putridity, which disappears with vigorous circulation of the same confined air. The agi- tation of the water with air, the impregnation of the sickly wine with the atmospheric oxygen while in rapid motion, indicate to us the mode of preventing putrefaction. The lungs of our system serve a similar pur- pose. The lesson taught us by facts like these may be condensed in a few words. Surface contact of organic substances ivith stagnant, confined or slowly-moving air, favors destructive putrefactive organisms; but in- timate contact with rapidly -moving air opposes putrefaction and decay, and promotes preservation. Rapidly-moving air, nature's purifier, is constantly at our service, by employing suitable mechanical means to force the air into rapid motion;: and thus we are enabled to produce the purifying effects at will, which we observe nature to perform by this agent. To apply this principle for the effective and reliable purification of water, an indispensable condi- tion is, that the rapidly-moving air should act uniformly upon all parts (not only upon the surface) of the water. Considerations as to best results at the least expense of labor, money, complication of machinery, etc, must determine the adoption of the method best suited to the practical operations. Not only are the nitrogenous (detrimental) particles of organic matter in the water rapidly oxidized by this treatment properly conducted, but the low organisms in it and their germs are injuriously affected, their vitality destroyed, or so greatly impaired that many hours or days pass before decomposition (caused by low organisms) appear again, if at all, after the water has been thoroughly subjected to this treatment. Pasteur has demonstrated that oxygen, supplied in the form of pure atmospheric air, is fatal to bacteria and other germs, while Dr. Pehl, of St. Petersburg, in the course of experiments with Neva water, at St. Petersburg, showed that water containing about 50,000 bacteria in a cer- tain volume, after having been passed for about three-quarters of an hour through and through a centrifugal pump, had lost all but about 500 in the same volume of water. It is evident that the air caught up and violently agitated with the water produced the effect, which, however, can be obtained more satisfactorily by aeration at less than one-tenth the cost of centrifugal work, involving an enormous waste of power to pump or spray the water, aeration or air-treatment being understood as forcing the air through the water, by which operation a violent agitation of the water is combined with rapid movement of the air in the most rational and economical manner. A recent publication speaks of experiments made for the purification of water at Philadelphia, by aeration, as follows: A Fairmount turbine 60 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. engine was converted into an air pump, which delivered 20 per cent , by volume, of free air into the water main, this being the proportion found necessary to surcharge the water. Analysis showed that the quantity of free oxygen in the aerated water was 17 per cent, greater than before aeration, while the quantity of carbonic acid was 53 per cent, greater and that of the total dissolved gases was 16 per cent, greater. The aeration of the water supply for Hoboken, N". J., was inaugu- rated, converting the formerly abominable Hackensack river water, unfit for ordinary domestic purposes, into a clear, sweet, unobjectionable water supply. At an annual meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, a member made an interesting statement relating to the process for the aeration of water as introduced under his observation. He stated that during June of the preceding year an unpleasant taste and smell was first noticed in the public water supply of a city near New York. In July these peculiarities became very pronounced, and then a green scum began to collect on the water in the reservoir. After a while this took the ap- pearance of green paint. There was no unpleasant taste or smell from the water drawn along the force main, and none from the source of sup- ply, but after it was delivered into the reservoir the taste and smell became offensive. Then it was found, by keeping the water in motion from the time it left the river until it was delivered to consumers, these unpleasant characteristics largely disappeared. Analyses frequently made showed that there was a deficient supply of oxygen in the water, and that the development of green vegetation in- creased as the supply of oxygen in solution in the water decreased. In its normal condition the amount of oxygen in solution in good water is about 6 cubic centimeters per quart, 0.65 of 1 per cent, by volume; but in this case it had run down to about 3 cubic centimeters. There is no sewage pollution in this area. The difficulty was entirely of vege- table origin. Since the deficiency in oxygen, together with a somewhat large percentage of dissolved extractive matters of vegetable origin, were the only abnormal features revealed by chemical analysis, it was suggested by a prominent scientist, whose co-operation had been requested, that the water could be improved by supplying the oxygen requisite to bring the water to its normal condition, and probably succeed in oxidizing the dissolved extractive matters at the same time. By laboratory experiment it was ascertained that the offensive taste and smell which affected certain water could be made to entirely disappear, and this had led to devising a process by which aeration could be easily applied. The benefit of aera- tion of drinking water has indeed been recognized from time immemorial, and had already been made the subject of certain patents in this country, but these involved the use of air at merely ordinary atmospheric pressure. These patents have been improved upon by introducing the air under THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 61 greater pressure, which not only causes the work of oxidation to be very rapidly and effectually performed, but makes the process of such a char- acter as to be easily applied in practice. Under this advice air compressors were set up and the air was forced into the water mains under a pressure of about 125 pounds to the square inch. By so doing, the oxygen in the water is increased, and, ordinarily, when the water is not turbid from suspended earthy matter (a difficulty encountered after heavy storms, and which, of course, can only be com- pletely removed by filtration), it manifests a sparkling appearance, and has only a pleasant taste and smell. The water as drawn from the main is often perfectly white, but in a moment it clears up from the bottom like soda water, and those who take the water directly from the main drink it with delight while still effervescent. Analyses of the water from different points are made once a month and sometimes oftener. Micro- scopic examinations are made also, which show that the animal life is changed in different conditions of the water. At present the condition of the water seems to be excellent. Another system of aerating water, differing in many essentials from the foregoing process, and likewise patented, also applied to large water supplies, by which aeration is secured continuously and economically, is by gravity. To give the reader an intelligent idea of this method and its application, the writer will take the liberty of quoting from a very inter- esting and highly instructive pamphlet on the filtration of water, recently issued by the owners and patentees of this system,* as follows: " The main feature may be described by taking, for example, a water supply that is pumped from a river or some other source, up to an ele- vated distributing reservoir. Between the pumps and the filter a stand pipe is raised. The supply pipe may, for convenience, be run through the centre of the stand pipe till within a short distance of the top, or it may be placed in any other position that the peculiar locality of the water supply calls for. The water from the supply pipe falls into the upper chamber of the aerator and thence down into the stand pipe. As it goes down, an automatic adjustment compels the water to carry with it a pre- determined portion of air, the stand pipe being of somewhat greater capacity than it would be for the water alone. The farther down it goes in the pipe the greater becomes the pressure, until, at the connection with the reservoir pipe, the pressure is several atmospheres and oxygen is almost completely absorbed. " The water is then led to a filter, still under pressure, and the min- gled air and water are more minutely subdivided and more oxygen is ab- sorbed. The water is charged now with all the oxygen it will take up, while at the same time the impurities that have been changed into tangi- 11 The Hyatt System, 1 ' by the Hyatt Pure Water Company, New York. 62 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. ble form are filtered out. When the water thus aerated is drawn from the filter, it gives abundant evidence of the quantity of oxygen it has ab- sorbed. The moment the pressure is released the excess of air escapes and the water bubbles as if freshly drawn from a mineral-water fountain. It is so filled with these microscopic bubbles of oxygen that it looks at first like diluted milk, but in a very short time they escape at the sur- face, and the water sparkles clear and bright, pure as nature supplies from the hills. Where the natural water supply is at such an elevation that no pumping is necessary, the supply pipe may lead directly to the top of the aerator, and thence, with the same action, to the filter and distributing mains. In another application of this principle, the aerator is wholly underground. In this the water is mingled with the air at the top of a deep well. Both are carried down together through a pipe and rise in another, the latter pipe being smaller than, and inside of, the former. The water is thus aerated under great pressure, previous to its passage into the suction of the pump, and so complete is the absorption of air that there is no ' pounding ' whatever, as would inevitably result if air were introduced at the pumps, or if it were not perfectly inter- mingled and absorbed. In all the aerating processes of this system the water carries with it and absorbs 25 per cent, or more of its own bulk of air while under pressure. " These systems of aeration, it may be well to state, perhaps, are in- tended to be applied to the purification of large supplies of water. They seem to be very successful. The question now is, Can the process of water aeration be applied on a reduced scale sufficient to meet the require- ments of the carbonating industry ? Carbonated waters especially require water as clear as possible, or else the sparkle, which is one of their essen- tial features, will be lost. The writer believes that after a careful ex- amination of many so-called filters, which at best are merely strainers, the purification of water will be successfully accomplished only by a com- bination of the aerating process and a filter constructed in accordance with the latest scientific discoveries." Other Methods of Aeration. A patent of May 26, 1885, by R. d'Heureuse of New York, is for the use of water from which by aeration deleterions organic impurities are removed before the water is brought in contact with substances employed in the various industries. The aeration is accomplished by impregnating the water with oxygen of the air, which effects an oxidation of the objectionable nitrogenous contaminations, otherwise the fruitful source of injury to the products or to the health of their consumers. The operation of this aeration is performed by forcing air or oxygen, preferably minutely divided, into the water, be the same in open tanks or in closed vessels in which an increased pressure can be produced; or by forcing the air into the water main along with the water. THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. DO If filtration of the water becomes necessary the last above-mentioned method of aeration, previous to the passage of the water through the filter, is generally the most preferable. Suitable air compressors, air conduit, and injecting appliances are re- quired for the performance of the operation, which proves itself highly effectual while exceedingly simple, inexpensive and free from any pos- sibility of doing harm. The annexed illustrations show diagrams of appliances for aerating the water, in open tank, in closed tank under increased pressure, and in FIG. 6. AERATION IN OPEN TANK FIG. 8. AERATION COMBINED WITH FILTRATION. forcing the air into the water main, which conducts both together to a filter. We understand that the patent is not confined to any special mode or apparatus to aerate the water. In conclusion we might say, that the principal question in aerating water is the selection of some appliance to effect it thoroughly, continu- ously and economically. Pumps, engines and devices of many kinds have been constructed for the express purpose of charging water with atmospheric air. Some are failures, others are more successful than economical, and still others balance these two requirements very happily, 64 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. but all are not alike applicable to water-purifying systems that have the two other essential features, and are incomplete by themselves. The most desirable aeration is that which charges the water with air under pressure. The proportion of oxygen absorbed is then very largely in- creased, and oxygen is the very element desired. It burns up impurities, defertilizes germs, destroys bad odors, regenerates the water itself and gives it such a clear, sparkling appearance that we call it " living water/' Whenever water is exhausted of oxygen it becomes stagnant, flat, mias- matic, the breeding-place of myriads of germs, animalcules, confervae, rotiferae and the whole list of four-syllabled creatures that are not wanted in drinking water. By some appliances for aeration the water is so thoroughly charged with air that when released from pressure it effer- vesces like the best carbonated waters, and sparkles as if filled with myriads of jewels. The Vitality of the Microbia is Abated under the Pressure of Atmospheric Air. Carbonating of Water the Radical Agent to Destroy Organisms. Scientific inquiry has not exhausted the possibili- ties of carbonic acid gas in its relation to beverages. A general knowl- edge of its imparting pungency and palatableness to carbonated waters prevails, but beyond that the practical carbonator has not investigated. Probably the growth of organic life in water is also a matter of conjec- ture, and as both are subjects of more than passing moment to manu- facturers of carbonated drinks, the appended experiments, observations and comments of Dr. T. Leone, a chemist of acknowledged European reputation, will prove interesting and instructive: " The analysis of drinking waters, until the most recent times, has been in the exclusive competence of chemists. The existence of minute microscopic living organisms in drinking waters has been known, but the want of suitable methods has always compelled analysts either not to oc- cupy themselves with this question at all, or to do it in a perfunctory manner, including these beings in the determination of the organic matter. But the existence in nature of pathogenic organisms (that is, organisms that render the water unwholesome and impure) being re- cognized and confirmed, has already passed into the domain of science, and the probability that some of these may be found in waters enables us to foresee what a part of its territory chemistry must, in these re- searches, yield up to bacteriology, as soon as this new science shall have reached its full development. Many experimentalists who have occupied themselves with the study of microbia have contented themselves with the summary appreciation of the value of a drinking water according to the number of microbia present capable of producing " colonies '' in gelatin. It is believed that the bacteria derived from putrescent animal matter produce colonies which liquefy gelatin. From the number of such colonies it is believed that we may form an opinion as to the greater : THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 65 or less corruption of a water. But the greater part of such experimental- ists think that in these researches we have not been guided by an exact conception of the nature of these microbia. Indeed, since the majority of such experimentalists have not taken account in such researches of the ime which has elapsed from the moment in which the water was obtained to that when it was experimented upon, and since these experimentalists have ascribed to a water thousands and thousands of microbia in a few drops a water which may have required two or three days' journey from its source to the point where it comes to be examined it is to be sup- posed that these experimentalists have disregarded the possibility that the purest drinking water may be a good medium for the culture of microbia. What value is to be conceded to these researches will be seen om what will be explained below. "The cultivations were made upon plates of glass, upon which the gelatin was spread. The preparation of the ' cultures ' was effected at a temperature below 30, and all the instruments used which came in contact with the cultures, or might have any connection with them, were duly sterilized, either by heat or by a solution of sublimate. For the numeration of the colonies, the culture, placed on a black ground, was vered with a plate of glass, and the colonies were enumerated with the aid of the microscope. An appreciation of drinking waters according to the criteria previously put forward, depending on the number of the colonies in general, or in particular on the number of those which liquefy gelatin, it was my first intention to examine if a drinking water, al- though the purest, was such a nutrient medium for microbia as to render variable, and consequently erroneous, such an appreciation if the re- search is not immediately executed. To this end, waters from different sources were examined, the results leading all to the same conclusion. I give those only yielded by the water supply recently introduced into the city of Munich, as this water may be taken as a type of the purest drinking waters. It contains not a trace of nitrates, nitrites, or am- moniacal salts; and the organic matter contained in a quart of the water is infinitesimal. This water was brought to a cock connected with a main in which the water, coming directly from the great reservoir, was flowing continually. The cock was sterilized by the heat of a lamp. The recipient vessels were always washed with strong sulphuric acid, then with distilled water, and were then sterilized by being heated for an hour to 150. These recipients, filled to two-thirds and closed with plugs of cotton-wool, likewise sterilized, were left at rest in an atmos- phere where the temperature ranged from 14 to 18. For brevity's sake I omit the details of the researches, and pass directly to an exposi- tion of the results, confining myself to say that the figure given must be considered as the mean of the values furnished by such cultures. The following are the results: 66 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. " The Maugfall water arrives at Munich with five microbia per cubic centimeter (about seventeen minims or drops). After twenty-four hours, being left under the conditions above described, the number of microbia is found to have risen to more than a hundred per cubic centimeter. In two days the figure reaches 10,500. In three days, 67,000. In four days, 315,000. And on the fifth day there were more than half a million of microbia per cubic centimeter. So rapid and considerable an increase of microbia in waters I find noticed only in a very recent publication by Dr. Cramer, Professor at the University of Zurich. Professor Cramer, in his " Memoir on the Waters of the City of Zurich/' proves that the microbia in such waters increase rapidly on standing. But it must be observed that the action of repose has no influence on the increase of the microbia. The experiments which follow prove that the microbia in drinking waters in movement multiply with the same rapidity, and in the same proportion, as if the said waters were at rest. For these experi- ments were used glass tubes. They were washed with strong sulphuric acid, then with distilled water, and were then sterilized for an hour at 100 (in an atmosphere of steam). These tubes were sealed at the lamp, after being half filled with the above-mentioned Maugfall water, and were then arranged perpendicularly to the axle of a wheel, so that the angle was intersected by the middle part of the tubes. The wheel was set in continuous motion by a current of water, and the apparatus was so ar- ranged that the entire water in the tubes was not at rest for an instant. The experiment being thus arranged, I made, from time to time, exam- inations of the quantity of microbia contained in the water. I shall spare the description of the detailed results of these researches, which do not need to be repeated. Approximately the same figures were found that were obtained above. The variation of the number of micro-organisms in the water in motion follows the same course as that of the same water when at rest. In both cases the number of the microbia reached on the fifth day the same maximum, and then decreased. On continuing the research, I found that on the tenth day the number of the microbia had fallen to 300,000, in a month to 120,000, and finally, in six months, the water contained only 95 microbia per cubic centimeter. 4 ' To appreciate, therefore, according to this method, the pollution, and in general the degree of corruption of a water, the examination ought to be begun immediately on taking the sample. In such an appreciation we ought also to take account of the increase of microbia during the flow of the waters, to the end that an extraordinary number of microbia may be attributed either to a natural increase or to an incidental pollution. With respect to the five microbia per cubic centimeter contained in the Maugfall water at the moment of its arrival in Munich (which from its source to its arrival at Munich takes about twenty-four hours), it has been observed that in this case the figure is not augmented during the THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 67 course of the water. It lias been observed, in fact, that the Maugfall water arrives at Munich under a pressure of five to six atmospheres. It is thence admitted, with much probability, that the vitality of the microbia is abated under this pressure. Dr. Karl Lehmann has experimentally demonstrated that such an influence is exerted upon many of the lower or- ganisms by a strong pressure of oxygen. Prof. Maggi, of the University of Pavia, has found that the water of Lake Maggiore at certain depths no longer contains bacteria. "As a rapid alteration of the hygienic conditions of a water results from the rapid increase of microbia, it seemed to me of no trifling interest to examine the behavior of carbonic waters which are ordinarily drunk in a period more or less long from their preparation. For these researches there were prepared ordinary bottles of carbonic water (water saturated with carbonic acid under pressure), and at the same time there were taken as a check samples of the potable water which served for their preparation. Care was taken to use sterilized bottles and stoppers. As for the apparatus for the carbonic water, the water-receiver was always kept filled during the preparation of our samples. Portions both of the carbonic water and of that unprepared were submitted to cultivation, to fix the initial conditions of the experiment. From these cultivations it resulted that the carbonic water contained 186 microbia per cubic centi- meter, and the original water only 115. Upon each of the two waters were made comparative examinations at intervals of five days for a period of fifteen days. " In these researches it was found that while in the non-carbonic water the number of microbia rose in five, ten and fifteen days from hundreds to thousands, in the carbonic water the number of microbia not only did not increase, but it diminished. In five days the number of organisms had fallen from 186 to 87; in ten days, to 30; and in fifteen days, to 20. " This absence of increase in the carbonic waters may be due to one of the following causes: 1, action of carbonic acid; 2, action of pressure; 3, joint action of carbonic acid and pressure; 4, deficiency of oxygen. We may set pressure aside. I admit, indeed, that it may be sufficient to hinder the development of microbia, but in our case it is not necessary. In examining three qualities of carbonic mineral waters, Giessel, Selters, and Apollinaris, which were under very slight pressures, I have always found a scattered quantity of organisms which went on decreasing. But the decisive proof for excluding the necessity of pressure is in the re- searches made on carbonated water prepared at an ordinary pressure. " Into Maugfall water contained in sterilized bottles I caused to bubble for half an hour, with occasional stirring, a current of carbonic acid de- veloped by the action of hydrochloric acid upon calcium carbonate. The carbonic acid before passing into the water under examination was made to pass into two bottles containing solutions of sodium carbonate, to re- 68 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. move the traces of hydrochloric acid which may have been mechanically carried along by the current. " The carbonic water being thus prepared, the bottles were closed with ground glass stoppers secured with a layer of paraffin. The water being left in this condition, it resulted from researches made in the period of fifteen days that in this case also the quantity of microbia did not increase, but diminished. Pressure being thus excluded, there remained only as the cause hindering the increase of the microbia either the action of the carbonic acid or the want of oxygen. But it has been possible, also, to exclude oxygen. Into the same Maugfall water contained in sterilized bottles there was passed for an hour a current of hydrogen, taking care to stir. The hydrogen, generated by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon zinc, was washed by a passage through a solution of caustic potash. The bottles thus prepared were hermetically closed, and the water ex- amined from day to day. But the organisms in this water, which, as regards oxygen, would be in the same condition as the carbonic water prepared at the ordinary pressure, increased rapidly and similarly to the microbia in water which was in free contact with the atmosphere. " These results place it beyond doubt that atmospheric oyxgen is not an element necessary for the increase of microbia in drinking waters, and that the carbonic acid is the sole agent which interferes with the life of these organisms in carbonic waters. ' ' Filtering Mediums. As before stated, the action of a filter is either mechanical or chemical. Solid particles which are too large to pass the pores of the filter are arrested; other particles adhere to the surface of the filtering material, even after they have been wholly dissolved. Further- more, the air contained in the pores of the filtering substance oxidizes the dissolved organic matter and thus destroys it. It follows that the more extensive the area of filtering material the greater the power of holding impurities by adhesion; while the more frequently and thor- oughly it can be cleansed and aerated the more efficient its action. More or less elaborate arrangements are provided for cleansing public filter beds. But as a rule this is irregularly and carelessly done, and hence just in proportion to the efficiency of the filtering material does it become clogged. " Inadequate area and infrequent cleansing/' says Prof. Nichols, "are the common faults of many so-called filters. The most that can be said of the majority of such niters is that they act with greater or less efficiency as strainers, but they do not remove the finer and more dangerous impurities." Furthermore, as the filter beds are not covered, the exposure of the shallow water to the hot sun in summer assists the development of vegetable life, which causes a disagreeable odor and taste in the water. Doubtless organic putrefaction may be assisted in like manner. In cold weather the filter beds are frozen and cannot be used. THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 69 Prof. Ripley Nichols states that sand is the best material yet used practically on a large scale for artificial filtration. Visible suspended particles and an appreciable proportion of organic matter actually in solution may be thus removed. He lays special stress upon the need of abundant area, frequent cleansing and renewal of the filtering material, constant supervision, protection from the sun, and prompt distribution of the filtered water to consumers. Where a water supply is taken from deep wells, basins or collecting galleries which are fed by "ground water, " the supply will go through a process of natural filtration. But the water from such sources is not always potable. Dr. Smart, in his paper recently read, testified to the satisfactory results achieved by natural filtration, in the percolation of the rain-fall through sand, gravel and other porous soils. If a public water supply could be subjected to the same process of filtration by passing it through a sufficient mass of material, equally good results would follow. In the case of the soil, there are usually intervals between rain-fall during which matters caught in its pores are oxidized, otherwise the pores would become clogged and a source of evil. This further illustrates the need of frequent and thorough cleansing of all filters. With regard to filters, it is essential that the material employed should not act injuriously upon the water. The mechanism should be simple and the appliance inexpensive; the filter should be easily cleansed or the material renewed; and lastly, not only all suspended particles, but also, so far as possible, all dissolved organic matter should be removed. The Japanese use. a porous sandstone filter, hollowed in the shape of an egg, through which the water percolates into a receptacle underneath; the Eygptians resort to a similar device; the Spaniards use a porous earthen pot. But these devices cannot be thoroughly cleansed; some impurities will remain in the pores of the stone. Spongy iron and car- feral are open to the same objection. The various forms of filters that are screwed to the faucet have not enough filtering material in them to be of much utility, and they very soon become foul and offensive. Buck says: "There is no material known which can be introduced into the small space of a tap-filter and accomplish any real purification of the water which passes through at the ordinary rate of flow." Complicated closed filters which cannot be cleansed condemn themselves. Parkes, in his " Manual of Practical Hygiene/' says: " Filters where the material is cemented up and cannot be removed ought to be abandoned altogether/' Filters in which the water comes in contact with metallic surfaces, either iron, lead, tinned iron or zinc are objectionable from their appreciable influence upon the water retained in them for any considerable time. Pure block tin is the least objectionable of any of the metals. The aim most filters is to remove impurities from the water as rapidly as it 70 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. escapes from the faucet. Effective filtration cannot be accomplished when the water does not remain long enough in contact with the filtering material to become purified. Slow filtration or purification is therefore best. Of all the filtering materials mentioned, sand and charcoal are the two that accomplish the best results. The radical objection to most filters is that, to use Prof. Franklin's words, " the polluting matter removed from the water is stored up in the pores of the filter, and in time develops vast numbers of animalculae, which pass out of the filter with the water, rendering the water more impure than it was before filtration. It is, therefore, necessary to remove and purify the material." These statements demonstrate the vital necessity of filtration. The question next arises, How far does or can filtration purify? To what extent can it be depended upon to guard the public against the dangers from the pollution of a water supply, and is it applicable for use upon a large scale ? After studying the results obtained both abroad and in this country, this inquiry can be answered emphatically in the affirmative. But to be practicable the undertaking must be carried on upon a large scale. By this I mean that the water to be purified must be passed through a body of filtration material of sufficient volume to insure the complete removal of all matters held in suspension, however minute. On this account the numerous patented appliances for domestic filtration can- not be recommended. They are too small to perform their duty. It is like setting a child to do a man's work. It is capable of demonstration that the water supply of the largest cities, no matter how great its volume, can be effectually and economi- cally filtered. It is simply a question of ways and means. There are to- day in use in many industrial establishments in this country and elsewhere, including paper-mills, breweries and bottling factories, which consume enormous quantities of water, filtering appliances which have borne the test of years of trial, and which are delivering large volumes of filtered water of a purity, transparency and general quality which would astonish the average water-drinker in our principal cities and towns. Without going into the question of what mineral matters it is better without, or what salts it is well to have dissolved in water, the best means of freeing it from those organic impurities that lead to all sorts of trouble in practical work should principally be considered. If we dissolve some pure sugar or salt in a glass of clear water we will be unable to tell, from the appearance of the water, that it has taken into solution any foreign body, showing that the clearness of water is no guar- antee of its purity. This can also easily be seen by filtering some dirty water, say, from a drain, through blotting paper until it is quite brilliant, and then boiling it in a glass beaker, when flocks of animal or vegetable matter will be visible floating in it, which have been coagulated by the THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 71 high temperature, and which were before invisible, showing that though the filtration brightened the water it did not purify it. The energies of filter makers, therefore, have for many years been devoted to perfecting some method whereby botli the floating bodies that impair the clearness of water may be removed, and also any hurtful organic matters that it may hold in solution. The result has been an immense number of patent filters of every imaginable pattern and design, but many having some defect that renders them unfit for use in manufactories where a large quantity of pure water is required. They do very well, however, for domestic use where the quan- tity of water treated is small. The best substance that has been found, among others, suitable for filtering purposes is charcoal, and those favor- ing it are loud in its praises. Indeed the properties of animal charcoal render it a very desirable filter- medium. It clarifies the water, separates from it floating and visible matters, and at the same time oxidizes and removes the organic impurities held in solution. Charcoal has always proven eminently satisfactory, if proper attention has been paid to it, that is, if it lias been frequently renewed or regenerated. To sum up, a water-purifying apparatus should combine the following : 1. Capable of acting both upon the impurities held in solution and upon those in mechanical suspension. 2. It should be composed of materials incapable of communicating the slightest taint to the water passing through it. Here animal charcoal is pre-eminently excellent, for it is absolutely insoluble in water. Thus it is impossible that the charcoal can itself be a means of imparting im- purities 3. Its action should remain unaltered, and should be attended with the least possible trouble or necessity for attention on the part of servants. 4. It should be capable of retaining its purifying properties for a long period. 5. It should be so arranged that the filtering medium may be easily got at for cleansing or for renewal. 6. It should have sufficient filtering area to supply the necessary quantity of water without delay or inconvenience. 7. And finally, the price of the filter should be such as to place it fithin the reach of all. As there are filters and filters, so there are waters and waters; and we ould remind the carbonator that too much should not be expected of them. Despite the most careful filtration, some water will remain impure. In such cases the fault should not be laid to the filter. Nothing short of chemical treatment will solve the problem. Where a first-class filter does not accomplish the desired result, rest assured some more searching agent is needed. Put the blame where it belongs, on the water. As a matter of course, each man who displays a filtering apparatus, 72 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. has the best. However, it is not for us to settle this mooted point. The trade is quick to recognize a good thing, and a first-class filter will not long remain unappreciated. Sand, Charcoal, Sponges, etc. The power of retaining certain matters dissolved or suspended in water is possessed naturally by all porous and granular materials that are not themselves soluble in water as sand, gravel, loam, clay-soil and charcoal, etc. Sand is the least powerful in pro- portion to its bulk. It does not act except in large quantities, as applied in water works in layers of from two to four feet deep. It is, therefore, practically useless for domestic filters. Sand, and particularly loam, take away an appreciable quantity of salts in solution to the extent of from 5 to 15 per cent, of the amount originally in the water. Of all the materials capable of filtering, animal charcoal is incomparably the best. The active portion (the carbon) forms about 10 per cent, of its weight, the remainder being made up principally of calcic and magnesia phosphate. The ex- traordinary power of animal charcoal in removing actually dissolved mat- ters from water will be seen if a decoction of logwood be submitted to filtration, the highly- colored liquid passing through the filtering medium perfectly colorless. If instead of the decoction of logwood we take dirty water, porter or port wine, smell, taste and color will in like manner nearly or entirely disappear. This wonderful power of animal charcoal in effect- ing the entire removal of the coloring matter is only an illustration of what it effects in the case of organic matters which may impart no color. Animal charcoal is largely used in sugar-refining, the dark-colored syrup made by dissolving the raw sugar in water passing through the charcoal perfectly clear and bright, and capable on crystallization of yielding a perfectly white crystalline lump-sugar. When a sufficient thickness of the animal charcoal, in bulk or in layers, is used, it is capable of remov- ing upwards of 85 per cent, of the organic, and 25 per cent, of the min- eral matter from the water filtered through it. In this property vegetable is inferior to animal charcoal. Gaultier de Claubry states that one part of animal charcoal purifies 136 times its weight of very impure water. Leo. Liebermann (Zeitsch. f. Analyt. CJiem.) has shown that animal charcoal not only retains many salts when their solutions are filtered through it, but that not a few of the salts are actually decomposed, the charcoal retaining generally the base, with a portion only of the acid. But, apart from this, charcoal has another property of great interest and importance from the special point of view from which we are regard- ing it. In the case of shallow wells, receiving, as they are almost certain to do, sewage-contaminated water, the water has often proved harmless, simply because the soil through which it has filtered has effected the oxidation of the organic matter and converted it into harmless products. We noted, moreover, that, when danger resulted from drinking the water of shallow wells, it was when the power of the soil in effecting oxidation THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 73 failed, and the organic matter found its entrance into the well in an unchanged condition. Now the power' of charcoal in absorbing, or railwt condensing, oxygen into its pores is most remarkable, and it is to this wonderful property that the value of animal charcoal as a water-filter is particularly due. It acts like the earth, but is infinitely more powerful and effective. Thus, even supposing water contains animal organic matter "by ineffectual natural filtration, its passage through charcoal will probably effect the oxidation of the last remnants of these bad ingredi- ents, and so prevent the danger that might otherwise accrue. Charcoal, indeed, when properly used, renders a pure water purer, and also in an impure water renders the deleterious portions of organic matter innocuous by oxidizing them. Many materials, it is true, possess some of the qualities necessary for a purifying medium, but they are all open to ob- jections to which animal charcoal is free. Fibrous organic substances, as wool, cotton, hair and sponge, are objectionable as filters, since they decay and dissolve in the water, and so serve to render it worse after filtration than before. The unpleasant taste of filtered water, which is often com- plained of in filters fitted with sponge, is simply a minor degree of foul- ness derived from the sponge, which, in decaying, makes itself distinctly perceptible to taste and smell. Pulverized coke has been used, and is considered a filtrant, but less effective than charcoal. Wood or vegetable charcoal, however, when powdered, acts merely in a mechanical manner as a strainer. Spongy iron, or pulverized hematite, mixed with sawdust and roasted, pul, verized magnetic iron ore and clean scales from a blacksmith's anvil, pulverized and mixed with clean, sharp sand, have been much used and successfully experimented with, and will not only make fetid water sweet, but it is also claimed that the iron mixtures destroy bacteria and theii germs. Magnesia and magnesia compounds with charcoal are also used. Aa a mechanical filtering medium they may be recommended. Their chem. ical purifying action depends on the quantity of charcoal introduced and its frequent renewal. There is one filtering material which is little known in this country, which has all the properties of animal charcoal, and is said to give higher results. This is magnetic carbide, arid consists of protoxide of iron in chemical combination with carbon. It is considered that the purifying effect is produced by its power of attracting oxygen to its surface without the latter being acted on, the oxygen thus attracted being changed to ozone, by which the organic matter in the water is consumed. Whatever filtering material may be adopted, it must be properly ap- plied. If it be so used as to be soon choked up, and at the same time to be inaccessible for cleaning or renewal, it will be useless. Whenever sand is to be used, alone or in connection with charcoal, it 74 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. must be first prepared for filtering purposes, be purified from organic matter and lime. To destroy the organic matter it invariably contains, sand must be heated to a high degree. To separate the lime, pour diluted muriatic acid in a suitable vessel over the sand, stir, drain off the acid, and wash carefully with fresh water until the water running off does not turn blue litmus-paper red or pale. Washing and Regenerating Animal Charcoal. After animal charcoal has been used for some time it loses its absorbing and oxydizing capacity and must be renewed or regenerated. If carefully washed and separated from all soluble substances the animal charcoal holds absorbed in its pores, and if then subjected to an intense heat until the coal is red hot, which may be done in a suitable stove, oven or cylinder, in order to destroy the organic substances, the animal charcoal regains its power again. This process is called " regenerating," and it may undergo it from 25 to 30 times and regain its chemical properties, but finally gets ' ' worn out * and is then a valuable manure. A better regenerating process is to boil the coal in soda lye, then extract it by means of diluted muriatic acid, carefully washing, and finally subjecting it to a red heat. But this re- generating process is only remunerative where exceptionally large quan- tities of animal charcoal, as in sugar refineries, are used; for a mineral- water establishment it proves impracticable. Mere washing of charcoal by reversing the current or otherwise, application of hot water or steam, are entirely insufficient for regenerat- ing the animal charcoal. Reburning only suffices. Asbestos. Asbestos is an article which the bottling and carbonating industry has more or less use for, especially in the construction of filtsrs. It is a fibrous variety of hornblende and serpentine, produced by the decomposition of these minerals. Its composition varies somewhat ac- cording to its origin. The mass of the material consists essentially of magnesium silicate, but in most cases also contains lime, and in many cases oxides of iron and alumina. Good asbestos has the following properties: It resists the action of the most powerful flame (white heat) ; it is fire-proof. Acids (dilute) and alkalies produce no effect, even under a high pressure, but it is decom- posed by hot concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a poor conductor of heat. It has lubricating properties. Asbestos is generally divided into three classes: 1. Asbestos without fibrous structure; this is generally used for making asbestos powder. 2. Asbestos with fibrous structure, character- ized by a yellowish cinnamon brown color, and containing many foreign bodies; this is very fragile. 3. Fibrous asbestos, adapted for the manu- facture of woven goods. Besides many practical employments of asbestos, which is also applic- able to the machinery of bottling establishments, its use as a filtering medium is becoming recognized. Several water filters in which asbestos THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 75 is an important part are known in the trade, and have given good results in the way of mechanical filtration. In Germany the asbestos is very finely divided by a patented process. The asbestos is first coarsely ground, and then mixed with some granular crystalline carbonate which must be soluble in acids. The carbonate should possess a hardness between 3 and 4.5 according to the mineralogi- cal scale. The mixture is intimately ground together in a mill. After- wards the mass is treated with an acid until the carbonate has been dis- solved out. The escaping carbonic acid gas causes the asbestos fibres to be loosened and disintegrated from each other so as to render the mass porous. Of course, it must be thoroughly washed with water before being used. Filter Paper. Filtering paper renders valuable service, and it should indeed be more extensively employed for the purification of water, as it far surpasses sand in its power of retention. It is important that the paper itself shall be clean and have no loose particles, for which it should be carefully examined. In time, and owing to the continuous softening, small fibrous particles will become detached from the filter paper, and it should, therefore, be covered on both sides with closely woven muslin, especially on the sides from which the filtrate runs. Holding the paper firmly compressed during the filtration also contributes to its preservation and prevents the separation of loose fibres. Filtering-paper for filtering purposes in the laboratory, for purifying wine, cider, etc., will do excel- lently, and there are indeed some filters which contain filtering-paper as their principal filter medium. It will also do very well for clarifying water by retaining suspended impurities, but will not act chemically in case such impurities are present. It is natural that the filtering-paper has also frequently to be renewed. For larger establishments, where an immense amount of water has to be purified daily, both mechanically and chemically, it will not do. Cleansing Filters; Limited action of Charcoal and Sand Fil- ters. Too much cannot be said about this subject. New filters, which render service very well at first in removing micro-organisms from water, may, after they have been in use a short time, become breeding-places for the organisms, and if pathogenic germs are present, far from puri- fying the water, are indeed a source of pollution, and render it much more dangerous to attempt to filter it. It is erroneously assumed that so long as it continues to filter the water clear it also purifies the water; but there never was a graver and more dangerous mistake, In a few days the purifying action of a newly set charcoal-filter is entirely exhausted, where thousands of gallons of polluted water are daily passed through it. Then the filter becomes choked and charged with impurities, contaminating the water instead of purifying it. Indeed, a putrid decomposition of the retained organic impurities sets in, the presence of phosphates in the animal charcoal will 76 A. TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. act as fertilizer and materially assist the production within the porous mass of the filter itself of objectionable vegetable and animal growth, thus adding to the accumulations of impurities, which can be only reliably dis- lodged by the returning of the animal charcoal not, as frequently stated, by reversing the current, introduction of hot water or steam. Reburn- ing only restores the full activity of the charcoal. For these reasons, unless the charcoal is changed very frequently for restored reburned charcoal, these filters are more dangerous than ordinary filters in propor- tion to the unjustified reliance placed upon their virtue. The purifying action may have ceased long ago nobody can tell when, except by analysis while the continued mere percolating property of the filter is mislead- ing. There is no absolute connection between the two actions. If we take Gauttier de Claubry's statement, that animal charcoal purifies 136 times its weight of very impure water, as correct, we can easily calculate how long or how much water we can purify with a certain quantity of charcoal; say 136 pounds animal charcoal purify 136 pounds or 17 gallons of water. What an immense quantity of charcoal would it take to purify 10,000, 50,000 or even 100,000 gallons daily, as required for large establishments. Sand, once prepared for filtering purposes, and after having been in use for some time, must be washed out and thus its filtering capacity restored. The small amount of salts which sand has absorbed from water is removed by washing, and the suspended impurities that it has retained are thus removed likewise. There is no insoluble matter retained in pores which need destroying or burning, like in animal charcoal, sand being of a different structure. The purifying action of sand, however, as we know already, is a mere mechanical one, while animal charcoal acts both mechanically and chemi- cally. The same holds good for coke. Whatever filter material be employed, charcoal, sand, asbestos, etc., a thorough cleansing or renewal must take place whenever it ceases to do its proper work, of which every carbonator should convince himself by making repeated tests. The filter should be so arranged that it can easily be cleansed. Where a large amount of filtering is carried on, several filters should be employed to permit an uninterrupted filtering process while one or two filters are being cleansed, or the filter medium is being renewed. A charcoal filter for limited use should be cleansed, and the charcoal reburned or renewed, at least every month. A sand or coke filter, and especially those filters that have the practi- cal arrangement to reverse the current and agitate the filtering material, should be cleansed at least every other day. Systems of Filtration. There are two systems of filtering by high pressure and low pressure. The first-named system is very objectionable, THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 77 as in the filtration of any liquid it is essential that it neither be forced through the filtering material by pressure nor by suction; the very essence of all filtration is that the surface exposed should be as large as possible, so that slow percolation only through the filtering material takes place, as by no other means is it possible to approach purity by filtration. The filters described farther on are constructed on the low-pressure principle, in which the filtration takes place by gravitation. However, a few high- pressure filters we have also appended for the benefit of those who favor or employ them for certain industrial purposes. Effectiveness of Upward Filtration Questioned. The Sanitary Era says on this subject: For separating pure water from fine foreign particles and even sediment, as some kind of filters claim to do, there needs no revelation but common sense to show that the upward mode has no adaptation. If the filtering material be movable, like sand and other granulated substances, it is constantly stirred up by forcing the water through, and the impurities, being lighter and finer than the sand, are forced through it with the water. If they lodge temporarily, they can- not fall back against the current, but must be gradually forced upward, until all get through into the water; and so the very object fondly sought, namely, a constant dejection of the exfiltered impurities, is exactly re- versed. If the filtering material be of a fixed character, such as paper, flannel, cotton batting, etc., the undesired result will come more slowly but no less surely, from the constant working upward of the finer parti- cles through the fabric, unless it be renewed almost daily, as it needs to be when used in downward filtration. There can be no continuous fil- tration but by daily and thorough washing and repacking. Methods of Purifying Water. From all we have hitherto shown on the subject of water purification, we must now form an opinion and decide upon a proper method for purifying water. If pure well or spring- water in limited quantities is used, a mere mechanical filtration is sufficient and any kind of filter or filter medium may be employed. Under these conditions a charcoal filter does excellent service and removes even the smallest traces of pollution, and lasts for some time before its activity is exhausted, which might be from a few days to not more than one month, depending on the quantity of water run through it, stated herein before as about 136 times the volume of the charcoal, and the degree of its pollution. However, we would suggest to arrange the filter for the ordinary and a reverse current, to enable the frequent washing out of the filter medium by the reverse current, and so to remove the retained solid matters, if convenient, by use of a force pump. A quite different method must be employed where impure or polluted water is our only resource, and which unfortunately, as we have seen, are in most cases the only water supply we can avail ourselves of, and when enormous quantities of water must be purified daily. 78 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Carbonating water, solely for its purification, is too expensive and too impracticable for many a purpose, and we can give it no considera- tion in the way of practical purification of water. Unquestionably the charcoal filter should take the first place of con- sideration; but when we consider that its time of activity is so very limited when polluted water in large quantities depends on its purifying capacity, that it is enormously expensive to be so frequently renewed as required, and further that it is impracticable as well as uneconomical to regenerate the charcoal of large water- purify ing apparatus, we arrive at the conclu- sion, that we must look for other means of purification as a substitute for animal charcoal; or for a process that gives the same results in chemi- cal purification, and leave it to the mechanical filter medium (sand, coke etc.,) to remove the suspended impurities as well as those separated or precipitated by the chemical purification. We must then look upon an arrangement which combines the chemi- cal and mechanical purification in a continuous process, acting quickly and effectively, combining the required conditions, allowing the filtering material to be easily and frequently washed out and the retained impuri- ties to be removed in a manner that does not interfere with its continuous action. ^ Precipitation, aeration andjutration are decidedly the means we must adopt for a continuous 9 safe and effective method of purifying water. By the "Alum Process," earthy and alkaline carbonates and foreign matters and humus bodies are precipitated and even under certain conditions bacteria are destroyed. By aerating the water with special appliances, such as air compressors, etc., we substitute for the oxidizing power of the animal charcoal one of even greater energy and more continuously act- ing. By then filtering the water thus treated through properly prepared sand, coke, or other coarse filtering medium, we employ the proper method of purification. If this precipitating, oxidizing and filtering method is by practical appliances and arrangements carried out to work continuously within or in conjunction with a water-purifying apparatus; and if this apparatus or filter is so arranged as to clean and wash the filtering medium and remove the out-filtered impurities by means of a periodical reverse current in an easy manner and without much interruption in the continuous filtering process; and if by mechanfbal agitation or by the force of the water the filtering medium can be agitated to assure its proper cleansing, and finally if some way is adopted to run off the washing liquid, we then have the best continuous purifying method and the most practical filter based upon scientific and practical principles that can be made. The aeration to be effective snould be carried on under pressure simple aeration by gravitation within the filter being insufficient ; and if some arrangement is combined with a filter to accomplish this missing THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 79 necessity, then all filters constructed on these principles are all that can be desired of them. The Alum Process. Alum is a double sulphate 01 potasji and alumin- ium, and in this case breaks into potassium sulphate which remains in solution, and a basic aluminic sulphate. This basic sulphate of alumin- ium, the composition of which is undetermined, precipitates as a more or less gelatinous and flocculent mass, and carries down with it the foreign matters and humus bodies. The sulphuric acid set free in the formation of the basic aluminic sulphate attacks the earthy and alkaline carbonates, which are always present, and forms with them sulphates, setting car- bonic acid free. Aluminic sulphate acts like alum. Aluminic acetate and ferric acetate do not give such good results. In later years an ex- tensive use of alum has been made in the many processes of purifying water. It is not improbable that aside from its effect in precipitating matter mechanically by envelopment with the precipitating basic aluminic sulphate, the alum exerts a distinct coagulative action on the albuminous substances in the water, rendering them insoluble, and thus causing their precipitation; perhaps the same or similar effect that alum produces in the tanning of leather. By the addition of a minute amount of alum, water is rendered capable of a most perfect jnechanical nitration. The fact that alum is cheap, and can be obtained in quite a pure state at any drug- store, places it within the reach of every one. Its sharp taste precludes the possibility of its being swallowed by mistake. But even should it be swallowed by mistake, no great harm would be likely to ensue. If it can be proved that alum not only clarifies a water, but also removes from it disease germs and ptomaines, its use will prove of incalculable value to the human race. The investigation of the effects of alum on drinking water falls under several heads, viz. : (1.) Clarification of the water by settling; (2.) Clarification of the water by filtration; (3.) Use of water clarified by alum in manufacturing; (4.) Removal of disease germs; (5.) Removal of ptomaines; (6.) Removal of organic matter. The investi- gation must needs be both chemical and biological. Only the first and rt of the second cases have so far been examined. It is evident that to obtain practical results in the clarification of water by alum, it must be added in such small amounts as to leave no unnecessary excess, and that neither taste nor physiological action should be imparted to the water. Prof. Peter T. Austen, Ph. D., and Francis A. Wilber, M. S., write about their practical experiments with alum as follows : "At the time of our experiments (January, 1885) the New Brunswick (N. J.) city water was quite turbid from clayey and other matters, so that we were able to obtain some very reliable results. To determine the effect of alum as a precipitating agent, tall cylinders were filled with water id a solution of alum was added, the whole well mixed, and allowed to ana a solut: 80 A TREATISE ON" BEVERAGES. stand. It was found that in varying lengths of time, depending on the amount of alum used, a gelatinous precipitate settled out, and the water above it became perfectly clear. On adding a relatively large amount of alum, and mixing, the coagulation and separation of the precipitate is at once visible, the water appearing by careful examination to be filled with gelatinous particles. The amount of alum necessary for the precipitation of a water will, of course, depend on the amount of impurity present, but in the present case, which may be taken as a typical one, we found that 0.02 gramme of alum to a litre of water (1.2 grains to a gallon) caused the separation and settling of the impurities, so that the supernatant water could be poured off. This amount of alum was shown by numerous experiments to be about the practical limit. The complete settling took place as a rule in not less, and usually more, than two days. It is evi- dent that the amount of alum thus added is too slight to be perceptible to the taste, and can exert no physiological action. We were unable to detect the slightest taste or change in the water so treated. " To determine if there was free alum in the water, a sample of the clear water, filtered off from the precipitate produced by the alum, was made slightly alkaline with ammonia and warmed for some time. Only the merest traces of an alumina reaction could be obtained, and, in fact, in some cases, it was doubtful if a reaction was observable. To prove that no more matter could be precipitated- by the addition of a greater amount of alum, samples of the clean filtered water were treated with more alum, but there was in no case any indication of further precipita- tion on standing. We consider it, then, established that by the addition of two grains of alum to the gallon, or half an ounce to one hundred gal- lons, water can be clarified by standing, and that neither taste nor phy- siological properties will be imparted to it by this treatment. By increasing the amount of alum, the time required for the separation and settling can be diminished; and vice versa, by diminishing the amount of alum added, a greater time will be required for the clarification. This method is particularly adapted to the clarification of large volumes of water, where filtration is not practical. The clear water can be racked off to as low a level as possible, after which the sediment should be washed out and the receptacle cleansed by a free use of water. " In order to test the clarification of water by filtration after addition of alum, the water taken from the same source was again made the sub- ject of our experiments. It was found that the suspended clayey matters were so fine that the best varieties of filtering papers were unable to remove them. This, however, is not surprising, since it is well known that the mineral matters suspended in water are of a remarkable degree of fineness. Thus the water of the river Rhine, near Bonn, cannot be clarified by simple filtration, and takes four months to settle. The addition of certain chemicals aids the filtration of suspended matters in THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 81 some cases, but it does not always entirely remove them. Calcium chloride and other salts are recommended as effective agents in aiding the removal of suspended matters, but in case of some waters, at least, they have no apparent action. The following substances were found to have no effect in aiding the filtration of the water: sodium salts chloride, carbonate, nitrate, acid carbonate, hydrogen phosphate, acid sulphite, ammonium phosphate, sulphate, biborate, tungstate, acetate; potassium salts hydroxide, chloride, bromide, iodide, acetate, phosphate; ammo- nium salts chloride, sulphate, nitrate, acetate; calcium salts oxide, cloride, sulphate, nitrate. Zinc sulphate and ferrous sulphate (copperas) had no action. Acid sulphate of potassium and of sodium had a slight clearing action. Acetate and chloride of zinc had an apparent action. Ferric chloride (perchloride of iron) cleared perfectly, as also did the f'trate and sulphate of aluminium. "By the addition of a small amount of alum to water, it can be filtered rough ordinary paper without difficulty, and yields a brilliantly clear filtrate, in which there is no trace of suspended matter. In our experi- ments, a solution of alum was added to the water, the whole well mixed by stirring or shaking, and then filtered after standing from one to fifteen minutes. So far as we are able to determine, the coagulative and preci- pitative action of the alum is immediate upon thorough mixture, and hence, it is not necessary to*allow the mixture to stand before filtration, but it can be filtered immediately after mixing. To determine the amount of alum necessary to precipitate this water, alum was added in decreasing amounts to samples of water, which were then filtered through paper. In this way we found that the minimum limit was about 0.02 gramme of alum to one litre (1.2 grains to one gallon). Beyond that point the action of the alum began to be doubtful, and the water, although clarified by filtration, was not wholly clear. To be sure .of complete clarification, we took double this amount 0.04 gramme to one litre (2.3 grains to one gallon) as a standard calculated to give certain results. This amount can be doubled or trebled without fear of any harmful results, but there is no use of adding any more alum than is sufficient to do the work. The determination of the amount of solids re- moved from the water by the clarification with alum had not yet been finished. We consider it, then, as establishe'd that, by the addition of two grains of alum to the gallon of water, or half an ounce to the hundred gallons, water can be rendered capable of immediate clarification by filtration. The clear water obtained by filtration, after adding this amount of alum, contains no appreciable amount of free alum, and, in t, in the majority of cases, ordinary tests fail to reveal its presence. " The mixing of the water with the alum previous to the filtration mid be done in a separate receptacle. The only requisite here is that the vessel in which the mixing is done must be clean. A pail, jug, can, 6 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. or any other vessel will do. It is well to have the pail or can marked on the inside with scratches so as to be able without difficulty to judge how much water there is in it, since the amount of alum should be added in about the right proportions. The eye gets very accurate in judging the volume after a little practice, but it is better and just as easy to be ac- curate. A clean tin can of two or four gallons capacity is a good size, and, if possible, should not be used for any other purpose than for the drinking water. It should be kept scrupulously clean, and after each use should be washed out and dried. It can be graduated by pouring into it a gallon of water, and marking with a file or other sharp point a scratch just at the level of the water. Then another gallon is poured in and its level also is marked. In this way a graduation is easily made which is sufficiently accurate for all the purposes here intended. The neces- sary amount of the alum solution is added to the water, the whole well mixed by stirring, and then poured into the filter. Here, again, one or two points should be observed. .The mixing is best done with a long- handled spoon. A very practical stirrer is a small cake- turner, for by means of its flat end a most thorough mixing can be effected. This mixer should not be used for any other purpose than to mix the water. Experience shows that if the vessels used for mixing or holding the water are not kept perfectly clean, the water may acquire a taste, and this will be laid to thie process instead of to lack of care. To facilitate the pour ing into the filter, it is well to have the can provided with a mouth or spout. " The solution of alum is made as follows: Dissolve half an ounce of alum in a cup of boiling water, and when it is all dissolved, pour into a quart measure and fill to a quart with cold water. (This solution should be kept in a bottle labeled 'Alum '). Fifty-four drops of this solution contains 2.3 grains of alum, which is the amount to be added to one gal- lon of water. A teaspoon, scant full, will be about the right amount to add to every gallon of water to be filtered. No harm would be done if by mistake two teaspoonfuls are added. A more satisfactory method will be to procure a small measuring glass. One fluid drachm will be the right amount. It will be found, without doubt, that the amount re- quired for some waters will be even less than that suggested above. We would suggest, therefore, that those who use this method of clarification determine for themselves by experiment how little of the solution is required to make the water they use run through the filter perfectly bright and clear." Fig. 9 represents an apparatus invented by Dr. T. C. Higgins of New Brunswick, N. J. , for use in applying the alum process for purifi- cation of water for drinking and other purposes. Its use simplifies the process very much, and overcomes the difficulties which arise in the use of this or any similar process of purifying water by precipitation, viz., THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 83 the avoidance of the flocculent precipitate which is separated from the water. In the alum process particularly this precipitation begins immediately upon the introduction of the alum, and the precipitate is so gelatinous and flocculent that it requires from 24 to 48 hours for complete clarifica- tion (if it be not desired to filter it out), so that all the precipitate is at rest on the bottom of the vessel. Then the clear water from above the sediment must be drawn off with care, or currents will Jje formed which will carry the precipitate through with the clear water. The cut represents a tank or barrel filled with water to which the alum solution has been added in proper proportion. Figure a represents a round vessel containing some simple filtering media, sponge, cotton or FIG. 9. BIGGINS' ALUM SOLUTION FLOAT. iy similar substance. To this is attached a flexible tube leading to the faucet. 6 is a float which keeps the filter just below the surface of the water d d. At all times, upon opening the faucet, a downward current is established, which tends, in addition to the natural gravity, to carry the precipitation downward, as shown by the heavy lines e, in the cut. The bulk of it is therefore kept away from the delivery tube. What little may be floating will be completely arrested in the floating filter. The letters c c represent foot project ion, that keeps the filter in position when it approaches the bottom, also prevents the flexible pipe from kinking and impeding the flow. By this arrangement water may be drawn off in a few hours, as the water is constantly drawn from the surface from which the precipitate settles first, and a saving of time of from 24 to 48 hours is made. In 84 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. using large quantities of water it will be found that the mechanical action of the bulk of precipitate hastens the process and requires less alum. This apparatus is adapted to the lime process for purifying very hard water, also to other precipitating processes. In the Western country, where bottlers are more or less dependent upon the ordinary water-courses for their aqueous supply, the "alum" method of purifying water should be given a trial. Complaints are fre- quent that many of the filters now in use have not given the satisfaction expected, but if taken in conjunction with the suggestions given above, would probably lead to better results. By Limewater. Another method of " softening" or purifying water consists in removing its carbonic acid gas, whereby the carbonates of lime, iron and magnesia are precipitated, together with silica and organic matters. This is effected by the addition of a proper proportion of lime- water or slacked lime, giving time for subsidence and drawing on* the clear water and filtering it. Prepare limewater as follows: Slack one pound of lime by the gradual addition of some water, until it decomposes into a powder-slacked lime. Then add one gallon of distilled or boiled water, put the whole in a stop- pered vessel and shake well. When the excess of lime shall have sub- sided, syphon off the clear solution, which is then ready for use. Add of this limewater to the water to be treated in tank or cistern enough to give it a slight alkaline test, and then sufficient water to cause this alkaline test to disappear. After 12 hours syphon off or filter. The explanation of the process is as follows: Chalk is practically in- soluble in pure water; but it is soluble in all ordinary water, because the water contains carbonic acid. On adding lime it unites chemically with the carbonic acid and forms a little more chalk. The chalk formed and the chalk originally present having now no carbonic acid to hold it in solution, is thrown out of solution and is slowly deposited. The other practicable method of recovering mineral substances from water is by distillation. The addition of limewater also changes the bicarbonate of lime in solution to the carbonate of lime, which is precipitated and filtered out. By Soda. The presence of an abnormally large amount of earthy carbonates in a natural water is very undesirable. These can be removed also by adding a little soda to the water, where such addition is not likely to be objectionable; on standing the earthy salts are precipitated. Thus the magnesia and lime are replaced by soda, so that the water may be used for washing and cooking, but it is no better for drinking, since soda salts are nearly as purgative as the magnesia compounds. However, the carbonate of soda does not form any precipitate with citric or tartaric acid used in carbonated beverages as the carbonate of lime or magnesia, if present, would do, being entirely soluble. Therefore we rather prefer THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 85 the application of soda, if no other more effective and unobjectionable remedy for purification, as alum, limewater, or boiling, is employed. To free Water from Magnesian Salts and Sulphate of Lime (Gypsum). Waters rich in magnesian salts possess laxative properties which should cause them to be rejected as a beverage, since their pro- longed use may be injurious to health. If the proportion of the magne- sium salts is higher than 2% to 3 grains to a quart, the liquid may be considered a mineral water. To free water from magnesia is a problem deserving serious consideration. After many trials the following process was adopted: First operation. Treat the water in a tank with milk of lime, care being taken to agitate the whole from time to time. In this way magnesia, no matter how combined, will be precipitated in twenty-four hours. Second operation. Add to the water thus modified a certain quantity of finely pulverized witherite, or native carbonate of baryta, agitate fre- quently, and allow to settle down. All the lime present in the state of sulphate, that is the most of it, is precipitated after twenty-four hours. M. Reinsch, a distinguished German chemist, already employs with suc- cess witherite for purifying selenitic waters. Remarks and manipulations. The proportions of magnesia and lime may, under various influences, vary for the same water, and as it is not practicable to estimate them chemically before each treatment, it may happen that an excess of lime or witherite will be added. In the first case, before beginning the second operation, it suffices to wait till the excess of lime has been turned into carbonate. This point is easily ascertained by means of test paper. The water must not be alkaline, or only very slightly so. In the second case, the excess of witherite, it must be borne in mind that carbonate of baryta, although insoluble in water, may become poisonous on being dissolved by the acids of the stomach. Hence it is absolutely necessary to filter the water. These operations may be performed in two barrels open at one end, one of the vessels being used for the manipulations, the other for the filtration. The last may be arranged in any way most familiar or convenient to each operator. For instance, over a layer of coarse gravel may be spread a layer of sand, then one of calcined charcoal, another of sand, and finally coarse gravel. At the lower part a faucet may be adjusted, and near it a vertical glass tube to allow the access of air. This general process is applicable to any kind of magnesian water, provided, however, the average proportion of lime and magnesia be ascertained, so as to know approximately the quantity of chemicals required. For selenitic waters, that is, those containing only sulphate of lime, the second operation alone is necessary. By boiling the water sulphate of lime or magnesia is also removed. Removal of Iron from Water. The presence of iron in water for carbonating is, as a rule, very troublesome. The removal of iron from 86 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. water is sought by various methods. If it is present in soluble form, it can only occur as protoxide, in combination with a soluble acid. As soon as an opportunity offers to transform the protoxide, by encouraging the absorption of oxygen into an insoluble oxide, it becomes possible, by effecting the removal of the latter, to accomplish the purpose. In the purification of water containing iron, some chemical process is necessary, and with the aid of which the desired result can be accomplished more rapidly and with greater certainty. Peroxide of hydrogen and perman- ganate of potash are of the greatest practical value in this connection. A small quantity of both, well mixed with the water, will suffice in a short time to effect the oxidization of the iron, and thereby to cause its precipi- tation. In many instances, however, it is so finely divided that it only settles with difficulty; and in the infinitely small quantity in which it is commonly present in water, it is scarcely noticeable. To assist precip- itation of the oxidized iron, pass the water, previously mixed with the chemicals and allowed to stand, through several thicknesses of filter paper. On this the iron particles will be completely precipitated, and, owing to their fine division that will occur in the pores of the paper, the oxidization of the iron, which may not previously have been effected, will be secured. Ammonia water (aqua ammonia) is said to precipitate all iron in solution, but will not clarify it. For the latter purpose, alum gives ex- cellent results. Perchloride of iron, will also throw down the iron. To each gallon of the water the addition of about three drachms of a five per cent, solution of perchloride of iron precipitates the iron in the form of a brown sediment. Then siphon off or filter. When boiling the water oxides of iron are removed by subsidence. Then filter carefully. Caustic soda or potash, on being added to water in small quantities, will also pre- cipitate oxide of iron. Removal of Manganese and Silica from Water. Manganese and silica are removed by subsidence when boiling the water. It is nec- essary, however, to filter afterward, in order to be sure that all the undesirable particles after precipitation are removed. Removal of organic Impurities from Water. This is accom- plished by the aid of permanganate of potash, After the presence of or- ganic impurities has been ascertained by the tests given on another page, their combination with oxygen and subsequent precipitation is caused by the addition of some crystals or a solution of this chemical salt. Add about from 3 to 6 drachms of permanganate of potash crystals, or about one- half to an ounce of the solution of the salt, as prepared according to directions given on another page, to every fifty gallons in cistern or barrel containing the water to be purified, and stir lively with a wooden spatula, all to be done before filtering, and it will greatly assist in removing organic impurities. If the purple color it imparts to the water disappears rapidly, it is a proof that the water is very much contaminated with organic mat- THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 87 ter; add some more until the coloration ceases to disappear, and a slight purple hue is visible. When possible let the mixure rest for three days to give time for subsidence. Then filter through animal charcoal, which absorbs the balance of the color and turns the water out bright and clear. Care must be taken not to use too much of the permanganate of potash, although it does no harm when used in excess. Still the animal char- coal in the filter, which will absorb the coloration, would at last leave the purple tint in the water when its activity is too soon exhausted. Citric Acid to render Water potable. Dr. Langfeldt has experi- mented with a number of substances in studying their applicability to the purpose of destroying microscopic life in drinking-water. The most striking results he obtained from citric acid. Upon the addition of one part to two thousand," life ceased in from one-half to two minutes. Mi- croscopic examination showed that those forms of animalculae supplied with a thick epithelial covering, are not affected by this dilute citric acid, but only those with delicate coatings. But as the greater portion of these unwelcome visitors belong to the latter category, and as those of the for- mer variety are visible to the naked eye, a solution of the above-mentioned strength (1 2,000) will suffice as a safeguard. In about one minute after their death, these animalculae settle to the bottom of the vessel contain- ing the water, and can always be found in abundance in the sediment. As the solution of citric acid spoils so readily, Langfeldt advises that it should be freshly prepared every day. This experiment may prove valuable for domestic purposes; for puri- fying water for industrial establishments its use is impracticable, as a more thorough purifying agent must be employed. Boiling Water. The object of boiling water is to remove or destroy any organic impurities disease germs or microscopic life that would injure health. While it no doubt does have a beneficial effect, still we believe that recent investigations have shown that certain germs are cap- able of resisting the heat of boiling water; however, we may be assured that the bulk of animal and vegetable matter has been coagulated, and can be removed by subsidence or filtration. Boiled water tends to remove also by subsidence a great many inor- ganic compounds, such as oxides of iron and manganese, lime, magnesia and silica. These compounds are often a great annoyance to users of steam, as they form that familiar and objectionable deposit known as ."boiler incrustation" on the interior of boilers. By boiling water all oxygen and natural carbonic acid it holds absorbed are expelled. This, in connection with the removal of certain salts by subsidence, renders boiled water, even when cold, flat, insipid and mawkish, and remains so until it has become aerated by exposure to air or by special means, or until it has become carbonated. If the water is boiled one hour 'it is 88 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES/ completely sterilized; ordinarily, a much shorter time suffices to make it safe to drink. Whenever it is necessary to use for drinking purposes a water sus- pected to be impure, it should always first be boiled thoroughly; and since boiled water is insipid to the taste, it may be flavored with tea, or some other harmless substance. When used for carbonating it will be an ad- vantageously clean water and answer all purposes if previously filtered. The main difficulty in carrying out the operation of purifying the water by boiling on an extensive scale is the subsequent cooling and the cost of the arrangement. Where steam is available, one of the most simple systems for boiling water is by means of the coil and vat here shown. At the upper end is connected the steam pipe from the boiler, and the outlet is at bottom. As the water runs into the vat the steam is turned on, and by the time the vat is filled the water is nearly boiling; the boiling water is then run out from the connection at side of vat, fixed about three inches from the bottom, and is carried by means of tin pipe to a cistern, where it is allowed to cool and precipitate the coagulated impurities, before it runs through the filter. If the quantity of water necessary in an establishment is small, or if several steam- vats are em- ployed, the cooling and precipitating FIG.IO.-STEAM VAT AND COIL. may be a ii ow ed to go on in the vat itself after steam is turned off, and afterwards the whole contents should be run through a filter. Cover the vat while cooling to prevent impuri- ties from falling in; it will take longer, however, but it is a wise precau- tion. Clean and rinse out the vats from precipitates carefully before boiling again. The vat is made of best oak, very thick, and bound on its outer side by galvanized iron hoops; the coil is made of strong block-tin tube. It lias suitable connections for taking steam pipe at outlet, where the con- densed water escapes. The average time for boiling 100 gallons of water is from twenty minutes to half-an-hour. Where steam is not employed the ' ' Weathered Quick-Heating Ap- paratus " is convenient both for boiling and purifying the water and for Washing bottles and other purposes. This apparatus is designed for giving pure water, as the water can be THE IMPURITIES AND PURIFICATION OF WATER. 89 boiled first, then passed through the filter and thence to the fountains. The same apparatus can also be used to warm the building. The cut represents the apparatus as used in bottling establishments. The boiler can be placed on the same floor with open tank, or on the floor beneath, but the tank must be elevated above the top of boiler. The flow-pipe must not turn downward or trap beween the tank and boiler. FIG. H.WEATHERED'S QUICK HEATING APPARATUS. The lower draw-off pipe must be above the line of flow connection from boiler. The supply of cold water is regulated by a supply pipe and ball- cock. The water may come from the hydrant, an elevated cistern, or be taken from a well by the aid of a pump. The openings of boiler are for two-inch pipe, but can be reduced to any size required. The boiler is easily set up as a common stove. 125 to 700 gallons of water, according to size, can be heated to boiling per hour. CHAPTER IV; FILTRATION AND FILTERS, A Specific Knowledge Desired. Mechanical Filters. Chemical Filters. Various Patent Filters. The National Filter. The Hyatt Filter. Bige- low-Curtis Filter. The Tank Filter. Billich Filter. The Wagner Char- coal Filter. De Lisser's Power Filter. Jewett Filter. Baker's Filter and Compound. Johnson Pressure Filter. Puffer's Sponge Filter. Globe Pressure Filters. Derham's Filter Bag. Derham's Pressure Fil- ter. English High Pressure Filter. English Hydrant High Pressure Fil- ter. Gaber's Sandstone Filter. Natural Stone Filters. Asbestos Filters. Cistern Filter. Double Cistern Filter. Low Pressure Cistern Filter. Rawling's Patent Filter. Settling Tank with Sediment Separator. Self- acting Cistern Filter. Slate Cistern. Domestic Filter. Rain- Water Fil- ter. Clapp's Home-made Filter. Bowker's Charcoal Filter. Other Home-made Filters. Plastic Coal Filter. A Specific Knowledge Desired. Many are the devices and systems put forward for the purpose of filtering and purifying water, and great is the desire among mankind in general for a system of filtration or a filter which will prove desirable and "fill a long-felt want." All specific con- trivances, we take it, will fail, for the reason that as everything needs more or less cleansing, so also, only more so, do even the best of both systems and filters need cleansing and attending to. A person's face will not long remain clean even with atmospheric contact only. How much filthier must a filter become which is supposed to catch and absorb all the impurities contained in most waters; and how great the need of most frequent cleansing if good water is desired. With these few remarks thrown in, by the way of introduction, we will pass on to notice the different systems and filters which have come to our notice and are deemed worthy of mention here. Mechanical Filters. These essentially consist of porous bodies which mechanically remove the solids because the pores are too small to permit any but liquids to pass. These may consist of textile or felted fabrics of every description, the pores of which are fine enough coarse pottery or earthenware in the biscuit or unglazed state; sandstone in various forms, particularly that called dripstone, which is a sandstone of an open texture; carbon diaphragms formed of powdered coke, cemented together by means of carbon deposited by heat from sugar or tar in closed moulds; FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 91 wood in thin sheets; leather; layers of finely-powdered substances such as glass, sponge and paper, sand, coke, asbestos, etc. The water in passing through these porous substances leaves the solid matters behind. Chemical Filters. These essentially consist of platinum black (the most active of all), animal charcoal, various kinds of clay, silicate of magnesia, spongy iron, hydrate of alumina. Platinum black for practical purposes may be classed in the category of chemical curiosities. The other substances, which are used as chemical filters for the purification of FIG. 12 THE NATIONAL FILTER. water, are animal charcoal and spongy iron. Animal charcoal is usually employed in the form of granules about the size of barley. Spongy iron is used in the form of an aggregated mass of particles in a porous form like a sponge. Neither animal charcoal beds nor spongy iron can be considered as good mechanical filters. Yarious Patent Filters. We now annex the illustrations and de- scriptions of some of the principal patent filters, various filtering arrange- ments and home-made filters, for low and high pressure, leaving it to the intelligent reader to make his selection to suit his purpose. The National Filter. Its operation and description are given as follows: 92 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. " The water to be filtered enters at the top and right of filter, at A, as shown in Figure 12, and passes down through the bed of fine sharp sea sand (or coke and sand mixed), and out through the pipe valves G, at the bottom of the filter. These valves are so arranged as to allow the filtered water to pass freely, but will not permit any of the filtering material to escape with the filtered water. '* H is the precipitating device, which can be opened or closed at will, and is arranged to give a certain amount of the alum or other chemical used to the water as it flows into the filter, without obstructing its pres- sure or flow, and can be closed entirely when washing the filter. In its operation the chemical used to precipitate sewage, vegetable stain, etc., is deposited with the impurities at the top of the bed and thrown out when the filter is washed, no trace of the chemical being found in the filtered water. " The filter is cleansed or washed by first closing the inlet valve A, then opening the waste valve, B, at the top and left of the filter, also opening the valve, C, to the washing pipe, F, shown in the cut (under the top of the bed of filtering material), which sends a reverse current through the top or surface of the filter bed. Five minutes' time will wash out all the filth and impurities taken from the water during five hours, when the water being filtered is very bad, and it will not be necessary to wash the filter but once a day, unless the water is very muddy and im- pure. " It is a well-known fact that in filter beds the impurities taken from the water are all lodged in the first one or two inches at the top of the bed, and that in pressure filters the impurities are retained in the six inches below the top of the bed (unless the filter is run longer than 24 hours without cleansing). In the National Filter the first layer of wash- ing pipes is located from ten or twelve inches below the top of the bed, thus permitting all impurities to be washed out in five minutes' time by sending a reverse current through the top of the bed, thus violently agitating the sand, and, by the attrition, thoroughly cleansing the bed, the impurities passing off through the waste pipe at the left. " The ability to clean the filter so quickly does away with the neces- sity, in most cases, of using alum or other chemicals to produce sparkling water, when the water to be filtered contains fine clay or vegetable stain. "After the filter has been in use several days it should be washed from the bottom, by sending a reverse current of water through the lower series of pipe valves, shown in the bottom of filter (after first washing the top of the bed), in order to break up the passages made by the water in filtering through the bottom part of the bed. ' ' Ordinarily once a week will answer to wash the lower part of the bed, and for the top, say, once each day, or oftener if the water is very turbid or impure. ' ' FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 93 The National Filter is used with or without an air compressor. Air forced into water under pressure makes it the more effective and produces a chemical action, which cannot otherwise be achieved. Indeed this ail pressure completes the purification of the water. The capacity of the filter depends on its size; arrangements, however, for the purification of any quantity of water for the want of a whole com- munity, can be made. The Hyatt Filter. The description and operation of this filter is given as follows : '' These filters are 6| feet in diameter, 13 feet high; are of wrought iron and steel. All the parts are perfectly adjusted and easy to operate. FIG. 13. THE HYATT FILTER. They are especially adapted to large hotels, mills, factories, pumping stations and industries requiring an abundant supply of pure water. They are filled with about 156 bushels of filtering material, two parts coke and three parts sand, all carefully sifted. " To Filter. Open inlet valves A and B and outlet valve C, all other valves being closed. Water then enters the filter above the filtering material, percolates down through it and passes through the outlet cone valves, which prevent the escape of the sand, while the water passes readily through them into the outlet pipe X. " When Washing. Close the inlet valve A and outlet valve C, remove the clamp and ball valves from the discharge valves E, E, E, E at the top of the filter. Then open the valve L on the pipe connecting the inlet 94 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and outlet pipes. Water then passes from the inlet to the outlet pipe, thence through the cone valves K and up through the filtering material, loosening it and producing pressure, which causes the material to be dis- charged through the discharge pipes into the tank or upper compartment, which should always be kept full of water. The filtering material being heavy settles immediately to the bottom of the tank, displacing the water, which flows out through the upper waste pipe G, carrying with it the silt and other impurities that have been arrested by the filter bed since the last washing. " When the filtering material has all been discharged into the tank, close the valve L on the pipe connecting the outlet and inlet pipes, open lower waste valve H, and also raise the centre valve, F, by means of the hand wheel V at the top of the filter; this will allow the filtering material in the upper compartment to settle back into the lower compartment, and at the same time subjects it to a second washing, the falling material dis- placing the water, which flows off through the lower waste pipe H, carry- ing with it any impurities not removed by the first washing in the upper compartment. ' ' After the filtering material has all settled back into the lower com- partment, wash off the seat of the centre valve F, by means of a hose, which should be fastened on to the end of the 1 inch pipe R, care being taken to have the seat free from sand. Then replace clamp and ball valves, E, E, E, E, close the lower waste valve H, and the filter is ready for work. "The first filtered water should be used to fill the upper compart- ment, as it will not be perfectly bright. This is done by opening the valve on inlet pipe A, and the valve J on pipe extending from outlet to tank. After tank has been filled close last-mentioned valve and open valve C on outlet pipe, and bright filtered water will be obtained. " If, in discharging the filtering material a discharge pipe becomes clogged, a passage may be opened by means of the wrought-iron loosen- ing rods S, the ends of which project above the cover of the stuffing box on the discharge valves. To use the rods turn them around by means of a wrench. " The coagulating apparatus is connected with the main supply pipe by means of two i-inch brass pipes, which are tapped into the main sup- ply pipe at either side of the gate valve B. The inlet pipe to the coagu- lating apparatus extends through the cover; the outlet pipe extends nearly to the bottom of the apparatus. In each pipe, between the supply pipe and the apparatus, globe valves N and M are placed; also unions are placed between globe valves and apparatus. The object is to permit the coagulating apparatus to be removed, if necessary, without disturbing the main piping. " The flow of the coagulant depends upon and is regulated by the differ- FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 95 ence of pressure at the points where the inlet and outlet pipes, to and from the apparatus, enter the main supply pipe. This difference of pressure is produced by partially closing the gate valve B. A difference of pressure between these two points of to 1 pound, usually about \ pound, will be sufficient. The globe valve N on the inlet pipe should always be kept wide open. All further regulation of the flow of the coagulant should be done by means of the globe valve M on the outlet pipe from the coagu- lating apparatus. " To fill the' coagulating apparatus close the globe valves M and N and remove the plug in the cover of the apparatus. Draw out all solution in the apparatus through the waste pipe P. Put in about nine pounds of ammonia alum (crystal or lump), fill the interstices with the solution taken out, and replace plug 0. As little coagulant should be used as will do the work properly. One to two grains of alum to each gallon of water is about right. " In case the orifices of inlet and outlet pipes of apparatus become ob- structed, close the gate valve A and open valves M and N and valve in waste pipe P. The orifices will be freed by means of the strong current thus produced through the inlet and outlet pipes of apparatus. " The coagulant used is the cheapest and most effective known, and is entirely removed by filtration. The highest authorities agree that sulphate of alumina, on account of its cheapness and efficiency, is the most practical of all known coagulants. "The aerating system described on another page, applied to large plants, is economical and perfect in its operations, acts by gravity, entails no loss of head or of power, and combines twenty-five per cent, or more of atmospheric air with the water under static pressure, oxidizing the im- purities, destroying the conditions of germ propagation, and so regener- ating the water that it will keep sweet much longer in pipes or reservoirs than water not so treated/' Its action, briefly stated, is this: It changes into tangible form the impurities in solution, and gathers together these and the exceedingly fine particles of clay, so that they are filtered out and removed with the im- purities. "The moment it is diffused through the water it completely disintegrates, and its elements unite with others, always found in water, forming new and more permanent attachments. Thus its own form and the forms of all the impurities with which its separated elements come in contact are changed. They instantly flock together, a hundred or a thousand particles into one, and then, as the water passes through the filter, they are removed altogether." The capacity of this filter depends upon its size. Arrangements for the purification of any quantity of water can be made. The Bigelow-Curtis Filter. This is made in several forms by the firm of John Matthews, New York. It is connected with the main at A, 96 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and with the distributing pipe at B. The case D is filled with a layer of sand and a layer of charcoal which are held in place by a wire sieve on top and bottom of D. This case is inserted into the body of the filter directly over the distributing pipe. The diameter of this case is smaller than that of the body of the filter; an annular space is therefore left be- tween the two in which the impurities may settle. In the top of the filter is a semi-globular chamber containing a quantity of sponges. The object of these sponges is to arrest coarse matter such as gravel, sticks FIG. 14. THE BIGELOW-CURTIS FILTER. and straw, so that the water reaches the sand and charcoal layers in a comparatively clean state. In order to clean the filter, turn off the supply cock A, unscrew the thumbscrews which hold the cover fast, take off the cover, remove the sponges and wash them out thoroughly; then reverse the sand and char- coal cup, replace the sponge and cover, shut off the cock B, open the waste cock C, and open the cock A. When the water discharged through C runs pure and clear, close the cock C and open the cock B. The Tank Filter. This filter consists of an external metal case, inside of which is a perforated metal pan resting on a circular flange, FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 97 GRAVEL at a sufficient height above the bottom of the filter to leave reservoir space for the filtered water. On this pan, which is shaped like an in- verted cone, is a layer of gravel reaching about four inches above the edge of the pan. Then come alternate layers of charcoal and gravel, about six inches deep, to within about ten inches of the top of the filter, with a thin layer of sand over the last layer. A float valve attached to the inlet pipe regulates the supply of water. This filter should be cleaned, and the charcoal renewed, whenever it fails to do its work thoroughly. It is manufactured by the firm of John Matthews, New York. The Billich Filter. This fil- ter consists of two large wooden tanks, one of which is placed above the other. The upper tank B contains a layer of gravel and a layer of sand separated by a piece of coarse table cloth/, folded in four thicknesses. The lower tank D is almost entirely filled with charcoal. The water is first admitted into the reservoir E* from the main through the supply pipe II, the flow being regulated by the float t. The cock G being open, the water from the tank E flows into the conical perforated vessel Y y from which it passes into the tank B in the form of spray. The object of delivering the water into these tanks in the form of spray is to avoid making holes in the layer of sand by the flow of a continuous stream of water. The water, having filtered through the sand and gravel, which arrest any solid impurities, collects in the chamber formed by the perforated metal plate d, whence it flows through the pipe b to a receiving tank 0. The supply in this tank is automatically regulated by the float u. From the tank the water passes to the charcoal tank D, through the pipe Q, and is then discharged through the discharge pipe i, from the cham- ber formed by the perforated metal plate li. In order to cleanse this filter, shut off the supply of water by closing the cock G, and also shut off the discharge by closing the cock b. Then open FIG. 14. THE TANK FILTER. 98 A TREATISE BEVERAGES. tlie cocks L and /. A stream of water will now enter the lower chamber d of the filter and will force its way up through the gravel and charcoal, carrying the retained solid impurities to the surface. These are afterward discharged through the pipe /into the sink /. This cleansing operation would be more effective if the water, instead of coming from the reservoir, would directly enter from the main service pipe under pressure, thereby agi- tating the filtering material and cleansing it so much more. Never mind about the sand and charcoal getting mixed; sand alone in the upper filter would be sufficient. The lower filter should also have an arrangement for a reverse current; this would be an improvement. This whole filtering arrangement is a very practical device, and adapted even for a large water supply, when charcoal filtering is to be adopted. The cleansing or rinsing opera- tion by the reverse current should be applied every day; the charcoal must be removed frequently, when- ever it ceases to do its work, which should be ascertained by testing the filtered water in regard to its purity. In general, experiments with fresh charcoal filters prove that the removal of pollution and the retention of bacteria diminish with every day that the filter is in use. The results show that filters when first used successfully, ac- complish the purification of water, but if the cleansing of the filter is neglected, it will rapidly become clogged with colonies of growth and actually contaminate, instead of purifying the water. For instance, unfiltered water contains thirty-six colonies of growth, while the filtered water, from a neglected filter, shows the presence of colonies to the number of 117, 000 after 1? days. (Report of Dr. Gr. T. Swarts, to the Rhode Island Medical Society, 1887.) The Wagner Charcoal Filter. This kind of filter is usually used FIG. 15. THE BILLICH FILTER. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 99 FIG 17. THE WAGNER CHARCOAL FILTER. in sugar-refineries, but may also be employed in mineral- water factories. It consists of a covered iron cylinder, with a large manhole in the side near the bottom for removing the spent charcoal. The float regulates the stream of liquid to be filtered automatically from the cistern. De Lisser's Power Fil- ter. This filter apparatus is for filtering and aerating the water. According to the de- scription given, " It consists of a strongly built machine. The outside cylinder, A, is station- ary and is fitted up with a pow- erful brake, B, which can be applied to the revolving cylin- der, driving pulleys, (?/ a dis- charge pipe, D, leading from the chamber that removes the filtered fluid, and a second discharge pipe, E, from an entirely distinct chamber, in which the filth and impurities extracted by the filter are col- lected. F is the revolving cyl- inder, the 'basket/ as it is termed, the walls of which are of copper, finely perforated. is the supply pipe by which the ' water to be filtered is admitted, and II is the belt to the counter shaft. ' ' The water is first intro- duced into a rapidly revolving C3 7 linder, around which a filter- ing material adjusts itself, and through which it passes, thus freeing the water from all sus- pended impurities. " The cylinder, which re- volves with lightning rapidity, is perforated with innumerable small holes, which break the water, as it passes from the fil- tering medium, into a spray- FIG. is. DELISSER'S POWER FILTER. like mist, and while in this finely 100 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. subdivided condition the oxygen in the air shall act upon it chemically. The water then falls into a reservoir at the bottom, and flows from the machine bright, and, it is claimed, deprived of all contaminating impurities." The Jewett Filter. The accompanying engraving represents a sectional view of Jewett's Filter and Cooler, with a portion of the vessel containing the filtering material. The article represented is new, and has recently been put upon the market by the The John C. Jewett Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y., U. S. A. In their circular referring to this filter, the manufacturers state that the water is poured into the general receptacle A, from which it passes through the per- forated cup (which is filled with sponge) into the gravel bed B. At the bottom of this gravel-bed is an open space C, where whatever " dirt " not caught in the gravel will settle, to be drawn off by means of the brass thumb-screw at the back of the filter- ing vessel. Through small apertures at the bottom of the partition, be- tween the gravel beds B and D, the water passes into the latter, where it is driven upward through the gravel to apartment E. We claim that at this stage of proceedings the water is fully as pure as any gravel or stone filter can make it. The water then passes through openings at the top of apartment E, into the filtering bed proper, F, consisting of layers of gravel, sand and recarbonized char- coal. This bed surrounds the gravel beds B and D, and is of sufficient capacity to thoroughly purify the same quantity of ,water as any other filter of its size. From this it will be seen that this filter not only removes all the visible or tangible impurities in the water as thoroughly as any gravel or stone filter, but it also has the advantages that charcoal filters possess as ordinarily constructed. The grosser impurities of the water being re- moved by the gravel, leaves but little to be intercepted by the charcoal, therefore rendering it less liable to become foul or clogged by organic matter than is usual in charcoal filters. A feature of construction in this filter is that new filtering vessels can be supplied as required at about the same price as the cost of repacking old ones. Baker's Filter and Compound. This filter, manufactured by The Baker Water Filter and Purifying Co., New York, is made of bronze, tinned or nickel plated, and divided in two halves, bolted together. The medium is " Baker's Filter Compound," consisting essentially of magnesia FIG. 19. JEWETT FILTER. SECTIONAL VIEW. Ill FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 101 and animal charcoal, combined to form a plastic, porous mass in blocks or sheets at any desired thickness, and can be used in connection with any filter. This filtering compound is surrounded by fibrous asbestos to arrest the coarse impurities of the water. All the filtering material is secured by perforated plates. This filtering compound acts mechanically and chemically very well, but where any amount of work is to be done 1 and hydrant water is filtered through, it should be renewed almost daily; where ordinary well or spring- water is used, it may last longer. The Johnson Pressure Filter. The filtering medium employed con- sists of thick sheets of filtering paper, made of ordinary paper pulp and a quantity of pure animal charcoal, claimed to be free from phosphates by chemical process, added to the pulp before it is formed into sheets. From 10 to 20 per cent, of the weight of this finished paper is said to consist of purified animal char- coal. It will be seen that water to be filtered comes in at one side of the apparatus, and after having passed through the carbon paper is delivered into the service pipe under pressure. When it is desired to change the carbon papers for fresh ones, the filter can be shut off on both sides from the service pipe, and then, by means of a small disc, may be run back, and the grooved plates and distance frames of which the filter- ing chambers consist can be opened out, and the spent carbon papers changed. When screwed up the machine is again ready for work. These machines are made with from 4 to 12 chambers, and each chamber is provided with a circular disc of the prepared paper on each side, so that a 12-chamber filter, 9 inches diameter, would simultaneously have 24 such paper discs, thus having a large filtering area occupying a small space, in effective work under the pressure of the water main. These filters for the purposes of greater convenience, and to meet the wants of those desiring it, can be made reversible. The name "Reversible " is given to those filters which are so arranged that when an accumulation of solid impurities clogs or stops the pores of the filtering medium it can be removed by simply turning a cock, which reverses the current of liquid through the filtering medium, caus- ing all the impurities to flow away through the outlet channel with the flush water, thus effectually cleansing the filter without taking it apart or removing the filtering medium; by returning the cock to its original position filtration proceeds rapidly. 102 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. These filters are constructed so that by a simple arrangement any known filtering medium may be applied, be it paper, or paper pulp, woollen, cotton, or other cloth, felt or combinations of any of the above with animal or vegetable charcoal, or any mixture for the purpose of filtration can be introduced into the filter as the filtering medium. The advantage of this will be appreciated, as any filtering medium that may Fia. 21. THE JOHNSON PATENT PRESSURE FILTER. be considered better than another can be applied without any alteration of the apparatus. Puffer's Sponge Filter. This filter is made of heavy metal thoroughly tinned. Its centre of body is filled with sponge of a high grade compressed into about one-quarter of its original size. Below this sponge is a perforated metal plate. Water passing through this filter leaves all suspended impurities behind it, and for this purpose it will serve very well. However, water holding organic or inorganic impurities in solution should be treated as directed in this Chapter. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 103 The sponge in this filter must be cleansed frequently and renewed occasionally, but this can be done with ease. Globe Pressure Filter. These filters are made in two different styles as shown in these illustrations, contain filter sheets, and are also very efficient filters for removing suspended matter, their capacity de- pending on their size. The same holds good for the filter bag shown in next cut. FIG. 23. THE GLOBE PRESSURE FILTER. FIG. 22. PUFFER^S SPONGE FILTER. FIG. 24. GLOBE PRESSURE FILTER THUMB SCREWS. Derham's Patent Filter Bag. This filter bag is composed of woven fabric alternated with paper, the whole securely fastened together to form a solid sheet. It is indeed a good filtering bag, and will quickly and thoroughly re- move suspended particles and render water bright and clear. But these filters do not act on the impurities in solution. If such are present in water precipitate them first and then call these filters into service. Should organic impurities be held in solution a charcoal filter is to be put in requisition or aerating has to be resorted to. These filtering 104 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. bags, however, are very well adapted for filtering wine, cider, spirits, fluid extracts or essences, etc. Derham's Patent Pressure Filter. This filter is composed of woven fabric alternated with paper, and the whole secured together to form a solid sheet. It is claimed that this filter is equally adapted for the filtration of wine, cider, spirits, lime-juice and many other viscous or syrupy liquids, and equally at light as at high pressure. Force pump can be used. Filtering bags are of superior quality and certainly adapted for what are claimed for them. But whether the filter represented in Fig. 26 will FIG. 25.- DERHAM'S PATENT FILTER BAG. FIG. 26. DERHAM I S PATENT PRESSURE FILTER. answer just as well is a question which depends on its construction. If it is silver lined or nickle plated where those liquids come in contact with the metallic part of the filter, it is all right and a practical contrivance to clarify alcoholic liquids. English High Pressure Filter. The water enters at A from the main into the bottom of chamber (?, passes up through the filtering media, E E and F, and is collected in the top chamber H, being drawn off for use at G, the pipe to machinery being connected by a union to the cock G. The filtering media are periodically cleansed by turning off the cocks A and G and turning on B, thereby drawing the contents of the chamber H downwards through E E, and washing out all the im- purities which have been left by the water passing in the opposite direc- tion. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 105 Hydrant High Pressure Filter. The water passes through this filter under high pressure; it is air-tight, and can be instantly cleansed by turning the hand on the dial plate at a point thereon marked "fil- tered," to a point marked cleansing. FIG. 27. ENGLISH HIGH PRESSURE FILTER. FIG. 28. HYDRANT HIGH PRESSURE FILTER. Gaber's Sandstone Filter. This filter (European make) consists of a cast-iron plate, in which is fitted an iron cylinder closed by an iron cover plate. 00 is a hollow cylinder of porous sandstone. The water, entering at W under pressure, penetrates the pores of the sandstone cylinder and flows out clear on top. When the pores of cylinder are clogged up and the filter lacks efficiency, another stone cylinder has to be put in. The old one may be saved for further use by turn- ing or grinding off its outsides with the clogged pores, Natural Stone Filters. This is a sectional view of a Pressure Filter, the letter A showing the curved stone; B represents the charcoal and sand; (?, the coupling to be attached to hydrant; D, the water space. A low pressure filter can be made in a tank with the curved stone cemented at the bottom, this form to be used when no pressure, either from a hydrant or tank above the filter, can be obtained. FIG. 29. GABER'S SANDSTONE FILTER. 10G TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. The capacity of either of these filters is given at 500 to 1000 gallons per day, according to size and form. The stoneware filters are adapted where a mechanical filtration of the water is sufficient. They will remove suspended impurities in more or less time. Asbestos Filter. We have repeatedly heard of asbestos being a filter medium and of the interesting experiments that have seemed to show its superiority to most other mediums in fineness of interstices. The question, FIG. 30. SECTIONAL VIEW OF NATURAL STONE PRESSURE FILTER. however, remains: Can it be kept clean? says the Sanitary Era. Its incombustible nature suggests the possibility of readily purifying it by heat; but whether its filtering property and form would stand the ordeal unimpaired, is a matter that nobody seems to have thought of investigat- ing. We described under the heading of "filtering-material" this filter medium, which already forms part of some filters. It is claimed that liquids filter altogether too slowly through asbestos. In many cases, a very finely divided asbestos is desirable. The grade of asbestos to use in connection with a filter for the mineral- FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 107 water trade is a matter of importance; if coarsely ground it will qertainly be an excellent filter medium, when used instead of sand, and, in con- nection with animal charcoal, give fair results. Asbestos filters are very useful in cases where the liquid to be filtered is of a caustic or strongly acid nature. The kind of asbestos to use is a matter of great importance also. In commerce we find the Canadian, the Italian, the Australian. This last is less flexible than the other two, and consequently the fibres do not felt together and pack as closely on the perforated plate. Hence, liquids filter more rapidly, and the Australian is, on this account, preferable to the other two kinds. It is claimed that the Canadian asbestos is the most soluble in acids, but the assertion is not verified. Whatever may be the kind of asbestos used, the following is a process for obtaining with little trouble a quantity of the pulp in a fit state for filtration, and as this pulp will also be a very useful filtrant in the bottlers' laboratory, we append the direction for its preparation, as given in the National Bottlers 1 Gazette. A coarse brass sieve is placed over a sheet of paper, and a handful of asbestos is rubbed pretty roughly over the sieve-cloth. This breaks it up in such a way that the smaller fragments pass through the meshes, and are deposited on the paper underneath. After a while, the portion which remains on the sieve-cloth is collected in one bundle, and rubbed again in the same manner, and the operation is repeated until a sufficient quantity has gone through. As to the coarseness of the mesh to use, we may say that we have used No. 10 sieve (ten openings to the inch) with satisfactory results. The sieve is best placed bottom up, so as to leave plenty of room under the cloth. The next operation is to free the sifted material from dust and from the finest particles. This is easily accomplished by placing the asbestos, as obtained above, over another sieve of finer mesh (about No. 25 or No. 30), and stirring it while water is poured over the sieve. The first water which passes through is quite milky, but it gradually becomes clearer as the washing is continued. The washed asbestos is then put in a beaker glass, and boiled for about half an hour with strong hydrochloric acid (about one part of fuming H C I to four parts of water). The pulp, after this treatment, is poured over a perforated platinum plate placed in a funnel, and washed with distilled water until no acidity is shown by litmus paper. The pulp is then taken out of the funnel and strongly heated in a platinum dish. After letting it cool sufficiently, it may be placed in a wide-mouthed bottle for future use. An asbestos filter, called the Filter Rapide, contained, as far as we could learn, thus prepared asbestos pulp. Cistern Filters. A cistern-filter, the filtering medium consisting of 108 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. animal charcoal only, and fulfilling all the foregoing requirements, was, after years of experiment, after having been most satisfactorily tested, proved to be practicable. To explain the principles on which this filter is constructed, it is necessary in the first place to remark that, in filtering water, the impuri- ties must remain in the crevices and pores of the filtering material, and that ultimately these will be filled up, and the whole become clogged, so as not to allow the water to pass. In order to lessen this inconvenience as much as possible, it is necessary first to prevent such foreign matters from entering as can be got rid of otherwise, and secondly, to afford the greatest facility for removing impurities which may be intercepted within the filter. These two points are most essential in the construction of a filter; so much so, indeed, that much of its real value depends upon them. The choice of materials is by no means a matter of indifference, but it is a decided mistake to believe that it is the only needful consideration, as it is fre- quently represented. The first of these essentials is to be obtained by precipitating the sus- pended impurities separately outside the filter, whilst those only which are held in solution actually pass into the filtering material, the water being purified from these in the act of ascension. The second essential is at- tained by an arrangement for permitting the filtering material to be easily removed, and after cleansing to be as easily replaced. The tendency of suspended objects in water to be precipitated ought, under all circumstances, to be taken advantage of; and cisterns for stor- ing water (whatever may be said against the intermittent system of sup- plying water), have, on this system, their advantage in separating the solid matters in suspension. Of this there can be no better proof than that the floors of cisterns filled by intermittent supplies are generally covered with a layer of mud and slimy matter, accumulated during the intervals of rest. These gross impurities would, on the system of con- tinuous supply, have remained in the water, and have been consumed by the inhabitants. Cisterns ought to be constructed so as to favor the pre- cipitation of solid matter, and, above all, they should be readily got at for examination and cleaning; but builders appear, in many cases, to have imagined that the most proper place for a cistern is in the most out- of-the-way and inaccessible position in the building, where the cleansing is rendered most difficult, whilst the accumulation of extraneous matters, and the imbibition of very offensive gases, are unfortunately much facilitated. Any cistern, where organic or inorganic impurities by the aid of alum, limeivater, permanganate of potassium, etc., are precipitated, may be con- nected with an air compressor and a filter, and thus purification improved. The illustrations on the following page show two cistern-filters, man- ufactured by leading English manufacturers. This filter is simple in construction and can be either connected FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 109 with a cistern or attached to the main service pipe. It requires no atten- tion beyond an occasional opening of the cleansing tap, and will deliver a supply of purified water at the rate of 50 to 1,000 gallons per hour, according to size. It is easily fixed, and the cistern can be cleansed without disturbing it. Layers of loose charcoal and carbon blocks form CLEANING TAP f OUTLCT FIG. 31. CISTERN FILTER. Fio. 32. DOUBLE CISTERN FILTER. the filtering medium. By an arrangement of the taps, either cylinder can be washed out backwards with the filtered stream from its compan- ion, so that when working the most impure water, the filter can be effectually and instantaneously cleansed. When the impurities of the water, organic or inorganic, are by means of alum, lime water, perman- ganate of potassium, etc., previously precipitated in the cistern, and afterwards the water is filtered through these filters to perfect purifica- tion, a water in a high grade of purity may be obtained. Another kind of a filter is man- ufactured by English manufac- turers and called their ' ' Low Pres- sure Water Filter." It is practi- cally a cistern filter, as this illustra- tion will show. Low-Pressure Water-Filter for Cisterns. The water to be filtered passes up through the bot- tom of the filter and can be drawn in a continuous flow through the pipe leading to the draw-off cock. The , filtering substances are composed of materials which act chemically and FIG. 33. LOW-PRESSURE WATER-FILTER FOR CISTERNS. 110 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES mechanically upon the impurities contained in solution in the water and require renewing after a certain period. This is easily done by disconnect- ing the top, when the old filtering material can be taken out, and a fresh charge put in. The filtering medium is chalk, sand, lime. As- bestos and charcoal may also be used. Another kind of filter with up- ward filtration is shown in this illustration. Rawling's Patent Filter. "Practically successful purification of water is only attained by allowing frequent access of air to the charcoal, FIG. 34. -RAILING 's PATENT FILTER. FIG. 35. SETTLING-TANK WITH SEDIMENT SEPARATOR. and these filters are specially constructed for this purpose, ' ' says the pat- entee, and there is no objection to it, but the air should be impregnated under pressure to be effective. The features of this system as claimed are: Upward filtration through specially prepared animal charcoal ; rapid- ity with highest purifying power; continuous supply, proper diffusion of water through charcoal; not subject to choke up, and applicable to the largest wants. Settling Tank with Sediment Separator. This cistern or tank with its automatic method of drawing off the clear top water, leaving the sediment at the bottom of the tank, is indeed a practical arrangement. The illustration explains itself. The sediment separator, that is, the float- ing tub, is of brass with copper float, with or without cock. The clear top water may run off through it at the rate the sediment precipitates, the float being always level with the surface. By a stop-cock on the outside of cistern the flow may be regulated. Self-acting Cistern Filter. The description runs as follows: " The * compressed charcoal ' fil- tering-beds have a deodorizing and decolorizing power, removing sus- pended or mechanical impurities, as well as certain dissolved bodies, and FIG. 36. SELF-ACTING CISTERN FILTER. FILTRATION AND FILTERS. Ill FIG. 37. SLATE-CISTERN. effecting a chemical change in the water filtered." This is all right. To carry on the filtration and purification of large quantities of water, a series of such filters must be employed, and special attention has to be paid to frequent cleansing. In England these "filter-beds" are largely employed for city and town supply. Slate-cistern. This slate cistern is easily connected together when required for use with tie bolts and cement. They are used for water cisterns, and mixing mineral waters in, previous to passing through the machine. Capacity: 200 gallons. Length 5ft. Oin.; Width 3ft. 6in.; Depth 2ft. Gin. 500 gall. Length 6ft. 3in.; Width 5ft. Oin.; Depth 3ft. Gin. Domestic Filter. This is an English pattern, for limited or do- mestic use. It is of stoneware, the filtering material being animal char- coal. Rain-water Filter. The simple and inexpensive filter herewith described is designed to purify the rain-water flowing from the roof, and conduct it to a cistern. The water from the roof flows through a pipe from a leader into a compartment in the lower part of the tank. The first water, which has washed the roof, is allowed to flow through the faucet and go to waste. When the water is comparatively clear the faucet is closed, when the water flows upward through a false bottom supporting the filter proper, which is made smaller at its lower portion than at its top, and which snugly fits the tank, a packing making it water-tight against the sides to compel the water to pass through the perforated sides and bottom into the interior, which is filled with sand, char- coal or some other suitable material. The water then flows through the pipe in the upper compartment to a cistern or reser- voir. It is evident that by admitting water at the bottom and causing it to be purified as it rises through the filter, all leaves or dirt of any kind will be held back by the perfo- rated false bottom, and, after the rain has ceased, may be discharged through the faucet. It is thus impossible for any decomposable matter to find its way into the cistern. This invention has been patented by Mr. Benjamin Ligget, of Arizona. Clapp's Home-made Filter. A home-made filter, which ap- Fio. 38. DOMESTIC FILTER. 112 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. peared in the National Bottlers' Gazette, is given in the accompanying illustration. Such filtrant can be used as suits the idea of the bottler constructing it; but as this filter is composed of the simplest materials sand and charcoal no trouble will be experienced in securing them. The filter is arranged from a 50-gallon wine cask with a false bottom, perforated; on this a layer of gravel, then al- ternate layers of char- coal and white, clean sand, and top layer of excelsior, with perfo- rated cover ten inches from the top, and a dis- charge-pipe or over-flow four inches from the top. A cross-bar of wood, four inches square, is held across the head of the barrel, through the centre of which a com- mon wooden headed screw held the filter in solid mass. A discharge- cock in the bottom of the barrel, when opened, carries off the sediment, and the closing of the feed-pipe allows the filter to clear itself. Instead of excelsior shown in illustration coarse gravel may be substituted, and if the inside of the barrel and the perforated cover be charred, this would be an improvement and Fio. 39. CLAPP'S HOME-MADE FILTER. . r exercise a preserving ac- tion on both filter and water. The same but plainer style of home-made filter with descending current may be made after the following directions: Take a tub, a barrel or a wooden tank with an open top; put into it a perforated false bottom so arranged that there is a space of about two to three inches or more between the two bottoms and bore a hole in the bottom or side beneath the false bottom, for a wooden or iron faucet with which to draw off the purified water. Place a felt, flannel or other suit- FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 113 able substance over the perforated false bottom, being sure to fill out the sides well, so as not to permit any coal to escape there, or elsewhere, and put into the tank a quantity of bone-charcoal, filling it about one- half full or a little over; it is then ready for use. A very similar style of filter is made by Dr. H. L. Bowker & Co. in Boston, and illustrated in this cut. Bowker's Charcoal Filter. It is simple, practical and cheap, and can be bought cheaper than when expressly made, and will answer very well where but a small business is carried on. The charcoal has to bo frequently renewed. Other Home-made Filters. Another home- made filter, continuously acting, for filtering and aerating water on a small scale, and without going into the expense of applying machinery for aerat- ing, is recommended by a correspondent in the National Bottlers' Gazette, and will be described FIG^IO.-BOWKER'S CHARCOAL here. It is claimed that it never becomes foul owing to the complete aeration of water, and that this filter will serve for years; but we urgently suggest the frequent cleansing of this filter also to prevent, clogging up of its pores with the retained impurities, which would decrease its purifying capacity gradually and make it worse, as the large amount of impurities which accumulate could at last not all be "consumed by oxygen/' By frequent cleansing or renewing of the filter medium it will certainly be a practical filter, and preserve its purify- ing power. The description of this filter runs as fellows: " The body of the filter may be made of wood, galvanized iron or earthenware, and of any appropriate size. A horizontal partition forms a receptacle at the top to receive water. The flow of water from this receptacle is regulated by a cock. Upon the perforated bottom of the next compartment is placed a body of gravel, above which is sharp, coarse sand. Under the cock is a distributing plate, upon which the stream of water strikes and is divided and distributed over the surface of the sand. Below the perforated bottom is the lower compartment, that receives the filtered water, which is drawn out through a cock or faucet. Formed in the body, just below the upper partition, is an opening, closed by a wire door, that permits free access of air to the compartment; through this opening the stem of the cock may be turned to regulate the flow of water. In the side of the lowest compartment is a similar opening for the passage of air to the filter below the filtering material, so that the water is plentifully aerated in the filter. The free access of air is of special importance in the centre compartment, as the water, being divided into spray by the plate, will be brought into intimate contact with the air. The air is said to mingle with the sand, causing the water to be minutely divided, and, by oxidizing the impurities, will have a constant 114 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. cleansing effect. The water is never permitted to enter in such quantity as to cover the sand." The same kind of filter as described above may be filled with another niter-medium as follows: On the felt or flannel placed over the perfo- rated false bottom, put an inch layer of short fibrous asbestos, squeezing it close together, then add a two or three-inch layer of carefully washed sand; on top of this a ten-inch layer of coarse wood, or, better, animal char- coal, previously sieved and freed from the pulverized parts. Then upon this add at least a layer of sand again. The layers of coal and sand may be increased to suit, but the two uppermost layers ought to be the largest. Both the upper layers renew every two or three weeks, the others every six to nine weeks. This makes an excellent filter if cleansed out regularly. Another practical home-made filter is shown in the following illustration: It con- sists of a clean wooden tank, if possible oak, with an open top, supported by iron hoops that are painted to protect them from rust- ing. In the midst of the bottom screw a hole about one inch and a half wide, and ad- just by means of a perforated cork or a coupling a wooden or iron faucet h to draw off the filtered water. Over the hole lay a piece of felt/, through which bore a hole to correspond with the faucet. Upon this felt place an earthenware flowerpot c, with FIG ^.-HOME-MADE FILTER. j ts open part downwards. It should be about an inch high and the felt large enough to cover or close its open part. Any similar earthenware cylinder will answer. 'If the flowerpot or other earthenware cylinder has any opening on its bottom, which is now turned upwards, close it with a cork. Put upon the earthenware vessel a clean brick st, to hold it down and give it a firm stand. Then cover the bottom of the filter around the earthenware pot with a layer of carefully washed sand, ss, then put on a layer of well-sieved coarse wooden or better, animal charcoal, kk, reaching above the inserted vessel. On top of the charcoal lay carefully a few sheets of white filtering paper, covering the whole surface thoroughly, and then add a layer of white, carefully sieved and washed sand s. The water, w, running into the filter, penetrates the sand and charcoal layers and filters into the earth- enware vessel, from where it flows out through cock, h. The sides of the earthenware vessel should not be much over a quarter of an inch thick, and the vessel in general not too much burned. The earthenware vessel must be porous, and should be first tested in this re- spect before using it To test it, put it in water, opening upwards, and put a stone or some- FILTRATION AND FILTERS. 115 thing else across to hold it in position. The water should flow around it, not over the top. Close the opening at the bottom tightly with a cork. In a short time the vessel ought to be filled with water; if not, reject it and try to get another one to suit the purpose. The filter should rest on a support. This arrangement is a very effective filter, cheap to put up and com- bines many advantages, making other filtering arrangements superfluous. Every six to twelve weeks, according to the quality of the water, a re- newal of the sand and charcoal layers and of the earthenware vessel is nec- essary. Of the latter keep a stock on hand they are cheap. This filtering apparatus is plain, practical and effective; still we shall describe two more home-made filters, to give the reader and the enter- prising manufacturer a chance to try for himself and find out what suits him best. FIG. 42. PLASTIC COAL FILTER. FIG. 43. PLASTIC COAL FILTER TANK. Plastic Coal Filters. Frequently and with good success filters of so-called plastic coal are used, but filtration proceeds very slowly; and it is therefore necessary to employ several of these kind of filters, also the efficiency of the plastic coal decreases in use and must be renewed at times. Plastic coal is a combination of wood, charcoal, sawdust, tar and asphalt, heated under exclusion of air and afterwards pressed in different forms sheets or blocks. For a large water supply several of these forms are combined to stative as shown in the appended cuts, and suspended or adjusted in the filter, which might be made of a barrel, or a wooden or galvanized iron tank. The water filters through the porous mass and finds its way to the pipe leading from within the sheet or circular block of plastic coal to the faucet attached to it. The porous mass, especially the outside, which soon gets filled with the impurities of the water and clogged up, ought to be cleansed every week. This can be done by slightly heating it or grinding off the out- side. However, after some time the coal must be renewed. There is a 116 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. widespread opinion thattplastic coal acts both chemically and mechanically in purifying the water. This is an error. It acts best mechanically, removing suspended matters, and does not remove organic or inorganic matters which are held in solution. The next home-made filter is illustrated in the annexed engraving. This filtering apparatus consists of 3 vessels #, 5, c, made of stoneware, or they can be had in all sizes and adjusted with tube connections. The connecting tubes may be of glass, tin or rubber. The tubes between a and by to prevent their being clogged up by the filtering material, are protected by linen, cotton or fibrous asbestos, easily covered, and the pro- tecting substance is secured by a few heavy pieces of the filtering medium. Then cover the bottom of vessel a with a small layer of coarse sand carefully washed, put over this a layer of coarse but fresh wood, or, better, animal charcoal, but not higher than FI044.-SECTIONALVIEWOFSTONKWARSFZLTKRS. abOUt ^half tllC SizC Of tllC VCSSCl. On this put a sheet of linen and then another layer of clean gravel. In vessel b put first a thicker layer of clean coarse sand, put on top a piece of felt closely fitting the sides in the vessel all around, and "hold it in its position by laying a few clean stones or some coarse sand over it The second vessel is half the size of the first. When vessel a is filled with water, continuously or at intervals, it filters through the sand and coal in a and &, and collects in vessel c y which is empty, from where it is drawn off by the cock. This arrangement furnishes also an excellent opportunity for filtra- tion. The exerted pressure in vessel b is infinitesimal, and the bulk of suspended and dissolved impurities remains in vessel a. The thickness of the layers of the filter-mediums may be approximately taken from the cut PART SECOND. CARBONIC ACID GAS. CHAKACTERISTICS PURIFICATION CARBONATES ACIDS AND ACID DISPENSERS LIQUIFIED CARBONIC ACID. CHAPTER V. CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. Its Composition. How Produced. Its Absorption by Water. An Interest- ing .Table. Atmospheric Air should be Removed. Weight of Car- bonic Acid Gas. Influence of Temperature and Pressure. Its Effects. Its Composition. The most important ingredient in the manufac- ture of carbonated waters, and that which gives them all their distinctive qualities, is, besides pure water, carbonic acid gas. All effervescent drinks depend for their refreshing qualities, their sparkling, prickling and excellent taste, on the carbonic acid gas impregnated with them. Carbonic acid gas must be perfectly pure, free of atmospheric air, and should not contain any bad odors, such as sulphuretted hydrogen, etc. As it may be very useful to those who deal so largely in it to know ac- curately its qualities and characteristics, we annex a few leading particu- lars extracted from a standard work on Chemistry (" Miller's Chemistry/' London, 1868, Part II.). " Carbonic acid gas is composed of carbon and oxygen in the follow- ing proportions: Carbon . . . 27.28 Oxygen . . . 72.72 100.000 " Its chemical sign is C 2 . " Carbonic acid gas was originally termed ' fixed air/ from the cir- 118 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. cumstance of its having been discovered by Dr. Black in 1757, v*s a solid or fixed constituent in limestone, and from its becoming fixed or absorbed by solution of the caustic alkalies. " The name of carbonic acid was given to it by Lavoisier, nearly twenty years later. "Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere it is a colorless trans- parent gas, with a faintly acidulous smell and taste, and it turns blue litmus paper red. At the ordinary temperature the gas is soluble in about its own bulk of water (or in other words, a body of water will dis- solve about its own bulk of gas), and its solubility increases if the pressure be increased; that is to say, that under a higher pressure the water will absorb more gas. But when the compression is suddenly removed, the gas escapes with brisk effervescence. Advantage is taken of this circum- stance in the preparation of soda water, as it is called. One important point to be borne in mind, in connection with the combination of carbonic acid and water, is that the water absorbs a greater amount of gas at low temperatures than at higher ones. This is often lost sight of, and causes great practical difficulties and perplexities to those who overlook it. It is desirable that the factory, and especially the gasholder and the water supply, should be protected from the sun and kept as cool as possible. The temperature of the factory should, if possible, not exceed 50 F., and the lower it is, short of freezing, the better." Carbonic acid, while unsuited for breathing, is highly beneficial when taken into the stomach, and is a valuable agent in preserving and restor- ing health. How Produced. Carbonic acid gas is produced in various ways, namely 1. By respiration or breathing in men and animals. 2. Carbonic acid is abundantly produced in the process of fermenta- tion, and is the cause of the briskness in bottled beer, champagne, and other fermented liquids. 3. By burning lime in a limekiln, or heating carbonate of lime to a red heat in any way. This process is followed in making liquified car- bonic acid. By the operation of subterranean heat in volcanic districts, upon lime- stone beneath the surface, large volumes are produced and are continually finding their way to the atmosphere. The springs in such districts are also frequently highly charged with it, and the gas escapes with efferves- cence. (This is the cause of the effervescence of genuine natural mineral waters, as those of Selters, Vichy, etc., etc.). 4. In water of rivers, etc., from the gradual oxidation of vegetable and other organic substances. 5. In coal mines, from the decomposition of the coal. 6. By burning charcoal or other forms of carbon. CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONIC ACED GAS. 119 7. Chalk, marble, limestone, Iceland spar, oyster shell, pearlash, carbonate of soda, etc., all yield carbonic acid gas when treated with a stronger acid, as sulphuric, muriatic, etc. The second of these sources of carbonic acid is largely employed in London in the manufacture of aerated bread, and is found to answer ad- mirably. (Carboriating machinery to be used in the manufacture of aerated properly named carbonated bread, is also introduced in the United States. The carbonic acid gas is forced through the dough at a pressure of 100 pounds. This does away with the use of yeast.) The gas, which lies in a thick layer on the surface of the vats, is pumped by a suitable pump into a large india-rubber bag, and carried to the factory. It is probable, however, that this system would not suit at all for car- bonated waters, for the fumes of the fermentation, which are an advan- tage to the taste of the bread, would probably give an unpleasant effect in carbonated waters. The sixth source has been employed in France in the manufacture of carbonated waters, but it involves great outlay in plant for the purifica- tion of the gas, and is not recommended. The means of production last named is that which is universally used in various forms for making carbonated waters. Even in the simple form of seidlitz powders (which we must recognize as producing carbonated waters), the effervescence results from the action of the acid in the one paper, on the carbonate of soda, etc., in the other. In seltzogenes, carbonators, etc., the gas and the pressure are pro- duced in the same way by a similar mixture. In the manufacture of carbonated waters on a large soale, the gas is usually produced by placing chalk, in the form of whiting, or powdered marble, or some other form of pure limestone, mixed with water, in a closed leaden or wooden vessel, and then introducing gradually sufficient sulphuric acid to disengage all the carbonic acid, and convert the residue into a neutral salt sulphate of lime. The chemical combination which goes on in freeing the gas, produces a considerable amount of heat, and as increased heat is unfavorable to the combination of the gas with water, it is desirable that the gas should be cooled before being used. Occasionally muriatic acid is employed, but it is not so much to be recommended, as it throws off a great amount of vapor, which may easily pass over with the carbonic acid, and be difficult to separate. The former system is also cheaper, and has no practical drawback whatever. The spent whiting, or marble dust, is a harmless compound, and can be easily removed and disposed of. Its Absorption by Water. We have already mentioned that water absorbs a greater amount of carbonic acid with increased pressure. It is found by experiment that this amount increases in proportion to the pressure, as follows: Ai the pressure of one' atmosphere (14.7 Ibs.) the 120 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. water will absorb its own volume; at the pressure of two atmospheres, twice its own volume; at three atmospheres, three times its own volume, and soon, until at about 540 Ibs. to the square inch, the carbonic acid gas itself becomes a liquid, as was discovered by Faraday in 1823. Regarding the amount of carbonic acid gas that water will absorb at different temperatures, we submit the following table: At a temperature of Volumes of gas. Celsius (or 32 F.) water will absorb, . . 1.7967 2C. (or36F.) " " 1.6481 4C. (or39F.) " " 1.5126 6C. (or43F.) " " 1.3901 8 C. (or46F.) " " 1.2809 10 0. (or50F.) " " 1.1847 12 0. (or54F.) " " 1.1018 14 C. (or57F.) < 4 " 1.0321 16 C. (or61F.) " " 0.9753 18 0. (or64F.) t( " 0.9318 20 C. (or 68 P.) " " 0.9014 In the carbonating process there is, however, a limit to the pressure required, and that limit should be such as to combine with the water the largest quantity of carbonic acid consistent with the safety of the bottles and convenience in opening, and at the same time give requisite pungency to render the carbonated liquids pleasant and palatable. It therefore becomes an important question what should be the limit of pressure, not so much the greatest pressure, but the lowest at which good carbonated water could be produced, because, in using a greater amount of pressure than required, it would cause a waste of gas, greater breakage of bottles, and more difficulty in the bottling. A Mr. Sprules, formerly manager of Pitt & Co/s Soda Water Manufactory in London, England, being de- sirous of ascertaining the lowest pressure at which good soda water could be made, went into a number of experiments, beginning with a high pressure and gradually lowering, and the result was that at 95 Ibs. per square inch he could produce soda water sufficiently impregnated (this he considered the minimum pressure), and consequently there was a great saving in the breakage of bottles and in the consumption of the gas, while at the same time the bottling was rendered much easier. He did not, however, confine himself to the above pressure, but to a medium between the highest and lowest, and decided on 120 Ibs. to 130 Ibs. per square inch as the constant working pressure for soda water, and 60 Ibs. to 70 Ibs. for lemonade and other carbonated beverages containing sugar; and it is rather singular, that in Hamilton's Patent, taken out in 1809, he ee T CHAKACT.ERISTIOS OF OAKBOWiO ACID GAS. 121 says, " I generally saturate under a pressure of 120 Ibs. per square inch, which is somewhat reduced in the liquors being bottled." The pressure just mentioned (120 Ibs.) has now for many years been considered by the majority of makers the standard at which to bottle soda water. Much discussion has, however, arisen lately, tending to prove that even this pressure is needlessly high if proper care is taken in bottling, and especially if machine bottling is resorted to. There is good reason to believe that waters of the very finest quality can be produced at a pressure never exceeding 100 Ibs. in the condenser. It is found that the pressure really retained in the bottles is seldom more than from 40 to 50 Ibs., even when bottled with a very high pressure in the condenser, and it is evident that the excess of pressure is to a great extent wasted, involv- ing waste of materials in producing the gas thus allowed to escape. Where a very high pressure, as 180 or 200 Ibs., is used in the con- denser, the chief apparent result is that considerable inconvenience, if not danger, is caused to the customer in opening the bottle, and much of the contents flies out and is wasted. An Interesting Table. Some interesting tables, the results of care- ful experiments made by an experienced carbonator, were published in the Chemist and Druggist, June, 1880, p. 253, and we append the figures here in condensed form. A careful study of them will bring out several curious facts, as, for instance, the great waste of gas that must result from working with high pressures in the condenser. They also give very curious and unexpected results in the wide variances in the pressures retained in bottles filled at the same condenser pressure, and a further variance in the volumes of gas given out by different bottles, which show the same pressure on the testing gauge. The former irregularity probably arises in great part from variations in the care of the bottler, as so much of the result in bottling depends on the close attention and skill of the operator. The latter phenomenon is most likely caused by the presence of more or less atmospheric air in the gas. This is a very serious question for those who wish to produce really first-rate mineral waters, and will be alluded to further on. We think that these experiments strongly support the opinion already expressed, that no advantage is gained by using a higher pressure than 80 Ibs. to 100 Ibs. , but that care should be taken to see that the bottling is regular. A frequent use of the testing gauge is also desirable, to see that the pressure in the bottles is kept up to the standard. The condensed table shows the result of several experiments on bottles, gives the number of bottles experimented on, the different pressures bottled at, actual pressures in bottles, and the number of vol- umes of gas to 1 of water. 122 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Number of bottles experimenter* on. Pressures bottled at. Ibs. Mean pressure in bottle. Ibs. Mean volume of gas. 12 120 39 3.16 10 100 34 3. 10 120 40 3.27 10 180 39 3.85 5 30 26 23 5 45 26 2.2 5 60 30.3 2 55 5 80 32.8 3.0 5 90 39.8 3.4 5 100 39.6 3.9 5 120 51 4.85 The above were bottled expressly by a well-known firm at different pressures to ascertain which gave the best result. They had six to each pressure, but kept one of each back for the purpose of pouring into a glass to try the effervescence at the different pressures, and also the pungency on the palate. In each case (with one exception) the water was well carbonated, but did not effervesce to come over the neck of the bottles. The specimen, however, which had been bottled at 120 Ibs. pressure discharged the cork and came over the neck of the bottle with considerable waste. For bottling soda-water in syphons, however, a higher pressure is needful to ensure the bottle emptying itself without being shaken, and some makers consider 200 Ibs. to the square inch the proper pressure for syphon bottling. The rule, though, is a much lower pressure, say from 120 to 150 Ibs. Atmospheric Air Should be Removed. The presence of at- mospheric air in water prevents a thorough impregnation with carbonic acid gas. Air is a great rival of carbonic acid, in fact reduces the ab- sorption of gas by water. According to Liebig, one volume of atmos- pheric air displaces nearly 20 volumes of carbonic acid gas, and this figure demonstrates the great importance of removing the air from water. Carbonic acid containing more than 3 per cent, of atmospheric air is ab- solutely unfit for use. Also the atmospheric air which the apparatus contains should be removed to prevent its being mixed with the beverage. If the gas is generated from bad materials the carbonic acid will be loaded with bad odors and thus impregnate the beverage. The purity of carbonic acid gas is, therefore, an important point, to be by no means overlooked. To the subject of purification of carbonic acid gas and the removal of atmospheric air we must give particular attention. Carbonic acid gas is one and a half times heavier than atmospheric air, its specific CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 123 gravity being 1.5245, and it therefore sinks to the bottom, while the air remains on top and can be removed by means of a blow-off cock or loosening a cap on top of a cylinder. The principle of this "blowing off," or "removing of atmospheric air/' is explained thus: The atmospheric air displaces at the usual temperature and the usual atmospheric pressure up to twenty volumes of carbonic acid gas, depend- ing on time; but the atmospheric air is on the other side displaced by carbonic acid of more than 4 atmospheres pressure (60 Ibs.). When water is impregnated with carbonic acid, underpressure, in a closed vessel, when the liquid is at rest, the atmospheric air, being lighter than the carbonic acid and displaced, will collect above the surface of the liquid. When a blow-off cock is opened, or a cap loosened, this atmospheric air will escape violently along with the uncombined carbonic acid. As soon as the pres- sure in the cylinder gets diminished by letting escape its surface gaseous contents, a certain amount of the gas already absorbed by the liquid i& eliminated in consequence of the decreased pressure, and supports the displacement of that combined gaseous contents above its surface, viz. r atmospheric air and uncombined gas. But this displacing process is not a sudden one, it needs time; therefore the removing or bio wing-off opera- tion should be several times repeated, and a pressure of more than 60 Ibs; maintained in order to secure the thorough removal of atmospheric air. A patented system of removing the atmospheric air from water by suction we give especial consideration to on another page. Weight of Carbonic Acid Gas. 1 liter (or 1000 cubic centi- meters) at 00 weighs 1.9774 grammes. 1 gramme at 0C fills 505.7 cubic centimeters. 1 cubic inch weighs 0.0355 grammes or 0.57 grains. In practice 1 liter (1000 cubic centimeters) is estimated to weigh 1.66 grammes at 10 to 15C. 1 volume of water at 0C absorbs, at the usual atmospheric pressure, 1.7967 volumes of carbonic acid. At 15C an equal volume. At 20C but 0.900 volume. Influence of Temperature and Pressure. If the temper- ature at which a liquid has been impregnated with carbonic acid gas in- creases, or the pressure at which it was done diminishes, a corresponding amount of gas will escape. Beverages impregnated at too high a pressure have absolutely no ad- vantage. As high as the pressure may be, as soon as the beverage is poured into a glass, the greatest part of the carbonic acid gas disappears and only about 1-J- volumes gas remains, which answers a pressure of about 20 pounds; and this pressure is soon reduced still more in a few moments. The effect of a high pressure is a great effervescence, and when mixed with syrup a foaming, which makes the beverage appear, in the eyes of the consumer, much more favorable. AYater, charged with carbonic acid 124 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. gas and containing much air is even more effervescent than airless water, as the atmospheric air escapes much quicker from water than car- bonic acid gas. When the pressure in a bottle gets diminished by open- ing, the atmospheric air escapes violently and also with it part of the carbonic acid, before the consumer can manage to swallow the liquid. The greater the violence with which the liquid is forced out of the bottle, the greater is the loss of gas; but such a drink ceases sooner to sparkle. The removal of atmospheric air from carbonated beverages should, there- fore, deserve a great deal of attention by all manufacturers, as the process refines and improves the drink and gives it that refreshing and acidulous taste necessary and required of a carbonated beverage, besides preserving it by the absence of air, which is so frequently the source of trouble and destruction to saccharine beverages. Water impregnated with pure carbonic acid gas will sparkle less vio- lently in an open glass for 10 to 15 minutes, preserving its refreshing and prickling taste, while a beverage containing much air soon becomes flat. At the usual temperature and usual pressure of air water will absorb but its own volume of carbonic acid gas, therefore it would be insufficient to only expose water to the gas for our service. To impregnate water with a greater amount of gas it is necessary to use pressure and the aid of mechanical apparatus to cause and promote the absorption. The cooler the water is used for impregnating with carbonic acid gas the more gas it will absorb and the longer it will retain it; the warmer the water is the more difficult it will be or the less it will absorb, and the more pressure is necessary to impregnate a certain quantity of gas with the water the quicker the gas will disappear when the drink gets poured into a glass or the bottle is opened. If a fluid impregnated with carbonic acid gas is exposed to the air an exchange of gases takes place, and soon nothing but atmospheric air remains. The same takes place with cylinders or fountains charged with carbonic acid gas. They are never tight enough to prevent the interchange of atmospheric air, and at last nothing but water without carbonic acid gas will be left, when stand- ing too long after they have been charged. Its Effects. Of the effects of carbonic acid in mineral waters a medical authority says: " (1). Quieting of the sensitive nerves of the stomach; (2). The stimulation of the secretions and the peristaltic action of the stomach; (3). The stimulation of the action of the bowels; (4). Increased secre- tion of the kidneys. In addition to these, he alludes to the importance which free carbonic acid possesses in the solution, and in the holding in solution, of the bicarbonates contained in mineral waters, especially the bicarbonates of soda and iron." The imagination of many people that carbonic acid gas when breathed has a poisonous effect is erroneous. There are two compounds of carbon ITS QUALITIES AND CHARACTERISTICS. 125 and oxygen the oxide of carbon, and the carbon dioxide or carbonic acid. Both are unfit to breathe and the former is poisonous. Many of the deaths which are attributed to carbonic acid gas are really produced by the oxide of carbon. The oxide has neither odor, color nor taste, and being lighter than air it fills the upper portion of a room long before the carbonic acid, which spreads gradually over the floor. The former, moreover, produces injurious effects when mixed with air even in so small a proportion as one-half per cent., and four or five per cent, of it is fatal, whereas it requires about thirty per cent, of carbonic acid gas to produce death. The difference between the action of the two gases is that the oxide acts directly as a poison, whereas the dioxide (carbonic acid) has a purely negative action. As the latter is heavier than air, it fills the lungs and excludes the air from them, thus causing asphyxiation exactly similar fco that produced by drowning. A.S the oxide of carbon cannot be produced by the action of acid on the carbonates, there need be no fear of contaminating the beverages with it. CHAPTER VI. PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. How Obtained Quantity and Kind of Acid Used Its Purification Neces- sary The Purifiers and How Used Chemical Purification Filtration Filtration and Chemical Purification Chemical Impurities and Reme- dies Application of Remedies Examination of Carbonic Acid Gas. How Obtained. Carbonic acid gas is obtained by the chemical action of sulphuric acid or muriatic acid on the carbonates. The acids having greater affinity than carbonic acid for the alkalies unite with it and displace the carbonic acid, setting it free in gaseous form. All carbonates must be mixed with water and be in a state of fine division. The carbonates in a powdered condition offer a larger surface to the acid for its action, and thus a more thorough exhaustion may be expected. Never bring the carbonates in their dry state in connection with the acids. This would cause a sudden evolution of gas, a blocking up of connecting pipes, and the carbonate would get but partially decom- posed. As the conversion of water into steam produces pressure in the boiler, so the conversion of solid carbonic acid into gas in a generator produces pressure. Advantage is taken of the pressure thus produced to assist the combination of the water and gas, in the apparatus of the American plan. About the quantity of water necessary to mix with the carbonates, there are no positive rules; it depends entirely upon the kind of material used. Generally the carbonates are mixed with double their quantity of water by measure, viz. : 5 gallons of marble dust or whiting, powdered or ground, mixed with 10 gallons of water. When a powdered or ground carbonate is used, the necessary quan- tity of water is put first into the generator, and the carbonate added second by means of a wide funnel, constantly turning the agitator to pre- vent its getting hard, sticking to the bottom or becoming lumpy. When the carbonates are lumps, they are previously mixed and powdered in water and both together poured into the generator. Limestone we know to be used ground or in fragments the latter being preferable, when muriatic acid should be used, as the evolution of gas takes place more steadily than in ground state. In the United States PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 127 limestone ground is used by a few manufacturers and decomposed ex- clusively with sulphuric acid. Quantity and Kind of Acid Used. The quantity of sulphuric or muriatic acid required for the decomposition of the carbonates depends upon their percentage of carbonic acid. For the production of 100 parts by weight of carbonic acid are required according to Dr. Hirsch's table theoretically, parts Sulphuric acid Muriatic acid of 66 Bme\ of 21 or 19 Bme. 227.3 carbonate of lime (marble,^ whiting, limestone,) . . I 190.84 magnesite . . .1 200-222 dolomite . . J 190. 84 bicarbonate of soda . . 120.5-122 252.5-277.8 According to these figures 227 Ibs. of marble dust, whiting, etc., need 241 to 244 Ibs. of sulphuric or 505 to 555.6 Ibs. of muriatic acid of 66 respectively, 21 or 19 Bme to produce 100 Ibs. of carbonic acid, or in other figures: 100 parts by weight of Sulphuric Muriatic To produce acid of 66. acid of 20. carbonic acid. Marble \ Whiting V need 100 parts. 300 parts. 40 parts. Limestone Magnesite " 125 " 375 " 48 " Dolomite " 112 " 337 " 44 " Bicarb, of soda " 60 " 180 " 49 " In practice not so much acid is taken and not so much carbonic acid gas is obtained, as all carbonates contain more or less foreign substances which are indifferent to the action of the acids. It is to be considered that some carbonates are difficult to be entirely decomposed, and it must be remembered that the work is never conducted throughout with per- fect accuracy and economy, that some gas remains in generator and purifier, and that some is to be spent in removing atmospheric air from the apparatus. The proportions generally used in practical carbonating are about 25 pounds of marble dust, or any other carbonate, to 15 pounds of sulphuric acid, or about 5 gallons of marble dust and whiting to 2 or 3 gallons of sulphuric acid, and 10 gallons of water. The careful carbonator will soon be enabled to .ascertain the practical limit within which his actual and theoretical results should agree. Many manufacturers use the materials in the following proportions: 1 gallon acid, 2 gallons marble dust or whiting, 4 gallons of water, 128 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and prefer rather to use the carbonate an excess, which is cheaper than acid. If the capacity of an apparatus is not quite exactly known, the following rules are generally applied: Measure capacity of acid chamber, use twice as many gallons of marble dust, etc., and double the quantity of water, providing the combined amount of carbonate and water does not exceed f of the total capacity of generator body. The generator should never be filled over f of its capacity; this is im- portant, as space has to be reserved for the down-flowing acid, and room for the generated carbonic acid gas above the surface of the mixture in the generator. If too full, the contents are very apt to boil over and con- taminate the liquid in the fountains. It is worth repeating, that marble dust is the most compact but least effervescent of the carbonates; and as it is by far principally used in the United States, we should give it our particular attention. Marble dust, like all other carbonates, is insoluble in water, but is mixed with this in order to allow its being easily agitated, and to get it in a state of fine division as already stated. But the quantity of water can be put at an equal quantity, or one and a half of that of the marble dust (1 to 1 or 1 to 2) if the size of generator does not permit more, and the operation will be the same with the exception that the more water the better the heavy marble dust can be agitated. For whiting (chalk) the same proportions may be used, however, some manufacturers prefer to use rather two or three gallons of water to one of whiting, as it otherwise becomes too soon a thick, pasty mass, and this precaution is well applied where the apparatus offers room enough. Whiting is very effervescent, and the gas therefore has to be very slowly and carefully generated; the flow of acid must be very small and regular to prevent the boiling over of the contents. A great amount of water in generator lessens somewhat this danger, and regulates to a certain extent the evolution of gas, as the acid gets more diluted and the whiting is more in a state of finer division, thus lessening the sudden action of strong acid on a more concentrated carbonate. The residue ought to be free of undecomposed carbonate, and of an excess of acid. However, an excess of undecomposed carbonate guaran- tees the exhaustion of the acid better than an excess of acid guarantees the thorough displacement of the carbonic acid. Therefore we prefer rather the use of a small excess of carbonate than of acid, as the latter effects the apparatus, and as the carbonate is cheaper than the acid. Its Purification Necessary. The purification of carbonic acid gas has thus far not received so much attention from the bottlers and other bev- erage manufacturers as it deserves, and which it should receive as one of the main factors in the manufacture of carbonated beverages; it is one of those factors which, although unavoidable, is insignificantly looked upon, PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 129 and in our estimation should receive as much, if not more, attention than either of the others that are required for the same purpose. One may be ever so cautious in the purification of waters and preparation of syrupst, and nevertheless be unsuccessful in bringing his beverage to a standard quality, when proper consideration in the purification of car- bonic acid gas is not observed. The modes of purifying carbonic acid are various. One of the singu- lar methods was an apparatus for the production of carbonic acid gas, a generator whether manufactured yet or not we don't know that had no extra purifier attached or connected, whatever, and yet delivers a fine quality of purified gas. This apparatus was so ingeniously arranged, that the entire carbonic acid gas passed through a large column of alkali liquid from which it was produced, and of which there was a surplus con- tinually on hand. The dry purifier for carbonic acid, another singular mode, consisted of a vessel containing charcoal, or alkali or both; this once sought reputation among the bottlers, but was soon discarded, owing to its im- practicability. The purification of carbonic acid, has, therefore, re- mained with water, which was originally resorted to, and in the writer's opinion, the purification will not be deviated therefrom, save that im- provements will be made thereon, mechanically to the device, and chemi- cally by additions to the water. The Purifiers and How Used. The improvement in purifiers which were made of late, consist in making them considerably longer than here- tofore, so that the carbonic acid will have to travel through a longer column of water, and consequently be better purified; another improve- ment consists in passing the carbonic acid through a series of purifiers, with one or two perforated plates (sieves) inserted, when the working is so much more effective. In the American apparatus the gas is washed from one to three times before entering the cylinders. Purifiers or washers are either attached to the side of the generator, placed on the fountains or stand separately, according to the size and style of the plant. Carbonated waters are liable to be tainted with the acid employed. This occurs where the gas is passed direct from the generator into the condenser without purification. When the gas is formed, a certain quan- tity of acid vapor always rises with it, and if this be not removed, it of course passes into and contaminates the water in the condenser. After the gas leaves the generator it enters a purifier, which is filled from half to two-thirds full of water., entering through a perforated dia- phragm, placed at the bottom for the purpose of breaking and subdivid- ing the gas bubbles, which would otherwise pass up through the water in large globules, a form by itself incompatible with thorough purifica- tion. One manufacturer places small chunks of marble (no marble dust, 9 130 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. which would clog the purifiers) in his washers, for the double purpose of dividing the gas into finer particles and absorbing any trace of sulphuric acid which might find its way over from the generator. It is claimed by this means that any traces of acid will unite with the marble, setting free additional gas, and indeed it fills the bill. If the first purifier is packed with small fragments of broken marble, and the interstices filled up two- thirds with water, it serves even three purposes: viz., washing and sub- dividing the gas and purifying it from traces of sulphuric acid. Instead of bubbling up through the water, which hardly checks the rapidity of the course of the carbonic gas, it is compelled to find its way slowly between the fragments, and is thus thoroughly divided and cooled as well as puri- fied. Some gas, of course, is absorbed, but the quantity is very small. Fresh pieces of marble should be added as may be necessary from time to time, to keep the washer filled. Another kind of apparatus has what are called gas domes and sedi- ment traps, which serve to arrest any impurities from the generator before the gas enters the wet purifiers. These contrivances, as may be readily seen, are to thoroughly purify the gas before it enters the cylinders. Whatever plant is employed, the operator should be certain a sufficient quantity of water is always present in the washers, and it should be changed whenever opportunity serves and the purifiers previously rinsed, at least once every two or three days, better after every operation. Instances are known where the carbonator has neglected filling his washers with water, and was unable to account for the peculiar taste of his beverages, when it was ascertained the purifiers were as dry as the desert of Sahara, and had been in that condition for no one knows how long. We have seen cases when the water in the gasometer vat or in purifiers was nearly stinking, and that the water had not been changed for many months. This is very bad management, and very culpable, for it is injurious to the consumers of the drinks so charged, as the water in vat or purifiers becomes so saturated with injurious and foul gas that it is not alone inefficient in cleansing the gas passed through it, but ren- ders it very much more impure than it was originally. Some are opposed to these ideas of the purification of gas, while others find one purifier amply sufficient to eliminate any impurities that are likely to pass. ' ' Too much washing detracts from that sharpness and pungency which is the test of good carbonated waters," is asserted. The loss of gas in passing through several bodies of water is infinitesimal, and the number of washings absolutely necessary is only determined by the intelligence of the carbonator. Therefore to produce high class bev- erages, particular attention should be bestowed upon the generation and purification of the gas. Those of the manufacturers who have gone into the manufacture of a better and more delicate class of beverages, such as mineral waters, fine ginger ales, etc., have been obliged to look for some PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 131 means or remedy to obtain pure carbonic acid, and there are undoubtedly some who were cautious enough in this particular respect, but their devices are unknown to the bottlers in general, and we shall try here to make the fraternity acquainted with the means used for purification of the carbonic acid gas in practical carbonating. In the production of carbonic acid it occurs very often, especially when carelessly manipulating, that the sulphuric acid and marble is al- lowed to mix very rapidly in the generator, the cause of which will be, that a large volume of gas is suddenly evolved and will carry over with itself, in' very fine particles, sulphuric acid and marble, assuming the form of gas, into the purifier, which the water cannot reach when the gas passes through the purifier in large bubbles. To prevent this and break arid subdivide the gas bubbles the perforated diaphragm, already men- tioned, is placed in the purifier. In this the gas cannot pass upwards in large bubbles, but it is cut into minute particles, whereby the whole gas comes in contact with the water or purifying material, and all impuri- ties which it may have chanced to carry along with itself from the gen- erating chamber of the apparatus are left in the water of the purifiers, and a purer carbonic acid gas is obtained. For the same purpose, and also to remove or absorb the sulphuric (or muriatic) acid, chunks of marble are already recommended to be placed in purifiers, and we strongly recommend the diaphragm in addition, and hereafter we shall find some more remedies for it. It often occurs, also, that the chemical action of the sulphuric acid (see also muriatic acid) on the carbonate produces excessive hot generators, and therefore very naturally also hot carbonic acid of bad odor in consequence, which the water will assume if the gas is not previously purified before entering it. Even when all precautions in generating the carbonic acid gas are taken, the eliminating gas may be contaminated by bad odors of impurities in the acid or in the carbonate, as pointed out already, and consequently spoil the beverage. Chemical Purification. In cases of this kind it becomes necessary for the bottler to have resort to a chemical purification of the carbonic acid gas, for which we recommend the use of the following chemicals in connection with the purifiers: Carbonate or, better, Bicarbonate of Soda. The soda being an alkali, all traces of sulphuric, sulphurous or hydrochloric acid that are caused to be carried through the liquid in the purifier, will neutralize it immediately when coming in contact with the soda from gas, and con- sequently purify the carbonic acid. Chunks of Marble. As stated on another page, chunks of marble have the same neutralizing effect, and where they are used, soda can be dis- pensed with. Permanganate of Potassium. It neutralizes bad odors that arise 132 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. from bituminous or animalic matters contained in the carbonate, with the eliminated gas, Salicylic Acid. This also disinfects the carbonic acid from con- taminating gases. Sulphate of Iron (green vitriol). It is a salt chiefly composed of sulphuric acid, with iron as a base. On account of the latter, it may appear to some as not being very practical for application, because iron is not a very commendable ingre- dient to have in connection with mineral waters, for it has a tendency of giving mineral waters mixed with wine or similar mixtures a dark hue when exposed to the atmospheric air for a short time; but for the purpose it is here intended, its actions are entirely to the contrary; it keeps the water of the purifier in a good and healthy state for a time, and disinfects or destroys all impurities embodied within the carbonic acid or which it may perchance carry along with itself. These are not mere suggestions, but are facts based upon numerous experiments and many years of practical experience. Its employment is also recommended by high authorities, and its purifying action upon the liberated gas and consequently upon the beverage will, when applied, soon be noticed. The chemicals heretofore mentioned are within easy reach of all who desire to make use of them. They are inexpensive and can be had from all dealers in bottlers' supply or from wholesale drug-houses, where they are usually kept in stock. They come in solid form, and must therefore be dissolved in some water previously to being used and the solution filtered and then added to water in purifier. Salicylic acid is used in the form of a solution as described later on. Filtration. Where a carbonate of considerable purity is employed, the thorough purification of carbonic acid gas may be obtained by mere filtration of carbonic acid gas. This is done by using such materials as divide the gas bubbles in minute particles, thus presenting a larger sur- face to the washing liquid in purifier and causing the absorption of all traces of sulphuric acid by the filter medium and retaining all particles of marble dust that are carried over from the generator with the eliminated gas. Chunks of marble we have already mentioned. Other filter ma- terials for this purpose are: Cotton, fragments, of well-purified sponges, coarse vegetable or, better, animal charcoal, pumicestone in small pieces. Hager recommends to adjust at the outlet of the gas pipe in the puri- fier some linen in the form of a bag to filter or divide the gas bubbles. Either one of these appliances would cause the minute division of the gas, and retain marble dust that might be carried over from generator. Char- coal also would act as an absorbent of contaminated gases. The pieces would be put loose into the purifiers and renewed from time to time. Even separate cylinders filled with animal charcoal might be con- nected, through which the gas passes in its course to the fountain or PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 133 condenser, and this is highly commendable where an exceptional bad car- bonate has to be employed or the utmost care and cleanliness is the desire of the carbonator. This coal cylinder would purify the gas from all con- tamination by bituminous or animalic matter, and, when placed between the pump and condenser with a continuous apparatus of the English plan, would purify the gas from all greasy particles that it may be loaded with in passing greasy valves of the pump. For the latter purpose only, instead of charcoal a washing fluid may be also employed, consisting of 4 parts by weight of soda in 100 parts of water. The illustrations of these cylinders, called, " Repurgators/' the reader will find in the chapter on apparatus, with description. Filtration and Chemical Purification. These may be combined. Cotton, sponges or pumices,tone may be saturated with the solutions of soda, permanganate of potassium, or with moistened peroxide of iron; but these means of purification also need frequent renewing like those in liquid form. The mechanical impurities,, particles of marble dust, whiting, etc.', we get rid of by washing and filtering the gas; but the chemical impuri- ties of the carbonic acid we must meet with chemical remedies. Chemical Impurities and Remedies. The principal chemical im- purities in carbonic acid gas and the proper remedies are the following: Nitrogenous Gases, Sulphurous Acid. From impure sulphuric acid, and small traces of obnoxious gases from impure carbonates. They are removed by leading the gas through a washing liquid containing soda and sulphate of iron (green vitriol). Sulphuretted Hydrogen. From sulphur combinations in the carbon- ate. The removal of this requires a washing liquid that contains a 10 per cent, solution of peroxide of iron or a mixed solution of 5 parts by weight of sulphate of iron and 4 parts of bicarbonate of soda in 100 parts of water, which solution will at the same time absorb atmospheric air that may be combined with the carbonic acid gas. Bituminous and Animalic Odors. From impure carbonates, especially from impure whiting and limestone. A solution of permanganate of potassium added to the washing liquid in purifier will destroy these bad odors, or the insertion of coarse animal charcoal into one washer, through which the contaminated carbonic acid gas is to pass. Are these bituminous or animalic odors present to a greater extent ? Then it is necessary to pass the carbonic acid gas through a special coal cylinder described on another page. Sulphuric acid from the generator is neutralized by the marble chips mentioned, and by the addition of some solution of carbonate or bicar- bonate of soda to the liquid in purifier. Atmospheric Air. For the manufacturing of carbonated beverages in general, and for the production of ferruginous and sulphur waters 134 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. especially, it is important to remove all the atmospheric air from the car- bonic acid gas. The mixed solution of sulphate of iron and soda men- tioned, to absorb sulphuretted hydrogen gases, will also absorb the atmos- pheric air, and be sufficient for ordinary manufacturing; but where those mineral waters are largely manufactured, and particular care for the re- moval of atmospheric air has to be taken, flager recommends an extra cylinder or washer through which the gas is to pass, with a washing liquid consisting of 5 parts by weight of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) and 1 part bicarbonate of soda in 100 parts of water; or, what is still better, a solution of 5 parts by weight of sulphate of iron and 2 parts of ordinary cooking salt in 100 parts oi water. On the continuous apparatus of the English plan this washing cylinder, practically, should be placed between the gasometer and pump. Application of these Remedies. To bottlers who are desirous of obtaining pure gas for their carbonated beverages, and more especially for the delicate mineral waters, where purity is most needed, we should recom- mend the use of either of the above-mentioned chemical solutions, re- newing them as well as the water after every operation, when they will soon observe a great change in the quality of their carbonated beverages, of which carbonic acid is and will ever remain a great factor. Those who possess more than one purifier, we should advise to use the remedies as fol- lows: Two purifiers put in the first one chunks of marble and water as already directed, or two to three ounces of carbonate, or, better, bicarbon- ate of soda previously dissolved in some water, and in the second put a mixed solution of about three ounces of sulphate of iron and two ounces of bi- carbonate of soda. The quantities may be increased or diminished pro- portionally, as circumstances may require or permit. If bituminous or animalic odors are to be guarded against more cau- tiously, add to second washer also about one-quarter of an ounce of per- manganate of potassium, previously dissolved in cold water. Three purifiers: put in first and second washer the same ingredients, except the permanganate of potassium, which put here in the third washer or coarse animal charcoal instead. Also a few drachms of solution of salicylic acid may be added to either one of the purifiers. Where two or but cne purifier is available, this chemical purification might be carried out in one or two of them by adding either one or several of the chemical remedies combined in one or two washers, but of course this would only do for a smaller manufacturing concern. Where a larger business is carried on separate purifiers and, if necessary, special cylinders (repur gators) are highly recommended. When muriatic acid instead of sulphuric acid is employed in generat- ing the carbonic acid gas, we recommend that in at least two purifiers soda solution be used to ascertain the neutralization of eliminated chlorine PURIFICATION OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. 135 We leave it to the good judgment of the enterprising bottlers to make use of those chemicals in manner and proportion to suit themselves; but remind them of the fact, that when a bottled beverage is opened, part of the carbonic acid gas escapes violently. If bad odors are mixed with the carbonic acid, the escaping gas carries them along into the at- mosphere, thus making their presence at the first moment known to the consumer. Even traces of bad odors will thus be sensible, and this should be con- vincing of the absolute necessity of carefully purifying the carbonic acid gas. In gasometer tanks the water is also used for washing the gas, and where nothing but pure water is. used, some solution of the aforesaid chemicals may be added to aid in the chemical purification of the car- bonic acid gas. The purification of carbonic acid is never perfected without the re- moval of atmospheric air from the apparatus. It is well known to chem- ists and practical men that atmospheric air is to be found in water used for charging the generator, the purifiers and the fountains, and above the surface of it fills the empty space of the apparatus. In practice the atmospheric air is ' ' blown off " after the apparatus is charged with more than 60 Ibs. of pressure, and the principles of this are explained or, another page, to which we refer. If any considerable quantity of air re mains in the water it seriously interferes with the success of the car bonating process. The early makers recognized this fact, and were careful to pump out the atmospheric air from each charge of water before forcing in th, Shell or case for valve; E, Stem or shaft working the valve; F, Packing seated against face of bung; (?, Nut retaining packing in place; fl, Cap to hold packing round the stem; 7, Packing inside the box; J, Wheel to operate valve; K, Packing inside the case; , Set that forces back the lead packing; M, Nut to screw bung fast to generator. of a generator, there is a liability of the collapsing of body lining. Therefore any discharge valve, that offers the advantage of emptying the generator without any or with a but alight gas pressure, is an improve- ment on an apparatus. 262 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fig. 164. The vitriol in its descent is diverted from the centre to the side of body, and drops into the generator without coming in contact with the agitator, regardless of its position. A is the body of generator; B is the lead lining; G is the gas dome; H H are the large openings for rapid filling and discharging of contents; I is the large exit, allowing the easy and qiiiet flow of gas to the dome; M is the outlet for flow of gas from dome to purifiers; R is the spout divert- ing the flow of acid to the side of generator; E and D, the propelling and repropelling blades; K, idle space between the flowing currents; A, JL FIG. 164. SECTIONAL VIEW OP GENERATOR WITH GAS DOME. acid chamber; N, outer shell; 0, lead lining; P, vitriol rod; U, gas in- let; T, filling bung. The valve, Fig. 165, is attached to the body of the generator. The construction of this valve consists in the arrangement of it in different sections or parts, by which the valve seat ma^y be conveniently reached, for the purpose of cleaning or any other object. By hoisting the lever the valve piston may be turned one side, the two valve seats may be wiped clean, or, if a stoppage should occur, the passageway can be readily unclogged without interfering with the charge contained within the generator. By an ingenious device the leverage of the valve is THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM ^AMERICAN PLAN). 263 made to work upon a pivot inside the plunger, by which all friction is avoided, and the action of the valve made perfectly perpendicular. This arrangement is a delicately adjusted balance to any hydrostatic pres- sure devised, and it is so constructed that the lever may be placed in any direction on the generator that the operator may desire. Attached to the handle of the agitator is a pointer or index, which 264 A TKEATISB ON BEVERAGES. describes a circle corresponding to the circular line of figures near the end of the fountain. Attached to the agitator, on the inside of the fountain, is a pipe connecting with an opening through the spindle of the agitator, and having an opening on an exact line with the index on the outside of the generator. This opening is as near the point of the outer index as the thickness of the fountain will permit, and moves with the outer index as it is turned. It will be at once apparent that in turn- ing the agitator gas will escape from the valve at end of spindle, until the opening on the inside of the fountain reaches the level of the water, when the water must follow, and the index or pointer on the outside of the fountain points di- rectly to the figures that indicate the exact number of gallons in the fountain. The object of this valve, Fig. 167, is to provide means whereby the pressure of gas in a cylinder used for bottling will automatically regulate itself, by allowing a valve to open for the influx of gas whenever said pressure falls below the desired point, or to reduce the pressure to any desired point, as it passes from the generator through the senti- nel, which stands as guard to the fountain or receiver from which water is to be drawn, and checks the advance of all gas above the desired pressure, and allows just Z>, handle; J^c'rank lever; F, pointer to quantity What the Operator directs the Sen- or surf ace index; 0, valve wheel; H, opening for 1 . . escape of gas or water ; /, valve socket; K, set screw tmel to let paSS his Station. If, to tighten crank; I,, opening for escape of gas for instance, a carbonator has a ^ n w ^ er; M ' round or square *> ackin ^ the plant consisting of a generator and two cylinders, it may become necessary to fill syphons and bottles at the same time. By attaching this valve to the cylinder from which syphons are filled, the pressure can be maintained at one hundred and fifty pounds, while by another valve attached to the second cylinder, a uniform pressure of sixty or seventy pounds, as desired, is had. These various pressures are steadily maintained so long as the pressure in the generator is suffi- cient, being controlled automatically, and requiring no care or oversight on the part of the operator. Tuft's Apparatus. This apparatus, Fig. 168, consists of two genera- FIG. 166. AGITATOR AND WATER GAUGE. A, Outer shell or case; A, the shaft; B, the sheet-tin lining; C, Trap to carbonate the water; THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 265 tors, each with three purifiers at the side, an equalizing valve, three cylin- ders, with water gauges, and an extra pressure gauge and an injection pump. Gas is produced in the usual way in one of the generators, and the prescribed amount of water pumped into the cylinders. The equalizing valve of the first generator is set at the desired pressure by means of the pressure- gauge on the cylinders. The equalizing valve preserves ;i constant pressure of any de- sired number of pounds to the square inch in the cylin- ders, by preventing a higher pressure than that at which it is set from passing. A lower pressure will always pass, however, allowing the water to be charged to any lower pressure. The water in the three cylinders is then charged with gas. As the water is exhausted from each cylinder, it is re- plenished by means of the pump. When the charge in the generator is nearly ex- hausted, the second gene- rator is prepared for use, and the foregoing operations may be repeated indefinitely. The apparatus is provided with acid-valve gears, low- enclosing valve and elastic diaphragm ; C, upper valve to regulate flow of gas to saturator; Z), vertical rod con- necting upper and lower valves; E, lever with weights which regulate pressure automatically ; F 1 , pipe connect- ing with saturator; (?, pipe connecting with generator; Jf, bracket to sustain the valve when screwed to a support. FIG. 167. SENTINEL VALVE. A, Frame to sustain the two valves; B, lower valve-case pressure blow-off cocks, water gauges, large generator-fill- ing bungs, tinned cylinder bungs, large cylinder water- inlet cocks, block tin water- inlet pipe, linings made from single sheets. All cocks, couplings, and pipes through which water passes are lined with block-tin pipe. If de- sired the apparatus can have wheels with flat faces for power. The appa- ratus is so arranged that if it is desired to fill syphons, one of the cylin- ders can be separated from the others and made independent of the regu- lating valve. This is done by closing two cocks and opening a third, and allows the cylinder to be charged to high pressure for syphons, the regu- 266 A TREATISE , ON BEVERAGES. THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 267 lating valve meanwhile maintaining a low pressure in the other two cyl- inders. The manufacturer's directions for operating are the following: " Set up the apparatus as shown in the illustration. Having securely closed all valves, bungs and connections, and connected the inlet pipe of pump with the water supply, remove the clamps and caps from filling bungs of cylinders; open the water-gauge cocks and the cocks below the cylinders; start the pump, and thoroughly clean the cylinders by pump- ing them full of water and drawing it off by means of the cock at end of water supply pipe. After drawing off the water, close the cock at the end of water supply pipe and pump the cylinders full of water Close the cocks below the cylinders, and replace the caps and clamps on the filling bungs, closing them securely. " Charge the first generator and fill the purifiers three-fourths of pure water, the colder the better, and close tightly, then proceed to charge the water in the cylinders the first time. Close the equalizing valve on the first generator by turning back the top handle and taking it entirely out, and open the cock between the equalizing valve and the cylinders. Close the cock between the equalizing valve of the second generator and the cylinders, to prevent the gas from passing into the second generator. (These cocks are not shown in illustration. ) Give the vitriol valve on the generator one-half turn to the left; let it remain in that position from twelve to fifteen seconds, or until the pressure gauge indicates about ten pounds, then close it firmly, but not with too much force. Turn the agitator slowly until the indicator hand of the pressure gauge remains at a fixed point, which shows that the amount of vitriol let down has been exhausted and made all the gas it is capable of. Let down more acid and repeat the operation as before, until the desired pressure (150 to 180 pounds) is obtained. Open the gas-inlet cocks of all the cylinders, and set the equalizing valve by returning the top screw and handle and turn- ing down very slowly, turning the cylinder agitator briskly meanwhile, until the pressure gauge on the cylinders indicates the desired pressure (40 to 60 pounds). Before agitating, open the cock at the end of water supply pipe and allow the water to escape until the cylinders are but two- thirds full. This method of proceeding, i.e., filling the cylinders full and allowing one-third to escape while the gas is flowing in, displaces the atmospheric air. Continue to agitate the water and gas in the cylinders until gas ceases to pass over from the generator. The passage of the gas may be known by the clicking of the equalizing valve, as it automatically opens and closes. The water in the cylinders is now charged. Open the outlet cock of the first cylinder, and allow the charged water to pass to the bottling tables. As the water is drawn off from the cylinder the pressure will be maintained by the automatic action of the equalizing valve. When the water in the first cylinder is exhausted, close the outlet 268 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. cock of the first cylinder and open the outlet cock of the second cylinder, allowing the water from this cylinder to keep up the supply at the bot- tling table. Open the water inlet-cock of the first cylinder. Start the pump and inject water until the height of the column in the water-gauge glass shows that the cylinder is three-fourths full of water. Always make sure that the water-gauge cocks are open when pumping water, and be careful not to fill the cylinders too full. Proceed with the second and third cylinders, as directed for the first and second, and so continue until the charge in the generator is exhausted and the pressure falls below the required point, which will be indicated by the pressure gauges. When this occurs, agitate the water and gas in all the cylinders to equal- ize the pressure, and absorb as much as possible of the gas in the gen- erator. '' While the charge in the first generator is being used, the second should be charged and prepared for use. Close the cock between the equalizing valve of the second generator and the cylinders to prevent the pressure from passing over before it is needed. Take out the top screw of the equalizing valve, thus closing it. When the charge in the first generator is exhausted, and the pressure reduced to the lowest possible point by agitating the water and gas in the cylinders, close the cock between the equalizing valve of the first generator and the cylinders, and open the cock between the equalizing valve of the second generator and the cylinders. Set the equalizing valve of the second generator, as di- rected for the equalizing valve of the first generator, and allow the gas from the second generator to pass over and supply the cylinders. When the second equalizing valve has been adjusted, and the second generator is supplying the cylinders with gas, the first generator should be cleaned out and recharged. If any portable fountains are to be charged, the gas remaining in the first generator may be utilized by partially charging them. Start the clamp on the generator-filling bung, allowing the gas to escape slowly until the pressure is reduced to ten or fifteen pounds. Open the blow-off cock gradually and allow the spent charge to escape, turning the agitator constantly meanwhile. Never blow off the generator suddenly, as there is danger of collapsing the lining. When the pressure gauge indicates that the pressure has all escaped, and while the exhausted charge is escaping, remove the cap from the filling bung; attach a hose, provided with a curved nozzle of proper size to the cock at end of water- supply pipe, start the pump and throw the stream of water into every part of the generator body, turning the agitator constantly to facilitate cleaning the generator. Unless the generator is to be immediately re- charged, the acid chamber should be thoroughly cleaned by filling it with water through the filling bung, and discharging into the generator body by opening the vitriol valve. The generator should be thoroughly cleansed after each charge, as material allowed to remain will become THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 269 hard and exceedingly difficult to remove, and if allowed to accumulate will eventually interfere with working the generator. When the charge is blown off, the contents of the purifiers will be discharged into the gen- erator body, being forced out by the pressure remaining in the purifier. But the purifier blow-off cocks should always be opened, and whatever remains discharged. The purifiers should be washed out with the hose, and refilled (two-thirds full) before recharging. As the use of the equal- izing valves allows the generators to be run at much higher pressure than is required in the cylinders, portable fountains may be charged at any time without interfering with bottling operations. The regulating valves are not intended to be absolutely tight, and if the cocks between them and the cylinders are allowed to remain open when there is a charge in the generator, and bottling has ceased, the pressure will leak into the cylinders until equalized. When bottling is resumed, the regulating valves will act as before. As now arranged, either end cylinder may be separated from the others by closing the cocks on the bows, and the separated cylinder may be charged at high pressure for filling syphon by connecting it with the generator by means of nipples on cylinder inlet bow and generator tee, and a rubber charging pipe provided for the pur- pose. The syphon filler can be connected with a nipple on the outlet bow. Since the above was written, the equalizing or regulating valve has been improved, so that it may be set at high pressure for syphons as readily as for low pressure for ordinary bottling. This improvement allows the charging pipe above mentioned to be dispensed with. " The vitriol- valve attachment is operated by grasping the hand wheel with both hands. To open, turn the wheel, bringing the right hand towards you. To close, turn the wheel, carrying the right hand from you. " If the valve blows off it will sometimes cause it to leak off the gas below the required point of safety To obviate this and stop the escape, it is simply necessary to cause the valve to snap down upon its seat. This is done by pressing firmly on top of the valve, and at the same time brushing the finger sharply down the projecting lever, causing the lever handle to fly back instantly. As 180 pounds pressure is sufficient for the best soda water, the valve when sent to the customer is set at 210 pounds, and the operator will observe that it is set about right, when the part that is filed off the screw is even with the top of the lock nut. It can, however, be regu- lated to blow off at a greater or less pressure. To do this, first loosen the lock nut to which the lever handle is attached, and then with a wrench turn the nut underneath the lock, nut down for higher pressure, and up for a lower pressure. Be sure to secure with lock nut after adjusting. It should be remembered, however, that a very slight alteration of this FIG. 169. SAFETY VALVE. 270 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. screw effects a great increase or decrease of pressure, and also that the valve should always be set to operate inside of 225 pounds." The gas pipe P is liable to become choked by too rapid reduction of pressure in generator, which allows the gas to expand and swell the mass, so as to fill up the generator. Opening the cock, which allows the gas to pass into the cylinder or fountains too quickly, is the cause of this " foam- ing/' and the rapid rush of gas through the gas pipe P often carries enough marble, acid and water with it to choke the gas pipe. FIG. 170. SECTIONAL VIEW OP TUFT'S IRON GENERATOR. A, Alkali chamber; B, Acid chamber; C, Purifier; Z>, Agitator; E, Acid valve; F, Pressure gauge; G, Safety valve: H, Low Pressure blow-off cock; J, Clamp and cap; J, Frame; K, Equalizing pipe; L, Acid valve seat; M, Purifier blow-off cock; N, Purifier gas cock; O, Agitator wheel; P, Gas pipe; Q, Q, Rubber gaskets; R, Acid valve handle; S, Agitator shaft; T, Filling bung; U,U, Trunions or Ears; F,F, Filling bungs; W,W, Brass tubes; X, Box and nut at agitator end; Y, Acid chamber hood; Z t Purifier hood; a, Screw socket for raising acid valve; 6, Brass rod of acid valve stem; c, Cap; d, Acid valve nipple; e, Square socket which prevents acid valve from turning; /, Spindle; g, Fitting which supports acid valve seat; 7i, Clamp cap for filling bung; t, Screw for filling bung; .;', Yoke for filling bung clamp; fc, Rubber washer; I, Plug of blow-off cock, which fills nipple; m, Wheel of blow-off cock this wheel does not descend when valve is opened; n, Ports for keeping valve clear; o, Spindle which opens and closes cock; p, Discharge port; g, Lead washer which makes joint tight whenlblow-off is closed; r, Cap; s, Lead washer. The black line indicates lead lining. ' ' It has been found in blowing off the spent charge from a generator, having the ordinary blow-off cock, that a solid plug of marble dust forms in the bung and the blow-off cock above, and partly supported by the valve seat. " To blow off the generator this plug must be dislodged, and from 40 THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 271 to 90 Ibs. pressure has been found necessary to dislodge it. A generator full of gas at 40 to 90 Ibs. represents a considerable quantity of acid and marble dust, and if the generator can be blown off at 5 Ibs. pressure, this can be saved. The low pressure blow-off cock illustrated before, has a metal plug which fills the bung completely, thus preventing entirely the FIG. 171. TUFT'S LOW-PRESSURE BLOW-OFF COCK. formation of a plug of marble dust; consequently the spent charge can be blown off with a very slight pressure. In opening the low pressure blow-off cock, the wheel does not descend, the spindle moving through it, and being prevented from revolving by its square shape. " The operation of the wheel is the reverse of that of an ordinary cock. Turn to the right to open and to the left to close. To blow off, open the 272 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. valve wide. It is necessary after washing out the generator to partly close the cock to black mark on spindle, and pour water through filling nipple to wash out the cock. To take out the spindle and valve, apply a monkey-wrench to the square spindle, and thus unscrew the cap." This val ye is to keep a uniform pressure in the cylinders or fountains. It automatically closes when the pressure in the cylinders reaches the point at which it is set, and opens when the pressure falls below the point at which it is set. It may be set at any pressure from five to two hundred pounds, by simply turning the handle. It will let gas pass at FIG. 172. TUFT'S AUTOMATIC EQUALIZING OR REGULATING VALVE. FIG. 173. SECTIONAL VIEW OP FIG. 172. lower pressure than that at which it is set. It assures a uniform pressure and is a useful appendage of an apparatus. The patentee gives the following directions for its use: "Be sure that the gas flows in the direction of the arrow on the side. Before charging the generator, turn back the handle on top of the equalizing valve, and take it entirely out, thus insuring that all pressure is removed from the spring; this closes the valve; then charge the generator to 150 pounds pressure. Open the cock between the valve and the cylinders, and the inlet cock of the cylinder to be charged, wide open. If in order, the valve will open for a few seconds (until the chamber over piston fills), and then close, shutting off all gas from the cylinders. To open the THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 273 valve, return the handle to its place and turn down until it opens; con- tinue turning down slowly, meanwhile agitating water and gas in the cylinder, until the desired pressure is indicated by the gauge on the cylinders. A slight turn of the handle either way will alter the pressure, and, when once set, it will maintain a uniform pressure at that point. If it should fail to close when the handle is turned back, it will be on ac- count of dirt. ' ' To open the valve for examination : First turn the handle on the top and take out the spring under it; then remove the cap, taking care to slide it off sidewise with the hand under the diaphragm to keep it in place. Remember, the diaphragm always goes in with the convex side down. Unscrew the cap inside by means of the square top, then remove the spring and piston under it. If the piston sticks it can be pushed up by the stem projecting through the bottom. " See that the seat, valve, piston and stem are entirely clean and free from all dirt, and that the hole in the piston (about the size of a pin) is clear. If the piston valve does not drop freely into its seat (when perfectly clean), take it out and reverse it and try the piston in bottom side up; also try the stem by reversing the piston and pushing the stem up from the bottom. Wipe it perfectly clean, and if it is cut, polish it with fine emery paper; be sure to wash all the emery out. If in order, the piston should drop freely into its place on the seat like a check valve, and be perfectly free. ' ' Before replacing the inside cap, see that the secondary valve (in it) is free from dirt and perfectly tight. Screw the inside cap lightly into its place, and close up the regulator by putting the outside cap (contain- ing the diaphragm, follower and spring) on, and screwing \ifirmly to its seat, thus making a gas-tight joint. Be sure there is no dirt on top of regulator where the diaphragm makes its seat, also that the diaphragm is clean; then you will have a joint that will not leak. " When the valve is set at a given pressure, it will allow any lower pressure to pass, but will not allow a higher. In brief, place it so that gas passes through it in the direction of the arrow on the side. Before charging generator take out the top screw of valve, so as to take off all pressure from the spring. Charge the generator to 150 pounds. Open the cock between the valve and the cylinders, and the inlet cock to cylinder which is to be charged wide open, put in and turn the top handle so as to put pressure on the top springs, and keep on turning very slowly, agitating water and gas in the cylinder at the same time, until the desired pressure is reached. When the valve is set let it alone. Shut off and let on gas with valve cock and cylinder inlet cocks. A lower pressure than that at which the valve is set can always pass, but a higher pressure cannot. This valve is not intended to be tight. To cut off generator from cylinders, use cock attached to valve. " 18 274 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM (AMERICAN PLAN). 275 Lippincott's Apparatus. This apparatus consists of two genera- tors, one at each end, and three stationary fountains, all made of copper, the generator lead-lined, the fountains tin-lined. The purifiers are ad- justed at the sides of the generators. The agitators are furnished with wheel cranks to use by hand power, and also to start the agitators before shifting the belt to put on the power. FIG, 175. SAFETY VALVE. On the rear, and out of the way of the operator, is attached a wide pulley, so that the power can be used from a counter-shaft above. On the generator is placed a gas bell, into which the gas rises, and to which the pipes and safety valve are attached. This will prevent the clogging of the pipes by the foaming of the carbonate. The acid valve is raised and locked by a wheel and screw placed conveniently for the operator. The safety valve consists of a weighted ball and hinged lever pressing a FIG. 170. BLOW-OFF COCK. FIG. 177. PRESSURE GAUGE. rubber washer on a metal bearing, having a direct inlet to body of genera- tor. It works automatically at a set pressure, and allows the gas to be blown off at any pressure by simply raising the ball with the hand, enabling the operator to test the working of the valve at any stage of the operation. The blow-off cock allows the contents of the generator to be drawn off gradually. A pressure gauge is attached to purifier on either side CHAPTER XIV. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. Its General Use in the United States. Hafner and Will's Apparatus. Oster- berg's Apparatus. Madlener's Apparatus. Zwietusch's Apparatus. Lippincott's Apparatus. Safety Valve, Alarm and Pressure Gauge com- bined. Matthews 1 Apparatus. Tuft's Apparatus. Puffer's Apparatus. English Intermittent Apparatus. German Intermittent Apparatus. French Intermittent Apparatus. Russian Intermittent Apparatus. Arrangements if Liquid Carbonic Acid is Used. German Carbonating and Bottling Machine. Its General Use in the United States. The American intermittent system or apparatus for carbonating water is too generally known to need an introduction to any reader here; but we might have a reader who is not so well acquainted with it, and it might be of interest to him to know that this style of apparatus is very generally used by all bottlers through- out the country. What follows is a description of the different makes with their various special features attached. Hafner & Will's Apparatus. This apparatus consists of one generator with gas dome, three fountains made of copper, and a force- pump. The generator and gas- washers are lined with sheet lead. The foun- tains are lined with block tin in heavy sheets. Pressure and water gauge on each fountain, gas dome and blow-off valve on generator. Pump for hand and power use. Osterberg's Apparatus. This apparatus is made of copper, the generator is lead-lined, the fountains tin-lined. The purifiers are on top of the fountains. The apparatus has a gas cooler (others call it gas dome) in front and on top of the generator. Each fountain has a water gauge in front, and on the last purifier on every machine there is a connection and stop cock for charging portable fountains. Machines intended to be run with power are furnished with packing boxes and shafts at the back end of apparatus, thus avoiding belting and pulleys in front. Glass water- gauges, force pumps, etc., are attached to order. Madlener's Intermittent Apparatus. This apparatus is made of copper and block- tin lined. The flow of acid from the vitriol chamber to the generating chamber is regulated by a screw or bolt, instead of a AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 277 lever, to the nut of which a crank is attached. By the use of this crank the flow of acid can be regulated by the operator. This appara- tus, manufactured by Ph. Madlener in Milwaukee, Wis., is put up in varying capacities. Zwietusch's Apparatus. This apparatus is made of copper, and consists of one generator with gas dome, two extra large fountains and force pump. The generator has a dome to prevent the marble dust from being carried over into the purifier, and to prevent accidental clogging of the pipe, and also has vacuum valves on all fountains to prevent 278 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. the collapsing of their interior lining; also compression blow-off cock. Each fountain has a water and pressure gauge. A compression filter, for the arrest of floating substances of the water, is attached to the appara- tus, also a pressure regulator and equalizer, used to equalize the pressure on the bottles filled and to reduce the same, no matter how high a pres- sure the generator contains. A double-acting pump is also attached. The generator is lined with sheet lead, the fountains with rolled block tin. The apparatus has long purifiers. These illustrations need no comment. The purifier shown in Fig. 183 is a useful and practical contrivance in the purification of carbonic acid FIG. 179. OSTERBERG'S APPARATUS. gas. The gas is forced through sieves in passing upwards, and gets divided into minute particles, thus presenting a larger surface to the water and consequently increasing the purification facility of the latter, producing a purer gas. The manufacturer gives the following recommendation: "The use of an injector pump is strongly recommended, especially where power can be had to run it. By its use all the gas in the cylinders is saved If the cylinders are provided with glass water gauges, it is simply necessary to open the gauge cocks and the cocks under the cylinders, and operate the pump until the height of water in the gauge glasses shows that the re- quired amount of water has been injected into the cylinders. If there are no water gauges on the cylinders, the suction pipe of the pump AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 279 should be placed in a vessel containing a measured quantity of water. After the water in the first cylinder has been drawn off, instead of blow- ing off the gas remaining in it, open the water-gauge cocks (if the cylin- ders are supplied with water gauges) and the cock at the bottom of the cylinder, and with the pump fill the cylinder two-thirds full of water. When the water in the second cylinder has been exhausted, open the cock at the bottom of the second cylinder, and allow the gas remaining FIG. 180. MADLENER'S INTERMITTENT APPARATUS. in it to pass into the first cylinder. Agitate the water in the first cylin- der briskly, to absorb as much gas as possible from the second cylinder. Close the cock at the bottom of the first cylinder and open the cylinder inlet cock, to allow gas to pass from the generator to complete the charge. The water gauge cocks should always be open when the pump is being operated, and the cylinder inlet and outlet cocks closed/' The pumps can also be used for pumping water into the generator to displace the remaining carbonic acid gas therein, after the carbonating materials have been exhausted, thereby economizing a large quantity of gas that would otherwise be wasted. The pumps are either double-act- ing or single-acting pumps, differing in style and construction. 280 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 281 For larger establishments, or wherever quick and effective work is re- quired, a double-action pump is far better; however, a single-action FIG. 182. ZWIETUSCH'S OLD PURIFIER. FlO. 183. SECTIONAL VIEW OP ZWIETUSOH'S IMPROVED PURIFIER. ^ pump can be used for the same purpose, but it takes longer to do the same amount of work it works less quickly. Fio. 184. ZWIETUSCH'S SMALL INTERMITTENT APPARATUS. Fig. 184 is adapted for a small establishment. It is made of copper, with all the attachment of the later apparatus, but is without an inject- ing pump. 282 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fig. 185 is made of copper or iron. One of the Zwietusch's patent purifiers is attached to it. The acid chamber is connected with the generator body. Lippincott's Apparatus. The generators are made of heavy copper, lined with lead, adjusted with safety valve and pressure gauge on puri- fiers. The fountains are also of heavy copper, block tin lined, and all the connections and exposed parts protected by the same metal. The machine is set on cast-iron frames. The same style of apparatus is put up with three fountains or with but one or two. FIG. 185. ZWIETUSCH'S UPRIGHT GENERATOR. Fig. 187 is made of heavy copper and lead-lined, and especially adapted for charging portable fountains. Fig. 188 is also made of copper and lead-lined, and used for the same purpose in druggists' and confectioners' stores. Safety Valve, Alarm and Pressure Gauge Combined. This gauge will indicate the pressure, give the alarm, and blow off the gas until it drops a little below the pressure for which it is set. It will not waste all the gas in the generator, or blow the marble all over the room. The genera- tor requires but little attention after the fountain is charged. It can be set to blow off and give the alarm at any pressure within the scale of the gauge. It is very simple, not liable to get out of order, and it is always AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 283 sure to work. The operation is such that the alarm must go off at the point where the gauge is set; it has a lock and key and cannot readily be tampered with. Matthews' Apparatus. This set is made of iron or copper. Each fountain is provided with a carbonate-filled gas washer. The lining is of pure tin in heavy seamless sheets. All the attachments, described with the set illustrated in Fig. 144, are also attached to this apparatus. The apparatus may consist of one, two or more fountains. The large sizes of this generator, Fig. 191, are used by wholesale manu- facturers of soda water, who charge fountains for stores, while the smaller 284 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. FIG. 187. LIPPINCOTT'S HORIZONTAL GENERATOR. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 285 FIG. 138. LIPPINXOTT'S UPRIGHT GENERATOR. 286 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fia. 189. SAFETY-VALVE, ALARM AND PRESSURE GAUGE COMBINED FIG. 190. MATTHEWS' INTERMITTENT APPARATUS AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 287 sizes are used by druggists and others who manufacture for their own use. With two or more portable fountains on frames, this generator FIG. 191. MATTHEWS' HORIZONTAL ACID-FEEDING GENERATOR WITH PURIFIER. constitutes a complete carbonating apparatus, adapted for druggists' or confectioners' use. Two different styles of this generator are made, all 288 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. lined with lead: the iron generator, and the copper generator, with all accessories, as on the large sets of apparatus. FIG. 192. SECTIONAL VIEW OF MATTHEWS' VERTICAL CARBONATE- FEEDING GENERATOR WITH PORTABLE FOUNTAIN. This apparatus, Fig. 192, consists of a carbonate-feeding generator, one or more portable fountains and a frame or rocker for agitating the foun- AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 289 tains. It is used chiefly by druggists and confectioners, who dispense the carbonated waters from the counter. The large sizes are for wholesale dealers who supply stores with beverages in fountains. Special instruc- tions how to charge and operate this generator are already given to Fig. 156, on page 255, to where we refer. An extra gas washer, Fig. 193, is often desired, and is very useful where a high grade of purity of the gas is the carbonator's aim. Tuft's Apparatus. This set consists of a copper generator, two copper cylinders, with injector pump and bottling machine. The ar- rangements are substantially the same as described for Tuft's " continuous apparatus of the American plan/' Fig. 168. The di- rections for operating apply equally to this apparatus. Other styles are made without injecting pump, the purifiers being either on top of the fountains or at the side of the generator. This generator, Fig. 195, is the largest style, and made of iron. The agitator is moved by power; on both ends pulleys are adjusted. The vitriol valve attachment is shown in cut. Two large separate purifiers are connected with the generator. This set is for a large establishment to charge port- able fountains or separate stationary cylin- ders, as represented by the next illustration. James W. Tufts, the manufacturer, gives the following directions for operating the apparatus, which are of general practical value, and therefore reprinted here: 1. To charge the generator. " Close the FIG. 193. MATTHEWS' DETACHED discharge valves at bottoms of purifiers. Fill the purifiers three-fourths full of water, through the filling bungs, and close tightly by screwing the caps on filling bungs firmly with the wrench. If the purifiers are on the cylinders, or the generator has one on top, the prescribed amount of water should be used. Side purifiers re- quire only about one half this quantity. Close the blow-off cock below the generator, and pour into the generator body, through the filling bung, the prescribed quantity of water. Mix thoroughly the requisite amount of soda and marble dust." Tufts recommends the use of bicarbonate of soda in charging the generator, about one pound to every 12 pounds of marble dust, as it softens the mass and causes the gas to be generated more freely; be- sides rendering agitation easier, and facilitating the cleansing of the 19 290 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. generator after the cnarge *s exhausted. In the absence of soda, the quan- tity of marble dust should be increased for the weight of the soda. " Having inserted the tin funnel in the filling bung, add the car- bonate gradually to the water, turning the agitator as the mixture is supplied. The marble dust should always be sifted, to remove nails FIG. 194. TUFT'S INTERMITTENT APPARATUS WITH INJECTING PUMP. or other hard substances which might injure the lining. Wipe the marble dust from the top of filling bung and close tightly by means of cap and clamp; or if screw cap is used, carefully wipe marble dust from the screw thread of filling bung, and screw the cap tightly on with the wrench. Close the vitriol valve, by screwing down firmly. Do not use unnecessary force, as the valve and valve seat, both being of AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM, 291 lead, may be injured. The valve is closed by turning to the right, as a screw is driven. Do not turn the valve the wrong way and imagine it is closed when it is wide open. Place the lead funnel in the filling bung and pour the prescribed quantity of sulphuric acid into the acid chamber. The acid should always be examined, as it frequently contains pieces of glass and particles of clay from the carboy, or other hard substances, which might ruin the acid valve seat. Tightly close the acid chamber by screwing the cap of filling bung on with the wrench. See that all the cocks and connections are tight, so that no gas can escape while gen- erating. Try the safety valve and see that it works freely, which can be ascertained by brushing the fingers sharply down the projecting lever, causing the lever handle to fly back instantly. The generator is now ready for operation. 292 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. 2. Filling the Cylinders. "The cylinders should be thoroughly cleansed by filling with water through the filling bungs. Agitato by turning the agitator wheel, and empty through the discharge bungs below. When emptying a cylinder, always remove the cap from the filling bung. Having returned the caps to the discharge bungs, and tightly closed them with the wrench, fill each cylinder three- fourths full of pure water, the colder the better, and close tightly by means of cap and clamp, or screw cap and wrench. The cylinders are now ready to be charged. 3. To charge the Water, using one Generator and one Cylinder. "All cocks and connections being securely closed, open the inlet cock on the cylinder. Give the vitriol valve on the generator one half turn to the left (as a screw is withdrawn); let it remain in that position from twelve to fifteen seconds, or until the pressure gauge indicates about ten pounds, then close it firmly, but not with too much force. Now turn the generator agitator slowly until the indicator hand of the pressure gauge remains at a fixed point, which shows that the amount of vitriol let down has been exhausted, and made all the gas it is capable of. This operation must be repeated until the desired pressure (40 to 60 Ibs. to the square inch, for bottling) is obtained. The cylinder agitator should now be turned briskly; this will cause the water to absorb the gas, and thus lessen the pressure in the generator. More gas must now be gene- rated, by repeating the operation of letting down vitriol and agitating the contents of the generator. When the water in the cylinder has been thoroughly agitated, and will absorb no more gas, and the gauge indi- cates the desired pressure, the water in the cylinder is charged, and the outlet cock may be opened, to allow the charged water to pass to the bottling table. As the water is drawn off from the cylinder, the pres- sure should be maintained by occasionally generating more gas and al- lowing it to pass into the cylinder. When the water in the cylinder has been exhausted, close the cylinder inlet cock, and start the clamp on the cylinder filling plug, and remove the cap, to allow the pressure to escape. Refill the cylinder three-fourths full of water, close the filling plug and proceed to recharge. Repeat the operation as directed until the charge in the generator is exhausted. When the contents of the generator are exhausted, the gas should be allowed to escape slowly, by starting the clamp on the filling bung, until the pressure gauge indicates ten to fifteen pounds. Then open the blow-off cock, underneath the generator, grad- ually, and allow the spent charge to escape, turning the agitator con- stantly. Never blow off the generator suddenly, as there is danger of collapsing the lining. When the gauge indicates that all the pressure is gone, and while the exhausted charge is escaping, remove the cap from the filling bung, and pour water into the generator body, turning the agitator constantly, to facilitate cleansing the generator. When there is a pressure of water, it is well to use a hose with a small, bent nozzle, AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 293 which can be inserted at the filling bung, and will throw the water into every part of the generator body. The generator should be thoroughly cleansed after each charge, as material allowed to remain will become hard and difficult to remove, and if allowed to accumulate, will eventu- ally interfere with working the generator. The contents of the purifiers will generally be discharged by syphoning over into the generator body when the charge is blown off ; but in all cases the purifier blow-off cocks should be opened, and whatever water remains discharged, and the puri- fiers refilled before the new charge is put into the generator. The acid chamber should be thoroughly cleansed by pouring water through the filling bung, and discharging into the generator body, by opening the vitriol valve. 4. To charge the Water, using one Generator and two Cylinders. " Having charged the generator and filled the cylinders as previously di- rected, and securely closed all valves, bungs and connections, proceed to charge the water in the first cylinder. Open the inlet cock on first cyl- inder. Give the vitriol valve on the generator one-half turn to the left; let it remain in that position from twelve to fifteen seconds, or until the pressure gauge indicates about ten pounds, then close it firmly, but not with too much force. Turn the agitator slowly until the indicator hand of the pressure gauge remains at a fixed point, which shows that the amount of vitriol let down has been exhausted, and made all the gas it is capable of. If the desired pressure (40 to 60 Ibs., for bottling) has not been obtained, a little more acid should be let down and the opera- tion repeated. The cylinder agitator should now be turned briskly; this will cause the water to absorb the gas and lessen the pressure in the gen- erator. More gas must now be generated, by repeating the operation of letting down acid and agitating the contents of the generator. When the water in the cylinder has been thorough^ agitated, and will absorb no more gas, and the pressure gauge indicates the desired pressure, the water in the cylinder is charged, and the outlet cock may be opened, to allow the charged water to pass to the bottling table. As the water is drawn off from the cylinder, the pressure should be maintained by occa- sionally generating more gas, and allowing it to pass into the cylinder. When the water in the first cylinder has been exhausted, the inlet cock on the first cylinder should be closed, and the outlet cock on the second cylinder opened, so that the gas remaining in the first cylinder may pass over into the second. Turn the agitator of the second cylinder briskly for ten minutes or so, to enable the water to absorb as much as possible of the gas from the first cylinder. Close the outlet cocks of both cylin- ders, and open the inlet cock of the second cylinder. Proceed to charge the water in the second cylinder, as directed for the first cylinder. While the charged water in the second cylinder is being used, the first cylinder may be prepared for charging a second time. Start the clamp 294 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. on the filling plug and remove the cap to allow the gas to escape. Re- fill the cylinder three-fourths full, return the cap and clamp and screw down securely. It is well to ascertain before starting the clamp that the inlet cock is tightly closed. After the water is exhausted from the sec- ond cylinder, close the inlet cock and open the outlet cock on the first cylinder, to allow the gas remaining in the second cylinder to pass into the first cylinder. Agitate the contents of the first fountain for about ten minutes. Close both cylinder outlet cocks, and open the inlet cock of the first cylinder, to allow gas from the generator to pass over and com- pletely charge the water. Refill the second cylinder with water and pro- ceed as directed until the contents of the generator are exhausted. When the charge in the generator is exhausted, fill the empty cylinder two- thirds full of water, and allow the gas remaining in the generator to pass into it, reducing the pressure as much as possible by agitating the water. When the charge in the generator is exhausted, start the cap on the gen- erator filling bung and allow the gas to escape slowly until the pressure gauge indicates ten to fifteen pounds. Then open the blow-off cock gradually and allow the exhausted material to escape, turning the agitator constantly meanwhile. Never blow off the generator suddenly, as there is danger of collapsing the lining. When the gauge indicates that the pressure is gone, and while the exhausted charge is escaping, remove the cap from the filling bung and pour water into the generator body, turn- ing the agitator constantly to facilitate .the cleansing of the generator. The acid chamber should be thoroughly cleansed by pouring water through the filling bung, and discharging into the generator body by opening the vitriol valve. The generator should be thoroughly cleansed after each charge, as material allowed to remain will become hard and difficult to remove, and if allowed to accumulate will eventually interfere with working the generator. The contents of the purifiers will generally be discharged by syphoning over into the generator body when the charge is blown off, but in all cases the purifier blow-off cocks should be opened, and whatever water remains discharged, and the purifiers refilled before recharging. 5. To charge the Water, using one Generator and three Cylinders. "Having charged the generator and filled the cylinders as previously di- rected, and securely closed all valves, bungs and connections, proceed to charge the water in the first cylinder. Open the inlet cock on the first cylinder. Give the vitriol valve on the generator one-half turn to the left; let it remain in that position from twelve to fifteen seconds, or un- til the pressure gauge indicates about ten pounds; then close it firmly, but not with too much force. Turn the agitator slowly until the indi- cator hand of pressure gauge remains at a fixed point, which shows that the amount of vitriol let down has been exhausted and made all the gas it is capable of. If the desired pressure (40 to 60 Ibs., for bottling) has AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 295 not been obtained, a little more acid should be let down and the opera- tion repeated. The cylinder agitator should now be turned briskly; this will cause the water to absorb the gas and lessen the pressure in the gen- erator. More gas must now be generated by repeating the operation of letting down acid and agitating the contents of the generator. When the water in the cylinder has been thoroughly agitated and will absorb no more gas, and the pressure gauge indicates the desired pressure, the water in the cylinder is charged. The inlet cock should now be closed, and the outlet cock may be opened to allow the charged water to pass to the bottling table. As the water is drawn off from the cylinder, the pressure should be maintained by occasionally allowing more gas to pass from the generator into the cylinder. The water in the second cylinder should be charged while that in the first cylinder is being used, by repeating the operation as directed for charging the first cylinder. When the water is exhausted from the first cylinder the third cylinder should be partially charged, by opening its outlet cock and allowing the gas from the first cylinder to pass over into the third cylinder, first closing the outlet ccok of the second cylinder. Agitate the water in the third cylinder briskly for ten minutes, to enable the water to absorb as much as possible of the gas in the first cylinder. Then close the outlet cocks on both the first and third cylinders and open the inlet cock on the third cylinder, to al- low gas to pass over from 'the generator and complete the charging of the water. To charge the first cylinder the second time, start the clamp on filling bung, and remove the cap to allow the gas to escape. When the gas has escaped, remove the clamp and cap and fill the cylinder two- thirds full of water. When the water in the second cylinder is ex- hausted, equalize the gas into the first cylinder and proceed as directed for the third cylinder. Continue to repeat this operation until the con- tents of the generator are exhausted, equalizing the gas from the empty cylinder into the one to be charged, each time, so as to economize it as much as possible. "When the charge in the generator is exhausted, fill the empty cylinders two- thirds full of water, and allow the gas remaining in the generator to pass into them, reducing the pressure as much as possible, by agitating the water. Close the inlet cocks on all cylinders, and start the clamp on the generator filling bung, allowing the gas to escape slowly until the pressure is reduced to ten or fifteen pounds. Open the blow- off cock gradually and allow the spent charge to escape, turning the agi- tator constantly meanwhile. Never blow off the generator suddenly, as there is danger of collapsing the lining. When the gauge indicates that the pressure is gone, and while the exhausted charge is escaping, remove the cap from the filling bung and pour water into the generator body, turning the agitator constantly to facilitate the cleaning of the generator. The acid chamber should be thoroughly cleansed by filling with water 296 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. through the filling bung, and discharging into the generator body by opening the vitriol valve. The generator should be thoroughly cleansed after each charge, as material allowed to remain will become hard and difficult to remove, and if allowed to accumulate will eventually interfere with working the generator. "When the charge is blown off, the contents of the purifiers will generally be discharged by syphoning over into the generator body; but in all cases the purifier blow-off cocks should be opened, and whatever remains discharged, and the purifiers refilled be- fore recharging." Puffer's Apparatus. This set of carbonating machinery embodies all of Puffer's patent improvements: gas dome, equalizing valve, pro- pelling and repropelling agitator, low-down lever and lock, safety or relief valve, surface and quantity gauge, and anti-clogging valve, described already on page 257. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 297 Generator and fountains are made of iron, and lined as the other Puffer apparatus already described. An injecting pump may be con- nected with this apparatus if desired, or worked without it. Fig. 196 is a set of appara- tus of this style, and may con- sist of one generator and but one or several fountains as de- sired. The generator is made with and without gas dome. Fig. 197 is a generator made of copper in different sizes for charging portable fountains for the dispensing counter. To the generator is attached a pressure-gauge and safety- valve. English Intermittent Apparatus. This cut repre- sents a complete outfit or i j TI v i .B FIG. 197. PUFFER'S UPRIGHT GENERATOR. plant of English manuiacture, - and it can be seen at a glance that the American system has been adapted. The machines are constructed principally of copper. A is the gen- erator, C C and D D stationary cylinders. P is the pump for supplying the FIG. 198. ENGLISH INTERMITTENT APPARATUS. 298 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. water to either cylinder as described. In the first instance, the two cyl- inders are filled nearly full of pure water, and then charged up to a sufficient pressure, when the cocks T and L are closed. The pipe N leads to the bottling machine, and when desired the carbonated water is let on by turning either of the cocks M. When either cylinder is empty the cock is closed, and a further supply of water pumped in with pump P. The water is gauged in the cylinders by the glasses S. After filling with water the carbonic acid gas is let on by turning cock as be- fore, and by agitating with the handles, and another charge of carbonated water is made. The gas passes through the two washers E E. FIG. 199. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS I. Generator and cylinders are made of copper, the former lead, the lat- ter tin lined. The portable cylinders are charged by having a charging pipe at- tached to purifier or washer E. German Intermittent Apparatus. This cut represents an appara- tus of combined construction, viz., used with or without gasometer. A is the generator with acid chamber, pressure gauge and safety valve. B B B are purifiers. cylinder with blow-off cock, pressure gauge and mixer for salt solutions. D pipe that leads the gas either from the last purifier or from the pump into the cylinder. A gasometer is usually connected with this apparatus, from where the pump draws the AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 299 gas, or the pump is so constructed as to inject water into the cylinder to prevent waste of gas. The apparatus is made entirely of copper and tin- lined with generator lead-lined. The principle of the construction of this apparatus, Fig. 200, is to raise the necessary pressure of the carbonic acid gas in a gas reservoir that is directly connected with the cylinder. E is the generator, S the acid chamber, W the purifiers, of which one communicates with the gen- erator; the other is connected by pipe c with the gas purifier Gr. The latter is secured in a large box R, that is lined inside with tinned copper sheets and partially filled with water. Pump N N forces water from the box into the gas reservoir, thus compressing the gas contained in it. The gas reservoir being connected with cylinder M by pipe d and with FIG. 300. GERMAN (HAMBURG) APPARATUS n. the pressure gauge by pipe c, the pressure is also transferred to the others. By means of the pump the gas reservoir can be entirely filled with water and emptied by the aid of cock X X. Tube g is the equaliz- ing pipe for the bottling arrangement, tube / the same for the little mixer i. This mixer is also intended for salt solutions, and fed at the opening cock K. V is the inlet to the cylinder through which the car- bonate is getting introduced. To estimate the contents of the gas reser- voir the water gauge I is attached, which communicates at both ends with the gas reservoir. The material is copper, respectively lead and tin lined. This kind of apparatus is not much in use, as it has the grave disadvantage that the atmospheric air which the water holds in absorp- tion and is constantly connected with, will mix with the carbonic acid gas and contaminate it. 300 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fig. 201 is another German apparatus. A is the generator, a globular copper cylinder, lead lined, b charging bung, c discharge valve, D acid chamber, e flow-regulating valve, / inlet for acid, g safety valve, li gas tube, i stop valve, k agitator, mmm gas washers made of copper, n n n water inlet, o water outlet, p connecting tubes reaching down to bottom of washer, r connecting tubes from the top of washer, * stop valve, T mixing cylinder made of copper and sheet tin lined, u inlet, v mixer for salt solutions, w safety valve, z pressure gauge, a tube and cock connect- Fio. 301. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS III. ing pressure gauge with generator, x agitator, v discharge tube connected with filling apparatus. The following illustrations represent some other styles of apparatus, each one different from the other in construction. They are put up in different forms, but are alike in principle and similar in appearance to that represented by Fig. 201 and described there- after. Fig. 204 represents the smallest apparatus even without gas- washers, and is intended for the decomposition of but the purest carbo- nate, such as bicarbonate of soda, with pure diluted sulphuric acid. A new German apparatus, Fig. 206, as manufactured by N. Gressler in Halle a S-, is next illustrated. This style differs from all hitherto described. A, the generator, is divided in three chambers, the upper (to the right) contains water for washing the gas, the middle chamber contains the acid, AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 301 and the lower chamber the carbonate. To generate the carbonic acid gas the indicator on the index plate is moved from to 1, and so on until the desired pressure on the pressure gauge is indicated, then FIG. 202.- -GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS IV. FIG. 203. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS V. leave the indicator on this point; if more gas is necessary, move it to a higher number on the index plate. On large generators the movement is regulated by a mechanical arrangement. The safety valve, the agita- tor crank, the outlet for residue, the inlet for the carbonate, one for the FIG. 204. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS VI. FIG. 205. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS VII. acid and one for the water, also the outlet for the discharge of water from gaswasher are seen in illustration. A connection with a flexible rubber hose leads the generated gas over to the cylinders or fountains. 302 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES French Intermittent Apparatus. In France they construct the Ozouf " apparatus, which may be classed among the semi-continuous. FIG. 206. GERMAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS VIII. This apparatus, Fig. 208, takes but little space. In the interior of cylin- der C is the generator, acid chamber and purifier. Both the latter are in FIG. 207. GERMAN DETACHED SWINGING GENERATOR. FIG. 208. FRENCH (OZOUF) APPARATUS. the upper portion of the cylinder; the generator is of lead, the purifier of copper and tin lined, the cylinder C of sheet iron. D is the agitator for AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 303 the generator. The globular cylinder A is the mixer for water and gas, the agitator for it is D. The pump P is to inject water in cylinder A after a charge is exhausted. M is a French quicksilver manometer, opposite is the water gauge. R E F is the discharge cock with bottling arrangement. The Ozouf apparatus is also constructed with two generators, making them practically continuous in operation. Russian Intermittent Apparatus. The engraving shows an ap- paratus of Russian manufacture, which, in regard to construction, is similar to the apparatus of the other nations. The generator is of the upright type, made of iron and lead-lined. FIG. 209. RUSSIAN INTERMITTENT APPARATUS. On its top is the acid chamber securely adjusted. Three gas washers, resting in an iron bracket that is fastened to the wall, are placed between the generator and the separate fountain, of which two or more can be attached. A separate bottling machine is also shown in the illustration. The intermittent system of German and French manufacture is also exten- sively used in Russia, or machines of similar pattern constructed there. Arrangement if Liqnid Carbonic Acid is Used. This is what might be called a decidedly new feature in carbonating. Of course it is well known that carbonic acid gas has long since been liquified under pressure, but it has remained for our time to apply it practically for com- mercial purposes in making soda water. We hear that it has met with 304 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. some success, and the parties using it speak well of it as a practical carbo- nator. We will give the reader the fullest information we have concern- ing the new candidate for public favor. The whole process is very simple, and accompanying cuts clearly explain the application of the liquid acid. Fig. 210 indicates the manner in which the flask of "liquid carbon- ate " is attached to the mixing-cylinders. The trouble encountered from the contents of the flask freezing up from its too rapid exhaustion is overcome by attaching several flasks to one set of mixing- cylinders, and regulating the flow by a reducing valve. Fig. 211 shows the method followed in charging portable fountains, and the same precautions against freezing can be adopted if the work FIG. 210. LIQUID CAKBONIO ACID CYLINDER ATTACHED TO STATIONARY FOUNTAINS. must be accomplished rapidly and in a limited time. Any style of car- bonating apparatus can be readily adapted for using the gas. The manner of carbonating beverages is very plain. The illustrations show the cylinders containing the compressed carbonic acid gas. After the necessary connections to these cylinders have been applied, as shown in cuts, all that is necessary to obtain the desired amount of gas for immediate use is to open the valve on top of the cylinder, when, by turning slowly, the gas will stream through the connecting tube into the fountain containing the water or other liquid and fill the same with gas, which, by agitation, is rapidly absorbed by the water, etc. The gauge, as shown in illustrations, indicates the pressure. Therefore, when AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 305 the liquid in the fountain ceases to absorb the gas, which may be known by the gauge remaining stationary at the required pressure, after a thorough agitation the operation of carbonating the liquid is completed. With the proper connections any number of fountains may thus be charged. Aside from the pressure gauge an automatic pressure governor is recommended for attachment, as shown in illustration, Fig. 212. This governor allows the gas to enter the fountain or other suitable vesse. until the pressure in them has reached the point wanted, when it will close automatically; the pressure being controlled by turning the screw E either way, as may be required. It will thus be seen that, espec- ially for bottlers 7 use, this patent automatic pressure governor is of vast benefit, as it gives a uniform pressure in every bottle filled. It can be set from to 200lbs and can be handled and controlled with ease. 20 306 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Directions for operating: " Fasten the bracket, holding the auto- matic pressure governor on to the wall, and connect the cylinder C with the governor A by means of coupling D. As a washer use one of the small round pieces of felt furnished ; use it just as it is, as the gas will force itself through. Connect the rubber tube to the fountain con- taining the liquid to be carbonated. Lay the fountain on the rocker and open fountain cock. Loosen the hand wheel on governor by turning from right to left (until it works quite freely) . Open main valve B by turn- ing hand wheel G from right to left (as far as possible). Set gauge at the point at which pressure is desired by turning the hand wheel E on governor from left to right. Open cock F and the gas will immediately be carried through the rubber tube into the fountain con- taining the liquid. Now keep up a constant agitation by rocking the fountain. It will be found that during this agitation the indicator on gauge will recede; however, this does not matter. Keep up the agitation and it will be found that the indicator on gauge will gradually work for- ward, and when the pressure point, at which the gauge was originally set, is reached, close the cock F and shut off the gas by turning hand wheel G from left to right. This completes the operation of carbonating the liquid and it is ready for use." German Carbonating Machine with Liquid Carbonic Acid. The apparatus here illustrated is recommended by a German manu- facturer for the employment of liquid carbonic acid in the preparation of carbonated beverages. The apparatus itself is different in some respects from the American apparatus, as can be readily seen. It consists of an expansion vessel and a mixing cylinder. The former, which is connected with the receiver by a lead pipe, is provided above with a manometer as well as a safety valve. A second tube connects it with the mixing cylinder the large cylindrical vessels represented as lying upon its side which is also fitted with a manometer and safety valve, and has, besides, an opening for in- troducing the liquid to be charged with the gas, and a stirring arrange- ment to mix the contents. A pipe of block-tin, somewhat larger than the others, leads to the filling and corking apparatus, by means of which the carbonated liquid is drawn off into bottles. The mixing cylinder is FIG. 212. AUTOMATIC PRES- SURE GOVERNOR ATTACHED TO LIQUID CARBONIC ACID CYLIN- DER. A, Patent automatic pressure the gas; D, Coupling for con- necting outlet of cylinder to governor; E, Wing screw for setting the gauge to the pres- sure-point required; JF 1 , Cocks; (?, Hand wheel of main lever. AMERICAN INTERMITTENT SYSTEM. 307 also provided with a pet- cock for permitting the escape of atmospheric air, which is expelled from the water when it is first charged with the gas. The liquid carbonic acid is contained in the strong iron cylinder shown alongside of the table in an oblique condition. The reservoir, which is of wrought iron and capable of standing a great pressure, has, at one end, an inlet guarded in the interior by a valve which permits opening only inwards. After a little of the gas has been pumped in, a stop-cock at the other end is opened to let out the air. This is done sev- eral times, in order to make sure that all the air has been expelled. Then FIG. 213. GERMAN CARBONATING MACHINE WITH LIQUID CARBONIC ACID CYLINDER. the gas is pumped in continuously, until the manometer indicates a cer- tain pressure. During the process of filling, the cylinder is surrounded with ice. This expansion cylinder, however, is no necessity. Where two or more carbonic acid cylinders are attached to an apparatus or at hand the charging of a fountain can be done rapidly and directly to any pressure desired, which cannot be done from the expansion cylinder without the aid of a pump. Thus the expansion cylinder is only an accumulation of apparatus. Where a gasometer belongs to the set of machinery in use, it might be charged from a carbonic acid cylinder instead of from the generator, thus representing, or acting for, an expansion cylinder. CHAPTER XV. ACID AND SALT SOLUTION FEEDING DEVICES. A Neglected Branch of the Business. The Waldo Self- Acting Acid Feeder. The Swinging Acid Bottle. English Acid Feeder. Illner's Patent Acid Feeder. German Acid and Salt Solution Feeder. A Neglected Branch of the Business. No doubt our readers will bear us out in the remark that no part of any apparatus has so long lain dormant and needed improvement as the system of feeding acid to the FIG. 214. THE WALDO ACID FEEDER AS APPLIED TO NEW GENERATOR. A, Acid-feeder pipe; B, Acid head; C, Generator; D, Coolers; E, Supply pipe to feed gas to cooler; F, Equalizing pipe; (?, Pipe from last cooler to acid head; H, Pipe leading from cooler to fountains; No. 1, Cock to equalize gas; No. 2, Cock to supply gas from generator to cooler; No. 3, Cock to supply gas to acid head to start new charge. carbonate chamber. We append the best improvements we have ever seen, and hope the illustrations may be of value. Waldo's Self-acting Acid Feeder. The owners or patentees give the following directions for putting in a new charge: Shut cock No. 2 and ACID AND SALT SOLUTION FEEDING DEVICES. 309 fill your cooler. Open cock No. 2 and allow the gas to go into cooler after it is filled, and close cock No. 2 to shut in the cooler, the gas to start charge with. Open cock No. 1, and take off bung in generator so air can go in before you draw off the charge from the bottom; if bung is not opened, the vacuum caused by blowing off the charge will draw over all the acid in acid head, with the dead charge. When taking out dead charge, always open bung on generator to let in air to prevent draw- ing over acid. Directions for working acid feeder: 1st. After the acid, whiting and marble are in the machine, shut (all) cocks, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. FIG. 215. THE WALDO ACID FEEDER AS APPLIED TO OLD GENERATOR, WITH SECTIONAL VIEW OF SAME. 2d. Let gas into the cooler from the cylinders, or portable charged fountain (see Note No. 1). 3d. Open cock No. 3 to let gas go from cooler to acid head, (then close cock No. 3 and leave it closed until starting a new charge again); this gas will drive acid over into the generator. Keep cock No. 1 closed and draw gas, and acid will flow over. 4th. When work is stopped, open cock No. 1, and leave it open. Directions for starting a Natural Syphon: (When the bottom of the acid head is even with the top of generator, as shown in Fig. 214.) At times the pressure may be low on the machine, and it is desirable to raise gas quickly; for instance the machine has 25 Ibs. pressure and 150 Ibs. is wanted. 310 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. 1st. Close cock No. 1, which shuts 25 Ibs. gas pressure in acid head. 3d. Draw gas from generator into coolers and fountains, say 5 Ibs. gas; this reduces the gas-pressure in the generator to 20 Ibs., and leaves 25 Ibs. pressure on the acid head; this extra 5 Ib. pressure in acid head forces the acid over into the generator, while the acid is flowing (say 10 seconds); open cock No. 1, this allows the gas to equalize between the generator and acid head, and the natural syphon is established. Directions to stop Natural Syphon: The natural syphon is now flow- ing, and the gauge say 140 Ibs. or thereabouts. Shut cock No. 1, and this prevents gas from going from generator to acid head through pipes F and C; the acid in generator will make say 10 Ibs. more gas, so the gauge marks 150 Ibs. ; this extra 10 Ibs. of gas (5 Ibs. will do it) in the generator will force its way into the acid head through the feeder and equalize the gas in generator and acid head, and the flow is stopped. Some Bottlers use the Natural Syphon always. To stop natural syphon, close cock No. 1. To start acid by pressure, shut cock No. 1, and draw gas from generator. To stop flow of acid by pressure, open cock No. 1. Before bottling is stopped for the day, open cock No. 1, and work up the acid in the generator and draw it down by bottling to as low as you want it, say 40 Ibs. ; and if the charge is stirred before stopping work thoroughly, it will make no more gas during the night, and it is impos- sible with cock No. 1 open to get a drop of acid into the generator, through the feeder. Note 1. If no gas at hand to start the machinery, it can be done by pouring acid slowly and carefully through the bung in the generator; leave cocks No. 1 and 2 open until you have poured in sufficient acid to raise o Ibs. gas, then screw on bung quickly and close cock No. 2. Note 2. The cock No. 3 is always closed when the machine is charged and working. Note 3. When gas is drawn from generator into fountains with cock No. 1 closed, acid will flow in and replace the gas drawn out. Note 4. The power to work the feeder is produced by gas. The power to stop the feeder is produced by gas. Note 5. When cock No. 1 is open (except when working a natural syphon), it is impossible to get acid over. If the gauge is placed on pipe E between cock No. 2 and the bung in generator, it will indicate more correctly the pressure than if on cooler or acid head, and the gas cannot be shut off by cock No. 2. Or place it according to judgment of manufacturer. It is also desirable to connect pipe F leading from G with generator, than to connect it with pipe E, as shown in cut, so there can be no possi- ble way for water to get from cooler into acid head; this can be done by connecting pipe F with the bung shown in cut on generator, instead of connecting with pipe E as shown in cut. ACID AND SALT SOLUTION FEEDING DEVICES. 311 Swinging Acid Bottle. By swinging this acid bottle down or up- wards the flow of the contents is regulated. This style is found on some FIG. 216. SWINGING ACID BOTTLE TO BE ATTACHED TO TOP OP GENERATOR. FIG. 217. SECTIONAL VIEW OP ANOTHER SWINGING BOTTLE. generators of the English plan, and like the generator itself made also of strong lead. English Acid Feeder. Fig. 218 represents an acid feeder, already shown in illustration on another page. The method of supplying sul- phuric acid is by pouring it in at the leaden funnel. When the pipe becomes charged with sufficient acid it forms a stoppage which the gas cannot pass, as the pipe always re- mains filled to the height of the bent part or inlet on top of generator; whatever amount of acid is afterwards poured in at the funnel will be the exact amount that goes into the generator. If the pipe leading from the gen- erator becomes clogged up and will not allow the gas to pass freely, instead of straining the generator or the pipe of gasometer the acid is forced up the syphon pipe, strikes against the top of the box, and afterwards finds its level, when the undue pressure has been re- lieved from the generator, by the gas flowing into the gasometer. The pipe is generally of lead, but very often strong glass tubes are also used. This style of automatic acid feeder is fre- quently attached to continuous apparatus constructed after the English, plan. FIG. 218. ENGLISH ACID FEEDER. 312 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fig. 219 represents a glass syphon which is in some instances used to empty the acid from the tank or carboy. Once filled, by lowering or raising it the flow of acid can be regulated. As shown in Fig. 220 this kind of acid feeder is employed on apparatus of German manufacture. It is a "Woulf bottle," with registering tube a, con- nected by cock and feeding tube b with the gen- erator, and with equalizing pipe c, acid inlet d. It is a practical arrangement for low pressure appa- ratus. Illner's Patent Acid Feeder.-In Germany the high pressure (intermittent) apparatus have acid feeders attached of the FIG. 220. REGISTERING GLASS ACID FEEDER. FIG. 221. ILLNER'S ACID FEEDER. type represented by the appended illustration, which shows Illner's Patent Acid Feeder. It is made partly of glass and partly of metal and is much FIG. 222. GERMAN ACID AXD SALT SOLUTION FEEDER ATTACHED TO APPARATUS. ACID AND SALT SOLUTION FEEDING DEVICES. 313 recommended, a, iron bolts, connecting bottom and top b and c, con- sisting of metal plates and lined on the inside with hard rolled lead, d is a cylinder of very heavy and thick glass, open on both ends and air tight, connected with the metal plates, e, inlet for acid. /, a screw arrangement for regulating the valve, which closes the heavy leaden tube g. The latter leads the acid into the generator. Tube h with cock serves as pressure equalizer. At i the acid feeder may be secured to the wall. A similar pattern is represented next. German Acid and Salt Solution Feeders. These are made entirely of iron; the engraving (Fig. 222) explains itself. S is the acid feeder attached to generator, and Z the salt solution feeder attached on top of the fountain. Fig. 223 is an adjustable salt solution feeder, as frequently used in conjunction with German apparatus. FIG. 223. ADJUSTABLE SALT SOLUTION FEEDER. CHAPTER XVI. NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. A Few Pertinent Remarks. How Generators should be Lined. How other parts of the Apparatus should be Made and Finished. Tin Washed Fountains should not be Used. Silver, Porcelain, or Glass-lined Foun- tains. Apparatus should be Tested. Tin, its Properties and Purity. Test for Lead in Tin. Silver Linings. Maintaining the Apparatus. Re-lining of Fountains. Cementing Joints. Appearance of Apparatus. Formulas for Painting and Cleansing. To Silver Metallic Parts. Re- pairs on the Apparatus. Untight Lining in Generator; Danger of Ex- plosion. Apparatus for Oxygenating, instead of Carbonating, Water. A Few Pertinent Remarks. We have our own private opinion of the various systems and styles now in vogue, and in a book of a general nature, as this is intended to be, it would be an invidious proceeding to express an individual preference. This much can be safely said, how- ever, that competition has compelled manufacturers to place only first- class goods on the market, and the intending purchaser, by the exercise of average judgment, can secure a machine to fit his wants without any trouble or the payment of an exorbitant figure. It should be borne in mind, though, that a satisfactory and complete carbonating plant does not always require the many fancy trappings and numerous alleged im- provements which are sometimes tacked upon new machinery. If a practical bottler, common sense will determine what is undesirable and what will contribute to economy of material and operation. The tender- foot must go it blind. The question of the choice and purchase of ma- chinery must be settled between the manufacturers and their customers. Its true merits can only be fairly solved by actual business practice, and by scientific considerations of a comparatively abstract character. When these are not available its solution becomes simply an act of faith. All apparatus manufacturers strive to render their machines as near complete as science and ingenuity can suggest. Each has his favorite and approved plan of effecting this purpose, and partisans are not wanting to defend their favorite machine. However, no pretensions are made in this book to determine the question of superiority'' of any apparatus. We are satisfied to point out the way for arriving at the best results. In regard to the linings of the apparatus and the pipe connections, which Lave a very important influence on the purity of the beverage, we deem NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. 315 it quite necessary to call the manufacturers' special attention to the fol- lowing requirements : How Generators should be Lined. The generator, if not of lead, must be thickly lead-lined inside; rolled sheets pf lead, seamless, are a necessity; no soldered seams should be on the lining and all joints care- fully protected. Lead is insoluble in sulphuric acid and protects the body of generator from getting attacked by this strong acid. If this lead- lining is done carelessly or too thin the apparatus is in danger of destruc- tion. If the lining collapses have it immediately re-lined. How other parts of the Apparatus should be Made and Fin- ished. The agitator should be made of strong metal, copper, bronze metal, etc. The packing boxes and nuts and flanges must be tight and protected by packing. The acid chamber, tightly secured to the top of the genera- tor or separated, must also be carefully lead-lined, have a solid vitriol road, heavily lined with lead and fit exactly in the space where the vitriol passes through. On apparatus made after the English plan leaden pipes and reservoir or lead-lined or glass vessels are employed. A leaden funnel is required for filling the acid-vessels. A lead pipe must connect the generator and acid- vessel to equalize the pressure on American appara- tus. Purifiers or Washers. They are either of glass or wood where not much pressure is exerted, as on the English plan. On the American plan they are of the same material as the generator, lead-lined, and connected by means of a lead pipe with the generator and among themselves. They should contain perforated diaphragms or sieves for the purpose of break- ing and subdividing the gas bubbles, which would otherwise pass up through the water in large globules, a form incompatible with thorough purification. The condenser or compressor on apparatus after the English plan is made of gun-metal or brass; the former is preferable, and should be care- fully tin-lined in the interior. The agitator in condenser must be coated in the same way. The gasometer on the " English plan " of apparatus is generally of gal- vanized sheet iron, or of copper, carefully tinned inside. The pumps are best of bronze metal, gun metal, an alloy of copper and tin, inside thickly tinned. The plunger of the forcing pump may be of gun metal, instead of silver or glass, which it always ought to be. The fountains or cylinders on the apparatus, American plan, are generally of the same material as the generator, iron or copper. They must be tin-lined with care. Tin-washed Fountains should not be Used. This style or finish of fountain should -never be used for making or storing carbonated water. The lining should be done with heavy tin sheets, seamless, consist of two sheets only, or, what is best and more preferable; they should be lined 316 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. with rolled block-tin. No soldered linings should be accepted, as the solder, being never pure tin, will contaminate the beverages. A good tin lining will also strengthen the fountains. The agitators in fountains must be covered with block-tin, the bearings of substantial thickness, and their exposed parts protected against the highly solvent action of water, charged with carbonic acid gas. The pipes and valves connected with the apparatus must be of pure tin. Silver, Porcelain, or Glass-lined Fountains. Silver-lined foun- tains are the best for wine and cider. Porcelain or glass-lined fountains would be the most desirable for all purposes, but the great liability of these linings to crack is a serious objection to their employment. Apparatus should he Tested. The American apparatus must be tested in regard to its capacity of pressure before leaving the factory. It should be tested to stand at least double the pressure ordinarily required: 400 to 500 pounds to the square inch, of which each purchaser should convince himself before bargaining. As this pressure is several times the ordinary pressure on a steam-boiler, only the apparatus of reliable makers should be used. As the tin plays so important a part in the construction of an appara- tus, and since the purity or contamination of beverages depends so much on its purity, it is necessary for the manufacturer to get acquainted with this metal. Tin, its Properties and Purity. Banca tin is supposed the purest and best for tinning purposes. It is claimed, however, by some parties, that block-tin lining is not fully perfect, as it is porous, scaly and, like iron, unreliable. Modern science has developed nothing better for pipes and joints than block-tin yet, and the percentage of loss by leakage through its pores, furrows and breaks is not worth mentioning. We compile from scientific sources the following: ' ' Tin, in its pure state, is a white metal, almost as brilliant as silver. It possesses a very peculiar and distinct taste, and when rubbed between the fingers emits an extremely disagreeable odor. When bent, it pro- duces a peculiar crackling sound and develops great heat. It is quite malleable, and can be reduced to a very thin foil; it is also very ductile, but its tenacity is so slight that it cannot be drawn into a fine wire, as other metals like gold, silver or copper. It is one of the softest metals known, and has hardly any elasticity. If fused, it crystallizes readily, and the crystals so obtained are sometimes cubical and sometimes in the form of prisms with a square base. "Air, even when moist, has scarcely any effect on tin at ordinary tem- peratures. It causes the formation of a gray coating, consisting of pro- toxide of tin and tannic acid, which effectually preserves the metal from further alteration. Most acids, however, both mineral and vegetable, have a decided action on tin. Sulphuric acid, in a diluted state, pro- NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. 317 duces but little effect on this metal; but in a concentrated state it quickly reduces it to sulphate of protoxide of tin and develops sulphurous acid. Hydrochloric acid also has but little action when diluted, but when con- centrated, it rapidly dissolves tin, changing it into protochloride of tin, and evolving hydrogen. The action of dilute nitric acid is slow, but with four equivalents of water, as is the case with all commercial acids, the action is very pronounced. The metal is transformed into a white powder, which becomes insoluble in nitric acid, and the acid evolves clouds of vapor. The water concurs in this oxidation; its hydrogen unites with a portion of the nitrogen of the nitric acid to form ammonia, which is found in the liquor in the form of nitrate of ammonia. If the nitric acid is monohydrated, the tin may remain in contact with it for any length of time without undergoing the slightest alteration, but upon the addition of the smallest amount of water, a violent chemical reaction will set in, producing intense heat and sometimes flames. "A mixture of common salt and vinegar, if boiled in a tin or a tinned vessel, will rapidly cause its deterioration. As the acetic acid of the vinegar boils at a higher temperature than the hydrochloric acid of the salt (chloride of sodium), the acetic acid combines with the salt to form acetate of soda, and leaves the hydrochloric acid in a free state to com- bine with the tin as protochloride of tin. Hydrated alkalies attack tin by developing hydrogen, and the products of this reaction are soluble metastannates. Oxygen produces different combinations with tin, the most important ones being the protoxide, the binoxide and the peroxide of tin, and tannic and metastannic acid. A solution of saltpetre in water, boiled in a tin, or a tinned vessel, attacks the tin and transforms it into metastannic acid. " Tin, in its pure state, is so soft and so fusible a metal that it is of no practical use for manufacturing utensils which are subjected to heat, and for this reason it is rarely employed without admixture. Commercial tin is often impure, being contaminated with other metals introduced by fraud, or which are present in .consequence of the mode of extraction from the ore. A high specific gravity is an indication of impurity, and when the color of the metal has a bluish or grayish cast, the presence of copper, lead, iron and antimony may be suspected. The purer the metal is, the more distinct is its crackle, the whiter and more brilliant is its appearance, and the less does it seem to crystallize on the surface. To obtain the metal in its purest state, it should be treated with nitric acid, which dissolves all the foreign metals it may contain, transforming the tin into metastannic acid, which can then be reduced in a crucible. The arsenic which may be present in commercial tin may amount to -^ P art > which is too slight a proportion to have an injurious effect. In order to harden tin, it is alloyed with lead, which, in some instances, has been found present in as large a proportion as 18 and 20 per cent. 318 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. " Such an alloy, however, cannot be safely used, and for a long time tinned copper vessels have been employed instead. But these are open to serious objections, and many deplorable accidents have resulted from their use. The tin wash which is used for tinning copper vessels is never pure tin, but consists either of an alloy of lead and tin or of a mixture of tin, lead and bismuth, combined in various proportions, not only for the purpose of making the tin heavier and more durable, but also to facilitate the melting process. Tinned copper should not, therefore, be brought into contact with alimentary products of any kind, especially with syrups, which are all more or less acid. Even plain soda water, which has an acid reaction due to the presence of carbonic acid, cannot be kept with impunity in a tinned copper vessel. Especially is this the case when the tin surface is partially destroyed, as a galvanic action then appears to set in, owing to the presence of the two rnetals (tin and copper) in the acid beverage. While the plain carbonated water could be kept with perfect safety in a sheet-tin lined vessel, syrups could never be left in contact even with pure tin without being more or less contaminated in consequence/' Test for Lead in Tin. Apply a drop of glacical acetic acid or a drop of nitric acid; heat; after cooling apply a drop of a 5 per cent, solu- tion of iodide of potassium (5 parts dissolved in 95 parts of distilled water). Yellow stain when lead is present. (Robierre & Fordos). Silver Linings. When required to carbonate wine, cider or other aciduous substances that act corrosively on the metal, it is desirable to have the cylinders entirely lined with a thick coating of silver. Maintaining the Apparatus. In all the couplings on the generator and acid- chamber a lead washer, in the couplings of purifiers and foun- tains leather washers, must be placed to keep all joints tight and prevent loss of gas, or access of air. Occasionally disconnect and examine the pipes of apparatus. If obstructed, they should be cleaned out. Discharge from time to time some water under pressure of gas through all the valves and connecting pipes for rinsing, thus avoiding all danger of collapsing the fountain linings. The flanges and stuffing boxes of the agitators in generator and foun- tains repack frequently with cotton wick or hemp well soaked in tallow, or, what is still better, paraffine, which resists the action of acid. Screw tight with the cap again. Also repack all the valves. All the movable parts should be kept well lubricated, care being taken not to allow the oil to become gummed. Lubricating oil (Vulcan oil) serves the purpose. Examine the safety valve occasionally to see that it is in working order. Leakages. To find out leakages charge up the apparatus, close all valves and caps tightly and watch the pressure gauge. If the latter shows a gradual decrease, the caps and couplings need repacking or new washers. II NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. 319 Storage of apparatus. At the close of the season, or whenever the generator and fountains or parts of them are no more used, fill them full with pure water. After standing a few days to absorb the gas, empty and put away in a dry place Re-lining of Fountains. A fountain ought to be opened and re- lined at least once in three years if it is sheet lined. Even if block-tin lined, it ought to be looked after frequently. If the lining of the foun- tains is leaking, the carbonated water will absorb iron (in an iron foun- tain) and copper (in a copper fountain). While the first is not unwhole- some the second is decidedly so. Send your fountains to the manufacturer of the apparatus, for re-lining, to insure a good job. Never put this work in the hands of an inexperienced man, as the re-lining has to be seamless and of pure tin to prevent contamination of the beverage. Cementing Joints. To tighten joints where a leakage is visible or a hissing sound is heard, use a cement composed of Natron-water glass (silicate of soda), which can be bought in commerce as a syrup-like mass; mix thoroughly with some powdered chalk (whiting). This cement hardens very quickly and closes any leakage of joints. Another cement for resisting sulphuric acid, even at a boiling heat, may also be made by melting caoutchouc at a gentle heat, and adding, with constant stirring, from six to eight per cent, of tallow. Then mix therewith enough dry slaked lime to make the whole the consistency of soft paste; finally add thereto aboufc twenty per 'cent, of red lead, whereby the mass immediately sets hard and dry, and must therefore be quickly used. A solution of caoutchouc in twice its weight of linseed oil, aided by heating, and the addition of an equal weight of pipe clay, yields a plastic mass which will likewise resist most acids. Appearance of Apparatus. The exterior of an apparatus (next to the interior) ought to receive careful attention too. A visitor in the establishment looks admiringly on a brightly shining apparatus, which raises the value of the product in his eyes; it gives him confidence, and this is quite natural. If we see our meals cooked in dirty dishes, our appetite is spoiled. Therefore keep the exterior as well in order as the interior. Keep the entire apparatus brightly painted, light metal parts polished, and the whole always ready for inspection by any one. If the apparatus is of iron, coat it nicely with oil paint. Formulas for Painting and Cleansing. Prepare oil paint by mix- ing boiled linseed oil and white lead to a proper consistency, and add some ultramarine or any other color to give it the desired coloring. Add some siccative. A better method is to take 5 Ibs. of raw linseed oil and boil it with half a pound of manganese oxide or a little borate of manganese. Let cool and decant from the sediment, then mix with lead and coloring as di- rected before. The manganese acts as a siccative. 320 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Von Liebig's Directions are: Mix 10 Ibs. of linseed oil with 150 grammes (5 ounces) of litharge, add 300 grammes of solution of subace- tate of lead, shake well and let subside. Then add white lead and color- ing to suit consistency and color. This paint dries quickly. Tlie parts made of brass, or an apparatus, made of copper, can be kept bright by using slaked lime and woolen rags dipped in melted paraffin. The Government method prescribed for cleaning brass, and in use at all the United States arsenals, is claimed to be the best in the world. The plan is to make a mixture of one part common nitric acid and one-half part sulphuric acid in a stone jar, having also ready a pail of fresh water and a box of sawdust. The articles to be treated are dipped into the acid, then removed into the water, and finally rubbed with saw- dust. This immediately changes them to a brilliant color. If the brass has become greasy, it is first dipped in or rubbed with a strong solution of potash and soda in warm water; this cuts the grease, so that the acid has free power to act. Another method of cleansing brass is to dip in or rub with ammonia the article to be cleansed. An excellent means employed to protect bright parts of machinery from rust, consists in coating the parts with a mixture of white or yellow wax and turpentine, of a moderately thick consistency. The coating produced after a time is neither perceptible to the nose nor the touch; it, however, penetrates to such an extent into the pores of the metal as to protect it a long time against rust. Another approved method for the protection of metals as well as stone walls and different other purposes in an industrial establishment is the following: Mix one part of creosote with 5 parts of turpentine, boil until the mixture is clear. Then add 25 parts of paraffine, heat near the boil- ing point, when the mixture will be ready for use and must be used in this state, as it becomes solid at 140 F. The hot solution penetrates into the pores and forms on the surface a fine enamel coating, which protects against the injurious influences of acids, gases, salts, etc. A cleansing pomade for all sorts of bright metals may be made of ben- zine and carbonate of magnesia, mixed to a paste. This has to be kept in wide-mouth bottles, air-tight, otherwise the benzine evaporates; better prepare the paste for immediate use. Another excellent cleansing pomade for bright metals is made by mix- ing crocus or jeweler's rouge (finest oxide of iron) with nitro-benzol (ar- tificial oil of bitter almond) to the consistency of a paste. Keep as di- rected before. Both pomades are used with a woolen 'cloth and rubbed over the surface to be polished. Cleansing oil, a product of the fractional distillation of crude petro- leum (spec. grav. 0.73 to 0.75), is employed for cleansing all kinds of machine parts. It is applied by means of a rag, saturated with it. Metal- cleansing Soap. Prepare as follows: One pound of soap made NECESSARY CONDITION OF APPARATUS. 321 of cocoanut oil is cut into small pieces and heated with sufficient water to get a thick jelly-like mass. Mix one pound of red oxide of iron with some water, add ounce carbonate of ammonia, and, when the soap jelly has become cold, combine both mixtures thoroughly. This mass can be kept in stoneware jars, closed with a bladder, ready for use, and is also a valuable means for cleansing metals. To Silver Metallic Parts. For covering bright metallic machine parts (except iron) or accessories with a nice and bright coating of silver, make the following silver solution: 1 oz. of nitrate of silver and 3 oz. of cyanide of potassium (poison); dissolve in 4 oz. of distilled water, and rub this solution with a woolen cloth on the articles to be silver-coated, which have been previously care- fully cleansed from grease as formerly directed. More water than 4 oz. may be used, up to 10 oz., if but a weak silver-coating is desired. Instead of cyanide of potassium 6 oz. sulphite of soda may be used. Repairs on the Apparatus. If the generator should leak and the leak cannot be stopped by screwing the nuts and valves tight, the stuffing- boxes need repacking with hemp, etc., as already directed for other parts. If the acid chamber is leaking, screw the plunger down until it ceases to leak. When, however, the leak cannot be stopped, it needs looking after. The collapsing of linings in apparatus is liable to occur whenever by the formation of a partial vacuum the pressure in a generator or cylinder falls below the atmospheric pressure. It is liable to be caused by draw- ing off the contents of generator or cylinders, without pressure, through the lower bung or cock without opening the upper bung as a vent; or by tightly closing a generator or cylinder, without pressure, whether par- tially full of water, or containing only gas or air, when the temperature is falling. It is frequently caused by suddenly discharging the residue in generator under a high pressure, and is felt when the agitator either can be no more turned or occasions friction with the collapsed lining in turn- ing. To replace a collapsed lining it is recommended to put in a heavy charge of gas, say 200 pounds, and allow it to stand several hours. Or, with a force-pump, pump in water to 200 pounds pressure and allow it to remain several hours. Untight Lead-lining in Generator; Danger of Explosion. If the lead-lining gets untight and a rupture occurs, the cause of which may be collapsing or worn out, acid, gas and marble-dust or residue collect between the lining and the generator-body, and affect it dangerously. It should be immediately re-lined to prevent the destruction of the generator. To guard against generator explosions, the aforesaid precautions must be taken, as the acid would eat through and weaken or cause a hole in the body of generator. 21 322 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Explosions generally have been caused either by reckless charging and generating the gas, or by defective or destroyed lining not protecting the generator body from the corrosive action of the acid. Apparatus for Oxygenating, instead of Carbonating, Water. In scientific papers we see mentioned that in Europe an apparatus for oxygenating, instead of carbonating, water has been invented. It is claimed that this oxygenated water will serve as a tonic and digestible gaseous beverage. In our opinion there is no want or demand for oxy- genated water, except for the purpose of purification. Natural water has enough oxygen to make it palatable. For pungency, etc., carbon- ating is required. CHAPTER XVII. THE PROCESS OF GENERATING GAS. One of Vital Importance. General Rules for Generating Carbonic Acid Gas. Marble Dust. Whiting. Marble Dust and Bi-Carbonate of Soda. Ex plicit Directions. One of Tital Importance. The generation of carbonic acid gas is a question of vital importance to tJie mineral- water manufacturer, inasmuch as the purity of the gas affects considerably the flavor and sharpness of carbonated waters. The process of generating and purifying it is not as thoroughly under- stood as it should be. Novices are apt to regard the flavoring of the various drinks as of more importance, and bend their energies to securing good results in this particular, giving scant attention to the effervescent quality of their waters. The average bottler has but a hazy idea of the proper manipulation of his carbouating apparatus, which is frequently as much a mystery after years of use as on the first day of its arrival. By this is meant, that while perfectly familiar with its operation, the " why and wherefore " of its workings remain an everlasting and unsolvable prob- lem. This state of affairs may be attributed in no small measure to the inferior class of men that have at times embarked in the carbonating busi- ness. This assertion is made in no disparaging spirit toward the many highly intelligent and well-informed people now numbered among the fraternity. A marked improvement in this respect is noticeable in all parts of the country, and every year shows the advancement of progressive views and their practical application. No branch of the business requires more care and skillful handling than that pertaining to the production and purification of gas. The pro- cess of making the gas is extremely simple. Sufficient water and marble dust, whiting, bi-carbonate of soda, or other suitable carbonate is placed in the generator, and a proper quantity of sulphuric acid is permitted to enter, which is mixed with the marble dust, etc., by means of an agitator ; an effervescence takes place, that throws off the carbonic acid gas, which is forced by its own pressure into the purifiers, gasometers, etc., and thence into the fountains, cylinders or condensers, as the case may be. Despite the evident simplicity of the process, careless and ignorant opera- tors frequently " charge up " without the slightest idea of the damage, 324 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. delay and consequent annoyance and trouble they may cause by not ob- serving the precautions invariably necessary in operating any and every style and make of apparatus. There may be different ways of admitting the vitriol, agitating the generator and checking the pressure, but all manufacturers of machinery are united in requesting that a fair amount of caution and care be exercised in priming or charging a generator. Not that there is any particular danger, but to prevent the clogging of pipes, caking of the carbonate and other troubles bound to arise when careless workmen are permitted around. After the generator has received its charge of water and marble dust (which will be selected as the carbonate most commonly used in this coun- try) and a small amount of acid has been admitted, the valve or plunger should be closed and the generator turned slowly. A bubbling of gas in the purifiers will be heard. The gauge attached indicates the exact state of affairs inside the generator. The pressure should be gradually in- creased, while keeping up the agitation at regular intervals, thus allowing a slow, easy flow of the gas. When the valve is very gradually opened for passing the gas into the fountains, say in the neighborhood of 145 to 150 pounds pressure, by adding more acid or increasing or diminishing the current of gas, a uniform pressure is preserved, which should not vary many pounds one way or the other. When this mode of procedure is followed no trouble will ensue from clogged pipes or contaminated bev- erages. But when the operator is slipshod or haphazard in his method of charging, and allows the gas to reach a considerable height in the gen- erator before opening the valve leading into the purifier, which lie does suddenly, the rush of gas is bound to carry over a portion of the charge, clogging up the apparatus and frequently carrying a portion of it clear over into the fountains or cylinders. Extremely careless carbonators allow the pressure to run up to over two hundred pounds, and then back to sixty or eighty, a practice reprehensible to the last degree, as such extremes strain the generator, force the gas over into the purifiers too rapidly and always choke up the pipes. A safe rule to follow is to maintain a uni- form pressure, agitate the material slowly and regulate the flow of acid. A sudden flow of gas from the generator has a tendency to carry over a portion of the acid and other deleterious material, which, were it not purified, would enter the fountain and contaminate its contents. When the gas is, from accident or otherwise, allowed to rush through the pipes in a strong current, its purification is incomplete and has a tendency to cause ropiness. The directions for operating the different styles of apparatus we have appended to the descriptive explanations in the foregoing part. General Rules for Generating Carbonic Acid Gas. Charge the generator with the required proportions of carbonate and water. The usual proportions are for THE PROCESS OF GENERATING GAS. 325 Marble Dust. 1 gall, sulphuric acid = 2 galls, marble dust=4 galls. of water; or 2 galls, sulph. acid =5 galls, of marble dust=?-J to 10 galls, of water. If the materials are of inferior quality, it is necessary to vary these proportions, and many manufacturers prefer to use the marble dust rather in excess, since it is cheaper than the acid, than to have the latter in ex- cess. When marble dust is used, the agitator should be turned every few minutes after the dust is put into the alkali-chamber, to prevent the mass from setting and causing tlie agitator to stick ; the marble dust is poured into the water in generator, which was previously introduced. Whiting. To expel all the gas from whiting it takes in practice about equal weights of acid and whiting. The exact proportion is: 98 Ibs. of sulphuric acid and 100 Ibs. of whiting. The whiting should be mixed with water to a consistency somewhat thicker than thick whitewash before being put into the generator, if it is in a lumpy condition. When the whiting is in a powdered state, its mixing with water before going into the generator is quite unnecessary and is a disadvantage, it taking extra time and soils the factory. The whiting should be put into the generator dry, and when water is let on to it it is easily mixed to the consistency of batter by means of the agitator, or the whiting may be poured into the water previously introduced. Marble Dust and Bi-carbonate of Soda. Some manufacturers use about one pound of bi-carbonate of soda to every gallon of marble dust. It facilitates the cleansing of the generator after the charge is ex- hausted to some extent, but is in general of no practical utility, except that the quality and quantity of the gas will be somewhat improved. When added in larger proportions, the gas, of course, will be generated more freely and agitation rendered easier, but it would be too expensive for everyday use. Explicit Directions. Examine or, better, sift the marble dust or whiting, or any other carbonate that may be used, before being introduced into the generator, as they sometimes contain barrel nails or other hard substances which are liable to injure the generator-lining. Never use material to exceed nine-tenths of the capacity of the generator body; if possible fill not over four-fifths. One gallon of water and one gallon of marble dust, when thoroughly mixed, make but one and one-half gallons, and when the due proportion of acid has been let down, about half a gallon, the amount will fill about two gallons, so, for instance: 5 gallons of marble dust and 5 gallons of water fill about 7 gallons. Add the quantity of acid to be used, say 2-J gallons, and the generator will be filled with about 10 gallons. To ascertain the capacity of apparatus apply the following rules : 1. Measure capacity of vitriol pot, use twice as many gallons of marble dust and about an equal quantity of water ; then fill vitriol pot and begin, providing the combined amount of marble, water and vitriol does not 326 A TREATISE ON BEVEEAGES. exceed four-fifths. If more is used, foaming is liable to occur, clogging the pipes and spoiling goods. One gallon of marble dust is equal to 13| Ibs. ; one gallon of sulphuric acid is equal to 15 Ibs. ; 15 Ibs. of sulphuric acid should exhaust 25 Ibs. of marble dust. In very cold weather use warm water in generator. Do not leave water in the generator during coldest weather. If it freezes it will surely burst the generator. Put the carbonate in immediately before commencing operation, never long in advance, as it is liable to become hard. After the carbonate is in, carefully wipe off any grit that may be on the screw-thread of the charging bung, grease the screw-thread and then tightly screw on the tap. Close the discharge valve tightly, and the valve leading over to fountains. 2. The cylinders should first be carefully cleansed by rinsing with clean water. Then fill them to three-fourths of their entire capacity with purified water, and if desired add some syrups, such as for birch beer, gin- ger ale, root beer, mead, spruce, tonic beer ; mix and charge. But care should be taken not to let this liquid be too long in the fountains, as the syrup would react on the linings, and especially so where citric or tartaric acid are parts of the components; however, the effect would not be dan- gerous to health. 3. Fill the purifiers about two-thirds with pure water, adding some of the remedies for the chemical purification of the gas as suggested under "Purification of Carbonic Acid Gas." Change the water in the gas- washers every time the generator is charged and renew the chemicals. 4. Fill the acid-chamber by the aid of a leaden funnel. Examine the acid carefully before it is poured into the acid-chamber, as it sometimes contains small pieces of glass from the carboy or other hard substances which would ruin the acid valve or seat if allowed to jam between them. Before putting in the acid be sure that the acid-valve is closed. The acid should be put in immediately before commencing the operation, not in advance for another day. 5. Before generating the gas, be sure to try the lever of the safety valve, so as to see that it works free and does not stick upon its seat. Do not disturb the valve after commencing operation. 6. See that the pressure gauge points at 0. The hand of the gauge should never be turned around with the finger, as the pressure rod is liable to be affected and its accuracy therefore destroyed. 7. Having seen that all the couplings and caps are in their places and fastened tight but gently, so as to prevent the escape of gas and the access of air, begin the operation by raising the lever of the acid-chamber or turning the wheel arrangement but slightly. Let down a small quan- tity of the vitriol from time to time f turning the agitator between times. A THE PROCESS OF GENERATING GAS. 327 bubbling of gas will be heard in the generator and purifiers, making its escape from the marble dust or whiting, etc. The gauge will be seen to move, which should be watched to know the progress of the operation. Never generate more than a hundred pounds of gas Blow off the atmospheric air from the generator and recharge if necessary. 8. The gas should now be allowed to pass over into the fountains. Give the valve but a slight turn, first a fourth, and then half a turn decidedly no more, as otherwise the contents of the generator will over- flow into purifiers and fountain. Constantly agitate the water in the foun- tain while charging. When the gas ceases to flow over (when no more bubbling is heard) the pressure is equalized, that is, pressure in fountain and generator is equal. If more pressure is required, generate it slowly. The fountain may also be charged while agitating the gas in generator. Open connecting valve with fountains and inlet valve on top of the fountain but slightly, as directed before, and generate the gas care- fully. Agitate briskly in the fountain for about ten minutes while the gas passes in. This will diminish the pressure of the carbonic acid, but it must be maintained as nearly as possible at the standard height by evolving more gas in the generator. Repeat these operations until the water ceases to absorb the gas; this is known when the pressure gauge remains stationary at the required pressure after the thorough agitation of the liquid. Then shut off the fountain, and the liquid is now ready for bottling; the valve connecting the conducting tube to bottling ap- paratus may be opened. The cause of foaming in generator is more frequently improper charg- ing than improper materials. If the color of a batch of strawberry, for instance, mysteriously disappears, or a bright red changes into a pale or yellowish red, you may be sure acidified liquid from the generator has been carried over into the fountains. Mind particularly, when, for in- stance, a pressure of 140 or 160 pounds is required, to shut down the acid valve when it indicates 1 00 pounds, as the pressure in consequence of the abundance of acid will rise much higher, say to about 150 pounds. Any deficiency in gas can be generated afterwards. Blow off the atmos- pheric air before proceeding to bottle. 9. In case the generator should be overcharged by accident, the safety valve should blow off the superfluous gas. If necessary the cap of gen- erator may get a turn or two to allow some gas to escape, but decidedly do not open it, otherwise the whole contents would be discharged vio- lently. Do not open discharge valve, as it would cause the collapsing of the lining. When the fountains are properly charged, shut valve in acid- chamber tightly, close valves on fountains; be sure of this, otherwise the contents will syphon over when the pressure of either one is relieved. 10. The more thoroughly the water in fountains is agitated and the cooler the temperature of the liquid is, the more gas it will absorb 328 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and the more pungency the beverage will acquire. In summer time in some establishments the fountains are surrounded by a wooden box filled with ice or by cloths, perpetually kept wet, to keep them cool, or the purified water for charging the fountain is run through a tin coil covered with ice, to cool it. Flatness in carbonated beverages is due to lack of gas. Carbonators, as a rule, make no provision for the temperature of the water to be charged. If the water is kept at a temperature of about 50 F. it will be in proper condition for carbonating, and will the more readily absorb gas. Manufacturers apparently neglect this requisite of their goods. The flavor of a beverage is materially developed by the pungent efferves- cence of the liquid. 11. A charged fountain ought to be discharged as soon as possible. The pressure is diminished by standing, the water absorbing the gas if the temperature does not rise. After standing it is well to turn a little more gas into the fountains before commencing to bottle the beverage. If the temperature is rising, the water in fountains will separate from some of the absorbed gas, and this will collect above the surface of the water and escape first when discharging. Maintain a uniform pressure in the fountains while the beverage is being bottled, by evolving more gas in the generator, allowing it to enter into the fountain. Do not keep the pressure in generator and fountains longer than absolutely necessary, not only to save the apparatus from a long strain, but especially for the benefit of the beverage, which will profit by being bottled immediately. 12. Never charge several fountains at the same time. Charge one after the other. When a fountain is exhausted, distribute the remaining gas as already directed. When a pump is available, pump in water against the pressure of this gas, agitate, and impregnate the water, thus saving the remaining gas. 13. Emptying the apparatus and recharging: After fountains have been discharged and the contents in generator is exhausted, empty and recharge. Close the valve between generator and purifiers and then open the discharge valves of purifiers and let the water run out. On some apparatus there is no valve between, and the contents of the latter will discharge with the generator syphon over when the latter is discharged. In this case discharge first the generator, otherwise its contents would obstruct the purifiers. After opening the discharge valve of generator to let out the refuse, turn the agitator quickly. A pressure of 5 to 10 pounds may be left to blow out the residue. Allow no residue to remain; it must be blown out immediately, otherwise it gets hard, is difficult to remove and would injure the lining. If too high a pressure is used for blowing off the residue, the lining will collapse. Wash out the generator thor- oughly; also the acid-chamber. 14. Rinse the fountains after every operation, as an impure water may THE PROCESS OF GENERATING GAS. 329 have left a sediment; if flavored syrups have been introduced, rinsing is especially necessary. Once in a while unscrew all piping and rinse them; it will do good. Screw them tightly to their joints again. Kenew the washers in the couplings, and use lead washers on generator and leather washers on fountains. 15. After the liquid contents of a fountain is exhausted, the remain- ing gas may be entirely or partly saved. If a pump is attached to the apparatus, inject water into the fountain and agitate. Operate as for- merly directed. If no pump is available, pass the remaining gas of an exhausted fountain into the next or second fountain, which is either yet uncharged or charged with a lower pressure than the remaining gas exerts; simply divide the remainder among the different fountains and thus save some gas. The balance blow off by loosening the cap. But if a fountain was charged with any flavored liquid, such as root beer, tonic beer, etc., we strongly advise not to utilize the remaining gas of such an exhausted fountain for carbonating the liquid of another, as the gas is loaded with flavor which would impair the next liquid, which possibly is destined to get quite a distinct other and delicate flavor, for instance lemon, etc. 16. Hard residue. If the residue is hard and clings to the side and bottom of generator, fill in hot water and turn the agitator quickly for some time, then open discharge valve, agitating briskly. Another remedy is to mix equal parts of sulphuric acid and water, pour into the generator and turn the agitator slowly, in one direction only, until the obstruction is removed. To prevent the residue from getting hard, discharge immediately with five or ten pounds of pressure, after the generator is exhausted. In no case should extreme force be used to turn the agitator. Never use sticks or sharp instruments to turn the residue loose, as the lead lining is liable to get injured to the great disadvantage of the apparatus. 17. Recharge and operate again as directed. 18. Grease of any kind will " kill " carbonic acid very quickly Parts of machinery coming in contact with the carbonated liquid, such as the inner surface of a pump cylinder, should therefore be kept well protected against the presence of lubricating oil or grease. The same holds good for all portions of the apparatus, from the generator to the final exit of the beverage at the bottling bench. 19. Gasometer. The water in gasometer should be renewed every one or two weeks when impure carbonic acid has passed through; under ordinary circumstances it should be changed every month. Use only pure water, either boiled or filtered; impure water is decidedly to be avoided. Whenever the water is changed, the gasometer vat ought to be thoroughly and carefully cleansed from foul sediments or separations which are at the bottom or cling to the sides. The use of water is sometimes connected with inconveniences and -L 11O U 330 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. trouble. In summer time it must be more frequently renewed to prevent its becoming foul. In winter time it is liable to freeze. Apart from this, the water absorbs part of the carbonic acid gas and separates instead a cor- responding amount of atmospheric air. A proper substitute for water are the aqueous solutions of neutral salts. Dr. Hirsh recommends the addition of 5 to 10 per cent, either of sul- phate of magnesia or of chloride of calcium, that is, to 12 gallons of water 5 to 10 Ibs. of either salt. This solution keeps for years without requiring renewal or purification. It freezes but at very low tempera- ture, and has a very limited solubility for carbonic acid or atmospheric air. The addition of -fa per cent of alum to water in gasometer- vat, or vege- table or animal charcoal, occasionally renewed, will preserve it for a few months, but alum reacts on the metal of the gasometer- bell and should therefore be left out. Oils, alcohol, glycerine are too expensive, alka- line or aciduous liquids unfit for use. The' gasometer-bell keep always properly balanced, so it can easily rise and the carbonic acid gas get space for expansion. PART FOURTH. BOTTLING. APPARATUS BOTTLES BOTTLE WASHING LABEL- ING AND FOILING PATENT STOPPERS SYPHONS. CHAPTER XVIII. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. The Operation. Filling Machines. Syruping Apparatus. Syrup Recepta- cles. Practical Bottling. Bottling Pressure. Testing Carbonated Bev^ erages. Expelling of Air in Bottling. Sanitary Condition of Bottling Establishment. Suggestions. Storage and Shipment of Carbonated Beverages. Boxes and Crates. The Operation. The operation of bottling carbonated beverages is now almost universally performed by the means of Bottling Apparatus, which renders their manufacture much more profitable. The filling-ma- chines may be placed at any convenient distance from the apparatus, the length of pipe only has then to be increased. This connecting-pipe is better throughout of pure block- tin. On American apparatus a flexible rubber hose is attached to connect with the apparatus, which should be of the best kind, compact, and stand the required bottling-pressures; it can be preserved and protected by laying it in melted paraffine of 100 C. (312 F.). Filling Machines. The following illustration represents a type of the bottling-machines in use in the United States for bottling beverages. "Pig. 224 shows the apparatus arranged for bottling with corks, the Matthew's plunger syrup gauge attached. The description is as follows: a and 6, gauge screws to cork gauge /, and d, cork gauge. This attach- ment enables all the corks to be driven uniformly and to the proper depth into the mouth of the bottle. When the cork is well in, the hot- 332 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. tling-cylincler may be raised sufficiently to allow the cork to be readily secured with the cork -fastener, c is an air valve or escape valve for the atmospheric air in bottle ; e, cylinder rods ; g, bottling- cylinder with rubber packing inside; h, automatic screen; {, quart pot; j, pint pot; k, hand lever; I, walking-beam of the automatic screen; m, foot lever; n, FIG. 224. MATTHEWS' BOTTLING TABLE. balance weight of the automatic screen; o, and p, suspension rods of spring ; r, syrup-cock of syrup gauge ; u, cap of water valve of syrup gauge; x, lever of syrup gauge; y, balance weight of hand lever. When Hutchinson patent stopper bottles are used, it is necessary to adjust a special bottling attachment for stoppers into corking tables, or use a special bottling-machine, as illustrated by the next figure. The bottling or filling part of this machine is called the " Hutchinson BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 333 FIG. 225. HUTCHINSON BOTTLING TABLE AND ATTACHMENT. Attachment/' and may be adjusted into the corking machines. To do so, remove the cross bar that holds the cork plunger, also remove the filling head. Put in the stopper attachment, and have the bracket that holds the lever for pulling up stop- pers between the cross bar holding filling head and back nut that holds the filling head in place. This gives the lever ample play, so that the stopper can be pulled to its closed position. This machine is put up by James W. Tufts, to be employed only where patent stoppered bottles are used. The next cuts represent types of bottling apparatus in use in England, Germany, France, etc. For filling ball-stoppered or any other kind of internal stoppered bottles, bottling-machines of various de- vices are offered. For filling syphons special syphon fillers, with or without syrup gauges, are employed. Figs. 229 and 230 show the " Monarch Turnover Filling Machine " (patented), with syrup pump. It is especially adapted FIG. 226. TUFT'S PLAIN BOTTLING MACHINE. 334 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. for internal bottled stoppers (glass ball stoppers) and is adjusted with air valve to permit the escape of air from the bottles. A filling and corking apparatus (Fig. 231) for power is represented by the next illustration. Where a large cork trade is done, this power machine is a practical and convenient means for driving in corks satisfactorily and at a great rate of speed. It is fitted with syrup pump and cork feeder. The bottles are directly delivered to the wirers. During the filling process the FIG. 227. ENGLISH FILLING MACHINE. atmospheric air is removed from the bottles. It can be stopped in a mo- ment. It is automatic in its action, each motion following in rotation, and fills each bottle to the proper height. The power required to work is very slight, and it is claimed that one boy or girl can syrup, fill, and cork 60 to 70 dozen per hour, with ease Another automatic syruping and filling machine for patent stoppered bottles is represented by Figure 232. A sectional view of this ma- chine is shown in the " General arrangement of Soda-water factory" on page 199. They are made for large and small factories, " one- BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 335 bottle" and "two-bottle" machines with stationary bottle rests. Every machine has two sizes of cork cones and plungers, striking gear, shoot for bottles, spanners and holding down bolts. It can be worked by one girl, who has only to feed the machine, the discharge being automatic. Any size of bottles will be filled and syruped. The filled bottles are delivered to the wirer automatically. A guard is in front of the bottles when at work. The illustration (Fig. 233) represents another pattern of a power bottling machine, The machine, as shown in this illustration, is of English manu- FIG. 228. FRENCH FILLING MACHINE. faeture also, and consists of an upright massive frame, on which revolves a large disc, driven by geared countershaft at back, provided with fast and loose pulleys and fly-wheel. At each revolution of this disc a bottle is eyruped, filled, snifted, and corked. The operator stands facing the ma- chine, and with the right hand places a bottle on the block, and with the left removes a full one and passes it to the wirers. As the machine supplies itself with corks automatically, a few moments' practice is suf- ficient for the bottler to learn the movements. This filling and corking machine will, it is claimed, syrup, fill and cork from 50 to 80 dozens per hour of every description of carbonated waters, in all sized bottles. 336 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fig. 234 is quite a new and ingenious machine for filling internally stoppered bottles by steam power whilst such bottles are in the boxes. This invention dispenses entirely with the necessity of handling the bottles, thus obviating the labor of the ordinary manner of filling internally stoppered bottles. A box is placed on the machine and the bottles are filled either three, four or six at a time. The latest machine introduced to the trade in the United States for bottling and closing or sealing the bottles is illustrated by Fig. 235. This bottling- machine for carbonated beverages is constructed on the same general principles as those used for corks, and is composed entirely FIG. 229. FIG. 230. FIGS. 229 AND 230. MONARCH TURNOVER FILLING MACHINES. of metal. It is specially constructed for the employment of the " Bottle Seal," which we describe under "patent stoppers" later on. An auto- matic "snifter " and overflow economizer are especially notable, while the filling and corking is governed by the treadle alone; a safety relief valve relieves the bottles of excessive gas pressure when sealed, allowing it to escape from the bottle, at the moment of sealing. Syruping Apparatus. An important and indispensable contrivance calculated to facilitate the process of bottling carbonated beverages is the syrup gauge. This is a device for enabling the syrup to be rapidly and accurately measured and delivered into the bottle. It may either be attached to the bottling-machine or entirely separate from it. Figs. 236, 237, 238 and 239 represent the syrup-gauges and pumps gen- BOTTLING APPAEATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 337 FIG. 231. ENGLISH POWER FILLING AND CORKING APPARATUS. 22 338 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 339 Fia. 334. ENGLISH RAPID POWER BOTTLING MACHINE. 340 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. erally used in. the United States, and are attached directly to the bottling machine. Their capa- city is from f of an ounce to 4 ounces of syrup per stroke, and the desired quantity is regulated by means of a movable pin or screw which guides the pumping strokes. By repeating strokes, any desired quantity of syrup may be gauged in one bottle. All these syrup gauges or pumps are made with close-fit- ting hard rubber plungers, which fill the entire cylinder that is to say, they admit and discharge the syrup from the same end of the piston. It is necessary to have the syrup cans or tanks elevated in order to deliver the syrup to the syrup gauges. A gauge with suction pump will draft the syrup whether elevated or not. The syrup gauges and pumps are made of brass and ought to be carefully and frequently tin or silver lined inside, as the acidified syrups which are compelled to pass through all parts of it would soon affect the metallic body and get tainted FIG. 235. BOTTLING AND SEALING MACHINE. FIG. 236. MATTHEWS' PLUNGER SYRUP GAUGE. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 341 with metallic impurities itself, and consequently contaminate the bev- erages. We have seen syrup gauges entirely covered with verdigris on the inside, and this is another point where the carbonator should exercise the closest scrutiny and cleanliness. The gauge must be frequently cleansed, and whenever the lining is worn out at once re-lined. The syrup can is connected with the gauge by means of a flexible ibbe v V>se with the inlet of gauge as shown in Fig. 236. The other inlet Fio. 237. PUTNAM'S SYRUP GAUGE. is connected with the supply pipe for the plain carbonade, and A is the outlet for both the syrup and the beverage. F is the handle for operating the solid plunger; K is the connecting rod; T is a guide for the crank which operates the solid plunger, and H is a movable pin for regulating the stroke of the plunger, and thus gauging the quantity of syrup to be delivered to the bottle. In attaching the gauge to the cylinder of the bottling table, pack the joint with cotton wick or place a washer in the female of the filler head and screw tight. The inlet B should be attached to the conducting tube of the fountain containing the beverage in such a way as not to interfere with the action of the lever of the gauge. Care FIG. 238. SLOCUM SYRUP PUMP. should be taken to keep the plunger oiled with a few drops of sweet oil that it may not work hard. Should the gauge leak at the stuffing box of the plunger, tighten the nut ; but do not tighten it any more than just enough to stop the leak, as otherwise the plunger would work hard. If the syrup or water- valve leaks, take it out and clean off the face, remov- ing whatever obstruction prevents it from closing, and then replace the irts as they were. parts as th 342 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. To operate the gauge: first, regulate the supply of syrup by placing the pin in the proper hole, pull the handle F to the right; this will cause the plunger to move in the opposite direction and a vacuum will be pro- duced in front of the plunger, causing a poppet valve to open and admit the syrup from the inlet C. On the return stroke, the inlet syrup valve is closed by the pressure of the syrup in the cylinder, and the outlet syrup valve opened, admitting the syrup to the bottle through the outlet A. When the plunger reaches the end of its return stroke it presses upon the FIG.J239. TUFT'S SYRUP PUMP. spindle of another poppet valve, thereby opening it and admitting the beverage to the bottle from the inlet B through the outlet A. When plain carbonades are to be bottled, close the cock on the syrup inlet C and work the handle so as to allow the carbonado to enter the bottles as desired. The next cuts represent English styles of syruping arrangements to facilitate the bottling process and are likewise to be attached to the bottling machine. The action of ejecting the syrup, and afterwards the carbonated water BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 343 into the bottle, is done by pulling the handle over, the return motion taking a fresh charge into the pump, and by pressing on the handle the Fio. 240. ENGLISH SYRUP GAUGE. valve is opened and the carbonated water then follows. Should carbon- ated water only be required, it is only necessary then to press on the handle. The barrel of this pump is of glass; the bucket is made of properly i FIG. 241. ANOTHER ENGLISH SYRUP GAUGE. prepared leather and vulcanite ; the metal parts are coated with tin and silver. Fig. 241 consists of a pump in combination with a bottling valve, 344 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. wljdch can be attached to any bottling-table for the purpose of measuring and forcing the syrup into the bottle at the same time as it is filled. This action is as follows: It is attached to the bottling rack by the lugs E E, one 01 which is the outlet, and screws into the mouth-piece. The ends of the cocks A B are connected by pipes to the reservoirs of syrup, each pump being supplied with two cocks to facilitate the use of either of two syrups by merely opening their respective cocks. The union D is con- nected with the condenser of the soda-water machine. To charge a bottle, pull back the lever C to the full extent, which syrups the bottle, push it back again, and by grasping the lever and union D together in the hand, press back the bottling valve F, which fills the bottle. The valve will close itself on being released. G is a screw to regulate the quantity of syrup. To regulate the quantity of syrup, take off the connecting rod by re- moving the two nuts at the ends ; then slack the screw G, and you will be able to screw or unscrew the end. To increase the quantity of syrup, lengthen the rod by unscrewing the end to decrease the quantity, screw it closer in so as to shorten the rod; then tighten up the screw G, replace the rod as before, and fasten it by means of the nuts. For certain purposes it may be desired to have the syrup-gauge sep- arate from the bottling machine, and the illustrations (Fig. 242, 243) show the gauges attached to proper supports. The bottle is placed upon the plate and brought to the filling-head of the gauge by means of a treadle. A stroke of the piston measures the syrup into the bottle, the quantity being gauged by a pin in the guide. Those gauges which are attached to the bottling-machine are the most convenient, for they enable the syrup to be measured into the bottle at the same time that the bottle is charged with water. There are various forms of syrup gauges attached to the varying styles of bottling-machines, but all intended to accomplish the same, viz.: to accurately gauge the syrup in the bottle continously while the process of bottling is in progress. In England there are for rapid syruping of bottles which are being filled with small beers, such as ginger beer, horehound beers, etc., various apparatus employed. This illustration (Fig. 244) shows an English rapid syruping arrangement. The action is explained by the drawing. When the bottle is put on the tube it tilts the cup up at the other end, and the syrup runs in from the cistern along the tube into the bottle. The cistern is of white china ware, and is covered with glass, and the fittings are all silvered, so that cleanliness is preserved throughout. A patent recently taken out for an arrangement to keep syrup and the flavoring extracts, fruit-acids, colors, etc., separate, and combine them in the act of bottling or drawing, we do not consider advisable from the chemical point of view. This matter we shall consider particularly later on in the chapter of " Compound Syrups." BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 345 346 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. It is impossible to pump saccharine beverages from a solution pan through a continuous machine to be impregnated with carbonic acid gas, as the mixture would froth so much as to be unmanageable and there is danger of corroding the interior of the pump and condenser. Even where the semi-continuous or the intermittent system is employed, as especially in the United States, it is decidedly not advisable to admit the syrup into the fountains and mix and charge with the water, as the same objections must be raised, although the frothing will not be as excessive as when charged with a continuous machine; however, the same danger of corroding the lining of the fountains prevails, and rapid bottling impossible, time being necessary to allow the froth to subside before the bottle is entirely filled. Exceptions may be made when either the semi-continuous or inter- mittent system is employed : when the syrup gauge is out of order or the syrup cans are getting re-lined and no reserve cans are at hand, or in FIG. 244. ENGLISH SYRUPING ARRANGEMENT. other cases of temporary necessity. It is even customary with some of the manufacturers to admit the syrup into the fountains regularly, viz. 9 for birch beer, root beer, spruce beer and tonic beer and the like, as mentioned under " Compound Syrups," and where a properly lined foun- tain is employed and the mixed and charged beverage is immediately dis- charged, i.e, bottled, no objections may be made. It is, however, difficult or almost impossible to cleanse a fountain which has been once used for these beverages, so that plain carbonados can be made in it without ac- quiring a taste of the flavoring. In all other cases it is necessary to insert the needful charge of syrup into each bottle previously to admitting the carbonated water, and practically in the act of bottling, and for this pur- pose the syrup gauges and syrup pumps are employed. In former times it was done by placing a number of bottles side by side, and pouring the requisite charge of syrup into each from a measure or a ladle, but this took up too much time, and was connected with considerable waste of syrup. It may be done yet where a very limited business is carried on, but for practical purposes it would not do. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 347 Syrup Receptacles. These are the necessary conjunctions of the bottling machine with syruping arrangement. They contain the ready- made and previously flavored syrup which feeds the syrup gauge or syrup pump, and is intended for flavoring carbonated water. It is necessary or at least advisable, where different beverages by a continuous bottling pro- cess are being produced, to have for each kind of flavored syrup a separate syrup can or tank, which can be quickly and without delay connected with the syrup gauge and bottling machine. In Fig. 245 a syrup tank as frequently used is represented. They are generally of copper and tin- lined, or entirely of tin with register, rubber hose and tap. This tank is made of heavy copper, well lined with block-tin; and the top edge is turned over outward, forming a tubular bead, which serves FIG. 245. SYRUP CAN. to hold in place the cord with which the wet cotton cloth for supporting the filter paper is retained. The cock is placed so low that every drop of syrup may be drawn off. Strong handles are provided for moving it, and a substantial cover serves to keep out dust. It is highly important to avoid any exposure of flavored syrups to cop- per, lead or zinc, as its chemical action on such metals results in a con- tamination which not only destroys its beneficial effects, but renders it positively noxious. Ordinary tin vessels should be banished from the bottling establishment. Galvanized iron tanks are unfit for syrup recep- tacles, as the syrup would be contaminated by the zinc, which is the coating of such tanks. To secure perfect purity it is necessary to use syrup tanks lined with good block or sheet tin, thus making any contact of the syrup with injurious metal absolutely impossible. 348 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Porcelain-lined syrup tanks or slate tanks or glass vessels are the best, as even tin will be gradually attacked by the syrup and the citric and tar- taric acids it contains. These slate tanks are supplied with three or four divisions or compartments. They are practically covered with glass plates to keep the dust off. They may also be used as mixing-tanks for mineral- water solutions. The contents are drawn from the cock at the bottom. No metal faucets should be attached to syrup receptacles; faucets of glass or porcelain are the best. Glazed earthenware vessels should not be used, since it is known that into their finish chemical compounds, lead, etc., enter, which injuriously affect the syrups and even destroy their flavors. To detect lead in glazed or tinned enameled vessels, and to make sure of their unfitness as a syrup tank, proceed as follows: Carefully clean them Fio. 246. SLATE SYRUP TANK. from grease, if necessary by application of caustic soda lye. Then apply a drop of nitric acid or king water, and heat; after cooling apply a drop of a 5 per cent, solution of iodide of potassium (5 parts dissolved in 95 parts of distilled water). A yellow stain is visible when lead is present. In large establishments quite extensive arrangements in syrup tanks are necessary, and they are better stationary, connected with the syrup making and filtering apparatus and by means of tubing directly connected with the bottling machine, as illustrated under " Syrup Making/' later on. This useful article (Fig. 247) is a great saving of labor and waste. The row of unions A are connected to the different kinds of syrup by means of tin pipes being attached. The pipe'B goes to syrup union on filling machine. By turning any of the taps C any kind of syrup is supplied without any trouble. These junctions should be placed in reach of the bottler, on a suitable board or wall. They are made of pure block tin and gun-metal, thickly tinned inside and out, and can be supplied with any number of branches. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 349 The connector (Fig. 248) is for the purpose of enabling three to six or more syrups to be put into the one filling machine ; or, by turning it over so that the single pipe is at the top, one syrup can be drawn for sup- plying six or more machines, as may be required. Practical Bottling. After the apparatus is properly charged, the syrup ready and the bottling machine in order, also after the corks have been previously well prepared according to the directions given under " Corks, " proceed as follows: Place the bottle in position as shown in illustration, and press down the foot lever until the filling head is held firmly on the mouth of the bottle, (on some bottling machines the bottle is raised upwards and pressed against the filling head). With the right hand raise the hand lever, and FIG. 247. SYRUP JUNCTION. FIG. 248. SYRUP CONNECTOR. place with the left the cork evenly in the cylinder, drive the cork about halfway through the filling head and hold it there in order to close the mouth of the cylinder tightly; with the left hand on the syrup -gauge lever, make one stroke, holding open until the bottle fills, thus injecting the required amount of syrup into the bottle and allowing it to be filled with the beverage. The syrup gauge is previously set to gauge exactly the required amount of syrup. Then push back the gauge lever to its place, at the same time driving the cork into the bottle with the hand lever. Release the foot lever sufficiently, allowing the bottling cylinder to rise, meanwhile holding down the cork with the hand lever, and put the wire fastener securely over the cork, when the foot may be taken from the treadle and the bottle removed from the machine. In bottling plain waters, some syrup gauges allow to disconnect the 350 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. rod from the lever of syrup gauge, to disconnect the pump, and a plain cock may then be used instead. The air or escape valve of filling head, through which the air naturally contained in the empty bottles escapes and is forced out by the pressure of the carbonated water, should be set to allow the escape of the com- pressed air at the required bottling pressure, without wasting the bev- erage. Be sure that it is not screwed up so tight as to pre- vent its opening while filling, to let the air pass out. To put the wire over the cork on bottling stands where the bot- tie is raised upwards and pressed against the filling head, ELASTIC PACKING, ease U p on ^he treadle, and at the same time follow the cork with the plunger until the treadle brings up solid on the base, which will give plenty of room to arrange the wire. It is recommended to use a little lard on the passage way of the cork while a bottling machine is new, until it gets smooth by passing of the corks. The elastic packing in the filling head of the bottling machine has to be renewed whenever a leak- age is visible. The ragged edges of some bottles and continuous bottling will wear it out. If a bottle requires more syrup than a gauge throws at one time, say four ounces, throw twice, each time two ounces. To operate with bottling attachments for Hutchinson's Stoppers, the following directions are given : To fill the Bottles with a Plain Hook: Place the bottle under the cylinder ; catch the hook in the stopper ; then lower the cylinder to the FIG. 250. AUTOMATIC ROD. bottle ; open the syrup and water gauge ; when filled, close the syrup gauge, draw up the stopper, and raise the cylinder. The bottle is filled. To Bottle with Automatic Rod: Place the bottle under the cylinder ; lower the cylinder to the bottle ; open syrup and water gauge ; when filled, shut off the syrup gauge, 'lower the rod, and pull up and the bottle is filled. To Bottle with Guide Hook: Put the bottle under the cylinder ; lower FIG. 251. GUIDE HOOK. the cylinder upon the bottle; open syrup and water gauge; when filled, shut off syrup gauge; lower hook, and pull it up again, and bottle is filled and stopper closed. Always turn guide towards the operator put- ting in and taking out bottles. When it is desired to feed two or more bottling machines at the same time from one fountain, distributing cylinders of copper or iron are em- BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 351 ployed. Such cylinders, which must also be well tin-lined, are designed to be suspended from the ceiling near the benches, thus avoiding long hose-connections and be out of the way. These cylinders equalize the pressure for all attached bottling machines, and are a great convenience in any large bottling establishment. This (Fig. 253) is another device for the same purpose. It saves a multiplicity of pipes from condensing cylinders to various filling machines, and at the same time enables a mineral-water manufacturer to use any one, two, or three cylinders, either combined or separate, to any or more, up to six filling machines, by the simple turning 'of the taps marked A, B, C. The pipes D being in direct communication with the filling ma- chine, and the unions A, B, C, with the condensing cylinders, the con- FIG. 252. DISTRIBUTING CYLINDER. FIG. 253 MULTIPLIER. tents say of three different kinds can be instantly diverted to any one or all of the filling machines. This apparatus can be fixed to any number of cylinders and filling machines. For the safety of the operator, to protect him against injury from the glass fragments of bursting bottles, safety screens are attached to the bottling machines as seen in the illustrations. Instead of them, or even besides, wire bottle-screens are used, especially where beverages under high pressure in pint or quart bottles are to be filled, and their employ- ment affords greater safety or protection. These bottle screens are made of steel wire, well tinned, and are strong and durable. Other appliances for protection and safety for face and eye are wire masks and wire eye- protectors; for hands " bottling gloves" are used. When a moderate and standard pressure is maintained for ordinary bottling the safety screens attached to the bottling machines afford all the protection that is neces- 352 A TEEATISE ON BEVERAGES. sary ; for bottling highly charged beverages in large-sized bottles, it is well to care for additional protection by employing the other appliances. Bottling Pressure. The usual pressure to bottle at should not exceed 60 to 80 Ibs. for saccharine beverages. Plain soda waters are fre- quently bottled at from 80 to 100 Ibs., syphons at from 120 to 140 Ibs. of pressure. Carbonated beverages going to hot climates should not be charged higher than 30 to 45 Ibs.; but the liquid must be thoroughly agitated to impregnate it with gas. No greater mistake is made by bot- tlers than when they attempt to charge their beverages with an excessive high pressure, as explicitly demonstrated and explained under " Carbonic Acid Gas." They are in error when they attempt to estimate the pounds of gas-pressure at which their goods are bottled by the figures the gauge may register. The gauge may register a certain figure, indicate the pro- FIQ. 255. WIRE MASK. FIG. 254. WIRE BOTTLE SCREEN. FIG. 256. WIRE EYE PROTECTOR. per pressure within the apparatus, but the gas-pressure in the bottles, a^ we know already from the experiment made and shown in the interesting table appended in the Chapter on Carbonic Acid Gas, is usually less than half what is confidently stated . A careful test reveals the fact that the average pressure in carbonated beverages is about 56 pounds per square inch when filled from cylinders at a pressure of 145 pounds per square inch. When filled from cylinders in which the carbonated water is at a pressure of 100 pounds, the pressure on the bottle is, on an average, nearly 49 pounds per square inch. The pressure in the champagne bottles during fermentation reaches, and in some cases exceeds, a pressure of seven atmospheres, or an average of about 105 pounds per square inch. It is not necessary to have a heavy pressure on if the cylinder is kept cool. The water will only absorb a certain quantity of gas ; over that the gas is not in solution, and of no utility whatever, except to burst bottles. In warm weather the cylinder should be kept cool by wet cloths and cold water dashed on frequently. II BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 353 Complaints of the bursting of bottles are frequent. This is due to overcharged or badly annealed or cracked bottles, and they burst nearly always in the process of bottling, as it is at that moment that the greatest pressure is inflicted upon them. The exploding of bottles afterwards is partly due to the same cause, but also to changes in temperature and rough treatment while on transportation and other similar causes. Accidents not infrequently happen, and such of a most painful char- acter are known, and the carbpnator can guard against them by properly charging and bottling his beverages. Testing Carbonated Beverages. A requisite for bottling is a test gauge. This is an instrument for ascertaining the pressure of gas in the bottles filled with carbonated waters, after they are corked, in order to check the work of the bottlers, and also to test the beverages of different makers. By this gauge an employer has it in his power to ascertain if the bottler is keeping correct pressure in the bottles, also to see if the same class of drinks are alike. It is easily FIG. 257. TESTING GAUGE FOR FIG. 258. TESTING GAUGE FOR PATENT STOPPER BOTTLES. CORKED BOTTLES. attached to a bottle by a screw for penetrating the cork, provided with a small cock and union. The gauge is used in the following manner: To test a bottle, first insert the point on the end of the screw to penetrate the cork for the screw to follow, pass the screw entirely through the cork, and the point will fall out to the bottom of the bottle, leaving the passage through the cork clear ; attach the gauge by the small union and turn the cock, to let the pressure into the gauge. Thirty-five to fifty Ibs. is a good general average pressure for all beverages. Fig. 258 is a device for being attached to the above pressure gauge and used when testing the pressure in patent bottles. The under part of the tongs is shaped like a fork : this is placed under the ring or neck of the bottle, when, by compressing the handle, the plug on upper part will be brought on to the top of the stopper in the bottle, and so force it away from its seat the pressure can now be noted, and by reversing the 23 354 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. bottle the tongs can "be taken off, the stopper will take its seat, and the bottle be again closed. Expelling of Air in Bottling. When a bottle of carbonated water contains air, a portion of the contents is ejected with violence when the bottle is opened ; it also prevents good carbonating with the gas. By a careful method of charging and bottling this can be entirely avoided. The air-escape valve on the filling head, when properly adjusted, is an excellent device for letting escape the compressed atmospheric air from the bottle. But by the usual method of bottling, the bottle to be filled is placed under the filling head and the carbonated water forced in. The air-escape valve is seldom regulated, and when the pressure in the bottle prevents any more liquid flowing in, the treadle is raised several times, and the accumulated air and gas allowed to rush out ; it is then replaced securely under the nipple and filled up. In this way the water is bound to contain a very great deal of air, and beverages containing ferrous com- pounds are sure to become turbid. This method of bottling is decidedly a wrong one, and should be dis- carded, as there are only disadvantages connected with it and not a single advantage gained. The fast bottling which it is claimed this method affords is no advantage compared with the great errors included in it. When the pressure-regulating valves, now attached to almost every apparatus, and the air-escape valve on filling head are properly regulated, and the proper attention is paid to them and to the whole process of bottling, tliis careful method of bottling will allow to bottle just as fast, the product will be improved and no gas nor liquid be lost. A great error is also made by some manufacturers, who work with the English continuous system, and we saw it not long since in a leading estab- lishment in New York, viz. : to connect the air-escape valve (or waste valve, as some call it) of the bottling machine by means of a rubber hose, with the gasometer, to save the waste of gas ! It is evident that, although some gas will unavoidably be mixed with it, the most part of that " waste " is compressed air forced out from the empty bottles or syphons while being refilled, and the presumably unadulterated and pure gas in the gasometer is thus spoiled and the balance of the liquid charged with air- laden gas. And this is done for the sake of saving a trifling waste of gas! Sanitary Condition of Bottling Establishment. A chief point in establishing a mineral-water factory is the selection of a suitable build- ing in which to carry on the manufacturing of carbonated beverages. The general plan and arrangement of a mineral-water factory must be such that ventilation and cleanliness can always be secured ; bad smells from any cause should be an impossibility; all water-ways, drains, etc., should communicate with the outlets to sewers outside the buildings, and be well trapped ; any drains in the factory should be closed with movable coverings, so as to admit of their being well cleaned and swept , BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING 355 out. Wood flooring, or anything likely to hold moisture or dampness, is unfit; stone paving is preferable to bricks or concrete. No dust should be allowed to accumulate on the walls or floors; and a current of fresh air should always pass through the parts of the building devoted to the more important parts of the work. A plentiful supply of water for rins- ing and washing and the most scrupulous cleanliness is indispensable, and this fact cannot be too strongly insisted upon. Any place likely to give off effluvia, such as stables or closets, must be kept as far away as pos- sible. The interior of tne bottling room must be thoroughly fitted to protect the beverages from contaminating influences. Suggestions. The secret of incorporating carbonic acid gas and water, and flavoring the liquid with pleasant and wholesome substances and making it a healthy beverage for consumption, is learned by intelli- gent application. We think it would be to the advantage of the trade, as well as to the consumer, if some legislative enactment could be passed, so as to prevent this trade being carried on either by ignorant or unskilled persons, or by those whose notions of profit are of greater importance than the sanitary considerations necessary for conducting a manufacture which is so in- timately associated with our daily wants. Storage and Shipment of Carbonated Beyerages. -When car- bonated beverages are prepared for storage they must be made and bottled with extra care. The storage room should always have a normal temperature ; in sum- mer sufficiently cool, in winter not exposed to cold. The temperature of the storage room should not differ much from that in the bottling room. Bottles in storage burst more frequently soon after they have been filled, therefore care should be taken to reduce the temperature and thereby the pressure in the bottles just particularly at that time. The pressure in the bottle is quite a considerable one, as the following figures, taken from Dr. HirscVs table, will show. It is about two Ibs. per cubic centi- meter for every atmospheric superpressure (that is, for every indicated 15 Ibs. of pressure); he calculates that the inner surface of the bottom of a bottle of about 675 grammes contents, measures about 40, the sides 310, the shoulder 35, the neck 20 cubic centimeters. At 3 atmosphere? (45 Ibs.) the pressure would be Upon the inner side of the bottom about . . 240 pounds. " " " " sides " . . 1860 " " " " " shoulder " . . 210 " " " neck " 120 " 1TT1 altogether " . . 2430 While the under surface of the cork according to size stands about 12 to 20 Ibs. of pressure. 356 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Any rise of temperature causes an increase of pressure in the closed bottle, and any lowering temperature a reduction of that pressure. The expansion of carbonic acid at temperature variations is expressed in figures thus: At usual atmospheric pressure, . ... 0.00370. At a pressure of five atmospheres for 1 0. nearly, . . 0.0040. The difference caused in variations of temperature may amount to atmosphere (8 Ibs.) and over within the closed bottle. Bottle racks, as represented later on, or similar arrangements, are practical contrivances in storing bottled beverages, combining safe storage with convenience. For storage, and especially for shipping bottled beverages, the elastic wood fibre or the corrugated packing or wrappers contribute to safer FIG. 259. ELASTIC WOOD FIBHE PACKING. shipment and lessening of breakage. The above illustrations explain the services to which it may be advantageously employed. This wood fibre packing is manufactured from elastic wood fibre, is very flexible, can be made in any shape or size, is of light weight, neat in appearance and not liable to breakage. The wrapper for single bottles consists of a square of packing of any desired size, which is placed in a sheet of ordi- nary wrapping paper larger than the packing. The outer edge of the latter has a coating of mucilage, which it is only necessary to moisten before folding. When the bottle is rolled up the ends of the wrapping paper are turned in. Cardboards in various shapes, rolls, etc., are also employed for wrapping bottles. Straw-covers are the most familiar ones, and have ever been used for wrapping champagne or other wine bottles. They are equally adapted for shipping fruit-champagnes or any other kind of carbonated beverage that is intended for export. BOTTLING APPARATUS AND PRACTICAL BOTTLING. 357 Boxes and Crates. For containing and transporting bottles of car- bonated beverages boxes or crates are required. They should be of con- venient size, strong and durable but light, and divided into partitions FIG. 260. STRAW COVERS FOR BOTTLES. for conveniently placing each bottle. False bottoms are required for neck downwards, to prevent the bottles touching bottom. It is especially important to place cork-stoppered bottles neck down, to keep the cork FIQ. 261. SHIPPING CRATE. always in moisture by the liquid, otherwise it would dry out and a con- siderable loss of gas would be the consequence. Various styles of boxes and crates for home trade and shipment are employed. 358 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. The partitions of the boxes or crates must be made so deep that the bottles cannot knock together, and that the bottles are always below the top of the boxes. The shipping crates should be closed by spring locks or other suitable means to prevent their getting opened while on their way, but to allow their being opened easily at their place of destination FIG. 262. DELIVERY Box. without using violent means, as chisel, etc., and thus break the locks and spoil the crate. Closed or tight bottoms of crates should have suitable openings to allow the contents of burst bottles to flow off and allow some ventilation. The boxes and crates employed in the manufacture of carbonated bever- ages are usually transported in special wagons, made and designed for the purpose. CHAPTER XIX. BOTTLES AND BOTTLE-WARE. Good Bottles Necessary. Glass and its Components. Etching on Glass.- Writing on Glass. Action of Water, Acids and Alkalies; Poor Bottles Easily Attacked. Colored Bottleware; Deleterious Effect of Light upon Beverages; Desirable Colors for Bottles. Testing Bottles. Size of Bot- tles. Protection for Marked Bottles. Good Bottles Necessary. As the means of dispensing the various manufactured beverages, there is the necessity of having effective bottles for the different purposes for which they are required, and this is next in importance to having effective machinery for the manufacture of the con- tents. It is not only that they must have the necessary points to make them retain the gaseous properties in the waters which are known only to the technicalist but they must be appreciated by the public, as con- sumers of the drinks. This, after all, is the main point, as it is not merely the saving of corks and time in filling that has to be considered. Glass and its Components. Glass is an amorphous substance (that is, of no regular shape or form), hard and liable to break at ordinary tem- peratures, liquid or plastic at a high temperature, transparent or translu- cent, white or colored, having a peculiar brilliant and smooth fracture, called "vitreous." It is composed of silica with some of the following bases : Potash, soda, lime, magnesia, lead, iron and alumina. Several kinds of glass are known, such as window and plate glass, flint, white and bottle glass, made up in different proportions of sand, soda, potash, lime, red lead, etc. Bohemian glass, used in the making of ordinary and fine hollow ware, is a silicate, with potash and lime base. It contains, like all other kinds of glass, a small quantity of alumina from the pots and oxide of iron from the impurities contained in the materials used. Potash is often replaced by soda, owing to the lower cost of the latter. Bottle glass contains besides silica soda or potash, lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron. Flint glass, or crystal, is known as a glass with a base of lead potash. This denomination, however, is not accepted by all nations, as, in Bohemia, lime-glass used for fine table ware is known as crystal. Glass used for optical purposes, with a great density, owing to the lead it contains, is called flint. Strass is another variety of lead glass, used for making imitations of diamonds and precious stones. 360 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Enamels contain, besides lead, oxide of tin or arsenious acid. Colored glasses are produced by using various metallic oxides, charcoal or sulphur. Oxide of manganese is introduced to correct the green coloration of glass by giving it a purple tint. In larger proportions it produces various colored glasses. Glass at a white heat becomes almost as liquid as water, but when cold is quite rigid; however, at a cherry-red heat it is plastic and malle- able. This property of glass enables the blower to work with facility. At the cherry-red heat it is plastic enough to be blown by means of a pipe and shaped with tools. When it becomes rigid by cooling it may be reheated and worked until the proper shape is obtained. Glass rolled on a metallic table is made into plates ; by blowing it into a mold all kinds of bottles are made. By pressing the plastic mass by means of a press, plunger and metallic mold, glass can be shaped into all kinds of wares. By means of the glass-blower's lamp this material can be drawn into very fine threads and reeled up like ordinary thread. Glass can also be reduced to almost impalpable threads, as fine as filaments of cotton, by means of a steam or air blast acting upon a very fine stream of molten glass. Glass is a bad conductor of heat, and when heated and suddenly cooled flies to pieces. While being worked it cools very rapidly by the action of the ambient air ; it becomes necessary to correct this de- fect by annealing. This operation consists in carrying the glass objects when still hot to a special furnace, where they are reheated to a low cherry-red, and gradually and slowly cooled. Etching on Glass. Etching is done by hydrogen fluoride, the pow- erful corrosive acid obtained by heating spar or cryolite with sulphuric acid. Glass was thus etched by Schwankhart, of Nuremberg, about 1860, and the acid itself was obtained and investigated by Scheele a few years later. The glass is covered with some substance, such as wax or pitch, upon which the acid will not act, and the required lines are scratched with a needle through the wax to the surface of the glass. The whole is covered with a solution of hydrogen fluoride, or exposed to acid vapor, when the parts unprotected by wax are eaten away more deeply the longer they are exposed to the action. Writing on Glass. A preparation for writing on glass called " Dia- mond Ink " is made by mixing barium sulphate, three parts ; ammonium fluoride, one part; and sulphuric acid a quantity sufficient for decompos- ing the ammonium fluoride, and making the mixture of a semi-fluid con- sistency. The mixture should be prepared in a leaden dish, and is best kept in a gutta percha or a leaden bottle. It is to be used with a common pen, and at once etches a rough surface on the parts of the bottle it comes in contact with. Action of Water, Acids and Alkalies; Poor Bottles Easily At- tacked. Water at ordinary temperature and under ordinary contact with BOTTLES AND BOTTLE- WARE. 361 glass has but a slight or no perceptible effect. An increase of temperature and of surface of contact, however, tends to augment the dissolving action of water. The composition of glass has a manifest influence upon its solubility. Where glass contains an excess of alkali it is more apt to be altered by the action of water, while glass containing a predominant earthy silicate is freer from attack. A peculiar purple coloration is often noticed in panes of glass in .places exposed to dampness. This is explained by the action of water being in contact with the surface of glass for more or less time, producing a solvent action upon the alkali contained in the glass. If the surface of such a glass is rubbed, small thin pellicles will be detached ; they are composed of earthy silicates, the alkaline sil- icate having disappeared. When the action is continued for a long period, the peculiar iridescent coloration increases. According to Newton, this coloration is the result of the reflection of light upon the thin pellicles or pieces which become somewhat separated from the main body of the glass. The following analysis shows plainly the action of water upon glass : Part remain- Part having ing intact. been altered Silica 59.2 48.8 Alumina . .... x .. 5.6 3.4 Lime . . . . ... .7.0 11.3 Magnesia ....... 1.0 6.8 Oxide of iron 2.5 11.3 Soda . 21.7 0.0 Potash 3.0 0.0 Water 0.9 19.3 100.00 100.9 All glass when reduced to powder is subject to the influence of water, and gradually absorbs carbonic acid in such a quantity as to show quite an effervescence in contact with acids. Powdered glass boiled in water in contact with carbonic acid absorbs this gas in a few minutes and pro- duces an instantaneous effervescence in acids. Powdered glass kept in boiling water for several hours with sulphate of lime produces a notable quantity of sulphate of soda. All glasses reduced to powder will bring back the blue color of test papers colored red ; it is owing to their altera- tion by the absorption of water. Glass made with soda is subjected to a different alteration from that made with potash. Soda glass continues to become iridescent with time, sometimes to such an extent as to appear to be colored glass, and small pellicles grad- ually become detached. The same peculiarity has been noticed in ancient glass dug from the earth, and the iridescent coloration is attributed to 362 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. decomposition by water. Potash glass is affected by water in producing small crystals upon its surface. This deposit of crystals depolishes glass, renders it rough, and seems to have covered the surface with a multitude of small cracks. These cracks appear to be the result of the small crys- tals acting upon the surface of the glass in a manner similar to that of cutting with a diamond. Flint and crown glass, for the particular pur- poses they are intended, are manufactured with a large proportion of al- kalies. This excess has the tendency to make them damp on the surface, to make them lose their transparency, and, with time, to alter their shape. Crown glass disks, piled one upon another, have been known to become cemented quite firmly together ; this is caused by the silicate of potash they contain in excessive quantity attracting the dampness of the atmosphere. To illustrate the action of water upon glass under pressure and tem- perature, some glass tubes were taken and subjected to a temperature of 572 degrees in contact with water. The result transformed the glass into a fibrous matter resembling Wallastonite (silicate of lime). Ordinary flint glass is affected by long boiling in water. Thus it will be seen that manufacturers who may be tempted to produce glass with an excess of al- kali, in order to save fuel in melting, are exposed to produce an inferior quality, which, after a comparatively short time, will show the peculiar objectionable iridescent coloration. This coloration, however much prized in fancy articles, is very obnoxious in window and plate glass. Glasses made of silica and alkali alone are incapable of permanently re- sisting the action of water. The addition of lime or oxide of lead appears to be necessary to give them this quality. Pulverized glass in contact with hydrochloric acid diluted with hot water, or even at ordinary tem- perature, is easily attacked. The same effect takes place with lead glass, the dissolution being in contact with hydrosulphuric acid. Bottle glass being made with a large proportion of bases, in order to produce a cheap glass, is very easily attacked by acids. If a bottle is filled with strong sulphuric acid, after a certain time small concretions of sulphate of lime will appear, while alumina and the alkali will be dis- solved in the acid. Silica will fall to the bottom in the form of a jelly. Many bottles are attacked by the concentrated mineral acids, but resist the action of these acids diluted. Some bottles are even attacked by the bitartrate contained in wine, and decompose it and impart to it the taste of ink, also destroying its color. It has been ascertained that few bottles, if even made of a superior quality of glass, resist the action of wine in course of time. The discoloration of wines is .attributed to the formation of a lake made up of gelatinous silica and the coloring matter of wine. Certain white wines will sometimes turn black when exposed to the air even for a few moments. These wines contain tannin, which, under the influence of a small quantity of iron extracted from the glass when ex- BOTTLES AND BOTTLE- WARE. 363 posed to the air, form a trace of tannate of peroxide of iron, the coloring matter of ink. Certain bottles are rapidly attacked by acid liquors. Champagne bottles of apparently good manufacture have been known to alter the color of wine in a few days. Acidulated water, containing only four per cent, of sulphuric acid, has also been known to produce even in one day a thick crust of sulphate of lime and a dissolution of sulphate of iron and potash. In making experiments of this nature glass was found to contain Silica . Lime Alumina Protoxide of iron Magnesia Potash Soda 54.56 18.20 10.43 1.86 0.51 1.37 13.07 100.00 The number of bases contained in this glass explain the rapid effect that even the weakest acids produce upon wine. Flint or lead glass resists much better the action of water and acid?. Strong alkaline solutions preserved in lead glass bottles extract oxide of lead. These alkaline sulphates in course of time become thoroughly cemented. This is owing to the formation of a soluble alkaline silicate, which has very strong adhesive qualities. Bottles intended to contain re-agents should be made of a hard glass, free from lead. A study of the matters derived from glass by the effect of the solutions used should also be carefully made to avoid erroneous results in making analysis. Hydrofluoric acid having a very strong dissolving effect upon glass, this quality is availed of for engraving glass and for making easy and reliable analyses of all kinds of glass. Hydrofluoric acid is made by introducing into a leaden still pulverized fluoride of calcium and concentrated sul- phuric acid. The mixture is heated and the distillate is received in a leaden receptacle containing water. To manufacture this acid in large quantities a cast-iron still is substituted for lead. The acid is kept in gutta-percha or leaden bottles. It should be handled with great care, for if any of it should penetrate through the skin by an abrasion or a cut, it produces painful sores which are difficult to cure. Rubber gloves should be used when it is handled. Colored Bottleware; Deleterious Effect of Light upon Bever- ages; Desirable Colors for Bottles. Light has an effect upon bev- erages that few appreciate, or have knowledge of, but as learned in a general way from the more or less uncertain opinions sifting through the trade upon the subject. Scientific experiment, however, has demon- 364 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. strated the deleterious effect of light upon all saccharine and malt bever- ages. Liquids contained in colorless bottles, when exposed for some time to the light, acquire a disagreeable taste, notwithstanding the fact that they may have been of superior quality before being so treated. On the other hand, beverages contained in dark brown, amber, or the various shades of green remain unchanged in quality, even if exposed to direct sunlight. That light has a disturbing influence upon beverages there is no doubt, though we have heard well-informed men in the glass trade ques- tion it. The actinic effect of light (that power of the sun's rays by which chemical changes are produced) is not as thoroughly understood as it might be by bottlers, and the character and color of bottle-ware is deter- mined more by fancy than intelligent knowledge of its requirements. As a rule, bottlers manufacturing drinks of a turbid nature seek ware that will effectually conceal any imperfections so far as clearness and pre- cipitates go ; beyond that desideratum slight consideration is given to color. While serving to show off the contents to advantage, the white ware is ruinous to the quality of the beverage. For this reason wines are put up exclusively in colored bottles, and though departures have been made from this custom, it has always been a costly experiment, except where the goods were sent out for immediate consumption. Colored glass prevents the white rays of light from acting upon the contents of the bottle, and is an effectual barrier against the chemical changes so mysteriously effected by the unrestricted entrance of one of nature's most powerful agents and stimulants. White bottles, therefore, are unfitted for bottlers' use, except for bottling plain waters. Since the chemical action of light has an appreciably damaging effect upon dif- ferent liquids, it follows that green, orange, yellow, amber or opaque bottles are alone suitable for both carbonated and fermented beverages, while colorless, blue and violet are to be discarded. Testing Bottles. When the bottles are fused in a defective way, the manufacturer, in order to ease the melting of the substances compos- ing the glass mass, having allowed an excessive proportion of potash, the glass will be affected by the fruit acids and thus affect the beverage. So the acids of wine will affect the glass, the wine will in turn become partly decomposed, change its color, brightness and taste. The following method for testing new bottles before employing them is recommended, and it is a very proper one : Fill some of the bottles with water, add about 11 grammes of tartaric acid and shake until dissolved. Leave the bottles thus for several days, stoppered. If the glass is really good for holding acid liquids, wine, etc., then, after five or six days, the water should be bright. But if in the water gelatinous clouds or crystals are observed to be precipitated in the BOTTLES AND BOTTLE- WARE. 365 bottle, then the glass will be affected by the acids and the bottles are not serviceable. Extreme caution should be exercised by the bottler in se- lecting his bottle-ware. Uniform thickness of sides, well blown, no weakness in the necks, are points presenting themselves for consideration in placing orders for glass packages. Size of Bottles. For bottling ordinary saccharine beverages half- pint bottles are used, shaped in various forms. For different beverages often different shapes are employed, as for instance ginger ale. No rules> however, are applicable. It is always optional with the carbonator, who strives to please the fancy of his customers. Pint bottles and quart bottles are employed also for various drinks ; champagne bottles for fruit- champagnes, etc. We beg to offer a few suggestions relative to the size of bottles, and think the trade would be much better off if a uniform bottle in size were adopted. There are bottles and bottles, of various sizes, which must complicate matters very much where competition is sharp. In a word all half-pint bottles should hold a uniform quantity ; a quart bottle a quart, and thus serve all alike. Protection for Marked Bottles. Bottles that bear the " blown-in " impress of a United States registered trade-mark, and have been used for ginger ale, lemon soda, sarsaparilla, or whatever other carbonated beverage the registration covers, cannot be used again for the same pur- pose by any other person whomsoever, without violating the law, and being liable to an action for damage. We strongly advise the adoption of a trade-mark by every bottler. It costs but little, serves to protect his bottles, and in case any competitor infringes the same a suit at law will result in favor of the party owning the trade-mark. CHAPTER XX. BOTTLE WASHING AND APPARATUS. Dirty Bottles Abominable. The Use of Hot Water in Washing Bottles. Various Methods and Machines. Bottle Washing with Leaden Shot or Emery. To Clean Obstinately Dirty Bottles. Drainers. Dirty Bottles Abominable. Too much cannot be said in respect to securing perfectly clean bottles. The train of evils following in the wake of spoiled beverages is directly traceable to this cause in many cases. Fatal illness was reported to have been superinduced by drinking soda water from bottles that had previously contained some poisonous material, and it emphasizes the necessity of extra caution in this particular. The Use of Hot Water in Washing Bottles. Hot water is of vast assistance as a thorough cleanser, and whether bottles are subjected to machine or hand manipulation, it should be provided in generous quan- tities. Although the pouring of boiling water over the bottles destroys the germs which frequently lead to fermentation, we cannot call it good practice, as the difference in temperature between the bottles and the water would be too striking, and a variation of 10 to 15 C. already has injurious effects on the bottles. The consequence of a great temperature difference is a cracking of bottles. It is much better to heat the bottles in the water gradually up to boiling point, a perforated steampipe being provided ; this would be indeed a practical plan. The most infinitesimal part of organic matter which is allowed to re- main and cling to the sides of the bottle is sure to work harm, for the action of the acids in the various beverages will augment its capacity, and the liquid will soon become turbid, or specky or full of sediment, and its salable and palatable qualities thereby diminished. Tarious Methods and Machines. Various methods may be adopted for washing bottles and economizing labor, but it is necessary that each be speedy and efficacious, a clean bottle being a most important necessity. We shall show several systems : in all it is absolutely imperative that the bottles be soaked in hot water, softened by the addition of some soda or potash, to remove old labels and also to soften the fungus or dirt inside ; the bottle must then be brushed out by the revolving brush, and at the same time the outside cleaned by the operator rubbing his hands over it. BOTTLE WASHING AND APPARATUS. 367 The next operation is placing the bottle on the rinser ; the water being turned on by means of the cock, when it rushes with great force against the inside of the bottles, which can now be taken off, and should be packed in boxes, neck downwards, to drain ; or they may be drained first, by placing them in holes in a tray on top of trough, and then laid in boxes for filling or may be left a few minutes on the rinser to drain. FIG. 263. QUICK HEATING APPARATUS AND BOTTLE WASHING ARRANGEMENT. The above illustration shows a plant for practical bottle washing with hot water. This is Thos. W. Weathered's arrangement, which we have described already under " Purification of Water, " and refer thereto. It is a prac- tical one; however, we suggest to apply the revolving brush and the rinser in conjunction to insure effectiveness, and to have special regard to the temperature of the bottles and water. Various machines for bottle washing and rinsing are offered to the trade, for hand or steam power, all doing the work more or less effectively, 368 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. and these appliances are necessary in a bottling establishment, bottle- washing entirely by hand being insufficient, imperfect and too troublesome and time-wasting. We annex a few illustrations of the familar devices. FIG. 264. LIGHTNING BOTTLE WASHER. Figs. 264 and 266. These are familiar machines among American bottlers, and for quick and effective work all that can be desired. They FIG. 265. BOTTLE WASHING TROUGH WITH BRUSH WASHER. are run by steam power, the cleansing brush revolving with lightning rapidity and automatically cleansing the bottle. The machines are sub- stantially built. Thewl BOTTLE WASHING AND APPARATUS. 36$ The wheel shown in Fig. 267 is a very efficacious method of soaking, having the advantage of keeping the bottles from contact, and thus saves starring and breaking. It consists of a large wooden rack, in the form of a wheel, suspended in centre in a trough of water like a grindstone. The dirty bottles are placed in the rack as shown at the left, and after passing through the water are taken out on the other side to be brushed and rinsed, the weight of the bottles that are put in carrying them down intc the water as the others are removed ; thus the wheel is kept revolving slowly, without any exertion in working a lever, etc. The trough in which the wheel revolves should be supplied with cold water, and a steam FIG. 266. GOULDING BOTTLE WASHER. pipe from the boiler, obtaining hot water, (or steam). The wheels can be arranged in various ways to suit the requirements of each class of building, or the convenience of the bottler. This bottle-washing ap- paratus (Fig. 267), Wilson's patent, is made by the English manufac- turers. The machine, Fig. 268 (manufactured by Wittemann Bros., New York), can be arranged either for belt, foot or hand power. It is made with or without automatic water spray. This rinser and washer, Fig. 269 (manufactured by the same firm), is also in two parts; one of them may be used at a time. The brushing- head may be fixed either in the centre or at either end of board. The same 24 370 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Fo. 267. CONTINUOUS STEEPING AND SOAKING WHEEL. FIG. 268. BRUSH WASHER. BOTTLE WASHING AKD APPARATUS. 371 firm are manufacturers of this practical rinsing device (Fig. 270), the self- closing rinsing spout. By its use clean water is brought to every bottle without wasting any. It is connected with watermain. These reservoir rinsers (Fig. 271) are made in sections of 12 spouts, fitted to reservoirs, any number of which can be attached to a water- main. A wooden cover serves as bottle-holder. The bottle- wash ing and rinsing machines can be used in towns that have water works, or the pressure furnished by a pump with hot or cold water, These machines avoid the slow and troublesome method of shaking the bottles by hand, cleansing them quickly and effectively. FIG. 269. RINSER AND WASHKK. FIG. 270. SELF-CLOSING RINSING SPOUT. The rinsing machines will also rinse the wire spring stoppers; a special washing machine with revolving brush for them has not yet been invented. This illustration (Fig. 272) represents a practical device of bottle- FIG. 271. RESERVOIR RINSER. washing machines for foot power, and its employment is recommended where no water pressure is available. It is manufactured by Wittemann Bros., New York. 372 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Bottle- Washing with Leaden Shot or Emery. Leaden shot are very extensively employed for cleansing bottles. It is a convenient me- chanical method in some respects, for lead is very soft as compared with glass, and owing to its high specific gravity, it exerts more pressure and greater friction; then, too, it is easily obtained in all sizes. But unfortu- nately lead is smeary and extremely poisonous. When bottles are washed daily with shot a film of black lead will sometimes be formed. This is easily removed with dilute nitric acid (free from sulphuric acid). In soda and beer bottles this film cannot be seen, on account of the colored FIG. 272. FOOT POWER BOTTLE WASHER. glass ; but occasionally a shot can be seen that has become wedged in at the bottom of the bottle, and held there, and thus contaminating the liquid by the chemical action of the beverage on the lead. And again, shot that has been thrown into a greasy bottle becomes coated with fat, and is unfit for further use, as it will only dirty the next bottle it is thrown into. The shot itself, when once clogged in this fashion, had better be cast aside. For these reasons shot for washing bottles is not to be recommended; and in our opinion the cleansing of glass bottles with shot should be absolutely prohibited where the bottles are intended for beverages. Iron shot is preferable to lead shot, as it does not affect the contents BOTTLE WASHING AND APPARATUS. 373 of the bottle. This shot has sharp edges, cleaning the bottle more thoroughly than lead shot. Emery. This is a very economical and practical substitute for cleans- ing bottles, instead of leaden shot. It occurs native in masses and grains, and is extensively used in the arts for grinding and polishing metals, hard stones, and glass, and can be used alone as well as with diluted acids. It works much more rapidly than shot, on account of its sharp angles, and is in every way an ecpnomical substitute. Grains No. 5 or 6 are the most suitable for bottle- washing. To Clean Obstinately Dirty Bottles. All such bottles should be looked into and their smell tested to decide the course of cleansing. It should be considered whether the bottle to be washed is worth the ma- terial which is to be wasted upon it. If not, it is better thrown away. Some bottles acquire a crust or coating very difficult to remove. The following methods are given for removing such impurities: 1. Soak them in a solution of permanganate of potassium. 2. Kinse the bottles out with a solution of equal parts of muriatic acid and water. 3. Chloride of lime and water in the proportion of one ounce of the lime to two pints of water, arid allow the bottles to lie in the solution for three or four days. 4. A mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid. 5. Strong sulphuric acid put in the bottles, corked and allowed to stand a day or two. This should remove the strongest crust. 6. Nitric acid will best cleanse bottles that have contained lead solu- tions, as the other acids form insoluble lead compounds. Either of these methods require great care. The chemicals should in all cases be carefully rinsed out with clean water. Greasy bottles may be treated with any one of those remedies, as the case may be. Hot water for grease is not to be recommended, because it only melts the grease and causes it to float on its surface, and when the water is poured out of the vessel the grease will still adhere to the sides. We recommend the cheap benzine and naphthas to be used for cleans- ing fatty bottles, also caustic potash or soda, as they are indeed the best remedies. Turpentine is useful in removing resins and all dirt of a resinous nature, as well as tar. For scouring bottles outside, and inside by means of a bent wire, dry sawdust is good for removing grease. A piece of newspaper moistened and sprinkled with powdered pumice stone, marble dust, sand, etc., will also remove dirt of a resinous character. A solution of crude potash is an excellent thing to keep on hand, as it is to be preferred for cleansing vessels that have contained resins and all dirt of a resinous nature. 374 A TREATISE OK BEVERAGES. Drainers. If the bottles are dried before using them, it is an im- provement. The least particle of water may contain matter detrimental to that fine blending of ingredients which is perceptible in the best man- ufactured carbonated beverage. Special drainers or racks of various descriptions are employed for the purpose. This illustration shows a drainer which can be made in any size suit- able for mineral-water manufacturers, etc. It is also useful for carrying FIG. 273. POET ABLE DRAINER AND RACK. bottles in the factory, occupying little space, as they are easily piled one on another, or by placing them on their sides they form a good portable bottle-rack. If wheels are attached, it can be conveniently moved about the floor. Where special drainers are not employed, the bottles, after being cleaned and carefully rinsed in pure fresh water, are put head down into the boxes or crates and time allowed to drain and dry therein before being filled. CHAPTER XXI CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. Metallic Caps. Liquid Composition for Foiling Bottles. Tin Foil. Paraffin- ing Corks. Labeling Bottles. Formulas for Label Paste. Label Var- nish. Branding Corks. Sealing Bottles. Sealing Wax. Metallic Caps. They are chiefly employed for ornamental purposes. Various styles and colors, with or without the manufacturer's name stamped on them, are used in capping bottle of many kinds of beverages. This is a matter of taste only, to which no rules are applied. Various capping machines are offered to the trade. This cut represents Wittemann Bros/ patent hydraulic capping FIG. 274. METALLIC CAP. FIG 75. HYDRAULIC CAPPING MACHINE. machine. A is a rubber cap held fast by screw E, and front plate T. B, water and a little machine oil filled in through and up to screw hole G. C, pressure piston. D, layer of packing, tightened by a washer and screw cap. If kept clean and in oil it will work easy and yet be water tight. Figure 276 represents practically the same machine arranged for hand and foot power. In capping, the bottle with cap on is pressed against the rear end of the rubber cap. After a first pull on the lever (not jerking) give the bottle a half turn, then a second pull to the lever. 376 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Deep rubber caps can be made to fit short-necked bottles or flasks, by plugging them up partly with a bung. Fig. 277 is a non-hydraulic machine. The rubbers are made in seg- ments. Two or four rubber cushions press the capsules to bottles, forming the surplus metal into as many folds as there are cushions. A quarter turn of the bottle and a second pressure will press them down flat. FIG. 276. HAND AND FOOT POWER CAPPING MACHINE. Liquid Composition for Foiling Bottles. Melt in a crucible or iron pot 1 part tin, and add 2 parts bismuth ; after all is melted take the liquid metal from the fire. The bottles to be tin-foiled are dipped into this composition as far as they are intended to be foiled. By adding copper to the composition any shade from white to gold or copper color may be obtained; for instance, a composition for gold-colored liquid foil is : copper, 68 parts ; zinc, 14 parts ; tin, 1 part ; or copper and tin exclu- sively. CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. 377 Tin Foil. This is also frequently used in different colors, previously cut in sheets of the proper size. It may not be generally known that tin foil, now so widely known to the trade, is not a foil of tin alone, but composed mainly of lead, with but a slight alloy of tin. The manifold appliances of tin foil to articles of consumption is not regulated with any law such as exists in European countries, forbidding the use of lead or composition, or otherwise im- pure tin foil, in all cases where it may, through oxidation or contact with the goods, become poisonous and injurious to the health of the consumer. With bottlers tin foil is employed as a package dressing, and its tasteful use enhances the value of the beverages to an appre- ciable degree. Too little at- tention has been paid to this subject thus far. It Is to be hoped that ignorance, and not willful oversight of the facts, has led many manufacturers and dealers to use an article ac- companied with such risks for the sake of saving a trifle in the cost. This saving is in most instances imaginary, as the pure tin foil combines such a fineness and large yield with relatively great softness and strength, that it will practically answer most purposes, and not cost more than an equal surface of the lightest composition foil, while the heavier grades of the latter will be much more expensive to use. The operator places a sheet on the palm of his left hand, covers it with paste, and taking the bottle in his right hand, places the neck on the sheet of tin foil, and by a dexterous turn wraps the latter about the bottle neck and cork, as seen on the bottle shown in next figure. Prac- tice will soon make an operator skillful at this work. FIG. 277. IMPROVED CAPPING MACHINE. 378 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Paraffining Corks. Experiments in paraffining corks, as a protec- tion against the action of gased liquids, demonstrated the fact that the paraffine did not penetrate the cork, but merely coated the surface. A cork of fine quality was boiled in paraffine for a sufficient length of time, then cut open and placed under a glass magnifying it a hundred times. Not a particle of the paraffine had penetrated the cork, and under ordi- nary pressure of the hand the paraffine scaled off. We would advise, however, to paraffine all corks by dipping the neck of the bottle into melted paraffine before they are capped or tin foiled for export or storage, as it not only makes the cork air-tight and improves the stopper of a bottle and protects it, but more especially will it prevent any corrosive FIG. 278. SPECIMENS OP TIN-FOILED AND LABELED BOTTLES. action of impure tin caps or tin foil on the corks, and in consequence on the gaseous and liquid contents of a bottle. Labeling Bottles. This is, like capping and foiling, an ornamental part of the bottlers' work, but it must be done tastefully, as an attractive label also enhances the value of the beverages. Even for this kind of work mechanical devices are not wanting. This machine is manufactured by Barnett & Foster in London, and combines efficiency with economy. By means of it, labels can be pasted and placed on the bottles at the rate of 100 dozen per hour, by one girl or boy. The machine shown is fitted for two operators, so that the " turn out" by the one machine can be brought up to about 200 dozen per hour. The machine is easily transported from one place to another, so that in removing bottles from stacks it can follow up, and the labels CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. 379 be placed on in proper position, and with greater speed than has yet been attained by any other process. It can also be arranged for labeling tin cans, marmalade-pots, etc. The labels, as received from the printer, are put into the label- holder or well say 500 at a time and are pressed up by a spiral spring ; the pasting roller travels round by the action of the treadle from the foot, it passes over a pad of flannel and then over the label, carrying just sufficient gum or paste to make it stick. The bottle is then pressed on, as shown in the drawing, when the label will adhere to it, its position being always the same equal height from the bottom, FIG. 279. LABELING MACHINE. as it has a regulator for this purpose. The paste is in a glass receptacle above, and is fed automatically, that is, each time the pasting roller comes round, it touches the lever of the small supply-cock, and gives just suffi- cient paste for the size label, so that waste is prevented, and a cleaner label is the result. The apparatus itself is exceedingly simple, and with ordinary care cannot get out of order. A Label Gummer is offered by Geo. J. Hutchings, Baltimore, Md., and illustrated by Fig. 280. It also facilitates the work of labeling the bottles, and is a practical and useful device in the bottling establishment. Formulas for Label Paste. Pastes and mucilages are best kept in covered vessels tall enough to permit the brush to remain inside with 380 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. the cover on. It should never be allowed to become encrusted with hardened paste, and the brusli should frequently be cleansed. The formulas here presented are but partly original with the writer. All have been in use satisfactorily and may prove useful to bottlers. 1. Starch Paste. Pour boiling water over starch, or starch into boil- ing water, and stir until the whole is a homogeneous paste. Boiling of the mass is not advisable. The paste may be preserved by dissolving a lit- tle alum or salicylic acid in the water used. 2. Rye flour paste is even better than starch paste and prepared alike. Both pastes are improved if in the boiling water employed some glue has been previously dissolved. An ad- FIG. 28o.-LAB EL GCMMER. ditiou *> f some turpentine (about half of the quantity of starch or rye flour employed) to the paste, and thorough mixing with it while still warm, makes the paste better and indifferent to dampness. 3. Another flour paste is made as follows: Flour 4 ounces; water 1 pint ; nitric acid 40 minims ; oil of cloves 5 minims ; carbolic acid 5 minims. Thoroughly mix the flour and water ; strain through a sieve ; add the nitric acid ; apply heat until thoroughly cooked, and, when nearly cold, add the oil of cloves and carbolic acid for preservation. This makes an excellent paste for bottles, tin or wooden boxes. In dry climates, the addition of about 5 per cent, of glycerine prevents it from drying up too soon in the mucilage pot. 4. A durable paste is made as follows : Four parts, by weight, of glue are allowed to soften in 15 parts of cold water for some hours, and then moderately heated until the solution becomes quite clear. Sixty-five parts of water are now added, with constant stirring. In another vessel 30 parts of starch paste are stirred in 20 of cold water, so that a thin milky fluid is obtained without lumps. Into this the boiling solution of glue is poured, with constant stirring, and the whole kept at a boiling tem- perature. After cooling, 10 drops of carbolic acid are added to the paste. This paste is of extraordinary adhesive power and may be used for other than labeling purposes also. It must be preserved in closed bottles to prevent evaporation of the water, and will in this way keep good for years. 5. A paste to resist damp is made as follows : Prepare a paste of good rye flour and glue in the usual way and proportions, to which linseed oil, varnish and turpentine have been added in the proportion of one half ounce of each to the pound. The above two pastes may withstand the action of the water in soaking and washing the bottles, but they are not guaranteed to resist repeated washings. CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. 381 6. Take 10 parts of already dissolved gum tragacanth, add 10 parts of honey and one part of wheat flour. The flour helps to dry quicker, and renders the cement less accessible to humidity. 7. Another cement, which resists humidity even better, is made of two parts of shellac, one part of borax and 16 pints of water, boiled to- gether. 8. Soak glue in strong vinegar, heat it to boiling, and add to it a quantity of fine flour, until it becomes rather thick. This paste adheres strongly to glass, etc., and may be kept without spoiling in a wide- mouthed glass-stoppered bottle. Should it become too thick a small quantity may be removed and warmed, when it may be readily applied to paper. 9. Gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; gum arabic, 4 ozs.; dissolve in water, 1 pint; strain and add thymol, 14 grains, suspended in glycerine, 4 ozs.; finally add water, to make 2 pints. This makes a thin paste, suitable for labeling bottles, wooden or tin boxes, or for any other purpose paste is ordinarily called for. This paste will keep indefinitely, the thymol preventing fermentation. It will separate on standing, but a single shake will mix it sufficiently for use . 10. Eye flour, 4 ozs. ; powdered gum arabic, oz. ; boiling water 1 pint. Mix until dissolved to a clear mucilage. 11. Dextrin, 8 parts; acetic acid, 2 parts; alcohol, 2 parts; water 10 parts. Mix dextrin, water, and acetic acid to a smooth paste, then add the alcohol. This makes a paste suited for labeling bottles. 12. Liquid glue is prepared by breaking the glue in small fragments and introducing these in a suitable glass vessel, and pouring ordinary whiskey instead of water over them. Cork tightly and set aside for three or four days, when it will be ready for use, without the necessity of ap- plying heat. Thus prepared, the mixture will keep unaltered for years and will remain permanently liquid, except in very cold weather, when it will be found necessary to place the bottle in warm water for a little time before using. The vessel in which it is kept must, of course, be kept always tightly corked to prevent the volatilizing of the solvent. 13. Another liquid glue is prepared by filling a glass vessel with the best broken-up glue and covering with acetic acid. Keep the glass in hot water for a few hours, until the glue is melted, and an excellent glue always ready for use is obtained. 14. A mucilage for bottling purposes is prepared by mixing 6 ounces gum arabic with one ounce acetic acid, 5 ounces of water and 1 ounce white sugar. Label Tarnish. 1. In 48 ounces alcohol dissolve 2 ounces camphor, 4 ounces resin, 8 ounces sandarac. 2. An excellent varnish, which dries in a few seconds, and produces a colorless, smooth and shining coat, is prepared, according to R. Kirstein, 382 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. of Hamburg, as follows: sandarac 53, mastic 20, camphor 1, oil of laven- der 8, Venice turpentine 4, ether 6, alcohol 40 parts by weight. The in- gredients must be macerated for weeks, until everything is dissolved. It is therefore advisable, in order to have it in readiness, to prepare a suf- ficient quantity to last some time. 3. A white varnish or paint for painting labels upon glass, wood, or metal, is prepared in the following manner : Triturate 150 parts of best zinc white and 3 parts of finely powdered acetate of lead in a warm mor- tar with a little oil of turpentine, to a uniform mass of the consistence of lard ; then add gradually, under constant stirring, 20 parts of boiling (not " boiled ") linseed oil. Though the resulting mixture has a very dark color, this does not interfere with the uses of the varnish, as it will produce a perfectly white surface. Next, 90 parts of da mar varnish (made from one part of damar and 2 parts of oil of turpentine), 5 parts of castor oil, and lastly 20 parts of copaiba are added, the whole well mixed, and finally diluted with about 100 parts of oil of turpentine. The varnish is transferred to a cylindrical vessel, and set aside for about one week. During this time any coarse grains of zinc white will settle to the bottom. The supernatant liquid and a portion of the sediment (about three-fourths all but the coarse portion) are poured off, and the varnish or paint is then ready for use. Branding Corks. Another part of finishing in the bottling process consists of " branding the corks." This is done to impress trade marks, the manufacturer's name or other signs on the corks. Some brand both ends, some only that part which comes inside the neck of the bottle. Fig. 281 shows one of the devices intended to facilitate this work, and is easily understood. Where a large quantity of corks are daily to be branded, some mechanical appliances will be found indispensable. This machine (Fig. 282) brands corks on either one or more sides at one operation, with adjustable letters on top, bottom or side brands. The date of bottling or private marks are thus indelibly given without extra labor or expense. It also controls correct count of corks, the register being directly connected with the branding apparatus, and recording every cork. Heat can be supplied either by gas, through ordinary rubber hose, or by gasoline. Capacity 5000 per hour. Can be worked by hand or power. A.ir blast is attached to the machine. The machine is a European patent, and for sale by Wittemaiin Bros., New York. CAPPING, FOILING, SEALING AND LABELING BOTTLES. 383 Sealing Bottles. Saccharine beverages as well as mineral waters, such as sulphur and ferruginous and other saline waters, which are not for immediate consumption, but for transportation or storage, are, besides FIG. 282. COMBINED CORK BRANDER AND COUNTER. being wired, also sealed to insure the best security possible, and this is especially recommended where a low grade of corks has been em- ployed. 384 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Sealing Wax. A good red sealing wax is prepared with the follow- ing ingredients : Shellac, . - . . . . . 600 parts by weight. Turpentine 600 " " Gypsum, chalk or magnesia, powdered, . 400 " " Vermillion, . . . . 150 to 300 " " " Melt the shellac in an iron pot over a low fire and add the other in- gredients while constantly stirring. Instead of vermillion, red lead or red oxide of iron may be used. Other colors are produced by the addition of ultramarine, ivory black or chrome yellow (chromate of lead). Ordinary grades of sealing wax are produced by a mixture of resin, powdered gypsum and chalk and coloring matter, melted and stirred together. A familiar formula for ordinary sealing wax is : Resin, 7 parts by weight, with or without turpentine, 3 parts by weight ; chalk pow- dered, 6 parts by weight ; ultramarine, 1 part by weight, or any other suitable coloring matter, as red lead, oxide of iron, bolus, brick dust. For green a mixture of blue and yellow or ultramarine green. The addition of some turpentine to all formulas makes the sealing wax more elastic and smooth, a preventive against cracking and scaling. A black bottle sealing wax of elegant appearance is made by melting 4 parts of resin and 2 parts of paraffine, adding 19 parts of lamp black. Instead of this, chrome yellow, ultramarine, (about 5 to 7 parts to 100 parts of the mass) can likewise be taken to produce another color. To seal the bottles dip the neck of them in the melted mixture, which should not be too hot, turn the bottle a few times, take it out quickly and put aside. They may now be stamped with a sealing stamp if desired. When the melted sealing wax has become hard, it is easily remelted for further use. Plaster of Paris also is a suitable means of sealing bottles. Mix it with water to the consistency of jelly, and put of it by means of a spatula enough on top of the cork to cover it, when it will become dry and hard in a short time. By adding some of the aforementioned coloring matters any desired color may be obtained, or an entire substitute for sealing wax may be prepared as follows: Mix 400 grammes plaster of Paris; 600 grammes cement; 300 grammes chalk, powdered; 200 grammes dextrin; coloring matter as desired; and 10 pints varnish. Dip the neck of the bottle into the mixture and let dry. CHAPTER XXII. CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. The Value of a Good Cork. Preparing Corks for Bottling. Impervious Corks. Properties of Cork. Second-hand Corks. Securing the Cork in the Bottle. Rubber Stoppers. Properties and Manipulations of India Rubber. Patent Stoppers. The Talue of a Good Cork. Where it is a question of retaining the gas in the beverage, an inferior cork should never be used. Mineral waters are the most severe on corkwood, and, unless the best grained cork is obtained, the life of the liquid is bound to escape. The same is true of champagne. The most carefully selected corks are reserved for this wine. Bottlers may consider it shrewd economy to purchase half size or low grade corks, and imagine the consumer is indifferent to a leaky or an effective stopper. The contrary is the fact, however. The cork cannot be superseded by any as yet discovered material or contrivance for stoppering bottles whose contents are to be preserved for an indefinite time. Neither can a high grade of beverage be retained uncontaminated for other than quick consumption. Many are disposed to think that if the bottle is only stoppered, it makes precious little difference what kind of a cork is employed. Carbonated beverages require a firm, close-grained cork, and not a soft, spongy article. Carbonic acid gas will escape through a poor cork in no time, and as the life of a drink depends altogether upon its gaseous nature, an inferior cork cannot but work damage to the goods. The same holds true of steamed bottled beer. The steam softens the cork, and unless it is of good quality the liquid suffers in the loss of its gas. The manufacture of corks in this country is carried on almost entirely by machinery, and is the kind used by bottlers to a large extent. Were it not for machine-cut corks the bottling trade would be compelled to pay enormous prices for their corks, and patent stoppers would be its only salvation. Until a comparatively recent date corks were cut by hand, and it took an experienced workman a whole day to finish a thousand marketable corks, with great waste of material. To-day a machine run l)y steam and attended by a small girl does fifty times the amount of work with unerring precision and the smallest possible waste of material. Corks are made in innumerable sizes and grades, from the size of a pin- head up. Every cork has to be handled three and four times in the 25 386 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. manufacture once in blocking, once in cutting, once in tapering, and the last time in assorting one grade from the others. A machine -cut cork will always fit the bottle it is made for. The imported corks come chiefly from Spain and Portugal, though. Germany sends a lot to this country also. The finest grade of corks are hand-cut entirely, and are used to the exclusion of all others for champagne. Some of our largest beer and mineral-water bottlers prefer a hand- cut cork, because of the uniform good quality. There is no disputing the fact that corks will always remain in use by bottlers, notwithstanding the apparent activity in patent bottle stop- pers. The trade cannot close its eyes to the objections raised against the bottler by consumers, which the former never meets with, and bottlers are advised to buy none but good quality corks for the proper preservation of a fine grade of beverages, either carbonated or fermented. Select corks of soft wood, light color and as little porous as possible. Red corkwood is not elastic, very porous and brittle, and such corks are easily torn and cut in- the bottling machine and in extracting them from the bottle, thus causing the beverage to be specked with pieces of rotten cork. Preparing Corks for Bottling. Before use, clean the corks in clear cool water to remove all dust; if they are yet hard, soak them in sum- mer in cold, in winter in warm, water a little while. Hot water should not be used, as the corks would get too soft and lose their bright color. It is recommended to add a little sweet oil (olive oil) to the warm water they are soaked in, so that the corks can be forced easily into the head of the bottle. If corks are used for bottling ferruginous mineral waters, the tannin, which all corks contain, will gradually darken their color ; if they are of a very good quality, the effect will be less marked and but on the exterior surface. Mineral waters, containing much salt, particularly much mag- nesia salts, cause, after months of storage, an evident dark coloration on the cork, the latter becoming hard and non-elastic. To remove the tannin from the surface of the corks Dr. Hirsch recommends to digest them in a warm one per cent solution of sulphate of iron (one part of the salt in 99 parts of warm water) for several hours and then rinse them in pure water ; however, the external appearance is suffering to some extent by this treatment. Dr. Hager recommends to soak the corks in a solution of 10 parts by weight of sulphate of iron and 2 parts of muriatic acid in 1000 parts of water, at a temperature of 50 C, for 5 hours, occasionally stirring. From this bath the corks should be brought into another one, containing but one part of muriatic acid in 1000 parts of water. After this they should be washed several times with pure water. CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. 387 By this treatment the tannin is extracted from the exterior surface of the corks. Impervious Corks. 1. (Bousquet's patented process.) Heat the corks to 100 C. (212 F.) in order to kill all spores which they may con- tain. Then, while still hot, dip them into a solution of 1 part of albumen (egg albumen or blood albumen) in 200 parts of water, and afterwards into another containing 1 part tannic acid, \ part of salicylic acid, and 200 parts of water. This causes a formation of tannate of albumen in the pores of the cork, and the salicylic acid, at the same time, acts anti- septically. 2. Make a solution of 4 parts of gelatin in 52 parts of water, and add to it, in the dark, or in a place illuminated with artificial (non-actinic) light, 1 part of bichromate of potassium or ammonium or sodium, pre- viously likewise dissolved in water. Having first treated the corks with vapors of ether or benzol to render them thoroughly dry, dip them into the prepared solution, and then expose them several days to the sun- light, turning them carefully over so as to make the light fall upon every part of each cork. The coating of gelatin and chromic acid becomes insoluble under the influence of sun-light. Properties of Corks. In a lecture lately delivered on " New Appli- cations of the Mechanical Properties of Cork to the Arts," the lecturer demonstrated experimentally that in solid substances no appreciable change of volume resulted from change of pressure ; even India rubber was shown to be extremely rigid. Cork, however, appeared to be a soli- tary exception to this law, being eminently capable of cubical compres- sion, both from forces applied in opposite directions, and from pressure from all sides, such as arose when the substance was immersed in water and subjected to hydraulic pressure. The cause of this anomalous and valuable property of cork was then investigated, and it was shown to arise from its peculiar structure, which rendered it, in many respects, more like a gas than a solid. Cork was composed exclusively of minute closed cells, the walls of which were readily permeated by gases, but were im- pervious to liquids. The cells were filled with air, which, when pressure was applied, yielded readily and expanded again when the pressure was removed. The impermeability of the cells to liquids prevented cork from getting water-logged when exposed to such fluids in bottles. This property, combined with permeability to gases, rendered cork superior to India rubber for many purposes, because it permitted transpiration while excluding the moisture. There was lately a trial made to substitute cotton wood for corkwood, but with unsatisfactory results. Second-hand Corks. Second-hand corks find a ready market among some bottlers who want to reduce their cost to a minimum and yet have the prestige of using corks. 388 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. The quality of the beverage is not benefited, and many instances are known where the use of an unclean cork, of the second-hand variety, has contaminated the contents. Therefore, should this practice be fol- lowed, the bottler cannot be too careful in cleansing them, or too cautious in ascertaining the character of the places from which they have been gathered. Second-hand corks, after lying for weeks around in bar rooms, covered with bad-smelling and fermenting vegetations, are sold to dealers, who subject them to a kind of bleaching process, run them through a smoothing machine, and sell them to bottlers, weiss-beer brewers and others, for use again. A cork may be ever so well cleaned, but the in- ternal fissures in it always retain some of the vegetations referred to, and communicate its ravaging properties to the liquids they are used to pre- serve. If every second-hand cork could be subjected to a sulphuric acid pro- cess, and then be placed under a steam pressure of about 300 or 400 Ibs. it could be used with perfect impunity. A certain amount of danger lies in all second-hand goods that are liable to pass through dirt, filth and contact with disease, and bottles would be as fruitful a source of danger as any, were it not for the impervious nature of their material and the ease with which they can be perfectly cleaned. A good way of cleaning second-hand corks, which will give satisfaction where the quality of cork is well preserved, is to soak them in an ordi- nary washing tub filled with water, to which half a pint of oil of vitriol (cone, sulphuric acid) has been added. By stirring them thoroughly at intervals for three or four hours, and rinsing them again in clean water, they will be found when dry to have regained their natural color, and be comparatively free from saccharine matter or other impurities. Securing the Corks in the Bottles. The pressure of the gas in a bottle of carbonated beverage necessitates the employment of some means of holding the cork in its place. This may be done in several ways. The oldest method is merely to tie the cork fast to the bottle mouth with twine. The wire cork fastener for ordinary saccharine beverages is in almost universal use, and all that is necessary to secure the cork is to push the cork fastener over the cork before removing the bottling-machine plunger. For ginger-ale bottles wires are used to secure the corks. Also caps to prevent the wire from cutting into the cork. The name and address of the manufacturer may be stamped in the caps. Fig. 285 is another style employed for wiring corks, being without a loop. A tyer will be found of assistance in capping and wiring. It is usu- ally attached to the back of the bottling table or arranged on a separate support, and consists of an iron arch sufficiently high to allow the bottle CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. 389 to be placed under it, and of a movable platform which can be raised by means of a pedal. The bottle while under the cork plunger of bottling Fio. 283. WIRE CORK FASTENER. FIG. 284. CORK WIRE. table is seized with the cork-holding tongs and placed on the platform, and by pressing on the pedal with the foot, the bottle is brought up FIG. 285. TWISTED WIRE WITHOUT LOOP. FIG. 286. SPECIMEN OP WIRED, BOTTLE AS PER FIG. 285. FIG. 289. TVER OR WIRING STAND. FIG. 287. STYLE OF CAP I. FIG. 288. STYLE OF CAP II. against the top of the arch, thus holding in the cork while the tongs are removed and the wire applied. The best annealed broom wire should be used. It FIG. 290.- CORK HOLDING TONGS. should be cut in pieces of proper length and each piece folded double, and twisted six or eight times to form a loop at the end. The helper on taking the filled bottle from the table with the 390 A TREATISE ON" BEVERAGES. cork-holding tongs and placing it under the tyer, quickly seizes a wire with his right hand, puts it around the neck of the bottle, giving it a couple of twists to hold it firmly in place, and passes the ends through the loop, draws tight, cuts off the superfluous wire with shears, and presses the ends into the cork. The pressure in the bottle has by this time forced the cork against the wire, so as to make a neat-looking job. When caps are used, place the metallic cap on the tyer previously to relieving the tongs, and holding the cork by the tyer, which will hold the cap in position by a magnet or other contrivance, when the bottle is raised by means of the treadle so that the cork is pressed firmly against the cap, and the wire can be adjusted. With champagne bottles, both twine and wire are employed, and as we treat in this work of the manufacture of " fruit champagne," which belongs to the carbo- nated saccharine beverages, it will be found useful to know how to make the " cham- pagne-knot," as it is called. These cuts represent the different stages in securing the cork of a champagne bottle by twine. Make a sling (c, d, e), as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. throw it over the neck of the bottle, draw together under the projecting mouth of the bottle and sling the ends of the twine (b and , 3) to a knot over the cork. A tying-lever is employed in this work. Barnett & Foster, London, offer patent wires and tin capsules for FIG. 291.- ENGLISH TYER OR WIRING STAND. I FIG. 292. CHAMPAGNE KNOTS. FIG. 293. TYING LEVER. champagnes which are illustrated in Fig. 294, and are a useful means of securing corks of fruit champagne bottles. Mechanical devices for wiring the corks have of late been put on the market in the United States and England. We append a descriptive illustration, as per Fig. 295. CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. 391 The spools, four in number, on which the wire is reeled, are placed at the end of the rotating shaft, and attached to same, the latter being perforated with four holes to allow the wire to be drawn up to the opera- FIG. 294. PATENT WIRE AND CAP, WITH SPECIMEN OP FINISHED BOTTLE. ting jaws, which are threaded with the wire. The four ends are here brought together, and after the first twist is ready for business. The bottle is placed with the neck or cork directly under the two wires which go over the cork, thus forc- ing them in place. Then the foot is placed on a treadle, a cam ope- rates a clutch, and sets the ma- chine in motion, the wire-carry- ing and rotating shaft recedes, drawing the wire around the neck and over the top of the bottle, where a neat device places the top wires in the operating jaws, and the rotating shaft is sent spinning five times round, twisting the wire effectually. A pair of automatic shears then cuts the wire exactly in the middle of the twist, thus fastening the wire around the bot- tle, and at the same time leaving the four wires twisted at the end for the next bottle, which are ** ^.-AMEBICAX WIRING MACHINE. again carried forward, caught by a pair of nippers, and the same motion repeated. Its rapidity depends somewhat upon the operator, as it will 392 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. wire about as fast as a man can handle the bottles. A good speed, it is claimed, is from twelve to twenty bottles a minute. The machines are entirely new in principle, construction and operation. Rubber Stoppers. They are made of India rubber. This substance having become of such importance to the mineral-water manufacturers, we deem it fit to append a few remarks upon its properties, manipulation, and the forms under which we are accustomed to it. Properties and Manipulation of India Rubber. Caoutchouc, India rubber, is the produce of several trees of tropical countries which yield a milky juice, hardening by exposure to the air. In a pure state it is nearly white, the dark color of commercial caoutchouc being due to the effects of smoke and other impurities. Its physical characters are well known; in the mutual state it is softened, but not dissolved, by boil- ing water, hardening again to extreme rigidity at low temperature ; it is also insoluble in alcohol. In pure ether, rectified native naphtha, and coal tar oil, it dissolves, and is left unchanged on the evaporation of the solvent. Few chemical agents have an effect upon it ; hence its great practical use in the mineral-water manufactory. Caoutchouc combines with variable proportions of sulphur; the mix- ture thus obtained after subjection to vulcanization forms what is called vulcanized India rubber, ebonite, vulcanite, etc. India rubber is imported from various localities, that from South America, known as "para," being of the finest quality; none other should be employed in the preparation of India rubber of a soft elastic nature, which is to be used directly in contact with carbonated or other fluids, where delicacy of flavor and purity is of importance. The inferior rubbers possess an objectionable odor and flavor, highly intensified by the process of vulcanization, which is readily imparted to saline solu- tions. India rubber in the process of manufacture, contrary to the general impression, is not in all cases dissolved, but is kneaded or masticated between massive iron rollers in the dry state, the various pigments, sul- phur, etc., being incorporated at this stage of the manipulation. This grinding is continued till the India rubber assumes a putty-like consist- ency, it is then removed to still larger rollers, known as calenders, which are heated by steam, where it is rolled out into sheets of the desired thickness. So far the physical properties of the India rubber have not been ma- terially changed; it is still affected by variations of temperature, and must undergo the process of vulcanization to render it equally unchange- able at temperatures ranging from zero to 300 F. ; this process consists of subjecting the compounds of India rubber and sulphur for several hours in closed steam chambers to a pressure of 40 Ibs. to 50 Ibs. per square inch, equal to a temperature of, 280 to 300 F., or more, as may CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. 393 be required, either to produce the soft elastic India rubber, or that of a harder nature known as ebonite or vulcanite. Eubber is introduced to take the place of the cork, and many of the patent stoppers consist of it. It is used either as a permanent cork by attaching it with some device to the neck of the bottle, or, when cheap enough, is thrown away like corks after using. Rubber stoppers, either external or internal, if unprotected from contact with the contents of the bottle, will contaminate the beverage, whether carbonated or fer- mented ; and careful analysis has demonstrated the presence, in the bev- erage, of deleterious substances absorbed from the rubber. Carbonated or fermented beverages will retain their purity of taste and quality but for a short time in contact with unprotected rubber stoppers of the usual forms. The vulcanizing process of the rubber is not yet thoroughly under- stood, but, according to the knowledge that we now possess, it cannot be considered a chemical process, in its restricted sense, in which an atomic combination in definite proportions takes place. This is shown, among others, by the fact that not sulphur alone, but other compounds contain- ing sulphur, metallic sulphides, e.g., mercury sulphide, lead sulphide, etc., will perfectly vulcanize rubber, in which case it is not to be assumed that the sulphur is completely or even partly removed from the sulphur compounds. According to all appearances, vulcanized rubber is a molecular com- pound of indefinite proportion, similar to the alloys. The quantity of sulphur present in vulcanized rubber varies from 10 to 24 per cent., while but 6 to 7 per cent., after other statements bu 1 to 2 per cent., are sufficient to effect a perfect vulcanization. The sul- phur used in excess of this quantity simply serves as a mechanical admix- ture. According to the investigations made by scientists, it is certain that in practice the addition of sulphur is always more or less in excess of the actual requirements, and numerous experiments have shown that the excess of sulphur, which is only present as a mechanical mixture, is the cause of many disagreeable properties and disadvantageous changes of the rubber articles. Other mechanical admixtures of vulcanized rubber which chemical analysis has revealed, are chalk, zinc oxide, cal- cium sulphate, barium sulphate and magnesium silicate ; for colorings vermilion, ferric oxide, also sulphurate of antimony by change (for red), and zinc oxide (for white). Organic admixture consists of cork meal, leather scrap, paper pulp, etc. The addition of some mineral matters, aside from its use for coloring, is made for the purpose of giving greater solidity and hardness. From statements made regarding these additions, and from, the results of investigations, it is certain that the admissible limit in this direction is far exceeded in most manufactures. Rubber corks, made out of such mixed material, are naturally unfit 394 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. for bottles containing carbonated or any other beverages, and unless most carefully prepared rubber is used and coated with a non-corrosive and protecting substance, they should be entirely discarded from the sealing of any bottle containing a beverage. Patent Stoppers. Probably nothing has contributed more to the popularizing of carbonated beverages than the different kinds of stoppers which have been so successfully developed. As may be expected, the system of corking or stoppering has undergone some changes, which per- tain, however, more to the design of the stopper than anything else. There is a great difference of opinion still respecting the merits of the old and familiar method of corking and the use of the patent stoppers. The latter are designed for a particular purpose, outside of all considerations of economy in the purchase of corks, and fill a limited field of useful- ness, Beverages intended for shipment, or to be stored and preserved OPEN. CLOSED. FIG. 296. THE HUTCHINSON PATENT STOPPER. any length of time, are stoppered with corks almost exclusively. The system of patent stoppers is chiefly for home consumption only, where the beverages are soon to be consumed, and for this purpose they can be recommended and are a welcome contrivance for fast bottling. The material of the patent stopper must be a substance free from objection- able properties, and non-corrodible, so as to have no influence whatever on the beverage. Numerous kinds of patent stoppers are competing, and many of them have been favorably introduced in the trade. Where the necessity for adopting a patent stopper is felt, the question arises, Which patent shall be used ? They are too numerous to be mentioned, and we content our- selves with describing the two distinct and different methods in patent stoppers, viz: wire and ball stoppers. The HutcJiinson Patent Stopper, illustrated in the above cuts, consists of a wire attachment in hook -form, on that part of which entering the bottle is attached a piece of rubber to do the closing, aided by the CORK AND PATENT STOPPERS. 395 pressure of the gas. The stopper remains in the neck of the bottle, and can only be pulled out with a contrivance made for that purpose; there- fore it is never lost. To use this kind of stoppers, a special and separate bottling attach- ment, as shown in Fig. 225, has to be adjusted on the cork bottling machines. While filling the bottle, the stopper is kept down by the bottling support and the hook raised when filled, thus pressing the rubber piece tightly on the neck of the bottle, which is kept in this position by the gas pressure. The part of this wire stopper exposed to the liquid inside the bottle consists of a tin plate, while the wire itself, which comes in contact with the liquid, when filling the bottle, is tinned, thus guard- ing against metallic contamination. It is highly important, that this be pure tin and no leaden alloy mixed with it. The cleansing of bottles with this kind of stoppers is done by soaking and rinsing them and brushing the necks with specially adapted brushes. No botttle-washing machine for the Hutchinson patent stoppered bottles has hitherto been intro- duced . The Floating Ball and Globe Stoppers. The principle of in- ternally stoppering a bottle con- taining gaseous liquids is not new. Many and varied are the forms which have been presented for consideration; but nearly all of the internal stoppers consist of either a rubber or glass ball. This illustration represents "The Stewart patent stopper." In the neck of the bottle is a groove, with rubber packing. The ball is sufficiently light to be buoyant, but is also self-acting and floats on the surface, and when the liquid is charged with carbonic acid gas, the pressure acts against the ball and seats it as illustrated. The ball is hard, impervious, and is not affected by acids, and it is claimed is made of a combination so as not to contaminate the beverage. The bottle is filled on an ordinary filling bench, right end up, and when filled to the neck, the ball jumps to its place against the seating in the neck of the bottle, and makes a tight joint. When pouring out the contents of the bottle the ball floats away from the mouth oi the bottle. The bottle stoppered with the floating ball can be washed on any bottle-washing machine with great satisfaction. FIG. 297. STEWART FLOATING BALL STOPPER. 396 A TREATISE BEVERAGES. Figure 298 represents an English invention. It consists of a bot- tle with a groove in the mouth; a rubber packing fits in this groove, so when the glass ball is forced up, makes a joint against it. In emptying, the glass ball remains in the shoulder of the bottle, as shown in drawing. Bottles with this stopper must be filled upside down, necessitating the use of a " turnover" filling machine, as illustrated on another page. Washing the globe-stoppered bottles can be done in the ordinary way. The Bottle Seal. This is a simple, thin, flat disk, of specially pre- pared rubber packing, with a tasteless, impervious facing on the side next to the beverage. It is made of considerably larger diameter than the mouth of the bottle, and forced into it in convex shape, seating itself in a groove near the top of the bottle, where it remains, requiring no fastener to hold it, yet capable, within itself, as it is claimed, of resisting FIG. 298. GOOD'S PATENT STOPPER. "iff 1 fl FIG. 299. SECTIONAL VIEW OF BOTTLE SEAL. an internal pressure of over 100 Ibs. per square inch on account of the arched form, an arch being self-sustaining. The seal is provided with a strong central stud, by which it is easily and quickly extracted. The plain stud seal, for present use beverages, is faced with shellac varnish. For high-grade carbonated goods, mineral waters, steamed beer, and all goods that remain long bottled, the seal is faced with pure tin foil, free of lead, or with a special protecting substance. It is claimed that these foil seals are absolutely tasteless, no matter how long the goods may be bottled. Both the shellac-faced and the foil-faced seals are also without studs; they are extracted with a common corkscrew, or a special opener. The bottling machine for carbonated beverages employed in conjunction with this bottle seal is illustrated on another page. This is the only rubber stopper yet introduced that, like cork, is used but once. The seal being ex- tracted, the bottles can be washed with any of the bottle-washing machines. CHAPTER XXIII. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. The Usefulness of the Syphon. Syphon for Dispensing Saccharine Bever- ages, Wine and Cider. Testing Syphons. Breakage and Accidents. Lead in Syphon Heads. Syphon-Filling Machines. Directions for Oper- ating Syphon Fillers. Syphon Syrup Injector. Repairing and Clean- ing Syphon Heads. Syphon Boxes. The Usefulness of the Syphon. Since the introduction of the syphon from France, for the dispensing of mineral waters, there have "been few material improvements on the original construction of the "head " or syphon proper, until recently, and these latter improvements have not been very distinct in their differences from the old ones in use. FIG. 300. SECTIONAL VIEW OP FRENCH SYPHON HEADS. All have worked well, however, and their use is spreading in the trade, and each year witnesses its adoption by scores of bottlers. It is a popular method of dispensing plain charged waters, and its great and obvious ad- vantages, and the growing favor wherein the syphon is now evidently held by the mass, has been always advocated. Most certainly the syphon, at once elegant, convenient and economical, richly deserves the favor in 398 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. which it is now held, and we are quite sure that no better means for tak- ing refreshing drinks in hot weather, or, indeed, in any weather, can be devised, and this the more particularly for the private-house trade. The principal objections raised against the syphon have been the facts that the beverage in being discharged is subjected to so much friction in its circuitous route, which causes the loss of a large proportion of its gas, and that the parts composing the syphon head were so complicated as to easily get out of order, causing leakage. These objections have been remedied to a great extent in some of the accomplished improvements. The syphon consists of a glass bottle to which a metal top, forming a tap, is attached. The syphon is filled at a high pressure 120 to 140 FIG. 301. SECTIONAL VIEW OF IMPROVED ENGLISH SYPHON. Ibs. with carbonated water, and is so disposed that, when the tap is opened, the liquid inside it is forced out by the internal pressure of the carbonic acid gas. The American manufacturers have also made various improvements in the construction of syphon heads, and the carbonator will have the choice which style to approve. It will readily be understood that the bottles require to be of very great strength to resist the heavy internal strain, and at the same time the metal fillings must be such as in no way to contaminate the liquids contained. These are points which require the most careful attention, for the consequences of imbibing carbonated waters contaminated with lead may be very serious. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. 399 The syphon head should be made of pure block tin, with no lead or other injurious metal in it. The glass must be clear and brilliant, which adds greatly to the appearance of the charged water. To remedy the foaming of beverages and loss of gas when drawn from a cock dispensing at the counter is the object of one of the American patents. An English manufacturer has introduced this improvement into the syphon bottles, as illustrated here, with the introductory remark, that it has been found by experience in drawing soda water from a cock or syphon in the usual manner that a great part of the gas is entirely wasted, owing to the small stream which issues from the jet being exposed to the action of the air. The effect of this is that the water never has FIG. 302. NEW SYPHON SPOUT. FIG. 303. SYPHON FOR DISPENSING SACCHARINE BEVERAGES. the full strength due to the pressure at which it has been manufactured, and soon becomes flat and tasteless. Syphon for Dispensing Saccharine Beverages, Wine and Cider. A syphon capable of dispensing these beverages is greatly needed. In France and. England saccharine beverages enter into the .ordinary syphon; even wine and cider in syphons is a new way of retailing the juice of the grape and apple. But saccharine beverages, wine and cider, when introduced into syphons, do not retain the gas when drawn there- from. By drawing under pressure the gas escapes, the saccharine matter foaming excessively and supporting the escape of gas by the frothy condition of the dispensed drink. The atmospheric air also easily dis- places carbonic acid from the frothy liquid. Mineral waters containing salt solutions, drawn from syphons, such C>rs, Vichy, etc., lose also a great deal of their gas while drawn 400 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. under a great pressure, but not to such an extent as the saccharine beverages, which in their frothy condition give it off more freely. From almost the invention of the syphon the question to apply its use to carbonated saccharine beverages has been one of experiment wherever the syphon has been known and used. Numerous devices have been proposed for the purpose, but none were of real practical value. A new syphon, which we illustrate by Fig. 303, seems to give satis- factory results. By this system, it is claimed, a small quantity of liquid can be drawn without the loss of gas, and without any foam, the liquid flowing out with a, solid steady stream, which is superinduced by the air or pressure-relief chamber, which is noticeable on the top of the syphon-head proper. The apparatus, as seen in the cut, consists of a syphon, on the head of which a globe is attached. When a small quantity of carbonated wine, ginger ale, root-beer, or lemon soda, etc., is to be drawn, a direct com- munication is opened between this globe and the syphon by means of a valve, and when a sufficient quantity of the liquid has escaped into this small receptacle, the valve is closed. The syphon and this extra chamber are then entirely independent of each other, and the pressure in each is relatively the same, and can be so maintained as long as desired. As can easily be seen, this operation can be repeated with the same result until the syphon itself is exhausted. The practical application of this principle enables the dealer to dispense all carbonated drinks by the glass; it enables the physician to prescribe sparkling wines from the syphon, and still preserve the sparkle until the entire contents are used, and will enable the bottler to introduce all his products even into private families. In dispensing beverages from syphons where no proper syphon for saccharine beverages is employed, it is best to pour the syrup into the tumbler and draw the carbonated water on to it. In this case the syphons are charged with plain carbonated water. Testing Syphons. All syphons should be tested by the manu- facturer to stand at least 300 Ibs. of pressure. As soon as received from the manufacturer they should be filled with "plain" soda water, and allowed to remain closed for at least one day. If there be any im- perfection in the "packing" or metal it will thus be discovered, and may be early remedied. If an air pump is available the carbonator may advantageously employ it to test his syphons. Breakage and Accidents.- 1 - The large number of accidents that are constantly occurring from bursting syphons is due more to ignorance than carelessness of handling. Manufacturers should warn their customers that during sudden changes of temperature syphons containing mineral water become dangerous. A rapid rise of the thermometer will some- times increase the pressure 100 per cent, and produce violent explosion. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. Placing a syphon suddenly into a vessel containing ice, will almost invari- ably shatter the bottle into fragments, often causing serious injury. Lead in Syphon Heads. Carbonated water exerts a corrosive action upon lead, therefore no syphon heads containing this contaminating metal should be permitted in use. Syphon heads have suffered and been measurably deteriorated by the presence of lead in the metallic composi- tion from which they are made. Irresponsible and ignorant makers of this ingenious, handy article and invaluable assistant of the mineral- water manufacturer, are prone to push incomplete or pernicious goods upon the unsuspecting and unsophisticating carbonator. Of the danger lurking in the unrestricted employment of syphon heads susceptible of contamination when brought in contact with certain carbonated waters, experiment has furnished conclusive evidence. The use of syphons for lemonades, owing to the action of free tartaric acid upon lead, and the rapidity with which waters containing any free acid become charged with lead in syphons, must be condemned. In mineral water containing potash, drawn from a syphon, 0.0408 grain of lead per gallon was found to be present. Pure or plain carbonated water again drawn in a similar mannei from the syphon gave 0.0816 grain of lead per gallon, or exactly double the amount found in the potash water, showing at once the well- known protective action that salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths have on lead. These results, it may be truly said, are sufficiently high and alarm- ing; still, when the water is drawn off in small quantities at a time, as is frequently the case, the results are found to be still higher. Thus, when potash water was so treated, 0.0455 grain of lead per gallon was found, while plain carbonated water, drawn off in small quantities, gave 0.0933 grain of lead per gallon, showing a very marked rise in both cases. The cause of this increase in quantity of the lead appears to be owing, not so much to the lengthened period of contact between the liquid and the metal, as the fact that the nozzle of the syphon, being exposed to the atmosphere in a moist state, becomes rapidly oxydized, and is left in the most suitable condition for entering into solution, so that when merely small portions of the liquid are drawn off each time, a comparatively con- centrated solution of lead is obtained. These results compare accurately with those obtained by examining the contents of a series of syphons of carbonated water for a physician, whose attention was drawn to the subject by detecting symptoms of lead poisoning in himself after he had been in the habit for some time of drinking such carbonated water. There is no doubt of the evidence obtained of lead contamination in the use of syphon heads or tops, constructed of an amalgam, in which the pernicious metal was present in; undue proportion. Pure tin is com- paratively soft and unfit for hard, wiring service, unless it is hardened by an alloy of some other metal. Lea"d and antimony are usually used to 402 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. effect this purpose, and when the proper amount is not exceeded no deleterious effects are traceable to their presence. An alloy of 99. 90 pure tin submitted to severe tests, both with carbonic acid water under a heavy pressure and in contact with a concentrated solution of .citric acid, showed no loss, sign of corrosion or trace of dissolved lead. Block tin syphon heads, therefore, are the only ones that can be used without fear of contamination. The cost should be a secondary con- sideration in purchasing these goods. If the word of the manufacturer cannot be taken as a guarantee of the quality of his syphon tops, they may be easily tested for lead or other metals, by dissolving a section in hydrochloric acid, which yields a colorless solution. The presence of other metals in tin may be detected by treating the hydrochloric solution with nitric acid of a specific gravity of 1.160, first in the cold and after- wards with heat, until all the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution from pure tin leaves no resi- duum on evaporation. If, after the acid has been dissipated by heat, dilution with water occasions a heavy white precipitate, the sample con- tains bismuth; if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate of ammonium or of sodium produces a similar white precipitate, it contains lead; and if the clear liquid leaves a residuum, it contains copper. Other tests for lead in tin we have already given in Part III., when describing the properties of tin and its tests, to which we refer. The popularity and consumption of mineral waters have been in- creased greatly where they are delivered in syphons, and the trade should in no wise hazard a diminution by countenancing any appliance which will not bear the closest scrutiny and severest tests as a container or dis- penser of carbonated waters, either plain or saccharine. Syphon-fllling Machines. Special machines must be employed to fill the syphons, usually different machines to fill the various sizes of syphons. These illustrations, Figs. 304, 305, and 306, represent the French and American syphon-filling machines, and are extensively used wher- ever syphons are filled. The syphon filler is adjustable, generally secured to the floor by means of screws, and connected with the ap- paratus by a flexible rubber hose. A movable screen protects the ope- rator against accidents. The filling attachment is the same as on a two- stream patent draught-tube; one wheel lets in the water, and the other lets off the gas and air. The stand is strong and substantial, and the safety screen can be removed or adjusted to suit the operator. Various other devices for syphon filling are manufactured by the leading American and European manufacturers of apparatus for car- bonated beverages. Among the many exhibits we find an American syphon filler to receive and Jill any size syphon, and which we illustrate in Fig. 307. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. 403 This filler is well adapted to the wants of the trade who are forced to fill syphons of different sizes. It is so constructed as to be easily adjusted to receive and fiir any size syphon, and readily changed so as to vary from one size to another during the process of filling. It is provided with a filling head, forked rest for the body of bottle, a support and guide for the head, all arranged with a sliding movement, allowing an easy and rapid adjustment to the varying sizes of syphons. FIG. 304. FRENCH SYPHON FILLER. FIG. 305. SECTIONAL VIEW OF FIG. 304. A durable and effective screen, thoroughly protecting the operator from the danger of broken glass, is attached to every filler. Directions for Operating Syphon Fillers. Ad just the filling head to fit the syphon, and fasten by means of the set screws. Place the syphon in the machine and close the screen. With the foot on the treadle force the nozzle of the syphon bottle into the filling head, and hold it firmly in that position while filling. Pull the lever of the filling head towards you, thus opening the water valve, and when the water stops flowing, on account of the compressed air in the syphon, open the air valve by forcing the lever from you, allowing it to close quickly. The 404 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. air being thus allowed to escape, more water will enter the bottle upon again opening water valve. If the water stops flowing into the bottle before it is full, open the air valve again and allow more air to escape. Never commence to fill a syphon until it has been carefully covered with the screen. Do not fill the syphon more than four- fifths full. Allow FIG. 306. AMERICAN SYPHON FILLER. FIG. 307. SYPHON FILLER FOR ALL OP SYPHONS. sufficient space for gas, enough to discharge the syphon satisfactorily. In taking the filled bottle out of the filler, raise the foot quickly to avoid escape of gas. The best pressure for filling syphons is 120 to 140 pounds. A rubber hose connected with the air-escape valve leads off the water, which may be ejected with the air without sputtering. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. 405 Syphon Syrup Injector. When saccharine beverages are required, it is necessary to have a pump or syringe for injecting the syrup previous to charging with carbonated water. The appended illustration shows a combination for syruping and filling that answers the purpose. FIG. 308. SYPHON FILLER AND STRUP INJECTOR. FIG. 310. SYRUP INJECTOR. The injector consists of a glass vessel for holding and measuring the syrup, two circular vessels for storing the carbonic acid gas, and a suitable tap to work the whole. It is fitted to syphon-filling stand, as shown in the cut. This illustration (Fig. 310) represents a separate syrup injector, as em- 406 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. ployed in France. After the required quantity of syrup has been injected by this apparatus the syphon is transferred to the syphon-filling ma- chine and there filled in the ordinary manner. Repairing and Cleaning Syphon Heads. The ring at bottom of syphon head is cemented to the bottle, so that the top itself may be screwed on or off when a derangement occurs to be remedied. Formulas for cement for tightening leakages on apparatus we have given in Part III., which apply also to the leakages of syphon heads. Some will also be found in a later chapter of this work. Should the glass vase be broken, the syphon head is easily replaced on a new one. This is done by the aid of syphon tongs and a vise, in which FIG. 311. SYPHON TONGS. FIG. 312. SYPHON VISE. FIG. 313. SYPHON PRESS. to hold the syphon head while the tongs unscrews the ring round the neck of the syphon; it is made of iron and soft metal to prevent damage to the syphon top. The annexed cut represents a syphon press, which enables the operator also to take the heads off syphons with ease and rapidity, for cleaning or repairing. To wash the interior of the syphon head it is not necessary to dis- mount it. All that is necessary is to unscrew the cap with a small forked wrench, when the interior becomes readily accessible. The bottler generally repairs his own syphons, and it is therefore advisable to keep on hand an assortment of washers, screws, valves, springs and other accessories. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. 407 This drawing shows the method of holding a syphon for cleaning with cloth; the wedges are quickly pushed in or out to hold or release the syphon. The top of the syphon can be made as bright as new silver in a few seconds either by rubbing with ordinary whiting and woolen cloth, or, when very dirty, by re- volving brushes. Polishing rags, with which metallic objects can quickly Be polished so as to give them a bright appear- ance, are made of woolen cloth and saturated with soap and tripoli. The method of preparation is as follows: 1 dram of Marseilles soap is dissolved in 5 drams of water, then $ dram of tripoli is added. Pieces of cloth are saturated with this solution, when they are ready for use, and will brighten up the syphon heads equal to nickel plate. In Part III., under "Maintaining of Apparatus/' we have appended several useful formulas for cleansing pomades, which will answer excellently for cleaning syphon heads. FIG. 314. SYPHON CLEANING Box. FIG. 315. SYPHON CASE. For cleaning with brushes special ones are designed, which may be fixed into the bottle- washing or brushing machines, the syphon in this case being held in the hands. This is only required when the tops are very dirty. Also special machines with revolving brushes or so-called 408 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. buffing machines for cleaning and polishing tops of syphons are designed, and are a practical contrivance in large establishments. Syphon Boxes. Syphon boxes of various designs for holding and FIG. 316 SYPHON Box L transporting syphons for home trade or shipment are used. A convenient box for shipping syphons is illustrated in Fig. 315. They are made with suitable partitions and dove-tailed handles in the sides. FIG. 317. SYPHON Box II. It is important to protect the syphon heads properly against any injury. As the syphons are highly charged with gas they should be care- fully handled to prevent their exploding. SYPHONS AND SYPHON FILLING. 409 For home trade the usual style of boxes is represented by these three illustrations. . Fia. 318. SYPHON Box UI. PART FIFTH. DISPENSING CARBONATED BEVERAGES. THE APPARATUS AND HOW USED, AND NECESSARY ACCESSORIES. CHAPTER XXIV. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. General Remarks. Portable Fountains. Directions for Charging Portable Fountains. Cleansing of Portable Fountains. Filling and Gauging Portable Fountains. Care of Portable Fountains. Re-lining of Por- table Fountains. Escape of Gas from Fountains. The Dispensing Ap- paratus. Care of Dispensing Apparatus. Solution for Cleaning Silver or Silver-plated Ware. Storage of Apparatus. The Care of Marble. Ce- nient for Marble. General Rules for Dispensing Carbonated Beverages. Drink Halls. Portable Soda-water Carts. Gasogene or Seltzogene. Special Directions. Hot Soda-water Apparatus. General Remarks. Another popular way of dispensing carbonated waters or beverages, besides from the bottle or syphon, is by means of the portable fountains and the so-called " Soda-counter/' or draught ap- paratus. The machinery for the manufacture of the waters we have already de- scribed. Where large stationary counters are established, they are di- rectly communicating with one of the smaller sets of apparatus. Indeed, the employment of a special carbonating apparatus with one or two sta- tionary fountains with agitators, as illustrated and described before, in conjunction with a draught apparatus, is very much to be recommended. The cylinders can be charged at any time, a standard pressure can be kept up, and in fact the carbonating of the water is under self-control; but those who do not wish to have the trouble of filling the cylinders themselves, must arrange to have them filled at a mineral-water factory. Dispensing or draught apparatus are particularly adapted for popu- THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 411 lous places of resort, in a main thoroughfare, or where the traffic is great. In the warm season the demand is enormous, the profits from the drinks large, as they are paid for as they are drawn, and no expense is incurred for corks, wire, cartage, bottling, etc, Some of the most delicious drinks are supplied by means of these fountains, and where care and attention are given to this business, large profits deservedly accrue. Since the taste for non-intoxicating drinks is so much on the increase, the opportunity offers itself to any one who has a shop or store in the position for doing a counter trade to give the experiment a trial; it is one of the most beneficial additions to an existing business such as a chem- ist's or confectioner's, hotel or cafe being ornamental and at the same time profitable. The experiment entails no risk beyond the purchase of the apparatus, as the drinks are not excisable. A number of drinks for counter use are compounded and dispensed in America and other countries, and in this work, under "Extracts and Essences and Fruit and Compound Syrups," will be found receipts for the dispensing as well as for the bottling trade, which comprise very many concoctions likely to satisfy the most fastidious taste. The syrups are easily made, either from the fresh fruit or the essences and extracts as ex- plicitly explained later on. Directions for preparing the fruit-acids,, colorings, preservatives, foam-producing preparations, artificial and true- essences and extracts of fruits and drugs, are all appended and cannot fail to properly guide the operations. Portable Fountains. Where a portable cylinder, instead of station- ary carbonating apparatus, is employed, it is attached by its connections to the draught apparatus and then is ready for use, remaining in its posi- tion till empty, when a fresh one is substituted. They are in general constructed on the same principle as the stationary ones, without agitator. The European make have instead division plates securely ad- justed in the interior to subdivide the gas bubbles and support the impregnation of the water in fountain. These portable cylinders should be made particularly strong, and in all cases tested to double working pressure. The connections and mountings are best of gun metal, heavy, and made for transporting and knocking about. The inside must be lined thoroughly with pure block tin, and every care should be used to prevent the chance of metallic impregnation. Fig. 320 is a sec- tional view of a European cylinder; the discs dd cause the water to become broken or agitated, while the gas is being forced in from the machine, the cylinder being rocked at the same time. When charged from the continuous machine, the gas and water are pumped together down the centre tube, which is represented by the spray at bottom; when charged from an intermittent (American) apparatus, the fountain is pre- viously filled with water. The fountain shown in Fig. 319 is made by the Iron Clad Manufac- turing Co., New York. 412 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. These styles of fountain, illustrated by Figs. 321, 322 and 345 are usually used at the " Buvettes a Eau-Gazeuses." They are made of cop- per and are tin-lined. FIG. 319. AMERICAN PORTABLE FOUNTAIN. FIG. 320. SECTIONAL VIEW OF ENGLISH PORTABLE FOUNTAIN. Glass or porcelain-lined portable fountains would be the best; how- ever, glass and porcelain linings are greatly liable to crack, and this being such a serious objection they are seldom made. FIG. 321. FRENCH PORTABLE FOUNTAIN 1. FIG. 322. FRENCH PORTABLE FOUNTAIN n. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 413 The portable fountains are like the stationary ones, made either of copper or iron (steel), and we refer in regard to this to Part III. Sweated or soldered and riveted fountains are both claimants for supe- riority, excellence of make, and safety. Riveted fountains, the heads and bottoms of which are secured by rivets, also the side seams, and all the joints sweated and soldered, are advantageous. Directions for Charging Portable Fountains. The process of charging portable fountains with carbonic acid gas differs in no material respect from the method of charging stationary fountains. The princi- pal difference is in the agitation of the water. In stationary fountains this operation is accomplished by means of a block-tin covered metal agi- tator, while in portable fountains it is effected by rocking or agitating the fountain itself on an apparatus known as a fountain rocker. However, if the cylinders are charged at any of the continuous ma- chines, rocking is not required, as the agitation or mixing of the gas and water is done in the condenser of the carbonating machine as it is being pumped into the cylinder; but if the cylinders are charged from any of the American or intermittent apparatus, they are filled previously with about three parts of water, and then put into the rocker to agitate the water and gas together. The perforated plates in the European fountains are for supporting the impregnation of the water with carbonic acid gas. The fountain should be vigorously shaken while the gas passes in; and when the water will absorb no more gas, and the pressure stands at a hundred and fifty to a hundred and eighty, close the cock on top of purifier, also cock of fountain, and disengage the fountain. A frame on which the fountain can rest will be found desirable for the shaking. The second fountain should then be attached with the same process. If the operator has fountains remaining uncharged when the charge in the gen- erator is so far exhausted that a hundred and fifty pounds pressure can- not be raised, the remaining gas may be saved by partially charging them. Should the pressure become greater than the required working point it will be indicated by the safety-valve; but it is at all times advisable to keep the pressure within one hundred and eighty pounds. Care must be taken to have portable fountains never filled over three- fourths full of water, as there must be room for the liquid to move while being impregnated. The precaution of removing the atmospheric air when charging these fountains should also be taken. Connections are used for attaching and detaching machines and fountains. Fig. 323 shows the connections used in attaching the cylin- ders to the charging machines; C is the clamp, and E the clamp joint; D shows the male and female nuts. B shows the regular style with clamp- joint connection. The multiply-cock (Fig. 324) enables parties to dispense beverages in 414 A TREATISE OTST BEVERAGES. seasons of great press of business without the necessity of stopping to attach a freshly charged fountain every time one is exchanged. All couplings and connections must be carefully tin-lined. There are various forms of rockers for small dispensers. The cast- iron frame shown in Fig. 1 92 will answer very well. Another style is rep- resented by Fig. 325; it is easily operated by the upright rod which agi- tates the water most effectually. This rod can be taken out; the frame is all made of cast iron, with wood-bearings for the fountains; manufac- tured by the A. D. Puffer & Sons' Manufacturing Co., Boston, Mass. For large manufacturers it is well to be able to agitate a number of FIG. 323. CONNECTIONS FOB CYLINDERS. fountains at a time, and for this purpose a fountain rocker, as snown in Fig. 327, is used. It can be worked either by band or steam power. The charging pipe of the generator is connected to the rocker at the project- ing hose. The fountains with the liquid to be carbonated are laid on the rocker, and the elastic pipes are coupled to them as shown. The fountain stop cocks are then opened, and the gas from the generator is allowed to enter by opening and closing each valve on the rocker, in succession, two or three times, until the liquid ceases to absorb the gas. During this operation the fountains are agitated by turning the crank shown in the figure. It will be noticed that, on the rocker, there are two valves to each fountain. One is for controlling the supply of gas THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES 415 from the generator, and the other from a pump, which is sometimes used to economize the compressed gas in the generator, which would otherwise be wasted. This rocker is manufactured by the firm of John Matthews in New York. Another large fountain-rocker, as manufactured by the A. D. Puffer & Sons' Manufacturing Co., is shown by the illustration (Fig. 327). When liquid carbonic acid cylinders are employed for charging porta- ble fountains, the same process in general is followed, and we refer in re- gard to this to the explanations and illustrations given in Part III., on this subject. 416 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Puffer's Fountain Rocker. FIG. 325. HAND FOUNTAIN ROCKER. FIG. 326. FOUNTAIN ROCKER I. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 417 In regard to water t its purity and temperature, used for filling portable fountains, the same observations and carefulness is necessary as applied to stationary fountains, as hereinbefore explained. A more perfect union of the gas with the water is attained if the water is permitted to remain quiet for a few hours after being well charged and agitated in the portable fountains. The carelessness in puri- fying the carbonic acid gas and in charging portable fountains explains oftentimes the inferior quality of many draught beverages, but even care- fully prepared and faultless waters lose, by prolonged storage in those me- tallic fountains, somewhat of their original freshness and taste, frequently also gas, and this is especially observable where but a small dispensing trade is carried on, and the water in fountain consequently remains very long, especially when the fountains are large. Portable fountains are FIG. 327. FOUNTAIN ROCKER II. made in various sizes, like the stationary ones. The proper size for the dispensing counter are those fountains which hold the quantity required for one day only. Large ones for a supply of more than two days should not be employed. If the trade is so small that even a six-gallon fountain cannot be dispensed in one, or at most in two days, the sale in bottles or syphons is preferable. An accessory to a portable fountain is a relief- valve (Fig. 328) in case it is overcharged. This valve is designed for a fountain cock, with relief device attached. The manufacturers, the A. D. Puffer & Sons Mfg. Co., Boston, Mass., ex- plain: " It is quite common to charge fountains with very cold water. In this condition the water absorbs the gas rapidly, and the quantity in proportion as the water is cold. If fountains charged in this way to a high degree, say 200 pounds, are transported during the heat of the day, the temperature may be raised from 40 degrees to 70 or 80. 27 418 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. The pressure will be increasing rapidly as the water becomes warm, and at 80 degrees instead of having a pressure of 200 pounds, as indicated when charging the fountain, the pressure has steadily advanced to near 400 pounds. The faucet is so gauged that, when the pressure exceeds the amount desired, it opens, and allows the water or gas to escape, whichever may be desired, and a safe equilibrium maintained." This is quite true, and when by carelessness such a charged portable fountain is exposed to the sun or by careless drivers transported around for a consid- erable time in hot weather, an extreme pressure is the consequence, which FIG. 328. RELIEF VALVE FOR OVERCHARGED FOUNTAINS. even might become dangerous. In such cases this relief valve might be of good service. Cleansing of Portable Fountains. Before filling and charging the portable fountains, they should be washed and rinsed out to remove all sediment which might have occurred from impure water previously used. The fountain rinser will be found useful where a large business is car- ried on. It is simple and effective, consisting of a number of tubes con- nected with the hydrant by a main. In each tube there is a valve which admits and shuts off the water. The fountains are inverted, and are so placed that one of these tubes passes into the interior through the bung. In this position the fountain rests on a collar which has provision for drain- age, and is so connected with the valve that the weight of the fountain upon it causes the flow of the water against the whole interior of the fountain. The water flows out as fast as it runs in, carrying with it any THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 419 deposit from the lining of the fountain. The machine is manufactured by the firm of John Matthews in New York. Filling and Gauging Portable Fountains. Where many foun- tains have to be filled, and when regularity, accuracy and despatch are necessary, we should advise the use of a measuring cistern, a practical contrivance manufactured by the same firm. Fig, 330 is a tin-lined wooden tank divided into water-tight compart- ments, which are filled with water admitted through the horizontal tube which is seen in front of the cistern. When the required amount of liquid has been admitted, the supply is automatically cut off by a float and valve. A graduated glass tube indicates the amount of water in each compartment. By means of the valves shown in the illustration the con- 420 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. tents of the tanks may be discharged into the fountains, thus charging these with the proper amount. Care of Portable Fountains. The same care is required as with FIG. 330. MEASURING CISTERN. the stationary fountains. The exterior of iron and steel fountains should be well painted as a precaution against rust. Portable fountains are intended to resist a high pressure of carbonic acid gas, and should, therefore, be tested at least once every season with hydraulic pressure to double the usual pressure (400 Ibs.). THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 421 Re-lining Portable Fountains. To ascertain if a fountain needs re-lining, empty it of carbonic acid gas by tipping it upside down, then wash out thoroughly, lower a lighted candle into the fountain by a wire, and it can be readily seen whether the lining is worn off or not. A fountain well lined and properly taken care of will last for soda water about five years. It is important that this work should never be en- trusted to other hands than those of a regular manufacturer of soda-water apparatus. Coppersmiths used to other kinds of work cannot appreciate nor understand the great strength required in a soda-water fountain, which is at times subjected to a higher pressure than is required even in a steam-engine boiler. As a' fountain has to be taken apart for repairs and re-lining, it would be extremely hazardous to rely upon its being safely put together by a cop- persmith who is not also a regular manufacturer of soda-water apparatus, Escape of Gas from Fountains. Complaints are frequent that the pressure is lost from a fountain before its contents are drawn off. This is always caused either by the use of a poor washer between the cock and the top of the fountain, or by a failure to use the spanner wrench with sufficient force to make a tight joint. The gas may all escape without being manifested by appearance, in sight or sound. It cannot escape from the cock, for it would then drive the water before it and the leak would be apparent. Thick, soft, oil-tanned leather, such as harness makers use, should be used, and not the ordinary sole leather. Sometimes shaking of the fountain may help, as carbonic acid sepa- rates from the water and increases the pressure on the latter. In case this manipulation is not sufficient, the pressure in fountain is too low and the fountain must be recharged and the leakage made tight. The Dispensing Apparatus. Various are the devices intended for dispensing carbonated beverages directly from the fountains, and some- times very costly and highly ornamental apparatus are put up in very at- tractive styles, selected to gain the favor of the customers. The internal, or working parts of all the various apparatus are in the main point the same, and a glass of good soda water should be drawn from the plainest apparatus as well as from the most elaborate one. With that more or less ornamental external marble shell the dispenser is familiar, and it remains for us to explain the details of the interior. White marble is looked upon with disfavor by experienced dispensers. Although the imported Italian is the finest and most beautiful white marble and considerably cheaper than the colored varieties, it is not desirable from the fact that it becomes stained and loses its clean appear- ance. Where a cheap apparatus is desired the cheaper varieties of foreign and domestic marble, white and colored, are recommended. The marble must be sound and strong and in appearance lustrous with polish; the metal parts must be heavily plated. 422 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Marbles are merely purer and more compact varieties of limestone, which admit of being sawed into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine polish. It may be stained or dyed of various colors by applying colored solutions to the stone, made sufficiently hot to make the .liquid just simmer on the surface. As this coloring belongs within the sphere of the marble-works, and could not be applied without mechanical aid, we abstain from giving any directions respecting it. The sectional view of the appended dispensing apparatus consists of the following parts: A represents the marble or outer case; B is the air space between metal case and marble; C, metal casing, entirely surrounding the non-conducting wood lining; this should be of a durable kind. C is the FIG. 331. SECTIONAL VIEW OF AMERICAN DISPENSING APPARATUS. wood lining inside of the metal shell; E is a block-tin or glass syrup case; F, ice coolers, either cylinders with block-tin lining or block -tin coil; G-, support for syrup case and connection; H, pipe connecting syrup case with outlet, which lies directly under the ice coolers; I, cylinder cooler; K, ice case; L, pipe leading from cooler to gas cock; M, syrup faucet (sectional view); 0, mineral draught tube; P, gas cock to relieve the sputtering if gas or air have become separated from the water. R, block- tin pipe, connecting mineral draught with cooler, if this be desired; S, same, connecting soda draught with cooler. The syrup jars must be so ar- ranged as to be instantaneously removed and replaced. Directions for setting up draught apparatus cannot be given as they vary with the style; the manufacturers will give the directions necessary. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES, 423 The connections or couplings with the portable fountain claim par- ticular attention. For conveying the carbonated water from the fountain to the cooler is a block- tin pipe, the only kind that should be employed, and leaden pipes or alloys with lead should be carefully avoided. The re- quired couplings, which are made of brass, must be carefully and heavily tinned with pure block-tin and re-tinned whenever the slightest corrosion is visible. TJie Cooler. The interior of the apparatus is the ice receiver. At the bottom rests the cooler F, which consists either of a coil or a few cylinders. Through this the carbonated water runs on its way to the faucets, or re- mains there at intervals. Both the ice receiver and the cooler, serve an impor- tant purpose. They retain the amount of carbonic acid gas desirable and necessary for the compound of the bev- erage, which otherwise would escape through the draught arms as soon as opened. The proper cool- ing of the liquids is a highly important feature of the dispensing trade. It is obvious that the cooler also requires a close scrutiny. On top of the cooler comes the ice; the first requirement is, therefore, that it be of sufficient strength to resist the pressure of the ice, even when rudely thrown in. All coil coolers are made of solid block-tin, the cylindrical coolers are made of copper (iron or steel cylinders would rust), and must be care- fully lined inside with sheet block-tin, seamless, just like a fountain, to prevent any metallic contamination. They must be of such a form and placed in such a position as to secure the maximum of refrigeration with the minimum amount of ice. Only small cylinders should be employed FIG. 332. COIL COOLER. FIG. 333. CYLINDER COOLER. if no coils are used. If they are of large diameter the inner portion of its contents would be but little affected; if of greater length, more ice must be used to keep it covered. Between the pipes of the coil cooler, or between the different small cylinders of a cylinder cooler, must be sufficient space for the ie to melt 424 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. ID, or for the dripping ice water to wash all sides of the coolers. Use small pieces of ice in the ice chamber and place the coarser lumps on top, as it packs closer and cools better. The interior of the apparatus should be washed out at least once a week, and thoroughly cleansed from the sediment deposited by the ice. This is a very important matter, and, if attended to, effectually preserves the apparatus, besides keeping it clean and sweet, care being necessary to keep the waste pipe unclogged and run out the drip and refuse. If it should get stopped up at any time, blow through it. Where small portable fountains are used and circumstances permit, the cooler can be dispensed with and the fountain itself put in an ice box and surrounded with ice. The Draught Arms. The draught arms or faucets, through which the beverage is discharged from the cooler into the tumbler, must be so constructed as to reduce the loss of gas by friction \,o a minimum. The outlets must be sufficiently large; all projections, rough surfaces and corners increase the loss of gas. The liquid should flow out in a close compact stream, and not like a hollow cylinder or in bell shape. The faucet, whether of brass or bronze, must be solid, tin-lined inside, while the exterior should be heavily silver-plated, to prevent any metallic poisoning. A considerable loss of gas always occurs in drawing a carbonated liquid by the naturally rapid and violent discharge of the liquid under pressure, and the agitation of the water in the tumbler as the stream dashes swiftly into it. Various mechanical contrivances for obviating this difficulty have been devised with divided success. One way of meeting the diffi- culty is to use some kind of a nozzle as illustrated on page 399, a nozzle attached to a syphon head. A part of the flow rushes still at full speed through the hole, while some is checked in its swift escape. Devices for drawing both water and syrup from the same faucet, and thus avoiding the necessity of moving the tumbler, have been invented, but they have been found too complicated for advantageous practical use. Double-stream draught, arms of various patterns are attached to the dispensing apparatus, and may be considered practical devices. Princi- pally they consist of a draught arm with two separate faucets inside, one discharging a small swift stream to mix the syrup, and the other a larger and slower stream to fill the glass. These streams may be used either together or independently, as desired. A foam condenser, as manufactured by the firm of John Matthews, and illustrated by the next figure, is another practical device for dispens- ing draught beverages. This condenser enables root beer, ginger ale, and all similar beverages to be drawn in a steady, continuous stream, and prevents sputtering of the beverage when drawn. It can be readily attached to the ordinary draught arm of a dispensing apparatus, is simple in construction, and is easily taken apart for cleansing or repairing. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 425 Fig. 335 is a neat device for the same purpose, manufactured by the A. D. Puffer & Sons' Mfg. Co., of Boston. By this apparatus carbonated beverages of every description, and of whatever pressure, can be dispensed either in solid liquid or with any amount of foam desired. It is neat, ornamental, attractive, and can be at- tached to any draught apparatus. The usual method of drawing foam- ing beverages at the dispensing fount- ain, where these illustrated contrivances are not employed, is by means of a metal beer measure, or pitcher, into which it is first drawn and allowed to stand for several seconds, giving the foam a chance to subside, and as the liquid is slowly decanted, the agitation or vio- lent stirring, incident to the draught tube, is avoided. Syrup tanks, cans or jars must an- swer the same requirements as those syrup receptacles described for carbo- nating apparatus. The most practical ones are the glass jars for the dispens- ing trade. Even pure block-tin cans are open to the objection that sugar in FIG. 334 MATTHEWS 1 FOAM CONDENSER. FIG. 335. RIDGEWAY'S PATENT BEER FOUNTAIN. solution has a deleterious action upon tin, as already explicitly explained. Earthenware tanks serve very well, and do not injure the syrup, but glazed earthenware is suspicious, as frequently lead enters into the mix- ture. All the syrup vessels are best movable, and when empty should be taken out every day and carefully cleansed and scalded with hot water, 426 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. to which some soda has been added, before refilling them. They are also placed inside the marble shell, in front or rear, as the arrange- ments permit. The illustration Fig. 331 shows the syrup can E in the rear. For each kind of syrup a separate can must be employed, so that quite a series of them enter into the dispensing apparatus. The devices, how these syrup cans are closed and the syrup dispensed, are also various. One device, as illustrated by Figure 336, consists of a rod of ebonite (hard rubber), with two rubber valves, the rod running vertically through the syrup can and measuring chamber, regulating the flow at the outlet, thus making an extra syrup faucet superfluous (Matthews' patent). A is the syrup and B the meas- uring chamber. The ebonite rod C is furnished with a head E, and two rubber valves, D and F, for closing the admission and emission parts of the measuring chamber, respectively. The rod is provided with a vent G to the measuring chamber. FIG. 336.-PORTABLE GLASS SYRUP TANK AND ROD. Where these glass tanks with rod are employed the syrup is discharged at the base of the dispensing apparatus, as illustrated by Fig. 337. Others are set in connec- tion with a separate syrup faucet as illustrated by Fig. 338. These syrup cans are closed either by ground plugs, as shown in this illus- tration, or by a valve at bot- tom, seen in Fig. 331, which connects or enters an annu- lar seat Or bearing, formed FIG. 337. SECTIONAL VIEW OP PORTABLE TANK. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 427 or deposited within a thimble or short tube secured to the bottom of the ice box which contains the syrup jars, and to which tube the faucet or its pipe is connected. The syrup faucets require the most careful attention and scrutiny. The pipe connecting faucet and syrup can must be of the purest kind of block-tin, and the faucet itself must be thickly block- tin lined in the interior, and its exterior should be heavily silver-plated. Simplicity of construction is a principal point connected with syrup faucets; leaking and dripping leads to un- cleanliness, and is very disagreeable and inconve- nient. The construction of the syrup faucets can be readily seen by removing the handle and cap. The inside bearings should be occasionally oiled or greased with pure material, and care should be taken not to interchange the keys (Fig. 338), where each one is ground to its corresponding number. If there should be leakage, the keys have been interchanged. Examine the num- bers stamped on the edge of the barrel and of the key and place them properly. If, however, the leakage is not caused in this way, unscrew the cap, take out the spring that holds the plug in position, and open it wider, so as to give the plug a greater pressure in the barrel. Before putting the plug in again, wipe it off carefully, and also wipe out that part of the barrel in which the plug works, as the FIG. 338. GLASS LINED SYRUP TANK WITH FAUCET. Fio. 339. SYRUP FAUCET. slightest atom of grit or dirt between the plug and socket would cause leakage. If this does not make it tight, take two parts of mutton tal- 428 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. low to one part wax, and melt; dip the plug into this and put back into place immediately. (James W. Tuft's Book of Directions.) Where rubber valves are to close the syrup cans, they might need new rubbers in case of leakage. One of the plainest dispensing apparatus adapted for small dispensers, who do not care or cannot afford to buy complete dispensing apparatus, and prefer to keep their syrups in bottles and dispense from a simple draught column, is illustrated by the next figure. This apparatus consists of a syphon, covered with a wire netting and provided with a metallic bottom, and a pipe passing down through the FIG. 341. SYRUP BOTTLE. FIG. 340. CONTINUOUS SYPHON. FIG. 342. ICE PLANE. counter to a fountain below. The pipe is connected to a coil cooler in a metal-lined ice-filled cooling chamber secured to the under side of the counter, and the water is thereby cooled in its passage from the fountain to the syphon. The syphon head and all the piping and cooler must be of solid block -tin to answer the standard requirements The illustration is a pattern of the firm of John Matthews, New York. It is an excellent way with a small apparatus to have a plain syrup and a plain cream syrup; then by using vials of flavor, the syrups are readily prepared, and are as good as can be. Accessories to a dispensing apparatus are tumblers, tumbler holders THE DISPENSING OF CAKBONATED BEVERAGES. 429 and a tumbler washer, practically an ice plane, cream pitcher, etc. The choice of these accessories is generally considered a matter of individual taste. They should be kept well washed, rinsed and cooled. The tumbler holders should be silverware of ornamental design. Care of Dispensing Apparatus. Keep the metal work well polished; rub it frequently with a clean chamois skin. Cleansing pastes for bright metal parts: We have already given formulas in Part III. in " Maintaining of Apparatus." There will be also found a formula for silvering metals, which may be usefully ap- plied to metal parts of dispensing apparatus; before application clean the parts bright and dry and remove all grease by application of weak lye. Solntion for Cleansing Silver or Silver-plated Ware. A satu- rated solution of hyposulphite of sodium will clean even oxydized silver- ware in a short time. Dissolve of the salt in one pint of water as much as it will take. Moisten a rag or brush with the solution, and apply to the object to be cleaned. Storage of Apparatus. At close of season the counter apparatus should be taken apart and thoroughly cleansed and dried. The foun- tain and coolers should be rinsed with alcohol and dried inside by ex- posure to moderate heat. The outside of the generator should be oiled. The Care of Marble. All parts of the marble should always be kept perfectly clean and bright by rubbing at least once every day with a soft, smooth cloth. Wash it frequently with pure water, having a small quantity of soda in solution, then rub dry at once with a cloth. Soap and water, to which some ox-gall may be added, will also clean marble. Acids should be avoided. Any defect of polish may be brought up with tripoli, followed by putty powder, both being used along with water. James W. Tufts gives the following directions in regard to care of marble: " If the marble shows a sign of dimness, the gloss may be re- stored by using a compound of spirits of turpentine and bees-wax, mixed to the consistency of ordinary salve. Put this over the dim part, and then rub smartly with a soft, dry cloth for about a minute or more. If only slightly dim, the gloss of black or fancy marbles can be restored by rubbing on sweet or olive oil, but oil should never be used upon white marble. I have found in some instances that customers used the same cloth to wipe off the drippings on the counter slab and the front of the apparatus. As the cloth is saturated with the acid it will, when so used, surely destroy the polish on the apparatus/' Colored marbles are improved by rubbing well with a small quantity of olive oil. Soft soap, mixed with powdered chalk and a little soda and jewellers' rouge, the whole mixture warmed and applied with a piece of flannel or felt, will be an effective mixture for cleansing marble; polish afterwards with clean felt. 430 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Slaked lime, moistened with a strong solution of washing sbda in hot water, and rubbed over the marble and let become dry, is recommended to remove discoloration from smoke. Afterwards brush off, wash with plenty of water and polish with tripoli. Wine and fruit stains on marble, if not too old and dry, are removed by applying a paste made of powdered chalk and water; cover the stains with this paste, leave it over night and rub it off the next day with a damp rag. The paste will absorb the acid. Oil stains are best removed by benzine-magnesia that is, a paste made of dry magnesia and benzine as also used for cleansing bright metallic parts; the stain is covered with it and the paste allowed to dry; it should contain sufficient benzine to be soft enough and give off benzine when squeezed, but should not contain it in abundance, as the liquid would ruQ off. The paste is left over night, protected with some covering to avoid evaporation, and the operation is repeated until the stain is re- moved. Oil and grease may be generally removed by spreading a paste made of soft soap, caustic potash lye, and Fuller's earth over the part, and al- lowing it to remain there for a few days; after which it must be washed off with clean water. Or equal parts of crude potash and whiting are made into a moderately stiff paste with a sufficiency of boiling water, and applied to the marble with a brush. At the end of two or three days the paste is removed and the marble washed with soap and water. Another means is a paste made of white lead and common table salt, put on the impure spots. After the paste has become dry, the stains have disappeared. Cement for Marble. Take eight parts of resin and one part wax, to which, when melted together, add four parts plaster Paris. Use while hot. Use no more than is sufficient to cover well the parts to be cemented. Another good cement for marble and alabaster is prepared as follows: Stir to a thick batter with silicate of soda, 12 parts of Portland cement, 6 parts slaked lime, 6 parts finely powdered lead; 1 part infusoria earth. The cemented object need not be heated; after twenty-four hours the fracture is firm. If it is desirable for colored marble to use a colored cement, a small addition of either ivory-black, ultramarine, oxide of iron, etc., will give it the desired nuance. Wax for Name-plates or Syrup-plates. If the wax should get worn off, replace by heating and filling with sealing wax. Alcohol will clean the superfluous wax off the surface. General Rules for Dispensing Carbonated Beverages. In re- gard to the preparation of syrups, follow closely directions appended here- after. A great many formulas are attached both for the bottling and especially for dispensing. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 431 The syrups should be of the best quality, and a variety of them should be kept. The cream syrup should be prepared from pure cream, if it can be had uniformly sweet and fresh; but as this is seldom practic- able, condensed milk may be substituted. Keep the apparatus and everything connected with it scrupulously clean, and the metal work brightly polished. The use of shaved or broken ice in the soda water, when drawn, FIG. 343. GERMAN DRINK HALL. FIG. 344. GROUND PLAN OF FIG. 343. a, Dispensing room; 6, Rear room; c, Todium; d. Dispensing table; e, Chair;/, Portable fountain; y, Bouvette: h, Closet; t, Door. drives off the gas by its mechanical action, and deprives the water of its pungency, rendering it cold, but insipid. Drink Halls. In the principal German cities or towns, in public places or thoroughfares, there are established charmingly decorated "trink-halles," where carbonated beverages and light refreshments are sold by neatly attired and obliging young ladies. We append here an illustration of the usual style of those halls, with ground-plan. This illustration (Fig. 345) represents a "Bouvette a Eau Gazeuses " (Soda-counter) in a French saloon. 432 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. In Germany and in France the expensive and highly ornamental American dispensing apparatus are scarcely to be found, while in Eng- land they are partially introduced. The Trinklialle or Bouvettes are of plainer design, however orna- mental, and answer the same purpose. This cut (Fig. 346) represents the interior of a Russian saloon, where carbonated beverages are to be dispensed. Along the wall we see num- erous syrup reservoirs, within easy reach of the ladies attending to the business, while the carbonated water is drawn and dispensed at the counter. In most of such establishments, as well as in France, the whole FIG. 344 FRENCH SODA COUNTER. carbonating apparatus, being directly connected with the counter, is exposed to the public, and neatly kept, which adds a great deal in* gaining the confidence of the customers. Portable Soda- Water Carts. In the South of Europe, the Balkan States and Russia, we meet frequently with a vehicle which represents a movable soda counter, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 347). The in- terior of this cart is filled out more or less like'our modern counter appa- ratus, contains cylinder, cooler and syrup cans, the carbonated water and syrup being dispensed in the ordinary way. For visiting a large or several districts, and supplying camps and other gatherings with the thirst- quenching carbonated liquor, this is considered a practical contrivance. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 433 The firm of John Matthews, New York, is also manufacturing a simi- lar arrangement. The appended illustration represents a tastefully deco- rated and well-arranged portable apparatus. The Americans, therefore, need not go to Bulgaria when in want of such a vehicle. Grasogenje or Seltzogene. By means of these apparatus, soda-water, sparkling lemonade, wines, etc., and all kinds of carbonated waters, can be made almost instantly. They are very convenient and useful for families, as an article always at hand, in all cases. The carbonic acid gas is produced in these apparatus by the action of tartaric acid on bicarbonate of soda. There are two different styles of gasogene. The tube of this apparatus is made of glass or tin, open at each end, 28 434 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. FIG. 347. BULGARIAN SODA-WATER CART. FIG. 348. AMERICAN SODA-WATER CART. THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 435 and is fixed to the interior of another cylinder, on the top of which is a silver plate pierced with several very small holes which act as a filter. On the exterior of the cylinder, near its centre, is a cotton packing which makes a firm water-tight joint when it is fixed in the gasogene. The cylinder has two rows of holes near its base. The action of the apparatus is as follows: The gasogene, having been charged by filling the upper globe (Globe No. 1) with water, and putting the powders in the lower globe (Globe No. 2), is set on its stand. Water from the upper globe then flows by its own gravity down the tube, and, rising, overflows through the two rows of holes into the lower globe. A corresponding bulk of air then rises through the upper holes, passes through the small holes in the silver plate (which arrests any solid particles the gas might otherwise carry FIG. 349. FRENCH GASOGKNE. with it and thus acts as a filter) into the upper globe. The carbonic acid gas, produced in the lower globe by the chemical action of the water and powders, then follows the same channel (being unable to rush up the tube on account of the lower part being in the water that fills the cylin- der up to the two rows of holes), and thoroughly impregnates the water. This arrangement is effective and simple. Every gasogene is tested at a high pressure. The glass is of the best and toughest quality; the mountings are of English tin entirely free from lead, and all parts are carefully fitted. This kind of gasogene (Fig. 350) is handled and charged differently. Unscrew and take off the cap of the apparatus, nearly fill the lower (or large globe) with water by means of the large funnel, leaving the neck of the inside tube empty, and then close the tube securely with the pin-cork, taking care that no water passes into the small globe. Place the small funnel over the pin-cork (which should be quite dry), and pass 436 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. into the small globe a charge of tartaric acid, in small crystals, and a charge of bi-carbonate of soda, in powder, then remove the pin-cork and small funnel. Place the tap on the bottle, screw it down quite tight. Incline the bottle a little on one side, to allow the water to fall into the small globe, until the third part of the small globe is filled with water; shake the apparatus gently with a circular movement, keeping it always upright, and put it in a cool place; the cooler the water is the more it will effervesce. Two hours is sufficient time to stand before using it. When the apparatus is empty, take care to cast away the water con- tained in the small globe, and to rinse it for a new operation; do not on any occasion wash or rinse the bottles with hot water, as it would cause them to burst; also avoid placing the bottle in a warm place. Special Directions. Many mineral waters can be made by the gas- FIG. 350. ENGLISH GASOGENE. ogenes: pour some of the salt into the large globe before pouring the water into it, stir it about in the globe until dissolved. Sparkling wine is prepared by using white wine instead of water, add about half an ounce of powdered sugar candy, a little cognac, and stir it about in the globe until dissolved. Lemonades, ginger ale, and other saccharine beverages, are best taken by pouring the syrups in a tumbler, then letting the gaseous water on to it. Quantities for charging the different Sizes of Gasogenes. For the Quart Size: Use 4 drachms of tartaric acid (in small crystals) and 5 drachms of bi-carbonate of soda (in powders). For the Half -Gallon Size: Use 6 drachms of tartaric acid (in small crystals) and 7 drachms of bi-carbonate of soda (in powders). The two substances must be well mixed together before being put in the small globe. Hot Soda- Water Apparatus. Hot " soda water," so-called, is not water impregnated with carbonic acid gas. It is simply hot water flav- THE DISPENSING OF CARBONATED BEVERAGES. 437 ored with such syrups as coffee, chocolate, ginger, etc. Sometimes wine syrup or punch extracts are substituted. The water may be heated in a copper boiler of various makes with a gas or oil stove, and the pressure obtained from the city mains, or, if there are no water works in the town, an ordinary soda fountain at a low pressure will do. It can be dis- pensed from the draught- tube of a dispensing apparatus, with syrups kept in the ordinary way. By dispensing hot beverages in the winter season quite a lucrative trade may be done. Formulas for ' ' Hot Soda-water Syrups " will also be found later on among the " Chemical Ingredients of Saccharine Beverages." To obtain a supply of hot water always at the proper temperature that is, nearly the boiling point (say 200 F.) is the desideratum. For this purpose various kinds of boilers have been devised. The apparatus should either be supplied with a safety valve, so that when the pressure exceeds a cer- tain number of pounds the accumulating steam can escape, or the heat should be regulated by the amount of water drawn. When there is but little demand for drinks the heat must be abated. But it must be borne in mind that the demand for " hot " drinks requires instantaneous dispensing, and to serve a drink of " hot soda " lukewarm, is worse than serving none at all. This difficulty has made the dispensing of such beverages inconven- ient and otherwise unsatisfactory. The devices employed for the preparation of these beverages should be constructed to obviate all these difficulties, by properly regulating the in- flow of cold water, the escape of steam, and by proper connection with the draught tube. PART SIXTH. THE LABORATORY. NECESSARY REQUIREMENTS FILTRATION AND CLAR- IFICATIONPERCOLATION AND MACERATION. CHAPTER XXV- UTENSILS REQUIRED, WITH VALUABLE COMPARATIVE TABLES. General Requisites. The Carbonator's Analytical Laboratory. Tables of Weights and Measures. British Weights and Measures. Metric Weights and Measures. Measures of Length. Measures of Surface. Relative Value of Apothecary's or Wine Measure, U. S., and Imperial Measure. Value of Avoirdupois to Metric Weight. Value of Metric to Avoirdupois Weight. Value of United States to Metric Fluid Measure. Value of Metric to United States Fluid Measure. Approximate Measures. At- mospheric and Water Pressure. Explanation of Chemical Terms. Stand- ard Solutions. Hydrometers. Using a Hydrometer. Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of BaumS's Hydrometer to Specific Gravity as Adopted in the United States. Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of BaumS's, Beck's and Cartier's Hydrometers to Specific Grav- ity, as employed in Germany and France. Table Showing the Relation of the Degrees of Twaddel's Hydrometer to Specific Gravity, as Adopted in England. Thermometers. Comparative Table of Degrees of the Cel- sius, Reaumur and Fahrenheit Thermometers. General Requisites. In designing the general anangements of a factory, it is well to have a room set apart for the bottlers' laboratory. In this room should be prepared and stored the different flavorings or essences, and other chemical ingredients; also be kept the syrups when made and all necessary sundries, such as hydrometers, weights, measuring glasses, etc. It is advisable to have this room up-stairs, so that the stock- jars can UTENSILS EEQUIRED COMPARATIVE TABLES. 439 be kept in it, and the syrup drawn from them through tin pipes into the bottling-room below. Experience has shown that the following instruments and utensils will be required: Percolator, for making extracts by percolation. Distilling Apparatus, for preparing essences, essential oils, etc. Syr up- Boiler, for the preparation of simple syrups as directed later on, Graduates of various capacity; double graduates preferred. Hydrometer and hydrometer jars of various descriptions. Acidometer, for ascertaining the strength of acids. FIG. 352. MORTAR. FIG. 351. GRADUATK. FIG. 353. MINIM GLASS. Alcoholometer, for ascertaining the strength of alcohol. Saccharometer, for ascertaining the strength of syrups. Thermometer, for ascertaining the temperature of liquids, etc. A Set of Glass Funnels, for nitrations. A Set of Beakers, for various purposes. Sets of Test Tubes and a Test-tube Rack. Casseroles and Evaporating Dishes, of porcelain. Water Baths, for evaporating purposes. Iron Supports, for funnels, dishes, lamps, etc. Alcohol Lamp, for laboratory work. Bunsen Burners, where gas is accessible. Crucibles, for examination work. Filtering Paper in all sizes, white preferred. Mortars of various sizes, with pestles of hard composition and iron, Tincture Press. Drug Mill Felt Filtering Bags and Supports. 440 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. Spoons, Spatulas, etc. Pure Distilled Water always to be preferred. A Set of Various Dishes, Jars, and Bottles, for manipulating. Separators and Separatory Funnels. Scales and Weights. One scale of larger capacity for weighing con- siderable quantities at one time, with proper avoirdupois weights. Another smaller scale of about five pounds capacity, for weighing quantities from half an ounce up to five pounds, with the proper set of avoirdupois weights. A third and sensitive scale for weighing from one milligramme up to 60 milligrammes (one grain) and from one grain upwards to four FIG. 354. THE CARBONATOR'S ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. drachms or one ounce. The proper weights are a set of gramm weights from about one gramme down to one milligramme, and another set from about four drachms down to one grain. This set of scales and weights enables the operator to quickly weigh all quantities, however small they may be, and should not fail to have a place in a properly equipped car- bonator's laboratory. An extra set of weights, gramme weights, from one gramme up to 1000 grammes (L kilogramme) is advisable, to weigh in either system, as some formulas permit. The Carbonator's Analytical Laboratory. The above engrav- ing shows an outline of a small, but compact and complete, practical laboratory for bottlers' use, with all the necessary reagents and utensils required for the examination of water, carbonic acid gas, carbonates, sulphuric or muriatic acids, sugar or syrups, fruit acids, essential oils, drugs, alcohol, colors, etc. This is a handsome arrangement put up ac- cording to scientific and practical principles, by the author of this work, UTENSILS REQUIRED COMPARATIVE TABLES. 441 and for sale by the Publishers, at a moderate price, comprising all the principal fixtures, and pipettes, dropping and test tubes, crucible, lamp,' etc., which are required when the carbonator desires to know the proper- ties and purity of his materials. For detecting the presence of impuri- ties and adulterations in all the materials and ingredients used in carbonating beverages, this is a very valuable outfit. Special directions for operating and manipulating accompany it. Successful carbonating and the manufacture or compounding of a high-class beverage depends on the purity of the materials employed, and on the absence of adulterations, or, if present, on their detection and the proper mode of treatment to remove them, or avoid their deleterious effects in the course of manipulation. Practical chemistry has devised various and simple methods of detect- ing impurities and frauds in all the materials and ingredients employed in the manufacture of carbonated beverages. It requires no experienced chemical skill to apply them. We have arranged these methods and ex- plained them in such a way, and fitted up " The Carbonator' s Analytical Laboratory" with such necessary instruments and chemicals, that will enable the practical carbonator, without being a chemist, to determine in an instant for himself the practical value of all materials and ingredients that he necessarily employs, and to decide on their merits and suitability of application, thus protecting against fraud and its consequences in employing adulterated goods. Tables of Weights and Measures. The weights employed in the manufacture of carbonated beverages is the Avoirdupois Weight. Pound. 1 Ounces. 16 1 Drachms. 128 8 1 Grains. 7680 60 60 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight, cwt. 20 cwt. or 2000 ft = 1 ton. For comparison we append the Apothecaries' or Troy Weight, U. 8. Ounces Grains. Avoirdupois. Grains. 1 pound, ft ! = 12 troy ounces = 5760 = 13 = 72.5 1 troy ounce, = 8 drachms = 480 = ' 1 = 42.5 1 drachm, 3 = 3 scruples 60 1 scruple, ^ as 20 1 grain, gr. = 1 "> A pint not a pound. It is generally understood that one pint (wine meas- ure) is equal to one pound avoirdupois, and the graduated measures are more 442 A TREATISE ON BEVERAGES. I The measure employed in the manufacture of carbonated beverages is the Apothecaries' or Wine Measure, U. S. Cubic Troy grains inches. of water at 60 F. 1 minim, m 0.00376 0.95 60minims = 1 fluid drachm, 3 0.2256 56.96 480 " = 8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce, f .... 1 . 8047 455 . 69 7680 " = 128 " = 16 fl. ounces = lpt., 0-28.875 7291.11 01440 " =1024 " =128 " =8pts.= 1 gal., Cong. 231 58328.88 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE BRITISH PHARMACOPOEIA. 1 pound, ft = 16 ounces = 7000 troy grains. 1 ounce, oz. = = 437.5 " 1 grain, gr. = =1 grain. Imperial Measure. Troy Grains. Avoirdupois. 1 minirti, inin 0.91 60 minims = 1 fluid drachm, fl. dr 54. 7 480 " = 8 fluid drachms = 1 fl. oz 437.5 = 1 oz. 9600 " = 160 " = 20 fl.ozs.=lpt. 0-8750 = 1.251b. 76800 " =1280 " =160 " =8pts.= 7000 = 10 Ibs. METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Weights. 1 milligr. (mgm.) = 0.001 gram (gm.) 10 milligrs. = 1 centigr. (cgm.) = 0.010 gram (gm.) 100 " = 10 " = 1 decigr. (dgm.) = 0.100 gr. (gm.) 1000 " = 100 = 10 " 1.000 " 1 gram (weight of 1 cubic centimeter of water at 4 C.) 10 grams = 1 dekagram. 100 " =10 dekagrams = 1 hektogram .1000 " = 100 = 10 hektograins = 1 kilogram (kgm.) 10 kilograms = 1 myriagram = 22.046 ft av. 100 " =1 quintal = 220.46 " 1000 " = 1 mill, or tonneau = 2204.6 " accordingly. A pint is not a pound, or vice versa, tradition notwithstanding. The weight of a pint of any solution depends wholly upon the specific gravity of such solution. A pint of water will not be of the same weight as a pint of 50 per cent, alcohol, but their weights will be in the proportion of 1.000 to 0.9182, their specific gravities. If this is borne in mind by the carbonator, dealers in essential oils will be spared the trouble of explanations, which in many cases are unintelligible to the purchaser UTENSILS REQUIRED - COMPARATIVE TABLES. Measures. 443 1 milliliter (or 1 cubic centimeter, Gem.) = 0.001 liter. 10 milliliters = 1 centiliter = 0.010 " 100 " = 10 centiliters = 1 deciliter =0.100 liter. 1000 " =100 '.' = 10 deciliters =1.000 liters. Wine Measure. 1 liter (or 1 cubic decimeter) 1 .0567 qts. 10 liters = 1 dekaliter 2.6417 galls. 100 " = 10 dekaliters = 1 hektoliter 26.417 1000 " =100 " = 10 hektoliters = Ikiloliter or stere 264.17 The unit of all metric measures is the meter (French, metre), and this is the ten-millionth part of the quadrant, or fourth part of the terres- trial meridian, the quadrant being the distance from the equator to the pole. The cube of the tenth part of a meter, denominated liter (French, litre), was adopted as the unit of measures of capacity. The weight of the one-thousandth part of a liter of distilled water at its greatest density (4 C.) was denominated gram (French, gramme), and adopted as the unit of weight. The subdivisions of all measures are named by prefixing to the name of the unit the Latin numerals deci (.1), centi (.01, and milli (.001), and the larger denominations by prefixing the Greek num- erals deka (10), hekto (100), kilo (1000), and myria (10,000). MEASURES OF LENGTH. Metric. 1 millimeter (mm.) 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter (cm.) 100 = 10 centimeters = 1 decimeter (dm.) 1000 = 100 = 10 decimeters = 1 meter (m.) 10 meters = 1 dekameter 32 feet 100 " = lOdekameters = 1 hektometer 328 " 1000 = 100 = 10 hektoms = 1 kilom. 3280 " 1 kilometer = 4 furlongs = 213 yds. 1 ft. 10 kilometers = 1 myriameter 6. 2137 miles. Inches. .039370 .393704 3.937043 39.370432 9.7 1. 10.4 10.43 English. 0.0254ineter. 12 inches = 1 foot = 30.48 centimeters ................. 0.3048 " 36 " = 3feet= 1 yard ............................. 0.9144 " 198 " = 161