LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. OF" Mrs. SARAH P. WALSWORTH. Received October, 1894. Accessions No . u 7vHr& Class No . V \ A GRAMMAR GREEK LANGUAGE, FOR THE t USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. BY CHARLES ANTHON, LL.D., JAT PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEOB, NKW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL NE W YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 329 &.331 PEARL STREET FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1856. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, fry CHARLES A NT HO if, i the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York. TO THE RE V. WILBUR FISK, D.D, PRESIDENT OF THE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 2Tf)f8 SUorft fs XnscrffceDr AS A TRIBUTE OF SINCERE RESPECT TO ONE, IN WHOM HUMAN LEARNING IS SO ADMIRABLY BLEND1H WVH THAT BETTER AND PURER KNOWLEDGE, WITHOUT WHICH IT IS COMPARATIVELY VALUELESH PREFACE. THE author's object, in preparing the present work, was to furnish the student with such a view of the leading fea- tures in the Grammar of the Greek Language as might prove useful to him, not only at the commencement of his career, but also during its whole continuance. Nothing has there- fore been omitted, the want of which might in any degree retard his progress ; and yet, at the same time, the work has been brought within such limits as will render it easy of reference and not deter from perusal. The best and latest authorities have been carefully consulted, and every effort has been made to exhibit a concise outline of all the leading principles of Greek Philology. Under the head of Prosody the author has given merely a brief collection of rules, as the larger work on this subject, now in the press, and which will appear in a few weeks, will be found to contain all that is requisite in this department of instruction. To that same work the author has been compelled to transfer the remarks on the analogies of the Indo-Germanic tongues, which were originally intended to form part of the present volume. It was found, as the Grammar advanced towards its completion, that the addition of these analogies would A2 VI PREFACE make it too large in size ; and although a work like the present is certainly the true one for such a discussion, yet it is hoped that the remarks in question will not be out of place even at the end of a treatise on Greek Prosody. The present work, it will be perceived then, lays but few claims to originality either of design or execution. The object of the editor has been to present, in a small compass, all that his own experience as an instructor has shown him to be really useful in Greek elementary studies. His principal guide has been the excellent grammar of Matthias, of which the present volume may be in some re- spects considered as an abstract; and valuable materials have been at the same time obtained from the labours of Buttmann, Rost, and other distinguished philologists. As regards the formation of the Greek verb, he has preferred the old system to the more philosophical and elaborate one of Thiersch, from its being better adapted to the ca- pacities of younger students. Thiersch's system will do very well after an acquaintance with the formation of the Sanscrit verb, but its success otherwise, in this country at least, is extremely problematical. In preparing the present edition for the press, great pains have been taken to ensure accuracy, and in several in- stances changes have been made where the language ap- peared either obscure or wanting in precision. One or two inadvertences of expression, moreover, of no great moment in themselves, have also been rectified, and the work is now presented to the young student in the full as- surance that he will find in it both a useful and an accu- rate manual, PREFACE. ?H The compiler of the present volume owes it to himself to state, that he intends, at no very distant day, to publish a Grammar of the Greek Language which will lay more claim to the character of an original work, and will be elu- cidated throughout by references to the Indo-Germanic tongues. Such a work, of course, will be intended for more advanced students. In the mean time, he hopes that the plain and unpresuming volume which he now puts forth will not be regarded as the "ultima Thule" of his own researches in Greek philology. Columbia frllegf, June, 1839. INDEX. Accents . ... . . . . PAGE 7, 275 1 EZ/KM, " I clothe myself" 36 1 "Em/L " T am" .... PAGB . 164 89 . 243 92 Hliu " I ffo" 158 r H/j,at, " I sit" .... . 164 Adjectives 48 279 . 194 Feet 267 JEolic Dialect .... . 282 Anapaestic Verse . . . . 270 10 $>7)/u, " I say" .... 167 First Aorist Active . . Passive . . Middle . . First Future Active . . Passive . 108 . 116 . 119 . 108 . 117 . 119 . 108 18 19 . 229 . 283 Attic Dialect .... 101 6 Middle . . Formation of the Tenses Genders Cases ...... 18 Changes of Letters . . Comparison .... Composition, Prosody of Conjunctions . . . Consonants .... Contracted Verbs . . . Contraction 13 . 67 . 255 . 202 . 13 . 139 9 Genitive, Syntax of . . Iambic Verse . . . "%A, " I send" . . . Imperfect Active . . . . 236 . 269 . 161 . 108 . 115 . 156 . 156 . 245 282 Active in pi . Passive in pi . Infinitive, Syntax of . . Ionic Dialect . . 37 . 241 20 Declensions .... Irregular Nouns . . . . 43 . 63 . 170 . 158 , 165 Deponents 138 Dialects . a 281 Verbs Digamma . . . Diphthongs . . . Doric Dialect 7, 274 3 . 282 Ktipai, " J lie" . . , Vlll INDEX Letters FAGS PAOB 210 78 251 234 110 117 119 156 156 111 117 119 233 229 88 88 149 3 Metres . . 268 Prosody Middle Voice . . . N added . . 124 . . 11 Relative, Syntax of ... Second Aorist Active . . Nominative and Verb . Noun . . 231 20 Numbers 18 Middle Numerals . 72 Participle, Syntax of . Parts of Speech . . Passive Voice . . 247 . . 17 95 Second Future Active . . Middle of . 245 . . 47 Substantive and Adjective . Syntax Patronymics Perfect Active . . . Passive . . . . 109 . . 115 . 118, 127 . . 110 . . 116 . . 118 Verbs Middle . . Pluperfect Active . . Vowels .... \ Middle . . GREEK GRAMMAR. I. THE ALPHABET.' The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, namely : A, a, *AJla, Alpha, a: B, ft 6, BffTa, Beta, b. r, y, r, rdjttyta, Gamma, ! M, Ae/tra, Delta, d. *Ei/>/ldv, Epsllon, 2 e. Z, f, Z^ra, Zeta, z.- H, 7/, T Hra, Eta, e. 0, #, 6?, 07/ra, Theta, th^ I, i, I(i)TGt, Iota, i. K, /, KttTTTrCfc, Kappa, k. A, A, AttLLOuGr) Lambda, 1. M, ft M.V, Mu, m. N, v, Nv, Nu, n. S, , -,**> Xi, X 0, o,. *Ofj,iKp6v, Omieron, 3 o. n, Tri Hi, Pi, p- f Pw, Rho, r. 2, (T, (when final, j) 4 S^y/za, Sigma, s T ' T l Tai), Tau, t. "TCtpZhov, Upsilon, 5 u. $> 0, $2, Phi, ph^ X, #, XI, Chi, ch. ^j V'j ; &$I, Psi, P^ ite "Q/wfya, Omega, 6. 1. Consult Excursus A, at the end of this volume. 2. Smooth, or unaspirated e ; so called to distinguish it from H, which was anciently one of the marks of the rough breathing, or aspirate. 3. Small o, to distinguish it from omega (&>), or great (i. e., long) o. 4. The German scholars have introduced the practice of using f at the end of syllables likewise, when they make an entire word with which another is compounded; as, (to^ttew^, e^epej, Trpo^eiirov. But this practice, which has not even the authority of MSS. in its favour, cannot be systematically introduced without inconvenience to orthography ; and it is not agreeable to the genius of the ancients, wno were not accustomed to separate, by the understanding, the different parts of discourse. 5. Smooth v, to distinguish it from the aspirated v CT), which w, where the i, or second vowel, is subscribed, and also rfv, VL, w, which last three are not of as common occurrence as a, 37, w. 1 3 ' CONSONANTS. 1. Of tEe seventeen consonants, nine are mutes, that is, letters whereof no distinct sound can be produced without the addition of a vowel. 2. These nine are divided into three classes, namely, soft, intermediate, and aspirate. Thus, Three soft, n, K, r. Three intermediate, j3, y, 6*. Three aspirate, $?#? # 3. These, when read perpendicularly, form the three orders of mutes, each soft consonant having its correspond- ing intermediate and aspirate. Thus, 7T, ft 0. > r. x- _ r, s, e. _ _____ of the mouth, may be called back-vowels ; and the sounds of i and v, be- ing formed in the front part of the mouth, may be denominated front- vowels. 1. Originally, the a, 77, G) were closely allied to at, si, oi, and only so distinguished, that, in the latter, a, e, and o were sounded of the same length with the i ; while, in the former, the long sound of a, e, and 5 pre- ceded, and the i merely followed as a short echo. This accurate pronun- ciation, however, appears to have been lost at an early period, even among the Greeks themselves, and therefore, at present, we pronounce a, T/, cj in the same way as a, 77, o ; and the subscribed or underwiitten iota serves as a mere grammatical sign for determining the derivation and for distinguishing the forms. Originally, the , even in these improper diph- thongs, was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of cap- itals this practice still obtains. Thus we write a&?f, but "MSris, passing over, in either case, the sound of the i. So, again, $7, but, with the Capital letter, ' DIVISION OF LETTERS. 4. Mutes of the same class must always come together, from a principle of euphony. Thus, INTERMEDIATE. SOFT. ASPIRATE. enrd. 66vog. 5. From the organs with which they are pronounced, TT, (3, (j)' are termed labials or lip-letters; #, y, %, gutturals; and r, 6j 6, dentals. 6. Four of the consonants are called liquids, namely, A, p, v, p ; and they are so denominated because, in pronunci- ation, they easily flow into other sounds. 7. These four liquids, together with the sibilant, or hiss- ing letter , are also called semivowels, because their sound can be pretty distinctly perceived without the accession of a vowel. 8. There are three double consonants, namely, , , t/y composed of any letter of each of the three orders of mutes. followed by f. Thus, *?, fa 0c, form ^ ; r y?, #f form I" ; (T?), $, for d^p, f]6g. 5. In JEtolic the digamma served also for the rough breathing, which had no place in that dialect. 1 VI. ACCENTS. 2 1. There are three accents in Greek; the acute, grave, and circumflex. 2. The acute is denoted by the sign ('), as 0vAa The 1. For some further remarks respecting the digamma, consult Exciir- >-JB B, at the end of this volume. 2. For a more enlarged view of accents, consult Excursus C 8 ACCENTS. grave is never marked, but lends its sign to the softoned acute. The circumflex is indicated by (~), as /sr/Troc. 3. In every word there can be but one predominant tone, to which all the rest are subordinate. This is the sharp or acute accent, the fundamental tone of discourse being the grave. 4. The grave accent, therefore, does not require any mark ; since, if the syllable which receives the strengthened accent be ascertained, we know that all the rest must have the weaker or fundamental one. Consequently, it would be srpernuous to write Qeod&pbg, since Oeddwpof is suffi- cient. 5. When a word which, by itself, has the acute accent on the last syllable, stands in connexion before other words, the acute tone is softened down, and passes more or less into the grave. This depressed accent is called the soft- ened acute, and is indicated by the mark of the grave, the strictly grave syllables having, as we have just remarked, no use for this sign, and lending it, therefore, to the soft- ened acute. Thus, opyrj 6s TroAAd dpav avayitd&i nattd. 6. The acute accent is placed on one of the last three syllables of a word, the circumflex on one of the last two. 7. All words which have no accent on the last syllabic are called Barytones, because a syllable neither marked by an acute nor circumflex accent has, of course, the grave tone (fiapvv rovov). 8. All words which have the acute on the last syllable are called Oxytones (JO^vrova, from 6%v and rovo^). 1 1. The ancients observed, in pronunciation, both quantity and accent. This, however, is extremely difficult of accomplishment at the present day, and it is better for the learner, therefore, to let the quantity predom- inate, as being for us the more important of the two. Still, however, the student should accustom himself to distinguish every accented vowel from an unaccented one. Thus, for example, we can accent the first syllable in av6pu7ro, and yet keep the second long ; as in the English grandfather, alms-basket. ^ Care must be taken, at the same time, not to prolong the accented sh'ort vowels ; as, for example, not to pronounce fiTTfp like 6J7Tp. MA.RKS OF READING. 9 VII. MARKS OF READING. 1 . For a period and comma the same signs are employed in Greek as in English. 2. The colon and semicolon have one and the same mark, namely, a dot or point above the line ; as, ert^Awae us- not 3. A sign of interrogation has this form (;), as, rt rovro\ It is the same in appearance as our English semicolon, and not unlike our mark of interrogation inverted. 4. No sign of exclamation occurs in the older editions, yet, after interjections, and terms indicative of feeling, it is well to put the one in use among us ; as, w pot, rtiv Trapov- T(*)v tcaittiv ! (/>ev ! (j>ev ! 5. Diastole, or hypodiastole, has the same sign as the comma, and is used in certain small compound words, to distinguish them from others ; as, o,n (" whatever," formed from OOTJC) for distinction sake from on (" that") ; and 6,r (" which also") for distinction sake from ore (" when"). 0. In place, however, of the diastole or hypodiastole, many of the more recent editions have merely the syllables of such words separate, and without the inserted mark ; as, o TI and 6 re, instead of 6,rt and o,re. This method is at- tended with less interruption than the other, and is, at the same time, equally perspicuous. 7. A di&resis, or sign of separation, is put when two vow- els that follow in succession are not to be read as a diph- thong, but separately. It is indicated by two dots placed horizontally over the second one of the two vowels ; and, it the accent fall on that same vowel, the accentual mark is placed between the two dots. Thus, aidf]<; (to be pro- nounced d-td?Jc), TTpavg (to be pronounced 7rpa-v$). VIII. CONTRACTIONS. 1. Contractions are of two kinds, proper and imprope* called, otherwise, syn&resis and crasis. 10 CONTRACTIONS. 2. A proper contraction, or synaeresis, is when two sin- gle vowels, or open sounds, coalesce without change into one diphthong ; as, ^%6 contracted into ?]%ol ; rsi^&'i con- tracted into rei%i. 3. An improper contraction, or crasis, is when two single vowels coalesce, but are mixed together to such a degree that a vowel or diphthong of a different sound is substitu- ted ; as, Tei%ea contracted into TS^TJ ; 6 epog contracted into ovpog. 4. Syllables contracted by crasis are long, and have com- monly a mark (') placed over them, indicative of its having taken place. Thus, rdyaQd for ra djaOd ; rabrd for rd avrd. 5. If, in the process of contraction, a mute is brought be- fore an aspirated vowel, the mute is also aspirated ; as, dovdarog for rov vdarog ; ftoludriov for rb Ipdriov. 6. The subscript iota ought never to appear in contrac- tions by crasis, unless it be found, previous to contraction, in the first syllable of the second word. Thus, Kara for Kal elra ; and ey&da for eyw olda. But team for Kal 7r, not team ; and ndv for Kal dv, not nav. 1 IX. APOSTROPHE OR ELISION. 1. By apostrophe is meant the cutting off of a short vowel at the end of a word when the next word begins with a /owel ; and, when this takes place, it is indicated by the mark (') set over the empty space ; as, CTT' uov for em euov. 2. When the following word has the rough breathing, and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth rnute, this mute becomes aspirated ; as, dp ov for and ov. 3. The vowels elided by apostrophe are a, e, 4, o, but not v. Monosyllables, however, in a, , o (the epic pa ex- 1. Many editions of the ancient \\ riters, and almost all the lexicons, of fend against this rule. APOSTROPHE. 11 cepted), and the i in the dative singular and plural of the third declension, are not elided. 4. Neither does the i in ri and ore suffer elision, except in the Homeric dialect. The reason with regard to n is, that it might sometimes be confounded with re ; while, if the i in on suffered elision, oV might be confounded with ore, and oO' with 06 i. 5. The o in npo is not elided, and for that very reason is not used by the poets before a vowel. In composition, however, it coalesces with the augment, and with the initial vowel of the following word, and oe and oo are contracted into ov ; as, Trpovrv^ev for TTposrvipev ; rrpovTrrog for irpooiT- T0. 6. The poets elided, though seldom, the diphthong at , and only in the passive endings pat, aai, rat, oOat ; as, povheaO' e dyade. 9. In diphthongs, also, the first short vowel is cut oft after a long one in the preceding word, chiefly after r\ ; as, r) 'vaddeia for 77 evoioeia ; ^ f vpG) for pi) evpco. X. N e ; to the third persons of verbs in e or i ; to the numeral eltcoai, " twenty" and to the adverbs Trepvai, irav- raTraai, voafa, TrpooOe, ne, vv, when the following word be- gins with a vowel ; as, ev IITJGLV dkiyoig, ndaiv elTrsv eKsl- dVTOV, BIKOOLV T7? yeyOVG), &C. XL OTHER FINAL LETTERS. 1 . The letter is sometimes found at the end of words, on the same principle as the v e^eXnvormov. Thus, we have OVT(*> before a consonant, and ovrug before a vowel. So also in [texpig and a%pi , except that these two last often stand without g before a vowel. 2. In like manner, the particle ov, " not," takes before a consonant a final /e, and, consequently, before the rough breathing a final %. Thus, ov Trdpevriv, OVK eveoriv, ov% 3. When, however, this particle stands at the end of a clause, or where there is a pause in the sense, the tc falls away ; as, TOVTO 6' ov, " but this not." Ov' dAA' orav , " No : but when." 4. The preposition ef, " out of" has this form only be- fore vowels and before a pause ; as, ef epov, eg orov, tea i%. Before all consonants the of the double letter falls away, and the K remains ; as, etc TOVTOV, etc i , etc yrjg. CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 13 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 1. In the concurrence of two or more consonants, those of the same class can alone stand together, as has already been remarked. Hence an aspirated consonant can only be joined to an aspirate, a middle to a middle, a smooth to a smooth. In the formation of Greek words, therefore, we must change rerpcdrai into rirpiTrrai. yeypacf>raL yeypa^rai. pd66o$. srvirOrjv erv^Orjv. bydoog. In composition, however, the preposition etc remains un- changed before r, d, 6, and hence we have iitdidovai, EK- Oelvaij &c. 2. Three or more consonants cannot stand immediately together : but one of them (usually a a standing between two consonants) must be omitted, or such forms entirely avoided. Thus, Instead of rerv(f)(jOe we say rervc^Oe. Exceptions. (1.) This rule does not operate in com pounds, where perspicuity of derivation renders the reten don of the third consonant necessary ; as, eKtrrvG), EKCFTTSV (5o), dvc(f>dapTO$. (2.) If the first or last of the three con sonants is a liquid (A, p, v, p), whereby the harshness ol pronunciation is softened ; as, eK 3. Two syllables following one another cannot both be- gin with an aspirate ((/>, %, 6) ; but, in this case, the aspi- rated consonant which stands at the beginning of the first syllable is changed into its kindred smooth. Thus, B 14 CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. For G) makes $pei/>Gj, in the future ; rpe^a), &pet;G) ; TV(J)(*), $vipa) ; the presents of these verbs being changed by the previous rule from $p0w, $p%6>, and $v(f)G). So also the noun fipit;, " hair" makes rpi^og in the genitive (instead of the old form i9p- %o^) and $pi%i in the dative plural, where the aspirate re- appears. 5. The rough breathing likewise disappears in the first syllable when % stands in the next. Thus, the old and genuine form of e%a) was %&), but the aspirate was changed into the smooth for euphony, and reappears when the % is no longer present, as in the future G). 6. When the rough breathing meets with a smooth, it changes the same into an aspirate, not only in composition, but, as has already been remarked, even in accidental con- currence ; as, efyodcx; (from em and 666$}, de^rj^epog (from delta and rjfiepa), e(f>' rjpepav (for err* rftiepav), , i/> are changed into CHANGES OF THE CONSONANTS. 15 as, for rerpidfjiai write rir^i\i\Lai ; for rirv^\iai write re- rvfiiiai ; for ye^pac^fiai^ yeypap^ai. Before the same let- ter, K and % are changed into y ; as, Ae/Uy/iew for AeAe;- \iai ; didoypai for didoK^iai. And the linguals d, 0, r, are changed before the same into a ; as, aafia for a TreTteiapai for TreTteiOpat, ; TJVVG[J,7?<^f/m. 10. Before - for apTra^cra), apTrdaa). 11. The letter v, before the labials /3, ^, TT, 0, i/'j is changed into \i ; as, e/i/MAAa) (from ev and /MA/U>), cri;/z- TrpdocFG) (from avv and Trpacrcro)), before a and remains throughout un- changed ; as, evGeia), kv^iopai. On the other hand, the preposition crw, before G followed by a vowel, changes v into G ; as, GVGGtria, GVGGSIG), for avvGiria, GVVGB'K*). 14. When the letter v, and r, $, or following, are to- gether rejected before cr,then the vowel remaining, if short, is changed into a diphthong, namely, e into ei, and o into ov ; and, if a doubtful vowel, is lengthened. The long vow- els 7] and 6) remain unchanged. Thus, becomes TVRTOVTGl yiyavTGi deiKVVVTGl TVTTTOVGl. yiydGi. de'iKvvGi TV1TT()GI. In some instances this alteration takes place when only has been rejected ; as, evg becomes el$ ; 16 FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. XIII. FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 1 . Prosthesis is the addition of one or more letters at the beginning of a word ; as, opiKp6$ for piKpog ; eeiKoai for 2. Par ago ge is the addition of one or more letters at the end of a word ; as, r\o6a for TJjf ; Xoyoiaiv for Aoyo^. 3. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the body of a word ; as, Trro^epog for Trohepog ; OTTirorepog for OTrorspog. 4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters from the body of a word ; as, ripaog for reparog ; Ttarpog for 7ra,T8po$. 5. Aph&resis is the taking away of one or more letters from the beginning of a word ; as, et(3(*) for /U#to) ; ?J fon 6. Apocope is the taking away of one or more letters from the end of a word ; as, Trap for Trapd ; &5 for do>^a. 7. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables , as, etrpaOov for enapOov, from 7tep6(*) ; edpanov for edaptcov, from depKb) ; Kpadia for rcapdia ; drapTrdf for drpaTrd^. 8. Tmesis is the separation of the preposition of a com pound from the verb by means of some other word interve ning ; as, vnep TWO, e%eiv for vTrsps^eLV nvd. XIV. DIALECTS. 2 1. The principal dialects of the Greek language are four; the JEolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. 2. The JEtolic retained the most numerous traces of the early Greek, and hence the Latin coincides more with this than with the other dialects. It was distinguished from the Doric by trifling differences ; chiefly, however, by the use -. Most, if not all, of the examples of prosthesis are, in fact, eld forma of the language. So also those of paragoge and epenthesis. 2. For more particular remarks concerning the dialects, consult Ex- cursus D, and the observations at the end of each declension, &c DIALECTS. 17 of the digamma before vowels at the beginning and in the middle of words, and before some consonants, as p ; whereas the digamma was dropped by the Doric and other dialects. 3. The Doric was hard, rough, and broad, particularly from the frequent use of a for 77 and w ; as, a hdda for ?? hrjOr] ; rdv nopdv for r&v icoptiv ; and from the use of two consonants, where the other Greeks employed the double consonants ; as, fiehiaderai for /je/Uferaj, &c., which was also the custom in jEolic. It was rudest among the Spar- tans, the enemies of all change, and was spoken in its great- est purity by the Messenians. 4. The Ionic was the softest of all the dialects, on ac- count of the frequent meeting of vowels, and the rejection of aspirated letters. Thus, they said TTOISG) for TTO^W ; TVTT- reo for rvnrov ; denoiiai for di^o^ca ; dncupsv for dfaipti Hence also it is fond of the hiatus, or confluence of vowel sounds, against which the Attic so carefully guards. 5. The Attic was the most polished dialect, and forms the basis of our ordinary grammars. It avoided the colli- sion of vowel sounds, and was, therefore, fond of contrac- tions. It differed from the Ionic by using the long a where the lonians employed the 77 after a vowel or the letter p, and by preferring the consonants with an aspirate, which the lonians rejected. It employed, also, in its later stages, the double pp instead of the old p$ , and the double TT instead of the hissing era. XV. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. There are eight parts of speech in Greek, namely, Ar- ticle (apOpov), Noun (ovo[j,a), Adjective (emOerov), Pronoun , Verb (prjp,a), Adverb (empprjfj,a), Preposition ), and Conjunction ((Jvvdeap,og). 2. The Interjection is ranked among adverbs. 3. The Article, Noun, Adjective, and Pronoun are de B2 18 PARTS OF SPEECH. clined by Genders (yevrj), Cases (Trr&aeig), and Numbers (dpiOuoi). 4. There are three Genders; the Masculine (yevog dp- aevircov), Feminine (-di]kvK6v), and Neuter (ovderepov) ; and to mark the gender the article is usually employed in gram- mar ; namely, 6 for the masculine, i] for the feminine, and TO for the neuter. Thus, 6 dvOpMTrog, *' the man ," ?J yvvf], " the woman ;" TO Xp7jfJ>a, " the thing. 17 Some nouns, how- ever, are both masculine and feminine ; as, 6, 27, Kortvog, " the wild olive-tree." These are said to be of the common gender. 5. There are three numbers, the Singular (dpiOftbg ew- fcog), Dual (dvittog), and Plural (TT^OvvriKog). The sin- gular denotes one ; the plural more than one ; the dual, two, or a pair. a 6. There are five cases, the Nominative (7TT(*)ai$ ovopaa- TiKfj), Genitive (yevinr)), Dative (doTiKTj), Accusative (aln- aTiKrj), and Vocative (K^r\riK,if) . 7. The Greek name of the ablative would be dfyaiperi- tcf], but the national grammarians of Greece do not mako mention of this case, because in Greek its form is, in every instance, the same with the dative. GENERAL RULES. 1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nominative, ac- cusative, and vocative alike in all the numbers ; and these cases in the plural end always in a. 2. The nominative and vocative plural are always alike. 3. The nominative, accusative, and vocative dual are alike ; as also the genitive and dative. 4. The dative singular in all three declensions ends in . In the first two, however, the i is subscribed. 5 The genitive plural ends always in cw. THE ARTICLE. 19 XVI. THE ARTICLE. 1 The article is a word prefixed to a noun, and serving to ascertain or define it. Its declension is as follows Norn. Gen. Dat. Accus. Norn. > Accus. 5 Gen. , Dat. Norn. Gen. Dat. Accus. Masc. 6 TQV TOLV ol T&V Singular. Fern. T7?V Dual Td TdlV Neuter. TO TOV TO) TO row Plural. at Td Tag the. of the. to the. the. the two. of or to the two. the. of the. to the. the. REMARKS ON THE ARTICLE. 1. The article was originally a demonstrative pronoun; but, in the later Ionic and Attic dialects, it became merely a means of defining nouns. 1 1. In the older grammars two articles are given; the prepositive, 6 t 57, TO, and the postpositive, of, 77, 6, which we call, at the present day, the relative pronoun. In a sentence like the following, " This is the man who will deliver us" (OuTOf EGTLV 6 avrjp bg a6aei 37//f), the two words " the" and " who" (6 and 6f) refer so intimately to each other, and lock, as it were, into one another so much like joints, connecting in this way the two clauses as members or limbs of one sentence, that the Greeks termed them apdpa, articuli, or joints. The first of these, how- ever, namely, 6, ^, rd, stands very commonly with its simple clause alone, and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer an article or joint. But this arises from the circumstance, that, in very many instances of triis kind, the second clause is not expressed in words, out is left to be n sntally supplied ; s^h as, " who is spoken of," or 20 NOUNS. 2. There is no form of the article for the vocative, for masculine. ^ > 3 1. Nouns in pa and a pure, that is, a preceded by a vowel, together with some proper names, as Arjda, 'Av- dpofjieda', $Aop?/la, &t,OTt[ia, and also the substantive aka- hd, " a war-cry," have the genitive in a^, and retain their a through all the cases of the singular. " who is here concerned," or " whom you know," &c. Hence it became, by degrees, a usage of the language to annex the prepositive article 6, 77, TO by itself to every object which is to be represented as definite, either by means of the language itself or from the circumstances. In their whole theory, however, the two articles are adjective pronouns. (Butt" manrfs larger Grammar, p. 121, Robinson's transl.) FIRST DECLENSION. 21 2. All the contracted nouns of this declension likewise retain the a in the genitive and other cases of the singular ; as, [J,va, [j,v~dg, &c. ; 'A0i]va, 'A0r]v-dg, &c. 3. All other nouns in a have the genitive in TJ, and Tjpep-aiv, D. TCLIC 7)fJLEp-ai(; A. TJjV 7]{J.p-aV, A. rd j}{iep-a, A. rdf Tj/uep-ae, V. qpep-a. V. ^/zep-a. V. rjpip-ai Singular. D. T?/ GO(j)L-a, A. r^v Goi-aLv, A. rd Gofyi-a, V. Go^i-a. rj 66%a, " ^Ai-tiv, N. ra ^o^-a, G. ra?v 66!-- cuv, D. ra?v 66%-cuv, A. ra do-a, V. ddf-o. Plural, aJ do?-fl, rwv 6oS;-tiv, Singular. N.57 G. T37' D. r^ A. V. head" DwaZ. N. ra Kal*,-d t G. ra?v Kia t OLKta, a house 9 GKia, a shadow, faAia, friendship atria, a cause, ahijdeia, truth. Like /ce0a^57, Kopr}, hair, veavi-a, G. TOLV veavi-aiv, D. rolv veavi-aiv, A. TO) veavi-a, V. veavi-a. Plural N. ol veavi-ai, G. rtiv veavi-tiv, D. rolg veavi-ais, A. 'rovg veavi-a, V. veavi-ai. Singular. N. 6 rekuv-riq, G. TOV re/lwv-ov, D. T6J TE^CJV-ri, A. TOV Tehuv-rjv, V. the tax-gatherer" Plura> N. ol G. TtJV D. roif A. roi?f V. Dual. N. TO) re/lwv-a, G. ro?v D. rotv A. ra> V. DECLINE , a solitary, :f , a steward, , a swaz'Z, A.iveiag, JEneas, TLvdayopae, Pythagoras, :c, Anaxagorzs. Ijke a short sword, %eipOTe%V7], a workman, c;, a goat-sucker, ?, a judge at the games f, Atrides, , Anchises. FIRST DECLENSION. 7 Nouns in TT^, compounds in TTTJC ; as, KVVCJTTTJ^ " an impudent person ;" names indicative of nations ; as, Heparjg, " a Persian" 2/cv^^, " a Scythian ;" together with deriv- atives from fierpti, TrwAo), and Tpt6w, as, yeoyterpTj^, " a ge- ometer," fj,vp07T(*)h7]$, " a vender of perfumes" TraidorpidTjs, " a teacher of gymnastics " make the vocative singular in a, not in 77. Thus, KwuTTTft, voc. KwSmd ; HepaTjg, voc. Ilep- rra. But ILepG7]$, a man's name (Perses), makes 77. 8. Nouns in emyf have 77 or a in the vocative ; as, A$0T^f , " a robber" voc. X^orr] or A^ara. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION 1. In forming these contractions, ea preceded by p, and also aa, make d ; as, epa, contracted epa, " wool ;" [J,vda, pvdj " a mina;" J3opeag, J3oppa,, " Me worM wind." 2. But ea not preceded by p, together with e?; and 077, become 77 ; as, yea, y?}, " Me earM ;" yaker], ya/l^, " a wea- sel;" diTrhori, diTr^Tj, " double;" 'Eppeag, 'Ep^g-, "Mercu- ry ;" 'A.TTekhe7jg, 'ATreAA^, " Apelles" 3. In the genitive, ov absorbs the preceding vowel ; as f EXAMPLES. epea, contr. epa, " Singular. N. epe-a, lp-5, G. epe-af, fc'p-af, D. epe-ot, ^p-a, A. eps-avj ep-av, V. epe-a, ep-a. Dual. N. Ipe-a, G. epe-aiv, D. epe-cuv, A. ^pe-a, V. pe-a. P&irdL N. epe-ai, ep-ar, G. pe-tiv, kp-tiv, D. epe-ai?, ep-aLj A. epe-af, ^p-af, V. epe-ai, fy-a?. N. G. D. A. V. contr N. ya^s-a, G. yahe-atv, yah-alv, D. ya/le-aii', yaA-a?v, A. ya/le-a, ya/l-<2, V. ya/le-a, ya/l-a. , " a weasel" Plural. 'N. yaki-ai, yah-ai, G. yahe-uv, yah-tiv, V. yahe-at, yah-aZ. 24 DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 1. Instead of the terminations TJ$ and ag of the nomina- tive singular, the ^Eolians employed a. Hence TroiTjTrjg and veaviag become, in ^Eolic Greek, Troirjra, veavia. So also we have in the same dialect the Homeric nominatives, pTjrisrd, ve^ekrjyepeTa, evpvoird, &c. From this source comes the Latin nominative singular of the first declension, poeta, cometa, &c. 2. The ^Eolians made the genitive singular end in aig, and also in ag, which latter form was common unto them with the Dorians. Thus, r]fj,spalg for rjpepag-, do^ag for do^(,, from the ^Eolic nominative do%a. From the genitive in a'ig the Latins derived, by dropping the final , their old genitive of the first declension in ai, as musa/i, aulai, terrai, which afterward changed to &. The other genitive, name- ly, that in a^, gave rise to another early form of the genitive in Latin, that in as, which still remains in paterfamilias, 3. The ^Eolians used in the genitive plural d(*)v instead of (M)V, and in the accusative plural they had aig for Thus, pshiGadw for $ekiaa&v ; Kakalg, ao?7ft77, Doric (j)dpd ; vvp(j)7j, Doric vvp$d ; ^JIIL^V f Doric (frdpav, &c. 5. The Dorians give nouns in ag the genitive in d ; as, tdvsiac;, gen. Alveid ; IlTjtetdag, gen. Hrfieidd. This gen- itive is formed by contraction from do ; thus Alvsido, ^con- tracted Alveid ; ILrjheiddo, contracted ILyheidd. So, also, in the plural, they contracted d(*)v into dv, saying for Me/U- awv, M.ekidv ; for $7//U>Tepao)v, drjkvTSpdv, , and &v of the genitive plural into ewv ; thus 'Arpeideu for 'A.rpeidov ; TrotT/reo) for TTO^TOV ; KOfJLTjTStoV for KOJJ,7]T&V \ tKBTS^V for lKSTG)V. 7. The lonians employed the termination ea instead of r]v in the accusative singular of nouns in 7]g ; as, dsanorea for deon&Ttjv ; Ka(j,6vcrea for Kafidvvrjv* So in the accusa- SECOND DECLENSION. 25 live plural they used eag for ag ; as, deGtroreag for 6ea irorag . 8. The lonians, in the Dative plural, employed qai foi as, dsGTTOTrjGi for deairoraig ; vrjGi&TrjGt, for vr\Gi& XIX, SECOND DECLENSION. Terminations. o$, masculine, sometimes feminine. ov, always neuter. 1 EXAMPLES. , " the discourse." Singular. Dual. Plural. IN. 6 7,dy-of, N. TO) /ldy-w, N. oi Ady-oi, G. TOV Ady-ov, G. TOivAdy-oiv, G. TWV yldy-wv, D. T<5 y^/dy-cj, D. Totv^dy-otv, D. T0?f Ady-o^f, A. TOV ^dy-ov, A. TO) Ady-w, A. Toi>f Ady-ovf, V. Ady-e. ! V. ^dy-w. V. ady-o*. i}Mdf, "the way" Singular. Dual. Plural. N. ij 6<5-df, N. T<2 d(5-6>, N. tr^ d(5-oi, G. T?7? 6(5-oi5, G. TaZ"v 66-oiv, G. TOJV dd-t5v, D. T7f 66-ti, D. Tao> d(5-o?v, D. Tatf 66-oi, A. T^y 66-6v, A. TO, 66-6, A. Tdf dd-oi;f, V 66-e. V. 6^-w. V: 66-oi TO fitipov, " i/ie gift." Singular. Dual. Plural. N. TO 6tip-ov, N. TV 66p-cjj N. Ttt l^3p-G5, G. TOW (5c5p-ov, G. TO?V 66p-oiv, G. TOV 6&p-G)V t D. TOJ 6wp-o, D. Totv d(5p-otv, D. TOif 66p-oi?, A. TO (5wp-OV, A. TW (Jwp-G), A. TC& 6&p-a, V. tfwp-ov. V. dwp-d). V. <5tip-a. 1. Except in diminutives of female names, where, by a species of sy- nesis, the gender refers to the person meant, not to the termination of the noun. Thus, # Thviteptov, from PAv/cepa ; ^ Aeovnov, &c. So in Terence, " mea Glycerium." c 26 SECOND DECLENSION DECLINE Like Xoyof , f , a people, f, a master, ', a man, pog, a brother, vlog, a son, >f , a wind, Aof , a messenger, 'f, a law, f, a house, olvog, wine. Like d&pov, dsvSpov, a tree, ^vhov, wood, opyavov, an instrumtn epyov, a work, pflkov, an apple, irp66arov, a sheep, tiov, an animal, TEKVOV, a child, f>66ov, a rose, GVKOV, a Jig, Like odof, etoc, a vine, , an island, , a disease, Girodog, ashes, TrapOsvos, a maiden, piphog, a book. 1. Many words of this declension have a double gadder, as something masculine or feminine is denoted by iliem ; as, 6 $eo, the god, rj $eo, the goddess ; 6 dv6pG)no<;, the man, r) dv6pa)7rog, the woman ; 6 apKrog, the he-bear^ TJ aptc- ro^, the she-bear, &c. 2. Others, again, have a double gender, without such ground ; as, 6, 77, pivog, the skin ; 6, ?J, tidfivog, the shrub; d, T], 6dp6iTog, the lyre ; 6, 7], otyog, the path, &c. 3. Some with the gender alter likewise the meaning ; as, 6 fyydf , the yoke, TJ %vy6$, the balance ; 6 ITTTTOS, the horse 9 q LOTTOS, the cavalry, and also the mare ; 6 hetu6o$, pulse-broth, i) keKiOog, the yolk of an egg. 4. The following become neuter in the plural : 6 Xv% o airog, the curl, the chain, the law, the chariot-seat, the way, the torch, the corn, rd P6arpv%a. rd dsotid* rd -&e<7[j,d. rd dfypa. rd K&evOa. rd A,v%va. rd alra. ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION, 5. The vocative singular has not only e, but like\v, o$ for a termination. Thus, 6 $eo, voc. w deog. So, also, a) ihog, &c. This is particularly the case in the Attic di- alect. ATTIC FORM OF DECLENSION. 1 1. The Attic form of declension makes the vocative lik the nominative, and has G> in the termination of every case 2. The final v is often omitted in the accusative singu lar ; as, /layo) for Aayoiv ; veti for vetiv ; eo) for eo)i>. This is particularly the case in proper names ; as, Kw, Tea?, "A0co, for K&v, Ke(*)v, &c. Singular. N. 6 Aay-c5f, G. TO# Aay-w, D. TCJ /lay-$9 " the hare." Dual. Plural. N. G. D. A. V. TO) Aay-e5, rolv 7\,ay-&v, rolv 7iay-&v, T(J 7iQy-&) Ady-Gj. N. G. D. A. V. ol ylay-L Tovf /lay-a! Aay-cC TO dvcoyewv, " Me dining-rocm" Singular. N. TO avwye-ov, G. TOW avc5ye-o, D. T<3 A. T6 V. Plural. N. TW G. TOO> . D. TOiv avye-uv, A. TCJ V. avuye-o. N. TO; G. r&v D. TOif A. TO; V. 1. The neuters of some adjectives have also o> in the nominative and accusative, especially dy^pw^, neuter dyrj- pw. 2. Words, which otherwise belong to the third declen- sion, are often declined after this particular form ; as, M.IVM 1 . Buttmann calls this an old and peculiar mode of inflection, eni' ployed by the Attics (Ausf. SprachL, p. 157). Thiersch, on the con- trary (G. G., 53, 4), maintains, that these forms arise merely from the rejection of the formal letters o, e, a after the vowels contracted intc eo> Buttmann's opinion is undoubtedly the true one. 28 CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION (from Mn>6), Mivwo^) for Mfr&a in the accusative- So, also, yskuv (from ye/lw^, yeAwro^) for ye^oyra ; and (from ??pw, rjp(*)og} for 7jp(*)a. 3. Only one neuter in G> is assigned to this form of de- clension, namely, TO %pe(*)g, the debt. According to the an- cient grammarians, it has %pe(*)$ not only in the accusative, but also in the genitive singular. All the other pans are formed from %peo ; thus pi. %pe#, &c. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 1. The letters eb, oe, and 60 become ov ; as, adeX(j>Ldio$ contracted ddehfadovg ; voe, vov ; v6o$, vovg. 2. A short vowel before a long one, or a diphthong, is absorbed ; as, rrhotov, "x'k&v -, TrhooiVj irholv. 3. In the neuter, a absorbs the preceding vowel, and be comes long ; as, oarea, dard. 4. In the vocative, es is not contracted ; as, 6crre-w, 6or-t5, V. oore-cj, 6crr-a>. N. ra bare-a, bar-a, G. rc3v bcrre-uv, OGT-&V, D. roZf ocrre-oif , OGT-OLS A. ra ocrre-a, 6crr-a, V. bare-a, ber-i* DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 1. The ^Eolians wrote the dative singular without the subscribed ; as, (7o0c5 for (7099. Hence the Latin dative and ablative in of the second declension. In the accusa THIRD DECLENSION. &> live plural they are said to have employed the termination otg for ovg ; as, ttdrroig vopoig for Kara rovg vouovg. 2. The Dorians changed the termination og of the nom- inative into op ; as, Tipoaeop o 'Mihrjcriop for TiuoOeog 6 M.t,kf)Giog. In the genitive singular they changed the ter- mination ov into 0) ; as, ro5 vb\iu for rov vopov. And in the accusative plural they employed the termination o>)g for ovg ; as, r&g hvK(*)g for rovg Xvttovg. Hence the accusa- tive plural in os of the second declension of Latin nouns. 3. The lonians use eo), in the termination of the genitive singular, for ov ; as, KpoiaeG) for 'Kpoiaov ; Barred) for Bar- row. In the plural they changed o5v of the genitive into e(*)v ; as, neaaew for neao&v ; rrvpetov for rrvptiv ; and in the dative used OLOL for otg ; as, hiOoioi for MOoig. 4. The form of the genitive oio for oi> occurs for the most part in the poets only, chiefly the epic. The original form of the genitive seems to have been -oo (analogous to ao in the first declension), whence came oto, and by contraction ov. In the genitive and dative dual the epic poets insert an i as, LTTTTOUV, tiuouv, aradaouv. 5. The old form of the dative occurs also in Attic ; as, tcaKolcriv, Plat. Gorg. p. 497, D. ; rovroLOi, ib. p. 28 ; OLKOL- OLV, Soph. (Ed. T. 249, &c. XX. THIRD DECLENSION. Terminations, a, i, v, neuter. 6), feminine. v, , p, cr, , of all genders. 1. The third declension is distinguished from the two preceding in making the oblique cases longer by one syl- lable than the nominative. In other words, it is said to increase in the genitive. The genitive ends always in og. 2. The root of the words in this declension is generally disguised in the nominative by added vowels and conso- nants, and is to be discovered by taking away o^ from the genitive. Thus, nominative 6 oWjwcov, " the deity" geni- tive dafaov-ogi root datuov ; 6 yiyag, " the giant? gen. yr C2 30 yavr-og, root yiyavr ; root (jw/iar, &c, THIRD DECLENSION. : the body" gen. <76yjaT-0. EXAMPLES. 1 6 #??p, " the wild beast." Singular. N. o tftfp, G. ro 1 D. r A. rov #a Plural. N. TO) &Jip-e, G. rov &TJP-OLV, D. rolv -&7]p-oiv, A. ra V. N. G. D. A- V. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. 6 at<5v-e, A. roi)f Giwv-af, V. alow. V. aiwv-e. V. ai&v-eg. Singular. N. 6 darnov, G. roi; damov-of, D. rcj dautov-i, A. rov datuov-a, V daluov. 6 daipw, " Me deity" Dual. N. ra> daiuov-e, G. ro?v daiuov-OLv, D. ro?v daiuov-oiv, A _>. Jf_^ Plural. damov-e, N. o G. rwv Sai[i,6v-G)v t D. ro A. ro V. 6 Aecov, " Singular. Dual. P/wraZ. N. 6 /lewv, N. rw ;ieovr-e, N. oi /leovr-ef, G. row /leovr-of, G. ro?v /ledvr-oiv, G. r<3v Aedvr-wv, D. rai /leovr-i, D. roiv /ledvr-oiv, D. ro?f 7-eov-cri, 4 A. rov/leovr-a, A. ra) /ieovr-e, A. rovf Aeovr-af, V. /leov. V. heovr-s. V. Aeovr-er. 1. We have placed the paradigms before the remarks on the formation of the cases, an arrangement less repulsive to the learner than the other would have been ; though, in strictness, the remarks on the cases ough to come first. 2. Old form aitiv-Gi, whence, by rejecting v before v, D. ra?f ^aAay|-, 5 A. raf 0a/layy-af, V. 1. Old form /la^laTr-o^, whence, by substituting the double letter, we have T&ihaty-i. 2. Old form 7rrepi>y-<7, whence, by substituting for yf, we have 3. Old form Zpur-ffi, whence, by rejecting r before (7, we hav 4. Old form iftdvr-ffi. 5. Old form aka,yy-Gi. THIRD DECLENSION. St?igular. N. 6 # V. P/M-flf. 6 #, " the wood-worm." Singular. Dual. Plural. N. 6 xtf, N. Ki-e, N. oZ Ki-e, G. TO* /a-o'f, G. T0?l> KL-OLVj G. re5v i-wv, D. T6> JK-, D. TOtV KL-OLVj D. ro?f Kt-ffi, A. TOV KL-Vj A. rw Ki-e, A. rovf /-(Zf, V. /a?. V. -e. V. /Ct-f. TO o&pa, " Ae body" Singular. N. TO atijua, G. roi; ati/MT-of, D. TCJ aopaT-i, A. TO V N. T6 S' TC T - ' D. T04V GUftaT-OtV, A. TO) V. N.ra G. TtJV D. T0?f A. ra; V. (7<5/zar-a. EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE IN DECLENSION. JVo/Ti. Gen. oijjj oTrdf, ^Ae vofc. coV, Me ^e^ A. iAe preserver, the herald, the flame, the hair. $6>rdf, the light. -T7?TOf, the friendship. TO fiovhevpa, -aro<; , A counsel. TO [t&i, "^Tr> ^ e honey, rj 7T%.eidc, -ddog , Ae rfoue. ^ Acdpvf, -i^of, f A* helmet. 6 yiyaS) -avTOf, /Ae giant. if bdovg, -dvTOf, tfAc tooth. 6 ylaiy^, -tyyog , 2Ac pebble. i? cdTiTriyj, -i/yof, pof, iAe storm. the starling. the harbour. VVKTOC, the night, theflre. the witness, the orator, the raven, the fox. the ear. -KOC, 6>TOf, 1 . Old form aouar-ai, FORMATION OF THE CASES. 33 FORMATION OF THE CASES. Genitive. As a general rule, the genitive singular of nouns of the third declension is formed by adding og to the termination of the root, such changes taking place, at the same time, as the laws of euphony require. 1. Some nouns, and chiefly those which, in the nomina- tive, end in v or p, form the genitive by adding og to the termination of the nominative ; as, firjv -, " a month," gen. prjv-og ; cram?p, " a preserver" gen. aa)rrjp-og , &c. In the greater part, however, the long vowel in the termination of the nominative is changed into the corresponding short vowel ; as, Ajp/v, " a harbour" gen. hipsv-og ; p/TT/p, " a mother" gen. fj,7jrep-og ; %ehZ6(t>v, " a swallow" gen. %ehi- 66v-og, &c. 2. When the nominative already has a final g , this final letter disappears before the og of the genitive, and the long vowel preceding it in the termination of the nominative is changed into its corresponding short ; as, Tpifjprjg, " a tri- reme" gen. rpifipeog, &c. 3. When the nominative ends in a double consonant, such as |f (which is equivalent to yg, teg, or ;$) or if} (equivalent to f3g, ng, or 0f), the double consonant is re- solved into its component parts, the termination og is ad- ded, and the , or final letter of the root, is thrown out ; as, alt;, " a goat" resolved into alyg, genitive aly-6g ; dAwTr?^, " a fox" resolved into dAwTn//^, genitive (with the short vowel also for the long) dXcj-rrsK-og. So, also, i9p/, " hair" (Tpt%g), gen. rpi%-6g ; , " a vein" (fikepg), gen. 0Ae6- og ; wi/>, " an eye" (WTT^), gen. G)7r-6g ; /ccm/A^, " a roof" (/car7//U0), gen. KaTrjki(j)-og. In like manner, dpvyo(;, Od. 9, 373 ; Eurip. Cyd. 592. So Aapvyof, Schweigh. ad Athen. vol. iv., p. 545. But /Ivy^ " the lynx" has both /U>y/c<5f and Av/ydf. So, also, vv% and avaf make i't;/cr<5f and ava/crof , the r being a part of the root (VVKGT) of the former, and, in the case of the latter, being brought in probably to strengthen 34 ^ FORMATION OF THE CASES. 4. Nominatives in a^, eig, and ovg, being, for the most part, formed from roots ending in avrg, evr$, ovr^ (where the v and r are thrown out, and the preceding short vowel is either made long or else is changed into a diphthong), have their genitives in avrog, evro$, or ovro$. Thus, ele- 0a, " an elephant" (root ehtyavrg), genitive ^e(f>avr-og ; 2>i[j,6ei, " the river Simo'is" (root 2^6evr^), gen. 2>t,p,6evT- o$ ; odovg, " a tooth" (root ddovrg^), gen. ddovr-og. 5. Words which end in a, i, v, add the syllable rog to the termination of the nominative, and thus form the geni- tive case ; as, o&iia, " a body" genitive o&par-os ; jite/U, " honey" gen. pehir-og. Those in v change also this vowel into a before roc; ; as, 66pv, " a spear" gen. ddpar-of : ybvv, " a knee" gen. yovar-o^. In strictness, however these nouns in a, , v come from roots that terminate in r . as, crtipar, \L&IT ; and hence o$ is only added, in fact, to the root. While with regard to the vowel-change in yovv , dopv, and other words of similar ending, it must be borne in mind that the old nominatives were in ag, as yovag, 66- pag (i. e. yovarc;, doparg), whence, of course, the geni tives yovar-og and 66par-o$, by dropping the final g of the root. 1 6. Words in ap make either arog in the genitive ; as, oveiap, " a dream" gen. oveiar-og ; Jjirap, " ^e liver" gen. rjTrar-og ; ^ap, " a ^y," gen. TJfjiar-og ; also vary from the rule above given ; as, <5a/cpv, " a tear," gen. <5a/cot>-of, &C. FORMATION OF THE CASES. 35 8. Nominatives in av$ make aog and rjo$ ; as vav$, " a ship" gen. vaog and VTjog. 9. Nominatives in ef, different from those mentioned in 4, make the genitive in evog ; as, Kreig, " a comb" gen. Krev-og ; or in e^dd^ ; as /cAe/'f, " a ey," gen. /cAe^d^. 10. Nominatives in 77^, other than those alluded to under 2, make the genitive in rjrog and rjOog ; as, (^AdrT/f, "friend- ship" gen. fakorijT-os > TtevTlS, " />00r man" gen. Trevrjr- o$ ; TLdpvrjg, " a mountain on the confines of Attica" gen. Hdpv7]d-o. Here again o^ is added to the termination of the roots, ^AOTT/T^, Trev^rg, &c. 11. Nominatives in ^ make the genitive in to, i(5o^, ^o^, iro^, and n>of. The Attics, however, changed *of into 6>^. Thus, 00^, " a serpent" gen. bfa-og (Ait. o0e- 6)f ) ; e/lmf, " hope" gen. e^TTid-og ; opvig, " a bird" gen. 6pvld-og ; xapig, " a favour" gen. #apn--o ; aKrlg, " a ieam q/" ^e ^Mn," gen. dKTlv-o. All these terminations, like those mentioned in the preceding paragraph, are only added to the several roots. 12. Neuters in make the genitive in 0, which the Attics contract into ov^ ; as, reZ/^of , " a wall" gen. Ti^e-Of, contr. Tei%-ov$. 13. Words in oi;^, other than those mentioned under 4, make the genitive in oof ; as, /3ovc, " an ox" gen. /3o-d^. Some again, when oi;^ arises by contraction from 6eig, gen. 6evro$ , make the genitive in ovvrog ; as, 'OTroi;^, " the name of a city" gen. 'OTTOVVT-O^. So, also, 14. Words in vg make the genitive in v%o$ ; as, " a canal" gen. dia>pv%-o$. Others have vyo^ ; as, " /^e river Styx" gen. Hrvy-oc. 15. Words in v$ make vo^ ; as, daQvs, "the loins" gen. 6a6)rd^ ; epa)^, " fewc," gen. epwr-o^ ; a&&?, " modesty" gen. oWd-Of, contr. atd- tig, perf act. participle of TVTTTW, gen. rerv(p' 36 FORMATION OF THE CASES. Accusative. As a general rule, the accusative singular of nouns of the third declension, that are not neuter, is formed by changing og of the genitive into a ; as, prjv, gen. accus. 1. But nouns in if, vg, avg, and ovg, whose genitive ends in og pure, take v instead of a ; as, Tro/U^, " a city" gen. Ttohi-og, ace. TtoXiv ; vavg, " a ship" gen. wrj-og, ace. vavv ; 8ovg, " an ox" gen. (36-og, ace. /3ovv, &c. 2. Other nouns in , t>c, . So the compounds of ; as, Ppadvirovf, " 5/ow? of foot? ace. /3padv7rod-a, Att. ^ , " CEdipus" ace. Oldfaod-a. Att. O/* The vocative of the third declension is generally like the nominative ; and this is particularly the case among the Attic writers ; as, 6 $?//9, " the wild beast" voc. $?7p ; ^ ^Ae hand" voc. 1. But the endings evg, if, vg, as also the words " a boy" ypavg, " an aged female" and /3ov, " an 0#," cast off their g to form the vocative, and those in ev g then as- sume the circumflex ; as, paaihevf, " a king" voc. /3amh- ev\ ILdpig, "Paris," voc. ILdp-i ; T^^vf, " Tethys," voc. T^0-v ; Tralfj voc. Trat ; ypavg, voc. ypai) ; j3oi;^, voc. /3o. Other nouns in ov^ more frequently retain than drop the f . Thus, OM^TT-oi; is found ; but Qidirrovg is more com- mon. 2. Words in ag and a, which arise from old forms end- ing in avg and evg, and which form their genitive in avog, avrog, or evrog, throw away g in the vocative, and then, for the most part, resume the v ; as, rdhag, " miserable* gen FORMATION OF THE CASES, 37 rdhav-og , voc. rdhav ; A.'lag, " Ajax" gen, Amvr-o^, voc. Alav ; %apteig, " graceful," gen. ^ap/eir-o^, voc. %apiev. But several proper names in a^, avro^, have in the voca- tive only the long a; as, "ArAa$-, gen. "ArAavT-o^, voc "ArAa. 3. Words which have ?/ or w in the termination of the nominative, and the corresponding short vowel (e or o) in the genitive, and which have no acute accent on the last syllable, take the short vowel also in the vocative ; as, p/- TT/p, a mother" gen. p/rep-o^, voc. pTjrep ; p??T6)p, " an orator, gen. pT/rop-o^, voc. prjrop ; I,a)Kpdrrjg, " Socrates" gen. 2>G)KpdT-eo$, voc. Z&Kpareg. If, however, the last syllable of such words has the accent, then the long vowel is retained in the vocative ; as, TTO^T/V, " a shepherd" gen. TToi{iev-o$, voc. TTOijjirjv. But this only applies to nouns, not to adjectives, and hence *Auve^ makes in the voca- tive KskaivetyEg. 4. Words which retain the long vowel in the genitive keep it also in the vocative ; as, IlAarwv, " Plato" gen. ITAarwv-Of, voc. Hkdr-w ; Eevo06)V, " Xenophon" gen. Aevo(p>VT-og, voc. AevcHp-tiv ; irjrrjp, " a physician" gen. tr]Tr}p-og, voc. tyr-rip. But the following three make the vowel short in the vocative ; 'A7roA/l6)i>, " Apollo" gen. ^, voc. ^ATroAA-ov ; IIoc7e^(Jc5v, " Neptune" gen. -o, voc. Il6(7efc(5-oi' ; <70)r?yp, " a saviour" gen. voc. a&rep. 5. Proper names in /cA% make -/eAs^ in the termination of the vocative ; as, N^o/eA^, voc. Ni/cd/eA-e^. Here the nominative was originally -tckerjg, and consequently the vo- cative is -icheeg, contracted K,hei$. 6. Words in o> and 6)^ make ot in the vocative ; as, " Latona" voc. Arjr-ol ; 2a7r0a>, " Sappho" voc. ald&s, " modesty" voc. ald-ol. Dative Plural The dative plural in nouns which end in et> ^, av^, and ot>, is formed by appending t to the termination of the nominative singular ; as, pamhevg, fiaoihevoi ; vav$, vav ai ; j3ov(?, ftovoi. In the case of other nouns, the dative plural is formed by adding , gen. "Apa6-o, dat. pi. "Apaipt, (i. e. v Apaj3(Ji) ; TVTTSL^J gen. TVTTevr-o, dat. pi. rvneloi, (i. e. rvTrevrai) , Kreig, gen. -6$, dat. pi. /erecr/ (i. e. KTSVGI), &c. 1. When the ending <7, on being added to the root, is preceded by a vowel, or, in other words, when the genitive ends in o pure, this vowel remains in the dative plural un- changed, as in the other oblique cases ; as, relftog, gen. Te(^fc-o, dat. pi. Tsi%eoi ; dpv$, gen. dpv-dc, dat. pi. dpvalv ; dkrjdrjg, gen. a/U/fle-o^, dat. pi. ahrjdeai. When, however, the nominative singular has a diphthong, the dative plural takes it also ; as, ftamXevg, gen. j3ad/le-6), dat. pi. paaih- evai, and the other nouns mentioned in the beginning of the previous paragraph. 2. Some nouns in ?/p, gen. -e/oo^, drop the e in the geni- tive and dative singular, and also in the dative plural, and then, in the latter case, insert after p the more sonorous a ; as, TraTT/p, " a father" gen. Trarp-og (from Trarep-og}, dat. i (from Trarep-i), ^ -G)V, D. rolv reix-eoiv , -otv, D. ro? S reix-eGi, A. TO) reix-ee, -*/> A. ra rsix-ea, -Hi V refr-ee f- V. ~n. N. ro G. rov D. r

v, V. Tro/Wff, -eif. TO oivTjTU, " zAe mustard" Singular. Dual. Plural. N. TO GtVTJTT-l, G. Toy Giv7}Tr-eo, D. TtJ GlVTJTT-el, -l, A. TO GiviJTC-l, V. GiVJJTT'-l. N. TO) GtVTJTT-Se, G. TOiV GLVJJTC-EOIV, D. T04V GLV7}7r-OlV, A. TtJ GlVTJTT-ee, N. TO Givr/TT-ea, D. TOif GivrjTr-eai, A. ra GirijTr-Ea, V. GLVTJ'K-Ea. 6. Nouns in f^, gen. vo^, have two contractions, name- ly, ve of the nominative and vocative plural into v$, and vac of the accusative plural into v$. Thus : Singular. N. o ^5-vri G. TOli ^0-liOf, X). TW IxO-vi, A. rbv ixQ-vv, V. ir^-v. -, "the fish." Dual. N. TW IxO-vSj G. To?v IxO-voiv, D. TOiv IxO-voiv, V'. r S(9-S'. P/wm/. N. o/ ixd-ve? G. TO>V ^0-vo D. TOtf txO-VGl A. rove ixO-vae V. -tig. 7. Nouns in evg, and those in vg which make, like them the genitive in 6>, have four contractions, namely, el of the dative singular into ei, ee of the dual into T/, eeg of the nominative and vocative plural into e, and sag of the as cusative plural into eig. But in the last case the imcon tracted eag is the more usual form. Thus CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 41 Singular N. 6 (3aGi?i-V, G. TOV /3aGl?(,-G), D. T6J (3aGlh-l, -?, A. TOV QctGih-ea. V. 6 /3aGihev$, "the king.'' 9 Dual. N. T(J (3aGih-e, -ij, N. ol G. TO?V /3aGih-oiv, G. TWV D. TO?V BaGi?(,-olv, D. A. TW V. -rj, -rj. PfaroZ. paGiTi-eE?, -ti j-, A. V. 8. Neuters in v make the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural in ea, contracted into 77. They also con- tract g into ei, and ee into T/. Thus : Singular. N. TO OCTT-V, G. TOV aGT-OC, D. T

llGT-EUV, D. roZf aGT-eGi, A. ra aGT-sa, -TJ, V. 9. Neuters in a pure and pag reject r by syncope in the Ionic dialect, and are also farther contracted by crasis in the Attic, in every case except the nominative, accusa- tive, and vocative singular, and the dative plural. Thus TO Kpeag, " the flesh" Singular N. TO , .. G. TOV /cpe-czTOf, by syncope Kp- D. T6J Kp-aTl, A. TO Kp-a?. V. Acpe-cc. f, by crasis /cpe-wf. DwaZ. N. TW Kpe-aTe t . . . . Kpe-ae, . . , Kpe-a. G. TOiV Kp-aTOlVj D. TOtV Kpe-6,TOLV, A. TO) Kp-OT, . . . . Kp-doiv, . . . Kp-doiV, . . . Kp-a, . . K.pe-&v. . Kps-a. V. Kps-aT, . . . . upe-ae, . . . Kpe-a. Plural. N. TO; Kpe-aTa, . . . Kpt-aa, . . . Kpi-a. G. T6>V KQ-dTG)V. . . . KDE-dldV, . , . Kpe-&v. D. TOIS Kpt-CLGl. A. TO, Kp~aTa t . . . tcpe-aa, . . . Kp-a. V. Kps-aTa, . . . KpE-aa, . . . Kpi-a. D2 42 CONTRACTIONS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION. TO nepag, " the horn." Singular. N. ro Kep-ag. G. rov Acep-arof, by syncope Acep-aof, by crasis D. r

Trar-epe, N.ol Trar-epef, G. Tov TTdr-EpO , -pdf, G. TOLV TTdT-EpOlV, G. rtiv TTdT-EpUV, -pti D. & Trar-epi, -pi, D. TOiV TTdT-EpOlV, D. TOlf TTdr-pdai, A rbv Tror-epa, A. TCJ TTdT-EOSf A. TOVQ Trar-epaf, V. Trdr-ep. V. TTdT-EpE. V. Tmr-^?. 1. In the same way are declined ILLTJTTJP, " a mother" and yaor^p, " a stomach" except that yacmyp makes in the dative plural yaar^pai, which appears to have been also the old form of TTCLTTJP and pfiT'rjp. It must be remembered, moreover, that Trar^p, firjriip^ and yacTrjp make the ac- cusative singular without contraction. This is done in the case of ^7- r?7p, to prevent its being confounded with fzjjrpa, -af, " a womb ;" in the case of 7rar?7p, to prevent its being confounded with Trarpa, -a^, " a pa- ternal land ;" and in yatrr^p, to prevent similar confusion with yaorpa, -flf, " iAe bofJ,en of a vessel" ANOMALOUS FORMS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 43 6 dvrip, " the man." Singular. N , 6 av-ijp, Gr. TOV av-epoC) -tfpof, D. TGJ av-ept, -dpi, A. TOV av-pa. -Spa. Vm av-Ep. Dual. N . TV av-eps, -dpe, G. TOIV av-epoiv, -dpoiv, D. TOLV av-poiVy -dpoiv, A. r V, av-pe, -dps. Plural. N. o av-epeg, -dpef, G. rdJv av-epcjv, -dpwv, D. rorf av-dpao-^, A. rovf dv-epaf, -dpaf, 11. Some nouns are contracted by either dropping a vowel, or blending two vowels into one, and this contrac- tion takes place in every case. Thus : TO sap, contr. ?jp, " the spring. 13 Singular. N. TO Zap, fjp, G. rov eap-oc, ^pof, D. r(*)KpdT7)g, accusative SaiKpdr'r] and I>G)Kpdrrjv. 8. Nouns in ug sometimes make the genitive in (*) and (*)og. Thus, M.iv(t)g, gen. Mivo) and Miwog ; Trarpcoc, " a paternal uncle" gen. Trdrpa) and Trarpwoc. 9. Nouns in 6>, genitive (*)Tog, sometimes drop the r ; as, Idpug, " sweat" which has not only idp&n and Idp&ra in the dative and accusative, but also rc5 /jpoj and rbv Mpo5, the latter being Attic forms. 10. Nouns in (*)$ and (*)v have sometimes the anomaly still more apparent, since it shows itself even in the nom- inative. Thus, 6 ratig, gen. raw, " the peacock" and 6 ra- cjv, genitive rativog. So, also, rj aAw^, gen. aAa>, " the threshing-floor" and a/U), gen. dhuog. 11. The declension of vavg, a ship, is as follows : rj vavg, " the ship" Attic. Epic and Ionic. Doric. Sing. N. vavg, ^m^-. N. vavg, Szw^-. N. vaf , G. VECJC, G. v^of and veo^, G. vaof , D. wjt, D. V7]l, D. vcrf, A. vavv, A. v^a and veer, A. vaw and v&v* V. vavg. "V. vavc. V. vfif . Dual. N. v^e, Dual. N. i^e, Dwa^. N.vae, G. veolv, G. veolv, G. vaolv, D veoZi>, D. veo?v, D. vaolv, A vfo A. v^e, A. vae, V. wye. V. v^e. V. vae. P7. N. wfcf, P/. N. vyes and reef, P/. N. vaer, G. vefjv, G. veG)v a G. vawv, D. vavai D. v?;i;(7i and veeaai, D. vavai, A. vavf, A. v^af and veaf, A. vfiof, V. v^ef . V. wycf. V. vaec. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 45 12. The noun fiovg, " an ox" makes poog in the geni tive, (3ovv in the accusative, and in the plural, nom. J contracted j3ovg, dative ftoval, accusative /36a, contr. j3o 13 The declension of Zevg is also peculiar. Thus, N. G. Zqvog and Atdf, D. Zqvi. and A*, A. Z^va and Ai'ez, V. Zw. 14. Under the head of anomalies in declension may be ranked the very peculiar paragogic ending in (f>iv or i. This is of very common occurrence in epic poetry, and is used instead of the ordinary dative or genitive singular. The rules that control it are as follows : 1. In the first de- clension, nouns in 77 throw away the a of the genitive ; as from svvrig is formed EVV^LV. The dative, however, ap- pends fav or (f)L at once ; as, evvy, evvqfyiv. 2. If the noun end in o$ or ov, the o alone remains before iv or "" enrd, " seven" &c. 2. The names of the letters ; as, ah(pa, Prjra, &c. 3. The neuter participle TO %petiv, from the impersonal 4. The noun depig, when it occurs in the formula iorL DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 1 . The -ZEolians said Tro^vrrov for Tcohvirovv, the accusa- tive of TTohvTrovg. They also employed yehov for the accusative of yeAwc, and rjp(*)v for ??p6>c. 2. The ^Eolians said 2a7r0G), ATJT&S, in the nominative, instead of 2a7r0o>, AT/TO) . 3. The jEolians frequently employ the termination ev$ instead of qg ; . as, "Apevg for "Aprj$, and form the oblique cases as follows : gen. "Apevo^ ; dat. "Apevt, ; ace. "Apeva The nominative in evg sometimes occurs also in Doric ; as, 'EvfjLTjdevg, Theocrit. 5. 134. 4. The ^Golians and Dorians use in the genitive singular the termination svg instead of eog ; as, -&dfji6evg for $dp,5eog. So, also, evg for eo) ; as, 'A%ikkevg for 'A^AAew^. 5. The ^olians say I>(*)Kpdrov in the genitive instead ol StoKpdrovs ; and in the vocative Z&rcpare. Hence Pericle in Cicero, Off. 1. 40. 8. 6. The Dorians said, in the genitive plural, alydv for al- y&v ; $7]pdv for $7/pc5i> ; and, in the nominative, Tloaeiddv for Hoaeid&v. 7. The Dorians said iroipdv for TTO^T/V, and so through out. So, also, pe(7/, the dative plural of (f>orjv. 8. The Dorians used tcprjg for Kpsag ; and (f)p7]ri for 0pe ar^, the dative of typeap. 9. In such forms as (3ov^ gen. j3oo, the Dorians change ov in all the cases into w ; as, nominative /3a>, Theocrit. 8. 77. ; ace. pi. rd^ pw^ ; dative pi. j3oxm>, &c. 10. The Dorians often employ the termination rjg in the nominative for evg. Thus they say, "Op^rjg for 'Opfavg ; ^//l?/^ for QiXsvc;, &c. 11. The Doric vocative of nouns in evg is formed in as, PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 47 12. In the Ionic dialect, the genitive plural ends in as, dvdpeuv, %eip(*)v, pTjvscjv. 13. Nouns in ig, gen. idog, lose in Ionic the 6*. and those in ag, gen, arog , the r. .Thus, 'Oaipiog for 'Qoipidog ; 0er for 6erj& ; yrjpaog for yrjparog ; Kepaog for neparog. 14. The lonians do not contract the cases of contracti- ble nouns ; as, evidpveg, not evtdpvg. So, also, they say d(f>pvag, ensog, 'HpeweAfiT/c, &c. 15. The lonians decline nouns in evg with 77 not con- tractible ; as, Paaikrjog, TOKTJW, &c. 16. Nouns in ig are declined by the lonians with i con- tractible ; as, Tro/U^, gen. Trohiog ; ofag, gen. 60io^. 17. The lonians are fond of the termination SOL in the dative plural ; as, %eipe(u, tcvveat,, avdnreoi,, &c. XXL PATRONYMIC NOUNS. 1. Patronymics are nouns which designate a son or a daughter. They are derived from the proper name of the father, sometimes also from that of the mother. 2. The MASCULINE PATRONYMICS are of two classes. The first class end in either idrjg, ddqg, or iddTjg, and form the genitive in ov. The second end in iw, and make the genitive in wag, rarely ovog . 3. Patronymics in idrjg and i(*)v are formed from nouns in og of the second declension. Thus, from Kpovog, " Sat- urn" come the patronymics Kpovidyg and "Kpovtov, both meaning " the son of Saturn" i. e., Jupiter. So from Kd- dpog we have Ko6pc6r]g ; from Tdvrahog, TavraMdrjg ; from A.lan6g, AlaKidrjg. 4. Patronymics in Ladrjg are formed from nouns in tog. as, from r 'H/Uof comes 'Rkidti'rjg ; from 'Aoichf)mog, *A<7 KkrjTnddrig ; from Aaepriog, Aaepnddrjg. 5. Patronymics in ddijg come from nouns in rjg and ag oi the first declension. Thus, from 'ImrorTjg comes 'IrnTOTd- drjg ; from 'Ahevag, 'AXevddTjg. 6. In nouns of the third declension the genitive serves as the basis of derivation. If the penult of the genitive be short, the patronymic from og is formed in idqg ; as, from 48 ADJECTIVES. gen. -ovo<;, comes 'Aya^spvovid^g ; from 0eo- T(*)p, gen. -opog, QeoropiSTjg ; from A^rw, gen. -oof, A^rot- <5?7, &c. But if the penult of the genitive be long, the patronymic ends in iddfjg ; as, from Te/tefywov, gen. comes TeXafj,a)Vidd7]g ; from 'A^irpvc^v, gen. -6)i>o, 7. Nouns in svg, which in Ionic have the genitive in 7?0, give rise to the patrymonic form Tj'iddrjg. Thus, from II??- favg, gen. -rjog, comes ILri^'iddrj^ ; from nep<7ev, gen. -7/0^, Heporjiddrjg. But since these have also the termina tion c^g in the genitive, which continued to be the prevail- ing one in the Attic and common dialects, hence arose, from Ilepaevs, gen. Xle/oaewc, the patronymic form ILepaeidrjg ; from 'Arpevg , gen. 'Arpec^, the form 'Arpeidrjg. 8. The FEMALE PATRONYMICS have four terminations, namely, either idg, i$, ivrj, or i&vr\. Thus, from comes Bpioqic; ; from "ArAaf , 'A.rXavri^ ; from 'Adprjorivrj ; from 'AKpiat,o$, 'Ajcpiai&vr]. It is to be re- marked, that the termination wr\ arises when the primitive has a consonant before its own termination, and the termi- nation I&VT\ when the primitive has before its ending the vowel i or v. XXII. ADJECTIVES. 1. The declensions of adjectives are three. 2. The first declension of adjectives has three termina tions ; the second, two ; the third, one. 3. Adjectives of three terminations are the most numer- ous, and have the feminine always in 77, except when pre csded by a vowel or the letter p, m which cases it ends in a. Thus : deity, deihov, "cowardly? Katy, Kakov, "handsome,* trod?/, oofyov, "wise" ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 49 But, ayta, ayiov, lepd, lepov, "friendly;" "holy;" " sacred." 4. The masculine termination in o$ and the neuter in ov are inflected after the second declension of nouns. The feminine termination in 77 or a is inflected after the first de- clension of nouns. 5. Adjectives in oo, however, have the feminine in 77 , as, 6ydoo, dydor} ; $oo, dor]. But, when o precedes, these have also a ; as, dftpoog, aftpoa. 1. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 1. Termination in o$. wse. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. <700-0f, -^, -OV, N. GO(f>-6, -d, -6, N. G0(f>-oi, -at, -a, G. aoip-ov, -TJ, -ov, G. G0(j)-olv, -alv, -olv, G. GO(j)-tJV, -&V, -C)V, D. G0(j)-ti, -#, -GJ, D. G0(j)-olv, -alv, -olv, D. <7o0-o?f, -a^f, -off, A. G0(j>-6v -Tjv, -6v, A. Go-Gj, -a, -c5, A. Go6-ov, -a?, -d, V.GO-, -rj, -6v. V. G0(f>-cj, -d, -c5. 1 V. God>-oi, -at, -d. lepog, "sacred." Singular. Dual. Plural. N. Jep-oY, -a, -ov, N. iep-t5, -a, -c5, N. lep-ot, -at, -a, G. lep-ov, -af, -ov, G. lep-olv, -alv, -olv, G. lep-tiv, *&v, -&v, D. iep-c5, -a, - Thus 50 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. %pvoeo$, contr. % Singular. N. #pvff-eof, -ea, -eov, G. ^pvff-eov, -eaf , -eov, OV, ^f, OV, N.*P G.^p D. ^p "gotten." Dual. vc-eo, -ea, -/. cj, a, w, o?v, atv, o?v, VG-COIV, -eaiv, -EOLV, &, y, CJ, olv, alv, olv, A. #pv<7-eov, -eav, -eov, A. ^p vff-eo), -ea, -ew, ovv, 7/V, OVV, ft, a, cj, V. xpvo-ee, -C2, -eov, v. A:P VG-(I), -ea, -Q, ty, OVV. w, d, w. Plural. N. %pv<7-eo, -eaj, -ea, or, a?, a, G. < pvo > -eotv, -daiv, -dofv, o?v, a?v, o?v, 091V, -OCLLV, -do^v, olv, alv, olv, da), -da, -00), w, ^d, 0), do), -da, -do), >, d> w. ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 51 Plural N. dirh-ooi, -oai, -da, ol, al, a, G. an' D. A. i V. 01, -oaf, -oat, at, -da, a, -da, 4. Termination in ag. 1. Adjectives in af have aiva in the feminine, and av in the neuter ; but participles in af have the feminine in aoa. 2. The adjective ird$, " a/Z," " every? is declined like a participle. Singular. N. ^ze/l-af, - - Xapi-ev t ) saaa t -ev. " comely." Dual. N. x a pt- VTS > -eaaa, -evre, G. ^api-evroiv, -eaaaiv, -evron,, D. ^apt-evroiv, -eaaaiv, -evroiv, A. ^ap-evre, -effGa, -evre, N. ^0-evra t -etcrav, -ev, V. Tv0-ei<;, -eioa, -ev. Dual. N. rvtyd-evre, -eiaa, G. rv(j>6-evTOiv t -eiaaiv, -evrow, D. rvtyd-evTOiv, -eicaii', -ivroiv t A. Tvd-VTO)v, -eiativ, -EVTUV, D. TvQd-Eifft, -iaai t -eiat, A. TV(j>0-VTac, -sicraz, -EVTa, V. TV(pd-VTg, -steal, -svra. The termination yet?, belonging to this head, is often tontracted. Thus, -7jei, -rjeaaa, -rjsv, are contracted into , rjv ; as, for example, N. Tijj,-iJ, G. &C. 6. Termination in Adjectives in TJV have the feminine in eiva and the neu- ter in ev. Of these, however, we find only one form exis* ing in Greek, namely, reprjv, repeiva, repev. repr]v, " tender." Singular. Dual. N. ' G. D. TEp-EVl, -Eivrf, -EVl, A. TEp-sva, -Eivav, -EV, V. TEp-EV, -EtVtt, -EV. N. TEp-EVE, . -ElVa, -EV, G. TEp-Evoiv, -eivaiv, -EVOIV, D. TEp-Evoiv, -sivaiv, -EVOIV, A. TEp-EVE, -ELVa, -V f V. TEp-EVE, -Eiva, -eve. Plural. N. TEp-ev?, -sivai, -eva, G. TEp-EVUV, -eiVUV, -EVUV 9 D. Tp-Gi, -eivaig, -EGI, A. TEp-Eva^, -eivag, -Eva, V. Tp-EV, -ElVttl, -EVtt. 7. Termination in oeig, contracted ov$. Adjectives in oeig are contracted throughout, and form the feminine in osaca, contr. ovaca, and the neuter in dev, contr. ovv. E 2 54 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. , contracted [iehiTOv$, " made of honey." Singular. Dual. N. G. D. A. V. m -0l, -oEGGa, -oev, N. fiefar-oevre, -OEGGa, -oevre, ovc, OVGGa, OVV, ovvre, ovGGa, ovvre, r-oevrog, -OEGGTJC, -osvrog, G. ftefar-oEvroiv, -oeGGaiv, -oevroiv, ovvroc, OVGGTJC, OVVrO, ovvroLv, ovGGaiv, ovvroiv, r-oEvri, -OEGGy, -osvri, D. [tehir-oEvroiv, -oeGGaiv, -oevroiv, own, OVGGTI, ovvri, ovvrotv, ovGGatv, ovvroiv, ~-oevra, -OEGGav, -OEV, A. pehir-oevre, -OEGGa, -oevre, ovvra, OVGGaV, OVV, ovvre, ovGGa, ovvre, r-oev, -OEGGa, -OEV, V. [JLehir-oevre, -OEGGa, -oevre, ovv, OVGGa* OVV. ovvre, ovGGa, ovvre. Plural N. /ze/Ur-dev ref, -osGGai, -oevra, ovvreg, ovGGai, ovvra, G. fiehir-OEvrw, -OEGGCJV, -osvrw, ovvruv, OVGGUV, ovvruv, D. fjLehir-oeGi, -osGGaif, -OEGL, OVGt, OVGGaiC, OVGl, A. [tehir-oEvrac, -6eGGa$, -oevra, ovvrag, ovGGa, ovvra, V. fJLehir-oevres, -oeGGai, -oevra, ovvreg, ovGGai, ovvra. 8. Termination in ovg uncontr acted. This form belongs to participles, and makes the feminine in ovaa and the neuter in ov. v$, " having given. ' N. G. D. 66vr-t, A. dovr-a, dovG-av, V. dovf, dovG-a, Singular. oovG-a, oov, dovG-rjg, 66vr-o, dovr-i, 66v, 66v. Dual. N. 66vr-s, dovG-a, dovi-e, G. 66vr-OLv, dovG-aiv, dovr-oiv, D. 66vr-oLVj dovG-aiv, $6vr-oiv y A. dovr-e, dovG-a, S6vr-e, V. dovr-E, 6ovG-a, 66vr-e. Plural. N. 66vr-<;, dovG-ai, dovr-a, G. Jdvr-wv, dovG-tiv, dovr-uv, D. SOVG-I, 6ovG-atc, OVG-I, A. dovr-ac, dovG-ac;, 66vr-a, V. 66vr-, dovG-ai, S6vr-a. 9. 'Termination in vq. 1 Adjectives in t^ make the feminine in sla and the ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. 55 neuter in v. They also contract el into e, and ee$ and ea$ into elg. 2. Participles in vg make the feminine in vaa and the neuter in vv. N. G. vg, "sweet." Singular. Dual, -ela, -v, N. 7j6-ee, -eta, -e, G. T]6-eoiv, -eiaiv, eoiv, D. bd-toiv. el, el, A. jytJ-vv, -e?av, -v, V. j}6-v, -e?a, -v. N. G. G. #<$-etn>, D. ijd-sai, A. -eiaic, -sai, -ea, V. ^(5-eef, -eftw, -ea. A. jjd-ee, -eia, -ee, V. J7<5-&, -eta, -^e. -ea, Singular. iS. evyv-v, -vaa, -vv, G. evyv-vvroc, -varjs, - D. vyv-vvTij -vffy, -vv^ A. Zevyv-vvra, -vaav, -vv, V. $Evyv-vs, -voa, -vv. "joining." Dud. N. Zevyv-vvre, -vaa, -VVTS, G. evyv-vvroiv, -vcctiv, -vvroiv, D. Zevyv-vvroiv, -vaatv, -vvroiv, A. ^evyv-vvre, -wa, -vvre, V. evyv-vvre, -iff a, -vvre Plural. N. ^evyv-wref, -vaat,, -vvra, G. Zevyv-vvTCJV, -vcrtiv, -VVTCJV, D. evyv-vai, -vacu?, -vet, A. Zevyv-vvTas, -vaag, -vvra, V. Zevyv-vvrec, -vaat, -vvra. 10. Termination in (*)v. The termination in wi> makes ovda in the feminine and or in the neuter. There are but two adjectives of this ter- mination, namely, CKCJV, with its compound dercw, con- tracted by the Attics into anuv. All the other forms in * are participles. 56 ADJECTIVES OF THREE TERMINATIONS. e/ctiv, " willing" Singular. N. IK-&V, -ovaa,^ D. IK-OVTI, -ovay, A. ^/c-dvra, -ovaav, "V. /c-cSv, -oitoa, -ov, -dv. Dual. N. in-ovre, -ovcra, -ovre, G. IK-OVTOLV, -ovaaiv, -OVTOIV, D. in-ovroLVj -ovacuv, -OVTOIV, A. &K-OVT8, -OVGd, -OVT, V. kK-6vrej -ovaa, -ovre. Plural N. tK-ovre?, -ovcai, -ovra, G. SK-OVTUV, -OVGUV, -ovrw, D. iic-ovGi, -ovaai, -ovai, A. iK-ovra^ -ovaa?, -ovra, V. K-6vre, -ovaai, -ovra. " striking." Singular. N. rvTrr-tov, -ovcra, G. r^Trr-ovrof, -ovarjf, D. rvTrr-oam, -ovay, -ovn, A. rvTrr-ovra, -ovaav, -ov, V. rvTrr-wv, -ovcra, -ov. N. r^Trr-ovre, -ovcra, -ovre, G. TVTTT-OVTOIV, -OVffaiV, "OVTOtVf D. rvTrr-dvroiv, -ovaaiv, -OVTOIV, A. TVTTT-ovre, -ovaa, -ovre, V. rvTrr-ovre, -ovaa, -ovrs N. ruTrr-ovref, -ovaai, -ovra, G. rvTrr-dvrov, -OVJTWV, -dvrcjv, D. TVTrT-ovci, -overate, -ovvi, A. ruTTT-ovrac, -ovcraf, -ovra, V. rvTrr-ovreg, -ovaat, -ovra. Some participles in wv, contracted from aw^, make the feminine in wcra and the neuter in cSv. Thus : Tifj,d(*)v, contracted Singular. N. rf//-dwv, -dovffa, wv, (Dcra, G. n/z-dovrof, -aov, 6>V, D. Tip-dovrij -dovarf) -dovTL, &VTL) tiG^i UVTl, A. Tifi-dovra, -dovaavj -dov, tivra, cJcav, &v, V. Ttfi-duvy -doucra, -dov, tiv, tDaa, v. , " honouring." Dual N. Tiju-dovre, -dovaa, -aovre, wvre, 6><7a, G. TLfi-dovTOiv, -dovaaiv, -dovrow, &VTOIV, tiaaiVj tivroiv, D. rtfi-dovroiv, -dovaaw, -dovroiv, tivroiv, tiaaiv, tivroiv f A. np-dovre, -dovaa, -dovre, V. Tijut-dovTC, -dovaa, 6>(raf, c5vra, -dovcai, -dovra, tiaat. tivra. D. A. V. Wfff, 11. Termination in a)f. This termination also belongs to participles. The fem- inine is in via and the neuter in 6g. rerv(j)b)g, " having struck" Singular. Dual. N. Teru(j>-6, -via, -of, N. reri^-ore, -via, -ore, G. reru^-orof, -via?, -drof, G. rervQ-oroiv, -viaiv, -OTOLV D. Teru-oTi, -via, -6ri y D. rervQ-oTOLv, -viaiv, -OTOLV, A. rerv^-ora, -v?av, -df, A. rerv0-6re, -via, -ore, N. G. rerv0-6rcjv, -yitav, -or D. Terv(f)-6ai, -viais, -oai, A. rert;0-6raf, -vias, -6r6ot--G), -w, -w, V. vdo!;~a), -w, -w. N. evdo-oi, -01, -a, G. ev66^-uv, -&v, -avrwv, -dvrov, D. ae'iv-aci, -aai, -act, A. aeiv-avrac, -avra<;, -avra, V. aeiv-avre?, -avre?, -avra. 3. Termination in TJV. dpprjv, " male." Singular. N.< G. , D. apf^evi, -eve, -evi, A. d/5/5-eva, -eva, -ev, V. d/5/3-ev, -rv, -ev. N. apf)-eve, -eve, -eve, G. afy-evoiv, -evotv, -evoiv, D. af)f)-evoLV, -evotv, -evoiv, A. d/5/5-eve, -eve, -eve, V. d/5/S-eve, -eve, -eve. 4DJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 59 Plural. N. afifi-eve?, -eve?, -eva, G. afifi-evuv, -evuv, -evcjv, D. af>{*-effi, -eo*i, -eat, A. af>f)-eva? r -eva?, -eva, V. afifheve?, -eve?, -eva. 4. Termination in 7]g. Adjectives in qg of two terminations undergo contrac- tion, changing eog into ovg ; e't into el ; ea and ee into ^,&c. Singular. Dual. N. Q$,7?0-57f, -^r, -f, N. d; \ri6-ee. -ee, -ee, G. a^^-e'of, -eof, -eof, G. atyO-eo\v, -ioLV, -eoiv, OVf, OVf, oiJf, oiv, oiv, oiv, D. akrjQ-ei, -el, -e7, D. d; irjd-eoLv, -eoiv, -eoiv, el, el, e?, oiv, oiv, oiv, A. afyO-ea, -ea, A. d/ \TjQ-ee, -ee. -ee, V. d/l^^-ef, -fc -^f. V. ,7j6-ee, -ie\ -e>l ^ 4 ^- Plural. N. a?i7jd-ee?, -eef, -ea, e?f, e^, * G. afyd-euv, -ectv, -ecjv, tiv, tiv, t5v. D. a,7^fj6-e(fi, -e&i, -e<7Z, A. ahqO-ea?, -ea?, -ea, el?, el?, ^> V. afyd'ee?, -ee?, -e'a, el?, el?, jy. 5. Termination in i$. ev%api, " acceptable." Singular. N. evxap-i?, -L?, G. evxap-tro?, D. evxap-iTi, -in, A. < V. evxap-LTi, -ITL, -i' evxap-iTa, \ -ITO, j or > or > -ij -v, ) -w, ; N. G. D. A. el^ap-jre, V. -tre, -re, -ITOIV, -iroiv, -iroiv, -ITOIV -ire, -ire, -/re, -ire. 60 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. Plural N. ev^ap-iref, -iref, -tra, G. evxap-iruv, -irttv, -iruv, D. evxdp-Lat t -iffi, -iOY, A. ev#ap-iraf, -ira^, -iva, V. evrap-iref, -iref, -ira. 6. Termination in ovg. Adjectives in ovg of two terminations have the accu- sative singular in -oda or -ovv, and the vocative in or -ov. dlnovg, " two-footed." Singular. Dual. N. diTT-OVf, -OVf, D. d/TT-odi, -odi, A. dtTr-oda, ^ -oda, or -OWj V. diTT-OVf, j, ^ -oda, ^ > or > -ow, ', ) -ow, ) -ovg , ^ -ovf, ^ or > or > -ow. -ov, 5 -ov, 5 N. diTT-ode, -ode, -ode, A. dtTT-ode, -ode, -ode, V. d/7r-ode, -ode, -ode I PZwra/. N.. G. diTr-odwv, -odwv, -6 D. diTT-OCTi, -00*i, -OCTi, A. d/TT-odaf, -oda^, -oda, V ^iTr-odef, -odef, -oda. 7. Termination in v$. Adjectives in v? of two terminations contract veg and vac into v^. adaupvg, " tearless." Singular. Dual. N. ada/cp-vf, -vf, -v, G. addicp-vot;, -vo? t D. ada/cp-vi, -Vi, -vi, A. adaKp-Wf -vv, -v, V. ada/cp-v, -v, -v. N. ada/ep-ve, -ve, -ve, G. adanp-voiv, -voiv, -voiv, D. adaicp-voiv, -votv t -vow, A. dda/cp-ue, -ve, -ve, V. adaKp-ve, -ve, -ve. ADJECTIVES OP TWO TERMINATIONS. 61 Plural. N. adaKp-veg, -vee, -va, VC, vg, G. aSaicp-vuv, -vuv, -vuv, D. addicp-vaL, -VGL, -vac, A. adaKp-va^, -vac, -va, v?, V, V. adaKp-vec, -veg, -va. Vf, V. 8. Termination in (*)v. G(f>(/)pG)v, " discreet." Singular. Dual. N. GU&p-QV, -d)V, -OV, G. GG)(&Q-OVOC, -OVOC, "OVOC, D. GGMftp-OVL, 'OVL, -OVL, A. Gaxfrp-ovOi -ova, -ov, V. G(J(j)p-OV, -OV, -OV. N. Gup-ove, -ove, -ove, G. GG)({>p-6vOLV, -OVOLV, -OVOLV, D. GG)p-6vc<)v t -6va)v, -ovov, + D. ooQp-ocn, -OGI, -OGI, A. GuQp-ova?, -ovag, -ova V. <7c5^o-ovef, -oveg, -ova. Under tliis same head fall comparatives in (*)v, which are declined like crw^pwv, except that they are syncopated and contracted in the accusative singular, and in the non> inative, accusative, and vocative plural. Thus : fiei&v, "greater" Singular. Dual. N. fj,ei-Qv, -wv, -ov, G. fei-ovo t -ovoe, -ovog, D. fj,ei-ovi, -OVL, -OVL, A. pe%-ova, \ -ova, \ -ov, A. pe%-ove, -ove, -ove, (,-ova, \ -ova, \ -ov, oa syncope, > -oa, > -w crasis, 5 -w, ) V [iei-ov 9 -ov, -ov. N. pel-ove, -ove, -ove, G. fj,ei-6voLV, -OVOLV, -OVOLV, F D. fiet^-ovoiv, -OVOLV, -ovoiv, A. peg-ove, -ove, -ove, V. /*e/-ove, -ove, -ove. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. Plural. N. fjLel-ov t -oef, syncope -ovf, crasis, G. D. A. V. j -over, \ ;ope, -oef, ?. is, 3 -ovf, > -ova, -oa, -o, -ovov, -00*4, -oef, syncope, -ovf. crasis, ;-ovaf, j -ovaj , ^ -ova, j -oaf, syncope, > -oaf, > -oa, > -ovf, crasis, 3 -ovf, 3 -w, 3 7 -over, ) -ova, j rope, > -oef, > -oa, > is, 3 -Off, 3 -6>. 3 N. G. D. A. V.'u 9. Termination in cop. , " magnanimous" Singular. -a>p, -op, -opof, -opof, -op*, -opf, -opa, -op, -op, -op. N. //eya/l^r-ope, G. /' -ope, -opotv, -dpoiv, -ope, -ope, -opoiv, -ope, -ope. Plural. N. G. D. A. V. -opa, -opov, -opwv, -opo"i, -opci, -opaf, -opa, -opa. 10. Termination in < , "fertile." N. ., G. evye-o, D ' A. V. Singular. -wv, -CJV, Plural. *- N L 2 ; /w ^^ G. evye-wv, r>. ,' A. L ., V. evy Dual. N. evye-w, -w, -o, G. eiJye-6)v, -yv, -^>v, D. ei)ye-v. A. evye-6>, -, -o, V. evye-6>, -Q, -. -o, -w. ADJECTIVES OP ONE TERMINATION. 63 3. ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION. Adjectives of one termination, namely, which express the masculine, feminine, and neuter by one and the same ending, are the cardinal numbers from TTEVTK, "five" to efcarov, " a hundred" both inclusive. Others have indeed only one termination, but for the masculine and feminine merely, since they are not used with substantives of the neuter gender, at least in the nom- inative and accusative singular and plural. They are properly of the common gender, wanting the neuter. 1 Such are, 1. Adjectives compounded of substantives which remain unchanged ; as, [iaKp6%eip, avrofteip, evpiv, paKpaiuv, \LCL- tpavxrjv, from %dp, piv, al&v, and av%r)v, except those compounded of novg and TroAif, which have two termina- *ions. 2. Adjectives in 6>p, which are partly derived from Trarrjp and prjTTjp; as,aTrar6)p, dp/rwp, Ojuopfrwp ; and partly from verbs; as, mutfoAeTWjO, dpoyevertop, [iidartop. 3. Adjectives in 77$*, genitive -rjrog, and in 6), genitive -o)TO; as, adpfc, i}\LiQvf\<;, ayv(*), a)^odp^. 4. Adjectives in TTTJ^ and rrjg, according to the first de- clension; as, sv&Tcrjg, eOehovrrjg. 5. Adjectives in g and T/'J as, ^/U| , (^olvi^ ayUi/>, alOiorf. 6. Adjectives in ag, genitive -adog, and in ig, genitive fdog; as, ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. 1. Originally some adjectives had two forms, of both of which certain cases have been retained in use, so that the 1. Sortie of these, however, are also used as neuters, but only in tho genitive and dative singular and plural; as, afi^LTprjTog avT^iov^ Soph. Philoct. 19 ; kv irevTjri au/LiaTi, Eurip. El. 375 ; aTCTTJeiv reneat, Euen. Epigr. 13. In other words, the neuter, when necessary, is supplied by derivative or kindred forms ; as, /3Aa/a/eov, dpnaKTiKov, puwxov, &c. 64 ANOMALOUS ADJECTIVES. cases which are wanting in one form are supplied by those of the other. Of this kind are peyas or p,eydho$, and TTO* hvg or TroAAog-. 2. From peydhog, the feminine jj,eydk7] has remained in use throughout, as well as the entire dual and plural, and the genitive and dative masculine and neuter of the singu lar number. The remaining cases, the nominative and ac- cusative singular, masculine and neuter, are taken from \ii ya$. I 3. In TTokvg, the feminine and the dual and plural num bers are entirely taken from N -- G. jLLeydhov, ?' A. j V. / ^eya^, "great." Singular, peydfy, piya, Dual. N.. G. fieydhoiv, D. / A. [teydTio, ueydha, V.. - fieydhov, [ieya, ' P/tira*. N. /zeydAoi, fieydhai, fteydlia, G. fj,eyd^cjVj fzeydhuv, fteydhw, D. j A. fieydhov?, V. fixydhoi, peydha, peydTia. Singular. G. TTO/lAoi), TTO/l^f, A. Tro/lw, V. Tco7(,v, "mwcA." 1 .Dwa/. N. TTO^ylw, TToA/ld;, G. TroA/loZi', 7ro/l/lary D. TTo/l/lo?^ A. 7ro/U The adjective ahXog is anomalous only in this, that it has *AAo in the neuter instead of REMARKS ON THE TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES 1. Adjectives in -alo$, having the vowel i before alog t denote magnitude or value, and are derived from the names of measures, weights, coins, and denominations of money ; as, 7T7]%v La-log, " a cubit long ;" irodialog, " a foot long ;" Tahavrtalog, " costing a talent ;" &c. Those in alog, on the other hand, which have not i before aloe;, generally de- note the place where something has originated, or to which it belongs ; as, TTTjyaloc;, "proceeding from," or, " belonging to, a fountain ;" a/yehalog , " belonging to a herd ;" Kopv- c/)(uog, " one who is at the head. 93 Some, however, denote merely a quality ; as, ae^rjvalog, " moon-shaped;" elpyvalog, "peaceable." 2. Adjectives in -dheog mostly express a fulness ; as, dappdheog, "full of confidence ;" deipdkeog, "full of fear" 3. Adjectives in -avo$ mostly signify the possession of the quality expressed by the primitive ; as, irevKedavog, " bitter ;" piyedavog, " that which causes shuddering." . 4. Adjectives in -eiog commonly express an origin or source ; as, %rjveio(;, (36eLog, iTnreiog, |W??/le0, &c., " consist- ing of" or, " derived from, geese, cattle, horses, sheep," &c Others denote rather an agreement with, or resemblance to, a thing ; as, dvdpelog, " becoming a man ;" jvvaiKelog, " ef- feminate" or, " becoming a woman." 5. Adjectives in -eog, contracted ov$, express the mate- rial ; as, %pvaeo, -ovg, " made of gold;" Xiveog, -ov$, " made of linen," /loyc5d?7, " shining like flre ;" dv6pG)6r)g, " manly." In this sense these adjectives coin- cide with those in -o<5?fc, and are probably formed from them. 15. Adjectives in -G)hog signify a propensity or tenden- cy to anything ; as, d^orw/lof, "prone to sin;" * prone to lying.* DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 67 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 1. The property expressed by an adjective can usually be attributed to more objects than one. Yet it is seldom found exactly to the same extent in one as in another, but it is possessed by one in an usual degree, by another in a higher or in a pre-eminent degree. 2. Now, if one and the same property be attributed to two different objects, and these be compared with each other in reference to the measure of this property, there arises a new form of adjective, namely, the comparative. 3. But, if a property exists in many objects, and one of them is to be distinguished as possessing this property in the greatest degree, this is also effected by a new form, called the superlative. 4. These two forms are called degrees of comparison , and, for the sake of uniformity, a corresponding appella- tion has also been given to the simple form of the adjec- tive, namely, the positive. Strictly speaking, however, the positive is no degree of comparison, but merely the primi- tive form, on which the comparison is based. FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. I. The degrees of comparison are formed from the pos- itive ; namely, the comparative, by appending the termi- nation -repo$, a, ov ; and the superlative by appending -ro- roc, ?y, ov. II. These terminations are appended to the root of the positive in the following manner : 1. Adjectives in o$ and vg throw away ; as, 6eiv6$, deivorepog, dscvorarog ; evpvg, evpvrepoc;, evpvrarog. If the penultimate syllable of adjectives in og is short in the positive, then o is changed into G> in the comparative and superlative ; as, cro^o^, Goty&repog, ao^rarog ; KaOd- po, KaOap&repog, 1. This rule abeit the penult of the positive appears to have been 68 FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 2. Adjectives in eog, contracted ovg, form their compai ative and superlative regularly from the uncontracted pos itive, and then undergo contraction ; as, 7Top(f)vpeog, contr nopfivpovg, compar. Trop^vpetirepog, contr. Tropcftvptirepog, superl. TTOpcfrvpetirarog, contr. nop^vptirarog. 3. Adjectives in oog, contracted ovg, append -earepog, -eararog, to the root, and always contract this termination with the syllable that precedes ; as, evvoog, contr. evvovg, compar. (evvoiarepog) evvovarepog ; superl. (evvoeararog] evvovararog. 4. Adjectives in -ag, aiva, av, append repog and rarog to the neuter ; as, uehag, pekavrepog, pehavrarog. 5. Adjectives in 7jg and en; shorten these terminations into eg, and then append repog and rarog ; as, dkTjOrjg, dkTjOearepog, dkTjde zrarog j %apieig, xapiearepog, %apiea- rarog. 6. But adjectives in 77^, genitive ov, of the first declen- sion, annex tarepog and lararog to the root ; as, 7. Adjectives in o)v append earepog and eararog to the root ; as, dw^pow, genitive ati^pov-og, compar. ov^povea- repog, superl. ?7/Uf, genitive d&fjkuc-og, compar. d(/>r]hi,Kearepog, superl. d(f)7]Xt,Keararog. III. Some dissyllabic adjectives in vg and pog reject caused by the conditions of hexameter verse, the oldest measure in the Greek language, and by which that language itself was first formed. Thus, for example, a comparative in orepof, with the preceding syllable short, consequently -~ ww , would not have been admissible into the hexam- eter. The same objection would apply to a comparative in tirepoc;, with .the preceding syllable long (except where another long syllable went be- fore the latter), since the result would be ~ " ~. EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES 69 these terminations, and use, in their stead, luv (neuter IQV) for the comparative, and IGTO$, 77, ov for the superlative, Thus, ykvKv$, yhvtcl(*)v, yhvtuarog ; 1. The adjectives compared in the latter way are, how- ever, but few in number, neither is this mode of compar- ison exclusively used even in their case, since the com- mon terminations orepog and vrepog y orarog and vraro^, also occur. 2. Generally speaking, of those in po, the formation i(*)v, IOTO$, predominates only in alo^pog and e%6pog ; and of those in vg, only in rjdv$ and ra^vq. In all the others, the regular form must be regarded throughout as the more usual. Thus ppadvrepog is the more common form, where- as /3pa6i(*)v occurs only in poetry. EXCEPTIONS TO THE PRECEDING RULES. 1. Some adjectives in og reject o before repog and ra- TO$ ; as, yepaiog, yepairepog, yepalrarog ; Trepalog, nepat- rspog, TTSpaLraros, &c. The adjective 0Aof has for its usual forms 0^/lrepo^, (pi^rarog ; besides which, however, fahaiTepog, and even the regular v, of paKpog, be explained. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. I. The comparative and superlative remain in several adjectives, whose positive has grown into disuse. These are noted most easily in connexion with some extant posi- tive, to which they approximate the nearest in respect of signification. Hence the following list : Good. Bad. h Long. Great, dpefov, Kappuv, KdKltoV, dpiarog. ttpdriarog. (f)spiarog. ipepTiarog. uanporepog, ' < pefyv, > jtte' ( [jLeifav, J IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 71 r [ I peiorepog, Small [UKp6$, J peiuv, ), ehdaaav, j Easy, pddiog, paw, . paarog. 1. That these various forms were not used in exactly the same signification is certain ; but it is also equally cer- tain that no settled distinction between them was universal- ly observed. 2. The proper comparative and superlative of dya06f, namely, ayad&rspog and dyaS&Tarog , occur only in later writers, and such as are not Attic ; as, for example, in Di odorus Siculus, 16. 86. II. Some comparatives and superlatives are evidently de- rived from substantives, adverbs, and prepositions. Thus : Compar. Superl. Trporepog, Trpwro^, from Trpd. vrreprepog, vTrsprarog, " vnep. av&repog, dva>rarog, " ava). vararog, " VTTO. ercupog. To these may be added the following comparisons of ad- ?erbs. Thus : tfttTG) Ifr, (76), TroppwrepO), 7ropp6)rar6). III. A few instances occur, where, to cypress a stil] 72 NUMERALS. higher gradation of an idea, a degree of comparison be- comes ho positive to a new formation ; as, ea^arog, " last" ^j ea^ar^rarog, " last of all ;" Trpwro^, "first? g, "first of all" " the very first." IV. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, the formation of a comparative and superlative from the root of the positive w*as not usual, but the gradation of idea was expressed by adding the adverbs pdkhov (" wore") ra, (" most"}. Thus, rpwrdf, " vulnerable" rpu- v, " more vulnerable ;" ftvyros, " mortal" v, "more mortal;" o^Ao^, "evident" jita/l/ M more evident" drj^og [idhiora, " most evident" XXIII. NUMERALS. 1. Numerals are either Cardinal or Ordinal. 2. The cardinal numbers answer to the question, " how many ?" as, elg, " one ?' dvo, " two ;" rpelc;, " three" &c. 3. The ordinal numbers answer to the question, " which in order ?" as, Trpoiro^, "first;" devrepog, " second;" rpiro^^ " third," &c. 4. For marks of number the Greeks employ the letters of their alphabet ; but, to make the number complete, they insert therein a " after e, called emorjpov^ or Fav, 1 and an- swering to our 6 ; and they also adopt two Oriental char- acters, namely, Koppa, t^ for 90 ; and Sampi, "^ for 900. 2 7. When the letters are employed to denote numbers, a mark resembling an accent is placed over them ; but to des- ignate the thousands the same mark is placed below. Thus, 1. The appellation cr'typa, is also sometimes given to this character. The name Fav refers to the circumstance of its occupying the place of the digamma in the alphabetic order. X. The original mark for the noima was 9> whence comes the Latin Q. The 2a/*7T? is no doubt to be traced back in name to the old name for the letter f, namely e&v, and appears to have been formed from the union of this letter with a TT, the early form of the Greek S having been C. Buttman thinks that the earlier name of the numeral in question was Say, and that SC^TT? came in as an appellation at a later period. NUMERALS. 73 a is one, but a one thousand. So &' is twenty, but y /c twenty thousand. 8. These marks above and below the letters are not ex- pressed in the case of every letter, when we have several letters placed side by side, and indicating a series of num- bers, but only over or below the last of each series. Thus we write vyxfi' for 53,602 ; and awA^ for 1838. 9. The following combinations may serve as examples of the Greek system of notation. 1415. 9265. 3589. 7832. ' 3846. 21,501. pveoy', 155,203. 89,004. 10. In place of this system of notation, the Athenians adopted the following, which is far more striking to the eye. Thus : I, 1, is the mark of unity. 11, 2, J III, 3, > express the other numbers below 5. mi, 4, ) II, 5, is the initial of ILevrs. A, 10, " teica. H, 100, " HsKarov, the old form for ijcarov X, 1000, " Xlfcot. M, 10,000, " Mvpioi. The numbers between these are denoted partly by the combination of the above marks ; as, All for 12 ; AA for 20 ; AA AniIII for 39 ; and partly by the multiplication of A, H, X, M, into five II, these marks being placed within the II; as, 3 for Trevranig deica, five times ten, or 50 ; 0A for 60; M for 500; ]x[ for 5000; XMHHHAAAIHII for 1838. This manner of notation is particularly to be marked, G 74: REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. since it has been preserved in many and important Attic in scriptions. 1 DECLENSION OF THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. Singular. Dual. dvo, " two" N. efc, ftta, Sv 9 of, tot, G. D. tot, A. too. piav, N. 6vo and dvu, G. dvoiv and dvecv, D. dvoiv, A. dvo. Plural. N. , G. dvtiv, D. dvai, A. . Plural. three" N. G, rpi&v, rpt&v, Tpitiv, D. rptff/, rpt(T/, rpicr/, A. Tpele , rpe?r, rpm. j "four." N. Tffffape, recrcrapef, reffffcpo, G. rsaffapcjv, reaadpuv, Teaact.puv t D. reoGapat,, Teaaapai) TEcraapei,, A. reaaapaf, reaaapa,^ rsaaapa. REMARKS ON THE FIRST FOUR NUMERALS. 1. In the epic writers the form la is found for pta ; and only once Zo> for evt. (//. 6. 422.) 2. From the composition of this numeral with ovde and jUT/de arise the negative adjectives ovdeig and pTjdetg, which are declined in the same manner ; as, nom. ovdelg, ovde- u,ia, ovdev ; genitive ovdevog, ovdsftiag, ovdsvog, &>c. The later Greek writers make it ovOei^ and pTjQsig, from ovre and p?re, which, however, is not considered genuine Attic 3. QvSeig and p>rj6eig are often separated, and written ovde elg, and pijde elg, &c., and this separation increases the negative signification. Thus, ovde el$, " not even one ;' ovd' v6) accords in great measure with 6vo). In the old poets it is frequently indeclinable. Oth- erwise apfyolv is used in the genitive and dative. Teacapeg. 1. Instead of reaaapeg the Ionic dialect has reacrepeg, the jEolo-Doric rerropeg. Hesychius gives Treaovpeg as an -^Eolic form. 2. For riaoapoi or rerrapai in the dative, the form rer- pact occurs in the poets. SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 30 Cardinal. Y te' rsaaapee, Trevre, If, IKT&, OKTGJ, kvvea, TsaaapeaKaideKd, CLKOGI 6vo, &c., 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th llth 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22d 30th Ordinal. rptrof, kvveaK.ai6eKa.TOS) rpiaKoaro?, 1. Passow, Lex. s> v. 76 SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 31 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 20,000 100,000 R rpiaKovTO, elg, TEGGapaKOVTd, 7TEVT7}KOVTd, bySoTjKovra, &K.CLTQV, diaicdGioi, TpldKOGLOL, rSGGdpdKOGLOL, TrevrdKOGioi, flVpLOl, diGfivpioi, 31st 40th 50th 60th 70th 80th 90th 100th 200th 300th 400th 500th 600th 700th 800th 900th 1000th 2000th 3000th 4000th 5000th 6000th 7000th 8000th 9000th 10,000th 20,000th 100,000th reacrapaKoaToc, OLdKOGLOGTOg, TTeVTCLKOOLOOTOG, kwCLKOGLOGTOg, flVpLOGTOg, dlGfJLVptOGTOg, Multiplicatives. &c. Simple, Double, Treble, Quadruple, Fivefold, &c. Adverbs of Number. ana!-, dfc &c. Once, Twice, Thrice, Four times, Five times, 1. For the declension of of the rest, see page $0. f, which wifi serve as a guide to that REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 77 REMARKS ON THE NUMERALS. 1. In compound numbers, either the less are put aftet the greater without a conjunction ; as, elitooi rpelg, rpid- Kovra Ttevre ; or, what is most usual, the less precede and are connected with the greater by nal ; as, rpelg ital eiKoai, nevre ital Tpidttovra. 2. So, also, in the more complicated numbers, the sev- eral parts are united in such a manner as to proceed from the less to the greater ; as, rerrapa teal eddoarjitovra ttai evvaKoaia /cat Tpia%iki,a ital et-atciauvpia, which express 63,974. 3. For the greater numbers a numeral substantive is frequently used with the requisite cardinal number ; as, delta pvpiddeg, 100,000 ; rpia%i^cot Kal irevrs p,vpid<5eg, 53,000, &c. 4. In the case of tens compounded with 8 or 9, the defi- nition is often given by subtraction ; as, rpiditovra dvolv deovroLV or deovra, 28 ; dydorjKOvra evog deovrog, 79 ; or, if a substantive of the feminine gender stands therein, uiag deovarjg. 5. Of the cardinal numbers, the first four and the round numbers from 200 are alone declined. All the rest are indeclinable. 6. The Latin distributives are expressed in Greek by compounding the cardinal numbers with GVV ; as, ovvdv o, " two by two ,*" ovvrpeig, " three by three" &c. 7. Besides the forms of ordinal numbers which have just been given in the synopsis, two ordinals are also frequently connected by nai ; as, TrepTrrog not deicarog ; oydoog nal , 8. The smaller ordinal number is also sometimes pre- fixed to the greater cardinal or ordinal with itai and a prep- osition ; as, ry eary em delta, supply rjuepaig, " on the sixth in addition to ten days" i. e., " on the sixteenth." So, also, n?7 e/CTfl uer' elitdda, " on the twenty-sixth" &c. 9. In order to express half or fractional numbers in mon- ey, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words com- pounded of the name of the weight, &c. (viz., pvdj ddohog, rdkavrov), with the adjective termination ov, tov, alov, and qpi, " half" and placed before them the ordinal number of which the half is taken. Thus, reraprov rjuirdhav- TOV, '' 3-J talents" i. e., the first a talent, the second a tal G2 78 PRONOUNS. ent the third a talent, the fourth a half-talent. So, also, rpirov rj[j,ifi,valov, " 2J min&," eddopov r^iidpa^ov, " 6J drachma" 10. From the foregoing, however, we must carefully distinguish such phrases as the following : rpia rjiurd- havra, " l talents" i. e., three half-talents; irevre rjpip- vaia, " 2J mina," &c. 11. From the ordinal numbers are derived, 1. Numerals in cuog, which commonly answer to the question, " on what day ?" as, rpLrdiog, " on *Ae iAiV OV, his, rjfierep-og, -a, -OV, our, vfisrep-og, -a, -ov, your.. 0erep-og, -a, -ov, theif, vutrep-os, -a, -ov, of us loth, adx^trep-og, -a, -ov, of you both PRONOUNS. 79 8 Definite Pronoun, for the nearer and stronger distinc- 3i *f one object from another ; as, avrog, avrfi, avro, " he ulf," " she herself" " itself." 4. Reflexive Pronouns, for the more accurate indication and separation of a person ; as, of myself, or > oavrr]g, of thyself, oavrov, ) eavrov, } or > avrr\g, avrov, of himself, avrov, 3 5. Uvnwtistrative Pronouns, which distinctly point out the object of which we are discoursing, with the accessory idea of pl%ee. These are, ovrog, avrrj, rovro, } ode, Jj6e, rode, > this. eitelv-og, -77, -o, ) 6. Relative Pronouns, which refer to an object already mentioned, and give it a nearer definition ; as, og, 77, b, who, bang, ^Tig, on, whoever. 7. Indefinite Pronouns, which merely indicate an object generally, without farther definition ; as, n$ (enclitic), n$, ri, any, tielva, delva, delva, some one. 8. Interrogative Pronoun ; as, rig, rig, ri, who? what? 9. Reciprocal Pronoun, which designates the mutual ac- tion of different persons upon each other; as, dual; ahkfjhw, plural, " of each other T 80 INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 1. Personal. 'Eyw, I. N. ty6 G. klJLOV D. iuoi A. kue Singular. or fiov . or /tot or fie . . I, of me, to me, me. Dual. N. vJ, contr. vw, G. V6WV, " VUV, D. vwiv, " v$v, A. vw, " vw, we two, of us two, to us two, us two. Plural N. ijuelc . G. jjutiv . D. jfttau . A. J7/*af . . we, . o/u*, . to us, . us. N". (TV G. doi; oftkee, D. crot to thee, A. af iAee. Dual. N. <70<5, contr. (r^a G. Gtiiv, " <7^>< D. aiptiiv, *' cr A. (T0of, ' d Plural. N. tymf G. vutiv D. vfj.lv A. you, of you, to you, you. you two, , ^o you t you two. Qv, of kirn. Singular. N. Wanting. G. of . . . of Mm, D. ol . . . to him, A. I ... Aim. N. (706)e G. cfatv D. cr06>iv A. cr^we Plural. N. cr0e?f, neuter arc5 f or avro Plural. N. G. D. A. idVTOic lavTOVf foot"), (afats avTat), or avTtiv, kavT&v or avTtiv, or avToig, kavTalg or avra?f , or avTov, iavTae or avra^, (crQea avrd), iavTuv or avrwv, iavTolc; or avTolc;, iavTd or aura 3. Demonstrative. OVTO$, thi & Singular. Dual. G! D. A. OVTOC, TOVTOVj TOVTG) TOVTOV, GVTJ7, ravT7?f, TGWT77, TttVTTjV, TOVTO, N. TOVTOVj G. TOVTG), D. rovro. A. TOVTG), TOVTOIV, TOVTOLV, TOVTG), TdVTa, TdVTdtV, TdVTdlV, TdVTd, TOVTO, TOVTOLV, TOVTOIV, Tovro INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. Plural N. OVTOL, a&Tat, ravra, G. TOVTG)V } TOVTUV, TOVTCJV, D. rovroig, ravTais, TOVTOIC, A. TOVTOVg, 4. Relative. "Of, tcfo, which, what. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. dg, 7), &i N. (5, a, c5, N. oZ_ al, &, G. otf, fc ot, G. ofr, alv, olv, G (5v, D. ft |, 5, D. oZv, alv, olv, D. ofc ale, oif, A. oV, $v, 6. A. w, a, w. A. o#f, "Ocmf, whoever. Singular. Dual. N. 6 G. ovnvog, ^ffnvof , OVTLVOC, G. olvnvoiv, alvTivoiv, olvrtvoiv D. &TIVL, qnvi, &TIVI, D. olvrivoiv, alvTivoiv, olvnvoiv A. ovTtva, rjvTLva, dn. A. &Tive, anve, &nve. Plural. N. olnve?, airivec, ariva, G. CJVTLVCJV, &VTlVG)V t UVTLVd)V t D.oic TTiai, alGTLGl, olGTLGl, A. oi; GTiva?, aGTLvag, anva. 5. Indefinite. Singular. N. f, f, n, G. TiVOf, TiVOf, TIVO, D. nvi, nv, Tivi, A Tivd, Tivd, rL N. nve, Tive, rive, G. TlVOlv, TlVOlV, TIVOLV, D. TlVOlv, TLVOlv,TlVOlv, A. Tivf, nve, nve. kelva, a certain one. Plural. N. nvef, Tfvef, rivd, G. TLV&V, TIVCJV, TIVUV D. n, T^f, TOV, (5e?vof, B. T6J, T^, T^>, de?Vi, A. TOV, rijVf TO delva. Dual. N. TO, Ta, T6), delve, G. TO?V, Ta?v, TO?V, deivotv, D. Totv, Ta?v, TO?V, deivoLVj A. TCJ, Ta, T6>, delve. REMARKS ON THE PRONCUNS. 83 Plural. N. ol, al t delves, G. rtiv, rtiv, deivuv, D. roi, rale, detai, A. rovf , rdf, Selvag. 6. Interrogative. The interrogative differs from the indefinite T* merely in the position of the accent. The indefinite is always en- clitic, and, in the oblique cases, takes the accent on its ending. On the contrary, the interrogative, even in a con- nected discourse, remains always acuted in the nominative, and in the oblique cases preserves the accent on the radical syllable. Singular. N. rifj rig, ri, G. TtVOg, TLVOg, D. rivi, Ttvi, Tiv \. TLva, riva, ri. ri, whb? Dual. N. rtve, rive, Ttve, G. TLVOIV, TIVOW, TIVOIV, D. TlVOiV, TiVOCVy TIVOIV, A. rive, rive, rive. 7. Reciprocal. Plural. N. Tivec, riveg, riva, G. TtVCJV, TIVUV, TIVUV, D. rial, rial, rial, A. TLVCL, TWO., Dual. N. Wanting. G. aKkrikoiV) D. aKkfihoiv, ahhfacuv, A. Plural. , d/l^/lov, REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 1. Personal. 1. The forms e^ov, e^ot, ^e, are employed whenever emphasis is required. On other occasions jwov, pol, and lie are employed. 2. In the dual number the forms i>o5, v&v ; O^G), (T0o>v, are Attic. 3. In the plural, rffielg and vftetf appear to have come from rjfieeg and v[j,eeg ; while, in the dative, rjfuv and are contracted from THICVI, vpeai, and then the v T(,Kov is appended. 84 DIALECTS OP THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 4. The pronoun ov is generally reflexive in the Attic writers. In Homer and Herodotus, on the contrary, it is more frequently a mere personal pronoun. 5. A.VTO$, avrrj, avrOj was used for the third person, but with this distinction. In the nominative always, and in the oblique cases when these begin a clause, it has a reflexive signification, " he himself" " she herself, 11 " of himself 11 &c. But when the oblique cases do not begin a clause, they have merely the force of the personal pronoun, " him, 11 " of him, 11 &c. When the article precedes, as 6 avrog, ?J avrr], &c., the meaning changes to " the same 11 &c. Thus, 6 avrog , " the same man ;" i\ avr^, " the same woman ;" TO avro (contracted most commonly ravro), " the same thing 11 Dialects of the Personal Pronouns. 1. The uEolo-Doric had eywv, the JEolic ey6>v, in the nominative. The Boeotians said I6v. 2. Instead of ov .the ^Eolians and Dorians said TV (whence the Latin tu}, and changed a into r throughout. 3. In order to give more expression to the pronouns, the Dorians and ^Eolians annex T\ to the termination, through all the cases, and sometimes, also, VTJ ; as, eyawT/, epevvT], TVV7], &c. The Attics annex ys, throwing back the ac- cent ; as, eywye, ovye ; instead of which the Dorians use ya, as eywvya. 4. In the genitive only epso is found, not p,eo ; and, in the lyric and epic poets, epelo and crelo ; as also epedev and asOev ; these latter, likewise, in the tragic dialect. AS the Attic dialect contracted eo into ov, the Ionic, Doric, and ^Eolic contracted the same into ev ; as, epev, aev. 5. In the dative, the ^Eolians and Dorians said also B\LIV and rlv, whence rivr), and the Tarentine k\Livr\^ arose. For the enclitic aot, the epic poets and Herodotus use rot. 6. In the dual the forms v& 9 v&v ; (70co, cr^wv, are Attic. In the plural, rjpels and vfieig come from rjfiseg and v(j,ee^. Instead of rjpelg the ^Solians and Dorians said ape$ or dpeg. and dfifjieg ; and for vpelg, vpeg and vpfisg. 7. The genitive plural is lengthened by the poets into rjfiet(t)v, vfji(i)v. The jflEolians and Dorians changed as usual the rj into a ; as, a^ew, a/zwv, and a\i\i^v. 8 In the dative plural, the old dialect, and the Molic REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 85 and Doric, had aplr, apw, dpiv, a\i\Li ; vpiv, V\L\LI, and V\i\ll. 9. In the accusative plural, the Dorians said a/ze, d//e, and tippe, apfie ; and also v\ii, v^pe, the latter being used likewise by the ^Eolians. 10. Instead of the accusative avrov, we find, particularly in the poets, the form \iiv of all three genders. Another form is viv, which occurs in Pindar, and is the only one employed by the tragedians. This form viv is also used for avrovg, avrdg, avrd. ll.The dative ofyi, for ofyiai, occurs in Homer and else- where. The tragedians appear to have used ofyiv alone. The poets sometimes, though very rarely, employ it for the dative singular also. 12. In the poets, too, the form 0(f>e (abbreviated from <70o)e) occurs, which is sometimes used as the accusative plural in all genders, for avrovg, avrdg, avrd ; and some- times, also, as the accusative singular, instead of avrov, avrrjv, avro ; and also, again, as a pronoun reflexive for 2. Possessives. 1. The form eof, 77, eov, occurs only in the singular in the Ionic and Doric writers, and in the poets. Instead of this is used the abbreviated form 6^. Neither eo$ nor og is ever employed by the Attic prose writers ; but og for eog occurs seyeral times in the tragedians. 2. Instead of rj^erepog, the Dorians employed dpog. This same dpog was likewise used for ep6g 9 as r^ei^ for eyw. The ./Eolians said appog and dfiperepog. 3. The form a^erepog is used by the later Alexandrian poets for the pronoun possessive of the first and second person plural, and in one instance even for epog. 4. The form ff^trepog occurs only once (//. 1, 216), NfcMrepof is found only in the Ionic poets. 3. Pronoun Definite. This has already been considered in the remarks under the personal pronouns, 5, &c. H 86 REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS. 4. Reflexives. 1. The reflexive pronouns are formed by the union of the genitives e^eo, aeo, eo, with the pronoun avrog, in all the cases except the nominative. 2. Strictly speaking, epavrov and aeavrov have no plu- ral. A f.rm for this number, however, is generally substi- tuted, consisting of Tjpxig avroi and vpelg avrol, declined separately. 3. The pronoun eavrov is declined throughout the plural as one word ; yet we also find G(J><*>V avrtiv, O&LOLV avrolfr (Xpdg avrovs, &c. 4. Properly, according to the composition, only the gen- itive of these pronouns should have been in use ; and it is owing to an arbitrary usage that gjiteo, &c., are compounded with the dative, accusative, &c., of avrog. 5. Among the Attics, these pronouns are reflexive only, referring to the person implied in the verb, without any particular emphasis derived from avrof. Thus, erwjja epavrov, " / struck myself" (as, in English, " I wash my- self"). When the Attic writers, on the other hand, wish to make avrog emphatic, they separate the pronouns, and place avrog first. Thus, TTpbg avrov as, " against thee thy. self." A similar usage prevails. in Homer and Herodotus. 5. Demonstrative. 1. Instead of ode, ?/de, rode, where the enclitic de is an- nexed to the article, in order, to give it greater "force, the Attics say 661, rjdt, rodi, which is analogous to the Latin hicce. 2. Homer annexes the termination of the case to the de ; as, Toladeoi, rolodeoai, &c. 3. Instead of rolade, the form roioide is common in the tragic writers, with the accent on the penult, because the enclitic 6e draws the accent of the principal word to itself. 4. OVTO$ is used as an emphatic mode of address, and, therefore, as a vocative, " thou there" like the Latin heus. 5. The Attics annex i to this pronoun in all cases and genders, to give a stronger emphasis, in which case it re- ceives an accent ; as, rovrovt, ravTTjt, for hrivt,. The fuU form is very rare in the Attic poets. 2. Instead of the plural anva, Homer and Herodotus have aaaa, from the Doric ad for rivd. The Attics, instead of this, say drra. 7. Indefinite. 1. The lonians said for nvog, nvt, &c., reo and T0>. The Attics contracted rov, TCJ, in all the genders, for rwog and rivi. 2. Instead of the neuter plural rivd, the Attics said, in certain combinations, particularly with adjectives, drra ; as, a/U/ drra ; roiavr* drra. 88 VERB. XXV. VERB. 1 . Greek verbs are of two kinds, those ending in 6> and ' hose in \LI. 2. Verbs in G) are of two classes : 1. Those that have a consonant before 6) ; as, TVTTTG), " / strike ;" Aeyw, " Jf *ay ;" and, 2. Those which have a vowel, a, e, o, before it ; as, Ti[j,d(*), " / honour ;" faheG), " I love ;" %pva6(*), " / gild." 3. Verbs in w, with a consonant preceding the termina- tion, are called Barytone Verbs, because, as they have the acute accent on the penult of the present, the grave accent (0apv$ rovog} necessarily falls on the last syllable. 4. Verbs in o>, preceded by a vowel, are called Contract- ed Verbs, because the o> is contracted by the Attics, to- gether with the preceding vowel, into one vowel ; and as, after this contraction, a circumflex is placed over the G), ihey are also styled by some Circumflex Verbs. 5. These contracted verbs, however, are not at all differ- ent from the barytones, since it is only necessary to con- tract them in the present and imperfect. PARTS OF THE VERB. 1. The Greek verb has three voices, Active Passive, &nd Middle ; and five moods, the Indicative, Imperative Optative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive. 2. The tenses are nine in number, namely, the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First and Second Future, First and Second Aorist, and, in the passive, the Third Future, or, as it is less correctly styled, the Paulo-post* futurum. 3. The numbers are three, Singular, Dual, and Plural. VERB. 89 The Verb Efyu, to be. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Sing, elfit, I am, elg or eZ, ihou art, kcri, he is. Dual. EGTOV, you two are, EGTOV, they two are Plur. EGfiEV, we are, core, ye are, eiai, they are. IMPERFECT^ rjv, I was. S. qv, ^ fa, jj or fjv, D. ' JJTOV, fjTTjV, P. %pev 9 rjrs, %GO,V. FUTURE, iGopat, I will be. S. loouat, Gei, D. koopeBov, ZaeGQoV) P. hooped a, facade, IGOVTCIU IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT AND IMPERFECT, IcOi, be ihou. S. tadi or 1(70, eoT6>, D. >OV, >CJV, P. lore, So-TUGav. OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT AND IMPERFECT, elrjv, may I be. D. EIIJTOV, elrjTTjv^ P. elrjfjLev, sfyre, elijGav or tlev FUTURE, sGoifiTjv, may I be about to be. S. EGoijj,7jv, IGOLO, iaoiro, D. eGOlfJ,E00V, EGOLG&OV, eGOlG6lJV 9 P. sGoipeOa, eGOicQe, ZGOIVTO. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. % \ PRESENT AND IMPERFECT, w, I may be. S. <5, $?, J, D. 7)TQV, %TOV 9 P. &uev, fire, (5crt H2 90 VERB. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT AND IMPERFECT. elvai, to be. FuTdRE. toeoQai, to je about to be. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. N uv, oiJea, ov, G. FUTURE. N. iffopevoc, iffopevij, taopevov, G. kaoftevov, iao/Ltevjie, iaofievov, &c VERBS IN . 1. There are four conjugations of verbs in o>, distin- guished from each other by the termination of the first fu- ture active. 1 Thus : The First Conjugation makes the future in IJJM ; as, The Second Conjugation makes the future in fw ; as, Aeyw, Aefw ; rdaacjj rafo) ; ap%6), apfw. The Third Conjugation makes the future in aa> ; as, r/6), T/CT6) ; TTsidc^j Kefou ; a/l/la), i/jaAo> ; o-nei- pw, onepti ; fisvc*), perti. 2. When the first person plural ends in juei>, the first person of the dual is wanting. In other words, the first person dual is wanting throughout the whole of the active brm, and in the aorists of the passive. 2 1. We have followed, for convenience' sake, the common arrange- ment, by which verbs in G> are divided into four conjugations. The simplest and truest plan, however, is to divide all Greek verbs into merely two conjugations, namely, verbs in G> and verbs in -fit . 2. Here, again, we have followed the ordinary phraseology. In truth, VERB. 91 3. In the present, perfect, and future of the indicative which are called primary tenses, and throughout the sub- junctive mood, the second and third persons dual are the ^ame, and end in ov. 4. But in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two aorists of the indicative, which are called the historical tenses, as referring to what is past, and throughout all the optative mood, the third person dual ends always in qv. 5. In the active the 3d. plur. of the primary tenses ends in ot, with the moveable v ; as, -ovaiv, -aaiv ; -ovai, -aai, ; but in the historical tenses the form always terminates in a fixed v ; as, ov, av, eioav, rjaav. 6. In the passive, the primary and historical tenses are distinguished throughout the singular also, and in all the third persons plural. The primary tenses have \LCLI in the first person of the singular, the historical always \LT\V ; and where the former have TOLL, the latter have always TO ACTIVE VOICE. TV7TT6), " I strike" PRESENT, TUTTTCJ ; FIRST FUTURE, TVTJJCJ ; PERFECT, Moods and Tenses. Indie. Imper. Optat. Subj. Infin. Part. Present, rVTTT-CJ, > Imperfect, ETVTTT-OV, 5 rv7rr-e, -OLfJLL, -6), -eiv, -av, First Future, TVTp-G), -01(11, -etv, -uv, First Aorist, erwjj-a, TVTp-OV, -aifiL, -G>, -at, -Of, Perfect, Pluperfect, Terv(j)-a, ) ETETV^-eiVj ) TTV(j)-e, -OLfJ,L, -<> -svai, -e5f, Second Aorist, erv7r-ov, TVTT-e, -Oifll t -0), -eiv, -wv, Second Future, TVTT-G), -OLfLL, -elv, -6>V. however, the dual is the same in form with the plural, in the tenses re- ferred to ; for the dual itself is only an ancient plural. 1. This is called conjugating, namely, giving the present, first future, and perfect of a verb ; or, in place of the perfect, the first aorist. 92 VERB. Numbers and Persons, INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT, I strike. Sing. rvTrr-t), rvKT-Eie, Dual. TVTTT-ETOV, ruTrr-erov, Plur. TV7rr-ou.v t rvTrr-ere, IMPERFECT, / was strL S. D. . ervKT-ETOv, ETV7TT-ET1JV P. irvTTT-o/jLeVf ^rvTrr-ere, ervirr-ov. FIRST FUTURE, S. TVTJJ-CJ, T D. rfy-erov, rvty-erov, P. rw/>-o/zfv, ri^-ere, TVTJJ-OVGI. FIRST AORIST, J (once) struck. S. Irv^-a, nri/>-af, D. irv^-aroVf P. iTvip-apEv, irvip-are, PERFECT, I have struck. S. D. P. TeruQ-apev, TETv-aTe, PLUPERFECT, J Aad struck. S. eTsrvQ-eiv, irervQ-ei?, erertxp-et, D. iTETV-iTOV t ETETVQ-EiTljV P. eTTV-l(lV, TETV<])-EITE, ETETVQ-ElffCt SECOND AORIST, J (onc-OL[U t TTV(j)-Olf t TeTV-OlTOV 9 TrV(f)-oi P. rrv^oL^,ev t rerv^-oire, rsrvty-oiev. SECOND AORIST, may I have been striking. S. TVK-OlfUj TVTT-Otg, TUTT-Ol, D. TV7T-OLTOV, TVTr-OlTTJV, P. TVTT-OlftSVj TVTT-OlTe, TVTT-OteV. SECOND FUTURE, may I hereafter strike. S. Tvir-oTfu, rvTr-oif, TUTT-O?, D. TVTT-OiTOV, TVTr-OLTTjV, P. rt"r-oi/j,ev t ruTr-otre, rvir-otev. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT, I may strike. S. TV7TT-6), TV7TT-ri t TVTTT-fy D. TVTTT-TJTOV, TV7TT-1JTOV, P. TVTTT-W^eV, TV7TT-7]Te t TVTTT-Uffi. FIRST AORIST, / may have struck. S. Ttty-G), D. TUTp-rjTOV, P. PERFECT, I may have been striking: S. rerv^-o, Tertf-ric, D. Terv(j>-7]Tov, P. SECOND AORIST, J may have struck. S. TVTT-ty, TV7T-77f, TV7T-77, D. TV7T-1JTOV, TV7T-7]TOV P. rvK-upsv, rvK-rjre 9 INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT, FIRST FUTURE, Tvijj-eiv, to be going to strike. FIRST AORIST, nfy-ai, to have struck. PERFECT, rerv^-evat, to have been striking. SECOND AORIST, TV7r-elv t to have struck. SECOND FUTURE, Tvn-elv, to be going to strike. VERB. N. rffnr-uv, G. rvTT PARTICIPLES. TVKT-OVad, TVTTT-OV, N. G. N. G. N. G. N. G. , &6. FIRST FUTURE, going to strike. TVifi-ovcra, rvip-ov, FIRST AORIST, having struck. PERFECT, who has been striking. SECOND AORIST, having struck. TVTT-OVGa, N. TVTT-CJV, G. TVK-OVVTOC, TVTT-OVj TWir-OVTOf. SECOND FUTURE, going to strike. Tvir-ovca, TUTT-ow, PASSIVE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. Impar. Optat. Snbj. Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, 1st Aorist, 1st Future, 3d Aorist, 3d Future, 3d Future, TVKTOfiai, ) O^J?V, J TErvftpat,, ) TV7TT-OV, -oiurjv, 11JV, -oiuTjv, -ea6ai, dfjvai, -eadat, -rival, -ecBai, -0[iEVO. 96 VERB. Numbers and Persons. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT, I am struck. S rvTTT-epai, D ruTTT-ouedov, ru7TT-cr6ov t TVirr-eadov, P. TV7rr-o/*e0a, rvTrr-eatfe, TVKT-OVTGLI,. IMPERFECT, I was in the act of being struck. S. ETV7rT-6fl7}V, ETVTTT-OV, ETVTTT-ETO, D. P. ETVirT'6jj,E6a, ervKT-eade, PERFECT, I have been struck. S. TETVU-pai.* TETVTJJ-ai,, TETVKT-ai, D. TETVfl-flE&OVf TTV-6oV, TTV(j>-6oV, P. rm>/z-/*e0a, rervfy-Qe, Teruu-ftsvoi, elai. PLUPERFECT, I had been struck. S. ETTVfl-fl7}V r ETETVIJJ-O, ETSTV7TT-0, D. ETETVU-UEBOV, TETV-6oV, P. ETETVfJt-flEda, ETETV(j>-6E, TETV/l-flEVOl FIRST AORIST, J was struck. S. D. P. nty-0J7//ev, erv^-^re, FIRST FUTURE, I shall be struck. S. TV(j>-67}ffopai, D. rv^-QrjaoiJLEBo P. rv^-dijaofiEda, rufy-BTjaEcde, Tv-6qaovrcu. SECOND AORIST, J t^a* struck. S. ETVTT-TJV, TV1T-T] t ETVIT-IJ, D. ETVJT-IJTOV, P. Mw-qptV, TVTT-7}T, SECOND FUTURE, J shall be struck. S. Tvrc-jjffOfia^ rvx-fiaei, D. TVTT-rjGOfjLEdoV, TVir-TJaEffOoV, P. TVTr-TjvopEdaj TV7r-jjaa6) 1. We have given in this, and the other second persons, the Attic ter- mination in i, as more correct than the common termination in y. VERB. 97 TriiRD FUTURE, I shall continue to be struck. S. Tervil)-ofj,ai, rrnty-et, D. TTwfj-6fi,6ov, rerv^)-c6ov t P. rerv^-d^e^a, renty-e(70e, IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT, be struck. S. TV7TT-OV, TVTCT-a6cJ, P. TV7TT-o6 t PERFECT, have been struck. S. rmtt/;-o, re-nty-ftj, D. TETVf-doV, TTV(f>-6G)V, P. TeTv-6e, TeTvQ-daaa FIRST AORIST, be struck. S. TV$-6r)Tl, TV(j)-d7}TG), D. TV(f>-07]TOV, TV(j)-d7fTG)V t P. TV(j)-67)Te, TV() SECOND AORIST, be struck. S. rvrc-rjOij TVK-TJTU, D. rvTc P. TV7r-7? OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT, may I be in the act of being struck. S. TV7TT-OLIMJV, TV7TT-010, TVKT-OITO, D. TVKT-OljJLedoV, TVKT-OlffdoV, TV7TT-oiadlJV t P. TVKT-oifie6a, rb^r-GLade, TVTTT-OIVTO. PERFECT, may I have been struck. S. TETVp-pevoG efyv, dv$, elri, D. TTVp-fiVG) t 17]TOV, eLTJTJJV, P. rervft-pevot, elrjpev, et^re, elrjaav. FIRST A ORIST, may I have been struck. S. D. P, 98 VERB. FIRST FUTURE, may lie struck hereafter. S. TV-6ti, TV(f>-6i}TOV, P. SECOND AORIST, I may have been struck. S. TU7T-6J, TV7T-r}, TVTT-%, D. TVK-rJTOV, P. ruTT-w/fev, TV7r-^re, VERB. 99 INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT, rvTrr-eadai, to be struck. PERFECT, rerv^-dai, to have been struck. FIRST AORIST, Tvfy-QrjvaL, to have been struck. FIRST FUTURE, rvfy-QriaecQai, to be going to be struck. SECOND AORIST, Twn-Tjvai, to have been struck. SECOND FUTURE, TVTr-jjGsadai, to be going to be struck. THIRD FUTURE, rerity-effdai,, to be going to be continually struck, PARTICIPLES. PRESENT, being struck. N. TVirT-6(4VOC t TVTTT-OfJ.eVTj, TVTTT-OflWOV, G. TV1TT-OfJ,VOV, TVTTT-OfieVTft, TV7TT-OfJ,VOV. PERFECT, having been struck. N. TTVfl-{J,VO, TTVfJ,-fJ,V7J, TTV[J,-[1,VOV, G. FIRST AORIST, having been struck. N. TV-6ei?, TvQ-defffa, rv-6ev, G. Tv< N. G. FIRST FUTURE, going to be struck. SECOND AORIST, having been struck. N. G. TVK-evTog, SECOND FUTURE, going to be struck. N. TWK-riaOfJLeVOG, rV7r-7]GOfJ,V7J, TVTT-TJffO/tEVOV, G. Tvir-7]aopvov 1 TWIT-TIG 'o^ev^f, THIRD FUTURE, going to be continually struck. TErvip-oftevij, Trvi}>-6fievov, G. TTWJ)-OUVGV, 100 VERB. MIDDLE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. Indie. Imper. Optat. Subj. Infin. Part. Present, Imperfect, TVTTT-Ofiai, ) ETVTTT-OfilJVj ) TV7TT-OV, -OlfZTjV, -., -e(T0ai, -OfiEVO?, Perfect, Pluperfect, ETETVTT-ELV, ) TETV7T-E, -OlfU, -a, -EVCU, k 1st Future, rvifj-o/Liai, -OIUTJV, -Eadai, -6{J,VO, 1st Aorist, ETVljJ-dfnjVj rvijj-ai, -aunjv, "ULKZi. -aa6ai, -au.vof t 2d Aorist, 2d Future, "ft TVK-OV, -OIJLL7JV, -OlftTJV, -DLLCLLi -Eadac, -Eiadcu, -OjLLEVOC, -OVflEVOC. Numbers and Persons. The only tenses of the middle voice that differ from those of the active and passive of verbs in G) are the first aorists of the indicative, imperative, and optative, and the second, future of the indicative. S. ETVTJJ-dfllJV, D. ennjj-dfiEdoV P. eruTp-dfiEda, INDICATIVE MOOD. FIRST AORIST, I struck myself. TV1j)-aTO, ETJnjJ-CJ, eruifj-aGOov, krvty-aaQs, krvty-avro. SECOND FUTURE, I shall or will strike myself. TV7r-la6ov, ~V7r-i06ov, S. TVTT-OVfiaij D. T P. T D. P. Tvir-ovvrai. IMPERATIVE MOOD. FIRST AORIST, strike thyself. S. rfy-at, Tvifj-dcdu, P. rvip-aa6E, ruijj-daQuaav. OPTATIVE MOOD. FIRST AORIST, May I have struck myself . rvijj-aio, rv^-aiadovj VERB. 101 PARTICIPLES. FIRST AORIST, having struck myself. N. rtn/f-tt/zevof, TVip-apevr], rv^-aftevov f G. Tvfy-afjiivov, rvrfj-afLEvrje, rwjj-auevov. FIRST FUTURE, being about to strike myself. N. rvi/j-6/jevof, rvfy-ofievq, TV^-ofj.evo G. TVTJ)-OUVOV, Tvip-OfJ,EV1JG t TVTp-0{J.VO SECOND FUTURE, being about to strike myself. N. TVTT-OVtlEVOG, TV7T-OV[tV7], TV7T-OVfJ,VOV t G. TVTr-ovpsvov, TV7r-ovfZV7]c, rvTr-ovfJ-evov. The Greek verb, of the class in w, will now be consid- ered under the following heads : 1. AUGMENT. 2. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 3. FORCE OF THE TENSES. 4. MIDDLE VOICE. 5. FORCE OF THE MOODS. 1. AUGMENT. 1. The Augments are two in number, the Syllabic and Temporal. 2. The syllabic augment belongs to verbs that begin with a consonant, and is so called because it adds a sylla- ble to the verb. 3. The temporal augment belongs to verbs that begin with a vowel, and is so called because it increases the time or quantity of the initial vcwel. 4. Three of the tenses have an augment, which is con- tinued through all the moods, viz., the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum. 5. Three receive an augment in the indicative only, viz., the Imperfect and the two Aorists. 6. Three receive no augment, viz., the Pre n ent and the First and Second Futures. 12 102 RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 7. The true use of the augment is to mark an action which is either completely or partially past. Hence it will appear why the present and the first and second futures have no augment ; why the imperfect and two aorists have an augment only in the indicative ; and why the perfect, pluperfect, and third future, all three of which refer to a con- tinued action, have an augment continued throughout all the moods of the verb. 8. The augment originally was the same in the case of all verbs, namely, an e was prefixed, whether the verb be- gan with a vowel or a consonant. Traces of this old aug- ment are found in the early Ionic poets, and occasionally in Ionic prose ; as, edtyOrj for rj&Or] ; edvdave for rjvdave. 9. Afterward the usage was thus determined, that e was only prefixed to verbs beginning with a consonant; whereas, in others, it coalesced with the initial vowel, and became a long vowel or diphthong. Thus, rvnra) has in the imperfect s-rvTrrov, but ayo> has r]jov (from e-ayov), and olfci^G) has &KI%OV (from e-oiruov^. 10. The Attics retained this old augment in the follow ing cases : 1 . In such words as eaja, edyqv, eaywc, from ayw, " to break ;" to distinguish them from ??a, ?5%a, &c., from ay 6>, " / carry" 2. In edh(*)Ka, eaAa); eowa, eo/l7ra, eopya, in which the characteristic of the perfect middle (01, and o) could not be effaced. 3. In verbs which begin with a vowel not capable of being lengthened ; as, etiOovv, from cbdvG) ; steapai, from the same ; ewovprjv, from (bveopai ; eovpovv, from ovpeu. RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 1. The augment of the imperfect and the two aorists, in 4 verbs beginning with a consonant, is formed by merely prefixing e ; as, ervrrrov, STVipa, ervnov. If, however, the verb begin with p, the p is doubled after the augment ; as, pptTTTov, from pinro) ; eppsov, fiom ped). RULES FOR THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 103 2. The augment of the perfect is formed by repeating the initial consonant of the verb, and annexing to it an e ; as, rfiTV^a, re-^vrra; Ae/lo^Tra, a. (0.) If the verb begin with a double consonant, f, t/>, or with two consonants, the latter of which is not a liquid, the perfect does not receive the redu- plication, but only the augment e ; as, f^reo), per- fect er]T7jKa ; fvpeo), perfect egvprjica ; perfect eifjahtca ; wrreipc*), perfect eanapica ; Ao), perfect eara^na. To this rule, however, there are the following exceptions : 1. The syncopated forms which be- gin with TTT ; as, TreTrrapai (for Ttenerapai) ; but not so the other verbs in TTT ; as, rrrspoG), snrepcj- Ka ; TTT^crcra), eTrr^a. 2. The verb Krdopai, of which the perfect KSKrr][j,ai, is more used by the Attics, and eternal by the lonians and older At- tics. (D.) If the verb begins with a mute and liquid, the reduplication appears in some cases, but in others is omitted. Mvaw always makes \ii\Lvr\\iai ; and verbs whose second initial consonant is p receive the reduplication regularly ; as, dpepa), perfect de- 6p6jjL7]Ka ; &pav(*), perfect rsOpavKa; rpe^d), per- fect rsrpocf)a. On the other hand, it is generally 104 RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. wanting in verbs whose second initial consonant is A ; as, y/tvTmo, perfect eyhvcfra. 4. The augment of the pluperfect is formed by prefixing e to the reduplication of the perfect ; as, rerv^a, pluperfect 5. The third future passive, being formed from the per- fect of the same voice, has, like that tense, the reduplica- tion ; as, RULES FOR THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 1. By the contraction of the augment e with the initial vowel of the verb, the following results are obtained a becomes r\ \ as, atcova), imp. TJKOVOV. e " 7) \ " eye/po), " rjyeipov. I " l\ " iicdvd), " licavov. v " i>; " vdpi^G), " v6piov. ai " -?/ ; " aZpfc), " ^pov. av " 771; ; " avgdvo), c< rjvgavov. oi " 6) ; " oktfco, " &KI&V. 2. In some verbs, however, becomes ; as, %&>, eZ- ^ov ; caw, f^wv ; eAw, elhov, &c. 3. When a verb or verbal form begins with 0, the sec- ond vowel takes the augment ; as, soprd^G), e^pra^ov. So, also, in the pluperfects formed from the three perfects eot,- Kdj eo-^Tra, and eopya, namely, i&neiv, c5A7rV, and ec&o- yeiv. 4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a becomes 77, as already mentioned ; but the others, ?/, o>, , i), are wholly incapable of being augmented ; as, i\i imperfect ^rrG)pi]v, perfect fjTTTjpai, pluperfect 777 REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 106 REMARKS ON THE TWO AUGMENTS. 1. Syllabic. 1. The Attics prefix the temporal instead of the syllabic augment to povhofiai, dvvapcu, and ^e/l/lw ; as, ^ovAopyv, ^dvvdp,?]Vj ij{j,ehhov. Here a form edovhopai, i6vva[j,ai, //eA/U), is assumed, like Oehc*) and eOe^G). 2. The initial augment in the pluperfect is sometimes omitted by the Attics ; as, Trenovdeiv for sTcsrcovOeiv ; ye- yevrjiATjv for eyeyevT/p/v. 3. In verbs beginning with A and p, the lonians, Attics, and others are accustomed to put eu for Ae or pe ; as, "ka\i- 6dvo), perfect eikr](t>a, for AeAf/^a; Aay^avo), perfect el- 4. In Homer and Hesiod the second aorists often receive a reduplication ; as, Keicapov for efcapov, from nd^vM ; TTS- m^ov for emOov, from TTC^O), , which is now and then augmented by the Attics ; as, ekao), ditaoa,, eiKaopai, Attic fyttaaa, r^K,ao\iai. Verbs in ev have the aug- ment TJV with the Attics, though the usage is variable. Thus we have rjv^oprjv and et^op/v ; evpeOrjv, and very rarely rjvpsOrjv. 2. The verbs (O0e6), G)veo^ac, and ovped), not being sus- ceptible of the temporal augment, take e before their initial vowel or diphthong. In other words, they retain the early augment ; as, wftew, etiOovv ; cjveofiaL, e^vov^rjv ; ovpsctj eovpovv. 3. As the syllabic augment in f3ovkofiai, dvva^iai^ and tteAAw, is increased by the temporal, in the same mannei the temporal augment in the verb opdw is increased by the syllabic ; as, opdv, imperfect 106 AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. ATTIC REDUPLICATION. . 1. Verbs beginning with a vowel, not being able to take a reduplication like that in verbs with the syllabic aug- ment, have in the perfect, occasionally, what is called the Attic Reduplication. 2. The Attic reduplication is when the first two letters of the root are repeated before the temporal augment, tHe initial vowel remaining unchanged. Thus : dyetpa), tfyepica, Att. Red. dyfjyepica. epeo), TJpsKa, " epr]{j,eKa. 6/1,1 j, ofa, &6a, " 3. The pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplica- tion a new temporal augment ; most commonly in d,K?JKoa< TJKTjKOSLV. 4. A similar reduplication is formed in some verbs in the second aorist, only that here the temporal augment comes first ; as, jjpapov, &popov, jjyayov. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 1 . When the verb is compounded with a preposition, the augment comes between the preposition and the verb ; as 2. Verbs compounded with other words have the aug- ment usually at the beginning ; as, j 3. Verbs compounded with ev and dvg take the temporal augment in the middle when these verbs commence with a vowel that admits of change ; as, evepyered), evqpye- row ; dvaapevreb), dvarjpearovv. 4. But when these particles are joined to verbs com- mencing with an immutable vowel or a consonant, they REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OP COMPOUND VERBS. 107 take the augment at the beginning ; as, TTOVV ; 6v aTV%e(*), edvarv^aa ; evdoKipec*), rjvdotcifiovv. In compounds with ev, however, the augment in such ca- ses is commonly omitted ; as, ev^eo^ac, evG)^ovprjv, &c. REMARKS ON THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 1. The prepositions, excepting Trepi, lose their final vowel before the syllabic augment ; as, a7re6(*)Ke, hev ; but TrepiedTjKa, not TrepedrjKa. In the case of however, the o is usually contracted with e ; as, TrpovdTjKa, &c. 2. The prepositions ovv and ev, whose final consonant is changed by the laws of euphony into y, A, \i, p, a, re- sume v before the syllabic augmeat ; as, eyyiyvofiai, eve- yiyv6\iriv ; avhkeyd), ovviXsyov ; e/^evG), evepevov, &c. 3. Strictly speaking, all those verbs have the augment at the beginning which are not so much themselves com- pounded with another word as derived from a compound one. Thus, deivo-rraOeG), edeivonddovv, from 68ivo7raOfj ; olfcodofisb), d)Kod6[iovv, from olKodopoc;, aAAa>, ipahti. Verbs in da> and ew generally change a and e into rj, and verbs in ow change o into (*) ; as, Four verbs, commencing with a smooth syllable, change that smooth into an aspirate in the future ; as, The First Aorist is formed from the first future by prefixing the augment and changing 6) into a ; as, TVI^G), ervipa. 1. These apparent anomalies admit of a very easy explanation. The old form of e^w was e^o, which was changed to #w, because two suc- cessive syllables cannot well have each an aspiration. But in the future the aspirate reappears, in consequence of the % being removed, in order to make way for the termination of the future, w. In like manner, the old presents of rpfyo, rpe^o), and rvtyu were respectively tf/oftyw, &px<*t and &v(j>o), changed to rpe^ca, &c., in order that two successive syllable? might not each begin with an aspirate ; while in the future the first a* pirate reappears, the latter having been changed. FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. 109 In verbs of the fourth conjugation, namely, those ending in Aw, juo>, vu, pw, the short vowel of the penult is again made long by changing a into ?] ; as, a " 77; " e " ; " 4 " I ; " KpivG), KplvG), enplva. v " v ; " dpvvG), dpvvti, jjpvva. But verbs in -paivG) and -KUVG) have only a long a in the penult of the first aorist, without changing it into ?y ; as, irepaivG), Trepdvti, eirepdva ; matvG), mdvti, enidva. Later writers form also many others with long a, where, according to the general rule, the ?/ should be employed ; as, earjiJ,dva, from orjfjLaiva) ; eicoikdva, from Koihaiw. Some verbs, which have a in the future, lose it in the first aorist ; as, #sa>, %vao>, e%eva ; vevG), oeva(*), eaeva ; KaVGG). The Perfect is formed from the first future by prefixing the continued augment, and changing, in the First conjugation, i/>6> into (f>a ; as, rvipG), rervc^a. Second conjugation, fo> " %a ; " Ae|w, heXo%a. Third conjugation, era) " KO, ; " rt(ja>, rentca. Fourth conjugation, w " KO, ; " i/ja/lc5, Dissyllables in -Ao> and -pw change the e of the first fu- ture into a ; as, crre/t/tw, are/U5, eara/Ua ; cmslpG), anepti, ZanapKa. But polysyllables, on the contrary, retain the ; as, dyye/UU), dyye/U5, rfyyeXna. Verbs in -ivd), -VVG), and -eiva) reject v before re, and retain the short vowel of the future ; as, Kpivd), Kplvti, tcetcpiKa ; 7rhvv(*), TT&VV&, TTSTrhvica ; but those in eivG) change the e of the future into a ; as, reiva), revti, rerdica K 110 FORMATION OF THE ACTIVE TENSES. Verbs in -aivc*) change v before K into y ; as, (fralvu, $o- roi, 7reayKa ; fiiaiva), fj,iav&, fiepiayKa. In some verbs the e is changed into o ; as, rpe^w, $pe- I/>G> ; rerpoQa ; /eAeTrrcj, ithei/j(*) 9 Keicko^a , A^yo), Aefo>, Ae- , &c., and even before two consonants ; as, Tre The Pluperfect is formed from the perfect by prefixing e to the continued augment, if there be a reduplication, and changing the ter- mination a into eiv ; as, rervtya, e The Second Aorist is formed from the present by prefixing the augment, short- ening the penult, and changing w into ov ; as, TVTTTW, erv- TTOV ; Afi^TTO), zXircov ; nd^va), eKdfjiov. The penult of the present is shortened for this purpose by the following changes :. Vowels. ai into a ; as, Trraip(), eTrrdpov. 7j " a; " A??0G), ekadov. e " a; " rpena), erpdnov. ev " v ; " $evya), 'tyvyov. " e or a, in verbs ending in Aw, j into A ; as, /?aAAd), e6aAov. TV7TT6), ervTiw. ), SKpv6oV. eppatyov. y ; " ra(7<7W, erdyov. 6 ; " ^>pafo), ecbpadov. ercpayov. y; " a^%6), sapvyav. , / f TT; " " < ]3 J " \ (f> ; " y ; " ( 6 ; " ( 7 > " REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. Ill Verbs in -fw and -ecu of the second conjugation form the second aorist in yov ; as, Kpd(*), eupdyov ; irpdaou, eTTpdyov ; but those of the third conjugation form it in 6ov , as, paa), 'typddov. The verb TrAT/ercrw makes eTTkijyov in the second aorist ; but the a appears in the compounds that signify " to fright- en ;" as, tcareTT^ayov, The Second Future is formed from the second aorist by dropping the aug- ment, and changing ov into circumflexed o> ; as, ervrrov, TV7T&. The Attic Future is formed by throwing out a in -a<76>, -<76), and -6aa), oi the future, and then contracting the vowels thus brought into contact ; as, eA by rejecting a ; as, 6/U6>, apew, rcvpea), &c., while the Attics contracted this form into o> ; as, pew, 3. Thus, from the original form of the future in e<76>, which remained only in some verbs, two new forms arose, one in (TO), and the other in ew, contracted ti. 4. The future in w was chiefly used in verbs whose characteristic was A, JM, v, p, that is, which ended in Aw, fja>, V6>, pa) ; the future in aw was, with a few exceptions, employed in the rest. 112 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 5. This future in. GG) is generally denominated the first future, and the future in w is also a first future in verbs which end in Ad), JUG), VG), and po>, but in other verbs it is called the second future. .6. In strictness, therefore, "the second future is only a dialect variation from the first, and does not exist at all in verbs ending in Ao>, fj,G), VG), and po>. 7. In changing the termination -EGG) into era), the conso- nants immediately preceding it are also changed according to the ordinary rules of euphony. Thus : t (A.) The consonants 6, 0, r, , are omitted before <7, and the remaining consonants, rr, J3, 0, K, y, %, are united with the G that follows into the double consonants i/> and t; ; as, KpvTtTG), KpVTrreGG), Kpv- (B.) Double y makes yf ; as, Ayyo), A^yyeao), Ay- fo>. (C.) If v precede tf, 0, r, %, it is thrown out ; but, in order that the syllable may remain long, an i is in- serted after e ; as, anevda), cnreiGG). (D.) In other cases, however, particularly when the verb ends in 0.), aaa), or rrw, usage must be attended to, since many verbs of this kind are formed in a different manner in the future. Thus, % becomes f in some ; as, /cpafw, /epa|w, where the original form of the present was in yo> ; as, Kpdya), KpayeaG), Kpd%G) ; in others it becomes yfo) ; as, TrAdfd), TrAayfo), where the original form of the present was in yya> ; as, TrAayyo), TrAayye- (E.) Verbs in aaa) and TTW are most of them derived from forms in KG) and %6), and hence have the fu- ture in fa). Thus, (frpiaaG), (ppi^G) ; old form 0p^d), typiKSGG), are considered merely as lengthened forms of verbs pure, or verbs in G> with a vowel or diphthong preceding, and hence they make the fu- ture in OG) ; as, 8. Verbs pure, whose final syllable is preceded by a diphthong, undergo no change in the future except the as- REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE TENSES. 113 sumption of a ; as, dnovd), aicovco) ; navd), navcd). In other verbs pure, where a vowel precedes the termination, the short vowel of the present becomes long before the a ; as, Saicpvd), daupvoo) ; rid), rlod). Hence verbs in sd), aw, and dw have the long vowel in the penult of the future ; as, faked), fahrjGd) ; rfytaw, -np/crw ; %pva6d), %pvcrtiad). The following exceptions, however, must be noted : (A.) The termination ew makes ecrw in reAsw, dp- aid), veined), and some others ; as, T/lecrw, dpice- oo), veircead). These futures are very probably from old presents in w. (B.) Some verbs in ew have eaa) and T/CTW ; as, tea- Aew, KaXqad), Attic ^a/lecrw ; alvea), alvrjGO), Attic alvecro). Here two forms of the present appear to have been originally in use, one in w, making (76) in the future, and another in eo>, making ??<7G). TO.) Verbs in aw, whose final syllable is preceded by e or , or by the consonants /I and p, have the future in dad). And this future is long if a vowel or the letter p precede aw in the present, but oth- erwise it is short. Thus, eaw, eaaw ; dpdu, opd- ao) ; but ye/law, yeAaaa). (D.) But the following verbs in aa> make rjcra) in the future, namely, vvkda) and %pd(*). Verbs which have o before the final ao> have also generally ??<76) ; as, j3oao>, ftor\OG). (E.) The termination do) makes dcrw in verbs which are not derivative ; as, fytow, 6/z<5<7O) ; dpdw, apd- (70), &C. 9. The verbs tcato and fcXaca), in Attic #aa> and make the future in -avact) ; as, Kavab), nhavob). 10. Verbs in Aw, j^w, vw, pw, shorten the penult when forming the future ; as, dfivvG), dpvvti ; KpwG), Kplvti. This arises from the circumstance of the tone in the future rest- ing on the last syllable. 11. Many barytone verbs are frequently formed by the Attics and lonians, like contracted verbs, by changing w into rjG(*) ; as, j3a/tAa), j3ahkf]O<*) ; floated), QoGm'iaa) ; TVTTTO), K2 114 REMARKS ON THIT ACTIVE TENSES. 2. Perfect. 1. Verbs in pa) and vv presuppose a future in 7706) ; as, vsfjLG), vevefiTjica ; pew, pepevrjKa. In these perfects the fu- tures vefjirjaG), pevfiaG) are presupposed, which, however, were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present vefiek), [levee*), &c. 2. Generally, 77 and e in the future and perfect are fre- quently interchanged. Thus deo> has drjaa) in the future, and dedena in the perfect. On the other hand, KaXe<*> has commonly in the future /ca/leaa), but in the perfect KSK^ica by syncope for KSKa^Ka. 3. Some verbs take 6) before K instead of 77 ; as, \Li\L- 6/U)a for f jp,6A,7]Ka, where (3 is put between p and A, as in fj,ea7][j,6pia. So ol%(*)Ka, from o^;o/za^, instead of ol%7]Ka ; and TreTTTW/ca, from TTSTO) or TT/TTTO), instead of TreTrn^a. 3. Second Aorist. 1. As a short penult is required in the second aorist, it frequently happens that, when two consonants come together which lengthen the vowel, they are transposed ; as, deprcv, edpaKov ; 7rep06), enpaOov ; where the original forms were edapicov and enapOov. 2. Verbs pure have no second aorist, and the forms which do occur come from barytone verbs. Thus, earepov comes from arepw, not arepeb) ; edovnov from dovTrw, not downed). 3. If the second aorist would only have been distinguished from the imperfect by a short penult, or if it would have differed in no respect, as to form and quantity, from that tense, the verb has no second aorist active. It may have, however, a second aorist passive. Thus, ypa^w has no second aorist active, but it has eypd(j)7]v in the passive. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 115 2. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. The Present is formed from the present active by changing 6) into opai , as, TVTTTG), The Imperfect is formed from the imperfect active by changing ov into 6\n\v ; as, erwiTTOv, erwrop/v. The Perfect is formed from the perfect active by changing, in the First conjugation, i f ? G ^ f6>, which make -ytta in the perfect active make, after rejecting y, the termination of the perfect pas- sive in crjwat ; as, (f>aivd), ire^ayica, TrecjxiCFfjiat,. In some verbs the quantity is changed ; as, TreTrw/ea, Tre- TrofJKU, from mvu ; and deduKa, dedopai, from didu>iit,. The vowel o in the perfect active, which was derived from e of the present, is again changed to e in the perfect passive ; as, 116 FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. But if p with another consonant precede the o, it is changed in the perfect passive into a ; as, crrpe^o), earpo a, ecrrpappai ; rpeTTG), rerpcxfxi, rerpappai. The third person plural of the perfect is formed from the third person singular by inserting v before TCLL ; as, 7re. But not when the per- fect ends in [mi pure ; as, The Pluperfect is formed from the perfect by changing \iai into priv, and prefixing e to the continued augment, if there be a redupli- cation ; as, Tsrvfipai,, erervp^rjv. The third person plural of the pluperfect is formed by a periphrasis of el\il and the perfect participle, whenever the perfect from which it is derived ends in \LCLI impure ; as The First Aonst is formed from the third person singular of the perfect by dropping the reduplication, changing rai into dqv, and the preceding smooth into an aspirated mute ; as, Four verbs take a before the termination 6r)v, although it is not found in the third person of the perfect ; as, \ii\i- eppurai, epptiaOrjv ; 1. This is done from a principle of euphony, since rervTrvrai would be too harsh for the ear. The same remark applies to the pluperfect, and to the optative and subjunctive moods. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE TENSES. 117 v. On the contrary, oiouarai, makes Some which have rj in the perfect passive receive an e in the first aorist ; as, evprirai, evpedrjv ; enyvrfrai, enqv- eOrjv ; d^prjraL, d^rjpeOrjv. From d^rai the aorist is ep- pf]0riv and eppeBrjv. Verbs which change e of the future into o of the perfect active, and into a in the perfect passive, take e again in the first aorist ; as, earpcnTTai, earptyOrjV ; rerpanraL, eTpe- Orjv ; reOpanraij e6pe(/)0rjv. The First Future is formed from the first aorist by dropping the augment, and changing Qr\v into Qr\ao\iai ; as, srv pure,-except e/ca^v, &dd7]v, eppvqv, tyvqv. The Second Future is formed from the second aorist by dropping the augment, and changing r\v into rjaopai ; as, ervTrrjv, The Third Future, or Paulo-post-futurum, is formed from the second person singular of the perfect by changing ai into Q\LO,I ; as, rerv- 3. FORMATION OF THE MIDDLE TENSES. The Present and Imperfect are the same in form as those of the passive voice, and are similarly formed. . 118 FORMATION OP THE MIDDLE TENSES. The Perfect is formed from the second aorist active by prefixing the reduplication, and changing ov into a ; as, ervnov, rervrra. If the second aorist has a or e in the penult, the perfect middle changes this into o ; as, onetpb), eorrapov, euiTopa, ; eyeipG), fjyepov, rjyopa. But if the a in the penult of the second aorist comes from at, or 77 in the present, or is long there by position, the perfect changes it into ?/ ; as, fiaivopaLj epdvyv, \Li\L7\- va ; TrkfjaaG), eTrkayov, TrerrkTjya ; $a/l/U), ZOakov, r tfAafo), etckayov, Kerckrjya. The exceptions to this rule are the following : ettpayov, neKpdya, ; TrpdoaG), enpayov, irsirpaya ; vcj)padoVj 7T8(j)pdda ; ado), edda ; ayw, " to break," eaya. If the second aorist has i in the penult from a present in si, the perfect middle changes it into 01 ; as, 7re0G>, tm- OoVj TTKiTOiOa ; AetTTO), eknrov, XikoiTTa ; eMo), l<5ov, olda. But if i be already in the present, the perfect merely lengthens it after having been shost in the second aorist ; as, rpifd), erplyov, rerplya. In some verbs the penult of the perfect middle remains short ; as, dufiKoa, from dicovG) ; eAT/Avfla, from ekevdb). On the other hand, we have rre^evya, from ^evyw ; KenevBa from ftevdu ; rsrev^a, from Tv%6). The verb prjaaG) makes eppvya ; so, also, we have eo/t- Tra, from eArrcj ; eopya, from epyo) ; e'l(*)6a, from e0o>. Some perfects appear to be formed immediately from the present by changing o> into a, and prefixing the reduplica- tion ; as, (5ov7ra>, dedovTta ; 6i(*), didia ; and so, also, dvuya for 7]VGyya. The Pluperfect is formed from the perfect by prefixing e, and changing a into eiv ; as, rervTra, REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 119 The First Aorist is formed from the first aorist active by adding u,rjv ; as, The First Future is formed from the first future active by changing 6> into o\Ldi ; as, TVI^G), Tvipopai. In verbs of the fourth conjugation o> is changed into ov- uai ; as, ijjakti, i/jahovpai. The Second Aorist is formed from the second aorist active by changing ov into ; as, ervTTTOV, irvTrr6[j,rjV. The Second Future is formed from the second future active by changing o> into ovpai ; as, TV, rvnovpac. REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE TENSES. 1. Present. 1. The true Attic termination 1 of the second person sin gular is ei. And this form is employed also to distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative. The termination in q for the second person of the present indicative belongs to the common dialect. 2. The old form of the second person was in -eom, from which the lonians made -eai, and the Attics -ei. Thus, TVTrreoai ; Ion. rvTrreai ; Att. rvrcret, ; common dialect . 3. The old form in aai for the second person continued in use', I. In some contracted verbs ; as, ddwdopai, 66v- vaioat ; /eav%ao/i) . 2. Of the present there is only one simple form in Greek, but for the preterit there are more than in any other lan- guage. 3. An action, for instance, is represented as either in itself and absolutely past, or as relatively past in respect to an- other time expressed or conceived. The aorist serves to denote the time entirely past ; the imperfect, the perfect, and the pluperfect, the relative time. 4. The imperfect (6 TTaparariKog} represents a past ac- tion as continuing during another past action, and accom- panying it ; the perfect (%povog 7rapaKet[j,evog ro> Tc&povri) and pluperfect (6 VTrepavvTekiKog) designate an action com- pleted, but continuing in its immediate consequences to an- other time ; the perfect to the present, the pluperfect to a time past. 5. In the same way the future is conceived under three modifications ; either as simply future, without reference to another action, as in the first and second futures active FORCE OF THE TENSES. 121 and future middle ; or as future and complete, as in the first and second futures passive ; or as future and with refer- ence to an action to take place in a still more remote futu rity, as in the third future passive. Special Remarks. 1. According to what has just been remarked, the pres- ent, as in all languages, designates an action present and . still incomplete ; while, of the three tenses of past time, the aorist marks a past action in itself, without any refer- ence to another action at the same or a different time. 2. The perfect, on the contrary, expresses an action which has taken place, indeed, at a previous time, but is connected, either in itself or its consequences, or its ac- companying circumstances, with the present time. Thus, sypa^a, "I wrote," signifies, indeed, the completion of the action ; but it does not determine whether the consequen- ces of it, namely, the writing which I have written, be still existing or not. On the contrary, yiypa- pa dietydetpere nal TTJV yfjv erepvere. " You destroyed, from time to time, the grain throughout the country, and you ravaged the land" 6. This same tense also expresses, on some occasions, an action begun or contemplated, but not completed ; or, in other words, an attempt not brought to a successful conclu- sion. As, epiadovro, " he wished to hire" (Herod. 1 . 68) ; and again, rap' eOvTjatce rsKva, " my children were on the point of losing their lives." 7. The third future passive refers to an action which will be permanent or continued in future time ; and it there- fore bears the same relation to the other futures as, among the tenses of the past time, the perfect does to the aorist. It is sometimes, therefore, in consequence of this, styled the Perfect's Future. Thus, epol tie X&etyerai ahyea hvypd, " while mburnful woes shall continue to remain unto me" And again, 6 TroAm/^ ev naraXoy^ ovdsig p,STeyypar]oeTai, cU,A', &O7Tep rjv TO TTpMTOV, eyyeypdipeTai. " No citizen shall become enrolled in another class, but shall remain en rolled in that in which he was at first" 8. Hence, of those verbs whose present marks only the beginning of an action, but the perfect the complete action, the third future is used in order to show that the perfect action is to happen in future ; as, KTaopai,, " I acquire ;" KSKTrniai, "I possess;" KSKrrjaofjiai, "/ shall possess" Whereas nrriaoiiai means merely, " / shall acquire for my- self." 9. The third future is therefore often used to express the rapidity of an action by taking, not the beginning of it, but its completion and the state resulting from it ; as, Trerr- avoerai, " he shall instantly cease ;" Trenpagsrai, " it shall be immediately done." It is this meaning which has ob- tained for it the less correct name of Paulo-post-futurum, namely, what will take place soon, or a little after the present. 10. Besides the simple forms of the future, there is also a periphrastic future, made up of j^e/l/la) and the infinitive of the present, the aorist, or the future, and corresponding with the Latin periphrastic future of the participle in urus and the verb sum. It answers to the English, " being about to do anything,'" u intending to do a thing," &>c. FORCE OF THE TENSES. 11 The aorist not only refers to instantaneous action, but is ^ also frequently employed with the meaning, " to be wont." Thus, r\v rig TOVTUV TI Trapadacvq fypiav eneOe* aav, " If any person transgress any one of these, they inflict punishment upon him." 12. The second aorist differs frorri the first in form alone, not in meaning. Two modes of forming the past or his- torical tense got early into use in Greece ; l the one gave that which we call the first aorist, the other that which we call the second aorist. The former, from its origin, was truly a distinct tense, having a system of terminations alto- gether peculiar to itself ; but the latter is little else than a slight modification of the imperfect. Usage early declared itself in favour of the former ; and, at the period when Greek literature began, the second form obtained only in a limited number of the more primitive verbs ; while every verb of more recent and derivative formation exhibited the first ex- clusively. In a very few words only are both forms to be found ; and even in these, the duplicates, for the most parti belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. In import, thest two forms of the aorist never differed. 13. A satisfactory illustration of the principle which has just been stated in relation to the second aorist may be found in our own language. In English, also, there are two originally distinct modes of forming the common past tense : the first by adding the syllable ed, as in I killed ; the other chiefly by certain changes in the vowels ; as in / wrote, I saw, I knew, I ran, &c. Let the student call the former and regular form the first aorist, and the latter the second, and he will have a correct idea of the amount of the distinction between those tenses in Greek. The form erv^ja in Greek is what / killed is in English ; that is, the regular form of the past tense, which obtains in a vast ma- jority of verbs : the form eka6ov, on the contrary, is alto- gether analogous to / took, or / saw, acknowledged by all grammarians not as a second or distinct preterit, but as an instance of irregular variety of formation obtaining in certain verbs. 14. It may be objected to this view of the subject, that there are verbs in Greek in which both forms of the aorist occur. A careful examination, however, will prove that 1. Philological Museum, No. iv.,p. 197. Cambridge) 1832. 124 VOICES. the number of such verbs is extremely small compared with that of those which have only the one or the other aorist. But even here the analogy is supported by the English verb, since we meet with many instances in which English verbs retain both forms of the preterit. Thus, for exam- ple, / hanged, or / hung ; I spit, or / spat ; I awaked, or / awoke; I cleft, I clave, or / clove. Such duplicates in Greek verbs are extremely rare ; probably there is not one Greek verb in five hundred in which they can be met with. The form called the second aorist is, indeed, common enough ; but, then, where it exists, that of the first aorist is almost always wanting. We have evpov, ehadov, eldov, riyayov, ehiirov, edpapov ; but the regular form is as much a nonentity in these verbs as it is in the English verbs / found, I took, I saw, I led, I left, I ran, &c. The first aorist in these would be sheer vulgarity ; it would be par- allel to I finded, I taked, I seed. 15. In strictness, therefore, the Greek verb has but one aoriSt active ; that aorist, when regular, following the model of ertnjja, but being sometimes formed less regularly, in another manner, like ekadov. Now and then, in the variety of dialects and styles, two forms appear in the same verb, as in STTscaa and emOov ; one of these, however, as in this instance eTreiaa, being that in ordinary use, the other rare, anomalous, and nearly obsolete. 16. The second future, also, has only, in strictness, an existence in name, and the same principle may be applied to it as in the case of the second aorist. Verbs in /U), pa), vo), pa), have no second future ; in other verbs the second future is only a dialect modification of.the first. 4. VOICES. The active and passive voices of the Greek verb have nothing very peculiar in their signification when compared with the corresponding voices of the Latin verb. We shall therefore confine our remarks to The Middle Voice. 1. The Middle Voice has been so called by grammarians, as having a middle signification between the active and passive, implying neither action nor passion simply, but a onion in some degree of both. VOICES. 125 2. The principal usages of the middle voice are five in number. The first four may be called usages of reflexive, the fifth the usage of reciprocal signification. 1 I. Where A does the act on himself, or on what belongs to himself ; or, in other words, is the ob- jct of his own action ; as, a7r^y|aro, " he hung himself; 11 Ketyakfjv eKOiparOj " he wounded his own head: 1 II. Where A does the act on some other object M, relatively to himself, and not for another person ; as, Karearpsiparo rov M^dov, " he made the Median subject to himself. 11 III. Where A gets an act done for himself, or for those belonging to him, by B. Thus of Chryses it is said, in the Iliad, that he came to the Grecian camp, hvaopevog tivyarpa, " to get his daughter released by Agamemnon^ on the payment of a ran- som ;" that is, briefly, " to ransom his daughter" Whereas, of Agamemnon it is said, ovd j ajrehvae ftvyarpa, " he did not release her, 11 namely, to Chryses. Under this same head may be ranked the following instances : diddi-aodai rov vlbv, " to get one's son instructed ;" 6avei(*), " to lend ; ir davsL^opai, " to get a loan for one's self" " to bor- row 11 IV. Where, in such verbs as /coTrropw, " to mourn; 11 aevo^a^ " to urge one's self on, 11 the direct action is done by A on himself, but an accusative or other case follows of B, whom that action farther regards. Thus, eKO^avro avrbv, " they mourned for him ;" i. e., they cut or lacerated themselves for him. Zevovrat, avrov, " they stir themselves in pursuit of him. 11 'fZTihkeadrjv avrov, " they tore their hair in mourning for him. 11 So, also, (f)vXd%ai rov 7ral6a, ' to guard the boy ;" but v~ Xdt-aadai rov Xeovra, " to guard one's self against the lion" And again, where, in the Iliad, it is said of Hector, &g ei-K&v, ov Traldog 6pe!~aro, " thus having spoken, he stretched out his arms to receive his son" 1. Mus. Grit. No. 1, p. 102, seq. L 2 126 VOICES. V. Where the action is reciprocal between two persons or parties, and A does to B what B does to A ; as in verbs signifying to contract, quarrel, fight, converse, &c. Thus, in Demosthenes, it is said, ewf av diahvo&iisOa rbv irohepov, " until we shall have put an end to the war, by treaty mutual- ly agreed upon. 11 To this head belong such verbs as judxeoOai, arcevdeoOai, diaJkiy&GQai, &c. 2. Though, on some occasions, the active voice is used where the middle would be proper, that is, where the act is denoted without relation to the agent, though there does exist a middle verb, so to denote it, yet where the two voices exist in actual use, the middle denoting the action relatively to the agent, as in No. II., is very seldom, if ever, in pure Attic, used to denote the action when it regards another person. Thus, lordvai Tpoircuov may be said of an army who erect their own trophy ; for it is true, as far as it goes, they do erect a trophy. But earrjcraTO rponaiov zannot be said of him who erected a trophy for others, but only earrjaev. 3. In many verbs, the perfect, pluperfect, and aorist pas- sive are used in a middle sense, besides the ordinary mean- ing of the passive. Thus, emdedeiypevog rrjv rcovrjplav, " having openly manifested his wickedness ;" fjiefuaOtepsvog %&pov, " having hired a piece of ground ;" ttareKMOfi, " he laid himself down ;" aTTT/AAdy?/, " he departed." The regu- lar middle form of the aorist in such verbs is unusual or obsolete. In some it has a special signification ; as, arak- fjvai, " to travel ;" but areikaaOai,, " to array one's self." 1 1. As regards the use of the perfect and pluperfect passive in a mid- file sense, the opinion of Buttmann appears the most rational, that in all cases where a verb has. a regular middle voice, with its appropriate re- flex signification, the perfect and pluperfect passive, and they alone, are used as the perfect and pluperfect of that voice, and possess that signifi- cation along with their own. In conformity with this doctrine, the mid- dle voice would seem to be nothing else than the passive verb, used under a peculiar modification of its meaning, and illustrating the ten- dency of the Greeks in early times to look upon themselves in all reflex acts, whether external or internal, as patients rather than agents ; a ten- dency which is exemplified in every page of the Homeric poems, and which belongs more or less to every people in an early stage of civiliza- tion, before the nation comes of age, and acquires the consciousness, along with the free use, of its powers. This seems to be the reason VOICES. 127 4. With regard to the perfect middle 1 it may be remarked, that this tense is of very rare occurrence, so as to have far more the character of an occasional redundancy than of a regular formation. In fact, when the preterit exists in this particular form, it very rarely exists in the same verb in any other form ; and where two forms do occur, it will gen- erally be found that the one did not come into use till the other was growing obsolete. The perfect middle, it is true, has undoubtedly some degree of alliance with a neuter meaning, but then this alliance is very far from being con- stant. This form has often a truly active and transitive signification ; as, for example, Ae/totrra, " / have left ;" eic- rova, " / have killed ;" while, on the other hand, the form considered as active is of frequent occurrence in a neuter or reflex sense ; as in /ce/cpy/ea, " / am weary ;" eurrjKa, " / stand ;" fj,efj,evr]Ka, " / remain ;" fieditena, " / have lived" &c. These instances, which might be easily multiplied, are sufficient to prove that there is no good ground for as- signing to either of these forms of the perfect any determi- nate cast of signification, whether it be active or neuter. Some preference of what is called the middle form for the neuter sense is the utmost that can with truth be ascer- tained. In a few instances both the forms certainly do ex- ist, and with a characteristic difference of signification ; as, dtao/Utfa, " / have destroyed ;" and 6/Uo/la, " / am undone ;" ireTceiKa, " / have persuaded ;" and Trenoida, " / am confi- dent;" mothers the two forms occur, indeed, but with little why so many of the verbs employed by the Greeks to denote states of mind or of feeling have a passive form, such as olofiat, (pl[iai\ aiaddvo- \LO.i) GKeTTTOjLLai, e7ri(TTafj,ai, /Sovhoftai, dyapai,, ijdo/jiai,, fiaivofiat. In some tenses, indeed, in which a variety of forms presented itself, one of them was allotted more peculiarly to the passive signification, another to the middle : that instinct which, in all languages, is evermore silently at work in giving definiteness to the speech of a people, in proportion as its thoughts become more definite, manifested itself in assigning one form of the future and aorist to the passive voice, another to the middle ; the preference being perhaps determined by the affinity of the latter to the corresponding active tenses, of the former to the perfect passive. Instances, however, remain to show that, at the time when the Greek language comes first into view, the line of demarcation was not deemed quite impassable ; and the passive voice would not unfrequently assert its rights to its cast-off future, and now and then, though very rarely, even to the aorist. Philol Museum, No. iv., p. 221, seq. 1 Philol Museum, No. iv., p. 200. 128 FORCE OF THE MOODS. discrimination in sense ; as, 7re7rpa%a and Trenpaya, and dedia. 5. The future middle is often found in a passive sense, the reason of which appears to be this. That form of the future which, in the later ages of the Greek language, when the grammarians wrote, seems to have been used ex- clusively in a middle sense, had previously a wider range legitimately belonging to it. 5. FORCE OF THE MOODS. Indicative. The indicative is used in Greek when anything is to be represented as actually existing or happening, and as some- thing independent of the thought and conception of the speaker. Hence it is put in very many cases where, in Latin, the subjunctive must be used. 1. The indicative is put after relatives, both pronouns and particles, where, in Latin, the dependance of this clause is expressed by the subjunctive ; the Greek often uses the future of the indicative to denote what shall or* will happen, not what is merely conceived as such. Thus, Soph. Philoct. 303, ov yap TI$ oppog ecrrlv, ovd' onoi Trkeuv, e^eprro^Tjaei tcepdog, rj gev&aerat,, " For there is no harbour (here), nor any place unto which one sailing shall carry on therein gain" ful traffic, or be hospitably entertained" 2. The indicative is also used after negative propositions with the relative ; as, nap' spot ovdelg [M,a6o6opel, oarig /Lt?) iKavog EOTLV IGO, Trovelv epoi, " No soldier serves for pay with me who is not able to endure equal toils with me." Here the Latin idiom would require qui possit. 3. The indicative is likewise used in indirect interroga- tions ; thus, opdre ri Troiovftev, " You see what we are act' ually doing.". Whereas, opdre rl iroitipev means, " You see what we are to do. 19 So, also, etcelvog olds riva rponov ol VSOL diafiOeipovrat, u He knows in what way the young are actually destroyed." Here dt,a., ri ovv ; KelaOd) v6po ; " what then ? shall a law exist f" Optative. The optative and subjunctive express, according to its different modifications and shades of meaning, that which in Latin can only be signified by the subjunctive. Both represent an action, not as something real, but rather as 130 FORCE OF THE MOODS. something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, however, is either something merely possible, probable, de- sirable, and, consequently, uncertain, or something which, as it depends on external circumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the subjunctive. Hence, The optative is used to indicate a wish, something mere- ly possible or probable, and, therefore, especially accompa- nies past actions. Optative in dependant propositions. 1. The optative is used in the expression of a wish, and is then put without dv, or its equivalent the poetic KB ; as, rioeiav kavaol sad daKpva ooloi pehecraiv, " May the Greeks ato,<,e for my tears by thy arrows." And again, o> nal yevoio rcarpoc: evrv^earepog, " Oh, my son, mayst thou be more fortunate than thy father." 2. In this case, el, el yap, or eiOe, utinam, or d>, or else irtig dv, are often used with the optative ; as, Od. 3, 205, si yap euol raGarjvde $eol dvvauiv Trapadelev, " Would that the gods had bestowed upon me so great power" And again, Callim.frag. 7, Xahv6a)v &$ dnokoiro yevog, " Would that the race of the Chalybes might perish" 3. On other occasions the optative is used in connexion with av, or its equivalent the poetic KS, in order to give to a proposition an expression of mere conjecture or bare pos- sibility, and hence of uncertainty or doubt. Thus, Plato, Leg. 3, p. 677, B., ol TOTS Trepupvyovreg rr]v tyOopdv G%K- 6bv opeiol riveg av elev vouelg, " They who on that occasion escaped destruction were., probably, with a few exceptions, mountain shepherds." So, also, Xenophon, Cyrop. 1, 2, 11, teal Orjp&vreg uev OVK av dpiGTrjaaiev, " And while actually engaged in the hunt they hardly ever breakfast." Hence it is employed in a rough estimate ; as, Xen. Cyrop. 1, 2, 13, e'lrjaav fiev av OVTOI Trkelov n rj Trevrrjuovra err] yej'ovoreg CLTTO yevedg, " These, on a rough estimate, are somewhat more than fifty years of age " 4. The optative with dv is therefore employed also to denote an inclination, the indulgence of which depends on circumstances, and which is therefore only possible and contingent. Thus, j3ovhoLU7]v dv, " / could wish ;" 6ovA- 6p,T]v dv, " I could have wished" So, also, Plato, Crat. p FORCE OF THE MOODS. 131 411, A., r}6e(*) dv Oeaaaiprjv ravra rd Kakd dvo^ara, "/ would gladly contemplate those fine terms" 5. Hence the optative occurs in interrogations ; as, 11 3, 52, OVK dv 6rj peiveiag 'Aprjtfakov Mevehaov ; " Couldst thou not then await Menelaus dear-to-Mars ?" So, also, Plato, Gorg.y d/U/ dpa edehrjaeiev dv rjjuv (t But would he be willing to converse with us?" 6. Very often, however, the optative serves to express even the most definite assertions with modesty and polite- ness, as a mere conjecture ; a moderation which, in conse- quence of their political equality, was peculiar to all the Greeks, but particularly the Athenians, and which very seldom occurs in modern languages. Thus, Aristoph. Plut. 284, obiter' dv KpvipaL^i, " / will no longer conceal it from you." Of the Optative in dependant propositions, or after con- junctions. 1. When the chief verb of the whole proposition, or, in other words, the leading verb in the sentence, expresses an action of past time, the following verb, which depends upon the conjunction, is put in the optative. If, on the other hand, the leading verb be in the present or the future tense, the following verb is put in the subjunctive. Thus, that which is in Latin the sequence of tenses, is in Greek the sequence of moods. The subjunctive, therefore, in Greek, after a conjunction, answers to the Latin present of the subjunctive ; while the optative after a conjunction an- swers to the Latin imperfect of the subjunctive. 2. The conjunctions and particles after which these moods are thus put are, 1. Those which express a pur- pose ; as, Iva, ofipa, the optative is used, for the most part, in the same cases as with Iva and 6(f>pa. Thus, TTepiepevopev e(*)$ dvoL^Oeirj rb 6eafj,(*)Tf}- oiov, " We remained about the place until the prison was opened" But eo)^, " whilst" " as long as" has only the in dicative. 3. Optative after conditional particles. { 1 The optative is used after conditional particles when the reference is to something that is merely possible or contingent. In this construction the optative is employed with dv in the apodosis, or second clause of the sentence, to show that a case is adduced which is merely problemat- ical, while in the protasis, or leading clause, the optative is used with el, without dv, as the condition itself is also only problematical. Thus, el rig rovg Kparovvrag rov TrkrjOovg STT' dperfjv TTporpei/jeiev, d^orepovg dv tifahrjae- lev, " If one would urge on to virtue those who control the multitude, he would benefit both" 2. But when the condition contains a determinately ex- pressed case, ei is used with the indicative in the leading clause. Thus, Soph. Antig. 925, dA/l/, el pev ovv rdd' eorlv ev deolg 0/Aa, naOovreg dv gvyyvolpev rjpaprTjKoreg, " But if, then, these things are approved of among the gods, we may, perhaps, by suffering, be made conscious that we have erred" 3. On the other hand, el is used with the optative in the protasis^ or leading clause, and the indicative in the apodo- sis, or succeeding part of the sentence, when the latter as- serts something definitely, while the protasis conveys only a possible case. Thus, Thucyd. 2, 5, oi dXkoi Qrjdalot,, ovg sdei TT]<; WKrbg TtapayeveaOai TtavoTpaTia, el ri dpa pr) 7rpo%G)poi?] rolg eaekrjkvOoai,, eTrefiorjdovv, " The rest of the Thebans whom It behooved to be present during the night with their full force, if, perchance, success should not attend those who had entered the city, etc." 4. Optative after the relatives 6^, QOTIC;, &c. 1. If the relatives refer to definite persons or things, they are followed by the indicative ; but if the person or M 134 FORCE OP THE MOODS. thing be indefinite, then the verb is in the optative or sub junctive ; in the optative with av when the whole proposi tion affirms something of past time, and in the subjunctive with av when it affirms something of present or future time. Thus, bvnva uev J3aaikrja not e%o%ov avdpa tu%eir], rovd' dyavolg ineeaaiv epTjTvaaans rrapaardg, " Whatever monarch and distinguished chieftain he found, this one, stand- ing by his side, he detained by bland words." And again, . ndvrag orw evrv%oiev, KCLL iraldag teal ywalna^, KTSLVOV- reg, " Slaying all, whomsoever they might meet, both children and women." 2. From these, however, are to be distinguished those passages in which the optative is put after the relatives, in the sense which it usually has in independent proposi- tions. Here it regularly takes av, and is found even when a present action is spoken of. Thus, OVK eon rovrov oa- n$ av Karanrdvoi, " There is no one who might slay this person" And again, ov yap sari, nepl brov ovtc av ra0- av&repov SLTTOL 6 prjropiKbg 7] aAAo^ banaovv, " For there is nothing about which the rhetorician would not speak in a more persuasive manner than any other person whatsoever '* 5. Optative in the " oratio obliqua" 1 . When anything that has been said or thought by an other is quoted as such, not as an idea or sentiment of the writer himself, and yet, not in the words of the speaker, but in narration (i. e., in oratione obliqua), the optative is frequently used and without av. Thus, ol 'A.%apv?i$ end- KI^OV rov HeptK^ea, on orparrfybg &v OVK errej-dyoi, " The A.charnians reviled Pericles, because, being commander, he did not lead forth against the foe." And again, Tiaaa- (bspvrjs fisv tiuooev 'Ayrjaihdc*), el OTretaairo, sue; eWoiev, ovg TTSfJLi^sis TTpog /3aGihea ayyihovg, " Tissaphernes took an oath unto Agesilaus, that, if the latter will make a truce with him until the messengers should return, whom he had sent to the king" &c. Here Tre^i/ieis is used to indicate a mere assertion on the part of Tissaphernes, for the truth of which the writer does not mean to vouch. 2. In particular, the optative is put in this case after on or wf, whether the action belongs to the present, past, or future time. Thus, rq de vorepaia TJKSV ayyehoq hsyuv, on AeAo^^ efo/ TLvivvtcsiq rd aKpa, " On the following flay, however a messenger came with the intelligence thqf FORCE OF THE MOODS. 135 Syennesis had left the heights ;" i. e., had left eirj) the heights, as the messenger said. And again, ay yelhaij on. (frdppaKOV m&v drroddvot, " To announce that> having drunk poison^ he had died." Subjunctive. The general distinction between the optative and sub- junctive has already been given, but may here be stated again. These two moods both represent an action, not as something real, but rather as something only conceived of. That which is conceived of, however, is either something merely possible, probable, desirable, and, consequently, un- certain, or something which, as it depends on external cir- cumstances, may be expected with some definiteness. The former is expressed by the optative, the latter by the subjunctive. 1. Subjunctive in independent propositions. 1. The subjunctive is used without dv or KS in exhorta- tions in the first person plural ; as, ivpev, " let us go ;" lia%G)fj,eOa, " let us fight" It indicates, therefore, that something ought to take place. But in the second and third persons the optative is used, as implying more of un- certainty, when the speaker refers not to himself along with others, but to others merely. Thus, ekdvpev dvd do- TVj Kal oi) yevoi* dv ov Katcog, " Let us go throughout the city, and do thou become not cowardly." Trie first person singular of the subjunctive is often found in exhortations in Homer ; as, Idvpai, " let me see ;" XIGGU\L' dvepa rovrov, " let me supplicate this man." _ * 2. The subjunctive is employed in questions of indecis- ion and doubt, when a person asks himself or another what he is to do. In these cases it occurs, as in the pre- vious instances, without dv, and with or without an inter- rogative particle. Thus, avdi pew perd rolai, rje i9ea> ne- rd a y avTi, " Shall I wait there with these, or shall I run back again unto thee . ? " And again, ri <*) ; ri 6p& ; " what am I to say ? what am I to do ?" 3. In a similar way, the subjunctive is used without a conjunction, and without dv after fiovXei, in interrogations. Thus, (3ovhet kd6G)[j,ai dr\ra Kal $yo) ri aov;"Dost thou wish, then 9 that I take hold of tht,e* and touch thee ve\ aught ?" 136 FORCE OF THE MOODS. 4. The subjunctive is also employed in questions of in dignation, with which a previous command or injunction is repeated. Thus, Aristoph. Ran., 1132, AION. AJ0%vAe, irapaivti ooi oiunav. AI2X. eyd) cra>ra5 roxfo; " Bacch. /EtScJiylus^ I admonish you to be silent. jEsch. Am I to be silent before this man ?" 5. In negative propositions, the subjunctive is used after \i?] or ov p/ for the future ; but, usually, only the first aorist subjunctive passive, or the second aorist active and middle. Instead of the first aorist active the future is employed. Thus, j?Esch. S. c. Th. 201, Xevorripa-driuov 6' OVTL [iff $vyr\ [lopov, " And by no means shall any one escape death by sto- ning at the hands of the people" And again, Soph. Electr. 42, ov yap ae p) yripa re real xpovu panpti yv&a* ovd' VTiOTrrevoovoLV &6' rjvOiopevov, " For they shall not, through both thine own age and the long lapse of time, recognise, or even suspect thee thus attired" This construction probably arose from ov didoina p? yvtiai, " / am not afraid that they will not know thee ;" i. e., they certainly will not know thee. This being stronger than ov yv&aovrai, this ov pj was also prefixed, for the sake of a stronger negation, to the future tense. 1 6. From this case, however, we must distinguish firj ov with the subjunctive, in which also dsdoma is omitted. Thus, Plato, Phad., p. 67, B., p? KaOapti yap ttadapov ecf)dnrea6aL p,rj ov fteiiirbv %, " Since I fear it is not lawful for an impure person to touch one that is pure" In Latin this would be vereor ne nefas sit, which is also a milder ex- pression for nefas est. 2. Subjunctive in dependant propositions. 1. If the leading verb be in the present or future tense, the following verb is put in the subjunctive, with and with- out av. Thus, d/l/l' iOi, \Li\ \i? epeO^e, aatirepog c5f KB verjai, " But go, provoke me not, in order that thou mayst return in greater safety than otherwise." And again, Aea) Iva fiMj/f , " / will speak, that thou mayst know." 2. The subjunctive, moreover, is frequently used, although the preceding verb be in the perfect tense, when the verb 1. Passages sometimes occur where ov fj,7j appears with the first ao- rist subjunctive. These are generally altered by critics, arid the aorist is converted into a future. But consult Matthia, G. G. vo) ii T p. 876, ed 5. FORCE OF THE MOODS. 137 which depends upon the conjunction denotes an action that is continued to the present time. Thus, Horn. IL 5, 127, d%hvv S' av rot, drr' o&Oatytiv ehov, r\ rrplv eiTTjev, ocbp' ev yiv&OKfQQ rj^ev $eov i]de Kal avdpa, " / have, more- over, taken away from thy eyes the darkness that was previ- ously upon them, in order that thou mayst know well either a god or a man." At the time at which Minerva is here rep- resented as speaking, yivtiaKyg is a consequence still con- tinuing of the past action denoted by d%A.vv elkov. 3. The future is often used instead of the subjunctive. In this case the future expresses a state that continues, or something that will occur at an indefinite future time. The aorist of the subjunctive, on the other hand, indicates a transient state occurring in particular cases, and then com- pletely concluded. Thus, opdre pr] efedarG) ^tit Kal 60- Oaty&v nal %eLptiv defoei, " See whether each one of us will not need both eyes and hands" On the contrary, opdre UTJ irdO(*)[j,ev, " See whether we shall not have suffered." 3. Subjunctive after particles of time. 1 . The subjunctive is put with enr)v, eireiddv, orav, OTTO- rav, where the discourse is concerning an action belonging to present or future time. Thus, onep not vvv en TTOIOVCFIV ol J3dpdapot, pdaihelg, bnorav arparoiTe6svG)vraL, " Which the barbarian monarchs do still, even at the present day, vihenever they encamp" 2. Sometimes the subjunctive with these particles does not express an action frequently repeated at the present time, but merely a future action. Thus, ov yap sr' a/l/Uf ear at $a/l7T6)p?) eirei av ov ye TTOTUOV m<77r^, " For no longer will there be any other solace, when thou shalt have encountered thy destined end." 4. Subjunctive after conditional particles. When in the apodosis, or latter part of the sentence, the future, or the imperative, or an indicative is found, then the condition is expressed by el with the future, or more mildly by edv, rjv, dv (in the Ionic poets el, Ke, or'awce), with the subjunctive, and uncertainty is denoted with the prospect of decision. Thus, edv TI exvuev, duaopev, " If we have anything, we will give it." And again, tav rig riva r&v V7rap%6vr(*)v vouw p) nahtig e%eiv rjyrjrai, ypatfreaQv, " If M2 138 DEPONENT VERBS. any one think any one of the existing laws unsuitable, let him petition against it " 5. Subjunctive after the relatives og, OGTI$, olog, &c. The subjunctive is employed with av after relatives when the proposition affirms something of present or future time. Thus, eneade OTTOI av rig fjyi/rat, " Follow, whithersoever one may lead you." And again, bv 6s K' ey&v andvevde. ud%7](; zdehovra, vorjab) \LI\LV a&iv , ov ol cipttiov sooelrai (f>v- yeeiv Kvvag ?]d' oluvovg, " But whomsoever I shall perceive inclining to remain apart from the fight, it shall not be possi- ble for him to escape the dogs and birds" DEPONENT VERBS. 1 . Deponent verbs may be referred to the class of mid- dle ones. 2. They have the middle form, except in the perfect, pluperfect, and third future, or paulo-post-futurum, of which the forms are passive. Their perfect has sometimes both an active and passive sense ; as, e'lpyaapai, from pyd&- \LCbl 3. Some of these verbs have, besides a middle, a passive first aorist and first future, the signification of which is pas- sive. In the other tenses a middle meaning may generally be traced. 4. The following is a synopsis of their form. Moods and Tenses of Deponent Verbs. Imper. Op tat. Subj. Ir.fiu. I'irt. Present, [mperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, 1st Aorist M. 1st Future M. 1st Aorist P. 1st Future P. 3d Future P. Ssde-go, de^-aij elrjv, -OlfJ,7]V, eirjv, -oiuijv, aadai, -OflEVOC, -e/f, -6[lVO 5. A few of these verbs have a second aorist middle ; as, irvvddvopai, CONTRACTED VERBS. 139 CONTRACTED VERBS. 1. Verbs in aw, ea>, and 6a) correspond entirely, in their general formation, to the rules and examples already given for verbs in 6). 2. But in the present and imperfect of the active and passive forms, where the vowels a, e, o stand, immediately before the vowels of the flexible endings, there arises in the Attic and common language a contraction, the rules for which are as follows : 3. Verbs in da) contract a/lee, (pihst, ; 0^/leo^ev, fahovpev. Otherwise they drop e ; as, 0^Ag6), 0^Ac5 ; faheeig , ihel. 5. Verbs in do) contract o, with a long vowel, into a) ; as, o^/loo), 6^7/Aw ; with a short vowel, or ov, into ot> ; as, drj- hoere, drj^ovre ; drjkoovoi, drjhovoi. Otherwise into 01 ; as, d?y^d^c, (5?/Ao?c. In the infinitive oe^v is contracted into ovv. 6. Four verbs in ad>, namely, faw, Trewdd), diipda), and i, contract ae into ?/, and aa into q ; as, ao), f^f , ^v ; imperfect efav, efyg, sty. So, also, 7. Dissyllables in eoj are contracted in the imperative and infinitive only. Thus we say, irked), irXeoiiev, and not HO CONTRACTED VERBS. g' :^ ' T * 3 o 1 1 i % * S I S H & -3 I" <3 H O < III Iff 3 3 ^> v e 6 rT ^ ^ S> , 3 o < III v v -. ^ -J w co CONTRACTED VERBS. 141 $n i I f f ? : -- v s> v s> o o W > H & s fff co o C ^ ej" eT ^3 T 1 I- - X H d CONTRACTED VERBS. if . J 3*o ^ ** ^ ^Isl S Q V{ VQ 143 3 '3 * 3 " o E I . Active Voice. 1. In the third person plural of the imperative, in Attic, the termination -OVTGIV is more usual than -Eruoav. The former occurs even in the Ionic writers ; as, II. 8, 517, dyyeXXovruv ; Od. 1, 340, TUVOVTUV. The form -sruaav, however, is found in the older Attics occasionally ; as, Thucyd. 1, 34, paQsruGav ; Plat. Leg. 6, p. 759, D., 2. The form in 6vra)v was also used by the Dorians. Some Doric tribes omitted the v ; as, TTOIOVVTG), diroarei^dv- TV ; whence the Latin imperative in the third person plural, amanto, d^ cento. 3. The optative in oifu, particularly in the contracted verbs, has also in Attic the termination -ofyv ; as, TroiotTjv, (pikofyv, Siep()Tb)7]v, &c. This form OLTJV is also found in Ionic and Doric writers. The termination in -OITJV oc- curs less frequently in the barytone verbs tha'n in the con- tracted ones ; yet still we have, in Attic, diadahofyv, 6eaav, syeyoveaav. 7. Instead of the form -o^, in the first aorist of the op- tative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive ^Eolic form -sia, -$-, -eje, after the example of the lonians and Dorians, but only in the second and third persons singular and third person plural, REMARKS ON VERBS. 145 Passive Voice. 1. In the perfect optative the i is subscribed under the rj or 6) ; as, rer^^jUT/v, rer^^o, TCT^^/TO, &c. Instead of uep,v(iii7]v, KeKr^jjirjv, &c., there was another form with o>. It seems, therefore, as if to the roots jwe/jv?/-, Kercrr]-, the form of the optative present had been appended, pepvrjoiro, KSKTTJOITO, whence came jite/zvewro and ^e/crewro, con- tracted fj,e[j,v&TO. So \ii\LVoio (\LE\LV&O) is found in Xen. Anab. 1, 7, 5. 2. The perfect subjunctive is exactly like the present of the same mood, -&\LCLI, -%, -T\T

  • j/layw, Tre^A^f, ne(j)t^7]TaL. But it seldom occurs, and, instead of it, the circumlocution 7Te(f>L^fjLevog & is used. 3. In the third person plural of the perfect and pluper- fect, the lonians and Dorians change the v before TCLI and TO into a, in which case the original aspirated consonant again enters before the 'a ; as, redd(f)ar(u, from (a7TT6>), for reOapfjisvoc eloi\ Kefcpv^arai, from ), for Ke/cpvpfjisvoL eloi. So, also, KareM^aro for rjffav ; eaeod^aro for aeaaypevoi r)Gav. 4. If a cr, arising from the linguals d, 0, r, f, precedes the termination of the perfect passive -pat,, -oat, -rat, it is changed into 6 before the termination -arcu, -aro. Thus, eafcevddaro for eafcevacffisvoi rjoav, from anevd^o) ; earoA/- daro for earohiapevoi, fjaav, from CTTO/U'GX 5. In a similar way, the termination -avrai of the per- fect is changed into -earai ; as, dvaTreTrrearai, for dvanen- ravrai ; eTreTreipsaro for inensipavro. 6. In the same way v, in the third person of the present and aorist, optative passive and middle, of the imperfect passive and middle, and even of the present, in some words, is changed into a. In the optative this is very frequent, even in the Attic poets ; KS, Ttevdoiaro, a-rrofyepoi- aro, aladavoiaro, for TtevOoivro, &c. In the imperfect we find STreip&aro for eneiptivro ; in (ne second aorist, a/xiK,e- BTO for dmKovro ; dis^Oapearo for diecfrOdpovro. In the present we have, in Herodotus, ;. Active. 1. In the old Homeric language, and generally in the Ionic and Doric dialects, the termination OKOV is annexed to the historical tenses of the indicative active, passive, and middle. In barytones, and those whose characteristic is e, ej, or ?/, this termination succeeds e in the imperfect and second aorist ; as, rre^TreaKe for eirepne ; 7]G6a for (f>r]g ; oloOa for oldag. 9. The third person singular of the subjunctive in Ionic received the addition of the syllable OL ; as, eWqat, for e/U % ; Aa6^a for /Ia6^, &c. This 01 the Dorians changed into TI ; as, WeXi^ri. \ 0. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the penult be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second per- sons plural, the short vowel instead of the long one, name- ly, o for (*). Thus we have, 77. 2, 72, duprigopev ; Od. 15, 297, epvgoftev, 11.21, 443, dTrokvGopev, &c. These must not be mistaken for futures. 1 1 . In the infinitive, instead of the form eiv and elv, the termination fievai, and shortened j^ey, was frequently used in the old language, as, for example, by Homer and He- siod, and in the ^Eolic and Doric dialects. Thus, eWepe- vai and eWepev for eWeiv ; mvspevai for niveiv ; ovrd- IIBV for ovraVy &c. 12. Hence, from such a form as Tvnreftev, we obtain, by syncope, the Ionic TVTrreev, and from this latter, by era- sis, the Attic TVTTTELV. From rvTrreev comes also, by con- traction, the Doric rvTrrev. 13. In the participle, the Dorians used in the feminine, instead of ovaa, the form oioa, not only in the present, as, Ka%^d^oiaa, &XQIGO,, but also in the second aorist ; as, Aa- dolaa, hiTtolaa. They employed also the form evaa in verbs pure for eov GO, ; as, ^arevaac for fyrovcHu ; yeXevaa for yeAwcra, &c. The JEolians and some Dorians used for the circumflexed ovaa the form cocra ; as, Hence arose the Laconian form c5a ; as, Traidduav for 14. The jEolians formed the termination of the partici- ples -tiv and (*)v in etc;, because they formed the verbs in (*) and dd) in ^JLM ; thus they said, opetg, oroi%ei, from 148 DIALECTS OF VERBS. 15. The termination of the first aorist active, ag, aaa, av, was, in Doric, aig , aioa ; as, ravvoai^^ pn/>euf, reAe- oai$, dvev, Find. OL 10, 101. 6. The infinitive of the aorists is in Doric -rjpev for -TJVCU, abbreviated from the old form in -rj^evai, which form is fre- quent, particularly in Homer ; as, aoidiir\6'f]iJievai, II. 2, 124; opoiudfjpevai, II. 1, 187. Middle. \. The form ao of the second person, first aorist middle, occurs frequently in the Ionic and Doric writers ; as, //. 5, 88, eyeivao ; Theocrit. 29, 18, edfjuao. 2. Hence arose, in the Syracusan dialect, tne form -a, the o being omitted ; as, ^vodvreg for fyvadovreg, Theocr. 4,28. 3. In the third person of the optative, first aorist middle, -aiaro for -aivro is very frequent in the Ionic and Attic 9oets ; as, Od. 1, 164, dprjaaiaro ; Herod. 3, 75, vaiaro ; jffischyl. Pers* 360, kKOuaaiaro, &c. VERBS. 149 VERBS IN fu. 1. Verbs in \LL are formed from verbs of the third conju gation in into fit. 3. By lengthening the penult. 2. In this way are formed the following : from 3. If the verb begin with a vowel, with TTT or or, then / aspirated is alone prefixed ; as, eo), l?\\i>i ; Trraw, InTTjfii. This is called the Improper Reduplication. 4. The reduplication takes place in the present and im- perfect merely. 5. Verbs in v\ii have no reduplication ; neither is it found in those verbs in \LI which are formed from verbs of three syllables ; as, Kpepvac*), K,p&\Lvr\\ii. It is also, wanting in r\\ii from ao). 6. Verbs in \ii have only three tenses of that form, name- ly, the present, imperfect, and second aorist. They take the other tenses from verbs in w. Thus, didtipi makes 66- oo) and dsduKO, from 660). 7. Verbs in v\u have no second aorist, nor the optative or subjunctive mood. When these moods are needed they are borrowed from forms in vo). 8. Verbs in \LI have no second future, second aorist pas sive, nor perfect middle. 1. Old form $i6r)fj.i, changed to Tidqp.1,, in order to prevent an aspi- rate from beginning two successive syllables. N2 150 VERB. ACTIVE VOICE. Moods and Tenses. Present, < Imperfect, / 5Jd Aorist, j Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. TiO-TJJLU, SELKV-VHL, ~Tl, -001, -vdi, -atqv, -017}V, -G), -6), -0), -yvat, -OVf, Icrrqv, kridrjVj kdiduv. \ The rest like the present. EGT7JV, E07JV, GTTjdi, GTCLLTJV) &i7]V t crti, dti', GTTjVaL, dovvat, (Jovf. The other tenses are regularly formed from verbs in 6) Thus : 1st Future, 1st Aorist, Perfect, Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infia. Part. GT1JG-G), -OljLll, -ElV, -0)V, &7JG-0), . -OtfZL t . . ~IV, -CJV, (5c5, -OL(J,L, -ElV, -0)V, d^-CJ, . -OL/M, -ElV, -ov. lla^ GTTJG-OVj -aipi, -0, -at, j& Zduna dEia, dElg-OV, -atfii, -6), -at. -Of. EGTTjK-a, -e, -OlfjU, -0), -Evat, -Of, TEdElK-d, -> -OlflL, -C,)y -Evai, -CJf, diSuK-a, -f> -Ol/U, -6), -Evai, -CJf, tiedsix-a, -e, -OLflLj -0), -Evat, -Of. iarrjK.Lv Singular. Pluperfect. ', ETE6EIKELV, EdsSuKEtV, Numbers and Persons. PRESENT. Dual CJf, fJf, v, arov, ar^v, erov, er^v, orov, OTTJV, VTOVy VTTJVy apev, are, e//ev, ere, oftev, ore, vfiev, vre, affav, eaav, ocav, vaav. SECOND AORIST. Singular. Dual. . * Plural. su-flV) n f, 77* 1]TOV, tjTIJV, CTOV, T7jV, rifiev, TJT8, epev, ere, eaav, &O-CJV. (")i ^> OTOV, OT7JV, ouev, ore, oaav. Singular. Singular. , OTTfTCd) UETG). Jorw, Singular, iarai-nv, j Tidst-nv, > i/f, 17 didol-TjVy j Singular. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Dual. TOV, TCJVj SECOND AORIST. Dual. OT7}TOV, GTJJTUV, OETOV, deruv, dorov, dorwv, OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Dual. 1JTOV, tfTTJV SECOND AORIST. Dual. 1JTOV, Plural. re, Plural. ^ere, Qiruoav, (5ore, doruaav Plural. Tjuev, rjre, yjaav t and ev. Plural. rjpev, IJTE, rjaav, and ev. 152 VERB. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Dual. Piral. lar-u, #f, y, Ti6-ti, $?, y, 5id-ti, >, 6>, jjrov, Tjrov, tirov, tirov, tipev, '^re, CKT*, C>fj.v t yre t &&1, tifj,v, tire, GXTi. SECOND AORIST. Singular. Dual. Plural. CTO>, orris, err), 6&, GrJQy 6y t dti, Joif, (5c5, GTrirov, arrjrov, drjrov, 6rjrov, titirov, dtirov. crr&/LiV t arf/rt cruei 6tip,V, QrjrE) B&GI, dtifjtev, titirf dcovu fardvai. arrival. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. TiQ&vai,. didovcu. SECOND AORIST. dovvai. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. SECOND AORIST. aaa, dv, \ crraf, lGd, ovaa, vaa t > PASSIVE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. erav &e% Jovcra, dov. Present, Imperfect, KTTa/LlTJV, edeiKvvfirjv, Imp. -aero, -eao, -ocro, Opt -OLJJ.7JV, Part. -aadat, -i -dpsvog, -EUEVOC, -vaOai, i -v The rest like the present. VERB. Tenses formed from Verbs in 6). 153 Perfect, Plup., ) . ) 3dFut. ,'st Aor. ? IstFut. red-eipai, ded-ofiaij sarda-opai, redeta-opai, dedoa-opai, Earddijv, Singular. IffTCt- Tt0~ OlOO- 6EIKVV- Singular iaTd- 1 IriOe- \ Singular. 7rd- "\ fc eiKW- J lard- TiBe- ditio- Imp. Opt ,| Subj. -&/J.CU, -acdcu, -eladcu, -ElflEVOC, The rest like the perfect. -OlfMJV, QLHTJV, oiprjv, 666-7JTI, -eiTjv, -eirjv, -OljLLTJV, -oiprjv, oiprjv, -eadai, -eadat, -fjvat, -Tjvai, -fjVCLL, Numbers and Persons. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. v, odov, IMPERFECT. Dual. j o6ov, IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESBNT. Dual. -OfJ,VO, -OLLEVO, -OftEVO?, -OflEVO?, -OpEVOf. Plural., Plural. Plural 154 VERB. Singular. Ti6i > fjLTJV, 0, TO, 6 1 dot i OPTATIVE MOOD PRESENT. Dual. fieBov, odov, Plural , oOe, vro. Singular. iar-tiuai, y, y SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Dual 6/j,e6ov, ijaOov fjaOov, yrat, 6fie6ov, jjadov, 6/tedov, tiaBov tiaOov, Plural. 6fj,e6a t fjaQe, tivrai, , tivrai, tivrat. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. didoadai, PARTICIPLE. PKESENT. tV-Uf, x ev-of, c yuev-oc. ^ MIDDLE VOICE. TAe Moods and Tenses. The present and imperfect are the same as in the pas- sive. The Second Aorist. Indie. Imp. Opt Subj. Infin. Part. GTacro, deeo, doao, dti/uai, d&ficu, aracrdai, Tenses formed from Verbs in 6). ffT7]GdfJ.7]V, 1st Aorist, 1st Future, f GT7jG-OjJ,ai, j ftrjG-ofj.ai, '' y 6oG-ofj,ai, C 6ti-ou,at,, -aipnv, :)' /m -uuai, -aaOai, -aadai, -eadat, -afJLEVO^ -6/zevof. VERB. 155 Singular. tord- i kde- > UTJV, GO, ro, kdo- > ora- tfe- <56- Singular. v GO, adu, Singular. OTOl- $ei- doi- > f*VV, o, ro, Singular. 77, Numbers and Persons INDICATIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. Dual. V, (700V, G07JV, IMPERATIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. Dual. G00V, G0UV, OPTATIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. Dual. fieOoVf G00V, G07JV, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. Dual. TJGvOV) JJG00V, 7JG00V, ijaBov, &G00V, &G00V, Plural. a6e, vro. Plural. aOe, Plural. fieda, cde, VTQ. Plural. 6uE0a, ijoQe, tivrcu, , wade, &VTCLI. INFINITIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. ardadai, &adai t fioaOat. PARTICIPLE. SECOND AORIST. pevov 156 REMARKS ON VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. ACTIVE VOICE. The Imperfect is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and changing \ii into v ; as, rftfyj^, MOrjv. The Second Aorist is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication ; as, eridrjv, eOrjv ; or by changing the improper reduplication into the augment ; as, loTr\v\ PASSIVE VOICE. The Present is formed from the present active by shortening the penult and changing \LI into \ICLL ; as, frm//z, lardpat. The Imperfect is formed from the present by prefixing the augment and changing \LCLL into \LT\V ; as, riOepcu, e^Oe^rjv. MIDDLE VOICE. The Second Aorist is formed from the imperfect by dropping the reduplication as, eriOefjirjv. eOeprjv ; tardpTjv, e REMARKS ON VERBS IN fit. 1 . The number of verbs in \ii, in the Attic and common dialects, is very small, and among these few are only four which have a complete conjugation peculiar to themselves, namely, rtOrj^ lr\\Li, larrjfiL, and did^i. 2. These verbs were chiefly used in the ^Eolo-Doric dialect ; and in the writers of that dialect verbs very fre- quently occur in the form pi, which in other dialects termi- nate in aw, G) ; as, VLKTHJH, 06p?7p, for vinaG), opG). 3. These forms in fii are to be regarded as among the REMARKS ON VERBS. 157 oldest in the language, and occur frequently in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. After the dialects arose, the Ionic and Attic retained some of these verbs, namely, those above given (1) and those in V\LI, instead of which they very seldom use the forms in va). The uEolic, however, which retained the most of the ancient language, continued to use the greater part of them. 4. Historically considered, then, the verb in \ii must have been at least as old as those in w, and of more extensive use than appears in the works which have come down to us. 5. The first aorists in na, of verbs in \LI^ are thought to have been originally perfects, and to have been subsequent- ly used as aorists, when a peculiar form was introduced for the perfect. 6. The aorists in no, have not the rest of the moods after the indicative ; and, therefore, in giving the moods and tenses, we cannot say eOrjKa, ftriKOV, -$i\K,ai\Li, &c., but must pass to the second aorist ; as, edTjtca, $, -&ei7jv, &c. 7. In Ionic and Doric the forms ec*>, aw, dw, often occur in the present and imperfect singular, with the reduplication ; as, TiOsig, eriTideig, dtdolg, edidovg, &c. 8. In the third person plural the form aai is used by the Attics, which occurs also frequently in Ionic, and hence is called Ionic ; as, rideaoi, didoaoi, &c. 9. The first aorist in ita occurs in good writers almost exclusively in the singular and in the third person plural. In the rest of the persons the second aorist is more used, which, again, hardly ever occurs in the singular. 10. The optative present and second aorist, as in the aorist passive of verbs in 6>, have in the plural, in the poets as well as prose writers, more commonly ei[j,ev, elre, flev ; alfJLSV, alre, aisv ; ol^sv, olre, olev ; instead of eiqusv, ecrjTe, &c. 11. In the verb larrjfju,, the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- ond aorist have an intransitive meaning, " to stand ;" the rest of the tenses a transitive one, " to place" Thus, ea- TTJKO, signifies " / stand ;" elarrjKeiv, " / was standing." But earrjv, " / stood" as a transient action. 12. The form eorajca, which is found in the common grammars, occurs in later writers only, and in a transitive sense, " / have placed." The Doric form eara/ea, with the long penult, is distinct from this. O 158 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN [Ll may be divided into three classes, each containing three verbs. I. From ew are derived elpi, to be ; el[j,i and f^jui, to go. II. From 6) are derived typi, to send; fywa, to sit; elpat', to clothe one's self. III. Kelpai, to lie down ; l(Jt\\Li^ to know ; 0^i, to, say. CLASS I. 1. EZ/u, to be, has been before conjugated, as it is used in some of its tenses as an auxiliary to the passive voice of verbs in 6). 2. EZfM, to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Dual. Plural. dp, df or d, dot. | ITW, Irov. | l / m> ' ^ rf< "' to OT IMPERFECT. jyew, jyeff, yet. \ fjelrov, qeiTijv. \ qeipev, fieiTe, jjeioav. FUTURE, dau. FIRST AORIST, elaa. PERFECT, eka. PLUPERFECT. lK-eiv, etc, ei. \ eirov, druv. \ eipev, etre, eioav SECOND AORIST. lov, le$, Is. | ICTOV, UTTJV. \ lojiev, tsTS 9 lov. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Wt, or el ITCJ. \ Irov, Iruv. \ Ire, SECOND AORIST. fe, Uru. | ISTOV, ieruv. | lere, IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. * 159 OPTATIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. Singular. Dual. Plural, loifu, Zoif, loi. \ loirov, ioLTJjv. \ lotftev, loire, loitv SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. SECOND AORIST. fo, lye, ly. | ZTJTOV, ITJTOV. \ lo/iev, lyre, luat INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. SECOND AORIST. levai. | i&v, lovaa, iov. REMARKS. 1. The Attics regularly use the present tense of elfii in a future sense, " / will go. 19 This usage occurs also in Ionic. The form elaopat, occurs in Attic only as the future of olda. 2. The form el is more used in Attic than el$ . Homer has also eloQa, II. 10, 450, &c. 3. In the imperative, the form 10 1 is more used than el. For Irvaav we have occasionally, in Attic, ITCJV. 4. The imperfect fjeiv is nothing more than the form elv with 7j as a prefix, analogous to which are the forms ^e- deuv and fj'iov. The form TJ'ia, Attic $a, also occurs, and is erroneously regarded by some as the perfect middle, just as rjeiv is sometimes miscalled the pluperfect middle. The best grammarians regard rfia as merely an Ionic form for jjeiv ; just as in TiQr\\ii^ the Ionic eriOea is the same as eriOriv ; and in elpi, I am, the Ionic rfa is the same as T\V. 5. The form qa never has the signification of the perfect, and tfetv never that of the pluperfect ; but both forms agree in this respect, and designate generally a time past, either absolutely, or with reference to another time ; that is, they stand for the aorist and imperfect. 6. From what has been said respecting fjeiv, it will be seen at once how erroneous it is to subscribe the i under the f\. This mistake arose from the tense in question being regarded as a pluperfect, and deduced from ya. In 160 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. %a the subscript i is correct, since this form is contracted from rfia. 7. We have called l&v the second aorist participle, since it follows the analogy of the aorist participle in hav- ing the accent on the ending. Others make it a present participle. 3. "I??/^, to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Dual. Plural. fy/j.1, fyf, ITJOI. | hrov, lerov. \ lepev, fare, ietat. IMPERFECT. leaav. OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. ietij. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PRESENT. ievai. | iele, ievrog. MIDDLE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Dual. Plural. cat, rai. \ psQov, a6ov, cQov. \ pe6a, ade, vrat IMPERFECT. fro, ro. | pedov, adov, c07jv. | fis6a t ode, wo IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PRESENT. isao, itc6cj. \ INFINITIVE. IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. 161 tyv, Singular. ?3?f, Irjai. iff. -6>, fff, ei. FIRST AORIST. CLASS II. 1. IT?/^, to send. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Dual. Plural. | lerov, lerov. \ lepev, LETS, leioi IMPERFECT. I Isrov, leTijv. | lepev, Zere, lecav. FIRST FUTURE. | erov, erov. \ Oftev, ere, ovat. PERFECT. etica. PLUPERFECT. eliceiv. SECOND AORIST. | ITOV, Irrjv. \ lp.ev y Ire, taav IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. | terov, ISTCJV. \ /ere, ieruaav. SECOND AORIST. | erov, Irwv. | Ire, OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. yaav. FIRST FUTURE. PERFECT. il-rjv, \ SECOND AORIST. \ IJTOV, fjTTiv. | Tjpev^ rjre, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. | Itfrov, ITJTOV. \ l&pev, lyre, l, / set, being for elftai, eZcrai, &c. The compovxid Ka6ijfj.a is more common than the simple verb. 2. For rjvrai the lonians used 'iarai, and for TJVTO, in thf pluperfect, laro; for which the poets said slarai and elaro. 3. The accent is on the antepenult, on account of the present signifi- cation. The true accentuation, if r}iarov. \ ajnev, fare, (j>aat IMPERFECT. , and FIRST FUTURE. ^57(7-6), , j. | erov, erov. \ ojj,ev, ere, FIRST AORIST. l^cr-a, af, e. | arov, drjjv. \ a/zev, are, IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. $&8i, faro. | Qdrov, Qdrov. \ OPTATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. FIRST AORIST. ate, at. \ CUTOV, CLITTJV. \ aipev t airs, aiev. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. tyrjTov. | INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PRESENT. dvat. 0a, aaa, $ FIRST AORIST. FIRST FUTURE. 168 IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS. SECOND AORIST. FIRST AORIST. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE. PERFECT. Ketyapai, irfyarai. \ rrsQaadu. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. TJ, MIDDLE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Dual. Plural. fa-pat, aai, rat. \ pedov, oOov, a6dv. \ fieBa, a6e, VTGU. IMPERFECT. ^^d-firjv, ao, TO. \ fiedov, oBov, adqv. { pe6a, c6e, VTO. IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. (pda-u, 6dpev-oe, TJ, ov. REMARKS. 1. The present indicative of (jxipt, with the exception of Ue second person singular, is enclitic ; i. e., throws back its accent upon the preceding word. 2. The imperfect ecfrrjv, &c., is generally placed after one or more words of the speaker, as an aorist, like the Latin inquit, even when another word of the same signifi cation precedes. "E^T/v, c5, and the infinitive (/)dvof. "Aya/zai, "/ admire," present and imperfect like larapai; future, ayaaopai ; first aorist passive, Tjyaadrjv ; first aorist middle, ^yacfaprjv. 'Ayvv/u, " / break," from "APQ, future, afr> ; first aorist, Saga (with the old form of the augment), in the epic dialect also %!-a ; perfect mid- dle, laya (with an intransitive signification, " I am broken") ; second aorist passive, kayrjv. "Ayw, " 1 lead," future, aw, &c. ; second aorist, tjyayov ; infinitive IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 of the second aorist, ayayelv ; second aorist midd'e, rjyayop.r)v (all these three with the Attic reduplication) ; perfect, ^a, Doric dy^a. *Aeipa), " I raise up," used only in the particip'e, aeipvv ; participle passive, aeLpopevo? ; participle of the first aorist active, aeipag ; of the first aorist middle, deipdpevoc ; of the first aorist passive, aepOzig ; and in the third person singular of the first aorist passive, aipOrj ; the third person plural of the same tense, aepdev ; the third person singular of the pluperfect passive, aupro. All its remaining forms are deduced from alpu. *'AEQ, infinitive, aqvai or a^phai, " to blow," retains the long char- acteristic vowel also in the dual and plural, as well as in the passive. Present passive, cb?//a ; first aorist active, ueca ; first aorist infinitive active, deaai, "to sleep." Aiveo), " / praise," future, alveaa, &c. ; perfect passive, yvri^ai ; but first aorist passive, rjveQrjv. Alpeo), " I take" future, alprjacj ; perfect, yprjKa, Ionic, apaipijKa ; perfect passive, yprjfiai, ; first aorist passive, fipsOtjv. The second aorist is borrowed from the obsolete root 'EAfl, and makes elhov, infinitive thelv, for the active ; and elhoftTjv, infinitive &EadaL, for the middle. A.lpu, " / raise," future, apti, &c. AiaBdvopcLL, " I feel " future, aladrjao^aL, &c. ; second aorist, yaOo- [Aijv ; perfect, ffodrjuai. *A/ca^evof, " pointed" perfect participle passive, from an unusual root, which may be 'AKAZft or 'AKQ, according as a reduplication is assumed or not in d/ca^/zevof . *'AKAXQ, " / afflict," second aorist, fjnaxov ; first aorist, ^Ka^rjaa or c/ca^T/o-a ; second aorist middle, ^/co^o/^v or aKa^ofiijv ; perfect passive, &coqpgu and d/c^e/^ai ; third person plural perfect passive, t, for dK^evrac ; third person plural pluperfect passive, d/co^- for d/cd^vTO. *'A.heeLVG), " I avoid," to which the epic forms of the first aorist mid- dle are, Tjfovaro or dhevaro ; participle, dhsvdftevoc ; infinitive, akiaa- Qai and akevaadai, deduced from a root 'AAE without a. 'A/le^w, *' I avert" future, dAe^cro) ; and, from 'AAEKfl, the first ao- rist middle infinitive, ake%aoQai. From the syncopated form 'AAKS2, and by reduplication, are formed the epic second aorist infinitive, d/la/l- KSLV, &c. 'AlJdaivu, " I heal," future, dWrjcrG) ; second aorist middle, *aX66{i7fv % with an intransitive signification. f A/Uovco/za, " I am caught" from 'AA.OQ, future, dhucofiai ; second aorist active (with a passive signification, " I was caught"}, fjhuv, Attic ; second aorist infinitive, ak&vat ; seccmd aorist subjunctive, dAw 172 CATALOGUE OF cAwf, &c. ; second aorist optative, akolrjv ; participle of second aonst, cAovf ; perfect, $/U)/ca, Attic iahuKa (in a passive signification, " / have been caught"). *'AhtTaivoj, " I sin," future, akirfiau ; second aorist, TJ^LTOV ; second aorist middle, jyAtropyv. Also d/Ur^aei>of, as present participle middle, from an accessory form, a^irri^L. "A/Uo/zai, " I spring" future, d^ov/iai, ; first aorist, ijTia^v ; second aorist middle, faopriv ; epic, in the second and third persons, syncopated and without aspiration, d/t. *'A^7r/la;40 > AC6), " J err" or " miss," future, dftTT^aK^o'a) ; second ao rist, ^Tr^a/cov ; second aorist infinitive, d//7r/la/cev. 'A.[MpiWVftc, "I dress," 'AM^IEQ, future, d^ieacj, Attic, &p$iG ; first aorist, jipifyieaa ; perfect passive, ^fi^oofuu, ^u^te^fMU. 'AvahicKu, " / consume" or " spend," forms from dva/loo the future, ttya/locrij ; first aorist, avd/twcra ; perfect, avd/lw/ca, both unaugmented with the Attics ; but in Ionic with the augment qvakuKa or dvyhuKa. 'Avddvu, '* I please," imperfect, jjvdavov, andMvdavov epic, also ^v- Javov ; second aorist, la<5ov epic, and also ddov, besides the third per- jon, evade ; second aorist infinitive, ddeiv ; perfect, ada and liiSa ; fu- ture, ddqaG). *'Avr]vo6ev, third person singular of the perfect middle, to denote a 4nished action, " gushes forth," " rises up ;" to be derived from 'ANGQ, lied to dvdeo), " I flower " 'Avoiya) or avoiyvv^i, see Olya). **Avuya, an old perfect form of uncertain derivation, and with a pres- ent meaning, " I command," or " commission" First person plural in a syncopated form, dvwy/zev ; imperative, avuxdi, besides qvoysa as a plu- perfect. Hence a new present, dvuycj ; imperfect, fjvuyov and qvuyeov ; future, avut-u ; first aorist, jjvut-a. *'Amjvpa)v, as first person singular and third person plural of the im- perfect, with also an aorist signification, " I took away ;" second person, cnrTjvpae ; third person, dTnjvpa, from an assumed radical form, airavpaa), of which, however, nothing occurs besides the forms just enumerated. To it aTTOvpa? belongs as a participle, although their connexion does not admit of being clearly pointed out. *'A7ra0/cr/CG>, " I deceive ," second aorist, jjiratyov ; second aorist infin- itive, cnraiptlv ; future, ctTra^ffu. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 t, " I am hated," future, aTTExdyaofiai, ; perfect, UTTTJ fiat ; second aorist, aTTT^tfo/^v. 'ApapiVKu, ** I fit" second aorist, fjpapov ; future, apetj ; first aorist, fjpca ; first aorist middle, 7]pGa[j,r)v . The perfect middle, upupa or ap-qpa, has an intransitive signification, as also the perfect passive, apqpepai. 'ApEGKu, " I make favourable' 1 or "pleasing" also intransitive " 1 please" future, apeaa), &c. ; perfect passive, jjpsfffiai ; first aorist pas- sive, rjpeaBrjv. 'APQ, radical form to apapiaKG) and apsT cw ; also to a?po>. Avt-dvG), " / increase," second aorist, 7/^fov ; future, av^rjGG) ; first aorist, Tj-OfyKa ; perfect passive, r]v^ai ; first aorist passive, ^v^Orjv ; first future middle, avgqaopai, as future passive, " I shall grow," i. e. f be increased. *A%do{j,(n, " J am vexed," future, a^Qiao^ai ; first aorist passive, ^ , radical form to axvvpai and 'AKAX8. B. Raivcj, " I go," primitive form BAQ, by reduplication Bt,{3aG), or, by the insertion of GK, f3dcrKa) ; future, Pfoofiai, ; perfect, second aorist, e&yv ; second aorist subjunctive, /3w ; second aorist op- tative, (3ai7]v ; imperative, pfjdi ; infinitive, fiijvai ; participle, /?af. Some compounds take a transitive signification, and therefore form also the passive forms, perfect, {SeBafiai ; first aorist, kftadrjv. In the Ionic dialect the simple verb is also used in the transitive sense, " to lead," " to bring," and the future fifou and first aorist edrjaa stand ex- clusively in this signification. The following accessory forms, from the dialects, must also be observed. 1. Of the third person present, /Ma, participle, J3i6tiv, formed from {3i6du, and f3i6dg from [3i67]fi.i. 2. Of the second aorist, third person dual, J3drrjv, besides PTJTJJV ; third person plural, edav, besides I6rtaav ; subjunctive, /3w, lengthened into deu and 6eio, plural, PEIO/LLEV. 3. The syncopated accessory forms of the perfect, first person plural, (3e6a/j,v, third person plural, Pefiaaci ; third person plural of the pluperfect, pEdaaav ; participle of the perfect, psdauc, fisS- avla, contracted /?e6(5f, (3eduaa, &c. All these forms belong to the poets, and particularly to the epic poets, with whom an aorist middle, /?^ ; second aorist, eBaAov ; perfect, pedhijita ; perfect passive, / first aorist passive, k6^rjdriv ; second aorist middle, Edahoftijv. There are also formed in epic, from an assumed form BAHMI, a third person dual, ^rjTTiv, either of the imperfect or seco id aorist ; and a third per- P2 174 CATALOGUE OF son singular of the second aorist middle, edhijTo, with a passive signifi- cation ; besides the infinitive, phjjadai ; participle, p^fievog ; optative, pfaLfMjv, fiheto. Epic writers also form f3e6o2,7jaro, as a third person singular of the pluperfect passive ; and dedo^psvo^, as a perfect parti- ciple passive, from an accessory form BOAEG. *BAPEG, usual present, (3apvvu, " I load ;" from the old radical form comes the epic perfect participle pedaprjcjg. Bacrrao>, " I bear" future, (3aardcr(j, &c. ; adopts in the passive the other mode of formation, according to the characteristic y ; as, first ao- rist passive, idaardxOijv. w, BAG, BIBHMI, see Baivu. Ko, " / eat," from BPOG, future, (3pu- ftai or yiyvofML, which transitively signifies, " I beget ;" intransitively, " I am born," "arise," "become." The transitive signification, how- ever, belongs only to the aorist eysivdfirjv, " I begat." All the remain- ing forms in use, namely, future, yevqaofiat ; second aorist, eyevo/j-qv ; perfect, yeyova and yeyevrj/Lia^ have the intransitive signification alone. In epic, and with the poets, perfect, ysyaa ; third person plural, yeydaai ; first person plural, yeyafzev ; infinitive, yeydpev ; participle, yeyau?, ye- IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 yavta, contracted yeyus, yeyticra ; which forms are all to be deduced from the simple root FE, and by change of sound FA. TrjQeu, "I rejoice" future, yqOqacj, &c. ; perfect middle, yeyrjQa, in the signification of the present. TiyvcjGKcj (Attic, besides yivuoKG)), " / know" root, FNOQ, future, yvL)GQ(j.a.L ; perfect, eyvuKa ; perfect passive, syvuGfiai ; first aorist pas- sive, eyvtJoOrjv. The second aorist, formed according to the conjuga- tion in [U, is eyvuv ; plural, lyi/Gyzev, &c. ; -infinitive, yvtivai ; impera- tive, yvtidi, yvuTG), &c. ; optative, yvoirjv ; participle, A. Aajyvat, see AAQ. Aa/cvu, " I bite" from AHKG, future, drj^ofiai ; perfect, ( second aorist, IdaKov. Aapdu, " / tame" or " subdue," simple root, AAMO, whence second aorist, kda^ov ; subjunctive, dapC), lengthened into dafiea) and perfect, deSfiijKa ; perfect passive, dsSjMjfLai ; first aorist passive, ed Aapddvcj, tl I sleep, 11 future, dapdrjco^aL ; perfect, SeddpdjjKa ; second aorist, edapQov, by transposition, IdpaOov ; and, with a passive form but an active signification, kddpBrjv. *AAQ, primitive to 6i6dcrK(j, " I teach," from which, with an active signification only, second aorist, edaov or didaov. The most usual forms are, the second aorist passive, iddrjv, " I was taught ;" infinitive, dafjvai ; subjunctive, daeia) (by an epic prolongation for 6ati) ; future, darjaonai. The passive signification belongs also to ^the perfect, deddijua, dedaa, deSdrjfiat,. Of the middle, the epic infinitive, deddaadat,, " to become ac- quainted with," " inquire into," is alone extant. Ae?, see Aew. Ae^w, see Ao>. AetKvvfjU, " / show," future, deifa, &c. The lonians make the de- rivative forms without , thus, cJe^w, e6ea, &c. The epic form of the perfect passive, deideyfiai, is irregular. Ae/*G), '< / build," first aorist, edeifia ; perfect, defyqKa ; to be distin- guished from the like forms of the verb da/tda). Aep/cw, usually tiepicopaL, " I see," perfect, SedopKa, with a present signification; second aorist, 8pa.K.ov (by transposition from !<5ap/cov), also kdpaK.r)v and edep^dijv, all with an active signification. Ae^o^at, " 7 receive," future, degofiai, &c. The epic forms of the second aorist, without a connective vowel, eSey^rjv, third person sinrru- iar, deKTo and l6eK.ro ; imperative, defo ; infinitive, de^Gai. ; participle, g, are to be observed. ), " J bind" future, tiijau ; first aorist, edrjaa ; perfect, 176 CATALOGUE OP perfect passive, didefiat ; first aorist passive, edeBTjv. The third future passive, ded^Gopai, has the signification of the simple future passive. Aeu, " / want," " am deficient" passive, deo/iai, " I have need of," " beg ;" future, (foyro, &c. In general, the active occurs only as an im- personal ; present, del ; subjunctive, dey ; optative, diot, ; infinitive, deiv ; participle, dsov ; imperfect, "We*, ; first aorist, ede^tre; future, defoei. AHKQ, see Aa/cvu. AidaoTCG), " J teach" future, dtddfu ; first aorist, kdidagb ; perfect acKG), "I run away," usually occurring only in compounds, bor- rows, from the root APAG, the future, dpdaopat ; perfect, dedpana ; sec- ond aorist, eSpav, af, a ; subjunctive, tipti, dpaf, 6pa, &c. ; optative, dpatrjv ; imperative, ^pa^ ; infinitive, dpavai ; participle, ^paf, all formed accordin to to the conjugation in [ii. Ai&fu, " I seek" retains the long characteristic vowel in the passive form, contrary to the analogy of the conjugation in \ii. A^CJ, " I fear," "fly ;" dtofiaL, " I scare," " terrify," both in use only w.th epic writers. Hence are deduced the perfect, dsdia, "I fear," in epic also deidia ; plural, without a connecting vowel, dddLfiev, dddirs, foySicuu ; imperative, deididi ; infinitive, deidievai,, epic Seidtpev ; parti- ciple, dEidtuf, genitive, -orof and -tDrof ; third person plural of the imper- fect, edddiaav. The common language has the present, deidcj ; future, deiaofiaL ; first aorist, edeiaa, epic Eddeiaa ; perfect, dedoiKa, with a present signification. Ao/eeej, " I appear," " seem," from AOKQ, future, d6u, &c. ; per- fect, with a passive form, Ssdoypai, " I have appeared" The regulai formation, doK^aa>, &c., is more rare. APAG, see kidpaaKu. Avvapai, " I am able," second person, dyvaaai (not 3vv$ ; imperfect, , conjugated like larapai ; future, dvv7]ao/j.ai ; first aorist, kdw kdvvacdrjv ; perfect, de&vvr)fjiaL. Avo), " J carter" future, fivca ; first aorist, edvaa ; first aorist passive, edvdrjv. The perfect, dedvua, and the second aorist, edw, infinitive, dvvai, epic dvpevai ; participle, Jvf , have, like the middle, whose forms are regular, the signification, " to immerse one's self" " to. inwrap one's self." E. I wake" or " arouse" regular in most of its forms, perfect, , (with the Attic reduplication). The middle, syeipo/zai, " jf awake," syncopates the second aorist, ijypofirjv (for IfyspAfttpt} ; infinitive, To this middle the perfect kyprjyopa (for ey^yopa} belongs IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 in signification, besides the epic accessory forms kyprj-yopOe and sypnyop* 6aai (as the second and third persons plural), and the infinitive, kyprj- yopbai. *E&j, " I eat," used in this form only with the epic writers and loni- ans, besides the perfect, Idrjda (with the Attic reduplication), and the future, Zdopai (for kdovpai). Prose writers make use of eadio) as a pres- ent, and attach to it forms from e6cj, EAES2 : perfect, kdrjdoK.a (fjdsKa, by change of vowel f]doK.a, with the Attic reduplication kd^doKa) ; per- fect passive, kdrjdeafjLai ; first aorist passive, ijdiodriv. As second a: rist active, Ifyayov ; infinitive, tyayelv. **]o[iat,, " I sit," future, eSov/uat. 'Ed&u and tfe^w, " / am willing" future, k^E^rjcu and de^TJaG), &c. *E0. *'Eve7rw, also svvemj, "I relate" "tell" second aorist, subjunctive, hicrTru ; optative, hiaKOi/j,!, ; imperative, evictee ; infini- tive, htffTreiv ; future, kviairfjau and htyu. From it must be distin- guished ev'nrTG) or eviaao, " I chide" " address harshly" to which the double form of the second aorist belongs, namely, TjviTra^ov and heviTrov. *':Ev7JvoOe, " M or &es thereon" an old perfect form, with the signifi- cation of the present and aorist, used only in composition, as, Trev^vo6e and the like, formed from an obsolete root, 'EN6S2, by the insertion of o, or from 'ENE0S2 by change of the vowel, and in both cases with the Attic reduplication. *'Evi7rra), see under 'EveTro. *"Evw/M,- " / dress," in the present formed regularly like leftcsttipa, takes an augment only in the perfect ; future, lau and %OGU ; first ao- rist, eaaa ; infinitive, eaai ; perfect passive, el/uai, and in compounds also ecr/zat ; pluperfect passive, el^v ; second person, elco and eccro ; third person, earo and eearo (from Icfiriv, keafirjv). *'TZTravpelv, " to enjoy " as second aorist infinitive, from the indica tive, zTTTjvpov ^ subjunctive, enavpa) ; second aorist mid IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 first aorist middle, 7rijvpdfj,ijv ; future, kiravpTjaonat. The present is Lti, of rare occurrence. Frauai, " / know,' 1 imperfect, ymarapiv (like IcrTapai) ; future, opai ; first aorist, Tjinarrjdriv. , " I am occupied" " am about something" takes ei in prefixing the augment of the imperfect, elirov ; second aorist, iairov ; subjunctive, (nrw ; infinitive, aireiv (used only in compounds). The middle Siropat,, " I follow" is also much used in prose ; imperfect, elKopTjv ; future, fyopai ; second aorist, tcmofj.^ ; subjunctive, GK&nai and Zairufiai ; optative, aTroifujv and kairoifiriv ; imperative, O-TTOV, epic 7roc>x^ofj.ai, ; second ao- rist, vTreaxo^v ; imperative, from the passive, &nMg%rt ; perfect, VTrsax 7 !^ 1 " T^CJ, " 1 5oz7," future, tyqaa, &c. ; verbal adjective, TOf, Z. Zdo, "I live," takes, in contraction, 77 instead of a, as, second persons 5f ; third person, 77, &c. ; infinitive, C^- Imperative, ^6t (according to the conjugation in /fi) ; imperfect, l&v, e^yc, &c. Zn;yvv/zi, " I join," future, Zevt-a, &c. ; second aorist passive, ktyyriv Z&vvvpi, " I gird," future, ^cjcrcjj &c. *, perfect passive^ &&a/j,ai first aorist passive, k^adrjv. H. ^pai, " J "f." In prose, the compound Kadjjfiai, which generally takes the augment in the preposition, is more usual ; imperfect, eKofiq- JJLTJV, and also forms peculiar moods ; as, subjunctive, Kudo/tat. ; opta- tive, KaOoifiTjv ; imperative, Kadrjao (also udOov, for KaQeco, with the o dropped). As varieties of dialect, the collateral forms of the third per- son plural, Tjvrai and faro, are to be observed, which in Ionic are laraz, aro, and in epic elarai, elaro. G. GANG, see -&v^ffK(j. Qdirru, " J bury," forms, from the root 6A$Q, future, i9a^$\ From the perfect is formed a future, TsOvjj^o and retfv^fopu, in frequent use with the Attics. QopEG) and 9OPQ, j, see QpvKTG), " J bruise," future, -&pvip(j t &c, ; second aorist passive, ^v. \ *Qpa)(jKo, " J spring," forms, from GOPQ, second aorist, idopov \ future, dopovftai. 6T$G, see Tv06). Gvo>, " I sacrifice," future, -&VGCJ, &c. ; first aorist passive, Mdijv 1 *IAQ, see EWw, "I^w, Kadifa, " I seat," " wiaA:e ^o 5i?," future, Itfiau, Ka0ijjoo 9 or a^w (for KaOiffG)} ; first aorist, kKaQiaa. 'iKveopaL, more rarely i/cw, " I come," future, . Kaivvpai, see KAAQ. Kaiu, " / burn," Attic KCZG>, with long a, and without contraction ; future, KavGu ; first aorist, EKavGa ; perfect, KEKUVKO. ; perfect passive, KEnavfiai ; first aorist passive, eKavdqv ; second aorist passive, e/eaj??>. Besides the given form of the first aorist, must be observed the double epic form EKrja and sKEta, and the Attic e/cea, all formed without G ; sub junctive, KTJU ; optative, Kfjaipi ; imperative, KEIOV ; infinitive, Kfjat ; participle, netae . Also in epic eKTjdf^jv and EKeidfiTjv occur in the mid- dle form. Ka/lew, "7 c#/J," future, /ca/leo-cj, Attic A:a^,6> ; first aorist, iKa^eaa ; perfect, KEKhijKa ; first aorist passive, iKkrjQrjv ; perfect passive, KEK^JJ- liai, " I am named," " am ca//e^ ;" optative, KEK^^V, KEK^O, &c. ; future passive, K^rjd^crofiai ; third future passive, KEK^aofiai. Middle, in the same signification with the active, future, Kahovpai (for /ca/leo-o- (zai) ; first aorist, EKa2,ad[j.i]v. Kdpvto, " J ^roio weary," from KAMQ ; second aorist, /eo/*ov ; fu- ture, Kajiov/Liai ; perfect, KEKfnjKa ; participle, KEK^K,^, epic KEK^U^. ~K.Elfj.ai, " 7 Zze," second person, KEtaat, &c. ; subjunctive, Ksufiai, KEy, &c. ; optative, KEoifjifjv ; imperative, KELGO ; infinitive, KeZcBai \ participle, KeipEvog ; imperfect, EKEI^V, EKELGO, &c. ; future, KEtGopai ; epic and Ionic collateral forms of the third person plural present are /c- arat and KEarat, for KEivrai. In composition with prepositions, the ac- cent recedes in the indicative to the preposition ; but in the infinitive it remains on the root ; as, KaranEinai, but KaraKEiadai. Kpdvvvfj,i, " I mingle," from Kspdcj, which is still found in the epic language ; future, KEpaGO), Attic KEpti ; first aorist, EKEpaGa, epic Kip- GGGa, also EKprjGa ; perfect, KetcpaKa ; perfect passive, KEKpauai and i ; first aorist passive, EKpaOijv and EKspaGdijv. "> I gain," future, KEpdavti and KEpdyGu ; first aorist, EKep- dqva, EKEpSdva, and EKEpSrjGa. J^Tjdu, see KAAQ. ~Kipvjjfj.i, an epic collateral form of KEpdvvvui, which see. JLi%dvo, " J reach," *' overtake," subjunctive, /c^w, epic K^EIU ; op- tative, KLXELTIV ; infinitive, /apyvat ; participle, KLXEIC ; third person dual of the imperfect, KLXTJTTJV, all formed from KIXHMI ; future, /c^- ffw and KixnGouaL ; second aorist, l/c^ov. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 I sound," future, nhdyt-a) ; first aorist, e/cAayfa ; perfect middle, KEK^ijya ; second aorist, e/c/layov. Khaiu, l ' I weep" Attic /c/law, with long a, and without contraction , future, K?iavaojj,at, or KhavGovpai ; first aorist, enTiavaa ; perfect, /ce/c- Aav/ca. The future Kkairjau or K^ar/cu is more rare. *K/lvw, " I hear," imperative, /c/U50 and KEK^vOt. Kopevvvfii, " J satisfy," future, Kopeau ; first aorist, EKopEca \ per- fect, KEKopTjKa ; perfect passive, KeKopecrpai, Ionic and epic KEKopnfiai. *Kopvaacj, " / arm," perfect passive, KEKopvOfj-ai. Kpdfa, " I cry," perfect middle, KEKpdya ; first person plural, KeKpay- UEV ; imperative, KeKpa%6i ; third future passive, KKpd!;o/j.ai ; second aorist, supayov. Kp8fj.dvvvfj.L, " I suspend," passive, KpE/Ltuvvvpcu, " I am suspended," and as a middle, " JT suspend myself ;" Kpefia^ai (like lora^ai), " 7 hang" to which are joined, subjunctive, KpE[Mjfj,ai ; optative, KpEjLtaijjiijv ; future active, KpE^ucrG), Attic KpEftti, $?, a, &c. The aorist passive /e- pEfidadrjv is common to the passive, middle, and intransitive ; but the future passive KpeftaG&TJfOftai belongs only to KpEftdvvvftai, since /cpe/za- /Litti has a peculiar future, Kpeiirjao^at, " I shall hang" u hover" KTEIVU, " / A7Z," root KTE, and, by changing the vowel, KTA ; fu- ture, KTsvti, Ionic KTavEG) ', first aorist, EKTEtva ; second aorist, e/cravov, besides epic enrav, ag, a (formed according to the conjugation in- pi, as, eSpav, from SidpdaK.u) ; third person plural, e/crav for luraaav ; sub- junctive, rt5 ; infinitive, Krdvai, KrdfiEvai, Krdfiev ; participle, /craf ; perfect, l/cra/ca ; perfect middle, inrova ; first aorist passive, EKrddijv or EKrdvOnv, besides the poetic form EKrdfiijv as passive to the second ao- rist IK.TCLV. KVVEG), " I kiss," future, Kwriaopai or (from KTfl) /ci;crw ; first aorist, lnvaa. A. Aayxavu, " J receive by lot" or "fate," root AAXQ and AHXQ, fu ture, A^opaL ; second aorist, Ao^ov ; perfect, eZ/l^a or /le/lo/^a (some- times called a perfect middle), as from AEFXQ. Aapddvu, " I take," root AABG and AHBQ, future, T^i^o^ai ; second aorist, sTiadov ; perfect, zikritya ; perfect passive, Eify/j.pai, ; first aorist passive, d7(,7]^Qriv ; second aorist middle, E^aBofirjv. The lonians form a, and, from AAMBQ, the future hdfi'tyofj.ai, first aorist passive v, perfect passive /le/la/z^at, first aorist middle E2,afi^dfj,7jv. AavOdvo, more rarely TiTjdu, " J am concealed," future, A^cro ; second aorist, VkaQov ; perfect middle, Ae^da. Middle, havdavopcu, more rarely lijOopai, " J forget," future, hijaofiai ; second aorist, perfect passive, 184 CATALOGUE OF or Aaff/cw, " I resound," second aorist, Ihanov ; future, May i ; perfect, ^shana and /le/l^/ca. Aeyo : 1. " I say" forms no perfect active in this signification, but uses instead of it ELprjita (see epw), otherwise wholly regular ; future, ^,e6> ; first aorist, e/lea ; perfect passive, hekeyfjiai ; first aorist passive, ktexOiW' 2. " / gather" future, Ae, &c. ; perfect, ei/lo;t;a ; perfect passive, el^eyfiai ; second aorist passive, k^iyTjv ; second future passive, teyTjaofiai. 3. Middle, " I lay myself down" future, Aefo/zcu ; first aorist, eAea/^v ; third person singular, second aorist, A/cro, without a connecting vowel. Aw/leyo/zaj, U J converse," perfect, dieLheypai, ; first aorist, diehexOiJv- Hence it unites in itself the forms given under 1 and 2. AHBQ, see A.7j6u, see Au, AHXQ, see Aovw, " / wash" In this verb the Attics almost invariably contract the connecting vowel of the termination with the ov ; as, ehov, third person singular of the imperfect ; !/lotym>, first person plural. Present passive, hovpai, &c. ; infinitive, hovadat,. M. *M.aio[tai, see MAQ. MAKG, " I bleat," From this obsolete primitive form there remain only the second aorist e/iaKOv, and the perfect //e/^^/ca, participle pep- aKvia, which are associated with the common present fMjKdopat,. Mavdavcj, " I learn" from MA9Q, second aorist, fyaOov ; future, ua6^aofj,aL ; perfect, fj,efj,d6r]Ka. *M.dpvajj,ai, " I fight," usual only in the present and imperfect ; op- tative, fjiapVOLftTJV. M.dxofj,ai, " I fight," future, iia^icoiiai and fiaxJJGOjuai,, Attic [Jiaxov- fjiat, ; first aorist, kfiax^odpjv ; perfect, pefiax^^ai and /^e/za^/zai. *MAQ, an obsolete primitive form, signifying, 1. " I desire" " strive," and has in this signification only the perfect, //e/zaa ; first person plural, (j,fj,a/j,ev ; participle, fj.efia6g ; genitive, -orof and orof ; third person plural pluperfect, fiepaaav. 2. " / taste," "feel," in which the present Haiopai is usual ; future, fidaofj.ai ; first aorist, tyaad/LUjv. *~NLipofj,at,, " I obtain," from the ro9t MEPQ, perfect middle, fqtP a perfect passive, dpapfi-ai. Hence dfiaprai, " it is ordained by fate." MePJlcj, " I am about," " am to come," imperfect, fyeMov, with tlie temporal augment ; future, [telJirjaQ, &c. MeAo, " I concern," "give concern to," " lie at the heart of ," is mostly used in the active form only, as an impersonal, p&ei ; IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 185 &c. perfect epic, pfyvfa ; middle, n&Q{J.ai t "lam concerned ;" future, ftai ; first aorist, ifie^8ijv. Ka, see MOAG, M.CVO), " I remain," perfect, (j,E/j,evrjKa ; perfect middle, ps/iova. Mryvtyu, also /ztcryw, " I mix," future, ^G> ; first aorist, e//ia ; per- fect passive, {j-efuypai, ; first aorist passive, fyixdnv ; second aorist pas sive, eui-ynv. ~M.i[jLV7jGK.u, " J remind" from MNAQ, future, fivqau, &c. Middle, /jijLtv^ffKOfiai, " J remember," " mention ;" first aorist, e[iV7Ja67]v ; future, [iv7)(j6r}ao[jL(u ; perfect, fie^vn^at,, " J am mindful of" " f Ain o/," " r^- member ;" subjunctive, pepvapai ; optative, /Lie/ivri/Linv and fze^vufirjy ; to which is joined the third future passive, fj,fj,v^aofj,ai, " J Aa// ever foar in mind." *MOAQ, " J ^o," future, fioTiovfiai ; second aorist, e/zo>lov ; perfect, fiefiSTicjKa (formed from MOAQ by a transposition of the radical letters, therefore properly ^/z/lw/ca, and by the insertion of /?). The usual pres- ent thereto is /3Af5<7/cct>. *WLvK,do[tai t " / bellow," second aorist, epwov ; perfect, fii^vKa . from MYK2. N. *Na.iu, " I dwell," future, vaGGOfiai ; first aorist^ middle, haacdpnv , first aorist passive, fadcdnv ; perfect passive, vivacpai. The first ao- rist active, evaaaa, has the transitive signification, " J Jn'n^ in/o a w, " / stuff" future, vdgv ; first aorist, eva%a ; perfect passive, J distribute" future, vepti and ve^ao ; first aorist, perfect, veveprjKa ; first aorist passive, he^drjv and kvepeBrjv. New, " / swim" future, vevaofiai and vsvaovfjtai ; first aorist, evevaa, &c. Nt^u, " 1 wash," borrows its tenses from VLTTTO), future, vty'w, &c. O. , " I smell," "emit an odour," future, olfiacj ; perfect middle, 6du8a, with the reduplication, and a present meaning. Cf.yu and olywpi, usually avoiyvvfiL, " I open," imperfect, dveuyov ; first aorist, dveyga ; infinitive^ avol%ai ; perfect, aveuxa ; perfect mid- dle, dvEuya, with an intransitive signification, " J stand open." Epic writers generally use only the temporal, not the syllabic, augment, and GJ is then changed into wi' ; thus, first aorist, &'i!-a. OWa, see EMcX Q2 , 186 CATALOGUE OF Qtofj-ai or ol^au, " I think" second person, olei ; imperfect, uofjtqv also L)p7jv ; future, olrfao^iai ; first aorist, hrjQrjv ; infinitive, oijj6^vau Epic writers lengthen the diphthong, and say btofj-ai., or, with an active form, btu, and form the remaining tenses to it regularly ; as, first aorist middle, u'iadfj-Tfv ; first aorist passive, fatadrjv. QiXOfiai, " I depart," or " am gone," future, ol^aofiai ; perfect, efoj/- uai ; or, in an active form with 6>, of^w/ca. OIG, see olo/Ltai and epu. 'OhicdaivG) or bhiaOdvu, " / slide," future, bhicBfiau ; second aorist, ufaadov. 'Ohhvui, " I destroy" from OAG, future, bhiau, Attic o^lw ; first aw rist, tj/Ucra ; perfect, o/lwAe/ca. Middle, bT^vpat, " J perish ;" future, ohovpai ; second aorist, &%6fj,7}v. The perfect middle 6/lw/la has the reduplication. 'QfivvfjLL, " I swear," future, opovfiai ; first aorist, cj/j,oaa ; perfect, 6/i,u/j,oKa ; perfect passive, bpufioa/iat, but in the third person also O/KJ- J lozpe o/f" future, 6/zop|cj, &c. i, " / am of use," forms the present and imperfect lik but the remaining tenses from the primitive ONAG ; future, bvrjOG) ; first aorist, uvnca. Middle, bvivafjiai, " J Aae advantage;" second aorist, &vd{j,7iv, epic and Ionic UVTJ^TJV ; optative, bvaip.rjv ; infinitive, ovaaOat,. **OvoftaL, " / revile," present and imperfect like dido^aL, the rest from ONOG ; future, bvoaopai ; first aorist, uvoaaprjv ; first aorist passive, 'OIIQ, " J 56e," perfect, OTrwrra ; future, o^ojj.at ; first aorist passive, &(j>6riv (with an active as well as a passive signification) ; perfect passive, tififiai ; future, btydyGOfiai. 'Opdu, " J ee," imperfect, tupuv, Ionic wpov ; perfect, iupaKa ; per- fect passive, lupafiai ; first aorist passive, ^opddijv. All the remaining forms are wanting to this verb, and are supplied by those given under Olia and eldu. *Opvv/u, " J excite," from OPQ, future, opera , first aorist, upca ; second aorist, 'upopov, with the reduplication. Middle, opvvfiai, "J ame ,*" second aorist, upofiijv, or, by rejecting the connecting vowel, tipfjLTjv ; second person, tipao ; imperative, opcreo or opao ; perfect, 6pc5- oepat, ; perfect middle, opopa. 'Oafpaivo/Liat,, " / smell," future, bc^prjco^ai ; second aorist, up6 \LTJV, also bafypdfjirjv. 'Ofaihu, " / am indebted," " am obliged," " ought," future, b^KiTi^aa), &c. The second aofl st w^e/lov is used merely to designate a wish, " ofc /Aa^ /" " would that I* and the more usual present is bfaiaKavv ; future, IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 187 n. IIA9Q, see Hao^o). IIa/6>, " I jest" future, natt-opai and Trai^ovfiai ; first aorist, ETraiaa ; perfect, TreTraiKa ; perfect passive, irenaiafiai and KenaiyiJLai. ILaia), " 1 strike" future, usually TTCUJJGO), but the remaining tensea regular ; first aorist, ZnaLaa ; perfect, TceKaiK.a ; first aorist passive, Hdaxu, " I suffer," from IIA0Q, second aorist, Irradov. Perfect middle, 7re7rov6a, from IIEN0Q. The form TreTnyfla for the perfect sTTijaa for the first aorist, and Trrjaofiau for the future, are more rare, and are proper to the poetic language alone. A peculiar Homeric form is TreTroade, as second person plural of the perfect. ILeiOu, " I persuade," proceeds regularly in the active, but forms, be- sides the first aorist ETretaa, a second aorist, linOov (with the epic re- duplication neTudov), and likewise an epic future, TreTr^crej. Passive and middle, neido/Liai, the latter voice with the meaning, " I believe," "follmv," " obey ;" second aorist middle, ETrtOopijv, with reduplication TreTTLdofMjv ; perfect middle, TreTrot&z, " / trust." IMaG>, " I make to approach," " bring near," regular up to the epic forms of the second aorist, sTr/b^v (as middle, according to the conju- gation in //i), and the first aorist passive, TrEhdeOrjv. TlsTrpurai, see HOP 12. IleTrrcj, see necrtro). *Uep6G), " I lay waste," second aorist, 7rpa0ov, by transposition of the radical letters, from eirapdov. TiecaG), ireTTTG), " I boil," future, Trfyu, &c., from TTCTTTG). TLeaetv, see TrtTrrw. LL, u I spread," future, Tceraao), Attic Trerw ; perfect passive, (for TreTrerao/zat) ; first aorist passive, eTreT&adrjv. I fly." From this primitive form, by syncope, we have the second aorist 7rr6//^v, infinitive TTrzaOat,, future TrerTJeoficu (usual form TTT^cro^ai). According to the conjugation in fit are formed the present, Trera/zat and iirrafj-at ; first aorist, eTrra^v ; second aorist, ITTTTJV ; infinitive, nrTjvat, ; participle, irrag ; perfect, TreVr^/ca. Be- sides these, epic writers use the lengthened forms iroraofiai, TTOTdoucu, and also Troreoficu, the tenses of which are formed regularly ; as, perfect, ireTTOTTjpai, &c. IIETfl, see Hcnro. TLjjyvviu, * I fix," future, TT^O, &c. ; first aorist passive, second aorist passive, k^ayrjv ; perfect middle, TreV^ya, " I stand fast." 188 CATALOGUE OP " J fill," infinitive, irijUTrlidvai, formed by reduplication from the root IIAA12, wherein \L is inserted to strengthen the syllable. This is frequently rejected by the poets, and also in prose, when in com- position an additional JLL happens to stand immediately before the redu- plication (as, for example, e//7r/7rA^i). Future, Tr^au, &c. ; perfect passive, TreTrA^o^at ; first aorist, knT^rjadrjv . Besides these are to be ob- served an epic second aorist middle, STT^/LIIJV or TrAj^v ; optative, irfaifiijv, with an intransitive signification, " / am full" and a perfect middle, TreTrA^fla, likewise with an intransitive present signification, and derived from an accessory form irhqOu, which is also not unusual as a present. n^ttrptyu, " I set on fire" infinitive, Tri/Lnrpdvai, proceeds in the pres- ent antl imperfect like larrjfii ; the remaining forms are 7 from IIPAQ or irpTjdu ; thus, future, irpqau, &c. ; first aorist passive, kTrprjadrjv. Here, also, the /z inserted to strengthen the syllable is omitted when an addi- tional /z stands immediately before the reduplication ; as, epTrLTrpijui. IltvcJ, " / drink," from IIIS2, future, TriofjLdi ; second aorist, ETTLOV ; infinitive, mew, &c. ; imperative, irWi. All the rest are formed from IIOQ ; perfect, TreTrw/ca ; perfect passive, iren-ofiat ; first aorist passive, kiroQrjv ; future passive, Ko6f]GO[jLaL. The forms TTLOU, Imaa, have the transitive signification, " to give to drink" to which KimaKG) is usual a9 a present. HirrpdaKG), " I sell" from irspaQ, future, Trepdau ; first aorist, Int paaa. Then from IIPAQ, perfect, TreTrpa/ca ; perfect passive, TreTrpa- HCLL ; first aorist passive, enpaQriv ; third future passive, TreTrpajo/^ai. II/Trrw, " / fall" forms from IIETQ the future, Treaovftat ; second aorist, sKeaov ; and from IITOG the perfect, TreTrrw/ca. niQ, see Tlivu. IDid^G), " I cause to wander," " drive about," future, Tr/la/^o), &c. IIAAfl, 7r^0G), see Ili/zTryl^/zi. ICle6>, " / sail," future active, vrfavatj ; future middle, Tr/Utfcro^aj and KhevGovpai ; first aorist active, sTrhevva, &c. ; perfect passive, L ; first aorist passive, kTr'XevcOrjv. I strike," future, Tr/l^w, &c. ; second aorist passive, TT- v, but in the compounds eTrXay^v. An epic form is the second ao- rist active, Keirhriyov, with the reduplication. IIAwG), an Ionic accessory form of Tr/tew, whence a second aorist, ITT- /Icw, according to the conjugation in fit, ; participle, vr/lof. Ilveo, " / breathe," future, nvevau or trvevaovfiai, &c. ; first aorist passive, kirvevadriv ; perfect passive, *7rn:vvfj.ai, " I possess spirit" " am wise" HoOfo, " 1 long for" future, TTO^CTG) and 7ro6effcj, usuall IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 189 perfect, KeirodriK.a ; perfect passive, TreTrodrjpai ; first aorist passive, TlopEiv, sTropov, " I gave," a defective second aorist with the poets. To the same theme (in the sense of " to distribute") belongs the perfect passive ireirporai, " it is ordained by fate ;" participle, TreTrpc^pevog. HOG, see IL'vw. IIPQQ, see Uopeiv. IITAQ, see ILsTavvvfu, Herofiai,. HTTJGGC,), " I cower down" future, Trny^iu, and the remaining forms regular ; perfect participle, TteKTVug. IITOQ, see ULTTTCJ. Hvvddvopat,, " / learn," from Kevdopai (poetic), future, second aorist, ki^vQ6yLr\v ; perfect, P. Te6>, " / do" future, jiefo, or, from EPFQ, future, Ip^cj, &c. ; per- fect middle, eopya. Tew, " I flow " future, fcvac} ; future middle, f>vaofj,ai ; first aorist active, efifievGa. In the same signification, however, the second aorist tf>f)vrjv (formed according to the conjugation fit, from a root TTEQ). with the future pvrjao^ai and perfect efifivTjKa, is more usual. Tew, " I say," see Efy>. ^rjyvvfjLL, " 7 rend," future, /^?&>, &c. ; second aorist passive, e/3/5d- yrfv ; perfect middle, lp/6cjy, " I dry up" first aorist, saKTjha (an epic form, as from a root 2KAAQ). Middle, cf/ce/LPuytat, " I am dried up ;" future, GKhrJGopai. To these, on account of a signification likewise intransitive, the active forms, perfect laK^rjua and s*econd aorist. EGK^V, infinitive GKhfjvai (formed according to the conjugation in /u)> also belong. 2/zaa>, " / smear" second person, GJJL^, &c. ; infinitive, opriv ; fu- fire, GfiTjGu, &c. ; first aorist passive, &7/flfo%v, from 27rev, GTreGdai, see "ETTG). 27rev(5w, " I make a libation" future, GireLGO) ; first aorist, perfect, EGireiKa ; perfect passive, sGTreiGftai, ; first aorist passive, EGTT- 2repe6), " / deprive," proceeds regularly, but in the passive is the more simple form orepo/mt, to which a second aorist EGTeprjv, participle Grepeie, and future Grep^GOfiai belong. "Zropevvvfu, GropvvfAi, and Grpuvvvpi, " J spread" future, and GTpuGG) ; first aorist, kcropeGa and iGTpuGa ; perfect, perfect passive, lcrrpw//ai, more rarely kcrop^uai ; first aorist passive, and kGrp^Orjv. u, " I abhor," " J Aate," future, nrvyfjGu, &c. The second aorist iGrvyov is formed from a root 2T1TQ, as also a first aorist, !er- rvfa, with a transitive signification, " / make to shudder" 2^e?v, see *E^ ; perfect passive, GGG)G/j,ai ; but first aorist passive, sGuOijv T. Tahdu, " J endure," used only in the first aorist, eraAaffa, epic eraA- affaa. The perfect, rsr^Ka (in the plural, by syncope, rerAa^ev) ; im- perative, rerhadi ; infinitive, rerTidvai, epic rerAa/zev ; future, rAr/cro- ^ai, and second aorist, IrATyv (according to the conjugation in pi) ; in- finitive, r^rjvai ; imperative, r/l^0i ; optative, rhairiv ; participle, r/laf. TA$Q, see GaTrrw. TAQ, see Ten>6>. Teivw, " J stretch" future, revai ; first aorist, eretva. From the rad- ical form TE come the perfect rerana, perfect passive Terapai, first ao- rist passive krdOrjv, future ra^cro/zaj. TEKi2, see TIKTO. TefivG), " J cut," forms from TEM12 the future re/au, second aorist trepov, perfect rir^Ka, perfect passive rer/iy/tai, first aorist passive IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 191 In Ionic this verb is rdfjLvu, from which comes the second aorist ETCLJLIOV, a form used also with the Attics. *Tera-y6v, " reaching" " seizing" a second aorist participle, from the same root with reiva). TSV%(J. In this form two kindred verbs must be accurately distin- guished. 1. Tev^cj, " I make" "fabricate" regular future, rev ; future middle, #peo/z. ca, see "Edw. G), " / cattse to appear," future, 0av<5 ; first aorist, $r t vi67][jiai, usual form Trtyeifffiat, ; third future, ire$i&iJGO(j.ai, in the sig- nification of the simple future ; second aorist, 'K^ido^rjv, by reduplica- tion. $pu, " I bear," imperfect, tyepov ; present passive, (pepo/iai ; imper- fect, kep6(j,7)v. All the other tenses are formed partly from OIS2, partly rom ENEFKQ. Thus, future, OICM ; first aorist, jjvyKa (Ionic yv- eiKa) ; second aorist, qveyKOv ; perfect, eirfvoxa ; perfect passive, typ,ai (Ionic evrjveiynaL) ; first aorist passive, if^ijfijv (Ionic future, Vxd7jao/j.ai and oladrjaonai ; future middle, olao/tai ; first aorist middle, rjveyKa^v. In epic, several other forms are derived from OIC, besides these adduced ; as, imperative of the aorist, olae, oiasra), &c. ; subjunctive of the aorist, third person singular, olay. 3>6dvu, " / am beforehand," " anticipate," forms from $0AQ, future, tydrjau ; future middle, QBqaojuai ; first aorist active, tfyQaaa ; second aorist, t$Qi]v ; subjunctive, tyQti ; optative, (pdairjv, &c. ; perfect, $VG), " 7 beget," 'future, $w<70) ; first aorist, tyvoa ; middle, ( " J arise," "am born," &c. ; perfect active, Tre^v/ca, " J am (MT ;" second aorist, l^w, " J am," &c. X. Xaipw, " / rejoice," future, %atp^a(j ; future middle, xaipqcopai , ru epic also Ace^a/ojyaw and Kxap7jGo/j,ai, ; second aorist, exdprjv (according to the conjugation in fit") ; subjunctive, ^apcj ; optative, %apeiqv, &c. Besides these are to be observed the forms of the aorist : exaipqea with later writers ; ep?pa / it77z> and icexapofiqv in epic. Perfect active, ita ; perfect passive, K%dpj)uai, poetic IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Xeb, " / stool" future, ^erfw, more usual than ^ecroi^at ; perfect "m'ddle, KEXoda. Xeo, " 1 pour," future, xsvau ; first aorist, e#ea, epic e%eva (formed without the characteristic of the tense, by merely annexing the termina- tion) ; infinitive of the first aorist, %iai ; imperative, ^eov, ^earw, &c. ; perfect, Kexvita ; perfect passive, Kexvpai ; first aorist passive, %v6riv, &c. X/xzw. Of this verb must be distinguished five different forms of in- flection, with their significations. 1. Xpaw, " / give a response" proceeds regularly ; infinitivCi Xp$v ; future, XPW, &c. ; first aorist passive, exprjadriv. 2. KixpWfu, " I lend" proceeds like larr^u (yet without a sec- ond aorist) ; future, xpn aQ nrst aorist, XP 7 l aa i & c - '> middle, I borrow ;" future, ^p^ao/zat ; first aorist, expTj- 3. Xpao^ai, " I use" takes ij instead of a in contraction ; sec- ond person, jp??, &c. ; infinitive, ^p-^cr^at ; future, xp^o/j,aL ; first aorist, kxP r l G ^l l 'n v > perfect, Kexpnpat (usually in the sig- nification, " I want"). It is remarkable that the lonians, when they contract, take a here as the mingled sound ; thus, infini- tive, Ionic xpacOat,. Generally, however, instead of xpaopcu, they use the form #peo^a, which is regularly conjugated throughout ; they also change o after e into w ; as, ^peowrat. 4. XpT?, " it -is incumbent" " one ought" &c., infinitive, xp^^ optative, XP^ ; subjunctive, XPV J participle, ^pewv ; imper- fect, expfjv or XPV V > never expq ; future, xprjGEi. 5. 'A.7r6xp7], " ^ w sufficient," third person plural, anoxp&Gi ; in- finitive, aKoxpijv ; participle, aTro^pwv, wcra, wv ; imperfect, amxpri ; future, aTro^p^ffei. Here also the lonians usually take a instead of 77 ; as, imperfect, aTre^pa. / colour," future, ^poaw, &c. ; perfect passive, /c^pwir- ftai ; first aorist passive, kxp&vQriv. Xuvvvut, " J Aeo^p ztp," " dam." The radical form %06> is usual as a Dresent with the older writers. To this belong the infinitive, %ovv ; fu- ture, #cj(7a>, &c. ; perfect passive, Kexoapai ; first aorist passive, e^oa J push," imperfect, eudovv ; future, ud^ffco and wffo) ; first aonst, G)Ga ; perfect, Iw/ca ; perfect passive, euffpai ; first aorist pas- sive, euaOqv ; all from the radical form ' R 194 PARTICLES. XXVI. PARTICLES. The Particles are Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Preposi- tions, the Interjections being ranked in Greek under Ad- verbs. ADVERBS. 1. The most usual termination of an adverb is in 6). 2. If the adjective from whieh the adverb is derived be one that ends in og, the adverb is formed by merely ap- pending the termination a)g to the root as indicated by the nominative. Thus, from oo(j)6g (root ), we have from KaXog (root #aA), tcaXtig ; from icaipiog (root Kaipiug, &c. 3. In the case of other adjectives the root will be rec- ognised most clearly in the genitive ; and to the root thus found the termination G) is in like manner annexed. Thus, from peyag (root ^eyaA), we have fieydkug ; from (root %apievr}, %apiivTG)<; ; from dXijOfjg (root d/l^fls), Oeug, contracted dkijOtig, &c. 4. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but is expressed by some part of an adjective. Thus : 1. The neuter of the adjective, singular and plural, is used for an adverb chiefly by the poets ; as, Ka- &bv aeidew, " to sing beautifully ;" ^pa^sa dieh 6elv, " to recount briefly. 91 2. In like manner, also, the dative singular femi- nine occurs instead of an adverb ; as, dypoata, " publicly ;" idia, "privatdy ;" KOIVJJ, "in com- mon ;" 7re$7, u on foot ;" ravrrj, * c thus" tl in this manner," &c. But, strictly speaking, in such con- structions a substantive is always to be supplied, usually 6d ottcoOev ........ from home. 1. The termination & is nothing more than ade, the double letter be- ing put for the ad. This change, however, occurs merely in some names of places, and in a few other words ; such as, &vpa&, for tfvpaade, " to the door," " out." 196 ADVERBS. ovpavovde ) . , > to heaven. ovpavoas S Qrjdafr ........ to Thebes. A.0fjvae to Athens. 4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives by an nexing the syllables 66v and lori, and those thus produced express comparison ; as, fiorpvdov, " clus- ter-wise ,*" KW7]66v, " after the manner of dogs ;" r EAA?7waT, " after the manner of the Greeks ," dvdpiari, "after the manner of men" 5. Adverbs derived from substantives sometimes end in ddqv, and then denote that something takes place by the application of the idea which is con- tained in the substantive ; as, Xoydd^v (from A6- 705-), " by selection ;" dpdokddrjv (from dvadohrj), by delay." 6 Adverbs are also formed from verbs, and have the ter- mination in drjv, which termination is annexed immediate- ly to the root. A preceding soft or aspirate, however, must change at the same time into the corresponding middle let- ter. Thus we have Kpvddrjv, from KpvTrrG) (root Kpvd), " se- cretly ;" TT/ley^v, from TrAe/co) (root TrAg/e), " in a twisted manner or form ;" GVk%,7]6d7]Vj from ovX^apdavo,) (root v crvA- ^6), " taken together." 7. Lastly, from some prepositions, also, adverbs are formed, which serve to denote place, and which all termi- nate in 6) ; as, ava) (from dvd), " above ;" tcdrc*), " below ;" efo), " without;" eiac*), " within ;" Trpdaw, " onward." This 0) belongs also to some other adverbs ; as, a6>, " sudden- ly ;" OVTG), 4f thus ;" 677^6), " Je^mc? ;" Trdppo), "/ar." 8. Besides these there are yet many adverbs whose der- ivation does not admit of being accurately pointed out, and which are partly obsolete adjective forms; as, to-day ;" yvpiov, " to-morrow ; NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 197 " near ;" 6jj,ov, " at the same time ;" elfc?), " in vain ;" " in a twofold manner ;" and partly genuine adverbs, with the terminations a, a, , ej, o, ov, re ; as, Kdpra, " very ;" TteXag, " near ;" j^eya-taxm, c greatly ;" e/e, " ^cr ;" TTO, " whither;" TTOTC, " when" &c. 9. Under the head of adverbial particles, the a (before a vowel av) must be especially noticed. It is of three kinds : 1. a privative, which carries with it the force of a nega- tion ; as, aocxpoc;, " unwise " avvdpog, " without water " 2. a intensive, which strengthens the. meaning ; as, afvAof, wooded " 3. a denoting union ; as, 10. The following also occur frequently in the poets, and denote increase, &c. apt, ; as, pirjog, very conspicuous. (3ov ; " (3ovf3p(*)OTig, voracious. (3pi ; " PpirjTrvos, shouting aloud. da , " ddoKiog, thickly shaded. epi ; " epidpeiirjs, loud roaring. furious. valiant. I desire earnestly. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 1. There are in Greek two simple negative particles, with which all other negations are compounded, ov and p/fj. The former of these becomes OVK before a vowel that has the soft breathing, and ov% before a vowel that is aspirated The Attics, also, for greater emphasis, sometimes write oi)%i. 2. From these two negatives, ov and pj, are formed all the other modes of negation in Greek ; such as ovde, ovre t OVTTOTS, ovirwiTOTe, ovdap&gj ovdapov, pydg, f^rjre g, &c. 3. Although the English language possesses only one ex- R2 * NEGATIVE PARTICLES. pression for both of these particles, yet between the use of ov and \ii\ in Greek, a definite and important distinction ob- tains. 4. In general, this distinction is correctly designated by saying that ov denies positively and directly ', but that p/, on the contrary, denies conditionally or prohibitively. Hence ov is used to deny a thing itself ; /z?/, on the contrary, to deny the supposition of a thing. 5. Hereupon is founded the following general rule : ov stands as a negative particle in an independent proposition, and in all cases, likewise, where an idea is negatived in and by itself: \ii\, on the contrary, denies in conditional propositions, whether they appear as really dependant, or the depen dance lies merely in the imagination, as in con- ditional and assumed cases. 6. The following remarks will lead to a right application of this rule in single cases. 1 . A whole and independent proposition, whether pronounced as an absolute assertion or as an opin- ion and view, or as a question, can be negatived only by the particle ov. Thus, OVK dyadbv rj TTO- huKoipavia, " The government of the many is not a good thing" OVK dv dyan&7]v naXelaOai drcta- T0, " / would not like to be called faithless." Ti yap ov irdpeariv ; " Why, then, is he not present ?" 2. M?7, on the contrary, appears as a negation after all particles expressing condition, supposition, and intention ; as, el [ir\ 6p6tig Aeyw, abv epyov ekey- %eiv, " If I do not speak correctly, it is your part to prove it" 3. M?) is used after relatives, and with participles when these likewise express a condition ; as, rig 6s dovvai dvvarai erepo) a prj avrbg e%ei ; " Who can give a thing to another, if he has it not himself?" Here & OVK avrbg l^zi would mean, " that which NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 199 he has not himself.'" So, also, 6 p) marevuv, " If a person does not believe." But 6 ov morevuv, " One i0Ao cfoes 7i0 believe." 4. MT; is used with infinitives, whether they be de- pendant upon a verb or accompanied by the ar- ticle ; as, dvdyKTj TOVTO JJ,TJ Troielv, " It is neces- sary not to do this" To p) 7rei, fol- lows Iva, OTTG)$, 6(ppa ; as, HO^GJV &7re6rifj,7]oe eTea deica Iva dr} \vr\ TWO, T&V VO\L(AV dvayicaaOy Xvoai, T&V eOero : k " Solon absented himself from home for the space of ten years, in order that he may not be compelled to rescind any one of the laws which he had enacted" 7. Two negatives generally strengthen the negation, and do not destroy each other, as in Latin. 8. This rule may be expressed more fully as follows : When to a sentence already made negative, other qualifica- tions of a more general kind are to be added, such as some- times, some one, somewhere, &c., these are all commonly sub- joined in the form of words compounded with the .same negative particles ; as, OVK inoirjae TOVTO ovtiapov ovdei?, " No one anywhere did this" And in the same manner, to the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the parts ; as, ov dvvaTai OVT' ev heyeiv, ovT 9 ev troielv TOV$ \ii\ and p) ov. In this combination, as in all other cases, ov denies objectively and \ii] subjectively. Hence ov p? implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained that a thing will take place ; p) ov, on the contrary, the idea of an apprehension being entertained that a thing will not take place. Hence are derived the following observa- tions : 1 . Ov p; is an intensive and emphatical negation, and indicates the imagination of a thing which should not and must not take place ; as, ov p) dvapwrjg say (f>ihoi$, " That ihou wilt not (I expect) be ill-inclined towards thy friends ;" that is, " be noi ill-inclined towards thy friends" And again, d/U/ OVTTOT' e% epov ye p/ fjidOrjs ^ods, " Yet never (must thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this from me;" that is, " yet never shouldst thou learn this from me? 2. M?) ov, in dependant propositions, when the verb of the principal proposition is either accompanied by a negation or contains a negative idea in itself, destroy each other, and are often to be translated by " that" Thus, OVK dpvovpai, p? ov ysveaOai, 61 1 do not deny that it has taken place ;" and again, Treidopat, yap ov TOGOVTOV ovdev &are p) ov #a/U5 ftavelv, " For lam persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but that I shall die nobly." 3. In independent propositions, on the contrary, p) ov is used in combination with the subjunctive to express negative assertions with less positiveness and strength, and is to be translated by " indeed not" " perhaps not" and explained by the addition of an omitted verb, as opa, or the like. Thus, aA- Xa p? OVK. % ftidattrbv 77 apery, " But virtue may, perhaps, be a thing not to be taught" Literally, " But see whether virtue may not be" &c., the verb opa being supplied. NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 201 10. Besides the case of p) ov mentioned above, two neg- atives also destroy each other when they belong to differ- ent verbs ; as, ovdev eanv OTI OVK vnea^erOj " He promised everything ? literally, " There is nothing that he did not promise" 1 1 . As compounded with the negation OVK, the particle OVKOVV may also find a place here. This particle, used by the Greeks both in questions and in direct propositions, ad- mits of different translations, and is also differently accent- ed, being sometimes written OVKOVV and sometimes OVKOVV. The following is to be remarked as essential concerning it. 1. In interrogative propositions, when the particle signifies not therefore ? is it not so ? not ? it is al- ways to be accented OVKOVV, because OVK must here be significantly and emphatically heightened. Thus, OVKOVV yiXGx; TJdiarog el$ e^Opovg yekciv ; " Is it not, then, the sweetest laughter to laugh at one's enemies ?" 2. In direct propositions OVKOVV is either to be trans- lated " therefore not? " yet not? or else it stands at the beginning of the proposition as a mere em- phatical expression for the simple ovv, and is to be translated by " therefore? " consequently ;" as, ai) rovro eTToirjaa^, OVKOVV eyG>ye, " thou hast done this, therefore not I." In this case the accentua- tion is generally given as OVKOVV. Strictly con- sidered, however, the idea of negation does not vanish in OVKOVV even where it is to be translated by therefore, but the particle is there, also, proper ly an interrogative one. Thus the following sen tence, OVKOVV, orav 6fj p) adevG), TreTravaopai " Therefore, when I am unable, I shall^ desist? i equivalent to "Is it not so ? when I am unable, shall desist /" 202 CONJUNCTIONS. CONJUNCTIONS, &c. AAAA. 1. 'A/l/ld is an adversative conjunction, and answers generally to the English " but." From this meaning arise others, however, such as, "well, then" "therefore," in which case d/l/ld is generally elliptical. Thus, aKK laOi, '6n l%ei TOV& OVTU$- " Well, then, know that this will be so" Supply OVK avriarrjau, or the like ; " / will not oppose, but, on the contrary, know," &c. So, in the following passage of Xenophon, it occurs in four different senses, all of which may be traced by means of ellipses to the primitive meaning of " but." 'A/l/ld //a Ai', Ifyr], OVK av- rdf e^Keadat, irpog oe fiovhouai, d/l/ld ere Trpdf eue TropeveaOai. 'A/l/ld; iropcvaouai, e(j>7), uovov vrcodexov. 'A/IA' VTTode^ouai ae, fyij- kav py TI$ y. " ' Nay, indeed,' replied Socrates, ( / do not wish to be dragged unto you, but you to come to me. 1 ' Well, then," 1 said The- odota, ' I will come ; do you only receive me. 1 * Why, I will receive you, 1 replied Socrates, l if there be not some one dearer than you within. 1 " 2. ' A/l/ld ydp. In this combination yap introduces a reason for the opposition, &c., expressed by d/l/la. Thus, d/lAo; yap Kpsovra Aevo'O'CJ, Travacj rov Trapeor^raf /loyoff . " But I will check what I am at pres- ent saying, for I see Creon" Sometimes, however, the reference is more latent, and a clause is to be supplied between d/lAa and yap from what precedes. Thus, in Plato, Rep. 2, p. 336, we have, aXka yap ei> qidov diKTjv SuGouev, where we must repeat from the previous clause, OVK a^uioL aTra^d^ouev. " But we shall not escape unharmed, for we shall render atonement in Hades" In many instances the reference in d/lAd yap is to be supplied by some general remark, such as, " but this was not at all surprising, for ;" " but this was impossible, for, 11 &c. 3. 'AM,' ovv ye. These particles are often joined together, inasmuch as, along with the opposition, a consequence of what has preceded is also expressed. Thus, d/l/l' ovv TOVTOV ye rbv %povov TJTTQV aTjdrjG eao- uai. " Yet (d^Ad) / will, for this reason (ovv), now at least (ye) be less disagreeable." 4. When joined with ovde it strengthens the sense ; as, d/l/l' ovSe KeipaaouQi, " Nay, I will not even try." Frequently, in this construc- tion, ov povov ov is to be supplied in what precedes ; as, in the present instance, we may say, " / will not only not do so, but I will not even try." 5. In d/l/ld rot the particle TOL strengthens the force of d?Jld ; " but, indeed," " why, that, indeed," " why, as for that," &c. Thus, dA# fy6v TOI. ' Why t that is a pleasant thing enough. 19 CONJUNCTIONS. 203 ^ AN. 1. The particle av, for which the epic writers use K& or /cev, cannot well be expressed by any corresponding particle in English, but only gives to a sentence an air of uncertainty and mere possibility. It is em- ployed, therefore, to modify or strengthen the subjunctive and optative ; and is also employed with the indicative, in order to impart to it more or less of uncertainty. 2. This- particle commonly stands after one or more words in a clause, and is thus distinguished from the av which is formed by contraction from edv. This latter particle av usually begins a clause, and has the meaning of " if," &c. The Attic prose writers usually change it into yv, the Attic poets always. 3. The particle kav, " if," is compounded of the conditional el and the av mentioned in the first paragraph. 4. The av first mentioned is frequently put twice, sometimes even thrice, in a clause or sentence. In some cases, where the av occurs twice, one of these particles attaches itself to a finite verb and the other to a participle or infinitive ; as, optivrec av &xpj?ffavTO av "If they had seen they would have used" Many cases occur, however, where this explanation will not answer, and where the second or repeated av must be regarded as brought in merely to indicate more plainly the idea of uncertainty intended to be expressed. Thus, ahha Kav evt-aivro av ye- viaQai- " But they mighty perhaps, have wished it to happen." APA. 1. The primary power of apa is that of deducing consequences from premises, and hence it has usually the signification of " therefore" It is regularly employed, therefore, in the conclusion of syllogisms ; as, el yap eiai (3uuol, elal teal &EOL' a/l/la UTJV ela ftcjuoi' elalv apa Kal fteol. " For if there are altars, there are also gods. But there certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too." When joined with el, el pj, or kav, it signifies " if, then" " if, indeed," or, more probably, " conse- quently" Hence it serves for an emphatic asseveration, as if founded on an inference. 2. Different from this is the adverb apa, which is an interrogative par- ticle, like the Latin num or utrum. Thus, apa Karddijliov 6 fiovhopai teyeiv ; " Is, then, what I wish to say evident 1" When a negative answer is expected, it has generally the particle //?? attached to it. Thus, fdv de aov irpoaKarrjyoprjaG), on 6ia TO ayaadai avrov, nal EVVOLK&S ^eic Trpo? avTov, apa uq SiadtaTOieoBai 66!;ei VTT' kuov ; " But if I shall still farther allege against you, that, in consequence of your admi- 204 CONJUNCTIONS. ration of him, you feel also well disposed towards him, will you on that account think that you are slandered by me ?" If we wish to express the Latin nonne, it is done by dp' ov, and sometimes even by apa alone. 3. The interrogative apa is placed first in a clause or sentence ; bui the apa first mentioned stands always after one or several words, and even at the close of a proposition. TAP. 1. Tap, "/or," never stands at the beginning of a proposition or clause, but, instead of it, Kal yap is used at the beginning, like etenim in Latin. In Greek, the proposition of which that with yap assigns the cause is often omitted, inasmuch as it is easily understood, and is passed over by the speaker in the vivacity of discourse. Thus, in the answer so common in Plato, we have ecrrt yap OVTCJ, " (Certainly) for so it is." So it is often used in questions, because an additional member may al- ways easily be supposed ; as, for example, " I know" " I believe," " 1 cannot do it" &c. Thus, Horn. Od. 10, 501, T 2 KipKij, rig yap ravTTjv 6S6v Tjyeuovevaet, ; " Oh Circe (I cannot go thither), for who will guide me on this way ?" By the frequency of this kind of interrogative use, it gradually lost its proper force, and came to be employed simply to strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quisnam. 2. In such expressions as Kal yap, a/l/la 'yap, &c., the former particle indicates an omission of something, for which yap assigns a cause ; and hence Kal yap, when closely translated, means, " and (no wonder,} for" " and (this was natural,') for," &c. So in a/l/la 7"P> we must say, when rendering literally, " but (this was impossible,) for," " but (this happened otherwise,) for," &c. The context will always, of course, suggest the proper ellipsis. TE. 1. Te, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens the word which it follows above the rest of the clause, and thus strengthens the idea of the same. It is frequently joined to pronouns, particularly personal ones ; as, sycjye, " I, at least," " I, for my part." It is often, too, put in com bination with other particles, from which it usually stands separated bj one or more words ; as, ye Sjj, " really," " certainly ;" ye TOI, " a, 7 east," " however" 2. Generally, also, ye is used in rejoinders and answers, either to confirm or restrict ; and likewise in exhortations, to render them more impressive. But in English it often happens that the sense of ye, in its various combinations, can only be indicated by heightening the tone o the word to \vhich it refers. CONJUNCTIONS. 20 > AE. 1. The particle <5e is always placed after one or more words in < clause, and properly signifies " but" both as distinguishing and opposing. Very often, however, it serves to mark a transition from one proposition to another ; and, generally speaking, every proposition which has no other conjunction at its commencement takes this dc, whether it be re- ally opposed to the preceding or not, particularly in enumerations. In such cases, therefore, it generally remains untranslated in English. In ,he ancient form of the language, especially in Homer, it often stands for * and ;" and it is algo used on some occasions, in the old poets, to ex- plain what goes before, in which cases it answers to yap, "/or." 2. The principal use of de, however, is its opposition to fiev. The opposition in which one member of a sentence stands to another can be stronger or slighter. The Greeks in both cases use [iiv and 6e for con- nexion ; but in English we can only employ the particles " indeed" and " but" to designate the stronger opposition ; and hence we are often de- ficient in definite expressions for the Greek piv and de, which we then translate sometimes by " and," " also ;" sometimes by "partly partly, 1 " as well as also" &c. 3. When fisv is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought necessarily turns to an opposite member with 6s. Several cases never theless occur where, with p,iv preceding, the expected ds does not actu- ally occur. Namely, either (1.) the antithesis to the member formed with IJLEV expressly exists, but declares itself so clearly by the position and subject that <5e can be omitted. This is chiefly the case when tem- poral and local adverbs are used, which stand in a natural opposition be- tween themselves ; as, kvravda and e/cet, Trptirov and ZKELTO,, &c. Or (2.) the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly assigned in the discourse. This is chiefly the case when personal and demonstrative pronouns are used at the beginning of a proposition, in combination with (LEV ; as, eya) JLIEV Trporipnpat,, " I have formed the resolution" (another probably not). Kal ravra fiev dq Toiavra, " These things are so circum* stanced" (but others differently). Or (3.) the antithesis is indicated by another particle ; as, aA/la, avrdp, afire, &c. "H. 1. The primary use of ^ is disjunctive, and its sense is " or" Next to its disjunctive use is that connected with doubt or deliberation, where it has the meaning of " whether or ;" as, fiepftqpi&v TJ bye 'ArpeidTjv evapit-oi, $e %6/lov iravaeiev. " He pondered whether he should slay Atrides or calm his wrath" S 206 CONJUNCTIONS. 2. The particle jj is also frequently used in a question, when a prece- ding and indefinite question is made more definite ; as, rig ovv pot, airo- Kpivcirai ; $ 6 ve&raroe ; ' Who, then, will answer me ? the young est ?" Even in its interrogative sense, however, this particle still re- tains, in fact, its disjunctive meaning,- as will be apparent if we supply as an ellipsis before it, " Am I wrong in my conjecture ?" Thus, in the passage just quoted, we may say, " Am I wrong in my surmise, or is it the youngest ?" T H. 1. The primary and true sense of $ is that of affirmation. It is ex- plained, therefore, by OVTUC , atydue, " in reality," " in truth" Its af- firmation, however, affects whole sentences or propositions ; as, rj fieya davua rod' b^atyoloiv opupai. " Assuredly, I see in this a great won- der for the eyes* 1 2. In the combination rj yap it is remarkable that the former particle affects the latter. This happens because yap is always a subjunctive particle ; and thus rj is confirmatory of the causal signification of yap ; as in Priam's words (II. 22, 532), where, after giving orders to keep the city gates open for the reception of his routed forces, he adds the reason, $ yap 'A;iXAei)f kyyvQ ode K^OVECJV "for see, too surely is Achilles near throwing all things into confusion." So Calchas (J7. 1, 78) gives a reason for bespeaking the protection of Achilles ; TJ yap oto- u.a.1 avdpa xohuafyev, K. r. A. "for I assuredly do think that I will make that man angry" &c, 3. In the combination r) TTOV the particle $ is affirmative and TTOV con- jectural, and hence the two, when combined, express a degree of proba- bility bordering on certainty. They do not however, coalesce into one word, for, if they did, TJ would have the acute accent. We must render fi TTOU by " in all probability" " doubtless," " unless I am very much mistaken," &c. KAI. 1. As particles for uniting together the members of a proposition, the Greeks make use of Kai and the enclitic re, the use and distinction of which are pointed out in the following observations : 2. TLai and re serve for the simple union both of single ideas and of entire parts of a sentence. The connexion by re is more usual in the elder and poetic language than in Attic prose, and generally this particle is not merely put once between the two ideas to be connected, but join- ed to each of the connected parts ; as, Trar^p avdotiv TS &etiv re, " the father of loth gods and men." This connexion by re re occurs with CONJUNCTIONS. 207 Attic prose writers only in the union of strongly opposed ideas ; as, 0e- petv %PT] rd re dai/uovta dvayKaicj^ rd re OTTO rtiv Trofaftiw dvdpeiu. " We must bear the dispensations of the gods as a matter of necessity, and the inflictions of our foes with a spirit of manly resistance." With Homer, however, frequently, and\ith the Attic poets rarely, re re are used in the union of kindred ideas. If more than two ideas are con- nected, Homer proceeds with the repetition of re; as, in 11. 1, 177, old yap rot epic. re tyihr], Tco^e^oi re, fid%aL re ; or, after having several times repeated re, then uses /ecu ; as, Od. 3, 413, seq., 'E^e^pwv re, 2rp7ro, but peydhij re Kal Tro HEP. Hep is an enclitic, and in signification closely allied to ye. It denotes, conformably to its derivation from 7rep, comprehension or inclusion, and hence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single ideas. It very fre- quently enters into combination with relative pronouns, as also with tem- poral, causal, and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. The sense of this particle is generally, as in the case of ye, indicated in English merely by a stronger intonation of the word, although it may frequently also be translated by " very," " ever." In combination with a participle we often translate it by " although" or " how much soever." Thus, Aeyei, airep heyei, diKaia wdvra, "he says all, whatever he does say, justly ;" pyre cv rovd', ayadog ?rep ew, arroaipeo Kovprjv, " Nor do thou, excellent though thou art, deprive him of the virgin ;" i. e., be thou never BO excellent, however excellent thou art ; ev9v KopeveraL Trpoc 208 f CONJUNCTIONS. Kvpov ytep d^ev, " He proceeds straightway unto Cyrus, jusi as he was." IK22. 1. The particle 7rc5f, when circfcnflexed, is interrogative, and signi- fies " how ?" The combination Trtig yap is employed as an emphatic neg- ative, "not at all." Thus, TTCJC yap TTOLTJGG), " I will not do it at all," literally, "for how shall I do it ?" In the same way K.OL Trof is used ; as, K.OL Trtig (UWTTW ; " I cannot be silent" literally, " and how am I to be silent ?" 2. As an enclitic, TTW^ signifies " somehow" " in some degree" &c. ; 7T6>f, " in some other way ;" tide Trwf, " somehow thus" &c. 1. The particle cjf is sometimes used for Iva, to denote a purpose , as, c5f dei^upEv, " in order that we may show." Occasionally, as in the case of Iva, the word is omitted, the purpose of which is to be expressed ; as, & 6' vikriQfi heyu, KO^L fioi rov<; [idprvpa?. " But that thou mayst see that I speak the truth, call for me the ivitnesses" 2. It is also used for on, with the meaning of " that ;" as, "keyovTEc., 6>f eKELvoe ye ov TroXepei TT) iro^et. " Saying, that he does not make war upon the city" 3. It is also used with the meaning of " as," which is its more ordi- nary acceptation. Sometimes the tragic writers repeat the word that precedes c5f when signifying " as," and this is done when the speaker, from unpleasant recollections, does not choose to be more precise. Thus, oAo/lev <5f 6/U>/lev, "He has perished as he has perished;" i. e., he has perished ; no matter how. 4. With the acute accent, it is used in the sense of ovrwf, and then stands at the beginning of propositions. This usage is very frequent in Homer ; as, <5f eiTruv. We must be careful, however, not to confound t5f for OVTG), with cjf changed to wf because followed by an enclitic, nor with &$ placed after a word on which it depends, and receiving in con- sequence the tone or accent ; as, #0f <3f, " as a god." 5. It is often used in exclamations, with the signification of " how ;" as, t5f ere jj-aKapi^ofiev ! " How happy we deem you !" fiporolg Iporeg <5f Kanbv fjLeya \ " How great an evil is love to mortals /" On this is found- ed the use of c5f with optatives, in the sense of the Latin utinam, " 1 wish ;" as, >f ^ 6f elitacai, " as /ar s owe way conjecture ;" d>f eirrelv, " so to speak" 9. It is frequently found in this same sense with prepositions follow- ing ; as, <5f avf bfjifjidruv, " to judge by the eye ;" cjf CTU TO TTO?LV, "for the most part" Hence it is often used in comparisons ; as, aruarov TO Tr^Tjdog he-yerai cnrohsaOcu, he, Trpof ro fieyedog rr]q Trd/lewf . " An in- cr edible number are said to have perished, in proportion to the size of the city." 10. It is elegantly joined to participles in the genitive absolute, and the participle must then be rendered, in English, by a tense of the verb ; as, cjf Tavrrjs rrjg x&pac, kxypuTdrrjS ovarjc;' " Because this place was the most secure." Sometimes, also, it is connected with the accusative or dative of the participle. In these constructions with the participle, whether in the genitive, dative, or accusative, it has the force of as, since, because, inasmuch as, as if, &c. 11. It also has the meaning of " when," as a particle of past time ; as, wf 6e fade, " but when he came" And sometimes, also, the force of "while." 12. With numerals it signifies "about ;" as, <5f recaapaKOvra, " about forty ;" e5f rpiafj rerrapa arddia, "about three or four stadia." 13. It is sometimes put, especially by Attic writers, instead of the preposition elg , Trpbc, , or km. In truth, however, the preposition in such instances must always be regarded as understood, while <5f retains in translation nothing of its original meaning. It must be remarked, how- ever, that c5f , when put for elf, Trpof , or ETTI, is generally found with per- sons, and seldom with inanimate things. The primitive meaning of we Trpdf, ojf eic,, &c., is " as towards," "as to," and the particle serves to indicate that the preposition must not be taken in a strict and definite sense. Hence, when wf alone appears, with the preposition understood, it always implies that the approach is made with some degree of timidity or reverence. Thus, c5f TOVC. -&EOVC, " unto the gods ;" &c rbv (Saaitea, " to the king" In this lies the reason why o>f is seldom ever construed in this way with the names of places or things, but generally with an* mate objects. S3 210 PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS I. Prepositions, in Greek, govern the genitive, dative, or accusative. Some govern only one case, others two cases- and others, again, three ; as follows : GENITIVE ONLY. 'A.VTI, 'ATTO, 'E/e or 'EJ-, and Upo. DATIVE ONLY. 'Ev and Zvv. ACCUSATIVE ONLY. Elg or 'E. GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. Ata, Kara, and ' DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE. , 'Em, Hera, Uapd, ILepi, Ilpdf, 'TTTO. II. We will now proceed to illustrate by examples the force ofr.each, arranging them according to the cases which they respectively govern. I. Prepositions governing the GENITIVE. 1 . The fundamental idea of the genitive is that of sep- aration or abstraction, of going forth, from, or out of any- thing. 2. The prepositions, therefore, that are combined with the genitive, carry with them the general meaning of pro- ceeding from something ; though, strictly speaking, the ideas o/i out of, and/row, lie primarily in the genitive case itself. PREPOSITIONS. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition was "against," "con- trary to." It has lost, however, its original signification, except in the case of compounds ; as, avrtrdTTEiv, " to place over against ;" avrihe- yeiv, " to- contradict." 2. The secondary meanings of avri, deducible from the primitive meaning, are " instead of" "for" and refer to the relations of exchange, purchase, value, &c., where the objects referred to are supposed to be set opposite or over against each other, and their respective value thus estimated. Hence we have the following examples : dovTiog avri fiaGLh- &yf, " a slave instead of a king ;" av6' &v, "for which reasons" (on which account). 1. The leading meaning of this preposition is "from," and it has ref- erence either to place, time, or the assigning of the origin or cause of a thing. I. The relation of place ; as, OTTO x ov i "from the ground ;" lip IKITGJV, "from on horseback" II. The relation of time ; as, yevea- Qai airb deiTrvov, " to have done supper" (to be from supper) ; mveiv CLTTO rov GITLOV, " to drink just after eating" (to drink from eating). III. The assigning of the origin or cause ; as, cnrb SiKaioavvrjc., " from a love of justice ;" iretyvev aif apyvpeoio fSioto, " he slew him by means of a silver bow;" ol and rye. aroa?, "the Stoics" (the philosophers from the porch) ; ol cnrb TLkdrwcg, " the Platonics," &c. 2. It must be borne in mind, that, when cnro refers to place, it denotes the place at or near which any one was ; whereas the place within is ex- pressed by K. 'E/c or 'E 1. 'E/c (before a vowel ef) has for its leading signification " out of,"" "from," and serves to indicate a choice out of several objects, or to de- note a whole consisting of many parts. It may be viewed, like cnro, under the three relations of place, time, and the assigning of origin and cause. I. The relation of place , as, e/c r^f Tro/lewf, " out of the city," which presupposes that one has been in the city, whereas arrb -nfc TTO- Aewf merely implies that one has been near the city. II. The relation of time ; as, e/c rivoc, %povov, " since a certain time ;" e% ov, " since" (supply xpovov}. III. The origin or cause ; as, ra KK irarpbs Trpoara^- OevTd, " the things commanded by a father ;" k% e/ueo, " through me" (by my means or authority). 2. The following examples, falling under some one v trpoadev SanpvuVy " io /aw^A 0/ter iear^ ;" e/c rov t/z, " they entered into the city." With this is connected the meaning of " to;" as, cKETEvstv elf rtva, " to come as a suppliant to any one." 2. With the verbs " to say," " to show" the reference or direction to the persons, to whom anything is said or shown, is sometimes considered as analogous to an actual motion, and this analogy is expressed by elf ; as, ol TrarepEf 7ro/Ma drj Kal /ca/la ep-ya a.7rey cities;" Kara ttupaz, "by villages," &c. 10. It is often with its case expressed by an adverb in English ; as, Kara uoipav, "properly" "fitly;" Kara fiinpov, "gradually;" Kara Kpdroc, " vehemently" with all one's might ; Kara rcoda, " quickly," " immediately," &c. Tirep. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "above," "over," 11 beyond" Thus, 6 ifkiog virep fjutiv teal T&V ariyfev Tropevofievog, " the mn moving above us and our dwellings ;" vTrtp TroA/law, " beyond many." Hence also it is employed in speaking of the sites of towns and places on rivers or the sea, because they are higher than it ; as, fapjv Kal 7rd/Uf vnep avrov, " a harbour, and a city upon it" 2. From the primitive meaning is deduced that of "for," " in behalf of," when a person is supposed to go, as it were, in front of or beyond another, and occupy a place which the latter would otherwise have been compelled to fill ; and in this way to act for or in behalf of that one. Thus, -&vetv VTTsp rfjg iroheuc;, " to sacrifice in behalf of the state ;" pax- eodat virep rivo, " to fight for one;" TifjLupeZv vnep rtvoc,, "to punish for one" Hence dedievat, vnep nvog, " to fear for one." 3. Connected with this is the meaning " on account of;" as, eptdo? vnep, " on account of strife ;" ahyeov virep, " on account of sorrows ;" virep rov pj Ttoieiv TO TTpoararrofievov, " in order not to do what was ordered" 4. From the same source arises also the meaning "for the sake o/," as used in prayers. Thus, Kai utv VTrep Trarpof Kal fiTjrepog Kal TEKEO^ Tiiaeeo, " and entreat him for the sake of his father, and mother, and off- spring." 5. With the accusative, vnep has the meaning of " over," as in the genitive ; as, finrreovGi vrrep rov 66uov, " they fling it over the house ;" and also the force of " above ;" as, virep ra reaasprjKovTa err], " above forty years" So, also, vtrep uopov, " more than destiny requires," liter- ally, " above destiny ;" vrrep "koyov, " above all description." V. Preposition governing the GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 'A.vd. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is directly opposite to that of Kara, and denotes motion upward. Hence its original signified 218 PREPOSITIONS. lion is " up," " up on," &c. This, however, seldom occurs, and derir* ative meanings are more commonly found. 2. 'A.vd governs a dative in the epic and lyric poets only ; ava GKTJTrrou, " on the top of a golden sceptre ;" xpvaeaic av* " in a golden chariot," carrying with it the idea^of being mounted on high ; evdei 6' ava OKaTrru Atof derof, " the eagle sleeps on the sceptre of Jove ," i. e., on the top of the sceptre; ava vavciv, "in ships" i. e., up on ships. 3. Elsewhere it governs the accusative, and expresses, 1. A duration or continuance, both of time and space ; as, ava rbv Tcoheftov TOVTOV, " throughout this whole war" i. e., up along this whole war ; ava itaaav ijfiepav, " daily ;" ava d&ua, " throughout the mansion." 4. With numerals it makes them distributive ; as, ava Trevre, "Jive at a time;" ava vivre Trapaaayyat; rrjg Tjpspag, "Jive parasangs each VI. Prepositions governing the GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "around" " about" ** round about" 2. WITH THE GENITIVE, a^i has its primitive meaning ; as, ol aufyl ravrrie OIKOVCTI rrjs KO^IO?, " who dwell around this city ;" with this same case also it has the signification of " concerning," which it shares with irepi ; as, aTroiTEU'iTOfj.aL evvvxov oi})iv, av Trepl Tcaidbg euov, afji^l Ho^v^ELvijg re fy'ikriq tivyaTpb?, 6u' bveipuv eldov " I turn me with horror from the nocturnal vision, which I saw in dreams concerning my son, and concerning my beloved daughter Polyxena." 3. WITH THE DATIVE it signifies " about," in answer to the question " where 1" even when the whole thing is not covered ; as, a/j,l divai? Evpfrov, "neef the eddies of the Euriptis " PREPOSITIONS. 219 5. It has also with the dative the signification of "concerning" whence Lie deduced the kindred meanings, " on account of" " about" " through" &c. Thus, rovg usv 'A.rpet,dtiv Kara, rovg 6' apty 'QSveraet, " some against the Atrida, and some about Ulysses ;" roif^d' au(f>l yvvaud TTO- "kvv xpovov ahyea Kaaxeiv, " to suffer woes for a long time about such a woman." Hence autyl rdpdst, " through fear " 6. WITH THE ACCUSATIVE a^tyi denotes " about" in answer to the questions " where ?" and " whither ?" as, aamd' auQl ppa^iova "wielding lightly the shield about his arm;" a^tyl -fyafjipa 6ai, " to be cast out into the sand," so that the sand surrounds the oody ; a//0t TL lx eiv i " t concern one j s self about anything." 7. 'Au(pi frequently stands in this sense with the accusative, not to signify a surrounding, but only to denote a place generally. Thus, a^L re aarv tpdofiev Ipa tieoioiv, " we offer sacrifices to the gods throughout the whole city" i. e., all around throughout the city. So au$l QprjKTjv, " anywhere in Thrace," i. e., in the whole of Thrace, round about. 8 To this head belongs the phrase ol a^i or Trepi TIVGL. It means, I. The person signified by the proper name, with his companions, followers, &c. ; as, K.OL ol au(pl HeiaLcrparov airiKveovrai knl T7Jg'A.6r]vaLrj^ lepbv, " and Pisistratus, with his troops, comes to the temple of Minerva." So ol irepl Qpaav6ov%,ov, " Thrasy- bulus with his followers ;" ol a[i<$>l 'Op^ec, " Orpheus with his scholars" &c. II. Sometimes this phrase signifies merely the person whom the proper name expresses, but only in later writers. Thus, Ar- rian, Exp. AL p. 385, ol auevyeiv y " to flee towards Sardis." Hence 660$ rj km Ka- OLTJS tyepovca, " the road that leads to Caria." 4. In definitions of time em has the meaning of " during," " under," &c. ; as, em Ke/cpoTrof, " during the time of Cecrops" (i. e., resting upon this period as a species of base) ; ki? elprjvrjg, " in time of peace ;" km rtiv 7][i.eTipuv npoyovuv, " in the days of our forefathers ." 5. It has frequently also the force of the Latin de, and denotes * of," " concerning," &c. ; as, oirep km rtiv dovhuv eA.eyofj.ev, " what we were remarking concerning the slaves" (literally, " were speaking upon the subject of the slaves"). 6. With the verbs " to name," " to be named," &c., it has the mean- ing of " after," "from ;" as, bvo/j-dfradai em rivoc., " to be named after one" (literally, " to be named upon one"). 7. It often expresses a connexion, accompaniment, provision, &c., either with things or with persons ; as, km auiKptiv hoyov, " with a few words ;" KaBrjaro Kdfyov Aaof aamSuv em, " the people of Cadmus had sat dawn arrayed with shields ;" km TrpocKohov /uu~t %G)peiv, " to go accompanied by a single maid-servant" Hence is deduced the mean- ing of " before ;" as, em /Ltaprvpuv, " before witnesses ;" emj/Ltoaavro km T&V crrparij-ytiv, " they swore in the presence of the generals," &c. 8. In this way the following phrases appear to have originated : if eavrov, " by himself," "peculiarly ;" em aytiv avr&v, " by themselves," " unmixed with others," &c. Hence e(j>' eavrov olnelv, when said of states, means " to live by themselves, not dependant upon others, but hav- ing a constitution of their own." 9. 'Em is also used in the genitive with numerals ; as, km rpitiv orijvai, "to stand three deep ;" km reacrdpov, "four deep;" ef evbq r\ Karapaoig rjv, " the descent was by one at a time." 10. WITH THE DATIVE em denotes, in particular, subordination, the being in the power of any one, &c. Thus, rtiv ovruv ra fj.ev earlv e0' i]fuv, ra 6 J OVK e' rj^ilv, " of the things that are, some are in our power (under our control), others are not in our power;" km ftavreaiv elvai, " to be dependant upon soothsayers ;" Troietv n km nvi, " to sub- mit a thing to any one's judgment ;" TO ktf epoi, " as far as depends upon me." 11. With the dative em also denotes condition, especially in the phrase 0* w or efi tire, "upon condition." That also is regarded as a condi- tion, on account of which, in order to obtain it, something is done which PREPOSITIONS. 221 *s the price or the foreseen result of the action. Thus, km dupoic > " on account of promised gifts ;" S&pG) km {ieydty, "for a large gift ;" km [4OGX(f) ddeiv, " to sing for the price of a calf;" em rovroig JLLOVOLC, gyv, " to live upon condition of having this only ;" x^P av dvadeivai 'A7ro/l- IMVL em ncLGri depyia, " to consecrate a territory to Apollo, on condition of its remaining entirely uncultivated." 12. Hence it frequently expresses an object or aim, inasmuch as this is the condition upon which the action is performed. Thus, pj K^CJTTE^ em dnhrJGei avecjGi vfuv, " lest thieves appear to you in order to do you mischief;" OVK km re^vy epadeg, "you have not learned it in order to exercise it as a profession ;" a-yeiv riva km davdrG), " to lead one away to execution." 13. From this is deduced the meaning "on account of;" as, typovetv km TIVI, " to pride one's self on account of anything;" &av/j,deG6ai km Tivtj " to wonder on any account," &c. 14. Sometimes, also, it signifies " at," as a definition of place ; as, em TGJ *A.h7]Ki iroTauy, " at the river Alex ;" and sometimes it is em- ployed to express generally a combination or coexistence. To this lat- ter head belong the phrases ijv km TraiGiv, " to live, having children;" (fiv erf IGOLGLV, *' to live upon a footing of equal rights with others ;" km dvGK^eia, " with disgrace ;" Ka6i}a6at em ddtcpvai, " to sit down in tears," &c. 15. Frequently em, when thus construed, signifies not so much a be- ing together as an immediate following upon, or connexion of time and space ; as, avearrj erf avrti Qepavha?, " Pheraulas arose immediately after him;" oyxvij erf oyxvrj -yijpdcrKei, "pear after pear grows ripe" 16. In many cases km with the dative has the same or a similar sig- nification with the genitive ; as, km x^ ov h " on ^ e eart h >*" & VVKTI, " in the night," &c. 17. WITH THE ACCUSATIVE km signifies particularly " upon" " against," in answer to the question " whither ?" in those cases where, in Latin, in is put with the accusative ; as, dvafiaiveiv e' ITTTTOV, " to mount upon horseback ;" dva6aiveiv em tipovov, " to ascend a throne ;" km TIVCL (jLrjxavaGdai, " to contrive against one." So in km iroSa dva%- upelv, " to retreat," where the Greeks seem to have had in view the re- turn into the place which the foot previously occupied. Hence km is often put after verbs of motion with substantives which do not denote a place, but an action, which is the end of one's going ; as, levai em #77- pav, " to go upon a hunt ;" livai km vdup, " to go in quest of water ; n km T'L, " to what end ?" " wherefore 1" Sometimes, however, we find em with the accusative after verbs of rest, but then motion is always im plied with the preposition. Thus, l^ecQai km TI, " to go anywhere in T2 222 PREPOSITIONS. order to seat one's self there ;" Kelctiai km dpiarepd, " to be earned to the left and lie there ;" em TO, rei%7) dvmraperdcaovro, " they were drawn up against them on the walls" where the idea of dvaddvrec., "having ascended," is implied in em rd rei%n. 18. With definitions of time it answers to the question " how long 1" as, em %povov, "for some time ; n em 6vo qpepac., "for two days" It is also used with definitions of space ; as, em reooapdnovra cradia, "for the space of forty stadia" With numerals it denotes "about;" as, km rpiawaia, " about three hundred" M.erd. 1. The leading idea in this preposition is connexion, either in a greater or less degree. It is weaker, however, in this respect than ovv. 2. WITH THK GENITIVE perd signifies "with" "together with;" as, KadfjcQai perd rtiv ahhuv, " to sit down along with the rest" Hence nerd nvoe elvai, " to be on any one^s side" With the words " to con- tend, fight, carry on war" perd expresses the side which is favoured ; as, eTTO^eprjaav perd r&v Gvppd%(*)v Trpog d/l/ta^/louf, " they waged war along with their allies against one another" 3. Hence arise various constructions, the basis of which is the idea of a connexion, which in other languages is differently expressed. Thus, perd iroTiireiac elvai, " to have a regular government ;" per a rov \6yov, " under the guidance of reason;" perd rtiv vopuv, " agreeably to the laws;" per a KivSvvuv, "in the midst of dangers;" pera mudiag not olvoVj " in jest and drunkenness" 4. WITH THE DATIVE it occurs in the poets only, with the meaning of " among" " with ;" as, perd 6e rpirdroiffiv avaaoev, " and he was reigning among the third (generation) ;" perd arparu, " among the army ;" vvv 6e pe&' vperepy dyopri qpat, " and now I am sitting amid your assembly." Hence arises the general meaning of " in ;" as, ITTJ- ddhiov perd %ep?7//iO* of />' fields Trapd nvrjaTrjpoiv dvdvKn, "Phemius, who sang with the suiters (i. e., among them) through com- pulsion ;" Trapd deoic KOL Trap' dvdpuTroic., " with gods and men.' 1 5. WITH THE ACCUSATIVE it signifies " to," "towards" (i. e., to the side of) ; as, napd vijag 'A^atwv, " towards the ships of the Greeks ;" Trapd Kaudvaea, " to Cambyses ;" Trapd TTJV T$a6v9i,tiva, " to Babylon. 11 * It is frequently used thus in answer to the question "where?" but then the idea of motion is always implied in the preposition. Thus, oJ /nev KoipfjoavTO Trapd TrpvfivTJGia vrjog, "they on their part lay down to rest by the stern-fasts of the ship," i. e., they went to and lay down by them. 6. It often occurs with the meaning " in comparison with," " by the side of," "for." Thus, op&v rd kTnrridsvfjLara avrtiv eyyvdev Trapd rd T&V a/lAwv, " seeing their objects of pursuit from near at hand in com- parison with those of the rest ;" ev irdp' eaT^bv Trfifiara avvdvo daiovrat pporoZs dddvaroi, "for one piece of good fortune the gods bestow upon mortals a pair of evils ;" Trapd rd a/U,a tia, " in comparison with the other animals" (Xen. Mem. 1, 4, 14). 7. From the primitive meaning " by the side of" are derived the fol- lowing phrases : Trapd uutpov, " almost" (by the side of little) ; Trapa TTO/IV, "by far" (by the side of much), &c. 8. It has also the meaning of " along," which results directly from the meaning "by the side of ;" as, irapd diva "frahdaaris, "along tke shore of the sea ;" Trapd vfjag levai, " to go alonpside the ships" (Eunp. 224 PFJEPOSITIONS. Bacch. 17), not, as elsewhere, "to. go towards the ships." Hence also of time, "during," "throughout;" as, Trap' bhov rbv f3iov, "through one's whole life" Especially when a definite point of time is expressed ; as, Kapa TTJV KOGIV, "in drinking;" Trap' avra ra adiK^fj,ara, "at the very moment of the unjust transaction." 9. It has also the meaning of " against," " contrary to," " otherwise than ;" as, Kapa do^av, " contrary to opinion ;" Kapa Qvaiv, " contrary ft nature," &c. HepL ' 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is " about," " around, 1 ' from which are deduced various other significations. 2. WITH THE GENITIVE it answers most nearly to the Latin de, and denotes " of" " concerning," &c. ; as, Kepi TWOS "keyeiv, " to speak concerning any one" The most universal sense, however, is " with re- spect to" " as regards," " in point of," &c. Thus, Kepi /uev 6% ppu- ceue K.OL TToffewf, " as regards, then, eating and drinking ;" ovdele av- r&v K^deog Kept a!~ioc, ovu6^7j6^vaL ken, " no one of them is worthy cf being compared with it in point of size." 3. The following phrases serve to express value; as, Koieladai, n rrepl Ko7d,ov, " to value a thing highly," i. e., in respect of much ; rjyelG- Qai TI Kepi K^eiarov, " to regard a thing as of the greatest value," i. e., in respect of very much. So, also, KOLeladau n Kepi [UKpov, " to set little value upon a thing ;" jjyelaOai ri Kepi ovdevog, " to regard a thing as of no value." 4. In Homer Kepi often carries with it the meaning of superiority, and has the meaning of " above" &c. ; as, W&ei Kepi KUVTCJV e^evai aAAwv, " he wishes to be above all others ;" ol Kepi fiev POV^TJV Aava&v, Kepi & kare /j.d^ea6ai, " ye who are superior to the rest of the Greeks in council, and superior in the fight." Here ftov^v is governed, not by Kepi, but by Kara understood. 5. WITH THE DATIVE it signifies "about," "around," "on," in an- swer to the question " where ?" as, Kepi ry X L pi xpveovv danrvhiov <}>epeLV, " to wear a golden ring on the hand :" often when something surrounds that which is in the dative ; as, Kepi dovpl TjOKCupei, " he pant- ed around his lance," i. e., on his lance ; KeKrura rtide Kepi veopftdvry giQeL, " having fallen on this sword fresh sprinkled with blood." So in the general designation of a place ; Kepi 2/cai??L, to denote not so much a surrounding as a place or region gen erally. Thus, Kepi Qeaaa^l^v, " somewhere in Thessaly" not " around Thessaly." 8. It is often put also with definitions *of time ; as, Kepi TOVTOV? rovg Xpovovc, " about this same time ;" Kepi K^qdovaav ayopdv, " about the time when the market-place Jills" With numerals also it signifies " about" " nearly ;" as, Kepi Tpif vfjLETepovc, /loyovf, " not taking your words for a pattern." 11. The idea of direction towards some particular object is the ground- work also of the following phrases : o$aov, "to immolate, turning towards the lofty mound of Achilles 1 tomb ;" disKpWnaav irpbt; re 'Adnvatovz not AaKsSaipoviove oi "EAA^vef, "the Greeks separated, and went over, some to the Athenians, others to the Lacedamonians." 12. It has also, with the accusative, an adverbial sense ; as, Trpof TO detvov, "cruelly;" Trpdf TO /caprepdv, "violently;" Trpof evaedecav, "piously;" ?rpof piav, "perforce;" Trpof rjdovfjv, "willingly." 13. With numerals it denotes "about," "nearly;" as, Trpdf rerpa/eo- f, " about f oa, hundred;" Trpof SKCITOV, " nearly one hundred." PREPOSITIONS. 227 TTTO. 1. The primitive meaning of this preposition is "under," a signmca- i,ion which it often has with the genitive ; as, VTTO 777$-, " under the earth ;" and often it signifies "from under ;" as, vtro %6ovbe rjK,e 6ua- <5e, " he sent it from beneath the earth into the light." 2. Like the Latin sub, it sometimes expresses proximity with a higher place ; as, v' apparo?, " near the chariot," where the reference is to one who is standing on the ground, with the chariot erect by his side. Hence, figuratively, " below the chariot." 3. From the meaning of "under" is deduced that of " by," especially with passive verbs, the reference being to something under the influence of which a certain act is performed or result brought about. Thus, EiraLveZGdcu VTTO Ttvoc,, " to be praised by any one ;" afayelg vrf Aiyia- 6ov, " immolated by JEgisthus ;" arcoBaveiv VTTO nvog, " to die by the hands of one ;" vif a.yyi'kuv iropeveadat, " to go by reason of messen- gers ;" aeUka VTTO dpovrrj? Trarpof Ai6<; dot TredovSe, " the tempest, by the thunder of father Jove, descends to the plain;" VTTO T&V rpiaKOvra Koveiov movrec, " having drunk hemlock by command of the thirty " 4. From the two meanings of " under" and " by" combined seem to have arisen such phrases as the following : VKO Qopfj-tyyuv xopweiv, "to dance to the music of harps ;" VTr* avhov Kupafriv, " to revel to the flute." For here the preposition with its case appears to express, on the one hand, a kind of subordination, inasmuch as the subject of the action con- forms itself to the substantive which is governed by the preposition ; and, on the other hand, the action is effected, or at least defined, by the sub- stantive in the genitive, as in the construction of the passive with VTTO and the genitive. 5. WITH THE DATIVE it has often the same signification as with the genitive, as, for example, with passives in the sense of a or ab. Thus, a viriaxvov aTrorer^earai GOL ijdij, " what you promised have been now done by you ;" irpoaTrohoie fyvhdaveTai, " he is guarded by his attend- ants" So, also, as with the genitive, VTTO SapBirG) ^opeveiv, " to dance to the lyre," &c. 6. It often, in particular, when joined with this ease, signifies " unde~," with the idea of subordination ; as, VTTO nvi elvat, " to be under one," i. e., obedient to one ; iroielv n VTTO TLVI, " to submit anything to any one," &c. 7. WITH THE ACCUSATIVE it signifies " under," " at," analogous to the Latin sub, in answer to the question " whither 1" as, VTTO lAtov ^A- 6ev, " he came beneath Ilium," i. e., under the walls of Troy. It is likewise employed with this case in definitions of time ; as, VTTO rovr avrovg xpovovc., " about the same time" 228 PREPOSITIONS. 8. Sometimes it is found with the accusative, in answer to the ques- tion " where ?" as, ovre virecTi oiKquara VTTO yijv, " nor are there cany chambers under ground" (Herod. 2, 127) ; d TLVCLS ayaivro rtiv v

    v rov J3iov ayaOtiv per- l%eiv del Kal rbv dovhov, " even a slave ought to participate in the good things of life." 2 6. The article is used in prose with the demonstratives OVTO$ and enelvog, in which case the pronoun either pre- cedes the article or follows the substantive; as, ovrog 6 dvrjpj or 6 avrjp ovrog (not 6 ovrog dvrjp), " this same man? 7. The article is also added to the possessive pronoun, for the purpose of giving a more precise definition. Thus, iub$ vlog is merely a " son of mine ;" but 6 epb^ vlo$ is " my son," who is already known from the context. 8. Adverbial expressions become adjectives by the ac 1 . Unless the interval be so extensive a one that the mind does no* readily recur to the individual as having been before mentioned. To ihis, however, there are several exceptions. 2. Literally, " the one that is old;" " the one that is a slave " THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 231 cession of the article ; as, ol TtdXai avdpwnoi, " the early race of men;" 6 ^era^i) XP vo i " ^ e intervening time" 1 9. The neuter of the article TO is joined also to infini- tives, and forms in this way a species of verbal noun ; as, TO TTpdrreiv, " the doing ;" rb /ca/lwc heyecv, " the speaking well." 2 .10. The article is also combined with \isv and Se, and then has in some degree the force of a pronoun ; as, ol [lev g (f)vyr}v erpaTrovro, ol 6s epeivav, " these, indeed, turned themselves to flight, but those remained ;" rovg [i,ev ETryvei,, rovg 6' ettoXa&v, " the former he praised^ but the latter he punished" 3 THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. 1. A verb agrees with its nominative in number and pei- son ; as, eyo) Aeyo), " / say ;" TOVTG) TO) avdps TjyTjadaOrjv, " these two men thought ;" ol i9eo Kokd^ovai, " the gods punish" 2. A neuter plural, however, is generally joined with a singular verb ; 4 as, aarpa (fxtiverai, " stars appear ;" ravra eariv ayaOd, " these things are good" 3. But when the neuter plural refers to living persons, the verb is often put in the plural also, because persons are for the most part considered separately by the mind, but things as forming a class. 5 Thus, rd TE^TJ VITO%OVTO, 1 . When a substantive is omitted, they supply the place of substan- tives ; as, j] avpiov, " the morrow," supply ^epa ; and again, ol 7r?iij~ ffiov, " neighbours," supply avdpuTroi. 2. Sometimes the article is joined to an entire clause ; as, eav rovro fieSaiug virdp^iy, rare teal Trepl rov riva TifJUJpfjGerai rig EKELVOV rpoitov kZearai GKOTTEIV, " if this be firmly established, then will it be allowed us also to consider in what manner one shall punish that monarch" 3. So in the neuter, ra fiev ra 8e, " partly partly," &c. 4. This usage is more observed by the Attics than by the older wri- ters in the Ionic and Doric dialects, and is frequently neglected by the Attics themselves. 5. Sometimes we find even a singular verb following a masculine or feminine plural ; as, t'fwoi ^f^erat, " hymns arise," Find. 01. 11, 4; axeirat, bfi^al peheuv, " the voices of song resound," Id. fragm. In the Attic writers, however, this takes place only where the verb precedes, 232 THE NOMINATIVE AND VERB. " the magistrates promised ;" roadde IJLSV per a ' eSvri eOTpdrevoV) " so many nations served along with the Athenians." 4. When the subject consists of several persons or things singly specified, and which follow the verb, the latter often stands in the singular ; as, eari teal ev dhkaig noXeoiv dp- %ov~e(; re tcai drjuog, " there are in other cities also both ma- gistrates and a commons." Here, if apftovrec; stood alone, the verb would necessarily be slot. 5. Collective nouns, on the contrary, that is, nouns sin- gular which express multitude or number, have often their verb in the plural ; T as, TO arparonsdov dve%G>povv, " the army retired;" 7ro/U> yevo$ dvOp&irw ftptivrai TOVT<*>, "a large class of men use this" 6. A dual nominative is sometimes joined with a plural verb ; 2 as, ra) 6s ra%' eyyvdev fjWov, " they two quickly drew near ;" du(f)G) heyovai, " both say" 7. The nominative is often omitted when the verb itself expresses the customary action of the subject ; as, 043/8^et, " the trumpeter sounds his trumpet" where 6 cJaAm/mfc is implied ; eitfjpvge, " the herald made proclamation" where 6 Krjpvt; is implied. S. When two or more substantives are connected by a conjunction, the verb which belongs to all, instead of being in the plural, is sometimes found to agree with one of these substantives, and usually with that one which is nearest to it, and the most important in the sentence ; as, GOL yap ed- in which case probably the author had the whole in his mind, and ex- plained or defined it afterward by the substantive in the plural. Thus, dedoKrai v~yai, " exiles are decreed," Eurip. Bacch. 1340. 1. This construction occurs even in the genitive absolute; as, rov rrrohov Trfaovruv, Demosth. in Mid. 45. 2. Sometimes, on the other hand, the dual of the verb is put with the plural nominative, even when more than two persons are signified. This occurs chiefly in the earlier epic poets, and is uot tound in the tragedians and prose writers. Many scholars consider the passages in question corrupt, or think that they must be explained otherwise. The whole difficulty is removed, however, by regarding the dual as originally aa old form of the plural, limited subsequently to the expression of two. THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 233 G)Ke viicrjv Zei)g Kpovidrjs Kal 'ATrdAAdw, "for unto thee has Jove, the son of Saturn, given victory, and Apollo." 9. Sometimes a nominative is put without a verb follow- ing, and is then called the nominative absolute ; as, SKBLVOL ds elaeWovreg, elnev 6 Kpiriag, " they having entered, Crit* ias said." THE SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 1. An adjective is often put in the neuter gender, with- out regard to the gender of the substantive which stands with it in the sentence, xprj^a being understood, and re- mains in the singular even when the substantive, is in the plural j 1 as, OVK ayaObv i\ irokvicoipavia, " the government of the many is not a good thing ;" peradohal elal hvnrjpov, " changes are a sad thing." 2.. An adjective of the masculine gender is often found with a feminine noun of the dual number, and under this rule are also included the pronoun, participle, and article ; 2 as, djM0o) TOVTG) TG) TTO/Ue, " both these cities ;" dvo yvvalne epi^ovre, " two women quarrelling ;" rw %elpe, " the two hands." 3. An adjective is often put in a different gender from the substantive with which it stands, as referring to the person or persons implied by that substantive ; 3 as, Ae retcvov, " dear child" (II. 22, 84), spoken of Hector ; retcog arpvrtivri, " indefatigable offspring" (II. 2, 157), spoken of Minerva. 4. Hence a collective noun in the singular number, and of the feminine or neuter gender, is often accompanied by the adjective in the plural and masculine; as, e^o^ev rr]v 1. In all such constructions as these, the substantive is regarded by the mind as representing merely some general class of things, and henco the adjective is put in the neuter gender. 2. Hence it has been inferred that the dual of the adjective, pronoun, participle, and article had originally only one form, namely, the mascu- line. 3. Grammarians call this synesis (avveai^ i. e., an understanding oi the person implied by the substantive. U 2 234 PRONOUNS. vTTTjpealav Trheiovg Kal apeivovg, " we have the rest of the crews more numerous and skilful. 11 5. Among the tragic writers, when a woman speaks of herself in the plural number, she uses the masculine ; and the masculine is also employed when a chorus of women are speaking of themselves. Thus, ol TrpoOvfjOKOvreg (Eurip.), where Alcestis speaks of herself ; &Kreip' aKovcag (Eurip. Androm.}, " / pitied, on having heard" where the chorus speak. 6. A substantive is often used as an adjective ;' as, y/U5<7- aav f EA/la<5a eSi6a!;e, " he taught the Greek tongue. 11 7. The substantive is often changed into a genitive plu- ral ; 2 as, ol xpTjCFTol r&v avOptiircdv, " the worthy ones among men 11 for ol xprjarol av6p(*)Troi, " worthy men. 11 8. This construction takes place also iirthe singular, es- pecially in Attic ; as, rrjv TT^eiarrjv rfjg orparlag ( Thucyd.), " the greatest part of the army ;" rov TTO^VV rov %povov t f< a great part of the time. 11 9. An adjective in the neuter gender, without a substan- tive, governs the genitive ; as, pioov rjpepac;, " the middle of the day" rooov opihoVj " so great a throng. 11 10. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter singular and plural, with and without an article, for adverbs ; as, v, " in the first place; 11 rb nptirov, " at first ;" Kpv- , " secretly ;" , &TIVL marevaai av dvvaiprjv /U), " / have no friend on whom I might rely" 1. This is of very ordinary occurrence in our own language ; as, sea- water, house-dog, &c. 2. The substantive is here considered as a whole, and the adjective as a part. PRONOUNS. 235 2. The relative often agrees with its antecedent in case, by what is called attraction ; as, ovv rol^ drjaavpolg, ol$ 6 Trarfjp Ka,Tski,nev, " with the treasures which his father left behind;" ayw dnb r&v TroAewv, &v eireiae, orpandv, " leading a body of troops *rom the cities which he had per- suaded" 3. If, in this attraction, the word to which the relative refers be a demonstrative pronoun, this pronoun is generally omitted, and the relative takes its ease ; as, avv olg \iobk- iora (pikelg, " with those ivhom you most, love" for avv rov- roig ovg fidhiara fahelg. 4. Sometimes the antecedent takes the case of the rela- tive ; as, d/l/loi; OVK olda, ov dv rev^ea 6v(*), " / know not any other whose arms I may put on." 5. The nominative of the personal pronoun rs usually omitted with the personal terminations of verbs, as in Latin, except where there is an emphasis ; as, dA/ld Trdv- TG)$ Kal ai) oipet, avrrjv, " but you, by all means, shall even see her" 6. The possessive pronouns are only employed when an emphasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pro- nouns are used in their stead ; as, Trarrjp r\\i(^v^ " our fa- ther" (literally, ll the father of us") ; but Trarrjp rj^erspog r " our own father." 7. A substantive is sometimes put in the genitive, as in apposition with another genitive implied in a possessive pronoun j 1 as, iKKOipete Kopag rov ye obv ofyOatyov rov 7rpea6e6i>, " may a raven strike out the eye of you the ambas- sador" 8. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objec- tively ; 2 as, eb$ TtoOog, not " thy regret" but " regret for 1. So in Latin, mea ipsius causa, where ipsius is in apposition with the genitive implied in mea. So, also, nomen meum absentis, meas prik(*)v KOI 7rap6vT(*)v real hrtovTUV \ii\LV7\Go, " re- member friends both when present and absent ;" ovde rore imhrjGoiiai avrov, " even then I will not forget him" 5. The genitive is also put with the verbs " to begin" such as ap%eiv, ap%ecr6ai, v-rrapxeiv, &c., because here also the reference is only to a part, that is, the commence- ment of an action ; as, ap^ers aditda$, tl begin injustice ;" UTTTjp^av rrig ehevdeplag andey r^j 'EAAad^, " they made a beginning of freedom for all Greece" G, Verbs signifying the operations of the senses, such. as " to hear," " to feel," " to smell," and the like, but not those denoting " to see" require the genitive ; ! verbs signifying 1. The genitive is put with these verbs only of the object which pro- duces the thing perceived, or of an occurrence of which we perceive only 238 THE GENITIVE. " to see" take the accusative. Thus, iravrbq ($ aKovei, " a king hears everything ;" ofu) pvpov, " I smell oj myrrh" 7. Adverbs of place and time require the genitive, be- cause the adverb denotes a single point only, but the sub joined definition of place and time designates the whole , as, Travraxov yrj$, " everywhere on earth ;" 6i/>e r% fyepag " late in the day." 8. Time whe?i, that is, part of time, is put in the genitive ; as, depovg re not %eifj,a)VO, " in both summer and winter" 9. The material of which anything is made is put in the genitive, the thing made being a single object, but the sub- joined definition denoting an entire class or kind of materi- als, part of which go to compose that object ; as, rbv dty- pov enoiTjaev la%vptiv |t>/Uw, " he made the chariot of strong wood" 10. The superlative degree is also followed by a geni- tive, this genitive marking the entire class, of which the superlative indicates the most prominent as a part or parts ; as, %OiaTog Travruv, " most hated of all;" apioroi Tpwcov, bravest of the Trojans" 11. Hence the genitive is put also with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, which are either derived from superlatives, or in which merely the idea of preferableness is Jmplied ; as, Ttaa&v yvvaifctiv, " she was the handsomest single parts. The thing perceived, on the contrary, stands in the accu- sative. Hence, for the various construction of these verbs, the following rules obtain : 1. If the person alone is named, this stands in the genitive. 2. If both person and thing are named, the person stands in the genitive and the thing in the accusative ; as, rovro Sw/cparovf rjKovaa. 3. If the thing alone is named, the question then is, whether this is conceived as a simple part which I comprehend with my senses, or as a compound whole of which single parts only are perceived ; in the first case the ac- cusative stands, in Jhe second the genitive ; as, t>f yadero TO. yiyvopeva, " when he perceived what was taking place" On the contrary, always alffddvecGai /cpavy^f, &opv6ov, &c., because one can only perceive indi- cations of the noise. In like manner, CLK.OVELV diKTjc, " to hear a suit ;" aiaddveadai ETcidovhfjc, " to perceive a plot ;" but %vvtevai ra Xeyo^e-yo, " to comprehend or understand what is said " THE GENITIVE. 239 of all women ;" diaTTperrelg &vrjT&v, " conspicuous among mortals " o%6) Trdvrw, " in a manner surpassing all" 12. To words of all kinds other words are added in the genitive, which show the respect in which the sense of these words must be taken ; and, in this case, the geni- tive properly signifies " with regard to" or " in respect of;" as, vkrjg ra5 6 ronog e%eL ; " how is the place with regard to timber ?" avyyvtifjLW r&v dvdptoTTivw a^apTT/jtzaTtov, "forgiving with respect to human errors ;" iroppd) TT/ TJ^IK- iag, "far advanced in years" (properly, " far advanced with respect to years"). 13. Hence all words expressing ideas of relation, which are not complete without the addition of another word as the object of that relation, take this object in the genitive : and to this rule belong in particular the adjectives " expe- rienced, ignorant, desirous," and the like, as also the verbs " to concern one's self, to neglect, to consider, to reflect, to be desirous," 7rep govern the genitive. DATIVE. 241 DATIVE. 1 1. The dative stands in answer to the questions to whom or what ? for whom or what ? to whose advantage ? to whose disadvantage ? as, edited ooi TO fiidkiov, " / gave the look to thee ;" erreaOe \LQI, o5 7Tal6e$, "follow me, my children ;" 'mraTTO) ooi TOVTO, " / enjoin this upon you ;" $eo? dpsa- tei, " he pleases the gods ;" ikog K,eivu>, " a friend to him ;" kjaObv ry nohei, " good for the state" 2. Words which express the idea of approach, meeting, mion, or connexion, as well as all verbs implying an action which cannot be accomplished without approach to the ob- ,^ct, as, to associate, to speak, to converse, to pray, to dis- pute, to contend, to vie, to be attentive, and the like, are joined with the dative ; as, 6po> rjfuv j3apddpovg npooiov- ra$, " / see barbarians approaching us ;" ^ epi^e rolg jov- evatv, " contend not with your parents ;" ev%ovra,L Tract, &eo2$, " they pray to all the gods" 3. Verbs to rebuke, to blame, to reproach, to envy, to be angry, take the dative of the person ; as, epoi koidoprjaerat,, " he will reprove me;" aefj,(f)o^al rolg dp%si,v flovhopevoig, 11 1 blame those who wish to rule ," ov (ftdovelre rovra), " envy not this man ;" ri %akeira,ivei,(; TGJ depaTTOvn ; " why art thou angry at the attendant ?" 4. Words implying equality, resemblance, suitableness, or the contrary, have the dative case ; as, laog roig lc%v- polg, " equal to the powerful ;" eoucag (JovAo), " you resemble a slave ;" avo^ou* T6> irarpi, " unlike his father " 5. In like manner, the dative stands also with 6 avrog, because it expresses perfect equality; as, iv TGJ avra> Kivdvv(t> rolg (f>av^ordroLg, " in the same danger with the worst ;" rotg avrolg Kvpa) OTthoig, " in the same arms with Cyrus." 1. The dative serves to designate the more remote object, that is, it designates the object which merely participates in an operation, without being immediately affected by* it, or in which the effect or consequence of an action is shown. X 242 DATIVE. 6. The means by which, and the instrument with which, a thing is accomplished, are both put in the dative, since this case also serves in Greek to indicate all definitions that are mentioned incidentally and secondarily to the main object j 1 as, rolv 6, " to have" governs the dative ; as, oaoi$ OVK T\V dpyvpog, " as many as had not money" 1 1 . An impersonal verb governs the dative ; as, e^eori \ioi dmevai, " it is lawful for me to depart." 12. Neuter adjectives in reov govern the person in the dative, and the thing in the case of the verb from which they are derived ; as, rovro TroiTjreov earl \LQI, " I must do this ,*" rovrov imfiekrjTeov earlv vplv, " you must take care of this." 1. Hence the verb %prjGQai t " to use," " to make use of," takes the dative. ACCUSATIVE. 243 ACCUSATIVE. 1. A verb signifying actively governs the accusative ; as, ol "E/t/U/ve^ eviKqcav rovg Hepaa$, " the Greeks conquered the Persians" 2. Other verbs also, which in Latin frequently take the object in the dative, or are connected with it by a preposi- tion, require in Greek the accusative ; such as verbs signi- fying " to benefit" " to injure" and, in general, all which de- note an action tending to the advantage or disadvantage of a person j 1 as, GMpekqae rovg avvovrag, " he benefited those who associated with him ;" o Kokaicevtev rovg (frihovg J3kdn- reij " he that flatters injures his friends ;" ri^povvrai rovg dditcovg, " they punish the unjust" 3. The accusative also occurs in Greek with intransitive verbs, when the object which receives the action contained in the verb is definitely assigned, as in verbs signifying " to go" " to come" " to reach" " to arrive at" &c. Thus, rr)v vr}oov dcj)LKerOj " he came to the island ;" TropeveaOai, odov, " to go upon a journey ." 4. Every verb may take an accusative of a cognate noun; as, fuvdvvevao) TOVTOV nivdvvov, " / will encounter this dan- ger " rjoOevrjaav Tavrrjv dadeveiav, " they were sick with this sickness ;" empe^ovrai Traaav empekeiav, " they exer- cise all care " Ttokepov Trokeiirjoopev, " we will wage war" 5. Many verbs, the action of which admits of more than one object, without determining the nearest, have in Greek a double accusative, namely, the accusative of the person and the accusative of the thing. To these belong verbs signifying " to do good or evil to one" " to speak good or evil of one" " to ask," " to demand" " to teach 9 " " to put on or off" " to take away" " to deprive" u to conceal" &c. ; as, 1. The verb hvaiTehelv, " to be of use to" always takes the dative ; on the contrary, the occurrence of utyefatv with the dative is rare, and confined to the poets , as, Soph. Antig. 558, wore role ftavovaiv 6)0e- Adv. 244 ACCUSATIVE. Hand Tro/lAa eopye Tpwa^, " he has done many evils to the Trojans ;" dyaOd elrrev avrovg, " he said good things of them ;" eipero dnavrag rbv Tralda, " he asked all about his son ;" rov$ fiaOrjrdg sdida^s GtetypoavvrjV, " he taught his disciples continence." 6. Verbs governing two accusatives in the active retain one in the passive, namely, the accusative of the thing ; as, auriTTTpov ri^dg re aTToavXdrai, " he is despoiled of his scep- tre and honours ;" enaidevOri fiovoiK^v nal prjTOpiKriv, " he was taught music and rhetoric" 7. When, in addition to the whole object, which receives the action of tLe verb, particular specification is also made of a part, in which this action is principally shown, both the whole and part stand, especially with the poets, as proximate objects in the accusative ; as, \LIV lovra /3aAe he wounded him, as he came on, in the breast ;" rpo- yvla etcaarov, " trembling came upon each one in his limbs beneath." 8. Since the accusative serves always to designate the object upon which an action immediately passes, it fre- quently stands also with intransitive verbs and adjectives containing a general expression, and indicates the part or more definite object to which this expression must be prin- cipally referred. This is called the accusative of nearer definition, and is to be expressed in English by different prepositions, especially by m, as to 9 with respect to. 1 Thus, rbv ddfcrvXov akyti rovrov, " I feel a pain in this finger ,-' n6da$ &tcvg 'A%/JU,ev<;, " Achilles swift as to his feet ;" 2v- 00$ %v rr)v Trarpida, " he was a Syrian as to his native country ;" TO devdpov rrevrriKOvra Trodoiv eari TO vi/JO^, " the tree is fifty feet in height." 9. Time how long is put in the accusative ; as, oaov %po~ vov dv TroJiefiog %, "for as long a time as there may be war; 99 1. It is generally assumed that Kara, or some other preposition, is un deistood in such constructions, but this is not correct. VERBS PASSIVE. 245 not %0eg de Kal rpirrjv fyepav rb avrb rovro enparrov^ " they did this same thing during both yesterday and the day previous" 10. Distance and space are put in the accusative ; as, dns^si OKT& rjjjieptiv odov and Badvh&vog, " it is distant a journey of eight days from Babylon. 91 VERBS PASSIVE. 1. Verbs of a passive signification are followed in Greek by a genitive, governed by VTTO, drro, e/e, trapd, or irpog ; as, 6 vov$ vnb olvov dia^Oeiperai,, " the understanding is impaired by wine ;" aAAai yvtiftai d(f>' etcdarcdv eheyovro, " other opinions were expressed by each." 2. The dative, however, is sometimes employed by the poets instead of the genitive ; as, 'A^iAATfZ edd^?}, " he was subdued by Achilles" 3. The dative is very frequently put with the perfect passive of verbs, whose perfect active is not much used ; as, ravra AeAe/mu fyuv t " these things have been said by us" for AeAq^a ravra. INFINITIVE. 1. The infinitive mood is used to express the cause 01 end of an action ; as, $eAw adeiv, " I wish to sing" 2. The infinitive, with the neuter of the article prefixed, is used as a species of verbal noun ; and very frequently the article is thus appended to an entire clause, of which the infinitive forms a part; as, TO At^i>, " the loosening ;'' rb e%ei,v %pr)jj,ara, " the having money" 3. The infinitive in Greek is governed by adjectives, and denotes the respect in which the idea of the adjective is to be applied ; 1 as, luavol reprceiv (fraivovrai, " they ap- pear calculated to delight ;" ov deivog eeri Xiyeiv, aAA' dd- 1. This is imitated in Latin by the poets ; as, idoneus delectare, utilis facer e. In prose, however, the gerund with a preposition must be em- ployed ; as, idoneus ad delcctandum, &c. X2 246 INFINITIVE vvarog ayav, " he is not able in speaking, but unable to keep silent." 4. The infinitive is used with wore, more rarely with&f, to express the consequence of an event indicated by the leading verb ; as, (j)i^ori^6rarog r\v b Kvpog, &ore irdvra vrro^elvai rov eTratveloOai evena, " Cyrus was very ambi- tious, so as to endure all things for the sake of being praised" 5. The infinitive is frequently used, in short intermediate propositions, sometimes with, sometimes without d)f , to in- dicate an aim, or else to qualify what precedes ; as, o> eirog elnelv, " so to speak;" anhajg eirrelv, " to speak plain- ly ;" oaov eue eldevai, " as far as I know ;" epol doKelv, tl as appears to me." 6. The nominative, and not the accusative, is put with the infinitive whenever the reference is to the same per- son that forms the subject of the leading verb ; l as, 'tyaa- Kev elvai Ato^ vlo$, " he said he was the son of Jupiter ;" erceiGa avrovg elvai $e6g, " I persuaded them that I was a god." 7. The genitive and dative sometimes follow the infini- tive by a species of attraction ; as, edeovro avrov elvai 7TpoOv[j,ov, " they besought him to be zealous ;" 66g \LQL av- rjvai a%iu>, fl grant unto me to appear worthy." 8. The infinitive elvai, with and without an article, is put absolutely with adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, with their case ; as, SK&V elvai, " willingly ;" TO crvpnav elvai, "generally ;" rb ^sv rr)(j,epov elvai, " to-day at least " TO Kara rovro elvai, " with respect to this." 9. The infinitive is frequently put for the imperative, particularly in the poets ; 2 as, ftapo&v vvv, Aioprjdeg, em Tp&eaai ad^ea6ai, " taking courage, now, oh Diomede, fight 1. The accusative, however, is joined with such infinitives whenever emphasis is required ; as, KpoZaof kvofxi^e EUVTOV slvai TTCLVTUV 6A6iw- TCITOV, " Croesus thought that he himself was the happiest of all men" (Herod. 1, 34). 2. Some understand, but without any necessity, an ellipsis of some verb, such as opa or dof, in such constructions. PARTICIPLE. 247 against the Trojans " fydoiteiv MvKrjvag opdv, " say that thou seest Mycena" 10. The infinitive of the present, .future, and aorists, but more particularly of the future, when preceded by the verb |ue/l/loi>, expresses the future, and answers to the future par- ticiple active in Latin with the verb sum ; as, /zeAAd) ypd- iv, " / am about to write 11 (scripturus sum) ; ypdfaw, u / will be about to write" (scripturus ero) ; Xi]oa ypdtieiv, " I was about to write" (scripturus fui}. PARTICIPLE. 1. The participle is put after a verb, and in the nomina- tive case, when the reference is to some state as existing at the time on the part of the subject, or to some action as being performed by it. 1 Thus, olda dvrjTos &v, " / know that I am a mortal ;" Qalverai 6 v6\io^ rjfidg /3Aa7TT6)v, " the law appears to be injuring us ;" rcavGaods ddiKovvTe^i <( cease acting wrongfully" 2. If, however, the subject belonging to the participle stands with the principal verb as a proximate object in the accusative, the participle also stands in the accusative ; as, ol 'AOrjvaZoi, snavoav avrov GTpaTrjyovvra, " the Athenians caused him to cease being a commander;" ovg av 6p& rd dyadd Troiovvrag, " whomsoever I may see doing the things that are good" 3. If the subject belonging to the participle stands with the principal verb as the remote object in the genitive or dative, the participle, in like manner, takes the genitive or dative ; 2 as, rjaOoprjV avrtiv olopevw slvai ao^rdrcjv, " / perceived that they fancied themselves very wise " ovdeTrore 1. This again is a species of attraction, and proceeds, as in other cases, from the circumstance of a dependant proposition having no sub- ject of its own. 2. When a reflexive pronoun stands with the verb, the participle can be put in either of two cases, according as it is referred to the subject contained in the verb or pronoun ; as, avvouda epavrti ao^of <5v, " J am conscious to myself of being wise ;" aavrti avvydeir adiKOvvn, " you were conscious to yourself of acting wrongfully." 248 PARTICIPLE. uerepeXTjae pot myrjaavTi, " / never repented of having been silent." 4. The verb " to be ashamed" takes the participle when the action of which one is ashamed is performed ; the in- finitive when the action is declined through shame ; as, 7roir)aa$, 4t / am ashamed to have done it ;" ala- epeaOai, " / am ashamed to ask" 5. The verbs "' to commence" " to begin" take the parti- ciple when the assigned state has already begun to take place ; the infinitive when it is just about to take place ; as, 6 %eip&v TJp^aro yevofievog, " the winter was come on ;" 6 %eifjLG)v TJpxero yiyvsadai, " the winter was beginning to come on" (i. e., it approached, but was not yet arrived). 6. The verbs " to hear" and " to learn" take the parti- cjple when a fact is adduced which we perceive with our own ears ; the infinitive when something is assigned which we hear from the narration of others ; as, tfrtovaa rbv A??- uoaOevT) Xeyovra, " / heard Demosthenes speak ;" CLKOVG) rbv ^TjfiocrOevri heyetv, " / hear (i. e,, I am told) that Demosthe- nes says." 7. The verb aive eviavrti, " as the year came to a close ;" elpy6[j,evoi$ avTol$ TTJS $a/la<7(7?7, " they being cut off from the sea." 14. Accusatives absolute stand in Greek only in those cases where, in relating another's actions, the narrator as- signs by conjecture the motive which influenced the agent. The participle is then accompanied by the particles &c are, &Girep, or &$ dv, and the use of the accusative must be explained elliptically, as dependant upon a verb " to suppose" " to believe" " to imagine" which is indicated in the particles &$, &c. ; as, 7]v%eTO rrpbg rov$ $eoi)g dirhtig rdyaOd Sidovai, &$ TOV$ tieovg icd^iara eWdrof , dirola dyaOd eariv, " he prayed the gods simply to give him the things that were good, since (in his belief) the gods know best what things are good" 15. If in an intermediate proposition one of the relations, which are otherwise designated by genitives absolute, is to be expressed by the participle of an impersonal verb, this participle then stands in its absolute form, as a nominative absolute. 2 Thus, did ri \L&V&K;, e%bv dmevai, ; " why do you remain, when it is allowed you to depart ?" 6 6' epbg nalg j3aAwv, ovdev deov, Kara6dhkei rbv apftrov, " but my son, having thrown, what ought not to have been done, strikes down the bear." 1. Care must, however, be taken not to consider passages of ancient authors as proofs of this usage, where the dative can by any means te explained in a dependant sense. 2. The nominative absolute is also used in impersonal phrases formed with kari and a neuter adjective, where a participial construction enters ; as, dfaaiov 6v, " it being just ;" ddvvarov bv, " as it is impossible " PROSODY. 251 PROSODY. 1 1. PROSODY (rrpoaydia), in its common acceptation at the present day, treats of the quantity of syllables, or the time occupied in pronouncing them. 2. In the ancient grammarians, -KpoGudia applies also to accent and breathings. 3. The vowels e and o are short by nature ; 7] and 6) are long by nature ; and a, i, v, are termed doubtful. 4. When a vowel is said to be short by nature, the mean- ing is, that it is short by its natural pronunciation, being equivalent merely to one short time. On the other hand a vowel long by nature is long by its natural pronunciation, being equal to two short times. Thus TJ is equivalent to ee, and 0) to oo. 5. Hence it follows, that the short vowel e has if] for its corresponding long one ; and the short vowel o, in like manner, has w for its long. But in the case of a, , i>, there is no distinct mark or letter by which the eye can tell at the instant whether these vowels are long or short, and hence they are called doubtful. 6. It must be carefully borne in mind, however, that, by actual usage, every syllable in any particular case always has a definite quantity, either long or short ; and that, when we speak of doubtful syllables, we do not mean that they have anything doubtful in their nature, or wavering between long and short as regards the same word ; but only that they have no corresponding long or short marks by which the eye can detect their quantity at a glance. 1. For a more enlarged view of this subject, consult the author's largsi work on Greek Prosody. 552 POSITION. 7. The quantity of syllables is determined by various lethods : I. POSITION. 1. A short or doubtful vowel before two consonants or a double letter is almost always long ; as, (TreAAw, 6/^a, dv rdyG), rpdnefa, apd^a, dlipa. 2. These two consonants may belong to the same word with the vowel ; as, eanepog, or one of them may belong to the same word, and the other to the succeeding word ; as, T&V dpodev ye, dsa ftvyarep At6f , or both may be found a*t the beginnir^ of the following word ; as, dvdpd dvrjTOV eovra. 3. In scanning the dramatic writers, the following excep- tions to this rule of position must be carefully noted. I. A short vowel before a soft mute (TT, K, r), or an as- pirate ((/>, %, 6) followed by a liquid, is much rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. II. A short vowel before a middle mute (/3, y, <5), followed by pj is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is mostly long. HI. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by **ny liquid except p, is almost always long. In Eurip- ides such syllables are always long ; but in ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are sometimes short. iV. The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short before the two liquids \iv. 4. The epic writers, such as Homer, &c., mostly avoid the shortening of syllables before a mute and liquid, and employ it chiefly when the word cannot in any other man- ner be adapted to the measure. Thus, in the case of such forms as ZdnvvOog , ZeAsm, Sudpavdpog, atceTtapvov, &c., a preceding short vowel in another word remains short, not withstanding the double consonant Z and the two mutes VK following immediately after. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 253 II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 1. One vowel before another or before a diphthong is generally short, unless lengthened by poetic license or some other peculiar cause ; as, dyAad^, rjeplo^. 2. But the Greek poets, especially the epic, often lengthen vowels, even when another follows, by the aid of the arsis ; and this takes place not only in doubtful vowels, but also in those which are naturally short. 3. By arsis, which is called by some casura, is meant the stress of the voice that is brought to bear upon a particular syllable in each foot during the reciting of a line. In the dactyl it falls on the first syllable ; in the iambus on the last ; and in the trochee again on the first ; its place being regulated by the long syllable. 4. The spondee leaves the place of the arsis undeter- mined ; . and this becomes settled only by the nature of the verse in which the spondee is employed. Thus, in dactylic and trochaic measure, the arsis falls on the first syllable of the spondee ; but in iambic on the last. 5. The following are instances of lengthening by arsis. Thus, oieg. (Od. 9, 425) ; Kara kLndprjv (II. 6, 64) ; 6e pe- \lr\v (II 20, 322), &c. 6. In the epic writers, long vowels and diphthongs art mostly short at the end of ^words when the next word be gins with a vowel; 1 as, qpevrj ev ftevOeamv (II. 1, 358) aptyti optig (Ib. 23) ; de%0ai airoiva (Ib. 57). 7. On the contrary, the long vowel retains its natural 1. The principle on which this depends is easily explained. The ij in 7}fj,ev7j, for example, is equal to es, and one of these epsilons being supposed to be elided before the initial vowel of the following word, the other epsilon remains, of course, short by nature. In other words, the find vo4vel of rj^iivf) loses, as it were, a portion of its natural length by the sinking of the voice and by the vowel immediately following it. So the a) in afi^G) is equivalent to two omicrons, one of which it loses be- fore the following vowel, while the other remains short. In like man- ner, the diphthong at in de^dac is supposed to lose a vowel 254 DIALECT. measure when it falls in the arsis of the foot. The follow* ing Homeric verse contains examples of both kinds. 1 'Hperepti hi oZ/coi, kv 'Apyei, n?/td0i iraTprjs. (It. 1, 30.) III. CONTRACTION. 1. All contracted syllables are long ; as, Ipog for Iep6$; o(f>l$ for 6(f>Leg, &c. 2. Two vowels forming two syllables are frequently con- tracted into one in poetry ; as in %pvae(i> (II . 1, 15), where ew forms a single syllable. This is frequent in the dra- matic writeis, where the syllables are in different words, and is called synizesis ; as, p) eidevai (HippoL 1331), where the 77 and ei are to be pronounced as one syllable ; ev- yeveiav (Eurip. Electr. 1104). IV. DIALECT. 1. The Doric a is long ; as, 0a^a, yvvd, Alveid. And so is the a in the uncontracted form ao of the genitive ; as, 'Arpeiddo. 2. The ^Eolic a is short ; as, vvpfyd, rrot^rdj KOprjrd. 3. In the Ionic dialect a is generally short in the penult of the perfect tenses, such as yeyda ; and always short in the third person plural of the passive in drat and dro ; as, carat, dedprjaro. 4. The Ionic third person plural in aoi is always long ; as, edai, TiOedai. 5. The Ionic writers double the a and some other con- sonants at pleasure ; a license which the Attic poets never 1. Here, after one of the vowels has been supposed to be elided, and a single short vowel remains, this latter, being in the arsis of the foot, receives the stress of the voice, and becomes long again. Thus, in the foot p evi, the syllable poi,v6, Zddeogj dpldeiKerog, VII. INCREASE OF NOUNS. 1. A in the increment of nouns is generally short; as, , drog ; Kpeag, drog ; vinrap, dpog ; /zeAav, dvog, &c. Exceptions. 1. All increments in avog are long except rdXdvog and ; as, Tirdv, dvog ; TXdv, dvog. 1. In the same way, 8iarpi6a, from dLerptdov, the second aorist of ; and irapatyvxTJ, from Trapfyvxov, the second aorist of 256 INCREASE OF NOUNS. 2. All increments in a/cog, from nominatives in af pure, are long ; as, ol'af, dnog ; pva^ 9 dnog ; 0/tt>af, dicog, &c. 3. A is long in the dative plural of nouns, &c., that have a long penult in the genitive singular ; as, yiyag, av- ro, dot, ; rvi/>ac, avrog, doi, &c. But those that are syncopated in the singular have the a short ; as, av- dpdai, Trarpdai, &c. 2. I is short in the increment of neuter nouns ; as, j^eAt, irog; and in masculines and feminines which have the genitive in log, idog, or irog ; as, Tro/U^, log ; epig , Idog , %dpig, Irog. But difrig, fiaWig, napig, Kvrjjiig, ofypayig, and several others, are excepted. 3. I is long in the increment of masculine and feminine nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; as,, dek(f>ig or deXfyiv, Ivog ; aarig or duriv, Ivog. 4. I is also long in the increment of monosyllables ; as, $iV) tilvog ; Ig, Ivog ; Atf , Tdrog ; excepting, however, rig, rlvog ; and At^, &Z6g. 5. I is also long in nouns in eg, Wog ; lip, l-rrog ; i^ lyog ; and i%, Ifcog ; as, opvug, Wog ; rern^ lyog ; \JLOLGTL^ lyog ( " a lash"*) ; (j>oivi,%, lnog. Homer, however, has Bprjliteg always short. 6. But i is generally short in nouns in 4i/>, Idog ; and i%, Z%og ; as, %>w/>, T6of ; ^p/f, rp^o^ ; pdan^ Z%og, " a m/z." 7. T is short in the increment of monosyllables in vg, vog ; as, dpvg, dpvog ; pvg , j^vd^. 8. T is also short in the increment of neuters in v ; as, dditpv, vog ; and in the increment of masculines and femi- nines in vg and vp ; as, veitvg, vog ; ihvg, ikvog ; l%6vg, ixJdvog ; and also in the neuter noun nvp, irvpog. But da- tivg, vdog and Kb)[j,vg, vOog, must be excepted. 9 T is generally short in the increment of nouns in v and wj) ; as, ovv!-, v^og ; XaAf i/>, vdog ; except doidv%, v/cog ; KOKKV^ vyog ; Krjpv!;, vicog ; ^7/i)^, i):o^ ; yvi/>, />, i)7rof ; while Bedpvt; has either v/co^ or i)/cor. INCREASE OF Vi!I?BS. 257 10. Nouns of two terminations, in vg and vv, have v long in the increment ; as, Qopfcvg, or Qopicvv, vvoq. VIII. INCREASE OF VERBS. 1. The quantity of the penult in the present and imper- fect remains the same through all the voices and moods ; as, KplVG), CKplVOV, Kplve, KplVOlfjM, KplVG), KplveiV, KplVCJV, Kpl- vojjiai, eKplvo^Tjv, ttplvov, &c. 2. Most tenses have the same quantity in the penult as those from which they are formed ; as, ervTrov, TVTTW, erv- TT^V, rvTrrjaofjiai,, TSTV-rra, erervTreiv. 3. Verbs in dfw, w, and vfw, are made short in the fu- ture ; as, dpTrdfw, atrw ; vopw, LOG) ; /sA^w, /sAvcrw. 4. Verbs in aw, where aw is preceded by a vowel, and all verbs in paw, have the penult of the future long ; as, eaw, ^acrw ; opdw, a<76) ; dpaw, a<7W. 5. Verbs in aw, when preceded by a consonant other than p, have the penult of the future short ; as, <77raw, aaw ; ye/law, acrw. 6. Liquid verbs, or those ending in Aw, juw, a>w, pw, shorten the penult of the future, but in the first aorist active they invariably take either a long vowel or a diphthong ; as, i9aAAw, $a/lw, e^Aa; reAAw, reAw, ere^Aa; 0a/"vw, ^>avw, k(f)7]va ; dapOvvb), dapOvvti, eddpOvva. 7. Verbs in /w, not proceeding from roots in fw, are made long in the future ; as, nvXlu, LOG) ; KOVIG), lou. But ecr^iw has the i everywhere short. 8. Dissyllabic verbs in vw are for the most part long in the future and aorists ; as, &;w, dvcrw, edvaa ; rpvw, rpvcrw, erpvaa. Except TTTVW, TJ rvaw, eTrrvcra ; /cvw, KVCH*), eicvaa ; and one or two others. 9. Polysyllabic verbs in vw, in the same manner, are for the most part long in the penult of the future and aorist ; as, a%vaa ; tfa/cpvw, da/cpvaw, edaicpvaa. Y2 258 INCREASE OP VERBS. 10. But polysyllables in VG) are for the most part short; as, dvvG), dvvacj ; dpva), dpvac*) ; dfpva), d(f>va(*). 1 1 . Verbs in v a), which have lengthened forms in v}ii, for the most part shorten the doubtful vowel ; as, deutvvu, edeinvvov ; fuyvvu, epiyvvov. The verbs $1)0) and 6v(*) are not exceptions to this rule, since they do not furnish complete forms in vpi, but only in the second aorist. 12. Polysyllables in V\LI have the v everywhere short, except in the singular number of the present tense active, and the third person plural of the same tense and voice ; as, evyvvfu, %evyvvoi ; but ^evyvvpev, ^evyvvrs, ^evyvvvai, &c. 13. On the other hand, dissyllables in V[ii have the v everywhere long ; as, dvOi, dvvai, eSvre, &c. 14. The penult of the second future and second aorist is always short ; as, 6a[j,G), Aaflw, Kpv6>, kinti ; eda^ov^ eXdOoVy eKpvbov, ekirrov. With the single exception of the verb Trkqaaa), which, in the epic dialect, retains the long vowel in the penult ; as, enkrjyov, ETT^rjyrfV. 15. The third person plural in aoi, and the feminine par- ticiple in aaa, are always long ; as, AeAotVaai, Kercpvc/iaai, iaraoi, ; Tvi/jaaa, ypdipdaa, &c. 16. The augment, which, in verbs beginning with v or , consists merely in lengthening this vowel, makes, of course, the initial syllable of the historical tenses long ; as, iKereva), iiterevov, Itcerevaa. 17. The doubtful vowel in the penult of the perfect ac- tive strictly follows the measure of the root in the present. Hence the middle syllable is short in most forms which have a in the present ; as, ypa6>, yeypafia ; but it fluctu- ates in those with i and v ; as, rpldb), rerpfya, sppl(*), d^7j^l(pa ; opvooG), op&pvfta, &c. Still, however, in Ionic poets, forms of this kind are occasionally lengthened; as, elhfaovOa, vnepvrjfJLVKe (II. 22, 491). 20. When a is inserted in the third person plural of the perfect or pluperfect, or of the optative, it is always short ; as, 6p(*)pe%dTO) KSKhidrai, TreiOoidro, &c. 21. The reduplication before the root of verbs in \LL is short ; as, TWT\\LL^ dld^i. 22. In verbs in \ii the a is always short ; as, lardrov, lord^iev, &c. Except in the third person plural in dcri, and in the masculine and feminine participles ; as, ^, lordaa. IX. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. As a general rule, it may be laid down that a doubtful vowel in the penult of Greek words is generally short. Some particular exceptions, however, will here be noted. 1 I. Long a in the penult. 1 . In drjp and compounds ; Hrokefjidtg, Avicdw, Ma%d()v, Hoaeiddw, and the like ; Xd6$ and derivatives ; vdog, dig, and compounds ; and in verbs in G), when da) is preceded by an e or the letter p ; as, eao>, TrepdG), 6pdo) with their compounds. Still, however, there are sev- eral exceptions ; as, KVKdG), ripda), epvOpidu, peidida), aiyd(*), ai(*)7Td(), &c., in which d(*) is not preceded by an e or the letter p. 1 . These exceptions are noted more fully in the larger Prosody. 260 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 2. In tttdva) and compounds. So, also, in Ki%av(*) and (f>6dvG) with Homer and the epic poets, but Ki^dvu and (f>6dvG) in the Attic tragic writers*. 3. In all derivatives from verbs in do> pure and pdv ; as, fiedpa, tiedais, dedrog ; opdpa, 6pdai(;, opdro^ ; Idua. idaig, idrpoc;, &c. 4. In names of nations and proper names ; as, 'AcrmrT^, ^Traprcdr^ TeyedT7)$. And also in the feminines formed from them ; as, 'AaidTig, Midedrig. Add like- wise names of rivers, mountains, and islands ; as, Et>- (frpdTTjg, Ni(/>dT7]g, AevKdrrjs, &c. But forms of this kind proceeding from short roots have the short vowel ; as, Aa/ljwa-n^, Takdrrjg, &c. II. Long i in the penult. 1. I in the penultimate is long in Homeric feminines, such as depylT], ddvplrj, dmariT], &c., where the Attics have dpyia, ddvfua, dmarla, &c. But dvla and na- yCia are long in both Homeric and Attic Greek, the Homeric form being dvir] and itakiT]. Another term, Kovia (Horn. Kovirj), has the penult common in Ho- meric Greek, but in the singular more frequently long, in the plural always short. In the tragic writers it oc- curs thrice, and each time with the penult short. 2. I is long in proper names in iuv, which shorten the vowel in the genitive ; as, 'A//0tcov, AoAiwv, Havdlw. gen. ILavdiovo^. On the contrary, those remain short which take the long vowel in the genitive ; as, Bot> no- TCluv, 'TLerla)v, Olvom&v, gen. Olvomuvog. 3. Comparatives in LCJV have the i long in Attic, but short elsewhere ; as, y/tt> Kl(*)v, KCLKICJV, &c. 4. I is long in the penult of verbs in i), not proceeding from roots in o> ; as, ; as, i?t)j^a, Kvfjia, XV\LO,, dprv^a, \Lr\vv\ia, ; except, how- ever, spvfj,a 9 -nvli^a, J)vpa, " a river" &c., which are invariably short. 3. T ia long in dvpog,, " animus" and its compounds, ddvpog, paOi)fj,o, , ovp(*), rcvpG), ddvpu, &c. But, when vpu becomes vpew, the v is short ; as, nvpeG), paprvpeG), &c. 7. T before a is almost always long; as, Annfoo, Xpi5ao^, "Aii(f>pvao, Kapdvo^g^ &c. Except verbals in vats ; as, XVGI$, avvou;, %??, X. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULTIMATE. The doubtful vowels before the penultimate are generally short. The exceptions to this rule are, however, many in number, and are best learned from a prosodial lexicon. 1 XI. FINAL SYLLABLES. I. Final a, av, ap, and ag. L Final a is short ; as, rpdned, tvd, limordj rervQd. Exceptions. 1. But a pure is long; as, 'Adfjvad, ; as, dietyOopd, Trenopd. 5. Words ending in pa, with a consonant preceding ; as, 1. They are given in full in the larger Prosody. FINAL SYLLABLES. 263 aypd, Trerpd, dicearpd ; except cxfrodpd, OKohonsvdpd, Tavdypd. 6. All feminines adjectives from masculines in 05* , as, dmaid ; except did, irorvLd, Id, and \Lia. 7. Duals in a, as fiovad ; and vocatives from nouns in a$ ; as, Alvdd ; or poetical vocatives of the third de clension ; as, Aaodapd, Hokvddp,d. 8. The accusative in ea, from the genitive (third declen- sion) in eo) ; as, Ify/lea, from IT^/lea)^ ; paoihed, from ; but, in Homeric Greek, IlT/A^a, from 1X77- krjd, from ($0,01X^0$. 9. Nouns in eta, from verbs in evo) ; as, Trpo^Tjreid, 6ov- Xeid. II. Final av is short ; as, dv, Trdnndv, A.ldv, [teXdv, TTOHJ- cdv, ervipdv. Exceptions. 1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Tirdv, iraidv. 2. The neuter adjective ndv ; and hence the Attics ap pear to have taken occasion to lengthen here and there the forms compounded with it ; as, arrdv, em-rrdv, Trap- dirdv. But irdfnrdv and Trporrdv are probably every- where decidedly short. 3. Adverbs in av ; as, Mdv, aydv, nepdv. On the con- trary, ordv and d-rrordv follow the quantity of the sim- ple dv. 4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom- inative ; as, (f>Mdv, from pvv, pvv. 2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, QopKvv (otherwise Qoptcvg ) ; or vvog in the genitive : as fioaovv. 3. The first person singular of the imperfect and the sec- ond aorist of verbs in V\LI ; as, etyvv, edvv, edefovvv, e&vyvvv. 4. Ni)v, " now" is long ; but viiv, the enclitic, is for the most part short. It is long, however, on several oc- casions in tragedy, and always long in comedy. 1 III. Final vp is long ; as, 7ri)p, (Jbdprvp. Yet, in the ob lique cases, these make Trvpog, Trvpi ; {idprvpog, iidprvpi. IV. Final vg is short ; as, fiadvg, Kopvg, 7Tr)XV, rrpea&vc, Exceptions. 1 . Nouns in t>, which have vo$ in the genitive ; as, q, vrjdvg, cxfrpvc;, TT 1. Ellendt, however, Lex. Soph. s. v., maintains that vvv enclitic is never long. METRE. 267 2. Nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; as, 3>6pKv$. 3. Monosyllables ; as, p;, avg. 4. Terminations of verbs in V\LI ; as, deinvvg (second person singular present), deinvvg (participle), edeiK- vvg, &c. OF FEET. I. A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, and le either simple or compound. II. Of the simple feet four are of two, and eight of three syllables. III. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. SIMPLE FEET. two short syllables . . as, $eof . two long syllables . . one short and one long one long and one short three short .... three long .... one long and two short two short and one long one short and two long two long and one short one long between two short one short between two long COMPOUND FEET. Trochee and Iambus Iambus and Trochee Spondee and Pyrrhich . Pyrrhich and Spondee . Trochee and Pyrrhich . Iambus and Pyrrhich . Pyrrhich and Trochee . Pyrrhich and Iambus . - Iambus and Spondee . Trochee and Spondee . Spondee and Iambus . Spondee and Trochee . Two Pyrrhichs . Two Spondees . . . Two Iambi .... Two Trochees . . . N m r Pyrrhich . . . *o 2 ! Spondee . . . 3 j Iambus .... fc L Trochee . . . - Tribrach . . . Molossus . . . Is Dactyl .... ^3 > Anapaest . . . 3 Bacchius . . . loU Antibacchius . . Amphibrach . . w Amphimacer . . " Choriambus . . Antispast . . . Ionic a majore & Ionic a minore . 3 Paeon primus . . J2 Paeon secundus . 1 Paeon tertius . . If Paeon quartus . . S X Epitritus primus . *o Epitritus secundus Epitritus tertius . 1 02 Epitritus quartus . Proceleusmaticus . Dispondaeus . . Diiambus . . . L Ditrochseus . . tied. TTO^MOf. "- dvdaael. 11 fidvrev/ita. emarurrjg. Dochmius . . . Antispast and long syllable " a t 268 DACTYLIC MEASURE. METRE. 1. METRE, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense it applies not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or any number of verses. 2. But a metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet, and sometimes one foot only. 3. There are nine principal metres ; viz., 1. Iambic ; 2. Trochaic ; 3, Anapaestic ; 4. Dactylic ; 5. Choriambic ; 6. Antispastic ; 7. Ionic a majore ; 8. Ionic a minore ; 9. Paeonic. 4. These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. Each species of verse would seem originally to have been composed of those feet solely from which it derives its name ; and other feet, equal in time, were not c 4 jmtted until afterward, and then only under certain re- strictions. 5. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre in the iam- bic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that one foot constitutes a metre in all the rest. 6. When a verse consists of one metre it is called manometer ; when it has two metres, dimeter; three metres, trimeter; four, tetrameter ; five, pentameter ; six, hexameter ; seven, heptameter. 7. From what has just been remarked, it follows that, in iambic, tro- chaic, and anapaestic verse, a monometer consists of two feet ; a dimeter of four ; a trimeter of six, &c. ; whereas, in all other kinds of verse, a monometer consists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter of three, &c. 8. Verses are also denominated acatalectic when complete ; catalectic when they want a syllable at the end ; brachycatalectic when they want two syllables at the end ; hypercatalectic when they have a syllable over at the end ; and acephalous when they want a syllable at the beginning. 9. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in anapaestic and greater Ionic measure. DACTYLIC MEASURE.' 1. Dactylic hexameter, or heroic verse, is composed of six feet, the last of which must be a spondee, while the fifth is almost always a dac tyl. The first four may be either dactyls or spondees, at the option of the poet. Thus, yaldv o[ji \ ov nal \ TTOVTOV op | cJpel | d' ovpavq J 6sv i'ii^. 2. Sometimes, in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, the 1 A more enlarged view of the Greek metres is ?/ven in the author's Greek Prosody IAMBIC MEASURE. 269 spondee takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot, and the line is then called a spondaic one ; as, tt.e \ fivdjj \ adadaL 3. A short syllable in the beginning of a foot is often made long m epic poetry. The reason is, that, as the first syllable of the foot was pro- nounced with the rising inflection of the voice in heroic verse, so by pro nouncing it, when short, with a sharper tone, it was brought nearer ir sound to a long syllable, by which the deficiency in time was scarcely perceived. The following examples show a short cassural syllable made long at the beginning of a foot : vav%,o%ov | f hipev \ a KOL \ nq ftebz \ Tj-yefio \ vevev. dvv' a% ? | ar/b/ \ rov 6 6' ap \ a Tpcj | civ p,eve \ aivcjv. II. PENTAMETER. 1. This species of verse consists of two equal portions, each contain- ing two feet followed by a long syllable. 2. The first two feet may be either dactyls or spondees, then comes a long syllable, to which succeed two dactyls, followed by another long syllable. Thus, p7rv2,?i I og Kelr | al \\ ralg eAt | Ktivia \ al. rotyti | ev 6' epic \ al \\ wcti-jrec; a \ fjdovl \ civ. 3. The pause always takes place after the long syllable in the middle of the verse, marked by the double line in the two examples just given. 4. Another, but less correct 1 mode of scanning pentameters is as fol- lows : the first and second feet either a dactyl or spondee, the third al- ways a spondee, the fourth and fifth anapaests ; as, ovre Trod | tiv aper \fjgov\ re Kakala \ fj.oavv7Jc. \ 5. A dactylic hexameter and pentameter, alternately succeeding each other, form what is called elegiac verse. Thus, \ def, rt TTS \ (ftevyare ; | TTOV roaov \ vdtip ; | deva | ovt \\ eaBeaev \ dm \ ov ; III. IAMBIC MEASURE. 1 1. The only species of iambic verse which we will here consider is the trimeter acatalectic, called also senarius, from its containing six feet. 2. In the trimeter the iambus is admitted into any one of the six places ; and, when all the feet are thus iambi, the verse is called a pure iambic one. 1. Consult the larger Prosody. ZS 270 ANAP.ESTIC MEASURE. 3. A pure iambic line, however, is not of so frequent occurrence among the tragic writers as what is called a mixed one, namely, where other feet are admitted besides the iambus. 4. The reason why other feet were allowed to enter appears to have been, not only to lessen the difficulty of composing, but in order to re- move the monotonous and unpleasing effect of a succession of iambi, and also to impart more dignity and elevation to the style. 5. The feet admissible into this measure, besides the iambus, are the spondee, dactyl, anapaest, and tribrach. The rules for their admission are as follows : 1. The spondee is allowed to enter into the uneven places, namely, the first, third, and fifth, and into no other. 2. The dactyl is admitted into the first and third places only. 3. The anapaest is admitted into the first place alone, except in the case of a proper name, when it may come into any place but thi last, provided the anapaest be all contained within the proper name. 4. The tribrach may come into any place but the last. 6". The following lines may serve to illustrate some of these laws o iraff | i Khelv \\ of Old \ ITTOV? || Kakov \ frisvo?. \\ adfjs | GTsvdy \\ fiol^ Kal \ yools \\ TT^OVT!^ | eral. \\ IIT]"? apor \ ov avr [| ol? -yrjv \ dvl \\ eval \ rtvd. |] Tepfjs | eyu |] /nev Z?jv \ og- ol \\ 6s T* TJ \ 6etiv. \\ rerdpr \ ov ITTTT || ofiedovT J aTretrr J| eiklv \ iraTTJp. || p,7]Tpd(; | gvyrjv \\ al Kal \ Trarepa \\ Kara | Kravslv. \\ 7. The double mark in these lines, after every two feet, indicates what is called a metre ; it having been customary in reciting iambic verses to make a short pause after every second foot. Hence the name trimeter given to this species of lines, from their containing each three of these metres. IV. ANAPAESTIC MEASURE. 1. The most common species of anapaestic verse is the dimeter. In a system of legitimate dimeters each metre should end with a word, and the system should end with a catalectic verse called the paroemiac, pre- ceded by a monometer acatalectic. 2. This metre admits indiscriminately the dactyl and spondee for the anapaest. But an anapaest ought not to follow a dactyl, to avoid too many short syllables occurring together. 3. In the catalectic verse, or paroemiac, which closes a system, the catalectic syllable should be preceded by an anapaest. There are> how- evei; some verses in which it is joined to a spondee. ANAP^JSTIC MEASURE. 271 4. The last syllable of a verse in this metre, with the exception of the paroemiac, is not common, but subject to the same laws of quantity as if it was found in any other part of the verse. 5. The following is a system of anapaestic dimeters, closing with m paroemiac : el -yap \ p,' vn5 y?jv, \\ vep6ev \ T' atdov \\ TOV VEKpo | deypovoc \\ elf atrep \ avrov \\ rdprapov \ jjnev, \\ deapolg \ aXvrolg \\ cjf py \ re ^eof, || I aMos H rolad' en? \ y^Oel. \\ vvv 6' aid | eptov \\ Klvvy^ \ o \\ a neTrdvO \ APPENDIX. EXCURSUS A. . GREEK ALPHABET. 1. According to tradition, Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoe- nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, at a subsequent period, added four more, namely, #, f, 0, % ; and Simonides, at a still later day, in- creased this number by other four, , 77, ^>, w. 2. The meaning of this tradition evidently is, that the Phoenician al- phabet was introduced into diiFerent parts of Greece in a more or less perfect shape ; that some tribes received all the letters, while others were content with sixteen ; that these last-mentioned tribes, however, gradually increased the number of alphabetical characters, by borrowing, at two different epochs, certain letters previously used in the more per- fect systems of other Grecian communities. 3. The old sixteen, or primitive Cadmean letters, are supposed to have been the following, the v being assigned to its true place as the representative of the digamma, and being indicated by the old sign o^ *he digamma, namely, F. ABTAEFIKAMNOIIPST. 4. A change, however, subsequently took place as regarded the in troduction of T, which was formed from the Yav, or digamma, by split- ting its upper part. This new letter was then placed after the T, while the F itself was omitted. 5. The lonians first adopted all the twenty-four letters, and of them first the Samians, from whom they were received by the Athenians ; but it was not till after the Peloponnesian War, in the archonship of EucH- des (B.C. 403), that they were used in public acts. Hence the twenty- four letters are called 'luvtKa ypa/z/mra, and the old sixteen 'Arn/ca 6. In the most ancient times, according to Pausanias (5, 25), the Greeks, like the Orientals, wrote from right to left. They soon began, however, to write the first line from the left to the right, in the second from the right to the left, and so on alternately. This was called 8ov* 274 APPENDIX. crpofadov, from its resembling the mode in which the ox turns with the plough. So the laws of Solon were written. But, as early as the time of Herodotus, it was the established custom to write from left to right. EXCURSUS B. DIGAMMA. 1 1. The whole subject of the digamma rests on the following remark- able fact. A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, especially the pronoun ov, 01, , and also ddu, o/,/ca, eircelv, aval;, "I^liOf, olvog, oZ/cof, pyov, io-of, Kaaro, with their derivatives, have in Homer the hiatus so often before them, that, leaving these words out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so frequent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, and, in most of the remaining cases, can be easily and naturally accounted for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, an apos- trophe very seldom before them ; and, moreover, the immediately prece- ding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently rendered short than before other words. 2. From an attentive examination of the subject, the illustrious Bent- ley was led to conclude, that the words before which these deviations from the usual rules of prosody took place, although beginning with a vowel, must have been pronounced at least, if not written, as if begin- ning with a consonant. He recollected that some ancient grammarians mentioned a letter as more particularly used by the ./Eolians or most an- cient Greeks ; and that its existence might be traced in the changes which some Latin words, derived from the ^olic Greek, had undergone ; as, olvoe , vinum ; Ig, vis ; ol/cof , vicus ; r]p, ver. The letter alluded to, which, from its form, has the name of digamma or double gamma (F), is yet to be seen in some ancient inscriptions and on coins ; and it supplies the data for resolving the cases of metrical difficulty, where the length- ening of a short syllable uniformly takes place before particular words. 3. Let us examine some of the instances which are found at the very opening of the Iliad. 'Arpe^f re aval; avSpuv (v. 7) ; 'A.-yaftfj,vovL qvdave ftvpu (v. 24) ; 'A-iroftfatvi avanri (v. 36) ; 6 6' TJLE VVKTL koiK&s (v. 47) ; -d-apaTjaas pdha, elire (v. 85). In all these cases, according to the practice of the language in the days of Attic purity, the short vowel ought to have been elided before aval;, ijvdave, &c. But if we write Fayaf, Yijvdave, &c., or fancy the words pronounced wava, wrjvdavf, iyewoKc5f, wenre^ &c., the difficulty will in a great degree disappear. 1. Buttmann, Ausf. Gr. Sprachl. p. 27. Buttmann's Larger Gr. Gr. p. 28, Rob- inson's transl. Maitby's Greek Gradus, p. xi., seq. APPENDIX. 275 EXCURSUS C. ACCENTS. 1. In every polysyllabic word, one syllable is to be regarded as the fundamental or radical syllable, or, in other words, that which contains the principal idea of the word. The rest, on the contrary, which are prefixed or appended to the fundamental syllable in the formation of words, are, in respect to the idea, of less weight. 2. The ascendant importance of the fundamental syllatde of a word is, in every independent language, indicated by a sharpened elevation of the voice in its pronunciation ; as, for example, du in duty, or set in beset. 3. This elevation of the voice in pronouncing one syllable of a word is called the tone or accent (Trpoff^dia, accentus), which can occur only once in each word, and of itself is one and the same in all words, namely, the acute or elevated accent (rrpoGudia b%ela, accentus acutus). As a sign for this, use is made of a stroke from right to left (') ; as, for exam- ple, Aoyof. 4. In comparison with the accented or elevated syllable, all syllables of a word which are not accented must be spoken with a depressed or unelevated accent (KpoGudia papela, accentus grams). This depressed or grave accent is represented by an opposite sign, namely, a stroke from left to right ( s ) ; so that Aoyof-was in fact /loyof. But, because every syllable of a word which has not the acute accent is necessarily to be spoken with the depressed tone, the sign for the grave is not used, but these syllables remain unmarked. 5. As an indication of the proper grave, therefore, is unnecessary, its sign is used for another purpose, namely, to mark what is called the softened acute at the final syllable of words in a continued discourse, and of which mention will presently be made. 6. If two vowels, the first of which has the acute, the second the grave, are united into one sound, this long sound receives a sign, which is formed by the union of those two, namely, (") or ( A ) ; for which, how- ever, a twisted line (") is more conveniently used, 1 indicating that the accent is to be lengthened in the pronunciation (Trpoc^dia TrepLGTrupevij, accentus circumflexus) ; as, for example, dfaoc for Jee/lof, Gup,a for Gobp,a. Position of the Accents. In order to accentuate a Greek word correctly, it is necessary, 1. to determine the syllable on which the accent rests ; and, 2. to know the sign by which, according to the nature of that and the remaining sylla- 1. In the Porsonian type a semicircular mark is employed ; as, are derived /le/crof, "said," and TLCKTSO^, " to be said;" from $^p, " an animal," is derived "&r)piov, " a wild beast." 4. The nature of the final syllable has a decisive influence on the po- sition of the accent ; namely, if the final syllable of a word be long by nature, the accent cannot lie farther towards the beginning of the word than on the penultimate syllable. For a long syllable being equal to two short ones, if the accent were placed on the antepenult when the last syllable is long by nature, it would be placed, in fact, four places back from the end, whereas it can never go farther back than three. The following cases, however, are to be noted as exceptions from this last rule. 1 . The o which the Attic and Ionic dialects make use of in declen- sion for the o of the other dialects has no influence on the posi- tion of the accent. It is right, therefore, to accentuate VTrepTrlie- wf (Attic and Ionic for virepTr'keog') ; /Swo/cepwf, " a rhinoceros ;" dvvapeug, " of power ;" 'A.rpeideu, " of Atrides." 2. The same exception holds good of the syllables CLI and 01, as ter- minations in declension and conjugation. Hence we properly accentuate rpaTre&i, " tables ;" Aeyerat, " it is said ;" Efattyoi, " stags." The termination of the third person singular of the optative, however, again forms an exception to this, and, being the result of contraction, is long as regards the accent. We are therefore to accentuate knfyepoi, not eittyepoi,, from e/c^epo) ; viK.rj- f, and the negative ov, OVK, ovx- These are called arova, " tone- less," or Trpo/c/lm/ca, " proclitic." Some of them, on a change of signi- fication or position, receive the acute, namely, 1. the adduced forms of the article, when used as pronouns ; 2. c5f, when it either stands for ov- rwf, " thiLs" " so" or in the signification " as" or " like" is placed after the chief word ; as, KCIKOI cjf, " as cowards" or " coward-like ; 3. ov or OVK, when it directly denies, without an additional word, like the Eng- lish " no," or is placed after the word which it negatives. II. Sign of the accent according to the nature of the syllables. If the syllable on which the tone rests is known, the question then is, with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the following rules obtain : 1 . The acute can stand on each of the last three syllables ; as, Kcmog , "bad;" Tro^f, "a city;" avdpuiroc, "a man." But it can stand on the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is short by na- ture ; thus, avdpuTTOv, avOpuKC), avdpuTroig, although the nominative is marked avdpoTrog. 1 2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable long by nature, and only on the final or penultimate syllable, but never on the penultimate unless the final syllable is short by nature ; thus, Ilepi/cA^f, " Pericles ;" KCLKOV, "of evil;" ^wpof, "space;" AeZTre, "leave" On the contrary, heiiretv, " to leave ;" yet fatyat,, %tipoi, according to rule 2, 4 of the previous head. 3. The mark properly belonging to the grave accent appears only on the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as a sign of Jie softened tone of the acute. Thus, avfjp, " a man ;" ayadoz, " brave ;" but in connected discourse, avrjp ayadbs ov fyevyei, " a brave man fieeth not away" 4. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would be interrupted by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final syllable of a word, alone renders necessary the transition of the acute into the grave. This change, therefore, must not take place before one of the greater signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, when it indicates a really distinct member of a proposition. But we 1 For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepcnul* !i case only of a short final syllable, see rule 2, 4 of the previous head. A A 278 APPENDIX. also use the comma in assigning nearer definitions, and predicates, before relatives and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently the internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted, and in jthis case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on the final syllab JB before the comma. Thus, it is proper to write, TL 6e, qv X9W a ~ ra 7roA/ia fyr) ri ; and. in like manner, oi pv aya&oi, oi <5e nanoi, be- cause here is a perceptible caesura in the discourse ; but Tror^p, ds eduKe, and eAeye 7ro/U,a, o)E, atycoivy otyeuv, G$LGL or G(j>ioiv, and atyiv, o^eaf, afyea ; together with the pres- ent indicative of elpi and ^rj^i (except the second person singular elg or el, " thou art ;" 0?7f, " thou sayst) ;" and, lastly, the adverbs and parti- cles TTWf, 7T(5, TTOi, 7T^, 7TOV, TTO^i, TroOsV, TTOTE, T, TOl, yi, KE (OI KEV) 9 &7}V, VV (Or VVV), 7Tp, p&. 3 All these words throw back their accent, as acute, on the last syl 280 APPENDIX. iablc of the preceding word ; but the accentuation of that preceding word decides whether this accent must be expressed or not. Concerning this point the following rules must be observed : (A.) If the preceding word is accented on the last syllable, or is marked with the acute on the penult, the enclitic loses its accent without farther change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident that the grave becomes an acute, because, properly, the enclitic unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the accent syllable is therefore no longer to be considered as standing at the end of a word. Thus, we write avrjp TL$ (as if it were avrjprig) ; ayaOog re nahog re ; 0Acj ae ; [laBriruv rtvwv, avdpa re, tyihog pov. But, in the last case, when the preceding word has an acute on the penult, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper accent ; as, TJV A6- yof Trore evavriog cfyiaiv. (B.) If the preceding word is accented with a circumflex on the pe- nult, or an acute on the antepenult, the accent, thrown back from the enclitic, stands as an acute on the final syllable ; as, avdpuTroc, eari ftvTjrog ; 6 "Kpoiaog TTOTC ehet-ev. If se/eral enclitics follow one another, the preceding always takes the accent of the succeeding, and the last only remains unac- cented ; as, el rig nvu, fyrjai pot, irapelvai. (C.) The enclitic retains its accent (1.) in personal pronouns after a preposition ; as, trepl cov, Trapa aoi, rcpbg as ; and, in this case, the longer forms of the pronoun of the first person, epov, efj,oi, efj.e, must always be used ; as, k% euov (not EK /LLOV) ; ev epoi (not ev pot). (2.) In the verb eari (which then draws back its accent to the root), when it is used in the emphatic signification " there is," " there exists," " it is situated," or else stands followed by an infinitive, for Ifecm, "it is possible," "it is permitted" "one can ;" as, for example, 6e6f eanv, " there is a God ;" eanv ov- ruc, " it is so situated ;" sariv idetv, " one can see." 4. From the enclitics adduced under 2 must yet be distinguished the particles 6e and #e or $ev, which entirely lose their independence, and become incorporated with the preceding word. Strictly considered, .n annexing these particles to a word, the given rules of inclination ought also to be observed. On the contrary, &e or &ev is usually regarded as any other appended termination ; and thus we write olttodev, not olitodev (from okof). In the particle de, however, two cases are to be distin- guished ; thus, if it is annexed to forms of nouns, it has the same influ- ence as every other enclitic, and hence we write olnovde (from APPENDIX. 281 e (from "Ai'f)? dopovde (from <5o/*of). But if it is annexed to de- monstrative pronouns, the accent of the principal word advances towards that of the particle, and passes into the syllable immediately before de ; as, rovoade (from rd<70f), roioade (from roZbf). And this accent thus retains itself regularly through all the cases and forms ; consequently we write roajjde, Toaoide, roaov^de ; but roaovSe, roa. DIALECTS. 1. Of the primitive language of the Greeks the most traces are left to as in their epic poems, the oldest monuments c/f the language of this people. The peculiar mode of speech observed in these is called the epic dialect. Its basis formed the old national language of the Greeks, which the poet, however, for his own purpose, variously modified and enriched. Its principal characteristic is a rhythmical harmony and a powerful fulness of tone. 2. The epic dialect is expressed the most purely and in a perfect form in the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The rest formed themselves ac- cording to the model of these two, particularly of Homer. The most eminent of them are, Theognis and the other gnomic poets, Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the poems extant under the names of Orpheus, Quintus Smyrnaeus, and Nonnus. 3. Since the epic language was derived from the stores of the general national language, and variously enriched by the poet himself; since, moreover, the dialect found in the oldest epic remained in after times appropriated to this species of poetry, and thus was continually advanced in civilization and culture by new admixtures ; it is natural, therefore, that it should not appear as a complete and finished whole, but should betray in its single parts many deviations and irregularities. 4. If the basis of the epic is the old primitive language of the Greeks, and the primitive contains all the germes of the subsequent development of a language, we may easily conceive how this dialect should evince divers traces of all the peculiarities which afterward were individually cultivated and retained in the single dialects. Thus, in epic occur ^Eo- lisms, Dorisms, Atticisms, and the like, as fundamental peculiarities of the Greek language. But it is erroneous to regard the epic language, on that account, as a mixture of all the dialects ; as, on the other hand, It is wrong to confound it with the Ionic, from the circumstance of its having many fundamental peculiarities in common with that dialect AA2 282 APPENDIX. The same obtains of JEolisms, Dorisms, lonisms, and Atticisms in all cases where reference is made to them by grammarians and commenta- tors. 5. The Hellenes, who migrated through Thrace into the country after- ward called Hellas, were divided into several tribes, whereof two, the Dorians and lonians, chiefly extended themselves, Each of these tribes cultivated an independent and peculiar character in language, as well as in manners and mode of life, and after their names we denominate the two principal dialects the Doric and Ionic. 6. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hellenic tribes, preserved their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in Hellas proper and the colonies, pure from foreign intermixture, but did little for the particular advancement of their language. Hence the Do- ric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, and a flat- ness of tone from me frequent use of the dull sound A, a peculiarity termed in Greek Tr/laretao/jdf. Besides this dialect, the Molic also was formed according to the model of antiquity, and had many peculiarities in common with the Doric, whence it was considered as a refined col- lateral form of the same, cultivated particularly for the use of the poets. 7. The Doric and ^Eolic dialects became and continued to be the lan- guage of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is most purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcseus, Sappho, and Corinna exhibit rather the j32olic mode. The Doric is purer in the Idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an ap proach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric prose. 8. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the peo- ple as individual varieties of the generally-diffused Doric dialect. But their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from insulated expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in historians and comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of them are the Laco- nian, Boeotian, and Thessalian dialects, and, next to these, the Sicilian. 9. The lonians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, betook themselves principally to Attica, and, when that barren country was un- able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite coast of Asia. Under the mild climate of Lesser Asia, the form of their language became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the epic. Thus was devel- oped the Ionic dialect, the principal characteristic of which is a softness of expression, acquired from the frequency of vowels and the solution of harsh syllables by interposed sounds. Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in this dialect. 10. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the epic APPENDIX. 283 dialect have occasioned the latter also to be denominated Ionic ; although with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is given to the epic, but to the Ionic that of New Ionic. 11. The language of the lonians who remained behind in Attica pro- ceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the Attic, which observed an intermediate course between the Doric harsh- ness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The political con- sequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture to which Athens ar- rived, gave a wide circulation to this dialect, and the considerable num- ber of eminent writings which are composed in it, and have been pre- served, determine it for the groundwork in the study of the Greek lan- guage. 12. The most celebrated works written in the flourishing period of the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thucydides, the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the philosophical books of Plato, and the orations of Demosthenes, JEschines, Lysias, Isocrates, &c., besides the tragedies of ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Eu- ripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 13. That peculiarity which the single Grecian states had preserved in language and manners disappeared with the general decline of their freedom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the chief seat of liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most widely diffused, became the court language of the now ruling Macedonians, and, by degrees, the general language of writing and the people. Hence it necessarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was sacrificed, and many innovations were introduced in expression and in- flexion. This language, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is comprehended under the name of the common dialect. The authors of this period, however, endeavoured to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and uncorrupted, according to the early models, although many peculiarities of more modern times are interspersed throughout their writings. Hence their style has received the appellation of the later Attic. 14. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Hali- earnassus, Lucian, ^Elian, Arrian, &c. 15. In Macedonia the Greek language was mingled with much for eign alloy ; and, thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the extension ol the Macedonian empire, over other barbaric nations. Hence arose what may be denominated the Macedonic dialect. 16. Alexandrea was a colony of liberal information under the Mace- donian rulers. There a circle of learned men assembled together, and 284 APPENDIX. mad 8 't their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dia lect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style also fell short of the ancient models. But the Greek language underwent a pe- culiar reformation by the translators of the Old and the authors of the New Testament, who designated by Greek expressions things of orien- tal conception and application. As this style occurs only in the Scrip- tures and some Christian writers, it has been called the ecclesiastical di- alect, while others have preferred the epithet of Hellenistic. 1 17. By degrees, the old Greek language, under the influence of various causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and was deformed by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise to the new Greek, which has almost entirely exchanged the primitive character of the old for that of the more modern tongues, and still continues, in ancient Greece, as the language of the country. 1. From the Greek fXXrjvK,eiv, whence comes fAA^vtcrfc, as referring to one who speaks after the Greek manner, and, in the present case, to an Oriental trying to t&ak Greek. THE EJTO. UOT.1ESXT7] BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, AT GREATLY REDUCED PRICES, PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK, Abbott's Illustrated Histories, Suitable for Reading Books in Schools. 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