7340 T7lc THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES Plate I Vase with Symbols Collection of G. W. Salting, Esq. CHINESE ART MOTIVES INTERPRETED BY WINIFRED REED TREDWELL WITH 23 ILLUSTRATIONS G, P. PUTNAM'S SONS NEW YORK LONDON Zbc •ffxHicl^erbocher press I9J5 Copyright, 19 is BY WINIFRED REED TREDWELL Ube Iknicfeerbocfeec ipresa, mew Eocft 11 ad^n the dear twin genii of Mirth and Harmony! ^ ^t^n^^.r\ FOREWORD TT is the aim of this tiny bubble-book to reflect a gHnt of the life that under- lies Chinese art, which draws many of its m.otives from the intimate stories of that great country. It was through a two years' residence in the Far East and a careful study of the best European collections of Oriental art that I became interested in this branch of the subject, and it is hoped that this little hand-book may supply material which, at present, may be obtained only by wading through technical descriptions of art collections in various parts of the world. I have boldly taken my little feather broom to the dust of ages, beneath which are hiding stories of ourselves and our times — and selves and times yet to come — though the names, geography, and vi Foreword dates be different. Lest anybody should accuse me of having invented these ancient tales, I have appended a list of books, dealing with special phases of Chinese art or history, to which I gratefully acknow- ledge indebtedness. My illustrations come from various sources. The statuettes of Laotsze and Kuan-yin belong to the interesting col- lection of R. H. Benson, Esq., of Killilan Lodge, Kyle of Loch Alsh, and by his courtesy have been especially photo- graphed for this book. Special photo- graphs have also been made in the case of the statuettes of Ho Shang and the Para- gon of Filial Piety, which are a part of Sir A. W. Franks's collection in the British Museum, and in the case of the Salting vase and the porcelain plaque, shown in the frontispiece and on pages t,2 and 90, which come from that wonder-house, the Victoria and Albert Museimi in London. Foreword vii The "Post-Impressionist" drawings, which dot this work, have been made from choice pieces of pottery, brocades, embroidery, lacquer, carvings, etc., in pubhc and private collections in Europe and America. Only the author is to blame. There is no more delightful intro- duction to the soul of China than her art, into which has been woven, to the perfection of beauty, much that is frankly humorous, whimsical, and profound. The elementary language of this art is simple enough — a handful of symbols — and here you are! W. R. T. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE The Story on your Chinese Vase . 3 CHAPTER II Taoist Subjects in Art ... 27 CHAPTER III Confucianism and Scholarly Attri- butes . . . . • 47 CHAPTER IV Buddhist and Non-Religious Subjects in Art 69 CHAPTER V Historical Outline (960 A.D.-191 1) . 95 Index ^^7 IX ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Plate i. Vase with Symbols Frontispiece Plate 2. Snuff Bottle with Tae- Keih 8 Plate 3. Phcenix and Dragon . . 9 Plate 4. Nature Motives . . .12 Plate 5. Ginger Jar . . . .13 Plate 6. Flower Motives . . .18 Plate 7. Hundred Antiques . . 19 Plate 8. Hundred Antiques . . 22 Plate 9. Eight Precious Things . 23 Plate 10. Laotsze as Shun-Lao, God OF Immortality . . .30 Plate ii. Plaque with Eight Im- mortals . . . .31 Plate 12. Symbols of Eight Taoist Immortals , . . .34 Plate 13. Taoist Paradise . . -35 xi xii Illustrations PAGE Plate 14. Symbols of Culture and Honour . . . .44 Plate 14. Four Elegant Accomplish- ments 44 Plate 15. A Paragon of Filial Piety . 45 Plate 16. Cultural Symbols . . 62 Plate 17. Bodhidharma — Spirit Cross- ing THE Waves . . . 63 Plate 18. Buddhist and Confucian Symbols (Occasional) , 72 Plate 19. Buddhist Symbols (Formal) . 73 Plate 20. Seven Gems of Universal Monarch . . . .78 Plate 21. Ho-Shang, God of Content- ment and Riches , . 79 Plate 22. Kuan-Yin, Goddess of Mercy . . . .86 Plate 23. Vase with Symbols ( Re- verse) . . . .87 AUTHORITIES Chinese Reader's Manual, William Frederick Mayers, Shanghai, 1874. History of Ceramic Art, Albert Jacquemart, London, 1873. UArt Chinois, G. M. Paleologue, Maison Quantin, Paris, 1887. Imperial History of China, J. MacGowan, Shanghai, 1906. Chinese Art, Victoria and Albert Museum Hand' hook, Stephen W. Bushell, 1910. Handbook of Chinese Buddhism, E. J. Eitel, 1888. China, A History of the Laws, Manners, and Cus- toms of the People, John Henry Gray, MacMillan & Co. London, 1878. Chinese Biographical Dictionary, H. A. Giles, 1898. Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Museum, R. L. Hobson. Catalogue of Oriental Porcelain, Bethnal Green Aluseum, Sir A. W. Franks, K.C.B. Things Chinese, J. Dyer Ball, ALR.A.S., Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1906. xiu CHINESE ART MOTIVES The Story on Your Chinese Vase " Tzu Kung said: ' I am anxious to avoid, doing to others that which I would not have them do to me!' The Master said: 'Tzu, you have not got as far as that!' " — Analects. CHAPTER I THE STORY ON YOUR CHINESE VASE A ^/"HEN China sends a mandarin coat, a square of brocade, a bit of crockery or carving, out of the East, it goes as a part of her message to the world. On each piece are reminders of ancient stories, which are told over and over again in every branch of Chinese art and handicraft. These lie hidden from the careless eye behind the Oriental veil of symbolism. With the Chinese, art is narrative, and he who is willing to stop and pull aside this filmy curtain of the East will find himself at a most enticing gate, which leads into a new and yet a very old world, filled with people of flesh and blood, a history as fascinating as it 3 4 Chinese Art is long, and showing some of the soundest philosophy the world has ever known. The Chinese artist prides himself on the personal details he can put into a picture, that is, the history of his subject in art, literature, official service, or social life. Owing to the sturdy way in which bronzes put up with a wretched climate for an endless length of time — for all the world like the English people — the early Chinese have been able to tell us a part of their own experience. Their first bronze messages deal chiefly with the weather, the celestial topic which has been used more than any other to open up cherished friendships. One is sorry to know that there were plenty of clouds (PI. 4.) in those days, and the thunder so emphatic that they put it into the pattern known to our world as the Trojan Key. This famous design is supposed to have arisen independently in Greece and China. Story on Your Chinese Vase 5 Moreover they tell us that there existed even in those times an annoying land- ogre called the Tao-t'ieh, whose face looks ever so much like the incarnated ancestor of a mortgage! His eyes, and sometimes his nose, and hungry mouth — done in relief on antique wine vessels — are to be seen today by those possessed of sufficient imagination. As is now well-known, China has long ago discovered everything. This fact was not realized by Rosel von Rosenhof, who confidently thought that he had found the first amoeba in 1755. Little did he dream that Fu Hsi — mythically styled the first Chinaman — had stolen the glory of its counterpart by a little margin of more than 3000 years! The find was given to the world in a perfectly modern way, with unusually clever ad- vertisement. Fu Hsi declared that, while thinking over a means of making clear 6 Chinese Art the knotty problem of the universe, a dragon-horse skimmed over the water towards him. It was a horrible moment for Fu Hsi, until he noticed that the dragon-horse bore on its back some mystic symbols, subsequently used in all forms of Chinese art, which contained in their few lines the world and all that in it is, beginning with the amoeba. The first symbol, and the one which von Rosenhof would have most deeply resented had he been among those present, was called the Tae-Keih (PI. 4). This was a circle divided by a curved line into two nucleated cells. One of these stood for the female principle (yin) — such as the earth, the moon, etc. — and was gene- rated by the "Rest" of the Tae-Keih or Great All. The other cell denoted the male principle (yang) — such as the heaven sun, etc. — and was generated by the ''Motion" of the Great All. Story on Your Chinese Vase 7 One of the classics (Yih King), edited by Confucius, explains that the health, happiness, and peace of individuals, na- tions, and the universe, depend on the balance maintained between these two elements. Conversely, great lack of bal- ance between them is the source of ill- health, war, and chaos. From the Tae-Keih sprang other sym- bols made up of a complete or masculine line and a broken or feminine line, which gave rise to a lineal representation of the whole universe, known as the Eight Mystic Tri grams (PL 2). These are es- pecially interesting in this age of equal suffrage as revealing the place in nature given to the "broken reed" by the an- cestors of the newest Republic: ^^ Symbol for the sidereal globe, ZZZ in other words heaven. (Com- pletely male.) 8 Chinese Art Mist, steam, the vaporous in HIT nature. (Female in the as- cendant.) mmmm Fire, and its attributes, heat ■"■" and light. _«. Thunder — the big noise. (Why ■— ■ two-thirds female?) — Wind. (Note the two male ■" — lines.) — Fluid element. — — Mountains. (Largely female.) — 22 Earth. (The extreme of "" *" heaven. Completely female.) To begin with the heavens in general, and that ultra -male, the sun, in particu- lar, it is necessary to state that early Chinese minds were so busied about it, that more recent artists have found a set Plate 2 Snuff Bottle with Eight Mystic Trigrams Plate 3 Phoenix and Dragon Embroidered Story on Your Chinese Vase 9 of ready-made, sun-dried conventions waiting for them. Those things in art which have to do with the sun, such as altars and vase-shapes, must be round or of unequal divisions. Its proper colour symbol is red; and sang-de-hceuf — that pottery, bathed in a gorgeous stream of sacrificial blood — probably came into ex- istence, according to Bushell, in response to the demand for a rich and appropriate colour. The sun itself is the symbol of Light victorious over Darkness, and may be represented by a circle or red ball, on which may be sketched the outline of the three-footed red crow. Sometimes the ball is surrounded by clouds or it sinks behind the mountains (PL 4) which, truth to tell, often look less like mountains than like a table napkin which has been discarded by an impetuous diner. Con- stellations (PI. 4) arc frequently com- pressed into the sky- view of a vase or 10 Chinese Art wall-painting, with the stars carefully tied together by a little string, so that none of them may be mistaken for an accident. These usually indicate the presence on the picture of some mythical personage who is connected by tradition with that especial group of stars. One of the busiest animals in the world is the Chinese dragon (PI. 3) who, when he is not half-way between heaven and earth, spitting flames or fighting tigers, is kept on the jump, guarding — amongst other things — vases, tea-table covers, tea- napkins, household furniture, and man- darin coats! Though at times he may appear a bit frivolous, he is in reality the symbol of a profound conception of nature, well worthy of its intellectual foster parents. The dragon holds within himself the part of the universe which is gloriously free and unrestrained, in oppo- sition to that miserable fraction which, Story on Your Chinese Vase n like ourselves, is imprisoned in matter. The tiger represents this jailed portion, and no doubt the reason the dragon is always attacking her is because he feels so perfectly safe! Dragons in art may be looked on as a composite photograph of the legal profession, for it is their special business to guard the jewel of the law (PI. 4). This last item is a rare and valuable disk on which the dragon tries to get his claws. His forensic abil- ity is represented by flames (PI. 4) which sometimes spring from his mouth with great volume and intensity. Sometimes it is only steam. If a really classic dragon were to ap- pear unannounced in our midst, he would attract a good deal of attention, for he would have a camel's head, deer's horns, rabbit's eyes, cow's ears, snake's neck, frog's belly, carp's scales, hawk's claws, tiger's palm — and whiskers! One can 12 Chinese Art imagine the zoologists and newspaper reporters that would follow in his wake! In event of this circumstance a challenge is hereby issued to them all — even to the reporters, although this would be rash in the U. S. A. — to guess whether he was: A sky-dragon — guardian of the heavens, who keeps them from caving in ; An earth-dragon — tracer of the course of rivers ; A spiritual dragon — ruler of the wind and rain-clouds; A dragon of hidden treasures. The Dragon Feast, which is often the subject of pictures, is a familiar sight in many parts of China, as well as in foreign towns, where there is a large Chinese colony. It is held annually on the fifth day of the fifth moon in commemoration of the death of an eminent statesman, Chu Yuan, who was adviser to Prince Hwai (314 B.C.). Through no fault of .y I 4 a. •I ^ -s 'T' B V V^ I — J n Np !> EX 1 — \ r i> \j io 3 1^1 O — , o- a :& tc vj , g o- o ;s oz. ^ U- J=t ' ^' «) r L_J r a) o 3 ^3 4 j_> ^-^ so ^ o -^ p CN 1 — 1 « U n"! r i — 1 1 J A »-<. O -o k. t- o 13 O ov? J (_3 Plate 13 Taoist Paradise Taoist Subjects in Art 35 (PI. 12), which he used to play, and he is therefore the patron of musicians. Chang Kuo Lao (eighth century) was a magician with a good knowledge of pocket magic. His vehicle of locomotion was a white mule with splendid lasting powers, which he folded up and carried in his pocket when not in use. His emblem is the tabor, two bamboo tubes (PI. 12) with rods to beat them, which are some- times placed in the instrument. He is the patron of artists. Lan Tsai Ho may be a man or a woman. As a female she is represented carrying a flower basket (PI. 12) Mayers states that she wandered abroad clad in a tat- tered blue gown, one foot shoeless, the other shod, sleeping on the ice and snow and begging her way. No doubt on account of the basket she became the patron of gardeners. Ho Hsicn Ku was a woman who lived 36 Chinese Art on powdered mother of pearl with the hope of attaining immortality. Once when sent for by the Empress Wu (a.d. 690-705), she disappeared and joined the Immortals. The mother of pearl had done its work. Her emblem is the leaf or seed pod of the lotus flower (PI. 12). Near the sacred peach-tree, or floating among clouds on the back of a phoenix, may be found the goddess Hsi Wang Mu, whom fable says lived on Mount Kwen Lun with her attendant genii, and her messengers — the two winged birds. She wears gorgeous robes and often has two attendants with her who carry a long- handled fan and basket of peaches, or possibly a spray of peach blossoms and a sacred fungus. She is called the "Royal Mother of the West" and the story of the Emperor Mu Wang (b.c. 985), whom according to the book of Chow used to visit her in his eight-horsed chariot, Taoist Subjects in Art 37 suggests the more recent stories of Apollo and his steeds. The eight horses of Mu Wang are often seen on plates and vases. Tung Wang Kung, the Royal King of the East, is the consort of Hsi Wang Mu, and is shown as a winged figure seated in the clouds. Anderson tells the following story in connection with this god : "In the period of Yuan Yu (1086- 1094) there lived an old man in the capital of China who foretold the future. He was only three feet high and of this measure his head formed the moiety. With the proceeds of his prophecies, he used to buy wine, and when drunk, would say: *I am a sage and can bestow the gift of long life.' When summoned before the Emperor, and asked his age he suddenly vanished after telling stories of the long distant past. The next morning, it was announced that the light of the South Pole Star had, on the previous evening. 38 Chinese Art touched the Imperial Palace. The Em- peror knew that the old man was the incarnation of the Star of Longevity." He is supposed to have been the first practical demonstration of the generative power of the Tae-Keih, and is usually shown with two attendants, one carrying a peach and the other a staff from which hang two scrolls. Tung Fang So occasionally appears carrying his plunder of three peaches, which Hsi Wang Mu planned to take as a present to her favourite the Emperor Wu Ti of the Han Dynasty. This trifling peculation did not prevent Tung from enjoying three thousand years of life, and a glimpse of paradise which would not have fallen to his share had he been less enterprising. To add to the jollity of the hills, filled with the ever-young, there are the Twin Genii of Mirth and Harmony (PL 13) Taoist Subjects in Art 39 One of these carries a lotus or palm leaf, with which to fan off troubles, and the other a scroll or round box which un- doubtedly contains that life-saving elixir, Sense of Humour. Near this group are the Three Aged Ones (PL 13), who from their hale and hearty appearance have evidently kept themselves in trim with Yogi breathing and physical exercises. They usually stand together, one holding a staff, one a ju-i sceptre, and the other unrolling a scroll on which is depicted the Tae-Keih. One may discover also the Three Star Gods of Happiness, Rank, and Long Life. The first of these, Shou Hsing, bears a peach and a scroll attached to a long staff; Lu Hsing is dressed in official robes and winged hat, and carries a ju-i sceptre ; Fu Hsing has a child on his back who is reaching for the peach of long life held by him. In contrast to the carefully planned, 40 Chinese Art rubber-footed ambitions, suggested by the Three Star Gods, stands the fright- ful Kuan Ti, celestial " Secretary of War." He is the deification of Kuan Yu, a fol- lower of the Han Dynasty in the second century a.d. In 1594, when everyone thought he was dead enough to be safe, he was elevated to his present office, which he still holds to this day. He is repre- sented as a bearded man, making a face like a public speaker. Sometimes he is in armour with hand uplifted, holding a sword. Occasionally he rough-rides on a dragon. Another rather forbidding looking per- son who should have no place in paradise, is Kcuei Hsing, with demon-face and horns. He looks to be one form of a certain person, mentioned in the Bible, who is also noted for his horns, but Kcuei's functions are fortunately more limited. Kcuei carries a large writing brush in Taoist Subjects in Art 41 one hand and a fancy cap in the other, such as is said to have been worn by Chinese college graduates. He performs with ease the delicate act of standing on one foot on the head of a large fish, which is shooting through the waves with great speed. An image of him is placed directly in front of Wen Kung, God of Literature, no doubt as a little warning of what literary people have to look forward to. The two gods are sometimes mistaken for each other. Gulland, being an author as well as a connoisseur of Chinese art, is careful to state that though Kcuei Hsing's image stands in front of Wen Kung, he is in no way "regarded as his assistant." Liu Hai is another Taoist favourite who for some unaccountable reason seems to have picked the lock of heaven. He often holds a besom or broom made of brushwood, and is either shown carry- 42 Chinese Art ing his three-legged toad (PL 8 and PI. 13) or waiting for it to swim toward him. An old Chinese painting shows the swim- mer making his start, and when the pic- ture was seen by the author, the patient Liu Hai had been waiting on the shore for more than three hundred years ! Un- der these circumstances it would have been no more than kind of the gods to have given that toad another leg. The Rishi often play about in paradise. They are Taoist sages who sometimes appear in art in the guise of small, bad boys. They were denizens of the moun- tains who in their simple and quiet sur- roundings had discovered the secret of eternal youth. A frequent subject of statuettes is Wang Chi, the original Rip Van Winkle, who stands under trees watching a game of chess. As the story goes, he was picking up firewood one day and wandered into Taoist Subjects in Art 43 a cave where two old men were playing chess. They passed the refreshments to him, and whether it was that or the excitement of the game will never be known, but when the long-suffering play- ers finally suggested that it was time for him to go, Wang was surprised to find a little pipe of dust in the place of his axe- handle! Imagine his astonishment, not to speak of his anxiety on his way home! Among the symbols of Taoism itself are the bronze mirrors, which are some- times carried on the back of the sacred ox (PL 14) and the fly brush (PL 14) with its knob of horse-hair fastened a little distance from the staff. Buddhist fly brushes (PL 14) have the hair attached directly to the end of the handle. A vase (PL 14) containing such a weapon and the sacred fungus is the emblem of a Taoist or Buddhist scholar. The vase may also contain a scroll and a little brush or 44 Chinese Art duster, Ju-i sceptres (PI. 6) and libation cups (PI. 14) are often used alone as symbols. The word "show" (longevity) in infinite variety of forms appears as a decoration either alone or among other more or less formal patterns (PI. 14). Neither the libation cups nor "show" symbols are exclusively Taoist. ^nj r -i _r~^i «Ht' jv: r o 6 _3 o -0 vo" o -0 r j< ^ rxO M fU- Plate 15 A Paragon of Filial Piety Collection of Sir A. W. Franks, K.C.B. m Confucianism and Scholarly Attributes "I do not expound my teaching to any who are not eager to learn ; I do not help out anyone who is not anxious to explain himself; if after being shown one corner of a subject a man cannot go on to discover the other three, I do not repeat the lesson."— Confucius. 45 CHAPTER III CONFUCIANISM AND SCHOLARLY ATTRIBUTES T^HERE is comparatively little trace * among Chinese art subjects of the philosophy founded by Confucius in the sixth century B.C., which has had such a tremendous influence for good on the civilization of his country. The reason is that Confucianism as such is in itself so abstract, so purely a theory of the conduct of life, that it cannot easily be embodied in any symbolic form. How- ever, as Confucius himself was a great scholar, and as his teachings appealed to the learned and cultured classes in China, emblems of scholarship and articles of daily use in the study, employed as sym- 47 48 Chinese Art bols, are indirectly connected with this cult. Confucius has been rightly called the "Teacher of Ten Thousand Ages." His doctrines, contained in the "Five Sacred Books" (PI. 1 6), which were edited by him, are still a beacon light to all those who are not too buried in the "doing" to be interested in the "how-to-do." The first of these five — the Yih King — contains an exposition of the Tae-Keih which is the symbolic expression of the theory of changes. The Shu King treats of the corner-stones of good government, which — if the government is square enough to have four corners — may be clas- sified under the heads of Goodness, Bene- volence, Gravity, and Sincerity. The splendid translation of the third book — the Shi King — by James Legge, F.S.A., has brought to the Occident a collection of verses which may be read for their own Confucianism 49 beauty as well as for the characterization of eminent statesmen and fragments of history with which they deal. The Le King, or Book of Ceremony, lacks the universality of appeal, which marks the three volumes already mentioned. It is, however, an interesting reminder of those fast-vanishing days when actions, like feet, were pounded into a mould and left there to "jell." The last of the Five Sacred Books is the Clmn-tseu, a record of events, which is notable as being the only one of the lot written entirely by Confucius himself. These books are said to owe their origin indirectly to certain ancient records which were inscribed on wooden tablets. Confucius gave these relics such serious study that he is said to have worn out five copies of them (PI. 16). At the time of Confucius' birth, in 551 B.C., a fabulous animal of good omen, 4 50 Chinese Art called the kylin, is said to have appeared. It is represented with a stag's body, an ox's tail, and a unicorn's horn in the middle of its forehead. For it was so very, very good that in walking about, it left no footprints for fear of crushing some living thing. It is looked upon as the incarnation of the five elements. In art, Confucius appears with a beard, wearing a literary man's cap, which is round in front — conforming to the shape of the skull, with the rear half higher and square (PI. i6). He may carry a ju-i sceptre or the more usual scroll and brush pen. Sometimes he is one of three figures standing at a well. The other two are Laotsze and Buddha, and their presence there stands for the broad-minded con- ception that the three religions originate from the same source. Okakura quotes the Sung version of the same story in which Laotsze, Buddha, and Confucius Confucianism 51 stand around a jar of vinegar. Each dips in an inquiring finger and answers accord- ing to his nature. Laotsze, the adapt- able, calls it sweet; Buddha, the reflective says it is bitter; while Confucius, the man of the world, who cultivates the knack of hitting the nail on the head, speaks his mind and pronounces the vinegar sour! These Three Friends, the originators of the three great religions of China, are symbolized in art by the plum, bamboo, and pine when used together. It is natural in a philosophy which deals largely with the proper conduct of life and devotion to parents, that the Twenty-four Paragons of Filial Piety should be almost the only objects of re- presentation. These stories have been made accessible to us by Mayers in his valuable Chhicse Readers' Manual, and are an interesting parallel in some ways to Sunday-school literature of our own 52 Chinese Art day. They also throw a searchlight, not only on the paragons, but also on the paragons' parents. In this connection may be mentioned Kiang-She, whose aged mother developed a keen fancy for fish, as the river was several miles away. So each day Kiang and his wife took the walk and brought back the fish. As a reward to this per- severing pair a spring made its appear- ance near their house in which was one portion of fresh carp each day. Kiang and his wife fortunately liked rice. Kwoh Kii in his journey from birth to death also met with an interesting if diffi- cult situation. Provisions were low and prices high and the family large and hungry. There was not enough for all, and Kwoh could not bear to see his mother starving. So he proposed to his wife that they bury one of their children in order to give the mother its share. No Confucianism 53 objection was made by any of the parties concerned, who were old enough to know what was going on. Kwoh got out his shovel and began to dig. Sud- denly he struck something hard and pulled up — a bar of gold! On it was engraved: "A gift from Heaven to Kwoh Kii; let none deprive him of it." History does not record the name of the engraver, but each person is entitled to one guess. Lao-Lai-Tsze in his old age found that his parents were losing interest in things generally. So to amuse them and create the illusion that they were once more in their youth, he dressed himself in boy's clothes and danced and played before them. A Chinese bedstead, now in the Bethnal Green Museum, London, has this scene on one of its panels, done in inlay. Telepathy seems to have been known as early as 516 B.C., for Tseng Shen and 54 Chinese Art his mother had such great sympathy existing between them that when she bit her own finger, he also felt the pain, even though distant from her, and he went to her immediately, knowing that he was wanted. Hwang Hiang is noted for his devotion to his father. Hwang's mother had died not long after his birth, and he gave up the rest of his life to waiting on his father, with especial reference to keeping his bed warm in winter and cool in summer. In order to be a paragon, it was evi- dently necessary for the candidate to do the impossible if requested. Meng Tsung is an example in kind. It was mid- winter and his mother desired bamboo- shoots. As this was before the day of the green-house, Meng went despairingly into the grove, looking, but there were no shoots to be found. He then bewailed his inability to get them in a way that evi- Confucianism 55 dently touched some supernatural heart, for all of a sudden, even though the ther- mometer was low, bamboo shoots began to shoot and shoot all around him, rival- ling their normal growth of an inch a day in spring. The stepmother steps in, in the case of Min Sun. She had several children of her own, and after making their gar- ments, did not even leave a remnant for Min. She did the next best thing how- ever, and made him up a suit in the pre- historic style, from leaves. Min's father loved him, and the sight of one arboreal costume in the midst of lovely silk ones was too much for his temper. He stormed about and threatened to get a divorce. But at this juncture, when the nerves of the whole family were on edge, Min en- tered and moved, like Burnham Wood, to the centre of the stage: "Nay, father, do not so, for it is better that one son 56 Chinese Art should suffer from cold than three child- ren should be motherless." It is pleas- ant to relate that everything was patched up by this tactful stroke and that hence- forth Min, perfectly garbed, sat at the stepmother's right hand. A novel sort of devotion was shown by Wu Meng, a great magician, whose best trick in later life was to cross streams at will by a wave of his fan. As a boy it was his custom to let himself be bitten by mosquitoes, thus monopolizing their attention while his parents slept. As he lived long enough to make quite a name for himself, it is safe to as- sume that the mosquitoes which hovered about him were neither anopheles nor stegomyia. The next paragon was an Emperor of China, Weng Ti, who took the throne in 179 B.C. His mother was ill for three years, and during all that time Weng Confucianism 57 neither left her bedside nor changed his clothes! Chu Show Ch'ang was an official of the Sung Dynasty, whose story would touch any heart, however galvanized. His mother had been put aside by his father during Chu's early boyhood. As a loyal and true son he never rested until he had found her, after a tireless search lasting fifty years. A great deal of stress is laid by the Chinese on the proper burial of the dead. Tung Yung, one of the paragons, mort- gaged himself for 10,000 copper-cash in order to pay the funeral expense of his beloved father. After the ceremony, as he was returning to his home, he was accosted by a woman who offered him her- self as wife and three hundred rolls of silk, the value of which covered his personal mortgage. He did not refuse this oppor- tune aid, but one month later his wife 58 Chinese Art disappeared, leaving behind her the cus- tomary note. From it Tung learned that she was a star sent by heaven to reward him for his unselfish devotion. As she left the three hundred rolls of silk be- hind, we are forced to believe the story. Wang Siang may be mentioned as an historical example of the good stepson. It was bitter winter when he was put to test, and on the snowiest and iciest day of all, the stepmother asked for fish. No doubt Wang said, "Isn't that like a woman?" under his breath, but the fact remains that he walked out of the house and down to the river. There, with magnificent disregard of consequences, he stretched himself on the ice. The historian does not tell us exactly what happened, but later in the day he went back to his home, somewhat chilly per- haps, but bearing in his hand a fine pair of carp. Confucianism 59 One of the earliest ancestors of the raw fruit diet was Tsai Shun, whose dietetic courage won him his place among the paragons. During a famine he collected berries, giving all the ripe ones to his mother, and eating all the green ones himself. Soon somebody died, but it was not Tsai, greatly to our surprise. Though the house was in flames he refused to leave his mother's bier. As she had been very much afraid of thunder during her life- time, he used to go to her grave whenever there was a storm. There he would call aloud : " Be not afraid, mother, I am here." His memory is very much revered by the Chinese, and statuettes of him are fre- quently found. Another popular subject for statuettes is Kiang Keh (PL 15), who is shown car- rying a woman on his back. He is in- cluded among the Twenty-four Examples, because as a boy he rescued his mother 6o Chinese Art from robbers, and in order to save her from them carried her for miles on his shoulders. Today, Ting Lan, Paragon, would be noted less for himself than as the husband of a clever wife. In accordance with the custom, an effigy of Ting's deceased mother was kept in his house as the ob- ject of his respect and devotion. One day when Ting was out, a friend, by way of being neighbourly, stepped in to borrow something. As the wife wished to shift the responsibility of a refusal, she got out the divining sticks and by this means asked the effigy if it wanted to lend the required article. It did not. Then the angry neighbour struck the image that was denying him the article needed, and departed, feeling more satisfied. On Ting's return he heard what had hap- pened and went around to the neighbour's house at once, walking rapidly. History Confucianism 6i does not state exactly what took place, but it is doubtful from published accounts, if the neighbour ever tried to borrow anything more from Ting's wife's mother- in-law's effigy. The remaining examples of Filial Piety are not distinctive enough to find their way into the field of art except on rare occasions, if at all. Yu Kien Low (500 A.D.), a prominent official, Hwang Ting Kien (1075-1105 A.D.), a famous poet of high rank, and Chung Yeo (180 B.C.), a disciple of Confucius, are included in the list for some act of piety to their parents. Wang Ngai is remembered as having screened his mother's grave from storms, while Luk Su (first century a.d.), was a political prisoner whose devotion to his mother earned him his freedom. As the tendency of Confucian teachings was largely cultural it seems suitable to mention in this connection a popular art 62 Chinese Art motive known as the Four Elegant Ac- compHshments, which are chess, music, poetry, and calHgraphy. Sometimes these form the principal decoration of a plate or vase when they are represented by groups of people playing chess and musical instruments, and looking at books and pictures. Frequently only the symbols themselves appear (PI. 14). In this case the chess-board is always shown with two globular vases near by which contains the chess-men. The fittings of a writing-table, when used as symbols, are meant to suggest scholarship or learning. Among these may be mentioned water bowls with spoons for moistening the ink-cake (PI. 16), brush -rests (PL 16), and ink-slabs (PI. 16) of various kinds with or without brushes. When a cake of ink, shaped like an axe, is combined in the same design with a brush-pen and a ju-i sceptre (PI. 16), 0) 01 (t y^ (Z)^ ■3 a. 3 5" ^ 1 — > r t ^ d u o V 0) l3 cQ^ i r 13 "" >^ i- Plate 17 Bodhidharma — His Spirit Crossing the Sea on a Reed Confucianism 63 their three Chinese names form a synonym for "may things happen as you desire." The Four Treasures of the Writing-Table have attained the dignity of being a special motive. The treasures usually selected for this are the ink-cake, paper, brush-pen, and a slab of stone, wood, or other material on which the ink is dis- solved in sufficient quantity for use. Seals sometimes appear showing either in profile or from the bottom (PI. 16). The imperial seal was of jade with a dragon for a handle. Among other things appropriate to the scholar were incense burning and music. A special incense-burning set (PI. 16) is of frequent appearance and consists of a burner, a small box for the incense, and a vase which holds a tiny shovel of fanciful shape, and two metal rods with which to handle the hot ash. This is called the Set of Three. Another 64 Chinese Art group in which the incense burner plays a prominent part is the Set of Five, which also includes a pair of candlesticks and two flower vases all made in correct pro- portion. The incense burner in this in- stance usually has a perforated top and the set is destined for use in temples devoted not only to Confucian worship but to other religions as well. The pair of sacrificial wine cups shown on PI. 1 6 are connected with the Con- fucian religion. Music played no small part in the lives of cultivated Chinese, and in ancient times string instruments were the symbol of joy, while wind instru- ments denoted sorrow. The lute (PI. i8), a long coffin-shaped affair, which resembles the Japanese koto, is frequently shown on pottery, wrapped in a brocaded cover- ing or bag. The biwa (PI. i8) is of fre- quent appearance, also a small musical instrument (PI. i8) which appears in a Confucianism 65 vase among emblems of scholarship. Other subjects belonging to the realm of the scholar are the box for dominoes (PL 18) and the famous round glass, amber or stone bottles with fiat sides (PI. 18), used to contain snuff! 5 IV Buddhist and Non-Religious Art Motives "Well-makers lead the water whither they will; fletchers bend the arrow; wise people fashion themselves. Having listened to the law they become serene, like a deep, smooth, and still lake. " — Sakyamuni. 67 CHAPTER IV BUDDHIST AND NON-RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS IN ART A LTHOUGH Buddhism has been known in China at least as far back as 217 B. c, and although sacred pictures and scriptures of that Faith were brought into China during the Han Dynasty, as well as on later occasions, it was not until 520 A.D., when Bodhidharma arrived from India, that the Art of the Empire was in any great degree influenced by Buddhist motives, which had hitherto been un- known. New divinities immediately took on Chinese characteristics without losing a distinctive Aryan look, which was in striking contrast to the coarse features of 69 70 Chinese Art the gods who had their origin in China. Large ear-lobes, the symbol of wisdom, are a feature of Buddhist deities that are clad in flowing garments which add a new element of grace wherever they appear. Bodhidharma, an Indian prince, arrived in Honan province in 520 a.d. He set- tled in Loyang, an ancient capital, and died there after a life of contemplation. He is often represented in all forms of Chinese art as a man with a short beard and earnest, characterful face. The in- tensity of his glance is remarkable and is a striking element in all his pictures or statuettes. He frequently carries the patra or Buddhist alms bowl, and is often shown on his pathetic spirit-journey back to his homeland, when he crossed the sea standing on a reed (PI. 17). Statuettes sometimes show him with^a sandal near him or in his hand, dropped from the Buddhist and Non-Religious 71 foot that had withered away during his long period of contemplation. This habit of absorbing thought earned him the title of the Sage Who Looks at the Wall. An epitome of Buddhism is given in graphic form by the vase (PL 18). This is probably a form of the alms bowl, and appears as a symbol, itself symbolizing the important points of the Buddhist religion. The vase is divided into four conspicu- ous divisions, which stand for the Four Noble Truths: — (i) Suffering exists from birth to old age ; (2) The origin of suffer- ing is desire; (3) Emancipation from suf- fering comes by the cessation of desire; (4) Freedom from suffering is attained by virtuous living. The three legs upon which the vase stands symbolize the Three Evidences of True Rehgion, which are: Hear no evil; See no evil; Speak no evil. The cover 72 Chinese Art with its ten scallops, of which five only are shown, indicate what is called Avoiding the Ten Evils — precepts which are very similar to the Ten Commandments of the Christian religion. The seven petals of the lotus flower, half-way up the stem, represent the Seven Jewels of the Law : ( i ) Purity as shown in deep meditation; (2) Calmness as evinced in the struggle against evil; (3) Comprehen- sion manifested in the desire to become holy ; (4) Complete happiness produced by moral strength; (5) Wisdom shown by the developing of spiritual faculties; (6) Per- fection brought about by absolute wisdom ; (7) Enlightenment evinced by righteous- ness. The five-petaled lotus which crowns the top of the stem is the emblem of the Five Attributes of Being: Matter, Sensa- tion, Perception, Discrimination, and Con- sciousness. Was there ever a vase that told so much? mO 00 51 u "0 O ^ (^ r r^5 O c- « D a o •J O 1 13 P^ O i HI 2N' A 3 -3 '4 B 0^ r ^2 T-\) O ,>-, vj F a S 2 O Buddhist and Non-Religious 73 The divine Buddha himself may be depicted in any one or all three of his phases, as the Sakyamuni, the Amitabha, or the Maitreya. Sakyamuni is the personal Buddha, the actual man, who, by dint of resisting great temptations, passed through many transmigratory states before attaining Buddhahood. As a Boddhisattva, or next step but one from Buddha, he selected the pure and good Mayo of Kapilavastu as his mother-to-be. At the time of his painless birth, when he stepped from her right side, there were many re- markable occurrences, such as flashes of coloured light, and earthquakes which announced to the world the coming of the Buddha. He left his work on earth to seek and save his mother in the land of the departed, and during his long absence a statue was made of him by his faithful followers. On 74 Chinese Art Sakyamuni's return from his quest the statue saluted him, and at that moment he uttered a prophecy which had its fulfil- ment after a campaign in Asia, when the monster statue was carried to the Court of China in 121 B.C. After his death, flame burst out of the swastika on his breast and consumed his body, which ordinary fire was unable to affect. Thus it is that the swastika (PI. 18) which, to the Chinese, means "ten thousand ages" or "things," is also the symbol of the sacred heart of Buddha. He prophesied that the alms bowl, or patra, which he carried was to go through many adven- tures, and was finally to land at the bot- tom of the sea to await the Maitreya or coming Buddha. At that time it is to divide into four parts, each of which must be sacredly guarded, for with the disap- pearance of the alms bowl, Buddhism will perish from the earth. Buddhist and Non-Religious 75 Other symbols connected directly with Sakyamuni are : the jewel on his forehead which illumines every universe; the fig- tree — sacred because he meditated be- neath it for a day and a night when he dreamed that he had become a Buddha; the thirty-two mystic tracings on his skin ; and the sixty-five emblems on the soles of his feet. The Eight Buddhist Symbols (PI. 19) speedily become familiar to a student of Chinese art from a motive selected from the sixty-five mentioned above. These usually appear decorated with fillets or ribbons as a token of their sanctity. They are: 1. Lotus flower, emblem of purity out of the unclean. 2. Covered vase, a sort of reliquary, 3. Conch shell, anciently carried by mariners as an omen for a safe journey. 76 Chinese Art 4. Two fishes, emblem of domestic happiness and faithfulness. 5. Official imibrella, always an emblem of official authority in the East. 6. Canopy, symbol of sovereign rank because carried over rulers and viceroys on state occasions. 7. Bell, used in temple services to at- tract the attention of the gods, or possibly the crystal bell heard by mystics at the time of the death of a mortal; or wheel of the law, sometimes used instead of a bell — probably a symbol of the prayer-wheel — a sort of revolving bookcase, one revolu- tion of which is equal to a read- ing of the sacred books contained in the case. 8. Knot, representing the intestines and therefore an emblem of lon- gevity. Buddhist and Non-Religious ']^ Bushell gives an excellent classification of the representations of Sakyamiini as follows: "Birth — the infant stands erect on lotus thalamus, pointing upward with the right hand and downward with the left. "Sakyamuni returning from the moun- tains — he is ascetic in aspect, with a beard and shaven poll, flowing garments, and hands in a position of prayer. His brow bears the ' Urna ' or luminous mark which distinguishes a Buddha. "All-wise Sakyamuni — seated cross- legged on a lotus-throne, left hand upon knee, right hand raised in mystic preach- ing pose. Hair generally represented as a blue mass, composed of short, close curls. The jewel is midway between the crown and forehead. " A pair of mandarin ducks or a butter- fly have the same significance. "The Nirvana — a recumbent figure 78 Chinese Art lying on a raised bench, with head pil- lowed on a lotus. "In the Sakyamuni Trinity, he is either erect or seated in an attitude of medita- tion, with an alms bowl in his hands, be- tween his spiritual sons the Boddhisattvas and Samantabhadra — the three forming a mystic triad." A frequent Buddhist art subject is known as the Seven Gems of the Universal Monarch. These are often to be found on the borders of cups or plates (PI. 20). They are: (i) The white elephant which carries the jewel of the law, or the sacred patra (PI. 18). (2) The bundle of jewelled rods which fulfill every wish. These are undoubtedly the divining rods used to this day in Oriental religions. (3) The general. (4) The divine guardian of the treasury. Plate 20 Seven Gems of Universal Monarch Plate 21 Ho-Shang, God of Contentment and Riches Collection of Sir A. W. Franks, K.C.B. Buddhist and Non-Reli^^ious 79 (5) Lovely consorts. (6) The horse. (7) The golden wheel. Amitabha Buddha is the heavenly- counterpart of Sakyamuni, and is an impersonal deity representing boundless and eternal light. In an old painting of the Sung Dynasty, he is depicted as a beautiful luminous creature holding a water bowl and spoon, sitting at the head of living water which flows from the rocks beneath his feet, thus symbolizing "the origin of . " In statues Amitabha usually wears a halo and stands on a lotus pedes- tal. Sometimes he holds a cord with which to rescue his followers. Maitreya — the third form of Buddha — is yet to appear on earth, like the Messiah of Jewish tradition. Statuettes of Ho Shang are considered by many to be representations of the Maitreya, although they lack the dignity with 8o Chinese Art which one would expect to find this deity invested. The sixteen arhats are the disciples nearest to Buddha, chosen from the five hundred who have freed themselves from the shackles of transmigration. When Ho Shang and Dharmatrata are included, the number is extended to eighteen. Jacquemart says that the legends con- nected with these men cannot antedate the eighth century. Their names as spelled here are so original and delightful that no commentator since their Occidental discoverer has had either the courage or the wish to bring the spelling into line with other Anglo-Saxon specimens of the Chinese language. As there are so many in this group, they rarely appear on pottery, but are usually to be found in carvings, paintings or large pieces of lacquer. They may be recognized by their attributes: Buddhist and Non-Religious 8i (i) Noh Chu Na sits on a bench with a rosary in his hand. (2) Poh Sho-Lo is accompanied by a tiger. (3) Pan Sho-Chia holds a pearl which a dragon is trying to reach. (4) Chia Noh Chia Fa T'Sho carries a fly-brush and is seated in a chair. (5) Poh Li Toh Sho carries a scroll, and has attendant with a gong. (6) Su Pin Sho sits on a mat, his hands on his knees. (7) Chia Li Chia stands on a rock, holding a scroll. (8) Fa Sho Lo Fo Sho Lo is seated on a stool and carries a knotted staff. (9) Shu Po Chia is sometimes accom- panied by a lion. He sits be- fore a lotus pedestal. (10) Yin Chie Sho holds a ju-i sceptre, 82 Chinese Art an attendant carries his staff with fish on the end of it. (ii) O Sh'to holds a staff. A vase with peonies stands before him. (12) Chu Shu Pan Sho Chia is seated on a mat bearing a fly -brush. (13) La Hu La is seated before a lotus pedestal with his hands folded. (14) Na Chie Si Na holds a patra from which flowing water ascends. (15) Pin Tu Loh Poh To Sho stands on a rock with tablets and fly- brush. (16) Fa Na Pho Tsy looks at a vase in which there is a peach branch without leaves. (17) Dharmatrata is a lay devotee. He carries a vase and fly whisk, and a bundle of books on his back. His hair is long and he gazes intently at an image of Amitabha Buddha. Buddhist and Non-Religious 83 Ho Shang (PI. 21) is known as the Bonze with the Hempen Bag. He carries a rosary and leans against a sack. He is looked upon as the God of Contentment or Riches, or as a representation of Mai- treya Buddha. In life he is supposed to have been the Buddhist priest Putai whose last words were: "The God! The True God! He dwells in the hearts of billions of souls yet they know it not!" Kuan-yin (PI. 22) is a great favourite in the Buddhist pantheon, and may be male or female. The most usual and popular representation of this goddess is a beau- tiful and gracious woman, who holds a child in her arms and wears a rosary around her neck. She is the Chinese equivalent of India's Avalokita, and when represented in that form, she is shown with several heads and four, eighteen, or forty hands, with which she strives to alleviate the sufferings of the unhappy. 84 Chinese Art The Chinese Kuan-yin was said to have been the daughter of a king — Chang Wang of the Chow Dynasty (696 B.C.). He strenuously opposed her wish to become a nun, and was so irritated by her refusal to marry that he put her to humiliating tasks in the convent, no doubt that she might see the life for herself. This means of coercion failed, and her father then ordered her to be executed for disobe- dience to his wishes. But the executioner, who was evidently a man of tender heart and some forethought, probably brought it about that the sword which was to descend upon her should break into a thousand pieces. Her father was not balked by a little thing like that and or- dered her to be stifled. As the story goes she forthwith went to Hell, but on her arrival the flames were quenched and flowers burst into bloom. Yama, the presiding officer, looked on in dismay at Buddhist and Non-Religious 85 what seemed to be the summary abolition of his post, and in order to keep his posi- tion he sent her back to life again. Car- ried in the fragrant heart of a lotus flower she went to the island of Potola near Ningpo. One day her father fell ill and according to a Chinese custom, not so rare as one might suppose, she cut the flesh from her arms that it might be made into medicine. A cure was effected, and in his gratitude her father ordered her statue to be made, "with completely- formed arms and eyes." Owing to a misunderstanding of the orders the sculp- tor carved the statue with many heads and many arms, and so it remains to this day. Kuan-yin is the Goddess of Mercy, and whether seated on a rock near the water, or standing in majesty, a vase containing a spray of leaves is usually beside her. Sometimes two tin^ children stand at her 86 Chinese Art feet praying. She is frequently accom- panied by Manjusri, the God of Wisdom mounted on a lion, and Samantabhadra the All-good who rides an elephant and carries a ju-i sceptre. The elephant has therefore become the symbol of Bod- dhisattvas, the class of saints who have to pass through human life but once more before becoming Buddhas. The elephant is also the bearer of the jewel of the law or the sacred patra (PI. i8). The lion in Chinese art is usually moulded in a drippling smile, with a pair of cubs playing about its feet. It is properly a Buddhist emblem and stands at the gateway of temples to scare off evil spirits. It usually toys with a ball and looks so much like a stuffed puppy that it is often spoken of as a dog of Foh — or Buddha. As it is considered wrong for a Buddhist to kill any living thing, many priests carry Plate 22 Kuan-Yin, Goddess of Mercy Collection of R. H. Benson. Esq. Plate 23 Vase with Symbols (Reverse) Collection of G. W. Salting, Esq. Buddhist and Non-Religious 87 a standard to which are attached jangling metal rings (PI. 18). This is meant as a warning to pedestrian insects who are thus enabled to get out of the way. Another priestly weapon is the quadruple vajra sceptre (PI. 20) which owing to its pleasing and symmetrical form sometimes appears as an art motive (PI. 20). It represents the sceptre of Indra with which he used to rout the enemies of Buddhism in his character as "Church Militant." It is brandished during re- ligious services in order to terrify evil spirits who may be in the vicinity. The fly-brush (PI. 14) is used in a similar way by Buddhist priests, who are pestered, in order to break connection with any polluting influence. A symbol of frequent appearance is a pair of rings linked together. There is a difference of opinion as to their signifi- cance, but they may represent the ear- 88 Chinese Art rings of an arhat, or symbolize the one- ness of male and female. If there is but one ring, and that a thicker one, it may be a jade ornament which is worn with certain Buddhist priest robes. A flower which connotes Buddhism is the finger citron, so called because the form taken by its petals resembles a classic position of Buddha's hand with the index and little finger pointing upward. Several well-known motives frequently appear in poetry, lacquer, or embroidery that are not of religious origin. For example the Virtuous Heroines occasion- ally make their appearance in public. They form the subject of a classic work by Liu Hiang, who lived during the Han Dynasty. There are also the Lovers of the Chrysanthemum or Lotus who are always shown in the vicinity of these lovely blossoms. The poet Li Tai-po Buddhist and Non-Religious 89 was a lover of the lotus flower as well as the wineskin, and was such a favourite at Court and so greatly beloved for a while, that the Emperor and his ministers used to wait on him until they finally got tired of it and quit. He is usually found in a semi-doze, with the wineskin or lotus flowers not far off. There are of course an infinite number of scenes represented in all forms of Chinese art whose scope is co-extensive with the actual history of China itself. No mere man or woman could know them all. It is possible, however, for a normal brain, when properly informed, to make certain deductions about the people on his plate, her embroidered plaque, or their lacquered cabinet — which puts life into even the humblest piece. It is always easy, however, to guess from the generous sprinkling of symbols which character- izes Chinese art, whether the pictured 90 Chinese Art people are Taoist or Buddhist or Aca- demic. Old embroidered or brocade plaques taken from the breast or back of worn-out Chinese official robes are often purchased by travellers in the Far East. They are usually very artistic and become doubly interesting when their significance is known. Birds indicate the Civil Service, animals the Army and Navy. The de- coration chosen for the weave as well as the girdle-clasp worn was an indication of rank as follows: Grade: Military: Civil Service: Belt Buckles: ist unicorn pelican jade set in rubies 2d lion golden hen gold set in rubies 3d panther peacock chased gold 4th tiger crane chased gold with chased silver button 5th bear white pheasant chased gold with plain sil- ver button. Buddhist and Non-Religious 91 Grade: Military: Civil Service: Belt Buckles: 6th tiger stork mother of pearl 7th rhinoceros mandarin duck silver 8th seal quail translucent horn 9th sea-horse long-tailed jay buffalo horn Historical Outline "In the mulberry tree still bides the dove And now on thorn trees are her brood. A virtuous man our Chief doth prove, Of faultless rectitude; And by such rectitude Is all his land reformed, renewed. " Odes oj Tsau. 93 CHAPTER V HISTORICAL OUTLINE A BOOK dealing with any phase of Chinese art wovdd be incomplete without at least a sketching in of the rise and fall of the last four dynasties in which art has made such great strides. The Sung Dynasty (960-1127 a.d.) has been generally recognized as the most fruitful period of Chinese history from the humanist standpoint. It was foimded by T'ai Tsu whose birth was attended with celestial manifestations, which were said by his mother to be an omen of his future importance. As she happened to be an Empress, the populace was only too will- ing to believe her. Immediately after his accession he gave a splendid banquet 95 9^ Chinese Art to which he invited those generals who might have become possible contestants for his throne. With the salad — when they were all in the best of humour — he suggested that their families should inter- marry with his own. With the dessert he proposed that all those present should lay down their arms. From the success of his suggestions he may be looked on as one of the earliest historical exponents of the theory that the way to a man's heart lies through his stomach. During this dynasty colleges were opened throughout the Empire where students who wished to pass the examina- tions had to be able to write a poetical composition, an essay on a famous his- torical character, and to have a thorough knowledge of history. This sounds easy enough compared to the Western require- ments of today, which range from the astronomy of the Outer-most to the Historical Outline 97 psychology of the Inner-most. One should stop to consider, however, that the Chinese alphabet or syllabary con- tains a mere bagatelle of twenty thousand characters, and even were it treated with a rabid application of the pnming knife, the student would still find in his hands a large number of unavoidable ideo- graphs. Having mastered this primary work he would no doubt be promoted to history only to be dealt another deadly blow. For out of the myriad ages of China's national life the events of the Tang Dynasty (618-906 a.d.) alone occupy 225 volumes, while the poetical works of this same single epoch have been com- pressed into a dainty little de luxe, num- bering nine hundred books in all. So greatly reverenced was the cult of the scholar in the Sung period that in A.D. 979 the Emperor ennobled the past 98 Chinese Art descendants of Confucius for forty-five generations. A series of misfortunes finally drove the Sung monarchs into the South, where they made their capital at Nanking. With the Mongolian invasion about 1276, the sun of the Sungs began to look to the entering hordes like a total eclipse. The Yuan Dynasty (i 280-1368 a.d.) was next instituted in China by the Mon- gol Kublai Khan with a capital at Peking. He was an ardent Buddhist and selected an impartial board to investigate the Taoist religion. They reported that Tao- ism was completely corrupt, with the ex- ception of the Tao-teh-king by Laotsze. Whereupon Kublai ordered that all Tao- ist belongings should be burned. Wen Tien-Siang, the loyal Nogi of ancient China, had remained faithful to the Sungs, and as the refusal of allegiance by such a widely-known man imdoubtedly Historical Outline 99 rankled in Kublai's autocratic heart, he was thrown into prison. A popular clam- our soon arose in his behalf, and Kublai gave the magnificent old man a chance to deny the old masters and join with the new. However, Wen stated that he had no further desire to live and begged to be put to death. Kublai obligingly had this done, and fragments of his dress were treasured ever after by the devoted people. On his robe he had written a saying of Confucius: "The scholar and the virtuous man will not desire to live at the expense of their virtue. They will on the contrary give up their lives to possess it." There was also a saying from Mencius, the disciple of Confucius: "I am fond of fish and also of bear's paws. If I can- not get them both I will dispense with the fish and take the bear's paws. In a like manner I have a desire for life and I also 100 Chinese Art love righteousness. If I cannot retain them both I will sacrifice life and hold on to righteousness. " A successor of Kublai's was so much impressed by the teachings of Confucius that he had his writings translated into Mongol and — as a little hint — ^gave a copy of the book on Filial Piety to each of his immediate relatives. It was not long before literature and the arts began to be neglected and the splendid school system to fall into decay. A tremendous secret society known as the "White Lily" monopolized public atten- tion, ostensibly for the worship of Kuan- yin, but in reality for political motives. The leader declared that the goddess would give them aid and free them from the Mongols — if they were willing to do their share of the work. The large revolt which followed was the cause of the Yuan downfall. Historical Outline loi The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 a.d.) was next to come, with its capital at Nanking. T'ai Tsu, the first ruler, was a Carnegie in spirit and founded libraries throughout the Empire. With wise forethought he ap- pointed a commission of men from the Han- lin Academy to get together a history of the Yuan Dynasty while the raw material was still at hand . Like his recent prototype he was a canny man, and built a gorgeous hall in Peking to contain statues of the twenty- one generals who had assisted him to power. He had a keen knowledge of human na- ture and the bait it nibbles on, and in that magnificent temple which sheltered statues of the people who had been useful to him, he saw to it that there were plenty of vacant niches for those yet to come! The Ming policy was a broad and gener- ous one and in order to help along good government, a simplified code of laws was drawn up. Even the five hundred 102 Chinese Art eunuchs of the palace shared in the benefits by receiving an education which put power in their hands that they used to the ultimate destruction of the dynasty. They became so influential that nobles attached to the Emperor Wu Tsung protested against the influence of this debased class, and one day Wu found a note containing charges against some of his powerful friends. He was greatly incensed at this presumption and ordered three hundred mandarins to kneel in his court-yard until the writer of the note was made known. Be it said to their eternal honour that they remained there for five days and nights until the baflied Emperor had to order them home or to the hospital ! Renewed results of the ' ' White Lily" society began to weaken the dy- nasty, thus giving the ever-ready invaders an opportunity which they were not slow to grasp. Historical Outline 103 The Ts'ing Dynasty (1644-1911) was Manchu, with the ancient capital at Mukden. On assuming control of the country they removed to Peking, but many of their precious embroideries, paintings, books, pottery, bronzes, and jades remain in the Mukden treasure house, where they were seen by the author just before the revolution. The first action of the Manchus was to issue a decree depriving the eunuchs of their authority, which was published to the world on tablets weighing a thousand pounds. Kang-Hsi (a.d. i 662-1 722) is esteemed as one of the best known of all Chinese Emperors. He had been so tolerant of Roman Catholics that there were 100,000 converts in three provinces alone before he knew it. He was finally prevailed upon to issue an edict against all missionaries remaining in the Empire except by his own special permission. 104 Chinese Art During his reign a great dictionary was compiled which is an authority to this day and the wise teachings of his Sacred Edict are supposed to be publicly read in every town on the ist and 15th of each month. Moreover it was during his reign that several types of porcelain reached their highest development. The Dowager-Empress Tse-hsi was one of the best-known rulers of this dynasty. She was born in 1835, and on the death of her son, the Emperor, perpetrated a coup d'etat, putting his nephew, the baby Kuang Hsii, on the throne. A co- Empress-Dowager named Tse-an stood in the way of her ambition, but not for long, for the mortality rate among her enemies was noticeably high. The Em- peror was continually assisted in govern- ing by his loving aunt, and in 1898 he issued an edict saying that the Dowager Empress would receive the high officials Historical Outline 105 of the government in the Administrative Palace, while he, the Emperor, would attend to affairs of State in the Side Hall. The harassed man was not even allowed to find peace in death, for his aunt fol- lowed him to the Hills of Longevity by an interval of twenty -four hours. She was the biggest of the several bitter drops that finally made the bucket run over on October 11, 191 1, when the Dynasty came to an end and a republic was declared. INDEX Accomplishments, the four elegant, 62 ; chess, music, poetry, writing, 41-42 Amitabha, 73, 79 Antiques, Hundred, 22-24 Arhats, sixteen, 80 Army, 90-91 Artemisia leaf, 23 Avalokita, 83 Ball, 86 Bat, 22 Bear, 90 Bell, 76 Belt buckles, 90-91 Benson, R. H., v Biwa, 64 Boar, wild, 18 Boddhidharma, 69-70 Books, 24 Brocade, 3 Bronzes, 4 Brush-rests, 62 Buddha, 71 Buddhism, 69, 71, 74 Buddhist Symbols, the Eight, 75 Bullock, 18 Canopy, 76 Cap, literary, 50 Carving, 3 Castanets, 34, 37 Chang Kung Lao, 35 Chang Li Chu'an, ;ii Cherry, double, 18 Chicken, 18 Chrysanthemums, 18 Chu Yuan, 12-13 Civil Service, 90-91 Clair dc lune pottery, 21 Clouds, 4 Coin, 23 Colour, 15-16 five virtues, points of compass, 15; five ele- ments, 8 Confucius, 47-48 Confucianism, 45, 47 Consorts, 79 Constellations, 9-10; 22 Crane, 90 Crockery, 3 Crow, red, 9 Crutch and cane, 32 Death, 22 Deer, 29 Devil, 40 Dog, 18 Domino box, 65 Dragon, 10, 14-15, 22, 81; Feast, 12-13; four- clawed, 13-14; D. and carp, 14; D.- horse, 6 Duck, mandarin, 91 Dynasties, 95 ff. Earth, 8 Elcpliant, 78, 86 Embroidery, 10, 32, 88, 90 107 io8 Index Fan, 33, 36, 39, 56 Fillets, 24 Finger citron, 88 Fishes, 76, 82 Five sacred books of Con- fucius, 48, 49, 64 Flame, 22 Flute, 34-35 Fly-brush, 34, 43, 81, 82, 87 Franks, Sir A. W., vi, 21 Frog, 20 Fu, 22 Fu Hsi, 5-6 Fu Hsing, 39 Gardenia, 18 General, 78 Ginger jars, 18-19 Gong, 24 jade, 24 Goodness, 22 Gourd, 32 Han Hsiang Tzu, 34, 35 Happiness, rank and lon- gevity, gods of, 39 Hare, 18-21 Hen, golden, 90 Ho Hsien Ku, 35-36 Ho Shang, vi, 80 Horn, 23, 91 buffalo, 91 cups, 23 Horse, 18, 36, 79 Hsi Wang Mu, 20, 30, 37, 38 Huang Ti, 27 Immortals, Eight, 30, 31, 32 Incense burning set, 63, 64 Ink cake, 63 Jade, 90 Jay, long-tailed, 91 Jewel of the law, 1 1 Jui sceptre, 29, 30, 44 Kao Ts'ou, 13 Kcuei Hsing, 40 Key, Trojan, 4 Knot, 76 Kublai Khan, 98 flf. Kwan Ti, 40 Kwan Yin, 83, 100 Kylin, 50 Lan Tsai Ho, 35 Laotsze, 28, 32 Li Ti'eh Kwai, 32, 38 Lily, White, 100-102 Lion, 81, 86, 90 Li Tai-Po, 88 Literature, God of, 41 Longevity, 22, 29, 31 Lotus pod, 18, 36, ^'j Lovers of chrysanthemum, 88; lotus, 88 Lozenge, 23 Lu Hsing, 39 Lute, 64 Lu Tung Ping, 33-34 Magnolia, 18 Maitreya, 74, 79 Mallow, 18 Mandarin coats, 10, 21 Millet grains, 22, 91 Ming Dynasty, loi Mirrors, 43 Monkey, 18 Months, 18 Moon, 20, 21 temple of, 21 Mortar and pestle, 20, 21 Mother of pearl, 91 Mountains, 8, 22 Mt. Kwenlun, 36 Index 109 Mule, white, 35 Museum, British, vi Victoria and Albert, vi Bethnal Green, 53 Navy, 90 Offspring, 22 Okakura, K., 50 Ornaments, the Twelve, 21 Ox, 2-], 43 Panther, 90 Paradise, Taoist, 31 Paragons of Filial Piety, 51-61 Patra, 78, 82 Patron Saints of: artists, 35; actors, 34; barbers, 34; gardeners, 35; musicians, 35 Peach, 30, 34 blossom, 18 Peacock, 90 Pear, 18 Pearl, 23 Pelican, 90 Peony tree, 18, 82 Pheasants, 22 Pheasant, white, 90 Phoenix, 15, 36 Pine, 29 Plague, 41 Plum, 29-30 Pomegranate, 18 Poppy, 18 Precious Things, the Eight, 23. 24 Quail, 91 Rabbit, 18 Rat, 18 Red bird, 16 Rhinoceros, 91 Riches, 22 Rings, 87-88 Rip Van Winkle, Wang Chi, 42 Rods, jeweled, 78 Rosary, 81, 83 Rubies, 90 Sakyamuni, 67, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79 Samantabhadra, 78 Sang-de-bwuf, 9 Sceptre, vajra, 87 Scroll, 36, 38, 43, 81 Sea horse, 91 Seal, 91 Serpent, 16, 19 Set of Five, 64 Set of Three, 63, 64 Seven Gems of Universal Monarch, 78 Shell, 75 Shou Hsing, 39 Show, 44 Shun Lao, 29, 30-31 Silver, 90 Sky, 16 Snuff bottles, 65 Square, 17 Staff, knotted, 81 Standard, priests', 86-87 Stars, 9-10, 22 Storks, 31, 91 Sun, 9, 21 Sung Dynasty, 16, 95-97 Sword, 34 Swastika, 74 Tablets, honorific, 14, 82 Imperial, vassal, 14 Tabor, 35 Tac-Kcih, 6, 38, 39 Tao-t'ich, 5 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. 3 1158 00340 7060 V-t;f ■■«" ■ *■<•'■»■' ■■■■'• A' ; . 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