L A Z9/ New Series No. 2 IC-NRLF KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL EMPORIA Report of , \ ourvey of the Public Schools of Leavenworth, Kansas BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS AND STANDARDS Entered as second-nab!" mail matter in the pot. office at Emporia, Kan. GIFT Of Vol. IV New Series No. 2 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL EMPORIA Report of a Survey of the Public Schools of Leavenworth, Kansas BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS AND STANDARDS KANSAS STATE PRINTING PLANT. W. R. SMITH, State Printer TOPEKA. 1915. Entered as second-class mail matter in the post office at Emporia, Kan. REPORT OF A SURVEY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF LEAVENWORTH, KAN. A survey conducted under the auspices of the Kansas State Normal School. * THE SURVEY STAFF. WALTER S. MONROE, Ph. D., Professor of School Administration, Kansas State Normal School, DIRECTOR OF THE SURVEY. FLORA J. COOKE, Principal of the Francis W. Parker School, Chicago, 111. ELLA V. POBBS, Assistant Professor of Manual Arts, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. MINNIE E. PORTER, Instructor in English, Kansas State Normal School. WALTER R. SMITH, Ph. D., Professor of Sociology and Economics, Kansas State Normal School. ADVISORY COMMITTEE. W. C. BAGLEY, Ph. D., Director of School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. J. F. BOBBITT, Ph. D., Professor of Educational Administration, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. W. W. CHARTERS, Ph. D., Dean of School of Iloneadoa, Uoive'rsiiv of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. THE BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS AND STANDARDS. IT IS RECOGNIZED that the product of instruction in school is complex ; that it at least consists of habits, knowl- edge, and ideals. At present we have no instruments for measuring ideals or knowledge, but we do have several instru- ments which can be used to measure certain specific habits; e. g., the Courtis tests in arithmetic, the handwriting scales of Ayres and Thorndike, the spelling tests of Buckingham and Ayres, the drawing scale of Thorndike. To measure the habit portion of the product of instruction does not mean that knowledge and ideals are considered less important. The latter are not measured simply because, as stated above, educational experts have not discovered a means of doing the work. In order that the schools of Kansas might have a central place where tests like those mentioned above could be secured and results compiled, the State Board of Administration estab- lished at the Kansas State Normal School the Bureau of Edu- cational Measurements and Standards. The character and work of the bureau may be stated as follows : 1. It is to be a state bureau. 2. The work of the bureau must be cooperative. The Kansas State Normal School will provide expert direction and clerical assistance. The superintendents and teachers of the state can furnish information, etc. 3. The function is a. To make accessible to the superintendents and teachers of Kansas tests and scales. 6. To establish Kansas standards. c. To devise new tests. d. To investigate problems of school administration and provide comparative data for the use of superintendents and boards of education. 4. Although this bureau has been established recently, this type of work was begun by the Kansas State Normal School over a year ago. This year (1914-'15) the Courtis tests have been made accessible to the superintendents. An algebra test and a silent reading test have been devised. The cost of instruction in high schools and retardation in elementary schools are being investigated. 5. The work of the bureau will be published. f>. Similar bureaus or departments have been established in nine cities of the United States, and in less than that number of colleges and 1 universities. (3) 367 4 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. School surveys represent one form in which measurement is being applied to school systems. The survey of the Leavenworth Public Schools was made by members of the faculty of the Kansas State Normal School, to- gether with other educational experts for whose contribution to the success of the survey this institution desires to express its appreciation. This report is published because it contains, it is believed, much material sufficiently general to make it of value to super- intendents and boards of education throughout the state. THOMAS W. BUTCHER, President Kansas State Normal School. EMPORIA, KAN., November, 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE PREFATORY STATEMENT 11 Date of Survey 11 Cooperation 11 Recent improvements ; 12 The purpose of a survey 13 Chapter I. A GENERAL VIEW OF LEAVENWORTH 14 Economic foundations 14 Unique features 15 Industries of Leavenworth 16 Racial complexity *. 17 Social organizations 18 Schools 18 Community spirit 19 Occupational analysis 20 Chapter II. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LEAVENWORTH PUBLIC SCHOOLS 23 The location of the schools 23 The organization of the school system 24 The supervision of instruction 24 The superintendent should have a secretary 25 Assistant superintendent recommended 26 Chapter III. THE SCHOOL BOARD 27 Powers of the board 27 Composition of the board 28 Work of the board 29 Relations of the board to the superintendent 30 The purchase of supplies 31 Recommendations 32 Chapter IV. ATTENDANCE, PROMOTION, AND RECORDS 33 The school census 33 The function of the school census 34 Attendance 34 Reports of truant officer 35 Reports of attendance 36 The progress of pupils 37 Enrollment in the High School 39 Records and reports 39 Tabulations recommended 40 Chapter V. BUILDINGS AND MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 42 The school buildings 42 The building needs 42 Analysis of buildings and material equipment 43 Playgrounds 46 Gymnasiums 46 Auditoriums 46 Sanitation 47 (5) 6 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Chapter V. BUILDINGS AND MATERIAL EQUIPMENT Concluded: MQ Seating 47 Blackboards 47 Fireproof construction 47 Chapter VI. EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURES 48 The school system as a business enterprise 48 How Leavenworth supports her schools 48 Analysis of salary expenditures 50 Chapter VII. THE TEACHING STAFF 52 The training of teachers in the elementary school 52 Length of service 52 Improvement of teachers in service 53 Time given to school work by teachers 54 Chapter VIII. THE COURSE OF STUDY AND ITS ADMINISTRATION 56 The basis for making a course of study 56 Vocational activities, or those activities involved in providing the necessities of life 56 Avocational activities, or occupations of one's leisure time 57 Civic and moral activities, or those activities which have to do with one's contact with his fellow men 7 Activities relating to personal health 57 Activities of social intercourse 57 Activities relating to home-building and parenthood 58 Religious activities 58 Educational agencies 58 Time allotment 58 The vocational needs of Leavenworth 60 Preparation for vocational activities 61 School gardens 62 Preparation for avocational activities 63 Preparation for civil and moral activities 63 Preparation for activities of personal health . 64 Preparation for activities of social intercourse 64 Preparation for activities of home-building and parenthood 64 Bank savings 64 The use of school assembly halls 65 The method of the survey of the school subjects 66 Chapter IX. THE PRIMARY GRADES 68 The method of survey 68 Discipline 68 Reading 69 Writing 71 Spelling 73 Number work 75 Comments upon the telling of stories 76 Comments upon the dramatization of stories 76 Physical training 77 Construction work or elementary manual training 78 Comments upon the applied arts drawing course 79 SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 7 PAGE Chapter X. ARITHMETIC 81 The course of study 81 Points of excellence in the teaching of arithmetic 81 Oral arithmetic 82 Classroom technique 83 Motive 83 Arithmetical abilities 84 Recommendations 87 Chapter XI. DRAWING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 88 The course of study 88 Special teachers for drawing 88 The teaching of drawing 89 Schoolroom decoration * 90 Books for reference 90 Applications / 90 Chapter XII. GEOGRAPHY 92 The course of study 92 Illustrative material 92 The modes of teaching geography 93 Motive 94 The pupils' knowledge of geography 94 Recommendations 94 Chapter XIII. HANDWRITING 96 The time given to handwriting 96 The quality of the handwriting 96 Recommendations 100 Chapter XIV. HISTORY AND Civics 101 The course of study 101 Classroom work 101 Lack of social group work 102 Recommendations 103 Civics 103 Chapter XV. HOUSEHOLD ARTS 105 The course of study 105 Recommendations 106 Chapter XVI. HYGIENE AND MEDICAL INSPECTION 107 The teaching of hygiene 107 Classroom work 107 Medical inspection 108 Advantages to the state 109 Advantages to the school 109 Advantages to the child 110 Diseases among school children 110 The school nurse Ill Possibilities in Leavenworth Ill Plan recommended 113 Chapter XVII. LANGUAGE 114 Standards 114 The teaching of language 115 The course of study. . .116 8 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Chapter XVII. LANGUAGE Concluded: PAQB Examples of the teaching of language 117 Composition in grades four, five, and six 119 The oral use of language 122 Letter-writing 123 Recommendations for grades four, five, and six 123 Grammar and composition in grades seven and eight 124 Grammar test 124 The results of the test 125 The writing of one complete sentence . , 127 Composition 128 Chapter XVIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES FIVE TO EIGHT 130 Technical handwork 130 Illustrative handwork 130 Handwork in the Leavenworth Public Schools 131 Grades five and six , 132 Recommendations for grades five and six . . . . 133 Grades seven and eight 134 Recommendations for grades seven and eight 134 Chapter XIX^ PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES 137 Theories concerning play 137 Gymnastics 138 Corrective physical training 138 The course of study 138 Facilities in Leavenworth 140 Physical development 140 The value of physical drill 140 Changes needed 141 Correlation with other studies 142 Forming the habit of play 143 Play as a preventive of disorder 143 Chapter XX. READING AND LITERATURE 145 The course of study 145 The teaching of reading 146 The outside reading of pupils 147 Chapter XXI. SPELLING 151 The teaching of spelling 151 The spelling ability 151 Chapter XXII. THE HIGH SCHOOL 153 The new function of the high school 153 The reorganization of secondary education 153 Recommendations 154 Chapter XXIII. COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 156 Recommendations . 156 Chapter XXIV. ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 158 Literature 158 Composition 159 Alternation of composition and literature 160 Recommendations.. . 162 SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 9 PAOB Chapter XXV. HOUSEHOLD ARTS 163 Sewing : 163 Cooking 163 Chapter XXVI. MANUAL TRAINING 166 The function of manual training 166 Handwork in the Leaven worth High School 167 Mechanical drawing 167 Recommendations 168 Chapter XXVII. MATHEMATICS 169 The course of study in algebra 169 The teaching of geometry 170 Recommendations concerning the course of study 170 Algebraical abilities r. 171 Chapter XXVIII. NORMAL TRAINING COURSE 174 The function of the course 174 Recommendations 174 Chapter XXIX. PHYSICAL TRAINING FOR BOYS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL . . 176 Need of an athletic field 176 Plan suggested 177 Chapter XXX. SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 179 Botany 179 Chemistry 179 Physics 180 Chapter XXXI. SOCIAL STUDIES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 182 History 182 Current events 182 The teaching of history -. 183 Civics 184 Economics 186 Recommendations 186 Chapter XXXII. THE RELA-TION OF THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY, 188 The function of public schools 188 School extension work 189 Night schools 189 The vacation school 190 Public use of the school plant 191 Relations of school and patrons 192 The school, the home, and the church 193 The school and business 193 Need of an employment bureau 195 Summary of recommendations 195 Some results of the survey 197 Progress towards improving the school plant of Leavenworth .... 197 The remodeling of our present school buildings 197 Parent-teacher associations 198 Higher standards for teachers 198 The use of tests and measurements 200 Revision of the course of study 200 The use of tests in the Leavenworth public schools 201 Report of a Survey of the Leavenworth Public Schools, Leavenworth, Kansas. PREFATORY STATEMENT. Walter S. Monroe, Director of Survey. THIS Survey was initiated by the superintendent and teachers of Leavenworth. An executive committee was selected and a fund suffi- cient for defraying the expenses of those engaged in the work was raised by contributions from the teachers and Board of Education. The Executive Committee invited the" Kansas State Normal School to assume the responsibility of the Survey. In consultation with the Executive Committee, the Survey Staff were selected by the Director of the Survey and the assignments of sections of the report were made to the members of the Survey Staff. In this final report these sections appear under the name of the member to whom they were assigned. DATE OF THE SURVEY. The work of the Survey began with a visit by Dr. Charters, Dr. Smith, Miss Porter and myself to Leavenworth, January 21-23, 1914. The work done on this visit was of a preliminary nature. Within the period from February 10 to 15 I visited Dr. Charters, Dr. Bagley and Dr. Bobbitt, who went over with me the plans which had been made for the Survey. Feb- ruary 22 and 23 I again visited Leavenworth in company with Dr. Bobbitt. Dr. Smith, Miss Porter and I were in Leavenworth from March 7 to 21, Miss Cooke from March 15 to 21, Miss Dobbs from March 17 to 21. And finally Dr. Bagley, Dr. Smith, Miss Porter and I spent April 9 to 13 in Leavenworth. In addition, during the week of May 10 to 16, I again visited Dr. Charters and Dr. Bobbitt, who went over a preliminary draft of the report with me, and I also visited Miss Dobbs and Miss Cooke and discussed with them their sections of the report. COOPERATION. While the Survey Staff were all together at Leavenworth in March, frequent conferences were held and preliminary drafts of several of the sections were read and discussed. We found a surprising agreement on the points of excellence and criticism and on the recommendations for im- provement. In addition, the three members of the Staff who reside in Emporia have been in constant communication, and together have gone over the entire report. Thus, although the sections of this report appear as the work of individuals, they represent in a very great degree the combined judgment of the entire Staff. The report represents a cooperative enterprise. Practically all of the data relating to buildings and material equipment and many other items were collected by the superintendent with the assistance of the teachers. The tests were given by the principals and teachers, and most of the (11) 12 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. , clerical work, except the typewriting, was done by substitute teachers. The manuscript of the report has been read and criticised by the super- intendent and teachers. RECENT IMPROVEMENTS. A school system may be judged not only by its present status but also by its present tendency. What it is is scarcely more important than the spirit which shows what it is to become. That the progressive spirit is abroad in the Leavenworth Public Schools is shown by the fact that within the last few years several important improvements have been made. A few of the more significant are : 1. Departmental instruction has been introduced in the upper grades. 2. Supervisors have been added to the teaching staff, particularly in physical training, music, and arts and crafts. 3. Manual training and domestic science have been added to the program of studies in both the elementary school and the High School. 4. A splendid system of records has been introduced. 5. A beginning has been made in acquiring playground apparatus and more attention is being given to playground supervision. 6. Several parent-teacher associations have made a healthy beginning. 7. Several valuable readjustments have been made in the curriculum, e. g., less formal grammar is taught. The last two of these improvements belong to the present year. A number of others are planned for the coming school year. A more important index of the progressive spirit than the specific facts mentioned is that a comprehensive survey of the public schools has been inaugurated by the teachers, and in a large part financed by them. Thus the schools have willingly been subjected to such scientific measurements as were available, and data have been secured which can be used as the basis of future plans for improvement. All these facts, together with many others, show that the Leavenworth Public Schools are rapidly in- creasing in efficiency and a broad foundation is being made for continuous improvement. The existence of a weakness or fault in a school system is not neces- sarily a criticism of the superintendent, principals or teachers. It may be due to tradition, to unavoidable conditions, or to the community, and perhaps the weakness or fault has already been recognized and the con- dition is being improved as rapidly as possible. This is certainly true in several instances in the Leavenworth Public Schools. Some of the recommendations and suggestions appearing in the fol- lowing chapters must be considered as ideals which will be approached slowly. On the other hand, others are capable of relatively immediate realization. Probably no greater disaster could grow out of this Survey than that it should lead to an immediate attempt to inaugurate and realize all the recommendations made. Careful thought must precede all changes, arid improvements will come slowly. It is necessary always to keep in mind that a high degree of efficiency in public-school work involves several factors. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 13 THE PURPOSE OF A SURVEY. The purpose of a survey of a school system is to stimulate and assist in its future development by revealing existing conditions, recommending plans for enlarging the service to the community, and for increasing the efficiency of the present activities of the school system. The bases for making recommendations are two: First, general principles of education; second, the defects in the present educational practice within the system. In order that the recommendations may be understood it is necessary to state the principles and the present conditions which form the basis of the recommendations. This frequently requires that considerable prominence be piven to the present defects of the school system urul'-r consideration. On behalf of my associates ant! myself, I wish to express our apprecia - tion of the courteous and helpful assistance which was received at the hands of Superintendent Moore, the principals, the teachers, and th~ Board of Education. The members of the Survey Staff desire to ex- press their appreciation of the generous assistance which has been given by those acting in the capacity of advisory experts. 14 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER I. A GENERAL VIEW OF LEAVENWORTH. Walter R. Smith. EVERY institution has its social background. If an organization is to be effective it must not only be adapted to the end in view, but it must be adapted to the people who are to run it. The school is an institution which has been created by society for the definite purpose of training children to take part in the activities of adult life. Any scientific study of a school system, therefore, must be based upon an analysis of the social conditions into which the student is likely to be graduated. Before mak- ing a detailed study of the Leavenworth schools, then, a general view of the community is important. Leavenworth, Kansas, is now a city of about twenty thousand popula- tion. It is picturesquely located on bluffs overlooking the Missouri river, twenty-eight miles above Kansas City. Its topography, consisting of rolling hills extending back from the river, is unusually favorable for the development of beautiful home sites and lends itself readily to land- scape gardening. These features, as in most western towns, however, have not been fully utilized. Its population and industries are varied. A number of American elements have united with a variety of foreign immigrants to make a composite population unusual in a mid-western city. Manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and railroad and mercantile interests all contribute to a complex economic and industrial life. In addition, large national and state institutions are located on its borders and greatly influence its life. Altogether, it is an interesting city for observation and study along economic, social and institutional lines. It not only presents the ordinary phases of life in a small city, but furnishes many unique features; and its complex nature creates larger social and educational problems than are found in most cities of its size. The first house was erected on the site of Leavenworth in 1854. The earliest village organization took place one year later. Its growth into a city was very rapid up to 1870, but since then its population has re- mained comparatively stationary. The following table shows the popula- tion at different dates: 1860 7,429 1870 17,873 1880 16,546 1890 19,768 1900 20,735 1910 19,363 ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS. Three things led to this early growth: First, it was a river town, and access to the eastern world was by boat. This made the obtaining of supplies easier than for most neighboring towns and favored more rapid growth. Second, in 1832 a government post was established on its SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 15 borders, and later it became a point of departure for many of the wagon trains headed for the Far West. This made it an outfitting post, calling for stores and other commercial enterprises. An evidence of this demand may be seen in the Planter's Hotel, now a large apartment hotel, which in its day was the most palatial on the river above St. Louis. Third, it was located in a rich agricultural region, which formed a sub- stantial basis for permanent growth. Two of these three features remain to the present. The paralleling of the river with railroads undermined the river traffic just after the Civil War, but the development of agriculture counterbalanced this loss. Moreover, the federal government not only retained the Leavenworth military post but added a federal prison, a military prison, a training school in military tactics, and a soldiers' home for aged and disabled soldiers. The state also established at Lansing, just south of the city limits, its State Penitentiary. But the above-mentioned features have not been the only, or even the chief, economic features of the Leavenworth of later years. Manu- facturing has long been and remains her largest source of wealth. Factories were established at an early date, and flourished. For several years it seemed Leavenworth was to be the leading city of the region, but several conditions led to the supremacy of Kansas City. A number of Kansas City enterprises were started in Leavenworth, but later business advantages led to their removal to the more rapidly growing railroad center. UNIQUE FEATURES. The most unique feature of Leavenworth is her state and national institutions. These institutions have influenced the city in many ways. In the first place, they have been an unfailing source of wealth, pro- viding a demand for a variety of agricultural, manufactured and mer- cantile products. In the second place, they have been a legally demoralizing force. This is inevitable where large bodies of men congregate and live under a divided governmental authority. The soldier element, whether from the army post or from the soldiers' home, look primarily to the federal government for control and have a tendency to disregard local govern- ment. They form an unruly civic element, and in Leavenworth, as in most places, they have succeeded in getting large immunity from local officials. Such a large number of idle or partly idle men with a little ready cash to spend are certain to be riotous at times, and create a demand for amusements of the lower sort. Pension day for three thou- sand old soldiers is apt to be a jubilation. The writer was informed that, as was to be expected, the old soldiers were "seldom arrested for offenses that would land the ordinary citizen in the lockup." The same was true of the younger soldiers to a lesser degree. The fact that such a large number of persons are partly exempt from the law has a reactionary effect upon others. Unenforced law under- mines respect for law, and discrimination in favor of the soldier element doubtless has some effect upon other citizens. 16 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. The third effect of these state and national institutions is to weaken, to a degree, local civic responsibility. Inquiry as to the reason for a lack of city parks brought forth the invariable reply that the govern- ment reservation to the north and the soldiers' home to the south were beautiful parks. Show places for visitors were not needed. Concerts at both the above-mentioned places were numerous and free. They were easily accessible. So the only reason for city parks was for playgrounds for the children. It was freely admitted that so many things had been provided by the state and national government that one of the chief virtues asked of a legislator or congressman was the ability to secure these favors. Such an attitude is in line with universal human nature and makes local civic virtue a plant of slow growth, requiring much laborious nurture and scientific cultivation. Thus, there is found a difficult political, educational and religious situation. There is some evidence, also, that the commercial value of these in- stitutions affects the spirit of business enterprise. The writer was told that the ordinary demands of these institutions are so large that the usual reaching out for new business, advertising, and the hustling spirit are not so necessary as in other places. The same amount of business can be done with less energy than elsewhere, and consequently competi- tion is less keen and inspiring to ambitious effort. INDUSTRIES OF LEAVENWORTH. Another general factor in Leavenworth calls for analysis. As before stated, it is a manufacturing town. Three large furniture factories, a stove factory, a saddlery and harness factory, agricultural machinery factories, amusement machinery factory, box factories, a packing house, several large flour mills, bridge and structural iron works, many smaller factories and numerous jobbing houses exist. Altogether there are seventy-nine manufacturing plants, employing over 1600 workmen, with a capital stock of $3,111,000 and producing an annual output of nearly $5,000,000. They have large pay rolls of both skilled and unskilled men and women. There are likewise coal mines. Formerly three large ones were operated (two at present), besides the one at the Kansas State Penitentiary. They vary greatly in the amount of work offered at dif- ferent times and seasons. Their pay rolls are large but uncertain, and they assemble many people who naturally create hard school problems. Members of the Survey Staff saw several boys, who ought to continue in school, sometimes accompanied by their parents, asking for age permits that they might drop out of school and go to work. These two industries, mining and manufacturing, necessarily lead to the importation and development of a large day-laboring class. Extreme economic planes are inevitable. The employing class and the working class in these occupations are far apart in standards of living. They clash in many of their ideals. Where these elements form as large a portion of the population as they do inj Leavenworth, mixed civic aims, varied political motives, and uncertain institutional conditions exist. Social, political and cultural organization is difficult. And where organi- zation for these purposes is difficult, there are likely to be found a social SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 17 aristocracy, the political boss, and a certain amount of cultural cant. Evidence of the existence of some of these things may be found in many of her institutions. The officers at the fort, the old families, and ambitious wealth have formed an exclusive social atmosphere. Many of the negroes, some of the laboring elements, and party fealty have made control by bosses easy. Cultural agencies have been largely for the few. During the whole generation from 1870 to 1904 the public High School charged all students a tuition fee. RACIAL COMPLEXITY. As the previous analysis of the industries of Leavenworth would in- dicate, the population is varied. The early settlers were of the usual eastern Kansas type. Many crossed over the border from Missouri. The regular stream of westward migration from the Northeast, East, South, and Middle West left its due portion. It is not a New England settle- ment, nor is it southern, nor foreign. No one element of the population dominates. Agriculture, mercantile business and the usual city industries are mainly controlled by the American and the better foreign stock. Moreover, the city is now getting old enough to be strongly moved by the "native son" element. Above this native substratum is a great variety of foreigners and their descendants. Large German, English, Jewish and Polish elements are present. Many Italians and eastern Europeans also are found. It is to be noted, however, that Leavenworth was very fortunate in getting a high class of immigrants. The negro population is large for a Kansas town, comprising 12.79 per cent of the total. This large element has led to the segregation of the negroes into separate schools until the High School is reached. The last census report gives the following figures for the distribution of the population according to race: Native white, native parentage 8,973 Native white, foreign or mixed parentage 5,444 Foreign-born white 2,464 Negro 2,477 Indian, Chinese and Japanese 5 FOREIGN-BORN WHITE OF LEADING NATIONS. Austria 154 Canada 74 England 174 Germany 1,221 Ireland 342 % Russia 165 While this diversity of race stock does not create the serious problems found in the foreign districts of our large cities, it does create problems not generally found in neighboring cities. The foreign immigration was mainly of an earlier day and of a superior class, so that practically all the children now speak English. But divergent ideals and different standards of education complicate the educational situation and explain the rather large percentage of illiteracy. The percentage for the whole state of Kansas in 1910 was 2.2, and for the urban population it was 2.4. 2 18 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Over against this is Leavenworth's 3.3 per cent. The illiterate males of voting age comprise 2 per cent of the total for the state, while in Leavenworth they comprise 3 per cent of the total. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS. Institutionally Leavenworth shows the effect of the complexity of her problems and the influence creating them. Social organization is diffi- cult. Twenty churches serve the twenty thousand people, except for half a dozen or more negro churches. There are four Catholic churches German, Irish, Polish and negro two Jewish, two Methodist, and one each of the following denominations: Presbyterian, Congregational, Christian, Episcopal, United Brethren, Lutheran, Evangelical, Baptist, Independent, and Christian Science. In addition to the churches, there is a strong Y. M. C. A. It has an adequate building of its own, with a secretary, a physical director, and an annual budget of $6000. Its active membership is 310, and its work varied. Within the last year a Y. W. C. A. has been organized. The promise is large, since it has enrolled 650 members, has just employed a full-time secretary, has started various enterprises, and is planning a well-equipped building for the near future. The public library is elegantly housed in a Carnegie building and well cared for. It has an annual budget of about $6000, a collection of 21,658 books, and an annual circulation of over 66,000. It is doing a variety of community service and working well with other institutions. Special collections of books are lent to the elementary schools and issued from the school buildings. Some of the churches have libraries, and likewise the separate schools. The fraternal organizations of the city are of the usual type. The Elks have an elegant club house, and there is a well-equipped Turn- verein. The labor organizations are also strong. But there is in gen- eral an apparent lack of recreation facilities of an organized type. The- aters exist, and "movies" galore, but they have been without adequate supervision. Plans to improve the supervision are started and coopera- tion with the schools is being fostered. Sociability is mainly along class lines. This lack of organized amusements only lends strength to the unorganized and illegitimate type, and makes law enforcement more dif- ficult. Two small supervised playgrounds exist. They are treated as matters of charity, with but small interest or attendance. In the heart of Leavenworth is a population of 10,000 people with not a single play space larger than a town lot. Social, cultural and civic clubs exist, but not in profusion. . Two women's clubs are affiliated with the Federation of Women's Clubs, and a Woman's Civic League is just awakening to its larger possibilities. Commercial and business clubs also exist. But the varied interests, ideals and occupations of the people have prevented elaborate social and philanthropic organization and rendered ineffective many of the existing efforts at cooperation in social and civic affairs. SCHOOLS. The school interests and facilities are varied. The school census of 1013 indicates an eligible school population of 6649. This has remained practically stationary for a quarter of a century. A mixed population SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 19 and native conservatism have led to a large demand for private and parochial schools. Consequently the public schools are not so larjre as the size of the city would lead one to expect. For several years the average attendance at the parochial schools has been above one thousand and that at the public schools three thousand. Leavenworth has not been as liberal in supporting her public schools as the other Kansas cities of the first class. For years the tax levy for the support of schools has been beneath that of her sister cities. The school levy for cities of the first class for a period of ten years has been studied, and while not all of the information is obtainable, enough is at hand to show that Leavenworth ranked lowest until the last two years, and is still below the average. A table showing comparative tax levies may be found on page 4$. Not only has Leavenworth failed to tax herself liberally for the main- tenance of her schools, but half a dozen years ago she voted down a bond levy for needed additions to the high school building. Later the school board raised the taxes and built the additions, but with many fore- bodings, and the present very moderate levy causes much public dis- satisfaction. A less tangible proof of a lack of active interest on the part of citizens of Leavenworth in her public schools appears in the small num- ber of visits to the schools by the public and a lack of support for school enterprises. This was repeatedly brought out in conversations -with the public, with the teachers, with high-school students, and was reflected in the recently organized parent-teacher associations. Personal politics in the shape of a quarrel between a former superintendent and a high- school principal had been allowed to divide the city into factions. For years party politics were allowed to enter into the election of the school board by automatically dividing the members to be chosen between the dominant parties. The provincial and in-breeding spirit has allowed unnecessary preference to local applicants for teaching positions, and favoritism instead of merit has had too much influence in the selection of teachers until very recently. Happily, most of these evils are eliminated or are in the process of elimination. Leavenworth is becoming willing to pay for good schools by liberal taxation. School interest and parent-teacher cooperation are being fostered. Personal and party politics have largely disappeared in school matters. Teachers are being selected on their merits, paid a fair salary, and are being given friendly social recognition. If Leavenworth schools are going to improve and every single chapter of this report will indicate that they are improving public interest, public support and public cooperation are necessary; and these agencies must be held as responsible for that improvement as the school authorities themselves. COMMUNITY SPIRIT. One other phase of the city needs to be analyzed, and that is its general community spirit. That it is a cosmopolitan community follows from its varied industries and heterogeneous population. But this cos- mopolitanism is of a mixed type. Class lines are evident in Leavenworth. 20 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. This social stratification makes church work, clean government, com- mercial cooperation and school democracy more difficult than in a more homogeneous community. Some radical elements and some progressive elements are found; but in the main, conservatism dominates. It is quite un-Kansan in this particular. New movements, new parties, new ideals and all sorts of fads make headway slowly. Ritualism in religion, formalism in education, party regularity in politics, negativism in amuse- ments and respectability in society are necessarily in danger of over- emphasis. There is evidence that in the past they have been too in- fluential; but along each of these lines improvements may be noted. As previously pointed out, a high standard of civic virtue is not to be easily obtained in such a mixed and uncertain environment. The number of temporary and irresponsible residents is so large that the ordinary amount of civic conscience in the responsible native elements can scarcely be expected to secure adequate sanitation and cleanliness in many quarters of the city. The spring clean-up day is needed oftener. Leavenworth is well paved and the streets seem to be well cared for; but in the outlying districts and the draws and the unused lots neglect is apparent. The river bluffs are picturesque and might well be utilized for parks and playgrounds, to the benefit of large numbers of people. A general campaign on the part of her newspapers and organized clubs to develop a spirit of cooperation and local pride based upon real accom- plishments would aid much in the civic reawakening which is at present visible in many parts of the city's life. OCCUPATIONAL ANALYSIS. A very excellent occupational analysis of Leavenworth has been made by Superintendent M. E. Moore of the Leavenworth Public Schools. It is a type of work that ought to be done in many cities. It, together with a study of the causes of elimination in all grades, should form the basis for a reexamination of the curriculum and its administration in both the elementary and high schools. This should be done with the idea of better adapting them to the pupils while in school and better fitting these pupils to take an effective part in the industrial and social life of Leavenworth or some similar community after leaving school. It is here appended, not only for its value in Leavenworth, but as a worthy bit of community study that might be valuable elsewhere in the educational field. TABLE I. Occupations Taken from the Directory of 1912. Total. 9 11 11 254 15 3 175 44 6 Occupation. Chauffeurs Number of whites. 9 Colored. Undertakers 10 1 Reporters 11 Accountants 252 2 Pharmacists 14 1 Civil engineers 3 Agents and salesmen 174 1 Apprentices 44 Bookbinders . 6 SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 21 Occupation. Number of whites. Colored. Total. Contractors (a) 5 .... 5 Contractors (6) 54 .... 54 Doctors, lawyers, dentists 79 4 83 Managers (a) 247 2 249 Managers ( 6 ) 28 .... 28 Managers < Ministers 29 4 33 Students 23 1 24 Musicians . 19 3 22 Totals 8,721 1,102 9,823 An analysis of this table shows that 286, or 2.9 per cent of the total number, may be classified as professional workers requiring elaborate educational preparation; 87, or .9 per cent, are business managers need- ing a thorough commercial education; 1963, or 20 per cent, are commer- cial workers who need practical commercial training; 2204, or 22.4 per cent, are skilled industrial workers who need first-class industrial train- ing; 3419, or 35 per cent, are unskilled workmen who need at least a prac- tical elementary education; and 1866, or 19 per cent, miscellaneous. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 23 CHAPTER II. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE LEAVENWORTH PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Walter S. Monroe. THE LOCATION OF THE SCHOOLS. THE Morris, Oak Street, and Third Avenue schools are to-day the large elementary schools of the city. In addition to these, which are for white children only, there are two schools for colored children, the Sumner School in South Leavenworth and the Lincoln School in North Leaven- worth. The Morris School is located in a thickly settled district in North Leavenworth. There is a large foreign element; Poles, Germans, and Italians being most numerous. The United States reservation, contain- ing Fort Leavenworth, borders the city on the north. The army has some influence upon the school. A considerable element (45 per cent) of the people are well-to-do; a few are wealthy and a number are poor. This is an old section of the city, and the population is now drifting slowly to the southwest portion. Mining is the most prominent industry. The Oak Street School is centrally located, near the business section of the city. The people are well-to-do, mostly merchants, with a few bank- ers. A few children (30 to 40) come to this school from the western part of the city, where truck gardening is the chief occupation. The Third Avenue School is in South Leavenworth in the wealthiest section of the city. The district is thickly settled and the school is the largest elementary school in the city. In this school a number of chil- dren come to the seventh and eighth grades who live in outlying sections of the city. The population of Leavenworth, while not growing in numbers in recent years, has been spreading out. This has made necessary buildings to accommodate at least the younger pupils in the outlying districts. The Franklin School, built in 1903, is a four-room brick building in the southwestern part of the city. The first six grades are taught in this building, and from here the pupils enter the seventh grade in the Third Avenue School. The patrons of the Franklin School are a very in- dustrious laboring class of people. Most of them own their own homes and have sufficient space for gardening. The Jefferson School, a two-story brick building, was constructed in 1903. Employees at the federal prison, built several years prior to the erection of the Jefferson School, necessarily lived near their place of employment, and this fact led to a demand for a school in this neighbor- hood. In addition there is an element of prosperous truck gardeners. The Maplewood School building, originally a seminary for girls, was purchased by the Board of Education in 1890 and rebuilt in 1903. The building has a splendid location in the western part of the city. The first six grades are taught here and the pupils enter the seventh grade at 24 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. the Oak Street School. The patrons of the school are mostly laborers, such as machanics, gardeners, bricklayers, stonemasons, and molders. The Wilson School, a two-room building, was built in 1903 to accom- modate a settlement of miners around the Riverside coal mine. Nearly all the miners are foreigners. Some of the patrons work in Helmer's furniture factory. The Cleveland Park School was organized in 1911 to meet the demands of a population drifting into the southwest portion of the city. The building used for the school is a remodeled dwelling house. The school is located in a community of truck farmers and the employees of two large greenhouses. TABLE II. The Leavenworth Public Schools. Enrollment Number of teachers, January 23, 1914. including principals. High School 420 20 Third Avenue 446 11 Oak Street 376 13 Morris 380 12 Sumner 185 6 Lincoln 127 5 Franklin 124 4 Maplewood 262 6 Jefferson 143 4 Wilson 39 2 Cleveland . 28 1 Total 2,530 84 THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. A superintendent is at the head of the system. For the elementary schools there are a supervisor of arts and crafts, a supervisor of music, a supervisor of physical training, and two special teachers of domestic science and art. At the Third Avenue, Oak Street and Morris schools the principals do only a limited amount of teaching, and the principal of the High School devotes all of his time to supervision and adminis- tration. At the other buildings, except Wilson and Cleveland, substitutes relieve the principal at regular intervals. THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION. The principals are experienced and capable teachers who have been selected for their present positions with considerable discrimination. They are enthusiastic and vigilant in their work. Furthermore, they have the cooperation of their teachers. The teaching staffs of the sev- eral schools are well organized, and even details are not neglected. The effectiveness of the class-room supervision is evident in the work of the teachers and in the deportment of the school as a whole. In the matters of routine the supervision has been very effective. The supervision in Leavenworth is of the type which is to be found in most schools. Several principals mentioned testing the work of a teacher. These tests were oral and the estimate made of the ability of the class necessarily was a matter of opinion on the part of the principal. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 25 We are just beginning to develop a new type of supervision in which scientific methods of procedure will take the place of personal opinion or prejudice in the valuation of methods and results. This type of super- vision, because of its newness, we could hardly hope to find in Leaven- worth. The Courtis Standard Tests in arithmetic have been standardized and are very convenient to use. We have two scales of handwriting which may be used with profit. Other tests and scales are in course of prepara- tion. Within a few years supervisors will have at their command tests and scales which will make possible an entirely different type of super- vision, in which facts will take the place of opinion. In Leavenworth the application of measurement to the work of the schools should be under the direction of the superintendent, but he can not take the time neces- sary for the actual work without seriously impairing his usefulness to the community. Besides, it is more properly the type of work which should be done by the building principals as a part of their work of supervision. In the case of the Third Avenue, Oak Street and Morris schools, the building principals can do much in this way to increase their service to their respective schools and the community. THE SUPERINTENDENT SHOULD HAVE A SECRETARY. Perhaps the most effective work of the present superintendent has been in creating a stronger community interest in the public schools. The most tangible results of his labors in this direction are the parent- teacher associations which have been formed within the present year. By temperament he is peculiarly suited to render this type of service, and he would be able to serve the community better if he were provided with a secretary, who could attend to many petty details which he is now compelled to take time for. At present the superintendent must type all his letters, answer all telephone calls except such as the clerk of the board answers, notify teachers of all meetings, file transfer cards, etc. Quarterly reports have been issued this year in mimeographed form. These are valuable, and the practice should be continued with a more complete report at the end of the year. Under the present arrangement the superintendent must do all the work of preparing these reports, even the mimeographing. This practice is expensive. It makes the highest-salaried man-in the whole school system spend a large amount of his time doing what a $50 to $75 secretary could do just as efficiently, perhaps more so, since she would be trained for the work and would not have to do it piecemeal. The high-school principal, who does no teaching, is provided with a secretary, and most of the other principals receive clerical assistance from the substitute teachers. A secretary to the superintendent should be a person who has had sufficient experience as a teacher to understand the work of a school sys- tem and who has had office training besides. With a secretary of this type, the work which the superintendent is now doing would be more efficient and the scope of his services could be enlarged. 26 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT RECOMMENDED. The Survey Staff believes the school system would be much strength- ened by the addition of an assistant superintendent or educational expert who would rank between the superintendent and the high-school princi- pal. This man should be vitally interested in public-school work, par- ticularly the work of the elementary school, should have had experience as a city superintendent and as a teacher in the elementary school, and must have had recent training in the field of education, especially in school administration of the scientific type. He should be placed in charge of the normal-training work, but should not devote all of his time to teaching. Under the direction of the super- intendent, he should guide the teachers in doing constructive work in the direction of reorganizing the subject matter of the program of studies and in the testing of results. He should take the lead in placing the teaching and supervision in Leavenworth on a scientific basis; that is, upon a basis of facts and not opinions. As we point out in another place, the principals should be in immediate charge of this work, but to make such work most valuable to the community there must be a source of ex- pert advice and a clearing-house for the facts gathered. Data which are collected by means of tests have only small value until they are compared with other data which have been collected in the same way. Such a man as we recommend would be very valuable in comparing and interpreting the data collected ; and in order that there may be uniformity it should be collected under his supervision. To those who may claim that this is just what the superintendent is for, it should be pointed out that the superintendent's office has two functions which are quite distinct. The one is primarily administrative, the second supervisory. In a community the size of Leavenworth, with a teaching staff of nearly 100 teachers and an annual pay roll of over $65,- 000, the total work to be done is too much for one man if a high degree of efficiency is attained. The Survey Staff believes that the superintendent can be most valuable to the community by continuing the things which he is now doing, i. e., maintaining a general supervision over the system, interesting the community in the schools, furnishing inspiration for the teachers, and performing the other similar duties of his office. This is enough for one man to do well, and doing the type of detailed work such as we have recommended tends to incapaciate a man for the other duties. By adopting this recommendation Leavenworth will align her school sys- tem with the most progressive in the country. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 27 CHAPTER III. THE SCHOOL BOARD. Walter B. Smith. THE Boards of Education in first- and second-class cities in Kansas are organized under a general statute of the legislature of .1911. They con- sist of six members elected for a term of four years each, three being elected every two years. Before the enactment of this law the Board of Education of Leaven worth had consisted of twelve members elected for a two-year term. ,. The board is organized with* a president, vice-president, clerk, and treasurer. The president exercises the functions usually devolving upon that officer, and the city treasurer serves ex officio as treasurer for the board, receiving $50 a year therefor. Since the money is banked by sealed bids there are no perquisites. "The clerk is chosen by the board and is required to furnish bond for $1000. This clerk keeps a journal of the proceedings of board meetings, looks after the records, books and documents of the board, countersigns all warrants upon the treasurer, and must publish an annual report giving details of the board's fiscal operations, and perform such other duties as the board may require. This office has long been an important one in Leavenworth. It pays a salary of $1200 per year, and for the last ten years has been filled by the present incumbent. The result of a good salary and the continuous service of the clerk are well demonstrated in Leavenworth. An excellent system of records is kept. The minutiae of administration of such an office call for cumulative knowledge, and only long service can meet the incessant demands for petty detailed services. Supplies for a large school system are multi- farious and multitudinous. Specifications for contracts and bids for supplies, blank forms for records, and requisitions, orderly methods of filing information, records and plans, and stowing away materials, call for not only a special type of mind, but can be more effectively done with long practice and continuous experience. The board is to be commended for this general policy, and the completeness of the records and business formulas would indicate that their choice of a clerk is also worthy. POWERS OF THE BOARD. The powers of the Board of Education are full and complete and their duties are numerous. They are to "make all necessary rules for the government of the schools" and "to exercise the sole control over the public schools and school property of such city." They are to elect a superintendent, teachers, janitors, a truant officer, clerk, etc. All fiscal operations must be under their control. The compulsory-education law must be enforced, and definite provisions for safety in case of fire must be made. From a comparative standpoint, the most important power lodged with the board, however, is the levy of taxes. It has full control of the 28 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. levy for school purposes. The rate may be made whatever it pleases up to six mills on the dollar for running expenses, and above that the board may levy enough to carry the bonded debt of the school district. With these powers, several of the boards in both first- and second-class cities of Kansas have levied seven mills on the dollar and above. COMPOSITION OF THE BOARD. An analysis of the various boards of education since 1894 indicates an average term of service of about four and three-fourths years. The average length of service of the present board is four years. Frequent elections under the old system led to many short terms, and consequently to a lack of the necessary continuity of service to produce high efficiency. The new method of election for four years is sure to work a helpful re- form along this line. There are two weaknesses inseparable from short terms in public- service corporations. One is that the duties required are so complex that the novice may assume little responsibility and become a figurehead. The other is a far more serious danger. It is generally recognized that in a democracy like ours the most dangerous man, whether in politics, religion, business or the schools, is a man with convictions and no knowledge. All of us are prone to act most impulsively and precipitately in the fields where we are least informed. It is a matter of general observation and comment that the new man on a public-service board is likely to be willing to act first and think afterwards. This applies especially in re- form movements, churches and schools, where every one has pretty clearly defined feelings and convictions. It is greatly to be desired in school boards that thoughtful men should be chosen and continuity of service be maintained where possible. The Survey Staff is consequently ready to urge upon the Leavenworth public the desirability of reflecting good men, and upon members of the school board the responsibility of serving long enough terms to enable them to become fully conversant with the school system and school needs. This will guard against hasty action and enable boards to work out construc- tive plans far enough in advance to insure efficiency and economy in any progressive measures. A school board, to be well balanced, should represent various interests, and big enough men should be elected to consider the needs of various- parts of the city. Undue attention to geographical locality, however, is pernicious and should be avoided. The caliber of men elected is much more important than the place of residence of the board member. Under the old system of ward election this dependence upon geographical loca- tion was necessary, but under the new system its evils may easily be avoided. Any citizen with a sufficient sense of civic and school responsi- bility would represent the whole city, not merely the wants of a particular locality. A history of the Leavenworth board indicates that a representative body of citizens have filled those offices. In the last twenty years, seven- teen merchants, nine professional men, seven manufacturers, four con- tractors, three bankers and thirteen other representative business men SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 29 have served the community as members of the school board. Of the present board two are professional men, two are merchants, one is an editor, and one is a railroad man. Two were born and educated abroad, one in New York, and the other three are natives of Leavenworth. All are actively interested in the Leavenworth schools ; two have served eight years, two three years, and two are new members the present year. No one was found to question the public spirit or unselfish zeal of a single member. WORK OF THE BOARD. They are required by law to meet the first Monday in each month and at call. The minutes for the present school year were read by the writer, and interviews were held with each member (except one, who was in Europe). All regular meetings have been held, and one called meeting. These meetings have been from less than one hour to more than two hours in length. The board is divided by the president into five committees, each mem- ber, aside from the president, being chairman of a committee. These committees are as follows: 1. Ways and Means and Supplies. 2. High School, School Laws and Regulations, and Libraries. 3. Teachers and Salaries, Textbooks and Course of Studies. 4. Buildings and Grounds and Janitors. 5. Furniture, Apparatus, Printing and Auditing. These committees are the real working features of the board, as indi- cated both by conference and by the length of time spent in general meet- ings. In fact, it may well be questioned if sufficient time is spent by the board as a body in session to develop a full spirit of cooperation or a large enough body of information about the school system as a whole. Con- ferences with the board indicated a general rather than a specific knowl- edge of the conditions and needs of the schools. Inquiries failed to elicit information that any member had done much school visitation or thought over the situation enough to have any constructive plan for the better- ment of the schools. While all were open to conviction and ready to accept suggestions for improvement, the attitude was a passive rather than an active one. Since the members of the board are not technical experts, this attitude is immensely to be preferred to such meddling interference with purely educational affairs as is often found in boards of education, notably in the Portland system, as shown by the recently published survey of the Portland schools. But a little more of a forward look, a little more con- tact with actual schoolroom work, a little more knowledge of what is being done, a little more conference with teachers and principals, and a little more of specific planning for the ever-enlarging demands of educa- tion in the matter of equipment, will yield a rich harvest in putting the Leavenworth Public Schools to the front. An illustration of the need of advance planning came out in con- ferences with several different members of the board. They are unani- mous in feeling that the greatest need of the schools at present is more room about the buildings for playground purposes. In discussing costs 30 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. of adjacent property it was agreed that any knowledge of plans for the purchase of property would lead, in the usual patriotic American way, to an increase of the cost of such property. Yet no plans were being made until the money for such purchases was at hand, although a knowledge of the presence of such plans would guarantee that this additional price would be demanded. Some of the members were unaware that needed property could be acquired under the right of eminent domain. Since the board are agreed, it seems that the wisest and by far the most economical scheme would be to set aside a certain minimum amount of money each year to be used in this expansion. THE RELATIONS OF THE BOARD TO THE SUPERINTENDENT. The board is to be highly commended for its policy in leaving purely educational problems to the authorities selected for that purpose. The law gives practically complete powers to the board, and many boards are unwise enough not to delegate that authority to experts. Many elect a high-priced superintendent, who ought to know his business, and then proceed to tie his hands with rules and regulations so that his work is crippled. Education is a progressive business, and only a progressive , superintendent can keep up with it; and he can not do it if interfered with and hampered by a politically chosen or unprogressive board. The proper lines of demarcation between the functions of a school board and a superintendent are perfectly clear. The relations should be exactly similar to those between the board of directors of a railway or manufacturing or banking corporation and the active managers of those concerns. The directors advise and recommend, and, if need be, check the president in too rapid expansion of the business or in a manifestly unwise policy. But the successful corporation is managed by a generally unhampered and well-supported president whose reputation is at stake and whose interests are bound up with those of the stockholders. The same must be true of a school system. The superintendent should be very carefully and wisely chosen, and then held fully responsible for the success of the schools. Just as the president of a railroad must be free to select his expert assistants, so must the superintendent be free to select his teachers, even his janitors. When he proves unable to do this wisely he has proved his unfitness for his position. The Staff is glad to be able to say that this higher policy is followed by the Leavenworth board. They are to be commended for electing their superintendent for two years as long a term as the Kansas law allows. And they stand back of him in his policies. So far as could be deter- mined, he is allowed full power in the selection of his expert assistants. Teaching efficiency depends largely upon a settled feeling an identifica- tion of the teacher with the whole responsible life of the community. The teacher must feel that his position is secure so long as efficient serv- ice is rendered, and only so long. We are glad to be able to say that the Leavenworth teachers feel much of the necessary security in their posi- tions. It is unfortunate that teachers are employed, not as other people are, but to be automatically discharged at the close of a year; but that being the custom, the Leavenworth board do the next best thing by making employment fairly permanent. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 31 THE PURCHASE OF SUPPLIES. While this excellent business principle is followed with reference to the superintendent and the teachers, there is a strange lapse from business practice in the purchase of supplies. The factory, or street- railway system, or other large business that allowed a number of inexpert persons to purchase supplies would soon lose out in the competitive struggle. But that is exactly what is often allowed to happen in public business; and the Leavenworth school board has fallen into this an- tiquated practice. Buying supplies for as large and varied a business as the Leavenworth schools is business fit only for an expert fiscal agent. Most of these supplies are prepared by specializing firms and may be handled cheaply in large quantities. A good fiscal agent knows the firms making them and can buy directly. Such an expert is required to learn the quality and specifications of articles needed and to get unquestioned supplies without delay. The present board have the confidence of Leavenworth. They are honest. But not a member would maintain that he is an expert buyer of school apparatus. Yet he attempts the role. A requisition for supplies is made out by the clerk; it is countersigned by the superintendent, and then sent to the appropriate committee. The chairman of that committee will then have to see his committee and make the purchase or submit it to the board. Even small and necessary supplies are thus delayed. And what member of the board feels that his judgment is good in regard to the particular sort of things usually needed about a school building? An illustration was at hand during the Survey. A field meet was being planned by the director of physical training for the last of April. Supplies were asked for during the latter part of February. They were' needed very soon. No one objected to their purchase. A requisition was made out and was accepted by the board at its meeting on March 2. The supplies will cost about fifty dollars. It is now the 18th of March, and bids are not called for until April 6. The supplies, therefore, can not be expected before the middle of April six weeks to make a pur- chase no one objected to; and this by a board which the public expects to handle expeditiously the business end of public-school work. There might be some excuse for this unbusinesslike and extravagant method of buying supplies if the means were not at hand for remedying it. But the proper organization already exists. A clerk is paid a good salary to look after details for the board. It is easy and natural for him to learn the specific needs of the schools. He knows what sort of brooms, dusters, crayon, paper, gymnasium apparatus, laboratory supplies, etc., are used, because he has to handle them from the storeroom. His whole time and interest are centered about his work; therefore he becomes the natural fiscal agent for the board. Such should be his chief work, and the Leavenworth board should return to its former practice in this matter, allowing the clerk to purchase the supplies under proper super- vision, or else it should appoint some other expert fiscal agent. Another evil is in the results upon the schools. Teachers ask for Supplies, which are delayed so long that a large share of their value has 32 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. disappeared before they can be obtained. This happens a few times, and the teachers grow indifferent toward the use of up-to-date tools and illustrative materials. They either do without or through their own zeal go to the expense of buying them out of their own savings. Several of the Staff found teachers using expensively acquired private equipment rather than go through the elaborate process of red-tape required to get it through the board. This puts a tax upon the zealous and progressive teacher and discourages and disheartens the less efficient and less un- selfish ones. The total result is that the net salary of the poor teacher is larger than that of her more progressive sister teacher. On the whole it may be said that the present board is doing its allotted work effectively. It is honest, sticks to its proper function in general, shows courage in levying a fair rate of taxes at present in the face of a not too generous public feeling, and gives unselfishly of its time and energy to an unpaid public service. Any criticism of its work must be largely negative; that is, that it may sometimes lack foresight or depth of knowledge of school problems or enough intensive study of the actual needs of the school system to lay plans in advance for the constructive program much needed in the near future of Leavenworth. V/ RECOMMENDATIONS. 1. That the board be careful at all .times to continue to stick to its own work the business administration of the schools interfering only when necessary with the educational administration. 2. That the former excellent practice of turning over the purchasing of supplies to the clerk of the board be returned to, or an expert fiscal agent be employed. 3. That a definite budgetary system be established, whereby all income shall be estimated at the beginning of the year and parceled out to meet the needs of the schools as they have been reported through principals and superintendent. 4. That the present moderate tax rate of six mills on the dollar be maintained for the running expenses of the schools, for the more liberal purchase of equipment, and for the necessary repairs and remodeling needed in some of the half-century-old buildings to adapt them more fully to up-to-date school work. 5. That an expert school architect be consulted for this remodeling and for future school expansions. 6. That a definite and comprehensive plan be carefully worked out for the purchase of additional land about some of the buildings, and a certain sum of money be set apart in each annual budget for this purpose. 7. That a similar definite plan be devised for some of the expansions which all recognize will be demanded in the near future, many of which are recommended in other parts of this report. 8. Finally, that through the press, the parent-teacher associations, and the various cultural and business organizations of the city, a cam- paign of publicity be inaugurated for the education of public sentiment regarding the needs of the schools and of the commercial and other values of meeting these needs in the building up of a greater Leavenworth. J SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 33 CHAPTER IV. ATTENDANCE, PROMOTION AND RECORDS. Walter S. Monroe. THE SCHOOL CENSUS. IN A CITY the size of Leavenworth the first prerequisite for securing the enrollment of children in school is a reliable census of all the children of school age who are living within the school district. From this census list teachers or some other authorized person should check off those who enter school at the beginning of the school year. The names of those whose age falls within the period *of compulsory attendance, and who have not enrolled in school, should be given to the truant officer for in- vestigation. In this way all cases of nonattendance can be checked up, except for pupils who have moved into the district since the census was taken. For these cases the school has to depend upon the cooperative spirit of the community and the acquaintance of the teachers and the truant officer with the community. In Leavenworth the school census is taken under the direction of the clerk of the Board of Education, who employs competent persons to make the necessary house-to-house canvass. The census is taken upon the blanks provided by the state . superintendent for that purpose. The data collected are transferred to cards for the purpose of convenient filing, a card being made for each child. These cards are filed alphabeti- cally, and are used by the truant officer and in making out age certificates. Each year a new census is taken and a new set of cards is made out. There are on file now the cards for the last six years. The only use which is made of the data of the previous year is when a parent or child questions the accuracy of the data for the current year. The weakness of the system is in not providing an automatic check upon human fallibility. Errors may be made by parents in giving the age of a child. The enumerator may make an error in entering the data. There may be errors in transcribing the data upon the cards. And last, children may be missed even in a careful enumeration. To guard against these possible errors it is recommended that instead of there being a new set of cards each year, the data collected in the blank books be checked on the cards of the previous year. If a pupil had moved, the changed address could be added on the card or a new card made. New cards would be made for those who had moved into the district within the year and for those who had attained school age. The cards remaining from the previous year after this was done would include, first, those who had passed school age, and those who had either died or moved from the dis- trict within the year, and second, those who were overlooked in taking the census. Such a plan would not call for more labor than is now required to make out a new set of cards each year. It would have the added advan- 34 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. tages just indicated, and would provide a permanent and continuous school census. During the school year cards should be added to this file for the children who move into the district. THE FUNCTION OF THE SCHOOL CENSUS. A school census should have functions in addition to giving a count of the children of school age living within the district. For instance, from a school census the number and age of children living in the district and not attending school could be easily determined. Such data, together with the grade attained by the child before leaving school, would portray some of the educational needs of the community. In a city the size of Leavenworth it doubtless would show several hundred boys and girls between the ages of fifteen and twenty-one who are not in school, and some of whom have not even finished the eighth grade. These young people represent an urgent educational need of the community, and if our schools were conducted as a private business, accurate data concerning them would be collected and used in the administration of the schools. ATTENDANCE. A comparison of the age distribution of the school census for 1913 with the age distribution of the enrollment for the year 1913-'14 shows that there are 826 more children between the ages of eight and fifteen years enumerated in the school census than are enrolled in the Leavenworth public schools. The enrollment in the parochial schools of the city for the year 1913-'14 was given as 1137. Since the work of the parochial schools does not extend beyond the eighth grade, except in one instance, these figures indicate roughly that the compulsory-attendance law is effectively administered in Leavenworth. TABLE III. Age Distribution of Children Enumerated in School Census, 1913. Number Per cent Age. of children, of total. 5 382 5.8 6 406 6.2 7 345 5.3 8 370 5.6 9 323 5.0 10 326 5.0 11 332 5.0 12.. 322 5.0 Number Per cent Age. of children. 1 of total. 13. 351 5.4 14 388 5.9 15 361 5.5 16 457 6.8 17 493 7.5 18 560 8.5 19 529 8.0 20 572 8.7 At the end of the first month of school, each teacher is required by the rules of the Leavenworth Public Schools to file with the superintendent a list of the pupils enrolled under the teacher. Thus by October first the truant officer has the data necessary for checking up the school at- tendance. The truant officer has a regular schedule for visiting the sev- eral buildings. He also visits regularly the parochial schools. Whenever a transfer of a pupil is made, a card giving the facts is filed with the truant officer. It is his duty to check up the transfer. Thus if the transfer is simply an excuse for leaving school it is detected at once. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 35 REPORTS OF TRUANT OFFICER. A summary of the annual reports of the truant officer for the past four years is given in Table IV: TABLE IV. Summary of Reports of Truant Officers. 1908-'09. 1909-'10. Number of cases investigated ......... 468 303 312 317 Number of pupils placed in school ...... 247 62 58 43 Juvenile court: Before court ................... 5 13 4 4 Convictions .................... 5 *13 4 4 Other courts: Before court ............... ?... Convictions .................... Sent to industrial schools: Boys ......................... . 2 3 4 4 Girls ......................... 1 * Nine boys paroled. The drop from 247 pupils placed in school in 1909-'10 to 62 in 1910-'ll is significant. It shows the influence of a vigorous administration of the compulsory-attendance law. The fact that conviction was secured in every case which was brought before the court indicates that the court is used only as a last resort. From conferences with the superintendent and the truant officer, it ap- peared that the law was well and intelligently administered so far as con- cerned the pupils who entered school in September. For those who do not voluntarily enter school, the system followed has a very evident loophole when applied to a community as large as Leavenworth. A month must elapse before the attendance can be checked up, and then the burden of checking is placed upon the truant officer, who has no clerical help. And the fact that the teacher's lists are on large sheets of paper makes the checking very tedious. In order that there may be an earlier checking up, it is recommended that the teachers be required to report the pupils enrolled at the end of the first week of school, and to report these data on cards similar to those on which the census data are recorded. When the enrollment cards are alphabetized it will be comparatively easy to determine if all children are in school who should be. Children who are between the ages of fourteen and sixteen must file with their employer age certificates. In Leavenworth age certificates are issued by the clerk of the Board of Education, who has access to the alphabetized census record. The form supplied by the commissioner of labor and state factory inspector is used. No record of age certificates issued is kept, except that the card is taken from the file and placed in a separate file after being marked. It would seem worth while to keep at least a record of the pupil's age, sex, grade attained in school, and reason for leaving.* * Since this was written a form has been devised by the clerk of the board, on which this and other information is to be recorded in the future. 36: KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. TABLE V. Distribution of pupils according to number of days attending school, not including those who moved into the district or moved from the district during the year and who transferred to and from the parochial schools. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, 1912-'13. Number Number days attended. of pupils. 180-176 815 175-171 304 170-166 175 165-161 117 160-156 155-151, 150-146, 145-141 , 140-136. 135-131, 130-126. 125-121 . 120-116. 115-111. 110-106. 105-101. 100- 96. 81 59 49 42 36 20 13 12 15 6 6 3 4 Per cent of total. 45.89 Number days attended. 95-91 Number of pupils. 3 17.12 90-86.. 1 9.85 85-81 3 6.58 80-76 3 4.56 75-71. .. 2 3.32 70-66 2.76 65-61 2 2.36 60-56 2.03 55-51 1 1.13 50-46 . 1 73 45-41 . 1 67 40-36 1 .84 35-31 .34 30-26 1 QA 17 Total . 1,776 .22 Per cent of total. .17 .06 .17 .17 .11 *.'ii '!6e .06 .06 .06 ".06 REPORTS OF ATTENDANCE. In the quarterly reports of the superintendent for the present year the attendance is reported in terms of the number enrolled, number belong- ing, and the per cent of attendance. This method of reporting is quite usual, but very unsatisfactory, for it fails to reveal the facts which need to be known. The total days absent for the 1776 pupils in Table V exceeds 20,000. The cost of the instruction which was provided and was not received by these pupils amounts to approximately $2500. This amount inadequately represents the cost of absences to the city of Leavenworth. This is no small item, and the parents may well bear this in mind when permitting unnecessary absences. From this analysis of the table it should be clear that this is a more valuable form in which to report the attendance than the one now used. It is a form which is coming to be used, and the writer recommends it for future reports. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHODLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 37 TABLE VI. Age and Progress of the Pupils in the Leavenworth Public Schools, taken January 20, 1914. I II III > IV V VI VII VIII F S J Sr P Total. 5yrs. 69 69 6yrs. 176 31 207 104 127 23 254 8 yrs 20 52 95 28 195 9 yrs 5 26 80 120 18 3 252 10 yrs 4 18 32 68 70 21 *3 216 11 yrs. 2 7 22 44 59 68 17 219 12 yrs. 1 6 12 27 45 63 58 13 4 229 13 yrs. 5 25 26 71 67 31 28 253 14 yrs. 1 2 11 21 42 55 70 17 2 1 222 15 yrs. 3 4 20 33 24 49 19 152 16 yrs. 1 10 8 15 24 39 15 112 17 yrs. 2 6 2 14 27 25 4 80 18 yrs 1 2 4 11 15 3 36 19 yrs. 1 3 2 5 4 15 20 yrs. 1 2 1 4 Total.. 381 267 270 314 232 252 219 147 146 112 102 61 12 Below.. 69 31 23 28 18 24 20 13 32 17 21 16 4 Normal 280 179 175 188 129 131 125 86 94 73 66 40 7 Above . 32 57 72 98 85 97 74 48 20 22 15 5 1 THE PROGRESS OF PUPILS. According to this plan (see Table VI) the "normal" ages for the first grade are 6 and 7, for the second grade 7 and 8, for the third 8 and 9, and so on. When a pupil's age is less than the "normal" age for his grade he is said to be "below normal," oj under age. When his age is greater than the "normal" age for his grade he is said to be "above nor- mal" age. The table shows that some children in Leavenworth start to school when they are five, some when they are six, others when they are seven, and possibly a few when they are eight. Those who start to school at five are "below normal" age in the first grade. If they are promoted at the end of the year they will be "below normal" age in the second grade, and so on. If a child is six or older when he starts to school, it is possible for him to become "below normal" age only by sometime skipping a grade. On the other hand, a child who enters school before he is eight can become "above normal" age only by failing to be promoted. This age and progress table for Leavenworth shows 69 pupils "below normal" age in the first grade, 31 in the second grade, 23 in the third 38 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. grade, 28 in the fourth grade, and so on. The table does not tell us positively, but it suggests that very few pupils are "below normal" age because of skipping a grade; that the pupils "below normal" age are so primarily because they started to school when five and not because they possess greater capacity for the work of the school than other pupils. When we consider those "above normal" age, we find 32 in the first grade, 57 in the second, 72 in the third, 98 in the fourth, and the number remains relatively high until the eighth grade. These facts tell us quite conclusively that many of those who are "above normal" age have be- come so because in some grade they failed to be promoted, and that only a few are "above normal" age because they started to school after they, had passed the age of seven. Not all of those who fail of promotion are included in the "above normal" age group. Considering those of "normal" age, we find the ratio of the two ages varies from 127 to 52 in the second grade to 31 to 55 in the eighth. These figures indicate that a number fail of promotion who are still included in the group of "normal age." This condition is significant for two reasons: First, it is expensive. For the year 1912-'13 the expenses of the Leavenworth Public Schools totaled $88,918.20, or an average of $31.85 for each pupil enrolled. In the case of a pupil who failed to be promoted and must do the year's work over, this $31.85 was largely wasted. If 20 pupils fail of promotion the cost is $637, or the salary of a teacher paid $70 a month. And second, these figures indicate, and more careful studies have shown it to be true, that it is the child who is "above normal" age who is most likely to leave school and not take advantage of the educational facilities which the community has provided. There will always be, or should be, some pupils who fail of promotion or are retarded, because all are not equally capable. But it will be most economical to adjust the work of the school so that the number failing will approximately equal the number who skip a grade. In this way the loss on the one pupil will be balanced by the gain on the other. Such a system would probably also decrease the number of pupils who leave school. The figures indicate that the Leavenworth Public Schools are so adjusted that a number of pupils are retarded and very few are accel- erated. The system can be made more efficient by making these groups more nearly equal. Such a table as the one above is valuable in exhibiting the age and progress of pupils, but it necessarily leaves one in doubt about many questions. For instance, take the pupils in the eighth grade. One does not know how many years the 24 who are 15 years of age have spent in school. In this table they are given as being "normal age," but it is probable that some of them have been retarded at some point of their course. For this reason it would be helpful to supplement this table by another showing the relation between the grade and the number of years spent in school. From such a table it will be possible to determine the amount of acceleration and retardation. Knowledge of these items is essential to efficient management of a school system. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 39 ENROLLMENT IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. TABLE VII. Per cent of Distribution of High School Enrollment. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Leavenworth 34.68 26.60 24.23 14.49 Federal 41.73 27.08 18.21 12.98 Kansas 42.46 26.27 17.38 13.89 The figures in Table VII show that fewer pupils leave High School in Leavenworth before the senior year than in general in the state of Kansas or the United States. However, the drop from 34.68 per cent in the first year to 26.60 per cent in the second year shows that many who enter the High School do not enroll the second year. Also the drop between the third and fourth years is significant. It is quite evident from these figures that in Leavenworth the first and third years of the High School are the critical years. RECORDS AND REPORTS. The system of records and reports is moderately elaborate. Reports are made by teachers quarterly to their principal, and a summary of their reports is made by the principal to the superintendent. These re- ports include the usual items with reference to attendance, corporal pun- ishment, suspensions, etc. In addition, there are a number of items such as the number of visits by the Board of Education, superintendent, prin- cipal, supervisor, and patrons, the work of the truant officer, etc. At the close of the year a complete report is made for the year. In addition, in the elementary school the following blank forms are used: 1. Notice of supervision assignment. (For buildings and grounds supervision for the week. Made by the principal.) 2. Work needing attention of janitors. 3. Temperature record. (Hourly record from 8:30 to 4:30. The janitors register temperature and the card is filed with the principal at end of week.) 4. A warning notice to parents of children who are not doing satis- factory work. 5. A warning notice to parents of children who have been irregular in attendance. (The rules of the Board of Education provide that more than five half-days' absence in four consecutive weeks without satisfac- tory excuse will result in suspension.) 6. A suspension notice, 7. "The Teachers' Loose-leaf Plan Book." (Requiring a plan for each day's work.) 8. A blank form for recording the daily program. 40 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. By far the most valuable records are those kept of individual pupils. When a child enters school the following card is filled out by the parent: LEAVENWORTH PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ENTRANCE CARD. School Grade Teacher. 1. Name of child 2. Date of birth, year month day 3. Place of birth Nationality, Father Mother 4. Name of parent or guardian Occupation ^. 5. Residence (street and number) 6. When vaccinated 7. By whom vaccinated , 8. Defective sight, Yes No Throat, Yes No 9. Defective hearing, Yes No Teeth, Yes No Parents receiving this card will please fill out the nine numbered blanks and return to teacher. To be used in the primary grades in securing information from parent. An attendance and scholarship record is kept for each pupil on a loose- leaf form, and in addition there is a progressive record card for each pupil which extends over twelve years. On one side of this card there is space for recording for each quarter of each year the date of entering the room and grade, the number of days he was a member of the room, number of days admitted, days absent, times tardy, days dropped, date of readmit- tance. Individual and accumulative records of pupils are among the most im- portant records which can be kept in a school system. As has been pointed out by the National Educational Association Committee on Uniform Records and Reports, the records made by teachers in the schoolroom are the foundation of all statistics concerning pupils; and without reliable statistics concerning pupils, no superintendent can administer a school system in a scientific manner. The forms used in the Leavenworth Public School collect in a usable form the records made by the teacher in the schoolroom. However, the progressive record card would be more useful if the attendance record were given by years only and the space saved were used for a progressive scholarship record in each school subject. TABULATIONS RECOMMENDED. The purpose of collecting and recording data is the use which may be made of them. Only partial use is made of many of the data collected in the Leavenworth Public Schools. For instance, the following tabulations* are very valuable for the scientific management of a school system : 1. Distribution of withdrawals, by ages and causes. 2. Distribution of attendance according to number of days attended. 3. Graduates, by years in school. 4. Nonpromotions, by grades and causes. 5. Failures, by studies and grades. 6. Distribution of leavings and withdrawals, by ages and grades. * See Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Reports. Bull. 1912, No. 3, U. S. Bureau of Education. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 41 In a school system the size of Leavenworth's the superintendent can not be expected to make these uses of the records unless he is provided with clerical assistance. In another section of this report it is recom- mended that the superintendent be provided with a secretary. The tabu- lation of data under the direction of the superintendent would be one of her important functions. These tabulations, together with their interpretations by the superin- tendent, should be printed as a part of his annual report, and should be read by each patron who has an interest in the public schools. These tabulations of statistics will show to the stockholders the efficiency with which their business is being conducted. 42 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER V. BUILDINGS AND MATERIAL EQUIPMENT. Waller S. Monroe. THE SCHOOL BUILDINGS. IN CONSIDERING the buildings and material equipment of the Leaven- worth Public Schools it is necessary to have clearly in mind, first, the past history of the city of Leavenworth and its public schools, and, second, the probable future school needs of the community. The Third Avenue School was built in 1860, the Sumner School in 1866, the Morris School in 1867, Oak Street School in 1874, and the Maplewood building has been used as a public school for twenty-five years. Thus over three-fourths of the pupils in the elementary schools attend at buildings which have been built over twenty-five years, and approximately half of the pupils attend at buildings which have stood for nearly half a century. This means that the majority of the school buildings were constructed when much less was known about school architecture than at present, and also when much less importance was attached to such matters as lighting, heating, seating, hallways, fire-proof construction, playgrounds, etc. In addition, these old buildings have been remodeled from time to time, and in two cases additions have been built. These conditions neces- sarily make the arrangement of some rooms and their lighting very poor. The remaining elementary school buildings were constructed about ten years ago, except the Cleveland Park School, which is simply a dwelling house purchased by the Board of Education and adapted to the needs of a one-teacher school. In the newer schools better provisions have been made for the needs of the pupils. The High School building was completed in 1905 and an addition was built-in 1912. The building is poorly planned and represents very poor community foresight. Before the High School can become what it should be to the community of Leavenworth additional space must be provided. THE BUILDING NEEDS. The school census, the enrollment in the elementary schools and the High School, and the total enrollment, are given in Table VIII. TABLE VIII. School Census and Enrollment since 1900. Year. 1900-'01. 1901-'02. 1902-'03. 1903-'04. 1904-'05, 1905-'06, 1906-'07. 1907-'08. 1908-'09, 1909-10, Census. Elementary schools. High School. 6,963 2,575 176 6,865 2,417 164 6,646 2,480 174 6,615 2,342 229 6,695 2,282 255' 6,746 2,853 325 6,871 2,753 348 7,174 2,650 273 7,080 2,721 283 6,850 2,601 304 6,871 2,981 326 6,859 2,465 377 6,649 2,335 460 Total enrollment. 2,751 2,581 2,654 2,571 2,537 3,178 3,101 2,923 3,004 2,905 3,307 2,842 2,795 SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 43 The population of the city has been remarkably constant for twenty years (see page 14), and there is no reason to suppose that there will be any considerable change in the immediate future. The enrollment in the elementary schools has fluctuated from year to year ? but the absolute change for the period represented here is slightly negative, and the age distribution of the school census shows the school population to be de- creasing. (See page 34.) These facts, coupled with the population data and general observations, indicate that it is not probable that there will be any considerable permanent increase in the elementary-school enrollment in the near future. Since a maximum of approximately 3000 children have been cared for with slightly less than the present equipment of schoolrooms, it is fairly certain that the present schoolrooms will not be crowded in the near future. On the other hand, the high-school enrollment has steadily increased except for two years, and the indications are that it will continue to in- crease until an enrollment of 800 or more is attained. Until such an en- rollment is attained the Leavenworth High School can not be said to serve the community as it should. In view of the fact that the High School building is already seriously crowded (as the school is at present conducted), provision must be made for nearly double the present en- rollment. Thus the building problem for the city of Leavenworth involves an in-' crease in the number of classrooms only in the case of the High School. The Sumner, Third Avenue, and Morris buildings are each approxi- mately half a century old, and although the need for their replacement is not immediate if they are kept in repair, they can not be expected to stand forever. In the course of a few years some plans should be de- cided upon which would involve the erection of modern buildings to take their place. Also the Cleveland Park building is simply a small dwelling house in which a partition has been removed so that the building could be used for school purposes. This building is ill adapted to school work and should be replaced as soon as possible with a modern rural school building. ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS AND MATERIAL EQUIPMENT. In Table IX an analysis of the buildings and material equipment and their relations to the pupils of the elementary schools is given. 44 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. S co|J 1 S : : g : 5 : : ^ - Pis . '1*1 ; i 11 s i TT I g s I 5,3 IM' * ^ to co oo fe ** a ^ o CO SI * i o i OS 1 rt 1 * 8 " CO i a a a i 1 1 8 S i 1 ""a*!*! 10 ! BS Op i 31 g 8 2 *.* g CO O> CO g * 1 1 i ; C T< O lO CO TJ. CO O ' . 3 O 9& ^^ (M 00 US -*t< ^- IM 5^ "- 1 g 1 3 C/2 " i a 1 S s 1 ac g 2 C * ^ 00 O O !> 00 CO 58 g m - 4 S i o i 4 g 3 8 QOOCOO'rt < i-H' 'iC ^S^g^g^^ 2 g JH g fe N- jl . s s 9Q n CO i g Caj;&jS: 11 I 1 -1 1,1 1 2:H>E-^;feZH Ratio of window ar Window area in cor SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 45 o ec PO "5 CO -* "5 o*QoococQ OO C^ O5 O 10 3 1 8 78 1 22 13 8 Wilson .... 5 1 1 j a Total. . . . 14.78 205 1 3 30 49 62 25 26 6 2 1 8^93 1.32 GRADE V. SCHOOL. No. of cases. Quality. Av. A. D. Var. 4 5 .... 6 7 "3' 1 3 3 6 "4' 8 "3 5 9 15 10 4 10 9 1 4 14 15 14 7 14 10 "2 1 6 3 4 3 10 11 12 13 1 .... ' i 14 i 15 16 Cleveland. .. Franklin Lincoln Maplewood. . Morris Oak St Sumner Third Ave.... Total.... 4 11 13 39 42 37 19 54 1 1 3 2 3 4 12 27 1 .... 3 3 .... 2 8.55 9^05 8.95 8.68 9.53 9.57 10.9 i!o3 1.12 1.00 .95 1.24 1L6 i6!s 12.5 12.4 9.9 13.6 219 1 20 56) ,71 29 11 i 9.15 1.06 11.6 GRADE VI. SCHOOL. No. of cases. Quality. Av. A. D. Var. 4 5 6 7 8 9, 10 11 J2 13 14 15 16 Franklin 16 1 6 4 3 1 1 10.00 1.00 10.0 Lincoln 11 5 1 4 1 Maplewood .. 40 1 16 8 7 7 1 10.18 1.28 12.2 Morris 60 9 31 9 8 3 9.42 .72 7.6 OakSt 35 5 14 7 2 1 8.97 1.23 13.7 Sumner . . . 14 1 4 2 7 Third Ave. . . . 32 1 5 10 6 6 1 1 1 1 9.97 1.41 14.1 Total.... 208 6 23 86 37 37 14 2 1 1 i 1 9 69 1.03 10.6 7 98 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. GRADE VII. SCHOOL. No. of Quality. Av. A. D. Var. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Lincoln Morris OakSt Sumner Third Ave. . . . Total. . . . 11 55 64 10 60 "2' 5 "4' 5 13 14 'l?' 1 8 24 3 14 4 10 12 6 15 1 13 7 1 6 "l 2 "4' "2' KL87' 10.13 HK23 1A9 .88 L07 '13^7 8.7 "w.5 200 11 49 50 47 28 13 2 10.40 1.11 10.7 GRADE VIII. Q ualit. i- o No. of cases. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Lincoln 7 2 4 10.40 1.11 10.7 OakSt 39 8 7 8 9 5 1 10.08 1.26 12.6 Morris 22 3 4 4 4 5 1 10.68 1.41 13.2 Sumner 5 2 1 1 Third Ave.... 75 1 20 22 24 7 10.25 1.84 18.9 ,.. Total. . . . 148 12 31 36 43 18 5 3 10.34 1.08 10. 5 Table XXV is a condensed statement of the quality of the handwriting of the system of grades and buildings. For instance, the first item in Table XXV reads thus: In the second grade in the Cleveland School five samples were collected. Two of these are graded 7, one is graded 9, and two are graded 10, on the Thorndike scale. The second item reads thus: In the second grade of the Franklin School 20 samples were collected. Of these one is graded 5, three 6, eight 7, six 8, and two 9. The average for this grade is 7.25, the average deviation .75, and the variability 10.3 per cent. In computing the central tendencies and the variability the Courtis Manual is followed. Where there were less than 15 samples presented from one class the average is not calculated. The individual error in grading is about 3 per cent. For instance, the Franklin second-grade average is 7.25. But when the graders grade these a second time they will vary inside 3 per cent. They may be 1 Vz per cent above or 1 y s per cent below. 1% per cent of 7.25 is .11, so the average of the grade lies between 7.25 and .11 and 7.25, or between 7.36 and 7.14. This means that in estimating the Maplewood and Morris second grades, one of which is 7.70 and the other 7.65, they should be judged as approximately equal in quality because of the probability of individual error in grading. Bearing this in mind, it will be noted that there is practically no change in quality between the seventh and eighth grades. It will be ob- served, also, that there are a few classes conspicuously above or below the average. The Sumner fourth grade is the most conspicuous deviation, since the children stand in quality almost at the seventh- and eighth- grade averages. There is a noticeable variation between the best and poorest classes in SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 99 each grade. For instance, in the Sumner third grade the average is 9.35, while in the Maplewood third grade the average is only 7.89, and in the Sumner fourth grade the average is 10.32, while in the Morris School the average for the fourth grade is 7.65. Similar extremes will be found in each grade. In selecting the kind of handwriting to judge, the simplest case was taken that of best handwriting. No attention was paid to speed. The object was to discover how well the children had learned to form the letters. TABLE XXVI. A condensed statement of totals for the Leavenworth Schools by grades. 4fc- GRADE. Average. Average deviation. Vari- ability. Number of samples. II 7.67 .77 10.0% 173 HI * 8.03 .98 12.2% 191 IV 8 93 1.32 14.7% 205 y 9.15 1.06 11.6% 219 VI 9.69 1.03 10.6% 208 VII 10.40 1.11 10.7% 200 VIII 10.34 1.09 10.5% 148 TABLE XXVII. A condensed statement of totals for five Missouri cities of about 10,000 population. (These are midyear samples collected between February 1 and February 15, 1914.) GRADE. Average. Average deviation. Vari- ability. Number of samples. II.: ." 7.70 1.3 16% 387 Ill 8.43 1.5 17% 333 ' IV 9.22 1.6 17% 468 y 9.44 1.3 14% 337 VI 9.82 1.3 13% 306 VII 10.62 1.3 12% 328 VIII 10.72 1.1 9% 197 Table XXVII was not prepared by the same graders as were Tables XXV and XXVI, and we do not know accurately how great individual error may arise because of this. But our opinion is that we are justified in saying that the handwriting of the Leavenworth school children is not conspicuously better nor conspicuously worse than that of the children in the Missouri systems studied. It should be noted, again, however, that within the system the grading was done by the same individuals, and that, as said above, the individual error is not greater than 3 per cent. 100 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. RECOMMENDATIONS. * Only one recommendation is to be made. The supervisory force should investigate classes conspicuous for good or for poor writing to ascertain the cause of each. In all probability in the high-grade classes devices. are used which should be made known to all the teachers in the system, and particularly to those which have conspicuously low class averages. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, t-EAVENWoaTfi^KAN. 101 CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY AND CIVICS. Walter R. Smith. THE COURSE OF STUDY. THE study of history in the grades is begun with the reading of Gordy's Beginnings of American History in Europe in the seventh grade. The aim is to correlate it with literature and reading. In addition to the above, there is outlined for the last two months of the seventh grade: Geography, history and government of Kansas; books Tarr and McMurry's Advanced Geography, Supplement on Kansas; Arnold's Civics and Citizenship, Local and State Government, pages 1-153. About fifty to ninety minutes per day for two months is divided between three studies of Kansas geography, civics, and history which, if divided equally, would mean about thirteen recitations on Kansas history based upon the above outline. In the eighth grade history and citizenship is made one of the four major studies. Foster's History of the United States and Arnold's Civics and Citizenship are used as texts. Unfortunately the grade teacher in Kansas is bound down to a state text which she is expected to teach. This is not the fault of the Leav- en worth teachers; it is their misfortune. The history is a fairly good compilation, but is not discriminating and inspiring. Facts and events are doled out with a measuring vessel rather than organized "around great central facts bearing directly on the destiny of our country," as demanded, rightfully, for seventh-grade work. For this reason it is hard for the most earnest teacher to break away from the traditional equivalence of historical facts. It is greatly to be desired in fact it is necessary if history is to retain its importance in the curriculum, that it be brought up to date. Ancient, irrelevant and unimportant facts and events must be relegated to the junk pile along with antiquated machinery, curio museums, and ornamental offices and titles. The past must be linked to the present, and historical study must be made to center about present problems. If colonial history is im- portant, the history of the present Mexican imbroglio or the initiative and referendum or the political advancement of woman is no less so, and history must establish its right to remain in the curriculum by proving its everyday connection with the life of the boy and the girl. CLASSROOM WORK. In regard to the actual teaching of history, it may be said that every history teacher in the grades showed earnestness, careful preparation, good control of the pupils, and a sufficient knowledge of the subject. Three of them were principals and the others showed virile personalities. All were trained and experienced teachers. Most of them were able to get results the results aimed at. Any great improvement, there- fore, must come from a revision in the point of view or aim of history teaching. 102 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Most of the pupils were interested. They were getting the facts that would enable them to pass a good examination on the text. So far as knowing the traditional amount of history is concerned, they would not be found wanting. Not only that, but in addition they were getting good training along certain lines. Every teacher asked topical questions. Few of the categorical queries frequently propounded were heard. Pu- pils were required to talk to a subject, and many of them did it well. Also, every teacher showed some resourcefulness in getting together supplementary materials. Maps, charts, pictures, etc., were plentiful. Many pupils showed they were doing supplementary reading, and they were allowed to use this material freely. Some teachers, however, did not seem to stimulate this sort of work as much as good teaching de- mands. Also, some teachers failed to show skill in using materials at hand. For instance, one teacher showed a series of illustrative pictures to a class of about fifteen pupils. They were well explained, and in- teresting things said about them, but they were held before the class in such a way that only about five of the fifteen could see them, and by the time they were well started down the line for inspection a new explana- tion was being given, and most of the pupils had lost both connection and interest. Commendable preparation was thus lost in poor teaching tech- nique, and the lesson thereby rendered perfunctory. There was likewise in some cases a tendency to outline the subject to death. An outline is a logical contrivance that may have good or bad effects upon youthful students. It is especially valuable for review work; but too much mechanism not only destroys interest, it blights thinking. One teacher placed an elaborate outline of the text on the board, quite suggestive to a mature person, and required it to be copied. Next day the pupils used these outlines in their open notebooks before them, and were called upon to recite upon topic 1, topic 2, and so on. The result was inevitable. A study that ought to arouse interest and enthusiasm was dulled, and a bright, conscientious and hard-working teacher was burying her subject in mechanical routine. With the same ability, patience and effort di- rected toward a better end, live problems treated historically, this teacher would have a wide-awake class, getting an idea of the intense human interest bound up with past life, and forming habits of his- torical investigation that would later function repeatedly in citizenship. LACK OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK. One other point needs mention. Every teacher asked topical ques- tions, and generally discriminating ones, but the pupils recited to the teacher. And in most cases it was an individual recitation. Few teachers showed enough effort to make the topic social; that is, to hold every pupil responsible for thinking of the topic under discussion. This in- dividual recitation was doubtless made necessary by the large number of topics discussed. But that is the difficulty. The number ought to be reduced by eliminating the minor ones. The best result of history teach- ing lies in developing thinking ability, judgment. This can not be done by moving rapidly over a succession of topics. The subject discussed should be a class subject, with all pupils ready, and, if possible, anxious SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 103 to contribute. This calls for cross-questioning, too little of which was observable. Cultivation of thinking habits and evaluative judgment depends upon concentrating all the force of the mind on a specific topic and holding it there as long as possible. Instead of doing this some teachers were observed to explain a pupil's difficulty as soon as it appeared, when the class might well have worked it out together, thus conserving attention and stimulating initiative. Tested by the five points used by the Staff in judging the effects of teaching upon the pupils, it may be stated that three and five, i. e., organization and acquisition, were quite up to or above standard. Train- ing in evaluation was 'made difficult by following too definitely an undis- criminating text. Initiative was also stifled for that reason, but could be developed by emphasizing more fully current events studied critically not recited incidentally and a freer-use of supplementary topical study and class discussions. Scientific effort at motivation was too generally lacking, and strong personal leadership was necessary to maintain in- terest in subject matter which too few of the pupils could connect with everyday living. RECOMMENDATIONS. 1. The curriculum needs revision with the idea of eliminating useless materials and emphasizing dominating events. An interesting and im- portant topic should be given plenty of time at the expense of omitting much material now taught. 2. The amount of colonial history taught should be reduced one-half at least, and the time thus gained be spent on the very recent past. 3. TJie textbook should be made merely a guide, and the teachers should work with the pupils in studying history rather than in having them recite history. 4. Current events should be studied as a part of history work, not recited incidentally. Present-day problems should be introduced on the most suggestive occasions, traced to their historical beginning, and studied at the psychological time, regardless of the historical period placed in the school program. 5. Whenever possible, a question should be made a class topic, and a pupil's recitation should be not only to the teacher but to the class as a social group. 6. The teachers should work out a better point of view by wider historical reading and study, rather than put more specific effort and mechanical preparation into their lessons. CIVICS. As before mentioned, the study of civics is begun during the last two months of the seventh year. The first one hundred and fifty pages of Miss Arnold's Civics and Citizenship are studied in connection with the geography and history of Kansas. This is a study of local and state government, and only one class was visited. This was a well-conducted class by a superb drillmaster, and from the standpoint approached was above criticism. There appeared to the writer, however, to be a little 104 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. overstressing of pure memory work, and too little evidence of class re- search and visitation to local institutions. The teacher was quite evi- dently instructing the class rather than leading it in civics study. In the eighth grade the national government is taken up when the history class reaches the constitutional convention of 1787. The remain- ing part of Arnold's Civics and Citizenship is used as a text. The date of the Survey permitted the observation of only one class. This showed the same excellent drill on subjects sometimes too far removed from the interests of most of the pupils. Some of the old tendency to teach constitutional law rather than actual government appeared, although an effort to stimulate political reading was evident. The only suggestion the writer can offer is that a constant effort be made to build upon what the child is interested in and knows. This necessitates a concrete study of local civic affairs, a careful study of current events in relation to general governmental problems, and the placing of stress upon actual government rather than constitutional interpretation. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVEN WORTH, KAN. 105 CHAPTER XV. HOUSEHOLD ARTS. Ella V. Dobls. THE COURSE OF STUDY. BEGINNING with the fifth grade, handwork for girls in the Leavenworth Public Schools deals with problems in household arts. Eighty minutes per week are devoted to this subject. In the fifth and sixth grades sewing is taught by the regular grade teacher under the direction of the supervisor of household arts. The first work consists in the making of conveniences for sewing, including needle- case, pincushion, and bag to hold wort, on which the elementary stitches are learned. These stitches are applied later to articles of wearing apparel, each girl making a complete suit of underwear for herself. In fifth grades working alone, the practice may be applied to the dressing of dolls. In the seventh and eighth grades the work is directly in charge of the special teachers, and the classes are held in the High School. In the seventh grade a cooking outfit consisting of apron, towels, holders, etc., is made. This is followed by a princess slip or simple dress. Some study and discussion of the textile materials and their values, cost and care accompanies the lessons in sewing. The making of individual garments and articles to be used later by the maker furnishes a motive usually strong enough to hold the interest of the worker. There is considerable scope for individuality in the choice of color, style and minor details of the problem. In the eighth grade cooking is begun. The aim of the course is to give the students an insight into the broad underlying principles of house- keeping, and an acquaintance with the preparation and food value of some common food materials. The points to be emphasized include such practical problems as the making of fires, a study of the mechanism of the stove and the regulation of drafts, and the regulation of fuel gas. Much emphasis is placed upon sanitation. Order and cleanliness in such everyday problems as the washing of dishes and dish towels and the care of kitchen sink and garbage can receive daily attention. Lessons in cookery offer exceptional opportunity for training in habits of promptness and system, since each lesson, with a few excep- tions, is a complete unit. In the eighty minutes allowed to the lesson each pupil must receive instruction in the lesson for the day, select her materials, prepare and cook the dish assigned to her, wash her utensils and return them to their proper places, and leave the laboratory in per- fect order for the next class. Some pupils, undoubtedly, receive their first suggestions of systematic housekeeping in the school laboratory. The study of food materials and their values includes a study of the chemical changes caused by cooking and a comparison of the relative values of various ways of preparing common foods; as, for example, 106 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. hard- and soft-boiled and fried eggs. The purpose is to give each worker some definite principles upon which to work, that she may not guess at methods and happen upon success or failure, but work with intelligence and certainty. The time to be devoted to the subject in school is in- sufficient to give the practice necessary to develop skill in any depart- ment. All that can be expected of such a course is that it shall suggest right methods of procedure which may be practiced in the home, and in this the course, as given in Leavenworth, seems to be very successful. To what extent this practice is carried on in the home, the teacher can judge only by the general attitude of the pupil and by occasional re- ports from parents. If some satisfactory plan of cooperation between home and school could be worked out, it would, without doubt, greatly increase the efficiency of both factors. In various parts of the country this problem is receiving attention and helpful suggestions are coming from many quarters. RECOMMENDATIONS. The writer suggests, also, a closer correlation between the depart- ments of drawing and domestic art. One of the most urgent needs of the present times is definite instruction in costume design. Girls need to be taught not only how to make their own clothes well, but also how to select tasteful and becoming styles. They need some better basis for selection than the whims and fads of fashion. If such instruction is to be of general benefit, it must be given in the upper grades of the ele- mentary school, since so many pupils drop out before they reach the High School. There is definite need of the same kind of instruction in the applica- tion of art to house-furnishing, that the rising generation may appr,e- ciate that the poor home need not be bare and ugly, nor the rich home overcrowded with ostentatious display. The furnishing of a miniature house offers a valuable problem for both art and handwork, and one in which enthusiasm is sure to run high. Every opportunity for satisfying real needs in a suitable and beautiful way should be turned to account. For example, the furnishing of a rest room or a social room, the making of draperies or of other needs for the school office, furnish real problems of vital interest. The writer finds little to criticize and much to commend in the work in household arts, and the suggestions here offered point to extension rather than modification of the work being done. The courses are well organized in line with the approved practice of the day and are all well carried out, so far as it is possible to judge from a brief observation. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 107 CHAPTER XVI. HYGIENE AND MEDICAL INSPECTION. Water K. Smith. THE TEACHING OF HYGIENE. PHYSIOLOGY, like the other sciences, had gradually to force its way down through the school curriculum from the universities. The result was, as in the case of the other sciences, that during its early public- school stages it was burdened with technical details and a scientific nomenclature that removed it from active influence in the thinking of the boy and girl. The early physiology was almost prely scientific. It came from the universities and the preparatory studies of a medical course. First it was concerned chiefly with the anatomy of the human body. Then it dealt largely with the chemistry of organic action. Gradually hygiene was introduced. It was a mere incident, however, in the study most of :is were put through. We studied the bones and muscles and the circula- tory and nervous systems for information. But recent changes have de- manded that the hygiene of the human system be made the important part of the study. The names of the bones and nerves and the nature of the circulation and the digestive process are subordinated to the teaching of what to do in case of an injury, how to prevent the spread of infection, and how to eat and to live in order to preserve organic efficiency. Physi- ology and anatomy are used only as a basis for teaching the art of pre- serving health and building up strength. In Leavenworth the transition is complete and the newer point of view prevails. The primary aim is as it should be to teach health rather than to instill scientific knowledge. But in making this transition, hy- giene and physiology have been dropped from the list of real studies. They have become merely "incidental minors" ; and while better results are obtained than with the old scientific physiology, it is quite plain that this subordination lowers the standard of work that might be done. The writer believes that at some point in the grades room should be made in the curriculum for hygiene as a "major" study. Its importance in the scheme of life makes it worthy of special emphdsis. Without the inspira- tion of medical examinations or of a nurse, however, it is evident that in most cases, with all the other specific demands upon a teacher, hygiene would receive very incidental attention. This is true not merely in Leavenworth; it is true under similar circumstances everywhere, and must so remain until the health work of the schools is put upon an or- ganized basis. CLASSROOM WORK. The regular study of physiology and hygiene is taken up as science reading at the middle of the seventh year. Krohn and Crumbine's Graded Lessons in Physiology and Hygiene is used as a text, and supple- mentary reading is added. Two twenty-five-minute periods per week during the second half of the seventh year and all of the eighth year are 108 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. given to the study. In the recitations visited the text was read aloud, without preparation, paragraph by paragraph. After the reading some pupil was asked to summarize the material of the paragraph. Then followed questions and general discussion. The pupils came to the text, which is an excellent one, with open and unsated minds, and were inter- ested in the reading. Teachers were working with the pupils rather than for them. By this free-and-easy method discussions of health and sani- tary matters were stimulated. Occasional reviews are given, one of which was observed. In this the pupils showed not only real interest in the subject but knowledge of it. This class and social study led the pupil and teacher to get together in more effective team work than in the set recitation. In many ways the best teaching the writer observed in the whole system was in these classes. Shortened periods and lack of provision for outside preparation, however, necessarily prevented problem study or extended laboratory work. Yet as a whole it may be stated that the evil effect of subordinat- ing the study of hygiene to less fundamentally important ones like formal arithmetic and technical grammar was minimized, if not nullified, by the excellence of the pupil-teacher team work and the generally effective teaching found. MEDICAL INSPECTION. While the work in physiology and hygiene given was properly di- rected towards a study of health and its requirements, there was a com- plete omission of any effort at medical inspection.* This was not due to any lack of vision on the part of the school authorities. Its need was recognized by the superintendent and principals and its adoption recom- mended. But as in many other cities, the board was slow to act and the community indifferent or hostile. This indifferent or hostile public attitude, which is not peculiar to Leavenworth, makes it worth while to discuss briefly the general propo- sition of medical work in the schools. While medical inspection of school children is new in the United States, it has passed beyond the experimental stage. It is "a movement national in scope in England, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Japan, Australia and Tasmania. It is found in the more important cities in Denmark, Russia, Bulgaria, Egypt, Canada, Mexico, the Argentine Republic and Chili. In the United States regularly organized systems are in force [1911] in nearly one-half of the cities [443], while a beginning has been made in nearly three-fourths of them."i Dental inspection is carried on in nearly 200 cities, and 102 cities employ school nurses. Medical inspection laws have been passed in twenty states. The movement in this country started in Boston just twenty years ago, although it was then half a century old in European * This statement should be qualified as follows : On entrance to the schools the parents of the child are required to fill out a blank stating whether or not the child has defective sight, hearing, throat and teeth. This information is filed, and when defects are remedied a note is made of it. 1. Gulick and Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools. Published by Russell Sage Foundation, 1913. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 109 states. No other educational movement has ever spread so rapidly or justified itself more fully. The argument for medical inspection is definite and conclusive. The case is summed up by Dr. A. H. Hogarth, an English specialist, from the standpoint of the state, the school and the child: 2 ADVANTAGES TO THE STATE. "The state requires a physical census of the children for the discovery of unrecognized defects, partly with a view to the improvement of the national physique, and partly with a view to the preparation of all children for school life. It is also a national duty to arrange for the classification of children according to their mental capacities, and to adapt the educational system to the requirements of the several groups of children, in order to diminish the present economic wastage of mis- directed educational efforts." Messrs. Gulick and Ayers present the following pertinent statements regarding the case for the state : "The jurisdiction of the state in assuming the function of education and in making that education compulsory is to insure its own preserva- tion and efficiency. . . . But the well-being of a state is as much dependent upon the strength, health and productive capacity of its mem- bers as it is upon their knowledge and intelligence. In order that it may insure the efficiency of its citizens, the state through its compulsory educa- tion enactments requires its youth to pursue certain studies which ex- perience has proved necessary to secure efficiency. Individual efficiency, however, rests not alone upon education or intelligence, but is equally dependent on physical health and vigor. Hence if the state may make mandatory training in intelligence, it may also command training to secure physical soundness and capacity." ADVANTAGES TO THE SCHOOL. "It is the duty of the local authorities to protect the individual against communicable diseases in school, to supervise school buildings, and to se- cure healthy surroundings for the school child." Gulick and Ayers state in addition: "Teachers and parents are beginning to realize that the problem of the pupil with defective eyesight may be quite as important to the com- munity as that of the pupil who has some contagious disease. A child who is unable to^see distinctly is placed in a school where physical defects are unrecognized and disregarded; headaches, eyestrain and failure follow all his efforts at study. . . . Neither he nor his teacher knows what is the matter, but he soon finds it impossible to keep pace with his companions, and becoming discouraged, he falls behind in the unequal race. "In no better plight is the child suffering from enlarged tonsils and adenoids, which prevent proper nasal breathing and compel him to keep his mouth open in order to breathe. Perhaps one of his troubles is deaf- ness. . . . Public schools are a public trust. When a parent de- livers his child to their care he has a right to insist that the child under the supervision of the school authorities shall be safe from harm and shall be handed back to him in at least as good condition as when it entered school." 2. Medical Inspection of Schools, p. 78. 110 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. ADVANTAGES TO THE CHILD. "Owing to ignorance, neglect, or apathy on the part of parents, it be- comes a requirement of the merest humanity to bring medical aid and special educational methods within the reach of the individual child." To which may be added from Gulick and Ayers : "The child himself has a right to claim protection. The child has a claim upon the state and the state a claim upon the child which demands recognition. Education without health is useless. It would be better to sacrifice the education if, in order to attain it, the child must lay down his good health as the price. Education must comprehend the whole man, and the whole man is built fundamentally on what he is physically." . Also: "Communities are seeing the whole matter in a new light. Gradually they are beginning to ask, not whether they can afford to take steps to safeguard in schools the welfare of their children, but whether they can afford not to take such steps. The realization is dawning that it is un- businesslike to count carefully the cost of the school physician, but to disregard the cost of death and disease, of wrecked hopes and dependent families." Additional facts are brought out, to show the need of medical in- spection, by Dr. Louis W. Rapeer in a conservative statement of national and school health losses in the United States each year. According to his analysis, based upon excellent authorities, 670,000 persons die each year of reasonably preventable diseases, entailing an economic loss of over a billion dollars. There are constantly about 3,000,000 persons seriously ill in the United States, largely of preventable diseases, causing an economic loss of another billion dollars. A very large number of other persons suf- fer from minor ailments which lower their efficiency and cause absence from work, which makes a further very large economic loss. The school health losses are also shown to be appalling. Sixty-five thousand school children die each year, at least 40,000 of reasonably pre- ventable diseases. In addition, ill health and physical defects function largely in causing about 15 per cent of the eliminations, 16 per cent of nonpromotions and 17 per cent of retardations of the school children. DISEASES AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN. Another phase of the problem appears when we examine the figures showing the actual presence of diseased conditions among school children. The English inspectors report that 80 per cent are suffering from de- fective teeth, 50 per cent are affected with vermin or other parasitic conditions, 20 per cent have defective vision, and 10 per cent are retarded in their educational progress by physical defects such as anemia, general debility, and deafness resulting from adenoid growths or discharging ears. Doctors Gulick and Ayers estimate that for the United States, in the average city school system, about 65 per cent of the children have physical defects serious enough to warrant treatment by a physician, oculist or dentist. Nearly 85 per cent of all these defects are those of teeth, throat, eyes and nose. Taking the most serious of these defects that of sight the examina- tion of hundreds of thousands of school children has shown that from one- SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. Ill tenth to one-fourth suffer from defective vision serious enough to inter- fere with efficient work and permanently to injure their eyes. Defects of hearing are almost as serious. And "most important of all, only a small minority of these defects of sight and hearing are discovered by teachers or known to them, to the parents or to the children themselves." Another fact to be borne in mind is that these defects are not con- fined to the children of the poor. They are almost equally numerous among children of well-to-do parents. And in medical inspection where follow-up methods are used in addition to notification of parents, the percentage of treatments obtained is as great among the poor as among other classes. Mere notification secures treatment in 11 to 50 per cent of the cases, while follow-up methods frequently secure treatment in 75 per cent of the cases. In England treatment is secured in 20 to 70 per cent of the cases, averaging about 50 fc per cent. THE SCHOOL NURSE. The follow-up methods can be used effectively only where the board employs a school nurse. Her duties do not end with the schoolroom; they merely begin there. The case for the school nurse has been well summed up as follows (Gulick and Ayers Medical Inspection of Schools) : "She is the teacher of the parents, the pupils, the teachers and the family in applied practical hygiene. Her work prevents loss of time on the part of the pupils and vastly reduces the number of exclusions for contagious diseases. She cures minor ailments in the school and clinic and furnishes efficient aid in emergencies. She gives practical demon- strations in the home of required treatments, often discovering there the source of the trouble, which, if not discovered, would render useless the work of the medical inspector in the school. The school nurse is the most efficient possible link between the school and the home. Her work is immensely important in its direct results and far-reaching in its in- direct influences. Among foreign populations she is a very potent force for Americanization." It is not to be supposed that any sort of medical program can elimi- nate all the needless losses from death and ill health; nor is it to be ex- pected that any sort of medical inspection or hygienic development will prevent all the illness and death losses among school children. The enormity of the problem, however, should not deter us from making an effort. Germany and Sweden have succeeded in decreasing these losses much below our own. England has organized her efforts to build up the general health scientifically. Every civilized nation is attacking the problem. In the United States three-fourths of our cities (722 in 1911) are realizing the seriousness of the problem and the greatness of the oppor- tunity for the schools, by making at least a beginning in medical inspec- tion. Leavenworth can not afford to lag behind. The need is not less than elsewhere, nor the poverty of resources greater. A beginning should be made next year. POSSIBILITIES IN LEAVENWORTH. After canvassing the local situation, there appear to be four possible methods of approach : free medical inspection, the employment of a part- time or all-time physician, the nurse-alone plan, or a combination. 112 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. In regard to the first it may be stated that a few years ago a proposi- tion was made by the local medical society to examine all pupils free of charge. It was not organized, however, and there was enough general opposition to lead the Board of Education to neglect or refuse the offer. Such an arrangement could probably still be made. Inquiries among physicians indicated that they would gladly undertake it. Free inspection, however, can never go far. Moreover, it has several dangers that need to be carefully safeguarded. Inexperience and in- efficiency in the particular sort of work required, professional jealousy and selfishness, parental objections, and the question of free treatments, have sometimes led to trouble. It may not be the best way to begin, but it is one way; and once started it is not likely to stop. Most new school enterprises have started in tentative and often charitable ways and were so managed until public support could be obtained. If the work were started with free inspection there is little doubt that results could be obtained which would make the public glad to pay for more complete and efficient examination than any free agency could give. The second method would be to employ a specially trained physician for all of his time, or two or more part-time physicians who could give one to three hours a day each. ^A physician who is expert in this sort of work is able to command a larger salary than the present situation would warrant the board paying in Leavenworth. So regular physicians would have to be employed on part time. This would be preferable to free examinations, but would have definite limitations. Little remedial or follow-up work could be attempted, though this is the most valuable kind of service medical organization can render to the schools. The nurse-alone plan would be superior to either of the first two mentioned for Leavenworth. A competent and scientifically trained nurse could be employed as cheaply as the part-time physicians. She could go from building to building, making tentative examinations, treat- ing incipient and simple cases, and recommending doubtful cases to the family physician. Some contagious and infectious diseases could then be headed off and certain epidemics prevented. She could train teachers to more careful and expert observation and aid in more prompt action. Cases could be followed up by visitation to the homes of some of the children, where parents could be advised regarding methods of prevent- ing the spread of disease and of treating simple maladies. The fourth plan is the only complete and wholly satisfactory one. It would consist in the appointment of the expert physician, to be aided by a specially trained nurse. The physician could organize the inspection and examination of school children, advise the school architect and Board of Education regarding sanitary matters, direct the teaching of hygiene, aid the physical director, and correlate all the health agencies of the schools. The nurse could aid in the ways previously mentioned, and is particularly useful in making effective the recommendations of the phy- sician. This complete program would be more expensive to start, but would more fully justify itself in the end. Whatever is done at present should look forward to this plan as an ideal. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 113 PLAN RECOMMENDED. After canvassing the local situation and discussing it fully with other members of the Survey Staff, the writer is ready to recommend that for next year the nurse-alone plan would probably be best for Leavenworth. The work in hygiene needs to be organized fully and effectively. To employ a physician with the requisite special and technical training for this purpose would cost more than the financial situation would warrant at present. A nurse could make a beginning of this organization and enlist the aid of the medical fraternity. As the opportunity appears, medical examinations could be added and the other phases of school hygiene correlated. When experience has justified additional expendi- ture and knowledge has opened the way for complete organization, a trained supervising physician can be employed to coordinate all the phases of school health work and administer them efficiently. Great care, however, should be shown in employing a nurse, since her work would be not only technical but administrative and constructive. It would not be less important and responsible than that of one of the build- ing principals, and the salary should be fixed accordingly. This program may well be undertaken with the opening of the autumn term. 8 114 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER XVII. LANGUAGE. Minnie E. Porter. TRAINING in the use of language means training in self-expression. The teaching of language has taken on a new and wider significance with the modern view of education the development of the individual child through the expression of self in a social situation. A child is the one who expresses himself to others through the medium of language and the one to whom others give expression of their own impressions or experiences. A child is both creator and interpreter. As a reader or a listener the child adds to his life experience, with its limitations of age and circumstances. But the experiences into which he enters imaginatively through reading may be none the less vital than those which he lives in reality. It is to these experiences, both real and imaginary, that he desires to give expression. The simplest form of social expression for a child is his own language. In this report reading is considered in a separate chapter, but the relation of reading to the life experience and the self-expression of the child has been constantly kept in mind. STANDARDS. Motives for training in the use of language arise from the language needs of boys and girls. These needs are real, not imaginary. The ability to state his own case, to make himself understood, to share an interesting experience with others, are real needs of any pupil. But all of these needs imply social relations. The need of complying with ac- cepted standards of good usage in the matter of language is as impera- tive for a boy as are neckties and other matters of conventionality in dress. No boy will wear a necktie tied in the back, because he must conform to what is customary among his mates. In the matter of lan- guage, the problem for the teacher is one of establishing common social standards within a group of immature pupils. With such motives as a basis of effort in the effective use of language, the pupil necessarily acts upon his own initiative. The conditions of effective expression demand that he decide upon what he wishes to express. Whatever the case may be, the occasion must be a real one, the audience or reader a real one, and the boy's idea must be his own, if he would express himself clearly and forcibly. If the pupil is in earnest he begins a process of evaluation. If his idea, the statement of his own case, is to be made effective, he is forced to decide what to say and what not to say. This process of evaluation is not carried on successfully unless the reader or the audience is taken into consideration. The successful presentation of his own case, or the narration of a story, is not possible without organization. The pupil must decide upon SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 115 what comes first, what is of greatest importance, and what shall be the conclusion of the whole matter. The simplest writing or speaking, to be effective, must show consideration of beginning, middle, and end. THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE. With these standards set up for the teaching of language, what is the teacher's place? What is her service? This teaching of lan- guage is not concerned with drill upon facts about language, with definitions in grammar and rhetoric, but it is concerned with actual doing as contrasted with acquiring knowledge of facts about language. Take, for example, the definition, "A sentence is a group of words ex- pressing complete thought." This is a fact about language. Pupils of Leavenworth are being drilled upon this definition in all grades, from grade four to the second year in High School. Drill upon this definition for six years has not aroused a consciousness of the meaning of the word "complete" as it is applied to a sentence. With a class of first-year pupils in High School a teacher was observed struggling with this diffi- cult problem in oral composition. In the actual doing, the problem is simple. We decide to say something about something, and when we have done this thing there is a consciousness of completeness, of unity, of a purpose fulfilled. The definition of a sentence, the statement of a fact about language, has no value apart from its application the use of a sentence as a unit in speech. The consciousness of a sentence as complete arises from the use of sentences in the real expression of the child. If knowledge of the facts about language, including grammatical structure and rhetorical principles, remains abstract cut off from ap- plication to the pupil's own language, which is free and spontaneous then the teaching of language will be termed in this report formal, as distinguished from that which is real and vital. The first essential, then, is the establishment of habits of correct and of effective expression, for the child himself, as he is called upon to meet the social demands of writing and speech. This standard is to-day one which the teaching of language has as its goal in the elementary school? This period of learning by doing reaches to the end of grade six, which is now looked upon as the real transition between elementary and secondary education. In the program outlined for the teaching of language in Leavenworth this purpose is emphasized in grades four, five and six. In addition, the program provides for a systematic study of formal grammar and for training in composition in grades seven and eight. There is in Leavenworth, at present, a movement toward the study of the problem of language teaching above grade six as one which presents problems more closely related to those of the High School than to those of the elementary school. This report on the teaching of language in Leaven- worth is based upon the division at the end of grade six. 116 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE IN GRADES FOUR, FIVE AND SIX. This report involves (1) an examination of the program outlined for these grades, (2) a study of the methods of teaching, and (3) an estimate of the results obtained. The program has been examined for the purpose of determining what provision has been made for training (1) in the art of self-expression both orally and in writing, (2) in the use of correct grammatical forms as habits of speech, and (3) in the knowledge of the technique of the English sentence as "the structural unit in the use of language." The methods of teaching have been studied in the written reports of the teachers, in conferences with them, and in the observation of actual work of teachers in the classrooms. The results obtained have been estimated by means of a study of the oral expression of the pupils during these observations, and by means of an examination of one hundred fifty compositions written by all of the sixth-grade pupils in Leavenworth in May, 1914. The recommendations which are contained in this report are made on the basis of the study of actual conditions and problems. Owing to the limitations of time which have necessarily been placed upon these observations, and to the lack of comparative data upon which conclusions may be based, this report should be considered as suggestive rather than conclusive. THE COURSE OF STUDY. The examination of the program outlined for the teaching of language shows that the state textbooks, Scott-Southworth's Lessons in English, have been made the basis of the work Book I in grades four and five, and Book II, pp. 1-78, in grade six. The emphasis in the textbooks is placed upon the training of children to talk and to write freely about things which they know. The outline in the textbook for composition work includes letter-writing, story-telling, and the recording of obser- vations made in the study of plant and animal life. A recommendation made in the program outlined for grade five reads as follows: "Never allow the children to write upon a subject until they are full of it. The way to get full of a subject is by personal, active and living investigations. This will lead you out of the schoolhouse and into many places in and around the city, but it is the only way to get the best for the children. In such investigations, of course, you will proceed by some previously outlined plan." A provision has here been made for the communication of vital im- pressions and experiences, which are characterized by a personal feeling for the facts and the images to which the child desires to give expression. The outline also provides for training in the conventional use of language in grade four as follows: the proper oral and written use of ordinary singulars and plurals, possessives, and case forms of personal pronouns. In grade five this drill is continued, and additional training is provided in the use of singular and plural verb forms and of the prin- cipal parts of ordinary verbs. Training in the conventionalities of written composition includes the use, by habit, of capitals, periods, question marks, quotation marks, and the comma, of address, word series, and inverted phrase. In addition to this provision for training in the habitual use of correct SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 117 forms in oral and written speech, training in ' the knowledge of the technique of the English sentence as the structural unit of composition is outlined as follows: For grade five: "To have the subject concept, the predicate concept, the object, and in a general way the modifier concept." For grade six: "To review sentences with respect to the four forms. To fasten the subject and predicate concepts, both the simple and com- plete. To study the phrase modifier and the clause modifier and build them into sentences. After building the sentence, to analyze it into its parts, and diagram. Use the pupil's own composition as illustrative matter in classifications, building, analyzing and diagramming. But such matter must be his own composition, not written for the purpose." Provision has thus been made, before the end of grade six, for a study of the technique of the English sentence, simple or complex, as it is related to the pupil's own composition. The application of this knowl- edge of the technique of the English*" sentence to the self-expression of the pupil is fundamental in all training in the use of oral or written language. At the end of grade six, according to the program outlined, the pupils in Leaven worth have been taught to classify words according to their respective functions in the sentence; to recognize the case forms cf personal and relative pronouns; to use the principal parts of ordinary verbs with has and have ; to recognize the singular and plural forms cf ordinary verbs; to recognize the subject, the predicate, the object; to recognize phrase and clause modifiers; to analyze and diagram simple, complex, and compound sentences. EXAMPLES OF THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE. One teacher was observed in a class of fourth-grade boys and girls. This teacher kept the interest alive and the pupils active in a review lesson on nouns, adjectives, and verb forms. The lesson was marked out from other lessons observed as being, not a memory drill and review of these topics in formal grammar, but a lesson in application, in which nouns and verb forms were discovered as necessary in the real language of pupils. The boys and girls enjoyed a lively conversation about sub- jects of interest in the classroom and in their activities outside. One little girl who wore a bright pink dress heard the sentence, "Mary's pink dress is pretty." The correct tense forms of verbs were made necessary as pupils were busy telling of their activities. The writer learned about a ball game: "Updegraff was playing ball last Saturday." This training v/as not limited to the conversation. News items were, likewise, written upon the blackboard. Of the lessons observed, this was one of the best examples of the careful work of the teacher in building habits of correct speech into the free, spontaneous language of children. Such work may be contrasted in its effectiveness with the formalism in teaching in which another followed with the pupils an outline of nouns and adjectives on the blackboard : "Mary may begin." (Mary rises.) "You may give me a noun in the plural." The noun is given correctly. "A noun ending iu y." The plural of a noun ending in y is given correctly. "You may name some adjectives for me." 118 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Could a boy or girl think that those adjectives would be useful to that teacher? Such work remains purely formal and abstract. It is ac- complished without any real motive behind it. The writer observed a lesson upon the essentials of a sentence (Les- sons in English, Book II, page 12). The class consisted of eight boys and six girls in the sixth grade. The lesson began with a review: TEACHER: What is a sentence? PUPILS : A group of words making complete sense. TEACHER: A large tree is a group of words. Is it a sentence? PUPIL: No. TEACHER: Make it a sentence. Assertive, interrogative and imperative sentences, with examples of each, were readily but uselessly given by the pupils. The new work for the day's lessons was then undertaken. The teacher had prepared on the blackboard a group of sentences. The pupils, in turn, were asked to go to the blackboard and mark subject and predicate, simple subject and predicate, and modifiers, as follows: The leaves of the tree fall every autumn. Sentences in the textbook were studied in the same manner. The boys and girls in this class were interested for two reasons: They enjoyed the mental and physical activity of going to the board to mark the essentials of the sentences; they were pleased to be able to correct the mistakes made by their mates. Yet the work showed no opportunity of initiative on the part of the pupils in the use of lan- guage. The teacher had made plans and was in the foreground during the recitation. The teacher and pupils, however, were working together in a happy personal relation. The pupils were willing to work, and from the standpoint of formal instruction and the acquisition of formal subject matter the results would be considered highly satisfactory. Yet no application was made to the real needs of these pupils for training in language, although the teacher explained to the writer that few of these boys and girls would go to High School and some would not finish the eighth grade. In this group of fourteen it would have been quite possible for the teacher to find in the compositions of these pupils examples of their failure to recognize the essentials of a sentence. A teacher need not look far to find, in the language of the sixth-grade pupils, two types of failure in sentence structure: (1) a part of a sentence set off by a period as if complete, and (2) a sentence which runs on and on because the pupil does not feel the sense of completeness when he has said the one thing which he intended to say about his subject. The difficulty of applying to writing and speech the knowledge that a sentence is a group of words making complete sense does not arise from an attempt to write a single isolated sentence, nor is the difficulty to be found in the recognition of the essentials of a sentence previously constructed for the pupil. In order to teach the sentence as the structural unit in the use of language, it is necessary that it be taught as a unit in com- position in which the writer expresses himself with freedom and spon- taneity. Thus the sentence becomes a unit in a discourse which moves easily from one thought to another. It is a structural unit which functions as a part of a larger unit of discourse, the whole composition. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 119 COMPOSITION IN GRADES FOUR, FIVE AND SIX. As a means of determining the nature of results obtained from the teaching of language in grades four, five and six, compositions of one hundred and fifty pupils, representing the total number of pupils in grade six, have been examined. The compositions were written for this purpose, in May, 1914, upon subjects of interest to pupils in Leaven- worth. The papers were submitted jvithout correction by the teachers. The papers were read at first for the element of human interest, which depends upon the individuality shown in the expression of the pupils. While this element was not entirely absent in the work of any group of pupils, yet the results from different groups showed so much variation in the degree of self-expression that an attempt has been made to rank the work of these groups according to the element of human interest. In the tabulation this order is observed. The first column shows the work of the pupiTs from Lincoln, one of the colored schools, in which the element of human interest is strongest. A second reading, from which notes were carefully made, was under- . taken with a view of determining the fundamentals of technique which showed the greatest variation in the work of the pupils of grade six. An analysis of the results of this reading suggested that two points would serve as guides in determining the nature of the results obtained on the basis of the program outlined for the attainment in composition at the end of the sixth grade. The two points determined upon as those which would show the application of knowledge of the simple technique of the sentence in the written composition of the pupils are as follows: (1) the ability or failure to recognize a sentence as a group of words expressing a complete thought; (2) the ability to use, in connected discourse, a complex sentence. The papers were read for the third time, and a count was made as follows: (1) Each paper in which a single failure occurred in the recognition of a complete sentence was counted a failure on that point. The number of such failures in one paper was not considered. (2) Each paper in which one or more than one complex sentence was used, was credited for that point. The results of this study apply to Leaven- worth alone. The lack of comparative data on these points makes it impossible to reach any conclusion about the results of the effectiveness of the teaching in Leavenworth as compared with that of other cities. It is hoped that the results shown for the schools in Leavenworth will suggest to the teachers the possibility of determining the reasons for the variations. The test is simple, and covers but a few points in the study of a problem so complex as that of English composition. The results of this study are submitted in Table XXVIII: TABLE XXVIII. Total. Lincoln. Sumner . Morris. Oak Street. Third Avenue. Frank- lin. Maple- wood. Number of compositions examined . 150 7 10 23 28 ' 43 17 22 Per cent of pupils who had all sen- tences complete 63 50 74 46 84 46 73 Per cent of pupils who used one complex sentence 80 43 100 83 82 95 94 36 120 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. The results of this test may be interpreted by representative ex- tracts from the pupils' compositions. For example, the result shown in the column for the Lincoln School may be interpreted by the follow- ing quotation from a boy's theme. The selection is marked by the joy and power of self-expression and by the element of human interest. It is lacking in the technique of the structure of the sentence. A boy threw his line in the lake and fl snake, made him leave his line, he ran all around the bank hunting for a stick to kill the snake with and he killed the snake and laid it on the track and the train cut its head off. and when he pulled up his line he had a crawdad and he took its tail for bait. There is no doubt that this boy, with real, vital impressions and a story which had stirred him, has taken delight in expressing himself sincerely. By expressing himself with freedom and spontaneity he has made an ap- peal which is true to human nature. His story shows a movement from the beginning to the climax of the reader's interest. He has interwoven two related incidents successfully. These qualities, which characterize genuine literary expression, must be preserved in his work. The writing, of course, is lacking in the technique of sentence structure. He has a number of ideas to be expressed; each is complete in itself. But these ideas are also related ideas, some of which are subordinate to others. These are the problems in technique for the instruction of the teacher. Any attempt to improve the technique of this work must be undertaken by the teacher with a view of preserving the qualities of expression which make a strong human appeal. Contrasted with the example just quoted is one which is representative of a column ranking high in the technique of the sentence but low in human interest or in self-expression. Note the sperficial tone of children who write of a trip to Pilot Knob after this fashion : We had much benefit by the trip. Our teachers were very anxious to have us get all the good out of it so we would be able to write on it. We were very tired but when we got our. lunch we felt much better. And started our afternoon work. We ate our dinner and then after a little rest we were ready for our afternoon work. We went to the Knob for a grammar and geography lesson and to get specimens for drawing. These pupils show some mastery of technique, but their composition work presents greater difficulty in the way of improvement than does that of the boy who writes the snake story. Spontaneity has been lost. The expression is insincere and artificial. Another column shows (1) little expression of self; (2) a knowledge of the sentence as a complete thought; (3) a high percentage of pupils who did not use a single complex sentence. The following quotations will serve to show the immaturity of the pupils in their use of the sentence. The two quotations were selected because they show the level of uni- formity which was characteristic of the work of more than twenty pupils. (1) We have an ice cream social the latter part of each year. Our ice cream social will be May 26th this year. The Huffman Music Co. will come out to our school grounds. We can have music. We have it on the school grounds. We have a large yard. The north, side of our school grounds has grass on it. We also have large shade trees. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 121 (2) We have our Ice cream Social the latter part of every year. This year it will b< 26th, 1914. \Ve have a lar^c y:n\l, and also very nice grass. We have several large shade trees. We have our tables under our shade trees. These quotations are additional evidence of the result of teaching formal technique and the failure to apply the knowledge of the use of phrases and clauses to the real language of the pupil. One column, which represents work strong in technique, with some element of human interest, shows the results from the compositions of pupils who wrote upon the "Autobiography of a Penny." Such a subject is artificial and of doubtful value. These pupils might have done better with a subject which approached more nearly the demands for genuine self-expression. In contrast with the simple undeveloped sentences just mentioned, these quotations show soirie maturity in composition: While I was lying under the window for almost two weeks, I was stepped on by a man who put me into his pocket and said, "I think this will bring good luck to me." The boy thanked the man for me and then took me into a bakery and bought a cake for his dinner. I am still in the bakery and am very tired looking at cake and pie. I like best to travel around with little children from one store to another. One class, that made almost the same record as the one writing about the penny, wrote about the story hour in their school. Some of the pupils said that they like stories because they rest the mind. Others who were really interested told stories. The following extract shows the pupil's ability to carry forward the movement in the story. It also shows that this pupil is not always able to recognize a complete sentence as a structural unit in his story. The composition reveals the points at which he needs the help of the teacher to arouse in him a consciousness of the sense of completeness in a sentence. The Town Musician is a good story about a donkey that was going along the road braying because his master thought he was too old to work so he chased him ayay. When he thought of his good voice and said he would go to Brenan to be in the band. He then met a dog, a cat, and a rooster. Then they were resting when the rooster saw a light. They went over where the light was and the donkey looked in the window and saw some robbers. So they made a plan that the donkey should bray, the dog should howl, and the cat should mew, and the rooster should crow. The reproduction of a story which gives room for a play of the creative imagination of the pupil is one of the most effective means for the develop- ment of the use of language in these grades. The onward movement of the story in both oral and written composition tends to produce the sentence which runs on and on. It is in this work that the teacher finds it necessary to keep freedom of movement in the story, but to build into it the sense of the unity or completeness of a sentence. It is a difficult problem in these grades, but one which is fundamental. For the columns which show a knowledge of technique both in the unity of the sentence and in the subordination of one idea to another, the writer has selected, from some compositions about Pilot Knob, the follow- ing quotations. Each quotation shows that the application of knowledge 122 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. of the technique of a sentence is necessary to self-expression the aim of composition : Some of the children went to gather violets and saw a snake which they thought was a rattler. There were four of us girls who went into the woods where we saw a rattle snake. We caught some fish, shot some squirrels, and ate all the apples and peaches we could. The following quotations from an account of the pupils' visit to the Soldiers' Home show the same quality of self-expression combined with a mastery of sentence structure: There is a very large white flag pole on the highest hill from which the red, white, and blue flag floats. It is raised at sunrise and lowered at sunset. After the flag is down the men fold it up, but they are very careful not to let it drag. THE ORAL USE OF LANGUAGE. The oral use of language was judged by the following standards: (1) Is the use of language free and spontaneous? (2) Does it make the hearer acquainted with the individuality of the children as speakers? (3) Does the program show a provision for training in the habits of correct speech without inhibiting the real, vital use of spoken language? In the textbook and in the printed outline for grades four, five and six, oral composition is placed before written composition in the amount of time devoted to it and in the order of presentation. In grade four, one teacher used successfully language games which provide for the repetition of correct grammatical forms. Such a device may easily become mechanical. In this case, however, the attention of the pupils was centered upon the thought, the expression of which was demanded by the activity of the game. Repetition of the correct forms, with the attention of the pupil centered upon the thought expressed, furnished valuable training for the ear, which becomes a guide in the use of correct forms in speech. One form of oral composition which is being used in Leavenworth in these grades is story-telling. This form of training is well adapted to the child's interests during this period, and is a natural stimulus toward a growing freedom in self-expression. But story-telling is a creative art. The real story-teller will enlarge upon his story, will improvise and de- velop parts of the story as a composition which grows with the telling This real story-teller is able to adapt the story to the interests of hi& audience. During the time spent in the classrooms the children were asked to tell some of their best stories. The results obtained showed two types of training in story-telling. In some cases the children told stories in a manner which showed the art of a genuine story-teller, an art of free and spontaneous expression which may be easily developed in children under twelve years of age. In other cases the children recited, in a stiff, stilted, artificial manner, stories which had been committed. In one case the children recited, in order, parts of the story. In such cases the language was correct but formal, while in the case of the real story-teller the genuine language of the pupil revealed some of the same crudities of speech that are found in the language used in the snake story, previously quoted. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 123 In a class in grade five the pupils responded so readily with correct sentences in a drill in grammar that an attempt was made to test the effectiveness of this training in sentence structure in its application to the real language of the pupils. Some of the pupils were encouraged to tell stories of the early days in Leavenworth. One boy told a marvelous tale, which his grandfather had told him, about a man "who jumped clean across the creek." He became so much interested in his story that he revealed his real use of language. The teacher apologized for the boy's forgetting himself and consequently using such poor language. LETTER-WRITING. Letter-writing is a need felt by children from ten to twelve. The life of each school community creates demands for the writing of business letters. The principal of a building and the teachers attend to business letters for the school, which would "provide motives for letter-writing for their pupils. In one school, which purchased a victrola as a com- munity enterprise, there must have been sufficient business to call for a number of business letters in the raising of funds and in the purchase of the victrola. The teacher must have investigated the subject of the cost and the kinds of victrolas. This information might have been col- lected by the older pupils and reported to the school, orally or in writing. The principals and teachers frequently telephone to the superintend- ent's office for supplies or for necessary repairs. If the needs were anticipated, requests might be sent to Mr. Morgan, the clerk of the board, in the form of business letters written by pupils. These letters would call for specific description and explanation of the supplies or repairs needed. The request would be made effective by the statement of the reason that these things are necessary or desirable. In one school illustrative material for geography is collected. To do this it is necessary for some one to write business letters to many firms. These letters may be written by pupils. The replies from them will be studied with more interest than the models given in a textbook. There are a number of problems involved in the writing of these letters. The teacher helps the pupils in meeting them successfully, but she does not take the responsibility. These problems which arise for the boy and girl in the organized life of a school community, as well as in the world of affairs outside the school, will challenge a natural desire to meet real conditions and to achieve results. The subject matter of instruction in the use of lan- guage may be brought into the form of problems arising for boys and girls in many social situations found in the classroom, in the school community, and in the world of affairs. Herein lies a test of the teacher's skill. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GRADES FOUR, FIVE AND SIX. We recommend the elimination of formal grammar in grades four, five and six, but ample provision for training in habits of use of cor- rect speech, together with the mastery of the simple technique of the English sentence, as reasonable requirements in language study. In 124 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Leavenworth this recommendation will result in economy of time and effort which may be expended in more helpful pursuits. Some of the teachers have not yet recognized the social conditions in the school which provide motives and call forth the initiative of pupils in self-expression. As a consequence of this failure to recognize the influence, of the demands of the environment of the pupils, and on account of the traditional ideas of the teaching of grammar as a formal abstract subject, training in language falls below the standard: the development of the child, through the expression of self in a social situation. The variations noted in the tabulations of the results obtained in composition at the end of grade six suggest that they are not due primarily to the home environment of the pupils, but to the point of view of the teachers in regard to what constitutes effectiveness in lan- guage teaching. With the same untiring industry which character- izes the work of these teachers, but with a changed point of view, the teachers of Leavenworth have within their possibilities of accomplish- ment the achievement of a high standard in the teaching of language. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION IN GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT. Before the teaching of grammar had been observed, a simple test on fourteen points was prepared and given, in March, 1914, to all of the pupils in grade eight, numbering 137, and to 115 pupils who entered High School in September, 1913. In order to obtain some basis for comparison, the same test was given at approximately the same time to the eighth-grade pupils in Kansas City, Kansas, and Wichita. A total of 707 pupils of grade eight who use the same textbook were tested. DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING GRAMMAR TEST. This test is to be given by the regular teachers. Give plenty of time for the test. No explanation should be given to the pupil by the teacher for parts I and II. In part III the teacher should say to the class, "This exercise calls for the writing of one long sentence and no more. No certain number of words is called for, and the sentence will not be judged by its length." The answer to all questions are to be written upon the test sheet. GRAMMAR TEST. Name School City Boy or girl Age Date I. There is no man in Mexico whom the United States government now recognizes as the ruler of that country. (1) Name the verbs in this sentence. (2) What is the case of whom? (3) How is whom used in this sentence? (4) Name the parts of speech for the words italicized: 1. in 2. noir 3. that II. State the reasons which you have learned in the study of grammar for saying: "I have seen him" instead of "I have saw him." "Will you go with him and me?" instead of "Will you go with him and I?" SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWOHTH, KAN. 125 III. Write one sentence only. Let the subject of the sentence be your favorite hero, and let the predicate, with its modifications, tell the most wonderful thing this hero did. The points considered in the first two questions are indicated. In the third, five points were considered: (1) the use of the favorite hero as subject; (2) what he did used as predicate; (3) period at end of sentence; (4) beginning name of hero with a capital letter; (5) following directions by writing only one sentence. The test is simple. It does not cover many points in formal grammar which have been taught to these pupils. All of the fourteen points se- lected have been taught to pupils in Leavenworth at the end of grade six, with the single exception of the "use of whom" which is taught in grade seven. Five points test ability to classify^ words in the sentence as parts of speech : verbs of two kinds, preposition, adverb, and adjective. The adjective that was chosen because it is a word which may perform other functions in the sentence. The word whom was chosen because it is an inflected form a real case distinction as the language. Its use in a sentence must be understood. The tense form of the verb see and the case form of the personal pro- noun were selected for the test in order that it might be determined, if possible, how far these pupils are able to see some relation between their knowledge of formal grammar and the use of correct forms of speech. This test shows nothing of the knowledge of correct forms. This point was eliminated from consideration by the statement of the correct forms. The assignment of "Your favorite hero" was made in order to center the attention of the pupil upon his own thought while writing a sentence. Upon such a basis it was the aim to test his ability to apply knowledge of the essentials of the sentence and to test his consciousness of a sense of completeness in a sentence of his own composition. The papers of the pupils in Leavenworth were all scored by the writer, as were some of the papers in each of the other cities. The other papers were scored by two advanced college students at the Kansas State Normal School, under supervision. Each of these students has had experience in the teaching of grammar. The test leaves opportunity for few questions of judgment in grading. In the cases in which such questions arose they were referred to the writer for decision. THE RESULTS OF THE TEST. The general average, which is taken as a basis of comparison in Table XXIX, shows the per cent right on each point, in a total of 707 pupils in grade eight in three cities, including Leavenworth. No pupils of high- school grade were included in making up the average. The average, for each city shows the per cent right in the total number tested in that city. Although Leavenworth allows a greater amount of time for the teach- ing of grammar than is allowed in either of the other cities, the tabulation shows that it falls below the average in twelve points. In the column marked "High School" it is to be noted that these pupils fall below the pupils in grade eight in Leavenworth in eight points, but are above those pupils in six points which require thought. 126 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. TABLE XXIX. Tabulation of Grammar Test. Leav- en- worth. Kan- sas City, Kan. Wich- ita. Aver- age. Oak St. Mor- ris. Third Ave. Sum- ner. Lin- coln. H. S. 115 Number of pupils tested in grade eight, The verb is 137 329 241 707 26 23 . 74 6 8 97 97 100 98 100 100 94 100 100 95 The verb recognize 91 95 97 94 92 100 87 100 100 94 The case of whom 62 83 82 75 50 91 51 100 75 60 The construction of whom 17 55 48 40 56 23 17 19 To classify in 97 96 97 97 92 100 97 100 100 89 To classify now 92 97 94 94 85 100 82 100 100 68 To classify that 31 51 73 54 54 13 28 50 12 34 Tense form of verb see 39 65 39 48 38 27 37 100 25 32 Case of personal pronoun 41 72 73 62 23 43 47 83 12 49 Subject of sentence 95 98 96 96 96 91 94 100 100 96 Predicate of sentence 91 97 97 95 88 91 90 100 100 92 Period 89 90 96 92 85 91 89 83 100 83 Capital, .s 94 96 98 96 96 91 94 100 87 75 One sentence only 94 93 96 94 92 90 94 100 100 87 In the naming of the verbs in the sentence, the results throughout show that is is named by more pupils than the verb recognize. This variation suggests that is may be named as a result of memory drill, while the verb recognize demands a knowledge of the use of the word. The preposition in makes almost the same record as the verb is, and helps to strengthen the suggestion that the pupils succeed here as the result of drill in memory work. The adverb now shows that this point is more difficult than those mentioned. Oak Street, with a score of 85, and Third Avenue with 82, show that this point is difficult. But the first-year pupils in the High School make a score of 68, the lowest record. The adjective that and the "use of whom" presented the greatest diffi- culties of the points given in the test. These two points demand clear thinking upon logical relations in the matter of language. "That is an adjectivi Wchita Total average Oak Street Kansas City, Kan High School Sumner Leavemvorth average Third Avenue Morris Lincoln TABLE XXX. "Use of whom." . . 73 Morris 56 51 Kansas City, Kan 55 54 Wichita 4g 51 Total average 40 51 Third Avenue 23 . . 50 High School 19 31 Leavemvorth average 17 28 Sumner 1.7 13 Oak Street . . 12 Lincoln SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 127 The word that may perform other functions in a sentence. The average of 707 pupils tested in these cities shows that only 54 out of 100, or ap- proximately half of the number, were able to decide correctly upon the function of the word that as an adjective in the sentence given. But the wide distribution of the scores suggests that this variation may have re- sulted from differences in teaching instead of differences in abilities of pupils represented. In contrast, however, to the use of the word that, the use of whom, if it be understood, becomes a conscious standard for correct speech. The average of 707 pupils tested shows that only 40 out of 100, or consider- ably less than half, were able to give the use of whom. As in the case of the word that, the scores show a wide variation. The average for Leaven- worth is only 17 out of 100, although Morris made a score of 56, the highest in the list. Sumner makes a score of but 17, while Oak Street and Lincoln show zeros. The High School" pupils have a score of 19 out of 100. This tabulation indicates that the teaching of the use of whom is difficult for all; but it is an essential which is taught in Leavenworth with a variation in results from 56 to 0. The verb form have seen presents greater difficulties than does the case form of the pronoun. In the average for the verb form have seen, 48 out of 100 tested were able to give reasons; for the case form of the pro- noun, 62 out of 100. But here, as in the two points noted which require thought, there is wide variation : TABLE XXXI. "Have seen." Sumner 100 Kansas City, Kan 65 Total average 48 Leavenworth average 89 Wichita 39 Oak Street 38 Third Avenue 37 High School 32 Morris 27 Lincoln 25 "With him and me." Sumner 88 Wichita 73 Kansas City, Kan 72 Total average 62 High School 49 Third Avenue 47 Morris 43 Leavenworth average 41 Oak 23 Lincoln 12 It will be seen from the foregoing tables that in the case of Kansas City and Wichita, 72 and 73 out of 100 are able to explain the use of cor- rect form by means of their knowledge of the case of the personal pro- noun. In Leavenworth 41 out of 100 are able to use these facts of language as standards for correct speech. But these cities show that there is greater difficulty with the verb form. In them only 65 and 39 out of 100 are able to explain the correct form, and in Leavenworth 39 succeed. THE WRITING OF ONE COMPLETE SENTENCE. The last assignment in the test, to "tell the most wonderful thing your hero did," did not serve to carry some pupils from the formal mechanical sentences used in grammar drills. Such sentences as the following occur frequently : Columbus discovered Aim-rim. Lincoln freed the slaves. \Yashiriuton crossed the IVl;i\v;iiv. 128 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. These sentences are all of one type, and it would be difficult for pupils to make any mistakes who remembered that this was a test in grammar. In the five points tested the average was between 92 and 96, with but slight variation in either Leaven worth or in the cities A and B. Sumner and Lincoln show four perfect scores in four out of five points here. Sumner has 83 on period at the end of the sentence and Lincoln 87 on capitals. It may here be noted that failure to recognize the end of a sentence occurred more often in the work of pupils who expressed some- thing which showed their real interest in their heroes. One sentence written by an eighth-grade boy is as follows: Jack Tompson was a scout during the out-break with the Apache Indians, he scouted at night and day with an indian scout called, Mendez, killed four with his gun, and cut two with his sword in one evening. Two examples are chosen as representative of the work of pupils who fail to show a sense of completeness in writing a sentence. In each grade from the fourth to the second year in High School this definition is recited: "A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought." The first sentence was written by a boy, age 15, in the first year in High School, his tenth year in school: One day my faithful dog hero saw another boy kicking another small boy, and he ran up and bit the big boy on the leg, and the big boy stoped kicking the small boy and went away crying, much to the small boys satisfaction. The second was written by a boy 14 years of age, first-year class in High School, in his ninth year in school: Mark the news boy was standing on a street car one morning when looking around, he saw on the opposite car a frame house in flames, he heard a cry from a window and with the aid of a box he climbed into the house, in a few seconds he came running out of the house with a little child in his arms.* This test suggests that the pupils succeed in those points which de- pend upon formal drill and memory work. They are least successful in the points which require thought about the function of a word, as in the case of whom and that, and in those points which call for ability to relate their knowledge of grammar to correct forms of speech. If the habit of correct use of language be established by doing, rather than by studying facts about language, at the end of grade six, then grade seven may be considered the time to begin the really sys- tematic ordering of the facts of language gained by experience into knowledge of formal grammar. This is the view expressed in the second preliminary report of the National Committee. At present a review of grammar is given in the first year of High School or grade nine. The plan of distributing the work in formal grammar through grades seven, eight and nine, according to the increasing abilities of pupils to master this knowledge, is a suggestion of one means of meet- ing at present this problem of the intermediate school. COMPOSITION. When the amount of time and effort devoted to the teaching of gram- mar is considered, the results obtained are disappointing to its most hopeful advocates. But the amount of time devoted to the teaching of composition in grades seven and eight yields results that are encourag- * This sentence and the two preceding are given only as representative of types of faulty sentence structure. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. ing. Compositions written in May, 1914, by the pupils in the eight A classes have been examined. The compositions were written to give an account of the field meet in Leavenworth. They were written to give in- formation, and not as compositions or school exercises. They have been submitted without correction. The papers were first examined for the two points in the technique- of the sentence which were studied in the writing of pupils of grade six. The following tables, with a comparison of results obtained at the end of grade six and the end of grade eight, show that in two years pupils have acquired the use of the complex sentence. But one pupil, failed to use a complex sentence. Ability to Use a Complex Sentence. Oak Third Total. Lincoln. Simmer. Morris. Street. Avenue. At the end of grade six. . . 80 *-43 100 83 82 95 At end of grade eight 99 100 100 100 97 100 The sentences showed a mastery of a variety of means of subordina- tion. Relative clauses are used, but no pupil in grade eight made use of the relative whom in his composition. As this proved to be the most difficult point in the grammar test, there is a suggestion that the use of whom requires a more mature grasp of sentence structure than is found among pupils of this grade. There is a marked gain in ability to recognize a sentence as complete* Of the papers examined, one pupil made five errors on this point, one made four, one made three, five made two, and all others who failed on this point made but one error. In the following table it will be noted that a comparison has been made between the pupils of grade six and grade eight in their respective abilities to recognize a sentence as complete. There is also a compari- son of abilities of pupils of grade eight in recognizing a sentence as complete when it is a unit in composition, and the abilities of the same pupils when they are asked to write one, sentence only as in the gram- mar test. Percentages of Those who Recognize a Sentence as Complete. Oak Third Total. Lincoln. Sumner. Morris. Street. Avenue. End of grade six 63 50 74 46 84 End of grade eight 74 33 50 100 70 86 In grammar test 94 100 100 90 92 94 These results show that on entering High School in September, 1915, approximately one-fourth of these pupils must be trained to develop a sense of completeness as applied to a sentence when it . is a unit in composition. Another feature of the compositions written about the field meet, which show some maturity, is the development of the idea of a para- graph. The paragraphs are crude, but show a consciousness that some sentences should be grouped together because they tell about the same things. The plan for grade eight includes a systematic study of the paragraph. The textbook supplies the definition: "A group of sen- tences that belong together because they are all about one idea is called a paragraph." 9 130 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER XVIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES FIVE TO EIGHT. Ella V. Dobbs. HANDWORK in the elementary school serves two purposes. It may be an orderly progress in learning how to use tools and materials by accepted methods. In technical handwork chief emphasis is placed upon execution, and the pupil accepts its methods upon the authority of the teacher. Handwork may also be used as an illustrative factor in teaching other subjects, especially geography and history. Illustrative hand- work places emphasis upon effect rather than technique, and the worker is allowed free play for his ingenuity and imagination. Both types of work are needed in a well-rounded course. In the lower grades, while the undeveloped muscles of the children prevent great precision of movement, a large use of illustrative work tends to give a general acquaintance with materials, their properties and uses. A few technical processes are within the powers of first-grade children. The desire and need for definite control of tools increases year by year. These conditions suggest a large use of free work in the lower grades, with increasing emphasis upon execution until work of the technical type predominates in the upper grades. TECHNICAL HANDWORK. Technical handwork includes definitely organized courses in various materials, wood, paper, cardboard, metals, textiles, etc. Among these the school must choose that type of work which is best suited to the needs and ability of the children for whom it is planned, which will appeal most strongly to their interests and furnish the strongest motive for effort, and at the same time develop to the highest degree their ability to think and act independently. ILLUSTRATIVE HANDWORK. Illustrative handwork has neither time nor subject matter of its own, but is used by the regular teacher when it serves to present a topic more clearly. Its value depends upon the opportunity it offers for self-expression and self-directed activity. This value is lost unless the children are allowed to work out their own problems with a mini- mum amount of supervision and assistance. Illustrative handwork in- cludes the making of posters and booklets and small representations of interesting things described in the textbooks, such as the cotton gin, the first steamboat, the Merrimac and the Monitor, canal locks, ancient and foreign methods of transportation, tools and cooking utensils of other lands and other times; also sand-table representations of inter- esting scenes, industrial processes, and any topic which may be made more interesting or more intelligible through the use of concrete ex- pression. Two important considerations enter into the evaluation of a course SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 131 in handwork, i. e., that illustrative work shall be appreciated for its illustrative value and thought-provoking power without regard to its technical imperfections; and that technical courses shall begin with processes that the children understand and can perform with ease, and shall keep pace with their development in power to execute. HANDWORK IN THE LEAVENWORTH PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Handwork is provided for all students in the elementary schools of Leavenworth. In grades one to four simple exercises in paper and cardboard, weaving and basketry, are planned for boys and girls, under the direction of the supervisor of drawing. In grades five to eight the boys and girls work separately. Boys of the fifth grade have a series of exercises in cardboard. Sixth-grade boys have a course of knife work in thin wood. Boys of the seventh and eighth grades have*-bench work in the manual train- ing shop at the High School. Eighty minutes per week are devoted to these courses. In addition to these regular handwork courses, numer- ous projects in handicraft and applied design are given to both boys and girls in the four upper grades as a part of the work in drawing. The type of work throughout the courses is that already described as technical handwork. It bears the impress of both the sloyd and Rus- sian systems, and consists in each case of a definite series of exercises to be worked out by each pupil, the chief end in view being the mastery of common tool processes with a fair degree of skill. Until these proc- esses are mastered the pupils follow definite plans made by the teacher. After the tool exercises are completed, some freedom is allowed in the choice of projects to which these fundamental principles may be applied. These projects include match boxes, necktie racks, coat hangers, bird houses, book racks, taborets, and numerous other small articles which may be used in the home. A course in the reading and making of working drawings accom- panies the work in wood. The first exercises are made from working drawings made by the teacher on the blackboard. For the next group of exercises each pupil makes a copy of a working drawing which has been prepared by the teacher. For more advanced work each pupil makes a sketch of the thing he proposes to make, and from this sketch he makes a complete working drawing. In making a broad, general comment upon the work of this depart- ment, the writer would say that, with a few exceptions, all of the work that is being done is being well done. It accomplishes with fair satis- faction that at which it aims. And before any specific criticism of the various phases of the work is made, it should be stated that the gen- eral plan of work corresponds to and compares well with much, if not most, of the accepted type of work throughout the country. It has some features in which it is superior to the common practice. For ex- ample, the seventh- and eighth-grade boys have access to the very well equipped shop at the High School, where they work at the turning- lathe as well as the carpenter's bench, and become familiar with other machinery in use there. In a large percentage of manual-training sys- tems the grade pupils handle the carpenter's tools only. 132 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. GRADES FIVE AND SIX. The course for the fifth-grade boys consists of a series of small models in cardboard, such as a pinwheel, wall-pocket, calendar, blotter, handkerchief case, etc. In making these models each pupil draws di- rectly upon the cardboard the pattern which the teacher dictates. The article is then cut out, folded, and pasted or tied into shape. The course in knife work for the sixth-grade boys consists of nine small articles made from thin pine, with the working drawings which accompany them. The list of articles includes a thread or fish-line winder, a key tag, a paper file (hexagonal base), paper knife, picture frame, key rack, whisk-broom holder, match strike, and match box. For these defi- nite plans are prepared. The pupils copy the teacher's plan, first on paper and then on wood, adhering strictly to the dimensions of the original plan. The tools used in this course are a compass, knife, and tack hammer. A very convenient kit, designed and made by the supervisor, holds both tools and materials. One side of the kit serves as a drawing-board, and the other side as a cutting-board, which protects the desk from injury, the work being done in the regular schoolroom. Judged from the standard of technical handwork, these courses are open to question as to whether the subject matter chosen is of the form best suited to the needs and ability of the children for whom it is in- tended, and offers the strongest motive for their activity. The form of work chosen should not only meet these needs, but meet them more ade- quately than any other forms of work which might be used. It must not only get results, but get the best results. The use of a single tool in the sixth grade limits the possible opera- tions to be performed and confines the work chiefly to flat projects. To obtain variety in these some geometric forms are introduced involving operations which are difficult to perform with a satisfactory degree of technical accuracy. For example, the third model in knife work is a hexagonal piece of wood with a beveled edge an exercise in whittling which requires considerable skill if a high standard is maintained. The range of projects in flat work is limited, and interest demands the intro- duction of some models of the box type. It is difficult to make a well- fitted box in quarter-inch wood, even with a full set of tools. It is more difficult when the work must be done with a knife only. Two models of the course require fitted joints. The unprotected blade of a sharp knife is one of the most dangerous tools, and very unsafe for the use of unskilled hands. If the knife is not sharp, accurate work with it is impossible. The introduction of other tools would greatly increase the number of possible operations and would permit a more interesting type of projects, thereby strengthening the motive power of the work. The addition of the coping saw to the tools to be used would greatly increase the possible scope of the work. Coping-saw work offers opportunity for making mechanical toys, three-ply animals, balancing figures, and a great variety of projects which appeal strongly to the dominant interests of small boys and at the same time involve serious problems in mechanics. Mechanical toys offer a strong motive for good workmanship, since the toys must be SURVEY OP PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 133 well made or they will not work. Work of this type may be presented in a way which will call into action the child's best thinking powers. Its best values are lost when the pupils are provided with accurately pre- pared plans exclusively. It is often better to exhibit a toy which they will wish to make, and let them study its mechanics and work out plans of their own. Variety in methods and dimensions is greatly to be desired, and attention should be directed to the value of one solution over another through a comparison and criticism of results. These courses are also open to question through their lack of oppor- tunity for initiative. If it is accepted that technical handwork shall de- velop ability to think and act independently, the subject matter chosen must in some measure require the worker to compare, choose and execute upon his own responsibility. When a definite course is planned by the teacher, and the pupil merely copies jnodels, opportunity for this sort of development is very small. Granting that there is much to be gained in intelligently hearing or reading directions and executing them with faithfulness and accuracy, overemphasis on this point must tend to one- sidedness. The well-rounded course must allow for both factors. Fre- quently the same series of problems may be made more fruitful by pre- senting a blank model which the pupil is required to modify. For example, in the making of the paper knife which a questionnaire shows to be the most popular model in the sixth grade instead of requiring each pupil to copy one design, a variety of designs might be studied to find out which was most convenient and most serviceable. Sample knives brought from home would add to the general interest. After this study, each pupil might design and make a knife. While there probably would not be any very great variety in their designs, still each pupil would feel his product to be his own, into which he had put himself. This would add, also, to the motive power of the problem a point in which these two courses are weak. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GRADES FIVE AND SIX. The work of these two grades may profitably include work in paper and cardboard, such as the making of boxes, portfolios, writing pads, etc. Work of this sort offers abundant opportunity for applying and strength- ening the pupil's knowledge of number and measurement. It also offers a field for applied design. As far as possible, the pupils should be al- lowed to plan the articles to meet their individual needs and tastes. This does not mean that they should do as they please and be satisfied with low attainment, but rather that the teacher shall watch for and en- courage whatever fruitful ideas are expressed. Basketry and bookbinding are also types of work well suited to these grades. Some work in these fields is already being done in connection with drawing, and is greatly enjoyed by the children, as shown by their answers to the questions, "What things in handwork have you enjoyed most?" and "What things would you like to make again?" Pottery is another type of handwork which offers problems well suited to the capacities of pupils of the intermediate and upper grades, and which can be easily adjusted to the conditions of the regular classroom. 134 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. It does, however, require a zinc-lined cabinet in which to keep unfinished work, and access to a kiln for firing. Work in the various materials used throughout the grades should be organized with a view to steady progression from year to year. For ex- ample, the making of simple booklets in the lower grades should develop into well-bound books in the upper grades. The informal use of paper and cardboard in the lower grades should develop, by easy stages into ac- curately constructed cardboard work in the fifth, sixth and seventh grades. GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT. In the seventh grade shop work is begun. The course includes a series of formal exercises in joinery, followed by practical application to such projects as a nail box and knife tray. Definite plans are provided for these, and each pupil works to the same dimensions, though each makes a working drawing of his own. The eighth-grade work includes a series of exercises in wood turning, followed by a series of projects in elementary cabinetmaking, such as footstools, taborets, book racks, etc. The boys who work in the shop take turns in taking charge of the tool room. This gives excellent practice in systematic care of the tools and a broad acquaintance with a variety of tools and accessories. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT. The emphasis in these courses is placed on accuracy and skill in tool practice, and some excellent pieces of work are turned out. The use of formal exercises at the beginning of the course is open to question, be- cause of their lack of motive power and opportunity for initiative. It is easily possible to select a variety of projects which have a strong appeal to boys of this age and which also embody the fundamental tool processes. These processes may be more effectively taught in the making of such a project than in an exercise which consists only in fitting two scraps of wood together. It is possible to arrange a group of projects for each problem in tool practice, and require that one project in each group be made by each boy. This allows for choice in line with the worker's in- terest. It also permits varying degrees of difficulty in execution, which may be adjusted to the varying capacities of the members of the class, while orderly and definite progress in the mastery of tools is still main- tained. Among the possible projects may be noted jumping standards, hurdles and other playground apparatus, kites, sleds, wagons, camp fur- niture, bird houses, water wheels and windmills, boxes for specific uses, and other things closely related to the daily needs of the boy. Many boys of this age are anxious to do things which are big and "grown up." In answer to the question, "What would you like to make?" there is a strong vote for tables, bookcases and porch swings. It may often be worth while to make large pieces which involve simple processes only, especially when made for a specific purpose. The making of a pine table of simple con- struction may be, in its place, as valuable a piece of construction as is the mortised table of oak at a later period. It is also well to seize upon the chance needs of the school, which offer SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 135 an incentive to service as well as practical experience in work which must serve a definite purpose. Tables, shelves and other conveniences for the classroom, looms for the younger children, and similar needs, offer oppor- tunities which justify breaking into the regular course of work for a time. The kits used by the sixth grade would have made an excellent problem, for example, if the need could have been foreseen long ejiough ahead for the classes to work upon them. Student work is necessarily slow, and the long intervals between lessons increases the time that must be allowed for the completion of a piece of work. A job of this sort, requiring dupli- cate pieces and accurate workmanship, offers opportunity for acquainting the boys with factory methods of division of labor and the time-saving process of specialization. The aquarium in the Oak Street School, built by the janitor, is another example. If built by the boys it might have given valuable experience in cooperative planning. A course in handwork should provide, also, for special needs, as in the case of pupils who work more rapidly than the average student. One l|oy was found working upon one of the beginning exercises, who explained that he had made a table, but as he had completed the course, there seemed to be nothing to do but start at the beginning and repeat it. Ability and industry which enable a boy to complete a course in less than average time should be rewarded and encouraged by advanced work of a particularly interesting type. It is a good time, when his wants are reasonable, to let him make what he "wants to make." It is suggested that the course be enriched by occasional projects based upon industrial problems of immediate interest, such as the building of miniature machines and mechanical apparatus. Such work, while neces- sarily crude and imperfect in its details, involves a serious study of fundamental principles and a careful adjustment of parts. For example, the beginners in shopwork in the sixth grade of the Horace Mann School in New York City made water wheels, different boys making different types of wheels. Later they set up a miniature factory with a number of small machines, each made by a small group. When the belts and shafting were all in place, a water wheel was attached and the power turned on. Needless to say, many trials were made and much studying of cause and effect was needed before the small factory was in good running order. Many visits to real factories were made, and all helpful literature studied with deep interest. Among other projects carried out in the same school were the building of a freight station of reinforced concrete, with tracks and cars, and the manufacturing of an electric street car, which was made to travel around a six-foot circle of hand- made track by power transmitted through a small handmade dynamo. Work of this type tends to awaken an intelligent interest in the big fundamental principles underlying mechanics and to stimulate a desire to know more and become more skillful. In these points it offers a better preparation for later study and practice in technical processes than much of the more formal work common in school courses. In the one the pupils are generally active, alert, thoughtful and resourceful. In the other they are often passive, waiting for directions, and they lean heavily upon the teacher instead of depending upon themselves. In this newer type of 136 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. work the pupil has a problem to solve and must bear much of the respon- sibility for its solution. It permits individual initiative and supplies a strong motive for work, because the pupil is able to express his own ideas freely and is interested in what he is doing. The older type of work is often formal and mechanical. It is often weak in motive power, and opportunity for individual initiative is almost wholly lacking, because the pupil has only to follow plans and directions prepared by the teacher. The teacher, rather than the pupil, does the thinking. Whether handwork is to be taught as a means of general culture or with a definite vocational aim, it will fail of its purpose if the thought side is neglected. The mechanic who works with his head as well as his hands is the man who succeeds. Unless the work is so planned that the pupil must think his way through a process, much of its cultural value will be lost. Mere ability to construct, under careful supervision, a hammer handle which is worth only a few cents in the market may be t a very empty accomplishment. On the other hand, a study of pat- terns and materials, followed by a choice of the most suitable, and the planning and shaping of the hammer handle to the needs of the person who is to use it, may bring about a brain-stretching which parallels the muscular development to be gained through the mastery of the tools. Whether these more important values are to be secured depends upon the method of teaching even more than upon the choice of sub- ject matter. It is further suggested that greater use be made of the type of work described as illustrative handwork. Such work is largely the province of the regular teacher, to be used by her when it offers the best means of effectively presenting a topic. Its value depends chiefly upon the extent to which the work becomes to each pupil a real problem in which he feels personal responsibility for the solution. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 137 CHAPTER XIX. PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES. Walter B. Smith. THREE kinds of physical training are needed in the grades. The first and most fundamental is play. The second is calisthenic or gymnastic drill. The third is corrective and remedial work. Each of these has its proper place and should be assigned that place in a well-regulated school program. In regard to the first of these, it may be said that play has always been regarded as the central feature of child life. Our schools long overlooked this primary fact. It was only recently, with the coming of the kindergarten and its influence upon the grades, that the basic principle of child development was given any proper place in the school curriculum. Even yet it makes its way slowly up through the primary grades, gradually losing its hold through the intermediate and advanced grades. And as this fundamental basis of child growth is lost sight of, the work of the school becomes less vital to the child's life, less effective in securing the child's interest and intensive effort, and more irksome to both child and teacher. No child wants to quit the kindergarten, few care to quit the primary grades, but as the child is gradually lost sight of in a logically arranged course of studies which we older people, from our superior heights, try to force down upon him, he loses interest, ceases to strive, and our national records show that at least seven out of eight drop out of our educational mill before they leave the grades. THEORIES CONCERNING PLAY. The attitude toward play which leads to our present varied treat- ment of it may be analyzed into three theories regarding it. The first is that it is dangerous an unavoidable evil which should be restricted as far as possible. The second is that it is natural, harmless and use- less, and that the child does not need training for it. The third is that it is a fundamental means of training for life, and hence it is the proper point of departure for all education. The first is puritanism and has been discarded; the second dominates the public mind and the traditional school; and the third has made the kindergarten, now rules the primary grades, and is rapidly revolutionizing the work of the upper grades. This broader view of play as the dominant characteristic of the child calls for serious treatment of it in every phase of school work. He takes play seriously, and if we take him seriously we must do the same. Every movement in dealing with the child must be from his central interest outwards. We must build upon what he is, not upon what we hope he is to become. We have learned this in teaching him the abstract subjects of reading, writing and numbers; but, strangely, after discarding the purely disciplinary idea elsewhere, we have clung to it in physical training, which is the most concrete and natural field 138 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. for avoiding it. Play should" be made the solid foundation upon which to build all physical education; but it is not generally so well founded in our public schools, nor, as we shall see, is it in Leavenworth. GYMNASTICS. The second kind of physical training to be expected is calisthenic or gymnastic drill. For this the body is divided up into sections and scientifically analyzed. A logical series of exercises is prescribed, which, if gone through with, guarantee the exercise of all parts of the body. Coordinated movements are arranged for and enforced by drill. These coordinations start in simple movements and grow complex as the pupil progresses. They call for concentrated attention, obedience, correct posture, and abundant and varied muscular and organic exer- cise. Used in proper proportion, and well taught, calisthenics form a valuable adjunct to play in physical culture. But there is constant dan- ger of the drill becoming mere drudgery, in which case the educational value largely disappears. Motives appealing to the child, and a moderate amount o initiative, must be obtained to keep the set exercises edu- cative. CORRECTIVE PHYSICAL TRAINING. The third type of physical training needed is remedial and cor- rective. Physical defects and constitutional weaknesses are generally enhanced by neglect. We prefer to exercise our strong muscles, organs and aptitudes to the neglect of the weaker ones. This may intensify the native weakness. To prevent such specialization, corrective work should begin while the pupil is young. Calisthenics and gymnastics, by exercising the whole human mechanism, are partly remedial, but they are not sufficient. The full purpose and value of physical-training work can not be realized until supervisors are able to give physical examinations and prescribe corrective work. Such examinations and prescriptions are frequently given in collegiate work. They are more needed in earlier years, but probably it is too much to expect of public schools that they do scientific corrective work at present. But physical training should look ever toward it as an ideal. We are now ready to apply these three tests play, calisthenics, and corrective gymnastics to the physical-training work of the Leaven- worth Public Schools. By them it is to be measured, not judged. THE COURSE OF STUDY. A careful analysis of the outline of work in physical training shows much that is commendable, but to harmonize it with the ideas previously advanced it needs revision at three points. Since these weaknesses, as the writer considers them, are quite general over the country, and are not eliminated in Leavenworth practice, they need to be pointed out. The first one is in the idea embodied in the use of the term "physical development." We have given up the term "intellectual development" as synonymous with education. It expresses only one phase of the broad significance now attached to the educational process. But physical train- ing is new in our schools, and the old, narrow conception dominates the public mind regarding it. "Physical development" indicates that a sound SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 139 body is all that is to be striven for in physical education. A strong and healthy body is eminently worth while; but true physical education means far more. It means the utilization of the youthful love of physical activity for education in its broader aspects. If we are to build our school pro- gram upon the child as he is and all our present educational theories demand that we do then wide use must be made of his love of play and exercise. Physical training reacts so intimately and powerfully upon mental and moral training that mere physical development should be only one feature of it. An adequate conception of the value of play is shown in the statement of the course of study for the primary grades, but this conception should be specifically dealt with when outlining physical education. The second feature of the outline needing revision is the "aims" of physical education. In the six aims stated in the course of study there is no hint of social or moral values to be obtained. They are previously pointed out with reference to the primary grades, however. Health, growth, order and exactness, alertness and quick reaction, endurance, are to be developed. Nothing is said about cooperation and fellowship, which can be more easily stimulated in team games than anywhere else in life. No mention is made of the primary ideals of loyalty, love or fair play, chivalry in victory and cheerfulness in defeat, which are the natural out- growth of a properly used playground. Nor is there any mention of obedience or self-control the largest educational returns from gym- nastic drill. The third revision needed is in the emphasis placed upon gymnastic drill. This might seem to be justified by the lack of playgrounds about the school buildings. But a closer analysis shows that to be one of the very reasons for shifting the emphasis. Most of our national and in- herited games call for a large amount of space. When this can not be had there is all the more reason for teaching games that can be used on small playgrounds and which call for the same coordinations, the same ingenuity and dexterity, the same mental, moral and physical powers demanded by the regulation games American children are in the habit of playing. Baseball, football, basket ball, dare base, running, leaping and throwing games, call for space. And, since this is not to be had in Leavenworth at present, children should be taught other games which pro- duce the same development that makes the above-mentioned games so valuable. Indoor baseball, volley ball, tether ball, basket ball and a large number of similar games now being taught in physical-training schools meet these demands. So the excuse generally offered by school authorities for placing most of the stress on calisthenics can not justify it. Simple gymnastic drill ten minutes a day is merely scratching the surface of a rich field of useful- ness. The school yard is properly mentioned in the course of study as the preferred place for these exercises, but the brevity of a ten-minute period might easily lead to the use of study rooms or corridors in place of the yard. The course of study might profitably be revised, much en- larged in scope and suggestion, and means of correlation with other phases of teaching work pointed out. This can easily be done without 140 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. sacrificing any of the idea of health and physical development. In fact, the effectiveness of physical training in promoting health and longevity depends to a large extent upon its harmonious adjustment to other phases of school work and the life that is to follow. FACILITIES IN LEAVENWORTH. Leavenworth has a well-trained and efficient part-time supervisor of physical training. Each room is met at least every two weeks. Several classes in calisthenics were observed. Some were directed by the regu- lar teachers and some by the supervisor. Also a full list of the ex- ercises prescribed for the current year from its beginning until April 1, including all the grades from one to eight, were examined. A typical one, to be practiced ten minutes a day for two weeks, follows : PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT. GRADE 7. DUMB-BELLS. LESSON 6. 1. HOPPING: Hop 011 the ball of left foot 8 times while making a complete turn to the left, quickly change on the right and turn right about, each in 8 counts. 2. Raise arms forward and lower (1-2). Same sideward and lower (3-4). 3. Raise heels and bells on shoulders and return (1-2). Dip left sideward and raise arms to the left sideward and return (3-4). 4. March forward 4 steps (1-4). Face left in 4 steps (5-8). Bells on shoulders (9). Straighten upward (10), on shoulders (11). Lower arms (12). Repeat arm exercise (13-16). Do 4 times. 5. Bells on hips (place). Lower trunk forward and straighten arms sideward and return (1-2). Elevate chest and straighten arms upward and return (3-4). 6. Point step and raise arms forward (1). Raise left knee and move arms sideward (2). Return movement (3-4). Same right (1-4). 7. Stride left sideward and bells on hips (1). Bend left knee trunk left and straighten arms upward (2). Return movement (3-4). Same to the right (1-4). GAME. Toss Chase Ball. Form a large front circle, standing close together. Medicine or basket ball may be used. A pupil stands in the center. Some one in the circle will have a ball, who will toss it to some one else. While this is done the one in the center will try and touch the ball ; if so, those two will change places, etc. Many of the exercises prescribed were quite properly without appa- ratus. Some were without the game at the end. The apparatus at hand consisted mainly of dumb-bells, Indian clubs, and wands. The games were generally very simple ones, not calling for thought or special inge- nuity, and were evidently given to produce an exhilarating finish to the less interesting drill. Simple games would be necessary if put at the end of a brief ten-minute period. No suggestion of alternating the game and calisthenics was observed, and the evidence indicated that the game was not featured as educational; nor was it given at all with any degree of regularity, as the writer found when he wanted to see one. THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL DRILL. The value of a certain amount of physical drill is not to be questioned, however, if taken under educational conditions. It is intensity of effort that develops. But it may well be doubted whether calisthenics as an end, given to the count of 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, without any motive, can produce intensity of effort, either mental, moral or physical. Yet drill, as a means to an end, can be made intensive, as shown by the annual field meets. They are given the last of April and provide an excellent temporary SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 141 motive. Competitive drills or public exhibitions have the same effect. But the pupil's interest in the perfection of the coordinations called for must be present to make the drill educative, and that is impossible while using calisthenics as the sole means, or health or rounded development as an end. The pupil, as pointed out by Dr. Frank A. McMurray, is not bothering about his health ; "he would be in an unhealthy state of mind if he were." He is not willing to put forth much effort for the purpose of obtaining a sound mind in a sound body. Activity, life, struggle, he loves. But the end must be in view, even as with an older person. Calis- thenics are useful in proportion as they can be organized so that the pupil may have a present motive or purpose, be allowed some decision and initiative, and work at all times with some desirable end definitely in view. This means that instead of being the foundation of physical edu- cation, gymnastic drill should be merely one of the pillars supporting the superstructure. CHANGES NEEDED. If the physical training offered in our schools and the Leavenworth schools are typical in this respect is to fulfill its highest purpose, three things need to be done. First, the periods should be lengthened. If time is at such a premium the periods might be put farther apart. It is stated in the course of study that this work is not to take the place of recesses, and it can not. So enough time should be taken each period to teach something worth while. Other recitation periods, even for the minor studies, are at least double the length of the period of gymnastics. And yet, if physical training is well done, who would maintain that it is of less importance than other studies of the curriculum? Lengthening the period, then, is the first essential of a more effective physical-education program. The second essential is that special rooms must be provided where the extra noise of this work will not interfere with other rooms, and where there is sufficient free space for marching, dancing and the more complex games. Fortunately, this can be done in several of the buildings, and is being planned for in the repairs to be made during the coming summer. The Staff are united in the belief that this is one of the prime essentials calling for the careful attention of the architect, the board, and the super- vising force of the schools. Little of the work really needed can be done with the present unsatisfactory provisions and equipment. The third essential is a revision of the emphasis placed upon the rela- tive values of the work offered as physical training. The play element must receive much more attention. Routine drill is merely the a-b ab, e-b eb of physical education. It has the same relation to physical culture that spelling drill has to reading, number drill to arithmetic, and date drill to history. Swinging an Indian club has little more educational value than swinging an ax or a hoe. The whole set of light-apparatus drill provides little more physical training than "doing the chores," and much less moral value. What is needed is stimulus and heroic effort. Compare them for a moment with the game of basket ball. Basket ball calls for speed, agility, manual dexterity, endurance, deep breathing, all sorts of coordinations and accuracy, and the exercise of every part of 142 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. the body. On the mental side it demands initiative, quick thinking, judg- ment, decision, and the varied technique of team work. On the moral side it requires control of the temper, fairness to opponents, cooperation with associates, and self-sacrifice for the good of the team. Every physi- cal, mental, and moral power is exercised intensively, educatively, and the pupil is trained in the sort of reactions called for in the social, politi- cal and business world. What is true of basket ball is true of other highly organized team games. But it may be said that this is too strenuous for a large number of pupils, especially the girls. Does not every teacher plead for intensive work along his line? Do not all boys and girls love strenuous work? Is not that the way they play on the playgrounds? Moreover, all do not need to play all the games. One of the great purposes of a supervisor is to see that they do not. Pupils may be graded in their games, as in other parts of the curriculum, according to their needs and abilities. Games, however, are not all. Folk dancing and other emotionally expressive physical exercises have all the cultural value attributed above to team games. They call for varied mental and moral as well as physical exercises. Intensive effort is obtainable. Motive, organization, initiative and physical self-control are all provided for. They are truly educative, and gymnastic drill can be only when founded upon the same child in- terest and calling for the same varied efforts present in the game and the folk dance. CORRELATION WITH OTHER STUDIES. Still another feature, already developed to some extent in the Leaven- worth schools, should be emphasized. Physical training should be corre- lated with other phases of school work. A nature-study trip into the country is excellent physical training. They are suggested in the course of study for grades 1, 2 and 3, but are as valuable later in the course. A walking trip to a track meet or baseball game or to the golf links, with explanations to pupils, is likewise educative. These stimulate an interest in physical training and health-giving exercises that will be carried into real life. Above all, the physical-training work should be linked up with playground supervision. What is taught in the classroom should function on the playground at recess time. The games should there be practiced under pupil initiative and control. Contests of various kinds, demanding all sorts of qualities, and graded according to size and strength and in- genuity, should be encouraged. School athletics and physical training should also be linked with the summer playground work recommended elsewhere. One of the interesting observations in Leavenworth was that two of the three large schools have almost no playgrounds. They are built upon city lots with just a few feet of space to the sidewalks. In each of these buildings the observer found a strong effort to cultivate the recess period. The grounds were well supervised, the teachers played with the children at times, and seemed to feel the same responsibility for the educational use of this time as of the other school time. With heavy handicaps, much was being done. The third of these larger buildings has ample playgrounds, being built near the center of a SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 143 whole block. This school was having no recesses at all at the time the survey was being made. This was doubtless temporary, but it indi- cated too little attempt to make use of the play instinct of the child in his education. Moreover, the patronage of this school is mainly of the middle and poorer classes, where the houses are small, lawns wanting, play space cramped, and home conditions frequently unfavorable. All these to- gether form a basis for the most effective use of play and other forms of physical training. School spirit and loyalty could be built up around the playground. The lack of brightness and cheer in many of the homes could be partly counteracted in the school. Many a boy and girl could thus be saved from dropping out of school and from going out into the life of Leavenworth unprepared to spend his leisure time in clean recreations or his work time in remunerative employment. Jacob A. Riis has truly said that "the boy without a playground is father to the man without a job." FORMING THE HABIT OF PLAY. While questioning the value of the emphasis placed upon drill in the physical-training work in Leavenworth, the writer is glad to point out that what is attempted is well done. The drills observed were more than perfunctory. The pupils were developing some valuable coordina- tions and couple movements. But it is a little hard to imagine them following up these activities in after life. Gymnastic drill, if indulged in in later years, remains a conscious effort, while games stimulate an unfailing interest that brightens life, even though they be discarded as a means of recreation. But they will not all be discarded if the habit of play is developed during youth. The mad rush of American life needs to be checked by wholesome recreation. Our athletic revival during the past two decades has already done much to relieve the strain and nervousness of our people. Its further extension into the ele- mentary schools will do much to give to all of our public-school children much of the valuable training now obtained by higher-class English- men. Concerning their training Doctor Curtis says: "One of the best things about the system of physical education in the typical English preparatory and public school is that the students are supposed to get out and play every afternoon, as soon as their lessons are over. These exercises are practically required up to the sixth form in the public school, and by that time the habit has been so well estab- lished that the student continues to play during his university course and probably during the rest of his life, from the force of this early custom." PLAY AS A PREVENTIVE OF DISORDER. One other point remains to be mentioned. It was pointed out in the analysis of Leavenworth that organized amusements were lacking. The gaming spirit, which is perfectly natural and highly useful, must be properly directed or it will find an outlet in illegitimate channels. One's taste in games should be cultivated as carefully as his taste in literature. One's recreations should be as clean as his business trans- actions. McMurray well says: "Physical training should develop an interest in play, a knowledge of games, and a skill in them, that will 144 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. permanently identify one with healthy sport, just as literature should develop a taste for reading and nature study a permanent enjoyment of plants and animals." If Leavenworth or any other city is to close up evil resorts of all kinds there is no better way to go about it than to provide legitimate amusements to undermine them. If they are to be eliminated in the future, a generation of citizens must be trained up who know how to amuse themselves in a better way. If proper athletic and play interest are stimulated in the schools, the future city will not be without golf links, baseball parks, public tennis courts, supervised playgrounds, and the varied paraphernalia necessary to provide healthful physical rec- reation as a preventive of disorder, vice, stagnation, and sentimental- ism. No better moral and governmental and business investment can be made by Leavenworth than that in additional play stimulus and facilities. And the best place to begin, in order to get far-reaching effects, is in the elementary schools. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 145 CHAPTER XX. READING AND LITERATURE. Minnie E. Porter. No ATTEMPT was made in this Survey to determine the reading rate of the pupils. The test which Mr. Courtis has recently offered would be an interesting and valuable problem of study for the teachers. It is recognized that the value of reading as a tool is largely dependent upon the rate of reading as well as upon the ability to understand what is read. THE COURSE OF STUDY. The program for the teaching of reading provides for the use of the state textbooks, Studies in Reading, by Searson and Martin. The Fourth Reader is used in grade four and the Fifth Reader in grade five. As no textbook is prescribed for grades six, seven and eight, the superintendent and teachers are free to select literature suitable for reading in these grades. In their choice they have recognized the sources of interest in the reading of pupils of this age. We find such selections as "The Pied Piper of Hamelin" and "Rip Van Winkle" in grade six; "Miles Standish," Cooper's "Tales" and the "Oregon Trail" in grade seven; "Evangeline," "The Lady of the Lake" and "Julius Caesar" in grade eight. The use of supplementary readers in the schools of Kansas is pro- hibited by state law. As a result of what is assumed to be an effort to safeguard the interests of the people of the state, a serious limitation has been placed upon the education of boys and girls in Leavenworth. The school authorities of Leavenworth have made a commendable effort to overcome this limitation upon the reading of boys and girls by establish- ing a circulating library, for which they are making liberal provisions. They are in sets of thirty volumes, each set in a box. These acts are kept at the office and sent out to teachers upon application. GRADE IV. Story of Holmes. Literature. Story of La Salle. History. Story of Longfellow. Literature. De Soto. History. Marquette. History. Story of Boone. History. Pioneers of the West. History. Fremont and Carson. History. Stories and Rhymes of Woodland. I. Literature and Science. Stories and Rhymes of Woodland. II. Literature and Science. Story of Coal. Science. Story of Wheat. Science. Story of Cotton. Science. Story of Printing. Science. American Inventors. (Whitney and Fulton.) Science. I. American Inventors. (Morse and Edison.) Science. II. Night Before Christinas, and Other Christmas Poems. Literature. 10 146 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. GRADE V. The Miraculous Pitcher. Literature. Hawthorne. Audubon. Science. Nathan Hale. History. Story of Sugar. Science. What We Drink. Science. Story of Canada. History. Story of Mexico. History. Story of Steam. Science. Story of the Flag. History. Stories from Robin Hood. Literature. GRADE VI. King of the Golden River. Literature. ' Rab and His Friends. Literature. We are Seven, and Other Poems. Literature. Lady of the Lake. Conto I. Literature. Declaration of Independence. History. Thanatopsis, and Other Poems. Literature. Snow Image. Literature. Gifts of the Forest. (Rubber, Chincona, Resin.) Science. Great European Cities. (London and Paris.) Geography. Great European Cities. (Rome and Berlin.) Geography. Great European Cities. (St. Petersburg and Constantinople.) Geography. Heroes of the Revolution. History- Lewis and Clark Expedition. Histoi'y- GRADE VII. Story of Macbeth. Literature. Philip of Pokanoket. Literature. Irving. Lady of the Lake. Canto II. Literature. Scott. Snow-bound. Literature. Whittier. The Gray Champion. Literature. Hawthorne. The Oregon Trail. History. Parkman. GRADE VIII. The Deserted Village. Literature. Goldsmith. As You Like It. Literature. Shakespeare. Lady of the Lake. Literature. Scott. Canto III. Canto IV. Canto V. Canto VI. The Cotter's Saturday Night. Literature. Burns. Lay of the Last Minstrel. Literature. Scott. Building of the Ship, and Other Poems. Literature. Longfellow. THE TEACHING OF READING. For constructive recommendations for the teaching of reading in Leavenworth, illustrations have been found for each point in exceptionally good work seen during observation in the classrooms. It is recommended that in the organization of departmental meetings the significant points of merit in the work of teachers may be made helpful to all in this line of work. There are two points of commendation for the teachers of reading in Leavenworth. The teachers have done their work carefully and thoroughly in teaching the mechanics of reading. By means of an articulation chart, careful drill is given in enunciation. The pupils read clearly and dis- tinctly. The second point of commendation is that the pupils read with SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 147 understanding. The teachers are careful to make sure that reading for information yields the desired result. The library reading provided furnishes opportunity to use the reading hour for this purpose. But in a third point so necessary to the interpretation of real litera- ture, imaginative or creative reading, the teachers are not generally so successful. In some cases they fail to distinguish between reading for information and reading for the sake of entering through imagination the delights of literature. As a consequence, questions asked by the teacher call for information rather than the result of creative imagina- tion. For example, in the reading of "The Pied Piper of Hamelin," if the teacher asks such a question as, "What did the Prper do next?" she would receive the answer, "He led the children down to the sea." This is information plainly given in the poem and has nothing to do with in- terpretation. On the other hand, if the-teacher asks such a question as, "What did the children do under the hill?" this would call for the results of creative imagination, and the children would be only too happy if the imagination were given free play. The writer observed a lesson on "The Pied Piper of Hamelin" in which the children had entered wholly into the experience of those German children who followed the Piper. The writer felt this so strongly in her observation that she put in quickly the ques- tion, "How many of you would have followed the Piper?" and received an affirmative response at once from all the boys and girls in the class except three sedate little girls, upon whom the others in the class looked with some pity. A lesson was observed in grade five in which the teacher had followed the suggestion, "Getting into the atmosphere of the piece." The lesson was the preparation for and the reading of the poem, "The Use of Flowers," in Lessons in English, by Scott-Southworth, page 144. In the word study the teacher did not deal with the dictionary definitions. She talked with the children freely about luxuries until they brought out of their experience those things which were luxuries to them. They trans- lated the word comfort in terms of actual life. The teacher talked with them about the things necessary for their outward life, and brought these into contrast with those things which delight and comfort people, as flowers do. When the children opened their books to read the poem for the first time, they brought to that poem a fresh understanding of those things within their own experience which made the reading of the poem creative. After reading silently the poem, which contained these lines : "To comfort man, to whisper hope, Whene'er his faith is dim" ; the teacher asked if any one could tell what flowers do for the inner life. She was rewarded by the shining eyes of a little fellow who replied, "Flowers hope up man." This lesson had succeeded. THE OUTSIDE READING OF PUPILS. The schools, in teaching pupils to read, have given to boys and girls in their early teens a power to extend their life experience, which at this age is demanding a wider field of adventure. Through the identification of self with the hero or heroine of fiction, these young people are growing 148 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. rapidly in their ideals of manhood and womanhood. Later life furnishes the opportunity to give expression to these ideals in a world of action. Just what influences are most powerful in the early teens may be dis- covered in books which are most widely read. It is this world of the imagination that is making a marked contribution to the moral develop- ment. Franklin K. Mathiews. Chief Scout Librarian of the Boy Scouts of America, writes of "Your Boy and His Books" as follows : Find the stories in which the heroes have the characteristics the boy so much admires men of unquenchable courage, immense resourcefulness, absolute fidelity, conspicuous greatness; the men Avho do things, big things, wonderful things; the men Avho conquer and overcome in the face of the heaviest odds, who "never turn their backs, but march breast forward, to do or die. !> For the boy, that spirit is the stuff of which great man- hood is made; and if with books we would profoundly influence him, we must constantly challenge him with stories of astonishing accomplishments, biographies that hold him spell- bound, wonder tales of almost unattainable undertakings achieved. As an attempt to study this problem in Leavenworth, one question, "What books have you read during the past year?" was placed in the pupil questionnaire used in the Survey. The data collected and classified for this report, with the assistance of the school department librarian at the Kansas State Normal, will be suggestive. In the tabulation the books have been arranged in the order of the number who expressed preferences for them. In another column appears a classification of the quality of each book, ranking A, B, C, or D. Books marked A are of first quality in the list, for one of two reasons literary merit or high grade of subject matter. Those marked B are ranked lower in literary merit, but are considered good reading. Books marked C are those which serve to bridge over the reading of pupils who have not de- veloped a taste for reading which is satisfied by those in A and B. Books marked D are books which are recognized as being harmful, although often very popular. Their success depends upon the elements of adven- ture which appeal to boys, and to a weak, self -centered heroine who some- times appeals to girls of this age. The Rover Boys, Motor Boys, Alger Books, and Elsie Books are the conspicuous examples of this type of juvenile fiction. The tabulation of data collected is submitted as follows: No. Title. Rank. 59 Rover Boys D 55 Alger Books D 39 Motor Boys D 29 Alcott Books A. 29 Dorothy Dainty D 26 Shakespeare's Plays A 22 Dave Porter Books D 21 Little Colonel Books C 20 Lang's Fairy Tales B 16 Boy Scout Books D 16 Uncle Tom's Cabin A 15 Snow-bound A 10 Five Little Pepper Books B 9 Black Beauty B 9 Evangeline A 9 Helen Grant Books D 9 Lady of the Lake A 9 Robinson Crusoe A No. Title. Rank. 8 Ben Hur A 8 Jack Books B 8 Patty Fairfield Books C 7 Lake Port Series D 7 Pollyanna B 7 Rip Van Winkle A 7 Treasure Island A 6 Beautiful Joe B 6 Courtship of Miles Standish A 6 Prudy Books D 5 Betty Wales Books. : C 5 Life of William Cody. 5 Oregon Trail A 5 Story of Lincoln .' B 5 Tom Sawyer A 4 Bible A 4 David Copperfield A 4 Dotty Dimple Books D SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 149 No. Ti>!>'. Rank. 4 Girl of the Limberlost C 4 Last of the Mohicans 'A 4 Legend of Sleepy Hollow A 4 Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come. . A 4 Only an Irish Boy D 4 Perfect Tribute A 4 Quest of the Four B 3 Andrew's Great Pluck D 3 Custer on the Plains C 3 Dutch Twins 3 Freckles 3 Gifts of the Forest 3 Helen's Babies 3 Hoosier School Boy 3 Ivanhoe 3 Kit Carson Books 3 Nathan Hale 3 Pilgrim's Progress 3 Poe's Poems 3 Rondy Books D 3 Sinking of the Titanic 3 Story of Canada A 3 Stratemever Series D 3 We are Seven A 3 Wild West 3 With Washington Out West 3 Young Trailers B 2 American Boys' Handy Book A 2 Anne Green Gables A 2 Aunt Jane's Nieces. . . D Title. Rank. Battling Nelson's Career D Billy Whiskers .' D Boat Club Boys D Boy Fortune Hunters D Carpenter's Readers \. Christmas Carol \ Dickens' Works A Elsie Dinsmore Books D Flying Girls D No. 2 2 2 2 Girls of the Forest D Gray's Elegy A Great Stone Face V Hard Working Girls D John Halifax, Gentleman \ Juan and Juanita B King of the Golden River A Life of Washington A Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch. . A Old Rose and Silver D On the School Team B Peck's Bad Boy D Peggy Owen Series D Rab and His Friends A Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm A Story of Carson and Fremont A Story of Mexico A Sweet Girl Graduate D Swiss Family Robinson A Trail of the Lonesome Pine. . . A In this tabulation only those books that were mentioned more than once were considered. A study of the number of times each book is named in the list shows that 44 per cent, or .nearly half, of the reading done by the pupils in grades six, seven and eight is of the class marked D. In this class are found the Rover Boys, Alger Books, Motor Boys, and Boy Scout Books, widely read in Leavenworth. No comparative data are at hand to show the results in other cities, because these books are not included in library reports. But since book dealers find them commercially profitable when offered for sale, without considera- tion of the welfare of the boys of the city, we may be led to believe that in cities and towns where these books are sold the records would be similar. The libraries of the city, both public and Sunday-school libraries, share with the schools and the homes the responsibility for intelligent direction in the matter of reading. As stated before, the public library is doing active work in cooperation with the schools. On their shelves are some books of class D which the librarian has retained temporarily that boys and girls may find the books they ask for, and thus give him an opportunity to bridge them over to something better later on. In one large Sunday-school library are found the Rover Boys, Motor Boys, Alger, and Elsie Books, which are being supplied to the children. They have, no doubt, been selected on the recommendation that they are the books which boys and girls like best, without consideration of the in- fluence which they have upon character formation. 150 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Since it is believed that the books which boys and girls are reading- are influencing them, and since almost one-half of the reading done by the boys and girls in Leavenworth in grades six, seven and eight is of a character which identifies the youthful reader with ideals that are false to the best in American manhood and womanhood, the home read- ing of boys and girls must be a matter of serious consideration to all who are interested in the welfare of the young people of the city. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 151 CHAPTER XXI. SPELLING. Walter S. 3Ionro<>. THE TEACHING OF SPELLING. SPELLING is taught systematically in all grades, and 7.9 per cent of the total time of the teachers if given to the subject. See page 59. The work in grades five to eight is based primarily upon a printed list which has been prepared by the superintendent and the teachers. In this list they have attempted to place the words which make up the speaking and writing vocabulary of pupils in the respective grades. In addition, the teachers are urged to keep, and do keep, lists of misspelled words, which are used for occasional lessons. THE SPELLING ABILITY. The spelling ability of the pupils was measured by giving a test to all pupils in grades three to eight, inclusive. This test was given in Leavenworth simply as an exercise in dictation, the pupils not knowing that they were to be marked for spelling. The directions and test are given below.* DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING SPELLING TEST. Please read these instructions through before beginning to dictate the sentences: 1. See that each sheet is headed with (a) the pupil's name; (&) his age; (c) number of years he has been in school; (d) the grade; (e) the date; (/) the name of the school. 2. Dictate all the sentences to all the grades, beginning Avith the third, during one session; i. e., all either in the morning or the afternoon of the same day. 3. In third and fourth grades dictate in two periods, separated by a day. 4. Each sentence may be dictated, either in whole or in part, as many times as may seem necessary to secure its complete understanding. This exercise is purely a test in spelling; it is not intended that pupils should be subjected to the added difficulty of an effort to recall the words dictated. 5. Offer no explanation of words or sentences. If the meaning is not clear, repeat the sentence in whole or in part. 6. Do not ask the children to underline words, or otherwise call their attention to the significant words of the sentences. Where possible so to conduct the matter, the pupils are not to know that it is a spelling test. To them it is but a dictation exercise. 7. After the children have written the sentences, read them all through again and allow pupils to insert words or make other corrections. 8. Don't hurry; but keep things going fast enough so that pupils will not have time 1o examine into what their neighbors are doing, or to give help to each other. 9. When third and fourth grades have written half the list, take up the papers and hold them until the second dictation. Then give them out again for the pupils to finish. 10. Collect the papers as soon as the work is finished. SPELLING TEST. If the janitor sweeps, he will risi> a dust. Wait until the hour for recess to touch the button. TF//OAV anxn-er is nln"i>i? Smoke was coming out of their chimney. Every after- noon the biitcJ/fr gave the dog a piece of meat. One evening a carriage was stopping in front of my kttcli<-n. I wear a number thirteen collar. Guess what made me sneeze. Send me a pair of leather shoes. I do not know, but I ;im almost sure they are mine. My uncle bought my cii.f!n a nrt-tt/i /i>l<>tn rittari/ Lint. Siihxtitnt'' List. David Copperfleld. Dickens. Richard Carvel. Old Curiosity Shop. Dickens. The Crisis. Dombey and Son. Dickens. The Crossing. Kenilworth. Scott. The Price of the Prairie. Ivanhoe. Scott. The Winning of Barbara Worth. Talisman. Scott. The Shepherd of the Hills. The Last Days of Pompeii. Lytton. Bob Son of Battle. Cranford. Gaskell. Ramona. Scottish Chiefs. Porter. The Light that Failed. Thaddeus of Warsa v. Porter. John Halifax. Craik. Ben Hur. Wallace. /lane Eyre. Bronte. The Mill on the Floss. Georye Elliot. .. Lorna Doone. Blackinore. In the list for the third year the reading interests of the pupils have been considered, but the selections include three of Shakespeare's plays and a list of representative English novels which supplement the history of English literature. On the whole, this repoiT on home reading shows the initiative of the teacher is exercised to meet the real needs of the pupils as determined by their reading interests through- the three-year course. COMPOSITION. The general recommendations from the college-entrance require- ments, that practice in composition, oral as well as written, should extend throughout the secondary school period, are embodied in the course in Leavenworth. The state textbook, Stebbins' Progressive Course in English for Secondary Schools, has determined the choice and ar- rangement of the work in composition. In the use of the textbook the teachers have followed the line of least resistance. They have accepted the spiral arrangement as inevi- table, and have taught Stebbins Part I in the first year, Stebbins Part II in the second year. This is a result of lack of cooperation in plan- ning the course to avoid the unsatisfactory spiral arrangement. The state course of study presents some valuable suggestions in the ar- rangement of a course of composition using Stebbins' textbook, but the teachers have not been influenced by these helpful suggestions. In fact, the lack of initiative is shown in the description of the course in composition for the first year, which follows exactly the order of the textbook. The subjects for the work in composition have been taken from a wide range. It is in this matter of subjects for composition work that the teachers have shown their originality and initiative. Two methods have been used with the pupils in helping them find subjects for com- positions. In one case the teacher had prepared on the blackboard a list of suggestive subjects, from which each pupil would choose one for oral composition. The subjects were of the nature of those which pupils of the first year would choose, but these boys and girls were deprived of the pleasure and the training in discovering subjects for 160 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. themselves. In another case current news articles were chosen from the point of view of interest for the class. Another venture, which promises more in real training than either of the two mentioned, is the search for subjects dealing with local material. This search for material is a process of awakening a live interest in the world of affairs in the city of Leavenworth and in the high school community. The search for concrete material also pro- vides a real desire for expression. The best among these compositions are printed in the Leavenworth Times. The city of Leavenworth is listed as a textbook. That the life of the community will furnish abundance of material for composition there is no doubt. The helpful cooperation of the newspapers of the town in giving publication to the writing of high-school pupils is strongly recommended. In the absence of a school paper or magazine, or a school print shop, the newspapers furnish the only assurance of publication. The initiative of the teachers is not limited, however, to the choice of subjects for composition. The course shows the result of the exer- cise of this initiative in planning a fourth year of composition as an elective. The University of Kansas now provides for accrediting a fourth year of English, provided that the work is approved by the University, which has made no attempt to mark out the content or the scope of the course. Any high school in Kansas is free to plan a year of elective work in English, provided that it is of high grade and serious in purpose. With this opportunity, Leavenworth has reached out this year in a course in journalism and short-story writing. ALTERNATION OF COMPOSITION AND LITERATURE. In the report of teachers of first-year English we find this state- ment: "Monday, Tuesday and Thursday are devoted each week to the regular course as it progresses. Wednesday is known as theme day. Friday is oral-composition day." The teachers of first-year English observe this program throughout the year. An examination of the actual results of such a program shows the disadvantages of the arrangement. The writer observed a class on Tuesday enjoying the first chapters of Treasure Island. The story made its appeal at once. With the interest thus aroused, the boys and girls were ready to read on with the story, and would naturally look forward to the enjoyment of the story on the following day. But this could not be, for Wednesday was theme day. The next assignment was made as follows: "Read the next three chapters twice for Thursday." Thursday the class met to enjoy more of the story, although we are quite sure each boy did not read the next three chapters twice. He must have read as far ahead as time would permit. But this pleasure in a most thrilling part of the story must be broken again, for Friday was oral composition day, and they would not talk about Treasure Island. Further consideration must be postponed until Tuesday. When a boy's interest is once aroused in Treasure Island he sits up at night to finish it; he does not wait for any program outlined by a university for accredited schools. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 161 But if there is an element of loss in the study of a classic, we must consider the effect of this arrangement upon training in composition. In the reports of teachers for the second-year English we find that Wednesday is theme day each alternate week, and that every Friday is oral composition day. The study of the classics named is the prin- cipal work of the course. One day each alternate week would allow eighteen class periods for written composition in a course which is out- lined to include the advanced work in narration, description, exposition and argumentation. In oral composition thirty-six periods are allowed of thirty-five minutes each. If in a class of twenty-five pupils the teacher used a maximum of ten minutes for instruction and suggestive criticism, and if the pupil spoke in the class hour, one pupil could be allowed but one minute of the remaining twenty-five. And even with this unsatisfactory arrangement each pupil could speak but once a week. Training in composition, in writing or in speech is training in an art in which skill is developed oy frequent practice. Under the- conditions just set forth a teacher can not develop skill in untrained and immature pupils. The result of this arbitrary division of time has been to throw the emphasis upon the teaching of the literature as the regular or major part of the course, and to make the teaching of composition, both oral and written, less effective. Under these circumstances, the lessons in composition appear to the pupil to be an unnecessary interruption to the regular course in the reading of English classics. While the subjects of literature and composition are carried on side by side, as has been indicated, there is little relation between the two. In the first-year English there are two independent courses offered. The state course of study suggests that the relation be "not so much in subject matter as in character of appeal." This relation is not marked in Leavenworth except in the course in short-story writing, which is a course in composition. The stories used serve as models for the study of the technique of the short story. In the third year, which has as its basis the survey of the history of English literature, the literature and composition are related in subject matter. The study of Macbeth was followed by a debate in the Shakespeare and the Bacon theory. This was given as an illustration by the teacher as a means of bringing argumentation into the third year. Another report reads as follows: "Each pupil chooses a different subject. Reading is done in the library upon works referred to in the textbook on the history of English literature. The reports are read in class so that each pupil may derive benefit from the work of the others." The writer examined the compositions of two classes in the assignment of the subject, "The application of the poem, The Crisis, to the French Revolution." This subject grew out of the reading of The Tale of Two Cities in the second year. As a problem in literary study it has some value, but as for training in composition, the real motive for composition the desire to express one's self for a real audience was absent. Here it will be seen that the emphasis is upon the study of literature. Composition is used as an aid to this study, as it may be an aid to the study of history 11 162 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. and geography. In the main, then, we conlude that while literature and composition are taught side by side throughout three years of the high- school course, they are treated as two unrelated courses. RECOMMENDATIONS. The attempts to adapt the teaching of English to local needs place the teachers of English in Leavenworth in the line of definite progress. We recommend that steps be taken toward making definite plans in the coming year for the study of the problem of the reorganization of the English work in the High School. The initiative shown thus far in the adaptation of the teaching of English to the needs of Leaven- worth has been the result of each teacher working independently. An organization of the department for next year should be made by the appointment of one of the four teachers of English as chairman of a committee on reorganization of the course of study in English. The teachers of English and the principal should constitute this com- mittee for serious study during the coming year. The principal can not be expected to take the place of a specialist in English or of the head of the department. He must bring to the work of the committee the view of the school as a whole and of the function of English teach- ing in relation to the other work of the school. This committee of high-school teachers of English should become a part of a larger committee, composed of the superintendent, the prin- cipals of the buildings containing seventh and eighth grades, and the teachers of English in these grades. The teachers of first-year Latin and German should identify themselves with the work of this committee so far as it concerns itself with the question of the teaching of gram- mar. The problem of the seventh, eighth and ninth grades is recognized by the National Committee as one problem the problem of the inter- mediate school. The unfortunate gap, in the method and subject matter, between the eighth grade and the High School should be lessened. Then, too, the teachers of departmental work in English need the point of view of the teacher in the High School in dealing with the older pupils in the grade schools. But more than that, the teachers of English in the High School need the help of the experience and sym- pathetic understanding of the eighth-grade teacher and the principal. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVEN WORTH, KAN. 163 CHAPTER XXV. HOUSEHOLD ARTS. Ella T. Dobbs. HOUSEHOLD ARTS in the Leavenworth High School is an elective subject in the general and industrial courses. Two periods or eighty minutes daily are devoted to the subject, and two years' work is given at present. Plans are in contemplation for its extension to four full years as soon as circumstances will warrant. When the courses were first organized the time was divided between domestic science and domestic art, lessons be- ing given in each subject on alternate days. Later the present plan of devoting alternate quarters to each phase of the work was adopted and found to be much more satisfactory. The further extension of the term of consecutive study in one field to one-half year is now under consideration. This plan has much to commend it, giving greater opportunity for con- centrated effort. SEWING. The work in domestic art includes the cutting and making of plain garments, such as the more complicated undergarments and a wash dress. In the second year a wool skirt, a tailored shirt waist and a lingerie dress are made. The course includes the drafting of patterns to measure as well as the use of prepared paper patterns. The study deals with the theory as well as the practice of the necessary processes, with the quality of cloth and the control of its tendency to fade and shrink, with the suit- ability of material to specific garments, and with suitable styles of cloth- ing for specific occasions. In many instances the members of the class are wearing the garments they have made, and in several instances a very marked improvement in the neatness of dress and in the care of the person is noted as a direct outgrowth of the study. COOKING. The course in cooking includes the care and sanitation of the kitchen, the cooking and serving of simple meals, a study of food values and their relation to health, and a brief study of home planning and furnishing. In addition to the ordinary lesson, in which a specific dish is prepared and for which materials are specially provided, emergency lessons are given as occasion offers, in which the class is expected to make use of the left- overs in a scant larder and evolve something appetizing, very much as the housewife must often do for the unexpected guest. Each student must also prepare a test menu of properly balanced food values, cook and serve the meal. In these meals a definite cost limit is set. In actual practice the cost ranges from ten to twenty-five cents per person served, the latter being the cost of a luncheon served to the school board. In selecting subject matter for class work, emphasis is placed upon methods of preparing appetizing dishes from the less expensive materials, such as the cheaper cuts of meat and the less popular vegetables, in order 164 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. to impress upon the girls the idea that good cooking is not necessarily expensive cooking, and that economy is an essential in good housekeeping. The course also emphasizes the more substantial elements in cookery rather than what are sometimes termed "frills." For example, only, one lesson in the year is given to salads. In the conduct of the classes, each girl is provided with a set of the essential cooking utensils, which must be kept in orderly fashion in the cabinet assigned to her. Each lesson, with a few exceptions, is a complete unit. For example, in a lesson on the cooking of cereals, the chemical and biological principles involved and the relative merits of different methods of cooking are discussed. The pupils then individually test these methods by cooking the cereals in accordance with the principles discussed and noting the effect of different processes. Such a lesson also calls for prompt and systematic work on the part of each student, since the work must be completed, the dishes washed and returned to their places, and the laboratory left in perfect order for the next class, which will assemble within five minutes after the first is dis- missed. In the study of house planning, attention is called to the points to be noted in the selection of a rented house and the choice of the site for a house which is to be built, such as drainage of the lot, relation of the house to the direction of sunlight and prevailing winds, provision for proper sanitation within the house, provision for convenience in working and guarding against waste of time and energy in useless steps and movements. It also touches upon the selection of furniture'and the choice of wall decorations and draperies. The time to be devoted to house planning is inadequate for more than a few suggestions concerning the chief problems involved. The organization of the courses in home economics in the High School follows approved lines and gives evidence of efficient execution. The sug- gestions to be offered in this field are chiefly in the line of extension, and many of these suggestions are already in contemplation by the super- visor and superintendent. RECOMMENDATIONS. The next step should be a course in millinery. This could be introduced without extra equipment of any importance, and would add materially to the value of the department. It is suggested further that definite study in fine art be made a part of the required work of the course in domestic art. Such a study should deal with problems of costume design, house furnishing, and decoration. In costume design, the fundamental principles may be tested and applied in color sketches and in the dressing of dolls and small models, as well as in specific application to such prob- lems as are presented in the actual garments and hats to be made by the individual students. The study of house planning may include the mak- ing, comparing and criticizing of various house plans, a study of the cost and durability of various materials, and a study of desirable color schemes and suitable furniture. Such study may be illustrated by water-color sketches and by miniature models of rooms done in thin wood and card- board, which bring out many points not touched by the flat sketch. SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 165 It is the common practice in the teaching of domestic science to use individual recipes calling for small quantities of material, and allow each pupil to perform all the steps in each process. While this plan is generally satisfactory, it gives the student little or no practice in handling the larger quantities needed in the average family. To meet this need, two general plans are being tried with considerable success in various places. The first is that of giving school credit for definite home work, such as preparing for the family a recipe which has been tried at school. This plan may be arranged in any school without material increase in expense. The second plan is that of providing a house or a suite of rooms which are to be lived in and cared for by the students, each member of the class being responsible for certain work for a given length of time. This plan has much to recommend it, but involves considerable expense and careful supervision. The problem of the school lunch offers another metins of bringing real problems into the classroom by the preparation of a simple lunch for those who re- main during the noon hour. This plan is open to the criticism that it is apt to narrow the work of the class by requiring too much time for the preparation of a few dishes, especially if large numbers are to be served. The immediate needs in the Leavenworth High School seem best met by the first plan outlined. It is further suggested that a close correlation be maintained be- tween science and cooking courses. The present educational tendencies suggest that science courses, particularly chemistry and biology, be planned to parallel the work of the cooking classes, in order that as questions arise in the manipulation of food materials it may be pos- sible to find answers to them through experimentation in the science laboratory. Such parallel courses should be taken simultaneously. This plan would go far to forestall the distaste many girls profess for science when taught by formal methods and logical organization. By the present arrangement of courses in Leavenworth, many girls do not receive any instruction in chemistry other than that given in the cook- ing laboratory. One of the common criticisms of a school course in household arts, especially in the early days of its history, was that too much time is devoted to the preparing of dainty dishes and too little to the common tasks of fire-building, dish-washing, and the plain cooking of meats and vegetables. Such critics are reminded that skill in the preparation of food, as in any other mechanical process, is a matter of long-continued repetition; that ability to carry on several processes at once, such as is required in preparing even a simple meal, and to bring those processes to a successful issue at an exact moment, is also the result of long experience. The school can not give this experience; at best, it can only lay a foundation for it and direct the course it shall take. These critics would doubtless be even louder in their criticisms if the school were to confine its work to the repetition of a few fundamental proc- . esses. It should also be remembered that the preparation of a dainty article of food or the making of an attractive garment may often awaken an interest leading to greater effort, whereas the more prosaic task may have the opposite effect. 166 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER XXVI. MANUAL TRAINING. Ella V. Dofcbs. THE FUNCTION OF MANUAL TRAINING. COMMON PRACTICE in public schools has developed two general types of handwork, growing out of two conceptions of the value of the manual arts. In the one, handwork is regarded as a cultural subject, having equal if not greater value than the accepted book subjects as a means of mental development. The other regards handwork as a vocational sub- ject, having subject matter of intrinsic value. The former seeks a broad acquaintance with tools and materials for the sake of developing an ap- preciation of material things. The latter emphasizes technical skill with a view to later training in a trade. Until recently, public-school courses in handwork have strongly em- phasized the cultural values, with the result that often after spending considerable time upon handwork the high-school graduate has a smat- tering of many processes but no marketable skill. Present interest is directed strongly toward the value and importance of the vocational aim in handwork. The public is becoming more and more alive to the fact that the public school must be a school for all the people, and that the high school should not only serve those who expect to attend college and prepare for pro- fessional work, but should serve equally well those who choose mechanical pursuits. The old apprentice system which guaranteed full training in a given trade has disappeared with the small shop. The modern factory system has no place for the apprentice. Many factories are recognizing this need and establishing training schools in connection with their shops. These schools, in many instances, are doing excellent work. The public, however, can not afford to allow the training of its workmen to become a matter of private enterprise. The factory is interested chiefly in the product, and only secondarily in the boy. The temptation to narrow the training given, in the interests of the factory, would in many instances be too strong to resist. The public must see to it that a broad, general education parallels the technical training. This throws upon the school the obligation of providing opportunity for a reasonable amount of spe- cialization in handwork, at least equal to the opportunity offered for preparation for professional work. This special study would of necessity be in addition to the handwork offered to all students for the sake of its cultural value. The problems arising from these obligations are all so new that there is as yet no well-defined consensus of opinion as to the extent to which any single course may be at once cultural and vocational. Nor has any one plan for vocational training as yet met with universal approval, though several plans are in satisfactory operation. The chief point to be heeded is that the two values exist, and each community must meet both needs as fully as possible. The Russell Sage SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 167 Foundation, through Dr. L. P. Ayres, is making some interesting studies concerning the extent to which children enter local industries, and also what industries are to be found in all communities, with the proportionate number of jobs they furnish. These studies will help solve the problem of selecting the fields in which it will be profitable to offer specialized study in the high school. HANDWORK IN THE LEAVENWORTH HIGH SCHOOL. The course in manual training in the Leavenworth High School con- sists in advanced cabinetmaking in the first year and pattern making the second year, with a comprehensive course in mechanical drawing open to all students, whether they have taken bench work or not. The course in pattern making includes some study of foundry practice. The cabinetmaking course includes the making of taborets, tables, chairs, bookcases, and other pieces 3x 5. (Only to transpose terms.) TEST E. 7x 3x 6 + 4. (Terms to be collected.) 3x 2 x + 2 TEST F. = . (To be solved completely.) 4 6 * Owing to a misunderstanding, test B was not given in the Leavenworth High School. 172 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. This series of tests was selected because of the fundamental im- portance of the equation. In solving problems the conditions of the problem are expressed in equation form and then the equation is solved. And besides, the work of the first year is centered about the equation. The pupils use the algebraic operations in a practical way only as tney occur in equations. In giving a test, a copy was given to each pupil and printed directions were followed. The pupils were asked to write their names and the date and to read the directions at the top of the page. When they had signified that they understood what they were to do, the signal to begin work was given. The time allowed was: Test A, 2 minutes; test B, 3 minutes; test C, 1 minute ; test D, 2 minutes ; test E, 3 minutes ; test F, 12 minutes. To provide data for comparison the same tests were given to all of the corresponding classes in the Oklahoma City High School. The same instructions were followed, and only three persons were employed in scoring all of the tests. With the exception of test F, in the Leaven- worth High School, the tests were given in March. Test F was given in the Leavenworth High School in May. The average number of examples attempted, number right, and the per cent right for each school, are given in the following tables : TABLE XXXIII. Leavenworth High School 79 pupils. Test A. B. C. D. E. F. Attempted 18.0 8.8 6.9 8.8 6.2 Right 15.3 .... 5.0 3.8 5.6 1.4 Per cent right 85 57 56 63 23 Oklahoma City High School 197 pupils. Test A. B. C. D. E. F. Attempted 17.0 4.8 7.9 9.3 10.2 5.7 Right 14.6 1.5 6.8 7.6 6.8 1.9 Per cent right 86 30 86 82 66 32 An analysis of the mistakes made by the pupils in Leavenworth in test F gives the following data: Total number of mistakes in sign 400 Mistakes in sign in transposition 77 Mistakes of using sign wrong in addition 28 Mistakes in sign in division 5 Mistakes in copying 59 Mistakes in arithmetic, any sort 87 Using denominator wrongly in two-term equation 158 Using denominator wrongly in three-term equation 10 Using common denominator wrongly on monomial term 35 One term of binomial not multiplied 14 Term omitted ! 10 x omitted 8 Incomplete as .T = 5 2 Of the 400 mistakes in sign, 110 occur in addition (and subtraction), division, and transposition. The remaining 290 occur in multiplication and in the removal of signs of aggregation. All of these operations are SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 173 given in the first chapters of the text and were probably studied in the first month of school and used frequently in the following months. When this test was given in the seventh month of school, 400 mistakes in sign were made in solving 437 examples. The mistakes due to omitting a term or x, failing to multiply one term of a binomial, and to copying, total ninety-one. These are purely matters of carelessness. The eighty-seven mistakes, in arithmetic should probably receive the same classification. The mistakes is using the denominator wrongly total 203. Upon the basis of the results of these tests and of the observations of the writer which corroborate these results, three recommendations are / made with reference to the teaching of algebraic processes. First, the instructors should evaluate the several algebraic processes which are given in the text and select those which are fundamental to the solution of equations. These, together with the equation, should be given first rank in importance. Second, sufficient drill should be given to insure a higher degree of accuracy. To make this drill most effective, there must be concentration and a feeling that it is good for something. This leads to the third recommendation : The algebraic processes involved in solving equations should be taught so that the pupils will realize their use, and the equation itself should be taught so that the pupils will appreciate its value as a tool in solving problems. 174 KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. CHAPTER XXVIII. NORMAL-TRAINING COURSE. W. W. Charters. THE FUNCTION OF THE COURSE. THIS normal department belongs to the type of normal department found in the high schools of Kansas as provided by the state laws and sup- ported in part from state funds. In it are taught the subjects prescribed by law. It has a further duty to perform in Leavenworth, however, since vacancies in the first four grades of the schools are filled from the graduates of this department after they have taught one year or have substituted, as occasion requires, for one year. This means that Leavenworth, a city of over 20,000 people, paying a median salary of more than $650 to its teachers, is supplied almost en- tirely in the first four grades and in part in the upper grades by teachers who have only a high-school education (partly professional) and have had one year's experience in teaching when selected. Moreover, it is not required that prospective teachers take manual arts, sewing, nature study or physical training during their high-school course, although they are required to teach these subjects in the grades. Drawing is studied two periods a week for a year an inadequate amount of time. Music is taught for one period a week, which may be inadequate. RECOMMENDATIONS. I recommend the following changes : (1) That preference should not be given in a city of 20,000 people to graduates of its own training class. The training so secured can not be the equal of that received by a normal-school graduate in either quantity or quality. The city can not maintain the equal of a normal-school faculty. Moreover, there is a great tendency to inbreeding. There are undoubtedly cases in which the graduates of the training department in a small city are superior to applicants trained elsewhere, but that is the exception and not a rule. Consequently, when teachers are to be selected, the greatest care should be taken to select the best teachers available, whether trained in the home training classes or not. (2) The normal department in the High School should have, as. at present, one course conforming to the state requirements, and should aim to train teachers under state regulations primarily for rural and small graded schools. But if it attempts to train teachers for the Leavenworth schools there should be a three-year course, including the senior year in the High School and two postgraduate years. During their high-school course those members of this department who expect to teach in the Leavenworth schools should be required to take full courses in cooking, sewing, nature study, manual arts, music, drawing and physical educa- tion with other high-school students, but preferably in classes containing only teachers in training, so that attention may be given both to subject SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LEAVENWORTH, KAN. 175 matter and to methods of teaching and organization. If these prospective candidates are taught with other high-school students, then in a course (or courses) in special methods the problems of teaching in these subjects should be discussed. (3) The teacher of the normal department should be paid a salary at least the equal of the high-school principal in order that as efficient a director of teaching as possible may be obtained. Such a teacher could be utilized to take direction of the technique of classroom instruction in the grades of the whole system. He could help in spreading the latest in- formation, in directing experiments, and in stimulating the teachers to investigate more efficient methods ' overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth dav. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. SEP 3 W 50m-7,'16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY