Iml hrM Mm (|^VV5.ti^C if/ \\t 1^ i] ll lii j5pr If y p*-" \j p'-' A.r^' V N^" /: ■fe ./•■ ALASKAN TROPHIES The frontispiece attractively displays a Polar bear skin crossed by baleen, with skull of walrus in the center and string of ermine skins at the top. Skins at top from left to right are: otter, silver fox, blue fox and lynx. Lower line : mink, white and red foxes and marten. ^lasifean Wvop^iti THE FUR TRADE OF AMERICA AND SOME OF THE MEN WHO MADE AND MAINTAIN IT TOGETHER WITH FURS AND FUR BEARERS OF OTHER CONTINENTS AND COUNTRIES AND ISLANDS OF THE SEA BY A. L. BELDEN Published by THE PELTRIES PUBLISHING COMPANY, Ikc NEW YORK i$ Copyright 1917 BY THE PELTRIES PUBLISHING CO., Inc. All Rights Reserved GENESIS When the world was yet young, and men were born and spent their days in the glorious freedom of out of doors, the "first families" definitely apprehended the utility of furry pelts as the chief components of pro- tective apparel throughout the changing seasons of the year, and progressively in all the years. It is not strange, therefore, that when the earliest over-sea wanderers, earliest of dependable record, settled upon the wooded shores of the American con- tinent they devoted their interest and labor, first, to the cultivation of the soil for bread; and, second, to fur 6 M199230 6 GENESIS trading, at which they were adepts, for prodigious profits. It is interesting to learn that the fur industry in America is definitely linked to the fur trade of antiquity, and withal extremely gratifying to note the wonderful progress attained in every detail of the business — the output of the skilled furrier of to-day is essentially un- like "a fur" of the first centuries in every particular except the initial stage — the raw skin. The inspired historian of first things, events follow- ing the renewal of the earth in anticipation of the advent of man, assures us that very near the '"beginning" fur formed an essential, effective and important part of the apparel of the human race ; and this record has remained uncontradicted by the critical or the curious during the six thousand years, more or less, this little planet has been running its ordered course around the sun. It may seem to be an insignificant matter to engage the pen of an inspired writer, but it should be noted that it first measurably charged the mind of the Creator, hands as well as mind, by whom all things, from least to greatest, were created for the possession and peace of the one creature made in His own image. When Adam and Eve, in consequence of disobedi- ence to the single divine law imposed for their well- being, were driven from the Garden of Eden they passed from ease and abundance to toil and want; and as misfortune broods not singly, they also lost their former ethical repose of mind, and becoming conscious that they were in undress, "sewed fig leaves together ,and made themselves aprons" — not very extensive, fast- color or durable raiment, but manifestly the utmost GENESIS 7 attainable by the ingenuity of two perturbed souls in the limitation of a single thought ; and we may reason- ably suppose that this primal one-piece suit, patched and renewed from day to day, the best they knew, would have sufficed from genial spring till nipping frosts of winter drove the wearers a-hiding in some subteranean cavern to perish of cold and hunger, except for the com- passion of Him "whose mercy is over all His works,'* for the sacred record reads : "Unto Adam also and to his wife did the Lord God make coats of skins, and clothed them." We may assume that omniscience devised this initial attire of the first human inhabitants "of all the earth" solely with regard to their imposed necessities, and with- out even mildly exciting that love of dress which in suc- ceeding centuries, surely ever since men and women became dressmakers and milliners, has led to an ever increasing desire to revel in luxurious attire, and rival in glittering array one another, the butterflies and birds of the air, the flowers of the field, and all creation in vacuous indifference to comfort, true dignity, and even life itself, which is incomparably "more than raiment." Fur, though not so superbly wrought and finished as our modern highly skilled furriers present it in fashion's latest fancies, is the material in which man was first fully clothed, apparel created, not designed, made to relieve needs springing from disobedience and discontent ; the "coats of skins" thus graciously pro- vided as the initial garments of man and woman about to tread the trying mazes of a new life, were doubtless simply protective and decidedly simple, and yet posi- tively pleasing to the wearers, as Mother Eve thus at- 8 GENESIS tired could at any time stroll abroad either alone or in the company of Adam without experiencing the distress incident to noting the style and fit of other "coats of skins," possibly surpassing hers, on the primal promenade. Fur is the natural and actual clothing of nearly all mammals inhabiting land or water, or land and water, fields, woods, running streams, placid lakes, marshes and the great oceans from the earliest historic time to the present moment, and the quality of this furry coat was unquestionably intended to insure to each creature, large or small, a maximum degree of health and well- being under all conditions of environment, variations in temperature, and changing circumstances more or less adversely affecting them in their intensive struggle for existence in competition with one another, the elements and man. Not a few species have entirely disappeared, some have become reduced to an insignificant total, and others barely linger upon the verge of extinction, but the variety remaining is large, and the aggregate number of individuals surviving disease, restricted habitat and consequent diminution of food, and the sleepless pursuit of alert enemies is incredible, and would be rejected as unworthy of belief except for the positive proof fur- nished by the actual count of the annual catch. If man had been endowed with all the cunning in creation, and the "brutes that perish" had from the first been altogether stupid, human greed would long since have effected the extermination of the fur-bearers every- where except in the regions of eternal frost; but the furry people of marsh, valley and forest, deep and GENESIS » shallow waters, are cute, crafty and even more cautious than man ; they have only two books, Necessity and Ex- perience, and on the title page of each is plainly written the "first law of nature," and they are ever mindful of that one statute ; but their escape from countless foes is chiefly if not wholly due to their nocturnal habits; during the daylight hours while man, birds of prey and scaly serpents incessantly roam abroad seeking whom they may devour, the fur-bearers peacefully repose in dens, hollow trees, penetrable openings in river banks and similar retreats offering "safety first"; at night- fall, when their only fearsome enemies are the creatures with owlish eyes, the furry folk prowl about in quest of food, but wisely return to their dens before sunrise. It is noteworthy that in the course of the passing ages the natural covering and sundry parts of nearly all creatures — fur, wool, hair, skin, down, feathers and scales; the creepy skin of serpents, rasping cuticle of the shark, and the horny hide of the alligator; horns, tusks, teeth, hoofs and bones of the deer, elephant, mam- moth, whale, walrus, buffalo and other great and small beasts; the shell-like covering of the tortoise tribe; varigated shells of the mussel, oyster, clam and a vast number of similar and diverse inhabitants of deep and shallow waters; the marvelous handiwork of the silk worm, spider and builders of coral reefs; the fibre and foliage of countless trees, shrubs, plants, weeds, grasses and kindred substances ; metals, precious and common ; minerals, ranging from stones of little worth to gems of almost incalculable value; the dead bodies of insects counting hundreds of thousands to the pound; the inky secretion of the cuttle fish, and, in brief, all natural pro- 10 GENESIS ducts, animal, vegetable and mineral, have been em- ployed to clothe and adorn the human form; and al- though all these have been freely used in the simple natural state and as enhanced in beauty and value by the patiently acquired skill of human artificers, and while each has repeatedly waxed and waned in courtly favor as the successive years have run to silence, fur, strictly as such, alone has held a continuous place in the realm of utility, and the ever broadening field of aesthetic favor. If we could unerringly trace our way back to the era when men began their conflict with thorns and thistles, we would surely find that the skins of animals, crudely cured and rudely fashioned, constituted the attire of the race, and continued to satisfactorily meet the needs of all until slowly advancing knowledge led to a diversity of industries through the development of knives, needles, multiplied tools and devices for the manufacture of the varied "fruits of the loom" — silks, satins, velvets, laces, linens and other rich fabrics, none of which excels in beauty and utility the finer furs when correctly cured, appropriately designed and artistically finished. Barbarous hunters and warriors, from the early period when every man was "a law unto himself," in tribal times, and to the present day, have worn and continue to wear skins of tigers, leopards, lions, wolves and other fierce beasts in evidence of exceptional valor, skill and cunning in conquest and endurance in the chase, prizing the skins above gold or cattle or other forms of wealth. The peculiar people inhabiting Iceland, Greenland, GENESIS 11 and the entire range of the Arctic regions, are clothed almost wholly in furs, skins and feathers of native mam- mals and migrant birds; and have been thus appareled ever since they first drew breath in the frigid air of their forbidding environment. In all really cold sections of the globe furs have doubtless always been worn as the chief components of the daily dress of both men and women in consequence of affording the wearers the utmost comfort and pro- tection ; and though climatic changes have occurred, the difference is so slight that no fabric yet produced can agreeably displace fur as the essential clothing of the human denizens and occasional sojourners in zero dominated plains. Necessity and custom prevail ; the American Indian of to-day, though hedged about by the civilization that is crushing him, clings rather tenaciously to his primi- tive costume of furs and feathers, or changes it in part, or partially abandons it, only under stress of circum- stances which he cannot readily resist. Land grabbers, in Indian parlance denominated "pale faces," have from Mayflower days to the present vied with the native Americans in wearing furs of the finer sorts generally enhanced in beauty, artistic design and finish — generally, but not invariably improved, as evidenced by sundry favored fads and frightful freaks in fur dyed green, red, yellow, purple and other un- natural hues. FUR TRADE OF AMERICA EAI^YHISTORY We doubtless express a fact, rather than an opinion, when we state that fur merchants and furriers quite generally believe that the fur trade of America began "on or about" the day following the discovery of the country by Columbus; this view, it should be under- stood, is confined to the date of the discovery of North America, which alone is being considered in this place, as the great continent southward, though producing some fur, noticeably chinchilla and nutria, has never had a "fur trade" within the meaning of the term as commonly employed and understood by fur merchants. The discovery of America definitely in 1492 — pass- ing over the misty claims of earlier Norse navigators — very considerably ante-dates the beginning of the fur business in the "new world" — why called new world is 12 EARLY HISTORY 1« a matter of wonder, as all the great continents are unquestionably of equal age. While it is true that the fur business in America began many years subsequent to the discovery of the country by Norsemen, Chris- topher Columbus or Americus Vespucius, there is no doubt that certain furs were extensively used as "com- ponent materials of chief value" in the production of the clothing of the native human inhabitants of the country, the Indians ; for when the discoverers from the several successive points of departure first landed upon the shores of America, since so named, they found the Indians habited in furs and feathers — nothing else, and not much of either — fashioned for comfort and protec- tion, not for display, feathers excepted, the squaws of the various tribes being the tailors and free-hand de- signers of the period. This condition we may confidently believe had prevailed not only for centuries but for thousands of years, for while the continent was new to the voyagers from over-seas, it was as "old as the hills," Grampian or any other, to the red men. For just how many years the Indians hunted and trapped fur-bearers for food and raiment in the swamps and vast woodlands of North America, or from whence the red men came, no man surely knoweth; but we quite fondly entertain the opinion that they made their way thither very early in the history of the human race, crossing from Siberia to Alaska in that surmised era when the now designated continents of Asia and America, if not connected by a narrow and unbroken highway of solid land, were easily accessible via a series of isles dotting the intervening sea, into which they subsequently disappeared in conse- quence of volcanic action. 14 EARLY HISTORY We entertain the opinion, subject to change upon the presentation of indisputable proof, that the Amer- ican Indians are the descendants of Adam — the name Adam signifies red man ; in holding this view we logically conclude that our Indians "trace back" to Cain, the first born, whom it may reasonably be assumed most definitely inherited and passed on the characteristics, particularly color, of his progenitor ; it is so stated in the sacred record. It is historically declared that Cain went forth into the "land of Nod," or Nid, but no one knows just where that land was located; and it is not known whither all the descendants of Cain wended their way when the in- crease in the population of the earth compelled them to "move on." A "Mark" was set upon Cain; it was decreed that God should be "hidden from him," that he should be a "fugitive and a vagabond in the earth," and that every man's hand should be against him — in the Indian alone all these conditions are wrought to a conclusion. There is no occasion for "special wonder" in the fact that all the sons of Adam were not red; in the descendants of Noah, onward from Shem, Ham and Japeth, we have the Caucasian, African and Asiatic races ; and naturalists and trappers have observed black, silvery and red foxes in the same litter, and occasional albinos in every species of fur-bearers. Aside from all this, the fact stands forth that Indians greatly outranked white men as eflf ective factors in creating the fur trade in America, and for many gen- erations were depended upon to "keep it going"; they knew the haunts and habits of the fur-bearers, were EARLY HISTORY 15 able to match their cunning, and capture them in large numbers, and did it for a reward so meagre, and fre- quently so vicious, that it is not at all strange that the poor, simple-minded red man never learned to love his pale faced despoilers. Thousands of Indians having no knowledge of values were for countless years con- strained to part with peltries worth hundreds of dollars in exchange for a few glass beads, a diminutive mirror or a bottle of low grade whiskey costing the "square dealing" white man only a few cents; the discreditable practice was so long continued that it is not even mildly strange that lineal descendants of both, the red trapper and the white trader of that very long ago, are still habitants of the land — not merely somewhere, but easily discernible at the "old stand"; the real marvel is that out of the old perverse conditions men have risen to a vastly higher plane of living, so that the great majority of the men in the fur business of to-day are reputable and trustworthy in the extreme. The exchange of a few trinkets of questionable worth for bales of furs of great value clearly constitutes the origin of the term "fur trade," and needs no elaborate explanation ; the term still abides. While the discovery of the country ante-dates the fur trade of America, the outranking fur trading sec- tion of the world, it should be noted furs constituted the foundation of mercantile and commercial enterprise in North America; crudely handled skins of indigenous fur-bearing animals were the primal articles bartered, bought, sold and exported in quantity by the men of aifairs who first settled upon the shores of the newly found continent. The fur business is indisputably the 16 EARLY HISTORY oldest branch of trade in America — in many respects it is the best, and in every particular is the most interesting field of endeavor, in which men seek the rewards of efficient industry. Voyagers who in the long ago dared the dangers of the deep, were solely concerned in the discovery of a new and shorter route to India, where it was believed gold abounded in inexhaustible supply, and could be obtained for the mere trouble of shoveling it into the ships ; the known overland route to that wonderful coun- try was long, devious and beset by many perils — robber bands more fearsome than stormy seas — and hence, once and again courageous men sailed away to find the short-cut, the time-saving path, not to some unknown terra firma, but to gold encrusted India. The earlier would-be discoverers were lured by the old yet ever new get-rich-quick impulse; and though many failed, still responsive to the call of gold ship- followed ship, and the primitive craft of one persistent seeker sped on until it touched the shores of a better and richer land than India, and incidentally made possible the subsequent establishment of the fur trade in America. Craft, other than of the order built to sail the seas, and get-rich-quick schemes, were predominant in the earliest days of the fur trade, and only leisurely passed from view; from time to time their spectres have re- turned to vexatiously operate for a brief season, not as members of the trade, but as marauders from the hinter- land of Crookdom. " In August, 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed from Palos, a port of Spain, and on October 12, 1492, dis- EARLY HISTORY 17 covered America, but not the mainland, as he steered his course too far south, near Cuba and the northern coast of South America — and believing he had found India called the natives Indians, but made no effort to barter furs with them, gold and silver and pearls being the objects of his quest. In 1 501 Americus Vespucius, of Florence, Italy, extended his voyages along the eastern coast of South America, wrote a fair description of the country, which being no longer erroneously regarded as India, was named America in his honor ; the great continent to the northward was later given the same name. In 1497 an exploring expedition was sent out from England which resulted in the discovery of Labrador and Newfoundland — remarkably good fur sections, but too lightly appreciated at the time to be developed. Dur- ing the last half of the sixteenth century, colonies were sent from England to the "New World," and{ they effected settlements at Jamestown, Virginia, and other points, but the colonists were so intently concerned in obtaining a bare living, and living in spite of Indian treachery, that no progress was made in business until near the middle of the succeeding century. History re- peated itself in the experience of the Pilgrim Fathers, who landed at Plymouth Rock, December 21, 1620; some of these early settlers in Massachusetts in 1623 sent to England a few fox, raccoon and muskrat skins as curiosities, rather than articles of commerce. The desire to find a short route to India in order to quickly garner goldj and precious stones, led the thrifty Hollanders to set Henry Hudson adrift to find it; pursuing a course the reverse of other navigators, 18 EARLY HISTORY who sailed too far south, Hudson directed his course unduly northward into the icebound Arctic, and, there- fore, had to try again, and once more, and at last Sep- tember, 1609, touched at Sandy Hook, and passed up to Manhattan Island. In 1614 the Dutch claimed by right of discovery all the territory along the Hudson River, and a little later, 1623, purchased from the Indians all of Manhattan Island for twenty-four dollars, and called it Nieuw Amsterdam — and the fur trade of America ar- rived — began where it has uninterruptedly flourished in greatest volume to the present day, the island of Man- hattan, site of the City of New York. The Dutch of 1623, certainly those embraced in the citizenry of Nieuw Amsterdam, were tireless traders, bargain discerning merchants, and wonderfully success- ful raw fur collectors, though they issued no price lists or market reports ; they dealt wholly with the Indians — there would have been "little in it" if they had traded with each other — urging the natives to bring in all the furs they could obtain, and to keep eternally at it, quite regardless of seasons, future supplies or any other circumstance at all likely to reduce the catch below "normal." The collections were shipped to Holland and were disposed of at profits per centum which would render it easily possible for a fur merchant of the present day to contentedly retire in twelve months. Wall Street, however, would very likely point the way of return within the year. The Nieuw Amsterdamers were truly great traders with aborigines, and we seriously fear that their mar- velous mastery in merchandizing with the simple savages EARLY HISTORY 19 all sufficiently accounts for the supposedly poetic but really tragic line : **Lo, the poor Indian." The Acre, a small vessel which sailed from Nieuw Amsterdam September 23, 1626, for Holland, carried as part of the cargo, 17,812 muskrat, 7,248 beaver, 43 mink, 675 otter and 36 wild cat skins, all of which were safely transported to destination. Nieuw Amsterdam was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1664, and the name was changed to New York; the island, city, and adjacent territory were fairly won by the American Colonists in 1 783 — the only subse- quent change in title being the addition of the word "Greater," more than a century later. Since the latter given date the fur trade of Amer- ica has gradually become immeasurably larger and more business-like, and the progress in both trade methods and morals has noticeably been continuous; there is a narrow margin for still further improvement in a few points, which doubtless will be wrought out in the sweep of time, as it has been demonstrated that the leopard can change its spots. In 1664, when the Dutch had moved out of New York, and the English were the temporary masters. King Charles II., very liberally bestowed upon his brother James, Duke of York, the spacious section of the present United States known as New York, New Jersey and the New England States, to be governed by James in return for an annual tribute of forty beaver skins. James undoubtedly regarded the grant as "dirt cheap," for somewhat later it cost the price of thousands 20 EARLY HISTORY of beaver skins and many good American lives to induce the Duke to vacate his governorship. About the middle of the sixteenth century French navigators voyaged to what has so long been known as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and in the name of France took possession of the surrounding country and still farther afield, and in time several French colonies fol- lowed and located along the St. Lawrence River and other parts of Canada. Many of these first settlers became expert fur traders and trappers, and they very promptly established a number of trading posts for the collection of peltries along the rivers and lakes abound- ing throughout the country; one of these fur traders, La Salle, extended his operations southward into what is now the United States, and in 1682 sailed down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico, and claimed for France the vast stretch of country from the AUe- ganies to the Rockies ; a liberal grant — the richest catch ever made by a fur trapper — somewhat more than a million square miles all under the title of Louisiana. This vast tract of land and water was purchased by the United States in 1803 for fifteen million dollars, and was from that date opened to settlement and unrestricted trapping by American citizens. While there is no record of the figures, we have no hesitancy in stating that the catch of fur, which is by no means the largest asset, since 1803 has exceeded by several times the amount of the "Louisiana Purchase." In 1804 Merriwether Lewis and William Clarke set out from St. Louis to explore the newly purchased Louisiana territory, and following the Missouri River to its source, and then the Columbia River to the Pacific EARLY HISTORY 21 Coast, blazed the way for a forward rush of hardy- settlers, fearless hunters and sturdy trappers, for in addition to noting the wonderful extent, richness and beauty of the country explored, Lewis and Clarke brought back in 1806 reports of the discovery of prac- tically unlimited numbers of fur-bearing animals, and the marked success of the Indians in collecting peltries of incalculable value. Trading posts were established from the Missouri to the Pacific by concerns in endless succession, each in turn bent upon obtaining a monopoly of the fur busi- ness — a dream never realized, and never to become other than a fantasy. Those who view the fur trade from points of van- tage outside the trenches, as observers but not as directly concerned, seem quite generally to regard it as a dreary means of making a living, a little dusty, dingy and oleagonous ; but those who take a higher interest in their life work, consider the records, traditions and progress of the fur trade in America, find in it ever enlarging pleasure and satisfaction, and an inviting field of en- deavor abounding in alluring prospects. Carlp tlTrabersf It may reasonably be asserted that long before stone weapons, bone spears, or rudely fashioned bows and arrows were dreamed of, each man exerted to the utmost his cunning to capture fur-bearing animals to appease his hunger and meet his conscious need of pro- tective clothing ; it is quite as certain that at the first as in the present there were successful and inefficient hunt- ers and trappers; that a few by patient observation learned the ways of the furry folk in their varied haunts and in consequence were rewarded by good catches; while others, trusting to luck, drew many blanks. Esau, at a much later date than the "beginning," was a mighty hunter but not always a successful one; his failure in the chase on a certain day made an irre- vocable change in history. Each man was in the beginning his own furrier with varied results, and so continued until multiplying needs and increasing consciousness of diversified ability led the individual toiler to gradually abandon tasks in which he had met defeat, and to devote his labor to special works of greater personal advantage — hewing wood, drawing water, herding cattle, sheparding sheep, 22 EARLY TRADERS 28 tilling the soil, hunting, manufacturing particular things, bartering, merchandizing, general exchange, and the acquisition of knowledge. Barter was the earliest method of effecting mer- cantile transactions; the successful trapper or hunter bartered the hare, deer or other animal he had captured, or the raw skin taken from the carcass, for required products of the field or forest, or the handiwork of primitive workers in fur, wool, grasses and trinkets — ante-types of twentieth century tinsel trifles. Barter may have been fair even before the Flood, but since that world-event barter has generally been effected between the wise and the foolish in market values, all too often to disadvantage of the latter; fur- skins worth from tens to hundreds of dollars each have been bartered for a bottle of fire-water, string of beads, a pocket knife or a bright handkerchief worth a nickel. At the great fairs in Russia, in parts of Siberia, the wilder sections of China and extreme northern stretches of North America, barter has not been wholly superceded by merchandizing with money as a medium of exchange, but glass beads now pass current in very restricted areas. Of the many species of fur-bearing animals in- digenous to the United States, or that frequent the coasts and adjacent islands at certain seasons of the year, several are extremely prolific, notably the muskrat, skunk, opossum, raccoon and mink ; and a number yield pelts of superior beauty and value, the sea otter, fur seal, land otter, beaver and some of the foxes ranking among the finest and highest priced furs in the world. The most prolific of these is the muskrat, of which from 24 EARLY TRADERS three to four million are caught each season. Others taken in large numbers are: skunk up to i,ooo,cxx), opossum 500,000, raccoon 400,000 to 700,000, and foxes approximately 100,000. These and many other fur-bearers, noted later, are distributed throughout the states, but differ considerably in size, color and density of fur according to the locality they frequent; even skins of the same species of animal found in different parts of the same state vary in in- trinsic value, and still greater differences in commercial worth are plainly observable in skins secured in northern and southern divisions of the country. Peltries valued at millions of dollars are secured annually by dealers and collectors in the large cities and numberless smaller towns. It will never surely be known whether the first human inhabitants of the great Continent of North America were Tartars, Norsemen or simply unclassified sons of Adam many generations removed; or whether they listlessly drifted across the intervening waters, or gradually made their way thither by passing steadily forward from island to island, long prior to the founder- ing of fabled Atlantis, when islands of varying area are supposed to have dotted the sea from continent to continent. That they came somewhen and somehow we do not doubt, owing to the conviction that there was but one creation; it is assumed that the copper-hued aboriginees of America were sons of Adam — the name meaning red earth — and definitely the descendants of Cain, the first born. The interesting problem we would like to solve is whether the various species of wild animals, fur-bearers EARLY TRADERS 25 in particular, journeyed with man from one continent to the other, or were originally placed in what we now know as North America in anticipation of the coming of man to meet his known needs. In 1684 Nicolas Perrot, a fearless, energetic trader, struck across the continent, starting from Green Bay, and in company with a band of hardy hunters raised the French flag upon a number of forts and crude stockades to forestall any advances on the part of English traders — like certain spirits in the trade at this late day, they wanted the "whole thing," though there was fur enough for all; one of Perrot' s posts was at the mouth of the Wisconsin River, and an other was on Lake Pepin ; both prospered for some time, but eventually were passed and forgotten as the fur hunters marched steadily on- ward toward the setting sun. WILUAM W. TODD William W. Todd, who was born in 1779, was em- ployed as a boy by John J. Astor, and when he was only sixteen years of age was sent to Canada to buy raw furs at stipulated prices; he spent the winter in Montreal, and during the time visited the nearby Indians and suc- ceeded in purchasing all the furs they had collected. In 1796 Mr. Todd was sent by Astor to sell deer tails to the Tammany Society, the members of which wore deer tails in their hats, and in consequence were known as the "Bucktail Party" in politics. Mr. Todd remained in the service of Mr. Astor until 1797, when he withdrew and was employed by John Duffie, general merchant. 26 EARLY TRADERS JOHN G. WENDEL John G. Wendel in 1780 conducted a fur business in Maiden Lane, and for a number of years was one of the leading New York furriers; previous to coming to America he had married a sister of John Jacob Astor, and when Mr. Astor came to New York he entered the employ of his brother-in-law. In later years one of Mr. Wendel's sons, John D. Wendel, occupied a posi- tion in Mr. Astor's office, and in the course of his busi- ness career amassed a fortune. Mr. John D. Wendel died at his home in the village of Sing Sing in December, 1876. NORMAN W. KITTSON Norman W. Kittson was one of the "enlisted" men engaged by the American Fur Company, and while he was with that concern he made a thorough study of the business as it was then conducted. In 1832 he went to Minnesota, and was one of the first permanent white settlers in that state; he estab- lished a fur trading station in that year at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, acquired an excellent knowledge of Indian dialects, and had a large trade with the Indians through- out the state, as he made it a rule to correctly value all peltries brought to him. Some years later he engaged a number of voyageurs and extended his trading to Manitoba, with St. Paul as his headquarters; the men employed by him carried out sundry supplies required by the Indians, and returned with packages of choice skins. In 1845 he removed his headquarters to Pembina, N. W. T., Canada, where he made large collections of furs in competition with the Hudson's Bay Company, EARLY TRADERS 27 and in order to expedite the transportation of goods both ways between Pembina and Mendota, Minnesota, he built a number of small carts, two-wheelers drawn by a single pony each cart carried about a quarter of a ton of furs or supplies, and four or five carts, strung along behind each other, but drawn by separate animals, could be managed by one teamster. Mr. Kittson often traveled with the carts, and personally conducted buying at home and in the field until 1864 when he retired with a large fortune. He subsequently resided in St. Paul; in 1880 he removed to New York, where he resided up to the time of his death in 1888. MICHILIMACKINAC Michilimackinac, a settlement on an island of the same name at the confluence of Lakes Huron and Mich- igan, near the mouth of St. Mary's River, was one of the earliest fur trading posts of real importance when the trade extended westward. In 1765 Alexander Henry, 'an energetic pioneer trader, secured from the chief official at Michilimackinac a license giving him the exclusive privilege of fur trad- ing in the Lake Superior section, and for three years he was remarkably successful, as by his fair methods he gained the entire confidence of the Indians. Michilimacknac — later more generally known as Mackinaw — remained an important post for many years, and in the early years of the nineteenth century, 1 800- 1 830, was a center of the southwestern trade; thousands of bales of peltries, particularly beaver skins, were carried thither in canoes and smiU boats by Indian 28 EARLY TRADERS hunters and experienced trappers, and many white men engaged both in trapping and bartering with the natives. The Mackinaw Company, one of John Jacob Astor's organizations, estabHshed headquarters on the island in 1816, and regularly made large and desirable collections, which proved exceptionally profitable. Mackinaw declined in importance as trading ex- tended farther inland. On March 18, 1909, a number of old account books, ledgers, journals and others, belonging to the Astor business, 181 7-1835, at Mackinaw (invariably written Michilimacinac in these records) were sold at auction for $140. Prices paid for furs and received for supplies com- prised part of the interesting records; some of the prices obtained for articles sold to Indians and traders were: quart of whiskey, seven dollars; pound of tea, two dollars; candle sticks, a pair, three dollars and eighty-five cents, and all other articles on the same high level. EARLY TRADERS 29 PIERRE CHOUTEAU Pierre Chouteau was one of the prominent pioneers in the fur trade at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury, and following the Louisiana Purchase operated very successfully in the new American territory, steadily extending his chain of posts westward from the Mis- souri to the Pacific Coast; many good shipments were forwarded to St. Louis, and thence eastward to New York, and onward to Europe. He was exceptionally resolute and enterprising, and amassed a comfortable fortune. He retired in December, 1857. JOSEPH LA FRAMBOIS In 181 7 Joseph La Frambois built a fur trading post on the Missouri River, which five years later was displaced by Fort Tecumseh, and in 1832 was rebuilt and named Fort Pierre Chouteau, after the man who really made the fur trade of that section great by build- ing flat-bottomed steamboats suitable for navigating the shallow rivers abounding in the fur country, and which aif orded trappers and collectors their only advantageous means of transporting supplies to the interior, and re- turn cargoes of furs to the larger posts on the border of civilization. In 1859 the succeeding firm sent a steamboat from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Falls, near the Rocky Mountains, nearly four thousand miles, and brought down a full cargo of buffalo hides. Creatp f|aU In 1836 the American Fur Company, John Jacob Astor owner, erected on Madeline Island, nearly op- posite the present town of Bayfield, Wisconsin, a rather large, one-story building, with six windows on each side, in which the fur business of the company was con- ducted for many years, or until collections were diverted to other centers for shipment east. This building came to be known as "Treaty Hall"; it was used in 1854 in formulating and ratifying an important treaty between the United States and the Chippewa Indians, whereby the latter surrendered all rights and title in a large sec- tion of country. During the period in which the fur trade flourished on Madeline Island, the town of La Pointe gradually developed, and in time became the county seat; follow- ing the withdrawal of the American Fur Company the 80 TREATY HALL 81 town Steadily declined in importance, and is now merely a hamlet. Treaty Hall, though dilapidated, remains; on ac- count of its historic interest it was in July, 191 7, pre- sented, "free and clear," to the Minnesota Branch of the Daughters of the American Revolution, by whom it will be restored to its original condition, and maintained. A part of the Hall will be given over to the Wisconsin Daughters of the Revolution for the preservation of relics of more than usual historical importance. In 1865 Charles P. Chouteau, Jr., then the principal owner of the American Fur Company, at a conference in Washington sold all the interest of the Company on the Upper Missouri River, including forts, supplies, Indian blankets, trinkets and beads, to J. B. Hubbell, who had been engaged in fur trading for a number of years in association with A. F. Hawley. Fort Pierre and Fort Union, opposite the mouth of the Yellowstone River in Montana, were embraced in the transfer. Several capitalists at once offered to join Mr. Hub- bell in his new enterprise, among them being C. Francis Bates, of New York, and J. A. Smith, of Chicago, both of whom were successful fur traders; their offers were accepted, and the Northwestern Fur Company was promptly organized, the members being J. B. Hubbell, J. A. Smith, C. F. Bates and A. F. Hawley. The com- pany owned one steamboat and chartered others, and had a large trade with several Indian tribes, and also with miners, buying raw furs, buffalo robes — upwards of twenty thousand in a season — and gold dust. Mr. Hubbell managed the affairs of the company in the Indian country until it was discontinued in 1872. f oiin STacoti •agtor John Jacob Astor was born at Waldorf, Baden, July 17, 1763; at the age of seventeen he went to Lon- don and was employed in his brother's piano factory at little more than a living wage in those days of low-cost commodities. In November, 1783, he sailed for the United States, and arrived in the Chesapeake in Janu- ary, 1784; for nearly two months the vessel remained icebound in the bay, and did not complete the voyage to Baltimore until March 10. While detained on the vessel Mr. Astor became acquainted with a fur dealer who gave him considerable information regarding the fur business, particularly the large profits to be realized in trading with Indians, from whom beaver, otter, mink, and other more or less precious peltries could be pro- cured in exchange for gewgaws of little worth. After a brief stay in Baltimore, Mr. Astor went to New York, and in the summer of 1784 secured employ- ment with a furrier, and being industrious and faithful made rapid advancement in the knowledge of furs and American business methods; two years later, though having very little capital, he "set up" in the raw fur business on his own account, and at once began dealing with the Seneca, Oneida and other Indians, carefully following the instruction he had received while in the grip of the ice king in Chesapeake Bay. The well- handled skins purchased from the Indians were obtained upon favorable terms — a sure profit of several hundred per cent. ; if supply and demand at that period had been JOHN JACOB ASTOR 38 as great as at the present time, a man of means could have made a fortune "beyond the dreams of avarice" in a single year. Mr. Astor took his first completed collection of peltries to London, quickly disposed of the entire lot at large net returns, and with the proceeds bought English goods suitable for the New York market, brough them home and sold them to advantage — mak- ing both ways. In 1800 he made his first shipment of furs to China in his own vessel, clearing $55,000 on the venture — supplemented by approximately equal gains on the cargo of tea and silks brought to America on the return voyage. Times have wondrously changed; the period of large profits and low cost of living has been superseded by the reverse conditions, small profits and high cost of living — it is about time for a return voyage. Mr. Astor conducted a successful business with China for seventeen years, taking to Ah Sin full cargoes of American furs of "very highest rating," and bringing back tea, silk and curios; he carried thither in a single vessel more sea otter skins than can now be procured in the whole world. In 1795 Mr. Astor entered the field in competition with the Mackinaw Fur Company in the Northwest and along the great lakes, but failed to achieve his purpose, as the concern was too strongly established in its chosen territory. In 1809 he incorporated the American Fur Company, under the laws of the State of New York, with one million dollars capital, and somewhat less than two years later bought out the Mackinaw Fur Company M JOHN JACOB ASTOR and consolidated it with the American Fur Company, under title, The Southwest Company. In June, 1810, Mr. Astor organized the Pacific Fur Company, in which he took an active interest; as ar- ranged, he was to own one-half of the capital stock, and manage the business at the New York end, and his associates — Alexander Mackay, Duncan MacDougal, Wilson P. Hunt and Donald MacKenzie — were to hold the other fifty per cent, of the stock and conduct the enterprise in the field ; the company extended its opera- tions to Oregon, experiencing in alternation both suc- cess and failure. The concern persevered and finally succeeded in establishing the settlement of Astoria, but failed to make it a great and enduring fur center. Those to whom the history of the race is a closed book are wont to regard the present as an age of sordid commercialism, but the annals show that the "love of money" has been "a root of evil" onward from the moment when it first became a medium of exchange. Achan sacrificed his own life and the lives of his sons and daughters for "two hundred shekels of silver and a wedge of gold;" and in all the succeeding years men have repeated his folly, conclusively proving that penal statutes do not make for righteousness. In every gen- eration there have been men who have sold themselves and their friends and those accounted enemies for a few "pieces of silver," but never more definitely than in the early days of the fur trade of North America, when the "gunmen," incited and employed to pillage and burn and kill, were copper-hued savages and conscience- less, greedy pale faces; and the men "higher up," who "cared for none of these things," were soulless cor- JOHN JACOB ASTOR 36 porate bodies wholly intent upon obtaining a complete monopoly of the fur trade. Though in dealing with the Indians and whites Mr. Astor bartered and bought peltries at valuations certain to yield large profits, he seems to have been among the first to realize that no individual dealer or association, however rich, could possibly garner all the skins annually collected in the country. When he first contemplated extending his trade to the Columbia River, and the establishment of Astoria, he' realized the fact that he would meet with very keen and even savage com- petition, for at that time the Northwest Company, a strong Canadian organization, was operating along the coast and in the interior a hundred miles or so north- ward of the territory he desired to occupy ; he considered the matter for many months, and finally invited officers of the Northwest Company to meet him, and fairly and fully explained his purpose, and then proposed that the Northwest Company continue to make collections in the vast section in which it was then engaged, and that he would conduct his operations to the southward, neither conflicting with the other. The proposition, after considerable debate, was rejected by the repre- sentatives of the Canadian concern, who then returned home and at once prepared plans for extending their stations to the Columbia River, in order to preempt the territory, and so make it practically impossible for Mr. Astor to subsequently effect a settlement in the section. Mr. Astor was not easily turned aside from a pro- ject upon which he had set his heart, and consequently he quickly organized an expedition, hurried it forward across the country and arrived at the Columbia first; it was a victory of nerve and will, a triumph that in the 36 JOHN JACOB ASTOR end cost many lives, for disappointed greed did not rest until the Astoria venture was blotted out — swept away in the bitter war of 1812, the American government not having sufficient military power to defend it. A few years later murderous monopoly was hurled across the northern border never to return; though Astoria was recovered in this conflict, it was not again used as a fur trading post. Mr. Astor retired from the fur trade in 1822 to devote his time to his real estate interests — the greater source of his wealth. He died in March, 1848. Mr. Astor was succeeded in the fur business by John C. Halsey, who shortly afterward received into his employ Curtis M. Lampson, a wide-awake Ver- monter, who a little later was sent to London to repre- sent Halsey's successors, the American Fur Company. C. M. Lampson remained in London, became an English subject, and eventually a baronet, and in due course head of the greatest public fur sales in history — great, equally, in magnitude and reliability. "FORTS." Astor trading posts, of which a large number was established at various distances from the Missouri, were uniform in plan and construction; a description of one will therefore suffice. The post, or stockade, quite generally called a fort, occupied an acre of ground, a square of two hundred feet, or a city block, enclosed by trunks of trees cut into twelve foot lengths and set upright in the ground close together all around the plot; at two diagonally opposite corners within the enclosure blockhouses, twelve feet FORTS S7 square by twenty feet high, were built of logs, small openings being left in the sides of the upper story for observation and the use of the gunners in cases of attack by hostile Indians. A double gate, in one of which a small door was set, constituted the only entrance to the enclosure; a trading house, at which Indians delivered peltries and received payment, was just within the en- trance ; small dwelling houses, built of logs, were erected at intervals throughout the enclosure. Indians brought in raw furs of all kinds, and buffalo hides at the posts in the "buffalo country," and accepted in return, colored cloths, blankets, knives, axes, and sundry trinkets. ^tate of Jf ranfelin In 1785 a part of the present State of Tennessee, owing to dissatisfaction on the part of the people with official acts, was organized as a separate state, known as Franklin; four years later the General Assembly of the State of Franklin enacted into law the following re- garding official salaries to date from January i, 1790 : Governor, one thousand deer skins per annum. Chief Justice, five hundred deer skins per annum. State Treasurer, four hundred and fifty raccoon skins. Clerk of House of Commons, two hundred raccoon skins per annum. Clerk of Each County, three hundred beaver skins per annum. Justices, for signing warrants, one muskrat skin for each warrant signed. Constable, for serving warrant, one mink skin. Members of Assembly, three raccoon skins for each day of session. Secretary to the Governor, five hundred raccoon skins per annum. The State was separated from Tennessee only for a few years. (BxtQon Fort McLeod, which was located well within the border of the territory, was the first settlement in Oregon laying claim to being more than a mere trading post; it was established in 1805 by the Northwest Com- pany of Canada, and was the center of a lively fur 88 OREGON 89 trade for a number of years. It was visited by many Canadian voyagers and efficient Indian hunters, and proved to be a profitable investment for the company. The earliest settlement in the Columbia Valley was Fort Henry, named after a successful trader; it was built on Snake River in 1809 by an agent of the Missouri Fur Company, of St. Louis. Operations were conducted at Fort Henry for only two years ; it was considered to be too far from the home post. From 1809 to 18 12 several similar forts were set up from the Columbia River northward into Canada ; some of them were main- tained for a number of years, but a majority of them were abandoned as unprofitable. The Pacific Fur Company was organized by John Jacob Astor, Alexander MacKay, Duncan MacDougal, Alexander MacKenzie, David MacKenzie and Wilson P. Hunt, the final agreements being signed January 23, 1810. Ramsey Crooks, a Scotchman of highest integrity, was employed by Mr. Hunt in 1809 to accompany an expedition to Oregon; he had formerly been with the Northwest Company, and in that connection had ac- quired valuable knowledge of the country and the best methods of dealing with the natives. Mr. Crooks was somewhat later made a partner in the Pacific Fur Company, and was one of its most useful and faithful members. Following the passing of the Pacific Fur Company, 1812, Mr. Crooks was admitted into the American Fur Company, and ultimately became its president. ORIGINAL FUR TRADERS Indians were the first and only "out and out" fur traders in America — strictly American fur traders handling American furs exclusively. How many hun- dreds of years, or thousands of moons ago the red men began trapping and hunting fur-bearers ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson's Bay history saith not, and as no one even presumes to know, it is one of the few matters of time regarding which there is happily no ground for learned controversy — though a few savants, whom for lack of evidence none may convinc- ingly contradict, profess to believe that before the Indian was spontaneously emerged from nox, or nix, cave men, cliff dwellers, and intelligent predecessors of both, in- habited America and were monarchs of all they sur- veyed ; by which we do well in understanding that they took all they could lay their eyes and hands on when no one else was looking. Those prehistoric monarchs are all gone — they probably raced to extinction in company with the pre- historic monkeys which thoughtlessly permitted them- 40 NEZ PERCE BOW AND ARROW CASE Smithsonian Report 1893 41 42 ORIGINAL TRADERS selves to be evolved into beings human — but the Indian remains, and his priority as an American fur trader may be disputed only by the idle rich who can afford to wantonly waste time. For unnumbered years Indians traded with each other; traded furs for bows, arrows, tomahaws, feathers, useful things, according to their needs and ability or inability to supply them; and they would be living and exchanging things in the same happy way unto this day, if the progressive white man had not in- vaded their land and impressed — probably imposed is the better word — upon them his marvelous civilization — liquid fire, deadly guns, and a business code which Cap- tain Kydd might have studied with great personal profit. The Indians were good judges of fur, but they were as ignorant of fur values as some consumers of the present period ; this simple statement of fact will suffice to show how easy it was to trade with the Indians — to exchange a nickel's worth of red glass beads, or even blue ones, for a fifty dollar raw fox skin, or any other pelt. It was a raw fur trade for poor Lo. Indians greatly appreciated furs as articles of utility, and many of the skins secured by them in traps or with bow and arrow, were used in making clothing, couches, coverings for wigwams, and other articles adapted to their simple needs. Many of their arrow cases, made wholly of fur, were artistic and attractive, and were proudly carried by their owners at all times. The accompanying illustrations shows a bow and arrow case and bandolier, one wholly of otter skin, fur- side out, ornamented with fringe of the same fine fur. Fort Amoersoh Eskimo Quiver ESKIMO QUIVER This model, there are other styles, is made of dressed deerskin, and is provided with a hood — the Eskimo understands the importance of keeping his powder dry. The ornaments suspended along the outer or longer edge consists of the false hoofs of the deer attached to short thongs of buckskin. 43 KTEW^ YORB^ New York City, in the beginning known as Nieuw Amsterdam, is the oldest fur market on the continent, and the greatest. It is the only fur center surviving the era of the tomahawk that was not originally established solely as a crude trading post, or named after a saint to impart character, or a sinner as a memorial to his financial rating. New York, under its primitive title, was founded to become a home-land, was settled by men of steady habits, and was named after a flourishing foreign city in the expectation that it would in time be as great and renowned as the older municipality — and it is, many times over. The fur trade did not put New York on the map, though fur trading was indtflged by the first settlers, the Dutch, very soon after they had landed and built houses and planted gardens, as early as 1624; when the Hollanders gave place to the English, 1664, the name of the growing city was changed to New York and fur 44 NEW YORK 45 trading continued, but was incidental to empire building; in the following century the English were constrained to move out, and American freemen rode in, and under their rule New York has become in every particular the greatest city of North America, and incidentally the fur trade has grown with it to proportions unapproached by any other market in the world; and it now impres- sively touches, as no other market does, either to supply or draw from, every mapped and uncharted section of the globe where fur-bearers abound and furriers flourish. In New York at the present time there are more than two hundred and seventy fur merchants — firms dealing in raw, dressed and dyed fur skins — about nine times the number similarly engaged in the next largest American center. The number of fur manufacturers in New York City, exclusive of makers of fur caps, robes and heads, totals 1,075; Chicago ranks next, with 168; Philadelphia is third, with loi ; Boston is next, with 60; the other cities that "count" are: Milwaukee, 36; Detroit, 28; Baltimore, 2.^; Cleveland, 24; Buffalo, 23; San Fran- cisco, 20, and Seattle, 13. It may seem to be somewhat peculiar to some read- ers, though it is a matter of record, that the fur busi- ness has invariably been good in years when the stock market has shown a strong upward trend — reversed 1917. There was a time, not very remote, when the tem- perature was the important factor in determining the volume of a season's business; in recent years Fashion is supreme mistress in the matter, but her reign could 46 NEW YORK not be so universally maintained were it not true that furs constitute the most attractive components of effective apparel the world over. In 1856 the consumption of manufactured furs in New York reached a valuation of $1,200,000; the more moderate cost skins were chiefly used at that time; muskrat sets ranging from twenty-five to thirty-five dollars were quite popular; the fur was then sold as French mink, marsh marten, brook mink, and under other names, some of which still cling to the article. In 1866, after the war, a demand for better furs developed, including Russian sable sets costing from three hundred to fifteen hundred dollars ; fine Eastern mink sets selling up to two hundred dollars, stone marten from one hun- dred to one hundred and fifty dollars a set, and other peltries of better quality than had previously been in general request. The trade to-day aggregates several million dollars per annum, and requires for its development fur skins of every description collected from all parts of creation. Wholesale fur manufacturers of New York send their productions to every part of the United States to meet the requirements of retailers, department and specialty stores, and the consumption shows a steady annual increase. This is concise, unadorned history, not a flourish of trumpets — multiplied words would not add to the im- pressiveness of the facts. SEALS OF NEW YORK Change has been the order in the procession of the ages, and nothing small or great has been immune to its influence ; its march began prior to the advent of man upon terra firma, and has never ceased. When the Dutch per force of circumstances moved out of, and the English entered upon the possession of Manhattan Island, the name of the developing city at the southern extremity of the island was changed from Nieuw Am- sterdam to New York to emphasize the change in ruler- ship. This change necessitated another, the designing of an appropriate official seal for the City of New York ; in 1653 the seal here shown was adopted. It consisted FIRST SEAL. OF NEW YORK of a flag with three crosses on the center stripe, and above the flag the figure of a beaver, an animal prized 47 48 SEALS OF NEW YORK CITY by the Dutch on account of its ready conversion into the coin of the realm, and honored by the English as the native fur-bearer most pleasingly characteristic of the territory a: id the period. As time progressed constantly increasing attention was devoted to raising grain, and multiplied windmills were turned to profitable account in grinding whole wheat flour — another precious product seriously affected for the worse by refining change. In due course many barrels of flour were exported from New York, flour and beaver pelts going abroad in the same ship, the former gradually and steadily leading in importance. This export trade led to another change, the production in 1686 of a new seal for the city, as here portrayed. SECOND SEAL OF NEW YORK The flag was superceded by a shield upon which was drawn two barrels, symbols of barrels of flour, the SEALS OF NEW YORK CITY 49 sails of a windmill, the miller's engine of that day, two beavers, and a white man and an Indian; it was the purpose of the latter to evidence the friendly relations existing between the two races — the pale-faced miller, and red-visaged beaver catcher. The design was topped with a crown — symbol of the over-ruling kingdom. This new seal endured for a while, and was then change struck by the vigorous American Revolution, which sent the crown hurling, and mounted in its stead a glorious eagle, which has proved to be a long lived bird of freedom. THIRD SEAL OF NEW YORK Imposing the eagle, which fearlessly, mounts to heights unknown, in place of the crown, emblem of an unstable crown, was the only change made in the seal 60 SEALS OF NEW YORK CITY to mark the passing of an autocracy, and the beginning of a triumphing republic. Change in its restless march has swept the beaver, the windmill and the Indian westward, and to the con- fines of oblivion; but New York, though wondrously changed, remains, and has become the most populous city on the North American continent, and has attained that glory because millions of men, men of every name and color, have sought and found desired liberty and peace in a change from monarchy to democracy. CREDIT ASSOCIATION The Fur Merchants' Credit Association of the City of New York was incorporated January 25, 1898; the members at that time were : G. Gaudig & Blum, Joseph Steiner & Brothers, Leopold Weil & Brothers, Joseph Ullmann, Bach, Becker & Company, J. & L. Mautner, Eisenbach Brothers & Company, E. J. King's Sons, Thorer & Praetorius, F. N. Monjo, Akiba Weinberg, Otto Erler, Mayers & Tigner, Theodore Apfel and Edgar Lehman. Charles Myers, actuary. The Association has continuously wrought wisely and effectually in improving the general conditions and moral status of the fur business in America; the in- creased membership evidences the value and importance of the results accomplished, and clearly reveals the fact, that in the opinion of all in interest, the association has become indispensible. Mr. Richard S. Otto, a man of recognized ability, efficiently serves the Association as actuary. RAW FUR MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION The Raw Fur Merchants' Association of the City of New York, one of the most important organizations ever called into virile life in the trade, was organized in 19 14, and later in the year was duly incorporated under the laws of the State of New York. At a meeting of the Association held June 9, 19 14, the first board of directors was chosen, embracing: O. Godfrey Becker, A. E. Prouty, F. N. Monjo, Charles Bayer and Adolph Wiener. The officers subsequently unanimously elected were : O. Godfrey Becker, president ; A. E. Prouty, vice- president; Paul Belden, secretary; David Steiner, treasurer. The Association was formed upon broad principles essential to the maintenance and prosperity of the fundamental branch of the fur trade; the purposes set forth included the conservation of the interests of every one, the least as well as the greatest, engaged in any way in handling raw furs ; to exalt the business to the highest attainable standard in public estimation; eliminate sun- dry evils in methods and competition which had in the course of the years crept into the trade as they in- sideously invade every important branch of industry; 61 52 RAW FUR MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION and to take concerted, helpful and reformatory cog- nizance of all conditions in any wise affecting the busi- ness locally or at large. The influence of the Association has been good and uniformily beneficial, affirming the wisdom of call- ing it into being, and fully warranting its great value as a permanent institution. It was born in troublous times ; fought its way into existence in conflict with a host of doubts, and fears, and chilling discouragements, and worse, the too evi- dent prospect that individual merchants, standing alone, each a law unto himself, would sooner or later — not much later — ^be swirled into deep waters by antagonisms within and conscienceless methods in outlying fields. In unity strength has been developed — the strength always existed, and only needed to be merged to be- come mighty — harmony has succeeded discord; per- verse conditions have given place to progressive methods ; what was good has been retained and merged into that which is better, and each successive step is toward the attainment of the best. Application for membership, at the meeting of organization, was signed by the following firms: Jos. Steiner & Brothers, Becker Brothers & Company, Bayer Brothers, H. A. Schoenen, M. F. Pfaelzer & Company, Milton Schreiber, Joseph Ullmann, George I. Fox, F. N. Monjo, James S. Hanson, L. Briefner & Sons, David Blustein & Brother, Leopold Gassner, L. Rabinowitz, Marquis Fur Company, Harry Levy, Max Wulfsohn, J. L. Prouty's Sons, L. A. Rubenstein Company, M. Sayer & Company, Struck & Bossak, Inc., Samuel Lewis. ASSOCIATED FUR MANUFACTURERS, Inc. Under the above title a large number of influential fur manufacturers of New York City organized in August- September, 191 1, and incorporated in 1912, for purposes herein set forth in detail; the first business meeting of the completed organization was held in Jan- uary, 1912, and the following officers and directors were elected: Max Thorn, president; Alexander Heilbroner, first vice-president; Leo D. Greenfield, second vice- president; William Ames, third vice-president; Fred- erick Kaufman, secretary; Nathan Sobel, treasurer. Directors: William Ames, Herman Baehr, Frederick Kaufman, Adolph Engel, Nathal Sobel, S. N. Samuels, Max Thorn, L. M. Borden, Alexander Heilbroner, Max Cohen, Leo D. Greenfield, Frederick P. Kamholz, S. J. Manne, Hugo Jaeckel, Jr. The purposes of the Association are: To foster trade and commerce and promote the interests of those individuals, firms and corporations who are engaged in the manufacture of furs and skins and the sale of goods made therefrom. To co-operate for the improvement of all conditions 68. 54 ASSOCIATED FUR MANUFACTURERS, Inc. relating to such industries; to regulate and correct abuses relative thereto, and to secure and maintain freedom from unjust and unlawful exactions. To secure, preserve, diffuse and interchange ac- curate and reliable information valuable to the members and to establish uniformity and certainty in the customs and usages of trade, and Generally to promote the interests of those engaged in such business and establish and promote a more en- larged and friendly intercourse among them and to do such other and further acts and things relating thereto, as may be found necessary or convenient so far as the same are permitted by the laws of the State of New York to corporations similarly organized. The purposes of the organization have been care- fully and consistently carried into effect with very great advantage to the entire membership; conditions un- favorably affecting the trade locally and at large have been wisely changed and definitely corrected; and methods which threatened the stability of the fur busi- ness have been supplanted by proper mercantile prin- ciples of action — results which could not have been achieved other than by the united efforts of the firms in interest. A Credit Bureau, efficiently conducted in connec- tion with the work of the Association has been in suc- cessful operation for some time past ; its usefulness may be measurably gauged by the fact that some eighteen thousand reports were sent out in 191 6. BOARD OF TRADE OF THE FUR INDUSTRY In order to effectually harmonize the interests of firms and individuals engaged in the various branches of the business, the Board of Trade of the Fur Industry was organized March 3, 1914; the officers chosen at that time were : Samuel Ullmann, chairman ; Alexander Heilbroner, vice-chairman; I. Harold Stern, secretary; Edward M. Spear, treasurer. The Board of Trade of the Fur Industry consists of the following organizations : Fur Merchants' Credit Association of the City of New York, Associated Fur Manufacturers, Inc., Fur Dressers' and Fur Dyers' As- sociation, Inc., Raw Fur Merchants' Association of the City of New York, Inc. Each of these organizations may be represented at a meeting of the Board by five delegates, thus insuring perfectly just action relative to the interests of the re- spective branches. It is, among other things of moment, the purpose of the Board of Trade to foster mercantile interests, de- velop more effective co-operation among the existing associations, reform abuses, settle terms and differences, and equitably adjust all matters pertaining to the wel- fare of the various branches of the fur industry. 55 NEW YORK FUR AUCTION SALES CORPORA- TION The vicious war in Europe beginning in August, 1914, involving all the continental powers and into which England was soon drawn, began within twelve weeks of the active opening of the American raw fur season of that year; the immediate commercial effect .was the blotting out of the London Public Fur Sales as by fire ; all foreign markets were closed as instantaneously and eif ectually as though depopulated by a devastating earth- quake; the American trade was stunned, prices on raw furs declined sharply, trapping was discouraged, and widespread disaster, which none cared to estimate, was regarded as inevitable. Fear centered in the prospect of a collection of skins far in excess of possible domestic consumption; and as in the circumstances no standard of values existed, no one knew the amount that should or could be paid for peltries in the new season's catch so as to avoid incurring a minimum loss, which all considered certain, on surplus supplies. Low quotations and advices to trappers to restrict their operations resulted in modifying the collection to some extent; and as the days sped by American pluck and competition characteristic of the raw fur trade re- vived somewhat, and the catch of fur was taken up. Near the close of the trapping season, April i, fashion leaders announced that furs, particularly neckwear, were to be worn during the summer of 191 5; this new fad rapidly spread over the entire country, and afforded material relief to the trade, as many thousands of skins were worked up in meeting this unexpected demand. 66 FUR AUCTION CORPORATION 57 Raw fur merchants were somewhat heartened, but the more thoughtful among them reaHzed that the cus- tom of wearing furs all the year round could not reason- ably be expected to endure, and that some sound method of determining values, which were "all at sea," must be devised; the problem was studied in all its phases, and before the collection season of 191 5 opened it was wisely decided to offer skins of the new season's catch in quantity at public sale, open to interested merchants from all parts of the world, for the double purpose of ascertaining the possible volume of consumption, and establishing a uniform standard of values. To carry the matured plans into effect that New York Fur Sales Corporation was organized in November, 191 5, and in due course was incorporated under the laws of the State of New York with one million dollars capital, with full authority to receive furs from any part of the world and sell the same at auction in New York City, the logical fur center. All necessary arrangements were duly perfected, and the first public sale was held in the Metropolis in January, 191 6; the offerings included all classes of American raw furs in large lots ; the attendance of buy- ers was unprecedented in number and purchasing power, and prices much above expectations were realized. The sale, considered from every standpoint, was a veritable triumph; the succeeding auction in March duplicated the remarkable record. The New York Fur Sales Corporation, with the support of public spirited fur merchants and manufac- turers, not only revived but definitely made the fur trade of America what it is to-day — in everything, the really worth while, is not what was, but what is. "FRESH WATER POND," NEAR CENTER STREET, NEW YORK CITY, WHEN MANHATTAN ISLAND WAS DISCOVERED From an Old Print FOREIGN TRADE Foreign trade at the port of New York for the fiscal year ending June 30, 191 5, reached the aggregate value of $2,255,672,244, and for the year ending June 30, 1916, the total was $3,805,882,189. The foreign trade of all other ports of the United States for the above period, 1916, was $3,432,639,554 — these figures show that New York City's share of the foreign com- merce of the United States was 52.57 per cent, of the total. The foreign trade of the entire country for year ending June 30, 191 7, was $8,953,000,000, divided as follows: exports, $6,294,000; imports, $2,659,000,000. 68 patriotic At the largely attended public sale of raw furs held by the New York Fur Auction Sales Corporation, beginning March 27, 19 17, President Charles S. Porter presented the following resolution, which was adopted by a rising vote: "Whereas, a critical situation now exists in the inter- national affairs of our nation. "And Whereas, preparations are now under way for the mustering, enlisting and mobilizing of troops and naval forces, "Be It Hereby Resolved in this international crisis that we, the members of the fur industry, assembled from all parts of the United States, at the New York Fur Auction Sales, pledge our moral, physical and financial support in behalf of our beloved country; "That we publicly declare our loyalty to our nation, sup- port to our President, and confidence in our Congress ; "That we stand ready to make any and all sacrifices necessary to uphold our national honor ; "That never should the sacred principles upon which our Government is founded, be undermined ; "That we pledge allegiance to our flag and to the republic for which it stands, one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." The fur merchants and furriers of the Metropolis are not only patriotic but liberal; their contribution in cash to the Red Cross Fund in July, 191 7, reached the gratifying total of $16,767.50. 69 Jteto 0xkmsi New Orleans, the principal city of Louisiana, was founded by French explorers and traders in 1718, at which time cotton, sugar and rice, products later center- ing at New Orleans in vast quantities, were not even dreamed of in connection with the locality; the early settlers were chiefly concerned in collecting and shipping raw furs which were readily obtainable in large lots in the surrounding woods and bayous. Otter, bear, rac- coon, muskrat and other fur-bearers, though not of the best grade, were important in point of numbers, and aggregate value. In 1762 an association of merchants was organized under the leadership of Laclede, to prosecute the fur trade systematically along the Missouri River and its branches, and from that date the raw fur business of New Orleans steadily increased in magnitude, and be- came a profitable branch of trade. New Orleans was purchased by the United States in 1803, and since that time trapping has been quite general in the territory. Muskrats are particularly abundant in the bayous, creeks and along the levees, and in recent years the catch has reached a total of many thousands of skins; the Louisiana muskrat is smaller and thinner in fur than specimens caught farther north, but they have their uses and all are marketed. Large collections of peltries are received at New Orleans from Texas, Alabama and other States as well as Louisiana, and it is now a busy fur market — it is an interesting fact that there are more raw fur merchants in New Orleans to-day than at any time prior to 191 5. 60 Competttton It is an impressive fact that in the beginning of the fur trade in America competition was rank, viciously so; in their conflict with savage natives, upon whose trapping grounds they intruded, many white men be- came the greater savages. Some of the trappers stealthily appropriated the fur found in the traps of their fellow craftsmen, and brazenly despoiled the traps and snares of the Indians; there were white trappers who directed others away from good trapping grounds, though many square miles in extent ; others deliberately lied to inquirers desiring to be shown the way to a nearby trading post, sending them off upon an opposite course in the hope that they with their packs of fur would become lost in the forest, and thus reduce the volume, and correspondingly augment the value of their own collection; a few there were who wantonly mur- dered their more successful rivals, and in instances their immediate trapping partners, in order to rob the former or avoid the necessity of dividing the catch with the latter. Methods pursued by individual trappers, or groups of two or three working together, soon changed the Indians from simple minded co-operators to bitter enemies, and trapping became a dangerous occupation. Instead of meeting the issue by curbing the vicious greed of the white men, and treating the Indians justly, the remedy was sought in combination, and parties of twenty to fifty were organized to hunt and trap together upon shares; the plan proved somewhat safer than operating singly, in pairs or trios; but the skillful and industrious trappers soon wearied of dividing the spoils 61 62 COMPETITION of the catch with indolent associates, and one by one they resumed their independence. Traders adopted the same policy, organization. They assumed that by combining their mediums of ex- change — beads, little mirrors, cheap knives and tinsel trinkets — they would be financially able by fair means or otherwise, especially otherwise, to drive individual traders out of the field, and so secure all the fur caught in a particular section at their own figures, and in due course all the fur procured in all sections, that is, obtain a complete monopoly of the trade — buy up hundreds of thousands of beaver skins at the rate of ten cents worth of glass beads for each five dollar beaver pelt, and other skins at the same ratio. It was a good scheme if it would work — it was a good scheme if it wouldn't work — viewed simply as a scheme it was considered flawless, and was adopted without amendment ; in some cases and places it worked, was decidedly industrious for a while; but the great success achieved, instead of crushing competition created it " one association after another was formed, the last being stronger in men and means than those preceding it, and no one knows how much worse, for through all trickery, thievery and blood shed ran riot — it was more than Greek meeting Greek, dog eating dog, or the duel of kilkenny cats; it was all these in simultaneous action. The conflict ended in the quietus of monopoly, not as a pernicious method, oh no! but because of the annihilation of the would-be monopolists. Competition lived on, though but little less destruc- tive, or more worthy to exist ; in the passing years com- petition has been rationally modified, and in the still COMPETITION 63 wiser ways of not far distant days will, we believe, wholly give place to helpful co-operation. The first effort to regulate competition, and check the increasing tendency of individual traders to outbid each other for all offered lots of fur, found expression in a request to trappers to carry their collections to named posts, convenient points in the wilderness and other places, on set dates, the goods to be sold or bartered on the same day; the plan gave each trapper an equal chance in selling, and all traders an opportunity to buy on the same terms; the arrangement was too much like real business to endure, as each trapper believed he could do better for himself if he brought his collection to market when no other trappers were present, as under that condition all the local dealers would contend for it; and each trader was sure that if unnoticed he wandered afield and met the trapper alone — "saw him first" — he could secure the fur at his own price. Competition has always been keen, and at times actually cutting; recourse has been had in the passing years to trick and device by dealers ambitious to mount to the top; but true and enduring success has been achieved only by fair means and correct methods. SPECULATION Speculation has been the animating spirit of the fur business in America from the beginning, and it has been of every shade through white to black — rational, consistent, simple, foolish and rank. The fur trader, wherever and whenever operating, has ever been ready to "take a chance," a moderate, desperate or despicable chance according to his trend or training; in the early W SPECULATION years of the business the chance seems to have been a "sure thing," and it was as regards the extremes — cost to the trader and the price at which he sold, if he lived to complete the transaction. The early trader, however, had his own troubles, and unavoidably took some rather long chances — an unscrupulous partner might carry off all unguarded peltries in a night ; there was the possibility of meeting bands of hostile Indians from whom he could escape only by abandoning his goods; his entire collection of precious furs, very generally transported along rivers, was liable to be swept away by freshets; or he might lose his way in the wilderness and perish of starvation — all these, and many more, are chances actually run and experienced. Conditions continuously change with the flight of time; to-day, steamboat, railway and ex- press companies speedily transfer raw furs from nearby and remote trapping grounds to the warehouse of the fur merchant — but he still takes a chance on every lot he buys, and all he sells other than for cash. Unseasonable weather may adversely affect busi- ness, lessen demand, and cause a marked depreciation in values; fashion may change and result in a strong advance or a disastrous decline in price before the goods pass to the possession of the next buyer; furs costing fifty thousand dollars, if sent to the public sales may net the shipper a profit of ten thousand dollars or the loss of a greater amount. He buys on his own judgment, and believes it is good, but he never knows; he cannot tell how any lot of fur will work out until it is sold, "clear and clean," and even then a failure may occur and change an antici- SPECULATION 65 pated profit into a fifty per cent. loss. Collectors who spend many months in procuring by barter and purchase large lots of skins to be offered at Russian fairs, shippers who devote a few weeks or months to the collection of peltries to be sold to highest bidders at public sales, and fur merchants who purchase supplies of raw furs C. O. D. from trappers and small dealers — none of these buyers know a moment in advance of the com- pleted transaction the amount that will be realized on their respective ventures. If all these chances could be eliminated, the raw fur business would lose very much of its present interest for a majority of the traders, and all of its attraction to many. The chance that always "looks good" constantly irradiates the eagerly awaited "next time." Specula- tion is indeed the animating spirit of the fur trade in all departments, beginning with the boy who enthus- iastically hopes to catch a ten-dollar mink in a section never visited by an animal more valuable than a twenty- cent opossum; and running on to the would-be furrier who is ever ready to "take a chance" with inadequate capital, or credit granted by speculative creditors. Some fur speculators are firm believers in luck; others take a chance anyway. Some years since one of (W) 66 SPECULATION the first class was run down by a trolley car; he was taken up and carried to the police station, and in his card case the sergeant found ten specimens of four- leaved clover, kept as good luck emblems ; when he came to an officer asked him if he did not see the approaching trolley car, and he mildly murmured: "Ko, sir; I was looking over my left shoulder at the new moon for good luck." In March, 1896, Herman Liebes made a wager of five hundred dollars with P. M. Grunwaldt, of Paris, that the total fur seal catch for the year would be less than 7,500 Alaska, 10,000 Copper Island and 60,000 Northwest Coast skins. The catch for the year was as follows: Alaska, 30,000; Copper Island, 14,418; North- west Coast, 55,000 skins. The wager embraced all three, so neither won. Competition remains; the law of supply and de- mand may seem to govern market prices, but it does not dominate speculation. Organization, pooling of capital, and public sales here and there on fixed dates, are all again being tried out, and not a few entertain the fond hope that the almighty dollar multiplied to the seventh power will evolve monopoly. These are reminded that "history repeats itself," not in certain particulars only, but in detail. Monopoly in furs is unattainable; the forces that make for it are self destructive. Some of the long settled methods prevailing in the conduct of the fur business are peculiar. Raw furs collected in practically all places of pro- duction are systematically forwarded to certain centers year after year, noticeably to general fairs in Russia, trading markets in China and London, to be bartered or exchanged for other commodities or cash; prior to 1 9 14 considerable supplies of American, Russian and Asiatic furs were similarly sent to Leipzig, Germany, to be sold to visiting buyers from all consuming countries. American, Russian and other furs forwarded to London public sales in years agone were quite regularly purchased by Leipzig houses and taken to the latter city to be sold to firms in New York, Moscow and other cities — sources of origin. Some of the skins purchased for Leipzig account were dressed and dyed at that place, and then sold to merchants in the cotmtries from which the pelts were first sent roaming. As a rule fur merchants operate more readily in a rising than in a declining market, as the initial increase in values, unless unreasonably sudden and extreme, is believed to pressage an advancing period. Manufactur- ers very often regard the matter differently — if values decline they confidently await still greater reductions; and if prices rather sharply rise at the first public sale of the year, they refrain from buying in the expressed hope that lower values will prevail later — delight and disappointment alternate as the years come and go. The actual market value of most raw skins is a 67 68 METHODS matter of considerable uncertainty from the beginning of the season of collection to the instant of recording the final bid for each article, and even then, as various classes of skins are offered in many small lots of differ- ent quality, the average price, profit or loss, on the entire offering of the individual speculator, remain in doubt until laboriously computed. The value thus ascertained only serves as a basis for new operations in the field until the close of the ensuing public sale, when higher or lower prices are in turn established. Shippers, importers and manufacturers at times claim to possess important information respecting future supplies, values and fashions, but expectations built upon such assumptions, like other dreams, are realized about "once in a blue moon"; the fact is, no one can surely know any of these things as they persistently pertain to the impenetrable mysteries of the morrow, which can never be solved owing to the ceaseless rotation of Mother Earth. The methods peculiar to the trade, prevailing for generations, have long been regarded as being quite as firmly established as the ancient laws of the Medes and Persian, which neither king nor court might alter under any conditions, but there are indications that essential and desirable changes in fur trade customs will be em- braced among the startling surprises thronging the new era of peace succeeding the world's most wanton war. TOTTIE IN FUR i^eto Honbon Only those who have "gone down to the sea in ships," or a very small number of men who have had dealings with "old salts," are aware that for many de- cades New London, Connecticut, was a port of entry for sailing vessels laden in part with furs and skins from the far north, the North and South Pacific Oceans, Bering Sea and the icy waters around the Poles. The receipt of raw furs at New London dates from the early years of the eighteenth century, the time of the return voyage of the first whaling vessel that sailed from that place. New London was founded in 1644; it has one of the best harbors in the United States, and on account of that fact was chosen as their base by the first whalers, and so remained until increasing competition and a 69 70 NEW LONDON greatly reduced catch seriously diminished profits. The fur part of the industry was at first incidental, the amount of fur secured on each voyage being de- pendent upon circumstances; when a whaling vessel in the course of its Arctic journey was caught in the ice and imprisoned for several months, members of the crew spent the days in hunting game, particularly reindeer and musk oxen, to supply the ship's larder with fresh meat; during these hunting expeditions over the great ice fields the sailors shot everything coming or brought within range of their guns, and in the course of the long winters captured a fair number of fine foxes, hair seals and a few polar bears; some years the ships win- tered near an esquimau settlement, and larger supplies of peltries were obtained by barter. In later years increased attention was given to the capture of fur seals, particularly by the Williams family, descendents of Roger Williams, who for several genera- tions were large owners of whaling vessels. The latest member of the family so engaged was A. C. Williams, in succession to his father, grandfather and great grand- father. A. C. Williams operated a number of vessels in whaling and sealing from 1848 to 1895, and during that time his vessels landed many fur seal skins and sundry furs at New London. In instances some of his vessels were engaged in taking seals exclusively, the voyages extending to Cape of Good Hope, Sandwich- land, South Shetland and South Georgia Islands, and other points. Fur seals were practically exterminated on the South Shetland Islands in 1821-1825, none being found there by later visitors; in 1870-1877 Mr. Williams sent a vessel to the South Shetlands and in the course NEW LONDON W of the six years secured about forty thousand seal skins, all of fine quality, and the last large lot of the Shetlands. A vessel, sailing from another Connecticut port in 1888 returned with only thirty-nine skins; and one of Mr. Williams' ships returned the same season with sixty-nine skins, including skins of eleven pups, all that could be found. New London continues to be the port of entry for whaling vessels returning now and then from the Arctic with cargoes of oil, baleen, ivory, polar bear and fox skins, but the catch of fur is never too large to be taken up without comment by a single buyer. FLAG ON SEAL ISLANDS Charles A. Williams, born in New London, Con- necticut, 1829, was for many years actively engaged in the capture of whales and the collection of fine raw furs in Arctic regions. When the United States purchased Alaska in 1867 Mr. Williams very prompt- ly sailed for Bering Sea in one of his whaling vessels, and preceded even the government in raising the American flag on St. Paul Island; in 1868 he made a rich capture of Alaska fur seal skins, and brought them safely to port. Mr. Williams died January i, 1890. Betrott Detroit was settled by the French in 1701, and was an excellent fur trading center on account of its proximity to Canada, and the fact that the furs col- lected were of good quality. The settlement was taken by the English in 1763, and as the result of the Revolutionary War became American territory sev- enty-four years later. In the early days raw furs were received at Detroit in good supply, being brought forward by Indians, French trappers and traders, and in succession by English and American collectors; the furs were of excellent quality, were well handled, and the merchants at Detroit enjoyed a high reputation for ability and integrity — conditions which have continuously characterized that market. Furs were shipped from Detroit to Montreal, Albany and New York; transactions at the present time embrace a very much larger field, both as regards receipts and shipments, covering the country and extending across the mighty deep. Frederick Buhl conducted a successful wholesale fur and hat business in Detroit from 1833 to 1887, when he sold the business to his son, Walter Buhl. Frederick Buhl was not only a progressive mer- chant, but was extremely public spirited. He was Mayor of Detroit in 1848; was for years president of the Fort Wayne & Elmwood Railway Company; director of the State Bank, Second National Bank, the Board of Trade and the Merchants Exchange. Traugott Schmidt established in the raw fur business at Detroit in 1853 in a moderate way, and by 72 DETROIT 73 rigid honesty, and strictly fair dealing with all his shippers from least to greatest, steadily enlarged his business. His trade relations gradually extended to all parts of the United States and Canada, with con- stantly expanding exports to Europe. He enjoyed an enviable reputation for unqualified integrity, and his word was accepted without question, both at home and abroad. On December i, 1889, he admitted his sons to the business, under style Traugott Schmidt & Sons; the business was then incorporated, the offi- cers being: Traugott Schmidt, president; Carl E. Schmidt, secretary; Edward J. Schmidt, treasurer. Mr. Traugott Schmidt died May 19, 1897, on the steamship "Trave," upon which he was returning to America from a visit to Bremen; he was sixty-seven years of age. Mark Sloman engaged in the raw fur business at Detroit in 1876, and achieved marked success as the due reward of untiring industry, the highest order of business ability and fidelity. The house deals with trappers and collectors, from the least in volume to the greatest, receiving a great number of shipments in the season from every "nook and corner" of the United States and Canada, aggregating many thou- sands of dollars in value. They have for years main- tained very important connections abroad, and their standing is of the highest in all foreign markets. They have occupied their own building. Congress Street, West, since January, 1910. Mark Sloman, founder of the house, died November 24, 1908. He was born June 11, 1833 at Schoensee, Prussia. Henry A. Newland established in the fur busi- 74 DETROIT ness at Detroit in 1880, and his house occupied a leading position, and a high reputation, for more than a quarter of a century; previously, from 1855 to 1880, Mr. Newland was a member of the firm of F. Buhl, Newland & Company. Mr. Newland met his death in a railway collision at Bellevue, Michigan, on September 2^, 1893. Newton Annis, of Detroit, really grew up in the fur business, for during his school boy days he spent a considerable part of his vacation time in the fall of each year buying raw furs from trappers in Southern Michigan, and selling the goods to dealers in Detroit. When he left school he was engaged by Buhl, New- land & Company as a traveling fur buyer, and in 1883 was placed in charge of the fur manufacturing depart- ment of that house. In 1887 he began manufacturing on his own ac- count at wholesale, but in a small way; in 1902 he occupied an entire building, and employed more than three hundred operators, and had an important branch in New York. Edwin S. George and Otto Hartmann, under style, Hartmann & George, engaged in business, succeeding De Steiger & George, manufacturing furriers. On January 17, 1900, Edwin S. George purchased his partner's interest, and continued the business alone. In September of that year Mr. George bought the stock and good will of the fur business, dating from 1833, of Walter Buhl & Company. In January, 1901, Mr. George bought up a raw fur business in New York, which he retained until December, 1902. In December, 1909, the Detroit business was in- DETROIT 75 corporated, under style The House of George, the founder retiring to give his attention to other import- ant interests. F. H. Rollins succeeded to the business as Rollins Company, in 191 5. Theodore C. Mau, who for twelve years was fore- man of the fur manufacturing department of Henry, A. Newland & Company, Detroit, established on his own account in March 1899, and has since continued to rank as one of the leading furriers in that very beauti- ful and prosperous city. St. Louis, Missouri, named by French traders in honor of Louis XV of France, was indicated on the maps as a small fur trading post in 1763 by Laclede, the leading member of an association of merchants organized at New Orleans a year earlier, and was made the headquarters for the receipt of collections to be sent down the river to New Orleans, or across to Lake Michigan and Mackinaw and thence over the lakes and up the St. Lawrence River to Quebec for shipment to London. The site was chosen as a specially desirable loca- tion for conducting an extensive trade with the In- dians, who carried upon their backs in packs the pel- tries secured at interior trapping grounds to conveni- ent places along the rivers, and thence by canoes to St. Louis. There were many Indians in the vicinity, the surrounding unexplored wilds being generally known as the ''Indian Country;" passing westward to near the Rocky Mountains, and Southward to the Gulf of Mexico, the country was officially designated as "New France." 76 SAINT LOUIS 77 Owing to its many natural advantages in loca- tion the post rapidly increased in importance; hun- dreds of Indians, half-breeds and hardy voyageurs traced their way thither, and for several years it was their preferred trading station. Many of these sturdy, blustering fur hunters, trappers and traders made St. Louis their headquarters, their ''home town," as it were, passing much of their time there, in fact, most of the days between trapping seasons; they spent their money or credits freely until the last penny was gone, and in instances until the catch yet to be made was heavily mortgaged; not a difficult matter when it is noted that whiskey cost them ten dollars a bottle, and powder a beaver skin or more per pound. Some latter day banqueters upon the same area have sipped champagne, supplied by their hosts, at a cost somewhere near three dollars a quart, and have considered themselves "great sports" — great, is a relative term. The Indians, half-breeds, voyageurs and back- woodsmen who sojourned on off-duty days at St. Louis, wore the brightest togs they could afford, toted tomahawks and guns and vicious blades, swag- gered up and down the by-ways as men of invincible valor born to be admired, and were proud and guileful as Lucifer. Many of these doughty trappers, hunters and waterway wanderers, lingered at the Post long past the date when they should have been busy on their trap lines many miles distant in the wilderness ; as the seasons succeeded one another these particular trap- pers lost much of their early interest in fur, and ceased 78 SAINT LOUIS to hope that the success of the morrow would greatly surpass the realization of previous days — that a valu- able beaver or a priceless black fox would be found imprisoned in traps set in marshes where only musk- rat signs abounded ; these voyageurs trapped for gain, not in the love of it, and therefore delayed their de- parture, when not earlier engaged, in the hope of being employed for the season by some individual or concern fitting out a trapping and hunting expedition at the "last moment." Independent traders, and more generally trading organizations, regularly raised small armies of men at St. Louis, and sent them out into the woods to hunt and trap from early autumn until mid-summer in the following year, the whites and half-breeds joining these armies were too proud to be hired to work or trap, but were quite willing to "enlist," though the terms of enlistment imposed the duty of serving under the absolute command of a leader — the salary paid to an enlisted man of the first class was three hundred dollars a year. Occasionally an army met with defeat, that is returned to camp at the end of the season with a catch of fur worth "next to nothing" as the result of encountering too much snow and ice, Indian troubles, or operating in terri- tory which had been "trapped to death" the previous year; but the trader who kept at it for a little while usually retired with a robust roll, and thereafter dwelt in marble halls, while the trapper remained in the field to annually enlist, if lucky, at three hundred dollars for twelve months. Time has wrought many mighty changes, but to this day many traders and trappers SAINT LOUIS 79 present no visible evidence of having felt its trans- forming touch. It was not always an easy matter to induce some of the proudest white and half-breed hunters and trap- pers to enlist, particularly at an advance date; they held out, not so much for more pay as for recognition of their importance, and had to be urged, importuned, and in instances diplomatically influenced; and even at the last moment might whimsically throw up one engagement and disappear with another army, though gaining no personal advantage by the change. The Pacific Fur Company in 1809 enlisted part of its field force at St. Louis under the leadership of Wilson P. Hunt; the men engaged included Indian guides, voyageurs, and experienced half-breed trappers ; some of these volunteers were easily engaged, and as read- ily deserted before the expedition was ready to move, and great difficulty was experienced in inducing others to replace them; offers of good pay, though the company was known to be perfectly trustworthy, had no effect; influence, tested to the limit, was of no avail; diplomacy finally won. The men wanted were passionately fond of finery, high colored clothes and particularly feathers. Primitive men, not a whit less than women, proudly donned showy or distinctive at- tire; and modern masculines delight in conspicuous decorations — note the feathered head-dress of North American Indian braves; tiger and leopard skins worn by African hunters; the gilded regalia affected by secret organizations; the feather burdened head gear of the Italian Carbineri; and medals covering every inch of the frontal anatomy of members of 80 SAINT LOUIS Schutzenfest Societies. The man of today who mildly scoffs at the weakness of his aboriginal brother, wears a flower in the button hole of his coat quite uncon- scious that the habit is only a survival of the trait he abjures. Mr. Hunt had in his treasury a number of small ostrich plumes ; one of these was given to a con- fidant, who was instructed to place it in his hat band and wear it upon the streets of the town continuously until every one in the place should see it. The effect measured up to Mr. Hunt's expectations; every hun- ter and trapper, white and half-breed, was eager to ob- tain one of the plumes, but was quietly informed that it was the emblem of the Pacific Fur Company and could be procured and worn only by men enlisted in the service of that organization; there was a rush to enlist, and Mr. Hunt quickly recruited his army, choosing the best hunters and trappers in the town. The day of the ostrich plume has passed, but human nature is still perceivably what it was in 1809, with the exception that the dollar is now more potent than the plume; wanted furs are at present garnered with price lists in which a little "taffy" and very high quo- tations are shrewdly mingled. Beads and trinkets, were not wholly superceded as current funds at the Post until near the middle of the nineteenth century. Wilson Price Hunt was an upright merchant and for a considerable period before becoming a member of the Pacific Fur Company, which operated farther west, had large dealings with the Indians at St. Louis, furnishing them with blankets and other necessary articles in exchange for peltries, which he shipped to New York. SAINT LOUIS 81 Ramsey Crooks, a sturdy, honest, industrious Scotchman, who had been with the Northwest Com- pany of Canada for some years withdrew at Mack- inaw in August, 1809, and journied thence to St. Louis, where he arrived early in the following month and enlisted in the Pacific Fur Company, and soon became a partner. The Missouri Fur Company was organized at St. Louis in 1807 with twelve members, Manuel Lisa be- ing the chief partner; the concern received large col- lections of peltries from visiting Indians and back- woodsmen; and as trade increased it very considerably extended its operations, establishing trading posts along the Missouri River, and at numerous points in the in- terior, and westward as far as Oregon ; the latter, how- ever, were retained only for a short time. The Missouri Fur Company employed many hunters, trappers and voyageurs, and sent out some strong expeditions; the concern was aggressive, waged the sharpest kind of competition with other organizations, individual hunters and trappers, and by every method known to traders of the time sought to control the entire fur trade of the country; but like its predecessors failed to ac- complish the impossible, just as their successors have failed and will fail to the end. Joseph Miller, who was at St. Louis, joined the Pacific Fur Company in 1810, and in spite of the opposi- tion of the Missouri Fur Company, succeeded in lead- ing out a large expedition composed of the most pro- ficient hunters and trappers in that section. One in- terpreter, who had served his year with the Missouri Fur Company, had a hard time getting away; he owed 83 SAINT LOUIS the concern about three hundred dollars for personally imbibed whiskey at ten dollars per bottle, and a warrant was issued for his arrest to effect his detention, but the Pacific Fur Company settled the debt, a year's salary in advance, and the half-breed linguist was carried off in triumph. It is asserted that he "somehow" managed to speak half a dozen or more Indian dialects fluently — perhaps it should be written fluidly — while heavily laden with 1 8 10 whiskey. How he accomplished the feat is not explained; neither are we told why two high and honorable com- panies of Christian men were reduced to the necessity of employing a biped, who needed to consume a dollar's worth of whiskey per day to enable him to translate Sioux into English and vice versa. Considerable collections of peltries were secured in the country around Fort Laramie, and at numerous interior points along the Platte, Missouri and other rivers, which in the early summer were shipped by boat and overland to St. Louis, and thence eastward to the Atlantic coast for domestic consumption and export. At the beginning of the nineteenth century William H. Ashley, who had a large warehouse within the limits of the present city of St. Louis, bought and sold raw furs, and employed men to trap fur-bearers in the nearby marshes and woods. One of these trappers, William Sublette succeeded W. H. Ashley in 1830, and in that year organized the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, which carried on a successful raw fur business at St. Louis for several years. The Rocky Mountain Fur Company built a fort at the Laramie fork of the Platte River, naming it Fort SAINT LOUIS 88 William ; when the company dissolved the fort was sold to the government, and the name was changed to Fort Laramie. For somewhat more than twenty years from 1790 the annual collection of peltries at St. Louis averaged over $200,000 ; for a considerable period deer skins were of leading importance, and were handled in immense number; shaved deer skins were the standard medium of exchange. From 1 8 10 to 1850 the value of the animal collec- tion received at St. Louis exceeded $300,000, and in- cluded beaver, mink, otter, fox, raccoon and all other fur skins. Receipts have materially increased during the past quarter of a century, and very great progress has been made in trade methods. B. Harris has for a generation been an active dealer in raw furs at St. Louis, and is well known as one of the most progressive members of the trade, which is largely indebted to him for its present progress, and manifest improvement in many essential details. For the past ten years the business has been con- ducted under style: B. Harris Wool Company; though the title does not express it, no house in the city deals more largely in raw furs, or is better known in that con- nection; the concern handles immense quantities of opossum, muskrat and other skins, and is at all times in a position to meet special and extreme demands. The house is of leading rank in the wool trade; its purchases embrace entire clips of a section, whether thousands or millions of pounds. Funsten Brothers & Company began business as 84 SAINT LOUIS fur commission merchants at St. Louis in 1881, and so continued until 1893, when the firm incorporated with- out change of name; the officers are: Philip B. Fouke, president; Albert M. Ahern, vice-president and treas- urer; D. J. Walley, secretary. J. J. Funsten died in 1892. R. E. Funsten retired in 1897, ^1^^ ^- ^- Funsten in 1907. The corporation receives raw furs from trappers throughout North America; the skins so received are disposed of by sealed bids at tri-weekly sales, the bidders being dealers engaged in the trade at St. Louis ; dealers purchasing the goods sell them to fur merchants in manufacturing centers, and at times ship part of the supply to the London auctions. In 19 1 3 the corporation sold at auction 1.898 fur seal skins, property of the United States Government, the product of the seals killed for food by the Aleuts on St. Paul and St. George Islands; in 1916 the concern established at St. Louis a plant for dressing and dyeing seal skins by the London process. Since 191 5 the corporation has conducted public auction sales of raw furs, scheduled to be held three times a year, in January, March and September. Leonhard; Roos, born in Lahr, Germany, 1833, accompanied his parents to America in 1848. He was first employed in New York, and continued steadily at work until the break came between North and South, when he enlisted in a New York regiment and served throughout the war. In 1867 he went to St. Louis and established a man- ufacturing and retail fur business, which in a brief time took leading place in that branch of the local trade. SAINT LOUIS 88 In 1887 the business was converted into a stock com- pany, Leonhard Roos president, and his nqphew, Charles A. Leppert vice-president and general manager. In October, 1900, Mr. Roos died while on a visit to his native town ; since that time Mr. Leppert has been the head of the house, the present name being Leppert- Roos Fur Company. A large part of the raw fur business at St. Louis is transacted through brokers, who have mercantile relations with all parts of the country. Albert Schott & Son Fur Brokerage Company con- ducts a business dating back to 1880, during which long term many firms have come and gone, and great changes in methods have been effected. The company has clients in all cities of North America where furs are dealt in or largely manufac- tured, and also important foreign accounts. Isaac A. Schoen has conducted a raw fur brokerage business in St. Louis for a quarter of a century, and each year has been written over with a record of which 86 SAINT LOUIS any man might well be proud; in every transaction he regards the interests of his client as paramount; he has repeatedly refrained from executing orders, dis- regarding his own share in the transactions, because he considered the price unfavorable to his principals. Upon more than one occasion Mr. Schoen has achieved phe- nominal personal success in wheat, but he has never taken a chance in buying fur for a client. John J. Goge was born into the fur business, his father having for many years been a well known furrier in New York. Mr. Goge entered the fur trade at St. Louis as a broker in 1905, and has won the esteem of the firms in that city, and the merchants and manufacturers upon whose account he has continuously operated. We have a raw fur price list, size of letter-head, blank on one side, issued January 11, 1879, by Lapham & Company, 222 North Main Street, St. Louis, all the furs quoted were : Mink No. i, large, 40 cents. Raccoon No. i, 60 cents. Muskrat, winter, 12 cents. Skunk, black, prime, cased, $1.25. Wild cat, 10 to 25 cents. Opossum, 5 to 7 cents. Wolf, prairie, 85 cents. Beaver, large and prime, $2.50. Marten, large and dark, $5.00. Red fox, 75 cents. Gray fox, $1.00. Bear, black, $5.00; cubs, $1.00 to $3.00. The firm of Lapham & Company was established at MISSISSIPPI STBAMBR 1850 St. Louis in 1878 by members of the well-known Lap- ham family, leather merchants of New York. Lapham & Company were succeeded by Lapham, Brooks & Com- pany, who in turn were succeeded in 1906 by the well- known firm of J. C. Crowdus & Company, and 19 17 by the corporation: J. C. Crowdus Hides, Furs and Wool Company. Canoes were the first vessels engaged in transport- ing furs over the rushing Mississippi River. Later keel boats propelled or pushed along by strong poles were engaged in carrying raw furs from New Orleans to St. Louis on their way east; it required four months for the keel boats to travel the fifteen hundred miles between the two cities. As the fur collections increased P. Chou- teau used steamers for transporting the baled peltries. In 181 5 a steamer was built which made the trip in twenty-five days; in 1850 the steamer shown was placed on the rivers and completed the trip in three days. 87 &m jFrancisco Yuba Buena, occupying a part of the present city of San Francisco, California, was settled by Spanish missionaries to the Indians in 1776, and a little later Spanish merchants followed and opened a trading center for general barter with the natives from whom they received in a single season more sea otter skins than can now be obtained from all known sources of supply in a decade. Collections of raw furs also included coast seal, fox, beaver and other skins, all of which were shipped to Spain, there being no highway of communica- tion with the eastern part of America at that time. The Spanish name of the place was changed to San Francisco in 1847, but it did not become a city until 1850, the year following the discovery of gold; it has, however, continuously been a raw fur collection center of interest, but most importantly since 1870, owing to large receipts of fur seal, otter, fox and other valuable skins from Alaska subsequent to that date. In 1874 shipments from Alaska to San Francisco comprised 7,515 beaver, 5,551 red fox, 737 cross fox, 1,240 white fox, 1,202 blue fox, 33 badger, 193 silver fox, 260 bear, 5,424 marten, 1,985 land otter, 2,183 ermine, 10 wolf, 11,097 niink, 605 lynx, 1,085 sea otter, 18,521 muskrat and 99,742 fur seal skins; receipts from points on the coast were still larger for all the articles named except foxes, lynx, marten, muskrat, sea otter, ermine and fur seals. A total of 54 sea otter, 961 blue fox, 650 Russian sable and 31,300 fur seal skins were 88 SAN FRANCISCO 8» received at San Francisco from Kamtschatka during the same year. San Francisco has an excellent retail fur business in manufactured goods ; some of the most alert furriers, among them men who have participated in making the American fur trade worth while, maintain very attrac- tive establishments in view of the Golden Gate. Herman Liebes, born in Rawicz, Prussia, in 1842, came to New York when twenty years of age, and was employed for some twelve months in the fur manu- factory of John Ruszits, New York. He resigned that position, and in company with Charles J. Biehlow went to San Francisco, where, in October, 1864, they began fur manufacturing in a small way, and by untiring at- tention to their work gradually built up a large trade, and eventually the leading fur business on the Pacific Coast — and it still occupies that exalted position with very handsome stores at San Francisco and Portland; the business was incorporated in 1890 by Herman, Isaac and George Liebes, Robert and Charles Biehlow, with capital stock of one million dollars. Herman Liebes was instrumental in organizing the North American Commercial Company, which secured the second and last twenty-year lease of the Alaska fur sealing privilege. His business interests also included the ownership of a number of staunch vessels which made regular trips to Alaska and adjacent islands for the collection of fur seal, fox, otter and sundry fine skins. Herman Liebes died in London, February 28, 1898. Charles Biehlow died November 19, 1899, aged fifty- seven. It is a long way back to 1778, but that is the date of the establishment of the first fur trading post on the site of the present great city of Chicago; the name of the trader who laid the cities' foundation was Jean Baptiste P. de Saible. His trade was with Indians, who received their pay in firewater, beads, cheap guns and trinkets at enormous profit to the trader. Other ad- venturous buyers opened posts in succession, but after the Fort Dearborn massacre the place was deserted and shunned by white dealers until 18 18, when the American Fur Company erected a warehouse at Chicago, and re- vived fur trading under better methods than had ruled in the earlier days. Indians, in consequence of more satisfactory inducements and better treatment, brought in large supplies of good skins ; the collections increased in volume from season to season, and the number of dealers was also gradually augmented, and in due time beads and fierce firewater were superceded by "cash money" as the medium of exchange with both red and white trappers. For many years following the War of the Rebellion, Chicago was the most important market for the receipt of "heavy stock," such as raw and Indian tanned elk, deer, antelope and buffalo hides ; the latter were received in enormous quantities until unchecked avarice effected the slaughter of the last poor bison in 1886. Other fur skins have been continuously marketed at Chicago in large numbers; the city still holds leading rank among the raw fur centers of America, and the fur trade is conducted by some of the most enterprising and reliable merchants of this latest day of grace. Chicago is also important in point of fur manu- 90 CHICAGO •! facturing, ranking next to New York as regards the number of individuals and firms engaged in the various branches of the fur business. Bolles & Rogers, dealers in raw furs, have for many years maintained headquarters at Chicago, 129 West Kinzie Street, with important branches at Omaha, Nebraska ; Sioux City, Iowa ; Fargo, North Dakota, and other places. The business is efficiently conducted, pro- nouncedly successful, and constantly growing. Charles Glanz was born in Ebingen, Wurtemberg, Germany, in 1832, and before he had entered his "teens" went to London to acquire a practical knowledge of fur manufacturing, continuing his study until he mastered the trade. He came to New York in 1848, and two years later established in the fur manufacturing busi- ness at 127 William Street, where he continued until 1863, when he removed his business to Chicago, and suc- cessfully conducted it for thirty-four years in the same building. He was highly esteemed by every one who knew him. He died April 14, 1906. The business continues under style: Charles Glanz Company ; president, Edward W. Hillis. A. Hoenigsberger was for an extended period man- ager of the china goat and dog robe dyeing plant of J. & A. Boskowitz, Brooklyn, N. Y., and so remained until that branch of the house was discontinued. In 1892 he went to Chicago and established the Perfection Fur Robe Company, his associates being Dave Hoenigs- berger and Harry L. Hoenigsberger. The business em- braces the manufacture of fur robes, coats, baby carriage robes and auto fur accessories and dealing in Chinese furs. A. Hoenigsberger died December 18, 1901. SAINT PAUL, 1853 t For many years, and down to 1848, the fur trade constituted the principal business of the great State of Minnesota; important supplies of raw furs of desirable quality being obtained regularly from Indians, who were expert hunters and trappers, and later from both Indian and white trappers. In 1770 Captain Carver began trading with the natives, and was the first white man to visit the wonder- ful cave under Dayton Bluff ; he traded in the section for several years. In 1840 there was just one log house, a small affair, upon the present site of the City of St. Paul; in each succeeding year pioneer settlers took up claims and erected small cabins. The first fur trader to locate at St. Paul was named Tasche — he claimed no other name — who began trading with the Indians in 1843, obtain- ing from them good collections of beaver, mink, musk- rat, raccoon and other skins, beaver leading in im- portance. The prices paid were insignificant, the me- diums of exchange being cheap knives, colored cloths, 92 FIRST SHANTY ERECTED ON THE SITE OP THE PRESENT CITY OF SAINT PAUL. glass beads and chiefly whiskey — so called. The whiskey made for Indian consumption, and common pale faces, was neither more nor less than a vicious brew of rank tobacco, vitriol and water. Tasche remained at St. Paul for some years, and made considerable money, but was finally beaten at his own game, and perished in the wilderness. Tasche always carried a large knife, which he knew how to use effectively whenever occasion demanded ; this knife was found in his grave which was opened in the course of railway construction many years after his disappearance ; the knife was sent to Barnum's Museum in New York, where it remained on exhibition until the museum building was destroyed by fire in 1865. St. Paul became an extremely important receiving center for raw furs in 1844, in which year the peltries 93 94 SAINT PAUL collected in the Red River Valley were diverted from Canadian points to St. Paul. The skins brought to the Minnesota town were later sent down the Mississippi River and finally to New York for local consumption and export, chiefly the latter; in 1854- 1856 the raw furs collected at St. Paul averaged between $160,000 and $200,000 per annum. In 1856 shipments from St. Paul comprised: Mink, 8,276 skins; value, $18,621. Marten, 1,429 skins; value, $3,570. Lynx, 50 skins; value, $125. Fisher, 1,046 skins; value, $4,702. Raccoon, 3,401 skins; value, $2,550. Otter, 405 skins; value, $1,470. Bear, 610 skins; value, $6,700. Silver fox, 8 skins; value, $400. Cross fox, 20 skins; value, $100. Red fox, 876 skins; value, $1,095. ' Kitt fox, 2,540 skins; value, $1,271. Wolverine, 2,031 skins; value, $3,048. Muskrat, 64,290 skins; value, $11,572. Bison hides, 7,500; value, $41,200. St. Paul has not only been an active raw fur mar- ket from the beginning, but for many years has been an important fur manufacturing center at wholesale, and at the present time definitely occupies the first place in the manufacture of men's fur coats, of which many thousands are made and sold annually throughout the west and northwest. The winter climate also favors a very large local retail trade in men's and ladies' furs in all desirable grades. Isidor Rose was one of the most painstaking men SAINT PAUL 95 in the fur business, every detail of which enlisted his interest, and received his consideration; he enjoyed per- fect health during his long life of nearly eighty-four years, and was present at his office until one o'clock in the afternoon of the day of his death, which resulted suddenly as the effect of a severe cold. Mr. Rose was born October 9, 1832, became en- gaged in the fur business in 1856, and was in the firm of Joseph Ullmann, St. Paul, Minnesota, during his entire business career. He died March 3, 191 5. Gordon & Ferguson rank as one of the best known fur manufacturing houses in St. Paul — ^but that is alto- gether too local to express the facts, for wherever strictly good furs are sold and worn throughout the mighty northwest, eastward to the Empire City, and in every real center of collection across the "briney deep," the firm is known as standing firmly at the front in the manufacture of men's fur coats, caps and gloves, and as makers of ladies' furs that are never misnamed or incorrectly represented in any way. The business was established by Richard Gordon, April I, 1 87 1, at 132 Third Street, and the record on the books shows steady growth to date. Paul R. Fergu- son was received to partnership in July, 1873. Charles L. Kluckhohn went with the house in 1874, and C. W. Gordon in January, 1880. January i, 1886, Charles L. Kluckhohn and C. W. Gordon were admitted into the firm. January, 1902, the business was incor- porated, the incorporators being : Richard Gordon, Paul D. Ferguson, Charles W. Gordon, Charles L. Kluckhohn and Theodore C. Borup ; capital stock, $700,cxx). During the passing years the house has taken sue- I M SAINT PAUL cessively larger and larger premises, and now occupies a magnificent building, specially erected to serve the needs of the great business, at Sibley, Fourth and Fifth Streets. Gordon & Ferguson make a pronounced feature of "pure fur," and they are so emphatic about it that dealers and consumers alike understand that every claim made for "Gordon Furs" will be sustained hy the furs. Certainly a house like that — 'twould be well if there were many more — merits presentation at the front rank of those who have, in the best sense, made and maintained the fur trade of America. Paul R. Ferguson, second member of the firm, died April 28, 1905. Richard Gordon died January 21, 191 1, in the eighty-second year of his age. McKibbin & Company began the manufacture at wholesale of fine furs, men's fur coats and sleigh robes on December i, 1886, achieving pronounced success from the beginning, as the reasonable result of produc- ing only reliable goods. The firm, now one of the most prominent and reliable in the city, was changed to Mc- Kibbin, Driscoll & Dorsey January, 1901, and was in- corporated under the same style February, 191 5, with $800,000 capital. Ernst Albrecht established, in 1855, at St. Paul, a manufacturing fur business which has grown up in equal pace with the city, to a leading position among the high-clas5 business houses of St. Paul. Otto E. Albrecht, son of Ernst Albrecht, was ad- mitted into partnership in 1895, under style, E. Albrecht & Son. The firm manufactures high-class furs, and conducts a wholesale, retail and mail order business of SAINT PAUL 97 large proportions, with a flourishing branch in Minne- apolis. Ernst Albrecht died May 25, 191 5, since which date O. E. Albrecht has been sole owner of the business. PURE FUR Members of State legislatures are seemingly averse to enacting laws strictly in the interest of consumers, though not energetically opposed to legalistic action of the countrary order — imposing a fine of one hundred dollars for killing a twenty-cent rabbit busily engaged in destroying a summer garden, and practically giving a medal of honor to the man who sells the manufactured bunny hide as French seal. The legislature of Minnesota may be credited with a departure from the rule, in that it has enacted a law with the following provision : **No person, firm or corporation shall sell or offer for sale any garment or article of wearing apparel com- posed either in whole or in part from the fur, hide or pelt of any animal under any name, term, trade name or other designation other than that of the correct name of the animal from which the said fur, hide or pelt was removed." . A fine of not less than $25 nor more than $500; or imprisonment not to exceed six months, or both, are provided for a violation of the provisions of the bill. iWinneapolist James McMillan established in the raw fur business in Minneapolis in 1877. He conducted a general busi- ness as dealer and exporter, making a feature of fine northern furs; other articles handled included hides, pelts, wool, tallow, ginseng and seneca root; he oc- cupied very large premises at 200-212 First Avenue, North. As the years passed the business, which was invariably characterized by correct methods and fair dealing, steadily increased, and has long since had an international .reputation. Branches were in due course opened in the west and Canada. The business was incorporated July 20, 1898, under title: McMillan Fur & Wool Company; capital stock, $100,000. Public sales of furs were held by the house for several seasons. James McMillan died March 24, 1909; born at Fryeburg, Maine, October 24, 1855. W. J. Burnett founded the Northwestern Hide and Fur Company at Minneapolis in 1890, dealing in raw furs, hides, sheep pelts, ginseng and sundry medicinal roots. The business has shown a steady annual increase from the first season, and now ranks among the largest in the country, having very satisfactory trade relations with trappers, local buyers in all states of the Union, and an export trade. The concern, for the convenience of its shippers, carries an unusually complete supply of specialties required by trappers in the field. 98 For a considerable period, from the beginning of the nineteenth century, Boston was an important raw- fur center, shipments being received not only from New England, but in larger quantities from the west, middle- west and southward. With the increase in the produc- tion of wool, both wool and furs were shipped to Boston in large lots ; the city even "unto this day" holds leading rank in importance and reliability as a wool market, but long since declined in magnitude as a center for the receipt of raw furs. Wool has always had a universally recognized standard of value, established grades, and a definite price per pound; furs, unfortunately or otherwise, ac- cording to the individual viewpoint, have no standard of value, each buyer fixing the price, within a certain range, upon the wonderful basis of his own opinion. It may be that the decline of the raw fur trade at Boston is due to a considerable extent to the fact that Boston merchants foimd it more congenial and less strenuously competitive to deal chiefly in a standardized com- modity. 99 100 BOSTON Good eastern mink, fox, muskrat, and some middle western skins are still marketed at Boston with satisfac- tion to the shippers. There are a number of extremely efficient and de- pendable furriers at Boston, and the retail fur business of the city is important in quantity and quality. Martin Bates, who during his long business career was held in the highest respect by all who knew him or had dealings with him, entered into the raw fur busi- ness in his native town, Boston, in 1834; a year later his son Martin Bates, Jr., became associated with him, under style: Martin Bates & Son. In 1839 Charles S. Bates was admitted into partnership, and the firm be- came Martin Bates & Sons; five years later Martin Bates, Jr., withdrew and removed to New York, where he organized the firm of Finn & Bates, dealers in hat- ters' furs and trimmings in Water Street. In 185 1 the previously mentioned firm was dissolved, and Martin Bates, Jr., with Josiah O. Hoffman, of Poughkeepsie, formed the firm of Martin Bates, Jr., & Company; six years later the new firm became largely interested in the raw fur business, with a commodious warehouse at 51 Broadway, New York. They had buying agents in St. Paul, Chicago and Milwaukee, all of whom bought up large collections in competition with the two other leading houses of that time. Henry A. Bromley bought for them at St. Paul, and was one of the "great" buyers of the period. In 1874 Martin Bates, Jr., & Company sent J. Lubbe to Victoria, British Columbia, as their special agent; they then had an interest in a number of schooners engaged in hunting fur seals, and in conse- BOSTON l(tt quence the firm became important factors in the seal business, shipping the raw skins to London, and import- ing the dyed seals for wholesale trade in New York; they maintained their business in seal skins until 1901, when the demand materially declined on account of changes in fashion and sundry government regulations. C. Francis Bates was a member of the New York firm for some years; in 1865 ^^ withdrew and in asso- ciation with a number of capitalists bought out the Northwestern Fur Company, with a number of vessels, trading posts. Fort Union, Fort Rice, Fort Benton, and minor places, with headquarters at St. Louis. The Northwestern Fur Company made large collections of raw furs, deer, elk and antelope skins, and upwards of one hundred thousand buffalo robes in a single season ; all these goods were sent to New York for assorting, distribution and export. After the death of Martin Bates in i860, the busi- ness at Boston was continued by Charles S. Bates. Martin Bates, Jr., born 1814, died January i, 1883. C. Francis Bates, born 1825, died August 2, 1912. Louis Henry Rogers, who has been with the New York house since i860, and a partner since 1883, is the only surviving member of the firm of Martin Bates, Jr., & Company, now in liquidation. Freeman Wight began his experience in the fur trade when a boy in the late forties of the nineteenth century, devoting considerable time to trapping in the open country around Boston; for many years in those early days he never received more than eighty cents for a fine mink skin, and yet he regarded his total re- ceipts for the season as very satisfactory. When a 102 BOSTON young man he established in the fur and skin business on his own account, and continued at the "old stand" until his retirement in 1908, when the Freeman Wight Company was incorporated. Jacob Norton came to the United States from Lon- don, England, in 1844, and shortly after his arrival entered upon what proved to be a successful career in the fur business in Boston. He was an exceptionally capable furrier, and one of the most gifted and highly respected men in business affairs in the city — a very marked honor when we note that integrity is the general rule among merchants at the Hub. He may be freely credited with being instrumental to the extreme of op- portunity in making the fur business of America what it is at its best. Mr. Norton remained actively interested in mer- cantile matters to the time of his death, March 20, 1897. The business has since been continued on the same high moral plane by his sons, under style: Jacob Nor- ton's Sons. Edward E. Norton, senior in succession, died June 5, 191 7. He was prominently identified with various important mercantile interests of the city, as well as the fur industry, and was active in other matters. He was a member of the Boston Chamber of Commerce, for some time president of the Boston Scientific Society, Society of Arts, Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the City Club, and an official of the Jewish Federation of Charities. Horace Dodd, a man of righteous instincts, more conscious of the value of his word than some men of greater wealth are of their bond, he lived his life honored BOSTON 103 by all who knew him, and hundreds to whom he was personally a stranger. Mr. Dodd conducted a raw fur business at Boston for an exceptionally extended period, beginning 1823, and for more than sixty years occupied the same store at 130 Milk Street. Mr. Dodd died June 10, 1896, in the ninety-third year of his age. John Eichorn was born in Rheinpfalz, Bavaria, Germany, in 1825, and after learning the trade of fur- rier he came to the United States in 1847 ^"^ settled in Boston, where he engaged in the fur business, taking a small shop on Elm Street; after the great fire he re- moved to y2i Kingston Street, where he continued to manufacture and deal in furs up to the time of his death, September 23, 1908. In the beginning of his career, and for many years, he regularly visited Indian and white trappers over a large section of the country to purchase peltries. He was strictly honest and fair in all his dealings with men in the field, and made many friends in the great outdoors of America. Edward Kakas, born in Budapest, Hungary, 1829, came to the United States in 1850, and a year later began the manufacture of furs at Boston; he continued the business with marked success until 1879, when he retired and was succeeded by his son Edward and his grandson Edward F. Kakas. Edward Kakas, Sr., died September 19, 1904. Two of his sons established on their own account, July, 1897, as Kakas Brothers; since incorporated. Joseph A. Jackson entered the ranks of the manu- facturing fur trade at Boston in i860, began in a small 104 BOSTON way, and by untiring industry and fidelity advanced to a leading position, enjoying from the first the good will and respect of his many business associates, and a discriminating public. Mr. Jackson died September 5, 1894. The widely known firm of Wight Brothers, Boston, was organized in 1869, to conduct a business in raw, dressed and dyed furs; the members were Joseph F. Wight, Lewis Wight and Almon Wight. The firm oc- cupied a very high position in the trade at home and abroad, and was successful from the beginning. Joseph F. Wight died September 10, 1909. Lewis Wight died January 12, 19 10. Almon Wight died Sep- tember 17, 191 5. The business was incorporated in January, 19 14, as Wight Brothers, Inc., the incorporators being Arthur L. Barr, president and treasurer; E. L. Capen Wight, secretary. Otto J. Piehler has been a busy furrier at Boston since May, 1888; his integrity has never been ques- tioned, and his continued success is well deserved. Mr. Piehler joined in establishing the firm of W. Cranz & Company, in 1888, and after two changes took over the entire business, which he continues; he incorporated in 1909 as Otto J. Piehler, Inc. Lamson & Hubbard have been prominent, progres- sive and successful fur manufacturers at retail in Bos- ton for forty years, making at all times a specialty of high grade goods. The business was incorporated in 1907, and has shown a continuous annual increase. A very fine branch store is maintained at Newport, R. I. In August, 1916, the Lamson & Hubbard Company BOSTON 105 was enlarged and newly incorporated with $i,500,o96i. For the following ten years, 1880 to 1889, an annual average of 486,524 skunk skins comprised the offering in London, with 625,565 skins as the total offered in 1889. 202 SKUNK Beginning with the twentieth century the annual offering of skunk skins at the public sales in London approximated a million skins per annum; in 1912, the latest year for which reliable statistics may be given, the London sales offerings comprised a total of 1,527,771 skins. Prices at London in 19 12 ranged from 18 to 37 cents for No. 3 long stripe and white, 77 to 81 cents for good white, to $5.75 for prime black — another instance in proof of the assertion that the decrees of fashion set aside, in furs, the law of supply and demand. The man who deodorized skunk ought to have a monument erected to his memory; he surely converted a waste product into an article of commerce worth millions per annum in pure gold. RACCOON The raccoon abounds in nearly all the states, and the annual collection of skins at times exceeds seven hun- dred thousand. The animal frequents swamps, marshes, watered low-lands and higher wooded sections where it RACCOON 203 can readily procure its necessary food consisting of frogs, insects, berries and small fruits. The fur of the raccoon varies considerably in color ranging through dingy grey in which black predom- inates, sundry shades of brown and grey, a rich plum hue, and to nearly black; the furry tail is marked by alternate rings of black or dark brown, and light grey or dull white. In the winter the raccoon has a full, dense coat of fur and top hair; this condition is noticeable on pelts obtained in southern and central as well as northern sections, and consequently size and color are the more important factors considered in determining the value of individual skins. Pelts approximating black rank highest in beauty and worth, and when made up natural as neck piece or muffs, are remarkably handsome, and not readily surpassed in attractiveness by the more costly furs — ^but raccoon fur is not always in fashion. The article ranks high in point of durability, and in the natural state, unless subjected to very careless treatment, will outwear the usual term of fashion's favor, and may then be dyed black with the certainty of a life of service well worth the cost. Rough skins, in any of the natural colors, are often dyed a rich lustrous black as an imitation of higher priced skunk, and in instances as a substitute for beaver ; it is also occasionally plucked and dyed black to simulate beaver to which it corresponds in appearance, but not in durability. For the manufacture of men's coats for wear in the open country where a temperature of forty degrees below zero is not uncommon, raccoon is a favorite fur, 801 RACCOON its use, however, is restricted on account of the higher cost as compared with various heavy skins similarly em- ployed in recent years. It is a popular article with wealthy automobilists, and travelers in the northwest, whether their great coats of raccoon are made with the fur as the outside material or the lining. ^'^^^^ RACCOON HEADS, AND RAW SKIN OPEN iWugferat From the date of discovery, and how many centuries earlier no man knoweth, the muskrat has abounded in all parts of North America where natural conditions have been favorable to its existence; there are three essentials, land, water and food specially suited to muskrat life ; and though all of these have been more or less affected, circumscribed, or eliminated by advanc- ing civilization, cultivation of the soil and drainage of swamps, the muskrat still survives in vast numbers in most sections of the United States and Canada, making MUSKRAT it an easy matter to obtain three million skins annually — and many more whenever wanted. The muskrat is amphibious, gregarious, and very prolific, and doubtless would long since have over-run the continent, except that the death rate is very high as the result of adverse conditions — the number of common animals that prey upon it, the severe and fatal cold experienced in some sections and years, the limited food supply in all districts, and last of all hungry and savage man who came upon the scene and took all he could get, plus a few. The muskrat, better known in Canada by its Indian name, musquash, to some residents of country districts as "mushrat," and in the trade simply as rat, varies from six to fifteen inches in length, those abounding in the 205 a06 MUSKRAT south being smaller and more poorly furred than speci- mens having their habitat continuously farther north; the color differs regardless of section of origin, even in the same marsh, and is generally a dull or reddish- brown, the back and sides being appreciably darker than the under portion of the body ; some specimens are very dark, almost black on the back and sides, and are separately classed as "black" and rated higher in value than the brown rats, which they surpass in density of fur and luster of hair, qualities rendering them more available for manufacture in the natural state than skins showing practically every shade of brown; the fur of the muskrat caught in the south is a light brown, rather coarse and thin, and low in price. Muskrat fur is more durable than certain peltries of higher cost, and in point of utility outranks all, as it may be and is used in the manufacture of every article of apparel for which fur may be appropriately employed, and is effective in all conditions — natural, plucked, blended and dyed ; sheared it makes a good imitation of mole skin; and when effi- ciently dyed and unhaired resembles seal so perfectly in texture and appearance that only an expert can surely determine at sight "which is which." Muskrat fur is extremely popular abroad, even more decidedly than in the land of its birth, owing to its many good qualities, exceptional utility, and the fact that the price makes it available to a host of consumers of moderate means. Skins are graded and valued ac- cording to the geographical sections of origin, color, size, condition of fur, and season of capture. Seasonal qualifications as expressed by the terms, fall, winter and spring, are of leading importance, though all MUSKRAT 207 Other circumstances are carefully considered in grading; spring caught skins, color and size duly appraised, are rated as best, in which respect they differ from the pelts of land animals which evidence marked deterioration at that time of the year, and they are classed as best owing to the fact that during their winter sojourn in the icy waters of lakes, ponds and marshes the animal develops a full or dense coat of fur of richest hue. The muskrat is so named because the creature exudes an odor resembling musk ; to those who like musk it is agreeable, but to others is mildly offensive ; the fur is perfectly deodorized in the processes through which the skin passes preparatory to manufacture. The muskrat is the most prolific of all North American fur-bearers; during the century,. 1801-1900, a grand total of 139,078,109 skins was offered at the public sales in London. In 1848 a total of 225,000 American muskrat skins were sold at public sale in London at an average of two pence per skin; sixty-two years later 4,000,000 skins were similarly sold, bringing an average of fourteen pence per skin — fashion determined the values in each instance. 0. (iobfrep Pecker A general business in raw furs was conducted by Wolf, Becker & Company, at Chicago, for a number of years down to November, 1887, at which time the above named firm was succeeded by Bach, Becker & Company, the several members being: S. Max Becker, A. E. Becker and Emanuel Bach. Some years later A. E. Becker withdrew from the firm. For the convenience of the trade at large a branch, with a commodious warehouse, was opened in New York City in 1894 under the efficient management of O. God- frey Becker, a man of unusual executive ability, tireless industry, and marked probity in commercial matters, and a painstaking merchant whose influence in elevating the status of the trade has been pronounced and effec- tive. The firm of Bach, Becker & Company dissolved by mutual consent on December 31, 1904, and at that time S. Max Becker and O. Godfrey Becker purchased the interest of Mr. Bach and organized the firm of Becker Brothers & Company, as successors to the pre- ceding concern, both at Chicago and New York; the members of the present firm are S. Max Becker, O. God- frey Becker, M. W. Becker and E. S. Waldbott. O. Godfrey Becker has been absorbingly concerned in the continuously expanding commercial and mercan- tile interests of the house, guides and guards its major and minor affairs with exceptional zeal, and is unwearied in wisely directed efforts to insure the high standing of the name in the business community; under his careful and considerate management the transactions of the firm have increased many fold in the past decade, and 208 ®. (Sobfrep ^Becfeer O. GODFREY BECKER 200 the concern now ranks among the largest, most im- portant and best known in the branch, not only in Amer- ica, but Europe as well. Raw furs, embracing all classes of peltries from the finest natural black foxes to lower cost articles, are received daily throughout the collecting season from every nook and corner of America in steadily increasing quantity as the consequence of the correct and approved methods adhered to in dealing with shippers — great and small, known and unknown, being treated with equal fairness at all times. Manufacturers and merchants purchasing goods from the house have experienced satisfaction in every instance, as they have found that no furs are ever offered or delivered to them other than strictly "as are" — a record of present value and enduring worth to any house pursuing such a policy in merchandising. When the Raw Fur Merchants' Association of the City of New York, Inc., was organized in 19 14, Mr. Becker was unanimously elected president of that pro- gressive and influential body, and his associates continue to confer upon him the honor of that important office to the time of this writing. He has also from the first been actively and help- fully identified with the Public Auctions of furs con- ducted in New York as an essential development in the life of the trade consequent upon the great European war. O. Godfrey Becker was born 1867, and entered upon his business career at the age of twenty ; he has won by merit the esteem and good wishes of his fellow mer- chants both at home and abroad, all of whom clearly recognize his personal merits, and worth as a merchant. American 0posiinm Though hunted night and day, and trapped early and late in every season except summer, the prolific opossum continues to flourish, and furnishes an annual collection ranging from two hundred to six hundred thousand skins — good, otherwise and bad. The opossum is hunted and trapped for its fur and flesh, the latter cooked with sweet potatoes being very popular. The fur is generally a dull greyish-white, and is particularly beautiful in the natural state, but is fairly handsome dyed black or brown, and is quite popular, especially abroad, with consumers of cheap furs. It is used with satisfactory results, price considered, for linings, neck pieces, muffs, trimmings and children's furs. Dyed, it is used as an imitation of other furs of higher cost. 210 WILD CAT AND DOE wam Cat Though formerly abounding in mountainous and densely wooded districts throughout the United States, the wild cat is steadily decreasing in numbers on account of its incessant pursuit by hunters and trappers, not merely to secure the pelt but purposely to effect its ex- termination as a fearsome beast. The wild cat resembles the Canadian lynx in general form and color; the body, which is broad across the back, is about thirty inches in length ; the head is rather massive, and the limbs and tail are short, the latter not exceeding five to six inches in length; the ears are tipped with black. The predominant color of the fur is a sandy grey varied by dark brown or black spots and broken lines, one of these dark lines extending down the spine in many specimens ; on the sides and limbs are many brown and black blotches which heighten the beauty of the fur when made up natural in sundry small articles of apparel. The long dense fur and fine long over-hair of the wild cat is most popular when dyed a handsome brown or lustrous black ; in the latter state it is an excellent imitation of more costly lynx. The fur 211 S12 WILD CAT of the wild cat is also colored by what is known as the Chinese smoking process, resulting in a rich, dark and uniform shade of brown ; as thus prepared it is at times popular in Europe as a serviceable lining for men's coats, less extensively for ladies' wear, and for making small robes and rugs. Cibct Cat In recent years under the stress of harum scarum speculation, extravagance and unexampled emulation, everything in fur, or that looked like fur, has been mar- keted, manipulated and manufactured to please the wise, charm the improvident and appease the faddist; the latter demanded and eagerly accepted not something good or merely new, but the extreme, the limit, some- thing sufficiently loud to catch the instant attention of the deaf to whom the rumbling thunder passes as silently as a distant whisper. To meet the startling demand sundry skins, formerly disregarded or long neglected, including civet cat, were introduced, exciting our wonder like summer clouds which vanish in the hour of their appearing; the most bizarre of all, civet cat, lingered longest, not as the fur of fashion but as a satisfying fad. The civet cat is found in western, southwestern and southern sections, and is related to the skunk, which it closely resembles in size and habits, but from which it decidedly differs in intensity of odor, variation in color, luster of fur and hair, and value. The black fur on the entire coat of the animal is marked by a large number of long, medium-length and short stripes, rather broad and also very narrow lines of white fur (in some speci- CIVET CAT 218 mens yellow instead of white) generally running length- wise, or from head to tail, and so irregularly and abundantly distributed as to be strikingly showy, but never strictly beautiful. A stole or muff of civet cat fur will surely rivet the attention of even the unobserv- ing; and a full-depth garment of this dazzling fur, a lew of which were recently made for daring dames, constitutes a crowd-ensnaring freak. Civet cat is excellent as a coat lining, works up easily and economically, and is satisfactory as regards durability. {Skin of civet cat shown below.) ^^^!^ /^^f^ ^^sfl^f RINGTAILS The ringtail cat, so-called, should be classed with the civets; the animal has elongated body eighteen inches in length, and a tail seventeen inches in length marked with eight black and seven white rings of fur, the tip being black interspersed with white hairs. The ringtail frequents the western coast of North America from British Columbia to Texas, but is not found east of the Sierras. The fur is light greyish brown, quite unattractive in the natural state, but is much improved by dyeing a good brilliant black. Skins taken farthest north are of best grade; a few are so marked that they may be used in imitation of chinchilla; the greater number are dyed in imitation of kolinsky, when the latter is popular, and are made up into ladies' coats, muffs and neck pieces. 2U ^ouge Cat Hundreds of thousands of pelts of domestic felines, all dear to some one, are annually slaughtered for their fur ; the large number of skins secured and marketed is consequent upon the fact that the house cat, the only name used in the trade, is a cosmopolitan animal, abounds in every peopled part of the world, urban and suburban, and universally flourishes — it is nevertheless a profound mystery how so many become commercial prizes without their devoted owners obtaining an inkling of their destiny. The tragedy of the house cat involves Toms and Tabbies of all colors, black, grey, white, yellow, spotted, striped and combinations of all known hues ; the natural blacks command the highest price, twenty to thirty cents, according to market conditions, and the mixed colors, worth from a nickel to fifteen cents, are generally dyed to something approaching uniform shades, and stmdry imitations. House cat fur is used chiefly in Europe and Asia — leaving some supplies for America; is used in making cheap coat linings, sets, children's furs, and to some extent in the production of toys. It may be true that the house cat, at least the back- yard vocalist, has "nine lives" ; we are not prepared to confirm or controvert the assertion, but knowing mer- chants assure us that it has only one pelt. Other fur-bearers of value found in the United States embrace the fox, fisher, otter, marten, bear, weasel, lynx, wolf and wolverine; these are considered in later pages. 215 Babtb Plusitetn Among the conspicuous successes in the New York raw fur trade whose first experience in the business was gained outside of New York City, may be mentioned David Blustein, who came to the United States from Moscow, Russia, at the age of seventeen and with his brother Isadore founded the firm of David Blustein and Brother, in Charleston, West Virginia, in 1891. From the beginning the raw fur department of the business received special attention, although hides and medicinal roots of various kinds were also dealt in. The reputation of the new firm for fair dealing, and its readi- ness at all times to buy any quantity of furs, hides, or roots, rapidly spread through the territory tributary to Charleston and even beyond it. The business continued along these lines for sev- eral years ; then David Blustein, always alert and search- ing for ways and means to better handle the raw fur business, decided that the full development of the enter- prise demanded a location in the fur-consuming market of America — New York City. To give the idea a trial, a temporary store was rented in Mercer Street in the fall of 1904, which was maintained for the raw fur season only. After two years the practicability of the move was thoroughly demonstrated and in 1906 a large store was leased in Bleecker Street, with David Blustein in charge. With the advantage of the New York outlet, the business grew by leaps and bounds and when the fur 216 Babib PIu£(tetn DAVID BLUSTEIN 217 trade began to leave the downtown section David Blu- stein and Brother removed their business to the new sec- tion, locating in East Twelfth Street. Together with the raw fur business considerable attention was paid to the ginseng trade, and it was not long before the Blustein store became the Mecca of the Chinese exporters, who seldom failed to find large lots of root awaiting their inspection when they called. When the fur trade again traveled northward, many fur merchants and manufacturing furriers located in the section between Twenty-fourth and Thirtieth Streets, west of Broadway. David Blustein and Brother were among the first to remove to the new section, locating in Twenty-seventh Street. Here the business continued to grow and prosper, the reputation of both brothers for integrity growing as their trade and acquaintanceship increased. David Blustein continues in charge of the New York division of the business; while the Charleston store is managed by Isadore Blustein. The firm has unusually pleasant relations with country dealers and trappers, large and small, in all parts of the United States and Canada and maintains unsurpassed connec- tions in the fur trade abroad. Their trade intercourse with local merchants and manufacturers is unusually intimate and friendly, and there is no doubt that the firm has a great future and will measure up to it as time progresses. iSames of Jf ut peaterst We purposely omit latin names of animals men- tioned, as we greatly doubt the propriety of employing a dead language in the treatment of a live subject. The names follow in English, French and German, which we believe will suffice. ENGLISH FRENCH GERMAN Badger Blaireau Dachs Bear Bar Ours Beaver Castor Bieber Cat Chat Katze Civet Cat Civette Chat Civet Katze Coney Lapin Kanin Ermine Hermine Hermelin Fisher Pecan Virginia litis Fitch Fitch litis Fox Renard Fuchs Fox, Black Renard Sombre Schwarz Fuchs Fox, Blue Renard bleu Blau Fuchs Fox, Cross Renard traverse Kreutz Fuchs Fox, Gray Renard grison Grau Fuchs Fox, Red Renard rouge Rot Fuchs Fox, Silver Renard argent Silber Fuchs Fox, White Renard blanche Weiss Fuchs Hare Lievre Hase Lynx Lynx Luchs Marmot Marmotte Murmel Marten Martre Marder Mink Vison Norz Mole Taupe Maulwurf Muskrat Rat Musque Bisam Opossum Opossum Opossum Otter Loutre Otter Rabbit Lapin Kaninchen Raccoon Marmotte Schuppen Sable Zibeline Zobel Seal Phoque Seehund Squirrel Ecureuil Eichhorn Skunk Skunk Skunk Weasel Belette Wiesel Wild Cat Chat sauvage Wild Katze Wolf Loup Wolf Wolverine Goulu Vielf rass French for squirrel fur is Feh. German for raccoon, the animal, is Wasch Bar. S18 AMERICAN BISON The history of the American bison, regarded from the viewpoint of the hide of the animal as a commercial commodity, is a shameful record of willful waste very definitely followed by woeful want; during the height of the trade more than two hundred thousand bison were killed each season in Texas alone, and that total was duplicated on other hunting grounds, merely for the hides, the bodies being left on the plains to slowly decay, or be in part devoured by ravenous animals. If the vast herds of bison on the wide western and southwestern plains had been properly protected by the government, half a million might have been taken year after year, indefinitely, both for their hides and a supply of meat approximating beef in excellence — and just now the meat would supply a "long felt want," many yearn- ing appetites, and be a material help in reducing the high cost of living to those who are living high, and the greater number existing in hope. A member of the American board in the Bering Sea Arbitration Tribunal at Paris, on being reminded that the United States was very eager to preserve the fur seals in which a monopoly was concerned, but was in- different when the bison was being exterminated in a 319 220 AMERICAN BISON free to all onslaught, stated that the American bison had been slaughtered in "the interests of civilization." If any one has noticed any improvement in civilization since the last bison was killed thirty years ago, the fact has not been disclosed. If the diplomat had said that the bison were recklessly exterminated for the "land's sake" — in the interest of few — that the greedy might find "a place in the sun," his meaning would have been perfectly clear. "Buffalo" was the only trade name. In the seventies of the past century about one hun- dred and fifty thousand buffalo robes were shipped east in a single season from Fort Griffin, Texas, and upwards of fifty thousand from Fort Concho, or San Angelo on the opposite side of the river; other vast supplies were gathered in Montana, Idaho, and the Territories ; about two thousand himters operated on the plains of Texas. The large buyers were J. & A. Boskowitz, Chicago and New York ; Samuel Shethar & Company, New York ; Hart, Taylor & Company, Boston. Indian caught and handled hides came from Fort Benton, and posts in Indian Territory, through J. G. Baker & Company, T. C. Power & Company, and other Indian traders. The buffalo robes were, with few exceptions, handled by fur merchants, and were converted into sleigh robes and men's coats by fur manufacturers. The excessive slaughter resulted in a steadily de- creasing collection; in 1878 the number of robes mar- keted comprised 25,000 from Texas, 15,000 southwest, 50,000 northwest, and about 10,000 from scattering points; a year later the total fell to 55,000. From the latter date the decline was rapid, and by 1886 none re- mained. Many of the Indian tanned hides were AMERICAN BISON 221 illuminated on the leather side with outline sketches in strong colors, especially bright reds, yellows and greens. The sketches were pictorial writings descriptive of the chase, battles, and interesting events in the lives of the red men. The illustration shown elsewhere de- picts some of the courageous deeds of a mighty warrior. WHITE BISON White beavers, muskrats, raccoons, and abino specimens of other fur-bearing animals are ocasionally caught, but records can be found of only three white American bison, commonly known as buffalo. The first of these was found in 1867, ^.nd constituted part of the trappings of a horse ridden by a Cheyenne chief who was killed in a battle on the Arickaree River. The second was captured late in 1871 by James Caspion, a hunter, on the plains of western Kansas. The third was taken in a hunt in 1881, and the hide was mounted and set up in the State House Museum at Topeka, Kansas. LOBOS ISLAND SEALS The 191 7 catch of Lobos Island fur seal skins, a total of 1,873 pelts, was sold at auction in St. Louis on October 8, 19 17, bringing satisfactory prices. It was the first time that skins of this class have been offered in the raw at public sale in the United States. POINTING Pointing is a term used in the fur trade to con- veniently designate a comparatively modern method of ornamenting certain plain black or brown furs, natural or plucked, by inserting longer white hairs in the fur in masses or at irregular intervals ; the scattered or rather closely set white points suggest the title of the operation, and skins so treated are said to be "pointed." The pur- pose is three-fold — to relieve the plainness of a solid dark ground, temporarily introduce a new mode, and most importantly to produce at moderate cost an effec- tive immitation of a fur of much greater value, particu- larly silver fox and sea otter. These white hairs were formerly sewed in the leather, a slow process ; the point- ing is now expeditiously performed by blowing open the fur and firmly attaching the white hair to it with a small amount of India rubber cement. Badger, skunk, coney and grey fox hairs are used in pointing; articles of this character rarely remain in fashionable favor more than a season or two following their re-introduction in response to a fair demand, or to create a "riffle" in business. Occasionally a few skins have been pointed with white tips of the small feathers taken from the breast of the grebe, and the showy plumage of the peacock. Best pointing is now done with hairs of the animal pelt to be thus improved. 222 AUTOMOBILE FURS A new and increasingly strong demand for furs of a distinctive character followed in the gaseous trail of the automobile from the date of its introduction, leading to the use of various peltries, some real fur and others seemingly furry ; the articles required in this special field of service embraced coats, caps and robes. These auto furs and skins were at the outset extremely conspicuous, and in many instances made the wearers appear akin to denizens of the Polar circles, but this apparent reversion to primitive nature becoming as general as the auto soon ceased to excite more than passing attention, and noth- ing less than a rainbow-hued coat would attract curious interest at the present time. Auto furs and skins include natural raccoon, not selected and matched skins, but just raccoon ; a coat of this fur apparently added seventy-five pounds to the weight of the average sized automobilist. Australian opossum, another bulky fur ; China goat, diversely grey, and dyed black ; the skin of the leopard, an African and Asiatic animal which cannot change its spots because they are so numerous; civet cat, bear, hair seal, cattle hides, muskrat, and sundry better furs. This demand for auto furs materially benefited the trade; wearers generally learned in the best way, by experience, the comfort afforded by furs, and became consumers of finer goods; rich automobilists purchased coats in half- dozen lots for the use of their guests, and the practice became so general that auto supply houses now carry fur coats in stock with tires, tubes and sundry parts. A number of furriers make a specialty of "auto apparel." 223 George pernatb ||er?tg The firm of Herzig Brothers was founded in 1865 by Simon Herzig, in the centre of the trade of that day, the Bowery and Grand Street ; the business at the outset comprised manufacturing and retailing, and conse- quently was mainly local ; in later years it was expanded into importing furs and skins to meet the requirements of manufacturers operating throughout the United States. George Bernard Herzig, son of Simon Herzig, was born in New York City, February 9, 1872; he was edu- cated in the public schools, and attended the College of the City of New York for some time. In 1890 he en- tered the fur business with Herzig Brothers, then located at 133 Mercer Street, serving in the office, primarilly in charge of the books, but actually in every way in which the interests of the house could be advanced. In 1895 he laid aside routine office work and entered upon a series of visits to Chili and Bolivia, and incidentally all of South America, covering a term of ten years, for the direct purchase of chinchilla skins; a period of twenty months was devoted to one of these trips, during which time he went far afield, climbing the mighty Andes, and meeting many natives with whom he succeeded in per- fecting arrangements for securiqg enlarged supplies of the particular pelts sought by him. At the time of his initial visit to Chili, a season's collection of chinchilla skins aggregated about 1,500 224 s-'vmn^mmiuissr/'. ~s »«wj.^ t -^^^^ji^w^rys'. '^ji,ii»eimi- tttiaiu -^ti> George pernarb Jler^ig GEORGE BERNARD HERZIG 226 dozen; when he had concluded his treasure quests he had increased the collection to 36,000 dozen skins per season. His triumph was due to personal contact with the market and individual producers, and the incentive of fairer values than had previously ruled. Down to 1896 about ninety per cent, of the annual catch of chinchilla skins was shipped to London ; subse- quent to that date fully seventy-five per cent, of the yearly collection was forwarded to New York. At the present time no chinchillas are permitted to be caught, killed, sold or exported from Chili, under penalty of fine or imprisonment, or both. This closed season is to run from March 6, 19 17, to March 6, 1922. December 15, 191 5, Mr. Herzig went with the George B. Herzig Company, as general agents in the Public Auction Fur Sales Department of Funsten Brothers & Company, St. Louis; all the eastern, Can- adian and foreign business of the house is transacted through the New York office, 39 West Twenty-ninth Street, and is efficiently handled on broad mercantile and commercial principles, with studious attention to the development and welfare of the fur trade in it?^ best and largest international relations. In 1916 Mr. Herzig made a special visit to Uruguay and was entirely successful in arranging to have the Uruguayan Government consign the Lobos Island fur seal skins to the auction sales in St. Louis; this is the first instance in which seal skins from these rookeries have been shipped to any market other than London; the introductory sale at St. Louis was held in October, 1917. 226 GEORGE BERNARD HERZIG Mr. Herzig is not only well known in his chosen field of business, both in the new world and the old, but he enjoys the good will of a host of friends and acquaint- ances in social circles. In earlier life he served five and one-half years in the Seventy-first Regiment, National Guard of New York, and at the date of his honorable discharge was a sergeant in the command. In 1898 he was in South America on one of his periodic visits, and owing to that fact was unable to serve with his regiment in the Spanish-American war. During the enlisting period of the summer of 191 7 Mr. Herzig patriotically turned his warerooms into a recruiting station, in order that the fur trade might in name and service be aligned with the other great Amer- ican industries in the mighty battle for freedom and the extinction of barbarism. PRIME— UNPRIME The terms prime and unprime as applied to fur skins qualify condition of both fur and leather; prime skins are those taken from animals caught or killed from late in the fall to the close of winter, or in temperate climates subsequent to the first few severe frosts in autumn until in the following spring ice ceases to form on ponds and marshes; the muskrat remains prime a little later, or until all ice is melted in the vicinity of its habitat. Prime skins are fully furred, both fur and hair having attained in growth and quantity the limit in nat- ural development ; the leather is clean, clear and of max- imum strength ; in color the fur is at its best, darkest or lightest, according to the nature of the animal ; in some specimens, noticeably the muskrat, when prime the leather is red, a blood hue ; in others, including the mink, it is white, and in others a light brown or creamy tone. Unprime skins are only moderately well furred, tend to shed the fur and hair, even do so freely, and the leather is weak, blue, and in instances nearly black ; un- prime skins rank considerably below prime in value be- cause of their generally inferior quality. GRADING In grading raw skins to determine individual value many things have to be taken into account — section of origin, color, size, quantity and quality of fur, condition of leather, season or date of capture, methods of skin- ning and handling; an inefficient grader would quickly effect his ruin financially if buying on his own account, and even more suddenly lose his position if purchasing 227 228 GRADING for another. Skunk skins in the raw are correctly as- sorted in four grades only ; incorrectly into many grades which are meaningless, misleading and purposely unfair to the inexpert seller. Skins that are entirely black, or that have only a very small white spot in the forehead (called "Star black") grade as black, or number i. Those showing a white stripe extending from the head barely to the shoulder, are graded as "short stripe," or number 2. Skins having a stripe of white fur running in a single or double line fairly well down the back, are graded as "long stripe," or number 3. Skins in which white pre- dominates are classed as white, or number 4. All other conditions previously mentioned are care- fully considered ; occasionally a "black" may be too small, poorly furred, or have been caught too early or late to grade number i ; and a "short stripe" may in every other respect be good enough to grade above number 2. The best skins, everything considered, are procured in New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Ohio; various other sections produce close seconds. The skunk is the easiest trapped of all the fur-bear- ers, and consequently is usually the earliest caught and shipped to market, but as a rule these early caught skins are poorly furred, weak in leather, and at times nearly worthless. Owing to the fact that it is a very warm blooded animal the skunk begins to shed its fur and hair early in the spring, as soon as the temperature moderately rises, and on this account late caught skins, as well as those taken too early, grade low in value. Supplies! The fur trade is dependent upon an exceptionally large number of industries for essential supplies ; the list comprises: Lumber, butter, oil, salt, coal, chalk, acid; the products of manufacturers in other branches, em- bracing, paper, twine, nails, silk, satin, wire, needles, shears, knives, metal and other combs, brushes, scales, hammers, barrels, cases of wood, paper boxes, chemicals, canvas, chamois, braids, muslin, feathers, cotton, linen and silk thread, buttons of various materials, rubber cement, artificial eyes, dye stuffs, saw dust, sewing ma- chines, fur dressing and dyeing machinery, steel traps — a few other things, and cold storage. The contribution of the fur trade to other lines of trade is exceedingly small — merely fur tails to the brush maker, waste clip- pings of fur to hatters' fur cutters, and shreds of pelts to glue manufacturers. 229 SOUTHWARD Mexico and Central America, blessed with sunny skies and southern breezes, are insignificant fur produc- ing and consuming countries. A few raccoon, small pale mink, wild cat and puma skins are collected, but all rate low in quality. Deer skins and alligator hides are secured in larger quantity, and are regularly shipped to the United States. Deer skins were exported from Nicaragua in 191 6 to the value of $42,214, practically all going to the United States to meet the demands of glovers. Many interesting animals abound in the Republic of Panama, the greater number of the species found there doubtless having traveled thither at a remote period from northern districts to escape pursuing enemies, but unsuccessfully, as pursued and pursuers are found hunt- ing and hunted in the same trackless and almost impene- trable forests. The fur bearers in Panama include the opossum, raccoon, jaguar, ocelot and panther; the first named is most abundant and differs most in size and appearance, some specimens being smaller than a guinea pig, and others equal in size to the largest northern specimens; peltries of the various species of fur-bearers are infer- ior to northern, the average temperature of Panama be- ing eighty degrees, and rarely six or eight degrees lower, at which temperature skins never become prime. 280 CANADA. In 1634 the population of Canada, other than na- tive Indians, was approximately sixty souls; during the twelve succeeding years colonies settled along the bor- der, and the number of white inhabitants increased to a total of about twelve thousand, and trading with the Indians began. This early fur trade in Canada was largely regulated by officials, and it is doubtless true that considerable favoritism was shown, some being allowed to trade with but slight restraints, and others being de- nied the privilege of dealing with the natives ; the trad- ing was conducted by barter, the methods and mediums of exchange differing but little, if any, from those in common practice farther south ; at the outset all trading was in the hands of French and English pioneers, the former leading in number and activity. From the year 1535, when France took possession of the wonderful northland, and more importantly since its cession to Great Britain in 1763, Canada has continuously been one of the greatest fur producing countries of the world. Pierre E. Radisson and Medard Chonart left France and went to Canada in 1654 and began trading for furs with the Indians near the St. Lawrence River ; in the season of 1658-9 they extended their operations 231 STARTING OFF AFTER NOON REST (Photo loaned by Revillon Freres Trading Co., Ltd.) farther westward with success; three years later they prosecuted the trade northward, and during this expedi- tion, which extended over many months, claimed to have visited what is now known as Hudson Bay, but the claim was not well substantiated. They continued their operations for several years, and consequently preceded the Hudson's Bay Company, by which they were subse- quently employed on very fair terms; they were, how- ever, rather unreliable, or at least were not dependable, as they left the Hudson's Bay Company and went over to the assistance of French rivals, and later returned to the English company. Practically all of the early years of the fur trade in Canada were marked by a decidedly fierce war of competition, at times threatening the ex- tinction of one side or the other ; forts built by the French and English trading companies changed hands again and again, until the really more reputable, and positive- ly most fair dealing of the several concerns gained con- trol and unquestionably the legal right to operate. In 1680-82 a war of competition prevailed between the fur traders at Albany, New York, and Quebec, Canada, in CANADA 283 the purchase of beaver skins, the English at the former post paying about thirty per cent, more than the French at Quebec — the traders at Quebec, considering the very low figures at which beaver pelts were then purchased, might have met the issue by paying the Albany price, but while it has always been an easy matter to cut wages, there does not seem to have been a time when reducing dividends was not viewed as a hardship. The rivalry continued, and Indians south and north of the border were for a long time in a state of real war, and it was not until after the peace of 1690 that an open market was established at Montreal ; in the following year vast sup- plies of Indian goods were carried to Montreal, and stocks at Albany were depleted. Montreal duly became the chief, if not the only market, the French being the dominant traders, and so remaining, until the capture of Quebec by the English in 1759, since which date all Canada has been under English rule. Peter Pond, an American, in 1775, traveled to the far north in Canada as a fur trader; in 1777 he ex- tended his trips to Deer River, thirty-eight miles be- yond Lake Athabaska, and during the following year FUR TRADING POST ISLE LA CROSSE LAKE (Photo loaned by Revlllon Trifm Trading Co., Ltd.) 234 CANADA erected a fort at that point ; it was the first fort built in that remote section and was named The Fur Emporium. In 1785 Peter Pond, Peter Pangman, Alexander N. McLeod and John Gregory, the latter two Montreal fur merchants, formed a rather strong company, and were successful traders with the Indians in the vicinity of Athabaska, along the Red and Saskatchewan Rivers, and other northern regions, and became strong competitors — fair and otherwise — of the Northwest Company, a powerful association organized by fur merchants of Montreal in 1783, the chief factors being Simon McTav- ish and Joseph and Benjamin Frobisher, with thirteen other stockholders. In 1 787 the new company of traders and their older rivals, the Northwest Company, united for peace and prosperity; the business of the combined concerns con- tinued to be managed at Montreal. A year later the trade of the associated companies amounted to about $200,000, and in 1798 had increased to about $600,000. In those days the * 'turn-over" required considerable time; receipts of supplies and their distribution to the Indians, and the forwarding and final sale of a season's collection of furs, usually consumed about three and one- half years. Lachine early became the point from which traders and voyageurs set out on their annual expeditions in quest of fur; they made their way northward in birch bark canoes on the Ottawa River, carrying supplies out- ward, and returning with cargoes of peltries — some of the canoes carried up to three thousand pounds. These voyageurs included French Canadians, half-breeds and Indians, all of whom were efficient canoemen. CANADA 235 Many organizations were set in motion from time to time to corner the fur trade of Canada, or kill compe- tition. Some of them were good, others were quite dif- ferent in many respects ; but only one association of early creation, or subsequent formation, has survived the stress peculiar to the industry from the date of organ- ization to the present time. The Northwest Company, a Canadian concern en- gaged in collecting raw furs in lower Canada, gradually extended its operations southward along the Rocky Mountains into United States territory, embracing a considerable portion of Oregon ; the company was eager to control the entire raw fur industry, and some of the members were not over particular regarding the means employed to gain their purpose. The competition in- dulged assumed the destructive character of war, not apparent but actual war, with its customary horrors, fears, losfe and death; this undesirable condition was terminated in 1821, in which year the Northwest Com- pany was absorbed by the Hudson's Bay Company. For many years after the final conquest of Quebec by the English, there was a marked decline in French par- ticipation in the raw fur trade in Canada either by large single interests or organizations. Ten years ago the French came back in one notable instance, the firm of Revillon Brothers entering the field in great earnestness and financial strength; they promptly built large ware- houses, established stores and trading posts in the newly settled provinces and the more remote, almost trackless, Northwestern wilds, and energetically began the collec- tion of black fox, beaver, lynx, marten, mink and other superfine skins, in steamship and carload lots — that is, FUR TRADING POST ON SLAVB LAKE (Pkoto loaned by Revillon Frires Trading Co.. Ltd.) quantities handled by only one other concern in the trade of the Dominion. In the House of Commons at Ottawa, Canada, May i6, 1906, the Private Bills Committee granted federal incorporation to Revillon Brothers ; the charter gave them exceptional powers, embracing the right to build railways to connect their trading posts; to operate vessels for transporting passengers and merchandise; construct telephone and telegraph lines; hold lands and exercise various hunting and fishing privileges. The Revillons are operating under this charter with gratifying results, but the title of the house was in 191 1 changed to Revillon Freres Trading Company, Limited. English and French, two great concerns imbued with sound business principles, are once more participating in the country dear to both because of interests and tra- ditions centuries old; both have grown wise with the waning of the years, and their operations instead of be- ing marred by destructive competition, grow apace un- 236 CANADA 287 der the rule of rational co-operation, not as enemies but as allies, sane and upright, and worthy of enduring suc- cess. We show elsewhere on an insert page in halftone, a photograph of York Factory, one of the more import- ant posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. Fur-bearers indigenous to the Dominion embrace many species, the annual catch of individual specimens extending to totals of six and seven figures — muskrat approximating 1,000,000, beaver 100,000, marten 70,- 000, foxes 30,000, and several others incredibly large numbers; the yearly collection, however, possesses su- perior interest on account of the quality rating, as the fur ranks at highest grade in color, density and excel- lence in detail, as a rule surpassing in quality the fur obtained from animals of the same species taken in other places, except northern and northeastern sections of the United States and other localities where equally low temperatures prevail during the winter months. INTERIOR OF A FUR TRADING STORE (Photo loaned by RevlUon Freres Trading Co., Ltd.) 288 CANADA For many years traders regularly secured their supplies of fine peltries almost exclusively from the In- dians, and though red men operating from mission and trading stations, upon which they are largely dependent, continue to procure valuable collections of desirable furs, much of the trapping and hunting is now done by white men, a small army, who spend the entire season at their traps in the older sections of the country or the wilds of the great northwest. For upwards of two hundred years this initial branch of the fur business was under the absolute rule of the Hudson's Bay Company, which established one trading post after another in a steady advance northward, and ever farther north to the con- fines of the Arctic Circle, employing a great number of Indians and, later, white men to trap and hunt, outfitting them in advance and equitably adjusting differences on their return with their catch at the end of the season. The peltries thus secured formed when finally brought WIFE OP A POST MANAGER VISITING OLD INDIANS (Photo loaned by Revillon Frirea Trading Co., Ltd.) CANADA . 239 together a grand total unequalled in volume for many decades, or until quite recently, when under the incen- tive of very high prices trapping in the United States became general from coast to coast and north to south ; the annual collection of the Hudson's Bay Company is still important in quantity and of maintained quality, and in one article in particular, beaver, has continuously exceeded the combined collections of all other concerns and individual traders. All skins secured by the Hudson's Bay Company are shipped to London where they are offered at public sale annually, beaver and muquash in January, and all other articles in March. The European war seriously restricted the opera- tions of trappers, traders and every one concerned in the fur business throughout Canada, dating from the be- ginning of the season of 1914. Canada is important both as a fur-producing and consuming country ; owing to the length and severity of the winters fur coats, wraps and smaller articles are quite generally worn by men, women and children on account of the comfort afforded, and the further fact that they are pre-eminently fashionable. Domestic and foreign furs are worn, the former predominating. The principal manufacturing establishments, wholesale and retail, are located in Montreal, Toronto and Quebec, but there are furriers in every city from the border north- ward to Edmonton. 0tttv The otter has a furry coat of remarkable beauty and durability; the species inhabiting the river sections of Canada, the country of largest collection, has a long flexible body, twenty or more inches in length, short limbs, webbed feet, and a tail, twelve to fifteen inches in length, covered with short fur; the color is a pleasing chestnut brown, darkest down the spine, mixed with whitish gray on the under portion of the body ; the long water-hairs are very glossy. Fur of the otter is used in the natural state, or plucked and unhaired is made up natural or dyed brown or black; it is particularly well adapted for making jackets, capes, collars, caps and gloves, and for border- ing elegant garments made of other furs, or costly textiles. Some skins, noticeably those from Nova Scotia, and occasionally others, are very dark, nearly black, and incomparably luxurious and beautiful made up natural. 240 OTTER 241 For many years the catch in Canada ranged between fifteen and twenty thousand skins, not falling below the smaller number, and rarely exceeding the greater by more than two hundred skins ; in recent years the catch has greatly decreased, and at no distant date will touch zero. iHarten The pine marten frequents the wooded districts of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific; but chiefly in localities in which the pine tree flourishes; this choice of habitat is due to the fact that the animal secures its chief food supply, squirrels, birds and birds' eggs, in the branches of these evergreen trees. Marten skins of good quality are obtained in Alaska and northwestern sections of the United States, but the best specimens, both in depth of color and density of fur, are found in the Hudson's Bay districts ; the fur is a dark, handsome brown, approaching black, darker on the back and sides than on the under portion of the body; the tail, which is about ten inches in length, is MARTEN 242 MARTEN black and fully furred. The color, however, is not the same in all specimens, many being a light shade of brown on the back and sides, and yellow on the throat and under portions. Owing to these differences in color the skins are graded as "dark" or "pale"; dark skins as a rule command the higher price, but in the case of the marten this rule has its exceptions, pale skins at times being the more valuable on account of greater fashionable demand. Marten is one of the few really handsome furs subject to extreme fluctuations in value in consequence of the favor or neglect of fickle fashion. The fur is used in making superb coats, capes, sets and trimmings ; it is generally popular in Europe. Hudson's Bay sable is the name quite commonly given to marten fur in the manufactured state ; not being an imitation or a poor fur, it would unquestionably give entire satisfaction to every consumer if sold simply, and correctly, as marten, LYNX The lynx, once quite common throughout the world. LYNX 243 has become extinct in many places, and is evidently mak- ing its last stand in force in the wilder sections of Can- ada, with a trail through the Yukon and terminating in Alaska. The Canadian lynx, called Loupcervier by the Can- adians, is a powerful animal some three feet in length; has a rather thin or slight body, long stout limbs, short tail black at the tip, long and sharply pointed ears. In winter the fur is dark grey on the back, reddish grey on the sides, lighter on the under parts, and more or less diffusely marked with spots and dashes of black and brown. Skins of superior quality are obtained in the Hudson's Bay district; the collection varies materially in quantity, and the price of raw skins has shown marked changes, from three to thirty-five dollars, touch- ing the latter figure when the demand, though not at the time really great, exceeded the supply. Lynx fur, which is long, soft and dense, is a superb article when dyed a rich, deep lustrous black ; it is also effective dyed dark brown, and meets with considerable favor made up natural, either in stoles, collars, capes, muffs or trim- mings. It is also used natural for these various purposes, but is most popular when dyed black. Jfisfier Rash speculation in everything furry, beginning mildly about 1905 and senselessly increased annually until checked by war in 19 14, in carrying the price of all peltries well above "top notch" figures is justly chargeable with effecting the approximate extermination of fur-bearers of highest intrinsic value, including the fisher, and the slaughter of the innocents would doubt- less have run on to the finish if several million men had not found in killing each other a freer field for the exercise of their savage instincts. The fisher, also called black cat and pekan, is the largest member of the marten or sable family, and is found in Canada, the Lake Superior region, northern part of New York State, and occasionally in Pennsyl- vania and a little farther south; specimens obtained in Canada during the proper season are very fine, being fully furred and of good color ; the animal has a rather slender body, long head terminating in a pointed muzzle, short limbs, and long tail quite furry at the base ; the fur is dense, but shorter than that of the marten. Con- siderable variations are noticeable in the soft fur of the fisher, the general hue being blackish, with a greyish tinge on head and shoulders; some specimens are dark brown on the back and dingy grey on the sides ; others are a paler shade of brown, and a few show a white spot 244 FISHER 245 on the throat. Canadian skins rank highest in value, and of these exceptionally fine specimens are caught in the Moose River district. The fur of the fisher is occasionally in fashion in Paris and America, but the bulk of the collection has usually been marketed in Russia ; it is used in making costly robes, fine neckwear, handsome trimmings, and ladies' hats. It is made up natural. Fisher-tail trimming has at times been popular in Paris. Fisher frequents a very limited range in the Adiron- dacks, N. Y., making its home in the rocky, mountainous, and lake regions, chiefly in Hamilton County, and mod- erately in the eastern section of Herkimer County, and bordering southern parts of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties. A comparatively small number are obtained on the Pacific coast; these rate considerably lower in price. Fashion determines the value, or rather the price. In the winter of 1906 when fisher was only moderately fashionable, dark raw skins brought $6.00 to $10.00; in 1 910 increasing favor caused the price to advance to $10.00 to $15.00, and in 191 3 a strong fashionable demand carried the raw skins to extreme figures, from $25.00 to $50.00. At the end of 19 16 the price was $25.00 to $30.00. BADGER Badger, a mottled grey fur, is obtained annually in moderate quantity, is pleasing in appearance, service- able, and low in price. It is adapted to various uses, and either natural or dyed makes good neck pieces, muffs, linings and an effective trimming. Skins of the badger are sometimes used for covering trunks. Dressed pelts are impervious to water. Coats for automobilists and aviators may be made of badger skins, and will be found protective and dur- able. 246 WoMvint ELL.USTRATED BELOW Though the wolverine is quite common to Europe and Siberia, it survives in greatest numbers in Canada; in appearance it resembles a young bear, but is much more ferocious and voracious, the latter characteristic having earned for it the name of glutton. The wolverine varies in length from thirty-six to forty-eight inches, including the tail which is covered with fur and an abundance of long, pendant hairs; in winter the short fur is almost a true black, but at other seasons is brown- ish-black on the back and rather reddish-brown on the sides; the muzzle and paws are a clear black. Though the annual collection is small the fur is popular at times as a novelty; it is serviceable at all times, and is made 247 248 WOLVERINE Up natural as a trimming, neck pieces, muffs, and excep- tionally handsome carriage robes. Esquimaux use pieces of wolverine fur, when they can get it, to ornament their rather plain and peculiar fur garments. The wolverine is a fierce and forever hungry enemy of other fur-bearers, and in the course of the year de- vours many beavers and muskrats, its preferred food, catching them in the open and digging them out of their houses, and on account of this wasteful habit trappers would gladly witness the death of the last member of the tribe. The wolverine has strong, sharp snowy-white claws which are highly prized as trophies by Indian captors of the savage creature. By keeping well within the bounds of its only dis- covered habitat, secluded, hilly and rocky districts of limited area in extreme northern sections of North America and the Hudson's Bay Country, the musk ox has survived to the present time, but is found only in small herds of from half a dozen to thirty individuals; it is a heavily built, broad-backed animal, thirty to forty inches in height, having horns, rather large in circum- ference, radiating from the center of the forehead out- ward to the sides of the head, then downward and thence upward to the tips. The general color of the male is brown, usually quite dark; the female is much darker, or nearly black; the hair on the neck and between the shoulders is long, and on the sides of very great length, MUSK OX MUSK OX HEAD reaching nearly to the ground; the under fur is soft, and greyish in color. The small annual collection usually sells readily; it is one of the few articles that has advanced one hundred per cent at a single sale in London. The fur of the musk ox is made up natural, and is quite attractive. Three hundred and twenty skins were obtained in Canada in 191 5. ts^isSiiMiSB^iiS:^ii^\Ss$iSSfiS^ POXES Foxes abound everywhere, but whether their sur- vival in present large numbers is due to their proverbial cunning, or exceptional proficiency in procuring neces- sary food, remains to be determined by naturalists after mature deliberation a few centuries hence. Foxes, though showing no difference in form, vary more pronouncedly in size and color than any other animal, not excepting man, who is numerically next as a varient in both particulars; but for o' a that, extending the comparison, a fox is a fox the world over, a fact which sometimes leads to trouble in the trade, as, for instance, when best red fox skins in the raw are rated at five dollars each trapper thinks the fox skin he caught, being a fox, should rank in the five-dollar grade. In size foxes vary from eight to forty-two inches in length from tip to tip, and from six to sixteen inches in height; the caudal appendage, ranging up to fifteen inches in length is a showy "tip," being extremely bushy or well furred, always showy whether adorning its owner by birth or purchase, or as the "brush," or trophy, of the red-coated huntsman first in at the kill — ^by hounds. Foxes inhabiting very cold districts have coats of long, dense, downy fur and over-hair of exquisite fineness and beauty, and in instances of great value, the price 250 FOXES 251 being graded according to the color, quality, and size of each pelt, in the order here given ; all of the very valuable classes are found in Canada, and on that account are noted in this section. Black Fox. The black fox is found in Siberia, vicinity of Hudson's Bay, Alaska, and in rare instances at other places ; only a few skins are procured annually, and these command high prices; the fur is very soft, glossy and abundant, and is a rich black on all parts of the animal except the tip of the tail, which is pure white. Silver Fox. The silver fox ranks next in value to the pure black, and is more numerous; fine specimens are procured in Canada, Alaska, Greenland and occa- sionally in the United States near the Canadian border ; the fur is mainly black interspersed with white on parts of the body, chiefly on the back near the shoulders and rump ; these white hairs vary in quantity, in some speci- mens being scattered and moderate in amount, and in others appearing in splashes and patches of considerable size. Blue Fox. The color of the fine, soft fur of the blue fox is not a distinct blue, but is a smoky hue, or a whitish-brown on the surface; the under fur, however, RED FOX shows a bluish tinge. The blue fox is found in Yukon Territory, on the mainland and islands of Alaska, in Greenland and Iceland; the annual collection is not large ; at times when the article is in fashionable request, imitations are freely produced in dyed skins of lower cost. Cross Fox. This specimen, which is of good size, is handsomely marked, and its name is due to a dark transverse stripe over the shoulders, which is particu- larly effective when the fur is made up into a large muff. As a whole the fur is irregular in color, being in part grey, brown, sandy and nearly black; these tones vary in depth in individual specimens. The animal is found in Canada, northern New York, Michigan and Wis- consin; the annual collection, from three to seven thou- sand, is comparatively small. White Fox. The white or Arctic fox has a delicate and very beautiful coat of white fur in the winter months only, its fur in summer being a dull brown or bluish- grey. The white fox, like the Esquimau, thrives best in cold latitudes, and the annual supply of skins is procured 252 FOXES 253 in Greenland, Iceland, Siberia and extreme northern sections of North America. White fox is either in strong demand or is almost totally neglected, and with unexampled frequency has advanced or declined one hundred per cent in the London sales; the small collec- tion, however, regularly passes into consumption, dyed skins serving as excellent imitations of black or blue fox. Red Fox. Skins of the red fox are marketed each year in greater number than those of any other color or name; this member of the fox family abounds from Pennsylvania to Canada and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Missouri River, and as many as eighty thousand have been trapped and shot in a single season — and probably the full total was not entered upon the mortality list. The general color is reddish-yellow on the upper portion of the body with greyish effect upon the back, white on the stomach and tip of tail, and black on feet and tail; some are a clear sandy red and white, and others yellow and white, on the portions of the body as specified under the general color. Fur of the red fox is almost always universally popular. Grey Fox. Compared with the preceding members of the race the grey fox is noticeably inferior in fine- ness and color of fur ; at times the pelt is too low in price to be worth the work incidental to trapping even when the animal persists in getting into a trap set and baited for a different creature. The grey fox is found, next in number to the red, in every part of the United States including the extreme south, across the border in Mexico, and to a very limited extent in Canada. The prevailing color of the fur is grey varied with black, sides grey mixed with reddish-yellow, throat white, and 264 FOXES tail, a fair "brush," greyish-black; many of the longer hairs are black with the exception of a single dash of white at about a quarter of an inch from the tip. Kitt, or Swift Fox. This specimen is the plebian member of the fox family in North America, being least in size and value ; the head is short and broad, legs and ears long, and tail bushy terminating in a black tip ; tiie predominant color of the fur is yellowish-grey, darkest down the spine, lighter or pale reddish-yellow on the sides, and nearly white on the under portion of the body. Yellow Fox. The Fennec, a very small yellow furred fox, is found in parts of Africa. Red foxes, not the same as the American, abound in Australia, and other foxes in sundry sizes and colors frequent the snowy wastes and flowery fields from Pole to Pole, every continent and country, populous or desert. Fox fur is continuously popular somewhere, natural and dyed, for making neck pieces, linings, muffs, carriage robes and floor rugs; though not durable, it is generally "worth the price" on account of its luxurious appearance. .C3 The Hudson's Bay Company was organized by Englishmen of wealth in 1668- 1669, including Prince Rupert, Duke of Albemarle, Duke of York, Earl of Arlington, Earl of Craven and several baronets and knights, altogether eighteen stockholders ; it is of record that King Charles was also a stockholder to the extent of three hundred pounds, but whether he paid in that amount is in doubt, though we think he did — it is certain that he accepted dividends on the amount stated. In May, 1670, under the leadership of Prince Rupert, the organization was granted a charter of in- corporation by Charles II., of England, the title being: "The Governor and Company of Adventurers of Eng- land Trading Into Hudson Bay"; instead of this long title, the name commonly used has been: "Hudson's Bay Company"; the king's interest mentioned in the grant was "two elk and two black beavers" annually, but 255 266 HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY he seems to have been well pleased with an hundred and fifty guineas on his unmentioned stock. The motto of the Hudson's Bay Company is : "Pro Pelle Cutem," skin for skin; the coat-of-arms shows four beavers, and the cable address, "to this day," is "Beaver." The charter authorized the Company to carry on the fur trade and conduct a general business with the Indians at Hudson Bay and Victoria ; the initial capital of the Company was £8,420; the territory controlled exceeded an area of three million square miles ; this large grant of land was subsequently increased. For convenience of administration, collection of peltries, and protection against white and red opponents, the company erected a number of forts, trading posts, and spacious warehouses ; the territory was divided into a number of departments, embracing at one period or another posts as follows : Northern Department, twenty- six posts; Southern Department, twenty-eight posts; Columbia Department, sixteen posts ; and Montreal De- partment, thirty posts; the head office for Canada T^as and is in the last named department, and city of the same name. The operating force for each of the several depart- ments embraces the chief factors, chief traders, clerks, apprentice clerks, interpretors, laborers; a number of voyageurs and Indian trappers are retained, and an army of trappers, white and red, carry their season's catch of peltries to the posts for barter or sale. These trappers, when the transaction is by barter, are given pieces of wood of peculiar form, one piece of wood for each skin delivered ; these pieces of wood may be exchanged at the gorfe Jfactorp, an important l^ubjson'K J3ap Companp l^oit Wtite 3^accoon HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 267 department of supplies in the post for blankets, guns, knives, powder, shot, small mirrors, coats, nets, tobacco, and any other articles needed. For many years beaver skins were the standard of exchange on the basis appended : I beaver skin for one pound of tobacco. 1 beaver skin for one pound of glass beads. 2 beaver skins for one pound of powder. ,;^ j lo beaver skins for one gun. York Factory, on Hudson Bay, between Hayes and Nelson Rivers, very close to the former and somewhat more than two miles south of the latter stream, was originally built of logs, laid one upon another ; later re- built of stone. The fort was provided with a number of cannon, nine and twelve pounders, for defense against hostile natives and white marauders. The Indians brought their furs down Nelson River to a point near its mouth, and then carried them to the fort. Men stationed at the fort included the chief factor, second factor, surgeon, the trader, clerks, mechanics and laborers ; working hours were from 8 A. M. to 4 P. M. in winter, and from 6 o'clock in the morning to 6 o'clock in the evening in summer. The importance of York Factory is shown by the greater volume of the annual collection as compared with other posts. A few comparisons in the offerings for 1 91 6 will prove of interest, though the total collec- tion for that year, owing to conditions arising out of the war, were small in comparison with preceding years — in 191 3, the year before the war the total collection of the Hudson's Bay Company, from all posts, included : beaver 258 HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 37,553, musquash 851,156, fisher 1,952, silver fox 487, lynx 14,960. At their October, 19 16, sales the Hudson's Bay Company offered the following skins : Beaver — the total collection was 10,690, of which 5,816 were York Fac- tory, 2,164 Northwest, 1,342 Canada, 202 Mackenzie River, 76 Esquimaux Bay; prices ranged from 9 to 50 shillings. Musquash, total 127,087 skins, of which 107,- 674 were York Factory. Fisher, total 1,750, of which 829 were York Factory. Lynx, total offering 6,508, of which 4,387 were York Factory; three specimen skins brought 65 shillings each, the others sold for 14 to 48 shillings. Silver fox, total 251 skins, all York Factory; sold up to £110. The territory under the rule of the Hudson's Bay Company embraced a very considerable section of north- western America, extending from 49° to 70** north, and from Cape Charles, Labrador, to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, an area of nearly three million square miles, a princely domain indeed, and which was ma- terially enlarged in 1774 by the company extending its outposts to Sturgeon Lake. Fur-bearing animals of rare beauty abounded in every part of this wide wild range of country. In 1 83 1 the company was granted a new charter conferring increased rights and privileges, and exclusive authority in conducting their trade, furnishing supplies to and obtaining furs from the natives and others, for a term of twenty-one years from May 20, 1838, in North- western British territory not embraced in the original charter ; and in addition to this important acquisition to its trapping grounds the company leased all of Russian HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 259 America south of 58° north latitude for a period of twen- ty years from 1840 at an annual rental of two thousand otter skins. A little later the company endeavored to have Great Britain purchase Russian America, now Alaska, generously agreeing to repay to the government the entire purchase price with interest to date of settle- ment in return for the exclusive privilege of taking furs in the acquired territory. England let the bargain slip, and the Hudson's Bay Company ceased to operate subse- quent to the purchase of the country by the United States in 1867. In 1855 ^^^ company's capital stock of two million dollars returned a profit of about six per centum; for some time past dividends, except when augmented through land sales, have not been large, profits on furs being smaller than in the earlier centuries when native trappers bartered skins for general supplies in very lim- ited knowledge of the value of either. The capital stock of the company has been sold as high as four hundred per cent premium, but none has been offered in open market in many years. Since the expiration of the last charter of the Hud- son's Bay Company in 1859, the entire country has been open to all; in 1870, exactly two hundred years subse- quent to the organization of the concern, the Hudson's Bay territory was ceded to Canada, and is now divided into four great provinces. The company still owns a few square miles of good land in the newer provinces; and, though its fur trade is steadily shrinking, conducts a growing business in general merchandise. The first sale of the Hudson's Bay Company was held in London in 168 1 and was a pronounced success. 260 HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY and was regarded by all in interest as a g^eat event. The first dividend was distributed three years later, and was a fifty per cent divide; another fifty per cent divi- dend was declared in 1688, and a twenty-five per cent dividend in the following year, and also in 1690. Divi- dends have been smaller in recent years — but from 1684 to 191 6 is a long dividend paying period. To those best acquainted with the continuously sound and successful organization it is known as the Honorable Hudson's Bay Company, a title bestowed, not because of incompar- able achievements in trade, or science, or war, but freely accorded as comprehensively expressive of character. ^etofounblanb A moderate number of fur bearing animals are found in rugged Newfoundland, an island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; the fur-bearers include the mink, marten, otter and fox. The tendency is steadily toward a de- crease in number, with no prospect of an increase except by breeding in captivity. St. Johns, which is one of the oldest cities on the con- tinent, and which is today only moderately modern, is the center of trade. Fishing is the great industry, and some of the fishing vessels sailing farthest north bring in collections of peltries from time to time ; these skins are marketed at St. Johns, but a considerable number are sold singly or in small lots at big prices to interested tourists. Sturdy and remarkably capable mariners annually visit the coast of Labrador in quest of young hair seals, which are born in vast numbers on the great ice fields NEWFOUNDLAND 261 in March of each year ; these newly born seals are caught when only twelve to twenty days old, and before they have entered the water for the first time in their experi- ence. The hunters sail mainly from St. Johns, and under favorable conditions have returned with forty thousand seal skins as the catch of the crew of a single vessel, and upwards of a total of three hundred thousand skins as the fleets' harvest in a single season. The young hair seal is chiefly valued for the large amount of excellent lubricating oil obtained from the animal; the hide is also utilized in the production of leather and occasionally and to a limited extent in near- fur garments and minor novelties. Hair seals are widely distributed, being found at the Poles, in all oceans, upon the shores of the several continents and many islands, being nearly ubiquitous, in which particular they are surpassed only by the fox. They abound in greatest numbers, at certain seasons, off the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland, Greenland and Iceland, and at times are extremely numerous in the vicinity of the South Pole; they evidently circumnavi- gate the globe, pursue regular orbits, and may be classed as comets among animals, with mother earth instead of the sun as a center, certain islands as their zodiacal signs, and appetite as the constant revolutional force. Hair seals differ considerably in appearance and are on that account known by several names, such as harp seal, black-sided seal, blue-sided seal, hooded seal, and common harbor seal. The harp seal has a large mark in contrasting black and white hairs on the shoul- ders resembling a harp in form; the hooded seal has large folds of skin on the back of the neck which the animal inflates when attacked making it serve as a hood to protect the head ; blue backs, are young hooded seals, and bedlamers are males under one year old, at which age the harp-shaped mark appears ; the other names re- late either to the appearance or habits of the animals, noticeably leopard, crested and jumping seal; all differ from the fur seal, importantly in consequence of the fact that their coats consist wholly of hair, and have no par- ticular interest for furriers except that occasionally skins are dyed black as an odd trimming. The oil is the component of greatest value, the skin being chiefly used in the manufacture of patent leather. When born, and for a period of about two months, 262 HAIR . SEALS 263 all hair seals have coats of long woolly hair, which is uni- formerly white, and on that account are known as white coats ; the skins of these young seals are at times in mod- erate demand in the fur trade. Approximately one million hair seal skins are marketed annually, the largest single collection being obtained by the experienced seal- ers of St. Johns, Newfoundland, operating off the coast of that country and Labrador. The sealers of St. Johns made their first catch of hair seals in 1763, at which time they went out in a few- small sailing vessels, or fishing boats, to effect the cap- ture of some of the animals observed off the shore of northeastern Newfoundland and Labrador; the initial catch was small, and for some years did not exceed from three to four thousand skins per season ; the number was gradually increased as the demand for oil and skins de- veloped, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century the annual catch exceeded sixty thousand skins; larger and larger vessels were built, up to forty tons burthen each, and these were later largely superseded by fast steamers, twenty-six fine vessels with an aggregate ca- pacity of ten thousand tons ; some sailing vessels are still engaged in sealing, but for a long term the steamers have taken about five-sixths of the yearly collection of skins. The hair seals are born, about the first of March, on the ice which lies off the coast in vast fields, many square miles in extent ; more than a million old seals con- gregate upon these ice fields late in February, presenting a wonderful scene of life and incessant activity. The young seals, which constitute the greater part of the an- nual catch require from twelve to fifteen days for de- 264 HAIR SEALS velopment warranting profitable capture; at the end of about three weeks they leave the ice, and after they have entered the water cannot be caught. For many years in succession the sealers set out early, arriving at the ice fields simultaneously with the female seals, but as they indiscriminately killed both old and young, the leg- islature of Newfoundland regulated the departure of all fleets, sailing vessels not being allowed to leave St. Johns until the first and steamers the tenth day of March. As the vessels arrive at the hunting grounds the men, who carry heavy clubs, scalping knives and towing lines, go at once upon the ice and the slaughter begins ; the hunter first, using his club, strikes the young seal a stunning blow across the nose, then cuts the skin open along the abdomen from head to tail, and by a quick motion detaches the skin and adhering blubber, or fat, from the flesh, and deftly turning it into a roll leaves it upon the ice, and passes on to the next killing; when six or eight seals have been killed the rolled pelts are attached to the towing line and drawn off to the ves- sel — if allowed to lie too long a time, the skins and fat would become frozen fast to the heavy ice. Young seals, fifteen to twenty days old, weigh about forty pounds, and have a protective covering of fat three inches in thickness, between the flesh and the skin ; this fat is tried into oil at St. Johns as a lubricant of gen- eral utility and considerable aggregate value — approxi- mating a million dollars in a successful season; the skins are pickled and sent to England and France to be tanned, the finished product being used in Europe in the manufacture of ladies' shoes, pocketbooks, book bind- ings and other small articles. The owner of a vessel HAIR SEALS 265 pays all charges for outfit and maintenance, and salary to the captain, whether the expedition meets with suc- cess or failure; owner and crew share the proceeds of the catch, the former taking two-thirds, and the balance being equally divided among the members of the crew. Sailing on the ice fields off the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador does not invariably result profitably, is always attended with danger, and not infrequently with great suffering and loss of human life; at times the floating ice moves to and fro in impenetrable masses making it impossible for the sealers to reach the solid ice fields until after the young seals have entered the water, in which circumstance the season proves a total loss; crews on the main ice are at times similarly prevented from returning to their vessels, and in consequence suf- fer severely on account of the extreme cold, and in in- stances perish ; and in some seasons some of the sailing vessels and steamers are crushed and lost in the heavy pack ice. The slaughter of the young hair seals is cruel, and develops in the sailors a degree of heartlessness exceeding that experienced even on the field of battle; the fearful extent to which the killing is carried is shown by the record — a single vessel has taken into St. Johns a catch of forty-two thousand young and old seals, and a total of nearly seven hundred thousand have been slaughtered by the entire fleet in a single season. Russian hunters annually capture several thousand harp seals off the eastern shores of the White Sea, which are frequented by large herds of seals of this class in February and March; the seals are pursued in small boats as they are carried along the coast on the ice floes, and are captured in the same manner as at Newfound- HAIR SEALS land. Sealing fleets are regularly sent to the Arctic Sea from various ports of Sweden, Denmark and Norway. Skins of the young seals are occasionally used in the fur trade, and are known, the skins, as wool seal ; they may be used in making sets and trimmings. BREEDING IN CAPTIVITY Wild fur-bearing animals are steadily going the "way of all the earth" to give place to the more rapid and seemingly limitless increase of the human species; and as the response to the call, "back to the land," be- comes more general, as it surely will, our furry friends will swiftly join the "great majority"; the carnivora will pass first, the bear, deer and other large animals will closely follow, and those that can continue to find life sustaining sustenance in proximity to man will lin- ger latest, but in ever decreasing numbers to a minimum devoid of commercial interest. Wild fur-bearers are already practically extinct in China except the central and extreme northern districts where the character of the soil renders its cultivation im- BREEDING IN CAPTIVITY 267 practicable; in the more populous countries of Europe comparatively few fur-bearers remain to the present time; in the new world the same condition is being has- tened by increasing occupation of the soil, destruction of forests, drainage of low lands, the wanton slaughter ef- fected by professional and amateur sportsmen, trappers and pot hunters, and, all importantly, the almost univer- sal consumption of furs, the demands regularly exceed- ing the supply. This demand will continue so long as it can be met, and it can only be supplied in the near future, other than to the satisfaction of an exclusive few, by breeding fur- bearing animals in captivity; this is now being done in a small way and with a degree of success warranting the material extension of the industry. Millions of dollars have been invested in breeding foxes, particularly blacks, in Prince Edward Island, other parts of Canada, Alaska, and some places in the United States, but to date the industry instead of being conducted on the basis of the fur value, has been pro- moted as something very like a "get rich quick" enter- prise depending upon the sale of the live animals at in- ordinately high figures to hopeful breeders; this spec- ulative craze will ultimately, and not remotely, give place to better reasons for fox breeding, and the ac- quired experience in raising the animals for stock divi- dends will be of very great value when the foxes are bred for fur — the saner purpose. Other breeders in the United States are raising skunk, mink, opossum, rac- coon and muskrat for their pelts, and the industry is destined to expand and become the source of future supply. $elt TBimtmiom Members of the various species and families of fur- bearers vary in size as they grow, owing to differences in food supply and conditions of environment; the sizes given in mentioning the several animals refer to full grown specimens, but as very many never reach that state the skins received in the markets show extreme variations in dimensions, the failure of a g^eat number to attain full development being due to the fact that the aged and half-grown and the youngsters found their curious way into the traps, perished in the experience, and were shipped to town at the market price — all things considered. We append the dimensions of a number of dressed, or both dressed and dyed skins, the proportions in which manufacturers are most interested, and which determine the number of pieces and cost of his output ; some skins exceed the dimensions given, others are neither so long or so broad, but the measurements express a fair aver- age: Northern mink, 14x9 inches; Southern, 10x7 inches. Mink, central sections, 15 to 24x5 to 6 inches. Civet cat, 14x6 inches, open. Badger^ 25x15 inches. Marten, 20x4 inches, cased. Ermine, 12x2 inches, cased. Raccoon, northern, 27x15 inches; dressed skin is irregular in width. Siberian squirrel, 10x5 inches, open. Nutria, 15 to 21x12 to 15, broadest across the hind 268 DIMENSIONS 269 quarters, and comparatively narrow across the shoul- ders. Cross fox, 35x7 inches, cased; others much smaller. Fisher, 25x5 inches, cased. Otter, 35x5 inches, cased; both slightly larger and smaller get into the traps. Fitch, 19x25^ inches, cased. Lynx, 30 to 36x10 inches, open. Wallaby, about 20x10 inches. Skunk, skins of the American skunk vary so greatly in both dimensions, that it is impossible to state anything like a fair average. Mink, fox, weasel, marten and similar skins vary considerably in length, but do not differ materially in width. Japanese marten, dressed open, 24 by 6 inches. PVBIilC (iAI^E, AT TB> liOBdon CoiBBaereial Sale Rooms, HUneing LaiOf OM Wednesday, Thursday, Friday & fflonday AIJ6UST 25th, 26tli, Zlih k 30th, 1$5$, At ^K*m3W o'clock precisely. THE FOLLOWING GOODS, m.— 227,869 28»217 610 122 2740 122 2294 2959 3857 696 Raccoon •/ - F(« Red;*:^^ „ Crds/:-'*^- M Sliver ^- Otter X-^'^- „ Sea -/- Fisher/'^- ^' - 34 Bear ^-/'^^^ - Beaver/^j^- Wolf ./.^/X 2 19 so 32 47 50 5740 34,929 238,154 24,533 1383 3777 14,984 13,848 8323 6805 [artm/'-.'^-l'Br [ink -/-^X 61 Martin Mink -/^. Musqnash-/;;4 33 Black ^^ JUynx --^'^468 Cat Ccmnon-, 7} Fox Grey - - 78 74 Kitt .^.'' And SUNDRY FURS - Skunk - m/» 7« Oppossnin* -^-T 7e - Page 77 THK CATALOGUK MEASURES 6% x 15 INCHES, AND THE LOWER HALF. PRINTED IN SMALL TYPE WOULD BE ILLEG- IBLE REDUCED TO SIZE OF THIS PAGE. ANCIENT CATALOGUE We reproduce in part the front page of the cata- logue of Messrs. C. M. Lampson & Company's sale of 270 ANCIENT CATALOGUE 271 August 25-30, 1858, which is interesting on account of the offerings, printed figures; and the average per skin realized, written figures. The collection of 227,cxx) rac- coon will cause many to marvel, doubly so when they learn that 21 1,207 raccoon skins were offered in January of the same year ; while the number of skins is high, the average price of three shillings is low. The entire col- lection, 227,869 raccoon skins, brought £34,024.13.2. We are indebted to the estate of the late N. F. Monjo, who was with G. Franchere in 1858, for the privilege of reproducing the catalogue preserved by him among carefully kept records of trade interest. Movxii Jf. ^faeljer Morris F. Pfaelzer was born in Hemsbach, Baden, on March 2, 1871, and came to New York, May 10, 1893, a panic year, and consequently not a particularly favorable time for entering upon a business career in a strange land; but it has always been true that he who makes his opportunity succeeds more definitely and permanently than the one who idly and hopefully awaits the incoming of the ship which never sails because of contrary winds. Mr. Pfaelzer shortly after his arrival in the Metropolis actively engaged in the raw fur industry, and became intently interested in its various phases, and on February 10, 1908, he established a busi- ness of his own under style: M. F. Pfaelzer & Company, at 3 East Twelfth Street, dealing in raw, dressed and dyed furs; it was a moderate beginning, in a year of general business depression, but was backed by ex- perience, energy and a determination to succeed, rather than large means; the business did not grow by "leaps and bounds," but it surely increased "line upon line," and the end of the first year showed satisfactory prog- ress, all conditions considered, and somewhat larger premises were taken at No. 6 East Twelfth Street. The business of the succeeding years was marked by a fairly steady increase, particularly in the raw fur department, shipments of peltries being received from practically all parts of the United States and Canada; the furs thus received were marketed in New York, other manufacturing centers, and in large part were exported to Europe. On February i, 191 3, Mr. Pfaelzer leased his pres- S7S iHorrisi jf. J^fael^er MORRIS F. PFAELZER 273 ent premises, 115 West Twenty-ninth Street, where he has achieved continuously increasing success. As the outcome of close application to details, Mr. Pfaelzer has acquired a comprehensive knowledge of furs and fur values; local, national and international methods prevailing in the trade; has built up a sound and safe business, and enjoys the confidence and good will of a large number of fur shippers in all sections of America and leading fur merchants at home and abroad. Mr. Pfaelzer, even as the multitude, is in business to gain the financial rewards due to intelligent enterprise and patient industry ; but it is quite certain that he does not regard that result as the utmost worth while, or altogether as best; none can fail to note that he is in a remarkable degree public spirited, broad minded, pro- gressive and more than ordinarily interested in the wel- fare and commercial standing of the fur trade, not only in his own city, but in its entirety. In 1914, when condi- tions in the trade required definite and decisive regula- tion, Mr. Pfaelzer was the first to take up the matter, give it serious and studied attention, and do all in his power to bring about the organization of the Raw Fur Merchants' Association of New York, which has proved of extreme value to the sustained life of the raw fur business of the Empire City. Mr. Pfaelzer has always been ready and prompt to participate to the extent of his means and ability in every movement intelligently designed to advance the good repute of the trade, and maintain it distinctly at the front of the foremost rank of mercantile and com- mercial bodies in America. jFur iWercfjantg, to tDf)om iionorable mention isi |U£(tlp actorbeb THOMAS W. ADAMS & COMPANY Hennessy, Adams & Company, established in han- dling raw furs and ginseng in 1893 at 147 Spring Street, New York. The style of the firm was changed to T. W. Adams & Company, in November, 1895, ^^^ ^^s so con- tinued to the present time, enjoying from the first a perfect record for honorable dealing. The firm has re- lations with large and small shippers throughout Amer- ica, and leading foreign merchants. The business was removed to the present location, 89 Mercer Street, Feb- ruary I, 1890. T. W. Adams retired July i, 1909, and the business was continued without change of name by Richard Auerbach, who was conversant with all depart- ments of the trade. Mr. Auerbach was killed by a subway train at the Eighteenth Street station on the evening of June 16, 19 10. Mr. T. W. Adams at once returned to the business, and still continues it. BAYER BROTHERS Bayer Brothers established in the raw fur business in 1890, opening in commodious and very desirable prem- ises at 285-287 Water Street; and from that date to the present time their mercantile and commercial transac- tions have been guided and governed by the highest principles of honor, and consequently have shown a pro- nounced and continuous increase, attaining a degree of 274 FUR MERCHANTS 875 importance of which any house might well be proud. The firm receives raw furs of every description, from choice silver fox to moderate cost musquash, and from the far north to southern sections, enabling them to meet the known and exceptional demands of the domestic trade and foreign markets. In addition to raw furs the firm handles alligator skins, and for some years past have been the largest American dealers in hides of this class; their supplies are secured direct from first hands in the South, Mexico and Central America. Adolph Bayer of the firm died November 20, 19 13. The business continues without change of name or pol- icy. HENRY BENNET Henry Bennet has been actively and prominently identified with the fur trade on both sides of the Atlan- tic for nearly forty years, during which time he has ac- quired a large fund of information regarding the fur business and the men, past and present, connected with it. From January, 1 881, to December, 1888, he was with Edward J. King's Sons, and on the first of the following year engaged in business on his own account, dealing in raw and dressed skins, and buying and selling on com- mission, at 169 Mercer Street; in February, 1902, he re- moved to 140 Greene Street, where he carried an inter- esting assortment of American, European, Asiatic and Turkish skins. One year later he removed the business to London, where for a number of years he was estab- lished as a fur merchant with an international trade in all popular peltries. He next returned to New York and located at 47 East Twelfth Street, making a specialty of 276 FUR MERCHANTS sundry novelties in skins for which there was an in- creasing demand among local manufacturers. In December, 191 1, he was appointed American agent for Fred'k Huth & Company, London, who had perfected arrangements for holding public sales of raw furs, in the English capital, beginning January, 191 2. E.G. BOUGHTON E. G. Boughton began what proved to be an unusual career in the fur business in 1855, and during his exper- ience was at different times engaged in various branches of the trade, as a manufacturer, dealer in raw skins, and a dyer of furs ; he was principally active and best known in connection with the wholesale handling of raw furs in which he dealt down to 1889. At one time, not being financially able to monopolize the entire trade, he made a heroic effort to corner opossum; he made special offers for such skins, sought them at all centers of collection, sharply competed with other dealers, large and small, and in the course of his speculation ran the price up to near one dollar and fifty cents, and while his cash held out took every opossum skin that was offered. It was not a wise ambition, and he was so advised many times, and when opossum declined in value the fall was so great that Mr. Boughton was nearly ruined — in everything but spirit. His method of assorting furs was peculiarly his own; no one before or since ever graded raw skins in his way; it was said that he would take a lot of skins and make as many assortments as there were pelts in the collections ; the statement was slightly exaggerated, but was sufficiently near to the truth to warrant the remark. FUR MERCHANTS 277 The following is a copy of an actual "bill of re- turns" to a New York State shipper, and is a fair exhibit of an assortment made by Mr. Boughton, and prices pre- vailing at the time : I Skunk, black, small $i-25 I " nearly black, medium size 1.30 1 " small stripe, fur off on back 60 2 " small stripe, each 85 1 " small stripe 80 2 " small stripe, all over poorish, each 65 I " small stripe, little damage on back 65 3 " wide stripe, mostly white, each 30 I Mink, med. size, very red, poor 35 I " small, very red, poor 30 1 muskrat, small 14 2 Raccoon, large pale, each i.cx) 3 " large and med. size reddish, each 85 3 " large and med, very red, each 80 I " med. and small pale 70 I " small, reddish 60 I " extra small pale 55 I " ex. ex. small pale 40 The above shipment was received by Mr. Boughton on February 26, 1886, and remitted for on March 11, following. In the height of the fur seal business in New York Mr. Boughton undertook to dye seal skins, but did not succeed in obtaining the color in popular request. He continued in business until 1889. 278 FUR MERCHANTS WILLIAM M. CLAGG William M. Clagg, raw fur dealer at LeMars, Iowa, can readily recall the time when there were no railroads in that part of the country, and furs were generally used as a medium of exchange ; the purchasing power of the pelts was quite small, but the cost of actual necessaries was low — eggs, for example, round ten cents per dozen. Indians abounded in the State, and during the winter months made fairly large catches of furs. Mr. Clagg with a cash capital of four to five thousand dollars in a strong leather belt concealed under his garments, was one of the first experts to visit the Indians and farmers scattered over the trackless prairies to buy their furs; the skins, when collected in sufficient quantity, were baled and shipped to New York. WILLIAM EISENHAUER & COMPANY William Eisenhauer succeeded C. H. Habbert & Company, in September, 1897, dealing in raw furs and ginseng at 378-380 West Broadway, New York; he be- came widely known throughout the country as an able and exceptionally upright merchant. His forecasts of the raw fur season were remarkably reliable, and evi- denced a thorough knowledge of the business. He died February 21, 1906, aged forty-one. The business was resumed at 507-509 West Broad- way, June I, 1906, by the J. S. Lodewick Company, with capital stock of $100,000, and was thus continued under the same management and correct principles as former- ly, Mr. J. S. Lodewick having been intimately and con- fidentially associated with Mr. Eisenhauer during his business career. In a published notice, under date of FUR MERCHANTS 279 May 24, 1906, the Estate of William Eisenhauer stated: "We take pleasure in commending the J. S. Lodewick Company to the good will of our former shippers, know- ing as we do that they can safely place in the successors to William Eisenhauer & Company the same confidence they had in the old firm." The continued record of J. S. Lodewick Company to date has fully justified that confidence in the concern. WILLIAM H. FLEET. William H. Fleet when a young man took an aca- demic course preparatory to entering Aberdeen College, Virginia. In 1865 he came to New York and entered upon his mercantile career as a general broker, and in that connection handled raw furs in quantity, becoming thoroughly familiar with all essential features of the trade; in due course he also made large purchases of buflFalo hides for J. & A Boskowitz, Eddie, Carter & Company, and other important houses in New York. When the American bison, savagely slaughtered solely for its hide, had about departed to join the red man in his happy hunting grounds, coat makers became extremely anxious to find an article equally good and cheap to take its place ; the credit of discovering it is due to William H. Fleet, who "saw it first" in an exception- ally fine dog skin incidentally imported into New York from China in a tea laden clipper. The first lot of Chi- nese dog skins brought to New York at the instance of Mr. Fleet, were not properly dressed in the homeland, or refinished in America, and though they did not "smell to heaven," they had a distinct .K9 odor, which at times is fairly high, and consequently were promptly and 280 FUR MERCHANTS scornfully condemned by the coat manufacturers at St. Paul and elsewhere. A second dressing by expert American workmen rendered the skins quite rosy, and the Celestial substitute for the American buffalo robe was accepted, and has remained the great coat skin to date, its only large and moderate priced rival being the Chinese goat. Mr. Fleet later imported skins direct, and made a feature of Asiatic, African and European skins of ex- ceptional interest, embracing a number of articles not handled to any extent by other houses. His business steadily expanded, and in a brief period outgrew the premises at 92 Gold Street, which in the meanwhile had ceased to be in convenient touch with the leading fur firms who had moved northward ; consequently in April, 1899, Mr. Fleet removed to 121 Mercer Street, the cen- ter of the fur district at that time; in 1904 he leased the entire building, 52 East Thirteenth Street, where he has continued to the present date. As the business increased Mr. Fleet enlarged its scope, adding thereto the importation of furs and skins, and the manufacture of ladies' and men's fur garments, small furs, robes, rugs and gloves in all moderate priced and costly peltries adapted to the purpose. G. GAUDIG & BLUM. The firm of G. Gaudig & Blum, fur merchants, es- tablished at Leipzig, Germany, in 1831, has made an en- viable record for efficiency, mercantile and commercial enterprise and integrity, meriting the close study and faithful emulation of all young men who really desire to achieve enduring success in any branch of business. FUR MERCHANTS 281 As the years passed the firm opened branches in other European cities, and from 1877 to 1885 was represented in the American trade by J. B. Chemidlin with head- quarters in New York. In 1887 the firm opened in New York a branch, fully equipped and stocked, under their own name, with Eugene Wulzo as manager. Mr. Wulzo remained in charge of the rapidly developing business until the close of 1900, when he was succeeded by Carl Wespy, who conducted the American aflFairs of the house with marked ability for a little more than two years, when he was recalled to Leipzig, where he died on October 23, 1905, at the early age of thirty-eight. Fol- lowing Mr. Wespy's withdrawal from New York, G. Gaudig & Blum wisely, as time has shown, committed the entire management of their New York branch to Charles S. Porter, and the control of the business in America passed, for the first time in its history, into the hands of an American representative. ALBERT HERSKOVITZ & SON Herskovitz & Roth began their mercantile career in New York as manufacturing furriers at wholesale in April, 1887, with factory and salesrooms at 180 Mercer Street ; ten years later they discontinued manufacturing and engaged in importing furs and skins for the trade at large. When the firm dissolved Albert Herskovitz continued alone without change of firm name until the close of 1909. On January i, 19 10, he admitted his son. Max Herskovitz, since which date the business has been conducted with unvarying success under style, Albert Herskovitz & Son. The firm additionally does a large 382 FUR MERCHANTS direct business in raw furs, and has an important branch at St. Louis. JARDINE, MATHESON & COMPANY, LTD. Jardine, Matheson & Company, Limited, fur im- porters of Chinese and Japanese skins collected by their own branch houses in Europe and Asia, have conducted a steadily developing business in New York since 1907. The furs brought forward by the house have been in good request for American manufacture owing to the steady rise in prices of sundry American furs adapted to particular purposes, and the very great consumption of fur of all kinds in recent years; the demand remains strong in consequence of the fact that supplies are still available, notwithstanding the war. The imports of the house include dressed dog skin mats, goat skins and rugs, kid crosses, lamb skins, China mink skins, Thibet crosses, and white coney skins and crosses ; raw ermine, fox, kid, raccoon, leopard, marmot, fitch, kolinsky, hare and sundry desirable peltries. The entire fur depart- ment of the business was removed in May, 1916, to 25 Madison Avenue, for the convenience of the trade. ALBERT JAULUS. Albert Jaulus established in New York in 1879 as an exporter of American raw furs; he has been from first to last an efficient, conservative and dependable merchant, and fully merits the success crowning his la- bors. Mr. Jaulus has established excellent American, Canadian and other connections, and is particularly well informed on all essential trade matters. FUR MERCHANTS 283 R. MAUTNER. R. Mautner, an exceptionally upright and able mer- chant, engaged in the fur manufacturing business in New York in 1869, ^^^ by great industry built up a bus- iness which extended to all parts of the country. He re- tired in July, 1 90 1, and was succeeded by his sons under style, H. Mautner & Brother, who have continuously conducted a constantly enlarging business in raw, dressed and dyed fur, in every particular extending and broadening the excellent reputation for efficiency and in- tegrity characterizing the business from the date of its inception. In the course of the years H. Mautner & Brother have successively opened branches in Chicago and St. Louis, which are successfully maintained. Sam- uel Mautner, of the firm, died May 4, 1916, aged forty- two. F. N. MONJO. Ferdind N. Monjo, on March i, 1897, succeeded to the fur importing and exporting business for twenty years conducted at 160 Mercer Street, New York, by his father, Nicolas F. Monjo, who retired on that date. For a number of years following F. N. Monjo continued actively engaged in importing, handling a general selec- tion of European furs of known merit suited to the vary- ing needs of manufacturers in the United States and Canada. Subsequently he devoted his attention to raw furs, securing supplies direct from trappers in all the States, Alaska and Canada, and has thus been enabled to meet the demands of manufacturers at "ground floor figures." He continues to hold a leading place in the same branch of the trade, with offices and show rooms 284 FUR MERCHANTS at 152-156 West Twenty-fifth Street, New York, and a growing branch at 1-3 North Main Street, St. Louis. He is actively interested in every organization and movement designed to improve the fur trade of America both in its domestic and foreign relations and honorable standing. JAMES L. PROUTY. J. Iv. Prouty established solely on his own account in the raw fur business in New York in 1874; he was alert, energetic and remarkably industrious, and steadily worked his way to a position of prominence in the trade. He dealt direct with producers, or trappers, and as the consequence of rigid honesty in all his transactions gained the perfect confidence of a very large number of shippers of peltries scattered over the trapping sections of the United States and Canada; and in the course of time built up a satisfactory and profitable export trade. Mr. Prouty continued actively engaged in business to the time of his death, January 5, 1897. Following this event his sons, William L. Prouty and Almond E. Prouty succeeded to the business under style, J. L. Prouty's Sons ; these successors continue the trade upon the correct principles steadfastly adhered to by the founder of the house. SAMUEL SACHS & COMPANY. Samuel Sachs in association with his brother, Louis Sachs, established in the fur importing business in New York in 1865, under firm name of L. Sachs & Brother, continuing until December 31, 1904, when the partner- ship was dissolved, Louis Sachs retiring, and Samuel FUR MERCHANTS 285 Sachs continuing the business alone, as Samuel Sachs & Company. One year later Louis Sachs re-entered the firm as an active member, and remained associated with it until December i, 1899, when he withdrew and opened a fur business in his own name, conducting it for two years, when it was liquidated. Samuel Sachs maintained the old business from December i, 1899, to April 8, 1905, on which date he died ; the business then passed to his son, Edward Sachs, who had been with the house for seven years. The firm from the beginning made a feature of skins of depend- able quality, making specialties of nutria and beaver; the firm was one of the first to import nutria direct from South America, the goods coming forward in sailing vessels, the voyage usually consuming about one hun- dred days. Chinchilla skins, in small supply at first, were brought to New York in the same way ; one of the earliest shipments arrived showing considerable damage by water, and the skins were sold in bulk "as are" ; the buyer hung them up on lines strung across the back yard, dried them thoroughly, and sold them at a substantial advance. Mr. Samuel Sachs enjoyed the respect and esteem of the entire trade and as man and merchant his career was creditable to himself and the fur industry of America. THORER COMPANY, INC. Theodor Thorer, of Leipzig, entered the importing fur trade of New York in the eighties of the last cen- tury under styl^ of the Transatlantic Fur Company, and gradually built up an important business in Leipzig 286 FUR MERCHANTS goods particularly adapted to the American market ; the affairs of the house were conducted under above title until April i, 1896, on which date Paul Albert Thorer and Carl Praetorius succeeded under style, Thorer & Praetorius, with desirable warerooms at 99 Spring Street. In April, 1903, Edward M. Speer, a young man of high principles and every essential qualification, and who for some years had been prominently connected with Herskovitz & Roth, accepted the responsible posi- tion of general manager of the American business of Thorer & Praetorius, and under his efficient charge, maintained to the present moment, the business has continuously expanded, and for years past the house has occupied a leading place among the progressive fur im- porting institutions of the greatest market in the world. Thorer & Praetorius dissolved partnership by mutual consent on February i, 1913, Carl Praetorius retiring from the firm and the fur business, and Theodor Thorer continuing. In 19 14 the business incorporated under style, "Thorer Company, Inc." In addition to the im- portation of dressed and dyed fur skins, the company conducts a large business in American raw furs collected from all best sections of production. MAX WULFSOHN Max Wulfsohn, who had for many years been identified with the fur industry of New York, established individually at 63 East Eleventh Street in November, 1904, making a specialty of raw and dressed furs adapted to the known needs of leading manufacturers throughout the country. In 1907 he associated with another in forming an FUR MERCHANTS 287 organization, and then engaged warerooms at 91-93 University Place, to conduct a similar business, but with increased attention to the purchase of raw furs for domestic consumption and export. The company was dissolved in November, 1912, at which time Max Wulfsohn secured attractive premises at 122-126 West Twenty-sixth Street, where he inde- pendently engaged in the raw fur business under most favorable auspices ; as the season progressed he consum- mated many large transactions with leading merchants at home and abroad. The business has continued to in- crease in volume, and undoubtedly has a great future. In 19 1 6 the style of the firm was changed to M. Wulfsohn & Company. r>ro iHilton ^cfireilier Milton Schreiber was born in Albany, New York, July 24, 1873. While as yet a mere lad he went to New York City where he promptly secured employment in the manufacturing branch of the fur business, to which he devoted studious attention, in due course acquiring a comprehensive knowledge of the industry. In 1900 he established in the manufacture of popular furs, and so continued until November, 1905, when he retired from manufacturing and engaged in the raw fur business under style : Milton Schreiber & Company, in a little more than a year the business, under Mr. Schreiber's able management, outgrew the chosen premises, 28 East Twelfth Street, and in 1910 was re- moved to more spacious warerooms at 130 West Twenty- sixth Street. Mr. Schreiber remained at that location until 191 5, when he transferred the business to the pres- ent much larger quarters in the new center of the trade at 134-140 West Twenty-ninth Street. Mr. Schreiber is a remarkably capable judge of raw fur qualities and intrinsic values, an attainment by no means common; there are many judges of fur, but the number of experts is comparatively small — it is freely 288 JHilton ^cfjreiber MILTON SCHREIBER 289 acknowledged among the informed that Mr. Schreiber long since quaHfied as an expert in all particulars essential to enduring success. During the season of collection he daily receives numerous bales and packages of newly caught skins, shipped to him by trappers and collectors operating in all parts of the country, the mainland of Alaska and the wilds of Canada, and he considers it to be his duty to the many shippers reposing confidence in his judg- ment to personally value the peltries thus received. It is a matter of record that receipts of skins from the various sources of origin of collection have steadily in- creased from year to year, old shippers being retained and new ones added to the roll each season — a result which eloquently affirms that the success achieved by the house has been amply merited. On the selling side of the business it is noted that Mr. Schreiber has de- veloped gratifying relations with leading merchants in all markets, and alert furriers in the great manufactur- ing center. New York. " Mr. Schreiber is popular in the trade locally and at large, and is regarded by all as a friendly friend, and a dependable merchant. i^tmhtta of tt)t Kxattt, prominent in their day and generation, who have joined The Great Majority. WASHINGTON BELT Washington BeU, who had conducted a raw fur business in Newark, Ohio, for some time, came to New York in 1866, and in association with John K. Cilley established the firm of Belt & Cilley, dealing in raw furs and wool. In 1882 the firm dissolved, and Mr. Belt took his son-in-law, Elliott L. Butler, into partnership, under style Belt & Butler ; later the name was changed to Belt- Butler Company. Washington Belt died September 11, 1898. Elliott L. Butler died May 20, 1916. The business is continued by Howard R. Butler and John Connell. BOSKOWITZ For more than thirty years the business transacted in raw furs, deer, antelope and buifalo hides under the name of Boskowitz was not exceeded in magnitude on the North American continent, with the single exception of the Hudson's Bay Company. They handled immense quantities of goods annually collected in the great north- west, the Pacific Coast, British Columbia, and later on the mainland of Alaska. Leopold and Joseph Boskowitz, under the firm style of J. & A. Boskowitz, with whom Ignatz Boskowitz was associated, began fur trading with the Indians in 1858, and were the first to so operate in California, the Pacific Coast, and points in British Columbia, with headquarters 290 JOINED THE MAJORITY 291 at Victoria. They opened a house in Chicago in 1862, and in New York in 1864. Down to the close of 1867, while Russian- America, now Alaska, was owned by Russia, all furs collected on the mainland and the adjacent islands were taken over under government concessions by the Russian- American Fur Company, and no one, not even a Russian subject was allowed to trade in furs with the natives. In the spring of 1868 a small trader of Victoria, while sailing along the coast to purchase raw furs from the Indians, was caught in a terrific storm, carried far out to sea, and finally driven upon the shore of Russian- America ; know- ing that it was unlawful for any one to trade with the natives he supposed his vessel would be seized, and that he himself would be imprisoned or shot, and was agreeably surprised to learn from the governor that the United States had purchased the country, and further- more that the Russian-American Fur Company was quite eager to close out its entire collection of furs at "unheard of prices" — seal, sea otter, fox, lynx, mink and other fine skins, at something like half a dollar per skin straight — counted, not graded. He invested every penny he had, loaded his vessel with fine furs, and on arriving at home reported his great luck. J. & A. Boskowitz at once sent vessels to Russian-America and secured the surplus stock of the Russian-American Fur Company, at like favorable rates, and cleared a large cash balance. This venture revealed something of the wonderful fur wealth of the new possession of the United States, and shortly afterward Leopold and Joseph Boskowitz conceived the idea of forming a strong organization to control the fur seal and general fur business in Alaska, 292 JOINED THE MAJORITY and in due course organized the Alaska Commercial Company, which obtained from the government a twenty-year lease of the fur seal islands, and still collects furs on the mainland. L. and J. Boskowitz withdrew from the company at the end of two years. The firm of J. & A. Boskowitz were pioneers in pelagic sealing; previous to their entry into the trade, the native sealers operated close to shore, or at most not more than a mile at sea, and at that distance only on very pleasant days. Commodore Warren had charge of the Boskowitz vessels, and was very successful; fur seal skins at that time were low in price, ranging from six to ten dollars each. The firm undertook the work of dressing and dye- ing fur seal skins in New York, engaging E. C. Bough- ton, 7 Howard Street, to operate the branch ; at that time the greater part of the seal dyeing was done in London ; the London dyers produced a deep brown or rich plum color, and Boughton could only dye black, and as the London color alone was popular, the Boskowitz-Bough- ton venture was not a success. For many years prior to 1870 the Indians were the only buffalo hunters on the western and southwestern plains, and the red men were wards of the government — their collections were sold for them by government agents ; these buffalo hides, also known as "robes," were sold to highest bidder at stated times, and for a con- siderable period an extremely large portion of the annual catch was bought by J. & A. Boskowitz at Chicago. The offerings of Indian goods also included good sized lots of raw and Indian tanned black-tail deer, elk and antelope skins, for glove manufacturers, and JOINED THE MAJORITY 293 sundry small furs, all of which were handled in quantity by J. & A. Boskowitz; the glove stock, augmented by large supplies of South American deer skins, was mar- keted for the firm by O. & A. DeComeau in New York. Between 1875 and 1885, when greedy white hunters entered into competition with the Indians, upwards of two hundred thousand bison were killed in a season, and Indian dressing practically ceased; in the height of the trade J. & A. Boskowitz leased a factory in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and turned out the first white-man dressed buffalo robes offered in the market in quantity ; this fac- tory was kept running until all the bison were killed. At this time the firm sought a new fur world and found it in China, from which country they imported large quanti- ties of goat and dog skin plates and robes, which were readily worked up into warm and serviceable coats and sleigh robes; at first the "China goods" were very low in price, and excellent profit producers for the importers; but in a comparatively short time competition, both in buying abroad and selling at home, moved prices up in China and profits down in America, and reduced goats and dogs to the "deal level" which is of no particular in- terest to any one in the fur trade. The consumption of goat and dog skins is still large, but both animals con- tinue to flourish in China in ample numbers to meet the demand. Ignatz Boskowitz died in Europe in 1906. Leopold Boskowitz died June 15, 1895. Joseph Boskowitz has for many years resided in Victoria, B. C, and is now about eighty years of age. Adolph Boskowitz enjoys a lucrative law practice in New York. JEAN B. CHEMIDLIN Jean Baptiste Chemidlin was born in Imling, France, in 1834, and came to New York sixteen years later ; shortly after his arrival he was employed by Pierre Chouteau & Company, fur merchants, with whom he re- mained until the firm retired from business in December, 1857. He then joined with Gabriel Franchere in form- ing the firm of G. Franchere & Company, continuing un- til 1869, when he became associated with N. F. Monjo under style, J. B. Chemidlin & Company. In 1874 the firm was changed to Oberndorfer, Chemidlin & Com- pany, and so remained until 1877, ^^ which year Mr. Chemidlin was appointed American agent for G. Gaudig & Blum, which position he held from 1877 to 1885. Mr. Chemidlin died September 17, 1888. 294 JOINED THE MAJORITY 295 LOUIS BRIEFNER Louis Briefner began his highly honorable and suc- cessful career in the fur business in New York in 1861, and during his active life in the trade, covering more than half a century, he conducted at different times all branches of the business, manufacturing, importing, ex- porting, and dealing in raw furs purchased direct from trappers and collectors throughout the country. As the years progressed he took his sons successively into partnership, and from the beginning the business was faultlessly conducted, and Mr. Briefner was freely ac- corded the highest esteem of all shippers and competitors in the trade at large. Louis Briefner died May 12, 19 16, aged seventy-six. JOHN K. CILLEY— JOSEPH L. CILLEY John K. Cilley began his successful mercantile career in New York City in the general commission business, but very early relinquished the produce depart- ment, which he found rather distasteful, and in associa- tion with Washington Belt, under style Belt & Cilley, de- voted his attention to raw furs and wool, in which branch of trade he attained a commanding position, and was favorably known in America and Europe. In 1 88 1 the firm was dissolved, and Mr. Cilley con- tinued the business as J. K. Cilley & Company with marked success until 1893, when he was elected presi- dent of the Ninth National Bank of New York. In con- sequence of this change in his affairs Mr. Cilley with- drew from mercantile life, and the fur business he had so long conducted was taken over by Joseph L. Cilley, 296 JOINED THE MAJORITY his brother, in partnership with N. D. Marshall. On May I, 1894, owing to the death of Mr. Marshall, the firm of Cilley & Marshall was dissolved, and Joseph L. Cilley continued the business individually until May, 1898, when it was liquidated. John K. Cilley faithfully served the Ninth National Bank as its president until 1900, when he retired. John K. Cilley was born April 13, 1840; died De- cember 5, 19 1 6. Joseph L. Cilley was born December 22, 1842 ; died May 29, 191 1. OLIVIER DE COMEAU Olivier de Comeau entered the fur business as a general broker in 1858, giving particular attention to im- portations of cut fur for felting. From March 31, 1876, to March 31, 1879, he was a member of P. Robinson & Company, cutters of hatters' furs, Danbury, Connecti- cut; the firm was dissolved by limitation on the last named date, and Mr. de Comeau resumed his brokerage business, handling Scotch, English, German and Aus- tralian hare and rabbit skins. North American and Cen- tral American deer skins, and sundry furs; he at one time attempted to corner deer skins with disastrous re- sults, but began life anew, and still remains in the field — the oldest member of the trade daily in active business. GABRIEL FRANCHERE Gabriel Franchere was a lover of the woods, hills and valleys, and all out doors, and owing to that fact chose the life of fur trader at a time, early in the nine- teenth century, when the great west was a wilderness. JOINED THE MAJORITY 297 Indians on the warpath were more easily met than avoided, and the only habitations were within the forts built by pioneer fur traders as centers of collection. Mr. Franchere, in company with other venturesome traders and enlisted helpers, traveled the wild country for weeks and months at a time bartering furs with friendly Indians, and dodging those otherwise disposed, with good results, his collections generally being large and valuable. He was often pursued by bands of savages, good hunters and trappers everyone, but who greatly preferred a hairy forelock, Indian or white man grown, to a furry fox pelt; during these stalking ex- periences Mr. Franchere had many narrow escapes, but he enjoyed the excitement more than he dreaded the danger, and consequently continued his fur quest in the open with ever increasing success. He gradually extended his operations, constantly westward, until he entered that section of the country now known as Oregon, traded along the beautiful Co- lumbia River, and brought up at Astoria. Astoria at that time was a settlement and a trading post to which Indian hunters and trappers brought many bales of fine furs each season, exchanging them for pro- visions and sundry supplies ; vessels owned by the com- pany visited Astoria twice a year with supplies, taking on the return voyage all furs collected to date of sailing. In the forties Mr. Franchere settled in the fur busi- ness in New York in association with Ramsey Crooks, as a member of the American Fur Company, and finally as head of the firm of G. Franchere & Company, which continued from 1857 to the close of 1868. 298 JOINED THE MAJORITY ALFRED FRASER Alfred Eraser, a man of irreproachable character, marked intellectual attainments, and exceptional com- mercial ability, devoted his life to the fur trade, not merely as one who sought its pecuniary rewards, but to definitely develop it to the extreme of possibility, and in- sure it a leading place among mercantile and commercial enterprises held in enduring respect in the markets of the world. Mr. Fraser began his business career as a young man in the universally known and honored house of C. M. Lampson & Company, London, and by efficient attention to his duties steadily advanced to higher and increasingly important positions of trust, and in 1878 was admitted into partnership. Following this event Mr. Fraser, who had previously made annual visits to America in connection with the business, came to New York as permanent American representative of his firm, and was entirely successful in conducting the aflfairs of the house, and instrumental in augmenting the business of the firm. Mr. Fraser was well known to all raw fur exporters in the United States and Canada, enjoyed the confidence and esteem of all American fur merchants, and his re- tirement in 191 1 from active participation in the business was sincerely regretted. Mr. Fraser died November 10, 191 5, aged seventy- six. JOINED THE MAJORITY 299 C. H. HABBERT C. H. Habbert was actively engaged in the raw fur business in New York for a quarter of a century ; he was highly respected by all who knew him, and his intimate and casual acquaintances embraced a vast number of fur merchants, leading manufacturers and raw fur shippers in both America and Europe. He entered the trade with Belt & Butler, who an- nually handled thousands of skins shipped to them by individuals and firms in all the states and Canada. Later he established in the same branch of trade on his own account, and was noticeably successful. Mr. Habbert was an unusually profound student of economic conditions, and his annual forecasts of raw fur prospects for the immediately succeeding season were read in the trade at large with extreme interest. Owing to impaired health Mr. Habbert retired from mercantile pursuits in 1896, subsequently taking up his residence near Frankford, Germany. CHARLES A. HERPICH Charles A. Herpich began a fur importing business in New York in 1853, with Leipzig branch; he was ex- tremely industrious, well informed, and very progres- sive, and under his tireless management the business grew rapidly, and was extended to all large cities in the states. In addition to foreign goods, he purchased large lots of raw furs from collectors, both for American con- sumption and export; he also dealt heavily in buflfalo robes, and in 1875 purchased the entire Fort Benton coF- lection of forty thousand robes, and other smaller lots ; 800 JOINED THE MAJORITY additional purchases were made the following year, rather more than trade conditions warranted. In 1877 he became financially embarrassed, but in a short time effected a settlement and continued, but with lessened output. February, 1895, the business was in- corporated under style, Charles A. Herpich Company. On June 18, 1878, in consequence of great mental depression due to his reverses, he committed suicide by shooting at his place of residence in New Brighton, Staten Island. HENRY KRAUS Henry Kraus, born in Germany June 7, 1844, came to America when a young man, and on account of his knowledge of the business readily found employment in the fur trade in New York. In 1875 ^^ established an importing and exporting business, handling raw, dressed and dyed furs ; for a time he was associated with Joseph Steiner. Mr. Kraus was an honorable and universally re- spected merchant. He died May 23, 191 3, at Bad Kis- sengen, Germany, where he was sojourning on account of failing health. EDWARD J. KING Edward J. King founded in New York in 1839 an importing business in furs and skins, which in later years occupied a commanding position in the trade ; he was conservative, alert and remarkably successful. Mr. King was exceptionally well informed in all matters in any way affecting the trade; rigidly exact regarding every transaction; he possessed a wonderful memory JOINED THE MAJORITY 801 for details, and could readily give dates, assortments and prices covering public sales for extraordinary periods. He died June 30, 1885. Following his death the business was taken over by his sons, under style, Edward J. King's Sons, and was continued until January i, 1900, when it was liquidated. WILLIAM MACNAUGHTAN William Macnaughtan conducted a fur commission business in New York from 1849 to 1879, and was widely known in the United States and Europe as a merchant of extreme ability and integrity, an expert judge of furs, and a careful student of trade conditions. Mr. Macnaughtan was never charged with an im- proper transaction, or giving a promise that was not kept to the letter. He was born in Paisley, Scotland, November 8, 1820; twenty-eight years later he came to New York, and very soon after his arrival was employed by John C. Lord, a leading furrier of that period. Rather more than a year later he accepted an im- portant post with Ramsey Crooks, formerly associated with John Jacob Astor, and a partner in some of his chief enterprises, particularly the American Fur Com- pany, the Astoria venture, and the Pacific Fur Company. On the death of Mr. Crooks the business passed in succession to Mr. Macnaughtan, who continued it with extreme credit to himself and the American trade. Mr. Macnaughtan died February 6, 1879. NICOLAS F. MONJO Nicolas F. Monjo was for an exceptionally ex- tended period one of the best and most favorably known fur merchants in New York; he was not simply known in the Metropolis, or by name and reputation generally, but was personally known to all important fur dealers from coast to coast in the United States, the most re- mote settled points in Canada, and the great cities and markets of Europe, by all of whom he was highly re- spected and esteemed on account of his manifest integ- rity, respect for his word, and his exceptionally complete 302 JOINED THE MAJORITY 303 and reliable knowledge of every detail of the business. He was a very great traveler, visited Europe many times, crossed the American continent frequently, and made numerous visits to the fur centers of Canada, in- cluding the new as well as the older Provinces. His travels were continued to very near the termination of his remarkably active business life. Mr. Monjo began his career in the fur trade in 1859, ^" which year he entered the house of G. Franchere & Company, with whom he remained for a period of ten years, and by close application acquired a thorough knowledge of the business and men conducting it at home and abroad. In 1869 he became associated with Jean B. Chemid- lin under style : J. B. Chemidlin & Company, and so con- tinued until 1874, when he withdrew from the firm and established in business individually with gratifying success. In December, 1904, Mr. Monjo was appointed American Agent for A. & W. Nesbitt, of London, who had perfected plans for including North American pel- tries in their established public sales of Australasian and European skins, on and after January i, 1905. Mr. Monjo retained this important relation to the English house with marked ability and the satisfaction of all in interest up to the time of his death, which occurred, re- gretted by all who knew him, May 24, 19 14. The photograph of Mr. Monjo was taken in i87( the latest date at which he faced the camera. 304 JOINED THE MAJORITY H. L. PENCE H. L. Pence, in association with J. V. Clawson, en- gaged in the manufacture of ladies' furs in New York in 1873, and continued thus occupied until 1878, in which year the partnership was dissolved, and succeeded, in manufacturing, by Clawson & Biglow, who continued for nine years, when Mr. Biglow withdrew. Mr. Claw- son conducted the business alone to the time of his death, May 25, 1890. Following the dissolution of the first named firm in August, 1878, H. L. Pence established independently in the raw fur business in New York, as a dealer and exporter, and had a satisfactory career in his second- choice branch in fur merchandising. In 1898 the business was incorporated as The H. L. Pence Company, followed by the retirement of Mr. Pence from personal participation in mercantile affairs. RUDOLPH SCHOVERUNG Rudolph Schoverling, a careful, conservative, con- scientious merchant of the old school, with a thorough German business training, took over an importing fur and skin business in 1885 which had been established briefly prior to that date. Mr. Schoverling conducted the business with marked credit to himself, but with varying success, gen- eral trade conditions being adverse during a consider- able part of the time. His integrity was unquestioned, and he was held in the highest esteem in the trade to the time of his retirement in 1893. He died May 7, 1908, in the seventy-third year of his age. JOINED THE MAJORITY 305 Mr. Schoverling did not make the fur trade greater than it was when he entered it, an achievement exceed- ing his financial means, but in honesty and correct busi- ness methods he set an example considerably above the average, and every way worthy of emulation. JOSEPH ULLMANN Joseph Ullman was born at Pfafstadt, Alsace, March 23, 1826; at the age of twenty-five he left his native land for America, making New Orleans his des- tination; he remained at New Orleans for some time, then removed to St. Louis, and later settled at St. Paul, which was then just putting forth the promise of becom- ing a city — in time. In 1854, up to which time he had been engaged in another branch of business, he made his initial purchase of raw furs, which netted him such satisfactory returns that he at once disposed of his other interests and, from that date to the time of his death, devoted his entire energies to the fur trade, eventually employing upwards of forty traveling buyers, who thoroughly covered the northwest and southward to Texas in the collection of raw furs, hides and sheep pelts. In 1866 he established a branch at Chicago, and took up his residence in that city; about a year later he opened a selling agency in New York, which in due course became the main Amer- ican house. Mr. Ullmann also established branches in Canada to facilitate collections and shipments. In 1873 warerooms and offices were leased at Leipzig, Germany, to which Mr. Ullmann devoted close attention, and he later carried into effect a cherished plan for holding public sales of American raw furs in Leipzig; about eighteen hundred lots, comprising 58,950 skunk, 466,- 306 JOINED THE MAJORITY 350 brown and 3,250 black muskrat, 6,900 red fox, 43,- 380 raccoon, and sundry skins, were catalogued in his initial sale held September 26 to 29, 1875. The imme- diate effect of the sale was extremely gratifying to the Leipzig trade, as selling thus in open market fixed a standard of values for all articles offered, a condition not previously prevailing. Mr. UUmann subsequently estab- lished permanent branches in London and Paris. The several establishments in Germany, France, England and the United States, except at Chicago, con- tinue in operation to date, and have been, and are, a power in the betterment of the fur trade both nationally and internationally. Mr. Joseph Ullmann died at Leipzig, September 3, 1906, aged eighty-one, in the full enjoyment of many days and universal esteem. LEOPOLD WEIL Leopold Weil, an exceptionally manly man endowed with many surpassingly excellent qualities of mind and heart, entered the fur business at Chicago near the close of 1872 as confidential assistant to Joseph Ullmann, and so continued until 1876, in which year he became identi- fied with the management of the New York house of the same firm. He subsequently withdrew and engaged in the fur importing business in association with Henry Bressler, following whose death in 1880 he organized the firm of Leopold Weil & Brothers, the associate members being Dr. Isaac Weil and Julius Weil. The venture was successful from the beginning, and during the entire period of its existence, some twelve JOINED THE MAJORITY 807 years, was conducted in accordance with wholly correct mercantile methods, and unswerving integrity, gaining a reputation which any merchant of that day or this might very well covet as among the best things of time. Leopold Weil was a man whom friends, acquaint- ances and commercial competitors "delighted to honor," for he honored himself, and to the limit of his powers sought to make the trade of his choice honorable. Leopold Weil died February 6, 1903, in the forty- ninth year of his age. Julius Weil, junior member of the firm at the time it was organized, died August 4, 1908. Dr. Isaac Weil, liquidated the business after the death of the senior member of the firm, but remained in the trade until December 31, 191 6, when he retired. iWanufacturing; Jf urrierg Some of the Prominent Wholesale Manufactur- ers OF New York of Highest Repute Who Are Well Known at Home and Abroad, and a Number of Earlier Date Who in Their Day Helped to Make the Fur Trade of America What It Should Be M. M. BACKUS Mancer M. Backus added materially to the high character of the fur trade during his entire connection with it, being prominent in every movement designed to maintain the business on an elevated plane. He was a native of Utica, N. Y., a graduate of Columbia College, and for some time subsequent to his graduation was editor of the Presbyterian Church Jour- nal. In 1844 ^^> with N. B. Wilbur, formed the firm of N. B. Wilbur & Company, to conduct a wholesale busi- ness in hats and furs, with salesrooms at 85 Maiden Lane, New York City. Four years later the firm was changed to Backus, Osborne & Company, in 1857 to Backus, Nichols & Company, and in 1859 the business was succeeded to by M. M. Backus, who conducted it alone until October, 1874, when he took into partner- ship his son, Henry L. Backus, and continued as M. M. Backus & Company, until the business was discontinued in 1885. M. M. Backus died April 23, 1887. 308 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 809 EDWARD E. BALDWIN For more than half a century E. E. Baldwin has been actively engaged in the fur business in New York City, and he still holds a leading place in the trade. He began his mercantile career in 1864, buying raw furs direct from trappers, and manufacturing the product for general wholesale trade. In his boyhood days he trapped fur-bearers successfully, and when the marshes in northern New Jersey were under flood in the spring he brought in many fine muskrats with a small rifle. In 1875 he admitted into partnership N. J. Bishop- rick and N. P. Kenyon, the firm being Baldwin, Bishop- rick & Company, three years later he purchased the in- terests of both associates, and took into partnership his brother Bleecker Baldwin and W. P. Dacosta under style E. E. Baldwin & Brother & Company, and so con- tinued until the death of B. Baldwin, seven years later, when E. E. Baldwin bought Mr. Dacosta's interest, and continued alone, as at present, and since 1902 at 34-36 East Tenth Street. The business embraces raw fur skins, dressed and dyed furs, importing and exporting, and manufacturing. Mr. Baldwin has made it an invariable rule to manufacture only strictly reliable goods, perfect alike in material and workmanship; his success has been measurably due to his progressive methods, recognized reliability, and his practice of buying everything at "first hand" in thorough knowledge of values and trade con- ditions. Bleecker Baldwin, who entered the firm of E. E. & B. Baldwin January i, 1882, died November 13, 1889. 310 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS BENJAMIN BLOSVEREN Benjamin Blosveren, born in Kalish, Prussian Po- land, in 1836, came to New York when thirty-two years of age, and for about nine years served as an excep- tionally efficient furrier with the prominent house of Harris & Russak. In 1877 ^^ engaged in business on his own account manufacturing fine seal caps. He died November 28, 1893; highly respected by all who knew him. The business was continued by his sons, Moss and Baron Blosveren, under style B. Blosveren's Sons, who have made a grand record as progressive manufacturers ; the productions now include seal and fur caps, men's fur and fur-lined coats of best quality, and attractions of more than ordinary value in ladies' fashionable furs. The firm, since February i, 1914, has occupied very spacious quarters at 36-38 West Thirty-seventh Street. F. BOOSS & BROTHER Frederick Booss & Brother was for a little more than half a century one of the firms that imparted char- acter to the fur trade in America, and if all others had wrought as wisely and well the fur business would have occupied the first place in the category of mercantile and commercial bodies. Frederick and George Booss came to New York from Germany in 1853 and established in fur manufac- turing as F. Booss & Brother in the down town district ; in 1864 they purchased the plot and building at 449 Broadway, where the business was continued to the date of the death of Frederick Booss, December 4, 1901. George Booss died September, 1898. The firm was MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 811 awarded a Gold Medal at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 1876, and another at the Paris Exposition, 1878. KARL FUCHS Karl Fuchs has been a prominent fur manufacturer in the leading fur manufacturing market in the world. New York, for many years ; at the outset he determined to produce only reliable goods — full value to every buyer — and in holding to his purpose made remarkable prog- ress from season to season. In every department of hu- man effort the specialist is at the top ; for years past Mr. Fuchs, though making up other furs, has made a spe- cialty of lynx, and has achieved extreme success in the effective development of that excellent fur. The busi- ness was incorporated in 191 5, and has since been con- ducted at 130-132 West Twenty-fifth Street under style, Karl Fuchs, Inc. DAVID GREENFIELD David Greenfield began the manufacture of furs in New York in 1852, and built up an extensive trade with leading firms throughout the United States. He was in the highest and best sense an honorable merchant, whose word was never broken. He retired from business in 1897, and died September 9, 1904, in the seventy-ninth year of his age. ?|«S0 f . iHisscIio Herman Mischo, an efficient furrier, established in 1867 in the manufacture of high class seal and fur caps at wholesale, with factory and salesroom at 76 Bowery, New York, a central location at that time; a little later he removed to 49 Crosby Street, then to 438 Broome Street, and subsequently to 20 Bond Street. He con- ducted the business with steadily increasing success for a period of twenty-two years, and became widely known as a proficient manufacturer of thoroughly reliable goods, and a man eminently worthy of the highest respect. Mr. Mischo remained actively engaged in busi- ness until the beginning of 1889, when he withdrew to enjoy a well earned rest of a little more than eight years — he died March 28, 1897. Mr. Hugo J. Mischo, dating from 1879, worked for Mr. Herman Mischo for a number of years, during which time he acquired a detailed knowledge of the business, and extreme ability as a practical furrier, attainments of incalculable importance to a manufac- turer of furs of quality. On February i, 1889, following the retirement of Herman Mischo, the business was succeeded to by Hugo J. Mischo and Jacob Simmons under style, Simmons & Mischo, and continued at the above location. A little later the firm name was changed to Simons, Mischo & Company, and ladies' fur garments and small 312 HUGO J. MISCHO 318 furs were added to the productions of the house, with marked increase in trade. On February i, 1892, the firm was dissolved, Jacob Simmons continuing alone, and Hugo J. Mischo and G. H. Hill forming a new firm, as Mischo & Hill, with much larger premises and increased facilities at 7 Wash- ington Place, and producing finer goods to meet the re- quirements of leading merchants throughout the coun- try. Following the death of G. H. Hill the firm was reorganized, Charles Miiller being admitted under style, Mischo & Miiller, and in 1897 the firm removed to 722 Broadway. February i, 1902, the business, which had ma- terially expanded as a consequence of definitely sus- tained superiority in production, was removed to larger premises at 6-8 West Twenty-second Street; five years later the present commodious building, 29-35 West Thirty-second Street, was leased and occupied. The firm was awarded the Grand Prize for its very attractive exhibition of superb fur garments at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904. In 1 91 4 the business was incorporated under the laws of the State of New York, as: H. J. Mischo & Company, Inc. The several recorded changes in locations were suc- cessively rendered necessary by the continuously en- larging demand for furs of the superior design and quality constituting the output of the house; for years past retail merchants of leading rank in the large cities have been the important purchasers, and their "repeat" orders season after season express their satisfaction better than words ever do or can. 314 HUGO J. MISCHO Mr. Mischo possesses a thorough practical knowl- edge of every branch of the business, and displays un- usually good judgment in meeting the tastes and needs of buyers catering to fashionable custom in widely separated sections of the country. Mr. Mischo is personally known to fur merchants and great fashion creators at home and abroad, and prominent retailers throughout the United States; and he enjoys the good will of the fur trade at large as the merited reward of his fidelity to its highest and best interests. MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 815 CHRISTIAN G. GUNTHER Christian G. Gunther was born in Saxony in 1795, and as he grew to manhood he acquired a thorough knowledge of the manufacture of furs, and familiarized himself with business methods prevailing in the trade abroad. When he was twenty-three years of age he came to New York, and shortly after his arrival was employed by John G. Wendell, brother-in-law of John Jacob Astor, and leading metropolitan furrier, 57 Maid- en Lane. In 1820 Mr. Gunther established a fur busi- ness of his own, manufacturing high class goods ; he was an extremely careful and conscientious merchant, and his industry and integrity readily won for him a leading place in the fur business, not only of New York, but America, a position continuously occupied to date — with the further distinction of being the oldest established fur business continuously conducted under the same name in the United States. In due course Mr. Gunther received his sons into partnership, as C. G. Gunther's Sons. Mr. Franklin L. Gunther was an active member of the firm for many years, but withdrew, discontinuing business, some years ago. Mr. Ernest R. Gunther was a member of the firm for some time, but severed his connection with the house several years ago, and has not since been identified with the fur business. During all the years the house has given attention to the production of high class furs exclusively, the choicest sables, black foxes, sea otter, Shetland and Alaska fur seals, Russian ermine and our best Ameri- can peltries; the quality mark, however, has not been limited to the materials of manufacture, but has found 316 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS very definite expression in the artistic character of the models and perfection in workmanship. Gunther furs were awarded the Gold Medal at the Exposition Univer- sal, Paris, 1867; ^"^ ^ Gold Medal, several Diplomas and fifteen Highest Awards at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. The firm has always been exceedingly public spir- ited, and has contributed liberally to every worthy cause ; many instances might be recorded, but one chacteristic of all is noted in their contribution of ten thousand dol- lars to the Johnstown Relief Fund. Christian G. Gunther, founder of the house, died October 30, 1868, aged seventy-three. C. G. Gunther's Sons was incorporated in April, 191 3 under the laws of the State of New York, as suc- cessors to the New Jersey corporation of the same name. Directors: Thomas Kearney, Moses Ely aftd R. L. Logan. Louis F. Georger was a member of the firm for many years, and was very well known and highly esteemed in the trade; he died May 14, 1913. John Charles Gunther, an active and influential member of the firm for forty-five years, retired May i, 1869. He died March 6, 1876, aged fifty-three. William Henry Gunther, oldest son of Christian G. Gunther, head of the house for an extended period, died September 21, 1877, in the sixty-second year of his age. Francis Frederick Gunther, last representative of the second generation of the celebrated family, died December 3, 1895, aged sixty- two. William Henry Gunther, at the time senior mem- ber of the firm, died February 15, 1901 ; born in New York, 185 1. MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 317 LEOPOLD HAAS Leopold Haas, whose long career in the fur manu- facturing business was marked by the strictest integrity, came to New York from Austria-Hungary in 1883, and from that time until his death, May 22, 19 16, conducted a high class manufacturing and retail fur business. He was married in 1851, and celebrated his golden wed- ding March 10, 1901, upon which occasion he was the recipient of many evidences of esteem and respect from leading members of the trade. HARRIS & RUSSAK Henry Harris and Benjamin Russak, two thor- oughly alert men of affairs, united in forming the firm of Harris & Russak in 1850, and were so associated in business until death separated them, a period of nearly thirty years. On forming the partnership the firm opened a retail hat and fur store at 326 Grand Street, where by untiring industry they built up a sound and progressive business; for many years the store was a "landmark," and became as time advanced one of the best known hat and fur establishments in that part of the city. As their business increased they opened a sec- ond store at Eighth Avenue and Twenty-second Street, and a little later a third at 228 Bowery ; all of their ven- tures prospered from the outset. In May, 1864, the firm materially enlarged its oper- ations, engaging in the manufacture of furs at whole- sale, making a feature of popular furs, thoroughly de- pendable goods, to meet the requirements of leading retail merchants in New York and other large cities ; at 818 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS that time manufactured furs were carried chiefly by- fashionable hatters. When seal skin became popular, very shortly aftor the purchase of Alaska by the United States, Harris & Russak were among the first furriers to appreciate the real merits of the article, and to manufacture ladies* seal sacques in exceptionally large number ; in the seven- ties important dry goods houses throughout the country gradually evinced an interest in manufactured furs, and in succession opened increasingly attractive fur depart- ments, and many of the best of these built their success upon the popular priced seal garments manufactured by Harris & Russak. The firm occupied throughout its career a position of highest honor in the fur trade of the metropolis ; and their reputation as efficient and upright merchants extended to all parts of the United States. Henry Harris died June 12, 1879, in the fifty-sev- enth year of his age. Benjamin Russak died January 29, 1892, in the sixty-fourth year of his age. The business was discontinued February i, 1893. HERX, AMES & RAU F. Theodore Herx and Charles Rau established as manufacturing furriers in New York in 1891, and so continued until February i, 1893, when they admitted William B. Ames, under style Herx, Ames & Rau. The firm ranked among the leading manufacturers of high class furs, was eminently successful, honorable, and highly esteemed in the local trade and throughout the country. In rather rapid succession death claimed the entire membership of the house. MANUFACTURING FURRIERS . 819 F. Theodore Herx died in March, 19 14. Charles Rau died May 27, 19 14, and William B. Ames joined the great majority March 20, 191 6. WILLIAM JACKMAN William Jackman was born in London, England, in 1829, and when a young man came to the United States and shortly afterward, under the lure of "growing up with the West," went to Cleveland, Ohio, where, in i860, he established a wholesale fur manufacturing business, which steadily increased in volume from year to year quite to the limit of his hopes — really outgrew the foun- dation, and became big enough to transplant a branch in New York, which in turn has developed into a house of first rank. The expansion was wholly due to the painstaking industry, strict integrity and unswerving fidelity of the early resolve to give full value in every transaction. In August, 1889, Mr. Jackman received in partner- ship his sons, Edward F. and Charles A. Jackman, the firm becoming William Jackman & Sons, and so con- tinued until April 7, 1899, when William Jackman died, and the style of the firm, in consequence, was changed to William Jackman's Sons. SToftn 3aus?its! Living members of the fur trade who knew him, either intimately or but slightly, all agree that in their day and generation John Ruszits occupied the leading place among the fur merchants of America ; was a man worthy of honor among honorable men; one who was not born great, did not have greatness thrust upon him, but achieved it, and one who made for the fur business a meritorious record which endures; and for himself, a name which lives on. John Ruszits is remembered, not for the remark- able things he said, for he was a man of few words; nor for his personal attainments, for he neither sought nor desired rank or station; but he was esteemed and is remembered for what he did, and the ways in which it was done. Not that he accomplished mighty things, but that he began, continued and finished common- place tasks, the every-day duties incident to his busi- ness, with the sustained interest, efficiency and fidelity to details which master minds are supposed to lavish upon greater things, even the greatest. It is an open question whether he worked the more for himself — the highest attainable reputation as a manufacturer — or his clients, and through them in- dividual consumers. His glory was in his work, and it was so fruitful of enduring values, that others emulate the record — and, "he being dead yet speaketh;" his name lives on in his work. 820 y a meritorious re- ness. whh ih 'jt 1: tiiem it. s. - 3ol)n 3Sin^}it^ JOHN RUSZITS 821 John Ruszits was born in Baja, Hungary, in 1817; when yet a young man he went to Germany, where he spent about ten years in acquiring extreme proficiency as a practical furrier, graduating as a master workman, fully equipped for service or leadership. In 185 1 he came to New York, and at once engaged in business as a manufacturer of fine furs, productions particularly worthy of being classed as "fine" on account of evident superiority in workmanship. In one respect he did not differ from the majority — he began at the bottom round, with small means, in modest premises, and by untiring industry steadily ad- vanced, not by "leaps and bounds," but just a day's march forward each day. He did not come to America to make a fortune in a year, or a decade ; he came with very little "ready money," but an unlimited fund of con- fidence in his ability to make a living, with the one thing added which makes a life — contentment. He made more; an untarnished record for integrity, truth, and all that makes for success — and success; it was a per- sonal triumph. He studied the economies of the busi- ness even to the last; in order to get the "right goods at the right prices" he purchased raw furs direct from the field; conducted a general trade in dressed and dyed skins — staples and novelties — carefully purchased abroad; and also handled various specialties required in the trade — if he had any hobby, it found expression in his desire to be able to fill off-hand any order that might come to him. In his career of nearly forty years in the fur trade of America he amassed a fortune ; the dollars bequeathed to others, we believe, have made for themselves wings 822 JOHN RUSZITS "^ and flown away, but the example of the one who gathered them is still a power in the fur trade. Mr. Ruszits died October i8, 1890. As an excep- tional mark of respect to his memory all fur merchants in New York closed their places of business during the hour of the funeral on October 21. A meeting of the trade, October 20, adopted the following : RESOLUTIONS. Whereas, It has pleased Almighty God in His infinite wisdom to take from among us, through death, our late busi- ness friend and associate, John Ruszits, for whom we all had the higfhest regard, esteem, and respect ; therefore, be it Resolved, That we, the members of the fur trade, in meeting this day assembled, desire to bear testimony to his high honor, uniform kindness, courtesy and integrity. He enjoyed the highest respect of all with whom he had business relations, and in his death we feel that the trade, and the com- munity at large, have sustained an irreparable loss which words fail to express. Resolved, That we extend our sincere sympathy and condolence to his bereaved widow in this her hour of trial ; but whose loss is greatly assuaged by the untarnished name he leaves behind him. Resolved, That these resolutions be suitably engrossed and presented to his widow. MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 323 ABRAHAM AND JAMES JACOBSON Abraham Jacobson, then a young man of exception- al enterprise and ability, began the manufacture of fur novelties for the trade in 1874; his productions met with immediate success because of originality and readily dis- cernible superiority in general workmanship. In 1878 his brother, James Jacobson, accepted an engagement with the same house, and later went with another firm in which Abraham Jacobson had previously become a partner. February i, 1891, Abraham and James formed a new firm, under style, A. Jacobson & Brother, leasing premises at 109 Mercer Street, where they made a specialty of the manufacture of high grade novelties and ornaments, under very favorable conditions; they were bright and energetic young men of high character, were well known, and their productions were approved by the best houses in the trade throughout the country. For some time they devoted particular attention to the manufacture of first quality fur and braid ornaments for furriers, and a choice selection of small animal heads, in natural finish, for which there existed at the time an excellent demand in the fur and millinery trades. In 1893 they removed to 160 Mercer Street in order to secure more factory space, and there they in- creased the number of their manufactures, adding the production of entirely new things in fine head scarfs, celluloid skulls, braids and sundry small specialties of extreme utility in the fur business ; somewhat later they made a feature of larger life-size skulls for rugs fin- ished with mounted heads. On February i, 1897, in consequence of the very considerable development of their business they secured 824 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS greatly enlarged premises at 11-13 West Houston Street, where they materially increased their output of reliable goods, which were quite universally recognized as "Standard" in the fur trade. On February i, 1904, the firm removed to their present location, 160 Fifth Avenue, where they have materially enlarged their business, adding thereto the manufacture of furs of highest worth, including Rus- sian sable garments and sets, silver fox, Alaska seal, and other rich peltries wrought into artistic designs, which readily command the appreciation of the most dis- criminating consumer. ALBERT JAECKEL Albert Jaeckel has for many years occupied a prominent and leading position in the "ancient and honorable" fur business in the City of New York, but his reputation as an extremely proficient furrier en- dowed with more than ordinary good taste, is not con- fined to the Metropolis, for productions carrying his name have long held a high place in favor in all the great cities throughout the country where courtly furs are worn. He began his career in the American fur trade, which owes much to his genius and love of the beautiful, in 1877, at 12 East Eighth Street, manufacturing furs at wholesale, producing only high class goods ; not neces- sarily the most costly furs exclusively but definitely fine skins, the best in their class, made up by skilled operators who clearly understood that each finished article would be subjected to his searching scrutiny, and would not be allowed to pass to the shipping department if falling in MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 826 any degree below his fixed standard of perfection in manufacture. This rule has continuously prevailed in both the wholesale and retail departments, and largely accounts for the extreme favor accorded to Jaeckel furs by appreciative consumers in exclusive circles. In 1886 he secured larger premises at 1 1 East Nine- teenth Street, where he considerably extended the busi- ness and his reputation as an efficient manufacturer. A partner was taken in 1895, and under style, A. Jaeckel & Company, the business was removed to 37 Union Square West, and a retail department was added ; two years later, February i, 1907, Mr. Jaeckel leased the very fine building, now occupied, at 384 Fifth Avenue, and has since conducted a leading retail business in furs of highest quality. In August, 1907, the business was incorporated as A. Jaeckel & Company, the incorporators being: Albert Jaeckel, president; Lewis M. Borden, vice-president; L. A. Hamilton, secretary and treasurer. HUGO JAECKEL, Sr. Hugo Jaeckel has been a prominent fur merchant and manufacturer in the American Metropolis for nearly forty years; he began close to the lowest round of the ladder, and by unwearied industry and purposeful per- sistence won his way to the topmost round. He entered upon his business career in New York in July, 1878, as a member of the firm of Asch & Jaeckel, manufacturing ladies' furs at wholesale; a year later the firm was changed to Duncan, Asch & Jaeckel, and later, on the death of Mr. Duncan, the original title was resumed, and the business was removed to 11- 13 West Houston 326 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS Street, and later, January 15, 1892, still larger premises were secured, the firm leasing and occupying the entire building at 20-22 Waverly Place ; six years later the firm secured the commodious building at 2i7 Union Square, and in April, 1908, removed to 16-20 West Thirty- second Street. On February i, 1905, the firm was suc- ceeded by H. Jaeckel & Sons, the members being : Hugo Jaeckel, Sr., Hugo Jaeckel, Jr., and Richard Jaeckel. KAYE & EINSTEIN Kaye & Einstein, favorably known manufacturers of furs of highest merit, established in business in 1888, and from that date forward have occupied an enviable position in the trade, not alone in the Empire City, but as definitely from ocean to ocean, and in all important markets and fashion centers of the old world. Their styles readily win their way in consequence of their dis- tinctive character, originality and artistic excellence. All transactions, whether sales to or purchases from them, have proven satisfactory to all concerned. Their productions include ladies' furs, men's fur and fur- lined coats, and complete selections of auto fur clothing. The business of Kaye & Einstein was incorporated in January, 1908, with two hundred thousand dollars capital, by Alexander Heilbronner, Charles Kaye and Raphael C. Korn. Moses Einstein, of the firm, died June 12, 1902. Alexander Heilbronner died September 25, 19 16. KAUFMAN & OBERLEDER Kaufman & Oberleder, wholesale manufacturing furriers, have built up a business which is not only a MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 327 monument to their own enterprize, but a credit to New York; they set out to achieve success upon the correct basis, quality of materials and excellence in workman- ship — and have not missed the mark by a hairs breadth ; the phenomenal growth of the business tells the story better than it can be narrated in a multiplicity of words. Kaufman & Oberleder incorporated in February, 191 5. Frederick Kaufman, president; William Ober- leder, vice-president; George J. Baruch, secretary; Morris H. Oberleder, treasurer. JOHN KONVALINKA John Konvalinka conducted a manufacturing and retail fur business at 38 Maiden Lane, New York, for forty-four years, and was one of the best known furriers in the city. He was born in a village near Prague, Bohemia, in 1821, and came to New York in 1849; ^^ began business on his own account in 1852, and con- tinued to the time of his death, June 3, 1896. LOWERRE & COMPANY Lowerre & Company, for "years and years" at 83 Mercer Street, enjoy the distinction of being the oldest established house engaged in the manufacture of fur robes in New York. They began in the early seventies of the past century, and were especially important manufacturers of buffalo robes, and later Chinese goat robes in all colors. Thomas H. Lowerre, of the firm, died November 9, 1902, aged sixty. 828 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS SIMON REINEMAN— ALBERT REINEMAN Simon Reineman in 1852 established in the whole- sale hat and fur business in the Metropolis, as Reine- man, Gimbel & Company, later as Stern, Gage & Com- pany, and subsequently under style Foltz & Reineman, manufacturing furs, and so continued to 1885, from which date Simon Reineman conducted the business alone, achieving very considerable success, and becom- ing widely known in the trade. On January i, 1892, he retired and was succeeded by Albert Reineman, who today enjoys a reputation for ability and integrity, as a manufacturer of high-class furs, second to none. Simon Reineman died at Ulm, Germany, July 17, 1905, aged sixty-seven. REVILLON FRfeRES Revillon Freres, foremost fur merchants and manu- facturers of Paris, whose business dates back to 1723, have for nearly forty years unostentatiously exerted a beneficial influence upon the fur business of America as the inescapable effect of the impressively exalted char- acter of the house, their irreproachable methods, and the extreme excellence of the business in all its details. Every department of the great house is conducted in the most progressive up-to-date manner, and in the exercise of the fullest knowledge of commercial conditions and mercantile possibilities in all parts of the world. These statements apply not only to the original foundation at Paris, but as emphatically to the branches established in succession at London, Montreal, New York, Leipzig and points of minor magnitude, not the least of which have their beginning at comparatively recent dates in the new cities and personally planted trading posts in the most MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 829 modern provinces and far northern wilds of Canada. The New York branch of Revillon Freres was opened in 1880 at 731 Broadway, in charge of an Amer- ican representative, with an excellent selection of their superior fur seal skins in the beautiful French dye, and other choice furs adapted to the requirements of ultra fashionable consumers. In 1890 the business was confided to the efficient management of Mr. P. A. Majot, and was confined to trade at wholesale; six years later, in order to secure much greater manufacturing facilities the business was removed to 13-15 West Twenty-eighth Street, with Mr. Andre Jave in charge. The progress of the house was rapid, necessitating another change of location, and in January, 1899, the firm leased the entire building 19 West Thirty-fourth Street and 30-32 West Thirty-fifth Street, and very materially enlarged the business by opening one of the finest retail departments in the United States — their lines at the time included manufacturing, dressed and dyed fur skins at wholesale, raw fur purchasing at first hand, importing, exporting, retailing and cold storage; really every branch of the trade, and profoundly touch- ing every point, place and fur interest of real worth. The business was incorporated at Paris in 1904. The house has important branches in London and Montreal, and purchasing agencies in many parts of the world. Jean Albert Revillon died November 26, 1887. Leon Revillon died January 31, 191 5. Albert Revillon died at the front in the great war, October, 191 5. Anatole Revillon died January 30, 191 6. 830 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS A. P. ROCKWELL A. P. Rockwell was for many years well known in the fur business of New York; he was for some time a member of the firm of Treadwell & Company, from which connection he withdrew in 1879, and the follow- ing year opened a fine fur store at 731 Broadway, with a full line of fur seal skins and model garments from the celebrated house of Revillon Freres, Paris. He so continued to 1890, when he became manager of The Rockwell Fur Company, which remained in business only a short time ; subsequently he occupied an important position with the John Ruszits Fur Company. Mr. Rockwell died June i, 1903; born at Guilford, N. Y., March 4, 1840. SIMON SCHWERSENSKI Simon Schwersenski was for forty years one of the best known and most highly respected fur manufacturers in New York; he was born in Germany in 1849, and came to New York when a mere lad ; in a short time he found employment in the fur business and kept indus- triously at work until he mastered the trade. In the spring of 1873 he established a fur manufacturing busi- ness of his own, and gradually built up a splendid trade at wholesale. Mr. Schwersenski was actively identified with a number of charitable institutions. He died August 23, 1915- CHRISTOPHER C. SHAYNE Christopher C. Shayne was born at Galway, N. Y., September 29, 1844, and continued to reside in the old MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 331 homestead until he became of age. In 1865 he went to Cincinnati, where he engaged in the fur manufacturing business; seven years later he removed to New York and continued to be identified with the fur trade in various ways. In 1879 he established a small commis- sion business in manufactured furs at 103 Prince Street, and by hard work, perseverance and exceptionally liberal advertising built up a profitable manufacturing and re- tail business in popular furs. His business grew rapidly, and in a few years he erected and occupied a fine build- ing on Forty-second Street, west of Sixth Avenue, upon which his name is still displayed. Mr. Shayne died February 21, 1906. LOUIS ZECHIEL Louis Zechiel, who was born in a village in the Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany, in July, 1826, de- voted some six years to learning the furriers* trade, and when twenty-two years of age came to New York, and after acquiring a knowledge of local business methods established in fur manufacturing. From 1850 to 1875 he made up ladies' furs in mod- erate priced goods with marked success; in the latter year he ceased making small furs, and engaged largely in the manufacture of buflFalo, Chinese dog and goat robes. He was prominently identified with various socie- ties, including F. and A. M., Arion Society and other organizations of Brooklyn. He died August 25, 1895. PHIUP WEINBERG PHILIP WEINBERG; LOUIS CLARK, JR. Philip Weinberg, whose useful life exceeded the allotted span of three score and ten years, was a man of unblemished character, one whose word none ever doubted, and a fur merchant of much more than average ability. None was more orthodox in his religion than he; and yet he was not more orthodox in his religion than in his business; his was a life of faithful prayer, and practiced righteousness. More successful furriers there may have been ; but not better men. Mr. Weinberg began his career as a wholesale fur manufacturer in New York in 1855, locating in William Street, the center of the trade at that time. He devoted his attention to the manufacture of strictly dependable goods, that is, good throughout, the best in fur, f urnish- 832 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS 883 ings, and workmanship consistent with the selling price. In those days the quality of the fur was considered more important than the "style" in which it was made up; the consumer wanted a "fine fur," not a flashy lining — the real thing, not bargains ; furs were not so generally worn, nor so common as at present. Mr. Weinberg was fully conversant with condi- tions, but was not content to merely meet them by pro- ducing something "just as good" as those of the first line; he sought, rather, to make the quality standard, and in carrying out his purpose won his way into the confidence and sustained custom of the best houses of the period, and scored permanent success. His business steadily increased, and as the years rolled by larger and larger premises were occupied in abiding prosperity. Louis Clark, Jr., became associated, as full partner, with Mr. Weinberg in 1867, under style Ph. Weinberg & Company, and for twenty-two years, until its dissolu- tion, the firm occupied a leading position in the fur trade of New York, and was held in the highest esteem at home and abroad. Mr. Louis Clark, Jr., was upright, just, self respect- ing and respected by all who knew him socially or in business ; a man "true as steel," whom to know was an honor, and whose early death caused profound regret. Philip Weinberg died June 12, 1907, aged seventy- six. Louis Clark, Jr., died August 20, 1907, in the fifty- fifth year of his age. 884 MANUFACTURING FURRIERS M. PRENTICE WHITCOMB M. Prentice Whitcomb occupied a prominent posi- tion as a fur manufacturer in New York from 1854 to 1868; for the first three years he was in partnership with George C. Treadwell, and from January, 1857, to May, 1868, alone; he retired in the latter year. Mr. Whitcomb died at his home in Springfield, Vermont, December 8, 1879, aged fifty-four. MUTUAL PROTECTIVE FUR MANUFAC- TURERS' ASSOCIATION, Inc. An association with the above title, the latest co- operative movement among manufacturing furriers in New York City, was organized September-October, 191 7; the purposes comprehend all mercantile matters in any way aflfecting the interests of the members, atten- tion centering importantly upon credits. First officers chosen are: Julius Spirer, president; Emil Goodman, vice-president; Joseph Moscoff, secre- tary ; Dana Flaxman, treasurer. General offices are at 1269 Broadway, New York. SKUNK Reofox PED FOX — Walking. RED FOX — Running- V ^ •« ^ *^ ^ OPOSSUM, WAUONft-FwMTtaMxuSMuypocs NOT SNOW Fur bearers in passing over muddy banks of streams, dusty roads, lake shores and in the uncrusted snow mark the surfaces with their shapely feet; these tracks reveal to experienced hunters and trappers the nature of the animal and the direction pursued. The fur-bearers leave a different trail when walking and running, but the single foot prints are the same under all conditions. 835 Joseph M. Bossak, born in New York City, No- vember, 1 89 1, is a meritorius representative of the younger generation of fur merchants who by their general activities evidence their determination to fully maintain all that is best in the traditions of the trade, and to develop to the utmost the lessons of time and experience, presaging progress toward higher and grander achievements in the department of mercantile endeavor to which they devote their lives. It is a gratifying condition that such is the character, in the main, of the young men engaging in leading positions in the fur trade in these later years. Mr. Bossak was graduated from the High School of Commerce in 19 10, and in the autumn of that year entered upon his career in the fur business in the employ of Albert Herskovits & Son, giving close and studious attention to the raw fur department of the business ; he remained with the firm one year, and then established in his own interest in association with George N. Struck, under style : Struck & Bossak, dealing in raw furs and ginseng, with warerooms at 131 West Twenty-fourth Street. In 1913, Mr. Struck withdrew, and Joseph M. Bos- sak, receiving his younger brother, Arnold H. Bossak, into partnership, continued, incorporating the business under title: Struck & Bossak, Inc. The trade of the house, extending to all parts of the United States and Canada, met with encouraging success, and in order to 836 3os;epfj iW. JBojijfafe JOSEPH M. BOSSAK 337 effectively meet all requirements of the trade, shippers and manufacturers, the business was removed February I, 191 5, to the present commodious premises at 146-148 West Twenty-eighth Street. Mr. Bossak is an honored director of the Raw Fur Merchants' Association of the City of New York, and commendably manifests an intelHgent interest in every movement tending to augment the welfare of the fur trade in America of which he is a valued member. Mr. Bossak is laying deep and broad foundations upon which it is reasonable to assume that a mercantile superstructure, worth the extreme cost in sustained effort, will be securely built in the unfolding years of ensuing peace. SUCCESSFUL RAW FUR DEALERS AND MAN- UFACTURING FURRIERS IN VARIOUS TOWNS AND CITIES $f)tlabelp{)ta There are more manufacturing furriers in Phila- delphia than any other city in the United States, except- ing New York and Chicago; they are, however, mainly retail or custom furriers; many of them make high class furs, and have very attractive stores. From time to time Philadelphia merchants have undertaken to handle raw furs exclusively, but only for brief periods; a number of furriers, particularly those on Arch Street, buy raw furs brought to the city by trappers from nearby sections in the collection season. Down to the close of the nineteenth century an at- tractively fitted, furnished and well lighted fur store was the rare exception to the rule in the city of Penn; nearly all "emporiums" in which furs were exclusively sold were small, dark and rather dingy, doubtless due in part to the fact that during the "good old summer time" they were closed to business — the doors were quite generally left open during the day to admit air, but not in anticipation of garnering even transcient trade. It will readily be perceived that the fur selling season was decidedly restricted in point of time, and will explain why only the most proficient furriers in Philadelphia continued in business for anything like an extended period. Conditions have greatly changed; today the fur shops in the city, and the number is large, rank among 838 PHILADELPHIA 839 the best appointed, and most attractively stocked in the country, and an all-year business is the rule. John Davis began the manufacture of furs at retail in 1833, and was more than usually prosperous. He was an upright merchant and enjoyed the confidence of a large clientele. In due time he admitted his sons into partnership, with satisfactory results. The business was discontinued March 10, 1902. J. A. Stambach opened a small furrier's business in 1840, conducting at the outset a custom trade; his excellent workmanship was widely recognized, and for fifty-eight years he steadily progressed, finally advanc- ing to first place. He retired December 31, 1898. Edward S. Mawson was actively engaged in manu- facturing and retailing fashionable furs in Philadelphia from 1850 to 1890; he was well known in the trade both at home and abroad. Mr. Mawson died April 6, 1890. Gabriel Shoyer established a manufacturing and retail fur business in Philadelphia in 1867; he was a pop- ular man and a furrier of more than ordinary ability and enterprise, and duly attained a position of leading rank in the trade. He died November 22, 1891. Leo L. Cohn has been successfully engaged in the manufacturing and retail fur business in Philadelphia since 1875, ^^^ is still active at the "old stand." In former years practically all the fur stores were on Arch Street, a center not greatly improved archi- tecturally "unto this day"; at the present time the modern and model establishments are noticeably present on Chestnut and Walnut Streets, and here and there all around town. Baltimore For many decades Baltimore, Maryland, has been a busy center for the collection of raw furs during the trapping season, and each year a number of merchants have found it profitable to handle the peltries secured in the surrounding territory ; a few of the merchants deal in raw furs exclusively, but a larger number handle pel- tries in connection with farm produce, terrapin and other sea food. The regular collection of raw furs in- cludes fox, opossum, raccoon, mink, skunk, muskrat and a few other skins, but muskrat is the article received in largest quantity, the animal abounding in the nearby marshes and in the lowlands swept by the tides. Baltimore is also a leading market for the sale of muskrats for food, thousands of carcasses being sold and consumed annually. There is a remarkably good business in manufac- tured furs at Baltimore, which is efficiently taken care of by some thirty, enterprising furriers, and a larger number of department and specialty stores. For half a century Robert Quail Taylor, individ- ually and in association with efficient partners, con- ducted a fur business at Baltimore not surpassed in character and extent at any time in the Monumental City. He began in 1843 with a capital of seven hundred dollars, and in later years sold single garments for a much larger amount. In 1868 William W. Pretzman and G. E. S. Lansdowne became identified with the bus- iness, and full partners on February i, 1879. Mr. Tay- lor died June 23, 1895. L. Kraus has been a reliable and successful manu- 840 ^ BALTIMORE 141 facturing furrier at Baltimore since 1864; his business has grown by degrees, even as the city has expanded, and enjoys the same excellent reputation, and is as well known as the monuments. The number of furriers in the city has greatly in- creased in recent years, with "honors even," and equal opportunity for all to attain gratifying success. HONORABLE MENTION The following are included in the record, not be- cause remarkably great — "patient continuance in well doing," constitutes the attainment of greatness in the realm of business — but they are given place because de- serving of mention in that wherever they have pitched their tents they have materially elevated the standard of the fur industry, established a new center, and aug- mented the consumption of rightly named and thor- oughly reliable furs. It is a long way back to the eighteenth century, but we trace our march thither in noting the history of the oldest house, under one name, in the fur business of the United States; during all the years it has been at the same place, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In 1799 Tunis Van Kleeck established in the hat and raw fur business in the above New York town, con- tinuing until 1 83 1, when he was succeeded by his son, Albert Van Kleeck, who remained actively engaged until 1866, when the business was transferred to his son, Edward Van Kleeck, who conducted it alone until Feb- ruary I, 1890, when he admitted his brother, Frank, under style, Edward Van Kleeck & Co., until November 13, 1890, since which date it has been successfully car- ried on by Frank Van Kleeck. 342 HONORABLE MENTION L. Benedict, a merchant of the old school, estab- lished at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1815, in the manufacturing and retail fur business which abides to the present day in the succession of Benedict & Mueller, a firm well known locally and in the larger markets. John Galligher, who was born at Zanesville, Ohio, August 14, 1822, on attaining his majority entered the fur and hat business of his father, and in 1850 became sole owner, and so continued to 1883, when he took his sons, John and Louis C. Galligher, into partnership ; on December 30, 1895, he died in the sixty-fourth year of his age. The business has since been successfully con- ducted by John and L. C. Galligher, who have built up an extensive trade in raw furs and ginseng. Milton Tootle, born in Clarksburg, Ohio, 1823, en- gaged in the raw fur business at the age of twenty, as the outcome of considerable experience in trapping in the immediately preceding years. He was very enter- prising, and secured warehouses in Omaha, Nebraska, Sioux City and Council Bluffs, Iowa, and in 1849 niade his main house at St. Joseph, Missouri, meeting with success at all places, and amassing a fortune of more than three million dollars. He died January 2, 1887. Joshua A. Cotrell established at Albany, N. Y., in 1830, what eventually became, and remains, the best known fur house in that city. In 1855 he took in his son, Edgar Cotrell, as a clerk, and four years later as a part- ner; in 1867 Daniel Leonard was admitted into partner- ship, and in 1878 the firm name was changed to Cotrell & HONORABLE MENTION 843 Leonard; the firm has continuously enjoyed the respect of the trade at large. Joshua A. Cotrell died February i6, 1878, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. Edgar Cotrell died April 14, 1890. T. S. Paddock conducted without any set-back an ever progressing fur business at Cleveland from 1836 to 1 89 1, occupying the same store during the entire period. He died January 4, 1891, aged seventy-seven. The stock was purchased by Halle Brothers, who continued the business for a time at the "old stand," but who now occupy one of the handsomest stores in the new business section of the city. Charles H. Paulson, a business man of extreme efficiency and integrity, established a fur house in Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania, in 1837. The business grew slow- ly but surely, and has always been regarded as one of the most substantial mercantile enterprises in the city. It remains to the present day, Paulson Brothers being the successors. Ezra W. Boughton opened a modest fur business, manufacturing and retailing, at Troy, N. Y., in 1842; he made it a rule to never misrepresent an article, and quickly gained the confidence of a host of fur wearers, not only in Troy, but in Albany and the adjacent coun- try. He died October 29, 1902, aged seventy-eight. George Scherer opened an up-to-date fur store in Albany in 1848, and for more than half a century occu- 344 HONORABLE MENTION pied a prominent position in the business life of that historic fur center. He died March 5, 1908, in the eighty-third year of his age. The business is continued by Charles Scherer, his son, who was for some years in partnership with his father. Henry Martin, a man of marked intelligence and business ability, established a fur business at Utica, N. Y., in 1857, manufacturing and retailing, and in the sea- son buying raw furs in quantity. He was very popular and public spirited, and for a term was Mayor of the city. He died April 26, 191 5. The business was incor- porated in April, 1905, as Henry Martin Company; the officers are: Edwin H. Martin, president and treasurer; Margaret Martin, vice president; John N. Corbett, sec- retary. Hiram Willard opened a raw fur business in Mar- shalltown, Iowa, in 1864, and by uniform fair dealing with the smallest as well as the largest shippers, built up a solid trade, which for all round reliability ranks among the very highest in the country. Mr. Willard in due course took his son into the business, and later it was changed to the present style, H. Willard, Son & Com- pany. The business comprised hides and raw furs ex- clusively until 1 9 10, when fur tanning and manufactur- ing departments were added, covering complete lines of men's and ladies' fur goods. Hiram Willard died in 1906, and the business was then taken over by his son-in-law, Charles H. Hull; in 191 1 William B. and Albert F. Hull were admitted, under style H. Willard, Son & Co. HONORABLE MENTION 845 Balch, Price & Co., have for approximately half a century maintained the leading position among the man- ufacturing furriers of Brooklyn, N. Y. During the en- tire period they have, with ever increasing success, de- voted their energies to the production of fur garments and small furs of the choicest quality, including sables, foxes, seal, mink and other fashinonable and costly peltries. Joseph Pladwell conducted the wholesale manufac- ture of fur gloves in Brooklyn, N. Y., for more than a generation prior to his death. May 14, 1878. He was an exceedingly conscientious furrier, and instead of seek- ing to become the largest manufacturer in the country, made dependable quality the standard of his produc- tions. Following his death the business was continued by his widow and sons under style, J. Pladwell's Sons. John M. Cooper, Bainbridge, N. Y., is progressing toward the half-century mark as a buyer of raw furs, of which he has no superior as a judge, and whose rep- utation for honesty and fair dealing is faultless. He is exceptionally public spirited, and the best laws for the seasonable protection of fur-bearing animals, and the wise regulation of the raw fur business, ever written upon the statute books of New York State are directly -due to his tireless efforts and effectual influence. Udelmer C. Adams established in the manufactur- ing and retail fur business at 128 South Salina Street, Syracuse, N. Y., in 1870, under style Stevens & Adams; following the death of Mr. Stevens in 1893, Mr. Adams 346 HONORABLE MENTION • purchased the interest of his late associate and con- tinued the enterprise alone, and in his own name, until 1910, when the business was incorporated under title, Udelmer C. Adams Company, with which Mr. Adams remained actively identified, as president, up to the time of his death, November 28, 1916. Mr. Adams was exceedingly conscientious, han- dled only reliable goods, and never permitted an article of fur to be sold under the slightest misrepresentation as to name or quality — and the fact was widely known, and a sufficient reason for his success. G. R. Hunnewell, Auburn, Maine, is the oldest established and largest raw fur dealer in the State. He began buying furs in his youth, and has kept at it with remarkable success. His knowledge of furs, including the several points that count in determining value, is not surpassed, and in the course of his experience he has purchased some of the finest skins found on the conti- nent, and hundreds of thousands of the commoner pelts. Hull Foster, Jr., began buying raw furs at Athens, Ohio, in 1872, and in the more than forty years of his active connection with the trade, always at the same place, has consistently endeavored to elevate the busi- ness, and has gained for himself a high reputation for ability and integrity. H. Z. Foster, his son, is now asso- ciated with him in the business. Adolph Rauh, though born into the fur business, gained his personal success in practically all branches of the trade by unwearied industry. In 1874 he entered HONORABLE MENTION 847 the fur business in the employ of his father, Frie Rauh, at Nueremberg, Germany, devoting his attention to the raw fur department ; about three years later he was en- gaged by the old established Leipzig house, Lomer, Do- del & Co., and when that concern was dissolved in 1880 he was transferred to a similar position with G. Gaudig & Blum, Leipzig, by whom he was sent in 1883 to their New York branch to become their raw fur buyer. He remained with the house until 1890, in which year he was employed by R. Schoverling to buy raw furs and sell dressed and dyed skins ; four years later he was sim- ilarly engaged by Asch & Jaeckel, and in 1896 went with the Transatlantic Fur Company as western traveler. In May 1892, in association with Paul Richter, Mr. Rauh purchased the manufacturing and raw fur busi- iness established at Butte, Montana, by Robert Koene; in May, 191 3, he took over the entire business, and suc- cessfully continued alone until 191 7, when he was suc- ceeded by Richard P. Hoenck. William Grabowsky, who is an exceedingly capable furrier, established a fur business at Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania, in March, 1875, manufacturing for particular retail custom. On September i, 19 14, he admitted into partnership his son, John Rudolph Grabowsky. The concern handles furs of real merit, and spends money freely and wisely in making the fact widely known. L. H. Schlosberg, Portland, is the largest exclusive manufacturing furrier in the State of Maine; he occu- pies an entire four-story building on Congress Street, and makes a feature of the manufacture of the best S4a HONORABLE MENTION class of furs, selling to retail and wholesale trade. The business was established in 1894, and its continuance to date very plainly evidences its values to the community. A. E. Burkhardt began his career in the fur busi- ness in Cincinnati in 1866, opening in a small way with limited means, but with unlimited enterprise, and a determination to mount by merit to the topmost round of the ladder. From the beginning he dealt in raw furs, of which he was a superior judge, and also manufac- tured furs of approved quality, scoring ever increasing success for more than two decades ; a career so brilliant, for which nothing in business ventures of promise was too great, naturally invited some reverse in a trade sub- ject to great advances and retrogressions by the varying whims of fashion, instability of climatic conditions, and the inescapable effect of unfavorable years in general business; but though experiencing a period of depres- sion, which exceedingly few in any branch of trade have escaped, Mr. Burkhardt was undaunted, heroically met and mastered the condition, arose again and is still on deck as the most energetic and progressive raw fur merchant in his city. For some years past he has been ably assisted by his son Carl Burkhardt. Coloman Jonas and John Jonas, under style of Jonas Brothers, established as furriers and taxidermists at Denver, Colorado, in 1908, and have continued with marked success. Both members are exceptionally effi- cient taxidermists, and fine specimens, heads and entire animals, have been mounted by them for sportsmen and furriers throughout the west and northwest, and more remote sections. ^cattle The Seattle Fur Sales Agency was incorporated in June, 1906, at Seattle, Washington, with F. M. Wood- ruff as manager. The first sale of the concern was held July 18, 1906, and comprised a collection of good Alaska raw furs — the principal articles offered in all succeeding sales to date. The Agency has been a success under the management of F. M. Woodruff, and has been of in- calculable advantage to many collectors of large and small lots in Alaska, who have thus been enabled to readily market their furs at better figures than they formerly realized by selling their furs at home, or ship- ping to unknown concerns soliciting shipments by mail. 849 348 class o^ busine date H'" iSeto |9orfe Jf ur Auction The New York Fur Auction Sale Corporation held an auction sale of raw furs October 15-19, both dates inclusive, at which the offerings comprised: Fisher 414 Sea Otter 2 Wolverine 272 Bear 786 Marten 3,888 Mole 71,069 Ermine 42,998 Wolf i^,72y Chinchilla 846 Raccoon 31 ,806 Civet 8,599 Otter 1,532 Kolinsky 13,685 Nutria 43»3i8 Badger 5,372 Mink 43,462 Muskrat 600,086 Kangaroo 245 Squirrel 12,400 Marmot 1,261 Leopard 474 Stone Marten 185 Blue Fox 644 Cross Fox 788 Red Fox 6,684 White Fox 1,888 Silver Fox 326 Grey Fox 4,626 Skunk 88,897 Lynx 4,756 Beaver 8,689 Pahmi 9,692 White Hare 200 Russian Sable .... 199 Russian Fitch .... 2,327 AmericanOpossum 1 1 3,83 1 Ringtail Opossum. 13,949 AustralianOpossum 19,403 Australian Fox . . 3,156 Japanese Marten.. 1,217 Japanese Mink . . . 4,420 Chinese Weasel . . 42,686 Chinese Civet 4>556 Leopard Cat 4405 Wild Cat 11,017 Ringtail Cat 1,196 House Cat 15*097 Sundries 850 NEW YORK FUR AUCTION It was a great sale, not merely because nearly ooo pelts were sold, but importantly in that it in sively proved that once and again raw furs in exti quantity, in spite of the non-existence of foreign mand, may readily be marketed in the true center of thv industry. It was great in that it brought into clear relief the positive spirit of patriotism prevailing in the Fur Trade of America. Mayor Mitchel, of New York, addressed the as- sembled merchants in behalf of the Second Liberty Loan, and the response was spontaneous and inspiring, in- dividual subscriptions ranging upward to one hundred thousand dollars being made as rapidly as the tellers could record names and amounts; bonds were taken in the five days of the sales to the amount of $3,716,900 351 "Blue pelts," the term correctly describing fur skins which are blue on the pelt or leather side, are the skins of fur-bearers caught early in the fall, while the tem- perature is above freezing; such skins are "unprime," and the condition of the leather is due to the fact that the blood which supplies "life" to the fur and hair at the roots during the period of growth, has not completed its purpose and been in due course absorbed into the veins of the body. When the animal is killed in this stage of development, the light strain of blood feeding the fur coagulates, corrupts, turns the pelt blue, and weakens it as corruption progresses. A blue pelt invariably means immature fur, and a weak leather. The same skin caught a few weeks later, when prime, would be mature in fur and strong in leather, and would command a much higher price — and be worth the difference. "Shedders" is the term applied to fur skins caught in the spring from the time the temperature again rises and remains above thirty-two degrees. Such skins may, if not taken too late, have fairly strong leather, but the excess of fur necessary for the maintenance of the normal condition of the animal in winter begins to fall out, or "shed," and continues to do so after the skin has been manufactured, and on account of its poor wearing quality tends to condemn good fur as well as bad in the opinion of purchasers for consumption. BLUE PELTS AND SHEDDERS 363 Legislatures of the several States should prohibit the capture of fur-bearing animals before the fur be- comes prime, under penalty of seizure of the skins wher- ever found with added fines for all subsequent offences. There is a more effective remedy. Raw fur dealers and furriers know that as a rule blue pelts and shedders are practically worthless, wanton waste, and should there- fore refuse to buy them at any price. The present inter- ests of the trade, and the perpetuity of the fur industry, demand such action, not to-morrow or some time, but NOW. Jf ut JSresisimg Fur skins are rendered clean, odorless, and pliant by a process, embracing several operations, known as dressing; it is the initial manipulation, and definitely and effectively marks the distinction between "skins" and "furs." The date at which skins were first dressed is unknown, but it is a well attested fact that fur dress- ing is not an attainment to be credited to civilization, for it was practiced long before Governments were dreamed of or States were formed. Civilized navigators and pioneers of earliest record who visited great or small or out-of-the-way places where seasons rule, moderately low temperatures or the ice king continuously reign, invariably found that the aborigines, yellow and red, knew how to dress the skins of furry animals, and in most instances were master workmen, or workwomen, for much of the fur dressing done by people ranking as savages was, and is, done by women. North American Indians and Esquimaux have, so far as can be learned, been particularly efficient, and their dressing is not surpassed in any essential point by the most skilled modern workmen operating singly or in teams with vastly superior mechanical devices and approved materials. Peltries of every description as removed from the bodies of the animals are stretched and dried on boards, in which state they are classed as "raw," are hard, stiff, greasy, more or less unpleasantly odorous, and in every particular unfit for use, and therefore have to pass through the operations known as dressing to render 854 FUR DRESSING 855 them available for manufacturing purposes ; dressing re- sults in perfectly purifying and deodorizing the fur, and making the leather as soft and pliant as the finest kid used in making gloves. Methods of dressing furs pursued by expert dress- ers engaged exclusively in the work, are too complicated to be learned other than by practical experience, particu- larly in the manipulation of the choicer and very costly skins, which have to be handled with great care to avoid injuring the fur — except under arrangements at "own- er's risk," the dresser has to make good losses due to his inefficiency. All fur skins are not dressed in exactly the same manner, generally, however, they are soaked for a number of hours in slightly salted water to ad- vance the softening of the leather; the skins are then allowed to remain in the air until the moisture exapo- rates, after which they are greased on the leather side with butter, oil or lard of best quality ; low grade butter and cheap oils have been used on all but the highest priced skins, but not with satisfactory results as the finished furs retained somewhat of the offensive odor inherent in such materials. The skins, varying in num- ber according to quality and size, are next placed in a machine similar to that used in felting wool, operated by power, and which as it revolves turns the skins over and over and upon each other until the leather becomes quite clean and soft ; during this operation the skins are liable to become over-heated, and if this condition is approxi- mated the skins are promptly removed from the machine, spread out to cool, and are again put back for a final beating. Skins heated to excess while being beaten may be uninjured in leather, but the fur will be damaged, 358 FUR DRESSING appearing curled, crinkled and burned in spots and patches; such skins are classed as "singed," and the total or partial loss in value falls upon the dresser. When the beating operation is completed the skins are individually examined, and all remaining shreds of flesh and fat are removed with a dull knife ; the skins are next placed in a machine with a mixture of sawdust, rye- bran or wheat flour, and are beaten with alternating plungers until the sawdust mixture takes up as near as may be all the grease, natural and added for dressing, both upon the surface and in the pores of the leather; the small amount of grease remaining upon completion of the above operation is removed either with clay, or by placing the skins in a revolving wheel, called a "drum," with very fine sawdust from red cedar, and revolving them until all grease is absorbed. Following their removal from the drum the skins are shaken or beaten to remove the sawdust and other dressing sub- stances from the fur. The operation of cleansing the leather of grease with sawdust and bran was formerly performed by "treading^*; the skins and dressing substances were placed in casks and men tramped them with their bare feet for hours — in instances the men treading the pelts were not only "in their bare feet," but were otherwise as undressed as the furs they were treading. When the mechanical operations are completed, workmen carefully comb the fur on all parts of the pelt, and then for the first moment since its removal from the body of the animal the beauty or defects of the fur be- come fully manifest to the observer. Furs are first dressed and are then dyed; but cer- FUR DRESSING 857 tain kinds of skins are only partially dressed and are then dyed, the dressing being subsequently completed; owing to this practice dressing and dyeing, are often con- ducted in the same establishment, particularly by opera- tors who prefer, on account of the responsibility in- volved, to dye skins of their own dressing. The work of fur dressing is performed chiefly at and in the vicinity of Leipzig, and in lesser amount in other cities of Germany; at and near Paris and Lyon, France; Moscow and Petrograd, Russia; London, Eng- land; Greater New York, Newark, N. J., and to a lesser extent in other cities in the United States. Furs were more or less excellently dressed from the earliest date at which they were used as clothing by savages, barbarians, partially and progressively civilized men. The work of the Esquimau fur dresser is perfect in every particular. In 1609, when Henry Hudson ex- plored the country bordering the river now bearing his name, he learned that the Indians were expert fur dressers as well as alert trappers and hunters; and the same fact was noted by other explorers and pioneers as they continued their march toward the setting sun. Indians dress skins by pegging them down, leather side up, upon a smoothe, hard spot of earth; the only substances used is the brains of the animal from which the pelt was taken, and juices of certain berries; this brain-dressing is simply rubbed over and worked into the leather until it becomes nearly dry, and is then care- fully scraped off with a blunt instrument, leaving the pelt perfectly clean and soft. In the era of made haste in bison extermination upon the western plains of the 358 FUR DRESSING United States, Indian dressed buffalo hides, owing to greater care in skinning as well as excellence in dress- ing, commanded a higher price in the market than "white man handled" robes. Bpeing anb IPIenbins Though skins were colored somewhere near the date of the Exodus, furs were first successfully dyed in the eleventh century, but the results achieved at that early period in the history of the art were not remark- ably impressive ; and for many years very little progress was made in this particular class of dyeing, as the es- sential work of cleansing the fur previous to applying the dye was only imperfectly understood. Within the past seventy-five, but more importantly the last thirty years, great improvements have been perfected in methods of dyeing furs both abroad and at home; the progress made in the United States, mainly in Greater New York and Newark, has been most rapid and pro- nounced, advancing from an insignificant beginning to world leadership in the industry; and the remarkable degree in perfection attained in fur dyeing and the other operations preliminary to manufacturing, dressing, plucking and unhairing, have resulted advantageously beyond calculation to the fur trade at large in the dis- covery and development of the latent beauty and value of many previously unappreciated peltries — this is especially true of fur seal and coney skins. Sundry other furs, noticeably lynx, opossum, variegated, and pale or faded skins, are greatly improved in appearance and increased in value by dyeing only. • DYEING 359 Formulas are guarded as invaluable secrets; each dye of acknowledged superiority, either on account of color or fastness, is the result of patient study and re- peated experiments, and their composition and manipu- lation cannot be obtained from the discoverers for "love or money." Furs which may be improved by dyeing, and those which are from time to time dyed to meet periodic de- mands of fashion, are usually colored black, brown or blue ; but many fancy colors are also produced by dyers as fleeting fads or imitations, such as blue, red, orange, green, purple and yellow to harmonize with garments to be fur-finished. Some skins are at times dyed in dual tones, yellow ground fur, and black top hairs ; sheared coney has been dyed in imitation of seal, tiger, leopard and zebra skins ; white foxes and white hares are dyed a smoky, bluish- brown to imitate natural blue fox ; these are only a few of the marvels and freaks produced by efficient fur dyers, who stand ready to deliver on short notice any novelty or imitation that may be desired in quantity. As a rule furs are dyed in the tub, that is, are dipped in the liquid dye the necessary time for fixing the color ; seal skin, which are first nailed fur-side out on boards prepared for the purpose, have the dye brushed on, from four to twelve applications being required to secure the desired tone. Plucked beaver and otter are also brush- dyed. Brush-dyed skins suffer no deterioration in leather, remain pliant, and are much more durable than skins dipped in the dye tub. "Seal color," for many years a comparative term in 360 DYEING the trade, was originally a beautiful chestnut brown, but has been superceded by a much deeper hue, emanating from Paris, so definitely approximating black as to rank as black in the judgment of all observers except the elect few claiming the possession of exceptional color vision. Mink, sable, marten and other furs chiefly beautiful on account of the abundance of long glossy hairs, but which owing to section of origin or season of capture are naturally too light in color to be in vogue, or which have become faded, are darkened by an operation known as "blending." Such skins would lose much of their gloss and strength if dipped in the dye tub, and much of the es- sential sheen of the long hairs would be destroyed if the dye should be brushed on as in seal dyeing; as a rule only small portions and patches of the fur require dark- ening, and this effect is secured by repeatedly touching the fur to be toned with a small brush dipped in a tinc- ture specially prepared for the purpose, the painting being continued until the entire pelt is "blended." Furs that have become faded in service may be similarly treated; or when new fur has been pieced into old gar- ments, the old fur may be blended to harmonize in color with the new. For generations it was believed that certain fur skins could be properly dyed only in Leipzig; one of the principal articles so regarded was Persian lamb skin, but long "before the war" this dressy skin was satis- factorily colored by American dyers. For many years the trade assumed, and consumers were insistently taught, that fur seal skins could be correctly dressed DYEING 361 and dyed nowhere except in London, and during the many years when the catch exceeded two hundred thou- sand skins per annum, nearly all the fur seal pelts were manipulated in that city, and American wearers of fur seal garments and novelties per force paid an import duty of twenty per centum on an American article. Seal skins were being dyed in America all the time, though in comparatively small supply, and the dye was good. Dyers at Paris also successfully entered the field, and while they did not lead in volume, they set the fashion in color — and fashion always dominates in fur. The number of fur dyers in the United States has increased many fold in the past ten years, and they now efficiently dye furs of every class suitable for dyeing; and readily produce the desired color — natural or super- natural. ABORIGINAL FUR DRESSING TOOLS Illustrations of fur dressing tools shown on the succeeding page are selected from a large number, greatly differing in form, used by North American Indians, as presented in the report of the National Museum, 1889, by Otis T. Mason, curator of the De- partment of Ethnology. EXPLANATION OF PLATE Fig. I. Beaming Tool. Made from the tibia of a horse. There has been little or no modification of the bone. The fibula furnishes a most excellent natural edge for the tool. Cat. No. 19891, U. S. N. M. Piute In- dians, southern Utah. Collected by Maj. J. W. Powell. Fig. 2. Graining Tool. Made of the tibia of the deer. At the middle part, where the bone is hardest, it 362 ABORIGINAL DRESSING TOOLS is cut in two diagonally so as to expose a square edge on the posterior part. Teeth are cut in this edge to soften the skin after treatment. Cat. No. 19894, U. S. N. M. Utes of northern Utah. Collected by Maj. J. W. Powell. Fig. 3. Graining Tool. Made of the tibia of a horse. The column cut diagonally across the middle or hardest portion so as to furnish a square edge on the posterior side. Very fine teeth have been made along this edge for graining or softening the skin. Cat. No. 31316, U. S. N. M. Indians of the pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico. Collected by Dr. H. C. Yarrow and Lieut. George Wheeler, U. S. Army. Fig. 4. Graining Tool. Made of iron. An old- fashioned wagon skein, used on wooden axles before iron axles were invented. The upper or inner portion shows the holes for the rivets. Its edge is serrated for graining the hide. The buckskin thong is wrapped around the forearm and serves as a brace to hold the tool rigid. The shaft is covered with buckskin to pro- tect the hand. Cat. No. 14196, U. S. N. M. Sioux In- dians, Dakota. Collected by Edward Palmer. PLUCKING AND UNHAIRING All animals specially valued on account of their pelage have a coat consisting of long, rather coarse hairs scattered over the entire body, and which generally are darker than the shorter, softer and much more abundant set of exceedingly fine hairs which they cover from view ; the longer surface set consists wholly of hair, the under set is what we designate as fur. In some species of animals classed as fur-bearers PLUCKING AND UNHAIRING 863 M n TOOI^S USED BT INDIANS IN DRESSING FUR AND OTHER SKINS 864 PLUCKING AND UNHAIRING the upper and in others the under coat correctly ranks as most beautiful, and in instances as the only attrac- tive division ; a few specimens are doubly valuable, being exceedingly handsome "in the hair," or as fur only. The first class, those naturally beautiful, includes the sea otter, sable, marten, fox, chinchilla, mink, skunk, lynx, ermine, and a few others having short hair and fur which is either handsomely marked, or uniform in color; those in which the soft under fur is regarded as particularly beautiful, whether natural or dyed, include the fur seal, beaver, otter, coney and muskrat; the beaver, otter, nutria and muskrat may be effectively used either natural, plucked or dyed. The operation of removing the long hairs is vari- ously termed plucking, picking, clipping, shearing and unhairing; the last named is now the most important. Beaver skins that are to be plucked are prepared for the operation by being soaked in water to soften the leather and open the pores so that the hairs may be easily removed; when the skins become soft enough to be worked they are warmed, and are then placed upon a rounded beam, fur side down, and shaved on the leather side with a moderately sharp knife which cuts off the hairs at the roots permitting them to be readily drawn out, or plucked. Otter and nutria skins, which are similar in character to beaver, and opossum, mink and muskrat are plucked in practically the same manner; otter, natural or plucked, is a superb and exceptionally durable fur; plucked and dyed otter, nutria, mink and muskrat have at times been freely used as seal imita- tions, particularly when seal was universally popular and constantly advancing in price, and the other articles PLUCKING AND UNHAIRING 366 were at low-water mark in value. Fur seal skins are plucked differently, requiring two operations to com- plete the work ; the first constitutes a part of the opera- tion of dressing, the second may be done at any time after the skins have been dyed; the dressers remove a majority of the long hairs, but as those remaining, ap- pearing as tiny glistening points irregularly distributed over the dark surface of the fur, mar the beauty of the pelt, all have to be taken out; originally this finishing process was designated as "picking," and was done by girls, who carefully parted the fur, held it down and then clipped off the short hairs with a pair of shears of peculiar shape. Since 1881 the work of "picking," from that date defined as "unhairing," has been done by a simple but rather remarkable machine, which perfectly unhairs a skin in about an hour, whereas formerly sev- eral days were required to do the work imperfectly by hand. The machine consists of a bellows to blow the fur apart, a comb to hold it down while the hairs are being cut, and two knives set horizontal ; the machine is operated by a treadle moving the skin forward across an iron bar one-sixteenth of an inch at a time, and as the bellows blow the light fur open the stiff hairs stand- ing erect, unaffected by the light current of air, are in- stantly clipped off by the knives across the entire width of the pelt. Some skins, especially coney and muskrat, are merely "sheared" — that is, all the long hairs are cut off down to or slightly into the under fur, leaving a complete surface of uniform depth; sheared skins may be used natural or dyed as imitations of other furs. White furs, particularly fox and ermine, and es- 866 PLUCKING AND UNHAIRING sentially Polar bear, are greatly improved in appear- ance by bleaching in sulphur fumes to restore the fur to a clear, uniform white on pelts that have become stained, soiled or partially yellow. ADOLPH BOWSKY Adolph Bowsky is the oldest living and actively en- gaged fur dresser in America. He was born in Brom- berg, Germany, in May, 1833; after learning the fur dressing trade in Berlin, he came to New York, and in 1857 was engaged as foreman in the fur dressing and dyeing works of Theodore Favre, with whom he re- mained until 1863, when he established a plant of his own on East Fifty-first Street, where the business has been continuously conducted to date. Mr. Bowsky was one of the first dressers to suc- cessfully deodorize skunk; at first only a few hundred skins were dressed annually, but subsequent to 1880 he dressed in excess of one hundred and fifty thousand skins in a single year. MAX BOWSKY Max Bowsky, born in Germany in 1852, came to New York fourteen years later and at once began an experimental study of fur dressing and dyeing, con- tinuing his apprenticeship for about twelve years. In 1879 he established independently, and on account of the excellence of his outpnt became one of the best known fur dressers and dyers in America; his black dye, par- ticularly on fine lynx, was the recognized standard. He died December 12, 1907. DRESSERS AND DYERS 367 JOSEPH DENISON WILLIAMS J. D. WILLIAMS, INC. J. D. Williams, whose superior fur dyeing establish- ment has been most favorably known in the trade of America for upwards of three-quarters of a century, was born in Albany, N. Y., in 1817, at which time his father was just beginning- his business career as a dresser and dyer of furs. Following his graduation at Williams College, Mr. Williams secured a suitable plant at Marlboro, N. Y., and engaged in fur dressing and dyeing in accordance with the most approved methods of the time. He later, in association with his father, re- moved to New York City and opened a factory in Bur- ling Slip in the immediate vicinity of the center of the fur manufacturing industry of that date; about a year later a great fire swept over that part of the city, and Mr. Williams removed ,to Brooklyn where for more than half a century he personally conducted a continu- ously enlarging and popular business in dressing and dyeing fine furs, especially seal, beaver and otter. Some time prior to his retirement from active duty on account of advancing age, he admitted his sons into the business, which was incorporated in 1901, under style : J. D. Williams, Inc. Mr. Williams died at his place of residence in Brooklyn, April 3, 1901. SCHIFF BROTHERS In October, 1902, Theodore and Abraham Schiff and John C. Crasser, under style, Schiff & Company, purchased the factory and business of the Rodiger & Quarch Fur Dyeing Company in Brooklyn, N. Y., and 868 DRESSERS AND DYERS entered upon the work of dressing and dyeing. The members of the firm were popular and progressive, and made unusually rapid progress in developing a business of exceptional magnitude. In 1909 the plant was taken over by Theodore and Abraham Schiff, under title Schiff Brothers, and continued with pronounced suc- cess. Theodore Schiff died December 11, 191 5. HERMAN BASCH & CO. Herman Basch & Company in January, 1902, estab- lished a high grade fur dyeing business in the City of Churches, and today the "Basch Dyes," which are prac- tically perfect in points of color and durability, are favorably known to all leading fur merchants and manu- facturers. The business has been incorporated and was recently removed to enlarged premises. CHAPAL C. & E. Chapal Freres & Co., old established fur dyers of Paris, France, opened a branch factory in Brooklyn, N. Y., early in 1904. It is one of the best equipped plants for the purpose in America, and is espe- cially organized and manned for dressing and dyeing fur seal skins as perfectly as the work is done in the cele- brated establishment at Paris. All other fur skins in the dyeing class are also handled with equally excellent results. Muskrat, seal and otter are not only dyed, but are also perfectly machined. The firm additionally operates one of the largest, best equipped and in all respects most modern fur dress- ing departments in America, in which they dress furs of all kinds, the workmanship being of the highest order of excellence in detail. DRESSERS AND DYERS 3e» A. HOLLANDER An exceptionally large and successful fur dressing and dyeing plant is in ''full time" operation at Newark, N. J., under the proprietorship of A. Hollander & Son. The business was founded by A. Hollander, who began in a small way in every particular except ability, which was of the order which neither rests nor halts until it "goes over the top." Michael Hollander, of the firm, is a young man of great enterprise and high purpose; he is extremely pro- gressive, ceaselessly seeks the latest in method, and by his close attention to quality and "speeding," has car- ried the plant forward to the first class both in grade and output. In evidence of the excellence of Hollander dye a parcel of some thirty thousand seal-dyed muskrat skins manipulated in the Newark factory were offered in a regular public sale in London, England, July 2^, 1917. DRESSERS AND DYERS BOARD OF TRADE The Fur Dressers' and Fur Dyers' Board of Trade was incorporated January, 1908, with Theodore Schiif, of Schiff Brothers, as first president; the membership embraced the fur dressing and fur dyeing firms in Greater New York, Jersey City and Newark. The Board was organized to correct abuses that were seri- ously affecting the business, noticeably terms of dating, deductions for actual and imaginary defects in dressing and dyeing, harmful methods in competition, and other matters; the results sought to be effected were worked out — and dressing and dyeing, and the trade served, have been immensely benefitted and improved in tone and condition. MY PRONG HORNED ANTELOPE Taxidermy may be considered as the "art preserva- tive," not of the fur trade, but of fur-bearers, from the mighty grizzly bear down to the tiny white mouse with fiery eyes ; taxidermy is furthermore a coordinate branch of the fur trade, and where furriers most abound taxi- dermists set up their ensigns and thrive; many taxi- 370 TAXIDERMY 871 dermists have enlarged their borders by becoming fur- riers, or buyers of peltries, as secondary sources of rev- enue; and some furriers have acquired skill as taxi- dermists of fair repute — satisfied artisans, if not great artists. Furriers deserve to be nominated the patron saints, as they surely are the financial sustainers, of taxiderm- ists; without their aid and encouragement taxidermy as an art might exist but would not flourish as at pres- ent; furriers have done more than the members of all all other branches of trade combined to develop taxi- dermy artistically and commercially, to make it very much more important than the occasional "stuffing" of a dead pet canary or a lamented tom or tabby. Once in a while, not oftener, the maker of a pre- digested breakfast food, or an indigestible soup, may introduce a bear "brand," or adopt a tiger trade mark, and, in consequence, require a mounted bear or tiger for the main office ; now and then a sportsman secures a fine specimen and has it mounted as a memento of a never- to-be-forgotten event; occasionally taxidermists are kept busy for a season mounting big game slaughtered wholesale by some mighty hunter, one more successful as a slayer of beasts than as a winner of men with Wonderful words of war. Weasel words of hate, 'Possum words of envy — Words unfit to enunciate. Gun and ammunition manufacturers, dealers in sportsmen's goods, and northwestern and Canadian rail- 872 TAXIDERMY way companies decorate their offices and show rooms with mounted moose, deer, antelope, bear and wolf heads, and in instances entire specimens of animals and birds. Larger collections are preserved in museums throughout the country ; the best and most complete dis- play in this class is shown at the Museum of Natural History, New York, where perfectly mounted specimens of practically all species of American wild animals, and many Asiatic and African specimens, are shown in fam- ilies and small herds in separate rooms which by the use of rocks, tree trunks, shrubbery, grasses, leaves and painted backgrounds, are made to correctly represent the haunts of the various animals. All these give the taxidermist much to do, but it is the furrier who keeps him busy with orders for speci- mens, show pieces, and mounted heads for rugs. A furrier, with the aid of a small, oddly-shaped knife and a common needle, can do many wonderful things. A taxidermist, one who is an artisan indeed, using equally simple tools, can perform startling feats — re- store unsightly skins of dead creatures to the natural form and beauty of the animals from which they were taken ; make them again lifelike, true to nature in every respect excepting the power to breathe. Ancient embalmers were semi-taxidermists; their subjects are well preserved ; modern taxidermists excel, in that specimens passing through their hands are per- fectly restored. ws dime's (ilf)mQti Definitely in the Fur Trade, and possibly in other branches of business regarding which we are not fully informed, custom deter- mines policy and procedure as au- tocratically as Mrs. Grundy ruled the world of fashion continuously adown the years to the close of the first decade of the present century. American raw furs were sent abroad to be publicly sold in world- wide competition in order to de- termine market values; any sug- gestion, however reasonable, that the method might be at least par- tially changed with beneficial re- sults, was scornfully rejected by men of the older gen- eration with the terse remark: **It is impossible; the business has never been done any other way." Manufacturers annually sailed the sea to procure the latest Paris models; nothing else would do, though many were extreme, even bizarre, and had to be materi- ally changed, modified and adapted; but so long as the "style" could be put forth as "from Paris," though only a reflection of the original, it was accepted by the de- votees of fashion, not necessarily as a thing of beauty, but as an "artistic creation" devoid of the crudities 373 374 TIME'S CHANGES manifest in American productions — and, of course, "worth the difference in cost." The importance of "keeping up with Paris," and somewhat later and in a lesser degree, Berlin, extended beyond form or fashion, and embraced the fur; if silver fox, or fitch, or dyed rabbit, or mole skin were the "rage" at Paris, they at once ranked first among the articles in vogue in America. Some of the furs that were at times the rage in Paris were outrageous, notice- ably furs dyed green, red, yellow, purple, and pink; but they sped across the ocean in response to cabled orders, ran riot in favor for a day, and were succeeded by some other fad born over night in the gay capital. Time has wrought many changes; skins are now publicly sold in quantity at regular intervals in America, the land of their origin, and will continue to be so sold in all future time ; though it is not to be understood that they will not, as heretofore, be also similarly offered abroad. American designers of styles are no longer merely copyists or adapters, but are artistic, masterful creators of incomparably beautiful apparel, and more, apparel combining beauty and utility in the highest degree. Time has effected an awakening to the fact that among the hundred millions in America the percentage of fur wearers is vastly greater than it was when the population was three million, or when it had increased to twenty times three million. Time's changes are noted not only in methods, prac- tices and rooted opinions, but in men as well. Men erected buildings and named them after themselves; struggled, and successfully, to gain leadership and for- TIME'S CHANGES 375 tune; built and toiled and planned, as though conlfident of living forever — time has swept away the "grand" three or four-story structures, and in their places has arisen twenty and thirty lofts piled one upon another; and the men themselves have passed on into the great beyond to give place to the present, passing, following procession. We are not contemplating time's changes as wrought in the centuries, but as evidenced in less than a generation — a lesson which it is not wise to lightly learn. In April, 1886, thirty-one years ago, the Manu- facturing Furriers' Association of New York was or- ganized by the following firms : John Ruszits F. Booss & Bro. R. Prince Louis Cohen & Bro. Lyon Brothers Ph. Weinberg & Co. Asch & Jaeckel L. Loewus & Co. Harris & Russak Chas. Heidenheimer E. E. & B. Baldwin Mayers & Rab Alfred Muenzer H. M. Silverman & Co. Moses Foltz M. Bermond Maerlender Bros. Metzger & Schiff M. Stern Sowdon & Bloch C. C. Shayne J. Freystadt & Sons A. E. Harris Kesner & Hall Chas. A. Herpich E. Kolben Of the above only the following are still living : E. E. Baldwin, Hugo Jaeckel, Sr., Edmond R. Lyon, Louis Cohen, Gerald Lyon, and W. H. Freystadt. Louis Cohen and Edmond R. Lyon have retired from the fur business. The only firm still in business under the same name is that of J. Freystadt & Sons, the surviving member being W. H. Freystadt. BISON HIDE, LEATHER SIDE, ORNAMENTED BY INDIAN HUNTER 876 ^bbenbum FURS AND FUR-BEARERS OF OTHER CONTINENTS AND COUNTRIES AND ISLANDS OF THE SEA Are included in the record because ultimately peltries of every name and clime are measurably utilized in the FUR TRADE OF AMERICA t 377 ^outi) Slmerica Several species of animals valued on account of their furry coats abound in the South American States, some of which are not found elsewhere; the number includes the chinchilla, otter, coypu, fox, beaver, skunk, wild cat, wolf, weasel, puma, jaguar, paco, rabbit and hare; other animals not ' iA % classed as furry, are the deer, elk, goat and sheep; the best, gauged by fur value, fre- quent mountainous districts, or lakes, streams and marches. CHINCHILLA Chinchilla is the most beautiful fur ob- tained on the continent, and in the estima- tion of those to whom grey is a preferred I color is without an equal regardless of the country of origin; it surely occupies first place among furs in point of delicacy, being as soft as purified down, and as charming in color as the rose coming from the same creative hand ; the exquisite greys, includ- ing every shade from the lightest to dark- est, are most pleasingly modulated and nat- urally blended in harmonious and contrast- ing association, and no matter in what form it is made up — cape, collar, muff or border — it strongly attracts the attention of lovers of the beautiful, and aflPords the 878 CHINCHILLA utmost satisfaction to the wearer. Chinchilla fur, which is particularly suited to young ladies possessing ample means to indulge in luxurious attire, is always used to some extent, and at times has been extremely fashiona- ble, so much "in style" that the animal was nearly exter- minated a few years since, and surely would have been utterly destroyed if the government had not intervened to restrict its unwise and wanton slaughter. In 1883 more than two hundred thousand skins were offered at the London sales ; during very recent years the offerings have been only a fraction of that great total, owing in part to the fact that as an innovation in conducting the business one leading New York house made direct pur- chases in South America to more effectively handle the article as a specialty. In 1883 best chinchilla skins sold in London at eighteen dollars per dozen, and early in the present century above one hundred and twenty dollars per dozen, the great advance being due to scarcity con- sequent upon excessive slaughter in previous years. The chinchilla, which is very small, only ten to four- teen inches in length, including the tail, inhabits sandy 379 880 CHINCHILLA districts in the mountain ranges throughout Chili and Bolivia, the choicest skins, gauged by purity of color and density of fur, being procured at the greatest altitudes. Until near the close of the nineteenth century the collection of chinchilla skins in Chili and Bolivia ranged below two thousand dozen pelts per annum, but under the incentive of the personal solicitation of an American buyer, who was prepared to pay cash at a higher figure than had previously been received by dealers and trap- pers, the annual collection amounted to approximately thirty-six thousand dozen skins. Prior to 1896 the bulk of the catch of chinchillas went to London to be sold at auction, but subsequent to that date about three-quarters of the collection was shipped direct to New York. In September, 191 6, the Chilian government enacted a law prohibiting the catching, selling and exporting of chinchillas; this law became effective March 6, 191 7, to remain in force until March 6, 1922; severe penalties, fines or imprisonment, or both, are provided for viola- tions of the law. After March 6, 1922, it will be permissible to catch chinchillas, and to sell and export the skins, only during the four months. May to August, in each year. Breeding chinchillas is now encouraged by the gov- ernment of Chili. COYPU The coypu, next in individual value, but exceeding the chinchilla in general utility, is a reddish-brown animal intermediate in size between the muskrat and beaver, inhabiting the river banks and low lands from COYPU— NUTRIA Brazil southward, though not to the extreme southern portion of the continent. A fully grown specimen measures, tail included, about thirty-five inches in length; the animal was formerly very abundant in its native wilds, but now exists in only comparatively small numbers on account of the greed of Indian hunters, half- breeds, or Gauchos, and soldiers engaged in the numer- ous petty wars, by all of whom the coypu was ruthlessly slaughtered in and out of season to secure the fairly good price constantly ruling on account of steady de- mand. Hunters and trappers conduct their operations from May to October, and cure the skins in the open air in direct exposure to the rays of the sun, thus reversing in detail customs in fur trapping and handling in North America, and all cold sections. The hunters and trap- pers dispose of their skins to traders, who in turn sell them to larger collectors who annually visit the known districts of production, and by whom the skins are baled and shipped abroad. Coypu skins, like beaver, are quite 381 883 COPYU often sold by weight; pelts of fair average size weigh from six to eight ounces each. Nutria is the name by which both the pelt and fur of the coypu is exclusively designated and known in the fur and hat trades of the world. Nutria fur, natural, plucked uncolored, and plucked and dyed black, is used in the production of articles of wearing apparel similar to those made of beaver fur, which in the manufactured state it so closely resembles in every particular that only an expert can surely state whether the article is beaver of medium grade or nutria of superior quality; the difference in price is marked, in durability comparatively slight. Nutria fur ranks next to beaver in the manu- facture of super-fine, durable and costly soft felt hats for men's wear. Interested persons in Philadelphia and New York have made several attempts to acclimatize the coypu, but with only temporary success, as the specimens procured soon perished either from cold or for want of proper nourishment. JAGUAR The fierce jaguar continues to exist in fairly large numbers in the tangled forests of South America, where it will doubtless hold sway to the end of time, as the value of the skin rarely suffices to induce indolent native hunters to incur the toil and danger involved in the pur- suit and capture of the savage beast. The jaguar is somewhat larger than either the Asiatic or African leopard, which it resembles in color and general appearance, but from which it noticeably differs in having two or three clearly defined black bars JAGUAR 88S across the breast, and black angular spots, larger than those marking the leopard, distributed over the entire body. The color of the fur of the jaguar, other than the black spots and figures, varies from a beautiful golden tint, to a deep shade of brown. Jaguar skin is used in making neck pieces in various designs, collars, muffs, automobile garments, and hand- some floor rugs; the article is classed as "fancy," and owing to small supply will never have an extended vogue. Other South American animals valued to some ex- tent on account of their pelts, include the paco, or vicuna, which is somewhat larger than the common goat ; it has a yellowish-brown coat of hair and fur, woolly in tex- ture, which is occasionally used by furriers as a trim- ming for exclusive garments. Very fine fabrics are woven from the fleece of the paco. The South American otter is exceptionally large, exceeding six feet in length, but the fur is very short, unattractive and of no value to furriers. The fox, small in size and value, outnumbers all other fur-bearers on the continent, and under stress of a strong demand has been caught and marketed in large numbers. These rather diminutive foxes are generally known in the trade as Patagonian kitt foxes. Lamb skins, suitable for the manufacture of coats, linings, caps and mats, are regularly exported in quantity. ISLANDS OF THE SEA From an unknown age in the misty past down to the present day, fur-bearing animals of many species have lived their lives of conflict preying and being preyed upon in ceaseless alternation, upon practically all the islands of the sea from the greatest to the diminutive, surviving, whether fittest or otherwise, in spite of the devouring fury of a crafty host, or the effort to pre- empt their "place in the sun" insistently made by man with the aid of traps, deadly weapons, and trained hounds, hawks and leopards. #reat Britain Several species of fur-bearing animals abounded in Great Britain, the number including the fox, otter, wild cat and others; owing to its ferocity and voracity the last named was systematically exterminated. The fox and otter remain in some sections, but like the deer are chiefly of interest to sportsmen. As early as the middle of the fourteenth century furs of domestic production were generally worn, but 884 GREAT BRITAIN «M in the reign of Edward III all persons who could not afford an annual expenditure of £ lOO were forbidden to wear furs in any form ; this royal decree passed into limbo long ago, but the effect is maintained by prevailing prices which make it impossible for furs to be worn to any extent by the man of only a hundred pounds a year. Somewhat later a promising trade in furs was established between England and Russia, but endured only briefly, as Queen Elizabeth prohibited the wearing of imported furs in the interest of the home industry — and in due course the extinction of domestic fur-bearers terminated a profitable home trade. Great Britain, dating from the chartering of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670, and particularly dur- ing the past one hundred years, has occupied a leading position in the fur business of the world, not on account of production or consumption, but because of the effi- ciency, reliability and sound business methods of the merchants of London, through whose industry and en- terprise that city became the great center for the receipt and distribution of raw furs, peltries of every descrip- tion, annually procured in all parts of the world. The Hudson's Bay Company collection, entire and invariably; peltries from the finest to the cheapest per skin caught in the United States to the aggregate value of millions of dollars; collections large and small, good bad and indifferent from every nook and corner of Europe, Asia, Africa, South America, islands of the sea and both Poles, have annually been sent to London for distribution to points of greatest utility and specific in- terest through the medium of open, equitable public sales regularly attended by merchants of highest mercantile J8S GREAT BRITAIN standing in every important fur consuming section of the universe. These sales are held regularly in January, March, June and October, notice of exact dates of beginning and closing being sent some months in advance to the entire trade ; for many years fur seal skins were offered at the October sale, but subsequently when but compara- tively few buyers were interested in the article, fur seals were offered separately at a special sale held annually in December. Owing to the European war no sale was held in October, 19 14, and only small collections were offered in January and June, 191 5 ; the October, 191 5, catalogues embraced full average supplies. Offerings in October, 1917, comprised: Muskrat 400,000, raccoon 20,000, skunk 120,000, opossum 130,- 000, mink 15,000, civet cat 50,000, mole 150,000, fitch 10,000, wolf 9,000, bear 2,500, fisher 300, lynx 900, otter 300, beaver 1,200, ermine 5,000, red fox 6,500, kitt fox 8,000, white fox 750, cross fox 200, silver fox 200, Australian opossum 20,000, wombat 5,000, stone marten 700, chinchilla 250, grey fox 500, wild cat 1,000, badger 500, squirrel 200,000, white hares 6,000, mar- mot 3,000, broadtail i ,000, house cat 7,000, nutria 8,000, hair seal 200, wolverine 1 50, and sundries. While these public sales afford merchants and speculators the incalculable advantage of securing at most reasonable outlay and on equal terms furs of any desired description, staple or ultra-fashionable, at a single center of exchange, the sales are additionally im- portant to the trade at large owing to the fact that the GREAT BRITAIN 387 prices realized serve as a basis of value for new collec- tions of raw furs in countries of production. Some seventy-five years ago Mr. Curtis M. Lamp- son, a native of Vermont, at that time a young man, was sent to London by the Southwest Company to super- vise its interests at the public sales as then conducted, and upon his reporting that the goods were not manipu- lated to the best advantage, all subsequent shipments were consigned to him for sale and distribution in ac- cordance with arrangements which he had perfected in co-operation with an experienced dealer and capitalist, , and which resulted successfully. Mr. Lampson took an active interest in other enterprises, private and public, and in consequence of important services rendered by him in connection with laying the first Atlantic cable connecting England and America, he was made a baronet by Queen Victoria in 1866. Sir C. M. Lampson & Company for many years re- ceived for public sale all collections forwarded to Lon- don from the United States, smaller supplies from Russia, Canada and other places, and the entire catch of American fur seal skins, and though sales are held by a number of brokers, and a few years since two pro- gressive concerns have entered the field at London as public sale firms, the Lampson sales are still of greatest magnitude. MOLE The mole is the strangest of all fur-bearing animals, not excepting the freaks of nature concentrated in Aus- tralia, and has a coat most nearly approximating fur exclusively, the hairs in the pelt being quite as fine and soft as the bluish fur from which they are not dis- tinguishable. It lives its life not upon the earth, or in air or v^^ater, but in the earth, occupying an excellently arranged dwelling consisting of several chambers, gal- leries and comfortable sleeping apartments, all con- structed under ground below the frost line ; tunnels made by the mole radiate from its dwelling in many directions, and at varying distances, through which the animal freely and speedily passes in quest of food, consisting of grubs and bulbous roots of certain weeds ; at times these tunnels run sufficiently near to the surface of the ground to be plainly visible in the form of continuous ridges, tiny mountains, raised by the mole on its foraging ex- cursion along higher levels, frequently causing much damage to fine lawns, meadows and pasture fields, but on the whole the animal doubtless does much good in 388 MOLE 889 destroying vast numbers of noxious grubs which feed upon the roots, or their Hfe juices, of valued shrubs and plants. The mole abounds in many parts of the world; numbers of particularly large and finely furred speci- mens are regularly obtained in Scotland; several hun- dred thousand skins are oifered at a single sale in Lon- don. The fur is dark bluish-grey, and is at times so fashionable that imitations are advantageously intro- duced to supply the special demand. At the auction sale in New York, October 17, 191 7, offerings in mole comprised 71,069 skins, which met with a good demand; prices realized ranged from 8^ cents to 343/2 cents, according to quality. LONDON, 1917 Notwithstanding the war, remarkable activity is shown in the fur business at London; declared exports to the United States from January, 191 7, to August, 191 7, aggregated in value $4,883,793, an increase of $6i2,cxx) over the same period in 19 16. Sales of raw furs at London from January to June, both months inclusive, in 191 7, comprised: Muskrat 2,- 022,250, American opossum 738,286, beaver 3,981, skunk 577,536, raccoon 73,115, mink 42,129, red fox 12,096, grey fox 15,552, wolf 28,748, black muskrat 10,- 465, squirrel 646,941, ermine 21,741, mole 148,186, Aus- tralian opossum 240,000, Australian ringtail 158,384, wallaby 207,146, Russian sable 467, and 196 fur seal skins. PLATYPUS ^ugtralta Australia, the largest island of the world, a near- continent with an area approximating that of the United States, differs so remarkably from the rest of the world that it need not be considered strange that the fur- bearers native to the country, island if you prefer, are peculiarly Australian, or totally unlike those in any other locality. One of the most remarkable is the platypus, or duck- bill, which is classed by some naturalists as belonging to, if not the sole representative of, the lowest order of mammals, and is a sort of connecting link between mammal and bird ; it has a full coat of soft fur and hair ; is similar to the American beaver in form of body and tail; has a broad flat bill and webbed feet, in which particulars it closely resembles the common duck; its 880 AUSTRALIA 891 hind feet are furnished with spurs similar to those on the legs of the game cock; a full g^own platypus measures twenty-two inches in length including the tail, which is four to five inches in length and covered with fur on the upper side; the animal, which is indigenous to New South Wales, is amphibious, and builds its nest in the dry banks of ponds and streams. The fur shades from dark to light brown, being darkest on the back, lightest on the abdomen and silvery on the sides. Handsome collars and muffs are made of platypus fur; the collec- tion is small. The koala is an odd creature, found in limited num- bers only in the southeastern section of Australia; the animal, which is about two feet in length, has a dense coat of soft fur of a handsome grey tone, diversified by a reddish tinge on parts of the body. The creature re- sembles in some respects several animals, and conse- quently is known by various characteristic names — Aus- tralian bear, Australian sloth, and Australian monkey. In a study of the animals on the great island it becomes KANGAROO FLYING SQUIRREL apparent that in the process of evolution, if they evolved as claimed, some species must have been in doubt as to the next best form to assume, or element to live in, and while in the throes of indecision have become fixed mid- way between bird and mammal, bear and monkey, a mere dubious thing of land and air and water, but with- out a secure and positive habitat in either. Dingo is the name given to another Australian animal, a species of wild dog or wolf, resembling both in size and general characteristics, leaving the exact classification in doubt; the skin is utilized in the manu- facture of rugs and mats. It exists in large numbers. The kangaroo is another peculiar animal native to Australia; there are several varieties, rather than species, in this large family, differing in size from large rats to giants ; and some having coats composed wholly of short, harsh hairs, and a few being provided with a soft woolly under fur suitable for making small articles of apparel, cloak trimmings and rugs ; pelts of the wall- aby, or rock kangaroo, are marketed in large numbers; the fur varies considerably in color, and includes rusty brown, black and light shades of grey. 392 AUSTRALIA 893 The wombat, also of doubtful nature, resembles the badger in appearance, is found in nearly all parts of the island; the long and rather harsh fur is a pleasing grey mottled with black and white, and is largely used in the manufacture of warm, serviceable clothing. The red fox abounds in many localities, and thou- sands of skins are annually exported. The opossum is the most important fur-bearer in the island, more than i ,400,000 skins having been offered in London in a single year; like all other Australian animals the opossum differs in size, color and general appearance, but all have one distinguishing opossum feature — the pouch in which the very young opossums are carried, and to which they instinctively retreat when alarmed. Pelts of the large pure grey and the sooty or WOMBAT 894 AUSTRALIA OPOSSUM black specimens are the best furred, have the longest fleece, and rank highest in value; other colors are dull grey, grey tinged with red or mainly reddish, and in- definite, mixed hues; the fur is used in making ladies' and men's coats, neck pieces, muffs, linings, trimmings, children's sets, and carriage robes, and has usually been in good demand in Hungary, Austria and Russia for making warm coats, and more moderately in France, England and America for general wear. The article is made up natural, and dyed a rich dark brown or lustrous black. Millions of rabbits are annually shot, trapped and otherwise secured in Australia ; some of these are black, blue and silvery, and are well furred, and are sold in dozen lots as "furriers' " skins ; the others are packed in bales and sold by weight for cutting, or felting purposes. AUSTRALIA 395 FLYING SQUIRREL The flying squirrel is about fifteen inches in length, including the tail which is six to seven inches in length ; the fur brownish-gray marked by a much darker line of brown down the head and spine ; the fur is soft and very fine, and approaches white on the under part of the body. A membrane extends from the front foot to the hind foot, and when the animal desires to pass from one tree to another, or a higher to a lower limb in the same tree, it spreads its feet and glides lightly through the air. The animal is found in numbers in Australia; a few specimens are noted in the United States. The fur is made up into rather handsome sets. NEW ZEALAND New Zealand, comprising three islands in the South Pacific Ocean, has no native fur-bearing animals, but is overrun by millions of rabbits, descendants of a few pairs introduced from Great Britain about fifty years ago — more than eight million skins have been exported in a single year, with the certainty of gathering a crop of equal magnitude the following season, in spite of the fact that the frightful slaughter was not due to a desire to obtain skins but to insure rabbit extermination. New Zealand rabbits are somewhat larger than either the European or American species, colors being a handsome grey, brown, and mixed brown and grey ; the best furred, winter skins are used by furriers; other sorts are sold by weight for cutting ; skins of best quality, that is best furred, winter caught, weigh from twenty-four to forty- eight ounces per dozen; common stock from sixteen to thirty-two, and small skins from four to sixteen ounces per dozen. Though buried in snow and bound in ice a con- siderable part of the year, the large island, known as Iceland, in the North Atlantic Ocean on the edge of the Polar Circle, supports abundant animal life, and con- tributes quite largely to the stock of desirable furs re- quired and utilized in clothing the human race — natives of the dreary isle, and many in milder climes; supplies in excess of domestic consumption are taken over by Danish merchants, who have a monopoly of this trade. Fur-bearers found in Iceland include white bears, white foxes, white wolves, and snowy hares, several species of hair seals, hares and foxes, the bear and rein- deer — the last and seals are not furry, but the skins are used in making native clothing. Seals are of leading importance for food, clothing and export, owing to the fact that they are caught in largest numbers. Eider down is another valuable product of the island ; it is obtained by despoiling the nest of the eider duck which breeds on the small adjacent islands, bays and inlets; from five to seven thousand pounds of eider down have been collected annually, worth from two to eight dollars per pound; the supply has considerably decreased. GREENLAND Greenland, north of North America, is a good fur country; the animals include the Arctic, blue and white 896 BSKIMO fox, Polar bear, white hare, wolf, reindeer, common, crested and other hair seals; some of the Polar bear skins sent to market measure about fourteen feet in length by eight feet in breadth, and are used in making hall rugs of exceptional beauty. The annual collection of skins embraces several hundred fox and seal skins, and from ten to forty bear hides. All furs, skins and eider down collected in excess of the requirements of the natives, chiefly esquimaux, are taken to Copenhagen, Denmark, and disposed of at public sale by the Royal Greenland Company annually, usually in November; in 191 5 the sale was held on July 13, the offerings comprising 1,333 white and 184 blue fox skins. NORTHLANDS Spitzbergen, a group of islands in the Arctic Ocean north of Norway, is inhabited exclusively by fur-bearers. Polar foxes, bears and reindeer, which somehow manage 397 398 NORTHLANDS to endure the extreme cold and survive the long night of four months, whalers occasionally visit Spitzbergen, and when so disposed briefly remain to catch a few fearless foxes and a bear or two. Grinnell Land is inhabited by hardy esquimaux, musk oxen and foxes, the fur-bearers being superior in quality, but the pelts secured are almost exclusively re- quired by the natives. Lockwood Island, 80° 24-* north, 42° 45' west longitude, the highest or farthest point north reached by Lieutenant J. B. Lockwood, of the Greely Expedition in May, 1882, fairly abounds in animals, foxes, bears, lem- mings and ptarmigan, notwithstanding the fact that the temperature falls to fifty degrees below zero. Speci- mens, which were secured with little difficulty, were per- fectly furred, exquisitely soft, silky and beautiful. K X Many fur bearing animals, counting species and peltries, are found in all parts of Europe ; some of them are individually valuable as fur-worth is estimated in the markets and fashion centers of the world, and all are of intrinsic value in consequence of their great utility in furnishing man with attractive, protective and comfort- able clothing in temperate and frigid climes. Europe is of leading importance as a consuming country of excep- tional magnitude, measured either by a season or cen- turies; the continent is truly great considered from the standpoint of its large internal trade and extended com- mercial relations with the entire outside world — the loss of the fur trade of only a part of Europe as one of the consequences of the war beginning in 19 14, seriously affected the business in all other producing and consum- ing countries ; and the end is not yet. Russia is accorded first place in fur production among European countries, owing to the vast area, the wild, rugged charact«r of exceedingly large districts, and immense forests, affording favoring conditions for the continuous existence of wild animals of many spe- 399 400 RUSSIA cies; a considerable part of Russia remains in the state of original creation, uninhabitable and therefor unin- habited by man, and consequently better adapted to the life requirements and perpetuity of the lower order of animals, particularly fur-bearers, than other portions of the globe. Russia is also an important fur consuming country, the long and very severe winters making fur clothing generally essential for rich and poor ; many who cannot afford even the cheapest furs wear sheep-lined coats at all times, the garments being made to be worn with the woolly side next to the person in winter, and re- versed in summer. The fur-bearing animals native to Russia are important in quality rather than in variety of species, and embrace the sable, ermine, fox, marten, fitch, squirrel, beaver, muskrat, wolf and badger. SABLE The most valuable of these, and of all pelts, size considered, is the Russian sa- ble, in Russian, Sobol, a member of the widely distributed weasel family; it is found in Asiatic Russia, Siberia and Kamtschatka, the finest being collected at Yakutsk. The sable varies in color with the changing seasons; in summer the fur is reddish brown with a sprink- ling of grey hair about the head, but in winter it assumes a beautiful dark brown, deep plum or nearly black tone ; the dark- skins uniformly rank highest in beauty and value in all markets of the world. Selected, very dark specimens, known as Russian Crown sables, are RUSSIAN SABLE nearly all retained in Russia to meet the requirements of the Czar and nobility ; it has been a courtly fur for sev- eral centuries, and while always too costly to be a fad or become common, it has always been fashionable, rank- ing with gems as a treasure of exceeding worth ; the fur is long, dense and remarkably soft, and so peculiarly rooted in the leather that it may be brushed with the hand in the natural direction, from head to tail, or the reverse, and it will remain as placed without apparent injury or loss of beauty. Russian sable is used in mak- ing cloaks, wraps, coat and robe linings, collars, muffs and small articles; a lining for a royal robe requires from eighty to a hundred skins and may cost from three to thirty thousand dollars. If the sable, which is never abundant, was a low priced fur-bearer, it would seldom be trapped or hunted, as its capture is attended with many hardships, and even the loss of human life, for as the fur is best in the coldest months of the year, and the little animal frequents wild, desolate districts frequently visited by terrific snow storms, the life of the sable hun- ter is fraught with strain and peril which only the most 401 402 RUSSIAN SABLE Sturdy, lured by the hope of a rich reward, dare experi- ence; every winter a number of the sable hunters are lost in the deep forests, or perish in the snow. For generations, too many for memory to declare the number, the choicest Russian sable skins, designated everywhere as "Crown sables," were reserved for the royal family and really rich nobles; the last and most barbaric war toppled the "crown" into the morass of vanished glories, and in passing terminated the regal direction of a few selected sable skins, presumed to be superior but not too good for czars, emperors, courtiers and trailing inheritors of ducats and dollars. In 1880 very good sable skins sold for five roubles each, $3.75; thirty years later, as the result of an in- creased demand in the United States, prices ranged up to eight hundred roubles, $600 per skin. ERMINE The stoat is another member of the weasel family which yields a coat of royal fur known commercially as ermine. It is a small animal, only twelve to fourteen inches in length, of very slim body, and consequently producing only a small pelt ; during the spring, summer and autumn the fur is a dull reddish brown and of no value, but in winter it naturally changes to a creamy hue, and in many specimens to pure white, except the tip of the tail which is a clear black. The best ermine, both as ERMINE 403 regards size and quality, are annually procured in Rus- sia, the collection appsoximating seventy thousand skins, more or less; the fur is invariably used in lining large coronation robes of emperors, kings and other royal per- sonages; lining robes worn by certain officials and judges; as a compenent material of crowns, and in the production of opera cloaks, wraps and smaller articles of apparel. The black tip of the tail is inserted in the white ground of the manufactured fur at regular inter- vals with excellent effect. WOLF Although many thousands of wolves are annually killed, the slaughter being conducted at all seasons, the animal continues to abound, and it is believed that more than one hundred thousand wolves are still at large in Russia. The Russian wolf is exceptionally fierce and voracious, and the animal most feared by man; a large number of human beings, and countless domestic ani- mals are annually killed and devoured by savage Russian wolves. The fur of the wolf is suitable for making warm loose fitting coats, ladies' sets, and robes ; it was in particularly good demand for military uses in the trenches and open field work in the great European war. Methods of trapping wolves in Russia differ from those pursued in other places ; the most effective trap consists of a large wooden pen provided with swinging doors which can be easily opened or closed by men concealed nearby; the wolves are lured into the pen by a trapper who passes out at one door as the wolves enter by the other ; the wolves thus taken alive are killed at the con- venience of their captors. SQUIRRELS The species of squirrels valued on account of their furry coats are very numerous in all parts of Russia and Siberia; they are larger than the American squirrels, and are superior in every respect, particularly in being well furred, whereas the American squirrels have coats showing a growth of short hair only; the difference is due to the greater severity and length of the Russian winters. Russian and Siberian squirrels of the same class vary in color, beauty and value according to the districts in which they flourish; those taken in Eastern Siberia, especially in the Amoor district and near the sea coast, are of superior size and quality, and are known in the trade as Saccamina squirrels ; these are a beautiful dark grey. The second grade is classed as Yakutsky; skins of this class are dark grey and blue, of fair size, and are prepared for market in two assortments. Another class, the third in value, consists of small- 404 SQUIRRELS 405 er skins which are pale blue, steely grey and striped, and known as Lensky squirrels, and which are assorted into four divisions according to color. The next mark, Yeniseisky squirrels, of which a million or more are secured each year, are lighter in color, and subdivided into three grades. Obskoy squirrels constitute the fifth class; they are pale blue, very finje, and in smaller supply than the other sorts. Beisky squirrels, another trade name for the skins, are blue, small, and fairly good ; the annual collection is large. There are a few more names, or assortments, but they are of minor importance on account of moderate quantity. In addition to the above marks, half a million or more small squirrel skins are annually collected at Arch- angel and in the territory surrounding Moscow, and are designated, Kasan squirrels; these are quite generally taken for home consumption. An incredible number of squirrel skins, six to twelve million, are secured yearly in Russia and Siberia, nearly half the total catch being exported, China and Europe constituting the best mar- kets. Squirrels are caught in traps, but the greater num- ber annually killed are shot with blunt arrows which do not injure the skin or fur; this latter method of capture is pursued on a large scale at the beginning of the winter season, at which time the squirrels migrate in vast troops and are consequently easily shot in great num- bers. Squirrel fur is used in many ways, and is a showy, serviceable article; it is of special value as a lining for coats and wraps, and is extensively used in this way both 406 - SQUIRRELS at home and abroad, the consumption in China being ex- ceptionally large ; the fur is also used natural in making wraps, neckwear, muffs and children's sets, and is dyed mink color for similar manufacture. Linings are made of whole skins, backs only, or the belly fur exclusively. A few linings are made in Russia from the fur of the heads of the squirrels, but these are rather expensive on account of the labor cost in sewing the small pieces into a plate of lining size, from fourteen hundred to two thousand heads being required to make a single lining. PONY Fur consumption greatly increased toward the close of the nineteenth century, and consequently all furry skins, and a few that merely looked like fur, were requi- sitioned to meet the constantly expanding demand; the Russian colt, killed almost immediately after birth, sup- plied one of these near-fur skins. The hid^, called pony- skin in the trade, was at first, as a test, introduced in small lots, but though extremely cheap met with little favor the skins earliest shown being flat, or short-haired ; RUSSIAN PONY PONY 407 skins subsequently offered were more shaggy, fluffy or curly, and when dressed were really attractive in ap- pearance and color. A number were dyed black with fairly good results, the demand perceptibly increasing until the number of Russian ponies killed exceeded one hundred thousand per annum. At the outset of the pony craze skins could be bought in Russia for fifty to sixty cents each, and when the fad reached its height dressed and dyed skins ranged above eight dollars. Ladies' long black pony coats beginning around ten dollars, kept on advancing in popularity until the selling price rose to somewhere near a hundred dollars ; choice, selected light brown skins went much higher, some furriers asking two hundred dollars for short coats of natural fluffy pony- skin — the craze ended just in time to permit one crop of ponies to mature for the war. RUSSIAN TRADE The fur business has for centuries been important and conspicuous among the industries of Russia, excit- ing the interest and attention not only of merchants and traders, but the government as well; the territory for- merly known as Russian American was taken possession of by Russia solely on account of the revenue derived from the annual catch of sea otter and seal skins ; Russia conquered Siberia and held Saghalien because of the val- uable supplies of sables, foxes and other peltries col- lected in both places. The export trade of Russia is very large, but the greater part of the annual collection of skins is required for domestic consumption, as fur is employed in the pro- duction of all forms of apparel. 408 RUSSIA Fur petticoats are quite generally worn in winter, and are favorite wedding presents in certain social cir- cles, the quality of the garments varying according to the bride's station in life and the more or less generous disposition of the donors. Hats of sundry shapes are made of fur, particularly beaver, otter, muskrat, lamb and rabbit skins, for com- mon wear. Trousers, vests, undergarments, and every other article of masculine and feminine attire are made exclusively or in part of fur. An imperial edict, dated November 7, 19 16, em- powered the Russian Minister of Agriculture to create on crown lands reserve areas for the preservation and breeding of various fur-bearing animals, and particu- larly sables in Siberia. LAPLAND Lapland, under Russian rule, is a good fur produc- ing country, marten, beaver, fox, wolf and the hare be- ing fairly abundant; other animals of local and trade interest are the elk, goat and reindeer. Laplanders wear fur clothing almost exclusively ; all collections of peltries in excess of home needs are sent to Russia. Reindeer skins are perfectly dressed by the Laps, and are made up by them into linings, called pijiki in Russia ; other articles of reindeer skin include long coats, trousers, and capes with attached hoods for covering the head. Reindeer skins are also very finely dressed in Rus- sia for coat linings. PAR DINE LYNX Pardine Lynx shows very little change in colora- tion as the seasons alternate ; the fur, which is quite soft, is reddish brown on the upper portions of the body and a pleasing white beneath; the black markings, many of which are circular spots, are distributed over all parts of the body, including the short tail. It is smaller than the Canadian lynx, measuring twenty-four to thirty inches in length ; the limbs are com- paratively long, consequently the animal stands rather high. The Pardine Lynx is found in Europe, various wooded sections of Spain, Portugal, and in parts of Turkey. The fur may be used natural or dyed in making sets, linings and robes. Stone marten, corresponding in size to the Canadian marten, is found in Spain, Germany, and other parts of Europe. It is a handsome mottled brown and white fur, and is used in making stoles and sets. 409 (ietmanp Fur-bearers of comparatively moderate individual value continue to abound to some extent in Germany, the number including the polecat, badger, marten, mar- mot, hamster, and hare; the supply does not even ap- proximate the demands of the country, and consequently large quantities of furs are imported from other parts of Europe and North America, as furs of all kinds, from the finest to the cheapest, are worn throughout the em- pire. A number of species of fur-bearers formerly abund- ant have either ceased to exist, owing to the general cul- tivation of the soil, or have sought safe retreats in the wilder mountainous districts. The wild cat continues to exist in various parts of Europe, but in comparatively small numbers ; some years ago heavy floods in Germany caused many wild cats to vacate wooded retreats where their presence was not suspected until thus strangely re- vealed. Leipzig is the chief market of supply for a large number of European furriers and fur merchants, and for years past has been an important distributing center for American, European and Asiatic furs sent thither to be sold to visiting dealers from all parts of the world. The business at Leipizg is conducted by a number of fur merchants, upwards of one hundred, some of whom make a specialty of one article, or deal exclusive- ly in particular classes of goods, and others conduct a commission business only, buying for or selling to for- eign houses. Leipzig fur merchants have for many years been large buyers at the regular London sales and Russian 410 GERMANY 411 fairs, and more recently direct purchasers of raw furs in the United States. This great business was brought to a standstill by the war beginning in 19 14, imports and exports ceasing, and many of those engaged in the bus- iness being called to the colors — some never to return; to what extent the trade will be resumed after the war is a question for future decision, but it may be unhesi- tatingly asserted that it will be many years in attaining the former high standard in volume. Public fur sales, differing little from those held in London, were in- augurated at Leipzig in 1875, and were held twice annu- ally, in January and September, for a period of four years, but as they proved detrimental in the main to the regular fur business they were discontinued. Fur dressing and dyeing are important branches of the Leipzig trade, those engaged in both operations be- ing exceptionally efficient; the dressers have handled more than four million squirrel, three million lamb, about three million muskrat, and thousands of beaver, opos- sum, raccoon and various other skins in a year. Many of the best fur dyes originated in Leipzig. Raccoon was first dyed black there in 1873; a large number of remarkable imitations have been produced by the more efficient Leipzig fur dyers, whose trade extended to every fur consuming country. POLECAT-ILTIS The polecat abounds in all parts of Europe ; the an- imal is of moderate size, about as large as the mink, and is a near relative of the American skunk, rivalling it in point of offensive odor, and on that account is given several suggestive, if not pleasing titles, such as foul- POLECAT— ILTIS marten, foul-cat, and a few more of similar import; these names are applied only to the animal, and are not used in the trade, the fur being sold exclusively under the name of fitch. The longer hairs, which are most abundant on the back, are dark glossy brown or black, and the under fur is pale yellow, brightening toward the roots ; some specimens are very pale yellow approaching white. A large number of skins are regularly sold at the Leipzig Easter Fair, and the article is generally popular in Germany for the manufacture of linings, muffs and collars. The fur had a fashionable "run" in the United States in 19 13- 14 for the first time in a number of years. MARMOT Several species of marmot are found in various parts of the world; the species known as the "common marmot," which is the one most largely used in the fur trade, is quite abundant in the mountainous districts of Northern Europe; its fur is greyish-yellow upon the back and flanks, and dark grey, or brownish, on other portions of the body ; it is a cheap article, and is used in making sets and coat linings. The marmot is a burrow- 412 MARMOT ing animal and late in September retires to its under- ground den where it remains during the winter. HAMSTER The hamster, a burrowing animal, abounds in the Hartz Mountains and all sandy districts from Northern Germany to Siberia, the little creature has a body about twelve inches in length, but many smaller pelts are mar- keted, as large numbers of half-grown animals are killed by the hunters. The fur shows many colors irregularly distributed; it is reddish-grey on the back, black on the flanks and lower parts of the body, white and yellow on the sides, shoulders and parts of the head, and white at the throat. Specimens differ considerably, in some one and in others a different dark effect being strikingly noticeable ; a few skins are entirely black. In some sec-t tions of Germany the hamster is exceedingly abundant and troublesome because of its habit of carrying large quantities of ripened grain to its burrows for consump- tion during the winter. At the close of the harvesting season farmers systematically dig open the dry sandy burrows, kill the hamsters and recover the grain; as 413 HAMSTER much as sixty pounds of corn have been found in a single burrow, and as more than fifty thousand burrows have been opened in one district alone it will be readily per- ceived that many tons of grain are recovered. Each hamster has a separate burrow, from three to seven feet in depth, which is ingeniously constructed and di- vided into a number of compartments connected by small passages; there are two entrances, one inclined and the other perpendicular. The fur of the hamster is chiefly used for coat lin- ings ; the work of sewing the separate skins into lining- plates is done by country women in their homes, each plate consisting of from sixty to seventy-five skins. HARES Large collections of hare skins are secured each sea- son in Germany, Russia, Siberia, and many parts of Eu- rope ; full grown specimens are about twenty-four inches in length, and are greyish-brown mixed with yellow on the upper portions of the body, yellowish-white on the neck, and white on the abdomen; snow-white hares abound in Russia, Siberia, and Arctic regions. The fur of the several species is long, soft and glossy, and is ex- tensively used at home and abroad in making capes of the coachman pattern, sets, broad and narrow collars, and as a trimming for embellishing cloaks and costumes ; 414 HARES 415 many skins are dyed black or brown and used as rather good appearing imitations of higher cost furs ; some are dyed silvery in imitation of silver fox ; others are so dyed that scattered small patches of white fur remain un- touched by the black dye, and are known in the trade as snowflake hares. Brown and white hares formerly abounded in Scotland, but have greatly decreased in number. Germany produces a large supply of coney skins, used at home in making sets and linings, and exported to various countries for other uses. After the war German fur merchants will doubt- less devote increased attention to raising conies of best sorts to displace French skins, and meet an enlarged do- mestic demand for furs of low cost. FELINE Go where you may, not only in Germany, but to every spot of earth to which thoughtless man has passed on before, you will find the domestic cat, find it in all cat sizes and conditions, possible feline and fearsome colors, moods and attitudes. In the minds of the multitude there is a profound conviction that the domestic cat ful- fills no grander or more gruesome destiny than that of making night hideous throughout the long-drawn vicis- situdes of its nine prorogued periods of existence ; there is a contrary opinion expressed by a rather large minor- ity who have found the furry coats of defunct toms and tabbies profitable and comfortable, though the latter class of beneficiaries have generally not surely known the real character of the article, as the finely dressed and dyed fur of cats and kittens is sold under the attractive 416 FELINE title of genet, or other fair sounding names, to which even the most hopeful or visionary feline never dreamed of falling heir. Skins are dyed in quantity at Leipzig for barter at the fairs, and to meet the regular demand. Russian dyers are extremely proficient in coloring cat fur either a plain shade or in imitation of other furs, and are said to be able to effectively deceive even the Chinese, who are supposed to know cats — if anything. Feline fur is used in Europe for coat linings, collars and trimmings; and in Russia for lining boots and gloves. Some of the inferior white skins are dyed in imita- tion of squirrel and other lining furs, but as they are al- ways low in price, and generally unattractive in appear- ance the deception is not harmful. JfrancE Fur-bearers found in France include the fox, mar- ten, polecat, wolf, bear, coney, and an occasional lynx; the number of species is small, and the individual skins are all of moderate value. The European lynx, the largest and most beautiful member of the lynx family, is now nearly extinct, being found only in the Pyrenees Mountains, and in very small numbers in one or two other places; the long, lustrous fur is an exquisite chestnut brown diversified with black. Wolves continue to infest the forests of France in sufficient number to effect considerable damage to prop- erty and the destruction of domestic animals; bounties are paid by the government for the scalps of all wolves WOLF destroyed, and the amount thus expended indicates the early extinction of the wolf in all parts of the country. Prior to 1880 professional wolf hunters, known as Louvetiers, were employed by the government to kill the wolves abounding in the woodlands and open coun- try. The institution of the Louvetiers, which is of an- cient origin, has been abolished and re-established sev- eral times; through the favor of Napoleon I it was re- vived after a suspension of unusual duration, and con- tinued to flourish until abolished by Louis Philippe. It obtained a new lease of life under patronage of Napoleon III, but finally passed out of existence at the close of the second empire. Paris is the center of the French fur trade ; the bus- iness at the capitol is conducted by able merchants and alert furriers having commercial relations with all parts 417 418 FRANCE of the world where high class furs are used. For many years Paris was also the leading fashion center of the universe, but is less important in this regard than for- merly as many of the Parisian styles are too extreme for general adoption ; it still quite distinctly leads in the in- troduction of particular kinds of furs, as any article in strong fashionable favor at Paris is certain to become very popular for a time in other great cities. CONIES About eight million conies, or rabbits, are annually killed in France for their flesh and fur. The French conies, bred in captivity, are unusually large and well furred, and on account of more than ordinary care in breeding and handling are of superior quality ; the nat- ural colors are black, brown, white, bluish grey, mottled black and white, and sundry mixed hues. Nearly all persons living in country districts whose homes include small back yards or larger plots of ground, breed rabbits, usually only a few, keeping them in boxes, barrels and coops, from which they are rarely liberated even briefly ; the animals are well fed on clover, oats and vegetables, and when ready to kill weight from seven t< fifteen pounds each ; the flesh, which is of fine flavor, is generally worth about ten cents per pound, and the skins from five to twenty cents, according to size. The skins are bought up by men who travel through the country collecting old rags, junk and bones; when these collec- tions are brought together the skins are assorted accord- ing to size and color, the large, perfect and fully furred skins being best adapted to the requirements of furriers, and the lower sorts for hatting purposes. CONIES 419 French coney dyers are remarkably proficient, and enjoy the reputation of producing many excellent fancy colors, and an unequaled black, deep and lustrous, on coney; the skins all bear the special brands of the indi- vidual dyers, which are universally known. The dyers are located at Paris and Lyons; one dyer at the latter city has a world-wide reputation for producing a supe- rior rich and brilliant black on native rabbits and par- ticularly on white Russian hares. Thousands of skins are dyed brown; the "black coney" and "brown coney" pelts are skins in the natural state, that is unplucked, dyed either black or brown, and while of very considerable utility, rank in beauty and value below skins upon which more labor is expended, and known as seal-conies. The choicest coney skins, best in fur and leather, are plucked and unhaired by machine as carefully and thoroughly as the finest fur seal, and are dyed seal-color, practically black, and are used in the manufacture of garments in prevailing styles, and are sold as electric seal, and under other names associated with the word seal, which fur they so closely simulate that only ex- perts can distinguish the one from the other; it is in- deed a perfect imitation, and is readily sold at a better profit producing price than is obtainable for many fine furs. Silver rabbits are raised by nearly all small French farmers ; these rather handsome little animals have also been bred for many years by the Trappists order found- ed in 1 69 1 near Mortagne, Department of Orne, close attention being given to selection of stock to maintain purity of color ; when born the rabbits are jet black and CONEY do not change to silvery until they are about three months old. Silver rabbits skins are dressed to be used natural in making muffs, collars and fine trimmings. Conies also abound in Spain, and the name of the coun- try is due to that fact, being derived from the Phoeni- cian, Spaniga, which means, abounding in rabbits. **Bel- gian coney" consists mainly of fancy varieties, and is so named on account of being dressed, dyed and other wise prepared in Belgium ; the dyers of that country for years supplied the markets with black, brown, sheared, half -sheared coney, and various imitations of finer and more costly furs ; the more remarkable imitations in Bel- gian dyed coney include tiger, leopard and zebra effects. Alas ! poor Belgium. Lissa, or white Polish conies, are extensively collected, bartered, bought, sold, dressed and dyed and finished at Lissa, a town of Prussian Po- land, near the border of Silesia. There are two assort- ments, German and Polish, each of which embraces a number of grades ; the German are the larger and better skins; in assorting the German division of the Lissa conies the largest and best furred skins are made up in packages of fifty skins each, tied with a single cord, and marked "Russian conies." The next selection, accord- ing to size and quality, is also put up in packages of half 420 CONIES 421 a hundred skins, bound together with two strings, and therefore called Doppelschreinge, "double-stringed." Smaller and poorer skins are either bundled or sewed into lining-plates. Raw skins of the second prin- cipal assortment, or Polish skins, are put up in bundles of sixty skins, called "shocks." Dressed skins with light leather and little fur are arranged in parcels of ten skins; good white furred pelts, about thirty, are sewed together in lining-plates, each plate being of the proper size for lining a coat. Coney sewers at Lissa make up the plates in sizes for coat linings of different lengths, linings for high-top boots, and for many small articles ; some of the linings are composed of hundreds of small pieces to avoid even a minimum waste of material. Much of the coney sewing is done by small children, five or six years of age, who earn about one dollar a week. Natural linings are assorted according to color, thereby making three classes, pure white, a lower grade of white and yellow ; the linings are also dyed black, and to imitate squirrel and ermine. ITALY Furs are fairly popular in Italy, but are not in com- mon use, being regarded as luxuries rather than neces- saries ; low priced furs, however, are worn by many, and are doubtless admired by all. Fur-trimmed garments are popular, and measurably satisfy the natural desire for at least a little fur as an effective finish. High grade furs are used to some extent, but the chief demand is for medium and lower cost skins ; owing to widespread love of the conspicuous, cheap furs in high colors, bright reds and blues, are at times in good request. Three articles of interest to the fur trade — cats, lambs and geese — are reared in Holland considerably in excess of domestic needs. As a fur-bearer the Dutch cat is a pronounced suc- cess; it is wonderfully prolific, attains an extreme size, and owing to an abundant fish diet develops a coat of fur superior to that of any other "house cat" on earth; the soft, dense fur is a handsome brownish-grey with black markings, and one skin is so like another in color and quality that the supply is available for manufacture in the natural. The mole flourishes in Holland, and we may as- sume that it will not be delved from the soil in numbers, endangering the extinction of the animal while the skins remain high in price. Mole hunters are active, however, and for some time past have sent good supplies of skins to market. Holland annually produces about one million lamb skins of medium quality, which are used in the produc- tion of clothing. Flourishing goose farms supply the trade with many fine geese skins, from which, when properly plucked, we obtain the well-known fluffy, beautiful and delicate white "swan's down" of commerce. 422 Asia, the largest of the continents, is of the highest importance to the fur trade of the world in every respect except the manufacture of high-class furs; fur-bearing and near-fur-bearing animals abound in immense num- bers and variety of species; collections of peltries are counted by bales rather than single skins; the manu- facture of cheap classes of skins by crude methods is almost universally conducted ; and all the people, except in very limited southern districts, are fur-clad. The fur-bearers include the sable and black fox of greatest value, otter, ermine, wolf, lynx, marmot, mar- ten, wild cat, wolverine, beaver, bear, hare and foxes of all colors; and near-fur, tigers, leopards, Persian and Astrachan lambs, some quite black and others white, brown and mixed, Mongolian lamb, moufflon and hun- dreds of goats and kids, all of which are utilized by furriers. Thibet goat skins, secured in large numbers, are sent to market in the natural state, and as coats, robes and crosses ; all goat and kid skins are shipped to selling markets in these four forms. Caracul — variously written carakule, karakul and caracool — Persian, astrachan and broadtail (unborn Persian lambs) are the finer grades of lamb skins, and are used in different ways, the white and grey, natural ; and all, as required, dyed black ; the caracul and Persian, also called Persianer, are close curl, the astrachan open curl, and the broadtail wavy, or showing the handsome weave effects noticeable in moire silk. Moufflon, found in some parts of Europe as well as 423 KO LINS KY Asia, has long, soft hair and woolly undergrowth, naturally dull white or brown ; it may be dyed any color desired. Caracal, a small lynx, is a handsome fur of a uni- form reddish brown, paler brown on the abdomen, and showing many small dark brown or nearly black spots ; the ears are black, to which fact it is indebted for its Turkish name, caracal, meaning black eared. Angora goats abound in Asia Minor, the number being estimated at three million; the fleece is long, soft and silky, and dresses a clear white. Angora is used in the fur trade in the manufacture of children's sets, baby carriage robes and for making fine small rugs. Kolinsky, indigenous to Asia, is a small and rather handsome fur-bearer, about fourteen inches in length, and in general form resembling the American mink or European marten, and is known abroad as the Siberian sable, and also as the Fartar sable and Siberian marten ; the fur, however, is unlike that of either the sable or marten, being shorter, harsher and lighter in tint than that of the sables, the general color being a bright golden, handsome shade of yellow, or brownish yellow, quite uniform in tone on all parts of the body. Some of the best skins are found in the govern- ment district of Kola, Russia, and large numbers are obtained in China. 424 ASIA 425 Kolinsky is made up natural or dyed mink color or much darker shades of brown; it serves excellently for the production of ladies' coats, capes, stoles, linings of coats, ladies' hats, muffs, borders and trimming. Skins are offered in the market with or without tails; the tail is covered with fur and moderately long reddish stiff hairs ; split tails make a handsome border or finishing edge for capes, coats and stoles. The long hairs in the tail are used in making artist's water color pencils and other brushes. Tails may be purchased separately by the timber, forty tails, generally for one dollar, sometimes more, per tail. PERWITSKY The perwitsky is one of the smallest fur-bearers utilized by furriers ; the body approximates eight inches in length, the bushy tail about five inches; looked at "straight in the face" it resembles a very small domestic kitten, but in coloring is in a class by itself. On the back and one-half way down the sides the fur, which is unusually short and in moderate quantity, is a pale yellow, profusely marked with blotches, spots and lines of chestnut brown hairs; these brown markings vary considerably in size, from a few hairs to moderate sized patches. The under one-half of the entire length of the body is uniformly covered with fur and hair in a rich 426 PERWITSKY mahogany brown; the tail is of the same dark brown as the under portion of the body. The perwitsky is found in Siberia, is arboreal ; when upon a branch it is not easily noticed from the ground, and is not readily observed by enemies above it — its re- markable coloring is manifestly protective. Annual catch in some years is fairly large, but is usually small. Perwitsky fur, introduced in New York some six years ago as a novelty, is used in making coats, sets and trimmings ; it is at times popular in Europe as a lining. SNOW LEOPARD This is one of the handsomest of the leopards ; the fur on the upper parts of the body is grayish, slightly tinged in part with faint yellow, interspersed with dark broken to nearly black marks more nearly resembling those on the jaguar than the leopard; the under fur is a clear, snowy white. The animal is found in central Asia, and is secured only in small numbers ; skins come to the market through the London public sales. Hiiitiiiuniiiiitrmtmmmt mmt CHINA Native and imported furs of every description, from the cheapest to the most costly, have been used as cloth- ing throughout northern China for many centuries, probably from a period as remote as the creation of man — if we may accept the records of Chinese writers ; it is certain that Siberian and Russian collectors of fine pel- tries have for several hundred years transacted a flour- ishing trade with China, exchanging sable, fox, squirrel and other skins for tea, silk, and sundry products. The East India Company conducted a large fur business with China from 1600 to 1833, when its exclu- sive privilege of trading with the country was abolished. Early Spanish settlers on the Pacific coast near the site of the city of San Francisco made large shipments of sea otter, seal and other fur skins to China with very satisfactory results. The Russian American Fur Com- pany, operating in Russian America, made large ship- ments of sea otter, black and blue fox, beaver and other high grade skins to the empire where they found a ready and apparently unlimited market. For some time past Chinese merchants have secured necessary supplies of furs, raw, dressed and dyed, from Russian merchants at the fairs, English shippers and Leipzig dealers ; all markets have been unsettled by the European war. 427 428 CHINA Furs are seldom worn in the southern portion of China, owing to the mildness of the climate, but in northern districts — it is a big country — heavy fur cloth- ing is regarded as absolutely necessary, not alone on account of the severity of the winters, but owing to the fact that the dwellings, which are made of light and very combustible materials, are not provided with stoves or other appliances for obtaining artificial heating. Millions of fox, hare, rabbit, goat, lamb and cat skins, and enormous quantities of cheaper sorts of Siberian squirrel skins, none of which are durable articles, are annually worked up into coats, crosses and garments of many names to meet the requirements of the "common people"; otter, sable, beaver, marten and other choice peltries are still consumed in quantity by persons of larger means. The "heathen Chinee" may be peculiar in many ways ; he is a shrewd dealer, a careful buyer, and is fully awake to the "tricks in trade" practiced by his white brethren, and is ever ready to match them with a few of his own; he may be deceived into accepting a Russian dyed rabbit as a rare article worth a yen instead of only a few cash ; but in turn he can darken a fifty dollar sable so that it will pass as a two hundred dollar pelt, and not be "found out." Moths destroy furs in China as easily as they do in New York, and to insure their protection against both moths and thieves at a mere nominal charge, wise China- men entrust their furs in summer to the care of pawn- brokers, who realize that they must deliver the goods in perfect order on demand, or lose their advances. Graft is not unknown in official life; the govern- WEASBIi ment is a large purchaser of furs for military purposes, and some of the purchasing agents, usually mandarins and high officials, have entire rooms filled with fine furs paid for by government money. Fur constituted a considerable part of the loot ob- tained by the allies sent to China to crush the Boxer up- rising; members of the royal family, nobles and rich persons had large stores of fine furs at Peking, most of which were carried away by invaders of the white race presumably intent upon protecting missionaries. A few species of fur-bearing animals continue to exist in the mountains and forests of China, the only districts not densely populated by man; these embrace the fox, weasel, otter, wild cat, civet and tiger. Domestic animals valued on account of their furry coats abound ; the cat is exceedingly common, and its fur is extensively used in making warm clothing for the poorer people ; goats and sheep are bred to meet a similar but larger demand, and provide a surplus of about one hundred thousand skins for export each year, the prin- cipal foreign markets being Russia and the United States. North China tiger skins are very fine in fur, color and size ; skins received at New York have measured up to sixteen feet from tip to tip, and when mounted as hall rugs, head and feet complete, have sold for more than 429 four hundred dollars each. Chinese hunters almost in- variably remove and retain as trophies the claws of tigers caught by them, but occasionally permit the claws to remain in return for a few more "cash" — a very small Chinese coin. Chinese civet is much larger than the American specimen, ranging in length up to thirty-four inches, ex- clusive of the furry tail which is eight to ten inches long, and clearly ringed in black and white. It is generally similar in marking to the American civet, but the white portion of the fur is chiefly in spots and cross-section lines, instead of lengthwise figures. Good coats and sets are made of the fur. Many weasel skins are procured in China; full grown specimens are nearly as large as the American mink ; the fur is a pale yellow ; it is used as a lining) for making sets, coat collars and trimmings, and is generally dyed mink color. Leopard cats; these are designated as "leopards," because the light brown fur is profusely dotted with small black spots; and "cats" on account of the size, in which particular they are comparable to the American domestic cat. These pelts are used in making children's 430 CHINA 4S1 sets, larger sets to some extent, and for coats and linings. Ringtails; these are about thirty inches in length, not counting the tail, and are of slight build, "open" skins being approximately eight inches wide; the tails are ten to fourteen inches in length, and are marked with alternate rings of black and white fur. Fur-bearers with caudal appendages of this character are almost as abounding in China as human queues — and doubtless more practical. Pahmi — this name was seemingly given to the help- less fur-bearer as a title pleasing to delicate ears, in the same polite spirit in which for many years skunk, the fur only, was presented in the marts of its nativity as American sable. In earlier years the pahmi was known in China and to foreign traders as the "Ningpo Rat/' a compre- hensive name, as the animal abounds in the Yangste Valley, the rivers and marshes within a fairly large radius of Ningpo, Central China. The pahmi, full grown, is close to sixteen inches in length, and has a short furry tail five inches long; the color of the fur is a light brown, with a small, narrow white mark on the crown, which in some specimens ex- tends nearly to the shoulder ; fur on the under portion of the body is white, the white mark, however, is only a narrow line directly in the center ; the top hair is some- what silvery, and the ground fur is yellowish in tone. The annual collection of pahmi skins approximates two hundred thousand, of which from fifty to one hun- dred thousand skins have been annually exported to America in recent years ; the fur has long been popular in Europe in the manufacture of collars and cufifs in lieu 432 CHINA of otter, which it resembles in appearance and strength of leather. Pahmi fur is used in China in making crosses, in which form it is worn, and various small articles including trimmings. In the United States it is used natural, or "in hair," principally as an imitation of otter. Skins are worth "round" fifty cents each in the raw. The Chinese are not only hunters, barterers, traders and wearers of furs, but are also efficient dressers and dyers of skins of every kind required in their domestic and export trade; the latter branch of the business is conducted by English, German and American merchants located in greatest number at Shanghai, Tientsin and Hong Kong. 5apan Japan furnishes limited supplies of furs of fine quality and medium grade; the indigenous animals valued for their furry coats are the fox, weasel, badger, marten, bear, hare, wild dog and tailless cat; on the smaller islands off the mainland supplies of sable, fox, sea otter, fur seal and land otter skins are obtained. Japanese hunters, conducting their operations in small sailing vessels, at times secure very valuable collections of sea otter, fur seal, sable and fox skins at or near the Kurile Islands in the North Pacific Ocean, for which there is always a good demand, in part for the home trade, but more largely for export. These small vessels, with their crews, are not infre- quently lost in violent storms at sea, or dashed to pieces on some rocky island shore. Deer are fairly abundant in Japan, and with rare JAPAN 433 exceptions are smaller than those found in other coun- tries; in some parts of the empire they are regarded as sacred and are carefully protected. SIBERIA Fur-bearing animals of more than ordinary beauty and value inhabit all parts of Siberia, and excellent col- lections of superb peltries are annually secured by assiduous hunters and trappers, many of whom are wholly dependent upon their catch. These collections include sables of finest quality, which are secured in fairly large numbers each season, and for which there is an ever ready market at high prices; the black fox, one of the most beautiful of all fur-bearers, is found in Siberia; the collection is small, but the skins command extreme figures, up to three hundred dollars each. Hares of good size are abundant, and are specially im- portant to the natives whom they supply with food, clothing and cash. Large snow-white hares are plentiful in many sec- tions; the fur is long and soft, and is used in the trade in the natural, dyed black, brown and silvery, and as imitations of finer furs. The largest, best-furred and most handsome squir- rels abound in eastern Siberia, and the skins are exported In large lots. PERFUME Scent from the pouch of the civet cat, Asiatic and African specimens, forms the base of sundry perfumes ; nearly $150,000 worth of the material was exported to the United States in 19 16. / KAMTSCHATKA Sable skins, of which from three to five thousand are annually collected by experienced hunters in Kamt- schatka, constitute the most important product of the peninsula; the skins are disposed of to local merchants, mainly foreigners, in exchange for various commodities transported thither for the purpose. Sea otter, fox, beaver, seal, bear and land otter skins are similarly secured and bartered. The reindeer abounds and is highly prized by the natives for food and clothing. Since the conquest of Kamtschatka by Russia in 1706 a regular tribute in furs has been paid to the Russian authorities at Irkutsk. The sea bear, so named on account of its size and appearance, is found in large herds at Kamtschatka and the Kurile Islands ; it measures from seven to eight feet in length, and has an abundant undergrowth of rather soft fur, or wool, reddish-brown to lighter brown in color; the long hairs are plucked, and the under woolly coat, designated in the trade as wool-seal, is occasionally used, natural or dyed, in making novelty trimmings. 484 Fur-bearing animals, ranging in size from pigmies to monsters, frequent the hills and vales of Africa, but as the elevated temperature prevailing throughout the year in most parts of the continent is not conducive to the development of a dense and durable under-fur, only a few native species are provided by nature with coats suitable for the production of the protective cloth- ing required in colder countries; in their native land, however, these more or less furry skins are generally appreciated and quite extensively used as ornamental additions to the rather meagre tribal costumes. African hunters, chieftains and warriors are very proud of their crudely prepared tiger, leopard and other pelts worn pendant down the back as manifest tokens of their prowess. The list of African animals utilized in the fur trade to a greater or less extent, embraces the fox, marmot, caama, fennec, civet, genet, tiger, leopard, wolf, cat, hare, bear, gazelle, ounce, rabbit and one species of monkey. The genet, found in South Africa, has a moderately good coat of fur, generally grey with yellow or clouded white markings and many dark spots ; the tail is marked with rings of alternate black and white fur; genet is 435 FKNNEC used by furriers, chiefly abroad, in making boas, linings and trimmings. Civet. This animal abounds in Northern Africa and is persistently hunted for its fur, and the perfume it carries in a small glandular pouch. The fur, which is rather long, is handsomely marked with unevenly dis- tributed patches of black and white hairs. Small parcels of civet fur are used in Paris, London and other cities for trimming garments, and making boas and muffs. A perfume similar to civet is obtained from the rasse, a Javanese animal. Caama. Also called, asse, is a South African ani- mal of the fox tribe, and the smallest known member of the family; its downy yellowish-grey fur always com- mands a ready sale at prices sufficiently remunerative to induce a small number of hunters and trappers to de- vote much time to its capture. Owing to the diminutive size of the animal a considerable number of pelts are required to line a cloak, and as the demand always ex- ceeds the supply, a caama lining is a luxury obtainable only by a few wealthy persons. Fennec — is the English name of another small ani- mal, somewhat similar to the caama, inhabiting several districts of Africa, especially Egypt and Nubia. It is about twenty inches in length, including a very bushy, 436 FENNEC 437 fox-like tail. Marked differences are noted in the color of the f ennec ; usually the fur is of a pale fawn tint, but at certain seasons blanches to a creamy white. The fur is wonderfully soft and warm, and so highly esteemed by the richer classes that the entire collection is regu- larly required for domestic consumption. Leopard. The fur of the leopard when in perfect condition is extremely brilliant and gaudy ; it is generally marked with ten, and occasionally twelve, lines of irreg- ularly shaped black or very dark brown spots extending from the head to the tail ; the color of the fur between the spots varies from nearly clear white to dark brown ; skins showing light golden tints are considered most beautiful, and are preferred by furriers in producing stylish collars, muffs, trimmings and occasionally full depth coats either for street or auto wear. The article is used to a larger extent in making floor rugs with mount- ed heads or half-heads. Jackal. A limited number of jackal skins from South Africa are offered from time to time at the Lon- don sales of mixed furs ; this species of jackal is found at L.BOPARD 438 JACKAL the Cape of Good Hope and in the contiguous districts ; it is larger than the common fox, and has a moderately dense coat of black and white over-hairs, divided by a distinct, dark line extending down the spine from the head to the tail ; the skin is lined with plush, felt or cloth, and is used as a sleigh or carriage robe or hall rug. MONKEY The skin of one species of African monkey, the black colobus, is at times manufactured by European and American furriers as a novelty; nearly fifty thousand skins have been used in a year. The monkey has no fur ; only the shoulders are fair- ly but not densely covered with long and glossy black hairs, forming on the body of the monkey a covering strikingly resembling a coachman's cape; but as the monkey wore it first, the charge of appropriating an original style will lie against the coachman, but not against him only as thousands of ladies have also adopt- ed the fashion with manifest satisfaction. Monkey skin as apparel is unquestionably an orig- inal style, remotely original, for very learned men as- sure us that it was worn in warmest Africa ages before man happened, for man did happen as is clearly proven by the voluminous theory of evolution, a process plainly axiomatic and therefore independent of corroboration, which is non-existent. Once upon a time — the esoteric period in which all legendary events have had their genesis — a monkey was evolved into a man; how many monkeys suffered this humiliating transformation or transmigration is not stated, and the number may therefore be regarded as an UNCLE immaterial detail ; it is certain, however, that evoluting was considered humiliating to the simian, which became so distraught by the deeds and assumptions of the new biped that it promptly estopped further evolving — hence we have the monkey with us "even unto this day." Man, though knowing from whence he came, but not being able to unravel the secret of how to do it, has not evolved backward or forward, but has been content to multiply merely as man, and seek f orgetf ulness in mi- gration; but now and then Dame Fashion stirs within him painful memories of the long ago, for as he dons thoughtlessly purchased coats or capes of monkey skin and realizes that, "according to information and belief," the garments are made of the hairy cuticle of devoted ancestors, he must be well nigh overwhelmed in grief. To one not wholly hardened by the lapse of time the con- templation of wraps made from the epidermis of human- ity's prototype must be an exceedingly poignant experi- ence ; grandparents many times removed, revered uncles, 439 440 MONKEY aunts and beloved cousins innumerable pass in review and thrill the imagination as one garment after another is fondled and reluctantly tried on. From 1850 to 1900, African hunters sent to market 2,733,163 black monkey- skins to be converted into stylish capes, collars and trim- mings for the adornment of winsome posterity, a large proportion of the collection being required in the United States. Since that unknown era in which he descended from a monkey, man has achieved marked progress in me- chanical efficiency, scientific attainments, and greatness in his own opinion; failure, however, to rightly appre- hend his origin plainly proves that he descended, really came down, and will remain in the depths until he real- izes that no matter how many times man has made a monkey of himself, God never created a monkey in order that he might therefrom evolve a man. SPOTTED RINGTAILS The spotted ringtail, called a cat because it is re- lated to the felines, is about thirty-five inches in length including the tail which is some seventeen inches long, marked with alternating rings of black and dingy white, eight of the rings being black. Fur on all parts of the body is dotted with nearly circular black spots about one- half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter ; the fur is soft and fairly abundant. Pelts of the spotted ringtail in the natural state make good coat linings, or sets for ladies and children who like odd things; dyed it may be used in various ways. Spotted African ringtails are a novelty for the American market; the supply is not large. BLACK COLOBUS The Black Colobus, shown above, is the African monkey whose hirsute cuticle is utilized in the fur trade. When a few, very few, monkeys committed the foolish fault of changing to humans, it is a moot question whether they became men or women ; it is certain, how- ever, that the hairy hides of the monks "become" women only, as men, though not adverse to monkey-shines, have €ver, instinctively it may be, refused to be appareled in monkey skin. 441 Jfairg In the earliest period of the trade the skins of fur- bearing animals caught in more or less extended sec- tions of country lacking transportation facilities, were brought together at certain season for barter and distri- bution at fairs. Though wonderful progress has been made in dressing, dyeing and manufacturing furs, orig- inal methods of handling raw skins still prevail in many places, or have been abandoned only in part, reluctantly, or by force of circumstances. There are places where it is still possible to secure furs of superior quality in exchange for trinkets of small value ; rather large collec- tions of raw furs are, "even unto this day" and as of old, sent to London and Leipzig to be sold publicly or pri- vately to merchants in the countries of origin, including the United States and Canada; and fairs are held as of yore, and are regarded as essential centers of distribu- tion. NIJNI NOVGOROD The Mackary Fair, undoubtedly the greatest fair of the present day, is held annually at Nijni Novgorod, Russia, beginning, officially, on August 6, St. Mackary's Day, and continuing to September 6; the fair is named after its patron saint, and the monks of St. Mackary formerly derived a large revenue from the institution in duties imposed on the goods brought forward for barter and sale; the duties were long since taken over by the government, though dignitaries of the church continue to officiate in the interesting ceremonies inaugurating the fair each year. Nijni Novgorod, famous chiefly on 442 FAIRS 443 account of the fair held there annually for many hun- dreds of years, is situated upon a hill rising rather ab- ruptly from the plain, near the confluence of the Volga and Oka Rivers, and is a very attractive city during the gala period of the fair ; it is estimated that two hundred thousand persons, busy merchants, dealers and specula- tors of all civilized lands attend the fair, bring forward for exchange furs, tea, silk, wool, hides and other prod- ucts and manufactured goods; these articles are dis- played in large warehouses and some three thousand shops, one-story buildings of wood and brick erected in rows along straight streets ; many of these shops are un- occupied during half the year, but all are needed for the fair. Every precaution is taken to avoid a conflagration — a trench filled with water from the river runs through each street; no one is allowed to light a fire or even a candle in any of the shops; and special watchmen are constantly on duty. A large part of the business trans- acted is effected by barter, goods from one country be- ing exchanged for those from another ; business is con- ducted slowly, methodically and in calm disregard for the value of tirne; values are to a certain extent regu- lated by supply and demand, but each merchant or trader values his own goods independent of market quotations, and as it "takes two to make a bargain," not only hours but days are sometimes consumed in completing a single transaction — vain efforts to obtain two dollars* worth of goods for a hundred cents, or two dollars for mer- chandise worth half that amount. Furs offered at the fair are collected from all parts of the universe, ranging in grade from Siberian sables to European hares ; the articles brought forward in larg- 444 FAIRS est number are squirrel skins, up to two million ; hares, half a million, and lamb skins, seven hundred thousand. IRBIT Another Russian fair of special interest to the fur trade is held annually in February at Irbit, capital of a district of the same name, on the Rivers Irbit and Nitza, near the Ural Mountains. Furs to the value of more than two millions dollars are offered at this fair in small buildings erected for the purpose, about thirty thousand European, Asiatic and American merchants attending as buyers. The furs, being winter caught, are of excel- lent quality, and include very fine sable, fox, bear, ko- linsky, wolf, wolverine, and three to four million Siber- ian squirrel skins, and sundry European and American articles. During the day the merchants visit the shops for the purpose of examining the goods and comparing prices, but exchanges or purchases are rarely effected until evening, when buyers and sellers assemble at their hotels for dinner, which is the most important event of the day; those gathered about the tables are seemingly engaged solely in a feast of good things, but as a matter of fact each one is exercising to the utmost his business skill, wit and wisdom to effect exchanges, sales and pur- chases so as to get **the best of the bargain." At the Irbit Fair, July, 191 7, competition was strong though prices ruled high; offerings comprised the fol- lowing skins: Badger, 3,000; house cats, 50,000; ermine, 120,000, which brought from 83 cents to $1.86; Russian iltis, fitch, 140,000; cross fox, 500; white fox, 7,500, sell- ing at $12.86 to $14.27; silxer fox, 100, of which ^he best brought $857.00; red fox from various sections, FAIRS 445 8,000; grey fox, 2,500; kolinsky, 60,000; lynx, 500; baum marten, 2,000; Russian mink, 2,000; sables, 1,500, brought from $25.00 to $128.00; wolves, 1,000; bears, 300; Mongolian foxes, 700, brought from $4.86 to $6.86; otters, 200; wolverine, 300; dog skins, 4,000, and 2,075,- 000 squirrel skins. LEIPZIG Important fairs have been held annually at Leip- zig, Germany, for nearly six centuries. These fairs, three in number, are attended by merchants and manu- facturers from Germany, Russia, Greece, Hungary, Turkey, Denmark, Sweden, England, France, Italy and America, who visit the fairs as buyers and sellers — eith- er to purchase furs produced in lands other than their own, or to sell their native products in an open market. The bulk of the raw and dressed skins thus ex- changed or sold is taken for actual consumption ; but in instances large parcels of lamb, squirrel, hare and other peltries are purchased for speculation. Russians have usually been the largest buyers. The New Year Fair, first of the three, is held in January. The Easter Fair, which is of leading importance to fur merchants, occurs immediately after the sacred fes- tival from which it derives its name, and usually opens in April. Large lots of furs purchased at the London March sales, and direct shipments from the United States, are sold at the Easter Fair to German and other manufacturers. The Michaelmas Fair, last of the three, is held in September. The great European war has adversely af- 446 FAIRS fected all these fairs, owing to bad business conditions in all markets, and the evident inability of foreign mer- chants to attend or forward goods for purchase and sale. Hamb ^Uni A large quantity of lamb skins of various kinds and sizes is regularly employed in the manufacture of arti- cles of winter apparel throughout the world; many of these skins are marketed through the great Russian fairs, others are shipped to London for sale in the raw, and smaller lots are sent direct to consuming centers, or are converted into clothing at the sources of produc- tion. All are handled in the fur trade owing principally to the fact that they are made up with the fleece on the skin, in the same manner as furs, instead of the methods usually pursued in the manufacture of wool. Several million skins are annually collected and consumed ; these skins vary in size, color and texture; the greater num- ber are white, many are light grey, mixed grey and white, and some are black; in some specimens the wool is tightly curled, in others open curled, crinkled or straight ; certain diminutive specimens, found largely in Asia, are generally admired. Lamb skins are known in the fur trade by the following names : Persian lamb, Persians or Persianer; these have closely curled wool on all parts of the pelt, and are made up natural or dyed a lustrous blue-black ; the article is at times extremely fashionable for ladies' coats, capes, children's garments and headwear ; some consumers re- gard selected Persians as superior in beauty to any fur except sable ; it has no rival as a mourning "fur." >vi«Bttii.-.ii'%t^t via PERSIAN LAMB Half -Persians are a lower grade of skins of the Persian class, and are well adapted for making capes, linings and caps. Large collections of Persian lamb skins are regu- larly offered at the fair at Nijni Novgorod, and are sold in bale lots for dressing and dyeing at Leipzig, where the finishing processes have been conducted for many years ; many skins are dyed in Russia, where the article is extensively used in making garments, linings, and also for military collars and caps; in recent years Persians have been finely dyed in Greater New York. Broadtail, made up into costly garments, is a lamb skin showing a beautiful wavy pattern, similar to moire silk. Astrakhan, or Merluschka, Iamb skins are collected in quantity at Muraschkino, Russia, and are forwarded to the fairs by Russian and Persian merchants ; some are dressed at the stated center of collection, Moscow, Ka- san and other Russian cities. As compared with Per- sians the wool is longer and much more "open" in curl ; fickle fancy alternately favors Persians and Astrakhans, and prices vary accordingly. 447 448 LAMB SKINS Krimmer, a handsome grey Iamb skin, closely re- sembles Astrakhan, but many specimens are more tight- ly curled ; it is very handsome made up natural for chil- dren's sets, caps, linings and trimmings. Ukranean. Skins obtained chiefly in the govern- ment of Kiev, Russia; mainly consumed at home, but a small quantity is exported. Caracule or Caracool, is a handsome figured skin, much admired in ladies' garments ; it is beautifully curled when taken from very young animals, those only a few days old, and is an excellent natural black. Moufflon — is long in fleece, handsome in natural white, or dyed brown or black. Mongolian is a moderate priced skin; it is warm, soft and quite durable. English and Scotch lambs, when properly dressed and dyed, resemble the finer Persians, and are pleasingly bright or lustrous. Crimea — lambs having fine curly wool abound in the Crimea, European Russia, and always command a good price at home and abroad. South American or Buenos Aires lamb skins, are used in making or lining coats, military headwear, rugs and other articles ; they are about fifty per cent cheaper than the English and Scotch brands; the yearly collec- tions exceeds a million skins. These and a few other less important "sorts" of lamb skins, sheep skins from China, and kid skins from many parts of Asia, are regularly required by ladies of' fashion in Europe and America, men of moderate means and poor people in many parts of Europe and all Asia. Buffalo, bear, wolf, goat and other large, strong and heavy pelted skins, while used as furs in the production of various articles, are specially adapted to the manufac- ture of sleigh and carriage robes, which is a separate branch of the fur business ; these skins, and additionally the complete pelts of the tiger, leopard, lion, puma, jack- al, Polar bear and a few others make attractive hall and parlor rugs and mats. Higher cost carriage and sleigh robes are made of fur seal natural or dyed, beaver, rac- coon, fox, fawn, wolverine, musk ox, marten, and other furs, either in regular "stock" or on special order, always affording the consumer greater comfort and satisfac- tion than robes of other materials, however expensive. BUFFALO For many years the American buffalo, properly bi- son, furnished the chief supply of warm, serviceable and durable sleigh robes, but greedy tongue and hide hunters, and reckless slaughterers who claimed to be sportsmen, unitedly destroying the animal at the rate of nearly half a million a year, wantonly wasted a valuable asset of the country, and practically exterminated one of the most interesting animals in all creation, and which was first seen in the wild state by white men about the middle of the sixteenth century. During the winter of 1844-45 the large open section of country known as the Laramie Plains, a favorite win- ter resort of the buffalo, was visited by a severe snow storm which continued until the entire district was bur- ied in snow to a depth of about four feet; during the 449 450 ROBES AND RUGS Storm thousands of buffaloes were trampled to death in their mad struggle to escape, and many more died of starvation; a large number, however, survived, but only to later encounter a destroyer more cruel than nature. The buffalo has not been seen on the Laramie Plains since that fatal winter. Prior to 1850 vast herds of buffalo frequented the plains of Texas, and all of the great tracts of level land east of the Rocky Mountains to the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, but all, except a few in captivity, have passed over the border into hap- pier feeding grounds of the race. For several consecu- tive years, beginning 1850, a collection of from one hun- dred and forty to one hundred and fifty thousand buffalo hides was marketed at St. Louis alone, and other large lots were shipped direct to New York and Chicago; in 1859 the collection centering at all places approximated two hundred thousand hides; in 1877 about two hundred thousand buffalo were killed for their hides in the single State of Texas ; the following year the supply from all sources reached a total of only one hundred and twenty thousand hides of all sizes, and in subsequent seasons, down to 1883, the collection averaged one hundred thou- sand hides per annum; from that date, which was the last great year, the decline in quantity was very pro- nounced, and before 1890 the last small collection had been garnered, and, except a little herd in Yellowstone Park, the American bison had ceased to exist as a wild animal. The last lot of buffalo hides received at New York, about eight hundred, was purchased by a sleigh robe manufacturer at eight dollars each, and after making them up into robes — a single hide finished natural or ROBES AND RUGS 451 lined with felt constituted a robe — sold them at first at fifteen dollars, later at twenty-five, fifty and sixty-five dollars each, and the last pair at one hundred and twen- ty-five dollars each. In the early history of the trade buflfalo hides, according to size and condition, were worth from one to three dollars each in the raw. In the trade buflFalo hides were classed as "Indian-handled," or dressed, or "whiteman dressed," the former for many years rating as the better hides. Indian squaws of sev- eral tribes, particularly the Crows, were efficient dress- ers of buffalo hides, the work being done by them with the brains of the animal and certain juices known, in this connection, only to themselves; the leather of hides dressed in this way was white, clean and soft. Some of the Indian-handled hides were smoked; these were also pliable, but dingy on the leather side. Hides of the buf- falo, mountain sheep, deer and elk dressed by Indians always retain their soft finish; and when wet, or even soaked in water, do not dry out hard or harsh. Many of the Indian-handled hides were ornamented on the leather side with crude outline sketches in red and yel- low pigments; these highly colored pictures, also the work of the squaws, represented some event in the life of individual braves, or the history of the tribe. Some of the light-leathered hides were used in mak- ing men's coats for service in the colder sections of the West and Northwest ; owing to the low cost these coats were also popular with car drivers and truckmen as far East as Boston. During the period of abundant buffalo life from twenty to thirty thousand hides were secured each year in Canada, mainly through the Hudson's Bay Company. 452 ROBES AND RUGS A few small herds remain in captivity ; the largest, about 325 head, is on the Indian Reservation in Montana; a herd of about 150 near Fort Pierre, South Dakota ; about 50 in a privately owned park at Cardigan, Minnesota; Yellowstone Park about 75; Goodnight ranch, Texas, about 52; and smaller numbers at Denver and New York. There is a herd of wild buffalo near Great Slave Lake, and a few in captivity at Winnipeg, Canada. BEARS Superior robes and rugs are made of bear skins, including the black, white, brown and grey specimens. The black bear, a native of North America, has very glossy hair and a good coat of soft under fur; during the first year, or "cub" period, the fur of this species of bear is gray, and does not take on the clear black hue until the animal is nearly two years old; the black bear sheds its coat twice a year, and for all commercial pur- poses the fur is in its best condition early in the winter, or before the bear has slept in it for four months, more or less. As the black bear is hunted all the time for its pelt, fat, flesh and the bounty paid in some States and counties it will soon become extinct. The cinnamon bear found in Alaska is of great size, and its skin makes a rug suitable only for the excep- tionally large rooms in castles and modern mansions; the government protects the animal by wise laws, but it is too big to long survive the destruction wrought in open seasons. The Polar bear, which is fairly well distributed over the Arctic regions, is also of extreme size; specimens captured have measured nearly fourteen feet in length ROBES AND RUGS 453 by five feet in height, and weighing two thousand pounds. The Polar bear has a dense coat of very long silvery or pale yellow upper, or "water-hairs," six inches or more in length, and a good growth of fur on all parts of the body, including the soles of the feet ; extra large pelts with the skin of the head and feet in perfect con- dition for mounting, bring extreme prices — the annual collection is small. The grizzly bear of North America, is another giant, attaining a length of more than eight feet, and a height of four feet, and weighing up to one thousand pounds; the long, rather harsh fur is a dingy brown sprinkled with white, producing a grizzled effect ; the cub is brown only ; collection small, about three hundred, and declining. The grizzly is occasionally seen east of the Rocky Mountains, but is more generally met west of that range, and as far as the Pacific coast. Brown bears are found in the mountains and heavy timber lands of Europe and Asia ; their fur is usually of medium quality, and is used in making heavy coats. The Syrian bear, varying from dingy white to brownish-grey, according to the age of the individual, has a smooth soft fur ; collection is small, and all used abroad. Bear skins are not exclusively used as robes anc? rugs, but are freely employed in making coats, collars, borders for garments, and headwear. Many of the soldiers of ancient Rome when going into battle wore pieces of bear skin over their helmets to g^ve the wearers a ferocious appearance; the custom, less the ferocity aspect, remains, members of "crack" English regiments and the "Old Guard" of New York, when not in battle, wear large and lofty hats, called 464 ROBES AND RUGS shakos, made of black bear skin. In recent years shakos have been made of black dyed hare skins, in imitation of bear ; the hare fur is lighter in weight, cooler and much cheaper — and nearly as imposing. WOLVES Man and wolf have been at war from the beginning and though the battle has never ceased, the wolf which has all the while been limited to original methods and facilities for attack and defense, has continued to exist in considerable numbers and many places, particularly Asia, Northern Europe, Western and Northwestern sections of North America. Edgar, who became King of England in 958, compelled the people of Wales to pay an annual tribute of three hundred wolf heads, instead of money ; and during his reign criminals condemned to death were pardoned if they were able to prove that they had benefitted the community by having killed a stipulated number of wolves. Other Kings, and English, French, Spanish and Russian nobles have repeatedly sought to hasten the ex- termination of the wolf by offering bounties for its de- struction. The wolf, in spite of all persecution, continued to exist in rather large numbers in Scotland until the mid- dle of the seventeenth century, and other sections of Great Britain to a much later date. The fur of the wolf is grey sprinkled with black, being darkest or nearly black on the back, brownish- grey on the sides and nearly white on the under por- tions of the body ; the tail is bushy. In southern sections of the United States the species of wolf most abundant COYOTE is deep black or brownish-black; other black wolves are found in the Arctic regions. The large timber wolf is much lighter in color, and in many instances the white fur predominates, and is long and glossy. The prairie wolf, or coyote, abounds on the prairies west of the Mississippi River, has a yellowish-grey coat rather handsomely marked with irregularly distributed dashes of black hairs. Northern skins are best furred, most durable and of greatest value. Wolf skins make exceptionally handsome robes and desirable rugs, and owing to the increased demand for furs in recent years have been more largely used in mak- ing ladies' fur neckwear and muffs, for which purposes they are dyed either black, blue, taupe or brown. Skins of the Esquimaux wolf dog, which closely re- sembles the wolf, are used to some extent in robe manu- facture. Robes are lined with plushes, cassimeres, felts and woolen fabrics. Rugs are usually finished with mounted heads. Mounted lion skins make handsome rugs. 455 The angora is the handsomest and most valuable member of the goat family ; its long, silky, snow-white fleece is extensively used in England in the manufacture of delicate fabrics and costly shawls, and in the United States in the production of plushes in imitations of some of the most popular furs. Trimmings, baby carriage robes of exceptional beauty, rugs and mats are made of Angora skins pro- cured in Spain, France, the western part of the United States, and Angora, a small district of Asia Minor. Some very fine robes, rugs and articles of Indian clothing are made of Rocky Mountain goat skins; the hair and wool of this wild goat are long, soft and gener- ally white, though it varies somewhat in color with the change of the seasons. Very large supplies of goat skins, suitable for robes, rugs, coats and smaller arti- cles, are regularly collected in Asia, Africa and parts of Europe ; skins secured at Cape Town, and in eastern and western provinces of Africa, are of good size, best sorts weighing from fifty-six to sixty pounds per dozen ; they are sold by weight at the London sales. The skin of the Chinese goat, considered as a robe and rug pelt, greatly surpasses the others, both in point of utility and number, for consumption in the United States; while these Chinese goat skins are nearly uni- form in size they differ much in color, some being so dark as to be classed as black, others are fine bluish-grey, clear white, grey marked with patches of black or brown, or a reddish tinge on parts of the pelt. A number of se- lected skins are regularly dyed black by silk dyers at 466 GOATS 457 Lyons, France ; the color produced by the silk dye is deep and lustrous; commoner grades are dyed black in the United States for robe and rug manufacture. Natural skins, robes, plates and rugs are sold in London at the principal and minor sales in four assortments — black, grey, white and mixed colors. Chinese workmen assort the skins according to color, dress or tan them, and make them up into "plates'* — a plate is composed of carefully matched whole skins and pieces, and measures five feet and six inches in length by about three feet in width ; one plate suffices for a floor rug, two plates sewed together lengthwise make a sleigh or carriage robe; single skins may be used as mats. The first Chinese goat plates brought to New York readily sold for from twenty to thirty dollars each; a few years later the importation reached a total of sixty thousand plates and prices declined to three dollars. Chinese dog skins, which are superior to goats, are treat- ed and handled in the same way, but the greater number are used in making men's coats. Goat skins are used in making coats, largely replacing high cost raccoon, coach- men's capes, trimmings, and fair imitations, in appear- ance, of black bear, African monkey, lynx, and other articles. Fine rugs and coverings for couches are made of carefully dressed moose skins. Fur seal, beaver and nutria skins, dressed with fur on, natural and plucked, are quite largely used in making 458 GLOVE STOCK fine, warm gloves ; these are usually expensive, and suit- able for dressy wear; cheaper every day and working gloves are made of raccoon, dyed and natural hair seal, muskrat and Australian opossum skins; and in larger quantity of tanned deer, elk and antelope skins, soft leather skins for men's and ladies' wear are made of fine kid. Other gloves are made of parts of cow, horse, colt and pig skin, all of the latter being tanned in very soft finish and dyed in any primary or fancy color desired. Mule, sheep, rat, horse, goat and similar skins are split, tanned very soft, and made up the same as kid. Deer skins are obtained in quantity in Maine, sev- eral Western States, Mexico, Central and South Amer- ica, and Europe. The moose, or properly elk, is the largest member of the deer tribe ; it formerly abounded in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire and along the Ca- nadian rivers emptying into the Bay of Fundy; but is now found only in small numbers in Maine, Oregon, Washington, the extreme northern border of the United States, in Canada south of the St. Lawrence River, and as far north as Hudson's Bay; soft, durable gloves are made of properly tanned moose hide ; the head, mounted as a trophy, is worth many times the price of the entire skin. The Wapiti, better known as American stag, red elk, or gray elk, is now most numerous in its winter ter- ritory in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay ; the Indians dress the skins very finely, using the brains and fat, rendering the pelt soft and pliant under all conditions of wet and dry weather. Antelope, obtained in western sections of the United States, constitutes a very light-weight stock suitable only GLOVE STOCK 4S9 for moderately heavy gloves ; antelope is dressed by both Indians and white men, the former producing the better finished and dearer goods ; dressed with hair on antelope skins weigh from two to three and one-half pounds, and tanned, as leather, from eight to sixteen ounces each. Virginia deer as tanned and smoked by Indians, are soft and flexible and not readily injured by moisture. Buckskin, tanned deer, is strong and serviceable for making workingmen's gloves, and is often sold as "genuine" chamois. Reindeer skins, obtained in northern portions of Europe, Asia and North America, provide excellent stock for the manufacture of strong winter gloves. Caribou, or American reindeer, is a particularly good article. Rocky Mountain goat skins, which are excellently prepared for glovers' uses by Indian dressers, constitute good stock. Buffalo hides, too lightly furred to be used as robes, were tanned for the manufacture of gloves, but the leather was too porous to be considered valuable. Prairie dog skins, dressed as fur or leather, make excellent short and gauntletted gloves. The prairie dog, a species of marmot, abounds in the level lands along the Missouri River and near the River Platte in Nebraska; it is about sixteen inches in length, with a coat of reddish-brown and grey hairs and light fur ; it makes its home in burrows, and where large colonies exist the entire field is undermined ; recently ef- forts have been made to exterminate the animal with poison. Sundry peltries, notably the beautiful furry coats of ermine, sable and black fox, merit the distinction of being designated as royal furs, because of their exten- sive employment for centuries in the manufacture of state and coronation robes of kings and queens and auto- crats of every name. The furs enumerated, and addi- tionally sea otter, blue fox and other fine peltries are quite generally worn by royalty upon other than court occasions of great national interest, some or all of them being conspicuously present in their every day attire throughout the winter season. Kings and queens of England and France have from "time immemorial" worn trailing robes lined with choicest sables and er- mines, hundreds of skins worth a "king's ransom" in a single garment, the total outlay being possible only to the possessors of royal incomes. Owing to the unprece- dentedly large number of persons officiating, and par- ticipating by virtue of rank and official position, an ex- traordinary number of ermine skins was required in the coronation ceremonies of the present king and queen of England; as the existing supply in the market was inadequate to meet the demand, trappers in Russia and Siberia devoted the preceding winter largely to ermine trapping to procure new and sufficient supplies; this marked activity in ermine trapping extended to the United States where trappers were offered advanced prices for white weasel — an animal of the same family as the ermine, but inferior in size and fur — with the re- sult that many thousands were caught, not for corona- tion robes in England, but for a multitude of uncrowned 460 ROYAL FURS 461 queens and princesses in America who, though not in "kings' houses" delight to "wear soft clothing" made popular and costly by royal approval. Queen Elizabeth of England wore a full depth gar- ment of crown sables presented to her by the Czar of Russia, who enjoyed a monopoly of the darkest and choicest sables annually collected in his empire. Ermine, though at all times past and present the ceremonial fur of royalty, is not so exclusively favored as formerly, other fine pelts being used. The fur of the Siberian squirrel, which is a hand- some grey, briefly enjoyed a royal reign in France where it was first introduced by Napoleon I on his return to Paris from Thuringia early in the nineteenth century, on which occasion he presented Empress Josephine with a sufl5cient number of squirrel skins to make a superb garment. A royal robe, one of many belonging to the Czar of Russia, was shown at the London Exposition in 1 851; it was composed wholly of selected pieces of fur taken from the neck of the blue fox, which is the softest and finest part of the pelt; the garment was extremely beautiful and nearly as light as down, and was appraised at £3,400 sterling. Sea otter has been popular for many years with the rulers of Russia and China. The Queen of Holland shows a marked preference for marten fur in the darker shades, which is near-sable in every particular except price. The Empress of Austria wears astrakhan whether it is in fashion or neglected. The Queen of Spain prefers beaver fur. The late Empress of China had sable, sea otter, fox 462 ROYAL FURS and other furs in practically unlimited quantity, and adapted to all her moods. Many of the crowns of historic times have been lined with ermine and bordered with sable. Furs have not been continuously popular with royalty only, but have been worn with a pronounced sense of pride and comfort by dukes, earls, counts, mandarins and nobles of every degree, judges and officials in all lands; and the custom will continue until all distinctions merge in enthroned humanity. Jf urg in Heralbrp Furs have an important place in heraldry, a matter of profound interest to those concerned in the descent of man, particularly their own, but who are indifferent re- garding the ascent of any one, the possession of a coat of arms constituting an "outward and visible sign" of the occupancy of a square foot of space at the top — to which they have, paradoxically, descended. The shield, which is the chief object upon which the emblems or charges of heraldry are shown, is character- ized by what are termed tinctures, which consists of metals, colors and furs ; the surface of the shield is called the field. Ermine of four varieties, squirrel and sable are the furs used ; their correct titles are : Ermine — ^A white field with black stripes, or tips of ermine tails, with a black hair diverging from either side of the stripe, and three small black spots arranged in the form of a triangle over each stripe. Ermines — A sable field, with white stripes and spots. FURS IN HERALDRY 463 Erminois — A golden field, with black spots and stripes. Erminites — A white field, with black stripes and spots; it is similar to ermine in every particular, except that the hair or line diverging from either side of the stripe is red instead of black. Vair — Is composed of bell-shaped pieces of bluish- grey and white squirrel fur, arranged on the field base against base. The squirrel producing this fur is bluish- grey on the back and white on the abdomen, and there- for called varus. Silver and blue are now substituted for fur. Counter-Vair — This is distinguished from vair by having the bell-shaped figures on the field placed base against point, or the reverse of vair. Potent — Another variety of vair, the diflPerence being in the form of the figures. Potent-Counter — A description of vair, the figures on the field being in the form of the letter T. Purflew — ^A border of fur bell-shaped, similar to vair; when limited to a single row it is said to be pur- flewed; when two rows are used, it is counter-pur fiewed; and when three rows are employed, it is vair. Mantling — This is the heraldic name of a mantle, somewhat larger than the shield behind which it is ar- ranged. Mantlings for kings are of gold cloth, finished or lined with ermine fur; when intended for peers the mantlings are made of crimson velvet, lined with white fur marked with black bars, the number of bars varying according to the rank of the owner. Mantlings for com- moners are lined with plain white fur. Cap of Maintenance — This is the name of the Cap 464 FURS IN HERALDRY of State borne before English sovereigns at their coro- nation ; it is made of velvet and lined and bordered with ermine fur. Coronets of dukes, earls and other robes are similarly lined and bordered. Fur-bearing animals most frequently represented in heraldry are the lion, stag, deer, bear, wolf, ounce, hind, cat, panther, squirrel and seal. ^acerbotal Priests claiming to be servitors of the "one true God," and those who served Baal and sundry gods of the imagination, early noted the value of fur as a ma- terial for making or ornamenting sacerdotal robes for special occasions, exceptional ceremonies, spectacular if not spiritually inspiring, and sheckel-securing incan- tations; and as primitive and diversely superstitious forms of divine service still abide, furs retain their early sacerdotal vogue. In the period of the Exodus, the Hebrews while in the Wilderness of Zinn were required to build a taber- nacle, and offerings for the purpose were brought to Moses by those who possessed the desired articles, namely, badger skins, ram skins dyed red, and goats' hair ; the ram skins were used as a covering for the tab- ernacle, over which there was an outer covering made of the badger skins — the latter being impervious to moisture; the goats' hair was spun and made into cur- tains for the tent over the tabernacle, eleven curtains being made, each one forty-five feet long by six feet wide. When the "camp set forward," the people moved from one place to another, the "ark of testimony," the "table of shewbread," and all that pertained thereto. SACERDOTAL 4«5 were first protected with a cloth of scarlet and over that a covering of badger skins; the seven-branched "candle- stick, with its tongs, snuffers and oil vessels" were put in a bag of "covering of badger skins." The golden altar was first protected with a "cloth of blue," and over that "a covering of badger skins" ; all the "instruments of ministry," and all vessels pertaining to the altar were similarly covered with badgers skins while the camp, people, was in motion. Under the law of Moses, "the priest that offered any man's burnt offering" was permitted to retain "for him- self the skin of the burnt offering." Two rams were slain and burnt as offerings in consecrating Aaron as high-priest, and his sons as assistants in the service of the first tabernacle ; the ceremony consumed seven days. Later, when the temple had been erected at Jerusa- lem, the goat was allowed to be presented in the temple as an offering for sin ; this particular offering consisted of two goats, which were brought to the high-priest who cast lots upon them, "one lot for the Lord, and the other for the scape-goat" ; the first was sacrificed by the high- priest, and the other was permitted to "go for a scape- goat into the wilderness." The ram also served as a burnt, peace or trespass offering. The burnt offering of the prince on the Sab- bath day, presented through the high-priest, consisted of six lambs and a ram without blemish. John the Baptist wore "a girdle of skins about his loins." The false prophets were stigmatized as those who "wear sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves" — the visible sacerdotal garment was the symbol 466 SACERDOTAL of gentleness, but it was worn merely to deceive. The Bishop of Rome, cardinals, and bishops of other sees, wear ermine upon occasions. Aboriginal priests often wore furs, noticeable as grotesque rather than beautiful or seemly. In the days when the bison abounded in the United States a pure white specimen was on rare occasions cap- tured by an Indian hunter, and its skin, priceless to the captor, was devoted to religious uses. jFur ClotJ)ins The selection of the skins of animals for the produc- tion of necessary clothing was undoubtedly made at a period when no other material was available; and the continued employment of skins for the purpose by the human inhabitants of Greenland, Iceland and the entire Arctic regions may be accepted as an instinctive adapta- tion of the material most perfectly suited to their needs and comfort, and the maintenance of life itself under the climatic conditions to which they are subject. A puzzle past solving is encountered in the endeavor to determine how the original inhabitant of those dreary wastes of ice and snow managed to live until he caught his first seal, reindeer or eider duck for the dual purposes of subsistence and clothing. Natives of these extremely frigid latitudes, where the temperature remains continuously below zero for days and weeks, require fur garments which cover the entire person, for if any part of the body is even briefly exposed to the atmosphere it is instantly and often se- riously frost-bitten; and thus attired in their homely home-made suits of common seal and reindeer skins they FUR CLOTHING 4«7 appear, as seen from a distance, more like fur-bearing animals than human beings ; but those who pause to won- der quickly realize the wisdom of the semi-savages as shown in the selection of attire adapted to environment rather than expressive of mere personal pride. Esqui- mau clothing is composed of furs and skins, down and feathers, all the work being done by the wearers; the head of the family catches and skins the animals, and his better-half completes the task. Esquimaux women dress the skins by chewing them until the leather becomes extremely soft ; pelts thus pre- pared are impervious to cold and moisture, and absolute- ly wind-proof, qualities of the utmost importance in a treeless waste almost ceaselessly swept by icy gales. Hair seal, reindeer, and such other fur skins as he procures from time to time, walrus hide, bird skins and eider down are the component materials of the winter and summer clothing of the Esquimau; the principal garment, or "parkie," is of reindeer skin, is made moder- ately close fitting, reaches to or somewhat below the hips, is put on over the head and includes a hood sufficiently large to cover all parts of the head except the face. Trousers are made of seal or reindeer skin, from three to five pieces being sewed together in such a man- ner that the several parts are separately noticeable at a considerable distance ; parkie and trousers are worn fur- side out. Seal skin and walrus hide intended for trim- ming or special ornamentation, are denuded of hair and tanned white or a light shade of yellow. Heavy boots and large mittens complete the visible portions of the costume. Beneath these outer garments the Esquimau wears lighter and warmer ones made of 468 FUR CLOTHING eider down, delicate fawn and bird skins, and specially prepared reindeer hides; these downy under garments are worn with the fur or feathers next to the person, and prove perfectly protective to all parts of the body during the severest winters. Men and women are attired alike, with the occa- sional exception of some slight additional ornamentation in fur or feather upon parkie or trousers as an expres- sion of innate feminine love of finery and effective color. Reindeer skin is almost exclusively used in making clothing for the brief and not too intensely warm "sum- mer time." In his house composed wholly of ice and snow the Esquimau sleeps the sleep of the blessed lying between robes of Polar bear, seal, reindeer and fox skins. Furs were for many years reserved to kings and queens, after men became so inept as to invent such imperious lux- uries ; later ladies and nobles, probably as an act of royal diplomacy, were permitted to possess and wear furs compatible with their rank; and as time went on the privilege of wearing furs in autocratic realms was grad- ually extended to all titled persons — ^baronets, knights, squires, church dignitaries, jurists, public officials, the learned, self-exalted, and the mere possessor of money however acquired; and finally in the leveling sweep of democratic progress, everybody having "the price" from costliest sea otter down the scale to cheapest coney — and a little lower still the modest figure demanded by second-hand emporiums specializing in furs and filmy fabrics. Furs are today more extendedly popular than in any past period, and are almost universally worn, except FUR CLOTHING 469 in tropical climates, because of their attractiveness, the comfort afforded the wearers, and more largely on ac- count of the commanding favor of fashion — only the exceptionally wise dare to contravene the decrees of fashion. The humble pioneer blazing the way beyond inhabited borders for a succeeding civilization in which he scarcely hopes to participate; the courageous hunter seeking game and fur in trackless forests, desolate plains and snow-capped mountains, in order that nabbobs and ladies fair may be gloriously attired; the venturesome explorer striving to master the mystery hedging un- known regions, from pole to pole, in the service of hu- manity ; the fearless prospector delving for gold in lands where ice is ever present and Boreas holds triumphant sway the greater part of the year ; the sturdy woodsman toiling midst snow and ice in northern forests felling mighty trees to meet the needs of dwellers in cities, towns and humble homes — all these and many more have found great coats, caps, mitts and sleeping bags of fur almost as essential as food in their battles of endurance with the elements. Everyone, whether dwelling in a mansion or a hut, reveling in ease and luxury, or ceaselessly toiling for mere existence; the millionaire and the man and the maid of moderate means, appear serenely happy in the possession of furs, common or costly, or the little fur fancy favors. Everywhere, and for everyone able to buy or bor- row, from king to peasant, princely merchant to push- cart proprietor in the American metropolis, fur possesses an irresistible fascination ; even the most efficient valuer of miscellaneous merchandise from wearables of sim- 470 FUR CLOTHING plest structure to gems of highest rating, whose loan- some vocation is pursued under the sign of three golden spheres, takes an extraordinary interest in furs, invest- ing again and again in a sense of greater security than is ever enjoyed by the exclusive fur merchant, or most enthusiastic connoisseur. FURS AND PELTRIES Trade terms may to many seem rather peculiar, but the words used in designating the furry, hairy or woolly coats of animals in the marketable state, are clearly com- prehensible even to minds untutored in trade technical- ities. Skins of all fur-bearing animals may be properly designated as furs or peltries; furs, is applied only to the skins of such creatures as are strictly fur-bearers; some persons use the singular, designating a single skin as "a fur"; other forms used by common consent, are; Sheep pelt, but always lamb skin; goat skins and kid skins ; ox and cow hides, but invariably calf skins ; buf- falo hides, deer skins, and horse hides, but always colt or pony skins. 0ptn anb Cageb In skinning fur-bearing animals the skin is cut from the root of the tail down the center of the abdomen to the under jaw, and is then carefully removed from the carcass and spread out flat, in which form it is stretched upon boards of the proper dimensions and nailed in place, fur side against the board, the small nails used for the purpose being driven through the pelt around its en- tire edge. Some less particular trappers, especially be- ginners and those who too cautiously count the cost, nail their skins to barn doors, sides of houses, or any place that "will do." Skins handled in this way, stretched flat on boards or buildings, are known in the trade as "open," and are so quoted in price lists. Skins are also removed from the bodies of the dead animals by first cutting across, from the root of the tail, right and left to each hind foot, and then drawing the skin downward and en- tirely off the carcass ; skins thus removed from the ani- mal are said to be cased. These cased skins, in order that they may be properly dried in the natural size, are drawn over bent or bowed hickory withes, or upon boards specially shaped for the purpose and varying in size according to the known proportion of the skins to be strteched, ranging from a tiny quarter-shingle for a weasel, to a six-foot modeled board for a sea otter pelt. All skins may be taken off the animal open or cased, but some furs work up in manufacturing better in one way than the other. Skins that should be stretched "open" are : Beaver, seals, nutria and chinchilla; all others should be cased. 471 Raw, dressed and dyed skins are frequently im- pressed with various marks, initials or abbreviations to indicate source of origin, or name of dresser, dyer, owner or manufacturer; these marks often serve the important need of positive identification of the goods when the place of manufacture is in doubt, and in cases of robbery, furs being regarded by professional and amateur burglars and sneak thieves as specially attrac- tive articles of loot. Dealers, dressers, dyers and manufacturers of leading rank impress their private marks upon the leath- er side of the pelt; raw skins are similarly stamped or merely designated by letters which are universally recog- nized as abbreviations of the locations in which they were procured, as. A., for Alaska; L. M., for Lake Michigan; or the familiar abbreviations of the States. Very fresh skins are designated "green" or "green- pelted," to distinguish them from those that have been dried; fur seal skins are stamped with initials showing place of origin, Alaska, Copper Island, and other places ; and also to indicate size and condition ; all fur seal skins are sold at public sale under these marks or grades en- abling buyers to know in advance the exact character of each skin. The Hudson's Bay Company employs numer- ous exclusive marks indicating section of production, including : Canada — The older section of Canada. N. W. — Northwestern section. Y. F. — Yorkf ort on Hudson's Bay at the mouth of Nelson River. 472 MARKS 473 E. M. — East Main, east of Hudson's Bay in Lab- rador. E. B. — Esquimau Bay, on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River in the Company's old trading district known as the Montreal Department. M. K. R. — Mackenzie River in the northwest, ex- tending from the Rocky Mountains to the Arctic Ocean. G. R. — Grand River, Province of Quebec. M. R. — Moose River in the northwest, southwest of Hudson's Bay. B. and M. — Bersimis and Mingan, posts in Canada north of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. F. G. — Fort Garry, in the Province of Manitoba, at the juncture of the Assiniboine and Red Rivers, about forty miles south of Winnipeg. L. W. R. — Little Whale River in Labrador empty- ing into Hudson's Bay. G. W. R.— Great Whale River. Y. T.— Yukon Territory. FUR AND HAIR Fur, as a term in common use, needs to be defined, as in the natural state the coats of animals generally designated as fur-bearers consist of a combination of fur and hair, and in many species hair exclusively. Fur is remarkably soft, much shorter than the hair on the same pelt, and more profuse, covering the skin so completely that no space may be found for the addition of even a few spears ; fur is notched near the tip some- what like a spear-point, and owing to this peculiarity in structure may be readily wrought into a firmly cohering mass, known as felt. In color fur shows a very limited 474 FUR AND HAIR range in variation, embracing bluish and greyish tints, brown and yellow shades, and untinged black and white. Hair is round, smooth, hollow or tubular, hard and even harsh, and though fairly pliant is noticeably brittle, particularly when extremely dry. Hair, as compared with fur, is the more deeply rooted in the skin, and of greater length, but varies considerably in this respect, ranging from one-half inch, approximately, on some small canines, to from four to nine inches upon certain goats, the black monkey and polar bear ; while fur is the more abundant product, it is outclassed by hair in color variation. Coats of fur-bearers admired on account of the beauty, luster and color of the hair, are made up natural, and include the sable, marten, sea otter, mink, ermine, chinchilla, and some of the foxes. Other pelts, valued solely because of the pleasing appearance and luxurious character of the soft, dense fur from which the long hairs have been removed, are wrought into forms for service either in natural hues, or colors imparted by art. iWisnamelr jFurg Sundry manufactured furs are misnamed for vari- ous reasons, conscienceless retailers being the principal offenders; there is no justification for the custom even when the particular act constitutes nothing worse than a mild deception, for while it is true that "a rose by any other name would smell as sweet," it is also true that coney fur foisted upon the unsuspecting under any other name, wears neither better nor worse than coney. Furs that are misnamed are always inferior to the articles under whose titles they masquerade — a high MISNAMED FURS 475 grade fur is never offered under the name of a common or low cost peltry. Misnaming is done to increase sales, secure larger profits than could be obtained in selling the fur under correct representation, to gain the reputation of deal- ing in goods of better quality than are actually handled, and definitely as an effective bait for catching gudgeons — snobs for whom nothing ready-made is good enough, and who proudly "give up" an excess of twenty per cent over value for a garment "to order," and unwittingly receive a drummer's sample slightly changed to fit ; and others who are eager to emulate the over-dressed, and who would consider themselves grossly underrated if the tradesman offered them a coat of rabbit fur for fifty dollars, but who quite cheerfully surrender one hundred and twenty-five dollars for the same garment when represented as French sable. England has enacted a drastic law against this form of deception, and it is effectively enforced through the Fur Trades' Section of the Chamber of Commerce. In some parts of the United States governing the misnam- ing of articles offered for sale are upon the statute books, and a few convictions have been secured — there should be many. Furs most generally misnamed are : American sable, sold as Russian sable. Fitch dyed, sold as sable. Goat dyed, sold as bear or monkey. Hare dyed, sold as fox, lynx or sable. Kid, sold as lamb or broadtail. Marmot, blended, sold as mink or sable. 476 MISNAMED FURS Mink, blended, sold as sable, and unhaired and dyed, sold as seal. Muskrat, unhaired and dyed, sold as mink, electric seal, Hudson seal. Red River seal, and many other kinds of seal, none of which exist. Muskrat, sheared, sold as mole. Nutria, unhaired and dyed, sold as beaver, seal, electric seal and Hudson seal. Otter, unhaired and dyed, sold as real fur seal, and electric seal. Raccoon, dyed, sold as lynx. Rabbit, dyed, sold as sable or French sable ; un- haired and dyed, sold as electric seal, and sundry other seals not found on land or sea. White rabbit, sold as ermine, and dyed, represented as chinchilla — rabbit, twenty-five cents, real chinchilla ten dollars per skin. Hares, foxes and other dyed skins pointed with white hairs, sold as natural furs. Dyed skins of many kinds, sold as natural. Wild cat, sold as genet. Opossum, blended, sold as stone marten. Muskrat, natural and blended, sold as water mink, or brook mink. The need of a pure fur law, with penalty to fit, is manifest. ssss, 3S Mar The often reiterated assertion that "history re- peats itself" may be trite, but records of great events prove it true, definitely so in war's effects upon the fur trade. In the earlier wars the common people were de- spoiled of their necessary and highly prized fur skins to their great personal discomfort, the victors confiscating the goods to their own uses, or retaining them as tro- phies. The war of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain completely destroyed the essential and profitable export trade in American raw furs conducted by individual exporters, and on a large scale by the American Fur Company, London being the world's cen- ter of receipt and distribution. This loss of the most im- portant part of its business ended the ambitious career of the American Fur Company ; and though subsequent to the cessation of hostilities English traders were pro- hibited from engaging in the fur business within the Sorders of the United States, the company did not resume. During the war London remained open as an active market for the receipt of skins and the operations of buyers from all countries except the United States. The war also adversely affected the business of American fur merchants in the home market, as under normal conditions collections of skins regularly exceed- ed domestic consumption, and the reduced demand, con- sequent upon the loss of the export trade, caused an im- mediate and pronounced decline in values rendering trapping unremunerative. 4!I7 478 WAR The war of the Rebellion, 1860-65, materially inter- fered with the foreign and domestic trade in raw furs; the catch was greatly reduced, as thousands of men who formerly trapped and hunted were on the firing lines, and amateurs who took their places on the trap-line depend- ed upon luck rather than skill — and luck in any enter- prise does not definitely dififer from a hopeful enumera- tion of little chicks prior to placing the eggs in the incu- bator. In consequence of the small catch fine Eastern and Northern mink considerably advanced in price ; the war beginning in 19 14 produced the contrary effect, lower values, owing to the great decrease in the number of consumers abroad, and inability of the home market to absorb a normal collection. The boxer war in China like the conflicts in the early centuries, resulted in many personal losses of valuable furs to the vanquished, chiefly non-combatants, due to looting by the Allies. The latest, greatest and most barbarous war of all time, beginning in the summer of 19 14, duplicated, but with far greater loss, the record of the earlier and less strenuous conflicts ; the exportation of furs immediately ceased, London public sales were abandoned, and nearly all foreign markets were closed to American shippers; all of the countries engaged in the unreasonable and in- excusable slaughter were important consumers of Amer- ican furs, and the almost instant loss of so large a per- centage of the trade paralyzed the fur business in the United States; prices of skins declined sharply; mer- chants who believed they were well informed as to the consuming power of the home market augmented the depression by limiting their purchases to comparatively WAR 479 small lots at low figures. Many of the most experienced and successful trappers refrained from operating, being unwilling to accept prices quoted at the opening of the trapping season of 1914-15. As the war, at first as- sumed to be a matter of a few weeks, still raged on the near approach of winter, wolf and other heavy and strong skins suitable for military purposes were pur- chased for the armies at fair prices, and in quantity, af- fording some relief to the trade; but the trapping sea- son as a whole was a dismal disappointment to all con- cerned. COUGAR, PUMA, PAXTHER, MOUNTAIN LION- KNOWN BY AIAj these names 479 480 WAR As the year 19 15 advanced, though the frightful war continued, conditions materially improved; a sud- den and quite general demand sprang up in America for furs, chiefly neckpieces composed of single skins, to be worn during the "good old summer-time"; this unex- pected outlet resulted in the consumption of a large num- ber of fine, medium and common peltries at better prices than had prevailed in the immediately preceding winter. Values continued to increase as the months passed, and the raw fur collection season of 191 5-16 opened with a strong competitive demand for skins of all kinds, and the season proved to be one of the best, all round, in sev- eral years. The American export trade in furs, which was nearly destroyed by the European war, recovered some- what in 19 1 6, reaching a total valuation of approximate- ly eight million dollars during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916. In February, 191 7, England placed an embargo on the importation of furs, and exports to London ceased. In 19 16 Russia prohibited the export of all furs; on February i the regulation was changed to permit the exportation of black and blue fox, marten, ermine, fitch and otter skins without restrictions, and the export of other furs upon application filed with the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce at New York. Sable, lamb, sheep and goat skins were excepted, and were not permitted to be exported. France prohibited, from January 18, 191 7, the ex- portation of furs of all kinds, except to the United States and allied nations. prices Prices of raw furs fluctuate so greatly, not merely in the course of a year, but in instance within a few days, that dependable figures cannot be given for any period other than the particular date of quotation. Prices of dressed and dyed skins vary according to quality, and as there is no fixed standard governing any one article, fox, for instance, prices at retail differ somewhat on furs of the same grade — each merchant determines his own selling price within certain limits. COMPARATIVE VALUES While exact prices of fur skins may not be given, as already stated, comparative values of United States furs in the raw state may be shown to the reasonable satisfaction of those interested. Peltries vary in intrin- sic value according to the section in which they are pro- cured, those secured farthest north being most richly furred and best in detail, and extreme southern skins lowest in points considered in determining value. Skins secured in adjacent States may be definitely dissimilar, or practically identical in quality; but a Texas mink or muskrat is pronounced inferior to one born and bred in New York or New Jersey. We reproduce here from "Fur News," a valued monthly publication devoted to the raw fur trade, actual quotations, that is prices offered and paid by merchants in the trade at large; the quotations, which are those given for January, 191 7, show the variation in prices of 481 482 COMPARATIVE VALUES raw furs at that time according to geographical differ- ences in source of origin : BEAR Black, Northern 20.00 12.00 8.00 8,00 2.00 .50 Black, Central 12.00 8.00 5.00 5.00 1.50 .50 Black, Southern and S. W 10.00 7.00 4.00 4.00 1.00 .25 Grizzly and Polar, according to size and quality. BEAVER Far Western States and Eastern Canada 8.00 6.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 .50 Cent, and S. W. U. S 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 .75 .40 CAT, WILD Northern and N, W. 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 .75 .25 Southern and S. W 1.50 1.00 .50 .50 .25 .10 FOX, GREY Central and Northern U. S 2.00 1.25 .85 .85 .45 .15 Southern and S. W. U. S 1.50 1.00 .50 .50 .25 .10 FOX, RED Alaska, Northern and West Can. 14.00 10.00 7.00 7.00 2.50 .50 Newfoundland and Labrador. . . 12.00 9.00 6.00 6.00 2.00 .50 Minn., Wis., Daks, and No. Mich. 10.00 7.50 5.00 5.00 1.50 .50 E. Can., Mich, N. Y. and N. E. States 9.00 7.00 4.50 4.50 1.50 .35 Pa., N. J., Ohio, Ind. and 111.... 7.00 5.50 3.50 3.50 1.00 .35 All Central and Southern States 5.00 3.50 2.50 2.50 .75 .25 FOX, SILVER Dark 200.00 @ 1000.00 Pale 100.00 @ 300.00 LYNX N. W. Canada and Alaska 12.00 8.00 5.00 5.00 2.50 .50 Eastern Canada and Northern U. S 10.00 6.00 4.00 4.00 2.00 .50 MARTEN Alaska, Labrador and N. W., Dark 25.00 15.00 10.00 8.00 3.00 1.00 Alaska and N. W., Pale 6.00 4.00 2.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Eastern Can. and U. S., Dark. . 12.00 8.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 .75 Eastern Can. and U. S., Pale. . 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 .60 .25 COMPARATIVE VALUES 483 FISHER Dark Brown Pale E. U. S. and N. Canada 25.00 30.00 10.00 15.00 6.00 9.00 Pacific Coast 15.00 20.00 5.00 10.00 3.00 5.00 MUSKRAT N. Y., Pa.. N. J., New England and East Canada Mich., So. Wis., Ohio, Ind., IlL and W. Va Cent, and S. Ohio, Ind., Ills., W. Va., Ky Cent, and So. Pa., N. J., Del. and Md Va., Carolinas, Tenn Mo., Ark., Kans. and Pacific Coast Wis., Minn., Iowa, Neb Black Large Small Spring Winter Fall Fall Kitts .48 .48 .42 .42 .40 .38 .40 .55 .38 .38 .32 .32 .30 .28 .30 .45 .20 .20 .18 .18 .15 .15 .15 .20 .05 .05 .05 .05 .04 .04 .04 .08 MINK Large Med. Small No. 1- No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 East Can., New Eng. and No. N. Y 5.00 N. Y., No. Pa. and No. N. J. . . 4.50 Minn., No. Wis. and No. Mich. 4.50 Wis., No. Iowa and Dakotas. . . 3.50 Mich., No. O., No. Ind., No. 111. 3.25 So. Pa., So. N. J., Del., Md. and W. Va 3.25 Va. and No. Car 3.00 B. C. and Alaska Coast 3.00 So. O., So. Ind., 111. and Ky. . . . 2.75 So. Iowa, Neb., Kans. and No. Mo 2.75 Pacific Coast and Rocky Mt. States 2.75 So. Car., Tenn., Miss., Ala. and Ga 2.50 So. Mo., Ark., Okla., Tex., La- and Fla 2.25 3.50 3.25 3.25 2.50 2.25 2.50 2.25 2.25 1.75 1.50 2.50 2.25 2.25 1.75 1.50 2.25 1.50 1.50 2.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 1.50 1.50 1.75 1.35 1.35 1.75 1.35 1.36 1.75 1.35 1.35 1.65 1.25 1.25 1.60 1.10 1.10 .75 .60 .60 .60 .60 .25 .25 .25 .20 .20 .60 ^0 .40 .20 .40 .20 .40 .20 .40 .20 .40 .20 .40 .20 .35 .15 i84 COMPARATIVE VALUES OTTER Large Med. Small No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Eastern U. S. and Canada 12.00 8.00 5.00 5.00 2.50 1.00 Northwestern and Pacific Coast 10.00 7.00 4.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Western and Southwestern 10.00 7.00 4.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Virginia and No. Car 10.00 7.00 4.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Ga., Fla., Ala., La. and S. Car.. 7.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 1.50 .75 RACCOON Minn., Wis., Daks 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.25 .50 .15 N. Y., New England, Can. and Mich 3.25 2.25 1.25 1.50 .35 .15 Pa., N. J., No. Ohio, Ind. and Ills. 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.25 .30 .10 Iowa, Kans., Nebr. and No. Mo. 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.25 .30 .10 So. Ohio, Ind., 111., W. Va 2.25 1.25 .75 1.00 .25 .10 Ky., Tenn., Virginia, No. and So. Car. and N. Ga 2.00 1.16 .60 .75 .25 .10 So. Ga., Fla., Ala., Miss., Tex. and La 1.50 1.00 .50 .60 .20 .10 Extra Dark Colors 3.00 @ 6.00 SKUNK No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 N. Y., Pa., New Eng. and Can.. 4.00 2.75 1.50 .75 N. J., No. Ohio, Mich, No. Ind. and Ills 4.00 2.75 1.50 .75 Kans., Neb., No. Mo 8.75 2.50 1.25 .65 Cent. O., Ind., Ills., W. Va. and Md 3.75 2.50 1.25 .65 So. Ohio, Ind., Ills, and So. Mo. 3.25 2.25 1.15 .60 Ky., Tenn., Ark., Va. and N. C. 3.00 2.00 1.00 .50 Ga., Fla., Ala. and other South- ern States 2.50 1.50 ,75 ,40 Large Western, Long Narrow Stripe, prime 2.00 @ 3.00 WOLF, TIMBER Northern, cased 7.00 5.00 3.75 3.75 1.00 .25 Western, cased 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 .75 .25 WOLF, PRAIRIE Canada 7.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 .25 N. Rocky Mts. and N. Prairie States 5.00 3.50 2.25 2.25 .75 .25 Cent. Rocky Mt. and Ct. Prairie States 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 .60 .25 Southwestern 2.00 1.25 .75 .75 .35 .l" The natural "brushes," or bushy tails of several species of fur-bearing animals constitute special arti- cles of varied utility and value in the fur trade, other manufacturing industries, and highly prized trophies when secured by sportsmen who prefer to follow a live fox rather than an anise scented drag. Tails are put up and sold in bundles of forty, called a "timber." Mink tails deservedly rank as exceptionally hand- some when properly prepared for the manufacture of costly collars and borders ; when intended for either pur- pose, the tails are split open along the center of the under side, spread flat — twice the natural width — and then sewed together lengthwise of the tails to the requisite number to make either specified article of apparel; the strips thus produced vary from five to eight inches in width; one width serves as a border, two widths for a superb collar ; whole tails are used to finish ends of boas, edges of capes, trimmings for hats, and in other ways. Fisher tails, which are black and glossy, are used the same as mink, with excellent effect. The fur of the stoat, commonly known as ermine, is snowy white except at the tips of the tail, which is a deep black ; the plain, flat white fur is rendered attractive and popular by inserting in it the black tips of the tails at regular intervals. Sable tails are made up similar to mink tails, but are usually very expensive. Squirrel tails are used split and uncut, and the perfectly matched dark and light shades of grey are effective as borders and for embellishing lin- 485 486 BRUSHES ings ; entire boas are occasionally made of whole or split squirrel tails. Fox, wolf, wild cat, wolverine and raccoon tails, which are long, bushy and varied in color, are frequently used in finishing boas, scarfs, muffs, and ornamenting fine sleigh and carriage robes ; for the latter purpose the tails are associated with skins of the same or other ani- mals, producing harmonizing or contrasting color effects as desired. Raccoon tails are worn to some extent by hunters and trappers attached to and pendant from their fur caps ; it is a dangerous fad, however, as the wearers risk being shot in mistake for the animal whose caudal ap- pendage is so proudly flaunted — the error while not pointing a moral would constitute a different finis. Grey fox, wolf and raccoon tails attached to han- dles of suitable length make good dusters. In the good old times grey or red fox tails, tied to short rods, were used by conscientious deacons to waken drowsy church- men. Glossy hairs taken from the tails of the mink and sable are used to a moderate extent in the manufacture of artificial flies for luring trout and salmon from their watery retreats. The bushy tails of many fur-bearers are chiefly use- ful and valuable for the manufacture of artists' brushes in all grades. These hairs, preliminary to brush making, pass through several operations; they are first clipped from the skin, and then, consecutively, assorted according to size, color and part of tail from which they are cut, those taken from the tip of the tail constituting a special as- BRUSHES 487 sortment; the hairs, which are naturally curved, are then straightened, after which they are cleansed to re- move oil and dust, and are again assorted according to length and individual fineness ; these are ready for mak- ing up natural, but a considerable part of the collection has to be dyed to secure uniformity of color. Hairs from the tails of the common grey squirrel are used in immense quantities in the manufacture of low and medium grade brushes for water color painting; these brushes are sold and popularly known as camel's hair, a deception in name only, as the hair of the camel is not adapted to the manufacture of brushes of any kind. Hairs from the tip of the squirrel's tail make good gild- ing brushes. Squirrel tails are usually cheap, one to two cents each, and from five to eight million tails are annu- ally collected in Russia and Siberia, which are the coun- tries of dependable supply. Artists' wash brushes and blenders in flat and round shapes, and in various sizes; extra large brushes re- quired by pianoforte makers ; very soft shaving brushes ; and smaller brushes for sundry purposes, are made from the long hairs taken from the tail and parts of the pelt of the badger ; the hairs of this animal are greyish black, white, and tipped with black. Hairs from the tails of the Russian and German polecat are used in making serviceable brushes for art- ists and sign painters, and are generally employed by the latter in laying gold leaf on glass and wood. Russian polecat tails, though sold as sable, are cheaper than the German. Skunk tails are frequently used instead of polecat. 488 BRUSHES both animals belong to the same family, in the manufac- ture of varnish brushes. Good stiff brushes for water color painting and lettering are made from selected hairs cut from black sable tails; and very fine "pencil points," water color brushes, are manufactured from the long flexible hairs characterizing the bushy tails of Russian and Hudson's Bay sables. Black sable tails are worth from ten dollars upwards per timber, forty tails, and usually about two ounces of hair, desirable sorts, can be cut from a timber of tails. The finest and most costly brushes for artists' uses are made of the red hairs cut from the tail of the ko- linsky, a Siberian animal ; tails of this class at times ap- proximate fifty dollars per timber, or more than twenty dollars an ounce for the hair. Some low priced brushes for ordinary work are made of hairs taken from the pelt of the common goat. Japanese artists use brushes made of deer hair. Brush makers obtain rather large quantities of hair for the manufacture of brushes from another and ex- tremely strange source, namely, the interior surface of the ear of the ox, which is quite densely lined with hairs ranging in length from two to four and one-half inches, and shading in color from light to dark brown; nature provides the patient ox with this rather profuse growth of hair as an effective protection against gnats and flies which are predisposed to lay their eggs in the dark re- cesses of the spacious bovine auricle. Brushes made of the longer of these ox hairs are used by carriage paint- ers; those composed of the shorter hairs, from two to two and one-half inches in length, are employed by BRUSHES 489 decorators and artistic sign painters. Prices vary, but ox-ear hairs are worth, approximately, eight dollars per pound. All tails worn as parts of fur garments, muffs and neck pieces, are not nature-grown caudal appendanges; many of them are manufactured tails produced by a simple mechanical device, made to supersede hand labor, known as a tail spinning machine; strips of fur, of the proper length and width, are attached to a cord on the machine which revolves at high speed spinning the fur into an excellent representation of a tail ; these manufac- tured tails, both as lower grade articles and imitations of more costly sorts, are spun in very large quantities when tail trimming is in fashion. HEADS As a fur-skin with a tail but lacking a head would appear deficient at the more important extreme, heads and tails are equally popular ; but as the skins sent to market have tails but are without heads, all of the latter required to meet the demands of fashion have to be made ; the work is done by hand and constitutes a distinct branch of the fur business, a number of concerns being engaged exclusively in the manufacture of fur heads, ranging in size from that of the fox to the weasel. These artificial heads are made over cork, celluloid or composition skulls, all of which are light in weight, cov- ered with fur of the animal represented, and finished with glass eyes and colored noses and, when open- mouthed, painted tongues. Some skins, worn singly as neck pieces, are made "complete and entire" by the addi- tion of artificial paws and claws, composed of fur, cel- luloid or horn. TOYLAND Fur-bearers contribute in various ways to the pass- ing pleasure, entertainment and comfort of the little folks, providing them with pets, warm jackets, coats, neckwear and gloves, and, to them, intensely interesting toys of various kinds, particularly small animals, such as tiny bears, cats, tigers, dogs, woolly horses, and drumming rabbits. These furry toys, with which we are all familiar because we were once children, and chil- dren and toys are omnipresent, are chiefly made of white coney fur obtained in Poland, and used either natural or dyed; many toys are made of English and Scotch lamb skins, and sundry furs, pieces serving excellently for the purpose, but none is used in as large quantity as th« low cost Polish coney — and cost is considered, as toys in children's hands are short-lived. FUR CASH Skins of various species of fur-bearing animals were used as mediums of current exchange centuries be- fore mints or coinage or papyrus promises to pay were dreamed of, or stamped money began its march from sufficing simplicity to the present complicated marvel which no one fully understands; the ancient medium, fur-skins, though supposedly superseded by coins and paper, has never passed wholly out "of circulation. Chinese historians assert that small, square pieces of deer skin freely circulated as money in the Celestial Empire, a vast territory, ages before the round and weighty trade dollar of United States coinage was in- flicted upon that great realm of badly mixed fact and fiction. 490 FUR CASH 491 Early Dutch settlers who camped on Manhattan Island, Communipaw and all along the Hudson River as far north as the present city of Albany, accepted beaver, raccoon, muskrat and other peltries from the Indians in lieu of the gold pieces of ancient Amsterdam ; and while they were eager to obtain as many of these tokens as poor Lo could trap, beg or surreptitiously bor- row, they were careful to appraise the currency at as low a figure as possible, and the merchandise given in exchange at full frontier general store values. In all the years of his association with pale faces unimagina- tive Lo has had the misfortune incident to dealing with traders who have readily taken his ''cash money" in pel- tries at heavy discounts on market quotations. The skin of the beaver is entitled to rank as the standard dollar in peltry currency, as from the earliest period of barter in America it was accepted as legal ten- der to that amount, and is still at par or above at trading posts. Indians used the buffalo hide as cash, until coin- age ceased. The finely furred skin of the raccoon is the small coin of some Southern sections ; it will buy a glass of im- ported Jersey lightning or domestic moonshine moisture at almost any saloon in Kentucky ; general store dealers in Alabama and other Southern States formerly accept- ed it as good for from ten to fifty cents in exchange for either wet or dry goods ; it also passed the same as coin in purchasing snuff, tobacco and "store clothes" in nearly all districts where the animal abounded. In some parts of the West where burrowing squir- rels were numerous and troublesome, especially large wheat-producing districts, a small bounty was paid for 492 FUR CASH each squirrel that was killed, and as the tails were gen- erally accepted as vouchers of squirrel slaughter, these tails freely circulated as money until they were finally banked with the State official designated to redeem them by paying the bounty; their face value was five cents each, and they should be used, instead of the lamented bison, to adorn the modern nickel. Where a bounty has been paid on wolves, the skins have been used as, good for thirty dollars each. For some time a bounty of fifty cents was paid for each woodchuck killed in two adjoining towns in Hart- ford County, Connecticut, one town accepting the ears and the other the tail as evidence of the death of the woodchuck; during the bounty period the ears and tails of unfortunate Hartford County woodchucks circulated as cash on a par with the silver half-dollar, and might still form an important part of the local currency except for the accidental discovery of the fact that sharp Yan- kee boys were obtaining two bounties on each woodchuck by depositing the ears with the treasurer of one town, and the tail of the same chuck with the public cashier of the other. The boys considered their method of bank- ing as more profitable than simple barter, but as the town officials did not favor junior enterprise, woodchuck tails and ears were withdrawn from circulation by dis- continuance of the bounty. Fur cash was not easily counterfeited; it might be too green or a great deal too dry to have just the right ring ; some of it having been minted with a shotgun had holes in it, but they could not be "plugged" or concealed ; and there were no twenty-cent pieces to be passed as quarters upon the unwary. SACRED ANIMALS Some of the fur-bearers were considered sacred otherwise than as money. At Maru and Miyajima, Japan, the small native deer is regarded as sacred ; the animal is tame and docile. The fox, universally prized for its handsome coat of fur, is regarded as a divine creature in China ; when the animal attains the age of fifty years it is said to be able to assume the form of a woman, at one hundred years to change to a beautiful girl, and at one thousand years is admitted into paradise and becomes a celestial being. The fox was formerly adored by the Peruvians, and statues of the animal were placed in many of their temples. The badger, was held as sacred by the Chinese, was credited with possessing the power of changing its form and character at will. Wolves were generally worshipped at ancient Ly- copolis, and when one of the animals died its bones were very carefully embalmed ; mummies of wolves have been found in the tombs in the mountains above the city. Certain species of African monkey are revered by the natives, but are not treated as divine; the simple minded Africans believe that the souls of deceased rela- tives undergo a mild process of transmigration and con- tinue their earthly existence by taking up their abode in the bodies of monkeys; owing to this belief and the hope of each good African of becoming a sacred monkey after death, the animals are not allowed to be killed. This view may have supplied the basis upon which the higher critics erected their filmy dogma of evolution, 493 494 SACRED ANIMALS and it ought not to be doubted that if a man, even though black, can transmigrate into a monkey, that same mon- key, at least, should experience no great difficulty in evo- luting into a man. The entellus, another species of monkey, ranks as sacred in India, and is adored in Egypt and protected by a large number of devotees and priestly servitors. There was a time, however strange it may appear, when the common house cat, regardless of age or color, reigned and ruled as a deity at Rome, and in consequence enjoyed the privilege of holding midnight serenades dur- ing the full term of its nine lives undisturbed by bricks, bottles or other missiles. Tabby was also revered by the ancient Egyptians, and was regarded as sacred to Isis, or the moon, and its worship embraced rites of peculiar interest. The bull was also a sacred animal in Egypt — there have been many ecclesiastical bulls, not identified with heathen lands, which have been obeyed, if not worshipped. Certain animals are regarded as sacred, and others, including the bear and beaver, are worshipped by North American Indians; the ceremonies connected with this worship have been greatly modified, and are not so gen- erally observed as formerly. Indians of several tribes consider the moose sacred in a limited sense only, as they do not hesitate to kill it ; the moose is, in their esti- mation, a sacrificial rather than a sacred animal, and the manner in which the Indians dispose of the carcass is suggestive of the "burnt offering" prescribed by Moses. When Indians capture a moose they cut up the carcass and cast some of the choicer portions of the flesh into their campfire as a thanksgiving offering to the Good SACRED ANIMALS 495 Spirit for favoring them with success in the chase; the tongue, liver, kidneys and part of the breast of the ani- mal are eaten as soon as possible, and the other parts of the flesh, properly cooked, are devoured in haste — very like the Passover — as the rule governing such feasts re- quires that the entire moose, except the parts offered as a sacrifice, must be consumed at a single meal. Buffalo flesh "burned with fire," was also used as a thank-offer- ing on particular occasions. Alaska Indians evidence a strange reverence for the "spirits" of departed fur-bearers, including the bear, wolf, beaver and fox, and rudely carved representations of these and other animals are placed upon the top of posts erected in front of their huts, or common burial places. Customs change as age succeeds age; today the multitude, embracing women and men, instead of rev- erencing fur-bearers merely dote on them — a mild order of worship — regarding the flesh of some of them and the furry coats of all as sacred to their appetites and pride of attire. Opinion is divided respecting the status of the raven-hued cat; children, and a few to whom children are unknown, fondle and seemingly adore, others regard the cat of this particular color as an evil rather than a good spirit, but surely a spirit — superstition may under- go mystical transformation, but will not down. Cut jFur Fur-felt hat manufacturing, a distinct and import- ant industry in the United States, England, Germany and France, regularly requires a large proportion of the fur skins annually procured in the mild and temperate 4»6 CUT FUR sections of production; considered from the standpoint of value as expressed in dollars the skins used entire in manufacturing coats, jackets, muffs, robes and similar articles, rank first ; but in number of skins the consump- tion in the felt hat making is much the larger, exceeding a total of thirty million pelts. In hatting the fur is not worked up on the skin but is cut from it ; in the market of initial sale these pelts are classed as "cutting skins," and the cut product, fully prepared for felting is known as "cut fur," and quite commonly designated in the hatting trade as "hatters' fur." The business does not constitute a branch or part of the "furrier's trade," but is conducted in every detail by a wholly disconnected group of merchants, operating in two classes, importers and cutters; the former in a few instances conduct both divisions, but all handle, in furs, only cutting skins or cut fur — importers of cut fur also, as a rule, carry general supplies — required by hat manufacturers. Only the soft under fur is used in felt- ing, all the coarse hairs and the leather being discarded. "Carroting" is the first operation in the work of preparing fur for hatters' uses, this simple process is effected by brushing the fur, while on the skin with a so- lution of quicksilver and nitric acid, termed carrot, to kill the natural oil in the fur and thus facilitate succeed- ing operations in which water is freely used; following the act of brushing, the skins are spread out flat to dry, either in the open air or a room heated by steam ; dried in the former way the fur becomes white, but when the drying is effected by artificial heat the fur assumes a yel- low or carrot-like hue ; these color conditions are always noted in the brand, or mark, upon the packages of pre- CUT FUR 497 pared fur by abbreviations, W. C, for white, and Y. C, for yellow carrot. The operation of carroting is occasionally omitted in the manipulation of beaver and one or two other furs, but this "raw stock," so-called, does not felt readily ex- cept when mixed with carroted fur, and even then is not altogether satisfactory, as it works out to the surface of the finished felt. As the presence of mercury in the carroting solu- tion, and mercurial vapor, and dust in the drying room, constitute a menace to the health of the workers, a dif- ferent preparatory method was perfected in Germany in 1875; by this process the skins are first saturated with molasses, then dipped in a weak solution of nitric acid, and then washed in soft water and allowed to dry slowly ; the washing and drying are repeated until the fur is thoroughly purified. Fur carroted in this way felts as easily and perfectly as that treated with mercury. When carroted skins have become perfectly dry, they are brushed to remove all particles of dust, and to straighten the hair so that it may be readily cut from the skin, which is the next operation. Cutting, formerly done by manual labor, is performed by a special machine of great power and high speed, which shaves the fur from the entire pelt without disarranging its form — the fur passes out of the machine apparently exactly as it entered, a perfect pelt, unchanged, untouched, but really only fur, the leather, reduced to a countless number of fine threads, having dropped to the floor. As the fur is cut it is carried forward upon a moving endless apron, and while in motion is separated into the three principal di- visions, back, belly and sides, by experienced operators.. 498 CUT FUR and deftly dropped into bags stationed at the sides and forward end of the revolving apron. All fur does not felt with equal facility, or produce felt of the same fine- ness, softness or durability; there are marked differ- ences even in the fur cut from the same skin; fur cut from the back is the darkest and strongest, and when taken from the pelts of land animals is also the best grade; fur from the sides is lighter in color and some- what lower in quality; belly fur is the lightest in color, but not uniformly identical in quality — it is the finest or best when cut from beaver, nutria and muskrat skins, amphibious animals, and lowest in grade when taken from land animals, such as the rabbit and hare. Sepa- rate grades of fur are cut from the tails of various ani- mals, and the cheeks of the beaver, the latter is of su- perior quality; low grade fur is cut from small pieces and scraps — the waste in furriers' shops. Belly-fur is used in the manufacture of light colored hats ; fur from other parts of the pelt is suitable for making hats dyed any desired color. Fur of the North American beaver is superior to all others for making fine, durable felt hats, but is too ex- pensive for extensive use; it is sometimes mixed, in small amount, with other furs to improve the stock; nutria, fur of the South American coypu, ranks next to beaver in every particular. The fur used in greatest quantity in the manufac- ture of felt hats is cut from the skins of wild rabbits and hares procured by the million in Australia, England, Scotland, New Zealand, Russia and the United States, and domestic French conies ; in these sorts, English and Scotch rank as best and strongest. CUT FUR 499 Cut fur is known in all markets of the world by cer- tain marks, consisting of symbols and abbreviations — the symbols are a single circle, two circles and three cir- cles drawn one within another, the reading being — sin- gle, double and tripple ring; these symbols are used to brand the three choicest grades of fur cut from the backs of Scotch, Russian and other hares. Abbrevia- tions used to designate the animal and the part of the pelt from which the fur is cut, are : C. B., coney backs ; B. C. B., best coney backs ; B. H. W., best hares wool ; H. S., hare sides ; R. B., rabbit backs ; B. H. B., best hare backs. Hatters' fur is cut in the United States, England, France and Belgium. Cut hairs are also utilized in the fur and other in- dustries to a considerable extent; hairs suitable for the various purposes are cut from the coats of both fur-bear- ers and hair-wearers, and very often constitute former waste transformed into new and important products of considerable value. French bristles and the white hairs of the badger, skunk and grey fox are used to beautify the plain sur- faces of dark furs in which they are inserted; this is a balancing act, as other skins, especially seal, have all the hairs cut out so that the beauty of the fur may appear. Reindeer hair, which is extremely light in weight, packed in water-tight containers make superior life preservers ; deer hair is an excellent substance for stuffing couches; hair cut from several species are employed in filling mat- tresses — ^but you cannot always be sure about it. Long hairs from the manes and tails of horses, reg- ularly offered at the minor sales in London, are collected in quantity in Bavaria and Austria, for manufacture in 500 CUT FUR Switzerland. These hairs are thoroughly purified and are then woven into long strips or braids, either singly in black or white, or the two tones in combination, and are then made into ladies* and children's hats for sum- mer wear. Bovine hair early displaced the straw of the Egyptians as a binder in mortar, but in turn is rapidly being superseded by cement. Human hair is largely utilized in an exceptional number of ways devious and doubtful. A considerable quantity is used in wisps and switches borrowing from one sweet soul of a single thought to augment the golden glory of another. Vast bundles of human hair cut from weary and fevered crowns are patiently wrought into black, red, brown and white wigs for the wigless, fash- ion's devotees, judges, actors, detectives and those stren- uously seeking to avoid detection; and other diversely delusive purposes and persons. The main crop of raw material, known in the nat- ural connection as a queue, from cauda, a tail, is of celes- tial origin, being matured in China ; formerly the supply was small, queues being regarded as sacred, but in re- cent years devotion to the almighty dollar having meas- urably superseded the worship of Buddha, the harvest has been large — all exported to Europe and America, there being no demand for domestic consumption. FEATHERS The muff, whether round or flat, would be rather thin and flimsy if composed only of the visible fur and inner lining of silk, and to create and retain the desired form, a rather thick, soft body conforming to the partic- ular shape of the muff is enclosed between the fur and FEATHERS 501 lining, and is known in the trade as a muff-bed. Orig- inally the muff-bed was made of down with a covering of muslin, but in these days of great progress in most "infant industries" and very high cost down, the name down muff-bed is retained, but the down is chiefly sup- plied by Queen Hen and King Cotton, separately or in combination, a substitution which enables manufacturers to sell muffs to certain retailers for "marked down" sales. President Harrison said, "A cheap coat makes a cheap man," which may or may not be true; chicken feathers and cotton surely make a cheap muff-bed, the owner, however, feels cheap only when some of the feathers work through to the surface of the muff", as they sometimes do, revealing the character of the "down." BY-PRODUCTS Animals of the lower order, broadly spoken of as "beasts that perish," are herbiverous, granivorous, car- nivorous, and otherwise variously classified, but man is in a class by himself, solitary and singular, the one and only omniverous animal. What he cannot "eat, drink or put on" in its natural state, he transforms, manipulates or transmutes into the medium of exchange wherewith to procure eatables, drinkables and wearables, and in the execution of this exalting purpose uses not only the manifestly beautiful and serviceable coat and cuticle but every part and fragment of all the furry and f urless den- izens of earth. Man utilizes the skin of the beast pre- pared as fur, hair, felt or leather for the protection and adornment of his person from "head to foot"; every portion of the flesh from tip to tip, both inclusive, as nu- tritious or delectable food; the marrow as a rare deli- 603 BY-PRODUCTS cacy; the bones changed into tools, buttons or charcoal for his service and well-being, as poultry provender in- suring an increased egg output, or to fertilize the soil in order that it may yield more abundant crops of grapes and cereals ; the odor sacs as pleasing perfumes ; galls, livers and horns as remedies for ills to which pampered stomachs are subject ; the teeth as emblems of an order, and both the teeth and claws as ornaments and evidences of skill and courage in the chase or still hunt; and, finally, the fat to make his hair shine, render age- strained joints and sinews supple, protect his tools against corrupting rust, to soften and prolong the life of leather, lubricate machinery, and to light his hut or path- way. Bear's grease was once upon a time regarded as a hair-oil of unexampled value because of the widely cir- culated rumor that it made the hair grow, and was a sure cure for sundry imaginary diseases of the human scalp. The article ceased to be intensely popular some- time in the latter part of the nineteenth century for good and sufficient reasons — the scarcity of fat bears, and the fact revealed by analysis that nearly all bear's oil sold at a fairly high price had other than a bear origin, and was really a bare delusion. Skunk oil, tried and purified, is also used as a lubricant of human locomotive powers. The skin (leather) of the rabbit, nutria and other animals from which the fur has been cut by a machine, called a devil, for use in hat making, was formerly thrown on the refuse heap, but some years since the dis- covery was made that the skin, which comes through the cutting machine a mass of fine threads, when treated in a certain way yielded an excellent gellatine of consider- BY-PRODUCTS 503 able value for making films of superior quality — worth for some time upwards of one hundred dollars per ton. At a later date the waste discarded in the manu- facture of the films was purchased by the Standard Oil Company, and in combination with similar materials is used in lining barrels in which oil is stored or trans- ported. The shredded skins are also largely used in making a fine grade of glue. Poorly furred and damaged fur seal skins are spe- cially tanned, producing a beautiful and expensive leather ; the supply is small. Sheepskins from which the wool has been shaved, are carefully tanned for the production of the finest mo- rocco leather, for the manufacture of leather in excel- lent imitation of alligator skins, and a fine soft leather imitating cork used in making hat sweats. Split sheep skins are finished as a substitute for chamois. Goat skins prepared as parchment were used cen- turies ago, and many have been preserved in perfect condition to the present day ; beaver skins were similarly used at a much later date. Vellum, a finer material, is made of the skins of lambs and newly born calves. Tanned deer skin, commonly known as buckskin, though most largely employed in making stout gloves, is also used for covering or padding piano hammers. The small pieces clipped and trimmed from skins by manufacturers of fur garments, which are otherwise useless, are sold to fur cutters to be used in making fur felt hats. ANIMALS IN BIBLE LANDS Ass, domestic and wild ; badger, largely used in the first tabernacle; bear, slain by David and other courage- ous men; camel, cow, colt, dog, unclean, and anyone making a row was forbidden under the law of Moses to "bring the price of a dog into the house of the Lord" in satisfaction of that vow, as it was declared to be "an abomination unto the Lord" ; coney, of which Solomon wrote: "Conies are a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks" ; deer, Solomon had deer in captiv- ity ; goat, skins used as clothing ; greyhound, hart, hare, unclean; lamb, used for clothing; ferret, lion, specially mentioned as slain by David and Beniah, the latter "went down into a pit on a snow day and slew a lion" ; leopard, regarding which Jeremiah propounded the often quoted query: "Gan the leopard change its spots?" mole, roe- buck, and sheep the most frequently mentioned of all animals, the references being exceptionally beautiful, interesting and impressive; ox, mouse, unclean; mule, ram, a sacrificial animal ; weasel and foxes most common and numerous of the wild animals in Palestine, on which account some places were known by their name. Sam- son caught three hundred foxes alive, tied their tails together "two by two," put burning brands between the tails, and then let the foxes go into the grain fields of the Philistines, thereby destroying them. :f ur :f oob Confident epicures and hungry hunters regard the flesh of certain fur-bearing animals as superior in value and importance to the fur, and as the only meat worth 504 FUR FOOD 505 cooking — no matter how it is cooked, but that it is better cooked in certain ways than in others, and best when cooked in one particular way. The flesh of all fur-bear- ers is not held in equal esteem, and even different parts of the same carcass differ materially in flavor and favor, some cuts being considered incomparably delicious, and others scarcely palatable. A few ancient Roman epi- cures ate the flesh of the fox, but considered it savory only in early autumn when the food of the animal con- sisted chiefly of grapes. Dwellers in the Arctic regions still regard the flesh of the white and blue foxes as fairly digestible, raw or cooked, but it is doubtful whether they would relish roast beef. Roast badger is considered a delicacy in parts of Europe and northern sections of North America. Natives of Australia feast upon the solid flesh of the wombat, but it is a tough morsel which can be mas- ticated only by a set of natural teeth. Bushmen also eat the comparatively juicy flesh of the native opossum, and the platypus. Esquimaux of all ages eat hair seal meat as often as they can get it, and are not particular about the way it is prepared; the fat of the animal is also highly es- teemed, largely because it keeps aglow the internal fire of the eater. The flippers of young hair seals, annually obtained in large quantity, are classed as delicacies by Newfoundlanders, by whom they are preserved on long strings until required. The hamster, which is found in large numbers in the sandy districts of Germany, furnishes the people with good food ; the animal is killed very soon after the cereal 506 FUR FOOD crops are gathered, and as the catch is large the meat is very cheap. Rabbits, wild and domesticated, are extensively used for food in Australia, Europe, America and in all places where the animal abounds; many thousands are annu- ally sold in New York markets from November to Janu- ary. Millions of rabbit carcasses are canned in Aus- tralia and New Zealand for export; large supplies are taken for the army in the field. Hares, which are larger than rabbits, are eaten in vast quantities in Russia and Germany. From eight to twenty million squirrels are killed annually for fur and food. Black bear steaks are served in hunting camps, country homes, and city restaurants, but the supply is never large; properly broiled bear's liver is a delicacy. The flesh of the Polar bear is relished by an Eskimo — when he can catch the bear asleep; a few Arctic ex- plorers have dined on juicy roasts cut from the carcass of this huge animal, and at the time considered the meat rather good. Baked raccoon and opossum are favorite dishes in many parts of the United States; a president of this great country upon occasion tested roast opossum, and asked for more — but not too often. In a few places the economical and hungry eat woodchuck, when other flesh foods are scarce and some- thing must be eaten. Aleuts on the islands of St. Paul and St. George eat the flesh of the fur seal as Newfoundlanders eat fish, fresh, smoked and salted ; the government permits them to kill about twenty-five hundred fur seals each year for FUR FOOD 507 food — no one else is permitted to kill a fur seal for any purpose on American soil. Aleuts use the oil of the fur seal to soften dried fish which constitutes a considerable portion of their daily provender. South American Indians eat the red-hued flesh of the coypu. The flesh of the moose though eaten fresh is said to be greatly improved by smoking ; caribou meat is dry and tasteless, but a small layer of fat immediately under the skin on the back of the male is delicious; caribou marrow-bone is also highly esteemed; the flesh of all members of the deer family is very generally considered excellent; but the venison epicure will eat it only after it has been many days dead — and worse. Hundreds of thousands of bison were killed solely for their tongues. Beaver flesh is eaten in the north ; beaver tail, which is skinned and then roasted or baked, is said to be very fine — ^none sold in market. In by-gone ages certain wise monks officially de- clared that the beaver is a fish, and could therefore be eaten by the faithful on Fridays ; this decision is one of the causes of the early extinction of the beaver in Europe. Wolf ribs are eaten by some northern hunters, and a few half-starved woodsmen. Parts of the flesh of the badger make good bacon. African sportsmen eat leopard steaks and roasted jackal. Pemmican, mentioned in every frontier yam, is made by Indian squaws, and consists of lean pieces of buffalo and deer cut in strips and dried in the sun ; it is eaten in the form in which it is dried or reduced to a 508 FUR FOOD powder. One important ingredient, dried buffalo, is no longer included in pemmican preparations. Roasted muskrat is esteemed by many, not only in rural districts but m large cities; supplies of this dark red ifieat are regularly sold during the winter at Balti- more and Philadelphia; it is purchased by private con- sumers, and is served at some hotels and restaurants as "swamp rabbit." If considered from the point of clean- liness, it ought to be good, as the muskrat invariably washes all its food, and is in every respect an exception- ally clean animal. In some sections the highly flavored flesh of the skunk is eaten ; it may be assumed that hopeless hunger long deferred is an essential prelude to a feast upon roast skunk served under any name. In China the domestic cat is baked, broiled, roasted and stewed, and is pronounced delicate and distracting. If the gods impose madness as a necessary precedent to destruction, then furies and satyrs must as surely en- chant the gastronomical senses preliminary to a feast upon feline fragments, however fancifully fricasseed. The little silver-grey moth, tinea pellion Ha, is an important factor in the fur trade, and a terror to all possessors of costly furs, in consequence of its natural predilection for feasting upon prime peltries. Moths of this genus have insatiable appetites, and if allowed to remain undisturbed in a garment will continue to feed until not a shred of fur remains; even when every pre- caution is taken, the loss caused by moths is very great. MOTHS 609 Fur moths first cut off the fur close to the skin and then eat through the leather, perforating it completely, continuing the process, if not discovered, until the entire pelt is ruined; Every probable means has been used to destroy the destroyer, but without attaining the desired result ; the substances and materials used in the fur trade to protect furs from the ravages of moths, include cam- phor, tobacco, naptha, cedar chips, insect powder, oil of turpentine, moth crystals, tar paper, and carbolized paper; but none of these anti-moth remedies has been found sufficiently effective to obviate the necessity for frequently whipping the furs with round rods specially made for the purpose. Cold storage, which has been developed and per- fected in recent years, provides the only reliably safe method of moth-protection on a large scale; the moth cannot live, or its eggs hatch, at a temperature below freezing, and this condition is constantly maintained in all up-to-date cold storage plants. Owners of single garments, who prefer to care for their own furs, may perfectly protect them in the follow- ing manner: Beat and air the article thoroughly early in the spring, before the moths have had an opportunity to lay their eggs in the fur ; then place the garment in a box having a close-fitting lid, wrap the box in three or four coverings of sound, unbroken paper, and paste down all the lapping edges, being particular to tightly close every crack or opening — this is a thoroughly pro- tective packing. GALLOWAY Owing to the great and exhausting demand in recent years for fur-skins of every name, quality and color/ and the consequent advance in values, practically all skins in any degree resembling fur have within the past few years been made up into garments to meet a price demand and cater to the comfort of men and women financially unable to purchase fine peltries. The list includes what are termed "Galloway" coats, gloves and mittens, which are made of the hides of cows, bulls, calves, and horses old and young. Galloway is the name of a small breed of horses originating in Scot- land, and small hornless cattle native to the same coun- try; the articles of apparel made and sold as Galloway are manufactured in the United States, chiefly in the middle west and moderately in New York State, and have their source of being, not in imported stock, but quite exclusively in the hides of domestic cattle killed for food — mainly private stock — and incidentally used as clothing, either as mementos, or because of limited cost of manufacture. These cow and calfskin garments are protective and durable, and where worn, in the open country, are im- pressively attractive. Galloway garments are mainly made on order for individual consumers, owners of the departed bovines and equines ; this fact accounts for the thrilling phrase in advertisements soliciting personal orders, inserted in country papers by makers of Galloway apparel, viz.: "Let us tan your own hide, and make it up into a coat or robe." 510 SUMMER WEASEL 511 SUMMER WEASEL We have noticed in the announcement of a western firm, as a 19 17 "first timer," an offering of ladies' fur sets in "summer weasel," the brown skins hitherto counted worthless by first-hand buyers of raw furs. WOODCHUCK The skin of the woodchuck, another discard, is likely to get an advanced position in price lists and emporiums, though the supply will never be other than insignificant. TRENCH RATS Trench rats have been accorded a niche in the realm of fur utility, but their reason for being does not presage extreme popularity. Reference to the trenches serves as a reminder that several governments are important buyers of furs for service in those dismal depths, and active destroyers of existing fur supplies, and thereby the creators of new values. PRAIRIE DOGS Prairie dogs, or American marmots, abound in the plains in the southwest, from Montana southward to Mexico, congregating in large villages of their own, shared only with rattle snakes. The prairie dog is from eight to ten inches in length, has a rather coarse coat of fur varying from greyish to reddish brown; the furred tail is tipped with black. The fur has been used for making gloves and carriage robes, but has never been important owing to size and poor quality of the pelt. It is a burrowing animal, undermines large sections of country and is destructive; efforts are being made to exterminate it by poisoning. Wolves, panthers and wild cats are also poisoned to hasten their extinction. Solomon 5* iHanne In 1888 a manufacturing business in popular furs was established by Solomon J. Manne and J. Silberlust, under the firm name of Manne & Silberlust, with a factory on Bleecker Street, New York. The firm continued actively engaged until 1891, when the partnership was dissolved, Solomon J. Manne continuing alone at 11 Bond Street. In 1892, becoming quite ill, Mr. Manne discontinued business and spent some months recuperating at Colorado Springs. The latter part of that year he returned to New York and resumed manufacturing, but his health again failing in 1893, he gave up mercantile pursuits and sought recovery in a sojourn at Asheville, North Carolina. At this time, and in consequence of his inability to successfully con- duct business under great physical disability, he sus- pended payment of his obligations — plainly merely sus- pended payments, for the record shows that in 191 3 he paid every debt in full. Mr. Manne re-engaged in manufacturing in 1894, admitting into partnership his brother, Sigmund Manne, under style : S. J. Manne & Brother. The firm continued progressively engaged in the manufacture of fine furs until 18 1 2, in which year Sigmund Manne retired with a competency. Following the withdrawal of the junior member of the firm in 1912, the business was incorporated under title, S. J. Manne & Brother, Inc., the incorporators and officers being: Solomon J. Manne, president and treas- 512 Solomon J. iWanne SOLOMAN J. MANNE 513 urer; Henri L. Verschoore, vice-president; Baruch M. Scheller, secretary. S. J. Manne & Brother, Inc., have made an enviable name for themselves as alert manufacturers and effec- tive creators of fur models of high worth, styles which, like certain books, are by common consent classed as "best sellers." All the more desirable peltries prevailing in fashion as the years come and go are employed by them in producing the exceptional in ladies' coats, scarfs and muffs to meet the requirements of prominent re- tailers throughout the country. February i, 191 3, the business was removed to 48- 56 West Thirty-eighth Street, New York, where it has been continuously conducted with notable success. Owing to their habit of sleeping during daylight hours and roaming abroad only at night which precludes the chance of their being seen alive by but few, fur-bear- ing animals live their lives in a haze of apparently im- penetrable mystery, the source of considerable interest, many diverse opinions, varied views and misconceptions. Because of the mystery in which their lives are in- volved, necessarily enveloped for their protection and perpetuation, many tales are told regarding their man- ner of living, physical and mental characteristics, fail- ures and achievements, and much more — tales in numer- ous instances true to nature, but more often mere out- givings of a redundant imagination. The facts, plainly told, are more interesting and illuminating, than the wildest exaggerations, meant to be entertaining, which fail to be impressive because of their manifest unreason. NOSES The olfactory nerves are marvellously alert in all fur-bearing animals, and become operative second only to the act of breathing ; all are born in dark dens, many with closed eyes, and consequently discover their initial breakfast and several subsequent repasts by the sense of smell. This sense, naturally powerful, is unquestiona- 514 NATURE NOTES 515 bly greatly developed, as are the other senses, in the course of the life of the particular animal in consequence of its experienced utility; but it is not developed to an equal degree in animals of all species, or in all of the same species. The dog, which is most highly trained, has a keener sense of scent than any of the wild animals, none of which places more than partial dependence upon the sense of smell, seemingly considering sight and hear- ing more efficient. Many trappers believe that a fox which has never seen a man or at the most not more than once and then at a considerable distance, can detect the odor left by hu- man hands upon a steel trap set several hours before the fox visits it, and that the sly animal cannot be caught in a trap thus tainted with human scent. In order to notice an odor, human or inhuman, so lightly and remotely im- pressed upon steel the fox with the most acute sense of smell would have to sniff the metal at close range ; actu- ally touch it with the tip of its nose, and in so doing would, nine times out of ten, spring the trap and get caught, not by a foot, the usual way, but by the nose. Trappers who believe this human scent legend, as- sert that traps should be set only with gloved hands ; but no one has arisen to state at what period or in what man- ner the fox acquired a definite knowledge of human scent, or learned to effectively differentiate it from the odor of an old and variously used glove. The sense of smell, being the primary active sense, is undoubtedly of extreme importance to practically all animals, but observation impresses the conviction that its efficiency is considerably exaggerated. It is not cred- itable to human intelligence to suppose that scent from 516 NATURE NOTES the foot of a rabbit or fox lightly touching the ground for not more than a second of time should remain for hours in sufficient strength to be readily perceptible to another and unlike animal. While we are certain that this remarkable foot-odor remains for some time and is noticeable to animals, the dog and others in whom the sense of smell is highly developed, we are equally sure that the sense of smell is not the only faculty essentially exercised by the pursuer in tracking the pursued — the eyes of the former are importantly depended upon in the chase, particularly in patient, plodding hunters such as the hound — felines, which crouch and surprise, chiefly rely upon the sense of sight ; speedy hunters depend upon ears and feet; preying animals of every species, and those preyed upon, use to the utmost every sense, sinew and muscle. During the fear-inspired run for life the feet of the fleeing fox or hare make distinct impressions, marks and scratches in the soft ground, damp leaves, moss and grass over which they pass, which impressions and marks are fairly visible to the keen sight of the trailer, and the senses of smell and sight operating concurrently enable the pursuing hunter to trace the course of its quarry almost unerringly. The observing sportsman has noticed that at times even his most dependable dogs have lost the scent in rocky places, or rather large areas cov- ered with very dry leaves ; the odor of the feet of the rab- bit or fox was not lessened or otherwise affected during the rapid passage of the animals over these places; the scent may have been more quickly dissipated, but was lost, as the dog "following the track" best knows, be- cause the bounding feet of the escaping animals left no NATURE NOTES 517 characteristic mark upon the surface of the rocks or ex- tremely hard ground, and made no particular change, scratch or form, in the "lay" of the very dry leaves, which might not have been effected by a passing zephyr. A fox when closely pursued by a hound will, if the opportunity offers, cross a stream at a place where the opposite shore is more or less "stony"; we assume that it does this to break the line of scent, but reynard doubt- less merely seeks a path upon which no tell-tale marks can be imprinted. Does a fox know so much ? If it ap- prehends one-half, and it seemingly does, it surely knows the other half ! A wily fox in making a long leap from soft ground to a hard surface, or a fallen tree trunk, has often been able to secure a hiding place within reach of the pursu- ing dogs; more than one rabbit by remaining quiet in its "form" in the meadow has escaped the notice of a hound passing within a yard of its retreat — surely the scent of the whole animal is greater than that of the lightest touch of its feet alone. Footprints remain fairly visible to eyes capable of seeing them long after the scent has disappeared — the same is true of finger prints. If success in the chase depended wholly upon scent, com- paratively few animals would be caught; the fact that speeding feet patter at least part of the time where no impression can be made largely accounts for the perpet- uation of many species of furry animals. A giant may have, as asserted, smelled the "blood of an Englishman," and thus have discerned his pres- ence; but according to the truer-to-nature record foot- prints in the sand led Crusoe to discover Friday — and the odor of a fleeing fox is said to be exceedingly delicate 518 NATURE NOTES compared with that of a Friday in his native atmos- phere. The tips of the noses of fur and hair-bearing animals are bare, entirely devoid of fur or hair, a provi- sion of nature whereby their sense of smell is increased in efficiency; if furred to the tip the fur would retain the odors of the many substances into which the nose is frequently plunged, making it impossible for the animal to distinguish any particular scent, or escape the misery of smelling many smells continuously. EARS The external ears of quadrupeds show marked dif- ferences in set or position ; in some species the ears point backward, in others forward, and in a number extend directly outward at approximately right angles with the sides of the head; these are the lines in which the out- ward ears are naturally set, but each of these positions may be assumed by all fur-bearers at will, as their ears are mobile within the range of half a circle. These characteristics are essential to the perpetuation of the several species of animals, for while all prey and are preyed upon none has been sent into the world without being given a fair chance to escape sudden and complete destruction. The species which secure their prey more definitely in the chase than by the exercise of cunning, have their ears naturally pointed forward so that t!iey may the more readily catch the sound of the pattering feet of the creature they are pursuing, which not only runs in the open but frequently turns to the right or the left and dodges behind bushes, stumps or other objects offering concealment. The animals pursued, particu- larly those which are hunted as food by other animals NATURE NOTES 519 but which do not hunt for a livelihood, have their out- ward ears pointed backward, an evident provision of na- ture designed to enable them to readily hear every sound made by the eager feet of their invisible pursuers, from whom they are strenuously seeking to escape. We may note that the rabbit in its wild dash for life has its ears pointed backward, while the ears of the pur- suing lynx are turned straight forward ; it is not to be understood, however, that the ears of the rabbit, or the lynx, or any other wild creature are immovably fixed in the positions noted, for the various voracious creatures frequently approach their prey from in front evidently by chance rather than from choice; all animals which have their ears distinctly turned backward have the ability to turn their ears forward, and thus detect sounds of an approaching foe, and they do so frequently though mainly depending for protection against frontal attacks upon their wonderfully keen eyesight. It need not be doubted that the power to note the ap- proach of an enemy by the sense of hearing only essen- tially aids the pursued in effecting its escape ; and equally that the forward trend of the ears of the pursuer, where- by it is enabled to detect sounds made by the fleeing quarry augments its prospects of success in the chase; this remarkable power of hearing should be regarded as a developed rather than an innate faculty, the mobility of the ears being nature's contribution. The rabbit that will not use its backward-pointed ears as well as its for- ward-glancing eyes, may never deliberately or carelessly run into danger, nor will it long escape the greater peril lurking in its rear. 520 NATURE NOTES Incidentally it may be observed that the human mind, which "grows by what it feeds upon," surely dwarfs by feeding upon husks when propitious pabulum is available. Domestic animals which have long enjoyed immun- ity from the fury of ancient enemies, have their visible ears set forward, backward, or nearly at a right angle from the head; but in all the faculty of mobility is retained. EYES The eyes of animals chiefly active in the clear light of the day are generally dark, as noted in the horse, seal, deer and others, including many birds; the exceptions seem to be those which in seeking their food or prey de- pend largely upon the sense of smell or wholly upon the sense of sight, including some of the felines, the eagle, hawks and other carniverous birds, all of which have rather bright eyes, some being brightened with yellow, white or red rings. Nocturnal animals usually have bright eyes, in some specimens the eyes being intensely bright, flashing yel- low or red when observed in the dark ; this brightness is markedly noticeable in members of the cat family, the owls, herons, and others. Animals which cannot be strictly classed as either diurnal or nocturnal, the burrowers, hibernating and amphibious animals, generally have dark eyes. In the lives of all fur-bearers the first active sense is smell ; and in birds in the nest, is hearing; but when the furry and feathered folk set out to hunt that they may live, the sense of sight becomes of vital importance, is developed NATURE NOTES 521 to a degree surpassing human comprehension. The eagle, hawk and vulture soaring at vast heights in cloud- land note the location of their prey and provender in lake, or ocean, or on land, and unerringly descend to it. In radiant day and rayless night sight is the su- preme protective sense enjoyed by natural fur-bearers and feather-wearers, but instead of being solely depend- ed upon, is made to work together in harmony of action with all the senses and faculties in sustaining life. MOTION The sense of sight possessed by animals, however great, is not infallible, and would be of little avail except for one condition — motion. A hawk soaring over a field will not note the differ- ence between a stump and a sleeping bear, in fact may not specially observe either, but a moving mouse will catch its attention and cause it to descend in an instant. A muskrat swimming on a pond in a usually unfre- quented marsh will not distinguish a man from a post or dead tree so long as the man remains perfectly motion- less, but the instant he moves, though only a hand, the muskrat will disappear beneath the water. A heron flying across a bay will cause the small fish to run into deeper water, but the same heron may stand motionless in the water for a few moments and the fish will return toward shore and swim all round the big bird which by a swift stroke can catch one fish after another. Even the cunning fox will approach within strik- ing distance of a man who stands perfectly still, but will flee from another however leisurely moving five hundred 522 MOTION yards distant. A flock of quail will lie quietly in a clump of small trees very near which a hunter is passing so long as he continues to move on, but the instant he stops they rise at terrific speed; they evidently gauge the possibilities of danger due to the moving object, but when it ceases to move are unable to longer control their fear. The opossum seems to have quite perfectly sensed the condition ; owing to the fact that its range of vision is quite limited the opossum is often surprised by its enemies, and in such instances, escape by running being impossible, the animal feigns death, manifestly under- standing that if it remains absolutely motionless it will be passed by unobserved. It has long been generally supposed that the opossum played dead because it knew or believed that the creature menacing it, no matter how hungry, would not eat a dead animal, or one not self- caught — an untenable view, unless we are willing to freely affirm that the opossum thinks, reasons and mar- vellously imagines, as no carnivorous brute, though only moderately hungry, could be so easily deceived; where- as the most cunning beast unless it had seen the opossum before it lay down as dead would fail to notice it while it remained quiescent. Every hunter knows how diffi- cult it is at times to find a dead bird, though he very care- fully noted the spot where it fell ; and on the other hand how readily a wounded bird is found because of a slight movement of its head or wing. An Esquimaux will spend hours in a patient en- deavor to approach a seal dozing upon the ice near an opening at the edge of the water into which it is sure to disappear if alarmed ; the seal frequently raises its head NATURE NOTES 523 and carefully scans the surrounding ice field, and at such moments the Esquimau, who has not for an instant ceased to watch the seal, becomes perfectly motionless ; the seal may note the hunter as a dark object upon the ice, but detecting no motion will resume its spookless dreams, and in due course be caught. The ptarmigan and Arctic fox in their winter dress white as the pure snow everywhere present in their habitat, are revealed to each other by their necessary movements in quest of food, otherwise both would have been extinct long since — owing to cunning and caution both survive, but neith- er flourishes. FEET Four flitting feet seemingly indifferent to fatigue, ever responsive to the lure of hope or the spur of fear, faithfully though not always successfully, serve fur- bearers in pursuing and when being pursued, as hunters and hunted. Carnivorous animals are the pursuers; those that feed upon grasses, fruits and cereals are the pursued; when one of the latter is discovered and attacked it dashes swiftly away, running for some time straight ahead, but when too closely followed frequently di- gresses to the right and left, darts around trees and boul- ders, and speeds hither and thither in quest of a secure hiding place ; the pursuer, which in turn is certain to be pursued by other carnivora, trained dog, or human foe, undoubtedly learns much from its experience as a hunter that is of value to it when hunted, and not only learns the tricks but practices them when necessary. The little brown hare can outrun the great, strong 524 NATURE NOTES lynx, but cannot tire it out; it is far more speedy than the smaller weasel, but is incomparably less persistent; the rabbit frequently evades the lynx by dashing into a burrow, stone fence or thicket where the lynx cannot follow, but it seldom escapes the patient plodding weasel in any of these ways, as the smaller weasel can easily penetrate any opening into which the rabbit may enter. The rabbit would invariably elude lynx, weasel and other ravenous pursuers if it maintained a straight-forward course, but as this fact is not included in rabbit sense, the career of the animal is marked by joyful successes, and marred by final failure — and an essential balance in animal life is maintained. Some fur-bearers instead of seeking safety in speedy flight on the ground, depend upon their agility in climbing, their feet, provided with sharp claws, being perfectly adapted to this mode of travel; the squirrel, marten, raccoon, sable and opossum live in trees much of the time, and when pursued run to their homes in great trees, where foxes, wolves, dogs and other four-footed foes are unable to follow them, but where they are not wholly safe, as other enemies, noticeably the weasel, cat and puma are expert climbers. Fur-bearers catch their prey with their teeth, or first disable their victims with blows of their heavy claw- armed paws ; the eagle and hawks catch their prey with their feet. The race is not always to the swift, nor is the sur- vival of the most fit to live the invariable rule; the ut- most that we can consider assured in creative intent is perpetuation within certain bounds. NATURE NOTES 525 FURRY COATS AND TEMPERATURE Fur constitutes a thoroughly protective "all the year" covering for its original owner, the fur-bearing animal hunted from valley to hilltop, and its casual rest- ing place in a shallow den to a safe retreat in some rocky cavern. Fur is quite generally considered protective against cold because of the assumption that it supplies warmth, which is incorrect; the protection consciously enjoyed is due to the fact that fur is an inferior con- ductor of heat, and therefore prevents the free radiation of the vital heat of the body so essential to the comfort and health of animals exposed to the severity of very low temperatures during a considerable part of the year. The fact that fur, in somewhat lesser amount, in exclud- ing the heat is also effectively protective against the much higher temperature of the remaining months, is apparently not understood or realized. It may be ob- served that even the larger creatures, noticeably the bear, which pass the winter in calm repose, apparently suffer no great inconvenience if any, on account of the cold, it is noted that other furry creatures are as alert throughout the season of frosts and ice as at any time of the year ; it is plain therefore that the bear and other animals do not slumber and sleep through the winter because of an instinctive fear of the cold, which they surely measurably experience whether waking or sleep- ing, but solely on account of the impossibility of procur- ing even a minimum supply of food suited to their needs. It may also be confidently asserted that fur-bearers are not really unpleasantly affected by the average or exceptional warmth of summer, owing to the fact that 526 NATURE NOTES fur is a poor conductor of heat; and secondarily on ac- count of their invariable habit of moulting and passing the sunny hours in caves and subterranean dens. The Russian sable, Polar bear and Arctic fox may exceptionally be classed as completely fur-clad in every feature except the mere tip of the nose ; these creatures pass many consecutive months in regions of ever pres- ent snow and ice, and a temperature almost continuously below zero, and in order that they may not perish as they tramp their rounds in search of food, all parts of their bodies, and noticeably the soles of their feet, are covered with fur ; the fur on the soles of the feet, forever tread- ing snow and ice, prevents the rapid radiation of inter- nal heat, and excludes the external cold. The opposite condition, a part of the body devoid of fur or hair, may be observed in certain species, many of which inhabit cold sections, but where ice is confined to lakes and streams ; in all such instances nature has pro- vided an effective covering for the parts thus seemingly exposed ; these f urless portions of anatomy may be noted in the scaly tails of the beaver, muskrat and opossum, the flippers of seals, horns and hoofs of deer, sheep and cattle, and the noses of furry and hairy animals generally. MEN AND FUR-BEARERS AKIN The goat and cat are ubiquitous in China, greatly exceeding in number all other species combined ; both are home-keeping and contented animals in an exceptional degree — or remarkably like their masters. Spain takes its name from the care-free, light-foot- ed rabbit, the animal outnumbering all others in the NATURE NOTES 527 kingdom; whether the characteristics noted primarily pertain to the rabbits or the people is immaterial — it is noticeable that they pertain. The smallest known representatives of certain spe- cies of animals are found in Africa, and others in that continent touch the opposite extreme in size — a fox only eight inches in length, a pocket-size monkey, the mighty elephant, and the huge gorilla, are examples. Africa is the one country in which both human and furry giants and pigmies abound. Great Britain is the home of the majestic stag, and — ^believe him — super man. Deer of very small size abound in Japan, and some of them are considered sacred. Japanese are noted as being comparatively diminutive, and one of their num- ber is regarded as a deity. Nearly all animals rank as sacred in India, and none may be killed because of the belief in the transmigration of souls; no Indian is quite sure which witless ape, or dog, or other brute is already animated by a former human spirit, or waiting to receive his own; it is not therefore strange that claimed kinship should find ex- pression in similar characteristics. Australia is the land of the topsy-turvy; plants, shrubs and trees differ widely from those found any- where else ; the fur-bearers ;are peculiar, one species com- bines the physical features of bird and mammal, mem- bers of the same family vary from a few inches to more than six feet in height ; the dog is wild ; and in some ani- mals primary colors prevail in fur and feather. Natives of Australia differ not only from races on the continents, but from those inhabiting adjacent islands; they are 528 NATURE NOTES black, but their hair, which is short and curly, is not harsh like that of the negro ; some of them continuously wander from place to place, wear no clothing, eat raw flesh, and in every particular are more nearly akin to brutes than human beings. Fur-bearers in America are notoriously nocturnal. Fur-bearers in America are, as observed — the fox, cunning; the skunk, obnoxious; the cat, indolent; the beaver, industrious, and others otherwise characteristic- ally human. Fur-bearers are all nocturnal ; and man, who spends the day in den-like offices and sub-cellars in a feverish hustle to garner the world's tokens of exchange, roams hither and thither through the night in successful ef- forts to disperse his strenuously acquired coin, all too often casting his pearls before swine, wholly unconscious that the revel of the night is the inevitable reaction of nature against the destructive struggle of the day, and that sooner or later the "silver cord will break." The Esquimaux strikingly displays the leading traits of the furry animals with which he is in almost constant association — noticeably, cunning of the fox, do- cility of the seal, courage of the bear, contentment of the reindeer, and endurance peculiar to all. Natives of Alaska carve crude representations of the fox, bear, wolf, whale and other animals with which they are familiar upon their totem poles, and name them- selves or their tribes after the creatures thus exalted. Kings and nobles, and those who "follow in their train," proudly display their coat of arms, as visible signs of worth emblazoned not with glorious deeds but with the common furry animal most expressive of the ■ NATURE NOTES 529 ancestral and inherited character of the haughty possessor. We go further in contentedly consenting to be known by the names of fur-bearers, whether painfully characteristic or conspicuously inappropriate ; bear them through life, transmit them to our offspring, and write them upon monuments of stone sacred to the memory of : Peter Fox or Lucinda Bear ; Willie Wolf or Harriet Hare; Richard Lion, "Humanity's Defender"; Benny Rabbit, "Kind and Tender"; Clara Beaver and Thomas Catt, "Forever Blest"; Milton Coon, Sammy Mink, and all the rest. BUILDERS Wherever it has abounded the beaver is celebrated in legend and story on account of its ingenuity and indus- try as a builder; the animal is amphibious, and lives in colonies of ten, fifty, and upwards of one hundred mem- bers, all of them except a very few drones, being patient and persistent workers — not builders merely, but archi- tects, engineers, masons, carpenters, lumbermen and hodcarriers. The dam constructed across streams by the beaver, designed to maintain a body of water essential to the life and comfort of the animal, is composed of the trunks and branches of small trees cut down, trimmed and oth- erwise prepared by the chisel-like teeth of the animals, and then floated to position and sunk to the bottom of the stream where they are skillfully interwoven, and with the addition of stones and clay are wrought into a strong and permanent dam. 530 NATURE NOTES In building its dam and lodge the beaver uses its strong sharp teeth as an axe, its teeth and forefeet in transporting stones, timber and clay to the sections of the structure in which they are to be used, and its tail as a trowel in packing the clay firmly in place. Late in the autumn small trees are felled, cut into portable lengths, taken out near the dam and sunk to the bottom of the stream to furnish a fresh supply of bark as the winter food of the colony. In constructing its lodge the beaver displays the in- genuity of a master builder; the dwelling comprises a number of apartments perfectly adapted to the needs and comfort of the occupants, ingeniously ventilated so as to exclude the cold, and having the floors set well above high water mark; a passage way leading down- ward to an exit considerably below the surface of the water enables the animals to pass in and out of the lodge unobserved. The clay covered roof of the lodge is hammered smooth and hard by the tail of the beaver, and when frozen is firm as a cement wall. All the work of the beaver is due to instinct, and as viewed by the animal is evidently perfect, as experience dictates no changes or improvements in earliest known models. The muskrat, which is also amphibious and gre- garious, builds a house similar to that of the beaver, though not so substantial or ingenious; it is made of rushes, sticks and mud, rises from three to five feet above the water, has several rooms and secret entrance at the lowest under- water level ; the height of the build- ing is gauged with reference to a probable rise in the surrounding water due to winter rains and spring floods NATURE NOTES 531 — the muskrat knows ; the house serves as a winter resi- dence only ; no additional cold storage plant is required, as the muskrat feeds from autumn to spring upon the roots of living but dormant aquatic plants bordering runs and ditches throughout the marshes in which it makes its home. Martens and squirrels build winter houses in trees, using sticks and leaves for the purpose; the roofs are constructed to perfectly shed the rain, but the structures are otherwise simple and uninteresting. While fur-bearers build houses for their protection and comfort in winter only ; birds, which are expert and painstaking builders, construct homes to serve their needs merely for a few weeks in the spring. COLOR Fur-bearing animals of the field, and birds of the air, show wonderful variations in color, including all primary colors, countless combinations and shades, metalic, bright and dull hues; failing to master the mystery openly expressed but not definitely explained, we content ourselves with the simple assumption, meas- urably true, that this remarkable coloring is chiefly, if not solely, purposeful as a protective covering in the varied and changing environment of the creatures thus endowed. It is more manifestly a visible evidence of the lavish grace of the Creator, seen in all His works, designed to meet and satisfy the love of the beautiful universally entertained by His creatures, and which all men, con- sciously or unawares, constantly strive to realize, alter- nately build, pull down and reconstruct in tireless efforts 532 NATURE NOTES to achieve, conscious the while that attainments at the best and utmost only approximate aspirations. Certain monkeys show markings in very decided red and green ; the kolinsky is bright yellow ; some mar- tens are a deep orange in color; foxes are red, white, black, blue, grey, yellow and variegated; bears and wolves are black, brown, white, and all of these tones in combination; cats and squirrels are of all colors; com- binations in color abound, embracing black and white, brown and white, red and yellow, and in instances three or more colors in the same furry coat, set in dots, lines, patches, and quite clearly defined figures. That the peculiar and varied coloring noted in the fur and feathers of many animals harmonizes with their environment and is therefore protective, need not be doubted; but to assume that protection against enemies constitutes the sole purpose and design must be accepted as a first thought, a plausible theory abounding in un- wisdom. Some birds, noticeably the partridge and quail, are a hodge-podge of black and brown and white, and con- sequently are not readily observable in their nests of dead leaves and grasses indifferently constructed upon the ground under bushes or bogs ; but the green branches or drooping grass above them serve as their best pro- tection against flying hawks, and the slightest movement on their part would reveal them to a prowling fox or weasel; partridge and quail, hearing the patter of ap- proaching feet, undoubtedly see the fox first and instinctively remain perfectly motionless, depending equally for safety upon color and inaction. If either bird should move its head, or wing, or in fear partially NATURE NOTES 633 rise to its feet preparatory to flight, it would be instantly discovered by the alert ears and eyes of the hungry fox ; the birds would surely escape, but their eggs would be devoured by their enemy, and the partridge and quail would have to seek new nesting places. The eggs of the partridge are dark and profusely blotched with black and brown, and are, therefore, well concealed by the general color of the nest while the hen is absent in quest of food; it should also be noted that eggs do not move of themselves. The eggs of the quail are plain white, but the nest is nearly always placed in open fields, often very near to dwellings, where wild fur-bearers do not travel in daylight hours ; the grass in which the nest is placed droops so closely over the nest that the eggs, though white, cannot be seen by a hawk passing only a few inches above them. The nest of the marsh wren is rather loosely con- structed of dead brown and whitish rushes interwoven in the tall green grasses and reeds, and is therefore easily visible by contrast, and doubtless is perceived by the ever busy marsh hawk, but is never disturbed owing to the fact that the opening to the nest instead of being at the top, the usual place, is at the opposite extreme and consequently invisible from above. The cat bird and robin, which are unlike in color, build their nests in identical surroundings in many in- stances, though the latter often selects the more open and exposed places; the blue jay makes its nest in a cedar tree, which it does not remotely resemble in color ; the house wren chooses a small opening leading to a dark retreat under the eaves of country houses; the phoebe bird builds its nest, when possible, on a beam on 684 NATURE NOTES the under side of a bridge; owls, flickers and the blue bird build in hollow trees; swallows make their mud nests upon the rafters in barns, or within unused chim- neys ; and the martin nests in rather deep holes in sheer cliffs — as a rule nesting places are chosen with reference to concealment to insure the preservation of the ex- pected brood, rather than the protection of the old birds, which manifestly place their dependence for safety chiefly on immobility while on their nests. If harmony in coloring of fur and feather and en- vironment assure protection to creatures preyed upon, then it must be of comparatively equal advantage to those that prey and which are similarly endowed. The weasel in winter wears a coat of white fur, which we may assume obscures the animal as it dashes hither and thither over the snow in quest of a field mouse or grouse for its morning repast, and which instead of being clothed in white are habited in the grey or brown dress worn in summer ; it is an excellent theory for the weasel, but a disastrous condition for the unsuspecting mouse and grouse, and in its successful operation would seem to indicate that the Creator graciously provides for the blood-thirsty weasel, but is indifferent to His more beautiful and lovable creatures. The weasel, again, is white in winter whether the ground is covered with snow, or bare and brown ; under the latter condition the weasel becomes the conspicuous one, and mouse and grouse perceiving it from afar read- ily escape, and the murderous weasel failing to obtain breakfast, dinner or supper must soon perish of hunger. In the realm of abiding snow and ice the Polar or white bear grows to an immense size upon a diet of seal NATURE NOTES 685 meat ; the monster ice-bear has to catch the seal before it can dine upon it, and to do so must slowly and very cau- tiously approach the seal as it fitfully sleeps upon the ice in close proximity to a "blow hole" through which it will surely escape if it becomes alarmed ; the bear can scarce- ly be discerned in its environment of ice hummocks and snow mounds, and if skillful will remain unobserved un- til discovery is of no avail to the seal — lucky bear; un- happy seal. In the region of abounding snow we find the fox and its prey, the Ptarmigan, both of which are white in winter; the fox and ptarmigan being identical in color with their environment ought to be invisible to one an- other ; but, theoretically, the fox enjoys an advantage in being able to approach the birds unperceived, and should therefore catch all of them; on the other hand it is the ptarmigan that is favored because of the inability of the fox to see it at all, and none should be caught — as a matter of fact both may be found in their accustomed haunts whenever we wish to study the lesson afield. Theories, it may be remarked in passing, do not have to be logical. The mouse and the grouse often fall a prey, and many times evade the sinuous weasel; the Polar bear sometimes catches the seal, and often fails to do so; now and then the fox catches the ptarmigan, and quite as often the beautiful bird wings its way to safety. The weasel, bear and fox succeed in the hunt only as the motion of their advancing bodies escape the notice of their intended victims ; this knowledge is mani- festly the heritage of both bird and beast, prey and preyer. Unless hunter and hunted are extremely near each other, within the compass of a bound, at the in- 636 NATURE NOTES stant when the latter makes its dash or splash or flutter toward safety, the hunter at once abandons the chase, turns aside and begins anew its quest of a meal in some field of fairer hope. Black, red, and silvery foxes are found in the same litter, an exceptional condition among wild animals, though young muskrats in the same family sometimes vary from light to much darker shades of brown. Fur seals and sea otters are black when born, and gradually change to greyish ; hair seals are at birth perfectly white, and subsequently change, assuming the several distinct hues and markings characterizing the different mem- bers of the family. Albinos, single specimens, are occasionally found among all fur-bearers ; once in a while, but not of tener, trappers have found in their traps a pure white beaver, raccoon, skunk, or muskrat. PROTECTIVE NATURE Wise laws expressly enacted for the purpose un- doubtedly operate to delay the extinction of our beauti- ful, interesting and valuable fur-bearers, but nature af- fords them a greater degree of protection than is accord- ed by friendly statutes, however rigidly enforced. Late in the autumn, when the radiant warmth of the sun is reduced in intensity o'er the earth and sea, and frost and ice and snow prevail, all fur-bearing animals begin to develop a heavier growth of fur, which in- creases in density until the creature possesses a coat that is perfectly protective against the severest cold of dreary winter. Eiarly in the spring the order is reversed, the animals NATURE NOTES 587 putting off, or shedding, a considerable portion of their fur on account of the rise in temperature ; the remaining fur while ample for the needs of the little beasts, is so changed in quantity, texture and color as to be valueless for manufacturing purposes. The laws of the land pro- hibit the killing of fur-bearers in summer, but owing to the greed of man such laws would prove only partially protective except for the efficient co-operation of nature. HIBERNATORS The black bear hibernates, or spends the winter in sleep in a den chosen by it for the purpose ; the bear does this for the same reason that the dog barks and bites, and all importantly because of its inability to procure food in winter, none being available, the general diet of the bear consisting of berries, fruits, honey and a few other things. The bear has the warmest coat of all the animals, and consequently its pleasant dreams are never disturbed by the cold. When it issues from its hiberna- cle in the spring its ordinary food supply is still minus in quantity, and unless it is very successful in fishing ex- periences many hungry moments while waiting for early berries to mature. The woodchuck, or ground hog, also hibernates for the same reasons, but as it is a vegetarian it fares better after awakening in the spring. The belief that the woodchuck always awakens on February 2, need not be entertained. The skunk hibernates for several days or weeks at a time from December to March, on account of inability to procure its usual food, grubs, insects, frogs, fruits and certain plants ; the animal is rather wantonly killed 588 NATURE NOTES by farmers because it is sometimes found near hen roosts, where it is really hunting a den and not a hen. Six or ten, or more, skunks spend the winter in company in the same den, thus keeping each other warm, and oc- casionally suffocating the colony. On very pleasant days the skunk leaves its den and briefly roams abroad, not to obtain food, it knows better, but to get a refresh- ing drink — and possibly to calculate the date. NATURAL HUNTERS, TRAPPERS AND FISHERS Men have been hunters and trappers, of necessity and for gain, ever since the flood. Earliest hunters used stones and clubs, bows and arrows, pits and deadfalls, with varying degrees of success ; today they are provided with matchless guns and rifles, and a variety of ingenius traps, and the capture of several million animals annually makes it evident that chance has been largely superseded by work, toil greatly surpassing in struggle and suffering anything experienced by the ancients ; work which rarely receives "a just recompense of reward," as the major portion of the wealth added to the world's treasure gar- nered from the trail and trap accrues to masterful cap- ital rather than to sacrificial labor. Some-when and somewhere the deserving hunter and trapper will come into his own. All of the fur-bearers that are hunted and trapped for their fur, particularly those that are carnivorous, are born hunters, trappers and fishers; some of them are savage and cruel, and a few, noticeably the felines, tor- ture their victims previous to killing and devouring them. Many of the cornivora are exceedingly swift, cunning. NATURE NOTES 539 skillful, patient and persistent both in hunting and fish- ing. The Polar bear is a remarkably patient hunter ; it will wait for hours at a blow hole for a seal to rise to breathe, and when it appears kill it almost instantly with a single blow of its mighty paw. The wolf and lynx will run many miles without ap- parent weariness in pursuit of their prey. The fox, weasel, wolverine, and all members of the cat tribe are cunning, persistent and successful hunters. The dog, mongoose, ferret and chetah are trained by man to hunt for him; they need to be tamed more definitely than trained for the purpose, as they are nat- ural hunters. The otter, seal, pekan, or fisher, raccoon and mink are expert fishers, some of them being wholly dependent for food upon their skill in catching trout, salmon, and smaller fry. The Polar bear is both hunter and trapper, his mas- sive paw being the trap, for much of his game comes to him and merely has to be caught. In instances the wolf, operating in pairs, both hunts and traps, one wolf "lying in wait" while the other drives the quarry to it to be caught. Among feathered creatures, the eagle and all hawks are specially noted for their efficiency as hunters and fishers. The flycatcher hunting its game on the under side of leaves of fruit trees, the robin stealthily stalking earth worms at dawn or twilight, the wren alertly searching the retreats of caterpillars and grubs, the night-hawk capturing insects in the air, and the wood- pecker unerringly locating fat grubs half an inch or 640 NATURE NOTES more beneath the bark of great trees, are all extremely interesting hunters worthy of patient observation and study. Hawks, herons, cranes, the pelican and king- fisher are fishers of the first class, and they catch more finny beauties than all human devotees of the rod, ex- cept, possibly, the small boy who cuts his "pole" in the swamp near the brook in which he casts his line. The pelican, being an exceptionally successful and industri- ous fisher, and being provided with a natural creel, is trained to exercise its piscatory skill for the benefit of its human owner, the cute Chinee. Ducks are good fishers ; some of them live so nearly exclusively on fish, that the fishy taste and odor makes their flesh undesirable for human food. The anteater, a hairy creature, makes a high score as a trapper, using as a trap its long, rough tongue which it thrusts into an anthill and permits it to remain "set" until it is covered with ants and then withdrawing it devours the catch. The spider is the most ingenious, laborious and effi- cient of all natural trappers ; and the only one that shows great constructive ability in making its own trap, sets it in manifest knowledge of the habits and haunts of the game to be caught, and constructs at the rear of the trap a "blind" in which to lie concealed and ready to instantly pounce upon and perfectly secure every creature enter- ing it. The web of the spider, designed by the spinner to serve solely as a trap, is a marvel in beauty, design and workmanship, composed wholly of exceeding delicate threads or filaments, spun in a series of constantly en- larging circles, beginning at a center and continuing outward to a periphery of ten, twenty or more inches in NATURE NOTES 541 diameter, the circles being crossed and united by innum- erable, slightly spaced, radii of the same flimsy threads ; the web is sustained, and kept in effective position, by cables of the same material attached to branches, grass, posts or other convenient objects suited to the purpose ; this seemingly fragile trap is really remarkably strong, and is perfectly adapted to the needs of the trapper, the capture of the food required to sustain its if e ; a creature too large and strong to be held by the trap occasionally blimders into and breaks through it, but the spider, which is constantly on guard, though hidden from view, promptly repairs the damage, and in a few moments the trap is again in working order. The trap of the spider, attached to proper supports, is set perpendicular to catch flies and other insects in their usual horizontal flights ; and is also set horizontal, near the ground to capture unwarry insects which, as the heat of the day increases, drop down out of the air in quest of cool hiding places. Great numbers of these spi- der traps are set quite closely together in the grass and weeds growing along the sides of country roads where flies and insects abound and which, being frequently dis- turbed by passing vehicles and pedestrians, flit back and forth from the roadway to the grass at either side of it ; many of them instead of alighting on the sward enter the traps, from which there is no escape. Though hundreds of these devices are set only a few feet or inches apart, we may pass them many times, even walk over and upon them, without noticing them, but on a foggy morning the mist-laden threads are clearly visible, interesting and impressive; and we realize, probably for the first time, that the spider spinning its cunningly wrought web sets 542 NATURE NOTES a trap which not alone supplies its own daily needs but concurrently renders an immeasurably important ser- vise to man in effecting the destruction of millions of inimical insects which, if not thus prevented from multi- plying, would render human life practically unendur- able. "The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in king's palaces." Proverbs 30 128. She "taketh hold with her hands" not only in the palace of the king, but in the hut of the peasant, serving well and wonderfully all the people. WEATHER PROPHETS Careful observers, particularly farmers, experi- enced hunters and professional trappers who are most concerned, confidently assert that certain animals are unerringly weather-wise, and that they never fail to note and prepare for climatic changes some time in ad- vance of their occurrence; these human lovers of nature, who spend most of their wakeful hours outdoors have learned to read many of the signs as readily as scholars read books, and they always place the utmost confidence in their interpretations of them. Some of the animals announce approaching storms, rain or snow according to the season, others predict clearing conditions, but the greater number exercise their prophetic powers in foretelling changes in tempera- ture, and generally write their "signs" considerably antecedent to the event. If the raccoon elects to feed upon ripened corn early in the fall, to the neglect of its usual food, a severe winter may be expected, and is usually realized. Fair NATURE NOTES 543 weather may be "looked for" when a cat licks its fur downward, from head to tail, the direction in which it naturally lies. If the cat licks its fur in the other direc- tion, it is considered a sure sign of a coming storm — re- gardless of signs, an unpleasantness of some kind nearly always follows when the "fur is rubbed the wrong way." The tree-toad sings loudest just in advance of a shower ; most animals note the approach of rain in sum- mer, not because of their prophetic knowledge, but owing to a very pronounced change in atmospheric pres- sure. The squirrel indicates the character of the coming winter by the quantity of nuts and acorns it carries to its den in a tree, or conceals in many places in the ground ; if the greater supply of food is stored in the tree, severe cold and much snow may be expected ; on the contrary, if the nuts are hidden "here, there and everywhere" in the ground, the winter will be mild with a light snowfall. The muskrat is a fairly correct weather prophet; when it builds its house unusually high trappers and other observers wisely prepare for a winter of more than ordinary severity, with a succession of heavy snow storms, and are rarely agreeably disappointed. This building habit of the muskrat also promises exception- ally high freshets in the following spring, and there is no record to show that the muskrat ever regretted the extra labor expended in adding a story or two to its winter dwelling. When the woodchuck digs an unusually deep bur- row, as shown by the great amount of earth heaped about the entrance, and carries into the burrow a mass 644 NATURE NOTES of leaves, grasses and other warm bedding, plenty of ice and snow may be expected to characterize the ensuing winter. The beaver gathers its winter supply of food prior to the beginning of severe frosts, but never very far in advance of that period, and by watching the prescient animal observers of long experience readily determine whether the winter will open early or late; when the beaver builds a very thick dam, a cold winter is certain to be experienced in that particular section. The skunk sheds its fur earlier in the spring than any other animal, and when it begins to do so, there will be no more "hard freezing," though there may be many chilly days and nights before the ground will be warm enough to safely plant corn. Settled spring weather will surely prevail after the bear issues from the den in which it has slept during the winter; the bear is never in a hurry to wake up, as it somehow knows that the food it needs after a winter's fast cannot begin to grow while the ground is frozen. The woodchuck, or ground hog, according to com- mon belief, awakens from its long winter sleep on the second day of February and walks out of its burrow to "see what the weather is"; if the sun shines, and the woodchuck consequently "sees its shadow," winter weather will continue for "six weeks" ; if it is a cloudy morning, the woodchuck knows that the winter is ended and it need not return to its burrow — this sign fails north of Florida. We may accept the predictions of all the weather-wise animals except the woodchuck, which is incapable of telling a falsehood, but cannot help being the subject of prevaricators. If the woodchuck ever NATURE NOTES 545 comes out of its den on February two, it surely, shadow or no shadow, goes back again in a hurry, for however well it might endure the icy blasts of subsequent days, it would starve to death while awaiting the coming of gra- cious April showers. The claim that the ground hog emerges from its burrow to study the "signs," is an in- fallible sign that the sleepy animal is not weather-wise, and if it were, like all prophets, would be "without honor in its own country," and deservedly so for occasionally prophesying the end of winter, without plainly stating which end. MOLE The ground mole, which spends its allotted days of unknown number under ground, is one of the most re- markable fur-bearers known to man ; though not longer or broader than a man's hand, it is wonderfully alert, and its senses, particularly hearing and smelling, are perfect; its fore paws are short, flat, disproportionately large, and are provided with strong, sharp nails, and constitute a pair of shovels not exceeded in rapidity of operation by the modern trench digger. One sense, sight, is deficient; the creature, however, has small black, bead-like eyes, sunken beneath the fur, and which are movable outward and inward at will, and serve all its needs ; the faculty of drawing the eyes down beneath the fur is nature's kindly provision for their protection while the mole is engaged in plowing its tunnels with its shovel-like fore feet which project at right angles from the body; the eyes are doubtless of little service to the animal in its travels, chief dependence being placed upon the sharp, hairless snout, which is the organ of both scent and touch. 546 NATURE NOTES OPOSSUM LORE If the opossum ever "plays dead" to escape an all- devouring foe, the enemy thus sought to be avoided is the snake, which is the only creature that unmistakably prefers to eat live food. "The serpent is more subtle than any beast of the field," but temporarily meets its match when the opossum sees it first — if the solemnly reported trick of the opossum is not a fervid fable. If the opossum instead of "making believe" dead, or try- ing to run away, would permit the serpent to overtake it, the quadruped could readily tickle the snake to death with its grippy tail — this is another tale of the opossum to be taken with a little chlorid of sodium. In its arborial travels the opossum uses its prehen- sile tail as a hand, not in going up, but in coming down ; when the animal wishes to descend it curls the end of its tail around a branch, holds fast thereby, and fearlessly swings down head first to the limb next below, which it could not otherwise reach, and to which it dare not jump. When man lost his tail, as he is supposed to have done, he parted with one-half of his ability as a climber ; he is still able to go up, but in coming down, otherwise than with a thud, the insignificant opossum leads super- man as effectively as it deceives the subtle serpent. LYNX AND RABBIT A strenuous competitive struggle for existence is ceaselessly waged by the lynx and the rabbit ; and though the contest has been maintained during the ages, neither has gained more than a temporary triumph; and for that reason lynx and rabbit still abide in the same terri- tory. If we begin our observation of conditions at a NATURE NOTES 547 period when very few lynx exist, we shall find rabbits exceedingly abundant ; as time goes on we will each sea- son note an increase in the number of lynx, and a gradual reduction in rabbit life ; and continuing our observations for a period of about seven years will find that the lynx have greatly multiplied, and that only a few rabbits re- main — a complete reversal of the condition prevailing at the beginning of the seven-year period. Continuing our observations we will soon note a very slight decrease in the number of lynx, and if we extend our study over a second term of seven years will find each season fewer lynx and an ever increasing number of rabbits, and at the end of the seventh year scarcely any lynx, and rab- bits super-abundant. The explanation is obvious. The rabbit constitutes the most satisfying food of the lynx, and when only a few of the latter exist and the former are very abundant, the lynx readily procuring an excess of nourishing food for itself and young thrives and rapidly multiplies, and the steady increasing number to be fed effects a con- stant decrease in the food supply, particularly of young rabbits which are easily caught even by the young lynx ; with the exhaustion of the food supply the lynx, old and young gradually perish of hunger, and the birth rate declines until only a few remain — at which state of the see-saw the rabbit again begins to multiply — and so on, ad infinitum. HOPS The hop-worm, which feeds upon the hop vine, is a wasteful devourer ; it eats its way once through a vine at a point a few inches under ground, thereby completely destroying it. The skunk is the most deadly foe of the 548 NATURE NOTES hop-worm, which it esteems as food, and if given free access at night to single vines or cultivated hop yards, will unerringly discover the worms, dig them out of their tunnels and devour them; in a large hop yard dur- ing the growing season a skunk is worth about five dol- lars a night. Unrestrained in operation the hop worm would in a little while practically effect prohibition, or radical changes in the composition of common beer; strangely the despised skunk elects to become the friend and ally of the beer drinker. It does not follow that the beer drinker will ultimately develop into a devourer of hop worms, or that the skunk will necessarily become a guz- zler of beer, but the record leads to the conviction that of the two the skunk is not incontroverbility the worst. POLECAT The polecat, a European animal, possesses the strange power, peculiar to a few insects, of suspending animation without killing certain creatures upon which it feeds ; it is declared that it effects this result by biting the frog, toad or other small animal through the brain, thereby causing paralysis of nerves and sinews, but no other injury; the creatures thus bitten are carried to its den by the polecat to constitute a reserve stock of food which will remain perfectly fresh until required. BEAVER The beaver, which builds a greater and grander house than any of the mighty beasts, is incorrectly cred- ited with the possession of unerring knowledge, the claim being advanced that the beaver never makes a mis- NATURE NOTES 649 take. It surely commits one fatal error in making its lodge so conspicuous that "the wayfaring man though a fool" cannot fail to observe it, his observation invariably being followed by the death of practically every mem- ber of the colony. It is true that the beaver, as consti- tuted, would perish of hunger and exposure during the winter without its wonderful dam and protective lodge, and this being the greatest peril of which it is instinctive- ly aware it builds accordingly, without anxious concern regarding probable bridges, and therefore cannot be said to be an unwise wise artisan. Perfect wisdom is not found on land or sea — is not expressed in the hewn stone castle of a king, or the judgment of a sage, more surely than in the lodge of sticks and stones and clay constructed by the beaver. One other fur-bearer, the muskrat, builds a conspic- uous house, readily discoverable to the youngest as well as the most experienced trapper — ^builds to perfectly meet dangers instinctively apprehended, and has sur- vived, as it could not have done if, being more human, it had idly disregarded known perils in quivering fear of formless foes. Beavers and muskrats may now build in greater security than formerly, as in nearly all States of the Union and all the Provinces of Canada, laws have been enacted for the protection of both animals and their houses. FOX In order to perpetuate the fur-bearers Noah took two of each species with him in the ark, and since that time, if not prior to that event, the fox has continued to live in pairs, and in consequence of this habit has developed 650 NATURE NOTES individuality in a marked degree; gregarious animals are all alike as regards methods of procuring their food, exhibitions of courage, fear, concealment, and other par- ticulars, but one fox differs from another fox as stars differ in glory. The young fox doubtless learns much from its parents, but when it goes out into the world to seek its own home and living, its new environment, newly encountered dangers, comparative ease or diffi- culty experienced in procuring food, and the conscious- ness, a term seemingly permissible, that it must look out for "number one" because no one else will, the young- ster, instead of invariably following the ways common to all members of the tribe, displays remarkable person- ality in action, which though readily noticed is rarely understood and therefore considered fully explained by one word — cunning. It is manifest to observers that an old fox knows more .than a young one, for it is incontrovertible that if all were governed solely by what we understand as instinct — "an operation of the mind independent of ex- perience, and without having any end in view" — old and young foxes should or would act alike in similar circum- stances, instead of so unlike as to excite our astonish- ment. The fox evidently learns, and as surely remem- bers, and combining knowledge and experience is able to initiate; all experiences are not alike; all difficulties and perilous situations are not identical in cause or de- tail, but as these unlike conditions arise the old fox meets them, not in the same way in which it effected narrow escapes in previous dissimilar circumstances, but differ- ently, not always wholly independent of past experience, NATURE NOTES 551 but surely depending upon new tricks and tactics evoked by the exigency of the moment. A young fox suddenly aroused by a hound will at once seek the nearest hiding place ; in like circumstances the common brown hare will dash away at full speed and in a few moments, if closely pursued, will invariably circle back to the spot in which it was reposing when dis- covered by the hound ; the hunter counts upon this hom- ing habit, and quietly awaiting the return of the hare usually bags it, unless he is a poor marksman. The little hare knows perfectly the tortuous runs and paths which it has made in the immediate vicinity of its home, but the outside world is strange to it, and therefore in its very limited knowledge clings to its home as the only place of safety; while the hare thus runs its circle with a definite "end in view," in doing so it readily becomes the prey of its devouring enemies. An old fox approached by a hound may, if circum- stances permit, quickly enter one of its underground dens and while the closely pursuing dog seeks to follow it pass out of the den by another somewhat distant and less conspicuous exit, and so leisurely trot to a known safe retreat many miles away, the hound meanwhile continuing to bark and burrow manifestly quite confi- dent, because of the single sense of smell, that the fox is still within the den. Instead of pursuing this course, the fox may at first dash away across fields and brooks in a straight line, curves and circles, making long, speedy runs and taking frequent rests, not "without any end in view," but for a definite purpose, either to cause the hound to lose the scent, and so end the chase ; or to con- fuse its pursuer as to the direction taken by the pursued, 562 NATURE NOTES and so lead the hound to retrace its steps and thus afford reynard ample time to effect its escape ; the fox in alter- nately running and resting aims to tire out the hound which, not apprehending all fox tricks, continues to fol- low a warm scent until its strength is exhausted. The fox evidently "knows a lot," much more than we sup- pose ; it is not conceivable that it chooses a long chase, in instances continuing many hours, when a short run would insure its safety ; we may infer that it fairly com- prehends the unvaried method of an enemy which has assailed it more than once, and its own most effective line of defense ; that it knows exactly what to do when trailed by Fido for the third time, and has recourse to first one trick and then another, more if need be, when pursued for the first time by another hound or mongrel. Reynard, like some humans, lives by his wits; and sooner or later likewise perishes in consequence of ex- cessive confidence in fallible wisdom. In the great State of Pennsylvania the fox is classed as vermin, and is charged with destroying many game birds — which sportsmen and pot hunters would like to get; the sportsmen seemingly forget that game birds and foxes have been co-inhabitants of the same patch of land from the dawn of time, and that the fox, if guilty as charged, has in all ages been a very provi- dent feeder, and wonderfully considerate of the needs of fox posterity. TERRAPIN Maryland trappers and foxes are active competi- tors in catching terrapin ; but, paradoxical as it may ap- pear, if the trapper would systematically devote all his NATURE NOTES 568 time to trapping foxes to the extreme of extermination, he would catch more terrapin — later. The terrapin, after the manner of other members of the tortoise tribe, crawls up on the beach to lay its eggs in the sand, and in so doing leaves a broad trail which the fox follows until it finds the place where the eggs were deposited — and that closes the history of the hatch; one fox will find, dig up and devour all the eggs laid by a number of ter- rapin, and, unless he is captured, brer fox will continue to feast on terrapin eggs to the end of the season. A young fox will find a buried terrapin nest as readily as an old animal, and manifestly knows a terra- pin trail and the meaning of it the first time it sees one ; just how it acquired this particular knowledge, unless its mother taught it, is an interesting mystery ; there are very few terrapin, all lay their eggs only once a year and very nearly at the same time, where they cannot be dis- covered by sight or scent. If we knew how much dumb animals know, our fund of information, probably our knowledge, would be materially increased. TAILS Tails, which for a part of the anatomy of most furry, hairy and feathered animals, are not merely ornamental, but are serviceable in many ways, and es- sentially so. Equines and bovines use their tails as ever ready and effective fly swatters, and thus escape the cruel intentions of many fierce foes. Canines wag their tails vigorously as an expression of joy upon meeting a human friend; wag them very differently — slowly and doubtfully, when first meeting 554 NATURE NOTES another canine; maintain them extended and rigid on scenting or pointing a bird, and move them slowly from right to left and the reverse when running a trail. The beaver uses its tail as a helm when swimming, a trowel when engaged in building its lodge or dam, and in sounding an alarm on the approach of an enemy. The round tail of the muskrat serves the animal as a rudder in its tortuous course through the water. The squirrel has a handsome bushy tail which aids the animal in maintaining its balance as it swiftly runs along the branches of high trees ; the tail turned forward over the back deflects light winds which would ruffle and penetrate the fur ; the tail serves to cover and protect the feet while the squirrel is sleeping. The otter employs its tail as a helm in swimming, and in steering its course when sliding down steep river banks. The tail of the opossum serves the animal as a fifth hand in climbing, and is very freely used in de- scending from one branch to another which could not otherwise be reached; all opossums and most monkeys have prehensile tails, and they use them freely. When frightened, angered, or about to engage in battle, most members of the cat family very expressively whisk their tails from side to side, and beat the ground with them more and more rapidly to the instant of springing upon their foe, or dashing away in retreat. Careful observers understand this tail language fairly well, but it doubtless means much more to those who wear the tails in manifest appreciation of their manifold utility. (I^ffgprins Infant fur-bearers are not invariably named after their parents, but are designated in the fur trade by titles and terms which shatter all family relations and which, if heard, would bewilder a naturalist, and para- lyze a philologist. The American marmot is called a prairie "dog," because it barks — a sound reason, but one not uniformly observed in naming fur-bearers; very young muskrats are called kittens, though they utter no cat-like cry, have f urless tails and swim like ducks and fish. The offspring of a musk ox is a calf ; but both par- ents are always mentioned as musk oxen — no one ever heard of a musk cow. The prize goes to the seal ; the mature male is a bull, the female is a cow, and the offspring regardless of sex are pups, are sometimes called cubs, and when one year old the males are designated as bachelors — taken col- lectively seals and sealing are officially referred to as the seal fishery. The aged goat is known as Billy, the female as Nan- nie, and the offspring as kids ; this seems to prove, if at all affirmative, that the goat is more nearly allied to the genus homo than any other species, and accounts for the headiness of both. The Ainos, natives of the Kurile Islands, are so completely covered with hair that the Japanese assert that they are descended from bears, but are too mani- festly human to be killed as fur-bearers. Research might prove them to be the posterity of Esau. 555 iHaterta MtUta Fur-bearers contribute to the real pleasure and comfort of man by furnishing him with warm clothing, oil for lighting and lubricating purposes, delicious food, tools and weapons, prophetic warnings regarding that absorbing subject, the weather, and additionally pro- mote his welfare by supplying him with sundry specifics of great curative power. In some of the truly rural dis- tricts of England it is believed that the tongue of a fox, cut from the living animal, renders the person carrying it immune to all diseases — we would except brain strain. This remedy has a serious drawback, as the person using it is sure to die very soon after meeting a fox at a place where two roads cross — and ought to die much sooner. Marrow from the large bones of the stag was for- merly prescribed as a cure for certain diseases, but was valued only by English physicians of the very old school ; in recent times it has been taken internally to relieve a "ravenous" appetite. In some cantons of Switzerland colds and other af- fections are promptly cured, it is said, by a dose consist^ ing of five or six drops of the blood of the steinbok taken in a glass of wine ; in the United States the home- opathic quantity of blood is considered unnecessary, "rock and rye" being independently effective. In rural England many believe that a sty on the eye may be cured by brushing the eye with a hair plucked from the caudal appendage of a black cat ; the same treatment serves as a preventive. In former days the right forefoot of a hare was carried in the pocket, any pocket, as a pre- 556 MATERIA MEDICA 657 ventive of rheumatism, and doubtless was as eflfective as a horse chestnut persistently toted for the same purpose. The negro voodoo doctor, even in enlightened America, still carries a rabbit foot somewhere about his person and considers it an irresistible charm, working good to himself and evil to his enemies. Bear fat once ranked very high as a never-failing remedial agent for increasing the growth of the human hair ; but as the supply was small, and adulterants were freely used, patients were put to it to catch their own bears as the only sure means of obtaining the genuine article. Bear galls are regularly used. Castor, a pun- gent substance found in two sacs in the beaver, has long been considered as an excellent antispasmodic; beaver "castors" are regularly collected in Canada and the United States in quantity, and offered at the London public sales of furs. The odorous fluid secreted in the pouch of the civet was at one time quite generally prescribed by practicing physicians, and though it "worked wonders" has been superseded by more or less potent specifics procurable at lower cost. Muskrat skins, worn with the fur next to the person, will relieve, if they do not cure, the severest case of asth- ma ; the fur is warm and electrical, and is more protective against cold than softest knitted fabrics ; the skin should be worn over the lungs, both on the chest and back. Cat skins, to be worn in the same way are recom- mended in cases of lung trouble ; a live kitten, owing to the fact that cat fur is charged with electricity, would be even more efficacious, but is not so easily applied or retained in the position where it will "do the most good." In China and India the fat of the tiger is used in single and compound forms to cure rheumatism; and nearly all parts of the body are said to possess valuable remedial properties. Some Chinese doctors, who are not anxious to pro- cure testimonials, prescribe or administer the scrapings of deer horns as a sure cure for vertigo; it is doubtful if any one but a Chinaman can take the remedy without contracting the disease. In some sections of the United States where every one has a remedy to offer, skunk oil is considered an infallible cure for rheumatism, stiff joints and all ach- ing bones, and doubtless does soften and assuage; but mortals endowed with supersentitive olfactory organs regard the remedy as worse than the disease. The pun- gent fluid which characterizes the skunk, and is gener- ally dreaded, is also credited with wonderful medicinal qualities, and is occasionally prescribed in cases of asth- ma — but most sufferers choose to endure the ills they have rather than fly to a remedy they know so well. Furriers prepare deer skins for invalids, not to be taken as medicine, but to be used as cool, restful couches, for which purpose they are incomparable. 558 The raccoon as an efficient destroyer of harmful grubs and insects is invaluable to agriculturists, and as a fur-bearer is of great worth to furriers if captured when the fur is prime; it has remained for the legisla- ture of the great State of Pennsylvania to classify the raccoon as a game animal, and to legalize its capture in September — at which time the fur is valueless — to grat- ify selfish Keystone "sports." In some parts of the country the raccoon is hunted by men, boys and dogs on all moonlight nights, and in defending itself is game to the last, but not in the sense comprehended by framers of game laws, most of which are strangely human in that they are "fearfully and wonderfully made." Kill- ing raccoon just to kill and calling it sport, is a perver- sion of terms outclassed only by the declaration that "war is a blessing in disguise." Some men count it sport to attend a hanging, wit- ness a prize fight, or view with delight a revolting battle to the death between two cocks; if these "sports" were autocrats, men, coons and birds would soon vanish from terra firma, and the only pleasure remaining for the sports would be the final sporty act of "dog eat dog." ^tr (Buxtin in. Hamtision We close the records with a brief reference to a man of vision, who knew his own times so well that he was able to clearly scan the age in advance, discern the needs of his immediate contemporaries, those just com- ing upon the scene, and the throng following; he was not only able to perceive, but was capable of devising, directing and executing methods of incomparable value and benefit to the fur trade at large. Curtis M. Lampson was born in New Haven, Ver- mont, in 1805; when a young man he sought and found employment in the fur business in New York, and proved so attentive and efficient that when an emergency arose he was chosen as the one best prepared to cope with the condition, and was despatched to London with all neces- sary authority in the matter. Mr. Lampson had the fur trade at heart, and in a short time developed plans, and interested capital, for having American raw furs sent to London in quantity to be attractively offered as a unit on specified dates, convenient alike to shippers and buy- ers, not at private sale but in public auction, in fair, open competition to merchants from all parts of the world. Mr. Lampson became a British subject, we believe, to more effectually carry out his plans, and in order to develop to the utmost American fur interests. He chose London as a permanent center of operation funda- mentally on account of the fact that he found men and commercial conditions there pronouncedly in harmony with his own character, mercantile instincts, and moral training in his boyhood home. He found London merchants absolutely honest, 560 ^ir £urtis( iW. Hamps^on SIR CURTIS M. LAMPSON 561 Strictly so in all their transactions; all dealings were "open and above board," and terms of sale and purchase were made known in detail in advance, and were adhered to, come weal or woe, without deviation; furthermore, he found the London merchants, and in the main those journeying thither to trade, absolutely honest in regard to their word ; they honored their word without a bond, rigidly and more definitely than mer- chants in some centers respect their signed, sealed and sworn statements. Mr. Lampson found London a mercantile field of greater breadth than any he had known, or of which he had entertained even vague conceptions; a mercantile and commercial center in which every commodity of utility, little or great and no matter where produced or originating, can be marketed at a consistent price. While it may be true that there are in London, as elsewhere, certain speculators in specialties, it is more noticeably true that there are in that great clearing mart specula- tors who will purchase any article found on earth, in or under the waters, because of their confidence that every- thing can be utilized somewhere. Furs beautiful or ugly, skins fully furred or furless, peltries regarded as undesirable in New York, rejected as temporarily "not in fashion" at Paris, and which meet with disfavor at Berlin, may be sold at a price to London speculators who make it their business to familiarize themselves with the many minor markets as well as the great commercial centers of the world. Mr. Lampson also found banking facilities excep- tionally favorable at London for creating and develop- ing his enterprise ; this fact was not only personally im- 562 SIR CURTIS M. LAMPSON portant, but was of incalculable advantage to all con- cerned, merchants and speculators, as London banks freely made advances on readily marketable goods of every description, wisely regarding such advances as specially desirable loans. Mr. Lampson, in brief, quickly sensed the fact that all essential conditions for building a permanent busi- ness of extreme worth to the fur trade abounded at Lon- don ; and consequently he at once laid the deep and broad foundations upon which he subsequently erected a super- structure of world-wide interest — the center of the fur trade of the universe. The public fur sales established in London by Mr. Lampson steadily advanced in magnitude and impor- tance, and in a very brief period practically all surplus collections of American raw furs were regularly for- warded to London to be marketed through the "Lamp- son Sales" ; shipments, however, were not limited to sur- plus lots, but included hundreds of bales just as they were received from country collectors. These skins were all assorted and graded in the London warehouse, and the "Lampson assortment" ranked as the standard, and was invariably found to be as represented in the catalogue. The management of the public sales was wise in detail; when the total receipts of any article sent for- ward for a particular sale definitely exceeded trade re- quirements under the existing conditions in leading mar- kets, instead of offering the entire supply regardless of the loss certain to be incurred by shippers in consequence of sharp declines, Mr. Lampson exercised a large meas- ure of discretion, and considerable quantities were with- SIR CURTIS M. LAMPSON 563 held from sale — the fact was not advertised, or even privately circulated among shippers or buyers. This is only one of many ways in which Mr. Lampson was in- strumental in placing a hitherto somewhat haphazard trade upon a sound business basis, and a higher plane than others deemed attainable. As general interest increased, the scope of the sales was greatly enlarged; their importance was augmented by the inclusion of European furs, and then Australian peltries, and in due course skins from Asia, South Amer- ica, Africa, and the islands of the sea, including upwards of 250,000 fur seal skins per annum for the full period of the catch at its maximum quantity. It is not strange that this world-war, which closed London as a market of supply and interchange to so large a part of the civilized universe, paralyzed the fur trade for many weary months — and that recovery is as yet only a hope. Mr. Lampson rendered valuable assistance in mak- ing the Atlantic cable a certainty, and was noticeably broad minded and public spirited. England, in recogni- tion of his worth, conferred upon him the title of baronet. We regret our inability to present a later photo- graph of Sir Curtis M. Lampson. One was mailed to us in London, but was withdrawn by the Censor. We are indebted to A. V. Eraser, Esq., New York, for photograph shown. MEMO. Daniel Leonard, see page 342, died October 26, 191 7, at Richmond, while on his way to Florida. Born October 3, 1839. Tables appended show the offerings of raw furs at the several sales, Messrs. C. M. Lampson & Co., and the Hudson's Bay Company, and concerns of later date, held in London by decades for one hundred years, 1813 to 191 2; all the years from the middle of the eighteenth century might be given, but space will not permit; the record closes with 1912 owing to the fact that reliable statistics cannot be given for a later date on account of bad business conditions in 1913 to 1915, causing many thousands of skins to be withdrawn from one sale to be offered in another, and still later sales, no record of the total number thus manipulated being available. Table I. Badger Bear Beaver Cat, House Cat, Wild Chinchilla Ermine Deer and Elk Fisher Fox Fur Seal Hair Seal Lynx Marten Mink Monkey, African Musk Ox Muskrat Opossum, American . . Opossum, Australian.. Otter, Land Otter, Sea Rabbit Raccoon Skunk Squirrel Wolf Wolverine 1813 1823 1833 1843 884 8,307 4,748 22,698 11,246 88,738 56,923 60,335 51,196 * 3,221 88,456 37,290 48,443 159,300 124,700 2,616 4,765 6,896 9,294 7,072 23,190 70,262 66,224 * 4,167 ii.iie 17.866 13,321 10,981 89,112 71,418 108,215 746 28,698 99,742 134,240 148,379 258,662 160,846 772,447 10,921 11,164 11,685 14,476 2,506 970 1,000 1,500 1,096 80,034 365,387 394,372 6,480 416 2,967 12,793 963 684 248 1,228 564 TABLES 565 Table II. 1853 1863 1873 1883 Badger 955 1,295 1,563 745 Bear 10,774 10,552 12,983 12,088 Beaver 63,902 136,760 169,149 152,725 Cat, House Cat, Wild 5,426 5,355 13,670 7,094 Chinchilla 48,970 37,785 20,560 25,953 Ermine Deer and Elk 88,841 3,100 8,857 Fisher 8,802 8,079 6,627 6,488 Fox 82,905 84,400 111,223 122,821 Fur Seal 2,714 27,986 171,569 171,336 Hair Seal 1,750 16,692 8,776 1,895 Lynx 5,578 7,810 7,280 11,460 Marten .- 101,024 127,310 93,212 104,506 Mink 232,791 93,240 107,015 179,950 Monkey, African 17,686 32,800 23,430 60,541 Musk Ox Muskrat 1,800,402 2,322,19* 2,600,869 3,031,948 Opossum, American.. 54,407 89,579 250,464 183,160 Opossum, Australian.. 313,339 934,950 Otter, Land 15,626 21,885 16,913 15,912 Otter, Sea 3,005 5,090 5,679 Rabbit 82,430 39,300 6,450 13,600 Raccoon 508,542 478,514 462,516 401,890 Skunk 6,459 99,611 262,472 586,242 Squirrel Wolf 7,228 8,203 9,228 2,142 Wolverine 1,104 1,374 1,891 1,842 Table III. 1893 1903 1912 Badger 33,074 10,842 23,415 Bear 29,457 33,987 21,172 Beaver 95,009 77,646 60,949 Cat, House 70,001 61,831 120,452 Cat, Wild 4,010 20,028 25,479 Chinchilla 172,048 153,180 27,911 Ermine 6,501 123,915 Deer and Elk Fisher 7,675 7,003 2,737 Fox 225,149 162,250 213,900 Fur Seal 71,333 158,010 26,619 Hair Seal 4,496 16,674 100 Lynx 13,759 14,091 12,573 Marten 109,314 152,214 55,394 Mink 300,541 253,938 158,940 Monkey, African 123,583 113,583 6,032 Musk Ox 871 1,271 292 Muskrat 3,067,850 3,792,363 5,099,072 Opossum, American ' 371,196 170,708 1,386,410 1863 1873 1883 ,945,990 3,151,125 2,151,041 13,011 22,109 24,911 1,600 450 50,242 555,495 273,236 313,669 555,166 939,797 1,527,771 136,236 130,759 280,000 22,642 29,494 126,223 800 949 2,088 43,310 157,050 566 TABLES Opossum, Australian 1,945,990 Otter, Land Otter Sea Rabbit Raccoon Skunk Squirrel Wolf Wolverine Civet Cat During the past twenty-five or thirty years several articles, in addition to those given in the tables, have been sent forward to the London Sales from time to time, latterly with fair regularity, to meet the constantly enlarging demand for fur. Offerings of this character for one year, 1912, are appended : Kitt Fox 48,096 Mole 385,593 Russian Sable 4,357 Marmot 24,500 Fitch 1,925 Kolinsky 28,168 Stone Marten 2,874 Dog 8,600 Hare 2,111 Persian Lamb 4,000 Polar Bear 113 Squirrel 280,000 Wombat 8,661 Wallaby 1,258,000 Australian Fox 164,565 Kangaroo 24,725 Chinese skins as follows: Fox 10303, mink 69,886, marmot 65,329, civet 7,942, otter 505, kolinsky 64,595, raccoon 77,288, kid 180,685, red fox 16,530, white rabbit 62,380, moufflon 12,894, dog 47,730, wild cat 774, wolf 1,796, sable 2,109, Thibet lamb 43,505, Thibet robes and crosses 2,862, Mongolian lamb 705, dog robes 758, deer rugs 22,221, black goat skins 141,911, grey goat skins 41,649, white goat skins 31,372, mixed gcat skins 2,985, and small lots of tiger, leopard, civet and house cat skins. and sheep rugs. jFinig Each generation is wont to regard its own particu- lar period of activity in commercial and mercantile affairs as selfish and evil in detail past precedent ; but the confirmed records of the passing years impress the con- viction that yesterday was more evil than to-day. Co- operation is steadily outflanking untoward competition; devious practices are increasingly giving place to moral methods in merchandising, local, national and inter- national; the march of the legions in trade and com- merce is definitely forwarded from the better, already FINIS 567 compassed, to the best, which is being progressively attained. The American Fur Trade is progressing, unfolding, expanding, because it is intensely alive. Fur serves man successively through each of the "seven stages" of expanding experience, from bud to fruition; and on the beginning of the eighth relieves by a touch of silent beauty the deepening shadows clustering the exit gate of earthly hopes. The infant in its carriage is carefully protected, not only from "every stormy wind that blows," but from genial zephyrs, with a robe of softest fur ; and onward through all the allotted years, until the autumnal frosts their withering work perform, fur most delightfully comforts, shields and pro- tects; and finally in the prescribed undertakers' rug of purple, black, white, gold or grey, fur is laid beneath the casket of kindred color over which chants and sighs commingle in an enforced farewell. The untutored Indian dreams of happy hunting grounds, where game abounds, and the chase will be crowned with unvarying success; the trapper, who is that and nothing more, indulges in visions of a material- istic Eden in which sables exceed the sands in number, and every fox is black ; and fur-bearers, wild and domes- ticated, doubtless revel in dreamy forecasts of brilliant landscapes, gurgling brooks and placid lakes where they shall enjoy surcease from woeful worry in abiding amity. Spiritualized man, in his best estate, daily lives anew in far grander visions, and moves in majestic hope toward a destiny in nowise comparable to aught he now knows — not present conditions vastly improved, but a change in scene and self transcending knowledge before which vaunting imagination "pales its ineffectual fires." INDEX TO PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Alaskan Trophies Frontispiece American Indian 5 Astor, John Jacob — Portrait opp. 32 Australian Opossum 394 Aviation 181 Badger Head 246 Beaver 59-255 Bear Head 398 Becker, O. Godfrey— Portrait opp. 208 Bison, American 219 Bison Hide, Indian Art 376 Black Cat 244 Black Colobus 441 Blustein. David — Portrait, opp. 216 Bossak, Joseph M — Portrait opp. 336 Bow and Arrow 476 Bow and Arrow Case 41 Chemidlin, Jean B.— Portrait. 294 Chinchilla 379 Civet Cat Skin 213 Columbus Ship 110 Coney 420 Cougar Head 479 Coypu 381 Coyote Head 455 Dog Train 232 Emblem, Eagles 12 Ermine 402 Eskimo Dog 168 Eskimo Head and Hood 397 Eskimo Quiver 43 Fashion 183-184 Fennec 436 First Railway Train 112 First Shanty at St. Paul 94 Fisher 244 Flying Squirrel 392 Fox, Blue 126 Fox, Red 252 Fox Set 400 Fresh Water Pond, N. Y. City. 58 Fur Seal 134, 136 Fur Seal Skin, Natural 140 Fur Set 373 Hamster 414 Herzig, George Bernard — Por- trait opp. 224 litis 412 Indian 5 Indian Arrow 11 Indian Fur Dressing Tools... 363 Indian Head 40 Interior of Fur Trading Store. 237 Kangaroo 391 Kolinsky 424 Lion Head 387 Lady Hudson Seal 187 Lampson, Sir Curtis M. — Por- trait opp. 560 Leopard 437 Liberty 351 Lynx 242 Lynx Skin, raw, cased 21 Madame Mink 184 Map, Alaska 120 Manne, Solomon J. — Portrait opp. 512 Marmot 413 Marten 241 Mink 191 Mischo, Hugo J. — Portrait opp. 312 Miss Black Muskrat 187 Mississippi Steamer 1850 87 Mole 388 Monjo, Nicolas F. — Portrait... 302 Moose Head 75 Musk Ox Head 249 Mountain Lion Head 479 Muskrat 37, 205 Muskrats at Home 207 568 INDEX TO PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 569 Nutria 381 Old Indians, Hudson's Bay District 238 Opossum, American 38-210 Opossum, Australian 394 Otter 240 Otter Skin, raw, cased 378 Panther Head 479 Pardine Lynx 409 Pekan 244 Persian Lamb 447 Perwitsky 425 Pfaelzer, Morris F. — Portrait opp. 272 Platypus 390 Polecat— litis 412 Prong Horned Antelope 370 Puma Head 479 Raccoon 202 Raccoon Face 353 Raccoon Head 271 Raccoon Heads and Raw Skin, open 204 Raccoon Skin, raw, cased 85 Raccoon Tracks 167 Red Fox Head 261 Reddy Fox 173 Ringtails 214 Russian Pony 406 Ruszits, John — Portrait ... opp. 320 Saint Paul 1853 92 Saint Paul Island 127 Sable, Russian 401 Schreiber, Milton — Portrait, opp. 288 Sea Otter 189 Seal Killing Station 141 Seal of Raw Fur Merchants' Association 51 Seals of New York City 47-49 Sheep 470 Skunk 198 Sledding in Alaska 567 Snow Leopard 426 Squirrel 404 Steiner, David — Portrait, .opp. 178 Steiner, Joseph — Portrait, opp. 176 Strange Seals 154 Tiger 558 Tiger Head 430 Tottie in Fur 69 Tracks 335 Trading Post, Isle la Crosse.. 233 Trading Post, Slave Lake 236 Trapper, The 162 Trappers' Train 162 Traps 164 Treaty Hall 30 Uncle 439 Weasel 429 Weinberg, Philip — Portrait... 332 White Fox 254 White Raccoon opp. 256 Wild Cat and Doe 211 Wolf 417 Wolf and Bear 66 Wolverine 247 Wombat 393 York Factory opp. 256 CONTENTS Aboriginal Fur Dressing Tools Aborigines Master Tanners... Achan, a type Adam and Eve Adams, T. W Adams, Udelmer C Adams Co., Udelmer C Advances Due to Fashion Africa 435-456 African Civet African Fur-Bearers African Hunters Alaska 118-137-452 Alaska Commercial Co. 121-131-138-139 Alaska, Fur-Bearers in 125 Alaska Fur Seal Skins Alaska Fur Seals, latest statis- tics Alaska Fur Shipments, 1874.. Alaska Fur Shipments, 1911.125- Alaska Indians 495- Alaska Trading Posts Albany 72-115-116-233- Albinos 221- Albrecht, Ernst Albrecht, O. E. Aleuts Earnings , . . Aleuts 139-140 Alligator Skins America, Origin of Name American Designers 187 American Fur-Bearers 188 American Fur Co. 26-30-33-36-39-90-297-301 American Sable American Squirrels American Stag Ames William Ancient Catalogue Angora Goats Angora Shawls Animals Completely Eaten. 501- Animals in Bible Lands 361 Annis, Newton 74 354 Anteater 640 34 Antelope 458 6 Antelope Skins 293 274 Ape 523 345 Apparel, Everything Used 9 346 Arbitration, Fur Seal 133 185 Archangel 405 .527 Arctic Circle 238-452 433 Arctic Fox 252-396-523-526 435 Arctic Wolves 455 435 Art Preservative 370 528 Artists' Brushes, Making, . .486-489 Asch & Jaeckel 325-347 292 Ashley, William 82 •127 Asia . 423-426-448-453-454-456 257 Asia Minor 424 Asiatic Peltries 382-423-433 j^47 Assee 436 gg Associated Fur Manufacturers, 126 ^"^ ^^ 52g Astor John Jacob J2J 25-26-28-30-32-36-301 ggg Astor, John Jacob, Chief Source of Wealth 36 Astoria 34-35-297-301 Astor's Account Books 28 Astrachan Lambs 423-447 Atlantic Cable 387 536 96 96 148 -506 2»g Auction Sale, New York, Oc- ^^ tober, 1917 350 onA Auction Sales, New York 158 ggg Auction Sales, Saint Louis.... 84 Australia 390-527 Australia, Natives of 527 Australia, Topsy-Turvy 523 Australian Bear 391 ■477 199 404 45g Australian Monkey 391 318 Australian Oppossum 393 270 Australian Sloth 391 456 Automobile Furs 223 456 Aviation 181 502 Awards Columbian Exposition 117 504 Baby Carriage Robes 424 570 CONTENTS 571 Backus, Henry L 308 Backus, M. M. 308 Backus, Nichols & Co 308 Backus, Osborne & Co 308 Badger 246-400-493-505-507 Badger Skin 464-465 Baker, J. G 220 Balance in Animal Life 520 Balch, Price & Co 105-345 Baldwin Bleecker 309 Baldwin, Edward E 309 Baltic Seal 155-156 Baltimore 340 Barbarous Hunters 10 Baron de Courcel 133 Barr, Arthur L 104 Barter 23'231-256-443 Baruch, George J 327 Basch, Herman 368 Bassett, J. C 105 Bates C. Frances 31-100-101 Bates, Charles S 100-101 Bates, Martin 100-101 Bates, Jr., Martin 100-101 Bay of Fundy 458 Bayer, Adolph 275 Bayer, Brothers 274 Beads and Trinkets 15-23-42-62-80-90-158 Bear, Black 452-525-537-544 Bear, Brown 453 Bear, Cinnamon 452 Bear, Cub 452 Bear Diet , 537 Bear Galls 557 Bear, Grizzly 453 Bear, Polar 70-126-397-452-506-526-534-539 Bear Skins, Uses 453 Bears 452-521 Bears' Grease 502-557 Bears in Alaska 126 Beaver 165-166- 194-400-507-526-529-544-548-554 Beaver Castors 557 Beaver Cheeks 498 Beaver, Chief Source of Supply 239 Beaver Colonies 529 Beaver, Cut Fur 498 Beaver Dam 529-549 Beaver, General Mechanic 629 Beaver, Golden 196 Beaver as Fur and Food 194 Beaver in Germany 197 Beaver in Private Park 197 Beaver Lodge or House, 530-544-549 Beaver, Skinning the 195 Beaver Tail 507-526 Beaver Teeth and Feet 526 Beaver Trapping 194 Beaver, Winter Food 530 Beaver Skin, Weight 195 Beaver Worshipped 495 Beaver Skins, Prices Raw 1916 258 Beaver Skins, "Properly Han- dled" 195 Beaver Skins, Plucking 364 Beaver Skins Standard of Ex- change M7 Beaver Standard of Value 491 Becker, A. E 208 Becker, M. W 208 Becker O. Godfrey 208 Becker, S. Max 208 Beer 548 Beldamers 264 Belden, Paul 51 Belt, Washington 290-295 Belt & Butler 290-299 Benedict, L 342 Benedict, Muller 342 Bennett, Henry 275 Bering Island 151 Bering Vitus 118-149 Berlin 374 Biehlow, Charles 89 Biehlow, Robert 89 Bird Nests 532-534 Bird Skins 467-468 672 CONTENTS Bird, Wounded or Dead 518 Bishoprick, N. J 309 Bison, American ...90-165-219-293 Bison, Collection 1878-1886... 220 Bison in Texas 219 Bison and Civilization 220 Bison, White Skin Sacred 466 Black Bear "Sheds" Twice 452 Black Beaver 255 Black Coney 419 Black Cat 244 Black Cololus 441 Black Marten 199 Black Wolves 455 Blankets vs. Peltries 80 Bleaching 365 Blending 360 Blended Fur 193 Blosveren, Baron 310 Blosveren, Benjamin 310 Blosveren, Moss 310 Blue Backs 264 Blue Pelts and Shedders. . .352-353 Blustein, David 216 Blustein, Isadore 216 Board of Trade of the Fur In- dustry 55 Board of Trade, Officers of. . . 55 Board of Trade, Organizations Embraced 55 Bolles & Rogers 91 Borden, Lewis M 325 Booss, Frederick 310 Booss, George 310 Bones ^ 502 Borup, Theodore 96 Boskowitz, A 91-279-290 Boskowitz, Ignatz 290 Boskowitz, Joseph. . ,91-220-279-290 Boskowitz, Leopold 131-290 Bossak, Arnold H 336 Bossak, Joseph M 336 Boston 99 Boughton, Ezra W 343 Boughton, E. C 276-292 Bovine Hair 500 Bow and Arrow Case 42 Bowsky, Adolph 366 Bowsky, Max 366 Boxer Uprising in China 429 Brain Dressing 357 Branding Seals 142 Brands and Trade Marks 371 Bristles 499 Brown Coney 419 Breeding in Captivity 266-267 Bresslcr, Henry 306 Briefner, Louis 295 Bright Eyes 520 Broadtail 423 Bromley, Henry A 100 Brook Mink 46 Brown Coney 419 Brushes 485 Brush-Dyed Skins 359 Bryan, John 115 Buckskin 503 Buckskin, Imitation of Cha- mois 459 Bucktail Party 25 Buenos Aires Lamb Skins 448 Buffalo 220-292-449-495 Buffalo Coats 451 Buffalo Herds in Captivity . . . 452 Buffalo Hides, Dressed by Squaws 451 Buffalo Hides in Canada 451 Buffalo Hides for Gloves 459 Buffalo Hides, Last Collection 450 Buffalo Hides Smoked 451 Buffalo Robe 451 Buffalo Robes 29, 31, 292, 299 Buffalo Robes, Final Receipts at New York 450-451 Buffalo Robes, First and Last Prices 451 Buffalo Robes, First White Man Dressed 293 Buffalo Robes, "Indian Han- dled" 451 CONTENTS 678 Buffalo Robes, "Whiteman Dressed" 451 Buhl, Frederick 72 Buhl, Walter 72 Buhl, Newland & Co 74 Builders 529 Bulls 494-510 Burglars and Thieves 472 Burkhardt, A. E 348 Burkhardt, Carl 348 Burnett, W. J 98 Butler, Elliott L 290 Butler, Howard L 290 Butter Used in Fur Dressing. . 355 By-Products 501-503 Caama 436 Cain 14 Calf Skins 503-510 Canada 231-249 Canada, Early Trade 231 Canadian Manufacturers 239 Canadian Sealers 144 Canine Spirits 169 Cannon 258 Canoes 27-87-234 Cap of Maintenance 463 Cape Flattery 151 Cape Horn 150 Cape of Good Hope 151-438 Cape Town '. 456 Caracal 424 Caracul, Caracool 423 Caribou 459-507 Carnivorous Animals 519 Carroting 496-497 Carts 27 Carver, Captain 82 Cased % 471 Castillo Islands 150 Cat, Domestic 415-429-508-543-554-557 Cat Fur, Sundry .Names 415 Cat Fur, Uses 416 Cats, Good and Evil Spirits... 495 Cat Skins Bartered at Fairs... 416 Cat Skins Dyed at Leipzig 416 Centennial Exposition 117 Central America 230 Chamois 503 Chances 64-65 Chapal Freres & Co. C. & E.. 36^ Charter Members Raw Fur Dealers Association State of New York 110 Charter Members Raw Fur Merchants Association City of New York 53 Chase, James 115 Chemidlin, Jean B 281-294-303 Cheesbrough, Robert 115 Chetah 539 Chicago 90-291-305-450 Children Coney Sewers 421 China 118-119-149 189-293-424-427-500-508-526 China, Furs Generally Worn.. 428 China, Loot by Allies 429 China, Trade With Russia and Siberia 427 Chinchilla 225-378 Chinchilla Breeding 380 Chinchilla Habitat 380 Chinchilla Skins, London 1883. 379 Chinchilla Skins, Prices 1883.. 379 Chinchillas Protected to 1922. 380 Chinese Dog Skins 279-293 Chinese Expert Fur Dressers and Dyers 431 Chinese Export Trade 432 Chinese Goat Skins 456 Chinese Goat Plates and Robes 293 Chinese Manipulated Sable 428 Chinese Merchants Alert 428 Chonart, Medard 231 Chouteau, Jr., Charles P 31 Chouteau, Pierre 29-294 Cilley, John K 295 Cilley, Joseph L 295 Cimiotti, Ferdinand 152 Cimiotti, Gustave 152 574 CONTENTS Civet, African 433-436 Civet Cat 212 Civet Cat Skin 213 Civet, Chinese 430 Clagg, William M 278 Clark, Jr., Louis 233 Claws 502 Clawson, J. V 304 Clipping 344 Coachmen's Capes 438 Coat of Arms, Characteristic 524-528 Cohn, Leo L 339 Cold Storage 111-509 Collections Sent to Holland. .18-19 Colobus, Black 441 Color 531 Color and Environment 533 Colt 504 Color and Motion 532 Color of Birds' Eggs 533 Columbia River 35 Columbian Exposition 117-316 Columbus, Christopher 16 Combinations 61-62-81 Combing ,. 356 Commodore Warren 292 Comparative Values 481-483 Competition 61, 235, 373 Conies 504 Coney Breeding in France 418 Coney Dyers, Belgian 420 Coney Dyers, French 419 Coney Dyers, German 411 Coney Dyers, Lissa 420 Coney Flesh as Food 418 Coney Imitations 359-420-421 Coney Fur in Hat Making 418 Coney Linings for Boots, etc. . 421 Coney Lining Plates 421 Coney Linings, Three Classes. 421 Coney, Natural 419 Coney Sewing by Children... 421 Coney Sewers at Lissa.. 421 Coney Skins Collected in France 418 Conies, Belgian 420 Conies, French, Colors 418 Conies, German 415-420 Conies, Polish 420 Conies, "Russian" 421 Conies, "Shocks" 420 Conies, Spanish 420 Council, John 290 Consumer Pays the Duty 172 Consumption of Furs in Can- ada 239 Consumption of Furs 1856.... 46 Contraband 143 Cook, Captain James 148 Copenhagen 397 Cooper, John M 110-345 Copper Island 151 Copper Island Fur Seals 147 Corbett, John N 344 Coronation Robes 403-460 Cotrell, Edgar 342 Cotrell, Joshua 342 Cotrell & Leonard 343 Cow Skins 458-510 Cox, Ernest C 123 Coyote 455 Coypu 380-498-506 Coypu, Attempt to Acclimatize 382 Coypu Hunting Season 381 Coypu Killed by Soldiers 381 Coypu Skins Sold by Weight.. 381 Cradle to Grave 565 Crimea Lamb Skins 448 Criminals Conditionally Par- doned 454 Crooks, Ramsey 39-297-301 Crosett Island 149 Crowdus, J. C 87 Crowns 403-462 Crusoe and Friday 518 Customs Rulings 172 Cut Fur 495-500 Cut Fur, Classification 497 CONTENTS 575 Cut Fur, Differences 498 Cut Fur, Marks 499 Cutting 497 Cutting Skins 496 Czar's Robe at London 461 Dacosta, W. P 309 Dale, W. B 108 Danish Merchants 396 Dark Eyes 520 Davis, John 339 Davis, Law 143 Daughter of the American Revolution 31 De Comeau, Olivier 296 Deer Horns 558 De Saible, Jean Baptiste 90 Deer Hair 499 Deer River 233 Deerskin Money 490 Deer Sacred in Japan 433-527 Deer Skins 83-230-292-296-458-503-558 Deer Tails 25 Deer, Virginia 459 Demarest, G. L 105 Deodorizing Skunk Fur. . .200-366 Designers, A Limit 187 Desolation Island 148 Detroit 72 Differences, Color and Value. . 24 Dingo, Wild Dog or Wolf 392 Dodd, Horace 102 Dog 168-504-515-559 Dog Skin Coats 457 Dog Skins 293-457 Doppelschreinge 421 Doughty Trappers 77 Down 501 Dressed, Then Dyed 356 Dressers and Dyers 366 Dressers' and Dyers' Board of Trade 369 Dressing Deodorizes Fur 355 Dressing Renders Leather Pliant 355 Dry Goods Firms Buy Furs.. 318 Drummers' Samples 475 Duckbill 390 Duke of Albemarle . . ." 255 Duke of York 19-255 Dutch Cats 422 Dutch Moles 422 Dutch Traders 18 Dyeing 358 Dyeing and Blending 358 Dyeing, Brushed On 359 Dyeing Develops Beauty and Value 358 Dyeing, Dipping in Dye 359 Dyeing Fancy Colors 359 Dyeing Formulas Secret 358 Dyeing in United States 358 Dyeing Superstition 360-361 Ear of the Ox 488 Earl of Arlington 255 Earl Craven 255 Early Colonists 17 Early History 12-21 Early Mediums of Exchange.. 62 Early Traders 22 Early Seal Dressing and Dye- ing 115 Ears 518 Ears, Mobile 518-520 Ears, Rabbit and Lynx 519 East India Company 427 Easter Fair at Leipzig 412 Eichorn, John 103 Eider Down 396-397-468 Einstein, Moses 326 Eisenbach Bros. & Co 50 Eisenbauer, William 278 Electric Seal 155-419 Elk, Habitat 458 Elk Skins 255-293-408-458 Ely, Moses 316 Empress Josephine 461 Empress of Austria 461 Empress of China 461 Engaging an Interpreter 81-82 576 CONTENTS Enlisting 78-80 English Colonies 17 English Lambskins 448 English Names of Fur-Bear- ers 218 Environment 531-532-534 English Regiments 453 Ermine 402-460-464 Ermine Tails 403 Ermine Trapping for Royalty. 460 Esau 22-555 Eskimo 397-505-506-522-528 Eskimo Animalistic 524 Eskimo Couch 468 Eskimo Men and Women Dress Alike 468 Eskimo Quiver 43 Eskimo Women Prepare Furs 467 Eskimo Wolf Dog 455 Eskimos Excel in Fur Dressing 354 Europe 399-450-454 European Lynx 416 Evolution 392-438-493-494 Exodus, Colored Skins 358 Eyes 516-545 Eyes, Colors of 516 Eyes of Eagle, Hawk and Vul- ture 517 Fairs 427-442 Fairs, Precaution Against Fire 443 Falkland Islands 150 False Prophets' Apparel 465 Fancy Colors 359-374 Fartar Sable 424 Fashion 182 Fashion Changes Frequently.. 185 Fashion Rules 186-202-207-361 Fashions' Decrees 186 Fat 502 Favre Theodore 366 Fawn 449-468 Feathers 500-501 Feet 516-523-524 Feline 415-538 Fennec 254-436 Ferguson, Paul R 95-96 Fertilizer 503 Fifty Below Zero 398 Films 503 Finger Prints 513 Finis 564-565 First Active Sense 514-520 First Fur Coats 7 Fisher 244-245 Fishing Birds 540 Fitch 400-413 Flag on Seal Islands 71 Flaxman Dana 334 Fleet, William H 279 Flippers 505-523 Flour, Used in Fur Dressing. . 556 Flying Squirrel 395- Foot Prints 516-517 Foreign Furs Inhibited in Eng- land 385 Foreign Trade 58 Fort Anderson 43 Fort Benton 101-220-299 Fort Concho 220 Fort Dearborn 90 Fort Griffin 220 Fort Henry 39 Fort Laramie 82-83 Fort McLeod 38 Fort Pierre Chouteau 29-31 Fort Rice lOl Fort Snelling 29 Fort Tecumseh 29 Fort Union 31-101 Fort William 83 Forts 37-258 Forty Beaver Skins 19 Foster, Jr., Hull 348 Foster, H. Z 346 Foul Cat 412 Foul Martin 412 Fox . . .237-504-505-517-528-535-539- 549-552-553-656 Fox and Ptarmigan 535 Fox, Black 251 CONTENTS 677^ Fox, Blue 122-125-251-396 Fox Breeding 267 Fox, Criss 126-252 Fox Evolution and Apothcsis. 493 Fox Flesh as Food 505 Fox Fur, Uses of 254 Fox, Grey 253 Fox, Kitt or Swift 254 Fox, Most Numerous 253 Fox Red 253 Fox, Siberian Black 433 Fox, Silver 125-251 Fox, White 122-125-251-396 Fox, Yellow 254 Fox Skins, Values, 1912 125 Fox Tricks 513-550-551-552 Foxes 250-524-536 Foxes Everywhere 254 Foxes, Colors in Litter 14-536 France 416-456 Franchere Gabriel. .263-294-296-303 Eraser, Alfred 298 French at St. Lawrence River. 20 French Mink 46 French Names of Fur-Bearers 218 French Sable 199-475 French Seal 155 Frobisher, Benjamin 234 Frobisher, Joseph 234 Fuchs, Karl 311 Funsten Bros. & Co 83-84 Fur and Hair, Distinction 473 Fur Apparel in Russia 408 Fur-Bearers, Canada 237 Fur-Bearers, Characters 524 Fur-Bearers Differ 24 Fur-Bearers Endure Cold and Heat 521-522 Fur-Bearers Nocturnal 9-528 Fur-Bearers, United States... 23 Fur-Bearers, Source of Mystery 510 Fur-Brokers 85 Fur Cash 490-492 Fur Clothing 466-470 Fur Dressers and Dyers 366 Fur Dressers' and Dyers' Board of Trade 369 Fur Dressing 354-358 Fur Dressing, First Done by Women 354 Fur Dressing Preceded Civil- ization 354 Fur Dressing, Where Conduct- ed 357 Fur Dyeing 358 Fur Emporium, The 234 Fur-Felt Hat Making 495-499 Fur Felt 473 Fur Food 504-508 Fur Gloves 458 Fur and Hair, Differences. .362-364 Fur Headwear 408 Fur Industry Fascinating 469 Fur Laws, Alaska 166 Fur Laws, Canada 166 Fur Laws Should Be En- forced 166 Fur Manufacturers, Number.. 45 Fur Merchants 274-307 Fur Merchants' Credit Asso- ciation 50-114 Fur Merchants of New York. 45 "Fur News" Quotations ...481-483 Fur Petticoats 408 Fur Pieces 503 Fur Poor Conductor of Heat 525-526 Fur Seal 134-539-555 Fur Seal as Food 506 Fur Seal Avoids Ice 135 Fur Seal, Catch 1870-1889 139 Fur Seal, Closed Killing Sea- son 147 Fur Seal, Color 136 Fur Seal, Cost to Lessees 139 Fur Seal Dyeing. .115-116-117-359- 360-361-367-368 Fur Seal, Habits of 137 Fur Seal, Latin Names 155 Fur Seal, Mysterious Migration 137 678 CONTENTS Fur Seal, Number of 146 Fur Seal, Old Males Fast 135 Fur Seal Oil 507 Fur Seal Period for Killing... 140 Fur S^eal, Profits of Lessees... .140 Fur Seal Rookeries 148 Fur Seal Sales, Dates 386 Fur Seal Skins, Plucking. . .364-365 Fur Seal Skins, Prices 1910- 1913 .' 124-125 Fur Seal Skins Rejected 146 Fur Seals 119-121-432 Ft^r Seals, Russian Catch 150 Fur Seals, Winter Home 137 Fur Trade, The Term 15 Fur Traders 40-41 Fur Trading, England and Russia 385 Fur Wearers, Asia 423 Fur Wearers, Percentage of.. 374 Fur Wearing Restricted 385 Furrier 175 Furriers Patron Saints 371 Furry Coats 525-529-536 Furry Felt 522 Furs and Peltries, Trade Terms 470 Furs and Stocks 45 Furs Exchanged for Silk and Tea 427 Furs in Heraldry 462-463 Furs in Lieu of Fire 428 Furs Medium of Exchange 278 Furs Reserved to Royalty.... 468 Furs Universally Popular 469 Furs, Uses of by Indians 42 Furs Worn by Nobles 468 Furs Worn by Titled Persons 468 Furs Worn by the Wealthy... 468 Galigher, John 342 Galigher, Louis C 342 Galloway 510 Galloway Coats 510 Galls 502 Gauchos 381 Gaudig & Blum, G.. 113-280-294-347 Geese Skins 428 General Appraisers 171 Genesis 5 Genet 416-435 George, Edwin S 74 Georger, Louis F 316 German Names of Fur-Bearers 218 Germany 410 Germany, Fur-Bearers 410 Giants and Pigmies 527 Ginseng 217 Glanz, Charles 91 Glove Stock 457 Gloves, Furs Used 458 Glue 503 Glutton 247 Goats 456-526-555 Goats, Angora 456 Goats, Chinese 456 Goats, Rocky Mountain. . .456-459 Goat Skin Plates 457 Goat Skins 293-503-504 Goat Skins, As Imitations 457 Goat Skins Dyed at Lyons 456 Goat Skins Dyed in United States 457 Goat Skins Tanned in China.. 457 Goat Skins, Uses of 457 God Did Not Make a Monkey in Order to Create a Man.. 440 Goge, John J 86 Gold Medals, Paris 310-316 Gold Medals, Philadelphia 117 Good Luck 66 Goodman, Emil 334 Goose 172 Goose Farms 422 Gordon, C. W 95 Gordon, Richard 95 Gordon & Ferguson 95 Government Engages in Seal- ing 123 Government Buyers of Furs. . . 511 Grabowsky, John Rudolph . . . 347 Grabowsky, William 347 CONTENTS 579 Grading 227 Graft in China 429 Grand Prize Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition 313 Crasser, John C 367 Great Britain 384-523 Great Britain, Fur-Bearers Ex- terminated 385 Great Britain, Prominence in Fur Trade 385 Great Britain, Urged to Pur- chase Russian-America 259 Great Loft Buildings 375 Greely Expedition 398 Greenfield, David 311 Greenland 262-396-397 Green Skins 472 Greenewald, Simon 131 Gregory, John 234 Grinnell Land 398 Ground Hog 537 Gouse and Weasel 534 Gunther, Christian G 315 Gunther, Ernest R 315 Gunther, Francis Frederick . . 316 Gunther, Franklin L 315 Gunther, John Charles 316 Gunther, William Henry 316 Haas Leopold 317 Habbert, C. H. , . ! 278-299 Hair 474 Hair Seal Leather 266 Hair Seal Oil 262-264 Hair Seal Skins 458 Hair Seal, Weight of Young . . 264 Hair Sealing, Catch Regulated 264 Hair Sealing, Dangers of 265 Hair Sealing, Division of Prof- its 265 Hair Sealing, Killing Cruel... 265 Hair Seals 263-266-396-505-539 Hair Seals, Descriptive Names 262 Hair Seals Born on Ice Fields 263 Hair Seals, First Catch 263 Hair Seals, in Arctics 266 Hair Seals, in White Sea 265 Hair Seals, Method of Capture 264 Hair Seals, Number of 263 Hair Skin Shakos 454 Hair Seals, Time Born 263 Hairs 499 Half- Persians 447 Halle Brothers 343 Halsey, John C 35 Hamster Linings 414 Hamilton, L. A 325 Hamster Killed to Recover Buried Grain 413 Hamster Burrows 413 Hamster 413-505 Hamster Oddly Marked 413 Hamster Plates 414 Hansen, John E 105 Harbor Seals 262 Hare and Rabbit Skins 296 Hares 408-414-423-432-433-435- 506-519-551 Hares as Food and Clothing.. 433 Hare's Foot 556 Hares' Fur as Imitations. .405-433 Hares in Scotland 415 Harp Seal 262 Harris, B 83 Harris, Henry 317 Harris & Russak 310-317 Hart, Taylor & Co 220 Hartman, Otto 74 Hartz Mountains 413 Hatters Chief Retailers of Furs 317-318 Hatters' Fur 496-499 Hawk 517-539 Hawley, A. F 31 Heads 489 Heads, Artificial 489 Heilbronner, Alexander 326 Henry, Alexander 27 Heron 517 Herpich, Charles A 299 Herskovitz, Albert 281 680 CONTENTS Herskovitz, Max 281 Herskovitz & Roth 281 Herx, F. Theodore 318 Herzig, George Bernard 224 Herzig, Simon 224 Hibernating, The Reason 525 Hibernators 537 Hill, G. H 313 Hillis, Edward W 91 Hoenck, Richard P 347 Hoenigsberger, A 91 Hoenigsberger, Dave 91 Hoenigsberger, Harry L 91 Hoffman, Joshua 100 Holland 422 Hollander, A 369 Hollander & Son, A. 369 Hollander, Michael 369 Honorable Mention 341-348 Hooded Seal 263 Hops 547 Horns and Hoofs 522 Horse and Colt Skins 458-510 House Cat 215 House Cat Everywhere 215 House Cat Fur, Where Used. 215 Houses in Trees 531 Hubbard, O. C 105 Hudson Bay 232 Hudson Bay Sable 242 Hudson, Henry 17-18-357 Hudson River 18 Hudson Seal 153-155-156-187 Hudson's Bay Company 238-239-255-256-260 Hudson's Bay Co., Ceded Ter- ritory to Canada 259 Hudson's Bay Co. Capital Stock Sold 259 Hudson's Bay Co., Charter Title 255 Hudson's Bay Co., Coat of Arms 256 Hudson's Bay Co., Collections 257-258 Hudson's Bay Co., Furs Sold in London 239 Hudson's Bay Co., District Marks 472-473 Hudson's Bay Co., Expiration of Charter 250 Hudson's Bay Co., First Divi- dend 260 Hudson's Bay Co., First Sale of Furs 259 Hudson's Bay Co., Motto.... 256 Hudson's Bay Co., New Char- ter 258 Hudson's Bay Co., Operating Force 256 Hudson's Bay Co., Profits 1855 257 Hudson's Bay Co., Second Dividend 260 Hudson's Bay Co., Territory Ruled 258 Hull, Albert G 344 Hull, Charles H 344 Human Forelock 297 Human Greed 8 Human Hair 500 Human Scent 515 Hunnewell, G. R. 346 Hunt, Wilson P 34-79-80 Hunter and Hunted Learn... 519 Hunters' Trophies Preserved.. 371 Hunting Birds 539-540 Huth & Co., Fredk 276 Hyde, Charles H 109 Hyde, Robert H 109 Iceland 10-252-262-396 litis 411 Imitation Fur 253 Imitation, Foxes 253 Imitations in Cat Fur 416 Imitations, Coney Fur India 16-17-527 Indian, Origin of Name 17 Indian Country 76 Indian Fur Dressing 357 Indian Traders 48 CONTENTS Ml Indians, Descent %A Indians Cling to Primitive Cos- tume 11 Indians, From Whence? 13 Indians Fur Clad 13 Indians Expert Trappers 14 Instinct 550 Irbit Fair 444 Irbit, July 1917 444-445 Islands of the Sea 384 Isle of Bute 197 Italy 421 Jackal 437 Jackman, Charles A 319 Jackman, Edward F. 319 Jackman, William 319 Jackson, Joseph A 103 Jacobson, Abraham 323 Jacobson, James 323 Jacoby, S. M 180 Jaeckel, Albert 324 Jaeckel, Jr., Hugo 326 Jaeckel, Sr., Hugo 325 Jaeckel, Richard 326 Jagua 382 Jaguar Markings 382 Jamestown, Virginia 17 Japan 432-527 Japanese Fur Hunters 432 Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. 282 Jaulus, Albert 282 Jave, Andre 329 John the Baptist 465 Johnstown Relief Fund 316 Jonas, Coloman 348 Jonas, John 348 Kakas, Edward 103 Kakas, Edward F 103 Kamtschatka 88-434 Kangaroo 392 Karguelen Islands 149 Kaufman Frederick 327 Kaufman & Oberleder 326 Kaye, Charles 326 Kaye & Einstein 326 Kearney, Thomas 316 Keel Boats 87 Keeping Up With Paris 374 Kenyon, N. P 309 Kid Skins 448 King Charles II 19-255 King Cotton 501 King, Edward J 300 Kitt Fox 254-383 Kittson, Norman W. 36 Koala 391 Kluckhohn, Charles L 95 Koene, Robert 347 Kohl, William 131 Kolinsky 424 Kolinsky Tails 425 Komandorski 151 Konvalinka, John 327 Korn, Raphael C 326 Kraus, Henry 176-300 Krauss, L 340 Krimmer 448 Kuriles 151-432-434-555 Labrador 258-260-262 Lachine 234 Laclede 60-76 La Framboise, Joseph 29 La Salle 20 Lake Athabaska 233 Lake Superior 27 Lambskins 383-422-444-446-503 Lamson, Jr., Jarvis 105 Lamson, Sr., Jarvis 105 Lampson, Sir Curtis M. 387-560-562 "Lampson Assortment" 562 Lansdowne, G. E. S 340 Lapham & Co 86 Lapland ; 408 Laramie Plains 449 Laplanders Fur Clad 408 Lard and Oil 355 Law of Supply and Demand.. 183 Leather 503 Leipzig 410 Leipzig Fair 445 582 CONTENTS Leipzig: Fur Dressers 411 Leipzig Fur Merchants 411-427 Leipzig Public Sales 305-411 Lengthening Mink Skins 193 Leonard Daniel 342-563 Leopard 423-435-437-504-507 Leopard Cats 430 Leopard Rugs 437 Leppert, Charles A 85 Lewis and Clarke 20 Liberty Bonds 351 Liebes, George 89 Liebes, Herman 89-123 Liebes, Isaac 89 Lion 464 Lion Skin 455 Liquid Fire 42 Lisa, Manuel 81 Lissa Conies 420 Lissa Conies, Two Grades 420 Lobos Island Fur Seal Skins, 1917 , 221 Lobos Island 150-221 Lockwood, Lieut. J. B 398 Lockwood Island 398 Lodewick, John S 278 Logan, R, L 316 Lomer, Dodel & Co 347 London Center of Fur Trade 385-560-561 London, Fur Exports January- August, 1917 389 London, Market for the Uni- verse 385 London Public Fur Sales 385-386-562-563 London Sales, Basis of Values. 386 London, Sales of Raw Furs, 1917 389 London Seal Dye 293 Long Night 397 Lord, John C 301 Louis Philippe 417 Louisiana 20 Louisiana Fur-Bearers, 80 Louisiana Muskrat 00 Louisiana Purchase 20 Loupcervier 243 Louveiers 417 Love of the Beautiful 531 Lowerre, Thomas H 327 Lowerre & Company 327 Lubbe, J 100 Luck 478 Lynx 242-520-539 Lynx and Rabbit 546-547 Lynx, European 416 Lyon 351-419-456 MacDougal, Duncan 34 MacKay, Alexander 34 MacKenzie, Donald 34 McKibbin, Driscoll & Dorsey. 96 McLeod, Alexander N 234 McMillan, James 98 McTavish, Simon 234 Mackary Fair 442 Mackinaw 27 Mackinaw Co 28-33-34 Macnaughtan, William 301 Madeline Island 30 Majot, P. A 329 Man and Wolf at War 454 Man a Nocturnal Animal 524 Man Omnivorous 501 Man, Self-Made Monkey 440 Manes and Tails, Horse 499-500 Manhattan Island 18 Manne, Sigmund 512 Manne, Solomon J 512-513 Mantlings, Heraldy 463 Manufacturers' Market 46 Manufacturers, Number of.... 45 Manufacturing Furriers 308 Manufacturing Furriers' Asso- ciation 375 Marks, For Identification.. .472-473 Marmot 412-435 Marsh Hawk 533 Marsh Marten 48 CONTENTS 588 Marsh Wren 533 Marshall, N. D 295 Marten 241-416-531 Martin Company, Henry 344 Martin, Henry 344 Massafuero Island 148 Materia Medica 556 Mats 449-457 Mau, Theodore C 75 Mautner, R 282 Mautner, Samuel 283 Mautner & Brother, H 283 Mawson, Edward S 339 Men and Fur-Bearers Akin 526-529 Men Delight in Decorations. .79-80 Men Named After Animals.. 529 Merchant Appraisers 171 Merchants of London 385 Merluschka 447 Methods 67 Mexico 230-253 Michaelmas Fair 445 Michilimackinac 27 Military 447 Miller, Joseph 81 Miller, Senator John F 121-131 Mills, Darius 123 Milwaukee 105 Mink, 190-539 Mink Fur, When Best 192 Mink Sets 46 Mink Skins Lengthened 193 Mink Tails 191 Minneapolis 98 Mischo, Herman 312 Mischo, Hugo J 312-314 Mischo & Co., Inc., H. J 313 Mischo & Hill 313 Mischo & Miiller 313 Misnamed 474-476 Misnamed Furs Inferior 474 Misnaming Unlawful 475 Missouri Fur Company 39-81 Mole 388-422-504-545 Mole Eyes 545 Mole Dwelling 388 Mole, Scotch 389 Mole Skins, Sale N. Y., Oct. 1917 389 Mongolian Lambs 423-448 Monjo, Ferdinand N 283 Monjo, Nicolas F. .. 263-271-294-302 Monkey 438 Monkey Furless 438 Monkey, Evolution Theory.. 438 Monkey Skin, Collection 1850- 1900 440 Monkey Skin, imitated 457 Monkey Skin, Original Apparel. 438 Monks of St. Mackary 442 Monopoly 21-62-66 Montevideo 150 Montreal 72-233-234-256-328 Moose as Food 507 Moose Head 458 Moose, Sacrificial Animal .. 494-495 Moscoff, Joseph 334 Most Prolific 24 Moth Protection in China 428 Moth Remedies 509 Moths 508-509 Motion 521-523-532-533 Moufflon Lambs 423-448 Mound Builders 169 Mounted Heads 372 Mourning Fur 447 Muff Bed 500-501 Mule 458-504 Miiller, Charles 313 Mummies of Wolves 493 Murashkino 447 Musk Ox 70-248-398 Musk 207 Muskrat 204-346-400-517-530-543-557 Muskrat as Food 340-508 Muskrat, Collection for Cen- tury 207 Muskrat, Color of Fur 206-536 584 CONTENTS Muskrat, Exceptional Utility of 206 \ Muskrat House 530-531-543-549 ,Muskrat, Why so Named 207 Muskrat Fur Durable 206 Muskrat Skins, Grading 206-207 , Muskrat Skins, Imitate Mole.. 207 Muskrat Skins, Spring Caught Best 207 ^Musquash 205 ^Mutual Protective Fur Mfrs. Association 334 Names of Fur-Bearers 218 , Names of Men 525 Napoleon 1 461 Napoleon III 417 .Natives of Alaska 148-528 Natural, Furs So Used 474 Natural Hunters and Trappers 538 Nature Notes 514 Near Seal 153-155-186 .Nelson River 257 Nesbit, A. & W 303 Newfoundland 260-263-265 New France 77 Newland, Henry A 73 ,New London 69 New Orleans 60-76 New Year Fair, Leipzig 445 .New York City 19-44 New York City, Present Trade 46 ^N.ew York Fur Auction 350 New York Fur Auction Sales Corporation 57-114 New Zealand 395 New Zealand Rabbits 395-498 Nieuw Amsterdam 18 ,Nijni Novgorod 442 .Nobles and Judges 462 .Norse Navigators 12 North American Commercial Co 89-122-123-132 Northlands 397 Northwest Company 35-38-234-235 North Western Fur Co 101 Norton, Edward E 102 Norton, Jacob 1Q2 Noses 514-518-526 Nutria 285-381-498 Nutria, in Hat Making 382 Nutria Skins, Plucking 364 Oberleder, Morris H 327 Oberleder, William 327 Oberndorfer, Chemidlin Co 294 Odor, Human Hands 515 Offspring 555 Oil Barrels 503 Old Guard, N. Y. C 453 Oldest American Fur Market. 44 One Dollar Per Week 421 Open and Cased 471 Opossum, American 210-506-518-526-546-554 Opossum, Australian 393-394 Opossum Feigns Dead 522-546 Opossum, Chinese Smoked... 212 Opossum Skins, Australian at London 394 Opossum Speculation 276 Opossum Tail 546 Oregon 38-81-235-297 Original Fur Traders 40 Ostrich Plumes 80 Osann, Frederick 180 Otter, Canadian 241 Otter, Chief Source of Supply 240 Otter, Land 240-384-434-539-554 Otter, Sea 188 Otter Skins, Plucking 364 Otter, South American 383 Otto, Richard S 50 Ox 488-504 Pacific Fur Co 34-39-79-80-82 Packer, Jr., W. S 115 Paco 378-383 Paddock, J. S 343 Pahmi 431 Pahmi Fur, Uses of 432 Palestine 504 Pangman, Peter 234 Panther 511 CONTENTS 5(85 Parchment 503 Pardine Lynx 409 Paris 417-419 Paris Models 373 Parisian Styles 418 Parkie 467 Past and Present 157 Patagonian Kitt Fox 384 Patriotic 54 Paulson, Charles H 343 Paulson Brothers 343 Pawnbroker in China 428 Paws and Claws 489 Pearls Before Swine 524 Peculiar Assorting 277-278 Pekan 244-539 Pelagic Fur Seals 147 Pelagic Sealing 292 Pelt Dimensions 268 Peltries Rather Odorous 354 Pembina 26 Pemmican 507 Pence, H. L 304 Pentacost, A. A 109 Perfume 433-436 Perpetuation 524 Perrot, Nicholas 25 Persian Lamb 360-423-446-447 Persianer 423-446 Pfaelzer, Morris F 272 Philadelphia 338 Piano Hammers 503 Picking 364-365 Piehler, Otto J 104 Pilgrim Fathers 17 Pinnipedian 154 Pladwell, Joseph 345 Pladwell's Sons, J 345 Platypus 390-565 Platypus Fur 391 Plodders Alone Succeed 159 Plucking and Unhairing. , .362-366 Pointing 222 Poison 511 Polar Bear and Seal 535 Polar Bear Bed Robes 488 Polar Bears 70-126-397-452-506-526-534-539 Polar Foxes 397 Polecat 411-416-548 Polish White Conies 420-490 Political Pother 144 Pond, Peter 233 Pony Skin 406 Pony Skin, Advances in Value 407 Pony Skin, Used Natural and Dyed 407 Porter, Charles S 59-112-281 Portugal 409 Power, T. C 220 Praetorius, Carl 286 Prairie Dog, Habitat and Util- ity 459-511 Prairie Wolf 455 Prentice, E. P 115 Prentice, J. H 115 Prentice, W. S 115 Pretzman, William W 340 Pribilov 119 Pribilov Island Catch 1917 128 Pribilov Islands 126 Price, George A 105 Price List, New York 1867 159 Price List, St Louis 1879 86 Prices Paid in 1866 277 Price Lists 80 Prices 481 Prices, Raw Furs 1875-6 161 Prices, Raw Furs End 1916 160 Prime and Unprime 227 Prince Edward Island 267 Prince Rupert 255 Pro Pelle Cutem 256 Protective Coloring 426-531 Protective Laws 166-345 Protective Nature 163-536-537 Prouty, Almond E 284 Prouty, J. L 284 Prouty, William L. 284 686 CONTENTS Ptarmigan 523-535 Public Sales in Leipzig 305-411 Puma 511-524 Pure Fur 97 Puzzle 46« Quail 522-533 Quebec 76-233-235-238 Queen Elizabeth 385 Queen Hen 501 Queen of Spain Favors Beaver 461 Queen Victoria 387 Queen Wilhelmina, Wears Marten 461 Queues 500 Rabbit and Lynx 524 Rabbit Flesh, Fresh and Canned 506 Rabbit Foot 557 Rabbit Skins, Weight per dozen 395 Rabbits 526-546-547 Rabbits, Australian 394 Rabbits, New Zealand 395 Raccoon. . . 202-263-271-506-542-559 Raccoon Coats 203 Raccoon Diet 203 Raccoon Durable 203 Raccoon Dyed Resembles Skunk 203 Raccoon First Dyed Black. . . . 411 Raccoon Plucked, Beaver Im- itation 203 Raccoon Skin Price of Moon- shine 491 Raccoon Skins, Value 203 Raddison, Pierre E 231 Ram 504 Ram Skins 464 Rasse 436 Rau, Charles 318 Rau, Erie 346 Rauh, Rudolph 3 Raw Fur Dealers Association State of N. Y 110 Raw Fur Merchants Associa- tion City of N. Y 51 Raw Fur Trade 42 Red Cross Subscriptions S9 Red River Valley 94 Reel, Herman 106 Reindeer. , , 396-397-408-434-459-467 Reindeer Apparel 408 Reindeer Coat Linings 408 Reindeer Skin for Summer Wear 468 Reindeer Hair 499 Reineman, Albert 328 Reineman, Gimble & Co 328 Reineman, Simon 328 Revillon, Albert 329 Revillon, Anatole 329 Revillon Brothers 235-236 Revillon Brothers' Charter... 236 Revillon Freres 328-330 Revillon Freres Trading Co., Ltd 23ft Revillon, Jean Albert 329 Revillon, Leon 329 Richter, Paul 347 Ringtail Cat 214 Ringtails 214-431 Robben Island 151 Robes and Rugs 449 Robes and Rugs, Skins Used.. 449 Rockwell, A. P 330 Rockwell Fur Co 330 Rocky Mountain Fur Co 82 Rocky Mountain Goats 459 Rogers, Louis Henry 101 Rollins, F. H 75 Roman Soldiers 453 Rookeries 135-148-251 Roos, Leonhard 84 Rose, Isidor 94-95 Royal Furs 460 Royal Sable Robes 401 Royal Greenland Company... 397 Russak, Benjamin 317 Russia 399-424-429 Russia Important Consuming Country 400 CONTENTS 587 Russia Suited to Wild Animal Life 400 Russian-America 118-149-258-259-291-407 Russian-America, Rental Paid in Otter Skins 259 Russian American Fur Co. 291-427 Russian American Trading Co. 118 Russian Conies 420 Russian Crown 402 Russian Crown Sables 400-402 Russian Fur-Bearers 400 Russian Hares 498-499 Russian Pony 406-407 Russian Reservations 408 Russian Sable Fully Fur Clad. 526 Russian Sable Fur 400 Russian Sable Fur, Exception- al Feature 401 Russian Sable Hunters 401-402 Russian Sable Lining 401 Russian Sable Sets 46 Russian Sable Skins, Values.. 402 Russian Sables 400-402 Russian Trade 407 Ruszits, John 89-320 Sabel, Alvin J. ..., 108 Sabel, Joseph 108 Sable Fur Ranks With Gems. 401 Sable, Kamtschatka 434 Sable, Russian 400-402-526 Sable Skins, Finest 400 Sacerdotal Furs 464 Sachs, Edward 285 Sachs, Louis 284 Sachs, Samuel 284 Sacred Animals 493-495 Saghalien 151 Saint Johns, Newfoundland 260-263 Saint Joseph, Missouri 342 Saint Louis 76-87-450 Saint Louis, Collection of Skins 1790 83 Saint Louis, Collection of Skins 1810-1850 83 Saint Mackary's Day 442 Saint Paul 26-92-305 Saint Paul Prices 1856 94 Saint Paul, Shipments of Pel- tries 1856 94 Samson Great Fox Trapper... 504 San Angelo 220 San Francisco 88-427 Sandwich Islands 148 Sawdust 356 Scaly Tails 522 Scape Goat 465 Scent and Sight 512-551 Scheller, Baruch M 513 Scherer, Charles 343 Scherer, George 343 SchiflF, Abraham 367 Schiff Brothers 367 Schiff, Theodore 367 Schlosberg, L. H 347 Schmidt, Carl E 73 Schmidt, Edward 73 Schmidt, Traugott 73 Schoen, Isaac A 85 Schott, Albert 85 Schoverling, Rudolph 304 Schrieber, Milton 288 Schwersenski, Simon 330 Scotch Hares 415-498-499 Scotch Lambs 448-490 Scotch Wolves 454 Sea Bear 434 Sea Otter 33-88-118-149-188-189-190-432-434 Sea Otter Fur 189 Sea Otter Fur, Royal in Rus- sia 190 Sea Otter, Popular in China . 189 Seal Caps and Hats 174-313 Seal Census 129 Seal Color 359 Seal Conies 419 Seal Killing 141 Seal Leases 130 Seal Imitations 364 588 CONTENTS Seal Skin Sale in St. Louis 125 Seal Skins Dyed in America 115-116-361 Seal Skins Dyed in London 117-360 Seal Skins Dyed in Paris 361 Seal Skins, Plucking 365 Sealing Steamers and Sailing Vessels 264 Seals, Hair 262 Seals of New York City 47-50 Seals, Small Catch 70 Seattle Fur Sales Agency 349 Seattle, Market for Alaskan Furs 349 Second-Hand Emporiums 468 Serpent 546 Sewing Machine 179 Shakos 454 Shaving ^ 364 Shayne, Christopher C 330 Sheared Skins 365-420 Shearing 364 Shedding 537 Sheep 504 Sheep Skin Lined Coats 400 Shedders 352 Sheep Skins 430-448-503 Shethar, Samuel 220 Shetland Islands 150 Shetland Seals 71-150 Shocks 421 Shoyer, Gabriel 339 Siberia 400-404-405-407-413-426-433 Siberian Marten 424 Siberian Sable 424 Siberian Squirrels 444-461 Simmons, Jacob 312 Simmons & Mischo 312 Singed , 356 Skin of Burnt Offering 465 Skins and Furs 354 Skunk 198-508-537-538 Skunk, Collection 1856-1912 200-202 Skunk, Color Variation 199 Skunk Dens 538 Skunk, Deodorizing 198 Skunk Diet 198-547 Skunk, Early and Late Caught 228 Skunk Grades 228 Skunk, First Sold in London.. 201' Skunk, Offering in London 1870-1889 201 Skunk, Super Natural Black Fur 200 Skunk Oil 502-558 Skunk, Prices London 1885- 1912 201 Skunk, Prices New York 1867. 201 Skunk Sheds Early ." 228 Sleeping Bags 469 Sloman, Mark 73 Sloss, Louis 131 Smith, J. A 131 Snobs 475 Snow 543-544 Snow Hares 433 Snow Leopard 426 Snowflake Hares 415 Sobel 400 Solomon 504 South America 378-448 South American Fur-Bearers 378 South Georgia Islands 148 South Pole 263 South Shetland Islands 150 Southward 230 South West Company 34-387 Spain 409-420-456-536 Spain, Derivation of Name 420-522 Spaniga 420 Spanish Missionaries 88 Speculation 63 Speer, Edward M 28« Spider 540-542 Spider Trap 540-542 Spirer, Julius 334 Spitzbergen 397 Spotted Ringtails 440 Sport 559 CONTENTS 589 Squirrel Fur, Natural and Dyed 406 Squirrel Linings, Fur of Heads Only 406 Squirrel Skins, Beisky 405 Squirrel Skins, China and Eu- rope Best Markets 405 Squirrel Skins, Finest 433 Squirrel Skins, Grades and Colors 404-405 Squirrel Skins, Kasan 405 Squirrel Skins, Lensky 405 Squirrel Skins, Number of 405 Squirrel Skins, Obskoy 405 Squirrel Skins, Saccamina 404 Squirrel Skins, Yakutsky 404 Squirrel Skins, Yeniseisky 405 Squirrel Tails 487-492-554 Squirrels 404-531 Squirrels Migrate 405 Squirrels, Siberian 437 Squirrels, Trapped and Shot. . 405 Stag 527-556 Stambach, J. A 339 Steiner, Albert J 178 Steiner, David 176 Steiner, Joseph 176 Steiner, Julius 178 Steiner, Simon J 178 Steiner, Sol 178 Stevens & Adams 345 Stoat 402 Stone Marten 409 Stone Marten Sets 46 Sublette, William 82 Struck & Bossak, Inc 337 Stern, Gage & Co 328 Sturgeon Lake 258 Superstition 495 Supplies 229 Supply and Demand 268 Swamp Rabbit 508 Swan's Down : 172-422 Swift Fox 254 Syrian Bear 453 Tabernacle, Skins Used 464-465 Tables — Collections at London 1813-1912 564-566 Tacoma 108 Tail Language 554 Tailless Cat 432 Tails 485-486-526-546-553 Tails, Manufactured 489 Tariff 171 Tasche 92 Taxidermy 370 Taxidermy, Mounts for Offices 371-372 Taxidermy, Museum Natural History, N. Y 372 Taxidermy, Sportsmen's Spec- imens 371 Taxidermists' Skill 372 Taxidermists vs. Ancient Em- balmers 372 Taylor, Robert Quail 340 Teeth 502-524-529-530 Temperature 525 Terrapin 552-553 Tevis, Lloyd 123 Tevis, William S 123 Theories Not Always Logical 535 Thibet Goat Skins 423 Thorer Company, Inc 285 Thorer, Theodor 285 Thorer & Praetorius 286 Three Golden Spheres 470 Tiger 449 Tiger 429-435-557 Tiger Claws 430 Timber 485 Time's Changes 373-375 Tootle, Milton 342 Total Fur Seal Slaughter 146 Totem Poles 528 Toyland 490 Tracks 335 Trade Dollar 490 Trading at Irbit Fair 444 Trading Organization 78 Trading Posts 20-21-36-121 590 CONTENTS Trading Posts Hudson's Bay Co 256 Transatlantic Fur Co 347 Transmigration 493-527 Transportation 167-170 Trapper, The 162-538-552 Trappers Admire Finery 77-79 Trappers' Boats 195 Trapper's Lot 163 Trapping in United States 239 Trapping Season 163 Trappists 419 Traps 164 Treadwell, George C. ..115-116-334 Treadwell & Co 320 Tree Toad 543 Tree Climbers 524 Treading 356 Trench Coats 403 Trench Rats 511 Tribute 434 Trophies 485 Trout and Salmon Flies 486 Ukranian Lamb Skins 448 Ullmann, Joseph 305 Uncles, Aunts and Cousins. . . 440 Unhairing 152-363-365 Uncrowned Amerka,Tiis 460-461 Unhairing Machine 365 Unprime Skins 227 United States 429 Vancouver Island 151 Van Kleeck, Albert 341 Van Kleeck, Edward 341 Van Kleek, Frank 341 Van Kleeck, Tunis 341 Van Winkle & White 107 Vellum 503 Venison 507 Verschoore, Henri L 513 Vespucius Americus 17 Victoria 291 Vicuna 383 Vital Heat 521 Voyageurs 77 Waldbott, E. S 208 Walrus Hide 467 Wallaby 392 Wapiti 458 War 36-68-232-233-235-477 War Effects 477-478-480 War, Effects of 1914. . .114-478-480 Warmest Coat 537 Wasserman, August 131 Water-Hairs 453 430-460-504-520-534-535-510-539 Weasel... 429-430-460-504-520- 534-535-510-539 Weather Prophets 542-545 Weer, J. H lOtt Weil, Dr. Isaac 306 Weil, Julius 306 Weil, Leopold 306 Weinberg, Philip 332 Wendel, John D 26 Wendel, John G 26-316 Wespy, Carl 281 West Coast Grocery Company 108 Whalers 397 Whiskey, 1810-1843 94 Whiskey, Price of 1763 77 Whitcomb, M. Prentice 334 White Bison 221 White Coats 263 White Hares 396-397 White, John 108 White, Lewis J 107 White Raccoon, photo 256 White Wolves 396 Widdall, Captain 148 Wight, Almon 104 Wight, E. L. C 104 Wight, Freeman 101 Wight, Joseph 104 Wight, Lewis 104 Wigs 500 Wilbur, N. B 308 Wild Cat 211-384-511 Wild Cat, Good Lynx Imitation 212-410 CONTENTS 591 Wild Dogs 392-523 Willard, Hiram 344 Willard, Son & Co., H 344 Willets, Samuel 131 Williams, A. C 70 Williams, Charles A 71-131 Williams, Denison 115 Williams, J. D., Inc 367 Williams, J. Denison 367 Williams, Roger 70 Wind and Moisture Proof 451-458-459 Wolf Bounties 416 Wolf Fur r 454 Wolf Fur, Uses of 403-455 Wolf Heads as Tribute 454 Wolf Ribs 507 Wolf Skin Robes and Rugs... 455 Wolves, Efforts to Extermi- nate 454-511 Wolves in France 417 Wolves, Russian Method of Trapping 403 Wolves, Savage and Destruc- tive , 403 Wolverine 247-539 Wolverine Claws 248 Wonderful Mystery 137 Woodchuck 510-537-543-544 Woodchuck as Cash 492 Woodchuck as Food 506 Woodruff, F. M 349 Wool, Seal 264-434 Wombat 393-505 Wolfsohn, Max 286 Wulzo, Eugen 281 York Factory 257-258 Yuba, Buena 88 Zechiel, Louis 331 /^^=:=»^ X RETURN TO the circulation desk of any ,. -^University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ^ ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books toNRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW "JUL20'iy95 ?a^ r^si .■ / U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES 'pP*'- l!!lliiiii:i::ll,iiiMlilliil|| CD0b74DSfib <<<^ LIBRARY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. THIS BOOK IS DUE BEFORE CLOSING TIME ON LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW UiRARY USE AUG U mt i^C2) LD flUG24'64-2p|« ^^^/^ H i ' \J ARY I