tlB* OF THE imivr OF THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, OR, A TREATISE ON FOREST PLANTING: COMPREHENDING THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF PLANTED AND NATURAL TIMBER, IN EVERY STAGE OF ITS GROWTH : ALSO ON THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF STONE WALLS, SCc. Second as the trees are rising in succession to one another in all directions. The breadth of the zones, in this case, should not be less than a hundred yards; but they may be 10 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, made as much more in breadth, as con- veniency, and the desire of having the ori- ginal design speedily accomplished, may determine. In other bleak, but less hilly, or elevated situations, and where the intended mass of planting may be greater than can be accom- plished in one or two seasons, artificial shelter may also be produced to each portion, except the first; which, the better to answer this purpose, should be situated either in the cen- tre or the quarter of the field most exposed to the wind 9 as determined by observation of from what point , and with what effect it gene- rally blows. The first portion to be planted, in this case, should be of considerable extent, that is, of several acres ; and its form may be determined by existing circumstances ; pro- vided, however, that no part be less than a hundred yards across. Thus might many bleak and mountainous districts be covered with useful timber, and become a source of wealth to the proprietor, and of benefit to the nation, which at present lie waste in a great measure ; perhaps afford- ing only a sorry maintenance to a few soli- SITUATIONS. *1 tary sheep, and unhospitable habitations to the roe and the goat. Success, however, depends much on the choice of the kinds of trees. This choice must be regulated, in some measure, by the quality and quantity of soil ; of which see farther in the next chapter. It would be vain . to expect every timber tree to flourish here in a superlative degree ; nevertheless, there are, and those both noble, graceful, and useful trees, that will. The native Pine, in such situations, and even where the soil is scanty, is found in the highest perfection, and of greatest durability. Indeed, in others, but for variety, it is not worth the trouble of planting : its use as a nurse, is far out-done by the Larch. This most complaisant of the ligneous tribes, which conforms to almost every soil and si- tuation, is found even to luxuriate, beyond any other tree, on the most bleak and moun- tainous scites. The Mountain-ash, or Sorb, would exu- berate here, and assist in nursing the Oak, the Beech, the Elm, the Ash, the Sycamore, the Birch, the Hornbeam, &c. which mav 1* THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. all, in prudence, and with a reasonable hope of success, be planted. The Oak, where the soil is richest and deepest, at the bottom, or in the wavy hollows of the mountain, in greatest quantity ; but a few may be inter- spersed every where; the Beech and Elm in all parts with freedom; and the Ash, Sy- camore, and Birch, also in all parts in mo- derate quantities; depending most, however, on the Larch and Beech for a crop of timber ; and on the Larch and Mountain-ash, as; purses. SITUATIONS. 13 SECTION II. Low, Sheltered, INLAND Situations. THE subject in view here, being opposed to that of the preceding section, it would appear that the difficulty of rearing timber from the want of shelter as therein stated, is at first sight obviated. If the soil is congenial, it is so in a great measure. But this consideration has led many into error, who have been tempted, by the favourable- ness of situation, to plant improper kinds, at improper distances, and of insufficient quan- tity, to become valuable timber. Others have erred by adhering to the opposite ex- treme. A medium is adviseable. It will be allowed, as it is presumed, that much of the future form and strength of a tree, and consequently of its usefulness, de- pends on its treatment in the earlier period of its existence the first ten years of its life. Consequently, constraint and restraint are equally inadmissible. By too thick planting, and want of timely thinning, trees may be 14- THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. constrained in growth; and by pruning, in shape. By too thin planting, and in masses too small, they may be restrained in growth, and are with difficulty pruned into shape. Trees of more than a yard in height, in the latter case, are most objectionable, being the more liable to be stinted. Too many instances are to be found of trees, in good soil and situation, being stint- ed, hide-bound, crooked, and mere bushes, by being set at perhaps eight or ten feet apart, and planted in the eighth or tenth year of their age, which, had they been set at half the distance, and planted at half the age, would, in half the time, have been thrice the size, clean, and vigorous. On the other hand are to be found those, which by being, in soil and situation as here defined, planted at perhaps a yard apart, and neglected in respect of thinning, are mere maypoles, drawn up weak and slender, and which will with difficulty bear exposure to a freer air, an article essential to their matura- tion as useful timber. In respect of the kinds admissible here, since in point of situation all the timber tribe SITUATIONS. 15 \viil succeed if the soil is favourable, much must depend on circumstances. Demand, probable demand, locality of situation, and the fancy of the proprietor, are points of the first consideration. Next are those of, whe- iher on the same estate, in the same district, and with the same favourable and local ad- vantages, there are other situations of an op- posite nature, and which are also to be ap-, propriated to the raising of forest timber. Admitting this case, the following might, perhaps, with greatest propriety be planted here : The Oak, Larch, Elm, Beech, Horse- chesnut, Walnut, Lime, Spruce, and Silver Firs. Reserving for the more unsheltered situation, the Ash, Birch, Sycamore, Horn- beam, Mountain-sorb, and Scotch Fir, with a mixture of Larch ; as here their timber would be more valuable than in the other si- tuation. In an inland district, and where convey- ance to distant parts is attended with dif- ficulty, prudence would seem to dictate the planting of such lands only as are not tilla- ble by the plough, in masses ; and belts, stripes, &c. for the sake of shelter to the a- 16 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. rable and pasture lands ; since on most es- tates there is sufficient ground, of this de- scription, for the produce of timber to serve the vicinage and their own purposes. If, however, there is, or the probability of, an extensive manufactory being established with- in a convenient distance, the case is altered, and respect must be had thereto in the choice of the kinds to be planted. Those used by the mill-wright, the house-carpen- ter, the turner, and the cooper ought to be preferred. SITUATIONS. 17 SECTION III. Banks or Vicinage of Navigable Rwers t Canals, Kc. UNDER this head is comprehended all that is desirable for the Planter's purpose, If the scite is favourable, and the soil con- genial, and if there are steeps untillable by the plough, which accompany the river, &c. in an extensive range, to what other pur- pose can they be appropriated with such ad- vantage? Rich, and thrice happy may the owner of this tract esteem himself! Here is a ready conveyance for the commodity, and a ready conveyance will ever make a ready market. Of whatever nature his soil be, he also has it in his power to avail him- self, by cultivating the kinds best adapted to it. The limited demand of a narrow neigh- bourhood, and for certain kinds, make no part of his cares. He has a nobler object in view ! Pror viding a supply of timber for keeping in re- pair the present, and erecting other wooden walls. The natural, the most invulnerable 18 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. bulwark of his native land, is an object worthy of the true patriot. It may, perhaps, be unnecessary to inform him, that for this purpose the Oak, the Larch, the Elm, and the Beech, should be objects of his peculiar care. They are all used in ship-building, and the two first named are of greatest importance. Mr. Marshall justly observes,* "It is a for- tunate circumstance for this country, that the two trees which are most likely to furnish its navy with an internal supply of timber, should delight in soils and situations of op- posite natures ; and every judicious planter will endeavour to assign to each its natural station.'* Meaning plainly the Oak and the Larch ; for above he says, " The Oak, in shallow barren soils, and in bleak exposed situations, cannot be raised with profit, as a timber-tree; while the Larch, by out- growing its strength, sickens in deep rich soils." In addition to these observations, it may be remarked, that where the Oak flourishes, the Elm will not fail ; nor will the Beech * Planting and Rural Ornament, vol. 1, p. 54. SITUATIONS. 19 fail where the Larch succeeds. And conse- quently, that there is hardly a situation or soil to be found, especially in the district under present view, whereon some of the kinds of ship-timber may not be reared in perfection. That the Oak is a chief material in naval architecture is known to every one; and perhaps, also, that Elm and Beech are much used for keels. Deal is also used for sheath- ing and ceilings. Masts and yards are uni- versally made of fir. Nay, many ships are entirely constructed of it. But this material is chiefly sea-borne, there being but little of it in the island* of size and quality fit for the purpose. Nor need we ever attempt plant- * The famous wood of Glenmore, which gives name to a beautiful frigate, built some years since, and of which I saw a ship just launched, in May 1798, of about 800 tons, is supposed the largest and most durable tim- ber of the kind in the island. I was informed, that every part of this large vessel was of the produce of the Glen. If we may judge from appearances, the durability of the timber need not be suspected It seems to be more compact than foreign fir. At Gar mouth, on the Moray Frith, are built many large and handsome vessels of the timber of this forest, >0 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. ing it with this view, except on exposed situa- tions, and thin gravelly soils. But, for this purpose, Fir is excelled by the Larch, which, in many respects, even vies with the Oak. " The wood of this tree is likewise much esteemed for its exceeding great durability ; it being almost incorruptible either in the open air or under water: as is clearly demon- strated at Venice, the greatest part of which city is built upon piles-; of wood, which arc not only still fresh, although they have re- mained there for many hundred years, but they have at length acquired such a degree of hardness as in some measure to resemble iron, so to resist the edge of the best tem- pered tool. " I need not point out the utility that a wood possessed of this valuable property might be of to a country like this, which de- pends so much upon its navy for its preser- vation and well-being; as it promises to be a ready succedaneum for the Oak, and, for some particular purposes, would seem to be even more valuable than it. For although the straitness of the tree would never allow SITUATIONS. 21 it to be proper for ribs or knees, yet, for out- ward cleathing, it might perhaps be more valuable than the Oak, as it would be lighter and more buoyant, and possibly might resist the worms in warm climates : at any rate, it would not be so apt to splinter during the time of an engagement, which would save many useful lives that are always lost on these oc- casions by the splinters of Oak. " Along with these properties, we ought always to remember, that, as it is of much quicker growth, we could much more easily supply ourselves with this kind of timber than with Oak. All which considerations make it merit the attention of every sincere friend to his country, at least so far as to get a fair trial made, to see whether it would answer all these valuable purposes or not*." Again, Mr. Marshall (Plant, and Rur. Orn. vol. l,p. 143) says, "Even the Larch, it is more than probable, may be trained with great advantage as ship timber ; for which it is well understood to be superiorly adapted. In Italy, we believe, it has been applied to that purpose for ages past. In the grounds * Observ. On Planting, by Agricola, page 116. 22 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, of Dunkeld, a seat of the Duke of Athol, in Perthshire, there are Larches of considera- ble size, in a good form for ship-building. Many have a crookedness or stem adapted for ribs ; and one in particular we observed with a forked top, admirably suited to knees. The former appeared to have arisen, from the stems, while young, having been in a stooping posture ; and the other, from the tree having lost its head,* and two opposite side boughs having taken the office of lead- ers : Fortuitous incidents, which art could easily copy, and, we believe, with high ad- vantage to this island. For, should the pre- sent price of bark continue, a supply of Oak timber, for the purpose of building large ships, will, it is to be feared, be greatly les- sened, if not in some measure cut off : A cir- cumstance, however, which will be the less regretted by the agricultural interest, as the Larch will flourish abundantly on lands that are, in a manner, useless to agriculture ; while the Oak, to bring it to a stature suf- * The Larch, as has been sufficiently proved, will bear the chastisement of the hedge-bill and shears with as much patience as the Quick or Beech. SITUATIONS. 23 licient for the purpose of constructing ships of magnitude, requires a soil and situation which may generally be applied to the uses of husbandry. " Happy, therefore, is it for this island, to possess two trees, opposite in their natures, yet equally, perhaps, capable of affording protection to its political independence: and, towards securing so valuable a blessing, both of them ought to be reared and trained with unremitting solicitude." He farther observes of this tree, (page 178) " A striking proof of the superiority of the Larch, in water-works, occurred on the estate of Athol. A weir, or river dam, which, while constructed of Oak, required to be renewed or repaired every four or five years, was formed with Larch, and, in 1792,* had stood nine or ten years ; the timber then remain- ing in a sound, firm state." And below he says, "In 1792, his Grace the Duke of Athol (we speak from the highest authority) was possessed of a thousand Larch trees, then growing on his estates of Dunkeld and Blair * On the 6th May 1798, I visited this dam ; it exhi- bited no signs of decay at that time. C !24 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. only, of no less than from two to four tons * of timber each ; and had, at that time, a mil- lion of Larches, of different sizes, rising ra- pidly on his estate." What an incitement to the culture of these most valuable trees! the more so, when it is known, that the largest of them are, at this day, not above sixty years old. Nevertheless, let not this operate to the to- tal neglect of other kinds. For, from all that has been said above, it does not appear that a ship of war, or one of any consider- able magnitude, can be constructed, properly, without a portion of Oak at least; which, from its propensity to grow crooked, where allowed sufficient room, is best of all adapted to the office of forming ribs and knees, ex- clusively of its superior strength. The Scotch Elm may with propriety be reared for this purpose on thin gravelly soils, where the Oak would rise slowly, and with some risk of success; as, in this case, if allowed room, its propensity is to grow crooked, resembling the Oak in form ; and if not as durable, which, in this case, is even doubtful, is apt t A ton of timber is 40 cubical feet; a load, 50. SITUATIONS, 25 to grow, in form, more suitable for this pur- pose than even the Larch. Elm timber is known to make durable flooring for ships; and, in boat-building , is much in demand for keel, stem, ribs, &c. The Beech, for keels, is much in use, and will thrive in very opposite soils and situa- tions : but it seems most to affect light, sandy, elevated ground. It is more than probable, however, that, for this purpose, it may be excelled by the Larch, which possesses all its properties of straightness, and closeness of texture, with the addition of greater durabi- lity p , in any situation. The American Spruce, in fertile hollows and sheltered bottoms, if allowed a suffici- ency of room, would be useful for spars, yards, and even for masts ; and may be plant- ed in moderate quantity. But from the samples of this tree which have been pro- duced in this island, and which have been contrasted with those of the Larch, the odds are greatly in favour of the latter. The Spruce, however, may be, and indeed is, more useful for the purpose of ceilings, than jn any other way. 26 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. , SECTION IV. Maritime Situations. FROM what has been advanced, to recapi- tulate the kinds and their virtues, obviously desirable for cultivation in the district under consideration, would be trifling with the time and patience of the reader. Suffice it, in respect of this, to say, that the attempt should be made, and persevered in, so far as pru- dence will permit, to rear all the kinds enu- merated in last section; to which, however, may be added the Sycamore and Elder, as nurses, which are known to bear the sea breeze better than any other. To sites which lie somewhat inland) though on a large scale they may properly enough be reckoned in a maritime district, much of what has been advanced in the pre- ceding section will apply. I would be un- derstood, by what here follows, as chiefly con- fining my observations to the brink of the ocean, or its larger inlets. The situation under view is reckoned the most untoward of an}' on which timber may SITUATIONS. 27 be reared ; and many have had reason suffi- cient to support them in this opinion. The fact is, that, nine times out of ten, want of success has been in consequence of planting thin, and with too large plants, especially in situations much exposed.* We are to distinguish between the banks of the Thames, the Severn, the Humber, the Forth, the Solway, the Clyde, the Murray Firth, &c. and those of the " wide ocean." On the former are many thriving plantations" found, and situations ivell adapted to the cul- ture of young ones, where no more than or- dinary care has been, or may be, necessary in the first outset; and some of an opposite description, which I would wish to class with the bleak brinks of the open sea. * I am aware, while I advance this assertion, that I have to combat the general idea, that sea air is obnoxi- ous to vegetation, and particularly to the growth of trees. But, that sea air is more obnoxious to trees in general, than to grain, or the herbage which may grow under them, I deny. The fact is, it is the force of over pre- vailing winds, which are increased and chilled by passing over a vast expanse of water, which contributes to stint the tree more than the grain or herbage ; on which they cannot act so forcibly, nor injure so much by friction or reverberation. 28 HE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Where the bank is highly elevated above the level of the water, success may be more reasonably expected, than where it lies low and flat; provided the soils bear some affinity to each other, or that the soil of the higher ground be not materially worse for the pur- pose than that of the lower or flat ground, I argue thus There is what the seamen term a lull on a lee shore ; which is observa- ble within some three to twenty hundred yards, more or less, according to the abrupt- ness or flatness of the bank ; the current of wind passing in a direct line between some certain point of the surface of the water, and the summit of the bank. If this is the case, must not the inferior part of the bank be equally included in the lull with the margin of the water? In the other case, that is, where the land rises but little above the level of the water, the wind passes, as it were, over one continued plain ; accumulating in vi- gour and velocity, until it is obstructed and broken by some distant mountain or high ground. Thus shall the plantation situated on the ejevated ground, except what part of it ex- SITUATIONS. 29 tends to the summit, be more sheltered and secure from the baneful effects of over pre- vailing and tempestuous winds, than that on the plain which extends to the margin of the deep. It would now naturally occur, that to plant, in the one case, on the face of the bank, and considerably within the level of its summit, to the intent that the trees might have shelter from the current of wind till they arrived at the height of twelve or fifteen feet, and thereby screen any succeeding ones which might be planted at, or beyond it, would be agreeable to prudence; and, in the other, to plant in belts or zones (as hinted in Section I.), beginning at, or nearest to the margin of the water, planting the first one very thick, (perhaps at thirty inches apart) and with plants not more than from twelve to eighteen inches in height, being stout and well rooted. Thus might many extensive ranges, which at present lie a reproach to the nation, be covered with useful timber, to the very verge of that element, which serves to convey from distant countries that which, at a fu- 30 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. ture period, it is to be hoped, would be for- warded from one part of our own to another with much celerity and saving to the king- dom, by the simple process of launching it into the flood-mark. For, although (as every Briton will hope) we shall continue to " bear the dominion of the sea," can we imagine that the forests of Norway, Sweden, Russia, and America are inexhaustible ? or, that the difficulty of procuring timber from them may not increase? or, that our access to them may never be cut off ? Let us, then, endeavour to render every inch of waste land, uncnlturablc by the plough, useful in the produce of an article of so much national importance ; even if it should be at the expence of appropriat- ing a part of that which is culturable, and which, from its local situation, may be ren- dered eminently serviceable to that which is not, by increasing it in volume when tool small. For, it would be in vain to plant, in the situation here defined, a small corner, patch, or narrow stripe, with the expecta- tion of ever seeing its timber rise to any con- siderable stature. SITUATIONS* 31 Nor would the arable land added thereto be lessened in value. Nay, it would be much enhanced ; inasmuch as it would operate in enhancing that of the other in a manifold degree. But many arguments might be ad- duced to prove, that, until there shall be too much timber planted in the island, the value of all la?ids lying within a mile of the sea may be enhanced more by the culture of timber than by that of any other crop. Nevertheless, prudence forbids planting much of the land naturally and well adapted to the culture of " food for man and beast," until that of a contrary description shall first be covered with timber ; since the labour of carrying it from place to place weighs not in the scale with the apprehension of scarcity or famine. Further, before all the otherwise unimprovable lands in the country shall be planted, there will, with proper management afterwards, be an inexhaustible store of tim- ber for all purposes, whether for fuel, ma- chinery, or for ship-building. THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, CHAP. II. ON THE SOILS ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOREST TREES. SECTION I. Those best adapted to the Deciduous Kinds, viz. The Alder, The Laburnum, The Ash, The Larch, The Mountain-Ash, The Lime, The Beech, The Oak, The Birch, The Plane-tree, The Chesnut, The Poplar, The Horse Chesnut, The Sycamore, The Elm, The Walnut, and The Hornbeam, The Willow. BEFORE considering the soil most pro- perly adapted to the trees above enu- merated, it may be proper to premise, 1st. That although no tree will flourish in a superlative degree, except in its own soil, yet are they found in very considerable per- fection in those of apparently different com- position and texture. SOILS. 33 2d. That there would seem to be an in- comprehensible good or ill .in some soils, and which is either food or poison, ultimate- ly, to plants deposited in them 1 *. 3d. That prudence should therefore di- rect putting different plants into the same soil, to the intent that each may search out that good, or discover that ill: and after- wards, the removal of the poisoned, and careful retention of the healthy and w r ell- fed plants. 4>th. As the best criterion, in a doubtful case, of the quality of soil fitted for forest timber, it might be advisable to plant many kinds, encouraging those which seem to thrive best, and which would become the most valuable trees, by thinning away the others as they advance. For, a healthy tree, although of less intrinsic value as timber, is preferable to that in a languishing state, whose wood, were it healthy, might be much superior; besides, in point of gratification to the beholder, there is no comparison. * " It is well known, that where mines of iron, lead, or copper, lie near the surface, no plant will thrive in perfection ; as is the case on the LeadhilJs in Scotland." 34 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. 5th. In favourable situations, and although the upper soil may be scanty, we are not to despair of rearing timber of some kind in perfection ; inasmuch as the substratum is frequently found of a kindly nature, and in which the roots of trees find pasture, and take deep hold. 6th. The most untoward of all soils for the produce of timber in high perfection, is an irony till of little depth, lying on a retentive subsoil which upholds a poisonous ochry water, and which stagnates on the surface, or remains latent in the body of the soil which is the pasture of the roots, contracting the mouths of the fibres, con- taminating the juices, and finally operating to the destruction of the tree, by poisoning it, and .hastening its dissolution. * In addition to these observations, before descending to consideration of the particular soils adapted to the different kinds of trees, I shall remark, that, excepting peat-bogs and other drainable marshes, which may be converted into culturable fields, and ren- dered highly productive of grain, by the excellent mode of draining now in practice, SOILS, 35 the following, in most cases, are the soils and their substrata found in situations fit for the produce of timber, and in which some of the ligneous tribes will not fail to exu- berate. Light, sandy, or gravelly soils, on a free porous subsoil. Sandy or gravelly loams, on a porous subsoil. Sandy, gravelly, or loamy soils, on a retentive subsoil. Chalky loam, or gravelly chalk, on a porous sub- soil. Loamy clay, on a porous subsoil. Clayey loam, on a porous subsoil. Strong, loamy, or clayey soils, on a retentive sub- soil. Thin, heathy, moorish soils, on a gra- velly or other porous subsoil. And thin, heathy, moorish soils, on a clayey or other retentive subsoil. ALDER. This tree, although found in highest per- fection in wet spungy soils, and even in standing water, will grow freely, and flourish in sandy, gravelly, elevated lands ; where, however, its tendency is to impoverish the soil, and rob all other plants of food ; being sa- tiated by a superabundance of moisture only. 36 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, The wood of this tree is of little value, It is chiefly used by the turners ; to which, however, they prefer the Sycamore and Aspen-tree. I have been told by a manu- facturer of gunpowder, that charcoal of it is useful in that art. It is also said to make lasting props in coal or iron mines. I have planted many thousands in this intention. Being planted by the sides of rapid rivers, no other tree is equally well adapted for preserving their banks. ASH Affects most a sandy or gravelly loam, and is there found of highest perfection and value as timber. Nevertheless, it grows freely on all soils, except a stiff" clay with a hard retentive bottom. In rich lands its wood is short and brittle; but on sand or gravel it is tough and reedy, which consti- tutes its greatest value. In the former case, also, it goes soon to decay, by overgrowing its strength ; but in the latter it will live and flourish to a great age. No tree in the forest comes to be of use so soon as the Ash. It possesses the singular SOILS. 37 property of perfection in infancy ! From the day its stem is three inches in diameter, the wood is equally durable until it shall be three feet, or any size or age whatever. In the character of fuel, also, it burns equally well green as dried. The value of this timber in all sorts of husbandry work, for tools, utensils, and the coarser articles of furniture, is too well known to admit of farther comment here. MOUNTAIN-ASH, OR SORB. This plant grows freely in almost any soil, but is found in greatest perfection, as timber* on light, sandy, and highly elevated lands. As a timber tree, however, it is of little use, being only valued by the wheelwrights, to which they prefer Birch and Beech. As fuel, it is excelled by none ; to which purpose it is peculiarly adapted also on ac- count of its quick growth, in the character of hag-timber. As a nurse in bleak sites, it stands unrivalled, except by the Larch. The bark of this tree is also found useful in- tanning, and is little inferior to that of the Birch. 38 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, BEECH Is found in greatest, perfection in light, deep, chalky, or sandy loams. On all soils, except a stubborn clay lying on a retentive substratum, it becomes a graceful tree of great stature. Even among rocks, and where soil is hardly visible, this tree arrives to great magnitude, and its wood is of great durabi- lity. In all calcareous soils, it luxuriates. The value of this tree, in naval archi- tecture, has been sufficiently explained in Sect. III. Chap. I. to excite its culture in districts favourable for that purpose. In hus- bandry, and in various branches of machinery, it is very useful. It also makes durable fuel. The herring-curers esteem it. In coaleries, it is well known to make durable waggon- ways. Beech is also much used for bed-posts, particularly those called tent beds. BIRCH. Tire soil which this tree most affects, and in which it is found most to luxuriate, is a lightish black loam, lying on a dry, sandy, or gravelly substratum. On moist ground, SOILS. 39 it grows apace, soon decays, and the wood is unprofitable. On light, sandy, or gravelly soils, and in high elevated situations, it will flourish, grow slowly, and product the most durable timber. The usefulness of this tree in husbandry, (for harrow-buls, &c.) in machinery, and to the turner, is universally known. In coaleries, for underground props and wag- gon-road sleepers, it is much used. In the Highlands, where natural woods of Oak and Birch abound in mixture, and which are cut in hags for the sake of the bark chiefly, it is well known that the bark of both trees is fre- quently used indiscriminately ; and, when otherwise, that the Birch brings a price equal to eight-tenths, at least, of that of the Oak*. * The operation of barking these two trees is per- formed in a different manner, and also at a different season. All the bark of the Oak is used (although it is doubtful whether any but the inner bark be useful), whereas the outward shreddy bark of the Birch is re- jected. The Birch is barked in winter, or the early- part of spring ; and the Qak from the first of May to the first or middle of July, according to the season. The bark of the Mountain-ash is also frequently used, and is treated in the manner of the Birch ; to which, however, it is inferior. It is observable, that the bark 40 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. A vinous beverage is also extracted from thts tree, which bears the name of Birch wine. Trees growing in a moist soil afford more juice for this purpose than those grow- ing on more absorbent ones. The season in which it flows most freely, is in spring, and early in summer. " The Birch oil, to which the celebrated Russian leather owes its agreeable smell, is prepared from the white bark, either taken from the live tree, or collected from those that are putrid in the woods. It is best made from the latter; because by the pu- trefaction it is freed from the inner bark ; and the external white bark remains un- corrupted for ages, as appears by the old burial places at Jenisea, and the vaults of the very ancient castle of Moscow, which I observed were covered with Birch bark. The bark is gathered into a heap, and pressed into pits made in did shape of a funnel, prepared in a clay soil ; and when set on fire, it is covered with turf. The oil, distil- of young trees, or of the branches and extremities of older ones, is most valuable, and bears the name of Maidai-bdrk, See Chap. VII. on Natural Woods. SOILS. 41 ling through the clay-hole at the bottom of the funnel, drops into a vessel placed to receive it, and is then turned into casks made of the hollowed trunk of a tree. The pure limpid oil swims at top, and is in the greatest request for anointing leather on ac- count of its antiseptic quality. The residuum is thick and sooty, and is employed for va- rious common uses*." CHESNUT (Sweety or Spanish J. In respect of soil, wherever the Beech (the trees are of the same genus) flourishes, the Chesnut will not fail. It affects most a dry loamy soil, lying on a kindly gravel or rock. It is impatient of much wet ; nor does it thrive on a stiff clay. In bleak exposures, with a poor soil, it comes far short of the Beech in point of exuberance. This is a timber-tree of great magnitude,^ * PALLAS. Flora Rossica. f At Finhaven, in Angus-shire, there still lies the re- mains of an enormously large tree of this species, the greatest circumference of whose trunk was 45 feet. In the possession of George Skene, Esq. of Cariston, is an engraved plate affixed to a table made of the tree, on which is marked its dimensions. 1 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. and for the sake of variety, in all extensive plantations, deserves a place. Its wood is chiefly used by the cabinei-maker ; and for pipes to convey water, it is said even to equal oak. In Italy and Spain, wine casks are made of it; and it is said to possess the sin- gular quality of neither shrinking, nor fla- vouring wine or other liquors. There, as a fruit-tree, it flourishes in high perfection; and will even do so in some parts of England. But in Scotland the attempt, with this view, has generally proved abortive. As a cop- pice woody for hop-poles, &c. it is high in estimation. That the wood of this tree is ex- ceedingly durable, is undubitable; the roof of Westminster Abbey being constructed of it. HORSE-CHESNUT. Tliis tree will grow, and even flourish in many different soils ; but it affects most a deep loam with a dry bottom. In bleak ex- posures, and in a thin soil, it is reared with difficulty. Nor will it bear stagnant water, or thrive in marshy ground. As an ornamental tree, it is excelled by SOILS; 43 none, for the fragrance and beauty of its flowers and foliage* The red-flowered, and striped-leaved kinds, make a beautiful va- riety in ornamental plantations. As a tim- ber-tree, it is of little note ; nor is it useful as fuel, its wood being burned with dif- ficulty. ELM. (The Scotch, or rough leaved. J This tree suits itself to almost all soils and situations. That in which it luxuriates, is a deep black loam ; but that in which its tim- ber is most valuable, is a lightish sandy loam, lying on a gravelly or other porous sub-stra- tum. It will bear partial inundation with considerable patience, and is not unfre- quently found flourishing by the banks of rivers ; which, perhaps, wash one side of its roots. On the bleakest hills, and where soil is hardly perceptible, it will find pasture, by insinuating its roots into the crevices of rocks. As a valuable forest-tree, it stands forward in . the first ranks ; giving place to the Oak and Larch only. Its timber is sufficiently \vell known to the cart-wright, the mill- wright, the cabinet-maker, the coach-maker, 44 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. the pump-maker, and the ship-builder; and is by them highly valued. HORNBEAM. Where the Elm will grow, there will also the Hornbeam. On barren and exposed scites, its timber is most valuable. But to the Elm, it is much inferior. To the turner, for mill-cogs, for utensils, &c. it is useful. As fuel, it lasts well, and burns very bright and clear. THE LABURNUM Will grow freely in all soils of an open texture. It luxuriates most in a deep, brown, sandy loam, It claims not our attention as a forest tree, except for the purposes of orna- ment, to which it is peculiarly adapted in the early part of Summer, when in bloom. It is said that the wood of this tree has been used in inlaying; but it is much inferior to Box or Holly. Chairs have also been made of it, and are by many thought beautiful. LARCH. AVhich soil, in this country, when in a state SOILS. 45 of full maturity, this noble tree may most affect, remaiqs yet to be known. If we may judge from appearances, we shall decide, that it will be found in the highest perfec- tion of timber in the lighter, more gravelly soils, and in elevated situations. That it lux- uriates, beyond every other tree, in all soils and situations, excepting those of a low, hu- mid kind, is demonstrated in every instance where impartial comparison is made. Of " its uses/' and of " its virtues," much has been said in Sect. III. Chap. I. at least sufficient, as is hoped, to induce its cultiva- tion in all districts of the kingdom, by every lover of his country and well-wisher to pos- terity. THE LIME-TREE Is found in highest perfection in low, deep, sub-humid loams. In dry, gravelly soils, it loses the beautiful gloss of its foilage, for which it is so much admired, early in Sum- mer. I cannot speak to the properties of this tree in respect of timber ; but as one of ornament, in extensive designs, it stands for- ward in the iirst ranks. 4:6 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. THE OAK, "The monarch of the woods," of which at least every Briton ought to speak with ve- neration, is found in many different soils and situations in high perfection. It affects most a strong, deep loam, lying on a gravelly or rocky sub-stratum. In sub-humid bottoms, where the soil is deep, it is found to lux- uriate while young, but to decay sooner than where the upper soil is moist and deep, and the sub-soil of a more porous nature. In light sandy or gravelly soils of little depth, it grows slow, but firm in texture; and is in a state of maturity, though of less magnitude, sooner than on cooler, more retentive soils, Even in a tilly clay, to which most other trees have an aversion, the Oak will become useful timber. Its uses, its properties, and its virtues, are known to all the world! PLANE-TREE (PldtailUs). This plant seems to affect most a deep, rich, moist loam; but will grow freely in lighter soils. We may despair of ever seeing SOILS. 4-7 it rank as a timber tree, in this country, in the same degree it does as an ornamental one; which is by no means in the rear. The Ori- ental, Occidental, and Spanish Planes, are in high estimation, and justly too, for the deco- ration of the park and the lawn. They are truly beautiful trees. POPLAR, Of this tree there are many species ; and they all generally affect the same soil, viz. a deep, humid earth. In marshes, and by the sides of rivers, they thrive apace, and arrive to great magnitude. Yet they will grow, and even luxuriate, on the lightest, dry, elevated situations. They are all fine ornamental plants, but do not stand forward as timber trees. The Abele, however, is used by the turners, and some of the other kinds, for hoops, &c. I have even heard of small ships -being built of Poplar! SYCAMORE (Plane-Tree). The timber of this tree is found of greatest durability on light, gravelly loams. Except 48 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. in standing water, it will grow, and even thrive, in almost any soil or situation. It is a beautiful tree, of great magnitude, and is more patient of furious winds than any other. It never shows a weather side, and conse- quently ought to take preference of all others, as a nurse-plant, in the most exposed situations. No tree, except the Elder, is equally patient of the sea breeze. Its timber is used by the turner, the mill-wright and the cabinet-maker, THE WALNUT Delights in a deep loam of a middling texture, and not too rich ; but will thrive in many different soils, excepting hard clays, where it soon gets stinted. It also dislikes much moisture, and a wet bottom. There are many kinds of this tree, and they all nearly affect the same soil. Every cabinet-maker knows the use and value of this wood, which for chairs, tables, bureaus, bedsteads, &c. is much in repute, As an ornamental tree, it is much admired, and for the fragrance of its foliage. SOILS. 49 WILLOW, In respect of soil, what has been said of the Poplar is equally applicable to the Wil- low. There are many kinds of this plant, which are all both ornamental and useful : the smaller growing kinds, for basket and wicker work, and the larger, for mill-cogs, dishes, hoops, &c. But, perhaps, the most valuable of the Wil- low kind is the common Sallow, (Salix ca- prea ;) the charcoal of which is much used in the manufacture of gunpowder ; in which art, the coal of Sallow, of Alder, of red Dog- wood, with a small portion of the coal of Hazel, are in demand.* * Of this, I have been assured by a person eminent in that line ; and also, that, in the vicinity of gunpowder mills, few articles of produce pay so well. 50 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. SECTION II. Those Soils adapted to the Evergreen or Resinous ) viz. The Cedar of Lebanon, The Common, or Norway The Scotch Fir, or Spruce, Pine, The American Spruce, and The Weymouth Pine, The Silver Fir. CEDAR. THE soil, in this kingdom, which this ma- jestic tree has been observed most to affect, and that in which (with perhaps one or two exceptions) it is found most to luxuriate, is a gravelly or sandy loam of considerable depth, lying on a free, porous substratum : But it will grow on all soils, and in all situations, excepting those of a very retentive or humid kind. This celebrated tree is found in the high- est perfection on the bleakest and most moun- tainous sites of the East; but whether it shall be found so on the mountains of Britain, re- mains to be known. It is much slower in growth, and also less docile than the Larch ; SOILS. 51 nor need we ever expect to see it become so great an acquisition to the nation, As an ornamental plant, it ought to be ad- mitted in all extensive designs. Of its mighty stature ; of the durability of its timber; of its property, in resisting worms ; of its retaining the same smell for ages; of its admitting a high polish ; of the peculiarity of its oil, in preserving paper and cloth from corruption ; and of the value of its saw-dust, in embalming ; with a hundred more of its properties, famed and celebrated for ages, might volumes be filled. SCOTCH PINE, OR FIR. The timber of this tree is found in highest perfection on the more bleak and gravelly sites. In light sand, it is also found durable. But in the richer, more loamy soils, although it grows apace while young, and flourishes exuberantly, it soon sickens, is short-lived; nor is the wood valuable, but short and brittle. On retentive, tilly clays, in which it is often planted, but from which, above all others, it should be excluded, it frequently 52 THE PRACTICAL PLANTEK. becomes stinted, about the twentieth or thir- tieth year of its age ; or when the roots have exhausted the upper soil, and begin to seek pasturage in the sub-soil; insomuch, that the worms attack it on its limbs, anticipating, as it were, its dissolution.* I have been told by one, to whom I would allow as much credit as any single person I have yet known, that, of a Fir-tree, the pro- duce of one of the hills on the estate of Appin in Argyleshire, he made a peg of half art inch diameter; and, with a single stroke of a wooden mallet, drove it through an oaken table an inch thick, which was, perhaps, a century old. * This has not a little arrested the attention, and ex- cited the wonder, of several ingenious people of my ac- quaintance. Every gardener will admit, that, until a plant become unhealthy, we never discover the presence or ravages of insects. Are Onions attacked by mag- gots, until rendered unhealthy, or checked in growth, by parching drought ? Does the coccus, &c. attack Peach- trees while they are kept clean, and in a free, growing state ? Are the roots of Pine- Apples, and also their leaves, perforated or eaten by the pine bug, &c. while in a thriving condition, although these insects abound in the hot-house ? Will ever a plant become sickly, if not from age, whose culture is industriously studied, and which is placed in soil and situation congenial to its nature ?. SOILS. 53 tlow much superior in quality is this timber produced on mountains, to that pro- duced on richer soil, and in more sheltered situations ! In fine, as already said, except o.n sandy, rocky, or gravelly soils, this tree ought not to be planted. The many obser- vations I have made in the Highlands con- firm me in this opinion. The value of Fir-timber (and that reared in the northern parts of the island, in soil and situation as above, is inferior to none) is- known to every mechanic; nor is there any one at all acquainted with the arts, who does not know, that from this tree is extracted rosin, tar, &c. : articles which are so useful for many, especially naval, purposes. THE WEYMOUTII PINE Will grow in many different soils and situ- ations, but seems to affect most a deep sandy loam. On chalky, gravelly, elevated grounds, it is found to luxuriate. It will also thrive in pretty strong clay, if lying on an open sub- stratum. It is impatient of stagnant water, nor will it flourish on a till. This is an elegant tree, and is worthy of a 54- THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. place in all extensive plantations. In Ame- rica, it grows to a great height, is very straight, and fit for masts, of which are made many. Whether it will ever arrive at such magnitude in this country, remains to be known; but in low, sheltered situations, by its luxuriant growth and sprightly appear- ance, it seems to flatter our expectations. COMMON, OR NORWAY SPRUCE. Why this tree has obtained the name of Norway, rather than Swedish or Danish Spruce, is a question of little importance. But certain it is, that many have been led to mistake, on this account, supposing it to be the tree which produces the deal known by the name of Norway Fir, and which is the produce of the Scotch Fir beyond a doubt. The timber known by the name of Memel Log, is said to be the produce of the Spruce. It will, like all the Fir tribes, grow in very different soils ; but is found in greatest lux- Viriance in deep sandy loams, where it hath freedom of space. On clays which are not retentive of water below, although moist of themselves,, it will make surprising progress. SOILS. 55 On thin soils, and in bleak situations, it grows slowly ; and may therefore become the best timber of any, on sueh : but here it becomes unsightly. It cannot be cultivated in this country with such advantage as the Scotch Fir, in respect of timber ; but as an ornamental tree, it out- does it, where the soil is favourable. From this tree, pitch is also extracted in great abundance. AMERICAN SPRUCE. This tree seems to affect most a deep black loam of a middling texture, and which is also sub-humid of itself, but does not re- tain stagnant water. It will also thrive well on sandy or gravelly loams of a moist na- ture. On dry shallow soils, it languishes; nor will it thrive on very exposed sites. In deep, sub-humid vallies, are to be found those most stately in this country. It re- quires full space ; otherwise it becomes very unsighly, even in youth. There are two varieties, the Black and the White ; which differ in no material point, except in the colour of the cones, by which E ' 56 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. they are chiefly distinguished. Some reckon a third variety, namely, the Red, and from the same circumstance, the colour of the cone. This tree, in America, arrives to great magnitude, and produces that vast store of masts and spars exported thence to Europe. Of this tree they also construct many ships of great burthen. But, in this country, the Larch far excels it in any situation, and, as timber, is more valuable for this and all other purposes. It becomes a fine ornamental detached tree on good soil, if allowed room to branch in its youth, and while nursing; but at the same time it requires shelter. THE SILVER FIR Grows most luxuriantly in deep, loamy earth ; but there its wood is soft and spongy. It will thrive on bleak exposures, and thin gravelly or sandy soil. But that in which we may expect its timber in highest perfec- tion, is a sandy loam, lying on a gravelly sub-soil or dry rock. On the mountains of Switzerland, it is said SOILS. 57 to grow to a vast size,* is excellent timber, and is used for many valuable purposes. In particular, turpentine is extracted from it ; and it would seem that from this tree is ex- tracted the true Venice turpentine ; although there is an inferior kind extracted from the Larch, which also passes under that name. As an ornamental tree, it is admissible in all extensive designs; and even on a smaller scale, where variety is studied. Some, how- ever, have thought otherwise, on account of its ragged appearance as it becomes aged ; and also, that the tips of its branches frequently wither in hot weather, if it grow not on moist land. In Spring, it is observable of this tree, also, that it frequently suffers in its extremi- ties, if severe frost happens after a series of fine weather; a thing not at all uncommon in our variable climate. * Some majestic Silver Firs at Duplin, the seat of Lord Kinnoul, are supposed the largest in the kingdom. I must acknowledge I have not seen their equals. 58 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. r kfTtilfaK ' CHAP. ILL ON NURSING SEEDLINGS FOR EXTENSIVE DESIGNS.* SECTION I. Situation and Soil of the Nursery- SO much hath been said concerning the question, Whether a nursery should be on soil, and in situation corresponding with those on which the trees are ultimately to be * I say for extensive designs, because experience hath taught me, that otherwise it is no saving for any gentle- man to rear nursery. I confine myself to the nursing of seedlings only\ on the same principle ; and from indis- putable proofs, demonstrated both by myself and my fa- ther (who had, perhaps, as much experience in that line as most men of his time), and several of my intimate friends, who have made impartial trials for ascertaining how far it might be to a gentleman's advantage to rear his own nursery from seed. We have all found it unprofitable, and attended with considerable perplexity. A thing not at all to be won- dered at, when we reflect on the multiplicity of business at that season most critical, not only for insuring success in this branch, but all others of gardening, namely, the spring. NURSING; 59 planted? that I should deem it unpardonable to pass this subject in silence. I will briefly deliver my own opinion, hoping the candid reader will apply or reject what agrees with, or stands opposed to his. If the soil and situation whereon the trees are ultimately to be planted be good, or shall nearly resemble what is described below; then, if all other circumstances concur, I conceive the trees ought to be nursed on the spot ; but for no other reason than that it is Let him who has had the management of an extensive forcing, fruit, kitchen, and pleasure garden, and also of extensive plantations and other out-works at the same time, say, whether he could not gladly dispense with the charge of sowing nursery seeds, &c. and whether, if it was not in his power, from the pressure of other busi- ness, to sow them with his own hand, he would be at all anxious for the security of a crop, and consequently, the interest of his employer. But I am persuaded, that unless a gentleman shall keep a proper bred nursery-man, be his designs what they may, he will never rear nursery from seed, so cheap or so good as may be purchased. In no business whatever do men in general excel in all branches ; and of garden- ing this is a very important one . Moreover, there is now considerable emulation in the nursery line; which, in every business tends to public advantage. If a man pur- chase bad trees, the fault rests with himself, so long as by looking around him he can find better. 60 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. less expensive to carry to a distance seedling, than transplanted trees. But, if the soil whereon the trees are to be planted be bad, or essentially different from that I am about to describe, and if the situa- tion be bleak, and exposed to violent winds, then I should conceive the attempt to rear nursery, clean, healthy, and well-rooted, op- posed to common sense. Are not care and attention necessary in fearing all infants, whether animal or vege- table? Are not some animals more tender, and, while in infancy, reared with more dif- ficulty, than others ? Do not some animals, which with difficulty are reared in infancy, afterwards become robust, and capable of en- during the grea/test hardships? The comparison holds with respect to plants. Are the Ash, the Beech, the Birch, the Elm, the Larch, and the Oak, reared in infancy with equal ease ? Do they not, if properly treated, all equally flourish after- wards on the mountain, in the vale, where soil is hardly found, and where it is found in abundance ? Do we sow seed in sand, gravel, clay, the crevice of a rock, on the NURSING. 61 bleak top of a mountain, or in a fertile vale, with equal expectation of seeing it rise a goodly plant ? Shall we plant a mere infant with like expectation ? Or, shall we rather expect, that by sowing or planting in a me- dium soil and situation, there is greater pro- bability of success ? Inasmuch as I consider the chief property of a young plant intended for after-removal, to depend on strength and cleanness of root, and a multiplicity of healthy fibrils, I answer without hesitation, yes; and therefore define the most proper soil and situation of a nursery for the purpose in view,* thus : A loam of a middling texture, rather in- clining to sand, neither rich nor poor ; from eighteen to twenty-four inches in depth ; ly- ing on a free, porous sub-stratum, This will be found more generally congenial to the na- ture of the different forest trees than any other soil. But there is no general rule with- out exception. If there be a diversity of *The reader is requested to observe, that I neither treat of sowing seeds, nor propagating by layers, cuttings, &c. for reasons above mentioned. I only wish to treat of nursing seedling plants, until fit for final transplanta- tion, 62 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. soils, and if they do not too nearly approach the extremes of meagre sterility and excessive fertility, so much the better ; since all the kinds do not exactly thrive alike in the same soil ; and an opportunity would thereby be afforded of placing each in that more conge- nial to its nature. (See Chap. II.) The site should neither be high nor low, sheltered nor exposed, in any extreme, for the same reason, viz. that it may the more generally answer all purposes. For, who do we expect shall set out on the Quixotic idea of making a separate nursery for each kind ? or who shall resolve on planting one kind only? I conceive, and indeed have proceeded on the principle, that for a nursery of this de- scription, nothing can be more eligible than the spot which may also occasionally be oc- cupied as a kitchen garden. That is to say, if three acres of nursery be required for ac- complishing the design in question ; and if out-field kitchen ground* be also required * The eminent utility of raising common kitchen ve- getables in exposed ground rather than in the more shel- tered, is pretty generally acknowledged. For a full ex- NURSING. 3 for the service of a large family ; inclose for this purpose, suppose four or five acres, with a sufficient quick-fence, or low wall. And hereby will be accomplished two grand points, viz. wM-broke land of a good quality and tilth, and the opportunity of an effectual rotation of crops at pleasure. But if no extra kitchen ground be re- quired, it will still be adviseable to inclose a considerable quantity more than might be wanted for the purpose of nursery ; which could be employed with advantage in the cul- ture of carrots, turnips, potatoes, clover, &c. for cattle feeding, and would equally operate to the benefit of the trees, by the rotation of crops and pulverizing of the soil. In all cases, it will be adviseable to trench the ground to its full depth, in preparing it for nursery; and, if necessary, to give it a dressing with lime, marie, dung, &c. in com- (post. Other manure should never be applied to nursery ground at the time of cropping with timber trees. At the time of cropping planation of my ideas on this subject, I beg to refer the reader to the Forcing, Fruit, and Kitchen Gardener, Book II. Chap. I. 64? THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, with esculents, manure, either simple or in compost, may be applied ; as conveniency and the nature of the crop in question shall determine. But, that the trees should im- mediately follow a manured culinary crop, is the best of all methods ; as, in that case, no manure would be required for the timber crop. I have known an ^instance, where a field was taken in for a nursery, from an old pas- ture of a rough sward, and in which myriads of the grub- worm, slug, &c. had found an asylum. It was conceived, that by sub- trenching, or deeply digging it, the land might be effectually cleaned ; and accord- ingly, the field was planted with nursery, without any preparatory crop of grain, &c. being taken. But the result was, that most of the Firs, the Larches, the Elms, the Beeches, &c. became a prey to the vermin, the ensuing season; and their stems were found peeled entirely round, about an inch under the surface. For this reason it becomes a matter of cau- tion, that a like misfortune be avoided, to take a crop, or crops, of grain, potatoes, NURSING. 65 turnips, &c. in order to thoroughly cleanse the soil of these noxious vermin, before ven- turing in it the more valuable crop of nursery. In respect of the proper rotation, much must be left to the judgment of the operator, and existing circumstances. The following example is given on the supposition that it may be applied, or partly rejected, according to the exigency of the case : 1st. Vegetables, with manure; winter fallow. C 2d. Evergreen and resinous trees, without manure. 3d. Sub-trenched ; deciduous trees, ditto, ditto. 4th. Potatoes or turnip, with manure. 5th. Evergreen and resinous trees, as be- fore. And so forth. 66 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. SECTION II. Culture. As, according to the SYSTEM here set forth, we do not nurse trees in general more than two seasons; as they are either one or two years in the seminary, according to their kinds, before they come under view ; and, as the after-treatment for many kinds is the same, it would only occasion unnecessary repetitions to particularize the treatment of each individual. For the sake of brevity, therefore, I shall class such as with propriety may be classed together, and whose culture in the nursery is similar; particularizing those only that are of the greatest importance, and whose treatment is materially different. ALDER AND BIRCH Should remain two* years in the seminary, and will then be fit for removal into nursery * They are often, however, planted out at one year old, particularly if the plants are stout and healthy. NURSING. 67 rows. The richest and moistest ground in the nursery, provided it be of soil, and in si- tuation as is described in last Section, should be allotted for them. They are to be planted in lines twelve inches asunder, and about four inches in line. The roots of the Alders may be trimmed a little with the knife. The Birches must not be touched. Whether plants should be put in with the spade or setting stick, is a question frequently agitated. I am of opinion it is a matter of little importance to plants of this age, which method is practised, provided either be well performed. The size of the roots should de- termine. It would certainly be improper to force a large root into a small hole, to the evident de- triment of the plant, by its roots and fibres being bundled together in a mass, without the intervention of mold. It is equally im- proper to force a plant into a slit or gash, whose sides, by the operation of making it, are hardened and rendered impenetrable, in a great measure, by the tender fibrils for a time, until rain, and tke influence of the weather, soften them. 8 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Therefore, for the better performance of both methods, I would advise, 1st. For dib- bling : That the ground be well broke in the operation of digging or trenching ; that what- ever is dug, be also planted the same day ; that it neither be dug nor planted in too wet or too dry a state ; that the hole be made large and loose by a twitch of the hand ; that the plant be just sufficiently fastened to keep it in proper position \ and, that at the end of each day's work, the whole be levelled, and the earth closed to the stems of the plants with a short- headed rake. *2d. For laying in with the spade: That (in- stead of digging over the ground first, and then planting in a slit or gash, whereby the sides of the slit are hardened, and the roots crowded in), the digging and planting be both carried on together; that is, turn one furrow farther than where the row is to be placed ; cut perpendicularly by the line ; place the plants ; turn another furrow to their roots ; turn a second, or, if necessary, a third furrow ; cut and place as before, &c. Tread none. Smooth all with the rake. NURSING. 60 ASH, AND MOUNTAIN SORB, Should also remain two years in the semi- nary. The poorest soil in the nursery should be their portion, reserving better for the kinds to follow. Plant also in lines twelve inches asunder, and four in line. The roots of both may be moderately trimmed with the knife. BEECH, AND OAK. These are also to remain two years in the seminary. Plant in good soil, in lines fifteen inches apart, and five or six in line. Their roots must, on no account, be pruned at this time; otherwise not one half of the plants will strike. Here they are to remain for two seasons. At the end of the first, let their tap roots be cut at the depth of six inches below the sur- face, a person rutting on each side the row, with a spade sharpened on purpose, so as to effectually cut the tap root-'of each plant, with as little injury to the upper part as pos- sible. Point up the intervals of the rows, and level all to the steins of the plants. 7O THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. At the end of the second season, the plants will have made fibrey roots, and be fit for re- moval to almost any situation. But, if for any particular purpose it be necessary to nurse them longer, in that case they should be transplanted next season, into fresh nursery-rows ; allowing them a little more room, and shortening all roots which have a tendency downwards. CHESNUT, AND HORSE CHESNUT, Should also stand two years in the semi- nary. Any part of the nursery will suit them. Plant in lines fifteen inches apart, and four or five in line. Their roots may be gently pruned. Here they are to stand two or three seasons, according to their progress. Being chiefly ornamental plants, and de- signed for the less untoward situations, they are frequently required of larger size. If so, move them at the end of the second season ; replant them into rows eighteen or twenty inches apart, and eight or nine inches in line; previously shortening all roots which tend downwards, and tapping, as advised above, for Beech and Oaks. NURSING, 71 ELM, HORNBEAM, AND SYCAMORE. These are sometimes removed from the seminary at one, and sometimes at two yean old. I prefer the latter. Plant in lines at twelve inches apart. The roots may be gently pruned, if needful. At the end of the second season, they will be fit for removal to any situation, where soil to the depth of four inches is found ; but if intended for more barren sites, remove them at the end of the first year. LARCH. Perhaps I stand single in saying, that the Larch should never remain more than one season in the seminary. I am convinced of this, from having made a variety of experi- ments for ascertaining the quickest and most advantageous methods of rearing this useful tree. Perhaps I also stand single when I assert, that the result of these experiments has proved to my entire satisfaction, that a healthy seedling of one year, also nursed one year, in moderately good soil, 'having a F 72 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. sufficiency of room, and being kept properly clean of weeds, will, in any soil or situation wherein it may afterwards be placed, out- grow another of any age within the seventh year after transplanting. I have planted many of this description, and, within that period, have measured them fifteen feet in height; while those on the same spot, planted the same day, and which were, some two, some three years nursed, did not measure above twelve feet, nor were so straight or beautiful. In fine, I have found the progress of this plant, in infancy, follow in this rotation on all soils where I have made the experiment; and these have been very different in qua- lity and depth : 1 One-year seedling, One year nursed. 2 Ditto ditto, I Ditt0 ' removed, and nursed a I second year. 3 Ditto ditto, f Nursed in the same row two I years. 4 Two-year seedling, One year nursed. 5 Ditto ditto, j DItto > removed, and nursed a (. second season. 6 Ditto ditto, | Nursedin the same row two I years. 7 Ditto ditto, Ditto for three years. NURSING. 73 If this is the case, may we not also sup- pose, that, since the first outgrows the others in infancy, and on good soil, it will continue to surpass them on bad and shallow soils; as by reason of its small size, it could be more effectually planted? Whether of ' the two would be most apt to suffer by inclement weather, and, consequently, soonest get stinted ? Wherefore, let the plants be taken from the seminary at one year old, and nursed one year, in rows twelve inches apart, and four in the row. If plants of a greater size be wanted, remove them at the end of one, and nurse them another year, in lines fifteen inches apart, and six in line. Beyond this the Larch should never be nursed. The infant tap roots may be shortened a little: but after this, prune none. SCOTCH FIE, AND WEYMOUTH PINE. Unless for the purposes of decoration, or where it is wanted for variety, the former, viz. the Scotch Fir, is never nursed, but taken from the seminary at two years old, and then planted out for good. I approve of 74 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. this practice, provided the plants stand thin in the seminary ; but otherwise, they should be nursed one year in lines a foot asunder, and an inch in line. If they are required of a larger size, remove them from this into other nursery lines, at twelve or fifteen inches apart, and four or five in line, according to the time they are to remain here, which, however, should not be longer than two years for any purpose whatever. The AVeymouth Pine should also stand two years in the seminary, and then be nursed two or three years in rows; according to the purpose intended, or the quality and depth of soil wherein it is afterwards to be planted. In either case, fifteen inches between the lines will be sufficient; and if they are to re- main two years, four in line ; but if three, five or six inches in line. The tap roots of the seedlings of either may be shortened a little; but at the second, or any subsequent removal, their roots must not be touched. COMMON, OR NORWAY SPRUCE, Should be removed from the seminary at NURSING. 75 two *years old, and nursed in lines twelve inches apart, and three in line, for two sea- sons. At the end of which, remove them into other lines fifteen inches apart, and four or five in line; there to remain one, or at most two years, as shall be determined by their progress, or the soil they are to be planted in. If they are intended for very bar- ren sites, plants nursed for two seasons only are to be preferred. The roots of this plant should not be pruned at any time, if it can be avoided ; nor, indeed, should any of the resinous tribes, except a small bit of the tap roots of seedling infants. AMERICAN SPRUCE, AND SILVER FIR. These are also to be taken from the semi- nary at the end of the second year, and planted in lines twelve inches apart, and four in line. Nurse them here for two seasons, and then remove them into other lines, eighteen inches apart, and six in line ; there to remain for one or two seasons more, ac- cording to circumstances. Longer they should not be nursed. If they are intended for bleak 16 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. exposures and barren soil, they should be re- moved thereto at the end of the two first sea- sons of nursing. QUICK, OR WHITE THORN. This most useful plant may remain either one or two seasons in the seminary, accord- ing to the progress it may have made. Plant in lines twelve inches apart, and two in line. At the end of one season, remove the plants into other lines twelve inches apart, and four in line. Their roots may be gently pruned. The cause of removing them at the end of the first year, is to encourage the progress of their fibrey roots. At the end of the se- cond, they will be fit for hedging in any situ- ation whatever ; nor will plants of any age or size outgrow them within the third year, if they are properly kept clean 'afterwards. This I have proved by repeated experiments, made impartially on very different soils and situations. But of this, see Chap. X. Sect. I. Hitherto I have taken no notice of the time of planting. For the deciduous kinds, I esteem from the middle of February to NURSING. 77 about the twentieth of March, the most eli- gible season. For the Evergreens, from the twentieth of July to about the middle of August ; taking advantage of wet or cloudy weather, and frequently watering in hot, dry weather till the plants have struck root. It is certain, that all plants are most suc- cessfully removed at the time they are just beginning to vegetate; but in extensive ope- rations it is impossible, or at least would be imprudent, to defer planting in order to hit the very nick of time. Evergreens; in gene- ral, take a second growth about the end of July or first of August, and are then more successfully transplanted than in the spring. The best period of the spring for moving Evergreens, is the middle or end of April, just before they begin to grow. Let the plants, of all descriptions, be care- fully kept clean of weeds in the Summer months; and let the interstices of all rows, which stand over year, be pointed with a nar- row spade, in any of the winter months, being careful not to injure the roots of the plants in the operation. In respect of pruning, the Evergreens are 7$ THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. not to be touched, unless they shall put forth rival stems or leaders; in which case, the weakest must be displaced. The Larch is to be treated in the same manner. All branches of the deciduous kinds, which seem to rival the stem in size, or take upon them the of- fice of leaders, are to be cut clean off by the bole with a sharp knife. Others should not in prudence be touched. The plant is not to be pruned to a mere switch. Let us re- member, we are" but the assistants and hum- ble improvers, not the controllers of nature; and that, if, by our over officious interference, the plant shall be hurt in infancy, even time itself will hardly repair the injury. PLANTING. 19 CHAP. IV. ON PLANTING, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF NEW PLANTATIONS. SECTION I. On Preparing the Ground^ Pitting^ &c. THE preparation of the ground for the reception of the infant plants, is an ob- ject of the utmost consequence to their future welfare ; and whatever method is practised, it should be wdl performed. That I may have it in my power to speak with precision, I shall faithfully state my own practice; and that the subject may be more clearly under- stood, and less complicated by repetitions, let us divide it into the following heads ; viz. 1st. Clearing the ground of whins, broom, bramble, &c. 2rf. Draining. 3d. Ploughing, &c. only. 4th. Pitting only. 5th. Ploughing and Pitting, SO THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. 1st. CLEARING THE GROUND of whins, broom, bramble, briar, brushwood, &c. &c. if they abound on or encumber * the site to be planted, to the most superficial observer must appear necessary ; to the welfare of the trees it is indispensably so. Therefore, let the brush be cut -J- an inch or two within the surface ; and so soon as sufficiently dried, let it be collected into heaps and burnt. The ashes are a strong manure ; and if the ground is to be ploughed, they should be carefully spread and ploughed in, if of * In cases where the plough cannot be introduced in the preparation of the ground, and where the whins and broom are so thinly interspersed on the surface as not to obstruct the operation of pitting ; and particularly if the situation is bleak, it may be prudent to leave the plants of whins, &c. which are placed in the inter- vals of the pits : in which case, they would act the part of nurses to the young timber crop for a time. See Sect. VII. of this Chapter. t For this purpose, I have been in the habit of using what we termed the whin-axe : an instrument having one end, like a common axe, with four inches of face ; and the other like an adze, also with four inches of face ; whereby the person using it, continuing in the same position, by simply turning it in the hand, can make cuts at right angles with one another, as circumstances may require. The head of the tool may be about eight inches in length, weighing from two to three pounds j and the handle of ash, about four feet lon^. PLANTING. 81 quantity sufficient, over the whole field, otherwise on the wet or colder spots. But if the ground is such that it will not admit of ploughing, let the ashes be mixed up with part of the best surface mould, to keep them from blowing abroad ; and in the pro- cess of pitting, let a little of this compost be intimately mixed with the mould of each pit; previously distributing it in small heaps at convenient distances, for facilitating the operation : and this extra trouble will be amply repaid by the progress the plants will rtiake in consequence. Accident, which discovers many valua- ble secrets, first led me to the knowledge of this ; and I am so fully convinced of its ef- ficacy, that I would seriously recommend the practice in all cases where opportunity affords the means. Having cut the whins, which were the most luxuriant crop of the kind I had ever seen, of a field which was planted with tim- ber-trees the following season, they were gathered into wind-rows and burnt. The ashes were not spread, but negligently suf- fered to remain as they lay, the wind, per- 82 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. haps, shedding a considerable quantity of them over the adjacent spaces, but leaving the greater part in rows. The ground was not ploughed, but pitted, because the for- mer operation was impracticable, by reason of the strength of the whin roots. Nor were these, on account of the expence, stubbed up. The effect of the ashes was such, that on the wind-rows an astonishingly luxuriant herbage rose the following season ; inso- much, that the trees were completely co- vered in summer, and borne down by the weight of the herbage in winter, till relieved by the hand. The next season the herb- age was somewhat less luxuriant ; but even the third season it was more so on the wind- rows than it was the first season on the inter- stices. Until the third season the effect of the manure on the trees was not perceptible. But from this time, for three or four suc- cessive years, the difference of growth on the trees of the wind-rows and intervals was very obvious, and greatly in favour of the former. PLANTING. 83 I can in no other manner account for this difference not being perceptible sooner than the third season, than, that in the se- cond there arose a very strong crop of whins from the old roots, which may have re- tarded the progress of the trees, but which were completely destroyed the following winter, by chopping, with sharp spades, all whins, brambles, &c. which anywise dis- turbed or approached the trees, or original pits.. In some situations, perhaps, such brush might bring a good price for fuel. If dis- posing of it would really serve the coun- try, who would refuse it? But otherwise, if its price would not purchase lime or any other manure equal in value to the ashes, and which (if necessary) being applied in manner as advised above, might act to the benefit of the timber, in a case like the pre- ceding, or to the preparatory crop of grain, turnip, &c. it certainly would be less expen- sive, and equally advantageous, to burn it on the ground, and apply the ashes as a manure. It may happen, inasmuch as soils which we often find covered with heavy crops of 84 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. whins are frequently excellent, that the ap- plication of this, or any other manure to a timber crop, would be imprudent, while it might be rather in demand for the farm or garden. In this case, the ashes are worthy of removal to a great distance, and would much enhance the value of any compost preparation. By reason of the great expence incurred by grubbing up the strong roots of all whins, broom, &c. which the plough cannot dis- place, I believe it is seldom practised ; al- though every one will admit its utility. I confess that I have never practised it myself, having generally been employed on too large a scale of planting for putting the practice in execution at a moderate expence. But to remedy this, in a great measure, I have been in the practice of going over the ground every second year, with sharp spades, chopping all brush, &c. and relieving the trees ; of which see more in Sect VII. of this Chapter. 2dly. DRAINING. It is now pretty ge- nerally understood, and the argument is supported by the most unequivocal proofs, PLANTING. 85 that draining is not more necessary in the garden, or on the most improved, orna- mented, and highly cultivated farm, than in the forest. The bad effect of stagnant water, no doubt, is sooner perceptible on culinary ve- getables than on trees ; but to the latter, it is equally, if not more, pernicious. To the owner, it is most galling ; to the disinte- rested beholder, a matter of sincere regret to see thousands of trees, which have cost much money, labour, and anxiety, instead of being an acquisition to the proprietor and the nation at large, going fast to decay, stinted in infancy, drooping, and poisoned by the stagnation of that otherwise most ne- cessary element, and which, at a small ex- pence, perhaps, might have been diverted into another channel. Let us profit by the example ; and before planting, render the soil comfortable, by judiciously draining it of all stagnant, su- perabundant, and noxious moisture, whether in its body, or on the surface. To point out methods would be an end- less task, and futile in many instances ; since B6 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. the means must ever vary with circumstances, and these will be multiplied by many un- foreseen causes, according to locality and si- tuation. Perhaps open cuts, if effectual, are the best of all for forest draining ; nor can they be inconvenient, as in farming, since the plough is not employed here after the trees are planted. Covered drains are expensive, and they are also liable to injury by the strong roots of trees. Or, if a tree shall happen to stand upon the drain, its weight, in process of time, may crush it down, and ruin it entirely. Drains filled with small stones, brushwood, &c. are inadmissible, for they can be no lon- ger effectual than till the roots of the trees begin to run through them, and consequently, render them useless. But, now that the use and effect of the auger is demonstrated by Mr. Johnstene's excellent book on this subject, in most cases, perhaps it may be both the cheapest and most effectual method of draining by aid of open cuts ; which, however, would require to be always kept well scoured, and the au- PLANTING. 87 gur- holes frequently probed, by reason of the leaves of trees falling into them. Whatever mode is practised, it is essenti- ally necessary for the welfare of the planta- tion, that it be ivell performed ; and that the drains, of whatever description they be, be always kept in proper repair ; the good ef- fects of which will be visible on the timber, whether while growing, or when felled. Nor will the purchaser, who buys the timber on its foot, complain that the most valuable part of his tree, the root- cut, is spoiled by the rot, induced upwards by spouty soil. Sdly. PLOUGHING ONLY. This mode of preparation, on tillable sites, and where- the soil is thin, is the cheapest and most effectual method. If the land has been in tillage, it wants nothing more than two fur- rows, and as many strokes of the harrow, to render it fit for the reception of trees. But if it is in ley, a crop of oats, &c. the season before planting being taken ; or if it is stub- born, a second crop, perhaps of beans, tur- nips, or potatoes, will be necessary ; previ- ously ploughing and -harrowing well, and laying the land up in a comfortable manner, G 88 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. It is indispensably necessary, in following this mode of preparation, to plough the land to its full depth each time. In this inten- tion, where the soil is deeper than the plough can reach at one furrow, it is a good method to make another plough follow in the same furrow. 4-thly. PITTING ONLY. This is an im- portant article, on which I wish to be par- ticular, because the judicious performance thereof is of the utmost consequence to the establishment of the young plants. Other than on untillable sites, pitting only is not advisable. I am therefore to be un- derstood as treating of unculturable steeps, coal or lime drifts, stoney, or rocky places, &c. where the plough cannot be intro- duced : places most frequently appropriated to the culture of timber. And first, I wish to observe, that 1 point- edly disapprove of pitting and planting at the same time : a practice very common. Se- condly, that I also disapprove of the com- mon method of digging out the mould, and laying it for a time, until the season of plant- ing, around the pit on the surface. Because, PLANTING. 89 By the first mode the mould undergoes not the process of fallow ; nor, by the se- cond, is the turf rotted, or in anywise melio- rated ; but on the contrary, dried for the most part like a peat for the fire, or what ve- getable matter it once contained, and which would have acted as a manure for the in- fant plant, by a proper treatment, is either blown away by the wind, or washed off by blanching rains. Instead of these methods, my practice has been, provided I had timely notice of my employer's intention of planting such and such a field, &c. to begin pitting in May, what I intended planting the following No- vember ; in June, what was to be planted in December ; and in July and August, what was to be planted in January and February ; generally allowing the land to be planted, six months fallow : Filling one pit out of another, chopping the turf small, and laying it in the bottom ; whereby it was perfectly dissolved at the planting season, and rendered into mould fit for the reception and immedi- ate nutriment of the tender plant. 90 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. In thin soils this mode is eminently useful, the turf, for the most part, constituting, or at least containing what is valuable therein. And since it is frequently necessary, before the tree can be kept in position, to go deeper than the turf or upper soil will admit of; by burying the turf in the bottom, and co- vering it even with what might be noxious to the plant, a fit mould is prepared for its reception against the planting season. Wherefore, if we admit \\\zi fallowing and aerating land is of advantage, and that the above process is a species thereof, so far as the case will admit, reason at least would seem to approve of the practice. The event hath justified it. I have always found, all other circumstances concurring, the trees whose pits were made before midsummer, surpass those whose pits were made after that time. Whence, I made it a rule to pit land of a rough sward sooner in the season than that of a more smooth texture, that the vegeta- bles on its surface might have the more time to dissolve into nutritive matter for the im*- PLANTING. 0r mediate sustenance and nourishment of the infant plant, I would remark here, that it is very im- proper to pit clayey soils, which, in that case, would hold the water like a dish, in heavy rains, evidently to the injury of the plants. In respect to the size of the pits, circum- stances must ever determine. The depth of soil, and size of the trees to be planted, are subjects of the first consideration. In respect of the former, I follow the invaria- ble rule of pitting always to its full depth, be it ever so much ; and when there is only a thin stratum of turf, &c. of going a few inches deeper^ simply for the purpose of having the turf buried and effectually rotted. before the planting season. For otherwise, I hold it to be particularly injurious to place the young and tender fibres in cankering gravel, in till, or corroding sand. In respect of the latter, namely, the size of the trees, which may be considered to regulate the diameter of the pits, by the SYSTEM here set forth, and for the situa- tion under present view, trees of more than 92 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. eighteen inches in height are npt planted, and whose fibres do not occupy a space of more than nine inches diameter, when fully spread ; I consider fifteen inches a good me- dium diameter for the pits ; whereby there will be at least three inches of broken mould beyond the fibres on all sides. This, perhaps, is as great a stretch of pre- paration as the money bestowed for this purpose generally will afford ; but w r ho will deny, that it were better to trench the whole, ground over ? Yet, since it is more advisable that six acres be planted, of land of this de- scription, than one ; and since, if plants of this description be also planted, nature will not fail to do her part, let us be contented herewith, in this stage of the business ; and follow up our duty in that of culture, prun- ing, thinning, &c. with unremitting atten- tion. Sthly. PLOUGHING AND PITTING. Here I beg to be understood as speaking of tilla- ble land, and which is also deeper than even the trenching plough can reach. For other- wise, this matter is comprehended under the third head of this Section. PLANTING. 93 For reasons just mentioned ; viz. that it is advisable to pit to the full depth of the soil, and that it were better to trench the whole ground over, this mode of preparation is introduced ; although it must be allowed not to be completely effectual, since the plough reaches not the bottom, and that part between the pits remains untouched. Yet this defect is more than counterba- lanced by the improvement of the upper soil ; nor is the process of ploughing ex- pensive or tedious. Weeds, &c. are also hereby effectually destroyed, and the soil rendered more pervious to the action of the elements. Moreover, when vegetables are intended to be cultivated among the trees, a practice extremely proper for a time, when it can be done with advantage, the process of plough- ing for the first crop at least, becomes ne- cessary. In this case ; viz of ploughing and pitting, it matters not much at what time the pit- ting be performed ; provided it be done a few weeks before planting, that the bottom soil may be exposed to the weather, and 94 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. thereby be meliorated and divested of any crude particles it may contain. The up- per soil is to be carefully turned down to the bottom, provided it be the best of the two, (for instances are not wanting of a bet- ter under than upper stratum, wtiere the soil is pretty deep,) that it may more effectually act to the advantage of the plant, in the early period of its change of situation, a most im- portant one for its future welfare. The size of the pit is here also to be re- gulated by that of the tree, paying particu- lar attention to the bottom part, or that which lies under the reach of the plough. Indeed, in all cases, the pit should be made rather widest at the bottom, which is the safer side to err on. And here I cannot help observing, that where least trouble of making the pit is re- quisite there it is frequently worst performed : because, from the loose texture of the upper soil, in the case of the ground having been previously ploughed, die margins of the pits stand not as first marked out, but crumble down, and the workman imagines he hath made a larger pit than he was instructed to PLANTING. 95 make ; nor is he at proper pains to enlarge the bottom. Hitherto I have taken no notice of the distance between the pits, nor does that ar- ticle properly come under view here, as in Section III. the distance between the trees will be particularised, which consequently must regulate that of the pits. But I would observe, that they are not to be placed in lines, but in the quincunx manner, unless it be intended to cultivate rows of cabbage, potatoes, &c. among the trees; in which case, their being placed in line would be more convenient for that purpose, though not more advantageous to the timber crqp. Of this see more in Section III. of this Chapter. From what has been said above, respect- ing the various modes of preparation, I must beg the reader will keep in view, that the least expensive^ but at the same time most effectual method is to be advised. Where the plough can be completely effectual, use the plough alone. Where it cannot be in- troduced, use the spade and mattock. Where all are useful, use all ; nor be sparing of ne- 96 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. cessary labour, which, by the progress of the plants, will be amply repaid. Indeed, as I have already said, it were better to trench the ground in all cases. But in extensive designs the undertaking is vast and expensive. And since, I again re- peat it, it were to be wished for the good of posterity, that six acres rather than one were planted, of land fit for no other pur- pose, or which in no other way could be so advantageously employed ; let it suffice, that by properly following the above modes of preparation, we commit the plants to the soil, and bestow part of the expence and la- bour which might be required in. trenching or digging, on their future culture. And in this we shall excel many, who bestow much money and labour on plant- ing, without giving themselves any con- cern about the future welfare of the plants, which, instead of cherishing, they abandon to their fate ; not even, perhaps, defending them from the ravages of cattle. PLANTING. 91 SECTION II. On the proper Age and Size of the different Kinds to be Planted, according to Situation and Soil. THE planter's attention is particularly re- quested here, as much of the future suc- cess depends on the subject of this Section. Perhaps some may think I say too much, when I assert, generally, that trees three, or at most four years from the seed, and which are from twelve to twenty-four inches high, will, in any situation or soil, outgrow those of any size under eight or ten feet, within the seventh year. Observe, I say generally ; for, by planting a Poplar or Lime of eight feet, in deep mould and as heltered situation, they will most likely outgrow an Oak or Elm of twelve inches within that time. But change situation and circumstances; place them on thin soil, and in an exposed situa- tion, then mark the result. The young plants flourish ; the others languish. This may be deemed an unfair compa- rison, the trees being different in their na- 9$ THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, tures. But let the trial be made in any situ- ation with plants of the same species or kind : take two Oaks, two Beeches, two Larches, &c. ; one of each being, suppose eighteen inches, and the other any size from two to ten feet in height ; and I do assert, that, by an impartial treatment, the young will outgrow the old plants within the se- venth year. Nor will the latter ever over- take them in growth, become such hand- some trees, or valuable timber. If this is the case, and every impartial observer will admit it, may not much mo- ney be saved by adopting this mode, which is lavished on nursing, or the purchase of trees which no art can fully reconcile to their transposition, or future care train up, so as to become so soon, if ever, as hand- some, healthful, or valuable plants. Many, who are too desirous of immediate figure, are deceived in the anxious gratifi- cation of their wishes in this respect. How often do they, to their infinite regret, witness the trees they fondled and removed at much expence last year, and which brightened their hopes by showing leaf, and even shoot- PLANTING. 99 ing forth this season, becoming stinted, hide- bound, languishing, and finally perishing the next ! How different the pleasure of beholding a healthy, cheerful, vigorous, young plant, " doubling its stature each year?" Nevertheless, for this purpose, immediate figure where the soil is good, and the situa- tion sheltered, there is a medium which may be deemed happy. Deciduous trees of all kinds, except the Larch, of from three to five feet in height, being carefully raised with good roots, will generally succeed. I have already shown, that a one year seedling Larch, nursed one, or at most two years, will outdo all others of its kind in any soil or situation, and there- fore advise planting of this age only. Firs of any kind will succeed better, if under than above thirty inches ; even in the most favourable soil and situation. Most gene- rally, those of fifteen or eighteen inches in height are to be preferred. From this view of the subject, it may occur to some, that to plant seedlings only would be the most advisable and least ex- 100 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. pensive method. That it would be the least expensive method, is obvious ; but that it is most advisable, except for the Scotch and Spruce Firs, may be disputed. The chief property of any young tree, in- tended for transplantation, consists in a mul- tiplicity of healthy fibres. Hence the ne- cessity of nursing, in kindly-soil, for a year or two, all tap-rooted plants, for attainment of this object, and that we may commit them to the less genial soil, and more untoward situation with greater probability of success. For, whether shall we suppose the plant which has both root and branch to make, or that which has the latter only in the first season after so important a change of habit, is most likely to succeed ? The latter, cer- tainly. From which alone may be demonstrated the cause why plants of this description sur- pass those of a larger size, as above stated. These are raised with unbroken, tufty, and fibrey roots. Those with maimed, lank, fibreless ones ; nor do they, by the greatest skill and attention, bear such proportion to the top. Consequently, the fibrils cannot PLANTING. 101 afterwards, by the utmost efforts of human art, be induced so immediately to seek pas- turage for the sustenance of the trunk. It may be argued, that by lopping the top, this difficulty is obviated. True, it is so in a great measure. But is the tree not hereby injured ? I answer yes, inasmuch as all constraint is hurtful in a greater or less degree ; that least wounding is most to be ad- vised ; and that wounds sooner, and more effectually heal in young than in old plants. Moreover, are not the larger roots of old plants which are wounded in the operation of removing them, liable to canker, and even induce the rot upwards, to the detriment of the trunk, if, by chance, the tree be placed in ungenial soil ? Could the hidden works of nature be fully explored, it is more than probable we should find, that hence proceeds, in a great mea- sure, the frequently sudden decay of old trees, and the languishing state of young ones. But of this see more in Section X. of this Chapter. I come now to the consideration of parti- 102 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. culars. For the most exposed, bleak sites, and where the soil is poor and thin, one- year seedling Larches, nursed one season ; two-year seedling 'Ash, Mountain -Ash, Birch, Elm, Hornbeam, and Sycamore, also nursed one season ; two-year seedling Beech, Oak, Chesnut, and Horse Chesnut, nursed two seasons, whose roots have been tapped, as directed in Chapter III. Section II. Two- year seedling Scotch, Common Spruce, and Silver Firs, which have stood thin in the seminary, and are well rooted ; are of the age and size admissible, and from which there should be no deviation, if the plants have been properly treated, and are heal- thy. For less exposed sites, and where the soil is generally found from six to twelve inches in depth, all the above deciduous kinds may be nursed a second year in the same rows, except the Larch ; which, if nursed a se- cond season, must be removed into fresh rows ; but plants of the above description will be found to succeed best, not only here, but in alt situations. Two-year seedling Firs of all kinds, except the Scotch, being also PLANTING. 103 nursed in the same row for two seasons, are fittest ; but strong two-year seedling plants of the former, are most advisable. Lastly, for the most favourable sites, and where the soil is found good, and of great depth, plants of all kinds may be nursed still another year, if the desire of an immediate figure, predominate. Otherwise, it is not necessary. In this case, however, the plants should be removed into fresh nursery rows the season previous to final removal. And, if an extravagant desire for immediate figure yet prevail, the plants may even remain a second season in these rows. But, beyond this, nursing borders on absurdity. The reader is particularly requested to ob- serve, that what has been advanced in the preceding part of this Section, respects trees for the forest only ; and that, therefore, the subject is treated in a general manner. Of plants for the decoration of the Park, for Pollards and Hedge-rows, the proper age, size, and all other particulars will be defined in the next Chapter. But I would beg the indulgence of one general remark. If real utility, and a desire H 104 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER.' of cultivating useful timber, either for the service of the present, or the good of future ages, be the planter's object, his duty is to plant well-rooted, healthy, young plants, in all soils and situations whatever* These will never fail to succeed, if even common attention is bestowed on them. Re- moving and planting large plants is expen- sive, little understood by the labourer, liable to many inconveniences, and to injury by the vicissitudes of weather ; nor has the re- sult generally justified the practice; but on the contrary, baulked the planter's more laudable intentions, by disappointing him, not only of present gratification, but of fu- ture gain. PLANTING. 105 SECTION III. On the Distance at which the Trees should be planted, according to Situation, Soil, the Size and Extent of the Plantation, Kc. 1st. FOR the most exposed', bleak sites, and barren soil, from thirty to forty inches may be considered as a good medium ; varying die distance according to circumstances. For, in an extensive tract, it will hardly happen that there is not a variety of soils. Some parts may be deeper and more loamy ; others more gravelly or rocky. In the former, the greater distance may be advisable ; in the latter, the lesser. But here, the safe side to err on, is planting thick. C 2dly. For less exposed sites, and where soil is found above six inches in depth, from four to five feet will be a good medium ; va- rying the distance according to circum- stances, as above. Sdly. For belts, stripes, or clumps, whose breadth or diameter do not exceed a 'hun- dred feet, lying in a bleak situation, and of THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. thin soil, the margin, on all sides, should be planted at not more than two feet apart ; the interior parts at three. Those lying on a more sheltered situation, and of deeper soil, may be allowed distance according to cir- cumstances. But narrow stripes, or small clumps, even if the soil may be termed good, should generally be planted thicker than a more extended mass, that the plants may afford each other shelter. Atthly. For the most sheltered sites, where the soil is deep, good, and where apparently every plant will grow, six feet will be a good medium distance. Wider than this, I can- not approve in any case whatever : because, at this distance, the plants have room to grow till their thinnings would be useful. But even, were this not an object, there is a greater ; namely, that the plants may not grow too squat in their infancy, and that the *' pruning hook" be not much wanted in the formation of stately tipiber. But of this, see Section VIII. Again, he who plants too thin, with the idea of saving trouble in thinning, deviates as widely from the right path, as he who PLANTING. 107 thins none at all. Wherefore, I again re- peat, that thick, rather than thin planting, is the safer side to err on. By which mode, also, there is a more equal crop on the ground, beeting being much less necessary. And here I cannot help observing the very erroneous idea of those, who, in all situa- tions, plant the thinner in proportion as the plants are larger. For my own part, did I approve of planting with large plants, I would act diametrically opposite. And surely proofs are not wanting every season to sup- port me in this resolution ; since, in all soils and situations, we find not one small for three large plants fail, if impartially treated. In respect of arrangement, i. e. whether the trees be planted in lines or promiscu- ously, I hold it a matter of little moment. It can have no effect whatever on the growth or future welfare of the plants. And by the time the plantation is finally thinned out, it necessarily becomes irregular, although plant- ed in line ; since it is the distance of the tops, not of the roots, which must regulate the thinning. Nor does the head of every tree rise perpendicular to its root : some stand 108 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. erect, some recline, and " some do gentry nod." When the culture of a vegetable crop among the trees is intended, although it is not abso- lutely necessary for this purpose that they stand in line ; yet it facilitates the operation of cropping considerably, while continued. Think not I allude to ploughing or horse- hoeing. I disclaim the idea of a horse or bullock ever entering here, from the day the trees are planted, till they are at least a foot in diameter. In all cases, except where the culture of vegetables is intended, the promiscuous me- thod of planting is to be advised ; merely because it is least troublesome. Indeed, in some situations, lining is hardly practicable. On all uneven surfaces, it is perplexing in a greater or less degree. PLANTING, 109 SECTION IV. On the Mixture of the different Kinds, their relative Si- tuations, most proper Nurses, Kc. Isf. OF THE MIXTURE OF THE DIFFE- RENT KINDS. Opinions vary so much re- specting this point, that it is with consider- able diffidence I enter on the subject. Nor can I, on any other account reconcile my own practice of planting many kinds en masse instead of distinct groupes, than that thereby is discovered with greater certainty which is best adapted to the situation and soil : a point not unimportant ; for the most sagacious will acknowledge, that in this he has been often deceived. I have already said that this is the best criterion in a doubtful case. All extensive planting affords many such cases. Nay, even in a single acre we often meet with soils different in texture and depth ; and with those which are, stratum super-stratum, also different; the under one being not un* 110 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. frequently best fitted for the nourishment of trees. Except for the above causes, fancy should be indulged in the first outset. It matters little whether we plant in distinct groupes or in indiscriminate mixture ; provided, iiv the latter case* we ultimately retain the most profitable and flourishing kinds only. For, with the proviso that most of the kinds evidently adapted to the soil and situation be planted, according to the mode of thick planting, a sufficiency of them will remain, after all others are thinned away, for a full and final crop. For instance, if it shall be supposed that the soil is best adapted to the Oak, that it is desirable to raise the most valuable kinds rather than the decorative ; and that, exclu- sive of the Larch for nurses,, and a few Firs to enliven the borders, six kinds are to com* pose the mixture ; plant two Oaks for one Elm, two Elms for one Beech, two Beeches for one Ash, two Ashes for one Birch, and two Birches for one Sycamore. And thus will the plantation at once be PLANTING. Ill formed, in uniform gradation, of kinds most likely to succeed each other, in the case of either disagreeing with the soil or climate ; and which also succeed each other in respect of value as timber : doing justice at least, to the patriotic intention of the planter, should the first and more valuable kinds fail. Some are advocates for planting in groupes, from the idea that there is an antipathy be- tween trees, or that the shade of one kind of tree is hurtful to another. That the shade of any one tree is hurtful to another, cannot be doubted ; but that there is an antipathy between the kinds, seems a doctrine founded in chimera. That the drop of one kind is hurtful to another, is also advanced in support of this mode of planting, and the Ash is generally held out as an example. If one Ash tree over-hang another, or if an Elm over-hang an Ash, is the consequence different ? Does not every tree, who lords it over his neigh- bour, not only over-drop him, exclude him from sun and air, but also cut off his food, by greedily extending his roots, and devour- ing his portion ? Hence, the Ash has gene- 112 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. rally been quoted for the support of this ar- gument, from the circumstance of his being a quick grower, and great impoverisher of the soil, to. the detriment of his fellows in all mixt and neglected plantations. Others, in ornamental scenery, contend for this mode of planting, that there may be less sameness in the object, and that the different shades may be more strongly marked. The idea would be just, and founded in reason, could we arrest the sun and the seasons, or make the hue of any individual permanent. But, how often is the whole " turned into ri- dicule" in one day, by the sun now shining- bright upon it, and then withdrawing behind some cloud! However, for the above object, I contend not which is the most advisable mode ; the subject being foreign to the intention here, which is simply to set forth the most advan- tageous method of mixture for the cultivation and production of useful timber, according to soil, or the best judgment which may be formed of it. Wherefore, the rule ought to be, grouping, if the proprietor's fancy so incline, and the PLANTING. 113 soil which will positively produce each kind in perfection be present and distinguished. Otherwise, plant in mixture, and of the kinds most obviously adapted to the nature of the soil and situation, in greatest quantity ; as being the less hazardous method, and that which admits of greater variety. <2dly. RELATIVE SITUATION, by which is to be understood, in respect to one another ; and also, locality in the site. Thus, we may class, first, the aquatics, as the Alder, the Poplar, and the Willow ; se- condly, the sub-aquatics, as the Birch, the Lime, and the American Plane ; thirdly, those which affect a deep sound earth, as the Oak, the Elm, the Ash, the Chesnut, and the Walnut; fourthly, those which become most valuable on sandy or gravelly soils, as the Hornbeam, the Mountain-Ash, the Beech, the Larch, and the Sycamore ; and fifthly, the Pine tribe, as the Scotch fir, the Spruce, and the Silver-Fir, as bearing some affinity in their habit and inclinations, respectively to each other. Hence, it would appear, that if the soil and situation suit the Willow, it will also suit the 114 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Poplar and Alder; if it suit the Oak, it will also suit the Elm and Chesnut ; and if it suit the Beech, it will also suit the Larch and Sy- camore, &c. Of this there can be no doubt. But the position may be so altered as to hazard suc- cess. For instance, the Elm will always thrive with the Oak, but the Oak will not always flourish with the Elm ; the Birch will always flourish with the Platanus, but some- times the Platanus will not even live with the Birch ; nor will the American Spruce, in all cases, with the Native Pine. Not so with the Beech, the Larch, the Elm, the Hornbeam, the Sycamore, and the Mountain Sorb ; these are more faithful companions ; nor will the one desert the other in sickness, or this droop where that reareth his head. From this view of the subject, it will not be difficult to assign to each its situation rela- tive to the other. Let us therefore consider what respects locality in the site. And first, of those sites which extend over a considerable tract, where both soil and si- tuation are varied, and where the chief object is the culture of valuable timber: In the most PLANTING. 115 elevated, bleak parts, and where the soil is poor, thin, and gravelly, the Birch, the Beech, the Elm, and the Larch, are the kinds which most probably will succeed, and of which most should be planted; next to which follow in value, the Scotch Fir, the Hornbeam, the Sycamore, and the Mountain Sorb. In the less elevated parts, and where the soil is thicker, although poor, the Oak, the Ash, and the Norway Spruce may be added to the above. And, in the most shel- tered parts, and where the soil is also found deep, the Oak, the Elm, the Larch, the Ash, and the Beech are objects of the first impor- tance; next to which follow the American Spruce, and the Silver Fir. Secondly, where the object embraces both the culture of valuable and decorative timber, to the above kinds may be added, the Ches- nut, the Horse-Chesnut, the Laburnum, the Lime, the Poplar, the Platanus, the Walnut, the Willow, the Cedar, the Weymouth Pine, &c. which should be varied in quantity on the respective parts of the site, according to the soil most evidently adapted to them, and the leading features of the design; as, the 116 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. decoration of the outline, the decoration ot interior walks or rides, the decoration of any part which is an object from a particular point of view, &c, Thirdly, where the object is the culture of decorative timber chiefly*. The Oak, the Beech, the Chesnur, the Horse-Chesnut, the Lime, the Platanus, the Poplar, the Syca- more, the Larch, the Weymouth Pine, and the American Spruce, are objects of the first importance, and are to be varied according to circumstances, as above. Fourthly, aquatic parts. The Alder, the Poplar, and the Willow, are the kinds most likely to succeed ; but the Birch, the Elm, and even the Oak, in some cases, may be added with success; as, the Elm by the sides of rivers or pools which only sometimes over- flow their banks, and where the soil is sandy or gravelly; the Birch in like situations, and where the soil is either such, or more loamy; and the Oak, at the conjunction of marshes and the higher ground which form their li- *The reader is requested to keep in mind, that this is a treatise on timber only ; Shrubs, or their culture, forming no part of it. PLANTING. 117 mils, and where the soil is deep, loamy, and sub-humid. But here it is impossible to give examples which will answer in all circumstances. Much y therefore, is left to the discretion of the planter, his judgment of the soil, and other subordinate considerations, which must ever depend on a variety of cases. Sdly. MOST PROPER NURSES. It is HOW proved beyond a doubt, that in all situations, and on all soils, except those termed humid, and which are adapted to the aquatic kinds only, the Larch is the most proper nurse, and therefore, should take preference of all others for this purpose. On sub-humid, or loamy soils, the Lom- barcly Poplar, and Huntington Willow are good substitutes; and when variety is the ob- ject, ought to be mixed with the Larch, for the purpose of nursing the other more valu- able kinds. On elevated, poor sites, the Mountain- Ash, for the first ten or fifteen years, is out- done by the Larch only, in the office of nurs- ing, and is justly admitted for the sake of va- riety. In all situations, this plant grows 118 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. apace in youth, which constitutes the chief property of a nurse. In maritime situations, the Sycamore is eminently useful for this purpose. Few trees grow faster in youth, (perhaps only the pre- ceding) and none are more patient of the sea breeze. Consequently, when the site is much exposed thereto, this tree should be freely planted in mixture with the Elder and the Larch, for nursing the Oak, Beech, Elm, &c. if the intention is the culture of ship timber; an object so desirable, that the culture of all others here ought to become secondary. The Native Pine has long been planted as a nurse, but the practice is now much relin- quished. Nor is it founded in reason ; since there is no soil or situation in which the Larch and Mountain-Ash will not far sur- pass it in growth while young. Neverthe- less, when variety is the object, it should not entirely be excluded a few may be inter- spersed. Others than the above named cannot pro- perly be enumerated as* nurses in the forest. '* Nurses in the Shrubbery, or decorative plantations, may consist of a much greater variety. All kinds of PLANTING. 119 For, to this office, the faster growing kinds only are appropriated ; and not, as has been erroneously supposed by many, the least va- luable. Their value for this purpose consists in a quick, upright growth in youth, and al- so a multiplicity of branches, which break the force of violent winds; thereby afford- ing shelter to others in infancy, and inducing in them an upright growth, when prone to grow crooked in the stem or squat in the head, by being placed in an exposed situation, or poor soil. If the utility of Jiursing in the forest be ad- mitted, it precludes the idea of grouping at the time of planting; and if grouping at first be determined on, it precludes the idea of nursing at all. For, in the present sense, we do not suppose that one kind can be nursed but by the aid of another ; although it must be admitted, that by thick planting, the same kinds may operate, in some mea- sure, to nurse one another. This is a strong argument in favour of Poplars, Willows, Birch, Laburnum, the Larch, Lime, Mountain-Ash, Horse-Chesnut, &c. may be admitted according to taste. I li^O THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. planting in mixture, since by help of free- growing nurses, the plantation acquires figure much sooner; and the valuable kinds form for " timber of stature" from infancy with- out much necessity of chastisement, provided proper attention be paid to removing the nurses in time, that the timber be not drawn up too weak and slender. Nevertheless, when the ultimate intention is grouping, and when that formality is dis- pensed with at first, or until the plantation hath acquired considerable figure, nursing may be effectually practised, by planting, perhaps Larch, Poplars, and Mountain-Ash, as nurses over the whole; or perhaps only one of these kinds, as may be determined by choice or existing circumstances. In respect of the quantity or number of nurses, and what proportion that should bear to the intended crop, much must depend on circumstances. In a thin soil, and bleak si- tuation, perhaps tree for tree may be requi- site. In a less exposed situation, and better soil, perhaps there should be one nurse for two principals. And in the most sheltered situations, with good soil, perhaps one nurse PLANTING. 121 for three, four, or five principals, may suffice. The judicious will distinguish between the extremes, and according to the probability of success. But I beg to remark, that for the most exposed, bleak situations, and where the soil is evidently sterile, the safer way is to plant too many, rather than too few nurses ; and, that here the Larch and Mountain-Ash are fittest for the purpose, unless the site is ex- posed to the sea breeze, in which case, the Sycamore and the Elder, ought to take place of the latter. And here I cannot avoid taking notice of the super-excellence of the Larch in this par- ticular, viz. that while it is admirably adapt- ed to the office of nursing others, it is by none, except the Oak, excelled as a timber tree. Hence, there is hardly a possibility of erring on the score of planting too many Larches for the purpose of nursing, especial- ly on thin soils and bleak exposures; since, although the intended kinds fail, if these survive, there will remain no want of a va* luable crop on the ground. 122 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER, SECTION V. On PLANTING ; the proper Season and Manner of per- forming THAT Operation. 1st. THE PROPER SEASON for Planting, may generally be, from the first of November to the middle or end of March, according to the forwardness of the spring. This latitude is granted on the presumption that the scene of Planting is extensive ; in which case, every favourable opportunity is to be embraced, that the whole may be completed in good time ; observing to plant the dry, elevated parts in the early, and the more humid and loamy, in the latter part of the season. This precaution becomes necessary for two reasons : first, that the trees planted in the dry, elevated parts may reap the advantage of the winter rains, put forth fibres early in the spring, and be better enabled to endure the early summer drought, which is so fatal to new planted trees on a dry soil, and ele- vated situation; and secondly, that those PLANTING. planted in the humid or loamy parts may not be spewed out of the ground, by severe frosts. From the first of November, to the middle of February, is a good season for the first object ; and from that time to the mid- dle or end of March for the latter. But the season of Planting may be regu- lated by other circumstances. If the Plant- ing can be accomplished in a few days or weeks, if the soil is of a middling texture, and the field flattish, perhaps the end of Ja- nuary and first ten days of February will be the most eligible time. If the season proves wet, and the site required draining in the preparation, perhaps the land may net be in proper condition for planting before the mid- dle of March, or first of April; for it is of equally bad consequence to the welfare of the plants, if they are committed to the soil in a sour and wet, or in a dry parched state. At a time when the soil is neither wet nor dry, the operation of planting is most easily, and also most successfully performed, The mould adheres not to the spade, nor does it run m; it Divides well, and with little trou- THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. ble intermingles with the fibres ; nor, in the operation of treading and setting the plant upright, is it wrought into a mortar, to the evident prejudice of the plant, whatever wea- ther may ensue. Consequently, on a retentive soil, it can- not be proper to plant in time of rain, nor, in many cases, for a day or two afterwards ; nor after a fall of snow, until for several days it has entirely disappeared. Whereas, on a dry absorbent soil it rriay be very pro- per to plant in time of gentle rains, imme- diately after heavy ones, or so soon as the snow is melted. And, since I have mentioned snow, J shall here observe, that by reason of it, on very bleak mountainous situations, it may frequently be impracticable to plant till late in the spring. In this case the utmost diligence should be used, from the moment the work can be set about, till it is finally accomplished, by employing a proportion- ate number of hands, so as that the plants may be got in before vegetation be far ad- vanced ; as otherwise success would be ren- dered doubtful, not only on account of PLANTING. 125 parching drought in the early part of sum- mer, but also that the tender foliage might be much injured, nay, entirely blasted, by prevailing winds, before the roots begin to draw nourishment for their common suste- iiance. The kinds may also, in some measure, re- gulate the season of planting, some vege- tating more early than others. But this can only operate in the case of grouping, for in that of planting in mixture, it would be a very inconvenient matter to go over the ground several times ; nor could the mixture be so minutely or regularly formed as at once. In tliis case; vi z. grouping, if the nature of the season, the soil, and situation, be no hindrance, or controul not the planter's in- clination of planting each kind at the pro- per season, he should endeavour to have the Larch, Elm, Sycamore, Lime, Horse-Ches- nut, Mountain-Ash, Birch, Alder, Poplar, Willow, &c. planted by the first of March, and the Oak, Beech, Ash, Chesnut, Horn- beam, &c. by the first of April at farthest. THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. The most proper season for the Cedar, the Weymouth Pine, the Spruce, Scotch, and Silver Firs, is from the 20th July to the end of August, taking advantage of w,et or cloudy weather. These will also generally succeed well if planted about the end of April, and the ensuing summer prove moist. $dly. MANNER OF PERFORMING THE OPERATION : The plants being prepared as directed in Section II. Chapter III. brought to the ground and soughed in, and the ground being prepared either by the plough and harrow, or by the spade, &c. as directed in Section I. of this Chapter. First, the mixture being determined on, let the person in charge of the work distri- bute the plants by laying each on the pit in which it is to be planted, or if the ground is prepared by the plough only, at the dis- tance determined on, as nearly as can be, guessed by the eye ; having a person or persons to carry plants from the sough. By this means, the mixture is more perfectly formed than when each planter (suppos- ing there are several employed) is left tp PLANTING, 127 mix his portion ; nor is his attention diverted from the main object, that of planting well. This practice of mine has been objected t Kc. 1st. MANNER OF PLANTING *. If the soil is sufficiently deep to receive the ball within the level of the adjacent surface, and if the bottom be not tilly, or canker- ing, make a pit sufficiently large, according to the diameter of the ball, that there may be a free space, all round, of ten or twelve inches beyond the extremities of the roots ; keeping the good earth by itself, and laying aside the bad. Let the pit be made so deep, that there may be placed, under the ball 9 a few inches of the good earth. But, if the soil be shallow, and if the bottom be tilly and cankering, make the pit no deeper than the surface earth or sward, except so much as to receive a few inches of good mould under the ball, as above. * For the season of planting, see Chap. IV. Sect. V. 202 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. The pit being now ready, and the plant in the situation as supposed at the end of the preceding section, let it be brought for- ward no matter how provided it be with care. Perhaps it may be carried in the hand ; may be placed in a mat, and carried by two people ; may be carried on a hand-barrow by two, and the top supported by a third per- son ; or a sledge may be required, according to its size and weight. But the less friction it experience in removal, and the shorter time the roots are exposed, will be the more to its advantage. Whatever pruning may be necessary at this time, let it be performed while the plant is in the hand, that is, before it be placed on the carriage, &c. But, prune cautiously, for fear of accidents ; rather, as it were, re- fer the finishing till the plant has struck root and has begun to vegetate. Place the plant upright, fair on its bottom ; spread out all the roots in their natural posi- tion ; tr indie in the best surface earth, previ- ously breaking it small ; with the hand, lay out the roots, tire above tire, as they issue from the trunk, packing them with the best HEDGE-ROW TIMBER, &C. 203 of the mould, as you would pack carrots among sand, in storing them ; when the roots are all covered, which should lie per- fectly horizontal, tread the whole gently with the foot ; if the earth, and also the sea- son be dry, pour on water until you think it has penetrated to the bottom ; proceed with the next plant, &c. until the surface be dried ; and then finish the whole, by level- ling in the rest of the mould, so that the sur- face of the pit be raised a few inches higher than that of the circumjacent ground, tread- ing all firm as you proceed. If the soil is shallow, and if the pit has been made only a few inches deep, the pro- cess is the same, with the difference of rais- ing and extending a larger hill. If a dry season ensue, it will be necessary to water frequently, perhaps once a week. That none of it may be lost or misapplied, it will be prudent to form a kind of bason round the root of each plant, by raising a small bank to retain it ; and in some cases it may be proper to make a few holes with a stick or iron crow to aid its descent to the bottom. The whole being covered with THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. mulch or litter, would tend to prevent the surface from cracking in parching droughts. Whether the plant may require supports, will be determined by its size, and the ex- posure or shelter of the situation. But plants under ten feet, if treated in all respects as above, will seldom be found to require them, and so much the better for their future wel- fare. Trees often receive much injury from their supports, both by their rubbing, and by bandages being tied too fast, or being neg- lected to be cut. If, however, supporting be found indispensably necessary, three poles being set up in a triangular form, racked with spars of wood at half their height to prevent friction, bridled at top, and the stem of the plant being fixed to the bridling, after having been previously wrapped round with straw- ropes or old matting, will, perhaps, be found as good a method as any other. <2dly. FUTURE CARE 6f Hedge-row and Detached trees after planting, until they are well established and trained into proper form, is a duty more expensive and necessary, in proportion to their value, than that attending close plantations. HEDGE-ROW TIMBER, &C. 205 This will appear at first view, when it is considered, that every single tree or small group must be fenced round. What ma- terials the fence should be composed of, may be ruled by various circumstances. It may be of stone, of close paling, or of rail- ing interwoven with brushwood, &c. But it should be such, and kept in such repair, as that cattle or sheep may find it impossible to come at, or injure the plants, until they are at least thirty years old. Indeed, sheep should never be suffered to come at growing trees. The oil or grease which exudes from their wool in rubbing is particularly injurious to vegetation *. In respect to TRAINING AND PRUNING, it is presumed the rules laid down in Sec- tion VIII. of the preceding Chapter, being followed, and, perhaps, improved, may suf- fice for Detached trees. For Hedge-row timber, it may be necessary to remark, that as ornament is less an object than utility, it should be TRAINED FOR PROFIT ; accord- * Concerning which, see my ideas more fully ex- plained in p. 302 of the Forcing Fruit and Kitchen Gardener. Third Edit. 206 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. ing to the demand, or probable demand of (he vicinage, in the first instance ; or, for transporting to distant parts of the country, if it is of value sufficient to repay the necessary trouble and expence. For the sake of the fence (if a live one) it should be observed, that all Hedge-row trees ought to be trained to long stems ; that is, of twenty feet or so. In this case, the hedge would be little, if at all injured ; pro- vided also, that the head were kept light and taper, of kinds which should be trained up- right ; or that, in training for crooked timber, the bends were made at right angles with the line of the fence. Timely attention should be paid to thin- ning, that the fence may not be smothered up ; a circumstance not at all uncommon. At the same time, observing to thin gradually, especially in places much exposed, lest ha- vock be made by over-prevailing winds. For Detached trees there can be no rule of thinning ; fancy alone must determine. NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 207 CHAP. VI. ON THINNING AND PRUNING OLD PLANTATIONS WHICH HAVE BEEN NEGLECTED. SECTION I. The Advantages derived from timely and judicious Thinning ; and the Disadvantages preceding from Neglect. THE ADVANTAGES are, 1st. Producing healthy, sound timber, and being ena- bled to train it for any useful purpose what- ever from infancy. C 2dly. In cases of mixture, by proper at- tention, being enabled to judge which kinds the soil suits best. This is done with less difficulty when the trees have full freedom of space than when they are suffered to run into confusion. The inclination of each is more clearly evident, being in this case un- forced and disencumbered. 208 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Sdly. Being enabled to turn the thinnings to profit, in every stage of growth, of the plantation in question. THE DISADVANTAGES proceeding' from neglect, are, 1st. Unsightly trees; more particularly, after being singled out. 2dly<. With much risk and difficulty thick woods are reclaimed, and the timber ren- dered hardy or useful. 3dly. When all the trees in a wood rush tip together like so many maypoles, we are deceived in judging which kinds the soil suits best, and consequently, which should be retained. Because the bad may in some measure force the good kinds up for a time, although afterwards, by devouring their pas- turage, they may occasion their decay; while we, perhaps, attributing it to the soil, cut out the good, and leave the bad plants, or kinds. 4thly. The thinnings of woods of this de- scription are applicable to few purposes, per- haps only fuel or railing, while the thinnings of those, properly managed, whose timber is of good texture and quality, may be found useful in many intentions. NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 209 And it is matter of sincere regret that so many instances of such are found all over the country. How many thousands, nay mil- lions, of trees are to be found in a state of al- most irrecoverable ruin ! and which, at half the money the thinnings would have brought, might have been kept in proper condition in every respect, whether of Pruning, Train- ing, Thinning, or in keeping up proper fences. How much more valuable would the timber have been, and of consequence, the property on which it grows ! But, in many instances, it is not yet too late to endeavour to recover many hundred acres of plantation, which otherwise, in a few years might be rendered very difficult to re- claim. The proprietors of such are there- fore intreated to take this matter into their serious consideration, as being a point not only of private, but of national importance. 210 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. SECTION II necessary Caution to be observed in respect of gra- dual Thinning, according to the State or local Situa- tion o the Plantation. THE necessary caution to be observed in thin- ning neglected Plantations, may be aided by the following considerations : 1st. The age of the plantation in question. Idly. Whether it has ever been thinned. Sdly. Its situation whether sheltered or exposed. 4thly. In what degree thriving. Sthly. Its composition whether of valua- ble kinds, and in what quantity. 6thly. If a Fir Plantation. THE AGE of the plantation to be thinned, may, in a great measure, point out the cau- tion to be observed. If it is but a few years old, that is, under ten, and is comfortably situated in point of shelter, every freedom may be used in reducing it to regularity. If it is between ten and twenty years old, and NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 211 has never yet been thinned, it becomes neces- sary to be more cautious; thinning out per- haps only the half, or two thirds that might have been necessary to reduce it to regula- rity at first; and returning to finish the thin- ning the sooner. If the plantation is above twenty, or about thirty years old, has never been thinned, and stands much exposed to the wind, great cau- tion in the performance is requisite. In this case, not more than one half of the number necessary to reduce it into proper order should be removed at first ; but in two sea- sons after, a fourth ; and in other two or three seasons, another fourth part should be taken out ; reducing it into order by degrees. But plantations of this age which have been thinned, perhaps ten years ago, are pretty much sheltered, and are now again quite thick, may require less care in thinning their interior parts ; although it may be pro- per to be cautious in thinning the margins, Indeed, the margins of all neglected planta- tions should be kept as a kind of barrier against the wind, until the interior parts are in some measure hardened. 212 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Plantations above this age, namely, thirty- years, which grow on pretty good soil, have grown fast, are quite in disorder, and stand much elevated, are to be gone about with the greatest possible care. In addition to thinning by degrees, as above, it may be ne- cessary, after fixing on the trees to be re- moved at the second and third revisions, to prune many of them up to almost bare poles, in order to give place to the principals; when, at the same time, it might be hazard* ous to remove them entirely. If the plantation in question be not in a thriving condition, according to its age ; and if, which is often the case, it stand in want of pruning rather than thinning, it will be prudent to perform that duty on most of the plants ; thinning out cautiously, until it be seen what the trees may do, or how far they may improve, in consequence. When the result is manifested, follow up the duty of re- gular thinning, according to circumstances, as above. It becomes our caution, in thinning of mixt plantations, to consider its composition, the value of certain kinds, and their mini- NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 213 bers; and it becomes our prudence to thin out the least valuable kinds first, provided it may be done without risk of danger. But many cases present themselves, where, to preserve regularity, and shut a gap which might become a funnel for the conveyance of wind, a better must give way to a worse plant, or kind. In an extended plantation, a very different degree of caution in thinning may be neces- sary in one part, from that in another, al- though the composition or mixture be the same throughout. This may be occasioned by difference of soil, difference of exposure, or difference of respective health and vigour; and the rules for thinning should be varied accordingly. FIR PLANTATIONS require to be cau- tiously gone about, particularly if they have never been thinned, and are tall. In this case, the plants will have long boles without any branches, except, perhaps, near to the top, will be top-heavy, and liable to be broken were the wind let in at once among them. Many plantations of this description have suffered much through inadvertency to this THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. matter; wherefore, in proceeding to thin such, or similar plantations, particular care should be taken to do it by degrees for seve- ral years, until they can finally be brought into order; observing to keep the margins, and any point much exposed, considerably thicker than the other parts. But the degree of caution necessary, will ever vary with circumstances ; nor can these be specified in every instance unseen. As experience is the best monitor, to those un- skilled, or unaccustomed to the practice of marking and thinning of timber, it may be useful to remark, that the best way is to go over the plantation a first and second time, until they can bring it to their mind, or the degree of order necessary ; marking with paint in doubtful cases, lest it might be found prudent to let a tree stand which had been wounded incautiously* NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 215 SECTION III. Manner of Thinning and Pruning neglected Plantations. IN this case, of neglected plantations, the operations of Thinning and Pruning become necessary at the same time. As these sub- jects have been treated in a particular man- ner in the IVth Chapter, and as the treat- ment of wounds, &c. has also been there enlarged on, it will be unnecessary to repeat the minutiae of performance here, farther than to point out, in a plain and brief man- ner, the most effectual method of RECLAIM- ING, and pruning into shape, such trees as have been totally overlooked or maltreated. With this view, let us divide the subject into, 1st. MIXED PLANTATIONS UNDER TEN YEARS OLD ; which may be reclaimed with little trouble or expence, and might forthwith be trained to any useful purpose. If the trees have been planted thickly, that is, at three or four feet apart, according to situation and soil, and if the plantation has THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. risen well, it will probably require thinning, particularly if much becting has been found necessary. This must be performed with the caution requisite, according to situation, and as hinted in last Section. But the nurses, if any were planted, will chiefly be the ob- jects for removal. It may be thinned to the distance of from four to six feet, less or more, as the trees are situated. But even this must be regulated by prun- ing up, at the same time, such plants as may stand, and have room, for some three or four years, until again revised. Trees of this age may be pruned into form with facility, and without the aid of any other instrument than the pocket-knife and saw. Branches that are misplaced, or drawn out of form by being crowded, and which have not laterals conveniently placed to determine their being shortened, may be lopped clean by the bole without injury. Others should be stopped at about one half or two thirds of their length, and the tree pruned, as much as possible, into form, as recommended in the Section on Pruning, Chap. IV. Thus determining the distance, NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 217 by the rule of suffering no plant to whip ano- ther, and keeping the extremities of all side branches just touching, &c. 2dly. MIXED PLANTATIONS FROM TEN TO TWENTY YEARS OLD, and which have, till this time, been totally neglected, may be reclaimed and trained to any useful pur- pose, although, perhaps, with more diffi- culty than the preceding. As in the former case, so in this, the nurses, if any were planted, become the first objects for removal ; afterwards, the less valuable kinds, or such plants as are not found in a flourishing condition, paying all due respect to preventing the baneful effects of subtile winds, acording to situation and exposure. Next, endeavour to prune up the plants that are to stand, into proper form, as above, and regulate the distance accordingly; which, for plants of this age, may be, perhaps, from six to eight feet. In a subsequent revision, at the distance of, perhaps, three or four years, it may be possible to reclaim the plan- tation perfectly, as if it had been cherished 218 .-THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. from infancy ; but this is not always to be depended on. 3dly. MIXT PLANTATIONS ABOVE TWEN- TY AND UNDER FORTY YEARS OLD,which have never been thinned, &c. have grown well, and are now thickets, may still be re- claimed:, although with considerable diffi- culty. In this case, die trees will be very tall and slender, and must be exposed to a freer air than they have lately enjoyed, with the utmost caution ; nor will it be possible to reduce the plantation into proper order at the first, or perhaps 3, second thin- ning. In this case also, it is probable, that many trees will have gained an ascendency over the rest. These, unless they are of bad kinds, should be regarded and retained as the trees which, with the greatest probability of success, may be trained into proper form. For such as have been overtopped in a per- fect thicket for years, will be rendered so feeble, and have so few side branches, that they would neither be able to support their own weight, were they singled out, nor NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 219 would it be possible to reduce them into proper shape. After having determined on the plants that are to stand, in the first instance, cut out the others a few inches under the sur- face ; then return and prune up the former in the manner as already directed, with the difference of lopping us few brandies by the bole as possible ; that is to say, lop no branch that has got a lateral twig sufficient to lead on its growth, after being shortened. Thus, thin out the head, single out the leader, and endeavour to reduce the \\hole into a pyramidal form ; at the same time, not dar- ing to touch the trunk, unless absolutely ne- cessary for the prevention of disease, or its appearance. The second or third season following, it will be proper to go over the plantation again ; thinning out such as were left as tem- poraries until this time, and pruning the principal trees farther into shape. In two or three more years, it may, with proper attention, be possible to reduce the plantation into order, without farther risk of danger from the wind. At this age, <220 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER* namely, about thirty years, the trees may be thinned out to from ten to fifteen feet, more or less, according to the richness of the soil, situation in point of shelter, and the vigour of the plants. About seven years hence, (when the plan- tation will be about forty years old,) the trees will have advanced apace from the treatment they have experienced ; and may now be finally singled out to the distance of about thirty feet each way, more or less, ac- cording to circumstances, as above. At this; time also, let the pruning necessary be per- formed, by sending a light person up to sin- gle out the leader, &c. which to keep in or- der, will forthwith be the only care required. 4thly. MIXT PLANTATIONS OF FIFTY YEARS OLD AND UPWARDS, which have either never been regularly thinned, or have run into disorder, are most difficult to re- claim. In this case, the branches have now assumed the appearance of lusty arms, and bear such proportion to the trunk, that to lop them off would be exceedingly imprudent, and to shorten them would make the trees look very unsightly. NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 221 But even this consideration ought to give place to that, if laterals conveniently situated are found whereat to shorten the branch, with the view of aiding or forwarding the S upright growth of the tree, and bulk of the trunk. However, if the tree, which is a common case, be divided into two large limbs, issuing from a short trunk, to which they bear very considerable proportion, it would be the height of absurdity to lop or shorten the one, with the view of forming the other into a pro- per bole. On trees of less magnitude, this may be performed, perhaps, with propriety ; but on plants as large, or twice as large, as a man's body, the wounding of great limbs, such as the thigh, becomes a matter of hazard. It were better, in the process of thinning, to take out plants of this description ; pro- vided, however, that, by doing so, too great a blank may not be formed, and that there be neighbouring trees of value, and with bet- ter formed stems, to supply their places. In thinning plantations of this description, particular care should be had to prevent the 222 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. injury arising from boisterous winds, by keeping the margins, and all points much exposed, considerably thicker than the interior or sheltered parts. If the plantation is much overgrown, thick, and stands elevated, it may be found proper to set aside and prune up temporary trees, as above, (perhaps baring them of branches on one side entirely) in order to give place to plants deemed worthy of standing for good, and which, by re- moving the former at once, might be en- dangered. At a subsequent revision, in a few years, such pruned-up temporary trees, and others of little value which can be spared, should be removed; thinning out the whole, as re- gularly as possible, to the distance of from thirty to forty feet, according to circum- stances, as already hinted. In plantations of this age, and, indeed, in all close woods, it would be imprudent to stub the trees up by the roots, which are thinned out; because, by doing so, the roots of those left standing might be injured. They will, long ere this, have extended their roots over the whole surface: many of their fibrey NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 223 extremities will be intermingled with the roots of the plants to be cut, which, by being broke or wounded in the operation of stub- bing, would be of considerable detriment to the growing tree, inasmuch, as from such fibrey extremities, which may be deemed the purveyors of the plant, its chief sustenance is derived. In thinning of such plantations, also, it is a matter of very considerable importance, to be careful in not wounding the trees to be left, by the fall of those to be taken out. With this view, it may frequently be proper to saw off the larger extended boughs of plants to be removed, lest, in their fall, they might become entangled with the branches of those that are to stand, which they would not fail to injure. A block and tackle, &c. may frequently be found serviceable, to aid the endeavour of laying the tree in such and such a position, and keeping it clear, in the fall, of the branches or bole of others. For, although an artful and skilled feller, provided the tree in question be pretty straight, and stand fair 224? THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. on its foot, can almost to a certainty lay the head where he listeth; yet, if the bole be crooked, and the plant be in a stooping pos- ture, it will frequently take very unexpected turns in the fall. 5thly. PLANTATIONS OF SCOTCH FIR sustain less injury by being kept too thick, especially in youth, than any of the preced- ing. Indeed, to produce tall, straight timber, it is necessary to keep all young plantations of Scotch Fir rather thick than otherwise. Wherefore, such as have been planted at about three or four feet apart, have risen well, and are under ten years old, should not be deemed neglected, provided attention to keep the leaders single has been bestowed. Those about twenty years old, which have not been thinned, and which grow on toler- ably good soil, will require to be looked over, otherwise they may soon be somewhat dif- ficult to reclaim. At this age, they may be thinned out to about six feet apart in the in- terior, keeping the margin and parts much exposed rather thicker. Within the next ten years, thin them out, by degrees, to from NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 225 nine to twelve feet apart, less or more, ac- cording to the progress the plants have made, quality of the soil, &c. Plantations of about thirty or forty years old, which have been suffered to run into disorder, must be gone about with care. The first thinning should be to about nine or ten feet apart; the next, within four or five years, to about fifteen or twenty; and a third re- vision, in eight or ten years more, should de- termine the final distance to from thirty to forty feet, according to circumstances, as above. It may be unnecessary to repeat, that such plants as have lost their leaders are the first objects for removal, provided no con- siderable blank be thereby occasioned. Pruning, except to prevent forks in the leader, is unnecessary in any stage. 6thly. HEDGE-ROW TIMBER, which has been neglected or mal-treated, may be re- claimed in a great measure after a few years necessary attention to reduce the plants into form, by degrees. Trees, however, of this de- scription, are often found so squat and bushy, if much exposed, that it would be next to im- prssible to shape them for tall timber. For THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. such, if, in kind, they come under the de- scription of SHIP TIMBER, it is obvious what course to take, in order to turn them to pro- fit. Others, which are found inclining up- wards, although in disorder in respect of pruning, in time may be induced to shoot tall and straight. It has been observed in Chapter V. that hedge-row trees should generally be trained to long stems of about twenty feet, &c. : but this is to be understood of young plants which have been properly cared for, or of such as are not larger in the bole than the thigh, or so. For it might be hazardous to dress up the stems of larger trees, especially those not in a very vigorous state of growth, inasmuch as the wounds might heal slowly, or with dif- ficulty be covered with fresh bark. However, for the sake of the live-fence, if crowded with under branches, the larger ones may be shortened back to the last twig or lateral of strength sufficient to sustain the vigour, and prevent the decay of the stump, provided the twig be not placed within twenty or thirty inches of the bole, or that the stem of the tree, in all probability, will never be NEGLECTED PLANTATIONS. 227 enlarged in diameter, beyond the extremity of the stump, so shortened; as, in that case, a blemish, or even the ruin of the tree, might be the consequence. Instances of this are riot wanting, in cases where, by the most inconsiderate absurdity* branches have been hacked off at, perhaps, the distance of a few inches from the stem, which afterwards has swelled beyond, and formed a kind of bason or hollow around the extremity of the stump, becoming a recep- tacle for water and the first seeds of cor- ruption. But to enlarge farther on pruning, might be deemed trifling with the reader's patience, after having said so much on the subject in this, and the two preceding Chapters. I therefore recommend reclaiming and turning to profit, in the manner most obviously prac- ticable, all hedge-row and detached timber; humbly hoping the foregoing rules and hints may be found useful in determining the / of the trees, and their respective distances. 228 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. CHAP. VII. MANNER OF CUTTING AND THINNING NATURAL WO^DS. SECTION I. Cutting in Hags for the Sake of the Bark, Fuel, Kc. THIS is the most prevalent mode of cut- ting Natural Woods, and in many in- stances, also the most profitable. In coun- tries where fuel is scarce, perhaps the ground being occupied in any other manner what- ever, would not produce a greater return. Add to this, the value of the bark of Oak and Birch, of which woods of this descrip- tion chiefly consist. The wood is divided into so many portions called hags, according to its extent, and the demand of the vicinity, which hags may consist of, from ten to an hundred acres NATURAL WOODS. 229 each. Smaller woods are generally done at one cutting. The frequency of cutting varies with cir- cumstances, being sometimes repeated in ten, fifteen, twenty, thirty, &c. years, according to the quality of the soil, exposure, state of growth, or opportunity of disposing of it to advantage. The method of cutting also varies. Some leave Stands at regular, others at irregular distances, and some cut the whole smack- smooth ; all which may be perfectly proper on occasions. But I am inclined to believe there is too much random-work performed. The points for consideration, in order to determine which of the above modes should be adopted, according to the local situation of the wood in question, are, Value of fire- wood and bark, taken conjointly. Value of timber for utensils, and the purposes of husbandry, &c. Probability, by converting t;he wood into a timber-grove, of its future value, in the character of ship-timber. In the following Sections of this Chapter I will endeavour to point out the most sim- 230 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. pie methods of cutting, with the view of speedily rearing a close grove, and with the double view of cutting for timber and for un- derwood. In this Section, I shall suppose the object of cutting is for fuel, and the bark ; and that the whole is to be cut over, with- out any Stands being left. The hag being marked off, and the sea- son for cutting, which for Oak, is from the iirst of May to midsummer, being arrived ; commence the operation by cutting clean over, close by the surface, such stems as is- sue singly from the ground. Those that spring from old stools which have been re- peatedly cut, should be taken close off with the saw ; observing to slope, and afterwards to smooth the face of the wound in such a manner as to prevent water from lodging. (See treatment of wounds, &c. Chap. IV. Sect. X.) But certainly nothing can be more erroneous than the avaricious practice of those who, for the sake of its bark, peel the whole stool down to the surface, and leave it to rot, to the evident injury of the succeeding crop of underwood. NATURAL WOODS. 231 For the information of those who may be strangers to the operation of barking, it may be proper to state the process. Three classes of people are employed : the hagmen, or cutters, the carriers, and the barkers. The latter chiefly consist of wo- men and children. The cutters are, or should be, provided with ripping-saws widely set, with sharp, light hatchets, and with short-handled pruning-hooks. The carriers should be provided with short ropes, stout limbs, and broad shoulders. The barkers are provided with light, short-handled, ashen mallets, the head being about eight inches long, three inches diameter in the face, and the other end blunt, somewhat wedge- shaped ; with sharp ashen wedges, somewhat spatula-shaped, and which may either be drove by the mallet, or, being formed with a kind of handle, may be pushed with the hand ; and with a smooth-skinned whin, or other landstone, the size of one's head. The cutters are divided into two parties ; hatchet- men, who sever the stem ; and hook- men, who prune it of small twigs, and cut it into convenient lengths. The carriers bun- Q 232 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. die the small branches fall an inch in dia- meter are barked) into their ropes, and bear them, the large ones, and the trunk, if lift- able by one person, to the barkers, who are seated on the grass at a convenient distance. Small branches and twigs are held by one hand on the stone, and beat with the mallet until the bark be split, which is then stripped off, and laid regularly aside, as in reaping of corn, till a bundle of convenient size be formed. The trunk and branches as large as the leg, &c. are laid along on the ground ; the upper side is beat, with force, from one end to the other ; the bark is started, at the thick end, by thrusting or driving in the wedge, which, being run along the whole length, rips it open in an instant; the wedge is applied on both sides of the incision, in manner of the knife in skinning a sheep, observing to beat before its point with the mallet, until the bark is com- pletely loosened. Thus, a skilful barker will skin a tree or branch as completely as a butcher will a beast. But, the point most particularly to be observed in this art is, to take off the NATURAL WOODS. 233 bark in as long shreds or strands as possible, for the conveniency of carriage to, and dry- ing it on the horses. These are formed of long branches ; and pieces of a yard in length, sharpened at one end, and having a knag at the other to re- ceive and support the end of the former. Two knags are driven into the ground at the distance of a foot from each other, until their upper ends are within thirty inches of it, and on a level ; other tWo are placed in like manner, at a distance suitable to the length of two straight branches, which are laid on, parallel to each other ; thus forming the horse *. The horses may stand within four or five feet of each other, and are always to be placed on a dry, elevated spot, that the bark may have free air in drying. At the end of each day's work, the bark is carried to, and laid on the horses ; across, * Near to Loch Lomond, I lately observed an in> provement in the construction of these horses. The poles were not placed on a level, as is commonly done, but the one a few inches lower than the other ; so that the bark, when laid on, had a considerable slope to run off the wet in heavy rains. !234 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. and to the thickness of about six or eight inches. The large, boardy pieces are set up on end, leaning against the horses, or being formed into small pyramidal stacks. Due at- tention must be paid to turning the bark once, or perhaps twice a day, according to the state of the weather. Good hay wea- ther is good weather for barking. Gentle showers are beneficial ; but long continued rains are productive of much evil ; nor is the bark the better for being dried too fast. A careful hagman will take pains to lay the strong boardy pieces of the trunk in such a manner as to shoot off the wet, in continued rains, from the smaller bark of the extremities ; at the same time, preserv- ing, as much as possible, the colour of the inner bark, and consequently, the value of the whole, by turning the natural surface outwards. For, it is chiefly by the high- brown colour of the inner rind, and by ita astringent effect upon the palate, when tasted, that the tanner or merchant will judge of its value. These 'properties are lost, if through neglect, or by vicissitude of the weather, the inner bark be blanched. NATURAL WOODS. 235 When in a proper state, that is, completely past fermentation, if it cannot conveniently be carried off the ground and housed, the bark must be stacked. An experienced hus- bandman who can stack hay, can also stack bark. But it may be proper to warn him against building his stack too large, and to caution him to thatch it well. The method of barking and treating the Birch, is much after the foregoing; with this difference, that the season is winter, or early in spring ; and, that it is more tedious, by reason that the outward shreddy bark of the Birch is peeled off, and rejected. Where- fore, it follows, that if the wood in question is composed of Birch and Oak, and if the Birch is to be barked, the best method is to time the ivork, so as that the Birches may be cut, barked, and finished by the first of May ; proceeding then with the Oak. The wood, or hag, being thus cut smack- smooth, if it is intended for the same purpose again, it becomes a duty to bestow a little trouble in its future culture ; and not, as is too frequently the case, abandon it to chance. First, cattle or sheep should be kept out ; as, THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. by cropping the tender shoots, they retard its growth, and consequently, a quick return of profit. Secondly, to bestow a little trou- ble for three or four years, in going over the stools, rubbing off the superfluous spray, and retaining a moderate number of shoots, would hasten the maturity of the wood, for another fall, and return of profit. If treated in this manner, and if the de- mand is for fuel and bark alone, a crop at the end of every fifteen, twenty, or twenty- five years, according to the strength of the land on which the wood grows, may reason- ably be expected ; more profitable, perhaps, than at a greater age ; because, bark of this description brings the highest price. NATURAL WOODS. 237 SECTION II. Reducing Natural Oak Woods into Timber Groves. A MATTER, I humbly presume, which might be highly advantageous to the naval interests of the kindom. It will obviously appear, that such woods as are situated in a maritime district, or in the vicinity of rivers which might become a means of conveying the timber, at small ex- pence, to a convenient depot or market, are to be chosen for this purpose. I w r ould earnestly recommend, to the proprietors of such, setting about, and as speedily as may be, reducing them into timber groves ; re- gardless of the present gains arising from the practice of cutting, as in the preceding Section. I will suppose the copse at any age under thirty years ; taking, as a medium, fifteen. And at this age, considerable profits will arise from the thinnings; perhaps as much as 238 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. might defray the expence of future culture for many years. If the copse has risen, from the last cut- ting, spontaneously, not having been cared for, it will probahly now be a perfect thicket; and many stems will be found issuing from the same stool. Proceed first to mark, with paint, the handsomest stems, and so as that they may be left, as regularly as possible, at about five or six feet apart. Cut the others, if springing singly from the ground, two or three inches within the surface ; if issuing from stools, close down, in a sloping man* ner, to the surface of the bark thereon ; treating the wounds as directed in Section X. of Chapter IV. The thinnings should be borne to the nearest convenient clear ground, and barked, as directed in the preceding Section. Then prune up the stems left standing, according to the rules for pruning, Section VIII. Chapter IV. The following, and for two or three suc- cessive years, care must be taken to destroy all shqots or spray which may be found is- suing from the stools, &c. by rubbing them NATURAL WOODS. 239 off with the hand before midsummer, at which time they will easily be displaced. Also, to keep the wounds in a sound state, until they are skinned over. The rules for thinning, Section IX. of* Chapter IV. are to be strictly observed ; training to straight boles, until the tree hath acquired sufficient length of stem, perhaps thirty feet, more or less, according to circum- stances ; after which, THE HEAD MIGHT be LAID OVER, for the formation of bends fitted for ribs or knees. It might be prudent, however, that a want of straight timber for planking, &c. be pre- vented, TO TRAIN UP, perhaps, every fourth or fifth tree, with light heads (to prevent shading of those laid over) until of full ma- turity for felling. Or, it might be as conve- nient to appropriate a certain portion of the grove, from the tims of laying over, to this purpose. From the strength of growth, old stools of this description would produce on stems thus treated, we may fairly augur, that this would be the most speedy of all methods to rear useful Ship-timber. And it is well under- 240 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. stood, that that rising from spontaneous or natural stools is superior to planted timber. Of the above I have instances in my own practice. SECTION III. Cutting, with tlie double, View of rearing Timber and Underwood. EVEN in this case, SHIP TIMBER might be reared with advantage, in situations appro- priate to the purpose. But I would rather recommend the foregoing method ; because, the whole strength of the stools being thrown into the timber-stands, it is obvious that a more speedy supply may be obtained. It is rather on the presumption, that, in certain cases, the double object of rearing useful timber for various purposes, and underwood for fuel, charring, bark, &c. may be found most productive, that the subject is thus dis- tinctly treated. For the sake of brevity, I will also sup- pose the copse is fifteen years old from the NATURAL WOODS. 241 last cutting, and that, at that time, it was cut smack-smooth. Single out the best stems, as directed in the preceding Section ; leaving them, how- ever, at about ten feet apart. Cut out the others, at a hand's breadth above the surface, if springing from the ground ; or close down to.. the surface of the bark, if issuing froii} the stools. Carry out and bark those cut, and prune-up the stands, as above directed. For three or four succeeding years, go over the stools, and reduce the shoots issuing from them to moderate quantity, by rubbing off the superfluous spray ; and, until the next fall of underwood, dress up the Stands every second or third season, keeping their stems single, and their heads light and taper. At the end of fifteen, or of twenty years, make the first fall of underwood. At this time, also, remove one half of the stands; which will be found necessary for the sake of the succeeding crop. They will now stand at the distance of about twenty feet apart. Dress and train them, as above, for about twenty years, and 24-2 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. Then make the second fall. Remove one half of the Stands at this time, which will single them, finally, to the distance of about forty feet. Henceforth, keep their heads light and taper, for the sake of the under- wood ; and Continue to make falls every fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five years, according to existing circumstances, until the timber be of full maturity, when it may be cut down, and the above culture may be repeated. SECTION IV. Dressing of Old Timbers, standing irregular or de- tached, in Natural Woods. AND here we may find many goodly trees, which, with little trouble, might be rendered valuable Ship-timber. By reason of their standing amongst underwood, their stems are generally elongated, and found clean and smooth, to the usual height to which the NATURAL WOODS. 243 copse is suffered to grow. Above this height, they are generally found squat in the head, and branching forth into large boughs. Might not the size and strength of those boughs which are well placed be much pro- moted, by checking the growth of such as are not, or removing them entirely ? But, after having, in the preceding parts of this Treatise, said so much respecting this matter, and the laudable endeavour of re- claiming, and rendering more useful, ALJ, NEGLECTED TIMBER, it might be deemed frivolous to enlarge more on the subject : A hint to the lover of his country will suf- fice. 244 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. CHAP. VIIL Olsf SUB-DIVIDING LARGE TRACTS, BY BELTS, STRIPES, &C. SECTION I. The Advantages arising therefrom, in respect of Shelter, and improving the Climate. THE advantages to be derived, by sub- dividing extended Tracts of sterile, ex- posed land, with Stripes of planting, are ma- nifestly great ; whether we view them in the light of affording immediate shelter to the lands, or in that of improving the surround- ing climate. To all pasture lands, widely extended on open plains, the advantages, arising from being properly subdivided by belts of growing timber are both obvious and great. The health of the animal, as well as of the vegetable kingdom, is improvable by the aid of shelter and genial warmth. In con- STRIPES CLUMPS, &C. 245 genial soil, plants are made to flourish : if aided by genial warmth in a superlative degree. Who, at all conversant in rural af- fairs, does not know, that the pasture-field which is either naturally sheltered, or shel- tered by plantations, is prized higher than that unsheltered, although the soil be equally good, or even superior in quality ? If we enquire into the cause, it will be found, not only to depend on an early rise of herbage, by means of the shelter afforded to the lands ; but also, that cattle^, who have it in their choice, in cold seasons, to indulge in the kindly shelter afforded them by trees, feed the better. Nay, we may safely pre- sume, that no animal can fatten in discon- tent,orinan uncomfortable condition*. That the kindly shelter, and also the kindly shade of trees, are comfortable to pasturing flocks, may be demonstrated by watching their movements in the stormy blast under a scorching sun. How keenly will they fly * Yet it is known that sheep sometimes fatten in the rot> until they grow up, nay, die of fatness. But, caii such be wholesome ? May we not rather reckon this an accumulation of disease? THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. to the shelter ! How anxiously will they court the shade ! No doubt, from smothering tip small fields, already comfortably situated in point of cli- mate and shelter, with close plantations, there can few advantages proceed, especially while the fields are under corn crops. But, what relation has this to reducing widely extended, bleak tracts, into commodious compartments, whether of corn or pasture lands ? It may be argued, that even the desirable or salutary effects of shelter may be produced, by simply planting single rows of trees around the inclosures. Granted, in many cases. But, in bleak, unsheltered situations, single rows are reared with much uncertainty of success. But, by planting a stripe of moderate breadth, even on good land, is there an inch of ground wasted ? What crop would ul- timately pay better? Moreover, might not the margin of the field be as much shad- ed by the tops, or impoverished by the roots of a single row, as by a stripe of any given breadth ? Might not the trees r in a single row, become as tall as those in a STRIPES, CLUMPS, &C. 24-7 broad stripe ? and, might not their roots shoot as far into the field, as those in the outmost row of a belt ? For improving the climate of bleak, bar- ren, extended plains ; next to, or rather in conjunction with a rational culture of the ground, nothing can be more advantageous than the judicious disposal of plantations, ge- nerally denominated stripes or belts. On more varied surfaces, the disposition of these, together with clumps of different shape, as may best suit the situation in point, will fre- quently be found tending to this desirable purpose, namely, improving the climate; more especially, if skill be displayed in the disposition. The good effects of shelter thus afforded will soon be visible, not only on the imme- diate, but on the more remotely situated lands. Wherefore, in the disposition, it be- comes a matter of consideration, to place the clump, stripe, &c. so as to answer a twofold purpose, if conveniency will permit. In many cases, according to situation, waste corners may be turned to advantage in this point of view, without encroaching R THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. much on the adjacent arable lands : perhaps only so far as to afford good hedge fences, by touching on the better margins of the tilled ground ; or, in order to render the whole more agreeable to the eye, embracing part of a jutting angle, segment, &c. In cases, which are not unfrequent ; where the surface is broken by crags, rocks, abrupt ridges, &c. it would certainly tend to the advantage of'the estate, more than any other mode of culture, to plant such with timber trees ; independent of the benefit the neigh- bouring lands would afterwards reap, from the kindly shelter or shade of the plants. In others, where the surface is broken by coal, lime, or iron mines, quarries, &c. and where the expence of levelling and reducing it into arable land might be great, it may be found more advantageous to plant as above ; keeping the double purpose of affording shelter to the adjacent grounds in view. And in others, where the surface is broken by water-runs, pools, marshes, &c. to plant their margins, will frequently be found to tend to the advantage of the neighbouring lands, and afford the beholder much plea- sure. STRIPES, CLUMPS, &C, ' 24-9 . SECTION II. The Direction, Position, Breadth and Extent of the, Belts, Stripes, Kc. according to local Circumstances > considered. THE DIRECTION AND POSITION of Stripes or belts may frequently be regulated by arbi- trary circumstances ; as, the limits or boun- dary of an estate, the position of public roads, the course of a river, ravines or chasms, abrupt precipices, &c. When this is not the case, and where the choice is unrestrained, the leading points for consideration are : 1st. By what position the stripe or clump would have the best effect in opposing the wind ; being placed in its eye, by observa- tion of from what point, and with what ef- fect, it generally blows. Qdly. By what position and direction it would most effectually answer the two-fold purpose of sheltering, and conveniently divid- ing the lands in question. Sdly. In what position a belting might be 250 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. run along, or near to the conjunction of til- lable and untillable lands, so as to impair the one as little as possible, and at the same time, improve the other by the shelter af- forded to its flocks. Asthly. In what position a stripe might be run through pasture lands, so as effectually to afford shelter, shade, and entice the flocks naturally to fold and rest, where their dung might either be collected for removal, or, being let remain, might be washed down- wards by rains, to the improvement of the inferior surface of the field. Sthly. Supposing two contiguous estates, whose owners are mutually anxious to im- prove or adorn their respective confines : By what position and direction a belting might be run or produced, so as to improve or adorn the one, without injuring or disfigur- ing the other, reciprocally, in its progress or extension. Gthly. By what position or direction a clump or stripe might most effectually be run, with the double view of covering a dis- agreeable object, and improving the circum- jacent lands. STRIPES, CLUMPS, &C. 251 These considerations may be found ser- viceable in many cases, in determining the position and direction of useful stripes, clumps, &c. But it is obvious, that no fixed rule or regulation can be laid down. An infinite variety of surface, situation, and ex- posure, prevents the possibility. Let us hope no one would place a clump, or run a stripe at random, without considering of its use in the first instance of its value afterwards. THE BREADTH OF STRIPES, AND THE VOLUME OR EXTENT OF CLUMPS, aCCOrd- ing to local circumstances, may, however, be determined. Here I mean useful, not decorative stripes, &c., but such as are run, or placed with the intention of affording shelter to lauds, which, by these means, may be rendered more valuable. How often do we find this laudable inten- tion rendered futile through niggardliness and inadvertency ! Though we have to la- ment the latter, we cannot help condemn- ing the former. To run a narrow stripe, perhaps of four or five yards in breadth, through an exposed, barren tract, is, indeed, better than to plant a single row ; but a sin- THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. gle row, in a sheltered situation, may rise sooner, and more effectually afford shelter, than a stripe of this description, in a bleak exposure. Wherefore, before proceeding to mark off the breadth of stripes, or to delineate clumps with this view, the situation, in conjunction with the quality of the soil, should be duly considered. If the site is much elevated, the soil poor, and the climate unfavourable, the stripe or belt should not be made less than sixty or seventy yards in breadth. Nor should the mean diameter of the clump, provided it lie somewhat regular, and in a mass, be made less than double that breadth, viz. from a hundred and twenty to a hundred and fifty yards. In more favourable situations, with a bet- ter soil, the breadth of stripes or belts may be reduced to about forty yards ; and the mean diameter of clumps,- to about an hun- dred. But in no situation whatever, in the pre- sent point of view, should stripes be under twenty yards in breadth. Clumps or masses, STRIPES, CLUMPS, &C. 253 under an hundred yards mean diameter, are trifling and diminutive, and not worth the fencing-in. In the present point of view, we are to consider, not only the value of quickly rising shelter, but also that of useful timber at a future period. Else, why should we bestow the eXpence of fencing, independent of that of planting and necessary culture ? By planting narrow stripes or diminutive masses, the proportional expence of fencing, and also that of future culture, is much en- creased. Beeting, each season successively, for many years, is requisite in cold situa- tions ; until the plants gather strength, and afibrd each other shelter. Not so, where a considerable mass, or a broad stripe is pro- perly planted. The plants rise together in union, and keep each other in countenance from infancy. 254 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. CHAP. IX. THE VALUE OF FOREST TIMBER CONSIDERED, BOTH IN A PRIVATE, AND NATIONAL POINT OF VIEW. FROM what has been advanced in the preceding parts, particularly in the first and second Chapters of this work, there re- mains little to be said on this subject here ; other than, as it were, to wind up the ac- . count, or place in a just point of view, the propriety and consequent advcmtages of plant- ing useful timber. I do not here mean to speak to the value of trees in particular ; nor to the actual pro- Jits arising from planting, which must vary in every district of the kingdom, according to demand and locality of situation. Every proprietor must be so far sensible as to this point, who has ever cut an acre of timber, or of underwood ; and who has considered the value of the land, the profits, the ex- pencts, and balanced them against that of an adjoining acre for the same number of VALUE OF TIMBER. 255 years, which has experienced an ordinary culture under corn and grass. But I would wish to point out the Import- ance and value, not only of planting and cultivating young timber, but also that of RECLAIMING, so far as may be practicable, all neglected timber throughout the kingdom. The former is highly commendable, inas- much as it tends to provide for posterity an indispensably necessary and useful material ; which, perhaps, at a future period, may be hard to purchase in a foreign land. By the latter, much useful timber might be ren- dered serviceable to the present age ; and its living proprietors might witness the fact in gladness, and see much money spared to the nation which is now paid for imported timber. Without saying a word about the proba- ble scarcity of SHIP-TIMBER at a future pe- riod, which it becomes our duty to prevent by all possible means, we certainly / rudely formed, unburnt bricks, &c. From what has been advanced above, it will not be difficult to conceive how to proceed with them. But the reader may see farther on this subject, in Section IV. of the present Chapter. 5 My. DEAD-HEDGE, OR RAILING, in cases where the above materials cannot ea- sily be procured, or where the others abound, and are cheap, may be found good substi- tutes ; and, if the soil wherein the hedge is FENCING. 279 planted be tolerably good ; and if it be pro- perly cared for, they may frequently last till the hedge becomes a fence. The dead-hedge should be formed of the best of the brush-wood ; should be well in- termixed, small and great together ; should be placed upright, just where directed for the dykt\ to the depth of a foot into the banking, and to the height of a yard above it ; from a foot to eighteen inches in thick- ness; rammed hard together, and set firm and steady ; and, when finished, clipt top and sides, in a neat manner, that it be not displaced in cleaning the fence. There are various modes of placing the railing. Some place it upright, on the top of the bank ; others on the outside of the ditch ; and some place a rail in either situ- ation. But this latter cannot be proper, nor of any use whatever, in the case of fencing a Plantation. Our fear here lies all on one side, and is from without. A sufficient rail, being placed on the outward lip of the ditch, would certainly be most effectual; but such seldom withstand both the rubbing, T 280 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. and efforts of cattle to leap them, being too much on a level with the field. Perhaps the most terrific manner of plac- ing a railing of this description is, what may be termed, something in the chevaux defrize manner ; that is, in choosing the rails, pick such as have many branches, and leave them as knaggy as possible, in projecting lengths of about a foot ; drive the posts, not into the top, but into the face of the bank- ing, a few inches above the plants, and in an inclining position, so as to form an angle of about 60 with the horizon. Nail on two rails, one a foot above the plants, and the other a foot and a half, or two feet above that ; and thus, by the position of the posts, and the rugged appearance of the rails, will be formed a barrier which few pasturing animals will attempt. Cthly.'THE MANAGEMENT AND FUTURE CARE OF TtfE HEDGE, now becomes an ob- ject for consideration. And here, I cannot help declaiming against those whose prac- tice it is, when they have planted a hedge, never to give themselves any farther con- FENCING. 281 cern about its welfare. No species of hus- bandry can be more erroneous, nor any case of neglect more censurable. The value of good and speedy fences, ought not to be trifled with ; more particularly in the pre- sent point of view, namely, plantation fences. If cattle break into a field of growing corn, even though they may revel for a while, the damage is not deadly. They, perhaps, destroy little more than they eat at the time, which is, in so far, saving their pasture on the other side. But the case is widely different when they break the inclo- sure of a plantation, whose trees are not be- yond their power of injury* Here, every bite is felt ; every bruise becomes a blemish ; and every wound an indelible stain ! In fine, not even the tomb of our forefathers should be held more sacred than the field flourishing with healthy and valuable timber ! Wherefore, that the hedge may succeed the decay of the railing or dead-fence, in the one case, and the downfall, or necessary removal of the dyke, in the other, let it be cleaned and trained from infancy thus : Give it two, three, or four cleanings with 282 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. the hoe the first year, according to the clean- ness or foulness of the ground. At the end of the season, go over and replace with stout, well-rooted plants, such as have failed, that the whole may rise together regularly. This is a material point ; a hedge, although per- fectly good and fencible in general, with here and there a gap, is, in fact, no fence at all. Cattle soon learn the path, and keep the opening which admits them without trouble. At this time also, scour out the bottom of the ditch, and dress the stuff to the roots of the plants ; which will not only keep the water-course clear, but, from its< richness, being a species of vegetable earth composed of decayed weeds, &c. will add to their vigour. Repeat this culture for two, three, or four more years, according to the progress of the hedge, until it become a fence ; keeping clean of weeds, as you would a row in the best kept nursery ; and scouring out the bot- tom of the ditch from time to time, as neces- sity may dictate ; dressing the stuff to the roots of the hedge, all along, as above. . When the hedge has arrived to the state FENCING. 283 that one might say, " there's a good fence, it may finally be scoured up ; and cleaning with the hoe may be withheld. But at no time whatever, if we look for close bottomed fences, should we desist from cutting with the hook, every noxious weed which may present itself in front ; and which, if left standing, would not fail to weaken the breast- work. The method of final scouring, is this : rutt, with the spade, in the face of the ditch, about half way down, and so as to form a shelf or scarcement between this rutt and the root of the hedge, two feet broad ; point up the surface of the shelf or bench with the spade, that the mould to be laid on may mix intimately with that of the shelf ; line off the opposite side or lip of the ditch, placing the line so far from the brink as, with the stuff now in the bottom, to afford a suffi- ciency of earth to make up the shelf to a level with the original thorn-bed ; observing to give it a gentle slope from the bottom of the ditch, so as that its upper surface may be about eighteen or twenty inches broad, and that, when the hedge is full-grown and THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. clipt, (as under directed), a surface, on the same slope, from the bottom of the ditch to the summit of the hedge, may be formed. Dress the opposite side of the ditch hand- somely, at the same time ; and, Provided the temporary fence has been a dead-hedge or rail, let it now be cleared away. Let the banking be levelled down, and closed to the back of the hedge. But if a top-dyke has been the safe-guard, and if it is to be let remain standing, fill up the interspace between it and the hedge, to the level of the shelf in front. It may be necessary to remark here, that if the ditch in question run along by the side of a public road, not only in the scour- ing up, but from the beginning, it should be formed in the sunk-fence or ha-ha manner; that is, the side whereon the hedge stands, should be in all respects as above, and the other should be laid in an easy slope, from nothing on the side of the road, so as to form an angle of about 80 with the face of the ditch. This becomes a matter of caution for the public welfare ; and this method should be FENCING. ' ' ^285 practised on the sides of all roads and lanes whatever. Many .and dangerous are the accidents happening daily, by carts, wag- gons, and coaches being " turned into the ditch:' With regard to TRAINING THE HEDGE, I will briefly observe, that according to its strength and progress the two or three first years, clipping is to be commenced ; that the sides only, not the top, are to be touched, until the latter is regularly about a yard high ; that then, the hedge may be topt, to make it bush the better ; and that forthwith, the sides and top are to be trained with the shears and bill, in such a manner as to re- semble the highly pitched roof of a house, or the end of a triangular prism, whose base is three, and perpendicular six feet. Thus forming, as above said, one uniform surface from the bottom of the ditch to the extre- mity of the hedge ; lying in a gently reclin- ing manner, about nine feet in height ; su- perior, in reality and effect, to the best wall of this height, in the kingdom. From this time forward, the care turns on the other side of the balance. Hitherto, we 286 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. have been anxious to bring our fence to a pitch of perfection. Having accomplished it, we are now solicitous to preserve it so. First, keep it clear of all noxious weeds or plants, as bramble, broom, whins, &c. which might encumber, or occasion gaps in its sides. Secondly, trim up the heads or branches of trees, which, by lying over, bearing upon, or shading, might injure the top. Thirdly, at each cutting, which should be twice a year, in the fall, and at Mid- summer, cut close in with the intention of keeping it within bounds ; whether in re- spect to the height, or to keeping the sides or wings from spreading too far outward, and shooting beyond the face of the ditch. And, fourthly, when this cannot be accomplished by the shears alone, use the hook and bill, to reduce the stronger upward parts into due bounds ; performing this gently, and on one side at a time ; because, by cutting both sides at once, and much to the quick, would occa- sion just what we wish to suppress, namely, an over-abundance of growth. Hedges thus treated will last for ages; and, provided they are never suffered to run FENCING. 287 much into disorder at any time, are neither tedious nor expensive in dressing. Well may they be said, at a distance, to seem " living walls." SECTION II. Plashing and Cutting of Old Hedges. 1st. PLASHING is an operation more or less understood by every countryman, bred in an inclosed district. The common method is briefly this : The stronger stems are selected, at as re- gular distances as possible, and generally at about thirty inches apart. These are called the stakes ; and are commonly headed over at four or five feet above the surface, accord- ing to the general strength of the hedge in question, so as they may all range in line, and at one height. The more pliable branches and small twigs are interwoven, in the bas- ket manner, among the stakes, from top to bottom, as closely as possible. Such as will 288 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. not bend, in a pliable manner, and after* wards remain in due position, are snagged half-through with the bill, to make them more obedient. The strong stems, that can- not be laid in, and are not wanted for stakes, are cut close by the surface. In places where stems strong enough, and fit for stakes, are wanting, the deficiency is supplied by dead stakes. After the plashing is finished, the hedge is dressed smooth on both sides with the bill, shears, &c. We can have no reasonable objection to this mode, which is certainly the cheapest and most easily performed ; except that the stakes, or cut-over stems, shoot forth strongly, to the detriment of the under part of the hedge, which, by over-shadowing, they re- tard in growth, and keep naked of spray. This probably suggested an improvement, now pretty generally followed, namely, cut- ting none over at all, but weaving in the tops of the stakes along with the plashers. The propriety of this mode is at once evident ; for, besides that the above complaint cannot possibly attach in this case, the stems cut by the surface send up a strong growth, which, FENCING. 289 intermixing with the plashers, renders the whole more close and impenetrable. In cases where two rows of quicks have been planted, according to a common me- thod, at the distance of a foot from each other, the back row being plashed in any of the above modes, and the front one being cut down to the stub, would be the most effectual method of preserving the present, and producing a new fence. PLASHING, however, can only be effec- tually and handsomely performed in cases where there is a good portion of spray and long pliable shoots or branches ; and when the hedge has, if not youth, at least vigour on its side, to send forth a luxurious growth, and cover the naked appearance the plashers would otherwise have. For the more hand- some performance of this business also, there is a season more suitable than another, viz. the fall, or beginning of winter. At this season, the shoots are more pliable than in spring, when the sap begins to rise and cir- culate ; at which time the shoots of all plants are most brittle. After the hedge is plashed, the ditch, pro- 290 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. vided there be one, should be scoured out, and dressed up in all respects as described in the preceding Section ; and, if the fence is properly attended to, in regard to pruning or clipping, as also there directed, it may last for many succeeding years. %dly. CUTTING. OVER OLD HEDGES is a much less expensive mode of renewing or reclaiming them, than the above ; and in most cases, is more commendable ; whether considered in the light of producing brush- wood for fuel, dead-hedging, &c. or in that of affording the opportunity of more effec- tually training and shaping it afterwards for a durable fence. The manner of cutting must be regulated by circumstances according to the age, the strength, the closeness of the hedge ; and whether planted in a single, or in double rows. . If the hedge in question be pretty vigo- rous, and branching towards the bottom ; and if the stems stand regularly and closely together, although the top be ragged and straggling, it may be brought into due sub- jection, without being cut down to the FENCING. ground. In this case, the sides afe first to be switched up with the hook, not altogether close to the stems, but within a foot of them on each side at bottom ; tapering up close at the top, which should be from the ground about four or five feet, according as the height can be carried along most regularly from one end of the fence to the other. But if the hedge is thin at bottom, it will be ad- visable to cut better in, in order to make it bush from the ground upwards. However, the top should be kept as much in line, and on a level, as possible ; forming it into a ridge by the strokes in cutting ; and forth- with endeavouring to shape it in a manner as directed in the preceding Section. If the hedge in question is not regularly close, but ragged, and full of gaps from end to end, the best method, in order to reclaim it, is, to cut it over within eight or ten in- ches of the surface ; to fill the roofless gaps with stout, well-rooted plants ; to point up the surface of the bank ; and to scour up the ditch, as above-directed. As it rises, be at all due pains in clipping and otherwise train- 292 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. it, as hinted in last Section : it will grow apace, and will soon become a good fence. If the hedge, in this case, is situated be- tween the plantation and a pasture field, it will obviously be necessary, either to fence it off by a dead-hedge, or by a railing. But if the bounding field is newly broke up from pasture, and if it is positively to be kept in tillage for three or four years, nothing of the kind will be requisite ; as, if the hedge is properly managed, by that time it will again be a fence. In other cases, where the hedge to be cut is getting thin below, too tall, and when the stems are placed regularly within eight or ten inches of one another ; and, when it is necessary to retain a fence, at the same time, cutting so as to have a supply of bottom spray ; cut, alternately, the one plant to within eight or ten inches of the surface, and the other at four feet high ; dress the bank- ing, and scour up the ditch, as above ; and forthwith train, and endeavour to bring the hedge into proper form, as soon as possible. And lastly, in cases where two rows of FENCING. quicks have been planted, cut the front one by the surface, and the other at four or five feet high ; dress, and scour up the bank and ditch, as above. Thus will be formed a new hedge, backed with a living palisado ; which, for encouraging and giving place to the former, must be kept as such, by clearing the stems of all shoots on the side next to it, until it become a fence. The other may then be cut down ; and this will tend to keep the bottom of the hedge thick and close for many successive years. The season of cutting, in any of the above cases, is, from the first of September to the first of May. But I cannot subscribe to cut- ting over a hedge, which is afterwards to be trained for a fence, at Midsummer ; although I have witnessed it in more than one in- stance. I hardly conceive this to be rational management. 294- THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. SECTION III. Of Stone Walls. 1st. WALLS BUILT WITH STONE AND LIME, next to well managed hedges, are the most durable fences. In many parts of the coun- try, however, particularly where lime is scarce, they are erected at considerable ex- pence ; nor are they generally kept up for a trifle. The dimensions of what may be termed a good fence are, twenty-four inches thick at bottom, twenty inches at top, and six feet high under the coping ; which, if pro- perly set on for a fence of this description, will raise it ten or twelve inches higher. The medium height, however, may be reck- oned at a foot less than the above ; and many are found even two feet lower : but just grounds of complaint against their ef- fect, as fences, not unfrequently occur. It may be unnecessary to say, that the wall should be well built ; every honest FENCING, 295 tradesman will see to that. But the position, that a solid foundation is not more necessary to the support, than a properly placed and well set on coping is to its preservation, may not have occurred to every one. The coping, to a wall of this description, is as the roof to the interior parts of a house. If water is not completely excluded, there can be little comfort within ; so neither can the wall be in good condition, or stand long, after water is suffered to penetrate. The mode of coping varies with taste ; but I do not presume that, for a common fence, a finely dressed hewn cope is to be set on. I consider it an error to place any cope, so as that its surface may be fiat ; nor do I consider whether it project or not a matter of any importance. The virtue of every good cope is, to exclude moisture from penetrating the top, not preventing it from falling on the face of the wall. Wherefore, in whatever position the coping is placed, -it becomes a matter of caution to make good joints. The kind of cope which I conceive most advisable in the present case is, two thin stones set up in a triangular form, and in such u 296 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. a manner as that their lower edges may join just flush with the face of the wall on either side : the one being lapped over the other, so as to cover the joint, and form a thin, sharp edge at top ; being well packed underneath, and joined close to each other lengthwise. Next to the above, in cases where they can be procured, I would recommend a coping of calcined cinders (danders) such as are produced at glass-works, salt-works, iron founderies, &c. If formed in manner as above, and properly dashed with lime, it may be questioned whether they do not make the best cope of any. They adhere very closely ; from their porous nature, they imbibe the new laid on mortar, which, in this particular case, should be used thin ; and, from their varied and beautiful tints, espe- cially those found at glass-works, the coping looks very gay. Being a calcination, their durability cannot be questioned. I next advise, in common cases, and where neither of the above materials can be procured, a coping formed of large, some- what irregular blocks, such as will reach across the wall from side to side ; whose FENCING. 297 edges, though not smooth, will join well, and whose upper surfaces will admit of being formed in a triangular manner with little trouble. But certainly, after being at the expence of building a good wall, the farther expence of placing upon it a good coping, is ill with- held. This should be considered before the work is set about ; for, provided a wall is set on a fair foundation, if well coped, although built of inferior materials, it will frequently be found to last longer than one built of the best materials, and badly coped. Zdly. WALLS BUILT DRY* that is, of stone without lime, and being afterwards dashed (harled) or pointed, will frequently be found durable fences, more especiall if dqe attention is paid to coping them well. This is a common mode of fencing in places where lime is of great value ; nay, many houses are built thus. It will plainly appear, that in this case, even greater attention towards setting on a good cope is necessary than in the above. It will also appear, that since the wall is less solid, the lighter the coping is, will be the 298 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. more to its advantage ; as by little pressure it will not be so apt to shoot as when burthened with a ponderous coping. The calcined cinders above mentioned would be eminently useful in this case. Slates, either the hard blue, or the grey, or any durable light stone of the slaty kind, are next to be preferred. But the common mode, especially in this case of dry stone walls, of coping with sod, is by no means advisable. It may tend to keep the uppermost stones together for a time, until water penetrate the turf; but af- terwards, it is of mischievous consequence to the wall. The water, passing downwards, is lodged in its heart, and absorbed by the stones ; when hard frosts ensue, it is drawn towards the lime on the surface, and when a thaw suddenly succeeds, loosens it and bursts forth. 3dly, DRY STONE WALLS ENTIRELY, are the most common of any, in parts where lime is hard to purchase. It may be unne- cessary to say more of them, than, that the best endeavour to set them well, according to the given materials, or size of the stones. FENCING. 299 should be used. The chief art in building the Galloway-dyke consists in matching the stones at sight, so as they may bed well, and hold together ; for, the prices generally al- lowed on this species of building will not ad- mit of the tool being used. In some parts I, have observed a very handsome and durable method of erecting these walls; viz. building one half, or at least two feet, with flat slaty stones, and finishing with large blocks at top. * It is observable, that a wall thus constructed, four feet and a half high, is equal to one six feet high with a plain, or a sod coping. The sickle-coping seems to inti- midate sheep and cattle more than any other; and, I am persuaded, would be a^ .most effectual gne for deer-park. walls. 300 THE PRACTICAL PLANTER. SECTION IV. Mud and Turf Walls, &c. IN places where stones are not to be found for fencing, and where it might be improper to plant quick hedges, recourse must be had to forming walls of mud or turf. In many cases, mock fences of a ditch and loose ran- dom bank, formed of the excavated earth, are thrown up ; which crumbling down in a year or two, are both ineffectual and occa- sion much trouble. In other cases aquatics, as Willows, Alders, &c. are planted as hedge- wood, sometimes on a bank thrown up as above, and at other times, by the side of a ditch on the plain surface ; but not being properly cared for, and by their inoffensive- ness they become an easy prey to cattle, get full of gaps, and are of no effect. Instead of the above, and in order to have both an immediate and succeeding fence, I would advise making a ditch, and forming a top-dyke, in all respects as directed in Sec- FENCING. 301 tion I. of this Chapter ; choosing the six-foot ditch, however ; thrusting Willow, Poplar, or Alder truncheons down, instead of laying them flat, as the thorns ; and building the top- dyke as follows : Some months previous to the work being set about, dig a sufficient quantity of turf- sods to face both sides of the dyke. Twelve inches long, six broad, and four or five thick, will be found a convenient size. They may be ranged along, at the back of where the banking is to lie, for conveniency. When ready to build, temper a quantity of mud from the ditch, in manner of mortar, but ra- ther thinner. Clay, or a mixture thereof, would be preferable. Proceed to build the dyke as if it were a stone and lime wall, or rather, a brick wall ; facing with the turfs, bedding with the mud, and packing the heart with earth from the banking. From twenty to thirty inches at bottom, fifteen, _ __ exuberates in high exposures 11 training the 160 Ashes, are a strong manure 80 , of whins, their astonishing effects 82 worthy of removal to a great distance 84 Astonishing exertions of nature 181 Attention of the Planter requested 97 Avert a great evil, endeavour to 264- Avoid errors 143 Augur, its use in draining 86 Banks of canals and navigable rivers, fit places for the culture of timber 17 Barbarity of the custom of polling 199 Bark, value of, in tanning 261 INDEX. PA ex Barking the Oak, method of , 231 Beech timber, is used for keels 19 will thrive in opposite soils and situations 25 the soils it most affects 38 value of its wood . ib. nursing of the . 69 training the 160 Beeting, or filling up of vacancies 146 with large plants, the error of 14-8 requisite in cold situations 253 Belts, &c. of subdividing by 244 breadth and extent o considered . , 249 Birch, the soil it affects 38 value of its wood 39 the bark of, is used in tanning ib. is barked in winter or spring 39 wine, of extracting 40 oil, curious account of the mode of extracting it zb. nursing, of the 66 training, the 161 method of barking, the 235 Blemishes in the trunk, to prevent , 16O Block and tackle, use of, in thinning plantations ...... 223 Boat-building, Elm is used in 25 Boles, of trees, injured by the rubbing of cattle 175 Breadth of stripes, &c. considered 249 Britain, depends on the navy for its preservation 20 Broom, nurses of 143 Bruises in timber trees, treatment of 172 - by the wheels of carriages, &c. their effects pernicious 177 Build the top dyke 276 with lime 277 Building stone Walls, method of 294 the Galloway dyke 299 mud and turf Walls, method of 300 huts on the river Esk, method of 304 Bulwark of Britain, its " wooden walls'* 17 INDEX. TRACE Casualties in timber, treatment of 172 < of incidental 1S3 Cattle, pernicious effects of their rubbing on trees ... 175 Caution to the proprietor of an estate 256 Cautions to be observed in thinning 210 . for the public welfare 233 Cause investigated 188 Cedar of Lebanon, the soil it affects 50 luxuriates on the highest mountains of the East ib. is inferior to the Larch ib. * its properties defined 51 Charcoal, kinds of, used in the manufacture of gun- powder 49 Chesnut, its soil described 4-1 * i value of its wood ib. " its singular properties 42 ~ the Horse, its soil, and properties described ib. *^ , ,. nursing of the 70 Chief property of any young tree 100 Chimerical doctrine Ill Choice, of timber trees, should be regulated by the quality of the soil to be planted 11 Clean patches of sown Oaks , 138 young hedges 281 Ckar the ground annually 144 Clumps, size of, considered 251 Compost manure 64 of ashes and earth 6! ^_, __ for young hedges 274 Conclusion 305 Consider probable circumstances 256 Consideration, worthy of notice 100 : points for 155 particular points for 168 Constraint and restraint, in the culture of trees, equally inadmissible 13 Coping, for top dykes, how formed 278 stone walls, modes of 295 PAGE Coping, of calcined cinders, beautiful '296 dry stone walls 293 of mud walls Copses of Oak, reducing into timber groves Covered drains, of 86' Criterion, in a doubtful ca-'.e 109 ~ of the value of bark 234 Crops, rotation of 63 in the nursery ib. Culture, in the nursery 66 of timber, places for the 83 >- ; of ne\v plantations 1 40 of young hedges 282 Curious fact detailed 1SS instance of the rot 184 Current of the wind, strongest on the summit of a mountain 8 Cuts, for ribs or knees, how to produce 154 Cutting and thinning of natural woods 228 with the view of rearing timber and under- wood 240 old hedges, method of 290 . season for 293 Dead hedges, of 278 how formed 279 Deal timber, its use in ship-building 19 Dells, formed by the approach of two mountains or steeps, of 9 Deciduous trees, season for planting 77 Demonstration of importance 100 Detached trees, of planting 189 " propriety of planting 190 size of 191 proper time for planting 192 proper kinds for 193 preparing for removal 197 Deviation from- the right path 106 INDEX. PAGE Dialogue * ...., ....v.. 12'3 Diameter of the pits for young trees ......' 91 of clumps considered 252 Dibbling in the nursery/ method of 67 Different methods of fencing 266 Dimensions of a good fence .-. 295 of mud and turf walls ...... 301 Distance at which trees should be planted 105 may be varied ib. of the tops, regulates the thinning 107 of sowing acorns at 138 at which trees should finally stand 167 how to determine 217 Ditch, formation of the 275 scouring of the 283 Direction of stripes, &c. considered 249 Directions for sowing acorns 138 Draining 108 its importance in the forest 84- methods of 85 Dressing up old timber , 240 Drought fatal to new planted trees 122 Dry stone walls, modes of building 297 of coping 293 Effects of whin ashes as a manure 82 ^ of stagnant \vater, bad 85 of draining, on timber 86 of shelter 215 Effectual mode of preparation advised 87 Elm timber, used for keels 19 the Scotch, may be reared with advantage for ship-timber 24 the soil it affects 43 will bear partial inundation ib. the great value of its timber ib. - - nursing of the 71 pruning the 153 INDEX. PACE Elm, Scotch, resembles the Oak in form ..; ib. maybe applied to ship-building 158 heading down young 159 useful in naval architecture ib. Encouraging a leader, a principal point in pruning ... 151 Error of beeting with large plants 14-3 Erroneous idea 106 Evergreens, seasons for plantihg 76 pruning of 77 Expence of putting in unnecessary plants 146 Experiments, important 71 repeated 76 Extent of stripes and clumps considered 249 Extracting the juices of resinous trees, of 262 Extravagant desire 103 Fallowing, process of, in pitting 89 of advantage , ^. ..<... 90 Fences, value of good, not to be trifled with 281 brought to a pitch of perfection .................. 286 Fencing of detached trees 205 various modes of ....^ 265 Fern, choak young trees 145 Fibres, how they may be injured * '91 Fir-timber, masts are made of 19 ships are constructed of ib. ' is chiefly sea-borne ib. is excelled by Larch 20 Fir-timber, curious species of disease in 187 Fit mould prepared 90 Flora Rossica, extract from 41 Forest timber, value of, considered * 254 Formation of ribs and knees 156 of bends 239 of the thorn bed 272 of the scarcement 273 of the ditch 275 of a complete fence 285 I.NTJEX. PACK Forsyth, Mr. concerning his plaister .................... 179* Fractures, treatment of .................................... 177 Galloway dyke, method of building the ....... ........... 299 General rule to be observed ............ ................. 129 Glenmore, produces excellent timber ..................... 19 - gives name to a British frigate ............... ib. Grease, injurious to vegetation ........................... 205 Ground, preparation of ............. 4 ...... . ............... 79 - clearing of the ................................... . 80 - keeping with the hoe ........ . ..................... 14O Grouped plantations, thinning of .. ...................... 168 Grubbing up the roots of whins, &c ...... . ............... 84 Grub-worm, of the ...................... . ................... 64 Gust, or current of wind, generally strongest on the summit of a mountain ................................. 9 Hand mattock, described .................................... 138 Happy medium for the size of trees ..... , .................. 99 Head down young Oaks .................................... 149 -- all stinted plants .............................. 159 Hedge, management of the ................................. 280 Hedging, plants fit for ....................................... 76 Hedge-row trees, of planting .............................. 189 -- proper time for planting ............ 191 proper kinds for . - timber, how to reclaim ........................ 225 - . cleaning and training of ............ . .............. 281 Hedges, not expensive in dressing ........................ 287 -- method of plashing ................................. jb. --- season of cutting ....................... , ............ 293 -- aqua-tic, planting of ................................. 300 --- management of ........................... 304 Herbage, early rise of ............................. , ......... 245 Hidden works of nature .................................... 101 Hornbeam, the soil it affects .............................. 44. - its value as fuel ................................. ib. - is much inferior to Elm timber .. ib. INDEX. PAGE Hornbeam, nursing the 71 Horse Chesnut, its soil 42 nursing of 7O Hurtful effects of moss growing on the boles of trees ... 1 86 Huts, method of building on the river Esk 304 Importance and value of planting 255 Important article 88 Improvement suggested , 288 and 303 Incidental casualties 183 Indispensable duty 146 Injured trees, treatment of 173 Infancy, plants being hurt in, are with difficulty healed 78 of trees poisoned in 85 Pruning and Training from 168 Infant tap-roots of the Larch, shortened ...., 73 Infants, of rearing 60 of planting 61 Instances to be regretted 209 Intention baulked J04 Ivy, bad effects of, growing on trees 186 Johnston, Mr. of his drainage 86' Keels are formed of Beech 25 Elm 19 . Larch 25 Keep clean of weeds 77 ground with the hoe 140 plants unincumbered 145 Kindly nature of some substrata 34 Kinds of timber, for bleak mountains 12 for sheltered situations 15 for ship building ,. is mixtujre of the 109 Kitchen ground, fit for nursery 62 vegetables, of rearing 63 INDEX. PAGE Knots, a species of disease in timber 185 treatment of .. . 186 Laburnum, the soil it affects ~ 44 i an ornamental plant chiefly ib. value of its wood in inlaying ib. Lands, not tillable, to be planted 15 - lying within a mile of the sea, may be enhanced in value by planting 31 Larch, as a nurse, preferable to the Scotch Fir 11 conforms to most soils and situations ib. luxuriates on mountains ib. sickens in deep, rich soils 18 excels Fir, and vies with the Oak 20 wood is durable, and almost incorruptible ib* is a succedaneum for Oak ib. would not be apt to splinter in engagements ... 21 is of much quicker growth than Oak ib. merits the attention of every friend to his country ib. may be trained as ship timber ib. " ' > trees at Dunkeld, fit for shipbuilding 22 trees will bear to be clipt, as quick as Beech ... ib. should be reared with unremitting solicitude 23 is superior in waterworks ib. ' trees, at Dunk eld and Blair, of four tons of timber each, and not more than sixty years old 2AC Rot, hi timber, remedy for the .............. .... ............ !$* ---- curious instance of ......................... '& Rotation of crops ................................................. . 65 --- of the progress of the Larch ........... ......... 72 .Rival stems, of ........ -. ........... ............................... 7S ---- angle, formed by ............................. I8J- Rubbing of cattle on the boles of trees* the pernicious effects of ............... .................. . ................... 176 Scarcernent, how to form the ................... . Scotch Fir, the, its soil and properties described .... 51 --- worms often attack it while living ........ 52 -- - instance of its durability in poor, unshel- tered situations ....... * ............ < ........... . ib. --- should not be planted in others ............ 17O ----- its value ................................................ 5$ ----- of nursing the ....................... ................ 73 --- pruning of ............................................ i62 --- thinning plantations of .. ......................... 16?) Scouring the ditch, method of ............................... 283 Sea Air, noxious to vegetation .............................. 2fi ----- to the growth- of trees ................. 27 Season of planting ................................................. 123 --- for sowing acorns .................................... ... 133 Seedling trees, of nursing ....................................... 58 -- ' infants, of rearing ........... . ......................... 60 Shakes in timber ..... . ............................ ,> ............... 160 -- of their prevention .................................... 186 Shelter, essential to the welfare of newly planted trees 7 - - artificial, Jiow to produce .......................... 8 -- afforded to trees, by planting in zones ...... 9 -- by belts, stripes, &c ................................. 15 Ship-building, kinds of timber used in .................. 18 Ship-timber, supply of, by Oak and Larch ..... ..... ib. --- speedy mode of rearing ....................... 239 --- may be reared in perfection ............... 19 ----- Scotch Elm makes good ..................... 21- 1NDFX. Ships of war cannot be constructed without a por- tion of Oak 24 Shoots, when most brittle 289 Silver Fir, its soil and properties described 56 grows to a vast sjze in Switzerland ib. produces the true Venice turpentine 57 is thought handsome by some, and ugly by others # of nursing the 75 Situation, favourableness of, may tempt to plant im- proper kinds .;.... .....;............. ..;.... 13 of the nursery * 58 Slit-planting, method of 132 Soil, its quality, should regulate the choice of timber trees H Soil, affinity of .; 25 of the nursery '. 58 most proper for a nursery 61 Soils adapted to the different forest trees 32 those adapted to deciduous trees ib. contain food or poison to plants 33 criterion of their quality for forest trees ib. those most untoward for the produce of timber... 3-t - and their sub-strata, remarked 35 which the Alder affects ;.......... ib. which the Ash affects 36 adapted to the Mountain- Ash or Sorb 37 the Beech 38 the Birch , ib. the Chesnut...., 41 the Horse Chesnut 42 the Elm < 43 the Hornbeam *... 44 the Laburnum *.... ib. the Larch ib. the Lime-tree 45 the Oak . , 46 INDEX; TAG* Soils adapted to the Plane-tree ;.. 46 the Poplar 47 the Sycamore .,..;. ;.... ib. the Walnut .,;... 48 the Willow 49 Evergreen and resinous trees 50 the Cedar ib* the Scotch Fir or Pine 51 the Weymouth Pine 53 the Norway Spruce 54- the American Spruce 55 the Silver Fir .. 56 Sowing acorns among planted timber trees 135 Stone walls, building of 294- modes of coping 295 Straight timber, training for 153 Success in planting 11 sure pledge of, in transplanting 196 Sycamore, the, bears the sea breeze better than other trees 26 its soil and properties described 47 its eminent use as a nurse plant 118 Tapping, its advantages 136 ~ method of. 69 the Chesnut 70 Tap-rooted plants to be nursed in kindly soil 100 Tap-roots, manner of cutting 19S Tar, its use in healing of wounds.. 174 its application to fractures 177 coal, to be preferred, and why 181 Thin, to plant, is improper in bleak exposures 8 Thinning, its importance 164 of mixt plantations 165 invariable rule for 167 grouped plantations 168 plantations of Scotch Fir 169 of Spruce Fir 170 Hedge-row trees 205 INDEX. PACE Tli inning neglected plantations '207 cautions to be observed in 210 Thorn -bed, how to form 272 Timber-crop, impoverished by vegetables 141 Timber-trees do not flourish superlatively in bleak situ- 1 ations , , 11 kinds of, for bleak mountains 12 for sheltered situations 15 Top-dykes, of 270 : proceed to build the 27G materials for the 277 Training the Oak 150 for straight timber '. 152 for crooked timber 15 t for ribs and knees 155 the Elm 158 the Beech 160 the Larch, for Ship-timber 161 Fir trees 162 Hedge-row and detached trees 158 - natural Oak timber 239 young hedges 285 Transplanting, sure pledge of success in 196 Treatment of trees in youth, affects their future form, value, and usefulness 13 of wounds, bruises, Sec 172 Trees may be stinted by being planted too thin 14- may be spoiled by being planted too thick *7. will not flourish, superlatively, except in their own soils 32 - poisoned by bad soil 34- nursed two seasons only 6<> . treatment of ib. for the forest only 103 antipathy of, investigated Ill classed 113 young, choaked by fern, &c 14-5 classing of 156 INDEX* Trees, kinds of for hedge-rows, Sic ......................... 193 -- are often injured by their supports ............... 204? Trenching of nursery ground .................... . ......... 64 - the whole ground before planting ............ 92 Underwood, make falls of ...................... . .......... 24-1 Under stratum, sometimes the best ........................ 109 Useful remark ........................... Valuable, crop of nursery ................. * ........... ,....*.. 65 - - lands rendered more ...... ....................... 251 - timber, neglect of* unpardonable ............... 253 Value of forest-timber considered ........................ 254- -- of lands lying within a mile of the sea, may be enhanced by planting ................... ..... ......... 31 -- of whin ashes, as a manure ........ . .................. 83 Various modes of fencing .................................... 265 Vegetables, culture of, among timber trees ...... 93 & 141 --- cropping with, of .............................. 142 Venice, the city of, built on piles of Larch wood ...... 20 - . turpentine, extracted from Silver-Fir ............ 57 Virtue of a good coping ................ . ................... 295 Walls, method of building and coping... '. ................ 295 Walnut, its soil and properties described .................. 48 Wasteland, the utility of planting ........................ 30 Water, ochry, pernicious effects of ........................ 34 Weeds, keep clean of ....................................... 77 -- destroy noxious ................ .. ..................... 1 43 Weymouth Pine, the soil it affects ........................ 53 -- an elegant tree ........................... 6. . -- grows to a great size in America ... 54 -- produces masts and spars ............... ib. - - of nursing the ........................... 73 Whin axe, of the ............... . ............. ................ 80 Whipping of tops, to prevent ......... . .................... 170 Willow, its soil and properties described ............... 49 - " -- its use in the manufacture of gun powder ...... ib. Y INDEX. PAOS Winds, chilled by passing over an expanse of water ... 27 - accumulate in vigour and velocity ............... 28 - prevailing, baneful effects of ........... , ........ , 29 Wind-waving contributes to stint trees in growth ...... 7 - its velocity in dells or hollows, greater than over level ground ...................... , ............... , ..... . 9 " Wooden walls," the natural bulwark of Britain ...... 17 Worm, a disease in growing fir-timber ..... , ............ 187 Wounds, healing of, in trees .............................. 157 . treatment of, in general .............. t ............ 172 Young timber, reared with difficulty in bleak expo- sures ..... , .............. ................................ . 8 Zones, planting in C. WIHTT1NGIIAM, Printer, Dean Street, teu FOR THE USE OF LAND-OWNERS AND FARMERS, THIS DAY IS PUBLISHED, Price 2s. 6d. bound (pocket size,) the Third Edition of THE GENTLEMAN AND FARMER'S ASSISTANT; CONTAINING, 1. TABLES for finding the Length and Breadth of any Piece of Land, from Dimensions taken in Yards, by only PAC- ING it. . TABLES, shewing at one view the Width required to take into a square Piece of Land, to make an Acre, from 1 to 500 yards in length, by which the Quantity of Seed sown 1 per Acre i.s readily ascertained. 3, TABLES, shewing the Number of Loads of Manure required for an Acre of Land, by knowing the Distance of the Heaps of Manure, and the Number of Heaps made of a. Load. To which js added, 4. A TABLE for MEASURING THATCHER'S WORK, of sufficient Extent to take in most of the Cases that will occur in the Practice of Measuring Hay and Corn Stacks. By JOHN CULLEN, Wicklewood, Norfolk. These Tables are principally designed for the purpose of as r certaining the Work done by Labourers jn PLOUGHING, HOEING, SOWING, MOWING, SETTING, &c. &c. without the Use of a Chain, or the Expence of a Surveyor. In Wheat Setting, Turnip Hoeing, and in Harvest, Farmers will find these Tables particularly useful. *+* The rapid sale which the former editions of this Book experienced, and the Character for Accuracy and Utility given of it by the Reviewers, are its best recommendations. t*+ TQ this useful Manual is prefixed a List of the Taxes which more materially affect Land-Owners and Farmers, Receipts, and Stamps, SfC. Printed for J. SCATCHERD, Ave Maria Lane, London 5 nd sold by all other Booksellers in Town and Country. Booh, printed for H. D. SYMONDS, Paternoster-Row, 1 . Political Economy, Culture of Waste Lands, Planting, and Rural Affairs. Inscribed to the Landholders of the Country. This Day is Published, in one large Volume, 8vo. Price 9s. Boards, the Fourth. Edition, with an additional Preface, containing Reflections on the existing State of our Agriculture ; its Merits and Defects the real Causes and only eliectuuJ Remedy -of Scarcity, THE NEW FARMER'S CALENDAR; or, MONTHLY RE- MEMBRANCER for all KINDS of COUNTRY BUSINESS: compre- hending all the Material Improvements in the New Husbandry, with the Management of Live Stock. Inscribed to the Farmers of Great Britain. By a FARMER and BREEDER. Calendar: pointing out the Business of every Month in the Year, as it regards preparing the Land, Sowing, and Harvesting the various Crops, and the Ma- nagement of Cattle. Hiring and Stocking Farms. The Implements of Hus- bandry. CONTENTS. Soils and Manures. Draining. Fencing. The Farm Yard, its form and management. Vermin. Irrigation and Warping. Woods and Plantations. Tillage and Fallowing. The Drill Husbandry. Dibbling. Seed. Blight?. Course of Crops. Cattle Crops. Winter Preservation of Roots, &c. Meadow and Pasture. Live Stock, Breeding and Improvement. Horses, Neat Cattle, Sheep. Swine, Rab- bits, Poultry, &c. 2. By the same Author, as Companion to the Farmer's Calendar, inscribed to the Landlords of Great Britain, A New and Original Work, One Volume Svo, 10$. 6d. bds. intituled, THE MODERN LAND-STEWARD; in which the Duties and Functions of Stewardship are considered and explained, with their several Relations to the Interests of the Landlord, Tenant, s.nd the Public. 3. In Two large Volumes, Svo. 2d Edition, Price 16s. Boards, A PHILOSOPHICAL and PRACTICAL TREATISE on HORSES, and on the MORAL DUTIES OF MAN TOWARDS THE BRUTE CREATION; with Replies to the various Objec- tions contained in a late Publication, and seasonable Hints to cer- tain impolitic Advocates of the Veterinary College. By JOHN LAWRENCE. Containing: Critical Account of former Wri-ters, English and Foreign. Various Races and Descriptions of Horses. The Duties of Humanity to Beasts. Smith- field Cattle-driving. Breaking and present System of Horsemanship. Journey- riding and Furniture. Capital Trotters, &c. Rules tor the Ladies. Military Manege. Draught Horses, Town and Country. Draught Oxen. Monopoly and Forestalling. Natural Method of Shoeing full Directions. The Philoso- phy of Sports, or discriminating Lines in regard of Humanity. Athletic Exer- cises. Baiting Animals. Hunting. Racing. Cocking. Faro Boxing. Running Horses, and the Turf. The whole GRconomy of the modern Stable, Physic, Exercise, and Training. Purchase and Sale, with the accustomed Rules of Warranty, Repositories, Dealers, &c. Veterinary Medicines in general. The College. All the known Diseases of Horses, with the most approved Re- medies, and Practice at large. On the Diseases of Horned Catthi, the Treat- ment of Cows, and the Extraction of Calves in cross positions. BERKELEYLIBRARIES ^ A y\ 5 N33